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 MYSORE
 
 MYSORE 
 
 A GAZETTEER COMPILED 
 FOR GOVE RN ME NT 
 
 REVISED EDITION 
 
 B- LEWIS RICE, C I E., MR AS 
 
 Fellow of the University of Madras ■ Director of Archnological Researches 
 late Director of Public Instruction in Mysore and Coorg 
 
 VOL I 
 MYSORE IN GENERAL 
 
 (H)e6(tnin0(ctr 
 
 ARCHIBALD CONSTABLE AND COMPANY 
 2 WHITEHALL GARDENS S • W 
 
 MDCCCXCVII
 
 PRINTED BY 
 
 WOODFALL AND KINDER, LONG ACRE 
 
 LONDON"
 
 V.I 
 
 PREFACE 
 
 When the former edition of this work was published, I little 
 expected to be called on, twenty years later, to revise it. And Mysore 
 in the interval has undergone such great and radical changes, and so 
 much has been added to our knowledge of its past by recent discoveries, 
 that what appeared in the prospect a comparatively easy task has proved 
 to be in reality one of considerable difficulty, and involving for its com- 
 pletion a longer period than was anticipated, especially as I have been 
 at the same time engaged on other duties of an exacting nature. 
 
 A\'hile the general arrangement of the work in the original edition 
 has been adhered to, nearly every part has been either entirely 
 re-written or greatly altered and extended. But the present edition is 
 confined to the State of Mysore, and does not, as before, include Coorg. 
 In the first volume, the section on Geology was in the press before the 
 appointment of Mr. Bruce Foote to Mysore was known to me or he 
 had arrived here, otherwise I would gladly have handed over that special 
 subject to him for revision. His views are, however, quoted in the 
 Addenda at the end of the second volume. Most parts of the sections 
 on flora. Fauna and Ethnography have been entirely re-written in 
 accordance with the latest information. So also, in an especial manner, 
 the chapters on History and Literature : the former having been greatly 
 added to in both the most ancient and the most modern periods ; while 
 the latter is almost entirely new. The chapter on Administration has 
 been revi.sed throughout and brought up to date with as much fulness 
 as could be done in the space at disposal. The Appendix on Coins is 
 mostly new. In the second volume, there has been a close and general 
 revision of local details, the topical changes of recent years having been 
 both frequent and extensive. In the Glossary at the end have been 
 included new terms of the Revenue Survey. 
 
 Of the country which forms the general subject of the work, it 
 cannot be denied that public interest in it has much increased since 
 the former edition of this work appeared, its enlightened progress and 
 its prominent position as a chief Native State in India having excited 
 general attention. But, apart from this, there are not wanting in the 
 
 i 
 
 136G675 _.^|jj 
 
 ^%
 
 vi PREFACE 
 
 country intrinsic elements of attraction which have given it importance 
 in the past. On first joining the service here I was considerably dis- 
 appointed to he told, on inquiring from persons supposed to be 
 acquainted with the subject, that Mysore had no history, was quite a 
 modern State, and virtually unknown before the wars with Haidar and 
 Tipu brought it into jjromincnce. As regards its language and literature, 
 also, I was led to suppose that the language was merely a rude dialect 
 of Tamil, and that literature it had none. Of the accuracy of these 
 views I had douljts at the time, and how completely opposed they were 
 to actual facts the present work will, it is hoped, serve to make clear. 
 For the researches in which I have been for long engaged have brought 
 to light a body of evidence which carries back the history, with scarcely 
 a break in the sequence, as far as to the 3rd century B.C., while the 
 language is found to have been highly cultivated at probably an earlier 
 date than any other South Indian vernacular, and to be replete with a 
 literature of great volume and interest. 
 
 If there be any truth in the observation that small countries with 
 diversified and distinctive physical characteristics have played the 
 greatest part in the world's history, and given rise to its most distin- 
 guished men, — Greece, Palestine, England and others being quoted as 
 instances, ^Mysore, it seems to me, may fairly claim a place in the 
 category. Not only does she abound in the picturesque features of 
 lofty mountains and primeval forests, of noble rivers and mighty 
 cataracts, but — to mention only a few of the products specially pertain- 
 ing to her — she yields by far the most gold of any country in India, and 
 her treasure in the past, carried off to the north by Musalman invaders, 
 may have found its way to Central Asia among the spoils of Tartar 
 hordes ; she is the peculiar home of the sandal and also of teak, a 
 special haunt of the elephant, rears a famous and superior breed of 
 horned cattle, supplies as the staple food of her people the nutrient grain 
 of ragi, was the cradle in India and is still the chief garden for coffee 
 cultivation. Thus in every department of the natural world she may 
 claim some pre-eminence. In the fine arts she has produced marvel- 
 lous examples of architecture and sculpture. In relation to humanitv, 
 again, she has been to the two greatest Hindu reformers a home for 
 the monastery of one, and an asylum to the other. Nearly every form 
 of faith, from Buddhism and J^inism to Islam, has here had its day, 
 and she is now known as having largely adopted and still strongly 
 holding a special cult of native origin not conforming to Brahmanism. 
 The Malndd region of Mysore has been the birthplace of royal races 
 dominant in the south — the Kadambas, the Hoysalas, and perhaps also 
 the Vijayanagar sovereigns. In modern times, the great general of the
 
 PREFACE vii 
 
 age, the Iron Duke, learned in the Mahiad wilds of Mysore, no less 
 than in the plains of the Deckan, those lessons of warfare which enabled 
 him to end the ambitious career of the subjugator of Europe, who once 
 thought to make an ally of Mysore and to conquer the East. Waterloo 
 may in one sense have been won in the playing fields of Eton, but it 
 was Mysore that contributed to develop the genius of the commander 
 who carried the day, decried though he had been as the Sepoy 
 (jcneral. 
 
 One cannot but be struck, in going over the modern history of 
 Mysore, with the magnanimity of the British to this country, and 
 equally with the manner in which the country has responded to the 
 good influences exerted upon it. That it may continue to prosper 
 must be the wish of all. 
 
 As in the former edition, so in this, I hold myself solely responsible 
 for all information it contains, though I have endeavoured throughout 
 to indicate the authorities on which it is based. The work has been 
 left by (lOvernment entirely in my hands. The published Administra- 
 tion Reports are now not annual but quinquennial, and the last issued 
 is to 1 89 1. I have had, therefore, to resort to various sources for later 
 information. But the greatest drawback I have felt has been the want 
 of a good general library of reference. 
 
 No one can be more conscious than the author of the shortcomings 
 of a work embracing such a variety of subjects and extending over so 
 great a range of time. I have striven to accomplish to the best of my 
 ability the task entrusted to me, and can only bespeak for the present 
 edition as indulgent and favourable a reception as was accorded to the 
 original one. 
 
 Bangalore, Sept. iSgj. 
 
 b 2
 
 PREFACE TO FIRST EDITION 
 
 On the termination, in May 1799, of the last EngHsh war with 
 Mysore, and the restoration of the Hindu Raj, which followed, it was 
 resolved by the East India Company to obtain a topographical survey 
 and general statistical account of the Territories that, for many years 
 preceding, had been the scene of political events which attracted a 
 large measure of attention not only in India and the East, but also in 
 England, France, and other European countries. 
 
 Dr. Francis Buchanan (who subsequently assumed the name of 
 Hamilton) was accordingly deputed, in February 1800,' by the (iovernor- 
 General, the Earl of Mornington, afterwards Marquis ^^'ellesley, to 
 travel through and report upon " the Dominions of the Raja of Mysore, 
 and the country acquired by the Company in the late war from the 
 Sultan, as well as that part of Malabar which the Company annexed to 
 their own Territories in the former war under Marquis Cornwallis." He 
 set out on this journey from Madras on the 23rd April 1800, and 
 completed it on the 6th July 1801, His report was written from day 
 to day, while travelling, in the form of a Journal, which, on completion, 
 was transmitted to England and placed in the library of the East India 
 House. On the recommendation of the learned Dr. (afterwards S.r 
 Charles) Wilkins, the Librarian, its publication was sanctioned at the 
 end of 1805, but the manuscript went to press apparently without the 
 knowledge of its author. " Soon afterwards," says Dr. Buchanan, in 
 his introduction, " my duty having unexpectedly brought me to 
 England, I was agreeably surprised to find that my Journal had 
 obtained a reception so favourable. It is true I wished to have 
 abridged the work before publication, and altered its arrangement ; but 
 as the printing had commenced before my arrival, and as my stay in 
 England was likely to be very short, I could not undertake such altera- 
 tions. I have therefore contented myself with revising the manuscript, 
 
 ' Then already well known for his valuable botanical researches in Burma and 
 Chittagong.
 
 X PREFACE 2 FIRST EDITION 
 
 and the supcrintcndcncy of the press has been entrusted to Mr. Stephen 
 Jones." 
 
 The work appeared in 1807, in three quarto volumes, under the title 
 of A Journey from Madras through the Countries of Mysore^ Canara 
 and Mahibar. ICvery page teems with valuable information, but the 
 disjointed style, inseparable from the nature of a daily journal, makes 
 it difficult to consult, and it is much to be regretted that the accom- 
 plished author had not the opportunity of throwing the work into a 
 more suitable form for publication. It was reprinted, in two volumes 
 octavo, at Madras in 1870. 
 
 While Dr. Buchanan was engaged in these travels, Colonel Colin 
 Mackenzie — eventually Surveyor-General of India, and well known to 
 Orientalists for his antiquarian collections in Southern India' — was 
 commissioned by the Governor-General to make a Survey of Mysore. 
 He was allowed only three assistants, with a medical officer as surgeon 
 and naturalist. In spite of many obstacles, how^ever, the survey was 
 continued till 1807. The result was not alone a valuable contribution 
 to geographical knowledge, but considerable materials were acquired of 
 the statistics and history of the country. These were recorded in folio 
 volumes transmitted to the East India Company. Copies of eight 
 volumes, attested by Colonel Mackenzie's signature, are deposited 
 among the records of the Mysore Residency. The most novel and 
 important of the discoveries made by him was that of the existence of 
 the sect of Jains in India, which he was the first to bring to notice. 
 
 The first surgeon and naturalist attached to the Mysore Survey was 
 Dr. Benjamin Heyne, whose papers on a variety of subjects relating to 
 this and the neighbouring countries were published in London in 18 14 
 (also by the recommendation of Dr. Wilkins, Librarian at the East 
 India House) under the title of Tracts^ Historical and Statistical, on 
 India. Subsequently, the gifted Dr. John Leyden- was attached to 
 
 * Including, according to the catalogue by Prof. H. H. Wilson, 1,568 manuscripts 
 of literary works, 2,070 local tracts, 8,076 copies of inscriptions, 2,150 translations, 
 2,709 plans and drawings, 6,218 coins, and 146 images and antiquities. 
 
 ' " He rose," as Sir John Malcolm, Resident of Mysore describes, " by the power 
 of native genius, from the humblest origin to a very distinguished rank in the literarj^ 
 world. His studies included almost every branch of human science, and he was 
 alike ardent in the pursuit of all. The greatest power of his mind was perhaps 
 shown in his acquisition of modern and ancient languages. ..." 
 
 His end was most sad. On the conquest of Java in 181 1, he accompanied the 
 Governor-General, Lord Minto, to that island, and hearing at Batavia of a librar)- 
 containing a valuable collection of Oriental manuscripts, hastened to explore it. The 
 long low room, an old depository of effects belonging to the Dutch Government, had 
 been shut up for some time, and the confined air was strongly impregnated with the 
 poisonous quality which has made Batavia the grave of so many Europeans. With-
 
 PREFACE TO FIRST EDITION xi 
 
 the Survey in the same capacity, but beyond a few anecdotes and 
 verses in his Poetical Remains, published in London in 1819, I 
 have failed to meet with anything of his specially about this Province, 
 though it is stated that " he drew up some useful papers, which he 
 communicated to the Government, relative to the mountainous strata 
 and their mineral indications ; as to the diseases, medicines and 
 remedies of the natives of Mysore, and the peculiarities of their habits 
 and constitution by which they might be exposed to disease ; as to the 
 different crops cultivated in Mysore and their rotation ; and to the 
 languages of Mysore, and their respective relations." Heyne's observa- 
 tions were confined to the north and east ; Leyden's papers, if traced, 
 would give us information regarding the south and west. 
 
 Colonel Mark Wilks, distinguished as the historian of Mysore, at 
 which Court he was for a time Resident, published his well-known work 
 under the title of Historical Sketches of the South of India, in three 
 volumes quarto ; the first of which appeared in London in 1810, and 
 the two last not till 181 7, owing to his appointment during the interval 
 as Governor of St. Helena, which office he held until the imprisonment 
 on that island of the emperor Napoleon Buonaparte. " It displays," as 
 an old reviewer justly observes, " a degree of research, acumen, vigour, 
 and elegance, that render it a work of standard importance in English 
 literature." A reprint, in two volumes octavo, was published in Madras 
 in 1869. 
 
 Some monographs drawn up by officers of the Mysore Commission 
 soon after the assumption of the Government by the British in 1831, with 
 kindred papers, were printed in 1864 as SeUctiojis from the Records. 
 In 1855 a Getieral Memorandum was prepared by Sir Mark Cubbon 
 for the Marquis Dalhousie, and since that time Administratiofi 
 Reports have been regularly issued every year. 
 
 out the precaution of having it aired, he rushed eagerly in to examine its treasures, 
 was .seized in consequence with a mortal fever, and died on the 2Sth August, after 
 three days' illness, in the 36th year of his age. 
 
 Southey wished " that Java had remained in the hands of the enemy, so Leyden 
 were alive," while Sir Waller Scott paid the following tribute to his memory in the 
 Lord of the Isles :— 
 
 His bright and lirief career is o'er, 
 
 And mute his tuneful strains ; 
 Quenched is his lamp of varied lore, 
 That loved the light of song to pour ; 
 A distant and a deadly shore 
 
 Has Leyden's cold remains. 
 
 The centenary of Leyden's birth was celebrated with public rejoicings in 1S75 ^^ 
 his native village of Dcnholm, on the banks of the Teviot, in Scotland.
 
 xii PREFACE TO FIRST EDITION 
 
 Otlicr sources of infcjniuilicjn exist,' for a good deal has been written 
 in connection witii Mysore during a century back, much of it partisan ; 
 but the above were some of the chief public and authentic materials 
 accessible for a work which had become a desideratum, namely, a 
 Gazetteer of Mysore brought u[) to date, presenting in a handy form 
 and within a moderate compass all that was of interest in relation to the 
 natural features, resources and productions of the country • its history, 
 population, industry, administration, and any other subjects that had a 
 claim to be treated of in such a handbook. 
 
 The first step taken towards supplying the want was in June 1867, 
 when a circular was addressed by Mr. Saunders, C.B., the officiating 
 Chief Commissioner, to the Superintendents of Divisions, directing the 
 compilation, for each District, of a Gazetteer similar to one then lately 
 published of the Bhandara District in the Central Provinces. In 
 pursuance of these orders, during the next two years, nine manuscript 
 volumes were prepared. Only two, however, came to be printed; namely, 
 one for Mysore District, by Mr. H. Wellesley ; and one for Kolar, I 
 presume by Mr. Krishnaiengar, C.S.I. Of the remainder, those for 
 Bangalore and Kadur were not completed ; the one for Shimoga bears 
 the signature of Captain Gordon Cumming ; that for Hassan of Major 
 W. Hill ; that for Tumkiir of Major C. Pearse ; and that for Chitaldroog 
 of Mr. Krishna Rao. The subsequent Reports on the Census of 
 November 1871, by Major Lindsay, naturally superseded most of the 
 statistical information contained in them. 
 
 The design to appoint an editor who should bring out one work on a 
 uniform plan was next adopted, and eventually, in 1873, with the 
 sanction of the Government of India, it was proposed to me to under- 
 take the compilation of the Gazetteer of Mysore and Coorg. A 
 personal acquaintance more or less with every part of the two countries, 
 gained in the course of official duty ; a familiarity with the local verna- 
 culars ; and some measure of information regarding the literature and 
 ancient history of this part of India, derived from antiquarian studies ; 
 led me to anticipate the work with interest. But being, at almost the 
 same time, rai.sed to the head of the Educational Department, I found 
 that the labours of a new office which is no sinecure, left little leisure for 
 the extra duty imposed upon me. I was therefore forced to be content 
 for some time with making tours to such parts of the country as I had 
 not recently visited, and collecting information from various quarters. 
 
 ' I would particularly mention Eastern Experiences, by Mr. L. Bowring, C.S.I., 
 late Chief Commissioner, published in London in 1871. 
 - A paragraph relating to Coorg is here omitted.
 
 PREFACE TO FIRST EDITION xiii 
 
 However, when in 1874 Dr. Hunter, Director-General of Statistics, 
 who is charged with the editorship of the Imperial Gazetteer for the 
 whole of India, visited Bangalore, I was able to lay before him the 
 plans I had formed for the work, and at his request undertook to 
 prepare for Mysore a manual of each District separately, which I had 
 not at first intended, as it seemed to involve a certain degree of repetition. 
 I am now glad that I did so, as it obliged me to go more minutely into 
 several subjects. Dr. Hunter again paid a visit to Bangalore in January 
 1876, when a part of the work had been printed, and in his report to 
 Government was pleased to express the strongest approval of what had 
 been done, and his " sense of the high value of the materials that had 
 been supplied." 
 
 The Gazetteer has thus finally taken the shape of two volumes 
 devoted to Mysore (and a third to Coorg). Of the former, the first 
 treats of Mysore in general, the second of Mysore by Districts, eight in 
 number. A reference to the table of contents prefixed to each volume 
 will enable the reader to see at a glance the arrangement and distribution 
 of subjects. Volume II, it should be stated, was printed first. . . . 
 In general the present work has been brought down to 1875, but in the 
 portions printed after that, a few statistics of later date have been 
 admitted. I had thought to append a short biographical notice of some 
 of the remarkable men, both Native and European, who have been 
 connected with Mysore, but feared it would extend the work too much, 
 and perhaps be considered foreign to its design. The subject, however, 
 is one full of interest. 
 
 I will not deny that the Gazetteer has caused far more labour than I 
 had anticipated, principally owing to the demands of an extensive 
 Department, which prevented my ever giving undivided attention to 
 the compiling of it. But these are conditions under which much of 
 the best work in India has been accomplished, and I gratefully 
 acknowledge the indulgence which has been extended by Government 
 to any apparent, but unavoidable, delay in bringing the task to 
 completion. 
 
 \\'ith regard to all such information and statements contained in 
 these volumes as I am not personally responsible for, I have endeavoured 
 to make a point of mentioning throughout the body of the work the 
 authorities on which they are based ; and my sincere and hearty thanks 
 are tendered to all who have favoured me with any information or 
 assistance, as well as to the I'ress. I may add that the proofs have 
 been seen, on the part of Government, by Major 'I'redway Clarke, 
 Officiating Secretary to the Chief Commissioner. 
 
 Bangalore, Xmas iS-jd.
 
 CONTENTS OF VOL. I. 
 
 I'AGB 
 
 Physical Geography 1-67 
 
 Physical Features: — Situation, Area, Boundaries, l. Natural 
 Divisions — Malnad, Maidan, 2 ; River System <;, 4 ; Tanks, 7; 
 Talpargis, 7 ; Mountain Systems, 7. 
 
 Geology: — Metamorphic Rocks, 13; Imbedded Minerals, 15; 
 Plutonic Rocks, 17 ; Volcanic Rocks, 21 ; Aqueous Rocks, 
 23 ; Older Alluvium, 26 ; Modern Alluvia, 29 ; Traverse 
 Notes, 33 ; Auriferous Tracts, 46 ; Non-metallic Minerals, 
 61. 
 
 Meteorology : — Seasons, 63 ; Temperature, 64 ; Rainfall, 64 ; 
 Earthquakes, 65 ; Cyclones, 65. 
 
 Flora 68-173 
 
 Forest Trees :— Evergreen Belt, 68 ; Mixed Belt, 69 ; Dry Belt, 
 74 ; Sandal, 77 ; Timber Trees, 78 ; Eruit Trees, 81 ; Native 
 Vegetables, 83 ; Horticidtiire : — Plants in the Lai Bagh or 
 Botanical Gardens, 85 ; Grasses, 100. 
 
 Crops and Cultivation : — Farmer's calendar, loi ; Names of 
 CrojJS, 102 ; Areas under Cultivation, 104 ; Ragi, 107 ; 
 Avare, 112; Togari, 112; Jola, 112; Save, 114; Navane, 
 116; Baragu, 117; Haraka, 117; Alsandi, 118; ITurali, 
 119; Uddu, 120; Hesaru, 121 ; Wollellu, 122; Iluchchellu, 
 123; Haralu, 123; Sanabu, 125; Cotton, 125; Tobacco, 
 126; Sasive, 128; Kadale, 128; Wheat, 129; Rice, 131; 
 Sugar-cane, 144 ; Cardamoms, 151 ; Areca-nut, 152 ; Cocoa- 
 nut, 158; Betel vine, 160; Coffee, 162; Introduced plants of 
 econovtic value: — Casuarina, 169; Cinchona, 169; Vanilla, 
 171 ; Cocoa, 172; Rhea, 172; Other Exotics, 172. 
 
 Fauna .......... 174-207 
 
 Ferae Naturae: — Mammals, 174; Destruction of wild beasts, 
 177 ; Game Law, 177 ; Elephant keddahs, 179 ; Birds, 181 ; 
 Reptiles, 187; Fishes, 189; Insects, 190; insects useful to 
 man, 194. 
 
 Domestic Animals:— Horses, 198; Mules, 198; Asses, 199; 
 Horned Cattle, Amrit Mahal, 199; Buffaloes, 204; Sheep, 
 205 ; Goats, 207.
 
 CONTENTS 
 
 ErHNor.k.M'iiv .....•••• 208-270 
 
 Aboriginal and Primitive Tril)cs, 2o8 ; I'opulation, 217 ; Hindus, 
 220; Caste, 221; Occui)alions, 224; Agricullural classes, 
 227 ; Professional classes, 233 ; Commercial classes, 245 ; 
 Artisans ancj villajje menials, 247 ; Vagrant minor artisans 
 and |)erf()rmers, 255. Mtisa/inans, 257 ; Christians, 259 ; 
 Uriian Population, 261 ; Character and dress of the people, 
 262. 
 
 Alphabetical list of castes ........ 266 
 
 History 271-453 
 
 Legendary Period : — Agastya, 272 ; Asuras and Rakshasas, 
 273; lluiluiyas, 274; Parasu Rama, 275; Rama, 276; 
 Kishkindha, 277 ; Pandavas, 279 ; Chandrahasa, 283 ; Jana- 
 mejaya, 285. 
 
 Historical Period : — Mauryas, 287 ; S'atavahanas, 292 ; Ka- 
 (lanihas, 295 ; Mahavalis, 300 ; Vaidumbas, 303 ; Pallavas, . 
 303 ; Nolambas, 307 ; Gangas, 308 ; Chaliikyas, 319 ; Rash- 
 trakutas, 324 ; Chalukyas, 327 ; Kalachuris, 331 ; Cholas, 
 m ; Hoysalas, 335 ; Vadavas, 342 ; \'ijayanagar, 344 ; 
 Palegars, 356 ; Hijapur, 357; Mughals, 361 ; Mysore Rajas, 
 361 ; Haidar Ali, 372 ; Tipu Sultan, 398 ; Restoration of 
 the Hindu Raj, 417 ; I'urnaiya Regent, 419 ; Krishna Raja 
 Wodeyar, 421 ; Rebellion in Nagar, 427 ; Deposition of the 
 Raja, 429 ; the Mysore Commission, 429 ; the Great Famine, 
 439 ; the Rendition, 441 ; the Representative Assemljly, 442; 
 Review of Policy of the Mysore Government, 445 ; Instrument 
 of Transfer, 450. 
 
 Religion 454-487 
 
 Serpent worship, 454 ; Tree worship, 455 ; M.-iri or Mara, 456 ; 
 Bhi'itas, 457 ; Animism, 457 ; Brahmanisnt, 458 ; Jainism, 
 460 ; Buddhism, 465 ; Hinduism, 468 : — Siva, 468 ; Sanka- 
 rachary?, 471 ; list of Sringeri gurus, 473 ; Ramanujacharya, 
 474 ; I larihara, 475 ; Lingayits, 476 ; Madhvacharya, 477 ; 
 Sritanis, 477. Islam, 479. Christianity, 480 ; Roman Cath- 
 olic Mission, 482 ; Protestant Missions, 484. 
 
 I,\\C.U\r,K AND LiTKRATURE 4SS-505 
 
 Kannada, 48S ; its Dialects, 4S9 ; I'eriods, 490 ; Written 
 Character, 491 ; Relationship, 492 ; Literature, 495 ; Early 
 Authors and their Works, 496 ; Modern Authors, 501 i, 
 Writing materials, 503 ; Muhammadan publications, 503 ; 
 European publications, 504.
 
 CONTENTS 
 
 Art and Industry ....... 506-571 
 
 Fine Arts: — Stone Monuments, 506; Sculpture, 509; Anhilcc- 
 turf, — Buddhist, 510 ; Jain, 510 ; Dravidian, 512 ; Chalukyan, 
 513; Halebid, 514; Belur, 518; Sonianathpur, 519; 
 Malnad, 519; Saracenic, 520; Lingayit, 521. Engraving, 
 522 ; IVood-can'ing, 522 ; Inlaid work, 523. J/nsic, 523. 
 
 Industrial Arts : — Metallurgy ; Gold-mining, 524 ; (iold and 
 Silver, 528 ; Iron and Steel, 530 ; Brass and Copper, 535 ; 
 Manufactures, 535. Textile Faf)rics, 535 ; Cotton, 536 ; 
 Wool, 537 ; Carpets, 537 ; Silk, 538 ; Alills and Factories, 
 539; Dyes, 540; (loni, 541. Oil-J'ressi)ig, 541. Soap and 
 Candles, 544. Glass-mal^ini^, ^^i. Carpentry and Turning, 
 547. Sugar andjaggory, 547 ; Suf^ar Works, 550. Leather- 
 dressing, 552. Earth salt, 553. Coffee Works, 554 ; Brick 
 and Tile IVorks, 554 ; Paper-milh, 554. 
 
 Trades and Commerce, 555 ; Imports, 556 ; Exports, 558 ; 
 
 Joint-Stock Comjjanics, 560. 
 
 Wages and Prices : —Wages, 561 ; Prices, 562; as affected by 
 the seasons, 562. 
 
 Administration ........ 572-798 
 
 Under the early Hindu Rulers, 572 ; the Village Twelve, 574 ; 
 
 Revenue System, 576. 
 
 Under the Yijayanagar Sovereigns, 578 ; Civil and Military 
 departments, 579 ; Milage officers, 579 ; Land rent, 582 ; 
 Customs and taxes, 583 ; Establishments, 586 ; Justice, 587 ; 
 Heads of Departments, 587 ; Police, 588. Carnatic Bijapur, 
 588 ; Sira, 589. 
 
 Under the Rajas of Mysore, &c., 590 ; Departments formed 
 by Chikka Deva Kaja, 590 ; his revenue regulations, 591 ; 
 new taxes, 592. Bednur, 593 ; Sivappa Nayak's shist and 
 prahar patti, 594. Haidar AH, 595. Tipu Sultan, 595 ; 
 new system, 595 ; military regulations, 596 ; fleet, 596 ; 
 commercial regulations, 597 ; regulations of revenue, 599 ; 
 police, 599. 
 
 Under Purnaiya, 1799-1810. — Settlement of Palegars and the 
 Army, 600 ; land assessment, 602 ; civil departments, 604 ; 
 justice, 605 ; revenue, 607 ; Court of Adalal, 610. 
 
 Under Krishna Raja Wodeyar, 1811-1831. — Land Revenue, 
 611; revenue iirDCL'diuc, bi2; rusunis, 615 ; rates of 
 kandayam, 616 ; land tenures, 617 ; village rent, 620 ; Sayar, 
 622 ; in Nagar, 624 ; in Ashtagram, 625 ; in Bangalore, 627 ; 
 JVutch Bah, 627. Justice: — Civil, 629; Criminal, 631 ; 
 punishments, 633 ; jails, 637 ; police, 637.
 
 xviii CONTENTS 
 
 Under the Mysore Commission. 
 
 Non-Regulation System, 1831-1855, 639 ; Land Revenue, 
 640 ; revenue officers and settlement, 643 ; Najjar, 647 ; 
 Manjarabad, 652 ; Snyar, 653 ; remissions in Nagar, 657 ; in 
 Ashtagram, 658 ; in Bangalore, 659 ; in Chitaldroog, 660. 
 Justice, 661 ; Courts, 662 ; procedure, 663 ; appeals, 664 ; 
 Panchayats, 666 ; fees and fines, 667 ; apas penchayats, 669 ; 
 Criminal Justice, 671. 
 
 Transition Period, 1856-1862, 674 ; new departments, 675 ; 
 revision of Mohatarfa, 676 ; the Commission re-organized, 
 677 ; Justice, 679 ; Police, 680; Jails, 681. Revenue, 681 ; 
 Finance, 6S2 ; Military, 682. 
 
 Regulation System, 1863-1881, 683. Civil Departments:— 
 Revenue and Finance, 683 ; State Revenue, 685 ; Land 
 tenures, 686 ; Inam tenures, 690 ; Revenue Survey and Settle- 
 ment, 692 ; Inam settlement, 696 ; Muzrayi settlement, 700 ; 
 Land Revenue, 701 ; Coffee halat, 702 ; Forests, 706 ; Abkari, 
 708; Sdyar, 711 ; Mohatarfa, 712; Salt, 713 ; Stamps, 714 ; 
 Anche or Post Office, 7H > Local Fiends, 714 ; Municipal 
 Funds, 715 ; State Expenditure, 718. — Law and Justice: — 
 Legislation, 721 ; Courts, 723 ; System of Judicature, 724 ; 
 Civil Justice, 726 ; Registration, 726 ; Criminal Justice, 727 ; 
 Prisons, 72S ; Police, 730. — Public Works, 7^2, ; Railway, 
 744. — Public Instruction, 745. — Medical, 753. Military 
 Departments, 75S ; British Subsidiary Force, 758 ; Mysore 
 Local Force, 759 ; Silahdars, 760 ; Barr, 762 ; Bangalore 
 Rifle Volunteers, 762. 
 
 Since tlie Rendition in 1881. 
 
 Form of Administration, 763 ; Council, 763 ; Representative 
 Assembly, 763. Administration of the I^and, 764 ; Topo- 
 graphical Survey, 764 ; Revenue Survey and Settlement, 
 
 764 ; Liam settlement, 764. Protection, 765 ; Legislation, 
 
 765 ; Police, 766 ; Criminal Justice, 768 ; Prisons, 769 ; 
 Civil Justice, 770; Registration, 771 ; Municipal Administra- 
 tion, 771 ; Military, 772. Production a)ul Distribution, TJt,; 
 Agriculture, 773 ; Weather and crops, 773 ; Forests, 773 ; 
 Mines and Quarries, 774 '■< Manufacture and Trade, 774 ; 
 Public Works, 775 ; Railways, 777 ; Post-office, 779. 
 Revenue and Finance, 779 ; Provincial Funds, 779 ; Revenue, 
 780 ; Expenditure, 785 ; Local Funds, 786 ; Agricultural 
 Banks, 787 ; Savings Banks, 787 ; State Life Insurance, 787. 
 Vital Statistics and IMedical Services, 788 ; Births and Deaths, 
 7S8 ; Medical Relief, 789. Instruction, 791. Archeologj-, 
 796. Miscellaneous, 797 ; Muzrayi, 797.
 
 CONTENTS 
 
 XIX 
 
 Appendix ......••• 
 
 Coins, Weights and Measures : — Coins, 799 ; Lead coins, 799 ; 
 Cold coins, 801; Silver coins, 805; Copper coins, 807; 
 Accounts, 80S. Weights, 809. Measures : — Grain Measures, 
 810 ; Land Measures, 810 ; Measures of Time : — Eras, 811 ; 
 Years, 812. 
 
 Addenda et Corrigenda ........ 
 
 PAGE 
 799-813 
 
 8IS 
 
 Index 
 
 819 
 
 LIST OF MAPS AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 Map of Mysore 
 
 Geological Sections .... 
 
 a. In ahout Lalilude 15° N. 
 
 b. ., ,, 13° N. 
 P'roni Jalar]:iat to Shikarpur . 
 
 Geological Map of Southern India 
 Physical and Industrial Map of Mysore 
 Sketch Map of Mysore in about 450 
 
 750 . 
 1050 . 
 
 1625 . 
 Map of Peninsular India to illustrate the His 
 Specimens of Mysore Coins . 
 
 Plate i. Lead and Ciold coins 
 „ ii. Gold, Silver, and Copper coins 
 
 Pocket in cover 
 P- 13 
 
 lory of My 
 
 36 
 62 
 168 
 300 
 314 
 335 
 357 
 368 
 
 799 
 802 
 807
 
 MYSORE 
 
 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 
 
 The State of Mysore^ occupies a position physically well defined, in 
 the South of India ; and has been termed a rocky triangle, a not inapt 
 description. It is a table-land, situated in the angle where the Eastern 
 and Western Ghat ranges converge into the group of the Nilgiri Hills. 
 West, south and east, therefore, it is enclosed by chains of mountains, 
 on whose shoulders the plateau which constitutes the country rests. On 
 the west the boundary approaches at one part to within lo miles of the 
 sea, but in general preserves a distance of from 30 to 50 miles from the 
 coast : on the east the nearest point is not less than 120 miles. The 
 southern extremity is 250 miles from Cape Comorin. The northern 
 frontier is an exceedingly irregular line, ranging from 100 miles south 
 of the river Krishna on the west to 1 50 on the east. 
 
 The country extends between the parallels of 11° 38' and 15° 2' 
 north latitude, and between the meridians of 74° 42' and 78° 36' east 
 longitude, embracing an area of 29,305 square miles, as determined by 
 the Surveyor-General of India from the recent survey on the one-inch 
 scale. (It is therefore nearly equal to Scotland, whose area is 29,785 
 square miles.) The greatest length north and south is about 230 
 miles, east and west about 290. 
 
 * The name is that of the capital, properly Maisiir, for Mahish/ir, — from iiiahisha, 
 fians. for buffalo, reduced in Kan. to iiiaisa, and lirit, Kan. for town or country, — 
 which commemorates the destruction of Mahishasura, a minotaur or buffalo-headed 
 monster, by Chamundi or Mahishasura-mardani, the form under which the consort 
 of Siva is worshipped as the tutelary goddess of the Mysore royal family. 
 
 Except in a passage in the Mahawanso, where it is called Mahisha-mandala, the 
 designation of the country throughout Hindu literature is Karnata or Karnataka (for 
 derivation see chapter on Language), which properly applied to the countrj' above the 
 ( jhats. But the Muhammadans included in the name their conquests below the Ghats 
 as well, and the English, going a step further, erroneously restricted it to the low- 
 country. Hence Carnatic and Canara now designate, in European works of 
 geography, regions which never bore those names ; w hile Mysore, the proper 
 Karnataka or Carnatic, is not so called. 
 
 B
 
 2 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPJIY 
 
 It is surrounded Ijy llic Madras Presidency on all sides, except on 
 part of the west, where the Bombay Presidency northwards and Coorg 
 southwards form thq boundaries. The Madras Districts bordering on it 
 are Bellary and Anantapur on the north ; Kadapa, North Arcot and 
 Salem on the east ; Coimbatore, Nilgiris and Malabar on the south ; 
 South Canara on the west. The Bombay Districts of Dharwar on the 
 north and North Canara on the west complete the circle. Coorg 
 intervenes between the adjacent parts of South Canara and Malabar on 
 the south-west. 
 
 The general elevation rises from about 2,000 feet above the sea level 
 along the northern and southern frontiers to about 3,000 feet along the 
 central water-parting, which separates the basin of the Krishna from 
 that of the Kaveri and divides the country into two nearly equal parts. 
 But the surface is far from preserving the even character suggested by 
 the designation of table-land. For the face of the country is every- 
 where undulating, much broken up by lines of rocky hills or lofty 
 mountains, and scored in all parts by Jidlas or deep ravines. There is 
 probably not a square mile in the whole superficies absolutely flat or 
 level, the slope of the ground ranging from 10 to 20 feet per mile in the 
 more level portions, and as high as 60 and 80 feet elsewhere. 
 
 The country is longitudinally intersected by single or aggregated 
 chains of hills, running chiefly north and south, or in a direction nearly 
 parallel to the two coasts. They lie at uncertain and unequal distances 
 from each other, and accordingly form sometimes wide and sometimes 
 narrow valleys. Isolated peaks of massy rock, termed by Europeans 
 droogs} rearing their heads to 4,000 or 5,000 feet above the level of the 
 sea, stand forth like sentinels on every hand ; mostly crowned with the 
 remains of fortifications, whose position, with the advantage of an 
 unfailing supply of water at the summit, rendered them wellnigh 
 impregnable strongholds. Besides these, clusters or piles of naked 
 rocks, composed of immense rounded boulders, are frequent ; large 
 fragments being often delicately poised, like logging stones, upon some 
 projecting point ; appearing as if a touch would overturn them, and yet 
 sometimes supporting a shrine or mandapa. 
 
 Natural divisions. — Mysore naturally divides itself into two separate 
 regions, each of which has well-marked and distinctive features. 
 
 Of these the Malnad,^ or hill country, lies to the west, and is confined 
 to the tracts bordering or resting on the ^^'estern Ghats. It is a land of 
 magnificent hill and forest, presenting alternations of the most diversified 
 
 * Properly diir-ga, a Sanskrit word meaning difficult of access, and denoting 
 hill-fort. 
 
 * Kan. Male, hill ; iiddti, district, region.
 
 NATURAL DIVISIOXS 3 
 
 and charming scenery. A fertile soil and perennial streams clothe the 
 valleys with verdant cultivation. The sheltered hillsides are beautiful 
 with waving woods, which give shade to numerous plantations of coffee. 
 Higher up are swelling downs and grassy slopes, dotted over with park- 
 like groups of trees. Above all, the gigantic mountains rear their 
 towering crests in every fantastic form of peak. Human dwellings are 
 few and far between A cottage here and there, picturescjuely situated 
 on the rising ground bordering the rice-ficlds, and hidden amid planta- 
 tions of areca palm and plantain, marks the homestead of a farmer and 
 his family. Towns there are none, and villages of even a dozen houses 
 rare. The incessant rain of the monsoon months confines the people 
 to their own farms. Hence each householder surrounds himself with all 
 he needs, and succeeds in making himself to a great extent independent 
 of the external world. The conditions of this isolated life are insupport- 
 able to immigrants from the plains. 
 
 But by far the greater portion of the Province, or all to the east and 
 north of a line from (say) Shikarpur to Periyapatna, continued along 
 the southern border to the Biligirirangan hills, belongs to the division 
 of Maidan, Bail shime, or open country. Although much of the in- 
 termediate region partakes of the characteristics of both, the transition 
 from the Malnad to the Maidan is in some places very marked. Dense 
 forests, which shut in the view on ever}' hand, give place to wide- 
 spreading plains : the solitary farm to clustering villages and populous 
 towns. Man meets with man, the roads are covered with traffic, and the 
 mind feels relief in the sympathy of numbers. 
 
 The means of water-supply and the prevailing cultivation give the 
 character to the various parts of the open country. The level plains of 
 alluvial black soil, as in the north, growing cotton or millet ; the districts 
 irrigated by channels drawn from rivers, as in the south and west, dis- 
 playing the bright hues of sugar-cane and rice-fields ; the lands under 
 tanks, filled with gardens of cocoa and arcca palms ; the higher-lying 
 undulating tracts of red soil, as in the east, yielding ragi and the 
 conmion associated crops ; the stony and wide-spreading pasture 
 grounds, as in the central parts, covered with coarse grass and relieved 
 by shady groves of trees. The aspect changes with the seasons, and 
 what in the dry and cold months, when the fields are lying fallow, 
 appears a dreary and monotonous prospect, speedily assumes under the 
 first operations of the plough the grateful hues of tillage ; which, under 
 the influence of seasonable rains, give place in succession to the bright 
 verdure of the tender blade, the universal green of the growing crops, 
 and the browner tints of the ripening grain. The scene meanwhile is 
 full of life, with husbandmen, their families and cattle engaged in the 
 
 B 2
 
 4 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 
 
 labours of the field. These arc prolonged in slacking and threshing 
 until the cold season again sets in and the country once more assumes a 
 parched and dusty aspect. 
 
 River systems. — l"hc drainage of the country, with a slight exception, 
 finds its way to the Bay of Bengal, and is divisible into three great river 
 systems ; that of the Krishna on the north, the Kaveri on the south, the 
 two Pennars, and the Palar on the east. The only streams flowing to 
 the Arabian Sea are those of certain taluc^s in the north-west, which, 
 uniting in the Sharavati, hurl themselves down the Ghats in the mag- 
 nificent falls of Gersoppa; and some minor streams of Nagar and Man 
 jarabad, which flow into the Gargita and the Netravati.^ 
 
 A line drawn east from BalLilrayan-durga to Nandidurga (Xundy- 
 droog) and thence south to Anekal, with one from Devaraydurga north 
 to Pavugada, will indicate approximately the watershed separating the 
 three main river-basins. From the north of this ridge flow the Tunga 
 and the Bhadra, rising in the Western Gliats and uniting in the Tunga- 
 bhadra, which, with its tributary the Hagari or Vedavati, joins the 
 Krishna beyond the limits of IMysore in Srisaila near Karnul. From 
 the south of the line, the Hemavati (with its affluent the Yagachi), the 
 Lokapavani, Shimsha, and Arkavati flow into the Kaveri, which, rising 
 in Coorg and taking a south-easterly course through the country, re- 
 ceives also on the right bank the Lakshmantirtha, the Gundal, the 
 Kabbani and the Honnu Hole before quitting the territory. From the 
 east of the line, m the immediate neighbourhood of Nandidurga, spring 
 three main streams, forming a system which Lassen has designated " die 
 Tripotamie des Dekhans," namely, the Uttara Pinakini or Northern 
 Pennar (with its tributaries the Chitravati and Papaghni), which dis- 
 charges into the sea at Nellore ; the Dakshina Pinakini or Southern 
 Pennar,- which ends its course at Cuddalore ; and between them the 
 Palar, whose mouth is at Sadras. A continuation of the east and west 
 line through Nandidurga to Sunnakal will mark the water-parting be- 
 tween the first and the other two ; which, again, are divided by a line 
 passing from Jangamkote to Bowringpet and the Betarayan hills. 
 
 More accurately described, the axial line or " great divide " which 
 forms as it were the backbone of the country, starts from the north of 
 Ballalrayandurga and runs east-by-north to near Aldur. Thence it 
 makes a bend, first, northwards up to the western extremity of the Baba 
 
 * The course of each river is described in detail in Vol. II. 
 
 - Its name below the Ghats appears to be Poni-ar or Ponn-dr, golden river, dr 
 being the Tamil for river. It would be very convenient were geographers to agree 
 upon restricting the name Penna to the northern stream and that of Ponna to the 
 southern. The former is also called Penner (written Pennair), Jrii being the Telugu 
 for river.
 
 RIVER SYSTEMS 5 
 
 Budan range and then south-east, passing between Belur and Halebid, 
 down to Sige Gudda in the north of the Hassan taluk. From this 
 point it strikes across the map in an east north-east direction, rounding 
 the southern extremities of the HarnhalU and Hagalvadi hills, up to 
 near Kortagiri, where it encounters the great meridional chain of 
 mountains. Following the range south, past Devaraydurga to near 
 Dodbele, it resumes an east-north-easterly course to Nandidurga and 
 continues the same to the frontier near Sunnakal. Geographically it 
 lies between the parallels of 13° 10' and 13° 25'. 
 
 A line projected north from the west of Kortagiri up through Pavu- 
 gada to the frontier, and one south from Nandidurga by Bangalore to 
 Anekal, mark pretty nearly the limits of the respective river-basins in 
 the transverse direction. This water-parting falls between the meridians 
 of 77' 10' and 77" 30'. 
 
 The basin of the Sharavati, which runs to Honavar on the Canara 
 coast, occupies the west of the Shimoga District. It may be defined 
 by a line drawn from Kodachddri south-east to Kavaledurga, thence 
 north-east by Humcha to Masarur, and west-north-west by Anantapur 
 and Ikkeri to Talguppa. The streams between Kodachddri, Kavale- 
 durga and the Agumbi ghat westwards, run down to Kondapur ; and 
 those of western Manjarabad, to Mangalore. 
 
 The following statement contains an estimate of the total length, 
 within the Province, of the main rivers with their principal tributaries ; 
 and the total area of the catchment basin under each river-system 
 within the same limits : — 
 
 River System 
 
 Total Length of Rivers 
 
 Total Area of Basins 
 
 
 
 Miles. 
 
 Sq 
 
 uare Miles. 
 
 Krishna 
 
 
 611 
 
 
 11,031 
 
 Kriveri ... 
 
 
 646 
 
 
 9,486 
 
 N. I'ennar 
 
 
 167 
 
 
 2,280 
 
 S. I'ennar 
 
 
 32 
 
 
 1,541 
 
 Palar ... 
 
 
 47 
 
 
 1,036 
 
 Sharavati and west coast rivers 
 
 103 
 
 
 1,881 
 
 Owing to either rocky or shallow beds, none of the Mysore rivers is 
 
 navigable,^ but timber floats are carried down the Tunga, the Bhadra, 
 
 ' From the following statement in Buchanan it appears that Ilaiilar attempted to 
 estal)lish navigation on the Tunga. " From Mangalore Haidar brought to Shimoga 
 many carpenters, and built a number of lighters of about eight tons burthen. They 
 are strong and flat-bottomed ; but, as the greater part of them have been allowed to 
 remain on the bank where they were built, I doubt not that they were found very 
 u.seless. The attempt is, however, no impeachment on the sagacity of Haidar, who
 
 6 nrVSTCAT. GEOGRAPirY 
 
 and the Kahhani at ccrlaiii seasons. Most of the streams are fordable 
 during the dry months, or can be crossed by rude bridges formed of 
 logs or stones thrown across from boulder to boulder. During floods, 
 and when freshes come down, traffic over the streams is often suspended 
 until the water subsides. But throughout the rainy season they are 
 generally crossed at the appointed ferries by rafts, basket boats, canoes, 
 or ferry boats. Men also sometimes get over supporting themselves on 
 earthen pots. 
 
 The teppa or raft is formed of bamboos lashed together, and merely 
 affords an unsteady footing, the water washing freely through. The 
 harigblu or coracle is a circular basket of stout wicker-work, composed 
 of interlaced bamboo laths and covered with buffalo hides. It is 8 or 
 lo feet in diameter, with sides 3 or 4 feet high.^ A smaller one, which 
 holds only two people, is used for crossing some jungle streams. The 
 db7ii or canoe is a dug-out, or hollowed log pointed at the two ends. 
 The sd/igda, or regular ferry boat," is formed of two canoes secured 
 together, with a platform or deck fastened upon them, and has sides 
 turning on hinges which, let down, form a gangway for loading and un- 
 loading. All these craft are propelled by a long bamboo pole, and are 
 dependent for their course upon the currents. But paddles are some- 
 times used with the canoe. 
 
 Though useless for purposes of navigation, the main streams, espec- 
 ially the Kc4veri and its tributaries, support an extensive system of 
 irrigation by means of channels drawn from immense dams, called 
 anicuts,'' which retain the upper waters at a high level and permit only 
 the overflow to pass down stream. These works are of great antiquity, 
 
 having been educated in a place remote from every kind of navigation, could have no 
 idea of what boats could perform, nor of what obstacles would prevent their utility. 
 To attempt dragging anything up such a torrent as the Tunga would be vain ; but, 
 after having seen the boats, and known that some of them have been actually navigated 
 down the river, I have no doubt of its being practicable to carry down floats ; and on 
 these perhaps many bulky articles of commerce might be transported." 
 
 ' Herodotus notices, as one of the most remarkable things he had seen at Babylon, 
 boats of a construction so exactly similar, that the description of one would precisely 
 answer for the other, with the single difference of substituting willow for bamboo. 
 These boats carried the produce of Armenia, and " the parts above Assyria," down 
 the Euphrates to Babylon ; and each boat along with its cargo carried a few asses for 
 the purpose of conveying the returns by a shorter overland route. Boats of the 
 description noticed by Herodotus, although apparently unknown in Greece at that 
 period, were in after ages commonly used in Italy on the Po ; and in Britain in the 
 time of Caesar. Boats of the same materials but of different shape are used at this 
 time in South Wales, and the north-west of Ireland ; in the former country they are 
 named corracle, in the latter corraigh. — Wilks, i, 257. 
 
 - The mention of aaryyapa occurs in the Periplus. 
 
 •' From Kan. ane kattc, both meaning dam, dyke, or embankment.
 
 HYDROGRAPHY 7 
 
 the large Talkad anicut, the lowest down on the Kaveri, having been 
 constructed a thousand years ago ; while the most recent, with few 
 exceptions, are not less than three centuries old. " The dreams which 
 revealed to favoured mortals the plans of these ingenious works (says 
 A\'ilks) have each their appropriate legend, which is related with rever- 
 ence and received with implicit belief." The channels or kdlvcs thence 
 drawn, meander over the adjoining tracts of country on either bank, 
 following all the sinuosities of the ground, the total length running 
 l)eing upwards of 1,200 miles. ^ 
 
 There are no natural lakes in Mysore, but the streams which gather 
 from the hillsides and fertilize the valleys are, at every favourable 
 point, embanked in such a manner as to form series or chains of 
 reservoirs, called tanks,-' the outflow from one at a higher level supplying 
 the next lower, and so on all down the course of the stream at a few 
 miles apart. These tanks, varying in size from small ponds to extensive 
 lakes, are dispersed throughout the country to the number of 38,080 ; 
 and to such an extent has tliis principle of storing water been followed 
 that it would now require some ingenuity to discover a site suitable for 
 a new one without interfering with the supply of those already in 
 existence. The largest of these tanks is the Sulekere, 40 miles in cir- 
 cumference. Other large ones are the Ayyankere, Madaga-kere, Masur- 
 Madaga-kere, Vyasa samudra, Ramasagara, Moti Talab, tlvic., of which 
 accounts will be found elsewhere (Vol. II). 
 
 The spring-heads called talpargis form an important feature of the 
 hydrography of the north-east. They extend throughout the border 
 regions situated east of a line drawn from Kortagiri to Hiriyur and 
 Molkalmuru. In the southern parts of this tract the springs may be 
 tapped in the sandy soils at short distances apart, and the water rises 
 close to the surface. Northward the supply is not so plentiful. In 
 Pavugada a soft porous rock has to be cut through before reaching the 
 water, and in the other taluc^s of the Chitaldroog District hard strata of 
 rock have sometimes to be perforated. \M-ien the water is obtained, it 
 is either conducted by narrow channels to the fields, or a kapilc well is 
 constructed, from which the water is raised by bullocks. 
 
 Mountain systems. — ^From the gigantic head and shoulders, as it were, 
 of the lofty Nilgiri group, which commands the southern frontier, are 
 stretched forth like two arms, in a north-west and north-east direction 
 res[)ectively, the AVestern and Eastern (liiat ranges, holding within 
 
 ' The anicuts and channels are fully described innler the respective rivers in 
 \'..l. If. 
 
 - Kcre is the general name in Kannada, hut Icola, hiiittc, and other terms are 
 applied to certain descriptions.
 
 8 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 
 
 their mighty embrace the mountain-locked plateau of Mysore. The 
 hills of this table-land, though rarely in continuously connected chains, 
 arrange themselves into systems crossing the country longitudinally, in 
 directions more or less parallel with the Eastern and Western Ghats 
 according to their proximity to one or the other; and attaining their 
 greatest elevation between 13 and 13^ degrees of north latitude, along 
 the north of the watershed line dividing the Krishna and Kaveri river 
 systems. 
 
 The best defined of these ranges is a belt, from 10 to 20 miles wide, 
 running between the meridians of 77 and 775, from the Biligirirangan 
 hills as their western limit, through Kankanhalli northwards up to 
 Madgiri, and on to the frontier by way of Pavugada and Nidugal. It 
 separates the eastern from the northern and southern river-basins. On 
 the west, a somewhat corresponding range, not more than 10 miles in 
 width, runs north along the meridian of 75I from Ballalrayan-durga up 
 to beyond Shikarpur, having on its east the loop of the Baba Budans, 
 projecting as it were like some Titanic bastion guarding the approaches 
 to the Malnad or highland region formed by the congeries of hills and 
 mountains which intervene between the range and the Ghats on the 
 west. 
 
 Intermediate between the two internal ranges above described is 
 placed a hilly belt or chain, with considerable intervals between its com- 
 ponent parts, tending to the east on the south of the central watershed 
 and to the west on the north of it, so as to form a very obtuse angle in 
 traversing the centre of the country. Starting from the Wainad frontier 
 at Gopalswami betta, between Gundlupet and Heggadadevankote, it 
 passes by Seringapatam and Nagamangala to Chunchangiri, where, 
 exchanging its easterly for a westerly course, it reappears to the west of 
 Kibbanhalli in the Hagalvadi hills, and crossing in a continuous belt 
 through the middle of the Chitaldroog District, quits the country to the 
 north of Kankuppa. 
 
 In the northern section of the territory, where the distance between 
 the Ghat ranges, and by consequence between the intermediate belts, 
 continues to increase, the interval is occupied by minor ranges. Of 
 these the most important is the Nandidroog range, commencing near 
 the hill of that name and stretching northwards by Gudibanda to Fenu- 
 konda and the Anantapur country. In the west, a similar medial chain, 
 but of lower elevation, passes from the eastern base of the Baba Budans 
 south of Sakrepatna, up by Ajimpur, the Ubrani hills and Basvapatna, 
 between Honnali and Male Bennur, along the right bank of the Tun- 
 gabhadra, to the frontier, where it meets that river. 
 
 Viewing the mountains as a whole, the Eastern and Western Ghat
 
 MOUNTAIN SYSTEMS 9 
 
 ranges might be compared to the antlers of a stag, the branching tynes 
 being represented by the intermediate parallel chains starting from the 
 north of the central watershed and more or less connected by cross 
 ridges along their southern extremities. The chief peaks of the western 
 system are loftier than those of the eastern. Except on the verge of the 
 Western Ghats, all the mountains throughout the country, it is believed, 
 present their steepest escarpment more or less eastwards. In the west, 
 INIulainagiri, and in the east, Nandidroog, are the highest elevations, and 
 they are almost on the same parallel, or between 13° 23' and 13^ 24', 
 immediately north of the central watershed. The loftiest points just 
 south of that line are Ballalrayan-durga in the west, and Sivaganga in the 
 east, both situated between 13° 8' and 13° 10'. 
 
 The table on the following page will serve to show the arrangement 
 and altitude of the principal peaks in each system. The figures are 
 mostly taken from the charts of the Great Trigonometrical Survey of 
 India, supplemented from those of the Topographical Sur\-ey. Fur- 
 nished at the summit with springs which yield an unfailing supply 
 of water, most of these heights seem ■ formed by nature for secure 
 retreats. Hence there are few of the more prominent ones that have 
 not been surrounded or capped with fortifications, often carried in long 
 lines, with a vast expenditure of labour, along all the spurs and projec- 
 tions of the droog, forming strongholds with good reason deemed im- 
 pregnable before the time when British artillery was directed against 
 their walls. A particular account of the most interesting will be found 
 under each District. 
 
 It may be useful to quote here the following most recently published 
 opinion regarding the physical geography of this part of India : — " In 
 the peninsular area the mountains are all remnants of large table- 
 lands, out of which the valleys and low lands have been carved. The 
 valleys, with a few local exceptions, are broad and open, the gradients 
 of the rivers low, and the whole surface of the country presents the 
 gently undulating aspect characteristic of an ancient land surfoce." 
 "The Anamalai, Palni and Travancore hills, south of the Palghat gap, 
 and the Shevaroy and many other hill groups scattered over the Car- 
 natic, may be remnants of a table-land once united to the Mysore 
 plateau, but separated from it and from each other by ancient marine 
 denudation. Except the peculiar form of the hills, there is but little 
 in favour of this view, but on the other hand there is nothing to indicate 
 that the hill groups of the Carnatic and Travancore are areas of special 
 elevation.'" 
 
 ' R. D. (Jldham, " Manual of the Geolog)' of India," 2nd edition (1893), IT- 2, 4-
 
 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 
 WESTERN SYSTEM 
 
 IS' 
 
 75° 
 
 76° 
 
 14 — 
 
 13 — 
 
 Chandragutti, 2 
 
 1 
 794 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Hanuman betta, 2,507 
 
 
 
 
 Kalvarangan hill, 3,388 
 
 
 
 Hill at Sulekere, 2,695 
 
 Govardh 
 
 ingiri, 
 
 1,720 
 
 Karadi betta, 2,725 
 
 
 
 
 - 
 
 Kodachadri 
 
 , 4.411 
 
 
 
 Hanuman durga, 3,181 
 Ubrani hills, 2,891 
 
 
 
 Kavaledurga, 3,058 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Koppa durga, 2,960 
 Lakke pan-ata, 4,662 
 
 Baba Budan Range 
 Hebbe betta, 4,385 
 Kalhatti giri, 6,155 
 Deviramman gudda, 
 
 Kaldurga, 3,183 
 5,906 
 
 
 
 
 
 Baba Budan 
 
 giri, 6,214 
 
 
 
 Kondada betta, 3,207 
 
 Woddin gudda, 5,006 
 Varaha parvata, 4,781 
 
 Merti gudda, 5,451 
 Kudure muklia, 6,215 
 
 Rudra giri, 5 
 Mulaina giri, 
 
 ,692 
 6,317 
 
 Sakuna giri. 4,653 
 Garudan giri, 3,680 
 
 
 
 
 Ballalrayan durga, 4,940 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Kate gudda, 4,540 
 Karadi gudda, 4,523 
 Siskal betta, 3,926 
 Jenkal betta, 4,558 
 Murkan gudda, 4,265 
 Devar betta, 4,206 
 
 Subrahmanya 
 
 or Pushpa giri, 5,626 
 
 
 
 Maharajan durga, 3,899 
 Bettadpura hill, 4,389 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 J 
 
 j— 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 7^ 
 
 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 76°
 
 MOUNTAIN SYSTEMS 
 
 I Chain 
 
 IT 
 
 EASTERN SYSTEM 
 
 78- 
 
 Santigudda, 2,595 
 
 Jalinga Ramesvara hill, 3,469 
 
 S'uiike Bhairava hill, 3,022 
 
 hill, 2.721 
 betta, 3,28( 
 
 ?., 3.329 
 ii. 3.803 
 
 2,274 
 
 3,226 
 
 Mis, 3.543 
 
 gin, 3,221 
 
 Xidugal, 3,772 
 Pavugada, 3,026 
 
 Midagesi durga, 3,376 
 
 Madgiri durga, 3,935 Gudibanda, 3,361 
 
 Channarayan durga, 3,744 
 
 Itikal durga, 3,569 
 
 — 14° 
 
 Dokkal konda, 3,807 
 
 Kortagiri, 2,906 
 
 Devaray durga, 3,940 
 Xijagal, 3,569 
 
 Hariharesvar betta, 4,122 
 
 Mudimadagu, 
 
 4.528 
 Sunnakal, 4,229 
 
 Kalavar durga, 4,749 
 Chanrayan betta, 4,762 
 Xandi durga, 4,851 
 Brahmagiri, 4,657 
 Dibgiri 
 
 Ambaji durga, 4,399 
 Rahman Ghar, 4,227 
 
 Sivaganga, 4,559 
 Bairan durga, 3,499 
 
 Hutri durga, 3,713 
 Savan durga, 4,024 
 Hulyur durga, 3,086 
 
 Ramgiri, 3,066 
 Sivangiri, 2,931 
 Mudvadi durga, 3,131 
 Banat mari betta, 3,422 
 Kabbal durga, 3,507 
 
 Halsur betta, 3,341 Kolar hills, 4,026 
 
 Kurudu male, 
 3.312 
 
 Tyakal hills, 3,704 
 
 Bann^rghatta, 3,271 
 
 Betrayan konda, 
 
 3,006 
 Yerra konda 
 
 3-359 
 
 — 13 
 
 lurga, 3,589 
 3.579 
 
 , 3,190 
 jcks, 2,882 
 , 2,697 
 
 i betta, 3,489 
 
 Koppa betta, 2,821 
 
 Biligtrirangan Hills 
 
 Biligirirangan betta, 4,195 
 Matpod hill, 4,969 
 Punajur hill, 5,091 
 
 mi hill, 4,770 
 iri Group 
 tta, 8,760 
 
 77 
 
 78°
 
 GEOLOGYi 
 
 The great ranges of the Western and Eastern (ihats, together with the 
 intervening table-lands, may be regarded as part of one magnificent 
 elevation of Plutonic rocks by a succession of efforts, during a period 
 which may be termed Plutonic, breaking up the hypogene schists 
 and in some instances uplifting aqueous beds of a more recent origin. 
 The true general direction of this elevation is nearly N. 5° W, though 
 the apparent directions of the lateral chains on its flanks are to the east 
 and west of north respectively. 
 
 The surface of the table-lands between these chains has a general in- 
 clination easterly by south towards the Bay of Bengal, into which the 
 principal rivers empty themselves. This gentle inclination, often assisted 
 by cross lines of elevation, determines the great drainage lines of the 
 country. The singular appearance of the detached hills and clusters of 
 hills, which above the Ghats are seen abruptly starting up from the flat 
 plains with little or no tali, have been sometimes compared to a table 
 with teacups here and there reversed on its surface, a not inapt though 
 homely illustration. 
 
 The bare extensive surfaces of the granitic, trappean and hypogene 
 rocks in Southern India afford on a grand scale exposes, not to be sur- 
 passed in any other portion of the globe, of the protean aspects under 
 which these rocks present themselves. The very absence of those fossi- 
 liferous beds which so thickly encrust the surface of a great portion of 
 Europe and many other parts of the world, is in itself a subject of in- 
 teresting research ; and the geologist may in the peninsula of India 
 advantageously study a huge and disjointed mass of the nether-formed 
 
 ^ Chiefly from articles by Captain Xewbold, P'.R.S., on the " Geolog}- of Southern 
 India." — (J. R. A. S. viii, ix, xii. ) 
 
 [Note. — When compiHng the first edition, I applied to the Geological Survey of 
 India for information on the geology of Mysore, and was informed in reply that, as 
 the country had not been surveyed, nothing was known of its geolog}-. Being thus 
 thrown on my own resources, I discovered the articles from which this chapter was 
 taken. Their value has since been recognized by the Geological Survey, for Mr. 
 W. T. Blanford, in the Introduction to the first edition of the "Manual of the 
 Geology of India" (p. Ixxii), writes as follows : — 
 
 Newbold, 1 844- 1 850. —This account refers to the southern part of the Peninsula 
 alone ; but it is the work of one of the best, if not actually the best, of the earlier 
 Indian geologists ; and it has the peculiar advantage over all other summaries 
 published up to the present time, that the author possessed an extensive personal 
 
 acquaintance with the country described Most of the observations recorded 
 
 in the summary are admirable ; and altogether the paper is so valuable, that the 
 neglect with which it has been generally treated is not easy to understand.]
 
 To face page 13 
 
 GE OLOGICAL SECTI ONS IN THE LATITUDES OF ^AN^AUJRE^ AND^OFJ^jE NORT>IERJj^RONTlER. 
 
 After Captain Newbold, F. R.S. fl "ts 
 
 I SECTION IN ABOUT LAT 15" N fH "t ^S I I ?
 
 METAM ORPHIC ROCKS 13 
 
 rocks which constitute the framework of our planet, and which 
 here present themselves ahiiost divested of integument, weathering 
 under the alternations of a vertical sun and the deluging rains of the 
 tropics. 
 
 Metamorphic Rocks. — Hypogene schists, penetrated and broken 
 up by prodigious outbursts of plutonic and trappean rocks, occupy by 
 far the greater portion of the superficies of Southern India. They con- 
 stitute the general bulk of the Western Ghats from between the latitude 
 of 16" and 17° N. to Cape Comorin ; and from the northern base 
 of the Eastern (ihats to their deflection at latitude 13° 20' N. They 
 are partially capped and fringed in the ^\'estern (ihats by laterite, 
 and in the Eastern Ghats by sandstone, limestone and laterite. They 
 form the basis of the valley of Seringapatam and of the table-land of 
 Mysore. 
 
 The inequalities and undulations of the surface, though originating 
 in the dislocations and flexures of the metamorphic strata at the periods 
 of their uj)heaval, have been evidently modified by aqueous erosion 
 and by the faster weathering of the softer members of the series, — ■ 
 such as mica and talcose schists, — the softer clay slates and shales ; 
 which, crumbling and washed away, have left their harder brethren 
 standing out in relief on the face of the country. Where we see 
 gneiss, hornblende schist and quartzite rising in parallel ridges sepa- 
 rated by valleys, we generally find the valleys occupied by the softer 
 members of the series, often deeply covered with debris from the 
 ridges. 
 
 Where gneiss rises above the general level of the surrounding plain, 
 its elevations may be distinguished from those of granite, which the hills 
 of thick-bedded varieties of gneiss sometimes assimilate, by their greater 
 continuity and uniformity of altitude ; their tendency to a smooth dome- 
 shaded outline ; and greater freedom from precipices and disrupted 
 masses. Near lines of plutonic disturbance, however, these distinguish- 
 ing marks are less perceptible. 
 
 Elevations of mica and talcose schists obtain, generally, a less alti- 
 tude than those of hornblende or gneiss ; and have a more round- 
 backed and smoother contour on the whole. Vet the outline in detail 
 is jagged, owing partly to these rocks weathering in larger, more angular 
 or less concentric fragments, often leaving abrupt steps and small preci- 
 pices. Hornblende and gneiss are seen rising, as m the \\'estern Ghats 
 and the Nilgiris, to the height of 8,000 feet above the sea's level. The 
 former is recognized by its bold sharp ridges, often precipitous, but 
 rarely presenting conical peaks. 
 
 Hills composed entirely of actinolite or chlorite schist are seldom
 
 14 GEOLOGY 
 
 met with ; those of (luartzite have long crest-Hke outhnes, often running 
 smoothly for some distance, but almost invariably breaking up into large, 
 angular masses, sometimes cuboidal : the sides of the crests are usually 
 precipitous. Hills of clay slate are distinguished by a smooth, wavy 
 outline, separated by gently sloping valleys. Outliers or detached hills 
 of this rock are usually mammiform. But, as before remarked, all these 
 normal crystalline rocks, when near lines or foci of plutonic disturbance, 
 frequently undergo great changes in physiognomical aspect ; and in lieu 
 of the smoothly rounded hills of clay slate, and its gently sloping vales, 
 smiling with fertility, we behold it cleaved into sterile, rugged ravines 
 and rocky i)recipices. 
 
 Gneiss is usually found lowest in the series : next to it mica and 
 hornblende schist, actinolite, chlorite, talcose and argillaceous schist, 
 and crystalline limestone, in due succession : but to this rule there are 
 numerous exceptions. All these rocks, except crystalline limestone, 
 have been observed resting on granite without the usually intervening 
 gneiss. The strata are often violently contorted or bent in waving 
 flexures, particularly in the vicinity of plutonic rocks ; and much irreg- 
 ularity occurs in the amount and direction of dip throughout the 
 hypogene area. In the Western Ghats it is usually easterly, and at 
 angles varying from io° to 90°. At the summit of the Ghats near the 
 falls of Gersoppa, the gneiss dipped at an angle of 35° to the N.E. 
 
 But the hornblende schists do not always dip from the plutonic rocks 
 — in many instances the dip is towards them : a fact indicating that the 
 strata have been disturbed at some previous period, or that they may have 
 suffered inversion ; which is known to be the case in beds of more 
 recent origin. While the dip of the two great lines of elevation, viz., 
 the East and West Ghats, is generally westerly and easterly, or at right 
 angles with the direction of the strata, that of the minor cross ranges is 
 usually southerly. Numerous irregularities and exceptions, however, to 
 this general rule occur, particularly near the northerly and southerly 
 great synclinal line of dip on the table-lands between the Eastern and 
 AVestern Ghats, and near localities where it is traversed by the cross 
 lines of elevation. The intrusion of trap dykes has also caused much 
 diversity in the dip. These irregularities will always prove obstacles in 
 tracing out with accuracy the synclinal dip line between the Eastern and 
 Western Ghats. 
 
 Gneiss and hornblende schist are by far the most prevalent rocks of 
 the series : to gneiss the other members may be termed subordinate. 
 Near its contact with the granite it commonly assumes the character of 
 what has been styled granitoidal gneiss, losing its stratified appearance, 
 and not to be distinguished in hand specimens from granite. Spherical
 
 METAMORPJIIC ROCKS 15 
 
 and oval masses of granite, resembling boulders, are sometimes 
 observed impacted in the gneiss. Veins of reddish compact felspar, 
 felspar coloured green with actinolite, epidote or chlorite, with and with- 
 out quartz; also of milky quartz with nests of iron ore, mica and 
 hornblende are very common in gneiss : also dykes and veins of granite. 
 All these veins are of older date than the intrusion of the greenstone 
 dykes which invariably sever them. Particular varieties of gneiss prevail 
 in different districts. These rocks not only abound in nests and veins 
 of rich magnetic and oxidulated iron ore, but in thick interstratified 
 beds and mountain masses of these minerals. 
 
 iMica schist is found sparingly distributed over the whole of the 
 hypogene area in thin beds. It is found in the greatest abundance and 
 purity in the western parts of Mysore. A vein of granite in it is rare, 
 though abounding in those of quartz. Takose, chloritic^ and acti)wlitic 
 schists are still more sparingly distributed : the first is seen in the west 
 of jNIysore. Fine varieties of actinolitic schist occur in the Western 
 Ghats at the falls of Gersoppa ; and it is pretty generally distributed in 
 thin beds over Mysore. Hornblende schist ranks next to gneiss in 
 extent and thickness of beds, and is seen washed by the sea at the 
 bases of the Eastern and ^^'estern Ghats, forming some of the loftiest 
 peaks of the latter and supporting large level tracts of table-land. 
 This rock varies from the compact structure of basalt to the crystalline 
 texture of granite, and to that of porphyry, and may be seen from 
 lamin?e of a few lines in thickness, passing into beds forming mountain 
 masses. The principal constituent minerals are hornblende and felspar. 
 Quartz, garnet and mica are frequently mixed. Large beds of compact 
 felspar, generally of a pinkish hue, with a little quartz and a few scales 
 of mica, quartzite and milk quartz, having a similar direction to that of 
 gneiss, occur, forming low ranges of hills. Clay slate does not occupy 
 a large surface of the hypogene area. It occurs at Chiknayakanhalli, 
 Chitaldroog, and in parts of the Shimoga District. 
 
 Imbedded Minerals. — Chert is pretty generally distributed, also the 
 •common garnet ; the latter occurs in the greatest abundance in the 
 Eastern Ghats, but is also found in the Kempukal river at the Manjara- 
 bad Ghat; black garnet and tremolite occur in the granitoidal gneiss 
 of Wurralkonda (Kolar District). Epidote and actinolite are found 
 usually in quartz and felspar veins. Indianite occurs sparingly with 
 corundum, fibrolite and garnet in gneiss and hornblende schist in the 
 valley of the Kaveri. Corundum is found in Mysore in talc, mica, or 
 hornblende schist associated with iron ore, asbestus, and sometimes 
 indianite and fibrolite. It occurs imbedded in the rock in grains and 
 ■crystals. Its principal localities are Gollarhalli near Chanraypatna,
 
 1 6 GEOLOGY 
 
 Mandya near Seringapatam, Bcgur, Bannerghatta, Bagepalli and other 
 l)laces.^ Fibrolite occurs but rarely with indianite and corundum. 
 Kyanite occurs in gneiss with tremolite, pearl spar, bitter spar, almandine 
 and staurolite. Steatite occurs in the talcose schists in the west of 
 Mysore ; as also potstone, in beds of considerable size and veins, and 
 more or less dispersed over the whole hypogene area ; occasionally 
 associated with nephrite. Magnesite, an almost pure carbonate of 
 magnesia, occurs in the vicinity of Hunsur. Mica is found universally 
 diffused. In some parts of the Western Ghats and on the table-lands 
 to the east, this mineral and talc are found in plates large enough for 
 windows and lanterns, for which purpose they are used by the natives, 
 as also for ornamental devices and for painting on. Chlorite is rarely 
 found uncombined with felspar, silex, or hornblende. Nacrite or scaly 
 talc is here and there met with. Adularia is found in the gneiss at 
 some places. Albite or cleavlandite occurs occasionally throughout the 
 gneiss districts, as also tourmaline or schorl, both black and green. 
 Sulphate and sub-sulphate of alumina are occasionally found in thin 
 incrustations and efflorescences between the layers of the soft ferruginous 
 slates into which the hornblende and mica schists pass. 
 
 Iron pyrites or sulphuret of iron is distributed in small proportions 
 in the hypogene rocks ; but the oxides, both magnetic and heematitic, 
 exist in extraordinary abundance, forming masses and large interstrati- 
 fied beds in the mountain chains. In gneiss these ores frequently 
 replace hornblende and mica ; alternating with quartz in regular layers. 
 Magnetic iron ore with polarity is found in the massive state on the 
 Baba Budan hills. Micaceous and specular iron ores are less common. 
 A dark magnetic iron sand is usually found in the beds of streams 
 having their origin among hypogene rocks, associated with gold dust 
 and sometimes with menaccanite. Iron ore slightly titaniferous is 
 found over the whole hypogene area. The black oxide of manganese 
 associated with iron ore is found sparingly in the hills. Antimony 
 occurs in the Baba Budan hills, and at Chitaldroog. 
 
 ' Attention having been drawn to corunduni as a valuable article of export, and on 
 account of its possible use for the manufecture of aluminium, Mr. Petrie Hay, of 
 Hunsur, has recently collected a quantity from villages to the south and west of that 
 town. Very excellent crystals of yellowish corundum, with a brown weathered 
 surface, were collected from the fields. Some tapering hexagonal prisms up to five 
 inches in length, and a cubical piece of about four inches side, with a block weighing 
 300 lbs., were sent by him to the Madras Museum. Dr. Warth, of the Geological 
 Survey, considers them of great importance as indicating the probability of a large and 
 continuous yield. The quality of the quarried pieces is very little inferior to that of 
 the crystals. The specific gravity of the large crystals was 4*02 and of the rock 
 corundum 3 "So.
 
 IMBEDDED MINERALS 17 
 
 Ores of silver have been said to occur in Belli Betta near Attikuppa.^ 
 Ainslie states that Captain Arthur discovered this metal in small 
 quantities in Mysore, both in its native state in thin plates adhering to 
 some specimens of gold crystallized in minute cubes, and mineralized 
 with sulphur, iron and earthy matter, forming a kind of brittle 
 sulphuretted silver ore. 
 
 Gold has long been found in the alluvial soil bordering on the 
 Betarayan hills in Kolar District. The geognostic position of gold in 
 this and other localities appears to be in the i)rimary schists, viz., gneiss, 
 mica slate, clay slate, and hornblende schist, particularly near the line 
 of their contact with granite or basaltic dykes, where we generally find 
 the tendency to siliceous and metallic development unusually great. 
 The gold is almost invariably discovered either in thin veins or dissem- 
 inated in grains in the veins and beds of quartz, associated with iron 
 ore and sometimes platinum, and alloyed with small proportions of 
 silver and copper, or in the tracts of alluvial soil, beds of clay and 
 sands, with the washings of primary rocks. Mining operations were 
 carried on here by the natives from a remote period and abandoned. 
 But since 1875 gold mining has been revived on a large scale by 
 European enterprise, and what was virtually a desert waste has thus 
 been converted into a populous and thriving industrial centre. The 
 details of these operations will be found farther on under Industrial 
 Arts. 
 
 Plutonic Rocks.— Cm^/Vt' prevails throughout the great hypogene 
 tracts, sometimes rising abruptly from the surface of immense level 
 plains in precipitous peaked and dome-shaped masses ; sometimes in 
 low steppes ; sometimes in great heaps of amorphous masses ; at others 
 with sharp outlines, obscured and softened down by a mantle of the 
 hypogene schists which have accompanied its elevation. This latter 
 occurs most frecjuently in continuous mountain chains, such as the Ghats ; 
 but to view this rock in all the boldness of its true physical contour, we 
 must approach the detached ranges, clusters, and insulated masses that 
 break the monotony of the table-lands. Here we find but little 
 regularity in the direction of elevation. In many clusters the granite 
 appears to have burst through the crystalline schists in lines irregularly 
 radiating from a centre, or in rings resembling the denticulated periphery 
 of a crater. 
 
 The most remarkable of the insulated clusters and masses of granite 
 on the table-land of Mysore are those of Sivaganga, Savandroog, 
 
 ' But Mr. Bruce Foolc, of tlic Geological Survey, reported in 1SS7 as follows ; 
 
 " I searched the hill most carefully and could not find the slightest trace of any ore of 
 silver."
 
 1 8 GEOLOGY 
 
 Hutridroog, Nandidroog, Chandragutti, and Chitaldroog. The rock 
 of Nandidroog is almost one solid monolithic mass of granite, rising 
 1, 800 feet above the plain and upwards of 4,800 feet above the sea ; 
 that of Sivaganga is nearly as high. These masses have usually one or 
 more of their sides precipitous, or at such an angle as to be inaccessible 
 except at few points. Most of them, like that of Savandroog, are so 
 steep as to admit of Httle vegetation, and present surfaces of many 
 thousand square feet of perfectly naked rock, in which the veins and 
 mineralogical structure are beautifully laid bare to the eye of the 
 geologist. 
 
 It is not to be understood that granite is to be met with only in this 
 abrupt amorphous form. On the contrary, it is sometimes found in 
 immense undulating layers like lava, rising little above the general 
 level of the country, separated by fissures and joints, and running for 
 a considerable distance in a given direction like a regular chain of hills. 
 The horizontal fissures often impart a pseudo-stratified appearance, and 
 when crossed by others nearly vertical, give the whole the semblance 
 of some huge wall of cyclopean masonry. The cuboidal masses com- 
 posing these walls weather by a process of concentric exfoliation into 
 spheroids. This process occurs often on a grand scale, and the ex- 
 foliated portions compose segments of circles of many yards radii. 
 This decay of lofty granitic masses produces some of the most 
 picturesque features of an Indian landscape; its strange columnar piles, 
 trees, and logging stones, which far excel those of Dartmoor in grandeur 
 and in the fantastic forms they assume. Some of these piles are held 
 together in the most extraordinary positions, and the blocks composing 
 them are found connected by a felspathic siliceous and ferruginous 
 paste, the result of the decay of the upper masses, washed down and 
 deposited around the joints by the action of the rain. There they 
 stand ; some tottering on their base, leaning over and threatening every 
 instant to topple down upon the unwary traveller ; others erect, amid a 
 ruin of debris at their feet, — silent monuments of the process of the 
 surrounding decay. Sometimes the summits of the higher elevations 
 are composed of immense monolith peaked masses of granite, which 
 split vertically ; the separated portions are often known to descend 
 from their lofty position with the rapidity and thunder of an avalanche. 
 As the rocks waste from the summit, at their base will be usually 
 observed a tendency to a re-arrangement of the component particles 
 of the rock going on in the debris there accumulated. At Chitaldroog 
 may be seen, at the base of a granite clifi' which tops one of the hills, 
 a porphyritic-looking mass thus formed of a reddish clayey paste, 
 imbedding reddish crystals of felspar.
 
 PLUTONIC ROCKS. 19 
 
 Almost every variety of this rock is found, but the prevaiUng granite 
 is composed of felspar, quartz, mica and hornblende. Quartz, felspar 
 and hornblende, the syenite of some mineralogists, is also common, and 
 runs into the ordinary granite. That beautiful variety called protogine, 
 in which talc, or chlorite, or steatite replaces the mica, is not very 
 common in India, but is met with in a few localities in the west of 
 Mysore. In all these cases chlorite and talc are the replacing minerals, 
 the former predominating. Pegmotite, granite composed of quartz and 
 felspar, is frequently met with ; but the variety called graphic granite is 
 rare. Schist granite never occurs as a mountain mass, but is found in 
 veins or patches imbedded in ordinary granite. The same may be said 
 of actinolitic granite, or granite in which actinolite replaces mica. The 
 latter usually is most frequent in hornblendic granite, and the actinolite 
 passes by insensible gradations into hornblende. The felspar of actino- 
 litic granite is usually flesh or salmon-coloured. Porphyritic granite, or 
 granite having large crystals of felspar imbedded in ordinary or small- 
 grained granite, is common. The rock of Savandroog affords a good 
 example of the prevailing variety. It is composed of a granite base of 
 felspar, quartz, mica and hornblende, imbedding long pale rose-coloured 
 crystals of felspar. Fine granite porphyries are less frequently met with : 
 a beautiful specimen occurs in a large vein or dyke which traverses the 
 gneiss in the bed of the Kaveri at Seringapatam, nearly opposite the 
 sallyport close to which Tipu was killed. It is composed of a basis of 
 compact reddish and salmon-coloured felspar and a little quartz, 
 imbedding lighter-coloured crystals of the same, with needle-shaped 
 crystals of green tourmaline. 
 
 The great prevalent mineralogical feature in the granite of Southern 
 India is its highly ferriferous nature. The mica and hornblende 
 is frequently replaced by magnetic iron ore in grains, veins, and 
 beds ; and sometimes by fine octohedral crystals of the same, with 
 polarity. 
 
 Most of the minerals and ores described as occurring in gneiss are 
 also found in granite. 
 
 The ordinary granite is traversed by veins of granites both finer and 
 larger grained : the former pass into eurite, a rock in which all the com- 
 ponent minerals of granite are mingled together in one almost homo- 
 geneous paste. The minerals composing the larger grained veins are 
 often in a state of segregation and crystallization. The mica, instead of 
 being scattered in minute scales throughout the substance of the rock 
 is sometimes collected in large plates nearly a foot in length (used by 
 natives for painting on) ; the quartz in large amorphous nodules, or 
 hexahedral pyramidal prisms of equal length ; and the felspar by itself 
 
 c 2
 
 2 GEOLOGY 
 
 in reddish layers and beds. The veins and beds of felspar are usually 
 reddish, and penetrated by fissures, which give a prismatic structure : 
 these fissures are often lined with compact felspar, coloured by actino- 
 lite, or chlorite, or with drusy crystals of the former mineral, which is 
 also found in nests. Milky quartz is segregated into large beds forming 
 chains of hills, usually containing nests and seams of iron ore, rock 
 crystal, and crystals of amethystine quartz. Both oval and lenticular 
 nests of hornblende and mica occur in granite. 
 
 Granite is seen in veins penetrating the hypogene schists. Good 
 examples occur near Seringapatam. In many situations granite appears 
 to have broken through the earth's crust in a solid form ; as is evident 
 from the sometimes unaltered and shattered condition of the strata 
 immediately in contact. 
 
 Eiirite is found throughout the granite and hypogene tracts, but 
 more frequently among the latter rocks, with which it often has all the 
 appearance of being interstratified ; in the granite it occurs in dykes. 
 The eurite of Seringapatam may be regarded as a type of the petrosilex 
 eurites. It sometimes passes into eurite porphyry, imbedding distinct 
 crystals of laminar felspar. Diallage, euphotide or gabbro, occurs at 
 Banavar, about eight miles westerly from Bangalore, associated with 
 gneiss and mica schist. It there presents itself in low elevations, con- 
 sisting of angular rough masses of the diallage rock, half-buried in a 
 detritus the result of its own disintegration. The masses have not the 
 slightest appearance of stratification ; but are divided by fissures, like 
 granite, into cuboidal blocks. The rock is composed chiefly of diallage 
 and felspar ; the colours of the former varying from light and dark grey 
 to greyish green and bright green. The felspar is white and greyish 
 white ; sometimes in distinct crystals, but generally confusedly 
 aggregated. The general colour of the rock is light grey and 
 greenish grey. The diallage at Banavar has more the appearance of 
 a dyke or vein in the hypogene strata than of an interstratified bed ; 
 but no natural section of the junction line of the two rocks presents 
 itself 
 
 Serpentine. — Near Turuvekere a dark crystalline rock occurs, com- 
 posed of a dark grey or black talcose paste, imbedding numerous small 
 black crystals of a mineral containing a large proportion of iron, being 
 strongly attracted by the magnet. It bears a beautiful polish ; the 
 surface exhibiting, on close inspection, in the dark shining paste, still 
 darker spots occasioned by the magnetic crystals. It was quarried by 
 the sovereigns of Mysore for architectural purposes, and forms the 
 material of the beautiful pillars which support the mausoleum of Haidar 
 at Seringapatam. This rock has been mistaken for basaltic greenstone,.
 
 VOLCANIC ROCKS 21 
 
 but it may be a bed of massive ferriferous potstone — here common in 
 the talc schist — elevated, indurated, and altered by one of the basaltic 
 dykes that traverse the rocks in the vicinity. Geologically viewed it 
 has all the characters of a serpentine ; and mineralogically it resembles 
 the ferriferous serpentine or ophiolite of Brongniart, which consists 
 of a magnesian paste imbedding disseminated grains of oxidulated 
 iron. 
 
 Yolcanic Rocks. — Basaltic greenstone is universally distributed. It 
 prevails in hypogene areas, diminishes in those occupied by the diamond- 
 sandstone and limestone, and totally disappears in districts covered by 
 laterite and deposits of a more recent epoch. It is most developed in 
 the stretch of table-land between Bangalore and Bellary. It never 
 occurs in continuous overlying sheets like the newer trap, but pene- 
 trates in dykes the rocks just described, up to the age of the laterite. 
 These dykes often terminate on reaching the surface of the rock, or 
 before reaching it ; while others project from the surface in long black 
 ridges, which, originally like a wall, have since tumbled into both 
 globular and angular fragments by disintegration. Most of the blocks 
 usually remain piled up on the crests of the elevations, while others 
 have lodged on their sides or rolled down to their bases. Many of these 
 blocks have a peculiar metallic or phonolithic sound when struck ; the 
 well-known " ringing stones " west of Bellary afford a good example. 
 These black bare ridges of loose stones, standing out in relief against 
 the light-coloured granite or gneiss rocks, add another striking feature 
 to the landscape of the plutonic and hypogene tracts. They often 
 cross the country in a thick network, particularly between Nandidroog 
 and Bagepalli. 
 
 In many cases the protrusion of the basaltic greenstone above the 
 general surface of the imbedding rock appears to have been occasioned 
 by the weathering of the latter from its sides. The greenstone thus left 
 unsupported and exposed to atmospheric action soon breaks up by the 
 process of Assuring and concentric exfoliation. In a few instances it 
 appears to have been forced in a semi-solid state beyond the lips of the 
 rent in the rock without overlapping the rock, but none of these project- 
 ing dykes have remained in that solid continuous wall-like state in which 
 we see the prominent dykes of Somma or the Val del Bove. Their 
 height above the general level of the country rarely exceeds eighty feet. 
 The direction of the main dykes appears generally to coincide with that 
 of the elevation of the mountains ; but if we trace any dyke, the general 
 direction of which in a course of many miles may be north and south, 
 we shall find it to zig-zag and curve in various directions at different 
 parts of its course. Fragments of granite and gneiss, both angular and
 
 2 2 GEOLOGY 
 
 of a lenticular form, arc sometimes entangled and imbedded in the 
 basalt ; and have been mistaken for veins or nests of these rocks. It is 
 evident that, in many instances, the granite and hypogene rocks were 
 solidified prior to the great eruptions of basalt that burst up from below 
 into their seams and fissures, and that the molten fluid imbedded all 
 loose fragments of rock, &:c., lying in them. It is probable that many 
 of the fissures themselves were caused, or enlarged, as seen in modern 
 volcanoes, by the expansion of the molten basalt and its gases from 
 below, while struggling for a vent. 
 
 The lithologic structure of this rock is as protean as that of granite. 
 In the centre of large dykes we usually find it crystalline and por- 
 phyritic ; and nearer the edges, less crystalline and more compact ; in 
 fact, every gradation of amj)hibolitic and augitic rocks, from basalt to 
 melaphyre, in the distance of a very few paces. Near the sides, in the 
 compact varieties, may be seen needle-shaped crystals of augite, glanc- 
 ing in confused arrangement here and there in the close texture of the 
 basalt ; while a little nearer to the centre the augite almost disappears, 
 and is replaced by fine large crystals of hornblende, and sometimes a 
 few scattered scales of mica. Near the line of contact with gneiss, the 
 basalt often loses its dark colour, and becomes of a faint green, like 
 some varieties of eurite or serpentine, imbedding iron pyrites. This 
 faint green eurite is also seen as a thin vitreous and vesicular enduit on 
 its surface, like the scoriaceous lava found on the surface of the dykes 
 of Etna. The cavities sometimes contain a yellowish-brown powder, 
 which becomes magnetic before the blow-pipe ; or small crystals of 
 epidote : in one specimen was found prehnite. The surface of the com- 
 pact basalt in the dykes is often scored by small fissures, which, as in 
 the Vesuvian dykes, divide the rock into horizontal prisms and run at 
 right angles to the cooling surfaces. All the darker varieties of basaltic 
 greenstone melt into a black or dark-green coloured glass or enamel ; 
 and affect the magnetic needle. They are composed of felspar, horn- 
 blende and augite, in varying proportions, and occasionally hyper- 
 sthene. 
 
 The minerals most common to these are, iron pyrites, garnets, epidote, 
 and actinolite. These minerals distinguish them from the newer trap, 
 which abounds in zeolites, calcedonies and olivine. 
 
 The greenstone occasionally assumes the prismatic columnar forms of 
 the newer basalts, or rather approaches to this structure ; thin layers of 
 carbonate of lime often intervene between the joints, and between the 
 concentric layers of the globular greenstone. In many instances the 
 basalt has a fissile structure, which, when intersected by joints, form 
 prisms well adapted for building purposes. In some cases, under the
 
 AQUEOUS MOCKS 23 
 
 hammer it breaks into rhomboidal fragments, the joint planes of which 
 are marked superficially with dark brown or blue dendritic appearances 
 on a pale yellow or brown ground. 
 
 Rocks altered by Dykes. — Granite and gneiss in contact with a dyke 
 usually become compact, or tough, or friable ; the felspar crystals 
 lose their brightness and a portion of the water of crystallization, 
 become opaque and of porcelain hue; the mica is hardened and 
 loses its easily fissile lamellar character. In gneiss it may be seen 
 replaced by minute crystals of tourmaline,, epidote and garnet, as 
 near Chanraypatna. Limestone is converted into chert, or becomes 
 siliceous ; sandstone into quartz ; and clay slate into basanite and 
 jasper. 
 
 In districts most intersected by dykes a general tendency to crystal- 
 line and metallic development will be remarked, as well as an increase 
 in the deposition of saline and calcareous matter, apparent in extensive 
 layers of kunker, and efflorescences of the carbonate, muriate, and sul- 
 phate of soda. The fissures through which the springs charged with 
 these minerals rise, were originally caused, perhaps, by the same dis- 
 ruptive forces that opened vents through the earth's crust to the molten 
 basalt : and it is not improbable that these minerals and sulphates have 
 their origin in causes connected with these ancient subterranean 
 volcanic phenomena. Frequently no alteration is to be traced in the 
 rocks in contact with dykes ; a circumstance readily accounted for when 
 we reflect that the temperature of the injected rock is liable to great 
 variation. In certain localities, indeed, the basalt appears to have been 
 reciprocally acted upon by the rock it has traversed. 
 
 Aqueous Rocks. — Sandstone and Limestone. — Resting immediately 
 on the hypogene and plutonic rocks are found beds of limestone, sand- 
 stone, conglomerate, argillaceous, arenaceous, and siliceous schists. 
 Next to the hypogene schists, and the associated plutonic rocks, these 
 limestone and sandstone beds occupy perhaps the greater portion of 
 the area north of a line drawn through Sira to the west. They are 
 most frequently observed exposed in the vicinity of the great drainage 
 lines of the country and occur in irregularly-shaped patches, separated 
 usually by broad and apparently denuded zones of the subjacent 
 hypogene and plutonic rocks. 
 
 The tracts occupied by the limestone and sandstone beds present a 
 diversified aspect, sometimes flat and monotonous, and at others, near 
 lines of [)lutonic disturbance, bare, rugged and picturesque. The lime- 
 stone in some situations has evidently been denuded of the usually 
 superjacent sandstone, dislocated, and elevated several hundreds of 
 feet above the general level of the surrounding country in regular
 
 24 GEOLOGY 
 
 ranges, and often in highly-inclined strata. Caps of sandstone, though 
 in such cases often wanting, are sometimes seen still covering the 
 limestone peaks. The outline of these limestone ranges usually 
 presents long, fiattish-topped ridges, whose sides and summits are not 
 unfrequently covered with detached angular blocks of the rocks, with a 
 grey, weathered, and scabrous exterior, resembling that of the mountain 
 limestones of Europe. 
 
 The sandstone, where undisturbed by plutonic intrusion, occurs in 
 low, flat, wall-like ranges, rising at an almost similar level, rarely exceed- 
 ing, 500 feet from the surface of the surrounding country, supporting 
 tabte-lands of some extent and evidently once continuous. It is often 
 intersected by deep fissures, extending from the summit of the rocks 
 down to the base. When disturbed by plutonic force, the sandstone 
 exhibits a striking contrast in its outline to the tame horizontal aspect 
 it assumes at a distance from the axes of disturbance. It rises in bold 
 relief against the sky in lofty rugged cross or hogbacked and crested 
 hills, with precipitous mural ridges, which, rarely running at the same 
 level for any distance, are interrupted by portions of the same ridge, 
 thrown up at various angles with the horizon in steep and often 
 inaccessible cliffs. When it crests the hypogene rocks, the lower 
 part of the elevation is often composed of the latter to the height of 
 about 200 to 400 feet, the slope of which has usually an inclination 
 of from 15° to 20", while that of the cap of sandstone presents a 
 steep or precipitous declivity varying from 45° to 90°, giving a decided 
 character to the aspect and configuration of the mountains and ranges 
 thus formed. 
 
 The hills of arenaceous schists are to be recognized from the more 
 massive sandstones by their undulating, round-backed summits, and 
 their buttressed and dimpled flanks ; while those of the softer slates 
 and shales affect the mammiform outline. 
 
 Both limestone and sandstone beds, there is little doubt, were 
 formerly of greater extent than now, and owe much of their present 
 discontinuity and scattered positions to the agency of plutonic 
 disturbance and subsequent denudation. The tracts of country 
 intervening between their areas are usually occupied by granitic and 
 hypogene rocks. 
 
 Laterite occupies a large portion of the superficies of Southern 
 India. It is found capping the loftiest summits of the Eastern and 
 Western Ghats and of some of the isolated peaks on the intervening 
 table-lands. Beds of small extent occur near Bangalore and Banavasi. 
 That at Bangalore extends northerly towards the vicinity of Nandi- 
 droog. Hills of laterite are usually distinguished by their long, low,
 
 LATERITE 25 
 
 flat-topped character, assimilating those of the trap and horizontal 
 sandstone formations. The lands they support are, however, not so 
 much furrowed as those of the sandstone by water channels, a circum- 
 stance ascribable to the drainage passing rapidly off through the pores 
 of the rock. When capping detached rocks, the laterite usually imparts 
 to the whole mass a dome-shaped or mammiform outline, or that of a 
 truncated cone. 
 
 On the surface of table-lands it is spread out in sheets, varying from 
 a few inches to about 250 feet in thickness, terminating on one or two 
 sides in mural escarpments. Immense detached blocks, generally of a 
 cuboidal shape, are often seen occurring on the flanks of the Western 
 Ghats, and on the southern slopes of the Sondur hills, often separated 
 and dislodged. The valleys intervening between ranges of laterite 
 hills are generally winding, like those formed by the course of a 
 stream, and flat-bottomed, particularly in districts where it overlies the 
 newer trap. 
 
 The laterite varies mucli in structure and composition ; l)ut generally 
 speaking it presents a reddish-brown or brick-coloured tubular and 
 -cellular clay, more or less indurated ; passing on the one hand into a 
 hard compact jaspideous rock, and on the other into loosely aggregated 
 grits or sandstones, and into red sectile clays, red and yellow ochre, 
 and white porcelain earth, plum-blue, red, purplish and variegated 
 lithomarges. Sometimes it presents the character of a conglomerate, 
 containing fragments of quartz, the plutonic, hypogene and sandstone 
 rocks and nodules of iron ore derived from them, all imbedded in a 
 ferruginous clay. The cavities are both vesicular, tubular and sinuous ; 
 sometimes empty, but in the lower portions of the rock usually filled, 
 or partly filled, with the earths and clays above mentioned, or a 
 siliceous and argillaceous dust, often stained by oxide of iron. A 
 species of black bole, carbonized wood and carbonate of lime some- 
 times occur, but rarely, in these cavities. Minute drusy crystals of 
 quartz not uncommonly line the interior. The walls separating the 
 cavities are composed of an argillo-siliceous paste, often strongly 
 impregnated with iron and frequently imbedding gritty particles of 
 quartz. The oxide of iron prevails sometimes to such an extent as to 
 approximate a true ore of iron, and the nodules are often separated 
 and smelted by the natives in preference to using the magnetic iron 
 ore, which is more difficult to reduce, from its greater purity, ^^'hen 
 the whole mass is charged with iron and very vesicular (not unfre- 
 quently the case) it might easily be mistaken for iron slag. The 
 colour of the parietcs separating the tubes and cells, which in the less 
 ferruginous varieties is a light brick-red or purple, changes into a liver-
 
 26 GEOLOG V 
 
 brown, having externally a vitrified or glazed aspect ; while the surface 
 of the interior cavities puts on iridescent hues. The walls of these 
 cells are sometimes distinctly laminated. 
 
 The air-exposed surfaces of laterite are usually hard and have a 
 glazed aspect, and the cavities are more empty than those in the lower 
 portion. A few inches or more below the surface the rock becomes 
 softer, and eventually as it descends so sectile as to be easily cut by 
 the native spades, but hardens after exposure to the atmosphere. 
 Hence it is u.sed largely as a building stone in the districts where it 
 prevails, and to repair roads. P>om its little liability to splinter and 
 weather (time appears to harden it), it is a good material in fortifica- 
 tions. The accumulation of the clays and lithomargic earths in the 
 lower portions of the rock, which absorb some of the moisture per- 
 colating from above, renders the mass soft and sectile. These earths 
 doubtless existed once in the upper cavities of the rock, from which 
 they have been gradually removed to. the lower strata by the downward 
 action of the water of the monsoon rains. They accumulate at various 
 depths from the surface and form impervious beds, on the depressions 
 of which the water collects, forming the reservoirs of the springs we 
 often see oozing from the bases and sides of lateritic hills and cliffs. 
 Some of the tubes and cavities are cu/s de sac, and do not part with 
 their contents ; but the generality have communication with those 
 below them, either directly or indirectly. 
 
 Associated Minerals. — Nodular, reniform and pisiform clay iron ore 
 occur pretty generally distributed. Large beds and nests of litho- 
 margic earths, and white porcelain earths, are not uncommon. 
 
 Older AlluYium. — The designation of alluvium is here used in its 
 extended sense to indicate certain beds of gravel and sand that are 
 occasionally found covered by the regur deposit, and which occur in 
 such situations as not to be accountable for by the agency of existing 
 transporting powers ; simply prefixing the term " older " to distinguish 
 it from the alluvium now .forming from the disintegration of rocks 
 washed down by the rains and springs, and transported by rivers and 
 local inundations. 
 
 In the valleys of the Bhima, Krishna, Tungabhadra, and other 
 large rivers are occasionally seen beds of alluvial gravel elevated beyond 
 the highest existing inundation lines. Some of these deposits may be 
 ascribable to shifts from time to time in the course of the river's bed ; a 
 few to the action of rain in bringing down alluvium from the mountain 
 sides ; but the majority appear to have been accumulated under con- 
 ditions not now in existence ; probably, during the slow upheaval of 
 the AVestern Ghats and plateau of the Dekhan, when the water
 
 OLDER ALLUVIUM 27 
 
 occupied a much greater extent than at present. In many places the 
 rivers have cut their way through these deposits ; in others, channels 
 exist of rivers, where now no water flows, or but a diminutive stream- 
 let. Thus the Moyar valley, which runs along the table-land of Mysore 
 by the base of the Nilgiris, differs entirely from a common mountain 
 glen. Though a mile or more in breadth at some points, yet it is rather 
 a ravine or fosse cut in the plain and not hemmed in by mountains. It 
 opens out into the lower plain of the Carnatic at the Gajalhatti pass : 
 the sides are precipitous, and its bed very much like the deserted 
 channel of a river. The only stream now flowing in it is the Moyar, 
 which, even in the monsoon, does not fill one hundredth part of its 
 breadth and height : yet this singular excavation, extending some 
 thirty miles in length, is unquestionably a waterworn channel. It is 
 no fissure ; for its bed is quite solid and connected and composed of 
 strata of the hypogene rocks. 
 
 Hegnr or Black Cotton Clay. — This singular deposit, which in sheets 
 of considerable thickness covers at least one-third of Southern India, is 
 less common in Mysore. The plains occupied by the cotton soil are in 
 general marked by their horizontal sea-like surface and almost treeless 
 aspect. It covers the kunker and gravel beds just described, and is 
 generally seen as a surface soil ; but if we examine the edges of great 
 sheets they will generally be found to dip for some distance under the 
 recent alluvium, which conceals and replaces them as a surface soil. 
 It not only covers extensive plains, but the tubular summits of hills 
 overlooking those of the sandstone and limestone, newer trap and 
 laterite formations, far above the present drainage level of the country : 
 it covers all rocks from the granite to the laterite and kunker, and often 
 fills up depressions and chinks in their surface. 
 
 The purest regur is usually of a deep bluish-black colour, or greenish 
 or dark greyish black. The quantity of iron it contains is not sufficient 
 to account for the black colour of this soil, which may be partly attri- 
 buted to the extractive or vegetable matter it contains. The regur is 
 remarkably retentive of moisture ; a property to which is ascribable 
 much of its fertility. During the dry season, when the crops are off the 
 ground, the surface of regur, instead of presenting a sea of waving 
 verdure, exhibits the black drear aspect that the valley of the Nile 
 puts on under similar circumstances, and whicli powerfully reminds 
 one of the regur tracts of India. Contracting by the powerful heat 
 of the sun, it is divided, like the surface of dried starch, by countless 
 and deep fissures, into figures usually affecting the pentagon, hexagon 
 and rhomboid. While the surface for a few inches in depth is dried to 
 an impalpable powder raised in clouds by the wind and darkening the
 
 28 GEOLOG y 
 
 air, the lower portions of the deposit, at the depth of eight or ten feet, 
 still retain their character of a hard black clay, approaching a rock, 
 usually moist' and cold ; when the surface dust has a temperature of 
 130°. In wet weather the surface is converted into a deep tenacious 
 mud. 
 
 The purest beds of regur contain few rolled pebljles of any kind ; 
 the nodules of kunker we see imbedded have probably been formed by 
 concretion from the infiltration of water charged with lime ; and it is 
 only near the surface that the regur becomes intermingled with the 
 recent alluvium of the surrounding country, or in its lower portions, 
 where it becomes intermingled with the debris of whatever rock it 
 happens to rest on, — trap and calcedonies in trappean districts ; 
 granite, sandstone, pisiform iron ore and limestone, in the plutonic 
 and diamond sandstone areas. It sometimes exhibits marks of 
 stratification. 
 
 That the regur of India is an aqueous deposit from waters that 
 covered its surface to a vast extent, there is little doubt : but it would 
 be difficult to point out at the present day the sources whence it 
 derived the vegetable matter to which in great measure it owes its 
 carbonaceous colour, and the rocks from the ruins of which its remain- 
 ing components were washed. 
 
 Kunker. — The calcareous deposit termed kunker^ is irregularly dis- 
 tributed in overlying patches. No tract is entirely free from it, with 
 the exception, it is said, of the summits of the Nilgiris. It occurs, 
 however, at the height of 4,000 feet above the sea among the ranges on 
 the elevated table-lands. It is most abundant in districts penetrated 
 and shattered by basaltic dykes, and where metallic development is 
 greatest. It is perhaps least seen in localities where laterite caps hypo- 
 gene or plutonic rocks. It occurs filling, or partially filling, fissures and 
 chinks in the subjacent rocks, in nodular masses and friable concretions 
 in the clays and gravels above the rocks, and in irregular overlying beds, 
 varying from a few inches to forty feet in thickness. It has been found 
 at the depth of 102 feet below the surface of the surrounding country, 
 prevails alike in granite, the hypogene schists, the diamond sandstone 
 and limestone, and in the laterite : hence the springs which deposit it 
 must bring up their supply of calcareous matter from sources deeper 
 beneath the earth's crust than the limestone. 
 
 The older kunker is usually of a light brownish, dirty cream, reddish 
 or cineritious grey tint ; sometimes compact and massive in structure, 
 
 * A Hindustani word .CJo but of Sanskrit extraction, signifying a nodule of lime- 
 stone or pebble of any other rock.
 
 MODERN ALLUVIA 29 
 
 but more usually either of a nodular, tufaceous, pisiform, botryoidal, or 
 cauliflower-like form. Its interior is sometimes cancellar, or slightly 
 vesicular ; but compact or concentric in the pisiform and nodular 
 varieties. Its interior structure is rarely radiated. When compact it 
 resembles the older travertines of Rome and Auvergne. It aggregates 
 in horizontal overlying masses, usually intermingled with the soil 
 without much appearance of stratification. It is broken up and 
 used as a rough building stone in the bunds of tanks, walls of 
 inclosures, &C., by the natives, and is universally employed to burn into 
 lime. 
 
 In the banks of rivers it is often seen concreting in stalactiform 
 masses round the stems and roots of grasses, which, decaying, leave 
 casts ot carbonate of lime. This lime, held in solution and suspension 
 by existing streams, mingling with the fine particles of sand and ferru- 
 ginous matter in suspension, sets under water like pozzolana ; and unit- 
 ing the shells, gravel, sand, and pebbles in the bed and on the banks, 
 forms a hard and compact conglomerate. 
 
 Its origin may be referred to the action of springs, often thermal, 
 charged with carbonic acid, bringing up lime in solution and depositing 
 it as the temperature of the water gradually lowered in rising up to the 
 earth's surface or in parting with their carbonic acid. 
 
 Modern Alluvia. — Where regur does not prevail, the ordinary soils 
 are distinguished by a reddish tinge, owing to the great prevalence of 
 oxide of iron in the rocks of which they are, in great measure, the 
 detritus. Patches of white soil occur, and are usually the consequence 
 of the weathering of beds of quartz, or composed of kunker, which 
 abounds so generally, and enters into the composition of almost every 
 variety of soil. These white soils are characterized by sterility. In 
 tracts of country shaded by eternal forests, for instance the Ghats, and 
 sub-ghat belts, a dark vegetable mould prevails, — the result of the suc- 
 cessive decay and reproduction of vegetation for a series of ages, under 
 the stimulating alternations of excessive heat and moisture. In such 
 regions, where unsheltered by forest and in exposed situations, the 
 soil is either lateritic or stony according to the nature of the subjacent 
 rock. 
 
 At the bases of mountain ridges we usually find an accumulation of 
 large angular blocks, composed of the same rocks as the hills down 
 whose declivities they have rolled in weathering. At a greater distance 
 from the base in the plain, these are succeeded by pebbles, whose 
 reduced size, mineral composition, and worn angles proclaim them to 
 have travelled from the same source, diminishing in bulk the further we 
 recede from the mountains, until they pass, by the gradations of grit
 
 30 GEOLOGY 
 
 and sand, into deposits of a rich clay or loam. Such are the gradations 
 generally to be traced in the modern rock alluvia, and which strikingly 
 distinguish them from the vegetable soil of the forest tracts and the 
 regur, which are often seen in the state of the greatest richness and 
 fineness of composition at the very bases of the hills and resting 
 immediately on the solid rock. 
 
 The alluvia brought down by the streams from the Western Ghats 
 flowing easterly to the Kay of Bengal, are usually composed of silt, 
 sand and gravel — detritus of the rocks over which they have passed : 
 they almost always contain a considerable portion of lime derived from 
 the springs which supply them, and from the limestone and kunker 
 beds over which most of them flow. The alluvia of the rivers of 
 the western coast are of a more carbonaceous and less calcareous 
 character, owing to the greater absence of lime in the formation, and 
 the dense forests and luxuriant vegetation which almost choke their 
 passage. 
 
 During the hot season, when the surface of the alluvial sand in the 
 beds of the rivers and rivulets is perfectly dry, a stream of clear water 
 is frequently found at various depths below them, stealing along or 
 lodging in the depressions of some impervious layer of clay or rock, to 
 which it has sunk through the superincumbent sand. So well is this 
 fact understood by natives, that in arid, sandy tracts, where not a drop 
 of water is to be seen, they will often be enabled to water whole troops 
 of horse and cattle by sinking wells a few feet deep through the sands 
 of apparently dried-up rivulets. 
 
 The benefit resulting from the admixture of lime into soils consisting 
 almost solely of vegetable, siliceous, or argillaceous matter, is too well 
 known to be dwelt on here ; and it is a remarkable and bountiful pro- 
 vision of nature in a country like Southern India, where limestone is so 
 rarely seen in the rocks from which a great part of its soil is derived, 
 that innumerable calcareous springs should be constantly rising through 
 the bowels of the earth to impregnate its surface Avith this fertilizing 
 ingredient. 
 
 The alluvia of Southern India are remarkable for their saline nature. 
 The salts by which they are impregnated are chiefly the carbonate and 
 muriate of soda, which prevail so much (particularly in mining districts) 
 as to cause almost perfect sterility. The carbonate appears on the sur- 
 face covering extensive patches, in frost-like efflorescences, or in moist 
 dark-coloured stains, arising from its deliquescence in damp weather or 
 by the morning dews. Where such saline soils are most prevalent there 
 will be usually a substratum of kunker, or nodules of this substance, 
 mixed with the soil ; and there can be little doubt that their origin may
 
 MODERN ALLUVIA 31 
 
 be referred to the numerous springs rising through the fissures or laminae 
 of the subjacent rocks, some charged, as already noticed, with carbonate 
 of lime, and others with muriate of soda and sulphate of lime. The 
 carbonate of soda, like the natron of Egypt, is the result of a mutual 
 decomposition of the muriate of soda and carbonate of lime. It may 
 be as well to remark that muriate of lime is invariably found in the 
 saline soils of India, which are known to the natives by the term chaulu. 
 The soda soil is used by the dhobis, or washermen, to wash clothes with, 
 and hence is called washermen's earth ; it is also employed by the 
 natives in the manufacture of glass. 
 
 Both the carbonate and muriate of soda are found mingled in varying 
 proportions, in white efflorescences, in the beds and on the banks of 
 springs and rivulets. 
 
 Nitrous Soils. — Soils impregnated with nitre are found on and around 
 the sites of old towns, villages, &c. Here a vast quantity of animal 
 matter must gradually have been blended with the calcareous and vege- 
 table soil : from their decomposition the elements of new combinations, 
 by the agency of new affinities, are generated : — nitrogen from the 
 animal, and oxygen, &c., from the vegetable matter. The nitric acid 
 thus produced combines with the vegetable alkali, forming the nitrate of 
 potass, while its excess, if any, combines with the lime, forming a deli- 
 quescent salt, — the nitrate of lime. The affinity lime has to nitrogen 
 and o.xygen materially assists the formation of the acid by their com- 
 bination. The natives of India, in their rude manufactories of salt- 
 petre, act upon these principles without being aware of their rationale. 
 Having collected the earth from old ruins, or from places where animals 
 have been long in the habit of standing, they throw it into a heap 
 mingled with wood ashes, old mortar, chunam, and other village refuse ; 
 and allow it to remain exposed to the sun's rays and to the night dews 
 for one or two years, when it is lixiviated. The salt obtained is not very 
 pure, containing either the muriate and sulphate of soda or potash, or 
 nitrate and muriate of lime. 
 
 Nitrous soils are easily recognized by the dark moist-looking patches 
 which spread themselves irregularly on the surface of the ground, and 
 by capillary attraction ascend walls of considerable height. They are 
 more observable in the morning before the sun has had power to dissi- 
 pate the dews. 
 
 Auriferous Alluvia. — The alluvium brought down by the rivers 
 flowing easterly towards the Bay of Bengal is usually silt, sand, or 
 calcareous matter, — detritus, as before observed, of the rocks over which 
 they pass ; while that of the rivers flowing westerly is of a more carbon- 
 aceous character. Most of these alluvia are auriferous, particularly those
 
 32 GEOLOGY 
 
 of the Malabar and Canara coasts, but grains of gold are also found in 
 considerable abundance in the alluvial soils of Mysore. 
 
 Betmangala lies on the eastern flank of the principal gold tract, 
 which, according to Lieutenant Warren, who examined this district in 
 1802, extends in a north-by-east direction from the vicinity of Budikote 
 to near Ramasamudra. The gold is distributed in the form of small 
 fragments and dust throughout the alluvium covering this tract. 
 
 At Markuppam, a village about 12 miles south-west from Betman- 
 gala, were some old gold mines, worked by Tipu without success. The 
 two excavations at this place demonstrated the great thickness, in some 
 parts, of these auriferous alluvia. They were 30 to 45 feet deep 
 respectively. There can be little doubt that the auriferous black and 
 white stones in these mines were fragments from the gneiss, granite and 
 hornblende schist which base this auriferous tract, and constitute the 
 singular ridge which runs through it in a north and south direction, 
 and which may be regarded as having furnished most of the material.^ 
 of the reddish alluvium on its east and west flanks, and therefore as the 
 true matrix of the gold. The orange-coloured stones were caused by the 
 oxidation of the iron in the mica. 
 
 This auriferous range on the table-land of Mysore may be traced to 
 the Eastern Ghats, southerly, by the hill fort of Tavuneri, to the south 
 of Kaveripatnam matha in the Amboor valle}'. Two passes, however, 
 break its continuity near Tavuneri. To the north it appears to 
 terminate at Dasarhosahalli ; though the line of elevation, taking a 
 gentle easterly curve, may be traced by the outliers of the Betarayan 
 hills, Amani konda or Avani, Mulbagal, Kurudu male, Rajigundi to 
 Ramasamudra in the Cuddapah collectorate, a little west of Punganur. 
 
 Dimes. — Sand dunes are not confined to the coasts, but are seen on 
 the banks of the larger rivers in the interior, as at Talkad on the 
 Kave'ri. During the dry season, the beds of these rivers, deriving but 
 a scanty supply of water from perennial springs, usually present large 
 arid wastes of sand. These are acted upon by the prevailing westerly 
 winds, which blow strongest during the months of June, July, and 
 August, and raise the sand into drifts, which usually advance upon the 
 cultivation in an easterly direction. The advance of these moving 
 hills is usually very regular where no obstruction presents itself, such as 
 high bushes, trees, hedges, <S:c., which are often planted by the natives 
 purposely to arrest the progress of these invaders on their cultivated 
 lands. The sand is often held together and retarded by the embraces 
 of the long fibrous plants that grow up and are interwoven with its 
 layers. {See account of Talkad, Vol. II.)
 
 33 
 
 TRAVERSE NOTES. 
 From the Bisale Ghat to Betmangala, by Captain Ncivbcld, F.R.S. 
 
 At the western foot of the pass, and along the base of the Subrahmanya 
 hill, hornblende rock containing garnets and dark-coloured mica occurs, 
 with veins of a very large-grained granite composed of white quartz, red and 
 white felspar, and silvery mica in very large plates : gneiss is seen on the 
 sleep face of the ghat, and hornblende rock, often coated with the red clay 
 and its own detritus. This formation continues to the summit of the ghat. 
 At Uchchangi the formation is generally gneiss. One of the hills of this 
 rock is crested by hornblende rock in large prismatic masses. Patches of 
 laterite occur covering these rocks in various localities, and a few bosses 
 of granite. 
 
 Near Kenchamman Hoskote I crossed the Hemavati, one of the principal 
 tributaries to the Kiiveri, in a canoe. It is about fifty paces broad, with 
 steep banks of clay, silt, and sand with mica. Near the village, mammillary 
 masses of gneiss project from the rod alluvial soil. This rock has here lost 
 much of its quartz, and is of that variety of thick-bedded gneis.s which in a 
 hand specimen might pass for granite ; the felspar is often of a reddish 
 tint. Laterite is found in this vicinity a little below the surface in a soft 
 sectile state. At Hassan gneiss and hornblende schist are still the preva- 
 lent rocks. Talc slate with layers of a fine greenish potstone interstratified 
 also occurs. The mica in the gneiss near Grama is sometimes replaced by 
 talc and passes into protogine. 
 
 After exploring the corundum pits of Gollarhalli, I passed through Chan- 
 rdypatna and Bellur to Hutridurga. Granite, protogine, gneiss, talcose and 
 hornblende schists, penetrated occasionally by trap dykes, constitute the 
 formation, overlaid here and there by patches of laterite or kunkcr on which 
 rests the surface soil. The latter is usually reddish and sandy. Some- 
 times these deposits are wanting, when the substratum consists of the 
 gravelly detritus of the subjacent rocks. At Belladaira a large bed of 
 ferruginous quartz occurs. The mass of granite on which stands the fortress 
 of Hutridurga is somewhat saddle-shaped, and runs nearly north and south ; 
 it terminates abruptly at either extremity. The northern extremity, crowned 
 by the citadel, is a sheer scarp of rock nearly 200 feet high ; its base is 
 rugged with large precipitated masses. The granite is similar to but less 
 porphyritic than that of Sdvandurga. 
 
 From Hutridurga I proceeded to Magadi, and thence ascended the 
 stupendous mass of Savandurga. The country for a considerable distance 
 is wild and woody, abounding with low hills and rocks, among which a 
 porphyritic granite prevails. A magnetic iron sand is found in the beds of 
 almost all the rivulets. I ascended the rock from the north-east side. The 
 major axis of the mass runs nearly east and west, and is crossed at right 
 
 D *
 
 34 GEO LOG V 
 
 angles by a profound lissurc, wliicli cleaves the rock from summit to Ijase 
 into two distinct portions, both fortified, so as to be independent of the lower 
 fort It is entirely composed of a granite, which from small-grained maybe 
 seen passing into the large-grained and porphyritic varieties. Some of the 
 crystals of reddish felspar on the Karidurga were nearly two inches long, 
 imbedded in small-grained reddish granite. 
 
 The principal rock at Tdvarekere is gneiss, with fragments of iron-shot 
 quartz, green actinolitic quartz, felspar, fragments of hornblende schist, 
 gneiss, granite and basaltic greenstone scattered over the face of the 
 country, and occasionally patches of kunker. Near Bandvar I found 
 diallage rock, projecting in large, angular, scabrous blocks from the top and 
 sides of a low elevation. The great mass of the rock was chiefly white 
 felspar and quartz. The crystals of diallage were well defined, and passed 
 from dull olive-grey shades to the lively decided green of smaragdite. There 
 was more quartz in this diallage rock than is seen usually in the euphotides 
 of Europe ; and the external aspect of the blocks was almost trachytic in 
 its roughness. Not far hence, the gneiss with which the diallage is asso- 
 ciated, apparently as a large vein, loses its mica, which is replaced by minute 
 silver scales of graphite. 
 
 Gneiss is the prevalent rock about Bangalore, penetrated by dykes of 
 basaltic greenstone, and occasionally by granite, as is seen near the petta 
 and adjacent fields. The granite in these localities splits into the usual 
 cuboidal blocks or exfoliates into globular masses. It often contains horn- 
 blende in addition to mica. The gneiss strata, though waving and contorted, 
 have a general north and south direction, and often contain beds of whitish 
 quartz preserving a similar direction. The strata are nearly vertical. 
 Approaching Bangalore from the north-west, a bed of laterite is crossed, 
 forming a hill (Oyali dinne) on which stands a small pagoda. This bed 
 extends northerly in the direction of Nandidroog, where laterite also occurs. 
 In other situations, covering the gneiss and granite, a reddish loam is usually 
 found, varying from a few inches to twenty feet in depth, containing beds of 
 red clay, used in making tiles, bricks, tS:c. ; the result evidently of the 
 weathering of the granite, gneiss, and hornblende rocks. A similar formation 
 continues to Kolar. The gneiss is occasionally interstratified with beds of 
 hornblende schist. Granite, gneiss, and hornblende are the prevailing rocks 
 at Betmangala. About eight or nine miles east of this the Mysore frontier is 
 crossed into South Arcot. Kunker occurs on the banks of the rivulet near 
 the village, both on the surface and in a bed below the alluvial soil. 
 Efflorescences of muriate of soda are also seen in the vicinity. 
 
 From Sermo;apatam to Coorg, by the same. 
 
 From Seringapatam my route lay westward over a stony, kunkerous, 
 uneven, and rather sterile tract to the banks of the Lakshmantirtha. The 
 formation at Hunsur is a micaceous gneiss with veins of quartz, and beds of 
 the same mineral evidently interstratified with the layers of gneiss. These 
 beds, on weathering, leave the surface-soil covered with their angular and
 
 TRAVERSE NOTES 35 
 
 rust-stained fragments. Glimmering hornblende rock, veined with milky 
 quartz, and a pale tlesh-coloured felspar alternate with the gneiss. The 
 outgoings of two or three dykes of basaltic greenstone are passed on the 
 roadside. The surface of the country from Seringapatam gradually rises as 
 it approaches the Ghats. 
 
 The country between Hunsur and the Ghats is a succession of rocky 
 risings and falls of the surface, covered for the most part with reddish alluvial 
 soil, over the face of which are scattered numberless angular fragments of 
 the surrounding rocks ; especially white and iron-stained quartz, and occa- 
 sionally kunker. Some of these alluvia have not travelled far, since we often 
 find the colour of the surface-soil a true index to the nature of the rock 
 beneath ; viz., dark red or coffee-coloured soil over hornblende rock and 
 trap ; light red to sandy soil over gneiss and granite ; light greenish-grey 
 over talc schist ; and white, or what is nearly white, over felspar and quartz 
 rocks. The quartz beds, being usually harder than their neighbours, are 
 written in white bas-relief characters over the face of the country. They 
 never weather — like the felspars, hornblendes and micaceous rocks — into 
 clay, but usually break up into fragments by imperceptible fissures, into 
 which water, impregnated with iron from the surrounding weathered rocks, 
 soon insinuates itself and stains the rock. At length the particles composing 
 the fragments themselves lose their cohesion and break up into an angular 
 gritty sand. 
 
 At Periyapatna basaltic greenstone is seen in the bed of a nullah crossing 
 the gneiss and hornblende rock, and veined with kunker. Large blocks of 
 fine red granite are seen in the ruined fort walls, brought evidently from no 
 great distance. The Ghat line west of Periyapatna presents a succession of 
 round-backed hills and smooth knobs, which continue to Virarajendrapet in 
 Coorg. Their surface is covered with dark vegetable mould, and shaded by 
 a fine forest, the roots of which strike into the red loam or clay on which 
 the vegetable mould rests. It produces excellent sandalwood. 
 
 At tJic Grrsoppa Falls, by the same. 
 
 The precipice over which the water falls affords a fine section cf gneiss 
 and its associated hypogenc schists, which dip easterly and northerly away 
 from the Falls at an angle of about 35°. The gneiss is composed of quartz 
 and felspar, with both mica and hornblende, and alternates with micaceous, 
 talcose, actinolitic, chloritic and hornblende schists, imbedding (especially 
 the latter) iron pyrites. These rocks are penetrated by veins of quartz and 
 felspar, and also of a fine-grained granite, composed of small grains of white 
 felspar, quartz and mica. The mass of hypogene rocks has evidently been 
 worn back several hundred feet by the erosion and abrasion of the cataract ; 
 the softer talcose and micaceous schists have suffered most. Rock basins 
 are frequent in the bed of the river, which is worn in the rock and rugged 
 with water-worn rocky masses.
 
 36 GEOLOGY 
 
 From J alar pci to Shikarpur {in iSSi),' by R. Bruce Footc, F.C.S. 
 
 The results of comlsincd traverses show that the Mysore table-land is 
 traversed by great bands of granitoid and schistose gneiss, the southerly 
 extensions of some of the great bands recognized in the South Mahratta 
 country. When the whole of this region shall have been geologically 
 examined it is more than probable thnt all the bands known to the north of 
 the Tungabhadra will be traced far to the south. The traverse now to be 
 described shows that three great bands of schistose rock occur on the 
 Mysore plateau, and that two of these are actual continuations of two of the 
 great schistose bands in Dharwar District. For convenience of description 
 these bands will in the sequel be referred to as the " Dharwar-Shimoga " 
 and " Dambal-Chiknayakanhalli" bands. Both these bands have been 
 traced across the Tungabhadra, the latter in a chain of hills running down 
 southward to Chitaldroog and Chiknayakanhalli, while the former forms 
 another chain of hills passing Harihar and Shimoga and stretching further 
 south towards Hassan. These bands are of considerable width, the Dambal- 
 Chiknayakanhaili band, which is considerably the narrower of the two, 
 measuring i8 miles across where crossed by the line of section. In addition 
 to their geological interest, these two bands are of importance, as within 
 their limits occur several of the auriferous tracts which have of late attracted 
 so much attention. The Dharwar-Shimoga band is slightly auriferous at 
 its northern extremity, and streams rising on it near Bail Hongal and 
 Belavadi in the Sampgaon taluq of Belgaum District used formerly to be 
 washed for gold. The auriferous tract of Honnali lies within the same 
 schistose band a little to the north of Shimoga. The Dambal-Chiknaya- 
 kanhalli band contains the auriferous tract of the Kapputgode hills near 
 Dambal, to the north of the Tungabhadra ; while south of that river, on the 
 Mysore plateau, near the town of Chiknayakanhalli, are quartz reefs reported 
 to be auriferous, and which have attracted the notice of several speculators, 
 who have taken up land for mining purposes. 
 
 This schistose band is seen to stretch away far to the south-south-east in 
 a line of low hills, and is said to extend to Seringapatam, passing that place 
 and the town of Mysore to the eastward, and then trending round to the 
 south-west and continuing into south-eastern Wyndd, where it forms the 
 gold-field around Devala. This tallies with Mr. King's observations in the 
 Wyndd, a strong band of schistose gneiss having been shown by him to 
 occur at and around Devala, in which chloritic schists occupy an important 
 position. My informant as to this extension of the Dambal-Chiknayakan- 
 halli band was Mr. Lavelle, the pioneer gold-prospector of the present time, 
 who has traced the band from the Wyndd north to beyond Chitaldroog. I 
 have no doubt but that Mr. Lavelle's observations will be fully confirmed 
 when the whole of Mysore shall have been surveyed geologically. If the 
 parallelism of strike continues between the southward extension of the 
 
 Dharwar-Shimoga band and that of the Dambal-Chiknayakanhalli band, 
 
 ' Records of the Geological Survey of India, Vol. XV., Part 4.
 
 To face page 36. 
 
 Kolar Goldfield Jalarpet 
 
 Junction 
 
 JS '^ 3-9 
 
 \ranitoid gneiss. 
 
 SHIKARPUR 
 
 Jotn-Bai-tliolonirw A Co .X din'
 
 SKETCH SECTION FROM JALARPET TO KALVARANGAN BETTA NEAR SHIKARPUR 
 
 After R. Bruce Foote, F.G.S.
 
 TRAVERSE NOTES 37 
 
 it is highly probable that tlie former will be found to constitute the auriferous 
 tract said to exist in the north Wyndd. The stratigraphical relations of 
 the several great bands, both granitoid and schistose, have yet to be worked 
 out, for in the northern part of the great gneissic area they were found too 
 obscure to be satisfactorily explained, and it remains to be seen whether 
 they represent two or more great systems. Their position and relation are 
 shown in the accompanying map and section. 
 
 If the line of section be followed from south-east to north-west it will be 
 seen to traverse a region of very typical granite-gneiss, extending from 
 Jalarpet Junction (Madras Railway), for a distance of some 30 miles. This 
 granite-gneiss tract forms the eastern edge of the great Mysore plateau, 
 which is here a wild, rugged, picturesque jungle region. 
 
 To the west the section crosses at its narrowest part the band of schistose 
 rocks in which lies, a little to the north of the railway, the now well-known 
 Kolar gold-field, at present a scene of energetic mining work on the lands 
 taken up by a number of large Mining Companies. This schistose band, 
 which will be most appropriately called the Kolar schistose band, forms an 
 important synclinal trough resting on the adjacent granite-gneiss rocks. It 
 is the only one of the great schistose bands whose relations to the associated 
 bands of granitoid rocks have (as yet) been distinctly traced. A fuller 
 account of this band with especial reference to its auriferous character will 
 be given further on. {Sec p. 43.) 
 
 On crossing this Kolar gold-field band, the section trends northerly as far 
 as the Bowringpet railway station, when it bends sharp round to the west 
 and continues in that direction as far as Bangalore. The very broad band 
 of granitoid gneiss, which extends between the Kolar gold-field schistose 
 band to the second great schistose band (the Dambal-Chiknayakanhalli 
 band), forms in its eastern part an open undulating plain from which rise a 
 few important rocky hills, as the Tyakal, Balery and Vakkaleri hills north of 
 the railway. A number of small low table-topped hills are also to be seen 
 at small distances from the railway, as the Betarayan Betta, 3J- miles north- 
 east of Bowringpet railway station, the Patandur hill, 2 miles south-west by 
 south of the Whitefield railway station, and the low hillock crowned by a 
 mantapam about a mile north of the Maharajah's new palace at Bangalore. 
 These three hillocks are capped with beds of true sedimentary lateritc under- 
 laid by lithomargic clays. Of precisely the same aspect, both in form and 
 colour, are the Sivasamudra, Jinnagra and Chikka Tagali hills, which lie a few 
 miles north of the railway near the Whitefield and Malur stations. Identical 
 in form and appearance also is a much more extensive development of 
 table-topped plateaus, which are well seen from Betarayan hill, lying several 
 miles to the north and covering a considerable area. The lateritc at the 
 north-eastern end of the Patandur hill is distinctly conglomeratic and con- 
 tains a tolerable number of well- rolled quartz pebbles. The red colour of 
 the sides of these hills and plateaus, added to their sharp-cut tabular shape, 
 makes them conspicuous from considerable distances. No organic remains 
 were found in connection with these lateritc beds, and the number of sections 
 examined was not sufiicient to enable me to form any positive opinion as to
 
 38 GEOLOGY 
 
 tlicir origin, and sUll less so as to their geological age, — but there can be no 
 doubt that they are the scattered outlying remains of a formerly far more 
 extensive formation. 
 
 To the north-west of Bangalore the undulation of the country increases 
 considerably, and the streams run in much deeper channels, affording more 
 numerous sections both of the surface soil and sub-rock. The surface of 
 the country is generally covered with a thick layer of red soil, which often 
 contains a large percentage of pisolitic iron (haematite) in segregational 
 form. 
 
 Thirty-two miles north-west of Bangalore the section cuts across the line 
 of hills' running north and south from the Kdvdri river, a little east of the 
 great Falls, up to Nidugal on the frontier of the Anantapur District. This 
 line of hills culminates close to the section in the fine peak of Sivaganga, 
 which attains the height of 4,559 feet above sea-level. Like many other 
 groups of granitoid-gneiss hills in the south, these hills are very rocky and 
 bare, and look as if they had never been covered with a real forest growth. 
 
 The section maintains its north-westerly course up to Tumkur, beyond 
 which town it turns suddenly westward and, after a course of 16 miles, 
 in which remarkably few outcrops of rock are seen, meets the second great 
 band of schistose rocks in the line of hills rising between Hagalvadi and 
 Chiknayakanhalli. This second great band of schists is the southerly 
 continuation of the Dambal-Chiknayakanhalli schist band as defined above. 
 The width of this extremely well-marked schistose band, which the section 
 crosses at right angles, is 18 miles. The character of the scenery is 
 markedly different ; smooth, grass-grown hills, generally well rounded, with 
 very few conspicuous exposures of rock, take the place of the bold rocky 
 bare hill masses seen east of Tumkur. The rocks consist of hornblendic, 
 chloritic and hjematitic schists cropping out at very high angles or in 
 vertical beds. Several large quartz reefs occur traversing these schists, and 
 one large one crosses the road some distance west of Doddiganhalli. Time 
 did not allow of my doing any prospecting here, but several prospectors 
 have stated that their researches were rewarded by the discovery of gold in 
 appreciable quantity both in the quartz and by washing the local soils. The 
 extension southward of this schist band may be traced by the eye for many 
 miles, owing to the very characteristic features of the low line of heights 
 which extends south in the direction of Seringapatam. That they extend 
 still further south and then trend south-westward into the south-eastern part 
 of the WynAd may be assumed as a fact on the strength of the information 
 kindly furnished by Air. Lavelle. The contact of the schists and granitoid 
 gneiss is unfortunately concealed by superficial deposits at the places where 
 the section cuts across their respective boundaries ; but the impression left 
 in my mind by the general appearance of the localities was that the schists 
 were overlying the granitoid beds, and the same relation appeared to me to 
 exist in the Dambal gold-field, as far as its v.^estern boundary is concerned. 
 
 ' The expression line of hills is used in preference to the term chain, as there is 
 little continuity of high ground, the hills being mostly quite detached and separated 
 in some parts by considerable spaces.
 
 TRAVERSE NOTES 
 
 39 
 
 The eastern boundary of the schist band was not traced near Dambal and 
 Gadag, but further north it is completely hidden by the tremendous spread 
 of cotton soil there prevailing. Passing on a little to the south of west from 
 the schistose band the section runs across a granitoid-gneiss region, and 
 after passing Tiptur crosses the watershed between the Kdveri and Krishna 
 hydrological basins, the section trending more and more north-westerly 
 along a rapid descent. It leaves the high, picturesque, granitoid hill masses 
 of Hirekal Gudda and Gardangiri to the right, and beyond Banavar skirts 
 the eastern boundary of the third or Dharwar-Shimoga schist band for 
 several miles, but does not actually leave the granitoid rocks till it has 
 passed Kadur by some six miles. The rocks of this granitoid band, which 
 may for convenience be called the Mulgund- Kadur band, offer no 
 speciality calling for remark. Like the hilly region running east of Tum- 
 kur, the hills may preferably be described as forming a line rather than a 
 chain, for they occur in numerous detached masses. 
 
 As just mentioned, the section gets on to the third schistose band six 
 miles to the north-west of Kadur, and here the schists are mostly chloritic 
 of pale colour with intercalated more highly siliceous bands, ranging from 
 chloritic gneiss to quartzite. To the south of the road the quartzites 
 increase much in development and rise into a high ridge with a great cliffy 
 scarp on the eastern face of Coancancul peak. Further west, to the south 
 of the high road, rises a considerable hill of very rugged nature, which, 
 when seen from a distance, presents great resemblance to a typical granitoid- 
 gneiss hill. On closer approach the rock is seen to have a very coarsely 
 mottled structure, which turns out to be due to the presence of enormous 
 numbers of well-rounded pebbles of a granite or compact granite gneiss. 
 The size of the included stones ranges in the part I examined from small 
 pebbles to small boulders, all enclosed in a greenish-grey foliated chloritic 
 matrix. The thickness of the conglomerate here exposed must be very 
 great, as proved by the size of the hill which goes by the name of the Kal 
 Droog. To the north, the beds are soon lost sight of under the local 
 alluvium of the Kushi river, and they are not seen to reappear conspicuously 
 in the hilly country on the north side of the valley. To the west of the great 
 conglomerate beds follow more schistose beds, and, as seen on the hill slopes 
 south of the road, a great series of quartzites. Near Tarikere, and to the 
 north-west of it, very few exposures of rock are met with as far as Benkipur, 
 but the few that do show through the thick woods which here cover every- 
 thing, prove the country to be formed of schistose members of the Gneissic 
 Series. About four miles north-west of Tarikere the road crosses a very small 
 outcrop of typical hiumatite schist, striking in a northerly direction. A good 
 deal of rock shows in the bed of the Bhadra river at and above Benkipur, 
 but the forms seen are not very characteristic, and at the time of my passing 
 everything was obscured by a thick layer of slimy mud left by a high fresh 
 in the river. This part of the section would be very unsatisfactory were it 
 not that the schistose character of the beds forming the line of hills extend- 
 ing northward parallel with the valley of the Bhadra shows quite clearly the 
 extension of the rocks seen south-east and east of Tarikere. Between Ben-
 
 40 GEOLOGY 
 
 kipur and Shimoga very little rock of any sort is seen, but about half-way 
 across the Doab, between the Tunga and Bhadra rivers, a band of fine- 
 grained grey granite gneiss is crossed, while to the east and south of 
 Shimoga town are several conspicuous large masses of a chloritic variety of 
 granite gneiss. The exact relation of these granitoid outcrops to the great 
 schist series further east I had not the opportunity of determining, and am 
 not quite certain whether they represent the eastern border of another great 
 granitoid band, or whether they are part only of an unimportant local band 
 of granitoid rock. I am inclined to think the latter will be found the real 
 condition of things when the country comes to be fully surveyed. The short 
 space of time at my command prevented my making a detour to settle this 
 point. Here, too, the extent and thickness of the jungle growth greatly hide 
 the general surface of the country along the road, while the rainy or misty 
 character of the weather tended much to obscure the appearance of hills at 
 but very moderate distances. Though the exigencies of dak travelling com- 
 pelled me to make the detour to Shimoga instead of following the line of 
 schistose beds northward from Benkipur, I am perfectly satisfied as to the 
 fact of these schists continuing northward, and joining those which cross the 
 united rivers forming the Tungabhadra, a few miles below the junction of 
 the Tunga and Bhadra. The country here is much freer from jungle, and 
 many ridges of rock, consisting of quartzites and chlorite schists with rocks 
 of intermediate character, can be traced for miles. This part of the section 
 extends from the bank of the river for rather more than 20 miles, — from 
 the travellers' bungalow at Holalur north-westward to the Ta\ankal-betta 
 Trigonometrical Station, six miles east-by-south of Shikarpur. Along the 
 12 miles of road between Shimoga and Holalur but little is seen of the 
 older rocks, the road lying close to the left bank of the Tunga and Tunga- 
 bhadra, and passing almost entirely over the river alluvium which at and to 
 the north-east of the Holalur bungalow forms a coarse bed of rounded 
 shingles, rising a considerable height above the present high flood level of 
 the united rivers. 
 
 The most striking features, both orographically and geologically, of this part 
 of the Mysore country are the quartzite outcrops, which are numerous, but 
 of which only the principal ones require notice. Of these the best marked, 
 longest and highest culminates in the Kalva-Ranganbetta, a fine hill rising 
 some 1,200 feet above the plain, and 3,388 feet above sea-level, 16 miles 
 to the north of Shimoga. The out-crop of the great quartzite beds forming 
 this ridge has a distinct dip of some 6o°-65° (on the average) to the north- 
 east. The quartzites are underlaid by a schistose (chloritic) series, the south- 
 western extension of which was not ascertained. Overlying the quartzites, 
 which are generally flaggy in character (but which here and there become so 
 highly charged with scales of pale green chlorite as almost to lose their 
 quartzitic character, and pass into chloritic gneiss), are local beds of true 
 conglomerate, — the first I have met with or heard of in the gneissic rock of 
 the peninsula. The conglomerate has evidently imdergone considerable 
 metamorphosis, but its real character and truly clastic origin cannot be 
 doubted when carefully examined. Many of the included pebbles appear to
 
 HONNALI GOLD-FIELD 41 
 
 have been fractured by the great pressure undergone, but their truly rounded 
 character is quite distinct and unmistakable. The beds seen by me and 
 traced for several hundred yards, are exposed a little way up the slope of 
 Kalva-Ranganbctta peak, and a little to the north-west of a small, but rather 
 conspicuous, pagoda, which stands in a little recess. The included pebbles 
 in the conglomerate consist chiefly of quartz, a few of gneiss, and some of 
 what appeared an older quartzite. A second intended visit and closer 
 examination of this very interesting bed was prevented, much to my sorrow, 
 by bad weather. The second in importance of the quartzite ridges has its 
 eastern extremity in the bed and left bank of the first west-to-east reach of 
 the Tungabhadra below the Kudali Sangam, or junction. West of the new 
 high road from Shimoga to Honnali the quartzite beds rise into the Phillur 
 Gudda (hill), and beyond that rise again into a considerable hill some 400 
 to 500 feet high, and may be followed easily for several miles to the north-west. 
 The quartzitic character is then in great measure or entirely lost by the rock 
 becoming highly chloritic, and the beds can no longer be safely distinguished 
 from the surrounding mass of chloritic schist. In the north-westerly part 
 of this Phillur Gudda ridge several pebbly beds were observed intercalated 
 between the more or less chloritic quartzite. Tiicy differed from the Kalva- 
 Ranganbetta beds in being less coarse and having a more chloritic matiix, 
 but had undergone about an equal amount of metamorphosis. A consider- 
 able number of quartzite ridges are intercalated between Phillur Gudda 
 ridge, and the southern end of the Kalva-Ranganbetta ridge, which 
 terminates in the Nelli Gudda Trigonometrical Station hill, seven miles west- 
 north-west of the Kudali Sangam. To these ridges may be ascribed the 
 existence of the group of hills they occur in, as but for their greater durability 
 and resisting power to weather action, they would certainly have been worn 
 down to the low level of the purely chloritic part of the schistose band, both 
 to the north-west and south-east. Unless there has been an inversion of 
 the strata on a rather large scale, or faults exist which were not obvious 
 during tlie rapid survey, the Kalva-Ranganbetta quartzites underlie all the 
 beds to the northward of it. Another series of overlying quartzites is shown 
 to the north-north-west of Kalva-Ranganbetta ; but the relation between it 
 and the upper beds just described could not be determined without a much 
 more close examination of the district, more especially as the space between 
 the two sets of outcrops is very largely and closely covered by spreads of 
 regur. The chloritic schists offer no specially interesting features, and 
 they are not, as a rule, well seen, e.xcept on the slopes of the hills, the 
 general face of the country being much obscured by red or l^lack soil, which, 
 both of them, occur in great thickness. 
 
 Iloniiali Gold-Jield. — One remaining point of great interest is the large 
 number of important quartz veins, or reefs, which traverse the belt of 
 chloritic rocks overlying the Kalva-Ranganbetta quartzites. They are the 
 source of the gold occurring in the thick red soil which covers the whole 
 face of the low-lying country, and which has been washed for gold, certainly 
 for several generations past, by several families of Jalgars residing at 
 Palavanhalli. The gold is so generally distributed through the red soil that
 
 42 GEOLOGY 
 
 it is clear that many of the reefs must be auriferous, and the quantity found 
 is sufficient to justify strong hopes that a profitable mining industry may be 
 developed by working the richer reefs. Several of the series of reefs close 
 to Devi Kop, a little village 2>\ miles east-south-east of the Kalva-Rangan- 
 betta, had been carefully and deeply prospected at the time of my visit by 
 Mr. Henry Prideaux, M.E., and in one case certainly with very marked 
 success. The quartz in this case was found very rich in gold, which was 
 visible in grains and scales scattered pretty freely through the mass. The 
 quartz in many parts had a quasi-brecciated structure with films and plates 
 of blue-green chlorite occurring along cracks in the mass. Near the surface 
 the chlorite, with which were associated small inclusions of pyrites, had 
 often weathered into a rusty-brown mass. The reef which at the time of 
 my visit was regarded as the most promising, and to which the name of 
 Turnbull's reef had been given, is one of a series of three that can be traced 
 with some breaks for a distance of six miles nearly parallel with the great 
 quartzite ridge of the Kalva-Ranganbetta, the true strike of the reef being 
 from N. 40° W. to S. 40° E. Another important set of three reefs having 
 the same strike occurs about half a mile north of the first series, but they 
 are not visible for such a long distance, their north-western course being 
 covered by the thick spread of cotton soil. To the south-east they, or at 
 least one of them, can be traced across theNyamti nullah, which divides the 
 gold-field in two. Out-crops of vein-quartz in a line with a south-easterly 
 extension of this set of reefs are to be seen north and east of Palavanhalli. 
 Numerous other quartz reefs having the same strike occur in the south- 
 eastern half of the gold-field, £'.^., a set of four, rather more than a mile north- 
 east of Palavanhalli, and several others to the north of Dasarhalli and south 
 of Kuntra. A few reefs were also noticed whose strike was different from 
 those above referred to. They represent two other systems of fissures, the 
 one running N. 5° E. to S. S"" W. ; the other, W. 5° N. to E. 5° S. Several 
 of both these series are of very promising appearance, the " back of the 
 lode " bearing considerable resemblance to that of Turnbull's reef. The 
 greater number of the reefs in the Honnali gold-field are well-marked 
 examples of these fissure veins. 
 
 During my stay at Devi Kop, I watched the results of many washings 
 both of crushed quartz and of the red soil taken from many localities and 
 various levels. The great majority were highly satisfactory. The Jalgars, 
 or local gold-washers, seeni to be a fairly prosperous set of men, so their 
 earnings must be fairly remunerative. They confine their attention, 
 as far as I could ascertain, pretty generally to the high-lying red soil banks, 
 between Devi Kop and the Nyamti nullah. The head Jalgar, a very 
 intelligent old man and dexterous gold-washer, informed me that the best 
 day's work he had ever done was the finding of a small pocket in the gneiss 
 which contained about Rs. 80 of gold in small grains and scales. I 
 gathered from him that he had not found anything beyond the size of a 
 ''pepite." The position of these auriferous banks near Devi Kop would 
 admit of hydraulic mining over a considerable area by a system of dams and 
 channels to bring water from the Nyamti nullah, but the question of the
 
 KOLAR GOLD-FIELD 43 
 
 profitableness of such an undertaking could only be decided by an expert 
 after careful examination and more numerous trials by washing. 
 
 Kolar Gold-Jield. — The schistose band, which bears within its limits the 
 Kolar gold-field, forms an elongated synclinal fold which in parts rises 
 somewhat over the general level of the surrounding granitoid country. The 
 dip of the rocks forming the basement of the schistose band, and therefore 
 tlic boundaries of the synclinal fold, is easily traced on both sides ; not so, 
 however, is the dip of the uppermost members of the group, for all the beds 
 exposed in the centre of the band have been much altered by great pressure, 
 which has superinduced an irregular slaty cleavage to a great extent. This, 
 combined with extensive minute jointing, has so greatly altered the original 
 texture of the rocks that they have assumed to a very great extent a highly 
 trappoid appearance. The lines of bedding are completely obliterated, and 
 it was impossible to decide from the sections I saw whether the central axis 
 of the synclinal represents one great acute fold, or a series of minor ones in 
 small Vandykes. The great petrological similarity of the strata forming the 
 upper (central) part of the synclinal makes the decipherment of this 
 difficulty all the greater. The sections I saw in the several shafts being 
 sunk at tlie time of my visit threw no light on the subject ; it is possible, 
 however, that a closer study of these sections would go far to enable this 
 point to be decided. 
 
 The succession of formations seen from west to east, after leaving 
 General Beresford's bungalow at Ajipalli on the road from Bowringpet rail- 
 way station to the gold-field, is micaceous gneiss (resting on the granitoid 
 gneiss), chloritic gneiss, micaceous schist, ha^matitic quartzite, and 
 chloritic schist, on which rests a great thickness of hornblendic schists, 
 which, as just mentioned, are highly altered, and have their planes 
 of bedding almost entirely effaced by the pressure and crumpling they have 
 undergone. The eastern side of the fold shows near the village of Urigam 
 well-bedded schists — dipping west from 50° to 60" and resting finally on the 
 granitoid rocks. The western side of the gold-field is very clearly demar- 
 cated by a well-marked ridge of hitmatitic quartzite which culminates in 
 the Walagamada Trigonometrical Station hill, from the top of which the 
 majority of the mines can be seen. The bedding is often vertical and 
 highly contorted in places. The texture varies from highly jaspideous 
 quartzite to a schisty sandstone. The hard jaspideous variety generally 
 shows distinct laminic of brown haematite, alternating with purely siliceous 
 laminit, generally of white or whitish-drab colour. It is only here and there, 
 and over very trifling areas, that the ferruginous element ever assumes 
 the character of red haematite. The beauty of the " Vandykes " and 
 complicated crumpling and brecciations of this rock in the Walagamada 
 Konda is very remarkable. The thickness of the hicmatitic band is very 
 considerable, and it forms the most striking feature of the western side of 
 the gold-field. On the eastern side of the gold-field the haematite quartzite 
 is much less well developed and exposed, excepting in the south-eastern 
 part of the gold-field where it occurs in thick beds forming the main mass of 
 the Yerra Konda Trignomctrical Station hill. Here the dip is about 60°
 
 44 GEOLOGY 
 
 westerly, and affords one of llie clearest proofs of the synclinal character of the 
 schist band. To the southward the hicmatitic beds appear to coalesce, the 
 synclinal being pinched together, but I had no opportunity of following up 
 the eastern boundary of the schistose band. The western boundary is a 
 very conspicuous feature, a bold rocky ridge running up into the lofty 
 Malapan Betta peak, the highest summit in this part of the country. 
 South of Malapan IJetta the hiematitic beds appear to lose their importance 
 and no longer form the most striking feature of the schistose band, and 
 micaceous and chloritic beds abound. Owing to the great extent of jungle 
 and the rugged character of the country, their general relations were not to 
 be made out completely in the short time at my disposal. The beds run 
 south into the Salem District, and probably occupy the valley lying east and 
 north-east of Krishnagiri and, not improbably, extend on towards and past 
 Darampuri. A subsidiary ridge of lower elevation, which branches off from 
 the western side of Malapan Betta westward and then trends south-west 
 and finally south-south-west, also consists of schistose beds of similar 
 character, amongst which a hi'ematitic quartzite is the most conspicuous. 
 The relation of these latter beds to the Kolar gold-field synclinal fold is 
 quite problematical, but it is very probable that several important faults 
 have caused great dislocation of the strata first along the boundaries of 
 the main synclinal fold. The stratigraphy of the several spurs radiating 
 from Malapan Konda is very complicated and interesting and well worthy 
 of careful consideration. 
 
 The auriferous quartz reefs which have attracted so much attention lie in 
 the broader part of the synclinal fold north of the railway. None of any 
 importance were seen by me in the tract south of Malapan Betta. The 
 intermediate tract I had no opportunity of examining closely, but I did not 
 hear of the existence there of any of interest or importance. The reefs 
 make very little show on the surface as a rule ; in many cases, indeed, the 
 whole back of the reef, or lodes, has been removed during the mining opera- 
 tions of the old native miners, whose workings were on a rather large scale 
 considering the means they had at command. Much also of the surface is 
 masked by scrub jungle, or by a thick coating of soil, often a local black 
 humus. The reefs are so very inconspicuous that I have not attempted to 
 show them on the map. Their run is north and south with a few degrees 
 variation either east or west. The hade of the reefs is westerly in most 
 cases, as far as they have been tested by the shafts sunk. The angle they 
 make with the horizon is a very high one, on the average not less than from 
 85° to 87°. Much has been said about the reefs in the Kolar not being true 
 fissure veins, but I was unable to find any good reason for promulgating this 
 view, and several iiiining engineers of high standing and great experience, 
 as Messrs. Bell Davies, Raynor St. Stephen, and other practical miners well 
 acquainted with the locality, have no hesitation about calling them '' fissure 
 veins " or " lodes." The quartz composing the reefs is a bluish or greyish- 
 black diaphanous or semi-diaphanous rock, and remarkably free from 
 sulphides (pyrites, galena, &c.) of any kind. The gold found is very pure 
 and of good colour. Several washings of crushed vein stuff were made in
 
 TRAVERSE NOTES 45 
 
 my presence at the Utigam and Kolar mines with really satisfactory results, 
 the quantity of gold obtained being very appreciable. The samples operated 
 on were not picked ones. 
 
 The principal new mines now in progress formaline stretching from south 
 to north on the eastern side of an imaginary axis drawn along the centre of 
 the synclinal fold, and this line coincides with that followed by the '*' old 
 men," many of whose abandoned workings are being extended to greater 
 depth than they had the power of attaining to without steam-pumping 
 machinery. 
 
 Numerous large dykes of dioritic trap are met with traversing the gneissic 
 rocks of this region. One set of them runs north and south with a variation 
 of about 5° east or west. The other runs nearly east and west. The 
 presence of these dykes will offer formidable obstacles to the mining works 
 in some places, and it will probably be found that the intrusion of these great 
 igneous masses has added considerably to the metamorphism of the schistose 
 beds along the lines they traverse. As already mentioned, the schists are most 
 highly altered along the central axis of the synclinal fold, and the largest of 
 the north and south dykes shows a very little to the east of the synclinal axis. 
 
 The Kolar schistose band is the only one as to the exact stratigraphical 
 relation of which to the granitoid gneiss any positively conclusive evidence 
 had been obtained ; but there is reason to believe that at least three of the 
 schistose bands to the westward of it, viz., those of Sundur, near Bellary, of 
 Dambal-Chiknayakanhalli, and of Dharwar-Shimoga, are similarly super- 
 imposed on the granitoid rocks. Whether the superposition is a conform- 
 able or an unconformable one, is a point that has yet to be determined by 
 further investigation ; at the Kolar gold-field, however, the relation between 
 the schistose synclinal and the underlying granite gneiss appears to be one 
 of distinct conformity. The Hospet end of the Sundur schist band certainly 
 presents every appearance of being the acute extremity of a synclinal basin. 
 The south-eastern extension of this band is as yet unknown, but there is 
 good reason to expect a considerable extension of it to the south-eastward of 
 Bellary. 
 
 The remarkable length of the Dambal-Chiknayakanhalli and Dharwar- 
 .Shimoga bands precludes the idea that they can be each a simple synclinal 
 fold, rather may they be expected to prove a succession of synclinal and 
 anticlinal in dchelon, with their contact boundaries not unfrequently coin- 
 ciding with faults. The geographical position of these great bands confirms 
 and amplifies the evidences to the fact which 1 specially pointed out in my 
 Memoir' on the East Coast from latitude 15° N. northward to Masulipatam, 
 that the Peninsula of India had been greatly affected by tremendous lateral 
 forces acting mainly from east to west and thrusting up the gneissic rocks 
 into huge folds. These great foldings have undergone extensive denudation, 
 and the softer schistose beds especially have been entirely removed from 
 large tracts of country which they must have formerly covered, if any of the 
 bands now remaining really represent (as they in all probability do) portions 
 of once continuous formations. 
 
 ' Memoirs, " Geological Survey of India," \'ul. X\T.
 
 46 GEOLOGY 
 
 The schistose hands having only been mapped at different points, their 
 general width, as shown on the annexed sketch map, is only hypothetical, 
 and it is very possible that at intermediate points they may either spread out 
 •or narrow considerably. Their relation to the schistose gneissics of the 
 Carnatic Proper has yet to be made clear, and it is not at all unlikely that a 
 third subdivision will have to be recognized in the crystalline rocks of South 
 India — a subdivision which will include the rocks of a character intermediate 
 between the typically schistose rocks and the typically granitoid rocks of 
 Mysore and the South Mahratta country, namely, the massive gneissics of 
 the Carnatic, in which the ferruginous beds are magnetic, not ha^matitic. 
 
 From Report on Auriferous Tracts in Mysore [in 1887), f>y the same. 
 
 These tracts lie widely scattered, but may be conveniently grouped (for 
 the purpose of description) in three groups corresponding to the three 
 principal divisions of the great Auriferous rock series' which traverses 
 Mysore in great bands in a generally north-north-westerly direction, and 
 forms such important features in the geological structure of the table-land. 
 These three groups may be appropriately termed the Central, the West- 
 Central, and the IVestern groups ; the Eastern group being formed by the 
 Kolar gold-field {see above, p. 43). The central group belongs to the 
 Dambal-Chiknayakanhalli band of my former paper : and the western group 
 to the Dharwar-Shimoga band of the same. The west-central group 
 includes a number of small outlying strips of schistose rocks, some, if not 
 all, of which are of the same geological age as the great schist bands lying 
 to the east and west. 
 
 {Xanjangi'id to Jagali'ir.) 
 
 Central Group. — The rocks seen at Holgere, 7 miles south-west of Nan- 
 jangiid, are very gneissic in their general aspect, but they are very badly 
 seen on the top of the ridge where the old workings are situated, and it is 
 possible the hornblendic beds there occurring may belong to a very narrow 
 strip of the auriferous schists (Dharwars), an outlier of them in fact, and 
 probably faulted in along the strike of the underlying gneissic rocks. The 
 
 1 Rocks of the same geological age as the auriferous rocks of Mysore occur largely 
 in other parts of South India, both north, east, and south-west of Mysore, and to 
 classify such a widely-developed system, it was necessary to have a collective name 
 for them. The name of Dhaiivar rocks was therefore given by me to these rocks, 
 on the usual principles of geological nomenclature, namely, for their having been 
 first recognized as a separate system after the study of their representatives in the 
 Collect orate of Dharwar (Bombay Presidency), where they occur ver)- largely and 
 typically, and underlie the important town of Dharwar. The use of this name in this 
 report has, however, been deprecated on the plea that it might lead to confusion in 
 the minds of readers unfamiliar with South Indian geography. I have therefore 
 avoided using it wherever this was possible, but geologists who may peruse my report 
 will understand that the alternative terms which I have used, "Auriferous" or 
 " Schistose rock series," really mean formations of the Dharwar age.
 
 AURIFEROUS TRACTS 47 
 
 quartz reefs licre seen are small and coincide in direction with the nortli-to- 
 soiith strike of the country rock, or deviate a httle (3°-5") to the east-of- 
 north. The quartz exposed in the principal old working is highly ferrugin- 
 ous, being full of scales and films of impure haematite (specular iron), but 
 contains no pyrites or other sulphides. North of the old working the reef 
 is cut off by r. broad band of a highly decomposed granite rock containing 
 much pink felspar. The country between Holgere and Mysore is composed 
 of micaceous gneiss with a few bands of hornblendic schist and potstone, 
 with no quartz reefs of any importance, and the small show of gold obtained 
 by Mr. Lavelle from washings in the Kadkole nullahs must have come from 
 veins too small in size to be worth mining. I could not trace any connec- 
 tion between the Holgere auriferous rocks and the great Chiknayakanhalli 
 band, the former must therefore be considered as a mere small outlier, if 
 they are really of Dharwar age. The line of high ground commencing on 
 the north bank of the Kdveri river near Shettihalli consists mainly of 
 quartzites and hornblendic schists belonging to the Dharwar series and 
 forming a narrow band (from 2 to 3 miles in width), which extends north- 
 ward, widening very gradually as it is followed up. A number of small 
 quartz veins occurs running in the direction of the strike of the beds, here 
 nearly due north and south. The quartz is very white and "hungry-look- 
 ing," and very few minerals are to be found in it. Those noted were blackish- 
 greenish mica and a white decomposing felspar, the former not infrequently 
 in distinct six-sided prisms. These included minerals show but very rarely 
 and at wide intervals, but here and there become numerous and convert the 
 vein into a true granite, a rock in which gold very rarely occurs in any 
 quantity. Fragments of good-looking blue quartz were noticed scattered 
 about ihe surface to the south-west of Siddapur village, but on tracing them 
 up to their true source they were found to be derived from typical granite 
 veins. As far as surface indications go, this tract appears a very unpromis- 
 ing one, and quite undeserving of consideration when so many really pro- 
 mising tracts remain as yet unprospected. The course of the extension of 
 the Chiknayakanhalli schist band south of the Kdvcri is yet undetermined, 
 but as seen from the top of the Karigatta Trigonometrical Station, it appears 
 to go southward, passing east of the granitoid mass of Chamundi hill ; 
 unfortunately want of time prevented my determining this point, which is one 
 of considerable interest geologically. Hoimabctta is a hill lying a mile and 
 a half south by west of Ndgamangala, and forming the central part of an 
 outlier of the auriferous series on the western side of the Chiknayakanhalli 
 band. The mass of the hill consists of hornblendic schist overlaid by 
 chloritic schists. A washing made in the small nullah draining the north- 
 east face of the hill just within the eastern boundary of the auriferous rocks 
 gave a good show of gold of medium size and excellent colour. I noted one 
 large bluish quartz reef on the high north spur of the hill which struck me 
 as worthy of being tested in depth. At present merely the back of the lode 
 is exposed, and but to a very small depth, so it is impossible to test the 
 real quality of the stone. This reef runs through the chloritic schists. 
 Giri^i:;uiida forms the northern extremity of the outlier, and shows chloritic
 
 48 GEOLOGY 
 
 and lioinljlcndic schists, extensions of the Ilonnabetta beds. The rid^e of 
 the Giiigudda is traversed by a pale green dioritic (?) trap. The north end 
 of the outher dies away rapidly northward of Girigudda, and disappears 
 northward of the nullah. A careful washing in the small stream draining 
 the east side of Girigudda, at a spot about a quarter of a mile eastward of 
 the hill, gave a fair show of medium fine gold. The presence of trap rock 
 among the schists is a favourable indication for the presence of gold. The 
 whole outlier, which extends 7 miles from Girigudda southward to Maradipur, 
 with a width of a little more th m a mile across Honnabetta hill, is deserving 
 of very close examination, and the reefs of being prospected to some depth. 
 About 2 miles north of Girigudda and within the gneissic area lies Hnlmnn- 
 dibcfta, a low hill on the ridge of which occur several fine reefs which are 
 being tested in depth by the Mysore Concessions Gold Company. The 
 question— Are the quartz reefs occurring in the gneissic rock profitably 
 auriferous as well as those occurring in the Dharwar series ? (to which all the 
 important gold-yielding reefs at present known unquestionably belong) — 
 will doubtless ere long receive a definite answer from the results of these 
 deep prospectings, and I sincerely trust it will be a very favourable one, as, 
 if so, many other reefs of great size and beauty running through the gneissic 
 series may probably also prove to be gold-yielding. Much of the quartz 
 turned out at Hulmandibetta is good-looking, bluish in colour, contains 
 some pyrites, and encourages the hope that it will prove auriferous at 
 depths not reached by superficial weather action. Haliibetta, a large hill 
 some three miles north of Nagamangala, has been reported auriferous, but the 
 statement is highly improbable, the whole mass of the hill except the southern- 
 most extremity consisting of granitic gneiss. A band of schistose rock extends 
 from the southern spurs southward for a couple of miles till hidden by the 
 alluvium of the Ndgamangala stream. Large reefs of quartz were noted on 
 either side of Haltibetta ; they are very unpromising, the quartz being very 
 white and free from included minerals. In miners' parlance, they are very 
 hungry-looking. At Kalijiganhalli the old native workings occupy a con- 
 siderable area on which old dumps stood thickly, showing that a large 
 amount of washing had been done. A very good show of gold was obtained 
 by washing the dumps, but no reefs, large enough to be worth mining, could 
 be found. Further south, however, fine reefs are to be seen pretty 
 numerously, running north and south in the strike of the chloritic schists.' 
 A narrow strip of very typical auriferous schists crosses the road a mile and 
 a half west of the bridge over the Shimsha on the Hassan-Bangalore road, 
 and may be seen stretching away north and south to a considerable distance, 
 a strongly-marked bed of jaspery haematite quartzite forming a distinct ridge. 
 This strip of schists is faulted against the gneiss along its eastern boundary 
 about half a mile to the east. The noithern extension of the schists crosses 
 the Shimsha and is lost sight of in the broken ground east of the river, but the 
 southern extension can be traced to the high ground north of Ankanhalli. 
 
 1 The strike of the schistose beds here lends considerably eastward, and they 
 appear to extend towards Kunigal, instead of running nearly due south down to 
 Nagamangala, as I had formerly assumed on imperfect information.
 
 AURIFEROUS TRACTS 49 
 
 South of Ankanhalli the highly characteristic ha;matite band reappears and 
 forms a marked feature, continuing for several miles till almost abreast of 
 the Narasimhaswami pagoda hill. The western boundary of this band of 
 Dharvvars is in all probability also a faulted one, several hundred feet in 
 thickness of chloritic and hornblendic schists lying between the haematite 
 bed and the gneiss near Nalkundi, while to the north, where the haematite 
 bed crosses the Bangalore road {\h miles west of the Yediyur bridge), it 
 shows close up to the gneiss. The schistose rocks appear to spread out over 
 a considerable area eastward of the Narasimhaswami hills, and ma)' very 
 likely reach as far as the line of granite-gneiss hills east of the Shimsha. A 
 line of considerable hills, showing all the characteristics of the auriferous 
 series, is seen to stretch southward for many miles some little distance west 
 of Kunigal. These rocks, if really belonging to the auriferous series, repre- 
 sent the beds deflected eastward or south-eastward near Kadaba, and as such 
 are worth examination. The old workings on Honnebagi hill, near Chik- 
 nayakanhalli, lie a few yards down the eastern slope and just within the 
 boundary of the auriferous schist area, the crest of the ridge being formed 
 by gneiss on which rests the basement bed of the schist series, which is here 
 a quartzite. The old workings, which consist only of small shallow pits sur- 
 rounded by dumps, extend southward for nearly a mile along the watershed, 
 and at the south end of the area they occupy have followed some east and 
 west reefs across the boundary into the gneissic area. The reefs are white 
 and " hungry-looking," and the old miners seem to have found no great 
 encouragement, for they have made no extensive excavations. The principal 
 reef on Honnebagi hill runs N. i5°-20° W., but trends southward ; at the 
 south end of the ridge it is about 5 feet thick. Overlying the basement 
 quartzite on Honnebagi hill comes a series of schists, horneblendic, chloritic 
 and micaceous, which occupy the space up to the foot of the hills, where they 
 are overlaid by argillites and a great thickness of ha:niatitic schists, locally 
 very rich in iron, and giving rise to the formation of sub-aerial breccias 
 which assume a lateritic appearance from the action of percolating rain- 
 water. Quartz reefs of rather more promising appearance than those on 
 Honnebagi hill occur here and there in the schists, and are probably the 
 source of the gold obtained from the streams draining this tract. A set of 
 washings made l<y me near the north-east end of Honnebagi hill in the main 
 nullah and its branches gave very fair shows of medium fine gold of ex- 
 cellent colour. Tests by crushing and washing quartz from two of the trial 
 pits recently sunk on Honnebagi hill gave no show, but this is not conclusive, 
 the quartz being from too small a depth and the quantity of quartz to be 
 treated by hand-crushing being necessarily insufficient for a reliable test. 
 The reefs at Kadckalgiidda, z\ miles N.N.E. of Chiknayakanhalli, like 
 those at Honnebagi, all lie within the schistose area though very near the 
 boundary, and like them run in the strike of the country rock, which is 
 here very nearly north-west-by-north. The quartz is white in colour, but a 
 good deal iron-shot along the lines of fracture. I could find no enclosed 
 minerals except a little chlorite and obtained no show from crushings, but a 
 careful washing made in the stream draining the north-west end of Kadc- 
 
 i;
 
 50 GEOLOGY 
 
 kal<^nulda gave a fair show of rather fine c(okl. On the slope of the liill above 
 the great reef just mentioned arc chlorite schists and an associated flow of 
 dioritic trap, both favourable to the presence of gold, and other reefs of 
 better quality may very likely be hidden under the talus which covers the 
 slope very generally. A washing of material collected in the nullah draining 
 the north-east side of Kadekalgudda gave no results. A washing of the 
 alluvial deposit on the banks of the nullah draining the eastern side of the 
 main ridge east of Chiknayakanhalli, close to the Dodrampur temple, gave 
 but a poor show of gold ; this, however, is not surprising, as the east flank of 
 the range shows but very few quartz reefs of any size ; the country is almost 
 entirely formed of grey crystalline limestones with very numerous siliceous 
 partings in the form of quartzite, which here and there attain to the magni- 
 tude of distinct beds. The limestones are much contorted, so their true 
 thickness will be hard to ascertain by measurement, but they are certainly 
 several hundred feet in thickness, and cover a large area stretching away to 
 the south-east. A small show of similar limestones shows on the western 
 side of the range just opposite the mouth of the gorge east of Ballenhalli 
 which cuts so deeply into the hills. The range here unquestionably forms 
 a synclinal fold, the axis of which corresponds with the crest of the range. 
 To the north the limestones are replaced by schists and argillites as above 
 mentioned, while to the south the tract at foot of the range is so thickly 
 covered with deep red soil derived from decomposition of the hsematitic 
 schists on the summit of the ridge that the low-lying schists are completely 
 obscured, for the red soil, which contains local conglomerate and breccia 
 beds, is not cut through by the streams now flowing westward from the hills. 
 A washing which I had made in the nullah south of Sondenhalli gave a 
 small show of gold. 
 
 A great gap intervenes between the Chiknayakanhalli gold-field and the 
 next metalliferous locality in the central group — Belligudda copper mine, close 
 to Chitaldroog. The intervening area is geologically a terra incognita, in 
 which a geological survey would assuredly find mineral tracts of impor- 
 tance. Bclligitdda is a fine hill lying some 5 miles south-east of Chitaldroog, 
 on the western flank of which are four large open pits and several small 
 shafts and short galleries sunk in clay schist in order to extract copper ore, 
 which occurred there in the form of malachite or green carbonate. From 
 the nature of the workings the ore appears to have occurred in pockets, not 
 in a regular lode, and the pockets to have been worked out bodily, nothing 
 remaining but thin films of a very poor earthy form of the carbonate 
 deposited in the joints and cracks of the schists. A fev.- fragments of 
 quartz with small particles of rich malachite were picked out of the attle 
 tipped down the very steep side of the hill, but no trace of any other ore or 
 metal could be discovered after verj' careful search. Koteinaradi 2iX\d Ciidda 
 RangavvanhalH are two auriferous localities at the south-east and north- 
 east extremities, respectively, of a tract of schistose rocks lying between 3 
 and 4 miles north of Chitaldroog. The country rock is varied, consisting 
 of dark chloritic schists overlaid by beds of quartzite, and these again by 
 various schists. Quartz reefs are rare, or else covered up by the extensive
 
 AURIFEROUS TRACTS 51 
 
 talus, but the washings made were very successful and yielded gold in 
 relatively large quantity and excellent quality. Taking all things into con- 
 sideration, this tract is one of the most promising I have seen. The 
 quantity of gold obtained was so good that the country north-west and 
 north of the little Kotemaradi, and again to the north-east of Guddarangav- 
 vanhalli deserves to be most closely tested by costeaning and deep 
 prospecting. The nature of the country rock, chlorite-schist with associated 
 diorites, is all that can be desired, and there are no ostensible difficulties of 
 a nature likely to hinder the opening up of mines, should rich reefs be dis- 
 covered on further prospecting. About 14 miles north of Guddarangavvan- 
 halli lies the small hill known as Hotwamaradi, to the west and south-west 
 of which are several fine reefs and numerous small veins of quartz cropping 
 up through the soil which hides the country rock. The hill consists of a 
 drab or yellowish gritty schist, passing into argillite in parts. Immediately 
 east of the hill is an outcrop of gneiss, the eastern extension of which is 
 masked by a great spread of cotton soil. The dip of the schists is easterly, 
 but at a very high angle, and the two rock series are separated by a fault 
 boundary. A careful washing in the little gully which drains the south and 
 west sides of the hill gave a very fine show of coarse gold, which can only 
 have come from a very little distance and is doubtless derived from one or 
 more of the reefs above referred to. The gully which flows round the 
 eastern side of the hill cuts some 12 to 15 feet into the decomposing gneiss, 
 and has exposed several small reefs of very blue quartz. This spot had 
 evidently been a favourite place of resort of the Jalagars in olden times, for 
 two very large dumps are to be seen on the western bank of the gully. 
 A washing of material collected in the bottom and banks of tiie gully gave 
 a very fair show of fine gold ; this may, however, have come from reefs lying 
 within the schist area, as the gully rises within it on the north side of the 
 hill. With regard to this gold-yielding locality, I quite agree with Mr. 
 Lavelle that it is one of very great promise. Honnamaradi is the most 
 northerly auriferous locality at present known in the Chiknayakanhalli band, 
 which continues its north-north-westerly course for a few miles beyond 
 Jagalur, and then crosses the frontier into the Bcllary District. The 
 Chiknayakanhalli schist band sends off a north-westerly branch some 6 or 
 7 miles south-west of Chitaldroog. This branch also continues its course 
 into the Bellary country, and passes close east of the well-known 
 Uchchangi-droog, a very conspicuous granite-gneiss hill crowned by a large 
 fort. .Several groups of hills rise out of this band, one of them occurring to 
 the north of the high road leading from Chitaldroog to Davangere. At the 
 north end of this latter group lies the village of Halekal, after which this 
 end of the hills is called the Halekalgudda, and between it and the village 
 lies the auriferous locality known by the same name. The Halekalgudda 
 hills consist of thick and gritty, locally conglomeratic quartzites, with 
 siliceous, micaceous and chloritic schists. No reef or veins show on the 
 northern slope above the gold-washing place, but an area of several acres 
 shows very numerous old dumps, showing that the surface soil had been 
 largely turned over. The washing made here gave a good show of 
 
 E 2
 
 52 GEOLOGY 
 
 moderately coarse }^old. Sonic fine larj^e good-looking reefs, running in the 
 strike of the rock, occur, crossing the footpath which leads from Halekal to 
 (lummanur, 3 miles south-west-by-south. West of these is a great flow of 
 dioritic trap intercalated between the upper and lower schists. Though not 
 so promising as Kotemaradi and Honnamaradi, Halekalgudda is yet 
 deserving of the closest investigation. 
 
 {Mysore to Biviavar.) 
 
 West-Cetitral Group. — As already stated, the auriferous localities 
 included in this group occur all in small detached strips or patches of 
 schistose rock scattered over the older gneissic series. They are really 
 remnants of the once apparently continuous spread of schistose (Dharwar) 
 rocks which covered great part of the southern half of the Peninsula. After 
 this great series of rocks had been deposited, the crust of the earth on 
 which they rested imderwent tremendous lateral pressure, and they were 
 crumpled into a series of great foldings running up and down the Peninsula 
 in parallel directions. After this they were exposed to tremendous erosive 
 forces and in parts entirely worn away, and the underlying old gneissic rocks 
 again laid bare. The small outliers are then nothing more than little 
 patches and strips of the younger schists which have escaped erosion either 
 from the superior durability of the rocks composing them, or from their 
 having been let down by fractures of the earth's crust, technically known 
 as faults, to a lower level than surrounding parts of the gneiss, and thus 
 escaped in some measure the full action of the eroding agencies, whatever 
 they may have been. The most southerly of these outliers in this group 
 is the little gold-field of So?tnahalH, 18 miles south-west of Mysore. 
 The shape of this auriferous tract is roughly a narrow oval, forming the 
 flattish top of a low rise running north and south. The workings extend for 
 about ih miles north and south. I estimated the length of the oval at 
 3 miles, but this may possibly be an under-estimate, as the country is 
 much obscured by low jungle, especially to the south and east. The country 
 rock consists of chloritic and other schists overlying very trappoid horn- 
 blendic rock. The old workings are numerous but none of very great size, 
 and all seem of great age, judging by the highly- weathered condition of the 
 rocks exposed in their sides. All of them are much overgrown by jungle, 
 and one has to cut one's way through a dense tangle to get right into them. 
 The shape of the working appears in every case to have been due to the 
 run of the reefs worked upon. These reefs very probably contained visible 
 gold, which induced the old miners to take out all the quartz they could 
 raise, leaving only here and there masses which they considered unpro- 
 ductive or, in a few cases, too large and massive to be dealt with 
 conveniently. In many cases, both here and elsewhere, the whole lode has 
 been removed as far as can be seen, and the nature of the lode can only be 
 guessed at from fragments of c^uartz left behind, and it is at present 
 impossible to form any opinion about the value of the property. 
 If the old pits were completely cleared out, the lode would in most 
 cases be rediscovered and could then be properly tested in depth.
 
 AURIFEROUS TRACTS 53 
 
 Scrapings of the sides of all the principal workings south of Sonnahalli 
 were washed and gave at best but very small shows of gold. 
 Half a mile east of Sonnahalli village, a very large reef is exposed on the 
 top of the ridge ; it does not look very promising, but seems worth deeper 
 prospecting than it has yet undergone. I did not attempt a crushing, as 1 
 could not find any good-looking stone from a sufficient depth. This reef 
 has a run of N. 5° W. At the foot of the north-eastern slope of the Sonna- 
 halli betta or hill, a large reef has been exposed and to some extent worked 
 out by a series of pits of moderate size. The quartz is white and barren- 
 looking. The line of old workings at Kariinaddanhalli commences about 
 i;V miles east of Sonnahalli betta, and extends northward for about a mile. 
 They have been sunk in pale pink gneissic-looking felspathic schists, but 
 associated with them are some hornblendic and ferruginous strata which bear 
 a fair resemblance to characteristic members of the auriferous schist 
 series, and they may, provisionally at least, be regarded as belonging to it. 
 They form a narrow strip about 2 miles in length on the flat top of a ridge 
 east of Karimaddanhalli village. The rock forming the casing of the reefs 
 is generally chloritic near the contact, but not so at the distance of a yard or 
 two. In the most southerly working the reef is not seen in the pit at 
 present and seems to have been entirely removed, but tliis cannot be 
 decidetl unless the pit were entirely cleared of jungle and debris. P'ragments 
 of quartz remaining are white but much iron-stained, and contain a few 
 scattered small cubes of pyrites. The great working east of Karimaddan- 
 halli village has been excavated along the course of a large reef running 
 very nearly due east and west. In colour this reef is very white, but parts 
 are much iron-stained, and it contains many cavities both cubical and 
 irregular in shape, the latter containing a decomposed chloritic mineral and 
 limonite. A i&w cubes of pyrites were noticed and some specks of 
 arsenical pyrites. About \ mile to the northward of the great working 
 commences a line of smaller old works which extend right down to the 
 south end of the Gijayanvaddargudi tank, a good mile to the north. Many 
 reefs arc exposed running in various directions north, south, cast, west, 
 north-east, south-west, &c. &c., and all are white and hungry-looking, and 
 include hardly any accessory minerals, small chloritic and hicmatitic 
 inclusions excepted. Some of the reefs are large, from 6' to 8' or 10' thick. 
 The country rock here consists of hornblendic and chloritic schists, the 
 latter in very small quantity. Many washings were made and gold obtained 
 in nearly every case, but only in small quantity. Not a vestige of free gold 
 was seen in any of the reefs, either here or anywhere else. If it existed, 
 the old miners were very careful to remove every atom of the gold-bearing 
 cjuartz. About '\ of a mile north-east-by-east of Nadapaiilialli is a line of 
 old workings of limited extent, sunk in pale greenish-brown chloritic schist. 
 From the southern working, a fair-sized pit, the u hole of the reef has been 
 removed. In the more northerly workings, some shallow pits and a long 
 shallow trench, a good-sized quartz reef is exposed to the depth (at present) 
 of 3 or 4 feet at the utmost. The quartz is white, but shows a fair number 
 of cavities tilled with earthy linionite, probably derived from the dccompo-
 
 54 GEOLOGY 
 
 silion of enclosures of cliloritir minerals. Pyrites is very rare, occurring 
 only in very minute cubes or species. Bright spangles and films of red 
 hicmatite arc common. Several washings were made from scrapings of the 
 pit sides, and in each case resulted in a small show of rich-coloured gold. 
 This concludes the survey of this group south of the Kdveri. 
 
 The well-known Bcllibcffa and its environs contain a considerable number 
 of large and well-defined reefs, to which a large amount of attention had 
 been paid by the old native miners. Bellibetta, or the silver hill, is the 
 highest of a group of moderate-sized hills rising on an outlier of the auriferous 
 series, rather more than 20 miles N.W. of Seringapatam, and 3^ S.W. of 
 Krishnar.-ijpct. The principal old workings are situated on the northern spur of 
 BeHibetta, and consist of several large pits and a variety of smaller ones, with 
 several small shafts and passages. Some are a good deal obstructed by jungle 
 growth and all to a great extent choked up with d(^bris, which makes it quite 
 impossible to be certain as to the depth they were carried to. Dumps are 
 numerous but not proportionate in extent to the size of the workings, so it is 
 probable that much of the auriferous quartz was carried away to be reduced 
 to powder elsewhere. The mass of Bellibetta consists of chloritic schist, the 
 beds of which dip westward at a high angle, the strike being slightly west-of- 
 north. They show considerable contortion. They are underlaid to the east by 
 a bed of very coarse steatitic schist, on which the village of Katargatta stands. 
 The run of the majority of the reefs is a little west-of-north, but one or two run 
 east and west. To the south-west of Katargatta village is a very large reef of 
 pale blue and white quartz v/hich extends north-westward up to the slope and 
 appears to join the set of reefs on top of the northern spur of Bellibetta in 
 which the great workings have been carried on, but a considerable space 
 between them is covered up by debris and talus at present and the con- 
 nection cannot be proved positively. No workings have been made along 
 the lower part of this great reef, but to the south and south-west of it I 
 noticed a large number of small workings and dumps. A not very important 
 series of old shallow works with dumps occurs on the ridge north of 
 Bejiibetta, and here washings gave a very poor show of gold. A large and well- 
 marked reef forms the crest of this ridge, but it is very white and hungry- 
 looking and contains no enclosures but a very little chlorite. The country 
 rock is a curiously felted fibrous hornblende schist, with a small admix- 
 ture of chlorite. A few hundred yards to the south-west, in the jungle on 
 the left bank of the stream flowing into the little Katargatta tank, a bare 
 sheet of very light-coloured rocks, apparentl}' a quartzite, is exposed, on which 
 are many score of small saucer-shaped holes, evidently made by pounding 
 the quartz to reduce it. None of the " mullers " or hammers used in the 
 process were found here. Half a mile north of Katargatta Aillage lie some 
 important quartz reefs and a large number of old workings. The reefs form 
 the edge of a ledge formed by the eastern ridge of the auriferous rocks, 
 Bellibetta being the western ridge rising out of the outlier. The reefs, which 
 are very large and well-marked, consist of pale blue and bluish-white quartz. 
 I saw no indications of any recent deep prospecting along these reefs, the 
 eastern of which is exposed for nearly a mile and the western for about j
 
 AURIFEROUS TRACTS 55 
 
 mile. About ^ of a mile to the northward of these great reefs is a Hne of old 
 workings. They are mostly large trenches, so greatly filled up with soil and 
 grass that no signs of any reef can be made out. They present every 
 appearance of great age. The countrj^ rock is also almost entirely masked 
 by soil and vegetation ; when seen, it consisted of a talcose hornblende 
 schist. Very little quartz is seen lying about, and it looks as if the lodes had 
 been extracted bodily. I cannot confirm Mr. Lavelle's asserted discovery of 
 silver ore on Bellibetta, having been unable to find any sort or kind of 
 argentiferous mineral there ; still there can be no doubt that it is a gold- 
 field of very great promise and deserving of the closest examination by deep 
 prospecting on an ample scale. The great reef on Bellibetta, if proved 
 sufficiently auriferous, could easily be mined to considerable depth by 
 simple quarrying, and for this reason among others I think Dewan 
 Purniah's want of success in mining for silver here was due to the want of 
 ore rather than any other cause. Very near the northern e.xtremity of the 
 Bellibetta outlier is a small group of small shallow pits and dumps. They 
 lie on both sides of the Mysore-Hassan road, about 5 of a mile north-west 
 of Pura. Two small reefs were noted, but neither of them looked promising, 
 they being white and hungry. The country rock east of the road is a re- 
 markable hornblende schist, which shows a very pretty felting of the fibre 
 in stellate points with curved radiations. North of the Bellibetta outlier 
 comes a tract of micaceous granite-gneiss, with some hornblende schist 
 bands and occasional trap-dykes extending up to and beyond the famous 
 Jain temple of S'ravan Belgola, and some four miles further north-east, 
 where what appears to be a tiny outlier of the auriferous rocks 
 shows close to the little village of Kempinkote in Channarayapatna 
 taluq. The Kempinkote workings consist of one huge pit close 
 to the village, a small pit about 300 yards to the south-east, and 
 three or four small shallow excavations a mile to the north-east. The 
 great pit, which is by far the largest excavation of the kind I hav-e 
 seen in India, is dug out of hornblendic and steatitic schists, a good 
 deal contorted but having a general strike to the northward. Not a 
 trace of any reef is visible in situ, and but very few lumps of quartz remain 
 in the pit. This may very likely be explicable by the fact that it contained 
 free gold, and that every good-looking bit was carried off long ago to be 
 crushed elsewhere. I examined every bit of quartz I could see, but had not 
 the good fortune to find any free gold. A washing of the scrapings of the 
 side near a small exposure of the steatitic scliist gave a very rich show of 
 gold in proportion to the quantity of stuff washed. The gold was very fine- 
 grained and of excellent colour. A washing at the small pit to the south- 
 east gave a very poor result. The country rock here is also a steatitic schist 
 very similar to that of the big pit. A few small lenticular masses nf bluish- 
 white quartz occur on the east side of the second pit, but are too short to 
 be regarded as true reefs. The small excavations lying to the north-east of 
 Kempinkote have been made in chloritic schist abounding with small cubical 
 cavities full of reddish limonite. It is impossible to offer any positive 
 opinion as to the Kempinkote gold prospects, no reef being visible in the
 
 S6 GEOLOGY 
 
 great pit. The latter should be cleared out to see whether the reef has been 
 entirely worked out or not. The length and width of the great pit is so 
 great that it is quite possible the old miners really descended to a great 
 depth before stopped by water or other difliculties they could not compass 
 with their limited mechanical appliances. The great size of the old work- 
 ing shows, however, that the old miners found the place worth their atten- 
 tion for a long period. Overlying the chloritic schist which forms the main 
 mass of the low rise south-east of Nuggihalli is a thin bed of ha^matitic 
 schist, the debris from which forms a wide-spread talus. This iron-strewn 
 knoll appears to be the southern termination of the Tagadur-betta outlier, 
 unless the auriferous rocks make a considerable sweep to the west, for the 
 rocks along the direct path from Kempinkote to Nuggihalli belong to the 
 gneiss. To the northward the hiematite band thickens considerably, and 
 may be traced for nearly a mile, and may very likely represent the great iron 
 beds which form the crest of Tagadurbelta itself. The rock shown in the 
 quarry about i| miles N.N.E. of Nuggihalli is of doubtful geological age, 
 and is separated from the Tagadurbetta band of the auriferous schists by 
 a band nearly 2 miles in width of granite gneiss. The workings described 
 by Mr. Lavelle as occurring one mile north of the village, were not seen by 
 me, nor are any indications of them given on his maps. Two pits I was 
 taken to at about | to f of a mile W. and N.W. by W. of Nuggihalli, appear to 
 me to have been quarries for rubble stone, not excavations made for any 
 mining purposes, for no signs appear either of reefs or dumps in either case. 
 They are situated just within the western boundary of the schist outlier, 
 and lie near the path leading from Nuggihalli to Virupdkshipur. A mile 
 and a quarter N.N.W., and just at the head of the valley running north-east 
 from the Tagadurbetta hill, begins a set of old workings which occur at 
 intervals through the scrub jungle for rather more than half a mile. The 
 workings are all very shallow and look as if they had been early abandoned. 
 The reefs seen run in the strike of the country rock, which bends about from 
 north and south to north-west and back to north again. None of the reefs 
 here are of any length or great thickness. The quartz they consist of is 
 white and hungry-looking, and the washings obtained were not encouraging 
 in quantity, though not so small as to make me condemn this gold-field as 
 imworthy of further attention, for the country rock, chloritic schists with 
 intercalated hsmatitic bands, is favourable to the occurrence of gold. The 
 crest of Tagadurbetta consists of two good-sized beds of massive ha^matitic 
 rock, which are one source of the great haematitic talus which covers the 
 eastern slope of the ridge. The southern extension of these beds is very 
 soon masked by surface deposits, but to the north they extend about a mile 
 as low but conspicuous mural outcrops. How much further they extend I 
 could not say, but it is not all improbable they may run considerably further, 
 or even join the iI/rt//^«/i«/// outlier, 8 miles to the N.N.W. These work- 
 ings lie a mile south of the high road leading from Hassan to Tiptur, and 
 about 10 miles south-west of the latter town No reef is seen in connection 
 with the large pit, nor is the country rock exposed just here, but close by it 
 consists of hornblendic schist underlying a green micaceous gneissoid schist,
 
 AURIFEROUS TRACTS 57 
 
 and fragments of true quartzite \vcre observed lying about in some quantity, 
 confirming the Dharwar age of these beds. A moderate show of gold was 
 obtained by washing. A little to the northward of the pit is a large reef of 
 rather good-looking bluish-white mottled quartz. The reef shows for nearly 
 100 yards, and is from 12 to 15 feet thick on the surface. The quartz shows 
 no included minerals, but testing in depth might very probably show good 
 results. The schistose rocks seem to stop near Mallenhalli, and only gneissic 
 rocks were noted between the village and the ne.xt auriferous \oc■^X\\.y,Jalga- 
 ran/ialii, 35 miles N.W. by N. This consists of a small and rather shallow 
 pit with a number of date-palms growing in and around it. No reef is seen 
 traversing the pit, on the east side of which is an outcrop of the stellately 
 felted hornblende rock seen at the Pura workings at the north end of the 
 Bcllibetta outlier. A wash of scrapings from the side of the pit gave a fair 
 show of fine gold, sufficient to recommend that it be more fully prospected 
 and tested than has as yet been done. The Belgiimba auriferous rocks are, 
 I believe, the northerly extension of the beds seen at Jalgaranhalli, but time 
 did not allow of my examining the intermediate tract of country, and I 
 visited the Belgumba tract from the north. This group of old workings lies 
 7 miles south-east of Arsikere, and i.^ miles south of the 99th milestone on the 
 Bangalore-Shimoga road. The highest point of ground due south of the 
 99th mile is the northern extremity of the Belgumba outlier of the auriferous 
 rocks ; the southern end, as above explained, forming to all appearance the 
 Jalgaranhalli auriferous patch. The workings, with one exception, lie along 
 the westerly slope of a low ridge extending S.S.E. from the high pointi just 
 referred to. The strike of the schist beds is as nearly as possible S.S.E., 
 and they occupy a band about \ a mile in width abreast of the workings ; 
 further south the band seems to widen out. A large but generally white and 
 hungry-looking reef runs along the ridge on its western slope just below the 
 summit, and another similar one crests a knoll a little to the south of the 
 most southerly pit. They run parallel with the strike of the chloritic and 
 liornblendic schists forming the country rock. The northern reef shows 
 bluish colour in parts. The considerable size of the old workings 
 is the only evidence in favour of their having been productive. They are 
 much obscured by rubbish, and in their present state it is impossible to say 
 whether or not the reefs they were worked on continue in depth. The 
 prospects of future success at this place are not very encouraging. The 
 country northward from the Trigonometrical Station hill up to and beyond 
 the Shimoga road is all gneissic. At Gollarhalli, about 6 miles to the 
 south-west of Belgumba, is a very large old working, in shape like a very 
 rude horse-shoe, opening northward. The depth of the working is nowhere 
 i;rcat, and at the southern part of the curve very shallow. The curve encloses 
 a few small detached workings of no interest or importance. Dumps occur 
 ])rctty numerously all along the sides of the horse-shoe, but no reefs are 
 visible in any part of the workings except at the southern apex, where a 
 large but very ill-defined reef of bluish-white colour shows up for a few yards ; 
 but it is very easy to overlook it, as it is greatly obscured by rubbish. A 
 ' Tills point is crowned l;y ii Trigononielrical Station, 2,982 feet above sea-level.
 
 58 GEOLOGY 
 
 very barren-looking reef of massive white quartz occurs some little distance 
 north of the western branch of the horse-shoe. Neither of these reefs has 
 been tested to any depth. This outlier of the auriferous rocks, if such rocks 
 they are, is a very small one, and gneissic rocks occur all around at very 
 small distances. Very little is seen of the country rock except at the 
 eastern end of the works, where an immensely tough hornblendic rock with 
 a soapy steatitic weathered surface occurs. Small outcrops of hornblendic 
 schist peep up here and there in the workings. The washings that I had 
 made at the western extremity gave only a small show of gold, but from 
 scrapings in the deepest part of the eastern arm of the working I got a very 
 fair show. The locality appears to me to be deserving of closer prospecting 
 than it has yet undergone. Three and a half miles south-south-west of 
 Arsikere are the old Yellavari workings, which lie in the low ground half a 
 mile or so east of the village, and are excavated in hornblendic schist with 
 intercalated bands of chlorite schist, which I refer but doubtfully to the 
 auriferous system. The quartz seen is bluish-greyish-white in colour, very 
 saccharoid in texture, and much iron-stained in part from the decomposition 
 of included specks of haematite. Specks of powdery kaolin occur, but no 
 visible gold or any sulphides. The reef lies between bands of micaceous 
 and hornblendic bands of gneiss on the east and west respectively. A 
 washing from the casing of the reef gave a very small show of gold. I feel 
 justified in recommending further testings and a search for the reef, which 
 will probably be re-discovered if the working is cleared out to the bottom. 
 Whether there is any connection between the Yellavari and GoUarhalli 
 patches of auriferous rock I cannot say ; the country is too jungly, and the 
 rocks at both places seen in such very small outcrops that the eye can only 
 follow them for a few yards. I noted no sign of any extension of the 
 schists northward or north-westward past Arsikere. Karadihalli is the last 
 of the auriferous localities included in the west-central group. The work- 
 ings lie on the north and south-east slopes of a low ridge, the centre of 
 which is formed by a small granite gneiss hill, locally called the Chotnare 
 Maradi, around the base of which lie beds of steatite and hornblendic rock 
 of doubtful age, geologically speaking. As to reefs, only one small one 
 was noted near the southern set of pits, and this is a white and hungry- 
 looking one running for some 60 paces N. 5° W. Northward of the 
 Chotnare Maradi are two large reefs deserving of further examination. The 
 first, which lies due north of the hill, runs north and south, the second, which 
 shows much more conspicuously, lies a couple of hundred yards further 
 north-east and runs N. 20" W. The great wealth in gold which Mr. Lavelle 
 ascribes to this part of the country has, I think, yet to be proven. The 
 auriferous tracts already known are very small in extent, and, as far as surface 
 study of them goes, they do not appear to be of the highest class. 
 
 ( Tar ike re to Ddvangere) 
 
 Western Group. — No old workings or unworked auriferous localities were 
 brought to my notice in the southern part of the western band, but since
 
 AURIFEROUS TRACTS 59 
 
 the completion of my tour I have seen a statement' that a vast number of 
 old workings occur all over the hills to the north-west of Halebid. These 
 old workings should certainly be looked up, both on geological and 
 economic grounds. The western group is numerically far poorer in 
 auriferous localities than either of the others, and they are scattered widely 
 apart. The sands of several of the small streams running down from the 
 hills west of the village of Chiranhalli in Tarikere taluq are auriferous. A 
 washing in the stream flowing through the little tank known as the 
 Huggisiddankatte gave a good show of rather coarse gold. A very fair 
 show was next obtained at the junction of the same stream with another 
 coming in from the north, and a small show from the bed of the northern 
 stream, which is crossed by a good-sized quartz reef running N.N.E. This 
 was the only reef seen, but other reefs doubtless occur among the hills west 
 of the Huggisiddankatte. The country rock consists of steatitic and very 
 pale chloritic schists, full of cubical crystals of pyrites, some of which are 
 replaced by pseudomorphs in limonite, and others are quite fresh and bright. 
 Well-shaped octohedra of magnetic iron are also to be found in the schists. 
 The geological features are all favourable to the occurrence of gold, and the 
 locality is worthy of very careful prospecting. At Malcbcnniir, the sands 
 of the little stream which falls into the Komaranhalli tank next beyond the 
 ridge underlying the south end of the tank bund are auriferous, and from 
 a washing I made here I obtained a very good show of coarse-grained gold 
 of excellent colour. The little stream drains the western slope of the ridge 
 for about a quarter of a mile, and its whole catchment basin must be less 
 than 100 acres. The greater part of this consists of chloritic schists which 
 in their upper part contain many lamina? and small nests of crystalline 
 limestone. The chloritic schists are underlaid by trap, to all appearance a 
 contemporaneous flow. This trap extends westward far beyond the basin 
 of the small stream. To the east the chlorite schist is overlaid by a 
 h;umatitic quartzite bed of considerable thickness, beyond which I did not 
 follow up the series. No reefs are to be seen within the basin of the little 
 stream, but many small veins of blue quartz occur traversing the chlorite 
 schist and also the overlying hiematite bed. Some of the larger of these veins 
 on top of the ridge have an east-to-west run. The western slope ought to 
 be very closely tested by costeaning in order to ascertain the source of the 
 gold dust found in the stream. Trenches carried through the talus-covered 
 parts of the slope may also be tried in order to find, if possible, any larger 
 reefs. As already stated, a trap formation occupies the bottom of the valley 
 west of the auriferous stream. This trap is much obscured by soil and talus, 
 and the sequence of the rocks is not to be made out near the road. Where 
 the ground begins to rise westward, and rocks crop out, is a quartzite so much 
 altered by crushing and weathering that it has in parts assumed quite a 
 gneissoid appearance. Underlying this comes a thick band of dark schist, 
 chiefly argillitic, and this in its turn is underlaid by a great thickness ot pale 
 green and grey schists, chlorito-micaceous, in variable character. A few 
 
 ' In an cxliauslivo work on the Occurrence anil Extraction of Ciolcl, by .\. Ci. 
 Lock.
 
 6o GEOLOGY 
 
 beds of quartzite are intercalated here and there, and many very irregular 
 veins of white and pale bluish quartz are to be seen traversing the schists. 
 Gold occurs at Anckonda, a little over half a mile X.L. of Davajigere 
 travellers' bungalow, in form of dust obtained by washing the red gritty soil 
 lying against the rock, which here forms a ridge rising only 20 feet (if as 
 much) over the surrounding country. The rock is a brecciated quartz run, 
 not an ordinary reef. Runs such as these are common in many parts of the 
 gneiss in the Ceded Districts and elsewhere, but I have never met with one 
 within the auriferous (I)harwar) series, nor have I ever come across such a 
 brecciated quartz rock that had been regarded as auriferous by the old 
 miners and mined as such. A washing of the red soil exposed in the 
 shallow bed of a small stream falling into the Anekonda tank, a few hundred 
 yards further south, also yielded a small show of gold. The source of this 
 gold I believe to lie in the high ground to the south. 
 
 The elevated tract of the auriferous rocks of which the Bababudan moun- 
 tains form the centre is one well deserving great attention both from the 
 geologist and the mining prospector, it being an area of great disturbance, 
 the rocks being greatly contorted on a large scale, and on the north and 
 south sides at least of the area much cut up by great faults. Regions of 
 great disturbance are in many cases extra rich in minerals, and it is very 
 likely that such may be the case here. It is only of late years, owing to the 
 extension of coffee-planting, that this mountain region has become accessible. 
 Before that it was covered by vast impenetrable forests which hid every- 
 thing. These are now penetrable in many directions, and the modern pros- 
 pector has opportunities which did not exist before. The eastern part of 
 the mountain tract culminating in the Bababudan mountains consists of 
 huge flows of trap-rock (diorite) with intercalated beds of dark argillitic 
 schists capped by quartzites and haematites, which two latter form the 
 summit of the Bababudan mass. Mr. Lavelle mentions magnetic iron ore 
 and " chrome " (presumiably chromic iron) from the Bababudans, but un- 
 fortunately does not give any localities, so it was impossible to inquire 
 further into their occurrence. The chromic iron would be valuable if found 
 in good quantity and easily mined. The most southerly of the auriferous 
 localities in the western set is Sitladainaradi, a small hill 2 miles south-east 
 of Tarikere. The hill consists of chloritic schist in highly contorted beds. 
 The great white reef on top of the hill participates in the contortions, and is 
 bent into a very remarkable flat sigmoid curve. This and the other reefs 
 occurring on the north side of the hill are \ ery white and hungry-looking. 
 The only enclosures in the quartz I noted, after careful search, were small 
 spangles with rich green chlorite. There were no sulphides, nor any other 
 mineral, the chlorite excepted. The indications of the Suladamaradi rocks 
 are anything but favourable, and the old miners evidently thought so too, 
 for there are no signs of old workings. On the left bank of the Bhadra 
 river, 13 miles south- east of Shimoga, on washing in the rain gully draining 
 the south side of Ho7i7ichatti\\\\\{Tx\g. Station \ I obtained a very good 
 show of moderately coarse gold. The mass of the hill consists of chloritic 
 schist having a N.N.W. strike, and the beds may be seen extending for
 
 AURIFEROUS TRACTS 6i 
 
 miles in that direction, after which they trend X.E. Several large reefs are 
 to be seen running N.N.W., or in the line of the strike of the country rock. 
 Their only apparent fault is their great whiteness. No workings are seen on 
 the south side of the hill, but on ascending the Honnehattimaradi on its 
 eastern side, I came upon several unknown old pits and one shaft, which 
 from their bearing had evidently been sunk to follow one of the reefs. The 
 workings had evidently been continued to some depth, and were therefore in 
 all probability fairly remunerative. Honnehatti appears to me to deserve 
 very marked attention from earnest prospectors. Palava7ihallt : — This well- 
 known auriferous tract, which with the adjacent Kudrikonda tract con- 
 stitutes the Honnali gold-field, was first visited by me in 1881 and its 
 geology very carefully worked out and reported on (see above, p. 41). 
 My opinion oi the Kudrikonda tract was published in the paper just referred 
 to. I believe my geological inferences to have been correct, and that the 
 temporary non-success of the mine has been due mainly to want of capital 
 wherewith to push on the works in depth. So long as sufificient quartz was 
 raised to keep the stamps at full work, the mine paid its expenses. Should 
 more capital be raised and working be resumed, I fully expect the yield of 
 gold will improve in depth, as has been the case in so many deep mines in 
 Australia. Without having the plans to refer to, and the mine itself being 
 full of water owing to the stoppage of the works, and therefore inaccessible, 
 I could not form any opinion as to the merits or demerits of the plan of 
 work which had prevailed, but I cannot help thinking that if a new engine 
 of sufficient power be provided to keep the mastery over the great volume 
 of water flowing through the mine, it will soon be possible to sink an ex- 
 ploratory shaft to find the lode, which has been thrown by a fault in the 
 country rock. It would be a great mistake to abandon further work without 
 having made an earnest search for the missing lode, as from the structure of 
 the country it is very unlikely that the throw of the fault can be a great 
 one. 
 
 Noji-Mctallic ^ fin era is. 
 
 The pure gold-prospecting work left me no leisure to devote to any non- 
 metallic minerals, excepting such as actually fell in my way. 
 
 Emery. — Near Nadapanhalli a ie\y small masses of dirty brown rock, 
 measuring less than 2 cubic yards in the aggregate, are seen by the side of 
 a field road. There are no signs of any working, so I suppose only loose 
 pieces were taken away to test its commercial value, which cannot be great. 
 The emery is very impure and of poor quality, and with good corundum 
 obtainable in quantity in various other parts of the country is not deserving 
 of any attention. 
 
 Asbestos. — Only one asbestos-yielding locality came under my notice, to 
 the west of BeUibetta. The matrix rock in which the asbestos really occurs 
 is not seen in the little pit from which the stone had been dug. The surface 
 of the country just here consists of reddish kankar underlying red soil. 
 The asbestos I saw had been included in the kankar, having apparently been 
 weathered out from its original matrix, whatc\er that may ha\e been. The
 
 62 GEOLOGY 
 
 show of asbestos at the i)it was very small and of inferior qiiahty. The 
 lar},^est pieces showed a coarse fibre, 4 to 5 indies long, cream-coloured, and 
 of dull lustre. I only noticed one piece with fine silky fibre and silvery- 
 white colour. In the present condition of the pit, it is impossible to form 
 an opinion as to the capabilities of the place. 
 
 Kaolin. — Kaolin is mentioned by Air. Lavelle as occurring in several 
 places and of good quality and colour, but he does not state whether it is 
 available in large quantities. To be of real value commercially it must be 
 of the highest degree of purity and free from all iron-mould or stain. To 
 raise it on a large scale requires the presence on the spot of a large supply of 
 perfectly liinpidiuater, with which to work the rock by hydraulic sluicing, and 
 facilities for the construction of large settling pits, which must be protected 
 from the influence of ferruginous dust of any kind. In Europe, china clay 
 works are found to pay only where the industry can be carried out on a really 
 large scale. I have never yet seen in India a place combining the two most 
 essential requirements for a successful industry, namely, a large develop- 
 ment of kaolinized granite and a sufficient supply of limpid water. The 
 limpidity of the water is a sine qua non for success. There is no demand 
 for large quantities of kaolin in India, and speculators would do well to 
 make sure before starting such an industry in India that they could find a 
 profitable market for their produce in Europe or elsewhere. 
 
 Marble. — I noticed a good bed of grey crystalline limestone running north 
 and south across one of the gullies near the main gold pit at Holgere. The 
 limestone lies half way down the slope to the Holgere tank, and is of good 
 quality, and would be a useful stone for decorative and monumental 
 sculpture. Immense quantities of grey crystalline limestone, divided by 
 partings and small beds of quartzite, occur on the east side of the main 
 ridge lying between Chiknayakanhalli and Dod-Rampura. The limestones 
 are several hundred feet thick and deserve to be prospected, for they may 
 very likely contain beds of other colour than grey which would be valuable 
 in sculpture. 
 
 Granite. — .A. very beautiful variety of granite gneiss, eminently fitted for 
 cutting and polishing on a large scale, forms the mass of Chotnaremaradi in 
 the little Karadihalli gold-field, two miles east of Banavar. The rock is 
 remarkably free from joints, and monoliths of great size could easily be 
 quarried. It is by far the handsomest granite I have seen in Mysore. 
 
 Porphyry. — A great dyke of beautiful porphyry traverses the hills east of 
 the Karigatta temple overlooking Seringapatam. The porphyry, which is of 
 warm brown or chocolate colour, includes many crystals of lighter coloured 
 felspar and dark crystals of hornblende. The stone would take a very high 
 polish, and for decorative purposes of high class, such as vases, panels and 
 bases for busts and tazzas, etc., it is unequalled in South India, and deserving 
 of all attention. If well polished it fully equals many of the highly prized 
 antique porphyries. The dyke is of great thickness and runs for fully a 
 mile, so is practically inexhaustible. Blocks of very large size could be 
 raised, and, from the situation of the dyke on the sides of two steep hills, it 
 would be very easy to open up large quarries if needful.
 
 Kii lapiir^ 
 
 
 
 V' 
 
 ^Pant 
 
 iiJblpatam 
 
 
 
 Jtumoa 
 
 ../^ 
 
 ^'^uidvaP-, 
 
 Mtrttth<r of' thf KH.shna 
 
 J \ 
 
 iGaAtif 
 
 ^h„,„i,,„„,,.,ii, 
 
 
 
 \' 
 
 ;>-" 
 
 
 
 \jc.A., 
 
 NeJjore 
 
 
 Duila. 
 
 UChitUK 
 
 .A 
 
 ,' I \PHhcat 
 
 
 /. 
 
 
 IRAS 
 
 'Uavartun 
 
 Cannan*} 
 
 i^ g>/ 
 
 '^^S 
 
 Ssilem 
 
 .i^ 
 
 Calic 
 
 "OotScoiiiuiiH. 
 
 jfCannbatDre 
 
 Tonarul 
 GEOLOGICAL MAP 
 
 After R. D. Oldham (ochmi'>^ 
 
 Idndii 
 
 ^ Tiuchiiiopolv 
 
 i ^TlCiidjialOT-i" 
 
 7hantpu-har 
 
 Tinnt OiJi/TUTV 
 
 REFtRENCt TO COLOURINO \\l L\ '^ 
 
 Recent and Subrecent -^/'/'/"W\ ^ 
 
 Deccan tra^ 
 
 Cretaceous 
 
 I Upper Gondwana 
 
 ' Upper (Vindhyan) )_ Older 
 j Lower (Kadapa) j'Palxozoic 
 
 I I Transition Systems 
 
 i Jj CrystaUine,(Gneis8, Granite &c.) 
 
 
 '~r<n\itii'oiTii 
 
 ■/ 
 
 Cape 'omorlii 
 
 -^Jiz-,
 
 METEOROLOGY 
 
 The Hindus divide the year into six seasons. Of these the first, 
 vasaitta ritu or spring, commences with the opening of the Hindu year 
 in March. It is the season of love and pleasure, and is a favourite 
 theme of Indian bards. The weather is serene and clear, the farmer's 
 occupations are mostly over, and he has time to celebrate the yearly 
 festivals of his gods and the marriages of his kinsfolk. The mango is 
 then covered with blossom, and the landscape is gay with the beautiful 
 and sweet-scented flowers of the kakkc or Indian laburnum. The 
 southerly breezes that blow during the night are the voluptuous zephyrs 
 of this vernal season. The grishiiia ritu, literally sweating season, is 
 the second. It is the hottest part of the year, the sun being nearly 
 vertical. The dust of the arid fields is frequently carried up in small 
 whirlwinds, forming what are c^iWed pisdchis or devils. Nightly illumina- 
 tions of the ghats and hills are seen, the result either of spontaneous 
 combustion from the friction of bamboos against each other, or of a 
 spark blown into the long withered grass which covers the slopes. The 
 heat is intense and the air often still and stagnant. The sunset sky 
 glows with the most fervid tints. It is the time of cyclones. Thunder- 
 clouds suddenly gather, and — preceded by storms of dust, which sweep 
 impetuously over the surface of the ground, obscuring the view for 
 miles, — the rain, accompanied with vivid flashes of lightning, close 
 followed by startling claps of thunder, descends in large and distant 
 drops, often mixed with hail. These short-lived tempests prelude the 
 grateful bursting of the monsoon, and introduce the varsha rifii or rainy 
 season. The south-west monsoon blows steadily during this period 
 and should bring with it abundance of rain. The rivers are swollen and 
 sometimes impassable for days. Hie face of nature is clad in green and 
 the ploughed fields receive the precious seed. The s'arad ritu or 
 autumn next succeeds, during which the sun being again vertical in his 
 southern declination but shedding a moderate heat, the fruits of the 
 earth ripen. This season closes with the change of the monsoon, which 
 is marked by the loudest thunder aud heaviest rain of the year, the wind 
 settling steadily in the north-east. The largest tanks are often filled in 
 a few hours and a store of water obtained that will last over the succeed- 
 ing dry months. The hemauta ritu or winter next sets in, with chilly foggy 
 morp.ings and bright sunny days. The fields are reaped and the grain 
 stacked. The s'is'ira ritu or cold season concludes the circle of the 
 year. Piercing north-east winds dry up all trace of moisture, and clouds
 
 64 METEOROLOGY 
 
 of dust arise from every movement over the thirsty ground. 'J'lie skin 
 is parched and feverish. I3ut the larger trees put forth new leaves or 
 cover themselves with a mass of gorgeous blossom. 
 
 The year in Mysore may, however, with sufficient accuracy be divided, 
 according to another Hindu system as old as the Vedas, into three 
 seasons — the rainy, the cold, and the hot. The first commences with 
 the bursting of the south-west monsoon, at the end of May or early in 
 June, and continues with some interval in August or September to the 
 middle of November, closing with the heavy rains of the north-east 
 monsoon. Tt is followed by the cold season, which is generally entirely 
 free from rain, and lasts till the end of February. The hot season then 
 sets in, towards the beginning of March, and increases in intensity to 
 the end of May, with occasional relief from thunder-storms. 
 
 The close of the rainy season in November is marked by dense fogs 
 which prevail all over the country during December and January. 
 They begin about three in the morning and last till seven, when they 
 are dispersed by the heat of the sun. But in some parts fogs or rather 
 mists follow the earlier rains. Thus about Chitaldroog from August to 
 October the hills are obscured till nearly ten in the forenoon. 
 
 The temperature is the most equable during the rainy months, the 
 range of the thermometer at Bangalore at that season being between 64° 
 and 84". In the cold season the mercury falls there as low as 51° in 
 the early morning, and sometimes rises to 80° during the day. The 
 minimum and maximum in the shade during the hottest months are 
 about 66° and 91°, or in extreme seasons 96". The observations 
 registered in the several Districts are given in Vol. II. 
 
 Situated midway between the eastern and western coasts, Mysore 
 shares in both monsoons, the south-west and the north-east. The rainfall 
 ranges from 200 inches or more^ a year in the Western Ghat regions, to 
 little more than 10 inches in the north centre. But these are extremes 
 that apply only to limited areas. The excessive rain of the ]\Ialnad 
 rapidly diminishes eastwards, and from 30 to 36 inches may be accepted 
 as the general average for the greater part of the country. The least 
 quantity of rain falls throughout the tracts lying north-east from the Baba 
 Budan range along both banks of the Vedavati or Hagari to the 
 Chitaldroog frontier of the Province. Compared with the rest of the 
 country this may be termed a rainless district, and the scanty fall is 
 attributed, no doubt correctly, to the influence of the towering mass of 
 the Baba Budan chain intercepting the moisture with which the south- 
 west monsoon wind is charged. 
 
 1 Mr. R. H. Elliot mentions that no less than 291 '53 inches fell between April and 
 the end of September (1893) at a cardamom plantation on the crests of the ghats.
 
 RAINS 
 
 65 
 
 The annual rainfall may be conveniently distributed into four periods, 
 namely : — 
 
 The cold weather rains ... ... December to March. 
 
 The hot weather rains ... ... April and May. 
 
 The south-west monsoon ... ... June to September. 
 
 The north-east monsoon ... ... October and November. 
 
 The cold weather rains are insignificant, scanty in quantity, and not 
 much needed for the standing crops. But they are useful in keeping 
 up the pasture supply of the country. The /lot iveather rains (some- 
 times called mango showers) are of the accidental kind ; heavy short 
 storms from the east. They are very important to successful agriculture, 
 as a copious fall replenishes the tanks and enables the cultivators to 
 prepare the land for the following south-ivest moisoon rains. These are 
 perhaps the most essential for the country, which, on account of its 
 general dryness, requires the steady drizzling and persevering rains of 
 this season to make the soil productive. The north-east monsoon rains 
 are especially important for filling the tanks and providing a store of 
 water that may last over the rainless months. 
 
 The following averages for each District have been calculated for each 
 season, based on the registered fall in the various taluqs in inches and 
 cents for twenty-four years, from 1870 to 1893 :— 
 
 
 Cold 
 
 Hot 
 
 s.w. 
 
 N.E. 
 
 Annual 
 Average. 
 
 District. 
 
 Weather. 
 
 Weather. 
 
 Monsoon. 
 
 Monsoon. 
 
 
 Dec— Mar. 
 
 Apr. — May. 
 
 June— Sept. 
 
 Oct.— Nov. 
 
 Bangalore 
 
 1-32 
 
 4-80 
 
 15-64 
 
 7-88 
 
 29-64 
 
 Kolar 
 
 I -08 
 
 3-69 
 
 13-53 
 
 7-06 
 
 25-36 
 
 Tumkiir 
 
 0-85 
 
 4-38 
 
 13-66 
 
 6-69 
 
 25-58 
 
 Mysore 
 
 1-63 
 
 6-98 
 
 IO-2I 
 
 8-36 
 
 27-18 
 
 Hassan 
 
 1-32 
 
 6-42 
 
 19-37 
 
 8-15 
 
 35-26 
 
 Shimoga . 
 
 I -03 
 
 5-58 
 
 48-96 
 
 7-50 
 
 63-07 
 
 Kadur .... 
 
 I "29 
 
 6-29 
 
 43-96 
 
 9-39 
 
 60-93 
 
 Chitaklroog 
 
 i-io 
 
 372 
 
 10-40 
 
 6-69 
 
 21-91 
 
 Average for the Province 
 
 I '20 
 
 5-23 
 
 21-96 
 
 772 
 
 36-11 
 
 There seems to be a periodicity in the rain-fall, particularly well 
 marked at Tumkur, which is situated at an equal distance from either 
 coast and between the eastern and western mountain systems. A refer- 
 ence to the observations there recorded will show that for a considerable 
 period every sixth year was one of abundant rain. This rule is not 
 exhibited with equal precision in the register of other Districts. But 
 there seems to be a general impression that about one year in five is a 
 
 F
 
 66 METEOROLOGY 
 
 good season for rain. And this accords to some extent with scientific 
 discoveries ; for a connection or correspondence has been traced between 
 the terrestrial rainfall and the solar spots which gives a period of five 
 and six, or of eleven, years during which the mutual variation is more 
 or less constant.^ 
 
 A special department has now (1893) been formed for meteorology 
 in Mysore, with a well-equipped Observatory at Bangalore, where 
 reports will in future be received from 151 rain-gauge stations. 
 But meanwhile the following information from Mr. H. F. Blanford's 
 book-' is of interest, ^^'riting of the summer monsoon, he remarks that 
 " in Mysore, the Ceded Districts of Madras, the Deccan and Hyderabad, 
 more rain falls when the strength of the monsoon to northern India 
 relaxes, than when the interior plateau of the peninsula is swept by a 
 strong current from the west coast." The mean annual relative humidity 
 of the Mysore Province is set down as 66, that of Malabar and Coorg 
 being 79, and of the Carnatic 67. The mean monthly rainfall at the 
 following stations, based on the records of 50 years, is thus given, in 
 inches and cents. : — 
 
 Jan. FeH. Mar. Apr. May June 
 Bangalore... o'z ... o"i ... o"6 ... 1 '3 ... 5 "o ... 3 "2 . 
 
 Mysore o"i ... ot ... 07 ... 2 "2 ... 5 "6 ... i"9 
 
 Shimoga ... o'l ... o'l ... 0*3 ... I'S ... 3*3 ... 47 . 
 
 The maximum is 25'9 at Shimoga in July, i9"5 at Bangalore in 
 October, and 15 '3 at Mysore in July. 
 
 Another important item is the estimated mean rainfall, as follows, on 
 the several river basins. The figures, it must be remembered, include 
 the portions that are beyond the limits of Mysore. Pennaur (N. 
 Pennar), 26 inches; Palar, 36; Panar (S. Pennar), 38; Kave'ri, 44; 
 Krishna above junction, 59 ; Tungabhadra, 43. 
 
 " Earthquakes " — Dr. Heyne observes — " are never violent and by no 
 means frequent in this country, occurring only about once in five years." 
 My own experience does not enable me to confirm this latter statement, 
 but shocks have been occasionally felt in the neighbourhood of the hills 
 running from Kankanhalli to Madgiri. From an inscription at Nelaman- 
 gala, it appears that an earthquake occurred there in July, 1507. "I 
 felt one at Tumkur," writes Dr. Heyne, " on the 23rd of October, 1800. 
 It is remarkable that at the same time a violent hurricane raged along 
 the coast from Ongole to Masulipatam. The shock was felt at Bangalore 
 
 ^ Generally speaking, there appears a tendency with maxima (of sun-spots) to 
 anticipate the middle time between the consecutive minima, the interval ii"iiy 
 being divided into two unequal sub-intervals of 477 >" and 6*34 >". — Chambers, 
 Astron., 17. 
 
 ^ " Climates and Weather of India," pp. 211, 50, 353, 2S4. 
 
 July 
 
 Aug. 
 
 .Sept. 
 
 Oct. 
 
 Nov. 
 
 Dec. 
 
 .4-0., 
 
 ,.5-9., 
 
 ..6-3.. 
 
 .6-4. 
 
 ..1-9. 
 
 ..07 
 
 .2-3. 
 
 ..3-2. 
 
 ••3-9- 
 
 .6-4. 
 
 ..1-6. 
 
 ..0-5 
 
 .6-6. 
 
 ..4-2. 
 
 ..3-1.. 
 
 .5-0. 
 
 .. 1-2 . 
 
 ..0-4
 
 CYCLONES 67 
 
 and in most other parts of Mysore ; and it was stronger in the south 
 than where I was. It seemed to come from the north, proceeding 
 southward along the inland range of hills, and to be guided farther by 
 those of which Sivaganga and Savandurga are the most conspicuous." 
 Colonel \\'elsh says, with reference to Bangalore : — " On the 29th of 
 December (1813), we experienced a pretty smart shock of an earth- 
 quake, which was very general in its effects all over the cantonment ; it 
 was accompanied by a rumbling noise, like a gun-carriage going over 
 a drawl)ridge, and appeared to come from the westward. Our roof 
 cracked as if a heavy stone had been thrown upon it, and every part of 
 the house shook for some seconds. .Some older and weaker buildings 
 were actually shaken down, and the walls of others separated or opened 
 out." An earthquake was felt at Tumkur in 1865, and several shocks 
 at Dangalore on the 31st of December, 1881. 
 
 Aerolites or meteoric stones sometimes fall. On the 21st of 
 September, 1865, one weighing 11^ lbs. fell near Maddur in the 
 Mysore District. It is deposited in the Museum. 
 
 Cyclones in the Bay of Bengal occasionally extend their influence far 
 inland. One of the 2nd of May, 1872, was very destructive in its effects ; 
 it blew a hurricane that overturned large trees even so far west as Coorg, 
 and was accompanied by a deluge of rain. Again on the 4th of May, 1874, 
 when a cyclone was raging on the Madras coast, a steady rain poured at 
 Bangalore, which continued without intermission for about forty-eight 
 hours. It had been preceded for several days by a still and hazy 
 appearance of the atmosphere. At the end of November, 1880, just at 
 the beginning of the ragi harvest, when but little was cut and the bulk 
 of this most important crop was all but ripe, a great part of the State 
 was visited by a storm of wind and rain of unusual severity, which did 
 very considerable damage to the crops, and was the cause, moreover, of 
 the breaching of a number of irrigation tanks. On the i6th of Novem- 
 ber, 1885, again, there was a continuous downpour lasting for more 
 than forty-eight hours, but this was not of a violent character. 
 
 "Next to its sunny skies and its notorious and somewhat oppressive 
 heat, perhaps no feature of the Indian climate," says Mr. Blanford,^ " is 
 more characteristic than the prevailing lightness of the wind." And to 
 this cause, rather than to want of mechanical skill on the part of the 
 cultivators, he attriljules the absence of wiiKlniills in India. The 
 average daily movement of the wind at Bangalore is put down at from 
 82 (Feb.) to 92 miles from Octol)er to March, 128 to 183 in May and 
 August to Septenilfer, 203 in June and 208 in July. 
 
 ' I.oc. <it. p. 30. 
 
 F 2
 
 68 
 
 FLORA 
 
 The situation of Mysore within the tropics, combined with an eleva- 
 tion which gives it a temperate chmate, and its almost complete environ- 
 ment by lofty mountain chains, are features which contribute to the 
 formation of a rich and varied flora. 
 
 The forests^ of the country, which yield a considerable item towards 
 its revenue, have been estimated to cover a total area of 2,975 J^Quare 
 miles, exclusive of scrub jungle which grows on much of the waste 
 land. They may be roughly divided into evergreen and deciduous 
 forests ; which again are distributed in three distinct forest belts, of 
 very unequal width, and running north and south. These are the 
 evergreen delf, the dry belt, and an intermediate one, combining some 
 of the features of both, which may be called the mixed belt. 
 
 The evergreen belt of forests is confined to the west, and comprises 
 the country in the Western Ghats and below them, extending from the 
 north of Sagar taluq to the south of Manjarabad. Its greatest width, 
 which is at its northern extremity, nowhere exceeds from 12 to 14 miles, 
 and at some points is not more than six. The tree vegetation is magni- 
 ficent. Many of the hills are covered to their summits with heavy 
 forest, while the valleys and ravines produce trees which can scarcely 
 be rivalled in India, — so luxuriant is their growth, so vast their height, 
 so great their size. In some parts the undergrowth is dense, elsewhere 
 the forest is open, and on all sides trees with clear stems to the first 
 branch of from 80 to 100 feet meet the eye. 
 
 The following are some of the more valuable trees growing in this 
 belt- : — 
 
 Artocarpus hirsuta ... Wild jack ... ... Heb-halasu, hesava^ 
 
 Good shade for coffee. Yields the anjeli wood of commerce. Wood hard and 
 durable when well seasoned, yellowish-brown, close-grained. Much used on the 
 western coast for house and ship-building, furniture, and other purposes. Weight 
 about 35 lbs. per cubic foot. 
 
 1 Originally based chiefly upon the Forest Report for 1869-70, by Captain van 
 Someren, Conservator of Forests. 
 
 - The third edition of " Forest Trees of Mysore and Coorg,"' by the same, edited 
 by Mr. J. Cameron, may be referred to for fuller information ; or Watts' " Dictionary 
 of the Economic Products of India." 
 
 •' In common use the Kannada name is put into the genitive case, followed by the 
 word niara, tree. Hence heh-halasina /nam, kesavaiia niara : diipada mara would 
 be more intelligible to a native than the bare name.
 
 TREES 69 
 
 Calophyllum tomenlosum I'oon spar ... ... Kuve, bobbi 
 
 Yields poon spars, which fetch a good price, and are used for masts. Wood reddish 
 and coarse-grained. Weight 48 lbs. per cubic foot. 
 
 Diospyros ebenum Ebony Kare, mallali 
 
 lieartwood black, very hard, durable, and takes a fine polish. Weight al»ut 80 lbs. 
 per cul)ic foot. In great demand for cabinet work, turnery, inlaying, and musical 
 instruments. 
 
 Erythroxylon monogj-num Red cedar ... ... Devadaru, adavi go- 
 
 ran ti 
 I leartwood dark brown and fragrant ; sometimes used as a substitute for sandal. 
 From it is distilled a tar or oil used in Ceylon to preserve timber. Leaves and bark 
 medicinal. 
 
 Garcinia morclla ... ... Gamboge-tree ... ... Kankutake 
 
 The yellow pigment which exudes from an incision in the trunk is the true gamboge 
 of commerce. W^ood hard and mottled. Weight aljout 56 lbs. per cubic foot. 
 
 Lagerstroemia flos-regina; Challa, maruva 
 
 Very handsome in blossom. Root, bark, leaves, and flowers used medicinally. 
 Wood light red, strong, and very duraljle under water. Weight alwut 42 lbs. per 
 cubic foot. 
 
 Soymida febrifuga ... Redwood ... ... Swami mara 
 
 Bark used for tanning and as an inferior dye ; is also a febrifuge. lieartwood very 
 hard and close-grained, reddish-black, very durable, not attacked by white ants. 
 Weight about 76 lbs. per cubic foot. 
 
 Valeria indica ... ... White dammar ... ... Di'ipa 
 
 Magnificent tree. Yields the gum-resin known as white dammar or Piney resin, 
 locally used as an incense and varnish. A fatty oil from the seeds is employed like 
 tallow for making candles. Heartwood grey, tough, moderately hard, porous. 
 Weight 41 Ujs. per cubic foot. Not much in demand. 
 
 The mixed belt of forest extends the whole length of the Province, 
 from the extreme north of Sorab taluq to Bandipur in the south of 
 Gundlupet talucj. It is very unequal in width, varying at different 
 points from 10 to 40 or 45 miles. It includes the greater number of 
 the timber-producing State forests, large tracts of District forests, and 
 much sandalwood. In it are the leans of Sorab and other portions of 
 Nagar, the areca nut and cardamom gardens of western Mysore, the 
 coffee plantations of Koppa and Manjarabad, and the rich rice-flats of 
 Sagar, Nagar, Tirthahalli, Chikmagalur and Heggadadevankote. The 
 division between this rich and productive belt and the far less u.seful strip 
 to the west of it cannot be very easily defined. The presence of a number 
 of fine tiajidi and blackwood trees, which grow abundantly and attain 
 great size on the eastern confines of the evergreen belt, form a sufificiently 
 clear line. The eastern limit may be taken to be a line which, com- 
 mencing near Anavatti in the north, would run south-east to half-way 
 between Shikarpur and Honnali ; thence due south to Sakrebail, where
 
 70 FLORA 
 
 it turns due east till it reaches a [)oint north of Lakvalli ; thence south, 
 through Lakvalli and along the eastern crests of the Ilaba Budans to 
 Vastara ; on through Pdlya, and passing a few miles west of Arkalgud 
 and Peryapatna it turns south-cast to Antarsante, and so by way of 
 Kurnagal reaches Bandipur. 
 
 The tree vegetation varies considerably in the large extent of country 
 comprised in this belt. All along the western confines, where it 
 approaches the Ghats, trees proper to the evergreen forests occur fre- 
 quently. The wild jack, the dupa, the redwood and sometimes the 
 poon are met with in varying quantities. But in the south portion of 
 the belt, in the Mysore District, wild jack and poon are unknown. The 
 following is a list of the more important trees found throughout this 
 tract : — 
 
 Adina cordifolia ... ... ... ... ... ... Arasina tega 
 
 Wood yellow, moderately hard, even-grained. Seasons well, takes a good polish, 
 and is durable, but lial)le to warp and crack. Weight 45 lbs. per cubic foot. Turns 
 well, and specially used for small articles, such as combs, gunstocks, and ornamental 
 boxes. 
 
 Albizzia lebbek ... ... Siris ... ... ... Bagi 
 
 Heartwood dark brown ; takes a good polish, and fairly durable. Weight 50 lbs. 
 per cubic foot. Its use for domestic purposes considered unlucky in many parts, but 
 used for picture frames, oil-mills, etc. Leaves a good fodder for cattle. Flowers a 
 cooling apjilication for boils. 
 
 Albizzia odoratissima ... ... ... ... ... Bilvara 
 
 Heartwood rich brown, tough and strong ; seasons well, takes a good polish, and 
 is durable when kept dry. Weight 50 lbs. per cubic foot. Used for wheels, oil-mills, 
 and agricultural implements. Bark medicinal. One of the most valuable jungle 
 trees for the use of the villagers. 
 
 Anogeissus latifolia ... ... ... ... ... Dindiga 
 
 Good fuel and charcoal tree. Sapwood yellow ; heartwood small, purplish-brown, 
 tough, very hard. Weight about 65 lbs. per cubic foot. Splits in seasoning and 
 must be kept dry to last. Gum used by calico printers for dyeing purposes ; green 
 leaves employed for tanning. 
 
 Bombax malabaricum ... Silk-cotton ... ... Buruga 
 
 Wood soft, white, spongy, and, except under water, very perishable. Used to 
 
 some extent for planking, packing cases, toys, floats, etc. A medicinal gum exudes 
 from the trunk. 
 
 Chloroxylon swietenia ... Indian satin-wood ... Huragalu 
 
 Wood hard, yellow-mottled, and prettily veined, dark towards the centre ; has a 
 fine satiny lustre, and is well adapted for delicate cabinet work, carpentry, and 
 turnery. Weight 56 lbs. per cubic foot. Heartwood said to be black, hea\y, and 
 not easily burnt. The wood is also very durable under water. Used for beams, 
 posts, boats, etc., and in Europe for backs of brushes, stethoscopes, and fancy 
 articles. 
 
 Cordia myxa ... ... ... ... ... ... SoUe 
 
 There are three local varieties — kadu solle, kempu solle, and solle kendal — differing
 
 TREES 71 
 
 in size, form, and colour of the fruit. The last is the Sebasten of commerce (a name 
 said to be derived from sag-pistan, Persian for dogs' nipples). It is very mucilaginous 
 and demulcent ; given for coughs and chest affections. Wood grey, soft, porous, 
 seasons well, and is fairly strong ; but soon attacked by insects. Used for agricultural 
 implements, sugar-cane mills, boats, and fuel. Rope made from the bark, which is 
 also medicinal. 
 
 Dalbergia lalifolia ... ... Blackwood ... ... Biii 
 
 Valuable furniture wood, resembling rosewood. Heartwood dark purple and 
 extremely hard, but somewhat brittle. Weight 55 lbs. per cubic foot. Used in 
 Mysore city for articles inlaid with ivory, also elsewhere for cart-wheels, gun-carriages, 
 etc. Shade tree for coffee. 
 
 Dalbergia paniculata ... ... ... ... ... Pachari 
 
 Wood greyish-white, soft, and }jerishable ; very subject to attacks of insects. 
 Weight aliout 42 lbs. per cubic foot when seasoned. 
 
 Dalbergia sissoo ... ... Sissoo ... ... ... Kiridi 
 
 Wood very durable, seasons well, and highly esteemed for all purjioses where 
 strength and elasticity are required. Suitable for boats, carriages, etc. 
 
 Dillenia pentagyna ... ... ... ... ... Koltega 
 
 Wood nicely marked, but heavy, coarse-grained, and dif'iicult to season. Weight 
 50 lbs. per cubic foot. 
 
 Gmelina arborea ... ... ... ... ... ... Kuli 
 
 Wood cream to pale yellow, close-grained, strong, and does not warp or crack in 
 sea.soning. Weight about 30 lbs. per cubic foot. Much esteemed for furniture, car- 
 riages, and ornamental work of all kinds. 
 
 Grewia tilirefolia ... ... ... ... ... ... Tadasalu 
 
 Wood light reddish-brown, compact, close-grained, durable, elastic, and easily 
 worked. Valuable where strength and elasticity are required. Used in cart and 
 carriage building, also for masts, oars, and shafts. Weight 35ll>s. per cubic foot. 
 Fruit eaten. 
 
 Holoptelea integrifolia ... Kntirc-leavcd ehn ... Tapasi 
 
 Wood yellow or light brown, no heartwood, soft, open-grained, but strong. 
 Weight 37 lbs. per cubic foot. Used for charcoal ; also for country carts, and some- 
 times for carving. 
 
 Lagerstroemia lanceolala ... ... ... ... ... Nandi 
 
 Wood red, smooth, even-grained, elastic, tough, and of great transverse strength. 
 Weight about 45 lbs. per cubic foot. Seasons well, and durable if preserved from 
 moisture. But felled trees soon decay if left exposed in the forest. Used in Coorg 
 for buildings ; also used for furniture, carts, and mills. 
 
 Mallotus philippinensis ... ... ... ... ... Kunkuma 
 
 The powder from the ripe fruit forms the Kamala dye, also known in the south of 
 India as Kapila. Wood only fit for fuel. Weight 48 ll)s. per cubic foot. 
 
 Michelia champaca ... Champac... ... ... Sampige 
 
 A favourite tree of Hindu poetry, well known for the fragrance of its blossoms, 
 which are worn in the hair, etc. Wood soft, seasons and polishes well. Very 
 durable. Weight about 40 lbs. jier cubic foot. Used for furniture, carriages, etc. 
 
 Phyllanthus emblica ... Emblic myrobalan ... Nelli 
 
 Wood mottled-reddish, hard and close-grained, warps and splits in seasoning.
 
 72 FLORA 
 
 Weight alxjul 50 ll)s. per cubic foot. Remarkaljlc for its dural>ilily under water, 
 which it also clears of impurities. For this purpose chips of it are thrown into wells 
 or ponds. The hark is used for tanning. The fruit, resembling a gooseberry, is acid 
 and astringent. Much used as an article of food, raw, preserved, or pickled. 
 
 I'terocarpus marsupium ... Indian kino ... ... Honne 
 
 Wood close-grained, reddish-brown, tough, slrc^ng, durable, seasons well, and takes 
 a good polish. Weight 53 lbs. per cul^ic foot. Makes good furniture, and widely 
 used for carts, window frames, agricultural implements, etc. Bark yields crimson 
 gum, the true kino of commerce. 
 
 Schleichera Irijuga ... Ceylon oak Sagade, chendala 
 
 Wood very hard, strong, durable, and takes a fine polish. Weight about 70 lbs. 
 per cul)ic foot. Used for pestles, axles, teeth of harrows, screw rollers of mills. In 
 the Central Provinces lac is produced on this tree, known as kusiima lac, the most 
 highly prized of all. Bark and oil from the seeds medicinal ; the latter said to be the 
 original Macassar oil. 
 
 Stephegyne parvifolia ... ... ... ... ... Kadaga 
 
 Similar to Adina cordifolia, but not used much in the south of India. 
 
 Sterculia villosa Shi-anvige 
 
 Wood said to be firmly close-grained, suitable for Ijuilding and furniture. Bags 
 and ropes made of the fibrous l)ark. 
 
 Tectona grandis ... ... Teak' ... ... ... Tegu, tyaga 
 
 The chief value of this well-known wood arises from its strength, added to its 
 durability, due probably to the resinous matter in the pores, which resists the action 
 of water. Weight varies in different localities, but approximately 45 lbs. per cubic 
 foot when seasoned. Used in India for numerous purposes — construction, ship- 
 building, sleepers, and furniture ; in Europe for railway carriages, ships, and the 
 backing of armour plates in ironclads. 
 
 Terminalia chebula ... Black myrobalan ... Alale, arale 
 
 The fruit is most valuable as a tan. The gall-nuts make excellent ink and dyes. 
 Wood hard and fairly durable. Weight about 60 lbs. per cubic foot. Used for 
 furniture, carts, and agricultural implements. 
 
 Terminalia paniculata ... ... ... ... . . Huluve, hunal 
 
 Timber of middling quality, especially when seasoned in water. Heartwood dark, 
 
 hard, and fairly durable. Weight 47 lbs. per cubic foot. Used for the same purposes 
 
 as Matti. Also for fuel, planking, and country carts. In the ground is liable to 
 attacks of white ants. 
 
 Terminalia tomentosa ... ... ... ... ... Matti 
 
 Wood dark brown, with darker streaks, hard, but not very durable. Weight about 
 60 lbs. per cubic foot. Good fuel tree ; leaves useful as manure for areca-nut 
 gardens. Yields a gum said to be used as an incense and cosmetic. Bark used for 
 tanning. 
 
 Vitex altissima ... ... ... ... ... ... Naviladi 
 
 Valuable wood ; brownish-grey when seasoned. Weight 63 lbs. per cubic foot. 
 Used, when procuralile, for building and agricultural work. 
 
 • The finest teak in Mysore is found in the State forests of Lakvalli, Bisalvadi, 
 Kakankote, Begur, and Ainur Marigudi. The teak plantations in Mysore cover an 
 area of about 4,000 acres.
 
 TREES 73 
 
 Xylia dolabriformis ... Iron wood ... ... Jambe 
 
 Wood dark red or brown, very strong, hard, tough, and durable ; not attacked by 
 white ants. Weight 65 lbs. per cubic foot. Used for building and agricultural 
 implements, also for the best charcoal. 
 
 The bamboo, scientifically reckoned a giant grass, abounds in the 
 large forests, and is one of the most valuable products. The common 
 species is Bambusa arundinacea, the spiny bamboo {bidaru). Dendra- 
 calamus strictus is the " male bamboo " {gandu bidaru), a solid bamboo 
 used for spear or lance staves, walking-sticks, &c. The largest bamboos, 
 known as atide bidaru, are said to be found in the forests of the Mysore 
 District. The periodical dying off of the bamboo after seeding is a 
 well-known phenomenon. The seed, called bamboo rice, generally 
 appears at a time of drought, when the crops have failed, and is eaten 
 by the poorer classes. The uses of the bamboo are innumerable, and 
 there is scarcely a domestic purpose to which it is not applied. 
 
 The following trees are also common in these forests : — 
 
 Acacia arabica Babul Kari Jali, goljli 
 
 Yields the Indian gum arable. Wood pale red, turning darker on exposure, close- 
 grained, tough, and very durable when seasoned in water. Weight about 54 lbs. per 
 cubic foot. Much used for naves, spokes and felloes of wheels ; also for rice-pounders, 
 oil and sugar mills, agricultural implements, etc. Tan, dye, fibre, food, and medicine 
 are obtained from the bark or pods. 
 
 Acacia leucophloea... ... ... ... ... ... Bill Jali, topal 
 
 Good fuel tree. Sapvvood large ; heartwood reddish-brown, tough, and easily 
 seasoned. Weight about 55 lbs. per cubic foot. Bark used in distilling arrack. The 
 young pods given to sheep supposed to improve the quality of the mutton. Gum, 
 dye, fibre, and medicine are also obtained from this tree. 
 
 ^Egle marmelos ... ... Bael ... ... ... Bilpatre 
 
 Greatly esteemed for the medicinal properties of root, bark, leaves, and fruit. The 
 pulp of the latter a specific for dysentery and diarrhoea. Its shell or rind is made 
 into snuff-bo.xes. Wood strongly scented when fresh cut, yellowish-white, hard, and 
 durable. Weight about 50 lbs. per cubic foot. Seldom felled, as it is considered 
 sacred, and the leaves indispensable for the worship of Siva. 
 
 Butea frondosa ... ... ... ... ... ... Muttaga 
 
 \Miole tracts of country are gay with its gorgeous orange-crimson flowers at the 
 beginning of the hot weather. The leaves are used as plates, and the branches for 
 sacrificial purposes. A red gum called bastard kino obtained from the bark. From 
 the flowers is prepared the red juice squirted about in the Holi festival. The seeds 
 anthelmintic and a common remedy for horses. Wood of little value, but said to be 
 durable under water. Weight 35 lbs. per cubic foot. 
 
 Eugenia jambolana ... Black plum, Jamoon ... Nerale 
 
 There are two varieties, caryophyllifolia (nayi nerale) and obtusifolia (jaml)u 
 nerale). The latter, bearing larger fruit, is most abundant in the Malnad. Fruit, 
 which has a verj' astringent taste, leaves, seeds, and bark medicinal, and the latter 
 used for dyeing and tanning. Wood whitish, hard, tough, and durable in water. 
 Weight 45 lbs. per cubic foot. Used for buildings and agricultural implements.
 
 74 FLORA 
 
 I'ciDniu I'lcplianluni ... Wood-apjilc ... ... Bcla, lj)ala 
 
 TIk' acid i)iil|) of llic fruit generally eaten, either raw or sometimes in the form of 
 a jelly like Mack currant. Wood yellowi.sh, close-grained, hard, and durable. 
 Weight 5oll)s. ])er cubic foot. Used like the foregoing. The bark yields a white 
 transparent gum resembling gum arable. 
 
 Kicus bengalensis Banyan Ala 
 
 Clood shade for cofTee. Wood of little value, Init durable under water, and there- 
 fore used for well frames. Weight aljout 37 lbs. per cubic foot. The wood of the 
 aerial roots used for tent-poles, cart-yokes, etc. From the milk sap birdlime is made ; 
 it is also applied to sores and bruises. The young leaves are used for plates. 
 
 I-'icus glomerala ... ... Country fig ... ... Atti 
 
 Uses similar to those of the above. Cattle eat the fruit greedily ; it is also eaten 
 by the poor in times of scarcity. The tree imparts moisture to the soil around its 
 roots. 
 
 Ficus religiosa Peepul Arab, ragi, asvattha 
 
 Wood of no value. Other uses similar to those of the above. A sacred tree, 
 planted at the entrance of every village along with the margosa, to which it is married 
 with the due ceremonies. Perambulations of the tree supposed to confer male issue 
 and other blessings. 
 
 Mangifera indica Mango Mavu 
 
 Well known for its delicious fruit throughout India. Wood used for minor works 
 of carpentry, but does not stand exposure, and is liable to attacks of insects. Weight 
 about 40 lbs. per cubic foot. Besides being eaten raw, the fruit is made into 
 chatnis, pickles, and preserves. Medicinal properties are attributed to almost ever>' 
 part of the tree. The leaves, strung on a thread, are hung up as a sign of welcome 
 at the lintel of doorways. 
 
 Phcenix farinifera Dwarf date Sanna ichalu 
 
 The leaves are used for thatch, and as fuel for potteries. The farinaceous pith of 
 the stem seems not to be eaten here as in some other parts of India. 
 
 Phoenix sylvestris Wild date. Toddy palmi Ichalu. 
 
 From the juice is produced the toddy or arrack of the country ; and a small propor- 
 tion is boiled down for making jaggery and date-sugar. Good mats are made from 
 the leaves. 
 
 Tamarindus indica... ... Tamarind ... ... Hunise 
 
 Most valued for its fruit, which is largely used in food and for making a cooling 
 drink. The seeds are also roasted and eaten ; and a size made from them is used by 
 Kuruljars as a dressing for kamblis or country-made blankets. Fruit, leaves, and seed 
 are also medicinal. Heartwood very hard and durable, but difficult to work. Weight 
 about 60 lbs. per cubic foot. Used for naves of wheels, rice-pounders, mallets, tent- 
 pegs, oil and sugar mills, handles to tools, and .so on. 
 
 The third or dry belt Hes to the east of the mixed forest belt, and 
 includes the far greater portion of the Province. The tree vegetation is 
 much inferior to that immediately to the west, the change being in some 
 parts gradual, in others very marked. The latter is especially per- 
 
 * The groves of this toddy palm, which is a Covernment monopoly, cover altogether 
 an area of something like 30,000 acres in the Maidan parts of the State. The finest 
 are in the Chitaldroog and Mysore Districts.
 
 TREES 75 
 
 ceptible near the Baba Budan hills, which from their elevation arrest 
 much of the rain which would otherwise pass to the east and north-east. 
 The difference between the abundant vegetation of the Jagar valley to 
 the west, and the scanty vegetation to the east, of the Kalhatti hills in 
 the Baba Budans is remarkable. 
 
 Many of the trees found in the mixed belt are common to this third 
 tract, but as a rule they are of smaller growth. This is specially notice- 
 able in teak, which is only met with stunted, twisted and small ; in 
 some of the coDibrefacecc, and very marked in some of the leguininosce. 
 
 Besides the different kinds of Jiciis, the mango, tamarind and jamun, 
 the ippe {ixxssia lafifolid) and jack {artocarpus integrifolia) grow well. 
 The acacias of the preceding list, the wood-apple, bael-tree and pachari 
 also thrive. The wild date {pJuvnix sylvestris) grows in the western 
 part and tlie dwarf date {phcetitx farinifera) in the centre and west. 
 The custard-apple {anona squainosci) grows wild rather abundantly in 
 the waste lands of the Sira taluq. Among others the more valuable and 
 common trees are : — ■ 
 
 Acacia catechu ... ... ... ... ... ... Kagli 
 
 Catechu {kdchii) is obtained by boiling down a decoction from chips of the heart- 
 wood. It is not much made in Mysore, and is principally used for mastication and 
 medicine. There are two kinds, dark and pale, of which the latter only is used for 
 chewing. Ileartwood dark red, hard, durable, seasons well, and takes a fine polish ; 
 not attacked by white ants. Weight about 70 ll^s. per cubic foot. Much used for 
 fuel and charcoal. Also for oil and sugar mills, l)ows, handles to arms, and for 
 agricultural implements. 
 
 Alangium lamarckii ... ... ... ... ... Ankule 
 
 Good for fuel and fences. Wood light yellow outside, dark brown in the centre, 
 hard, even-grained, tough, and durable. A beautiful wood when well seasoned. 
 Weight about 52 lbs. per cubic foot. Used for pestles, wooden bells, and other 
 minor purposes. Fruit acid ; nearly every part of the tree medicinal. 
 
 Anogeissus lalifolia ... Dindiga 
 
 See above (p. 70). 
 
 Averrhoa carambola ... ... ... ... ... Kamaraka 
 
 Fruit eaten raw, also stewed, curried, and pickled. Wood light red, hard, and 
 close-grained. Weight about 40 lbs. per cubic foot. 
 
 Buchanania latifolia ... ... ... ... ... Murkali 
 
 Well known for its edible seeds, in some places used as a substitute for almonds. 
 1 leartwood seasons well and sufficiently duralile for protected work. Weight 36 lbs. 
 per cubic foot. Bark can be used in tanning. 
 
 Dalhergia lanceolaria ... ... ... ... ... llasar ganni 
 
 Wood whitish, heavy, weighing 62 lbs. per cubic fool, l)Ul not durable. Root, 
 bark, and an oil from the seed, medicinal. 
 
 Diospyros tupru ... ... ... ... ... ... Tupra 
 
 Fruit eaten by cowherds. Leaves used for folding native cigarettes. The 
 Mahrattis obtain from the root a coloured paste for caste marks.
 
 76 FLORA 
 
 Dulicliaiidronc falciita ... ... ... ... ..• Udi 
 
 A coarse dark I'lhro obtained from the inner bark. IIcarlw<jod hard enough for 
 implements and village buildings. 
 
 (jardenia gumniifera ... ... ... ... ... liikke 
 
 The medicinal gum-resin, known in trade as dikamali, exudes from the e.xtremities 
 of the ycnmg shoots and buds ; said to have an offensive smell. Wood white, very 
 hard, might serve for bo.K-wood. 
 
 llardwickia binata ... ... ... ... ... Karachi 
 
 One of the most durable timl)ers in India.' Ileartwood aliundant, close-grained, 
 dark red tinged with purple, soft and easy to work when fresh cut, Ijut afterwards 
 becomes extremely hard. Weight unseasoned 80 lbs. per cubic foot ; seasoned wood 
 much lighter. Used for bridges, houses, and agricultural implements. Gum, tan, 
 and fil^re are also obtained from it. The young shoots and leaves very extensively 
 used for fodder. 
 
 Ixora parviflora Torch-tree Gorivi, hennu gorivi 
 
 The branches are used as torches by travellers and postal runners. The flowers, 
 pounded in milk, used as a remedy for whooping-cough. Wood, though small, said 
 to be hard and even-grained. Weight about 60 lbs. per cul:>ic foot. Well suited for 
 turning. 
 
 Lagerstro^mia parviflora ... ... ... ... ... Chaunangi 
 
 Wood light grey, tinged with red, and darker towards the centre ; straight-fibred, 
 tough, elastic. Weight about 50 lbs. per cubic foot. Used for agricultural imple- 
 ments, and considered fairly durajjle. Fibre, tan, dye, and an edible gum obtained 
 from the bark. The tasser silkworm feeds on the tree. 
 
 Morinda umbellata ... ... ... ... ... Maddi 
 
 From the root is obtained the yellow dye known as Maddi bamia. Fruit said to 
 be curried and eaten. 
 
 Pongamia glabra ... ... Indian beech ... ... Honge 
 
 Wood tough and light, weighing about 40 lbs. per cubic foot, white when cut but 
 turning yellow on exposure, coarse-grained, fibrous, and not durable, but said to improve 
 when seasoned in water. Large trunks used for the solid wheels of waddar carts. 
 Oil from the seed is used for lamps and medicinally ; also other parts of the tree for 
 the cure of rheumatism and .skin diseases. Leafy branches used as green manure for 
 paddy fields. The flowers also used for manure to crops. Honge cake forms a 
 manure to coffee. 
 
 Semecarpus anacardium ... Marking nut ... ... Geru 
 
 Wood of little value, as it cracks in seasoning. Weight 42 lbs. per cubic foot. 
 The juice from the growing tree said to cause blisters when handled ; is therefore 
 ringed some time before felling. The fleshy cup on which the fruit rests is eaten. 
 The juice of the fruit proper is used as medicine, also for varnish, and mixed with 
 lime for marking linen. Oil from the seed is said to be made use of in taming wild 
 elephants, and birdlime prepared from the fruit when green. 
 
 Shorea talura ... ... Lac-tree-... ... ,., Jalari 
 
 The lac insect is propagated on it, and besides lac, a kind of dammar is obtained 
 from the tree. Wood yellowish, heavy, and dural^le, capable of taking a good polish, 
 and used for building. Weight 54 lbs. per cubic foot. 
 
 ' Mostly confined to the Tumkur and Chitaldroog Districts, and specially abundant 
 in Bukkapatna, near Sira, and in Molkalmuru taluq. 
 
 - Most abundant in the Anekal and Closepet taluqs, and in the Nandidroog hills.
 
 SANDAL 77 
 
 Stereospernnim chelonoides ... ... ... ... Padri 
 
 Wood said to l^e tremendously hard and almost indestructil)le under water. 
 Sawyers object to saw it. U.sed for beams and posts. 
 
 Zizyphus jujul)a ... ... Indian jujul:)e, ber ... Velachi 
 
 The fruit is lietter known in northern India. Wood hard, even-grained, tough 
 and dural)le. Weight 58 11k. per cubic foot. Bark very astringent and exudes a 
 medicinal gum. 
 
 Zizyphus xylopyrus ... ... ... ... ... Challe 
 
 The fruit used as a dye for l^lackening leather. Wood hard and tough. Weight 
 about 6oll)s. per cuImc foot. Used for walking-sticks and torches. 
 
 Among shrub.s and u.scful bushes are : — 
 
 Calotropis gigantea ... Madar, giant swallow- ^'ekka 
 
 wort 
 The jilant is filled with a milky sap which hardens on exjiosure to light, forming a 
 kind of gutta percha, except that it is a conductor of electricity. Medicinal virtues 
 are attributed to every part of the plant. The inner bark yields a bast fibre, which 
 has been suggested as a material for making paper. The silk-cotton of the seed forms 
 the Madar floss of commerce. 
 
 Cassia auriculata ... ... Tanner's bark ... ... Tangadi 
 
 The bark is one of the best Indian tans,' and the root bark is used for tempering 
 iron with steel. Bark and seeds are also medicinal. Twigs used for native tooth- 
 brushes. 
 
 Cassia fistula ... ... Indian laburnum ... Kakke 
 
 Wood small but duralile, weighing 50 lbs. per cul)ic foot. Hard l)ut brittle and 
 apt to fracture. Used for paddy-grinders, posts, and agricultural implements. From 
 the bark are obtained fil:)re, tannin, and gum. The fresh pulp of the fruit forms a 
 purgative, and the dried leaves are laxative. 
 
 Jatropha curcas ... ... Physic nut ... ... Mara haralu 
 
 The young twigs are used as tooth-brushes, the milky juice being considered to 
 strengthen the teeth and gums. The milk sap is a good styptic, and dried in the sun 
 forms a reddish-brown substance like shell-lac. The external application of a 
 decoction of the leaves will excite the secretion of milk. Commonly planted for 
 fences, as cattle will not eat it. 
 
 The sandal-tree {sanfahtiii albiini), gandha, srigandha -a [jroduct 
 I)n'ncipally of My.sore and a State monopoly, yielding the largest 
 share of the forest revenue — is found all over the country, but grows 
 very unequally in different parts. It is never met with in the evergreen 
 belt or in heavy forests of the mixed belt, but is most abundant along 
 the eastern skirts of the last-named tract ; in the taluqs bordering on 
 the Kaveri ; and in those lying along the chain of hills which runs from 
 Kankanhalli up to Madgiri. In the Chitaldroog and Kolar Districts it 
 is very scarce. 
 
 ' .\n analysis by Professor Hummel, of the Yorkshire College, Leeds, showed the 
 bark to contain 20*5 per cent, of tannic acid.
 
 78 FLORA 
 
 'I'lic tree altains its grcalesL bulk and height in takiqs with a 
 moderately heavy rain-fall, but the ])erfunie of wood grown in such 
 localities is not so strong as of that grown in more arid spots, especially 
 where the soil is red and stony. It will thrive among rocks where the 
 soil is good, and trees in such places though small are generally fuller 
 of oil. The bark and sapwood have no smell, but the heartwood and 
 roots are highly scented and rich in oil. The girth of a mature tree 
 varies, according to circumstances, from i8 to 36 or, in exceptional 
 cases, 40 inches. It attains maturity in about twenty-five years. The 
 older the tree, the nearer the heartwood comes to the surface ; while 
 the bark becomes deeply wrinkled, is red underneath, and frequently 
 bursts, disclosing in old specimens the absence of all sapwood. In 
 colour and marking, four varieties of the wood are distinguished : — 
 /'///, white ; kei/ipii, red ; iidga, cobra ; and 7iavi/u, peacock. The two 
 latter command fancy prices : the names indicate the supposed resem- 
 blance of the marks, which are really " caused by the death of 
 adventitious buds." 
 
 The heartwood is hard and heavy, weighing about 61 lbs. per cubic 
 foot. The best parts are used for carving boxes, cabinets, desks, walk- 
 ing-sticks, and other useful and ornamental articles. The roots (which 
 are the richest in oil) and the chips go to the still ; while the Hindus 
 who can afford it show their wealth and respect for their departed 
 relatives by adding sticks of sandalwood to the funeral pile. The wood, 
 either in powder or rubbed up into a paste, is used by all Brahmans in 
 the pigments for making their caste marks. The oil forms the basis of 
 many scents, and is sometimes used for disguising with its scent articles 
 which, being really carved from common wood, are passed off as if 
 made from the true sandal. The far greater portion of the wood sold 
 yearly in Mysore is taken to Boml)ay, where it finds its way principally 
 to China, France, and Germany. 
 
 Efforts for the propagation of sandal did not meet with much success 
 some years ago, owing to the delicate nature of the young plant, and its 
 exposure to the ravages of hares and deer. More recently the lantana 
 shrub, which grows with the rankness of a weed, has been found to be 
 an effectual nurse for the seedlings. 
 
 The following timber trees are also found in ISIysore : — 
 
 Acacia farnesiana ... ... ... ... ... Kasturi jali, kasti'iri gobli 
 
 The yellow flower heads diffuse a pleasant odour, and are known as Cassia flowers 
 in European perfumery. The plant is said to be obnoxious to snakes arid vermin. 
 Wood white, hard, and tough, but too small for general utility. Weight 49 lbs. per 
 cubic foot. A gum like gum arabic is obtained from the stem. Bark and pods 
 medicinal.
 
 TREES 79 
 
 Acacia ferruginea .. . ... ... ... ... ... Banni 
 
 Yields a good gum. Kark very astringent ; used in distilling arrack. Heartwood 
 .small in proportion, reddish-brown, very hard. Weight 70 lbs. per cubic foot. Little 
 used on account of its being considered sacred. 
 
 Acacia sundra ... ... ... ... ••• ... Kenipu khaira 
 
 Little more than a variety of A. catechu. The Itranches are a darker brown, and 
 the wood heavier and more durable. Weight when seasoned about 80 lbs. per cubic 
 foot. U.sed for posts in hou.se-building. 
 
 Aglaia roxburghiana ... ... ... ... ... Toitila 
 
 Fruit l)uff-coloured, eaten medicinally. 
 
 Albizzia amara ... ... ... ... ... ... Sujjalu 
 
 Oood locomotive fuel. Heartwood purplish-ljrown, very hard and durable, of 
 great transverse strength. Weight al)out 65 lbs. per culjic foot. Used for carts and 
 agricultural implements. Seasoned limbs used for ploughs. 
 
 Albizzia stipulata ... ... ... ... ... ... Hotte bagi 
 
 Good charcoal tree. Wood used for various purpo.ses, but not very durable. 
 Weight about 40 lbs. per cubic foot. The green leaves a fodder for cattle. 
 
 Alstonia scholaris ... ... ... ... ... ... Jantala 
 
 liark and leaves medicinal : the former known out of India as Dita bark, containing 
 the active principle Ditain, said to equal the best sulphate of quinine. Wood soft 
 and light, of little value. Weight 28 lbs. per cubic foot. Used for schoolboys' 
 writing-bf)ards, whence the name scholaris. 
 
 Boswellia serrata, var. glal)ra ... ... ... ... Sambrani 
 
 Wood inferior and only used for fuel or charcoal. The gum-resin is a Ijastard 
 
 olibanum, much used as medicine, and as incense in the temples. The branches 
 make good torches. 
 
 Careya arborea Gauju, kavalu 
 
 Sajiwood al)un{lant, white ; heartwood red, dark in old trees, even-grained, and 
 beautifully mottled. Weight aljout 50 lbs. per cubic foot. A durable and pretty 
 wood, but not much used in Mysore e.xcept for wooden %-essels and agricultural 
 implements. Formerly used for the drums of sepoy corps. Bark astringent and 
 yields a very strong fibre, employed as a slow match to ignite gunpowder, and for 
 fuses of native matchlocks. Fruit and flowers medicinal. 
 
 Cedrela toona ... ... Indian niahngany, ... Gar.dagarige 
 
 while cedar 
 Wood suitable fnr furniture and l)uil(iings. Said to be duraljle and not attacked by 
 white ants. Weight about 33 lbs. per cubic foot. Red and yellow dyes obtained 
 from the flowers. Bark medicinal. 
 
 Chickrassia tabularis ... Chittagong wood ... Dalmara 
 
 Wood Ijeautifully marked, durable, fragrant, easily worked, and takes a good 
 polish. Used especially for furniture and cabinetwork. Weight 46 lbs. per cubic 
 foot. Bark astringent. Red and yellow dyes obtained from the flowers. 
 
 Cochlcspernum gossypium Arisina buruga 
 
 The fine floss from the seeds, also called silk-cotton, is used for stuffing pillows in 
 hospitals in Europe, but locally considered to cause much heat. The gum from the 
 trunk is used for tragacanth in mirthern India. Wood of no value ; weight about 
 17 lbs. per cubic foot.
 
 8o FLORA 
 
 Cordia iililiijua ... ... ... ... ... ... Chadle 
 
 Very simil.ir to C. niyxa (p. 70) in character. Flowers larger, and jilant more hairy. 
 
 Cordia rothii ... ... ... ... ... ... Narvalli 
 
 A coarse fibre from the hark used for ropes. Wood said to be grey, compact, and 
 hard. 
 
 Crata-va religiosa ... ... ... ... ... ... Nirvala 
 
 Wood soft and even-grained. Said to be used for drums, combs, and in turnery. 
 I<eaves and bark medicinal. 
 
 Diospyros embryojHeris ... ... ... ... ... ? Kusharta 
 
 Fruit rich in tannic acid, but when ripe this disappears and it is eaten. Bark and 
 an oil from the seed medicinal. Wood light brown and not of much value. Uses of 
 the tree not much known in this part of India. 
 
 Guazuma tomentosa ... Bastard cedar ... ... Rudrakshi 
 
 Leaves and fruit much relished by cattle. Bark medicinal. Timber of old trees 
 said to be durable, though light and apt to split. Weight 32 lbs. per cubic foot. 
 
 Ilardwickia pinnata ... ... ... ... ... Yenne mara 
 
 An oil or oleo-resin obtained from deep incision into the heart of the tree resembles 
 copaiva balsam in composition and properties, though not so transparent, and of a 
 dark red colour. Sapwood large, heartwood brown. Weight 47 lbs. per cubic foot. 
 Used for building in the parts where it grows. 
 
 Macaranga roxburghii ... ... ... ... ... Chenta kanni 
 
 A medicinal gum, reddish, and with the odour of turpentine, exudes from the young 
 shoots and fruit. Said to be used for taking impressions of coins, etc. , and for sizing 
 paper. Wood soft and useless. 
 
 Machilus macrantha Chittu tandri 
 
 The properties of this tree are unknown. 
 
 Melia azadirachta ... ... Neem, margosa ... ... Bevu 
 
 Every part medicinal. Heartwood used for making idols. The wood is not 
 attacked by insects, is hard, durable, and beautifully mottled. Weight about 50 lbs. 
 per cubic foot. Suitable for cabinet work and carpentry. Neem oil, obtained from 
 the seed, is used for killing insects. Leaves antiseptic, and in the native treatment 
 of small-pox are placed under and around the patient at certain stages of the disease. 
 The tree is considered sacred and planted with the peepul at the entrance of villages, 
 the two being married with due ceremonies, the latter representing the female and 
 the former the male. 
 
 Melia azedarach ... ... Persian lilac, bead-tree Turuka bevu, huchu 
 
 bevu 
 Leaves much relished by sheep and goats. Wood nicely mottled and takes a good 
 polish. Weight about 35 lbs. per cubic foot. Not used. The seeds generally 
 worn as rosaries. The products of the tree resemble those of the neem, but seem to 
 be more used in America than in- India. 
 
 Melia dubia ... ... Giant neem ... ... Heb be\-u 
 
 Wood soft and light, weighing about 25 lbs. per cubic foot. Used by planters for 
 buildings. Not easily attacked by white ants. The dried fruit, resembling a date, is 
 a remedy for colic. 
 
 Meliosma arnottiana ... ... ... ... ... Massivala 
 
 Wood used for poles and agricultural implements : also, apparently, for building 
 purposes.
 
 FRUIT TREES 8i 
 
 Moringa pierygosperma ... Horse-radish ... ... Nugge 
 
 Also, from the form of the flower, known as the drumstick-tree. The fleshy root is 
 a perfect substitute for horse-radish. The Ben oil of commerce, valued as a lubricant 
 by watchmakers, is obtained from the seed, but is seldom made in India, owing to 
 the fruit being saleable as a vegetable, and the seed therefore not being allowed to 
 mature. Nearly every part considered medicinal. 
 
 Ochrocarpus longifolius ... ... ... ... ... Surgi 
 
 The dried flower-buds, known in commerce as tamra nagakc.sari, yield a dye for 
 silk. The flowers are used for decoration in temples and on the person. Wood used 
 for local building. Hard, red, close and even-grained. Weight 55 lbs. per cubic foot. 
 
 Odina wodier ... ... ... ... ... ... Udi, simti 
 
 Wood of little value and liable to attacks of insects. Weight about 55 lbs. per 
 cubic foot. Bark and gum medicinal. Cattle fond of the green leaves. 
 
 Poeciloneuron indicum ... ... ... ... ... Ballagi 
 
 Wood very hard and heavy. Not much used except for rice-pounders, agricultural 
 implements, and perhaps walking-sticks. 
 
 Polyalthia cerasoides ... ... ... ... ... Sanna hesare 
 
 Wood olive-grey, moderately hard, close-grained. Weight 52 lbs. per cubic foot. 
 Much used for carpentry in the Bomlmy country, but not here. 
 
 Prosopis spicigera ... ... ... ... ... ... ? Perumbe 
 
 Good fuel tree, especially for locomotives. Sapwood large and perishal)lc ; heart- 
 wood extremely hard but not durable. Weight 58 lbs. per cubic foot. 
 
 Sapindus trifoliatus ... Soap-nut... ... ... Kugati, antavala 
 
 The nut commonly used for washing clothes. Flannels may be washed with it 
 without shrinking. Root, bark, fruit, and oil from the seed medicinal. Wood hard, 
 yellow, cross-grained, and not very durable. Weight about 64 lbs. per cubic foot. 
 Occasionally used for carts, but more commonly as handles for axes and similar tools, 
 and for combs. 
 
 Saraca indica ... ... ... ... ... ... Asoka 
 
 A sacred tree, grown in gardens and near temples for its l)eautiful flowers, which 
 are a rich orange, changing to dull red. Used also medicinally. The tree is supposed 
 to be a protector of chastity. Sita, the wife of Rama, when carried off" by Ravana, 
 took refuge in a grove of asoka trees. 
 
 Sterculia guttata ... ... ... ... ... ... ?Jen-katalu 
 
 Bark ash-coloured and very fibrous, used on the Western Coast for making cordage 
 and rough articles of clothing. 
 
 Strychnos potatorum ... Clearing-nut tree ... Chillu 
 
 The ripened seeds are used for clearing muddy water. A paste of the .same 
 removes the pain from the sting of a centipede. Often felled for fuel. 
 
 Thespe.sia populnea ... Portia, tulip-tree ... Huvvarasi 
 
 Formerly much planted as an avenue tree, but does not attain perfection so for 
 inland. When raised from seed the timber is free from knots, straight, even-grained, 
 and tough : suitable for carriages and work requiring lightness and pliability. Bark, 
 fruit, and heartwood medicinal. 
 
 Wrightia tinctoria Beppale, Hale 
 
 Wood highly valued by native turners on account of its ivory-wliite colour. Used 
 for the celebrated Channapatna toys and for wooden idols. The leaves, which turn 
 black when dry, afford a kind of indigo, called in Mysore /«z/a indigo. 
 
 G
 
 82 
 
 FLORA 
 
 Of fruit trees grown in native gardens, the following are the more 
 important. Most of them are too well known to need description : — 
 
 Anacardiiim occidentalc ... 
 
 ... Cashew-nut 
 
 ... Geru 
 
 Anona reticulata ... 
 
 Bullock's heart .. 
 
 Ram phal 
 
 ,, squamosa ... 
 
 . . . Custard apple . . 
 
 Sita phal 
 
 Artocarpus integrifolia 
 
 ... Jack 
 
 ... Ilalasina mara 
 
 Averrhoa carambola 
 
 . . . Carambola 
 
 Kamarak 
 
 Carica papaya 
 
 Papay 
 
 I'erangi 
 
 Citrus aurantium ... 
 
 ... Orange ... 
 
 ... Kittale 
 
 ,, decumana 
 
 ... Pumelo 
 
 Sakote 
 
 ,, medica 
 
 ... Citron 
 
 ... Madala 
 
 , , , , var. acida . . . 
 
 ... Lime 
 
 ... Nimbe 
 
 >> 5) jj limetta 
 
 Sweet lime 
 
 ... Gaja nimbe 
 
 ,, ,, ,, limonum 
 
 Lemon ... 
 
 ... Herile 
 
 Cocos nucifera 
 
 ... Cocoa-nut palm .. 
 
 ... Tengina mara 
 
 Eriobotrya japonica 
 
 .. Loquat ... 
 
 ... Lakote 
 
 Eugenia jambos 
 
 Rose apple 
 
 Pan nerale 
 
 Ficus carica 
 
 - Fig 
 
 Anjura 
 
 Mangifera indica ... 
 
 ... Mango 
 
 Mavina mara 
 
 Musa sapientum ... 
 
 ... Plantain .. 
 
 ... Bale 
 
 Phyllanthus distichus 
 
 Star-gooseberry .. 
 
 ... Kiri nelli 
 
 , , emblica 
 
 Emblic myrobalar 
 
 I ... Nelli 
 
 Psidium guyava 
 
 ... Guava 
 
 ... Shepe 
 
 Punica granatum ... 
 
 . . . Pomegranate 
 
 Dalimbe 
 
 Pyrus malus 
 
 ... Apple 
 
 . . . Sevu 
 
 Vitis vinifera 
 
 ... Vine 
 
 ... Drakshi 
 
 The cashew fiut proper is eaten roasted, and used in native sweet- 
 meats. It yields an oil equal to oil of almonds. From the shell are 
 obtained a black caustic oil, known as cardol, a good preventive of 
 white ants, and anacardic acid, having rubefacient properties. A weak 
 spirit may also be distilled from its juice. Gum obtained from the 
 bark is obnoxious to insect pests. Juice from incisions in the bark 
 forms an indelible marking ink. Jack fruit is a favourite article of food 
 among the natives. It is enormous in size and weight, commonly about 
 20 inches long, and 6 or 8 inches in diameter, weighing 30 to 40 lbs., 
 and grows from the trunk or main limbs with a short stout stalk. The 
 papay fruit, something like a small melon, is eaten by all classes, and 
 also pickled. Its juice yields papaine, said to be superior to animal 
 pepsin in its peptonising powers. Meat suspended under the tree 
 becomes tender. The seeds are universally believed to be an effectual 
 emmenagogue and abortive. 
 
 The best oratiges are imported, and are the produce of Satghur near 
 Vellore, or of the Sherveroy Hills, &c. The loose-jacket orange is 
 obtained from Coorg. Of cocoa-nuts a rare variety is produced at 
 Honnavalli in Tilmktir District, which, on account of the delicious 
 sweet flavour of its milk, is called Ganga-pani, or water of the Ganges.
 
 FRUIT TREES 83 
 
 The dried kernel of cocoa-nuts, called kobari, is a great article of export 
 from the central parts of Mysore.' 
 
 Of mangoes there are many varieties, bearing the following names : — 
 gbl kdyi (the most common, roundish), bdddmi (almond-shaped), 
 rasapuri (reddish pulp), jirige (has the scent of cummin seed), pick 
 kdyi (small kind), kari kdyi (black fibres in the skin), giiii mnti or gini 
 mdvu (shape of a parrot's beak), gti'ige mdvu (generally has a bee in the 
 stone), sakkare or shi nidvu (sweet kind), chit ^iy/ (small kind), hu/i 
 mdvu (used only for pickle). The cultivated kinds, which are pro- 
 pagated by inarching or grafting by approach, have the following 
 names : — ami'ni, badami, Chittilr, dil-pasand, Malgova, nilam, Peter- 
 pasand, puttu, rasapuri, Salem, sandarsha. The formation of graft 
 mango plantations has greatly extended during recent years. 
 
 Plantains are very plentiful and a favourite article of diet. The 
 most esteemed are rasa bd/e and rdja rasa bd/e (with a yellow custard- 
 like pulp), putta bd/e or pufta sugandha bd/e (a small sweet plantain, the 
 Guindy plantain), madhuranga, gujja, china, and giiliir bd/e (all butter 
 plantains), yr//?^ A?76' (honey plantain), rdja bd/e (royal ^\d.xv\.dXx\), chandra 
 bale (red plantain), sakaldti bdle (red and cottony), pacJicha bdle (green 
 when ripe), hdvu bd/e (long and slender), yelakki bd/e, arisina bd/e, due 
 bd/e (a very large kind), kaiydjii bd/e (very large and coarse), h'ldi bd/e 
 (greyish, used only for cooking), liddti bd/e (the wild plantain). 
 
 Guavas, of which there are three or four varieties, white and red, are 
 very plentiful. The grafted kinds are superior. A delicious jelly, closely 
 resembling red currant, is made from the common kind by Europeans. 
 
 The grapes, though sweet, are small, owing probably to want of atten- 
 tion in thinning out the clusters. Both green and purple varieties are 
 grown. Those from the neighbourhood of Seringapatam are the most 
 highly esteemed. Of imported varieties, fourteen are named in Mr. 
 Cameron's catalogue as in local cultivation. Efforts are being made to 
 extend viticulture. Apples are cultivated principally in Bangalore for 
 the European market, and grow to great perfection. The different 
 varieties are distinguished by numbers indicating the order in which 
 they were introduced. 
 
 The following are names of vegetables of which the leaves are used 
 l)y natives in curries and stews. Some of these vegetables are cultivated, 
 while others grow wild. The leaves only are used in curries or boiled 
 with chillies to be eaten along with rice. 
 
 /Eschynomene grand iflora Agase soppu 
 
 Achyranthes lanata ... ... ... ... ... ... Bili suli ,, 
 
 ,, muricata Akvi goraji 
 
 ,, triandra Ponnaganli soppu 
 
 ' Further particulars regarding cocoa-nuts will be found under "Cultivation." 
 
 c; 2
 
 84 
 
 FLORA 
 
 Amaranlus campeslris 
 
 ,, Candidas 
 
 „ gangclicus ... 
 
 ,, inamnenus 
 
 ,, mangostanus ... 
 
 ,, oleraceus 
 
 ,, viridis 
 
 Arum esculentum ... 
 Basella rubra and all)a and var. 
 Boerhaavia diffusa 
 Brassica alba 
 Canthium parviflorum 
 Cassia tora 
 Chenopodium viride 
 Cleome pentaphylla 
 Convolvulus esculentus ... 
 Corchorus olitorius 
 Coriandrum sativum 
 Hibiscus cannabinus 
 
 ,, sabdariffa 
 Hyperanthera moringa ... 
 Leucas aspera 
 Marsilea quadrifolia 
 Mollugo striata 
 Portulaca oleracea 
 
 ,, quadrifida 
 
 Trianthema decandra 
 
 ,, monogyna 
 
 Trigonella foenum grKcum 
 
 Country greens 
 
 Indian spinach 
 Hogweed 
 White mustard 
 
 Goosefoot 
 
 Jew's mallow 
 Coriander 
 Deccan hemp 
 Rozelle . . . 
 Horse-radish 
 
 Indian purslane ... 
 
 FenuOTeek 
 
 Kirakasale soppu 
 Bill 
 
 Dantu ,, 
 
 Harive ,, 
 
 Chilki soppu 
 Soppu 
 
 Daggali soppu 
 Kesave ,, 
 Dodda basali 
 Bilavarga 
 Bill sasive soppu 
 Kare gida 
 Gundu tagasi 
 Sakotti soppu 
 Narobeda 
 Tutti soppu 
 Kotna goraji 
 Cottambari soppu 
 Fundi, pundrika 
 Kempu ,, 
 Nugge soppu 
 Tumlje ,, 
 Chitigina ,, 
 Parpataka soppu 
 Dodda gora 
 Hull bachcheli 
 Galija 
 
 Nuchchu govi 
 Mente soppu 
 
 The fniits and seeds of the following trees and plants are also used 
 in curries. Fruits introduced into curries are generally unripe ; when 
 ripe they are unfit for the purpose. 
 
 .^schynomene grandiflora 
 
 ... Jack fruit 
 
 Artocarpus integrifolia 
 Bryonia umbellata 
 Capparis zeylanica 
 Cucurbita alba 
 
 ,, lagenaria 
 
 Cucumis acutangulus 
 
 ,, pentandra 
 
 ,, species ... 
 
 ,, utillatissimus 
 Dolichos lablab 
 
 „ ,, var. 
 
 ,, minimus... 
 
 ,, spicatus ... 
 
 , , suratu 
 Hibiscus esculentus 
 Hyperanthera moringa 
 Momordica charantia 
 ,, dioiea 
 
 Pumpkin ... 
 Bottle siourd 
 
 Country cucumber 
 
 Cow gram 
 
 Morinea fruit 
 
 Agase kayi 
 
 Halsina ,, 
 
 Tonde ,, 
 
 Totli „ 
 
 Dodda kumbala kayi 
 
 Dodda sore kayi 
 
 Hire kayi 
 
 Tuppa hire kayi 
 
 Huli saute ,, 
 
 Saute kayi 
 
 Man avare 
 
 Bili man avare 
 
 Ghatt avare 
 
 Dodda man avare 
 
 Budame kayi 
 
 Bende kayi 
 
 Nugge ,, 
 
 Hagal ,, 
 
 Gid hagalu
 
 HORTICULTURE 
 
 85 
 
 Momordica operculala 
 Musa sapientum ... 
 Solanum melongena 
 ,, trilobatuni 
 ,, varietas ... 
 Trichosanthes cucumerina 
 ,, nervifolia ... 
 
 J, palmata .., 
 
 Trigonella tetrapetala 
 
 Plantain 
 Brinjal 
 
 Bale hannu 
 Badane kayi 
 Kakamunchi kayi 
 Molalu badane 
 Kiri podia kayi 
 Podia kayi 
 Avagude hannu 
 Gori kayi 
 
 A few names may be added of plants the roots of which are used in cur- 
 ries. Of these the country or sweet potato grows here to great perfection. 
 xVrum campanulatus Arum Churna gadde 
 
 ,, colocasia 
 Convolvulus batatas 
 Daucus carota 
 Dioscorea sativa . . . 
 Raphanus sativus ... 
 
 Sweet potato 
 Carrot 
 Vam 
 Radish . . . 
 
 Kesave ,, 
 Genasu ,, 
 Gajina ,, 
 Heg-genasu gaclde 
 MuUangi ,, 
 
 The Catalogue, which here follows, of plants in the Lai Bagh or 
 Government Botanical Gardens at Bangalore, compiled by Mr. J. 
 Cameron, F.L.S., the Superintendent, will serve to show the capabilities 
 of the climate and the attention bestowed on horticulture : — 
 
 Dicotyledons. 
 
 Kantinculacea. 
 Clematis, 5' ... Virgin's bower 
 
 Naravelia, i 
 
 Thalictrum, i ... Meadow rue 
 Delphinium, 2 ... Larkspur 
 Nigella, 2 ... ... Fennel flower 
 
 Aquilegia, 2 ... Columbine 
 
 Several species of Clematis grow wild 
 in Mysore. 
 
 DillcniacecB. 
 Delima, i 
 Dillenia, 3 
 Candollea, i 
 
 Several Dillenia are elegant trees for 
 scenic planting. 
 
 Magnoliacea:. 
 Magnolia, 3 
 
 Michelia, 2 Champaka Sampige 
 The fragrant Champaka is a favourite 
 
 flower of Indian poetry. 
 
 AnonaceLe, 
 Uvaria, 2 
 Artabotrys, i 
 Polyalthia, 2 
 Anona, 5 Custard apple Sita phal 
 
 Miliusa, I 
 Saccopetalum, i 
 
 The custard apple and bullock's heart 
 (Rama phal) are abundant in many parts. 
 
 JSIenisperniacece. 
 Tinospora, i 
 Anamista, I 
 Cocculus, I 
 
 Berberidea. 
 Berberis, i 
 Nandina, i 
 
 Himalayan plants almost impossible 
 to cultivate here. 
 
 Nymphixaccic. 
 Nymphoea, 3 Waterlily... T.-ivare 
 Nelumbium, i Lotus ... Kamala 
 Victoria, i ... Amazon lily 
 
 Lotus and waterlilies are common 
 in tanks or sacred ponds all over the 
 country. 
 
 Papaveraceit. 
 Papaver, 5 ... Poppy ... Ga.sagase 
 Argemone, I 
 
 The cultivation of poppy for opium is 
 prohibited. 
 
 ' These figures show the number of species under each genus.
 
 86 
 
 FLORA 
 
 I'liinariaccti'. 
 
 Cerastium, 2 ... Chickwced 
 
 Fumaria, I l'"uiiiiU)ry 
 
 Slellaria, i 
 
 
 Polycarpoea, 2 
 
 Criicifercc. 
 
 Various strains of pinks do well at 
 
 Matlhiola, 2 ... Stock 
 
 Bangalore 
 
 Portiilacecc. 
 
 Cheiranthus, i Wallflower 
 
 Nasturtium, 3... Watercress 
 
 Portulaca, 4 
 
 Cardaniine, i ... Cuckoo flower 
 
 Calandrinia, I 
 
 Malcolmia, i ... Virginian stock 
 
 
 Coronopus, i 
 
 Tainariscinece. 
 
 Erysimum, 2 
 
 Tamarix, i 
 
 Brassica, 7 ... Turnip 
 
 Hypericinea. 
 
 Cabbage Mudde kosu 
 
 Hypericum mysorense St. John's wort 
 
 Mustard Sasiva 
 
 Common at Nandidroog 
 
 Capsella, i ... Shepherd's purse 
 Lepidium, i ... Garden cress 
 
 Gidtiferce. 
 
 Iberis, i ... Candytuft 
 
 Garcinia, 4 
 
 ' J 
 
 Raphanus, i ... Radish Mullangi 
 
 Ochrocarpus, i 
 
 Calophyllum, 2 Pinnay Surahonne 
 
 The European vegetables of this order 
 
 oil tree 
 
 are fully established in the market 
 
 Poon tree Kuve, Bobbi 
 
 gardens. 
 
 Mesua, i... ... ... Nagasampige 
 
 Capparideie. 
 Cleome, 6 
 
 Poeciloneuron, i... ... Ballagi 
 
 Clusia, I 
 
 Gynandropsis, i 
 
 Cratoeva, i Caper-tree 
 
 Cadaba, i 
 
 From the Ballagi tree walking-sticks 
 are made. 
 
 Capparis, 6 
 
 Ternstram iacecz. 
 
 
 Kesedacea. 
 
 Camellia, 2 Tea shrub 
 
 Reseda, i Mignonette 
 
 DipterocarpecE. 
 
 Violaceic. 
 
 Shorea, 2 ... Lac tree . . . Jalari 
 
 Viola, 2 Violet, Pansy 
 
 Sal tree 
 
 lonidium, i 
 
 Ilopea, 2 
 
 Bixinea. 
 
 Vateria, i ... Indian Dhupada 
 
 Cochlospermum, i 
 
 Copal tree mara 
 
 Bixa, 2 ... Annatto ... Rangumale 
 
 Malvacccc. 
 
 Flacourtia, 3 
 
 Althrea, 2 ... Hollyhock Dodda 
 
 Gynocardia, i 
 Hydnocarpus, i 
 
 bindige 
 Lavatera, I 
 
 Pittosporecv. 
 
 Malva, 3 Sanna 
 
 Pittosporum, 4 
 Billardiera, i 
 
 bindige 
 Malvastrum, 2 
 
 Bursaria, i 
 
 Sida, 7 
 
 Hymenosporum, i 
 
 Abutilon, 6 Tutti 
 
 Malachra, i 
 
 Sollya, I 
 
 
 Fo/ygalece. 
 Polygala, 3 
 
 Urena, 2 
 Pavonia, 2 
 Decaschistia, 2 
 
 Cmyophylku. 
 
 Hibiscus, 23... Shoe-flower Dasala 
 
 Dianthus, 5 Pink 
 
 Rozelle ... Kempu 
 
 Saponaria, i ... Soapwort 
 
 pundrike 
 
 Silene, 4 Catchfly 
 
 Paritium, i 
 
 Lychnis, 2 ... ... Campion 
 
 Thespesia, 2
 
 HOR TIC UL TURE 
 
 87 
 
 Gossypium, 5 Cotton ... Arale 
 
 Kydia, I 
 
 Adansonia, i I^aolmli 
 
 Bombax, i Kempu 
 
 buruga 
 
 Eriodendron, I Biji In'iruga 
 
 Lagunaria, i 
 
 Durio, I ... Durian 
 
 Under Abiitilon 12 garden varieties 
 are enumerated. Under Gossypium the 
 cottons known as Hinginghaut, Dacca, 
 Berar, Upland Georgian, and China are 
 varieties of herbaceiini ; those known as 
 Barbadoes, Bourbon, New Orleans, and 
 Sea-Island are from barhadense. 
 
 Sfercitliacecv. 
 Sterculia, 8 
 Cola, I 
 Heritiera, 2 
 Kleinhovia, i 
 Helicteres, 2... Indian ... Vedamuri 
 
 Screw-tree 
 Pterospermum, i 
 Eriolxna, i 
 I'entapetes, I 
 Melhania, 2 
 Domljeya, i 
 Mclochia, I 
 Waltheria, i 
 Abroma, i 
 Guazuma, i ... Bastard ... Rudrakshi 
 
 cedar 
 Theobroma, i Chocolate-tree 
 
 Tiliacece. 
 
 Bcrrya, i 
 Grewia, 9 
 
 Bi'itale, 
 
 Tadasalu 
 Triumfetta, 3 
 
 Corchorus, 4 Jute plant 
 Eloeocarpus, 2 
 
 The genus Grewia is well represented 
 in the reserved jungles of Mysore, where 
 some of the climbing species form dense 
 thickets for the preservation of wild 
 animals. The jute plant is found only 
 rarely in local cultivation. 
 
 Erythroxylon, 2 Bastard Dcvadaru 
 
 sandal 
 Cocaine is the active principle of the 
 leaf of E. coca. 
 
 Malpigh iacetc . 
 Malpighia, 3 
 Hiptage, 2 
 Aspidopterys, i 
 Banisteria, i 
 Stigmatophyllum, i 
 
 Zygophyllecc. 
 
 Tribulus, 2 Sanna neggilu 
 
 Guaiacum, I 
 Melianthus, i 
 
 The herb sauna neggilu is well known 
 for its medicinal properties. The intro- 
 duced tree, G. officinale, y\&\As the valuable 
 wood known as lignum vitiC. 
 
 Geraniacecc. 
 Pelargonium, 3 Garden geranium 
 O.xalis, 4 ... Wood sorrel 
 Biophytum, 2 
 Averrhoa, 2 ... ... ... Komarak, 
 
 Bilimbi 
 Impatiens, 7 
 Tropoeolum, 3 
 Hydrocera, i 
 
 Linum, 2 
 Rienwardtia, i 
 
 Linccc. 
 Flax plant 
 
 Kulaceie. 
 
 
 Ruta, I ... Common ... 
 
 IL-ivu-nan- 
 
 rue 
 
 jina gida 
 
 Zanthoxylum, 2 
 
 
 Toddalia, i ... 
 
 Kadu 
 
 
 menasu 
 
 Glycosmis, i 
 
 
 Murraya, 2 ... China box 
 
 Angaraka 
 
 Curry-leaf tree 
 
 Kari bevu 
 
 Clausena, 2 
 
 
 Triphasia, I 
 
 
 Limonia, 2 
 
 
 Atalantia, 2 
 
 
 Citrus, 6 ... Cilrun 
 
 Mddavala 
 
 Lemon 
 
 Herale 
 
 Lime 
 
 Nimbe 
 
 Orange 
 
 Kittale 
 
 Pummelo ... 
 
 Sakotti 
 
 Feronia, i ... Wood-apple 
 
 Belada 
 
 
 mara 
 
 /Egle, I ... Bael-tree .. 
 
 Bilvapatre 
 
 Calodendrum, i 
 
 
 The fcctid herb A', graveol 
 
 ens is said to 
 
 be obnoxious to snakes, and is often 
 
 cultivated near dwellings on 
 
 that account.
 
 88 
 
 FLORA 
 
 Siinarubctc. 
 Ailantus, I 
 Balanites, I ... ... ... Ingalika 
 
 Quassia, i ... Quassia shrub 
 
 Ochna,' 2 
 
 Ochnacctc. 
 Biirseracecc, 
 
 Sambrani 
 
 Boswellia, 2 ... 
 Garuga, i 
 Balsaniodendron, 2 
 Protium, I 
 Bursera, i 
 Filicium, i 
 
 Meliacece. 
 Naregamia, i 
 
 Melia, 3 ... Neem-tree... Bevu 
 Cipadessa, i 
 Walsura, i 
 
 Soymida, I Svami 
 
 Chickrassia, i Chittagong wood 
 Cedrela, i ... White cedar Noge 
 Chleroxylon, i Satin wood Huragalu 
 Swietenia, 2 ... Mahogany 
 
 Olacinea. 
 Ximenia, i 
 Olax, I 
 Opilia, I 
 
 Ilicinea:. 
 Ilex, 2 
 
 Europe holly does not succeed at 
 Bangalore, but the Chinese species is not 
 a bad substitute. 
 
 Celastrinea. 
 Euonymus, 3 
 Celastrus, i ... ... ... Kangondi 
 
 Gymnosporia, 2 ... ... Tandrasi 
 
 Elreodendron, i Mukkarive 
 
 Rhaiiuiece. 
 
 Ventilago, i Popli 
 
 Zizyphus, 4 ... Bhere fruit Yelachi 
 Rhamnus, 2 
 
 Scutia, I Kurudi 
 
 Colubrina, i 
 
 The root bark of Popli affords a good 
 orange dye. 
 
 Ampelidea. 
 Vitis, 12 ... Grape vine Drakshigida 
 Leea, i 
 Ampelopsis, i Virginia creeper 
 
 Of the varieties of grape in local 
 cultivation 16 are named. 
 
 Sapindacea. 
 Cardiospcrmum, i 
 Allophylus, I 
 Sapindus ... Soap-nut- ... Ki'igati 
 
 tree 
 Nephelium, 3 Litchi 
 DodonKa, i 
 Melianthus, i 
 Paullinia, i 
 
 Anacardiacea, 
 
 Rhus mysorensis Native sumach 
 Pistacia, i 
 
 Mangifera, 2... Mango ... Mavu 
 Anacardium, i Cashew-nut Turuka 
 
 Gem mara 
 Buchanania, I 
 Odina, i 
 
 Semecarpus, i Marking-nut Geru mara 
 Spondias, 3 ... Hog-plum... Amate 
 Schinus, i ... Bastard pepper 
 
 Aloringea:. 
 
 Moringa, i ... Horse-radish- Nugge 
 tree 
 
 Legiimhtosa. 
 (Papilionacese) 
 Genista, i ... Spanish broom 
 Rothia, I 
 Heylandia, i 
 Crotalaria, 19 ... ... Sanabu 
 
 Trifolium, 2 ... Clover 
 
 Trigonella, i... Fenugreek Mentya 
 
 Medicago, 4 ... Lucerne 
 
 Cyamopsis, I 
 
 Lupinus, 5 
 
 Indigofera, 9 Indigo ... Niligida 
 
 Mundulea, i 
 
 Tephrosia, 6 
 
 Sesbania, 5 ... ... ... Jinangi 
 
 Hedysarum, i 
 
 Zornia, i 
 
 Stylosanthes, i 
 
 ^FLschynomene, 2 
 
 Ormocarpum, i 
 
 Eleiotis, i 
 
 Pseudarthria, I 
 
 Uraria, i 
 
 Lowria, I 
 
 Alysicarpus, 2 
 
 Desmodium, 8 Sensitive plant
 
 HORTICULTURE 
 
 89 
 
 Abrus, I 
 
 Cicer, i 
 Vicia, 2 
 Ervum, i 
 Arachis, i 
 
 Lathyrus, I ... 
 Pisum, 2 
 Glycine, 2 ... 
 Teramnus, i 
 Mucuna, 4 .. 
 Erythrina, 8 .. 
 Galactia, i 
 Butea, 2 
 Canavalia, 3 
 Phaseolus, 8 .. 
 
 Wild liquor- Guraganji 
 
 ice 
 Bengal gram Kadale 
 Bean 
 Lentil 
 Ground-nut 
 
 Nela 
 kadale 
 
 Sweet pea 
 Garden pea 
 
 Kad-avare 
 
 Vigna, I 
 Pachyrhizus, I 
 Clitoria, 4 
 Uolichos, 3 .. 
 
 Cowitch 
 
 Indian coral Varjipe 
 
 Pulas kino Multuga 
 Sword bean 
 Kidney bean Hurali 
 kayi 
 Green gram Hesaru 
 ... Alasandi 
 
 Dholl 
 
 Togari 
 
 Rosewood... 
 Kino 
 
 Biridi 
 rionne 
 
 Indian beech Honge 
 
 Cow gram . . . Avare 
 Horse gram Hurali 
 
 Psophocarpus, i 
 
 Atylosia, 3 
 
 Cajanus, i 
 
 Cylista, I 
 
 Rhynchosia, 6 
 
 Flemingia, 2 
 
 Dalbergia, 8 . . . 
 
 rtcrocarpus, 2 
 
 I'ongamia, I ... 
 
 Derris, 2 
 
 Sophora, 2 
 
 Virgilia, I 
 
 Goodia, I 
 
 Templetonia, I 
 
 Swainsonia, i 
 
 Myrospermum, 2 Myroxylon 
 
 Viminaria, 1 
 
 Clianthus, 2 
 
 Robinia, I 
 
 Carlanospermum, I 
 
 Brownea, 2 
 
 (Ccesalpinise) 
 
 Cssalpinia, 10 Sappanwood 
 
 Mysore thorn Kurudu 
 gajjige 
 
 Pellophorum, i 
 
 Mezoneurum, i 
 
 Pterolobium, 2 
 
 Poinciana, 2... Gold-mohur tree 
 
 Parkinsonia, i Jerusalem thorn 
 
 Wagatea, i 
 
 Gleditschia, 
 Cassia, 17 
 
 I Honey locust 
 ... Indian 
 
 laburnum 
 Tanner's 
 
 cassia 
 
 Ilardwickia, I 
 
 Saraca, i ... Asoka 
 
 Amherstia, i 
 
 Tamarindus, 2 Tamarind ... 
 
 Ilymencea, I... Locust-tree 
 
 Humboldtia, i 
 
 Bauhinia, 13... Camel's foot 
 
 Kakke 
 
 Tangadi 
 
 Karachi 
 Asoka 
 
 Hunise 
 
 Kanchi- 
 vala 
 
 Ikumatoxylon, I Logwood 
 Colvillea, I 
 Ccratonia, I 
 Louchocarpus, I 
 
 (Mimosex) 
 Neptunia, i 
 
 Adenanthera, i Redwood' ... ALanjatti 
 Prosopis, 2 
 Dichrostachys, i 
 Parkia, i 
 Desmanthus, i 
 Leucaena, i 
 
 Mimosa, 2 
 Acrocarpus, 
 Acacia, 18 
 
 Shingle-tree 
 Babool 
 
 Soap-nut 
 
 Ilaulige 
 Jali 
 Mugali 
 Kaggali 
 Sige gida 
 
 All)izzia, 5 Bage 
 
 Sujjalu 
 
 Pithecolobium, 3 Rain-tree 
 
 Korakapulli Sime 
 
 hunise 
 
 The shingle-tree is considered by many 
 planters to be one of the best trees for 
 coffee shade. The Australian wattles 
 have not succeeded well at Bangalore, 
 but the indigenous Jdlh are common 
 everywhere. 
 
 ' The scarlet seeds, each supposed to equal 4 grains exactly, used by goldsmiths 
 and others as weights. Also worn as necklaces. The paste from the heartwood 
 applied by Brahmans to the forehead after bathing.
 
 90 
 
 FLORA 
 
 Rosace<c. 
 Prunus, 4 ... Peach, I'lum 
 Sjiinua, i 
 
 Rubus, 3 ... Rasplierry 
 Fragaria, i ... Stra wherry 
 Poteriuni, i 
 
 Rosa, 17 ... Rose ... Gulabi 
 
 Eriobotrya, i Loquat ... Lakkoti 
 Pyrus, 2 ... Apple, Pear Sevu 
 
 Of roses 258 varieties are named as 
 cullivated in Bangalore. 
 
 Saxifragacecc. 
 Saxifraga, I 
 Vahlla, I 
 Hydrangea, I 
 
 Crasstilacece. 
 Tillaja, i 
 Bryophyllum, i 
 Kalanchoe, 4 
 Cotyledon, 4 
 Sedum, I 
 Echeveria, i 
 
 Droseracecc. 
 Drosera, i ... ... Indian Sundew 
 
 Haloragecc. 
 Myriophyllum, i 
 
 Combretacecr. 
 Terminalia, 9 Myrobalan Tare, 
 
 Arale kayi 
 
 Anogeissus, i Dindiga 
 
 Combretum, 5 
 
 Poivrea, i 
 
 Quisqualis, i Rangoon creeper 
 
 Myrtacece. 
 Melaleuca, 2 
 Tristania, 2 
 Callistemon, 2 
 Eucalyptus, 15 Gum tree 
 Myrtus, I ... Myrtle 
 Psidium, 4 ... Guava ... Chepe 
 Eugenia, 7 ... Rose-apple Pannerale 
 
 Jamoon . . . Nayi nerale 
 Barringtonia, I 
 Carey a, i 
 Couroupita, i 
 
 Me las to in acecc. 
 Osbeckia, 2 
 
 Melastoma, i Indian rhododendron 
 Sonerila, i 
 
 Ileterotrichuni, i 
 Memecylon, 3 
 
 Lythracecc. 
 Ammannia, 5 
 
 Lawsonia, i ... Henna ... Goranti 
 Lagerstrcemia, 4 ... ... Nandi 
 
 Punica, 3 ... Pomegranate Dalimbe 
 Lafoensia, i 
 Heimia, i 
 Cuphea, 2 
 
 Jussisea, 2 
 Ludwigia, i 
 Clark ia, 2 
 Godetta, 4 
 Oenothera, 2 
 Fuchsia, 3 
 Napa, I 
 
 Onagracecs. 
 
 Water chestnut 
 
 PassiJiorecF. 
 Passiflora, 12... Passion-flower 
 Tacsonia, 3 
 Modecca, i 
 Carica, i ... Papay ... Parangi 
 
 Cuctrrbitacea. 
 Trichosanthes, 3 Snake gourd Padavalu 
 
 Lagenaria, I .. 
 Luffa, 4 
 Benincassa, i 
 Momordica, 3 
 Cucumis, 3 ... 
 
 Citrullus, 2 ... 
 
 Bottle gourd Sore 
 
 Melon ... Kekkarike 
 
 Cucumber ... Savute 
 
 Colocynth 
 
 Water melon Karbuj 
 
 Cephalandra, i 
 Cucurbita, 3 ... Gourd 
 Bryonia, i 
 Mukia, I 
 Zehneria, i 
 Rhynucarpa, i 
 Zanonia, I 
 
 Kumbala 
 
 Begonia, 27 
 Opuntia, 5 
 
 Melocactus, 2 
 Cereus, 9 
 Echinocactus, I 
 Epiphyllum, 2 
 Pereskia, i 
 
 Cactt'u. 
 Prickly pear Papas 
 
 kattali 
 Cochineal plant 
 
 Night-flowering cactus
 
 HOR TIC UL TURE 
 
 91 
 
 Ficoideic. 
 Trianlhema, 3 
 Orygia, i 
 Mollugo, 4 
 Tetragonia, i 
 Mesembryanthemum, i Ice plant 
 
 UmbelHfenv, 
 Ilydrocotyle, 2 Indian pennyworL 
 Apium, 2 ... Celery, parsley 
 Carum, 4 ... Caraway 
 
 Bishop'.s ... Omu 
 weed 
 Pimpinella, 2 
 Fceniculum, i 
 Polyzygus, i 
 Anthriscus, i Chervil 
 Pencedanum, I Dill 
 
 Coriandrum, i Coriander ... Kottumbari 
 Cuminum, I ... Cummin .seed Jirige 
 Daucus, I ... Carrol ... Gajina 
 
 gadde 
 Partinaca, i ... Parsnip 
 Arracacia, i 
 lleracleum, i 
 
 Araliacecr. 
 Aralia, S ... Rice-paper plant 
 Panax, 9 
 Ileptapleurum, i 
 Brassreia, 2 
 Iledera, l ... Ivy 
 
 Many varieties of Panax arc cultivated 
 in gardens for their foliage. 
 
 Corjiacece. 
 
 Alangium, I Ankole 
 
 Cornus, I 
 Benlhamia, i 
 
 Caprifoliacea. 
 Lonicera, 2 ... Woodbine 
 Rubiacea. . 
 Sarcocephalus, i 
 Anthocephalus, i 
 
 Adina, i Bachanige 
 
 Stephegyne, i ... ... Kadaga 
 
 Nauclea, i Yettaka 
 
 Wendlandia, 2 
 Hedyotis, i 
 Oldenlandia, 3 
 Mussx'nda, I 
 
 Webera, I Papati 
 
 Randia, 2 Mangare 
 
 Gardenia, 4 
 Knoxia, i 
 
 Canthium, 2 Kare 
 
 Vangueria, I 
 
 Ixora, 7 ... Torch-tree... Gorlvi 
 
 Pavetta, i 
 
 Coffea, 2 ... Coffee ... Kapi 
 
 Morinda, 2 
 
 Psychotria, i 
 
 Spermacoce, i 
 
 Rubia, 2 ... Madder 
 
 Pentas, i 
 
 Hamelia, i 
 
 Cinchona, 4 
 
 Rondeletia, i 
 
 Manettia, i 
 
 Catesboia, i 
 
 Hoffmania, i 
 
 Dipsacea. 
 Dipsacus, I ... Fuller's teazel 
 Scabiosa, 4 
 
 Cornpositce. 
 
 Centratherum, i 
 Vernonia, 5 ... Speedwell 
 Elephantopus, i 
 Adenostemma, i 
 Ageratum, 2 
 Solidago, I 
 Eupatorium, 2 
 Dichrocephala, i 
 Grangea, i 
 Brachycome, 2 
 Aster, 3 
 Callistephus, i 
 Erigeron, i 
 Conyza, i 
 Blumea, 6 
 Laggera, i 
 
 Pluchea, 2 
 
 Spha;ranthus, 3 ... Mudugattina 
 soppu 
 Bodukadale soppu 
 Often mixed with stored grain to pre- 
 serve the latter from the attacks of 
 
 insects. 
 
 Filago, I 
 
 Anaphelis, i 
 
 Gnaphalium, 2 
 
 Helichrysum, 2 Everlasting 
 
 Vicoa, I 
 
 Lagascea, I
 
 92 
 
 FLORA 
 
 Xanlhium, I 
 
 Siegcsbcckia, i 
 
 Kclipla, I ... ... Gariigahi soppii 
 
 Hlainvillca, I 
 Wadelia, I 
 
 Spilanlhus, 3 Muguli 
 
 Guizolia, I ... Foolish oil... Iluchch- 
 
 planL ellu 
 
 Bidens, i ... Bur marigold 
 Achillea, i ... Milfoil 
 Chrysanthemum, 4 ... ... Sevantige 
 
 Cotula, I 
 
 Artemisia, 3 ... Wormwood 
 
 Gynura, I 
 
 Emilia, I 
 
 Nolonia, I 
 
 Seneico, 4 ...Kadugobli 
 
 Calendula, I... Marigold 
 
 Echinops, I 
 
 Tricholepis, 2 
 
 Centaurea, 4... Cornflower 
 
 Carthamus, i Safflower ... Kusumba 
 
 Dicoma, i Sanni 
 
 Cichorium, 2 Succory, Endive 
 
 Taraxacum, i Dandelion 
 
 Lactuca, 2 ... Lettuce 
 
 Sonchus, I ... Sow thistle 
 
 Farfugium, 3 
 
 Flauria, i 
 
 Zinnia, 4 
 
 Argyranthemum, i 
 
 Cosmos, I 
 
 Cacalia, i 
 
 Gaillardia, 3 
 
 Gazania, i ... Treasure flower 
 
 Helenium, i 
 
 Tagetes, 3 ... African and French 
 
 marigold 
 Calliopsis, 4 
 BelHs, 2 ... Daisy 
 Cineraria, i 
 Sanvitalia, i 
 
 Pyrethrum, 3 Peverfew 
 Cynara, I ... Globe artichoke 
 Dahlia, i 
 
 Helianthus, 4 Sunflower ... Surya 
 
 kanti 
 Jerusalem artichoke 
 Polymnia, i 
 
 Viltadenia, i Australian daisy 
 Verbesina, i 
 
 Campamilacea. 
 Pratia, i 
 Lobelia, II 
 Cephalostigma, 2 
 Wahlenbergia, I 
 Sphenoclea, i 
 
 Campanula, 5 ... Harebell 
 
 Trachelium, i ... Throatwort 
 
 Pin m bagin acea. 
 Plumbago, 3... Leadwort ... Chitra- 
 
 mula 
 PrimiilacecB. 
 
 Primula, i Primrose 
 
 Anagallis, I ... Pimpernel 
 
 Cyclamen, i ... Sow bread 
 
 Myrsinece. 
 Msesa, i 
 Embelia, i 
 Ardisia, 4 
 Jacquinia, 3 
 
 Sapotacece. 
 Chrj'sophyllum, i Star-apple 
 Sideroxylon, I ... Iron wood 
 Bassia, 2 ... INIahwa ... Ippe 
 
 Mimusops, 2 ... Pagadi 
 
 Achras, i ... Sapod ilia 
 
 Ebenacecc. 
 Diospyros, 6... Ebony ... Bale 
 
 OleacecB, 
 Jasminum, 15 Jasmine ... Mallige 
 Nycthanthes, i ... ... Parijata 
 
 Olea, 2 ... Olive 
 
 Ligustrum, i... Indian jorivet 
 Myxopyrum, i 
 Noronhia, I 
 
 Salvadoracece. 
 Azima, i ... ... ... Bili uppi 
 
 ApocynacecE. 
 Carissa, 4 ... ... ... Korinda 
 
 Ranwolfia, I 
 
 Cerbera, i 
 
 Kopsia, I 
 
 Vinca, 3 ... Periwinkle Kasi gana- 
 
 galu 
 Plumiera, 3 ... Pagoda-tree Devagana- 
 
 galu 
 
 Alstonia, 2 ... Jantala 
 
 Holarrhena, i 
 
 Taberncemontana, 3... ... Nandi 
 
 batlu
 
 HORTICULTURE 
 
 9S 
 
 Vallaris, I 
 
 Bugadi 
 
 Hydrophyllacece. 
 
 Wrightia, 2 ... Ivory wood 
 
 Beppale 
 
 Wigandia, I 
 
 Nerium, 3 ... Oleander ... 
 
 Ganagalu 
 
 Hydrolea, i 
 
 Beaumontia, 2 
 
 
 Nemophila, i 
 
 Thevetia, i ... Exile tree 
 
 
 Boraginea. 
 
 Allamanda, 4 
 
 
 Cordia, 4 .. Tapasi 
 
 Ichnocarpiis, I 
 
 
 Ehretia, 5 
 
 Roupellia, i 
 
 
 Coldenia, i 
 
 Dipladenia, I 
 
 
 Heliotropium, 3 Heliotrope 
 
 Echites, 2 
 
 
 Trichodesma, 3 
 
 Landolphia, 3 
 
 
 Anchusa, i ... Alkanet 
 
 Rhyncospermum , I 
 
 
 Myosotis, 2 ... Forget-me-not 
 
 Adenum, i 
 
 
 Symphytum, i Prickly comfrej' 
 
 Asclepiadacea. 
 
 
 Borago, i ... Borage 
 
 Hemidesmus, i Bastard sar- 
 
 Sugandhi 
 
 Cynoglossum, i 
 
 saparilla 
 Cryptolepis, 2 
 
 
 Coiivohnilacecr. 
 
 Cryplostegia, I 
 
 
 Erycilje, i 
 
 Secamone, i... 
 
 Siranige 
 
 Rivea, 2 
 
 Oxystelma, I 
 
 
 Argj'reia, 6 ... Elephant ... Samudra- 
 
 Calotropis, 3... Mudar 
 
 Vekkc 
 
 creeper palal)alli 
 
 Asclepias, I ... Swallowvvor 
 
 
 Lettsomia, 2 
 
 Da;mia, I 
 
 Juttuve 
 
 Ipoma;a, 23 ... Moonflower creeper 
 
 Cynanchum, 2. 
 Sarcostemma, i 
 
 
 Morning glory 
 
 Hamlni 
 
 Hewittia, i 
 
 
 kalli 
 
 Convolvulus, 5 Scammony 
 
 Gymnema, I 
 
 
 Exogonium, i Jalap 
 
 Pergularia, i 
 
 
 Jacquemontia, I 
 
 Stephanotis, I 
 
 
 Evolvulus, I 
 
 Tylophora, 4 
 
 
 Porana, i 
 
 Hoya, 5 ... Waxflowcr 
 
 
 Cuscuta, I 
 
 
 Solanacece. 
 
 Leptadenia, i 
 
 
 
 Brachystelma, i 
 
 
 Solanum, 14... Night.shade Kdchi 
 
 Ceropegia, 5 
 
 
 Brinjal, egg- Badane 
 
 Gomphocarpus, i 
 
 
 plant 
 
 Caralluma, 2 
 
 
 Potato ... Urala gadde 
 
 Boucerosia, 2 
 
 
 Cyphomandra, i 
 
 Loganiacea. 
 
 
 Lycopersicum, i Tomato 
 
 
 Physali.s, 2 ... Cape gooseberry 
 
 Mitrasacme, i 
 
 
 Capsicum, 5 ... Chilli ... Menasu 
 
 Buddleia, i 
 
 
 Withania, I 
 
 Fagr;va, i 
 
 
 Nicandra, I 
 
 Strychnos, 2... Nux vomica 
 
 Nanjina 
 
 Datura, 5 ... Thorn-apple Ummatti 
 
 GentianacecE. 
 
 koradu 
 
 Brugmansia, I Trumpet flower 
 
 Exacum, 2 
 Hoppea, 2 
 
 
 Hyo-scyamus, l Henbane 
 Petunia, 3 
 Habrothamnus, i 
 
 Erythrcea, i 
 
 
 Nicotiana ... Tobacco ... Hoge 
 
 Canscora, 2 
 
 
 
 Limnanthemiim, 2 
 
 
 soppu 
 Scroph idarineic. 
 
 Poknwuiacea:. 
 
 
 Vorbascum, I ... Mullein 
 
 Phlox, 3 
 
 
 Celsia, i. 
 
 Cobixia, 1 
 
 
 Linaria, 2 Toad-flax
 
 94 
 
 FLORA 
 
 Antirrhinum, I ... Sna]i-<lraf^on 
 
 Minuihis, 3 Monkey flower 
 
 Lininopliyla, 2 
 Ilerpestis, i 
 
 Torenia, 2 Sispara creeper 
 
 Vandellia, 4 
 Ilysanthes, 2 
 
 Veronica, i Speedwell 
 
 Striga, I 
 
 Rhamphicarpa, i 
 
 Sopubia, 2 
 
 Maurandia, 3 
 
 Penslemon, 5 
 
 Angelonia, 2 
 
 Browallia, 2 
 
 Lophospermum, i 
 
 Collinsia, 2 
 
 Calceolaria, i ... Slipperwort 
 
 Paulownia, i 
 
 Russellia, 2 
 
 Brunfelsia, i 
 
 Franciscea, 2 
 
 Sanchezia, 2 
 
 Calceolaria is not successfully cultivated 
 at Bangalore. 
 
 Orobanchacecc. 
 .Eginetia, 2 
 Orobanche, 2 
 
 Lcntibiilariacea:. 
 Utricularia, 2 
 
 Gesiieracece. 
 -Eschynanthus, 2 
 Klugia, I 
 Gesnera, 6 
 Achimenes, 3 
 Gloxinia, 4 
 Streptocarpus, i 
 
 Bignoniacea:. 
 IMillingtonia, i Indian cork- Biratu 
 
 tree 
 Oroxylum, i 
 
 Bignonia, 3 ... Trumpet-flower 
 Tecoma, 7 
 Dolichandrone, I 
 Spathodea, i 
 Heterophragma, I 
 Stereospermum, 4 ... ... Padar 
 
 Amphilophium, i 
 
 Catalpa, i 
 
 Crescentia, i Calabash-tree 
 
 Kigelia, i 
 
 The spathodea, when in flower, is one 
 of the handsomest trees in our parks and 
 gardens. 
 
 redaliarete. 
 Pedalium, I 
 
 Sesamum, 2 ... Gingelli ... Olle yellu 
 Marly nia, 2 
 
 Acanthacea. 
 Thunbergia, li 
 Nelsonia, i 
 Ilygrophila, 2 
 Calophanes, I 
 Ruellia, 3 
 Phaylopsis, i 
 Dcedalacanthus, 2 
 Hemigraphis, I 
 Strobilanthes, 8 
 Blepharis, 2 
 Acanthus, i 
 Barleria, 9 
 Crossandra, I 
 Asystasia, 2 
 Eranthemum, 10 
 Andrographis, 2 ... ... Nelavembu 
 
 Gymnostachyum, i 
 
 Lepidagathis, 2 ... ... Gantu kalu 
 
 Justicia, 8 
 Adhatoda, i 
 Rhinacanthus, I 
 Ecbolium, I 
 Graptophyllum, 3 
 Rungia, 2 
 Dicliptera, 2 
 Peristrophe, 3 
 Cyrtanthera, 2 
 Aphalandra, i 
 Meyenia, 2 
 Fittonia, 2 
 
 Verbenacece. 
 Lantana, 2 
 Lippia, I ... ... ... Kere 
 
 hippali 
 Stachyturpheta, 2 Bastard Vervain 
 Priva, I ... ... ... Sirantu 
 
 Verbena, 4 
 Callicarpa, i 
 
 Tectona, 2 ... Teak-tree ... Tegada 
 
 mara 
 Premna, i ... ... ... Narave 
 
 Gmelina, 2 ... ... ... Kuli 
 
 Vitex, 4 ... Chaste-tree Nekkilu
 
 HORTICULTURE 
 
 95 
 
 Clerodcndron, 13 
 
 Holmskioldia, I 
 
 Petrea, i 
 
 Duranta, 2 
 
 Aloysia, i ... Lemon-.scented verl^ena 
 
 Citharexylum, I 
 
 Lanlana is very entensively used for 
 
 hedges. 
 
 Labiata. 
 
 Ocymuni, 5 ... Sweet baril Tulasi 
 Orthosiphon, 2 
 Plectranthus, 2 
 
 Coleus, 4 ... Indian ... Dodda 
 Ijorage patri 
 
 Garden varieties of coleus are much 
 prized as foliage plants. 
 Anisochilus, 2 
 Lavendula, 2 Lavender 
 Pogostemon, 2 ... Pachche tene 
 
 Dysophylla, i 
 Perilla, i 
 
 Mentha, 2 ... Peppermint I'udina 
 Origanum, 2... Marjorum 
 Thymus, i ... Thyme 
 Ilyssopus, I ... Hyssop 
 Melissa, i ... Balm 
 Salvia, 8 ...Sage Karpura gida 
 
 Marrubium, i Horehound 
 Anisomeles, 2 ... Mangamari 
 
 Stachys, i ... Woundwort 
 Leonorus, i ... Motherwort 
 
 Leucas, 5 Tumbe 
 
 Leonotis, i 
 Gomphostemma, i 
 Rosmarinus, I Rosemary 
 
 PlantaginecB. 
 I'lantago, i Sirapotli 
 
 Nyctaginea:. 
 Boerhaavia, 4 ... Hogweed 
 
 Pisonia, i Lettuce-tree 
 
 :Miral)ilis, I ... Marvel of Peru, 
 
 ?"our o'clock plant 
 Bougainvillea, 3 
 
 The last grow and flower profusely at 
 Bangalore. 
 
 Ainaranlaccic. 
 
 Dceringia, I 
 
 Celosia, 3 ... Cockscomb 
 
 Allmania, i 
 
 Digera, I 
 
 Amaranlus, 12 Danlu 
 
 Pupalia, 2 ... ... Antu purule 
 
 /Erua, 3 
 
 Achyranthus, 3 Uttarani 
 
 Alternanthera, 3 
 
 Extensively used as edgings for garden 
 paths. 
 
 Gomphrena, 2 Globe amaranth 
 Iresine, 4 
 
 CheiiopodiacCiC. 
 Chenopodium, 2 Goosefoot 
 Beta, I ... Beet 
 Spinacia, I ... Spinach ... Basale 
 Atriplex, 3 ... Orache 
 Basella, i BayiBasali 
 
 Phytolaccacea. 
 Rivina, i 
 
 Polygo)iace<e, 
 Polygonum, 7 ... ... Siranige soppu 
 
 Fagopyrum, i Buckwheat 
 
 Rheum, i ... Rhubarb 
 
 Emex, I 
 
 Rumex, 2 ... ... Sukke soppu 
 
 Coccoloba, I 
 Antigonon, i 
 
 Nepenthacece. 
 Nepenthes, i... Pitcher plant 
 
 Aristolochiacea. 
 Aristolochia, 5 
 
 Piperacea. 
 Piper, 6 ... Pepper ... Menasu 
 
 Betel leaf ... Vilyad-ele 
 Peperomia, 4 
 
 Myristicecc. 
 Myristica, 3 ... Nutmeg-tree Jaji kayi 
 
 Laitraccic. 
 Cinnamomum, 2 Cinnamon Lavanga 
 
 patte, 
 Dalchini 
 
 Machilus, i ChilUi 
 
 tandri 
 Alseodaphne, i 
 Litscea, i 
 
 Persea, i ... Alligator Pear 
 Hernandia, 2 
 
 Proteaceit. 
 Plelicia, i 
 
 Macadamia, i jVuslralian nut-tree 
 Grevillea, 2 ... Silver oak 
 Ilakea, 3
 
 96 
 
 FLORA 
 
 El(vagnace(t. 
 EliJeafjnus, 2 Ilcjjalii 
 
 f.oranthaccic. 
 
 Loranthus, 4 Badanikc 
 
 Old mango-trees in Mysore are much 
 infested by these mistletoes. 
 
 SantalacecE. 
 Santalum, I ... Sandalwood Srigandha 
 The most valuable tree in Mysore. 
 
 EuphorbiaceiE. 
 Euphorbia, 10 Milk hedge Kalli 
 Buxus, I 
 
 Bridelia, I Gurige 
 
 Phyllanthus ... Gooseberry-... Nelli 
 
 tree 
 Glochidion, i 
 Fhieggia, i 
 
 Breynia, i Suli 
 
 Putranjiva, i 
 
 Antiderma, i 
 
 Jatropha, 7 ... Physic-nut 
 
 Manihot, i ... Ceara rubber 
 
 Tapioca 
 Aleurites, i ... Belgaum walnut 
 Croton, I ... Crotonoil... Japala 
 
 plant 
 Of so-called garden crotons, which 
 properly belong to the genus Codiceum , 
 122 varieties are named as cultivated at 
 Bangalore. 
 Givotia, i 
 Codi^Eum, I 
 Chrozophora, i 
 
 Acalypha, 7 Kuppi 
 
 Trewia, 1. 
 
 Mallotus, I ... Kamaladye Kunkumada 
 
 mara 
 Ricinus, 2 ... Castor-oil ... Haralu 
 
 plant 
 Gelonium, I 
 Tragia, i 
 Dalechampia, i 
 Sapium, 2 ... Tallow-tree 
 Exccecaria, I 
 Baloghia, i 
 
 Poinsettia, 2... Sandbox-tree 
 Hura, I 
 Anda, i 
 
 Hevea, 2 ... Para rubber 
 Xylophylla, i 
 
 Pedilanthus, 2 
 Synadcnium, i 
 
 Celtis, I 
 Trema, I 
 
 Urlicecc. 
 
 Bendu 
 Gorklu 
 
 , Charcoal- 
 tree 
 Humulus, I ... Hop 
 Cannibis, i ... Hemp ... Bangi soppu 
 Cultivation prohibited in Mysore. 
 
 Streblus, i Mitli 
 
 Broussonetia, i Paper mulberry 
 Morus, 5 ... Mulberry Reshme gida, 
 Kamljali gida 
 Dorstenia, I 
 
 Ficus, 25 ... Banyan Alada mara, 
 Goni mara 
 Pipal Asvatha, arali 
 
 mara 
 Basuri mara 
 Country fig Atti mara 
 Goni mara {F. mysoreiisis) is the 
 largest species in the Mysore country. 
 Specimens are not unusual with trunk 
 30 feet circumference, and head 140 feet 
 diameter. The Java fig {F. Benjainiiia) 
 and Moreton Bay chestnut {F. macro- 
 phylla) are highly ornamental trees. 
 Artocarpus, 4 Jack-tree ... Halasina 
 
 mara 
 Urtica, I ... Nilgiri nettle 
 Fleurya, i 
 Girardinia, i 
 Pilea, I 
 Boehmeria, 3... Rhea Fibre or 
 
 Grass-cloth plant 
 Pouzolzia, I 
 Debregeasia, i 
 
 PlatanacecT. 
 
 Platanus, i ... Oriental plane 
 
 CasuaruiecE. 
 Casuarina, 7 . . . ... ... Kesarike 
 
 C. eqtiisetifolia is very extensively 
 cultivated as a fuel-tree. 
 
 CupiiHfera;, 
 Quercus, i ... Oak 
 Will hardly grow here 
 
 Salicaceic. 
 Salix, 2 ... Willow ... Niravanji 
 
 Ceratophylk(.e. 
 Ceratophyllum, i
 
 HORTICULTURE 
 
 97 
 
 Gymnospermae. 
 
 Conifera. 
 
 
 ' Wellingtonia, i ... Mammoth-tree 
 
 Cupressus, 7 
 
 Cypress 
 
 
 Cryptomeria, I 
 
 Juniperus, i 
 
 Juniper 
 
 
 Thuja, I Arbor vita- 
 
 I'odocarpus, 2 
 
 
 
 Retinospara, 3 
 
 Danimara, 2 
 
 New Zealand pine 
 
 
 I'inus, 2 
 
 Cheer pi 
 
 ne 
 
 Cycadaceie. 
 
 Frenela, 2 ... 
 
 Tasmanian pine 
 
 Cycas, 5 
 
 Araucaria, 4 
 
 Pines 
 
 
 I Macrozamia, i 
 
 Abies, 2 
 
 Spruce 
 
 
 1 Encephalartus, i 
 
 
 
 Monocotyledons. 
 
 Hydrocharidecc. 
 
 
 Amomum, \ 
 
 Hydrilla, i 
 
 
 
 Eletlaria, 2 ... Cardamom Velakki 
 
 Lagarosiphon, i 
 
 
 
 (Marantacere. ) 
 
 Vallisneria, i 
 
 
 
 Maranta, 21 
 
 Blyxa, I 
 
 
 
 Canna, 10 ... Indian shot 
 
 Ottelia, I 
 
 
 
 
 Orchid 
 
 \c. 
 
 
 (Musacere.) 
 
 Dendrobium, 37 
 
 
 
 Musa, 5 ... Plantain ... Bale gid; 
 
 Bulbophyllum, 2 
 
 
 
 Of M. paradisiaca 15 varieties a 
 
 Eria, 3 
 
 
 
 named as in local cultivation. 
 
 Phajus, 3 
 
 
 
 Heliconia, 2 
 
 Ccelogyne, 7 
 
 
 
 Strelitzia, i 
 
 Pholidota, 2 
 
 
 
 Ravenala, i ... Travellers' tree 
 
 Calanthe, 2 
 
 
 
 Iridacem. 
 
 Arundina, i 
 
 
 
 
 Cyml^idium, 3 
 
 
 
 Gladiolus, 5 ... Corn flag 
 
 Eulophia, i 
 
 
 
 Iris, 3 Fleur-de-lis 
 
 Cyrtopera, i 
 
 
 
 Tigridia, I Tiger flower 
 
 Phalaenopsis, 2 
 
 
 
 Pardanthus, 1 ... Leopard flower 
 
 .brides, 5 
 
 
 
 Antholyza, i. 
 
 Vanda, 6 
 
 
 
 Amaryllidea. 
 
 Saccolaliium, 6 
 
 
 
 Crinum, 7 
 
 Vanilla, 2 
 
 
 
 Pancratium, I 
 
 Cultivated at Bangal 
 
 ore for it> 
 
 fruil. 
 
 Nerine, i ... (juernsey lily 
 
 I'ogonia, i 
 
 
 
 Amaryllis, 5... Mexican lily 
 
 Habenaria, i 
 
 
 
 Eucharis, 2 ... Amazon lily 
 
 Cypripediuni, 4 
 
 Lady's si 
 
 pper 
 
 Zephyranthes, 3 American crocus 
 
 Angrivcum, i 
 
 
 
 Curculigo, 2 
 
 Bletia, i 
 
 
 
 Cyrtanthus, i 
 
 Oncidiuni, i 
 
 
 
 Hsemanthus, 3 Blood flower 
 
 A number of orchidh 
 
 are still 
 
 undeter- 
 
 Doryanthes, i 
 
 mined. 
 
 
 
 Agave, 6 ... American aloe Kaltali 
 
 Scitai)n)icu-. 
 
 
 Fourcroya, 4 
 
 (Zingiberaceiv. ) 
 
 
 Broiiieliaccie. 
 
 Alpinia, 5 
 
 
 
 .^chmea, 2 
 
 Zingi])er, 2 ... dinger 
 
 ... Sonti 
 
 Anana.ssa, 2 ... I'inc apple Ananas 
 
 Costu.s, 2 
 
 
 
 Billbergia, i 
 
 Ksempferia, 2 Indian 
 
 crocus 
 
 
 Tillandsia, 2 
 
 Hedychium, 4 darland flower 
 
 
 Pilcairnia, 2 
 
 Curcuma, 4 ... Turmeric ... Arisina gida 
 
 Bromelia, 1
 
 98 
 
 FLORA 
 
 Dioscorcacece. 
 Dioscorca, 8 Yam 
 
 SniilacciF. 
 Smilax, 3 ... Sarsaparilla 
 
 Philesiacea. 
 Lapageria, 2 
 
 Liliacecz. 
 Lilium, 5 ... Lily 
 
 Succeed indifferently at Bangalore. 
 
 Gloriosa, i Karadi kan- 
 
 nina gida 
 Agapanthus, 2 African blue lily 
 Ilemerocallis, i Day lily 
 Anthericum, 2 St. Bruno's lily 
 Tulipa, 2 ... Tulip 
 rdianthes, 2 
 
 Ornithogalum, I Star of Bethlehem 
 Sanseveira, 3 Bow-string Manju 
 
 hemp 
 Allium, 5 ... Onion ... Irulli 
 Garlic ... BellulH 
 
 Asparagus, 4 Majjige 
 
 Aspidistra, 3 
 
 Dracaena, 20... Dragon's blood 
 
 Very useful for decorative purposes. 
 Phormium, 2 New Zealand flax 
 Aloe, 3 ... Hedge aloe 
 
 Yucca, 5 ... Adam's needle 
 Eustrephus, i 
 
 Pontederiacecc. 
 Monochoria, 2 
 
 Commclynageic. 
 Cyanotis, 2 
 Commelyna, 4 
 Aneilemma, i 
 Nadescantia, 4 
 
 Palmacea:. 
 Areca, 7 ... Areca-nut ... Adike 
 Arenga, i ... Sugar palm 
 Borassus, i ... Palmyra palm Tale 
 Caryota, 4 ... Sago palm Bagani 
 Chamcerops, 3 
 
 Cocos, 2 ... Cocoa-nut... Tengina 
 
 mara 
 Several distinct varieties are cultivated. 
 Corypha, 2 ... Fan palm 
 Phoenix, 9 ... Date palm... Karjura 
 
 Toddy palm Ichalu 
 Sabal, 2 ... Palmetto 
 
 Seaforthia, I 
 
 Livistona, 2 
 
 Licuala, 2 
 
 Calamus, 6 ... Rattan-cane palm 
 
 Ekx;is, I 
 
 Oreodoxa, I 
 
 Kentia, i 
 
 Thrinax, 3 
 
 Rhapis, I ... Ground rattan 
 
 Hyophorbe, I 
 
 Dictyosperma, i 
 
 Dypsis, I 
 
 Wallichia, I 
 
 Alismacea. 
 Sagittaria, I 
 
 PandajjacecE. 
 Pandanus, 4 ... Screw pine Gedige 
 
 Typhacece. 
 Typha, 2 ... Elephant ... Jambu 
 grass huUu 
 
 Aroidea. 
 Acorus, 2 ... Sweet flag 
 
 Calla, I ... Arum lily 
 
 Aglaonema, 3 
 Alocasia, 18 
 Amorphophallus, 3 
 Anthurium, 13 
 
 Arisjema, 2 ... Snake lily 
 
 Arum, 2 ... Lords and ladies 
 
 Caladium, 46 
 
 Grow to great perfection in Bangalore. 
 Dieffenbachia, 12 
 Philodendron, 5 
 Pothos, 5 
 Syngonium, 3 
 Curmeria, I 
 
 PistiacecB. 
 Pistia, I ... Water soldier 
 
 Lemna, i ... Duckweed 
 
 Eriocaidonea. 
 Eriocaulon, 2 
 
 Cyperacetz. 
 
 Cyperus, 18 Jambu huUu 
 
 Timbristylis, 6 ... Sabbasige hullu 
 
 Isolepis, 3 ... ... Usumani hullu 
 
 Scirpus, I Club-rush Hommugali 
 
 hullu 
 Courtoisia, I 
 Tuirena, 2 ... ... Petlugori huJlu 
 
 Kyllingia, I ... Anantagonde hullu
 
 HORTICUL TURE 
 
 99 
 
 Graminea. 
 Triticum, i ... Wheat ... Oodhi 
 Oryza, i ... Rice ... Nellu 
 
 There are specimens of io8 varieties 
 in the Bangalore Museum. 
 
 Zea, I 
 
 Maize 
 Indian corn 
 
 . Jola 
 
 Euchln?na 
 
 Teosinte 
 
 
 Paspalum, 2 .. 
 
 
 .Sanna tapri 
 hullu 
 
 I'anicum, 21 .. 
 
 Little millet 
 
 Haragu 
 
 
 Italian mille 
 
 t Navane 
 Same 
 Maraka 
 
 Pencillaria, I... 
 
 Spiked mille 
 
 L Sajje 
 
 Setaria, 4 
 
 
 . Korle 
 hullu 
 
 Saccharum, 2.. 
 
 Sugar-cane 
 
 Kabbu 
 
 Andropogon,5. 
 
 Lemon grass Nese hullu 
 
 
 
 Lavanchi 
 
 
 
 hullu 
 
 
 
 Kasi hullu 
 
 
 Kuskus 
 
 Ganjalu ga- 
 
 
 grass 
 
 rika hullu 
 
 Sorghum 
 
 Oreat millet Bili jola 
 
 Cymljopo- 
 
 
 Dodda kasi 
 
 gon, I 
 
 
 hullu 
 
 Chrysopogon, 2 
 
 
 
 Coix, I 
 ApUida, I 
 Anatherium, i 
 
 Job's tears 
 
 
 
 
 Aristida, 4 ... 
 
 Broom 
 
 Ilanchi 
 
 
 grass 
 
 hullu 
 
 Cynodon, I ... 
 
 Ilariali, or.. 
 
 . Oarike 
 
 doub grass hullu 
 The best Indian grass for making hay. 
 
 Fox-tail grass 
 
 Buffalo-head grass 
 
 Nose hullu 
 
 Chloris, I 
 Microchlon, i 
 Lappago, I 
 I.sachne, i 
 Sporobolus, 2... 
 Oplismenus, 4 
 Manisurus, i 
 Batratherum, i 
 Trachys, I 
 Dactyloc- 
 
 tenium, i 
 Leptochloa, 2 
 Perotis, i 
 Eragrostis, 11 
 Leersia, i 
 ChaniKraphis, i 
 Imperata, i 
 Gymnothrix, i 
 Spodiopogon, i 
 Ileteropogon, i 
 Elytrophorus, I 
 Anthisteria, i 
 Hemarthria, I 
 Arundinella, 2 
 Eleusine, 2 ... 
 
 The staple grain of Mysore, 
 Avena, i ... Oat grass 
 
 Briza, i 
 Dactylis, i 
 Lolium, I 
 Heleochloa, i ... 
 
 (Bambusacece. ) 
 Dendrocalamus, I 
 Arundinaria, 2 
 
 Bambusa, 5 ... Bamboo ... Bidiru 
 Beesha, 2 ... Quill bamboo 
 
 Ragi 
 
 Ragi 
 
 Quaking grass 
 Cock's-foot grass 
 Darnel rye grass 
 
 Jandu hullu 
 
 Filices. 
 
 Acroslichum, 8 
 Actinopteris, i 
 Adiantum, 32 
 Alsophila, I 
 Anemia, i 
 Angiopleris, i 
 Aspidium, 4 
 Asplenium, 20 
 Athyrium, i 
 Blechnum, 4 
 Ceropteris, i 
 Cheilanlhus, 3 
 Cyrtomiuni, 2 
 
 Maiden -hair fern 
 Tree fern 
 
 Wood fern 
 Spleenwort 
 I>ady fern 
 Hard fern 
 
 Cryptogams. 
 
 Davallia, 5 
 Doodia, i 
 Drynaria, i 
 Gleichenia, i 
 Goniopteris, i 
 Gymnogramma, 
 
 Hemionitis, i 
 Hemilalia, i 
 Hypolepis, I 
 Lastrea, 3 
 Lindsiva, i 
 Lomaria, i 
 Lygodium 2 
 
 Golden fern 
 Silver fern 
 
 Climbing fern 
 H 2
 
 FLORA 
 
 Nciihrddium, 17 
 
 Nciiliiolcpis, 8 
 
 Niphohulus, I 
 
 Onychiuni, 2 
 
 Ophioglossuni, 1 
 
 Osmunda, 1 ... l^oyal fcni 
 
 Pelljea, 2 
 
 Pleopelti.s, i 
 
 I'olyliotrya, i 
 
 I'olypodiiim, 12 
 Pteris, 15 
 Sagenia, i 
 Scolopendrium, i 
 
 Lycopodiaccd. 
 lyycopodium, 2 ... Clulj-moss 
 Selaginella, 13 
 
 O'i grasses indigenous to Mysore, the following is a descriptive list of 
 those fit for stacking' :• — 
 
 Garike. — A kind of haridii, grows to about 3 feet, a i:;;ood nourishing,' gra.ss, grow.s 
 almcst anywhere, l)ut is l)est in light soil and with nifxlerate moisture (Cynodon 
 dactylon). 
 
 Gaiijalu Garike. ^A. kind of hariali, very valuable for all purposes, and .said to 
 increase the milk-giving powers of cows ; makes very good hay. Clrows in light soil 
 with moderate moisture (Andropogon Bladhii). 
 
 Haiichi. — A coar.se common grass, grows in any sort of place, it runs much to stalk, 
 and is not very nourishing because of the hardness of the stalk ; there are two kinds, 
 one coarser than the other (Aristida cterulescens). 
 
 Karda. — (Spear grass.) Good when young, but dries up into sticks in the hot 
 weather ; very common all over the country (Andropogon pertusus). 
 
 Darbhe. — A rushy kind of grass, grows in swamps and jheels, has a feathery flower, 
 and its seeds fly. It grows to about 4 feet in height. Cattle only eat it when young ; 
 it makes indifferent hay (Eragrostis cynosuroides). 
 
 Phara or Mdiii. — A very valuable grass, good for every kind of cattle, grows any- 
 where, but best on black cotton soil ; attains the height of about i foot, and throws up 
 a long flowering stalk. 
 
 Uppala. — A rushy kind of grass in jheels and swamps, height about 4 feet, nourish- 
 ing and liked by cattle. Makes indifferent hay. 
 
 Sunti. — Grows in jheels, paddy fields and swamps, very good grass, makes good 
 hay, reaches about 3 feet in height (Panicum repens). 
 
 Node. — A long rushy grass, grows only in damp jungles, acts as a purge on cattle, 
 good for hide-bound beasts. 
 
 Solali. — Found in jheels, and grows to about 3 feet, makes indifferent hay. When 
 young it is liked by, and good for, cattle, but its chief value is from the small gras.ses 
 which are always found growing round the bottom of its stem. 
 
 Marahiillii.—A. good grass, grows to about 3 feet, is of a nourishing nature, requires 
 a good deal of moisture. 
 
 The following are not good for stacking ; they grow mixed together, 
 gondyada or che/ildgatii, bhhna/ii, Indiirii-yck, ycnua/iiaffi, Inli-huIIu^ 
 iim/nattakam, nariM/a, akki-hullii, hire. 
 
 There are also certain plants or herbs which are of great use to 
 cattle ; the best of these is called J>urta?iipiili, which has seeds like 
 burrs, with a thick-jointed sappy stem ; grows along the ground, is very 
 good for milch cattle. 
 
 ^ From a memorandum by Colonel Boddam. The botanical name has been added 
 where it could be identified.
 
 lOI 
 
 CROPS AND CULTIVATION^ 
 
 Cultivated lands are usually classed as dry, hishki ; wet, tari ; and 
 garden, tbta or bdgdyat. In the first are raised crops which do not 
 require irrigation, pair-dramba : the wet crops are those dependent for 
 their growth entirely on irrigation, nir-dramba : the products of garden 
 cultivation are fruits or drugs requiring a moist situation with an 
 abundant supply of water. Gardens are of four kinds : tarkdri tbta, 
 vegetable gardens ; iengina or adike iota, cocoa-nut or areca-nut 
 plantations ; yek tbta, betel leaf plantations ; and hi/vina tbta, flower 
 gardens. The agricultural seasons are two, and the produce is called 
 Kdrtika fasal ox Vais dkJia fasal -^ccoxdiAXiglo the time of ripening.- In 
 the Mysore District the seasons are named kdru and haiiiii. In parts 
 of the Malndd the former has the name kbdii. 
 
 But the farmer's calendar is regulated by the rains that fall under 
 each of the jiakshatras or lunar asterisms, after which they are called. 
 The following are the names, with the generally corresponding 
 months : — 
 
 Lunar Mouth. Solar Month. 
 
 Chailra 
 
 April 
 
 Nakshatra 
 As'vini 
 Bharani 
 Krittika 
 Rohini 
 
 Mrigas'ira . . . 
 Ardra 
 
 I 'unarvasu . . . 
 I'ushya 
 As'lesha 
 Magha 
 Tuliba 
 U tiara 
 Hasta 
 China 
 Svati 
 Vis'akha 
 Amiradha ... 
 Jyeshtha 
 Mula' 
 
 ri'irvashadha 
 Utlarashadha 
 S'ravana 
 
 \'ais'akha 
 
 Jyeshtha 
 
 Ashadha 
 
 S'ravana 
 Bhadrapada 
 .Vs'vija 
 Kartika 
 
 Margas'ira 
 I'ushya 
 
 May 
 June 
 
 July 
 
 August . . . 
 September 
 October ... 
 November 
 
 December 
 January ... 
 
 Mcsha ... 
 N'rishabha 
 Milhuna ... 
 Karkataka 
 
 Simha 
 Kanya 
 Tula 
 \"ris'chika 
 
 Dhanus ... 
 Makara .., 
 
 Aries 
 
 Taurus 
 
 Cjemini 
 
 Cancer 
 
 Leo 
 
 Virgo 
 
 Libra 
 
 Scorpio 
 
 Sagittarius 
 Capricornus 
 
 ind accurate accounts have l)een freely used in describing the 
 
 ' Buchanan's full 
 modes of cultivation. 
 
 '^ Kartika falls in October — November ; Vais'dl;ha in April — May.
 
 I02 FLORA 
 
 Nakshatra. Lunar Month. Sola)- Mont/i. 
 
 Dhanishtlia... ... Magha 
 
 S'atal)liisha... ... ... .. February... Kuinljlia ... Aquarius 
 
 l\'irval)ha(lra ... I'halj^una 
 
 Utlarabhddra ... ... .. March ... Mina ... Pisces 
 
 Rcvati 
 
 Bharani rain is considered to prognosticate good seasons throughout 
 the year. This is expressed in the Telugu proverb Bharani vaste 
 dharani pandudu — if Bharani come, the earth will bring forth. The 
 rains from Mrigas'ira to A.s'lesha are the sowing time, for food grains 
 in the earlier part, and horse-gram in the later. Svati and Vis'akha 
 rains mark the close of the rainy season. Anuradha to Mula is the 
 reaping time, when only dew falls. At this season the future rains are 
 supposed to be engendered in the womb of the clouds. Sugar-cane is 
 planted in Pilrvabhadra and Uttarabhadra. 
 
 The absolute dependence of all classes on \\\^ panchdtiga or almanac 
 is thus explained by Buchanan : — " Although, in common reckoning, 
 the day begins at sunrise, yet this is by no means the case in the 
 cha7idra]iidnain almanac. Some days last only a few hours, and others 
 continue for almost double the natural length ; so that no one, without 
 consulting the Panchangadava or almanac-keeper, knows when he is to 
 perform the ceremonies of religion. What increases the difficulty is, 
 that some days are doubled, and some days altogether omitted, in order 
 to bring some feasts, celebrated on certain days of the month, to happen 
 at a proper time of the moon, and also in order to cut off six super- 
 fluous days, which twelve months of thirty days would give more than 
 a year of twelve lunations. Every thirtieth month one intercalary moon 
 is added, in order to remove the difference between the lunar and solar 
 years. As the former is the only one in use, and is varying continually, 
 none of the farmers, without consulting the Panchangadava, knows the 
 season for performing the operations of agriculture. These Panchanga- 
 davas are poor ignorant Brahmans, who get almanacs from some one 
 skilled in astronomy. This person marks the days, which correspond 
 with the times in the solar year, that usually produce changes in the 
 weather, and states them to be under the influence of such and such 
 conjunctions of stars, male, female, and neuter ; and everyone knows 
 the tendency of these conjunctions to produce certain changes in the 
 
 weather." 
 
 The following is a list of the most generally cultivated productions of 
 
 the soil : — 
 
 Dry Crops. 
 Cereals. 
 
 Eleusine corocana, Gartn. ... Ragi Ragi- 
 
 Panicum frumentaceum, AW(5. ... Little millet Same, save.
 
 CROPS 
 
 103 
 
 Panicum italicum, IJim. ... 
 
 ,, miliaceum, Linn. 
 
 ,, semiverticillatum 
 Pennisetum typhoideum, lizc/i. 
 Sorghum vulgare, I'ers. ... 
 
 Cajanus indicus, Spreng. . . . 
 Cicer arietinum, Z?««. 
 Dolichos biflorus, Linn. ... 
 
 ,, lablab, Linn. 
 Lens esculenta, Mcench. ... 
 Phaseolus mungo, Linn. . . . 
 
 ,, ,, var. radiatus, /,///« 
 
 Vigna catiang, Endl. 
 
 Guizotia abyssinica, Cass. 
 Ricinus communis, Linn. 
 
 Sesamuni indicum, D.C. ... 
 
 Brassica nigra, Koch. 
 Crotolarea juncea, Linn. 
 (iossypium herbaceum, Linn. 
 I libiscus cannabinus, Linn. 
 Nicotiana tabacum, Linn. 
 
 OiyzB. sa.tiya., Linn. 
 Saccharum officinarum, Li>in. 
 
 Allium cepa, Linn. 
 
 ,, sativum, Linn. 
 Arachis hyjxjga'a, Linn. ... 
 Capsicum annuum, Li)in. 
 Carum copticum, Benth.... 
 Carthamus tinctorius, Linn. 
 Coriandrum sativum, /.inn. 
 Cuminum cyminum, Linn. 
 Curcuma longa, Roxb. 
 Trigonclla focnum gra*cum, Linn. 
 Zingiber officinale, Rose. ... 
 
 Areca catechu, Linn. 
 
 Cocos nucifera, />?';/;/. 
 
 Coffea arabica, /,///;/. 
 
 Elettaria cardamomum, Maton. .. 
 
 Morus indica, Linn. 
 
 Musa sapientum, Linn. ... 
 
 Italian millet 
 Common millet ... 
 
 Spiked millet 
 Great millet 
 
 Pulses. 
 Pigeon pea, doll 
 Bengal gram, chick pea 
 Horse gram, kujli 
 Cow gram 
 
 Lentil 
 
 Green gram 
 Black gram 
 
 Oil seeds. 
 . Foolish oil plant 
 . Castor oil 
 
 Wild „ 
 
 . Gingelli, sesame 
 Miscellaneous. 
 
 . Mustard 
 
 Indian hemp 
 . Cotton 
 
 . Dekhan hemp ... 
 . Tobacco ... 
 
 Wet Crops. 
 
 Rice 
 Sugar-cane 
 
 Garden Crops. 
 
 . Onion 
 . Garlic 
 
 Ciround-nut 
 . Chilly 
 
 Bishop's weed 
 
 Safflower... 
 
 Coriander 
 . Cummin seed 
 
 Turmeric 
 
 Fenugreek 
 
 Ginger ... 
 
 J\Iiscellaneo us. 
 Areca-nut 
 Cocoa-nut 
 Coffee 
 Cardamom 
 Mulberry 
 
 i'lantain ... 
 
 Navane. 
 
 Baragu. 
 
 Haraka. 
 
 Sajje. 
 
 Joja. 
 
 Togari, tovari. 
 
 Kadale. 
 
 Hurali. 
 
 Avare. 
 
 Channangi. 
 
 Hesaru. 
 
 I'ddu. 
 
 Alsandi, tadugani. 
 
 Huchchejlu, ramtil. 
 
 Ilaralu. 
 
 Kad-, dod-, or mara- 
 
 haralu. 
 Woljclju, achchel]u. 
 
 Sasive. 
 Sanabu. 
 Arale. 
 Pundi. 
 Hoge soppu. 
 
 Bhatta, nellu. 
 Kabbu. 
 
 Nirulli. 
 Bejluiji. 
 Kallekayi, nela kadale. 
 Mensina kayi. 
 Oma. 
 Kusumba. 
 Kottambari. 
 Jirige. 
 Arisina. 
 Mentya. 
 Sunti. 
 
 Ad ike. 
 
 Tengina kayi. 
 
 Bundu, kapi. 
 
 Velakki. 
 
 Uppu nerle, kambali 
 
 gida. 
 Bale.
 
 I04 
 
 J' LOR A 
 
 I'ijK'r Ijctlc, Liiiii. 
 
 ,, nigrum, Linn. 
 Triticuiii sativum, La/iik. 
 
 Ik'tcl vine 
 lilack pepper 
 Wheat ... 
 
 Viled-ele. 
 
 .Menasu. 
 
 (;6dhi. 
 
 The total area taken up for cultivation in 189 1-2 is stated at 
 5,685,160 acres, of which 4,601,729, or 8o'9 per cent, were for dry 
 cultivation ; 697,419, or i2'2 per cent., for wet cultivation; 234,955, or 
 4"i per cent., for garden cultivation; and 148,834, or 2*6 per cent, for 
 coffee. The approximate area actually under crops from 1870, so far 
 as figures are available from the Annual Reports, may be gathered 
 from the following statement, expressed in millions of acres : — 
 
 IS70 
 
 • 5-15 
 
 1876 
 
 •• 5-53 
 
 1882 . 
 
 • 4-51 
 
 1887 
 
 •• 5-24 
 
 I87I 
 
 .. 4-91 
 
 1877 
 
 .. 4-38 
 
 1883 . 
 
 • 4 '65 
 
 1888 
 
 .. 5-28 
 
 1872 
 
 .. 5-26 
 
 187S 
 
 •• 4'39 
 
 1884 . 
 
 • 4 '47 
 
 1889 
 
 •• 553 
 
 1873 
 
 .. 5-20 
 
 1879 
 
 •• 3-99 
 
 1885 . 
 
 . 4-88 
 
 1890 
 
 • • 5 '60 
 
 1874 
 
 ■• 5 "22 
 
 1880 
 
 .. 4-28 
 
 1886 . 
 
 • 5"io 
 
 1891 
 
 .. 5-68 
 
 1875 
 
 • • 5 '02 
 
 1881 
 
 •• 4-35 
 
 
 
 
 
 In 1865 the acreage seems to have been 3 "14 millions, so that culti- 
 vation has increased 80 per cent, in twenty-seven years since. But part 
 of the increase may, no doubt, be attributed to more accurate measure- 
 ment, resulting from the progress of the Revenue Survey. In the first 
 series- the highest point was reached apparently in 1876, just before 
 the great famine ; but the crops of that year perished, and it was 
 thirteen years before cultivation spread to the same extent again. 
 Adopting intervals of five years, the percentage of approximate acres 
 returned as under various crops was as follows : — 
 
 Crops. 
 
 1871. 
 
 1876. 
 
 1881. 
 
 1886. i 
 
 1891. 
 
 
 r Ragi 
 
 Other Food Grains ... 
 
 j- 66 '04 
 
 84- 
 
 75-11 
 
 t 
 73-4 
 
 45 '9 
 1 28^6 
 
 Dry ... - 
 
 Oil Seeds 
 
 2'I 
 
 2-2 
 
 3-06 
 
 4'5 1 
 
 4*1 
 
 Cotton 
 
 •78 
 
 •09 
 
 — 
 
 •87 
 
 •71 
 
 
 Tobacco 
 
 •4 
 
 •21 
 
 — 
 
 •92 
 
 "■> 
 
 
 l Wheat 
 
 •25 
 
 •I 
 
 •4 
 
 •36 
 
 ■06 
 
 
 r Rice 
 
 24-5 
 
 8- 
 
 1273 
 
 ^y3, 
 
 12-7 
 
 Wet... \ 
 
 Sugar-cane 
 
 •45 
 
 •2 
 
 
 •72 j 
 
 •62 
 
 
 Mulberry 
 
 •28 
 
 ■2 
 
 — 
 
 •2 i 
 
 •24 
 
 
 r Cocoa-nut and 
 
 
 } 2-3 
 
 
 
 
 
 Areca-nut 
 
 !• 
 
 3-1 
 
 27 
 
 2-8 
 
 Garden - 
 
 Vegetables 
 
 1-9 
 
 •s 
 
 — 
 
 •66 
 
 !•! 
 
 
 . Coffee 
 
 2-3 
 
 2-1 
 
 3-2 
 
 2-1 , 
 
 2-6
 
 CROPS 105 
 
 The most important fluctuation exhibited by these figures is an 
 apparent reHnquishment of rice cultivation in favour of the cultivation 
 of ragi and associated food grains, and of oil seeds. This movement, 
 which took place in the years 1871 to 1873, is not specially noticed in 
 the Reports. But it appears to have been coincident with a change of 
 policy whereby the control of irrigation channels and tanks was trans- 
 ferred from the Revenue officers to the Public Works Department, 
 with the view of their being systematically repaired, the necessity for 
 which had long been recognized, and brought up to a good standard of 
 safety. The former frequent waste of water was now checked, and 
 steps were taken to enforce the responsibilities of the cultivators in 
 regard to the maintenance of the restored irrigation tanks. Moreover, 
 as the new Revenue Survey approached the rice districts, it was now- 
 real i/.ed that all occupied lands were liable to pay the assessment, 
 whether cultivated or not. Hence perhaps a reduction in the area of 
 wet cultivation which the statistics disclose, the actual area under rice 
 having dropped from i"32 million acres before 187 1 to little over half 
 a million in the subsequent year. Another explanation may be found 
 in the following statement from the Report for 187 1-2 : — "The fall in 
 the value of produce has been attended by considerable relinquishments 
 of land, chiefly on the part of speculators, who appear to have taken 
 up land wherever it could be obtained during the period of high prices, 
 and who, doubtless, in many instances have found it no longer worth 
 retaining," 
 
 The following figures, taken from the returns for 1 891-2, are instruc- 
 tive as showing the Districts in which the cultivation of particular pro- 
 ducts is most extensive. Mysore and Bangalore grow the most ragi, 
 followed by Tumkilr, Hassan, and Kolar, in this order. Chitaldroog 
 and Mysore have the largest area under other dry grains and oil seeds. 
 Chitaldroog is pre-eminently the cotton district, and also takes the prin- 
 cipal lead in the limited area under wheat. Mysore produces the most 
 tobacco. Shimoga is the chief rice district, the cultivation being to a 
 great extent dependent on the rains alone : Mysore follows, with its 
 splendid system of irrigation channels: Kadur and Hassan come next, 
 partaking of the character of both. Shimoga, Kolar, and Hassan are 
 the principal sugar-cane districts. Mulberry cultivation, for the nourish- 
 ment of silkworms, is confined entirely to Mysore and the eastern 
 districts. Tumkilr stands first in cocoa-nut and areca-nut gardens, 
 especially the former, followed by Hassan, Mysore and Shimoga, 
 which last excels in areca-nut. Kolar cultivates the largest extent of 
 vegetables, while Bangalore and Tumkiir come next, a good way after. 
 Kadur and Hassan are almost exclusively the coffee districts.
 
 io6 
 
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 RAG I 107 
 
 Ragi — (the manva or mandwa of northern India) is by far the most 
 important of any crop raised on dry fields and suppHes all the lower 
 ranks with their common diet. It is reckoned the most wholesome 
 and invigorating food for labouring people.' Three kinds are distin- 
 guished of it, which, however, are only varieties ; the kari or black, 
 ketnpu or red, and hnllupare. All are equally productive, but the third 
 when nearly ripe is very apt to shake the seed. In some places all 
 three are sown intermixed in the same field, but in others more atten- 
 tion is paid to the quality of the grain. The black is considered in 
 some parts to be simply grain that has got wet when it is threshing. 
 
 The principal varieties in the eastern districts are' the gidda rdgi and 
 dodda rdgi. The former ripens in four months, and the latter in four 
 and a half; and the latter is esteemed both the best in quality, and the 
 most productive ; but when the rain sets in late, as it requires less time 
 to ripen, the gidda is preferable. In the Mysore District the gidda 
 ragi is called kdr rdgi, and somewhat different. There are three kinds 
 of kdr rdgi: the ba/aga, or straight-spiked rdgi, which is always sown 
 separately from the others ; the />i/i iiiodga/a, or white nigi with incurved 
 spikes ; and the kari viodgala, or incurved black ragi : the two latter 
 are sometimes kept separate, and sometimes sown intermixed. The 
 cultivation for all the three is quite the same and the value of the 
 different kinds is equal ; but the produce of the kari modgala is rather 
 the greatest. 
 
 "The whole world," says ^^'ilks, "does not, perhaps, exhibit a 
 cleaner system of husbandry than that of the cultivation of ragi in the 
 home fields of Mysore. On the first shower of rain after harvest the 
 home fields are again turned up with the plough,- and this operation, 
 as showers occur, is repeated six successive times during the dry season, 
 at once destroying the weeds and opening the ground to the influence 
 
 * The following is the composition of nigi grain according to Professor Church in 
 Food Grains of India : — 
 
 In 100 parts 
 
 
 
 Husked 
 
 Whole 
 
 In I lb. 
 
 Water 
 
 
 13-2 .. 
 
 . 12-5 . 
 
 2 oz grains 
 
 Albumino: 
 
 ids 
 
 7-3 •• 
 
 • 5-9 • 
 
 • • ,, 413 „ 
 
 Starch 
 
 
 73-2 .. 
 
 . 74-6 . 
 
 ■ II ,, 409 >. 
 
 Oil... 
 
 
 15 .. 
 
 . 0-8 ., 
 
 .. ,, 56 ,, 
 
 Fibre 
 
 
 2-5 .. 
 
 . 36 ., 
 
 ,, 252 ,, 
 
 Ash 
 
 
 2-3 .. 
 
 . 2-6 .. 
 
 . ,, 182 ,, 
 
 The nutrient ratio is liere i : 13, llie nutrient vahie S4. The percentage of phos- 
 phoric acid in the whole grain is about 0*4. 
 
 - This is the practice in the Mysore District, but in the eastern di.slricts the fields 
 are left untouched after harvest, with the stubbie standing, until the early rains of the 
 following spring.
 
 To8 FLORA 
 
 of the sun, the dcc()m[)()silioii of water and air, and the formation of 
 new compounds. 'I'lic manure of the village, which is carefully and 
 skilfully prepared, is then spread out on the land, and incorporated 
 with it by a seventh ploughing, and a harrowing with an instrument 
 nearly resembling a large rake, drawn by oxen and guided by a boy : 
 when the field is completely pulverized, a drill plough, of admirable 
 and simple contrivance, performs the operation of sowing twelve rows 
 at once by means of twelve hollow bamboos at the lower end, piercing 
 a transverse beam at equal intervals and united at the top in a wooden 
 bowl, which receives the seed and feeds the twelve drills : a pole at 
 right angles with this beam (introduced between two oxen) is connected 
 with the yoke ; the bamboos project below about three inches beyond 
 the transverse beam, being jointed at their insertion for the purpose of 
 giving a true direction to the projecting parts, which being cut diagon- 
 ally at the end, serve, when the machine is put in motion, at once to 
 make the little furrow and introduce the seed : a flat board, placed 
 edgewise and annexed to the machine, closes the process ; levelling the 
 furrows and covering the seed. If the crop threatens to be too early or 
 too luxuriant, it is fed down with sheep. Two operations of a weeding 
 plough of very simple construction, at proper intervals of time, loosens 
 the earth about the roots and destroys the weeds ; and afterwards during 
 the growth of the crop, at least three hand weedings are applied. This 
 laborious process rewards the husbandman in good seasons with a crop 
 of eighty fold from the best land. The period between seed-time and 
 harvest is five months. There is another kind of ragi which requires 
 but three months. It is sown at a different season in worse ground, 
 and requires different treatment." 
 
 In some parts, as near Seringapatam, the ground having been 
 prepared in the same way, the ragi is sown broad-cast, and covered by 
 the plough. The field is then smoothed with the halivc, which is a 
 harrow or rather a large rake drawn by two bullocks. Then, if sheep 
 are to be had, a flock of them is repeatedly driven over the field, which 
 is supposed to enable it to retain the moisture ; and for this purpose 
 bullocks are used when sheep cannot be procured. Next day single 
 furrows are drawn throughout the field at the relative distance of six feet. 
 In these are dropped the seeds of either avare or tovari, which are 
 never cultivated by themselves ; nor is nigi ever cultivated without 
 being mixed with drills of these leguminous plants. The seed of the 
 avare or tovari is covered by the foot of the person who drops it into 
 the furrow. Fifteen days afterwards the kiuite or bullock-hoe is drawn 
 all over the field ; which destroys every young plant that it touches, and 
 brings the remainder into regular rows. On the thirty-fifth day the
 
 RAG I 109 
 
 kiintc is drawn again, at right angles to its former direction. On the 
 forty-fifth day it is sometimes drawn again ; but when the two former 
 ones have sufficiently thinned the young corn, the third hoeing is not 
 necessary. At the end of the second month, the weeds should be 
 removed by the small iron instrument called iijari. According to the 
 quantity of rain, the ragi ripens in from three to four months. The 
 avare and tovari do not ripen till the seventh month. The reason of 
 sowing these plants along with the ragi seems to be that the rains 
 frequently fail, and then the ragi dies altogether, or at least the crop is 
 very scanty ; but in that case the leguminous plants resist the drought 
 and are ripened by the dews, which are strong in autumn. When the 
 ragi succeeds, the leguminous plants are oppressed by it and produce 
 only a small return ; but when the ragi fails, they spread wonderfully 
 and give a very considerable return. 
 
 In other places, as in Kolar, where the seed is sown by the drill- 
 I)lough, ki'/n'ge ; behind the kiirige is tied the implement called siidike, 
 into which is put the seed of the avare or tovari ; by this method, for 
 every twelve drills of ragi there is one drill of pulse. After the field 
 has been sown, it is harrowed with the bullock-rake called halive, and 
 then smoothed with a bunch of thorns, which is drawn by a bullock 
 and pressed down by a large stone. Here sheep are only used to 
 trample the ragi fields when there is a scarcity of rain. The bullock- 
 hoe called kunte is used on the fifteenth and eighteenth days after 
 sowing. On the twenty-sixth day the harrowing is repeated. On the 
 thirty-second the field is cleared from weeds with the implement called 
 oravari. In four months the ragi ripens and in five the pulses. 
 
 In the west, about Periyapatna, in very rich soils, nothing is put in 
 drills along with ragi ; but immediately after that grain has been cut, a 
 second crop of kadale is sown, which does not injure the ground. 
 Sometimes a second crop of same or of huchcheHu is taken ; but these 
 exhaust the soil much. ^Vhen rain does not come at the proper 
 season, the nigi fields are sown with ht/ra/i\ kadalc, huchchclju, or kari- 
 siiDie. The two leguminous plants do not injure the soil ; but the 
 huchcheUu and same render the succeeding crop of nigi very poor. 
 
 In Shimoga the ragi seed, mixed with dung, is placed very thin with 
 the hand in furrows drawn at the distance of about seven inches 
 throughout the field, a small quantity being dropped at about every 
 ten inches. In every seventh furrow are put the seeds o{ (ivurc, tovari^ 
 and pinidi intermixed, or of uddu by itself. 
 
 Ragi is reaped by the sickle, and the straw is cut within four inches 
 of the ground. For three days the handfuls are left on the field : and 
 then, without being bound up in sheaves, are stacked, and the whole is
 
 no 
 
 FLORA 
 
 well thatched. At any convenient time within three months it is 
 opened, dried two days in the sun, and then trodden out by oxen. 
 The seed, having been thoroughly dried in the sun, is preserved in 
 straw i?iude. The remainder is put into pits, or hagevii ; where, if care 
 has been taken to dig the pit in dry soil, it will keep in perfect 
 preservation for ten years. 
 
 Rdgi is always ground into flour, as wanted, by means of a hand-mill 
 called Msa-gcinu. In this operation it loses nothing by measure. The 
 flour is dressed in various ways. The most common are, a kind of 
 pudding called hittii, and two kinds of cakes called rotti and doshe, 
 both of which are fried in oil. For all kinds of cattle, the ragi straw is 
 reckoned superior to that of rice.' 
 
 ' The following is an estimate by Dr. Forbes Watson of the food-value of ragi and 
 other Indian grains, taken from Mr. Elliot's l)ook {Experiences of a Planter). 
 
 "The position of ragi as food, when compared with some of the other Indian 
 cereals, appears from the following table : — 
 
 
 
 Bajree 
 
 Jowaree 
 
 Rice 
 
 Ragi 
 
 Name of the Grain 
 
 Wheat 
 
 {Penicillaria 
 
 (Sorghum 
 
 (pryza 
 
 (Eleusim 
 
 
 
 sjticata) 
 
 vulgarc) 
 
 sativa) 
 
 corocand) 
 
 Number of analyzed samples 
 
 9 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 9 
 
 7 
 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 Moisture 
 
 I2"00 
 
 I2-00 
 
 12-00 
 
 1200 
 
 12-00 
 
 Nitrogenous matter 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Ciluten, alljumen, &c. ... 
 
 1 3 '42 
 
 10-27 
 
 9-38 
 
 740 
 
 6-53 
 
 Cellulose or woody fibre 
 
 2 69 
 
 1-49 
 
 2-23 
 
 •39 
 
 336 
 
 Carbonoiis viatter 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Starch, gum, &c. 
 
 68-81 
 
 71-01 
 
 7268 
 
 78-97 
 
 74*44 
 
 Fat or oil 
 
 I-I5 
 
 3-27 
 
 2-04 
 
 •57 
 
 1-17 
 
 Oxide of iron 
 
 •019 
 
 •026 
 
 -018 
 
 •008 
 
 064 
 
 Potassa... 
 
 •214 
 
 •405 
 
 •207 
 
 ■066 
 
 •534 
 
 Soda 
 
 •392 
 
 •132 
 
 •135 
 
 •082 
 
 •019 
 
 Lime 
 
 •068 
 
 064 
 
 -094 
 
 "026 
 
 •617 
 
 Magnesia 
 
 •241 
 
 •239 
 
 •260 
 
 •103 
 
 •163 
 
 Chlorine 
 
 •059 
 
 •058 
 
 •016 
 
 •016 
 
 •048 
 
 Phosphoric acid 
 
 •817 
 
 -678 
 
 •856 
 
 •287 
 
 •595 
 
 Sulphuric acid ... 
 
 •154 
 
 -105 
 
 •108 
 
 -080 
 
 •no 
 
 Silica ... 
 
 •029 
 
 •375 
 
 •088 
 
 •092 
 
 •334 
 
 The order according to which these cereals are arranged is determined by the 
 amount of nitrogenous matter they contain. Wheat stands pre-eminent, followed by 
 bajree and jowaree [or sajje and jola], w-hilst rice and ragi occupy the lowest position. 
 It will be observed that, in order to avoid the perturbations in the natural order 
 which may arise from a varying amount of moisture in the grains, all the analyses 
 have been reduced to a common moisture of twelve per cent. , which is that to which 
 all grains more or less approach. The numbers inserted in the table are, therefore, 
 true comparative numbers. 
 
 The ragis grown at different places seem to show almost a greater latitude in com- 
 position than most of the other grains. Among the seven samples analyzed the 
 amount of nitrogenous matter varies between 5-49 and 9*24 per cent., so that, although
 
 RAGI III 
 
 Tbta or ndt rdgi is not the same with that cultivated on dry grounds, 
 although in the sense adopted by botanists it is not specifically 
 different ; but the seed which is raised on dry fields will not thrive in 
 gardens ; nor will that which is raised in gardens thrive without 
 irrigation. Garden ragi is always transplanted, and hence it is called 
 ndti. The following is the process followed in the Kolar District. 
 For the seedling bed, dig the ground in Pushya (Dec. — Jan.) and give 
 it a little dung. Divide it into squares, and let it have some more 
 manure. Then sow the seed very thick ; cover it with dung, and give 
 it water, which must be repeated once in three days. The ground 
 into which it is to be transplanted, is in Pushya ploughed five 
 times, and must be dunged and divided into squares with proper 
 channels. About the beginning of Magha, or end of January, 
 water the seedlings well, and pull them up by the roots : tie them in 
 bundles, and put them in water. Then reduce to mud the ground into 
 which they are to be transplanted, and place the young ragi in it, with 
 four inches distance between each plant. Next day water, and every 
 third day for a month this must be repeated. Then weed with a small 
 
 the average is inferior to the rice, there are samples which may be richer in nitrogen 
 than most of the rices. Still, this is only one aspect of the question. The amount 
 of nitrogen is too often looked upon as the only exponent of the nutritive value. 
 This is a very circumscribed view of the extremely complicated and many-sided 
 problem of nutrition. Each of the normal components of the human body can 
 become of paramount importance under certain conditions. The oxide of iron in the 
 ash of the grains amounts only to some tenths of a per cent. ; but still the regular 
 supply even of this small quantity is essential for the proper performance of the vital 
 functions, as it is indispensalole in the formation of the blood-corpuscles. A dearth 
 of iron would, therefore, be just as fatal as a want of the nitrogenous, or carbonous, 
 or other principal constituent of food. In judging, therefore, of the relative value of 
 an article of food, the amounts of nitrogen and carbon cannot be relied on as the sole 
 guide. The mineral constituents must be taken into account. At the time when I 
 published my first analyses of ragi, these extended only to the organic compounds of 
 the grain, and the position which I then assigned to it — guided only l)y the percentage 
 of nitrogen — has been borne out by the subsequent analyses. Since then, however, a 
 detailed examination of the ash has been made, which yielded some remarkable con- 
 clusions. The ragi seems to be uncommonly rich in certain important mineral con- 
 stituents. The amount of phosphoric acid in ragi is only lower by one-fourth than 
 that in wheat, and it is more than twice as high as in rice. It contains eight times as 
 much iron, and eight times as much potassa as rice, and, indeed, more of potassa 
 than any of the other grains. It is, likewise, exceptionally rich in lime. The ash, 
 composed, as it chiefly is, of the most important elements, amounts on the average 
 to 2j per cent, in ragi, as compared with 0760 per cent, contained in rice. It is 
 therefore possible, if not indeed probable, that the large amount and favour- 
 al)le composition of the ragi ash may more than counterbalance its inferiority in 
 nitrogen, so that although, according to the nutritive standard hitherto in use, it must 
 be put below rice, ragi may still be, on the whole, a food satisfying by itself more 
 completely the numerous exigencies of an article of human diet than rice."'
 
 112 FLORA 
 
 hoc, and water once in four days. It ripens in three months from the 
 time when the seed was sown; and in a middling crop, produces twenty 
 fold. It is only sown on the ground at times when no other crop could 
 be procured, as the expense of cultivation nearly equals the value of the 
 crop. Another kind of nat ragi cultivated in Sira as a Vais'akha crop is 
 called tripati. 
 
 Avare — is never cultivated alone, but always with ragi, as 
 described above. When ripe, the legumes are nearly dry. The plant 
 having been cut and for one day exposed to the .sun, is beaten with a 
 stick to separate the seed. That which is designed for seed is 
 preserved in mudes ; while that for consumption is kept in pots, and 
 is used in curries. The straw is eaten by all kinds of cattle except 
 horses.' 
 
 Togari (or Tovari) — is also cultivated only with ragi, as described 
 above. It is cut when almost dry, then put up in heaps, and on the 
 day after it is opened to dry in the sun. The grain is beaten out with 
 a stick ; and that intended for sowing must be preserved in a straw 
 miide. It is used in curry. After the seed has been threshed, cattle 
 eat the husks of the legume. The straw is used for fuel. A larger 
 variety, called hiruka togari, is produced by garden cultivation. - 
 
 The best soil for the cultivation of these three articles is the black 
 soil, or ere bht'imi; which yields a crop of ragi every year, and even 
 without manure will give a considerable return ; but when it can be 
 procured, dung is always given. After a crop oi jbla, ragi does not 
 thrive ; but j61a succeeds after a crop of ragi. The next best soil for 
 ragi, and the one most commonly used, is the kebbe or red soil. In 
 this also it is sometimes cultivated without dung ; but it requires to be 
 manured at least once in two or three years. In maralu, or sandy, and 
 dare soils, it every year requires dung, 
 
 Jola — next to ragi is the most considerable dry crop. In the south 
 it is often sown for fodder; for, when the crop is not uncommonly good, 
 
 1 The following is Professor Church's analysis of avare beans : — 
 
 Water 
 
 Albuminoids 
 
 Starch 
 
 Oil 
 
 Fibre 
 
 Ash 
 
 The nutrient ratio deduced is I : ; 
 
 - According to the same authority i lb of the pea would contain i oz 361 grains of 
 water, 3 oz 208 grains of albuminoids, and 9 oz 1 1 grains of starch. The nutrient 
 ratio would be about 1:3: the nutrient value 80. 
 
 In 100 parts 
 Husked With husk 
 
 In I lb 
 oz grs 
 
 I2-I 
 
 .. I2-I 
 
 I 410 
 
 24-4 . 
 
 .. 22-4 
 
 3 255 
 
 57-8 . 
 
 •• 54-2 
 
 S 294 
 
 1-5 ■ 
 
 1-4 
 
 9S 
 
 I "2 . 
 
 .. 6-5 ... 
 
 I 17 
 
 3-0 . 
 
 • • 3-4 
 
 23S 
 
 he nutrient value 80. 

 
 JO LA 113 
 
 the grain is no object. It is cut and given to the cattle at a time when 
 ragi straw is not- to be procured. Previously to being given to cattle, 
 however, it must be dried, as the green straw is found to be very 
 pernicious. There are two kinds of jbla ; the white (/>///) and red 
 {ke7npii). When they are intended to be cut for the grain, these are 
 sown separately ; as the red kind ripens in three months, while four are 
 required to ripen the white jola. A red ragi soil is preferred for it, 
 and crops of ragi and jola are generally taken alternately, the crop of 
 ragi having an extraordinary allowance of dung. The j6]a requires less 
 rain than the ragi, and admits of a second crop of hurali being taken 
 after it; and thus, in the course of two years, there are on the same 
 ground three crops. 
 
 The j61a is both made into flour for puddings and cakes, and is 
 boiled whole to eat with curry, like rice. It is a good grain; but at the 
 utmost does not keep above two years. 
 
 The j6/a that is cultivated on dry field in Madgiri is of three kinds : 
 agara, kempu, and hasani. They are all, probably, mere varieties. 
 The best soil for them is a black clay ; and the next, the same mixed 
 with sand. For ragi these soils are of a poor quality ; but on the same 
 dry field j6]a and ragi may be alternately cultivated without injuring 
 either. In Wais'akha, or the second month after the vernal equinox, 
 plough four times. After the next rain sow the seed. It is sown 
 either broad-cast or by dropping it in the furrow after the plough. 
 Smooth the field by drawing a plank over it. It requires neither 
 weeding nor manure. For fodder its straw is inferior to that of rdgi, 
 but superior to that of rice. Agara jd]a ripens in 4^ months, kcinpu 
 and hasaru in four months. Their produce is rather less in the order 
 they are mentioned. 
 
 Towards llarihar the jola crop is always accompanied by one or 
 more of the following articles : avare, togari, hasaru, 7)iadiki, hurali, and 
 alasandi. These being intended chiefly for family use, a portion of 
 each is wanted, and every man puts in his j6]a field a drill or two of 
 each kind. Jd]a thrives on black clay, but is also sown on the red 
 earth, and even sometimes on the stony soil. In Chaitra the field is 
 hoed with a heg-kuiifc, which requires from six to eight oxen to draw it ; 
 for this is the month following the vernal equinox, when the soil is very 
 dry and hard. In the following month the field is ploughed once, and 
 then manured. In the month preceding the summer solstice, the seed 
 is sown after a rain by means of the drill ; while the rows of the 
 accompanying grains are put in by means of the sudike, which is tied 
 to the drill. The field is then smoothed with the bohi kuitk, a hoe 
 drawn by oxen, of lighter make than the heg-kunte. On the twentieth 
 
 I
 
 IT4 FLORA 
 
 day the field is weeded willi the cdc kuii/c, and (jii the twenty-eighth 
 day this is repeated. Tn five incjinlis the juja ripens, without further 
 troul)le.' 
 
 In the north of the Tumkiir District a few fields (jf watered land are 
 entirely allotted for the cultivation of /'/// Jo/a. The soil of these is a 
 rich black mould, but does not require much water. Only one crop a 
 year is taken. The produce is great, not only as an immense increase 
 on the seed sown, but as affording a great deal of food. The following 
 is the mode of cultivation : — Begin to plough in Vais'dkha and in the 
 course of seven months plough eight or nine times. Then manure 
 with dung, mud from the bottom of tanks, and leaves of the honge ; 
 and if there be no rain, water the field before .sowing. Previous to 
 being planted, the seed must have been soaked in water. A man then 
 draws furrows with a plough, and another places the seed in the 
 furrows at the distance of four or five inches. By the next furrow it 
 is covered. The field is then smoothed by drawing over it a plank, on 
 one end of which a man stands, and by this means that forms a low 
 ridge. Thus throughout the field, at the distance of six feet, which is 
 the length of the plank, parallel rows of ridges are produced. The 
 intermediate spaces are divided into oblong plots by forming with the 
 hand ridges which at every eight or twelve cubits distance cross the 
 others at right angles. At the same time the areas of the plots are 
 exactly levelled. The waterings, after the first month, must be given 
 once in twelve or fourteen days. In some villages the farmers weed 
 the Jo/a when it is six weeks old ; in others they do not take this 
 trouble. Some people around every field of Jo/a plant a row of 
 kitsumba seeds, and the prickly nature of that plant keeps aw\iy cattle. 
 
 Bi/i Jo/a is sometimes sown in place of the ^^ais'akha crop of rice. 
 This must be followed by a Karttika crop of ragi, as after it the 
 produce of rice would be very small. The jdla also thrives best after a 
 Karttika crop of ragi. Agara Jo/a is also sometimes seen in place of 
 the Vais'akha crop on rice ground. It ripens in four months. 
 
 Save. — There are three kinds of save cultivated in the east : /ian\ 
 
 ' The nutrient ratio oi Jo/a is given In- Professor Church as i : S\, and the nutrient 
 value as 86. It contains, he tells us, '86 per cent, of phosphoric acid and '21 per 
 cent, of potash. The following is his analysis of the grain : — 
 
 
 In TOO parts 
 
 In I lb 
 
 Water 
 
 ... 12-5 
 
 2 OZ O 
 
 Albuminoids 
 
 ... 9-3 
 
 I ,, 214 
 
 Starch 
 
 ... 72-3 
 
 II ,, 248 
 
 Oil 
 
 2-0 
 
 ,, 140 
 
 Fibre 
 
 2*2 
 
 ,, 154 
 
 Ash 
 
 ... 17 
 
 ,, 119
 
 SAVE 115 
 
 /cari, and M/ or ^/7/. They are never intermixed, and the cultivation 
 of the first kind differs from that of the other two. For /lari save 
 plough three times in the same manner as for ragi. If there be any to 
 spare, give the field dung, sow broad-cast, and harrow with the bullock- 
 rake. In three months the grain ripens without farther trouble ; when 
 it is cut down, stacked on the field for six days, and then trodden out. 
 It keeps best in the store-house, and is never made into flour. Cattle 
 eat the straw without injury, but it is inferior to the straw of either ragi 
 or rice. For the other two kinds, plough three times in the course of 
 Ashadha (June — July) ; then, after the first good rain, sow broad-cast, 
 plough in the seed, and harrow. They do not necessarily require 
 dung ; but if any can be spared, they will grow the better for it. When 
 ripe, which happens also in three months, they are managed as the 
 other kind is. The seed .ind produce of all are nearly the same. 
 
 In Madgiri the best soil for same is considered to be the red or ash- 
 coloured, containing a good deal of sand, which is common on high 
 places, ^^'ithout much manure, this ground does not bear constant 
 cropping. After resting a year or more, it is first cultivated for Jiiirali 
 and next season for same. If manure can be procured, a crop of nigi 
 is taken, and then it has another fallow. Dung being a scarce article, 
 in place of the ragi a second crop of same is taken ; but it is a bad one. 
 If the fallow has been long, and high bushes have grown up, after 
 burning these, the crop of hurali will be great, and two or three good 
 crops of same will follow. AVhen good ragi soil has for a year or more 
 been waste, and is to be brought again into cultivation, the first crop 
 ought to be same ; for ragi thrives very ill on land that is not constantly 
 cultivated. In this case, the same gives a great quantity of straw, but 
 little grain. When the rains have failed, so that the ragi has not been 
 sown, or when, in consequence of drought, it has died, should the end 
 of the season be favourable, a crop of same is taken from the fields 
 that are usually cultivated with ragi. This crop also runs to straw, and 
 the following crop of ragi requires more dung than usual. In the 
 course of thirty days, any time between the middle of April and 
 middle of July, plough three or four times. Then after a good rain, or 
 one which makes the water run on the surface of the ground, harrow 
 with the rake drawn by oxen, and sow the same seed with the drill, 
 putting in with the sudikc rows of the pulses called hurali ox togari. 
 In four months, without farther trouble, it ripens. 
 
 The same in Sira is of three kinds : /'///, kari, and nialiga or iiiujika. 
 The cultivation for the three kinds is the same, but the seeds are always 
 kept separate. The soil that agrees with them is the mara/u, and dare, 
 or poor sandy and stony lands. This soil, if it were dunged, would
 
 ii6 FLORA 
 
 every year produce a croi) of same ; Init, as that can seldom be spared, 
 the same is ahvays succeeded by a crop of hurali, which restores the 
 ground \ and alternate crops of these grains may be continued, without 
 any fallow, or without injury to the soil. Bili sdvie ripens in 3^ and 
 kari in four months ; the inalit^a requires only three months, and is 
 therefore preferred when the rains begin late; but it gives little straw, 
 and therefore in favourable seasons the others are more eligible. Same 
 straw is here reckoned better fodder than that of rice ; and, when 
 mixed with the husks of hurali or togari, is preferred even to that of 
 ragi. Except in case of necessity, jdja straw is never used. 
 
 Save in the south is never sown on the ere or black clay, and rarely 
 on the kebbe, or red soil ; the two worst qualities of land being 
 considered as sufficiently good for such a crop. In the spring the field 
 is ploughed five times. At the commencement of the heavy rains it is 
 sown broad-cast, and the seed is covered by a ploughing. Even in the 
 worst soil, there is no absolute necessity for dung ; but when any can 
 be spared, the crop will doubtless be benefited by manure. It ripens 
 without further care in three months, is cut close to the ground, and 
 gathered into stacks. Five or six days afterwards it is spread on a 
 threshing-floor, and the grain is trampled out by oxen. That intended 
 for sowing is dried in the sun, and tied up in straw viudes. The 
 remainder is preserved in kanajas. It is sometimes boiled whole, like 
 rice ; at others, ground into flour for cakes. All kinds of cattle eat the 
 straw, which is also esteemed the best for stuffing pack-saddles.' 
 
 Navane. — There are two varieties cultivated in the Mysore District ; 
 the one called gidda, or short ; and the other jbtu. or long ; and dodda, 
 or great. Unless a quantity of dung can be spared, it is never sown on 
 the two worst soils. On the two best soils it requires no manure, and 
 does not injure the succeeding crop of ragi. In the spring, plough six 
 times. When the heavy rains commence, sow, and plough in the seed. 
 It requires neither weeding nor hoeing, and ripens in three months. 
 Cut it close to the ground, and stack it for eight days ; then spread it 
 to the sun for a day, and on the next tread out the grain with oxen. 
 The seed for sowing must be well dried in the sun, and preserved in 
 a fjiude. The remainder is kept in a kanaja. It is made into flour for 
 hittu or pudding, and is also frequently boiled whole, like rice. The 
 straw is used for fodder, but is not good. The jbtu navaiie is some- 
 times put in drills with ragi, in place of the avare or togari. 
 
 Toward Madgiri the navane is of three kinds, /'///, which is cultivated 
 
 ' The following analysis of the grain (with husk) is given by Professor Church : — 
 In 100 parts there are contained, water I2'0 ; albuminoids, 8*4 ; starch, 72'5 ; oil, 3"0 ; 
 fibre, 2*2 ; ash fg. The nutrient ratio is i : 9"S, and the nutrient value 88.
 
 NA VANE 1 1 7 
 
 on watered land ; kt'iiipii, wliich is cultivated in palm gardens ; and 
 /iio/ne, which is cultivated in dry field. It is sometimes sown along 
 with cotton, but it is also cultivated separately. It grows on both ragi 
 and jola ground, and does not injure the succeeding crop of either. 
 In the course of twenty or thirty days, any time in Jyeshtha, Ashadha, 
 or Sravana, the third, fourth, and fifth months after the vernal equinox, 
 plough four times. If dung can be obtained, it ought to be put on 
 after the first ploughing. With the next rain, harrow with the rake 
 drawn by oxen, sow broad-cast, and harrow again. The straw is 
 reckoned next in quality to that of ragi ; but the grain, in the opinion 
 of the natives, is inferior. 
 
 The navane cultivated on dry field in Sira is that called In/i, and is 
 raised either on the two poorer soils, or on a black mould that has been 
 prepared for it by a crop of the pulse called hesaru. It is considered 
 as exhausting to the ground ; but this is obviated by ploughing up the 
 field immediately after the navane has been cut, thus exposing the soil 
 to the air. In the two months following the vernal equinox, plough 
 four times. \\'ith the next good rain, harrow with the rake drawn by 
 oxen, and sow the seed with the drill ; putting navane in the kurige, and 
 the pulse called avare in the sudike. In three months it ripens without 
 farther trouble. For cattle, the straw is better than that of rice. 
 
 Baragu — is of two kinds ; white and black. A sandy soil of any 
 kind agrees with this corn, which is also valuable as requiring very 
 little rain. The straw is better fodder than that of rice. In the second 
 month after the vernal equinox, plough three times. After the next 
 rain, in the following month, either sow with the drill, and harrow with 
 the rake drawn by oxen, or sow broad-cast, and plough in the seed. 
 In three months it ripens without fi\rther trouble, and in a favourable 
 season produces sixteen seeds. 
 
 There is only one kind cultivated in Kolar. After the heavy rains 
 have ceased, plough twice, and without manure sow broad-cast, and 
 plough in the seed. Without any farther trouble it ripens in two 
 months and a half, is cut down close by the ground, stacked for one or 
 two days, and then trodden out. The grain is kept in store-houses, 
 and preserves well for two years. It is boiled entire, like rice. The 
 straw is only used for fuel. A good crop produces twelve seeds, a 
 middling one, eight. It requires a rich black clay.' 
 
 Haraka — as it is found to injure the succeeding crop of ragi, is 
 never in the south cultivated on the best soil, and rarely on that of the 
 
 ' The following is given hy Professor Church as the chemical composition of the 
 grain : — In lOO parts there are, water, I2"0 ; albuminoids, I2"6 ; starch, 69"4; oil,3"6 ; 
 fibre, I 'O ; ash i "4. The nutrient ratio is i : 6, and the nutrient value 89.
 
 m8 J' lor a 
 
 second quality. It is coinnionly followed by a crop of horse gram, and 
 is seldom allowed any manure. In the si)ring plough five times. The 
 dung, if any be given, must be put on before the last ploughing. When 
 the heavy rains commence, sow broad-cast, and plough in the seed : 
 next day form drills of togari in the same manner as with ragi. When 
 the sprouts are a span high, hoe with the kunte, once longitudinally and 
 once across the field. Next weed with the iijare. It ripens in six 
 months ; and having been cut down near the root, is stacked for six days. 
 It is then trodden out by cattle. The seed reserved for sowing must be 
 well dried in the sun. The remainder is preserved in the katiaja, but 
 does not keep long. It is both boiled like rice, and made into flour 
 for dressing as hittu, or pudding. The straw is eaten by every kind of 
 cattle ; but, of all the fodders used here, this is reckoned the worst. 
 
 The following is the process of cultivation in the east. At the 
 commencement of the rains, plough three times in the course of a few 
 days. As soon as the heavy rains begin, sow the seed broad-cast, and 
 cover it by a third ploughing. It requires no manure, and here the 
 pulse called togari is never sown with haraka. At the end of a 
 month weed it with the implement called woravdri. It requires six 
 months to ripen, and is cut near the root, stacked on the field for five 
 or six days, and then dried in the sun, and trodden out. The grain is 
 commonly preserved in pits, and does not keep longer than one year. 
 It is never made into flour. The straw is bad forage, and is used 
 chiefly for manure. The produce in a good crop is twenty-fold ; in a 
 middling crop fifteen-fold. 
 
 Haraka at Madgiri is sown in low soft places, where, in the rainy 
 season, water is found near the surface. The soil is of different kinds. 
 In Vais'akha, Jyeshtha and Ashadha, or three months following the 
 middle of April, plough three times in the course of thirty days. After 
 the next rain that happens, harrow with the rake drawn by oxen, sow 
 broad-cast, and then repeat the harrowing. It ripens in six months with- 
 out farther trouble. As fodder for cattle, the straw is reckoned equal 
 to that of ragi, or of hurali. The produce in a good crop is forty-fold. 
 
 Alsandi. — Of this grain there is but one kind, and it is cultivated 
 in the south only as a kdr crop, which is performed exactly in the 
 same manner with that of the kdr icddii. The green pods, and ripe 
 grain, are both made into curries, by frying them in oil with tamarinds, 
 turmeric, onions, capsicum, and salt. Horses eat the grain ; but the 
 straw is only useful as manure.' 
 
 ' According to Professor Church loo parts of the husked bean contain — water, 
 I2'5 parts; albuminoids, 24"I ; starch, 56'S ; oil, i "3 ; fibre, fS; and ash, 3-5, of 
 \\hicli I "o consists of phosphoric acid.
 
 HURALl 119 
 
 Hurali or horsc-gra»i is of two kinds, black and while or red ; both 
 are sown intermixed. The worst quahtics of soil are those commonly 
 used for this grain in the east ; and on the same fields, same, haraka 
 and huchchellu are cultivated, without one crop injuring the other, or 
 without a rotation being considered as of the smallest benefit. For 
 horse-gram plough twice, in the course of a few days, any time in 
 Kartika. Then after a shower sow broad-cast ; or, if none happen, 
 steep the seed for three hours in water. Plough in the seed. It has 
 no manure, and in three months ripens without farther trouble. Cut 
 it down early in the morning, stack it for one day, and then dry it five 
 days in the sun. Tread it out, and clean it with a fan. It preserves 
 best in a store-house, but does not keep longer than one year. The 
 forage is here reckoned inferior to ragi straw. The produce in a good 
 crop is fifteen-fold ; and in a middling one ten-fold. 
 
 In the south the two varieties, the red and the black, are always 
 sown intermixed. In the last half of Srdvana, plough three times. 
 Sow broad-cast with the first rain of Bhadrapada. It requires no 
 manure, and the seed is covered by a fourth ploughing. In three 
 months it ripens without farther trouble, and is then pulled up by the 
 roots, and stacked for eight days : after which it is spread in the sun to 
 dry, and next day is trodden out by oxen. The seed for sowing must 
 be well dried in the sun, and preserved in mudcs ; the remainder is 
 kept in pots, or in the kcmaja. It is used for human food, either 
 dressed as curry, or parched ; but the chief consumption of it is for 
 cattle, both horses and bullocks. The straw is an excellent fodder, and is 
 preferred even to that of ragi. It is generally sown on the two worst 
 soils, in fields that are never used for anythingelse; but it also follows as a 
 second crop after jola ; or, when from want of rain the crop of ragi has 
 failed, the field is ploughed up and sown with horse-gram. In this 
 case, the next crop of ragi will be very poor, unless it be allowed a 
 great quantity of manure. In i)laces where the red and black horse- 
 grams are kept separate, the black kind is sown from twehe to twenty 
 days later than the other. 
 
 The only kind cultivated towards the north-east is the white. 
 Except after kdr e/he, or upon new ground, it never succeeds. The 
 longer the ground has been waste, especially if it has been overgrown 
 with small bushes of the taiigadi, or banddri (cassia auriculata and 
 dodonea viscosa), so much the better for /ii/ra/i. It grows best upon ash- 
 coloured soil, and next to that i)refers a red soil, in which there is 
 much sand. In Srdvana, burn the bushes ; and either then, or in the 
 course of the next month, plough once. After the next good rain sow 
 the seed broad-cast, and plough the field across the former furrows.
 
 I20 FLORA 
 
 'l"hc hiirali aL Sira is black and white mixed. It grows better on 
 Stony than on sandy soils ; and gives the greatest crops when cultivated 
 on land that has been waste, and over-run with bushes ; but it also 
 thrives tolerably on land that is alternately cultivated with it and same, 
 or sajje. In the month which precedes and that which follows the 
 autumnal equinox, sow the seed broad-cast, and then cover it with the 
 plough. In four months it ripens without farther trouble. Both straw 
 and husks are reckoned good for labouring cattle ; but they are .said 
 to be bad for milch cows.' 
 
 Uddu — is of two kinds ; chik lufdu, and dod uddu. The chik uddii 
 seems to be a variety, with black seeds. It is cultivated in Mysore 
 District as follows : — The ploughing commences ten days after the feast 
 Sivardiri, in February. Previous to the first ploughing, if there has 
 not recently been any rain, the field must have a little water, and then 
 it is three times ploughed. The seed is sown immediately before the 
 third ploughing, by which it is covered. This crop obtains neither 
 water, manure, nor weeding. The straw, when ripe, is pulled up by 
 the roots, stacked for three days, dried two days in the sun, and then 
 trodden out by bullocks. The flour, made into cakes, and fried in oil, 
 is here a common article of diet. It is also mixed with rice flour, and 
 made into w^hite cakes called dose, which are also fried in oil, and are 
 a favourite food. The straw is reckoned pernicious to cattle. It is 
 thrown on the dunghill, and serves to increase the quantity of manure. 
 The grain is always preserved in the miide, or straw bag. 
 
 Dod uddu is also called hatti uddu. It is cultivated and managed 
 exactly like the other kind ; but the first ploughing is on the eighth 
 day after the Swarna Gauri vrata, in August. The sowing season is 
 fifteen days afterwards. The straw is equally pernicious to cattle, but 
 the grain is reckoned better than that of the chik uddu. 
 
 About Madgiri it grows best on a black soil, which it does not 
 injure for the succeeding crop of j6]a. Plough twice in Ashadha or 
 Sravana, the fourth and fifth months after the vernal equinox. After 
 the next rain sow broad-cast, and plough in the seed. In three and a 
 
 ' The following is the result of Professor Church's analysis of horse-gram : — 
 
 In loo parts In i lb 
 
 unhiisked oz grs 
 
 Water ii-o ... i t,t,t, 
 
 Albuminoids ... ... 22*5 ... 3 262 
 
 Starch ... ... ... 56"o ... 8 420 
 
 Oil 1-9 ... o 133 
 
 Fibre 5"4 ... o 37S 
 
 Ash 3-2 ... o 224 
 
 The nutrient ratio is i : 27, and the nutrient co-efficient S3. The ash contains 
 
 nearly one-third its weight of phosphoric acid.
 
 UDDU 121 
 
 half months it ripens without farther trouble. The straw is only useful 
 as fodder for camels. 
 
 Dod uddti is cultivated in the west on good ragi soils, and is taken 
 as an alternate crop with that grain. After cutting the ragi the field is 
 ploughed once a month for a year. At the last ploughing some people 
 sow the seed broad-cast, and cover it with the plough ; others drop it 
 into the furrow after the plough. In this last case, the young plants 
 are always too thick ; and when they are a month old, part of them 
 must be destroyed by the hoe drawn by oxen. If sown broad-cast, the 
 weeds at the end of a month must be removed by the hand. The 
 broad-cast sowing gives least trouble. The drill iiddu produces a little 
 more. It ripens in three months. 
 
 The chiffi/, or lesser uddii, is cultivated at the same season with the 
 kdr ragi, and requires four months to ripen. Owing to a more 
 luxuriant growth, even when sown broad-cast, it requires the use of the 
 hoe drawn by oxen. It is not, however, so productive as the great 
 uddu. Cattle eat the straw of uddu when mixed with the husks, and 
 with those of hurali, kadale, avare, and togari, and \vith the spikes of 
 ragi, after these have been cleared of grain. This fodder is reckoned 
 superior to even the straw of rdgi. 
 
 Hesaru. — It is of one kind only, but is cultivated in the south both 
 as a hain and as a /'(/rcrop ; in both of which the manner of cultivation 
 is exactly the same as that of the uddus. The straw, being equally 
 unfit for cattle, is reserved for manure. The grain is dressed as curry. 
 
 In the east it is commonly raised on dry field. It requires a black 
 clay ; and, although it have no manure, it does not injure the following 
 crop of ragi. In the course of a few days in Vaisakha, plough twice, 
 sow broad-cast, plough the seed, and harrow. In three months it 
 ripens without farther trouble. It is then cut by the ground, stacked 
 for six days, dried in the sun for four, and trodden out by oxen as 
 usual. The grain, for use, is preserved in store-houses, and does not 
 keep good more than two months, even although it be occasionally 
 dried. The straw is totally useless, and will not even answer for 
 manure. 
 
 The hesaru cultivated at Sira is called kari, or l)lack, and requires 
 a black soil, to which it is said to add much strength. It is therefore 
 taken alternately with itavaijc, or with //uc/ii/ic//i/, both of which are 
 considered as exhausting crops. It is cultivated exactly in the same 
 manner as hurali is, and ripens in three months. Except for feeding 
 camels, its straw or husks are of no use. 
 
 In a few i)laces in Shimoga where there is a moist black soil, the 
 rice-ground produces a second crop of kadale, and of hesaru. For the
 
 122 FLORA 
 
 hcsaru, the field after the rice harvest must he ploughed twice. In the 
 month following the shortest day, it must be watered from a reservoir, 
 and smoothed with the implement called koradu. As a mark for the 
 sower, furrows are then drawn through the whole field, at the distance 
 of four cubits ; and the seed having been sown broadcast is covered 
 by the plough. The field is then smoothed with the koradu, and in 
 four months the crop ripens. 
 
 Wollellu — is cultivated near Seringapatam, and in some places is 
 q:\\\c^ pJiulagana e/Ju. It is raised exactly like the kdr uddit, cut down 
 when ripe, and stacked for seven days. It is then exposed to the sun 
 for three days, but at night is collected again into a heap ; and, 
 between every two days drying in the sun, it is kept a day in the heap. 
 By this process the capsules burst of themselves, and the seed falls 
 down on the ground. The cultivators sell the greater part of the seed 
 to the oil-makers. This oil is here in common use with the natives, 
 both for the table and for unction. The seed is also made into flour, 
 which is mixed with jaggory, and formed into a variety of sweet cakes. 
 The straw is used for fuel and for manure. 
 
 In Kolar it is more commonly called achchellu, and is cultivated as 
 follows. In Vais'akha plough twice, without manure, sow broad-cast, 
 and plough in the seed. In three months it ripens without farther 
 trouble, is cut down by the ground, and is afterwards managed exactly 
 like the uddu. The seed is preserved in the same manner. The 
 produce in a good crop is twenty seeds, and in a middling one twelve. 
 The straw is used for fuel. 
 
 North of the Tumkiir District are cultivated two kinds of sesamum, 
 the karti or wollellu, and the gur-ellit. The last forms part of the 
 watered crops ; the kar-e]]u is cultivated on dry field. The soil best 
 fitted for it is da^-e, or stony land, which answers also for same 
 and hurali. The ground on which kar-e]lu has been cultivated will 
 answer for the last-mentioned grain, but not so well as that which has 
 been uncultivated. After it, even without dung, same thrives well. 
 The same ground will every year produce a good crop of this cllu. If 
 a crop of ellu is taken one year, and a crop of same the next, and so on 
 successively, the crops of eHu will be poor, but those of same will be 
 good. After the first rain that happens in Vais'akha, which begins 
 about the middle of April, plough three times. With the next rain sow 
 broad-cast, and plough in the seed. In between four and five months, 
 it ripens without farther trouble. The produce in a good crop is 
 eighty-fold. 
 
 In the west the kar-elju is sown on ragi fields that consist of a red 
 soil, and does not exhaust them. The field is ploughed as for ragi,
 
 U'OLLELLU 123 
 
 but it is not allowed manure. The seed is mixed with sand, sown broad- 
 cast, and harrowed with the rake drawn by oxen. It r![)ens in four 
 months without farther trouble. The seed is equal to half of the rigi 
 that would be sown on the same field. The produce is about twenty 
 seeds. The straw is burned, and the ashes are used for manure. 
 
 Huchchellu — or the foolish-oil-plaut, is near Seringapatam most 
 common])- sown after j61a as a second crop. When that has been 
 reaped, plough four times in the course of eight days. Toward the end 
 of Sravana, or about the middle of August, after a good rain, sow 
 broad-cast, and plough in the seed. It requires neither manure nor 
 weeding, and ripens in three months. It is cut near the root and 
 stacked for eight days. Then, having been for two or three days 
 exposed to the sun, the seed is beaten out with a stick, and separated 
 from fragments of the plant by a fan. The seed is kept in pots. Part 
 of it is parched and made into sweetmeats with jaggory ; but the 
 greater part is sold to the oil-maker for expression. This oil is used in 
 cookery, but is reckoned inferior to that of ivone/Ju. The stems are a 
 favourite food of the camel ; but are disliked by the bullock, though 
 want often forces this animal to eat them, ^^'hen not used as a second 
 crop after j6]a, it is always sown on the two poorer soils. 
 
 The hiicJichenu near Bangalore is managed exactly in the same 
 manner as the wolleUu The 70 seers measure require a little more 
 water than the other ehu, and gives 65 seers of oil (or a little more 
 than 4^ gallons). This also is used for the table. The cake is never 
 used for curry, but is commonly given to milch cattle. 
 
 Huchchel/u is never sown at Kolar as a second crop. After the male, 
 or heavy rains are over, plough once, sow broad-cast, and plough in the 
 seed. It gets no manure, and in three months ripens without farther 
 trouble. It is then cut down near the root, stacked for six days, dried 
 in the sun for three, and trodden out. The seed is preserved in store- 
 houses ; the straw is used only as manure. 
 
 In IMadgiri liuchchelju is sown in places called Javi/gu, or sticking- 
 land, which are situated at the bottom of rocks ; from whence in the 
 rainy season the water filters, and renders the soil very moist. In such 
 places nothing else will thrive. When the rain has set in so late as to 
 prevent the cultivation of anything else, the huchchellu is sown also on 
 any land, especially on ragi fields. On such soiks, however, it does not 
 succeed. In Bhadrapada or Asvi'ja (from about the middle of August till 
 about that of October), plough once, sow broad-cast, and plough in the 
 seed, which rifjcns in four months. 
 
 Haralu.- — Two varieties of it are common ; the c/iikka, or little 
 haralu, cultivated in gardens ; and the dodda, or great haralu, that is
 
 124 FLORA 
 
 cultivated in the ncld.s. To grow the latter : — In the •''pring, plough 
 five times before the 15th of \'ai.s'akha. ^^'ith the first good rain that 
 happens afterwards, draw furrows all over the field at a cubit's distance ; 
 and having put the seeds into these at a similar distance, cover them by 
 drawing furrows close to the former. ^Vhen the plants are eight inches 
 high, hoe the intervals by drawing the kunte first longitudinally, and 
 then transversely. When the plants are a cubit and a half high, give 
 the intervals a double ploughing. The plant requires no manure, and 
 in eight months begins to produce ripe fruit. A bunch is known to be 
 ripe by one or two of the capsules bursting ; and then all those which 
 are ripe are collected by breaking them off with the hand. They are 
 afterwards put into a heap or large basket ; and the bunches, as they 
 ripen, are collected once a week, till the commencement of the next 
 rainy season, when the plant dies. Once in three weeks or a month, 
 when the heap collected is sufficiently large, the capsules are for three 
 or four days spread out to the sun, and then beaten with a stick to 
 make them burst. The seed is then picked out from the husks, and 
 either made by the family into oil for domestic use, or sold to the oil- 
 makers. It is cultivated on the two best qualities of land, and on the 
 better kinds of inaralu. When the same piece of ground is reserved 
 always for the cultivation of this plant, the succeeding crops are better 
 than the first ; when cultivated alternately with ragi, it seems neither to 
 improve nor injure the soil for that grain. 
 
 In Kolar District both the great and small kinds are cultivated ; but, 
 although the mode of cultivation is the same for both, they are always 
 kept separate. In the beginning of the female or slight rains plough 
 twice. When the rains become heavy, plough again ; and then, at the 
 distance of three-quarters of a cubit from each other in all directions, 
 place the seeds in the furrows. When the plants are a span high, weed 
 with the plough, throwing the earth up in ridges at the roots of the 
 plants. At the end of the first and second months from the former 
 weeding, repeat this operation. In four months it begins to give ripe 
 fruit ; and once in four days the bunches that are ripe are collected in 
 a pit until a sufficient quantity is procured. It is then exposed to the 
 sun, and the husks are beaten off with a stick. In the May following, 
 the plant dries up, and is cut for fuel. It is only cultivated in the good 
 ragi soils, which it rather improves for that grain, although it gets no 
 dung. The small kind is reckoned the best, and most productive. 
 
 Haralu is cultivated in the north-east on a particular soil, which is 
 reserved for the purpose, and consists of ash-coloured clay mixed with 
 sand. There are here in common use three kinds of haralu ; the 
 pJiola or field ; and the docMt, and chittu, which are cultivated in
 
 HARALU 125 
 
 gardens. A red kind is also to be seen in gardens, where it is raised 
 as an ornament. The chit haralu produces the best oil. Next to it is 
 the phola that is cultivated in the fields. In the course of a few days, 
 any time in the three months following the vernal equinox, plough 
 three times. With the next rain that happens, plough again, and at 
 the same time drop the seeds in one furrow at the distance of one 
 cubit and a half, and then cover them with the next furrow. A month 
 afterwards hoe with the kiotte, so as to kill the weeds, and to throw the 
 earth in ridges toward the roots of the plant. It ripens without farther 
 trouble. At the time the haralu is planted, seeds of the jiulses called 
 avare and togari are commonly scattered through the field. In four 
 months after this, the haralu begins to produce ripe fruit, and for three 
 months continues in full crop. For two months more it produces 
 small quantities. 
 
 Haralu, of the kind called phola, is cultivated at Sira. For this a 
 sandy soil is reckoned best ; and as it is thought to improve the soil, 
 the little ragi that is sown on dry field generally follows it. In the first 
 month after the vernal equinox, plough twice ; then, with the first rain 
 in the next month, at every cubit's distance throughout the field, draw 
 furrows intersecting each other at right angles. At every intersection 
 drop a seed, and cover them with another furrow. After two months 
 weed with the plough ; and with the kunte, or hoe drawn by oxen, 
 throw the earth in ridges toward the young plants. In six months it 
 begins to give ripe fruit, which for three months is gathered once a 
 week. 
 
 Sanabu. — For the cultivation of this plant as pursued in the 
 Bangalore District, the soil ought to be red or black, like the best kind 
 used for cutlivation of ragi. It is allowed no manure ; and the seed is 
 sown broad-cast on the ground, without any previous cultivation, at the 
 season when the rains become what the natives call male, that is to say, 
 when they become heavy. After being sown, the field is ploughed 
 twice, once lengthwise, and once across ; but receives no farther cultiva- 
 tion. At other times the sanabu is cultivated on rice-ground in the 
 dry season ; but it must then be watered from a canal or reservoir. It 
 requires four months to ripen, which is known by the seeds having 
 come to full maturity. After being cut down, it is spread out to the 
 sun, and dried. The seed is then beaten out by striking the pods 
 with a stick. After this, the stems are tied up in large bundles, about 
 two fathoms in circumference, and are preserved in stacks or under 
 sheds. 
 
 Cotton. — The soil on which it is sown at Sira is a black clay con- 
 taining nodules of limestone. In the two months following the vernal
 
 126 FLORA 
 
 equinox, plougli three times. At any convenient time, in the two next 
 months, mix the seed witli dung, and drop it in the furrows after the 
 plough, forming Hnes about nine inches apart. A month afterwards 
 plough again between the lines ; and in order to destroy the super- 
 fluous plants and weeds, use the hoe drawn by oxen three times, cross- 
 ing these furrows at right angles. The second and third times that this 
 hoe is used, it must follow the same track as at first , otherwise too 
 many of the plants would be destroyed. Between each hoeing three 
 or four days should intervene. In six months the cotton begins to 
 produce ripe capsules, and continues in crop four more. The plants 
 are then cut close to the ground ; and after the next rainy season the 
 field is ploughed twice in contrary directions. A month afterwards it 
 is hoed once or twice with the same implement, and it produces a crop 
 twice as great as it did in the first year. In the third year a crop of 
 same or navaJje must be taken, and in the fourth year cotton is again 
 sown as at first. 
 
 The principal crop in the fine country towards Narsipur and Talkad 
 is cotton, which there is never raised in soil that contains calcareous 
 nodules. The black soil that is free from lime is divided into three 
 qualities. The first gives annually two crops, one of jola and one of 
 cotton ; the two inferior qualities produce cotton only. 
 
 Cotton is raised towards Harihar entirely on black soil, and is either 
 sown as a crop by itself, or drilled in the rows of a navane field. In 
 the former case, two crops of cotton cannot follow each other, but one 
 crop of j61a at least must intervene. In the second month after the 
 vernal equinox, the field is ploughed once, then manured, then hoed 
 with the heg kuiite ; and the grass is kept down by occasional hoeings 
 with the /wilt kinife, until the sowing season in the month preceding 
 the autumnal equinox. The seed is sown by a drill having only 
 two bills, behind each of which is fixed a sharp-pointed bamboo, 
 through which a man drops the seed ; so that each drill requires the 
 attendance of three men and two oxen. The seed, in order to allow 
 it to run through the bamboo, is first dipped in cow-dung and water, 
 and then mixed with some earth. Twenty days after sowing, and also 
 on the thirty-fifth and fiftieth days, the field is hoed with the edik kunte. 
 The crop season is during the month before and that after the vernal 
 influence. 
 
 Tobacco is sown in Banavar in the dry field cultivated for ragi and 
 other similar grains, of which a crop must intervene between every two 
 crops of tobacco. A\'hen the season proves very wet, it cannot be 
 cultivated, and it requires a good ragi soil. A few small stones do no 
 harm, but it will not grow on the hard soil called dare ; and, in fact.
 
 TOBACCO 127 
 
 the soil of the first quahty is that usually employed, though sometimes 
 the tobacco is planted on the best fields of the second quality. In the 
 three months following the vernal equinox, the field ought, if possible, 
 to be ploughed ten times ; but some of these ploughings are often 
 neglected. After the fourth or fifth time, sheep and cattle must for some 
 nights be kept on the field for manure. During the last fifteen days of 
 the second month after midsummer, small holes are made throughout 
 the field. They are formed with the hand, and disposed in rows distant 
 from each other \\ cubit ; and in every hole a young tobacco plant is 
 set. This being the rainy season, the tobacco requires no watering, 
 unless during the first ten days from its having been transplanted there 
 should happen to be two successive fair days. In this case, on the 
 second fair day, water must be given with a pot. On the fifteenth day a 
 little dung is put into each hole, and the field is hoed with the kunte. 
 Every fourth or fifth day, until the tobacco is cut, this is repeated, so as 
 to keep the soil open and well pulverized. At the end of a month and 
 a half, the top shoots of the plants are pinched off, and every eight or 
 ten days this is repeated ; so that si.\ or seven leaves only are permitted 
 to remain on each stem. In the month preceding the shortest day, it 
 is fit for cutting. 
 
 The stems are cut about four or five inches from the ground, and 
 are then split lengthwise ; so that each portion has three or four leaves. 
 These half stems are strung upon a line, which is passed through their 
 root ends ; and then for twenty days they are spread out to the sun and 
 air. Every third day they are turned, and they must be covered with 
 mats should there happen to be rain ; but at this season that seldom 
 comes. The tobacco is then taken into the house, put into a heap, and 
 turned four or five times, with an interval of three days between each 
 time. It is then fit for sale, and by the merchants is made up into 
 bundles which include the stems. 
 
 In order to prepare the seedlings, a plot of ground must be dug in 
 the month which precedes the longest day. It must be then cleared 
 from stones, and separated by little banks into squares for watering, in 
 the same manner as in this country is done to kitchen gardens. The 
 tobacco seed is then mixed with dung, and sown in the squares, which 
 are smoothed with the hand, sprinkled with water, and then covered 
 with branches of the wild date. Every third day it must be watered. 
 On the eighth day the plants come up, and then the palm branches must 
 be removed. If the plants be wanted soon, they ought to have more dung, 
 and to be kept clear from weeds, ^^'ith this management, they are fit 
 for transplanting in from a month to six weeks. If they are not wanted 
 for two months, or ten weeks, the second dunging is omitted, and the
 
 128 FLORA 
 
 growth of tlic plants is checked by giving them no water for eight days 
 after they come up. 
 
 Sasive is a mustard which is always sown, in the east, mixed with 
 ragi. It ripens sooner than that grain ; and, when dry, the branches 
 are broken with the hand, exposed two days to the sun, and then 
 beaten out with a stick. In this country, oil is never made from the 
 seed, as is usual in Bengal ; it is employed as a seasoning in curries and 
 pickles. 
 
 Kadale always requires a black mould ; and is cultivated, in the 
 west, partly as a second crop after ragi, and partly on fields that ha^•e 
 given no other crop in the year. In this case, the produce is much 
 greater, and the manner of cultivation is as follows: — In the two months 
 preceding the autumnal equinox, the ragi having been cut, the field 
 is ploughed once a month for fourteen or fifteen months. Then in the 
 course of four or five days plough twice. After the last ploughing, drop 
 the seed in the furrows at six inches distance from each other, and it 
 ripens withoi'.t farther trouble. The seed is sown as thick as that of 
 ragi. 
 
 It is a considerable crop in the south-east of the Mysore District, but 
 so exhausts the soil of even the richest fields that it is seldom taken 
 from the same ground oftener than once in seven years. It is generally 
 sown after jola in place of cotton, and must be followed by wheat, 
 wollellu or ragi. The two former may be followed by cotton, the ragi 
 cannot. In the third year, when ragi has been used, the field is sown 
 with navane or jola, succeeded as usual by cotton. Immediately after 
 the jola has been cut, which is about the autumnal equinox, the field is 
 ploughed once, then dunged, and then ploughed three times, all in the 
 course of a month. In the beginning of the second month after the 
 autumnal equinox, the kadale is sown in drills like the cotton ; but the 
 drills are only half a cubit distant. Between the drills, on the fifteenth 
 day, the hoe drawn by oxen is used. On the thirtieth the weeds are 
 removed by the kale kudagolu. If the soil be rather hard, about the 
 thirt3'-third day the hoe drawn by oxen must be again used. In four 
 months the kadale ripens. Kadale is sometimes sown after a fallow ; in 
 which case the ground is prepared in a similar manner as for cotton in 
 the two poorer soils. 
 
 Towards Harihar, a few rich spots are reserved solely for the cultiva- 
 tion of kadale, and these are cultivated in the following manner : — In 
 the month following the vernal equinox the field is ploughed once, then 
 manured, and in the following month is hoed with the keg kunfe. 
 Between that period and the month preceding the shortest day, the 
 grass is ploughed down twice, and the seed is sown with the sharp
 
 WHEAT 129 
 
 bamboo following the plough, and covered with the hegkunte. It ripens 
 in three months.' 
 
 Wheat. — There are two kinds cultivated, Jave gbdhi {triticum 
 mofiococxiii/i) and hotte godhi {triticum spelta). For the former, in Kolar, 
 the ground is sometimes ploughed five times ; and sometimes dug with 
 the hoe called kol gudali to the depth of one cubit, which is reckoned 
 preferable. In Jye'shtha (May — June) the seed is sown broad-cast, and 
 covered with the hoe. Channels and squares are then formed, and the 
 ground is smoothed with the hand and dunged ; while such of the seed 
 as may happen to be above the ground is pushed down with the finger. 
 In forty-five days the field must be watered nine times. It is then 
 weeded with the instrument called woravari; after which one watering 
 in six days suffices. It ripens in three months, is cut, tied up in small 
 sheaves, and stacked for four days. It is then dried one day in the sun, 
 and thrashed out by beating the sheaves against a log of timber. To 
 separate the awns, the grain is then beaten with a stick. In the fields 
 of wheat, radishes are planted on the mounds which divide the 
 squares. 
 
 In the black clay in Madgiri, wheat of the kind called jave godhi 
 is the most common crop. It is but a poor grain, and five-twelfths 
 of it consist of husks. Any time in Pushya (Dec. — Jan.) plough once; 
 next day, if there be no rain, water the field, and plough again across, 
 dropping the seed in the same manner as in sowing jola. The plots 
 must be formed in the same manner. It gets no manure nor weeding, 
 and requires only three waterings, on the fortieth, sixtieth and eightieth 
 days. It is much subject to disease, and not above one crop in four 
 is good. After reaping the wheat, the field, in order to expose the soil 
 to the rain, must be immediately ploughed. 
 
 In Sira, in place of the Vais'dkha crop, when there is a scarcity of 
 water, wheat, both jave and hotte, are sown on rice-lands. These grains 
 may be followed by a Kdrtika crop of ragi ; but by this process the 
 ground is as much exhausted as if it had been sown with navanc. If 
 
 ' Professor Church gives the following analysis of the composition of chick pea, or 
 
 15engal gram : — 
 
 In 100 parts In i lb 
 
 Husked with husk husked 
 
 1 1 '2 ... I oz 367 grs 
 19-5 ... 3 „ 207 ,, 
 53"8 • •• 9 ,. 192 ,, 
 4-6 ... o ,, 294 ,, 
 7-8 ... o ,, 70 ,, 
 3'i .•■ o ,, 182 ,, 
 The ash of husked contains l*l, and of unhiisked O'S of phosphoric acid. The 
 nutrient ratio of the unhusked peas is i : 3*3 ; the nutrient value 84. 
 
 K 
 
 Water 
 
 ... II-5 
 
 Albuminoids 
 
 ... 217 
 
 Starch 
 
 ... 59-0 
 
 Oil 
 
 ... 4-2 
 
 Fibre 
 
 I 'O 
 
 Ash 
 
 ... 2-6
 
 I30 FLORA 
 
 the Kdrtika crop be altogether left out, the Vais'dkha crop of rice follow- 
 ing wheat will be as good as if the ground had been regularly cultivated 
 for rice alone ; and in India it is a commonly received opinion, that 
 where a supply of water admits of it, ground can never be in such good 
 heart as when regularly cultivated by a succession of rice crops. Wheat 
 requires a clay soil, and the manner of cultivating both kinds is the 
 same. In the two months preceding, and the one following the autumnal 
 equinox, plough five times. In the following month, after a rain, or 
 after having watered the field, plough again, and drop the seed into the 
 furrows. Then divide it into squares, as for j6la, and water it once a 
 month. The straw is only used for fire. If given to cattle for fodder, 
 it is supposed capable of producing the distemper. 
 
 A very small quantity of the wheat called jave godhl is raised near 
 Periyapatna on fields of a very rich soil, from which alternate crops of 
 kadale and of it are taken. The manure is given to the kadale ; but 
 wheat requires none. From the winter to the summer solstice plough 
 once a month. Then in the following month plough twice, sow broad- 
 cast, and cover the seed with the plough. It ripens in four months 
 without farther trouble. 
 
 The wheat raised near Narsipur in the Mysore District is of the kind 
 called hotte gbdhi, and there are two seasons for its cultivation, the hain 
 and kdr. It is sown on the best soil only, and always after a crop of 
 kadale. The kar season, when the rains set in early, is always pre- 
 ferred, not only as the wheat is then more productive, but as in the 
 same year it may be followed by a crop of cotton, which is not the case 
 with the hain wheat. In the two months following the vernal equinox, 
 the field for kar wheat is dunged, ploughed two or three times, and 
 then hoed with the hmte, which is drawn by oxen. The seed is then 
 sown, in drills one cubit distant, by dropping it in the furrow after a 
 plough. On the fifteenth, twenty-eighth and thirty-fifth days the hoe is 
 again used, and two or three days afterwards the weeds are removed by 
 the kale kudagolii. This wheat ripens in three months and a half, and is 
 immediately followed by a crop of cotton. The wheat is liable to be 
 spoiled by a disease called arsina mdri ; owing to which, in the course 
 of one day, it becomes yellow and dies. 
 
 When the rains are late in coming, the hain crop of wheat is taken 
 after kadale. Cotton cannot be taken in the same year. The manner 
 of cultivation is the same as for the kar crop, only the season is 
 difi"erent. The ploughings are performed in the month which pre- 
 cedes the autumnal equinox, or in the beginning of that which follows. 
 At the end of this month the seed is sown. The produce is about 
 one-half only of that of the kar crop.
 
 RICE 131 
 
 Rice. — Of the varieties of this grain 108 specimens have been 
 collected in the Government Museum, each bearing its appropriate 
 vernacular name. There are three modes of sowing the seed, from 
 whence arise three kinds of cultivation. In the first mode the seed is 
 sown dry on the fields that are to rear it to maturity : this is called the 
 hara batta ox puuaji. In the second mode the seed is made to vegetate 
 before it is sown ; and the field when fitted to receive it is reduced to a 
 puddle : this is called mole batta. In the third kind of cultivation the 
 seed is sown very thick in a small plot of ground ; and when it has 
 shot up to about a foot high, the young rice is transplanted into the 
 fields where it is to ripen : this is called iidti. 
 
 The kinds of rice cultivated at Seringapatam are as follow -.—dodda 
 batta., hotte kembatti, arsina kembatti, sukadds, imirarjila, ydlakki raja, 
 konavali, bill sauna batta, putta batta, kari kallu. With the exception 
 of the first, which takes seven months, all the other kinds ripen in five 
 and a half months. 
 
 In the hain crop the following is the management of the dry-seed 
 cultivation. During the months Phalguna, Chaitra and Vais'akha, that 
 is from February till May, plough twice a month ; having, three days 
 previous to the first ploughing in Phdlguna, softened the soil by giving 
 the field water. After the fourth ploughing the field must be manured 
 with dung, procured either from the city or cow-house. After the fifth 
 ploughing the fields must be watered either by rain or from the canal ; 
 and three days afterwards the seed must be sown broad-cast and then 
 covered by the sixth ploughing. Any rain that happens to fall for the 
 first thirty days after sowing the seed must be allowed to run off by a 
 breach in the bank which surrounds the fields ; and should much rain 
 fall at this season, the crop is considerably injured. Should there have 
 been no rain for the first thirty days, the field must be kept constantly 
 inundated till the crop be ripe ; but if there have been occasional 
 showers the inundation should not commence till the forty-fifth day. 
 AWeding and loosening the soil about the roots of the young plants 
 with the hand, and placing them at proper distances, where sown too 
 close or too far apart, must be performed three times ; first on the 
 forty-fifth or fiftieth day ; secondly twenty days afterwards ; and thirdly 
 fifteen days after the second weeding. These periods refer to the crops 
 that require seven months to ripen. For rice which ripens in five and 
 a half months, the field must be inundated on the twentieth day ; and 
 the weedings are on the twentieth, thirtieth and fortieth days. 
 
 In the hain crop the following is the manner of conducting the 
 sprouted-seed cultivation. The ploughing season occupies the month 
 .of Ashadha (June — July). During the whole of this time the field is 
 
 K 2
 
 132 FLORA 
 
 inundated and is ploughed four times ; while at each ploughing it is 
 turned over twice in two different directions, which cross each other at 
 right angles. This may be called double ploughing. About the ist 
 of Sravana the field is manured, immediately gets a fifth ploughing, and 
 the mud is smoothed by the labourers' feet. All the water except one 
 inch in depth must then be let off, and the prepared seed must be sown 
 broad-cast. As it sinks in the mud it requires no labour to cover it. 
 For the first twenty-four days the field must once every other day have 
 some water, and must afterwards, until ripe, be kept constantly inun- 
 dated. The weedings are on the twenty-fifth, thirty-fifth and fiftieth 
 days. In order to prepare the seed it must be put into a pot, and kept 
 for three days covered with water. It is then mixed with an equal 
 quantity of rotten cow-dung, and laid on a heap in some part of the 
 house, entirely sheltered from the wind. The heap is well covered 
 with straw and mats ; and at the end of three days the seed, having 
 shot out sprouts about an inch in length, is found fit for sowing. This 
 manner of cultivation is much more troublesome than that called dry- 
 seed : and the produce from the same extent of ground is in both nearly 
 equal ; but the sprouted-seed cultivation gives time for a preceding 
 crop of pulse on the same field, and saves a quarter of the seed. 
 
 Two distinctions are made in the manner of cultivating transplanted 
 rice ; the one called baravdgi or by dry plants : and the other called 
 nirdgi or by wet pla?ifs. For both kinds low land is required. 
 
 The manner of raising the dry-seedHngs for the hain crop is as 
 follows : — Labour the ground at the same season, and in the same 
 manner as for the dry -seed crop. On the ist of Jyeshtha, or in May, 
 give the manure, sow the seed very thick and cover it with the plough. 
 If no rain fall before the eighth day, then water the field, and again 
 on the twenty-second ; but if there are any showers these waterings 
 are unnecessary. From the forty-fifth till the sixtieth day the plants 
 continue fit to be removed. In order to be able to raise them for 
 transplanting, the field must be inundated for five days before they are 
 plucked. The ground on which the dry-seedlings are to be ripened is 
 ploughed four times in the course of eight weeks, commencing about 
 the 15th of Jyeshtha; but must all the while be inundated. The 
 manure is given before the fourth ploughing. After this, the mud 
 having been smoothed by the feet, the seedlings are transplanted into 
 it, and from three to five plants are stuck together into the mud at 
 about a span distance from the other little bunches. The water is then 
 let off for a day : afterwards the field, till the grain is ripe, is kept 
 constantly inundated. The weedings are performed on the twentieth^ 
 thirty-fifth and forty-fifth days after transplanting.
 
 RICE 133 
 
 The manner of raising the wet-seedHngs for the transplanted crop in 
 the hain season is as follows : — In the month Phalguna (Feb. — Mar.) 
 plough the ground three times, while it is dry. On the ist of 
 Jyeshtha inundate the field ; and in the course of fifteen days plough it 
 four times. After the fourth ploughing smooth the mud with the feet, 
 sow the seed very thick and sprinkle dung over it : then let off the 
 water. On the third, sixth and ninth days water again ; but the water 
 must be let off and not allowed to stagnate on the field. After the 
 twelfth day inundate until the seedlings be fit for transplantation, 
 which will be on the thirtieth day from sowing. The cultivation of the 
 field into which the seedlings are transplanted is exactly the same as 
 that for the dry-seedlings. The plot on which the seedlings are raised 
 produces no crop of pulse ; but various kinds of these grains are sown 
 on the fields that are to ripen the transplanted crop, and are cut down 
 immediately before the ploughing for the rice commences. The pro- 
 duce of the transplanted crop is nearly equal to that of the dry-seed 
 cultivation ; and on a good soil, properly cultivated, twenty times the 
 seed sown is an average crop. 
 
 The kar crops, according to the time of sowing, are divided into three 
 kinds. When the farm is properly stocked, the seed is sown at the 
 most favourable season, and the crop is then called the Kumba kdr ; 
 but if there be a want of hands or cattle, part of the seed is sown 
 earlier, and part later than the proper season ; and then it produces 
 from thirty to fifty per cent, less than the full crop. When sown too 
 early the crop is called Tu/a kdr ; when too late it is called Mesha kdr. 
 The produce of the hain and Kuviba kdr crops is nearly the same.^ 
 
 No Tula kar dry seed is ever sown. The ploughing season for the 
 Kumba kar dry seed is in Bhddrapada (August), and the seed is sown 
 about the end of r^Iargasira (December). In the :SIesha kar dry-seed 
 the ploughing commences on the ist of Chaitra (March), and the seed 
 is sown at the feast of Chitra Paurnami in April. The Tula kdr 
 sprouted seed is sown on the ist Kartika (October), the ploughing 
 having commenced wath the feast Navaratri, in September. The 
 Kumba kdr sprouted seed is sown in Pushya, about the ist of January. 
 The ploughing season occupies a month. The ploughing for the 
 Mesha kdr sprouted seed commences about the 15th of Chaitra. The 
 seed is sown about the i6th of Vais'akha (May). The Kumba kar 
 transplanted rice is cultivated only as watered seedlings. The ground 
 for the seedlings begins to be ploughed in the end of Kartika or 
 middle of November, and the seed is sown on the 15th Pushya or 
 end of December. The fields on which this crop is ripened are begun 
 1 Kumba or Kumbha is the sign Aquarius ; Tula is Libra ; and M,!sha is Aries.
 
 134 FLORA 
 
 to be ploughed in the middle (jf Margasira (ist December). The 
 transplanting lakes place about the 15th of Magha or end of 
 January. The Tula kar transplanted rice also is sown nirdi^i about the 
 30th of Asvi'ja or middle of October, and in a month afterwards is 
 transplanted. The Mesha kdr transplanted rice is also sown as watered 
 seedlings, about the 15th of Vais'akha (May), and about a month 
 afterwards is transplanted. The regular kar crop of the transplanted 
 cultivation docs not interfere with a preceding crop of pulse ; but this 
 is lost, when from want of stock sufficient to cultivate it at the proper 
 time the early or late seasons are adopted. The various modes of 
 cultivating the rice give a great advantage to the farmer ; as by 
 dividing the labour over great part of the year fewer hands and less 
 stock are required to cultivate the same extent of ground than if there 
 was only one seed-time, and one harvest. 
 
 The manner of reaping and preserving all the kinds of rice is nearly 
 the same. About a week before the corn is fit for reaping, the water is 
 let off, that the ground may dry. The corn is cut down about four 
 inches from the ground with a reaping-hook called kudagohi or kudagu. 
 Without being bound up in sheaves it is put into small stacks, about 
 twelve feet high ; in which the stalks are placed outwards and the ears 
 inwards. Here the corn remains a week, or if it rains, fourteen days. 
 It is then spread out on a threshing-floor made smooth with clay, cow- 
 dung and water, and is trodden out by driving bullocks over it. If 
 there has been rain, the corn, after having been threshed, must be dried 
 in the sun ; but in dry weather this trouble is unnecessary. It is then 
 put up in heaps called rds/ii, which contain about 60 kandagas, or 334 
 bushels. The heaps are marked with clay and carefully covered with 
 straw. A trench is then dug round it to keep off the water. For 
 twenty or thirty days (formerly, till the division of the crop between 
 the Government and the cultivator took place) the corn is allowed to 
 remain in the heap. 
 
 The grain is always preserved in the husk, or, as the English in 
 India say, in paddy. There are in use here various ways for keeping 
 paddy. Some preserve it in large earthen jars that are kept in the 
 house. Some keep it in pits called hagevu. In a hard stony soil they 
 dig a narrow shaft, fifteen or sixteen cubits deep. The sides of this 
 are then dug away so as to form a cave with a roof about two cubits 
 thick. The floor, sides and roof are lined with straw ; and the cave is 
 then filled with paddy. These pits contain from fifteen to thirty 
 kandagas. "\^'hen the paddy is wanted to be beaten out into rice, the 
 whole pit must at once be emptied. Other people again build kaiiajas, 
 or store-houses, which are strongly floored with plank to keep out the
 
 RICE 135 
 
 bandicoots or rats. In these store-houses there is no opening for air ; 
 hut they have a row of doors one above another, for taking out the 
 grain as it is wanted. Another manner of preserving grain is in small 
 cylindrical stores, which the potters make of clay, and which are called 
 xvbde. The mouth is covered by an inverted pot ; and the paddy, as 
 wanted, is drawn out from a small hole at the bottom. Finally, others 
 preserve their paddy in a kind of bags made of straw, and called mi'ide. 
 Of these different means the kanaja and wbde are reckoned the best. 
 Paddy will keep two years without alteration, and four years without 
 being unfit for use. Longer than this does not answer, as the grain 
 becomes both unwholesome and unpalatable. No person here 
 attempts to preserve rice any length of time ; for it is known by 
 experience to be very perishable. All the kinds of paddy are found to 
 preserve equally well. That intended for seed must be beaten off from 
 the straw as soon as cut down, and dried for three days in the sun, 
 after which it is usually kept in straw bags. 
 
 There are two manners of making paddy into rice ; one by boiling it 
 previously to beating ; and the other by beating alone. The boiling is 
 also done in two ways. By the first is prepared the rice intended for 
 the use of rajas, and other luxurious persons. A pot is filled with 
 equal parts of water and paddy, which is allowed to soak all night, and 
 in the morning is boiled for half an hour. The paddy is then spread 
 out in the shade for fifteen days, and afterwards dried in the sun for 
 two hours. It is then beaten, to remove the husks. Each grain is 
 broken by this operation into four or five pieces, from whence it is 
 called aidii ni'igu akki, or five-piece rice. When dressed, this kind of 
 rice swells very much. It is always prepared in the families of the 
 rajas, and is never made for sale. The operation is very liable to fail ; 
 and in that case the rice is totally lost. 
 
 Rice prepared by boiling in the common manner is called kudupal 
 akki, and is destined for the use of the Sudras, or such low persons as 
 are able to procure it. Five parts of paddy are put into a pot with one 
 part of water, and boiled for about two hours, till it is observed that 
 one or two of the grains have burst. It is then spread out in the sun 
 for two hours ; and this drying is repeated on the next day ; after which 
 the paddy is immediately beaten. Ten parts of paddy, l)y this 
 operation, give five parts of rice, of which one part goes to the person 
 who prepares it, for his trouble. Ten seers of paddy are therefore 
 equal in value to only four seers of rice. 
 
 The rice used by the Brahmans, and called hasi akki, is never 
 boiled. On the day before it is to be eaten, the paddy must be 
 exposed two hours in the sun. If it were beaten immediately after
 
 136 FLORA 
 
 being dried, the grain would l>reak, and there would be a considerable 
 loss. Even with this precaution many of the grains break ; and, when 
 these are separated from the entire rice to render it saleable, the hasi 
 akki sells dearer than the kiidupal akki, in the proportion of nine to 
 eight. 
 
 The beating is performed chiefly by women. They sometimes, for 
 this purpose, use the ydta, or a block of timber fastened to a wooden 
 lever, which is supported on its centre. The woman raises the block 
 by pressing with her foot on the far end of the lever, and by removing 
 her foot allows the block to fall down on the grain. The more 
 common way, however, of beating paddy, is by means of a wooden 
 pestle, which is generally about four feet in length, and three inches in 
 diameter, which is made of heavy timber, and shod with iron. The 
 grain is put into a hole formed in a rock or stone. The pestle is first 
 raised with the one hand, and then with the other ; which is very hard 
 labour for the women. 
 
 The kinds of rice cultivated at Mandya are dodda batta, piitta batta, 
 hote kembatti, konazvali, and viulu batta. The first four take each 
 five months to ripen, and the last, three. Every kind may be 
 cultivated, either as hain or kdr. The mulu batta is never sown 
 except when there is a deficiency of water. The only cultivation here 
 is the mole batta, or sprouted-seed ; the manner of preparing which is as 
 follows : Steep the seed in water all night ; next morning mix it with 
 cow-dung, and fresh plants of the tianbe soppu {phlomis escuknta), and 
 put it in a rfiiide. On the miide place a heavy stone, and on the two 
 following days sprinkle it with water. On the third day it is fit for 
 sowing. 
 
 For the hain crop, the ploughings, from about the ist of June till 
 the middle of July are nine in number. Dung and leaves are then put 
 on the field, and trampled into the mud. The water is now let off, 
 until no more than a depth of one inch remains ; afterwards, the seed 
 is sown and a slight sprinkling of dung laid over it. A watering once 
 in three days is then given ; and after the third time, the field is 
 inundated till the grain ripens. The weeds are removed on the 
 twentieth, fortieth and sixtieth days. The kar cultivation is exactly 
 the same, only the ploughings are in November and December. In 
 both kinds of cultivation, and in every species of rice, an equal quantity 
 of seed is sown on the same extent of ground, and the produce is 
 nearly equal. 
 
 Of the different kinds of rice cultivated at JMaddur arisina kembatti, 
 putta batta, ydlakki raja, sukadas, kouavali, and imwarjila, are equal 
 in produce. The first four ripen in 4I months, the next in five, and
 
 RICE 137 
 
 the last in six. The produce on first quality of soil is 114 seeds, on 
 second quality 100 seeds, and on third, half that quantity. Hote 
 kembatti and dodda or bill bai/a, which ripen in five months, produce 
 100, 70 or 40 fold, according to quality of soil. All the kinds 
 of rice may be raised either as hain or kar crops, or the mole or nati 
 modes of cultivation. No punaji is ever attempted. The seedlings for 
 transplantation, in the nati cultivation, are always raised as niragi. 
 The produce of the same kind of rice in the same soil, whether 
 cultivated as hain or kar, or as moje or nati, is nearly the same. 
 
 The seasons for cultivating rice in the Kolar District are two ; and 
 the two crops, from the months in which they ripen, are named the 
 Kdrtika and Vais'dkha. In this neigbourhood no rice is transplanted. 
 When the seed is sown dry, the cultivation is called //^/i?^/ ; when it is 
 prepared by being sprouted, it is called mole. 
 
 The only kind of rice cultivated as puiedi, or dry seed, is the dodda 
 baira ; and it is only sown in this manner for the Kartika crop. In 
 the course of Vais'akha and Jyeshtha plough the ground without water 
 four times. About the end of the latter month (June), after a day's 
 rain, sow the seed broad-cast, and cover it with the plough. Then 
 harrow the field with the implement called halive. The crop has no 
 manure, and the field is not inundated till the end of the second 
 month ; when it must be harrowed again, and the weeds removed by 
 the hand. A good crop of this is reckoned fifteen seeds, a middling 
 one ten seeds. 
 
 The mole for the Kartika crop is cultivated as follows : In Ashadha, 
 and the first half of Sravana, plough from seven to nine times, the field 
 being always inundated. Then manure it, either with leaves or dung ; 
 both are rarely given : but, could they be procured, this would greatly 
 increase the produce. Then let out all the water, except two inches in 
 depth, and sow the prepared seed broad-cast. Next day the field is 
 dried, and sprinkled with some dung. \X. the end of three days it is 
 covered with water for four hours. On the seventh, water the field for 
 a whole day. After the tenth day, it must be kept constantly 
 inundated to the depth of two inches. At the end of the month 
 harrow it once lengthwise ; on the third day harrow it across ; 
 and on the fifth day harrow again lengthwise. Four days afterwards 
 weed with the hand, and repeat this after an interval of two weeks. 
 
 All kinds of rice are cultivated in the same manner. The rice for 
 seed, after being trodden out, must be dried three or four days in the 
 sun ; and may be kept either in a straw inude, or in a store called 
 kaiiaja. When it is to be prepared, it must be dried one day in the 
 sun ; then soaked a night in water ; the next morning it must be mixed
 
 138 FLORA 
 
 with ham/ii leaves and dung, and tied u{) in straw. This is dipped in 
 water, and placed under a large stone. In two days it must again be 
 dipped, and is then fit for sowing. The produce of the dodda baira, 
 which is the common coarse grain of the country, is the greatest. A 
 good crop of this is said to be fifteen seeds, and middling crop about 
 ten seeds. The other kinds, on the same extent of ground, produce 
 eight or ten seers less. 
 
 The mo/e cultivation for the Vais'dkha crop is as follows : Having 
 inundated the field, plough it five or six days during the course of the 
 twenty days preceding the feast Dipavali. In the course of the next 
 month plough four times. Then let out all the water, except two 
 inches in depth ; manure with leaves ; and, having trodden these well 
 into the mud, sow the prepared seed broad-cast. Next day dry the 
 field, and manure it with duug. Three days after, water for two hours. 
 Then every second day, for three times, water for four or five hours. 
 Afterwards keep the field inundated. At the end of the month 
 harrow, with the halive, three times in three directions, with a day's 
 rest between each harrowing. A week afterwards weed with the hand, 
 and in two weeks repeat this operation. This is the most productive 
 crop, and gives from one to two seeds more than that which is reaped 
 in Kartika. 
 
 The mode of cultivation, or the season of sowing, makes no 
 difference here in the quality of the grain, nor in the length of time 
 that it will keep good. The grain is always preserved in the husk ; and 
 until wanted for immediate consumption, is never beaten. In store- 
 houses, or kattajas, if well dried in the sun previous to its having been 
 put up, it preserves well for two years. Paddy is sometimes kept in 
 pits, or in the straw packages called iiu'ides ; but these are inferior to the 
 store-house. 
 
 At Madgiri, when there is plenty of water, the same ground in the 
 course of the year gives two crops, the Kartika and Vais'dkha. The 
 former, provided two crops are taken, is the most productive ; but, if 
 the Kartika be omitted, the Vaisakha gives a greater return than the 
 Kartika alone would have given ; not, however, equal to the produce of 
 both crops. The quality of the grain in both crops is the same. The 
 Vais'akha crop, although raised in the dry season, is the one most 
 regularly taken. For this crop all the kinds of rice may be sown ; for 
 the Kartika crop the bill sanna batta and kari chatuiaugi are never 
 sown ; as with rain they are apt to lodge. The soil used for tripad 
 sanna bafta, bill channangi, kari channangi, and put raj, is niaralu or 
 sandy. The others require a clay, which in the low grounds is always 
 black. The red soil is always confined to the rising grounds, and is
 
 RICE 139 
 
 therefore never cultivated for rice, except when it can be watered by 
 machines; and if the water is more than 31I feet from the surface, 
 these are never used. Two men and four oxen can, by means of the 
 machine called kapi/e, supply an acre and a half of ground with water 
 sufficient to raise a crop of rice. One set works four or five hours in 
 the morning, and the other as much in the evening. 
 
 The only manner of cultivating rice that is in use here is the »io/e, or 
 sprouted-seed ; the manner of preparing which is as follows : — The ears 
 must be cut off, the grain beaten out immediately, and then dried in 
 the sun three or four days. It must be preserved in straw or in jars. 
 When wanted for sowing, it must be exposed to the sun for a day, and 
 soaked in water all the following night. It is then put upon a layer of 
 the leaves of the yekka {calotropis gigantea), or of hara/ie, mixed with 
 sheep's dung, and is surrounded by stones, so as to keep it together. It 
 is then covered with banddri (doJoiuva viscosa) leaves, and pressed down 
 with a stone. Next morning the upper leaves are removed, and a pot 
 of water is thrown on the seed, which must be turned with the hand, 
 and then covered again with the leaves and stone. Daily, for three or 
 four times, this operation must be repeated, and then the sprouts from 
 the seed will be almost an inch long. 
 
 For the Kdrtika crop plough seven times in the course of thirty 
 days, the ground all the while being inundated. In the next place 
 manure the ground with leaves, and tread them into the mud. Then 
 let off the water, and sow the seed broad-cast, covering it with a little 
 dung. On the fourth day cover the ground with water, and immediately 
 afterwards let it run off Repeat this daily till the eighth time, after 
 which the field must be kept constantly inundated to the depth of 
 one inch for ten days, and four inches for the remainder. The weed- 
 ings are at the end of the sixth, tenth, and twelfth weeks from sowing. 
 The season for ploughing continues all the months of Jyeshtha and 
 Ashadha. 
 
 For the Vais'dkha crop the same process is followed; but the plough- 
 ing season is from the 15th of Asvfja till the last of Margasira. By 
 this time the whole seed must be sown ; and the nearer it is done to it 
 the better. 
 
 The large-grained rices, dodda batta, which ripens in 4^ months, 
 and kari channangi and bili chatmangi, which ripen in four months, 
 produce in a good crop twenty-fold, and in an indifferent crop one-fifth 
 less. Kembattl or dodda kembatti, and gartida or sanna kembatti yield 
 twenty-three and thirteen-fold respectively in a good crop, or fifteen 
 and sevenfold in an inferior one. The first ripens in five months, the 
 second in four. Of the small-grained rices, bili sanna ba/ta, kari sanna
 
 I40 FLORA 
 
 batta, put raj and tripati sauna i>a//a, the first ripens in five months, 
 the second in five and a half, the third in fijur, and the fourth in three 
 and a half. Their respective yield in a good crop is twenty-four, 
 thirty-two, fifteen and seventeen-fold. 
 
 In Periyapatna and the west the principal cultivation is the trans- 
 planted or ndti, and by far the greatest quantity of rice cultivated is the 
 hain crop or anaputti. The other kinds raised are kenibatti^ konavali, 
 satma batta, saniia kembatta, and kdrn ; all ripen in six months, except 
 the last, which ripens in five. The following is the manner of 
 cultivating the hain ndti or crop of transplanted rice growing in the 
 rainy season : — The ground on which the seedlings are to be raised 
 gets seven or eight ploughings between the middle of Vais'akha and 
 the loth of Jyeshtha, which are the second and third months after the 
 vernal equinox. In the intervals between the ploughings the field is 
 inundated ; but at each time that operation is performed, the water is 
 let off After the last ploughing, manure with the leaves of the chandra 
 niallige {/nirabilis) or ununatte {datura strainoniuni) ; but, if these 
 cannot be had, with the leaves of the chaudangi {solanuni). Then 
 tread the leaves into the mud, sow the seed very thick and cover it 
 with dung. The seed is in general prepared for sowing by causing it to 
 sprout : and the reason assigned for so doing is, that it is thereby 
 secured from the birds. If the seed has been prepared, or inole^ the 
 field has water during the third, sixth, and ninth days, the water being 
 allowed to remain on the field all day, and being again let off at night. On 
 the tenth day the field is filled with water an inch deep and is kept so 
 till the eighteenth, when that water is let off. Immediately afterwards 
 the field is filled to three inches deep, and is kept thus inundated 
 until the seedlings be fit for transplantation. If the seed be sown dry, 
 it receives water on the first, second, and third days. On the fourth it 
 has the manure which is given to the mole, when that is sown. It 
 receives water again on the seventh, which is let off on the ninth. 
 Water is again given on the thirteenth, seventeenth, and twenty-first ; 
 and the field is then inundated, until the seedlings are fit for trans- 
 plantation. They must be transplanted between the thirtieth and 
 forty-sixth days. 
 
 The ploughings for the fields into which the seedlings are to be 
 transplanted are performed during the time in which these are growing ; 
 and are done exactly in the same manner as for the field in which the 
 seed has been sown. Stiff ground requires eight ploughings ; in a light 
 soil six are sulficient. The manure is given before the last ploughing. 
 The seedlings are pulled in the evening, and kept in water all night. 
 Next morning the field has the last ploughing, and the mud is smoothed
 
 RICE 141 
 
 by having a plank drawn over it. The seedlings are then planted, and 
 get no water until the eighth day. On the eighth, twelfth, sixteenth and 
 twentieth days the water is kept on the field, and is let off at night. 
 The yellow colour occasioned by the transplantation is then changed 
 into a deep green ; after which, until the crop ripens, the field is 
 constantly inundated. In a bad soil, the weeds are removed on the 
 thirtieth day, in a good soil, on the forty-fifth. 
 
 The farmers here make their sprouted-seed in the following manner : 
 The seed is soaked all night in water, and is then placed in a heap on 
 a piece of sackcloth, or on some leaves of the plaintain-tree. There 
 it is mixed with some buffalo's dung, and the leaves of the Inirike 
 {ocyiuuiu molk), and covered with pack-saddles. In the evening it is 
 sprinkled with warm water, and covered again. In the morning and 
 evening of the second day it is sprinkled with cold water, and next day 
 it is fit for sowing. 
 
 Every kind of rice that is sown in Nagar takes six months to grow ; 
 and they are of less variety than usual, namely, hi/i batta or heggai, and 
 jolaghcna, which may be cultivated both as dry-seed and as transplanted ; 
 and honasejta, or keinpu, which can be sown only as dry-seed. 
 
 The bara-batta cultivation is conducted as follows : — In the course of 
 the five months following the winter solstice, the field gets four single 
 ploughings. In the second month after the vernal equinox, it is 
 manured with leaf dung, and ploughed once. After the next rain, the 
 seed is mixed with dry cow-dung, sown broad-cast, and covered by the 
 implement called koradu. A month after sowing, when the young rice 
 is about four inches high, the field is turned over with a small plough, 
 to kill the grass and to destroy part of the young corn, which is always 
 sown too thick. After this, the field is again smoothed with the same 
 implement, and harrowed with a bunch of thorns. In the second 
 month after the summer solstice, all the banks are repaired, to retain 
 the water on the fields, which are then ploughed again and smoothed 
 with the implement called aligina koradu. A large rake, called //a/(!r/(7^, 
 is then drawn by the hand over the field, to remove the weeds. In the 
 month preceding the autumnal e(]uinox, the weeds are removed by the 
 hand. In the two months preceding the shortest day, the crop is ripe. 
 It is cut close by the ground, and for four days is allowed to lie loose 
 on the field. It is then stacked in heaps, with the cars inward, but 
 without having been bound up in sheaves. In the course of three 
 months, it is trampled out by oxen. The grain with the husk is 
 preserved in store-houses, or straw bags, and is only made into rice as 
 it may be wanted for immediate use. 
 
 The process for transplanted rice, called here ;/////, is as follows : —
 
 142 FLORA 
 
 In ortlcr to raise the seedlings, in the course of fifteen or twenty days 
 during the niontli following the vernal equinox, a [jlot is inundated, 
 and ploughed four times. It is then manured with any kind of fresh 
 leaves, and with the dung made by cattle that have been littered with 
 dried leaves. These are ploughed down, and the mud is smoothed, 
 first with the noli, and afterwards by the mara, which is a square log 
 of timber yoked in the same manner. The field is then drained so 
 that three inches of water only remain. In any of the three months 
 between the vernal equinox and the summer solstice, the seed is sown 
 broad-cast. As this is the dry season, the seedling plot must be very 
 low, so as to receive a supply of water from some rivulet. On the 
 fifth day after the seed has been sown, the whole water is allowed to 
 drain from the plot ; and for three days this is kept dry, after which it 
 is constantly inundated, till the seedlings are fit for transplantation. 
 The field into which they are to be removed is inundated during the 
 two months following the summer solstice, and in the course of three 
 days during that period ploughed four times. It is then manured, in 
 the same manner as the plot was ; and afterwards, in the course of two 
 or three days, it is ploughed again three times. The mud is then 
 smoothed with the noli, above mentioned ; and the water having been 
 let off to the depth of three inches, the seedlings are transplanted into 
 the field, which must be always kept under water ; and a month after 
 it has been planted, the weeds must be removed by the hand. The 
 harvest is in the month preceding the winter solstice. 
 
 All the fields are capable of both modes of cultivation. The trans- 
 planting is reckoned most troublesome and least productive, and 
 requires most seed. A kandaga of land is an extent that in the trans- 
 planting cultivation requires one kandaga of seed ; in dry-seed 
 cultivation, it requires only fifteen kolagas. The produce of all the 
 three kinds of rice is nearly the same, only the heggai gives rather most. 
 Of this grain a kandaga of land of the first quality, cultivated by 
 transplanting, produces eleven or twelve kandagas ; land of the second 
 quality produces eight kandagas ; and land of the third quality pro- 
 duces six kandagas. The same ground, cultivated with dry-seed, 
 would produce from half a kandaga to one kandaga more. 
 
 The kinds of rice cultivated at Shimoga are sampige ddla, hctta 
 kenddl, kenibatti and sanabafti, producing in a good crop ten, twelve 
 and nine-fold respectively, the last two being equal. All these require 
 six months to grow. They are all large-grained, except the sanabatti, 
 which sells five per cent higher than the others. The lowest ground is 
 used for the sanabafti, the highest for the kembatti. 
 
 The cultivation of all soils and all kinds of rice here is the same, and
 
 RICE 143 
 
 the unprepared seed is sown by a drill. Immediately after harvest, the 
 ground is once ploughed. ^Vhcn the rains commence during the two 
 months following the vernal equinox, it is ploughed again twice, 
 smoothed with the implement called koradu, and then hoed twice with the 
 heg kunk, which is drawn by two oxen. This removes the grass ; after 
 which the clods are broken by drawing the koradu twice over the field, 
 which in some measure serves as a rolling-stone. The dung is then 
 spread ; and after the first good rain the seed is sown with the drill or 
 kurige, and covered with the koradu. At this season the rain comes in 
 showers, between which are considerable intervals. On the third day 
 after having been sown, the field is hoed with the hcg ki/nfe, which 
 here is called also kambutige. On the twentieth day, when the seedlings 
 are nine inches high, the koradu is used again ; then the edde kunte ; 
 then the koradu^ and finally the harrow, which is made of a bunch of 
 thorny bamboos. On the thirtieth day, more grass having sprung, the 
 edde kunte is again used, the rows of young corn passing between the 
 hoes ; and this must be repeated as often as the grass springs. In the 
 third month the water is confined, and then for the last time the edde 
 kunte must be used. The mud raised by this is smoothed by the 
 koradu \ but in this operation the same implement is called aravasi. 
 All these weedings are not sufificient, and the remaining grass must be 
 removed by the hand and weeding-iron. The rice is cut with the 
 straw, and for two days is allowed to lie loose on the field. It is then 
 put in ricks, without having been bound in sheaves, and remains there 
 until trodden, which may be done any time in the course of three 
 months. It is always preserved in the husk, and when wanted for con- 
 sumption is cleaned by a hand-mill of the usual form, but made 
 entirely of timber, which removes the outer husk ; but the inner one, 
 or bran, must be separated by beating in a mortar. Eight measures of 
 clean rice, as usual in India, are equal in value to twenty of that which 
 retains the husk. 
 
 South of the Chitaldroog District, all the rice ground is cultivated as 
 sprouted-seed. The seed is sown equally thick, yet in Budihal the 
 land often produces sixty-fold, and the ordinary crop is forty seeds ; 
 while towards Garudagiri, the usual produce is twenty seeds. In the 
 course of one year there are frequently from the same field two crops 
 of rice. 
 
 The kinds of rice cultivated at Belur are hasi/de, bola niat/ige, bill 
 sauna batta, kcrivanna and putta bafta, which ripen in eight months; 
 and chipiga, kesari, kumbara kesar'i^ kenipu sauna baita, and modara, 
 which ripen in seven months. On nirdvari land, or that which has 
 u supply of water from tanks, the rices most commonly cultivated are
 
 144 FLORA 
 
 kiriva/uia and hasndc. All the three kinds of cultivation arc in use ; 
 but in ordinary seasons the dry seed is by far the most prevalent. In 
 extraordinary wet seasons a good deal is transplanted, and some is sown 
 sprouted. 
 
 The cultivation of the dry-seed is conducted as follows : — In the 
 month following the winter solstice, the ploughing commences, and in 
 the course of two months the operation is eight times repeated. The 
 little banks, inclosing the plots for confining the water, are then repaired, 
 and the field is manured. In the month preceding the vernal equinox, 
 after a shower of rain, the clods are smoothed with the ada, or gidde 
 mara, which is the same implement which at Nagar is called no/i. 
 Eight days afterwards, the field is again ploughed and again smoothed 
 with the ada. The seed is sown by the drill, according as the rainy 
 season commences, during the two months and a half which follow the 
 vernal equinox. It is then covered by the ada. On the twenty-third 
 day after having been sown, the field is hoed with the edde kuitte, and 
 this is repeated twice, with an interval of four days between each time. 
 The field is then inundated by confining the water, and the kimte is 
 drawn a fourth time in the mud. On the day following, the soil is 
 smoothed with the ada. Eight days afterwards, the field is drained 
 until the weeds can be removed by the hand. After a month or six 
 weeks, this must be repeated. The rice is cut with the straw, and 
 trodden out by oxen. 
 
 When the rains are heavy, a good deal of rice is raised by transplanta- 
 tion. For every kandaga land, two kandagas of seed must be sown ; 
 and the produce of this, on the best land, is only twenty-one or twenty- 
 two kandagas. Very little sprouted-seed is sown ; but it seems to be 
 the cultivation that would answer best. For a kandaga land fifteen 
 kolagas of seed are sufficient, and the produce is little less than in the 
 dry-seed. On the viakke land, or that which depends entirely on rain 
 for a supply of water, the seed is always sown without preparation, and 
 managed exactly in the same manner as on the niravari. The produce 
 on the best land is twenty-two kandagas, from thirty kolagas sown on a 
 kandaga field. 
 
 Sugar-cane. — A considerable quantity of sugar-cane is cultivated 
 near Seringapatam. It is of two kinds, rastdli and pattdpatti.^ Both 
 yield bella ox jaggory ; but the natives can extract sugar from the patta- 
 patti alone. The jaggory of the latter is also reckoned the best. The 
 rastali can be planted only in Chaitra ; the pattapatti may also be planted 
 in Sravana or IMagha. The crop of rastali is over in a year : that of 
 
 ' Rastali is the original sugar-cane of the country ; pattapatti was introduced, it is 
 said, from Arcot, in the time of Haidar, by Mustafa Ali Khan, a paymaster-general.
 
 SUGAR-CANE 145 
 
 pattapatti requires fourteen months, but may be followed by a second 
 crop, or, as is said in the West Indies, by a crop of ratoons, which 
 require twelve months only to ripen. The rastali will not survive for a 
 second crop. 
 
 When the ground is to be cultivated for sugar-cane, it is watered 
 three days, and then for the same length of time it is allowed to dry. 
 During the next eight days it must be ploughed five times, and the clods 
 must be beaten small with a kind of pick-axe, called kol gudali. The 
 field must then be manured, and ploughed a sixth time. The ground 
 now rests fifteen days ; after which, in the course of one or two days, 
 it must be ploughed twice, and then be allowed eight days more rest. 
 It is afterwards ploughed a ninth time. These operations occupy 
 forty-four days ; six more are employed in planting the cane, which is 
 done by the instrument called yak giidali. With this the field is divided 
 into beds of about six cubits wide. These beds are separated by small 
 trenches, which are about fourteen inches wide, and eight deep. In 
 every alternate trench are dug small wells about two feet deep. The 
 water from the canal flows through all the trenches, and, a quantity of 
 it lodging in these wells, is taken out with pots for watering the plants 
 by the hand. Across every bed, at the distance of a cubit, are dug five 
 holes, about six inches in diameter and three in depth. In each of 
 these are placed horizontally two cuttings of the cane, each containing 
 three joints. These are covered slightly with earth, over which is laid 
 some dung. When the cane is planted in Chaitra, the trenches must be 
 filled with water from the tank, and every hole must be watered by pots. 
 At the other seasons the trenches are full, it being the rainy weather ; 
 but, even then, for one month, the holes containing the canes must 
 daily be watered by the hand. The earth in the holes is then stirred up 
 with a stick, and a little dung is added. Next month the daily watering 
 must be continued, and at the end of it the whole field must be dug up 
 with the yak gudali; and round every cluster of young canes there 
 must be formed by the hand a small cavity, into which a little dung is 
 to be put. In the third month the canes must be watered every other 
 day. At the end of the third month, if the canes have grown with 
 luxuriance, the field must be dug over again with \\\q yak gudali; but, 
 if they are rather stunted, the watering must be continued all the fourth 
 month, before they get the third weeding. At this time, the earth at 
 the roots of the cane is heaped up into ridges, crossing the beds at right 
 angles to the trenches. Afterwards, no water is given immediately to 
 the plants ; but for three days the trenches must be kept full. It is 
 then let out for a week. If there be rain, there is no occasion for more 
 watering ; but, if it be dry weather, the trenches, for a month, must be 
 
 L
 
 146 FLORA 
 
 filled with water one day in the week. Then the weeding with the 
 yak gudali must be repeated, and the earth must be smoothed with the 
 hand, and placed carefully round the canes. The young shoots from 
 each hole will be now ten or twelve in number ; those which are sickly 
 must be cut off; and the healthy, which are about a cubit long, must 
 be tied up with a leaf of the plant into bundles of two or three, in order 
 to prevent them from spreading too much. Should there be no rain, 
 the trenches must once in fifteen days be filled with water, till the canes, 
 having grown higher, again require to be tied together. In a month 
 after the first tying they ought to be two cubits high. When the plants 
 are eight months old they will have grown another cubit, and will 
 require another tying. The farmer now begins to repair his apparatus 
 for making jaggory : the die inane, or boiling-house ; the gdna, or mill ; 
 the kopparige, or boiler ; the achchit, or mould ; the kunu, or cooler ; 
 the gormane, or ladle ; and the chibalu, or skimmer. In the eleventh 
 month he begins to cut the rastali, and the crop must be finished within 
 the year. The pattapatti is ripe in twelve months, and two months may 
 be allowed for cutting it. 
 
 If it be intended to keep the field of pattapatti for a second year's 
 crop, the dry leaves which are cut off at crop season must be burned on 
 the spot, and the whole field must be dug with i\ieyale gudali. The 
 trenches must then be filled with water, and for six months the watering 
 must be continued once in eight or ten days, unless there be rain. The 
 weedings during this time ought to be three ; at each of which dung 
 ought to be given. At the end of six months, the canes having grown 
 one cubit high, the weakly plants must be removed, and the strongest 
 tied up, as in the first crop. The manner of conducting the two crops 
 after this is quite similar. The canes of the second crop must be all 
 cut within the year. 
 
 The kinds of sugar-cane cultivated in Kolar are four, which are 
 esteemed in the following order : first rastali, second pattapatti, third 
 7nara kahlm, fourth katte kablm. The two last are very small, seldom 
 exceeding the thickness of the little finger ; yet the katte kabbu is the 
 one most commonly cultivated. This is owing to its requiring little 
 water ; for by means of thejv?Va it may have a supply sufficient to bring 
 it to maturity. From the end of Phalguna to the end of Chaitra (Mar. 
 — April) plough eight or ten times. Manure the field with dung, and 
 plough it again. Then spread leaves on it, and cover them with the 
 plough. By the small channels that are to convey the water, the field 
 is then divided into beds eight cubits broad. Furrows are then drawn 
 across the beds at the distance of nine inches from each other. The 
 cuttings of cane, each containing four or five eyes, are then placed
 
 SUGAR-CAXE 147 
 
 lengthwise in the furrows, the end of the one touching that of the 
 other. They are covered with a very httle earth, over which is laid 
 some dung. They are then watered, the water flowing through every 
 channel, and entering every furrow. For one month the watering is 
 repeated once in three days ; the earth round the canes must then be 
 loosened with the point of a sharp stick. For fifteen days more the 
 watering must be continued ; when the whole field should be hoed, 
 and levelled with the kbl gudali. Four days afterwards, between every 
 second row of sugar-cane a trench is dug, and into this the water flows 
 from the channels. Thus in the progress of its cultivation each bed 
 assumes two forms. When there is no rain, the field requires to be 
 watered once in fifteen days. When four or five months old, the canes 
 are tied up in bundles ; and when they are a cubit and a half high this 
 is repeated. In eleven months they are ripe, and a month and a half 
 are allowed for the crop season. The soil here used for sugar-cane is 
 the rich black soil called ere ; and after sugar it requires one or two 
 years' rest before it gives a good crop of rice. The sugar-cane is all 
 made into jaggory ; seventy-four seers measure, or nearly eighteen ale- 
 gallons of juice, are said to produce fifty kachcha seers weight (about 
 2 6| lb. avoirdupois) of the jaggory. 
 
 The sugar-cane field at Madgiri is divided into two equal portions, 
 which are cultivated alternately, one year with sugar-cane, and the other 
 with grain ; the cane, however, thrives better when the field, in place of 
 being cultivated for grain, is allowed an intermediate fallow ; but then 
 the loss is heavy, as after cane the grain thrives remarkably. The grains 
 cultivated are rice, ragi, and jola ; the first injures the cane least, and 
 the jola injures it most. The kinds of cane cultivated are the rastali 
 and mara kabbu. In Kartika and Margasira (Oct. — Dec.) plough seven 
 times, and manure with sheep's dung and leaves. Then with the hoe 
 c:i\\cd yaie gi/dali form channels at a cubit's distance. In these also, at 
 a cubit's distance, plant single shoots of the cane, each about a cubit in 
 length. If the soil be poor, they must be planted rather nearer They 
 are laid down in the channels, which are filled with water, and then 
 people tread the shoots into the mud, by walking through each channel. 
 X /xo/aga oi land requires 18,000 shoots, on which data it ought to 
 contain I'S acre. If the soil be of a moist nature, the cane has water 
 once in eight days ; but, if it dry cjuickly, it must, until ripe, be watered 
 once in six days, except when there is rain. At the end of the first 
 month the field must be hoed with the kali kudali. Near each cane, as 
 a manure, some leaves of the honge are then placed, and they are 
 covered with a little mud ; so that the channels are now between the 
 rows of cane, and the canes grow on the ridges. When these are 2^ 
 
 L 2
 
 148 FJ.ORA 
 
 cubits high, they arc tied u[) in hunches of three or four ; and as they 
 grow higher, this is three or four times repeated. Twelve months after 
 planting, the crop season begins ; and in six weeks it must be finished : 
 250 maunds of jaggory is here reckoned a good crop from a kolaga of 
 land, which is very nearly 15 cwt. an acre ; 150 maunds, which is about 
 9 cwt. from the acre, is reckoned a bad crop. Black clay gives the 
 greatest quantity of jaggory, but it is of a bad quality. A sandy soil 
 produces least jaggory, but that of a high value. One kapile can water 
 an acre and a half of sugar-cane land. 
 
 The ground for cultivating sugar-cane in Sira is also divided into 
 two equal parts, which are alternately cultivated ; one year with cane, 
 and the other with rice. It is watered either from the reservoirs, or by 
 the kapile. In the last case, a field of two koiagas, or three acres, one- 
 half of which is in sugar-cane, and the other in rice, requires the con- 
 stant labour of four men and eight oxen. Day-labourers must also be 
 hired to rebuild the boiling-house, to tie up the cane, and to weed. 
 When the field is watered from a reservoir, one man only is regularly 
 employed ; but to plough, to plant, to weed and to tie up the cane, 
 both men and cattle must be hired in addition. Three kinds of cane 
 are here cultivated. The most valued is the rastdii, which grows best 
 on a black soil in which there is much sand or gravel ; a good crop of 
 this, on a kolaga land, produces 100 maunds of jaggory ; which is 
 about 29} cwt. on an acre. The next in quality is the kari kabbit, or 
 black cane. It requires a pure black mould, called ere bhiimi; and, in 
 a good crop, produces, from a kolaga land, sixty maunds of jaggory, or 
 from an acre nearly 17^ cwt. The poorest cane is the mara kabbu, or 
 stick cane. It is cultivated on the same kind of soil with the rastali ; 
 but produces only half as much jaggory as the kari kabbu, and that of 
 a very bad quality, for it is quite black. 
 
 The cultivation of the rastali, however, is comparatively much more 
 troublesome. In the course of the eight months following the summer 
 solstice, the field must be ploughed eleven times ; and once a month, 
 during the whole of that time, 1,000 sheep must be folded for one night 
 on the field. It is then manured with mud from the bottoms of the 
 reservoirs, and ploughed again twice. The channels are then formed, 
 and in them the cuttings are laid down, two and two being always 
 placed parallel. A kolaga of land requires 50,000. The channels are 
 then filled with water, and the cuttings are trodden into the mud with 
 the feet. The second watering is on the fourth day, the third watering 
 on the twelfth ; afterwards the field, if the soil be good, must be 
 watered once a fortnight ; or once a week, if it part with its moisture 
 quickly. On the twentieth day the field is weeded with the small hoe
 
 SUGAR-CANE 149 
 
 i:alled molu poiii, which imphes that the operation is done very super- 
 ficially. On the thirty-fifth day the whole field is dug with the large 
 hoe called yale gudali; and, the earth being thrown up toward the 
 canes in ridges, the channels for conveying the water run between the 
 rows. About the ninetieth day the canes are tied up with a leaf of the 
 plant in parcels of five or six, and once a month this is repeated. 
 When the cane is ten months old, the crop begins, and in thirty days it 
 must be finished. 
 
 Towards Periyapatna, the cane is watered from reservoirs ; the 
 natural moisture of the climate not being sufficient to raise it, and 
 machinery being never employed. The kinds cultivated, besides a little 
 pattapatti, are rastali and mara kabbu, both of which grow nearly to 
 the same length, which is in general about six feet. The rastali ripens 
 in twelve months, while eighteen are required to bring forward the 
 mara kabbu ; so that as a crop of rice must always intervene between 
 two crops of sugar-cane, the rotation of the former occupies two years, 
 while in that of the latter three are consumed. 
 
 For the mara kabbu plough twenty times either in Asvija and 
 Kartika, the two months immediately following the autumnal equinox ; 
 or in Kartika and Margasira, which is of course one month later. The 
 canes are planted in the second or third months after the winter solstice. 
 In order to plant the cane, longitudinal and transverse furrows are 
 drawn throughout the field, distant from each other one cubit and a 
 half; at every intersection a hole is made, nine inches wide, and of 
 the same depth ; in each hole are laid horizontally two cuttings of 
 cane, each containing three joints ; finally under them is put a little 
 dung, above them an inch of mould. Then water each hole with a 
 pot, from a channel running at the upper end of the field. On the 
 two following days this must be repeated. Until the end of the third 
 month, water every other day. From the third to the sixth month, 
 the field must, once in eight days, be ploughed between the rows of 
 holes ; and at the same time, should there be any want of the usual 
 rain, it must be watered. At the first ploughing a little dung must be 
 given, and at tlie end of six months the field must be copiously 
 manured. At this time channels are formed winding through among 
 the canes ; so that every row is between two channels. When the 
 rainy season is over, these channels must be filled with water, once 
 in eight days in hot weather, and once a month when it is cool. 
 At the beginning of the eighth month the whole field is hoed, and at 
 the end of two months more this is repeated. The cane here is never 
 tied up. 
 
 The sugar-cane cultivated in Nagar is the mara kabbu. The ground
 
 ISO FLORA 
 
 fit for it is that which has a sii[)ply of water in the dry season. Any 
 soil will do, but a red earth is reckoned the best. In the month 
 preceding the vernal equinox plf)ugh four times ; and then throughout 
 the field, at the distance of one cubit and a half, form with the hoe 
 trenches one cubit wide, and one span deep. Then cover the field 
 with straw, dry grass, and leaves, and burn them to serve as a manure. 
 The soil in the bottom of the trenches is afterwards loosened with a 
 hoe ; and a man, with his hand, opens up the loose earth, puts in a 
 little dung, and upon this places horizontally, and parallel to the sides 
 of the trench, cuttings of the cane, each containing four or five joints. 
 These he covers with a little dung and earth. The cuttings are placed 
 in one row in each bed, the end of the one being close to that of 
 another. Once a day, for a month, the canes must be watered with a 
 })0t ; the young plants are then about a cubit high ; and, the earth 
 round them having been previously loosened with a sharp-pointed stick, 
 a little dung should be given to their roots. After this, the ridges are 
 thrown down, and the earth is collected toward the rows of young 
 cane, which by this means are placed on ridges, with a trench inter- 
 vening between every two rows. Until the rains commence, these 
 trenches must every other day be filled with water. In the month 
 preceding the autumnal equinox, in order to prevent them from being 
 eaten by the jackals and bandicoots, the canes are tied up in bundles 
 of from five to ten, and each of these is surrounded by a series of 
 straw^ rope. In ten months they are fit for cutting, and require no 
 farther trouble. The crop season lasts one month. On the second 
 year a crop of ratoons is taken, in the third year the roots are dug up, 
 and the field is again planted with cane ; so that it is never reinvigor- 
 ated by a succession of crops. 
 
 Sugar-cane is at Harihar the most considerable irrigated crop. In 
 the intervals between the crops of cane, a crop of rice is taken, should 
 there be a sufficient supply of water ; but that is seldom the case, 
 and the intermediate crop is commonly some of the dry grains. The 
 cane may be planted at any time ; but there are only three seasons 
 which are usually employed. One lasts during the month before 
 and month after the summer solstice. This is the most productive 
 and most usual season ; but the cane requires at this time longer to 
 grow, and more labour, than in the others. The other two seasons 
 are the second month after the autumnal equinox, and the second 
 month after the shortest day. Those crops arrive at maturity within 
 the year. 
 
 The kind of cane cultivated is the mara kabbu, and the following 
 is the process in the first season : — In the second month after the
 
 SUGAR-CAXE 151 
 
 vernal equinox, the field must be watered, and eight days afterwards 
 it is ploughed once. After another rest of eight days, it must be 
 ploughed again with a deeper furrow, four oxen having been put into 
 the yoke. After another interval of eight days it is ploughed, first 
 lengthwise, and then across, with a team of six oxen. Then, at the 
 distance of three, or three and a half cubits, are drawn over the whole 
 field, furrows which cross each other at right angles. In order to make 
 these furrows wider, a stick is put across the iron of the plough. In 
 the planting season, two cuttings of the cane, each containing two 
 eyes, are laid down in every infersection of the furrows, and are 
 covered slightly with mud. The furrows are then filled with water, 
 and this is repeated three times, with an interval of eight days between 
 every two waterings. A little dung is then put into the furrows ; and 
 when there happens to be no rain, the waterings once in the eight 
 days are continued for three months. When the canes have been 
 planted forty days, the weeds must be removed with a knife, and the 
 intervals are hoed with the hoe drawn by oxen. This operation is 
 repeated on the fifty-fifth, seventieth, and eighty-fifth days, and the 
 earth is thrown up in ridges toward the canes. In the beginning of 
 the fourth month, the field gets a full watering. Fifteen days after- 
 wards, the intervals are ploughed lengthwise and across ; and to each 
 bunch of plants a basket or two of dung is given and ploughed in. 
 The weeds are then destroyed by a hoe drawn by oxen ; after which, 
 channels must be formed between the rows ; and until the cane ripens, 
 which varies from fourteen to seventeen months, these channels are 
 filled with water once in fifteen days. The crop season lasts from one 
 month to six weeks. 
 
 Cardamoms — are propagated entirely by cuttings of the root, and 
 s{)rcad in clumps exactly like the plantain-tree. In the month follow- 
 ing the autumnal equinox, a cluster of from three to five stems, with 
 the roots adhering, are separated from a bunch, and i)lanted in the 
 same row, one between every two areca-nut palms, in the s[)ot from 
 whence a plantain-tree has been removed. The ground around the 
 cardamom is manured with iiclli {emblica) leaves. In the third year, 
 about the autumnal equinox, it produces fruit. The capsules are 
 gathered as they ripen, and are dried four days on a mat, which during 
 the day is supported by four sticks, and exposed to the sun, but at 
 night is taken into the house. They are then fit for sale. Whenever 
 the whole fruit has been removed, the plants are raised, and, all the 
 superfluous stems and roots having been separated, they are set again • 
 but care is taken never to set a plant in the spot from whence it was 
 raised, a change in this respect being considered as necessary. Next
 
 152 FLORA 
 
 year these plants give no fruit, but in the year following yield capsules 
 again, as at first. After transplantation, the old stems die and new- 
 ones spring from the roots. Each cluster produces from a quarter to 
 one seer weight of cardamoms, or from -^{'i^ to -^^ of a pound. 
 
 Areca-nut. — In the gardens near Channapatna the areca palm 
 requires a rich black soil, and is planted in such places only as produce 
 water on digging a well two cubits deep. There are here two varieties 
 of the areca, the one bearing large and the other small nuts. The 
 produce of both kinds is nearly equal in value and quantity. 
 
 The following is the manner of forming an areca-nut garden :• — A 
 plot of ground having been selected for a nursery, is dug to the depth 
 of one cubit. When the seed is ripe, which happens between the 
 middle of January and that of February, trenches must be formed in 
 the nursery, a span broad and a cubit deep. The trenches are half 
 filled up with sand, on the surface of Avhich is placed a row of the ripe 
 nuts. These are again covered with five inches of sand, and two inches 
 of rich black mould, and watered once in three days for four months, 
 at which time they are fit for being transplanted into the garden. The 
 garden having been fenced with a hedge of euphorbium tiriicalli, or 
 jatropha curcas, is dug to the depth of a cubit at the same time with 
 the nursery and planted with rows of plantain-trees at the distance of 
 three cubits. When the young palms are fit for being transplanted the 
 garden must be dug again to the former depth, and two young arecas 
 must be set in one hole between every two plantain-trees, ^^'hen there 
 is no rain they nmst have water every third day. ^^'hen the rainy 
 season commences, a trench must be dug between every third row of 
 trees ; that is to say, so as between every trench to form beds each of 
 which contains two rows of the areca. These trenches serve to carry 
 off superfluous water and to bring a supply from the reservoir when 
 wanted. The garden must be dug twice a year to keep it clear of 
 weeds. At the end of three years the original plantain-trees are 
 removed, and a row is set in the middle of each bed and kept up ever 
 afterwards in order to preserve a coolness at the roots of the areca. 
 When the areca-trees are about five feet high, which requires about five 
 years, they receive no more water than what is given to the plantain- 
 trees, which in dry weather must be watered twice a month. The tree 
 when five years old begins to produce fruit, and lives from thirty to 
 forty years. 
 
 Each tree pushes out three or four spadices which from the middle 
 of August until that of November become fit for cutting at different 
 intervals of twenty or thirty days, one after the other. When the nuts 
 have been cut, the skin is removed with an iron knife, and a quantity
 
 ARECA-NUT. 153 
 
 is put into a pot with some water, in which it must be boiled tiU the 
 eyes be separated. The nut is then cut into three or four pieces and 
 for three or four days dried on mats exposed to the sun, when it becomes 
 fit for sale. The plantations are interspersed with cocoa-nut, lime, jack 
 and other trees, which add to the shade and to the freshness of the 
 soil. Under the trees are cultivated ginger, and various vegetables. 
 
 The situation that is reckoned most favourable for areca gardens in 
 Madgiri is a black soil which contains calcareous nodules. It differs 
 from that in which cotton is raised by having the limestone a cubit or 
 two deep ; whereas the cotton requires it to be at the surface. The 
 gardens at this place are watered from reservoirs, from canals, and from 
 wells by means of the kapile. 
 
 To make a new garden, — in Sravana, the fifth month after the vernal 
 equinox, plough four times. Then with the hoe axWed ya/e guda/i form 
 the garden into beds six cubits wide. Between every two beds is a 
 raised channel for bringing a supply of water ; and in the centre of 
 each bed is a deep channel to carry off what is superfluous. The beds 
 are divided into plots ten or twelve cubits long. Then plant the whole 
 with shoots of the betel vine, and for its support sow the seed of the 
 M/uvdna, agase and migge. Then surround the whole with a thick 
 hedge, and once a day for three months water with a pot. Whenever 
 weeds grow they must be removed ; and at each time the betel vines 
 must get some dung. Between every two rows of the vines, in the 
 fourth month, is put a row of young plantain-trees. Once in four 
 days afterwards, the water is given from the reservoir or well. In six 
 months the vines must be tied up to the young trees. At the same 
 time, for every wokkala land, 3,000 nuts of the areca must be planted near 
 the roots of the vines, ^^'hen they are three years old a thousand of them 
 will be fit for use, and 800 are required to plant a wokkala land, or 
 about an acre and a half. They are planted distant in every direction 
 from each other five cubits. Xx. the same time plant on the inside of 
 the hedge some rows of cocoa-nut palms and orange, lime, mango, or 
 jack trees. The 800 areca palms, at five cubits distance, would only 
 occupy about an acre ; but a considerable space is taken up by a walk, 
 and by the rows of fruit-trees between them and the hedge. 
 
 In nine years from the first formation of the garden the betel vines 
 and most of the trees that supported them are removed. A few of the 
 agase and allthe plantains are allowed to remain. In the twelfth year 
 the areca palms begin to produce fruit. The remaining agase trees, 
 and one-half of the plantains are then removed. After this the garden 
 requires water only once in eight days when there is no rain ; and the 
 whole is dug over,'and formed like rice-ground into proper squares
 
 r54 /'/.OR A 
 
 and clinnncls for (lislril)UUn_L,f the water. One year it is manured with 
 duni;- ; in tlie second with the leaves of the /longe and /wi^/ii, and in the 
 third year with mud from the l)ottom of a reservoir. So long as the 
 garden lasts this succession of manures should, if possiljle, be con- 
 tinued ; and when the [)alms attain their full growth, which is in the 
 fourteenth year of the garden, the plantain-trees are entirely removed. 
 For thirty years from its arriving at maturity the palm continues 
 vigorous, and for fourteen years more gradually declines; during 
 which time a new garden ought to be formed, and then the old trees 
 should be cut, and the ground cultivated with grain, till the second 
 formed garden again begins to decay. In place of those that die, some 
 poor farmers plant new trees, and thus constantly keep up a garden on 
 the same spot ; but here this is looked upon as a bad practice. 
 
 The crop season lasts two months before, and one after, the autumnal 
 equinox. The nut, after being peeled, is cut into seven or eight pieces, 
 and put up in a heap. Then take one seer of the nut, one seer of cut 
 terra japonica, and a hundred leaves of the piper betel, beat them 
 together repeatedly with some water, and strain the juice thus obtained 
 into a pot. Take twenty seers of the bark of the /mri Jd/i :ind. boil it 
 during a whole night in a large pot with forty seers of water. With 
 this decoction mix the juice expressed from the former materials, and 
 boil again. While it is boiling, put in the areca-nut, after it has been 
 cut, until the pot be full. Immediately after, take it out with a ladle, 
 and put in more, till the whole is boiled. In order to be dried, it must 
 be three days exposed on mats to the sun, and is then fit for sale. 
 Forty maunds of dried nut is here reckoned the common produce of 
 a /io/aga land, which is about 6| cwt. an acre, or for each tree about 
 lilb. 
 
 Near Chiknayakanhalli the areca thrives best in the rich black mould 
 called ere, or /iris/ina b/iiani. The natives here look upon it as a matter 
 of indifference, whether or not, on digging a little depth, water may be 
 found in the soil. All that is required is to have a proper supply of 
 water either from the reservoir or by means of machinery. 
 
 In the second month after the winter solstice, the nut intended for 
 seed is cut ; and, having been put in a heap, is for eight or ten days 
 kept in the house. A seed-bed is then dug to the depth of a foot, and 
 three inches of the mould is removed from the surface, which is then 
 covered with a little dung. On this the nuts are placed with their eyes 
 uppermost, and close to each other. They are then covered with an 
 inch of mould, and for three months are watered every other day. The 
 seedlings are then three or four inches high, and must be transplanted 
 into a fresh bed that is prepared in the same manner : but in this they
 
 ARECA-NUT 155 
 
 arc placed a cubit distant from each other. Here they grow for three 
 years, receiving water once every other day ; and once a month they 
 are cleaned from weeds and have a little dung. 
 
 One year after planting the seed, the ground that is intended for the 
 garden must be dug to the depth of a cubit, and the soil exposed for 
 two months. Young plantain-trees are then placed in it at sixteen 
 cubits distance from each other, and it is surrounded by a screen of 
 cocoa-nut palms, and of jack, lime, and orange-trees, which are defended 
 by a hedge of the milk-bush. At the same time seeds of the agase are 
 planted throughout the garden, at the distance of four cubits. When 
 there is no rain the garden must once in fifteen days be watered by 
 channels made for the purpose. In the second month after the summer 
 solstice of the third year, the young arecas are fit for transplantation. 
 Then throughout the garden, at the distance of sixteen cubits, and in 
 the middle between every two plantain-trees, are formed pits, a cubit 
 deep and a cubit wide. In each of these pits a young areca is put, and 
 it must be carefully raised from the seed-bed with much earth adhering 
 to its roots ; and, after it is placed, the pit must be filled with earth, 
 and then receive a pot of water. The young arecas are then between 
 two and three feet high, and have four or five branches. If there be 
 water in the reservoir, an irrigation once a month is sufficient ; but the 
 kapilc must be used once in ten days, as the waterings given by it are 
 but scanty. For three years afterwards the whole garden must be com- 
 pletely hoed twice annually. At the one hoeing, for every four arecas, 
 it must have a bullock-load of dung ; and at the other hoeing, every 
 tree must be allowed an ox-load of red soil. The mud of reservoirs is 
 here thought to be very bad for an areca-nut garden. Ever afterwards 
 the garden is hoed completely once a year only, and is then manured 
 with dung and red earth. At the intermediate period of six months, it 
 is hoed near the trees, and has a little dung. At the end of the first 
 three years the agase trees are cut. The plantains are always reserved ; 
 but, as the old stems are cut, which is always done in from twelve to 
 eighteen months, the young shoots are conducted to a distance from 
 where tlie parent was originally placed ; and when the garden is twenty 
 years old, in these spots are planted other young arecas, to supply the 
 places of the old ones when they decay. This second set are again 
 supplanted by a third, growing where the first set did, and thus a con- 
 stant succession is preserved. In a new garden the areca begins to 
 bear fruit in nine years ; but fourteen or fifteen years are required to 
 bring forward those which are [)lanted among old trees. They con- 
 tinue to bear for sixty or .seventy years ; but after having been twenty- 
 five or thirty years in perfection they begin to decay.
 
 156 FLORA 
 
 There are annually two crops of areca-nut : one in the second month 
 after the summer solstice, the other in the two months which precede 
 the shortest day. The last crop is superior both in quantity and 
 quality. The nut, on being cut, is skinned in the course of two days, 
 and [)ut into a large pot with as much water as will cover it two inches. 
 It is then boiled for about three-quarters of an hour until a white scum 
 rises. The largest are then cut into eight pieces, and the smallest into 
 two, with the others in proportion to their size. During the four 
 following days they are .spread out in the sun to dry, and every night 
 they are gathered in a heap. When the fruit has been allowed to 
 approach too near to maturity, the nut loses its colour ; and a deceit is 
 attempted by adding a little reddle to the w-ater in which it is boiled. 
 This frequently deceives the consumer, but never the experienced 
 dealer ; and seems to be done purposely to enable him to defraud the 
 unwary. 
 
 A garden of i,ooo trees, allowing eight cubits square for each tree, 
 ought to contain rather more than 3 J acres ; but a young garden, 
 containing trees at sixteen cubits, will require 8| acres. The produce 
 is reckoned from forty to sixty maunds. The areca-tree is never cut 
 till its leaves have turned brown. Its stem has then acquired great 
 hardness, and in building is very useful. 
 
 The following process is adopted in Periyapatna to make a new 
 plantation of areca : — Take a piece of ground consisting of black mould 
 or a substratum of limestone, with water at no greater depth than 
 three cubits, and surround it with a hedge of the eiiphorbiiiin tirucalli, 
 and some rows of young cocoa-nut palms. Then, at the distance of 
 twelve cubits, dig rows of pits, two cubits deep and one and a half in 
 diameter. These pits are six cubits distant from the nearest in the 
 same row. In the second month after the vernal equinox, set in these 
 pits young plantain-trees, and give them water once ; after which, 
 unless the weather be uncommonly dry, they require no more. Two 
 months afterwards hoe the whole garden and form a channel in the 
 middle between every two rows of plantain-trees. The channels are 
 intended to carry off superfluous water, and are a cubit wide and two 
 feet deep. In the month immediately following the winter solstice, 
 hoe the whole garden a second time. In the following month, between 
 every two rows of plantain-trees make two rows of holes, at six cubits 
 distance and one cubit wide and deep. Fill each hole half up with 
 fine mould ; and in this place two ripe nuts of the areca, six inches 
 asunder. Once in two days for three months water each hole with a 
 pot. The shoots come up in Vais'akha, after which they get water 
 once only in five days. The holes must be kept clear of the mud that
 
 ARECA-NUT 157 
 
 is brought in by the rain ; and for three years must, on this account, 
 be daily inspected. In the month following the autumnal equinox 
 give a little dung. Ever afterwards the whole garden must be hoed 
 three times a year. 
 
 After they are three years old the areca palms must be watered every 
 other day in hot weather; when it is cool, once in every four or five 
 days, and not at all in the rainy season. The waterings are performed 
 by pouring a pot-full of water to the root of each plant. In the begin- 
 ning of the seventh year the w^eakest plant is removed from each hole ; 
 and at each digging, for three years more, every tree must receive 
 manure. After this, for three years, the young palms have neither 
 dung nor water. In the fourteenth year they begin to bear, and in the 
 fifteenth come to perfection, and continue in vigour until their forty- 
 fifth year, when they are cut down. The crop season lasts over Asvija, 
 Kartika, and Margasira. A good tree gives 857, and an ordinary one 
 600, nuts. Sixty thousand nuts, when prepared for sale, make a load 
 of between seven and eight maunds. One thousand ordinary trees at 
 this rate should procure seventy-five maunds. 
 
 In Nagar the nursery is managed as follows : — ^In the month preceding 
 the vernal equinox the seed is ripe. After having been cut, it is kept 
 eight days in the house. In the meantime a bed of ground in a shady 
 place is dug, and in this the nuts are placed nine inches from each 
 other, and with their eyes uppermost. They must be covered with a 
 finger-breadth of earth. The bed is then covered with dry plantain 
 leaves, and once in eight days is sprinkled with water. In the month 
 preceding the summer solstice, the plantain leaves are removed, and 
 young shoots are found to have come from the nuts. In the second 
 month afterwards, leaves of the nclli are spread between the young 
 plants. In the month preceding the vernal equinox, they get a little 
 dung. In the dry season they are watered once in from four to eight 
 days, according to the nature of the soil. 
 
 In the month preceding the autumnal equinox of the second year, the 
 young plants are removed into another nursery, where they are planted 
 a cubit distant and manured with nelli leaves and dung. This nursery 
 must be kept clear of weeds, manured twice a year, and in the dry 
 season should receive water once in eight days. The seedlings remain 
 in it two years, when they are fit for transplantation. A\'hen the arecas 
 are three years old, they are removed into the garden, planted close to 
 the drains for letting off the water, and remain there two years, when 
 they are finally placed in the spots where they are to grow. Once in 
 twenty or thirty years only the watering channels are filled up with 
 fresh earth, and then are not allowed water. During that year the
 
 158 FLORA 
 
 garden is kept moist by occasionally llUing the drains. 'Die water in 
 these is, however, reckoned very prejudicial, and is never thrown upon 
 the beds. Once in two years the garden is dug near the trees and 
 manured. The manure is dung, above which are placed the leafy 
 twigs of all kinds of trees. \\'hen an areca dies, a new one is j^lanted 
 in its stead ; so that in an old garden there are trees of all ages. When 
 the trees are sixteen years old they are employed to support pepper 
 vines. The extent of a garden of a thousand rated trees is about 
 185 acres. Its produce of areca-nut weighs 920^ lb., and of pepper 
 117 lb. 
 
 Cocoa-nut. — There are four varieties of the cocoa-nut : ist, red ; 
 2nd, red mixed with green ; 3rd, light green ; and 4th, dark green. 
 These varieties are permanent ; but, although the red is reckoned 
 somewhat better than the others, they are commonly sold promiscu- 
 ously. Their produce is nearly the same. 
 
 The soil does not answer in the Bangalore District unless water can 
 be had on digging into it to the depth of three or four cubits ; and in 
 such situations a light sandy soil is the best. The black clay called ere 
 is the next best soil. The worst is the red clay called kebbe ; but with 
 proper cultivation all the three soils answer tolerably well. 
 
 The manner of forming a new cocoa-nut garden is as follows : — The 
 nuts intended for seed must be allowed to ripen until they fall from 
 the tree ; and must then be dried in the open air for a month without 
 having the husk removed. A plot for a nursery is then dug to the 
 depth of two feet, and the soil is allowed to dry three days. On the 
 Ugddi feast (in March) remove one foot of earth from the nursery, and 
 cover the surface of the plot with eight inches of sand. On this place 
 the nuts close to each other, with the end containing the eye upper- 
 most. Cover them with three inches of sand and two of earth. If the 
 supply of water be from a well, the plot must once a day be watered ; 
 but, if a more copious supply can be had from a reservoir, one watering 
 in the three days is sufficient. In three months the seedlings are fit 
 for being transplanted. By this time the garden must have been 
 enclosed and hoed to the depth of two feet. Holes are then dug for 
 the reception of the seedlings, at twenty feet distance from each other 
 in all directions ; for when planted nearer they do not thrive. The 
 holes are two feet deep and a cubit wide. At the bottom is put sand 
 seven inches deep, and on this is placed the nut with the young tree 
 adhering to it. Sand is now put in until it rises two inches above the 
 nut, and then the hole is filled with earth and a little dung. Every 
 day for three years, except when it rains, the young trees must have 
 water.
 
 COCOA-NUT 159 
 
 The cocoa-nut palm begins to produce when seven or eight years 
 old, and lives so long that its period of duration cannot readily be 
 ascertained. Young trees, however, produce more fruit, which comes 
 forward at all seasons of the year. A good tree gives annually a 
 hundred nuts. A few are cut green on account of the juice, which is 
 used as drink ; but by far the greater part are allowed to arrive at some 
 degree of maturity, although not to full ripeness ; for then the kernel 
 would become useless. 
 
 Cocoa-nut palms are planted in Chiknayakanhalli in rows round the 
 areca-nut gardens, and also separately in spots that would not answer 
 for the cultivation of this article. The situation for these gardens 
 must be rather low, but it is not necessary that it should be under a 
 reservoir ; any place will answer in which water can be had by digging 
 to the depth of two men's stature. The soil which is here reckoned 
 most favourable for the cocoa-nut is a red clay mixed with sand. It 
 must be free of lime and saline substances. Other soils, however, are 
 employed, but black mould is reckoned very bad. The cocoa-nuts 
 intended for seed are cut in the second month after the winter solstice. 
 X square pit is then dug, which is sufficiently large to hold them, and 
 is about a cubit in depth. In this, fifteen days after being cut, are 
 placed the seed-nuts, with the eyes uppermo-st, and contiguous to each 
 other ; and then earth is thrown in so as just to cover them, upon 
 which is spread a little dung. In this bed, every second day for six 
 months, the seed must be watered with a pot, and then the young 
 palms are fit for being trans[)lanted. Whenever, during the two 
 months following the vernal equinox, an occasional shower gives an 
 opportunity by softening the soil, the garden must be ploughed five 
 times. All the next month it is allowed to rest. In the month follow- 
 ing the summer solstice, the ground must again be ploughed twice ; 
 and next month, at the distance of forty-eight cubits in every direction, 
 there must be dug pits a cubit wide and as much deep. In the bottom 
 of each a little dung is put ; and the young plants, having been 
 previously well watered to loosen the soil, are taken up, and one is 
 placed in each pit. The shell slill adheres to the young palm, and 
 the pit must be filled with earth so far as to cover the nut. Over this 
 is put a little dung. For three months the young plants must be 
 watered every other day ; afterwards every fourth day, until they are 
 four years old, except when there is rain. Afterwards they require 
 no water. 
 
 Every year the garden is cultivated for rngi, uddu, he-saru, or what- 
 ever other grain the soil is fitted for, and is well dunged ; and at the 
 same time four ox-loads of red mud are laid on the garden for every
 
 i6o FLORA 
 
 tree that it contains, while a little fresh earth is gathered up toward 
 the roots of the palms. The crop of grain is but poor, and injures 
 the palms ; it is always taken, however ; as, in order to keep down 
 the weeds, the ground must at any rate be ploughed ; as the 
 manure must be given ; and as no rent is paid for the grain. On this 
 kind of ground the cocoa-nut palm begins to bear in twelve or thirteen 
 years, and continues in perfection about sixty years. It dies altogether 
 after bearing for about a hundred years. They are always allowed to 
 die ; and when they begin to decay a young one is planted near the old 
 one to supply its place. 
 
 In this country, wine is never extracted from this palm, for that 
 operation destroys the fruit ; and these, when ripe, are considered as 
 the valuable part of the produce. A few green nuts are cut in the hot 
 season, on account of the refreshing juice which they then contain, 
 and to make coir rope : but this also is thought to injure the crop. 
 The coir made from the ripe nuts is very bad, and their husks are 
 commonly burned for fuel. 
 
 The crop begins in the second month after the summer solstice, and 
 continues four months. A bunch is known to be ripe when a nut falls 
 down, and it is then cut Each palm produces from three to six 
 bunches, which ripen successively. A middling palm produces from 
 sixty to seventy nuts. As the nuts are gathered, they are collected in 
 small huts, raised from the ground on posts. When a merchant offers, 
 the rind is removed, at his expense, by a man who fixes an iron rod in 
 the ground and forces its upper end, which is sharp, through the fibres ; 
 by which means the whole husk is speedily removed. He then, by a 
 single blow with a crooked knife, breaks the shell without hurting the 
 kernel, which is then fit for sale, and is called kobbari. A man can 
 daily clean 1,300 nuts. From twenty to thirty per cent of them are 
 found rotten. 
 
 Betel Vine.— The betel vine thrives best in low ground, where it can 
 have a supply of water from a reservoir. If that cannot be had, a place 
 is selected where water can be procured by digging to a small depth. 
 A black soil is required. A betel-leaf garden is thus managed in the 
 east : — In Chaitra or Vais'akha, trench over the whole ground one cubit 
 deep, and surround it with a mud wall ; immediately within which plant 
 a hedge of the eupJiorbium tirucalli, and of the ariindo tibialis. ^Vhen 
 there is not plenty of rain, this must for six months be regularly watered. 
 Then dig the garden, and form it into proper beds, leaving a space of 
 about twenty feet between them and the hedge. From the main 
 channel for conducting the water to the garden, draw others at right 
 angles, and distant twenty-two cubits. Between every two of these, to
 
 BETEL VINE i6i 
 
 drain off the superfluous water, draw others about a cubit wide, and 
 deeper than the former. The garden is thus divided into rows ten 
 cubits in width, having on one side an elevated channel for supplying it 
 with water, and on the other side a deep canal, to carry off what is 
 superfluous. These rows are divided into beds, each also having on 
 one side a channel to supply it with water, and on the other a 
 canal to carry off what is superfluous ; and it is surrounded by a narrow 
 bank, about six inches high, which excludes the water that flows 
 through the channels : within these little banks the divisions of the 
 beds are carefully levelled. 
 
 In the centre of each division is then formed a row of small holes, 
 distant from each other one cubit ; and in Pushya (Dec. — Jan.) in 
 every hole are put two cuttings of the betel-leaf vine, each two cubits 
 long. The middle of each cutting is pushed down, and slightly 
 covered with earth ; while the four ends project and form an equal 
 number of young plants, which for the first eighteen months are allowed 
 to climb upon dry sticks that are put in for the purpose. For the first 
 week after being planted, the shoots must be watered twice a day with 
 pots ; for another week once a day, and until the end of the second 
 month once in three days. A small drill is then made across each 
 division of the beds, and between every two holes in each ; and in 
 these drills are planted rows of the seeds of the agase, nugge and 
 varjepu. The young betel plants must then have some dung, and for 
 four months more must be watered with the pot once in three days. 
 Afterwards, so long as the garden lasts, all the channels must once in 
 four days be filled with water. This keeps the ground sufficiently 
 moist, and water applied immediately to the plants is injurious. The 
 garden ought to be kept clean from weeds by the hand, and once a year, 
 in December, must have dung. 
 
 When the plants are a year and a half old they are removed from 
 the sticks ; two cubits of each, next the root, is buried in the earth ; 
 and the remainder, conducted close to the root of one of the young 
 trees, is allowed to support itself on the stem. At the end of two 
 years two cubits more of each plant are buried in the ground ; and ever 
 afterwards this is once a year repeated. At the beginning of the fourth 
 year the cultivator begins to gather the leaves for sale, and for six or 
 seven years continues to obtain a constant supply. Afterwards the 
 plants die, and a new garden must be formed in some other place. In 
 order to give additional coolness to the garden, at its first formation a 
 plantain-tree is put at each corner of every bed, and by means of 
 suckers soon forms a cluster. So long as the garden lasts these 
 clusters are preserved. At all times the gardens are very cool and 
 
 M
 
 i62 FLORA 
 
 pleasant ; but they are not neatly kept ; and in the space between the 
 hedge and the beds, a great variety of bushes and weeds are allowed to 
 grow. 
 
 In the west, the betel vine is grown with the areca palm in the follow- 
 ing manner : — When the areca plantation is fifteen years old, in the 
 month immediately following the vernal equinox, a hole is dug near 
 every tree, one cubit deep and one and a half in width. After having 
 exposed the earth to the air for a month, return it into holes and allow 
 it to remain for another month. Then take out a little of the earth, 
 smooth the surface of the pit, and bury in it the ends of five cuttings 
 of the betel-leaf vine, which are placed with their upper extremities 
 sloping toward the palm. Once every two days, for a month, water the 
 cuttings, and shade them with leaves. Then remove the leaves and 
 with the point of a sharp stick loosen the earth in the holes. In the 
 first year the waterings must be repeated every day, and the whole must 
 once a month be hoed ; while at the same time dung is given to every 
 plant. In the second year, the vines are tied up to the palms ; once 
 in two months the garden is hoed and manured ; and it is in the hot 
 season only that the plants are watered. At the end of the second 
 year the vines begin to produce saleable leaves. In the third year and 
 every other year afterwards, so much of the vines next the root as has 
 no leaves, must be buried. Once in six months the garden must be 
 hoed and manured ; and in the hot season the vines must be watered 
 every other day. 
 
 The owners of these plantations are annoyed by elephants, monkeys 
 and squirrels ; and, besides, both palms and vine are subject to diseases ; 
 one of which, the anibe, in the course of two or three years kills the 
 whole. Except when these causes of destruction occur, the vine con- 
 tinues always to flourish ; but the palm begins to decay at forty-five 
 years of age, and is then removed, care being taken not to injure the 
 vine. Near this is made a fresh hole, in which some persons place two nuts 
 for seed, and others plant a young seedling. In order to support the 
 vine during the fifteen years which are required to bring forward the 
 new palm, a large branch of the hdruvdna, or erythrlna, is stuck in the 
 ground, and watered for two or three days ; when it strikes root and 
 supplies the place of an areca. 
 
 Coffee.^ — The variety of coffee cultivated in Mysore appears to be 
 the true coffea araln'ca, which Rhind informs us was originally intro- 
 duced into Arabia from Abyssinia. It was introduced into this 
 Province some two centuries ago by a person named Baba Budan, who, 
 
 ' Adapted from a memorandum by Mr. Graham Anderson, C.I.E., Bargua Estate, 
 Manjarabad.
 
 COFFEE 163 
 
 on his return from a pilgrimage to Mecca, brought a few seeds, which 
 he planted on the range of mountains still bearing his name." 
 
 In the selection of land for coffee cultivation, care must be taken to 
 obtain a tract well sheltered by nature from undue exposure either to 
 the south-west or the east wind, and situated, with a northern, north- 
 eastern, or north-western aspect, within the zone that is favoured with 
 as large as possible a share of the March and April showers and yet 
 not visited by too large a share of rain in the south-west monsoon. 
 There is in fact a line or coffee zone in every coffee-producing country, 
 and more especially in Mysore, even a mile beyond which the coffee-tree 
 will not exist. The plant rejoices in a damp, warm temperature, such as 
 is procurable in the west of Mysore at elevations from 2,500 to 3,500 
 feet above sea-level, although the tree will grow under certain circum- 
 stances at elevations both below and above these. A good rich loamy 
 soil, of any colour, with a good deposit of vegetable matter on the 
 surface, and not much sheet rock underlying it, is required. 
 
 There are five descriptions of land in Mysore in which coffee has 
 been planted^ : — the forest termed kdtis ; heavy ghat forest, termed 
 Ma/e ; village jungles, termed uduve ; kumri, or land the original timber 
 on which having been cut has been followed by a secondary growth of 
 trees of a smaller type ; and kanave, or lands covered with hard-wood 
 trees and bamboos. Some of the finest estates have been formed on 
 lands of the first and third classes, which have the decided advantage 
 over all other descriptions, of possessing a rich deposit of decayed 
 vegetable mould that has not been exposed to atmospheric influences, 
 and hence contains an almost inexhaustible store of organic and in- 
 organic constituents available as food for the coffee plant. 
 
 The kdns are generally situated in mountainous country, intersected 
 by streams of clear water, with rocky or sandy beds. The peculiarity 
 of the ravines through which these streamlets flow is, that the under- 
 growth is entirely different from that found under similar circumstances 
 in the ghat forests, consisting as it does of a gigantic species of 
 
 ' Further particulars of the history of coffee cultivation will be found under Kadur 
 and Hassan Districts in Vol. II. 
 
 - This description applies to the Malnad, where alone extensive coffee plantations 
 have hitherto been formed. But forty years ago there were coffee gardens in Banga- 
 lore, and a few plants were grown in private gardens under wells by European 
 residents since then, yielding sufficient for domestic wants. The same practice seems 
 to have been common in Cochin so far back as 1743, according to Cantervisscher's 
 " Letters from Malabar." Of late years an experiment on a larger scale has been 
 made at Bangalore, l)y Mr. Minakshaiya, and coffee grown with great success on 
 irrigated land. The consequence has been a demand by European planters for land 
 suitable for the purpose near Bangalore and Mysore, and in other Maidan parts. 
 
 .M 2
 
 1 64 FLORA 
 
 triangular coffcc-wced (called in Canarcsc hnnal or licb-gi'irkal), and 
 other succulent plants, whereas in the latter case basket reeds (termed 
 warti) and canes {Jietta) of every description are generally found in a 
 tangled mass. Uduve is strictly village jungle or forest, sometimes 
 almost entirely surrounded by rice-fields. The trees are frequently 
 large and of good descriptions, and the undergrowth is principally 
 small coffee-weed, bamboos and thorns. There are fewer ravines in 
 this kind of land and they are generally smaller and less precipitous, 
 but frequently old excavations, termed ivanigalu, are met with, which 
 evidently were dug out as approaches to villages formerly situated in the 
 very heart of the forest. Male tracts are situated close to the crest of the 
 ghats and generally contain gigantic timber, but can seldom boast of 
 good soil, except in protected situations, the generality of the land 
 having suffered from wash caused by the almost incessant rainfall in 
 the monsoon. The great height of the trees also proves prejudicial to 
 coffee, which is cut to pieces by the drip. The situation being bleak, 
 windy, and exposed to terrific rainfall, is seldom profitable for coffee 
 cultivation. Kumri lands frequently contain magnificent-Z^^/^/Xf soil, 
 but a certain amount of virtue has gone out of it by former exposure, 
 and although coffee has been planted and fine estates made on such 
 land, still the operation is always accompanied by a considerable 
 amount of risk, and always by heavy extra expenditure. In kanave 
 lands ravines containing fair average soil and trees are to be met with, 
 and these places are the only portions suitable for coffee. This 
 description of land has the disadvantage of showing a maximum area 
 of holding with a minimum of space available for cultivation. 
 
 Clearing for a plantation consists of removing with the axe and 
 cutting all undergrowth and obstructions, and such trees as are not 
 required. Large trees that have a thick foliage in the hot weather and 
 little or none in the monsoon, are left as shade at regular distances, 
 attention being paid to leave fewer trees on portions with a northern 
 aspect than on those facing the south, all quarters exposed to the wind 
 especially requiring protection. This accomplished, the ground is either 
 cleared by lopping and laying in line to await the process of rotting in 
 the monsoon, or fire is used to facilitate matters. Lines of pegs, 
 generally at 6 x 6 feet, are then laid down, and the land is holed, each 
 hole being generally one foot wide by two feet deep. This is done to 
 remove all obstacles to the roots of the young plants, and to make a 
 nice loose bed for their reception. Roads are traced to and from 
 convenient points in the property, and these are again intersected by 
 paths to facilitate the general working of the estate. 
 
 For 7iurseries, convenient situations, with facilities for irrigation or
 
 COFFEE 165 
 
 with river or tank frontage, are selected and entirely cleared of trees, 
 the soil being dug to the depth of two feet or more, and every root and 
 stone removed. This is then laid out into beds, generally about four 
 feet wide, separated by paths, and the whole well drained and put in 
 order with the same care as a flower garden. Manure is applied and 
 the beds are then cut up into furrows, at six inches apart, into which 
 the seeds are placed, about one inch apart. The whole bed is then 
 covered up with dry leaves and watered by hand, care being taken to 
 maintain a uniform state of moisture, which must not be excessive. 
 The seed germinates in six weeks, and from the bean, which is raised 
 on a slender green stem of about eight inches in height, burst forth two 
 small oval leaves. These two-leafed seedlings are pricked out into 
 beds at either 4 x 4 or 6 x 6 inches, and require from ten to 
 fourteen months, with constant attention and watering, to form into 
 good plants, which should have three or four pairs of small primary 
 branches and be from one foot to one and a half in height. 
 
 Planting is performed in the months of June, July and August. The 
 plants being carefully removed from the beds and the roots trimmed, 
 they are planted either with a mamoti or planting staff by a regular 
 gang of experienced men. Great attention is paid to this operation to 
 see that the holes are properly filled in and that the roots are not bent 
 or injured, and lastly that the plants are firmly set in the ground and 
 not hung. 
 
 Under favourable circumstances, the plants are ready for topping in 
 the second year. A topping staff, duly marked to the proper height, 
 is placed alongside of the young tree, and the top or head and one 
 primary branch are removed. Trees are topped at heights varying 
 from two feet to four and a half feet, but the medium of three feet is 
 generally preferred. This operation has the effect of directing the sap 
 into the primary branches and making them throw out secondary 
 shoots, which come from each eye along the branch. An abundance of 
 vigour has the effect of forcing out a number of shoots under the junc- 
 tion of the upper primaries with the stem, and also from the stem at 
 various places. These are termed suckers, and are all removed by 
 gangs of women and boys. The first crop generally appears in the 
 third year, and consists merely of a few berries on the primary branches, 
 aggregating about one maund per acre. In the fourth year a return of 
 about one cwt. per acre may be expected, and it is not until the seventh 
 or eighth year that the planter is rewarded by a full crop, which, even 
 under the most fi^vourable circumstances, rarely exceeds five or six 
 cwts. per acre. 
 
 The crop commences to ripen in October and November. As soon
 
 1 66 FLORA 
 
 as the cherries are of a fine red colour, they are picked into baskets, 
 and brought to the pulper to be either measured or weighed, and 
 deposited in a vat made for their reception. They are passed through 
 the pulper with a stream of water either the same day or early next 
 morning, and the pulp or outer skin being thus removed, the beans are 
 allowed to ferment for twenty or twenty-four hours, without water, to 
 facilitate the removal of the saccharine matter which surrounds them. 
 After the mass has been washed and well stamped out in three waters, 
 all light beans and skins being carefully separated, the beans are re- 
 moved to the draining mats, where^ they are constantly turned over and 
 allowed to remain for a day or more, or until all water has drained off. 
 They are then spread out thickly on the drying ground in order to dry 
 slowly. This is an operation requiring constant attention for six or 
 eight days, the whole having to be covered up every evening to protect 
 it from dews. The beans should not be dried too thinly spread, or too 
 suddenly exposed to the full rays of the sun, as they are apt to become 
 bleached and bent. A drying ground protected by large trees is the 
 best, as in that case portions in shade and sun are both available. 
 When the beans are sufficiently dried, they are bagged and despatched 
 to the coast or Bangalore for preparation and shipment. 
 
 The yield of an estate that has been well maintained in cultivation 
 may be put down at from three and a half to four cwts. per acre. As 
 much as six cwts. per acre have been produced off portions, but of 
 course only under the most favourable circumstances, and such is 
 an exception to the general rule. An accurately calculated estimate 
 shows that, in a series of years, the crop is more frequently below 
 three and a half cwts. than above. But the result varies in different 
 places. 
 
 The earliest official notice^ of coffee in Mysore is said to have been 
 in 1822. But though the plant has been known for so long, it is only 
 of recent years that coffee has come into use among natives, and chiefly 
 in the towns. When INIr. Elliot first settled in ]\Iysore, in 1856, he 
 was repeatedly asked by the farmers of the country whether Europeans 
 ate the berry, or of what use it could possibly be. The variety of 
 coffee originally cultivated here came to be known as Chick, probably 
 from Chickmagalur, the principal town at the foot of the Baba Budan 
 hills, the Mysore home of the plant. This variety had thriven well and 
 promised to do so for an indefinite period of time, but in 1866 and the 
 three succeeding years there were dry hot seasons, which caused a 
 wide-spread attack of the Borer insect. About the same time a general 
 
 ' The information in the following paragraphs is taken chiefly from Gold, Sport and 
 Coffee-planting in Mysore, by Mr. R. li. Elliot, of Bartchinhulla Estate, Manjarabad.
 
 COFFEE 167 
 
 decline in the constitution of the trees became manifest. So serious 
 was the result that coffee-planting seemed liktly to come to an end in 
 Mysore, except in the case of a few elevated tracts in the Baba Budan 
 hills. At this juncture, in 1870, Mr, Stanley Jupp, having obser\'ed 
 advantages in the coffee grown in Coorg, recommended his brother 
 planters to introduce seed from that province. The young plants raised 
 from the imported seed throve with extraordinary vigour, and it was 
 soon found that the new variety would grow and crop well, and even 
 on land on which all attempts to reproduce the Chick variety had 
 utterly failed. " Then this sinking industry rose almost as suddenly as 
 it had fallen ; old and abandoned estates, and every available acre of 
 forest and even scrub, were planted up ; and land which used to change 
 hands at from Rs. 5 to 10 an acre was eagerly bought in at twelve times 
 these rates." Another cause for anxiety, however, now arose, for when 
 the produce of the new variety came into the market, brokers objected 
 to pay Mysore prices for Coorg coffee. But, as the trees from Coorg 
 seed aged, the produce each year assimilated more and more in appear- 
 ance and quality to that of the old Mysore plant. Consequently the 
 Coorg variety, the stock of which is kept up by continual importations 
 of fresh seed, has been permanently adopted as a plant which crops 
 more regularly and heavily than the Chick, and the produce of which 
 has so improved under the influence of the soil and climate of Mysore, 
 that, with the exception of the long-established brand of " Cannon's 
 Mysore," and the produce of a few other estates that still grow Chick, 
 in the Baba Budan hills, there is little difference in value. 
 
 The high reputation of Mysore coffee, the best quality of which is 
 commonly quoted at los. to 15s. a cwt. above that of any other kind 
 that reaches the London market, is attributed partly to the soil and 
 climate, and pardy to the coffee being slowly ripened under shade. 
 The pioneers of the industry, following the practice in Ceylon, had 
 cleared away all the forest and planted their coffee in the open. That 
 this was a fatal mistake was not at first decisively apparent. But the 
 devastations of the Borer and leaf disease, the great enemies of coffee, 
 eventually put the question beyond all doubt. And so clearly is the 
 vital necessity of shade now recognized, that, in Mr. Elliot's opinion, 
 formed after ample experience, "if good shade of the best kind is 
 grown, it is absolutely impossible to destroy a plantation in Mysore, 
 even with the worst conceivable management or neglect." The easiest 
 of the methods that have been adopted for providing shade is to clear 
 down and burn the entire forest and then plant shade trees along with 
 the coffee. Another plan is to clear and burn the underwood and a 
 certain portion of the forest trees, leaving the remainder for shade.
 
 1 68 FLORA 
 
 Experience shows ihat ihe retention of as much as possible of the 
 original forest is desirable, and that land which has not been burnt will 
 last far longer. To this may be attributed the continued existence of 
 the most ancient estates in Mysore. 
 
 Five trees are specially recommended as the most suitable to grow 
 Cor shade, namely, kap basari (ficus tjakela, Burm.)', gbni (ficus 
 mysorensis, Heyne), kari basari (ficus infectoria, Roxb.), /// basari (a 
 variety of the same), and mitli (? streblus asper, Lour.), of which there 
 are two kinds, heb initli and haralu initli, the second being " a bad 
 tree." The trees should be planted in lines running east and west, in 
 order to provide shade from the southerly sun, and so close in each 
 row that in five or six years the tops will touch. \\'hen they begin to 
 crowd, every other one should be removed, and this process can be 
 repeated if found necessary. 
 
 Of the diseases to which the coffee plant is subject in Mysore, leaf 
 disease is the growth of a fungoid named hemileia vastatrix, which dis- 
 tributes its spores in the form of yellow powder. The effect is to strip 
 the tree more or less of its foliage. The disease called borer is due to 
 a beetle {xylotrechus quadrupes\ red or yellow with black lines, and 
 about as large as a horsefly. It lays its eggs in some crevice in the 
 bark. The larvae, when hatched, bore into the stem and live on the 
 heartwood for from three to five months, when they eat their way out 
 as winged beetles. Coffee-trees attacked by borer wither away through- 
 out the part the insect has injured. The best remedy for and preventive 
 of both diseases is said to be properly shading the coffee with suitable 
 trees. Another disease of coffee is called rot, also the growth of 
 a fungoid, named pelliadaria kokroga, which covers the leaves and 
 berries with a black slime, causing them to rot away. The free circu- 
 lation of air seems to be required when this appears. 
 
 With the view of ascertaining whether coffee grown from seed im- 
 ported from other countries would be less susceptible to leaf disease, 
 Messrs. Matheson and Co. went to great expense in Coorg in intro- 
 ducing coffee seed from Brazil, Venezuela, Costa Rica, and Jamaica. 
 But it was found that in that respect they were neither better nor worse 
 than the Coorg variety. A further experiment has been made with 
 Blue Mountain seed, but the plants do not seem to be in any way 
 different. 
 
 Liberian coffee {coffea liberica), a taller and stronger plant, with a 
 larger leaf and berry, was introduced by Colonel Benson, Assistant 
 
 * Mr. Elliot gives this as Cub Busru (Ficus tuberculata), and no botanical name 
 for the last two. My names are taken from Mr. Cameron's catalogue on the assump- 
 tion that they represent the trees intended.
 
 
 > 
 
 \
 
 CINCHONA 169 
 
 Commissary-General, about the time when leaf disease was causing such 
 destruction. It was thought that this hardier plant, native of a hotter 
 climate and lower region, might be found proof against the disease. 
 But, notwithstanding various experiments, whether the flavour of the 
 berry is inferior, or from whatever cause, it has not supplanted the 
 old variety.' A hybrid, a cross between the two, is said to be more 
 promising.- 
 
 Km.o\-\<g plants of ecoiioviic value introduced into the country in recent 
 years, the following are deserving of mention : — 
 
 Casuarina.' — None has been more successful or more extensively 
 cultivated, principally as a fuel tree, than Casuarina equisetifolia, called 
 by the natives kcsarike. It is an Australian tree, the swamp oak of 
 Queensland, but better known as the Tinian pine or beefwood tree. 
 The numerous and extensive plantations formed of it, especially in the 
 Bangalore District, have visibly altered the landscape in some parts. 
 As fuel it develops more heat in a given quantity than any other kind 
 of local wood ; in fact, for locomotive and domestic purposes it is found 
 necessary to use inferior fuel with it, in order to moderate the intense 
 heat, which would otherwise prove destructive to engines and utensils. 
 In experiments on the Mysore State Railway it was reckoned that 
 casuarina logs ran a train over a distance thirteen per cent, in excess of 
 that attained by the next best kind of fuel available in the Mysore 
 forests. 
 
 Cinchona. — Two plantations were originally formed; one in 1866 
 at Kalhatti on the Baba Budan hills (Kadur District), with 5,000 plants, 
 and the other in 1867 on the Biligiri Rangan hills in Yelandur (Mysore 
 District), with 2,000 plants. The only kind permanently cultivated 
 was C. succirubra ; the more valuable but less hardy species of 
 C. calisaya and C. officinalis were also tried, but without success. The 
 number of trees in the first plantation had increased to 24,000, and a 
 numl)er had been distributed to favourable localities in the western 
 Districts, when in 1871 the bark of trees from both plantations was 
 submitted to analysis by Mr. Broughton, Quinologist to the Madras 
 
 ' Mr. Cameron says: — "When first inlroducod, the Liherian species had the 
 reputation of l)eing tropical in its requirements, and that its cultivation would extend 
 to the plains of India. Experience has not proved this capacity, although, no doubt, 
 when under shade, the plant can endure a considerably higher degree of temperature 
 than the Arabian shrub. But under full exposure to the sun the former died outright, 
 while the established species grew vigorously and produced good crops of coflee." 
 
 * The following grafts have been established at the Lai Bagh for experiment : — 
 Liberian on Arabian stock, Arabian on Liberian stock, Maragogipe on Arabian 
 stock, Liberian on itself, Arabian on itself
 
 170 
 
 FLORA 
 
 Government. The results obtained by him were reported as fol- 
 lows : — 
 
 
 Yield in percentages of dry bark. 
 
 Site of 
 Plantation. 
 
 Total 
 Alkaloids. 
 
 Quinine. 
 
 Chinchoni- 
 
 dine and 
 
 chinchonine. 
 
 Pure sulphate 
 of quinine 
 obtained 
 
 crystallized. 
 
 Other 
 
 sulphates of 
 
 quinine. 
 
 BabaBudans (['""'V- 
 \_ branch.. 
 
 Biligiri Rangans 
 
 4-50 
 1-48 
 
 7-50 
 
 •86 
 
 •42 
 
 2-OI 
 
 3-64 
 I '06 
 
 5 '49 
 
 •67 
 •30 
 
 1-09 
 
 2-35 
 •60 
 
 4-84 
 
 The above analyses showed that, while as a source of alkaloids the 
 bark of the Baba Budan plantation was of satisfactory quality, it was 
 inferior in yield of total alkaloids to the bark from trees of the same 
 age on the Nilgiris, namely, branch bark 2*28 per cent., trunk bark 
 6'49 per cent. " But though the amount of alkaloids is thus less," 
 Mr. Broughton observed, " than is usual with good India grown bark, 
 it fully equals the yield of ordinary red bark from South America." 
 The bark from the Biligiri Rangan plantation was pronounced of high 
 quality for C. succirubra and quite equal to that grown on the Nilgiris. 
 
 In consequence of this report the intention of extending the Baba 
 Budan plantation was abandoned, but private planters, occupying more 
 suitable sites, were encouraged to grow cinchona. Meanwhile the 
 febrifuges obtained from the plantations were distributed to the local 
 hospitals, and in 1875 ^^^ gardener in charge was sent to Ootacamund 
 for instruction in collecting bark by the coppicing and the barking and 
 mossing processes. Eventually, in 1877, the Biligiri Rangan plantation 
 was made over to the Jagirdar of Yelandur, in whose estate it was 
 situated, on his paying to Government half the produce of bark yielded 
 for five years ; and in 1881 the Baba Budan plantation was sold to Mr. 
 Sylk, a private planter, for Rs. 5,000. 
 
 The existing depression of the quinine trade holds out at present, it 
 is understood, little prospect of profit on the cultivation ; but the im- 
 portance and medicinal value of the products of cinchona are never 
 likely to diminish, and prices may again rise, though probably not to 
 former rates. Special arrangements are being made, in common with 
 other Indian Governments, for the manufacture and cheap distribution 
 of quinine to all classes (for the latter purpose using the agency of the 
 village post offices), a boon which should be highly appreciated in 
 the malarious and fever-stricken parts of the country.
 
 VANILLA 
 
 171 
 
 Cinchona cultivation has since 1881 been entirely in private hands, 
 and the following are the statistics for 1893-4, the plants being mostly 
 scattered, in the midst of coffee or cardamom estates : — 
 
 Species. 
 
 District. 
 
 No. of 
 acres. 
 
 No. of plants. 
 
 Mature. 
 
 Immature. 
 
 C. succirubra (red bark) \ 
 
 Mysore 
 Kadur 
 
 24 
 224 
 
 8,860 
 124,255 
 
 12,873 
 43.450 
 
 
 Total ... 
 
 248 133,115 
 
 56,323 
 
 C. officinalis, var. condaminea (Loxa 
 or crown bark ; pale bark) ... ] 
 
 Mysore 
 Hassan 
 Kadur 
 
 I 
 36 
 34 
 
 75 
 
 8,000 
 
 14,464 
 
 1,141 
 . 5.003 
 
 
 Total ... 
 
 71 22,539 6,144 
 
 Yanilla/ — In a climate like that of Bangalore there is no difficulty 
 whatever in cultivating the vanilla aroniatica, as it grows luxuriantly 
 without artificial assistance, provided that a suitable position is selected 
 for the plantation. The least expensive and perhaps the most 
 favourable site which can be selected for the purpose is an old mango 
 tope, because the mango-trees in that stage are not too dense in foliage, 
 and are better adapted to produce the checkered shade so essential to 
 the healthy development of the vanilla plants. Like all succulents, 
 this plant detests excessive moisture ; swampy situations should there- 
 fore be avoided. A light vegetable soil intermixed with sand is an 
 agreeable compost, and cocoa-nut fibre is perhaps the best manure that 
 can be applied. Ordinary-sized cuttings generally produce flowers 
 three years after they are rooted, but large cuttings consisting of four 
 or more nodes will produce flowers two years after they are rooted. 
 The vanilla should be planted round the base of the mango-trees, 
 small beds of the soil recommended having been previously prepared, 
 and as the plants grow they should be trained round the stem and along 
 the principal limbs of the trees for their future support. 
 
 In South America an indigenous insect fertilizes the vanilla flowers 
 
 ' rVom notes by Mr. Cameron, Superintendent of the Lai Bagh.
 
 172 
 
 FLORA 
 
 accidentally, and thus secures the fruit, but in this country no such 
 insect has yet made its appearance. We must therefore adopt our 
 own means to fecundate the flowers. The process is simple when 
 once acquired. The organs of reproduction (unlike the ordinary state 
 of things) are disposed in a peculiar form, as if to prevent natural 
 fecundation, and until this takes place by artifice, or chance as 
 explained, the beans which comprise the economic product of vanilla 
 will not be obtained. 
 
 Cocoa. — The chocolate-nut tree, theobroma cocoa, is indigenous to 
 South America and the W. Indies, where it has been cultivated for 
 various uses for many generations. The tree is an evergreen, which 
 grows from sixteen to twenty-five feet high. The leaves are entire, 
 smooth, and very glossy in appearance ; the flowers, which are diminu- 
 tive, are borne on the stem and principal limbs of the tree ; hence the 
 rare and curious appearance which the capsules present suspended from 
 the bare stem. The trees in the Government Gardens have produced 
 fruit freely. The peculiarities of the cultivation consist in the applica- 
 tion of dense shade, moderate moisture, and decomposed vegetable 
 soil, chiefly. Salt is also an indispensable ingredient in a compost for 
 chocolate trees. 
 
 Rhea. — The Rhea plant or China grass of commerce is the boehmeria 
 nivea. The fibre produced from the bark of this plant is very strong 
 and delicate, but the difficulty of preparing it by machinery continues 
 to obstruct its utility on an extensive scale. There are three species 
 of boehmeria in the Lai Bagh, and the climate of Mysore seems to 
 facilitate their growth. The young shoots which produce the fibre 
 grow more regular and free under half shade than when fully exposed 
 to the sun's rays. The species nivea is quite established here, but 
 never produces seed. It possesses the great advantage, however, that 
 it can be helped by man ; so that its naturalization in most parts of 
 India is almost certain. 
 
 The following are other plants whose experimental cultivation has been 
 more or less successful, some of them being permanently established: — 
 
 Acrocarpus fraxini- Shingle-tree 
 
 folius 
 Agave rigida 
 Artiplex nummularia 
 Artocarpus cannoni 
 
 Artocarpus incisa ... 
 Bambusa vulgaris . . . 
 Barringtonia speci- 
 osa 
 
 Sisal hemp 
 Salt bush 
 Copper-coloured 
 
 foliage 
 Seedless breadfruit 
 Golden bamboo 
 Ornamental tree 
 
 Brassica chinensis... 
 Broussonettia papy- 
 
 rifera 
 Bursaria spinosa ... 
 Ccesalpinia coriaria 
 Carissa edulis 
 Castonospermum 
 
 australe 
 Castilloa elastica ... 
 
 Shantung cabbage 
 Paper mulberry 
 
 tree 
 Ornamental tree 
 Divi-divi tree 
 (Edible berry) 
 ISIoreton - bay 
 
 chestnut 
 Central American 
 
 rubber
 
 EXOTICS 
 
 173 
 
 Ceratonia siliqua . . 
 Clausena wampi .. 
 Cola acuminata' .. 
 Colvillea racemosa 
 
 Carob-bean tree 
 Wampi (fruit) 
 Kola nut 
 Ornamental tree 
 
 Couroupita guianensis Cannon-ball tree 
 Crescentia alata . . . Calabash tree 
 Cyphomandra be- Tree tomato 
 
 tacea 
 Dipsacus fullonum Fullers' teazel 
 Erythroxylon coca Yields cocoaine 
 Euchlaena luxurians Buffalo grass 
 Fagopyrum esculen- Buckwheat 
 
 turn 
 Grevillea robusta . . . 
 Gynocardia odorata 
 
 lugra 
 
 Hyoscyamus niger 
 Lagunaria patersonii 
 Landolphia kirkii... 
 Landolphia watsoni 
 Malachea capitata 
 
 Silver oak 
 Yields chauhr 
 
 oil 
 Henbane 
 Foliage tree 
 Yields caoutchouc 
 Yields caoutchouc 
 Yields fibre 
 
 Manihot glaziovii ... Ceara-rubber tree 
 Mentha viridis ... Spearmint 
 Millingtonia portensis Indian cork tree 
 
 Monstera deliciosa 
 Opuntia ficus indica 
 Panicum sarmento- 
 
 sum 
 Paritium elatum ... 
 Parmentiera cerifera 
 Phcenix dactylifera 
 Pithecolobium saman Rain tree 
 
 Climbing aroid 
 Malta prickly-pear 
 Mauritius grass 
 
 Cuba bast 
 Candle tree 
 Date-palm 
 
 Poinciana regia 
 Rubia tinctorum* . . . 
 Rubus idceus 
 Smilax sarsaparilla 
 Stillingia sebifera . . , 
 Trapa bispinosa ... 
 
 Tristania conferta... 
 Vangueria edulus ... 
 Vitis martini 
 
 Gold-mohur tree 
 Madder plant 
 Raspberry 
 Yields sarsaparilla 
 Chinese tallow tree 
 Zinghara nut, 
 
 water chestnut 
 Timber tree 
 Fruit tree 
 Cochin-China vine 
 
 Experiments have also been made with several varieties of cotton and 
 potatoes. Varieties of cocoa-nut have been imported from Colombo 
 in Ceylon ; also trial has been made of various kinds of grape vines, 
 loquat and bhere fruit (zizyphus jujuba). 
 
 It may be useful here to give the following list of plants whose 
 cultivation has been attempted without any permanent success at 
 Bangalore : — 
 
 Acacia decurrens . . . 
 
 Black wattle 
 
 Durio zibethinus ... 
 
 Durian 
 
 Arracacia eseulenta 
 
 Arracacha 
 
 Eucalyptus globu- 
 
 Blue gum 
 
 Avena elatior 
 
 Common pat 
 
 lus--' 
 
 
 Camellia theifera ... 
 
 Tea plant 
 
 Garcinia mangos- 
 
 Mangosteen 
 
 Caryophyllus aro- 
 
 Clove tree 
 
 tana* 
 
 
 maticus 
 
 
 Glycine hispida ... 
 
 Soy bean 
 
 Cassia obovata 
 
 Tinnevelly .senna 
 
 Helianthus annuus 
 
 Russian sunflower 
 
 Castania vulgaris . . . 
 
 Spanish chestnut 
 
 Humulus lupulus ... 
 
 I lop vine 
 
 Catalpa speciosa ... 
 
 Californian timber 
 
 Myristica fragrans 
 
 Nutmeg tree 
 
 
 tree 
 
 Platanus orientalis 
 
 Oriental plane 
 
 Cephojlis ipecacu- 
 
 Ipecacuanha 
 
 Symphytum asperri- 
 
 Prickly comfrey 
 
 anha 
 
 
 mum 
 
 
 Cyperus esculentus 
 
 Ground almond. 
 
 Ullucus tuberosus 
 
 Tuber 
 
 
 rush-nut 
 
 1 Withavia (Puneeria) 
 
 Cheese-maker 
 
 Cyperus pangorei... 
 
 Sedge 
 
 1 coagulans 
 
 
 ' Botanically not far removed from the indigenous kendalc mara (sterculia urens). 
 
 - The plant which yields Indian madder has been found wild in Kankanhalli and 
 other parts. 
 
 ■■' Eucalyptus saligna, rostrata, marginata and citriodora are established in the 
 gardens and furnish seed. 
 
 * Grafting it on the gamboge tree (Garcinia morella) seems to have been successful 
 in Jamaica.
 
 '74 
 
 FAUNA 
 FERyE NATURE 
 
 Nothing less than a separate treatise, and that a voluminous one, 
 could do justice to the marvellous wealth of the animal kingdom in a 
 province under the tropics marked by so many varied natural features 
 as Mysore. An attempt has been made to present a list of the main 
 representatives, with the Kannada names, where they could be ascer- 
 tained. A few notes on the localities frequented by particular animals 
 will be found in Vol. II. 
 
 Mammals — Mammalia.' 
 
 Primates. 
 
 CercopithecidLC — Monkeys — Koti. 
 
 Macacus silenus ... Singalika, karkodaga ... The lion-tailed monkey 
 
 Macacus sinicus ... Koti, manga, kodaga ... The common monkey of the 
 
 country 
 Semnopithecus entellus Musu, musuva, musuku*... The langur, or Hanuman 
 
 monkey 
 Semnopithecus priamus Koncla-musuku, konda- The Madras langur 
 mosava 
 
 Semnopithecus johni. . . 
 Leimiridic — Lemurs. 
 Loris gracilis ... Nala, adavi manushya 
 
 Carnivora. 
 
 Felidcc—Q.2X tribe— i9,fM«. 
 
 Felis tigris ... ... Huli, heb-huli ... 
 
 Felis pardus ... 
 
 Felis bengalensis 
 Felis chaus 
 Cyntelurus jubata 
 
 Kiraba, ibbandi, dod-ibba 
 
 Hulibekku,bottinabekku 
 
 Kadu bekku 
 
 Chirite, sivangi, chircha . . . 
 
 The Nilgiri langur 
 
 The slender loris 
 
 The tiger^ 
 
 The leopard or panther,* com- 
 monly called cheeta 
 The leopard cat 
 The wild or jungle cat 
 The hunting leopard, the 
 proper cheeta 
 
 Blanford's work on \\\& Fauna 
 
 ' The classification and names are taken from W. T 
 of Briiish India, and the vernacular names have been revised. 
 
 ■■' It seems doubtful if this monkey is found in the South, and the names may 
 belong to S. priamus. 
 
 3 There are said to be two varieties, — the heb-hiili, or large royal tiger, found in 
 the large jungle ; and the Imli, which is much smaller and is more destructive to 
 human life, frequenting inhabited parts of the country. It has the black stripes 
 closer together over the hind quarters. 
 
 ■* The black variety is occasionally met with.
 
 MAMMALIA 
 
 175 
 
 Viven-idiE — Civets. 
 Viverricula malaccensis 
 
 Paradoxurus niger 
 Herpestes mungo 
 Herpestes smithi 
 
 Hyccnidce — Hyenas — Ki> 
 Hysena striata 
 
 Canidie — Dog tril)e — Nay 
 Canis pallipes... 
 Canis aureus ... 
 Cyon deccanensis 
 Vulpes l)engalensis ... 
 
 Mus/e/idu-— Weasels. 
 Mellivora indica 
 Lutra vulgaris 
 
 Ursidcv — Bears — Karadi. 
 Mclursus ursinus 
 
 Punagina bekku, javadi 
 
 bekku 
 Kira bekku, kaljbu bekku 
 Munguli, mungasi, kira . 
 
 aim. 
 Kirabu, katte kiraba 
 
 'i. 
 
 Tola 
 
 Nari, ballu, gulla nari ... 
 Sil nayi ... 
 
 Kempu nari, channangi 
 nari 
 
 Nir-nayi ... 
 Karadi . . . 
 
 Insectivora. 
 
 Soricid(C — Shrews — Sitiui Hi. ' 
 
 Crocidura crerulea ... Sund ili, sond ili 
 Crocidura perroteti ... Mug-ili ... 
 
 Chiroptera. 
 
 Pteropodidie — -Frugivorous bats — Bdval. 
 
 Pteropis edwardsi ... Togal bavali, toval or 
 
 tole hakki 
 Cynopterus marginatus 
 
 Kh iiioloph idic — Insectivorous bats — Kan-kappate. 
 
 Rhinolophus luctus ... ... 
 
 Rhinolophus affinis ... 
 
 Hipposiderus speoris... 
 
 Ilipposiderus bicolor... 
 Nycterida:. 
 
 Megaderma lyra 
 / \spertilionid(C. 
 
 Vesperugo mordax 
 
 Vesperugo circumdatus 
 
 Vesperugo aliranuis ... 
 
 Vesperugo kuhli 
 
 Nyctecegus dormeri ... 
 
 Nyctecegus kuhli 
 Eiiihallonuridic. 
 
 Taphozous melanopogon 
 
 Taphozous longimanus 
 
 Taphozous saccokisncus ...■'... 
 
 ' Properly siiudil ili. 
 
 gabl)ildyi 
 
 The civet cat 
 
 The tree cat or toddy cat 
 
 The mungoose 
 
 The ruddy mungoose 
 
 The striped hya-na 
 
 The Indian wolf 
 The jackal 
 The Indian wild dog 
 The Indian fox 
 
 The Indian ratel 
 The common otter 
 
 The Indian bear 
 
 The musk rat or shrew 
 Pigmy rat or shrew 
 
 Tlie Indian fruit bat or flying 
 
 fox 
 The short-nosed fruit bat 
 
 The great horse-shoe bat 
 The allied horse-shoe bat 
 Schneider's leaf-nosed bat 
 The bicoloured leaf-nosed bat 
 
 The Indian vampire bat 
 
 The grizzled bat 
 
 The black bat 
 
 The Indian pipistrelle 
 
 The white-bordered liat 
 
 Dormer's bat 
 
 The common yellow bat 
 
 The black-bearded sheath- 
 tailed bat 
 
 The long-armed shealh-tailed 
 bat 
 
 The pouch - bearing sheath - 
 tailed bat
 
 176 
 
 FAUNA 
 
 Rodentia. 
 
 Sciurtdiv — Squirrels — Uiliite. 
 
 Pteromys oral... ... Haruva bekku ... 
 
 Sciurus indiciis ... Kes-alilu, kcmp - alilu, 
 
 kend-alilu 
 
 Sciurus macrurus 
 
 Sciurus palmarum ... Alilu, anilu, udule 
 
 Sciurus tristriatus ... Kad-a]ilu... 
 Muridcz — Rats and mice — Hi. 
 
 Gerbillus indicus ... Bila ili ... 
 
 Mus rattus 
 
 . Ili 
 
 Mus decumanus 
 
 Kemp ili 
 
 Mus musculus... 
 
 . Chitt ili 
 
 Mus buduga ... 
 
 . Bail ili 
 
 Mus platythrix 
 
 . Kal ili 
 
 Mus mettada ... 
 
 . Toda 
 
 Nesocia bengalensis .. 
 
 . Bail ili 
 
 Nesocia bandicota 
 
 Heggana 
 
 Golunda cUiotti 
 
 . Golandi 
 
 Hystricidcc — Porcupines — JMiil-handi. 
 
 Hystrix leucura ... Mul-handi, edu, eyya 
 
 Leporidct — Hares — Mola. 
 
 Lepus nigrocollis ... Mola 
 
 Ungulata. 
 
 Elephantidii: — Elephants — A'ne. 
 Elephas maximus ... A'ne 
 
 BovidiE — Ox tribe — Yettzt, hasava. 
 
 Bos gaurus ... ... Kad kona, kate 
 
 Hemitragus hylocrius* Kad adu 
 Boselaphus tragocame- Kad kudure 
 lus 
 
 A ntelopida — An telopes — Ch igari. 
 Tetraceros quadricornis Konda-guri 
 Antilope cervicupra ... Chigari, hulle ... 
 
 Gazella bennelti 
 
 S'ank hulle 
 
 Cei-z'idic — Deer ix'ihe^/inke. 
 Cervulus muntjac ... Kad-kuri 
 
 Cervus unicolor 
 Cervus axis 
 Tragulus meminna 
 Siiidcc — Hogs — Handi. 
 Sus cristatus ... 
 
 Kadave, kada 
 Saraga, duppi 
 Kur-pandi 
 
 Kad handi 
 
 The ijrown flying squirrel 
 The large Indian squirrel 
 
 The grizzled Indian .squirrel 
 The common striped squirrel 
 The jungle striped squirrel 
 
 The Indian gerl)ille, or ante- 
 lope rat 
 
 The common Indian rat 
 
 The brown rat 
 
 The common house-mouse 
 
 The Indian field-mouse 
 
 The brown spiny mouse 
 
 The soft-furred field-rat 
 
 The Indian mole-rat 
 
 The bandicoot rat 
 
 The Indian bush - rat (the 
 coffee-rat) 
 
 The porcupine 
 
 The black-naped hare 
 
 The Indian elephant 
 
 The bison, or gaur 
 
 The Nilgiri wild goat (ibex) 
 
 The nilgai, or blue bull 
 
 The four-horned antelope 
 The Indian antelope, or black 
 
 buck 
 The Indian gazelle, or ravine 
 
 deer 
 
 The barking deer, or jungle 
 
 sheep 
 The sambar deer 
 The spotted deer 
 The Indian mouse-deer 
 
 The Indian wild boar 
 
 Edentata. 
 
 Alanidii; — Ant-eaters. 
 
 Manis pentadactyla ... Chip handi ... ... The Indian pangolin. 
 
 ' There is some doubt whether ibex and nilgai are actually found in Mysore, but 
 they are met with on the borders.
 
 GAME LAW 177 
 
 The most destructive to life are tigers, and panthers or cheetas. 
 The following figures for the years 1890 to 1892 show the extent of 
 loss, and what has been done to counteract the ravages of the larger 
 animals, so far as the matter has come under official notice. 
 
 In 1889-90, there were four persons killed by tigers, two by panthers, 
 and six by other animals ; while of cattle, 1,150 were killed by tigers, 
 2,246 by panthers, 7 by bears, 2,695 by wolves, 362 by hyaenas, and 
 225 by other animals. 
 
 In 1 890- 1, there were one person killed by an elephant, two by 
 tigers, one by a bear, and four by other animals ; of cattle, tigers killed 
 1,263, panthers 2,554, bears 49, wolves 1,823, hyrenas 109, and other 
 animals 289. 
 
 In 1 89 1-2, there were one person killed by an elephant, one by a 
 panther, three by hyajnas, and nine by other animals ; of cattle, 2,055 
 were killed by tigers, 3.621 by panthers, 2,439 by wolves, 242 by 
 hy?enas, and 375 by other animals. 
 
 The regular rewards offered for the destruction of wild beasts are 
 Rs. 40 for a tiger or panther, and up to Rs. 10 for a hyaena. Elephants 
 are too valuable to be destroyed, but a special reward is sometimes 
 offered for the destruction of a rogue elephant that has become 
 dangerous to life. 
 
 The amounts paid in rewards in the above years were as follows : — 
 
 Rs. 3,728 in 1889-90, namely, Rs. 1,416 for 40 tigers, Rs. 2,164 fo'" 
 124 panthers, Rs. 12 for 4 hyaenas, and Rs. 136 for 587 other animals. 
 
 Rs. 3,573 in 1890-1, namely, Rs. 1,453 for 39 tigers, Rs. 1,946 for 
 115 panthers, Rs. 18 for 4 hyoenas, and Rs. 156 for 700 other animals. 
 
 Rs. 4,194 in 1891-2, namely, Rs. 100 for i elephant, Rs. 1,528 for 
 48 tigers, Rs. 2,303 for 148 panthers, Rs. 15 for 3 hyaenas, and Rs. 24S 
 for 1,389 other animals, including wild pig, rabid dogs, etc. 
 
 A comparison of these statistics with those for 1874 and 1875, given 
 in the first edition, indicates a decrease on the whole in the deaths of 
 human beings from wild beasts, but an increase in those of cattle. The 
 former may be due either to an actual diminution in the number of 
 wild beasts or to better means being now available for the treatment of 
 wounded persons : the latter may be due to more complete returns. 
 The figures relating to animals for whose destruction rewards were 
 given, point to a decrease in the number of larger animals destroyed 
 and an increase in that of smaller and commoner ones. 
 
 The necessity for a Ciame Law has been pressed upon the (Govern- 
 ment by both planters and sportsmen, principally to prevent the 
 indiscriminate destruction of useful species. A draft Regulation has 
 accordingly been framed and is under consideration, but it is not 
 
 N
 
 178 FAUNA 
 
 intended to create n. nionoijoly in animals in a state of nature fur the 
 benefit whether of Government or of sportsmen. In the term "Game" 
 it includes antelope, ibex, jungle-sheep, sambhar and all other descrip- 
 tions of deer, bison, hares, jungle-fowl, spur-fowl, pea-fowl, partridge, 
 quail, snipe, woodcock, bustard, florican, duck and teal, with such 
 other animals or birds as may be added. The pursuit or killing may 
 be prohibited of any other animals or birds whose destruction may be 
 considered unsportsmanlike. The killing, capture, and pursuit in large 
 numbers of any particular kinds of wild animals or birds for the sake 
 of their skins or plumage for commercial purposes will be restricted by 
 a system of licenses, or prohibited altogether either for a certain time 
 or within a certain area. Fishing in any stream or lake will in like 
 manner be controlled, together with the poisoning of the water, the 
 use of explosive or deleterious substances therein, and the capture of 
 fish by fixed engines and nets of a mesh below a certain size. A 
 season in the year may be fixed in any local area for the killing or 
 capture of game or fish ; or it may be prohibited altogether in any local 
 area for five years ; or absolutely as regards mature females or young of 
 either sex of any descriptions of game. An exception is made in the 
 case of an owner or occupier of land, who may kill, capture or pursue, 
 within the limits of his land, game doing damage to any growing 
 crop. 
 
 Elephants are too valuable to be destroyed, and a special license is 
 required to kill one, which is only permitted when an animal endangers 
 human life or proves destructive to the crops. At the same time the 
 Keddah department was (1873) formed for the capture of elephants. 
 Previous to this the animals were sometimes caught in pits. The pits were 
 about twenty feet deep, and covered with a light network of bamboos, 
 over which was spread a covering of leaves and earth. The earth dug 
 out was carried to some distance. These pits never succeeded during the 
 first year, but in the second year, when they had become overgrown 
 with grass, the elephants were often deceived by them. When an 
 elephant was caught, rubbish v^^as thrown into the pit, which he trod 
 down and gradually formed a path to the top. He was then seized by 
 the tame elephants, without whose aid it would be impossible to secure 
 a full-grown wild elephant, and at the same time ropes were thrown 
 over him by the Kurubas. An elephant who was less than eight 
 months old, when thus snared, could seldom be reared in captivity, and 
 a tusker of any size had never been entrapped. In a graphic descrip- 
 tion of the rude manner in which the pitfall system was managed, Mr. 
 G. P. Sanderson says : — " The atrocious cruelties to which elephants 
 were subjected by it are too horrible to think of."'
 
 ELEPHANT KEDDAHS 179 
 
 The Keddah department, established by him, was highly successful 
 in its first operations, which resulted in the capture of fifty-five elephants 
 in June 1874. Only nine died, and a profit of. Rs. 22,000 was made 
 on the affair. The site of the keddahs was near the Biligirirangan hills 
 in Chamrajnagar taluq, and Mr. Sanderson's account of what was at 
 that time a novel adventure was given in the first edition.' Shortly 
 afterwards he was transferred to Dacca in Bengal for elephant-catching 
 in the Chittagong and (iaro hills, where he was equally successful. On 
 his return to Mysore, in June 1876, the great famine was setting in, 
 and instead of catching elephants he was engaged in forming grazing 
 blocks in the border forests for the starving cattle that flocked thither 
 for pasture. Meanwhile the keddahs in Mysore remained in abeyance, 
 and Mr. Sanderson, after a furlough, was again employed in Bengal. 
 But capture by pitfalls was resorted to in 1886, under proper direction, 
 in the Kakank6te and Begur forests, and the District Forest Officer got 
 fifty-two elephants there in this manner in the next five years, when the 
 system was absolutely stopped on the extension of keddahs to that 
 part. Of those caught thirty-five survived, and a profit of Rs. 1 5,000 
 was made on the whole. Still, during the periods that the keddahs had 
 been unused, elephants multiplied and became so daring as to ravage 
 crops even close to towns. Mr. Sanderson's services were therefore 
 again applied for, and in 1889 he was placed at the disposal of Mysore 
 for five and a half years. To facilitate operations, twelve trained 
 Kumki elephants were purchased from the Pheelkhana at Dacca, and 
 seventeen more were imported from Burma in 1890. These twenty- 
 nine cost over a lakh. With the exception of a few that died, they 
 have become acclimatized to Mysore, and are in a healthy and service- 
 able condition. 
 
 In a fortnight from Mr. Sanderson's arrival, in July 1889, he 
 captured a herd of fifty-one in the old keddahs constructed by him in 
 1877. Intimation was then received of the proposed visit of H.R.H. 
 l^rince Albert A'ictor, and it was desired to make a second catch, if 
 possible, for his entertainment in November. The interesting account 
 of how the capture of thirty-seven elephants was effected on that occa- 
 sion has been contributed by Mr. Sanderson to Mr. Rees' book.- 
 Keddahs were next formed near Kakankote in 1890, and an extensive 
 use of the telephone was introduced by Mr. Sanderson, for rapid com- 
 munication from his base camp with the watch-houses at the keddah 
 gates and various points in the jungles, the whole being connected with 
 
 1 A full description of this and other operations will be found in his book called 
 *' Thirteen \'ears among the Wild Heasts of India." • 
 
 - "The Duke of Clarence and Avondale in Southern India,"' chap. iv. 
 
 N 2
 
 i8o FAUNA 
 
 the telegraph station :il llunsur, whence messages could Ije sent all 
 over India. Altogether, in two drives in 1889-90, and three drives in 
 1890-1, there were 159 elephants caught, and the greater number were 
 sold at Nanjangud, Palghat, and Tellicherry. Excluding the large 
 initial outlay for Kumki elephants and trained hands from the north, 
 with special charges connected with the Royal visit, the expenditure 
 was fairly covered by the receipts, while the stockades, with live and 
 dead stock, remained for future use at a moderate cost for up-keep. In 
 1 89 1 -2 there were two drives, resulting in the capture of seventy-five 
 elephants. Sales were effected at Paschimavahini and at Haidarabad in 
 addition to the places before mentioned. That the expenditure was 
 much in excess of the receipts was greatly owing to cost of additional 
 telephone materials and instruments. In May, 1892, Mr. Sanderson 
 died. Since then Mr. K. Shamiengar, for a short time his assistant, 
 has been in charge of the keddahs. In two drives in 1892-3^ and two 
 drives in 1893-4 he was successful in capturing 120 elephants, of which 
 twenty-one died. The disposal of the remainder still left a deficit on 
 the department of about Rs. 22,000. But the network of telephones 
 has been so skilfully laid, both in the Kdkankote and Chamrajnagar 
 forests, as practically to ensure the ultimate capture of every elephant 
 that passes within certain limits, and the expenses will be recouped. 
 
 Elephants have of late years become troublesome in the Shimoga 
 and Kadur Districts, destroying sugar-cane and paddy crops, and 
 injuring the areca-nut gardens. Attempts to stop them by shooting 
 some were made, but proved ineffectual. The Keddah department are 
 therefore endeavouring to capture some of the herds, which are small 
 and scattered, in temporary stockades.- The effect of the inroads of 
 elephants has been to drive the field-\vatchers to the trees, and this has 
 left an opening for wild pig to do more mischief to the crops than 
 before, when the watchers were on the spot to scare them away. 
 
 Crops are also liable to considerable damage at times from rats. In 
 the latter months of 1878 something like a plague of rats appeared, 
 especially in the Chitaldroog District, and committed great havoc in 
 the cotton and rice crops of individual villages. Certain kinds of field 
 rat regularly store up a good deal of grain in their burrows near the 
 embankments of fields, which ^\^oddars and various wandering tribes 
 dig up when the ground is out of cultivation and help themselves to 
 the grain. 
 
 ' At the end of 1S92 the \'iceroy, the Marquess of Lansdowne, witnessed the 
 drive. 
 
 , - A cajiture of sixty elephants near Sakrebail has now (November, 1894) been 
 announced.
 
 BIRDS i8i 
 
 No one who has travelled much over the Province, especially in the 
 wilder and more secluded tracts of country, but must have noted the 
 immense variety and beauty of the feathered tribes. The naturalist 
 and the sportsman alike will, it is hoped, find every familiar acquaint- 
 ance included in the following list' It may perhaps be noted that the 
 ostrich has laid eggs and hatched young in the Maharaja's menagerie 
 at Mysore, but they did not live long. 
 
 Aves — Hakki. 
 
 Passeres. 
 
 Co>-vidic — Crow s — Kciki, KAgi. 
 Corvusmacrorhyn- Jungle crow 
 
 chus 
 Corvus splendens Indian house-crow 
 Dendrocetta rufa Indian tree-pie 
 Parus atriceps ... Indian grey tit 
 Parus nuchali.s ... White-winged l)lack 
 
 lit 
 Machlolophushap- Southern yellow tit 
 lonotus 
 
 Crateropopidic. 
 Arg)-a caudata ... Common l^al^bler 
 Argya malcolmi... Large grey babbler 
 
 bab- 
 
 Arg)a subrufa ... 
 Crateropus cano- 
 
 Large rufous 
 
 liler 
 Jungle babbler 
 
 Crateropus griseus White-headed balj- 
 
 bler 
 Pomalorhinushors- Southern scimitar 
 
 fieldi bab])ler 
 
 Dunietia albigula- Small white-throated 
 
 ris babbler 
 
 Pyctorhis sinensis Yellow-eyed babbler 
 I'ellorneum ruficeps Spotted Ijabbler 
 Rhopocichla atri- Black-headed bab- 
 
 ceps bier 
 
 Myophoreus hors- Malabar 
 
 whistling 
 
 thrush 
 Indian blue chat 
 Rufous - bellied 
 
 .short-wing 
 Indian white-eye 
 
 fieldi 
 Larvivora l)runnea 
 Brachypteryx ru- 
 
 fiventris 
 Zosterops palpe- 
 
 brosa 
 /Kgithina tiphia... Common iora 
 Chloropsis jerdoni Jerdon's chloropsis 
 
 ' Taken from the volumes on Birds by E. W. (lales, in the Fauna of British 
 India. 
 
 Irena puella ... Fairy blue-l)ird 
 
 Hypsipetes gan- South- Indian l)lack 
 
 eesa bulbul 
 
 Molpastes hremor- Madras red-vented 
 
 rhous bulbul 
 
 Otocompsa fusci- Southern red-whis- 
 
 caudata kered bulbul 
 
 Pycnonotusgularis Ruby - throated 
 
 bulbul 
 
 Pycnonotus luteo- White - browed 
 
 lus bulbul 
 
 Micropus phivoce- (key-headed bulbul 
 
 phalus 
 
 Sittidie — Nuthatches. 
 Sitta castaneiven- Chestnut - bellied 
 
 tris nuthatch 
 
 Sitta frontalis ... Violet-fronted l)lue 
 nuthatch 
 
 Dicruridtc — Drongos. 
 Dicrurusater ... Black drongo (king- 
 crow) 
 Uicruruslongicau- Indian ashy drongo 
 
 datus 
 Dicrurus ca;rules- Wliite - bellied 
 
 cens drongo 
 
 Chaptia lenea . . . Bronzed drongo 
 Chibia holtentotla Hair-crested drongo 
 Dissemurus para- Larger rocket-tailed 
 
 diseus drongo 
 
 Sylviidtc — Warblers. 
 Acrocephalus sten- Indian great reed- 
 
 loreus warbler 
 
 Acrocephalus du- Blylh's reed-warbler 
 
 metorum
 
 i8. 
 
 FA UNA 
 
 Acroccphalus aj^ri- 
 
 cola 
 Cislicolii crytliio- 
 
 cephala 
 Cisticola cursilans 
 
 I'lanklinia gracilis 
 
 I'ranklinia hiicha- 
 
 nani 
 Schrenicola platy- 
 
 ura 
 Chajtornis locus- 
 
 telloides 
 Arundinax aifdon 
 Hypolais rania ... 
 Sylvia jerdoni 
 
 Sylvia affinis 
 
 Phy 1 lo.scopus affin is 
 
 Acanthopneu.ste 
 
 nitidus 
 Acanthopneuste 
 
 viridanus 
 Acanthopneuste 
 
 magnirostris 
 Prinia socialis 
 Prinia inornata ... 
 Prinia jerdoni 
 
 Paddy -ficlil rced- 
 warljler 
 
 Red-headed fanlail- 
 warhler 
 
 Rufous fanlail -war- 
 l)ler 
 
 Franklin's wren- 
 \varl)ler 
 
 Rufous - fronted 
 %vren-vvarl)ler 
 
 Broad-tailed grass- 
 warbler 
 
 Bristled grass - 
 
 warbler 
 
 Thick-billed warbler 
 
 Sykes's tree-warbler 
 
 I-'astern orphean 
 warbler 
 
 Indian lesser white- 
 throated warbler 
 
 TickelFs willow- 
 warljler 
 
 Green willow-war- 
 bler 
 
 Oreenish willow - 
 warbler 
 
 Large-billed v\illow- 
 warbler 
 
 Ashy wren-warbler 
 
 Indian wren-warbler 
 
 Southern wren- 
 warbler 
 
 Lajiiida — Shrikes — Kiikkati. 
 Lanius vittatus ... Bay-backed shrike 
 Lanius erythronotus Rufous-ljacked shrike 
 Lanius cristatus ... Brown shrike 
 
 Hemipus picatus 
 
 Te]5hrodornis syl- 
 
 vicola 
 Tephrodornis pon- 
 
 dicerianus 
 Pericrocotus flam- 
 
 nieus 
 Pericrocotus pere- 
 
 grinus 
 Pericrocotus ery- 
 
 thropygius 
 
 Black-backed 
 
 shrike 
 Malabar 
 
 shrike 
 C o ni m o n 
 
 shrike 
 Oranw minivet 
 
 pied 
 wood - 
 wood- 
 
 Small minivet 
 
 White-bellied mini- 
 vet 
 
 Campophagasykesi Black - headed 
 
 cuckoo-shrike 
 Graucalus niacii... Large cuckoo-shrike 
 Artamus fuscus ... Ashy swallow-shrike 
 
 Oriolidic — Orioles. 
 Driolus kundoo ... Indian oriole 
 Oriolus nielano- Indian black-headed 
 cephalus oriole 
 
 EiilahetidiC — Crackles or talking-mynas. 
 Eulabus religiosa Southern grackle 
 
 Stitrnidtc- 
 Pastor roseus 
 
 Sturnia blythii ... 
 Temenuchus pago- 
 
 darum 
 Acridotheres tristis 
 /Ethiopsar fuscus 
 
 Starlings and mynas. 
 
 Rose-coloured star- 
 ling 
 Blylh's myna 
 Black-headed myna 
 
 Common myna 
 Jungle myna 
 
 Micscicapidte — Flycatchers. 
 Siphia parva ... European 
 
 red- 
 fly- 
 
 Cyornis pallidipes 
 
 Cyornis rubecu- 
 
 loides 
 Cyornis tickelli ... 
 
 Stoparola mela- 
 
 nops 
 Alseonax latirostris 
 Alseonax ruficau- 
 
 dus 
 Ochromela nigri- 
 
 rufa 
 Culicicopa ceylon- 
 
 ensis 
 Terpsiphone para- 
 
 disi 
 Hypothymisazurea 
 
 Rhipidura 
 frontata 
 
 albi- 
 
 breasted 
 catcher 
 
 White-bellied blue 
 flycatcher 
 
 Blue - throated fly- 
 catcher 
 
 Tickell's blue fly- 
 catcher 
 
 Verditer flycatcher 
 
 Brown fljcatcher 
 
 Rufous-tailed fly- 
 catcher 
 
 Black - and - orange 
 flycatcher 
 
 Grey - headed fly- 
 catcher 
 
 Indian paradise fly- 
 catcher 
 
 Indian black-naped 
 flycatcher 
 
 White-browed fan- 
 tail flycatcher 
 
 Tiirdidi€—Ch2Lis, Robins, Thrushes, &c. 
 Pratincola caprata Common pied bush- 
 chat 
 Pratincola maura Indian bush-chat 
 Ruticillarufiventris Indian redstart 
 Thamnobiafulicata Black-backed In- 
 dian robin 
 Copsychus saularis Magpie robin 
 Merula nigripileus Black-cappedblack- 
 
 bird 
 Geocichla wardi... Pied ground-thrush
 
 BIRDS 
 
 i8- 
 
 Geocichla cyanotus 
 
 IVtruphila cinclo- 
 
 rhyncha 
 I'etrophila cyanus 
 
 Ploceidic 
 I'loceus bay a 
 Ploceus manyar ... 
 Munia malacca ... 
 Uroloncha striata 
 Uroloncha mala- 
 
 barica 
 Uroloncha piinctu- 
 
 lata 
 S p o r a' g n i t h u s 
 
 amandava 
 
 White - throated 
 ground-thrush 
 
 BUie-headed rock- 
 thrush 
 
 Western bkie rock- 
 thrush 
 
 Weaver-birds. 
 Baya 
 
 Striated weaver-bird 
 Black-headed munia 
 White-backed munia 
 W^hite - throated 
 
 munia 
 Spotted munia 
 
 Indian red munia 
 
 Fringillidie — Finches. 
 Carpcdacus ery- Common rose-finch 
 
 thrinus 
 Gymnorhis flavi- 
 
 collis 
 Passer domesticus 
 Emberiza luteola. . . 
 
 HirundinidcE — S wal lows. 
 
 Chelidon urbica ... Martin 
 
 Ptyonoprogne ru- Crag-martin 
 pestris 
 
 Ptyonoprogne con- 
 color 
 
 Hirundo rustica ... 
 
 Hirundo smithii... 
 
 Hirundo fluvicola 
 
 Dusky crag-martin 
 
 Swallow 
 
 Wire-tailed swallow 
 Indian cliff-swallow 
 
 Hirundo nepalen- Hodgson's striated 
 
 sis swallow 
 
 Hirundo erythro- Sykes's striated 
 
 jjygia swallow 
 
 Motacillidic — Wagtails and Pipits. 
 
 Yellow - throated 
 
 sparrow 
 I louse-sparrow 
 Red-headed bunting 
 
 Motacilla maderas- 
 
 patensis 
 Motacilla melanope 
 Motacilla borealis 
 Limonidromus in- 
 
 dicus 
 Anthus maculatus 
 Anthus striolatus 
 Anthus rufulus ... 
 
 Alaitdidi 
 Alauda gulgula ... 
 Mirafra cantillans 
 Mirafra afifinis ... 
 Galerita deva 
 Ammomanes phoe- 
 
 nicura 
 Pyrrhulauda grisea 
 
 Large pied wagtail 
 
 Grey wagtail 
 Grey-headed wagtail 
 Forest wagtail 
 
 Indian tree-pipit 
 Blyth's pipit 
 Indian pipit 
 
 J — Larks. 
 Indian sky-lark 
 Singing bush-lark 
 Madras bush-lark 
 Sykes's crested lark 
 Rufous-tailed finch- 
 lark 
 Ashy - crowned 
 finch- lark 
 
 N'ectariniidi.z — Sun-birds. 
 Arachnechthra lo- Loten's sun-bird 
 
 tenia 
 Arachnechthra asi- Purple sun-bird 
 
 atica 
 Arachnechthra Small sun-bird 
 
 minima 
 Arachnechthra Purple-rumped sun- 
 
 zeylonica bird 
 
 Arachnothera Little spider-hunter 
 
 longirostris 
 
 Diatidic — Flower-peckers. 
 Dicaeum erythro- Tickell's flower- 
 
 rhynchus pecker 
 
 Piprisoma squali- Thick-billed flower- 
 
 dum pecker 
 
 PittidiC—V\\X7^. 
 Pitta brachyura ... Indian pitta 
 
 As Mr. Oates' work stops here, the remainder is taken from J. A. Murray's Indian 
 Birds or the Avifauna of British India. But, from the two works not being 
 arranged on the .same system, I have endeavoured to give the information from the 
 latter in the order in which it is presumed it will appear in the former when 
 completed. 
 
 Macrochires. 
 Cypselidic — Swifts. 
 
 Cypselus melba ... Alpine swift 
 Cypselus affinis ... Common Indian swift 
 Cypselusbatassiensis Palm swift 
 Hirundinapus in- Indian giant spine- 
 dicus tail 
 
 Hirundinapus syi- 
 
 vatica 
 CoHocalia unicolor 
 
 Dendrochelidon 
 coronatus 
 
 White - rumped 
 spine-tail 
 
 Indian edible-nest 
 swiftlet 
 
 Indian crested tree- 
 swift
 
 1 84 
 
 FAUNA 
 
 Capriniiili^idiC—ViCTiX-'McViix'f.. 
 Capriimilfjus mah- Sykcs's ni},'lu-jar 
 
 rattensis 
 Caprimiiljjus iiion- I'ranklin's ni{,'lil-jar 
 
 licolus 
 
 Caprimulgus atri- (jhaul nij^ht-jar 
 
 pennis 
 Caprimulgus indicus Jungle nighl-jar 
 Caprimulgus kela- Nilgiri nighl-jar 
 
 arti 
 
 Pici. 
 
 riiitlic — Woodpeckers — Mara-kutaka. 
 
 (jecinus striolatus 
 
 Blylh's striated 
 
 Vunx torquiila ... 
 
 Common wryneck 
 
 
 green wood- 
 
 Tiga jaranensis ... 
 
 Common large three- 
 
 
 pecker 
 
 
 toed woodpecker 
 
 Thriponax hodg- 
 
 Creat black wood- 
 
 Brachyjiternus au- 
 
 (iolden - backed 
 
 soni 
 
 pecker 
 
 rantias 
 
 woodpecker 
 
 Chrysocolaptes fes- 
 
 Black-backed wood- 
 
 Brachypternus chry- 
 
 Lesser golden- 
 
 tivus 
 
 pecker 
 
 sonolus 
 
 backed wood- 
 
 I'icus mahrattensis 
 
 \'ellow-fronted jjied 
 
 
 pecker 
 
 
 woodpecker 
 
 MicroiHernus gula- 
 
 South-Indian rufous 
 
 lyngificus hard- 
 
 Southern pigmy 
 
 ris 
 
 pecker 
 
 wickii 
 
 woodpecker 
 
 
 Cocc 
 
 yges. 
 
 
 0/a///f/i<"— Cuckoos — Kogila. 
 
 UpJipidte- 
 
 —Hoopoes. 
 
 Cuculus striatus . . . 
 
 Asiatic cuckoo 
 
 Upupa epops 
 
 Hoopoe 
 
 Cuculus sonneratii 
 
 Banded cuckoo 
 
 Meropidit- 
 
 —Bee-eaters. 
 
 Hierococcyxvarius 
 
 Common hawk 
 
 !Merops viridis ... 
 
 Common Indian 
 
 
 cuckoo 
 
 
 green bee-eater 
 
 Cacomantis nigra 
 
 Indian plaintive 
 
 Merops phillipinus 
 
 Blue-tailed bee-eater 
 
 
 cuckoo 
 
 Merops leschen- 
 
 Chestnut - headed 
 
 Coccystesjacobinus 
 
 Pied-crested cuckoo 
 
 aulti 
 
 bee-eater 
 
 Coccystes coro- 
 
 Red-winged crested 
 
 Nyctiornis ather- 
 
 Blue - necked bee- 
 
 mandus 
 
 cuckoo 
 
 toni 
 
 eater 
 
 Eudynamys honorata Indian koel 
 Rhopodytes viridi- Small green-billed 
 
 malkoha 
 
 Common crow phea- 
 sant 
 
 Lesser coucal 
 
 Southern sirkeer 
 
 rostris 
 Centrococcyx rufi- 
 
 pennis 
 Centrococcyx ben 
 
 galensis 
 Taccocua leschen 
 
 aulli 
 
 Capitonidce — Barbets. 
 
 MegaUvma cani- Common 
 
 ceps 
 Megaleema viridis 
 Xantholxmahrema 
 
 cephala 
 Xantholrema mala- 
 
 barica 
 
 green 
 
 barbet 
 Small green barbet 
 Crimson - breasted 
 
 barbet 
 Crimson - throated 
 
 barbet 
 
 Coraciadic — Rollers. 
 Coracias indica ... Indian roller 
 
 Akediiiidiv — Kingfishers. 
 Alcedobengalensis Little Indian king- 
 fisher 
 Ceryle rudis ... Pied kingfisher 
 Halcyon smyrnen- White - breasted 
 
 sis kingfisher 
 
 Ceyx tridactyla ... Three-toed kingfisher 
 Pelargopsis gurial Indian stork-billed 
 kingfisher 
 Biicerotidit — Hornbills. 
 Dichocerosbicornis Great pied hornbill 
 Anthracoceros Malabar pied horn- 
 
 coronatus bill 
 
 Ocyceros birostris Common grey hornbill 
 
 Psittaci. 
 
 Psittacida — Parrots — Gini. Palteornis rosa 
 
 Loriculus vernalis Indian loriquet 
 Palceornis torquatus Rose-ringed paroquet 
 
 Western rose- 
 headed paroquet
 
 BIRDS 
 
 1 85 
 
 Striges. 
 
 Bttbojiidce — Eagle and Scops Owls. 
 
 Bubo bengalensis 
 liuho nipalensis ... 
 Scops pennatus ... 
 Scops malaliaricus 
 Carine brama 
 Ninox scutulata ... 
 ("ilaucidium radia- 
 
 VulturidiC — \ 
 
 Gyps indicus 
 
 Pseudogyjis ben- 
 galensis — rana 
 haddu 
 
 Ologyps calvus ... 
 
 FakoiiidiC — 
 Circus pygargus ... 
 Circus macrurus... 
 Circus a-ruginosus 
 Asturtrivirgatus... 
 Aslur badius 
 Accipiter nisus — 
 
 Ijannada dege 
 Accipiter virgatus 
 
 — ur-chitlu 
 Huteo ferox 
 
 ^\.<juila heliaca ... 
 .Vquila vindhiana 
 Aquila clanga 
 NisiEtus fasciatus 
 NisiX'tus pennatus 
 
 Neopus malayensis 
 SpizKtusnipalensis 
 
 Rock horned owl 
 P'orest eagle owl 
 Indian scops owl 
 Malabar scops owl 
 Spotted owlet 
 Brown hawk owl 
 Jungle owlet 
 
 Glaucidium mala- Malabar (jwlel 
 
 baricum 
 
 Asioaccipitrinus... Stout-eared owl 
 
 Syrniumocellatum Mottled wood-owl 
 
 Syrnium indrance Southern wood-owl 
 
 StrigidcE — Owls — Giibe, giige. 
 
 Strix flammea ... Indian screech-owl 
 
 Strix Candida ... (irass-owl 
 
 Accipitres. 
 
 u 1 1 u res — Haddu . 
 Long-billed vulture 
 Common Inown 
 vulture 
 
 Black vulture 
 
 Falcons — '/<4't'. 
 Montagues harrier 
 I'ale harrier 
 Marsh harrier 
 Crested goshawk 
 Brown hawk 
 European sparrow- 
 hawk 
 Besra sparrow-hawk 
 
 Long - legged buz- 
 zard 
 
 Imperial eagle 
 
 Tawny eagle 
 
 Spotted eagle 
 
 Crestless hawk-eagle 
 
 Dwarf or Ijooted 
 eagle 
 
 Black eagle 
 
 Spotted hawk-eagle 
 
 Spizittus cirrhaius 
 
 — ^juttu bhairi 
 Circretus gallicus 
 
 Spilornis melanolis 
 
 Butastur teesa 
 Haliastur Indus — 
 
 garuda 
 Milvus govinda ... 
 
 Milvus melanotis 
 Pernisptilonorhyn- 
 
 chus 
 Baza lopholes 
 Microhierax ca.'ru- 
 
 lescens 
 Falco communis — 
 
 bhaira 
 Falco peregrinalor 
 
 — (lege 
 Falco juggur — 
 
 giclaga 
 Falco chiquera ... 
 Hierofalcosaker... 
 Polioaetui ichthy- 
 
 aetus 
 
 Crested hawk -eagle 
 
 Common serpent- 
 eagle 
 
 Southern harrier- 
 eagle 
 
 White-eyed buzzard 
 
 Maroon-])acked kite 
 (Brahmini kite) 
 
 Common Indian 
 kite 
 
 Large Indian kite 
 
 Honey buzzard 
 
 Black-crested kite 
 White-naped pigmy 
 
 falcon 
 Peregrine falcon 
 
 Shaheen falcon 
 
 Lugger falcon 
 
 Red-headed merlin 
 Cherrug falcon 
 Eastern white-tailed 
 eagle 
 
 Pelecanid(€ — Pelicans. 
 
 Steganopodes. 
 
 Plialacrocoraxpyg- Little cormorant 
 
 Pelecanusroseus... Eastern while peli- 
 can 
 
 moeus 
 Plotus melanogaster Indian snake-bird 
 
 Herodiones. 
 
 Ciion id<c — S I or]< s — Baka. 
 
 Lcptopilus javanicus Lesser adjutant 
 Xcnorhynchus asi- Black-necked stork 
 
 aticus 
 Ciconia leucoce- White-necked stork 
 
 phala 
 
 Ardcidic — Herons — Kokkare. 
 Ardea cinerea . . . Common heron 
 Ardea purpurea . . . Blue heron 
 Herodias allxi ... Large while heron 
 Ilerodias garzetta Little black-billed 
 
 while heron 
 Bubulcuscoromandus Cattle egret
 
 i86 
 
 Ar(l(ji)I;i j^rayi 
 
 FA UNA 
 
 I'ond licron, i);i<!ily 
 
 bird 
 lUitoiidcs j;i\;inicii Little yrccn bittern 
 Ardutta tlavicoliis Bine jjiltern 
 Ardetta cinnamomea Chestnut Ijittern 
 Ardelta sinensis... Little yellow bittern 
 Botaurus stellaris Common European 
 
 bittern 
 
 Nyctoraxgriseus... Night heron 
 
 'J'anlalid(C. 
 
 Tantalus leucoce- I'elican il)i.-; 
 
 phalus 
 
 I'latalea leucorodia Spoonbill 
 
 Threskiornis me- White ibis 
 
 lanocephalus 
 
 Anatichr — Ducks —Bdtti. 
 
 Sarkidiornis mela- Comb duck 
 
 nonotus 
 
 Nettapuscoroman- Cotton leal 
 
 delianus 
 
 Dendrocygna ja- Lesser whistlini 
 
 vanica teal 
 
 Columbse 
 
 Anseres. 
 
 Casarca rutila 
 Spatula clypeata. 
 Dafila acuta 
 
 Brahmini duck 
 
 Shoveller 
 
 I'intail 
 
 Querquedulacrecca Common teal 
 Fuligula cristata... Tufted pochard 
 
 Podicipidiz — Grebes. 
 Podiceps minor ... Dab-chick 
 
 TreronidcE — Fruit Pigeons. 
 Crocopus chlori- Southern green 
 
 gaster 
 Osmotreron mala- 
 
 barica 
 Carpophaga ■x.x\q&. 
 
 pigeon 
 M a 1 a b a r 
 
 Colitmbidie — Pigeons and Doves — 
 
 PArivdla. 
 
 Columba interme- Indian blue rock- 
 
 green 
 pigeon 
 
 Imperial green 
 pigeon 
 
 Bronze - back im- 
 perial pigeon 
 
 Gallinae 
 
 Pierociidcc — Sand grouse. 
 Pterocles fasciatus Painted sand grouse 
 
 Turtur meena ... 
 Turtur senegalen- 
 
 pigeon 
 Rufous turtle-dove 
 Little brown dove 
 
 Carpophaga insig 
 nis 
 
 Turtur risorius ... Indian ring-dove 
 
 Phasianidic — Peafowl— iVaz^^/w. 
 Pave cristatus ... Common peacock 
 
 Megapodida. 
 (Jallus ferrugineus Common jungle- 
 fowl 
 Gallus sonnerati .. 
 Galloperdix spa- 
 
 diceus 
 Galloperdix lunu- 
 latus 
 
 Grey jungle-fowl 
 Red spur-fowl 
 
 Painted spur-fowl 
 
 Tetraonidcc. 
 Francolinus pictus Painted partridge 
 
 Common grey par- 
 tridge 
 Jungle bush quail 
 Rock bush quail 
 
 Red-billed bush 
 quail 
 
 Otitidte — Bustards and floricans. 
 Sypheotides auritus Lesser florikin 
 
 CiirsoridiT — Courier plovers. 
 Cursorius coro- Indian courier 
 
 mandelicus plover 
 
 Charadrius fulvus Eastern golden 
 
 plover 
 
 Ortygornis ponti- 
 
 ceriana 
 Perdicula asiatica 
 Perdicula argoon- 
 
 dah 
 Microperdix ery- 
 
 throrhyncha 
 Coturnix communis Large grey quail 
 
 Tinamida. 
 Turnix plumbipes Indo- Malayan bus- 
 tard quail 
 
 Geranomorphae. 
 
 Lobivanellus indicus Red-wattled lapwing 
 Sarciophorus bilo- Yellow-wattled lap- 
 bus wing 
 CEdicnemus crepi- Stone plover 
 tans 
 
 GniidiC — Cranes — Kahva. 
 
 CJrus cinerea ... Common crane 
 Anthropoidesvirgo Demoiselle crane
 
 REPTILES 187 
 
 Limicolae. 
 
 Scolopactdir. I Himanlopus candidus Stilt 
 
 Scolopax rusticola... Woodcock 
 
 Gallinago nemoricola Wood snipe 
 
 Gallinago scolopacina Common snipe 
 
 Gallinago gallinula... Jack snipe 
 
 Rallida: — Rail s. 
 
 Machetes pugnax ... Ruff 
 
 Actitis ochropus ... Green sand-piper 
 
 Totanus glareola ... Wood sand-piper 
 
 Totanus calidris ... Redshank 
 
 Porphyrio poliocephalus Purple coot 
 
 P'ulica atra . ... Bald coot 
 
 Porzana bailloni ... Pigmy rail 
 
 Porzana maruetta ... Spotted crake 
 
 Gallinula chloropus ... Moorhen 
 
 Gallinula phoenicura ... White-breasted 
 
 Recurvirostra avocelta Avocet water-hen 
 
 Gavise. 
 Laruiic. 1 Rhynchops albi- Indian skimmer 
 
 Sterna melanogastra Black-bellied tern | collis 
 
 The remaining orders — Tubinares and Pygopodes — I have not succeeded in 
 identifying. Perhaps some of the entries under Coccyges should come here. 
 
 Rkptile.s. 
 
 " The few crocodiles that are found in the Mysore rivers very rarely 
 attack people (says Mr. Sanderson') ; and fishermen, who pay no heed 
 to them, have told me that if they come upon a crocodile whilst 
 following their employment, it will .skulk at the bottom and not move 
 though handled, apparently believing it escapes observation." 
 
 The loss of life from snake-bite may be gathered from the following 
 particulars: — In 1889-90 there were 97 human beings and 32 cattle 
 killed by snakes; in 1890-1 the numbers were 77 and 8 ; in 1891-2 they 
 were 109 and 31. The amounts paid in these three years as rewards 
 for the destruction of venomous snakes were Rs. 678 for 2,579, Rs. 690 
 for 2,589, and Rs. 664 for 2,873 respectively. So far as the figures go, 
 the loss of life, as compared with what was reported in the first edition 
 fifteen years ago, is certainly diminished, and this may possibly be the 
 result of the improved sanitary arrangements in towns and villages, 
 whereby much of the rubbish around dwelling-houses which formerly 
 gave cover to snakes is now regularly cleared away. 
 
 Reptilia.- 
 
 Emydosauria — Crocodiles. 
 Crocodilidce — Crocodiles — ]\Iosah . 
 
 Gavialus gangeticus ... ... ... ... Crocodilus paluslris 
 
 Chelonia — Tortoises and Turtles. 
 Iriotiyc/iidic — Tortoises — A'/iii. 
 
 Trionyx leithii 
 Testt(di)iid(C. 
 
 Testudo elegans ... Halame... ... Nicoria trijuga ... Muriki amc 
 
 ' "Thirteen Years among the Wild Beasts of India," p. 14. 
 
 - Compiled from the volume liy G. A. Boulenger in the Fauna of British India.
 
 1 88 
 
 FAUNA 
 
 Squamata -Lizanls and Snakes, 
 Gechoiiidw — Geckos — Oli, 6ti-kAta. 
 {lymnodaclylus nchulosus ... 
 (lyiiuiodactyliisdeccancnsi.s... 
 (lonatodcs niysoriensis 
 (lonatodcs gracilis ... 
 llcniidactylus reticulalus ... 
 
 Eiiblepharidic. 
 
 Enhlcphari.s hardwickii 
 
 Agantidic. 
 
 Sitana ponticeriana ... 
 Calotes versicolor ... (J'ti 
 
 Varanidcc — Lizards — Halli. 
 Varanus liengalensis . . . U'.saravalli 
 
 Lacertidtc. 
 
 Cabrita leschenaultii... 
 
 ScincidiC — S kink s — Hdva ran i. 
 Mabina carinata 
 Mabina macularia 
 
 ChamaleontidtE — Chameleons — Gosiinibe. 
 Chama;Ieon calcaratus 
 
 I leniidaclylus frenatus 
 I leniidactylus gleadovii I lalli 
 I leniidactylus maculatus 
 Ilemidactylus triedrus 
 Hemidactylus costcei Halli 
 
 Calotes ellioti 
 Charasia dorsal is 
 
 Ophiops jerdonii 
 
 Lygosoma alljopunctatum 
 Lygosoma punctatum 
 
 (Ophidia) 
 
 Typhlopidii: — Worm-like snakes. 
 Typhlops braminus ... 
 
 Boidce — Pythons or boas. 
 
 Python molurus ... Dasara havu 
 Gongylophis conicus... 
 
 Uropeltidic — Earth snakes. 
 Rhinophis sanguineus 
 Silybura ellioti 
 
 Colubridit — Snakes — Hdvii. 
 
 Xylophis perroteti 
 
 Lycodon striatus 
 Lycodon aulicus 
 Hydropholjus nympha 
 Ablabes calamaria ... 
 Simotes arnensis 
 Oligodon venustus 
 Oligodon subgriseus... 
 Zamenis mucosus- ... Kere 
 Zamenis fasciolalus ... 
 Coluber helena 
 Dendrophis pictus 
 Tropidonotus stolatus 
 
 Viperidit — \"ipers. 
 Vipera russellii 
 
 Typhlops aculus 
 
 p]ryx johnii' 
 
 Silybura phipsonii 
 Pseudoplectrurus canaricus 
 
 Tropidonotus piscator . Nir havu 
 Tropidonotus plumbicolor Hasur havu 
 Helicops schistosus 
 Dipsas trigonata 
 Dryophis perroteti 
 Dryophis mycterizans 
 
 Hypsirhina enhydris , 
 Callophis nigrescens 
 Bungarus fasciatus 
 Bungarus creruleus^ 
 Xaia tripudians* 
 Naia bunrarus 
 
 Kolaku-mandala Echis carinata. 
 
 Hasur nulige 
 Nir havu 
 
 (jodi nagara 
 Xagara havu 
 
 Kallu ha\-u 
 
 ' The so-called cwo-headed snake. - Rat snake or whip snake {dhainin in Hindi). 
 •' Known as the krait. * The cobra or cobra de capello.
 
 FISHES 189 
 
 Batrachia. 
 
 Rait td(e — Frogs — Kappe. 
 
 Rana hexadactyla ... ... ... ... Rana limnocharis 
 
 Rana cyanophlyctis'... .. ... ... Rana brevicep.s 
 
 Rana tigrina ... ... ... ... ... Rana beddomii 
 
 Engystontatidic. 
 
 Microhyla ornata ... ... ... ... Callula variegata 
 
 Callula pulchra ... ... ... ... Cacopus systema 
 
 Bitfo)iid(C — Toads. 
 
 Bufo melanosticUis 
 
 Fishes. 
 
 " The rivers and artificial lakes in Mysore abound with excellent fish, 
 but I have never succeeded in getting much sport with the fly (writes 
 Mr. Sanderson).- They may be taken by spinning or ground fishing — 
 the latter chiefly at night. There is now in the Museum at Bangalore 
 the head and skin of a fish — a species of carp or vmhseer, and called 
 bili ox silver-fish in Canarese — caught by me in 187 1 in the Lakshman- 
 tirtha, which measured sixty inches in length and thirty-eight in girth. 
 The circumference inside the mouth when caught was twenty-four 
 inches. I was unfortunately unable to weigh this fish, but I 
 estimated it by rough tests at not less than 100 lbs. I have seen much 
 larger fish, without doubt upwards of 150 lbs., caught by natives, chiefly 
 by netting during the months when the rivers are low. At such times 
 two or three villages of professional fishermen will combine to net a 
 single large fish known to be a prisoner in a pool during the hot 
 weather. The pool may be a hundred yards long and broad, and the 
 water fifteen feet deep, with cavernous rocks capable of sheltering fish ; 
 but by joining their nets, and diving and working for two or three days, 
 they seldom fail to secure the prize." 
 
 The following list has been compiled from Dr. Day's book.'' A 
 number of native names of fish, not identified, will l)e found under 
 each District in Vol. II. 
 
 Pisces— il//««. 
 
 Teleostei. 
 
 Siliiridic — Cat-fishes. Callichrous binia- Ciodalc 
 
 Clarias magiir ... Maiave— Black cat- , culalus' 
 
 fish Pseudentropius Bale .. Ladyfi.sh 
 
 Saccobranchus fos- Chelii niinu — Vel- ] atherinoides 
 
 silis low catfish, scor- Macrones vittatus^ (leralu 
 
 pion fish Macrones keletius 
 
 Wallago auu . . \'alc, ole Rita hastata 
 
 ' (?) The chunam or flying frog. "^ Op. cit. ' In the " Fauna of British India.'" 
 
 ' Piiffta in Hindustani : called the " butter-fish" l)y Europeans in Bengal. 
 
 * Dr. Day has the following note: — "This fi.sh is termed 'the fiddler' in Mysore;
 
 190 
 
 FA UNA 
 
 Lcpicloccphalichthys thermalis 
 
 Ncmachilus ^'ucnlheri 
 
 Nemachilus semiarniatus 
 
 Neniachihis dcnisonii 
 
 Nemacliilus hcavani 
 
 Discotiiialhiislamta l'an(li]«kke (korafi 
 
 kan]i, Hind.) 
 Labeo fimbrialiis 
 Labeo calbassu ... Kari minii 
 Lalieo Uontius 
 Cirrhina cirrhosa 
 Cirrhina relia 
 Matsya argentea 
 Barbus chagunio 
 Baibus .sarana ... Gid pakke 
 Barbu.s chrysopoma 
 Barbus micropogon 
 Barlnis carnaticu.s (lid pakke (Giddi 
 
 kaoli, Hind.) 
 l^arbus tor' 
 Barbus carmuca 
 Barl)us melanampyx 
 Barl)us parrah ... (Kacha korava, 
 
 Hind.) 
 Barbus dorsalis ... I\Iar pakke 
 Barbus kolus 
 Barbus melanostigma 
 Barbus puckelli 
 Barbus arulius ... aruli 
 Barbus ticto ... (Kaoli, Hind.) 
 
 Barbus vittatus 
 
 Chela argcnlea White carp 
 
 Chela boopis 
 Chela clu|)eoides 
 
 Percidcc — Perches. 
 Ambassis nama 
 Ambassis ranga 
 
 Nandid(C. 
 Badis buchanani 
 Badis dario 
 Nandus marmoratus 
 Pristolepis marginata 
 Pristolepis nialabarica 
 
 Gobiidcc. 
 Gobius giurus ... Abbroni 
 
 KhyncJiobdellidij:. 
 Mastacenibalus ar- Thorny-backed 
 matus 
 
 OphioccpJialida. 
 
 Ophi ocephalus Hurvina maral 
 
 marulius 
 Ophiocephalusleu- Bili korava 
 
 copunctatus 
 O ph i ocephalus Kuchina maral 
 
 striatus 
 O ph iocephalus Mar korava 
 
 guchua 
 O phio cephalus Balu, beli korava 
 
 punctatus 
 
 Insects. 
 
 Of the countless hosts and varieties of the insect world, no pre- 
 tension can be made to give anything like a detailed list. The leading 
 families alone are indicated. Of spiders, beetles, and the singular 
 mantis tribe, there is a great profusion ; as also of the gayest butter- 
 flies and richest moths. The bee (except in parts of the Malnad) is 
 never domesticated, but large quantities of honey are obtained by 
 jungle tribes from the woods and caves of various parts. White ants 
 swarm in every soil, and their ravages are relentless. On one or two 
 evenings following on the first heavy showers of the monsoon, which 
 
 I touched one which was on the wet ground, at which it appeared to become very 
 irate, erecting its dorsal fin and making a noise resembling the buzzing of a bee, 
 evidently a sign of anger. When I put some small carp into an aquarium containing 
 one of these fishes it rushed at a small example, seized it by the middle of its back, 
 and shook it like a dog killing a rat ; at this time the barbels of the Macrones were 
 stiffened out laterally like a cat's whiskers." 
 ' The mahseer of sportsmen.
 
 INSECTS 
 
 191 
 
 have softened the parched and dried-up ground, their winged nymphs 
 issue in gauzy clouds to enjoy a brief flight ; and then, losing their 
 wings, which strew the whole surface of the ground, crawl about in the 
 form of maggots, a prey to every bird of the air and every creeping 
 lizard. They are also gathered and cooked for food by the lower 
 orders. The tiny mango-flies or eye-flies, which swarm during the 
 hours of sunlight, especially in the mango season, are a well-known 
 source of annoyance. To them is attributed a kind of ophthalmia, 
 termed "sore eyes," to which children especially are subject; but 
 whether the flies originate the affection or merely convey the contagious 
 matter from eye to eye is doubtful. Among insect pests the coffee- 
 borer has already been mentioned (p. 168). At the beginning of 1878 
 a new danger appeared in vast flights of locusts, which threatened to 
 destroy the first early crops that succeeded the great famine. But, 
 fortunately, the damage they did was far less than the most sanguine 
 could have expected.^ 
 
 Annelida — Suctoria. 
 HirucHnidLV .. jigani ... Leeches ... Al)ound at the Gersoppa Falls and in 
 
 all forests during the wet season. 
 
 Arachnida. 
 
 Araneida; "^ 
 Lycosidie r... 
 Mygalidre J 
 ScorpionidiT.' 
 
 jada 
 chehi 
 
 Spiders 
 Scorpions 
 
 Acaridse 
 
 
 Mites 
 
 Sarcoptes 
 
 kajji hula 
 
 Itch acarus 
 
 scabiei 
 
 
 
 Very numerous and of great variety. 
 
 There are three species ; the large black 
 rock - scorpion (inaiKfragahbc), the 
 large red field scorpion, and the little 
 red house scorpion. The sting is 
 very rarely fatal, but often causes 
 great pain for a time. 
 
 This loathsome affection is very com- 
 mon, even among the upper classes 
 of natives. 
 
 Ixodidre 
 
 Ticks 
 
 * A flight of locusts which passed over Mandya on the evening of the i6th of 
 May, 1800, is thus described liy Buchanan : — " It extended in length probal)ly about 
 three miles ; its width was about a hundred yards, and its height fifty feet. The 
 insects passed from west to east in the direction of the wind, at the rate of six or 
 seven miles an hour. The whole ground, and every tree and bush, was covered with 
 them, but each individual hailed for a very short time on any one sjiot. In an hour 
 after the flock had passed few were to l)e discovered in the neighl)ourhood of the 
 town. The noise of this immense number of insects somewhat resembled the 
 sound of a cataract. At a distance they appeared like a long, narrow, red cloud 
 near the horizon, which was continually varying its shape. The locusts were as large 
 as a man's finger, and of a reddish colour." A flight the previous year had eaten up 
 all the young Jola : the present flight settled at a village to the eastward of Mandya, 
 and did the same.
 
 192 
 
 FA UNA 
 
 lulichv. 
 
 lulus Indus 
 Sc<)lo|K'n(Iri(I,v 
 
 Myriapoda. 
 
 haiidi l«sava 
 
 jari ... Centiiiedes 
 
 I'olydesmida* 
 
 Anoplnta. 
 
 Pediculus .. 
 
 henu 
 
 Insecta. 
 
 Louse- 
 
 Very common. 
 
 There are several species, differ- 
 ing in size and colour ; the 
 largest is of a greyish colour 
 with crimson legs ; of the 
 smaller kinds, one is black 
 and another of a .sandy or 
 ashy colour. 
 
 Every one must be familiar with 
 the sight of native women re- 
 moving this unpleasant occu- 
 pant from one another's hair. 
 The same operation may be 
 constantly witnessed among 
 the common monkeys. 
 
 HcDiiptcra. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Scutellera 
 
 
 
 
 
 Phlcea 
 
 
 
 
 
 Cimex 
 
 . tigani 
 
 Bug 
 
 
 
 Neides 
 
 
 
 
 
 Cicada 
 
 
 
 
 
 P'ulgora ... 
 
 . minchu hula 
 
 Firefly 
 
 
 
 Ajihis 
 
 
 
 These are 
 beauty 
 trees. 
 
 of great variety and 
 on different kinds of 
 
 Coccus 
 
 
 Cochineal insect 
 
 
 C. lacca 
 
 . aruga 
 
 Lac insect 
 
 
 
 Kermes 
 
 
 Gall insect 
 
 
 
 Orthoptera. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Mantis religiosa .. 
 
 
 Praying 
 
 There are 
 
 numerous species, of 
 
 
 
 mantis 
 
 various 
 
 sizes and colours ; 
 
 Phasma 
 Phvlliuni 
 
 (■ryllus 
 
 jilk- 
 
 some appear to have the 
 power of changing colour 
 like a chameleon. 
 
 Animated straw 
 
 Leaf-like Several of these are of great 
 
 insects beauty and curiosity. One 
 
 is an exact counterpart of the 
 mango leaf. 
 
 Crickets ... \'ery numerous and various. The 
 stridulation of the tree cricket 
 and the mole cricket are at 
 times, in certain localities, 
 almost deafening. 
 
 Locusla . . . patang; 
 Acriiliuni ... niidite. 
 
 a, midile 
 toppu 
 
 Rlalta 
 
 jirle 
 
 C>rasshop]iers 
 Locusts ... 
 
 Cockroaches 
 
 These insects are here compara- 
 tively harmless.
 
 lA^SECTS 
 
 193 
 
 Nettropicra. 
 Libellula ... 
 Ephemera 
 Myrmeleon 
 Termes 
 
 U'mi lnil;i 
 
 Ccddalu 
 
 Aphaniplera. 
 
 
 Pulex irritans 
 
 chikata 
 
 Diptera. 
 
 
 Culex 
 
 gungaru 
 
 Tipula 
 
 
 Culex 
 
 s.ilje 
 
 Musca 
 
 nona 
 
 Lepidoptera. 
 Rhopalocera 
 
 Heterocera 
 Bombyx 
 mori 
 
 chilte, kapate,' pa- 
 tragitte,- silade- 
 vi hula 
 
 nusi 
 reshmi hula 
 
 Dragon fly 
 
 Ant lion ... 
 White ants 
 
 Common flea 
 
 C.nal 
 
 \'ery common. 
 
 Universal : their nest or ant- 
 hill is called hiitta : the 
 winged nj-mphs, which 
 issue in swarms in the 
 rains, are called Uhalit 
 hiila. 
 
 ... Daddy longlegs. 
 
 Mo.squito... ... A well-known pest. 
 
 Fly ... ... All varieties. 
 
 Mango fly or eye fly Very numerous at Banga- 
 lore in the mango season. 
 It is no bigger than a flea. 
 
 Butterflies 
 
 Moths 
 
 The caterpillar is 
 the silkworm. 
 
 A very great variety : — 
 Nymphalidre, 34 species : 
 Lycttnidce, 28 species; ' 
 Paiiilionidx, 16 species.^ 
 
 Hymoioptera. 
 Ichneumon 
 Formica ... iruve 
 
 \'espa ... kanajada hula 
 
 Apis ... jcnu hula 
 
 Xylocarpa jirangi 
 
 Bombus 
 
 .. Ants 
 
 Wasj) and hornet 
 Honey bee 
 .. Carpenter bee 
 Bumble bee 
 
 Abound in every part in 
 great variety. 
 
 Coleoplcra. 
 
 Scarabivus dumbo ... ... Beetles 
 
 Buprestis ... hasar dumbe ... dreen beetles 
 
 Carabus 
 
 Copris ... ... ... ... Dung beetle 
 
 Beetles abound in great pro- 
 fusion, and of much beauty 
 of form and colouring. 
 
 The wings are used for the 
 decoration of slippers, &c. 
 
 \'ery common on every 
 road. 
 
 1 The plain or sober-coloured ones. - Those with gay and \ariegated colours. 
 
 •' iM-om Marshall and de Niceville's work The Butterflies of India (no more pub- 
 lished). ■" From Donovan.
 
 1 04 FA UNA 
 
 Oi insects useful to man the most impcjrtant arc the silk-pioducing 
 worms, the lac and cochineal insects, and bees. 
 
 Silkworm. — The fatality which attended the rearing of silkworms 
 for some years, and checked an industry that was a source of livelihood 
 to large numbers of Muhammadans, is noticed in Vol. II. ; together 
 with the efforts that were made at the time, though ineffectually, to 
 re-establish a healthy race of insects, more especially by Signor de 
 Vecchj, in connection with a Silk l-'ilature Company at Kengeri, Ban- 
 galore District. The industry has now revived and is again flourishing, 
 owing to the comparative immunity of the worms from disease. Silk 
 is produced in all the taUuis of the Bangalore District, as well as in 
 Chik Ballapur and Tirumakudal Narsipur taluqs. 
 
 Tasar Silkworm. — The domestication of the tasar silkworm was 
 advocated some years ago, as the cocoons have been found in the 
 jungles around Nandidroog and Devaraydroog. The following notes 
 on the subject are taken from Captain Coussmaker's reports at the 
 time : 
 
 There are four ways in which the tasar silk cocoons may be procured, 
 all of which I myself have successfully tried. Firstly :— During the hot 
 weather, when the leaf is off; then the cocoons are easily discernible 
 hanging like berries from the twigs ; men might then go into the jungles 
 and collect them. Secondly : — From June to October the caterpillars are 
 large and commit much ravage on the trees. Their presence then is easily 
 detected by the denuded appearance of the twigs, and by their droppings 
 under the tree (the large caterpillars do not wander at all, but eat steadiiv 
 along one twig, devouring leaf after leaf ) ; men might then go and collect 
 them all on to one tree, beneath which they themselves might build a hut 
 and live, scaring away birds, squirrels, &c. Both of these methods are 
 practised in the Bengal Presidency. Thirdly : — The moths can be paired 
 when they issue from the cocoons, and the caterpillars reared from the eggs. 
 Fourthly : — When the moths issue from the cocoons, the females can be 
 tied up to certain trees and the males liberated there, when, if any of these 
 latter be not in full vigour, wild males may come and pair with the females, ' 
 which can then be removed. 
 
 In hatching out and rearing the caterpillars there is no difficulty : twigs | 
 of whatever tree is most convenient to use should be put into earthen pots j 
 full of earth and water, the mouths of which should, as recommended by [ 
 Captain Hutton, be closed with cotton rammed in, to keep the twigs steady | 
 and to prevent the caterpillars crawling down into the water and drowning 
 themselves. For the first fifteen days, during which the caterpillars wander 
 about much, the pots should be kept each in a small wooden frame, the 
 opposite sides of which should be covered with mosquito net or fine bamboo 
 chicks, so that the light and air may penetrate freely and the worms not 
 escape. After that time the pots should be put upon shelves or tables with
 
 SILKWORMS 195 
 
 tlie twigs interlacing so as to form a long hedge, and left uncovered. The 
 caterpillars should be kept there until they change their skins for the last 
 time, when they may be put on to twigs suspended over bamboos hung from 
 the ceiling ; and here they will spin their cocoons, which may be gathered 
 every day when the twigs are renewed. In all cases the twigs should be 
 changed every day — those that are old and stripped, thrown away ; those 
 that the caterpillars are on, should be put near the fresh twigs, and they will 
 crawl off of their own accord. It is advisable to water them two or three 
 times a day from a watering-pot with a very fine rose ; give them a gentle 
 shower as it were : this is refreshing both to caterpillars and twigs. 1 have 
 noticed that in changing their skins, it sometimes happens that the old skin 
 does not come off freely. I think that a moderate amount of moisture is 
 essential to their well-doing. In this way, with the least possible trouble 
 and expense, any amount of these caterpillars can be reared ; ordinary 
 precautions being taken to protect them from their numerous enemies, by 
 stopping rat-holes, sweeping away cobwebs, nailing wire netting or bamboo 
 chicks over the windows, which should be kept open by night and day. 
 
 I am glad to see that Mr. Massa reports so favourably upon the specimens 
 of tasar silk cloth. I myself am greatly indebted to Mr. R. S. De Souza, 
 the jailor at Dharwar, at whose suggestion the twilled variety was wove, 
 and .it was through his ready assistance and careful supervision that the 
 specimens were obtained. 
 
 Experiments have also been made with the Eri silkworm from Assam, 
 which feeds on the leaves of the castor-oil plant ; and with a variety of 
 goldlace cocoons found in the jimgles of Hassan. 
 
 Cochineal. — The introduction of the cochineal insect was proposed 
 as a partial remedy for the failure of the silk industry. Regarding it the 
 following extract is taken from a memorandum by Colonel Boddam : — 
 
 One hundred years ago the Hon'ble Court of Directors attempted to intro- 
 duce cochineal culture into India, and offered a reward of ^2,000 to any one 
 successfully importing it. In 1795 '^ naval officer secretly imported some 
 cochineal insects from Brazil, which were distributed over India, and 
 cultivation fostered by the Court of Directors. After expending two lakhs 
 of rupees it was discovered that the wrong insect had been got. There are 
 two sorts of cochineal insect— the sih'estrc or wild one, and the grana-Jiiia 
 or domesticated one ; the latter only producing the cochineal of commerce. 
 It unfortunately was the siivcsirc that had been imported, and was not worth 
 the trouble of cultivating. The ji^rana-Jina has never been successfully 
 imported. Besides getting the true insect, the proper cactus for its support 
 is necessary ; the common opitntia ficus indica, or prickly-pear, will not suit 
 the domesticated kind. It must be opuniia cochinellifcra or opmttia (uita. 
 Referring to Kew as to the correct cactus, authorities differed. After much 
 correspondence this point was settled, and I got the true cactus cochincllifi:ra, 
 compared the plants so named growingat the Botanical Gardens in Calcutta, 
 
 O 2
 
 ,,/, FAUNA 
 
 Madras and Han^jalorc, and found them identical, correspondin;,^ with the 
 dcscriptifin of cactus at Tcneriffc. 
 
 After reviewing all that has been done, the writer in Watt's Dictionary 
 says: — "The first and most natural step towards the introduction into 
 India of a commercial industry in cochineal should be the thorough 
 investigation of the races of cocoons already existing in the country and 
 the plants on which they feed." 
 
 Lac Insect. — The lac insect is found in several parts, as near the 
 Nandi hills. The tree on which it feeds is the Jdldri {shorea talura, 
 Roxb) All the trees, says Buchanan, are small, not exceeding eight 
 or ten feet in height ; and their growth is kept down by the insect and 
 its managers ; for this size answers best. The tree, left to itself, grows 
 to a large size and is good timber. For feeding the insect, it thrives 
 very well in a dry barren soil ; and is not planted, but allowed to spring 
 up spontaneously as nature directs. In Kdrtika, or from about the 
 middle of October to the middle of November, the lac is ripe. At that 
 time it surrounds almost every small branch of the tree, and destroys 
 almost every leaf. The branches intended for sale are then cut off, 
 spread out on mats, and dried in the shade. A tree or two that are 
 fullest of the insects are preserved to propagate the breed ; and of 
 those a small branch is tied to every tree in the month Chaitra, or 
 from about the middle of March to the middle of April ; at which time 
 the trees again shoot out young branches and leaves. The lac dried 
 on the sticks is sold to the merchants. This is what is called 
 stick-lac, which, after the dye has been extracted, is formed into seed 
 and shell-lac. 
 
 Bees. — The bees are described by Buchanan as of four kinds. That 
 from which most of the honey and wax is procured is called hej-jcnu- 
 hi/la. This is a large bee, which builds under projections of the rocks 
 or in caverns. A large nest gives eight seers of honey = 4"85 lb., and 
 three seers of wax= i"82 lb. A small hive gives about one-third of this 
 quantity. The honey is gathered twice a year, in A'shadhaand INIdgha, 
 or in the month following the summer solstice and the second after that 
 of winter. Some people of the Bedar caste make the collecting of 
 honey and wax a profession, and it is one attended with much danger. 
 Having discovered a hive, some of them kindle a fire under the rock, 
 and throw on it the leaves of the cassia fistula and of the puleseri, 
 which emit a smoke so acrid that nothing living can endure it. The 
 bees are forced to retire ; and some others of the Bedar, so soon as the 
 smoke subsides, lower down by a rope one of their companions, who 
 with a pole knocks off the nest and is immediately drawn up again ;
 
 BEES 197 
 
 for if he made any delay the Ijees would return, and their stinging is so 
 violent that it endangers life. In order to fortify him against the sharp 
 points of rocks, and against injury from the rope which passes round 
 his chest, the adventurous Bcda is secured before and behind by 
 several folds of leather. 
 
 The bee that produces the next greatest quantity of honey is called 
 the kaddl or cJiittujcnu-hiila ; that is, stick or small honey. This bee 
 is very small, and builds around the branch of a tree a comb of an 
 oblong shape and sharpened at both ends. It is found at all seasons, 
 but is in the greatest perfection at the same time with the other. The 
 honey is of the finest quality ; but the whole comb seldom weighs 
 more than two seers, or i'2lb. This bee does not sting, and is readily 
 driven away by a twig switched round the comb. 
 
 The tnduve is a bee of which the honey is of an excellent quality, 
 but rarely procured ; for it generally builds deep in the crevices of 
 rocks, where it is totally inaccessible. Sometimes, however, it is found 
 in hollow trees, and one hive will give from twenty to twenty-five seers 
 of honey, or about twelve or fifteen pounds ; but the quantity of 
 wax is in proportion small. This is a large bee ; but it very seldom 
 stings those who plunder its hive. 
 
 The toriga is a very small bee, that seldom stings. It takes 
 possession of the deserted nests of the white ants, which in this coun- 
 try are very numerous in the wastes of red soil such as is usually 
 cultivated for ragi. Of this stiff earth the white ants raise hills re- 
 sembling the stump of a tree, which are from four to six feet high, very 
 hard, and able long to resist the heaviest rain. These, when deserted, 
 most commonly become the lurking-places of snakes ; but sometimes 
 give shelter to the toriga bee. Its nest is therefore easily accessible ; 
 but it is very small, and contains only about a seer of honey and half a 
 seer of wax.
 
 198 
 
 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 
 
 Horses. — The only native breed of horses is, as in most parts of 
 India, an ill-shaped, vicious iaijji ; as a rule not exceeding twelve 
 hands in height.^ In spite of the pains which Haidar and Tipu took 
 to improve the Mysore breed by importation, even their far-famed 
 cavalry were as a rule badly mounted. The former Silahdar horses, 
 sprung generally from Arab sires and Mahratta dams, were probably 
 fair specimens of the class of animal which supplied the Muhammadan 
 armies. These were extremely weedy and deficient in barrel, but 
 would stand a great deal of work. A few stallions have always been 
 maintained by Government ; but the Silahdars generally used to pur- 
 chase their horses from private breeders, and their demand was the 
 sole incentive to breeding. Of late years a hardy race of ponies has 
 come into use for drawing the small two-wheeled conveyance called a 
 Jiifka, which does duty for a native cab. The ponies are doubtless of 
 Mahratta breed, and capable of great endurance. To improve the 
 general breed of horses six superior stallions were obtained in 1889 
 from the Military Department and stationed at headquarters of Dis- 
 tricts. The following year four fresh stallions and a pony mare were 
 procured and the remaining Districts supplied. But so far the demand 
 for their services has been rather limited. 
 
 A horse-breeding establishment is kept up by Government at 
 Kunigal (removed there many years ago from Closepet) for supplying 
 the Silahdars with suitable mounts. In 1886 there were seven Arab 
 stallions and one Australian; in 1891 the Arab stallions had risen to 
 eight in number, and the Australian to three. During the intervening 
 five years 271 foals were bred at the Stud, and, including stock of 
 previous years, 246 were passed into the ranks. In addition to these, 
 seventy were cast and sold as unfit or undersized, sixty-two died, and 
 three were destroyed. The number remaining on hand in the Stud 
 Farm in 1891 was 154. 
 
 Mules. — It is said that Tipu Sultan introduced some fine asses from 
 Arabia for the purpose of breeding mules ; but the prejudices of his 
 subjects were so strong that nothing could be done. A private scheme 
 
 * Writing in 1803, Colonel Welsh says: — " Colar is so famous for a breed of 
 vicious horses that all over the peninsula, whenever a horse turns out ill, he is called 
 Colarie."
 
 HORNED CATTLE 199 
 
 for a regular system of breeding these useful animals, so invaluable for 
 transport, has been lately put before the Mysore Government for assist- 
 ance, but nothing definite has so far been decided on. 
 
 Asses. — Every washerman keeps three or four females and a 
 male. The superfluous males are sold to various kinds of petty traders, 
 and people who transport salt and grain. The breed is very small, no 
 pains being taken to improve it ; nor indeed to keep it from growing 
 worse. Some are of the usual ash-colour, whilst others are almost black, 
 in which case the cross on their shoulder disappears. These are not 
 varieties as to species ; for black individuals have sometimes ash- 
 coloured colts, and, on the contrary, black colts are sometimes pro- 
 duced by ash-coloured dams. The asses get nothing to eat except 
 what in the intervals of labour they can pick up about the village. 
 When the crop is on the ground they are tied up at night ; but at 
 other seasons they are allowed to roam about, and in order to prevent 
 them from wandering too far their fore-feet are tied together. The 
 males are never castrated, and the best are always sold off by the 
 washermen, which are the principal causes of the degeneracy of the 
 breed. At three years of age the females begin to breed, and some 
 have every year a colt, while others breed once only in three years. An 
 ass's burthen is reckoned about 76 lbs ; with which they will daily 
 travel about seven miles. 
 
 Horned Cattle.- -The principal breeds of horned cattle in Mysore 
 are the Amrit Mahal, Madesvaran Betta, the Kankanhalli, and the 
 village cattle. Almost all other cattle seen in the country are im- 
 portations or crosses between the above-mentioned breeds. 
 
 The Amrit Mahdl^ literally Milk Department, is an establishment for 
 the breeding of a race of cattle peculiar to the country of Mysore and 
 famous for its utility for military purposes. The establishment was founded 
 at some time during the Hindu government, with special privileges as 
 regards grazing ; but its maintenance for the special purpose of supplying 
 draught cattle for artillery is due to Haidar Ali. He is reported to have in- 
 troduced a breed of cattle from the Trichinopoly country, by a cross 
 between which and the indigenous breed of Mysore was produced the 
 Hallikar breed, which is considered the best in the whole establishment, 
 (ireat doubt exists as to what the breed imported was, but general tradition 
 points to the small Brahmani bulls, which to this day are noted for their 
 endurance and fast trotting powers. 
 
 "It was this establishment," wrote Sir Mark Cubbon, " which enabled 
 
 ' The particulars are taken from a pamphlet coiitainint; the hisUjry of liic Amril 
 Mahal, compiled from the Records of the Department by Captain M. A. Kowlandson, 
 and one on Ilunsur, by Dr. CJilchrist ; with corrections by Majtir Mclnroy, the officer 
 formerly in charge, to whom I was indebted for them.
 
 200 FAUNA 
 
 Ilaidar Ali to march loo miles in two days and a half to the relief of 
 Chidambram, and after every defeat to draw off his guns in the face of his 
 enemies ; which enabled Tipii Sultan to cross the peninsula in one month 
 for the recovery of Bednur, and to march sixty-three miles in two days 
 before (General Mcdows ; which, in later times, enabled General Pritzler 
 to march 346 miles in 25 days in pursuit of the Peshwa : and which enabled 
 (icncral Campbell, after the failure of his Bengal equipments, to advance 
 upon Ava and bring the war to a favourable termination. It was also this 
 establishment which enabled the Duke of Wellington to execute those 
 movements of unexampled rapidity which are the admiration of every mili- 
 tary man, and in consideration of whose services he recommended it to pro- 
 tection in a letter addressed at the close of the war to the Commander-in- 
 Chief." Allusions in the Wellington Despatches show that the Great Duke 
 often, during the Peninsular War in Spain, regretted that he had not the 
 assistance of the Amrit IMahdl cattle. 
 
 After the capture of Seringapatam, the Breeding establishment was 
 intrusted to the native government, and the Public Cattle department to an 
 agent ; but the inducements which had led Haidar and Tipu to keep up 
 its efficiency were wanting, and by the end of 1813 the cattle had degener- 
 ated to such a degree that the management was taken over by the British, 
 and 10,914 head of breeding cattle, the exact number made over to the 
 Raja's government in 1800, received back. A Commissariat officer (Captain 
 Harvey) was placed in charge, with a suitable establishment, and up to the 
 31st July, 1816, the number of cattle had increased to 14,399, exclusive of 900 
 calves transferred as fit for service. By 1823 the original number had nearly 
 doubled itself, besides supplying for the public service young bullocks equal 
 to one-fourth part of the increased establishment. In i860, from motives of 
 economy, Sir Charles Trevelyan ordered the establishment to be broken up, 
 and the herds to be sold ; but the results were to the detriment of the public 
 service. The Amrit Mahal was therefore, with the cordial approval and 
 assistance of the then Maharaja, re-established in December 1867, with 
 5,935 head of cattle. In 1871 there were 9,800 head of all sizes, exclusive 
 of 1,000 young male cattle in the Training Depot. It was arranged that a 
 certain number of bulls should be handed over to the Mysore Government 
 annually, to be stationed at various points in the country for the purpose of 
 improving the breed of cattle used by the ryots. 
 
 The Cc.ttle were divided into 30 herds, containing from 200 to 700 head of 
 cattle each ; for the grazing of which, 208 kdvals or pasture grounds were 
 allotted in various parts of the country.' They are divided into hot weather, 
 wet weather and cold weather kdvals, according to the seasons of the year 
 during which they are of most use. The hot weather kdvals are generally 
 the beds of tanks in which grass springs up during the hot months, and near 
 which there are trees for the purpose of affording shade to the cattle during 
 
 ' Though a herd consists of both males and females of various ages, they are not 
 allowed to graze in immediate company, each being divided into seven lots, called 
 pals, to prevent their injuring one another. The average number of attendants or 
 graziers is one to every fifty head of cattle.
 
 AMRIT MAHAL 201 
 
 the heat of the clay. These are very vakiable kavals, and are reserved as 
 far as possible for the sole use of the Government cattle. The cold and wet 
 weather kdvals are those which during those seasons have plenty of grass 
 and water, but which during the hot weather dry up and are of little use to 
 the department ; in both the latter descriptions of kdvals the ryots' cattle 
 are permitted to graze certain fi.xed portions, and after the Government 
 cattle have left for their annual visit to the jungles, the shervci^drs are 
 permitted to sell some part of the grazing, and from the funds thus obtained 
 the kdvalgdrs or guards are paid and other expenses met. This privilege 
 ceases at the end of July each year. 
 
 The Amrit Mahal cattle comprise three varieties, called the Hallikar,^ 
 Hagalvadi and Chitaldroog, from the districts which originally produced 
 them, and may be readily distinguished from every other breed in India 
 by the peculiar shape and beauty of their heads and the symmetry of 
 their form. They seldom attain an extraordinary height, but in pro- 
 portion to their size are remarkably deep and wide in the chest, long 
 and broad in the back, round in the barrel, well ribbed up and strong 
 in the shoulder and limb." They are active, fiery, and walk faster than 
 troops ; in a word, they seem to constitute a distinct species, and 
 possess the same superiority over other bullocks, in every valuable 
 quality, that thoroughbreds do over other horses. The cows of this 
 breed are white, but the males have generally an admixture of blue over 
 the fore and hind quarters. There is a fourth variety of coloured 
 cattle, which are considered inferior to the white in energy and per- 
 severance, though they rather surpass them in size. As the former 
 breed is the most perfect that is known, it would only tend to its 
 deterioration to cross it with any other, and the bulls are accordingly 
 bred in the best herds, and individuals, selected from the best specimens, 
 distributed to improve the breeds in the other herds. 
 
 A cow of this breed is supposed to give about one pucka seer of 
 milk a day, and the calf could not be deprived of any part of it without 
 
 * An absurd legend is current among the herdsmen of the department regarding 
 the origin of the Hallikdr. They state that Haidar Ali, after one of his trips to the 
 south, l)rought Ijack to the Mysore country a number of cows of the small Brahmani 
 caste. These cows were turned loose into a kaval (in the Tumki'ir District) in which 
 there were great numbers of antelope, and a cross between the l)ig black bucks and 
 the small Brahmani cows gave the present Hallikar breed. In support of the story 
 they point to the small spot below the eye, common to antelope and to Hallikar cattle. 
 
 * The general characters of a good bullock are a round liarrel, stout strong legs, 
 and l)road forehead. The average height is 48 inches, and 50 inches was about the 
 highest standard. But the average height has very much increased since the re- 
 cstablishment of the department in 1 866. Some of the bullocks now run up to 
 53i inches. Of course weight is also a material consideration. The average is 
 idxHit 12 maunds or 43 stone, l)ut no means have been adopted to determine this 
 exactly.
 
 20 2 FAUMA 
 
 I)ciii^ inalcrially injured in its growth. The calves remain wilii their 
 mothers during the day, but are separated from them at night, and are 
 kept in a fold under charge of the herdsmen until they are three months 
 old, when they begin to graze and get strength. In the cold season, 
 when the herbage is abundant, they are generally weaned at the age of 
 five months ; but such as are brought forth later in the year cannot be 
 sei)arated from their mothers till after the hot weather. After 
 separation, care is taken to conduct them to the richest pastures in 
 the neighbourhood, and they are never supplied with any other food. 
 
 Heifers begin to breed between three and a half and four years old, 
 and bring forth six or seven times. Twenty cows are allowed to one 
 bull. The bulls begin to propagate at five years of age and retain their 
 vigour till ten, when they are discarded from the herds. The average 
 annual amount of births is fifty per cent on the number of cows, and 
 the proportion of male and female calves is nearly equal. 
 
 The whole of the cattle, bulls, cows and calves subsist entirely on 
 what the pastures afford, and on the stalks of the castor, bailer, kulti, 
 and other nourishing plants, which are left on the ground for their use 
 after the harvest in the months of January, February and March. This 
 brings them into excellent condition at the most favourable season for 
 the cows taking the bull. In the dry weather, when a want of forage 
 and water prevails in the open country, the herds are conducted to the 
 south-western jungles, where the natural moisture of the soil, the early 
 showers, and the shelter afforded by the trees are favourable to vegeta- 
 tion. They arrive there in May and return to their pastures in 
 September, when the grass is in great abundance all over Mysore. 
 
 The calves are castrated in November, the cold weather being found 
 peculiarly favourable to the success of the operation, and invariably 
 between the age of five and twelve months, as their growth is supposed 
 to be promoted by early castration ; and it is attended with this impor- 
 tant advantage, that it prevents the cows being impregnated by inferior 
 bulls and consequently prevents the breed from degenerating. They 
 are separated from the herds after four years of age and transferred to 
 the Public Cattle Department when turned of five, perfectly trained and 
 fit for work. They arrive at their full strength at seven and are past 
 their vigour at twelve ; they work till fourteen or fifteen, after which 
 they decline rapidly and generally die at eighteen years of age. The 
 cattle of these herds are kept in their wild state, without shelter of any 
 description ; they are very fiery and cannot be approached by 
 strangers without the protection of the herdsmen. It requires several 
 months to break them in, and the employment is extremely difficult 
 and daneerous.
 
 AMRIT MAHAL 203 
 
 At the age of three years the catching of bullocks takes place, previous 
 to which they are nearly as wild as the inhabitants of the jungle. The 
 bullocks are first driven into a large oval enclosure, which they are made 
 to enter with much difficulty. This conmiunicates with a square yard, 
 surrounding an inner enclosure about twenty feet square, which is 
 surrounded with a strong fence made of wooden posts placed close together 
 and about twelve feet high. When they are collected in this, the opening 
 is closed. The trainers then ascend on the top of the fence, and throw a 
 noose round each of the bullock's horns. This done, the end of the rope is 
 passed between posts near the ground, and the animal is drawn close up 
 and secured by people on the outside. The passage is then opened and old 
 trained bullocks admitted. One of the latter is bound by the neck to one 
 of the wild animals, which being done, the rope is loosened, when he 
 immediately endeavours to escape. His trained comrade, however, to 
 whom he is coupled, restrains him, though but partially ; accordingly the 
 two leave the enclosure at tolerable speed. The rope by which the 
 untrained bullock was originally noosed is allowed to remain attached to 
 his horns, and when they approach one of the strong posts placed in the 
 immediate vicinity of the enclosure the rope is quickly turned round it, by 
 whicli the animals are again brought up. The untrained bullock is then 
 well secured by the neck, with as little latitude of motion as possible. 
 There he is kept alone for about two days, until he becomes considerably 
 tamed and worn out with unceasing efforts to escape. The next operation 
 consists in attaching to the animal a couple of blocks of wood so heavy as 
 to be moved with some difficulty, and giving him as much liberty as this 
 admits of. He is then admitted to the company of old trained cattle, and 
 from the twofold effects of example and partial restraint he gradually 
 becomes submissive. The bullocks arc now grazed in the vicinity of Hunsur 
 for a further period of three years, being tied up regularly each evening in 
 lines. Tiiey are then transferred to the Public Cattle Department to undergo 
 final breaking for the public service. 
 
 Since the Rendition the following changes have taken place: — On the 
 i-st January, 1882, the Mysore Government purchased the Amrit Mahal 
 cattle from the Madras Government, there being at that time 30 herds, 
 with ] 2,502 head, of which 4,618 were cows and 177 breeding bulls. It 
 was stipulated that the Department should supply the Madras Govern- 
 ment for ten years with three-year-old bullocks at Rs. 50 per head, to a 
 number not exceeding 400 annually. In 1886 this limit was reduced 
 to 200 of four years old at the same price. The herds were therefore 
 broken up in 1887 and their number reduced to sixteen. In 1889 
 steps were taken to form special herds of big and fine cattle. There 
 are thus 23 herds now (1894) under six darogas. The steers are not 
 caught near Hunsur, but in different kavals, and are accustomed to 
 being tied up before being handed over to Madras. Others are sold at 
 reduced rates or distributed to raiyats at suitable places. Kach of the
 
 204 /'.UW.I 
 
 darogas has also a shcc[) farm, wlicrc the country ewes are crossed by 
 cross-bred Kashmir rams. 
 
 At the Hissar ('attle Farm in the Punjab, artillery cattle are bred 
 from the Mysore cross to serve as " leaders." At the Bhadgaon Farm 
 of the Bombay (lovernnient cattle-breeding has l^een established for 
 over eleven years, the herd having taken its origin from the Mysore 
 Amrit Mahal. The main object has been to breed Mysore bulls for 
 crossing and improving the cattle of the country around. "As I 
 passed through the district, I saw evidence," writes Dr. Voelcker, " of 
 the impress which the Mysore cattle reared at the Farm had made 
 upon some of the other cattle, and how superior to the ordinary cattle 
 were those which had the Mysore ' touch ' in them." ^ 
 
 Mddcsvaran Betta — This breed comes from the jungles and hills 
 near Biligirirangan Betta, on the south-eastern frontier of Mysore. 
 They are larger than the Amrit Mahal cattle, but are loosely made and 
 not well ribbed up. They have heavy loose-hanging dewlaps, sloping 
 broad foreheads, and large muzzles. They are very heavy slow 
 animals, but crossed with a Hallikar bull they form excellent cattle 
 for draught and ploughing. Of this cross-breed are the cattle mostly 
 used by the large cart owners who carry on trade from towns in the 
 Mysore territory to the Western Coast, Bellary and other places. 
 
 KdnkdnJialli. — This breed comes from Kankanhalli, in the south- 
 east of Mysore ; they are very like the Madesvaran Betta breed, but are 
 generally smaller, though larger than the Amrit Mahal breed. They 
 have thick horns, broad sloping foreheads, and white, very thick skins. 
 In all other respects the remarks regarding the Madesvaran Betta breed 
 are applicable to the Kankanhalli. 
 
 The village cattle vary very much in size, colour and characteristics ; 
 in some parts very fair cattle may be seen, but as a general rule the 
 village cattle are a stunted inferior race. The cows generally give 
 from half to one seer of milk per diem, though occasionally some may 
 be met which give three seers, but it will be generally found that 
 these have been fed on nutritious food, such as oil-cake, cotton-seed 
 and such like. The bullocks are small, but for their size do a sur- 
 prising amount of work. 
 
 Buffalo.' — Of the buffalo there are three varieties, the Hullu, the 
 Gaiijri or Gujarat, and the Chokatu, which comes from the country 
 bordering on the river Krishna. 
 
 The Hullu is by far the most common, and is the native breed of the 
 country. The female has a calf every year, and gives milk for seven 
 
 ^ Report on the Improz'eineut of Indian Agriculture, 204. 
 
 - Much of the information in the following paragraphs is from Buchanan.
 
 SHEEP 
 
 205 
 
 months. Besides what the calf draws from her, she gives twice a day 
 about a quart of milk. She generally bears from ten to twelve calves, 
 and is very unruly when the keeper attempts to milk her without the 
 calf being present. They will convey a greater weight, either in a cart 
 or on their back, than a common ox ; but walk very slowly, do not 
 endure heat, and cannot easily travel more than seven miles a day. 
 
 The two stranger breeds are greatly superior in size to the Hullu ; 
 but in this country they very soon degenerate. The females breed 
 once in two or three years only, and produce in all about si.x calves. 
 For two years after each parturition they continue to give a large 
 (quantity of milk ; but in the third year their milk begins to dimini.sh ; 
 and it entirely ceases about two months before the time of calving. In 
 this country, besides what the calf is allowed, they give daily from six 
 to eight quarts of milk and require no more food than the common 
 breed, neither do they refuse their milk should the calf be removed or 
 die. The males are entirely reserved for breeding or for carrying 
 loads ; one of them will carry as much as six oxen, and will walk 
 faster. 
 
 Sheep. — These are of three varieties, the Kiiruba)- or ordinary breed, 
 so called from the caste which rears it; the Gol/ar, which is less 
 common and which owes its name to the same cause ; and the Ye/aga, 
 which is the rarest of the three. \Miite, brown and l)lack colours are 
 found in all three breeds. The Kurubar is a small sheep, with horns 
 curling backwards. Both its flesh and wool are superior to those of the 
 other two varieties. The dollar is distinguished from the Kurubar bv 
 its large size, coarser wool, longer neck and different formation as to 
 the head and jaws. The Yejaga, which is rare, is longer in the leg. and 
 stands higher than the other breeds, but is less bulky and more 
 resembles a goat in structure of the body and limbs. The sheep of this 
 variety are never shorn of their wool, being too coarse for manufacture, 
 and they shed their coats once a year. This is the breed which 
 is used for draught and carriage of children. The Gollar sheep are 
 left out at night at all seasons and in all weathers, and do not appear 
 to suffer from the exposure, while the Kurubars and Yelagas are 
 invariably housed at night. The different breeds are never mixed, 
 chiefly owing to antagonism between the Kurubar and Gollar castes; 
 but even in the absence of enmity between the shepherds it is doubtful 
 whether the two varieties could ever be brought to mix, and it is pretty 
 well established that the Yejaga will not amalgamate with the other 
 two. They are solely dependent on jjasturage, being never fed on grain. 
 
 Sheep, with the exception of the Yelagas, are shorn twice a year, and 
 fifty fleeces amount to about a maund weight. The wool is all coarse,
 
 2o6 FA UNA 
 
 and is made into rougli kanitjlis. The shepherds usually hand over 
 loo fleeces to the weaver, who gives them in return a kambli. There 
 was formerly a (iovernment manufactory at Hunsilr, which turned out 
 good blankets made from the wool of the white sheep in the Govern- 
 ment farm. This has been abolished. 
 
 " The woolly breed of sheep, which exists throughout Mysore, is 
 fairly esteemed," says Dr. Shortt, "both for its mutton-forming and 
 wool-producing qualities. The rams have large heavy horns, wrinkled 
 and encircled outwards, and their points inwards and forwards. The 
 head is large and heavy-looking, with a prominent Roman nose. The 
 ears are of moderate size and pointed, and the tail short, never exceed- 
 ing 3 to 4 inches. The ewes are mostly hornless. They are occasion- 
 ally met with small light horns, seldom exceeding 3 to 4 inches in 
 length. The prevailing colour is from a light to a very dark grey or 
 black. The ram stands 25 inches, and the ewe 23 inches in height. 
 The ordinary live weight is from 40 to 60 lbs., but gram-fed wethers 
 attain from 60 to 80 lbs. They have fairly compact carcases, with 
 good width, prominence and depth of chest ; the body is well wooled 
 and rectangularly formed ; in picked specimens the counter is full and 
 the shoulder is fairly filled w^hen in condition. The fleece never 
 exceeds 3 to 4 lbs., and the staple averages 3 to 4 inches in length. 
 An ordinary sheep fetches from 2 to 3 rupees in the market, fat wethers 
 7 to 10 rupees each. 
 
 " This breed furnishes the chief fighting rams of Southern India, for 
 which purpose good picked male rams are sought after by native Rajas, 
 Zamindars and others. They are much petted and pampered, till they 
 grow quite savage ; they will butt and also strike with their fore-feet ; 
 and I have also seen in one or two instances a propensity to bite. They 
 are pitted against each other, and large sums of money staked on 
 the result. In fighting, they run a tilt by first moving backwards some 
 short distance to add force to the impulse of their weight ; and fre- 
 quently in the fight they have their heads or horns broken. These 
 rams, from special selection and good feed, often attain 30 inches in 
 height and over 80 lbs. in weight. Size does not necessarily ensure 
 success in the battle, as I have seen the largest ram of the kind I 
 remember ever having met with, run away after a few tilts from one 
 that was very much smaller. All the breeds of sheep in Southern 
 India are pugnacious and reared to fight, the preference alwaj-s being 
 given to the black woolly breeds of ?^Iysore or to those of Coimbatore. 
 This breed extends from Mysore to Bellary, where after a time the 
 Avool frequently changes into long lank hair." 
 
 For many years Sir Mark Cubbon had an experimental sheep farm at
 
 GOATS 207 
 
 Heraganhalli, Nagamangala taluq, under the charge of a European 
 Commissariat subordinate officer. Merino rams were imported yearly 
 from AustraHa and the cross-breeds distributed all over the country. 
 The breed of sheep throughout the Province was thus immensely 
 improved both as to size, quality of mutton, and wool. The wool was 
 sent in bales by the Mysore (Government to England for sale, as well 
 as for the purpose of being manufactured into blankets and serge. 
 The farm was given up in 1863, as it did not pay expenses. This was 
 owing apparently to sheep-breeding alone receiving attention : if other 
 branches of farming had been combined, the results would probably 
 have been more favourable. 
 
 In 1888 a flock of fifteen rams and ewes was imported from Australia 
 with the view of improving the fleece of the country breed. A flock 
 of white sheep and their lambs by an acclimatized merino ram had also 
 been collected for breeding purposes. The lambs thus bred are larger 
 and the fleece of the sheep much better than those of the ordinary 
 sheep of the country. Some have been sent to Haidarabad and others 
 sold or distributed to raiyats for breeding. 
 
 Goats. — There are two kinds of goats, the long-legged or nteke, and 
 the short-legged or kaiichi incke, but the two can propagate together. 
 In every flock of sheep there is commonly a proportion of 10 or 
 20 nicke to 100 sheep. This does not interfere with the pasture 
 of the sheep, for the goats live entirely on the leaves of bushes and 
 trees. One male is kept for twenty females. Of those not wanted for 
 breeding, the shepherd sacrifices some for his own use v/hile they are 
 young ; the remainder he castrates and sells to the butcher. The 
 female breeds at two years of age. They breed once a year, about 
 four times, after which they are generally killed by the shepherds for 
 their own use. For three months the kid is allowed the whole milk ; 
 afterwards the mother is milked once a day for two months ; and eight 
 goats will give a quart of milk. The excrement of both sheep and 
 eoats is much used for manure.
 
 208 
 
 ETHNOGRAPHY 
 
 The aboriginal inhabitants of Mysore cannot probably be now traced 
 with any degree of certainty, though remains of prehistoric races 
 abound in stone monuments of different kinds, elsewhere described. 
 On various scientific grounds India appears to have been originally 
 part of a continent (to which the name Lemuria is sometimes given) 
 stretching west to Africa and east to Cochin China and Australia, of 
 which Madagascar on the one side, and the islands included in 
 Melanesia in the Indian Archipelago on the other, are some of the 
 principal existing remains.^ Of the primeval human races whose home 
 it may have been, there survived (according to a theory of Professor 
 Huxley's, developed by Professor Haeckel of Jena) two, namely, a 
 woolly-haired and a smooth-haired. From the former sprang the 
 Hottentots and negroes in Africa westwards and the Papuans of New 
 Guinea eastwards ; from the latter, represented perhaps by the natives 
 of Australia, were derived the straight-haired and the curly-haired 
 races. The first were the progenitors of the Malays of the islands in 
 the Pacific Ocean, and of the Mongols of Eastern and Northern Asia, 
 who penetrated on one side to Europe (their survivors being found in 
 the Finns, Lapps, Magyars and Turks), on the other side to America, 
 producing the Red Indians : the second peopled India and spread to 
 South-western Asia, North Africa and the South of Europe. The 
 original inhabitants of South India and Ceylon, distinguished as 
 Dravidians {homo Dravida), may ])erhaps represent the least changed 
 examples of the second branch. This hypothesis discredits the views 
 at one time adopted, that the Dravidians migrated into India from the 
 north-west, of which there is little evidence, the indications being held 
 to be equally in favour of the opposite course. 
 
 Several of the Puranas' claim an Aryan descent for the southern 
 races by making their progenitors or eponyms, Pandya, Karnata, Chola 
 
 ^ " Throughout the later part of the palceozoic and the whole of the mesozoic 
 era, there was a continuons stretch of dry land over what is now the Indian Ocean." 
 " At the close of the cretaceous or commencement of the eocene period, the great 
 Indo-African continent was finally broken up, and all but the remnants in India and 
 South Africa sunk finally beneath the sea." — R. D. Oldham, Gi-oIotQ' of India, 
 pp. 211, 494. 
 
 * The Vriyu, Matsya, Agni and Brahma Puranas. — Muir, .S". T., II., 422.
 
 PRIMITIVE TRIBES 209 
 
 and Kerala, to be descendants of Dushyanta, the adopted son of 
 Turvasu, who was the younger brother of Yadu, and a prince of the 
 lunar line. Their father Yayati, the son of Xahusha, gave the govern- 
 ment of the south to Yadu, and that of the south-east to Turvasu, who 
 is also said to have been the progenitor of the Yavanas.' Another 
 account" substitutes Kola for Karnata. The former is a name which 
 occurs extensively throughout India as the designation of a wide-spread 
 aboriginal race. If the two therefore are interchangeable, it would 
 seem as if the people of Karnata were considered identical with the 
 Kols of the Central Provinces.'' The name appears in Kolar, after 
 which the eastern District of Mysore is called, as well as in Kolala in 
 the Tiimkur District.^ 
 
 Though the Dravidians were certainly not Aryans, these statements 
 may embody prehistorical myths. For analysis of such myths may be 
 made to show that Turvasu was the name of a star-worshiping people, 
 whose god (Akkadian 7'asii) was the meridian pole {tur), which stood 
 , for the Linga or I'hallus, being evolved from the fire-drill and socket, 
 its revolution amid the circumpolar stars of the Great Bear being 
 considered the cause of the rains. They may be identified with the 
 Zend Turanians {an signifying god in that language), and with the 
 maritime traders called Tour-sha and Tur-sene or Tyrrhenians 
 mentioned in Egyptian and (ireek records. Their first great trading 
 port was Dvdraka in the peninsula of Kathiawar ; other exporting 
 harbours being Surpdraka (Surat) at the mouth of the Tapti, and 
 Baragyza (Broach) at the mouth of the Narmada. They made settle- 
 ments at the holy island of Dilmun (now Bahrein) in the Persian Gulf, 
 and at Eridu, near the mouth of the Euphrates. 
 
 In course of time migration set the other way, and we meet with a 
 race, also non-Aryan, who reverenced the moon {sin) and brought in 
 
 ' Turvasu was also sentenced to rule over savages and barbarians — Mlechehhas, or 
 ]ieople not Hindus . . Manu, too, places the Dravidas amongst Mlechehhas ; and 
 these and similar passages indicate a period prior to the introduction of Hinduism into 
 the south of India. — Wilson, Jlshiiti Ptirana, iv, 117. '•' Harivamsa, Muir, ^/. <//. 
 
 •' The tribes driven out of the valley of the Ganges by the Aryans were almost 
 certainly Kols to the south, and semi-Tibetans to the north. — Caldwell, Grain. Drav. 
 I.aui^., Int., 63. 
 
 ^ The generally received theory is that the Kolarian triljes are relics of barbarians 
 who entered India from the north-east at some very remote pre-historic period : they 
 were subsequently, perhaps thousands of years ago, pushed aside by Turanian innni- 
 grants frt)m Western Asia, who penetrated India from the north-west and filled the 
 western and southern districts ; at a later period the Aryans came into India, also 
 from the north-west, settled in the Punjab, and eventually s]iread, first east and 
 lastly south, into all parts of the Indian continent. 
 
 P
 
 2 1 o ETHNOGRAPHY 
 
 tlic year of thirteen lunar months. These were the Hus, Shus or Sus, 
 the yellow race from the sources of the Tigris and Euphrates (and later 
 of Shushan) who settled in the delta of the Indus — the Su-varna from 
 whom Sindh was called Sindhu-Suvarna, part of Bengal Karna-Suvarna, 
 and Oujarat and Kathiawar received the name of Saurashtra. They 
 correspond also with the Sabar?e of Ptolemy, the Suari of Pliny, and the 
 Sauviras of Baudhayana. They were the great Sumerian and Vais'ya 
 traders of Western Asia and India (if not China), the progenitors of 
 the modern Saukars. Their capital was Patala (Haidarabad in Sindh), 
 then a seaport, though now 150 miles from the sea. They gave to the 
 river its name Sindhu or Hindhu, which has come to designate the 
 whole of India and its inhabitants. They are referred to as Yonas by 
 Asoka and as Yavanas in the Mahabharata.^ 
 
 Dushyanta (previously mentioned) or Dushmanta, as he is also 
 called, who was of the line of Puru but adopted by Turvasu, became 
 the father, by Sakuntala, the heroine of Kalidasa's exquisite drama, of 
 Bharata, after whom India was called Bharata-varsha, or land of the 
 Bharatas. These are represented by the Bars or Bhars, whose name is 
 perhaps really derived from the Bar or banyan-tree {ficus indica), which 
 they held sacred. They are an aboriginal race, classed among the 
 Dravidians, and once ruled over a large area from the Central 
 Provinces to Oudh and Behar. They are mentioned by Ptolemy as 
 Barrhai, and may be the Sanskrit barbara or barbarians." Besides Yadu 
 and Turvasu, Yayati had three sons, Druhyu, Anu and Puru. And the 
 collective people of the five races who claimed to be descended from 
 them were the Uravidian Bharatas under Vis'vamitra, who resisted the 
 Aryan advance under Vasishtha, and whose defeat is celebrated in the 
 seventh mandala of the Rig-veda.'* 
 
 As regards Mysore, which is included in the Dravidian region, it 
 seems not unlikely that the Tudas or Todas of the Nilgiris may be 
 representatives of primeval tribes there settled. Not only is their 
 
 ' See J. F. Hewitt's " The Ruling Races of Prehistoric Times," from which these 
 particulars have been extracted, out of a bewildering maze of detail. " It was in 
 this region (the Western Punjab) probably that they (the Aryans) found the first 
 enemy of foreign race to themselves, for they mention hostile serpent-worshippers of 
 a yellow complexion, and from other sources we learn that very early in history there 
 had been movements amongst the light-tinted race of West-Central Asia, that went 
 by the generic name of Skythian."— J. A. Baines, General Report on the Census of 
 India, 1891, p. 122. 
 
 * See "The Original Inhabitants of Bharata-varsha," by Dr. G. Oppert. 
 
 ^ The story is told in Rig-veda, vii., iS, 2,1 (1-6) and 83, and in iii., 33.— Hewitt, 
 p. 112.
 
 TUDAS 2 1 1 
 
 language Old Canarese (modified apparently by the exigencies of their 
 present location'), but it is suggestive that they hold sacred the buffalo, 
 from which animal Mahishur (Mysore) derives its name. It might even 
 be supposed that the legend of the conquest of Mahishasura by 
 Chamundi is based on an historical fact, — a victory gained over the 
 minotaur ruler of the Mahisha mandala, or buffalo kingdom, by 
 adherents of one of the Saktis of Siva, in consequence of which the 
 Tudas and other tribes were driven to take refuge in the mountains, 
 but that its frequent occurrence as a subject of sculpture in other parts 
 seems to indicate that the triumph was an event of wider and more 
 national importance. 
 
 The Tudas have excited much interest as a race and as regards their 
 origin. It was at one time held by some that they were Skythians, but 
 it is now generally admitted that they arc later arrivals than the race by 
 whom the ancient monuments were constructed on which a Skythian 
 descent was based. 
 
 In the next chapter, however, it will be seen that the ancient history 
 of the country leads us back, as one of the earliest known events, to the 
 conquest by the Haihayas, presumably a Skytiiian people, of Mahish- 
 mati or Mahesvara-pura (in the Central Provinces;, and its subsequent 
 recovery by the emperor Sagara, sprung from the ejected native race, 
 who thenceforward imposed on the vanquished the stigma of shaving 
 their heads in peculiar modes as a mark of subjection. Now not only 
 do the Tudas (in common with other supposed aborigines) wear their 
 hair unshorn, but it is worthy of note that they are acknowledged as 
 lords of the soil by the Kotas, Badagas- and other tribes on the hills, 
 also immigrants from Karnata,"'' though of a later date, who pay them 
 ^i^iidu, kutii or tribute ; and that in virtue of this position the Tudas 
 systematically abstain from all labour, unless milking their buffaloes can 
 be described as such. 
 
 Another early if not aboriginal race are probably to be found in the 
 
 * The Tildas chiefly converse in the ojien air, calling to each other from one hreezy 
 hill top to another. Their speech sounds liUe Old Canarese spoken in the teeth of a 
 gale of wind. . . . The language seems to have been originally Old Canarese 
 and not a distinct dialect. The Tudas were probably immigrants from the Canarese 
 country, and have dwelt on the Nilagiris for al)out Soo (Pat least i,8oo) years. — 
 — Dr. I'ojie, Out lines of 7'iida Gram. 
 
 * The liadagas, northerners, are so called from badai^a, the Kannada for north. 
 
 ^ Kota may be considered as a very old and very rude dialect of the Canarese, 
 which was carried thither (the Nilgiri hills) by a persecuted low-caste tribe al some 
 very remote period. . . . The dialect spoken by the Burghers or H;idagas (the 
 northern people) is an ancient but organized dialect of Canarese. — Dr. Caldwell, 
 ■Grain. Drav. Lang., Intro., 37. 
 
 P 2
 
 2 1 2 ETHNOGRAPHY 
 
 Hale I'aika or I'aiki, of the- Nagar Malnad, and there are some curious 
 coincidences between them and the Tudas. Their name is said to be 
 derived from hale and /<?>//(vj, meaning Old Foot, as they furnished the 
 foot-soldiers and body-guards of former rulers, to whom they were 
 noted for their fidelity.^ Considering the locality which they chiefly 
 inhabit, we may conjecture that they formed some portion of the so- 
 called monkey army which assisted Rama in his expedition against 
 Ceylon. A nearly corresponding tribe on the coast north of Honavar 
 is called Kumara Paika, the Junior Foot. There is a military tribe in 
 Vizagapatam, called Paik.s, who are said to be plainly aboriginal."' 
 Also Paiks in Orissa, who call themselves sons of the squirrel, are classed 
 among the first Turanian immigrants.'* The principal occupation 
 now of the Hale Paiki is the extraction of toddy from the bhagni palm 
 {caryoia rtrens), the cultivation of rice land, and of kans or woods 
 containing pepper vines ; but they are described as still fond of fire- 
 arms, brave, and great sportsmen. In Vastara and in Tuluva (S. 
 Canara) they are called Bilvar or bowmen.'' In INIanjarabad they are 
 called Devara makkalu, God's children, which seems to support an 
 aboriginal claim, and are mande and grama patels. 
 
 Now it is not a little singular that Paiki is the name of the highest 
 clan of the Todas, from which alone the pdldl or priests are taken, and 
 that the latter style themselves Der mokh, i.e. Devara makkalu, or 
 God's children. The viand of the Nilgiris corresponds with the viaude 
 of Manjarabad. The Todas, on account of their dark complexion, 
 were supposed by Dr. Caldwell to have come from " the eastern or 
 sun-burnt side of the range of Ghats." On the other hand "the simi- 
 larity of some of their customs to those of the Malayalams and the 
 position of their mands, which are mostly in the western uplands of the 
 plateau, whilst some are even in the Wainad, seem to lend colour to 
 the view that their country lay to the west of the Nilagiris." Whatever 
 
 ' The derivation hale pdyika is questionaljle. I have seen hale payaka, which would 
 mean "old drinkers," also given as the origin of the word. The occupation of toddy- 
 drawing may have suggested the latter. And if the peculiarity which Colonel 
 Marshall has remarked in the Todas, that they always keep step in walking — said to 
 he very unusual even among trained sepoys when off duty — be common to the hale 
 paika, it may have suggested the other. 
 
 ^ Macleane, p. 66. ^ Hewitt, p. 192. 
 
 * In connection with the view of Ethiopian affinities in these races, it is curious to 
 note that Herodotus in his account of the presents sent by Cambyses to the Ethiopians 
 (HI, 20-22) particularly mentions z. f ask of date wine, and that their king, though 
 ilistrustful of the other things, was delighted beyond measure with the beverage when 
 he was informed how it was obtained. Also that he sent the Persian king a singular 
 f>ow in return. The bow figures in some remarkable rites among the Todas.
 
 KURUBAS 213 
 
 may have been the land of their origin, it seems more Hkely that " a 
 race of drovers of semi-amphibious buffaloes gradually pushed forward 
 its herds through the rich moist fiats of Wainad to the grassy downs of 
 the Nilagiris, than through the dry plains of Coimbatore and Salem. "^ 
 
 Colonel Marshall, in his interesting work on the Todas, says : — " In 
 the process of writing of them I have grown to the very strong 
 conviction that the people are a surviving sample of some portion of the 
 Turanian race when in its very primitive stage. Without much exercise 
 of the imagination I can picture them the contemporaries and 
 neighbours, even perhaps the ancestors, of races of south-western Asia 
 which have made a figure in early history. There is much of the 
 ' blameless Ethiopian ' about them : soniething of the Jew and 
 Chaldean in their appearance." In a note he adds : — " On the eve of 
 sending this work to the press I would beg again to urge my belief in 
 the connection between the Dravidian Toda and the Ethiop."-' 
 
 Still keeping to the hills, we may probably set down the Kurubas of 
 the south-western forests, and the Soligas of the Biligirirangan hills on 
 the south-east, as aboriginal tribes. The Kurubas, or Kurumbas, as 
 they are there called, extend to the Nilgiri hills, where the Kadagas, 
 who attribute to them great powers of sorcery, always at the time of 
 ploughing employ a Kuruba to turn the first furrow, which may be 
 emblematic of an ancient ownership in the soil, and a sort of acknow- 
 ledgment that the Kuruba permits it to be cultivated. It is significant 
 too that the Kurubas do not pay giidu or tribute to the Todas as the 
 other tribes do. ' 
 
 The Kadu or wild Kurubas of Mysore are divided into Betta or 
 Hill Kurubas,-* a small and active race capable of enduring great 
 fatigue, who are expert woodmen : and the Jenu or Honey Kurubas, 
 said to be a darker and inferior race, who employ themselves in collect- 
 ing honey and bees'-wax. Their villages or clusters of huts are called 
 hddi. Among their peculiar customs, a separate hut or chdvadi is set 
 apart in which the unmarried females of the hddi sleep at night, and 
 another at the other extremity of the hadi for the unmarried males ; 
 both being under the supervision of the headman of the tribe. They 
 are their own barbers, bits of broken glass doing duty for razors. 
 Strangers are not allowed to enter a hadi with shoes on. In cases of 
 death, adults only are cremated; children are buried. The Betta 
 
 • Grigg's " Manual of ihc Nilagiri District," ch. ix. 
 ^ " A Phrenologist among the Todas," p. 4. 
 
 ^ Breeks, "The Trimitive Triljes and Monmnents of the Nilagiris." 
 
 * There are also sul)divisions called Ane (elephant), Bevina (from bi'vii, the neem- 
 tree), and Koiji (firebrand) Kurubas.
 
 2 1 4 ETJIXOGRAPII Y 
 
 Kurubas worship forest deities called Nonili and Mastaiunia, and are 
 said to be revengeful, but if treated kindly will do willing service. The 
 J«?nu Kurubas never own or cultivate land for themselves, nor keep 
 livestock of their own. Both classes are expert in tracking wild 
 animals, as well as skilful in eluding pursuit by wild animals acci- 
 dentally encountered. Their children when over two years old move 
 about freely in the jungle.^ 
 
 The Iruliga of the forest tracts in the eastern Districts, seem to be 
 another tribe closely resembling the Jenu Kurubas, and engaged in the 
 same pursuits. Their name is said to be derived from irul, night, 
 indicating the blackness of their hue. Buchanan mentions that they 
 called themselves Chensu, the name of well-known wild tribes in the 
 Madras country. The Soligas are a very secluded race. They speak 
 Old Canarese, and are remarkable for their keenness of sight, and skill 
 in tracking wild animals. The tribes of Hasulas and Maleyas, who 
 somewhat resemble them, are met with along the Ghats on the western 
 frontier. But these appear to be immigrants from South Canara, and 
 speak Tulu. They collect cardamoms and other wild products for their 
 employers, whose agrestic slaves they have virtually become. They live 
 in small isolated huts, which, in the case of the Hasulas, are provided 
 not only with the usual principal entrance by which to crawl in, but 
 also with a half-concealed hole in the rear, through which the shy 
 inmates steal out into the jungle at the merest suspicion of danger or 
 on the approach of a stranger. Their religion seems to be devil- 
 worship. ^^'hen a person dies, his spirit is supposed to have been 
 stolen by some one else's devil, who is pointed out by the astrologer 
 after divination by throwing cowries or rice. The heir or relation of the 
 deceased then redeems the spirit by offering a pig, fowl or other gift, and 
 it is caused to take up its abode in a pot, which is periodically supplied 
 with water and nourishment. - 
 
 The Korachas, Koramas, or Koravas, a numerous wandering tribe, 
 who carry salt and grain from one market to another by means of large 
 droves of cattle and asses, and also employ themselves in making 
 bamboo mats and baskets, appear to have an affinity with aboriginal or 
 early naturalized tribes. The mode in which the men wear their hair, 
 gathered up into a large knot or bunch on one side of the top of the 
 head, exactly resembles what we see in the sculptured figures on various 
 stone monuments. The women, again, may be known by numerous 
 strings of small red and white glass beads and shells worn round the 
 neck and falling over the bosom. In the depths of the forest they are 
 
 ' Report on the Mysore Census of 1S91, pp. 226^ - lb. p. 230.
 
 HOLAYAS 215 
 
 even said to dispense with more substantial covering. This also accords 
 with the ancient practice illustrated in numerous bas-reliefs. For 
 women, as there represented, are commonly arrayed in nothing more 
 than rows of ornamental chains and jewellery, pendent from the throat 
 and loins — an attire, if such it may be called, worthy of the Age of 
 Innocence ; and becoming enough, it may be, on the golden-olive and 
 nut-brown tints, that scarce reveal a blush, of Nature's vesture for the 
 fair of these climes. 
 
 The Koravas in Chutia Nagpur are described as Kolarians,^ and such 
 those in Mysore may be by origin. They are here credited with strong 
 thieving propensities. One section is called Dabbe (split bamboo), and 
 consists no doubt specially of mat-makers. It would appear as if some 
 reminiscence of a custom like coirrade lingered among the Koravas, for 
 it is said that when a woman is confined, her husband takes medicine 
 for her.- They live in small camps of movable wicker huts, which are 
 sometimes stationary for a time near large towns, but are often removed 
 from place to place daily. 
 
 Descending to the interior, we find an out-caste race, the Holayas, 
 whose name may be derived from hola, a field,'' occupying a quarter 
 of their own, called the Hola-geri, outside every village boundary hedge. 
 They are the Chandilla of Sanskrit writers ; and are the representatives 
 of the Bala-gai or right-hand faction, of which an account will be found 
 further on. "As a body they are the servants of the ryots, and are 
 mainly engaged in tending the plough and watching the herds. But 
 one of this despised order is generally the priest to the village goddess, 
 and as such, on that annual day when all hasten to pay their offerings 
 at her shrine, takes precedence of the twice-born Brahman."^ 
 
 The ioti or kulavddi (he who directs the ryots), always a Holaya, 
 is a recognized and indispensable member of every village corporation. 
 In his official position he is the village policeman, the beadle of the 
 village community, the headman's henchman ; but in the rights and 
 
 ' Hewitt, p. 47. " The old traditions make no distinction between the dark races, 
 if indeed there were any. Philology indicates a fairly well-marked distinction between 
 the languages of the tribes of the central belt, and groups one section, mainly that to 
 the southward, under the head of Dravidian, and the other under a title which has 
 remained, for want of a better, in its primitive and not very correct form of Kolarian. 
 Physiolog)-, however, has been busy amongst these tribes, and discovers no trace of 
 distinction between the two groups." — Baines, p. 123. 
 
 '■' Mys. Cen. Rep., p. 226. 
 
 3 But the Brahmans call them Iloleyas, which they derive from hole, impure. 
 
 ^ This and following particulars are taken from a paper by Captain Mackenzie on 
 tlie " Kulavadi of the Hassan District." — Ind. Aiil., II., 65.
 
 2 1 6 ETHNOGRAPHY 
 
 privil Clot's wliirli yil cling to him wc get glim[).sc.s of his former estate, 
 mul fnid proofs that the Holayar were the first to establish villages. All 
 the castes unhesitatingly admit that the kulavacli is {de jure) the owner 
 of the village. If there is a dispute as to the village boundaries, the 
 kuLivddi is the only one competent to take the oath as to how the 
 boundary ought to run, and to this day a village boundary dispute is 
 often decided by this one fact — if the kulavadis agree, the other inhabi- 
 tants of the village can say no more. Formerly, when a village was first 
 established, a large stone, called karu kailu, was set up within it. To 
 such stones the patel once a year makes an offering, but the kulavadi, 
 after the ceremony is over, is entitled to carry off the rice, &c., offered, 
 and in cases where there is no patel, the kujavadi performs the 
 ceremony. 
 
 But what seems to prove strongly that the Holaya was the first to 
 take possession of the soil is, that the kulavadi receives, and is entitled 
 to receive, from the friends of any person who dies in the village a 
 certain burial fee, or, as it is forcibly put, " they buy from him the ground 
 for the dead." This fee is still called in Canarese 7ie/a hdga} In 
 Manjarabad, the ancient Balam, the kujavadi does not receive this fee 
 from those ryots who are related to the headman. Here the kulavadi 
 occupies a higher position ; he has in fact been adopted into the patel's 
 family, for on a death occurring in such family the kulavadi goes into 
 mourning by shaving his head. He always receives from the friends 
 the cloths the deceased wore, and a brass basin. 
 
 The kulavadi, however, has to pay an annual tax, consisting of 
 one fowl, one hana (4 annas 8 pie), and a handful of rice, to the agent 
 of the Sudugadu Sidda or lord of the burning grounds, who resides 
 somewhere in the Baba Budan hills and is of the Gangadikara ^^'ok- 
 kaliga caste. 
 
 Traditions, whose authenticity there seems no reason to doubt, are 
 preserved, as elsewhere related, of an early Jain immigration, perhaps 
 in the 4th century B.C., from Ujjayini and the north ; also of the 
 introduction in the 3rd or 4th century a.d. of Brahmans, the pro- 
 genitors of the Haiga or Havika Brahmans of the Nagar country, from 
 Ahichchhatra in Panchala or Rohilkhand, by one of the Kadamba 
 kings ; - of the attempt of the king of the Chandalas above the Ghats to 
 
 ' From iiehi, the ground, and h(iga, a small coin (worth one anna two pie). 
 
 ' The Haiga Brahmans seem to be of pure race and of no bastard or doubtful 
 caste. They are described as very fair, with large eyes and aquiline noses, a descrip- 
 tion which would imply for them a derivation from an uncorrupted and little inter- 
 mixed northern source. — Campbell, Ethtwl. India^ 74.
 
 POPULATION 217 
 
 form a matrimonial alliance with a Kadamba princess, his consequent 
 death by treachery and the loss of his kingdom, into which the 
 Brahmans under the new rulers gained admission. In the south we have 
 evidence that in the 3rd and 4th centuries the (ianga kings were 
 extending their sway over Mysore, and this seems to have been accom- 
 panied by a gradual setting aside of the predominant Jain influence by 
 that of Brahmans. The Chola invasions of the nth century introduced 
 a large Tamil influence. In the east and north, wc may suppose that 
 under the Mauryas and the Pallavas, up to the 6th century. Buddhistic 
 influences would be chiefly at work, and settlers from the Telugu 
 countries attracted into Mysore. The progress of events as related in 
 the next chapter will suggest the circumstances under which the 
 population was probably recruited by Kongas, Reddis, Woddas and 
 other tribes. 
 
 As far back as the loth century we lind two great territorial divisions, 
 namely, Gangavadi, occupying the southern and central parts of the 
 country, and Nonambavadi the northern. The correspondence of 
 names shows that in the Gangadikara and Nonaba Wokkaligas, who 
 form, especially the first, so large a proportion of the agricultural class, 
 we have the descendants of the subjects of those provinces. The advent 
 of Muhammadan and Mahratta immigrants can without much difficulty 
 be assigned to the right time, and that of Europeans is well known. 
 The vicissitudes through which the country has passed will prepare us 
 to find a great admixture of castes and people. Accordingly, no fewer 
 than 112 different names of castes and 382 recognized subdivisions 
 occur in the last Census Report for 1891. The number of sub- 
 divisions actually returned, however, is stated to have been no less 
 than 864. 
 
 POPULATION 
 
 The first census was taken in 1 840-1 and the next in 1 85 1-2, since 
 which period annual returns were made up until 1871, when a census 
 more minute and exact was carried out. The latter indeed may 
 probably be considered the only real census obtained by actual enumer- 
 ation of the people ; the older khdneshunidri estimates having been 
 generally formed, it is believed, by multiplying the ascertained number 
 of families by a figure assumed to be the average number of memliers 
 composing each. Nevertheless the figures, so far as any are available, 
 are not without interest.
 
 2l8 
 
 ETHNOGRAPHY 
 
 Year. 
 
 Hindus. 
 
 Muhammadanx. 
 
 Others. 
 
 Total. 
 
 I So I 
 
 
 
 1,969,493 
 
 1S04 
 
 2,094,359 
 
 77,395 
 
 
 2,171,754' 
 
 1832 
 
 
 
 
 3,500,000'^ 
 
 1841 
 
 
 
 
 3,050,713 
 
 1851 
 
 
 
 
 3,426,458 
 
 1852 
 
 
 
 
 3,460,696 
 
 1854 
 
 
 
 
 3,501,283 
 
 1855 
 
 
 
 
 3,535,441 
 
 1S56 
 
 3,476,966 
 
 152,611 
 
 
 3,629,577 
 
 1S57 
 
 3,447,944 
 
 161,160 
 
 ... 
 
 3,609,104^ 
 
 1S58 
 
 3,557,110 
 
 181,817 
 
 
 3,738,927 
 
 1859 
 
 3.621, 723« 
 
 200,500* 
 
 
 3,822,223 
 
 i860 
 
 
 
 
 3,821,000 
 
 1863 
 
 
 
 
 3,872,209 
 
 1864 
 
 
 
 
 3,895,687 
 
 1865 
 
 
 
 
 4,013,601 
 
 1866 
 
 
 
 
 3,915,721 1 Famine 
 
 1867 
 
 3-724.I78 
 
 172,255 
 
 14,302 
 
 3,910,735/ years. 
 
 1868 
 
 
 
 
 3,909,121 
 
 1869 
 
 3>793,973 
 
 182,654 
 
 29,713 
 
 4,006,340 
 
 1870 
 
 3>839>679 
 
 189,272 
 
 27,815 
 
 4,108,607 
 
 The results of the regular census of 187 1 showed that the population 
 must have been under-estimated in the previous valuations.^ But so 
 far as these afford any data for calculation, the rate of increase in the 
 decade 1841-1851 was i2'3 per cent; in the 9 years 1851-1860 
 the rate was ii*5 percent; and in the decade 1860-1870 it was 7*5 
 per cent. 
 
 ' Excluding Balam and the recently interchanged districts, the number was 202,261. 
 A considerable migration took place from the districts allotted to the Xizam into 
 Dodballapur and that neighbourhood, but nearly the whole of these persons gradually 
 returned after the cession of those provinces to the Company. Many families which 
 had emigrated to Baramahal in 1792, when it was ceded to the Company, now returned 
 to Mysore. About 200,000 persons also emigrated temporarily from the Mahratta 
 country into Mysore, to escape from the famine which prevailed there. 
 
 ^ This is printed in the report as 4,500,000, a total which seems so manifestly 
 wrong that I have taken the liberty of altering the first figure. 
 
 '^ The decrease is explained as due to the omission of the island of Seringapatam. 
 
 * Approximate. 
 
 * Writing in 1804, Col. Wilks has the following remarks on the estimate of 
 population at that period : — " I am induced to suspect some error in one of the 
 computations, notwithstanding the frequency in Mysore of that most fatal source of 
 depopulation, the presence of a Mahratta army. The usurpation of Haidar All may 
 be considered as complete in 1760 ; at that time many of the districts were permanently 
 occupied by Mahratta troops. Gopal Rao Hari invaded Mysore in the same year. 
 It was again invaded by Bani \'isaji Pandit in 176 1 ; by Madhu Rao in 1765, 1767 
 and 1770 ; by Tryambak Rao in 1771 ; by Raghunatha Rao in 1774 ; by Hari Pant 
 Purkia in 1776 and 1786; and lately I have investigated on the spot and examined
 
 CENSUS TOTALS 
 
 219 
 
 7'he following table shows the total male and female population, and 
 the total in each District, as found by the census of 187 1, compared 
 with the numbers of the previous estimate : — 
 
 District.' 
 
 Bangalore 
 Kolar ... 
 Tumkur 
 Mysore 
 Hassan 
 Shimoga 
 Kadur ... 
 Chitaklroog 
 
 Total 
 
 Estimated Population of 
 
 1869-1870. 
 
 Actual Number as per General 
 Census of 1871. 
 
 Increase 
 'percent. 
 
 Male.*;. 
 
 356,241 
 274,859 
 251,029 
 400,537 
 320,373 
 234,167 
 
 137,593 
 203,069 
 
 Females. 
 
 303.162 
 251,601 
 245.034 
 362,922 
 272,428 
 196,053 
 124,229 
 175,310 
 
 Total. 
 
 659.403! 
 526,460 
 496,063 
 
 763,459 
 592,801 
 430,220 
 261,822 
 378,379 
 
 Males. 
 
 Females. Total. 
 
 414,543 
 309,685 
 
 315.440 
 467,562 
 
 328,324 
 258,446 
 
 170,337 
 271,587 
 
 413,811 
 309,269 
 
 316,799 
 475,625 
 340,093 
 240,530 
 163,588 
 259,773 
 
 828,354 
 618,954 
 632,239 
 943,187 
 668,417 
 498,976 
 333,925 
 531,360 
 
 2,177,8681,930,7394,108,60712,535,9242,519,4885,055,412 
 
 25-6 
 17-6 
 27-5 
 307 
 12-8 
 i6-o 
 27-6 
 40-4 
 
 23-0 
 
 Since the general census of November 1871 a general census has 
 been taken on two occasions, one on the night of the 17th February 
 rSSi, and the other on the night of the 26th February 1891, syn- 
 chronous with the general census of all India on those dates. The 
 results of the three may be exhibited as follows : — 
 
 Year. 
 
 Males. Females. 
 
 ; 
 
 Total. 
 
 Difference 
 per cent. 
 
 No. per 
 square mile. 
 
 ' 1871 
 1881 
 1891 
 
 2,535,924 2,519,488 
 2,085,842 2,100,346 
 
 2,483,451 2,460,153 
 
 1 
 
 5,055,412 
 4,186,188 
 4,943,604 
 
 - I7'i9 
 + 18-09 
 
 172-5 
 142-8 
 168-6 
 
 the traces of the merciless ravages committed in 1 791 and 1792 by I'arasuram Bhao. 
 In consequence of these incessant calamities, many districts formerly well-peopled do 
 nt)t exhibit the vestige of a human being ; and Chitaldroog District in particular may 
 be considered as deprived of the great mass of its inhabitants. 
 
 The word valsH is applied to the inhabitants of a district who, deserting their homes 
 on the approach of a hostile predatory force such as that of the Mahrattas, migrate 
 en masse to another part of the country or to inaccessible woods and hills until the 
 departure of the enemy. And no testimony could be more emphatic to a state of 
 habitual misery than the existence, in all the languages of the south, of this single 
 term to describe what cannot be expressed in any European language but by a long 
 circumlocution." 
 
 ' The limits of the several Districts have i)een subject to alterations since, and do 
 not therefore exactly coincide with the existing limits, though the names are the 
 .same.
 
 220 ETIINOGRAPJIY 
 
 The decrease which took place in the decennial period 187 1 to 1881 
 was due to the great famime of 1877 and 1878. (The present popula- 
 tion is somewhat greater than that of Ireland — 4,704,750 in 1891.) 
 
 The distribution of the population by districts is as follows : — 
 
 District. 
 
 Approximate 
 Area. 
 
 Males. 
 
 Females. 
 
 Total. 
 
 No. per 
 square 
 mile. 
 
 Percentage 
 to total. 
 
 Bangalore ... 
 
 3,081 
 
 399.486 
 
 403.508 
 
 802,994 
 
 260 
 
 16-24 
 
 Kolar 
 
 3.433 
 
 297.655 
 
 293.375 
 
 591,030 
 
 175 
 
 11-96 
 
 Ti'imkur 
 
 4,367 
 
 291.133 
 
 289,653 
 
 580,786 
 
 133 
 
 11-75 
 
 jMy.sore 
 
 5,078 
 
 580,737 
 
 601,077 
 
 1,181,814 
 
 232 
 
 23-90 
 
 Has.san 
 
 2,603 
 
 255.044 
 
 259,908 
 
 514.952 
 
 197 
 
 10-42 
 
 Shimoga 
 
 4,048 
 
 275.884 
 
 252,097 
 
 527.981 
 
 130 
 
 10-68 
 
 Kadur 
 
 2,685 
 
 173,922 
 
 156,141 
 
 330,063 
 
 123 
 
 6-67 
 
 Chitaldroog... 
 
 . 
 
 4,010 
 
 209,590 
 
 204,394 
 
 413.984 
 
 103 
 
 8-38 
 
 The classification of the people according to the main heads of 
 religious belief gives the following results : — 
 
 Class. 
 
 Males. 
 
 Females. 
 
 Total. 
 
 1 Percentage. 
 
 1 
 
 Hindus 
 
 Jains 
 
 Muhammadans 
 Christians ... 
 Others (Parsi, Sikh, Brahmo) 
 
 2,324,499 
 7,116 
 
 131.473 
 20,306 
 
 57 
 
 2,314,605 
 
 6,162 
 
 121,500 
 
 17,829 
 
 57 
 
 4,639,104 
 
 13,278 
 
 252,973 
 
 38,135 
 
 114 
 
 93 '84 
 -27 
 
 5-II 
 •77 
 
 Total 
 
 2,483,451 
 
 2,460,153 
 
 4,943,604 
 
 1 
 
 Compared with the similar table for 187 1 it appears that Hindus have 
 diminished by 1-25 per cent., while Muhammadans have increased by 
 •98, and Christians by '27, which together exactly make up the 
 difference. It should however be taken into account that the total 
 population in the same period fell by 2-5 per cent. 
 
 Hindus. — Under the term Hindu have been included all natives of 
 this part of India who do not properly come under one of the other 
 headings. The Hindus are nominally divided into four castes, which 
 are entirely separate from each other, and between whom no connection 
 by marriage or otherwise is permitted. The distinction is complete in 
 every sense, hereditary and personal, and it is impossible for any 
 member of these castes to be other than what his birth made him, 
 unless indeed he should transgress some law binding on his particular 
 caste beyond the possibility of pardon or expiation. In such a case the
 
 CASTE 221 
 
 punishment is expulsion from the community or loss of caste, when the 
 unfortunate individual becomes contemptible in the eyes of all, and his 
 place henceforth is amongst the lowest Pariahs, the dregs of Hindu 
 society. Even the most despised caste would decline to admit him on 
 terms of social equality, even though he had been originally one of the 
 heaven-born Brahmans. The first or highest caste is the Brahman or 
 priestly class ; the second the Kshatriya or military class ; the third is 
 the Vaisya class, composed of husbandmen and merchants ; and the 
 fourth is that of the Siidras, and comprehends artisans, labourers and 
 agriculturists.^ Besides these there are many castes unrecognized by 
 the four grand divisions, whose manners and customs are governed by 
 laws of their own, and who are as exclusive in their way as any of the 
 four above mentioned. 
 
 Caste," originally called vartja, colour, but now more usually Jdti, 
 I)irth, was doul)tless at first a distinction of race based on difference of 
 complexion, and intended to prevent degeneration from intermixture 
 of the fair-skinned Aryan conquerors with the dark-skinned earlier 
 settlers, or the black aboriginal tribes. The tradition of the common 
 origin of the four pure castes or tribes from the head, arms, thighs, and 
 feet of Brahma, points to them collectively as forming eventually one 
 nation, each class distinguished from the others by reason of its 
 occupation, which was probably hereditary. But numerous other 
 mixed castes were always found among the great body of the popula- 
 tion. The statements in Manu suffice to show that endless ramifica- 
 tions had taken place in his time through intermarriages of different 
 castes, and he assigns separate names to an enormous number of new 
 castes that sprang from these connections. " Indeed, it is evident that 
 some of the lowest castes, perhaps many, were in part derived from the 
 highest," says Mr. Sherring, who also writes :— " Had the creation of 
 new castes continued to be made in succeeding ages with the same 
 ease and rapidity as they were in these earlier times, it is plain that the 
 caste system would have destroyed itself, in two ways, — first, by the 
 multiplication of new castes throughout the land, and, secondly, by the 
 intermarriages of all the castes. The increased strictures imposed upon 
 the castes, especially upon the primary ones, and the prohibition of 
 irregular marriages — that is, of marriages of members of one caste with 
 
 ' Strong opposition was manifested on the part of certain classes in the census of 
 1891 to be graded among Sudras, accompanied with strenuous efforts to be included 
 among Brahmans. 
 
 - From casta, Portuguese for race or breed. According to a passage in the Maha 
 Hharata, the colour of Brahmans is white, of Kshatriyas red, of \'aisyas yellow, of 
 Sudras black.
 
 3 2 2 E THNO GRAPH Y 
 
 mcnihcTs of another, — gave in later years strength and vitality to a 
 system which otherwise must soon have become extinguished. At 
 what epoch this fundamental change in its constitution was made is not 
 known." ' 
 
 In Mysore the various castes are probably as numerous as in any 
 other part of India of equal extent. The natives of the Province, by a 
 fanciful arrangement, recognize loi as the limit to the total number, 
 but in the enumerators' forms of the recent census it was found that 864 
 castes had been returned, more than double the number given in 1871. 
 Some of these, though returned in different localities under different 
 names, doubtless belonged originally to the same stock. A few families 
 or individuals probably separated from the main body, and having 
 removed to another part of the country, either adopted a new name or 
 were given one by their neighbours. There is every reason to believe 
 that in some similar manner the number of castes is even now con- 
 stantly increasing. Disputes arise, and the caste divides into two 
 factions, each headed by some influential man or family ; they refuse 
 to associate with each other or to intermarry, and unless in a short 
 time some common interest compels the parties to re-unite, a separate 
 caste or sub-division is permanently formed, which adopts some 
 peculiarity of its own to distinguish it from the original. 
 
 The agricultural, artisan and trading communities are termed patjas 
 or professions, which are eighteen in number. These paiias are divided 
 into two factions, called Bala-gai and Yeda-gai, or right and left hands. 
 A large number of castes belong to one or other of these divisions. 
 All Brahmans, Kshatriyas, and most of the Siidras are considered 
 neutral. Although the right- and left-hand factions are said to include 
 only eighteen trades, there are many castes which adhere to one side 
 or the other, but their numbers do not seem to be taken into 
 account. 
 
 The following are the castes composing the two factions : — 
 
 A'4 
 
 ^ht-hand Faction. 
 
 Left-hand Faction. 
 
 
 Banajiga ... 
 
 Wokkaliga 
 
 Ganiga 
 
 Traders. 
 ... Cultivators. 
 ... Oilmen who yoke 
 only one bullock 
 
 Panchala, com 
 Badagi ... 
 Kanchugara 
 
 prising : — 
 ... Carpenters. 
 ... Copper or 
 smiths. 
 
 brass 
 
 
 to the mill. 
 
 Kammara 
 
 Iron smiths. 
 
 
 Rangare . . 
 Lada 
 
 . . . Dyers. 
 
 ... Mahratta traders. 
 
 Kal-kutiga 
 Akasale... 
 
 Stone-masons 
 ... (Goldsmiths. 
 
 , and 
 
 Gujarati ... 
 
 ... Gujarat merchants. 
 
 
 
 
 » Hindu Tribes and Castes, Intro, xvii. Gotamiputra Satakarni, who reigned in 
 the second century, is said, in an inscription at Nasik, to have prevented the mi.xing 
 of the four castes {varna). — Arch. Siirv. W. Ind., iv., 109.
 
 
 
 PANAS 
 
 223 
 
 Kaniati 
 
 Lalxjurers. 
 
 
 Bheri 
 
 A class of Xagarta 
 
 Jaina 
 
 ... Jain traders. 
 
 
 
 traders. 
 
 Kuril ha 
 
 Shepherds. 
 
 
 Devanga 
 
 Weavers. 
 
 Kumliara ... 
 
 Potters. 
 
 
 Hegganiga 
 
 Oilmen who yoke 
 
 Agasa 
 
 ... Washermen. 
 
 
 
 two bullocks to 
 
 Besta 
 
 I'ishermen or 
 
 Pa- 
 
 
 the mill. 
 
 
 lanquiii l)earers. 
 
 (jolla or Dhanapala 
 
 Cowherds who 
 
 Padmasdle 
 
 ... A class of weavers. 
 
 
 transport money. 
 
 Nayinda ... 
 
 Barbers. 
 
 
 Beda 
 
 Hunters. 
 
 Up]iara 
 
 Salt-makers. 
 
 
 Yakula 
 
 Cultivators. 
 
 Chitragara 
 
 Painters. 
 
 
 Pa]li or Tigala 
 
 Market gardeners. 
 
 Golla 
 
 . . . Cowherds. 
 
 
 Madiga, the lowest 
 
 eft -hand caste. 
 
 Holeya, the 
 
 lowest right-hand caste. 
 
 
 
 
 The Banajigas and Linga Banajigas are the foremen of the right- 
 hand faction. They say that all the eighteen pauas or professions 
 enumerated above belong to them, and that the nine pa/jas of the left- 
 hand are separate. The Panchalas and Nagartas, who are at the head 
 of the left-hand faction, contend that the eighteen paiias are equally 
 divided between the two factions, and that the nine above enumerated 
 belong to them. In the main it is evidently a struggle for precedence 
 between the artisans and the traders, or between followers of the old- 
 established handicrafts and innovators who brought in the exchange of 
 commodities with other parts, supported by producers and ministers to 
 luxury. It has been found impossible to obtain a uniform, authentic, 
 and complete list of the castes composing each faction, but the state- 
 ment above is only doubtful in the case of one or two of the inter- 
 mediate castes, and perhaps Komatis should take the place of Jains, 
 and Toreya that of Yakula. The works referred to as authorities are 
 Sahyddri Khanda and Ellcsa-vijaya, both said to be of the time of the 
 rise of Vijayanagur in the fourteenth century, but the information has 
 not been found in the former, and the latter work is not forthcoming. 
 
 The origin of the distinction between the two divisions is founded 
 on fable,' and is said to have taken place at Conjeveram, where the 
 goddess Kali placed certain castes on her right hand and others on 
 her left. The two parties have ever since disputed as to the relative 
 honour accorded to each side. The division appears to be of compara- 
 tively modern origin, as no mention of it has been found in any ancient 
 work.- It is, moreover, confined entirely to the south of India. Each 
 
 ' There is also a right- and left-hand division of Sakti worshijipers, the rites of the 
 former being principally magical, of the latter bloody and licentious. But there 
 .seems to be no connection between the cases. 
 
 - There is indeed a doubtful passage in the Mahawaitso which may be sujijioscd to 
 refer to it, and if so, the institution would seem to be of great antiipiity. When the 
 Pandya princess was sent from Madura to Ceylon, in response to an embassy from
 
 224 ETJfNOGRAPHY 
 
 parly insists on ils exclusive rights to certain privileges on all public 
 festivals and ceremonies, and it not unfrequently happens that one side 
 usurps the supposed and jealously guarded rights of the other. On 
 such occasions a faction fight is almost sure to ensue. Cases are 
 recorded where the carrying of an umbrella, or wearing particular 
 coloured flowers in the turban, has given rise to severe outbreaks 
 accompanied by bloodshed. The opposition between the two divisions 
 is still kept up, but apparently not with the same bitterness as in former 
 times. In fact some of the castes seem in the late census to have been 
 averse to own themselves as belonging to either hand, preferring to 
 admit adhesion only to the eighteen pana or the nine pana, while over 
 100,000 made no return at all in the matter. The figures actually 
 obtained were, 1,693,461 as belonging to the eighteen pana (the right- 
 hand), and 503,439 as belonging to the nine pana (the left-hand). 
 
 The right-hand claim the exclusive privilege of having twelve pillars 
 in the panda I or shed under which their marriage ceremonies are 
 performed (allowing to the left only eleven) ; of riding on horse- 
 back in processions, and of carrying a flag painted with the figure of 
 Hanuman.i 
 
 The two factions are also styled Desa and Pete (in some places 
 Nadu). The reason given is that Linga Banajigas, who are at the head 
 of the right-hand division, not being original natives of the place, were 
 called Desavalas or outsiders, and the others Pete or Naduvalas. 
 
 In the recent census of 1891 the old caste gradation has been set 
 aside in favour of classifications according to occupation, and, as 
 regards Hindus, according to the numerical importance of the castes. 
 The results of the former are given under the following prescribed 
 heads : — 
 
 Class of Occupation 
 A Agricultural 
 B Professional 
 C Commercial 
 D Artisan and Village menial 
 E Vagrant minor Artisans and Performers, &c. 
 
 Races and nationalities 
 
 Others, not stated ... 
 
 The following is a different return of occupations based on sources of 
 livelihood. Of the total number set down as thus supporting them- 
 selves the actual workers or bread-winners form only 34 '2 7 per cent, 
 the remainder being dependants, chiefly women and children : — 
 
 king \'ijaya soliciting her hand in marriage, she is said (according to one version) to 
 have been accompanied by a thousand members of the eighteen castes and five dif- 
 ferent classes of workmen. ' For caste insignia, see Ind. Ant. iv, 345. 
 
 Numbers 
 
 Percentage 
 
 1,665,442 
 
 33 "69 
 
 290,704 
 
 5-88 
 
 470,570 
 
 9-52 
 
 i>877.94i 
 
 37-99 
 
 344.055 
 
 6-96 
 
 291,168 
 
 5-89 
 
 3.724 
 
 0-07
 
 OCCUPATIONS 
 
 225 
 
 Class of Occupation 
 
 Males 
 
 Females 
 
 Total 
 
 PercentaKC 
 
 Government 
 
 122,327 . 
 
 .. 113,838 . 
 
 236,165 
 
 ... 477 
 
 Pasture and Agricul- 
 
 
 
 
 
 ture 
 
 1,685,445 ■ 
 
 .. 1,630,55s . 
 
 .. 3,316,003 
 
 ... 67-07 
 
 Personal service 
 
 55.182 . 
 
 54,157 • 
 
 •• 109,339 
 
 ... 2 '2 1 
 
 I'reparation of ma- 
 
 
 
 
 
 terial sulxstances . 
 
 221,819 • 
 
 212,610 . 
 
 ■■ 434,429 
 
 ... 878 
 
 Commerce, Transport 
 
 
 
 
 
 and Storage 
 
 90,094 . 
 
 87,284 . 
 
 •• 177,378 
 
 - 3-58 
 
 Professions ... 
 
 40,187 . 
 
 39,825 . 
 
 80,012 
 
 .. i-6i 
 
 Indefinite and Inde- 
 
 
 
 
 
 pendent 
 
 268,397 . 
 
 321,881 . 
 
 • 590,278 
 
 .. 1 1 -92 
 
 Analysis of the preceding table into the various prescribed orders 
 supplies the following further information. The actual number of 
 separate occupations is 634. To the percentage of each on the 
 population of the State has been added, for comparison, the percentage 
 of similar occupations in British India : — ■ 
 
 
 Total 
 
 Percen 
 
 age in 
 
 
 Total 
 
 Percentage in 
 
 
 
 Mysore 
 
 India 
 
 
 
 Mysore 
 
 India 
 
 Government — 
 
 
 
 
 Metals and 
 
 
 
 
 Administra- 
 
 
 
 
 Precio u s 
 
 
 
 
 tion 
 
 213.751 • 
 
 • 4-32 -. 
 
 1-95 
 
 Stones . . . 
 
 73,602.. 
 
 • 1-49 •• 
 
 133 
 
 Defence 
 
 22,233.. 
 
 • 0-45 .. 
 
 0-23 
 
 Glass and 
 
 
 
 
 Service of 
 
 
 
 
 Earthen - 
 
 
 
 
 other States 
 
 181 . 
 
 • " - 
 
 o-i8 
 
 ware 
 Wood and 
 
 27,421 . 
 
 • 0-55.. 
 
 0-S2 
 
 I'asture and 
 
 
 
 
 Cane 
 
 33.I77-- 
 
 . 0-67... 
 
 1-50 
 
 Agriculture — 
 
 
 
 
 Gums, Drugs 
 
 
 
 
 Live Stock 
 
 23,106 . 
 
 . 0-47.. 
 
 1-27 
 
 and Dyes 
 
 2,843.. 
 
 0-06... 
 
 0-14 
 
 Agriculture 3,292,897 . 
 
 .66-61.. 
 
 5979 
 
 Leather 
 
 24,459 •• 
 
 • 0-49... 
 
 I-I4 
 
 Personal Ser- 
 
 
 
 
 Commerce, 
 
 
 
 
 vice — 
 
 
 
 
 Transport and 
 
 
 
 
 Domestic & 
 
 
 
 
 Storage — 
 
 
 
 
 Sanitary ... 
 
 109,339 ■■ 
 
 . 2-21 ... 
 
 3'9i 
 
 Commerce 
 Transport 
 
 160,967 .. 
 
 3-26... 
 
 1-63 
 
 l'rc]>aration of 
 
 
 
 
 and Storage 
 
 16,411 .. 
 
 • 0-33... 
 
 I 38 
 
 Materials — 
 
 
 
 
 Professions — 
 
 
 
 
 Food and 
 
 
 
 
 Learned and 
 
 
 
 
 Drink .. 
 
 62,819.. 
 
 . 1-27... 
 
 5-07 
 
 Artistic ... 
 
 76,980.. 
 
 1-56... 
 
 1-97 
 
 Light and 
 
 
 
 
 Sport and 
 
 
 
 
 Fuel 
 
 23,188.. 
 
 . 0-47... 
 
 1-23 
 
 Amuse- 
 
 
 
 
 Buildings ... 
 
 30,508 .. 
 
 . 0-62 .. 
 
 0-50 
 
 ments 
 
 3.032.. 
 
 006... 
 
 005 
 
 Vehiclesand 
 
 
 
 
 Indefinite and 
 
 
 
 
 Vessels ... 
 
 862.. 
 
 0-02 ... 
 
 0-05 
 
 Independent — 
 
 
 
 
 Supplemen - 
 
 
 
 
 U nskilled 
 
 
 
 
 tary articles 
 
 10,057.. 
 
 . 0-20... 
 
 0-40 
 
 Labour . . . 
 
 493.67S.. 
 
 9-99... 
 
 8-87 
 
 Textile Fa- 
 
 
 
 
 Undefined 
 
 2,826.. 
 
 o-o6 ... 
 
 0-54 
 
 brics and 
 
 
 
 
 Independent 
 
 
 
 
 Dress 
 
 145.493 •• 
 
 2-94... 
 
 4-39 
 
 of work ... 
 
 93,774 
 
 . I -90 . . . 
 Q 
 
 1-66
 
 226 
 
 E THNOGRAPHY 
 
 A supplementary table shows the nuinl)ers of those who combine with 
 their hereditary occupations a certain amount of land cultivation : — 
 
 
 No 
 
 Per cent 
 
 novernnient 
 
 8,333 
 
 ... 247 
 
 Pasture .ind Agri- 
 
 
 
 ciillure 
 
 317 
 
 I "O 
 
 Personal service ... 
 
 3,583 
 
 ... IO-6 
 
 Preparation of ma- 
 
 
 
 terials 
 
 13,100 
 
 ... 38-9 
 
 No Per cent 
 
 Commerce .. ... 2,138 ... 6"i 
 
 I'rofessions 1,706 ... 4'8 
 
 Indefinite and Inde- 
 pendent 4,657 ... I3'9 
 
 Total ... 33,834 
 
 The classification of the main Hindu castes according to numerical 
 strength yields the following results, the percentage to the total popu- 
 lation being also shown in the case of those above 100,000. The 
 capital letters indicate the class of occupation as contained in the first 
 table above : — 
 
 Wokkaliga A .. 
 Holeya ... D 
 Lingayita ABC 
 Kuril ba ... D 
 Madiga D 
 
 Over 100,000. 
 
 1,341,849 . 
 
 - 520,493 • 
 
 483,159 • 
 
 • 349,037 • 
 
 • 239,575 . 
 
 .. 27-14 
 
 .. 10-51 
 
 .. 9-77 
 
 .. 7-06 
 
 .. 4-84 
 
 Beda 
 
 Brahmana 
 Golla 
 Banajiga .. 
 Wodda . . 
 
 217,128 . 
 
 183,541 
 128,995 • 
 
 114,735 
 107,203 . 
 
 4-39 
 371 
 2 60 
 2-32 
 2-16 
 
 Besta ... 
 Akkasale 
 Uppara 
 
 50,000 to 100,000. 
 
 D ... 99,897 I Xeyigara 
 D ... 98,181 I Agasa 
 D ... 89,123 I Tigala . 
 
 85,671 
 56,710 
 
 20,000 to 50,000. 
 
 Marata... 
 Kumbara 
 I'diga .. 
 I.ambani 
 Nayinda 
 
 44,446 
 40,809 
 39,937 
 39,137 
 37,296 
 
 Ganiga 
 
 Komati 
 
 Koracha 
 
 Xagarta 
 
 Kshatriya 
 
 35,8oS 
 29,054 
 
 24,494 
 22,964 
 
 21,795 
 
 Satani ... 
 
 10,000 to 20,000. 
 19,987 I Darji .. 
 
 10,664 
 
 Rachevar 
 
 Jogi 
 Badagi . . . 
 
 Meda 
 Domba 
 Lada 
 Goniga 
 
 A B D E 
 
 ... E 
 
 D 
 
 5,000 to 10,000. 
 
 9,554 Xatuva 
 
 9,410 
 
 8,646 
 
 Kammara 
 .Mudali 
 
 1,000 to 5,000. 
 
 4,261 Bhat Raju . 
 
 2,500 I Da.sari ... 
 
 2,046 I Iruliga 
 
 1,426 ' Budabudike. 
 
 B ... 
 
 7,476 
 
 D ... 
 
 6,250 
 
 C ... 
 
 5,437 
 
 B . 
 
 ■ 1,388 
 
 B . 
 
 ■ 1,178 
 
 B . 
 
 • 1,156 
 
 E . 
 
 . 1,092
 
 KSHATRIYA 
 
 227 
 
 
 
 Below 
 
 1,000. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Garudiga 
 
 E 
 
 .. 876 
 
 
 Giijarati 
 
 C 
 
 
 
 71 
 
 Mochi... 
 
 D 
 
 .. 746 
 
 
 Sudugadusidda ... 
 
 E 
 
 
 
 46 
 
 Sannyasi 
 
 B 
 
 .. 684 
 
 
 Baniya 
 
 C 
 
 
 
 41 
 
 I'ille ... 
 
 A 
 
 ■• 559 
 
 
 Gondaliga 
 
 E 
 
 
 
 29 
 
 Gosayi 
 
 B 
 
 •• 424 
 
 
 Marvadi 
 
 C 
 
 
 
 21 
 
 Kanchugara ... D 
 
 •• 396 
 
 
 Pandaram 
 
 E 
 
 
 
 15 
 
 Jalagara 
 
 D 
 
 .. 258 
 
 
 Uriya 
 
 A 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 Bairagi 
 
 B 
 
 222 
 
 
 Karma 
 
 E 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 Monda 
 
 E 
 
 .. 189 
 
 
 Kayast 
 
 B 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 Xayar . . . 
 
 A 
 
 .. 117 
 
 
 Saniyar 
 
 E 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 Kanakkan 
 
 B 
 
 108 
 
 
 Multani 
 
 C 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 Sillekyata 
 
 E 
 
 • 93 
 
 
 Jat 
 
 C 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 The totals 
 
 of these gro 
 
 Lips may 
 
 be thus stated, showing 
 
 the 
 
 number 
 
 of castes under each and tl 
 
 le percenta 
 
 ge to the total Hindi 
 
 I popul 
 
 ation: — 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 
 Per 
 
 cent 
 
 10 castes 
 
 of over 100, oc 
 
 )0 
 
 
 3,685,715 
 
 
 79-50 
 
 
 6 „ 
 
 50,000 to I 
 
 DO.OOO 
 
 
 516,568 
 
 
 II 
 
 13 
 
 
 10 ,, 
 
 20,000 to 5 
 
 0,000 
 
 
 335.740 
 
 
 7-24 
 
 
 2 ,, 
 
 10,000 to 2 
 
 0,000 
 
 
 30,651 
 
 
 
 
 66 
 
 
 6 „ 
 
 5,000 to 10 
 
 ,000 
 
 
 46,773 
 
 
 I 
 
 00 
 
 
 8 „ 
 
 1,000 to 5.( 
 
 XX) ... 
 
 
 15,047 
 
 
 
 
 32 
 
 
 24 
 
 l)elo\v 1, 00c 
 
 ) 
 
 
 4,9^2 
 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 
 The classes contained in the first table of occupation are subdivided 
 into certain groups, and the different castes may be described in the 
 order in which they fall under these heads. 
 
 In the Agricultural class (A) the first group is called " military and 
 dominant," and comprises Kshatriya, Mahratta and Rachevar. 
 
 Kshatriya. — The total number is 21,824, composed principally of 
 12,287 Kshatriyas, 7,895 Rajputs, and 1,629 Rajapinde. Under the 
 first occur the following subdivisions, — Bais, Bintakiir, Bondili, Dhatri, 
 Govar, Kamsi, Kotari, Rajakula, Raju (Kanda, Kannada and Mopiir). 
 The Rajput tribes are, — Cham, Chandrabansi, Chhattri, Chavan, 
 Hindustani, Rajput Gauda, Rohila, Singh, Salar, Surajbansi, Thakih- 
 (Chandra, Dekal, Gaya, Gaharvariya and Nava), Talukhandiya and 
 Tamboli. Under Rajapinde are included Arasu, Bada Arasu, and 
 Komarapatta. There are also 1 2 Kodaga or Coorgs. The distribution 
 in the Districts is as follows : — 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 
 
 c; 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 t 
 
 
 bO 
 
 
 
 
 Caste. 
 
 n 
 
 c 
 
 n 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 S 
 
 3,740 
 
 I 
 I, .347 
 
 i 
 
 tn 
 1.205 
 
 •0 ' 
 a 
 
 2 
 
 Kshatriya 
 
 2,455 
 
 783 
 
 898 
 
 1,450 
 
 410 
 
 Kajpiit ... 
 
 1,857 
 
 947 
 
 990 
 
 1,611 
 
 364 
 
 1,668 
 
 166 
 
 92 
 
 Rajapinde 
 
 30 
 
 68 
 
 92 
 
 1,317 
 
 — 
 
 24 
 
 98 1 
 
 
 Total 
 
 4,342 
 
 1,798 
 
 1,980 
 
 6,668 
 
 1,711 
 
 2,897 
 
 1. 714 1 
 
 502 
 
 Q 2
 
 128 
 
 ETHNOGRAPHY 
 
 'I'hc K.shalriyas and Rajputs arc prinf,ii)ally in the army and police. 
 The Rnjapinde includes the Arasu, t(; which belongs the Royal family 
 of Mysore, and other castes connected with the ruling house. 
 
 Marata, or Mahratta. — There are 44,446 of these, of whom over 
 10,600 are in each of the Bangalore and My.sore Districts, 4,640 in 
 Kolar, and about 3,000 in each of the other Districts. The sub- 
 divisions are said to be,— Khaniya, Baruva, Kine, Kshatrabhanu, 
 Lankekdra, Manga, Ravuta, Bhilsa and Kumari ; Kine and Bhusa 
 being more numerous than the others. Their principal occupation is 
 military service, especially as cavalry and rough riders. But the 
 majority have for some time past taken to cultivation and menial ser- 
 vice. The Mahrattas are commonly called Are by the Mysore people. 
 
 Rachevar. — Those belonging to the Agricultural class number 3,696, 
 including the subdivision of Telugu Rachevar, and 66 Ranagara. More 
 than a third are in Mysore District, 870 in Bangalore, half that number 
 in Hassan, Kolar, and Tumkur, with 10 in Shimoga. There are no 
 Rachevar in Chitaldroog, but it has 15 Ranagara. Both claim a royal 
 connection. 
 
 The second agricultural group is the most important one of Cul- 
 tivators, and contains 128,168 Lingayita, 1,342,882 Wokkaliga, and 
 56,710 Tigala, distributed as shown below, with 117 Nayar,^ nearly all 
 in the Civil and Military Station of Bangalore, and 559 Pille,^ mostly in 
 Mysore, Kolar, and Bangalore Districts. 
 
 Caste. 
 
 C 
 
 a 
 
 pa 
 
 c 
 
 E 
 
 
 a 
 
 Shimoga. 
 Kadur. 
 
 Chitaldroog. 
 
 Lingayita 
 Wokkaliga 
 Tigala 
 
 13,194 
 
 225,511 
 
 29,192 
 
 1,421 
 
 163,160 
 
 10,156 
 
 8,971 
 
 179,206 
 
 14,718 
 
 52,264 
 
 325,557 
 1,222 
 
 19,260 
 
 171,323 
 714 
 
 1 
 
 13,958 9,943 9,157 
 
 135,069 73,496, 69,560 
 
 197 491 20 
 
 Total 
 
 267,897 
 
 174,737202,895 
 
 379,043 
 
 191,297 
 
 149,224 83,930 78,737 
 
 The principal divisions of the Lingdyifa in this class are Gaudamane 
 58,487, Malava 795, and Panchachara Cauda 68,886 ; which include 
 the subdivisions Gauliga, Gurusthala, Nonaba and Sada. 
 
 Wokkaliga. — In addition to 163,502 returned simply by this name, 
 the following are the most important tribes: — Gangadikara 593,205, 
 Morasu 131,950 (besides Beral-koduva 8,066), Sada 106,407, Reddi 
 (Kodati, Peddakanti, Pakanati, Nerati, Kamme, Honne, and Hema), 
 84,653, Kunchatiga 84,504, Nonaba 63,803, Halepaika 15,570, Halu 
 14,778, Hallikara 13,492, Telugu 12,316, Vellala (Bellala and Tuluva) 
 
 ' Including Achpille, Agamudi and Panan. "^ Including Kajjar and Vellala.
 
 WOKKALIGA 
 
 229 
 
 9,842, Uppina Kojaga 9,842, Dasa 9,433, ]Musaku 8,754, Falya 4,116, 
 Roddugara 3,744, Lalagonda 1,959, Svalpa 899, Nadu 588, Aramudi 
 242, Kotegara 218, Yellamakapu 171, Konkaniga 159, Kanesalu 137, 
 Totagara 117, Velnati 26. The following subdivisions are not separately 
 returned : — A'di, Agni. Agramudi, Aladakapu, Angalika, Bachanige, 
 Badagar, Belagude, Belakuvadi, Bhogar, Chittala, Dasavantige, 
 (iadakanti, Gausanige or Gosangi, Ghaniya, Hosadevara, Kamawokkal, 
 Kannada, Karale, Kariga, Karu, Karukal, Kolama, Koluva, Konda- 
 kattc, Konga, Koratakapu, Kottadevarakapu, Kumbi, Kudika-wokkal, 
 Kulibedaga, Kunte, Malavaru, Mudali, Musaku, Muttu, Padayachin- 
 ayakan, Palayar, Palyakar, Palyagar-gauda, Pamar, Panasakapu, 
 Panned, Pelagunda, Pettigesalina, Puda, Punamale, Rayaroddugara, 
 Reddi (Anche, Arava, Bellala, Kammadi, Kapu, Kondi, Neita, Raju, 
 Tenugu, and Vadaga), Sime, Sirdevara, Sitabhaira, Sole, S'oshya, 
 Togata, Tuluva, ^'alasakapu, Valu, Vanta, ^'asudeva, Velama, 
 \'irabhadrakapu, \'ellala (Jahala, Lingakatti and Pandya), Yeda- 
 yellama, Yalanati, Yalavolu, Yelumaneyavaru. 
 
 The following statement, showing the location of the principal great 
 classes in the several Districts, is instructive : — 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 «> 
 
 c 
 
 
 , 
 
 
 
 Wokkaliga. 
 
 to 
 c 
 
 
 
 U5 
 
 c 
 
 >> 
 
 
 
 1 
 u. 
 
 2 
 IS 
 
 u 
 
 (langadikara 
 
 105,284 
 
 519 
 
 64,478 
 
 271,935 
 
 126,443 
 
 9,081 
 
 13,386 
 
 2,089 
 
 Morasii ... 
 
 46,505 
 
 84,263 
 
 997 
 
 21 
 
 138 
 
 22 
 
 4 
 
 — 
 
 Sada ... 
 
 3.367 
 
 4,556 
 
 8,891 
 
 3,078 
 
 4,194 
 
 39,669 
 
 14,664 
 
 27,988 
 
 Reddi 
 
 24,466 
 
 40,267 
 
 1,640 
 
 8,503 
 
 352 
 
 1,014 
 
 355 
 
 8,056 
 
 Kunchatiga 
 
 11,840 
 
 663 
 
 44,231 
 
 3,488 
 
 3,828 
 
 8,082 
 
 1,614 
 
 10,758 
 
 Nonaha ... 
 
 159 
 
 — 
 
 30.654 
 
 2,010 
 
 7,444 
 
 8,552 
 
 11,119 
 
 3,865 
 
 Halepaika 
 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 12,576 
 
 2,994 
 
 
 Halu 
 
 3 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 6,818 
 
 238 
 
 7,719 
 
 — 
 
 IlaHikara 
 
 2,414 
 
 260 
 
 5,148 
 
 2,409 
 
 1 ,399 
 
 935 
 
 802 
 
 125 
 
 The Gangadikdra are the most numerous of the Wokkaligas, being 
 over 44 per cent, of the whole number, and purely Kannada. They are 
 found principally in the centre and south of the country, and represent 
 the subjects of the ancient province of Gangavadi, a Ninety-si.\ Thou- 
 sand country, which formed an important part of the Ganga empire. The 
 name Gangadikara is a contraction of Gangavadikara. At the present 
 day the Gangadikaras are followers some of Siva and some of \'ishnu. 
 Of the former some wear the iinga and others not. These sects 
 neither eat together nor intermarry. The guru of the Yishnu wor- 
 shippers is the head of the Sri-Vaishnava Brahmans, who lives at 
 Melukote. In addition to being cultivators, the Gangadikaras act as 
 farm labourers and as porters.
 
 3 30 E THNOGRA PI/ V 
 
 The Morasu are Wokkaligas cliieflyof Kolar and Bangalore Districts. 
 They api)car to have been originally immigrants from a district called 
 Morasa-nad, to the east of this country, whose chiefs formed settlements 
 in the neighbourhood of Nandidroog. The section called Beral-koduva 
 (or finger-giving) had a strange custom, which, on account of its 
 cruelty, was put a stop to by Government. Every woman of the sect, 
 previous to piercing the ears of her eldest daughter preparatory to her 
 being lictrothed in marriage, had to suffer amputation of the ring and 
 little fingers of the right hand. This was performed, for a regulated 
 fee, by the blacksmith of the village, who chopped off the last joint of 
 each finger with a chisel. If the girl to be betrothed were motherless, 
 the mother of the boy to whom she was to be betrothed was bound to 
 submit to the mutilation unless she had already made the sacrifice. 
 The story invented to account for this barbarous custom is given in the 
 first edition. Since its prohibition the women content themselves with 
 putting on a gold or silver finger-stall or thimble, which is pulled off 
 instead of the end of the finger itself. The principal sanctuary of the 
 Morasu Wokkaligas is at Siti-betta in the Kolar taluq, where there is a 
 temple of Virabhadra. 
 
 Of the other large tribes of Wokkaligas, the Sada abound mostly in 
 the north and west. They include Jains and Lingayits, Vaishnavas, 
 and Saivas. Not improbably they all belonged to the first originally. 
 In the old days many of them acted in the Kandachar or native 
 militia. They are not only cultivators but sometimes trade in 
 grain. The Reddi are chiefly in the east and north, and have numerous 
 subdivisions. To some extent they seem to be of Telugu origin, and 
 have been supposed to represent the subjects of the ancient Rattavadi, 
 or kingdom of the Rattas. 
 
 The Nonaba, in like manner, are relics of the ancient province of 
 Nojambavadi or Nonambavadi, a Thirty-two Thousand country, situated 
 principally in the Tumkur and Chitaldroog Districts. It is in these 
 parts and the west that they are now located. At the present day they 
 are by faith Lingayits, the residence of their chief guru being at 
 Gandikere, near Chiknayakanhalli. The acknowledged head of the 
 Nonabas, though no more than an ordinary cultivator, is the present 
 descendant of an original Honnappa Gauda, and named after him : he 
 lives at Hosahalli, near Gubbi. 
 
 The Halepaika, inhabiting the north-west, are of interest, and have 
 already been described above (p. 212). The Halu Wokkaligas are most 
 numerous in Kadur and Hassan Districts. As their name implies, 
 they combine the keeping of cows or buffaloes and sale of milk (M/u) 
 with other agricultural pursuits. The Hallikara are also largely engaged
 
 TIG ALA 
 
 :3i 
 
 with cattle, and the breed of their name is the best in the Amrit Malial. 
 The Lalagonda, principally confined to Bangalore District, are not only 
 farmers, but hirers-out of bullocks, gardeners, builders of mud walls and 
 traders in straw, etc. The Vellalas are the most numerous class of 
 Wokkaligas in the Civil and Military Station of I^angalore. 
 
 There do not appear to be any peculiarities deserving of notice in 
 regard to the numerous other classes of Wokkaligas, who are only 
 distinguishable by name. And as in each successive census a good 
 many designations returned in the previous one do not recur, it is 
 evident that some classes are known by more than one name, and 
 probably use different ones on different occasions. 
 
 Tigala. — These arc skilful kitchen and market gardeners, mostly of 
 Tamil origin, though they have long lost the use of that language. In 
 addition to those called simply by the tribe-name, the following 
 principal divisions are noted : — Ulli, Vanne, Pajli, Reddi, Arava, and 
 Tota, as well as the subdivisions Agra Vannia, Agni, Brahmarishi, 
 Dharmarajukapu, Enneri, (lauda. Hale Tigaja, Halli, Kandapajli, 
 Kannada, Pandya, Raja, Samba, Vannikula, and Yanadi. Nearly a 
 half are in the Bangalore District, most of the remainder being in 
 Tumkur and Kolar. 
 
 The next agricultural group is Forest and other Hill tribes, number- 
 ing altogether 67,040. The following are the classes included under 
 this head, with their distribution :— 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 , 
 
 c 
 
 a 
 
 
 t 
 
 Caste. 
 
 Banga 
 
 ■5 
 
 a 
 
 3 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 '.c 
 
 
 2 
 
 Lambani 
 
 . 1 3,3.5 
 
 751 
 
 2,977 
 
 1,084 
 
 2,846 
 
 14,127 
 
 8,794 
 
 5.243 
 
 Koracha ) 
 Korama i 
 
 . I 5.246 
 
 3.414 
 
 2,470 
 
 4,169 
 
 1.437 
 
 4.398 
 
 2,059 
 
 1. 301 
 
 Kail Kuruba 
 
 1 219 
 
 147 
 
 1.450 
 
 400 
 
 45 
 
 — 
 
 8 
 
 — 
 
 Irujiga ... 
 
 1,042 
 
 22 
 
 67 
 
 
 I 
 
 " 
 
 
 
 The Lambani, or I>ambadi, also called Sukali and Brinjari, have the 
 following subdivisions : — Banjari, Bhiitya, Dhiimavatpada, Khetavat, 
 Ramavatpada, and Sabavat. They are a gipsy tribe that wander about 
 in gangs, accompanied by large herds of bullocks, especially in the 
 hilly and forest tracts where there are few good roads, engaged in the 
 transport of grain and other produce. They first prominently came to 
 notice towards the end of the last century, during the Mahralta and 
 Mysore wars, when immense numbers of them were employed by the 
 armies of both sides as foragers and transporters of supplies required
 
 2 3 2 ETHNOGRAPH Y 
 
 for the tr()oi)s. ' Of late years many of them have been employed as 
 labourers on coffee-estates, and some have even partially abandoned 
 their vagrant life, and settled, at least for a time, in villages of their 
 own. These, called Thandas, are composed of clusters of their usual 
 rude wicker huts, pitched on waste ground in wild places. The women 
 bring in bundles of firewood from the jungles for sale in the towns. 
 
 The Lambdnis speak a mixed dialect, called Kutni, largely composed 
 of Hindi and Mahratti corruptions. In a police report regarding these 
 people, the late Dr. Shortt stated, " that their social system is unique, 
 and that they are guided exclusively by their own laws and customs ; 
 that each community is governed by a priest, who exacts and receives 
 implicit obedience, and who exercises, under the cloak of rehgion and 
 supernatural agency, the undisputed power of life and death over them. 
 They maintain the closest secrecy regarding their customs, and would 
 sooner forfeit life than divulge them. Infanticide, human sacrifice, 
 witchcraft and sorcery prevail among the different communities, who 
 can recognize one another by masonic signs." 
 
 The women are distinguished by a curious and picturesque dress, 
 completely different from that worn by any other class. It consists of 
 a sort of tartan petticoat, with a stomacher over the bosom, and a 
 mantle, often elaborately embroidered, which covers the head and 
 upper part of the body. The hair is worn in ringlets or plaits, hanging 
 down each side of the face, decorated with small shells, and terminating 
 in tassels. The arms and ankles are profusely covered with trinkets 
 made of bone, brass, and other rude materials. The men wear tight 
 cotton breeches, reaching a little below the knee, with a waist-band 
 ending in red silk tassels, and on the head a small red or white 
 turban. 
 
 It appears'- that the Lambanis here have twenty-six clans, and claim 
 a descent from one Chada, who left five sons, Mula, M6ta, Nathad, 
 Jogda, and Bhimda. Chavan, one of the three sons of Miila, had six 
 sons, each of whom originated a clan. At some remote period a 
 Brahman from Ajmir married a girl of Chavan's family, and gave rise 
 to the Vadtya clan, who still wear the sacred thread. A IMahratta from 
 Jotpur, in northern India, also allied himself with Rathol, Chavan's 
 brother, and founded the Khamdat clan. There are no descendants 
 of ]\I6ta here, but those of Nathad are called INIirasikat, Paradi or 
 Vagri, and live by catching wild birds. The Jogdas are Jogis. The 
 
 ^ A correspondent from the British camp at that time terms them " the worthy and 
 inoffensive Brinjaris." — Cal. Gaz. II, 318. But they are often credited with inborn 
 thieving and marauding propensities. 
 
 - According to the last Cen.sus Report (1891).
 
 KORACHA 233 
 
 lihimdas are itinerant blacksmiths, known as Bail Kammar. There is 
 even a class of Lambani outcastes, called Dhalya, who are drummers 
 and live separately. They principally trade in bullocks. The 
 Lambanis acknowledge the Gosayis as their gurus, and reverence 
 Krishna ; also Basava, as representing the cattle that Krishna tended. 
 But their principal object of worship is Banashankari, the goddess of 
 forests. 
 
 The Koracha and Korama have already been referred to above 
 (p. 214). Although virtually the same people, the follow-ing sub- 
 divisions are separately noted. For Korachas : Aggada, Dabbe, 
 (longadi, Kannada, Telugu, Uppu, Uru. For Koramas : — Bettale, 
 Gantu, Gazula, Kannada, Setti, Satubeda, Uppu, ^^'ldda, Yddava, 
 Yantumule. For Koravas : — Maval, Palchankoti, Uppu. They 
 wander about with large droves of cattle and asses, conveying salt and 
 grain from one market to another. They carry with them the frame- 
 work of a rude description of hut, and while one part of the tribe 
 proceeds with the baggage animals, the others settle for a time in some 
 convenient spot, where they erect their huts and employ themselves in 
 making mats and baskets, begging and stealing, until their proximity 
 becomes a nuisance to the villagers and they are compelled to move 
 on. They are described as thieves and robbers from childhood, and 
 are frequently associated with Brinjaris and other vagrants in burglaries, 
 dacoities, and acts of violence, often escaping detection owing to their 
 complete arrangements for obtaining information. They speak Telugu 
 and Tamil, and are said to have a peculiar gipsy language of their 
 own, with a system of signals which enables them to converse with the 
 initiated unobserved. They have no idols to which they pay particular 
 homage, and only invoke Tirupati \'enkatramana when in distress, 
 vowing small offerings of money to the temple should they escape. 
 
 The men tie up their hair in a large bunch or chignon on one side 
 of the top of the head, in precisely the same manner as we find the 
 men's hair arranged on most of the old sculptured stones of the 
 country. The women wear an immense number of strings of small 
 white and red beads and shells round the neck and falling over the 
 bosom. 
 
 I'he Kadu Kuruba and Jenu Kuruba have already come under 
 notice (above, p. 213), also the Iruliga, who are much like the latter; 
 and certain other forest and hill tribes have likewise been referred to. 
 
 We now pass to the Professional class (B), which, under the groups 
 of Priests, Devotees, and Temple-servants, includes 277,086 persons, 
 distributed as follows, 183,451 being Brahmana, 62,918 Lingayita, 
 19,987 Satani, 8,132 Jaina, and 2,508 various devotees.
 
 234 
 
 ETHNOGRAPHY 
 
 Sect. 
 
 i 
 
 1 
 
 
 Tumkur. 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 Shimoga. 
 
 u 
 
 3 
 
 a 
 
 t 
 
 2 
 Is 
 
 Hrahmana 
 
 29,882 
 
 23,930 
 
 17,099 
 
 43,013 
 
 17,151 
 
 29,379 
 
 17,072 
 
 6,015 
 
 Lingayila 
 
 6,577 
 
 3,347 
 
 8,544 
 
 11,990 
 
 8,965 
 
 9,620 
 
 7,094 
 
 7,885 
 
 Sdtaiii 
 
 3,742 
 
 1,937 
 
 3,801 
 
 4,480 
 
 3,660 
 
 682 
 
 989 
 
 696 
 
 Jaina 
 
 359 
 
 876 
 
 1,526 
 
 1,928 
 
 1,246 
 
 422 
 
 1,264 
 
 416 
 
 Dasari, &c. 
 
 381 
 
 629 
 
 413 
 
 302 
 
 167 
 
 232 
 
 220 
 
 «63 
 
 
 Pancha Drdvida. 
 
 
 28 
 
 Karnataka or Kannada 
 
 ■ 94,329 
 
 - 133 
 
 A'ndhra or Telugu 
 
 • 33,672 
 
 ... 2,067 
 
 Dravida or Tamil 
 
 ■ 32,853 
 
 
 Maharashtra or Mahratta 
 
 . 20,087 
 
 
 Gurjara or Gujarati 
 
 2 
 
 Brahmana. — The Brahmans throughout India, with a few excep- 
 tions, belong, according to original location or language, either to the 
 Pancha Gauda (the five tribes north of the Krishna), or to the Pancha 
 Dravida (the five tribes south of that river). The following are the 
 subdivisions, together with the numbers in Mysore pertaining to each 
 .so far as can be gathered from the census returns of 1891 : — 
 
 Pancha Gaitda. 
 Kanyakubja (N.W.P. ) ... 
 
 Sarasvata (Punjab) 
 
 Gauda (Delhi and Bengal) 
 
 Maithila (Behar) 
 
 Utkala (Ori.ssa) 
 
 These seldom intermarry, and though the tribes living here have 
 long been intermixed, they generally retain in their families the 
 language of the country from whence they originally came. 
 
 The Brahmans are farther subdivided into a number of gotras, the 
 original progenitors of which were seven principal rishis or sages, 
 namely, Bhrigu, Angiras, Atri, Vis'vamitra, Kasyapa, Vas'ishtha, and 
 Agastya. In the unlimited ramifications of g6tras which have branched 
 out from the parent stems, the line of descent is exhibited in the 
 pravara or pedigree, and a man and woman of the same gotra and 
 pravara never marry together. The connection of the gotra is entirely 
 in the male line, a woman on marriage being affiliated to the husband's 
 g6tra. The following are the strongest gotras in Mysore, or those con- 
 taining over 1,000 in each: — 
 
 Bharadvaja .. 
 
 • 25,950 
 
 Kaus'ika ... 
 
 • 9,893 
 
 Vadhula 
 
 2,788 
 
 Kasyapa 
 
 • 24,151 
 
 Kaundinya 
 
 • 9,074 
 
 S'andilya ... 
 
 2,495 
 
 Vis'vamitra .. 
 
 ■ 11,771 
 
 Harita ... . 
 
 . 8,471 
 
 Maudgalva 
 
 2,252 
 
 Vas'ishtha . 
 
 ■ 11,592 
 
 Gautama ... 
 
 • 5,897 
 
 Maunabhargava 
 
 1,920 
 
 S'rivatsa 
 
 . 10,480 
 
 Jamadagni... 
 
 • 3,294 
 
 Gargyayana 
 
 1,162 
 
 A'lreya 
 
 • 10,307 
 
 A'ngirasa ... . 
 
 ■• 2,929 
 
 S'athamarshana 
 
 1,050
 
 BRAHMANS 
 
 235 
 
 Altogether sixty-nine g6tras are represented here, the remamder, in 
 alphabetical order, being : — Achyuta, Agastya, Ambarisha, As'valayana, 
 Badarayana, Barhaspatya, Ch6pagayana, Devaraja, Dhananjaya, Galava, 
 Gauda Sarasvata, Ghritasams'a, Havikarma, Kalakaus'ika, Kamakayana, 
 Kanva, Kapi, Katyayana, Kosala, Kundali, Kutsa, L6hita, Maitreya, 
 Mandavya, Maunjyayana, Mitravasu, Mohana, Nistudhana, Paras'ara, 
 Parthiva, Paulastya, Paurakutsa, Piitamanasa, Rajendra, Rathi'tara, 
 Salankayana, Salavatsa, Sankalika, Sankarshana, Sankhyayana, 
 Sankriti, Santasa, S'aunaka, Svatantrakapi, Upamanyu, Vadhryas'va, 
 Vaikhanasa, Vais'ampayana, Vamana, Vishnuvardhana, Vyasa. 
 
 Kshatriyas, and others who are not Brahmans, may properly assume 
 the gotra of \k\€\x purohita, or family priest and domestic chaplain, who 
 is of course a Brahman. But certain classes who are ambitious of 
 being reckoned as Brahmans, have invented gotras for themselves of 
 apocryphal origin. 
 
 In addition to the gotra, there is the s'dkka, or particular branch or 
 school of the Veda which each Brahman professes to follow in the per- 
 formance of his sacrifices and rites. Classified on this basis 91,638 are 
 Rig-vedis, 77,972 Yajur-vedis, and 12,776 Sama-vedis. Therearenone 
 apparently who acknowledge adhesion to the Atharva veda. Some 
 classes that are not Brahmans boldly proclaim themselves followers of 
 a fifth veda. ' 
 
 All the Brahmans here, moreover, belong to one of three main 
 sects : — Smarta, Madhva, and S'rivaishnava. The following is their 
 distribution, the totals being 129,550, 32,070, and 20,764 respectively : — 
 
 Sect. 
 
 Bangalore. 
 
 Kolar. 
 
 3 
 
 3 
 H 
 
 «5 
 
 3 
 
 t 
 X 
 
 11,842 
 
 n 
 
 E 
 15 
 
 Kadur. 
 
 2 
 2 
 
 
 
 Smarta 
 
 18,939 
 
 14,802 
 
 12,430 
 
 29,911 
 
 23,267 
 
 15,060 
 
 3,299 
 
 Madhva 
 
 7,309 
 
 5.834 
 
 3,210 
 
 6,336 
 
 1,057 
 
 4,983 
 
 1,104 
 
 2,237 
 
 S'rivaishnava ... 
 
 3>354 
 
 2,689 
 
 1,367 
 
 6,751 
 
 4,161 
 
 1,124 
 
 862 
 
 456 
 
 All three sects are composed of either Vaidikas or I^aukikas, the 
 former, those who have devoted themselves entirely to religion, and 
 live on charity ; the latter, those who attend to worldly affairs. The 
 
 ' Somewhat on the same principle that the Press in England calls itself the l-'ourth 
 Estate, supplementary to the three recognized governing estates of king, nobles and 
 commons.
 
 236 ETHNOGRAPHY 
 
 distinction is merely an individual one, as different members of the 
 same family may be either Vaidikas or Laukikas according to inclina- 
 tion. 
 
 The Smarta derive their name from s/iiriii\ the code of revealed or 
 traditional law. They worship the triad of Brahma, S'iva, and Vishnu 
 under the mystic syllable 6>w, and while admitting them to be equal, 
 exalt S'iva as their chief deity. They hold the pantheistic Vedanta 
 doctrine of Advaita or non-dualism, believing God and matter to be 
 identical, and everything but an atom of the divinity, they themselves 
 being parts of the Supreme Being. The founder of the Smarta sect 
 was S'ankara or S'ankaracharya, the Hindu reformer of the eighth 
 century, and their guru is the S'ringeri Swami, designated the Jagad 
 Guru. The probably very ancient sect of the Bhagavata, or the 
 Bhagavata sampradaya, numbering 12,788, are reckoned as Smartas, 
 but they incline more to Vishnu worship, and follow the Tengale in 
 the time of observing the Ekadas'i fasts. The guru of the Bhagavatas 
 is at Talkad. The distinctive marks of a Smarta Brahman are three 
 parallel horizontal lines of pounded sandalwood, or of the ashes of cow- 
 dung, on the forehead, with a round red spot in the centre, but the 
 Bhagavatas wear perpendicular Vaishnava marks. 
 
 The Madhva are so called from Madhva or Madhvacharya, the 
 founder of the sect, who arose in South Kanara in the thirteenth 
 century. They worship both Vishnu and S'iva, but more particularly 
 the former. They profess the doctrine of Dvaita or dualism, consider- 
 ing the Creator and the created to be distinct, and their final absorption 
 to be in the future. It appears that they may be divided into the 
 Vyasakiita and the Dasakuta. The former adhere strictly to the 
 religious teachings of the founder, which are entirely in Sanskrit. The 
 latter base their faith on hymns and writings in the vernacular, which 
 they can understand, of persons of their sect distinguished as Dasas or 
 servants of God, and they go about with musical instruments singing 
 these in honour of the Divine Being. A Madhva Brahman is known 
 by a black perpendicular line from the junction of the eyebrows to the 
 top of the forehead, with a dot in the centre. A Smarta may become 
 a Madhva, and vice versa, but the former happens oftener than the 
 latter. In such cases intermarriages between persons of the same 
 circle are not prohibited, though they embrace different doctrines, but 
 the wife always adopts the tenets of her husband. 
 
 The S'rivaishnava, also called Aiyangar, are worshippers of ^'ishnu, 
 as identified with his consort Lakshmi or S'ri, whence their name. 
 The founder of their sect was Ramanuja or Ramanujacharya, who lived 
 in the Chola and Mysore countries at the beginning of the twelfth
 
 BRAHMANS 237 
 
 century, and after him they are also called Ramanujas in some parts of 
 India. Their creed is the Vis'ishtadvaita, which differs from the Dvaita 
 in attributing both form and qualities to the Deity. In Mysore their 
 guru is the Parakalaswami of Melukote. They are the most exclusive 
 of all the Brahmans in points of food and intermarriage, the 
 orthodox among them requiring curtains to screen their food from the 
 gaze of others, even their own relations and fellow-sectarians. They 
 form two principal divisions, the Tengale, or southern, numbering 7,161, 
 and the ^'a(jagale, or northern, numbering 12,914. The distinction 
 between the two arises from dispute as to certain doctrinal points, said 
 to be eighteen in number,' which were formulated some four centuries 
 back, in Sanskrit and Tamil verses, by Manaval Mahamuni on the side 
 of the Tengale, and by Vedanta Desikar on the side of the Vadagale, 
 and the dispute has placed a gulf between the parties ever since. 
 There are some differences also in social observances. The Tengale, 
 for instance, do not subject widows to the tonsure, which is usual 
 among other Brahman sects. They also give more prominence 
 to the vernacular versions of their Sanskrit sacred writings. The 
 S'rivaishnava are known by the ndimi or trident on the forehead, 
 the centre line being yellow or red, and the two outer ones white. 
 The Tengale distinguish themselves from the Vadagale by continuing 
 the central line of the trident in white for some distance down the 
 nose. 
 
 The three main sects above described contain nearly eighty recorded 
 subdivisions, distinguished by names which are mainly territorial or 
 numerical in origin. The derivation of many of the names appears to 
 l)e unknown even to those who bear them. 
 
 Those included under Smarta and Madhva, in alphabetical order, 
 are :— Adi S'aiva, Aruvattu-wokkalu, A'ruvelu, A'ruvelu Niy6gi, Ashta- 
 sahasra, Badaganad, Bhagavata-sampradaya, Bodhayana, Brihach- 
 charana, Chitpavan, Des'astha, Devalaka or Sivaradhya, Dnivida, Hale 
 Karnataka or Hala Kannadiga, Havika or Haiga, Hoysaniga, Kambalur, 
 Kamme (Babbiir, Kannada, Ulcha and Vijayapura), Kandavara, 
 Kardfle, Karnataka, Kasalnad, Katyayana, Kavarga, Ki'lnad, Konkan- 
 astha, K6ta (or Kaikota and Ippatnalkaravaru), Koti's'vara, Kus'asthala 
 (or Senve), Madhva (Waishnava and Pennattur), Mulikinad or Muri- 
 kinad, Nambilri, Nandavaidika, Niyogi, Panchagrama, Praknad, 
 Prathamas'akhe (Kanva, Madhydnjana or Yajnavalkya), Sahavasi, 
 Sanketi, Sarvarya, S'lrnad, S'is'uvarga, S'ivalli (or Kurus'ivalli), S'ukla 
 YajusVakhe, Telaghanya, Totada Tigala, Tulava, Uttraji (or Uttradi), 
 Vadama, Vadhyama, ^'anglpuram, Veginad, Velna<.'. 
 
 1 The majority are detailed in the Census Report for 1S91.
 
 238 ETHNOGRAPHY 
 
 'I'lic strongest of these divisions numerically are, — those returned 
 simply as Smarta, 23,374; Badaganad, 23,019; Dcs'astha, 17,127; 
 Kamme (Babhur, Kannada and Ulcha), 14,265; Mulikinad, 11,188; 
 Hoysaniga, 8,328 ; Dravida, 7,856 ; Hale Karnataka, 7,526 ; Vaishnava 
 (Madhva), 7,280. 
 
 The Badaganad had their origin in the northern [batiaga) districts 
 {nd(f), and s])eak Kannada : they are both Smartas and Madhvas. 
 The Des'astha are immigrants from the Mahratta country, and mostly 
 retain the use of Mahratti : they are Smartas and Madhvas, the latter 
 preponderating ; but the difference of faith is no bar among them to 
 intermarriage and free social intercourse. The Babbur Kamme are 
 all Smartas ; the Kannada Kamme and Ulcha Kamme are both 
 Smartas and Madhvas : nearly all speak Kannada, a few Telugu also. 
 The Kamme country seems to have been to the east of the Kolar 
 District. The Mulikinad or Murikinad are Smartas from the Kadapa 
 district, speaking Telugu. The present chief priest of S'ringeri is 
 of this sect. The Hoysaniga, also called Vaishaniga, are chiefly 
 Smartas and speak Kannada. Their name may be derived from the 
 old Hoysala or Hoysana kingdom. The Dravida, Vadama (1,454), 
 and Brihachcharama or Pericharana (1,293), niay be taken together: 
 they are immigrants from the Tamil country, and are Smartas, speak- 
 ing Tamil, and a few Telugu. The Hale Karnataka or Hala 
 Kannadiga are mostly confined to the Mysore District, where they 
 are generally village accountants. There are two branches — Mugur 
 and S6sile. They are nearly all Smcirtas, and their language is 
 Kannada. Though their claim to be Brahmans was apparently not 
 denied, they were for some reason, till recently, under a sort of ban, 
 and often called by a nickname ; but about twenty-five years ago 
 they were publicly recognized by both the S'ringeri and Parakala 
 mathas. Other Brahmans, however, have no intercourse with them, 
 social or religious. 
 
 Of the other sects, the A'ruvelu, or the Six Thousand (4,486), are 
 both Smartas and Madhvas, and speak both Kannada and Telugu. 
 The A'ruvelu Niy6gi are a branch of them, who are laukikas, or 
 devoted to secular callings. The Aruvattu-wokkalu or Sixty families 
 (4,997) originally formed a portion either of the A'ruvelu or the 
 Kamme, but were selected as his disciples by Vyasaraya Swami, of the 
 Madhva faith, two or three centuries ago. The small sect of Kambalur 
 or T6tada Tigala (113), mostly in Shimoga District, are also connected 
 with the A'ruvelu. Moreover, the Uttaraji or Uttaradi (425), appear 
 to have branched off from the A'ruvelu some three or four centuries 
 ago, when they became the disciples of S'ripada Raya of Venkatagiri.
 
 BR AH MANS 239 
 
 The addition of these several offshoots would bring the number of 
 the A'ruvelu up to 9,921. 
 
 The Chitpavan (2,345) are Mahrattas and Smartas. The Havika 
 or Haiga (3,246) are immigrants from Haiga, the ancient name of 
 North Kanara, and they are almost entirely confined to the west of the 
 Shimoga District. They are Smartas, and are now principally engaged 
 in the cultivation of areca-nut gardens. According to tradition they 
 are of northern origin, and were introduced by one of the Kadamba 
 kings, in the third or fourth century, from Ahichchhatra. This would 
 bring them from Rohilkand, but Ahichchhatra may be only a learned 
 synonym for Haiga (see note above, p. 216). The name Havika is 
 said to be a corruption of Havyaka, or conductor of sacrifices, and 
 perhaps it was for such purposes that they were imported at a time 
 when there were no Brahmans in those parts. The small communities 
 of Kandavara (213), Kavarga (7), K6ta and K6tis'vara (25), Kus'as- 
 thala, S'is'uvarga, properly S'ishyavarga (139), with the S'ivalli (2,397), 
 are all Tula Brahmans, immigrants from South Kanara, the ancient 
 Tuluva, and mostly located in the western Districts. They engage in 
 agriculture and trade, and speak Tulu and Kannada. The Karade or 
 Karhade (253) are Mahrattas from Karhad. Some of them are 
 employed in the Revenue Survey. The Konkanastha (296) are also 
 Mahrattas from the Konkan, and are Smartas. The above two sects do 
 not intermarry, but mix freely in other respects. The Nandavaidika 
 (1,257) are from the Teluga country: both Smartas and Madhvas : 
 language Telugu and Kannada. The Prathamas'akhe (5,027) and 
 SuklayajusVakhe or ]Madyandina are both Smartas and Madhvas : they 
 speak Telugu and Kannada. The Sahavasi are immigrants, like the 
 Chitpavan, from the Mahratta country. 
 
 The Sanketi (2,522) are Smartas from Madura, and speak a corrupt 
 mixture of Tamil and Kannada. There are two branches, the Kaus'ika 
 and the Bettadpur, so named from the places in which they first settled, 
 which are in the Hassan and Mysore Districts. They eat together, but 
 do not intermarry as a rule. The Kaus'ika, however, who were the first 
 comers, are said occasionally to get wives from the Bettadpur, but in 
 such cases the girl's connection with the latter altogether ceases. The 
 Sanketi reverence a prophetess named Nacharamma or Nangiramma, 
 who seems to have been instrumental in causing their migration from 
 their original seats. The story about her is given in the first edition. 
 The Sirandd (3,490) have two divisions, the Hale Siranad, who are 
 Smartas, and the Hosa Siranad, who are chiefly Madhvas. Both speak 
 Kannada and derive their name probably from Sira in the Tumkur 
 District. The Vengipuram (193) arc all Smartas, speaking Telugu.
 
 240 ETHNOGRAPHY 
 
 The VclnafJ (3, i<S[) arc also Telugu Smartas, and resemble the 
 Murikinacj. They are mostly in the south and east. The Vegindd are 
 Smartas, and speak Kannada. There is only one member returned of 
 this sect, a man in Kolar District. 
 
 The subdivisions of the S'n'vaishnavas, in alphabetical order, are : — 
 Bhattaracharya, Embar, Hebbar (Melnatar), Hemmigeyar, Kadambiyar, 
 Kandade, Kilnatar, Mandyattar, Maraddrar, Metukunteyar, Morasanad, 
 Munch (Sn or Ch61i, NalUinchakravarti, Prativadi-bhayankarattdr, 
 .Somes andal or Attan-kutattar, Tirumaleyar. No less than 16,817 have 
 returned themselves simply as S'n'vaishnavas. 
 
 The IJhattaracharya are Tengales, and generally Vaidikas : they 
 speak Telugu and Tamil. The Embar are Tengales from S'rirangam, 
 and speak Tamil. The Hebbar (1,724) are descendants of immigrants 
 from the Tamil country, who settled in five different villages, and were 
 hence also known as the Panchagrama (358). These places were 
 Grama (Hassan District), Kadaba (Tumkur District), Molur (Bangalore 
 District), Hangala (Mysore District), and Belur (Hassan District). 
 Hebbar was the old Brahman designation of the headman of a village, 
 as Heggade was of the Jains, and these names still linger in the west. 
 It is said to be a corruption of heb-hdrava, or the head Brahman. The 
 settlers in Grama, it appears, had acquired this title, which owing to their 
 connection was extended to all the Panchagrama. They all eat 
 together and intermarry : are both Tengale and Vadagale, and speak 
 Tamil. The Hemmigeyar are all Vaidikas and Vadagale, settled at 
 Hemmige near Talkad, which is said to have been granted by the 
 king of the day to one of their ancestors as a reward for distinguishing 
 himself in a literary discussion. Their language is Tamil. The 
 Mandyattar (566) are immigrants from a village called Mandyam 
 near Tirupati. They are located in Meluk6te and Mandya, the 
 latter being named after their native place. They are all Tengale and 
 speak Tamil. The Maradiirar are similar settlers at the neighbouring 
 village of Maddiir, which is a corruption of Maradiir. The Metukun- 
 teyar are Vadagale and disciples of the Parakalaswami. They speak 
 Telugu and Tamil. The Munchdli and Choli, so called because they 
 retain the lock of hair in front of the head, are Tengale, and their 
 language is Tamil. The Nallanchakravarti are Vadagale from Con- 
 jeveram, and are all Vaidikas, speaking Tamil. The Prativadi- 
 bhayankarattdr, meaning the terrifiers of opponent disputants, are 
 Tengale and ^'aidikas from S'riangam : language Tamil. There are 
 only two men of this sect put down, both in Kolar District. The 
 Somes'anddl are Vadagale, and chiefly Vaidikas, from the same part : 
 language Tamil. The Tirumaleyar (262) are descendants of Koti-
 
 SATANI 241 
 
 kanyadana Tatacharya, whose name implies that he had given away a 
 milHon virgins in marriage, a son of the guru to Raman ujacharya. 
 They are all Vadagales and Vaidikas, and seem to have come from 
 Conjeveram. They speak Tamil. 
 
 The Temple servants or Brahmans who act ^% pujdris are all "\'aidikas, 
 but are considered to have degraded themselves by undertaking such 
 service, and the other Brahmans will have no connection with them. 
 The S'ivadvija or Sivanambi (605) and TambaHa (2) are of the 
 Smarta sect, and ofificiate in S'iva temples. The Vaikhanasa (407) 
 and Pancharatrcil (142) belong to the S'rivaishnavas, and officiate in 
 Vishnu temples. The Tammadis who officiate in certain Siva temples 
 are Lingayits. 
 
 Lingayita. — The priestly orders among these are the A'radhya 
 (11,618), Gurusthala (12,129), Jangama (38,215) and ^'^^^ S'aiva (956). 
 The A'radhya are a sect of Lingayit Brahmans. They assume the 
 janivdra or sacred thread, but call it sivaddra. The Gurusthala are a 
 class of Jangama who take the place of gurus in performing certain 
 domestic ceremonies for which the gurus do not attend. The Jangama 
 are priests chiefly of the I^anchama Banajiga and Devanga. They are 
 divided into Charanli and Virakta, the former being under a vow of 
 celibacy. The Jangama derive their name especially from the portable 
 ox jinigama linga worn on the person (which indeed is characteristic of 
 all Lingayits) as distinguished from the sthdvira or fixed linga of the 
 temples, and also perhaps from their being itinerant. In addition to 
 the linga they wear a necklace of beads called riidrdksha, and smear 
 their whole bodies with the ashes of cow-dung. A Jangam will not 
 permit himself to be touched by any person who does not wear the 
 linga. They wander about and subsist on charity, and their children 
 generally adopt the same profession. 
 
 Satani. — These are regarded as priests by the Holeya and other 
 inferior castes, while they themselves have the chiefs of the S'rivaishnava 
 Brahmans and Sannyasis as their gurus. Their subdivisions are 
 Khadri Vaishnava, Ndtacharasilrti, Prathama Vaishnava, Sameraya or 
 Samagi, Sankara, Sattadhava, Suri, Telugu Satani, Venkatapurada and 
 Vaishnava. Some are employed in agriculture, but as a rule they are 
 engaged in the service of Vishnu temples, and are flower-gatherers, torch- 
 bearers and strolling minstrels. Buchanan supposed them to be the 
 remains of an extensive priesthood who formerly held the same relation 
 to the Holeya that the Brahmans now do to the Si'idras. But as a sect 
 they appear to be of more modern origin. They call themselves 
 \'aishnavas and correspond with the Baisnabs in Bengal. They are 
 followers of Chaitanya, from whose name, or that of Satdnana, one of his 
 
 R
 
 242 E THNOGRAJ'H V 
 
 disciples, their designation may be derived. Properly speaking, they 
 are not a caste, but a religious sect of votaries of Vishnu, more 
 especially in the form of Krishna, who have ceased to regard caste 
 distinctions. In the north of India admission to the sect is obtained 
 by payment to a Gosayi and partaking of food with other members of 
 the sect. 
 
 Jaina. — The priests of this religion have been returned as 
 Tirthankara (2,564) and Pitambara (5). The Jaina yatis or clergy 
 here belong to the sect of Digambara, properly, clad with space, that 
 is nude, but they cover themselves with a yellow robe, and hence 
 the name Pitambara. An account of the Jaina will be found under 
 Religion. 
 
 The Devotees and religious mendicants are, — among Hindus, Dasari 
 (1,178), Sannyasi (684), Gosayi (424), and Bairagi (222): among 
 Lingayits, Ay3'a, Ganadhisvara, Shatsthala and Vader (956) : among 
 Jains, Digambara (5,477), Svetambara (85), and Bavaji (i). 
 
 Dasari are mendicants belonging to different castes of Siidras. 
 They become Dasas, or servants, dedicated to the god at Tirupati, by 
 virtue of a particular vow, made either by themselves or relatives at 
 some anxious or dangerous moment, and live by begging in his name. 
 Dasaris are strictly Vishnuvites, as the vow is taken only by castes who 
 are worshippers of that deity. Dasaris are always invited by Sudras 
 on ceremonial days and feasted. The subdivisions are Dharma, Giidama, 
 S'anku, and Tirunama Dasaris. 
 
 A Sannyasi is properly a man who has forsaken all. He has 
 renounced the world, and leads a life of celibacy and abstemiousness, 
 devoting himself to religious meditation and abstraction, and to study 
 of the holy books. He is considered to have attained to a state of 
 exalted piety that places him above most of the restrictions of caste 
 and ceremony. It is the fourth ds'rama or final stage of life for the 
 three higher orders. The number of Brahman Sannyasis is very small, 
 and chiefly confined to those who are gurus or bishops of the different 
 sects. These are as a rule men of learning and the heads of 
 monasteries, where they have a number of disciples under instruction 
 who are trained for religious discussion. They are supported entirely 
 by endowments and the contributions of their disciples. Periodical 
 tours are undertaken for the purpose of receiving the offerings of 
 their followers. They travel in great state, with elephants, horses, and 
 a retinue of disciples. On the approach of a guru to any place all 
 the inhabitants of pure birth go out to meet him : the lower classes are 
 not admitted to his presence. On being conducted to the principal 
 temple, he bestows upadcsa or chakrdniikam on such as have not
 
 GOSA YI 243 
 
 received these ceremonies (which may be considered analogous to 
 confirmation by prelates in the English Church), and distributes holy 
 water. He inquires into their matters of contention or transgressions 
 against the rules of caste, and having disposed of these, hears his 
 disciples and other learned men dispute on theological subjects. This 
 is the grand field for acquiring reputation among the Brahmans.' The 
 gurus are bound to spend all they get in what is reckoned as charitable 
 distribution, that is in the support of men and buildings dedicated to 
 the service of the gods. But the majority of the Sannyasis (of whom 
 no less than 412 are in the Kolar District, and 175 in Tumkur) are a 
 class of Siidra devotees who live by begging and pretend to powers of 
 divination. They wear the clerical dress of red ochre and allow the 
 hair to grow unshorn. They are married and often have settled 
 abodes, but itinerate, and their descendants keep up the sect and follow 
 the same calling. 
 
 The Gosayi are followers of Chaitanya, the Vishnuvite reformer 
 of the sixteenth century, whose original disciples, six in number, were 
 so called. They never marry, but the order is recruited from all the 
 four principal castes, especially the two highest, and those who join are 
 cut off" for ever from their own tribes. Such as lead a strictly ascetic 
 life are called Avadhuta, while those who engage in commerce and 
 trade are called Dandi. Most of those in Mysore belong to the latter 
 subdivision, and are wealthy merchants from northern and western 
 India, settled in Mysore, Bangalore and other chief towns, dealing 
 largely in jewels and valuable embroidered cloths. The profits of their 
 traffic go to their Mahant or teacher. The property of either Avadhuta 
 or Dandi devolves on his chela or adopted disciple. 
 
 The Bairagi are followers of Ramanand, the \'ishnuvite reformer, 
 who early forsook the cares of the world and gave himself up to 
 Vairagya, or the renunciation of all worldly desires, becoming the first 
 Vairagi or Bairagi. Yxom. his four disciples arose four sects, each of 
 which is composed of Nihangs, those who are purely ascetics and lead 
 secluded lives, and Samayogis, who marry and live with their families ; 
 but both orders can eat together. Many profess to be physicians and 
 herbalists, while others pretend to be alchemists. All are beggars, and 
 as pilgrims resort to holy places, especially to Tirupati. Their usual 
 route in the south is from Rames'vara to Totadri, which is in that 
 neighbourhood, S'rirangam, Ciopalswamibetta, Meluk6te and Tirupati. 
 They are also called Sadhu and are all worshippers of Vishnu and 
 
 ' These disputations are said to 1)e very similar to those which were common 
 among the doctors of the Romish Church seven or eight hundred years ago. — 
 Biichanaii.
 
 244 ETHNOGRAPHY 
 
 adherents of S'n'vaishnava IJrahmans. They are mostly taken from 
 the Sudra castes, but many of them wear the triple cord and 
 profess themselves to be (iauda 13rahmans from the north. Half 
 the number at the census time were in Bangalore District and a 
 considerable number in Kadur. There were none in Hassan and 
 Shimoga, and only three in Chitaldroog. 
 
 The Yader, a corruption of Odeyar or Vadeyar, meaning lord or 
 master, are Lingayits like the Jangama. They are held in great veneration 
 in their sect and are feasted by laymen on all important occasions, 
 especially at S'ivaratri, when their attendance is said to be in such great 
 demand that they have to hurry from house to house, just tasting a 
 morsel in each. Mostly in Kadur, Mysore and Shimoga Districts ; 
 none in Kolar and Hassan. 
 
 The Digambara and Svetambara are the tvv-o great sects of the 
 Jains. The derivation of the former name has already been given 
 above. The Svetambara are those who are clad in white. This 
 section is found more in the north of India, and is represented by but 
 a small number in Mysore. The Digambara are said to live absolutely 
 separated from society and from all worldly ties. Most numerous in 
 Mysore, Tumkur and Kadur Districts. 
 
 Quitting the religious groups we come to that of the professional 
 Writers, of whom there are io8 Kanakkan and 6 Kayastha, all in the 
 Civil and Military Station of Bangalore. The former may be allied to 
 the Karnams and Kanakka-pillai (commonly called Conocopoly) of the 
 Madras country, who are village and other accountants. The Kanakkan 
 include the subdivisions of Karnikar, Sirkanakkan, and Sirkarnikar. 
 The Kayastha are from northern India and have a subdivision called 
 Madur. 
 
 Next are Musicians and Ballad-reciters, the well-known Bhats or 
 Bhatraju, numbering 1,388, and found chiefly in the eastern and 
 southern Districts. They speak Telugu and are supposed to have 
 come from the Northern Sarkars. They were originally attendants on 
 Hindu princes as professional bards, singing their praises and reciting 
 ballads on the wondrous deeds of their ancestors.^ Now, from want of 
 
 ' The name is a curious approximation to that of the western bard, and their 
 offices are nearly similar. No Hindu Raja is without his bhats. Haidar, although 
 not a Hindu, delighted to be constantly preceded by them, and they are an appendage 
 to the state of many other Musalman chiefs. They have a wonderful facility in 
 speaking improvisatore, on any subject proposed to them, a declamation in measures, 
 which may be considered as a sort of medium between blank verse and modulated 
 prose ; but their proper profession is that of chaunting the exploits of former days in 
 the front of the troops while marshalling for battle, and inciting them to emulate the 
 glory of their ancestors. — Jl'ilks, in 1810.
 
 COMMERCIAL CLASS 
 
 245 
 
 their ordinary employment, they have descended into the mendicant 
 class. They are principally worshippers of Vishnu. 
 
 The Dancers and Singers follow, composed of Natuva (1,804) and 
 Kaikola (5,672). The subdivisions are Binkali Kaikola, Bogavaru, 
 Devadasi, (layaka, Lokabalike, Nayaksani. The women dance and 
 sing ; the men are musicians and accompany them on various instru- 
 ments. Nearly all the Kaikola are in ^lysore District : those that 
 speak Kannada are of Lingayit connection and called Basavi. The 
 Natuva are most numerous in Kolar and Mysore Districts : those who 
 speak Telugu are of the Telugu Banajiga caste. The females are 
 generally prostitutes and attached as dancing girls to Hindu temples. 
 The class is recruited either from those born in it or those adopted 
 from any of the Hindu castes. Sometimes the parents of a girl have 
 dedicated her to a temple even before her birth ; in other cases good- 
 looking girls are purchased from parents who are too poor to maintain 
 them. 
 
 The last professional group is the Chitari, who are classed as 
 Rachevar, and composed of Chitragara, also called Bannagara (912), 
 mostly in Mysore, Tumkur and Chitaldroog Districts, and Jinagara 
 (3,728), nearly all in Shimoga District. They are painters, decorators 
 and gilders, and make trunks, palanquins, lacquer toys and wooden 
 images for temples, cars, etc. 
 
 The Commercial class (C) consists entirely of Merchants and Traders. 
 The following are the principal divisions according to strength, with 
 their distribution. There are also 161 Baniya, 2 Miiltani, and i Jat, 
 all in the Civil and Military Station of Ijangalore ; S3 Marvadi, and 71 
 Cujarati. 
 
 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 u 
 
 c 
 
 S> 
 
 u 
 
 'S 
 
 Caste. 
 
 PC 
 
 
 
 p 
 
 X 
 
 Shimo 
 
 3 
 21,052 
 
 3 
 
 
 Lingayita 
 
 19,700 
 
 6,139 
 
 21,289 
 
 91,257 
 
 39,006 
 
 49,333 
 
 44,297 
 
 Banajiga ... 
 
 2«,437 
 
 36,296 
 
 12,408 
 
 17,811 
 
 3w35 
 
 6,709 
 
 5,115 
 
 4,224 
 
 Komati ... 
 
 4,766 
 
 8,890 
 
 5>304 
 
 3,210 
 
 1,766 
 
 1,175 
 
 1,338 
 
 2,605 
 
 Nagarla ... 
 
 5,289 
 
 3.004 
 
 315 
 
 439 
 
 77 
 
 7,966 
 
 5,223 
 
 651 
 
 Miulali 
 
 1,625 
 
 714 
 
 380 
 
 1,305 
 
 167 
 
 229 
 
 225 
 
 492 
 
 Jainaand S'ravaka 
 
 lOS 
 
 18 
 
 305 
 
 230 
 
 6S 
 
 2,974 
 
 43 
 
 200 
 
 Ladar 
 
 53 
 
 18 
 
 134 
 
 1,185 
 
 91 
 
 II 
 
 338 
 
 216 
 
 Of the 292,073 l.ingdyita, forming 62 per cent, of the trading com- 
 munity, 222,389 are returned by that name alone and i)reponderate in 
 Mysore District. Other divisions are Linga Banajiga (37,322), most 
 numerous in Chitaldroog and Hassan Districts ; Sajjana (30,424),
 
 246 E THNO G RA /'// V 
 
 more than half in Shimoga District; Sthaladava (1,243), "C-arly all in 
 Bangalore District ; l\anchamasale (182), nearly the whole in the Civil 
 and Military Station of Bangalore; Hirehasube (loi), almost all in 
 Mysore District; and K6risetti (52), all in Tumkur District. Further 
 subdivisions are Badagalava, Bannadava, Basale, Bavane, Gada Lin- 
 gayita, Gaddigeyava, J6ti Banajiga, Kannadiga, Kanthapavade, Kaikola, 
 M(^lpdvadc, Nfrume'linava, Petemane, T6gasetti, and Turukane 
 Banajiga. In the rural parts they are perhaps engaged more in agri- 
 culture than in trade. 
 
 The Banajiga number 114,735, ^'""^ form 24 per cent, of the 
 traders. The strongest section is that of Telugu Banajiga (59,495), the 
 greater number in Kolar and Bangalore Districts, as are also those put 
 down simply as Banajiga (17,779). The Setti (14,875) are most 
 numerous in Tumkur District and the Civil and Military Station of 
 Bangalore. The Dasa (7,925) are chiefly in Mysore District. The 
 Bale (5,378), makers and vendors of glass bangles, are chiefly in the 
 Civil and Military Station of Bangalore. The Yele (3,601), or betel-leaf 
 sellers, are most numerous in Mysore and Tumkur Districts. De'vadiga 
 (2,31 5), bangle-sellers, nearly all in Shimoga District, and the rest in 
 Kadur District; Nayadu (1,141), most numerous in Bangalore and 
 Chitaldroog Districts ; Huvvadiga (905) or flower-sellers, nearly all in 
 Kadur District ; Arale (340) or cotton-sellers, mostly in Mysore and 
 Bangalore Districts; Sukhamanji (313), nearly all in Bangalore 
 District, and the rest in Kolar District ; and Muttarasu (7), all in the 
 Civil and INIilitary Station of Bangalore, make up the remaining chief 
 sections. The minor subdivisions are A'di, Aggada, A'kuleti, Bherisetti, 
 Banta, Bidara, De'sayi, Dharmaraju, Gajulabalji, Gandhudibalji, 
 Gerballi, Gaudu, Ganga, Kalayi, Kamme, Kannada, Kapali, Kavare, 
 Kempti, Kempu, Kolla, Kotta, Lingabalji, Marasi, Mudusarebalji, 
 Miirusire, Mutta, Muttaraju, Pagadala, Pasaluvate, S'ivachara, Soliya- 
 setti, Virasaggada, and Yellamma. The principal occupations of 
 Banajigas are agriculture, labour and trade of all kinds. 
 
 The Kbmati (29,054) and Nagarta (22,964) are principally found in 
 towns and large trade centres. Both claim to be ^'aisyas, and the 
 former are specially considered to be such. The Komati subdivisions 
 are Kannada, Myada, Setti, Trikarma, Tuppada, and Yavamanta. The 
 majority are worshippers of S'iva and a few of ^'ishnu, but the chief 
 object of reverence is the goddess Kanyaka Parames'vari. All eat 
 together and intermarry. They deal in cloth and, except spirits, in all 
 kinds of merchandise, especially money and jewels, but never cultivate 
 the ground nor become mechanics. The Nagarta, besides 4, 297 only 
 so named, chiefly in Bangalore and Kolar Districts, are subdivided into
 
 ARTISANS 247 
 
 Ay6dhyanagara (39), all in Bangalore District; Bheri (229), nearly all 
 in Kolar District; Namadhari (15,428), mostly in Shimoga and Kadur 
 Districts; and Vais'ya (2,971), most numerous in Bangalore and Kolar 
 1 )istricts. There are also minor sections called S'ivachar and Vaishnava. 
 Of the Nagarta some are worshippers of Vishnu and others of S'iva : 
 of the latter a part wear the linga and others not. The three sects do 
 not intermarry or eat together. They are dealers in bullion, cloth, 
 cotton, drugs and grain, but do not cultivate the ground or follow any 
 handicraft trade, though some act as porters. 
 
 The Mudali (5,437) or Mudaliyar, with the subdivision Agamudi, 
 are of Tamil origin, from Arcot, Vellore and other places, the 
 offsjiring of traders, servants and contractors who followed the 
 progress of British arms. The majority are in the cities of Bangalore 
 and Mysore. They are a thriving and money-making class, and 
 many of them are employed under (iovernment : they also engage 
 in trade of all kinds, and as contractors for buildings and other public 
 works. 
 
 Of the Jaina (1,981) and S'rdvaka (1,962) the great majority of the 
 former and the whole of the latter are in Shimoga District, and probably 
 represent a very ancient trading community of those parts. The Ladar 
 (2,046) are traders from the Mahratta country, and are principally 
 settled in the Mysore District. 
 
 The Baniya are wealthy money-lenders from other parts. Their 
 divisions are Agarvala, Bakkal, Jaman, Multani, and Oswal. The 
 Mdrvddi (Dodaya and Kumbi), Gujardti and Multdni zxe. traders from 
 the countries after whose names they are called. The Marvadi deal in 
 pearls and cloths. The (iujarati are small money-lenders, and also 
 trade in jewels, cloths and other articles. 
 
 The class Artisan and \'illage Menial (D) includes the following : — 
 
 Smiths, Carpenters and Masons ... 
 
 Pdnchala 
 
 "3,731 
 
 Barbers 
 
 Niiyinda ... 
 
 37,296 
 
 Tailors 
 
 Darji 
 
 10,664 
 
 Weavers and Uyers 
 
 Neyi^ara, Coniga 
 
 88,413 
 
 Washermen... 
 
 Agasa 
 
 85,671 
 
 Cowherds, iSrc. 
 
 Ciolla 
 
 128,995 
 
 Shepherds 
 
 Kuruba 
 
 346,768 
 
 (Jilpressers ... 
 
 Caniga 
 
 35, 80S 
 
 I'otters 
 
 Kumbara .. 
 
 40,809 
 
 Salters 
 
 Uppara 
 
 89,123 
 
 Cold-lace makers 
 
 Sarige 
 
 15 
 
 Fishermen 
 
 Besta 
 
 99,897 
 
 Toddy drawers 
 
 I'<liy^^ 
 
 39,937 
 
 Village Watchmen, &c. ... 
 
 Ib.leya 
 
 520,493 
 
 Leather workers 
 
 Madiga, Mochi ... 
 
 240,321
 
 248 
 
 ETHNOGRAPHY 
 
 The sul)juincd tahlc shows their distribution over the several 
 Districts : — 
 
 Caste. 
 
 
 c 
 
 r! 
 
 
 a. 
 
 E 
 
 >'sore. 
 
 
 1 
 
 c 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 c 
 
 U, 
 
 ^ 
 
 2 
 
 K 
 
 IS 
 12,107 
 
 u: 
 
 Ic 
 U 
 
 Panchala 
 
 14,105 
 
 9,688 
 
 9,685 
 
 37,448 
 
 1.3,588 
 
 8,745 
 
 8,365 
 
 Nayinda 
 
 7,971 
 
 8,559 
 
 3,807 
 
 8,401 
 
 2,979 
 
 2,828 
 
 923 
 
 1,828 
 
 Darji 
 
 3,668 
 
 574 
 
 908 
 
 1,457 
 
 511 
 
 2,090 
 
 734 
 
 722 
 
 Neyigara 
 
 24,492 
 
 8,696 
 
 8,109 
 
 10,224 
 
 12,808 
 
 6,674 
 
 10,236 
 
 7,174 
 
 Agasa ... 
 
 11,447 
 
 10,327 
 
 10,323 
 
 19,435 
 
 10,456 
 
 13,103 
 
 4,186 
 
 6,394 
 
 Colla 
 
 20,430 
 
 20,022 
 
 38.237 
 
 5,445 
 
 5,212 
 
 3,995 
 
 4,149 
 
 15,892 
 
 Kurul)a ... 
 
 41,407 
 
 35,304 
 
 38,186 
 
 115,805 
 
 40,730 
 
 23,683 
 
 26,255 
 
 25,398 
 
 Ganiga ... 
 
 5,909 
 
 5,790 
 
 3,305 
 
 15,634 
 
 2,259 
 
 547 
 
 1,092 
 
 1,272 
 
 Kunil)ara 
 
 4,306 
 
 3,962 
 
 3,183 
 
 16,136 
 
 Z^m 
 
 3,281 
 
 4,oiS 
 
 2,610 
 
 Uppara ... 
 
 1,516 
 
 3,127 
 
 11,568 
 
 34,717 
 
 8,566 
 
 10,956 
 
 10,000 
 
 8,673 
 
 Sarige ... 
 
 10 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 Besta 
 
 8,357 
 
 3,910 
 
 4,201 
 
 59,550 
 
 7,628 
 
 7,290 
 
 4,102 
 
 4,859 
 
 I\liga 
 
 2,569 
 
 1,708 
 
 5,348 
 
 8,450 
 
 2,757 
 
 10,944 
 
 3,882 
 
 4,279 
 
 Holeya 
 
 81,369 
 
 57,665 
 
 23,616 
 
 173,003 
 
 87,055 
 
 38,000 
 
 51,291 
 
 8,491 
 
 Madiga ... 
 
 46,329 
 
 39,661 
 
 48,324 
 
 24,179 
 
 11,190 
 
 23,043 
 
 10,453 
 
 37,142 
 
 The Panchala, as their name implies, embrace five guilds of artisan.s, 
 namely, .Agasale, or goldsmiths ; Kanchugara, brass and copper smiths ; 
 Kammdra, blacksmiths ; Badagi, carpenters ; and Kalkutaka, stone- 
 masons. They profess to be descended from the five sons of Vis'va- 
 karma, the architect of the gods, who severally adopted these pro- 
 fessions. The various trades are not confined to particular families, 
 but may be followed according to the individual inclination. The 
 Panchala wear the triple cord and consider themselves equal to the 
 Brahmans, who, however, deny their pretensions. The goldsmiths are 
 the recognized heads of the clan and have a caste jurisdiction over the 
 rest. 
 
 The Agasale, or Akkasale proper (63,578), and goldsmith Panchala 
 (31,958) have also subdivisions called Bailu Akkasale or Rotvad (337), 
 Pattar or Pattari (747), Oja or Vajar (737), and Jalagara (258), as w^ell 
 as A'chari, Arava Panchala, Manu, Maya, Panchagrama, Sajjana, Sonar, 
 Sonajiband, Vaivaghni, Vis'va, Vis'vabrahma, and ^'is'vaghni. Some 
 are followers of S'iva and others of Vishnu, but the difference in 
 religion is no bar to intermarriage or social intercourse. The most 
 influential members are among the S'aivas and wear the linga, but they 
 do not associate with any other linga-wearers. The Jalagara are the 
 people who wash the sand of streams for gold. The majority are 
 returned from Mysore IMstrict. 
 
 The Kanchugara (369) or brass and copper smiths are divided 
 between the Bangalore and Mysore Districts. The section called
 
 ARTISANS 249 
 
 Gejjegdra (27) are all in Mysore, These make the small round bells 
 used for tying about the heads or necks of bullocks. Dancing girls 
 also bind them to the ankles when dancing, and postal runners have a 
 bunch at the end of the rod on which they carry the mail bags, the 
 jingle giving notice of their approach. 
 
 The Kammara (6,250) or blacksmiths, include Eailu Kammara, 
 Ka]lar and Karman. The Kammara is a member of the village cor- 
 poration, and in addition to working in iron often acts as a carpenter as 
 well. In the repair of carts and agricultural implements his services 
 are constantly in demand. 
 
 The Badagi (8,643) or carpenters, and Gaundar (3), the latter 
 confined to the Civil and Military Station of Bangalore, have sections 
 called Panchachara, Gudigara, S'ilpi and Vis'vakarma. The Badagi is 
 also a member of the village corporation, but the profession of 
 carpentry is now taken up by other castes, such as Kunchitiga and 
 Wokkaliga, not to mention Musalmans. The Gudigara are specially 
 the producers of the beautiful sandal-wood carving for which the 
 Mysore country is famous. They are settled in Shimoga District, 
 chiefly at Sorab. S'ilpi are properly sculptors, and might be classed 
 among masons. 
 
 The Ndyinda or barbers, also called Hajam, include a number of 
 sections, namely, Balaji, Bajantri, Bengali, Karnata, Kelasi, Konda, 
 Kondamangala, Mangala, Nata, Natamangala, Reddi, S'ilavanta, 
 Teluga and Uppina. The Nayinda is a member of the village 
 corporation. They speak both Kaiinada and Telugu, and are generally 
 employed as musicians as well as barbers : in the former capacity they 
 are in great requisition at feasts and marriages. They include wor- 
 shippers of both Vishnu and S'iva, the S'ilavanta being Lingayits. 
 
 'Y\iQ Darji ox tailors, besides 4,817 so returned, include Shimpi or 
 Chippiga (12), Namdev (3,566) and Rangare (2,269). '^^c latter are 
 also dyers and calico-printers. The Darji are immigrants from the 
 Mahratta country and specially worship Vitth6ba or Krishna. 
 
 The Neyigdra (86,986) are weavers proper, the G6niga (1,426) being 
 specially sack weavers and makers of gunny bags {goni). The main 
 divisions of the former are Devanga (49,006), Togata or Dandasetti 
 (i3>3oo). '"^dle or Saliga (10,255), Bihmagga (9,946), Seniga (105), 
 Patvegar (3,174), Khatri (946), and Saurashtraka (254). In these are 
 included minor sections called Jada, Kuruvina, Padmamurikinati, 
 Padmasale, Pattasale, Patnulukar, Sakunasale, and Singundi. 
 
 The Kannada Devanga are weavers who wear the linga, but they 
 have no intercourse with the Linga Banajiga. They worship S'iva and 
 I\irvati, and their son Ganes'a, who is a special patron of their looms.
 
 2 50 ETJIXOGRAPIIY 
 
 There arc also 'rdugu Dcvanga, who are of two sects, one of whom 
 worship Vishnu and the other S'iva, l)ut the latter do not wear the 
 linga. This difference of religion is no bar to intermarriage, and the 
 wife adopts the religion of her husband. The Togata, most numerous 
 in the eastern Districts, are of Telugu origin and worshippers of S'iva 
 in the form of his consort Chaudes'vari. They manufacture the 
 coarse kinds of cloth that are worn only by the poorer classes. The 
 Sdle or Saliga are also Telugu by origin, and comprise the Padmasale 
 or Pattasale, who are worshippers of Vishnu, and the S'akunasale, who 
 arc worshippers of S'iva and wear the linga. The two sects do not 
 intermarry. The Bilimagga, most numerous in Mysore District, call 
 themselves Kuruvina Banajiga, and regard the former designation as 
 a nickname. They are an indigenous caste and speak Kannada : 
 worshippers of S'iva. The Seniga, confined to Kolar and Bangalore 
 Districts, are a wealthy caste of weavers, immigrants from the lower 
 Carnatic, and speak Kannada. They specially manufacture cloths for 
 female wear, of superior kind and high value. They are Lingayits by 
 religion, but are not friendly with the other Lingayits. 
 
 The Patvegar, of whom the majority are in Bangalore District, are 
 silk weavers and speak a language allied to Mahratti. They worship 
 all the Hindu deities, but especially the S'akti or female energy, to 
 which a goat is sacrificed on the night of the Dasara festival, a 
 Musalman officiating as slaughterer, for which he receives certain fees. 
 After the sacrifice the family of the Patvegar partake of the flesh. 
 The caste have the reputation of not being over cleanly in their habits. 
 The Khatri, all but two being in the Bangalore District, are also silk 
 weavers, and in manners, customs and language are akin to the 
 Patvegars, but do not intermarry with them, though the two castes eat 
 together. They claim to be Kshatriyas. The Saurashtraka, commonly 
 known as Patnuli or J^'inikhanvala, are, all but 7, in the Bangalore Dis- 
 trict. They manufacture superior kinds of cotton and woollen carpets, 
 and also shawls of cotton and silk mixture. They are worshippers of 
 Vishnu. 
 
 The Gbniga (1,205), ^^ already described above, are sack weavers. 
 More than a half are in the Bangalore District. Other divisions are 
 Janapa (32) and Sadhuvams'astha (189), the latter all in Tumkur 
 District. Some are agriculturists, and some grain porters. 
 
 The Agasa or Asaga are washermen. They are divided into 
 Kannada Agasa and Telugu Agasa, who neither eat together nor 
 intermarry. But there are numerous subdivisions, named Belli, 
 Dhobi, Halemakkalu, Iraganti Madivali, Kapusakalavadu, Madivali, 
 Morasu, Murikinati, Padata, Sakalavadu, Tamil and Vannan. The
 
 ARTISANS 251 
 
 Agasa IS a member of the village corporation and his office is 
 hereditary. Besides washing he bears the torch in public processions 
 and at marriages. The class seldom follow any other profes- 
 sion than that of washing. Both men and women wash. Their 
 proper beasts of burthen are asses, and these are sometimes employed 
 in carrying grain from one place to another. Their principal object 
 of worship is Ubbe, the steam which causes the garments to swell out 
 in the pot of boiling water in which dirty clothes are steeped. 
 Animals are sacrificed to the god with the view of preventing the 
 clothes being burnt in the Ubbe pot. Under the name of Bhume 
 Deva there are temples dedicated to this god in some large towns, 
 the services being conducted by pujaris of the Agasa caste. They 
 also worship \"ishnu and other gods. Their gurus are Satanis. 
 
 The Golla are cowherds and dairymen. The Kadu or forest Golla 
 (21,820) are distinct from the U'ru or town (lolla (15,618) and other 
 (lolla (82,357) who belong to villages, and the two neither eat together 
 nor intermarry. The subivisions of the caste are very numerous and 
 are returned as follows : — Alia, Arava, Bokkasada, Bigamudre, 
 Chapprada, Ch61iya, Doddi, Edaiyar, Gauli or Kachche (lauli, Gaulbans, 
 Gayakavadi, G6pala, Gudejangaliga, Halu, Jambala, Kankar, Kannada, 
 Karadi, Karma, Karne, Kavadiga, Kempu, Kilari, Kolalu, Konar, 
 Kuduchappara, Kuri, Mande, Nalla, Namadakula, Nayi, Pata, Pata- 
 yadavalu, Puja, Punagu, Piiri, Raja, Salja, Sambdra, Sonnan, Svari, 
 Tellapusala, Telugu, Yadayar, Yakula, and Yadavakula. They worship 
 Krishna, who is said to have been born in the caste. Formerly they, 
 or a section of them, were largely employed in transporting money, 
 both public and private, from one part of the country to another, and 
 are said to have been famed for their integrity in such matters. From 
 this circumstance they are also called Dhanapdla or treasury guards. 
 The Kadu Golla are mostly in Tumkur District, and a good many in 
 Chitaldroog District. They live in thatched huts outside villages and 
 are inclined to be nomadic. vSome of their customs resemble those 
 of the Kddu Kuruba. 
 
 The Kuruba are shepherds and weavers of blankets or camblets 
 {kainbli). The Kddu Kuruba have already been noticed under forest 
 and hill tribes. The remaining great body of the civilized are divided 
 into two tribes, the Hande Kuruba and Kuruba proper, who have no 
 intercourse with one another. The latter worship Bire Devaru and 
 are Sivites. Their priests are Brahmans and Jogis. The caste also 
 worship a box, which they believe contains the wearing apparel of 
 Krishna, under the name of Junjappa. The subdivisions of the caste 
 are Bane, Banige, Banni, BelH, Bi'rappana A\'okkalu, Bydlada,
 
 252 ETffNOGRAJ'JIY 
 
 (laiujakula, Ilalc, I lalh', 1 hilu, Hcggade, Hosa, Jadi, Jattedcvara, 
 Kanibali, Kanakaiyanajati, Kannacja, Kenchala, Kotta, Kuri, Maji, 
 Majjana, Majjige, Pata, S'ale, Sdvanti, Suggala, and Toppala. 'I'he Halu 
 Kuruba (191,087), Hande Kuruba (7,944), and Kambali Kuruba (7,792), 
 are mostly weavers of kamblis. Tarts of Chitaldroog and the town of 
 KoLar are noted for the manufacture of a superior kind of a fine 
 texture Hke homespun. The women spin wool. 
 
 The Ganiga are oilpressers and oilmongers. They are known by 
 different names, according to the special customs of their trade, sucli 
 as Hegganiga, those who yoke two oxen to the stone oil-mill ; 
 Kiruganiga (principally in Mysore District), those who make oil in 
 wooden mills ; Wontiyettu Ganiga, those who use only one bullock in 
 the mill. They are also known collectively as Jdtipana or Jotinagara, 
 the light-giving tribe. The other subdivisions are Kannada, Telugu and 
 Setti. There is a small section called Sajjana, who wear the linga and 
 have no intercourse with the others. But the caste generally includes 
 worshippers both of Vishnu and Siva. 
 
 The Kumbdra are potters and tile-makers, and members of the 
 village corporation. Of the two main divisions of Kannada and 
 Telugu, the former claim to be superior. The subdivisions are 
 Gaudakula, Gundikula, Kos'ava, Kulala, Navige, S'alivahana, Tamil 
 and Vadama. 
 
 The Uppdra or saltmakers are so called chiefly in the eastern 
 Districts ; in the southern they are called Uppaliga and in the western 
 Melusakkare. There are two classes, the Kannada and the Telugu. 
 The former are principally engaged in making earth-salt, and the latter 
 as bricklayers and builders. The well to-do or Sreshtha also undertake 
 public works on contract and the erection of ordinary Hindu houses. 
 They are both Vishnuites and S'lvites. 
 
 The small body of Sarige or gold-lace makers are Rachevar by caste. 
 They are all in the Bangalore and Kolar Districts. 
 
 The Besta are fishermen, boatmen and palanquin-bearers. This is 
 their designation principally in the east ; in the south they are called 
 Toreya, Ambiga and Parivara ; in the west Kabyara and Ciange- 
 makkalu. Those who speak Telugu call themselves Bhoyi. There 
 are some other smaller sections of inferior rank, named Belli, 
 Bhoja, Chammadi, Kabbaliga, Palaki, Palyapat, Rayaravuta and 
 Sunnakallu. The latter are lime-burners, Many of the females are 
 cotton-spinners and some of the men are weavers of cloth. There are 
 also some in the employment of Government as peons and in other 
 capacities. jNIost of the caste are worshippers of Siva. 
 
 The Ti/iga are toddy-drawers, their hereditary occupation being to
 
 OUTCASTES 253 
 
 extract the juice of palm-trees and to distil si^irits from it. In the 
 Malnad they are known as Halepaika (15,000), and were formerly 
 employed as soldiers under the local rulers. Many of them are now in 
 household service. Most of them also hold land, and are agriculturist.s. 
 The other subdivisions are Bilva, Devar, Sigroyidalu, Telugu Sanar, 
 Tenginahdle. They worship all the Hindu deities, as well as S'aktis, 
 and especially the pots containing toddy. 
 
 The Holeya and Mddiga form the great body of outcastes. The 
 former have already been described above (p. 215). These, in addi- 
 tion to their duties as village watchmen, scouts and scavengers, are 
 employed as field-hands, and in all kinds of manual labour. They also 
 make various kinds of coarse cotton or woollen cloths in hand-looms, 
 while the Aleman furnish recruits for the Barr sepoy regiments. There 
 are two tribes, Kannada and Telugu Holeya, who eat together but do 
 not intermarry. Their subdivisions are very numerous, but the follow- 
 ing are said to be the principal ones :— Kannada, Gangadikara, 
 Maggada, Morasu, Telugu, Tigula and Tamil Holeya or Pareya. The 
 minor sections are Agani, Aleman, Balagai, Bellikula, Bhiimi, Chakra, 
 Chalavadi, Chambula, Chavana, Chillaravar, Dasari, Collate, Jhadmali, 
 Jintra, Joti, Kalu, Karnataka, Kapu, Konga, Kurupatte, L6k6ttara- 
 pareya, Madya, Mala, Masalu, ]\Iattige, Nagaru, Nallar, Pale, Pa]li, 
 Panne, Pasali, Rampada, Roppada, vSambu, Sangu, Sara, S'idlukula, 
 S6mes'a, Tanga, Tangaja, Tirukula, Tude, T6ti, Uggranada, Vadaga, 
 Valange, Yanne, ^'arka, Velagi, Vellala, Va]luvar, Veluva, Vanniyar, 
 Vi'rabhagna and A'lrasambu. 
 
 They are regarded as unclean by the four principal castes, and 
 particularly by the Brahmans. In the rural parts, especially, when a 
 Holeya has to deliver anything to a Brahman, he places it on the 
 ground and retires to a distance, and when meeting one in a street or 
 road he endeavours to get away as far as possible. Brahmans and 
 Holeyas mutually avoid passing through the quarters they respectively 
 occupy in the villages, and a wilful transgression in this respect, if it 
 did not create a riot, would make purification necessary, and that not 
 only on the part of the higher caste but even on the part of the lower. 
 With all this, there is no restriction in the Mysore State on the acquisi- 
 tion of land or property by Holeyas, and under the various blending 
 influences of the times — educational, missionary, and others — members 
 of this class are rising in importance and acquiring wealth. So nmch 
 so ♦^hat in the cities and large towns their social disabilities are, to a 
 great e.xtent, being overcome, and in public matters especially their 
 complete ostracism can hardly be maintained. 
 
 In the Maidan parts of the country, the Holeya, as the kulavddi, had
 
 254 ETHNOGRAPHY 
 
 a recognized position in the village, and has always been regarded as 
 an ultimate referee in cases of boundary disputes. In the Malnad he 
 was merely a slave, of which there were two classes, — the huiUll, or 
 slave born in the house, the hereditary serf of the family; and the 
 mau'.id/, or slave of the soil, who was bought and sold with the land. 
 These are, of course, now emancipated, and are benefiting by the free 
 labour and higher wages connected with coffee plantations, often to the 
 detriment of the areca-nut gardens, which were formerly kept up by 
 their forced labour. 
 
 The Madiga are similar to the Holeya, but are looked down upon 
 by the latter as inferior. They are toti, or village scavengers, and 
 nirga?iti, or watermen, in charge of the sluices of tanks and channels, 
 regulating the .supply of water for irrigation. They are principally dis- 
 tinguished from the Holeya in being workers in leather. The carcases 
 of dead cattle are removed by them, and the hides dressed to provide 
 the thongs by which bullocks are strapped to the yoke, the leather 
 buckets used for raising water in kapile wells, and other articles 
 required by the villagers. They are also cobblers, tanners and shoe- 
 makers, and the increasing demand for hides is putting money into 
 their purses. 
 
 Their subdivisions are Arava, Chakkili, Chammar, (iampa, Gampa- 
 sale, Goppasale, Hedigebiivva, Kanchala, Kannada, Marabiivva, 
 Morasn, Matangi, Tirukula, Singadi, Tanigebuvva, Telugu, U'ru and 
 A^ainadu. They are worshippers of Vishnu, S'iva and S'aktis, and have 
 five different gurus or maths in the Mysore country, namely, at Kadave, 
 Kodihalli, Kongarli, Nelamangala and Konkallu. They also call 
 themselves Jambava and Matanga. There is, moreover, a general 
 division of the caste into Des'abhaga, who do not intermarry with the 
 others. Though subordinate to the maths above mentioned, they 
 acknowledge S'rivaishnava Brahmans as their gurus. The Des'abhaga 
 are composed of six classes, namely, Biljoru, ISIalloru, Amaravatiyavaru, 
 Munigaju, Yanamaloru and Morabuvvadavaru. 
 
 Certain privileges enjoyed by the Holeya and Madiga in regard to 
 temple worship will be found described in connection with Melukote 
 and Belur. 
 
 The Mbchi (746) are not to be classed with the Madiga, except in 
 the matter of working in leather. They are immigrants, who, it is said, 
 came into Mysore with Khasim Khan, the general of Aurangzeb, and 
 settled originally in Sira and Kolar. They claim to be Kshatriyas and 
 Rajputs, pretensions which are not generally admitted. They are shoe- 
 makers and saddlers by trade, and all S'aivas by faith. They have sub- 
 divisions called Gujarat, Kannada, Kempala and Marata.
 
 Wodda 
 
 . 107,203 
 
 Mecia 
 
 4,261 
 
 Beda 
 
 217,128 
 
 Jogi, &c 
 
 10,884 
 
 Domha, Jetti ... 
 
 3-703 
 
 (laradiga 
 
 S76 
 
 WODDAS 255 
 
 The next class (E) is styled ^'agrant Minor Artisans and Performers, 
 and is composed of the following groups : — 
 
 Earth-workers and Stone-dressers 
 
 Mat and Basket-makers 
 
 Hunters and Fowlers 
 
 Miscellaneous, and Disreputal)le Livers 
 
 Tumblers and Acrobats 
 
 jugglers, Snake-charmers, i\;c 
 
 The large and useful class of JVoddas is composed of Kallu ^^'odda and 
 Mannu Wodda, between whom there is no social intercourse, nor any 
 intermarriage. Both worship all the Hindu deities and S'aktis, but a 
 goddess named Yellama seems to be a special object of reverence. 
 The Kallu Wodda are stonemasons, quarrying, transporting, and build- 
 ing with stone, and very dexterous in moving large masses of it by 
 simple mechanical means. They consider themselves superior to the 
 Mannu Wodda. The latter are chiefly tank-diggers, well-sinkers, and 
 generally skilful navvies for all kinds of earthwork, the men digging 
 and the women removing the earth. Though a hard-working class, 
 they have the reputation of assisting professional thieves in committing 
 dacoities and robberies, j)rincipally, however, by giving information as 
 to where and how plunder may be easily obtained. The young and 
 robust of the Mannu Wodda of both sexes travel about in caravans in 
 search of employment, taking with them their infants and huts, which 
 consist of a few sticks and mats. Wherever they obtain any large 
 earthwork, they form an encampment in the neighbourhood. The 
 older members settle in the outskirts of towns, where many of both 
 sexes now find employment in various capacities in connection with 
 sanitary conservancy. The Wodda, as their name indicates, were 
 originally immigrants from Orissa and the Telugu country, and they 
 generally speak Telugu. They eat meat and drink spirits, and are 
 given to polygamy. The men and women of the caste eat together. 
 The subdivisions are Bailu, Bhdja, B6yi, Haje, Jarupa, Jangalpatte- 
 burusu, Telugu, Tigala, Uppu and U'ru. They are most numerous 
 in the eastern and northern Districts. 
 
 The Mida or (lauriga are mat and basket-makers, and workers in 
 bamboo and cane. One-fourth arc in Shimoga District, and a good 
 number in Mysore and Kadur Districts. 
 
 The Bcda or Nayaka consist of two divisions, Telugu and Kannada, 
 who neither eat together nor intermarry. One-third of the number are 
 in ("hitaldroog District, and the greater proportion of the rest in Kolar 
 and 'I'umkur Districts. They were formerly hunters and soldiers by 
 profession. Most of the Mysore Pallegars belong to this caste, and
 
 256 ETHNOGRAJ'IfY 
 
 the famous infantry of Haidar and Tipu was largely composed of 
 B(^das. Now their principal occupation is agriculture, labour and 
 Government service as revenue peons and village police. They claim 
 descent from ^'almiki, the author of the Ramayana, and are chiefly 
 Vaishnavas, hut worship all the Hindu deities. In some parts they 
 erect a circular hut for a temple, with a stake in the middle, which is 
 the god. In common with the Golla, Kuruba, Mddiga and other 
 classes, they often dedicate the eldest daughter in a family in which no 
 son is born, as a Basavi or prostitute ; and a girl falling ill is similarly 
 vowed to be left unmarried, which means the same thing. The main 
 divisions are Halu (3,929), Nayaka (15,453), Pajlegar (48), Barika, 
 Kannaiyanajati, Kirataka, and Machi or Myasa (9,175). The minor 
 subdivisions are Arava, Balajdgi, Gujjari, Hajli, Kanaka, Modayavaru, 
 Muchchalamire, Mugla, Nagi, Telugu and Yanamala. The Machi or 
 Mydsa, also called Chunchu, call for special notice. Many of them live 
 in hills and in temporary huts outside inhabited places. The remarkable 
 point about them is that they practise the rite of circumcision, which is 
 performed on the boys of ten or twelve years of age. They also eschew 
 all strong drink, and that so scrupulously that they will not use materials 
 from the date-palm in their buildings, nor even touch them. On the 
 other hand they eat beef, but of birds only partridge and quail. Possibly 
 these peculiarities may have arisen from forced conversion to Islam in 
 the days of Tipu. With the Musalman rite they also combine Hindu 
 usages at the initiation of boys, and in the segregation of women in child- 
 birth follow the customs of other quasi jungle tribes. The dead are cre- 
 mated, and their ashes scattered on tangadi bushes {cassia auricidata). 
 
 In the Miscellaneous group Xh^t Jbgi (9,692) are the most numerous. 
 They are mendicant devotees recruited from all castes. Their divisions 
 are Gantij6gi, Gorava, Helava, Jangaliga, Monda, Pakanati, Pichcha- 
 kunte, Sillekyata and Uddinakorava. They mostly pretend to be 
 fortune-tellers, while the Jangaliga and Pakanati deal in drugs, and 
 wander about calling out the particular diseases they profess to cure by 
 means of their wares. 
 
 The Biididmdike (1,092) are gypsy beggars and fortune-tellers from 
 the Mahratta country, one section being called Busare. They pretend 
 to consult birds and reptiles, and through them to predict future events. 
 They use a small double-headed drum, which is sounded by whisking it 
 about so as to be struck by the knotted ends of a string attached to 
 each side. The others of this group of beggars are Sudugadusidda 
 (46), Ciondaliga (29), Pandaram and Valluvar (15), Karma (7), and 
 S'aniyar (3). The first are all in Shimoga District, and the last three 
 in the Civil and Military Station of Bangalore.
 
 MUSALMANS 257 
 
 The Tumblers and Acrobats include Domba (2,500) and Jatti (1,203). 
 The former are buffoons, tumblers, and <ynake-charmers. They are 
 supposed to be descendants of an aboriginal tribe from the north of India 
 (Doms probably). The Jatti or Jetti, also called Mushiiga in the 
 western Districts, are professional athletes and wrestlers, or Malla. 
 They are Rachevar by caste. Nearly a half are in the Mysore District. 
 A number are maintained in connection with the palace, and are 
 trained from infancy in daily exercises for the express purpose of 
 exhibition. x\.n interesting account of this order, as it existed at the 
 beginning of the century, extracted from Wilks, was given in the first 
 edition. 
 
 The group of Garudiga and M6(jihidiyuva consists of jugglers, snake- 
 charmers, and conjurers. 
 
 The last class (F) is styled Races and Nationalities, numbering 
 291,168, and includes the Musalmans and Europeans, with Eurasians 
 and Native Christians. The following are the figures : — 
 
 Asiatic Races of reputed foreign cjrigin — 
 
 Musalmans ... ... ... ... .. ... 244,601 
 
 I'arsis, Jews, Chinese, (S:c ... ... ... ... 79 
 
 Mixed Asiatic Races — 
 
 Labbe 3, 717 
 
 Pinjari ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 2,180 
 
 Pindari ... ... ... ... ... ... .. 2,048 
 
 Mapile and others ... ... ... ... ... 427 
 
 Non-Asiatic Races^ 
 
 English, Scotch and Irish ... ... ... ... 5)943 
 
 Other Europeans ... ... ... ... ... 288 
 
 Eurasians ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 3, 931 
 
 Native Christians ... ... ... ... ... ... 27,954 
 
 The Musalmans belong to one of two religious sect.s — the Sunni and 
 Shiah — the great majority being Sunnis. They are so called from 
 accepting the Sunnat or traditional law, based on the sayings and 
 practice of Muhammad, as of authority supplementary to the Kuran. 
 They also revere equally the four successors of the prophet, alleging that 
 he made no arrangements for hereditary succession and left the matter 
 to the faithful. The Shiahs, on the other hand, attach supreme impor- 
 tance to the lineal descent of the Imam or head of the faithful. They 
 therefore reject the claims of the three Khalifs that succeeded 
 Muhammad and recognize Ali, the fourth Khalif, husband of Fatima, 
 the prophet's only surviving child, as the true Imam, followed by their 
 two sons Hasan and Hu.sain. To the usual formula of belief they add 
 "Ali is the Khalif of God." 
 
 The following is the distribution of the Musalmans in tlu' several 
 
 s
 
 = 58 
 
 ETHNOGRAJ'II Y 
 
 Districts. There arc also 892 Sharif, 244 Memaii, and 861 returned 
 only as Musahnans, besides 28 Arabs, 2 Kandaharis, and 2 lialuchis. 
 
 
 i 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 6 
 
 i 
 
 M 
 
 c 
 
 o" 
 
 Class. 
 
 a 
 to 
 
 
 
 g 
 
 i 
 
 E 
 
 •5 
 
 ■n 
 
 
 
 Ui 
 
 s 
 H 
 
 ^ 
 
 X 
 
 SI 
 
 t^ 
 
 
 
 Shekh ... 
 
 38,923 
 
 8,831 
 
 14,247 
 
 28,634 
 
 9,324 
 
 18,834 
 
 10,912 
 
 12,842 
 
 .Sai\i(l ... 
 
 11,407 
 
 6,541 
 
 3,009 
 
 7,327 
 
 1,705 
 
 4,470 
 
 1,943 
 
 2,271 
 
 Mu-^hal ... 
 
 1,999 
 
 1,264 
 
 1,032 
 
 1,413 
 
 481 
 
 2,615 
 
 376 
 
 237 
 
 I'athan ... 
 
 11,057 
 
 4,937 
 
 4,462 
 
 7,586 
 
 1,828 
 
 3,753 
 
 2,117 
 
 1,839 
 
 Haiiifi ... 
 
 33 
 
 6 
 
 127 
 
 433 
 
 139 
 
 343 
 
 14 
 
 3 
 
 Daire 
 
 2,419 
 
 — • 
 
 I 
 
 80 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 Lal)be ... 
 
 1,098 
 
 199 
 
 92 
 
 1,973 
 
 67 
 
 119 
 
 161 
 
 8 
 
 Ma]iile ... 
 
 28 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 18 
 
 71 
 
 20 
 
 41 
 
 
 Pinjari ... 
 
 124 
 
 447 
 
 617 
 
 — 
 
 26 
 
 10 
 
 I 
 
 955 
 
 Pindari ... 
 
 ■ 
 
 180 
 
 
 808 
 
 1,027 
 
 ~ 
 
 11 
 
 15,565 
 
 
 Total ... 
 
 67,268 
 
 22,225 
 
 24,395 
 
 48,491 
 
 13,641 
 
 30,197 
 
 18,155 
 
 The four classes first above given are those of reputed pure descent. 
 But although good families doubtless remain in various parts, the bulk 
 are of mixed descent, due to intermarriage and conversions, voluntary 
 or enforced. Shekh denotes properly a lineal descendant from 
 Muhammad through his successors Abu Bakr and Umar ; and Saiyid, 
 a descendant through his son-in-law Ali and Husain. But these titles 
 have probably been often assumed by converts promiscuously without 
 reference to their signification. Pathans are of Afghan origin, descen- 
 dants of Kutb-ud-Din, the founder of the Pathan dynast}', and his 
 followers ; while Mughals are descended from Tartar chiefs who 
 followed Tamerlane into India. The Sharif, nearly all in Tumkur 
 District, claim to be descended from nobility. 
 
 The Hanifi are a sect of Sunnis who follow the teachings and tradi- 
 tions of Abu Hanifa, one of the four great doctors of Islam. In 
 practice one of their principal distinctions is in multiplying ceremonial 
 ablutions. The Daire or Mahdavi are a sect peculiar to Mysore, 
 principally settled at Channapatna in the Bangalore District, and at 
 Bannur and Kirigaval in the Mysore District. Their belief is that the 
 Mahdi has already appeared in the person of one Saiyid Ahmed, who 
 arose in Gujarat about 400 years ago claiming to be such. He obtained 
 a number of followers and settled in Jivanpur in the Nizam's Domin- 
 ions. Eventually, being worsted in a great religious controversy, they 
 were driven out of the Haidarabad country and found an abode at 
 Channapatna. They have a separate mosque of their own, in which 
 their priest, it is said, concludes prayers with the words " the Imam
 
 EUROPEANS 259 
 
 Mahdi has come and gone," the people responding in assent, and 
 denouncing all who disbelieve it as infidels. They do not intermarry 
 with the rest of the Musalmans. The Daire carry on an active 
 trade in silk with the western coast, and are generally a well-to-do 
 class. 
 
 The Arabs, Kandaharis and Baluchis are mostly in Bangalore, and 
 come here as horse-dealers and traders in cloth. 
 
 The Labbe and Mapile^ are by origin descendants of intermarriage 
 between foreign traders (Arabs and Persians), driven to India by 
 persecution in the eighth century, and women of the country, hut the 
 latter designation was taken by the children of those forcibly converted 
 to Islam in Malabar in the persecutions of Tipu Sultan's time. The 
 Labbe belong to the Coromandel coast, their principal seat being at 
 Negapatam, while the Mapile belong to the Malabar coast. The 
 former speak Tamil and the latter Malayalam. The Labbe are an 
 enterprising class of traders, settled in nearly all the large towns. They 
 are vendors of hardware, collectors of hides, and large traders in coffee 
 produce, but take up any kind of lucrative business. They are also 
 established in considerable strength as agriculturists at Gargesvari in 
 the Mysore District. 
 
 The Meman, all in the Civil and Military Station of Bangalore, are 
 immigrants from Cutch, come here for trade. By origin they appear to 
 have been Rajputs. The Pinjari, as their name indicates, are cleaners 
 of cotton. They do not intermarry with other Musalmans, who as a rule 
 have no intercourse with them. The Pindari were to a great extent 
 Afghans, Mahrattas and Jats in origin, disbanded from the service of 
 the Mughal empire, but became known as a tribe of freebooters who 
 ravaged India on a grand scale, with large armies, and gave rise to many 
 wars. They were finally suppressed in Central India in 181 7 in the 
 time of the Marquess of Hastings. They are now settled down in the 
 pursuit of peaceful occupations in agriculture and Government service 
 of various kinds. 
 
 'I'he Parsis (35) arc from liombay, and engaged in trade, except a 
 few who are in Government service. One-half are in Mysore, and most 
 of the remainder are in Bangalore. Of the Jews (25), the majority are 
 in Hassan District, relatives of an official there. The Armenians (8), 
 Chinese (7), Burmese (4), and Singalese (3), are all in Bangalore. 
 
 Of Europeans (6,231), the following is the distribution of the 
 nationalities that are strongest in numbers : — 
 
 ' Labile is supposed to be derived from the Arabic labbaik, " here I am," being 
 the response of slaves to the call of their masters. Mdpile is apjiarently from 
 Mapilla, Malayalam for " son-in-law." 
 
 S 2
 
 26o 
 
 ETHNOGRAPHY 
 
 
 Bangalore. 
 
 
 I2 
 
 
 X 
 
 in 
 
 •5 
 
 6 
 
 I 
 3 
 
 
 
 Nation. 
 
 C. and M. 
 Station. 
 
 District. 
 
 "o 5 
 
 2 
 u 
 
 English 
 
 Scotch 
 
 Irish 
 
 French 
 
 German 
 
 Italian 
 
 3.933 
 
 303 
 
 583 
 
 62 
 
 44 
 2 
 
 287 
 I 
 I 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 I 
 
 216 
 
 I 
 85 
 
 27 
 
 215 
 3 
 
 I 
 6 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 128 
 
 2 
 
 I 
 
 31 
 
 I 
 
 17 
 
 Of those from the United Kingdom, a considerable proportion 
 in the Civil and Military Station of Bangalore belong to the British 
 Army. Such as are not included in the military are engaged in civil 
 employ of various kinds under Government, or Railway Companies, 
 and in business or trade, while a number are missionaries, pensioners, 
 and so forth. The Europeans in Kolar District are mostly connected 
 with the gold mines, all the Italians there being miners. Those in 
 Mysore who are not Government servants or employed under the 
 Palace, are as in Bangalore. The Europeans in Kadur and Hassan 
 Districts are principally coffee-planters. Besides the foregoing there 
 are eleven Spaniards, eight Swiss, four Austrians, two Belgians, two 
 Danes, and twenty-four others. Nearly all are in Bangalore, except six 
 of the Swiss, who are in Kadur District. 
 
 The Eurasians number 3,931, of whom 2,649 ^^^ i'^ the Civil and 
 Military Station of Bangalore, and 401 in the Bangalore District. 
 In the other Districts there are 276 in Kolar, 17 in Tumkur, 208 
 in Mysore, 97 in Hassan, 16 in Shimoga, 229 in Kadur, and 38 in 
 Chitaldroog. The remarks under Europeans in great measure apply 
 to these also, but they are as a rule in more subordinate positions. 
 Anglo- Indian and Eurasian colonies have been formed at Whitefield 
 and Sausmond, about fifteen miles to the east of Bangalore, the 
 residents of which are occupied in agriculture and dairy-farming. 
 
 The Native Christians are mostly Hindu by origin. Of the total 
 number of 27,954, as many as 10,252 are in the Civil and Military 
 Station, and 5,404 more in the District of Bangalore. Of the remain- 
 ing Districts there are 2,418 in Kolar, 699 in Tumkur, 2,509 in Mysore, 
 3,067 in Hassan, 1,603 '^^ Shimoga, 1,773 in Kadur, and 229 in Chital- 
 droog. A large number are no doubt domestic servants to Europeans 
 and Eurasians, but they are found in all grades of life, and a certain 
 proportion are settled in agricultural villages of their own, established 
 by various missionary agencies. This is especially the case in the 
 eastern and southern Districts. The Christian settlement of Sathalli in 
 the Hassan District dates from the time of the Abbe Dubois, the 
 Ijeginning of the century.
 
 URBAN POPULATION 
 
 261 
 
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 262 
 
 ETHNOGRAPHY 
 
 'J'herc arc thus twenty-four tcjwns with a po[)ulatioii exceeding 5,000, 
 namely, 
 
 Hanf^aloic 
 
 .. 180,366 
 
 Davangcre ... 
 
 .. 8,061 
 
 Nanjangud ... 
 
 6,421 
 
 Mysore ... 
 
 .. 74,048 
 
 Chikmagalur 
 
 .. 7,«i6 
 
 I larihar 
 
 6,385 
 
 Seriiigajwtani 
 
 • • 12,55' 
 
 Anckal 
 
 ■• 7,419 
 
 Closepet 
 
 6,236 
 
 Kolar 
 
 .. 12,148 
 
 I)od Ballapur 
 
 • • 7,141 
 
 Hole Narsipiir 
 
 5,75« 
 
 Shimoga ... 
 
 ■ ■ 11,340 
 
 Tarikere 
 
 .. 7,056 
 
 Malavalli . . . 
 
 5,639 
 
 Tiimkur ... 
 
 .. 11,086 
 
 Devanhalli ... 
 
 .. 6,693 
 
 Hunsur 
 
 5,141 
 
 Chik Ballapur 
 
 10,623 
 
 Hassan 
 
 .. 6,654 
 
 Mulbagal 
 
 5,026 
 
 Channapatna 
 
 9,160 
 
 Sidlaghalta... 
 
 .. 6,572 
 
 Shikarpu-r ... 
 
 5,011 
 
 to which, in order to make up the totals given, must be added the 
 large village of Agara in Mysore District, with 5,218 inhabitants ; and 
 the village of Wokkaleri in Kolar District, where the occurrence of a 
 large festival at the time of the census 'raised the population to 7,273. 
 
 Besides these, there are seventy-four other smaller municipal towns, 
 namely, 
 
 II with population of over 4,000 
 15 ,, ,, ,, 3,000 
 
 26 with population of over 2,000 
 22 ,, ,, ,, 1,200 
 
 The town population may thus be reckoned as 626,558, forming 
 127 per cent, of the total. 
 
 To estimate the growth of towns during the present century the 
 following statistics are available : — 
 
 Town 
 
 1852 
 
 1858 
 
 1871 
 
 1881 
 
 1891 
 
 Bangalore 
 
 134,628 
 
 175,630 
 
 142,513 
 
 155,857 
 
 180,366 
 
 Mysore 
 
 54,729 
 
 55,761 
 
 57,815 
 
 60,292 
 
 74,048 
 
 Seringapatam 
 
 12,744 
 
 14,928 
 
 10,594 
 
 11,734 
 
 12,551 
 
 Kolar 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 9,924 
 
 11,172 
 
 12,148 
 
 Shimoga 
 
 — 
 
 14,186 
 
 11,034 
 
 12,040 
 
 11,340 
 
 Tumkur 
 
 — 
 
 9,339 
 
 II , 1 70 
 
 9,909 
 
 11,088 
 
 Chik Ballapur 
 
 — 
 
 
 9,882 
 
 9,183 
 
 10,623 
 
 Except in Bangalore and Mysore these figures do not disclose any 
 firmly established tendency to a decided increase in the urban popula- 
 tion in the case of the principal towns. 
 
 Other particulars regarding the occupations, »S:c. of the people, are 
 given under each District in Vol. II. 
 
 CHARACTER. DRESS, &c. 
 
 The people of Mysore are a hardy and well-formed race, fairer as a 
 rule than those of the low country, and with regular features. " I have 
 never," says Buchanan, " seen finer forms than even the labouring
 
 DWELLINGS 263 
 
 women of that country frequently possess. Their necks and arms are 
 in particular remarkably well-shaped." 
 
 In public character and disposition they may be described as the 
 most conservative of the South Indian races. In practice, perhaps they 
 exhibit a greater aptitude for the labours of the field and the tending of 
 cattle than for other occupations. With the bucolic turn of mind there 
 was no doubt much stolidity to be found among the agrestic hinds, and 
 till lately predial slaves, but accompanied with blind devotion and 
 simple fidelity to their masters. The better specimens of headmen, on 
 the other hand, are dignified and self-reliant, commanding and gaining 
 respect, proud of hospitality, sagacious observers, shrewd in conversa- 
 tion and with a vein of homely good sense and humour. The 
 industrial classes and field- labourers are very hard-working, especially 
 the women. 
 
 The dwellings of the people are generally built of mud, one-storeyed 
 and low, with few, if any, openings outwards e.xcept the door, but 
 possessed of courtyards within, surrounded with verandahs, and open 
 to the sky. In the better houses these are well-paved and drained, 
 while the wooden pillars are elaborately carved or painted. The huts 
 of the outcaste and poorer classes are thatched, but the houses of the 
 higher orders are covered with either terraced or tiled roofs, the latter, 
 uiore especially in the west, where the rainfall is heavy. 
 
 The villages are pretty generally surrounded with a thick hedge of 
 thorn, a protection in former days against the attacks of the Mahratta 
 cavalry. For the same reason the entrance is often a flat-arched stone 
 gateway, so constructed as to present an obstacle to a horseman. In 
 the districts lying north-east from the Baba Budans, villages commonly 
 have the remains of a round tower in the middle, a somewhat 
 picturesque feature, erected in former days as a place of retreat for the 
 women and children in case of attack. Most important villages and 
 towns have a considerable fort of mud or stone, also the erection of 
 former troublous times, when every gauda aimed at being a palegar, and 
 every palegar at becoming independent. The fort is the quarter 
 generally affected by the Brahmans, and contains the principal temple. 
 The pete or market, which invariably adjoins the fort at a greater or 
 less distance beyond the walls, is the residence of the other orders. 
 
 There is seldom any system in the arrangement of streets, which are 
 often very roughly paved, and nearly always abounding in filth. The 
 only motive for the formation of wide and regular streets in some of the 
 towns is to provide for the temple-car being drawn round at the annual 
 festival. All other lines of way are irregular beyond description. But 
 improvements, both in laying out the streets and in their sanitation, are
 
 264 ETIINOGRAPJIY 
 
 now to be seen in many places which have been brought under 
 municipal regulations. 
 
 White or coloured cotton stuffs of stout texture supply the principal 
 dress of the people, with a woollen kamhii as an outer covering for the 
 night or a protection against cold and damp. Brahmans are bare- 
 headed, the head l)eing shaved all except the tuft at the crown {juttte), 
 and most of the Hindus observe the same practice. The moustache is 
 the only hair permanently worn on the face. The dhotra, a thin sheet, 
 covers the lower limbs, one end being gathered into folds in front and 
 the other passed between the legs and tucked in at the waist behind. 
 A similar garment is thrown over the shoulders. To protect the head, 
 a bright magenta worsted cap is often donned, such as a brewer's dray- 
 man wears, but not in the same jaunty manner, for it is pulled well 
 down over the ears and back of the neck. This and a scarlet, green, 
 or blue blanket are favourite articles of attire for the early morning or 
 on a journey. In attending offices Brahmans wear a turban {rwndl) 
 and a long coat {aiigi), either woollen or cotton. This also is more or 
 less the costume of the merchant class. A fashion has sprung up 
 among college students of wearing a sort of smoking-cap instead of a 
 turban. The ryots are generally content with a turban and a kambli, 
 with most frequently a short pair of drawers {challand). When not at 
 work they often wear a blouse or short smock-frock. 
 
 The dress of the women is generally very becoming and modest. A 
 tight-fitting short bodice {kiipsd) is universally worn, leaving the arms, 
 neck, throat, and middle bare, the two ends being tied in a knot in 
 front. It is generally of a gay colour, or variegated with borders and 
 gussets of contrasting colours, which set off the figure to advantage. 
 In the colder parts, to the west, a somewhat loose jacket, covering all 
 the upper part of the body and the arms, is worn instead. The shire 
 or sari, a long sheet, the ordinary colours worn being indigo or a dull 
 red with yellow borders, is wrapped round the lower part of the body, 
 coming down to the ankle. One end is gathered into a large bunch of 
 folds in front, while the other, passed across the bosom and over the 
 head, hangs freely over the right shoulder. In the west it is tied there 
 in a knot. The Brahmani women pass the lower end of the cloth 
 between the legs and tuck it in at the waist behind, which leaves the 
 limbs more free. Their heads too are not covered, the hair being 
 gathered into one large plait, which hangs straight down the back, very 
 effectively decorated at the crown and at different points with richly- 
 chased circular golden cauls and bosses. 
 
 The Vaisya women are similarly dressed, but often with less good 
 taste. As the fair golden-olive complexion natural to most Brahmani
 
 DRESS 265 
 
 girls is much admired, those of the sex who are not so fair smear them- 
 selves with saffron to produce a yellow tint, and not only on their cheeks 
 but over their arms and legs. This practice, which seems very common 
 with the trading class, is by no means attractive. Neither is the habit 
 of blackening the teeth, adopted by married women. Many fair women 
 are elaborately tattooed on the arms from the wrist to the elbow. The 
 Sudra women generally gather the hair into a chignon or bunch behind, 
 stuffed out with a fleece of wool, and run a large pin through, with an 
 ornamental silver head to it, which is rather becoming. In the Malnad 
 the women often do up the back hair in a very picturesque manner, 
 with a plaited arrangement of the cream white ketaki blossom {patidanus 
 odoraiissimus), or even with orchid blossoms or pink cluster roses. 
 
 Ornaments are commonly worn in the ears and nose, and on the 
 arms, with rings on the fingers and toes, and as many and costly 
 necklets and chains round the neck as means will allow. Chains 
 frequently connect the upper rim of the ear with the ornamental pin in 
 the back hair, and have a pretty effect. The richer Brahmani and other 
 girls wear silver anklets, often of a very ponderous make, which are by 
 no means elegant. A silver zone clasped in front is a common article 
 of attire among all but the poorer women, and gives a pleasing finish to 
 the graceful costume. 
 
 It would be useless to attempt to go through a description of the 
 varieties of Hindu dress in different parts. The only marked differ- 
 ences are in the Malnad, as described under Manjarabad, and the dress 
 of the Lambani women. 
 
 The Muhammadan dress for men differs chiefly in cut and colour, 
 and in the wearing of long loose drawers. But for undress a piece of 
 dark plaided stuff is worn like the dhotra. Muhammadans shave the 
 head completely, but retain all the hair of the face. A skull-cap is worn, 
 over which the turban is tied in full dress. The women wear a coloured 
 petticoat and bodice, with a large white sheet enveloping the head and 
 the whole person, and pulled also over the face. 
 
 The higher Hindus wear leather slippers, curled up at the toe and 
 turned down at the heel, but the labouring classes wear heavy sandals, 
 with wooden or leather soles and leather straps. The Muhammadans 
 also wear the slipper, but smaller, and frequently a very substantial big 
 shoe, covering the whole foot. Women are never shod, except occa- 
 sionally on a journey, or in very stony places, when they sometimes 
 wear sandals. 
 
 Members of the various Hindu orders are known by the sectarian 
 marks painted on their foreheads. Married women commonly wear a 
 wafer-spot or patch of vermilion, or sometimes of sandal-powder, on the
 
 266 
 
 EllfNOGRAJ'J/V 
 
 forehead. Tiiu Lingayits arc known by the pecuh'ar-shaped silver box, 
 the shrine of a small black stone emblematic of the linga, which is 
 worn suspended by a string from the neck and hanging on the chest. 
 'J'he working-classes of that order often tie the linga in a piece of hand- 
 kerchief round the arm above the elbow. The commoner religious 
 mendicants dress in a variety of grotesque and harlequin costumes. 
 But garments dyed with red ochre or saffron are the commonest indica- 
 tion of a sacred calling. 
 
 Alphabetical List of Castes mentioned in this chapter. 
 
 A'chari 248 
 
 Ach]iiljc 228 
 
 A'di (iianajiga) 246 
 
 ,, S'aiva 237 
 
 ,, (Wokkaliga) 229 
 
 Agamudi 247 
 
 Agani 253 
 
 Agarvdla 247 
 
 Agasa 223, 
 
 226, 247, 250 
 
 Agasale 248 
 
 Aggada (Banajiga) 
 
 246 
 
 ,, Koracha233 
 
 Agni (Tigala) 231 
 
 ,, Wokkaliga 229 
 
 Agramudi 229 
 
 Agra Vanniar 231 
 
 Aiyangar 236 
 
 Akkasale 
 
 222, 226, 248 
 A'kuleti 246 
 
 A'ladakapu 229 
 
 Aleman 253 
 
 AUa 251 
 
 Aniaravatiyavaru 
 
 254 
 
 Ambiga 252 
 
 Anche Reddi 229 
 
 A'ndhra 234 
 
 A'ne Kurulia 213 
 
 Angalika 229 
 
 A'radhya 241 
 
 Arale 246 
 
 Aramudi 229 
 
 Arasu 227 
 
 Arava Beda 256 
 
 ,, Goila 251 
 
 ,, Madiga 254 
 
 ,, I'anchala 248 
 
 ,, Reddi 229 
 
 ,, Tigala 231 
 
 Aravattokkalu 
 
 237-8 
 
 A ruvelu 237-8 
 
 ,, Niyogi 237-8 
 
 Asaga 250 
 
 Ashtasahasra 237 
 
 Attan-kutatar 240 1 
 Avadhuta 243 { 
 
 Ayodhyanagara 247 
 Ayya 242 
 
 I 
 
 Babbur Kamme 
 
 ^ 237, 238 
 Bachanige 229 
 
 Bada Arasu 227 
 
 Badagalava 246 
 
 Badaganad 237 
 
 Badagar 229 
 
 Badagi 222, 226, 248 
 Bailu Akkasale 248 \ 
 
 , , Kammara 
 
 233> 249 I 
 
 ,, Wodda 255 I 
 Bairagi 227, 242-3 
 Bais 237 j 
 
 Bajantri 249 
 
 Bakkal 247 
 
 Balagai 215, 253 
 Balaji 249 
 
 Balajogi 256 
 
 Bale 246 
 
 Banajiga222-3, 245-6 
 Bane 251 
 
 Banige 251 I 
 
 Baniya 227, 245, 247 
 Banjari 231 [ 
 
 Bannadava 246 ' 
 
 Bannagara 245 
 
 Banni 251 
 
 Banta 246 
 
 Barika 256 
 
 Baruva 228 
 
 Basale 246 
 
 Basavi 245 
 
 Bavaji 242 
 
 Bavane 246 
 
 Beda 223, 226, 255 
 Belagude 229 
 
 Belakuvadi 229 
 
 Bellala 228 
 
 Beiiaia Reddi 229 
 Belli (Agasa) 250 
 
 ,, (Besla) 252 
 
 ,, (Kuruba) 251 
 
 Bellikula 
 
 253 
 
 Chalavadi 
 
 253 
 
 Bengali 
 
 249 
 
 Cham 
 
 227 
 
 Beralukoduva 
 
 
 Chambula 
 
 253 
 
 228, 
 
 230 
 
 Chammadi 
 
 252 
 
 Besta 
 
 
 Chanimdr 
 
 254 
 
 223, 226, 247, 
 
 252 
 
 Chandra Bans 
 
 227 
 
 Bettadpura 
 
 239 
 
 Chandra Thakiir 227 
 
 Betta Kuruba 
 
 213 
 
 Chapprada 
 
 251 
 
 Bettale 
 
 233 
 
 Charanti 
 
 241 
 
 Bevina Kuruba 
 
 213 
 
 Chattri 
 
 227 
 
 Bhagavata 2 
 
 36-7 
 
 Chavan 
 
 227 
 
 Bhaniya 
 
 228 
 
 Chavana 
 
 253 
 
 Bhat Raju 226, 
 
 244 
 
 Chillaravar 
 
 253 
 
 Bhattarachdrya 
 
 240 
 
 Chippiga 
 
 249 
 
 Bheri 223, 
 
 247 
 
 Chitapavan 
 
 237 
 
 Bheris'etti 
 
 246 
 
 Chitari 
 
 245 
 
 Bhogar 
 
 229 
 
 Chitragara 223 
 
 245 
 
 Bhoja (Besta) 
 
 252 
 
 Chittala 
 
 229 
 
 ,, (Wodda) 
 
 255 
 
 Choli 
 
 240 
 
 Bhoyi 
 
 252 
 
 Choliya 
 
 251 
 
 Bhumda 
 
 233 
 
 Chunchu 
 
 256 
 
 Bhumi 
 
 253 
 
 
 
 Bhusa 
 
 228 
 
 Dabbe 
 
 233 
 
 Bhutya 
 
 231 
 
 Daire 
 
 258 
 
 Bidara 
 
 246 
 
 Dandasetti 
 
 249 
 
 Bigamudre 
 
 251 
 
 Dandi 
 
 243 
 
 Bilimagga 249-50 
 
 Darji 226, 247 
 
 249 
 
 Biiloru 
 
 254 
 
 Dasakuta 
 
 236 
 
 Bilva 212, 
 
 253 
 
 Dasa Banajiga 
 
 246 
 
 Binlakur 
 
 227 
 
 ,, (Wokkaliga)229 
 
 Birappana Wokkalu 
 
 Dasari 226, 234 
 
 242 
 
 
 251 
 
 ,, (Holeya) 
 
 253 
 
 Bodhdyana 
 
 237 
 
 Dasavantige 
 
 229 
 
 Bogavaru 
 
 245 
 
 Dekal Thakiir 
 
 227 
 
 Bokkasada 
 
 251 
 
 Desast'ha 2 
 
 37-S 
 
 Bondili 
 
 227 
 
 Des'ayi 
 
 246 
 
 Boyi" 
 
 255 
 
 Devaddsi 
 
 245 
 
 Brahman 226, 
 
 233 
 
 De\adiga 
 
 246 
 
 Brahmarishi 
 
 231 
 
 Devalaka 
 
 237 
 
 Brihachcharana 
 
 
 Devanga 223, 
 
 249 
 
 '237-8 
 
 Devar 
 
 253 
 
 Brinjari 
 
 231 
 
 Devara makkalu 212 
 
 Budabudike226 
 
 ,256 
 
 Dhalya 
 
 233 
 
 Busare 
 
 256 
 
 Dhanapala 
 
 223 
 
 Bydlada 
 
 251 
 
 Dharma Dasari 
 
 242 
 
 
 
 Dharmaraju 
 
 246 
 
 Chakkili 
 
 254 
 
 Dharmarajukap 
 
 u 
 
 Chakra 
 
 253 
 
 
 231
 
 LIST OF CASTES 
 
 267 
 
 Dhatii 
 
 227 
 
 Clovar 227 
 
 I)h(')l)i 
 
 250 
 
 (judama Dasari 242 
 
 1 )humavatpa(!a 
 
 231 
 
 thidtjangaliga 251 
 
 Digambara 242 
 
 244 
 
 Gudikara 249 
 
 Dodava 
 
 247 
 
 Chijjari 256 
 
 Dodd'i 
 
 251 
 
 Ciundikula 252 
 
 Domba 226, 
 
 255 
 
 (".urust'hala 228,241 
 
 Dravida 234, 2 
 
 37-« 
 
 C'lujarat ^Iochi 254 
 Gujarali 222, 227, 
 
 Edaiyar 
 
 251 
 
 245, 247 
 
 Enibar 
 
 240 
 
 (iiirjara Brahman 
 
 luiiieri 
 
 231 
 
 234 
 
 Oadakanti 229 
 
 Clada Lingayit 246 
 Gaddigeyava 246 
 Gaharvariya Thakur 
 
 221 
 
 Gajulabalji 246 
 
 Gampa 254 
 
 Gampasale 254 
 
 Ganadhis'vara 242 
 Gandhudil^alji 246 
 Ganga 246 
 
 Gangadikara 217, 
 228-9, 253 
 Gangemakkalu 252 
 Ganiga 222, 226, 
 247, 252 
 Gaiitijogi 256 
 
 Ganiu 233 
 
 Garadiga 227, 255, 
 
 257 
 Gaiidamane 228 
 GaiuUi Brahman 234 
 , , Tigala 23 1 
 Gaudakula 252 
 
 Gaudu 246 
 
 Gaulljans 251 
 
 Gauli 251 
 
 Gaiiiiga 228 
 
 Gaundar 249 
 
 Gaurija 255 1 
 
 Ciausanige 229 
 
 Gayaka 245 
 
 Gayakavadi 251 
 Gaya Thakur 227 
 Gazula 233 
 
 Gejjegara 249 
 
 Gerhaiji 246 
 
 Ghaniya 229 
 
 Golla 223, 226, 247, 
 
 251 
 Gollatc 253 
 
 Gondaliga 227, 256 
 Gongadi 233 
 
 Goniga 226, 247, 
 249-50 
 Gopdla 25 1 
 
 Goppasale 254 
 
 Gorava 256 
 
 Gosangi 229 i 
 
 Gosdyi 227, 242-3 
 
 Haiga 216, 237, 239 
 Hajam 249 
 
 Haje Kannatliga 
 
 ' 237-8 
 
 ,, Karnatka 237-8 
 
 ,, Kuril ba 252 
 
 Ilajemakkaju 250 
 
 Haiepaika 212, 
 
 228-30,253 
 
 Hajepaiki 212 
 
 Hale Tigala 231 
 
 Haie Wodda 255 
 
 Haili Beda 256 
 
 ,, Kuruba 251 
 
 ,, Tigala 231 
 
 Hallikara 229-30 
 
 Haiu Beda 256 
 
 Jadi 
 
 
 252 
 
 Jahala \'eljala 
 
 229 
 
 Jaina 223, 
 
 233. 
 
 242, 
 
 
 245 
 
 247 
 
 Jalagara 
 
 227 
 
 248 
 
 Jaman 
 
 
 247 
 
 Jambava 
 
 251 
 
 254 
 
 Jamkhanvala 
 
 250 
 
 Janapa 
 
 
 250 
 
 Jangtiliga 
 
 
 256 
 
 Jangalpatt 
 
 iburusu 
 
 
 
 255 
 
 Jangama 
 
 
 241 
 
 Jarupa 
 
 
 255 
 
 Jat 
 
 227 
 
 245 
 
 Jattedevara 
 
 252 
 
 Jatii 
 
 
 257 
 
 Jenu Kuru 
 
 ba 
 
 213, 
 233 
 
 Jetti 
 
 255 
 
 257 
 
 Jhadmali 
 
 
 253 
 
 Jinagara 
 
 
 245 
 
 Jintra 
 
 
 253 
 
 Jogda 
 
 
 232 
 
 J6gi226, 232, 255-6 
 Joti 253 
 
 Jotibanajiga 246 
 Julinagara 252 
 
 Jotipana 252 
 
 „ Goila 
 
 251 
 
 Kabbaliga 
 
 252 
 
 ,, Kuruba 
 
 2!;2 
 
 Kachche Gauli 
 
 251 
 
 ,, Wokkaliga 
 
 228-9 
 
 Kadambiyar 
 Kridu Golla 
 
 240 
 251 
 
 Hande 2 
 
 51-2 
 
 , , Kuruba 
 
 213. 
 
 Hanifi 
 
 258 
 
 231, 233 
 
 251 
 
 Hasular 
 
 214 
 
 Kaikoja 2 
 
 45-6 
 
 Havika 216,23; 
 
 >239 
 
 Kaikota 
 
 237 
 
 Hebbar 
 Iledigebuva 
 Heggade 
 Hegganiga 223 
 Helava 
 
 240 
 
 254 
 252 
 252 
 256 
 
 Kalayi 
 Kalkutaka 
 Kajjar 
 
 Kaiiu Wodda 
 Kalu 
 
 246 
 248 
 249 
 255 
 253 
 
 Hema Reddi 
 
 228 
 
 Kamati 
 
 223 
 
 Hemniigeyar 
 
 240 
 
 Kama-wokkalu 
 
 229 
 
 Hindustani 
 
 227 
 
 Kanibali 
 
 252 
 
 Hirihasube 
 
 246 
 
 Kambaliir 2 
 
 37-8 
 
 Holeya 215, 
 
 223, 
 
 Kammadi Kedc 
 
 1229 
 
 226, 246-7 
 
 253 
 
 Kammara 222, 
 
 226, 
 
 Honne Reddi 
 
 228 
 
 2 
 
 48-9 
 
 Hosadevara 
 
 229 
 
 Kammc 2 
 
 v-^ 
 
 Hosa Kuruba 
 Hoysaniga 2 
 
 252 
 37-8 
 
 ,, Banajga246 
 ,, Reddi 228 
 
 lluvvadiga 
 
 246 
 
 Kamsi 
 Kanaka 227 
 
 227 
 256 
 
 I'diga 226, 247, 252 
 llijiatnalkaravaru 
 
 Kanakaiyanajat 
 Kanakkan 
 
 1252 
 244 
 
 237 
 I'raganti MadivaH 
 
 Kanchala 
 Kanchugara 
 
 254 
 222, 
 
 
 250 
 
 227, 
 
 248 
 
 Iruliga 214, 
 
 226, 
 
 Kandadc 
 
 240 
 
 231. 
 
 Jada 
 
 233 
 249 
 
 Kandappajji 
 Kanda Raju 
 
 231 
 237 
 
 Kandavara 237, 239 
 
 Kanes'alu 229 
 
 Kankar 251 
 
 Kannada Agasa 250 
 
 ,, Banajiga 246 
 
 ,, Becla 255 
 
 , , Devanga 249 
 
 ,, Ganiga 252 
 
 ,, Gojja 251 
 
 ,, Holeya 253 
 
 ,, Kamnie 237-8 
 
 , , K6mati 246 
 
 ,, Koracha 233 
 
 ,, Korama 233 
 
 ,, Kumbara 252 
 
 ,, Kuruba 252 
 
 ,, Madiga 254 
 
 ,, Mochi 251 
 
 ,, Raju 227 
 
 ,, Tigala 231 
 
 ,, Uppara 252 
 
 ,, Wokkaliga 229 
 
 Kannadiga 246 
 
 Kannaiyana Jali 256 
 
 Kant'ha Pavade 246 
 
 Kanva 237 
 
 Kanyakubja 224 
 
 Kapali 246 
 
 Kapu 253 
 
 Kapu Reddi 229 
 
 Kapus'akalavadu 
 
 '250 
 Karade 237, 239 
 Karadi 251 
 
 Karaje 229 
 
 Karhade 239 
 
 Kariga 229 
 
 Karma 227, 251, 256 
 Karman 249 
 
 Karnata 249 
 
 Karnataka (Brah- 
 man) 234, 237 
 ,, Holeya 253 
 Karne 251 
 
 Karnikar 244 
 
 Karu 229 
 
 Karukal 229 
 
 Kasalnad 237 
 
 Katyayana 237 
 
 Kavadiga 251 
 
 Kavare 246 
 
 Kavarga 237, 239 
 Kausika 239 
 
 Kayasla 227, 244 
 Kelasi 249 
 
 Kempala 254 
 
 Kempt i 246 
 
 Kempu Banajiga 246 
 ,, Golla 251 
 Kenchala 252 
 
 Kliadri \'aishnava 
 
 241 
 Khanulal 232
 
 268 
 
 ETIJNOGRAJ'JIY 
 
 Khatii 249 
 
 Kuruiiattc 
 
 253 
 
 Khctaval 23 1 
 
 Kurus'ivalli 
 
 237 
 
 Kihiri 251 
 
 Ivuruvina 
 
 249 
 
 Kiliiad 237 
 
 Kus'ast haja 
 
 237 
 
 Kilnatar 240 
 
 
 
 Kine 22S 
 
 Labl;e 257, 
 
 259 
 
 Kira (laniga 252 
 
 Lc-ida 222, 226 
 
 245 
 
 Kiralaka 256 
 
 Lalagonda 229 
 
 231 
 
 Kodaga 227 
 
 Lambadi 
 
 231 
 
 Kodati Reddi 228 
 
 Lambani 226, 
 
 231 
 
 Kolalii 251 
 
 Lankekara 
 
 228 
 
 Kolania 229 
 
 Lingabalji 
 
 246 
 
 Knlla 246 
 
 Linga Banajiga 223, 
 
 KdlH Kuruha 213 
 
 
 245 
 
 Ki)luva 229 
 
 Lingakatti Veljala 
 
 Komarapatta 227 
 
 
 229 
 
 Komati 223, 226, 
 
 Lingayit 226, 
 
 228, 
 
 245-6 
 
 233, 241-2 
 
 245 
 
 Konar 251 
 
 Lokabalike 
 
 245 
 
 Konda 249 
 
 Lokottaraparey 
 
 ^253 
 
 Konclakatte 229 
 
 
 
 Kondamangala 249 
 
 Machi 
 
 256 
 
 Kondi Reddi 229 
 
 Madhva 
 
 235 
 
 Konga(IIoleya) 253 
 
 ,, Pennattui 
 
 237 
 
 Konga Wokkaliga 
 
 ,, Vaishnav: 
 
 1237 
 
 229 
 
 Madhyanjana 
 
 239 
 
 Konkanast'ha 
 
 Madiga 223, 
 
 226, 
 
 237, 239 
 
 247, 2 
 
 53-4 
 
 Konkaniga 229 
 
 Madivali 
 
 250 
 
 Koracha 214, 226, 
 
 Madya 
 
 252 
 
 231, 233 
 
 Madyandina 
 
 239 
 
 Korama 214, 231, 
 
 ^laggada 
 
 253 
 
 233 
 
 Maharashtra 
 
 234 
 
 Korava 214 
 
 Mahdvi 
 
 258 
 
 Koratakapu 229 
 
 Mahratta 
 
 228 
 
 Kos'ava 252 
 
 Mdji 
 
 252 
 
 Kota 237, 239 
 
 Majjana 
 
 252 
 
 Kotari 227 
 
 Majjige 
 
 252 
 
 Kotegara 229 
 
 Mala 
 
 253 
 
 Kotisvara 237, 239 
 
 Malava 
 
 228 
 
 Kotta Banajiga 246 
 
 Malavaru 
 
 229 
 
 ,, Kuruha 252 
 
 Maleya 
 
 214 
 
 Kottadevarakapu 
 
 Malla 
 
 253 
 
 229 
 
 Malloru 
 
 254 
 
 KshatrabMnu 228 
 
 Mande 
 
 251 
 
 Kshatriya 226, 229 
 
 Mandyattar 
 
 240 
 
 Kudike Wokkalu 
 
 Manga 
 
 228 
 
 229 
 
 Mangala 
 
 249 
 
 Kuduchappara 251 
 
 Mannu Wodda 
 
 255 
 
 Kulala 252 
 
 Manu 
 
 248 
 
 Kulibedaga 229 
 
 Mapile 257 
 
 , 259 
 
 Kumari 228 
 
 Marabuvva 
 
 254 
 
 Kumbara 223, 226, 
 
 Maradurar 
 
 240 
 
 , 247, 252 
 
 Marasi 
 
 246 
 
 Kumbi Marvacli 247 
 
 ]Marata 226 
 
 , 228 
 
 ,, Wokkaliga 229 
 
 ,, Mochi 
 
 254 
 
 Kunchatiga 228-9 
 
 Marvadi 227, 
 
 245, 
 
 Kundali 249 
 
 
 247 
 
 Kunte 229 
 
 Masalu 
 
 253 
 
 Kuri Golla 251 
 
 Matanga 
 
 254 
 
 ,, Kurul)a 252 
 
 Matangi 
 
 254 
 
 Kuruba,2i3, 223-6, 
 
 Mattige 
 
 253 
 
 247, 251 
 
 Maval 
 
 233 
 
 Maya 248 
 
 Meda 226, 255 
 
 Melpavade 246 
 
 Melusakkare 252 
 Menian 258-9 
 
 Metukunteyar 240 
 Mirasikat 232 
 
 Mochi 227, 247, 254 
 Modayavaru 255 
 Modihidiyuva 257 
 Monda 227, 256 
 Mopi'ir Raju 227 
 Morabuvvadavaru 
 
 254 
 
 Morasunad 240 
 
 Morasu( Holeya) 253 
 
 ,, (Madiga) 254 
 
 ,, Wokkaliga 
 
 228, 230 
 Muchchalamire 256 
 Mudali 226,245,247 
 Mudali Wokkaliga 
 
 229 
 Mudusarebalji 246 
 Mughal 258 
 
 Mugla 256 
 
 Mulikinadu 237-8 
 Multani 227, 245, 
 
 247 
 Muncholi 240 
 
 Munigalu 254 
 
 Murik'inati 250 
 
 Murusire 246 
 
 Musaku 229 
 
 Mushtiga 257 
 
 Mutta 246 
 
 Muttaraju 246 
 
 Muttu 229 
 
 Myada 246 
 
 Myasa 256 
 
 Nagarta 223, 226, 
 245 
 Nagaru 246 
 
 Nagi 256 
 
 Nallanchakravarti 
 
 240 
 Nalla 257 
 
 Nallar 253 
 
 Namadakula 251 
 Namadhari 247 
 
 Xamburi 237 
 
 Namdev 249 
 
 1 Nandavaidika 237, 
 
 239 
 
 Nata 249 
 
 Natacharasurti 241 
 
 Natamangala 249 
 
 Xatuva 226, 245 
 
 I Nava Thakur 227 
 
 ' Navige 252 
 
 i Nayadu 246 
 
 , Nayaka 255-6 
 
 Nayakasani 245 
 Nayar 227-8 
 
 Nayi 251 
 
 Nayinda 223, 226, 
 247, 249 
 Neita Reddi 229 
 Nerati ,, 228 
 
 Neyigara 226, 247, 
 
 249 
 Nihang^ 243 
 
 Nirumelinava 246 
 Niyogi 237 
 
 Nonaba 217, 228-30 
 
 Oja 
 Oswal 
 
 248 
 247 
 
 Padala 250 
 
 Paclayachinayakan 
 
 229 
 Padmamurikinati 
 
 '249 
 Padma.sale223, 249- 
 
 50 
 Pagadala 246 
 
 Pakanati 256 
 
 Pakanati Reddi 228 
 Palaki 252 
 
 Palayar 229 
 
 Palchankoti 233 
 Pale 253 
 
 Palli 223, 231, 253 
 Pallegar 256 
 
 Palya 229 
 
 Paly agar Gauda 239 
 Palyakar 229 
 
 Palyapat 252 
 
 Pamar 229 
 
 Panan 228 
 
 Panasakapu 229 
 Panchachara Gauda 
 228, 249 
 Pancha Gauda 234 
 Panchagrama 237, 
 240, 248 
 Panchaia 222-3, 
 247-8 
 Panchamasale 246 
 Pancharatral 241 
 Pandaram 227, 256 
 Pandya Tigala 231 
 ,, Veljala 229 
 Panne 253 
 
 Panneri 229 
 
 Paradi 232 
 
 Pareya 253 
 
 Parivara 252 
 
 Parsi 259 
 
 Pasali 253 
 
 Pasaluvate 246 
 
 Pata (Golla) 251 
 ,, Kuruba 252 
 ,, Vadavalu 251
 
 LIST OF CASTES 
 
 269 
 
 I'alhan 
 
 258 
 
 1 'attar 
 
 248 
 
 I'attari 
 
 248 
 
 I'attasale 
 
 249-50 
 
 I'atmili 
 
 250 
 
 I'atm'ili'ikar 
 
 249 
 
 I'atvegar 
 
 249-50 
 
 l'e(lakaiitiRed(li228 
 
 Peiaguncia 
 
 229 
 
 Petemane 
 
 246 
 
 Pettigesalina 229 
 
 Pichchakunte 256 
 
 Pille 
 
 227-8 
 
 Pindare 
 
 257, 259 
 
 I'injari 
 
 257, 259 
 
 Pitaml^ara 
 
 242 
 
 Praknad 
 
 2X7 
 
 Prathamas'akhe 
 
 
 237. 239 
 
 Prathama 'S 
 
 aish- 
 
 iiava 
 
 241 
 
 Prativadi - 
 
 bhayan - 
 
 karattar 
 
 240 
 
 1 'uda 
 
 229 
 
 Puja 
 
 251 
 
 1 'iinagu 
 
 251 
 
 Puiiamale 
 
 229 
 
 Pari 
 
 251 
 
 Sajjana (Lingayit) 
 
 245 
 ,, (Ganiga) 252 
 ,, (Panchaja) 248 
 Sakalavadu 250 
 
 Sakunasaie 249-50 | 
 Salar 227 
 
 S'ale 249, 251-2 
 S'aliga 249 50 
 
 S'alivahana 252 
 
 Salja 251 
 
 Samaji 241 
 
 Samayogi 243 
 
 Samba 231 
 
 Saml)ara 251 
 
 Samliu 
 Sanieraya 
 Saniyar 
 Sangu 
 Sankara 
 Sanketi 
 
 Rachevar 226, 228, 
 
 245 
 Raja (Ciolla) 251 
 
 ,, (Tigala) 231 
 Rajakula 227 
 
 Rajapinde 227 
 
 Rajput 227 
 
 , , (iauda 227 
 Raju 227 
 
 Raju Reddi 229 
 
 Ramavatpada 231 
 Rampada 253 
 
 Ranagara 228 
 
 Rangare 222, 249 
 Ravuta 228 
 
 Rayaravuta 252 
 
 Rayaroddugara 229 
 Reddi (Nayinda) 249 
 ,, (Tigala) 231 
 
 ,, Wokkaliga 22S-9 
 Roddiigara 229 
 
 R(')hila 227 
 
 Koppada 253 
 
 Rotvad 24S 
 
 Sabavat 231 
 
 Sada 228 
 
 ,, Wokkaliga 228- 
 
 30 
 Sadhu 244 
 
 Sadhu-vamsastha 
 
 250 
 Sahavasi 237, 239 
 
 253 
 241 
 256 
 
 253 
 
 241 
 
 237, 239 
 
 227, 
 
 S'anku Dasari 242 
 Sannyasi 227, 242 
 Sara 253 
 
 Sarasvata 234 
 
 Sarige 247, 252 
 
 Satani 226, 233, 241 
 Sattadhava 241 
 
 Satuljeda 233 
 
 Saiirashtraka 249-50 
 Savanti 252 
 
 Sayyid 258 
 
 Seniga 249-50 
 
 Senve 237 
 
 S'etti (Kanajiga) 246 
 ,, (Ganiga) 252 
 ,, (Komati) 246 
 (Korama) 233 
 
 Sharif 
 
 Shatsthala 
 
 Shckh 
 
 Sidlukula 
 
 Sigroidalu 
 
 Silavanta 
 
 258 
 242 
 258 
 253 
 253 
 245 
 
 Sillekyala 227, 256 
 S'ilpi 249 
 
 S'iiiie 229 
 
 Singh 227 
 
 Singadi 254 
 
 Singundi 249 
 
 Sirdevara 229 
 
 Sirkanakkan 244 
 Sirkarnikar 244 
 
 S^'rnad 237, 239 
 S'is'uvarga 237, 239 
 Sishyavarga 239 
 Sitabhaira 229 
 
 Sivachar 247 
 
 Sivachara 246 
 
 Sivadvija 239, 241 
 Sivalji 237 
 
 Sivanambi 241 
 
 Sivdradhya 237 
 
 Smarta 235, 237 
 Sole 229 
 
 Soliga 213-4 
 
 Soliyas'etti 246 
 
 Somesa 253 
 
 Someshandal 240-1 
 Sonajiband 248 
 
 Sonar 248 
 
 Sonnan 251 
 
 Soshya 229 
 
 S'ravaka 245, 247 
 Sresht'ha 252 
 
 Srivaishnava 235, 
 240 
 Sthaladava 246 
 
 SudugacluSidda2i6, 
 227, 256 
 Suggala 252 
 
 Siikali 231 
 
 Sukhamanji 246 
 S'ukla Vajus s'akhe 
 
 237. 239 
 Sunnakallu 252 
 
 Suri 241 I 
 
 Suraj Bunsi 227 
 Svalpa 229 
 
 Svari 251 
 
 S'vetambara 242, 
 244 
 
 Talukhandiya 227 
 Tambuli 227 
 
 Tamil Agasa 250, 
 
 253 
 
 ,, Holeya 253 
 
 ,, Kiimbara 252 
 
 Tammadi 241 
 
 Tanga 253 
 
 Tangala 253 
 
 Tanigelnivva 254 
 
 Telaghanya 237 
 
 Tellapi'isala 251 
 
 Telugu Agasa 250 
 
 ,, Banajiga 246 
 
 ,, Beda 255-6 
 
 ,, Ganiga 254 
 
 ,, Goila 251 
 
 ,, Holeya 253 
 
 ,, Koracha 233 
 
 ,, Kumljara 251 
 
 ,, Madiga 254 
 
 ,, Nayinda 249 
 
 ,, Rachevar 228 
 
 ,, Reddi 229 
 
 ,, Sanar 253 
 
 ,, Satani 241 
 
 ,, Wodda 255 
 
 Tengale 237, 240 
 
 Tenginahaje 253 
 
 j Tenugu Wokkaliga 
 
 I 228 
 
 Thakur 227 
 
 ; Tigala (Holeya) 253 
 
 Tigala 223,226,228, 
 
 231 
 
 ,, (Wodda) 255 
 Tirthankara 242 
 Tirukula 253-4 
 
 Tirumaleyar 240-1 
 Tirunama Dasari 
 
 242 
 Togasetti 246 
 
 Togata 229, 249-50 
 Toppala 252 
 
 Toreya 223, 252 
 Tola 231 
 
 Totada Tigaja 238 
 Totagara 229 
 
 Toti 253 
 
 Trikarma 246 
 
 Tude 253 
 
 Tuluva Vellala 228 
 ,, Wokkaliga 
 
 229 
 Tuppada 246 
 
 Turukane Banajiga 
 
 246 
 
 Uddina Korava 256 
 
 Uggranada 253 
 
 Ulchakamme 237-8 
 
 Ulli 231 
 
 Uppaliga 252 
 
 Uppara 223, 246-7 
 
 Uppina 249 
 
 Uppinakolaga 239 
 
 Uppu Koracha 233 
 
 ,, Korama 233 
 
 ,, Korava 233 
 
 ,, Wodda 255 
 
 Uriya 227 
 
 Uru Golla 251 
 
 ,, Koracha 233 
 
 ,, Madiga 254 
 
 ,, Wodda 255 
 
 Utkala 234 
 
 Uttaradi 239 
 
 Uttaraji 239 
 
 Vadaga 253 
 
 ,, Reddi 229 
 
 \'adagale 237, 240 
 
 Vadama (Brahman) 
 
 238 
 ,, Kumbara 252 
 Vader 242, 244 
 
 Vadhyama 237 
 
 Widtya 232 
 
 \'aikhanasa 241 
 
 \'ainadii 254 
 
 Vaishaniga 238 
 
 Vaishnava ( Nagarta ) 
 
 247 
 Vaishnava Satani 
 
 241
 
 270 
 
 ETHNOGRAPHY 
 
 Vaisya 
 
 247 
 
 Vasiulcva 
 
 229 
 
 Vaivaglini 
 
 248 
 
 V'cginad 
 
 237 
 
 \'ajar 
 
 248 
 
 Veiagi ■ 
 
 253 
 
 Valange 
 
 253 
 
 Velama 
 
 229 
 
 Valasakapu 
 
 229 
 
 Vellaladfolc-ya 
 
 )253 
 
 \i\yx 
 
 229 
 
 ■,■ Wokkal 
 
 iga 
 
 Valluvar 
 
 256 
 
 228 9, 
 
 231 
 
 ■;, (Holeya 
 
 )253 
 
 Velnad 237, 
 
 240 
 
 Van nan 
 
 250 
 
 Velnriti 
 
 229 
 
 Vanne (Moleya 
 
 )253 
 
 Vengipuram 
 
 240 
 
 Vanne (Tigala) 
 
 231 
 
 Venkatapurada 
 
 241 
 
 ^'anniklIla 
 
 231 
 
 Vijayai:)ura Kamme 
 
 Vaniyar 
 
 253 
 
 
 237 
 
 \'angi'puram 
 
 237 
 
 Viralihadrakapi 
 
 229 
 
 \'anta 
 
 229 
 
 \'iral)hagna 
 
 253 
 
 \'arka 
 
 253 
 
 Virasaggada 
 
 246 
 
 Viras'aiva 241 
 
 Virasamlni 253 
 
 Vis'va 248 
 
 Visval)rahnia 248 
 
 \'isvaglini 248 
 
 Visvakarma 249 [ 
 
 Vyasakuta 236 
 
 Wodda 226, 255 
 
 ,, (Korama) 233 
 
 Wokkaliga 222, 
 
 226, 228-9, 249 
 
 Wontiyettu (janiga 
 
 252 
 
 ^'adava Korama 233 
 
 \';idavakula 251 
 
 ^'adayar 251 
 
 \'akula 223, 251 
 N'alanati 229 
 
 N'alavolu 229 
 
 Ydnadi 231 
 
 Vanamaloru 254, 
 
 256 
 ^'antumule 233 
 
 'N'avanianta 246 
 
 ^'eda ^'ellama 229 
 "S'ellamma 246 
 
 ^'ellammakapu 229 
 Velumaneyavaru 
 
 229
 
 71 
 
 HISTORY 
 
 LEGENDARY PERIOD 
 
 A land covered with one mighty and all-embracing forest, — the great 
 Dandakaranya ; nestling here and there on the bank of a sacred stream, 
 the dsraiiia or hermitage of some ris/ii or holy sage, with his mind 
 intent upon penance or absorbed in austerities of overwhelming 
 potency ; hidden in forest clearings or perched on isolated rocky 
 eminences, the retreats and strongholds of lawless predatory chiefs or 
 still more formidable asuras and rdkshasas, whence they issued for raid 
 and foray or bent on deeds of violence :— such is the picture of the 
 south of India presented to our view in the earliest records of the Hindu 
 race. In the continual conflict between devas or gods and Brahmans 
 on the one side, and asuras or giants and rdkshasas or demons on the 
 other, is doubtless depicted a period when the Aryans in their south- 
 ward progress were brought into collision with aboriginal races or the 
 descendants of primeval immigrants. 
 
 The course of events seems to have been somewhat on this wise. 
 A few solitary vedic rishis made their way as hermits to the south, in 
 search of suitable retreats in the depths of the forest, where the acc^uisi- 
 tion of merit, by an uninterrupted round of austerities and rites, might 
 gratify the spiritual pretensions which were contested among the haunts 
 of xwKn as at variance w'ith the established system of society. But here 
 too they found not unpeopled solitudes ; and as intruders of a different 
 race, provoked the hostility of previous settlers, which took the form 
 of interference with the sacrifices and molestation of the rites — the 
 proclaimed sources of supernatural power, — whose efficacy depended 
 on exact and complete performance. The superior attainments, how- 
 ever, of the Aryan Brahmans enabled them in various ways to defeat 
 the opposition of the tribes with whom they were thus brought into 
 contact, and to introduce the elements of civilization among the ruder 
 races of the south. 
 
 Imi)cllcd by internal strife or by ideas of adventure and conquest, 
 warriors of the Kshatriya class gradually followed these Brahman 
 pioneers across the ^'indhyas, and came into collision with the rulers of 
 indigenous tribes. The Brahmans, having already gained a footing
 
 272 
 
 HISTORY 
 
 among tlicsc, would be led to assert sacerdotal claims with increased 
 and uncompromising vehemence, whence violent struggles ensued, not 
 alone between hostile races, but between rival sects and factions, marked 
 by all the asperity and implacable rancour of such contests. The power 
 of the Kshatriyas is represented as having been virtually extinguished, 
 and only resuscitated with the aid of the Brahmans and the admission 
 of their ascendency. But the rival system of Buddhism, which was of 
 Kshatriya origin, became in course of time predominant ; and so con- 
 tinued for some centuries, until the gradual revival of Brahmanical 
 influence ended in the banishment of the former from the land of its 
 birth to the congenial soils where it still holds sway over the greater 
 proportion of the human race. 
 
 But the records which have come down to us of these revolutions 
 and mutations require to be used with discrimination. For the Brah- 
 mans, being last in the ascendant, have, apparently, by interpolations 
 in old works, by the argument of more recent compositions and by the 
 systematic destruction of Buddhist and Jain literature and remains of 
 the intermediate period, persistently striven, not only to ascribe almost 
 every public calamity to the neglect of their injunctions, but have even 
 assigned a Brahmanical origin to the royal lines. Notwithstanding, 
 therefore, evident anachronisms, and the prolongation of the lives of 
 sages for several centuries, implied in their appearance at widely distant 
 periods, the ancient literature, with steady uniformity, represents Brah- 
 mans and their blessings as the most potent source of honour and 
 power, their imprecation as ensuring the most inevitable doom ; while, 
 until the brilliant discoveries of Prinsep, the history of the Buddhist 
 period was almost a blank. Modern research has done, and is still 
 doing, an immense deal to dispel the obscurity which rests upon the 
 early history, and to throw light on the real progress of events and 
 development of principles which have resulted in the formation of the 
 India of to-day. 
 
 Agastya. — Of the rishis who in the earliest times penetrated to the 
 south, Agastya is one of the most conspicuous. The tradition that he 
 caused the Vindhya mountains to bow down and yield him a passage, 
 no less than the universal popular belief, seem to point him out as the 
 forerunner of the last Aryan migration into the peninsula.^ The 
 ascendency he gained over the enemies of the Brahmans had, accord- 
 ing to the Ramayana, rendered the southern regions safe and accessible 
 at the time when Rama crossed the Vindhya range. The scene of the 
 
 • To him the Tamil race attribute their first knowledge of letters. After civilizing 
 the Dravidians or Tamil people, he retired to a hill in the Western Ghats still named 
 after him, and was subsequently identified with the star Canopus.
 
 HAIHAYAS 
 
 273 
 
 following grotesque and monstrous story of the exercise of his power 
 is laid at Stambhodadhi (Kammasandra), on the banks of the Arkavati, 
 near Nelamangala. There Agastya is related to have had an asrama, 
 and thither came the rakshasa brothers Vitapi and Ilvala, who, having 
 obtained the boon that they should be invulnerable to gods and giants 
 and might assume any form at will, had applied themselves to the work 
 of destroying the rishis. Their modus operandi was as follows : — Ilvala, 
 the elder, assuming the form of a Brahman, would enter the asrama 
 and invite the rishi to some ceremony requiring the sacrifice of a sheep. 
 At this Vatapi, taking the form of the sheep, was sacrificed and eaten. 
 The repast over, Ilvala would exclaim " Vatapi, come forth," when the 
 latter, resuming his natural form, would burst out from the rishi, rend- 
 ing him asunder, and the two brothers eat him up. This plan they 
 tried on Agastya, but he was forewarned. When, therefore, after the 
 sacrificial meal, Ilvala as usual summoned Vatapi to come forth, Agastya 
 replied that he was digested and gone to the world of Yama. Ilvala, 
 rushing to fall upon him, was reduced to ashes by a glance.^ 
 
 Of other rishis, tradition has it that Gautama performed penance on 
 the island of Seringapatam in the Kaveri, Kanva- on the stream at 
 Malur near Channapatna, Vibhandaka on the Tunga at Sringeri, 
 Markanda on the Bhadra at Kandeya, Dattatreya on the Baba Budans, 
 besides many others in different places. 
 
 Asuras arid Rdkshasas. — " The (asuras and) rakshasas who are repre- 
 sented as disturbing the sacrifices and devouring the priests, signify," 
 says Lassen, " merely the savage tribes which placed themselves in 
 hostile opposition to the Brahmanical institutions. The only other 
 actors who appear, in addition to these, are the monkeys, which ally 
 themselves to Rama and render him assistance. This can only mean 
 that when the Aryan Kshatriyas first made hostile incursions to the 
 south, they were aided by another portion of the indigenous tribes." 
 
 Of the asuras, traditions are preserved that Guhasura had his capital 
 at Harihara on the Tungabhadra, Hidimbasura was established at 
 Chitaldroog, Bakasura near Rahman Ghar, Mahishasura, from whom 
 Mysore derives its name, at Chamundi, and so on. The asuras, it is 
 said, being defeated by the devas, Ijuilt three castles in the three worlds, 
 one of iron on the earth, one of silver in the air, and one of gold in the 
 sky. These the devas smote, and conquered the three worlds ; the 
 
 ' For the original story see Muir, Sans. Texts, ii. 415. Weber considers it 
 indicates the existence of cannibals in the Dekhan. Of Ilvala, perhaps we have a 
 trace in the village of Ilavala, known to Europeans as \'chval, near Mysore. \'atapi- 
 pura is the same as Haclami, near Dharwar. 
 
 - Kanva is to the Telugu race nearly what Agastya is to the Tamil. 
 
 T
 
 2 74 HISTORY 
 
 muster (jf tlic forces for the assault on the tri])lc city, cjr Tripura,' having 
 taken place, according to tradition, at the hill of Kurudu male, properly 
 Ktldu male, near Mulbagal. 
 
 The rdkshasas appear to have been a powerful race dominant in the 
 south, whose capital was at Lanka in the island of Ceylon. The king- 
 dom of the vdnara or monkey race was in the north and west of the 
 Mysore, their chief city being Kishkindha near the village of Hampe 
 on the Tungabhadra. The ancient Jain Ramayana, composed in Hala 
 Kannada, gives a genealogy of the kings of either race down to the 
 time of Rama's expedition, which will be made use of farther on, so far 
 as it relates to Mysore. In it we are also introduced to the vidyddharas, 
 whose empire was apparently more to the north, and w^hose principal 
 seat was at Rathanupura-Chakravalapura.- 
 
 Haihayas.— In order, however, to obtain something like a connected 
 narrative of events more or less historical of these remote times, we 
 may begin with an account of the Haihayas. \\'ilson imagines them to 
 be a foreign tribe, and inclines, with Tod, to the opinion that they may 
 have been of Scythian origin and perhaps connected with a race of 
 similar name who first gave monarchs to China.'' They overran the 
 Dekhan, driving out from Mahishmati, on the upper Narmada (Ner- 
 budda), a king named Bahu, seventeenth in descent from Purukutsa of 
 the solar line, the restorer of the dominion of the Nagas. He fied with 
 his wives to the forest, where one of them gave birth to Sagara, who 
 became a great conqueror and paramount ruler in India."* He nearly 
 exterminated the Haihayas and associated races — the Sakas, Yavanas, 
 Kambojas, Paradas, and Pahlavas — but, at the intercession of his 
 priest Vasishtha, forbore from further slaughter, and contented him- 
 self with imposing on them certain modes of shaving the head and 
 wearing the hair, to mark their degradation to the condition of out- 
 castes.'^ 
 
 ^ Reference to a city named Tripura will he fciund in connection with the Kadamba 
 kings, farther on. The legend perhaps means that the indigenous tribes in the west 
 retired above the Ghats before Aryan invaders, and were finally subdued by their 
 assailants penetrating to the table-land from the east, and taking the lofty hill forts. 
 
 - The Silaharas of Karahata (Karhad), near Kolapur, are called Vidyadharas. — 
 Dr. Buhler, Vik. Dez>. Char. Int. 40. 
 
 •■' Wilson, Vish. Fur. Bk. IV, ch. xi, last note. Tod, An. Faj. I, 36. Haihaya 
 was also the name of a great-grandson of Vadu, the progenitor of the Vadavas. 
 
 * Sagara is the king most commonly named at the end of inscriptions as an example 
 of liberality in granting endowments of land. 
 
 * For the bearing of these regulations on certain practices at the present day, see 
 Dr. Caldwell's article on the kiidunii (Kan. jiitfii), reprinted from the Madras Mail 
 mind. Ant. IV, 166. 
 
 Eventually the Haihayas established their cajntal at Ratanpur (in the Central
 
 PARASU RAMA 275 
 
 Parasu Bama. — At a later period, Arjuna, the son of Kritavirya, 
 and hence called Kartaviryarjuna (which distinguishes him from Arjuna, 
 one of the Pandu princes), was ruling over the Haihayas. On him the 
 muni 1 )attatreya had conferred a thousand arms and other powers, with 
 which he oppressed both men and gods. He is even said to have seized 
 and tied up Ravana. About the same time a sage named Jamadagni, 
 nephew of Visvamitra, the uncompromising opponent of Vasishtha, 
 having obtained in marriage Renuka, daughter of king Prasenajit, they 
 had five sons, the last of whom was Rama, called Parasu Rdma, or 
 Rama with the axe, to distinguish him from the hero of the Ramayana. 
 He is represented as the sixth avatar of Vishnu : his axe, however, was 
 given him by Siva. 
 
 Jamadagni was entrusted by Indra with the care of Surabhi, the 
 celestial cow of plenty ; and on one occasion being visited by 
 Kartavir\'a, who was on a hunting expedition, regaled the Raja and his 
 followers in so magnificent a manner as to excite his astonishment, 
 until he learned the secret of the inestimable animal possessed by his 
 host. Impelled by avarice, he demanded the cow •} and on refusal 
 attempted, but in vain, to seize it by force, casting down the tall 
 trees surrounding the hermitage.- On being informed of what had 
 happened, Parasu Rama was filled with indignation ; and attacking 
 Kartaviryarjuna, cut off his thousand arms and slew him. His sons 
 in return killed Jamadagni, in the absence of Parasu Rama. Where- 
 upon Renuka became a Sati, by burning herself on her husband's 
 funeral pyre. With her dying breath she imprecated curses on the 
 head of her husband's murderer, and Parasu Rama vowed, after 
 performing his father's funeral obsequie.s, to destroy the whole 
 Kshatriya race. 
 
 Having twenty-one times cleared the Earth of Kshatriyas, he gave 
 her at the conclusion of an asvamedha, a rite whose performance was a 
 sign of the consunnnation of victory, as a sacrificial fee to Kasyapa, the 
 ofificiating priest ; who, in order that the remaining Kshatriyas might be 
 spared, innnediately signalled him off with the sacrificial ladle, saying, 
 " Go, great muni, to the shore of the southern ocean. Thou must not 
 
 I'rovinces), and continued in ]wwer until deposed l)y the Mahrattas in 1741 a. I). 
 Inscriptions have been found proving the dominion of the Haihayas over the upper 
 Xarniada \'alley as far hack as the second century A. 1). — C P. Gaz. Int. 1. 
 
 ^ There is little douht that the so-called cow was a fertile tract of country, such as 
 Sorab (literally Sural)hi), where the scene of this transaction is laid, is well known 
 to be. 
 
 - The story is dift'crently related in the Mahabharata, but \sitli too unnatural and 
 improliable circumstances, and too manifest a design to inculcate certain Urahmanical 
 notions. The sequel is the same. 
 
 T 2
 
 2 76 J II STORY 
 
 dwell in ni\- territory." ^ Parasu Rama then applies to Sagara,*^ the 
 ocean, for sonic land, and compels it to retire,'' creating the seven 
 Konkanas,^ or the maritime regions of the western coast, whither he 
 withdraws to the Mahendra mountain. The Earth, who finds it very 
 inconvenient to do without the Kshatriyas as rulers and kings, appeals to 
 Kasyapa, who discovers some scions of royal houses that have escaped 
 the general mas.sacre of their race, and instals them. 
 
 This prodigious legend, in which the mythical type of Brahmanism 
 is clearly enough revealed as arrayed in opposition to the military caste, 
 is by tradition connected with many parts of Mysore. Sorab taluq is 
 the Surabhi which was Jamadagni's possession. The temple of Renuka, 
 existing to this day at Chandragutti, is said to mark the spot where she 
 burnt herself on the funeral pyre of her husband, and that of Kolaha- 
 lamma at Kolar is said to have been erected in her honour from 
 Kartaviryarjuna having there been slain. The colloquy with Sagara is 
 said to have been near Tirthahalli. At Hiremugalur (Kadur District) 
 is a singular memorial in the temple of Parasu, the axe of the hero, and 
 its ancient name of Bhargavapuri connects the town with him as being 
 a descendant of Bhrigu. 
 
 Rama.— Our history has next to do with Rama, — called, by way of 
 distinction, Ramachandra, — the hero of the Ramayana and the seventh 
 avatar of ^'ishnu. On his way home after winning Sita by breaking 
 the bow of Siva, he is, strangely enough, said to have been encountered 
 by Parasu Rama, who required him to break a bow of Vishnu which 
 he produced. This Rama did, and at the same time destroyed Parasu 
 Rama's celestial abode. The story of Rama, — a Kshatriya, but 
 obedient to the Brahmans ; of the solar line, the son of Dasaratha, king 
 of Ayodhya (Oudh) — and of the abduction, during their wanderings in 
 the Dandaka forest, of his wife the fair Sita, by Ravana, the rakshasa 
 king of Lanka in Ceylon, is too well known to need repetition here. 
 To this day not an incident therein has abated in interest to the 
 millions of India, and few parts of the land but claim to be the scene 
 of one or other of its adventures. Without stopping to dwell on the 
 
 ^ The audacity of the conception is sublime. The explanation given is that Parasu 
 Rama being guilty of homicide could not be allowed to reside in Brahman territory. 
 
 - Sagara, the ocean, was so named from Sagara (previously mentioned) through 
 Bhagiratha. The tradition will be found in the Vishnu Purana, &c. The taluq 
 adjoining Sorab is also called Sagar. 
 
 3 According to some accounts he stood on the jiromontory of Dilli, and shot his 
 arrows to the south, over the site of Kerala. It seems likely that we have proof of the 
 local legend being at least as old as the Christian era, as the Mons Pyrrhus of Ptolemy 
 is, probably, the mountain of Parasu or Parasu Rama. — Wilson, fish. Pur. Bk. iv, ch. 7. 
 
 * These were Karata, Virata, Mahdrata, Konkana, Haiga, Tulava and Kerala.
 
 J? A MA 277 
 
 romantic episode, wliich will be found in the history of the Kadur I )is- 
 trict. of Rishya Sringa, to whon) indirectly the birth of the hero is 
 ascribed, it is evident that Rama's route from Panchavati or Nasik, at 
 the source of the Godavari, to Ramesvara, on the south-eastern coast 
 opposite Ceylon, would naturally lead him across the table-land of 
 Mysore.^ 
 
 All accounts agree in stating that the first news Rama received that 
 Ravana had carried off his wife to Ceylon, was conveyed to him while 
 at the court of Sugriva, the king of Kishkindha ; and that with the 
 forces here obtained he accomplished his expedition and the recovery 
 of Sita. He first met with Sugriva, then dispossessed of his kingdom, 
 at the sources of the Pampa or Tungabhadra, and assisted him in 
 recovering his throne. The former region therefore would be in the 
 Western Ghats, in Kadur District ; and the situation of Kishkindha is 
 generally acknowledged to be on the Tungabhadra, north of the 
 Mysore," near the village of Hampe, where in modern times arose the 
 cities of Anegundi and Vijayanagar. The Brahmanical version of the 
 Ramayana, as contained in ^'almiki's famous poem, describes the races 
 of this region as vanaras and kapis, or monkeys. But the Jain 
 Ramayana, previously referred to, calls Kishkindha the vdnara dhvaja 
 kingdom, or kingdom of the monkey flag. This simple device on the 
 national standard, therefore, may have led to the forces being called the 
 monkey army,'' and thence easily sprung all the other embellishments 
 of the story as popularly received.'' We shall follow the Jain version 
 in giving the previous history of the kings of Kishkindha. ' 
 
 Kishkindha. — By the conquests of Sagara, here made a descendant 
 of Puru,'' a [)rince named Toyada Vahana (the same as Megha \'ahana, or 
 Jimiita \'ahanaj, who had thought to marry a princess whom Sagara 
 
 ^ The papers concerning Mysore (in the Mackenzie collection) seem to agree in 
 stating that Rama went by way of the Mysore country to Lanka. — Taylor, Cat. Rais. 
 Or. MSS. Ill, 693. 
 
 - Wilson, Utt. Ram. Char. Act I, Sc. 2 ; Monier Williams, Ind. Ep. Po. 76 ; 
 Talboys Wheeler, Hist. Ind. II, 318. 
 
 •' This is nothing but what we often do in speaking of the military array of the 
 British lion, the Russian bear, <S:c. 
 
 •* Kapi-dhvaja (monkey flag) was one of the names of Arjuna, the most popular of 
 the Pandu brothers. The monkey ensign was also one of the insignia of the Kadamba 
 kings of Banavasi and Hanagal, and is still a cherished emblem of the Balagai or 
 right-hand castes {see above, p. 224). 
 
 * An attempt has been made in N'almiki's Ramayana to supply some of these 
 jiarticulars in the Uttara Kanda or supplementary chapter, but the accounts are 
 meagre and much altered. 
 
 ® The progenitor of one branch of the lunar line, and, from the similarity of 
 names, sometimes conjectured to i)e the I'orvis who was defeated by Alexaniler 
 the Great.
 
 2 78 HISTORY 
 
 appropriates, is driven to take refuge with Jihinia rakshasa of Lanka; 
 and the latter, being without heirs, leaves to him that kingdom, as well 
 as Patala Lanka. After many generations, Dhavala Kirtti arises in that 
 line, whose wife's brother, Srikantha Kumara, being desirous of 
 establishing a principality for himself, sets out for the vdnara dvipa, or 
 monkey island, where the accounts he receives of the Kishkindha hill 
 induce him to select it as the site of his capital. He accordingly founds 
 there the city of Kishkindha, and is the progenitor of the line of kings 
 of the monkey flag. 
 
 The successors of Srikantha Kumara, in regular descent, were 
 Vajrakantha, Indrayudha, Amara Prabhu (who marries a princess of 
 Lanka), and Kapi Ketu. After several more kings, whose names are 
 not mentioned, the line is continued by Mahodadhi, and his son 
 Pratibindu. The latter has two sons, Kishkindha and Andhraka. A 
 svayainvara being proclaimed for Mandara Mali, princess of Aditya- 
 nagara on the Vijayartha parvata, these two princes attend, as well as 
 Vijaya Simha, son of Asanivega the Vidyadhara chakravarti, and 
 Sukesha, the young king of Lanka. The lady's choice falling on 
 Kishkindha, Vijaya Simha is indignant and attacks him, but is killed 
 by Andhraka. Asanivega, to revenge his son's death, marches against 
 Kishkindha and Sukesha, and takes both their kingdoms. They retire 
 to Patala Lanka. After a time, Kishkmdha founds a city on Madhu 
 parvata, and has there two sons, Rikshaja and Siiryaja. Sukesha, in 
 Patala Lanka, has three sons — Mali, Sumali, and Malyavant, — who, on 
 attaining to manhood, recover possession of Lanka. Meanwhile, in the 
 Vidyadhara kingdom, Asanivega has been succeeded by Sahasrara, and 
 he by Lidra.^ The Lanka princes, with the aid of Rikshaja and 
 Suryaja, attack the latter, but are defeated and again lose their king- 
 doms, all retiring to Patala Lanka as before. In the course of time, 
 to Ratnasrava, son of Sumali, is born Ravana, the predestined champion 
 of the rakshasa race. He regains Lanka and Kishkindha, and restores 
 the latter to Rikshaja and Suryaja. Vali and Sugriva, the sons of the 
 last, succeed to the throne. Ravana now demands their sister in 
 marriage ; but Vali, being opposed to it, abdicates, and thus leaves 
 Sugriva alone in the government. 
 
 On one occasion, Sugriva, owing to some dispute with his wife 
 Sutare, stays away from his capital ; and during his absence, a double 
 
 ' The Silahiiias of Karahata (Karhad), near Kolapur, claim to be not only 
 Vidyadharas (as above stated, p. 273), but also to be connected with the royal race 
 of Ceylon. A Chalukya inscription of a.d. 1008 says, "The Silara family of the 
 Simhala kings are descended from Jimuta-vahana, son of Jimuta-ketu, the lord of the 
 Vidyadharas." (See_/. Bo. Br. K. A. S. No. Y, p. 221.)
 
 KISHKINDHA 2 7 9 
 
 of himself, who most closely resembles him. usurps his place and 
 imposes upon all the ministers. The real Sugriva, being in a fix, 
 resorts to his friend Hanuman, son of Pavanjaya, king of Hanuvara 
 or Hanuruha dvipa. Then, hearing about Rama, he visits him at 
 Patala Lanka, and undertakes to discover Sita's place of confinement 
 in return for Rama's assistance in regaining his throne. Kishkindha is 
 accordingly attacked, the false or Maya Sugriva is killed, and Sugriva 
 restored. News having been received from a neighbouring chief that 
 he saw Ravana bearing Sita to Lanka,' a council is now held, at which 
 it is resolved to send to Hanuvara dvipa for Hanuman, as being of 
 rakshasa descent. The latter arrives, and undertakes to go to Lanka 
 as a spy and discover the truth of the report. He sets out by way of 
 Mahendra parvata^ and 1 )adhi-mukha parvata and brings back tokens 
 from Sita. Forces are at once mustered for the expedition to Lanka 
 for her recovery. The march of the army to the southern sea leads 
 them to Velandha-pura, ruled over by Samudra ; to Suvelachala, ruled 
 over by Suvela ; and lastly to Hamsa dvipa, whose king was Dvipa- 
 radana. 
 
 The identity of the places mentioned in the foregoing account it is 
 perhaps difficult to establish. But it seems not unlikely that Patala 
 Lanka, evidently, from the name, a city below the Ghats, and belong- 
 ing to the rakshasa kingdom of Ceylon, was some place in Canara ; for 
 the dominions of Ravana are said to have extended to Trichinopoly 
 on the east, and to Gokarna on the west of the peninsula. Honuvara 
 or Honuruha dvipa again is no doubt one of the islands in the large 
 lake of Honavar or Honore" in the Gersoppa district, near the mouth 
 of the Sharavati, which forms the Gersoppa Falls. The principal 
 island in the outer bay was fortified by Sivappa Nayak of Ikkeri, and 
 is now called Basava Rdja durga. The north-west of Mysore seems 
 thus pretty clearly connected with an important part of Rama's expedi- 
 tion. Local traditions, less credible in character, will be found noticed 
 under the several places where they are current. 
 
 Pandavas. — We will therefore proceed to the history of the Pandus, 
 
 ' An inscription on the Jatinga-Ranies'vara hill in Molakalnuiru lahu), dated 
 S'aka 883, stales that the linga there was set up when Ravana had seized Sita and 
 when Jat.iyu fought and fell there in her behalf. 
 
 ^ Mahendra is a name applied to some parts of the Eastern Ghats, and also to a 
 mountain near Cape Comorin. 
 
 •* The lake is of great extent and contains many islands, some of which are culti- 
 vated. It reaches almost to the Ghats, and in the dry season is quite salt ; but it 
 receives many more streams, which during the rainy monsoon become torrents and 
 render the whole fresh. By the natives it is connnonly calleil a river, l)Ut lake is a 
 more proper term. — Buchanan, _/?«/-. II, 279.
 
 28o JlISrOR V 
 
 and briefly nolice some of the more important events related in the 
 Maha Bharata which tradition connects with Mysore. Arjuna, the 
 third and most attractive of the five brothers, who by his skill in archery 
 won Draupadi, the princess of Panchala, at her svayatm'ara, after a 
 time v/ent into exile for twelve years, in order to fulfil a vow. During 
 his wanderings at this period, it is related that he came to the Mahendra 
 mountains, and had an interview with Parasu Rama, who gave him 
 many powerful weapons. Journeying thence he came to Manipura, 
 where the king's daughter, Chitrangada, fell in love with him, and he 
 married her and lived there three years, and had by her a son, Babhru- 
 vahana. The locality of this incident is assigned to the neighbourhood 
 of Chamrajnagar in the Mysore District, where the site of Manipura, 
 to which we shall have again to refer, is still pointed out.^ 
 
 When Yudhishthira resolved to perform the royal sacrifice called the 
 Rajasiiya, by which he proclaimed himself paramount sovereign, it 
 was first necessary to subdue the kings who would not acknowledge 
 him. Accordingly four expeditions were despatched, one towards each 
 of the cardinal points. The one to the south was commanded by 
 Sahadeva. After various conquests he crosses the Tungabhadra and 
 encamps on the Kishkindha hill, w^here Sushena and Vrishasena, the 
 chiefs of the monkey race, make friendship with him. Thence he 
 goes to the Kaveri, and passing over to Mahishmati (Mahishur, 
 My.sore), attacks Nila its king, whom he conquers and plunders of 
 great wealth.^ After this he goes to the Sahyadri or Western Ghats, 
 
 1 Manipur in Eastern Bengal, it appears, also lays claim to the story, but evidently 
 on scanty grounds. — Wheeler, Hist. Ind. I, 149, 425, notes. 
 
 ^ The Maha Bharata in this place (Sabha Parva) makes some singular statements 
 regarding the women of Mahishmati. The king Nila Raja, it is said, had a most 
 lovely daughter, of whom the god Agni (Fire) became enamoured. He contrived to 
 pay her many secret visits in the disguise of a Brahman. One day he was discovered 
 and seized by the guards, who brought him before the king. When about to be 
 condemned to punishment, he blazed forth and revealed himself as the god Agni. 
 The Council hastened !o appease him, and he granted the boon that the women of 
 Mahishmati should thenceforth be free from the bonds of marriage in order that no 
 adultery might exist in the land, and that he would befriend the king in time of 
 danger. This description of "free love" would apply to the Nairs and Xamburi 
 Brahmans of Malabar, but seems misplaced in reference to Mysore. It may, how- 
 ever, indicate that a chief of Malabar origin had at that time established himself in 
 power in the south-west ; and possibly refer to some stratagem attempted against him 
 by Jamad-agni, which ended in an alliance. Sahadeva was forced to conciliate Agni 
 before he could take Mahishmati. 
 
 It may here be stated that, according to traditions of :he Haihayas in the Central 
 Provinces, Nila Dhvaja, a descendant of Sudhyumna, got the throne of Mahishmati 
 (Mandla) ; Hamsa Dhvaja, another son, became monarch of Chandrapur (supposed 
 to be Chanda) ; and a third received the kingdom of Ratanpur. The two former 
 kingdoms, after the lapse of some generations, were overthrown by the Gonds, and
 
 PANDA V AS 281 
 
 subdues many hill chiefs, and, descending to the coast, overruns 
 Konkana, Gaula and Kerala. 
 
 The fate of the great gambling match which followed the Rajasuya, 
 and the exile of the Pandavas for thirteen years, during the last of 
 which they were to live incognito, need not be related here, as they are 
 generally well known. But an inscription at Belagami in Shikarpur 
 taluq expressly says that the Pandavas came there after the performance 
 of the Rajasuya. In the course of their farther wanderings, the brothers 
 are related to have lived in the Kamyaka forest, and this is claimed to 
 be the wild tract surrounding Kavale-durga in the Shimoga District. 
 The erection of the massive fortifications on that hill is ascribed to the 
 Pandus, as well as the Bhimankatte thrown across the Tunga above 
 Tirthahalli. The thirteenth year of exile was spent at the court of the 
 king of \'irata, in various disguises, — Bhima as a cook, Arjuna as a 
 eunuch, Draupadi as a waiting-maid, &c. The varied incidents of this 
 year are fully given in the published abstracts of the poem. It is only 
 necessary here to state that Virata-nagara is more than once mentioned 
 in the Chdlukya inscriptions, and is by tradition identified with Hanagal, 
 a few miles north of the Sorab frontier.^ 
 
 ^^'e pass on to the great asvamedha, or horse sacrifice, undertaken 
 by Yudhishthira, which forms the subject of one of the most admired 
 Kannada poems, the Jaimini Bharata. Among the conditions of this 
 regal ceremony, it was required that the horse appointed for sacrifice 
 should be loosed and allowed to wander free for the period of one year. 
 Wheresoever it went it was followed by an army, and if the king into 
 whose territories it chanced to wander seized and refused to let it go, 
 war was at once declared and his submission enforced. In accordance 
 with these rules, Arjuna was appointed to command the escort which 
 guarded the horse. Among the places to which it strayed, three are by 
 tradition connected with Mysore. 
 
 the Raianpur kingdom alone survived till the advent of the Mahraltas. — C. P. 
 Gaz. 159. 
 
 Sudhanva, a son of Ilamsa Dhvaja, is also said in the traditions of Mysore to have 
 l)een the founder of Champaka-nagara, now represented l)y the village of Sampige, 
 near Kadaha, in Gubbi taluq. 
 
 The only actual record hitherto found of a Nila Raja in the south is in the 
 Samudra Gupta inscription at Allahabad, in which he is assigned to an unknown 
 country called Avamukta (signifying freed or liberated, a curious coincidence with the 
 story above given), and is mentioned between \'ishnug6pa bi Kanchi and Harti- 
 varman of Vengi. His period, according to this, would lie the fourtii century. (See 
 Fleet's Early Gupta Kings, p. 13.) 
 
 ' Sir Walter Elliot says, " The remains of enormous fortifications, enclosing a 
 great extent, are still visible. I have got a plan distinctly showing the circuit of 
 seven walls and ditches on the side not covered by the river. '—Mad. J. iS, 216. 
 Also see Int. Ant. V, 177.
 
 282 HISTORY 
 
 'I'lu- first of these is Manipur, near Chamrajnagar, previously men- 
 tioned.' Babliruvahana, the son here born to Arjuna, had now grown 
 up and succeeded to the throne. His kingdom was also in a state of 
 the highest prosperity. It was pre-eminently " a land of beauty, valour, 
 virtue, truth : " its wealth was fabulous,'- and its happiness that of 
 paradise : it was filled with people, and not a single measure of land 
 was unoccui)ied or waste. A\'hen the horse came near this enchanting 
 spot the Raja was informed of it ; and, on his return from the chase in 
 the evening, he commanded it to be brought before him. The scene is 
 thus described : — 
 
 " Now the whole ground where the Raja held his council was covered with 
 gold ; and at the entrance to the council chamber were a hundred pillars of 
 gold, each forty or fifty cubits high ; and the top of each pillar was made of 
 fine gold and inlaid with jewels ; and on the summits of the pillars and on 
 the walls were many thousand artificial birds, made so exact that all who 
 saw them thought them to be alive ; and there were precious stones that 
 shone like lamps, so that there was no need of any other light in the 
 assembly ; and there also were placed the figures of fishes inlaid with rubies 
 and cornelians, which appeared to be alive and in motion. All round the 
 council hall were sticks of sandal, wound round with fine cloth which had 
 been steeped in sweet-scented oils ; and these were burnt to give light to the 
 place instead of lamps, so that the whole company were perfumed with the 
 odour. And before each one of the principal persons in the assembly was 
 placed a vessel, ornamented with jewels, containing various perfumes ; and 
 on every side and corner of the hall were beautiful damsels, who sprinkled 
 rose-water and other odoriferous liquors. And when the horse was brought 
 
 * There appear to be several reasons for accepting this as the locality in preference 
 to Manipur in Eastern Bengal. In the version given by Wheeler, Vol. I, it is stated 
 (396) that the horse when loosed went towards the south, and that its return was in a 
 northerly direction (414) ; these directions would not lead it to and from E. Bengal, 
 but to and from S. Mysore they would. It is also said (406) that sticks of sandal- 
 wood were burnt in the council hall of Manipur, and also (408) that elephants were 
 very excellent in that country. Now Mysore is the well-known home of the sandal- 
 tree, and the region I have assigned as the site of Manipur is peculiarly the resort of 
 elephants : within ten miles of that very site were made the remarkably successful 
 captures of elephants described on p. 179. The sequence of places visited by the 
 horse after Manipur is also, as shown in the text, consistent with the identification 
 here proposed. From the notes (149, 425) it appears that the application of the stor}- 
 to Manipur in Bengal is of very recent date. 
 
 - Of Solomon in all his glory it is stated that " he made silver and gold at Jerusalem 
 as plenteous as stones." So here " many thousands of chariots, elephants and horses 
 were employed in bringing the revenue, in gold and silver, to a thousand treasuries ; 
 and the officers sat day and night to receive it ; but so great was the treasure that the 
 people who brought it had to wait ten or twelve years before their turn came to 
 account for tlie money, obtain their acquittal and return home ! " One Raja confessed 
 that he sent a thousand carl-loads of gold and silver every year merely for leave to 
 remain quietly in his own kingdom.
 
 PANDA VAS 283 
 
 into the assembly, all present were astonished at its beauty and excellence ; 
 and they saw round its neck a necklace of excellent jewels, and a golden 
 plate hanging upon its forehead. Then Raja Babhruvahana bade his 
 minister read the writing on the plate ; and the minister rose up and read 
 aloud, that Raja Yudhishthira had let loose the horse and appointed Arjuna 
 to be its guardian." 
 
 It was resolved that Babhruvahana, being Arjuna's son, should go 
 forth to meet huii in a splendid procession and restore the horse ; but 
 Arjuna, under some evil influence, refused to acknowledge the Raja as 
 his son : he even kicked him, and taunted him with inventing a story 
 because he was afraid to fight. Babhruvahana was then forced to 
 change his demeanour, which he did with great dignity. A desperate 
 battle ensued, in which Arjuna w-as killed, and all his chieftains were 
 either slain or taken prisoners. Congratulations were showered upon 
 the victor, but his mother, Chitrangada, swooned and declared her 
 intention of burning herself on Arjuna's funeral pile. In this dilemma, 
 Ulupi, a daughter of Vasuki, the Xaga or serpent raja, whom Arjuna 
 had formerly married, and who had afterwards entered the service of 
 Chitrangada, resolved to get from her father a jewel which was in the 
 possession of the serpents, and which would restore Arjuna to life. 
 She accordingly sent a kinsman to her father with the request. His 
 council, however, being afraid of losing the jewel, refused to give it up. 
 On learning this, 15abhruvahana made war upon the serpents and com- 
 pelled them to give it up. Arjuna was by its means restored to life and 
 reconciled to his son. 
 
 The horse then entered the territory of Ratnapura, a city of which 
 name, it will be seen, was situated near Lakvalli in Kadur District. 
 The animal was here seized, but rescued by Arjuna. It next wandered 
 into Kuntala, the country of Chandrahasa, whose capital we shall find 
 was at Kubattur in Shimoga District. Here also the king was com- 
 pelled to release it. 
 
 The story of Chandrahdsa is a pleasing and favourite romance. He was 
 the son of a king of Kerala, and was born with six toes. While an infant, 
 his father was killed in battle, and his mother perished on her husband's 
 funeral pile. His nurse then fled with him to Kuntala, and when she died, 
 he was left destitute and forced to subsist by begging. While doing so one 
 day at the house of the minister, who is appropriately named Dushta buddhi, 
 or evil counsel, some astrologers noted that the boy had signs of greatness 
 upon him, indicating that he would one day become ruler of the country. 
 The minister, hearing of it, took secret measures to have him murdered in a 
 forest ; but the assassins relented, and contented themselves with cutting 
 off his sixth toe, which they produced as the evidence of having carried out
 
 284 mSTORY 
 
 their instructions. Meanwhile, Kuhnda, an officer of the court, hunting 
 in that direction, heard the boy's cry ; and, pleased with his appearance, 
 having no son of his own, took him home to Chandan.-ivati and adopted 
 him. 
 
 He grew up to be very useful and, by defeating some rebellious chieftains, 
 obtained great praise and wealth for his adopted father, which e.xcited the 
 jealousy of the minister. The latter, resolved to see for himself, paid a visit 
 to Kulinda, when, to his astonishment, he learnt that all this prosperity was 
 due to an adopted son, Chandrahdsa, who had been picked up in the forest 
 years ago bleeding from the loss of a si.xth toe. The truth at once broke 
 upon him that it was the boy he had thought to murder. Resolved more 
 than ever to get rid of him, he dissimulates and proposes to send him on an 
 errand to court, which was gladly enough undertaken. A letter was accord- 
 ingly sent by him to Madana, the minister's son, who was holding office 
 during his father's absence, directing that poison {inshd) should be at 
 once given to the bearer as he valued his own advancement. For the 
 minister had secretly resolved, as there was no male heir to the throne, to 
 marry Madana to the king's daughter and thus secure the kingdom to his 
 own family. Chandrahdsa, bearing the letter, arrived near the city, where 
 he saw a charming garden. Being weary, he tied his horse to a tree and lay 
 down to rest, when he fell asleep. 
 
 Now it so happened that this garden belonged to the minister, and that 
 morning his daughter Vishaya (to whom, before leaving, he had jestingly 
 promised to send a husband), had come there with the daughter of the Raja 
 and all their maids and companions to take their pleasure ; and they all 
 sported about in the garden and did not fail to jest each other about being 
 married. Presently Vishaya wandered away from the others and came to 
 the tank, where she saw the handsome young Chandrahasa lying asleep on 
 the bank, and at once fell in love with him. She now noticed a letter half 
 falling from his bosom, and, to her great surprise, saw it was in the hand- 
 writing of her father, and addressed to her brother. Remembering what 
 had been said about sending her a husband, she gently drew out the letter 
 and, opening it, read it. One slight alteration she saw would accomplish 
 her wishes ; she accordingly changed the word z//V//(ZT'(Z, poison, into vishaya, 
 her own name, resealed it with a copy of her father's seal which she had 
 with her, and replaced it in the young man's bosom. 
 
 When Madana received the letter he w^as greatly surprised, but as the 
 message was urgent, at once proceeded with arrangements for marrying his 
 beautiful sister to the handsome stranger. The ceremony had just been 
 concluded with all manner of pomp and rejoicing, when the minister 
 returned. Seeing what had happened, he was struck dumb with amaze- 
 ment. The production of the letter further convinced him that through 
 fate the mistake must have been his own. Suffice it to say that he makes 
 another attempt to get rid of Chandrahasa, but it so chances that his own 
 son Madana is killed instead .: and Chandrahasa, taking the fancy of the 
 king, is adopted as heir to the throne and married to the princess. Whereon 
 the minister, driven to desperation, kills himself.
 
 /A NAME/ A YA 285 
 
 Janamejaya. — Before quitting the legendary period, there is yet one 
 tradition demanding notice. During the first twelve years' exile of 
 Arjuna, before visiting Manipur, he had married Subhadra, the sister of 
 Krishna. By her he had a son named Abhimanyu. When, at the 
 conclusion of the thirteenth year of the second period of exile, the 
 Pandavas threw ofi" their incognito at the court of Virata, the raia 
 offered his daughter Uttara to Arjuna. But the latter declining her for 
 himself, on the ground that he had acted as her music and dancing- 
 master, and she had trusted him as a father, accepted her for his son 
 Abhimanyu, from which union sprung Parikshit,^ whose son was 
 Janamejaya. This is the monarch to whom the Maha Bharata is 
 recited. There is a professed grant by him at Bhimankatte matha,'- 
 now Tirthahalli, dated in the year 89 of the Yudhishthira era, which 
 would be 3012 B.C., but, if for no other reason, it is quite discredited 
 by the signature being in comparatively modern Kannada characters. 
 The grant itself is in Sanskrit, and in Nagari characters. Janamejaya is 
 represented in it as ruling in Kishkindha, and making a gift, in the 
 presence of the god Harihara, of the place on the Tungabhadra in 
 which his great-grandfather Yudhishthira had rested. 
 
 Parikshit, according to a curse, died from the bite of a serpent f in 
 revenge for which it was that Janamejaya performed his celebrated 
 sat-pa ydga or serpent sacrifice. This ceremony, according to tradition, 
 took place at Hiremugalur in the Kadur District, and three agraharas 
 in the Shimoga District, — Gauj, Kuppagadde and Begur — possess 
 inscriptions on copper plates, also written in Sanskrit, and in Nagari 
 characters, professing to be grants made by Janamejaya to the officiating 
 Brahmans on the occasion of the sar/>a ydi::;a. The genuineness of the 
 first of these, which is the one best known,'' has been a subject of much 
 controversy : but all three are almost identical in the historical portion. 
 They describe the donor as the son of the emperor Parikshit ; of the 
 Soma va/ns'a and Pdndava kiila ; having a golden lioar on his flag, and 
 ruling in Hastinapura. The grants are made during an expedition to 
 the south, in the presence of the god Harihara, at the confluence of the 
 Tungabhadra and Haridra. The inscriptions are no doubt of some 
 antiquity, but to accept them as dating from the commonly-received 
 
 ' He was a i)osthiini<ni.s son and still-lxirn, l)Ut Krishna pronounced some words 
 over the body which instilled life into it. 
 
 ^ See Mys. Ins. 251. 
 
 •' The Bhagavata I'urana was recited to him between the iiite and his death ! The 
 supposed meaning of the legend is, that Parikshit met his death at the hands of a 
 Naga tribe, and that his son exterminated the Nagas in revenge. 
 
 * See Colebrooke, As. /^'t-s. IX, 446.
 
 2 86 HI STORY 
 
 period for the ccniinicnccinent of the Kah yuga,' wlicii Janamejaya is 
 said to have reigned, would be aljsurd. 
 
 A well-known native astronomer'- worked out the calculations for me, 
 and maintained that they accord with no other year hut 36 of the Kali 
 yuga, or k.c. 3066. He also stated that there is an interval of twelve 
 days between the first date and the other two ; and that the former 
 marks the beginning, and the latter the conclusion, of the sacrifice. 
 On the other hand, the eclipse mentioned in the (lauj agrahara inscrip- 
 tion, is stated,' on the authority of Sir (i. Airy, to have happened in 
 A.D. 1 52 1, but this seems based on a mistake. I have elsewhere"* 
 published what professes to be a Chalukya inscription, dated Saka 366 
 (a.d. 444), which is in the same characters, and corresponds closely in 
 many of the particulars, and in the peculiar terms of these grants. I 
 have also made a minute comparison between them all, and given 
 reasons for assigning them to about a.d. 1194. More recent discoveries 
 lead to a suspicion that these and some other unaccountable inscrip- 
 tions were in some way connected with Henjeru, a Xolamba city, now 
 called Hemavati, situated on the Sira border, and perhaps with 
 Harihara on the Tungabhadra. 
 
 Regarding the chronology of the events which have been mentioned 
 in the foregoing account of the legendary period, it can only be stated 
 generally, that the destruction of the Kshatriyas by Parasu Rama is 
 said to have taken place between the Treta and Dvapara ages ; and 
 that an era of Parasu Rama used in Malabar dates from 11 76 B.C. 
 Rama's expedition against Lanka, assigned to the close of the Treta 
 age, is supposed to have taken place about the thirteenth century b.c.^ 
 and the w-ar of the Maha Bharata about fourteen centuries b.c." The 
 earliest version of the two epics must have been composed before 
 500 B.C.' 
 
 ' It is reckoned to have begun on the iSih of FelMuar)-, 3102 B.C., at midnight on 
 the meridian of Ujjayini. 
 
 2 The late Siddhanti Subrahmanya S'astri. ■' /. Bo. Br. K. A. S. X, 81. 
 
 * Ind. Ant. VIII, 89 ; Mys. Ins. Ixx. » Ciriffith, Ram. Int. xv. 
 
 ^ Wilson, Vish. Pur. pref. ci. A Chalukya inscription of the sixth century makes 
 the era of the war of the Maha Bharata 3146 u.c. — Ijid. Ant. V, 68 ; J. Bo. Br. 
 R. A. S. IX. 
 
 • The Kali Vuga or fourth age of the world was supposed to commence at the 
 birth of Krishna. Hence the events of the Maha Bharata must have taken place 
 (luring the third or Dvapara age, and those of the Ramayana at the end of the second 
 or Treta age. — Monier Williams, Ind. Wis. 333, 315 ff.
 
 MA UR YAS 287 
 
 HISTORICAL PERIOD 
 
 Mauryas. — The authentic history of India begins with the invasion 
 of the Greelcs under Alexander the (ireat in 327 v..c., and when the 
 Sandrakottos^ of the Greek writers was identified with Chandra Gupta, 
 a secure basis was established on which to found the chronology of 
 events in India itself. From the little wc know of Chandra Gupta, he 
 first appears as an adventurer in the camp of Alexander, from which, 
 owing to some quarrel, he had to flee. Collecting bands of followers, 
 he contrived to overthrow the dynasty of the Nandas' in Magadha, or 
 Behar, and made himself supreme sovereign throughout northern 
 India, with his capital at Pataliputra (Palimbothra in the Greek version), 
 the modern Patna, on the Ganges. On the other hand, after the death 
 of Alexander in 323, Baktria and (the Greek provinces in) India had 
 fallen to the share of Seleukos Nikator, the founder of the Syrian 
 monarchy. But it was not till he had recovered Babylon in 312 that 
 the latter was at leisure to turn his attention to India. He then found 
 himself unable to cope with Chanda Gupta, and therefore entered into 
 alliance with him, ceding the Greek settlements in the Punjab and the 
 Kabul valley in return for a present of 500 elephants, and giving him 
 his daughter in marriage. He also appointed to the court at l\ataliputra 
 an ambassador named Megasthenes, from whose accounts the Greeks 
 obtained much of their information about India. The reign of Chandra 
 Gupta lasted for twenty-four years, from about 316 to 292 B.C., and the 
 line of kings originating with him are known as the Mauryas. 
 
 The earliest event in the annals of Mysore that may be regarded as 
 historical is connected with Chandra Gupta. According to the accounts 
 of the Jains, Bhadrabahu, the last of the s'rutakei'alis, or hearers of 
 the first masters, foretold the occurrence in Ujjayini of a dreadful 
 famine which would last for twelve years. On its approach the main 
 body of the Jains there forsook the northern regions and migrated to 
 the south under his guidance. When they had journeyed as far as 
 S'ravana JJelgola, Bhadrabahu, feeling that his end was drawing nigh, 
 sent on the rest of the pilgrims, under the leadership of Vi.s'akha, to 
 the Chola and Pandya countries, and remained behind at the smaller 
 hill (called Katavapra in Sanskrit and Kalbappira or Kalbappu in 
 
 1 AlheiiKus writes the name Sandrakoptus.— Wilson, Theatre of the Hindus^ II, 132. 
 
 - In the play called Mtidra-nikshasa he is represented as having effected this with 
 the aid of Chanakya (the Indian Machiavelli), who is also called Vishnu Cupta and 
 Kautilya.
 
 288 HISTORY 
 
 Kannacja), to die, nllcnded by only a single di.scii)lc. That disciple, it 
 is alleged, was ncj other than the Maurya emperor Chandra Gupta. 
 
 In accordance with the obligations of the Jaina faith he had abdi- 
 cated towards the close of life, and renounced the world in order to 
 prei)are for death by acts of penance performed under the direction of 
 a spiritual guide. For this purpose he had attached himself to iJhad- 
 rabahu, the most distinguished professor of the faith at that time living, 
 and had accompanied him to the south. He continued to minister to 
 the wants of this his guru to the last, and was the only witness of his 
 death. According to tradition, Chandra Gupta survived for twelve 
 years, which he spent in ascetic rites at the same place and died there, 
 after welcoming the emigrants on their return journey from the south 
 when the great famine was over which had driven them from their homes. 
 
 In testimony of these events not only is Bhadrabahu's cave, in 
 which he expired, pointed out on the hill at S'ravana Be]gola, but the 
 hill itself is called Chandra-giri after Chandra Gupta : while on its 
 summit, surrounded with temples, is the Chandra Gupta basti, the 
 oldest there, having its fagade minutely sculptured with ninety scenes 
 from the lives of Bhadrabahu and Chandra Gupta, though these may 
 be more modern. Additional evidence is contained in the ancient rock 
 inscriptions on the hill. The oldest of them relates the migration of 
 the Jains and the other events above mentioned, while a second asso- 
 ciates Bhadrabahu with Chandra Gupta as the two great munis who 
 gave the hill its distinction.^ Similar testimony is borne by two inscrip- 
 tions of about 900 A.D. found near Seringapatam.- Furthermore, stone 
 inscriptions at S'ravana Belgola dated in the twelfth and fifteenth 
 centuries confirm the same traditions.^ That Chandra Gupta was a 
 Jain by creed may be inferred from the statements of Megasthenes, 
 who, writing of the Sarmanes (or S'ravanas) distinguishing them both 
 from the Brachmanes (or Brahmans) and from the followers of Boutta 
 (or the Buddhists), says : — " They communicate with the kings, who 
 consult them by messengers regarding the causes of things, and who 
 through them worship and supplicate the deity. "•■ That Bhadrabahu 
 was contemporary with Chandra Gupta is not denied. 
 
 According to the Greek accounts Chandra Gupta was succeeded by 
 Amitrachades (probably Amitraghata, one of the king's titles), and 
 Deimachos was the ambassador appointed to his court. But the 
 Vishnu Purana gives the following list of the Maurya kings: — 
 
 ' See my Inscriptions at Sravana Belgola, Nos. 1,17, loS, 54, 40. 
 
 - See my Epigraphia Carnatica, Vol. I, Sr. 147, 14S. 
 
 ;t ggg McCrindle's Indika of Megastheues, Ind. Ant. W, 244 : also Thomas, The 
 Early Faith of Asoka, 23 ; Colebrooke, Essays, II, 203 ; Lassen, Indische Alter- 
 thumsknndc, II, 700, 710.
 
 MA UR YAS 289 
 
 Chandra Gupta. Sangata. 
 
 Bindusara. S'alis'iika. 
 
 As'oka-vardhana. Somas'arman. 
 
 Suyas'as. S'as'adharman. 
 
 Das'aratha. Brihadratha. 
 
 Bindusara reigned for twenty-eight years, say 292 to 264 B.C., but in 
 Mysore the next record we have carries us to the reign of As'oka, the 
 grandson of Chandra Gupta. The discovery by me (in 1892) of three 
 of his inscriptions in the Molkalmuru taluq, dating perhaps from 
 258 i;.c., has put it beyond doubt that the Mysore country, or at any 
 rate the northern part of it, was included in his dominions. All that 
 was previously known of his connection with Mysore was contained in 
 the statement in the Mahawanso that after the third convocation (^244 
 B.C.) he despatched missionaries to foreign parts to establish the religion 
 of Buddha ; among whom " he deputed the thera Majjhantika to 
 Kasmira-Gandhara, and the thera Mahadeva to Mahisa-mandala 
 (Mysore). He deputed the thera Rakkhita to Vanavasi" (Banavasi 
 on the Sorab frontier), &:c. These places would seem therefore to 
 have been just beyond the limits of his territories. An inscription of 
 the twelfth century^ describes Ivuntala as the province governed by the 
 Mauryas. This, roughly speaking, would be the country between the 
 rivers Bhima and Vedavati, bounded on the west by the Ghats, includ- 
 ing Shimoga, Chitaldroog, Bellary, Dharwar, I'ijapur, and adjacent 
 parts to the north in Bombay and the Nizam's Dominions. 
 
 The remarkable Edicts of As'oka, engraved on rocks and pillars, are, 
 as is well known, the earliest specimens of writing that have been found 
 in India. \\\\h the exception of those at Mansahra and Shahbazgarhi 
 in the Yusufzai country, in the extreme north-west of the Punjab, 
 which are in the Baktrian-Pali characters,- written from right to left; all 
 the others are in the Indo-Pali characters,'' written from left to right. 
 lUit a singular circumstance about the Edicts found in Mysore is that 
 although, as was to be expected, they are in the Indo-Pali characters, 
 the scribe who wrote them has introduced the Baktrian-Pali at the end 
 in dcscril)ing his profession. '' This character a])pears in no other 
 inscriptions throughout India, except those in Yusufzai hrst mentioned. 
 The inference is that the scribe may have been an official transferred 
 from the extreme north to the extreme south of the empire, which 
 implies a freer inter-communication than has been generally supposed 
 to exist at tliat period. 
 
 As'oka was governor of Ujjain, under his father, l)cfore he came to the 
 
 ' At Bandanikkc, Shikarpur lalucp - Also called Arian-l'ali and Kharoshli. 
 
 •' rroperly the Brahmi lipi. * As discovered by Dr Biihler. 
 
 U
 
 290 IIISrOR Y 
 
 throne. He reigned for forty-one years, about 264 to 223 u.c, or 
 thirty-seven if counted from his coronation-anointing. During those 
 previous four years he was engaged in struggles with his brothers. 
 That he was at first a Jain has been deduced^ from his Edicts, and also 
 from the statement by Akbar's minister, Abul Fazl, in the Ain-i-Akhari, 
 that As'oka introduced Jainism into Kashmir, which is confirmed by the 
 Rdja-tarangini or Brahmanical history of Kashmir, recording that 
 As'oka " brought in the Jina s'asana." Others, however, consider 
 that he followed the Brahman creed. At any rate, he eventually 
 embraced Buddhism, and made it the State religion, doing for that 
 faith what the emperor Constantine at a later period did for Christianity. 
 In the 13th Rock Edict he informs us that his conversion was due to 
 the remorse he felt on account of the slaughter and devastation which 
 attended his conquest of Kalinga, in the ninth year after his coronation. 
 Henceforward he resolved to maintain peace and devote himself to 
 religion. He thus gradually came to appoint officials {inahdmdtras and 
 others) to watch over morality, and by teaching and persuasion alone 
 to extend the knowledge of dhamma or moral duties. The slaughter of 
 animals was to a great extent stopped ; he had wells dug and avenues 
 of trees planted along the roads ; made arrangements for dispensing 
 medical aid in all parts of the empire ; and taught that the attainment 
 of future happiness was open to all classes, and dependent, not on the 
 ministration of priests, but on personal right conduct and humanity. 
 
 The Edicts in Mysore- are issued in the name of Devanam Piye 
 (the beloved of the gods), a royal title of the Maurya kings, and are 
 addressed by the Prince (ayaputa) and mahamatras in Tachchannugiri 
 and S'ivannugiri'' to the mahamatras in Isila, places which have not 
 been identified. The contents run as follows : — 
 
 The Beloved of the gods (thus) commands : — For more than two years and 
 a half, when I was an upd^aka (or lay-disciple), I did not take much trouble. 
 For one year'' (I took) immense trouble ; the year that I went to the sangha 
 (or assembly of clerics) I put forth great exertion. And in this time the 
 men who were (considered) true in Jambudvipa (were shown to be) false, 
 together with the gods.'^ This, indeed, is the result of exertion. But this 
 can not be attained only by the great. For in any case, even to the lowly 
 
 ' By Ed. Thomas, y«/;/ww, or the Early Faith of Asoka. His grandson Samprati 
 was certainly a Jain. 
 
 - Translations have been published by Dr. Blihler in Epigraphia ludka. III, 140 ; 
 and by M. Senart, in French, in (he Journal Asiatique for 1892. 
 
 ^ The reading of these names is not quite clear : Dr. Biihler proposes Suvannagiri 
 for both. * Or, according to another version, " for one period of six years." 
 
 * This difficult passage also reads in other versions as "The men who were really 
 equal to gods in Jambudvipa (were proved to be) falsely (so regarded)."
 
 yiAURYAS 291 
 
 by effort hi.?h hccaven {svarga) is possible, and may be attained. To this 
 end has this exhortation been dehvered :— Both humble and great should so 
 exert themselves : and the neighbouring countries should know this ; and 
 this exertion should be of long continuance. Then will this matter increase ; 
 it will increase greatly ; it will increase to at least as much again. And 
 this exhortation has been delivered by the vyutha 256.' 
 
 Thus says the Beloved of the gods : — Obedience should be rendered to 
 mother and father. So also regard for living creatures should be made 
 firm. Truth should be spoken. These and the like virtues of the dhainma 
 should be practised. So also the disciple should honour his teacher. And 
 due respect should be paid to kindred. This is the ancient natural way. 
 This also tends to long life, and this should thus be done. Written by Pada 
 the scribe. 
 
 The above will suffice to .show the earnestness and high moral tone 
 of these singular and interesting inscriptions, so unlike any others met 
 with in the country. The sentence about the men who were regarded 
 as gods in Jambudvipa or India is considered to refer to the Brahmans, 
 and to their being now deprived of the almost divine prestige they had 
 arrogated. At the same time, the duty of reverence to them and the 
 bestowal of alms both upon Brahmanas and S'ramanas is more than 
 once inculcated. Toleration was denied only to their false claims. 
 
 Asoka's son Mahindo and his daughter Sanghamitta entered the holy 
 order and introduced Buddhism into Ceylon, It may be noted here 
 tliat Asoka never calls himself by that name in his inscriptions, but 
 always Piyadasi or Devanam Piye. Of his grandson Dasaratha (in 
 Prakrit called Dashalatha) some inscriptions have been found at the 
 Nagarjuni hill caves.~ 
 
 According to the Puranas the Maurya dynasty continued in power for 
 137 years, and Brihadratha, the last king, was murdered by his general 
 Pushyamitra, who founded the S'unga dynasty. Agnimitra is mentioned 
 as the son of Pushyamitra in the play called Malavikagnimitra, and as 
 reigning at Vidisa, identified with Bhilsa in Central India. An inscrip- 
 tion of the time of the S'ungas was found by General Cunningham in 
 the Stupa at Bharhut in Central India.'' They are said to have ruled 
 for 112 years, but for the latter part of that period were superseded by 
 the Kanva family, who were supreme for 45 years. These may have 
 been at first subordinates, as they are called in one place S'unga- 
 bhrityas. Sus'arman, the last Kanva king, was overthrown by Simuka, 
 described as a servant of the race of A'ndhras,^ and he was the 
 
 ' The signification of this term and of the numerals is much dis]Duted. 
 - Ind. Ant., XX, 364. 3 /^.^ xiV, 13S. 
 
 ^ The A'ndhras are described by I'tolemy as a powerful nation, under the name of 
 Andane. They are also mentioned in Pliny. 
 
 U 2
 
 2Q2 ///STORY 
 
 founder of the line of kings thence called in the Puranas the 
 A'ndhrabhrityas.' 
 
 Satavahanas. -Put from iiiscrii)tion.s it seems more correct to call 
 thcni the S';iiavahana dynasty, a name corrupted in Prakrit to S'aliva- 
 hana. 'I'heir chief capita! appears to have been at Dhanakataka, in the 
 east (Dharanikolta on the Krishna, in (iuntur taluq), but their chief 
 city in the west was Paithan on the Oodavari. Inscriptions found at 
 Nasik and Nanaghat'-' provide us with the following names (in their 
 Prakrit form) and succession. The peculiarity that the name of his 
 mother always appears with that of the king may be also remarked in 
 the Sunga inscription, and is a Rajput custom due to polygamy. Thus 
 we have Gotamiputra Satakani, Wisithiputra l^ulumayi, and so forth.'' 
 
 Siiiuika. A. 1). 
 
 Kanha (Krishna) reigned at least 
 
 S'atakani, son of Gotami ... ... ... 24 years — I37? 
 
 IHilumayi, son of Vasithi ... ... ... 24 ,, 
 
 Sirisena, son of Madhari ... ... ... 8 ,, 
 
 Chaturapana S'atakani, son of \'asithi ... 13 ,, — 182? 
 
 Siriyana S'atakani,'' .son of Gotami ... ... 27 ,, 
 
 Kharavela's inscription in Kalinga tells us of a Satakani in the 
 2nd century e.g., but these kings are assigned to the 2nd century .\.d. 
 on the dates of the contemporary Kshatrapas or Satraps of Surashtra 
 in Kathiawar, and other coincidences. Thus, the first Satakani was 
 victorious over Nahapana, and destroyed the dynasty of the Khaharatas 
 or Khakharatas. Rudradaman, grandson of Chashtana, was the con- 
 queror of a Satakani, perhaps Chaturapana.'^ Again, Ptolemy, who 
 wrote his Geography soon after 150 .\.d., describes Ozene (Ujjayini) as 
 the royal seat of Tiastenes, Baithan (Paithan) as that of Siri Polemaios, 
 and Hippokoura, in the south of Ariake (Maharashtra), as that of 
 Baleokouros.'' In these names it is not difficult to recognize Chashtana, 
 Siri Pulumayi, and \'ilivayakura, who are known to us from inscrip- 
 tions and coins. Chashtana was the founder of the dynasty of 
 Kshatrapa Senas,' which succeeded that of the Kshaharatas, ending with 
 Nahapana. Siri Pulumayi was the S'atavahana king, the son of Vasithi, 
 given in the list above. 'N'ilivayakura was the viceroy of the Satava- 
 hanas, governing the southern provinces.^ 
 
 ' Bhandarkar, Early Hist, of the Dc'khan. - Arch. Sun: W. Ind., iv, v. 
 
 ■^ See Dr. Buhler's explanation in Cunningham's Stiipa of Bharhuf, p. 129. These 
 do not give us the actual names of the mothers, but the latter, as in the case of Rajas 
 too, are called after the gotra of their family priest. 
 
 ■• In Sanskrit, S'ri Vajna Satakarni. * Senart, lud. Ant., XXI, 206. 
 
 « McCrindle, Ptolemy s Geog., id., XIII, 359, 366. 
 
 ' The following are the early names : — Chashtana, Jayadaman, Rudradaman, 
 Rudrasimha, Rudrasena. 8 Bhandarkar, o/. cit.
 
 SATAVAHAXAS 293 
 
 To revert to the kingdoms which arose out of Alexanders empire. 
 We know that Egypt under the Ptolemies and Syria under the 
 Seleukidie were eventually conquered by Rome. But the Greek 
 kingdom of Baktria was overthrown by a people from the north, called 
 the Tochari (whence its name of Tocharistan), who next advanced 
 westward against the kingdom of Parthia, founded in 250 B.C. by 
 Arsakes, who had revolted agamst the Seleukida;. Arlabanus, king of 
 Parthia, fell fighting against the Tochari, but his son Mithridates II. 
 (124 i!.c.) drove them back towards Kabul and India. Meanwhile, 
 Saka or Turushka tribes from Central Asia had poured into Baktria, 
 and by about 24 i!.c. had firmly established themselves in the north- 
 west of India. 
 
 From coins and other sources we obtain various names of kings, 
 such as Heraiis, Ciondophares and others, but the best known are the 
 Saka kings Kanishka, Huvishka, and Vasudeva, or, as they are called 
 on their coins, Kanerki, Ooerki, and Bazodeo. They belonged to 
 the Kushana family, and Kashmir was the chief seat of their power. 
 But Kanishka's empire extended from Yarkand and Khokand in 
 the north to Agra and Sindh in the south. The last great Buddhist 
 council was held in his reign. The best authorities are of opinion 
 with Dr. Oldenberg that the Saka era, reckoned from 78 a.d., dates 
 from his coronation. But the word Saka after some centuries came 
 to be misunderstood as itself meaning " era," and therefore, to dis- 
 tinguish it, was at length, more than a thousand years after its origin, 
 called the S'alivahana S'aka, a reminiscence of the fact that it had been 
 adopted by the Satavahanas. This is the era still in common use 
 throughout the south of India, as well as in Bengal. ^ 
 
 W'q may now return to the S'atavahanas. Their rule in the northern 
 parts of Mysore is proved both by inscrii)tions and coins. There was a 
 find of Buddhist leaden coins a few years ago- at the site of an ancient 
 city whose name, according to tradition, was Chandravali, situated 
 immediately to the west of Chitaldroog, and among these was one 
 bearing the name of Pulomayi. Again, an inscription of Satakanni, 
 son of Hariti, was found some time ago'' at Banavasi on the Sorab 
 frontier. And recently I have found one also of Satakanni, son of 
 Hariti, at Malavalli in Shikarpur taluq. Both the Satakarnis above 
 mentioned are described as "joy of the \'inhuka(jdavutu family,"' but the 
 
 • The era of \'ikram;ulilya, recUoneil from 56 B.C., seems to he ecjuallya misnomer. 
 No instance of its use with such a name has Ijeen found for 500 years after thai dale. 
 Hut Dr. Fleet identifies it with the Malava era.^/;w. of the Early Gupta Kings. 
 
 "■' By Mr. Mervyn Smith, a mining engineer, prospecting for gold. 
 
 ^ By Dr. Burgess : for Dr. Biihler's translation see Iiid. Ant., XI\', 331.
 
 294 
 
 irrsTOR Y 
 
 Banavasi inscription is in characters which appear to be of a somewhat 
 earlier type than those of Malavalli, and corresponding with the alphabet 
 of Siriyana Satakarni's inscription at Nasik. On this ground, and also 
 on account of the dates, though they are both in the same Pali or 
 Prakrit language, it is possible that they may belong to the time of 
 different kings of the same name. Their relationship to the S'atava- 
 hanas before mentioned does not appear, but they probably represent 
 a branch of the dynasty.' At Malavalli, Satakarni is called king of 
 Vaijayanti, or Banavasi, and the inscription at the latter place implies 
 the same. 
 
 The Banavasi inscription is dated in the twelfth year, the first day 
 of the seventh winter fortnight, and records a gift by the king's daughter, 
 the Mahabhoji Sivakhada-Nagasiri. The Malavalli inscription begins 
 with ascriptions of victory to the holy Mattapatti deva, evidently the 
 god of Malavalli. At the present time this is a most ordinary linga, 
 called Kalles'vara, in a most insignificant village temple, nor are there 
 any indications about the place of former grandeur except the inscrip- 
 tion. It is dated in the first year, and the first day of the second 
 summer fortnight. In it the king Satakarni issues an order to the 
 Mahavalabham S'ungakam. If the reading of this last name be corrects 
 it looks like an interesting link with the S'ungas, previously mentioned. 
 The grant consists of certain villages for the Mattapatti god. There is 
 a second inscription on the same stone pillar, in similar characters and 
 language. It is dated in the fourth year, on the second day of the first 
 autumn fortnight, and records a fresh grant for the same god by a 
 Kadamba king, name defaced, and was engraved by Vis'vakamma. 
 A fine Kadamba inscription at Talgunda also names Satakarni as one 
 of the great kings who had visited the temple there. 
 
 The Satakarnis were undoubtedly succeeded by the Kadambas in the 
 north-west of Mysore. From this time, the third century, we enter 
 upon a period more amply elucidated by authentic records. 
 
 While the north-west was, as stated, in the possession of the 
 Kadambas, part of the north was under the rule of the Rashtrakutas, 
 or Rattas. The east was held by the Mahavalis and the Pallavas, and 
 the centre and south came to be occupied by the Gangas, who partially 
 subdued the Mahavalis. In the fifth century the Chalukyas from the 
 north reduced the Rattas and the Kadambas to the condition of 
 feudatories and prevailed against the Pallavas, who were also attacked 
 by the Gangas. Early in the ninth century the Rattas regained power 
 
 ' Similar])-, in the Jaggayyapeta stupa was found an inscription of another branch, 
 of the time of Turisadatta, son of Madhari, in which he is said to be of the Ikhaku 
 Ikshvalivi) family. — Arch. Stiti: S. Iiid., No. 3, p. 56.
 
 SA TA VAHANAS 2 9 5 
 
 over the Chalukyas, and for a short time took possession of the Ganga 
 kingdom, but restored it and formed an aUiance with the Gangas, with 
 whom also were allied the Nolambas, a branch of the Pallavas, 
 established in the north-east of Mysore. In the tenth century the 
 Rattas with the Gangas gained great success over the Cholas, but the 
 close of that century saw the Chalukyas once more in the ascendant, 
 bringing the rule of the Rattas to a final end, while the Nolambas 
 were uprooted by the Gangas. The eleventh century began with a 
 powerful invasion of the Cholas from the south, in which the Gangas 
 and the Pallavas were overthrown ; but from the ruins of the Ganga 
 empire arose the Hoysalas, who drove out the Cholas from Mysore and 
 established a firm dominion. In the twelfth century the Chalukya 
 power was subverted by the Kalachuryas, in whom the Haihayas 
 reappear ; and they, in their turn, were shortly dispossessed on the north 
 by the Yadavas and in the south by the Hoysalas, who also before long 
 subdued the Cholas. But both Yadavas and Hoysalas were overthrown 
 in the middle of the fourteenth century by the Musalmans. The 
 Vijayanagar empire, however, then arose, which held sway over the 
 whole of South India till the latter half of the sixteenth century, when 
 It was subverted by a confederacy of Musalman powers. Of these, 
 Bijapur secured a great part of Mysore, but was overcome in the 
 seventeenth century by the Mughals, who took possession of the north 
 and east of the country. Meanwhile the Mysore Rajas gained power 
 in the south, during the contests which raged between the Mahrattas 
 and the Mughals, and between rival claimants on the death of 
 Aurangzeb. Haidar Ah extended the Mysore dominion over the 
 Mughal provinces in the east and north, and over Bednur in the west, 
 usurping supreme power in 1761. On the capture of Seringapatam by 
 the British and the downfall of Tipu Sultan in 1799, the country 
 included within the present limits was granted to the representative of the 
 Hindu Rajas. In 1S32 it was placed under British Commissioners, but 
 restored to native rule in 1881. Such is an outline of the changes of 
 seventeen centuries, the details of which we may now proceed to fill in. 
 
 Kadambas. — The dommions of the Kadambas embraced all the 
 west of Mysore, together with Haiga (N. Kanara) and Tulava (S. 
 Kanara). Their original capital was Banavasi (Jayantii)ura or 
 Vaijayantipura), situated on the river Varada on the western frontier of 
 the Sorab taluq. It is mentioned by Ptolemy. Also in the Mahawanso, 
 which names it as one of the places to which a i/iero was sent in the 
 time of Asoka. 
 
 The origin of the Kadambas is thus related. Some years after 
 Parasu Rama had recovered Haiga and Tulava from the sea, Siva and
 
 296 jiJsroR V 
 
 Parvati came to the Sahyddri mountains, the Western Ghats, in order 
 to look at this new country ; and in consequence of their pastimes a 
 boy was born under a kadamba tree, whence the name of the dynasty. 
 According to another version, he was born from the drops of sweat 
 which flowed from Siva's forehead to the root of the kadamba tree in 
 consequence of his exertion in conrjuering the asura Tripura. A more 
 realistic account, given in an inscription, is that a kadamba tree grew 
 in front of the family residence, and that by cultivation of it they 
 acquired its name and qualities.' In any case they appear to have 
 been an indigenous race. 
 
 The people of the country, being at the time without a monarch, had 
 recourse to the State elephant, which, being turned loose carrying a 
 wreath, presented it to the youth whose birth was so miraculous, and he 
 was consequently proclaimed king. He is variously styled Jayanta, 
 Trilochana Kadamba, and Trinetra Kadamba. The royal line thus 
 founded, in about the second century, continued independent till the 
 sixth century, and during this period they claim to have performed 
 many as'vamedhas or horse sacrifices, indications of supreme authority. 
 Their family deity was Madhukes'vara of Banavasi. 
 
 After Trinetra the kings in regular succession ascribed to this line 
 were Madhukesvara, Mallinatha and Chandravarma. The last had two 
 sons, named Chandravarma or Chandavarma and Purandara, the elder 
 of whom was the father of Mayiiravarma. Of these early kings it is 
 not improbable that the first Chandravarma may be the Chandrahasa 
 whose romantic story has already been given above (p. 282). The 
 second Chandravarma, again, may be the prince of that name who was 
 the progenitor of the Kodaga or Coorg race. Of him it is related that he 
 rescued from a forest fire a serpent named Manjista, which, entering his 
 mouth, took up its abode in his stomach. He was forced to wander 
 about, with his wife Pushpavati, in search of a cure, which was eventually 
 effected at Valabhi by a woman- whom he was obliged in return to 
 marry, and desert his wife, then with child. The truth probably is that 
 his kingdom was usurped by some Naga chief, such as we know were 
 
 ' The tree itself is said to have been produced by a drop of nectar which fell upon 
 the earth from the churning slick, the Mandara mountain, at the churning of the 
 ocean. The tall and handsome trees bearing this name are species of naiiclea, of the 
 natural order ciuchoniacem, and grow in many parts of India. A spirit is said to be 
 distilled from the flowers. {See Wilson's Vishtm Piirana, Bk. v, ch. xxv.) In 
 Watt's Dictionary the tree is described as an aiithocephalus, belonging to tlie 
 riihiacea:, and the flowers are said to be sacred to Siva. According to the Phaniia- 
 cographia Iiidica it is the arbor generation is of the Mahratta Kunbis, and a branch 
 of it is brought into the house at the time of their marriage ceremonies. 
 * She was the attendant at the chatrani in which he lodged, and advised him to
 
 KADAMBAS 297 
 
 special enemies of the Kadambas.^ According to the Kaveri Purana, 
 Chandravarma was a son of Siddhartha, king of Matsya (Virata's 
 capital, Hangal in Dharwar, one of the Kadamba chief cities). He 
 left his country, it is said, and went on a pilgrimage to all the holy 
 bathing-places, until Parvati appeared and offered him a boon, in con- 
 sequence of which he received a kingdom at the source of the Kaveri, 
 and a Sudra wife, from whom he, as a Kshatriya, should beget a valiant 
 race called Ugras. P'or the eleven sons he had l)y her the hundred 
 daughters of the king of Vidarbha (Berar) by Sudra mothers were 
 obtained as wives. Each of these bore more than a hundred sons, 
 who, to provide accommodation for their growing numbers, levelled the 
 hill slopes and settled over a district five yojanas in extent at the sources 
 of the Kaveri river in Coorg. 
 
 Mayiiravarma seems to have restored the authority of the Kadambas, 
 and is sometimes represented as the founder of the line. He was 
 the son of whom Chandravarma's wife was delivered at Valabhi after 
 she had been deserted. The following is the legend of the manner in 
 which he acquired the throne : — One night some robbers got into the 
 house of a Brahman at Valabhi, and at the same time a peacock in the 
 yard screamed. They then overheard the Brahman laughing and 
 telling his wife the story of the peacock. He said that a Brahman of 
 Banavasi once performed various penances with the view of becoming 
 a king, but a voice from heaven informed him that he was destined to 
 be born again as a peacock, and whoever should eat the head of the 
 peacock would be king. On this he went to Benares to die, and was 
 re-born as the peacock now in the yard. Hearing this the robbers 
 made off with the peacock, but immediately fell disputing as to who 
 .should have the head. To decide the matter they resolved to ask the 
 woman staying in the chatram to cook the bird for them, and see to 
 whom she gave the head. But while she was getting the meal ready, 
 her little son suddenly snatched U]) the head and ate it. Being thus 
 clearly indicated as heir to the throne, the robbers conveyed him and 
 his mother to Banavasi, and had just arrived at the outskirts of the 
 town when they met the State elephant carrying a wreath, which it at 
 
 worshi]) llic gocldcss Kdlika and the efl'igy of a scrpcnl carved on a slone at the l)ack 
 of her temple. On liis doing so another serpent apj^eared out of an ant-hill, and 
 tried to persuade Manjista to come forth, ])ut without success. The woman, over- 
 hearing the dispute between the two, speedily possessed herself of certain plants they 
 had threatened to use against each other, — vishaiitardi and .wr/rt///*///, growing at 
 liie foot of an ant-hill, and ahiiidra hart, a creeper spreading over the as7ui////a tree. 
 Manjista was expelleil and died by virtue of the juice of the former, and the other 
 serpent was got rid of by that of the latter. 
 ' Sec Ind. AitL, XIV, 13.
 
 298 n/sroR Y 
 
 once ])rcsciitcd to the boy. Mis origin being revealed, he was forth- 
 with recognized as king of Banavasi, under the name of Mayuravarma, 
 from mayi/ra, i)eacock. He there obtained "the sword of sharpness, 
 the shoes of swiftness, and the garment of invisibility." He is said to 
 have rescued Sasiprabhe, the wife of Raja Vallabha, prince of Kalyana, 
 from a Yaksha named Kandarpa Bhilshana, living in Gomanta-guhe, 
 who had carried her off. He received in consequence a large accession of 
 territory, together with the Kalyana princess S'as'ankamudre in marriage. 
 
 He is also stated to have introduced Brahman colonists from 
 Ahichchatra (in Rohilkand), and distributed the country below the 
 Ghats into sixty-four portions, which he bestowed upon them. In the 
 reign of his son Kshetravarma, Chandrangada or Trinetra, these Ikah- 
 mans attempted to leave the province, but they were brought back ; 
 and in order to prevent a repetition of the attempt were compelled to 
 leave unshorn a lock of hair on the forehead as a distinguishing mark. 
 From these are descended the Haiga or Havika Erahmans of the north- 
 west of Mysore. They would appear on this occasion to have been 
 settled by Mukanna, that is, Trinetra, above the Ghats, at Sthana- 
 gundiir (Talgunda in Shikarpur talu([). During his reign, a kinsman 
 named Chandrasena ruled the south of Tulava, and the Brahmans were 
 spread into those parts. Lokaditya or Lokadipya, the son of Chandra- 
 sena, married Kanakavati, the sister of Trinetra, and had by her a 
 daughter, whom Hubasiga, the king of the mountain Chandalas, sought 
 as a wife for his son. In pretended compliance, he was invited to 
 Tripura and there treacherously murdered. The authority of the 
 Kadambas was extended in consequence above those Ghats, and the 
 Brahmans followed this accession of territory. Lokadipya is said to 
 have reigned fifty years. 
 
 These traditions no doubt include much that is entitled to credit. 
 But a fine stone inscription at Talgunda gives a different version, which 
 seems to refer to the same period, or to a time when the Pallavas were 
 supreme from west to east. In it we are informed that a Brahman 
 named Mayilras'arma of the Kadamba family, who are described as very 
 devout Brahmans, went with his guru Viras'arma to the Pallava capital 
 (Kanchi) to study, ^^'hile there a sharp quarrel arose between him and 
 the Pallavas, and he became so enraged that he resolved, although a 
 Brahman, to become a Kshatriya in order to revenge himself. Arming 
 himself and overcoming the Pallava guards at the frontier, he escaped 
 to the inaccessible forests at Sriparvata (in Karnul district, near 
 the junction of the Tungabhadra and Krishna rivers), and there attained 
 such power that he levied tribute from the great Bana and other sur- 
 rounding kings. The Pallavas thereupon led an army against him, but
 
 KADAMBAS 299 
 
 he swooped down upon them Hke a hawk nnd completely defeated them. 
 They therefore resolved to make peace with him, and invested him with 
 a territory extending from the Amara ocean to the borders of the 
 Premara country.^ His son was Kangavarma, whose son was 
 Bhagiratha, sole ruler of the Kadamba territories. His son was 
 Raghuparthiva, whose brother was Kakustha or Kakusthavarma. The 
 latter was a powerful ruler, and his daughters were given in marriage to 
 the Gupta and other kings. His son was S'antivarma. 
 
 The two last names occur in other inscriptions, but the rest are new. 
 Several more early Kadamba inscriptions are available, but unfortunately 
 they are dated only in the year of the reign, or by the ancient system 
 of the seasons, and the succession of the kings cannot on this account 
 be definitely determined. One series gives us Krishnavarma ; his son 
 Yishnuvarma, by the daughter of Kaikeya ; his son Simhavarma ; and 
 his son Krishnavarma.- Another gives us Krishnavarma and his son 
 Devavarma.'' We have also Mandhatrivarma, whose grant was com- 
 posed by Damodara-datta,"' and there is a separate rock inscription by 
 Damodara.^ We havealso the series Kakustha or Kakusthavarma, his son 
 S'antivarma ; his son Mriges'avarma ; his three sons Ravivarma, Bhanu- 
 varma, and Sivaratha ; and the son of the first of these, Harivarma." 
 
 All these records, relating to at least sixteen generations, undoubtedly 
 belong to some time between the third and sixth centuries. One stone 
 inscri])tion in Prakrit, immediately following a grant by Satakarni, and 
 another in Sanskrit, are engraved in small Cave characters. The re- 
 mainder, all in Sanskrit, are engraved in bold characters called box- 
 headed, which in certain specimens present a very elegant appearance. 
 Many of the grants are to Jains, but a few are to Brahmans, one to an 
 Atharvani Brahman. 
 
 The historical facts deduced from them are that the Kadambas claim 
 to be lords of ^'aijayanti or Banavasi, though certain grants are issued 
 from Triparvata, from Palasika (Halsi in Belgaum district), and from 
 Uchchas'ringi. Like the Satakarni who preceded them at Banavasi, 
 they are stated to be of the Manavya gotra and sons of Hariti. Their 
 crest was a lion, and they bore the monkey flag. They seem to have 
 had enemies in a Naga race, represented later probably by the Sindas 
 of Erambarige (Yelburga in the Nizam's Dominions),' and Krishna- 
 
 ' rerhaps the I'ranidra kingili)in of Malwa in Central India is meant. Anianirnava, 
 the other limit, is difllcult to determine, unless it means the Western Ocean. 
 
 - Grant at Halehid, Heliir taluq. =* Ind. Ant., VII, t,^. 
 
 ■• Grant at Kudagere, Shikarpur taluq. * Iiid. Ant., XXI, 93. ^ il>., \l, 22ff. 
 
 ' These deduce their genealogy from Sinda, king of the Sindhu country, who was 
 horn in Ahichchhatra, and married a Kadamha princess. Fleet, A'aii. Pyn., 97. 
 .Vd'6' also .£■/. Ind., Ill, 231.
 
 300 JUSTOR Y 
 
 vaniKi, fiUhcr of Dcvavarnia, claims to be in possession of a heritage 
 not to l)e attained by the Nrigas. Hut their great rivals were the 
 Pallavas. We have seen evidence of this in the Talgunda inscription 
 above, and from an independent stone inscription of Krishnavarma it 
 appears that in one severe battle with the Pallavas his army was so 
 completely destroyed that he gave up his life to save his honour. The 
 sister of a Kadamba king, Krishnavarma, was (according to (langa 
 grants) married to the Ganga king Madhava II. Mriges'avarma claims 
 to have uprooted the lofty Ganga family and to be a fire of destruction 
 to the Pallavas. Ravivarma, again, slew Vishnuvarma, probably a 
 Palla\a, and uprooted Chandadanda, lord of Kanchi, and thence a 
 I'allava, thereby establishing himself at Palasika. 
 
 The Kadambas lost their independence on being conquered by the 
 Chalukyas under Kirtivarnia, whose reign began in 566. But they 
 continued to act as viceroys and governors under the Chalukya and 
 other dynasties, and the name does not disappear from history till the 
 rise of Vijayanagar in 1336. Among the later inscriptions, one at 
 Kargudari (Hangal taluq)\ dating in 1 108, gives the following traditional 
 list of the kings, each being the son of his predecessor. After seventy- 
 seven ancestors, of whom we know no more, there came Mayuravarma, 
 Krishna (add varma to each), Naga, Vishnu, Mriga, Satya, Vijaya, 
 Jaya, Naga, S'anti, Kirtti, A'ditya, Chattaya, Jaya. The last had 
 five sons, Taila and S'antivarma being the most important. The 
 latter's son was Taila, whose son was Tailama, whose sons were Kirtti 
 and Kama. But though this includes some of the genuine names, and 
 allowing for kings often having more than one name, the list as a 
 whole is of doubtful credit, except in the last stages. There is no 
 question, however, that the Kadambas became more prominent at the 
 end of the eleventh century, when their alliance seems to have been 
 sought by the Chalukya Vikrama in his plans against his brother, and 
 on his success they were advanced in honour. A separate branch had 
 its capital at Gopaka or (ioa, but all the Kadambas were absorbed 
 into the conquests of the founders of the Vijayanagar empire. 
 
 Mahavalis. — The Mahavali kings were of great antiquity, and, 
 according to their inscriptions, ruled over a seven and a half lakh 
 country, containing 12,000 villages, situated in the west of the Andhra 
 or Telugu country. They were in possession of the east of Mysore, 
 where several of their inscriptions are found, especially in Mulbagal 
 taluq, and their kingdom was evidently to the east and north of the 
 Palar river. They claim to be descended from Bali or Maha Bali, and 
 his son Bana, whence they are also styled the Bdna kings. According 
 
 ' /;/(/. Ant., X, 249.
 
 < 
 
 Z 
 < 
 
 f 
 
 1-c 
 
 MA£[|VVJALIS
 
 MA HA VA LIS 301 
 
 to Hindu mythology Bali was an Asura emperor, who through his 
 devotion and penance defeated Indra, humbled the gods and extended 
 his authority over the three worlds. In order to restrain him, Vishnu, 
 who was appealed to by the gods for protection, assumed his fifth 
 incarnation, the form of the Brahman dwarf, the vdmana avatdra, and 
 appearing before Bali, asked for only three paces of ground as a boon, 
 which was granted. As the water conveying the gift fell into his hand, 
 the dwarfs form expanded till it filled the world ; and Vishnu, now 
 manifesting himself, deprived Bali in two strides of heaven and earth, 
 but on account of the virtues the latter possessed, left Pdtdla or the 
 infernal regions still in his dominion. 
 
 The ancient ruined city of Mahdbalipura or Mdmallapura, generally 
 known as the Seven Pagodas, situated on the east coast, thirty miles 
 south of Madras, was perhaps their original capital. According to 
 legend' it was founded by Bali. His son was Bdndsura, who is repre- 
 sented as a giant with a thousand hands ; Aniruddha, the son (or grand- 
 son) of Krishna, came to Bdna's court in disguise and seduced his 
 daughter ; which produced a war, in the course of which Aniruddha 
 was taken prisoner and brought to Mahdbalipur : upon which Krishna 
 came in person from his capital Dvdraka and laid siege to the place. 
 Siva guarded the gates and fought for Bdndsura, who worshipped him 
 with his thousand hands, but Krishna found means to overthrow .Siva, 
 and having taken the city, cut off Banasura's hands, e.xcept two, with 
 which he obliged him to do homage. He continued in subjection to 
 Krishna till his death, after which a long period ensued in which no 
 mention is anywhere made of this place. It seems to have been 
 subsequently destroyed by an inundation of the sea. The inscriptions 
 now found there appear to be all Pallava, of about the seventh century, 
 or Chola, of later date than that.- 
 
 The oldest Mahdvali inscrii)tion bearing a date is one professing to 
 be of 339 A.i)., found by mc at Mudiyanur (Mulbagal taluq).' But 
 from the one which contains the fullest genealogy of the line, jiublished 
 by the Rev. T. Foulkes,'* there were several generations before that. 
 As aids towards fixing the period of the kings we have the statements 
 that the early Kadamba outlaw of S'riparvata levied tribute from 
 the great Bdna; that the first Ganga king, assigned to the second 
 century, conquered the Bdna country ; that the Chalukya king 
 Vikramdditya I., ruling in the seventh century, subdued Rdjamalla 
 of the Mahdmalla family ; that the Chola king, \'ira Ndrdyana, 
 
 ' See Captain Carr's Sez'cit Paij^odas, 13 ; Asiatic Kescarcfies, I, 156. 
 
 ■' Hultzsch, So. Imi. Ins., I, ift'. ^ /,„f_ _./„/._^ x\", 172. 
 
 * lb., XIII, 6 ; Ep. Itid., Ill, 74.
 
 30 2 IIISTOR Y 
 
 ui)rooted llic Banas about tlic end of the ninth century ; but that they 
 were replaced soon after by the Oangas in the person of Hastimalla.' 
 The genealogy as derived from inscriptions is as follows : — 
 
 Bali, Mahdbali ; his son 
 Bana, in whose hnc was Iwrn 
 Banadhiraja. 
 
 After he and many other Bana kings had passed away, there were : — 
 
 Xandivarma, Jayanandivarma, 
 
 Vijayaditya I. 
 
 Malladeva Nandivarma, Jagadekamalla, Vadhuvalla1:)ha. 
 
 Bana Vidyadhara. 
 
 Prabhumeru. 
 
 Vikramaditya I. 
 
 Vija)'aditya II. 
 
 Vikramaditya II, Vijayabahu. 
 
 Each of these eight kings was the son of his predecessor. The 
 Mudiyanur inscription is of the twenty-third year of No. 3. 
 Stone inscriptions exist in Mysore of Nos. 4 and 5. There are 
 also inscriptions of a Bejeyitta Banarasa, one dating in 899. He 
 may be identified with Vijayaditya II. Vikramaditya II. is said 
 to have been the friend of Krishna Raja, no doubt the Rashtra- 
 kuta king, ruling in about 940 to 956. Then an inscription dating in 
 971 presents to us Sambayya, who, though invested with all the 
 Mahavali titles, was ruling as a governor subordinate to the Pallavas. 
 The line must therefore have lost its independence in the latter half of 
 the tenth century. Extracts are given by Mr. Foulkes- from literature 
 indicating a recognition of the power of the Bana kings in the thirteenth 
 and fifteenth centuries. Moreover, at the end of this latter period, in- 
 scriptions at Srivilliputtur in Tinnivelly district show that two kings named 
 Sundara Tol and Muttarasa Tirumala, calling themselves ■Mahavali 
 Banadhiraja even obtained possession of the Pandya throne. Except 
 these and the Salem inscriptions, which are in Grantha and Tamil 
 characters, all the other inscriptions of this line are in the ancient 
 Kannada characters and in the Sanskrit and Kannada languages. 
 Some of their later inscriptions indicate Paduvipuri as their capital, 
 which may possibly be identified with Padavidu in North Arcot 
 district, south of Vellore, where there are extensive ruins, the ancient 
 city having been destroyed apparently by a volcanic eruption. Their 
 crest was the recumbent bull Nandi, and they had a black flag. 
 
 ' See Iiid. Aiit., XIII, 6, 187. '•' Loc. cit.
 
 PALLA FAS :yOs 
 
 Yaidumbas. — Inscriptions of these kings are met with in Chintaniani 
 taliuj. The Kah'nga Ganga king \'ajrahastu \'. married a Vaidumba 
 princess ; and the Chela king Parantaka subdued a Vaidumba king. 
 
 Pallavas. — The Pallavas were a powerful dynasty who succeeded to 
 the dominions of the Andhrabhritya or S'atavahana family throughout 
 the region in which the Telugu language prevails. They seem at first 
 to have had a chief city at Vatapi (Badami in Bijapur district), from 
 which they were expelled by the Chalukyas in the fifth century, and 
 also at Vengi, between the Krishna and the Godavari, which was taken 
 from them by the Chalukyas in the seventh century, liut from an early 
 part of their history their capital was Kanchi (Conjeveram, near 
 Madras^. Their grants are also issued from Palakkada and Dasana- 
 pura, the latter name being perhaps a translation of the former. This 
 place has not been identified, but may be the Palakka of the Samudra 
 Gupta inscription at Allahabad. Trichinopoly seems to be the southern- 
 most point in which Pallava inscriptions have been found. Stone inscrip- 
 tions in the Kolar, Chitaldroog, Tumkur and Bangalore Districts bear 
 evidence that the Pallavas in the ninth and tenth centuries exercised 
 dominion throughout the north and east of Mysore. Here they frequently 
 had the cognomen No!amba,and their territory came to be known as 
 Nolambavadi or Nonambavadi, a Thirty-two Thousand province, the 
 subjects of which are represented by the Nonabas of the present day. 
 
 The origin of the Pallavas is uncertain, though they profess in some 
 grants to be of the Bharadvaja gotra. They are mentioned in the Puranas 
 along with the Haihayas, S'akas, Yavanas, &c., as Pahlavas, which would 
 imply a Persian source. But Professor ^Veber says^ : — " As the name of 
 a people this word Pahlav became early foreign to the Persians, learned 
 reminiscences excepted : in the Pahlav texts themselves, for instance, it 
 does not occur. The period when it passed over to the Indians, there- 
 fore, would have to be fixed for about the second to the fourth century 
 A.I)., and we should have to understand by it, not directly the Persians, 
 who are called Parasikas rather, but specially Arsacidan Parthians.-' 
 Pallava may possibly be derived from Parthava (Parthian). 
 
 According to tradition, from Salivahana, that is S'atavdhana, who 
 ruled at Pratishthana (now Paithan, on the Godavari), were descended 
 Madhavavarma, Kulaketana, Nilakantha, and Mukunti Pallava. The 
 last appears as the founder of the Pallava line, and is said to have been 
 
 > JltsL Iiid. Lit., 1 88. 
 
 - The I'arthians revolted from the Seleucidiv al)out li.c. 150. uinler a cliief named 
 Arsakes (Askh), who founded an independent monarchy. The I'arthians sub- 
 sequently overran the provinces east of the Euphrates, and about H.c. 130 overthrew 
 the kinjjdom of Baclria, so that their empire extended from the Euphrates to the 
 Indus, and from the Indian Ocean to the Paropamisus, or even to the 0.\us. The
 
 304 
 
 JIISTOR Y 
 
 a son of Mahadcva (Siva) by a girl of the mountain tribe called 
 Chcnsuars (( 'hensabara).' He is also stated to have introduced 
 Brahmans into his country in the third century. 
 
 Trilochana, Trinetra, or Trinayana Pallava, was ruling in the fourth 
 century when jayasimha, surnamed Vijayaditya, of the Cahlukya 
 family, invaded his territories. But the latter lost his life in the attempt, 
 and his (jueen, then pregnant, fled and took refuge with a Brahman 
 named \'ishnu Somayaji, in whose house she gave birth to a son named 
 Rajasimha. On attaining to man's estate the latter renewed the contest 
 with the Pallavas, in which he was finally successful, and eventually 
 married a princess of that race.'^ 
 
 Resorting to inscriptions, one at Nasik says that Satakarni, son of 
 (iotami, destroyed the Pahlavas, with the Sakas and Yavanasf and one at 
 Junagadh that a Pallava named Suvis'akha, son of Kulaipa, was minister 
 to the Kshatrapa Rudradaman.^ But in the east we obtain the names 
 of several series of Pallava kings, whose period seems sufficiently 
 certain, although their exact dates are for the most part not known, 
 nor in several cases their relationship and order : — 
 
 Chandavarma, ? Chandadanda 300 
 
 Nandivarma 
 
 Skandavarma to 
 
 Buddhavarma 
 
 S'ivaskandavarma 400 
 
 Skandavarma 4°° 
 
 Viravarma 
 
 Skantlavarma to 
 
 Simhavarma 
 
 Vishnugopavarma S°° 
 
 Simhavishnu 
 
 Ugradanda, Lokaditya 
 
 Rajasimha, ? Jayasimha, Simha- 
 vishnu, Narasimhavishnu, 
 Atyantakama, ? Atiranachanda c.550 
 
 IMahendravarma I. 
 
 Narasimhavarnia, Narasimhapota- 
 
 varma I. c. 620 
 
 Mahendravarma II. 
 
 I'arames'varavarma I, Is'varapota- 
 
 raja c. 670 
 
 Narasimhavarma, Narasimhapota- 
 
 varma II. c. 675 
 
 Parames'varavarma II. 
 
 Nandivarma 
 
 Pallavamalla Nandivarma, Nandi- 
 
 potavarma c. 733 
 
 (Skandavarma) 
 
 (Simhavarma) Hemasitala 788 
 
 (Skandavarma) Dantiga 804 
 
 Nandivarma c. 810 
 
 Nolambadhiraja, Mangala 
 
 Simhapota 
 
 Chdru Ponnera, Pallavadhiraja 
 
 Polalchora Nolamba, Nolambadhi- 
 raja 88 1 
 
 Mahendra, Bira Mahendra 
 
 Ayyapa, Nanniga 919 
 
 Anniga, Bira Nolamba, Annayya 
 
 Dilipayya, Iriva Nolamba, 
 
 Nolapayya 943-974 
 
 Nanni Nolamba 975~977 
 
 memorable wars between the Parthians and the Romans eventually weakened the 
 former, and gave the Persians the opportunity of throwing off the Parthian yoke. 
 Led by Artaxerxes (Ardashir), they put an end to the Parthian kingdom of the 
 Arsacidne, after it had lasted 476 years, and established the Persian dynasty of 
 the Sassanidte, a.d. 226. 
 
 ' Wilson, McK. Coll., I, cxx, cxxiv. - Sir Walter Elliot, Mad. /., I\", 78. 
 
 » Arch. Surv. W. Ltd., IV', 108. * Ind. Ant., VII., 257.
 
 PALLA FAS 305 
 
 The grants of the first fivc,^ made to Ikahmans, are in Prakrit, and 
 issued from Vengi, except the last, which is from Kanchi. Chanda- 
 varma might be the Chandadanda who was defeated by the Kadamba 
 king Ravivarma. Nandivarma was his son. They claim to be of the 
 Salankayana family. The next two were father and son, and are expressly 
 called Pallavas, but in what relation they stood to the foregoing is not 
 known. Sivaskandavarma, again, refers to his bappa^ or father, without 
 naming him : it is uncertain therefore who he was. The next series of 
 six' appear in grants in Sanskrit, also to Brahmans, issued from Palakkad 
 and Dasanapura. Simhavarma and A^'ishnugopa were probably brothers, 
 otherwise the succession was from father to son. In the Samudra (jupta 
 inscription on the Asoka pillar at Allahabad, assigned to the fourth 
 century,'' we have mention among the southern kings of Vishnugopa of 
 Kanchi, Hastivarma of Vengi and Ugrasena of Palakka, as well as a 
 Chandravarma in the north. It seems very probable that these may 
 have been some of the above. 
 
 With Ugradanda we come to a period of somewhat greater certainty, 
 and the list of kings"* admits of arrangement based on their points of 
 contact with the Chalukya and other contemporary kings whose dates 
 are known.'' Several of the names are alternately Saiva and Vaishnava, 
 while the designation Pota seems to be Buddhist. The remarkable 
 buildings and sculptures at Mamallapura, or Seven Pagodas, also relate 
 to these three faiths. Numerous Pallava inscriptions furnish us with 
 details of the history of this period. Those at Mamallapura, Saluvan- 
 kuppa, and Kanchi are in Sanskrit, and inscribed in four different 
 alphabets, one of which is of an extremely florid character.'' 
 
 Ugradanda claims to have destroyed the town and army of Rana- 
 rasika, that is, the Chalukya king Ranaraga. Rajasimha married 
 Rangapataka, and built the Rajasimhes'vara temple at Kanchi, now 
 known as the Kailasanatha. The Ganga king Durvinfta, reigning at 
 about this time, is said to have taken Kaduvetti (Karveti nagara, North 
 Arcot) from the king of Kanchi called Jayasimha, and placed the son 
 of his own daughter upon the throne. A series of wars, attended with 
 varying fortune, took place in succeeding reigns between the Pallavas 
 and the Chalukyas, who describe the former as being by nature hostile, 
 as if there were some radical cause of animosity between the two. 
 Narasimhavarma I. is said to have repeatedly defeated Vallabharaja, 
 that is, the (Chalukya king Pulikesi II., and destroyed Vatapi, while on 
 
 ' Ind. Ant., \, 176 ; I.\, 100 : Ep. Ind., I, 5. - IinL Jii/., \, 50, 154. 
 
 3 Fleet's Ins. of the Early Gupta Kings, No. I. ' Iml. Ant., \'l\\, 273. 
 
 ^ See llultzsch, So. Ind. Ins., I, 11, 145 : I have made a few alterations in the 
 ariantjement, which seem lo me ie<|uiieil. " Op.cit., I. ; Scz\ rag.,\\. 14, 15, 18. 
 
 X
 
 3o6 HISTOR V 
 
 the other hand I'uHkesi claims to have made the leader of the Pallavas 
 hide his prowess behind the ramparts of Kanchi. It is pleasant to turn 
 aside from tliese scenes of violence to the account of the Chinese pilgrim 
 Hiuen Tsiang, who visited Kanchipura (Kin-chi-pu-lo) in 640. He 
 says it was about thirty li, or five miles, round. The soil was fertile and 
 regularly cultivated. The climate was hot ; the character of the people 
 courageous. They were deeply attached to the principles of honesty 
 and truth, and highly esteemed learning. There were 10,000 Buddhist 
 priests, some eighty Brahman temples, and many Nirgranthas (or Jains).^ 
 Paramesvaravarma I. is said to have put to flight Pulikesi"s son 
 Vikramaditya I., who, on the other hand, says that he conquered 
 Is'varapotaraja and took Kanchi. The Chalukyas admit that the 
 Pallavas had been until this unconquered, for the important ^'okkaleri 
 inscription' says that the king of Kanchi, " who had never bowed to 
 any man," was forced to kiss the feet of the conqueror with his crown. 
 Vinayaditya, the next Chalukya, is also said to have captured the army 
 of the Pallava king, here called Trairajya. Narasimhapotavarma II. 
 was killed in a battle at Velanda with the Clanga king Bhuvikrama, 
 being trampled under the elephants. Two grandsons of his were 
 apparently brought up by the Gangas. But the greatest disaster of all 
 was that which befell Nandipotavarma. The Chalukya king Vikrama- 
 ditya II., soon after his coronation in 733, by a rapid movement 
 penetrated to the Tundaka province (Tonda-mandala),' and in a 
 pitched battle completely routed the Pallavas, capturing as trophies 
 their war-trumpet, their big drum called " roar of the sea," their great 
 Siva banner, many elephants, and heaps of splendid rubies. The victor 
 marched to Kanchi, which was at his mercy, and, refraining from 
 destroying it, made donations of gold to the Raiasimhes'vara and other 
 temples, a statement which is confirmed by an inscription at the former. 
 His queen Loka-mahadevi afterwards caused a temple to be erected at 
 Pattadkal (Bijapur district) to celebrate the victory."* This eventful 
 defeat seems to have broken the power of the Pallavas, and the king, 
 unable to face another Chalukya force, under the crown prince Kirti- 
 varma, fled for refuge to a hill fort. The Ganga king S'ripurusha now 
 retook Kaduvetti, which the Pallavas had recovered, and seized the 
 Pallava umbrella, assuming at the same time the title of Permanadi, 
 which he took from the lord of Kanchi. 
 
 The location of the next four names"' is somewhat doubtful, but the 
 Rashtrakata kings about this time gained the ascendancy over the 
 Chalukyas, and overcame the Gangas and Pallavas. ^Ve accordingly 
 
 ' Beal's Si-yu-ki, II, 292. * Iiid. Ant., MIX. 23. s So. hid. Ins., I, 146. 
 * Ind. Ant., VI, 85. * ib. VIII, 167 ; Ep. Tnd., Ill, 142.
 
 NOLAMBAS 307 
 
 find Nirupama claiming to have conquered the Pallavas in about 760. 
 In 804, again, we find Govinda levying tribute from the ruler of 
 Kanchi, called Dantiga. Also a Pallavadhirdja acting as governor 
 under the same, over the Nolambalige 1,000, the Nirgunda 300, &c. 
 A Pallava king Nandivarma was moreover associated with Govinda in 
 replacing on his throne the Ganga king Sivamara, in about 810. It was 
 during this period, too, or in 788 according to Wilson, that the great 
 religious discussion between the Buddhists and the Jains took i)lace at 
 Kanchi before the king Hemasitala, who was a Puddhist. The Jains 
 were victorious, and the Puddhists, in lieu of being ground in oil-mills 
 according to the conditions of the contest, were banished to Kandy in 
 Ceylon, the king embracing the Jaina faith. 
 
 AVith Nolambadhiraja, whose relation to the preceding is not known, 
 begin the series of Pallava kings who more directly ruled in Mysore, 
 and they are indiscriminately called Pallavadhiraja and Nolambadhiraja. 
 Their chief city above the Ghats seems to have been Penjeru or 
 Henjeru, now Hemavati, on the Sira border. There was also a 
 Nolamba-pattana, of which only the name remains, to the east of 
 Chitaldroog, near Aymangala, properly xVyyapamangala. There is 
 indeed a grant by Vira Nonamba, made from Henjeru,^ but as it pro- 
 fesses to date from 444, and he is described as a Chalukya, in these 
 respects it must be a forgery. The real genealogy of the Nolamba 
 kings is given on a fine stone at Hemavati, confirmed by many other 
 inscriptions in various parts. 
 
 They claim descent from the Is'vara-vams'a (Siva), through 
 Trinayana, and Pallava the master of Kc4nchi. In his line was born 
 Nolambadhiraja, named Mangala, praised by the Karnatas, victor in 
 war over the Kirata king, and worshipper of Chandika. His son was 
 Simhapota, whose son was Charu Ponnera, the Pallavadhiraja whose 
 daughter was married to the Ganga king Rachamalla. Polal Chora 
 Nolamba was her elder brother, the Nolambadhiraja who married 
 Jayabbe, the younger sister of the (ianga king Nitimarga. Their son 
 was Bira Mahendra, who was contemporary with the Ganga king 
 Ereyappa. Mahendra's queen was 1 )ivabbarasi or Divdmbika, of the 
 Kadamba family, 'llieir son was Ayyapa Deva or Nanniga-nripa, who 
 had two wives, Nagiyabbe and Hcleyabbe. Two sons were born to 
 him, perhaps one by each of these mothers, — Anniga or Bira Nolamba, 
 and Dilipayya or Iriva Nolamba, who reigned in turn. The latter 
 ruled till 974, and had a son Nanni Nolamba, whose inscriptions date 
 from 975 to 977. But the Ganga king Mdrasimha (963-974) is 
 specially styled Nolambakulantaka, or death to the Nolamba race, and 
 
 ' Ind. Ant., VIII, 94 ; Mys. Ins., 296. 
 
 X 2
 
 3o8 lUSl'OR Y 
 
 it seems probal)lc that they now lost their independence and were 
 finally absorbed in the great wave of Chola conquest which overspread 
 the east of the peninsula at the close of the tenth century. 
 
 Notices of Pallavas and Nolambas in a subordinate capacity as 
 governors under the Cholas and Chalukyas continue to be met with 
 long after : and the Chalukya king Somes'vara or A'havamalla (1040- 
 1069) must have had a Pallava wife, as his younger son Jayasimha 
 professes to be of both Chalukya and Pallava descent, and, among 
 other titles, calls himself Vira Nolamba Pallava. 
 
 Gangas. — The Gangas were a line of kings who ruled over the 
 greater part of the Mysore country, and of the Kaveri river basin 
 (excepting the delta of Tanjore), from early in the Christian era till about 
 1004. They may be described as the principal Jaina dynasty of the 
 South. The name Ganga is not an ordinary one, and how it came to 
 be their designation, Avhence their kingdom was called Gangavadi and 
 its subjects Gangadikaras, is not accounted for. It is impossible to 
 avoid noticing that the only other occurrence of such a name 
 in history is in the Greek accounts of Chandra Gupta, who is 
 described as ruling over the Prasii and the Gangaridce.^ Ptolemy 
 locates the Gangaridai in all the country about the mouths of the 
 Ganges, with their capital at Gange (not identified). They are also 
 mentioned by Virgil, Valerius Flaccus and Curtius. Pliny, on the 
 other hand, calls them Gangaridre Calingte.- That there was an im- 
 portant line of Ganga kings in Kalinga in the seventh and eighth 
 centuries we know from inscriptions, and there was another of the 
 same name in that region at a later period. The connection of the 
 Kalinga (jangas with the Mysore Gangas, who were earlier, is admitted, 
 but there is nothing to show that the name originated with the 
 Gangaridae Calingai. The Hindu traditions, as might be expected, 
 also refer the appellation to the sacred river Ganga or Ganges, but in 
 stories (see below) which are apparently only invented from the name. 
 
 Of the origin of the Gangas the following account is extracted from 
 inscriptions (of the eleventh century) at Purale, Humcha and Kallur 
 Gudda. In the Ikshvaku-vams'a arose Dhananjaya, who slew the king 
 of Kanyakubja. His wife was Gandhari-devi, by whom he had a son 
 Haris'chandra, born in Ayodhya-pura. His wife was Rohini-devi, and 
 their son was Bharata, whose wife, Mjaya-mahadevi, having bathed in 
 
 ' The Bandanikke record of the rule of Nanda, Gupta and Maurja kings over 
 Kuntala has already been referred to (p. 289). Another inscription of the same 
 period, at Kupatur, close by, says that Xagakhandaka (of which Bandanikke was the 
 chief city) was protected by the wise Chandra Gupta, an abode of the good usages of 
 eminent Kshatriyas. - See Pfole/iiys Geog. by McCrindle, /;/(/. Ant., XIII, 365.
 
 GAuVGAS 309 
 
 the Ganga at the time of conception, the son she bore was called 
 Gangadatta (the gift of Ganga), and his posterity were the Gangas.^ From 
 him was descended Vishnu Gupta, who ruled in Ahichchhatrapura,- to 
 whom Indra, pleased with his performance of the Aindra-dhvaja-piija, 
 presented his or an elephant. Vishnu Gupta, by his wife Prithuvimati, 
 had two sons, Bhagadatta and S'ridatta. On Bhagadatta was bestowed 
 the government of Kalinga, whence he became known as Kalinga Ganga : 
 while to S'ridatta was given the ancestral kingdom, together with the 
 elephant, which thenceforward became the crest of the (iangas. Subse- 
 quently a king named Priyabandhuvarma was born in that line, to whom 
 Indra appeared and presented him with five royal tokens or ornaments, 
 at the same time uttering a warning that if any king of the line should 
 prove an apostate they would vanish. Giving to Vijayapura'' the name 
 of Ahichchhatra, Indra departed. 
 
 The Ganga line continuing to prosper, there was born in it Kampa, 
 whose son was Padmanabha. Being in great distress on account of 
 his childless condition, he supplicated the sasana devati of Padma- 
 prabha and obtained two sons, whom he named Rama and Lakshmana. 
 Mahipala, the ruler of Ujjeni, now made a demand for the delivery to 
 him of the five royal tokens presented by Indra. Padmandbha in- 
 dignantly replied that they could not be given up, and would be of no 
 use to another : also that if the demand were persisted in, it would be 
 met by force. At the same time he held a consultation with his 
 ministers, and as the result, resolved to quit the country. Taking his 
 two sons, whose names he changed to Dadiga and Madhava, and 
 accompanied by his daughter, his younger sister, and forty-eight chosen 
 followers of Brahman descent, he set out for the south. On arriving 
 at Perur, Dadiga and Madhava there met with the great muni Simha- 
 nandi, of the Kanur'*-gana, and explained to him their circumstances. 
 He took up their cause, gave them instruction, and obtained for them 
 a boon from the goddess Padmavati, confirmed by the gift of a sword 
 and the promise of a kingdom. Madhava, with a shout, at once laid 
 hold of the sword and struck with all his might at a stone pillar, when 
 the pillar fell in two.' The muni recognized this as a good omen, 
 
 ' The account given in tlie Kalinga Ganga inscrij)lions is thai Turvasu, the son of 
 A'ayati, being without sons, practised self-restraint and propitiated the river Ganga, 
 llie hestower of boons, by which means he oljtained a son, the unconciueral)le 
 Cjangeya, whose descendants were victorious in the world as the Ganga line. — /it(/. 
 Jut., XIII, 275. - Either in Rohilkand or in Malwa. — il>. 361. 
 
 •' Vijayapura apj)ears as the place from which a Chalukya grant of the 5th century 
 was issued, and was probably in Gujarat {see Iiui. Jut , \'II, 241). * Or Kranur. 
 
 '^ What this pillar [s'ilii stambha) was it is difiicull to understand, but in one place 
 it is described as the chief obstacle in the way of his securing the throne.
 
 3IO 
 
 irisroRY 
 
 made a crown from the petals of the karnikdra blossom, and placed it 
 on the heads of the brothers, giving them his peacock fan as a banner, 
 and in due course, providing them with an army, invested them with 
 all kingly powers. He also impressed upon them the following 
 counsel : — If you fail in what you promise, if you dissent from the 
 Jina sasana, if you take the wives of others, if you are addicted to 
 spirits or flesh, if you associate with the base, if you give not to the 
 needy, if you flee in battle ; — your race will go to ruin. 
 
 Thus, with Nandagiri as their fort, Kuvalala as their city, the Ninety- six 
 Thousand country as their kingdom, Victory as their companion in the 
 battle-field, Jinendra as their god, the Jina mata as their faith, — Dadiga 
 and Madhava ruled over the earth. The north, touching Madarkale ; 
 the east, Tonda-nad : the west, the ocean in the direction of Chera ; 
 the south, Kongu ; — within these limits of the Gangavadi Ninety-six 
 Thousand did the Gangas undertake the subjection of all enemies. 
 
 Most of this is no doubt legendary, but some truth may perhaps 
 underlie the narrative, and with the arrival of Dadiga and Madhava at 
 Perur we seem to be on solid ground. For Perur must be the place in 
 Kadapa district still distinguished as Ganga-Perur; Simhanandi is 
 known from literature,^ and is expressly stated in various inscriptions to 
 have helped to found the Ganga kingdom ; moreover, the succession 
 of kings as given from this point is in general accordance with numerous 
 records found in all parts of Mysore. Several inscriptions, however, 
 carry the foundation of the line back to Kanva, and the Gangas are 
 described as of the Kanvayana gotra. A dynasty of Kanvas, we have 
 already seen (p. 291), preceded the Satavahanas. Of the places men- 
 tioned in connection with the Ganga possessions, Nandagiri can only 
 be Nandi-durga, Kuvalala is Kolar : but though the Gangas are called 
 lords of Kuvalala-pura, we know that from an early period their capital 
 was at Talavana-pura (Talakad on the Kaveri). The place given as 
 the northern limit of Gangavadi I have been unable to identify,- but 
 the other limits are well-known places. Tonda-nad, a Forty-eight 
 Thousand province, is Tonda-mandala, the Madras country to the east 
 of Mysore ; the ocean for the western boundary seems to be a stretch 
 of the imagination, as Gangavadi, so far as we know, did not extend 
 below the ^\'estern Ghats ; Chera corresponds with Cochin and 
 Travancore ; Kongu, with Salem and Coimbatore. 
 
 The following is a table of the Ganga kings of ]\Iysore ; the dates 
 before the seventh century, though taken from inscriptions, are not 
 certain : — 
 
 • Named by Indrabhiiti in his Saiiiayahhushaiia {see Ind. Ant., XII, 2o). 
 
 ^ One or two names something like it are found in the north of the Kolar District.
 
 GANGAS 
 
 3" 
 
 Kongunivarma (Madhava) 
 Kiriya Madhava 
 llarivarma 
 Vishnu-gopa 
 Tadangala Madhava 
 Avinita, Kongani 
 Durvinita, Kongani 
 Mushkara, ]\Iokkara 
 S'rivikraraa 
 
 Bhi'ivikrama, S'rivallabha 
 S'ivamara (I), Nava Kama, 
 
 Prithuvi Kongani 
 Prithuvipati, Prithuyas'as 
 
 247, 266 
 
 350 
 425-478 
 
 47S-513 
 
 679 
 
 679-713 
 726 
 
 S'ripurusha, Muttarasa, 726-777 
 
 Permanadi, Prithuvi Kongani 
 
 S'ivamara (11), Saigotta c. 780-S14 
 
 Vijayaditya c. 814-S69 
 
 Rachamalla (I), Satyavakya 869-893 
 Nitimarga (I), ? Marula, 
 
 Nanniya Ganga 893-915 
 
 Ereyappa, Mahendrantaka 921 
 
 Bi'ituga, (janga Gangeya 930-963 
 Marasimha, Nolambakulantaka 963-974 
 
 Rachamalla (II}. 974-984 
 
 Rakkasa Ganga, Govindara 9S4 
 
 Ganga Rcija 996-1004 
 
 Konguni-varma was the first king, and this is a special title of all the 
 Ganga kings to the end.^ To him is invariably ascribed the feat of 
 cutting through the stone pillar with a single stroke of his sword : he is 
 therefore the Madhava of the narrative before given, and in one place 
 is described as but a boy at that time. The succession of kings, on the 
 other hand, was through Dadiga, of whom it is said that with the 
 Kaurava army he stopped the army of the Matsya king. Supposing the 
 founders of the Ganga dynasty to have come from Central India, and 
 matured their plans at Perur, in Kadapa district, for the acquisition of 
 Kolar and the midland and southern parts of Mysore, they would soon 
 encounter the opposition of the Mahavali or Bana kings, whose western 
 boundary was probably the Palar, which is close to Kolar on the east. 
 A\'e accordingly find Konguni-varma described as consecrated to con- 
 quer the Bana mandala, and as a wild-fire in consuming the stubble of 
 the forest called Bana. From the east the Ganga princes marched to the 
 west, and are represented as engaged in leading an expedition to the 
 Konkan or western coast, when they came to Man(_\ali, near Shimoga, 
 where, by the advice of Simhanandi, they established a chaityalaya. 
 Probably there was a considerable Jain element in the population of 
 Mysore at the time, over whom Simhanandi exerted his influence to 
 gain their acceptance of the Ganga rule. 
 
 Dadiga's son, Kiriya Madhava, or the younger Madhava, succeeded 
 to the throne.'- He is described as inclined to learning and skilled in 
 polity. He wrote a commentary on the dattaka suira or law of adop- 
 tion. His son was Harivarma, who made use of elephants in war, and 
 established the capital at Talakdd. Previous to this, according to an 
 old chronicle, the capital was at Skandapura, which Lassen locates at 
 
 ' Kunguni is also writlcn Kongani, Konguji, and Knngini. For the dale assigned 
 to him sec my Ep. Cam., Mysore I, Nj. IIO. 
 
 - Dadiga's brother woukl therefi)re l)e properly distinguished as lliri)a Mcidhava.
 
 312 ni STORY 
 
 Gajalluitti, near Satyamangalam, on the old ghat road from Mysore to 
 Trichinopoly. But no reference to such a place is contained in the 
 inscriptions. Two grants of the time of Harivarma have been found, 
 both open to doubt. One^ records a gift at Orekod, in the Maisur-nad 
 Seventy, to a Brahman for overcoming in discussion a Bauddha who 
 had affixed a challenge to the gate of the palace at Talakad, boasting of 
 his learning, and maintaining the doctrine that annihilation was the 
 highest happiness. The other'" is a grant in some neighbouring part 
 for an act of bravery in the battle of Henjeru. Harivarma's son 
 Vishnugopa is described as devoted to the worship of gurus, cows and 
 Brahmans. His change of faith caused the five royal tokens given by 
 Indra to vanish, as foretold in the original warning. He must have 
 lived to a great age, as he is said to have retained his mental energy 
 unimpaired to the end of life. His son was Tadangala Madhava, whose 
 arms were grown stout and hard with athletic exercises. He married a 
 sister of the Kadamba king Krishnavarma, and is described as the 
 reviver of donations for long-ceased festivals of the gods and Brahman 
 endowments. A grant of his in an extraordinary jumble of alphabets'* 
 also records a gift for bravery at Henjeru. This, and the similar grant 
 above, point to encounters with the Pallavas. 
 
 Tadangala Madhava's son, by the Kadamba princess, was Avini'ta, 
 who was crowned while an infant in his mother's lap. He married the 
 daughter of Skandavarma, Raja of Punnad, who chose him, though 
 betrothed by her father to another from her birth on the advice of his 
 guru. Of him it is related that on coming to the Kaveri he heard a 
 voice say s'ata-j'ivi (a prediction that he would live for a hundred years), 
 on which, to the consternation of his attendants, he plunged into the 
 river and crossed over in safety, though it was in full flood, thus 
 acquiring the name of Churchuvayda Ganga. Both he and his son are 
 said to have been like Manu in maintaining the castes and religious 
 orders of the south. Two grants of his reign have been found, one of 
 the twenty-ninth year,"* making a grant to a Brahman, and one"' record- 
 ing a gift to Jainas in the Punnad Ten Thousand, by the minister 
 of Akalavarsha (a Rashtrakata king). The Punnad Ten Thousand 
 formed the southern portion of Mysore, and seems to correspond with 
 the Padi-nad or Ten nad country of later inscriptions.'^ Also with the 
 
 > lud. Ant., VIII, 212. 2 j^p_ Cam., Mysore I, Nj. 122. 
 
 ■'' Ind. Ant., VII, 172. " ib. V, 136. * ib. I, 363 ; Coorg Ins. No. i. 
 
 ^ A grant of the Punnacl Rajas, the date of which cannot be determined, has been 
 found, from which their capital seems to have been Kitthipura. It gives the following 
 succession of kings : — Rashtravarma ; his son Nagadatta ; his son Bhujaga, who 
 married the daughter of Singavarma ; their son Skandavarma ; his son the Punnata 
 Raja Ravidatta.— /;/t/. Ant., XII, 13 ; XVIII, 366.
 
 GAXGAS 313 
 
 Pounnuta of Ptolemy, where beryl was found.^ Avinita's son was 
 Durvinita. He had for his preceptor the author of the S'abda%-atara, 
 that is, the celebrated Jaina grammarian Piijyapada. He thus acquired 
 a literary taste which led him to write a commentary on part of the 
 Kiratarjuniya, a well-known poem by Bharavi. He is probably, as 
 the name is a very uncommon one, the 1 Jurvinita named by Nripatunga 
 among the early Kannada authors. He seems to have extended the 
 Ganga dominion to the south and ^st, for he is said to have waged 
 sanguinary wars for the possession of Andari, A'lattur (perhaps the one 
 in Coimbatore district), Porulare, Pennagara (in Salem district), and 
 other places, and is described as ruler over the whole of Pannad and 
 Punnad, as if he had annexed them. He is also said to have wrested 
 Kaduvetti (Karveti-nagara, North Arcot district) from Jayasimha, the 
 king of Kanchi, and made the son of his own daughter the governor. 
 Two grants of his reign have been found, one of the third year^ and 
 the other of the thirty-fifth,'* both recording gifts to Brahmans. 
 
 His son was Mushkara or Mokkara, who married the daughter of the 
 Sindhu Raja. His son was S'rivikrama, who had two sons, Bhiivik- 
 rama and S'ivamara. Bhiivikrama, in a great battle at Vilanda, de- 
 feated the Pallava king Narasimhapotavarma II., trodden to death in 
 the charge of elephants, and subdued the whole of the Pallava 
 dominions, acquiring the title of S'rivallabha. According to the old 
 chronicle he and his brother made their residence at Mukunda, 
 apparently the present Mankunda, near Channapatna. The younger 
 brother, S'ivamara or Nava Kama, had under his guardianship the two 
 grandsons of the Pallava king, no doubt the one above mentioned. 
 Their father, therefore, may have been taken prisoner and died in 
 captivity. In a grant made in his thirty-fourth year,"* this king signs 
 himself s'ishta-priyak, beloved of the good. 
 
 rsiost of the (ianga grants omit mention of his son and pass on to 
 his grandson. From the only grant that gives an account of him,' the 
 reason appears to be that the son was engaged in distant expeditions in 
 which he was unfortunate and lost his life, or there may have been a 
 split in the family. He is called Prithuvipati and Prithuyas'as, but 
 these can hardly be his names. He gave protection to certain chiefs, 
 one of whom was a refugee from Amoghavarsha. He cut a piece of 
 bone out of his body from a wound received in the battle of Vaim- 
 balguli and sent it to the waters of the Ganges. He defeated the 
 
 ' Col. Yule's Map of Ancient India (Dr. 'smi\.\\?,.4f/as 0/ .liicuiit Gcvj;.). I'adiyur 
 in Coimbatore district produced beryl (see Ind. Ant., V, 237). 
 - Itid. Ant., VII, 174. 3 ib. V, 138. 
 
 * Ep. Cam., Mysore I, Mil. 113. * Salem Manual, II, 369.
 
 314 Iff STORY 
 
 IMiidya kinj^^ \'aragun;v in a battle at S'ri Purarnbiyam, (jr 'I'iru I'uram- 
 biyam (near Kumbhakonam), but lost his life in saving a friend. He 
 a{)pearsto have had a son Marasimha, of whom we hear no more. 
 
 S'ripurusha, whose name was Muttarasa, was the grandson (or 
 perhaps great grandson) of Sivamara, and had a long and prosperous 
 reign. His kingdom was called the S'ri-rajya. Numerous grants of his 
 time have been found, both on stone slabs and on copper plates, rang- 
 ing from the first to the fiftieth year of his reign.i He seems at some 
 time to have made Miinyapura (Manne in Nelamangalataluq) the royal 
 residence. He is stated to have again conquered Kaduvetti, which had 
 been recovered by the Pallavas, at the same time capturing the Pallava 
 umbrella and assuming the title of Permanadi, which he took away 
 from the king of Kanchi. This title is used of all subsequent Ganga 
 kings, sometimes alone, without any distinguishing name. He also rein- 
 stated the Bana kingdom by placing Hastimalla on the throne. He is 
 said, moreover, to have written a work on elephants called Gajas'astra. 
 His sons Sivamara and Duggamara appear as governors under him, also 
 one named Lokaditya, apparently the youngest. 
 
 He was succeeded by his son S'ivamara, surnamed Saigotta, and the 
 latter had a son, Marasimha, who made a grant in 797 as yuva-raja, 
 but is not again heard of. S'ivamara is said to have been the author of 
 Gajashtaka, a treatise on elephants, in which he improved upon his 
 father's system. Serious reverses befell the Ganga kingdom in this 
 reign. The Rashtrakutas had gained a great accession of po\ver, and 
 Nirupama or Dharavarsha is said to have defeated and imprisoned the 
 impetuous Ganga, who had never been conquered before. The next 
 king, Govinda or Prabhiitavarsha, on coming to the throne in about 
 784, released Ganga from his long and painful captivity, but had to 
 confine him again on account of his hostility.- As he is represented as 
 having defeated the combined royal army, commanded by Rashtrakuta, 
 Chalukya and Haihaya chiefs, at Murugundur (perhaps Mudugundur in 
 Mandya taluq), this attack may have led to his being again seized. 
 During the interregnum the Rashtrakutas appointed their own viceroys 
 to govern the Ganga territories. In 802 Dharavarsha's son Kambha or 
 Ranavaloka was the viceroy, and there are three inscriptions of his time.'' 
 In 813 we find Chaki Raja in that office."* Eventually S'ivamara either 
 made his peace with Govinda or, as seems more likely, the latter was in 
 need of allies, for that monarch, assisted by the Pallava king Nandi- 
 varma, replaced him on the throne, the two binding the diadem on his 
 brow with their own hands. A long war now took place between the 
 
 > Mys. Ins. and Ep. Cam. - I mi. Ant., ^"I, 69 ; XI, 161. 
 
 * Ins. at Sr. Be/., No. 24 : the others unpublished. ■* Ind. Ant., XII, 18.
 
 
 < 
 
 z 
 z 
 
 a. 
 
 t3 
 
 ;- o 
 o 
 o 
 o 
 
 
 0) -Q 
 
 li^"'4 i^ 
 
 .*■* 
 
 ^
 
 GANG AS 315 
 
 Eastern Chalukyas and the allied Gangas and Rattas, in which 108 
 battles were fought in twelve years. S'ivamara's successor on the 
 throne was apparently his brother Vijayaditya. 
 
 With the accession of Rdchamalla Satyavakya the Gangas seem to 
 have taken a fresh start in power, and these names form titles of all the 
 subsequent kings. He is said to have recovered from the Rashtrakiitas 
 the whole of the territory which they had seized and held too long. 
 His yuva-raja in 870 was Butarasa, and he had a son Rana Vikramayya, 
 who may be the same. But the son that was his successor is called 
 Nitimarga, who had a prosperous reign, and there are numerous in- 
 scriptions of his time. His sister was married to Nolambadhiraja, 
 who was ruling under him. His son Ereyappa was apparently asso- 
 ciated with him in the government towards the close of his life. An 
 interesting sculptured bas-relief of his death-bed scene has been dis- 
 covered."^ Ereyappa is called Mahendrantaka, or death to Mahendra, 
 the Nolamba king. 
 
 Wixh Butuga considerable changes occurred in the Ganga dominions. 
 Ereyappa's eldest son Rachamalla was the proper heir to the throne. 
 But Butuga, another son, perhaps by a different mother, resolved to 
 possess himself of the crown, and defeated and slew Rachamalla. The 
 Rashtrakuta king Baddega or Amoghavarsha gave him his daughter in 
 marriage, and he appears to have secured the kingdom for his brother-in- 
 law Krishna or Kannara, though on Baddega's death it had been seized 
 by Lalliya. Kannara was soon after engaged in a war with the ("hola 
 king Rajaditya, when Butuga by some treachery killed the latter at a 
 place called Takkola, following it up by laying siege to the Chola 
 capital Tanjapuri (Tanjore) and burning Nalkote. For this important 
 service Kannara made over to him the Banavase Twelve Thousand 
 (Shimoga and North Kanara districts), in addition to his wife's 
 dowry, the Belvola Three Hundred, the Purigere Three Hundred, 
 the Kisukad Seventy, and the Baginad Seventy (all in Dharwar 
 and neighbouring districts).'- Butuga also subdued the Seven Malavas, 
 and putting up boundary stones, gave the country the name of 
 (ianga Malava. His elder sister Pambabbe, widow of Dorapayya, 
 died in 971, after leading an ascetic life for thirty years. His son 
 Marula Deva is said to have married a daughter of Kannara. But his 
 successor on the throne was his son Marasimha, called Nolambakulan- 
 taka, from his having slain all the Nolambas. By direction of Kannara 
 he made an expedition against Gurjjara or Gujarat, and is said to have 
 been a terror to the Chalukya prince Rajaditya. From several in- 
 
 ' Ep. Cant., Mysore I, TX. 91. * Ibid. Ill, Iml. 41 : Ep. liui.. Ill, 175.
 
 3i6 HISTORY 
 
 scriptions towards the end of this reign it appears that the ( langas had 
 then become feudatories of the Rashtrakutas. 
 
 But the latter were now finally overcome by the Chalukyas, and 
 Marasimha's son Rachamalla, who succeeded, was independent. This 
 king's minister and general was Chamunda Raya, who caused the 
 colossal image of Gomata to be erected at S'ravana Belgola. The 
 king's younger brother Rakkasa was a governor in Coorg, and finally 
 succeeded to the throne. With Ganga Raja we come to the end of the 
 independent Ganga rule. The Cholas, advancing in overwhelming 
 force, invaded the Ganga territories, under the command of Rajendra 
 Chola, son of the reigning king Rajaraja, and in about 1004 
 captured Talakad and overran all the south and east of Mysore. The 
 (iangas, driven from their kingdom, took refuge with the Chalukyas 
 and with the Hoysalas, who were destined to succeed to their dominion 
 in Mysore, attaining to positions of the highest honour under both. 
 
 But the principal revival of their power as independent rulers was in 
 Orissa, or rather in Ganjam and Vizagapatam districts, in alliance with 
 the Cholas. ^^'e have already had occasion to mention the Kalinga 
 Gangas. Several of their earlier inscriptions have been found,^ mostly 
 issued from Kalinga-nagara (Ganjam district), and dated in the years of 
 the Ganga family {Gdfigeya-vafus'a-sa?>ivatsnra), an era not yet deter- 
 mined. The kings profess to be worshippers of the god Gokarna-svami 
 on the Mahendra mountain (in Ganjam district), and rulers over the 
 whole of Kalinga. Arranging the grants conjecturally, guided by the 
 years and relationships given, we obtain the following list : — 
 
 Anantavarma 
 
 Devendravarma 254 
 
 Rajendravarma 
 
 Anantavarma 304 
 
 Vajrahasta 
 
 On the other hand a very full and circumstantial genealogy of 
 Kalinga Gangas is given in a later grant'- of 11 18, in which quite 
 different names appear (except Vajrahasta), but of course it is possible 
 they may be the same kings under other titles. The line is here traced 
 from the god Vishnu through Yayati and Turvasu, who is said to have 
 obtained from the Ganga the son Gangeya who was the progenitor of 
 the Ganga kings {see above, p. 309). A list of sixteen kings follows, 
 whose names seem purely mythical, down to Kolahala, who is said to 
 
 ' Lid. Ant., XIII, XIV, XVIII ; Ej>. Ltd., Ill, 17, 220. The grant of Devendra, son 
 of Rajendra, is in my possession, not yet published. The year 128 has been supposed 
 to be about 658 a.d. ; 254 about 774 (/. A., XIII, 274). - Lid. Ant., XVIII, 165. 
 
 Anantavarma 
 
 
 
 
 Devendravarma 
 
 
 
 51 
 
 Satyavarma 
 
 
 
 51 
 
 Indravarma 
 
 91. 
 
 1 28, 
 
 146 
 
 Rajendravarma 
 
 
 
 
 Devendravarma 
 
 

 
 GANG AS 317 
 
 have built the cily of Kolahala (Kolar) in the great Gangavacji country. 
 After his son Virochana and eighty more kings, not named and pro- 
 bably imaginary, had held Kolahala, there arose in that line \"irasimha, 
 who had five sons, Kamarnava, Danarnava, Ciunarnava, Marasimha, and 
 Vajrahasta. The first of these, giving the kingdom to his maternal 
 uncle, set out with his brothers to conquer the earth, and coming to the 
 Mahendra mountain, worshipped Gokarnasvami, and obtained the crest 
 of a bull and the symbols of sovereignty. He and his brothers subdued 
 Baladitya, who had grown sick of war, and took possession of the 
 (three) Kalingas. Giving Ambavadi to the third brother, S6da or Seda 
 to the fourth, and Kantaka to the fifth, Kamarnava, with his capital at 
 Jantavura, ruled over the Kalingas, nominating his brother Danarnava 
 as his successor. After these two, fifteen kings ruled, ending with 
 Vajrahasta V, who married Vinaya-mahadevi of the Vaidumba family. 
 His son was Rajaraja, who is said to have defeated the Dramilas, 
 wedded Rajasundari, daughter of the Chola king Rajendra Chola, and 
 saved the aged Vijayaditya from falling into the power of the Cholas, by 
 upholding his authority in the west. Rajaraja's son Anantavarma or 
 Chola-Ganga was anointed king of Trikalinga in 1078, and re-instated 
 the fallen lord of Utkala (Orissa) in the east, and the sinking lord of 
 Vengi in the west. Grants of his have been found dating in 1081, 
 1 1 18, and 1 135.' 
 
 The total of the years assigned to the reigns of these kings comes to 
 about 350, which, deducted from 1078, the date of Chola-Ganga's 
 accession, brings us to 728, and this is near about the period estimated 
 for the later of the early kings previously mentioned. It is also the 
 period in the annals of the Mysore Gangas where we find a break in 
 the list, filled up by an alleged Prithuvipati, a word merely meaning 
 king, who had a son Marasimha, of whom nothing more is heard. 
 Putting these coincidences together, we are tempted to suppose that 
 Kamarnava, with his brother Marasimha and the others, who gave up 
 their kingdom in Mysore to a relative and went forth from Kolar to 
 found another in Kalinga, where a branch of the family had already 
 been ruling for centuries, may possibly have been sons of the missing 
 king who died in battle. 
 
 Two inscriptions in Chiknayakanhalli taUui i"^'*""-''" to Chola-Ganga as 
 the Odu-rayindra, or great king of Orissa, and state that he was born in 
 the Hejjaji Twelve of the Kadanur Seventy (both in ])od Ballapur 
 talu(i). The Ganga kings of Orissa or Kalinga, also called Gajapatis or 
 elephant lords, beginning with Chola-Ganga, held the sovereignty of 
 that country down to 1534, soon after which it fell a prey to the Muham- 
 madans. Of these kings Ananga Bhima Deva (i 175-1202) was a great 
 
 ' Loc. cii.
 
 3i8 ///STORY 
 
 ruler, and made a survey of his whole kingdom, measuring it with reeds. 
 He also built the present temple of Jaganndth. Another king of 
 interest was Purushottama Deva (1479-1504). He sought in marriage 
 the daughter of the king of Kanchi, famed for her beauty. But on the 
 ground of his performing the ofifice of sweeper to Jagannath his suit 
 was rejected. He therefore attacked Kanchi, and was at first repulsed. 
 At length he captured it, and took the princess prisoner, whom he 
 vowed in revenge should be married to a sweeper. The minister 
 charged with the execution of this order kept the girl in concealment 
 until the festival of Jagannath, at which the king was accustomed to 
 sweep the ground before the god ; and while he was engaged in that 
 act placed her beside him, and they were married. The reign of 
 Pratapa Rudra (1504-153 2) is remarkable for the reformation of the 
 Vaishnava religion by the preaching of Chaitanya, w^hose views the 
 king finally adopted; and Buddhism, to which he had previously 
 inclined, was banished the country. Pratapa Rudra is said to have 
 extended his conquests southwards as far as Cape Comorin, and his 
 name occurs in many local traditions in the east of Mysore. We also 
 find that his son Virabhadra was invested with the government of Male 
 Bennur (Davangere taluq) by Krishna Raya of Vijayanagar. 
 
 Certain other references to kings of the same connection may here 
 be pointed out. The existence of constant intercourse between 
 Kalinga and Ceylon from the earliest times is well known, and we find 
 a Chola-Ganga from Kalinga ruling in Ceylon in 1196.^ There 
 was also a line of Chola-Gangas in the east of Mysore in the thirteenth 
 century. But it is not a little singular that we find a Karnataka dynasty 
 set up in distant Nepal, apparently in 1097, which may have been of 
 Ganga origin. The founder, Nanya Deva (perhaps Nanniya Deva), 
 came from the south. He was succeeded by Ganga Deva and four 
 others, the last of whom removed the capital to Katmandu, where the 
 line came to an end.~ 
 
 Not yet, however, have we done with the Gangas, for at about the 
 time that their Orissa sovereignty came to an end, or the first part of the 
 sixteenth century, a Ganga Raja returned to the scene of their former 
 dominion, and established a principality at S'ivasamudram, the island 
 at the Falls of the Kaveri, not far from Talakad. Ganga Raja, after a 
 prosperous reign, was succeeded by his son Nandi Raja, who, to atone 
 for some ceremonial offence, leaped into the cataract at Gagana Chukki 
 on horseback with his wife. His son, Ganga Raja II, enlarged the 
 city greatly, and lived with much splendour. His two daughters were 
 married, one to the chief of Kilimale, near Satyagala, the other to the 
 chief of Nagarakere, near Maddur. These marriages were very 
 
 ' Rhys Davids, Nitinisiiiata Orienialia. * Sec Ins. front N'epal, Ijy Dr. G. Biihler.
 
 CHALUKYAS 319 
 
 unhappy, for the pride of the ladies gave their husbands constant dis- 
 gust, and they were continually upbraided for not living in equal 
 splendour with their father-in-law. They therefore united to attack 
 Sivasamudra and humble (ianga Raja. The siege had lasted twelve 
 years without their having been able to penetrate to the island, when they 
 found means to corrupt the Dalavayi, or minister, of Ganga Raja. This 
 traitor removed the guards from the only ford, and thus permitted the 
 enemy to surprise the place, while he endeavoured to engage his 
 master's attention at a game of chess. The shouts of the soldiery at 
 length reaching their ears, the prince started up from the game. The 
 Dalavayi, who wished him to fall alive into the hands of his sons-in-law, 
 endeavoured to persuade him that the noise arose merely from children 
 at play, but the Raja, having drawn his sword, first killed all his women 
 and children, and then, rushing into the midst of his enemies, fought 
 until he procured an honourable death. The sons-in-law, on seeing 
 this, were struck with horror, and immediately threw themselves into 
 the cataract at (xagana Chukki ; and their example was followed by their 
 wives, whose arrogance had been the cause of such disasters. 
 
 Jagadeva Rayal of Channapatna, and S'riranga Raja of Talakad, the 
 two most powerful of the neighbouring Palegars, then came and 
 removed all the people and wealth of the place. 
 
 Chalukyas. — This powerful line of kings was in the ascendant 
 throughout the north-west of Mysore, and the Bombay and Haidarabad 
 districts beyond, from the fifth to the eighth century, and from the 
 latter part of the tenth to that of the twelfth. Their first appearance 
 south of the Nerbudda was in the fourth century, previous to which 
 they are said to have had fifty-nine predecessors on the throne of 
 Ayodhya, but of these nothing is known. On their entering the 
 Dekhan they overcame the Rashtrakutas, but the Pallavas effectually 
 opposed them and the invader was slain, as previously related. His 
 successor, however, defeated the Pallavas and then formed an alliance 
 with them, confirmed by his marriage with a Pallava princess. In the 
 sixth century, Pulikes'i, whose chief city was apparently Indukanta 
 (supposed to be Ajanta or some neighbouring place), wrested Vatapi 
 (the modern Badami in Bijapur district) from the Pallavas and made it 
 his capital. His son Ki'rtivarma subdued the Mauryas (descendants of 
 the ancient Mauryas of Pataliputra), ruling in the Konkan, and the 
 Kadambas of Banavasi. Another son, Mangales'a, conquered the 
 Kalachuryas. The A'lupas or A'luvas, who ruled in Tulava or South 
 Kanara, were also at some time overcome,^ and the next king, Pulikes'i 
 H, came into contact with the Gangas, possibly in the time of Mush- 
 
 ^ There are inscriptions of theirs at Kig in the Western IJhats in Koppa taluq, 
 and at Mansjalore.
 
 320 mSTOR Y 
 
 kara, as there appears to Iiave been a Jain temple erected in his name 
 at Puligere (Lakshmes'vara in ] )har\var district). In about 617 the 
 Chalukyas separated into two branches, of which the Eastern Chalukyas 
 made Vengi (near El lore in the Oodavari district), taken from the 
 Pallavas,and subsequently Rajamahendri, their capital, while the Western 
 Chalukyas, with whom Mysore is chiefly concerned, continued to rule 
 from Vatapi and eventually from Kalyana (in the Nizam's Dominions, 
 about 100 miles west by north of Haidarabad). 
 
 The Chalukyas were of the Soma-vams'a or lunar line, and the 
 Manavya-gotra. They claim to be sons of Hariii, nourished by the 
 seven mothers. The boar was the principal emblem on their signet, 
 obtained from Bhagavan Narayana (Vishnu), but their insignia included 
 a peacock fan, an ankus'a or elephant goad, a golden sceptre, and 
 other symbols. The ^Vestern Chalukyas are styled the Satyds raya 
 kula, from the name of the first king of this branch. The titles on 
 their inscriptions, which are very numerous in Mysore, especially in 
 the north-west, are nearly invariably as follows — Saftiastabhuvands'raya, 
 Sri-prithvi-vallabha, Mahdrdjddhirdja, Parames'vara, Parama-bhattd- 
 raka, Satyds ray a-kula-tilakci, Chdlukydbharana. 
 
 Although the above details are very circumstantial, the account of 
 the origin of the Chalukyas is evidendy puranic,i and the real source 
 from which they sprang is far from clear. The name Chalukya bears a 
 suggestive resemblance to the Greek name Seleukeia, and if the Pallavas 
 were really of Parthian connection, as their name would imply, we 
 have a plausible explanation of the inveterate hatred which inscriptions 
 admit to have existed between the two, and their prolonged struggles 
 may have been but a sequel of the contests between Seleucidffi and 
 Arsacidte on the banks of the Tigris and Euphrates. 
 
 The succession of the Early and Western Chalukya kings, during the 
 period of their first ascendancy, is as follows- : — 
 
 Chandraditya, 655 
 
 Mkramaditya I, Ranarasika 655-680 
 Vinayaditya, Rajas' raya 6S0-696 
 
 fayasimha, ? A'ijayaditya 
 
 Rajasimha, Ranaraga, ? Mshnuvaidhana 
 
 Pulikes'i I, Satyas'raya, Ranavikrama 550 
 
 Kirtivarma I, Ranaparakrama 566-597 
 
 Mangales'a, Ranavikranta 597-60S 
 
 Pulikes'i II, Satyas'raya 609-642 
 
 \'dityavarma 
 
 Mjayaditya, Samastabhuvanas'raya 
 
 696-733 
 ^'ikramaditya II 733-746 
 
 Kirtivarma II, Xripasimha 746-757 
 
 Jayasimha is said to have defeated and destroyed Indra, the son of 
 Ivrishna, the Rashtrakilta or Ratta king. He himself, however, was 
 
 > They are stated to have nuraculously sprung from the moisture or water in the 
 lollowed pahn {chuliika, chitlaka) of Hariti's hand. According to another account 
 Vom the libation to the gods poured from his goblet {chitlka, chuluka, chaluka), by 
 ■ lariti. These stories seem evidently invented from the name. 
 
 - Cf.Ep. Iiid., Ill, 2.
 
 CHALUKYAS 321 
 
 slain in an encounter with Trilochana Pallava. His queen, then 
 pregnant, fled and took refuge with a Brahman called Vishnu Somayaji, 
 in whose house she gave birth to Rajasimha. On growing up to man's 
 estate he renewed the contest with the Pallavas, in which he was 
 successful, and married a princess of that race. Pulikes'i was the 
 most powerful of the early kings and performed the horse sacrifice. 
 His eldest son, Kirtivarma I, subdued the Nalas, of whom we know 
 MO more, the Mauryas ajid the Kadambas. Mangales'a, his younger 
 brother conquered the island called Revati-dvipa, and the Matangas : 
 also the Kalachurya king Buddha, son of Sankaragana, the spoils 
 taken from whom he gave to the temple of Makutes'vara, near 
 Badami. He attempted to establish his own son in the succession, 
 but Satyas'raya or I'ulikes'i H, the elder son of Kirtivarma, obtained 
 the throne. 
 
 Pulikes'i's younger brother ^"ishnuvardhana, surnamed Kubja, on the 
 capture of Ax'ngi from the Pallavas, there founded the sei)arate line of 
 Eastern Chalukyas, who remained in i)ower in the V'engi and Raja- 
 mahendri country till the eleventh century, when they were absorbed 
 into the Chola family.^ 
 
 Satyas'raya or Pulikes'i H. the first of the Western Chalukya line, 
 was a great concjueror and subdued all the neighbouring nations. His 
 most notable victory was over Harshavardhana or S'iladitya, king of 
 Kanyakubja or Kanoj, the most powerful monarch in northern India. 
 By this conquest he obtained the title of Parames'vara or supreme lord, 
 
 ' For convenience of further reference the list of Eastern Chalukyas is here inserted, 
 as given by Dr. Fleet {In({. An/., XX, 283), who has gone very fully into details in 
 the preceding articles : — 
 
 Kuhja \'ishnuvardhana I 
 
 615-633 
 Jayasimha -663 
 
 Indra Bhattaraka (seven 
 
 days) 663 
 
 Vishnuvardhana II -672 
 Mangi \'uvaraja -696 
 Jayasinilia II -7^9 
 
 Kokkili (six months) 709 
 N'ishnuvardhana III -746 
 \'ijaya(Utya Hhallaraka 
 
 -764 
 Vishnuvardhana I\' -799 
 \'ijayaditya II, Nar- 
 
 endramrigaraja -843 
 Kali \'ishnuvardhana \' 
 -S44 
 
 Gunaka \'ijayaditya III 
 -888 
 Chalukya Bhima I -918 
 Kollahhiganda \'i- 
 
 jayaditya I\' (six 
 
 months) m. Me- 
 
 1am ha 
 Anima I, \'ishnu- 
 
 vardhanaX'I, I\.;ija 
 
 Mahendra 
 Beta Vijayaditya \' 
 
 (fifteen days) 
 Tadapa (one month) 925 
 Vikramaditya II 
 
 (eleven months) - 926 
 
 Bhima II (eight months) 
 
 -927 
 
 918 
 
 925 
 925 
 
 Yuddhamalla -934 
 
 Chalukya Bhima III, 
 ^'ishnuvardhalla \ II, 
 (junda Mahendra, 
 m. Lokamahiidevi -945 
 Amma II, \'ijaya- 
 ditya \'I, Raja 
 ?klahendra -97° 
 
 Danarnava -973 
 
 (Interregnum of thirty 
 
 years. ) 
 
 Saktivarma 1003-1015 
 
 \'imaladilya, m. Kun- 
 
 dava-mahadevi of 
 
 theChola family -1022
 
 322 J /I STORY 
 
 ever after borne by tlic Chalukyas. The C'liinese pilgrim Iliuen 
 Tsiang has given interesting aeeounts of l)Olh Harshavardhana and 
 Pulikes'i, and of their times. Of l-*ulikcs'i's kingdom he says : — 
 "The disposition of the people is honest and simple; they are tall 
 of stature, and of a stern vindictive character. To their bene- 
 factors they are grateful, to their enemies relentless. If they are 
 insulted they will risk their life to avenge themselves. If they are 
 asked to help one in distress they will forget themselves in their 
 haste to render assistance. If they are going to seek revenge they 
 first give their enemy warning ; then, each being armed, they attack 
 each other with spears. When one turns to flee the other pursues 
 him, but they do not kill a man who is down (or submits). If a 
 general loses a battle they do not inflict punishment but present him 
 with woman's clothes, and so he is driven to seek death for himself. 
 The country provides for a band of champions to the number of several 
 hundreds. Each time they are about to engage in conflict they 
 intoxicate themselves with wine, and then one man with lance in hand 
 will meet ten thousand and challenge them in fight. If one of these 
 champions meets a man and kills him, the laws of the country do not 
 punish him. Every time they go forth they beat drums before them. 
 Moreover they inebriate many hundred heads of elephants, and taking 
 them out to fight, they themselves first drink their wine, and then, rushing 
 forward in mass, they trample everything down, so that no enemy can 
 stand before them. The king, in consequence of his possessing these 
 men and elephants, treats his neighbours with contempt. He is of the 
 Kshattriya caste and his name is Pulakes'i (Pu-lo-ki-she). His plans 
 and undertakings are widespread, and his beneficent actions are felt 
 over a great distance. His subjects obey him with perfect submission. 
 At the present time S'iladitya Maharaja has conquered the nations 
 from east to west and carried his arms to remote districts, but the 
 people of this country alone have not submitted to him. He has 
 gathered troops from the five Indies, and summoned the best leaders 
 from all countries, and himself gone at the head of his army to punish 
 and subdue this people, but he has not yet conquered their troops. So 
 much for their habits. The men are fond of learning'." .... 
 
 The city he calls Konkanapura, which he visited, may probably be 
 Kopana (now Kopal) in the extreme south-west of the Nizam's 
 dominions, or Kokanur close to it. Of its people he says : — "They 
 love learning, and esteem virtue and talent." Arab annals, moreover, 
 as pointed out by Dr. Fergusson," state that Pulikes'i exchanged 
 presents and letters with Khosru II of Persia, and the Persian 
 
 ' Beal's Si-yit-ki, II, 256. 2 j j^ j_ s., XI, 155.
 
 CHALUKYAS 323 
 
 embassy is supposed to be represented in one of the paintings in the 
 Ajanta caves. The exact date of the end of his reign is not known, 
 and the history is not very clear until the accession of Vikramaditya. 
 Before him there were his brothers A'dityavarma and Chandraditya. 
 One inscription of the former is known, ^ but the latter is represented 
 only by grants made by his queen, Vijaya-mahadevi or Vijaya-bhatta- 
 rika.- She may therefore have been a widow at the time and regent 
 for a son who did not survive. I have also found a grant in 
 Goribidnur taluq by Ambera, a son or daughter of Satyas'raya/' It 
 seems certain that after the death of Pulikes'i II. the Pallavas attacked 
 and inflicted severe losses on the Chalukyas, driving them out of some 
 of their recently acquired possessions in the south. 
 
 Vikramaditya restored the power of the Chalukyas. Riding to 
 battle on his splendid charger Chitrakantha, he was victorious over 
 Pandya, Ch61a, Kerala, and Kalabhra (perhaps the Kalabhurvas or 
 Kalachuryas), all of whom may have aided the Pallavas in their late 
 hostilities. But his greatest achievement was the capture of Kanchi 
 and forcing the Pallava king, " who had never bowed to any other 
 man,"' to kiss his feet with his crown. \'inayaditya, his son, captured 
 and destroyed the army of Trairajya Pallava, the king of Kanchi, was 
 served by the Pallava, Kalabhra, Kerala, Haihaya, Vila, Malava, Chola 
 and Pandya kings, as well as by the A'luvas and Gangas ; and levying 
 tribute from the rulers of Kavera, Parasika, Simhala (Ceylon) and other 
 islands, churned the king of all the north and seized the Pali dhvaja."* 
 His son Vijayaditya completed the conquests of the two preceding 
 reigns, both in the south and the north, and in addition to the Pali 
 dhvaja gained the Ganga and "V'amuna dhvajas, which had been 
 possessions of the Guptas. His son Vikramaditya II gained an 
 important victory in the Tundaka province (Tonda-mandala) over the 
 I'allava king Nandipotavarma, whom he put to flight and, capturing all 
 the royal insignia, made a triumphal entry into Kanchi, which he 
 refrained from plundering, but presented gifts of gold to the Raja- 
 simhes'vara and other temples. He then, after withering up Pandya, 
 Chola, Kerala, Kalabhra and other kings, set up a pillar of victory on 
 the shore of the southern ocean. His queen, Lokamahadevi, of the 
 Haihaya family, caused a temple at Pattadkal to be erected in com- 
 memoration of his having three times defeated the Pallavas. His son 
 Kirtivarma II, while yet yuvaraja under his father, obtained permis- 
 sion to make another expedition against the Pallava king, whom he 
 
 > hid. Ant., XI, 66. ^ //'. VII. 163 : Mil, 273. ^ to. VIII, 89 ; IX, 304. 
 
 ■* An arrangement of flags which seems m lui\r I'een a recognized Jaina symhul of 
 supreme sovereignty [see Iiid. Ant., XI\', 1041. 
 
 \ 2
 
 324 HISTORY 
 
 drove to take refuge in a liill fort, and dispersing his army, plundered 
 his treasures. 
 
 While the Western Chalukyas had thus been engaged at a distance, 
 in the direction of Kanchi, in destroying the power of the Pallavas, 
 their other old enemies, the Rashtrakiitas, nearer home, had been 
 watching for the opportunity to free themselves. In this they were 
 successful, under the kings Dantidurga and Krishna. The Western 
 Chalukyas for about two centuries from this time disappear from view. 
 Kings of their line named Kirtivarma, Tailapa, Bhi'ma and Ayyana, who 
 is said to have married a daughter of the Rashtrakiita king Krishna, are 
 named as rulin;^ in succession, but the accounts are doubtful. 
 
 Rashtrakutas. — Meanwhile our attention must be directed to the 
 power which superseded them and which played an important part in 
 Mysore during their eclipse, as testified by inscriptions throughout the 
 northern and midland parts. ^ This was the Rashtrakutas or Rattas, 
 connected perhaps with the Rajput Rathors, and supposed to be 
 represented by the modern Reddis. They may have existed in the 
 Dekhan from very early times. Their territory at the period of which 
 we are writing is often referred to as Rattavadi, and their capital, at 
 first Mayurakhandi (Morkhand in Nasik district) was, early in the ninth 
 century, at Manyakheta (Malkhed in the Nizam's Dominions, about 
 ninety miles west by south of Haidarabad). The earliest decided 
 mention of them describes Indra, the son of Krishna, as overcome by 
 the early Chalukya king, Jayasimha, and coins supposed to belong to 
 this Krishna have been found on the Bombay side. Then we have a 
 Govinda repulsed by Pulikes'i I. But the connected list of kmgs is as 
 follows'" : — • 
 
 Dantivarma I j Krishna II, Kannara, 
 
 Indra I Akalavarsha, S'ubhatunga 8S4-913 
 
 Govinda I | Jagattunga, Prabhutavarsha, 
 
 Karka or Kakka I 1 Pratapavaloka 
 
 Indra II Indra III, Nityavarsha, 
 
 Dantidurga, Dantivarma I, m. Vijamba 9 1 5-9 1 7 
 
 Khadgavaloka 754 Govinda V, Prabhutavarsha, 
 
 Krishna I, Kannara, Akalavarsha, Suvarnavarsha 91S-9.33 
 
 S'ubhatunga Baddiga, Amoghavarsha, 
 
 Dhruva, Nirupama, Dharavarsha m. Kundakadevi 
 
 (jQvinda III, Prabhutavarsha, Krishna III, Kannara, 
 
 Jagattunga, Atis'aya-dhavala, Akalavarsha 939-968 
 
 m. Gamundabbe 7S2-814 , Khottiga, Nityavarsha 96S-971 
 
 Sarva, Nripatunga, Amoghavarsha j Kakka II, Kakkala 
 
 815-877 I Amoghavarsha, Nripatunga 972-973 
 
 ' Their inscriptions are often on cruciform stones, very artistic in appearance, and 
 quite different from any others. The upper arm is deeply bevelled, and a larr'e 
 plough engraved from one end to the other of the cross tree. - cf. Ep. Ind., Ill, 54,
 
 RASHTRAKUTAS 325 
 
 These kings very commonly had the title \'allabha, taken from the 
 Chalukyas. In its Prakrit form of Ballaha, which is often used alone 
 in their inscriptions in ^lysore, without any name, it furnishes the key 
 by which to identify the powerful dynasty called Balhards by Arab 
 travellers of the tenth century, and described by them as ruling from 
 Mankir (Manyakheta). 
 
 Indra II is said to have married a Chalukya princess, but Danti- 
 durga, who died without issue, and Krishna I, his maternal uncle, who 
 therefore came to the throne after him, were successful in overcoming 
 the Chalukyas and establishing the supremacy of the Rashtrakiitas. 
 The beautiful Kailasa temple of Elura was probably erected by 
 Krishna. Dhruva, Dhora, Dharavarsha or Nirupama, though the 
 younger son, superseded his brother Govinda and was a brave and 
 warlike prince. He humbled the Pallava king of Kanchi and took 
 from him a tribute of elephants. He also defeated and imprisoned 
 the impetuous Ganga, who had never been conquered before. In the 
 north he drove the king of the ^'atsas into the desert of Marvad. 
 Govinda or Prabhutavarsha, his son, was one of the most powerful 
 kings of his line. He conquered the Keralas, Malavas, S'autas, 
 Gurjaras and the kings of Chitrakuta (in Bandalkhand) and took away 
 from his enemies (the Chalukyas) the emblems of the (ianga and 
 Yamuna. He released Ganga from his long and painful captivity, but 
 had to imprison him again on account of his hostility, and took tribute 
 from Dantiga, the ruler of Kanchi. On this latter expedition, in 804, 
 he halted at the tb'tha of Rames'vara, on an island in the Tungabhadra 
 (Kuruva, about five miles south of Honnali), and had some sport with 
 wild boars there. The kings of Anga, Vanga, Magadha, Malava and 
 \'engi did homage to him, and the latter, probably the Eastern Chalukya 
 king Vijayaditya Narendramrigaraja, was compelled to build the walls of 
 his fortress, apparently at Manyakheta. The newly acquired province 
 of Lata (in Gujarat) he gave to his younger brother Indra. Eventually 
 Govinda once more released the Ganga king (Sivamara), and in con- 
 junction with the Pallava king Nandivarma, replaced him on his throne. 
 
 During the time the Ganga king was a prisoner, Mysore was governed 
 by viceroys appointed by the Rashtrakiitas. The first of whom we 
 have any record is Kambharasa, Kambhaiya, or S'aucha Kambha, 
 surnamed Ranavaloka, who was apparently the son of Dharavarsha 
 and brother of Govinda. Of his time there are three inscriptions,^ one 
 dated in 802. At a later date, 813, we have Chaki Raja as viceroy,- 
 whose sister was married to a Chalukya prince named Vas'ovarma. 
 
 1 At Mattakere (Heggadadevankolc laliuj), Manne (Xelamangala taluq), and 
 S'ravana Belgola (No. 24). - Ind. Jut., XII, 18.
 
 326 J [[STORY 
 
 Nripatunga or z\moghavarslia, his son, succeeded to the throne. He 
 defeated the Chalukyas, who made peace with him at VinguvulH. He 
 presented the Konkan to Kapardi of the Silahara family, and after a 
 prolonged reign of over sixty years, voluntarily retired from the throne. 
 The celebrated Jinasenacharya, author of the A'di Purana, was his 
 preceptor. Nripatunga evidently took a great interest in the Kannada 
 country and literature, for to him we owe the Kavirajamarga, the 
 earliest known work on metrical composition in that language. It is 
 written in Kannacla verse, and in it he gives a glowing account of the 
 country and of the culture of the people, as the following quotations 
 will show : — " The region which extends from the Kaveri to the 
 (jodavari is the country in which Kannatja is spoken, the most 
 beautiful land in the circle of the earth. . . , Apt are the people of that 
 land in speaking as if accustomed to verse, and in understanding it 
 when spoken : clever in truth are they, for they are ripely skilled in 
 the usages of poetry without giving themselves up to its study. Not only 
 students but others are all skilful in their speech, and know how to 
 teach wisdom to young children and words to the deaf" 
 
 Krishna or Kannara II, Akalavarsha, married a Haihaya princess 
 belonging to the Kalachuri family, daughter of the king of Chedi. 
 He seems to have been engaged in constant wars with the Eastern 
 Chalukyas. Of his son Jagattunga Prabhiitavarsha, there is an inscrip- 
 tion in Chellakere taluq, undated, in which a Pallavadhiraja is repre- 
 sented as governor under him. Of the succeeding kings, Govinda 
 had an elder brother, Amoghavarsha, from whom he seems to have 
 usurped the crown. Govinda was so liberal with his donations that he 
 w^as called Suvarnavarsha (raining gold). Owing to failure of heirs he 
 was succeeded by his uncle Baddiga, and he by his son Krishna HI 
 Kannara or Akalavarsha. It was the latter who was assisted by the 
 Ganga king Biituga, his brother-in-law, in securing the throne, as 
 previou.sly related. He, too, by the aid of Biituga, was victorious over 
 the Cholas,and in return for this service made over the north-western 
 parts of Mysore and districts beyond to the Ganga king.^ It is not 
 clear that some of these had not been occupied by the Gangas 
 before, and several formed the dowry assigned to his bride. The 
 dominions of the Rashtrakutas were in this reign at their utmost 
 extension, the Chola territories in the south and Gujarat in the north 
 being in their power. Krishna Raja's daughter was married to a son of 
 Butuga. But the relations between the Rattas and Gangas must have 
 changed in the time of Nityavarsha, the brother who next came to the 
 throne, as there are inscriptions of the Ganga king Marasimha Nolamba- 
 ' See A'takur Inscription, Mandya taluq No. 41, Ep. Cam., Mysore I.
 
 CHALUKYAS 327 
 
 kulantaka in which he appears as a feudatory of Nityavarsha. But 
 the Ratta supremacy was now drawing to a close. In 973 Kakka or 
 Kakkala was defeated, and probably slain, by Taila of the Western 
 Chalukya family, and the Rashtrakuta empire came to an end. Taila 
 married Kakkala's daughter, but the last representative of the 
 Rdshtrakutas was Indra, a grandson of Krishna III, who died at 
 S'ravana Belgola in 982.1 
 
 Chalukyas {continued). — We left the Chalukyas, on their being 
 superseded by the Rashtrakiitas, in order to follow the history of the 
 latter dynasty. Its downfall, however, restored the supremacy of the 
 Chalukyas, and we may resume the annals relating to this line of 
 kings. It was in the time of Kirtivarma II that the Chalukyas lost 
 their power. He may have been succeeded by another Kirtivarma, but 
 this is doufjtful. The names of the subsequent kings of the intervening 
 period are more reliable, namely, Taila, Vikramaditya, Bhima, Ayyana 
 (who married a daughter of the Rashtrakuta king Krishna), and 
 Vikramaditya IV (who married Bontha-devi, daughter v.f Lakshmana, 
 of the Chedi or Kalachurya family). One Chalukya, named Jayasimha, 
 fled to Anhalvara in Gujarat, the court of Bh6ja Raja, the last of the 
 Sauras. Here his son Miila Raja married the daughter of Bh6ja 
 Raja, and in 931 succeeded the latter on the throne, the Salic law 
 being set aside in his favour. He ruled at Anhalvara for fifty-eight 
 years, and his descendants occupied the throne of that country with 
 great glory till 1145. 
 
 Meanwhile Tailapa, the son of Vikramaditya above mentioned, 
 defeated the Rashtrakiitas in the person of the king Kakkala, and 
 retrieved the Chalukya fortunes. He succeeded to the throne in 973, 
 and transmitted to his posterity a kingdom which increased in 
 splendour and prosperity under each succeeding reign for nearly 200 
 years. The following is a list of the kings for this period' : — 
 
 Tailapa, Ni'irmadi Taila II, 
 
 A'havamalla 973^997 
 
 Satyas'raya, Irivahedeiiga 997-1009 
 
 \'ikraniadilya \ , Triljhuvana- 
 
 nialla 1009-1018 
 
 Jayasimha II, Jagadekamalla 101S-1042 
 Somes'vara I, Trailokyamalla, 
 
 Vikramaditya \T, Trililiuvana- 
 
 malla, I'ermadi 1076-1126 
 
 Somes'vara III, Bhuluka- 
 
 malla 1126 113S 
 
 Jagadekamalla, I'erma 1138-I150 
 
 Tailapa, Nurmadi Taila III, 
 
 Trailokyamalla 1150-11S2 
 
 A'havamalla 1042-1068 , Somes'vara I\', Trihhuvaiia- 
 
 Somes'vara II, Bhuvanaika- I malla I1S2 I1S9 
 
 malla 1068-1076 
 
 The former kings of the ^^'estern Chalukya line had been largely 
 occupied in the south in wars against the Pallavas, whose power they 
 
 ' Ins. at Sr. Bel. No. 57. - </. Ep. Imi., Ill, 230.
 
 328 IflSTORY 
 
 ultimately broke. The kings of the present period we shall find were 
 equally engaged in that quarter in struggles with the Cholas. The 
 thirty years' period of 973 to 1003, during which the Eastern Chalukya 
 kingdom of Vengi was w-ithout a ruler, seems to have been a time when 
 the Cholas had overrun the country, having first acquired the territories 
 of the Pallavas, including the city of Kanchi. We accordingly find 
 Tailapa described as full of desire to fight with the Chola Raja, and as 
 being a destroying fire to the Cholas. He married Jakabbe, the 
 daughter of Kakkala, the Rashtrakiita king whom he had subverted, 
 and their son was Satyas'raya, who succeeded him, and against whom 
 the Chola king Rajaraja fought. Satyas'raya, by his wife Ambikadevi, 
 had two sons, Vikrama and Das'avarma. He also, it is said, had a 
 daughter, who was married to the Pallava king Iriva Nolambadhiraja. 
 Vikrama came to the throne after his father's death, but, dying without 
 issue, was succeeded by Jayasimha, the son of Das'avarma and 
 Bhagala-devi. He is described as a lion to Rajendra Chola, who was 
 the son and successor of Rajaraja, during whose reign he had over- 
 thrown the Ganga kingdom, in about 1004, and established the 
 authority of the Cholas throughout the south and east of Mysore. 
 Jayasimha, or Jagadekamalla, in 1019, is said to have driven Chola into 
 the sea. On the other hand, in 102 1, he is said in Chola inscriptions 
 to have turned his back at Mus'angi (possibly Uchchangi, in the south- 
 west of the Bellary district'), and by 1026 Rajendra Chola is said to 
 have taken the 7I lakh country of Irattapadi (Rattavadi) from 
 Jayasimha. By 1039 the Cholas, under Rajadhiraja, are said to have 
 burnt the palace of the Chalukyas at Kampili (on the Tungabhadra, 
 in Bellary district). Jayasimha was succeeded by his son Somes'vara, 
 Trailokyamalla, or A'havamalla, who was exposed to a formidable 
 invasion by the Cholas, in which they burnt Pulikaranagara 
 (Lakshmes'vara in Dhawrar district), and destroyed its famous Jain 
 temples erected by Permadi Ganga. But he seems to have defeated 
 them at Kakkaragond on the Tungabhadra, and driven them south- 
 wards, though they claim a victory over him at Koppa on the Perar 
 (possibly Kuppam on the Palar, in Kangundi, North Arcot'-), and the 
 plundering of his camp. This must have stopped his pursuit of them, 
 on return from which he halted at Puliyar-pattana (perhaps Huliyar, 
 Chiknayakanhalli taluq). It was he who first made Kalyana the 
 capital. His chief queen was j\Iailala-devi, a Ganga princess, by 
 whom he had two sons, who succeeded him, and who assume all the 
 Ganga titles of Kongunivarma Satyavakya Permadi. He must also 
 have had a Pallava wife, his son by whom, Jayasimha, takes the 
 ' See So. Ind. Ins., 11, 94. - zb. I, 134.
 
 CHALUKYAS 329 
 
 Pallava and Nolamba titles. He also had a wife of the Hoysala 
 family, though no issue of this marriage is recorded. But he had 
 another son, ^■ishnuvardhana Vijayaditya, who is styled the lord of 
 Vengi, and whose mother must have been of the Eastern Chalukya 
 family. This is the prince described as about to sink into the ocean of 
 the Cholas, whom Rajaraja and Chola-Ganga of the Kalinga (langas 
 maintained in power and caused to enjoy prosperity for a long time in 
 the western region. We accordingly find him in 1064 and 1066 
 ruling over the Nolambavadi Thirty-two Thousand country (the 
 Bellary and Chitaldroog districts), with the seat of his government at 
 Kampili (before mentioned). \Mien the Cholas were driven out of the 
 north of Mysore, therefore, this province formed a harrier against their 
 future encroachments. A'havamalla died in 1068 at Kuruvatti (on the 
 Tungabhadra, in Bellary district, not far from Harpanhalli), and was 
 succeeded by his son Somes'vara II or Bhuvanaikamalla. He was 
 apparently a weak prince and did not long retain possession of the 
 crown. But he had a powerful minister and general in Udayaditya of 
 the (ianga family, who is said before 1071 to have defeated a secret 
 conspiracy against the throne and against the guru. 
 
 Vikrama in 1076 expelled his brother, seized the throne and 
 became one of the most powerful of the Chalukya monarchs. He set 
 aside' the S'aka era, and from his accession established the Chalukya 
 Vikrama era. which continued in use as long as the Chalukyas were in 
 power. Many interesting particulars regarding him are contained in 
 Bilhana's poem on his history.- Previous to his accession to the 
 throne he had gained so many important victories, chiefly against the 
 Cholas and other powers south of the Tungabhadra, that his brother, 
 moved by jealousy, sent forces into the Banavasi country (the Shimoga 
 district) to seize him, but Vikrama destroyed them. He seems, 
 however, to have taken the precaution of strengthening himself by 
 alliances, for he married his daughter to Jayakes'i, king of the 
 Kadambas, whose capital was then at Goa ; and formed a friendship 
 with his former enemy, the Chola Raja, receiving a Chola princess in 
 marriage. The Chola king died soon after and his kingdom was 
 thrown into a state of anarchy. On hearing this, \'ikrama, who was 
 still tarrying on the Tungabhadra, at once started for the south, in order 
 to place his wife's brother on the throne. He entered Kanchi and put 
 down the rebels there; then did the same at Gangakunda (Gangai- 
 kondas'olapuram in the north-east of Trichinopoly district) and 
 re-established the Chola ]Jowcr. But nut long after his return he 
 
 ' Literally rubbed it out, as schoolboys rub out the figures they write in the s;iinl. 
 - Vikraiinxuka-deva Charita, published by Dr. ('i. Hiihler in Bombay.
 
 330 IIISTORY 
 
 learned tliat his hrothcr-in-law had lost his life in a fresh rebellion, and 
 that Rajiga, the lord of Vengi, had taken possession of the throne of 
 Kanchi. \ikrama at once prepared to march himself against the 
 usurper ; hut the latter opened negotiations with Somes'vara, who, 
 thinking a favourable opportunity had offered itself for the destruction 
 of his hated brother, eagerly entered into the alliance. He followed so 
 closely on Vikrama's march to the south, that when the latter came up 
 with Rajiga's army, Somes'vara's forces were encamped not far off in 
 his rear. A terrible battle ensued, in which victory declared for 
 Vikrama ; Rajiga fled and Somes'vara was taken prisoner. Vikrama 
 placed his younger brother, Jayasimha, in the government of Banavase 
 and repaired to Kalyana. He there heard that a svayamvara was 
 proclaimed for Chandralekha or Chandala-devi, daughter of the 
 Silahara prince of Karahata, and possessed of marvellous beauty. He 
 also ascertained that the lady, on hearing of his valiant exploits, had 
 fallen in love with him, and therefore hastened to the festival, where he 
 was chosen as the bridegroom from among the assembled princes of 
 Ayodhya, Chedi, Kanyakubja, Kalinjara, Malava, Gurjara, &c., who, 
 though filled with anger at the result, were restrained from violence 
 through fear of the great Chalukya.^ Next year his brother Jayasimha 
 rebelled, and collecting a large army advanced to the Krishna. 
 Vikrama, being forced in self-defence to take the field against him, a 
 battle was fought, in which Jayasimha was defeated and taken prisoner. 
 The remainder of Vikrama's reign seems to have been peaceful, with 
 the exception of an expedition in loSi against Kanchi and the 
 Pallavas, and one north of the Narmada in 1083. But towards the 
 close he was invaded by the Hoysala king, who was driven back by his 
 general, Achyugi Deva. In his celebrated law book, the Mi'takshara, 
 A'ijnanes'vara, who lived at Kalyana at this period, says, "There has 
 not been, there is not, and there will not be, on the surface of the 
 earth, a city like Kalyana ; and never was a monarch like the prosperous 
 \'ikramarka seen or heard of - 
 
 Soma, called Bhiilokamalla, ^'ikrama's son, succeeded in 11 26 to a 
 kingdom powerful and prosperous on every hand. To him all kings 
 applied the name Sarvajna (all-wise), and he appears to have been of 
 literary tastes, as he was the author of ManasoUasa, on the policy and 
 recreations of kings, in Sanskrit. Jagadekamalla, whose real name 
 does not appear, is described as having taken possession of the Pallava 
 territories. He also repulsed an invasion by the Hoysalas. 
 
 Under Nurmadi Taila or Trailokyamalla, the Chalukya dynasty, 
 
 ^ The names of five other wives of his occur in inscriptions. 
 - Bhandarkar's Early Hist, of the Dekhan.
 
 KALA CRURIS 3 3 r 
 
 which had reached its zenith with the last Vikramaditya, began rapidly 
 to decHne. A powerful noble named Bijjala, of the Kalachurya race, 
 had been appointed general of the Chalukya armies, and the influence 
 which he thereby obtained he turned against his sovereign and expelled 
 him from the throne. This event occurred in 1157. The Chalukya 
 king retired south and maintained himself in the Banavase country. 
 The religious feuds which raged at Kalyana in connection with the 
 establishment of the Lingayit creed kept the hands of the Kalachuryas 
 fully occupied. The Chalukya influence, therefore, was not extin- 
 guished, and Somes'vara, the last of his race, succeeded to the fallen 
 fortunes of his house in 1182. He seems to have had his residence 
 at Annigeri in Dharwad, and later at Kurgod, to the north of Bellary. 
 What ultimately became of him does not appear, but the Hoysalas of 
 Dorasamudra from the south, and the Yadavas of Devagiri from the 
 north, soon closed in upon the disputed dominions ; and the great and 
 powerful Chalukya name disappears from history as that of a dominant 
 power, though certain descendants of the line appear to have ruled in 
 some parts of the Konkan till the middle of the thirteenth century. 
 
 Kalachuris. — The Kalachuris, or Kalabhuris, were one of the 
 royal houses subjected by the Chalukyas on their first arrival in the 
 south. They were apparently connected with the Haihayas in descent. 
 The founder of the line was named Krishna, and is said to have been 
 born of a Brahmani girl by Siva. Professing to be a barber, " he slew 
 in Kalanjara an evil spirit of a king who was a cannibal, and taking 
 possession of his kingdom, reduced the Nine-lakh country of Dahala 
 (Chedi or Bandelkhand) to obedience and ruled in peace." A Chedi 
 or Kalachuri era, dating from 249 a.d.,^ is used in their inscriptions in 
 the north, and is evidence of the antiquity of the family. Among the 
 titles in their inscriptions in Mysore, of which there are many in the 
 north of the country, are the following : — Lord of the city of Kalanjara 
 (the well-known fortress in Bandelkhand), having the flag of a golden 
 bull, S'anivara-siddhi, (liridurgamalla. 
 
 Our history is concerned with the Kalachuris from the lime of Bijjala, 
 who supplanted the Chalukyas in 1151, to 1182, when the line became 
 extinct. The period, though short, is of considerable importance and 
 interest from having seen the birth of the Lingayit religion, which so 
 largely [)revails throughout the Kannada-spcaking countries. 
 
 The following is the list of these kings : — 
 
 ]!ijjala, 15ijjana, Nissanka- Sankania, Nissankamalla 1 176 liSl 
 
 malla, Tribhiivanamalla 1156-1167 j A'havaiiialla, .\imuimalla iiSi 11S3 
 
 Kayamurari Sovi, Somes'vara, | Sintrhana 11S3 
 
 Hhuvanaikanialla I167-1176 | 
 
 • As ilelermined hy rrofessor Kielhoni (.VfV /;'/. /W. , 11, 299).
 
 332 HISTORY 
 
 I'ijjala was a Jain. As has been related, he took advantage of his 
 position as general of the Chalukya armies to usurj) the throne, liut 
 for several years he did not assume the royal titles. It was not till the 
 sixth year of his usurpation, or 1162 that he marched to the south, 
 whither the Chalukya prince had retired, and then proclaimed himself 
 supreme. During his reign, Basava, the son of an A'radhya, came to 
 settle in Kaly;ina, where he became the son-in-law of the chief 
 minister. He had a very beautiful sister named J'admavati, whom 
 Eijjala having seen, became enamoured of and married. Basava thus 
 in course of time was api)ointed chief minister and general. The 
 Raja gave himself up to the charms of his beautiful bride and left all 
 power in the hands of Basava, who employed the opportunity thus 
 afforded him to strengthen his own influence, displacing the old 
 officers of state and putting in adherents of his own, while at the same 
 time he sedulously cultivated the favour of the prince. By these 
 means, and the promulgation of a new faith, as will be elsewhere 
 described, he increased rapidly in power. At length Bijjala's fears were 
 roused, and he made an attempt to seize Basava ; but the latter 
 escaped, and afterwards dispersed the party sent in pursuit. His 
 adherents flocked to him, and Bijjala, advancing in person to quell the 
 insurrection, was defeated and compelled to reinstate the minister in 
 all his dignities. Basava not only resumed his former power and 
 authority, but formed a plot against the life of the king, probably in 
 the hope of becoming supreme in the state as regent during the 
 minority of his nephew, the son of Bijjala and Padmavati. Accounts 
 differ as to the mode in which the king was killed. According to 
 the Jain account, in the Bijjalanka Kdvya, he was poisoned on the 
 banks of the Bhima when returning from a successful expedition 
 against the Silahara chief of Kolhapur : while the Basava Piirdiia 
 of the Lingayits states that he was assassinated by three of Basava's 
 followers. 
 
 Rayamurari Sovi, the son of Bijjala, resolved to revenge his father's 
 death, and Basava fled to Ulive or Vrishabhapura on the Malabar 
 coast. Thither the king pursued him and laid siege to the place. It 
 was reduced to extremity, and Basava in despair threw himself into a 
 well and was drowned. But according to the Lingayits he disappeared 
 into the linga at Sangames'vara, at the junction of the Malprabha 
 and Krishna. The other three kings were brothers of Sovi, and 
 during this period the last Chalukya regained a certain portion of his 
 kingdom, but the territories of both towards the south were absorbed 
 into the dominions of the Hoysalas, who had by this time risen to 
 power in Mysore.
 
 CHOLAS 333 
 
 Cholas. — The Cholas^ were one of the most ancient dynasties known 
 in the south, being mentioned along with the Pandyas in the edicts of 
 As'oka. They were of the Surya-vams'a or Solar line. In the second 
 century their capital was at Uraiyiir (^^'arriore near Trichinopoly), but 
 from the tenth century it was at Tanjore. They appear first to have 
 come into contact with Mysore at about that time, and, strange to say, 
 there arc hardly any earlier annals of the line. The following list 
 contains nearly all that is known of the kings who reigned at the time of 
 their greatest power. They have a great number of titles, but as these 
 apply to more than one king it is difficult to assign each to the right 
 one. 
 
 l';u;iiUaka Rajciulra, Rajadhiraja 1016-1064 
 
 Rajaditya - 950 KuloUuiiga I (1064) 1071-III2 
 
 950- Vikrama III2-1127 
 
 Rajaraja 984-1016 Kulottunga II II27- 
 
 Parantaka, who was perhaps preceded by Vijayalaya and A'dityavarma, 
 
 had the titles Madiraikonda (capturer of Madura) and Koparakesari- 
 
 varma, and is said to have married the daughter of the king of Kerala. 
 
 He conquered the Bana, Vaidumba, Lanka and Pandya kings, the 
 
 latter being named Rajasimha. Rajaditya it appears was Parantaka's 
 
 son. As before related (p. 315) he was killed at Takkola by the Ganga 
 
 king Biltuga, the brother-in-law of the Rashtrakiita king Kannara, who 
 
 had marched into the Mysore country to repel this invasion by the 
 
 Cholas. Kannara thus victorious, assumes in some Tamil inscriptions 
 
 the titles Kachchiyun-Tanjaiyun-konda- (the capturer of Kanchi and 
 
 Tanjore), and seems to have established his power for a time over these 
 
 territories. The Chola succession for the period following Rajaditya's 
 
 death is not clear until Rajaraja, in whose time the Cholas successfully 
 
 invaded all the south, up to Kalinga on the east and the Tungabhadra 
 
 on the west. The Vengi territory was without a ruler, probably as the 
 
 consequence of their incursions, from 973 to 1003. In the end, the 
 
 Chola king's daughter Kundava was married to the Eastern Chalukya 
 
 king ^^imaladitya and the Vengi territory virtually annexed. Meanwhile, 
 
 the king's son Rajendra Chola captured Talakad in about 1004 and 
 
 overthrew the Canga dynasty, taking in consequence the name of 
 
 (iangaikonda-Chola. The whole of Mysore, south of the Kaveri from 
 
 Coorg, and east of a line from about Seringapatam to Nandidroog, was 
 
 overrun and annexed. The policy of the Cholas seems to have been 
 
 to impose their names upon all their conquests. The south of (langa- 
 
 vadi, or that part of the Mysore district, thus acquired the name of 
 
 ' In Us Tamil forni the name is more properly S'oya ; in the Tehigu cuunti)-, Choda. 
 * See paper by Venkayya, C/n: Coll. Mag:, April 1S92.
 
 334 IT/S7VA' V 
 
 MudikoiKjachola-maivjala ; ihc nfjrlh-wcst of the IJangalore district was 
 the Vikramachola-mandala ; the Kolar district was the Nikarilichola- 
 maivlala ; more to the north, and extending beyond Mysore, was the 
 Irattap-idikondachola-mandala. The subdivisions of these larger pro- 
 vinces were called valanad, that is, olanad, or included district. Thus 
 the southern portion of the first above named was the (langaikonda- 
 chola-valanad, while that of the third was the J^y'inkondachola- 
 valanad. Towns were treated in the same way, so that Talakad 
 became Rdjanijapura ; Manalur (Makirpatna near Channapatna) 
 became Nikarilicholapura, but Kolar seems to have retained its original 
 name of Kuvalala. The list of Rajaraja's conquests, that is, those made 
 in his reign, as given in his inscriptions, are Gangavadi, Rattavadi, 
 Malenad, Nolambavadi, Andhra, Kongu, Kalinga, and Pandya, as well 
 as Vengai, Tadikaipadi, Kollam (Quilon) and Ila (Ceylon). But of 
 course only portions of some of these were subdued. This king had 
 the title K6virajakesarivarma. 
 
 He was succeeded by his son Rajendra Chola, who had been his 
 father's principal general, aided by a brother, perhaps Rajadhiraja, 
 unless this was a name assumed by himself in the latter part of his 
 reign. The conquests he claims to have made are : Yedatore, Vanavasi, 
 Kollipaki, and Manne (Nelamangala taluq). He also seized the crown 
 of the king and queen of Ila, together with a celebrated crown and 
 necklace which the Pandya king had given up to theni; and also took 
 possession of a crown and necklace which were heirlooms worn by the 
 Kerala kings, and another crown of pure gold which Paras'urama had 
 placed in one of the islands of the western coast. He boasts of having 
 put to flight the Western Chalukya king Jayasimha at Mus'angi, 
 as previously related. His daughter Anmianga was married to the 
 Eastern Chalukya king Rajaraja,^ who was the son of his sister. 
 Later on, another daughter, Rajasundari, was married to the Kalinga 
 Ganga king Rajaraja,' but this was not accompanied with submission 
 to the Chola power, though their son was called Chola-Ganga. 
 Rajendra Chola had, among others, the title Koparakesarivarma and 
 Madhurantaka. 
 
 The next king was Kulottunga Chola. He was the son of the 
 Eastern Chalukya king Rajaraja and Ammanga, and was called 
 Rajendra Chola' before coming to the throne. He ruled at Vengi at 
 first, and did not take possession of the Chola throne till 107 1. He 
 may possibly be the Rajiga whose name is prominent in connection 
 with the expeditions of the Western Chalukya prince ^'ikramaditya, as 
 
 1 Great confusion has arisen from the repetition of these same names in different 
 families.
 
 #
 
 HOYS A LAS 335 
 
 having attempted to estai)li.sh himself at Kanchi. If so, other claimants 
 to the Chola throne must have existed, who eventually were remo\ed 
 and the way opened for his peaceful coronation. He married 
 Madhurantaki, daughter of the ("hola king Rajendra. Most of his 
 inscriptions in Mysore begin thus : — "The goddess Fame shining upon 
 him, the goddess Victory desiring him, the goddess Earth abiding with 
 him, the goddess Fortune wedded to him ; the wearer of the diamond 
 crown, having destroyed the Villavas (the Cheras), swaying his sceptre, 
 having made a victorious coronation, seated on his throne together 
 with his queen consort," expressions betokening a firmly established 
 and peaceful sovereignty, which in this reign reached its zenith. 
 
 His eldest son Vikrama Chola next came to the throne, but the 
 younger sons had, in imitation of his own beginning, been appointed 
 viceroys of Vengi. The second son Rajaraja thus ruled there in 
 succession to Vijayaditya for only one year, 1077 to 1078, as he did 
 not like it and returned to the south. The third son \'\x\x Chola was 
 then appointed and remained there till at least iioo. It was during 
 the time of ^'ikrama Chola, or before i 1 1 7, that the Hoysalas recovered 
 Talakad, driving out the Cholas from the Mysore country. Kulottunga 
 Chola II, son of \'ikrama, came to the throne in 1127, but we are no 
 further concerned with this line, whose power, indeed, now greatly 
 declined and was never again what it had been. 
 
 Hoysalas. — This dynasty, like that of the Kadambas, was essentially 
 Mysorean, and ruled this country with great glory from the nth to the 
 14th century. Their native place was Soseviir, or Sasaka])ura, which 
 1 have identified with Angadi in the Western Chats, in the Manjarabad 
 country (now in the south of Mudgere taluq). The earlier kings were 
 fains. They claim to be Yadavas, and therefore of the Lunar line. 
 The founder of the family was Sala, and the exploit which raised him 
 to a throne is related in numerous inscriptions, doing one day to 
 worship Vasantika, his family goddes.s, whose temple was in the forest 
 near Sasakapura, his devotions were interrupted by a tiger, which 
 bounded out of the jungle glaring with rage. The yati or priest of the 
 temple, snatching up a saldki (a slender iron rod), gave it to the chief, 
 saying in the Karnataka language Iioy Sala (strike, Sala I), on which 
 the latter discharged the weapon with such force at the tiger as to kill 
 him on the spot. From this circumstance he adopted the name 
 Hoysala,^ formed from the words of the yati's exclamation, and the 
 dynasty so called, descended from him, had a tiger {.uinfula) as the 
 device on their flag. The following is the list of the kings, with their 
 dates, as determined by me from inscriptions : 
 
 ' The older form is I'o\->ala. whicti is the s-inu' woid.
 
 Narasimha II 1220 1235 
 
 Somes' vara 1 233-1 254 
 
 Narasimha III 1254-1291 
 
 Ballala III 1 291- 1342 
 
 Ballala I\', Vin'ipaksha 
 
 Ballala 1343 
 
 336 HISTORY 
 
 Sala, I'.iysala, Hoysala 1007 ! Ballala II I172-1219 
 
 Mnayadilya, Trihiiuvana- 
 
 nialla 1047 i lOO 
 
 Ballala I iioi 1104 
 
 liilti Dcva, Vishnuvardliana, 
 
 Vira (iaiiga, Trihhuvaiia- 
 
 malla 1 104 1 141 
 
 Narasimha I 1136-1171 
 
 Of the reign of Sala we have no very reh'able records, except that 
 Hoysala-mahadevi, probably a daughter of his, was in 1047 the queen 
 of the Chalukya king Trailokyamalla. We also know that the Hoysalas 
 were at first feudatories of the Chalukyas. Pmt a narrative in the 
 Mackenzie MSS. states that the tiger Sala killed had committed such 
 ravages in the neighbourhood that the people were afraid to assemble 
 for the annual festival of Vasantika. Being now freed from the scourge 
 by the valour of Sala, they gladly agreed, at the instance of the yati, to 
 pay a contribution to their deliverer of one fanam (4 as. 8 p.) a year 
 for each family. This seemed so trifling a reward for the important 
 service rendered, that the second year it was doubled, the third year 
 trebled, and so on for five years. Hoysala had faithfully placed what 
 he received each year at the yati's feet, and in the second year had been 
 ordered to use the money in raising a small force. This having been 
 increased by the end of the fifth year to a respectable number, Hoysala 
 was directed to rebuild the ruined city of Devarapuri (? Dvarapuri), and 
 was informed that he would discover a large treasure for the purpose 
 among the ruins, to be applied to fortifying it. This may have been the 
 I )varasamudra, Dorasamudra, or Dvaravati (now Halebid, Belur taluq), 
 which became the Hoysala capital. 
 
 ^'inayaditya, Hoysala's son, succeeded to the throne, and having 
 conquered the Malapas, ruled over a territory bounded by Konkana, 
 A'lvakheda, Bayalnad, Talakad and Sdvimale.^ The title Malaparol- 
 ganda is assumed by all the Hoysalas and used alone on some of their 
 coins. These Malapas or hill-chiefs may have been the Danayaks of 
 tradition, who, after the overthrow of the Ganga power, sought to 
 establish a kingdom of their own in the south and west of ]\Iysore. 
 There were nine brothers, the Nava Danayak, and their stronghold was 
 Bettadakote on the Gopalswdmi hill. Bhima Danayak, one of four of 
 the brothers, the chief of whom was named Perumal Danayak, and who 
 
 ' The original is Konkanadalvakhedadabayalmida^ &c. If, as is natural to suppose, 
 four boundaries are meant, two, those of the east and west, must be found in these 
 words. They may be- east, Konkana and the A'lva tableland, i.e., the tableland of 
 South Kanara ; west, the plain country, i.e., of Mysore. The hill Savimale, which 
 continued for a long time to be the Hoysala boundary on the north, has not been 
 identified. Possibly it had some connection with Savanur.
 
 HO YSALAS 337 
 
 had quarrelled with the other five, gained possession of Nagarapura 
 (Nanjangud) and Ratnapuri (Hedatale) and set up a separate govern- 
 ment. After a time they returned to attack Bettadakote, which, after 
 a siege of three years, was taken by stratagem. Mancha Danayak, who 
 conducted the defence, seeing the citadel taken, leaped from the hill 
 on horseback and was killed.^ The four victorious Danayaks, placing 
 a junior member of the family in the government of 15ettadak6te, set 
 forth on expeditions of conquest, in the course of which it is said that 
 they penetrated as far as Goa on the north ; to Davasi-betta (the 
 southern limit of Coorg) on the south ; to the Bisale Cihat (in the north- 
 west of Coorg) on the west ; and to the pass of Satyamangala (north-east 
 of the Nilagiris) on the east. Vinayaditya is said to have taken 
 pleasure in constructing tanks and buildings, and in forming populous 
 towns. The temples he built were on so large a scale that the pits dug 
 for making bricks became tanks, mountains quarried for stone became 
 level with the ground, the paths by which the mortar carts went to and 
 fro became ravines. This calls to mind the splendidly carved temples 
 of Halebid, the principal one still remaining being the Hoysales'vara, a 
 memorial of the founder of the family. Vinayaditya's wife was 
 Keleyabbe or Keleyala Devi, and they had a son, Ereyanga. 
 
 The latter was appointed Yuvaraja in 1062, but seems to have held that 
 position for thirty-three years and never to have come to the throne, as 
 his father outlived him. Ereyanga is described as a right hand to the 
 Chalukya king, and must have been a principal commander in the 
 Chalukya army, for he is said to have burnt Dhara, the city of the 
 Malava king ; struck terror into Chola, who was eager for war ; laid 
 waste Chakragotta, and broken the king of Kalinga. Ereyanga's wife 
 was Echala Devi, by whom he had three sons, Ballala, Bitti Deva, and 
 Udayaditya. Ballala succeeded his grandfather Vinayaditya, but did 
 not live long, and Udayaditya died in 1123. Ereyanga's second son, 
 Bitti Deva, came to the throne in 1 104 on the death of his elder 
 brother, and proved to be one of the most powerful rulers of his time. 
 
 His capacity had been early discerned by the valiant Chalukya 
 prince Vikramaditya, who is said to have remarked to his attendants, 
 " Know the Hoysala alone to be invincible among all the princes." 
 He soon set out on an extensive range of conquests over all the 
 neighbouring countries. His general Ganga Raja, having captured 
 Talakad, the former capital of the Gangas, he drove out the Cholas 
 and took possession of the Ganga kingdom, assuming the title of Vira 
 Ganga. Southwards, he subdued Kongu (Salem), Koyatiir (Coimba- 
 tore), and Nilddri (the Nilagiris) ; westwards, the Male and Tulu 
 
 ' The site of this leap is still pointed out. 
 
 Z
 
 338 HISTORY 
 
 countries (Malabar and South Kanara) ; eastwards, Kolalapura, 
 Nangali and Kanchipura ; northwards, Vengiri, Uchchangi, Virata, 
 Polalu, Bankapura, and Banavase. In short, he is described as burning 
 to emulate the Sauvi'ra kings, as having " trodden the earth to dust with 
 the squadrons of his Kamboja horse," and "overwhelmed his enemies 
 as if the great deep had been broken up, the coursers of the sun being 
 borne away in the deluge, and all the points of the compass filled with 
 the sounds of their neighing." The boundaries of his kingdom in 
 1 1 1 7 are thus stated, — the lower ghat of Nangali on the east ; Kongu, 
 Cheram, A'namale on the south ; the Barkaniir ghat road of Konkana 
 on the west ; and Savimale on the north. The provinces over which 
 he ruled, as named in numerous inscriptions, were Talakad, Kongu, 
 Nangali, Gangavadi, Nolambavadi, Masavadi (perhaps Morasavadi), 
 Huligere, Halasige, Banavase and Hanungal. This includes the whole 
 of Mysore, with most of Salem, Coimbatore, Bellary and Dharwar. 
 Coins of his have been found bearing on the reverse the legends 
 s ri-Talakddu-goiida and s' ri-Nonambavddi-gonda. He virtually made 
 himself independent, but in the north of their territory the Hoysalas 
 continued to acknowledge the Chalukya sovereignty in their inscrip- 
 tions until the time of Ballala II. 
 
 An important event in his career was his conversion from the Jain 
 faith to that of Vishnu by the apostle Ramanujacharya, who had taken 
 refuge in the Hoysala territory from the persecutions of the Chola 
 king, an uncompromising S'aiva. This step, accompanied by a 
 change of his name to Vishnuvardhana, by which he is principally 
 known, was probably taken in about in 7. Different reasons are 
 given for it. One is that he had a daughter who was possessed : the 
 Jains being unable to effect her cure, it was undertaken by Ramanuja, 
 who cast out the evil spirit, and further, in eighteen days of public 
 disputation, refuted the Jains and convicted them of heresy ; those 
 who after this would not submit being ground in oil-mills. Another 
 version is, that the king had a Vaishnava wife who, by instigation of 
 Ramanuja, hinted to him that the Jain priests were so haughty they 
 would not even accept food at his hands. He was indignant at the idea 
 and resolved to put it to the proof. Now the king had lost a finger, 
 a mutilation that would prevent the Jain priests from eating with him. 
 When, therefore, he found himself dishonoured by a refusal of his 
 invitation, he went over in resentment to the other side, and abandoned 
 the Jains to persecution. Ramanuja demolished nearly all tne Jain 
 temples at the capital, said to have been 720 in number, and used the 
 stones in embanking the large tank. The succeeding kings professed 
 both the Vaishnava and the S'aiva creeds ; but there was much religious
 
 HO YSALAS 339 
 
 toleration and the Jains were often recipients of the royal favour. 
 They were probably too numerous and influential to be ignored. 
 
 The character of the times and the government is illustrated by the 
 following story : — Siva, it is said, appeared to a poor but holy Brahman, 
 named Vishnus'arma, who was performing penance in the Chandradrona 
 (Baba Budan) mountains, and presented him with a vessel containing 
 siddarasa (mercury), explaining to him how it would convert iron into gold. 
 The poor man, delighted, went to the capital with his treasure tied up in a 
 bundle, which he placed for safety in a blacksmith's shop while preparing 
 his meal. But the heat of the forge caused the substance to melt, and a 
 drop or two falling out on some iron converted it at once to gold. The 
 blacksmith and his family thereupon examined the bundle, and discovering 
 what it contained secretly removed it and set fire to the hut. When the 
 Brahman returned to claim his bundle he was informed that everything had 
 been burnt. But on his making the matter known to the king, the black- 
 smith was ordered to be produced. He was beaten and tortured, but 
 without effect, when the person in whose house the bundle had been con- 
 cealed brought and laid it before the king, who ordered it to be at once 
 restored to the owner. The Brahman, astonished at such generosity, 
 made a present of it to the king, who in return gave him a valuable estate. 
 Vishnuvardhana, deeming himself now provided with the means of obtain- 
 ing wealth to any extent, sent for all the farmers and informed them that 
 instead of the usual assessment he should require them in future to deliver 
 up to him annually their old ploughshares, and on this condition they 
 might cultivate to any extent. (The well, it is said, may be pointed out 
 into which the ploughshares used to be cast I) 
 
 I cannot help considering the story to have some reference to gold- 
 mining. Though traces of this industry exist in so many parts, as 
 previously described under Geology, and although we know that vast 
 sums of gold must have been obtained by the old governments, yet 
 no mention of it is met with in the thousands of inscriptions that I 
 have examined. It was, therefore, no doubt a royal monopoly and 
 kept secret. 
 
 Vishnuvardhana's first wife was S'antala Devi, a Jain, who died in 
 1 131, apparently without any surviving male issue. He subsequently 
 married Lakuma or Lakshmi Devi, who was the mother of Narasimha, 
 the son who succeeded him. His death occurred at Bankapura in 
 1 141. Narasimha, born apparently in 1136, seems to have been 
 considered as on the throne from the time of his birth. He inherited 
 a secure and peaceful kingdom, and except that some expedition may 
 have been made in the direction of Devagiri, not much is said of 
 events in his reign. On the other hand he is described as being like a 
 god, enjoying the pleasures of the gods. His queen was Echala Devi, 
 and they had a son Vira Ballala, who became one of the most
 
 340 /f /STORY 
 
 distinguislicd of Uic Hoysala kings, and after whom they are sometimes 
 called the Ballala kings. 
 
 Vi'ra Ballala came to the throne in 1172. He gained important 
 victories to the north over the Kalachurya and Yadava forces, and 
 carried the Hoysala kingdom up to and V)eyond the Peddore or 
 Krishna, establishing his residence at Lokkigundi (Lakkundi in 
 Dharwar). On the defeat of the Kalachuryas he assumed their titles 
 of S'anivarasiddhi and (liridurgamalla. He also defeated Jaitugi, son of 
 the Yadava king, at Lokkigundi, and thus acquired the sovereignty of 
 Kuntala. He moreover gained a great victory at Soratur over Sevuna. 
 the general of Jaitugi, and pursuing him to the banks of the Krishna, 
 there slew him. He further reduced all the hill forts about the 
 Tungabhadra, and subduing the Pandya who was ruling at Uchchangi, 
 restored to him his power. Ballala's wife was Padmala Devi, by whom 
 he had a son, Narasimha, born in 1183, who succeeded him in 1220. 
 The events of his reign are the overthrow of Pandya, who had taken 
 refuge with the Kadava (that is, the Pallava) army, and the subjuga- 
 tion of the Kadava and Makara kings, with the setting on his throne 
 of Chola, who had been covered up under the clouds of dust raised by 
 his enemies : also the erection of a pillar of victory at Setu (Adam's 
 Bridge). Whatever the transactions referred to were, the Hoysalas 
 always after this call themselves upsetters of the Pandya kingdom and 
 setters up of the Chola kingdom. The conquests of the previous 
 reign beyond the Tungabhadra seem to have reverted to the Yadavas. 
 Narasimha's wife was Lokambika, and their son was Somes'vara. He 
 is said to have fought against Krishna-Kandhara, who was a Yadava 
 king, and whose general claims to have acquired the territory of the 
 turbulent Hoysalas and to have set up pillars of victory as far as the 
 Kaveri. But Somes' vara's power was absolute to the south, where he 
 took up his residence at Kannanur or Vikramapura in the Chola 
 country, a place that has been identified as being close to Srirangam 
 near Trichinopoly.^ The boundaries of his kingdom in 1237 are given 
 as Kanchi in the east, Yelavura (Belur) in the west, the Peddore in the 
 north, and Chalas'eravi (probably in the south of the Malabar district) 
 on the south. By the Peddore is generally understood the Krishna, 
 but as the name literally means only Big River, we must suppose it to 
 be used here ambiguously and to refer to the Tungabhadra. His chief 
 queen was Bijjala Devi, but he had a wife named Somala Devi when he 
 went to live at Vikramapura, and also a wife Devala-mahadevi, a 
 Chalukya princess.- 
 
 He had two sons, between whom his territories seem to have been 
 » By Dr. Hultzsch, Ep. fiid.. Ill, 9. * loc. at.
 
 HOYS A LAS 341 
 
 divided, probably by mutual agreement subsequent to his death. 
 Narasimha III, his son by Bijjali, continued in the ancestral kingdom 
 with his capital at Dorasamudra, while Ramanna or Ramandtha (who 
 ruled from 1255 to 1294), his son by Devala-mahadevi, obtained 
 the Tamil country on the south, together with the Kolar and part of 
 the Bangalore districts in the east of the Mysore country. His 
 inscriptions are generally in Grantha and Tamil characters.^ The reigns 
 of the two kings seem to have been peaceful, but it was the lull before 
 the storm. In the reign of Ballala III, son of Narasimha, the Hoysala 
 power was brought to an end. The whole kingdom seems to have 
 been united again under him, as he is credited with certain 
 conquests, including Perundurai (which is in the Coimbatore district). 
 To account for the destruction which shortly befell the Hoysalas, the 
 following story is related : — 
 
 The king's sister, married to the .S'enji raja, was now a widow. She there- 
 fore came on a visit to her brother, accompanied by her two sons, Lakkana 
 and Virana, who were very handsome young men. One of the king's wives 
 conceived a guilty passion for them, but her advances being alike repelled 
 by each in turn, her love changed to hate, and she denounced them to the 
 king as having made overtures to her. The king, justly enraged, ordered 
 them to be at once impaled, and their bodies exposed like those of common 
 malefactors at one of the city gates. Hearing what had happened, their 
 unfortunate mother hastened to the palace lo demand an inquiry and 
 justice. But it was too late, the fatal order had been executed, and she 
 was not only put out of the palace, but the inhabitants were forbidden to 
 give her any assistance. In the agony of despair she wandered from street 
 to street, invoking the vengeance of the Almighty on her brother, and 
 predicting the speedy downfall of his empire. Arriving at the potters' 
 street, worn with fatigue and sorrow, she requested and received a draught 
 of water, in return for which act of kindness she declared that in the 
 destruction of the capital that street should be spared. It is the only one 
 that has survived. 
 
 In 1 3 10 the Hoysala dominions were invaded by a Muhammadan 
 army under Kafur, the general of Ald-udT)in, the second king of the 
 house of Khilji or second Pathan dynasty. A great battle was fought, in 
 which the Hoysala king was defeated and taken prisoner. Dorasamudra 
 was sacked, and the enemy returned to Delhi literally laden with gold. 
 
 From an inscription of 1316 it appears that Narasimha rebuilt the 
 capital, having taken up his residence meanwhile at Belur. But in 
 1326, another expedition, sent by Muhammad III, of the house of 
 Toghlak, completely demolished the city. The king then retired to 
 
 ' Ranianalha's wife was Kamala-tlcvi, daughter of Ariya-I'illai, and she had a 
 sister, Chikka Somala-devi. Raniandtha's own sister was Ponnambala-mahadevi. 
 /:■/. /W., Ill, 9.
 
 342 IlIsrORY 
 
 'I'ondanur ('roninir), north of Scringapatani, at the foot of the Yadava 
 liills. In 1329, however, we find him residing at Unnamale (Tiruvanna- 
 malai, Trinomalce, South Arcot district). There is a record of a son 
 of his, Vira Virilpaksha ]}allala, said to have been crowned in 1343, 
 l>ut as the Vijayanagar power arose in 1336, the Hoysalas now 
 disappear from history. 
 
 Yadavas. — This Hne of kings claim descent from Krishna, tiirough 
 Subdhu, a universal monarch, who divided his empire between his 
 four sons. The second son, Dridhaprahara, obtained the south, and 
 his descendants ruled over the Seuna or Sevuna country, extending 
 from Nasik to Devagiri. He was succeeded by twenty-two kings of 
 his line, down to Bhillama,' who was contemporary with the Hoysala 
 king Vira Ballala II., and from whose time alone the history of Mysore 
 is concerned with the dynasty. They style themselves lords of 
 Dvaravati (the capital of Krishna, not that of the Hoysalas), and their 
 standard bore the device of a golden garuda. They overcame the 
 Kalachuryas and became masters of all the western Dekhan, having 
 their capital at Devagiri, the ancient Tagara, now known as Daulatabad. 
 The following is the list of the kings : — 
 
 Bhillama 1187-1191 | Mahadeva 1260- 127 1 
 
 Ramachandra, Rama Deva 1 271- 1309 
 S'ankara 1309-13 12 
 
 Jaitugi, Jaitrapala 1191-1210 
 
 Singhana 12 10-1247 
 
 Kandhara, Kanhara, Krishna 1247- 1260 
 
 We have already referred to the severe struggles that took place 
 between the Hoysala and Yadava armies for the possession of the 
 Chalukya-Kalachurya dominions, and how Vira Ballala, by a series of 
 victories over the forces of Bhillama and Jaitugi, carried his conquests 
 up to and beyond the Krishna. Later the Yadavas gained the advan- 
 tage, and the Hoysalas were forced to retire to the south of the 
 Tungabhadra. The earliest of the Yadava inscriptions in Mysore are 
 of the time of Singhana, and he probably took advantage of Vira 
 Ballala's death to extend his power to the south. In this and the 
 succeeding reigns a portion of the north-west of Mysore was 
 permanently in their possession. Kandhara was Singhana's grandson. 
 He describes himself as thruster out of the Hoysala king and restorer 
 of the Telunga king (Ganapati of Orangal). His general also boasts 
 of subduing the Rattas, the Kadambas of the Konkana, the Pandyas 
 of Gutti, and the turbulent Hoysalas, and setting up pillars of victory 
 near the Kaveri. Mahadeva was Kandhara's younger brother, and 
 attempted to establish his own son on the throne after him. But 
 Ramachandra, son of Kandhara, secured it. In his time the seat of 
 the Yadava government in Mysore was at Betur, near I^avangere. 
 
 1 Cf. Bhandarkar's Early Hist, of the Dekhan.
 
 VABA VAS 343 
 
 His general, Saluva Tikkama, professes to have captured Dorasamudra, 
 and obtained a tribute from it of all manner of wealth, especially 
 horses and elephants. That he made a victorious expedition to the 
 south is probable, but whether it extended so far is uncertain. 
 
 It was in the time of Ramachandra that the Muhammadans first 
 appeared in the Dekhan. Ala-ud-I)in, nephew of Jalal ud-Din Khilji, 
 the founder of the second Pathan dynasty, resolved in 1294 to attempt 
 the conquest of the Dekhan, and in order to throw the enemy off their 
 guard, pretended to leave his uncle in disgust. Suddenly changing 
 his course to the west, he appeared before Devagiri. The Raja was 
 quite unprepared, but hastily collected a small army, and after vainly 
 trying to oppose the enemy near the city, retired to the fort, carrying 
 in a great quantity of sacks belonging to passing traders, believed to 
 contain grain, but really filled with salt. Ala-ud-Din plundered the 
 town, levying heavy contributions on the merchants, and besieged 
 the fort. He at the same time gave out that a larger army was follow- 
 ing, and thus induced Rama Deva to offer 50 maunds of gold to buy 
 him off. Meanwhile, the Raja's son, S'ankara Deva, arrived with a 
 large force, and, contrary to his father's advice, attacked the Muham- 
 madans. Though successful at first, he was defeated. Ala-ud-Din now 
 raised his demands, but the contest might have been prolonged had not 
 the troops in the fort discovered to their surprise that their provision 
 was salt and not grain. At last it was agreed that the enemy should 
 retire on receipt of 600 maunds of pearls, 2 of jewels, 1,000 of silver, 
 4,000 pieces of silk, etc., besides an annual tribute to be sent to Delhi. 
 
 How the aged J^^kil-ud-Din came forth to welcome his victorious 
 nephew, and how the latter, with the basest treachery, assassinated him 
 while making professions of attachment, are matters of history. Aki-ud- 
 Din, seated on the throne, again sent an expedition in 1306 against 
 Devagiri, which had withheld the promised tribute. It was com- 
 manded by Malik Kafur, surnamed Hazar Dinari,' a eunuch. He had 
 been the slave of a merchant, and taken prisoner in the conquest of 
 (iujarat ; but having attracted the king's notice, was speedily raised to 
 the highest offices in the state. 
 
 Kafur overran the whole country, and Rama Deva, finding resistance 
 hopeless, submitted, and offered to go to Delhi. He was there received 
 with distinction and restored to his kingdom with additional honours, 
 which kept him faithful during the rest of his life. In this expedition 
 occurred an incident deserving to be mentioned. On the conquest of 
 (iujarat, that raja's wife, Kaula Devi, had been taken captive, and being 
 admitted to Ala-ud- Din's harem, by her beauty and talent gained his 
 
 ' A thousand i/iimis, tluit being the price for which he had l)een bought as a slave.
 
 344 msroK y 
 
 favour. She had charged the commander during this expedition to 
 recover her daughter by the Gujarat raja, who had been long sought in 
 marriage by S'ankara, the son of Rama Deva, but refused, as she was a 
 Raj{)ut. Now, however, the Gujarat raja in his exile had consented, 
 and sent her under an escort to I )evagiri. No clue could be gained 
 as to where she was, when a party from the camp going to see the 
 caves of EUora, by chance fell in with the escort. They were forced to 
 fight in self-defence, and captured the princess. But it was not till 
 afterwards they knew the value of the prize. The girl was carried off 
 to Delhi, where the king's son, Khizr Khan, being brought up with 
 her, became enamoured of her and ultimately married her. Their 
 loves are the subject of a celebrated Persian poem by Amir Khusru. 
 
 In 1309, the army under Malik Kafur passed through Devagiri on 
 its way to the conquest of Orangal, and was hospitably entertained by 
 Rama Deva. But the following year S'ankara Deva came to the throne, 
 and the army being on its way to the conquest of Dorasamudra he was 
 less friendly. Soon after he withheld the tribute, on which Kafur a 
 fourth time marched into the Dekhan, in 13 12, seized S'ankara Deva, 
 put him to death, and took up his own residence in Devagiri. 
 
 In 13 1 6 Haripala, the son-in-law of Rama Deva, in common with 
 many of the conquered princes, raised the standard of revolt in the 
 Dekhan and recovered their possessions, expelling the Muhammadan 
 governors. The paroxysms of rage into which Ala-ud-Din was thrown 
 by this intelligence brought on his death, hastened, it is said, by poison 
 administered by Kafur. The latter attempted to place himself next on 
 the throne, but he was assassinated, and Mubarak succeeded. In 1318 
 he marched into the Dekhan, took Haripala prisoner, and ordered him 
 to be flayed alive and his head put up over the gate of his own capital. 
 Thus ended the line of the Yadavas of Devagiri, and in 1338 Muham- 
 mad Toghlak removed the capital of his empire from Delhi to Devagiri, 
 giving it the name of Daulatabad. 
 
 Yijayanagar. — The last great Hindu sovereignty of the south was 
 founded in 1336, and brings us back, after a lapse of more than two 
 thousand five hundred years, to the site of Kishkindha, whose annals 
 engaged our attention near the beginning of this historical survey. 
 Though the details vary, all accounts attribute the origin of the Vijaya- 
 nagar empire to two persons named Hakka and Bukka, assisted by the 
 celebrated scholar Madhava, surnamed ^'idyaranya, or forest of learn- 
 ing.^ Hakka and Bukka, of whom the former assumed the name of 
 
 ' The capital was apparently called Vidydnagara (city of learning) at first, in 
 honour of the sage Vidyaranya, who was chiefly instrumental in its foundation ; but 
 by a natural transition it passed ere lonq; into Vijayanat^ara (city of victory), the
 
 VIJAYANAGAR 345 
 
 Harihara, were the sons of Sangama, described as of the Yadava line 
 and the Lunar race. The earhest of the inscriptions of the Vijayanagar 
 kings are found north and west of Mysore, and they were probal)ly 
 Mysorean by origin and feudatories of the Hoysalas. Dorasamudra and 
 Orangal, the respective capitals of Karnataka and Telingana, had fallen 
 a prey at about the same time to the Muhammadans. But amid the 
 general revolts occasioned by the rash measures of Muhammad 
 Toghlak, the two brothers Harihara and Bukka took advantage of a 
 period of public commotion to lay the foundation of a new State : to 
 which they were moved by the sage Madhava or ^'idyaranya, who, 
 besides experience and talent, may have brought pecuniary aid to the 
 undertaking. He belonged to the school of S'ankardchdrya, and was 
 the jagat guru of Sringeri (Kadur district), the members of which 
 establishment, alarmed, as \\'ilson remarks, by the increasing numbers 
 of the Jangamas and Jains, and the approach of the Muhammadans, 
 may have contributed their wealth and influence to the aggrandisement 
 of the sons of Sangama.^ 
 
 The site selected for the new capital was a remarkable one, on the 
 banks of the Pampa or Tungabhadra, where the ancient Kishkindha 
 had stood. In the words of an inscription, " its rampart was 
 Hemakuta, its moat the auspicious Tungabhadra, its guardian the 
 world-protector Virupaksha, its ruler the great king of kings Harihara."'-' 
 The Vijayanagar sovereigns adopted the vard/ia or boar as the emblem 
 
 Bijanagar of IMuhammadan historians, and the Bisnagar of the l-iench. It is also 
 commonly known as Anegundi, properly the name of a village on the other side i>l 
 the river, said to have been the capital of the Yavanas, regarding whom so little is 
 known. Anegundi, a Kannada name meaning "elephant pit," was translatetl into 
 Sanskrit as llastinapura and Ilaslinavati, which is the designation in the Maha 
 
 harata of the capital of the I'andus, near Delhi. 
 
 ' Madhava succeeded to the pontifical throne of Sringeri in 1331, at the age of 36, 
 and lived till 1386. I lis brother Sayana was the most celebrated commentator on 
 the \'edas. 
 
 - The whole of the extensive site occupied by the ruins of Bijanagar on the soulii 
 bank of the Tungabhadra, and of its suliurb Anegundi on the northern bank, is 
 occupied by great bare piles and bosses of granite and granitoidal gneiss, sejiaraled 
 by rocky defdes and rugged valleys, encumbered by precijiitated masses of rock. 
 Some of the larger flat-bottomed valleys are irrigated by aqueducts from the river, and 
 apjjear like so many verdant oases in this Arabia I'etnva of Southern India. Indeed 
 some parts of the wilderness of Sinai reminded me, l)Ut on a far grander scale, of this 
 huddled asseml)lage of bare granite rocks on the banks of the Tungabhadra. The 
 formation is the same ; the scantiness of vegetation, the arid aspect of the bare rocks, 
 and the green spots marking the presence of s])rings few and far between in the 
 depths of the valleys, are features common to both localities. 
 
 The peaks, tors and logging stones of Bijanagar and Anegundi indent the horizon 
 in picturesque confusion, and are scarcely to be distinguished from the more arliticial 
 ruins of the ancient Hindu metropolis of the Deccan, which are usually constructed with
 
 346 
 
 JflSTORY 
 
 on the royal signet, and their family god was Virupaksha, the name 
 under which Siva was worshiped in a celebrated temple erected at the 
 capital. Their grants are signed S'r'i Viri'tpdksha. Among their titles 
 were, ari-raya-vibhdda^ bhdshe^e tappuva rdyara ganda, pi'trvapas' chiiiia- 
 dixkshima-samudrddhipati^ Hindu-rdya-Suratrdna. 
 
 The following is the list of the Vijayanagar kings, based upon the 
 evidence of inscriptions, but some dates may require slight readjust- 
 ment when our information is complete : — - 
 
 Haiihara I, Hakka, Haii- 
 
 yappa 1336-135" 
 
 Bukka Raya I, TUikka Raya 
 
 Odeyar I350-I379 
 
 Ilarihara II, Hariyapjia 
 
 Odeyar 1379-1405 
 
 Deva Raya I, Bukka II, 
 
 Pratapa Deva Raya 1406-1415 
 
 \'ijaya Raya I 1416-1417 
 
 Deva Raya II, Praudha Deva 
 
 Raya, Pratapa Deva Raya 1417-1446 
 Mallikarjuna, Vijaya Raya 
 
 II, Immadi Deva Raya, 
 
 Iinniadi Praudha Deva 
 
 Raya 
 
 \'irupaksha 
 
 Narasa, Narasimha I, 
 
 Narasimha II, Immadi \ar- 
 
 asinga 
 Krishna Raya 
 iVchyula Raya 
 Sadas'iva Raya (Rama Raja 
 
 till 1565, Tirumala Raja 
 
 from 1566) 
 S'ri Ranga Raya I 
 ^'enkatapati Raya I 
 Rama Deva 
 Venkatapati Raya II 
 S'ri Ranga Raya II 
 
 I 468- I 479 
 I 479- I 487 
 
 1 488- 1 508 
 1 508-1 529 
 1 530- 1 542 
 
 1542-1574 
 1574-1585 
 1585-1614 
 1615-1625 
 1626-1639 
 I 639- I 664 
 
 I 446- I 467 
 
 Sangama, by his wife Kamambika,' had five sons, Harihara, Kanipa, 
 Bukka, Marappa, and Muddapa. Harihara was the first ruler of the 
 Vijayanagar State, and was succeeded by Bukka. Kampa acquired 
 territory in the Nellore and Kadapa districts, and was succeeded by his 
 son Sangama, whose minister was Sayana, the brother of Madhava. 
 Marappa conquered the Kadamba territories, and ruled at Chandra- 
 gutti (Shimoga district). What became of Muddapa does not appear. 
 Harihara is said to have defeated the Sultan, a reference to his driving 
 the Muhammadans out of Orangal in conjunction with a confederacy of 
 Hindu chiefs who collected an immense force for the purpose. 
 Bukka Raya in 1355 was ruling from Hosapattana in the Hoysana 
 country (perhaps Hosur, Goribidnur taluq), said to be the capital of 
 Nijagali Kataka Raya. In 1368 he reconciled some serious disputes 
 between the Jainas and the Vaishnavas, " taking the hand of the 
 Jainas and placing it in the hand of the Vaishnavas."- The Jains are 
 
 blocks quarried from their sides, and vie in grotesqueness of outline and massiveness 
 of character with the alternate airiness and solidity exhibited by nature in the nicely 
 poised logging stones and columnar piles, and in the walls of prodigious cuboidal 
 blocks of granite, which often crest and top her massive domes and ridges in natural 
 Cyclopean masonry. — Newbold,y. A. S. B., xiv. 
 
 * One inscription says he had five sons by S'arada. Tliis is the name under whic 
 Sarasvati is worshipped as the tutelary goddess of Sringeri. 
 
 ■■^ Ins. at Sr. Be/., No. 136.
 
 VI/AYANAGAR 347 
 
 described as occupying the country lying between Anegundi, Hosa- 
 pattana, Penagonda and Kalleha (Kalya, Magadi taluq), and possibly 
 these were the boundaries at that time of his kingdom. He married 
 (iaurambika,and had a son Harihara, who succeeded him on the throne ; 
 but he also had a son, Chikka Kampana, governing in the south of 
 Mysore, and one Mallinatha, governing in the east of Mysore. 
 Harihara II. is principally praised for his liberality in gifts at various 
 sacred places, localities which show that his territories extended from 
 the Krishna at Karnul to Kumbhakona, or even further south. His 
 queen was Mela Devi, of the family of Rama Dcva, probably the 
 Yadava king. The son who succeeded him was Deva Raya, or 
 Pratapa Deva Raya, who at first apparently called himself Bukka 
 Raya. There were also two sons, Chikka Raya Odeyar, perhaps the 
 same prince before he came to the throne, governing at A'raga 
 (Tirthahalli taluq), the chief city of the Male-rajya or hill kingdom ; 
 and Virupaksha, who professes to have conquered all the eastern 
 countries down to and including Ceylon. Deva Raya's son Vijaya 
 Raya, by Demambika, was governing at Muluvagil (Mulbagal) and 
 seems to have come next to the throne, but there is some confusion 
 in the history here. Deva Raya also had a son Mallanna Odeyar, by 
 Mallayavve, who was governing in the west, at Honavar. 
 
 During the two last reigns the greater part of Karnata and Telin- 
 gana, with the coast of Kanara, had come under the \'ijayanagar sway. 
 To the north, the simultaneous origin of the Bahmani kingdom pre- 
 vented an extension of territory in that direction. The rivalry between 
 the Bahmani and Vijayanagar kingdoms led to a continual succession 
 of wars and alliances between the two, many interesting details of 
 which are recorded by Ferishta, but perhaps with too favourable a 
 colouring, as might be expected, to the Muhammadan side of the 
 picture.' Among the earliest incidents that passed between them the 
 following is characteristic : — 
 
 ' Vox convenience of reference the list of Bahmani Sultans is here given : — • 
 
 Hiisan Oangii, Ala-ucl-Din 
 
 - 1347 
 
 P'iroz Shah 
 
 
 •• 1397 
 
 Muhammad Shah... 
 
 ... 1358 
 
 Ahmad Shah, Khan 
 
 Khanan 
 
 1422 
 
 -Mujahicl Shah 
 
 ••• 1375 
 
 Ala-ud-Din Shah ... 
 
 
 • 1435 
 
 Daud Shah 
 
 ... 1378 i 
 
 Ilumayun Shah ... 
 
 
 • 1457 
 
 Mahmud Shah 
 
 ... 1378 
 
 Nizam Shah 
 
 
 1461 
 
 (;hiyas-ud-Din Shah 
 
 ••• 1397 
 
 Muhammad Shah... 
 
 
 • 1463 
 
 Shams-ud-Din .Shah 
 
 ••• 1397 
 
 1 Mahmud Shah 
 
 
 .. 1482 
 
 Hasan, the founder of the line, was a poor Afghan, a native of Delhi, who farmed 
 a small piece of land belonging to a Hrahman named (langu, who was in favour at 
 court. One day, while ploughing, Hasan accidentally found some hidden treasure 
 against which the plough-share had struck, and at once informed his landlord of it. 
 The latter was so struck by his tenant's honesty that he cast his horoscope, and
 
 348 JJIS'J'OR Y 
 
 " One evening wlien the spring of the garden of mirth had infused the 
 cheek of Muhammad Shah with the rosy tinge of delight, a band of 
 musicians sang two verses of Amir Khusru in praise of kings, festivity 
 and music. The Sultan was delighted beyond measure, and commanded 
 to give the performers a draft for a gratuity on the treasury of the Roy 
 of Beejanuggur " (a deliberate insult). The draft was signed and despatched. 
 But " the Roy, haughty and proud of his independence, placed the presenter 
 of the draft on an ass, and parading him through all the quarters of 
 Beejanuggur, sent him back with every mark of contempt and derision." 
 War naturally followed. The Raja captured the frontier fortress of Mudkal 
 and put all the inhabitants to the sword, only one escaping to carry the 
 tale. The Sultan swore that he would not rest till he had slain a hundred 
 thousand of the infidels. A series of engagements took place, in which the 
 Raja was worsted, and an indiscriminate massacre of men, women and 
 children continued until the payment of the wretched draft was enforced. 
 'I'he cold-blooded slaughter of hosts of helpless human beings for so paltry 
 a provocation, led the ambassadors of the Raja to propose that in any future 
 wars the lives of unarmed inhabitants and prisoners should always be spared. 
 This merciful provision was agreed to and the rule long after observed. 
 
 Coming down later, to the time of Deva Raja and Firoz Shah, shortly 
 after the latter ascended the throne an invasion of his territories was made 
 by the Vijayanagar king on the south and by other enemies on the north . 
 Firoz, on marching to encounter Deva Raja, found the Krishna so swollen 
 with the rains that he could not cross in the face of the opposing army. At 
 this juncture a kdzi offered to cross with a few friends and by some plot to 
 assassinate either Deva Raja or his son, as he might find chance. He went, 
 and joining himself to a party of dancing girls in the camp, obtained 
 admission in the disguise of a woman to an entertainment given by the 
 Raja's son. While performing a dance with a dagger in each hand, he seized 
 an opportunity to plunge them into the prince's breast. His accomplices 
 extinguished the lights, and in the confusion and darkness all made their 
 escape. The Sultan, taking advantage of the alarm created in the Hindu 
 camp, crossed with a select body of troops, and before sunrise was in a 
 position to make an assault. The Hindus were panic stricken, and the 
 Raja, filled with grief, made no resistance, but securing the body of his son, 
 fled with all his forces. A treaty was at last concluded, fixing the common 
 boundary of the two powers, and De\a Raja paid a sum equal to forty 
 lakhs of rupees for the ransom of the prisoners. 
 
 foretold that he one day would be a king, requesting that when that should come to 
 pass he might be made the minister. Hasan, in honour of his patron, took the name 
 Gangu, and by the influence of the Brahman was advanced in various ways and 
 appointed to a command with a jagir. He became a marked man, and when the 
 measures of Muhammad Toghlak led to a rebellion, his talents placed him at the 
 head of the revolt. He finally succeeded in establishing himself as ruler of the 
 Dekhan, and fixed his capital at Kulbarga. He and his descendants styled themselves 
 kings of the Bahmani (that is, Brahmani) dynasty, in gratitude to the Brahman who 
 had first announced the fortune of their founder.
 
 n/AVAXAGAR 349 
 
 In 1406 another war took place, brought about as follows : — •" There 
 resided in the town of Mudkal a farmer, who was blessed with a daughter of 
 such exquisite beauty that the Creator seemed to have united all his powers 
 in making her perfect." Hearing of her beauty and accomplishments, Deva 
 Raja resolved to marry her, and sent valuable presents to her and her 
 parents by a Brahman. The parents were overjoyed at such unexpected 
 good fortune, and displaying the rich gifts before the girl, showered on her 
 their congratulations. But the beautiful virgin, to their great astonishment, 
 refused to receive the gifts, and observed " that whoever entered the haram 
 of Beejanuggur, was afterwards not permitted to see her nearest relations 
 and friends ; and though they might be happy to sell her for worldly riches, 
 yet she was too fond of her parents to submit to eternal absence from them 
 even for all the splendour of the palace of Beejanuggur. This declaration 
 was accompanied with affectionate tears which melted her parents ; who, 
 rather than use force, dismissed the Brahman with all his gifts, and he 
 returned, chagrined and disappointed, to Beejanuggur." 
 
 The royal lover now became mad for the possession of the girl, and 
 resolved to obtain her by force. On the plea of making a tour, he went 
 towards the Tungabhadra, which suddenly crossing with a select body of 
 troops, he hastened by forced marches to Mudkal. In the excess of his 
 passion he had omitted to let the parents of the girl know the object of the 
 expedition. They, therefore, in common with all the country, fled on the 
 approach of the army to the most distant parts for shelter. Foiled in their 
 object, the troops returned in disgust, and committed depredations in the 
 country through which they passed. Firoz Shah resolved to be revenged 
 for this inroad on his territories. Unable to effect anything against the 
 Raja's capital, he laid waste all the adjacent country, and the hostile camps 
 remained in each other's presence for several months. At last a treaty was 
 concluded, by which the Raja was to give his daughter in marriage to the 
 Sultan, with the fort of Bankapur and a large sum of money. 
 
 " Preparations for celebrating the nuptials were made by both parties. 
 For forty days communication was open between the city and the Sultan's 
 camp. Both sides of the road were lined with shops and booths, in which 
 the jugglers, drolls, dancers and mimics of Karn^taka displayed their feats 
 and skill to amuse passengers." The bridegroom sent valuable presents to 
 Vijayanagar. from which, after the expiration of seven days, the bride was 
 brought forth with a rich portion and offerings from the Raja, to the Sultan's 
 camp. What followed is thus described by Ferishta : — 
 
 " Dewul Roy having expressed a strong desire to see the Sultan, Firoz 
 Shah, with great gallantry, agreed to visit him with his bride, as his father- 
 in-law. A day being fixed, he with the bride proceeded to Beejanuggur. 
 On the way he was met by Dewul Roy in great pomp. From the gate of 
 the city to the palace, being a distance of nearly six miles, the road was 
 spread with cloth of gold, velvet, satin, and other rich stuffs. The two 
 princes rode on horseback together, between ranks of beautiful boys and 
 girls, who waved plates of gold and silver flowers over their heads as they 
 advanced, and then threw them to be gathered by the populace. After this
 
 35© IflSTOR Y 
 
 the inhabitants of the city made offerings, both men and women, according 
 to their rank. After passing through a square directly in the centre of the 
 city, the relations of Dewul Roy, who had lined the streets in crowds, made 
 their obeisance and offerings, and joined the cavalcade on foot, marching 
 before the princes. Upon their arrival at the palace gate the .Sultan and 
 Roy dismounted from their horses and ascended a splendid palanquin, set 
 with valuable jewels, in which they were carried together to the apartments 
 prepared for the reception of the bride and bridegroom ; when Dewul Roy 
 took his leave, and retired to his own palace. The Sultan, after being 
 treated with royal magnificence for three days, took his leave of the Roy, 
 who pressed upon hini richer presents than before given, and attended him 
 four miles on his way, when he returned to the city. Sultan Firoz Shah 
 was enraged at his not going with him to his camp, and said to Meer 
 Fuzzul OoUah that he would one day have revenge for the affront offered 
 him by such neglect. This declaration being told to Dewul Roy, he made 
 some insolent remarks, so that, notwithstanding the connection of family, 
 their hatred was not calmed." The girl who had been the innocent cause 
 of the war was sent for and married to the Sultan's son. 
 
 In T417 there was war again, in which Deva Raja inflicted a severe 
 defeat upon the Sultan. A great slaughter of the Muhammadans 
 followed, and the dominions of Bijapur were laid waste with all the 
 treasured resentment of many years. These reverses killed Firoz Shah. 
 Ahmed Shah, his successor, resolved to take revenge on the Hindus, 
 who had now been driven back. He desolated the possessions of 
 Vijayanagar, slaughtering women and children without mercy, ^^'hen- 
 ever the number of slain came to twenty thousand, he halted for three 
 days and made a feast. The Hindus, in desperation, formed a 
 plot against him, from which he escaped by a hairs-breadth. Terms 
 were then agreed to, and he retired to his own country, the capital of 
 which he shortly removed from Kulbarga to Bidar, a hundred miles to 
 the north. 
 
 The further progress of events in that country need be noticed only 
 so far as to state that the Bahmani empire was dismembered at the 
 end of the fifteenth century, and broken up into the five states of 
 Bijapur, Ahmadnagar, Golkonda, Berar, and Bidar. The first of these, 
 with which our history will be principally concerned, was founded in 
 1489. 
 
 To return to Vijayanagar, the following extracts from the interesting 
 account by Abdur Razzak,^ who visited that capital as ambassador 
 from Persia in 1441, during the reign of Ueva Raya, give a lofty idea 
 of the wealth and magnificence of the empire : — 
 
 From our former relation and well-adjusted narrative, well-informed 
 1 Matldii-s Sddaiii, Sir H. YAXwK^, Hist, hid., \o\. W .
 
 VIJA YANA GAR 3 5 1 
 
 readers will have ascertained that the writer Abdu-r-razzak had arrived at 
 the city of Bijanagar. There he saw a city exceedingly large and populous, 
 and a king of great power and dominion, whose kingdom extended from the 
 borders of Sarandip to those of Kulbarga, and from Bengal to Malibar, a 
 space of more than 1,000 parauings. The country is for the most part well 
 cultivated and fertile, and about three hundred good seaports belong to it. 
 There are more than i.ooo elephants, lofty as the hills and gigantic as 
 demons. The army consists of eleven lacs of men. In the whole of 
 Hindustan there is no Rdi more absolute than himself, under which 
 denomination the kings of that country are known. The Brahmans are 
 held by him in higher estimation than all other men. 
 
 The city of Bijanagar is such that eye has not seen nor ear heard of anv 
 place resembling it upon the whole earth, It is so built that it has seven 
 fortified walls, one within the other. Beyond the circuit of the outer wall 
 there is an esplanade, extending for about fifty yards, in which stones are 
 fixed near one another to the height of a man ; one-half buried firmly in 
 the earth, and the other half rises above it, so that neither foot nor horse, 
 however bold, can advance with facility near the outer wall. The fortress 
 is in the form of a circle, situated on the top of a hill, and is made of stone 
 and mortar, with strong gates, where guards are always posted, who are 
 very diligent in the collection of taxes. . . . 
 
 The seventh fortress is placed in the centre of the others ; in it is situated 
 the palace of the king. From the northern gate of the outer fortress to the 
 southern is a distance of two statute parasa?igs, and the same with respect 
 to the distance between the eastern and western gates. Between the first, 
 second and third walls there are cultivated fields, gardens and houses. 
 From the third to the seventh fortress shops and bazars are closely 
 crowded together. By the palace of the king there are four bazars, 
 situated opposite to one another. That which lies to the north is the 
 imperial palace, or abode of the Rai. At the head of each bazar there is 
 a lofty arcade and magnificent gallery, but the palace of the king is loftier 
 than all of them. The bazars are very broad and long, so that the sellers 
 of flowers, notwithstanding that they place high stands before their shops, 
 are yet able to sell flowers from both sides. Sweet-scented flowers are 
 always procurable fresh in that city, and they are considered as even 
 necessary sustenance, seeing that without them they could not exist. The 
 tradesmen of each separate guild or craft have their shops close to one 
 another. The jewellers sell their rubies and pearls and diamonds and 
 emeralds openly in the bazar. . . . 
 
 This country is so well populated that it is impossible in a reasonable 
 space to convey an idea of it. In the king's treasury there are chambers 
 with excavations in them filled with molten gold, forming one mass. All 
 the inhabitants of the country, whether high or low, even down to the 
 artificers of the bazar, wear jewels and gilt ornaments in their ears and 
 around their necks, arms, wrists and fingers. 
 
 Deva Raya II is specially distinguished as ( "laja-bentikdra, the
 
 352 
 
 HIS TOR V 
 
 elephant hunter, and an interesting account is given by Abdur Razzak 
 of the mode of capture and the treatment of elephants at Vijayanagar 
 at that time. One inscription describes the king as having received 
 the tlironc from his elder sister. This might be the princess married 
 into the Bahmani family. 
 
 Nothing of importance is known of the reigns of Mallikarjuna and 
 Virupaksha. The former had as his minister Timmanna-dannayaka, 
 lord of Nagamangala, who had held the same ofifice under his father. 
 Mallikarjuna is described as being at Penugonda, along with him^ 
 engaged in the affairs of Narasinga's kingdom. This may therefore 
 have been a powerful chief whose possessions had escheated to the 
 crown. 
 
 With Narasa or Narsingha the line was changed. According to 
 some accounts, Virupaksha, having no issue, raised one of his slaves 
 named Sinhama to the throne, who took the title of Fraud ha Deva 
 and ruled four years. His son, Vira Narasimha, succeeded and ruled 
 but two years, when, he also being childless, gave his signet to his 
 falconer Narasa. According to other accounts, Narasa was a powerful 
 chief of Telingana, who possessed himself of the greater part of the 
 Vijayanagar territory. But an inscription at Shimoga brings him from 
 Tulava (South Kanara), and states that he was of the Yadu line, of the 
 family of Krishna Rava, and the son of Is'vara and Bukkama. He is 
 said to have crossed over the Kaveri when in flood, taken an unnamed 
 enemy prisoner alive, conquered his country, and founded Seringa- 
 patam as a capital. His conquests extended over the whole of the 
 south. By Tippakshi or Tippaji and Nagala Devi, he had two sons, 
 Vira Narasimha and Krishna Raya, who in turn succeeded him. 
 
 This does not agree with the traditional account, according to which 
 Krishna Raya was an illegitimate son, by Nagamba, a friend or 
 attendant of the queen. He was so superior as a boy to Vira Nara- 
 simha that Tippamba, the mother of the latter, became jealous, and 
 prevailed on the king to have him put to death. But the prime 
 minister concealed the prince, reporting that the orders had been 
 obeyed. In his last illness the king was much afflicted for the death 
 of his son, on which the minister produced the prince, and Krishna 
 Deva was declared the heir and successor to the throne. Vira Nara- 
 simha, it is added, died of vexation on his brother being acknowledged 
 Raja. But there is evidence that Narasimha ruled for some years, and 
 both he and his successor were distinguished for the munificence of 
 their gifts to sacred places. Narasimha's titles were medini-nusara 
 ganda and kathdri-sdluva. 
 
 Krishna Raya was one of the most powerful and distinguished
 
 VIJAYANAGAR ■ 353 
 
 monarchs of the Vijayanagar line. About 1520 the Muhammadans 
 sustained a severe defeat from his armies, in consequence of which 
 a good understanding prevailed between the courts of Vijayanagar and 
 Bijapur for a considerable period. He not only restored the kingdom 
 to its former limits, but extended them in every direction. He kept 
 possession of all the country up to the Krishna; eastwards he captured 
 Orangal and ascended to Cuttack, where he married the daughter of 
 the Raja as the bond of peace; while westwards his conquests extended 
 up to Salsette. He was also a great patron of Sanskrit and Telugu 
 literature. Eight distinguished poets, called the askta-dig-gaja, were 
 maintained at his court, the principal of whom was Appaya Dikshita. 
 
 The Hindu traditions represent Krishna Raya as conducting his 
 affairs, both in peace and war, in person. But they acknowledge that 
 he owed much to the Brahman minister of his father, who had saved 
 his life, and who continued to be his minister until his death, three 
 years preceding that of the Raja. His name was Timma Raja, the 
 Hem raj of the Muhammadan historians. At no period probably in the 
 history of the south did any of its political divisions equal in extent 
 and power that of Vijayanagar in the reign of Krishna Raya. From 
 this time for a long period we shall meet with continual anarchy and 
 successive revolutions. 
 
 Edoardo Barbessa, who travelled in India in 15 16, describes the 
 city of Vijayanagar as " of great extent, highly populous, and the seat 
 of an active commerce in country diamonds, rubies from Pegu, silks of 
 China and Alexandria, and cinnabar, camphor, musk, pepper and 
 sandal from Malabar." The palaces of the king and his ministers, 
 and the temples were " stately buildings of stone," but the dwellings of 
 the common people were " hovels of straw and mud." 
 
 According to the received account, Krishna Raya had no legitimate 
 male issue, and Achyuta Raya, his half-brother by Obambika, was thus 
 the nearest heir. The latter being absent at the time, Krishna Raya, 
 on his death-bed, placed an infant named Sadasiva on the throne, 
 under the guardianship of his son-in-law Rama Raja, who was the 
 son, as is supposed, of the deceased minister Timma Raja. But 
 Achyuta soon returned and assumed the government, and on his death 
 Sadasiva succeeded, under the control of Rama Raja as before 
 arranged. Sadasiva was apparently the son of Ranga, a deceased elder 
 brother of Achyuta by the same mother : on the other hand, he is 
 expressly stated' to be the .son of Achyuta Raya. 
 
 As long as Rama Raja was alive, Sadasiva was only the nominal 
 sovereign, and little more than a tool in the hands of the minister. On 
 
 » ]\lys. Ins., S. S. 192. 
 
 .\ A
 
 354 /f /STORY 
 
 one occasion it is stated that, aided by his maternal uncle and some of 
 the nobles, he conspired against the minister, who was forced to resign, 
 but allowed to live in the capital. Tirumala Raja, the uncle, then 
 assumed the whole power, having, it is said, murdered the prince. If 
 this were the case, several puppet rajas may have been successively set 
 up under the name of Sadasiva Raya, for grants in that name continue 
 down to 1574. 'I'irumala Raja conducted himself so tyrannically that 
 the chiefs rose against him, but he called in the assistance of the 
 Sultan Ibrahim Adil Shah and put them down. No sooner, however, 
 had the Muhammadans retired than the nobles, with Rama Raja at 
 their head, again rebelled, and shut up the usurper in his palace ; where, 
 finding his fortunes desperate, he destroyed himself. Rama Raja now 
 seized the supreme power, and being an able and powerful ruler, not 
 only established his influence over all the kingdoms of the south, but 
 made encroachments on the Muhammadan states which they were power- 
 less to prevent, and on one occasion even assisted Bijapur against 
 Ahmednagar. His arrogance, however, was the prelude to his ruin. 
 
 The four Muhammadan principalities of the Dekhan resolved to 
 combine in an attack upon Vijayanagar, and in 1564 the allied armies 
 of Bijapur, Golkonda, Ahmednagar and Bidar assembled at Bijapur, 
 prepared to march south. Rama Raja thought lightly of the impend- 
 ing danger, but took measures for the defence of his territory by sending 
 his brother, Tirumala Raja, with a strong force to occupy the fords of 
 the Krishna ; another division followed under his brother Venkatadri, 
 while he himself brought up the rear with the main body of the army. 
 The enemy, on arriving at the river, found the defending force 
 entrenched on the right bank, behind earthworks mounted with cannon, 
 and in such a position as to effectually bar the passage of the river. 
 As this was the only point where their troops could safely cross, the 
 allies resolved by a feint to draw their opponents out of the position. 
 They accordingly marched along the river as if to attempt a passage at 
 a different point, and were followed on the other side by the Hindu 
 army. But on the third night they suddenly decamped, and gaining 
 the now undefended ford, succeeded in carrying over their whole army, 
 and marched against Rama Raja. The latter, though surprised at 
 their activity, was not alarmed, but summoned his brothers to join him. 
 
 The 25th of January, 1565, saw the two armies confronting each 
 other in battle array on the since memorable field of Talikota, about 
 ten miles south of the Krishna, near Raichor. The Musalman right 
 was commanded by Ali Adil Shah of Bijapur, the left by Ali Barid 
 Shah of Bidar and Ibrahim Kutb Shah of Golkonda, the centre by 
 Husen Nizam Shah of Ahmednagar. Rama Raja entrusted his left to
 
 VIJA VAN A GAR 355 
 
 his brother Tirumala Raja, his right to his other brother Venkatadri, 
 and himself commanded in his centre. The alUes guarded their front 
 wrth a hne of cannon fastened together with strong chains and ropes. 
 The Hindu front was protected by a large number of war elephants, as 
 well as cannon. The battle opened with rapid discharges of artillery 
 and rockets from the Hindu side. A general action ensued, accom- 
 panied with great slaughter. The Hindu right and left drove back 
 both wings of the Musalman allies, but their centre was unbroken. 
 At this moment a war elephant, becoming ungovernable, rushed madly 
 about and overturned the litter of Rama Raja. Taking advantage of 
 the confusion, some Muhammadan gunners rushed in, and before he 
 could recover himself, seized Rama Raja and carried him off. His 
 head was instantly struck off and paraded on the point of a lance in 
 sight of both armies. The Hindus, on seeing their leader was slain, 
 gave up all for lost and fled in every direction, closely pursued by the 
 enemy. The slaughter was immense, and the booty sufficient to enrich 
 every private of the victorious army.^ The sultans marched to 
 Anegundi, the troops entered Vijayanagar, and plundered and destroyed 
 the capital, committing all manner of excess. 
 
 This terrible and decisive defeat broke up the Vijayanagar empire, 
 but the mutual jealousies of the allies prevented either of them enlarg- 
 ing his kingdom by appropriating any of the conquered territory. A 
 year after the battle, Tirumala Raja, the brother of Rama Raja, 
 returned to the capital. But he found the attempt to restore it hopeless, 
 and in 1567 retired to Penugonda. Venkatadri, the other brother, 
 established himself at Chandragiri. 
 
 Caesar Frederike visited the city of Vj'jayanagar two years after the battle. 
 He states that Ram Rai perished through the treachery of two Musalman 
 generals in his service, who turned against him in the middle of the battle. 
 The Musalmans spent six months in plundering the city, searching in all 
 directions for buried money. The houses were still standing, but they were 
 empty. The court had moved from Vijayanagar to Penugonda, which was 
 eight days' journey to the south. The inhabitants had disappeared and 
 gone elsewhere. The surrounding country was so infested with thieves 
 that he was compelled to stay six months longer at Vijayanagar than he 
 intended. When at last he set out for Goa, he was attacked every day, and 
 had to pay a ransom on each occasion. 
 
 He thus describes the palace : — " I have seen many kings' courts, yet have 
 never seen anything to compare with the royal palace of Bijianugger, which 
 
 I Such is Ferishta's account. The Hindu account says that the divisions of Kulb 
 Shah and Nizam Shah were routed, and reUcaled in confusion, covered hy the armies 
 of Adil Shah and Barid Shah. The Hindus, considering the engagement over and 
 the enemy annihilated, gave themselves up to rejoicing and festivity, and were 
 surprised in their encampment. 
 
 A A 2
 
 356 Iff STORY 
 
 h.ith nine gates. First, when you go into that part where the king lodged, 
 there arc five great gates, kept by Captains and Soldiers. Within these 
 are four lesser gates, which are kept by porters, and through these you enter 
 into a very fair court at the end." He describes the city as being twenty- 
 four miles round, enclosing several hills. The ordinary dwellings had 
 earthen walls, but the three palaces and the pagodas were all built of fine 
 marble. 
 
 Grants in the name of Sadas'iva, the nominal sovereign, continued 
 to be made as late as 1574, but Tirumala Raja also made many in his 
 own name. S'ri Ranga, the son of Tirumala by Vengalamba, succeeded 
 to the throne. In 1577 the Musalmans attacked Penugonda, but were 
 defeated and driven back by the king's son-in-law, Jagadeva Raya, chief 
 of Channapatna, who was rewarded with a large accession to his 
 possessions in Mysore. Venkatapati Raya, in 1585, removed the capital 
 to Chandragiri (North Arcot district), and ruled there and at Vellore with 
 some show of power. He died in 1614, and the traveller Floris says 
 his three wives burned themselves on his funeral pyre. Raja Wodeyar 
 of Mysore had already seized Seringapatam in 1610, and thrown off his 
 allegiance. The other feudatories, like Sivappa Nayak of Bednur, 
 began to imitate his example, and the Vijayanagar power was now 
 virtually at an end. From S'ri Ranga Raya II the English obtained 
 the grant of the settlement of Madras in 1640. Si.x years after, 
 Chandragiri and Chingalput, his occasional residence and nominal 
 capitals, being taken by the forces of Golkonda, he fled to the protec- 
 tion of Sivappa Nayak of Bednur, who gave him the government of 
 Sakkarepatna (Kadur district), and even adventured to besiege Seringa- 
 patam under the pretence of restoring him. A member of the family, 
 named Rama Raja, established himself at Anegundi, two miles from 
 the ancient capital, and continued the line for seven generations, till 
 1776, when Tipu Sultan overran the whole country, dispossessed 
 Timmappa, the reigning chief, and burnt the town of Anegundi and 
 its suburbs. 
 
 The Palegars. — During the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, the 
 Vijayanagar kings had bestowed on or confirmed to vassal chiefs, 
 bearing various titles, sundry tracts in Mysore, on the condition of 
 payment of tribute and rendering of military service. Those in the 
 northern parts were directly controlled from the capital. The .southern 
 chiefs were placed under a vicero)- termed the S'ri Ranga Rayal, whose 
 seat of government was at Seringapatam. After the dissolution of the 
 empire which followed on the battle of Talikota, although a nominal 
 allegiance continued to be paid to the representative of the State at 
 Penugonda and to the viceroy at Seringapatam, such of the chiefs as
 
 CHITAL- P*"**^ 
 
 'Chitaldroog 
 
 -DROOG 
 
 ;;, <,^ ^trf^^o^a 
 
 ; ChikBallap] 
 
 KjEMPEGAUDAS 
 
 ritory 
 
 '' YoAikalvr 
 
 chikkaraya's;^ 
 
 Maati; ^
 
 P ALEGARS y^i 
 
 had the power gradually broke loose of control and declared their 
 independence. An account of each of these Palegar families will be 
 found in connection with the localities which formed their respective 
 estates. It will be sufficient, therefore, here, to simply mention the 
 more important. Among these were : — in the north, the Nayaks of 
 Bednur, Basavapatna and Chitaldroog ; on the west, the Nayaks of 
 Balam ; in ihe centre, the Nayaks of Hagalvadi, and the Gaudas of 
 Yelahanka and Ballapur ; on the east, the Gauda of Sugatur ; on the 
 south, the Wodeyars of Mysore, Kajale, Ummatur, Yelandur, and 
 others. 
 
 In 1573 the Bijapur and Ahmednagar rulers came to a mutual 
 agreement to extend their conquests in such different directions as not 
 to interfere with one another. The Bijapur line of conquest was to the 
 south. Adoni having been captured, and the western coast regions 
 from Goa down to Barkalur overrun, an attempt was made in 1577 on 
 Penugonda. But it found a most gallant defender, as before stated, 
 in Jagadeva Raya, the king's son-in-law. Every attack was repelled, 
 and the Bijapur army forced to raise the siege and retire. For this 
 brilliant service Jagadeva was rewarded by a grant of a territory which 
 extended across Mysore, from Baramahal — the previous possession of 
 his family — on the east, to the Western Ghats on the west. He fixed 
 his capital at Channapatna (Bangalore district). Kankanhalli and 
 Nagamangala were two of the most important towns in his territory, 
 which also included Periyapatna on the west and Harnhalli and Bana- 
 war on the north, while a long arm reached even to Hole Honnur. 
 
 About the same period, Timme Gauda of Sugatur rendered some 
 important military service, for which he received the title of Chikka 
 Raya, with a grant of territory in the southern half of the Kolar 
 district, including Hoskote westwards and Punganur eastwards. 
 
 Meanwhile, in the south, the Rajas of Mysore, whose history will be 
 given in detail further on, had been gradually subduing all the lesser 
 chiefs: until in 1610 they gained Seringapatam, ousting the effete 
 viceroy of Vijayanagar, and became the dominant power in that part 
 of the country. In 1630 they took Channapatna, and Jagadeva Raya's 
 dominions were thus absorbed into the Mysore State. 
 
 This brief sketch of the principal changes which took place in the 
 seventy years following the battle of Talikota will serve to show how 
 matters stood, and the several divisions of the country, in 1636, when 
 the Bijapur armies successfully invaded Mysore and established the 
 government of that State over the Carnatic Balaghat. 
 
 Bijapur. — This State is more properly called Vijayapur, but as a 
 ]\Iuhammadan kingdom, and to distinguish it from \'ijayanagar, the
 
 358 HISTORY 
 
 Muhammadan form of the name has been retained. The founder of 
 the kingdom was Yusuf Adil Shah, after whom his descendants were 
 called the Adil Shahi kings. He is stated to have been a son of the 
 Ottoman Sultan Amurath or Murad, and brother of Muhammad the 
 Oreat, the conqueror of Constantinople. On the accession of the 
 latter to the Turkish throne in 1450, Yusuf, by the contrivance of his 
 mother, escaped being put to death with the rest of his brothers, 
 and was by her means conveyed to Persia. Being obliged to fly from 
 Persia at the age of sixteen on account of some suspicion of his birth, 
 he was inveigled to the Bahmani court and there sold as a slave. He 
 gradually rose into favour, was entrusted with the command of a body 
 of horse and a provincial government. He became the head of the 
 foreign or Shiah party, between which and the Dakhani or Sunni party 
 there was a continual contest for power. When the latter in the reign 
 of Mahmud gained an ascendancy, Yusuf Adil retired to his govern- 
 ment of Bijapur, and in 1489 took the royal title. He opposed the 
 usurper of the Bahmani kingdom, put down the neighbouring chiefs, 
 who like him were endeavouring to assert their independence, and was 
 successful in meeting the attacks of the Vijayanagar raja. The Bahmani 
 kingdom was eventually partitioned between him and the other new 
 kings that arose about the same time in the Dekhan. 
 
 The following is the succession of the Adil Shahi kings : — 
 
 Yusuf Adil Shah ... 
 
 ... 1489 
 
 Ibrahim Adil Shah 
 
 • 1579 
 
 Ismail Adil Shah ... 
 
 ... 1510 
 
 Muhammad Adil Shah .. 
 
 . 1626 
 
 Mallu Adil Shah ... 
 
 -• 1534 
 
 Ali Adil Shah 
 
 1660 
 
 Ibrahim Adil Snah ... 
 
 ••■ 1535 
 
 Sikandar Adil Shah 
 
 . 1672 
 
 Ali Adil Shah 
 
 ••• 1557 
 
 
 
 The territory of Bijapur extended from the Nira to the Tungabhadra, 
 and from the Bhima to the sea. South of the Tungabhadra, it owned 
 Adoni and perhaps Nandyal. The limits of its western boundary were 
 Bankot and cape Ramas. Between this power and Vijayanagar there 
 were constant collisions, until in 1565 the battle of Talikota terminated 
 the power of the latter. In 1577, as we have already seen, a raid was 
 made into the conquered territory, but repelled by the defence of Jaga- 
 deva Raya at Penugonda. 
 
 In 1637 a more formidable invasion took place. The Mughals had 
 taken Daulatabad in 1634, and Aurangzeb was appointed viceroy of 
 the Dekhan ; but the contests with the Mughal power were shortly 
 brought to a close for the time by the treaty which extinguished the 
 State of Ahmednagar and made Bijapur tributary to Delhi. The 
 Bijapur arms were now directed to the south, under Ran-dulha Khan ; 
 with whom Shahji, father of the famous Sivaji, was sent as second
 
 BIJAPUR 359 
 
 in command, with a promise of a jagir in the territories to be con- 
 quered. 
 
 The course of this invasion' was by the open country of Bankapur, 
 Harihar, Basvapatna and Tarikcre, up to the woods of Bednur, the 
 whole of which was overrun. The Bednur chief was besieged in 
 Kavale-durga but bought off the enemy. An attempt was next made 
 on Seringapatam. A breach was effected, but the Mysoreans repulsed 
 the general assault with great slaughter, and the enemy was not only 
 compelled to raise the siege but harassed in his retreat by successive 
 attacks, in which, adds Wilks, the Raja obtained considerable booty. 
 The invading army retired to the north of Melukote and then turned 
 east. Kempe Gauda, representative of the Yelahanka family, who had 
 by this time grown into a considerable chieftain, holding possession of 
 Bangalore and Magadi, with the impregnable hill fortress of Savan- 
 durga, was next attacked, and Bangalore captureti from him in 1638. 
 The possessions of the Chikka Raya, namely, Hoskote and all the 
 present Kolar District east of it, were then seized, in 1639, and the 
 victorious army, passing below the Ghats, took Vellore and S'enji. 
 Returning to the tableland, Dod Ballapur, Sira and all the south of the 
 Chitaldroog district fell to Bijapur in 1644. 
 
 By this time the conquests were complete, and a Province under the 
 designation of Carnatic Bijapur Balaghat was formed out of the 
 districts of Bangalore, Hoskote, Kolar, Dod Ballapur and Sira ; and 
 bestowed as a jagir on Shahji, who was also governor of the conquests 
 below the Ghats, called Carnatic Bijapur Payanghat. He resided at 
 first at Bangalore, but subsequently, when not engaged in military 
 expeditions, lived sometimes at Kolar and sometimes at Dod Ballapur. 
 
 The policy of the invaders was, while taking possession of the capital 
 town, and administering the revenues of each principality, to grant 
 the ousted chief an estate in some less productive part of his territory. 
 This resulted in bringing under cultivation and attracting population to 
 the more neglected tracts of the country. Thus Basavapatna and its 
 possessions being retained, Tarikere was given to the palegar ; Banga- 
 lore was taken but Magadi left to Kempe Gauda ; similarly Hoskote 
 was taken and Anekal granted ; Kolar was taken and Punganur 
 granted ; Sira was taken and Ratnagiri granted. 
 
 Shahji was one of the most prominent characters of his day in India. 
 A sketch of his remarkable career is given in the history of the Bangalore 
 
 ' The palegar of Basvapatna or Tarikere is charged with having invited the 
 Bijapur Sultan to invade the country, in order to revenge himself for an insult 
 received from the jialegar of Ratnagiri or Sira, arising out of an obscene jest and 
 a coarse and fdthy practical joke which will not admit of mention.
 
 36o Jl/STOR V 
 
 district. Under him the Mahralta element was largely introduced into 
 the north of Mysore, as well as into the Tanjore and other districts 
 which he conquered below the Ghats. The Mahrattas, or Maha- 
 Ratlas, in whom we may recognize the descendants of a people that 
 have already appeared more than once in our historical review, after 
 the overthrow of the Yadava kingdom of Devagiri, had been subjects 
 fu'st of the Bahmani and subsequently of the Ahmednagar and Bijapur 
 kingdoms. Their influence was much increased by a remarkable 
 change introduced, chiefly for sectarian reasons, by Ibrahim Adil Shah, 
 the fourth king of Bijapur, who came to the throne in 1535. Previous 
 to his reign all the revenue and official accounts had been kept in 
 Persian. But he recognized Mahratti or Hindvi as the official language 
 of the revenue accountants, vvho were, to a great extent, Brahmans. 
 He also employed large bodies of Mahratta cavalry called Bargeer. 
 They differed from Silahdars in being provided with horses by the 
 State. The rise of the Mahratta power in the person of Sivaji, the 
 son of Shahji, and the struggles of that race for empire, have been 
 often recorded. We shall meet with them frequently in the remaining 
 portion of our history. 
 
 The possessions of Shahji in Mysore and Tanjore were governed 
 after his death, which occurred in 1664, by his son Venkoji, or Ekoji. 
 But Sivaji, the only surviving son by the first marriage, resolved to lay 
 claim to a half share, for this purpose, in which he was encouraged 
 by Raghunath Narayan, who from being the minister first of Shahji 
 and then of Venkoji, had now come over to Sivaji, he made an expedi- 
 tion into the Carnatic in 1677. Before entering upon it, Sivaji paid 
 his celebrated visit to the temple of Parvati at S'ris'aila, where he spent 
 twelve days in penance, and when about in his enthusiasm to sacrifice 
 himself to the deity, was saved, it is said, by the interposition of the 
 goddess Bhavani. He then joined the army and, leaving the heavy 
 part to besiege Vellore, pushed on with the remainder, consisting prin- 
 cipally of cavalry, and gained possession of S'enji. He induced 
 Venkoji, who resided at Tanjore, to meet him at Trivadi for the 
 purpose of discussing matters, but could not persuade him to give up 
 half the property. Sivaji thought to make him prisoner and compel 
 him, but refrained. He returned to Vellore, which had surrendered, 
 took Carnatic Ghur, Ami and other forts, and overran all the jagir 
 districts, levying contributions or plundering. Affairs at Golkonda 
 now obliged him to hasten thither, Bellary being captured on the way. 
 Venkoji took the opportunity to attack the troops left in the Carnatic. 
 Sivaji, on hearing of it, wrote a remarkable letter^ to his brother, full of 
 
 ' See Grant Duff, ///sL Main:, I, 211.
 
 MUG HALS 361 
 
 good sense and injunctions to union and peace, which won over 
 Venkoji. He agreed to pay a large sum of money, to divide their 
 father's jewels, and to share the revenues with his brother. On these 
 conditions Sivaji allowed him to retain Tanjore, and restored the jagir 
 districts. This was in 1678. In 1680 Sivaji died. 
 
 The Mughals. — In 1684 the Mughal arms, under Aurangzeb, now 
 seated on the throne with the title of Alamgir, were once more directed 
 to the Dekhan for the purpose of crushing the Mahrattas and subju- 
 gating the Pathan states of Bijapur and (iolkonda. Kijapur was taken 
 in 1687, Golkonda in 1688. Flying columns were sent out after each 
 of these captures to secure the dependent districts south of the 
 Tungabhadra. 
 
 A nev,' Province was thus formed in 1687, with Sira as its capital, 
 composed of the seven parganas of Easvapatna, Budihal, Sira, Penu- 
 gonda, Dod Ballapur, Hoskote and Kolar; and having Harpanhalli, 
 Kondarpi, Anegundi, Bednur, Chitaldroog and Mysore as tributary 
 states. Bangalore, which had been seized, was at the same time 
 sold to the Raja of Mysore for three lakhs of rupees, the sum 
 for which he had just previously agreed to buy it of Venkoji ; who, 
 finding it too far from the seat of his government to be effectually 
 protected, had offered it for sale. Khasim Khan, with the designation 
 of Paujdar Divan, was the first governor of the Province of Sira. Its 
 annals are elsewhere given. It continued a Mughal possession till 
 
 1757- 
 
 Mysore Rajas. — Our attention will now be directed to the south, 
 to the history of the royal family of Mysore. Their origin is traced to 
 the heroes of a chivalrous exploit, Vijaya and Krishna, two young 
 Kshatriyas of Yadava descent, who, according to tradition, had left 
 Dvaraka, in Gujarat, with the view of establishing themselves in the 
 south. On arriving at Hadi-nad, or Hada-nad (called Hadana by 
 Wilks, but now known as Hadinaru), a few miles southeast of the 
 present city of Mysore, they learned that the chief of the place had 
 wandered away in a state of mental derangement ; and that the neigh- 
 bouring chief of Karugahalli, who was of inferior caste, taking advantage 
 of the defenceless condition of the family, had demanded the only 
 daughter of the house in marriage. To this a consent had been given 
 under compulsion, and arrangements unwillingly made for the cere- 
 mony. The two brothers espoused the cause of the distressed maiden, 
 and having secreted themselves with some followers, fell upon the chief 
 and his retinue while seated at the banquet, and slew them. Marching 
 at once on Karugahalli, they surprised it, and returned in triumph to 
 Hadanad. The girl became the willing bride of \'ijaya, who took the
 
 362 HISTORY 
 
 title f)f Odcyar, or Wodcyar,^ and assumed the government of Hadanad 
 and Karugahalli ; adopting at the same time the religion of the 
 Jangamas, or Lingavantas. 
 
 The following is the succession of the Mysore Rjijas, according to 
 annals compiled in the palace, Vijaya being here called Yadu Raya : — 
 
 Vadu Raya, Vijaya 1399- 1423 
 
 Hire Bettada Chama-Raja 
 
 Wodeyar (I) 1423- 1458 
 
 Timnia-Raja Wodeyar (I) 1458- 1478 
 Hire Chama-Raja Wodeyar 
 
 (II), A'rberal^ 1478-1513 
 
 Ranadhira Kanthirava- 
 
 Narasa-Raja Wodeyar 1638- 1659 
 
 Dodda Deva-Raja Wodeyar 1659- 1672 
 
 Chikka Deva-Raja Wodeyar 1672-1704 
 Kanthirava Wodeyar, Miika- 
 
 rasu-* 1 704- 1 7 1 3 
 
 Bettada Chama-RajaWodeyar Dodda Krishna-Raja Wode- 
 
 (ill) 1513-1552 yar(I) 1713-1731 
 
 Timma-Raja Wodeyar (II), 
 
 Appanna 1552-1571 
 Bola Chama-Raja Wodeyar 
 
 (IV) 1571-1576 
 Bettada Chama-Raja Wodeyar 
 
 (V) ■ 1576-1578 
 
 Raja Wodeyar (I) 1578-1617 
 
 Chama-Raja Wodeyar (VI) 1617-1637 
 
 Immadi Raja Wodeyar (II) 1637-1638 
 
 Chama-Raja Wodeyar (VII) 1731-1734 
 Krishna- Raja Wodeyar (II) 1 734-1766 
 Nanja-Raja Wodeyar 1766-1770 
 
 Bettada Chama-Raja Wode- 
 yar (VIII) 1 770-1 776 
 Khasa Chama-Raja Wodeyar 
 
 (IX) 1776-1796 
 
 Krishna-Raja Wodeyar (III) 1799-1868 
 Chama-Rajendra Wodeyar (X)i868-i894 
 Krishna-Raja Wodeyar (IV) 1895 
 
 Yadu Raya, or Vijaya, is said to have been eleventh in descent from 
 Yaduvira, of the A'treya-g6tra and As'valayana-siitra. But of the early 
 period no annals have been preserved until the time of Chama-Raja III. 
 He, during his lifetime, made a partition of his dominions between his 
 three sons. To Timma-Raja, or Appanna, he gave Hemmanhalli, to 
 Krishna-Raja he gave Kembala, and to Chama-Raja IV, surnamed 
 B61 or Bald,"* he gave Mysore. No male heir surviving to either of the 
 elder brothers, the succession was continued in the junior or Mysore 
 branch. With Krishna-Raja I the direct descent ended. Chama- 
 Raja VII, a member of the Hemmanhalli family, was next elected, but 
 eventually deposed by the dalavayi' Deva-Raj, and the minister Nanja- 
 Raj. He died a prisoner at Kabbaldurga in 1734. Chikka or 
 
 ' Odeyar, W'odeyar, or Wadeyar, is the phiral and honorific form of Odeya, a 
 Kannada word meaning lord, master. Wilks states that it indicated, at the period of 
 which we are writing, the governor of a small district, generally of thirty-three 
 villages. But we find it applied, in the Tamil form Udaiyar, to the Chola kings 
 as far back as the eleventh century, and in the Kannada form, W^odeyar, to the 
 Vijayanagar kings from the beginning of their rule. Vader, a modification of the 
 word, is the title of respect by which Jangama priests are addressed. 
 
 - Six-fingered. •^ Dumb king ; he was born deaf and dumb. 
 
 ■* Owing, it is said, to a stroke of lightning. 
 
 ■'' The itle of the chief officer of the state, who comljined the functions of a general 
 and a minister. It is derived from dala, Kan. for army, and vdyi or bayi, mouth : 
 the mouthpiece of the army. The office was mostly hereditary.
 
 MYSORE RAJAS 363 
 
 Immadi Krishna-Raja II, of Kenchengod, a younger and distant 
 branch, was put on the throne in 1734, and died in 1766. His eldest 
 son, Nanja-Raja, was directed by Haidar to be installed, but finding 
 him not sufficiently subservient, Haidar turned him out of the palace 
 in 1767, and took all control into his own hands. Nanja-Raja was 
 strangled in 1770, being nominally succeeded by his brother Chama- 
 Raja VIII, who died childless in 1775. Chama-Raja IX, son of Devaraj 
 Arasu of Arkotar, a member of the Kdrugahalli family, was then 
 selected at random by Haidar. He died in 1796, and Tipu appointed 
 no successor. But the real rulers during this period were :• — ■ 
 
 Haidar All Khan 1761-1782 
 
 Tipu Sultan 1782-1799 
 
 On the fall of Seringapatam and death of Tipu, the British Govern- 
 ment restored the Hindu raj and placed on the throne Krishna-Raja 
 III, the son of the last-named Chama-Raja. Owing to misrule he was 
 deposed in 1831, but in 1867, a year before his death, his adoption was 
 recognized of Chama-Rajendra X (third son of Krishna Arasu, of the 
 Bettadakote family), who succeeded him, being placed on the throne 
 on attaining his majority in 1881. He died at the close of 1894, and 
 his eldest son, Krishna-Raja IV, now a minor, has been installed as his 
 successor. 
 
 At what period Mysore (properly Mahish-uru, buffalo town') 
 acquired that name is uncertain. Reasons have been given for sup- 
 posing that it may have been known by that designation before the 
 Christian era. The vulgar name of the place when Chama-Raja the 
 Bald received it as his portion was Puragadi, but for the last four 
 centuries Mysore (Mahishiir) has been the common name of the fort 
 and town originally erected or repaired by Hire Chama-Raja the Bald. 
 
 The fatal disaster which befell the Vijayanagar empire on the field of 
 Talikota in 1565 diminished the influence of its viceroy at Seringa- 
 patam. We accordingly find this Chama-Raja evading the payment of 
 the revenue or tribute due by him, and obtaining permission to erect 
 some works, probably barriers, on the pretext that the wild hogs 
 destroyed the crojjs and disabled him from paying the tribute. The 
 works were, however, no sooner erected than the collectors of the royal 
 dues were expelled. The imbecile viceroy attempted shortly after to 
 seize Chama-Raja while paying his devotions at the temple of Ranga- 
 natlia, at Seringapatam. But he received warning of the plot and 
 
 ' So called with reference to Maliishasura, the niinotaur or huffalo-hcacled monster 
 whose destruction is the most noted exploit of Chamundi, under which name the 
 consort of Siva, the tutelary goddess of the Mysore Rajas, is worshipped on the hill 
 near the capital.
 
 364 JIISTOR V 
 
 esca[)ed, and continued to evade all the demands oi tiie vireroy with 
 impunity. 
 
 Bettada Chama-Raja Wodeyar, who succeeded, was not long on the 
 throne. Though brave, he had no capacity for government, and his 
 younger brother. Raja Wodeyar, was shortly raised to the throne by the 
 elders.^ During his reign occurred one of the most important events 
 in the annals of the Mysore house, the acquisition of Seringapatam. 
 By what means this was effected is not known with certainty ; but in 
 1610 the aged viceroy, Tirumala Raja, retired to Talkad, where he 
 shortly after died, and on his retirement Raja Wodeyar took possession 
 of Seringapatam and transferred thither the seat of government. At 
 the same time the religion of Vishnu was adopted by the court. 
 
 Raja Wodeyar extended the possessions of his family over all the 
 south of the present Mysore district, and captured several places towards 
 the north from Jagadeva Raya. " His rule was remarkable for the 
 rigour and severity which he exercised towards the subordinate ^^'ocleyars, 
 and his indulgence towards the ryots. The Wodeyars were generally 
 dispossessed and kept in confinement, on a scanty allowance, at the 
 seat of government ; and it was the policy of Raja Wodeyar to recon- 
 cile the ryots to the change by exacting from them no larger sums than 
 they had formerly paid." 
 
 All the sons being dead, Chama-Raja, a grandson, succeeded. By 
 the capture of Channapatna, in 1630, he absorbed the territories of 
 Jagadeva Raya into the Mysore State, and completed what remained of 
 conquest in the south. He pursued the same policy as his predecessor. 
 
 Immadi Raja, who came next, was a posthumous son of Raja 
 Wodeyar. He was shortly poisoned by the dalavayi, and Kanthirava 
 Narasa Raja placed on the throne. He was the son of the gallant 
 and generous Bettada Chc4ma-Raja, who had been superseded by his 
 younger brother. The dalavayi thought to find him as forbearing and 
 unambitious as his father. But he had already, when living in 
 obscurity, given an evidence of his emulous and chivalric spirit. 
 Hearing of a celebrated champion athlete at Trichinopoly who had 
 overcome all opponents, he went there in disguise, and defeated and 
 slew him in the presence of the whole court. Declining all honours 
 for the feat, he quietly slipped away at night and returned home. 
 Soon after his installation at Mysore, where that ceremony continued 
 to be performed, he learned of the means by which his predecessor had 
 been removed, and had the minister assassinated. - 
 
 ' Many noble and interesting traits of the characters of the two brothers, and their 
 mutual consideration, are recorded in Wilks. 
 - The two peons, or foot-soldiers, who did the deed scaled the wall of the minister's
 
 DODDA DEVA RAJA 365 
 
 The year after his accession^ he had to defend Seringapatam against 
 the attack of the Bijapur forces under Ran-dulha Khan ; and, as 
 already related, succeeded in effectually repelling the invnder. He 
 subsequently carried his conquests over many districts to the south, 
 taking J )anaikankote, Satyamangala and other places from the Nayak 
 of Madura. Westwards, Arkalgud and Bettadpur were captured. 
 Northwards, he took Hosur (now in Salem), and at Yelahanka inflicted 
 a severe defeat on Kempe Claucla of Magadi, levying a large contribu- 
 tion on him. With the booty obtained in his various expeditions, and 
 the heavy tribute which from motives of policy he imposed on the 
 gaudas or heads of villages in order to reduce their power, he improved 
 and enlarged the fortifications of Seringapatam, and endowed the 
 principal temples. He assumed more of royal state in his court, and 
 was the first to establish a mint, at which were coined the Kanthi 
 Raya huns and fanams called after him, which continued to be the 
 current national money until the Muhammadan usurpation. 
 
 He died without issue, and of the possible claimants to the throne 
 the most suitable were a grandson and a great-grandson of B61a Chama- 
 Raja, both about thirty-two years of age. The former, though of a 
 junior branch, was selected, and is known as Dodda Deva Raja; the 
 latter, afterwards Chikka Deva Raja, was, with his father, placed in 
 confinement at Hangala. It was during Dodda Deva Raja's reign 
 that Sri Ranga Raya, the last representative of Vijayanagar, fled for 
 refuge to Bednur. Sivappa Nayak, who was the de facto ruler of that 
 state, entered upon a considerable range of conquests southwards under 
 pretence of establishing the royal line, and appeared before Seringa- 
 patam with a large force. He was, however, compelled to retreat, and 
 the Mysore armies before long overran Sakkarepatna, Hassan, and other 
 places, with the government of which Sri Ranga Raja had been invested 
 by Sivappa Nayak. The Nayak of Madura now invaded Mysore, 
 meditating the conquest of the country ; but not only was he forced to 
 retire, but Erode and Dharapuram yielded to the Mysoreans, who 
 levied heavy contributions on Trichinopoly and other important places. 
 Dodda Deva Raja was a great friend of the Brahmans, and was profuse 
 in his grants and donations to the holy order. He died at Chikn.-iya- 
 kanhalli, which, together with Hulyurdurga and Kunigal, had been 
 
 court-y;ii(l after darl^, and lay in wail until lie passed across, preceded by a l(jrch- 
 bearer. The latter was first killed, and the torch went out. " Who are you ?'' said 
 the minister. " \'our enemy," replied one of the peons, and made a blow. The 
 minister closed with him and threw him down, holding him by the throat. The 
 other peon, in the dark, knew not which was which. " Are you top or bottom?" 
 lie asked. " Bottom," gasped the half-strangled peon, on which his companion 
 dealt the fatal blow.
 
 366 J IIS TOR Y 
 
 conquered not long hefcjre. The Mysore kingdom at tliis [jeriod 
 extended from Sakkarepatna in the west to Salem in the east, and 
 from Chiknayakanhalli in the north to Dharapuram (Coimbatore 
 District) in the south. 
 
 Chikka Deva Rdja, who was passed over at the commencement of 
 the preceding reign, now succeeded, and became one of the most 
 distinguished of the Mysore Rajas. His early youth had been passed 
 at Yelandur, where he had formed an intimacy with a Jain named 
 Vishalaksha Pandit. When Chikka Deva Raja and his father were 
 confined at Hangala, this man continued his attachment and followed 
 them into captivity ; not, however, from disinterested affection, but 
 because he had ascertained by his knowledge of the stars that Chikka 
 Deva Raja would certainly succeed to the throne. Having obtained a 
 promise that if such an event should come to pass he should be made 
 prime minister, he repaired to the capital and industriously circulated 
 in secret among influential persons the prediction of Chikka Deva 
 Raja's destiny. When, therefore, Dodda Deva Raja died, every one 
 was prepared to receive the successor decreed by fate. They did not 
 acquiesce quite so readily when the pandit was made minister, but 
 the ability of the Raja and his adviser soon silenced all murmurs. 
 
 One of the earliest measures of the new reign was the establishment, 
 for the first time, of a regular post throughout the country. Its 
 functions were, however, conjoined with those usually discharged by a 
 detective police, and information of the private transactions of each 
 district was thus regularly collected and sent to court by the postal 
 officials. Several conquests were made between 1675 and 1678, the 
 most important of which were those of Madgiri and Midagesi, with 
 some of the intermediate districts ; which brought the Mysore frontier, 
 projecting in a long arm northwards, up to that of Carnatic Bijapur, 
 now disorganized by the raids of Sivaji, consequent on the dispute 
 previously mentioned between him and his half brother Venkoji, or 
 Ekoji. 
 
 During the next ten years were introduced a number of financial 
 changes, having for their object the increase of the revenue. The Raja 
 was unwilling to incur the risk of increasing in a direct manner the 
 established proportion of one-sixth share of the crop payable to the 
 crown as land revenue. A number of petty taxes were therefore 
 imposed, of a vexatious character,^ in order that the ryots might be 
 driven to seek relief and compound for their abolition in voluntarily 
 submitting to an increase of the land assessment. Lands held by the 
 soldiery as part payment for their services were, on grounds of policy, 
 ' For a list see Wilks.
 
 CHIKKA DEVA RAJA 367 
 
 exempted. These measures gave rise to great discontent, which was 
 fanned by the Jangama priests. The opposition was manifested by a 
 determination not to till the land. The ryots deserted their villages 
 and assembled as if to emigrate. The Raja's resolution was prompt, 
 but sanguinary and treacherous. He invited all the Jangama priests to 
 meet him at Nanjangud for the purpose of discussing matters. Only 
 four hundred attended. What followed is thus described by \\'ilks : — 
 
 A large pit had been previously prepared in a walled inclosure, connected 
 by a series of squares composed of tent walls with the canopy of audience, 
 at which they were successively received one at a time, and after making 
 their obeisance were desired to retire to a place where, according to custom, 
 they expected to find refreshments prepared at the expense of the Raja. 
 Expert executioners were in waiting in the square, and every individual in 
 succession was so skilfully beheaded and tumbled into the pit as to give no 
 alarm to those who followed, and the business of the public audience went 
 on without interruption or suspicion. Circular orders had been sent for the 
 destruction, on the same day, of all the Jangam miits (places of residence 
 and worship) in his dominions ; and the number reported to have been in 
 jonsequence destroyed v/as upwards of seven hundred. This notable 
 achievement was followed by the operations of the troops, which had also 
 been previously combined. Wherever a mob had assembled, a detachment of 
 troops, chiefly cavalry, was collected in the neighbourhood, and prepared to 
 act on one and the same day. The orders were distinct and simple ; to 
 charge without parley into the midst of the mob ; to cut down in the first 
 selection every man wearing an orange-coloured robe (the peculiar garb of 
 the Jangam priests) ; and not to cease acting until the crowds had every- 
 where dispersed. It may be concluded that the effects of this system of 
 terror left no material difficulties to the final establishment of the new 
 system of revenue. 
 
 The chief odium of these massacres, as well as the innovations 
 which had led to them, naturally fell upon the Yelandur Pandit who 
 was at the head of the administration. An imjjression also got abroad 
 that the Raja was about to abandon the doctrines of the Jangama in 
 which he was brought up, and to revive the ascendancy of the Jain 
 fLiilh. The result was that the minister fell a victim to a j)l()t against 
 his life, and he was assassinated one night while returning from court. 
 The Raja was much affected at the news and hastened to the death- 
 bed of his faithful counsellor ; who, with his dying breath, recom- 
 mended a Brahman named Tirumalaiyangar as the most able and 
 honourable man to succeed him as minister. 
 
 These transactions bring us to 1687 — the period when the Mughals, 
 having captured Bijapur, were taking possession of the Carnatic 
 provinces dependent on it, and forming the Province of Sira. 'I'he
 
 368 inSTORY 
 
 agreement as to the sale at this time of Bangalore by Venkoji, or Ekoji, 
 to the Mysore Raja for three lakhs of rupees ; its seizure by Khasim 
 Khan, the Mughal general, before the entry of the Mysore troops, and 
 the conclusion of the bargain notwithstanding, — are related in the 
 account of that district. Bangalore had now become a possession of 
 the Mysore Raja, who assiduously cultivated an alliance with Aurangzeb 
 through the general Khasim Khan, while at the same time extending 
 his territories in directions that would not interfere with the Mughal 
 operations. 
 
 Tiimkur was taken the same year ; then, turning east by way of 
 Hoskote, the Mysore army descended the Ghats and subdued a great 
 part of Baramahal and Salem. Between 1690 and 169J, the territories 
 were extended westwards, and all the districts up to the Baba Budan 
 mountains, including Hassan, Banavar, Chikmagalur, and Vastara were 
 taken from Bednur. And by a treaty concluded in 1694 with the chief 
 of that state, all these conquests, except Aigur and Vastara, were 
 retained by Mysore. 
 
 The project was next formed of invading the possessions of the 
 Nay.ik of Madura, and Trichinopoly was besieged in 1696. But whild 
 the strength of the army was engaged before that fortress, a Mahratta 
 force, — marching to the relief of S'enji, where Rama, the second son of 
 Sivaji, had been long besieged by the Mughals under Zulfikar Khan, — 
 attracted by the hope of plunder, suddenly appeared before Seringa- 
 patam. An express was at once sent to the dajavayi Kumaraiya 
 directing him to return for the protection of the capital. But as he 
 had made a vow not to appear before his Raja before he had taken 
 Trichinopoly, he despatched his son Doddaiya in command of a force, 
 which came up by rapid marches, and, by means of a stratagem which 
 seems often to have been resorted to by the Mysore troops,^ inflicted a 
 total defeat upon the enemy, in which the leaders were slain and the whole 
 of the ordnance, baggage and military stores of every description captured. 
 
 1 It was the practice of the Mysore army to perform their night marches by the 
 light of numerous torches, and this was made the foundation of a stratagem effected 
 in the following manner : — In the evening the dalavayi sent a small detachment in the 
 direction opposite to that on which he had planned his attack ; and in the probable line 
 by which he would move to throw his force into the capital. This detachment was sup- 
 plied with the requisite number of torches and an equal number of oxen, which were 
 arranged at proper distances, with a flambeau tied to the horns of each, in a situation 
 where they could not be observed by the enemy. At an appointed signal, the torches 
 were lighted and the oxen driven in the concerted direction, so as to indicate the 
 march of the army attempting to force its way through the besiegers by an attack on 
 the flank of their position. So soon as it was perceived that the enemy were making 
 a disposition to receive the army of torches, Doddaiya silently approached their rear, 
 and obtained an easy but most sanguinarj- victory.
 
 To illustrate the 
 
 STORY OF MYSORE 
 
 LIMITS OF MYSORE 
 1 1617 at the death of Raja Wodeyar 
 
 1 1704 at the death of Chikka Deva Raja 
 
 1 1782 at the death of Haldar All Khan 
 
 nee 1799 by Treaty of Seringapatam 
 
 8t 
 
 J^^Bu^n\oin«w * Co.. Uiu'
 
 DODDA KRISHNA-RAJA 369 
 
 Next year, Khasini Khan, the friend of the Raja at the court of 
 Aurangzeb, died ; and Chikka Deva-Raja resolved to send an embassy 
 to the emperor for the purpose of establishing a fresh interest at court, 
 and gaining if possible a recognition of his authority over the newly- 
 conquered territories. The embassy, which set out in 1699, found the 
 imperial court at Ahmednagar, and returned in 1700, bringing with it, 
 as is alleged, a new signet from the emperor, bearing the title Jug Deo 
 Raj,i and permission to sit on an ivory throne.^ 
 
 The Raja now formed various administrative departments, eighteen 
 in numl)er, in imitation of what his ambassadors had observed as the 
 system pursued at the Mughal court. The revenues were realized with 
 great regularity. It was the fixed practice of the Raja not to break 
 his fast every day until he had deposited two bags (thousands) of 
 pagodas in the treasury of reserve funds from cash received from the 
 districts. He had thus, by economy and victories, accumulated a 
 treasure which obtained for him the designation of Navakoti Narayaiia, 
 the lord of nine crores (of pagodas). 
 
 Chikka Deva-Raja died in 1704, at the advanced age of 76, after 
 a youth spent in exile, followed by an eventful reign of more than 
 thirty-one years ; during which, amid the convulsions and revolutions 
 which prevailed throughout the Dekhan and Carnatic, a secure and 
 prosperous State had been established, extending from Palni and 
 Anemale in the south to Midagesi in the north, and from near Carnatic 
 Ghur of the Baramahal in the east to the borders of Coorg and Balam 
 in the west. 
 
 Kanthirava Raja, the son of Chikka Deva-Raja, was born deaf and 
 dumb, and thence called Muk-arasu. Rut, through the influence of 
 Tirumalaiyangar, he succeeded to the throne. During his reign the 
 dal.avayi Kanthirava attempted to reduce Chik Ballapur, but lost his 
 life in the enterprise. His son, Basava Raja, appears to have con- 
 tinued the siege, and succeeded in levying tribute. 
 
 Doclda Krishna-Raja, son of the dumb king, next came to the 
 throne. At this time a change was made in the government of Sira, 
 whereby the jurisdiction of Sadat-ulla Khan, who Iiad hitherto governed 
 the whole of Carnatic Bijapur, was confined to the Payanghat, and he 
 was called Navab of Arcot ; while a separate officer, Amin Khan, 
 styled Navab of Sira, was appointed to the charge of the Balaghdt, 
 situated on the tableland of Mysore. Sadat-ulla Khan, aware of the 
 riches accumulated at Mysore, resented the removal of that State from 
 his control, and formed a combination with the Pathan Xavabs of 
 
 ' Jagat Dcva Raja, the sovereign of the \vi)rld. 
 - For the history of this throne see Vol. II.
 
 370 JflSTOR V 
 
 Kadapa, Karnul and Savanur, and the Mahratta chief of (lutti, to seize 
 upon it. Aniiii Khan resolved to l)e beforehand, and marched against 
 the Mysore army. But the alHes came up with him, and they ulti- 
 mately agreed to joint action, of which Sadat-ulla was to be the leader. 
 The Mysore Raja was glad to buy off this formidable confederacy, and 
 Sadat-ulla received a crore of rupees. He accounted, however, for 
 only 72 lakhs, which he divided in the proportion of 12 lakhs to each 
 of the allies, pocketing the rest. This affair led to further exactions. 
 Two years after, the Mahrattas appeared before Seringapatam and 
 levied a contribution. In order to replenish these drains upon the 
 treasury, an attack was made upon Kempe Cauda, the chief of Magadi, 
 who was taken prisoner; and Savan-durga, w-ith the accumulated 
 plunder of two hundred years, fell to Mysore. 
 
 The following estimate of the Raja's character will show the direc- 
 tion in which matters were now tending : — 
 
 " Whatever portion of vigour or of wisdom appeared in the conduct of 
 this reign belonged exclusively to the ministers, who secured their own 
 authority by appearing with affected humility to study in all things the 
 inclinations and wishes of the Raja. Weak and capricious in his temper, 
 he committed the most cruel excesses on the persons and property of those 
 who approached him, and as quickly restored them to his favour. While 
 no opposition was made to an establishment of almost incredible absurdity, 
 amounting to a lac of rupees annually, for the maintenance of an almshouse 
 to feed beasts of prey, reptiles, and insects ; he believed himself to be an 
 unlimited despot ; and, while amply supplied with the means of sensual 
 pleasure, to which he devoted the largest portion of his time, he thought 
 himself the greatest and happiest of monarchs, without understanding, or 
 caring to understand, during a reign of nineteen years, the troublesome 
 details through which he was supplied with all that is necessary for animal 
 gratification."' 
 
 Under these circumstances all power fell into the hands of the 
 ministers, and they sought only to perpetuate their authority by placing 
 pageant rajas on the throne. Chama-Raja, of the Hemanhalli family, 
 was selected as a fit person to succeed the last raja ; while the three 
 chief offices in the state, those of da/avdyi or head of the army, 
 sarz'ddhikdri or head of finance and revenue, and pradhdna or privy 
 councillor, were held by De\a-Raj, who was dalavayi, and Xanja- 
 Raj, his cousin, who combined in himself the other two offices. 
 Chama-Raja managed to effect a revolution and displace these two ; 
 but they were imprudently left at large, while the new administration, 
 by ill-advised measures of economy, became so unpopular that Deva- 
 Raj and Nanja-Raj found means to reco\er their power. The Raja
 
 CHIKKA KRISHNA-RAJA 371 
 
 and his wife were seized and sent prisoners to Ivabbal-durga, the deadly 
 cHmate of which they did not long survive. 
 
 A younger brother of the deceased Raja, named Venkat Arasu, was 
 passed over as having too much talent to be subservient ; and a child 
 of five years old, of a distant branch, was placed on the throne. He 
 is known as Chikka Krishna-Raja. The administration continued as 
 before, except that Venkatapati was appointed to the office of pradhana, 
 while Nanja-Raj, as sarvadhikari, was the head of the government. 
 He died after six years, refunding at the approach of death eight lakhs 
 of rupees, which he estimated as the amount he had improperly 
 acquired. He also left a warning against employing the person who 
 was his actual successor, Nanja-Raj, the younger brother of Deva- 
 Raj, and surnamed Karachdri. ' 
 
 The Navabs of Arcot continued to eye with jealousy the rights of 
 the Navabs of Sira to receive tribute from the rich State of Mysore. 
 The weakness of Tahir Khan, now in power at Sira, led Dost AH Khan, 
 the governor at Arcot, to despatch a powerful and well-appointed army 
 to exact from Seringapatam the largest contribution that had ever been 
 obtained from it. Deva-Raj, though no longer young, advanced to 
 meet this invasion. The chiefs on both sides were reconnoitring at 
 Kailancha on the Arkavati, a few miles east of Channapatna, when the 
 two Musalman chiefs, not heeding, came too far. Deva-Raj skilfully 
 cut off their retreat, and falling upon them with his party, they were 
 both slain after a brave resistance. Deva-Raj followed up the blow, 
 and attacked the Musalman cami) with his whole army. They were 
 completely surprised and overthrown, fleeing in confusion below the 
 Ghats, while the victor returned in triumph to Seringapatam. 
 
 In 1746 Nanja-Raj commanded an expedition into the Coimbatore 
 country against the palegar of Dharapuram ; Deva-Raj, the dalavayi, 
 taking charge of the revenue and finances. During the absence of the 
 army, Nasir Jang, son of Nizam-ul-Mulk, now Subadar of the Dekhan, 
 marched towards the capital by order of his father to levy a contribu- 
 tion. A deputation was sent forth to meet him, tendering allegiance ; 
 and while the negotiations were going on, Nasir Jang, encamped at 
 Tonnur, amused himself on the large tank, to which he gave the name 
 of Moti Talab, which it still retains. 
 
 Nanja-Raj having returned successful from the south, his daughter 
 was married to the nominal Raja, as the first ste[i to other ambitious 
 l)rojects. I5ut in 1749 was undertaken the siege of Devanhalli, in 
 which obscure service an unknown volunteer horseman joined, who was 
 destined before long to gain the sui)reme power of the state and to play 
 /i'(?;v?,lian(l,(7;//r/, dagger; c(jnivalcnl lo llic I'.nglisli cxprcNsion "a word and a hlow.' 
 
 B U 2
 
 372 J/ISTORY 
 
 no moan i)arl in the history of India. This was Haidar, who, in a 
 private capacity, had accompanied his elder brother Shabaz, the com- 
 mander of a small body of horse and foot in the Mysore army. The 
 sief^e of Devanhalli was prolonged for nine months, after which the 
 palegar was allowed to retire to his relation at Chik Ballapur. Haidar's 
 coolness and courage during the hostilities attracted the notice of 
 Nanja-Rdj, who gave him the command of fifty horse and 200 foot, 
 with orders to recruit and augment his corps ; and also appointed him 
 to the charge of one of the gates of Devanhalli, then a frontier fortress 
 of Mysore.^ 
 
 ' Haidar was the great-grandson of Muhammad Bhelol, an emigrant from the 
 Panjab, who had settled in a reHgious capacity at Aland, in Kalburga district. His 
 sons Muhammad Ali and Muhammad Wali married at Kalburga, and then coming to 
 Sira, obtained employment as customs peons. Before long they removed to Kolar, 
 where the elder died ; upon which the other seized all the domestic property and 
 turned his brother's wife and son out of doors. A Nayak of peons at Kolar took 
 them in, and when Fatte Muhammad, the son, was old enough, made him a peon. 
 At the siege of Ganjikota, on the troops being repulsed in a general assault, the young 
 man distinguished himself by seizing a standard and planting it once more on the 
 breach, which rallied the assailants and thus carried the day. For this exploit the 
 Subadar of Sira made him a Nayak, and he continued to rise. But on a change of 
 Subadars, finding himself not in favour, he repaired to Arcot with fifty horse and 
 1,400 peons ; and, on failing to obtain service from the Nabob on the conditions he 
 demanded, entered the service of the Faujdar of Chittur. The latter was soon 
 recalled to court, on which Fatte Nayak returned to Mysore and was appointed 
 Faujdar of Kolar, with Budikote as a jagir, and the title of Fatte Muhammad Khan. 
 At Budikote were born Shabaz and his Ijrother Haidar, the latter in 1722. They 
 were the sons by a third wife. For Fatte Muhammad, after three sons were born to 
 them, had lost his first wife at Kolar, to which place she belonged, and on whose death 
 he Ijegan the erection of the mausoleum there. His second wife was the daughter of 
 a Nevayet who, in travelling from the Konkan to Arcot, had been robbed and mur- 
 dered at Tarikere. The wife, with a son Ibrahim, and two daughters, escaping, 
 had begged their way as far as Kolar, where Fatte Na)-ak proposed to marry the 
 elder and was accepted. She, however, died without issue, and he then took to 
 himself her younger sister, who became the mother of Haidar. 
 
 Fatte Muhammad and the eldest son by the first wife were killed in 1729, in a 
 battle between his patron, Abdul Rasul Khan of Dod Ballapur, Subadar of Sira, and 
 Tahir Khan, the Faujdar of Chittur, under whom he had formerly served, who now 
 sought to gain possession of Sira as Subadar. The bodies of the slain father and son 
 were conveyed to Kolar, and buried in the mausoleum. Meanwhile, the family of 
 Fatte Muhammad had been confined in Dod Ballapur as hostages for his fidelity, in 
 accordance with the usual practice of those times. Abdul Rasul had also fallen in 
 battle, and Abbas Khuli Khan, his son, being left in possession of the Dod Ballapur 
 jagir on resigning all claim to Sira, now proceeded to plunder the families thus 
 placed in his power. Shabaz and Haidar, the former about nine and the latter seven 
 years of age, were tortured for payment of a pretended balance due from their father. 
 When suffered to depart, the mother with her children went to Bangalore, and found 
 shelter with her brother, Ibrahim Sahib, who commanded some peons under the 
 Killedar. Shabaz, when old enough, obtained a subordinate command, and rose to 
 the position in which he appears before Devanhalli.
 
 NANJA-RAJ 373 
 
 An order soon arrived from Nasir Jang as Subadar of the Dekhan 
 for the Mysore troops to attend him in an expedition against Arcot. A 
 force, which included Haidar and his brother, was accordingly sent 
 under Berki ^'enkata Kao, and joined the main army at Madgiri. It is 
 unnecessary to follow the fortunes of the several claimants to the 
 Navabship of the Carnatic, with the rival struggles of the English and 
 the French in support of one or other. Suffice it to say that when 
 Nasir Jang was treacherously killed and his camp broken up, Haidar 
 took advantage of the confusion and managed to secure two camel 
 loads of gold coins, which were safely despatched to Devanhalli, as well 
 as aljout 300 horses and 500 muskets, picked up at various times. 
 The Mysore troops shortly after returned to their own country. 
 
 In 1751 Muhammad Ali, the English candidate at Trichinopoly, 
 opposed to Chanda Sahib, the French candidate at Arcot, sent an 
 ambassador named Seshagiri Pandit to Mysore for assistance. The 
 dalavayi Deva-Raj was adverse to engaging in the enterprise ; liut his 
 younger brother Nanja-Raj was tempted by an extravagant promise of 
 the cession of Trichinopoly and all its possessions down to Cape 
 Comorin, to lend the acquired assistance, and agreed to make pro- 
 vision for Muhammad Ali in giving him Hardanhalli, at the head of 
 the pass to Trichinopoly, as a jdgir. 
 
 About the time of Clive's celebrated siege and subsequent defence 
 of Arcot, a Mysore army, consisting of 5,000 horse and 10,000 infantry, 
 marched from Seringapatam under the command of Nanja-Rdj. The 
 only regular troops in the force were a small body in the corps of Haidar 
 Ndyak, armed with the muskets before mentioned. The army had 
 borne no part in warfare, when the desertion and murder of Chanda 
 Sahib occurred. His head, however, was sent as a trophy to Seringa- 
 patam, and hung up over the Mysore gate. The war seemed now to 
 be at an end, and Nanja-Raj claimed Trichinopoly. Muhammad Ali, 
 unable any longer to conceal from the English the illegally formed 
 agreement, declared that he had never intended to observe the compact. 
 At the same time he endeavoured to deceive Nanja-Raj with fresh 
 promises that he would deliver up the place in two months, and gave 
 up to him the revenues of the island of Seringham and the adjacent 
 districts. Nanja-Rdj occupied the island, intercepted the supplies from 
 Trichinopoly, mtrigued with the French, and tried to gain the fort by 
 treachery. Though powerfully assisted by the French, all attempts on 
 the place were frustrated by the skilful measures of Major Lawrence. 
 Nanja-Rdj then endeavoured to enter into a treaty with the ICnglish, 
 but this came to nothing. Meanwhile news arrived of a serious danger 
 threatening at home, and Nanja-Rdj returned to Mysore in 1755 at the
 
 374 
 
 JIISTORY 
 
 summons of his brother, having nearly exhausted the treasury in the 
 expenses of this unprofitable war, added to a subsidy paid during most 
 of the time to his Mahratta ally Morari Rao, and a loan of ten lakhs 
 of pagodas to Muhammad Ali, which was never repaid. 
 
 The danger which called for the return of the troops under Nanja- 
 Raj was the approach of Salabat Jang, Subadar of the Dekhan, with 
 a powerful French force under M. Ikissy, to demand arrears of tribute. 
 Deva-Raj had no money to meet this demand and the enemy therefore 
 invested Seringapatam. Matters were brought to a crisis before Nanja- 
 Raj, though hastening with forced marches, could arrive. Deva-Raj 
 was therefore driven to compromise for a payment of fifty-six lakhs of 
 rupees. To raise this sum " the whole of the plate and jewels belong- 
 ing to the Hindu temples in the town were put into requisition, 
 together with the jewels and precious metals constituting the immediate 
 property or personal ornaments of the Raja and his family : but the 
 total sum which could thus be realized amounted to no more than one- 
 third of what was stipulated. For the remainder Deva-Raj prevailed 
 on the soucars, or bankers, of the capital to give security, and to deliver 
 as hostages their principal gumdstas or confidential agents : but as he 
 was never afterwards enabled to satisfy the soucars, they left the 
 gumastas to their fate, and of the two-thirds for which security was 
 given not one rupee was ever realized. Of the unhappy hostages, 
 some died in prison, others escaped, and after a period the remainder 
 were released." On hearing of this transaction, Nanja-Raj halted, and 
 discharged one-third of his army ; not without great difficulty in paying 
 their arrears. 
 
 Haidar, who had continued to advance in fa\ our during the opera- 
 tions before Trichinopoly, was now appointed Faujdar of Dindigal. 
 He had enlisted a considerable body of Bedar peons and of Pindari 
 horsemen, and with the aid of Khande Rao, a Brahman miitsaddi, 
 organized a perfect system of plunder, the profits of which were 
 divided between Haidar and the plunderers. 
 
 " Moveable property of every description was their object ; and they did 
 not hesitate to acquire it by simple theft from friends, when that could be done 
 without suspicion and with moi'e convenience than from enemies. Nothing 
 was unseasonable or unacceptable ; from convoys of ^rain, down to the 
 clothes, turbans, and ear-rings of travellers or villagers, whether men, 
 women, or children. Cattle and sheep were among the most profitable heads 
 of plunder : muskets and horses were sometimes obtained in booty, some- 
 times by purchase. The numbers under his command increased with his 
 resources ; and before he left Trichinopoly, besides the usual appendages of 
 a chief of rank, in elephants, camels, tents, and magnificent appointments, 
 he was rated on the returns and received pay for one thousand five hundred
 
 HAIDAR ALT 2>1S 
 
 horses, three thousand regular infantry, two thousand peons, and four guns, 
 with their equipments." 
 
 Haidar proceeded with a considerable force to the south to lake 
 charge of his district, while Khande Rao was left at the capital to 
 protect his interests. By a great variety of fictitious charges, Haidar 
 managed to accumulate a large treasure, and, with the aid of skilled 
 artificers under French masters, began to organize a regular artillery, 
 arsenal and laboratory. 
 
 In 1756 the young Raja, now twenty-seven years of age, becoming 
 impatient of his position, was led into a plot for confining the ministers 
 and taking the power into his own hands. The plot was discovered, 
 and Deva-Raj counselled mild measures. But Nanja-Raj stormed the 
 palace, forced the Raja to take his seat on the throne, and then cut off 
 the noses and ears of his partisans before his face. This disgusting 
 affair, and the contempt of his counsel, led Deva-Raj to retire from the 
 capital. Accompanied by his family and a large body of adherents, he 
 descended the Gajalhatti pass in February 1757, and fixed his residence 
 at Satyamangala. To meet his expenses he revoked the assignments 
 made to Haidar, whom, therefore, Khande Rao advised to come to 
 Seringapatam at once. Before he arrived, however, the Mahrattas under 
 Balaji Rao appeared, demanding a contribution. Nanja-Raj in vain 
 represented his absolute inability. Seringapatam was besieged, and the 
 operations being directed by Europeans, was soon reduced to extremity. 
 Nanja-Raj was forced to compromise for thirty-two lakhs of rupees, but 
 as all the cash and jewels he could muster amounted to no more than 
 five lakhs, a large tract of country wis surrendered in pledge,^ and the 
 Mahrattas departed, leaving agents for the collection of revenue, and 
 six thousand horse, in the pledged districts. On Haidar's arrival he 
 expressed his regret that his troops had not been ordered up from 
 Dindigal, advi.sed that the revenue should be withheld from the 
 Mahrattas, and their troops expelled at the beginning of the rains, 
 which would prevent an invasion for that season. This was accordingly 
 done. Haidar then waited on Deva-Raj, and it was arranged between 
 them that the resumed revenues should be restored to Haidar, with 
 soucar security for three lakhs, in exchange for a military contribution 
 of twelve lakhs to Haidar for assistance rendered to the Nair Raja of 
 Palghat, which Hari Singh, a bra\e I\.ajput adherent of Deva-Raj and 
 Haidar's rival in the Mysore army, was deputed to collect Haidar now 
 returned to Dindigal and planned the conc^uest of Madura, which did 
 
 1 The districts plc(li:;etl weio Nafjamangala, Bellur, Kikkeri, Cli;uiia\patna, Kadiir, 
 Banavar, Ihunlialli, Ilonvalli, 'ruiixckcrc, Kaiulikoio, Cliikiuiyakanlialli, Kaikilia, 
 Kallur, and lluliyurdurga.
 
 37^^ HISTORY 
 
 not succeed ; and he shorlly returned to Scringapatam, wlierc his 
 presence was urgently required. 
 
 I'he troops, whose pay had long fallen into arrears, had mutinied 
 and sat in dhariia at the gate of the minister. Xanja-Raj sold the 
 provisions in store, but the proceeds fell far short of the demand. 
 Haidar, hearing of the state of affairs, hastened to Satyamangala and 
 prevailed on the old chief Deva-Raj, then very ill, to return to the 
 capital and unite with his brother in restoring order at this critical 
 juncture. But Nanja-Raj was required first to make atonement to 
 the Raja for his former outrage. This done, he went forth with a great 
 procession to meet Deva-Raj and conduct him from Mysore to the 
 capital. Here Deva-Raj died, six days after his arrival, probably from 
 dropsy, though suspicion naturally fell on Nanja-Raj. 
 
 Nanja-Raj, disgusted with the task of liquidating the arrears due to 
 the troops, now requested Haidar and Khande Rao to undertake it. 
 This they did after a strict scrutiny of the demands, which their con- 
 summate skill in such matters enabled them to rid of all excessive and 
 false charges ; and the claims were finally settled by distribution of all 
 the available state property, down to the Raja's elephants and horses. 
 At the same time Haidar's own troops were placed as guards of the 
 fort ; and as soon as the mutineers, having been paid and discharged, 
 had left the capital, the most wealthy chiefs in the army were seized and 
 all their property confiscated as ringleaders in the mutiny. 
 
 Hari Singh, who had been sent to receive the tribute due from Mala- 
 bar, found himself unable to realize any of it, and on hearing of the 
 death of his patron Deva-Raj, was marching back, when Haidar, to get 
 rid of his rival, under pretence of sending back troops to Dindigal, des- 
 patched a force which fell upon Hari Singh at night while encamped at 
 Avanashi, and massacred him as a mutineer with the greater part of his 
 followers. Haidar presented three guns and fifteen horses to the Raja, 
 and kept the rest of the plunder. At the same time, in lieu of the soucar 
 security which I)e\a-Rdj had given him, an assignment was granted on 
 the revenues of Coimbatore, and the fort and district of Bangalore were 
 conferred on him as a personal jdgir. 
 
 The Mahrattas, whose troops had been expelled as before stated, now 
 returned, early in 1759, in great force, under Gopal Hari; and re- 
 occupying all the pledged districts, suddenly appeared before Bangalore, 
 which they invested, and at the same time sent a detachment which 
 surprised Channapatna. Haidar was appointed to the chief command 
 of the army to oppose this invasion. He stationed one detachment at 
 Malvalli, under his maternal uncle Mir Ibrahim, and another at Maddur 
 under Latf Ali Beg. The latter, by feigning fear of attack, drew out the
 
 HAIDAR A LI 377 
 
 Mahrattas from Chaimapatna, and then surprised and took it by 
 escalade. Haidar now concentrated his forces near Channapatna, and 
 (lopal Hari, raising the blockade of Bangalore, marched to meet him with 
 a superior force. After three months of various warfare, Gopal Hari, 
 finding himself straitened by the activity of his opponent, proposed a 
 negotiation. It was arranged that the Mahrattas should relinquish all 
 claim to the districts formerly pledged, and that Mysore should pay thirty- 
 two lakhs in discharge of all demands, past and present. To raise the 
 money a nazardna or gift was levied from all the principal public ser- 
 vants and wealthy inhabitants, but Khande Rao could obtain only six- 
 teen lakhs from this source. The Mahratta soucars, however, made them- 
 selves responsilile for the rest on the personal security of Haidar, on 
 the understanding that he should have the management of the restored 
 districts in order to realize the amount. 
 
 The Mahrattas now withdrew to their own country, and Haidar 
 returned in triumph to Seringapatam, where he was received by the 
 Raja in the most splendid durbar since the time of Chikka De\a-Raja. 
 He was saluted with the title of Fatte Haidar Bahddi'ii\ and Nanja-Raj 
 on his aj)proach rose up to receive him and embraced him. 
 
 Before long the pay of the troops again fell into arrears, and Haidar 
 was again the medium of satisfying their demands. This he was com- 
 missioned to do by the Raja on condition that he renounced Xanja- 
 Raj \ and the fresh assignments made to enable him to meet the 
 demand placed in his hands more than half the possessions of the king- 
 dom. Khande Rao was viXdAo. pradhana^ and on Nanja-Raj was settled 
 a jagir of three lakhs of pagodas, with a stipulation that he should main- 
 tain 1,000 horse and 3,000 foot without personal service. Nanja-Raj, 
 who had been the virtual ruler of Mysore for nearly twenty years, yielded 
 to necessity, and departed from the capital in June, 1759, with all his 
 family and adherents. He lingered, however, at Mysore, under pre- 
 tence of visiting the temple at Nanjangud, until it became necessary 
 for Haidar to regularly besiege the place and force him to retire. His 
 jagir was in consequence reduced to one lakh, and he was re(|uired to 
 fix his residence at Konanur in the west. His daughter, married to the 
 Raja, died soon after. Haidar now received a further assignment of 
 four districts for the expenses of this siege, though the grant was 
 opposed even by Khande Rao. 
 
 A French emissary, styling himself the Bishui) of Halicarnassus, 
 shortly arrived with proposals to Haidar to join them in expelling the 
 English from Arcot. The terms of a treaty for the purpose were con- 
 cluded with 1-ally at I'ondicherry on the 4th of June, 1760. Haidar 
 was to furnish 3,000 select horse and 5,000 se[)oys, wilii artillery, to be
 
 378 HISTORY 
 
 paid hy the l-'rcnch ; and on a favourable conclusion of the vvar Trichi- 
 nopoly, Madura, and Tinnevelly were to be ceded to Mysore. In order 
 to clear the way from Seringapatam to Arcot, the district of KaramahaV 
 though in the possession of the Navah of Kadapa, was taken posses- 
 sion of by Haidar, as well as Anekal, from the palegar of that place ; 
 while the French yielded up the fort of Tyagar as a point of communi- 
 cation. The Mysorean troops, commanded by Makhdum Ali, on 
 descending the ghats, gained one easy and unexpected victory at 
 Trivadi on the 17th of July. But the ambitious prospects which this 
 opened up were swiftly blighted by the imminent jeopardy in which 
 Haidar in a moment was placed. 
 
 The royal party at Seringapatam found that an exchange of Haidar 
 for Nanja Raj had left them in the same dependent condition as before, 
 and a plot was formed by the old dowager and Khande Rao for getting 
 rid of one whose recent encroachments tended to a complete usurpation 
 of the government. A favourable opportunity seemed now to offer. A 
 large portion of Haidar's troops were absent at Arcot ; the remainder 
 were encamped on the north of the river, which was too full to ford ; 
 while Haidar himself with a small guard occupied an exposed position 
 under the guns of the fort. Negotiations were opened with a Mahratta 
 force under Visaji Pandit, which was ravaging the country between 
 Ballapur and Devanhalli, and the services obtained of 6,000 horse to 
 reach Seringapatam by the 12th of August. On the morning of that 
 day the fort gates were not opened as usual, and Haidar was roused up 
 by a tremendous cannonade upon his position at the INIahanavami 
 mantapa — the site of the present Darya Daulat. In amazement he sent 
 for Khande Rao, and was informed that he it was who was directing 
 the fire. He saw at once the extent of the treachery, and sheltering his 
 family- and followers as well as possible, promptly secured all the boats 
 {harigbbi) on the river. The Mahrattas, as usual, not having arrived, 
 Khande Rao could not attack, and the day passed in negotiations. 
 The result was that the landing-place on the northern bank was left 
 unguarded, and Haidar escaped that night across the river with a few 
 tried followers, bearing what money and jewels they could carry, but 
 forced to leave behind his wife with his eldest son Tipu, nine years of 
 age, and all his foot-guards. The family were removed to the fort and 
 kindly treated by Khande Rao. 
 
 Haidar fled north-east and arrived before daylight at Anekal, 
 
 ' Meaning the twelve districts, and so called after twelve hill forts, viz., Krishna- 
 giii, Tripatur, \'aniambadi, Jagadeva-gada, Kavila-gada, Maharaj-gada, Bhiijanga- 
 gada, Katara-gada, Gagana-gada, Sudarshana-gada, Tatukal, and Rayakota. 
 
 - In the fright his wife was prematurely delivered of a son, Karim.
 
 KHANDE RylO 379 
 
 commanded by his brother-in-law Ismail Ali, having ridden seventy-five 
 miles on one horse. Ismail Ali was at once despatched to see how 
 matters stood at Bangalore. He had scarcely arrived there before 
 Ivhande Rao's orders to seize the kiledar were received. But it was 
 too late. Kabir Beg, an old friend of Haidar.s, was faithful to him. 
 The Hindu soldiers were excluded and the fort gates shut. Haidar, 
 on receiving the news, at once set out and reached Bangalore the same 
 evening. 
 
 His position was indeed desperate. " He was now left, as it were, to 
 begin the world again on the resources of his own mind. The bulk of 
 his treasures and his train of artillery and military stores all lost : the 
 territorial revenue at the command of Khande Rao : and the only 
 possessions on which he could rest any hope for the restoration of his 
 affairs were — Bangalore at the northern, and Dindigal at the southern 
 extremity of the territories of Mysore, with Anekal and the fortresses of 
 Baramahal. The sole foundation of a new army was the corps of 
 Makhdum Ali ; and its junction was nearly a desperate hope. He had, 
 however, despatched from Anekal positive orders for them to commence 
 their march without an hour's delay ; withdrawing altogether the garrison 
 of Tyagar, and every man that could be spared from the posts of Bara- 
 mahal." He obtained a loan of four lakhs on his personal security from 
 the saukars of Bangalore and was joined by a few adherents. Among 
 others, a Muhammadan of rank, Fazal-ulla Khan, son of the late Xavab 
 of Sira, offered him his services. All hope now rested on the corps of 
 Makhdum Ali ; against whom Khande Rao had sent the Mahrattas 
 and the best of his troops, and reduced him to i^reat extremities. 
 
 A most unexpected turn in events saved Haidar from apparent 
 destruction. Visaji Pandit was found ready to negotiate, and agreed to 
 depart on the cession of Baramahal and a payment of three lakhs of 
 rupees. The money was at once paid, and the Mahrattas marched off. 
 Makhdum Ali, relieved from his critical blockade, proceeded to Banga- 
 lore. The explanation of the haste of the Mahratta retreat, which had 
 excited Haidar's suspicion, now appeared. News had secretly been 
 received of the crushing defeat of the Mahrattas by the Abdalis on the 
 memorable field of Panipat, and all their forces were ordered to 
 concentrate. Haidar, who had delayed giving up Baramahal, therefore 
 retained it. He detached Makhdum Ali to secure the revenues of 
 Coimbatore and Salem ; and proceeded in person, accompanied by a 
 French contingent, against Khande Rao, to whom place after place was 
 yielding. He crossed the Kaveri below Sosile, and the two armies met 
 near Nanjangud. Haidar's force being inferior in point of numbers, he 
 endeavoured to avoid an action while waiting for reinforcements. But
 
 38o JJISTORY 
 
 Khandc Rao forced on a battle, and com[)elling Haidars infantry to 
 change its front, charged it while performing that evolution. Haidar 
 was severely defeated and retired to Hardanhalli. 
 
 " Nothing but a confidence in powers of simulation altogether un- 
 rivalled could have suggested to Haidar the step which he next pursued. 
 With a select body of two hundred horse, including about seventy 
 French hussars under M. Hugel, he made a circuitous march by night ; 
 and early on the next morning, unarmed, and alone, presented himself 
 as a suppliant at the door of Nanja-Raj at Konanur, and being admitted, 
 threw himself at his feet. With the semblance of real penitence and 
 grief, he attributed all his misfortunes to the gross ingratitude with 
 which he had requited the patronage of Nanja-Raj, entreated him to 
 resume the direction of public affairs and take his old servant once 
 more under his protection. Nanja-Raj was completely deceived ; and 
 with his remaining household troops, which during the present troubles 
 he had augmented to two thousand horse and about an equal number 
 of indifferent infantry, he gave to the ruined fortunes of Haidar the 
 advantages of his name and influence, announcing in letters despatched 
 in every direction his determination to exercise the office of 
 sarvdd/iikdri, which he still nominally retained, with Haidar as his 
 da/avdyi." 
 
 Khande Rao now manoeuvred to prevent the junction of Haidar 
 with his army, and had arrived at Katte Malalvadi. The destruction of 
 Haidar and his new friends appeared to be inevitable, when his talent 
 for deception again released him from the danger. He fabricated 
 letters, in the name and with the seal of Nanja-Rdj, to the principal 
 officers of Khande Rao's army, to deliver him up in accordance with an 
 imaginary pre\ious compact. It was arranged that these letters should 
 fall into the hands of Khande Rao, who, thinking himself betrayed, 
 mounted his horse and fled in haste to Seringapatam. His forces 
 became in consequence disorganized, when Haidar fell upon and 
 routed them, capturing all the infantry, guns, stores and baggage. He 
 next descended the Ghats, took all the forts that had declared for 
 Khande Rao, and by the month of May returned to the south of 
 Seringapatam with a large force. Here for several days he pretended 
 to be engaged in negotiating, and every evening made a show of 
 exercising his troops till after sunset. On the eighth day, instead of 
 dismissing them as usual, he made a sudden dash across the river, and 
 surprising Khande Rao's forces, completely routed them and encamped 
 on the island. 
 
 He now sent a message to the trembling Raja, demanding the sur- 
 render of Khande Rao as being his servant, and the liquidation of
 
 HAIDAR A LI 381 
 
 arrears due, which were designedly enhanced ; offering at the same 
 time to reHnquish the service when the conditions were complied with. 
 He however expounded his real views to the ofificers of state, and they, 
 working upon the fears of the helpless Raja, prevailed upon him to 
 resign the entire management of the country into the hands of the 
 conqueror, reserving only districts yielding three lakhs of pagodas for 
 himself and one lakh for Nanja-Raj. Khande Rao was delivered up, 
 Haidar having promised to spare his life and take care of him as a 
 parrot, an expression used to denote kind treatment. It was however 
 fulfilled to the letter, by confining him in an iron cage and giving him 
 rice and milk for his food, in which condition he ended his days. 
 
 Haidar's usurpation was by this time complete ; but he entered on 
 the government of the country, in June 1761, with a studied show of 
 reluctance and the form of a mock submission to the wishes of the 
 Raja. After two months, having placed Seringapatam under the 
 command of his brother-in-law Makhdum Ali, he proceeded to 
 Bangalore. Basalat Jang, a brother of the Subadar of the Dekhan, 
 and therefore one of the claimants to that dignity, was at this time in 
 possession of Adoni and meditated establishing his own pretensions. 
 The south was the direction in which he could with least opposition 
 extend his territory. He accordingly, in June 1761, planned to reduce 
 Sira, then in the hands of the ]Mahrattas, but found it would require 
 too long a siege. He therefore marched to Hoskote, which also defied 
 his efforts. Negotiations were soon opened between Haidar and 
 Basalat Jang ; and the latter, in return for a gift of three lakhs of 
 rupees, invested Haidar with the office of Navab of Sira, styling him in 
 the deeds of investiture Haidar Ali Khan Bahadur.^ 
 
 Haidar now united his army to that of Basalat Jang and captured 
 Hoskote. Dod Ballapur was next taken,'- and lastly Sira. Here 
 Basalat Jang left Haidar, being called to the north by the hostile 
 movements of his brother Nizam Ali, now Subadar of the Dekhan. 
 Haidar returned and attacked Chik Ballapur. Morari Rao of Ciutti. 
 advancing to its relief, was defeated, and the place fell after a most 
 obstinate defence, the palegar taking refuge on Nandi-durga. 
 Kodikonda, Penugonda and Madaksira, possessions of Morari Rao, 
 were next taken ; and returning to Sira, Haidar received the submission 
 of the palegars of Raydurga and Harpanhalli, and forced that of the 
 palegar of Chitaldroog. The latter introduced to him a pretender to 
 
 ' He also offered him the tille oi Jang, h\\\ Haidar, who could not pronounce it 
 better than Zaitg, fancied it contained some covert sneer, and so declined it in favour 
 of Fazal-ulla, who thus became Haibat Jang. 
 
 - Abbas Khuli Khan, to whom he owed a deeji revenge (sec y. 372), abaiuifined 
 his family and fled to Madras. But Haidar treated the family with great generosity.
 
 382 JIISTOR Y 
 
 the ihroiic ul" Hcdiuir, as related in the history of the Chitaldroog 
 district, and the invasion of ikdnur was planned. He entered the 
 province at the end of January, 1763, and at Kumsi found the late 
 Raja's prime minister, who had been long imprisoned at this place. 
 From him every information was obtained as to the approaches and 
 resources of the capital, in consequence of which Haidar, rejecting all 
 the offers of money made to buy him off, pressed on. The Rani and 
 her paramour fled, followed by the inhabitants en masse, who took 
 shelter in the woods. Haidar, the instant of his arrival at the barrier, 
 in March, ordered a noisy but feigned attack to be made on the posts 
 in his front, while he himself, at the head of a select column, entered 
 the city by a private path pointed out by the minister. The flames of 
 the palace were extinguished and a seal placed on the doors of all but 
 the poorest of the deserted dwellings. A booty was thus secured which 
 has been valued at twelve millions sterling. Detachments were 
 despatched to the coast and in pursuit of the Rani. The former took 
 possession of the fortified island of Basavaraj-durga, as well as of 
 Honavar and Mangalore. The latter took the Rani prisoner at 
 Ballalrayan-durga. She, with her paramour, her adopted son, the 
 nominal Raja, and even the pretender whose cause Haidar had 
 ostensibly espoused, were all alike sent to a common imprisonment at 
 Madgiri. 
 
 This important conquest was ever spoken of by Haidar Ali as the 
 foundation of ail his subsequent greatness. He designed to make Bed- 
 nur his capital, and gave it the name of Haidar-nagar. His family was 
 removed thither, and the building commenced of a splendid palace 
 (never finished). He also established a mint and struck coins — known 
 as Haidari and Bahaduri pagodas — in his own name. A dockyard and 
 naval arsenal were further formed on the western coast for the construc- 
 tion of ships of war. 
 
 The former officials of Bednur had been, to a great extent, retained 
 in their offices, and when Haidar Ali, having contracted the usual Mal- 
 nad fever, was unable to attend to business, they formed a conspiracy 
 for assassinating him and recovering the capital. But it was discovered. 
 The commissioners appointed to investigate it were found to be involved, 
 and instantly hanged in his presence. Three hundred conspirators 
 suffered the same fate before the day ended. All opposition was thus 
 effectually crushed. 
 
 The hill country of Sunda was subdued in December. Meanwhile 
 Reza Ali Khan, son of Chanda Sahib, and the French candidate for the 
 Navabship of the Carnatic, who, escaping from Pondicherry on its 
 capture by the English in i 761, had been living since in Ceylon, landed
 
 HAIDAR A LI 383 
 
 in Kanara and claimed protection from Haidar. He was received with 
 distinction, and presented with a jagir of a lakh of rupees. By his ad- 
 vice many changes were introduced into the army. The infantry were 
 for the first time dressed in a uniform manner, and classed into avval, 
 first, and duyam, second; the former composed of tried and veteran 
 troops with superior pay. The etiquette and ceremonials of the court 
 were also regulated, and a greater show of splendour assumed in retinue 
 and personal surroundings. 
 
 Haidar now bethought himself of appeasing the Mahrattas and the 
 Nizam, the former for the seizure of Sira, the latter for accepting the 
 title of Navab from his brother. Embassies with gifts were accordingly 
 sent to either court. At Haidarabad the object was attained, but the 
 ]^Iahrattas could not be reconciled, and Haidar resolved to anticipate 
 an invasion. Savanur was conquered, and the Mysore frontier ad- 
 vanced nearly to the Krishna, when Gopal Rao, the Mahratta chief of 
 Miraj, was ordered to check further progress, but he was defeated. 
 Madhava Rao, the Peshva, now crossed the Krishna with an immense 
 army, and Haidar sustained a damaging defeat at Rattihalli, with severe 
 loss of the flower of his army. He fell back to Anavatti, where also 
 the Mahrattas were victorious, and Haidar, with fifty cavalry, barely 
 escaped by the fleetness of their horses. The Mahrattas retook all the 
 recent conquests to the north ; and Haidar, driven back into IJednur 
 with the most hopeless prospects, sent off his family and treasure with 
 all speed to Seringapatam. At length negotiations were opened, and the 
 Mahrattas retired in February, 1765, on the restoration of all places 
 taken from Morari Rao of Ciutti and Abdul Hakim Khan of Savanur, 
 and the payment of thirty-two lakhs of rupees. Sira was left in Haidar's 
 hands. 
 
 During this unfavourable aspect of his affairs to the west, all his 
 recent acquisitions to the east were in a flame of rebellion. His brother- 
 in-law, Mir Ali Reza, was sent thither, and restored his authority. The 
 palegar of Chik Ballapur, being starved out on Nandi-durga, was forced 
 to surrender, and sent a prisoner, with his family, first to Bangalore and 
 then to Coimbatore. 
 
 The conquest of Malabar was next undertaken, on information 
 derived from Ali Raja, the Mapilla ruler of Cannamore, who thought 
 with help from Haidar to extend his own power. A force was left at 
 Basvapatna for the security of the north, and with all disposable troops 
 Haidar descended into Kanara early in 1 766. The Nairs were subdued 
 with difficulty, owing to the wooded nature of the country. The northern 
 states being conquered, the Zamorin of Calicul came forward and made 
 his submission. Haidar suspected treachery, and, while concluding an
 
 384 JITSrOR Y 
 
 agreement to reinstate him on payment of four lakhs of Venetian sequins, 
 secretly sent a force to seize Calicut. The Zamorin was perplexed and 
 delayed payment, on which he was confined to his palace and his minis- 
 ters tortured. Fearing the same fate, he set fire to the building and 
 perished with all his family. Leaving a force at Calicut, Haidar moved 
 on to Coimbatore, receiving the submission of the Rajas of Cochin and 
 Palghat on the way. In three months the Nairs rebelled. Haidar 
 returned to put them down, and adopted the expedient of deporting 
 vast numbers to the less populous parts of Mysore. But the usual con- 
 sequence to which the natives of Malabar are subject followed from the 
 change of climate, and of 15,000 who were removed not 200 survived. 
 A general amnesty was proclaimed, and the erection commenced of a 
 fort at Palghat as a point of communication with the country. 
 
 During these operations the pageant raja, Chikka Krishna-Raja, had 
 died, and Haidar had sent instructions to instal his eldest son, Nanja- 
 Raj, then eighteen years of age, in his place. On arriving at the capital in 
 1767, he discovered that this youth was not likely to acquiesce in his 
 subservient position. Haidar immediately resumed the three lakhs of 
 pagodas allowed for the Raja, plundered the palace of every article of 
 value except the ornaments the women actually had on their persons 
 at the time, and placed his own guards over the place. 
 
 Intelligence meanwhile arrived that the Mahrattas and Nizam Ali 
 had planned a joint invasion of Mysore. The Mahrattas first appeared, 
 under Madhava Rao, and Haidar in vain endeavoured to stop their 
 progress by cutting the embankments of the tanks, poisoning the water 
 in the wells, burning the forage, and driving off all the villagers and 
 cattle on their route. The Mahrattas arrived at Raydurga and marched 
 down the bed of the Haggari to Sira. Here Mir Sahib, Haidar's 
 brother-in-law, betrayed his trust, and gave it up in return for Guram- 
 konda, the possession of his ancestors. Haidar now made strenuous 
 efforts to treat with the Mahrattas, who had overrun all the east, before 
 Nizam Ali should join them. At length, by the address of Appaji Ram, 
 a witty and skilful negotiator, the Mahrattas agreed to retire on payment 
 of 35 lakhs of rupees, half to be paid on the spot, and Kolar to be 
 retained in pledge for the rest. On Nizam All's arrival soon after, 
 Haidar persuaded him into an alliance with himself against the English. 
 Meanwhile, discovering that Nanja-Raj, the old minister, was intriguing 
 with the Mahrattas and Nizam Ali, he induced him by a false oath of 
 security to come to Seringapatam, on the plea that his advice was 
 needed in the critical state of the country, and then made him prisoner, 
 reducing his allowances to the bare necessaries of life. 
 
 Nizam Ali deceived the English, with whom he was allied, up to the
 
 If'AR WITH THE EXGLISH 385 
 
 last moment, but on the 25th of August, 1767, the forces of Mysore 
 and Haidarabacl descended the Ghats and attacked Colonel Smith, who, 
 though at first taken by surprise, completely defeated them at Trino- 
 mali on the 26th September. Tipu, then seventeen, had, under guidance 
 of Ghazi Khan, his military preceptor, penetrated with a body of horse to 
 the very precincts of Madras, when, hearing the result of the battle of 
 Trinomali, he retired with precipitation to join his father. Mutual 
 recriminations ensued between Haidar Ali and Nizam Ali, and notning 
 was done for a month. The former then seized u[)on Tripatur and 
 Vaniambadi, but signally failed in an attack on the hill fort of Ambur. 
 In the hope of closing the campaign with a brilliant exploit, he went in 
 person against an English detachment escorting supplies, but was 
 repulsed, his horse being shot under him and his turban pierced by a 
 bullet. Leaving some cavalry to watch the English, the confederates 
 retired in disappointment above the Ghats with all their forces at the 
 end of the year. 
 
 On the side of the English, a force operating from the Northern Sir- 
 kars soon penetrated to Orangal. The Nizam was therefore glad to 
 conclude a treaty with them, resigning all claims to Mysore, and, 
 separating from Haidar Ali, returned to his capital. Haidar also made 
 overtures, but without success. Meanwhile a fleet was fitting out at 
 Bombay for capturing the Mysorean ports on the western coast, and 
 the chiefs of Malabar were prepared to rebel. Haidar, leaving Fazal 
 Ulla Khan at Bangalore, marched with all haste to the west and retook 
 Mangalore, Honavar, and Basavaraj-durga, whi( h had fallen to the 
 English. He then visited Bednur, and levied heavy fines on all the 
 landholders for furnishing supplies to his enemies. He also obtained 
 large contributions from the chiefs of Malabar in consideration of 
 recognizing their independence, which, however, they never attained. 
 
 The English forces in the east were in two detachments. One 
 secured all the fortified places in Salem, Erode, Coimbatore, and I )indi- 
 gal ; while the other, after losing much time in the capture of Krish- 
 nagiri, had ascended the Ghats, taken Mulbagal, Kolar, and Hosur, 
 and was awaiting, burdened with the care of Muhammad Ali, the junc- 
 tion of the two at Hoskote. Here a corps under Morari Rao joined it, 
 on the same day that Haidar Ali arrived at Bangalore. He made a 
 desperate attempt to surprise the camp of Morari Rao, but failed. 
 Then, sending off his family and treasure to Savan-durga, he set off on 
 one of tho.se extraordinary diversions which seemed always to occur to 
 him when his affairs were most critical. He passed rapidly by a cir- 
 cuitous route, east and then north, to Guramkonda, with the view of 
 inducing Mir Sahib to return to his allegiance. Ihis unlikely object 
 
 c c
 
 386 I/ISTOK Y 
 
 was actually attained, and Haidar, reinforced, returned towards Kolar, 
 and opened negotiations. But his offer of Biramahal and ten lakhs of 
 rupees fell far short of the demands of the English and of Muhammad 
 Ali, and came to nothing. 
 
 Haidar had meanwhile despatched Fazal Ulla Khan to Seringapatam, 
 whence he descended the Gajalhatti pass with a field force for the 
 recovery of the districts in the south. He himself, after some indecisive 
 engagements, suddenly descended into the Baramahal, and, giving out 
 that he had defeated the E)nglish, passed on to Coimbatore, gaining 
 possession of the fortified places on the route. The garrisons of Erod 
 and Kaveri[)uram held out, but, induced to surrender on a promise of 
 safety, were marched off as prisoners to Seringapatam. Fazal Ulla 
 Khan invaded Madura and Tinnivelly, while Haidar, levying four lakhs 
 of rupees from the Raja of Tanjore, moved by rapid marches towards 
 Cuddalore. Negotiations were again opened, Haidar's first condition 
 being that he would treat only with the English and not with Muham- 
 mad Ali. But the terms could not be agreed on, and hostilities con- 
 tinued. Haidar, who knew that the Mahrattas were preparing for 
 another invasion of Mysore, now secretly sent off the whole body of 
 his army to reascend the Ghats, while he himself, with 6,000 chosen 
 horse, marched 140 miles in three days and a half, and appeared at the 
 gates of Madras. He had come to make peace in person with he 
 English. A treaty was thus concluded on the 29th March, 1769, on 
 the moderate conditions of mutual restitution of conquered districts, 
 an exchange of prisoners, and reciprocal assistance in purely defensive 
 war. Thus ended what is known in the annals of British India as the 
 first Mysore war. Haidar returned leisurely to Kolar and then to 
 Bangalore.^ 
 
 He was soon again in the field, in order to acquire the means to meet 
 the meditated Mahratta invasion. When he had allied himself with 
 Nizam Ali, it was secretly stipulated that Kadapa, Karnul, and other 
 places up to the Tungabhadra, should be transferred to the control of 
 Mysore. He resolved now to enforce this agreement, and, moving 
 north-east, levied contributions on the Pathan navabs of Kadapa and 
 Karnul, and the palegars of the neighbourhood. He, however, feigned 
 friendship for Morari Rao, and was repulsed in an attempt on Bellary. 
 But, unable to meet the superior forces of the Mahrattas, now (1770) 
 in full march on his capital, he gradually retired before them, laying 
 waste the whole country to prevent their advance, and placing adetach- 
 
 ' When Haidar appeared before Madras, so terrified was Abbas Khuli Khan of 
 Dod Ballapur, who had taken refuge here {see page 381), that he embarl<:ed in a crazy 
 vessel, and dared not land until the Mysore army had returned above the Ghats.
 
 CHAM A RAJA 387 
 
 mcnt at Bednur, under Tipu, to cut off their supplies and harass them 
 in the rear. Negotiations being opened, Madhava Rao demanded a 
 crore of rupees ; Haidar would offer only twelve lakhs. Both parties 
 claimed help from the English, who therefore remained neutral. 
 
 The Mahrattas conquered the whole of the north and east of the 
 country, their progress being, however, long arrested by a gallant defence 
 of the little fort of Nijagal (Nelamangala taluq), which was at last taken 
 by the palegar of Chitaldroog, who had joined the Mahrattas. Mad- 
 hava Rao was now taken ill and returned to Poona, leaving Tryambak 
 Mama in command. Haidar was emboldened by this change and took 
 the field, but met with no success. At last an attempt to retreat un- 
 observed by way of the Melukote hills being discovered, the Mysore 
 army was attacked, disorganized, and totally routed with great slaughter, 
 at Chinkurali, on the 5th of March, 1771. Haidar fled on horseback to 
 Seringapatam. Tipu, who was thought to have fallen, escaped in dis- 
 guise. For ten days the Mahrattas were engaged in dividing their 
 spoils. They then sat down before Seringapatam with a large force, the 
 remainder being employed in ravaging the whole country above and 
 below the Ghats. Haidar could produce little effect on them, and in 
 June, 1772, a treaty was concluded, by which he bound himself to pay 
 thirty lakhs of rupees, one-half at once, besides five lakhs for " durbar 
 expenses" ! For the balance, Kolar, Hoskote, Dod Ballapur, Sira, Mad- 
 giri, Chanraydurga, and Guramkonda were left in their hands. 
 
 The Raja was found during these commotions to have opened an 
 intrigue with Tryambak Rao. He was therefore strangled, and his 
 brother, Chdma Rdja, put in his place. Haidar now proceeded to extort 
 money from all who were supposed to have any, applying the torture 
 where necessary. Even his brave general, Fazal UUa Khan, was not 
 spared, nor Xanja-Rdj, his old benefactor. The latter survived only 
 one year, the former gave up all he had and died in extreme poverty. 
 
 Madhava Rao died in November 1772, his successor Narayan Rao 
 Avas killed in August 1773, and Raghunatha Rao or Ragoba became 
 ostensible Peshva. Haidar considered the time favourable for action. 
 He sent an embassy to Madras to form an alliance with the ICnglish. 
 'J'ipu was detached to the north to recover the places ceded to the 
 Mahrattas, while Haidar suddenly invaded Coorg, as the first step 
 towards reconquering Malabar. The Coorgs, entirely unprejiared, were 
 surrounded by his troops, and a reward of five rupees offered for every 
 head. About 700 had been paid for, when, struck by the fine features, 
 Haidar relented and ordered the ma.s.sacre to cease. The landholders 
 Avere confirmed in their possessions on a moderately-increased rent, a 
 fort was erected at Mercara, and Devaiya, the Raja, who had become a 
 
 c c 2
 
 388 HISTORY 
 
 fugitive, was captured and sent to Scringapatam. A force was at once 
 despatched to Malabar, which seized CaHcut and reduced the Nair 
 chiefs to dependence in n wonderfully short time. Tipu was equally 
 successful in the north, and thus, between September 1773 and 
 February 1774, Haidar completely recovered all the territory he had 
 lost. A treaty was shortly formed with Ragoba, by which Haidar 
 engaged to support his pretensions to be the head of the Mahratta 
 State, in consideration of the tribute payable from Mysore being reduced 
 to six lakhs. An insurrection in Coorg was promptly put down, and 
 Haidar returned with his army to Seringapatam early in 1775. The 
 negotiations with the English unfortunately came to nothing, owing to 
 the intrigues of Muhammad Ali, and Haidar therefore turned towards 
 the French. 
 
 Chima Raja now died, and there being no heir to the throne, Haidar, 
 who from motives of expediency .still wished it to be occupied by a 
 pageant king, resorted to the following method of selecting one : — 
 Assembling all the male children of the different branches of the 
 family, he introduced them into a hall strewed with fruits, sweetmeats, 
 and toys, telling them to help themselves. They were soon scrambling 
 for the things, when one little fellow took up a dagger in one hand and 
 a lime in the other. "That is the Raja !" exclaimed Haidar, "his first 
 care is military protection, his second to realize the produce of his 
 dominions ; bring him hither and let me embrace him." Thus did Chama 
 Raja IX obtain the throne, and he was accordingly installed as Raja. 
 
 About this time Haidar received a body of 1,000 men from Shiraz in 
 Persia to serve in his army, and sent an embassy for more. But the 
 latter was lost in the Gulf of Kach, and the first instalment did not long 
 survive the change of climate. Brahman agents were now employed to 
 foment dissensions in such neighbouring states as Haidar had resolved 
 to conquer. His assistance was thus applied for by the palegar of 
 Bellary, who, having been induced by such emissaries to declare his 
 independence, was attacked by Basalat Jang. Haidar marched to the 
 relief in the incredibly short space of five days, fell upon the besiegers 
 before they knew he had left his capital, and completely routed them, 
 the commander being killed, and Lally escaping with difficulty. But 
 Haidar promptly took their place in the batteries, and forced the chief 
 to surrender it to himself at discretion. Meanwhile the forces sent in 
 pursuit of Basalat Jang Avere bought off with a lakh of pagodas. A 
 demand was next made by Haidar on Morari Rao, of Gutti, and 
 refused. A siege ensued, and after some months Gutti was taken, all 
 its dependencies added to Mysore, and Morari Rao sent prisoner, first 
 to Seringapatam and then to Kabbal-durga, where he shortly died.
 
 MAHRATTA IXVASION 389 
 
 Meanwhile Ragolja's power had met with a reverse which caused him 
 to fly to Surat, where, on the 6th of March, 1775, a treaty was con- 
 cluded with the English to aid him in recovering his authority. He also 
 proposed to Haidar to take possession of the Mahratta territories up to 
 the Krishna, that he might be at hand to assist. No second invitation 
 was needed. All the tributary palegars in the north were summoned 
 to attend with their troops, and Savanur was overrun ; but the monsoon 
 bursting with such violence as to cause great mortality in the army. 
 Haidar, disbanding the troops, returned to Seringapatam. All the 
 amildars were, however, sunmioned to the capital, the rates of revenue 
 were investigated and increased, the peshkash payable by tributaries 
 was also raised, and finally a general contribution under the name of 
 nazardna was levied on the whole country for the expenses of the war. 
 
 Of the claimants to Mahratta sovereignty, Ragoba being supported 
 by Haidar, while Nizam Ali declared for the ministerial party and the 
 reputed son of Narayan Rao, a joint invasion of Mysore by the latter 
 was the consequence. Four chiefs were sent in advance to clear Sava- 
 nur of Haidar's troops, but they were skilfully and completely defeated 
 by his general at Saunsi, two of them being taken prisoners. 'i"he main 
 armies of the confederates now approached. The Mahrattas, under 
 Parasu Ram Bhao, numbered 30,000, and were to march south-east 
 through Savanur. The army of Nizam Ali, estimated at 40,000, under 
 Ibrahim Khan, were to move south by Raichur. Haidar took post at 
 Gutti. Parasu Ram Bhao, on hearing of the defeat of the advance 
 corps, fell back beyond the Krishna for reinforcements. Ibrahim Khan, 
 informed of this movement, and secretly bribed by Haidar, thereupon 
 also retired beyond the Krishna, after he had marched as far as Adoni. 
 The rains set in, and j^ut a stop to further proceedings for the present. 
 The naval) of Kadapa and the palegar of Clhitaldroog, instead of assist- 
 ing Haidar, had joined the enemy. He resolved now to punish them, 
 and sat down before Chitaldroog. It was bravely tlcfcnded for months, 
 when Haidar, aware that 60,000 Mahrattas, under Hari Pant, were 
 approaching, concluded an agreement to retire on payment of thirteen 
 lakhs of pagodas. 
 
 Haidar thence advanced to meet the enemy, in whose forces his 
 agent had managed, by a bribe of six lakhs of rupees, to secure the 
 treachery of a chief of 10,000, who was to come over in the first action. 
 The Mahrattas, after waiting in vain for the forces of Nizam Ali, crossed 
 the Tungabhadra. The armies met at Raravi. Manaji Pankria, the 
 chief who had been bribed, hesitated. Haidar, suspecting double 
 treason, made dispositions which excited the suspicions of Hari Pant, 
 who saw he was betrayed, but knew not to what extent. "In a few
 
 390 in STORY 
 
 moments an impenetraljlc cloud of dust arose both in front and rear of 
 the Mahratta h'ne, which neither decidedly approached nor decidedly 
 receded ; it was evidently the mass of their cavalry in full charge ; h)Ut 
 not towards Haidar. Some time had elapsed before he perceived that 
 the corps of Manaji Pankria had been enveloped and swept off the field, 
 and that a powerful rear-guard presented itself to cover the retreat of 
 the whole. The armies had not sufficiently closed to render pursuit 
 decisive, and two guns only were lost by Hari Pant in effecting his 
 retreat behind the Tungabhadra, where a strong position secured him 
 from insult, and afforded him leisure to investigate the extent of the dis- 
 affection which had produced his retreat. The troops of Manaji Pank- 
 ria had made a tolerabl)- gallant resistance, and attempted to move in 
 mass towards Haidar : the greater part, however, were cut to pieces, 
 and -Manaji Pankria himself wounded, and, accompanied by no more 
 than thirty select friends, had opened a way through the surrounding 
 mass, and made good his escape to Haidar." But the project of in- 
 vasion was thus defeated. Hari Pant retreated. Haidar rapidly 
 followed, and drove the enemy over the Krishna in December 1777. 
 He now reduced all the forts between the Krishna and the Tunga- 
 bhadra, making the Deshayis, or chiefs, tributary to himself. 
 
 He then returned to Chitaldroog, which was taken at last in March 
 1779, by treachery, as related in the history of the place. The Bedar 
 population, to the number of 20,000, were deported to people the island 
 of Seringapatam, while all the boys were converted and trained up as 
 soldiers, forming what were called Chela battalions.^ Kadapa was the 
 next object of attack. The Pathan guards were surprised and forced 
 to surrender : the navab retired to Sidhout, and Kadapa was taken 
 
 ' A ) oung Xair, who had been taken from Malabar and forcibly converted to 
 Islam, with the name of Sheikh Ayaz, was appointed governor of Chitaldroog. He 
 was a handsome youth, and Haidar had formed the most exalted opinion of his 
 merits, frequently upbraiding his son Tipu for inferiority to him. "Modest as he 
 was faithful and brave, Ayaz wished to decline the distinction as one to which he felt 
 himself incompetent ; and particularly objected that he could neither read nor write, 
 and was consequently incapable of a civil charge." " Keep a korla* at your right 
 hand," said Haidar, " and that will do you better service than pen and ink." Then 
 assuming a graver countenance, "Place reliance," added he, "on your excellent 
 understanding : act from yourself alone : fear nothing firom the calumnies of the 
 scribblers ; but trust in me as I trust in you. Reading and writing I I how have I 
 risen to empire without the knowledge of either ?" 
 
 * A long whip of cotton rope, about an inch and a half in diameter at the thick 
 end where it is grasped, and tapering to a point at the other extremity ; this severe 
 instrument of personal punishment is about nine feet long ; and Haidar was con- 
 stantly attended by a considerable number of persons too constantly practised in 
 its use.
 
 NEC O TIA TIOXS 391 
 
 without opposition. But Haidar was near losing liis life by a plot of 
 the Afghans. Admiring their courage, he had taken into his service all 
 who could find security for their behaviour among his own followers, 
 l^^ighty, who had not succeeded, were left that night with their arms near 
 his tent. They suddenly arose at dead of night, slew the guard.s, and 
 made for Haidar's tent. The noise awaking him, he guessed the danger, 
 pushed the bolster into the bed to resemble a sleeping figure, and, slit- 
 ting a hole in the tent, escaped. The assassins rushed in and cut at 
 the bed. Paralyzed with astonishment to find their victim gone, they 
 were instantly overpowered. Of those who survived till morning, some 
 had their hands and feet chopped off, and the rest were dragged at the 
 feet of elephants. Sidhout surrendered on the 27th of May, and Abdul 
 Halim Khan, the navab, was sent prisoner to Seringapatam. His 
 sister, whose sense of honour was only equalled by her beauty, 
 which surpassed that of any female captive yet secured, threatened to 
 destroy herself rather than enter the unlimited harem of the con(iueror 
 ill the usual informal manner. The ceremony of nika was therefore 
 performed, and this lad\-, under the title of Bakshi Begam, was soon 
 after placed at the head of the seraglio. 
 
 On returning to the capital, a complete revision was made of the 
 civil departments. Mir Sadak was made finance minister, Shamaiya 
 head of the police and post-office. Since the defection of Khande Rao, 
 every one of Haidar's ministers, Hindu and Muhammadan alike, had 
 died from tortures inflicted to recover real or pretended defalcations. 
 The unscrupulous ability of Shamaiya developed to the most cruel 
 perfection the system of espionage and fabrication of such charges, to 
 atone for which the utmost farthing was exacted under the pressure of 
 tortures which often terminated the lives of the unfortunate victims. A 
 systeuT was introduced of paying the troops on half-monthly pattis 
 instead of monthly, which gradually resulted in their getting only nine 
 or ten months' pay for the year. A double marriage was arranged in 
 T779 with the family of the navab of Savanur, whose eldest son was 
 united to Haidar's daughter, and Haidar's second son, Karim, to the 
 navab's daughter. The ceremonies were celebrated with great pomp at 
 Seringapatam, and accompanied with the gift of the unrestored half of 
 Savanur to the navab. 
 
 During these festivities an envoy arrived from the ministerial party 
 at Poona, by whom Haidar was expecting an invasion. But, induced 
 by the hopelessness of Ragoba's cause, now a second lime a fugitive, 
 and other considerations, Haidar entered into a treaty. On condition 
 that Ragoba's grant of territories u[i to the Krishna was i-onfirmed, the 
 future tribute fixed at eleven lakhs of rui)ees, and all arrears cancelled,
 
 392 in STORY 
 
 he agreed to co-operate with the d(jniinant iMahratta party and Nizam 
 Ali for the expulsion of the Engh'sh from India. The failure of nego- 
 tiations with the latter had made him ill-disposed towards them. Two 
 events gave ground for open hostilities. The English being then at war 
 with the French, Pondicherry was taken in October 1778, and Mahe 
 in March 1779. The capture of the former did not directly affect 
 Haidar, but the latter was the port through which he received military 
 supplies from the Mauritius. He had, therefore, declared it to be 
 under his protection, as being situated in his territory, and had 
 threatened to lay waste the province of Arcol if it were attacked. The 
 other event was that an English corps, marching to relieve Adoni, pro- 
 ceeded through the territory of Kadapa without formal permission 
 obtained from Haidar, to whom it now belonged, the commanding 
 officer being merely furnished with a letter to the manager of the 
 district. 
 
 The news of this reached Haidar at the very time that the missionary 
 Schwartz had arrived at Seringapatam, commissioned by the Governor 
 of Madras to assure him of the amicable designs of the English 
 Government. " If the English offer the hand of peace and concord, I 
 will not withdraw mine," .said Haidar, but he sent letters to the Governor 
 requiring reparation for the alleged grievances, and referring to his 
 unfulfilled threat of revenge. Meanwhile, some English travellers who 
 landed at Calicut were seized and conveyed to Seringapatam. Mr. 
 Gray, member of council, was sent as an envoy to demand their release, 
 and to bring about a good understanding. But Haidar, on finding 
 that none of them were military, had let them go, and ^Ir. Gray met 
 them on his way ; but he proceeded on to the capital, where he was 
 treated with studied disrespect, for war had been determined on. 
 
 After prayers for success, in both mosques and temples, Haidar Ali 
 left his capital and descended the Ghats in July, 1780, with a force of 
 90,000 men, unequalled in strength and efficiency by any native army 
 that had ever been assembled in the south of India. French officers 
 of ability guided the operations, and the commissariat was under the 
 management of Purnai^'a, one of the ministers of finance. A body of 
 horse, under his second son, Karim Sahib, was sent to plunder Porto 
 Novo ; a larger body proceeded towards Madras, burning the villages 
 and mutilating the people who lingered near them. From Pulicat to 
 Pondicherry a line of desolation, extending from thirty to fifty miles in- 
 land, was drawn round Madras. The black columns of smoke were 
 visible from St. Thomas's Mount, and the bleeding victims were pouring 
 into Madras. 
 
 The English forces were rapidly assembled under Sir Hector Munro
 
 BATTLE OF PORTO \'0]'0 393 
 
 at Conjcverani, but a detachment under Colonel P>aillie, which was on 
 its way to join the main army, was hemmed in and cut off. Arcot also 
 fell. Sir Eyre Coote, the Commander-in-Chief, arrived and took the 
 field in January. The forts in greatest danger, such as Chingleput and 
 Wandiwash, were at once relieved. Haidar at the same time raised 
 the sieges of Permacoil and Vellore. A French fleet now appeared off 
 the coast, and the English force moved to cover Cuddalore, which was 
 threatened by Haidar with the view of occupying it as a depot for the 
 troops expected from France. But Sir Edward Hughes, being off the 
 western coast with a British squadron, destroying Haidar's infant navy 
 in his own ports of Calicut and Mangalore, the French fleet made ofi" 
 for Mauritius ; and Haidar, who had avoided every opportunity of 
 coming to close quarters with Coote, withdrew rapidly to the interior, 
 leaving a sufficient force to intercept all supplies. While a want of 
 these, and a wretched equipment, prevented the English from following, 
 lie ravaged the district of Tanjore, sending off to the upper country all 
 that was movable, including immense herds of cattle. " Weavers and 
 their families," adds AVilks, " were collected and forcibly sent to people 
 the island of Seringapatam. Captive boys, destined to the exterior 
 honour of Islam, were driven to the same place with equal numbers of 
 females, the associates of the (then) present and the mothers of a future 
 race of military slaves." 
 
 In June Coote moved out against Chidambram, but, being repulsed, 
 retired to Porto Novo. Encouraged by this, Haidar marched a hun- 
 dred miles in two days and a half, and placed himself between the 
 English and Cuddalore. Sir Edward Hughes at this juncture arrived 
 off the coast. While with a portion of the scjuadron he protected 
 Cuddalore, the English force, with only four days' rice, carried on the 
 soldiers' backs, marched against Haidar's position ; and on the same 
 day, the ist of July, was fought the battle of Porto Novo, in which, with 
 a force one-eighth that of the enemy. Sir Eyre Coote, after a severe 
 engagement, completely beat the Mysorean army from the field. 
 Haidar Ali, who was watching the operations seated on a stool on a 
 small hill, was near being taken prisoner. He was conveyed out of 
 danger by a faithful groom, who made bold to force the slipi)ers on to 
 his master's feet, saying, " We will beat them to-morrow ; in the mean- 
 time mount your horse.' He reluctantly left the field, pouring forth a 
 torrent of abuse. Wandiwash, invested by Tipu, was again relieved, 
 and he was recalled to join his father at Arcot. 
 
 Haidar, resolved to risk another battle, chose, as being fortunate to 
 himself, the very spot on which Colonel Baillie's detachment had been 
 overcome, and the anniversary of that event was the day fixed on. Sir
 
 ;,(;4 ///S'/'OA'V 
 
 I'-yrc Cootc, after forming a junction with troops sent by land from 
 JJengal, had taken Tripassore, and wished for nothing so much as to 
 bring his enemy to action. The result was the battle of Pollilore, fought 
 on the 27th August, in which, after an engagement of eight hours, the 
 Mysoreans were forced to abandon the field. Haidar now took up a 
 strong position in the pass of Sholinghur, to prevent the relief of Vellore, 
 reduced almost to extremities. At the battle of Sholinghur, fought on 
 the 27th of September, victory again declared for the English, and 
 Vellore was saved. The palegars of Chittor now came over to the 
 English, and Haidar, indignant at their desertion, detached a select 
 corps to burn their villages and lay waste their country. But Sir Eyre 
 Coote, placing himself at the head of a light corps, after an absence of 
 thirty-eight hours, during thirty-two of which he had never dismounted 
 from his horse, returned to camp, having completely surprised and 
 defeated these troops, capturing all their equipments. 
 
 The energy of \\'arren Hastings, the Governor-General — never more 
 conspicuous than at this critical time, when England, at war with 
 America, France, and Holland, was engaged in a life struggle in India 
 with the Mahratta hosts in the west, and the Mysoreans under Haidar 
 in the south — having triumphed over the mischievous opposition of a 
 Council which frustrated every public measure, had succeeded in with- 
 drawing the active opposition of Nizam Ali and of one branch of the 
 Mahrattas, under Madoji Bhonsla. He now concluded a treaty with 
 Sindhia, on the 13th October 1781, and the mediation of the latter was 
 to be employed in bringing about a peace between the English and the 
 Poona Mahrattas under Nana Farnavis, which was actually effected in 
 May 1782. Meanwhile Haidar's vakil had ascertained that this was 
 intended, and that the Mahrattas would unite with the English in com- 
 pelling his master to make peace, unless the latter would at once give 
 up all the territories acquired by him north of the Tungabhadra and all 
 claims over the palegars to the south, in which case they undertook to 
 continue the war and bring back Sindhia to the confederacy. Haidar 
 now- felt himself in a critical situation. He was beaten at all points by 
 Sir Eyre Coote ; he had received no adequate assistance from the 
 French ; the west coast was lost ; Malabar, Coorg, and Balam were in 
 rebellion. The defeat of Colonel Braithwaite's corps in Tanjore by 
 Tipu, which occurred at this time, had no permanent effect in improving 
 his prospects.' 
 
 • It was about this period that Haidar, being much indisposed, was, either by 
 accident or design, left entirely alone with his minister Poorniah ; after being for some 
 time apparently immersed in deep thought, he addressed himself to Poorniah in the 
 following words (related to Colonel Wilks by Poorniah) : — 
 
 " I have committed a great error, I have purchased a draught of .fc'W?' (spirits) at
 
 DEATH OF HAIDAK 395 
 
 He now resolved to abandon the east and to try his fortune in the 
 west. In December he sent all the heavy guns and stores to Mysore, 
 compelled the people below the Ghats to emigrate thither with their 
 flocks and herds, destroyed the forts, and made arrangements for 
 demolishing Arcot, when news suddenly arrived that a French force 
 had actually arrived off Porto Novo. But of the troops M. Bussy had 
 originally embarked for the prosecution of his plans in India, the first 
 division had been captured by Admiral Kempenfelt in December 1781, 
 and a second in April 17S2. Several naval engagements also took 
 place at this time in Indian waters, in which the English uniformly 
 gained the advantage. Cuddalore, however, was now taken 1)\- the 
 French ; and, forming a junction with Haidar, they carried Permacoil 
 in May, before Sir Eyre Coote could arrive for its relief But on the 
 2nd of June was fought the battle of Ami, in which the English were 
 victorious, and nothing but the want of cavalry prevented a large capture 
 of artillery. 
 
 On the other coast, the corps sent to Malabar under Makhdum Ali 
 was completely defeated and destroyed at Tricalore by Colonel Hum- 
 berstone, the commander being killed. Nothing could be done during 
 the monsoon to retrieve this disaster, but as soon as the weather per- 
 mitted in November, Tipu, assisted as usual by Lally's corps, under 
 pretence of striking some blow near Trichinopoly, proceeded by forced 
 marches across the peninsula, hoping to fall upon the English, who were 
 l)reparing for the siege of Palghatcheri. But in this he was dis- 
 appointed, and sustained a defeat at Paniani on the 25th. ^^'hile 
 waiting for reinforcements to renew the attack, an event occurred of 
 the utmost importance. The Mysorean army in Coromandel had 
 cantoned sixteen miles north of Arcot for the rains, the French being 
 at Cuddalore, and the English at Madras. The health of Haidar had 
 been declining, and in November was developed an abscess, or cancer, 
 in the back, known as the rdjpora, or royal boil. The united efforts of 
 Hindu, Muhammadan, and French physicians did no good, and on the 
 7th of December 1782, this remarkable man l)reathed his last, at the 
 age of sixty. 
 
 War first brought him to notice, and engaged in war he died. War 
 was his element. The brief periods of repose between one warlike 
 expedition and another were consumed in repairing the losses of the 
 
 tlie i)rice of a lakh of pagodas : I shall pay dearly for my arrogance ; between me and 
 llie English there were perhaps mutual grounds of dissatisl;iction, hut not sufficient 
 cause for war, and I might have made them my friends in spite of Muhammad Ali, 
 the most treacherous of men. The defeat of many Uaillies and lirailhwaites will not 
 destroy them. I can ruin their resources by land, but I cannot dry uj^ the sea ; and 
 I must be the first to weary of a war in which I can gain nothing by fighting.''
 
 3y6 ///STOR V 
 
 last, or providing the means for the next. The arts and products of 
 peace he valued only as they furnished the sinews of war. liut it is 
 impossible to withhold homage from the great natural talents which 
 raised an unlettered adventurer^ to the supreme control of a powerful 
 kingdom, or the indomitable energy and fertility of resource which 
 found in the most desperate reverses but fresh opportunities of rising. 
 
 In person he is described as robust and of medium height, of dark 
 complexion, with an aquiline nose and small eyes. Contrary to the usual 
 custom of Musalmans, his face was clean shaven, even the eyebrows and 
 eyelashes being removed. The most striking article of his dress was a 
 scarlet turban, flat at the top, and of immens'e diameter. His uniform 
 was flowered white satin, with yellow facings and yellow boots, and a 
 white silk scarf round his waist. He was fond of show and parade on 
 great occasions, and at such times was attended by a thousand spear- 
 men, and preceded by bards who sang his exploits in the Kannada 
 language. He was an accomplished horseman, a skilful swordsman, 
 and a dead shot. He had a large harem of six hundred women, but his 
 strong sensual instincts were never allowed to interfere with public 
 business. From sunrise to past noon he was occupied in public durbar ; 
 he then made his first meal, and retired to rest for an hour or two. In 
 the evening he either rode out or returned to business. But frec^uently 
 the night was enlivened with the performances of dancing girls or of 
 actors of comedies. He took a second meal about midnight and retired 
 to rest, sometimes having drunk freely. 
 
 The following extracts from accounts by the Rev. ^^\ Schwartz, who 
 w^as sent by the English in 1779 to Haidar as a peace-maker, contain a 
 graphic description of his characteristics and modes of business : — 
 " Haidar's palace is a fine building in the Indian style. Opposite to it 
 is an open place. On both sides are ranges of open buildings, where 
 the military and civil servants have their otBces, and constantly attend. 
 Haidar can overlook them from his balcony. Here reigns no pomp, 
 but the utmost regularity and despatch. Although Haidar sometimes 
 rewards his servants, yet the principal motive is fear. Two hundred 
 people with whips stand always ready to use them. Not a day passes 
 on which numbers are not flogged. Haidar applies the same cut to all 
 transgressors alike, gentlemen and horsekeepers, tax-gatherers and his 
 own sons. And when he has inflicted such a public scourging upon the 
 
 ^ Me could neither read nor write any language, though he spoke fluently Hin- 
 dustani, Kannada, Mahratti, Telugu, and Tamil. The sum of his literary attain- 
 ments consisted in learning to write the initial of his own name, //, to serve as his 
 signature on public occasions ; but either from inaptitude to learn, or for the purpose 
 of originality, he inverted its form, and sii^ned thus, I/^IT^ (copied from a grant in 
 the Inam office).
 
 HAIDAKS HABITS 397 
 
 greatest gentlemen he does not dismiss them. No, they remain in the 
 same office, and bear the marks of the stripes on their backs as public 
 warnings, for he seems to think that almost all people who seek to 
 enrich themselves are void of all principles of honour. 
 
 "When I came to Haidar he desired me to sit down alongside of 
 him. The floor was covered with exquisite tapestry. He received me 
 very politely, listened friendly and with seeming pleasure to all I had to 
 say. In reply he spoke very openly and without reserve. . . . When I 
 sat near Haidar I particularly observed in what a regular succession, 
 and with what rapid despatch, his affairs proceeded one after the other. 
 ^Vhenever he made a pause in speaking, an account was read to him of 
 tlie district and letters received. He heard it, and ordered the answer 
 immediately. The writers ran, wrote the letter, read it, and Haidar 
 affixed his seal. Thus, in one evening, a great many letters were expe- 
 dited. Haidar can neither read nor write, but his memory is excellent. 
 He orders one man to write a letter and another to read it to him. If 
 the writer has in the least deviated from his orders his head pavs for it. 
 ^Vhat religion people profess, or whether they profess any at all, that is 
 perfectly indifferent to him. He has none himself, and leaves everyone 
 to his choice." 
 
 The Nishani Haidari^ says : — " In all the cities and towns of his terri- 
 tory, besides news-writers, he appointed .separately secret writers and 
 spies to patrol the streets at night, and from them he received his intel- 
 ligence. From morning to night he never remained a moment idle. 
 He was a slave to the regulation of his working establishments. . . . 
 All the operations or measures undertaken by Haidar's government, 
 small or great, were superintended by himself in person ; insomuch 
 that even leather, the lining of bullock-bags, tent walls, and strands of 
 rope, all passed under his inspection, and were then de[)osited in his 
 stores." 
 
 The Ahvali Haidar Naik'- thus describes the state of the country in 
 Haidar's time : — " By his power mankind were held in fear and 
 trembling ; and from his severity C.od's creatures, day and night, were 
 thrown into apprehension and terror. Cutting off the nose and ears of 
 any person in his territories was the commonest thing imaginable, and 
 the killing a man there was thought no more of than the treading on an 
 ant. No person of respectability ever left his house with the expecta- 
 tion to return safe to it." 
 
 The minister Purnaiya sagaciously j)lanncd that the death of Haidar 
 should be concealed from the army until the arrival of Tipu, and 
 
 ' History of Hydiir Naik, by Kiimani, tninslalcd from the Persian l)y Colonel W. 
 Miles. ^ By Mirza Ikl)al. — Sec supplemenl lo the above.
 
 398 rrrsTOR v 
 
 Krishna Rao, his official colleague, acceded to the same course. It is 
 a high testimony to the order and discipline of the army, and the 
 influence and ability of Purnaiya, that this was successfully carried out. 
 "rhc body of Haidar, deposited in a large chest filled with aromatics, 
 was sent off to Kolar under escort, as if a case of valuable plunder. Al 
 business went on as u.sual. The chiefs of the army were separately and 
 quietly taken into confidence, and all inquiries were answered to the 
 effect that Haidar was better, but weak. Only one ofticer, commanding 
 4,000 horse, conceived the project of removing the ministers, seizing the 
 treasury, and proclaiming Abdul Karim, Haidar's second son. But the 
 plot was discovered, and the accomplices were put into irons and sent 
 off under guard. 
 
 A courier on a dromedary, travelling 100 miles a day, con\eyed the 
 intelligence to Tipu at Paniani by the afternoon of the nth. Next 
 morning he was in full march eastward. Dispensing with all ceremony 
 calculated to excite inquiry, he went forward as rapidly as possible, and 
 after performing the funeral ceremonies at Kolar, joined the army in a 
 private manner between Arni and Vellore on the 2nd of January 1783. 
 The most ample acknowledgments were made to all the public officers, 
 and especially to Purnaiya, for their prudent management of affairs 
 during this critical period, and Tipu Sultan took peaceable possession 
 of an army of 88,000 men, and a treasury containing three crores of 
 rupees in cash, besides an immense amount of jewels and valuables. 
 
 The Mysoreans and the French, awaiting with sanguine prospects 
 the arrival of M. Bussy to decide on the plan of the campaign, were 
 offered battle by the English near Wandiwash on the 13th of February. 
 But this was declined, and within a week news from the west obliged 
 Tipu and his allies to withdraw the main body of the army for the 
 defence of his possessions in that quarter. General ^Matthews had 
 landed at Kundapur, carried Haidarghar, and on the i6th February 
 captured Bednur. Honavar and Mangalore had also fallen to the 
 English, who were now in possession of all the intermediate country. 
 Shekh Ayaz, the Chela, whom we have pre\iousIy mentioned in con- 
 nection with his appointment to the government of Chitaldroog, was at 
 this time governor of the Bednur country. He had abundant reason 
 for fear in the accession of Tipu, and having discovered, as he antici- 
 pated, that the latter had ordered his immediate assassination, aban- 
 doned his charge and fled to Bombay, at the same time that the Mysore 
 army was marchiug for its recovery. General Matthews, having gained 
 spoils to the value of eighty-one lakhs of pagodas, besides jewels, was 
 waiting for reinforcements, when Tipu appeared on the 9th of April. 
 The latter, dividing his army into two columns, with one retook
 
 TIPU SULTAN 399 
 
 Kavale-durga and Haidarghar, and with the other Anantapur : and, 
 cutting off all communication with the coast, invested Hednur. The 
 garrison, being starved out, capitulated on the 30th on honourable 
 terms. But instead of being sent to the coast as stipulated, both officers 
 and men were marched off in irons to Seringapatam. Tipu now 
 advanced for the recovery of Mangalore, and invested it on the 4th of 
 May. The garrison held out in spite of great hardships. In July arrived 
 intelligence that peace had been concluded in Europe between the English 
 and the French ; the leaders of the French forces, therefore, to the 
 great indignation of Tipu, announced the necessity for their withdrawal. 
 An armistice was agreed to on the 2nd of August, but the articles were 
 not observed by Tipu. Mangalore held out till the 30th of January 1 784, 
 when the starved-out garrison, whose bravery had excited the highest 
 admiration even from Tipu, were allowed to retire to Tellicherry. 
 
 Meanwhile, in the east, the English had concluded an agreement at 
 Tanjore with Tirumal Rao, an emissary sent by the Mysore Rani' — 
 and had occupied the whole of the Coimbatore country. At Seringa- 
 patam, Shamaiya, the postal and police minister, at the same time 
 formed a plot for seizing the fortress and restoring the Hindu Raja. It 
 was accidentally discovered on the very eve of the date appointed for 
 its execution, the 24th of July. Shamaiya and his brother were confined 
 in iron cages, in which they perished. The other conspirators were 
 dragged at the feet of elephants. 
 
 After negotiations, purposely prolonged by Tipu until the fall of 
 Mangalore, peace was concluded on the nth March 1785, on the con- 
 dition of the mutual release of prisoners and restitution of conquests. 
 But of the English officers the most distinguished had been previously 
 removed by poison or assassination. Sayyid Ibrahim, the commandant 
 of the prison, is honourably distinguished for his humanity in attempt- 
 ing to alleviate their condition. On the capture of the country by the 
 English, a mausoleum was erected over his tomb at Channapatna and 
 endowed by the East India Company. 
 
 The reversion of Mangalore to the possession of Tipu was signalized 
 by the forcible circumcision of many thousands of native Christians and 
 their deportation to Seringapatam. A revolt in Coorg next year led to 
 the same treatment of the greater part of the inhabitants, the occasion 
 being marked by Tipu's as.sumption of the title of I'adshah. All Brah- 
 man endowments were at this period resumed. 
 
 1 Tirumal Rao was assisted in his coinnumicalions hy liis l)r<)ihor Narayan Kao. 
 Their reward in case of success was to be ten per cent, on the revenues of the restored 
 <listricts, and the office of I'radhdna or minister. Tirumal Rao, after a conference 
 with the authorities at Madras, was placed under the orders nf Mr. John Sullivan, 
 Resident at Tanjore.
 
 400 fffSlVRY 
 
 On returning from Mangalore a demand had Ijeen made upon Nizam 
 Ali for the delivery of IJijapur. He therefore formed an alliance with 
 the Mahrattas, who not only countenanced the Deshayi of Nargund in 
 refusing Tipu's requisitions, hut sent the latter notice that three years' 
 tribute from Mysore was in arrears. On this he despatched a force 
 against Nargund, which the Mahrattas failed to relieve ; and, after 
 operations protracted for several months, the Deshayi, induced on a 
 false promise to deliver himself up, was treacherously put into chains 
 and sent off to Kabbal-durga in October 1785. Kittur was taken in 
 a similar manner. War now ensued. The Mahrattas under Hari 
 I'ant, and the forces of Nizam Ali under Tohavar Jang, were on the 
 banks of the Krishna early in 1 786, prepared for the invasion of Mysore. 
 They first attacked Badami, and took it on the 20th of May. Tipu, 
 keeping close to the Bednur and Sunda woods, made a sudden dash 
 across the country to Adoni. Two assaults had been gallantly repulsed, 
 when the approach of the confederate armies forced him to raise the 
 siege. But the rising of the Tungabhadra induced the allies to abandon 
 Adoni and cross to the north of that stream, and the Sultan, hastening 
 to glut his vengeance on the fort, found it evacuated. In August Tipu 
 boldly crossed the stream, a movement quite unlooked-for by the allies 
 at that season, and formed a junction with the Bednur division. The 
 hostile armies were now encamped in each other's view near Savanur. 
 The unfortunate navab of this place, who, as we have seen, had allied 
 himself by marriage with Haidar's family, had been ruined by every 
 method of exaction, and now threw himself into the hands of the allies. 
 Tipu was successful in his operations, especially in his night attacks, 
 and the allies retiring from Savanur, he entered it without opposition. 
 The navab fled. A peace was at last concluded in 1787, by which 
 Tipu agreed to pay forty-five lakhs of rupees, thirty at once and fifteen 
 after a year ; also to give up Badami, Adoni, Kittur, and Nargund. 
 
 Returning by way of Harpanhalli and Raydurga, after deceiving those 
 palegars by repeated acknowledgments of their services, he treacherously 
 seized and sent them off to Kabbal-durga, plundering their capitals of 
 every article of the slightest value, and annexing their territories. On 
 returning to the capital he ordered the destruction of the town and fort 
 of Mvsore, and commenced building Nazarabad, as related in the 
 account of that place. 
 
 In January 1788 he descended to Calicut, and remained there 
 several months framing various ordinances, and then marched to Coim- 
 batore in the monsoon. He also now began to lay claim to the title 
 of Paitrhambar, or apostle, on the ground of his religious successes, and 
 symptoms of incipient madness, it is said, appeared. From Coimbatore
 
 INVASION OF TRAVANCORE 401 
 
 he visited Dindigal, and meditated, it appears, the conquest of Travan- 
 core. Laying waste with fire and sword the territories of refractory 
 palegars, he returned to Seringapatam, and devoted four months to a 
 classification of sayyids and shekhs in his army into distinct brigades. 
 A rebelHon occurred now in Coorg and Malabar, and the Sultan, pass- 
 ing through Coorg to quiet it, entered Malabar. Large parties of the 
 Nairs were surrounded and offered the alternative of death or circum- 
 cision. The Nair Raja of Cherkal, who had voluntarily submitted, was 
 received and dismissed with distinction, but immediately after seized 
 and hanged, his body being treated with every insult. Before leaving 
 Malabar Tipu visited Cannanore, where the daughter of the Beebee 
 was betrothed to one of his sons. He also divided the country of 
 Malabar into districts, each of which had three officers, charged 
 respectively with the duties of collecting the revenue, numbering the 
 productive trees, and seizing and giving religious instruction to the 
 Nairs. 1 
 
 Nizam Ali now sent an embassy proposing a union between himself 
 and the Sultan as being the only remaining Muhammadan powers of 
 the Dekhan and the south. But Tipu demanded as a preliminary an 
 intermarriage in the families, at which the pride of Nizam Ali recoiled, 
 and the negotiations came to nothing. 
 
 Meanwhile embassies with ludicrous pretensions had been sent twice 
 to Constantinople, and once to Paris. The visionary character of the 
 Sultan's views may be gathered from the objects sought by the former. 
 They were — either to deliver up Mangalore in exchange for Bassora on 
 the Persian Gulf, or to obtain permission to erect a commercial factory 
 at Bassora with exclusive privileges ; and, lastly, permission to dig a 
 canal for the purpose of bringing the waters of the Euphrates to the 
 holy shrine of Nejef. 
 
 The conquest of Travancore had for obvious reasons been contem- 
 plated by Haidar, and was now resolved on by Tipu. The Raja had, 
 however, been specially named in former treaties as the ally of the 
 English, and any attack upon him it had been declared would be con- 
 sidered ground for war. But a pretext was soon found. In 1 759, when 
 the Zamorin of Calicut had overrun the territories of the Raja of 
 Cochin, the latter had applied for aid to Travancore ; the Raja of 
 which, sending an army under his general, Rama, had recovered the 
 
 1 His orders \sere, that " ever)- being in the district, without distinction, should be 
 honoured with Islam ; that the houses of such as tied to avoid that honour should 
 be burned ; that they should be traced to their lurking-places, and that all means of 
 truth and falsehood, fraud or force, should be employed to eflect their universal 
 conversion." 
 
 It I)
 
 402 HISTORY 
 
 entire country and driven out the Zamorin during 1760 and 17C1. In 
 return for this service certain districts were ceded by Cochin to Travan- 
 core, across which Hnes for the defence of its northern boundary had 
 been erected by the latter power, which now bought from the iJutch 
 the forts of Ayakota and Cranganur, situated at the extremity of the 
 lines and essential to their security. Tipu, objecting to this step, set 
 forth that the lines were erected on territory belonging to Cochin which 
 wast ributary to him, and proceeded to attack them on the 29th Decem- 
 ber, 1789. But, contrary to expectation, he was repulsed with great 
 loss, and was himself severely injured by falling into the ditch, into 
 which he was forced by the rush of fugitives. He was saved with 
 ditificulty, his seals, rings, and personal ornaments falling into the hands 
 of the enemy as trophies. Beside himself with rage, he ordered the 
 whole of his forces from Malabar and other parts, with battering guns 
 from Seringapatam and Bangalore, to be sent for. At the same time he 
 wrote to the Governor-General stating that the attack was an unautho- 
 rized raid of his troops. But Lord Cornwallis was not to be deceived. 
 
 Tipu carried the lines and took the town of Travancore in March. 
 An English force destined for Mysore was therefore assembled at 
 Trichinopoly, and General Medows took command of it on the 24th of 
 May. The Sultan — who only ten days before had written lamenting 
 the misrepresentations that had led to the assemblage of troops, and 
 offering to send an envoy " to remove the dust which had obscured the 
 upright mind of the General " — now hastened to Coimbatore, where he 
 received the reply that " the English, equally incapable of offering an 
 insult as of submitting to one, had always looked upon war as declared 
 from the moment he attacked their ally the king of Travancore." 
 
 An alliance had meanwhile been formed by the English with the 
 Mahrattas and Nizam Ali, and treaties were signed in July, binding them 
 to unite against Tipu, on the basis of an equal division of conquests, 
 with the exception of any made by the English before the others 
 joined. The plan of the campaign was — for the main division of the 
 English, after taking all the forts of Coimbatore and Palghat, to ascend 
 to the tableland by the Gajalhatti pass, while another division invaded 
 Baramahal. Karur, Dharapuram, Coimbatore, Dindigal, Erode and 
 other places had been taken, when in September, the Sultan, leaving 
 stores and baggage under charge of Purnaiya at the summit, descended 
 the Gajalhatti pass and attacked Floyd's detachment at Satyamangala. 
 But after much fighting he retired, and Floyd crossing the Bhavani 
 without opposition, proceeded to join the force with General Medows. 
 While the several English detachments were forming a junction, Tipu 
 retook Erode and Dharapuram, but finding an attempt on Coimbatore
 
 JFAJ^ WITH THE ENGLISH. 403 
 
 to be hopeless, set off with three-fourths of his army to Bdramahal, which 
 the EngHsh had invaded on the 24th of October. Colonel Maxwell 
 had posted himself at Kavcripatam, and by his skilful manoeuvres foiled 
 all the Sultan's attempts. 
 
 Being advised by Krishna Rao, the only person at this period 
 admitted to his counsels, the Sultan now resolved to carry the war into 
 the enemy's country, in order to draw them off in pursuit of him. He 
 accordingly made rapid marches to Trichinopoly, and threatening that 
 place, plundered Seringham. On (leneral Medows' approach, he went 
 northward, burning and plundering along his route ; was repulsed in an 
 attempt to take Tydgar, but took Trinomalee and Permacoil, and then 
 despatched an envoy to Pondicherry. The services of a French official 
 were there engaged as ambassador to Louis XVI., demanding the aid of 
 6,000 men and offering to pay all expenses. (The king of France, 
 however, on receiving Tipu's message, declined the assistance applied 
 for.) On the west coast, the Mysorean army was totally defeated 
 on the loth December. Cannanore was taken and the whole of 
 Malabar was in possession of the English. The allies, too, at last took 
 part in operations, the Mahrattas besieging Dharwar, and Nizam Ali's 
 army Kopal. 
 
 Lord Cornwallis, the (lOvernor-General, now himself took command 
 of the British army, and concentrated the forces near Vellore. Tipu 
 hastened up the pass of Changama to oppose the English advance. Rut 
 Lord Cornwallis, by a feint of ascending by the pass of Ambur, conveyed 
 the whole army with all its stores and baggage by the Mugli pass and 
 arrived at Hoskote without firing a shot. Tipu, dreaming of the 6,000 
 I'Venchmen, had been outmanoeuvred by the English. He was now 
 alarmed for his harem, and with his whole army personally superintended 
 their removal from Bangalore. The English encamped before it on 
 the 5th of March, overcoming with ease the efforts of Tipu to capture 
 their baggage. The Sultan deemed it prudent to draw off to Kcngeri. 
 But when on the 7th the petta was carried, he was astonished and 
 indignant, and moved out with his whole force for its recovery. But 
 the Mysoreans were repulsed with great slaughter from every point, and 
 so evacuated the town. The fort of Bangalore was next besieged. 
 " Few sieges," remarks Wilks, " have ever been conducted under parallel 
 circumstances : a place not only not invested, but regularly relieved by 
 fresh troops ; a besieging army not only not undisturbed by field 
 operations, but incessantly threatened by the whole of the enemy's 
 force. No day or night elapsed without some new project for frustrating 
 the operations of the siege ; and during its continuance, the whole of 
 the besieging army was accoutred, and the ca\alry saddled, every night 
 
 I) I) 2
 
 404 IflS'l'OKY 
 
 from sunset to sunrise." A breach having been made in the curtain to 
 the left of the projecting works of the . Delhi gate and part of the 
 adjoining tower, Lord Cornwallis resolved to give the assault on the 
 night of the 2TSt. 
 
 It was bright moonlight — eleven was the hour appointed, and a whisper 
 along the ranks was the signal appointed for advancing in profound silence ; 
 the ladders were nearly planted, not only to ascend the faussebray but the 
 projecting work on the right, before the garrison took the alarm ; and just as 
 the serious struggle commenced on the breach, a narrow and circuitous way 
 along a thin shattered wall had led a few men to the rampart on the left 
 flank of its defenders, where they coolly halted to accumulate their numbers 
 till sufficient to charge with the bayonet. The gallantry of the killedar, who 
 was in an instant at his post, protracted the obstinacy of resistance until he 
 fell ; but the energy of the assailants in front and flank at length prevailed. 
 Once established on the ramparts, the flank companies proceeded as told 
 off, by alternate companies to the right and left, where the resistance was 
 everywhere respectable, until they met over the Mysore gate : separate 
 columns then descended into the body of the place ; and at the expiration of 
 an hour all opposition had ceased. 
 
 On ascending the breach, a heavy column was observed on the left, 
 advancing from the embankment described to attack the assailants in flank 
 and rear ; but this also had been foreseen and provided for, and they were 
 repulsed with great slaughter by the troops reserved for that special purpose ; 
 a similar column, lodged in the covered way on the right, had been dispersed 
 at the commencement of the assault by a body appointed to scour it and 
 draw off the enemy's attention from the breach ; and at the moment the 
 flank companies had met over the Mysore gate, another column was 
 perceived advancing along the sortie to enter and reinforce the garrison ; 
 but a few shot from the guns on the ramparts announced that the place 
 had changed masters. The carnage had been severe but unavoidable, 
 particularly in the pressure of the fugitives at the Mysore gate, which at 
 length was completely choked. 
 
 The Sultan had warned the garrison to expect the assault, and moving 
 at nightfall from his camp at Jigani, had conveyed his whole army to 
 near the Bull temple, within a mile and a half of the Mysore gate, to 
 support the place. But so rapidly was it carried that the fugitives 
 crowding out of the gate gave him the first intimation of its capture. 
 Fears of an immediate advance on Seringapatam agitated the Sultan. 
 He therefore despatched Krishna Rao, the treasurer, and IMir Sadak, 
 the divan, to remove all the treasure and the harem to Chitaldroog ; 
 but his mother dissuaded from this step as betokening fear to the 
 troops. But the obscene caricatures of the English, painted by his 
 orders on the walls of the houses in the main streets, were effaced with 
 whitewash : and the English boys, retained in violation of the treaty of
 
 ADVANCE OX SERIXGAPATAM 405 
 
 1784, who had been trained up to sing and dance, were strangled. 
 His own people now begart to fall away from him. Evidence of 
 conspiracies came to light, and Krishna Rao, with his brothers, as well 
 as others of the Hindu ministers, were in the next few days strangled or 
 dragged to death by elephants. Meanwhile, in order to form a junction 
 with the cavalry from Nizam Ali, Lord Cornwallis moved north on the 
 28th. Devanhalli and Chile Ballapur yielded to the English, and several 
 palegars tendered their allegiance. 
 
 The British force now prepared to march on Seringapatam, and Tipu 
 took up a position on the Channapatna road, supported by the hill forts 
 of Rdmgiri and Sivangiri, with the view of opposing it. But Lord 
 Cornwallis, unexpectedly marching by way of Kankanhalli, arrived 
 without opposition at Arikere, 9 miles from Seringapatam, on the 1 3th 
 of May. His route had been converted into a desolate waste, all the 
 villagers and cattle being driven into the island of Sivasamudram, and 
 every vestige of supplies or forage destroyed. The passage of the river 
 at Arikere being impracticable, it was resolved to move to Kannambadi, 
 higher up ; for the double purpose of fording the river there and forming 
 a junction with General Abercromby, who, advancing through the 
 friendly country of Coorg, had taken Periyapatna. 
 
 Tipu had always avoided a general action with the English, but 
 goaded on to risk a battle for the capital, he took up a strong position 
 between Karigatta and the river, to oppose the march of the English. 
 Lord Cornwallis planned a night attack io turn his left flank and cut 
 off his retreat, but the bursting of a tremendous storm threw the troops 
 into confusion. A general engagement ensued the next day, the 15th, 
 in which the English were completely victorious, and the Mysoreans, 
 driven from every point, forced to take refuge on the island. Lord 
 Cornwallis then moved to Kannambadi ; but the incessant rain and 
 exhausted supplies brought on so great a mortality of the cattle, and 
 sickness in camp, as to put a stop to all operations. He resolved, 
 therefore, to bury the battering guns and retire to Bangalore till the 
 rains were over. Abercromby was also forced to return to the coast. 
 At Chinkurali, the two divisions of the Mahratta army, under Hari Pant 
 and Parasu Ram Bhao, most unexpectedly made their appearance, and 
 the sufferings of the troops were somewhat relieved by the supplies they 
 brought. The Mahrattas had taken Dharwar and reduced all the places 
 north of the Tungabhadra. The army of Nizam Ali had captured 
 Kopal, Bahadur Bandar and Ganjikota, and obtained the submission of 
 all places in the north-east except Guramkonda. 
 
 It was now arranged that the British should take possession of the 
 hill forts and places in the east, in order to open free communication
 
 4o6 JflSTOR Y 
 
 with Madras; that the Mahrattas, who obtained a loan from the Governor- 
 General of 15 lakhs of rupees, should proceed to Sira under Parasu 
 Ram Bhao and operate to the north-west, Hari Pant remaining with the 
 English camp ; and that the Nizam's force should operate to the north- 
 east against Guramkonda. Between July and January, the English, 
 having taken Hosur, Rayakota and all places to the east, succeeded 
 in capturing the hill forts of Nandidroog and Savandroog, deemed 
 impregnable, as well as Hutridroog, Ramgiri, Sivangiri and Hulyilr- 
 droog. The Mahrattas, bent on plunder, after placing a corps in Dod 
 Ballapur and one near Madgiri, and making some fruitless attempts 
 against Chitaldroog, went off towards Bednur at the time they should, 
 according to the plan concerted with the allies, have been marching to 
 Seringapatam. Hole Honnur was taken by them, and near Shimoga a 
 battle was fought, in which the Mysoreans were worsted. But the 
 Mahratta detachment left at Madgiri was completely routed by a force 
 under Kammar-ud-Din, on which the garrison of Dod Ballapur withdrew 
 to Bangalore in alarm, leaving the way open for a relief of Guram- 
 konda. The Mysore forces sent south to act upon the communications 
 of the English were generally unsuccessful, but Coimbatore surrendered 
 after a long and brave defence, the garrison being marched off 
 as prisoners to Seringapatam in violation of the terms of capitulation. 
 
 All the arrangements for the siege of Seringapatam being now 
 matured, communications free and supplies abundant, the English army 
 under Lord Cornwallis marched from Hulyiirdroog on the 25th of 
 January, 1792, accompanied by the Nizam's force under one of his 
 sons, Sikandar Jah, and a small party of the Mahrattas under Hari 
 Pant. General Abercromby, who had returned to Malabar in 
 November, also marched from the head of the western passes on the 
 22nd of January. 
 
 Lord Cornwallis encamped on the 5th of February 6 miles north of 
 Seringapatam. The Sultan had made every effort to strengthen the 
 defences during the past six months, and was now encamped on the 
 north. He had persuaded himself that nothing decisive would be 
 undertaken until the arrival of General Abercromby's army, now at 
 Periyapatna. But Lord Cornwallis resolved to attack at once, on the 
 night of the 6th. The English force was formed into three columns, 
 without artillery, the centre being commanded by the Governor- 
 General in person. Under a brilliant moonlight, the three columns 
 marched in dead silence, at about 8 o'clock, towards the Sultan's 
 encampment. The head of the centre column was discovered by his 
 advanced outposts about 11, and they galloped back to give the alarm. 
 But still perfect silence was preserved, while the pace was redoubled.
 
 CAPTURE OF GANJAM 407 
 
 In a quarter of an hour the Mysore h'nes were entered. Though a 
 damaging fire was opened on the advancing columns, they remained 
 steady, and carried every point with the bayonet. The Mysoreans fled, 
 panic-stricken. Victors and vanquished crossed the river and gained 
 the island together, and would probably have entered the fort simulta- 
 neously had not the gates been closed and the bridge drawn up to 
 exclude the foe. The petta of Shahar Ganjam was taken with ease, as 
 were all the batteries and redoubts, except one, which was the scene of 
 a sanguinary struggle before its capture. 
 
 The Sultan, at the commencement of this eventful night, had made 
 his evening meal in a redoubt to the right of the spot where the centre 
 columns had entered. On the first alarm he mounted, but before he 
 could get news of the nature of the attack, the crowds of fugitives 
 announced that the enemy had penetrated the camp. He fled 
 precipitately to the ford, and barely succeeded in passing over before 
 the advanced column of the enemy. Taking his station on an outwork 
 of the fort which conmianded the scene, he remained there till morning, 
 issuing orders and spending one of the most anxious nights in his life. 
 During the confusion 10,000 Coorgs, who had been forcibly converted, 
 made their escape to their own country ; and a number of French and 
 other Europeans, who had rendered unwilling obedience to Haidar and 
 Tipu, seized the opportunity to gain their liberty. It so happened 
 that a large treasure was in camp that night for the purpose of paying 
 the troops next day. But it was all safely conveyed into the fort by 
 the skill and ability of Purnaiya, although he was severely wounded. 
 
 The whole of the next day the most vigorous attempts were made to 
 dislodge the English from the island. The Sultan's passionate appeal 
 "Havel no faithful servants to retrieve my honour?" was gallantly 
 responded to by a body of 2,000 cavalry ; but being foiled at every 
 point, all the redoubts north of the river were evacuated the same 
 night, and promptly occupied by the English. 
 
 Various efforts at negotiation had been made by Tipu since Lord 
 Cornwallis took command of the army, but they were not calculated to 
 succeed. He now resumed the matter, but was informed that the release 
 of the prisoners taken at Coimbatore in violation of promises was 
 indispensable as a preliminary. He therefore set free the officers, and 
 sent letters containing offers of peace by them. But— at the same time 
 he secretly despatched a body of horsemen in disguise to penetrate to 
 the English camp and assassinate the Governor-General. The plot was 
 discovered and frustrated. 
 
 General Abercromby crossed the river at \'cdatore and joimd the 
 main army on the i6th, and the dispositions for the siege were rapidly
 
 4o8 J U STORY 
 
 inishcd on. Negotiations at the same time continued, and on the 22nd 
 the envoys of Tipu brouglit him tlie ultimatum of the confederates, 
 requiring the cession to the alhes, from the countries adjacent to theirs, 
 of one-half of the dominions which he possessed before the war ; the 
 payment of three crores and thirty lakhs of rupees, one-half immediately, 
 the remainder in three instalments of four months each ; the release of 
 all prisoners from the time of Haidar Ali ; and the delivery of two of 
 his sons as hostages. On the 23rd Tipu assembled all the principal 
 officers in the mosque and sought their advice. They unanimously 
 offered to lay down their lives in defence of the capital, but hinted with 
 various shades of expression that the army was disheartened and 
 unreliable. After a great mental struggle, the preliminary articles, duly 
 signed and sealed, were returned to Lord Cornwall is the same day. The 
 two young princes surrendered as hostages, one aged ten and the other 
 eight, were received in the English camp with every consideration due to 
 their rank, and by Lord Cornwallis with all the tenderness of a father. 
 
 The territories to be ceded formed a lengthened subject of discussion, 
 and the claim of the English to Coorg so exasperated Tipu' that the 
 peace was on the point of being broken, when he yielded. The English 
 obtained Malabar and Coorg, Dindigal and Baramahal : the Mahratta 
 boundary was extended to the Tungabhadra ; Nizam Ali recovered his 
 possessions to the north of that river and Kadapa to the south. Thus 
 ended the third Mysore war. 
 
 After the departure of the confederates, the Sultan, brooding over the 
 heavy losses he had sustained and the deep wounds that had been 
 inflicted on his pride, shut himself up for several days in an agony of 
 despair. His first public act was to make arrangements regarding the 
 money due under the treaty. It was resolved that one crore and ten 
 lakhs of the total amount should be paid from the treasury, that sixty 
 lakhs should be contributed by the army, and one crore and sixty lakhs 
 by the civil officers and inhabitants at large under the head of nazarana. 
 The oppression of the population in levying the last drove great numbers 
 to seek an asylum in Baramahal and other neighbouring districts, 
 though there was a large balance standing in the accounts for several 
 years afterwards. 
 
 The Sultan's caprice, fanaticism and spirit of innovation increased 
 with his misfortunes, and were carried to the verge of insanity. " The 
 professed and formal regulations for the conduct of affairs had 
 commenced before his departure from Mangalore, with the aid of his 
 great innovator Zain-ul-Abidin ; and embraced, either directly or 
 
 ' " To which of the English possessions," he said, " is Coorg adjacent ? ^^'hy do 
 tliey not ask for the key of SeringaiDatam ? "'
 
 TIFU'S IXXOVATIOXS 409 
 
 incidentally, every department in the science of government. Regula- 
 tions military, naval, commercial and fiscal ; police, judicature, and 
 ethics ; were embraced by the code of this modern Minos : and his 
 reformation of the calendar and of the system of weights and measures, 
 was to class him with those philosophical statesmen and sovereigns of 
 whose useful labours the secretary had obtained some obscure intelli- 
 gence. It may be briefly stated regarding the whole, that the name 
 of every object was changed : of cycles, years, and months ; weights, 
 measures, coins ; forts, towns ; offices, military and civil, the official 
 designations of all persons and things without one exception " — ■ a 
 singular parody of what was transpiring in France. The administration 
 itself was named the Sarkdr K/ioddddd, or God-given Covernment. 
 Persian was introduced for all words of command in the military 
 regulations, and the same language used for the revenue accounts in 
 preference to that of the country. The construction of a navy to vie 
 with that of England was proposed. .Vn improvement of the fortifica- 
 tions of Seringapatam was also commenced, and labourers impressed 
 from all parts of the country for the work. 
 
 The fiscal and revenue arrangements consisted principally in the 
 prohibition of all exports and imports, for the protection of domestic 
 trade ; and the interdiction of the growth of poppy-seeds, with the 
 abolition of liquor-shops to check intoxication. A board of trade was 
 also organized, with a new code for its guidance; and it was in 
 contemplation to have established something like a bank, while the 
 State itself monopolized the profits of money-changers. Lands and 
 money allowances granted to Hindu pagodas, as well as the service 
 inams of patels, were confiscated; and an income was raised by 
 dividing the houses in the fort of Seringapatam into separate wards for 
 different classes, and putting prices upon them. The revenue 
 regulations of Chikka Deva Raja, however, remained unaltered ; but 
 they were republished as the ordinances of the Sultan himself. Me 
 strove, in short, to obliterate every trace of the previous rulers. For 
 this purpose even the fine irrigation works, centuries old, of the 
 Hindu Rajas were to be destroyed and reconstructed in his own name. 
 
 As regards selections for offices, the Sultan fancied that he could 
 discover by mere look the capacity of a person, which naturally resulted 
 in the most absurd blunders.' The manner in which complaints were 
 
 • All candidalcs for every department were ordered to he admitted and drawn up 
 in line before him, when, looking steadfastly at them, he would as if .actuated by 
 insjiiralion call out in a solemn voice — " Let the third from the left be .^sttph of such 
 a district; he with the yellow drawers understands n.aval afl'airs, let him be Mir c 
 ^■em, Lord of the .\dmiralty ; he with the long beard and he with the red turban are 
 but Amils, let them i)e promoted" ; &c., &c. — Wilks, II, 2S9.
 
 4IO iriSl'ORV 
 
 hoard and disposed of may be illustrated by a single example. A 
 number of ryots appeared on a certain occasion before their sovereign 
 to complain of exaction. Mir Sadak, the divan, admitted the fact and 
 said it was made on account of fiazardna, which silenced the Sultan at 
 once. The divan, however, holding out to the ryots a hope of future 
 immunity, succeeded in inducing them to agree to pay thirty-seven and 
 a half per cent, additional, and this circumstance being brought to the 
 notice of Tipu as demonstrating the falsehood of their former complaint, 
 the patel or head man was hung on the spot, and the increase extended 
 to the whole of the Mysore dominions. 
 
 By 1794 the money due under the treaty was paid, and the hostages 
 were returned to the Sultan at Devanhalli, now called Yusufabad. In 
 1796 Chama Raja Wodeyar, the pageant Raja, died of smallpox. The 
 practice of annually exhibiting him on the throne at the Dasara had 
 been kept up, but now Tipu considered the appointment of a successor 
 unnecessary, removed the family to a mean dwelling and plundered the 
 palace of everything. 
 
 Tipu next strained every nerve to form a coalition for the expulsion 
 of the English from India. Embassies were despatched at various 
 times to the Ottoman Porte and to the court of Kabul : letters were 
 exchanged with Arabia, Persia, and Muscat ; and agents employed at 
 Delhi, Oude, Haidarabad and Poona, the object sought in the two last- 
 named courts being twofold, namely, an alliance with the sovereigns 
 themselves, and the seduction of their officers from them. Even the 
 princes of Jodhpur, Jeypur and Kashmir did not escape an invitation 
 to join this mighty coalition. The French in particular were repeatedly 
 applied to. 
 
 At last, in the early part of 1797, stress of weather drove a French 
 privateer to the coast of Mangalore, having on board an obscure 
 individual by name Ripaud. This person represented himself to be the 
 second in command at the Isle of France, and being sent to Seringa- 
 patam by (jhulam Ali, the former envoy to the court of France, was 
 honoured with several interviews with the Sultan. In the course of 
 these he took occasion to extol the power and magnify the resources of 
 his countrymen, and added that a considerable force was assembled at 
 the Isle of France waiting for the Sultan's summons. Tipu took the 
 hint, commissioned Ripaud to proceed to the Mauritius, conveying 
 with him two servants as ambassadors to the Government of that island, 
 with letters. The embassy left Seringapatam in the month of April 
 1797, but did not embark till October. 
 
 The embassy reached the Isle of France in January 179S, and, in 
 spite of the obvious necessity for secrecy, was openly received by
 
 EMBASSY TO MAURITIUS 411 
 
 Malartic, the French Governor, with distinguished marks of respect. 
 The kurreetahs were read with all solemnity in a council, and were 
 found to contain a proposal for a coalition to expel the English. To 
 the great disappointment of the ambassadors, there was not a single 
 soldier available ; but to make amends, the Governor sent the Directory 
 at home a duplicate of the Sultan's kurreetah, and deputed two officers, 
 by name Chapuis and Dubuc, to reside at the court of Seringapatam. 
 At the same time he issued a public proclamation, dated the 30th 
 January, 1798, inviting the people of the island to join the Sultan's 
 standard. The result of these measures was that the embassy, which 
 was intended to have conveyed an armament sufficient to have swept 
 the English off the face of India, returned with ninety-four men, the 
 refuse of the Isle of France, burning with a zeal for " liberty and equality." 
 
 A Jacobin club was formed in Seringapatam, a tree of liberty set up 
 crowned with the cap of liberty, and the Sultan, who looked upon the 
 general denunciation of kings and rulers as directed against the English 
 alone, enrolled as Ciiizeft Tipu Sultan. At the same time M. Dubuc 
 himself was sent in July 1798 with two Muhammadan envoys to the 
 French Directory. Buonaparte's sudden invasion of Egypt now took 
 place, encouraging the hope of immediate French intervention ; and 
 Dubuc, who did not actually sail till the 7th of February, assured 
 Tipu that they must have already embarked on the Red Sea for his 
 assistance. 
 
 But Lord Mornington, then Governor-General, was fully aware of 
 these hostile preparations ; and when a copy of Malartic's proclamation 
 reached his hands, deemed it high time to put a check on the Sultan's 
 designs. The French force at Haidarabad was dismissed by a master- 
 stroke of policy, and the Nizam and Peshva united in stronger bonds of 
 alliance with the British. This being effected, the Governor-General 
 wrote to the Sultan on the 8th November, 1798, giving expression for 
 the first time to the feelings awakened by his late proceedings in gentle 
 and cautious language, informing him that certain precautions had been 
 adopted for self-defence, offering to depute Major 1 )oveton on the part 
 of the allies to explain the means by which a good understanding might 
 be finally established, and desiring Tipu to state when he intended to 
 receive him. 
 
 On the loth of December he wrote again, calling the Sultan's 
 attention to the above, and requesting to be favoured with a rejjly at 
 Madras, whither the Earl of Mornington was about to proceed as 
 being nearer the scene of action. On reaching Madras on the last day 
 of the month, the Governor-General found a reply waiting for him, 
 dated the 25th. This letter opened with the intimation of Tipu's joy
 
 412 HISTORY 
 
 at the brilliant naval victory of the Nile over the French, of which he 
 had been advised by the Governor-General, and a wish for greater 
 success. He explained away the embassy to the Isle of France as 
 being simply the trip of a merchantman that conveyed rice and 
 brought back some forty artificers, an incident which, it was alleged, 
 had been distorted by the French, The Sultan added also that he 
 had never swerved from the path of friendship, and could not see 
 more effectual measures for establishing it than those that already 
 existed. 
 
 The Governor-General replied on the 9th of January, 1799, exposing 
 the whole affair of the mission to the Isle of France, which had 
 rendered the demand of further security necessary ; expressing a wish 
 still to listen to negotiations, and allowing one day's time for a reply, 
 with a significant warning that " dangerous consequences result from 
 the delay of arduous affairs." This letter was accompanied by a copy 
 of the manifesto issued by the Ottoman Porte, declaring war against 
 the French. After a lapse of more than a month, or on the 13th of 
 February, 1799, the Sultan replied, with utter disregard, that he was 
 proceeding on a hunting excursion, and desired that Major Doveton 
 might be sent "slightly attended." The Governor-General, interpreting 
 this as contempt and as an effort to gain time, ordered at once the 
 march of the troops, informing the Sultan of the same. 
 
 Tipu first went to Maddur to oppose the Carnatic army, but 
 subsequently changing his mind, left a detachment at that place under 
 Purnaiya and Sayyid Sahib, and hastened in three days to Periyapatna 
 to meet the Bombay force under General Stuart, who had already 
 ascended into Coorg. The romantic Raja of Coorg discerned on the 
 morning of the 5th March, from the summit of the Siddesvara hill, 
 the plain near Periyapatna dotted with tents, including a green one, 
 and flew to the English with the news. But the dawn following 
 Tipu's force was in motion. A fog and the dense jungle screened its 
 approach till the advanced British line was attacked both in front and 
 rear. The small band sustained the conflict for several hours, till 
 General Stuart coming up, the Mysoreans were entirely routed. 
 
 Meantime, in the east. General Harris in command of the grand 
 army crossed the Mysore frontier by way of Rayakota unopposed, and 
 selecting the Kankanhalli road, arrived with his troops on the 27th 
 March, 1799, at Malvalli, within forty miles of Seringapatam. Here 
 the Mysorean army was drawn up on the heights two miles west of the 
 town, and threatened the advance. A general action ensued, from 
 which Tipu was forced to retreat with loss. 
 
 Anticipating that the British army would take the same route to the
 
 SIEGE OF SEKINGAPATAM 413 
 
 capital which had been taken in 1792, Tipu had destroyed all the 
 forage in that direction, but Cieneral Harris defeated his project by 
 crossing the Kaveri at Sosile. When the intelligence of this skilful 
 movement reached the ears of the Sultan, he was deeply dejected. 
 Assembling a council of his principal officers at Bannur, "We 
 have," he observed with great emotion, "now arrived at our last 
 stage " — intimating that there was no hope. " What is your deter- 
 mination?" "To die with you,"' was the universal reply, and the 
 meeting broke up bathed in tears, as if convened for the last time. 
 In accordance with the deliberation of this assembly, the Sultan 
 hastened to the southern point of the island, and took up his position 
 at the village of Chandagal ; but General Harris again thwarted his 
 plans, and making a circuit to the left, safely reached the ground 
 towards the west, occupied by General Abercromby in 1792, and .sat 
 down before the capital on the 5th April, or exactly in the space of a 
 month from the date of his crossing the frontier. 
 
 Since the year 1792 a new line of intrenchments had been con- 
 structed on this side of the fort, from the Daulat Bagh to the 
 Periyapatam bridge, within six or seven hundred yards from the fort, 
 thus avoiding the fault of the redoubts in 1792, which were too 
 distant to be supported by the guns of the fort. The Sultan's infantry 
 was now encamped between these works and the river, and on the 
 same evening on which the British army took up its position a portion 
 was attacked by Colonel \Vellesley, the future hero of AN'aterloo. 
 Although this first attempt failed, success was achieved on the 
 following morning, and strong advanced posts were established within 
 1,800 yards of the fort, with their left on the river and their right at 
 Sultanpet. 
 
 General Stuart safely effected his junction with the main army on 
 tlie 14th, notwithstanding the active and well-conducted exertions of 
 the Mysore cavalry under Kammar-ud-Din Khan to check his progress. 
 He took up his position on the north side of the fort. The regular 
 siege may be said to date from the 17th, and it was decided ultimately 
 to storm at the western angle, across the river. 
 
 Tipu, in order to open communications, had written to General 
 Harris on the 9th, affecting ignorance of the cause of hostilities ; on 
 which he was referred to the Governor-General's letters. He now on 
 the 20th proposed a conference, and was furnished in reply with the 
 draft of a preliminary treaty, to be executed in twenty-four hours, the 
 principal conditions of which were — the cession of half of his 
 remaining territories, the payment of two crores of rupees in two 
 instalments, and the delivery of four of his sons and four of his
 
 414 /JISTORY 
 
 principal officers as hostages. 15ut the time passed without his 
 accepting it. A sortie on a large scale was repulsed by the besiegers, 
 who pushed on their operations with vigour, till on the 27th the 
 Mysoreans were driven from their last exterior line of defence. 
 
 The Sultan now again attempted negotiation, and was informed that 
 the terms previously offered would be held open until three o'clock 
 next day, but no longer. From this time despair seemed to brood 
 over him. Supernatural aid was sought both by the incantations of 
 Brahmans and the prayers of Muhammadan mullas, while the stars 
 were consulted and solemn ceremonies of divination performed with 
 the view of ascertaining what was decreed in the book of fate. But 
 his officers were more alive to their duty at such a crisis. Meanwhile 
 the approaches and breaching batteries of the besiegers were steadily 
 advancing, and, on the morning of the 2nd of May, began to form the 
 breach, which next day was reported practicable. 
 
 Before daybreak on the memorable 4th of May the assaulting party, 
 consisting of two thousand four hundred and ninety-four Europeans, 
 and one thousand eight hundred and eighty-seven natives, under the 
 command of General Baird, had taken their stand in the trenches, 
 with scaling-ladders and other implements ready. The Sultan had 
 persuaded himself the assault would never be made by daylight. One 
 o'clock, however, had been decided on as the hour. 
 
 At that precise moment General Baird, eager to avenge the hard- 
 ships he had suffered within the walls of Seringapatam and the secret 
 massacre of his countrymen, stepped forward from the trenches in full 
 view of both armies, and drawing his sword, called on the soldiers in a 
 tone which thrilled along the trenches to " follow him and prove 
 worthy of the British name." His men rushed at once into the bed of 
 the river. Though immediately assailed by musketry and rockets, 
 nothing could withstand their ardour, and in less than seven minutes 
 the forlorn hope reached the summit of the breach, and there hoisted 
 the British flag, which proclaimed to the world that the fate of Mysore 
 was decided.^ 
 
 For fourteen days preceding, the Sultan, who could not be 
 convinced that the fall of his capital was so near at hand, had taken 
 up his quarters in the inner partition of the Kalale Diddi, a water gate 
 through the outer rampart on the north face of the fort. The general 
 
 * The capture of Seringapatam and glorious termination of the Mysore war were 
 celebrated with great rejoicings and a day of public thanksgiving throughout the 
 British possessions, and the anniversary of the event was specially observed for 
 many years after. As an indication of the progress made in communications since 
 that lime it may be noted that the news did not reach London till the 13th of 
 September.
 
 DEATH OF TIPU SULTAX 415 
 
 charge of the angle attacked had been committed to Sayyid Sahib, his 
 father-in-law, assisted by Sayyid Gaffur, formerly an ofificer in the 
 British service, who was taken prisoner with Colonel IJraithwaite and 
 was now serving 7'ipu. The eldest of the princes, with Purnaiya, 
 commanded a corps intended to disturb the northern attack, and the 
 second prince was in charge of the Mysore gate and the southern face 
 of the fort, while Kammar-ud-din was absent watching Colonel Floyd. 
 Sayyid Sahib had sent a message in the morning that the fatal hour of 
 storming was drawing nigh, but the Sultan replied that it would not be 
 by daylight. He had ordered his midday repast, but had scarcely 
 finished it when the report was made to him of the actual assault. 
 Hastily arming, he heard that Sayyid Ciaffur had been killed. " Sayyid 
 Gaffur was never afraid to die," he said, and ordered another officer to 
 take his place. He then mounted the northern rampart with a few 
 attendants and eunuchs, and when within two hundred yards of the 
 breach fired several times with his own hands at the assailants, under 
 cover of a traverse. But seeing that his men had either fled or lay 
 dead, and that the assailants were advancing in great numbers, he 
 retired along the rampart, slightly wounded, and meeting one of his 
 favourite horses, mounted him and proceeded eastward till he came to' 
 the gateway leading into the inner fort, which he entered with a crowd 
 of fugitives. 
 
 A deadly volley was poured into this crowded passage by a portion 
 of the storming party. Tipu received a second and third wound, and 
 his horse was struck, while the faithful Raja Khan, who still clung to 
 his master's side, was also hit. Raja Khan advised him to discover 
 himself " Are you mad ? Be silent," was the prompt reply. He 
 then made an effort to disengage his master from the saddle, but both 
 master and servant fell in the attempt on a heap of dead and dying. 
 Tipu's other attendants obtained a palankeen and placed him in it, but 
 he contrived to move out of it. While he lay with the lower part of 
 his tjody buried underneath the slain, the gold buckle of his belt 
 excited the cupidity of a soldier, who attempted to seize it. Tipu 
 snatching up a sword made a cut at him, but the grenadier shot him 
 through the temple, and thus terminated his earthly career. He was 
 then in his forty-seventh year and had reigned seventeen years. 
 
 So long as the Sultan was present, a portion of his troops on the 
 north side made efforts at resistance, and his French corps persevered 
 in it for some time longer, but they were soon (juelled. Immediately 
 after the assault. General Baird hastened to the palace in the hope of 
 finding the Sultan. The inmates, including two princes who were 
 themselves ignorant of his fate, solemnly denied his presence, but the
 
 4i6 J IJ STORY 
 
 doubts of the ( Icncral were not satisfied. The princes were assured of 
 protection and removed under miHtary honours to the British camp, 
 and the palace was thoroughly searched with the exception of the 
 zenana, but all to no purpose. At last the General's threats extorted 
 from the unwilling killedar the disclosure of the secret that the Sultan 
 lay wounded in the gate ; and here, after a search in the promiscuous 
 and ghastly heap of slain, the body was discovered. It was removed to 
 the palace in a palankeen and next day consigned with all military 
 honours to its last resting-place, at the Lai Bagh by the side of Haidar 
 Ali. The solemn day closed with one of the most dreadful storms that 
 ever visited this part of the country. 
 
 " Haidar was born to create an empire ; Tipu to lose one," — was 
 the proverbial opinion, based on the prediction of the former and an 
 observation of their respective characters. It was justified by the 
 events, and forcibly sums up the merits of the two Musalman rulers of 
 Mysore. 
 
 Compared with his father, who often lamented his son's defects, 
 Tipu was weak both in mind and character. In person he was neither 
 so tall nor so robust as Haidar, and his complexion was darker. His 
 hands and feet were small and delicate, his eyes large and full, but he 
 had a short thick neck and was slightly inclined to corpulence. His 
 face was clean shaven, except for a thin line on the upper lip, and, 
 unlike his father, he retained his eyebrows and eyelashes. In dress 
 he generally affected simplicity and made this the rule for his courtiers 
 also. His turban, which was latterly green, was fastened in, in the 
 Mahratta fashion, by a white handkerchief tied over the top and under 
 the chin. He was very garrulous, and spoke in loud and sharp tones, 
 laying down the law on every conceivable topic. 
 
 There is a popular idea that as Haidar means lion (a name of 'Ali, 
 the son-in-law of Muhammad), so Tipu means tiger, but this appears 
 to be a mistake. He was named Tipu after a holy man whose shrine 
 is at Arcot, near which Haidar was when he heard of the birth of his 
 son at Devanhalli. The tiger, however, was adopted by Tipu as 
 emblematic. His throne was in the form of a tiger, with the head life- 
 size, in tTold,^ and tigers' heads formed the capitals of the eight pillars 
 supporting the canopy. His own uniform and that of his soldiers was 
 covered with the tiger stripe, and this was also engraved on his guns 
 and other articles. Tigers were chained at the entrance to his palace, 
 and he is declared to have said that he would rather live two days as a 
 tiger than two centuries as a sheep. 
 
 1 Now at Windsor Castle ; also the hitina, or bird of paradise, covered with jewels, 
 which glittered at the top of the canopy.
 
 RESTORATION OF THE HINDU RAJ 417 
 
 He was a good horseman and active in the field : also very 
 industrious in writing, the pen being scarcely ever out of his hand. 
 He could speak fluently Hindustani, Kannada, and Persian, but 
 though the range of his studies was limited, he vainly regarded himself 
 as one of the wisest of men. And so great was his conceit that he 
 also imagined himself to be one of the most handsome. He affected 
 an acquaintance with every known subject, and himself wrote detailed 
 instructions on the most diversified matters, both civil and military, to 
 all his subordinates. His rage for innovations, which has already been 
 illustrated in the account of his reign (see above, p. 409) unsettled 
 everything, while his dark and cruel bigotry blinded his perceptions, 
 threw power into unworthy hands, and alienated from him whole classes 
 of the most important of his subjects. Though perhaps he deceived 
 himself into a belief that his measures were for the good of the 
 people, they were really the outcome of caprice and self-conceit, 
 which at length gave rise to suspicions of aberration of the mind. 
 
 The town suffered plunder for a day, and at last guards having been 
 placed over the houses of the respectable persons, and four of the 
 plunderers executed, the soldiery was effectually restrained, and 
 tranquillity restored. This event was followed by the surrender of 
 Fatteh Haidar, the eldest of the sons of Tipu, and of Purnaiya, Kamar- 
 ud-Din Khan and other officers, on the following day. Circular orders 
 were issued by General Harris, accompanied by communications from 
 the Meer Soodoor, to the officers in charge of the different forts in the 
 territories, to deliver their charges to the British authorities, and giving 
 them general assurance of favour and protection. By these means the 
 country submitted, the ryots returned to their peaceful occupations, 
 and the land had rest from the ince.s.sant warfare of the past fifty years. 
 The disposal of the conquered territories engaged attention next. 
 After a mature deliberation of the various interests involved in the 
 question, the restoration of the descendant of the Rajas of Mysore to 
 the sovereignty, under British protection, of a part of the dominions, 
 and the division of the remainder between the allies, were the measures 
 resolved upon.^ The British share consisted of all the districts below 
 the (ihdts lying between their possessions on the eastern and western 
 coasts, namely, Kanara, Coimbatore, &:c., with such posts and fortresses 
 as commanded the passes ; and the island of SLriiigapatam. To the 
 Nizam were assigned the districts of (Uitti and Cluramkoinla, bordering 
 on the cessions made in 1792, together with all the country north from 
 
 ' By a Commission composed of (Joneial Harris, Cnlimcl Arlluir Wcllcslcy, llic 
 Honourable Henry Wellesley, Lieut. -Colonel Williaiu Kirkpalrick, and Lieut. - 
 Colonel Barry Close, the Nizam concurring. 
 
 E K
 
 4I-S ///STORY 
 
 Chitaklroog and Sira. I'or the Mahrattas, whose forces were not 
 present at the siege, were reserved, on certain conditions, Harpanhalli, 
 Siinda and Ancgundi, with parts of the districts of Chitaldroog and 
 Bednur above the Ghats ; hut as they would not agree to the terms of 
 the proposed treaty renouncing a claim to plunder, these districts were 
 divided between the British and the Nizam. 
 
 The sons of Tipu were provided with liberal allowances, and 
 removed from the scene of their former greatness to the fortress of 
 Vellore.' The principal officers of the late Government were divided 
 into three classes, according to their respective ranks,, and pensioned ; 
 the stipends varying from three thousand to two hundred and ten star 
 pagodas per annum. To Mir Kamar-ud-Din Khan were assigned two 
 jagirs, one from the Company and the other from the Nizam, and he 
 was permitted to reside at Guramkonda. Purnaiya, who had been the 
 principal financial minister under the late Government, having given 
 satisfactory proof of his readiness to serve the new one in the same 
 capacity, it was deemed advisable to appoint him Divan to the young 
 Raja.- All negotiations regarding the revival of the kingdom of 
 Mysore were considerately postponed till the departure of the sons of 
 the Sultan from the capital, which took place on the iSth of June, 1799. 
 
 (Subsequently, in 1800, the Nizam ceded to the British the territories 
 acquired from Mysore in 1792 and 1799, in return for a force of British 
 troops to be stationed at Haidarabad. And in 1803 Holalkere, 
 Mayakonda, and Harihar districts were given to Mysore by the British 
 Government in exchange for parts of Punganur, Wynad, Yelusavirasime, 
 and some other places contiguous to their boundary.) 
 
 The Brahmans having fixed upon the 30th of June as the most 
 auspicious day for placing Krishna Raja Wodeyar on the masnad, the 
 ceremony was performed at Mysore at noon on that day by the Com- 
 missioners, headed by General Harris, and accompanied by Mir Alam 
 (the representative of the Nizam), under three volleys of musketry 
 from the troops on the spot and a royal salute from the guns of 
 Seringapatam. The deportment of the young prince, the despatch 
 on the subject says, was remarkably decorous. Some high Musal- 
 man officers of the late Government spontaneously attended on 
 the occasion. The inauguration having taken place under an open 
 pandal, the spectators were very numerous, and it would be difficult to 
 
 ' Five years later, on the occurrence of the nuitiny at \"eIlore, they were removed 
 to Calcutta. 
 
 ■ Tirumal Rao, previously referred to (p. 399), was also a candidate for this office, 
 with the support of the Rani. But a letter on the subject was sent to her by Mr. 
 Webbe, in Mahratta, signed S'rl Veb (in Devanagari characters), and Tirumal Rao 
 was liberally pensioned. He lived at Madras till his death in 181 5.
 
 PURXAIYA REGEXT 419 
 
 describe the joy which was visible in the countenances of all the 
 Hindus present. 
 
 The rebuilding of the old palace of Mysore was at the same time 
 commenced. Dr. Buchanan, writing in May 1800, says, "It is now so 
 far advanced as to be a comfortable dwelling, and I found the young 
 prince seated in it on a handsome throne. He has very much recovered 
 his health, and though he is only between six and seven years of age, 
 speaks and behaves with great propriety and decorum. From Indian 
 etiquette, he endeavours in i)ublic to preserve a dignified gravity of 
 countenance ; but the attentions of Colonel Close, the Resident, make 
 him sometimes relax, and then his face is very lively and interesting." 
 
 Purnaiya was now Divan and Regent, Colonel (afterwards Sir 
 Barry) Close^ was Resident, and Colonel Arthur Wellesley (the future 
 Duke of AVellington) commanded the Division. The combined 
 influence of such a triad was a sufficient guarantee for all that could 
 render the State secure and prosperous. The disturbances caused by 
 the Aigur chief in Manjarabad, and by Dhundia Wahag' in the north- 
 west were soon quelled. Purnaiya's thorough knowledge of the 
 resources of the country enabled him to add materially to the revenue, 
 which was further swelled by the sale of the large stores of sandalwood 
 which had accumulated for several years owing to Tipu's prohibition of 
 its export from his dominions ; so that although the Mysore State, 
 according to treaty, kept a considerable body of troops in the field 
 during the Mahratta war, the treasury continued to fill. " The 
 
 ' lie came out as a cadet in 177 1, and was in TcUicherry during ils siege l)y 
 riaidar : served as Deputy-Adjutanl-Cleneral with the army before Seringapalani in 
 1792, and as Adjutant-General at the final capture in 1799. He was then ajipoinled 
 Resident in Mysore. In 1801 he was transferred as Resident to Toona, where he 
 remained till his retirement in 181 1, and died in England in 1813. He was aji 
 accomplished Arabic and Persian scholar. Closepet is named after him. 
 
 * He was a Mahratta by descent, and a native of Channagiri. From 17S0 lie 
 served as a horseman in Haidar's army, but during the invasion of Lord Cornwallis 
 decamped with a few followers and as much booty as they could get hold of lo 
 Dliarwar, where he lived by plundering. In 1794 he was induced to come to 
 Scringapatam with the prospect of being received into Tipu's service with all his 
 followers, consisting of two hundred horse. But refusing to embrace Islam, he was 
 forcibly converted and thrust into prison. At the capture of Seringapatam he was 
 ftjund chained to the wall like a wild beast, and the British soldiers out of jiily at 
 (mce freed him. He then escaped to the Mahratta country, and collecting a large 
 force committed many depredations in the north-west. In 1800, having assumed 
 the title of " King of the Two Worlds," he threatened the Mysore frontier with a 
 body of 5,000 horse. Colonel Wellesley went against him, and pursuing him for 
 months from point to point without being able to come up with him, at last succeetled 
 in surprising him, when this freebooter's army was entirely routed anil he himself 
 killed in a cavalry charge led in person by his distinguished opjioncnt. 
 
 E E 2
 
 420 
 
 ///STORY 
 
 settlement of Mysore," as Major Wilks remarks, " was distinguished 
 from all preceding measures of British policy, was quoted with 
 applause in the remotest parts of India, and was acknowledged with 
 unlimited gratitude by the people to be governed, by leaving every 
 office, civil and military, to be filled by the natives themselves, with 
 the single guard of those powers of interposition in the internal affairs 
 of the government which were reserved by a special provision of 
 the treaty. . The experiment was new, and with relation to its 
 remote consequences, of momentous importance." It was, therefore, 
 no little satisfaction to the Governor-General, the Marquess of 
 Wellesley, in 1804, to record it as his deliberate declaration, that 
 during the past five years, " the affairs of the government of 
 Mysore had been conducted with a degree of regularity, wisdom, 
 di.scretion and justice unparalleled in any Native State in India." 
 
 Of the young prince himself we obtain a further glimpse in 1806, 
 from Colonel Welsh's account of a procession from Nanjangud to 
 Kalale. " The young Rajah," he writes, " was now twelve years old, 
 and as promising a boy as I ever beheld ; indeed, Major Wilks, who 
 was a man of sense and refinement, declared he had never known 
 a finer youth, European or native. His manners were far above his 
 age, but he was then under the tutelage of the celebrated Poorniah. . 
 During the procession, which took place on horseback, old Poorniah 
 checked the ardour of the Rajah, and we moved at a snail's pace for 
 the first three miles, when this fine boy, longing for a gallop, obtained 
 his guardian's leave, exchanged his State turban for a plain one, and 
 disengaging himself from several valuable chains and jewels which 
 decorated his person, gave his horse the whip, and commenced a 
 hi?ige, which he managed with grace and dexterity, while we formed 
 a ring outside and enjoyed the exhibition. After indulging himself for 
 a few minutes, in which we much admired his manliness, he resumed 
 his dress, and we proceeded in state to the end of the march." ^ 
 
 Beyond advice from the Resident, little interference with internal 
 affairs was called for during the administration of Purnaiya, which 
 continued till 181 1. "The knowledge of the right of interposing had 
 proved sufficient of itself to prevent any .frequent or urgent necessity 
 for its exercise, and to secure in a respectable degree the protection 
 of the people in the enjoyment of their most important rights." 
 Purnaiya's system of go\-ernment was no doubt absolute ; and, as a 
 financier, the accumulation of surplus revenue presented itself to him 
 as a prime end to be attained. It may be questioned, therefore, 
 
 ' ^/i/itary Rt'niiitisa'nces, from a Journal of Forty \ 'ears' Active Seii'iee in the 
 East /ndies. By Colonel James Welsh.
 
 KRISHNA RAJA WODEYAR 421 
 
 whether he did not to some extent enrich the treasury at the expense 
 of the State, by narrowing the resources of the people ; t'or by 181 1 he 
 had amassed in the public coffers ui)\vards of two crores of rupees. He 
 was a minister of the old school, and viewed with chagrin any attempts 
 which the Raja, as he came to years of discretion, made to assert his 
 prerogatives. This i)rovoked the resentment of the young Raja, 
 surrounded as he was by parasites who constantly urged him to take 
 the government into his own hands. In 181 1 he expressed to the 
 Resident a wish to govern for himself. The Resident endeavoured to 
 secure a share in the administration for Purnaiya, but the latter 
 declined further office, and retired to Seringapatam, where he soon 
 after died, on the 28th of March 18 12. Old and infirm, after a life of 
 unusual activity and care, " I am going to the land of my fathers," was 
 the tranquil message he sent a few days before to his friend Colonel 
 Hill, the Commandant of the fort. " Say that I am travelling the 
 same road," was the reply returned, and he survived the minister but a 
 short time. 
 
 Purnaiya was a Brahman of the Madhva sect, descended from a family 
 of the Coimbatore country. Plis talents were recognized by Haidar, 
 and he was made not only minister of finance, but was also put in charge 
 of the commissariat. He was short and stout in person, but much more 
 active than Prahmans in general are, and Haidar rewarded him with a 
 grant of the village of Maruhalli (south-west of Mysore). His tact and 
 the influence he had acquired are well illustrated by the course he 
 pursued, already related, at the death of Haidar, and the means he 
 took to secure the succession to Tipu. His services to the latter were 
 of the highest value, and next to Mir Sadak lie enjoyed greater power 
 under the Sultan than any other person. But he was in no small 
 ■danger from the bigotry of his master. For the Sultan, it is said, once 
 proposed to him to become a Musalman. " 1 am \our servant," 
 replied Purnaiya, and hastily withdrew. The Sultan's mother, who 
 had great influence with her son, on hearing of what hvid occurred, 
 strongly remonstrated with him on his folly, and he had the sense to 
 see the danger of proceeding any further in the matter. It must have 
 been with a sense of relief, therefore, that Purnaiya, when, after the fall 
 of Seringapatam, he was summoned to surrender, and assured that he 
 had no cause to be alarmed, replied, " How can I hesitate to 
 surrender to a nation who are the protectors of my tribe from Kas'i to 
 Rames'varam ? " The subsequent distinguished career of Purnaiya has 
 been made plain by our history. In 1807 he was offered a jiigir in 
 recognition of his services, and chose the fertile tract of ^'elandur, on 
 the borders of Mysore and Coimbatore.
 
 42 2 HISTORY 
 
 Mr. Josiah Wcbbc had been appointed Resident in Mysore in succes- 
 sion to Colonel Close, but only consented to hold the office temporarily, 
 as he was anxious to leave India. Until his arrival Mr. J. H. Peile 
 acted as Resident for a few months. Mr. Webbe had been for many 
 years Chief Secretary to the Ciovernment of Madras, and was intimately 
 concerned in all the transactions of the south from the days of Haidar. 
 He left Mysore to go as Resident to Nagpore, and from there went 
 in June 1804, to relieve Malcolm at Gwalior, where he fell sick and 
 died at a critical time in the spring of 1805. An obelisk erected to 
 his memory by Purnaiya is conspicuous to the north of Seringapatam. 
 
 Major (afterwards Sir John) Malcolm^ became Resident of Mysore at 
 the beginning of 1803, but was destined to continue as an actor on a 
 far wider stage, and was one of the foremost men of his day in India. 
 Only the briefest outline can here be given of his illustrious career. 
 Serving in the army before Seringapatam in 1792, he was selected by 
 Lord Cornwallis to be Persian interpreter with the Nizam's contingent. 
 He returned to England in 1794, and came out with General (Sir 
 Alured) Clarke next year as Military Secretary on the secret expedition 
 destined for India, in which the ships were driven out of their course 
 to South America, and eventually arrived off the Cape of Good Hope 
 at a most opportune moment, which enabled them to decide the 
 contest with the Dutch that made the Cape a British colony. He 
 continued as ^Military Secretary under General Harris at Madras, and 
 in 1798 was appointed Assistant Resident at Haidarabad, where he 
 nearly lost his life in carrying out the disbandment of the French 
 forces. In 1799 he was First Secretary to the Commissioners for the 
 settlement of Mysore (Captain Thomas Munro being the other), and 
 immediately after was sent as Envoy to Persia by the Governor-General, 
 Lord Wellesley, who had early discerned his abilities. In ^March 1803, 
 he joined the army of General Wellesley, marching against theMahrattas, 
 at Harihar, as representative of the Governor-General, and was after- 
 wards sent on a mission to Bombay. Thus it was not till November 
 1804 that he came to Mysore itself, and after the stirring events in which 
 
 ' He was of a Scotch family and not thirteen when taken by his uncle before the 
 Directors of the East India Company in 1781 for a cadetship. They were about to 
 refuse a commission in their army to such a boy, but on one of the Directors in a 
 disparaging manner saying to him, " WTiy, my Httle man, what would you do if you 
 met Haidar Ali ?" " I'd out with my sword and cut ofT his head," was the unex- 
 pected reply, on w hich lliey passed him at once. Boy Malcolm, as he was called, 
 became very popular and developed great talents. "WTien sent in charge of the escort 
 for exchange of prisoners with Tipu, the officer of the opposite party, seeing such a 
 stripling, asked where the commanding officer was. " I am the commanding officer," 
 was the answer he was astonished to receive.
 
 S//^ JOHN MALCOLM 423 
 
 he had been engaged was turning his thoughts to a hfe of Hterary leisure 
 and the compilation of his History of Persia, when, in March 1805, he 
 was again summoned to Calcutta by the Govuirnor-General, and was 
 employed in negotiations with Holkar and Sindiah. In fact, " send 
 Malcolm " had come to be the remedy proposed for every emergency. 
 He returned to Mysore in April 1807, and was married there in July 
 to the daughter of an officer in Madras. But in February 1808, he 
 was a second time sent to Persia. Returning to Madras in 1809, he 
 was ordered to Masuli[)atam to repress the mutiny of the European 
 regiment, and was afterwards reappointed to Persia. In 1812 he received 
 five years' furlough to England. On his return to India he was engaged 
 in operations against the Pindaris and Mahrattas, and in 18 19 took charge 
 of the administration of Central India. He went home again in 1822, 
 and was subsequently appointed Governor of Bombay. After a most 
 distinguished career in India^ he retired to England in 1831, entered 
 Parliament, and died in London of influenza in 1833. A statue of him 
 by Chantrey was erected in Westminster Abbey and one in Bombay. 
 
 He was very tall and strong, and of untiring activity in body and mind. 
 Simple, manly, generous and accessible to all, he was universally beloved 
 both by Europeans and natives. Colonel Welsh, who met him at 
 Belgaum at the end of 1828, when he was Governor of Bombay, says, 
 " He proved to be the same honest John Malcolm I knew twenty-five 
 years ago, in General Wellesley's arm}-. All the fire, strength and activity 
 of youth, with those abilities which enable him to transact his business 
 in less time than most other men would take to consider about it." 
 
 During the prolonged absence of the permanent Resident the duties 
 of the office were ably discharged by Major Mark ^^'ilks, whose 
 History of Mysore is a monument of his knowledge of and interest in 
 the country. In about 180S he went to England and afterwards 
 became Governor of St. Helena, an appointment which he held till the 
 imprisonment on that island of the Emperor Napoleon Buonaparte. 
 He was succeeded at Mysore by the Hon. Arthur H. Cole, who had 
 been the Assistant Resident. This gentleman, a connection of the 
 Earls of Enniskillcn, held the position of Resident for many years, but 
 I have not been able to obtain any particular infi)rmation al)OUt 
 him, except that I believe he had been in Parliament. On leaving 
 Mysore he went to the Mauritius. In 1825 Mr. J. A. Casamaijor, of 
 
 ' The Duke of Wellington, writing to him in 1824, says, " I can answer for it thai 
 from the year 1796 no great transaction has taken place in the East in which you have 
 not played a principal, most useful, conspicuous and honourable i>art ; and you have 
 in many services, di]ilomatic as well as military, been distinguished by successes, any 
 one of which in ordinary circumstances would have been deemetl sufficient for the life 
 of a man."
 
 424 n/STORY 
 
 tlic Madras Civil Service, was Resident, and continued so till 1834, 
 when he was transferred to Travancore.^ 
 
 To return to the Raja of Mysore. Krishna Raja Wodeyar, then 
 about sixteen years of age, commenced his rule under the most 
 favourable auspices, with a treasury well filled and the good wishes 
 of the whole country. Flatterers and parasites, however, gained 
 too ready an ear, and in 18 14 the Resident was compelled to 
 report that the Raja had already dissipated on worthless persons 
 the treasure accumulated by Purnaiya, while the pay of his troops 
 was several months in arrears. Though possessed of great natural 
 intelligence, he lacked the administrative ability which was essential 
 for governing the country, and was yet too jealous to delegate 
 the necessary authority to the Divan. While the Resident's advice 
 was disregarded, a lute player named Venkat Subbaiya, and other 
 indifferent characters, obtained an extraordinary influence over him. 
 The disinterested counsels of the few respectable native gentlemen at 
 his court met with no more attention than those of the Resident, and 
 although sharply rebuked by the British Government and warned of 
 the inevitable result of his extravagance and sensuality, the Raja 
 turned a deaf ear to all remonstrance. In 181 7 he was foolish enough 
 to enter into political intrigues which gave umbrage to the British, 
 though they did not proceed from want of loyalty on his part. 
 
 Colonel Welsh, an eye-witness whom we have already quoted, 
 writing of Bangalore so early as October 181 1, says, "The Rajah of 
 Mysore paid us a visit for the races, accompanied by the Hon. A. Cole 
 and his staff. . I have formerly mentioned this prince as a most 
 promising youth ; I much fear he has now broken that promise, for, 
 so far as outward appearance goes, no two beings could be more 
 different." Again, writing in 1830, he says: — "The after-life of this 
 prince, I am truly sorry to state, has not fulfilled the promise of his 
 youth. . I must own I had never felt such a predilection for 
 any native as for this young Rajah ; and Major Wilks's accounts of the 
 proofs he gave of good sense and honourable feeling made an 
 impression on my mind which led me afterwards to hope, when hope 
 was vain ; for on acquiring the entire management, he threw himself 
 into the most improper hands, and disregarded the advice of his 
 real friends to such a degree that some of the most important stations 
 were filled by low and insignificant wretches, and the whole country 
 groaned under oppression. . He has long ruled his own kingdom, 
 
 ' He eventually retired to the Xilagiri Hills, where in 1S42 he bought the resi- 
 dence and property of the Governor, Lord Elphinstone, at Kaity, and al his death 
 in 1849 bequeathed it to the Basel Lutheran Mission.
 
 THE RAJAS MISRULE 425 
 
 and with able and honourable advice, which he has never wanted in Major 
 Wilks's successors, might have acquired a name among his subjects 
 equal to that of his virtuous minister (Poorniah) ; but he has miserably 
 failed, and those who now frequent that once well-regulated country 
 hear nothing but complaints against the Sovereign in every village." 
 
 " All remonstrances failed to check the Raja's downward course. 
 High offices of State were sold to the highest bidder, while the people 
 were oppressed by the system of shar/i, which had its origin under 
 Purnaiya's regency. Sharii was a contract made by the Amildar that 
 he would realize for the Government a certain amount of revenue ; 
 that if his collections should fall short of that amount he would make 
 good the deficiency, and that if they exceeded it the surplus should be 
 paid to the Government. The amount which the Amildar thus 
 engaged to realize was generally an increase on what had been 
 obtained the year preceding. In the viuchalika or agreement the 
 Amildar usually bound himself not to oppress the ryots, nor impose 
 any new taxes, nor compel the ryots to purchase the Government 
 share of grain, but this proviso was merely formal ; for any violation 
 of the contractors in any of these points when represented to the 
 Government was taken no notice of The consequence was that the 
 ryots became impoverished, the revenues more embarrassed, and the 
 Amildars themselves frequently suffered losses. The distress arising 
 from this state of things, and from the neglect of duties incumbent 
 upon Government, fell heavily upon the ryots, who groaned under the 
 oppression of every tyrannical sharti Faujdar and Amildar.'' 
 
 As another instance of maladministration which prevailed it may be 
 mentioned that the courts of justice had no power to pass sentence, 
 their prerogative being limited to the mere finding of guilty or not guilty. 
 The Raja, who had retained the power of passing sentence, was too 
 indolent to attend to business, and the result was that the jails 
 remained for years crowded with prisoners who, if guilty at all, were 
 only guilty of light offences. 
 
 Once, in 1825, the venerable Sir Thomas Munro, Governor of 
 Madras, actuated by a sincere desire to avert the ruin which threatened 
 the Raja, visited Mysore and remonstrated personally with him. In 
 his minute upon the interview, he writes, " I concluded by saying 
 that the disorder of the Rajah's affairs had reached such a height as 
 would justify the Government in acting upon the Fourth Article of the 
 Treaty ; but that as a direct interference in the administration, or the 
 assumption for a time of part of the Mysore territory, could not be 
 undertaken without lessening the dignity of his Highness, and shaking 
 his authority in such a manner that it would be impracticable ever to
 
 426 HISTORY 
 
 re-establish it, I was unwilling to adopt such a course until the last 
 extremity, and wished to give him an opportunity of restoring order 
 himself. I'.ut if reform was not immediately begun, direct interference 
 would be unavoidable." The effect of this advice was at best 
 transient, and Munro unfortunately died of cholera at Gutti in July, 
 1827. Between this time and 1831 matters went from bad to worse. 
 The Resident, Mr. Cassamaijor, strove ineffectually to arrest the 
 Raja's downfall, but did not succeed in securing his confidence. His 
 Highness seemed destined to place his trust always in unworthy 
 advi.sers. 
 
 In 1830 symptoms of disaffection began to show themselves in the 
 Nagar country. A Brahman named Kama Rao, from the Mahratta 
 territory, who had served with credit under Haidar and Tipu as a 
 commander of cavalry, had been appointed Faujdar of Nagar in 1799, 
 and held that office till 1805. He afterwards became Bakshi of the 
 Sowar Cutcherry, and was one of the Rc4ja"s most intimate counsellors, 
 and virtually the Dewan for a few years after Purnaiya's retirement. 
 By his influence almost every public situation of importance in Nagar 
 down to 1828 was, with a slight interruption, filled up by his 
 dependents or relatives. Though charged with flagrant frauds and 
 embezzlements, their conduct was shielded from scrutiny ; while some 
 of them even enriched themselves by giving encouragement to robbers 
 — for whose operations the -wild nature of the country offers many 
 facilities — and partaking of the plunder. The outstanding balances of 
 revenue having accumulated to upwards of thirteen lakhs of rupees, 
 the Bakshi contrived that he himself should be deputed to inquire into 
 and settle the claims. He made large remissions to the extent of 
 seven-and-a-half lakhs, and returned to the Darbar in 1828. The Raja 
 being led to question the propriety of these proceedings, resolved to 
 appoint a relative of his own, named Vira Raj Arasu, as Faujdar. 
 The latter discovered that much fraud had been practised in the 
 remissions, and re-imposed the claims, which naturally excited dis- 
 satisfaction in those afiected. The Bakshi's party, also, fearful of the 
 consequences to themselves if the inquiries which Vira Raj Arasu was 
 pursuing should expose the corruption and malversation they had 
 practised during so many years, connived at the seditious proceedings 
 of a pretender to the throne of Nagar.' 
 
 ' This man, whose real name was Sadar Malla, was the son of a common r}-ot of 
 Kumsi. Before the age of twenty he had been concerned in several robberies and 
 spent two years in jail. He afterwards entered the service of a Jangama who had 
 been "priest of the last Nayak of Bednur and was possessed of his seal rings. These, 
 on the death of the priest, Sadar Malla got hold of, and assuming the name of Biidi 
 Basavappa, wandered about the countrj- secretly giving out that he was a descendant
 
 INSURRECTION IN NAGAR 427 
 
 In August (1830) a force in his name attempted to surprise the fort 
 of Anantapur, but failed. At the same period the ryots in various 
 places assembled in ki'ita or indignation meetings. On the ground of 
 these commotions, Vira Raj Arasu was recalled, and the former 
 Faujdar of the Bakshi's party restored. He made use of troops to 
 disperse the ryots at Hole Honnur on the 7th December, and several 
 were killed and wounded. Ilut they rallied near Honnali and were 
 joined by larger numbers from all parts, who openly espoused the 
 cause of the pretender. The Faujdar again attacked them with a 
 regiment of horse and broke up the assembly. The Palegar of 
 Tarikere now suddenly left Mysore and joined the in.surgents, seizing 
 on Kaldroog and Kamandroog. The Faujdar of Bangalore also 
 reported his Division to be in a general state of insurrection. Strong 
 reinforcements of troops were sent to the disturbed districts in the 
 Bangalore, Chitaldroog and Nagar Divisions ; and the Raja set out with 
 a considerable force on the 13th December for Chanraypatna, where it 
 was proclaimed that the grievances of the ryots would be inquired into. 
 Investigations were made by the Dewan for some days; several 
 persons were hanged, others flogged or mutilated. Meanwhile there 
 were encounters in various parts between the insurgents and the troops. 
 
 In January the Rdja's camp was established at Hebbur, and the 
 Dewan was despatched with troops against Kamandroog, while 
 Annapi)a, an officer of cavalry, was appointed to supersede the Faujdar 
 of Nagar. Annappa maintained an arduous conflict for several weeks 
 with the insurgents, and was forced to take refuge in Anantapur. 
 Here he remained till nearly starved, when addressing his troop.s, he 
 said, " Rather than die in this way of starvation, let us go and fight, 
 and die like soldiers." They responded, and .sallying forth on the 
 Shikarpur road, fought their way stoutly for fifteen miles to Masur in 
 the Company's territory, whence they retreated to Harihar. The 
 operations against Kamandroog failed, but Kaldroog was taken in 
 February. British aid was now applied for, and a regiment started 
 from Harihar. At the same time, Lieut. Rochfort, of the Resident's 
 escort, taking command of the Mysore troops, captured Kamandroog 
 on the 3rd of .March, the palegars escaping during the assault. Hence 
 
 of the Nagar family. Al)()ut i8i2 he was imprisoned for some lime in Canara for 
 rolibery, and on release obtained a passport bearing the seal of the Zillah court, in 
 which was entered his name as he himself gave it, Bi'idi Rasavajijia Nagar Khavind. 
 This document was now exhibited as a sannad from the l">ast India Company recog- 
 nizing his claims. These deceptions were effectual, and when the discontent to 
 which we have alluded was at its height, taking advantage of it to promise a full 
 remission of all balances and a reduction of the assessment, he was, about .\pril 
 1S30, formally recognized by several patels as the sovereign of Nagar.
 
 428 JIJSTORY 
 
 Lieut. Roclifort marched to Shimoga, and hearing that a large body of 
 insurgents li;id taken Hoiinah, he proceeded there and took it by 
 assauU on the 12th. He now marched west, and carrying several 
 stockades, temporarily recovered Nagar or Bcdnur on the 26th, and 
 Chandragutti on the 6th of April. Meanwhile, enriched by the plunder 
 of district treasuries and other depredations, the rebel leaders were joined 
 by bodies of armed men, both horse and foot. Attracted by the hope of 
 plunder, 1,500 Candachar peons of the Eedar caste also deserted to them. 
 
 Owing to the increasing strength of the insurgents, the employment 
 of the entire subsidiary force became imperative. One regiment had to 
 retire from a fortified barrier at Fattepet, but the British forces being 
 concentrated at Shimoga, moved on the 31st of May by a circuitous 
 route to Nagar, which was finally taken on the 12th of June, and a 
 death-blow given to the insurrection. By the next month the majority 
 of the ryots had returned to their villages under the protection of letters 
 of cowl. But the rebel leaders continued at large with marauding bands, 
 committing outrages and raising disturbances for many months. 
 
 The state of Mysore had been for some time attracting the notice 
 of the (lOvernment of India, and as it was considered that the 
 insurrection was of so serious a character as to call for special inquiry, 
 the Governor-General ordered the formation of a Committee' to 
 investigate the " origin, progress and suppression of the recent 
 disturbances in Mysore." Their report showed that the misgovern- 
 ment of the Raja had produced grave and widely-spread discontent, 
 that the revenues were rapidly failing, and that mal-administration 
 was rampant in all departments of the State. The Governor-General, 
 Lord William Bentinck, therefore determined upon acting on the 
 fourth and fifth articles of the subsidiary treaty. In a letter addressed 
 to the Raja, after recounting at some length and in forcible terms the 
 circumstances under which the Raja had been placed on the throne, 
 the objects of the subsidiary treaty, and the mismanagement, tyranny, 
 and oppression of the Raja's government, Lord William Bentinck went 
 on to say, " I have in consequence felt it to be indispensable, as well 
 with reference to the stipulations of the treaty above quoted, as from a 
 regard to the obligation of the protective character which the British 
 Government holds towards the State of Mysore, to interfere for its 
 preservation, and to save the various interests at stake from further 
 ruin. It has seemed to me that in order to do this effectually, it will 
 be necessary to transfer the entire administration of the country into 
 the hands of British officers ; and I have accordingly determined to 
 
 ' The members were Major-General Hawker, Colonel W. Morison, Mr. J. M. 
 Macleod, and Lieut.-Col. (afterwards Sir Mark) Cubbon.
 
 DEPOSITION OF THE RAJA 429 
 
 nominate two Commissioners for the purpose, who will proceed 
 immediately to Mysore. 
 
 "I now therefore give to your Highness this formal and final notice, 
 and I request your Highness to consider this letter in that light ; that 
 is, as the notice required by the treaty to be given to your Highness of 
 the measure determined upon for the assumption and management of 
 the Mysore territory in the case stipulated. I beg of your Highness, 
 therefore, to issue the requisite orders and proclamations to the officers 
 and authorities of Mysore, within ten days from the date when this 
 letter may be delivered to your Highness, for giving effect to the transfer 
 of the territory, and investing the British Commissioners with full 
 authority in all departments, so as to enable them to proceed to take 
 charge and carry on affairs as they have been ordered, or may be here- 
 after instructed.'' To the Raja, in accordance with the treaty, the sum of 
 one lakh of star pagodas per annum was allotted for his private expenses. 
 
 The Raja, who received this mandate at the time of the Dasara 
 (19th Oct. 1 831), peaceably surrendered the reins of government, and 
 continued to reside in his palace at Mysore. The Governor-General vested 
 the government in the hands of two Commissioners, the senior of whom 
 was appointed by himself, and the junior by the Madras Government. 
 The senior Commissioner, who possessed what was termed a casting- 
 vote, and was therefore enabled to overrule his colleague on every 
 point, was aided in financial matters by the Divan, which latter post 
 was not abolished until 1S34. Up to June 1832 the Commissioners 
 were under the Government of Madras, but in that month they were 
 made immediately subordinate to the Government of India. It was 
 soon found that a Board of two Commissioners, who naturalh- 
 constantly differed in opinion, was an agency ill-adapted for the 
 organization of a proper system of government.^ Accordingly, in 
 April 1834, one Commissioner, Colonel Morison, was appointed for 
 the whole Province, and on his transfer to Calcutta, Colonel (after- 
 wards Sir Mark) Cubbon took charge in June. But the office of 
 Resident was still maintained, and thus a dual and divided interest 
 continued to exist. (Colonel J. S. Fraser, who had just carried out the 
 deposition of the Raja of Coorg and the annexation of that country, 
 was in June 1834 appointed Resident in Mysore and Commissioner 
 
 ' The lollowing is a list of these Commissioners, with their dates of office : — 
 Senior Junior 
 
 Colunel J. Briggs 4 Oct. 1S31 [ Mr. C. M. Lushingtoii 4(^-1.1831 
 
 I ,, C. D. Drury 18 Kel). 1832 
 
 j ,, J. M. Macleod 16 June 1832 
 
 ,, VV. Morison 6 Kel). 1S33 | Colonel Mark Cuhhon 17 Fcl). 1834
 
 430 J II ST OR Y 
 
 of (Jooig. In 1836 he was made Resident in Travancorc, and in 1838 
 at Haidarabad. Major R. I). Stokes succeeded him at Mysore, and 
 rrniaincd till 1843, when the post of Resident was aixjlishcd. 
 
 A [jroposal, it appears, had been made by Lord William Jientinck 
 before he left India, at the time of Oeneral Fraser's ap[jc;intment, t<j 
 restore the districts of Mysore, Ashtagram and Manjarabad to the Raja, 
 and to annex the remainder of the country as an ecjuivalent for the 
 subsidy. Hut the reply of the Court of Directors, which arrived in 
 the time of vSir (afterwards Lord) Charles Metcalfe, and was made 
 known to the Raja by Lord Auckland, the new Covernor-(jeneral, 
 refused to sanction either the partition of a State whose integrity had been 
 guaranteed by treaty, or the subjection of the inhabitants of any portion, 
 however small, to the misrule from which they had been rescued. 
 
 The instructions of the Governor-General to the Madras Govern- 
 ment on the first assumption of the Province had been to the effect 
 that "the agency under the Commissioners should be exclusively 
 native ; indeed, that the existing native institutions should be carefully 
 maintained." These views were subsequently confirmed by the Court of 
 Directors in their letter dated 25th September 1835, in which they stated 
 that they were " desirous of adhering as far as can be done to the native 
 usage, and not to introduce a system which cannot be worked 
 hereafter by native agency." The above instructions were, as far as 
 possible, adhered to in the early days of the Commission. But in 
 process of time it became known that the machinery of government 
 was rotten to the core. Moreover, the opposing influence of the Raja 
 and his adherents throughout the country hampered the carrying out of 
 all new measures and added to the difficulties of the situation. The 
 powers of the various descriptions of courts were ill-defined, and 
 involved endless appeals. The evils involved by this state of things 
 lay too deep to be remedied by one Commissioner aided by the 
 existing native agency, and it was therefore determined to substitute 
 four European Superintendents for the Native Faujdars. Later on 
 European Assistants were also appointed. The Huziir Adalat, 
 composed of Native Judges, was allowed to remain the highest 
 judicial authority in the Province, but its sentences were made subject 
 to the confirmation of the Commissioner. 
 
 Lord Dalhousie, who visited Mysore in 1855, recorded his opinion 
 that the administration had been highly honourable to the British 
 name and reflected the utmost credit upon the exertions of the 
 valuable body of officers by whom such great results had been 
 accomplished. Several changes were soon after introduced, arising 
 out of the renewal of the Company's charter in 1854. A Judicial
 
 SIR MARK CUB BON 431 
 
 Commissioner was appointed, and departments were formed for Pulilic 
 Works and Public Instruction. 
 
 The abolition of the post of Resident was at first felt by the Raja as 
 a great blow, but it brought him into closer relations with the Com- 
 missioner, and from 1847 they continued on the most friendly terms. 
 I5efore this, however, in 1844, in a letter to Lord Hardinge, then 
 (lovernor-Cieneral, the Raja urged his claim to the restoration of his 
 kingdom, to whicli the Directors replied in 1847, that "the real 
 liindrance is the hazard which would be incurred to the prosperity and 
 good government whicn the country now enjoys by replacing it under 
 a ruler known by experience to be thoroughly incompetent." No 
 indication, indeed, had been given that his rule would be any better 
 ik.an before. Though receiving on an average eleven lakhs a year, his 
 extravagance had accumulated private debts for the settlement of 
 which the appointment of a special officer, Mr. (afterwards Sir) J. P. 
 Crant, was necessary, and nearly thirty-five lakhs were paid. The 
 public debts due from the time of his deposition were not extinguished 
 till 1857. Lord Dalhousie, in view of the Raja's age (then 62), his 
 having no heir, and his expressed disinclination to adopt, anticipated that 
 Mysore, at his decease, would lapse to the British Ciovernment, and that 
 the good work which had been so well begun in it would be completed. 
 
 Such was the form of administration under Sir Mark Cubbon. The 
 history of the Province under his rule is that of a people made happy 
 by release from serfdom, and of a ruined State restored to financial 
 prosperity. There was a gradual rise of the revenue notwithstanding 
 that no less than seven hundred and sixty-nine petty items of taxation 
 were swept away.' \x\ addition, the abuses in the working of the 
 land revenue, whith had crept in since the time of Purnaiya, were 
 removed ; the payment of the assessment was made as easy as possible 
 to the ryot by dividing it into five instalments, })ayable with reference to 
 the periods of harvest ; the system of baUiyi or payment of as.sessment 
 in kind, which exposed the ryot to numberless exactions, was in great 
 measure abolished, and the land assessment in many cases was lowered. 
 
 At the beginning of i860 the intention was formed of transferring 
 the superintendence of Mysore affairs from the Ciovcrnor-Cieneral to 
 the Covernment of ALadras, then under Sir Charles Trevelyan, thus 
 reversing what had been done in 1832 ; but the stej) was so distasteful 
 
 ' Anions; these were sucli whimsical taxes as taxes on marriage, on incontinency, 
 on a child being horn, on its heing given a name, and on its heaS being shaved. In 
 one village the inhabitants had to jiay a tax because their ancestors had failed to find 
 the stray horse of a palegar, and any one passing a particular spot in Xagar without 
 keeping his hands close to his side had to pay a tA. .\11 these taxes were fornially 
 entered in the government records as part of the rc^urces of the state.
 
 432 J lis TORY 
 
 to the Raja, no less than to Sir Mark Cubbon, who tendered his 
 resignation, that it was withdrawn. Early the following year Sir Mark 
 was attacked with serious illness, which compelled him to resign, and 
 he died at Suez on his way to England in April 1861, at an advanced 
 age, having spent the whole of the century in India. He left Mysore 
 full of honours as full of years, and his memory is cherished with 
 affection by the people over whom he ruled so long. 
 
 He was the son of a Manx clergyman, and came out to India in 
 1 80 1, at the age of 16. On arrival he joined his uncle. Major Wilks, 
 at the Mysore Residency, and there gained an early acquaintance with 
 native habits. Before long he was appointed to the Commissariat 
 Department at Hunsur, and became the head of it when Colonel 
 Morison was made Resident of Travancore. This officer returned to 
 Mysore as Senior Commissioner in 1833, and was next year appointed 
 to the Council of the Governor-General at Calcutta,' on which Colonel 
 Cubbon, then lately made Junior Commissioner, succeeded him and 
 became the sole Commissioner.- 
 
 He was a statesman of the old school, and, says General Dobbs, was 
 particularly in his element when engaged in disentangling webs of native 
 intrigue. In this he fought the natives with their own weapons, with one 
 noble exception — he abhorred and never resorted to espionage, and often 
 spoke of the failure of Europeans who descended to such tactics. He was 
 intensely conservative, but his strong reluctance to change was corrected 
 by his wide reading of the public journals, then few in number. To his 
 deputies, in all matters in which he considered they possessed practical 
 knowledge, he allowed great liberty in exercising their own judgment, 
 and was generous and kind-hearted in support of them. He was 
 passionately fond of horses, and kept up to fifty or more, chiefly Arabs, 
 in his stables as pets. To encourage the production of high-bred 
 
 ' A complimentary Order issued in Nov. 1839, on his departure to England, says, 
 " His Lordship in Council would particularly draw the attention of the young officers 
 of the Madras Army to the career of Colonel Morison." He was transferred from the 
 line to the artillery solely on account of his talents, and made Instructor. He after- 
 wards became Surveyor-General, and when the Commissariat department was formed, 
 Commissary-General. His subsequent appointments have been stated above. He was 
 the first Madras officer, since the days of Lord Clive, selected for a seat in the Supreme 
 Council. 
 
 * I regret that more information could not be obtained regarding an officer who 
 filled so prominent a position for so long a period with such distinguished success. 
 My efforts to get further particulars from the Isle of Man or from surviving friends 
 were not successful, and I am assured, on the best authority, that before leaving 
 India, Sir Mark, in spite of the remonstrances of friends, deliberately destroyed all 
 his papers. The sketch above given is taken from Reviiniscences of Life in Mysore, 
 South Africa, and Burinah, bv Major-General R. S. Dobbs, a well-known officer of 
 the Mysore Commission througfiout the whole period referred to.
 
 SIR MARK CUBBOX 433 
 
 animals he had a number trained for the races, but did not run them, 
 preferring to pay the fines. Though he did not go to church, he was 
 particular in enforcing the observance of Sunday as a day of rest in all 
 courts and offices, and would not receive native visitors on that day. 
 His favourite retreat was Nandidroog, where he spent several months 
 in the year. 
 
 We obtain a delightful picture of him in 1858, at the time of Lady 
 Canning's visit. Her companion, the Hon. Mrs. Stuart, writes : — 
 "At seven in the morning (22nd March) drove up, through the lines 
 of the 60th Rifles, to General Cubbon's charming bungalow at 
 Bangalore. . \\'e found the whole house prepared for us, the chival- 
 rous old man of 74 having put himself into a tent. He is a very hand- 
 some," keen-eyed, intelligent man, and the quantity of anecdote of the 
 deepest interest that he has told us has been more entertaining than I 
 can describe." Lady Canning, writing from Nandidroog, says : — " I 
 am visiting a charming old General, Sir Mark Cubbon, 1,500 feet 
 above the tableland of Bangalore, and with a view over about 150 
 miles of country on all sides. It is cool fresh air and a very pleasant 
 spot, and the old gentleman is very delightful. He has been all this 
 century in Lidia. but seems to know all that has gone on all 
 over the world, and is the most gra?id seipieiir old man I almost 
 ever saw."' 
 
 His remains were conveyed by Dr. Campbell, the Durbar Surgeon, 
 who had accompanied him on the voyage, to the Isle of Man, where he 
 was met by Colonels Macqueen and Haines, old officers of the 
 Mysore Commission, and the body was laid to rest in the family 
 vault in a pul^lic funeral in which the whole island took part. As 
 the mourners left the tomb, "There lies," .said the archdeacon, 
 "the greatest man this island has produced for centuries back." 
 An equestrian statue, by Baron Marochetti, was erected to his 
 memory at Bangalore by public subscription, and stands in front of 
 the Public Offices. 
 
 The control of India had now passed from the Company to the 
 Crown, so, on the departure of Sir Mark Cubbon, the Rdja, 
 encouraged by the friendly terms in which Lord Canning had in the 
 previous year acknowledged his steadfastness during the mutiny, and 
 had supported his objection to be transferred to the control of Madras, 
 as well as bv his proclaimed goodwill to the native princes of India, 
 thought the opportunity favourable for again bringing forward his 
 claims to the restoration of his country. He accordingly addressed 
 Lord Canning on the subject in February 1861. That nobleman, in 
 ^ The Story of Two Noble Lives, by A. J. C Hare.
 
 434 ///STORY 
 
 n reply dated in Marcli 1862, the day before lie left fcjr ICngland, took 
 exce[>ti()n to the terms of the petition as ill-advised, and rejected it, 
 stating that "whilst the liritish (lovernment had been careful to satisfy 
 the right which it originally conceded to your Highness . . it is equally 
 alive to its obligations to the jjcople of Mysore and to the responsibility 
 for their prosperity and welfare of which it cannot divest itself." The 
 Raja, however, renewed his appeal through the new Viceroy, Lord Elgin. 
 The decision of the Home Government, rejecting the appeal, on the 
 ground that " the reinstatement of your Highness in the administration 
 of the country is incompatible with the true interests of the people of 
 Mysore," was made known to him at the end of 1863, on which the Raja 
 annoimced his intention of adopting a son. His debts had now again 
 accumulated, since the last clearance of them, to fifty-five-and-a-half 
 lakhs, and two officers were appointed for their liquidation. 
 
 Sir Mark Cubbon handed over charge to Mr. C. B. Saunders, the 
 Judicial Commissioner, who conducted the administration till the 
 arrival in Feb. 1862 of the new Commissioner, Mr. L. B. Bowring,' 
 and the latter, with the interval of a year's leave in 1866-7, during 
 which Mr. Saunders again ofificiated, held office until 1870. During 
 this period many radical changes were effected. Mysore had hitherto 
 been a non-regulation province. In 1862 the administration was re- 
 organized on the model of the Punjab system, and other reforms were 
 set on foot all tending towards the introduction of the regulation 
 system. The Province was now formed into three Divisions, sub- 
 divided into eight Districts, each Division being placed under a 
 Superintendent with enlarged powers, and each District in charge of a 
 Deputy Superintendent, aided by Assistant Superintendents. The 
 department of finance underwent at the same time a sweeping reform, 
 and in place of the large discretion previously allowed to officers of all 
 grades in regard to the disbursement of moneys, the Indian budget 
 system of audit and accounts was introduced. 
 
 In 1863 was commenced a much-needed revenue survey and settle- 
 ment, for the purposes of olitaining an accurate land measurement, of 
 regulating the customary land tax, and of preserving all proprietary and 
 other rights connected with the soil. In conjunction with this, the field 
 assessment was fixed for thirty years, thus securing to the cultivator the 
 full advantages of a lease for that period without burdening him with any 
 
 * Mr. Bowring, of the Bengal Civil Service, had been Assistant- Resident at Lahore 
 in 1847, and subsequently in the Punjab Commission. P'rom 1S58 to 1862 he was 
 Private Secretary to the Governor-Ceneral, Lord Canning. Created C.S.I, in 1867, 
 and retired to England in 1870. The Bowring Institute in Bangalore was erected, 
 partly by subscriptions, as a memorial to him.
 
 THE RAJA'S ADOPTION 435 
 
 condition beyond that of discharging the assessment for the single year 
 to which his engagements extend. Soon after, it was found necessary to 
 form an inam commission, to inquire into the validity of titles to lands 
 held by individuals or religious institutions as real or pretended 
 endowments from the sovereigns of the country, considerable aliena- 
 tions of whole villages having been made during the administration of 
 the Raja. The conservation of the numerous irrigation channels and 
 of the valuable forests of the country received attention ; and as judicial 
 work grew heavier, judicial assistants were appointed, one for each 
 District, for the disposal of civil suits. Education was greatly 
 extended. Municipalities were established. In short, there was 
 scarcely a branch of the administration but came under the scrutiny 
 and reforming hand of the untiring and energetic head of the 
 Government. 
 
 Meanwhile affairs had taken a turn of the utmost importance to the 
 fortunes of the Mysore royal family. In June 1865 the Raja adopted 
 a scion, then two years old, of one of the leading families of his house,^ 
 who on his adoption received the name of Chama Rajendra. A\'hether 
 this adoption would be recognized by the British (Government was for 
 some time doubtful, and questions asked in the House of Commons 
 elicited no positive or final answer. In 1866 a deputation, headed by 
 Sir H. Rawlinson, waited on the Secretary of State for India, Lord 
 Cranborne (now Marquess of Salisbury), to urge upon him a recon- 
 sideration of the whole case of Mysore, more particularly as modified 
 by the adoption ; and later on, a petition, to which several old Indian 
 officers had added their signatures, was presented to the House of 
 Commons by Mr. John Stuart Mill, praying that '• your Honourable 
 House will take such steps as may seem in ) our wisdom most efficacious 
 for ensuring, with the least possible delay, the re-establishment of a 
 Native (Government in the tributary State of Mysore, with every 
 possible security for Ikitish interests and for the prosperity and 
 happiness of the people of the country.'' 
 
 In April 1867 Viscount Cranborne stated to the House of (Commons 
 the decision to which the Government (of which Mr. Disraeli was 
 Prime Minister) had come, influenced by the belief that the existence 
 of well-governed native States is a benefit to the stability of British 
 rule; and on the i6th Sir Stafford Northcote, then Secretary of State 
 for India, penned the despatch to the (jOvernor-(jeneral which decided 
 the future fate of Mysore. After stating that no hope could be held 
 
 ' He was the third son of Chikk;i Kiislma Arasii of the Betladakote family ; a 
 descendant, by adoption, of Katli Gopalraj Arasii, father of Krishna K.-ija II.'s wife 
 Lakshmamnianni, who signed the treaty of Serin{;a])atani in 1799.
 
 436 HISTORY 
 
 oul thai tlu! piL'vious decision regarding the reinstatement of the 
 Maharaja himself wcnild he reversed, he went on to say : — 
 
 "Without entering upon any minute examination of the terms of the 
 Treaties of 1799, Her Majesty's Government recognize in the pohcy which 
 dictated that setdemcnt, a desire to provide for the maintenance of an 
 Indian dynasty on the throne of Mysore, upon terms which should at once 
 afford a guarantee for the good government of the people, and for the 
 security of British rights and interests. Her Majesty is animated by the 
 same desire, and shares the views to which I have referred. It is her 
 earnest wish that those portions of India which are not at present under her 
 immediate dominion may continue to flourish under native Indian rulers, 
 co-operating with her representatives in the prorhotion of the general pros- 
 perity of the country ; and, in the present case more especially, having 
 regard to the antiquity of the Maharaja's family, its long connection with 
 Mysore, and the personal loyalty and attachment to the British Govern- 
 ment which his Highness has so conspicuously manifested, Her Majesty 
 desires to maintain that family on the throne in the person of his 
 Highness's adopted son, upon terms corresponding with those made 
 in 1799, so far as the altered circumstances of the present time will 
 allow. 
 
 " In considering the stipulations which will be necessary to give effect 
 to this arrangement, I have, in the first place, to observe, that Her 
 Majesty's Government cannot but feel a peculiar interest in the welfare 
 of those who have now for so long a period been subject to their direct 
 administration, and that they will feel it their duty, before replacing them 
 under the rule of a native sovereign, to take all the pains they can 
 with the education of that sovereign, and also to enter into a distinct 
 agreement with him as to the principles upon which he shall administer 
 the country, and to take sufficient securities for the observance of the 
 agreement. 
 
 " It is, therefore, the intention of Her Majesty that the young prince 
 should have the advantage of an education suitable to his rank and position, 
 and calculated to prepare him for the duties of administration ; and I have 
 to desire you to propose to the Maharaja that he should receive his 
 education under the superintendence of your Government. I have to 
 request that you will communicate with me as to the mode in which 
 this can best be effected without separating the young prince more 
 than is necessary from those over whom he may hereafter be called on 
 to rule." 
 
 The despatch went on to direct that if at the demise of his Highness 
 the young prince should not have attained the age fixed for his majority, 
 '•the territory shall continue to be governed in his name upon the 
 same principles and under the same regulations as at the present time." 
 Before confiding to him the administration of the whole, or any portion, 
 of the State, arrangements would be made "for the purpose of adequately
 
 DEATH OF KRISHNA RAJA WODEYAR 437 
 
 providing for the maintenance of a system of government well adapted 
 to the wants and interests of the people," and, in regard to the rights 
 and interests of the British Government, for some addition to the 
 subsidy. 
 
 The Raja, though this gave the final blow to his own pretensions, 
 was much gratified with the remainder of the decision, and with the 
 friendly tone of the despatch. He was as alive as the British Ciovern- 
 nicnt to the fact that defective training had been to a great extent at 
 the bottom of his misfortunes. He accordingly selected Colonel G. 
 Haines, formerly in the Mysore Commission, as guardian of the young 
 prince, to superintend his education and training. Next year he died, 
 on the 27th of March 1868, having reached the ripe age of seventy-four 
 years. Though deprived of political power, the assignment to him of a 
 fifth of the revenue for his personal expenditure had enabled him to 
 give reins to tlie princely lil)eralit.y which formed one of the main 
 elements of his character, and he possessed many amiable personal 
 qualities much appreciated by those with whom he was intimate. 
 Immediately on the occurrence of this event the following proclama- 
 tion was issued : — 
 
 " His Excellency the Right Honourable the Viceroy and Governor- 
 General' in Council announces to the Chiefs and people of Mysore, the 
 death of his Highness the Maharaja Krishna RAja Wodiar Bahadoor, 
 Knight Grand Commander of the Most Exalted Order of the Star of India. 
 This event is regarded with sorrow by the Government of India, with which 
 the late Maharaja had preserved relations of friendship for more than half a 
 century. 
 
 " His Highness Chamarajendra Wodiar Bahadoor, at present a 
 minor, the adopted son of the late Maharaja, is acknowledged by the 
 Government of India as his successor and as Maharaja of the Mysore 
 territories. 
 
 " During the minority of his Highness the said territories will be 
 administered in his Highness's name by the British Government, and 
 will be governed on the same principles and under the same regulations 
 as heretofore. 
 
 "When his Highness sliall attain to the period of majority, that is, 
 the age of eighteen years, and if his Highness shall then be found 
 qualified for the discharge of the duties of his exalted position, the 
 government of the country will be entrusted to him, subject to such 
 conditions as may be determined at that time." 
 
 The young Maharaja was installed at Mysore at noon on the J3rd of 
 September, at the time of the Dasara, by the Commissioner, Mr. 
 Bowring, who reported thai "during the whole of the fatiguing cere- 
 
 ' Sir Jdlin (afterwards Lord) Lawrence.
 
 438 HISTOR Y 
 
 monies attendant on his installation the young prince showed great 
 self-control and composure, and it was not a little remarkable to see a 
 child of his tender years behave with so much dignity." 
 
 Mr. Bowring, who from 1869 was styled Chief Commissioner, 
 resigned office at the beginning of 1870. His Indian experience and 
 well-known acquaintance with the oriental classical languages enabled 
 him to sympathize readily with native institutions and interests. The 
 assimilation of the system of government, therefore, to that of the 
 15ritish Provinces, although it had necessitated the introduction of a 
 larger European element than before, was conjoined with the recognition 
 of native merit and talent. Two out of the eight Districts were placed 
 under the administration of native Deputy-Superintendents, appoint- 
 ments which ranked among the highest anywhere held at that period 
 by their countrymen. Many important judicial and other offices were 
 filled in a similar manner, and the way was left open for a more extensive 
 employment of native agency. 
 
 Colonel (afterwards Sir Richard) Meade^ assumed charge in February 
 1870, and was unexpectedly called away five years later by Lord 
 Northbrook, to the control of the Baroda State, where he had also 
 previously for several months (October 1873 to March 1874) been a 
 member of the Commission for the trial of the Gaikwar. His able 
 administration of Mysore was therefore subject to unlooked-for inter- 
 ruptions of a harassing nature. Among the more important measures 
 of this period a great impetus was given to public works, in raising all 
 works of irrigation to a complete standard of repair and efficiency, in 
 opening out communications in the remotest and most difficult parts 
 of the country, in surveys for railway extension, and in the erection of 
 public buildings, and carrying out of local improvements in towns. 
 Education continued to flourish. A topographical survey, the planting 
 of village topes, improvements in agriculture, and other useful works 
 were set on foot. In 187 1, Sub-Divisions, composed of groups of taluqs, 
 were constituted, and an Assistant-Superintendent was placed in charge 
 of each, the object being to bring Government officers into closer 
 
 ' This distinguished of¥icer had made a name when only a Captain in connection 
 with the surrender of the fort of Gwahor, in the Mutiny. He subsequently com- 
 manded the column which captured the rebel leader Tantia Topee. Was Political 
 Agent at Gwalior in i860, and for Central India, at Indore, in 1861. Arrested 
 and deported the Gaikwar Malhar Rao in 1S75, selected and installed his successor, 
 and reorganized the administration of Baroda. When on his way back to Mysore 
 at the end of that year, he was appointed Resident at Haidarabad, from which he 
 retired to England in 1881, and died in the south of France in 1894. To him 
 Bangalore owes the Cubbon Park, at first called Meade Park, the name being 
 changed in accordance with his wishes.
 
 THE GREAT FA.]fEyE 
 
 439 
 
 communication with the people and to give the Assistant-Super- 
 intendents a greater interest in their work. 
 
 In 1873 the designation of Commissioner was substituted for Super- 
 intendent through all the grades ; and in the same year, an important 
 measure for the establishment of Munsiffs' courts, with purely civil 
 jurisdiction, was Ijrought into operation. The amildars were thus 
 relieved of jurisdiction in civil cases, and the judicial powers of other 
 officers were greatly modified. The re-organization of the police was 
 commenced, one of the principal features of the scheme being the 
 recognition of the village police, and its utilization after being placed on 
 a reasonable footing of efficiency. The local military force, somewhat 
 reduced, was greatly improved by proper selection of men and horses, 
 and by the enforcement of a regular course of drill. Native agency 
 was systematically introduced into every department. Special training 
 was provided for preparing native officers for the Public Works, Survey 
 and Forest departments, and young men of good family were 
 appointed as Attache's, with the view of enabling them to gain 
 experience in civil and revenue matters before being entrusted with 
 responsible charges. 
 
 Mr. R. A. Dalyell, of the Madras Civil Service and Member of the 
 Viceroy's Council, officiated for a year from April 1875, ^^'hci ^Ir. 
 C. B. Saunders, who for some years had been Resident at Haidarabad, 
 was re-transferred to Mysore.' During the two years that he was Chief 
 Commissioner occurred the great famine which swept off more than a 
 million of the population, and for a time beclouded all the prosperity of 
 the State. 
 
 The young Raja (to whom, on the resignation of Colonel 
 Haines in 1869, Colonel G. B. Malleson' had been appointed 
 guardian) attended, with Mr. Saunders, the Imperial Assemblage at 
 Delhi on the ist of January 1877, when the Queen was proclaimed 
 Empress of India. Soon after their return gloomy prospects began 
 rapidly to thicken. 
 
 The late rains of 1875 and the rains throughout 1876 had generally 
 failed. The harvests of two successive years were lost, and the surplus 
 stores of grain were consumed. Relief works had been started in 
 several parts ; remissions of assessment had been granted ; the State 
 forests were thrown open to grazing ; house-to-hou.se visitation had 
 
 ' He had served in the I'unjah in 1849, and was I'oHtical .\gent and Conimissidiicr 
 with the army before Delhi at its final siege and capture in the Mutiny in 1S57. 
 Created C. B. in 1864. Retired to England in 1878, and died there some years after. 
 
 - Previously Controller-( General in the Military Finance Department. Author of 
 several standard works on Indian historical subjects. Created C.S.I, in 1872.
 
 440 IIISTOR V 
 
 been iii.stituicd and other palliative measures adopted. When, therefore, 
 spring showers fell in 1877, hope revived ; but only to be quenched. 
 The regular rains failed for the third year in succession. The 
 surrounding Madras and Bombay districts were in the same plight. 
 Panic and mortality now spread among the people, and famine became 
 sore in the land. From November, the only railway, the one from 
 Madras to Bangalore, had been pouring in 400 to 500 tons of grain a 
 day, the latter sufficient to support 900,000 people ; yet, in May, there 
 were 100,000 starving paupers being fed in relief kitchens, and in 
 August the numbers rose to 227,000; besides 60,000 employed on 
 relief works, paid in grain, and 20,000 on the railway to Mysore. Sir 
 Richard Temple had been deputed as Special Commissioner, to advise 
 the Government, but it became evident that the utmost exertions of the 
 local officers were unequal to cope with the growing distress. The 
 Viceroy, Lord Lytton, then came himself. A larger European agency 
 was seen to be absolutely necessary. A number of officers, therefore, 
 of regiments in Upper India, as well as civilians, were induced to 
 volunteer for famine duty. Mr. (afterwards Sir Charles) Elliott was 
 appointed Famine Commissioner, and Major (afterwards Sir Colin) 
 Scott-Moncrieff, chief engineer. 
 
 Relief works were now concentrated, and gratuitous relief was 
 confined as far as possible to those whose condition was too low to 
 expect any work from them at all. Bountiful rains in September and 
 October caused the cloud to lift, and the pressure of famine began to 
 abate, but mortality from attendant sickness continued and relief works 
 were not all closed till November 1878. Private hoards of gold and 
 silver coins, and articles of jewellery, had been generally parted with, 
 often at ruinous rates. The Mansion House fund, subscribed for the 
 famine by English charity, thus afforded the means of reinstating 
 numbers of agriculturists who had been left destitute, while missionary 
 and other bodies, aided by Government contributions, took charge of 
 orphans, to be brought up and respectably settled. 
 
 The financial effects were indeed disastrous, especially in view of the 
 approaching Rendition. The in-vested surplus of 63 lakhs had 
 disappeared and a debt of 80 lakhs had been incurred. The revenue 
 collections, which in the year before the famine stood at over 109 lakhs, 
 fell in 1876-7 to 82 lakhs and in 1877-8 to 69 lakhs. A Committee 
 was convened to report on the measures practicable for reducing 
 expenditure to meet the deficit, and the proposed reductions were 
 generally carried out in 1878 and 1879, involving the abolition of many 
 appointments and the removal of European officers, with the substitu- 
 tion of natives on lower pay. 
 
 Mr. (afterwards Sir James) Gordon, who had been Judicial
 
 THE RENDITION 441 
 
 Commissioner since 1868/ was made Guardian to the Maharaja at the 
 end of 1877. This appointment had been in abeyance since vacated 
 by Colonel Malleson in 1876. Captain F. A. Wilson' then acted as 
 tutor to the Maharaja till 1878, when Mr. \\. A. Porter' was appointed 
 tutor. The method adopted in his education had been to teach him 
 along with other boys of good family and suitable age, away from his 
 residence, in a select school, where all were treated alike, and he took 
 his place with them in lessons and games. Por the benefit of change 
 of scene and association he was taken on trips to Calcutta and 
 Bangalore, and spent the hot weather on the hills at Ootacamund. 
 
 In April 1878 Mr. Gordon was made Chief Commissioner in 
 addition to his office as Guardian. On him, therefore, devolved the 
 responsibility of the final steps needed to fit both the young prince for 
 his kingdom, and the kingdom for the prince. On the latter, who 
 proved to be of a most tractable disposition, the good effects of his 
 influence were soon manifest, while, as the result of favourable seasons, 
 the country was at the same time rapidly recovering its prosperity, 
 though crippled by the results of the famine. To the young Maharaja 
 (whose marriage had now been celebrated with an accomplished 
 princess of the Kalale family, educated in a similar manner), the system 
 and principles of the administration conti'.iued to be the subject of 
 careful instruction on the part of Mr. Gordon, and in 1880 he 
 accompanied Mr. Gordon on a tour throughout the State as 
 the best means of impressing the lessons on his mind, and making him 
 acquainted with the country he was so soon to rule. 
 
 The Rendition took place on the 25th of March 1881, when, at 
 seven o'clock in the morning, amidst universal good wishes and every 
 demonstration of joy on the part of the people, the Maharaja Chama 
 Rajendra Wodeyar was placed on the throne at Mysore. The ceremony 
 was performed in an impressive manner by the Governor of Madras, 
 the Right Honourable \\\ P. Adam, and during the inauguration a 
 gentle shower of rain descended, a welcome omen, seeming to betoken 
 a blessing from the skies on this great act of State. Mr. Gordon 
 now became Resident, and was knighted shortly after. The terms 
 on which the Government was entrusted to the Maharaja are con- 
 tained in the Instrument of Transfer, printed at the end of this chapter. ■* 
 
 ' From 1863 to i86S was Private Secretary to the (lovernor-Cicneral, Lord I^awrence. 
 
 ■■' rreviously tutor to the Xawab f)f [owra. (Jii leavint; Mysore lie l)ecanie 
 Assistant-Resident at Haidaraliad. 
 
 ■' A distinguished graduate of Caniliridge, and l'rinci|>al of the Kunihliakonam 
 College. 
 
 * The Bombay Government wanted to take ailvantage of this occasion to straighten 
 their boundary, where it touches -Mysore on the north-west, by annexing the Sorab 
 tahu] and pari of Shikarpur, Init the Home Government refused to sanction it.
 
 442 JJISTOR V 
 
 In view of the finaneial straits of the country, the payment of the 
 enhanced subsidy of lo^ lakhs was postponed for five years : the 
 Maliaraja's civil list, fixed at 13 lakhs, being also limited to 10 lakhs 
 for the first five years. A proclamation was issued by the Maharaja 
 on assuming the government, confirming all existing officers in their 
 appointments, nominating as Dewan Mr. C. Rangacharlu ; ^ and form- 
 ing, under him as President, a Council of two or more members, " the 
 said Council to submit for our consideration their opinions on all 
 questions relating to legislation and taxation, and on all other measures 
 connected with the good administration of our territories and the well- 
 being of our subjects." The duties of the Council have been the 
 subject of regulation from time to time, and in 1895 certain depart- 
 ments were placed under each member. 
 
 A popular institution formed soon after, of considerable interest and 
 conceived in the liberal spirit of the times, was a Representative 
 Assembly, the nature of which was thus stated in an order issued in 
 August : " His Highness the Maharaja is desirous that the views and 
 objects which his Government has in view in the measures adopted for 
 the administration of the Province should be better known and 
 appreciated by the people for whose benefit they are intended, and he 
 is of opinion that a beginning towards the attainment of this object 
 may be made by an annual meeting of the representative landholders 
 and merchants from all parts of the Province, before whom the Dewan 
 will place the results of the past year's administration and a programme 
 of what is intended to be carried out in the coming year. Such an 
 arrangement, by bringing the people into immediate communication 
 with the Government, would serve to remove from their minds any 
 misapprehensions in regard to the views and action of Government, and 
 would convince them that the interests of the Government are identical 
 with those of the people. This annual meeting will be conveniently 
 held at Mysore, immediately after the close of the Dasara festival, which 
 occasion will offer an additional inducement to those invited to attend 
 the meeting." The Local Fund Boards (to be formed) were to select 
 one or two cultivating landholders from each taluq, possessed of general 
 information and influence amongst the people, and three or four leading 
 merchants for the District generally. As attendance at the meeting was 
 
 * A Srivaishnavii Brahman of the Conjeveram country. He was a Deputy- 
 Collector under the Madras Government, and had been engaged as an assistant on 
 the Inam inquiry, when brovight to Mysore by Mr. Bowring in 1868, on the decease of 
 the Maharaja, to aid in arranging his affairs and settling his debts. He was sub- 
 sequently made Controller of the Palace, and in 1879 Revenue Secretary to the Chief 
 Commissioner. Created CLE. in 1878.
 
 REPRESENTATIVE ASSEMBLY 443 
 
 to be entirely voluntary, the wishes and convenience of the persons 
 invited was to be consulted. 
 
 The Assembly met for the first time on the 7th October 1881, when 
 144 members were present, and it has met at the Dasara season every 
 year since. The numbers rose to 279 in 1886, and have varied from 
 year to year. The Dewan, surrounded by the chief officers of the 
 State, reads his Annual Statement, which is translated into Kannada. 
 The delegates then, District by District, bring forward such matters as 
 they have resolved upon, which are either summarily dis{)osed of, or 
 discussed and reserved to be dealt with after inquiry and consideration. 
 The members in the earlier period were nominated by the Dewan and 
 the District officers, but from 1885 they were selected by the Local and 
 Municipal Boards, by this time formed. In 1887 a property qualifica- 
 tion was imposed ; in 1890 the privilege of election was conceded to 
 the wealthier and more enlightened classes ; and in 1893 membership 
 was made tenable for three years. The property qualification for a 
 member is the annual payment, according to locality, of land revenue 
 of from Rs. 100 to 300, of mohatarfa (house or shop tax) of Rs. 13 
 to 17, or the ownership of one or more inam villages with a beriz (total 
 land revenue) of Rs. 500. The authorized number of members for 
 each taluq, and for the cities of Bangalore and Mysore, are elected by 
 those entitled to vote by reason of property or education. Local Fund 
 Boards, Municipalities, and certain Associations depute a specified 
 number of members from among their respective bodies. Lists are 
 maintained of those qualified as members and as voters, Government 
 servants being excluded from both. The maximum number of 
 members returnable is 351, and all interests in the country are thus 
 efficiently represented. 
 
 The first measures of the new (Government were directed to 
 reductions of expenditure. With this view two Districts (Chitaldroog 
 and Hassan) and nine taluqs' were abolished, as well as the Small 
 Cause Court and several Subordinate Judges' Courts, while the 
 number of jails was reduced from nine to three, the Silahdar regiments 
 from three to two, and District and taluq boundaries were generally 
 altered. The duties of some of the higher appointments retained were 
 before long doubled up under fewer officers, with lower designation.s. 
 These changes caused a feeling of much unrest, and tended to sever 
 continuity with the past. But the loss of the able Dewan, Mr. 
 Rangacharlu, who died at Madras on the 20th January 1883, brought 
 matters to a pause. In consideration of his services the grant of a 
 
 ' Channapatna, Dcvanlialli, Gudiljanda, Malur, Srinivaspur, Malvalli, Kuralagere, 
 Arkalgud, Kankuppa.
 
 444 JIISTOR V 
 
 lakh was made to his family,' and Mr. (now Sir K.) Sheshadri lycr" 
 was selected to succeed him, a choice which after events have proved 
 was guided by the good fortune that has watched over the destinies of 
 Mysore. But Sir James Oordon, who had .safely steered the State 
 through all the recent eventful changes was now disabled by a paralytic 
 stroke, and he retired to England, where he died some years later. His 
 great services to Mysore are commemorated by a statue, the work of 
 Onslow Ford, erected in front of the Public Offices at the capital. 
 
 The changes in the appointment of Resident were frequent after this, 
 as the following list from the time of the Rendition will show'* : — 
 
 Mr. (afterwards Sir James) Gordon Mar. 1881 to June 1883 
 
 Mr. J. D. Sandford, acting, May 1882 to June 1883 
 
 Mr. (afterwards Sir James) Lyall June 1883 to Mar. 1887 
 
 Col. T. G. Clarke, acting, Dec. 1884 to May 1885 
 
 Mr. C. E. R. Girdlestone, acting, June 1885 to May 1886 
 Sir Charles Bernard (did not join) 
 
 Mr. (afterwards Sir Dennis) Fitzpatrick Mar. 1887 to Oct. 1887 
 
 General Sir Harry Prendergast, V.C Oct. 1887 to Jan. 1889 
 
 Colonel Sir Oliver St. John Jan. 1889 to June 1891 
 
 General Sir Harry Prendergast June 1891 to April 1892 
 
 Colonel P. D. Henderson April 1892 to Feb. 1895 
 
 Colonel H. P. Peacock, acting, July to Oct. 1892 
 
 Mr. W. Lee-Warner Feb. 1895 to Sept. 1895 
 
 Mr. (now Sir) W. Mackworth Young Sept. 1895 to Dec. 1896 
 
 Colonel Donald Robertson ... ... ... ... ... Dec. 1896 
 
 When it was known that Sir James Gordon would not return to his 
 appointment, in which Mr. Sandford, the Judicial Commissioner, had 
 meanwhile been acting, Mr. Lyall, Settlement Commissioner in the 
 Punjab, was made Resident. During most of his absence on leave, 
 Mr. Girdlestone, Resident in Nepal, was transferred to Mysore. Mr. 
 
 * The Rangacharlu Memorial Hall at ISIysore was erected, partly by subscriptions, 
 as a monument to him. 
 
 ^ A Smarta Brahman of the Palghat country, graduated in Arts and Law. He 
 entered the Mysore service in 1868 as judicial Sheristadar, and from 1879 was Deputy 
 Commissioner. Had also acted as Controller of the Palace, Sessions Judge, and in 
 other capacities. Created C.S.L in 1887, and K.C.S.L in 1893. Iri a laudatory 
 notice which appeared at this latter time of his management of Mysore affairs, Sir 
 W. W. Hunter described him as a statesman who had given his head to Herbert 
 Spencer and his heart to Para Brahma. 
 
 3 The changes of Assistant-Residents, as below, have been even more frequent : — 
 
 Mr. W. J. Cuningham from Mar. 1881 
 
 Major H. Wylie ... „ 
 
 Nov. 
 
 1882 
 
 Mr. A. H. T. Martindale ,, 
 
 Feb. 
 
 1885 
 
 MajorJ. H. NewiU ... „ 
 
 Oct. 
 
 1885 
 
 Major E. A. Fraser ... ,, 
 
 Apl. 
 
 1886 
 
 Major D. Robertson ,, 
 
 Dec. 
 
 1886 
 
 Mr. L. W. King 
 
 July 
 
 1887 
 
 Major D. Robertson... ,, 
 
 Dec. 
 
 1887 
 
 Mr. F. E. K. Wedderburn ,. 
 
 May 
 
 1SS8 
 
 Mr. E. G. Colvin ... from Dec. 1888 
 
 Mr. J. A. Crawford ... „ Apl. 1889 
 
 Captain L. S. Newmarch ,, Oct. 1889 
 
 Major C. W. Ravenshaw ,, Apl. 1891 
 
 Mr. H. V.Cobb ... ,, Aug. 1893 
 
 Major C. W. Ravenshaw ,, Nov. 1893 
 
 Mr. H. V. Cobb ... ,, Apl. 1895 
 
 Captain K. D. Erskine ,, June 1895
 
 CHAM A RAJENDRA WODEYAR 445 
 
 Lyall was eventually appointed Lieutenant-Governor of the Punjab, and 
 Sir Charles Bernard, Chief Commissioner of Burma, was nominated, 
 l)Ut being almost immediately transferred to the India Office, did not 
 join, and Mr. Fitzpatrick, Legislative Secretary to the Government of 
 India, received the appointment. On the transfer of the latter to 
 Assam,' Sir Harry Prendergast became Resident, and when he left for 
 Baroda, Sir Oliver St. John* succeeded. Sir Oliver was afterwards sent 
 to Baluchistan, and died a few days after arrival at Quetta, Sir Harry 
 Prendergast' then again held office till the appointment of Colonel 
 Henderson, Superintendent for the Suppression of Thuggee and 
 Dacoity. During the latter's absence on leave, Colonel Peacock acted, 
 and on leaving Mysore became Consul-General at Baghdad. Colonel 
 Henderson retired in 1895, and Mr. Lee- Warner, Political Secretary to 
 the Boml)ay Government, succeeded."* But in a few months he was 
 transferred to the India Office, and Mr. Mackworth Young, Financial 
 Commissioner in the Punjab, was appointed. At the end of 1896 he 
 in his turn was made Lieutenant-Governor of the Punjab, and Colonel 
 Donald Robertson, Resident at Gwalior, took his place in Mysore. The 
 office has thus been filled by distinguished men of every variety of 
 service and experience. 
 
 In the policy continued under the new Dewan measures to [irovide 
 against a recurrence of famine had still the foremost place. Railwavs 
 and irrigation works were recognized as the most potent agents to this 
 end. The latter, however, are subject to the drawback that, being 
 largely dependent on the rains, they are liable to fail in a time of drought 
 when most needed. Railway construction was therefore pushed on, 
 and by the end of 1884 there had been completed 140 miles of State 
 railway (Bangalore to Mysore, and Bangalore to Gubbi), from current 
 revenues and a local loan of twenty lakhs. This line was then 
 hypothecated to the Southern Mahratta Railway Company on terms 
 which allowed of its being extended to Harihar from capital borrowed 
 in England, and this portion was opened for traffic in 1889. A line 
 from ]?angalore to Hindupur was afterwards completed in 1893 from 
 State funds. The tracts that suffered most from the famine were 
 thus effectually provided for, and the Mysore railways were linked with 
 those of the Bombay and Madras districts beyond. The fear of famine 
 was not unwarranted, for in 1884 and again in 1891 great anxiety 
 
 ' Subsequently Resident at Ilaidarahad and Lieutenanl-Clovernor of ilie I'unjal). 
 
 - Had served in Persia and Abyssinia, as Trincipal uf the Mayo Chiefs' College at 
 Ajniere, and as Political Agent at Kandahar. 
 
 ^ After a distinguished military career, ending with his capture of Upper Hurnia, 
 on which he was made K.C.Ij. , was successively resident at Travancore, Baroda, 
 Beluchistan and Mysore. 
 
 •* Colonel Henderson was created C.S.I, in 1S76, and Mr. Lee-Warner in 1S92.
 
 446 HISTOR V 
 
 arose from failure of the rains, especially in the north, and relief 
 works had actually been devised when rain fell and the prospect 
 changed. A short line from Mysore to Nanjangud, admitting of the 
 transport of timber floated to that point from the southern forests, 
 opened in December 1891, and one for the Gold-fields in 1893 were 
 constructed in the same manner, and a line from Birur to Shimoga 
 decided on. The fifty-eight miles of railway open at the time of the 
 Rendition thus increased to 315 by 1895, and surveys had been made of 
 lines from Nanjangud to Gudalur, Nanjangud to Erode, and Arsikere 
 via Hassan to Mangalore. The latter may now be carried out. 
 
 Irrigation works had all along been receiving particular attention, and 
 all available funds were devoted to the carrying out of large projects in 
 tracts where they were most required. To 1895 the expenditure under 
 this head amounted to 100 lakhs, making an addition of 355 square 
 miles to the area under wet cultivation, and bringing in an additional 
 revenue of eight and a quarter lakhs. With this addition 1,558 square 
 miles are protected by irrigation. Another very important measure was 
 the granting of loans for digging irrigation wells, of which 1,078 had been 
 completed, benefiting 7,000 acres, against loans aggregating four lakhs. 
 
 The reductions in establishments previously referred to were com- 
 pleted in 1884, and a Chief Court of three judges was formed, the Chief 
 Judge being a European. Next year Inspectors-General were also 
 appointed for Police and for Forests. The revenue in the first three 
 years after the Rendition was generally stationary, but in the fourth 
 year it declined, owing to the drought. The payment of the enhanced 
 subsidy was therefore again postponed by the British Government for 
 ten years more, while the revenue administration of the Assigned Tract, 
 forming the Civil and Military Station of Bangalore, was transferred 
 entirely to the British Government, which retains the surplus. The 
 former measure relieved financial pressure, and allowed of the Districts 
 and Taluqs abolished in 1881 being again formed. During the next 
 ten years the revenue continually rose until in 1894-5 it reached i8oi 
 lakhs. Expenditure on a large and liberal scale had also meanwhile 
 continued on all works and purposes of public utility. The famine debt 
 was extinguished in 1888, and a commencement was made towards 
 paying off the railway loan. In shori, in place of the net liability against 
 the State of 3of lakhs in 1881 there were in 1895 net assets of over 
 176 lakhs in its favour. This result was not due to new taxation in any 
 form or shape. Next to good seasons, it was the effect of natural 
 growth, under the stimulus afforded by the opening out of the country 
 by means of new roads and railways, the execution of important irriga- 
 tion works and the general expansion of industries ; also in some 
 measure of an improved management of particular sources of income.
 
 CHAM A RAJENDRA WODEYAR 447 
 
 A Department ot" Agriculture and Statistics was formed in 1SS6, and 
 an Agricultural Exhibition held in 1888. The Revenue Laws were 
 codified, the time for paying assessments was postponed till after the 
 produce could be realized, and agricultural banks were started in 1894. 
 But the importance of promoting industrial enterprise in a country so 
 largely dependent on agriculture was clearly seen. Coffee-planting had 
 been much assisted by the substitution in 1S81 of an acreage assess- 
 ment on the land in place of the old lidlat or duty levied on the 
 produce, and the area under coffee has since increased by twenty-eight 
 square miles. But the most remarkable industrial development has 
 been that of gold-mining. The first indication of profit from this 
 source was in 1886, and in that year a preliminary examination of 
 auriferous tracts in the State was carried out. The liberal terms 
 granted to encourage gold-mining on a large scale by European 
 Companies had a good effect, but the principal returns obtained so far 
 have been in the Kolar gold-fields. What was a desolate waste has thus 
 become a great industrial town, employing nearly 10,000 labourers. 
 The 16,325 ounces of gold extracted in 1886-7, valued at about 
 9 lakhs, rose every year, until in 1894-5 the quantity reached 234,859 
 ounces, valued at ^844,271, or about 150 lakhs. The royalty, with 
 premia and deposits on leases, paid annually to the Mysore Govern- 
 ment, increased in the same period from half a lakh to more than 
 75 lakhs. Cotton and woollen mills were brought into operation at 
 various times, and the silk industry revived. In 1889 liberal con- 
 cessions were granted with the view of promoting the establishment of 
 iron works on a large scale in Malavalli, and as an aid a railway from 
 Maddur to Sivasamudram was proposed. But as yet this scheme has 
 not been carried out. In 1894 a (Geological Department was formed 
 to scientifically explore the mineral resources of the State. 
 
 The Medical Department was early reorganized, and medical relief 
 extended to all parts by the appointment of local surgeons, the 
 establishment of taluq dispensaries, and the appointment of trained 
 midwives. Sanitation and water supply in the principal towns received 
 jiarticular attention, and extensive works were carried out in the cities 
 of Mysore and Bangalore, both of which had large additions made to 
 their area. The prospects of the Educational Department were much 
 improved, and vernacular and primary instruction greatly extended. 
 The higher staff was strengthened and female education made marked 
 l)rogress. Charges which in the time of reductions had been thrown 
 on local funds were in 1889 again met from provincial funds: a 
 more liberal expenditure followed, and the numbers under instruction 
 rose accordingly. Archceology, which had already received attention,
 
 448 JirSTOKY 
 
 was spccinlly provided for, to rillow of thu numerous and valuable 
 inscriptions throughout the country being copied and published. A 
 much-needed Muzrai Department, to control the funds and manage- 
 ment of temples, was formed. Also an Excise Department, to regulate 
 the manufacture and sale of spirituous licjuors. A corps of Imperial 
 Service Lancers was enrolled, to aid in imperial defence. An Observa- 
 tory, well equipped with meteorological instruments, has been recently 
 established at Bangalore. 
 
 An important measure was the transfer in 1889 of the Anche or 
 ancient postal service of Mysore to the British Imperial post-office. 
 This amalgamation, though at first opposed as being an abrogation of 
 one of the Maharaja's privileges, has proved of great convenience to 
 the public and economical to the country. A scheme of State Life 
 Assurance was introduced about the same time, for the benefit princi- 
 pally of the subordinate classes of officials, to enable them to make 
 provision for their families. And in order to secure well-qualified men 
 for the higher administrative posts, a Civil Service scheme was adopted 
 in 1 89 1, providing a competitive examination of an advanced standard 
 to be passed by accepted candidates, while a fixed scale of salaries was 
 laid down. More recently an interdict on early marriages was passed. 
 
 The foregoing review, though not exhaustive, will sufficiently serve 
 as evidence of the liberal and enlightened system of administration 
 pursued under the Native Government established in 1881. Since 
 then Mysore has received more than one visit from the Viceroy of the 
 day. In 1886 the Earl of Dufferin was here, and the following extract 
 from one of his speeches indicates the impression made upon his mind 
 by what he saw : — " Under the benevolent rule of the Maharaja and of 
 his dynasty, good government, enlightened progress, universal peace 
 and the blessings of education are everywhere ascendant, and there is 
 no State within the confines of the Indian Empire which has more 
 fully justified the wise policy of the British Government in supplement- 
 ing its own direct administration of its vast territories by the associated 
 rule of our great feudatory Princes." The lamented Prince Albert Victor 
 had visited Mysore in 1889 and derived great pleasure from the elephant 
 keddahs. The Marquess of Lansdowne followed in 1892, and among 
 other expressions of approval said : — " There is probably no State in 
 India where the ruler and the ruled are on more satisfactory terms, or in 
 which the great principle, that government should be for the happiness 
 of the governed, receives a greater measure of practical recognition." 
 
 But Mysore, thus flourishing and placed in the front rank of the 
 States of India, was doomed to suffer a bitter loss at the end of 1S94. 
 His Highness the Maharaja had gone on a tour as usual in the cold
 
 THE MAHARAJA'S DEATH 449 
 
 weather to the north, accompanied by all his family. On his arrival at 
 Calcutta at the end of December, a slight throat affection, which he had 
 been feeling for a few days before, developed into diphtheria, and so 
 rapid was the progress of the disease that in spite of the best medical 
 skill he suddenly expired on the 28th. The people of Mysore were 
 simply stunned by the shock which this sad news created, so utterly 
 unexpected. The entire press of India, with all the leading journals 
 in England and other countries, were unanimous in lamenting that a 
 career so promising had been thus cut short, for the Maharaja's virtues 
 and the interest of his country had become known far and wide. 
 
 Dignified and unassuming, his bearing was that of the English 
 gentleman. An accomplished horseman and whip, fond of sport, a 
 liberal patron of the turf, and hospitable as a host, while at the same 
 time careful in observance of Hindu customs, he was popular with 
 both Europeans and natives. His palace was purged of all former evil 
 associations, and the Court of the Queen in England was not purer in 
 tone than that of Mysore under the late Maharaja. He was devoted 
 to his family, and of a cultured and refined taste which led him to take 
 special pleasure in European music and in works of art. He was also 
 diligent and conscientious in attending to business. The rainy season 
 was spent partly at Mysore and partly at Bangalore ; in the cold 
 weather a tour was undertaken to some other part of India, and the 
 hot weather was passed on the hills at Ootacamund. He had thus 
 travelled much and been brought into intercourse with most of the 
 leading men in India, who were impressed with his high character. 
 
 The installation of his eldest son, Maharaja Krishna Raja W'odeyar, 
 then ten years old, was performed at Mysore, by the Resident, Colonel 
 Henderson, with all the customary ceremonies, on the ist of February 
 1895, ^t noon, at the moment of the conjunction of Mercury and 
 Venus, which had been conspicuous objects in the evening sky for 
 some days before. Her Highness the Mahdrani was at the same time 
 proclaimed Regent. The education of the Maharaja, while a minor, 
 is being conducted in a manner suited to his rank and prospects.' 
 His intelligence and disposition augur well for his future. The present 
 \'iceroy, the Earl of Elgin, visited Mysore at the end of 1S95, and his 
 advice to the Maharaja, in view of the cares thus early in life thrust 
 upon him, was not to hasten to be old too soon. 
 
 Here this history, so eventful and full of incident, now ends. Mysore 
 has played no inconspicuous part in the past, and a great future 
 
 ' Mr. J.J. Whiteley, of Cooper's Hill Kni^inccrint; College, was appointed as tutor 
 some time before the father's dealli. Mr. S. M. Fraser, of the Iioinl)ay Civil 
 Service, has since been appointed. 
 
 G G
 
 450 HISTOR V 
 
 doubtless yet lies before it. In the century now closing it has been 
 an example of the complete failure of purely native administration, 
 conducted without reference to European advice, and of the con- 
 spicuous success of administration on Western lines by Europeans and 
 natives combined. As history tends to repeat itself, these lessons 
 should be pondered. 
 
 Instrument of Transfer/ 
 
 Whereas the British Government has now been for a long period in 
 possession of the territories of Mysore and has introduced into the said 
 territories an improved system of administration : And whereas, on the 
 death of the late Maharaja, the said Government, being desirous that the 
 said territories should be administered by an Indian dynasty, under such 
 restrictions and conditions as might be necessary for ensuring the main- 
 tenance of the system of administration so introduced, declared that if 
 Maharaja Chamrajendra Wadiar Bahadur, the adopted son of the late 
 Maharaja, should, on attaining the age of eighteen years, be found qualified 
 for the position of ruler of the said territories, the government thereof 
 should be entrusted to him, subject to such conditions and restrictions as 
 might be thereafter determined : And whereas the said Maharaja Cham- 
 rajendra Wadiar Bahadur has now attained the said age of eighteen years, 
 and appears to the British Government qualified for the position aforesaid, 
 and is about to be entrusted with the government of the said territories : 
 And whereas it is e.xpedient to grant to the said Maharaja Chamrajendra 
 Wadiar Bahadur a written instrument defining the conditions subject to 
 which he will be so entrusted. It is hereby declared as follows : — 
 
 1. The Maharaja Chamrajendra Wadiar Bahadur shall, on the 25th day 
 of March 1881, be placed in possession of the territories of Mysore, and 
 installed in the administration thereof. 
 
 2. The said Maharaja Chamrajendra Wadiar Bahadur and those who 
 succeed him in manner hereinafter provided, shall be entitled to hold 
 possession of, and administer the said territories as long as he and they 
 fulfil the conditions hereinafter prescribed. 
 
 3. The succession to the administration of the said territories shall 
 devolve upon the lineal descendants of the said Maharaja Chamrajendra 
 Wadiar Bahadur, whether by blood or adoption, according to the rules and 
 usages of his family, except in the case of disqualification through manifest 
 unfitness to rule. 
 
 Provided that no succession shall be valid until it has been recognized by 
 the Governor-General in Council. 
 
 In the event of a failure of lineal descendants, by blood and adoption, of 
 the said Maharaja Chamrajendra Wadiar Bahadur, it shall be within the 
 discretion of the Governor-General in Council to select as a successor any 
 member of any collateral branch of the family whom he thinks fit. 
 
 4. The Maharaja Chamrajendra Wadiar Bnhadur and his successors 
 
 * See above, p. 441.
 
 INSTRUMENT OF TRANSFER 451 
 
 (hereinafter called the Maharaja of Mysore) shall at all times remain 
 faithful in allegiance and subordination to Her Majesty the <^ueen of Great 
 Britain and Ireland and Empress of India, Her heirs and successors, and 
 perform all the duties which, in virtue of such allegiance and subordination, 
 may be demanded of them. 
 
 5. The British Government having undertaken to defend and protect 
 the said territories against all external enemies, and to relieve the 
 Maharaja of Mysore of the obligation to keep troops ready to serve with the 
 British army when required, there shall, in consideration of such undertaking, 
 be paid from the revenues of the said territories to the British Government 
 an annual sum of Government rupees thirty-five lakhs in two half-yearly 
 instalments, commencing from the said 25th day of March 1881. 
 
 6. From the date of the Maharaja's taking possession of the territories of 
 Mysore, the British sovereignty in the island of Seringapatam shall cease 
 and determine, and the said island shall become part of the said territories, 
 and be held by the Maharaja upon the same condition as those subject to 
 which he holds the rest of the said territories. 
 
 7. The Maharaja of Mysore shall not, without the previous sanction of 
 the Governor-General in Council, build any new fortresses or strongholds, 
 or repair the defences of any existing fortresses or strongholds in the said 
 territories. 
 
 8. The Maharaja of Mysore shall not, without the permission of the 
 Governor-General in Council, import, or permit to be imported, into the 
 said territories, arms, ammunition, or military stores, and shall prohibit the 
 manufacture of arms, ammunition, and military stores, throughout the said 
 territories, or at any specified place therein, whenever required by the 
 Governor-General in Council to do so. 
 
 9. The Maharaja of Mysore shall not object to the maintenance or 
 establishment of British cantonments in the said territories, whenever and 
 wherever the Governor-General in Council may consider such cantonments 
 necessary. He shall grant free of all charge such land as may be required 
 for such cantonments, and shall renounce all jurisdiction within the lands 
 so granted. He shall carry out in the lands adjoining British cantonments 
 in the said territories such sanitary measures as the Governor-General 
 in Council may declare to be necessary. He shall give every facility 
 for the provision of supplies and articles required for the troops in such 
 cantonments ; and on goods imported or purchased for that purpose no 
 duties or taxes of any kind shall be levied without the assent of the British 
 Government. 
 
 10. The Military force employed in the Mysore State for the main- 
 tenance of internal order and the Maharaja's personal dignity, and for any 
 other purposes approved by the Governor-General in Council, shall not 
 exceed the strength which the Governor-General in Council may, from time 
 to time, fix. The directions of the Governor-General in Council in respect 
 to the enlistment, organization, equipment and drill of troops shall at all 
 times be complied with. 
 
 11. The Maharaja of Mysore shall abstain from interference in the 
 
 G G 2
 
 452 HISTORY 
 
 affairs of any other State or power, and shall have no communication or 
 correspondence with any other State or power, or the agents or officers of 
 any other State or power, except with the previous sanction, and through 
 the medium of the Governor-General in Council. 
 
 12. The Maharaja of Mysore shall not employ in his service any person 
 not a native of India without a previous sanction of the Governor-General 
 in Council, and shall, on being so required by the Governor-General in 
 Council, dismiss from his service any person so employed. 
 
 13. The coins of the Government of India shall be legal tender in the 
 said territories in the cases in which payment made in such coins would, 
 under the law for the time being in force, be a legal tender in British 
 India ; and all laws and rules for the time being applicable to coins current 
 in British India shall apply to coins current in the said territories. The 
 separate coinage of the Mysore State, which has long been discontinued, 
 shall not be revived. 
 
 14. The Maharaja of Mysore shall grant free of all charge such land as 
 may be required for the construction and working of lines of telegraph in 
 the said territories wherever the Governor-General in Council may require 
 such land, and shall do his utmost to facilitate the construction and working 
 of such lines. All lines of telegraph in the said territories, whether 
 constructed and maintained at the expense of the British Government, or 
 out of the revenues of the said territories, shall form part of the British 
 telegraph system, and shall, save in cases to be specially excepted by 
 agreement between the British Government and the Maharaja of Mysore, 
 be worked by the British Telegraph Department ; and all laws and rules for 
 the time being in force in British India in respect to telegraphs shall apply 
 to such lines of telegraph when so worked. 
 
 15. If the British Government at anytime desires to construct or work, 
 by itself or otherwise, a railway in the said territories, the Maharaja of 
 Mysore shall grant free of all charge such land as may be required for that 
 purpose, and shall transfer to the Governor-General in Council plenary 
 jurisdiction within such land ; and no duty or tax whatever shall be levied 
 on through traffic carried by such railway which may not break bulk in the 
 said territories. 
 
 16. The Maharaja of Mysore shall cause to be arrested and sur- 
 rendered to the proper officers of the British Government any person within 
 the said territories accused of having committed an offence in British India, 
 for whose arrest and surrender a demand may be made by the British 
 Resident in Mysore, or some other officer authorized by him in this behalf ; 
 and he shall afford every assistance for the trial of such persons by 
 causing the attendance of witnesses required, and by such other means as 
 may be necessary. 
 
 17. Plenary criminal jurisdiction over European British subjects in the 
 said territories, shall continue to be vested in the Governor- General in 
 Council, and the Maharaja of Mysore shall exercise only such jurisdiction 
 in respect to European British subjects as may from time to time be 
 delegated to him by the Governor-General in Council.
 
 INSTRU^rENT OF TRANSFER 453 
 
 1 8. The Maharaja of Mysore sliall comply with the wishes of the 
 Governor-General in Council in the matter of prohibiting or limiting the 
 manufacture of salt and opium, and the cultivation of poppy, in Mysore ; 
 also in the matter of giving effect to all such regulations as may be 
 considered proper in respect to the export and import of salt, opium, and 
 poppy heads. 
 
 19. All laws in force and rules having the force of law in the said 
 territories when the Maharaja Chamrajendra Wadiar Bahadur is placed 
 in possession thereof, as shown in the Schedule hereto annexed, shall be 
 maintained and efficiently administered, and, except with the previous 
 consent of the Governor-General in Council, the Maharaja of Mysore shall 
 not repeal or modify such laws, or pass any laws or rules inconsistent 
 therewith. 
 
 20. No material change in the system of administration, as established 
 when the Maharaja Chamrajendra Wadiar Bahadur is placed in possession 
 of the territories, shall be made without the consent of the Governor. 
 General in Council. 
 
 21. All title-deeds granted, and all settlements of land revenue made 
 during the administration of the said territories by the British Government, 
 and in force on the said 25th day of March 1881, shall be maintained in 
 accordance with the respective terms thereof, except in so far as they may 
 be rescinded or modified either by a competent Court of law, or with the 
 consent of the Governor-General in Council. 
 
 22. The Maharaja of Mysore shall at all times conform to such advice as 
 the Governor-General in Council may offer him with a view to the 
 management of his finances, the settlement and collection of liis revenues, 
 the imposition of taxes, the administration of justice, the extension ot 
 commerce, the encouragement of trade, agriculture and industry, and 
 any other objects connected with the advancement of His Highness' 
 interests, the happiness of his subjects, and his relations to the British 
 Government. 
 
 23. In the event of breach or non-observance by the Maharaja of 
 Mysore of any of the foregoing conditions, the Governor-General in 
 Council may resume possession of the said territories and assume the 
 direct administration thereof, or make such other arrangements as he 
 may think necessary to provide adequately for the good government of the 
 people of Mysore, or for the security of British rights and interests within 
 the province. 
 
 24. This document shall supersede all other documents by which the 
 
 position of the British Government with reference to the said territories 
 
 has been formally recorded. And if any question arise as to whether any 
 
 of the above conditions has been faithfully performed, or as to whether any 
 
 person is entitled to succeed, or is fit to succeed, to the administration of 
 
 the said territories, the decision thereon of the Govcrnor-CJencral in 
 
 Council shall be final. (.Signed) Rii'ox, 
 
 \'^iccroy and Govcrnor-Gcncr.il. 
 FoKT William, \st March 1881.
 
 454 
 
 RELIGION 
 
 Thk earliest religious worship probably sprang from a desire to 
 propitiate powers from whom injury to one's person or property might 
 be feared. In what manner this feeling came to find expression in the 
 worship of the serpent is not easy to say. But from the time when that 
 " most subtle of the beasts of the field " beguiled Eve, the mother of 
 mankind, down to the present day, it has never failed to be the object 
 of sacred rites. Mr. Fergusson has shown how extensively this worship 
 has prevailed in every country on the face of the globe. 
 
 In India, this land of many gods, serpent worship, specially that of 
 the deadly hooded cobra, is of great antiquity and survives to this day. 
 There is scarcely a village in Mysore which has not effigies of the 
 serpent, carved on stone, erected on a raised platform near the entrance 
 for the adoration of the public.^ The living serpent is in many parts 
 systematically worshipped, and few natives will consent to kill one.^ 
 The body of one that has been killed is often solemnly disposed of by 
 cremation, while a cobra which takes up its abode, as they sometimes 
 do, in the thatch or roof of the house, is generally not only left undis- 
 turbed, but fed with milk, etc. 
 
 The Nagas who so frequently occur in ancient Hindu history were 
 no doubt a widespread race of serpent worshippers, and there is every 
 reason to believe that they occupied most parts of Mysore. The 
 traditions that indicate this have been mentioned in the historical 
 portions of this work. Jinadatta, the founder of Humcha, married a 
 Naga kanya ; and the great serpent sacrifice by Janamejaya is said to 
 have taken place at Hiremagalur. An inscription at Balagami,'* of the 
 eleventh century, bears at its head the half-human, half-serpent forms of 
 a Naga and Nagini. The worship of the living serpent is not, I believe, 
 
 ' The orthodox arrangement consists of three slabs, set up side by side. The first 
 bears the figure of a male cobra, with one or more heads of an odd number up to 
 seven ; the middle slab exhibits the female serpent, the upper half of human form, 
 generally crowned with a tiara, and sometimes holding a young serpent under each 
 arm ; the third slab has two serpents intertwined in congress, after the manner of the 
 /Esculapian rod or the cadiiceits of Mercury, with sometimes a linga engraved between 
 them. 
 
 " Some believe that the person who does so will be visited with leprosy. 
 
 * Mys. Ins., S. S. 92.
 
 SERPENT WORSHIP 455 
 
 uncommon in any part of the country : I have myself been witness to 
 it at many places in different directions. A hutta or deserted ant-hill, 
 popularly regarded as the shrine of the god, is very often in reality the 
 residence of a snake. From a similar sentiment arose the ancient 
 custom of taking sanctuary by embracing an ant-hill, a refuge as invio- 
 lable as the horns of the altar among the Jews. 
 
 With the worship of the serpent seems to be intimately associated 
 that of trees, which again carries us back to the story of Eden and the 
 mysterious tree of forbidden fruit. The stones bearing the sculptured 
 figures of serpents near every village are always erected under certain 
 trees, which are most frequently built round with a raised platform, on 
 which the stones are set up, facing the rising sun. One is invariably a 
 sacred fig, which represents a female, and another a margosa, which 
 represents a male ; and these two are married with the same ceremonies 
 as human beings. The bilpatre {cegle /iinrinelos), sacred to Siva, is 
 often planted with them. 
 
 Whether the planting of topes — a term which in Northern India 
 signifies a Buddhist sfupa, but here is applied to a grove of trees — had 
 a religious origin or any connection with Buddhism is uncertain. It 
 does not now seem to have a .special relation to religion except as a 
 work of charity. But particular trees and plants are held sacred to 
 certain objects or deities, or are themselves regarded in that light. The 
 asvattha or pipal, the sacred fig, is a common object of reverence as a 
 sort of wishing tree. One on the bank of the N. Pennar near 
 Goribidnur, called the Vidur asvattha, is said to have been planted by 
 Vidura, the uncle of the Pandavas, and is visited by all the country 
 round. It is built round with various shrines for protection and is 
 believed never to die. At Hunsur may be seen a large neein tree which 
 is an object of worship. The lower part is enclosed in a shrine and the 
 branches are hung with iron chains. Out of the Jain temple of 
 Padmavati at Humcha is growing a sacred tree called lakkc gi(/(i, said 
 to be the same that Jinadatta tied his horse to as described in the 
 account of that place. The bilpaire or bael tree, as above stated, is 
 sacred to Siva, while the titlasi ox holy basil {ihyiiui in sanctum) is sacred 
 to Vishnu and is grown on an altar in the courtyard of ^^'^ishnava 
 houses. The yekke {arisfo/ochia ijidica) and the plantain are the 
 subject of some curious rites." Connected apparently with tree worship 
 is the regard paid to the kakkc or Indian laburnum, which furnishes the 
 central stake of the threshing floor, decorated at top with a little bunch 
 of field flowers. 
 
 The general object of the worship of trees and of scr[)ents appears 
 > See Imi. An!., IV, 5.
 
 45^1 RELIGION 
 
 to be lor the [nirposL; of obtaining offspring. A woman is nearly always 
 the priest, and women are the chief worshippers. 
 
 Mih-iaini/in or Mdni/iuna, familiarly styled Ajiiina, the mother, or in 
 the honorific plural A/niiiaiiavaru,^ is the universal object of rural 
 worship, as the grama di'va/d, or village goddess. She seems to corre- 
 spond in some of her attributes with Durga or Kali, also called 
 Chamundi, and is explained to be one of the furies attendant on that 
 goddess. Though bearing so tender an appellation as mother, she is 
 feared and propitiated as the source of calamity rather than loved as the 
 bestower of blessings." She is supposed to inflict small-pox — which 
 indeed is called after her, ainma, as chicken-pox and measles are called 
 chik-amijta — and to send cholera and other epidemics upon those who 
 have incurred her wrath. She is appeased only by the shedding of 
 blood and therefore receives animal sacrifices. In former times there 
 is no doubt that human victims were offered up at her shrine. She 
 appears also to be the author of cattle disease. To avert this and other 
 evils the sacrifice is annually made in many parts of a buffalo.' I find 
 the following description of the ceremony by Mr. Elliot as performed 
 in Manjarabad : — ■ 
 
 A three or four year old (male) buffalo is brought before the temple of 
 Miira, after which its hoofs are washed and unboiled rice thrown over its 
 head, the whole village repeating the words Mara ko?m, or in other words 
 buffalo devoted to Mdra. It is then let loose and allowed to roam about 
 for a year, during which time it is at liberty to eat of any crops without fear 
 of molestation, as an idea prevails that to interfere with the buffalo in any 
 way would be sure to bring down the wrath of Mara. At the end of that 
 time it is killed at the feast held annually in honour, or rather to divert the 
 wrath, of Md.ra.'* 
 
 Almost every village has its Mari gudi, though .she sometimes bears 
 various local names compounded with amvia. 
 
 At the foundation of a village it is the practice to erect at some 
 point of the ground two or three large slabs of stone, which are called 
 kari kallu or kani kallu. These are also objects of worship, and are 
 generally painted in broad vertical stripes of red and white. An annual 
 ceremony is held in connection with them, when all the cattle of the 
 
 ^ This is evidently the Amnor of the Todas mentioned in Colonel Marshall's book, 
 but by him misunderstood as the name of a place, answering to heaven. 
 
 * Buddhists believe in a kind of devil or demon of love, anger, evil and death, 
 called Mara, who opposed Buddha and the spread of his religion — Monier Williams, 
 Ind. Wis., 58 ; cf. Wilson, Works, II, 340. 
 
 •'' For a similar Toda custom see Phren. am. Todas, 81. 
 
 * Exper. of PL, I, 66. Reference is also there made to Jour. Ethnol. Soc. of 
 July 1S69, for further particulars by Sir Walter Elliot.
 
 ANIMISM 457 
 
 village are presented before the stone. This is supposed to avert cattle 
 disease. For the same purpose a sylvan god named Kdtama Rdya is 
 worshipped under the form of an acute conical mound of mud, 
 erected on a circular base, also of mud. At a little distance it 
 looks not unlike a large ant-hill' This rude symbol may often be 
 seen in a field in the open, with a bunch of wild flowers adorning 
 the apex. 
 
 Another deity, or class of deities, is known by the name of bhuta, 
 a word which is taken to mean demon, but may relate to bhi'i fayi, 
 Mother Earth, or the occult powers of Nature." It is generally 
 worship[)ed under the form of a few naturally rounded stones, placed 
 together either under a tree or in a small temple and smeared with oil 
 aiid turmeric. To avert calamity to crops from the bhuta, a rude figure 
 of a man is sometimes drawn with charcoal on the ground at the 
 angles of the field, and a small earthen vessel containing boiled rice 
 and a few flowers broken over it. An off'ering is also made in some 
 parts by a man walking round the skirts of the field, at every few 
 steps casting grains of seed into the air, shouting out at the same 
 time ho ball ! 
 
 The various objects of superstitious awe described above may 
 perhaps be classified as .spirits of the air and spirits of the ground. The 
 former include disembodied ghosts, those of the dead for whom the 
 prescribed ceremonies have not been performed. The spirits of the air 
 seem inclined to lodge in trees and burial-places, and by them human 
 beings are sometimes possessed or bewitched. Charms, consisting of 
 a bit of metal engraved with a numerical puzzle in squares, are 
 suspended round the necks of children to protect them against this 
 danger, as well as against " the evil eye," and similar charms are 
 inscribed on stones called jia/z/z-fj; kallu, often erected at the entrance of 
 villages. The spirits of the ground guard hidden treasure, breach tank 
 bunds, undermine houses, stop the growth of the crops, and perform a 
 variety of other malignant oi)erations. All have to l)e propitiated 
 according to their supposed influence and disposition. 
 
 The above are doubtless all relics of aboriginal or primitive beliefs 
 and rites, and may be included under the name of Animism, which is 
 thus explained by Dr. Tiele : — 
 
 ■ ' It bears a striking resemblance, in external form at least, to the Toda conical 
 temple called l)y Colonel Marshall the boath, though on a greatly reduced scale, 
 much too small for an interior chamlier. — Phrcn. am. Tod., ch. XIX. See the closing 
 remarks regarding the bolhaii or bee-hi%-e houses in Scotland, &C. 
 
 ^ "YXm:. paiuha bhiita are the five elements — earth, air, fire, water, and ether. 
 
 ^ Bali — presentation of food to all created beings ; it consists in throwing a small 
 parcel of the offering into the open air. — Benfey, Sans. Diet., s. v.
 
 458 RELIGION 
 
 Animism is the belief in the existence of souls or spirits, of which only 
 the powerful— those on which man feels himself dependent, and before 
 which he stands in awe — acquire the rank of divine beings, and become 
 objects of worship. These spirits are conceived as moving freely through 
 earth and air, and, either of their own accord, or because conjured by some 
 spell, and thus under compulsion, appearing to men {Spiritism). But they 
 may also take up their abode, either permanently or temporarily, in some 
 object, whether lifeless or living it matters not : and this object, as endowed 
 with higher power, is then worshipped or employed to protect individuals or 
 communities {Fetishism). 
 
 The more regularly organized systems of Hindu faith may be 
 described as four in number, associated with the worship respectively 
 of Jina, Buddha, Siva and Vishnu. Though they existed contem- 
 poraneously in various parts, as is the case at the present day, each of 
 these religions had its period of ascendancy, but not to the exclusion of 
 the others. 1 
 
 Brahmanism. — Preceding them all was the ancient Indo-Aryan 
 Brahmanism, based upon the Vedas. The generally received opinion 
 which assigned these works to about 1500 to 1200 B.C., has lately been 
 disturbed by calculations based on astronomical data, which would 
 throw back their date to from 4500 to 2500 i;.c.'' But these con- 
 clusions, though arrived at independently by different scholars, are 
 not undisputed.'^ On the other hand, that Jainism was older than 
 Buddhism has been definitely established. Its founder, it seems 
 probable, was Pars'vanatha, which would take us back to the eighth 
 century i;.c., but its more recent chief apostle, Varddhamana or 
 Mahavira, was a little earlier than Buddha. Buddhism, as is well 
 known, dates from the fifth century B.C., and was at the height of 
 its power in the third century b.c. If it be the case that the 
 s'rutakevali Bhadrabahu came to Mysore, accompanied as his chief 
 disciple by the abdicated emperor Chandra Gupta, and that they died 
 at S'ravana Belgola, the introduction of Jainism into this State cannot 
 be placed later than early in the third century B.C. But two generations 
 after, we have the testimony of the edicts of As'oka discovered by me, 
 that Buddhism was established in the north of Mysore. Dr. Biihler 
 
 • We shall perhaps find that the past did not differ so much from the present as 
 might at first appear ; that India has always had, alongside of the Veda, something 
 equivalent to its great Sivaite and Vishnuite religions, which we see in the ascendant 
 at a later date, and that these anyhow existed contemporaneously with it for a very 
 much longer period than has till now been generally supposed. — Barth, Religions of 
 India, Pref., xv. 
 
 - Tilak's Orion : Jacobi's Date of the Rig Veda (Ind. Ant., XXIII, 154). Cf. the 
 valuable Note by Dr. Biihler, toe. cit., 238. 
 
 =* See Dr. Thibaut, Ind. Ant., XXIV, 85.
 
 BRAHMANISM 459 
 
 also considers^ that the iwu geographical names which these edicts 
 contain are Aryan, and point to the conclusion that the country was by 
 that time thoroughly under Aryan influence. The record of the 
 despatch by A'soka of missions to Banavasi and Mahis'a-mandala (the 
 Mysore District) to propagate the faith, indicates that the north-west and 
 south were not then Buddhist. They may, therefore, have been to 
 some extent, if not entirely, Jain. Jainism was in the main the State 
 religion of Mysore throughout the first thousand years of the Christian 
 era, and ceased not to be influential till after the conversion in the 
 twelfth century of the Hoysala king since known as Vishnuvardhana, 
 and the murder some time later of the Kalachurya king Bijjala by the 
 Lingayits. 
 
 The actual introduction of Brahmans into Mysore is assigned to -^ 
 the third century a.d. According to tradition, the Kadamba king 
 Mukanna or Trinetra at that time settled them at Sthanagundur 
 (Talgunda in the Shikarpur taluq). This was in the west. In the east 
 the Pallava king Mukunti is said to have introduced Brahmans at 
 about the same period. In the south the Ganga king Vishnugopa, 
 belonging to the same century, is said to have become devoted to the 
 worship of Brahmans, and to have thus lost the Jain tokens which were 
 heirlooms of his house. But the evidence of inscriptions is in favour 
 of an earlier existence of Brahmanism in this country. The Malavalli 
 inscriptions of the second century, discovered by me, show the king 
 Satakarni making a grant to a Brahman for a S'iva temple, followed by 
 a Kadamba king also making a grant to a Brahman for the same. 
 Moreover, the remarkable Talgunda inscription discovered by me, 
 represents the Kadambas themselves as very devout Brahmans, and 
 one of them, perhaps the founder of the royal line, as going with his 
 Brahman guru to the Pallava capital (Kdnchi) to study there. It also 
 states that Satakarni, probably the one above mentioned, was among 
 the famous kings who had worshipped at the S'iva temple to which it 
 belongs. We must therefore suppose that I)rahmanism, more parti- ^ 
 cularly the worship of S'iva in the form of the Linga, existed in Mysore 
 in the first centuries of our era, concurrently with other forms of faith, 
 Buddhism or Jainism, but that the latter were in the ascendaiU. 
 Hence the traditions perhaps indicate the time when Brahmanism 
 received general public recognition by the State. 
 
 But the chief revival of Brahmanical religion took place in the eighth 
 century, when the labours of Kumarila and of S'ankaracharya, the first 
 apostle of S'ringeri (Kadar District), dealt a deathblow to Buddhism 
 
 » Op. iiL, .\XIII, 246.
 
 46o RELIGION 
 
 and raised the Saiva faith to the first place. In hke manner, in the 
 twelfth century, the Vaishnava religion gained ground, and through the 
 teaching of the reformer Ramanujacharya, put an end to the influence 
 of Jainism, Vishnu worship thus became a national religion, but 
 divided the empire with the followers of Siva, a compromise of which 
 the form Harihara was symbolical, uniting in one person both Hari or 
 Vishnu and Hara or Siva. For the reformation of the Saiva religion, 
 which was effected about the same time by Basava, ending in the 
 establishment of the Lingayit sect, imparted to it a vitality which it has 
 never since lost in the south, especially amongst the Kannada-speaking 
 races. Forty years later a somewhat similar reformation of the 
 Vaishnava religion was brought about through the teaching of 
 jNIadhvacharya, and before another century further innovations were 
 introduced by Ramdnand, and afterwards by Chaitanya and 
 others. 
 
 Jainism. — Though so ancient, the existence of the sect of the Jains 
 was first brought to light in Mysore, the discovery being due to 
 Colonel Colin Mackenzie, the distinguished officer who conducted the 
 survey of Mysore in 1799 and following years. They are dispersed 
 throughout India, and their numbers are probably understated at a 
 million and a half according to the census of 1891. They are most 
 numerous in Rajputana, Gujarat, Central India, and Mysore. In the 
 north and west of India they are chiefly engaged in commerce ; in the 
 south they are also agriculturists. As before stated, they were more 
 or less predominant in Mysore from the earliest part of the Christian 
 era to the twelfth century. And in the Chola and Pandya countries, 
 and in Kanara (South and North), Dharwar, and other adjacent 
 parts, they were also generally established from a very early 
 period. The oldest Kannada and Tamil literature is of Jain 
 authorship, and to the Jains is due the first cultivation of these 
 languages. 
 
 The principal seats of the Jain faith in Mysore now are at S'ravana 
 Belgola in Hassan District, Maleyur in Mysore District, and Humcha 
 in Shimoga District. The first place is the residence of a guru who 
 claims authority over the Jains throughout the south of India, and is, I 
 believe, admitted to be their chief pontiff' The consecration of 
 Chandra-giri, the small hill there, dates back to the third century B.C. 
 
 ' He professes to be guru to all the Jaiiia Kshatriyas in India : and in an inscrip- 
 tion dating so late as 1830, claims to be occupant of the throne of the Dilli (Delhi), 
 Hemadri (Maleyur), Sudha (Sode in North Kanara), Sangitapura (Haduvalli), 
 Svetapura (Bilige), Kshemavenu (Mi'idu Bidare, these last three in South Kanara), 
 and Belgula (S'ravana Belgola) samsthanas. — Ins. at Sr. Bel.., Xo. 141.
 
 JAINISM 461 
 
 {see p. 287). But the foundation of the present religious establishment 
 is attributed to Chamunda Raya, who, in about 983, set up the colossal 
 statue of Gomata on the biggest hill, Indra-giri or Vindhya-giri. To 
 provide for the maintenance and worship of the image, he established 
 a matha and other religious institutions, with liberal endowments. 
 According to a list from the matha the following was the succession of 
 gurus. They were of the Kundakundanvaya, Mula-sangha, Des'i-gana, 
 and Pustaka-gachcha. 
 
 Nemichandra Siddhautacharya appointed by Chamunda Raya c. 9S3 
 
 Kundakundacharya 
 
 
 Pandya Raya 
 
 
 
 Siddhantachaiya 
 
 
 Vira Pandya 
 
 
 
 Amalakirtyacharya 
 
 
 Kuna Pan((lya 
 
 
 
 Somanandyacharya 
 
 
 \'inayaditya "^ 
 
 c. 
 
 1050 
 
 Tridama \'ibiidhanandyacliarya 
 
 
 Hoysala J 
 
 c. 
 
 1070 
 
 Prahhachandra Siddhdntacharya 
 
 
 Ereyanga 
 
 c. 
 
 1090 
 
 Gunachandracharya 
 
 
 Ballala Raya 
 
 c. 
 
 1 102 
 
 S'ubhachandracharya 
 
 
 Bitti Deva 
 
 c. 
 
 mo 
 
 From 1 1 1 7 the gurus all bear the name of Charukirti Panditdcharya, 
 and endowments have been granted to the matha by all succeeding 
 lines of kings. 
 
 The Maleyur matha is subordinate to that of Sravana Belgola, and 
 is now closed. According to Wilson, Akalanka, the Jain who con- 
 futed the Buddhists at the court of Plemasitala in Kanchi in 788, 
 and procured their expulsion from the south of India, was from 
 Sravana Belgola, but a manuscript in my possession states that he was 
 a yati of IMaleyur, and that Bhattakalanka is the title of the line of 
 yatis of that place. 
 
 The Humcha matha was established by Jinadatta Raya, the founder 
 of the Humcha State, in about the eighth century. The gurus, as 
 given in the following list, were of the Kujidakiindanvaya and Nandi- 
 sangha. From Jayakirtti Deva they were of the Sarasvati gncJichii. 
 The descent is traced in a general way from Bhadrabahu the s'nitake- 
 vali, through Vis'akhamuni the das'apurvi, his successor, through 
 Umasvati, author o^ i\\Q Tattvdrtiha-si'ih-a, and then the following : — 
 
 .Samantal)hadra, author of Diroagaiita stolra. 
 
 Pujyapada, author o{ Jaitioidra lydkaraiia, of a nyiisa on Panini called 
 
 Sahdik'atdra, and of a Vaidya s'astra. 
 Siddhantikirlti, guru to Jinadatta Raya. ? about 730 A. p. 
 
 Akalanka, author of a hhdshya on the Dctuigania s/o/m. 
 Vidyananda, author of a bhdshya on the A'ptamitndmsa, also of Sloka 
 
 varttikdla)ikdra. 
 Manikyanandi. 
 Prahhachandra, autlior of Nydyalatmrtdachandrodaya and of a nydsa on 
 
 Sdkatdyana.
 
 462 RELIGION 
 
 \';u(lilliam;in;i iminiiKlra, by iho power of whose iiiaiilra Iloysala sul;- 
 
 (hied the tifjer' 980-1040 
 
 1 lis successors were gurus lo the Hoysala kings. 
 \';isupi'ijya vrati, guru to Ballala Raya ... ... ... ... ... 1040-1100 
 
 Sripala. I Subhakirtti Deva. 
 
 Nemichandra. I l'a(hiianandi. 
 
 Abhayachandra, guru lo Charama Maghanandi. 
 
 Ke.savarya. 
 Jayakirtti Deva. 
 Jinachandrarya. 
 Indranandi. 
 Vasantakirtti. 
 
 Simhanandi. 
 
 Padmapraljha. 
 
 Vasunandi. 
 
 Meghachandra. 
 
 Viranandi. 
 
 Visalakirtti. Dhanunjaya. 
 
 Dharmal)hushana, guru to Deva Raya ... ... ... ... ... 1401-1451 
 
 \'idyananda, who debated Ijefore Deva Raya and Krishna Raya, ... 1451-1508 
 
 and maintained the Jain faith at Bilgi and Karkala. His sons were : — 
 Sinihakirtti, who debated at the court of Muhammad Shah ... ... 1463-1482 
 
 Sudarshana. 
 
 Merunandi. 
 
 Devendrakirtti. 
 
 Amarakirtti. 
 
 Visalakirtti, who debated before Sikandar and Virupaksha Raya ... 1465- 1479 
 
 Nemichandra, who debated at the court of Krishna Raya and Achyuta 
 
 Raya ... ... ... .. ... ... ... ... ... 1508-1542 
 
 The gurus are now named Devendra Tirtha Bhattaraka. 
 
 There are two sects among the Jains, the Digambara, clad with 
 space, that is naked ; and the Svetambara, clad in white. The first is 
 the original and most ancient. The yatis in Mysore belong to the 
 former division, but cover themselves with a yellow robe, which they 
 throw off only when taking food. The yatis form the religious order, 
 the laity are called srdvakas. Certain deified men, termed Tirthan- 
 karas, of whom there are twenty-four principal ones, are the chief 
 objects of Jain reverence. Implicit belief in the doctrines and actions 
 of these is obligatory on both yatis and sravakas. But the former are 
 expected to follow a life of abstinence, taciturnity and continence ; 
 whilst the latter add to their moral and religious code the practical 
 worship of the Tirthankaras and profound reverence for their more 
 pious brethren. The moral code of the Jains is expressed in five 
 mahd-vratas or great duties : — refraining from injury to life, truth, 
 honesty, chastity, and freedom from worldly desire. There are four 
 dharmas or merits — liberality, gentleness, piety, and penance ; there are 
 three sorts of restraint — government of the mind, the tongue, and the 
 person. To these are superadded a number of minor instructions or 
 prohibitions, sometimes of a beneficial and sometimes of a trivial or 
 
 ' For an e.xpkinaiion of this allusion see p. t,"^},.
 
 JAINISM 463 
 
 even ludicrous tendency.' The Jains hold the doctrine of Xindna, 
 but it is with them a state of beatific rest or quiescence, cessation from 
 re-birth, but not annihilation. The practice of salkkhana or religious 
 suicide is considered meritorious, and was at one time not uncommon, 
 especially to bring to a close a life made intolerable by incuraijle 
 disease or other dire calamity. At the same time, ahimsd or avoidance 
 of the destruction of life in whatever shape, is a fundamental doctrine, 
 carried to extremes. 
 
 The ritual of the Jains is as simple as their moral code. Thej-rt// 
 dispenses with acts of worship at his pleasure ; and the lay votary is 
 only bound to visit daily a temple where some of the images of the 
 Tirthankaras are erected, walk round it three times, make an obeisance 
 to the images with an offering of some trifle, usually fruit or flowers, 
 and pronounce a mantra or prayer.^ 
 
 The Jains reject the Vedas, and have their own sacred books. The 
 original Purvas, fourteen in number, were lost at an early period, but 
 the forty-five A'gamas, which include the eleven Angas (specially con- 
 sidered the sacred books), the twelve Upangas, and other religious works 
 have been handed down. In their present form they were, according 
 to tradition, collected and committed to writing in the fifth century at 
 "Wilabhi, under the directions of Devarddhiganin, but the Angas had 
 previously been collected in the fourth century at Pataliputra. The 
 sacred language of the Jains is called Arddha-Magadhi, but is a Prakrit 
 corresponding more with Maharashtri than with Magadhi. In the 
 eleventh century they adopted the use of Sanskrit.'* Caste as 
 observed among the Jains is a social and not a religious institution. 
 In the edicts of As'oka and early Buddhist literature they are called 
 Nirgranthas (those who have forsaken every tie). AVith reference to 
 their philosophical tenets they are also by the Brahmans designated 
 Syadvadins (those who say perhaps, or // may be so\ as they 
 maintain that we can neither aftirm nor deny anything absolutely 
 of an object, and that a predicate never expresses more than a 
 probability."* 
 
 Parsvanatha and Mahdvi'ra, the twenty-third and twenty-fourth Tirth- 
 
 ' Such as to al)stain al cerlaiii seasons from salt, flowers, green friiil and root.s, 
 honey, grai)es, and tobacco ; not to deal in soap, natron, intligo and iron : and 
 never to eat in the dark lest a fly shoidd lie swallowed. The hair must not l)o cut 
 Init should be plucked out. 
 
 ' The prayer-formula of the Jains is : — Nanio .Vrihanlanam namo Siddhanam 
 namo Ayariyanam namo Uvajjhayanam namo loe sabba-sahi'inam. (Reverence to 
 the Arhats, to the Siddhas, to the A'char)as, to the Upadhyayas, to all Sadhus in 
 the world.) 
 
 3 Jacobi, Kalpa si'itra. * Barth, Religious of India.
 
 464 
 
 RELIGION 
 
 ankaras,! were historical persons, of whom the former it is supposed 
 was the real founder of Jainism, while the latter, whose country, 
 descent, connections and life bear a close resemblance to those of 
 Buddha (also called Mahavira and Jina, and the last of twenty-four 
 Buddhas), and whose period also nearly corresponds with his, was its 
 greatest apostle and propagator. 
 
 Pdrs'va or Pdrs'vandtha was of the race of Ikshvdku, and the son of king 
 As'va Sena by Vdmd. or Bdmd. Devi. He was born at Bhelupura, in the 
 suburbs of Benares, and married Prabhdvati, daughter of king Prasenajita. 
 He adopted an ascetic life at the age of thirty, and practised austerities for 
 eighty days before arriving at perfect wisdom. Once, whilst engaged in his 
 devotions, his enemy Kamatha caused a great rain to fall upon him. But 
 the serpent Dharanidhara, or the Ndga king Dharana, overshadowed his 
 head with his hood outspread as a chhatra, whence the place was called 
 Ahichhatra.- After becoming an ascetic he lived seventy years less eighty 
 days, and at the age of 100 died, performing a fast, on the top of Samet 
 S'ikhara. He wore one garment, and had under him a large number of 
 male and female ascetics. His death occurred 250 years before that of the 
 last Tirthankara, or about 776 B.C. 
 
 Varddhamdna or Mahavira, also of the race of Ikshvaku, was a N^yaputa 
 or Ndtaputta, that is, a Jndtri Rajput and Kshattriya, the son of Siddhdrtha, 
 prince of Pavana, by Trisald., and was born at Chitrakot or Kundagrdma. 
 He married Yasodd, daughter of the prince Samara Vira, and had by her a 
 daughter Priyadarsana, who became the wife of Jamali, his nephew, one of 
 his pupils and the founder of a schism. Varddhamdna's father and mother 
 died when he was twenty-eight, and two years afterwards he devoted him- 
 self to austerities, which he continued twelve years and a half, nearly eleven 
 of which were spent in fasts. As a Digambara " he went robeless, and had 
 no vessel but his hand." At last the bonds of action were snapped like an 
 
 ' The following is the list of the twenty-four Tirthankaras : — 
 
 Name. 
 
 Sign. 
 
 Silsana Devi. 
 
 Name. 
 
 Sign. 
 
 Sdsana Devi. 
 
 Rishabha or 
 
 
 
 Vimalanatha 
 
 Boar 
 
 Vidita 
 
 A'dinatha 
 
 Bull 
 
 Chakresvari 
 
 Anantanatha 
 
 Falcon 
 
 Ankus'a 
 
 Ajitanatha 
 
 Elephant 
 
 Ajitabala 
 
 Dharnianatha 
 
 Thunderbolt 
 
 Kandarpa 
 
 S'amljhava 
 
 Horse 
 
 Duritari 
 
 S'antinatha 
 
 Antelope 
 
 Nirvani 
 
 Abhinandana 
 
 Monkey 
 
 Kalika 
 
 Kunthunatha 
 
 Goat 
 
 Bala 
 
 Sumati 
 
 Curlew 
 
 Mahakali 
 
 Aranatha 
 
 Nandyavarta 
 
 Dharini 
 
 Padmaprabha 
 
 Lotus 
 
 S'yama 
 
 Mallinatha 
 
 Water jar 
 
 Dharanapriya 
 
 Su]iars'va 
 
 Swastika 
 
 S'anta 
 
 Muni Suvrata 
 
 Tortoise 
 
 Naradatta 
 
 Chandraprabha 
 
 Moon 
 
 Bhrikuti 
 
 Ximinatha 
 
 Blue waterlily 
 
 Gandharl 
 
 Pushpadanta 
 
 Crocodile 
 
 Sutaraka 
 
 Xeminalha 
 
 Conch 
 
 Ambika 
 
 S'itala 
 
 S'rivatsa 
 
 As'oka 
 
 Pars'vanatha 
 
 Cobra 
 
 Padmavati 
 
 S'reyams'a 
 
 Rhinoceros 
 
 Manavi 
 
 A'arddhaniana 
 
 
 
 \'asupiij)a 
 
 Buffalo 
 
 Chanda 
 
 or Mahavira 
 
 Lion 
 
 Siddhajika 
 
 Ahi, serpent ; chhatra, canopy or umbrella.
 
 BUDDHISM 465 
 
 old rope, and he attained to Kevala or the only knowledge, becoming an 
 Arhant or Jina. Proceeding to Papapuri or Apdpapuri (Pd\a) in Behar, he 
 commenced teaching his doctrines. Several eminent Hrr.hmans of Magadha 
 became converts and founded i^anai or schools. The chief of tliem was 
 Indrabhuti or Gautama (not to be confounded, as has sometimes been done, 
 with Buddha, also so called, who was a Kshatriya). Mahavira continued 
 to teach, chiefly at the cities of Kausambi and RAjagriha, under the kings 
 Sasanika and Srenika, and died at the age of seventy-two at Apdpapuri. 
 The date of his death is the era from which Jain chronology reckons, and 
 the traditional date corresponds with 527 H.c, but this should probably be 
 sixty years later.' 
 
 Buddhism. — The evidence of the establisliment of ]5uddhi.sm in the / 
 north of Mysore in the third century r..c., and the efforts made at 
 that time to propagate it in other parts, have already been referred to."'* 
 The S'dtavdhana and Pallava kings, from the remains of their erections 
 at Amaravati and Mamallapura, were to some extent Buddhist, and 
 there are references in early Pali writings to Buddhist scholarship in 
 Karnataka.'^ Inscriptions record the maintenance, as one of five great 
 mathas, of a Buddhist establishment (Bauddhalaya) at Balagami 
 (Shikarpur taluq), the capital of the Banavasi country, down to 1098, 
 and apparently the residence there at that time of a nun named 
 Nagiyaka. But the long ascendancy of their great rivals, the Jains, 
 makes it unlikely that Buddhists were more than an inconsiderable 
 minority. The Jain traditions, however, preserve some memory of 
 argumentative collisions with expounders of the rival system. A Jain 
 named Akalanka, whom "Wilson brings from Sravana Balgola in 788,^ 
 finally confuted the Buddhists in argument at the court of Hemasitala 
 at Kanchi, and procured their expulsion to Kandy in Ceylon. 
 
 So many works are now available on the subject that it is un- 
 necessary in this place to give more than the briefest outline of the life 
 of IJuddha and the doctrines he taught. 
 
 Gautama (Gotama in P.-lli) was a Sakya and a Kshattriya, prince of 
 Kapila-vastu, south of Nepal, about 100 miles north-east of Benares. His 
 wife was Yas'odhara. He was naturally of a serious disposition, and had 
 become satiated with a life of pleasure and indulgence, during which every 
 object of sadness had been studiously kept out of his view. The accidental 
 sight, in succession, of an old man, a diseased man, and a dead man, led 
 him to reflect on the illusory nature of youth, health and life. This wciglied 
 
 ' Jacobi, op. (it. 
 
 ■■' In Mr. Fcrgusson".s opinion, "it is nearly coirccl to assert thai no people 
 adopted Buddhism, except those among whom serpenl-woiship can certainly he 
 traced as pre-existing." — Tr. Ser. Jl'or., 21. 
 
 * I am indebted for this information to Professor Rhys Davids. 
 
 •• J/cA'. Co//., I, Ixv. 
 
 H M
 
 466 RELIGION 
 
 on liis mind imtil one day he saw a religious mendicant, calm in his 
 renunciation of tlie world. It suggested to him a mode of relief. He fled 
 at midnight from the royal palace and all its gay inmates, forsaking his 
 young wife and their infant son, assumed the yellow garb of an ascetic, and 
 gave himself up to austerities and meditation in the forest of Buddha (]aya, 
 acquiring the name of Sdkya Muni. But penance and austerities had not 
 power to appease his spiritual yearnings. Eventually, by meditation, he 
 became a Buddha or Enlightened, in order that he might teach mankind 
 the true way of deliverance from the miseries of existence. He entered 
 upon his mission in the district of Magadha or Behar when 35 years old, 
 and died or attained nirvana at the age of eighty, while travelling through 
 the country of Kosala or Oudh, about 543 B.c.^ 
 
 After his death a council was held by Ajdtasatru, king of Magadha, at 
 which all the teachings and sayings of Buddha were collected into three sets 
 of books, called Tripitaka, the three baskets or collections, which form the 
 Buddhist sacred scriptures. Of these the Siitra pitaka contains the maxims 
 and discourses of Sdkya Muni, which had all been delivered orally ; the 
 Vinaya pitaka relates to morals and discipline ; and the Abhidharma pitaka 
 is philosophical. Three other great Buddhist councils were held, one in the 
 middle of the fifth century B.C. by Kalasoka, when the scriptures were 
 revised ; the third by Asoka in 246 B.C., after which missions were sent 
 abroad for the propagation of the faith ; and the fourth by Kanishka, king 
 of Kashmir, in the first century A.D., when the Tripitaka were finally 
 established as canonical. According to some accounts they were not 
 committed to writing before this. The sacred language of the Buddhists is 
 Pdli. 
 
 Buddhism may be described as two-fold, consisting of dharina, or 
 religion, and vinaya, or discipline. Buddha's enlightenment had led 
 him to recognize existence as the cause of all sorrow. Avidya or 
 ignorance was the remote cause of existence, and Jiin'dna or extinction 
 of existence the chief good. 
 
 The dharma or religion was for the masses or the laity, the so-called 
 ignorant, who had no longing for nirvana, but only desired a happier 
 life in the next stage of existence ; for life, of gods and animals as well 
 as of men, was held to continue through an endless series of trans- 
 migrations, introducing to a higher or a lower grade according to the 
 merit or demerit of the previous existence. This religion was based 
 upon the law of universal benevolence or kindness, and found 
 expression in five great commandments, namely, against killing, 
 stealing, adultery, intoxication, and lying, each of which was amplified 
 into numerous precepts intended to guard not only against the 
 
 ' This is the traditional date, but the correct date is probably about 412 K.c, 
 according to Rhys Davids (Ntimis. Or., Ceylon), or l^etween 482 and 472 according 
 to others. — Earth, /.V/. of Ind., 106.
 
 BUDDHISM 467 
 
 commission of sin but against the inclination or temptation to sin. The 
 practice of universal goodness or kindness, in thought, word and deed> 
 was the only way by which man could raise himself to a higher state of 
 existence. 
 
 The vinaya or discipline was for the wise, the monastic orders, those 
 who cared not to continue in the vortex of transmigrations, but sought 
 only to purify their souls from all desire for the hollow and delusive 
 pleasures of the world and to escape from all the pains and miseries of 
 existence into the everlasting rest of nirvana. To effect this deliverance 
 it was neces.sary to renounce five things, namely, children, wife, goods, 
 life and self; in short, to lead a religious life of celibacy, mendicancy 
 and strict discipline, in order that the soul might be freed from every 
 stain of affection or passion. Four great truths, known as the hnv of 
 /he wheel, resulted in indicating four paths to nirvana, namely, perfection 
 in faith, in thought, in speech, and in conduct : and the only true 
 wisdom was to walk in these paths. The Buddhist formula of faith 
 is expressed in words meaning, " I go for refuge to the Buddha, the 
 Dharma and the Sangha." 
 
 At the time when Buddha began to proclaim his doctrines, all the 
 affairs of life were supposed to be regulated by the rigid code of Manu.^ 
 Religion consisted in ceremonial observances, which beset every moment 
 of existence from birth to death, and its advantages were confined to an 
 exclusive caste, whose instrumentality alone could render any ceremony 
 efficacious. Buddhism was a revolt of the religion of humanity against 
 the ritualism and asceticism, the lifeless superstition and arrogant 
 pretensions of the Brahmanical priesthood.- It taught that religion 
 
 ' Bui il may be questioned whether the code was not as much a theoretical system 
 of the claims of the hierarchy as one in practical operation. — cf. Auguste Harth as 
 translated Iiid. Anl., Ill, 329. 
 
 • "The revolt of Buddhism against Brahmanism is only to l)e appreciated by those 
 who are familiar with the results of both systems. The India of the present day 
 presents many of the characteristics which must have distinguished ancient India 
 l)rior to the advent of CJotama Buddha. It is a land of deities, temples and priests. 
 The whole Indian continent is dotted with little sanctuaries which apjK-ar like the 
 sepulchres of defunct gods, whose grotesque and tlistorted effigies are to l)e seen 
 within ; and fathers and mothers bow down to these idols, praise them, propitiate 
 them with gifts and offerings, and invoke them for help and prosjiority. Again, there 
 are temples of more colossal dimensions, with jiyramidal towers or cone-shajjed 
 domes covered with sculptures and surrounded by walls, courtyards and rmifed 
 passages. But all are of the same sepulchral character. Some are the recejitacles of 
 archaic gods, who are arrayed in jewels and tinsel ; but even these deities are little 
 better than the gaudy mummies of a primeval age. The women alone seem to Ik; 
 fervent worshipjiers, for the men have begun to groan beneath the oppression of 
 idolatry and Brahmanism. Indeed the rapacity of the temple-priests is unlnumded, 
 whilst their culture is beneath contempt. They celebrate their festivals like children 
 
 H H 2
 
 468 RELIGION 
 
 consisted in the suppression of evil desire, the practice of self-denial, 
 and the exercise of active benevolence ; and that men and women alike, 
 and that of all castes, may equally enjoy the benefits of a religious 
 life. Hence thousands and tens of thousands, both high and low, 
 hastened to embrace the new faith, and Buddhism continued to grow 
 till the time of Asoka, under whom it was established as the dominant 
 religion of India. 
 
 Hinduism. — It is next to impossible (M. Barth remarks) to say 
 exactly what Hinduism is, where it begins, and where it ends. Diversity 
 is its very essence, and its proper manifestation is sect — sect in constant 
 mobility. The rise of the religions comprised under this head was in 
 general due to the unsatisfactory nature of the old Brahmanical theology, 
 the divinities of which had gradually retired and disappeared behind a 
 host of abstractions too subtle to affect the conscience of the masses. 
 But they did not, like Buddhism, openly sunder all connection with the 
 past. They, on the contrary, claim to be its continuation, or rather they 
 represent themselves to be that very past unchanged and unmodified. 
 Most of them profess to be based on the Veda, with which at bottom 
 they have almost nothing in common, and which they virtually super- 
 seded by a quite different literature, but to which they nevertheless 
 continue to appeal as their highest authority. The characteristic 
 common to the majority of these religions is the worship of new 
 divinities exalted above all the rest, identified either with Siva or with 
 1 Vishnu.^ And it is singular that the Mysore country should have been 
 the home or refuge of the two principal founders and exponents of the 
 Saiva and Vaishnava creeds respectively. 
 
 Though it is sought to identify Siva with Rudra of the Vedas, who is 
 there introduced in a very subordinate position, it is doubtful whether 
 there is any correspondence between them ; and if the one was a later 
 development out of the other, there is no trace whatever of the process 
 by which Siva was raised to a supreme position as a chief member of the 
 Trimurti or Hindu trinity. How again the linga, under which form he 
 has for centuries been worshipped, came to be associated with Siva is 
 unknown. The introduction of an entirely new di^•inity from the 
 mountains of the north has been supposed, who was grafted in upon 
 the ancient religion by being identified with Rudra ; and it is not 
 impossible that the linga may have been an object of veneration among 
 
 playing with dolls. They cany the gods in procession, or induce the gaping crowd 
 to drag them along in huge idol cars ; hut they cannot evoke those joyous outj^Kaurings 
 of adoration i,ir thanksgiving which indicate the presence of religious feeling in the 
 hearts of the worshippers."' — Talboys Wheeler, Hist. Iiici.. III. 94. 
 I Rel.oflnd., 153, 159. 
 
 +
 
 HINDUISM 469 
 
 the aboriginal or non-Aryan Indians, and that it was subsequently 
 adopted by the Brahmans from them and associated with the worship 
 of Rudra.' 
 
 The legend regarding Daksha's sacrifice seems to bear out these views. 
 The probable interpretation of it is that Siva — a deity according to 
 (iorresio of Cushite or Hamitic tribes which preceded on the soil of 
 India the Aryan or Indo-Sanskrit races — wished to have a part in the 
 worship of the conquerors and in their sacrifices, from which he was 
 excluded ; and by disturbing their rites and by a display of violence 
 at their sacrifices, he succeeded in being admitted to participate in 
 them. 
 
 The worship of Siva succeeded Buddhism, but the period which 
 intervened before the supremacy of Siva was generally accepted 
 brought to the surface many Hindu gods as candidates for the popular 
 favour. The records of Sankarachar)a's polemical victories show 
 that in his time there prevailed, among others, the worship of Brahma, 
 Agni, Silrya, and Ganes'a. None of these have now distinct classes 
 of worshippers, but Oanes'a shares a sort of homage with almost all 
 the other divinities. There were also sects devoted to the exclusive 
 worship of the female deities Bhavani, Lakshmi, Sarasvati ; and also of 
 Bhairava. 
 
 The account of Gritsamada in the (lancs'a purana is supposed to 
 contain an allusion to the period of transition. 
 
 A king named Rukmanga one day lost his way in the woods while hunting, 
 and came to the hermitage of a rishi, whose wife /ell in love with him ; wlien 
 he refused her solicitations, she cursed him, and he was attacked with 
 leprosy, which was eventually cured through the favour of Ganes'a. But 
 Indra, it is stated, assuming the form of the king, gratified her desires, and 
 the fruit of the connection was the sage Gritsamada, the author of certain 
 hymns of the Rig-veda. He was not aware of his origin until attending 
 once at a ceremony with the intention of taking part in it, the Brahmans 
 present reproached him as of spurious descent, called him the son of 
 Rukmdnga, and ordered him to quit the assembly. Stung to the quick, 
 he went to his mother, and on her acknowledging her guilt he cursed her to 
 become a jujube-tree, badari, and she retorted that he should be a Brahma 
 Rakshasa. 
 
 He now joined himself to certain munis of a different persuasion, and 
 thence before long devoted himself to meditation on tlie Supreme Bcing> 
 standing on his great toe, with liis mind intensely fixed on the deity. At 
 length Ganes'a appeared to Iiini and granted certain boons. He thus 
 
 ' It may be noticed that Brahmans ilo not officiate in Siva temples : these arc 
 served by an inferior order of priests called Sh'a dvija. A few excejitions, however, 
 seem to e.xist in what are distinguished as \'aiiiika Siva temples, such as the famous 
 one of Visvesvara at Benares.
 
 470 RELIGION 
 
 became an object of reverence and even worship to the otiier sages. Crit- 
 samada continued thus in meditation, when one day on opening his eyes a 
 beautiful boy came up to him, who prayed to be adopted as his. Gritsamada 
 compHed with his request, taught him the mystic incantation OM, and sent 
 him away to stand on his great toe contemplating the supreme Ganes'a. 
 The deity after a long interval appeared and desired him to ask a boon. 
 He accordingly requested the power of conquering the three worlds, which 
 was granted, together with immunity from any weapon except that of Siva ; 
 and it was added that he should possess three famous cities, one of iron, 
 one of silver, and one of gold, and that on leaving the world he should be 
 absorbed into the divine essence. 
 
 This wonderful child was no other than the famous Tripurasura. He 
 vanquished Indra and all the gods, and reduced them to the greatest state 
 of leanness and distress by putting a stop to the offering up of the oblations 
 which mortals had been accustomed to present to them. He took posses- 
 sion of the abodes of Brahma, Vishnu and Siva, while Ganes'a in disguise 
 built for him the three famous cities, one of iron, one of silver, and one of 
 gold. Siva now did penance to Ganes'a, who at length appeared and 
 granted him the boon of victory over their enemy. The gods, led by Siva, 
 overcame Tripurasura and consumed with fiery darts the three cities. 
 
 Now this account evidently indicates a period when the religious 
 system of the Brahmans was superseded by another, which Gritsamada 
 partly learned from sages of a different persuasion after he had been 
 expelled from the society of the Brahmans, and which he taught to 
 Tripurasura, who thereby gained the supremacy over heaven and earth, 
 and thrust down from heaven all the Brahmanical deities. This 
 system consisted of spiritual and mystical contemplation of the 
 Supreme Being, which, with other features, corresponds so well with 
 the main characteristics of Buddhism that we seem here to have an 
 allegory of the ascendancy of that faith and its overthrow by the 
 revival of the worship of Siva.^ 
 
 It has been noticed here on account of its apparent localisation in 
 certain parts of Mysore, and Gritsamada in one account is said to be of 
 Haihaya descent. Thus Rukmanga, it will be seen from the account 
 of the Kadur District, is claimed to have been the king of Sakkare- 
 patna. The yagache, or in Sanskrit badari, is the name of the neigh- 
 bouring stream, which flows from the Baba Budan mountains past 
 Belur to the Hemavati, and which is so-called from its source at the 
 jujube-tree, into which form Gritsamada doomed his mother to pass. 
 Tripura and Tripurasura we have more than once had occasion to refer 
 to. From the drops of sweat which fell from Siva after his contest 
 with Tripurasura are fabled to have sprung the Kadamba line of 
 kings. And the introduction of Brahmans into the north-west of 
 
 > /. R. A. S., VIII.
 
 S ANKARA CHAR YA 471 
 
 INIysore by Mayuravarma of that line was no doubt one of the earliest 
 results of a declension of Buddhist influence. 
 
 The Buddhist writer Tardnatha, the Jaina writer Brahmanemidatta, 
 and the Brahmanical writer Madhavacharya are all agreed in dating the 
 final decline of Buddhism from the time when the illustrious authors 
 Kumarila Bhatta, Akalanka-deva, and S'ankaracharya appeared in 
 Southern India,' that is, the eighth century. The first was celebrated 
 as a great teacher of the Mimamsa philosophy (the Purva Mimamsa) 
 and a dreaded antagonist of both Jainas and Bauddhas. He 
 strenuously asserted the pretensions of the Brahmans, affirming that, as 
 Kshatriyas and Vais'yas, the Jainas and Bauddhas were by nature 
 incapable of the highest spiritual discernment, which was inherent in 
 the Brahmans alone. Akalanka was the Jaina already referred to 
 above (p. 465), 
 
 S ankardchdrya was a great religious reformer, and teacher of the 
 \'edanta philosophy (the Uttara Mimamsa). He was a prime agent in 
 bringing about the establishment of Siva worship, and was the founder 
 of the Smarta sect. 
 
 He was born in 737 A.D., and is most generally acknowledged to liave 
 been a Brahman of Cranganore in Malabar, though his actual birthplace 
 was in the north of Travancore. He was consecrated as a sannydsi at the age 
 of eight years by Govinda yogi, and his life was spent in controversy with 
 the professors of various religious sects, whom he successfully refuted, as 
 recorded in the Sankara Vijaya and several other similar extant v/orks. In 
 the course of his wanderings he visited the greater part of India, and 
 eventually went as far as mount Kaiklsa. He set up a linga at Keddra and 
 returned by way of Ayodhya, Gaya and Jaganndth to S'ris'aila, where he 
 encountered Bhattdchdrya (that is, Kumdrila), who had, it is said, 
 ground the Bauddhas and Jainas in oil-mills. The latter declined to argue, 
 but referred him to Mandana-misra, married to his younger sister, who 
 was an incarnation of Sarasvati. Thither Sankardchdri repaired, and 
 though successful in defeating the husband, was overcome. in an argument 
 on sensual pleasures with the wife, who proved more tlian equal to iiim in 
 discussions of this nature. He thereupon went to Amritapura, and 
 animated the dead body of its prince, named Amaru, in whose form he 
 gained familiarity with the subject by practice in the gratification of the pas- 
 sions, and then returning was victorious over her. The throne of Sarasvati 
 on which he then sat is still shown in Kashmir. Consecrating Mandana- 
 misra as a sannydsi under the name of Suresvardchdrya, he bound 
 Sarasvati or S'drad-amma- with spells and conveyed her to Sringa-giri 
 
 ' Pailiak,/. Bo. Ih: R. A. A'., XVIII, 23S. 
 
 - Kasliniir is sonicliines called Sarad;i-dcs;i, and its ancient manuscripts arc 
 written in Saracla characters. — Iitd. Ant., V, 2S. 
 
 H H *
 
 47 2 REIJG/ON 
 
 (Siin^eii), wlicic he established her ihronc. 'I'lierc he remained, and ended 
 Iiis days twelve years afterwards, at the aj,^e, it is said, of thirty-two.' 
 
 Hut his influL'ncc was i)cr|)etuatcd in his writings. He is the most 
 celebrated of all commentators, and his works arc almost countless, 
 including commentaries on the Upanishads, ^^cdanta siitras and 
 Bhagavad Ciita. 'J'he sect of Vedantists founded by him has always 
 held the highest reputation for learning, and is distinguished for the 
 cultivation of the study of Sanskrit and especially of the vedic 
 literature. It is also the most unsectarian, admitting in fact all other 
 objects of worship as but manifestations of Siva or Mahddcva, the 
 Great Clod. 
 
 The Vedantist system advocated by S'ankara is pantheistic, and 
 based on the doctrine of advaita or non-dualism, which means that 
 the universe is not distinct from the Supreme Soul. The leading 
 tenet of the sect is the recognition of Brahma Para Brahma as the 
 only really existing Being, the sole cause and supreme ruler of the 
 universe, and as distinct from Siva, Vishnu, Brahma, or any individual 
 member of the pantheon : to know Him is the supreme good. The 
 attainment of complete wisdom results in vmkti or liberation, and 
 re-union with the divine essence. But as the mind of man cannot 
 elevate itself to the contemplation of the inscrutable First Cause and 
 Only Soul, he may be contemplated through inferior deities and sought 
 through the prescribed rites and exercises. This creed thus tolerates 
 all the Hindu deities, and the worship of the following was, by 
 Sankarachari's express permission, taught by some of his disciples : — 
 that of Siva, Vishnu, Krishna, Siirya, Sakti, Ganes'a and Bhairava. 
 
 " Individual souls emanating from the supreme one are likened to 
 innumerable sparks issuing from a blazing fire. From him they pro- 
 ceed, and to him they return, being of the same essence. The soul 
 which governs the body together With its organs, neither is born nor 
 does it die. It is a portion of the divine substance, and as such 
 infinite, immortal, intelligent, sentient, true. It is governed by the 
 supreme. Its activity is not of its essence, but inductive through its 
 organs : as an artisan taking his tools labours and undergoes toil and 
 pain, but laying them aside reposes, so is the soul active and a sufferer 
 by means of its organs, but divested of them and returning to the 
 supreme one is at rest and is happy. It is not a free and independent 
 
 ' Wilson makes him die at Kedarniith in the Ilimalajas (His. I, 200). But il 
 will be seen that he apparently died at Sringeri. The succession of gurus at Sringeri 
 is traced from him directly, and a small temple is there shown as the place where he 
 disappeared from life. It contains a statue of liim, seated after the manner of 
 Buddhist and Jain images.
 
 SRINGER! G'URt/S 473 
 
 ngent, but made to act by the supreme one, who Callses it to do in one 
 state as it had purposed in a former condition. According to its 
 predisposition for good or evil, for enjoined or forbidden deeds, it is 
 made to do good or ill, and thus has its retribution for previous works." 
 The Sringeri swami or head of the niatha or monastery at Sringeri, 
 the principal one established by Sankaracharya, is styled the Jagat 
 (juru, or Jagad-Guru, the priest of the world, and is possessed of 
 extensive authority and influence. The matha is situated on the left 
 I)ank of the Tunga, in the centre of a fertile tract, with which it was 
 endowed al)out 400 years ago by the Vijayanagar kings. The estate 
 yields a revenue of Rs. 50,000 a year, and a further sum of Rs. 10,000 
 a year is received from the Mysore State. But the expenses connected 
 with the feeding of ]>rahmans, and the distribution of food and 
 clothing on festival days to all comers of both sexes, exceed the 
 income, and the (luru is constantly engaged in long and protracted 
 tours through various parts for the purpose of receiving contributions 
 from his disciples. He wears a tiara like the Pope's, covered with 
 pearls and jewels, said to have been given to him by the Peshwa of 
 Poona, and a handsome necklace of pearls. His sandals are covered 
 with silver. He is an ascetic and a celibate, and in diet very 
 abstemious. He is borne along in an aMa pdlld or palanquin carried 
 crossways, which prevents anything else passing. He is attended by 
 an ele])hant and escort, and accompanied by a numerous body of 
 Prahmans and disciples. 
 
 'I'he following is the succession of Sringeri gurus, obtained from the 
 matha : — 
 
 Coiisaratcd. Die J. 
 
 Sankaracharya (liorn a.d. 737) 745 7^9 
 
 Surcsvarachdrya ... ... ... ... ... 753 773' 
 
 Nityal)0(lhaj;hanach;irya ... ... ... — 75^ ^4^ 
 
 Jnanaglianacharya ... ... ... ... ... S46 9'0 
 
 Jnanoltania.sivacharya... ... ... ... ... 905 953 
 
 Jnanayiri acliarya ... ... ... ... ... 949 lojS 
 
 Simliaj^irLsvaracharya ... ... ... ... ... 1036 109S 
 
 Isvaralirthacharya 1 097 1 146 
 
 Narasimha muni or nu'irti ... ... ... ... II45 I22b 
 
 • This (laic is plainly given in tin.- annals, iiccording to the Sali\aliana .saka. Hul 
 the prccechng dales arc absurdly referred lo ihc ^■il<ranKl saka, in the fourtccnlh 
 ) ear of which Sankaracharya is said to have been born ; and lo ct)nnecl ihe Iwo eras, 
 Suresvaracharya is gravely asserled lo have held his authorily 800 years, allhough 
 only thirly-lwo years arc grantctl lo Sankar.acharya. Accepling ihe succession as 
 correct, I have taken ihc names of the years, and calculated the preceding dales 
 accordingly. That Sankaracharya lived in the latter jiart of the eighth century has 
 been conclusively proved by Mr. i'athak (J. Jio. A'r. A'. .7. .S'., Will, 88; 
 Procccdiitgs Ninth Oriental Congress), as admitted by Dr. Huhkr and M. Harth.
 
 474 
 
 RELIGION 
 
 Viclyasankara swami... 
 
 Bharati Krishna lirtlia 
 
 Vidyaranya 
 
 Chandrasckliara Bharati 
 
 Narasimha Bharati 
 
 Bhaktasankara Purushottama Bharati 
 
 Sankarananda Bharati 
 
 Chandrasekhara Bharati 
 
 Narasimha Bharati ... 
 
 T'uru.shottama Bharati 
 
 Ramachandra Bharati 
 
 Nara.simha Idharati 
 
 Nara.simha P>harati 
 
 Imniadi Narasimha Bharati ... 
 
 Aljhinava Narasimha Bharati 
 
 Sachchidananda Bharati 
 
 Narasimha Bharati ... 
 
 Sachchidananda Bharati 
 
 Abhinava Sachchidananda 15harati... 
 
 Nrisimha Bharati 
 
 Sachchidananda Bharati 
 
 Abhinava Sachchidananda Bharati... 
 
 Narasimha Bharati ... 
 
 Sachchidananda Sivabhinava-Narasimha Bharati 
 
 Cousecra/ecl. 
 
 ... 1228 
 
 ... 1328 
 
 •• 1331 
 
 ... 1368 
 
 ... 1387 
 1 406 
 
 ... 1428 
 
 ... 1449 
 
 ... 1464 
 
 ... 1472 
 
 ... 1508 
 
 ... 1557 
 
 - 1563 
 
 ... 1576 
 
 •• 1599 
 
 .. 1622 
 
 .. 1663 
 
 .. 1705 
 
 •■ 1741 
 
 .. 1767 
 
 •• 1770 
 
 1814 
 
 .. 1817 
 
 Died. 
 
 1333 
 1380 
 1386 
 
 1389 
 1408 
 1448 
 
 1454 
 1464 
 
 1479 
 1517 
 1560 
 
 1573 
 1576 
 
 1599 
 1622 
 1663 
 
 1705 
 1741 
 1767 
 1770 
 1814 
 1817 
 1879 
 
 1867 (now guru, 1S95) 
 
 RihudnvjdcJidrya. — The next great religious movement took place at 
 the beginning of the twelfth century, and is identified with Ramanuj- 
 acharya. He was born at Sri Permatur near Madras, and studied at 
 Conjeveram. He then retired to the island of Sri Ranga (Seringam), 
 at the parting of the Kaveri and Coleroon, and there perfected his 
 system and composed his religious works. He then travelled over 
 great part of Southern India, defending and expounding the Vaishnava 
 creed. He established several maths, the principal one being at 
 Ahobala. He also converted or restored many Saiva temples to the 
 worship of Vishnu, among others the celebrated temple of Tirupati. 
 The Chola king Karikala Chola, in whose dominion Sri Ranga was 
 situated, was an uncompromising Saiva, and on Ramanujacharya's 
 return thither after these religious successes, he was required in com- 
 mon with all the Brahmans to subscribe to a declaration of faith in 
 Siva. To escape persecution he fled to the Hoysala kingdom in 
 Mysore. Here he converted from the Jain faith the king thencefor- 
 ward known as ^'ishnuvarddhana, the date assigned to this event being 
 1 1 17. Having put down the J^ins by the severest measures, he settled 
 under the royal favour and protection at Melukote, and there estab- 
 lished his throne, which is still occupied by the guru known as the 
 Parakalaswami. After twelve years, on the death of the Chola king, he 
 returned to Sri Rangn and there ended his days.
 
 RAMANUJA CHAR YA 475 
 
 The chief religious tenet of the sect of Ramanujas or Sri Vaishnavas 
 founded by him is the assertion that Vishnu is Brahma, that he was 
 before all worlds, and was the cause and creator of all. Although they 
 maintain that Vishnu and the universe are one, yet, in opposition to 
 the vedanta doctrines, they deny that the deity is void of form or 
 quality, and regard him as endowed with all good qualities and with a 
 two-fold form — the supreme spirit, Paramatma or cause, and the gross 
 one, the effect, the universe or matter. The doctrine is hence called 
 the vis'ishtddvaita, or doctrine of unity with attributes. 
 
 Besides his primary and secondary form as the creator and creation, 
 the deity has assumed at different times particular forms and appear- 
 ances for the benefit of his creatures, hence the avatdras, &c.^ The 
 prescribed acts of adoration are the cleaning and purifying of temples 
 and images, presentation of flowers and perfumes, repeating the divine 
 names, and effort to unite with the deity. The reward of these acts is 
 elevation to the heaven of Vishnu, for perpetual residence there in a 
 condition of pure ecstasy and eternal rapture. 
 
 Harihara. — The form Harihara, a combination of Hari or \'ishnu 
 and Hara or Siva, is declared in inscriptions to have been revealed at 
 Kudalur,- for the destruction of a giant named Ciuhasura, who opposed 
 the vedas ; and also to establish the veda vdda, or sayings of the veda, 
 regarding the ndTaita, the non-duality or unity, of Vishnu and Siva. A 
 similar form seems to be worshipped in Kanara under the denomin- 
 ation of S'ankara Nardyana. The terms are evidently indicative of 
 toleration or compromise, but the history of this manifestation is 
 obscure. In Mysore the worship of Harihara is almost, if not entirely, 
 confined to the town on the Tungabhadra bearing the same name.'' 
 The existing temple was built in 1223, by Polalva, the general of the 
 Hoysala king Narasimha II. 
 
 ' Mr. Fergusson speculates as follows : — Recent discoveries in Assyria seem to 
 point to that country as the origin of much that we find underlying the local colouring 
 of the Vaishnava faith, (iaruda, the eagle-headed vahana and companion of Vishnu, 
 seems identical with the figure now so familiar to us in Assyrian sculpture, prohahly 
 representing Ormazd. The fish-god of the Assyrians, Dagon, prefigures the fish 
 avatar of Vishnu. The man-lion (nara-simha) is not more familiar to us in Assyria 
 than in India, and tradition generally points to the West for the other figures scarcely 
 so easily recognized, more especially Huli, whose name alone is an index to his origin ; 
 and Mahishasura, who by a singular inversion is a man with a hull's head instead of 
 a bull with a man's head, as he is always figured in his native land. It is worthy of 
 remark that the ninth avatar of \'ishnu is always Huddha himself, thus jiointing to a 
 connection between these two extremes of Indian faith. - /;/</. An/i., J24. 
 
 * That is, apparently, at the junction of the Ilaridra and Tungabhadra. 
 
 •■' Converted into Hurryhur, Harry Heir, Hurry Hurry and other ludicrous forms 
 in the military histories.
 
 476 RELIGION 
 
 Lifigdyils. — About 1160, little more than forty years after the 
 establishment of the Vaishnava faith in Mysore by Ramdnujacharya, 
 arose the well-known sect of Siva worshippers called Lingayits, chiefly 
 composed of the Kannada and Tehigu-speaking races. 
 
 Basava, the founder of the sect, whose name literally means bull, was in 
 fact regarded as the incarnation of Nandi, the bull of Siva. His political 
 career has been sketched in connection with the history of the Kalachuryas. 
 He was the son of an A'rddhya Brahman, a native of Bagwadi in lielgaum. 
 According to the legends, he refused to wear the brahmanical thread 
 because its investiture required the adoration of the sun, and repaired to 
 Kalydna, the capital of Bijjala, where he became, as elsewhere related, the 
 prime minister, and where he founded the new sect. 
 
 Its distinctive mark was the wearing on the person of a jangama 
 lingam or portable linga. It is a small black stone, about the size of 
 an acorn, and is enshrined in a silver box of peculiar shape, which is 
 worn suspended from the neck or tied round the arm. The followers 
 of Basava are properly called Lingavantas, but Lingayits has become a 
 well-known designation, though not used by themselves ; the name 
 Sivabhakta or Sivachar being one they generally assume. 
 
 Basava rejected the authority of the Vedas and the Brahmans, 
 together with the obserA-ances of caste, pilgrimage, and penance. 
 These continue to be fundamental distinctions of the sect.^ He 
 declared that all holiness consisted in due regard for three things — 
 guru, linga, and jangam — the guide, the image, and the fellow- 
 religionist. The guide or confessor can be any man or woman who is 
 in the creed ; who whispers the sacred mantram in the ear of the 
 jangam or worshipper ; and hangs the image on the neck or binds it on 
 the arm. A guru is forbidden to eat flesh, to chew betel or touch 
 liquor, and wears a kempu kdvi vastra or garment died with red ochre. 
 Those who adopt the extreme views of this sect are termed Vira 
 Saivas, ultra or warrior followers of the Saiva system, a term which 
 indicates their polemical zeal. 
 
 The sacred books of the sect are the Basava Purana and Channa 
 Basava Purana, written in Hala Kannada, but not of the oldest form. 
 They consist of tales and miraculous stories regarding their gurus and 
 saints, and of this nature is nearly all their literature, whose character 
 is more popular than learned. The Lingayit faith soon spread through 
 the north-west of Mysore, and, according to tradition, within sixty 
 years of Basava's death, or 1 168-1228, it was embraced from Ulavi, 
 near Goa, to Sholapur, and from Balehalli or Bdlehonnur (Koppa 
 taluq) to Sivaganga (Nelamangala taluq). It was the State religion of 
 ' They disapprove of child marriage, and permit the re-marriage of widows.
 
 MADH] 'A CHAR YA 477 
 
 the Wodeyars of Mysore from 1399 to 16 10, and of the Nayaks of 
 Keladi, Ikkeri, or Bednur from 1550 to 1763. The principal Lingdyit 
 maths in the Mysore country are the Murigi math at Chitaldroog, and 
 the Bale Honniir math, but there are numerous others. 
 
 Mddhvdchdrya, the founder of the sect of Madhva Brahmans, is the 
 representative of another religious movement, the result of which was 
 to effect a certain compromise between the worship of Vishnu and 
 Siva, though maintaining the supremacy of the first. 
 
 Madhviichdrya, represented as an incarnation of Vdyu, the god of the air, 
 was by birth probably a Saiva Brahman. He was born in Tuluva or 
 S. Canara in AD. 1 199, and was educated at Anantesvara, where he was 
 initiated into the Saiva faith. But he subsequently became a convert to 
 the ^^'^ishnava faith, and set up the sdlagrdms at Udipi, Madhyatala and 
 -Subrahmanya. He also set up an image of Krishna at Udipi, which has 
 since continued to be the chief seat of the sect. He resided there for many 
 years and composed a number of works. \\. length he went on a con- 
 troversial tour, in which he triumphed over various teachers, and finally in 
 his seventy-ninth year departed to Badarikasrama. He established eight 
 temples of Vishnu under different forms, all in Tuluva, under as many 
 sannyasis, each of whom in turn officiates as superior of the chief station at 
 Udipi for two years. Other mathas were established above the Ghats, 
 those in Mysore being at Sosile and Hole Narsipur. 
 
 The creed of the Madhvas is dvaita or duality, that is, they regard 
 jivdtina or the principle of life as distinct from Paranidtma or the 
 Supreme Being. Life is one and eternal, dependent upon the 
 Supreme and indissolubly connected with, but not the same with 
 him. Hence they reject the doctrine of wbksha in the sense of 
 al)Sorption into the universal spirit and loss of independent existence 
 after death. 
 
 The religious observances of the Madhvas consist in three methods 
 of devotion to Vishnu, namely, ankana, ndmakarana and bhajatia : or 
 marking the body with his .symbols, especially with a hot iron ; giving 
 his names to children, and other objects of interest ; and the practice 
 of virtue in word, act and thought. Truth, good council, mild 
 speaking, and study belong to the first ; liberality, kindness, and 
 protection to the second ; and clemenc\-, freedom from cnv\-, and faith 
 to the last. These ten duties form their moral code. 
 
 Sdtdnis. — -The caste system and supremacy of the Brahmans had 
 been rejected by Inisava and the i.ingayits for the Saivas. A similar 
 movement was later inaugurated for the \'aishnavas, giving rise in tlu- 
 north to widely i)()i)ular sects, and in the south to the Satanis. 
 
 Ramanand, a disciple descended from i\;im;inuja, about the end of the 
 fourteenth century, after travelling through various parts of India, was on
 
 478 A'E/J(;/ON 
 
 his return to his rnatha denied the privilege of eating with tlie other 
 disciples, on the ground that he had not observed the privacy in his meals 
 which is a vital observance with the Ramanujas or Sri Vaishnavas. He 
 was highly incensed, and, proceeding to Benares, established a sect of his 
 own, to whom he gave the name of Avadhuta or liberated, as holding that 
 all personal distinctions of rank or caste were merged in the holy character. 
 He had twelve disciples, of whom the most famous was Kabir, the weaver, 
 the popular reformer of Bengal. 
 
 In the same sect arose Chaitanya. He was born at Nadiya in 1485, and 
 was the son of a Brahman from Sylhet, but is represented as an incar- 
 nation of Krishna. At the age of twenty-four he abandoned his family and 
 domestic life, and began his career as a religious devotee and teacher. For 
 six years he travelled between Mathura and Jaganndth, teaching his 
 doctrines and acquiring followers, and finally settled at Nildchala or 
 Cuttack, where he remained eighteen years, engaging deeply in the 
 worship of Jagannath, to whose festival at Puri he seems to have com- 
 municated great energy and repute. Later, his intent meditation on 
 Krishna seems to have brought on mental derangement. He became 
 subject to visions and dreams, and died in 1534, at the age of forty-eight. 
 
 The Satanis derive their name either direct from him, or from 
 Satdnana, one of his chief disciples. The whole religious and moral 
 code of the sect is comprised in one word — hhakti — a term that 
 signifies a union of implicit faith with incessant devotion, and which 
 consists in the momentary repetition of any name of Krishna {fidrna 
 kirtana), under a firm belief that such a practice is sufficient for 
 salvation. The principle of devotion is exemplified and illustrated by 
 the mutual loves of Radha and Krishna. 
 
 The most popular religious observances connected with the Brah- 
 manical deities at the present time seem to be pilgrimages, and the 
 celebration of the annual car festivals, which are not, however, fre- 
 quented to the same extent as formerly. The maintenance of these 
 gatherings is no doubt greatly due to the combination of business with 
 religion. Traders from all parts eagerly carry their goods to a scene 
 where they are likely to meet with thousands of customers, and the 
 rural population are glad of the chance of purchasing wares which 
 they cannot so easily meet with at other times. Hence, apart from the 
 religious merit to be acquired, these occasions, which generally fall in 
 the season when there is no work in the fields, affords a pleasant 
 excitement to all. 
 
 For certain of the great temples there are touts sent all over the 
 country by the managers, to announce the dates of the feasts and to 
 secure pilgrims. The shrine of Tirupati in North Arcot is one of the 
 most celebrated, and is now easily reached by rail. The Subrahmanya
 
 ISLAM 479 
 
 festival and that of Chunchankatte are also very popular, as well as 
 those accompanied with cattle fairs at Nandi and Avani. The 
 Navaratri is the chief festival at Sringeri, the Vaira Mudi at Melukote, 
 the Tippa Rudra at Nayakanhatti : a list is given with each District in 
 "\^ol. II of the ■\^x\wz\\>':Ajdtres^ parishes and rathbtsavas. 
 
 The Hindu festivals most generally observed by all sects are the 
 Holi and the Dasara, which respectively mark the seasons of the 
 vernal and autumnal equinox ; the Pongal, at the time of the winter 
 solstice ; the Di'pavali, or feast of lights ; and the Yugadi or new year's 
 day. The Sivaratri, or watch-night of fasting, is kept by all the 
 adherents of Siva.' 
 
 Islam. — The commercial intercourse which existed from the 
 remotest times between the western coast and Arabia doubtless led to 
 a spread of Muhammadan influence into the neighbouring countries, 
 but the first appearance of Musalmans by land south of the ^'indhya 
 mountains was in 1294, in the invasion of Ala-ud-I)in, who captured 
 Devagiri. Their introduction into Mysore was probably in 13 10, when 
 Dorasamudra, the capital of the Hoysala kingdom, was taken by the 
 Muhammadan general Malik Kafur. There is a story that the Sultan's 
 daughter fell in love with the king Ballala from the reports of his 
 valour, and threatened to destroy herself unless married to him. 
 Eventually his sword was sent as his representative, with a due escort, 
 and to that the princess was formally wedded, and then joined the 
 king. They lived happily for ten years, after which he was induced, 
 by the consideration that he was a Rajput and she of inferior caste, to 
 put her away, which provoked, it is said, the second invasion of 1326. 
 Under the Vijayanagar empire, the continued rivalry and struggles 
 between that power and the Bahmani and Bijapur Pathan kingdoms 
 gave occasion for the further introduction of Islam into Mysore. But 
 it was in 1406, in the reign of Deva Raya, who, as elsewhere related, 
 gave his dauglitcr in marriage to Firoz Shah, that Musalmans were 
 first enlisted into the ^'ijayanagar army. The Raja built them a 
 mosque, and had the Koran pkaced before his throne in order to 
 receive their obeisance, which they refused to make to him as an 
 idolater, but wilHngly made to tlieir sacred book. Subsequently, about 
 1560, a Musalman force from Bijapur assisted the usurper Tirumal 
 Rao, and a little later the \'ijayanagar army helped ]5ijapur against 
 Ahmadnagar. 
 
 The permanent settlement of .Musalmans in Mysore may be assigned 
 with certainty to the time, first, of the I'ijapur con(]iiL'St untler Ran- 
 (lulha Khan in 1637, and second, to the Mughal concjuest under 
 ' The roligitnis endowments arc noticed elsewhere.
 
 48o RELIGION 
 
 Khasiiii Khan in 1687 and the formation of the Province of Sira. By 
 settlement, conquest, and conversions there were considerable numbers 
 of Muhammadans employed in the military and other services in the 
 territories of Mysore, Bednur, Chitaldroog and other provinces at the 
 time of Haidar Ali's usurpation in 1761. A Nevayet commanded the 
 forces of Bednur in the decisive battle of Mayakonda in 1 748, when 
 Madakeri Nayak fell, and Chanda Sahib, whose cause he had espoused, 
 was taken prisoner, his son being also slain. Under Haidar Ali there 
 was doubtless a considerable accession to the Musalman ranks, by 
 forcible conversion of captives in war and other means ; but the dark 
 and intolerant zeal of Tipu Sultan made the cause of Islam a pretext 
 for the most terrible persecutions and degradation, with the avowed 
 object of extinguishing every other form of belief. The chapter on 
 Ethnography shows the present numbers of the Muhammadan subjects 
 of Mysore, with other particulars regarding them. 
 
 It is unnecessary in this work to give an account of the life of 
 Muhammad, or of the tenets and propagation of the religion established 
 by the Arabian prophet in the seventh century. They are contained 
 in every general history. Its fundamental idea is entire submission of 
 the will to God. Faith {imdn) includes belief in one God, and in 
 Muhammad as his prophet ; also in the Koran and its teachings. 
 Practical religion {din) consists of the following observances : — recital 
 of the kalma or formula of belief, prayer with ablutions, fasting, alms- 
 giving, pilgrimage, especially to Mecca {haJJ). The kalma or creed 
 sums up the belief in one sentence : — " There is no God but God, and 
 Muhammad is God's prophet." Four revelations are acknowledged, 
 namely, those given to Moses, to David, to Jesus, and to Muhammad, 
 but the last is final and implicitly to be believed under the severest 
 penalties. Prayer is enjoined daily, at five stated times. The chief 
 season of fasting is the month of Ramzan, when thirty days of 
 abstinence are observed. The Muharram, properly a season of 
 lamentation, is generally kept here as a festival. The principal other 
 public feasts are the Bakr-id and Shube-barat. 
 
 Christianity. — Christianity was introduced into the south of India, 
 on the ^Malabar coast, in the first century, perhaps by St. Thomas the 
 Apostle.' The tradition is that he suffered martyrdom at the Little 
 Mount, near Madras, in consequence of a tumult raised against him at 
 Mailapur (San Tome or St. Thome, a suburb of Madras).- Whatever 
 
 ' According to another version, by St. Bartholomew. 
 
 ' Marco Polo, who visited the place in the thirteenth century, was told the story 
 of the death of St. Thomas as follows : — " The Saint was in the wood outside his 
 hermitage saying his prayers ; and round him w ere many peacocks, for these are
 
 CHRISTIANITY 48 1 
 
 amount of truth there may be in that account, his visit to this country 
 seems borne out Ijy the following evidence, namely, by the Acta Thonia:, 
 a work which is attributed by Dr. Haug to the end of the second 
 century, and is mentioned by Epiphanius, Bishop of Salamis, in 368 ; 
 by the Teaching of the Apostles, a Syriac document older than the 
 Nicene Council of 325 ; and by the connection which was kept up 
 between the early Christians of Malabar and the church of Edessa in 
 Persia, of which St. Thomas is said to have been the first apostolic 
 overseer and director. Alfred the Creat of England sent ambassadors 
 with presents to the shrine of St. Thomas in India in the ninth century. 
 
 The existence of the early Christian communities of the western 
 coast rests upon trustworthy evidence. Passing over the statement by 
 Eusebius and Jerome that Pantainus visited India in the second 
 century and found there a Christian community who possessed the 
 Cospel of St. Matthew in Hebrew, Cosmas Indicopleustcs informs us 
 that there was a Christian bishop in the sixth century at Kalyana, near 
 Udupi ; and it is known from existing grants that in their first colony 
 at Cranganore the Christians were privileged before the ninth century 
 to elect their own chief, but acknowledged the supremacy of the 
 Cochin Rdja. A further proof of the settlement of Christians is found 
 in the crosses with Pahlavi inscriptions, probably of the seventh or 
 eighth century, which have been found at the Mount near Madras, and 
 at Kottayam in Travancore.^ These communities were known as 
 Nestorians, and still exist under the name of Syrian (Christians. 
 
 The close connection of the greater part of Mysore with Malabar 
 and the west coast, affords ground for supposing that Christian 
 influences may even at that early period have been extended to this 
 
 more plentiful in that country than anywhen; else. And one of the idolaters of that 
 country, having gone with his how and arrows to shoot peafowl, not seeing the 
 Saint, let fly an arrow at one of the peacocks, and this arrow struck the holy man in 
 the right side, insomuch that he died of the wound, sweetly addressing himself to his 
 Creator."— Yule's J/rtn-o Polo, Bk. Ill, ch. XVIII. 
 
 ' It is remarkable that the localities al)ove-mentioned should have been those 
 which gave birth to the great Hindu religious reformers, for Sankaracharya was lK)rii 
 near Cranganore, Ramanujacharya near Madras, and Madhvacharya near Udupi. It 
 seems probable, therefore, in the absence of any other testimony, that much of the 
 philosophy of the modern \'edanta sects of Southern India comes from some form of 
 Ciiristiaiiity derived from the Persians. Dr. Burnell, who has made these suggestions, 
 adds: — " I'atriotic Hindus will hardly like the notion that their greatest modern 
 jihilosophers have borrowed from Christianity ; but as ihey cannot give an historical 
 or credible account of the origin of these Vedanlist sects, there is more than a strong 
 ]iresumption in its favour, for these doctrines were certainly unknown to India in 
 \cdic or Buddhistic times." On the other hand, M. Barth considers that Islamism 
 introduced by Arab merchants to the western coast may also have indirectly con- 
 trilaued lu the promotion of these great religious reforms. — Rel. of Itid., 211. 
 
 I I
 
 482 RELIGION 
 
 country. IJut coming down to a later period, the intimate relations 
 which existed between the Bijapur state and the Portuguese settle- 
 ments at Goa are well known, and it is from the capture of Ooa by 
 Albuquerque in 1508, and the establishment there not long after of the 
 Inquisition, that the foundation of the Roman Catholic church in 
 Southern India dates. There is a statement that a Christian was 
 divan at Vijayanagar in 1445, and through the Bijapur conquest of the 
 north and east of Mysore some Christian influence must have found 
 its way hither, especially in connection with the labours of Francis 
 Xavier, the zealous disciple of Ignatius Loyola, though whether either 
 he or John de Britto visited Mysore is uncertain. 
 
 The oldest Christian mission to Mysore war> the Roman Catholic, in 
 the middle of the seventeenth century. Little is known of its origin, 
 except that the priests by whom the Canarese mission was founded 
 came from Coimbatore (where a mission had been established by a 
 Jesuit), through the wild tracts of jungle on the borders of the Kaveri, 
 and established congregations, the descendants of whom are still to be 
 found, in a few villages in the south-east. On one spot is pointed out 
 a ruined chapel marked by four large stones, on which are inscriptions, 
 dated 1704, authenticating the gift of the land to "the Sanyasis of 
 Rome." 
 
 Before the time of Haidar a church was built in Seringapatam for a 
 Canarese congregation, and another at Kankanhalli, the site of which 
 is known, though there are now no Christians there. Among others, 
 established in the west, was one at Heggadadevankote, of which 
 tradition relates that the priest who built the chapel was beaten to 
 death by the natives. In the east, a Telugu mission was established in 
 1702, by two French Jesuits, named Boucher and Manduit, from 
 Vellore, who built chapels at Bangalore, Devanhalli, Chik Ballapur and 
 other places. The progress of the missions received severe checks 
 from the suppression of the Jesuits, which stopped the supply of 
 missionaries ; and from the fanatical persecution of Tipu, who was 
 determined, if possible, to extirpate Christianity from his dominions.^ 
 By his orders almost all the churches and chapels were razed to the 
 ground, with two remarkable exceptions — one a'small chapel at Grama 
 
 ' Verj- (lifterenl was Haidar's treatment of the missionary Swartz, who was sent 
 by Sir Thomas Rumbold, Governor of Madras, to Seringapatam in 1778 with a 
 message of peace {see above, p. 392), and who took the opportunity of preaching 
 wherever he could. The tablet to the memory of Swartz in the church at Fort St. 
 George says : — Hyder Ally Cawn, in the midst of a bloody and vindictive war with 
 the Carnatic, sent orders to his officers, " Permit the Venerable Father Swartz to 
 pass unmolested, and show him respect and kindness, for he is a holy man and means 
 no harm to my government."
 
 ABBE DUBOIS 483 
 
 near Hassan, which was preserved by a .Muhammadan officer, and the 
 other, that in the Fort of Seringapatam, which was protected by the 
 Native Christian troops under their commander Siirappa. 
 
 On the fall of Seringapatam, the Abbe Dubois, then in the south, 
 was invited to Seringapatam by the Catholic congregation there. This 
 remarkable man had escaped from one of the fusillades of the French 
 Revolution and sought refuge in India. On entering on mission work 
 he resolved to follow the example illustriously set by de Xobili and 
 Beschi, of adopting the native costume and accommodating himself to 
 the customs and mode of life of the country. 
 
 •' During the long period," he states, " that I remained amongst the 
 natives, I made it my constant rule to live as they did, conforming exactly 
 in all things to their manners, to their style of living and clothing, and even 
 to most of their prejudices. In this way I became quite familiar with the 
 various tribes that compose the Indian nation, and acquired the confidence 
 of those whose aid was most necessary for the purpose of my work." The 
 influence he thus acquired is testified to by Major Wilks, who says :— " Of 
 the respect which his irreproachable conduct inspires, it may be sufficient 
 to state that, when travelling, on his approach to a village, the house of a 
 Brahman is uniformly cleared for his reception, without interference and 
 generally without communication to the officers of Government, as a 
 spontaneous mark of deference and respect." 
 
 He was the founder of the church at Mysore, and of the Christian 
 agricultural community of Sathalli near Hassan, and laboured in the 
 Mysore for twenty-two years. ^ He wrote a well known work on The 
 People of India, the manuscript of which was purchased by the British 
 (rovernment. He is also said to have introduced vaccination into the 
 Province." He left India in 1823, the Oovernment paying his passage 
 and giving him a pension. 
 
 1 On his reUirii Uj France he l)ecanie ihe lieail of ihe Missions Klrangeres in I'aris, 
 and died universally respected in 1848. 
 
 ■■^ The death of Chania Raja from small-pox had directed special attenlion to the 
 recent wonderful discovery of Jenner, and the Asiatic Annual Ki\i,nsler contains the 
 following interesting extract on the subject from the proceedings of the Madras 
 Ciovernment in June 1809 : — 
 
 His Lordship in Council being impressed with confidence that the example of a 
 government which is administered on principles so enlightened as those of the 
 government of Mysore, will not fail to have a salutary influence on the minds of the 
 natives of this country, it is deemed jiroper that the event which has l)een announced 
 should be made generally known ; and his lordship has been accordingly, under that 
 impression, induced to jjublish the following extract of a letter from the Dewan of 
 .Mysore, stating the circumstances which have attended it : — 
 
 Extract of a Letter from the Deivan of Mysore, dated \Oth of May. 
 
 " The Ranee having determined to celebrate the nujitials of the Maha Raja, 
 deferred the ceremony merely because the young bride ha<l never had the small-|K)x. 
 
 I I 2
 
 484 RELIGION 
 
 Till 1848 there were only two priests for the whole of Mysore, one 
 at Bangalore and one at Scringapatam. In 1852, Mysore, Coorg, and 
 Wainad, were formed into a Vicariate Apostolic, with head-quarters at 
 Bangalore. In 1887 the hierarchy was proclaimed in India, and the 
 countries above mentioned, with the addition of the taluqs of Hosur 
 (Salem district) and Kollegal (Coiml)atore district), were erected into a 
 Bishopric, under the title of the Diocese of Mysore, the head-quarters 
 remaining at Bangalore as before. There are in Bangalore a cathedral 
 for luiropeans and Eurasians, and four churches for natives. The out- 
 stations of the diocese arc divided into sixteen districts, of which 
 eleven are in the Mysore country, the latter under the ministration of 
 between twenty and thirty European priests, appointed by the Society 
 of Foreign Missions in Paris, and several native priests. There is a 
 large number of schools, both for boys and girls, the most important of 
 the former being St. Joseph's College at Bangalore, teaching up to the 
 B.A. standard, with a staff of ten priests and twenty other masters. 
 Nuns of the order of the Good Shepherd of x\ngers have a convent at 
 Bangalore and a large girls' school, with branches of both at Mysore. 
 There are also a Magdalen asylum and orphanages, both male and 
 female, in Bangalore and other places. Connected with the Mission is 
 St. Martha's Hospital at Bangalore, an institution on a large scale, with 
 an Eye Infirmary attached ; and nuns act as nurses in the Civil 
 hospitals both at Bangalore and Mysore. Agricultural farms, with 
 villages populated chiefly by famine orphans, have been established at 
 Siluvepura (Nelamangala laluq) and Mariapura (Kankanhalli taluq). 
 The Catholic population of Mysore, according to the census of 1891, 
 is 26,518, of whom five per cent, are Europeans, six per cent. Eurasians, 
 and the remainder natives. 
 
 Loudon Mission. — The first Protestant mission to the Canarese 
 people seems to have been established at Bellary by the London 
 
 — I communicated the cause of the delay to Major Wilks, who recommended an 
 operation invented by some skilful physician of England, and lately introduced into 
 his country, which alleviates the violence of this pernicious disease. — The operation 
 was accordingly performed by the Resident's surgeon, and in consequence six mild 
 jiustules appeared on the young bride, who soon after recovered. — The Ranee 
 expressed her extreme astonishment at a remedy so easy and surprising for a malady 
 so deleterious ; a remedy which, until now, was unknown in these regions. — She was 
 made very happy thereby, and determined that the nuptials should be celebrated 
 within the year." 
 
 His Lordship in Council trusts that the publication of the preceding extract will 
 evince the continued desire with which this government is actuated in the encourage- 
 ment of the vaccine practice ; and, above all, that it will hold forth to all persons in 
 India an interesting and illustrious example, of the safety with which that practice 
 may be extended.
 
 PROTESTANT MISSIONS 485 
 
 Missionary Society. Thence, in 1820, operations were commenced 
 in Bangalore by the Revs. Laicller and Forbes, and in 1839 extended 
 to Mysore; but in 1850 the latter station was given up. From the 
 commencement, the efforts of the Mission have been devoted to public 
 preaching in Bangalore and the surrounding country, and to literary 
 and educational work. The valuable dictionaries — Carnataca-English, 
 and English-Carnataca, — the only works of the kind then in existence, 
 were the production of the Rev. W. Reeve of this Mission. And the 
 same gentleman, in conjunction with the Revs. J. Hands and W. 
 Campbell, were the translators of the earliest version of the Canarese 
 Bible, for the printing of which Canarese type was first cast, under the 
 direction of Mr. Hands. A new translation was subseciuenlly made, 
 in which the Revs. B. Rice and C. Campbell had a large share, and 
 this has been recently revised by a committee composed of missionaries 
 from various Missions. Native female education is especially indebted 
 to the ladies of this Mission (Mrs. Rice and Mrs. Sewell), who opened 
 the first Canarese girls' schools in 1840. 
 
 The agency now includes five European missionaries with one lad) 
 missionary and two European lay evangelists, and four native ministers 
 with seven native evangelists. Of the native ministers, one is in charge of 
 the Canarese church formed in the Bangalore Petta, and another of 
 the Tamil church in the Cantonment. The principal out-station is at 
 Chik Ballapur ; but there are out-stations at Malur, Anekal, and other 
 places east and north from Bangalore. There are a large number of 
 children under instruction in the Mission schools, both boys and girls. 
 The principal institution is the High School (established in 1847 in 
 Bangalore) and its branches, educating up to the standard of 
 matriculation at the Madras University. 
 
 The W'cskyan Mission commenced its work in the Mysore country 
 in 1822, but for many years the missionaries laboured only among the 
 Tamil people of the Cantonment of Bangalore. The Canarese Mission 
 was begun in Bangalore in 1835. The following year a lengthened tour 
 through Mysore and Coorg was undertaken by two of the missionaries 
 (Revs. Hodson and l'"ranklin), and suitable stations were selected. 
 Cubbi was made the residence of a missionary in 1837, and a consider- 
 able number of populous villages in the neighbourhood were brought 
 under Christian instruction. In 1839 a circuit was established in llu- 
 city of Mysore, and at various times other circuits in the prin( ipal 
 towns, the number now being forty. 
 
 The Mission employs thirteen European missionaries and six 
 native ministers, with four European and forty-three native evangelists. 
 There are 3,724 adherents, of whom 1,486 arc church members.
 
 4<S6 RELIGION 
 
 T'lc Wcslcyans have 125 schools, with ^,756 pupils, and 376 
 teachers. 
 
 Many of the missionaries are employed almost daily in i)reaching in 
 the open air, as well as on certain days in chapels and school-rooms. 
 Others are engaged in schools. The educational operations of the 
 Mission have been attended with much success, and until the forma- 
 tion of the Government Educational Department in 1857, the English 
 instruction of native youth was entirely in their hands. An institution 
 at Bangalore, established in 1836, was made a first-class institution from 
 1851, and this High School, with one established at Mysore in 1854, 
 are still carried on, teaching up to the University entrance standard. 
 The Hardwicke College at Mysore is for sons of native Christians. 
 
 To the printing establishment of the Mission, set up at Bangalore 
 in 1840, the Canarese people are much indebted. Here, in 1848, were 
 perfected by the Revs. J. Garrett and T. Hodson, in conjunction with 
 Mr. Watt, a type-founder in England, a variety of improvements in 
 Canarese type, resulting in a great saving of time and labour, and by 
 the introduction of spaces between the words promoting facility in 
 reading. A Canarese translation of the Bhagavad Gita was printed in 
 the new type, and subsequently a portable edition of Reeve's Canarese- 
 English Dictionary, edited by the Rev. D. Sanderson of this Mission. 
 The Canarese Bible, in the new translstion of which this gentleman 
 took an important share, and a great number of other useful 
 publications issued from this Press. In 1872 the Mission disposed of 
 the establishment to a private person ; but they have a press at Mysore, 
 since 1890, from which are issued a m.onthly periodical, called the 
 Harvest Field, and a vernacular newspaper. 
 
 The Churcli of Englaiid vs, represented by three chaplains, one other 
 clergyman, and one S.P.G. missionary in Bangalore, and one chaplain 
 at Mysore, all under the Bishop of Madras. Their work lies prin- 
 cipally among the military and the European residents, but the 
 chaplains in Bangalore visit the Remount I )ep6t at Hosur, the railway 
 officials at Arsikere, and Europeans at the Kolar gold-fields, while the 
 chaplain of Mysore makes periodical tours to Coorg and to important 
 places in the planting districts. The number of churches on the 
 establishment is six, and the number of persons returned in the census 
 as belonging to the Church of England is 5,366, of whom sixty-five 
 per cent, are Europeans, and twenty-five per cent. Eurasians. There 
 are large schools, the principal being Bishop Cotton's school for boys 
 and girls at Bangalore, and an orphanage. 
 
 The Church of Scotland has a Kirk and good schools at Bangalore, 
 under the care of a chaplain, who also visits Coorg once a year.
 
 PROTESTANT MISSIONS 487 
 
 Methodist Episcopal Church. — Since 1880 two American Methodist 
 Episcopal churches have been estabhshed in Bangalore, chiefly for the 
 Anglo-Indian and Eurasian population, and the Baldwin schools for 
 boys and girls are important institutions maintained by this Mission. 
 There is also an orphanage at Kolar. 
 
 Church of England Zenana Mission. — This has been at work for 
 several years in Bangalore, and the ladies belonging to it visit 
 principally among Musalman families. A large hospital for women has 
 lately been erected in connection with the Mission. 
 
 There are also two small communities of Baptists and a Leipzig 
 Lutheran Mission in Bangalore, and some Brethren in Malavalli.
 
 488 
 
 LANGUAGE and LITERATURE 
 
 The distinctive language of Mysore is Kannada — -the Karnataka of 
 the Sanskrit pandits and the Canarese of European writers,^ the latter 
 name {see Hobson Jobson) being the Canarijs of the Portuguese. It 
 is one of the family of South Indian languages,- on which the name 
 I )ravidian has been bestowed ;' but Karnataka seems to have been a 
 generic term originally applied to both Kannada and Telugu, though 
 now confined to the former. The South Indian languages may there- 
 fore be conveniently described as forming two branches of one family — • 
 the northern or Karnataka, and the southern or Dravida, the two 
 being separated by the foot of the Ghat ranges, or a line running along 
 their base from a little north of Mangalore on the western coast, 
 through Coimbatore, to a little north of Madras on the east coast. 
 
 The derivation of Karnata, and its qiiasi adjectival form Karnataka, 
 is unknown, but it is the only name for a South Indian people used in 
 Sanskrit writers which appears not to be Sanskrit. Dr. Gundert has 
 proposed kar ndd, " the black country,"' as the original form of 
 Karnata, in allusion to the black cotton soil of the plateau of the 
 southern Dekhan. Sir Walter Elliot was inclined to connect it with 
 Kama or Kami, as in Satakarni, the family name of the early rulers 
 before and after the Christian era."* Kannada is supposed by the native 
 grammarians to be a tadbhava formed from Karnata. Kan itself is said 
 in the Rev. Y. Kittel's Dictionary to mean blackness.^ The name 
 
 * Telugu is spoken in the east of Mysore ; Tamil by camp-followers and body- 
 servants of Europeans ; it is also the house language of Sri Vaishnava Brahmans, but 
 they can neither read nor write it. Hindustani is the common language in use among 
 Musalmans. The following are the proportions in which these several languages are 
 spoken in Mysore, as stated in the census report of India for 1891 : — Kannada, 73*94 ; 
 Telugu, I5'I9 ; Tamil, 3"22 ; Hindustani, 473. In Coorg 43*99 per cent, of the 
 population speak Kannada; in the Madras country, 4'o6 ; in Haidarabad, I2'58 ; in 
 the Bombay country, 15 "59 ; and in the native states under Bombay, 7 '25. 
 
 - The other chief ones are Telugu or A'ndhra ; and Tamil or Dravida, which is 
 called Arava (ill-sounding) by the Mysoreans, as well as by the Telugu people. 
 Malayalam may be considered an off-shoot from Tamil. 
 
 ^ By Dr. Caldwell, who considers Dravida or Tamil as the representative of the 
 group. 
 
 * Nitmisviata Orientalia, " Coins of Southern India," p. 21. 
 
 * Mr. C. P. Brown, with his usual versatility, has striven to get a clue from the 
 name of Canada, the British Dominion in North America, which, according to him, 
 is a name unknown to the aborigines, and supposed to mean ca-nada, " we have
 
 LANGUAGE 489 
 
 Karnata occurs as far back as the beginning of the fifth century, in 
 ^'arahamihira.' It is also used by Alberuni, who wrote in about 1030, 
 as if a general term for the South. T'or, in describing the limits within 
 which a Brahman might reside, he says : " He is obliged to dwell 
 between the river Sindh in the north and the river Charmanvati (the 
 Chambal) in the south. He is not allowed to cross either of these 
 frontiers so as to enter the country of the Turks or of the Karnata. 
 . Further, he must live between the ocean in the east and west."-' 
 
 The limits within which the Kannada proper is spoken comprise the 
 plateau of Mysore, Coorg, the Nilgiris, Coimbatore, Salem, Bellary, the 
 southern Mahratta country, the west of the Nizam's dominions, and 
 Canara. A\'ilks thus defines the region, but omitted the last, which is 
 added in I)rackets. 
 
 The noithern limits commence near the town of Bcder, in lat 18 45' N., 
 about 60 miles N.W. from Haidarabad ; following the course of t'ne language 
 to the S.E., it is found to be limited by a waving line which nearly touches 
 Adoni, winds to the west of Gutti, skirts the town of Anantapur, and passing 
 exactly through Nandidroog, touches the range of Eastern Ghats ; thence, 
 pursuing their southern course to the mountainous pass of Gajalhatti, it 
 continues to follow the abrupt turn caused by the great chasm of the western 
 hills between the towns of Coimbatore, Palachi and Palghat ; and sweeping 
 to the N.W., skirts the edges of the precipitous Western (Jhats [to a point 
 about opposite Mangalore, whence it follows the coast line to Carwar, and 
 again goes with the Ghats] nearly as far north as the sources of the 
 Krishna ; whence following an eastern and afterwards a north-eastern 
 course, it terminates in rather an acute angle near Beder, already described 
 as its northern limit. 
 
 The following dialects of Kannada are also spoken in the south : — 
 
 Kodagu, Kudagii or Coorg, in the principality of that name ; 
 
 Tulu or TuUiva, in South Canara ; 
 
 Tuda or Toda, the language of the people of that name in the Nilgiris ; 
 
 Kola, spoken by tlie tril)e so called in the iS'ilgiris ; 
 
 Kadaga, the speech of the jieople bearing that name in the Nilgiris. 
 
 nothing !" (6rt;-//. C/z/w/., App. 84). Hut Webster puts it down as an (American) 
 Indian word, meaning a collection of huts, a village, a town. 
 
 In the Mackenzie J/.S'.V. the derivation of Karnataka is gi\en as karna alaka, 
 " i)assing to the ears" of all men, and hence applied to " this honoured and renowned 
 country." The same derivation also appears in the Vis'vagtiuadars a, a work more 
 tlian 200 years old. 
 
 If a heterogeneous compound {arisaiiiasa) be permissible — of which there are many 
 examples, and for which there are special rules in the language— Karn.ila might 
 perhaps be karna tita, amusing or jileasing to the ear : the " sweet musical Canarese 
 of Colonel Meadows Taylor. 
 
 It is curious that A'annada-vakki, ox the Kannada bird, is a name of the parrot, 
 which is also called /aWi'/rt-iw/'/'/, or the learned bird. 
 
 ' Caldwell's Gram. Drav. Lan^., 34. - Albenints India, by Sachau, II, 134-
 
 Kaiinada or Canarcsc 
 
 .. 9,751.885 
 
 Kodagii or Coorg ... 
 
 37,218 
 
 Tulu 
 
 491,728 
 
 Toda or Tuda 
 
 736 
 
 Kota 
 
 1,201 
 
 Badaga 
 
 30,656 
 
 
 10,313,424 
 
 490 LANGUAGE 
 
 The numbers of the races speaking these languages and dialects are 
 
 estimated at ten millions and a third, 
 according to the statement in the 
 margin, taken from the census re- 
 turns of 1 89 1.' 
 
 The classical or literary dialect of 
 Kannada is called Pala-Gannada or 
 Hala-Gannada, that is Ancient or 
 Old Kannada, while the colloquial 
 or modern dialect is called Posa-Gannada or Hosa-Gannada, that is 
 New Kannada. The former differs from the latter, not — as classical 
 Telugu and Malayalam diff^er from the colloquial dialects of those 
 languages — by containing a larger infusion of Sanskrit derivatives, but 
 by the use of different inflexional terminations. In fact, the mongrel 
 introduction of Sanskrit or Sakkada words in combination with 
 Kannada words is strongly condemned by some of the principal old 
 writers, who denounce the practice as the mark of an imperfect educa- 
 tion. Nripatunga compares it to an unnatural union with an old 
 woman; Nayasena, to the mixing of ghi and oil — one of the most 
 pernicious adulterations of the bazaar ; and Nagavarma, to the stringing 
 of pearls along with peppercorns."- In those old inscription.s, moreover, 
 which display the most literary skill, we find separate verses in Sanskrit 
 and in Kannada interspersed with one another, according to the oppor- 
 tunities afforded by the theme, in such a way as greatly to heighten the 
 general effect. But though the terms above given may serve to indicate 
 the two main divisions of the language, the classical dialect had already 
 passed through an earlier stage, which may be designated Piir^-ada 
 Hala-Gannada, the Primitive or Earlier Old Kannada, which Wilks 
 tells us was the language of Banavasi, and therefore belongs to the 
 beginning of the Christian era and the S'atavuhana and Kadamba 
 period. Whether the Buddhist scholars in this part of the country 
 referred to in early Pali writings may have made use of this dialect we 
 have no means of knowing, or whether it was supposed to be exclusively 
 appropriated by the Jainas and so concerned with their Purvas. Hala- 
 Gannada, as we know it, arose out of this ancient source in about the 
 eighth century, perhaps at the time when the Rashtrakiitas gained the 
 ascendancy over the Chalukyas. It was highly cultivated by a 
 succession of gifted Jaina authors in the centuries following, which 
 form the Augustan age of Kannada literature. A writer of the twelfth 
 
 ' Telugu is spoken by 19,885,137; Tamil by 15,229,759; and Malayalam by 
 5,428,250 : these are the figures of the census of 1S91. 
 
 - For references, see my Introduction to the Karnataka-BMsha-Bhiishanam.
 
 WKITTEX CHARACTER 491 
 
 century states that he had composed his work in the new Hosa- 
 Gannada.^ This, therefore, is the very earh'est period to which the rise 
 of the modern form of the language can be assigned, but its general 
 adoption was a good deal later. 
 
 There are also certain other terms used in some writers to describe 
 component elements of Kannada, which are not easy to identify. Thus 
 we have mention oi behi-Ga7inada, or white Kannada; te/u-Gannada, 
 clear Kannada ; and olu-Gannada, local or home Kannada. But the 
 name of universal application for pure Kannada is achcha-Gannada ; 
 the well of Kannada undefiled, and all the terms are apparently efforts 
 to express composition that was clear and perspicuous, as opposed to a 
 certain obscurity which seems to have been chargeable on the oldest 
 forms of the language. 
 
 The written character which is common to Kannada and Telugu, 
 and which spread over the south and was carried even to Java, is 
 derived, through that of the cave inscriptions in the west of the 
 peninsula, from the south As'oka character, or that of all his inscriptions 
 except in the extreme north-west of the Punjab. It belongs to about 
 250 B.C., prior to which date no specimens of writing have been 
 discovered in India, though there are numerous earlier allusions to 
 writing. This ancient alphabet has lately been satisfactorily proved by 
 Dr. Biihler to be of Semitic origin. It is properly called the Brahiiii 
 lipi, and was introduced into India probably about 800 u.c.- The 
 same scholar has also shown that the north As'oka alphabet, or 
 Kharoshthi, written from right and left (the use of which is confined to 
 the extreme north-west of the Punjab, though very curiously one word 
 in that character occurs in the As'oka inscriptions found by me in 
 -Mysore), is derived from the Aramaic of the Akhaemenian period (the 
 sixth to the fourth century u.c), and was introduced by the 
 Persian satraps as their official hand. But it was always of secondary 
 importance, the Brahmi being the special Indian mode of writing.'* 
 
 " It may be accepted as a scientific fact," says Mr. Cust, " that all 
 the characters used in the East Indies can sooner or later be traced 
 back to the As'oka inscriptions, and through them to the Phtenician 
 nl[)hal)et, and thence backwards to the hieratic ideographs of the old 
 kingdom of Egypt, and thence to the venerable hieroglyphics of the 
 fourth dynasty."'' The i)criod assigned for the commencement of this 
 dynasty is 3700 D.c'' 
 
 The Kannada alphabet, as now arranged, corresponds with the 
 Sanskrit, l)ut with some additional characteristic letters. Thus, among 
 
 ' See Ind. Ant., XIV, 14. ^ Indian Studies, \ , X... 3. •' Ind. Ant., XXI\", 31 1. 
 ^ Mod. Lang, of the East Indies, 19. * Aeadeiny, 29 Ocl. 1892.
 
 492 LANGUAGE 
 
 the vowels, while Sanskrit has only long e and long o, Kannada has 
 both a short and a long form of each of these vowels : /-/, r'l, Iri^ Iri^ are 
 not Kannada. Of the consonants, according to Nagavarma, the 
 aspirated letters and two sibilants seem not to have belonged to the 
 language originally, namely, kha, gha, chha,jha, tha, dha, tha, dha, pha, 
 bha, s'a and sha. On the other hand, three consonants not in Sanskrit 
 are pure Kannada, namely, /a, ra, and la. Of these, only the first, 
 which corresponds with the Vedic /a, is now in use.^ The other two 
 are obsolete, though the ra is still used in Telugu. 
 
 The disappearance from Kannada literature, first of the la (perhaps 
 about the twelfth century), and subsequently of the ra (perhaps not till the 
 seventeenth century), serves to some extent to mark definite periods, and 
 is so far a guide in determining the date of manuscript works, especially 
 if in verse, as the requirements of the rhyme will show infallibly what 
 was the original letter used, though it may have been changed in tran- 
 scribing. Similarly there is what have been called the P and H periods, 
 words now spelt with the latter having formerly appeared with the 
 former, as J>osa, hosa ; Foysala, Hoysala ; &c. The different stages of 
 the language exhibit a change or transition in the forms of most of the 
 letters of the alphabet, especially the pure Kannada ones ; but these 
 again cannot be assigned so exactly to fixed dates as to be sufficient by 
 themselves for chronological purposes. 
 
 The relationship of the South Indian languages to the other grand 
 divisions of human speech is thus stated by Dr. Caldwell : — 
 
 " The Dravidian languages occupy a position of their own, between the 
 languages of the Indo-European family and those of the Turanian or Scythian 
 group — not quite a midway position, but one considerably nearer the latter 
 than the former. The particulars in which they accord with the Indo- 
 European languages are numerous and remarkable, and some of them are of 
 such a nature that it is impossible to suppose that they have been accidental ; 
 but the relationship to which they testify — in so far as they do testify to any 
 real relationship — appears to me very indefinite as well as very remote. On 
 the other hand, the particulars in which they seem to me to accord with 
 most of the so-called Scythian languages are not only so numerous but are 
 so distinctive and of so essential a nature that they appear to me to amount 
 to what is called a family likeness, and therefore naturally to suggest the 
 idea of a common descent. 
 
 " The Scythian family to which on the whole the Dravidian languages may 
 be regarded as most nearly allied is the Finnish or Ugrian, with some 
 special affinities as it appears to the Ostiak branch of that family ; and this 
 supposition derives some confirmation from the fact brought to light by 
 
 ' This is rather quaintly expressed, as follows, in one of the examples in the 
 S' abddiiHs dsana — Kannadigar la-kdraman odambattar.
 
 RELATIOXSHir 493 
 
 the Behistun t.iblcts that the ancient Scythic race, by which the greater 
 part of Central Asia was peopled prior to the irruption of the Medo- 
 Persians, belonged not to the Turkish, or to the Mongolian, but to the 
 Ugrian stock." 
 
 On the other hand the Indo-European relationship of the Dravidian 
 languages has been advocated by Dr. Pope on the ground of " deep- 
 seated and radical affinities between them and the Celtic and Teutonic 
 languages." Ikit Dr. Caldwell observes in reply that "of all the 
 members of the Indo-European family the Celtic is that which appears 
 to have most in common with the Scythian group, and especially 
 with the languages of the Finnish family — languages which may 
 })Ossibly have been widely spoken in Europe previously to the arrival 
 of the Celts." 
 
 Professor Max Miiller, who has placed Kannafja among the Turanian 
 languages, describes them as follows : — 
 
 " The most characteristic feature of tlic Turanian languages is what has 
 been called ai^j^li/tifiatifln, or ' gluing together.' This means not only that, 
 in their grammar, pronouns arc joined to the verbs in order to form the 
 conjugation, or prepositions to substantives in order to form declension ; 
 .... but that in them the conjugation and declension can still be taken to 
 pieces : and although the terminations have by no means always retained 
 their significative power as independent words, they are felt as modificatory 
 syllables, and as distinct from the roots to which they are appended. In 
 the Aryan languages the modifications of words, comprised under declension 
 and conjugation, were likewise originally expressed by agglutination. But 
 the component parts began soon to coalesce, so as to form one integral 
 word, liable in its turn to phonetic corruption to such an extent that it 
 became impossible after a time to decide which was the root and wliich the 
 modificatory element. The difference between an Aryan and a Turanian 
 language is somewhat the same as between good and bad mosaic. The 
 Aryan words seem made of one piece, the Turanian words clearly show the 
 sutures and fissures where the small stones are cemented together." 
 
 Professor Whitney has the following remarks on the subject : — 
 
 "The Dravidian tongues have some peculiar phonetic elements, are 
 richly polysyllabic, of general agglutinative structure, with prefixes only, and 
 very soft and harmonious in their utterance ; they are of a very high type of 
 agglutination, like the Finnish and Hungarian .... Excepting that they 
 show no trace of the harmonic sequence of vowels, these languages are not 
 in their structure so different from the Scythian that they might not belong 
 to one family with them, if only sufficient correspondences of material were 
 found between the two groups. And some have been ready, though on 
 grounds not to be accepted as sufficient, to declare them related." 
 
 The native grammarians, as is well known, deduce all the Intlian 
 languages from Sanskrit, through one or other of the Prakrits. Naga-
 
 494 LANGUAGE 
 
 varma, the earliest Kannada grammarian whose works have been dis- 
 covered, assumes the existence in India of three and a-half mother 
 languages — Samskrita, Prakrita, Apabhrams'a and Paisdchika'^ — and of 
 fifty-six daughter languages sprung from them — Dravida, A'ndhra, 
 Karnataka, &c. But Kannada, in common with the cognate languages 
 of the south, recognizes four classes of words as in current use for 
 hterary purposes — ta/scDiia, pure Sanskrit words ; tadbhava, Sanskrit 
 words changed to suit the language ; dcs'ya, indigenous words ; and 
 gnimya, provincialisms. To these a later classification adds a/yvz^tVjv?, 
 foreign words. Now the dis'ya class alone can be taken to represent 
 the pure language of the country, the real Kannada as distinguished 
 from what has been imported from Sanskrit or other sources. And 
 this view is borne out by the fact that the dcs'ya words not only include 
 all the terms expressive of primitive ideas and common names of things 
 connected with the earlier stages of society, but that they form the bulk 
 of the language, and furnish the model on which terms introduced 
 from other languages are framed. Imported expressions, therefore, 
 though largely used — especially by Brahmans, who venerate Sanskrit, 
 and who are now the principal literary class — for the purpose of 
 imparting a scholarly elegance to their composition, are not essential 
 to the culture of the language. 
 
 The first cultivators of the Kannada language for literary purposes 
 were the Jains, and down to the twelfth century we have none but Jaina 
 authors. For about two centuries after, though an occasional Brahman 
 writer appears, they were succeeded principally by Lingayit and S'aiva 
 authors, and from about the sixteenth century date numerous Brahmanical 
 and Vaishnava works. There were during these later periods some 
 compositions by Jains, but most of the literature of later times 
 originated with the other sects. The leading characteristic of the 
 Jaina earlier works is that they are champu kdtyas, or poems in a 
 variety of composite metres, interspersed with paragraphs in prose. 
 The Lingayits principally made use of the raga/e and shatpadi metres 
 of the more modern works, while the most recent compositions are 
 in yaksha gdna metre, and some in prose only. 
 
 The Ancient Kannada, as Mr. Kittel says,'- is quite uniform, and shows 
 an extraordinary amount of polish and refinement. Its principal character- 
 istics are the elaborate and highly artificial champu composition, — strict 
 adherence to the use of now more or less disused case- and tense-signs 
 (that towards the end of the period were fixed in grammatical treatises) and 
 to the rules of syntax,— perspicuity resulting therefrom— the use of classical 
 
 ' Perhaps called half a language because spoken only by barbarous tribes. 
 - Preface to Kannada- English Dictionary.
 
 DIALECTS 495 
 
 Sanskrit also specifically Jaina) words in their unaltered form whenever 
 desirable or necessary as an aid in composition, and that of a conventionally 
 received number of Azrt'M^ZT/rtj (Sanskrit words changed to suit the tongue 
 of the Kannada people), — the proper distinction between the letters /, r, /, 
 / and r, — alliteration carefully based also on this distinction, — and lastly 
 pleasing euphonic junction of letters. Mediaval KiDinadah^'g-xn to appear 
 as contained in the poetry of S'aiva and Lingdyit authors. It is, as a rule, 
 written in any one of the Shatpada metres, is somewhat negligent as to the 
 use of suffixes and the rules of syntax, and therefore occasionally ambiguous, 
 uses a few new suffixes, contains a number of tadbhavas not sanctioned by 
 previous authors, has entirely lost the letter / (using r or / in its stead), and 
 frequently changes the letter/ of the present or future verbal suffix and an 
 initial p into h. The transition to Modern Kannada, or the language of the 
 present day, is seen especially in the poetry of the Vaishnavas. Several 
 ancient verbs and nouns fell into disuse, the letter r began to be discarded, 
 at least so far as regards its proper position in alliteration, words borrowed 
 from Mahratti and Hindustani came into use, more frequent omission of 
 suffixes took place, etc. The Modern dialect comprises the present 
 Kannada of prose writings and of common conversation. Of these, the 
 first have two branches, one being tales, school-books and letters, and the 
 other, business proceedings (especially those of courts of justice). The 
 first branch differs from the second chiefly in so far as it is more exact in 
 the use of inflexional terminations and less abounding in Hindustani and 
 Mahratti. The language of ordinary conversation (excepting that of the 
 educated classes) may be called a union of the two branches that is less 
 particular in the choice of words, arbitrary about the use of suffixes, and at 
 the same time full of vulgarisms. Many words of the modern dialect also 
 are Sanskrit, especially such as are abstract, religious, or scientific terms. 
 The ancient form of the present tense has been changed, most verbal 
 suffixes have been somewhat altered, a few of the suffixes of nouns and pro- 
 nouns have ceased to be used, many verbs, nouns and particles have become 
 obsolete, and other verbs and nouns (based on existing roots) have been 
 formed. But in spite of this, of the introduction of much Hindustani and 
 Mahratti, of the lack of refinement, etc., the Modern dialect is essentially 
 one with the Ancient and the Mediicval. It is, however, not uniform, but 
 more or less varies according to localities. 
 
 On the history and extent of Kannada literature an immense 
 amount of light has been thrown in recent years. My researches had 
 brought into my hands a number of ancient manuscript works 
 previously unknown, an examination of the references in which, 
 combined with dates in some, enabled the preparation of a provisional 
 chronological table of authors. The results were communicated by me 
 to the Royal Asiatic Society in London in 1882, 1883 and 1890. loiter 
 and fuller information was separately published by me in this last year.' 
 
 ' In my IiUruduclion lo tlic Karnalaka-S' abdiinusWsanaiii. These researches
 
 496 LITER A TURK 
 
 The oldest work of which manuscripts have actually been oV)tained 
 is the Kavirdjamdrga of Nripatiinga, whiclt was composed in the ninth 
 century. But we have references which enable us to place the rise of 
 Kannada literature much farther back than this. In fact, there seems 
 reason to believe that Kannada was the earliest to be cultivated of all 
 the South Indian languages. Ancient inscriptions give us the initial 
 information on the subject. 
 
 The first notice we have of authorship is in connection with the 
 Ganga kings. Simhanandi, who helped to establish this dynasty, 
 perhaps in the second century, is classed as a great poet ; Madhava, the 
 second king, ruling in about the third century, is stated to have written 
 a commentary on the law of adoption : and Durvinita, the eighth 
 king, about the fifth century, is said to have had the celebrated Jaina 
 grammarian Piijyapada for his preceptor, and to have written a 
 commentary on a portion of Bharavi's poem, the Kiratarjuniya. Of 
 course it does not follow that any of these wrote in Kannada. But 
 it becomes not improbable from the fact that Nripatunga, in naming 
 Kannada authors who had preceded him, expressly mentions Uurvinita, 
 and as this is an uncommon name, most unlikely to be borne by other 
 persons, it may be concluded that he means the Ganga king. 
 
 Again, all the principal poets, in the introductory part of their works, 
 refer to Samantabhadra, Kaviparimeshthi and Pdjyapada, invariably in 
 this order, as forming the earliest and most distinguished trio among 
 the authors who preceded them. The first may, according to 
 tradition, be placed in about the second century. The second, whose 
 real name must have been Brahma, and who is probably the one 
 called Kavis'vara among the early Kannada poets named by Nripatunga, 
 must naturally be placed some time between the other two. Pujyapada 
 we have already seen belongs to about the fifth century. 
 
 We next have a very remarkable combination of statements. 
 Bhattakalanka, in his great grammar of the language, mentions the 
 Chiidamani, a work of no less than 96,000 verses, in terms of the 
 highest praise, as if it were the most important production in early 
 Kannada literature. Inscriptions^ further inform us that its author was 
 S'rivarddha, also called the Tumbulur-acharya, and that it displayed all 
 the graces of composition. Unfortunately no trace of the work has as yet 
 been discovered. The most interesting statement of all, however, is 
 
 have been followed up with real interest by Mr. R. Narasimhachari, M.A., now 
 Kannada Translator to the Education Department, and he has placed at my disposal 
 some notes prepared by him on the subject. I am glad, therefore, to be able to 
 incorporate the additional information thus supplied. 
 ' Sravan Belgola, No. 54 ; Mysore District, T.N. 105.
 
 EARL V A UTHORS 497 
 
 that S'rivarddha's eloquence was praised in a couplet by the celebrated 
 Sanskrit author Dandi, who is assigned by the principal Orientalists to 
 the sixth century. Hence S'rivarddha must have lived at or before that 
 time. Moreover, a work of such extent as his could neither have been 
 produced nor required unless there had pre-existed a considerable 
 literature in Kannada and a wide-spread culture of the language. 
 These considerations dispose of any objections that might be raised 
 against the dates previously given as being too early. 
 
 We next have mention of a Ravikirti in 634, whose fame equalled 
 that of Kdliddsa and Bharavi. Nripatunga also names as his 
 predecessors in Kannada composition, besides those given above, 
 Vimala, Udaya, Nagarjuna, Jayabandhu, S'rivijaya, Chandra, and 
 L6kapala. Of these, Vimala was probably Vimalachandra, whose 
 disciple Vadiraja was guru to the Ganga king Rachamalla. S'rivijaya 
 was praised by Vadiraja, and therefore came before him. Chandra 
 may be the Chandrabhatta mentioned by some later authors. 
 
 We now come to Nripatunga, and a more certain period, amply 
 illustrated by works that are extant. Nripatunga, or Amoghavarsha, 
 was a Rashtrakiita king, who, after an unusually long reign, from 814 to 
 877, voluntarily abdicated the throne. He evidently took a great 
 interest in the Kannada country, people and language. In his work 
 called Kavirajamdrga,' the subject of which is alankara (rhetoric or 
 elegant composition), he makes some interesting statements. "The 
 region which extends from the Kaveri as far as the G6davari," he says, 
 " is the country in which Kannada is spoken, the most beautiful land 
 in the circle of the earth. In the central parts thereof, situated 
 between Kisuvolal, the famous great city of Kopana, Puligere, and the 
 justly celebrated Onkunda, is found the pith {tiru/) of high Kannada." 
 Of these places, the first is the modern Pattadakal in Kaladgi district, 
 Kopana is probably Kopal in the south-west of the Nizam's Dominions, 
 Puligere is Lakshmes'vara in the Miraj State, and Onkunda, perhaps 
 Vakkunda, in Belgaum district. The region indicated, owing to the 
 numerous vicissitudes through which it has passed, is far from being 
 regarded at the present day as the seat of the purest Kannada, which 
 is more probably to be found in Mysore. Nripatunga also praises the 
 Kannada people as having by nature an ear for poetry, and as speaking 
 in a rhythmical manner, though quite unstudied. He states Kannada, 
 moreover, to be a much more difficult language in which to compose 
 poetry than either Sakkada (San.skrit) or Pagada (Prakrit). 
 
 Gunabhadra, preceptor of Nripatunga's son Krishna while yet yuva- 
 
 • Now going through the press, under my <hrcclion, as well as the I'amixi Bharala 
 (see next page). 
 
 K K
 
 498 LITERATURE 
 
 raja, is mentioned by later writers ; but the next poet whose works we 
 actually have is Pampa, who wrote the Adi Purdna and the Vikramar- 
 juna-vijaya in 941. The latter is also known as the Pampa Bharata. 
 In it, Pampa's patron, a Chdlukya prince named Arik^sari, is identified 
 with Arjuna and made the hero. These two works seem to have given 
 a great impetus to Kannada composition. " In the pithy {tirula) 
 Kannada^ of Puligere,' the royal city," says the poet, "did he write, 
 naturally and without effort ; thus his Bharata and Adi Purana put all 
 former poems under their feet. . He completed the one in six months 
 and the other in three months, . , and they were read by all classes 
 of people, by servants as well as by the greatest poets." Pampa was the 
 son of a Brahman from the Vengi country who had embraced Jainism. 
 
 It is impossible in this place to do more than briefly name some of 
 the principal Kannada writers who followed, and their chief works, with 
 dates where they are known. 
 
 In the tenth century we have Asaga ; Ponna, author of the S'anti 
 Purana, who claims to be superior to all other poets in command of 
 both Kannada and Sakkada, excelling a hundred-fold Asaga in the 
 former and Kalidasa in the latter, while in style he was fourfold both 
 combined : he received a title from the Rashtrakiita king Krishna 
 (probably Krishna or Kannara Akalavarsha, tuling 939 to 968). He 
 was a Brahman who had become a Jaina. In 978 we have Chamunda 
 Raya, author of the Chamunda Raya Purana, an excellent specimen 
 of prose composition of that period. In 993 came Ranna, author of 
 the Ajita Purana (which he was emulous should endure as long as the 
 Adi Purana and S'anti Purana above mentioned) and of Sahasa-Bhima- 
 vijaya, also called Gada-yuddha,- the hero of which is the Chalukya 
 prince Satyas'raya. He was of the bangle-sellers' caste and received 
 a title from the Chalukya king Tailapa (973 to 997). At the same 
 time as the two preceding we have Nagavarma, all three having had 
 as their preceptor Ajitasena, guru of the Ganga king Rachamalla. 
 This Nagavarma, apparently a younger brother of Chamunda Raya, 
 was the author of Chhandombudhi (the first work and chief authority 
 in the language on prosody),' and of Kadambari,^ a close version of 
 Bana's work in Sanskrit. There is reason to suppose that he was not 
 strictly orthodox as a Jain. His brother, by the erection of the 
 colossal statue of Gomata at S'ravana Belgola, and by reputation, was 
 one of the greatest upholders of the Jaina faith. 
 
 ' See above, under Nripatunga. ^ Lately published in Mysore. 
 
 3 Published by Mr. Kittel at Mangalore in 1S75, under the title of Nagavarma s 
 Canarese Prosody, 
 
 ^ Published in Mysore, by B. Mallappa, Headmaster of the Maharaja's Kannada 
 School.
 
 TWELFTH CEXTURY 499 
 
 In the eleventh century may perhaps be placed Gunavarma, author 
 of a Harivams'a, and Chandraraja, author of Madana-tilaka. The 
 latter would appear to be the first Brahman who composed a work in 
 Kannada. His patron was Recha (or Macha), a general under the 
 Chalukya prince Jayasimha. There are not many names in this 
 century, probably owing to the check caused by the Chola invasions. 
 
 The twelfth century, when Mysore was restored to Kannada rule 
 under the Hoysalas, seems to have been specially prolific in Kannada 
 works of high excellence. Nayasena, author of Dharmamrita ; Ndga- 
 chandra or Abhinava Pampa, author of Ramachandra Charita Purdna 
 (also known as the Pampa Ramayana),^ and of Mallinatha Purdna'-; 
 Aggala, author of Chandraprabha Purana ; Karnaparya, author of 
 Neminatha Purana ; Nemichandra, author of a romance called Lilavati, 
 and of another Neminatha Purana, called Ardha Nemi from its being 
 only half finished ; Vrittavildsa, author of Dharmaparikshe and S'astra- 
 sdra ; and Sujandttamsa, who wrote a panegyric on domata — were 
 all Jains, as well as Nagavarma (apparently a different person from the 
 one before mentioned). He is distinguished as Abhinava S'arvavarma, 
 and was the author of several important works on the language, 
 namely, Kavyavalokana, a work on rhetoric, the first part of which is a 
 brief grammar, called ij'abda-smriti, in Kannada verse ; Karndtaka 
 Bhasha Bhiishana,'^ a grammar in Sanskrit sutras ; and Vastukos'a, a 
 nighantu or dictionary, composed in many artificial metres, giving the 
 meanings of Sanskrit words used in Kannada. He appears to have 
 been a teacher in the capital of Jagadekamalla (? the Chalukya king 
 of 1 1 38 to 1 1 50), and also a tutor of Janna {see below). 
 
 But there were writers of other faiths besides at this time. Thus, 
 the Brahmans Rudrabhatta, author of Jaganndtha ^'ijaya,^ who seems 
 to have been under the patronage of Chandramauli, minister of the 
 Hoysala king Vira Balldla (1172 to 12 19); and Kama, author of 
 S'ringdra-ratndkara, may come here. Lingdyit poets, too, now made 
 their appearance: — Harihara, author of Cirija-kalydna ; Raghavdnka, 
 his nephew, author of Haris'chandra-kdvya \ and Kcre Padmarasa, 
 author of Dikshab6dhe. 
 
 In the thirteenth century we find a group of excellent Jaina poets, 
 all closely related to one another, patronized by the Vddava and 
 Hoysala kings. Sumanobana, priest of the Yddava capital, and 
 described as a poet ; his son Janna, author of Yas odhara-charita in 
 1 217, and of Anantandtha Purdna in 1230, patronized by Nara- 
 simha II., and honoured with a title by tlie Hoysala king \'ira Balldla ; 
 
 * Published by me in 1S92. - l'ul)lished in Mysore. 
 
 - Published by me in 1884. * (^ften published. 
 
 K K 2
 
 50O LITERATURE 
 
 Suman6bana's son-in-law, Mallikarjuna, author of Silkta-sudharnava, 
 written for the Hoysala king Somes'vara ; his son, Kes'irdja, author of 
 the S'abdamanidarpana, a standard work on the grammar of the 
 language.^ Other Jaina poets of this period were Kumudendu, author 
 of the Kumudendu Ramdyana ; Bandhuvarma, author of Harivams'a- 
 bhyudaya and Jivasamb6dhane ; Kamr^ilabhava, author of Santis'vara 
 Purana ; Andayya, author of Kabbigara-kava,* a work of special interest 
 from its being written in Achcha-Kannada or pure Kannada, in 
 response to a challenge that this was virtually impossible ; Ciunavarma, 
 author of Pushpadanta Purana ; Salva, author of Rasaratnakara, a work 
 on dramatic composition ; Mangarasa, author of Khagendra-manidar- 
 pana ; and Mayana, author of Tripura-dahana. This latter seems to be 
 the first work written in the sdngatya metre, intended to be sung to the 
 accompaniment of some musical instrument. 
 
 Of other authors of this period may be named Chaundaraja, a 
 Brahman, author of Abhinava Das'akumara-charita, a Kannada metrical 
 version of Dandi's work in Sanskrit. The Lingayit poets were Kumara 
 Padmarasa, author of Sananda-charitra ; Palkurike Soma, author 
 of S'ila-sampadane and other works ; and Somaraja, author of 
 Udbhata-kdvya. 
 
 From the fourteenth century Jaina poets are. more rarely met with. 
 But the following belong to that time : — Madhura, author of Dhar- 
 manatha Purana ; Abhinava Mangaraja, author of Mangaraja Nighantu, 
 a vocabulary in verse, giving Kannada meanings of Sanskrit words ; 
 and perhaps Kavi Bomma, author of Chaturdsya Nighantu. Among 
 Lingayits were Bhima Kavi, author of the Basava Purana in 1369 ; and 
 Singirdja, author of Mala Basava Charitra. 
 
 The fifteenth century produced, among others, the Lingayit writers — 
 Linga, author of Kabbigara Kaipidi ; T6ntadarya, author of Karnataka 
 S'abdamanjari, both vocabularies ; Chamarasa, author of Prabhu- 
 lingalile ; and I's'varakavi, author of Kavijihvabandhane, a work on 
 prosody. Bhaskarakavi, a Jain, wrote Jivandhara-charite. 
 
 But the authors now become too numerous to allow of more than 
 a few of the principal ones being named. Among Jainas there were in 
 the sixteenth century : — Mangarasa, author of Nemi Jines'a sdngatya, 
 Samyaktva-kaumudi, &c.; Linga, author of Chola Rdja sdngatya; 
 Nanjunda, author of Kuradra Rama kathe ; Ratnakararya, author of 
 Tril6ka-s'ataka ; Bommarasa, author of Sanatkumdra-shatpadi ; S'ruta- 
 kirti, author of Vijayakumdri-kathe. Among Lingdyits were : — 
 Bommarasa, author of Saundara Purana ; Basavdnka, author of 
 
 * First pul)li.slietl at Bangalore in 1S6S by Mr. Garrett ; subsequently at Mangalore 
 in 1872 by Mr. Kitlel. ^ Published at Mysore.
 
 SEVENTEENTH CENTURY 501 
 
 Udbhatadeva Charitre ; Sadas'iva y6gi, author of Ramanalha-vilasa ; 
 Depa, author of Sobagina S6ne ; Mallanarya, author of Bhava- 
 chintaratna; Virupaksha-panfjita, author of Chcnna Basava Parana; 
 Adris'appa, author of Praudha Raya Charitra ; and others. Among 
 Brahmans were : — Kumara Vyasa, who, in the reign of Krishna Raya 
 of Vijayanagar, translated into Kannada verse the first ten parvas of the 
 Mahabharata ; Timmanna, who completed the work ; Purandara and 
 Kanaka, authors of Vaishnava Dasarapadas, &c.; Kumara Vdlmiki, 
 author of the Torave Ramayana, a Kannada version of Valiniki's work ; 
 Vilhala, author of a Kannada rendering of the Bhagavata Purana ; and 
 others. 
 
 The seventeenth century saw the production of several works which 
 arc of the first importance in Kannada literature. In 1604 was 
 completed by the Jaina author Bhattakalanka ©eva, his great work on 
 Kannada grammar, the Karnataka S'abdanus'asanam,^ an exhaustive 
 treatise in Sanskrit siitras, after the manner of Panini, with extensive 
 commentaries, emulating the Mahabhashya of Patanjali. No other 
 South Indian language possesses such a work. In 1657 appeared the 
 Rajas'ekhara Vilasa, a poem by the Lingayit author Shadakshara Deva. 
 This divides with the Jaimini Bharata {see beloiv) the honour of being 
 the most highly esteemed poem in Kannada. The same author wrote 
 S'abara S'ankara Vilasa, Vrishabhendra-vijaya, and other poems. 
 
 A remarkable development of Kannada literature also took place in 
 the latter part of the century, at Mysore, under the rule of Chikka 
 Deva Raja (1672 to 1704). Not only was he an author himself, but 
 numerous works of great excellence, some in imitation of the old poets, 
 were composed by his two ministers, Tirumaldrya antl Chikkopadhyaya, 
 or Alasingdrya. The former wrote Apratimavira Charita, a work on 
 rhetoric; Chikadevaraja Vijaya, a champu work, describing the king's 
 conquests ; Chikadevaraja-vamsavali, a prose work on the king's 
 ancestors, &c. The latter wrote about thirty works, champu.s, sangatya 
 and prose. Among the more imi)ortant were \'ishnu l^unina, Kamala- 
 chala-mahdtmya, and Satvikabrahmavidyavihisa, on the ^'is'ishtadvaita 
 philosophy. Singararya, Tirumalarya's brother, wrote a play called 
 Mitravinda Govinda." There was also a poetess at the court, 
 called Honnamnia, who wrote Hadibadeyadharma, the duties of a 
 f:\ithful wife. 
 
 Early in the eighteenth century the Brahman poet I^akshmis'a 
 produced his Jaimini Bharata, which is probal)ly the most popular 
 poem in the Kannada language, being more easily understood than its 
 
 • l'ul)lished l)y me in 1890. 
 
 " This and several of the worUs of these three authors have been inil)lished at Mysore.
 
 502 LrrERATURE 
 
 rival above named. The numerous authors of this period do not 
 otherwise call for special notice ; and the troublous times of Mahratta 
 invasions and Muhammadan usurpation were not favourable to the 
 progress of literature. 
 
 At a later period the yakshagdna stories gained poj)ularity. These 
 are generally based on episodes in the Mahabhdrata or purdnic works, 
 and are dramatic in form, written for recitation on the native stage and 
 suited for performance to rustic audiences. The number issued is very 
 great, and many are attributed to S'dntappa, a Brahman of (lersappe. 
 In some parts of South Mysore almost every important village has 
 periodical performances of one of these plays, the actors being some of 
 the villagers themselves, trained for the purpose ; of course female parts 
 are taken by boys. I have sometimes witnessed excellent acting in such 
 performances, primitive as the accessories are. In other parts of the 
 country, to the north, parties of professional actors travel about, 
 performing in the villages. They generally have a woman with them 
 who takes the part of the heroine. But under the late Mahardja 
 encouragement was given to the production of a higher style of drama, 
 to be placed on the stage like European plays. A good deal of success 
 has rewarded some of the companies that adopted the idea. The 
 principal poet at the court was the late Basavappa S'dstri, ^vho produced 
 excellent Kannada adaptations of Kalidasa's Sakuntala and other 
 Sanskrit dramas. Others have followed in the same path, and a 
 number of Shakespeare's plays have also been made the foundation of 
 Kannada dramas with Hindu names. Praiseworthy as these efforts 
 are, however, they can never have that hold on the national mind, 
 or tend so much to the revival of Kannada learning, as a careful 
 study of the ancient spontaneously-produced original works of the 
 country, recently brought to light. Sectarian animosity against the 
 Jains was perhaps at the bottom of their neglect heretofore, but such 
 feelings are giving way, as they are bound to do, now that the linguistic 
 excellence of the old works is recognized. 
 
 A college has been formed at Mysore specially for the study of 
 Kannada literature to a high standard, and prizes are awarded to pandits 
 who distinguish themselves in the language at the Palace examinations. 
 A few young men have combined to publish a monthly periodical, 
 called the Kdvya-manjari, in which ancient works recently discovered 
 are published with careful editing.^ A learned class with knowledge 
 and appreciation of the language are thus arising, who are not ashamed 
 to extend their study beyond the orthodox confines of Sanskrit, high as 
 
 * Jaina works are being published in the Budliajaiiamauoraujiin in Kannada, and 
 the Kavydmbudhi in Sanskrit.
 
 WRITING MATERIALS. 503 
 
 the rei)utation of scholarship in that language must ever stand. But as 
 regards the great mass of the population, the works that issue from the 
 presses and find most sale, next to school books and Yakshagana plays, 
 are republications of former works, sectarian religious books, works on 
 astrology, omens, and horoscopy, established collections of tales, and 
 such like. Few are new works of literary importance. 
 
 An Oriental Library has been established in the Victoria Jubilee 
 Institute at Mysore, from which some unedited Sanskrit texts are being 
 published, and where has been deposited a large collection of rare 
 Kannada works in manuscript, copied under my direction during many 
 years past. 
 
 The Hindu manuscripts arc on the two kinds of writing-material, 
 exclusively employed till about 200 years ago, and still used by the 
 learned. They are the ble and the kadata. The former was mostly 
 used for literary works, the latter for accounts and historical records. 
 
 The die is the leaf of the td(a or palmyra {horassus flabelliformis). 
 The material, as used for manuscripts, is stiff and flexible but brittle, 
 of a yellowish-brown colour, from i foot to 2 feet long, and from i inch 
 to i^ inches wide. It is written on lengthwise, with an iron style, the 
 characters being afterwards brought out by rubbing in black colouring 
 matter. The l)undle of leaves forming a work are all of the same size, 
 and strung on thin cord, which passes through holes punched in the 
 middle towards either extremity. A piece of wood, the size of the leaf, 
 is placed at top and bottom, and tied down with the string, forming a 
 binding for protection. The writing is often very minute and close 
 together, with no break but a perpendicular stroke between one part 
 and another. Such being the materials, the wonder is that so many 
 works of antiquity have survived to this day. 
 
 The kadafa is composed of cloth covered with a composition of 
 charcoal and gum. It presents a black surface, which is written on 
 like a slate, with a piece of balapam or pot stone. The book is of one 
 piece, folded in and out, and is from 8 inches to i foot wide, and 12 to 
 18 feet long. A piece of wood, the size of the book, is attached at either 
 end like a binding, and the whole is put into a case of silk or cotton, or 
 simply tied up with a bit of string. The writing can be rubbed out 
 and renewed at will. The kadata is still used by merchants and shop- 
 keepers for accounts. Though liable to be expunged, it is perhaps a 
 more durable record and material than the best writing on the best paper. 
 
 The introduction of paper is due to the Muhammadans, and certain 
 coarse kinds were till lately made in the country, resembling the whitey- 
 brown unglazed paper used in England for packets. 
 
 Of the Muhamniadan literature of .^^ysore there is not much
 
 504 LITERATURE 
 
 api)arcntly to be said. Some of the Persian annals of the reigns of 
 Haidar and 'J'ipu arc of interest, and translations into l'2nglish, by 
 Colonel W. Miles, have been published for the Oriental Translation 
 Fund, with dedication to the Queen. 
 
 A few words may be added on what has been done for Kannada 
 literature by Europeans. The first undertaking was the English- 
 Carnataca Dictionary of the Rev. W. Reeve, completed in 1817, and 
 published in 1824 with a dedication to Sir Thomas Munro, Governor 
 of Madras. Meanwhile, in 1820, Mr. McKerrell, Judge of Canara, and 
 Carnataca Translator to Government, published his Carnataca 
 Grajiimar, commenced in 1809, in the preparation of which he 
 consulted the S'abdamanidarpana. His work was dedicated to the 
 King (George IV). In 1832 appeared Reeve's Carnataca- English 
 Dictionary^ commenced in 181 7, a valuable work, for long the only one 
 of its kind, though not up to the scholarship of the present day. It 
 was reprinted at Bangalore, in portable form, in 1858, edited by the 
 Rev. D. Sanderson of the Wesleyan Mission. But the work having 
 long been out of print, the compilation of a new one was undertaken 
 by the Rev. F. Kittel of the Basel Mission, aided by the India Ofifice 
 and the Mysore Government. The result has been the Kannada- 
 Englisii Dictionary, published at Mangalore in 1894, a bulky volume 
 of 1752 pages. It is a work of great labour, and may now be con- 
 sidered the standard dictionary of the language. 
 
 Before 1850, the publication had been commenced, under the super- 
 intendence of the Revs. Dr. Moegling and Weigle of the Basel Mission 
 at Mangalore, and at the expense of Mr. Casamaijor, former Resident 
 of Mysore, of a series of works to form a Bihliothcca Carnatica. The 
 following appeared : — Basava Purana, Channa Basava Purana, 
 Jainiini Bhdrata, Rdnidyana (2 kdndas), Rdvana Digvijaya, Ddsara- 
 pada, and Rdjefidrandnie, a Coorg History. A grammar compiled by 
 Krishnamachari, College Munshi, was also published about the same 
 time at Madras, called Hosa-Gan7iada-7iHdi-gannadi} 
 
 For the introduction of printing, Canarese is indebted to the 
 missionaries at Bellary who translated the Holy Scriptures, as before 
 related. The first complete translation of the Bible was finished in 
 1827, after sixteen years had been spent on the work. A similar 
 period, from 1843 to 1859, was subsequently devoted to revising the 
 
 * All these works were lithographed, and in the Rajeiidratidme an attempt was 
 made to overcome the mechanical difficulty presented in subscript letters by placing 
 the compound letters side by side on the line, a system which made the reading verj- 
 difficult, if not impossible, and to natives was incomprehensible, being opposed to 
 the immemorial and established practice of the language.
 
 INSCRIPTIONS 505 
 
 translation. 1 The study of the language especially with a view to this 
 undertaking, directed attention to such of the indigenous literature as 
 was accessible ; and the effort to produce so voluminous a work in 
 portable form, was the means of effecting the improvements in 
 typography previously referred to. 
 
 The wants of schools and universities, and of officers required to pass 
 an examination in the language, have been the principal motives for the 
 publication of a variety of useful works, some of the educational books 
 in no small numbers. But, besides the publications in connection with 
 the Bibliotheca Carnatica, the most valuable original literary works that 
 have been published have been indicated in the footnotes above. It 
 may be added that the collections of the numerous inscriptions 
 throughout the country (now going through the press under my 
 direction)'- are invaluable as adjuncts to the study of the language. 
 Though their primary importance is for historical purposes, they afford 
 perfect models of the composition of the various periods to which they 
 belong. Many are elaborate compositions by scholars of repute, and 
 we have in them not alone specimens of the written characters of the 
 time, but the exact spelling and arrangement, free from the errors, 
 conscious or unconscious, that always creep into manuscripts copied 
 from hand to hand, however carefully made. 
 
 Much might be added regarding the European works, some of great 
 excellence, which Mysore has given rise to, such as IVi/ks' History, 
 Buchaimn's Travels, &c., not to mention the military works upon the 
 wars with Mysore. Here Sir Walter Scott laid the scene of one of 
 the Waverley novels — the Surgeon's Daughter:^ Colonel Meadows 
 Taylor's novel called Tippoo Suliaun contains masterly sketches of the 
 times \ and several lifelike and graphic sketches of the Canarese people 
 may be found in his other Indian novels. Hut it seems unnecessary to 
 enter farther upon this subject, except to add that a volume on Haidar 
 AH and Tipu Sultan, by Mr. Bowring, is included in the recent Rulers 
 of India series, edited by Sir ^V. W. Hunter. 
 
 ' Another revision has l^een completed in the last few years. 
 
 2 There have already Ijeen issued two vohnnes — lusiriptiom at S'ravana Belgola, in 
 18S9 ; and Inscriptions in the Mysore District, Part I., in 1S94. 
 
 ^ There is a memorial tal)iet in Trinity Church, Bangalore, to tlie great novelist's 
 eldest son, Sir WaUer Scott, who was a cavalry ofticer here, and died on his way 
 home.
 
 5o6 
 
 ART AND INDUSTRY 
 
 FINE ARTS 
 
 The monuments of sculpture, engraving, and architecture in Mysore 
 have not been surpassed by those of any country in India. Before 
 describing the masterpieces of design and execution, which remain and 
 continue to extort admiration to this day, a few words may be devoted 
 to the ruder megahthic structures which preceded them, and which 
 abound in such numbers in all parts of the country. 
 
 Sto7ie monuments. — The earliest, probably, in point of time are the 
 dolmens,! consisting of enormous massive slabs of unhewn stone, 
 supported on naturally formed slabs or columns of stone. The most 
 numerous class of dolmens found in Mysore are stone chambers or 
 cists, also called kistvaens. They consist sometimes of only three or 
 four, but generally of six or more stones, set up edgeways and covered 
 by a capstone. The stone chambers or cells, which are usually not 
 more than 2 or 3 feet high, may often be seen in great numbers near 
 Sivite temples, arranged side by side, as if forming the boundary of a 
 yard or enclosure towards which their open ends face, and seem to be 
 erections of the Kurubar. They are sometimes isolated, and of larger 
 size, containing rude sculptures similar to those of zvVrt/^rt/ and fndstika!, 
 to be mentioned further on. 
 
 The kistvaens are generally found below the surface of the soil, their 
 site being indicated by one or more stone circles or cromlechs'- above. 
 They are thus described by Major Cole, who explored many in Mysore 
 and Coorg.'^ " They are not excavations, but actual structures, consist- 
 ing of a large flagstone of granite at the bottom, with four similar slabs, 
 all hewn and made to fit, forming a stone cist, the capstone being 
 a large unhewn block of granite. This block is generally found in 
 the centre of the circle of stones, with the top just visible above the 
 surface, or about a foot below it. The stones forming the circle are 
 buried from i to 3 feet below the surface, and project above from i to 2 
 feet." The stone forming the eastern end of the cist generally has a 
 circular opening towards the top, of about i foot 8 inches diameter, and 
 
 ' From the Celtic do! or daul, table, and men or mcun, stone. 
 
 ^ From croin, a circle or curved, and lech, stone. 
 
 ^ Ind. Ant., II, 88. See also a paper by Captain Mackenzie, ib., II, 7.
 
 STONE MONUMENTS 507 
 
 the capstone projects over this entrance from i to 2 feet. The interior 
 dimensions of the chambers vary.^ 
 
 The contents of the kistvaens consist, in nearly every case, of vessels 
 of pottery placed against the western side facing the orifice, both kists 
 and vessels being completely filled with earth, well rammed in by the 
 action probably of time and water. The vessels are of various sizes 
 and forms, often elegantly shaped. They are usually of red or black 
 clay, well burnt and polished, and decorated with beading and lines in 
 different patterns.- Sometimes the stone circles or cromlechs have 
 been found on tumuli, or independent and not surrounding a kistvaen. 
 A\'ithin them have been found, on digging, the remnants of vessels 
 apparently buried without the stone receptacle. In one case (in Coorg) 
 the vessels were found buried at the foot of a large stone, opposite an 
 entrance to the circle, formed of two upright slabs arched above. 
 
 These curious structures, — dolmens, cromlechs, kistvaens, etc. — it is 
 now known, are found throughout every part of the globe, in some 
 countries in extraordinary numbers. In India they most abound in the 
 west.'* That they are memorials of a primeval race there can be no 
 doubt, and it is generally held that they are either Turanian or Celtic. 
 In the south of India they are often called by the natives PdnHu ko/is* 
 and are supposed to have been the residences of a pigmy race.* Others 
 call them tombs of the Pandavas. That their object was sepulchral 
 scarcely admits of question, and the vessels in them were probably 
 cinerary urns for the preservation of ashes or other remains of the dead, 
 while the open vases and dishes contained either offerings to the manes 
 or food for the dead, introduced through the opening in the end, which 
 may have been left for this purpose. 
 
 It is curious that in Molkalmuru taluq, the similar structures on a 
 
 ' Of those opened, one was 1 1 feel long, 5 feet 8 inches broad, and 4 feet high. 
 Another was only 6 by 4, l)ut 4 feet high. One capstone measured 12 feet 3 inches liy 
 8 feet, and was i foot thick ; another was 11 feet 4 inches l)y 10 feel 2 inches, and 
 varied in thickness from i foot 4 inches to i foot 8 inches. 
 
 * One of the finest specimens found was a vase standing 2 feet 9 inches high, and 
 5 feet 1 1 inches in circumference at the centre. The mouth was 3 feet 6 inches in 
 circumference, and the neck of the vase 2 feet io|t inches round. 
 
 ^ A map to ilUistrate their distril)ution will lie found at the end of Mr. Fergusson's 
 book, Ritdc Sto)ic iMoiituiicii/s. 
 
 * But may not this term be really of European origin, suggested by the French 
 name, which some of the early Jesuit priests may have used to designate them ? hor 
 VVace, an Anglo-Norman poet, says of Stonehenge and similar structures : — 
 
 Stanheiiges out nom en Englois, 
 
 Pieres pandues en Francois.— Sir J. Li'nnocK, Prchisl. Times, 122. 
 
 * With regard to this, again, it is singular to note, as there may be the same under- 
 lying idea, that " the Latin manes meant probably in the beginning no more than the 
 Little Ones, the Small Folk."— Max Miiller, Sc. KcL, 366.
 
 5o8 FINE ARTS 
 
 somewhat smaller scale are called Mbryara 7na}ie, houses of the Moryas 
 or Mauryas, as if affording a clue to their period, and I find that this 
 is also the name given to them by the Badagas on the Nilagiri hills.' 
 There are also stone circles, single or in groups, on high waste places, 
 which are called Mbrya dimie, mounds of the Moryas. These occur in 
 the Molkalmuru, Challakeri, and Chitaldroog taluqs. I have opened 
 several of the circles, but they contain nothing, and are evidently 
 foundations for something above ground and not intended to cover 
 excavations underground. They may possibly mark the sites of Bedar 
 encampments, as the Bedar commonly erect circular mud huts, and 
 their temple is a circular hut on a raised platform, with a wooden stake 
 in the middle for the god. 
 
 Menhirs'- or free standing big stones, have been commonly erected 
 for ages to mark particular spots. The karu kallu erected at the 
 foundation of a village have been previously referred to. Others called 
 yelle kallu are boundary stones, and are often rudely carved either with 
 the Saiva symbol of the Unga^ or the Vaishnava symbols of the s'atikha 
 and chakra, the conch and discus, according to the creed of the erector. 
 
 A more interesting class are the mdsti-kallu and vira-kallu. The 
 former, properly mahd-sati-kallu, are supposed to mark the spots where 
 widows became sail by burning wdth the dead bodies of their husbands : 
 the latter where some hero fell in battle, or otherwise came by his 
 death. The masti-kal are slabs about 4 feet high, bearing the sculpture 
 of a pillar or post with a human arm projecting from it. The hand is 
 outstretched and pointing upwards, the fingers being separated, with 
 often a lime in the hollow between the thumb and forefinger. Under 
 this is a rude sculpture of the man and his wife. These stones are very 
 common, principally, I think, in the west of Mysore. 
 
 The vira-kal or hero stones are often elaborately sculptured. The 
 slab is generally divided into three compartments, each containing 
 sculpture in relief. The lowest represents the scene in which the hero 
 fell; the middle one his triumphant ascent to the world of gods, 
 generally borne along in a car surrounded by apsaras or celestial 
 nymphs ; the top one shows the hero in the upper world, seated in 
 the immediate presence of the divinity. Between the scenes are 
 sometimes a few lines of inscription, giving the name of the hero, the 
 date of the event, etc. The lower tableaux are of much interest, as 
 illustrating scenes from life, and showing the costumes, weapons, and 
 other features of the time in which they were erected. 
 
 ' Gngg's Manual of /he Nilagiri Disfriit, 242. 
 
 - Jleii, stone, and hir, tall or big. Minar and minaret are said to be derived from 
 the same root.
 
 SCULPTURE 
 
 509 
 
 Sculpture. — The most remarkable specimen of sculpture in Mysore, 
 if not in India, is the colossal Jain statue of Gomates'vara at Sravana 
 Belgola. It was erected in about 983, and is 57 feet in height. It is 
 in the simple human form, nude, and stands at the summit of a rocky 
 hill, having no support above the thighs. The sculptor's name was 
 possibly Aritto Nemi. 
 
 "The images of this king or Jain saint,'' Mr. Fergusson remarks, "are 
 among the most remarkable works of native art in the south of India. Three 
 of them are known, and have long been known, to Europeans, and it is 
 doubtful if any more exist.' They are too remarkable objects not to attract 
 the attention of even the most indifferent Sa.xon. That at Sravan Belgola 
 attracted the attention of the late Duke of Wellington, when as Sir Arthur 
 Wellesley he commanded a division at the siege of Seringapatam. He, like 
 all those who followed him, was astonished at the amount of labour such a 
 work must have entailed, and puzzled to know whether it was a part of the 
 hill or had been moved to the spot v/here it now stands. The fomier is the 
 more probable theory. The hill, called Indra-giri, is one mass of granite, 
 about 400 feet in height, and probably had a mass or Tor standing on its 
 summit, either a part of the subjacent mass or lying on it. This the Jains 
 undertook to fashion into a statue 70 feet 3 inches in height, and have 
 achieved it with marvellous success. The task of carving a rock standing 
 in its place the Hindu mind never would have shrunk from had it even been 
 twice the size ; but to move such a mass up the steep smooth side of the 
 hill seems a labour beyond their power, even with all their skill in concen- 
 trating masses of men on a single point. Whether, however, the rock was 
 found in situ or was moved, nothing grander or more imposing exists any- 
 where out of Egypt, and even there no known statue surpasses it in height, 
 though it must be confessed they do excel it in the perfection of art they 
 exhibit."^ 
 
 Another excellent example of sculpture is the fine group of Sala and 
 the tiger, which is placed in a conspicuous position on a projection 
 immediately in front of the vinidna, or tower, of many temples erected 
 under the Hoysalas. The incident is conventionally treated, and with 
 many variations in details. But generally there is a figure of .Sala on 
 
 1 The three are the one at Sravan Belgola, 70 feet 3 inches high (according to some, 
 Init l)y actual measurement 57 feet); one at Karkala, erected in 1431, said to lie 
 41 feet 5 inches in height ; and one at V<?nur, erected in 1603, alxml 37 feet high. 
 They are engraved in Moor's Paiithi-on, Buchanan's Travels and the ludiaii Anti- 
 quary. But the best representation of the Sravana Belgola statue is the fr<intis])icce 
 of my Inscriptions at Sravana Belgola. The statue of the Sun, called the Colossus 
 of Rhodes, one of the seven wonders of the ancient world, wxs 105 feet high, hut this 
 was of bronze. It was erected in the third century B.C., hut was thr»nvn down ami 
 broken by an earthquake fifty-six years after. The Cierman statue of Hermann or 
 Herminius, completed in 1875, 's 90 feet high to the point nf the raised sword, and 
 also of metal. - For description, see Vol. H, under Sravan Belgola.
 
 510 I'INE ARTS 
 
 one knee, guarding himself with a shield, and plunging a dagger into a 
 ferocious tiger of mythological breed, which is springing on him. 
 These groups of statuary, says Sir Walter Elliot, "are of considerable 
 merit and are the only instances I have met with of free sculpture."^ 
 Unfortunately it is difficult to find one that is not mutilated. 
 
 The sculpture of Mysore is otherwise principally exemplified in two 
 classes of monuments, the decoration of buildings, especially temples, 
 and the vira-kal. Both draw their subjects largely from Hindu 
 mythology, and to this the carvings on temples are entirely sub- 
 ordinated, but the pediment is sometimes elaborately covered with 
 scenes from the epic poems, the illustrations being more or less drawn 
 from life ; and in the lower compartment of vira-kal, as before remarked, 
 events are portrayed pretty nearly as they must have occurred. The 
 latter class of sculpture is perhaps less varied and of ruder execution 
 than that of temples, but some specimens which have been well 
 preserved are equal to any in the former. The scenes from the lives 
 of Bhadrabahu and Chandra Gupta at Sravana Belgola are unique of 
 their kind, the w^ork of Das6ja. 
 
 Architecture. — The oldest architecture of which any specimens 
 exist in India is Buddhist, of the third century B.C., and Mr. Fergusson 
 argues that it was developed from the stone monuments above referred 
 to, as it is " essentially tumular, circular, and external, thus possessing 
 the three great characteristics of all the so-called Druidical remains." 
 The wonderfully carved rail of the Amaravati sti'ipa and the so-called 
 rathas of Mamallapura~ are perhaps the earliest Buddhist remains in 
 the south, and as the Pallavas under whom they were executed ruled a 
 part of Mysore, may be mentioned here though not included within the 
 present limits of the territory. 
 
 "W^Qjain architecture of the south of India is represented by two 
 classes of temples, bastis and bettas, and is in this respect different from 
 that of the north, where the latter are unknown. The bastis are regular 
 temples in the usual acceptance of that word, containing an image of 
 one of the Tirthankaras as the object of worship. The bettas (literally 
 hills) are courtyards,^ — properly, though not always, at the summit of a 
 hill, — open to the sky, and containing a colossal image of Gomatesvara. 
 
 » Num. Or., Ill, Part II, So. 
 
 ' There seems no doubt that the little rath, with its circular termination, is as exact 
 a copy of what a Buddhist chaitya hall was at the time it was carved, as that the great 
 rath is a correct reproduction of a Buddhist vihara at the same period. 
 
 The excavations could not well have been made later than the sixth century, and it 
 seems hardly to admit of doubt that we have here petrifactions of the last forms of 
 Buddhist architecture, and of the first forms of that of the Dravidians. — Fergusson, 
 Hist. Ind. Arcti., 175, 329.
 
 AR CHITECTURE 5 r i 
 
 The principal group of bastis at present known above the Ghats is that 
 at Sravan Belgola. There are there two hills— the Indra-giri on whose 
 summit the colossal image just described stands and dominates the plain. 
 On a shoulder of the other, called Chandra-giri, stand the bastis, fifteen in 
 number. As might be expected from their situation, they are all of the 
 Dravidian style of architecture, and are consequently built in gradually 
 receding storeys, each of which is ornamented with small simulated cells. 
 .... Their external appearance is more ornamental than that of the 
 generality of northern Jaina temples. The outer wall of those in the north 
 is almost always quite plain. The southern ones are as generally 
 ornamented with pilasters, and crowned with a row of ornamental cells. 
 Inside is a court, probably square, and surrounded by cloisters, at the back 
 of which rises the vimuna over the cell which contains the principal image 
 of the Tirthankara. It always is surmounted by a small dome, as is 
 universally the case with every vimjlna in Dravidian architecture. 
 
 It may be a vain speculation, but it seems impossible not to be struck 
 with the resemblance to the temples of southern Babylonia. The same 
 division into storeys with their cells ; the backward position of the temple 
 itself ; the panelled or pilastered basement, arc all points of resemblance it 
 seems difficult to regard as purely accidental.^ 
 
 Besides the greater temples, there are several varieties of smaller ones, 
 which seem peculiar to the style. Four-pillared pavilions are not uncommon 
 in front of Hindu temples in the south, but these Jain mantapas are five- 
 pillared^ [that is, with a pillar at each angle and one in the middle. There 
 is one before the entrance to the betta on .Sravan Belgola, the middle pillar 
 being so supported from above that a handkerchief can be passed through 
 below its base]. 
 
 Though not the grandest, certainly the most elegant and graceful objects 
 belonging to the Jaina style of architecture are the stambhas which are found 
 attached to almost every temple. They are used sometimes by the Hindus, 
 but then generally as di'p-ddns or lamp-bearing pillars, and in that case 
 have some arrangenient for exhibiting light from their summit. With the 
 Jains this does not appear ever to have been the case. Their pillars are the 
 Hneal descendants of those of the Buddhists, which bore either emblems or 
 statues, generally the former— or figures of animals. With the Jains or 
 Vaishnavas they as generally bore statues. Be this as it may, they seem 
 nowhere to have been so frequent or so elaborately adorned as among the 
 Jains in the south. . . . They generally consist of a single block of granite, 
 square at base, changing to an octagon, and again to a figure of sixteen 
 sides, with a capital of very elegant shape. Some, however, are circular, 
 and indeed their variety is infinite. They range from thirty to forty feet and 
 even fifty feet in height, and whatever their dimensions, arc among the most 
 elegant specimens of art in southern India.' 
 
 The Hindu temples of Mysore, as distinguished from those of the 
 Jains, arc divided between two styles, which the great authority on 
 
 ' Hist. Ind. Arch., 267-270. ' //'., 27.]. 3 /^.^ 276, 336.
 
 5^2 
 
 FINE ARTS 
 
 architectural questions already (luoted, designates Dravidian and 
 Chalukyan. The former prevails in the south and east, the latter in 
 the north and west, but occasionally a building of one style will be 
 found within the region mostly occupied by the other. The Chalukyan 
 style, which was adopted all over the Dekhan from coast to coast — its 
 northern limit being a line from the source of the Godavari to the 
 mouth of the Mahanadi, and its southern, one from the sources of the 
 Kaveri passing west of Vijayanagar to the mouth of the Krishna- 
 attained its fullest development and highest degree of perfection in 
 Mysore. The Dravidian style did at one time, during the temporary 
 eclipse of the Chalukya power, penetrate further north as far as Ellora, 
 but it seems to have been a spasmodic effort and it took no permanent 
 root there. At that time were excavated the beautiful Kailasa and 
 other temples of Dravidian architecture at Ellora, now known to have 
 been executed under the Rashtrakiitas in the eighth century.' 
 
 Dravidian style. — The raths at Mahabalipur, dating from the sixth 
 century, may be considered as the prototypes of the style. From them 
 to the Kailisa at Ellora " the transition is easy, but the step consider- 
 able. At the first-named place we have manifest copies of structures 
 intended originally for other purposes and used at Mahabalipur in a 
 fragmentary and disjointed manner. At Ellora, on the contrary, the 
 whole is welded together, and we have a perfect Dravidian temple, as 
 complete in all its parts as at any future period. ... It seems certain 
 that the square raths are copies of Buddhist viharas, and are the 
 originals from which all the vimanas in southern India were copied, 
 and continued to be copied, nearly unchanged, to a very late period. 
 .... On the other hand, the oblong raths were halls or porticoes with 
 the Buddhists, and became the gopuras or gateways which are frequently 
 — indeed generally — more important parts of Dravidian temples than 
 the vimanas themselves. They too, like the vimanas, retain their 
 original features very little changed to the present day." 
 
 The temples consist almost invariably of four parts, arranged in 
 various manners, and differing in themselves only according to the age 
 in which they were executed, i. The vimdjia, or actual temple itself. 
 It is always square in plan and surmounted by a pyramidal roof of one 
 or more storeys. It contains the cell in which the image of the god or 
 his emblem is placed. 2. The tiianfapas, or porches which always cover 
 and precede the door leading to the cell. 3. T\\q gopuras, or pyramidal 
 towers over the gateway, often the loftiest and most imposing feature in 
 the temple. 4. Choultries or pillared halls used for various purposes. 
 Besides these, are tanks or wells and other buildings for the residence 
 or use of the priests. 
 
 ' See above, p. 325.
 
 ARCHITE CTURE 5 1 5 
 
 The finest Dravidian temples, as might be expected, are to be met 
 with south and east beyond the limits of the Mysore territory. But the 
 temple of Ranganatha at Seringapatam, of Chamundi on the hill of that 
 name, the Halsur pagoda, the temples of Melukote, Talkad, Tiruma- 
 kiidlu, Ramnathpur and other places may be referred to as effective 
 illustrations. 
 
 Chdlukyan style. — The Chalukyan style is neither the least extensive 
 nor the least beautiful of the three Hindu styles of architecture. It 
 reached its greatest perfection in Mysore. The style is thus described : — 
 The temple itself (that is, the compartment occupied by the god) is 
 polygonal or star-shaped. The sides, however, are not obtained as in 
 the northern style by increments added flatly to a square, but are points 
 touching a circle, at one time apparently right angles, but afterwards 
 either more acute or flatter than a right angle. There are four principal 
 faces larger than the others, three occupied by niches, the fourth by the 
 entrance. The roof is in steps, and with a flat band on each face in 
 continuation of the larger face below. The porch is simple, consisting 
 of columns disposed equidistantly over its floor. [I would add that this 
 porch is generally surrounded by a wide stone seat or bench, with a 
 sloping back, which runs completely round the porch and forms as it 
 were a low wall on every side.] The details are often of great beauty, 
 especially the entrances, which are objects on which the architects 
 generally lavished their utmost skill. Nothing in Hindu art is more 
 pleasing than the pierced slabs which the Chdlukyas used for windows. 
 The pillars, too, are rich without being overdone : and as it is only in 
 pairs that they are of the same design, the effect of the whole is 
 singularly varied and yet at the same time pleasing and elegant. 
 The temples generally stand on a terrace a few feet high and from 
 ten to fifteen feet wide. This is one of the characteristic features of 
 Chalukyan design, and adds very considerably to the effect of their 
 temples. 
 
 The buildings of this style arc very numerous in the north and west 
 of Mysore. The temple of Kedaresvara at Ikilagami is probably one of 
 the oldest, and judging from the ruined and deserted temples at that 
 place it must have been one of the richest museums of sculpture and 
 architecture in Mysore. The temples at Kubattur also must at onetime 
 have been splendid buildings. Those at Arsikere, Harnhalli, Turvekere, 
 Naglapura, and numerous other places might be adduced as good 
 examples of the style. 
 
 But it was to the munificence of the Hoysala kings, and to the genius 
 of their gifted architects and sculptors, whom tradition declares to have 
 been Jakanachari and his son Dankanachari, that the Chdlukyan style 
 
 I, T.
 
 514 FINE ARTS 
 
 owed its fullest development and highest degree of perfection. The 
 temples of Halebid, Belur and Somnathpur may be regarded as master- 
 pieces of the style. The Hoysales'vara, the oldest of the two 
 ornamental temples at Halebid, was probably commenced by Vinaya- 
 ditya (1047 to iioo). It is unfinished, but whether this was always 
 the case, or whether it was completed and afterwards lost its towers, it 
 is difficult to say.' The Kedares'vara,- the other temple, was erected 
 by Vira Ballala and his junior queen Abhinava Ketala Devi, apparently 
 at the close of his reign, about 12 19. The Belur temple was founded 
 by Vishnuvarddhana after his renunciation of the Jain faith in 11 17, 
 and perhaps completed during his reign, which ended in 1141. It 
 appears, however, to have suffered injury at the time of the INIuham- 
 madan invasion in 13 10, and was shut up till the reign of Harihara, 
 probably the first Vijayanagar king of that name, who reigned 1336 to 
 1350. He repaired the temple, built the gopura and restored the 
 endowments. If it was Harihara II who did this, it would be between 
 1379 and 1405. The Somnathpur temple was completed in 1270, and 
 was erected by Soma or Somanatha, the general of the Hoysala king 
 Narasimha III, who also founded the agrahara of Somnathpur.'* Of 
 these the Belur temple is the only one that has not been abandoned, 
 but owing to repairs and additions at various times the unity of design 
 is somewhat marred. 
 
 Halebid. — The Halebid temples were sacred to Siva, under the 
 respective forms of HoysalesVara and Kedares'vara. The second only 
 was completed, and was a perfect gem of art. Its sculptor seems to 
 have been Dev6ja. 
 
 Its plan was star-shaped, with sixteen points, and it had a porch well pro- 
 portioned in size. Its roof was conical, and from the basement to the 
 summit it was covered with sculptures of the very best class of Indian art, 
 and these so arranged as not materially to interfere with the outlines of the 
 building, while they imparted to it an amount of richness only to be found 
 among specimens of Hindu art. If it were possible, adds Mr. Fergusson, 
 to illustrate this little temple in anything like completeness, there is probably 
 
 ' There is a picture in Mr. Fergiisson's book, p. 400, of a restored view of the 
 temple as he conceives it would have been if complete. The chief thing requiring 
 correction is the finial ornament of the towers, resembling a lantern. It should 
 really be a kalas'a or sacrificial vase, bound round with a cloth knotted towards the 
 four cardinal points, which, filled with holy water, is used at the consecration of temples. 
 
 - This has been erroneously called Kaites'vara and Kaitabhes'vara by some writers. 
 
 ^ These dates and facts are taken from inscriptions, except for the big Halebid 
 temple, for the exact date of which no such authority has been obtained. Mr. Fergusson 
 has been misled (p. 392) about the dates, putting down Somnathpura temple (on what 
 authority is not stated) as erected in the time of Vinayaditya, who came to the throne 
 in 1047.
 
 AR CHITE CTURE 5 1 5 
 
 nothing in India which would convey a better idea of what its architects were 
 capable of accomplishing.' 
 
 It is, however, surpassed in size and magnificence by its neighbour, the 
 great temple at Halebid, which, had it been completed, is one of the 
 buildings on which the advocate of Hindu architecture would desire to take 
 his stand. Unfortunately it never was finished, the works having been 
 stopped after they had been in progress apparently for eighty-six years.* 
 [The names of some of the sculptors were Devdja, Kesimoja's son Masana, 
 Mayana, and Tdnagundiir Harisha.] 
 
 The general arrangements of the building are that it is a double temple. 
 If it were cut into halves, each part would be complete, with a pillared porch 
 of the same type as that at Belur, an antardla or intermediate porch, and a 
 sanctuary containing a lingam, the emblem of Siva. Besides this, each half 
 has in front of it a detached pillared porch as a shrine for the bull Xandi. 
 Such double temples are by no means uncommon in India, but the two 
 sanctuaries usually face each other and have the porch between them. Its 
 dimensions may roughly be stated as 200 feet square over all, including all 
 the detached pavilions. The temple itself is 160 feet north and south, by 
 122 feet east and west. Its height, as it now remains, to the cornice is about 
 twenty-five feet from the terrace on which it stands. It cannot, therefore, be 
 considered by any means as a large building, though large enough for 
 effect. This, however, can hardly be judged of as it now stands, for 
 there is no doubt but that it was intended to raise two pyramidal spires 
 over the sanctuaries, four smaller ones in front of these, and two more, 
 one over each of the two central pavilions. Thus completed, the 
 temple, if carried out with the richness of detail exhibited in the Keddr- 
 esvara, would have made up a whole which it would be difficult to 
 rival anywhere. 
 
 The material out of which this temple is erected is an indurated potstone 
 of volcanic origin, found in the neighbourhood. This stone is saidtobesoft 
 when first quarried, and easily cut in that state, though hardening on 
 exposure to the atmosphere. Even this, however, will not diminish our 
 admiration of the amount of labour bestowed on the temple ; for, from the 
 number of parts still unfinished, it is evident that, like most others of its 
 class, it was built in block and carved long after the stone had become hard. 
 As we now see it the stone is of a pleasing creamy colour and so close- 
 grained as to take a polish like marble. The pillars of the great Nandi 
 pavilion, which look as if they had been turned in a lathe, are so polished 
 
 1 This exquisite specimen of the most ornate Chiilukyan style of aichilccture is — 
 with shame be it written — a thing of the past. Mr. Fergusson's gloomy anticipations 
 (p. 397) have been completely fulfilled. The trees which had rooted themselves in 
 the vimana were suffered to do their work unchecked, and the building is now a 
 hideous heap of ruin. Some of the most perfect figures have been conveyed to Banga- 
 lore, and set up in the Museum, Init divorced from their artistic setting they have 
 lost their meaning. A proposal has been made, I believe, to convey the ruins to 
 Mysore, and erect the restored lemjile there as a memorial to the late Mahdrdja. 
 
 - There seems to be no authority for this statement. 
 
 L L 2
 
 5i6 FINE ARTS 
 
 as to exhibit what the natives call a double reflection — in other words to 
 reflect light from each other. The enduring qualities of the stone seem to 
 be unrivalled, for, though neglected and exposed to all the vicissitudes of a 
 tropical climate for more than six centuries, the minutest details are as clear 
 and sharp as the day they were finished. Except from the splitting of the 
 stone arising from bad masonry, the building is as perfect as when its 
 erection was stopped by the Muhammadan conquest. 
 
 The building stands on a terrace, ranging from five feet to six feet in 
 height, and paved with lai-ge slabs. On this stands a frieze of elephants, 
 following all the sinuosities of the plan and extending to some 710 feet in 
 length, and containing not less than 2,000 elephants, most of them with 
 riders and trappings, sculptured as only an oriental can represent the wisest 
 of brutes. Above these is a frieze of shdrdiilas, or conventional tigers — the 
 emblems of the Hoysala BalMlas who built the temple. Then comes a 
 scroll of infinite beauty and variety of design ; over this a frieze of horsemen 
 and another scroll ; over which is a bas-relief of scenes from the Ramayana, 
 representing the conquest of Ceylon and all the varied incidents of that 
 epic. This, like the other, is about 700 feet long. (The frieze of the 
 Parthenon is less than 550 feet.) Then come celestial beasts and celestial 
 birds, and all along the east front a frieze of groups from human life, and 
 then a cornice, with a rail, divided into panels, each containing two figures. 
 Over this are windows of pierced slabs, like those of Belur, though not so 
 rich or varied. In the centre, in place of the windows, is first a scroll, and 
 then a frieze of gods and heavenly apsaras— dancing girls and other objects 
 of Hindu mythology. This frieze, which is about five feet six inches in 
 height, is continued all round the western front of the building, and extends 
 to some 400 feet in length. Siva, with his consort Parvati seated on his 
 knee, is repeated at least fourteen times ; Vishnu in his nine avatars even 
 oftener. Brahma occurs three or four times, and every great god of the 
 Hindu pantheon finds his place. Some of these are carved with a minute 
 elaboration of detail which can only be reproduced by photography, and may 
 probably be considered as one of the most marvellous exhibitions of human 
 labour to be found even in the patient East. 
 
 It must not, however, be considered that it is only for patient industry 
 that this building is remarkable. The mode in which the eastern face is 
 broken up by the larger masses, so as to give height and play of light and 
 shade, is a better way of accomplishing what the Gothic architects attempted 
 by their transepts and projections. This, however, is surpassed by the 
 western front, where the variety of outline, and the arrangement and sub- 
 ordination of the various facets in which it is disposed, must be considered 
 as a masterpiece of design in its class. If the frieze of gods were spread 
 along a plain surface it would lose more than half its efl'ect, while the 
 vertical angles, without interfering with the continuity of the frieze, give 
 height and strength to the whole composition. The disposition of the 
 horizontal lines of the lower friezes is equally effective. Here again the 
 artistic combination of horizontal with vertical lines, and the play of outline 
 and of light and shade, far surpass anything in Gothic art. The effects are
 
 ARCHITE CTURE 5 1 7 
 
 just what mediaeval architects were often aiming at, but which they never 
 attained so perfectly as was done at Halebid. 
 
 Before leaving Halebid, it may be well again to call attention to the 
 order of superposition of the different animal friezes. As in the rock-cut 
 monastery described by the Chinese pilgrims, so here, the lowest were the 
 elephants ; then the lions ; above these came the horses ; then the oxen, 
 and the fifth storey was in the shape of a pigeon. The oxen here are re- 
 placed by a conventional animal, and the pigeon also by a bird of a species 
 that would puzzle a naturalist. The succession, however, is the same, and 
 the same five genera of living things form the ornaments of the moonstones 
 of the various monuments in Ceylon. Sometimes in modern Hindu temples 
 only two or three animal friezes are found, but the succession is always the 
 same, the elephants being the lowest, the next above them are the lions, 
 and then the horses, etc. When we know the cause of it, it seems as if this 
 curious selection and ^succession might lead to some very suggestive 
 conclusions. At present we can only call attention to it in hopes that 
 further investigation may afford the means of solving the mystery. 
 
 If it were possible to illustrate the Halebid temple to such an extent as 
 to render its peculiarities familiar, there would be few things more interest- 
 ing or more instructive than to institute a comparison between it and the 
 Parthenon at Athens. Not that the two buildings are at all like one 
 another ; on the contrary, they form the two opposite poles — the alpha and 
 omega of architectural design ; but they are the best examples of their class, 
 and between these two extremes lies the whole range of the art. The 
 Parthenon is the best example we know of pure refined intellectual power 
 applied to the production of an architectural design. Every part and every 
 effect is calculated with mathematical exactness, and executed with a 
 mechanical precision that never was equalled. All the curves are hyper- 
 bolas, parabolas, or other developments of the highest mathematical forms 
 — every optical defect is foreseen and provided for, and every part has a 
 relation to every other part in so recondite a proportion that we feel inclined 
 to call it fanciful, because we can hardly rise to its appreciation. The 
 sculpture is exquisitely designed to aid the perfection of the masonry — 
 severe and godlike, but with no condescension to the lower feelings of 
 humanity. 
 
 The Halebid temple is the opposite of all this. It is regular, but with 
 a studied variety of outline in plan, and even greater variety in detail. All 
 the pillars of the Parthenon are identical, while no two facets of the Indian 
 temple are the same ; every convolution of every scroll is different. No two 
 canopies in the whole building are alike, and every part exhibits a joyous 
 exuberance of fancy scorning every mechanical restraint. All that is wild 
 in human faith or warm in human feeling is found portrayed on these 
 walls ; but of pure intellect there is little — less than there is of human feel- 
 ing in the Parthenon. 
 
 The great value of the study of these Indian examples is that it widens so 
 immensely our basis for architectural criticism. It is only by becoming 
 familiar with forms so utterly dissimilar from those we have hitherto been
 
 5i8 FINE ARTS 
 
 conversant with, that we perceive how narrow is the purview that is content 
 with one form or one passing fashion. By rising to this wider range we 
 shall perceive that architecture is as many-sided as human nature itself, and 
 learn how few feelings and how few aspirations of the human heart and 
 brain there are that cannot be expressed by its means. On the other hand, 
 it is only by taking this wide survey that we appreciate how worthless any 
 product of architectural art becomes which does not honestly represent the 
 thoughts and feelings of those who built it, or the height of their loftiest 
 aspirations. 
 
 The Belur and Somnathpur temples were dedicated to Vishnu, under his 
 denomination of Kes'ava. 
 
 Belur.— This consists of a principal temple, surrounded by four or five 
 others and numerous subordinate buildings, enclosed in a court by a high 
 wall, measuring 360 feet by 440 feet, and having two very fine gateways or 
 gopuras in its eastern front. The great temple consists of a very solid 
 vimdna, with an antarala, or porch ; and in front of this a porch of the usual 
 star-like form, measuring ninety feet across. The whole length of the 
 temple, from the east door to the back of the cell, is 115 feet, and the whole 
 stands on a terrace about three feet high, and from ten feet to fifteen 
 feet wide. The arrangements of the pillars have much of that pleasing 
 subordination and variety of spacing which is found in those of the Jains, 
 but we miss here the octagonal dome, which gives such poetry and meaning 
 to the arrangements they adopted. Instead of that, we have only an 
 exaggerated compartment in the centre, which fits nothing, and though it 
 does give dignity to the centre, it does it so clumsily as to be almost offensive 
 in an architectural sense.' 
 
 It is not, however, either to its dimensions, or the disposition of its plan, 
 that this temple owes its pre-eminence among others of its class, but to the 
 marvellous elaboration and beauty of its details. The effect of these, it is 
 true, has been, in modern times, considerably marred by the repeated coats 
 of whitewash which the present low order of priests consider the most 
 appropriate way of adding to the beauty of the most delicate sculptures. 
 Notwithstanding this, however, their outline can always be traced, and where 
 the whitewash has not been applied, or has been worn off, their beauty comes 
 out with wonderful sharpness. 
 
 The richness and variety of pattern displayed in the windows of the porch 
 are astonishing. These are twenty-eight in number, and all are different. 
 Some are pierced with merely conventional patterns, generally star-shaped, 
 and with foliaged bands between ; others are interspersed with figures and 
 mythological subjects — for instance, the Varaha avatar, and other scenes 
 connected with the worship of Vishnu, to whom the temple is dedicated. 
 The pierced slabs themselves, however, are hardly so remarkable as the 
 richly-carved base on which they rest, and the deep cornice which over- 
 shadows and protects them. The amount of labour, indeed, which each 
 facet of this porch displays is such as, I believe, never was bestowed on any 
 surface of equal extent in any building in the world ; and though the design 
 
 ' This dome fell in and is now beinsr rebuilt.
 
 ARCHITECTURE 5 1 9 
 
 is not of the highest order of art, it is elegant and appropriate, and never 
 ofifends against good taste. [The names of some of the sculptors are 
 Balligrdme Ddsuja, his son Chdvana, Chikka Hampa, Malliyanna, Mdchdri, 
 Mdyana, Yallana's son Masada, and Kdtoja's son Ndg6ja.]* 
 
 The sculptures at the base of the vim.-ina, which have not been white- 
 washed, are as elaborate as those of the porch, in some places more so ; and 
 the mode in which the undersides of the cornices have been elaborated and 
 adorned is such as is only to be found in temples of this class. The upper 
 part of the tower is anomalous. It may be that it has been whitewashed 
 and repaired till it has assumed its present discordant appearance, which 
 renders it certainly a blot on the whole design. My own impression rather 
 is, that, like many others of its class, it was left unfinished, and the upper 
 part added at subsequent periods. Its original form most probably was that 
 of the little pavilions that adorn its portals, which have all the peculiar 
 features of the style— the flat band on each face, the three star-like projec- 
 tions between, and the peculiar crowning ornament of the style. The plan 
 of the great tower, and the presence of the pavilions where they stand, seems 
 to prove almost beyond doubt that this was the original design ; but the 
 design may have been altered as it progressed, or it may, as I suspect, have 
 been changed afterwards. 
 
 Somnathpiir. — The building at Somnathpur is a single but complete 
 whole. The temple is triple, the cells with their sikharas being attached 
 to a square pillared hall, to the fourth side of which a portico, now in 
 ruins, is attached, in this instance of very moderate dimensions. It is 
 impossible without illustrations to give an idea of the elegance of out- 
 line and marvellous elaboration of detail that characterizes these shrines. 
 The temple stands on a raised terrace intended to correspond with the 
 ground plan of the temple, each of the numerous angles being supported 
 by an elephant. The whole stands in a court-yard, surrounded by an 
 open verandah, containing a cell between every set of columns. The 
 exterior walls of the temple are carved with an elaborate profusion of 
 detail, the arrangement of the subjects being similar to that at Halebid. 
 The small canopies with pendants, which cover each compartment of 
 the antarala, are all, like those of the Balagami temples, carved with a 
 different design, on which the architect has expended the utmost fertility 
 of his skill. 
 
 Malnad. — The temples of the Malnad regions in the west are of a 
 totally different style, corresponding to that of Canara. The frame- 
 work is of wood, standing on a terrace of lateritc, and the whole covered 
 with a tiled and gabled roof. The wooden pillars and joists are often 
 well carved, but not in the highest style of art. Better specimens of 
 
 » One of them has sculptured to the life a fly, of the natural size, as if settled on 
 one of the figures ; thus rivalling the feat of Apelles, the most celebrated of the 
 Grecian painters, and the one who accompanied Alexander the Great into Asia.
 
 520 FINE ARTS 
 
 this order of architecture must most proljably l)e souf^ht Ijcyond the 
 western limits of Mysore. 
 
 Saracenic style. — The best examples of Saracenic architecture in 
 Mysore are to be found at Sira, and are doubtless to be classed under 
 the Mughal style. It is true that the Pathan state of Bijapur, distin- 
 guished for its architecture, was the first Musalman power that subdued 
 the north and east, but the governors of its Carnatic possessions being 
 Mahrattas, no buildings of note seem to have been erected in the 
 I'athan style. At Sante Bennur is an imposing mosque erected by 
 Randulha Khan, together with some elegant pavilions in the centre of 
 and around the tank in front of it, built on the original Hindu work of 
 Hanumappa Nayak. 
 
 ]>ija23ur was taken by the Mughals under Aurangzeb in 1687, and 
 the subjection of the Carnatic provinces belonging to it immediately 
 followed, ending in the establishment of Sira as the capital of the new 
 territory acquired in Mysore. The architectural remains now existing 
 are the Jama Masjid at Sira, and several tombs, partly ruined, both 
 at Sira and Goribidnur. The domes at Sira are not large, but of 
 a very light and elegant design, being well raised on a sort of floral 
 cup, the petals of which press close round the base. These struc- 
 tures have survived through being of stone. It is on record that a 
 palace was erected by one of the governors of Sira, named Dilavar 
 Khan, of such elegance that it was adopted as the model on which 
 Haidar and Tipu built their palaces at Bangalore and Seringa- 
 patam. But all three were of such perishable materials, though richly 
 decorated with gilding and colour, that hardly anything now remains 
 of either of them.^ We have, however, some buildings of the latter 
 
 ^ The Bangalore palace was used for the offices of the Administration until 1868, 
 when, being no longer safe, it was abandoned, and the greater part has since been 
 demolished. 
 
 Of the palace at Seruigapatam, Buchanan says that it was a very large building, 
 surrounded by a massy and lofty wall of stone and mud ; and though outwardly of a 
 mean appearance, containing some handsome apartments, but ill-ventilated. The 
 private apartments of Tipu formed a square, in one side of which were the rooms that 
 he himself used. The other three sides of the square were occupied with warehouses, 
 in which he had deposited a vast variety of goods, for he acted not only as a prince, 
 Init also as a merchant. These goods were occasionally distributed among the 
 amildars with orders to sell them, on the Sultan's account, at a price far above their 
 real value, which was done by forcing a share of them upon every man in proportion 
 to his supposed wealth. 
 
 The apartment most commonly used by Tipu was a large lofty hall, open in front 
 after the Musalman fashion, and on the other three sides entirely shut up from ventila- 
 tion. From the principal front of the palace, which served as a revenue office, and 
 as a place from whence the Sultan occasionally showed himself to the populace, the 
 chief entry into the private square was through a strong narrow passage, wherein were
 
 AR CHITE CTURE 5 2 1 
 
 period still maintained in good order. They are the Makbara or 
 mausoleum of Haidar's family at Kolar, the great mosque at Seringa- 
 patam, with the Gumbaz or mausoleum of Haidar and Tipu in the 
 Lai Bagh at the same place, and the summer palace known as the 
 Darya Daulat. Of this latter building, Mr. Rees, who has travelled 
 much in India and Persia, says : — " The lavish decorations, which 
 cover every inch of wall from first to last, from top to bottom, recall 
 the palaces of Ispahan, and resemble nothing that I know in India." ' 
 There are also tombs at Channapatna and a mosque at Nagar. 
 
 The mausoleum of Haidar and Tipu is an effective building. The 
 central apartment, containing tlie tombs, is covered with a great dome, 
 and is surrounded with a colonnade of pillars of polished black 
 serpentine, the inner entrance being enriched with doors of ebony 
 inlaid with ivory, the gift of Lord Dalhousie. The same Governor- 
 General, on his visit to Mysore in 1855, directed the restoration and 
 repair of the Darya Daulat, then falling to decay, in commemoration of 
 its having been the residence of the great Duke of Wellington. An 
 account of it will be found under Seringapatam in Vol. II. 
 
 Li)igdyits. — The Lingayits have adopted what seems to me a some- 
 what distinctive style in their pul)lic buildings, such as mathas, tomb.s, 
 etc., which is a combination of the Hindu and Saracenic. The best 
 specimens perhaps are the tombs of the Coorg Rajas at Mercara, but 
 there are buildings at Nagar, Chitaldroog, Nayakanhatti and other 
 places which may serve as illustrations. 
 
 In connection with Hindu architecture may be mentioned the rude 
 Ijut substantial and durable bridges across the Kaveri at Seringapatam 
 and at Sivasamudram. The latter are said to be 700 years old. The 
 former was erected under the regency of Purnaiya, and by him named, 
 as stated in an inscription at the place, the ^^'ellesley Bridge, in honour 
 of the then Governor-General. It is composed, as also is the other, of 
 rough stone pillars, firmly let into the rocky bed of the stream. These 
 support stone brackets, on which rest tne stones forming the framework 
 of the bridge, upon which again the floor of the roadway is laid. 
 
 Of Anglo-Indian architecture perhaps the less said the better. \'et 
 there are structures deserving of remark. Among these is the de 
 
 chained four tigers. Within these was the hall in which Tipu wrote, and into wliioh 
 very few persons except Mir Satiak were ever admitted. Immediately behind this 
 was the bed-chamber, which communicated with the hall by a door and two wintlows, 
 and was shut up on every other side. The door was strongly secured on the inside, 
 and a close iron grating defended the windows. The Sultan, lest any person should 
 fire upon him while in bed, sle])l in a hammock which was suspended from the roof 
 by chains in such a situation as to be invisible through the windows. The only other 
 ]>assage from the private square was into the zenana or women's aiiarlmenls. 
 ^ The Duke of Clarence in Southern India, ji. 8l.
 
 522 FINE ARTS 
 
 Havilland arch at Seringapatam. This engineer officer seems to have- 
 been of somewhat erratic genius. He proposed the construction of a 
 brick arch, of a span greatly exceeding anything that had at that time 
 been attempted, and on his design being set aside as visionary, resolved 
 to demonstrate its practicability, and thus built the great arch (112 feet 
 span) across the garden attached to his own house, where it still stands- 
 as a monument of his skill. ^ But, as a rule, it is perhaps not too much, 
 to say that in public, no less than in private, buildings erected under 
 European direction all pretensions to architecture were too long ignored 
 as being totally unconnected with engineering. Of late years, however, 
 under Colonel (afterwards Sir Richard) Sankey as Chief Engineer, and 
 his successors, more attention has been paid to this point, and several, 
 effective buildings have been erected, those on the largest scale being 
 at Bangalore and Mysore. 
 
 Engraving. — Of the art of engraving the best examples are to be 
 found in the numerous inscriptions on copper or stone scattered over 
 the country. Some of the oldest on stone (as those of the Bana kings- 
 at Srinivaspur) are deeply and heavily cut, on ponderous and massive 
 slabs, as if by the hands of a giant race. But the Kadamba inscription 
 of the fifth century on a stone pillar at Talgunda is a beautiful example 
 of regular and ornamental engraving in the so-called box-headed 
 character. Some of the old rock inscriptions at S'ravana Belgola are 
 also fine specimens. The Ganga grants on copper of the fifth to the 
 eighth centuries are most artistically incised, both as to form and 
 execution. Many of these are the work of a Vis'vakarma, and as the 
 Kadamba inscription of about the third century on a stone pillar at 
 Malavalli, in the Cave character, was also engraved by a Vis'vakarma, 
 it is evident that there was a family of this name attached to the court 
 as engravers, first under the Kadambas and then under the Gangas. 
 With the Chalukyas the style improves, and later on the Cholas 
 covered some of the eastern temples with inscriptions in old Tamil 
 deeply and well cut. But it is under the Hoysalas, perhaps, that we 
 find the most perfect specimens. Their inscriptions, on beautifully 
 polished slabs of hornblende, are masterpieces of the art. The letters 
 are of ornamental design, varied to suit their positions, and the whole 
 so well fitted and harmonized together that no space is left where a 
 single additional letter could be introduced. Sometimes the initial 
 letters are formed into designs imitating birds or other animals. 
 
 Wood carving. — Mysore is famous for its ornamental sandal-wood 
 carving. It is done by a class called Giidigar, who are settled in the 
 Shimoga District, chiefly at Sorab. The designs with which they 
 
 ^ He also designed the large room without pillars in the old Residency at Mysore^ 
 and the wide circular roof of St. Andrew's Kirk at Madras.
 
 INLAID WORK 523 
 
 entirely cover the boxes, desks and other articles made, are of an 
 extremely involved and elaborate pattern, consisting for the most part 
 of intricate interlacing foliage and scroll work, completely enveloping 
 medallions containing the representation of some Hindu deity or 
 subject of mythology, and here and there relieved by the introduction 
 of animal forms. The details, though in themselves often highly 
 incongruous, are grouped and blended with a skill that seems to be 
 instinctive in the East, and form an exceedingly rich and appropriate 
 ornamentation, decidedly oriental in style, which leaves not the smallest 
 portion of the surface of the wood untouched. The material is hard, 
 and the minuteness of the work demands the utmost care and patience. 
 Hence the carving of a desk or cabinet involves a labour of many 
 months, and the artists are said to lose their eyesight at a compara- 
 tively early age. European designs they imitate to perfection. 
 
 Many old Hindu houses contain beautiful specimens of ornamental 
 wood carving in the frames of doors, and in pillars and beams. 
 
 Inlaid work. — The art of inlaying ebony and rosewood with ivory, 
 which seems to have been cultivated by Muhammadans, and of which 
 the doors of the mausoleum at Seringapatam are good examples, has 
 latterly been revived at Mysore, and many useful and ornamental 
 articles are now made there of this kind of intaglio. Similar work is 
 also met with in choice musical instruments, especially the v'lna. 
 
 Music. — It is perhaps not superfluous to refer to this subject, as 
 Captain Day, who is an authority, says : — " There are two distinct 
 systems of music in use in India, the Hindustani and the Karnatik. 
 The latter, practised chiefly in Southern India, may be called the 
 national system ; the Hindustani shows traces of Arabian and Persian 
 influence. The Hindu scale has, possibly from a natural transfor- 
 mation tending to simplicity, become practically a half tone one, 
 allowing of the performance of expressive melodic music capable of the 
 greatest refinement of treatment, and altogether outside the experience 
 of the Western musician. As regards the apparent similarity of the 
 Indian and European scales, it must be remembered that the latter 
 were evolved in process of time from those of ancient Cireece. It is 
 tolerably certain that the music of the whole ancient world consisted 
 entirely of melody, and that harmony or counterpoint, in the modern 
 acceptation of the word, was altogether unknown. The historian 
 Strabo shows that (Ireek influence extended to India, and also that 
 Greek musicians of a certain school attributed the greater part of the 
 science of music to India. Even now, most of the old Greek modes 
 are represented in the Indian system.'" The study of music in this 
 
 ' Notes on Indian Music, a lecture deliveretl before the Musical Association in
 
 524 INDUSTRIAL ARTS 
 
 country originutcd, perhaps, in the chanting of the Sama Veda, and 
 sacrificial rites, it is said, lost their efificacy unless three Brahmans 
 were present, two playing on the vina and the third chanting.' The 
 designation of the seven notes by the initial letters of their names is 
 older tlian tlie time of Panini (fourth century n.c.) This notation 
 passed from the Hindus to the Persians, and from these again to the 
 Arabs, and was introduced into European music by Guido d'Arezzo at 
 the beginning of the eleventh century. Our word gamut, indeed, is 
 supposed to come from the Sanskrit grama, Prakrit gdma, a musical 
 scale. ^ 
 
 INDUSTRIAL ARTS 
 
 The most generally practised industrial arts of native growth are those 
 connected with metallurgy, pottery, carpentry, tanning, glass-making, the 
 production of textile fabrics or the raw material for them, rope-making, the 
 expression of oil and saccharine matter, and the manufacture of earth 
 salt. Other arts have doubtless sprung up in the large centres of popula- 
 tion, chiefly in connection with the wants of Europeans or under their 
 instruction, but the above are the principal ones extensively practised 
 among the people, except the last, which is now partially prohibited. 
 
 Gold-mining. — The most remarkable industrial development of late 
 years in Mysore has been in connection with gold-mining. This State 
 is now the principal gold-producing country in India, the output for 
 1894 being valued at 14^ million rupees against only Rs. 86,352 from 
 other parts. Mysore has thus acquired a definite place among the gold- 
 fields of the world.'* 
 
 The main source of the metal at present is the Kolar gold-fields, 
 situated to the east of a low ridge in the Bowringpet taluq. The 
 existence here of the remains of old workings has long been known 
 (see above, p. 32).^ But it was not till 1873 that any special attention 
 was directed to them. In that year Mr. M. F. Lavelle, a resident in 
 Bangalore, retired from the army, with some knowledge of geology, 
 applied to the Government for the exclusive privilege of mining in the 
 
 February 1894; sec also an article by E. Stradiot in Mad. Joiirn. Lit. and Sc, 
 1887-8. 
 
 ' Stringed instruments played with the bow were considered vulgar, while wind 
 and percussion instruments were left to the lower classes. 
 
 ^ See Weber's Htst. Ind. Lit. , 272. 
 
 •'' The output in the principal gold-producing countries in 1895 ^"^s valued at — 
 United States, ;iC9)348,ooo ; Australasia, ;^9,i67,ooo; Transvaal, ;,{^8, 896,000 ; 
 Russia, ;^7,o8i,ooo ; Mexico, ;^i, 167,000. Join. Soc. Arts, xxiv., 525. 
 
 Nothing has been found in the mines to show at what period they were excavated, 
 or why they were abandoned.
 
 GOLD-MINING 525 
 
 Kolar District, his thoughts being principally directed to the possibility 
 of finding coal. His request was granted on certain terms, the 
 principal of which, in addition to the maintenance of existing rights, 
 were, — liberty to select separate pieces of land, not in excess of ten, no 
 one piece to exceed two square miles in area ; each block to be leased 
 for twenty years, with exclusive mining rights ; a royalty of 10 percent. 
 on net sale proceeds of all ores, coal, &c., and of 20 per cent on 
 that of precious stones, to be paid to the Mysore Government. If the 
 land should be arable waste, a premium of thirty times the assessment 
 was to be paid, besides the annual rent fixed by the revenue authorities. 
 On these conditions Mr. Lavelle commenced operations by sinking a 
 shaft in 1875 near Urigam. But finding that large capital would be 
 required for carrying out the work, he next year, with the approval of 
 Government, transferred all his rights and concessions to Colonel 
 Beresford. This officer, with some friends among racing men, formed 
 a syndicate known as the Kolar Concessionaires, who took up the 
 matter in earnest. Certain modifications were made, on their 
 representations, in the terms of the concession. Thus the time for 
 prospecting was extended to 1883 ; the selected lands were leased for 
 thirty instead of twenty years; and the royalties of 10 and 20 per 
 cent, were reduced to 5 and 10. On these terms twenty square 
 miles, forming the Kolar gold-field {see above, p. 43), were from time to 
 time taken up by the Concessionaires, and the royalty and rent claimed 
 by Government were further optionally allowed to be commuted by a 
 present payment of Rs. 55,000 per square mile. 
 
 By 1 88 1 the Concessionaires had secured the valuable aid of Messrs. 
 John Taylor and Sons, a firm of mining engineers in London. A 
 general rush was made for gold, and rules for mining leases in other 
 parts were drawn up on similar terms, with the addition (in order to 
 discourage mere speculators) that a deposit of Rs. 1,000 was to be paid 
 for every square mile applied for, and an assessment of eight annas an 
 acre paid on all unarable land. If after two years the Government 
 were not satisfied with the working, the right was reserved to levy an 
 assessment of Rs. 5 an acre in lieu of royalty, <S:c. In 1SS6, finding 
 that the Kolar Concessionaires were realizing vast sums by sale of land 
 containing gold, a fine of one-tenth of the consideration for every 
 assignment of a lease was levied by Government. The only other, 
 besides the Kolar gold-field, where work was being carried on at this 
 period, was the Honnali gold-field {see above, p. 41). 
 
 The Government considered it necessary now to have the country 
 generally surveyed with reference to auriferous tracts. Mr. I^velle, 
 with an assistant, accordingly made a rough survey, which was then
 
 526 INDUSTRIAL ARTS 
 
 gone over by Mr. Bruce Footc, of the Geological Survey of India, and 
 duly mapped out. On the information thus obtained it was resolved to 
 modify the existing rules, by providing for the grant of prospecting 
 licenses ; by making the grant of a lease conditional on a Company 
 being formed within two years with a paid-up working capital of not 
 less than ^5,000 per square mile ; and by reserving to Government the 
 right to limit the total area to be leased for the time being, and to 
 dispose of mining leases for such area by public competition. 
 
 Under these conditions, up to 1891, about ninety-seven square miles 
 in all had been leased out for gold-mining, the land being situated in 
 every District except Bangalore, which is not within the auriferous 
 band. The Honnali gold-field has ceased work for some time, great 
 difficulty having arisen in controlling the water in the mines. The 
 Hamhalli gold mines made a beginning, but are now at a standstill. 
 The Holgere mines were also started. The principal mines at the 
 present time at work, in addition to the Kolar mines, are those at 
 Kempinkote, of which high expectations have been formed. At the 
 end of 1894 a regular Geological Department was established under 
 Mr. Bruce Foote, for the examination and record of the mineral 
 resources of the State, and a number of apprentice geologists are under 
 training for employment in the Province. The old abandoned gold 
 workings at Butugahalli are also being explored. 
 
 From its nature there is a great element of risk and uncertainty 
 inherent in gold-mining, and the success of even the Kolar gold mines 
 was for a considerable time far from assured ; in fact, they were on 
 the verge of extinction. It was in February 1881 that Captain 
 B. D. Plummer, a miner of great experience, appointed manager of 
 the Nundydroog mine, commenced operations there. These were 
 continued till April 1883, when work was stopped for want of funds. 
 Three trial crushings had resulted in yields of i dwt. 23 grs., 2 dwts., 
 and 2 dwts. 8 grs. respectively, per ton of quartz, and Captain 
 Plummer considered the indications so favourable that he strongly 
 urged a continuance of the works, but the shareholders had not the 
 courage to venture more on the concern. Meanwhile the Mysore 
 Company had also come nearly to the end of their resources. A 
 balance of only ^13,000 remained, and it was a question whether to 
 divide this amongst the shareholders or to risk it on the mine. The 
 strong advice of Mr, John Taylor prevailed, and Captain Plummer was 
 sent out in December 1883, to do the best he could with the amount 
 available. There were probably not half-a-dozen persons at that time 
 who retained any faith in the future of Indian gold-mining, and he was 
 considered to be engaged in a lost cause. What actually occurred is
 
 GOLD-MINING 
 
 527 
 
 matter of history. The champion lode was discovered by him, and by 
 1885 the success of the Kolar gold-field had been established. ^ The J[^\ 
 shares of the Mysore mine,' which had been as low as lod., were soon 
 quoted at £,1 los. It paid next year a royalty of Rs. 33,368 to Govern- 
 ment, the first sum in a since ever-increasing item of revenue that in 
 1895 had risen to Rs. 733,527. In March 1895 the Nundydroog mine 
 was again started. Urigam, for carrying on which an appeal for h:ilf-a- 
 crown per share had before been made in vain, followed. The whole 
 field was roused into activity. In 1892 Champion Reefs began to pay, 
 and now takes the lead, with its ^i shares quoted at ^7. In 1895 there 
 were thirteen Companies at work, representing a capital of ^^3, 500,000, 
 with a labour population, including women and children, of 400 
 Europeans and 11,700 natives. The annual payments on the spot in 
 wages and otherwise exxced 60 lakhs of rupees. In what was a desolate 
 waste, a large and flourishing town has sprung up, provided with most 
 of the conveniences and institutions of European life. A branch railway 
 on the standard gauge, ten miles in length, was opened in 1893, running 
 from the Bowringpet junction of the Bangalore line through most of the 
 principal mining properties, and has proved an immense convenience 
 and a great success. The principal commodity carried by it is coal, to 
 which may be added timber and machinery. 
 
 The following table shows the output of gold in ounces for the past 
 .seven years in the four dividend-paying mines and in the whole field"' : — 
 
 Mine. 
 
 1889. 
 
 1890. 
 
 1891. 
 
 1892. 
 
 1893. 
 
 1894. 1 1895. 
 
 Mysore 49,238 
 
 Urigam 16,437 
 
 Nundydroog ... 6, 1 29 
 Champion Reefs' — 
 Others 3,586 
 
 58,181 \ 66,501 ' 64,385 
 
 27,350 , 34,841 55,836 
 
 15,633 1 23,590 ' 31,225 
 
 — ! — ' 6,712 
 
 3,768 1 5,205 j 4,982 
 
 65,415 i 52,089 ; 63,446 
 75,092 69,42s 70,352 
 27,802 1 29,658 38,628 
 31,547 53,516 70,963 
 7,279 5,038 6,704 
 
 Total oz. 
 
 75,390 
 
 104,932 130,137 158,158 
 
 207,135 ^ 209,729^ 250,093 
 
 But taking the returns for the official years, the figures from 18S6-7 
 are as below, giving the total output, total value (the last three years 
 in sterling), amount of royalty, premium, &c., [)aid to the Mysore 
 
 1 The champion lode runs, at an angle of al)out 45", through a- large hed of horn- 
 blende schistose rock, surroundeil by granite. It is not of uniform thickness, being in 
 some places 4 or 5 feel wide, in others almost vanishing, and then widening again. 
 
 " The deepest level yet worked isin this mine — a shaft of 1,460 feet, in 1895. The 
 old native miners had never got lower than 260 feet. 
 
 ^ It may be as well to note here that these and other statements in this chapter, 
 though compileil from the only statistics available, do not profess to be absolutely 
 correct ; Inil they are aiipro.ximalely so, and it was thought l)eller to give wliat were 
 procural)Ie.
 
 528 
 
 IND U STRIA L A R TS 
 
 (k)vcrnmcnt, and amount of dividends paid to shareholders (the latter 
 for calendar years and stated in sterling) : — 
 
 Year 
 
 Output of gold 
 
 
 Royalty, &c., paid 
 
 Amount paid in 
 
 
 in oz. 
 
 
 to Government. 
 
 Dividends.) 
 
 1886-87 
 
 16,325 
 
 Rs. 88S,6o6 
 
 Rs. 51,248 
 
 _ 
 
 1887-88 
 
 19,083 
 
 1,045,678 
 
 33,432 
 
 — 
 
 1888-89 
 
 42,548 
 
 2,369,946 
 
 108,525 
 
 — 
 
 1889-90 
 
 92,014 
 
 5,142,016 
 
 196,637 
 
 ;(^ I 60, 242 
 
 1890-91 
 
 109,643 
 
 5,577,930 
 
 305,565 
 
 227,129 
 
 1891-92 
 
 146,810 
 
 8,415,176 
 
 518,450 
 
 264,716 
 
 1892-93 
 
 196,017 
 
 ;^744,957 
 
 495,859 
 
 297,630 
 
 1893-94 
 
 199,642 
 
 756,687 
 
 725,629 
 
 247,234 
 
 1894-95 
 
 234,859 
 
 844,271 
 
 733,527 
 
 358,375 
 
 Total 
 
 1,056,941 
 
 Rs. 23,439,352 
 + .;^2,345,9I5 
 
 Rs. 3,168,872 
 
 ;^i,555,326 
 
 These figures show the magnitude of the interests created. But 
 although the country has naturally benefited greatly thereby, the 
 principal transactions are pretty much confined to England, where all 
 the capital has been raised and where all the gold goes. The dealings 
 in shares take place entirely on the London Stock Exchange, and but 
 an insignificant amount is held in this country, none of it probably by 
 natives, except what shares the Mysore Government hold. The 
 Captains and other officials are English, but the labour employed, as 
 far as Europeans are concerned, consists principally of Italian miners, 
 and the native miners were at one time largely INIoplahs from the 
 Western coast, but this is not now the case. 
 
 Gold and Silver. — ^Gold and silver are employed to a very large 
 extent in making jewellery and ornaments, the most favourite method 
 with natives of investing their savings, what is not turned to account 
 in this way being frequently buried. A very small quantity of gold is 
 obtained in the country from washings of the alluvial soil. 
 
 The purity of gold is distinguished by its colour. Pure gold is of 
 the twelfth colour, and whatever is wanting to make up twelve is to be 
 considered as alloy. Thus gold of the eleventh colour means a metal 
 composed of eleven parts of gold and one part of alloy. The native 
 mode of purifying gold is to take equal quantities of brickdust and 
 common salt, a good handful, which is put between two pieces of 
 potter's ware and into it the gold. These are placed in the midst of a 
 heap of dried cow-dung (bratties), and lighted at top in a place where 
 the wind cannot produce a strong fire. The pieces of gold when 
 taken out appear incrusted with a black crust, which must be 
 removed, and the process as often repeated as the same is reproduced. 
 1 For the first three years I have not been able to get the figures.
 
 GOLD AND SILVER 529 
 
 The following are some of the ordinary gold and silver ornarnents 
 worn by the people : — 
 
 Ragate — circular ornaments worn by women at the crown of the head. 
 Kyadige — crescent-shaped ornaments worn at the l:)ack of the head. 
 Jede bille — smaller ones worn on the plait which hangs down the hack. 
 Chauri kuppe — ornamental pins for the hair, with a bunch of chauri hair 
 attached for stuffing the chignon or plait. 
 
 Bavali — earrings for the upper rim of the ear. 
 
 Vole, vale — earrings to fill the large hole in the lobe of the ear. 
 
 I'adaka — a pear-shaped drop worn generally on the forehead. 
 
 Addike, Gundina sara — necklaces. 
 
 Kankani — l:)racelets. 
 
 Vanki, Xagamurige, Toju tayiti. Band! — bracelets worn by women above the elbow. 
 
 Bajuband — armlets or Inroad belt-like ornaments worn by women above the elbow. 
 
 Dabu — a broad, flat zone or hoop for the waist worn by women, generally silver. 
 
 Luli, Ruli, Kalsarpini — anklets (silver). 
 
 Kalu-gejje — small, round silver bells worn with anklets, especially by children. 
 
 Pilli — silver toe-rings. 
 
 Udidhara — silver chains worn by men r(jund the waist. 
 
 Karadige — silver shrine containing the linga worn by Lingayits. 
 
 Tayiti — small silver money-boxes attached to the girdle. 
 
 Sunna kayi — an egg-shaped silver chunam-box. 
 
 Gold and silver thread and lace for uniforms and for ornamenting 
 different fabrics are made in Bangalore, and electro-plating is also done 
 here. 
 
 A kind of false gilding was formerly used in the decoration of the 
 palaces at Seringapatam. It consisted of paper covered with the false 
 gilding, which was cut into the shape of flowers and pasted on the walls 
 or columns, the interstices being filled up with oil-colours. The manner 
 of making this false gilded paper was as follows : — 
 
 Take any quantity of lead, and beat it with a hammer into leaves, as thin as 
 possible. To twenty-four parts of these leaves add three parts of English glue, 
 dissolved in water, and beat them together with a hammer till thoroughly 
 united — which requires the labour of two persons for a whole day. The mass 
 is then cut into small cakes and dried in the shade. These cakes can at any 
 time be dissolved in water and spread thin with a hair-brush on common 
 writing-paper. The paper must then be put on a smooth plank and rubbed 
 with a polished stone till it acquires a coinplete metallic lustre. The edges 
 of the paper are then pasted down on the board and the metallic surface is 
 rubbed with the palm of the hand, which is smeared with an oil called 
 f^iirna, and then exposed to the sun. On the two following days the same 
 operation is repeated : when the paper acquires a metallic yellow colour. 
 
 The gurna oil is prepared as follows : Take threc-c[uartcts of a maund 
 (about 18 lb.) of agase ycnne (linseed-oil), half a maund (12 lb.) of the 
 size called chandarasa, and quarter of a maund (6 lb ) of musamhra or 
 aloes prepared in the country. Boil the oil for two hours in a brass pot. 
 
 M M
 
 53° INDUSTRIAL ARTS 
 
 Bruise the musambra, and having put it into the oil, boil lliem for four hours 
 more. Another pot having been made red-hot, the chandarasa is to be put 
 into it and will immediately melt. Take a third pot, and having tied a cloth 
 over its mouth, strain into it the oil and musambra : these must be kept in a 
 gentle heat and the chandarasa added to them gradually. The oil must be 
 strained again and it is then fit for use. The chandarasa is prepared from 
 the milky juice of any of the following trees : Jlciis g/oiiierata, ^oni, bela, 
 bevina, gobali, &c. ; it is therefore an elastic gum.' 
 
 Iro?i and Steel. — The metal most widely diffused and generally 
 wrought is iron. It is obtained both from ore and from black iron-sand. 
 The iron ore is obtained in small irregular masses by digging a few feet 
 below the surface, generally on low rocky hills, but in some places in the 
 fields. The small masses are generally mixed with clay and sand, which 
 is separated by beating to powder and washing. The ore is of two kinds, 
 one eiiflorescing into red ochre, the other into yellow. The stones which 
 are too hard to be broken up are called male, while those which being in 
 a state of decay yield to the hammer are called female. The collectors 
 of the ore convey it on either asses or buffaloes to the smelting furnaces. 
 The black sand is found in the rainy season in the nuUas or channels 
 formed by torrents from certain hills. The principal places where iron 
 is smelted are in Magadi, Chiknayakanhalli, Malvalli, Heggadadevankote 
 and Arsikere taluqs, and in the southern and central parts of Chitaldroog 
 District, and the eastern parts of Shimoga and Kadur Districts. A 
 steam iron foundry on a considerable scale has been established at 
 Bangalore under European management. There is also a native iron 
 foundry at Chik Ballapur, where sugar-mills and agricultural implements 
 are made or repaired. 
 
 Iron-smelting is performed in furnaces, the heat of which is fed by a pair 
 of bellows formed of whole buffalo hides, worked by hand. The process 
 commences with filling the furnace with charcoal. After it is heated, which 
 requires an hour, a basket of ore, containing about thirty-three pounds, 
 reduced to pieces the size of a filbert or pea, is put into the funnel and 
 covered with charcoal ; an hour afterwards a similar basketful of ore is put 
 in, and this addition repeated three times at the stated intervals, care being 
 taken that it is always covered with charcoal and the furnace supplied with 
 a sufficient quantity of this article. After the third addition of ore, a small 
 hole is made at the lowest extremity of the furnace to let out the dross. 
 About an hour after the last replenishment, the process is finished, which 
 lasts altogether from five to six hours. 
 
 After the charcoal has been consumed, the temporary part of the furnace 
 
 is pulled down, and the iron collected at the bottom of it is taken out with a 
 
 long forceps, carried to a small distance, and beaten with large wooden 
 
 clubs. During this operation a great quantity of scoriae are seen running 
 
 1 Tliis and other processes quoted are from Buchanan.
 
 IRON AND STEEL 531 
 
 from the porous mass of iron. When the red heat is nearly over, it is cut 
 into three pieces. In this state it is very porous, and ^vorse in appearance 
 than any crude iron of European manufacture. To prepare it for the 
 market, it is several times heated to whiteness, cut into thirteen pieces of 
 about two pounds each, and hammered into cyHndrical pieces of eight inches 
 in length. It is in this state a good soft iron, answering all purposes for 
 which it is wanted in cultivation and building. The maund of this iron 
 (twenty-seven pounds) is sold for about two rupees. 
 
 In order to convert the iron into steel, each piece is cut into three parts, 
 making fifty-two in the whole, each of which is put into a crucible, together 
 with a handful of the dried branches of tangadi {cassia auriculaia), and 
 another of fresh leaves of vonangadi {convolvulus laurifolia). In some parts 
 the iron is heated, hammered and reduced into pieces of eight inches long, 
 two inches broad and half-an-inch thick, before putting into the crucible. 
 The mouth of the crucible is then closely shut with a handful of red mud, 
 and the whole arranged in circular order, with their bottoms turned toward 
 the centre, in a hole made on the ground for the purpose. The hole is then 
 filled up with charcoal, and large bellows are kept blowing for si.x hours, by 
 which time the operation is finished. Tlie crucibles are then removed from 
 the furnace, ranged in rows on moistened mud, and water is thrown on them 
 whilst yet hot. The steel is found in conical pieces at the bottom of the 
 crucibles, the form of which it has taken. The upper or broader surfaces 
 often striated from the centre to the circumference. 
 
 In some crucibles half of the iron only is converted into steel, and others 
 are found empty, the smelted metal having run through a crack in the 
 crucible. This is smelted again and sold for making fireworks. The 
 conical pieces are sold at the price of 100, or 15 lbs. per about Rs. 3^, or 
 the maund of 27 lbs. per Rs. 5 to Rs. '■^\. Sometimes they are heated again 
 and hammered into small bars of four or five inches long. 
 
 It is probably not quite indifferent what crucibles are used in this opera- 
 tion : at all events they must be able to stand a strong fire. The loam 
 employed for these crucibles is of a brown red colour, and is probably 
 derived from the decomposition of the greenish slaty rock of the neigh- 
 bouring hills. It is of an earthy appearance and crumbles between the 
 fingers ; mixed with white sand and some shining particles ; it has no earthy 
 smell when breathed upon, nor effervesces with acids. From this the finer 
 particles used for crucibles are separated by water, which keeps them 
 suspended for some time, during which it is drawn off and left to deposit 
 them. The dried sediment of many of these washings is compact, has a 
 liver-brown colour, with some shining particles ; of the consistence of chalk ; 
 a conchoidal fracture, feels soft and soapy, and takes a polish from the 
 nail. It makes a pretty good brown paint. Of this the crucibles are made, 
 by moistening it and mixing it with the husks of rice. It is then dried in 
 the open air. 
 
 The stone used in the construction of the fire-places of tiic iron and steel 
 furnaces is called balapam by the natives — a name applied to all stones of 
 the magnesian order, which have a soapy and greasy feel, and little hardness. 
 
 M M 2
 
 532 INnUSjyUAL ARTS 
 
 The principal point of makin;^' steel by fusion seems to consist in the 
 exclusion of atmospheric air from the crucible, and the use of fresh vege- 
 tables instead of charcoal, by which means it is probable a higher tempera- 
 ture is obtained than could easily be procured by the use of common 
 charcoal. Hence the iron is more certainly fused and at a smaller expense. 
 The grain of the steel is much finer than that of the ore ; but there still 
 appear spots which are not well fused. 
 
 An instrument maker in England, consulted by Dr. Heyne regarding 
 wootz or Indian steel, expressed the following opinion: — 
 
 " In the state in which it is brought from India it is not perfectly adapted 
 for the purpose of fine cutlery. The mass of metal is unequal, and the cause 
 of inequality is evidently imperfect fusion ; hence the necessity of repeating 
 this operation by a second and very complete fusion. I have succeeded in 
 equalizing it, and I now have it in a very pure and perfect state, and in the 
 shape of bars like English cast steel. If one of these is broken by ablow of 
 a hammer, it will exhibit a fracture that indicates steel of a superior quality 
 and high value, and is excellently adapted for the purpose of fine cutlery, 
 and particularly for all edge instruments used for surgical purposes. A 
 very considerable degree of care and attention is required on the part of the 
 workmen employed in making steel ; the metal must on no account be 
 over-heated, either in forging or hardening ; the fire ought to be charcoal or 
 good coke. 
 
 " The art of hardening and tempering steel is admitted, by all who have 
 attended to the subject, to be of vast importance ; the excellence of the 
 instrument depending in a great measure on the judgment and care with 
 which this is performed. I find the Indian steel to be extremely well 
 hardened when heated to a cherry-red colour in a bed of charcoal dust, and 
 quenched in water cooled down to about the freezing point. In the process 
 of tempering, a bath of the well-known fusible mixture of lead, tin, and 
 bismuth, may be used with advantage ; linseed-oil will also answer the 
 purpose, or, indeed, any fluid whose boiling point is not below 600 degrees. 
 The temper is to be ascertained by a thermometer, without any regard to 
 the colours produced by oxidation. It is worthy of notice, that an instru- 
 ment of Indian steel will require to be tempered from forty to fifty degrees 
 above that of cast steel. For example, if a knife of cast steel is tempered 
 when the mercury in the thermometer has risen to 450, one of Indian steel 
 will require it to be 490 ; the latter will then prove to be the best of the two, 
 provided always that both have been treated by the workman with equal 
 judgment and care. 
 
 " Upon the whole, the steel of India promises to be of importance to the 
 manufactures of this country. But the trouble and expense of submitting it 
 to a second fusion will, I fear, militate against its more general introduction. 
 If the steel makers of India were made acquainted with a more perfect 
 method of fusing the metal, and taught to form it into bars by the tilt 
 hammers, it might then be delivered here at a price not much exceeding 
 that of cast steel."'
 
 IRON AND STEEL 533 
 
 Steel is made especially in Heggadadevankote, Malvalli, Kortagiri 
 and Madgiri taluqs. Steel wire drawing is performed at Channapatna 
 for the purpose of providing strings for musical instruments, and of a 
 quality which makes the wire sought after throughout Southern India. 
 
 The mode of preparing the steel before it is drawn into wire is by 
 taking any quantity and heating it in a charcoal fire until it is red hot ; 
 when it is taken out, beaten into a long thin plate upwards of an inch 
 in breadth, and rolled up into an oval or round form, leaving a small 
 space between each of the folds. It is then put into the fire again, 
 well heated, and hammered out as before. This process is repeated 
 eight times, by which the weight of the steel is reduced to one-fifth of 
 the original (quantity. 
 
 ^Vhen this is done it is ready for being formed into wire, and is 
 again heated and beaten into slender rods, with a stroke alternately 
 on either side, which gives them a wavy appearance. The rod being 
 heated again is stretched round a wooden post, and then drawn 
 through a small hole in a plate of common steel into wire by means 
 of pincers. In this plate there are several holes of various dimensions 
 for the purpose of gradually reducing the wire to the size required. 
 After it has been once drawn, it is necessary to heat it again 
 before it can be drawn a second time, which is done through a hole 
 somewhat smaller than the former one. It afterwards requires no 
 further heat, but is drawn eight or ten times more until it is sufficiently 
 fine, and this is partly ascertained by the sound it gives when struck by 
 the finger on being stretched out. At the time of drawing it through 
 the plates a small quantity of oil is applied to it to make it pass easily. 
 
 The following are statistics, so far as available, of the annual quantity 
 and value of iron smelted in the Province. Shimoga District produces 
 the greatest amount, followed by C^hitaldroog, Kolar and Kadur 
 Districts. In the other Districts the following taluijs are the principal 
 seats of the industry : — Magadi, Chikiiayakaiihalli, (jubbi, Heggada- 
 devankote, and Malavalli. 
 
 Year. 
 
 Quantity produced, tr i ■ d 
 
 Alaunds of 24 lbs. \ V'''"<= '" '^"P''^- 
 
 1881-82 
 
 21,203 
 
 
 1882-83 
 
 33.^^>5 
 
 
 1883-84 
 
 47,5'6 
 
 
 1884-85 
 
 47,103 
 
 
 1885-86 
 
 41,117 
 
 
 1886-87 
 
 21,882 
 
 
 1887-88 
 
 22,532 
 
 
 1888-89 
 
 21,910 
 
 
 1889-90 
 
 2 1 ,099 
 
 
 1890-91 
 
 17.31S 
 
 
 1891-92 
 
 12,671 
 
 
 45,214 
 78,834 
 79,148 
 64,035 
 59,638 
 45,009 
 
 42,734 
 46,197 
 39,226 
 29,999 
 23,188
 
 534 INDUSTRIAL ARTS 
 
 The industry seems thus to be on the decline, local manufactures 
 being driven from the field by the cheaper imported articles from 
 F.urope turned out on a large scale with the aid of machinery. But 
 with the view of developing this important source of wealth, the 
 Government in 1S90 offered liberal concessions to a native gentleman 
 who had studied the subject for many years, and had visited most of 
 the iron-producing countries of Europe, and who proposed to start 
 ironworks in the Malavalli taluq on an extensive scale on the most 
 approved modern principles. Iron ores from Government land being 
 now free to al , it was agreed to guarantee such freedom for fifty 
 years to the new industry, without creating any monopoly of the article 
 in its favour. A similar guarantee was to be given for twenty-five years 
 against the imposition of export and import duties which do not at 
 present exist. As regards the supply of wood fuel — the most important 
 requisite of all — it was proposed to give it for the first ten years free of 
 seigniorage, and during the second and third decades at Rs. i and 2 
 respectively per acre of fuel tract felled. The fellings were to be 
 restricted to tracts carefully selected, so as to benefit the health of the 
 neighbourhood and not to prejudice the climate, and so situated with 
 regard to the railway and large centres of population that the fuel in 
 question had no present marketable value. The fellings, moreover, 
 were to be confined to small detached blocks aggregating five square 
 miles per annum, thus making impossible the clearing of any 
 continuous large area ; and even in such blocks the more valuable 
 timber-trees of the reserved kind were to be left standing, as well as all 
 fruit-trees in bearing. A block once worked was not to be touched for 
 twenty years, thus allowing ample time for regeneration by natural 
 growth, which it was estimated in fifteen to twenty years would fully 
 equal the original stock. It was also proposed to establish a plantation 
 on half a square mile, to be clean felled each year, in special eligible 
 situations. These yearly accretions of half a square mile of well- 
 stocked plantations would, it was calculated, add to forest reser\-es 
 valuable wood, with an admixture of sandal, equal in quantity to as 
 much as could now be obtained from five, ten, or even more square 
 miles of the present scrub. It was at the same time provided that the 
 fuel that was collected must all be used directly and exclusively on the 
 new industry ; the quantity actually taken therefore would be strictly 
 proportionate to the extent of the iron works actually carried on. The 
 concession was to be held open for two years, and if not availed of by 
 that time was to lapse. 
 
 For some reason this promismg scheme, calculated to confer 
 manifold benefits on the country, has hitherto remained dormant. A
 
 BRASS AND COPPER 
 
 535 
 
 further subsequent proposal in connection with it was the construction 
 of a line of rail from near Maddur to Sivasamudam, a survey for which 
 has been made. This would greatly reduce the cost of transit. 
 Possibly a number of smaller local works, like those as in some 
 countries of Europe and America, might be found to suit the condi- 
 tions of the problem better than large central ones. 
 
 Brass and Copper. — The manufacture of brass and copper water 
 and drinking vessels is to a great extent in the hands of the Bhogars, 
 who are Jains, some of the chief seats of the manufacture being at 
 Sravan Belgola and Sitakal. Brass is also used for making lamp 
 stands, musical instruments, and images of the gods ; and bell metal 
 for the bells and gongs used in temples and in religious services, and 
 by mendicants. Hassan and Tumkur Districts produce the largest 
 number of articles. 
 
 Manufactures. — The total value of manufactures is thus stated 
 for ten years. The figures apparently include textile fabrics, oils, 
 sugar, coffee, and wooden or metal articles. They do not pretend to 
 be strictly accurate, but serve to show a decided increase in the annual 
 value of manufactures, which perhaps would be still clearer if later 
 statistics were available : — 
 
 
 Rs. 
 
 
 Rs. 
 
 I8SI-2 
 
 5.391,246 
 
 1886-7 
 
 6,766,848 
 
 1882-3 
 
 5,030,449 
 
 18S7-8 
 
 7,979,668 
 
 1883-4 
 
 5,668,206 
 
 1888-9 
 
 9-334,965 
 
 1884-5 
 
 7,921,696 
 
 1889-90 
 
 14,541,774 
 
 1885-6 
 
 7.501,43s 
 
 I 890-9 I 
 
 9,766,390 
 
 The following statement shows the proportion in which each District 
 contributes to the totals of the last five years : — 
 
 District. 
 
 1886-7. 
 
 1887-8. 
 
 1888-9. 
 
 1839-90. 
 
 1890-1. 
 
 
 Rs. 
 
 Rs. 
 
 Rs. 
 
 Rs. 
 
 Rs. 
 
 Bangalore 
 
 .. 2,468,636 . 
 
 . 2,732,110 . 
 
 • 4,355,500 
 
 •• 3,977.170 . 
 
 . 3.896,653 
 
 Kolar 
 
 939,280 . 
 
 . 1,025,385 . 
 
 • 1,035,325 
 
 .. 1,091,940 . 
 
 . 1,188,150 
 
 Tumkur ... 
 
 245,873 .. 
 
 329,3^4 •• 
 
 • 44^,320 
 
 .. 359,822 .. 
 
 . 388,379 
 
 Mysore ... 
 
 694,845 . 
 
 770,060 . 
 
 • 428,370 
 
 698,221 . 
 
 • 472,425 
 
 Shinioga . . . 
 
 439,974 ■ 
 
 . 285,588 . 
 
 • 273,860 
 
 ■■ 524,476 . 
 
 • 393,530 
 
 Hassan ... 
 
 186,118 . 
 
 . 292,504 . 
 
 • 341,5^9 
 
 .. 6,126,500 . 
 
 • 1,547,996 
 
 Kadur 
 
 • I. 571. 592 ■ 
 
 ■ 2,213,787 . 
 
 • 1,474,251 
 
 .. 1,234,870 . 
 
 • 1,444,191 
 
 Chilaklroog 
 
 220,530 . 
 
 • 330,850 . 
 
 • 977,750 
 
 528,775 . 
 
 455,066 
 
 Textile Fabrics.— These are of cotton, wool and silk, with a few 
 from fibre. The following are the only years for wliich I can 
 obtain complete statistics of the annual estimated value of such 
 fabrics : —
 
 53^ INDUSTRIAL ARTS 
 
 
 Cotton Fabrics. 
 
 Woollen Fabrics. 
 
 Silk Fabrics. 
 
 Other Fabrics 
 
 
 Rs. 
 
 Rs. 
 
 Rs. 
 
 Rs. 
 
 IS8I-2 
 
 2,118,490 
 
 266,525 
 
 161,800 
 
 ... 32,470 
 
 1882-3 
 
 1,752,400 
 
 330,060 
 
 157,550 
 
 19,480 
 
 IS83-4 
 
 1,733,340 
 
 ..• 413,950 •• 
 
 136,500 
 
 ... 38,124 
 
 IS84-5 
 
 •• 2,712,799 
 
 251,630 
 
 107,500 
 
 ... 67,556 
 
 1S85-6 
 
 1,853,082 
 
 203,125 
 
 52,500 
 
 ... 64,356 
 
 These figures do not include the value of raw materials sent out of 
 the Province for manufacture. Raw silk especially is largely exported 
 to various parts in Southern India. 
 
 Cotton. — The spinning of cotton into yarn or thread is the occupa- 
 tion of large numbers of women of the lower orders. But before the 
 cotton is ready for the spinning-wheel, it is cleaned or separated from 
 the seed by passing through a rude gin, and then, as it is too lumpy 
 for spinning, it is fluffed up with a how, which is the special occupation 
 of a class of Musalmans called Pinjari. It is then carded into rolls 
 handy for the spinner. The wheel is turned by means of a handle 
 with the right hand, whilst .with the left, which holds the cotton, the 
 thread is spun on to the reel. After the bobbin is full, the yarn is 
 rewound on to a swift. This is done by placing the axle of the swift 
 perpendicularly on the ground, and keeping it in rapid motion by a 
 touch with the third and fourth fingers of the left hand. The thread is 
 then reeled off on to a bigger reel, and finally into a large skein, by 
 passing round five small stakes set up in the ground in the form of a 
 square. The skein is next dressed for the loom. The requisite 
 number of threads is fastened firmly to fixed points, and being 
 separated by small sticks, is supported by cross sticks. The cleaner 
 then takes a brush of cocoanut fibre, and dipping it in a preparation 
 of flour and water, passes it steadily up and down the entire length of 
 the skein, using at the same time one of the small dividing sticks to 
 facilitate the operation. 
 
 The loom is placed over a kind of well or hole, large enough to 
 contain the lower portion of the machinery, which is worked on the 
 pedal principle, with the toes, the weaver sitting with his legs in the 
 hole for the purpose. The combs are supported by ropes attached to 
 beams in the roof, working over pulleys, and stretching down into the 
 well to the toes of the weaver. In his right hand is the shuttle, which 
 contains the thread, and which, passed rapidly through the spaces 
 created by the combs, forms the pattern. The principal comb is 
 held in the left hand. As the cloth is manufactured it is wound on 
 the beam by slightly easing the rope on the right hand and turning 
 round the lever. 
 
 Particulars will be found under each District, in Vol. II., of the
 
 TEXTILE MANUFACTURES 537 
 
 cotton fabrics manufactured in the various localities. In addition to 
 the cotton stuffs used for clothing, the principal are tape for bedding, 
 carpets or rugs, tent cloth, cordage, &c. 
 
 Of ]VoolIen fabrics the kavibli or camblet is an indispensable article 
 of covering for almost all classes. Its manufacture is a characteristic 
 industry, more especially of the Chitaldroog and Kolar Districts, and 
 of Mandya and Hunsur in Mysore District. For the finest kinds, made 
 only in Chitaldroog District, the best of which are of very high value 
 (see Vol. II) and rarely made except to order, the fleece from the first 
 shearing must be used. This is taken from the sheep when about six 
 months old. Every successive fleece becomes coarser and does not 
 increase in quantity. The wool is commonly black, and the deeper 
 this colour the more valuable the wool is reckoned. The fleece is 
 shorn twice a year, in the second month after the shortest day, and 
 in that which follows the summer solstice. Twelve sheep give as 
 much wool as makes a kambli six cubits long and three wide. 
 
 Before the sheep are shorn they are well washed. The wool, when it has 
 been shorn, is tensed with the fingers, and then beaten with a bow like 
 cotton, and formed into bundles for spinning. This operation is performed 
 both by men and women, partly on the small cotton wheel and partly with 
 the distaff. Some tamarind-seeds arc bruised, and after having been 
 infused for a night in cold water, are boiled. The thread when about to be 
 put into the loom is sprinkled with the cold decoction. The loom is of the 
 same simple structure as that for cotton weaving. The new-made cloth is 
 washed by beating it on a stone ; and when dried it is fit for sale. The 
 high price of the finer kinds is thus evidenUy owing to the great trouble 
 required in selecting wool sufficiently fine, the quantity of which in any one 
 tlecce is very small. 
 
 The carpets of Ilangalore are well known for their durable quality, 
 and for the peculiarity of having the same pattern on both sides. 
 The old patterns are bold in design and coloining. The pile carpets 
 made in the Central Jail from Persian and Turkish designs are 
 probably superior to any other in India. In connection with l>anga- 
 lore carpets the following interesting remarks and testimony l)y Sir 
 (".eorge IJirdwood may be quoted from his sumptuous work' prei)ared 
 lor the Austro-Hungarian (jovernment: — 
 
 The decoration of textile fabrics was at first extremely ritualistic, and 
 pre-historically it would seem to have originated in tatooing, from which 
 the rich symbolical vestments worn by kings and priests have, in great 
 part of tlie world, been obviously derived. The practice was once 
 
 ' Enlitlc'tl The Termless Antiquity, Historical Coittiiiiiity, and IittCi^ral Identity 
 of the Oriental Manufacture of Sumptuary Carpets,
 
 538 INDUSTRIAL ARTS 
 
 universal and is still widespread, and where it yet survives is invariably 
 ritualistic, indicating the relation of those so " stigmatised " to their tribes 
 and tribal divinities. . . , Already at the time of the composition of the 
 Iliad and Odyssey these textiles had acquired the ritualistic Euphratean 
 types by which they have ever since been predominantly characterised 
 throughout Central, Southern and Western Asia, as also in their passage 
 through Phoenicia and Phrygia into Europe. 
 
 [The author considers that the coloured slabs and other decorations 
 discovered by Layard in the ruins of Nineveh and Babylon] all incon- 
 testably prove that, in design and colour, the carpets woven in Hindustan 
 and Central Asia to-day are the self-same carpets as were used for awnings 
 and floor covering in the palaces of Sargon, Sennacherib, Esarhaddon, and 
 Sardanapalus, " the great and noble Asnaper " of the Book of Ezra. The 
 stone slab from Koyundjik [palace of Sennacherib, B.C. 705-681], and the 
 door sill from Khorsabad [palace of Sargon, B.C. 722-703], are palpably 
 copied from carpets, the first of the style of the carpets of Bangalore, and 
 they were probably coloured like carpets. 
 
 The wonderful carpets of Bangalore probably approach in their bold 
 scale of design and archaic force of colouring nearest to their Euphratean 
 prototypes. . . , The Italianesque style introduced in the treatment of 
 modern Persian carpets, and, with local modifications, of the Masulipatam 
 and other denominations of Indian carpets, if a departure from the 
 traditionary Euphratean mode, is yet undeniably pleasing, and on account 
 of its broken patterning and generally diffused colouring, better adapted to 
 carpets intended for European rooms, where they are overcrowded and 
 overshadowed by the furniture, than the severely co-ordinated designs and 
 immense masses of clearly-defined, deep-toned colours of the carpets of 
 Ushak, Koula, and Bangalore. 
 
 Notwithstanding, however, the sweet charm of the Abbasi Persian 
 carpets of modern trade, the palm for pre-eminent artistic merit above that 
 of all other denominations of Oriental carpets now manufactured for merely 
 commercial gain must be awarded to those of Masulipatam and Bangalore, 
 to the former for their perfect adaptability to European domestic uses, and 
 to the latter on account of the marvellously-balanced arrangement of their 
 colossal proportions and the Titanic power of their colouring, which in 
 these carpets satisfy the feeling for breadth, and space, and impressiveness 
 in State furniture, as if they were indeed made for the palaces of kings and 
 the temples of the gods : and these Southern-Indian carpets, the Masulipa- 
 tam, derived from the Abbasi- Persian, and the Bangalore, without a trace of 
 the Saracenic, or any other modern influence, are both, relatively to their 
 special applications, the noblest designed of any denominations of carpets 
 now made, while the Bangalore carpets are unapproachable by the com- 
 mercial carpets of any time and place. 
 
 Silk fabrics, of stout texture and excellent designs, are made, 
 chiefly by Patvegars and Khatris, in Bangalore and at Molakalmuru. 
 Women of the wealthier classes are often richly attired in silk cloths
 
 TEXTILE MANUFACTURES 539 
 
 on ceremonial or festival occasions. These, with and without gold and 
 silver or gilt lace borders, are largely manufactured in Bangalore ; the 
 silk and wire used for this purpose are also produced in Mysore. The 
 silk industry is reviving, owing to the cessation of disease in the silk- 
 worms, and silk filature is largely carried on in Closepet, Kankanhalli, 
 Magadi, Chik Ballapur, Tirumakudal-Narsipur and other taluqs. But 
 Bangalore is the centre of the silk trade, where raw silk is prepared in 
 large quantities for the loom and dyed. 
 
 Mills and Factories. — But the produce of hand-looms can hardly 
 compete in quantity and price with that of machinery worked by 
 steam. Of recent years mills on a large scale have been established in 
 Bangalore city for textile manufactures. 
 
 The Maharaja of Mysore Spinning and Manufacturing Company 
 (Limited), was originally established by a Bombay firm in August 
 1883, with a nominal capital of Rs. 450,000. It has been assisted by 
 the Mysore Government, which has taken some shares and advanced 
 loans on easy terms for extending the machinery. The mill contains 
 187 looms and 15,624 spindles, and employs up to 600 hands, of whom 
 more than a half are men, the rest being women, boys and children. 
 In 1888 it paid a dividend of 7 per cent, but none in subsequent 
 years. The following is the quantity and value of work turned out : — 
 
 Yarn. Cloth. 
 
 
 lbs. 
 
 Value Rs. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 Value Rs. 
 
 1890-1 
 
 1,429,389 ., 
 
 • 519,345 • 
 
 56,115 
 
 28,057 
 
 1891-2 
 
 1,358,080 
 
 509,280 
 
 .. 281,757 
 
 132,073 
 
 1892-3 .. 
 
 1,609,076 
 
 . 653,687 .. 
 
 401,678 
 
 220,207 
 
 1893-4 ., 
 
 • 1,232,755 •• 
 
 462,283 
 
 • 294,393 .. 
 
 . 147,196 
 
 The Bangalore Woollen, Cotton and Silk Mills Company (Limited), 
 under the management of Messrs. Binny and Co., of Madras, was 
 started in November 1888. The capital is Rs. 400,000, and the 
 average annual dividend 4 to 4^ per cent. The Ciovernment of 
 Mysore holds shares in tliis concern also. There are 14,160 spindles 
 for cotton, and 26 looms and 780 spindles for woollens. The number 
 of hands employed varies from 500 to 600, a half or more being men. 
 The out-turn of work is as follows : — 
 
 Cotton Yarn. Woollen Blankets and Jhools. 
 
 Ib.s. N'aluc Rs. lbs. Value Rs. 
 
 189O-I ... 1,615,844 ... 608,341 ... 251,862 ... 125,931 
 
 1891-2 .. 1,388,785 ... 512,058 ... 182,967 ... 104,795 
 
 1892-3 ... 1,481,700 ... 578,443 • •• 119,53s ••• 64,152 
 
 1893-4 ... 1,439,148 ... 558,402 ... 105,348 ... 59,286 
 A cotton-ginning factory has been established by Messrs. Binny 
 and Co. at Davangere, which is a great mart for that staple. There 
 is also a cloth manufactory at Siddarhalli in Belur taluq.
 
 540 INDUSTRIAL ARTS 
 
 Dyes. — In connection with the foregoing textile fabrics may be 
 mentioned the dye stuffs used to produce different colours : — 
 
 Woollen dyes. — Blues, from indigo ; yellow, from turmeric ; red, from 
 Sanders wood and lac ; browns, from popli chakkc ; orange, purple, and 
 green, by mixing the primitive colour stuffs ; rose and magenta, from aniline 
 dye ; crimson and dark red, from red-wood and lac ; scarlet, from red-wood 
 and tin mordant. 
 
 Silk dyes. — P'rom suringi {calysaccion loiigifolium) are obtained red 
 and crimson, used with two parts of pesti pods by boiling. From 
 kamala powder {rottlera imclon'a, Kan. kapila piidi) are obtained the 
 following — blue, for bleached silk, by maceration in cold solution of indigo ; 
 black, by steeping again with alum and iron mordants ; greens, for 
 yellow thread steeped in indigo solution. From safflowers {carthamus 
 ttnctoriiis, Kan. kitsumba) yellow and pink for red thread steeped in indigo 
 solution. 
 
 Cotton dyes. — From Indian madder {rubia munjisia, Kan. viunjistd) are 
 obtained pink, crimson, lake, and orange. Native dyers use it commonly 
 for red colour by boiling with alum. From chay root {pldenlandia iimbel- 
 lata, Kan. chiri verji) are obtained red, orange, and purple. It is very 
 e.\tensi\-ely used for red dye by the native dyers. The process varies to 
 some extent in obtaining the evanescent and permanent colours. From 
 morinda bark {morinda uinbellata, Kan. maddi chakke) is obtained red, by 
 boiling with milk-hedge ashes. The colour is dull, yet it is considered 
 faster than the brighter colours obtained from other substances. The best 
 dye is procured from the bark of the roots of trees three years old. From 
 popli stem {ventilago ntadraspatatia, Kan. popli chakke) is obtained brown. 
 The bark of the root is used also for orange dye. With chay root it forms 
 a rich chocolate colour, and with galls black ; used by oiling and steeping, 
 with or without alum. From myrabolan {tenninalia c/iebida, Kan. alale 
 kayi) used with other stuffs, is obtained yellow and black, by maceration 
 and boiling. The three kinds of myrabolans yield, with alum, a good 
 durable yellow, and with salts of iron a black colour, commonly used for 
 tanning purposes. From babool bark {acacia arabica, Kan. mtigali chakke) 
 are obtained buff and fawn, by boiling. From indigo seeds (Kan. tagasi 
 bija) is obtained an adjunct for blue dye. From annotto {bixa orellana, 
 Kan. rajiga vidlike) and from mara manjil {coccinium fenestratum, Kan. 
 mara arisina) is obtained yellow. From cassia flowers {cassia aiiriculaia, 
 Kan. tdvarike htivii) is obtained blue. It is also an adjunct for yellow dye. 
 From cochineal {coccus cacti., Kan. kirimanji htila) red and scarlet are 
 obtained. 
 
 Other dyes. — From indigo {indigo/era tinctoria, Kan. iiili) is obtained 
 blue and its shades, green, purple and black, by maceration in solutions. 
 From turmeric {curcuma longa, Kan. arisina) yellow and orange, by boiling 
 with alum mordant. From sanders wood {pterocarpiis santalinus, Kan. 
 patanga) red, crimson, scarlet, orange, and purple, by boiling with alum or 
 tin \ from poras flower {biitea frondjsa, Kan. viuttugada htivic) yellow.
 
 GO XI 541 
 
 green, and orange, by steeping in : with the addition of a Httle soda it 
 turns to orange. From lac {coccus lacca, Kan. arafru) red, crimson and 
 scarlet, by steeping. From log wood {hcrmatovylon campechianuiit) red and 
 black, by boiling. From tugra seeds (cassia tora, Kan. tan^adi bija) blue, 
 used as an adjunct to green and yellow. Cassan leaves (inemccylon /inc/oria, 
 Kan. ulli yele) are used in red colours by boiling with alum. 
 
 Goni. — In many parts of the country, goni is a considerable article 
 of manufacture. It is a coarse, but very strong sackcloth, from 18 to 
 22 cubits in length, and from ^ to f of a cubit broad, and is made 
 from /«;;<//, \\\Q: janupa or crotaiaria ju7icea. It is divided into three 
 kinds, which differ in value according to their strength, and to the 
 closeness of the fabric. The same people, who are a particular caste 
 of men, cultivate the plant and carry on the manufacture. After 
 being cut down, the plant is dried in the sun and tied up in bundles, 
 which are taken out as wanted and put in the water, at which time 
 their bands are cut, and the stems being opened out, are kept down to 
 the bottom by stones or mud. According to circumstances they 
 require to be kept in the water from si.\ to eight days. They are 
 known to be ready when the bark separates easily from the pith. It 
 is then taken out of the water, and a man, taking it up by handfuls, 
 beats them on the ground, occasionally washes them until they are 
 clean, and at the same time picks out with his hand the remainder of 
 the pith, until nothing except the bark is left. This is then dried, 
 and being taken up by handfuls, is beaten with a stick to separate and 
 clean the fibres. The hemp is then completely ready, and is spun 
 into thread on a spindle, both by the men and women. The men 
 alone weave it, and perform this labour in the open air with a very 
 rude loom. 
 
 Jiopeinaki/ig from cocoanut fibre, sufficient for agricultural wants, is 
 common in all parts. 
 
 Oil-pressing. — This is a very generally followed calling all over the 
 country by the class called Ganigas, described in a previous chapter. 
 The oil mills are in the form of an immense mortar and pestle of 
 stone : in the kind driven by two bullocks the mortar is a block of 
 granite, 6 feet 9 inches above ground, with a pedestal let in to an equal 
 distance under ground. A wooden beam, 17 or iS feet long, pressing 
 at one end closely against the foot of the mill with a loud creaking 
 noise, which is the well-known indication of the neighbourhood of oil- 
 mills, has an arm projecting upwards at about a third of its length, 
 which is attached to the head of the pestle. The mill is driven by 
 o.xen yoked at the farther end of the beam, who pull it round and 
 round.
 
 542 INDUSTRIAL ARTS 
 
 The different kinds of oil made are : — 
 
 \\'()I1 cllu, lil or gingclly oil, from two kinds of scsatniim. 
 
 I Inch ellu, or ram Ul, from guizotca oleifera. 
 
 Ilaralu, castor-oil, from the large and small varieties of ricintis. 
 
 Kobri, from the dried kernel (kobri) of the cocoanut. 
 
 Hippe, from the friiit of the bassia loiigifolia. 
 
 Honge, from the seed of \\\(i pongatnia glabra. 
 
 The woll eUu oil is expressed from surugana and kari ellus, the 
 same with the woUe and phidagana ellus of other parts. The first 
 gives the least oil ; but for the table it is esteemed the best of any in 
 the country ; the price, however, of the two kinds is the same. The 
 mill receives at one time about seventy seers measure (2 "42 bushels) 
 of sesainwn seed ; and, in the course of grinding, ten kachcha seers 
 measure of water (278 ale quarts) are gradually added. The grinding 
 continues for six hours, when the farinaceous parts of the seed, and 
 the water, form a cake ; and this having been removed, the oil is found 
 clean and pure in the bottom of the mortar, from whence it is taken 
 by a cup. Seventy /^M^ seers of surugana, or 65 seers of kari eliu 
 seed give 2 kachcha maunds (rather more than 5^ ale gallons) of oil. 
 The mill requires the labour of two men and four oxen, and grinds 
 twice a day. The oxen are fed entirely on straw, and are allowed none 
 of the cake, which is sometimes dressed with greens and fruits into 
 curry, and at others given to milch cattle. 
 
 The huch ellu is managed exactly in the same manner. The seventy 
 seers measure require a little more water than the other ellu^ and gives 
 65 seers of oil (or a little more than 4I gallons). This also is used for 
 the table. The cake is never used for curry, but is commonly given to 
 milch cattle. 
 
 The haralu, or castor-oil, is made indifferently from either the large 
 or small varieties of the ricinus. It is the common lamp oil of the 
 country, and is also used in medicine. What is made by boiling, as 
 described below, is only for family use ; all that is made for sale is 
 expressed in the mill. To form the cake, seventy seers of the seed 
 require only five seers, kachcha measure (i"39 ale quarts) of water, and 
 give 60 seers (4'i7 ale gallons) of oil, which after being taken out of 
 the mill, must be boiled for half an hour, and then strained through a 
 cloth. The cake is used as fuel. 
 
 The following is the process for making castor-oil for domestic 
 use : — - 
 
 The seed is parched in pots containing about a seer, which is somewhat 
 more than a quart. It is then beaten in a mortar, by which process balls 
 of it are formed. Of these from four to sixteen seers are put into an
 
 OIL-PRESSING 543 
 
 earthen pot. with an equal quantity of boiling water, and boiled for five 
 hours, during which care must be taken, by frequent stirring, to prevent the 
 decoction from burning. The oil now floats on the surface, and is decanted 
 off in another pot, in which it is boiled by itself for a quarter of an hour. It 
 is then fit for use, and by the last boiling is prevented from becoming 
 rancid. After the oil has been poured from the seed, the pot is filled up 
 with water, which is again boiled, and next day the decoction is given to 
 buffaloes, by which their milk is said to be remarkably increased. The 
 boiled seed is mixed with cow-dung and formed into cakes for fuel. The 
 dry stems of the plant are also used for the fire. The oil is commonly used 
 for the lamp. It is also taken internally as a purgative ; and the Sudras, 
 and lower castes, frequently anoint their heads with it, when they labour 
 under any complaint which they attribute to heat in the system. 
 
 Kohri oil is made from the dried kernel of the cocoanut, which is 
 called kobri. This oil is chiefly used for anointing the hair and skin. 
 Cakes are also fried in it, and it is sometimes used for the lamp. The 
 mill receives 6 maunds weight of the kobri (almost 93 lbs.), and 11 
 kachcha seers measure of water (a little more than 3 ale quarts). This 
 produces three maunds (about 7*8 ale gallons) of oil. The natives eat 
 the rake dressed in various ways. 
 
 The hippe oil, made from the fruit of the hassia longifo'ia, is used 
 for the lamps burned before the gods, being esteemed of a better 
 quality than that of the ricinus. The mill takes 70 seers measure, and 
 the seed requires to be moistened with 12 kachcha seers (3^ ale quarts) 
 of tamarind water, in which 2 seers of tamarinds have been infused. 
 The produce is 70 seers (4*365 ale gallons) of oil. The cake is used 
 as soap to wash oil out of the hair of those who anoint themselves. 
 
 The honge oil, produced from the seed of the poiigamia glabra^ is 
 used for the lamp ; but it consumes very quickly. It is also used 
 externally in many diseases. Take 70 seers, pakka measure, of the 
 seed freed from the pods, add 4 kachcha seers measure of water (ri i 
 ale quart), and beat them in a mortar into a paste. Then tread the 
 paste with the feet ; and, having kept it for two or three days, dry it in 
 the sun. It is then put into the mill, with one kachcha seer (i9'6 
 cubical inches) of water. It produces 40 seers (2^ ale gallons) of oil. 
 For fuel, the cake is mi.xed with cow-dung. 
 
 Although all these kinds of oil are made as of old, the imported 
 kerosene oil has to a great extent superseded them for domestic use 
 among all classes. 
 
 Oil-mills worked by steam have been established at Bangalore by 
 Messrs. Binny & Co. of Madras. There is also an Oil-Mill Company 
 working at Mysore. A combined rice and oil-mill factory has also 
 been established by native agency at Tumkur, where both screw
 
 544 
 
 INDUSTRIAL ARTS 
 
 presses worked by hand and steam machinery are in use. A Bombay 
 firm maintain an agent at Davangere, whose special duty it is to 
 procure oil-seeds for export to that place. 
 
 The above account contains no notice of the distillation of sandal-oil, 
 which comes more under the head of perfumery, and is of importance 
 in connection with Mysore, the home of the sandal. The native 
 method of extracting sandal-oil is very different from the European 
 process. Large quantities of sandal-wood roots are yearly bought at 
 the Mysore sandal-wood auctions and exported to France, to be there 
 manufactured into oil, for which the demand is great in certain 
 contagious diseases. A concession was offered to a French firm to 
 erect a factory in this Province for distilling sandal-oil. The oil is also 
 distilled at Mr. Hay's factory at Hunsur. 
 
 Soap and candle works, worked by steam, have been set up in 
 Bangalore city, under European management, and the concern, which 
 has been aided by the Mysore Government, is being formed into a 
 Joint-Stock Company. Soap, made from cocoanut-oil, and candles, 
 made from di'tpa seeds {vateria indica), have been manufactured on a 
 small scale at Shikarpur by Amildar Nagesha Rao. 
 
 The following are the only figures available showing the estimated 
 value of the oils manufactured in the Province : — 
 
 
 Rs. 
 
 
 Rs. 
 
 I88I-2 
 
 653,184 
 
 1884-5 
 
 539,835 
 
 1882-3 
 
 431,113 
 
 1885-6 
 
 662,176 
 
 1883-4 
 
 .. 578,588 
 
 
 
 Glass-making. — This art is principally, if not entirely, applied to 
 the manufacture of bangles or glass rings, worn on the wrists like 
 bracelets by all classes of women. The chief seat of the trade, which 
 is not so extensive as at one time, used to be at Mattod, but some 
 glass is also made at Channapatna, part of which is formed into small 
 bottles. 
 
 At Mattod the furnaces are constructed in a high terrace, which is 
 built against the inside of the fort-wall, and are in the form of a dome, 
 or like an oven, eight feet in diameter, and about ten feet in height. 
 The oven is not arched, but contracted above into a circular opening, 
 about 18 inches in diameter, by making the upper rows of stones 
 project beyond those below them. At the bottom of the furnace, in 
 the side opposite to the town wall, is a small opening, through which 
 the fuel is supplied. The crucibles are oblong, and would contain 
 about 5 i Winchester gallons. Having been filled with the materials, 
 they are lowered down into the furnace by the aperture in the top, by
 
 GLASS-MAKIXG 545 
 
 which also the workmen descend. They first place a row of the 
 crucibles all round the furnace, with their bottoms to the wall and their 
 mouths sloping inwards. In this position they are secured by a bed of 
 clay, which covers the crucibles entirely, leaving their open mouths 
 only exposed. Above this row another is placed in a similar manner, 
 and then a third and a fourth. The furnaces vary in size, from 
 such as can contain fifty crucibles thus disposed to such as can 
 contain twice that number. The fuel consists of small sticks, 
 which having been gathered a year are quite dry. A quantity having 
 been put in the bottom of the furnace, the workmen ascend, and some 
 burning coals are thrown upon the fuel. By the opening below, fresh 
 fuel is added night and day, until the time allowed for vitrifying the 
 materials has expired. The fire is then allowed to burn out, and the 
 furnace to cool. Afterwards the workmen descend, and take out the 
 crucibles, which must be broken to get at their contents. 
 
 The materials used in this manufacture are : soda, quartz or compact 
 ironstone, compact specular iron ore, and copper. 
 
 The soda is gained in the following manner : Some pits about a foot 
 and a half deep are filled with salt earth, and water is poured upon it. The 
 same quantity of water is poured successively upon different portions of salt 
 earth till it is conceived to be sufficiently impregnated with saline matter, 
 which is judged of by its brown colour. This water is then worked into a 
 pultaceous mass with cow-dung, and spread about an inch thick upon a 
 straw mat, and dried in the sun. Another layer prepared in the same way 
 is applied the next day, and for twelve successive days it is kept moist by 
 the addition of fresh portions of lixivium of soda. The large cake is then 
 divided into smaller pieces, which, when quite dry, are piled up into a heap 
 and burnt. The fine ashes which are found along with the more solid 
 pieces are kept separate. The latter are reduced to powder, stored up, 
 and called saiilu sdravi (essence of soda) ; because they contain the largest 
 quantity of soda. 
 
 The quartz (1!^/// >i'a//«) used is a little iron-shot. Corn kallit is an iron 
 ore that comes nearest to compact brown ironstone (hydrate of iron). 
 Kcmmidic kalhc, iron glance, specular iron ore or red oxide of iron, is 
 found in sufficient quantities after heavy rains in a nullah in Hudihal 
 taluq. The nullah comes from the north side of a hill which probably 
 contains the ore in rocks. This ore is reckoned best when firm and 
 sound. If red ochre appear in the fracture, the specimen is esteemed 
 inferior to the best kind, in the proportion of two to three. And accord- 
 ingly a greater quantity of it is considered as necessary in the manufacture 
 of glass. 
 
 From these few materials the following kinds of glass are made : — 
 
 Bija or mother glass. — It is a soft, imperfect, porous glass ; and is used 
 only as a substratum or basis to the other kinds of glass. It is made of the 
 
 N N
 
 546 INDUSTRIAL ARTS 
 
 following ingredients : — The ashes which remain when the soda is made, 
 and which, as was mentioned before, are kept apart. If these ashes do not 
 contain many grains of salt, five parts of them are taken ; but if they are 
 mixed with much salt, three parts are deemed sufficient. To these are 
 added of pounded quartz, or bili kallu, one part. These two ingredients are 
 separately pounded and then mixed together, put into clay pots and kept in 
 the heated furnace for eight days. To see whether glass is formed, an iron 
 hook fastened to a long bamboo is dipped into a pot containing the glass 
 materials. If the mass adhering to it be of the consistence of wax, the 
 operation is finished. If not, another day's heat is given. 
 
 Red glass. — This is of a hyacinthine colour, penetrated with large 
 round white spots. It is composed of bija 7 parts, soda or saulu sdram 
 21, and kemmidu kallu 10. All the ingredients are first separately 
 reduced to an impalpable powder, and then mixed. It requires first 
 three days of slow heat, and then seven days of the strongest fire that 
 can be given. If more than the stated quantity of kemmidu be taken, 
 the glass acquires a black colour ; if less, it assumes a lighter shade 
 of red. 
 
 Green glass. — This glass has a dark emerald green colour with opaque 
 spots, and is composed of the following ingredients : soda or saulu sdram 
 21 parts, bija 7, kemmidu kallu y, and copper filings y. These materials 
 having been mixed and put into the crucibles, these are properly disposed in 
 the furnace, and a fire is kept up for nine days and nine nights. For the 
 first five days the fuel is added slowly, so that the flame just rises to the 
 aperture ; and afterwards it is not necessary to occasion quite so great a 
 heat as for the frit (bija) or black glass. The copper is calcined by burning 
 it, on the fireplace in the bottom of the furnace, during the whole 
 nine days that are required to make this glass. The saline crust formed 
 on the surface of this glass is considered by the natives as unfit for eating. 
 
 Black ^lass. — This glass is made of 3 parts of saulu sdram and i of bija. 
 Four days' moderate heat is enough for obtaining it. The charcoal of the 
 saulu sdram probably gives it the black colour, as it will lose it if the fire be 
 too long continued or too strong. This glass is the least esteemed of all. 
 It is quite opaque and has a close resemblance to enamel. The common 
 salt contained in the soda separates itself from the other ingredients, and is 
 found covering the glass or bija in a firm crust of one inch or more in thick- 
 ness. It is very fine and white, and used like sea-salt. 
 
 Blue glass. — This is composed of 21 parts of soda, 7 of bija, i of 
 copper filings, and an equal quantity of powdered kari kallu. For 
 fifteen days and nights, these materials must be burned with a moderate 
 fire. 
 
 Yelloiv glass is made of 2 1 parts of soda, and 7 parts of native soda (salt 
 earth) from which all the small stones have been picked, but which of course 
 contains a good deal of sand. For fifteen days these are burned with a 
 slow fire. When this glass is wrought up into rings, it receives a bright 
 yellow colour by enamelling it with the melted calces of the following 
 metals : five parts of lead, and one of tin are calcined together. Then one
 
 CARPENTRY AND TURNING. 547 
 
 part oi satin or zinc is calcined in a separate crucible. The two calces are 
 then mixed, and further calcined, until they begin to adhere together. 
 They are then powdered in a mortar. When the ring-maker is at work, he 
 melts some of this powder, and, while the ring is hot, with an iron rod he 
 applies a little of the powder to the surface of the glass. 
 
 The yield for each crucible in all cases is the same, except the red 
 and green kinds, which give respectively i\ niaund (30/,-, lbs.) 
 and ifV maund (3i|-i- lbs.) ; while the others give only i maund or 
 24^ lbs. 
 
 Carpentry and Turning. — The ordinary carpenters arc engaged 
 chiefly in making of carts and agricultural implements, with fittings and 
 furniture for the houses of the villagers. In Bangalore and some other 
 large places, cabinet work is turned out of great excellence, copied 
 from English designs Coach and carriage building is also successfully 
 carried on. 
 
 The toys for which Channapatna is noted are remarkably well 
 suited for their purpose, and much sought after by Europeans as well 
 as natives. The miniature imitations of native vessels and implements 
 are turned from hdk wood, and coated with lac of bright colours, 
 simply applied by the heat of the friction in turning. These toys are 
 of brilliant colours, smooth, and hard, and the colour never comes 
 off. Larger toys, representing various animals, are made from a soft 
 wood like touch-wood, bhurige mara. They are elaborately painted by 
 hand ; the birds especially, and some fruits, being very fairly modelled 
 and painted to imitate nature. 
 
 The sandal-wood carving, for which Mysore is famous, has already 
 been described above, p 522. 
 
 Sugar and Jaggory. — ^The expression of juice from the sugar-cane 
 is an important industrial operation, the details of which may be 
 described as follows : — • 
 
 The boiling-house is a thatched hut, about 40 feet long and 20 
 broad, with a door in front, but without windows. The walls are mud, 
 and stand all the year ; but a new roof of very slight materials is put on 
 annually, when the crop is ripe. At one end is a square pit for holding 
 the cuttings of the sugar-cane, and at the other is the boiler. The 
 furnace is partly raised and partly sunk ; it is in the form of a truncated 
 cone, and the fuel is supplied from without by an opening in the 
 wall. A small hole for letting out the smoke is placed before the 
 boiler, and has no chimney. The iron boiler is flat, and completely 
 shuts the mouth of the furnace. 15efore the boiler is a cavity for 
 containing the large cooling jar. The sugar-mill consists of a mortar, 
 beam, lever, pestle and regulator.
 
 548 INDUSTRIAL ARTS 
 
 The mortar is a tree, about lo feet in length, and 14 inches in diameter. 
 It is sunk perpendicularly into the earth, leaving one end two feet above 
 the surface. The hollow is conical, truncated downwards, and then 
 becomes cylindrical with a hemispherical projection in its bottom, in order 
 to allow the juice to run freely to the small opening that conveys it to a 
 spout, from which it falls into an earthen pot. Round the upper mouth of 
 the cone is a circular cavity, which collects any of the juice that may run 
 over from the upper ends of the pieces of cane ; and from thence a canal 
 conveys this juice down the outside of the mortar to the spout. 
 
 The beam is about 16 feet in length and 6 inches in thickness, and is cut 
 out from a large tree that is divided by a fork into two arms. In the fork 
 an excavation is made for the mortar, round which the beam turns 
 horizontally. The surface of this excavation is secured by a semicircle of 
 strong wood. The end towards the forks is quite open for changing the 
 beam without trouble. On the undivided end of the beam sits the bullock 
 driver, whose cattle are yoked by a rope, which comes from the end of the 
 beam ; and they are prevented from dragging out of the circle by another 
 rope which passes from the yoke to the forked end of the beam. On the 
 arms a basket is placed to hold the cuttings of cane ; and between this and 
 the mortar sits the man who feeds the mill. Just as the pestle comes 
 round, he places the pieces of cane sloping down the cavity of the mortar ; 
 and, after the pestle has passed, he removes those which have been 
 squeezed. 
 
 The lever is a piece of timber nearly of the same length with the beam. 
 Its thicker and lower end is connected with the undivided end of the beam 
 by the regulator. Some way above its junction with the regulator, a piece of 
 siijjalu, which is a very hard wood, is dovetailed into the lower side of the 
 lever ; and in this piece is made a smooth conical hollow, which rests on the 
 head of the pestle. The upper end of the lever is fastened to the two arms 
 of the beam by two ropes. 
 
 The pestle is a strong cylindrical piece of timber, about four feet in 
 length. At each end it is cut to a point, so as at the upper end to fonn a 
 cone, and at the lower a pyramid of from twelve to fifteen sides, sur- 
 mounted by a short cylinder. The cavity in the lever being towards one 
 end, makes the position of the pestle always oblique ; so that as it passes 
 round it rubs strongly against the sides of the mortar. Its cylindrical 
 point rubs on the top of the hemispherical projection that is in the 
 bottom of the cylindrical cavity of the mortar. 
 
 The regulator is a strong square piece of timber, which passes through 
 the undivided end of the beam, and is secured below by part of its circum- 
 ference being left for cheeks. It is perforated by eight holes, in the lowest 
 of which is placed a pin to prevent the regulator from falling when the 
 strain is removed. A pin in one of the upper holes of the regulator and 
 another in one of the holes in the thick end of the lever, serve to secure in 
 their place the ropes that bind closely together these two parts of the 
 machine. According as these pins are placed, higher or lower, the relative 
 direction of all the moveable parts of the machine is altered, and the
 
 SUGAR AND JAGGORY 549 
 
 balance of the beam is so regulated that it goes round without any friction, 
 but yet with its fork closely applied to the mortar. The only frictions in 
 this machine, it must be observed, are at the two extremities of the pestle ; 
 and that which is at the lower end is entirely employed in bruising the 
 cane, which is the object in view ; still, however, it is a machine badly 
 contrived for the purpose to which it is applied. 
 
 When the works and machinery have been prepared for making 
 jaggory, all the proprietors of sugar-cane in the village assemble, and 
 work together a day at each man's field, in rotation, until the whole is 
 finished. A sufficient number of people bring the canes to a man who 
 cuts them into pieces about six inches long, and puts them in the 
 square cavity in the boiling-house. From thence one man supplies 
 the basket of the person who feeds the mill, and who is the third man 
 employed at the works. The fourth man drives the bullocks ; a fifth 
 carries the juice to the boiler ; a sixth attends the fire ; and a seventh 
 manages the boiler. The mill goes night and day ; and gives fifty-six 
 pots of juice, containing in all about 218 ale gallons. The bullocks 
 are changed after having expressed three pots, and do no more work 
 that day, having been obliged to go very fast. Two of them are in the 
 yoke at a time. 
 
 The cane raised on black mould gives about a fifth part more juice 
 than that produced on sandy soil ; but then nine pots of the latter give 
 a hundred balls of jaggory, while it requires twelve, or even fourteen, 
 pots of the former to produce the same quantity. The workmen 
 always put into the boiler as much juice as will yield a hundred balls 
 of jaggory. It is strained into the boiler through a cotton cloth, and 
 there is added to it a proper quantity of lime-water. In a boiler full of 
 rich juice, from cane raised on sandy soil, there is put half a seer of 
 lime-water, or about thirty-four cubical inches ; and poorer juice from 
 the same kind of soil requires double that quantity. The boiler full of 
 juice from black mould cane requires five or six seers, which is added 
 by degrees. The boiler performs his operations three times in the 
 twenty-four hours. 
 
 When the juice has been evaporated to a proper consistence, it is 
 put into a large pot and allowed to cool for two or three hours. It is 
 then poured into the mould, which consists of a long thick plank, in 
 which a hundred holes are formed, each in the shape of a quadrilateral 
 inverted pyramid. The jaggory, or inspissated juice, is allowed to dry 
 in the mould for four hours ; when the plank being turned over, the 
 lialls, or rather pyramids, of jaggory fall down. They are dried b\- 
 placing them on leaves for a day, and arc then fit for sale. These 
 balls weigh i:} seer, or ro6 lb. The jaggory thus contains both the
 
 550 INDUSTRIAL ARTS 
 
 sugar and molasses, and is similar to what in Jamaica comes out of the 
 cooler before it is taken to the curing-house. It is, however, some- 
 what more inspissated ; for which an allowance must be made if we 
 wish to compare the strength of the sugar-cane juice in the two 
 countries. By the foregoing account it requires about 37 gallons of 
 the best juice to make i cwt. of jaggory. 
 
 The sugar-mills used in the north-east are two cylinders, wrought by 
 a perpetual screw, and two bullocks ; but seven times in the twenty- 
 four hours the bullocks are changed. The mill goes night and day ; 
 and, by the labour of fourteen bullocks, expresses 7,000 canes, which 
 produce fourteen maunds of jaggory, or seven maunds of raw sugar, 
 equal to li cwt. 
 
 This cumbrous and tedious process, with its imperfect results, has 
 been in many parts superseded by the introduction of iron sugar-cane 
 mills, which are expeditious in working and express the juice more 
 completely and with greater cleanliness. This is, in fact, almost the 
 only European machinery that the ryots have adopted. 
 
 The Ashtagram Sugar Works were established at Palhalli in 1847, 
 for refining into sugar the jaggory produced by the ryots. The then 
 Commissioner of Mysore, Sir Mark Cubbon, afforded the spirited pro- 
 jectors, Messrs. Groves & Co., every help in his power, and the factory 
 was a source of great public benefit in developing the resources of 
 agriculture in that part of the country. The number of men employed 
 at the works, when in full operation, was about 10 Europeans and 300 
 natives. The works were afterwards carried on by a Joint-Stock Com- 
 pany. The prize and medal for the best crystallized sugar at the Great 
 Exhibitions in London in 1851 and 1861 were awarded to the Ash- 
 tagram Sugar Works; and at the Universal Exhibition in Paris in 1867, 
 where the exhibitors in sugar were numerous and competition great, 
 " honourable mention " w^as awarded. But the factory has now been 
 closed for many years since the retirement of the proprietors, though 
 the buildings and machinery are still there. 
 
 The following were the details of manufacture : — 
 
 Cane jaggory is usually in the form of small compressed square cakes^ 
 shelving on one side into an inverted cone. This jaggory is sold by the 
 growers of the cane at so much per cake. But at the sugar works it was 
 purchased by weight, in order to render which uniform, a table was pre- 
 pared fixing the weight of 1,000 cakes at 7 cwt. 6 lbs., and the price was 
 computed at so much per 1,000 cakes. 
 
 The jaggory was placed in two large copper caldrons, called " blow-ups,"' 
 mixed with water, a small quantity of lime, and animal blood, and boiled 
 by steam until the whole was dissolved and attained a certain consistency.
 
 SUGAR AND JAGGORY 551 
 
 The lime was added to neutralize any acidity which might remain in the 
 jaggory, and the blood combined with the gluten matter contained in the 
 solution and carried it to the bottom. The solution or liquor (as it was now- 
 termed) was let into troughs, and underwent a course of filtration through 
 drill bags fixed in machines fitted up for the purpose. This filtered liquor 
 was conducted to a cistern, whence it was pumped up to the top of a large 
 iron cylinder filled with about 20 tons weight of animal charcoal made into 
 grain, through which the liquor had to pass that it might become 
 decolourized. It was then let into a tank, whence it was drawn up by the 
 action of an air-pump into the vacuum pan, where it was again boiled by 
 steam in vacuo, and crystallization ensued. After this it was let down into 
 large wooden bo.xes to cool, and was skimmed and allowed to drain to a 
 small extent. The sugar was now put into machinery, where by centrifugal 
 action and the application of certain liquors, composed of dissolved sugar 
 and spirits, the pure white crystals were entirely separated from the 
 remaining syrup and treacle, and the process was then complete. 
 
 The sugar thus obtained was put into a room with a boarded floor, and 
 sorted into three classes according to quality ; that consisting of large clear 
 crystals was called P., or the first sort ; the smaller crystals were termed N., 
 or the second sort ; and the rest K. X., or the third sort. These were now 
 put into bags and ready for sale. The first and second sorts were made 
 entirely of sugar-cane jaggory, and were composed of the early or first 
 boilings, while the third sort was that which was produced from the last 
 boilings, and contained an admixture of selected and carefully prepared 
 date jaggory, of which only a small portion, or about 20 per cent, in 
 quantity, was added at the " blow-ups." The syrup and treacle that were 
 skimmed and drained from the wooden and centrifugal boxes were some- 
 times again boiled in the vacuum pan and converted into molasses sugar, 
 which, on being drained by a further tedious process, was converted into 
 the third sort of sugar. But more frequently the molasses and skimmings 
 were fermented and distilled for rum. 
 
 Date jaggory, as crudely manuf;\ctured by the native method, is not 
 capable of being converted into good crystallized sugar. An establish- 
 ment for the purpose of manufacturing date jaggory more carefully was 
 instituted some years ago by Messrs. Clroves ^^ Co. in Banavar takK]. 
 But practical results, as compared with the sugar-cane jaggory, led to 
 the abandonment of the project. The out-turn of sugar from jaggory, 
 manufactured as above, was estimated at 50 per cent. Of the 
 remainder, about 30 per cent, was utilizable for distilling rum, and the 
 rest went to waste. \\'\\\\ the machinery, comprising water and steam- 
 power and other facilities, in the Ashtagram Sugar Works, it was 
 reckoned that not less than 2,000 tons of sugar might be manufactured 
 annually. This would utilize 4,000 tons of jaggory, which, at an 
 average price of Rs. 30 per 1,000 cakes, would find the growers of 
 sugar-cane a market for Rs, 170,000 worth of produce ut their fields, or
 
 
 Rs. 
 
 iS8i-2 
 
 844,175 
 
 1882-3 
 
 534,150 
 
 1883-4 
 
 .. 1,388,918 
 
 552 INDUSTRIAL ARTS 
 
 for one-half of wliat may be grown in the late two Ashtagram taluqs 
 witli ease. 
 
 A sugar factory has now been established at Goribidnur by Messrs. 
 Arbuthnot & Co. of Madras. There is also a Sugar-cane Plantation 
 Company at Shikarpur, under native management. 
 
 The estimated value of the manufacture of sugar is thus stated for 
 five years : — 
 
 Rs. 
 
 1884-5 ••• 1,430,472 
 1885-6 ... 1,873,554 
 
 Leather-dressing. — A Government tannery and leather factory were 
 long maintained in connection with the Commissariat at Hunsur. 
 Although they have been abolished, the district continues to reap the 
 advantage which they conferred in training workmen after European 
 methods. Tanneries have been established on a considerable scale by 
 ]\Iuhammadans near Bangalore. They cure the leather very well, and 
 export it to European markets. 
 
 Leather is tanned by the Madigas at Bangalore in the following 
 way : — 
 
 To dress the raw hides of sheep or goats, the Mddigas in the first place 
 wash them clean, and then rub each with the fourth part of a kind of soft 
 paste, made of 6 dudus weight of the milky juice of the yakkada {asclepias 
 giganled), about 6 dudus weight (2"426 ounces) of salt (muriate of soda), 
 and 12 dudus weight of ragi anibali or pudding, with a sufficient quantity of 
 water. This paste is rubbed on the hairy side, and the skins are then 
 exposed for three days to the sun ; after which they are washed with water, 
 beating them well on a stone. This takes off the hair. Then powder 
 
 2 seers (r2i3 lb.) of myrobalans, and put them and one skin into a pot with 
 
 3 or 4 seers measure of hot water, where it is to remain for three days. The 
 skin is then to be washed and dried. 
 
 This tanned skin is dyed black as follows : take of old iron, and of the 
 dross of iron forges, each a handful ; of plantain and lime skins, each five 
 or six ; put them into a pot with some ragi kanji, or decoction of ragi, and 
 let them stand for eight days. Then rub the liquor on the skins, which 
 immediately become black. 
 
 These skins may be dyed red by the following process : take of ungarbled 
 lac a dudus weight (about 13 drams), of suja kara, or fine soda, i dudu 
 weight, and of lodu bark 2 dudus weight. Having taken the sticks from 
 the lac, and powdered the soda and bark, boil them all together in a seer of 
 water (68^ cubical inches) for ih hour. Rub the skin, after it has been 
 freed from the hair as before mentioned, with this decoction ; and then put 
 it into the pot with the myrobalans and water for three days. This is a 
 good colour, and for many purposes the skins are well-dressed. 
 
 The hides of oxen and buffaloes are dressed as follows : — For each skin
 
 LEA THER-DRESSIXG 5 5 3 
 
 take 2 seers (r2i3 lb.) of quicklime, and 5 or 6 seers measure (about \\ ale 
 gallon) of water ; and in this mixture keep the skins for eight days, and rub 
 off the hair. Then for each skin take 10 seers by weight (about 6 lbs.), of 
 the unpeeled sticks of thetangade {cassia aiirictilatd), and 10 seers measure 
 of water (about 2^ ale gallons), and in this infusion keep the skins for four 
 days. For an equal length of time add the same quantity of tangadi and 
 water. Then wash, and dry the skins in the sun, stretching them out with 
 pegs. This leather is very bad. 
 
 A very pretty kind of red morocco is manufactured at Harihar by a 
 set of people called Muchikar. 
 
 It is in the first place tanned. The goat skins (for these only are 
 employed) are dried in the sun for one day ; next day they are washed in 
 the river, rolled up and put into a pot, with a mixture (for each skin) of one 
 handful of common salt, as much water, and half of that quantity of the 
 milk of wild cotton {asclepias gigantea). After the skins have been soaked 
 in this mixture for four days, the pot is filled up with water, and the leather 
 suffered to remain four days longer in it : the hair now comes easily off the 
 skins when scraped by a piece of broken pot. The leather thus cleaned is 
 laid in the shade, and when dry is rolled up and kept in a house for two or 
 three days, in a place secure from smoke and from insects ; it is then 
 soaked for eight hours in pure water, and scraped with a piece of earthen- 
 ware till it becomes quite white. Before the leather is dyed it is soaked for 
 one night in a pakka seer of water which has been mixed with a handful of 
 cholam meal [Iwlciis sorghum) and warmed on the fire ; in the morning it 
 is taken out and dried with a piece of cloth : when well dried, it is soaked 
 again for half an hour in water with which one seer of tamarinds has been 
 mixed ; it is then spread on a mat and the colour applied. 
 
 For the red colour take \ kachcha seer of lac (18 drams), alii toppalu 
 (leaves of the miiiiecylon capitellatiim) j\ of a dub weight, and the same 
 quantity of the salt extracted from washerman's earth (carbonate of soda) : 
 pound these ingredients together, boil \ of a seer of water in a place where 
 there is no wind ; put the pounded mass into it and keep it for a quarter of 
 an hour over a slow fire. To ascertain whether it has acquired the requisite 
 consistence, dip a cholam straw into it ; if the liquid does not run down the 
 straw when turned up it is sufficiently done, but if it runs, the boiling must 
 be continued for some time longer. 
 
 The leather (previously extended on a mat) is, at three different times, 
 rubbed over with this liquid ; it is then thrice sprinkled over with tamarind 
 water, and lastly it is steeped for five or six days in a liquid composed of 
 3 seers of water and i seer of pounded tangadi bark. Every morning it is 
 taken out, washed a little, and again replaced, till at last it is well washed 
 in clear water and dried : thus prepared, it has a fine crimson colour, and 
 is very soft. 
 
 Earth Salt. — The manufacture of earth salt, which was once con- 
 siderable, has greatly declined. Within five miles of the British
 
 554 INDUSTRIAL ARTS 
 
 frontier it is prohibited, with the view of preventing smuggling of the 
 salt into British territory. The process is conducted as follows : — 
 
 In the dry season, the surface of the earth is scraped off and collected in 
 heaps. In front of these heaps the native salt-makers construct a semi- 
 circle of small round cisterns, each about three feet in diameter and a foot 
 deep. The sides and floors of these cisterns are made of dry mud : and 
 each, at its bottom, on the side toward the heaps of saline earth, has a small 
 aperture, with a wooden spout, to convey the brine into an earthen pot that 
 is placed in a cavity under it. The bottoms of the cisterns are covered 
 with straw, and then the saline earth is put in, till it rises nearly to the level 
 of the tops of the walls. Water is now poured on the surface of the saline 
 earth, and, in filtering through into the pots, carries with it all the salt. 
 The inert earth is then thrown out behind the cisterns, and new earth is put 
 in, for impregnating more water. In the meantime the brine is emptied into 
 a cavity cut in a rock, and the evaporation is performed entirely by the sun. 
 The grain of the salt is large, and consists of well-formed cubes ; but it is 
 mixed with much earthy impurity. 
 
 Coffee Works. — A very important industry, which has come into 
 existence in recent times, is the preparation of coffee for the European 
 market. The largest works are those belonging to Messrs. Binny & Co. 
 of Madras, at Bangalore, for peeling, sizing, and sorting coffee. During 
 the cleaning season, extending from December to March, about i,ooo 
 hands are employed there, and about 1,500 tons of coffee, the produce 
 not only of Mysore, but of Coorg, the Nilagiris, the Shevaroys, (Sec, 
 pass through the works. The factory is also engaged in the compound- 
 ing of artificial manures for coffee plantations. Other works of a 
 similar character, for the preparation of coffee for transhipment to 
 Europe, are carried on by ]Mr. Hay at Hunsur. 
 
 The following figures show the value of this manufacture for five 
 years :- 
 
 
 Rs. 
 
 
 Rs. 
 
 I88I-2 
 
 1,114,488 
 
 1884-5 
 
 3,287,869 
 
 1882-3 
 
 1,567,192 
 
 j 1885-6 
 
 2,733,207 
 
 1883-4 
 
 1,188,308 
 
 1 
 
 
 Brick and Tile J forks. — The great demand for building materials 
 has led to the establishment recently of a factory for machine-made 
 bricks and tiles, fire-bricks, drain-pipes, &c., in the Bangalore city, by 
 Messrs. Arbuthnot & Co. of Madras. 
 
 Paper Mills. — The local manufacture of country paper is quite 
 extinct. A proposal brought forward for paper mills was not carried 
 out solely because other undertakings seemed to promise better 
 results.
 
 555 
 
 TRADE AND COMMERCE 
 
 The land-locked position of Mysore, the mountain barriers which 
 separate it from the surrounding countries on three sides, and the want 
 of navigable rivers, are circumstances unfavourable for external trade. 
 In the time of Tipu all importation was forbidden, with the view of 
 stimulating home production. But owing to the arbitrary measures 
 adopted to bring about this result, the Government itself entering the 
 market as a wholesale dealer, the effect was rather to check the natural 
 growth of trade and to paralyze industry. Although under the Raja's 
 government which followed, the same restriction did not exist, yet 
 commerce was shackled by incredibly vexatious transit duties, to the 
 abolition of which the early efforts of the British Commissioners were 
 directed. 
 
 After 1 83 1, the construction of an excellent system of trunk roads 
 throughout the country, leading through the ghats or mountain passes 
 to the surrounding territories and to the chief ports on the \Vestern 
 coast, greatly stimulated traffic. But the most powerful impetus has been 
 given by the railways now in operation, which connect Mysore with 
 Madras and Bombay, and the intermediate Districts, as well as with the 
 whole of India beyond. The proposed line from Arsikere to Manga- 
 lore will aid in developing the trade of the western Districts. 
 
 The religious festivals, and the weekly fairs or santes, are the 
 principal opportunities of trade in the rural districts. The large 
 merchants are chiefly residents in the towns. They employ agents 
 throughout the districts to buy up the grain, in many places giving 
 half the price in advance before the harvest is reaped. By this means 
 a few men of large capital are able to some extent to regulate the 
 market. 
 
 Sandal-wood, grain, cotton, areca-nut, coffee and a few other com- 
 modities are the principal articles of commerce. The best method of 
 exhibiting the interchange of trade will be to give the imports and 
 exports for a series of years. Though the figures cannot be accepted as 
 altogether correct, they no doubt show roughly the general course of 
 trade, the articles carried to and from the country, and the annual 
 value of the transactions. The means of transport, except where there 
 are railways, arc country carts on lines of road, and pack-bullocks or 
 asses in wild and forest tracts
 
 556 
 
 
 
 
 TABLE OF IMPORTS 
 
 INTO MYSO. 
 1 
 
 
 1881 
 
 -82. 
 
 1882-83. 
 
 1883-84. 
 
 1884-85. 
 
 1885-86. 
 
 Articles. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Quantity 
 Tons. 
 
 Value 
 Rs. 
 
 Quantity 
 Tons. 
 
 Value 
 Rs. 
 
 Quantity 
 Tons. 
 
 Value 
 Rs. 
 
 Quantity 
 Tons. 
 
 Value 
 Rs. 
 
 Quantity 
 Tons. 
 
 Val 
 R 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 Arecanut 
 
 1,299 
 
 565,876 
 
 426 
 
 415,898 
 
 697 
 
 512,200 
 
 446 
 
 345.443 
 
 1,480 
 
 '''>3!J 
 
 Betel-leaves ) 
 (bundles)) 
 
 25.629,350 
 
 1.5871400 
 
 33.699.550 
 
 91.850 
 
 2i27S,340 
 
 134,453 
 
 2,469,900 
 
 147.015 
 
 2,717,000 
 
 i&l 
 
 Camphor 
 
 34 
 
 41.925 
 
 41 
 
 54,250 
 
 SO 
 
 60,950 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 
 .L 
 
 Cardamoms ... 
 
 5 
 
 19,110 
 
 22 
 
 38.529 
 
 5 
 
 25,878 
 
 8 
 
 27,763 
 
 4 
 
 
 Chillies 
 
 1.434 
 
 204,280 
 
 1,692 
 
 241.975 
 
 1.475 
 
 306,405 
 
 1,568 
 
 284,225 
 
 1,428 
 
 i( 
 
 Cholam (jowari) 
 
 2,356 
 
 70,949 
 
 2,078 
 
 50.250 
 
 2,641 
 
 93.444 
 
 2,727 
 
 93,558 
 
 2.414 
 
 
 Cloves 
 
 16 
 
 33.845 
 
 17 
 
 22,300 
 
 7 
 
 9,755 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 
 Coarse clothsNo. 
 
 275.864 
 
 391,820 
 
 250,000 
 
 348,300 
 
 1,466,180 
 
 4,293,100 
 
 175.550 
 
 326,080 
 
 285,700 
 
 « 
 
 Cocoanuts, dry 
 
 341 
 
 69,283 
 
 205 
 
 58,049 
 
 234 
 
 63,468 
 
 246 
 
 67,219 
 
 184 
 
 il 
 
 ,, fresh No. 
 
 2,196,740 
 
 85,412 
 
 S.595,500 
 
 197,960 
 
 583,500 
 
 36,846 
 
 2,169,000 
 
 229,740 
 
 3,600,300 
 
 "5 
 
 Coffee 
 
 32S 
 
 246,371 
 
 232 
 
 172,960 
 
 87 
 
 63; 690 
 
 87 
 
 66,585 
 
 104 
 
 t 
 
 Cotton 
 
 1. 147 
 
 640,868 
 
 1.177 
 
 648,968 
 
 1,178 
 
 584,400 
 
 975 
 
 544,201 
 
 513 
 
 -V 
 
 Cotton thread ... 
 
 416 
 
 375-963 
 
 339 
 
 165,250 
 
 246 
 
 180,250 
 
 201 
 
 198,126 
 
 268 
 
 26; 
 
 Gold 
 
 - 
 
 441,320 
 
 - 
 
 328,500 
 
 - 
 
 496,500 
 
 - 
 
 642,960 
 
 - 
 
 53= 
 
 Gram, Bengal 
 
 1,964 
 
 102,389 
 
 2,804 
 
 127,340 
 
 1,651 
 
 92,370 
 
 1.756 
 
 122,710 
 
 2,010 
 
 16? 
 
 „ black ... 
 
 1,538 
 
 75,538 
 
 622 
 
 43.770 
 
 944 
 
 62,730 
 
 1,258 
 
 96,204 
 
 1.234 
 
 la 
 
 „ green ... 
 
 2,495 
 
 116,117 
 
 1,910 
 
 122,774 
 
 2,020 
 
 99,385 
 
 1,962 
 
 129,161 
 
 2,184 
 
 i3i 
 
 ,, horse ... 
 
 9.343 
 
 277,935 
 
 4,303 
 
 126,197 
 
 4.306 
 
 152,700 
 
 6,077 
 
 232,050 
 
 2,6o6 
 
 ^H 
 
 Hides ... No. 
 
 50,300 
 
 45,300 
 
 50,000 
 
 25,000 
 
 52,000 
 
 28,500 
 
 42,000 
 
 28,000 
 
 54.000 
 
 ili 
 
 Iron ... •.. 
 
 2,837 
 
 554,660 
 
 3,154 
 
 605,656 
 
 3,843 
 
 721,450 
 
 3,975 
 
 773.450 
 
 3,937 
 
 7if 
 
 Jaggory 
 
 1,877 
 
 190,472 
 
 2,414 
 
 225,800 
 
 374 
 
 35.100 
 
 1,483 
 
 140,558 
 
 1,309 
 
 121 
 
 Oil, cocoanut ... 
 
 161 
 
 72,587 
 
 189 
 
 89.542 
 
 99 
 
 42,040 
 
 116 
 
 50,303 
 
 160 
 
 5! 
 
 „ gingelli ... 
 
 296 
 
 99,850 
 
 285 
 
 126,075 
 
 170 
 
 50,960 
 
 424 
 
 142,078 
 
 217 
 
 V 
 
 Pepper 
 
 254 
 
 184,450 
 
 214 
 
 155.560 
 
 155 
 
 100,500 
 
 174 
 
 128,412 
 
 155 
 
 14' 
 
 Piece goods, No. 
 
 1,002,692 
 
 2,994,765 
 
 1,153,300 
 
 3,489,000 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 1,211,260 
 
 4,891,159 
 
 2,008,521 
 
 4,73; 
 
 Poppy-seed 
 
 42 
 
 6,186 
 
 307 
 
 46,080 
 
 432 
 
 67,480 
 
 4,102 
 
 16,630 
 
 870 
 
 9f 
 
 Ragi 
 
 63,860 
 
 2,129,705 
 
 16,646 
 
 1,134,600 
 
 15,300 
 
 438,900 
 
 48.504 
 
 1,499,710 
 
 34,430 
 
 1,59; 
 
 Rice 
 
 38.453 
 
 2,717,765 
 
 16,769 
 
 1,540,4x5 
 
 30,080 
 
 2,465,688 
 
 25.151 
 
 2,268,770 
 
 23,072 
 
 2,51! 
 
 ., paddy ... 
 
 28,797 
 
 1,084,834 
 
 47,382 
 
 1,218,510 
 
 43.792 
 
 1,097,800 
 
 24,310 
 
 1,037,500 
 
 29,352 
 
 1,59' 
 
 Silk 
 
 - 
 
 44,800 
 
 142 
 
 16,300 
 
 109 
 
 118,080 
 
 III 
 
 138,876 
 
 108 
 
 1,62; 
 
 „ cloths No. 
 
 15.700 
 
 143,180 
 
 16,730 
 
 182,200 
 
 6,285 
 
 82,900 
 
 20,323 
 
 238.719 
 
 16,915 
 
 19. 
 
 Silver 
 
 6 
 
 581,240 
 
 8 
 
 486,250 
 
 S 
 
 487.500 
 
 8 
 
 542.234 
 
 7 
 
 54^ 
 
 Sugar 
 
 222 
 
 67,263 
 
 329 
 
 83.250 
 
 303 
 
 66,850 
 
 347 
 
 97i2i5 
 
 399 
 
 11; 
 
 Tamarind 
 
 188 
 
 7,720 
 
 270 
 
 24,100 
 
 607 
 
 38.250 
 
 2,501 
 
 195.335 
 
 2,373 
 
 i6< 
 
 Tobacco 
 
 497 
 
 247,936 
 
 413 
 
 83.764 
 
 594 
 
 195,600 
 
 608 
 
 247,010 
 
 ■506 
 
 32 
 
 Togari (dal) ... 
 
 3.706 
 
 252,838 
 
 5,018 
 
 310,855 
 
 4,628 
 
 176,800 
 
 4,291 
 
 419.157 
 
 4,044 
 
 41' 
 
 Wheat 
 
 13.537 
 
 721,999 
 
 15,550 
 
 887,030 
 
 15,999 
 
 985,988 
 
 20,943 
 
 1,358,308 
 
 22,714 
 
 1,90 
 
 
 
 
 
 Included i 
 
 n coarse c 
 
 oths. 
 
 
 
 
 i 
 i' 
 
 J
 
 FOR TEN YEARS 
 
 557 
 
 1886 
 
 -87. 
 
 1887 
 
 -88. 
 
 1883-89. 
 
 1889-90. 
 
 1890-91. 
 
 Quantity Value 
 Tons. Rs. 
 
 Quantity 
 Tons. 
 
 Value 
 Rs. 
 
 Quantity 
 Tons. 
 
 Value 
 Rs. 
 
 Quantity 
 Tons. 
 
 Value 
 Rs. 
 
 Quantity 
 Tons. 
 
 Value 
 Rs. 
 
 1.557 1,030,742 
 
 1,633 
 
 958,730 
 
 1.788 
 
 1,014,712 
 
 1,076 
 
 689,900 
 
 1,172 
 
 680,639 
 
 6,863,000 155,410 
 
 7,000,000 
 
 120,750 
 
 3,831,000 
 
 85.454 
 
 47,500 
 
 112,125 
 
 1,854,000 
 
 232,449 
 
 3 24,010 
 
 4 
 
 24,150 
 
 5 
 
 22,919 
 
 6 
 
 19.985 
 
 4 
 
 20,710 
 
 1,410 200,200 
 
 1,371 
 
 329,845 
 
 1.509 
 
 337,380 
 
 1,400 282,409 
 
 1,427 
 
 305,948 
 
 1,907 
 
 79,500 
 
 2,172 
 
 78,246 
 
 S.700 
 
 180,400 
 
 5,445 : 137,128 
 
 5.783 
 
 467,566 
 
 20,545,800 
 
 1 
 
 60,738,050 
 
 625,900 
 
 780,000 
 
 549.953 
 
 666,191 
 
 690,690 1,184,190 
 
 642,900 
 
 854,500 
 
 708 
 
 202,187 
 
 643 
 
 160,359 
 
 653 
 
 179,359 
 
 618 175,520 
 
 826 
 
 1.124,473 
 
 3,670,707 
 
 108,841 
 
 4,560.000 
 
 107,100 
 
 3,305,728 
 
 107,006 
 
 3,390,000 2,061,137 
 
 2,671,000 
 
 94,041 
 
 133 
 
 186,030 
 
 117 
 
 210.705 
 
 112 
 
 215,164 
 
 III 127,288 
 
 2,042 
 
 2,445,091 
 
 653 
 
 415,922 
 
 533 
 
 295.940 
 
 1,088 
 
 542,416 
 
 1,372 771,849 
 
 2,076 
 
 786,702 
 
 1.237 ,1,140,270 
 
 1,251 
 
 1,139,740 
 
 1,300 
 
 1,175.520 
 
 1,211 1,109,090 
 
 1,285 
 
 1,184,678 
 
 — 1,428,800 
 
 - 
 
 392,416 
 
 - 
 
 382,200 
 
 7 
 
 423,860 
 
 - 
 
 482,360 
 
 3,316 
 
 242,968 
 
 4.101 
 
 316,026 
 
 5,190 
 
 429,341 
 
 4,345 
 
 354.008 
 
 4,229 
 
 369,628 
 
 3,136 
 
 250,647 
 
 3,903 
 
 309.756 
 
 4,404 
 
 362,190 
 
 4,609 
 
 407.141 
 
 3,822 
 
 383,344 
 
 3,03s 
 
 268,791 
 
 4,713 
 
 343.073 
 
 4,475 
 
 337,590 
 
 4,186 
 
 377,046 
 
 4-771 
 
 330,481 
 
 8,366 
 
 177,030 
 
 6,436 
 
 250,805 
 
 6,874 
 
 314,520 
 
 7,107 
 
 500,022 
 
 7,920 
 
 190,228 
 
 45,000 
 
 41,000 
 
 77,800 
 
 103,100 
 
 52,000 
 
 63,620 
 
 — 
 
 40,000 
 
 58,000 
 
 41,000 
 
 3,61s 
 
 712,292 
 
 8,052 
 
 1,589.736 
 
 8,214 
 
 1,687,520 
 
 1,107,600 
 
 '.850,370 
 
 9.25s 
 
 1,801,666 
 
 2,228 
 
 224,712 
 
 4,014 
 
 570,352 
 
 4>059 
 
 528,421 
 
 4,112 
 
 505.953 
 
 4,029 
 
 523,562 
 
 304 
 
 110,258 
 
 281 
 
 126,000 
 
 251 
 
 102,630 
 
 "5 
 
 97,588 
 
 244 
 
 106,488 
 
 242 
 
 80,210 
 
 125 
 
 34,746 
 
 457 
 
 212,568 
 
 145 
 
 135.543 
 
 181 
 
 68,758 
 
 138 
 
 149,750 
 
 .46 
 
 163,478 
 
 142 
 
 165,262 
 
 134 
 
 142.598 
 
 149 
 
 133,108 
 
 3,098,690 7,716,700 
 
 4,859,800 
 
 8,884,000 
 
 1,641,830 
 
 7,119,600 
 
 3,388,297 
 
 6,829,820 
 
 1,042,430 
 
 4.045.490 
 
 164 ! 22,697 
 
 112 
 
 19,64s 
 
 119 
 
 22,246 
 
 111 
 
 21,961 
 
 III 
 
 21,983 
 
 42,413 '1,398,02s 
 
 42.450 
 
 1,220,617 
 
 42,637 
 
 1,205,920 
 
 37,939 1,179.390 
 
 31,265 
 
 1,127,025 
 
 27,330 
 
 2,392,906 
 
 29-874 
 
 2,768,587 
 
 28,600 
 
 3,315,866 
 
 27,474 588,485 
 
 38,969 
 
 3,252,364 
 
 28,382 
 
 932,720 
 
 32,971 
 
 1,440,400 
 
 23,784 
 
 784,523 
 
 31,586 
 
 987,956 
 
 26,798 
 
 1,318,102 
 
 116 1,679,560 
 
 no 
 
 1,655,620 
 
 107 
 
 1,474,275 
 
 113 
 
 1,623,550 
 
 133 
 
 1.738.594 
 
 106,131 
 
 403,120 
 
 105,882 
 
 621,500 
 
 111,925 
 
 664,400 
 
 116,390 
 
 780,090 
 
 13,910 
 
 208,400 
 
 8 
 
 777,200 
 
 7 
 
 709,632 
 
 8 
 
 811,180 
 
 7 
 
 603,580 
 
 6 
 
 409,960 
 
 554 
 
 148,054 
 
 266 
 
 60,405 
 
 358 
 
 47,616 
 
 552 
 
 20,523 
 
 507 
 
 135,137 
 
 2,530 
 
 226,360 
 
 2,265 
 
 230,965 
 
 2,150 
 
 189.408 
 
 2,076 178,860 
 
 1.834 
 
 59,300 
 
 1,100 
 
 557,800 
 
 1,023 
 
 497,057 
 
 1,118 
 
 601,313 
 
 989 515,392 
 
 i,o6S 
 
 493.703 
 
 6,059 
 
 437,865 
 
 3.501 
 
 284,447 
 
 2,803 
 
 89,365 
 
 4,543 381.028 
 
 3.84s 
 
 395.784 
 
 23,197 
 
 1,876,002 
 
 21,686 
 
 2,195,065 
 
 21,764 2,191,725 
 
 20,687 1,027,129 
 
 20,813 
 
 2.938.958
 
 558 
 
 
 
 
 TABLE OF EXPORTS 
 
 FROM MYSO. 
 
 
 
 1 88 
 
 -82. 
 
 188 
 
 2-33- 
 
 1883-84. 
 
 1884-85. 
 
 1885-86. 
 
 
 Articles. 
 
 Quantity 
 Tons. 
 
 Value 
 Rs. 
 
 Quantity 
 Tons. 
 
 Value 
 Rs. 
 
 Quantity 
 Tons. 
 
 Value 
 Rs. 
 
 Quantity 
 Tons. 
 
 ' Value 
 1 Rs. 
 
 1 
 
 Quantity Val 
 Tons. Kj 
 
 
 Arecanut 
 
 8,266 
 
 1,124,040 
 
 5,184 
 
 2,434.645 
 
 4.444 
 
 2,620,296 
 
 5,498 
 
 1 
 3.011,545 
 
 j 
 
 6,397 
 
 3,971 
 
 
 Betel-leaves ) 
 (bundles) f 
 
 11,191,210 
 
 660,113 
 
 1,478,360 
 
 56,523 
 
 2.707,299 
 
 181,825 
 
 2,539.586 
 
 85,290 
 
 4,602,800 
 
 1 
 
 
 Camphor 
 
 - 
 
 1,200 
 
 — 
 
 1,280 
 
 I 
 
 1,500 
 
 — 
 
 - 
 
 — 
 
 1 
 
 
 Cardamoms ... 
 
 39 
 
 118,500 
 
 32 
 
 110,506 
 
 33 
 
 171,998 
 
 64 
 
 270,405 
 
 80 
 
 27! 
 
 
 Chillies 
 
 531 
 
 74,864 
 
 214 
 
 35.305 
 
 316 
 
 50,850 
 
 500 
 
 70,425 
 
 577 
 
 SI 
 
 
 Cholam (jowari) 
 
 S.iSi 
 
 207,760 
 
 7.671 
 
 341.540 
 
 9,073 
 
 68,175 
 
 14,300 
 
 483,200 
 
 2,745 
 
 13! 
 
 
 Cloves 
 
 I 
 
 2,000 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 1 
 
 1,500 
 
 — 
 
 - 
 
 — 
 
 - 
 
 
 Coarse cloths No. 
 
 275,864 
 
 391,820 
 
 3,000 
 
 5,500 
 
 268,600 
 
 797,000 
 
 29,360 
 
 59,860 
 
 6,000 
 
 l: 
 
 
 Cocoanuts, dry 
 
 383 
 
 92,220 
 
 201 
 
 45.150 
 
 275 
 
 68,160 
 
 216 
 
 57,116 
 
 291 
 
 H 
 
 ,, fresh No. 
 
 4,773.000 
 
 115.267 
 
 2,512,100 
 
 50,850 
 
 1,258,500 
 
 46,587 
 
 2,273,860 
 
 61,779 
 
 5,114,000 
 
 II 
 
 
 Coffee 
 
 1,909 
 
 1,219,197 
 
 2,163 
 
 1,253,412 
 
 2,898 
 
 1,156,408 
 
 4,407 
 
 1,389,340 
 
 4,916 
 
 3.09; 
 
 Cotton 
 
 173 
 
 70.750 
 
 265 
 
 116,978 
 
 1,029 
 
 234,711 
 
 260 
 
 1 19,090 
 
 24,281 
 
 igt 
 
 Cotton thread ... 
 
 34 
 
 33.000 
 
 180 
 
 150,000 
 
 33 
 
 32,250 
 
 41 
 
 39,775 
 
 45 
 
 43. 
 
 Gold 
 
 - 
 
 80,000 
 
 - 
 
 80,000 
 
 - 
 
 100,000 
 
 2 
 
 200,000 
 
 — 
 
 564. 
 
 Gram, Bengal .. 
 
 2,897 
 
 193.340 
 
 2,454 
 
 168,590 
 
 1,351 
 
 72,510 
 
 1,298 
 
 83,100 
 
 1,125 
 
 83,'i 
 
 „ black ... 
 
 101 
 
 6,800 
 
 — 
 
 - 
 
 998 
 
 23.700 
 
 — 
 
 - 
 
 414 
 
 3;. 
 
 „ green ... 
 
 488 
 
 26,540 
 
 564 
 
 30,460 
 
 813 
 
 36,180 
 
 544 
 
 36,000 
 
 442 
 
 4> 
 
 ,, horse ... 
 
 13.719 
 
 415.998 
 
 10,617 
 
 330,228 
 
 11,739 
 
 380,200 
 
 7,760 
 
 325.300 
 
 5.378 
 
 250. 
 
 Hides ... No. 
 
 125,900 
 
 127,275 
 
 119,400 
 
 "4.133 
 
 105,650 
 
 140,600 
 
 147,992 
 
 136,046 
 
 145,200 
 
 iS-; 
 
 Iron 
 
 179 
 
 31,100 
 
 148 
 
 27,872 
 
 159 
 
 29,000 
 
 70 
 
 31,200 
 
 236 
 
 4;- 
 
 J 
 
 Jaggory 
 
 2,702 
 
 287,300 
 
 2,235 
 
 227,700 
 
 13,085 
 
 856,800 
 
 2,116 
 
 223,500 
 
 6,377 
 
 52I,«| 
 
 Oil, cocoanut ... 
 
 12 
 
 5.928 
 
 25 
 
 11,750 
 
 4 
 
 2,200 
 
 23 
 
 8,800 
 
 21 
 
 7.' 
 
 „ gingelH ... 
 
 76 
 
 28,500 
 
 83 
 
 25,111 
 
 46 
 
 15,050 
 
 96 
 
 38,774 
 
 93 
 
 3; 
 
 Pepper 
 
 191 
 
 136,160 
 
 181 
 
 98,620 
 
 177 
 
 115,825 
 
 201 
 
 144,900 
 
 150 
 
 11:. • 
 
 Piece goods, No. 
 
 1,002,692 
 
 2.994.765 
 
 162,700 
 
 462,812 
 
 * 
 
 * 
 
 222,350 
 
 665,500 
 
 254,200 
 
 7C0,: 
 
 Poppy-seed 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 71 
 
 2,000 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 71 
 
 8,cl 
 
 Ragi 
 
 37,888 
 
 1,263,228 
 
 52,970 
 
 1,361,926 
 
 48.933 
 
 1,550,400 
 
 20,000 
 
 665.250 
 
 33,700 
 
 1,250,2 j 
 
 Rice 
 
 7,280 
 
 576.525 
 
 31,142 
 
 1,696,600 
 
 15,052 
 
 784,200 
 
 22,934 
 
 1.944.330 
 
 11,472 
 
 1,192.- 
 
 ,, paddy 
 
 33,559 
 
 935.025 
 
 51,472 
 
 2,147,300 
 
 205,950 
 
 1.322,075 
 
 45.201 
 
 1,739,242 
 
 45.447 
 
 1,843.: 
 
 Silk 
 
 - 
 
 44,800 
 
 - 
 
 3,000 
 
 4 
 
 51,000 
 
 2 
 
 28,000 
 
 21 
 
 3-:^- 
 
 ,, cloths. No. 
 
 - 
 
 143,180 
 
 5,000 
 
 50,000 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 2,200 
 
 2I,00O 
 
 2,300 
 
 21. 
 
 Silver 
 
 I 
 
 96,000 
 
 I 
 
 96,000 
 
 I 
 
 96,000 
 
 1 
 
 96,000 
 
 I 
 
 c: 
 
 Sugar 
 
 104 
 
 31.903 
 
 39 
 
 11,400 
 
 64 
 
 18,000 
 
 1,496 
 
 468,060 
 
 1,138 
 
 334-- 
 
 Tamarind 
 
 1,600 
 
 118,525 
 
 497 
 
 24,700 
 
 4,998 
 
 337,175 
 
 1,116 
 
 75.855 
 
 1,167 
 
 75.3 
 
 Tobacco 
 
 60 
 
 29.394 
 
 127 
 
 38,050 
 
 68 
 
 23,300 
 
 43 
 
 13,100 
 
 46 15.: 
 
 Togari (dal) ... 
 
 909 
 
 58,600 
 
 9S0 
 
 71,466 
 
 914 
 
 46,290 
 
 1,095 
 
 99,300 
 
 1,221 11: - 
 
 Wheat 
 
 449 
 
 18,930 
 
 1,482 
 
 79.710 
 
 1,768 
 
 100,300 
 
 1,140 
 
 65,100 
 
 1,185 
 
 9' 
 
 
 Included in coarse cloths.
 
 FOR TEN YEARS 
 
 559 
 
 1886-87. 
 
 1887-88. 
 
 1888-89. 
 
 1889-90. 1 
 
 1890-91. 
 
 Quantity 
 Tons. 
 
 Value 
 Rs. 
 
 Quantity 
 Tons. 
 
 Value 
 Rs. 
 
 i^uantity 
 Tons. 
 
 Value 
 Rs. 
 
 Quantity Value 
 Tons. Rs. 
 
 Quantity 
 Tons. 
 
 Value 
 Rs. 
 
 5,967 . 
 
 ii 760,701 
 
 6.993 
 
 J.449.455 
 
 6,229 
 
 3,891,290 
 
 6,202 3.838,559 
 
 6308 
 
 3,186,138 
 
 6,360,500 
 
 104,994 ' 
 
 (,460,000 
 
 121,145 
 
 1,662,704 
 
 636,492 43,509,214 
 
 690,770 
 
 ♦1,014,960 
 
 971,588 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 - 
 
 — 
 
 - 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 - 
 
 — 
 
 77 
 
 242,840 
 
 98 
 
 358,350 
 
 106 
 
 273,324 
 
 81 
 
 310.454 
 
 "3 
 
 312.857 
 
 919 
 
 98,460 
 
 830 
 
 136,080 
 
 1,258 
 
 227.595 
 
 2,202 
 
 368,854 
 
 1,069 
 
 203,238 
 
 22,295 
 
 669,000 
 
 19.974 
 
 479,299 
 
 27,433 
 
 737.200 
 
 32.370 
 
 664,951 
 
 43. '79 
 
 1,066,355 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 - 
 
 - 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 18,000 
 
 28,000 
 
 26,000 
 
 39,000 
 
 32,500 
 
 47,861 
 
 28,500 
 
 44,350 
 
 37,200 
 
 53,500 
 
 460 
 
 129,420 
 
 458 
 
 53.492 
 
 931 
 
 130,200 
 
 6,236 
 
 1,497.660 
 
 2,269 
 
 565,315 
 
 4,285,000 
 
 137,076 
 
 3.995.500 
 
 302 042 
 
 6,144,999 
 
 176,199 
 
 7.339,474 
 
 380,063 
 
 1,196,200 
 
 132.457 
 
 2,707 
 
 2,334,200 6,974 
 
 5,647,630 
 
 3,660 
 
 4,080,000 
 
 3,980 
 
 4,732.630 
 
 3.632 
 
 4,354.720 
 
 362 
 
 187,588 
 
 339 
 
 157.801 
 
 598 
 
 318,067 
 
 2,091 
 
 780,288 
 
 442 
 
 195.139 
 
 301 
 
 272,250 
 
 252 
 
 227,000 
 
 303 
 
 302,500 
 
 678 
 
 678,000 
 
 684 
 
 683,900 
 
 — 
 
 1,001,245 
 
 - 
 
 1,063,929 
 
 1 
 
 2,470,692 
 
 - 
 
 622,347 
 
 - 
 
 6,033,562 
 
 3,629 
 
 247,280 
 
 14,430 
 
 540,374 
 
 2,297 
 
 182,852 
 
 3.548 
 
 260,775 
 
 3.375 
 
 280,938 
 
 Ii537 
 
 115,287 
 
 2,129 
 
 177.735 
 
 1,662 
 
 132,319 
 
 2,785 
 
 230,010 
 
 2,02I 
 
 241,063 
 
 1.949 
 
 143,870 
 
 4,343 
 
 207,991 
 
 1.553 
 
 120,239 
 
 1,867 
 
 176,984 
 
 1,912 
 
 164,550 
 
 9.529 
 
 394,500 
 
 14.230 
 
 540,374 
 
 7,849 
 
 308,214 
 
 12,377 
 
 717,241 
 
 6,102 
 
 740,237 
 
 280,890 
 
 675,906 
 
 276,100 
 
 333.650 
 
 270,219 
 
 343,289 
 
 189,000 
 
 273,500 
 
 159,600 
 
 200,035 
 
 322 
 
 61,295 
 
 805 
 
 203,474 
 
 492 
 
 113,290 
 
 3.692 
 
 707,186 
 
 3.768 
 
 711,041 
 
 3,051 
 
 542,27s 
 
 7,045 
 
 1,007,045 
 
 6,835 
 
 1,094,357 
 
 8,054 
 
 1,086,127 
 
 6,876 
 
 677,116 
 
 126 
 
 21 840 
 
 49 
 
 20, 340 
 
 41 
 
 16,450 
 
 45 
 
 17,400 
 
 45 
 
 17,430 
 
 236 
 
 90,625 
 
 355 
 
 113.950 
 
 236 
 
 87,250 
 
 68 
 
 25,650 
 
 69 
 
 28,734 
 
 131 
 
 117,600 
 
 123 
 
 107,360 
 
 167 
 
 165,400 
 
 150 
 
 96,040 
 
 150 
 
 "3,455 
 
 205,250 
 
 675,000 
 
 254,400 
 
 772,450 
 
 25,500 
 
 100,000 
 
 40,250 
 
 118,000 
 
 30,000 
 
 67,500 
 
 75 
 
 10,000 
 
 90 
 
 15,000 
 
 90 
 
 15,000 
 
 51 
 
 9.100 
 
 50 
 
 9,100 
 
 107,772 
 
 2,678,700 
 
 125,778 
 
 3,228,199 
 
 96,573 
 
 2,592,133 
 
 226,310 
 
 2.872,785 
 
 109,917 
 
 4. 116. 579 
 
 ■53,073 
 
 4,348,587 
 
 47,188 
 
 3,822,881 
 
 59,330 
 
 5.154,840 
 
 42,568 
 
 4,341.745 
 
 38.346 
 
 4,433,700 
 
 36,827 
 
 1,034,410 
 
 43,701 
 
 1,729,248 
 
 127,822 
 
 4,562,056 
 
 28,248 
 
 3,956,531 
 
 113.460 
 
 5,114.478 
 
 32 
 
 460,000 
 
 43 
 
 649,820 
 
 92 
 
 1,400,165 
 
 97 
 
 1,333,500 
 
 103 
 
 1,391,089 
 
 2,000 
 
 20,000 
 
 3,000 
 
 30,000 
 
 3,000 
 
 30,000 
 
 2,500 
 
 25,000 
 
 103,600 
 
 336,000 
 
 I 
 
 89,600 
 
 I 
 
 144,000 
 
 2 
 
 192,000 
 
 I 
 
 90,240 
 
 I 
 
 90,240 
 
 6,878 
 
 634,640 
 
 1,453 
 
 346,504 
 
 1,460 
 
 349,504 
 
 1,805 
 
 533.980 
 
 i,47« 
 
 475,200 
 
 1,564 
 
 113,910 
 
 1,166 
 
 118,986 
 
 2,298 
 
 180,696 
 
 1,477 
 
 96,480 
 
 1,400 
 
 "5.943 
 
 143 
 
 69,940 
 
 22 1 
 
 130,034 
 
 245 
 
 140,849 
 
 198 
 
 139,471 
 
 381 
 
 117,804 
 
 14,081 
 
 734,800 
 
 9,178 
 
 456,401 
 
 6,137 
 
 370,211 
 
 6,340 
 
 438,864 
 
 3,106 
 
 '95.703 
 
 1.432 
 
 109,076 
 
 1,462 
 
 145,175 
 
 1,569 
 
 155.400 
 
 1,363 
 
 132,896 
 
 1,508 
 
 146,043
 
 56o 
 
 TRADE AND COMMERCE 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Exports. 
 
 
 Imports. 
 
 Exports. 
 
 Rs. 
 
 Ks. 
 
 
 Rs. 
 
 Rs. 
 
 i7)495>6o8 .. 
 
 9,190,729 
 
 1886-7 .. 
 
 . 86,536,629 . 
 
 • 18,971,916 
 
 13.971,561 ■■ 
 
 11,859,114 
 
 1887-8 .. 
 
 • 28,993,093 . 
 
 . 32,876,214 
 
 14,470,550 .. 
 
 11,534,075 
 
 1888-9 .. 
 
 . 27,518,820 . 
 
 . 18,770,504 
 
 17,766,503 .. 
 
 12,756,192 
 
 1889-90 .. 
 
 . 28,423,514 . 
 
 . 32,284,429 
 
 21,390,418 .. 
 
 16,164,389 
 
 1890-I .. 
 
 28,072,520 . 
 
 . 25,267,151 
 
 The following are the total estimated values of imports and exports 
 for the ten years : — 
 
 1881-2 
 1882-3 
 1883-4 
 1884-5 
 1885-6 
 
 The detailed statement of the articles included in these figures is 
 contained in the preceding tables. 
 
 A great development has taken place in late years of commercial 
 speculations and transactions, as may be gathered from the number of 
 banking and trading Joint-Stock Companies (Limited) registered in 
 Mysore. At the close of the year 1894-5 there were altogether 92 
 such Companies or Associations, whose aggregate nominal capital 
 amounted to Rs. 4,340,292. Of course this refers only to local Com- 
 panies, and does not include the Gold-mining Companies, which are all 
 formed in England. 
 
 The subjoined statement gives further details as to the Companies : — 
 
 Nature of Business. Number. 
 
 Nominal Capital 
 
 Paid-up Capital. 
 
 
 
 Rs. 
 
 Rs. 
 
 Banking and Loans 
 
 80 
 
 • ■ 3>6i9,292 
 
 ... 1,958,250 
 
 Banking and Insurance 
 
 3 
 
 105,000 
 
 101,100 
 
 Trading and Merchandise 
 
 3 
 
 100,000 
 
 84,925 
 
 Plantation 
 
 I 
 
 30,000 
 
 22,467 
 
 Mills 
 
 3 
 
 486,000 
 
 400,000 
 
 Others (one a Dramatic Company) 
 
 2 
 
 (limited to 
 
 36 members). 
 
 The following is a summary of the places in which these Companies 
 are located : — 
 
 Mysore ... 
 
 Chik Ballapur ... 
 
 Bangalore 
 
 Tirumakudal Narsipur . 
 
 Seringapatam 
 
 Sidlaghatta 
 
 Melukote 
 
 Tumkur ... 
 
 Hassan ... 
 
 Chitaldroog 
 
 From 1873 Government servants have been interdicted from holding 
 such posts as Directors, Managers, Agents, &c., of Banks, and required 
 to sever all connection with Companies established in the District in 
 which they are employed. The duties of Auditor have however been 
 permitted, as an exception to the rule, to be performed by public 
 servants, as they are of a temporary character. 
 
 32 
 
 Srinivaspur 
 
 12 
 
 Nanjangud 
 
 10 
 
 Chamrajnagar 
 
 7 
 
 Kolar 
 
 5 
 
 Gudibanda 
 
 5 
 
 Goribidnur 
 
 3 
 
 Shikarpur 
 
 2 
 
 Devanhalli 
 
 2 
 
 Mandya ... 
 
 2 

 
 56i 
 
 WAGES AND PRICES 
 
 JVages. — The great development of industries in the last decade, 
 and the extensive scale on which railways and puljlic works of all kinds 
 have been carried out, following upon the loss of population incurred 
 in the famine of 187 7-8, have led to much rise in the rates of wages for 
 all classes of work. The following are given as the rates of daily 
 wages ruling in each District in 1893, and they are still advancing : — 
 
 I Bangalore 
 
 i to 12a 
 
 Skilled 
 
 labour 
 
 Unskilled , 
 
 11 2 „ 6 a. 
 
 labour " 
 
 Cart hire 8 „ i r. 
 
 Kolar 
 
 to a. to I r. 
 4 . , 6 a. 
 
 Tiimkur Mysore 
 
 I 
 8 to 12 a. 8 to 12 a. 
 
 4 ,, 6a. 2 ,, 4 a. 
 
 Ha.ssan 
 
 !a. to I Jr. 
 - 11 4 ^ 
 
 Shimoga I Kadiir IChitaldroog 
 
 i .T. to I r. 8 a. to If.! 8 a. lo I r. 
 • ., 4a. 3 ,, 6a. 4 ,, 8a. 
 ! ,, I r. 12 ,, ijr. 12 „ I r. 
 
 The corresponding average rates in 1876, as stated in the former 
 edition, were — for skilled labour, 4 as. to i R. a day ; unskilled 
 labour, 2 as. to 8 as. a day; cart hire, 8 as. to \\ R. a day. The 
 minimum daily wage for skilled labour has thus doubled in the past 
 twenty years in all Districts ; that for unskilled has doubled in three 
 Districts and increased by a half in another; the maximum daily rate 
 of cart-hire is one-fourth higher in Mysore District, and a half higher 
 in the three western Districts and Chitaldroog. It is also probable 
 that the hours of labour are generally shorter now than they used to be. 
 
 Figures for comparison are not available for any long period back, 
 but in 1876 it was the opinion that the j)rice of un.skilled labour had 
 doubled since 1850, and that of skilled labour risen threefold. 
 
 According to Buchanan, the wages paid to day labourers in 1800 
 were : — men, ^ to | a fanam, women \ a fanam ; or, in the present 
 currency, about 2 as. to 2 as. 8 ]). and i a. 4 p. respectively. At 
 the present time (1896) 5 as. is a common rate in 15angalore for men, 
 and 2 as. 4 p. for women. 
 
 Of the cost of living some estimate may be formed from the charge 
 per head of dieting the convicts in jail. In 1866-7, a dear year, the 
 rate varied from Rs. 3 — 4 — o to Rs. 4 — 6 — o a month. In 187 1-2, a 
 cheap year, the rates were — for labouring convicts from R. i — 11 — 10 
 to Rs. 2 — ID — o, and for non-labouring convicts from R. i — 4 — 11 to 
 Rs. 2 — 1 — 2. In 1875, the average was Rs. 2 — 6 — o per head. In 
 1890, when a new scale of diet was introduced, the average cost was 
 Rs. 2 — 8 — 10 per head. It must be remembered, however, that the 
 
 o o
 
 5^2 
 
 WAGES AND PRICES 
 
 articles consumed in the jails are obtained in large quantities, whole- 
 sale. 
 
 The maximum daily rations of a labouring ryot, at hard work, may 
 be stated at i^ seers (3 lbs.) of ragi flour and about ^ seer (4 ozs.) 
 of gram or ballar (bean), with condiments, while the quantity of ragi 
 flour required by other adults varies from ^ seer (i lb.) to 'I seer per 
 day. 
 
 Prices. — -There are not sufficient statistics available to illustrate 
 the general rise in prices. Buchanan states that the prices at 
 Bangalore in 1800 were, — ragi, 12 Sultani fanams per kandaga of 200 
 seers ; rice, best sort, 28^, coarse, 66|; wheat, 57. That is to say, ragi 
 was 50 seers for the rupee ; rice, ist sort, 9, 2nd sort, 21 ; wheat, io|. 
 These rates seem high, being perhaps unduly raised by the late wars 
 and desolation. Dr. Heyne's prices for different places between 
 Bangalore and Chitaldroog at about the same period, or perhaps a year 
 or two later, vary as follows : — for paddy or unhusked rice from 18 to 
 7 3 "8 seers per rupee ; ragi, 38-4 to 113 ; jola, 73*8 to 120 ; wheat, 6 to 
 24; horse-gram, 11 to 113 ; Bengal gram 6 to 147*7. 
 
 The following comparative statement embraces twelve years past, 
 and gives the average rates for three principal grains : — 
 
 Average Prices of Produce from 1881 to 1893, 
 
 PER MAUND of 8o LBS. 
 
 
 Rice. 
 
 Ragi. 
 
 Ho 
 
 rse-g 
 
 ram. 
 
 
 
 R. 
 
 a. 
 
 P- 
 
 R. 
 
 a. 
 
 p- 
 
 R. 
 
 a. 
 
 P- 
 
 
 I88I-2 
 
 3 
 
 I 
 
 9 
 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 
 4 
 
 9 
 
 
 1882-3 
 
 2 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 9 
 
 
 1883-4 
 
 2 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 6 
 
 
 3 
 
 10 
 
 
 1884-5 
 
 2 
 
 13 
 
 I 
 
 
 8 
 
 9 
 
 
 10 
 
 I 
 
 
 1885-6 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 II 
 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 
 1886-7 
 
 2 
 
 12 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 II 
 
 10 
 
 
 3 
 
 10 
 
 
 I8S7-8 
 
 2 
 
 12 
 
 6 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 9 
 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 
 1888-9 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 15 
 
 8 
 
 
 13 
 
 2 
 
 
 IS89-90 
 
 3 
 
 6 
 
 II 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 
 I 890- I 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 6 
 
 I 
 
 2 
 
 I 
 
 10 
 
 
 I89I-2 
 
 4 
 
 15 
 
 10 
 
 I 
 
 15 
 
 I 
 
 2 
 
 14 
 
 7 
 
 
 1892-3 
 
 3 
 
 13 
 
 9 
 
 I 
 
 7 
 
 I 
 
 2 
 
 II 
 
 3 
 
 
 Regarding fluctuations in prices of produce as influenced by the 
 seasons, the following remarks are extracted from the Annual Reports : 
 
 1855-6. — In the Chitaldroog and Nagar Divisions, the season was rather 
 more favourable than in the preceding year. In the Ashtagram Division it 
 was less so, and in Bangalore there was a total failure of the early rains. 
 As, however, there was a fair average fall throughout the country in July,
 
 PRICES 563 
 
 August, September and October, and as a fourth disastrous season in 
 succession was hardly to be expected, all were sanguine that we were once 
 more to be blessed with an abundant harvest. In this we were doomed to 
 be disappointed ; for in November, when a few showers are absolutely 
 necessary for watering the dry crops, there was a total failure of rain, and 
 in the prospect which then became certain of a fourth scanty harvest, 
 prices, already high, at once rose still higher, and grain continued at almost 
 famine rates till the opening of the last monsoon, which in the eastern por- 
 tion of the Territory set in in a style that had an immediate eliect on the 
 market. The long prevalence of these high rates fell very heavily on the 
 non-agricultural classes, but pressed comparatively lightly on the cultivating 
 ryots ; for although their crops were scanty and vast numbers of their cattle 
 died for want of forage, yet the prices which they received for what 
 remained of their crops was so high that they were able to pay their rents 
 with ease, and to replace their farm stock. 
 
 1856-7. — The season commenced auspiciously, and the rains of the 
 south-west monsoon were for the most part steady and regular. There was, 
 however, a partial failure of the north-east monsoon, in consequence of 
 \vhich the dry crops in some taluqs of the Ashtagram Division were 
 withered up, and the yield of the batayi crops in all the Divisions, more 
 particularly in Bangalore, was much less than in the preceding year. The 
 harvest altogether was below the average, but the prices of all grains were 
 steady and remunerative, and the ryots would have had no serious cause of 
 complaint had there not been a most fatal murrain among cattle which 
 spread havoc through the country. 
 
 1857-8. — The season has been the sixth bad season in succession with 
 which Mysore has been afflicted. In the Ashtagram Division it is true that 
 it was less unfavourable than it had been in the two preceding years, but in 
 the other three Divisons it was worse if possible than the previous ones. 
 The south-west monsoon came down in scattered showers and was 
 altogether insufficient and partial. The north-east monsoon was more 
 copious, but still not what ic usually is, and altogether insufficient to make 
 up for what had been wanting from the south-west. In consequence of 
 this, a large expanse of land cultivated with wet crops was left untilied in 
 the Bangalore Division. In Chitaldroog the harvest was only one-third of 
 what is considered an average crop. In Nagar the supari gardens are 
 regarded as having suffered lasting damage, except in those favoured spots 
 where the irrigation is derived from lakes fed by perennial springs. In 
 Ashtagram alone the prospects of the ryots were brighter than they had 
 been for some time before. 
 
 1858-9. — The season, although not favourable, was on the whole better 
 than the preceding. The south-west monsoon almost totally failed, and 
 gave rise to the apprehension that another bad season was about to follow 
 the five highly unfavourable years which immediately preceded the past ; 
 later in the year, however, copious rain fell ; all those tanks which were 
 strong enough to stand the rush of water were filled to overllowing, but in 
 many places great destruction ensued. 
 
 002
 
 564 J FACES AND PRICES 
 
 1859-60. — On the whole, the past season commenced more favourably 
 than the four seasons immediately preceding ; the copious showers of the 
 south-west monsoon giving the promise of an abundant crop of dry 
 grain. But unfortunately the hopes then formed were to a great extent 
 disappointed by a considerable defalcation of the rains of the north-east 
 monsoon, on which the wet cultivation chiefly depends, and which are 
 required to bring the dry grain to maturity. The consequence has been 
 a great increase of prices throughout the Territory, without, however, 
 causing serious distress, the wages of labour having risen in about the 
 same proportion. 
 
 1860-1. — The season was not a good one. It was not quite as bad as 
 some that have preceded it since 1853, but the almost entire failure of the 
 latter rains caused a very serious loss both in the quantity and quality of 
 the crops. In the Malnad taluqs even the south-west monsoon did not 
 pour down with its usual abundance, and the consequence has been a 
 failure both in garden produce and rice. Many of the wells and streams 
 in those parts dried up so completely as to inconvenience very seriously 
 both the inhabitants and their cattle. In the Chitaldroog Division, the 
 rains ceased abruptly at the end of August, and not a single shower fell in 
 that District during September or October, the most critical period of the 
 season for the crops. In some exceptional parts of the Province, the 
 harvest was very fair in quantity, but these spots were few and far between, 
 with the exception perhaps of those taluqs to the southward, where the wet 
 lands are supplied copiously with water by the channels drawn from the 
 Kaveri and other rivers. Two reasons exist for the non-appearance of 
 actual famine in some parts. The first being the habit which prevails in 
 this country of storing the surplus ragi in underground pits, from which it 
 is withdrawn in times of scarcity, as the grain will keep sound and good 
 for forty or fifty years. The second reason was the extraordinarily high 
 prices which all kinds of produce realized. In fact every article of con- 
 sumption rose during the latter year in value, and the ryots and garden 
 cultivators were thereby enabled to pay their khists and hire ; whilst the 
 poorer classes and labourers received a higher rate of wage than has ever 
 previously been known in Mysore. But the high prices press very heavily 
 on all people of fixed incomes. 
 
 1S61-2. — The season was decidedly the best for some years past, and 
 had the latter rains been as copious as those of the early part of the season, 
 the ryots would once again have begun to think that the days of abundant 
 harvests which they knew prior to 1S53 were about to return. But the 
 Nagar Division did not fare so well as the others. It would appear that as 
 soon as the ryots of Nagar became apprehensive of a short monsoon, they 
 began sowing the rice lands with dry crops. A subsequent heavy downpour 
 in many cases destroyed these also. As compared with former years, high 
 prices continue to rule in Mysore. People have given up hoping for the 
 return of those days when grain that is now 20 seers was sold as low as 60, 
 70 and even 80 seers for the rupee. The only solution of this state of 
 things is increase of population, and consequent higher prices, the daily
 
 PRICES 565 
 
 increasing facility of communication, and the decline in the mercantile 
 value of the current coin of the realm. Not even in the most remote parts 
 of the country will a rupee now purchase the quantity of grain which could 
 have been bought with it a few years ago. 
 
 1862-3. — In Bangalore the season was considered generally favourable. 
 In Kolar, though the rains were irregular, the outturn of the crops was 
 considered superior to that of any harvest for ten years. In Tumkur the 
 season began favourably with showers in May, but owing to the failure of 
 the rains anticipated in June and July, and the prevalence of boisterous 
 winds, some loss was experienced and the land had in many places to be 
 resown. The latter rains were abundant, and the tanks generally received 
 an adequate supply of water without injury. The yield of ragi was a full 
 average, but there was a partial failure in some of the pulse crops. The 
 grain harvest in Ashtagram was one of the best known for years, but the 
 season was unfavourable to tobacco, supari, chillies and some other pro- 
 ducts. The season throughout the Nagar Division, as compared with that 
 of the previous year, was generally more favourable, notwithstanding a 
 diminished rainfall, but it varied much in the three Districts and cannot be 
 pronounced to be a good year. The prices of the principal grains were 
 lower than in 186 1-2, but are still considered high with reference to those 
 prevailing a few years ago. Cotton was in great demand, the exports to 
 England having completely cut off the supply from Bellary and other cotton- 
 growing Districts, and the price was higher than it has ever been known to 
 be in Mysore. 
 
 1863-4. — The dry cultivation in the Nundidroog Division was extensive, 
 and the ragi crops were generally good, though, consequent on the failure 
 of the latter rains, the prospect of an unusually heavy crop was not 
 realized. The grain crop was below the average and the later pulse crops 
 almost entirely perished. The north-east monsoon in Novenil^cr and 
 December completely failed and the cultivation of wet lands was therefore 
 limited. In Ashtagram the season is reported to have been on the whole 
 very similar to that of the preceding year. The whole wet crop throughout 
 the Division was that of a good average year, but the dry crops, except in 
 the taluqs bordering on the Malnad, were as a rule unfavourable, and 
 failed from want of rain, or rather from unseasonable weather, partial 
 showers and sometimes heat destroying the plants. In Nagar the season 
 generally was unfavourable, the rains being scanty and for the most part 
 unseasonable. The latter rains almost entirely failed. Nearly all the 
 tanks were consequently dried up, and the people and cattle sulTcred 
 much. 
 
 1S64-5. — In the Nundidroog Division the season was on the whole a 
 favourable one. The paddy crop reaped in November was abundant and 
 made up for a deficiency in the May crop, which suffered from the want of 
 a sufficient supply of water in the tanks. The dry grain harvest was an 
 average one. From the Ashtagram Division the report is not so favour- 
 able. In Nagar the season was generally unpropitious, scarcely a shower 
 of rain having fallen in the six months from October to March. After the
 
 566 WAGES AND PRICES 
 
 first sliowcrs in April, a small smooth brown caterpillar made its appear- 
 ance in a portion of the Division, and in a few days ate up ever)- green 
 thing, the grass assuming the appearance of having been burnt up. Both 
 monsoons were characterized by violent storms of wind and rain which 
 did much damage to public works and cattle. The price of agricultural 
 produce of all kinds is still high. 
 
 1865-6. — A year which commenced with abundant rain and every 
 prospect of plentiful harvests, became, as it ran its course, less and less 
 promising, and in its latter months ended in drought, sickness and heavy 
 mortality. The high prices which had everywhere prevailed had been 
 more disastrous to the mass of the people than they have been advanta- 
 geous to the purely agricultural portion of it. Indeed, the ryots themselves 
 have exported so much grain, owing to the extravagant rates which ruled in 
 the markets in the cotton-growmg Districts of Bellar)"^ and Dharwar, that 
 the hoarded supply of years which formerly filled their grain pits has been 
 well nigh exhausted, and there has therefore in many places been 
 apparently an absolute want of seed for sowing purposes. Among the 
 officials and the non-agricultural classes there has been much distress, and 
 the failure of the ragi harvest has been a most serious misfortune to the 
 population generally. 
 
 1866-7. — The immediate cause of the distress in the past year was 
 undoubtedly the failure of the early rains of 1866 succeeding upon the 
 scanty harvest obtained in the previous autumn. The ryots had moreover 
 to a great extent neglected the provision which it had been customary to 
 make against bad seasons. Grain was largely exported to supply the 
 necessities of districts to the northward, where the cultivation of cotton had 
 in a considerable degree superseded that of food grains. The drought 
 made itself felt more or less throughout the province, but nowhere so 
 severely as in the taluqs lying along the northern and eastern frontiers. 
 Before the month of June the scarcity of food had grown into a famine of 
 an appalling character. The people were driven to feed on the kernel of 
 the tamarind fruit and cotton-seed reduced to flour, and even on leaves and 
 roots. \''illages were deserted by their inhabitants, who fled to other parts 
 of the country in search of food, and from the instances that came to notice 
 it is to be feared that deaths from actual starvation were not of rare 
 occurrence. Sickness was speedily engendered by the deleterious food, 
 and cholera, dysentery, and fever carried off large numbers of people. In 
 the absence of any pasturage, the cattle suffered severely. This state of 
 things was fortunately limited to one portion, and that a comparatively 
 small portion, of the Province, but the effects of the drought, which 
 continued till the month of September, when rain fell copiously, were felt 
 in a greater or less degree in every District, and caused much misery and 
 suffering among the poorer classes. 
 
 1 867-8. — Compared with the condition of things last year, the ryots and 
 people of all classes have reason to congratulate themselves on the season- 
 able rain and consequent good pasturage. The price of grain has fallen in 
 all Districts 25 and 50 per cent., and even lower. This is especially notice-
 
 PRICES 567 
 
 able in Chitaldroog District, where 23 seers of ragi instead of <)\ can now 
 be purchased for a rupee. 
 
 1868-9. — The great fall in prices of grain and other produce induced 
 cultivators to give up large tracts of the more heavily assessed land. 
 
 1870-1. — The harvest was generally a most luxuriant one, and the price 
 of grain of all kinds fell to a point which brought a full supply of good and 
 wholesome food within the means of the poorest classes. These low prices 
 have, however, been productive of loss to the agricultural classes, who in 
 some instances have experienced a difficulty in the disposal of the produce 
 of their fields without submitting to a heavy sacrifice. 
 
 1871-2. — The harvest was generally good, and the prices of grains of all 
 sorts continued to decline. The wages of labour have not as yet been 
 affected by the decrease in the cost of food. The fall in the value of 
 produce has, however, been attended by considerable relinquishment of 
 land, chiefly on the part of speculators, who appear to have taken up land 
 wherever it could be obtained during the period of high prices, and who 
 doubtless in many instances have found it no longer worth retaining. 
 
 1873-4. — The year was on the whole not favourable for the crops. 
 During June and July there was an almost total failure of rain. In August 
 and until October rain fell in abundance, but the late rain was also deficient. 
 
 1874-5.— Notwithstanding that the year had been a favourable one for 
 agriculture and the harvest good, ragi, the principal food of four-fifths ot 
 the inhabitants, was dearer. On the other hand the price of rice and the 
 minor pulses was somewhat lower. 
 
 1875-6. — A rainfall only half that of the previous year, and two-thirds 
 the average of the past five years, seriously affected the outturn of crop. 
 To make matters w-orse, this short rainfall was in many places unseason- 
 able. The south-west monsoon gave nineteen inches, while the north-east 
 yielded only two inches. The eastern Districts, which are to a certain extent 
 dependent on the north-east monsoon rains for a good harvest, suffered 
 more than the westerly Districts, where moderate crops were harvested. 
 The price of food grains ruled high. The great rise in the price of the 
 staple food of the Province pressed heavily on the poorer labouring classes . 
 Owing to want of fodder and scarcity of water, the loss among agricultural 
 stock was very great. 
 
 1876-7. — The year marked the commencement of a famine unparalleled 
 in the annals of the Province. Though there was a fair average rainfall 
 during June, the sowing season, it became capricious and most scanty as 
 the year advanced. The north-east monsoon wholly failed. In lieu of the 
 twelve to fifteen inches usual in September and October, one inch was 
 registered at Bangalore in the first sveck of .September, another inch after 
 an interval of two weeks, and again half an inch after a further interval of 
 four weeks. The result was that the dry crops died on the ground after 
 they were half or three-quarters grown ; and the tanks were deprived of 
 their water-supply, on which alone the spring paddy crops depended. The 
 failure of the north-east monsoon completed the destruction to the extent of 
 80 per cent, of kharif crops in all Districts. Tumkur District suffered the
 
 568 
 
 WAGES AND PRICES 
 
 heaviest loss, but was closely followed by liangalore and Chitaldroog. 
 Kolar and Kadur held an intermediate position. Hassan and Mysore 
 failed but slightly, and Shimoga was almost untouched. No measures of 
 relief would have been of avail to meet the grave crisis with which the 
 administration had to deal, had it not been for the ready means afforded by 
 the Madras Railway for importing grain into the country. From Bangalore 
 the grain thus imported was transported by bullock carts to every part of 
 the Province, as well as to certain portions of Bellary lying adjacent to the 
 Kolar and Tumkur Districts. 
 
 The subjoined table gives the market rates (lbs. per rupee), at which 
 rice (of the second sort) and ragi (the staple grain) were selling on the 31st 
 March 1877 in the several Districts as compared with the average prices 
 in the year 1873-4 : — 
 
 1 
 
 Bangalore 
 
 Kolar 
 
 Tumkur 
 
 Mysore 
 
 Hassan 
 
 Shimoga 
 
 Kadur 
 
 Chital- 
 droog 
 
 Rice 
 
 1877 
 i 1873-4 
 
 1 
 
 14 
 24i 
 
 15 
 
 35 
 
 13 
 28J 
 
 13 
 234 
 
 13 
 29 
 
 12 
 29 
 
 1 
 
 13 
 
 12 
 25 
 
 Ragi 
 
 1877 18 
 1873-4 74^ 
 
 17 
 88^ 
 
 16 
 116 
 
 18 
 65 
 
 16 
 109 
 
 16 ' 
 
 72 
 
 15 
 694 
 
 15 
 95 
 
 1877-S. — The year will be ever memorable in the annals of Mysore as 
 that in which the great famine, which had been growing in intensity since 
 the light monsoon of 1875, reached its height. Early in the season, good, 
 and almost general, rain fell. The prospect of a good monsoon and 
 plentiful harvest, though it could not bring material relief in easing prices, 
 afforded employment and encouraged drooping spirits. But the promise 
 was not fulfilled. June, July and August passed away without the rain 
 that was essential to the very life of the people. Distress increased rapidly 
 and in alarming proportions. Prices rose to such a pitch that in some 
 places in July only seven and eight pounds of grain were sold for a rupee : 
 indeed grave fears were entertained in Chitaldroog that it would soon be 
 impossible to get grain at all. In September there happily occurred a most 
 welcome change in the character of the season. The long-prayed for rain 
 came copiously. Prospects brightened, agriculture quickened, and prices 
 fell. The tanks, though sorely tried by the sudden and heavy fall of rain 
 after the long-continued drought had dried and cracked the soil of their 
 banks, filled and enabled extensive sowings to be made for the Vaisakh or 
 late paddy harvest. The rain, however, was too heavy for some crops, and 
 all anxiety was not yet at an end. Especially in the Nagar Division, where 
 javari is very extensively grown, the excessive moisture when the crops 
 were coming into ear caused the grain to rot and sprout as it stood. Field 
 upon field of the most promising and luxuriant corn were damaged beyond 
 all hope of recovery, and the necessity of continuing relief until another 
 harvest should relieve the pressure was soon recognized. The last month
 
 PRICES 569 
 
 of the year saw a new cause of great anxiety in vast flights of locusts, 
 an evil that appeared the greater as it was so entirely new and unexpected. 
 Less damage was done by them than the most sanguine could at their first 
 appearance have hoped for, and a good X'aisakh harvest ushered in return- 
 ing prosperity. 
 
 1878-9. — Most providentially the season was exceptionally favourable, 
 and though there were not wanting causes for serious anxiety, the crops, 
 particularly the rice and ragi crops, on which the agricultural prosperity of 
 the country mainly depends, were most bountiful. Although the rainfall 
 was slightly less than that gauged in 1S77 it was much more seasonably 
 distributed, and did not, as in the end of 1877, cause damage by copious 
 but untimely fall. A plentiful harvest soon effected a most welcome fall 
 in prices, especially in the prices of food-grains consumed by the people, 
 which were sold at rates within the reach of the poor. The population was 
 thus relieved from the stress of famine and enabled to return to ordinary 
 occupations and again be self-supporting. At the same time prices of 
 agricultural produce did not fall to the low level at which they used to 
 stand, and the agricultural classes reaped the double blessing of large 
 crops and good prices. Live stock, which had been greatly reduced during 
 the past few years, began to recover in numbers, and whether it was from 
 the rich and abundant pasture everywhere procurable, or from other 
 causes, is not known, but the fecundity of the cattle was most remark- 
 able. 
 
 1879-80. — The rainfall in tracts other than the Malnad was less than 
 what was gauged in the year previous, but the crops in general throve well 
 notwithstanding. The cereals were all over the Province good, and in 
 some Districts ragi, ballar and horse-gram turned out remarkably well. 
 The only crops that suffered slightly were paddy in the Kolar and Hassan 
 Districts dependent on tank irrigation, and supari in the Malnad tracts, 
 where a very heavy fall of rain produced the rot disease. The prices of 
 agricultural produce fell in the year almost to the level at which they 
 generally stood prior to the famine. 
 
 18S0-1. — Just at the beginning of the ragi harvest, when but little was cut 
 and the bulk of this most important crop was all but ripe, a great part of 
 the State was visited by a storm of wind and rain of unusual severity, 
 which did \ery considerable damage to the crops, and was the cause, 
 moreover, of the breaching of a number of irrigation tanks. This was 
 perhaps the only untoward event in an otherwise exceptionally favourable 
 season, and but for that misfortune the harvest would have been singularly 
 bountiful in every part of the Province, except the Kolar District, which 
 alone did not participate fully in the plentiful and seasonably distributed 
 rainfall. As it was, however, the outturn of the har\est was well above the 
 average, and the prices of food-grains were low in proportion. 
 
 1S81-5. — In 1881 the rainfall was very poor, and the failure of- the 
 south-west monsoon gave room for apprehensions of distress, which, how- 
 ever, was happily averted by a good fall of rain in the latter part of the year. 
 In 1882 and 1883 the rainfall was fair, but again in 1S84 the south-west
 
 570 WAGES AND PRICES 
 
 monsoon was a failure more or less throughout the greater part of the 
 Districts of Tumkur, Chitaldroog, Bangalore, Kolar and Mysore. In the 
 Mysore District, except in a few taluqs, nearly the whole of the early crop 
 was lost ; the later and more important dry crop throughout the whole of 
 the affected area was in a precarious condition ; cattle began to suffer from 
 want of fodder, and prices showed a tendency to rise. The north-east 
 monsoon, however, proved favourable, and was sufficient to save a portion 
 of the standing crops, though insufficient to fill the tanks or to allow of 
 more than one-half of the usual amount of wet cultivation under them. 
 The dry crops in the north-eastern and eastern Districts yielded only a 
 harvest which \aried from a quarter to a half of the usual average. On 
 the whole, a harvest sufficient to avert immediate distress was secured. In 
 1885, ^83-in, the unfavourable conditions of the tirst half of 1884 repeated 
 themselves in a more aggravated form. The south-west monsoon began 
 very well in May and continued to promise fair during that month and 
 June. In July, however, it showed signs of failing, and as the season 
 advanced, the drought became greater and more general till about the end 
 of September. The rain which then fell was extremely scanty. The dry 
 crops began to wither from the long-continued drought. The early crops 
 were entirely lost in parts of Mysore, Chitaldroog and Tumkur. In parts 
 of Kolar and the Maiddn portions of Kadur the early rains were so scanty 
 as not to allow of sowings to the usual extent. The tanks everywhere were 
 empty, and no Kartik wet cultivation was carried on under them ; and even 
 in the Malnad the rains were insufficient for the paddy crops. In Maidin 
 taluqs the springs rapidly dried up, and much difficulty was experienced 
 as regards drinking water. Fodder for cattle became scarce. Prices began 
 to rise. At this crisis plentiful showers fell all over the Province and 
 dispelled all cause for anxiety. 
 
 1886-91. — The rainfall in 1886 was abundant and above the average. 
 In 1887 it was generally fair, but the south-west monsoon was a partial 
 failure in greater part of the Districts of Chitaldroog, Mysore and Hassan. 
 In 1888 the average rainfall was somewhat below the mark, and the Mysore 
 District suffered the most. The season of 1889 was one of general 
 prosperity. Good crops were harvested throughout the country, and 
 towards the end of the year, owing to the apprehended scarcity in some of 
 the neighbouring Districts of Madras, there was a large export of grains. 
 The rainfall in i8go was below the average. In the Hassan, Shimoga and 
 Kadur Districts the fall was scantier than in the previous year, while in the 
 Bangalore District it was unseasonable. In the Mysore District the mungdr 
 crop was saved by the early north-east monsoon, but in the Kolar District 
 there was a general failure of the Kartika crop. In Chitaldroog and Tum- 
 kur the fall was on the whole timely and fairly sufficient for agricultural 
 operations. 
 
 1 891-2. — Though a year of serious famine in most parts of Southern 
 India, in Mysore it was happily a year of only moderate agricultural 
 disturbance, though the unsatisfactory state of the usual monsoon seasons 
 gave cause for anxiety towards the latter part of the year. The Kar rains
 
 PRICES 571 
 
 as well as the south-west and north-east monsoon rains were almost every- 
 where below the average. 
 
 1892-3. — The year was one of agricultural prosperity. The rains were 
 seasonable, and the total quantity of rainfall in all the Districts was on the 
 whole greater than in the previous year, although in certain isolated tracts 
 of the Tumkur District and in Arsikere and Chanraypatna of the Hassan 
 District wet cultivation suffered slightly from insufficient and scanty rain. 
 In the Malnad taluqs the rains were excessive and slightly damaged the 
 supari crop. On the whole the good rainfall served to relieve the tension in 
 the market and to lower the prices of the principal food-grains, rice and 
 ragi in particular, in all the Districts.
 
 572 
 
 ADMINISTRATION 
 
 Under the Early Hindu Knlers 
 
 Regarding the ancient forms of government some information may 
 be gathered from inscriptions, but not in much detail. The earliest 
 are the Edicts of Asoka discovered by me, in which we find the 
 Ayaputa or Prince in charge of a provincial government, assisted by 
 mahdmdtras. As Dr. Biihler remarks, " the position of a prince, sent 
 out as a viceroy, was probably not an independent one. The distrust 
 and the jealousy of the father and sovereign no doubt surrounded him 
 with high officials, possessing almost, if not quite, the same powers, in 
 order to watch, and, if necessary, to check him." The prince and the 
 mahdmdtras issue their orders to the mahamatras of Isila, which 
 possibly represents Sidda in Siddapura, where the inscriptions were 
 found. As to the functions of the mahamatras we have the following 
 statements in the seventh and eighth Pillar Edicts : — " I have also 
 appointed dhamma-mahamatras whose duty it is to occupy themselves 
 with all matters of charity, and their duties extend to men of all 
 creeds, whether ascetics or householders. . . The mahamatras will deal 
 with the various classes in accordance with their several requirements. 
 But the dhamma-mahamatras will occupy themselves both with those, 
 and with all others." They were, in short, high superintending officials, 
 whose duty it was to see that the King's orders and wishes were carried 
 out. The official formula, in addressing the subordinate authorities, 
 began by wishing them health, and went on to say " the Beloved of the 
 (lods (that is, the King) commands thus." The edicts were written 
 out by a lipikara or scribe, a representative no doubt of the army of 
 clerks attached to all public offices, and his making use in one place 
 of Kharoshti characters, which are met with only in the extreme north- 
 west of the Punjab, seems to imply that the office hands were liable to 
 transfer to very distantly removed stations. 
 
 The next inscriptions in point of date are those of Satakarni. He, 
 in making his grant, conveys his orders to the viahdvalabhavi rajjukam. 
 The rajjukas were officials who are frequently mentioned in Asoka's 
 edicts.^ Dr. Biihler has shown that rajjuka literally means " the holder 
 
 ' In the 7lh and Sth I'illar Edicts he says : — "I have appointed numerous (officers) 
 over the people, each having his own jurisdiction, that they may spread abroad my 
 instructions, and develop (my wishes). I have also appointed rajjukas over hundreds
 
 UNDER EARLY HINDU RULERS 573 
 
 of the rope," 1 that is, his proper duty was the measurement of the fields 
 with a view to the revenue settlement. And it is curious to learn that 
 this title is represented by the modern sheristadar, a corruption of the 
 Persian sar-i rishia dcir, he who holds the end of the rope.- The 
 sheristadar is generally the chief native official in a Commissioner's or 
 Collector's office (and popularly supposed, in another sense, to be the 
 one who pulls the strings). In the taluqs of Mysore he is ne.\t to the 
 Amildar, having charge of the treasury and the revenue accounts. 
 From this we may perhaps infer the standing of the rajjukas, and trace 
 the identity of Indian executive appointments from the earliest to the 
 latest times. 
 
 Coming down to a later period we find the Maha Pradhdna, 
 Sarvadhikari, or prime minister at the head of affairs, under the Raja 
 or King, with whom was generally, when of sufficient age, associated 
 the Yuva Raja, or heir-apparent to the throne ; and a number of other 
 mantris or counsellors assisted in the deliberations of State. Many of 
 these were Maha Mandalesvara or high nobles, the hereditary chiefs of 
 principalities. The State was divided into several large provinces, 
 each placed under a governor, generally styled the Dandandyaka or 
 Danndyaka, who seems to have combined civil and military functions, 
 and in newly acquired territories was often a senddhipati, chamupati 
 or general. He exercised control over the sdinanta or feudatory 
 chiefs within his jurisdiction (the pdlegars of later times), whence he 
 had the title of Maha Sdmantddhipati. The title of Heggade or 
 Pergarle seems to have been sometimes borne by the provincial 
 governors. 
 
 For revenue matters tliere was a consideralile body of kariiams or 
 revenue accountants, who were no doubt chiefly Brahmans, as at 
 present. The excise appears to have been either farmed out, or 
 managed by an agent appointed by government, and is referred to 
 under the different heads of hej-junka or perjunka, that is the large 
 sunka, or custom dues on the chief articles of trade, and the kirukula^ 
 or miscellaneous duties on articles in which the transactions were 
 small. There is often mention of another official under the name of 
 odda hyavahdri and odda rd^'ii/a, whose functions are not clear, but 
 
 of thousands of living loeings, and ihcy have been ordered l)y- n»e to instruct the 
 faithful." In the 4th Edict the Kin<j refers to their appointment in a singularly (juaint 
 manner, as follows : — "Just as, after confiding a child to a skilful nurse, a man feels 
 secure, saying to himself, ' a skilful nurse sets herself to take care of my child,' so 
 have I appointed these rajjukas for the hap])iness and prosperity of my subjects." — 
 See Ind. Ant., xviii. 9, 307 ; also Ep. /ml, II. 253, 271. 
 
 ' Zeilsihri/t der Deittschcn Morgcn/iiiidisihen Geselhchaft, .\lvii. 466. 
 
 * J. Beames,/. K. A. S., July 1895, p. 661.
 
 574 ADMINISTRA TION 
 
 seem to have been something like those of a commissariat agent for 
 the army. 
 
 The chief divisions of the country had each their revenue value 
 affixed to their name. Thus we have invariably the Banavase Twelve 
 Thousand, the Nolambavadi or Nonambavadi Thirty-two Thousand, 
 and the Gangavadi Ninety-six Thousand ; also the Punnad Ten 
 Thousand. Sometimes the numerical designation alone was used, 
 without naming the country. Thus many of the oldest inscriptions 
 speak of the Ninety-six Thousand, and others describe certain kings as 
 ruling the Seven-and-a-half-lakh region. A similar name still survives 
 in that of one of the present taluqs of Coorg, which is called the 
 Yelusavirashime or the Seven Thousand country. Whether the 
 reckoning has reference to the amount of revenue realized, as seems 
 likely, or to extent of cultivation, or to what other denomination of 
 value, is not certain. The nomenclature still lingers in parts of the 
 Malnad, where I was told by an inferior native official that his juris- 
 diction extended over fourteen villages, which constituted, according to 
 the custom of the place, a Thousand country. The inscriptions of the 
 Karkala rulers refer to the Kalasa country as being administered by 
 three Hebbar, each the head of a Thousand country. Smaller circles, 
 called such-and-such a Seventy, frequently recur in inscriptions ; as well 
 as divisions termed khainpana, vefitya, &c.^ 
 
 The chief men of nads or rural circles were the gdnmnda, a word 
 which, after becoming gaunda, now appears as gauda. Their head or 
 chief was the ndd prabhu, and they seem to have represented and been 
 responsible for the agricultural classes, as the pattaua swdf/ii, pattatfa 
 shetti or town mayor was for the mercantile and industrial classes. 
 
 The Village Tivelve. — The constitution of the village corporation, the 
 unit of the body politic, and basis of administration at all times, is thus 
 graphically described by Wilks : — 
 
 Every Indian village is, and appears always to have been, in fact, a 
 separate community or republic ; the gauda or patel is the judge and magis- 
 trate ; the karnam or shanbhdg is the registrar ; the taMri or sthaliwar, and 
 the tdti, are severally the watchmen of the village and of the crops ; the 
 nirganti distributes the water of the streams or reservoirs in just proportion 
 to the several fields ; the jotishya, joisa or astrologer performs the essential 
 service of announcing the seasons of seed-time and harvest, and the 
 imaginary benefit of unfolding the lucky or unlucky days and hours for all 
 
 ' An old report explains the terms thus : — A country yielding loo nishka (said to 
 be pagodas) is called a shima or kshetra : i8,000 shima form a khampana ; 2 khampana, 
 a ventya ; 33^ ventya, or t^t, ventya and 12,000 shima, a phanichhasana. The latter 
 name is properly panichchhasira, which means 12,000. The above scale applies it to 
 a country yielding 12 crores of nishka or pagodas.
 
 VILLAGE COMMUNITIES 575 
 
 the operations of farming ; the smith, and carpenter, frame the rude instru- 
 ments of husbandry, and the ruder dweUing of the fixrmer ; the potter 
 fabricates the only utensils of the village : the washerman keeps clean the 
 few garments which are spun and sometimes woven in the family of the 
 farmer, or purchased at the nearest market ; the barber contributes to the 
 cleanliness and assists in the toilet of the villagers ; the goldsmith,' marking 
 the approach of luxury, manufactures the simple ornaments with which 
 they delight to bedeck their wives and their daughters : and these Twelve 
 Officers, styled the Biirabaliiti or Ayangadi, as requisite members of the 
 community, receive the compensation of their la1)our, either in allotments of 
 land from the corporate stock, or in fees consisting of fixed proportions of 
 the crop of every farmer in the village. 
 
 In some instances the lands of a village are cultivated in common, 
 and the crop divided in the proportions of the labour contributed, but 
 generally each occupant tills his own field ; the waste land is a common 
 pasture for the cattle of the village ; its external boundaries are as 
 carefully marked as those of the richest field, and they are maintained 
 as a common right of the village, or rather the township (a term which 
 more correctly describes the thing in our contemi)lation), to the exclu- 
 sion of others, with as much jealousy and rancour as the frontiers of the 
 most potent kingdoms. 
 
 Such are the primitive component parts of all the kingdoms of India. 
 Their technical combination to compose districts, provinces, or princi- 
 jialities of from ten to a hundred thousand villages, has Ijcen infinitely 
 diversified at different periods by the wisdom or caprice of the chief 
 ruler, or by the vigour and resistance of those who, in every age, 
 country, and condition, have coveted independence for themselves and 
 the power to govern the greatest possible number of their fellow-crea- 
 tures. Manu's scheme of government recognizes none of those persons 
 who, in later days, were known by the several designations of W'odeyars, 
 Palegars, Zamindars, Deshayis, &c., all in their respective jurisdictions 
 assuming, when they dare, the title of Raja or King. All the officers 
 enumerated by Manu have, in their several scales, at different periods, 
 simply acted as agents of the sovereign ; as farmers of revenue con- 
 tracting with the sovereign for a certain sum and levying what they 
 can ; as partisans or chiefs of troops, receiving an assignment on 
 revenues managed by another, or the direct management themselves, 
 for the puri)ose of defraying the pay of the troops. In these several 
 capacities they may have continued obedient to the .sovereign who 
 deputed them ; they may have obtained from his favour, or from his 
 
 1 In some pans of the country the goldsmilh is not found included in the enumera- 
 tion of ihe Twelve, his jilace lieing occupied l)y the poet, a less expensive meml)cr of 
 the community, \s\\o frequently fills also the office of schoolmaster.
 
 576 ADMINISTRATION 
 
 fears, a remission of a part of the sum to be accounted for ; they may 
 have rebelled and usurped the whole government, or have established 
 a small independent principality, or a larger ; but with regard to the 
 villages or townships of which the principality is composed, they have 
 appeared but in one character, viz. the government, the sovereign : a 
 person exercising the sovereign authority on his own account, or by 
 delegation on account of another. The interior constitution and condi- 
 tion of each separate township remains unchanged ; no revolutions affect 
 it ; no conquest reaches it.^ 
 
 It is not intended to assert that the village in our contemplation may 
 not have produced the Caesar of his little world ; the rights of the 
 inhabitants may have been invaded by the patel, by the palegar ruling 
 over twenty, by the wodeyar ruling over thirty-three, by the collector 
 over two hundred, or by the sovereign of twenty thousand townships ; 
 each or either of these persons may have attempted, or have succeeded, 
 or have failed, in persuading or forcing an augmentation of the pro- 
 portion of money or of grain paid by the township to the State ; but 
 conquests, usurpations, or revolutions, considered as such, have 
 absolutely no influence on its condition. The conqueror, or usurper, 
 directly or through his agents, addresses himself as sovereign, or 
 representative of the sovereign, to the head of the township ; its ofificers, 
 its boundaries, and the whole frame of its interior management remain 
 unalterably the same ; and it is of importance to remember that every 
 State in India is a congeries of these little republics. - 
 
 Revenue System. — The adjustment and mode of realizing the land 
 revenue was the great, or almost the only, problem of civil government 
 which formed the subject of legislation under the various dynasties of 
 native rulers, and in this branch of the administration alone, therefore, 
 are any regulations referred to as emanating from the ancient rulers. 
 
 With reference to the land settlement of the Kadamba kingdom, the 
 following particulars are given in a report by Mr. H. Stokes. 
 
 Kadamba Raya with Gopa mantri and Naga Deva Karnika caused 
 
 * Every village, with its twelve Ayangadis as they are called, is a kind of little 
 republic, with the patel at the head of it ; and India is a mass of such republics. 
 The inhabitants, during war, look chiefly to their own patel. They give themselves 
 no trouble about the" breaking up and division of kingdoms ; while the village remains 
 entire, they care not to what power it is transferred, wherever it goes the internal 
 management remains unaltered ; the patel is still the collector and magistrate and 
 head farmer. From the age of Menu until this day, the settlements have been made 
 either with or through the patel. — Report by Lieut. -Col. Mitnro. 
 
 • The Village Community of India exhibits resemblances to the Teutonic Township 
 which are much too strong and numerous to be accidental, observes Sir H. S. Maine, 
 whose works on this subject are of great interest.
 
 UNDER K AD A MB A KINGS 577 
 
 to be measured,' between Nagara khanda and Varada khanda (Shi- 
 karpur and Sorab taluqs), all the land within the limits of each village 
 that had been or was fit to be cultivated, and marked its boundaries by 
 stones. In the year Kilaka, Sal. 90 (.\.D. 168) Gopa mantri made the 
 bi'javari and assessment as follows : — One grain from each of the nava 
 dkiinya, or nine kinds of produce (paddy, wheat, hesaru, uddu, kadale, 
 jola, avare, togari, and ellu), being taken to form one nishka, 10 nishka 
 were called a phala or navtakku ; 64 phala, a mana ; 20 mana, akolaga ; 
 20 kolaga, a khandaga. ]3ut in some places 40 or 60 kolaga formed a 
 khandaga. 
 
 For watered land of the best quality, namely, black soil near a river 
 or mountain, red soil, or black mixed with yellow and containing springs, 
 there were three rates, — 18, 21 and 9^ (pagodas per khandaga). Black 
 land, suitable for wheat and kadale, paid i pagoda for every 9^ mana of 
 seed. Watered land of white soil mixed with sand, near a hill, paid 7 
 pagodas for every khandaga. Similar land near a river paid 5^. White 
 or red land watered by a well, paid 9 pagodas per khandaga. 
 
 A garden containing areca nut, cocoanut, plantains, limes and citrons 
 was called aga?na, and was measured with a rod 18 lengths {nictfu) of a 
 man's foot, measured so as to take in also half the right foot at the 
 beginning and half the left foot at the end.- This rod was called mana 
 danda. In the square of such a rod might be planted 3 areca-nut trees, 
 with cocoanuts intermixed ; and for a 1,000 such squares the king's 
 share was 7 pagodas, the other productions being included in the assess- 
 ment. Of a garden containing vines, sugar-cane, dates, betel-leaf, cocoa- 
 nut, mango, jack, sampige, ashoka malagi, jessamin and such choice 
 plants, together with areca nut, the produce might be estimated at 25 
 pagodas, and one-third of this was the king's share. In two of the above 
 rods 3 cocoanut-trees might be planted, and the king's share was half a 
 nishka and 5 nuts on 10 trees. 
 
 Of the assessment under the Hoysala kings the same document says : 
 — Under them each cultivator paid to the king one iron kula or bar 
 (? ploughshare). This was dropped into a well of quicksilver in the temple 
 of Padmavati at Humcha and became gold. Hence the word kula 
 came to be applied to a ryot, and the money paid by him is still called 
 kulnvaiia. In the time of the Vijayanagar kings, it is added, the well 
 dried up, and the iron ploughshare was commuted for a payment of one 
 pagoda for every plough. {See p. 339.) 
 
 1 Willi a line of six bdhu — each bdhu lieing two cubits — at cither extremity and in 
 c middle, for both length and breadth, and the mean of the three measurements 
 aken for each. 
 
 - The rod used was measured by the feet of Dharadwaja Haritika (perhaps a guru). 
 This corresponds with Sivappa Nayak's standard for the daya. Sw farther on. 
 
 1' P
 
 5 7 8 ADMINISTRA TION 
 
 Under the Vijayanagar Sovereii^ns. 
 
 For the later system of government, under the Vijayanagar empire 
 and the governments which succeeded it in the north of Mysore, the 
 following particulars, greatly condensed, have been taken from the 
 Mackenzie MSS. 
 
 It appears that in the time of Krishna Raya and Achyuta Raya the 
 revenues of the Vijayanagar State were first reduced to a regular form, 
 checked by ordinances, and a system of accounts and management 
 introduced, calculated to improve the revenue of the empire gradually 
 in yearly amount without distressing the inhabitants." 
 
 In the course of their conquests the kings of Vijayanagar reinstated 
 some of the original rajas in their ancient possessions on submitting to 
 be tributary vassals to them as superior lords. They also appointed 
 some of their own slaves and servants, recommended by their fidelity 
 and abilities, to manage tracts of uncultivated waste country, wnth 
 instructions to clear away the jungles and to bring the lands into 
 culture, with a view of increasing population, the wealth of the State, 
 and the prosperity of the land by good management. By the royal 
 commands, these governors formed many Pdlyams ox Pdlepats, and new 
 establishments, cleared away the jungle, and recovered the country 
 from the robbers and lawless banditti who infested it, and from the 
 wild people of the hills. Those who established Palyams under these 
 sovereigns were distinguished by the title of Pdlegars (polygars). 
 
 When they had thus settled these Palegars, and appointed various 
 other officers for the management of these woodland countries, they 
 then formed regulations to improve the revenue, and published the 
 Rayarekas, which fixed the settlement of the revenues, the boundaries, 
 duties and customs, and made ordinances for all other affairs. These 
 were transmitted to the headmen of the towns and nads for preser\-adon 
 as records of this settlement, for reference on future emergencies, or 
 disputes about revenues, boundaries, &c. At the same time, landmarks 
 and stones, inscribed with writings or with symbols, were erected on 
 the boundaries even of every little village. Unto our times the custom 
 
 ' The empire at this period had acquired its utmost extent, by the reduction of 
 several extensive provinces, particularly the northern districts, which increased its 
 revenues in their reign to 8i crores of Avakoti chakras or pagodas ; this increase of 
 revenue and territory, it would appear, suggested the expediency of a more general 
 and comprehensive system, better adapted to the various tribes and nations now 
 reduced to one common sway. 
 
 The system of letting out the lands in perpetuity, as appears in some instances, 
 prevailed sometime previous, in the reign of Harihara Raya, and perhaps existed 
 long before.
 
 UNDER VIJAYANAGAR 
 
 579 
 
 generally prevailed in the Bala Ghat of referring to the Rayar^kas when 
 any doubts occurred on these points. 
 
 The words Atthavane and Sfma mulam were applied to the Revenue 
 department. The Military branch was called Kandachar. The fol- 
 lowing terms were also used in the management : — 
 
 Karnataka ancient 
 names. 
 
 Corresponding 
 Musalman names. 
 
 Sima 
 
 Mulk . 
 
 Gadi 
 
 Taluq . 
 
 Hobali, hobli 
 
 Taraf . 
 
 Halli 
 
 Gaam . 
 
 Kaluhalli . 
 
 Majara 
 
 Aramane . 
 
 Iluzur or Mahal . 
 
 Samsthdn . 
 
 Riyasat, Sarkar . 
 
 Umbalike . 
 
 Jagi'r . 
 
 Bhatavrilti 
 
 
 Srotriyani , 
 
 
 Meaning. 
 
 Agraharam 
 
 Brahmadayam, 
 Devadayam 
 
 Inam 
 
 Great Division or Province. 
 
 District. 
 
 Subdivision or inferior district. 
 
 Ancient village. 
 
 New additional village. 
 
 Presence or Palace. 
 
 The Government. 
 
 Rent-free estates, granted as a gift. 
 
 Lands given away to Brahmans. 
 
 Lands granted in perpetuity, for which the 
 
 proprietors receive a yearly money rent from 
 
 the occupiers. 
 Lands or villages granted in charity, generally 
 
 to Brahmans ; or free gift. 
 
 Shares of the crop given to Brahmans. 
 
 The following offices were hereditary, and established in all towns 
 and villages, under the general name of A'yagar in Canarese and Bara 
 
 Baliiti in Hindustani : — 
 
 1. Shanbhog, accountant, 
 
 2. Gauda, headman. 
 
 3. Kammara, ironsmith. 
 
 4, Badagi, carpenter, 
 
 5, Agasa, washerman, 
 
 6, Panchangi, calendar. 
 
 7. Nayinda, barber. 
 
 8. Madiga, shoemaker. 
 
 9. Akasale, goldsmith, 
 
 10, Talari, watchman of the village. 
 
 11, Nirganti, watchman of the tanks. 
 
 12, Kumbara, potmaker. 
 
 The A'yagdr depended on the financial or revenue branch. 'I'he 
 ryots gave them a share, called tiijayam and ard/iciya/n, of the crop 
 produced in their village ; these were for each ka[)ila, bed, kandi or 
 putti, varying according to regulations established anciently in dilTercnt 
 parganas. The nijayam above the Ghats was 4 seers or measures of 
 grain, and the ardhayam 2, Mdnyams or privileged lands were also 
 allowed to the A'yagar, for which they regularly paid the Jot/i, a small 
 tax from which none of these official hereditary estates were exempt 
 except the Panchangi. 
 
 To the Shanbhog, as accountant of tiic village, the ryots paid the full 
 
 P P 2
 
 58o ADMINISTRATION 
 
 dyam. If he had a share of any charity lands from the inhabitants or from 
 the Sarkar, he paid the j6di to Government : to him and to the head gauda 
 the inferior classes rendered their rents or shares of the revenue. 
 
 The duty of the Gauda was to see that the farmers cultivated the land 
 for the kandiiyaiii or rent agreed on in the jamdbaiidi or annual settlement ; 
 to collect the revenue composed of the different branches, duties, &c., and 
 to pay it to the proprietors of the districts according to the kist or agree- 
 ment ; to adjust all accounts relating to these at the end of the year ; and 
 then to settle the rent of the ensuing year according to the estimate made 
 by the Amildar by order of the Government. But in adjusting these 
 concerns it frequently happened that, the ryots having no access to people 
 in the higher offices, parcels of lands were unaccounted for, and their 
 produce clandestinely secreted by the gaudas and shdnbhdgs, which they 
 collusively divided among themselves.^ 
 
 The Kammdr or ironsmith, and Badagi or carpenter, had to supply the 
 ryots with ploughs and other implements of husbandry without taking any 
 price for the same. If a ryot wanted to build a house, he must then pay 
 some consideration to these artificers ; but they paid nothing for the public 
 duty, such as ploughs, buckets, &c., for which the horc-hiillu and viura- 
 batta were assigned.^ 
 
 The Agasa or washerman, and Ndyinda or barber, must wash and shave 
 gratis for all the ryots of a village ; the latter also dressed wounds and 
 performed other surgical operations — for this they received hore-huUu and 
 mura-batta. When the washerman delivered the cloths after washing, he 
 received provision sufificient for one day. The washerman paid annually 
 some money to the Sarkar for the rent of the drying-ground. 
 
 The duties of the Panchdiigi (always a Brahman) were to mark the 
 proper times for sowing the great and small grains in their right season ; 
 also to declare from the calendar the fortunate time for commencing any- 
 new undertaking. This Brahman also officiated as priest, to perform the 
 ceremonies of funerals and marriages according to the laws. He must 
 daily attend the headman of the village, and from his calendar read off the 
 day of the week, month and year, the predominant signs and constellations, 
 &c. For these duties he collected the hore-hullu and mura-batta. 
 
 The Mddiga or chuckler, furnished shoes, ropes, leather buckets, and 
 
 > The clandestine embezzlements happened from the following causes : — From the 
 Gauda and Shanbhog taking advantage of the timidity of the ryots, who were afraid 
 to discover the frauds of people under whose control they had lived time out of mind, 
 their offices going from father to son. The ryots were so very timid that they were 
 even alarmed to see the peons of the Sarkar. — The Gaudas having full authority to 
 settle the revenue of the village, and the ryots generally requiring extension of time, 
 particularly when the Sarkar augmented the rent of a village, these gaudas had it in 
 their power to distress those who displeased them by overrating their proportions and 
 selling their effects and cattle at a reduced valuation, and thus utterly ruining those to 
 whom they entertained a grudge. The ryots for these reasons endeavoured to 
 preserve a good understanding with these officers, that they might not be exposed to 
 extraordinary impositions. 
 
 ^ Hore-hidlu seems to be a bundle of straw : Mura-batta, some portion of grain.
 
 UNDER VIJAYANAGAR 581 
 
 other little necessaries for cultivation, for which he was entitled to the dyam, 
 hore-hullu and mura-batta. 
 
 The duty of the Akasdle or goldsmith was to measure the songiiru or 
 half-share of the crop which the ryots paid to the Sarkar, and to shroff the 
 money collected in the village in payment of the revenue. For any other 
 work done by him he might take payment, but for these the hore-hullu and 
 mura-batta were his perquisites. 
 
 The Talari was the police officer or kotwal of the inferior villages. 
 Besides the nijdyam and ardhdyam, and the niAnyams allowed for their 
 maintenance to encourage them to a due performance of their duties, the 
 ryots privately bribed them with ragi, vegetables and conks (?) in the harvest 
 time, to conciliate their favour and protect themselves from certain 
 inconveniences, such as being forcibly delivered over to travellers to carry 
 burdens to the next stage, &c. The appropriate duty of the Tahiri also 
 was to watch over the safety of the village, and to be ready to provide 
 forage and conveniences for those employed by the Sarkar. He was 
 responsible for all things stolen within the enclosure of his village : what- 
 ever was lost or stolen on the highways, or without the precincts of the town, 
 was to be recovered or accounted for by the KAvalgdrs. People of all 
 castes were employed in this station, except in the Chitaldroog country, 
 where only the Boyis or Bedars acted in this capacity. 
 
 The Nirganti's duty was to attend to the tanks and to shut up, when 
 necessary, their sluices or tubus with the stoppers usually fitted for this 
 purpose ; in the winter time he must watch carefully on the banks of the 
 tanks to preserve the water. It was his appropriate duty to divide among 
 the ryots of the village what water was requisite for the production of the 
 crop ; when the water diminished, he rendered account thereof to the 
 managers, lest he be suspected of disposing of it clandestinely. For these 
 duties he received hore-hullu and mura-batta. 
 
 The Kmnbdra or pot-makers were not stationed in every village, one or 
 two being generally sufficient for a hobli or taraf ; he furnished pots for all 
 the ryots of his taraf, and was entitled to ayam in an equal proportion as 
 the other A'yagar. For liberty of exposing his wares for sale to travellers in 
 the markets he paid chakra-kdnikc to the Sarkar. 
 
 I'hc above twelve were the village servants ; their oflfices were 
 hereditary, going from father to son ; and they were authorized to sell 
 or mortgage their office when in distress. 
 
 From 10 to 40 villages were called a Hobli or Taraf, and from 4 
 to 10 of these constituted a Gadi, called pargana in the Northern 
 Sarkars. From 10 to 20 of these gadis, annexed to a kaslm or capital 
 town, constituted a Sima or country ; a name in latter times applied 
 to provinces of considerable extent, in like manner as the Ndds more 
 anciently. The chief officer of a gadi was the Parpattegar, at present 
 an Amildar ; of a hobli, the Nadiga ; of a village, the Gauda, in whose 
 absence the Shdnbhog was the chief. The chief ( '.overnor or magistrate
 
 5 8 2 ADMINISTKA TION 
 
 of a Si'ma was an officer of great consideration, distinguished by 
 particular titles, applicable to circumstances under the several States. 
 
 The ^Sarvddhikdri or Atthavane Pdrpattegar, the chief director of 
 the Revenue, arranged the forms of accounts, and issued all orders 
 relating to that Department, and for the improvement or increase of the 
 collections ; but he could do nothing, even in the most trivial matters, 
 without the Raja's knowledge and permission. In his office the renters 
 of villages settled their accounts. In the time of the Chitaldroog rulers, 
 the chief managers employed the gaudas to direct the cultivation of the 
 lands, and the revenue was collected by the nadiga appointed for the 
 hobli from the Aramane or Palace : the nadiga, at the end of the year, 
 accompanied by some of the principal Desasts or inhabitants, went to 
 the office of the Atthavane to clear the accounts of the preceding year, 
 according to the settlement or agreements made in the beginning of 
 the year. These customs were observed by all the Carnatic Palegars 
 above the Ghats. The gaudas collected the rent from the ryots 
 according to the settlement of the Atthavane office, and paid it in to the 
 Parpatti appointed by Government. If the managers of the Atthavane 
 found it necessary to introduce any new regulation, after stating the 
 same to the Raja and obtaining his consent, they transmitted orders 
 under the royal signature and seal to the Parpattegars of the districts 
 for execution. 
 
 The la7id rent consisted of that for land sown with one ko]aga of 
 seed, at rates equal to from 3 to lo Kanthiraya pagodas according to 
 the nature of the soil. Land watered by kapiles was let for a money 
 rent ; but for lands cultivated with paddy by means of tanks, the 
 songaru, or one-half of the crop, was generally required, without any 
 money, though in some districts the ryots rendered inugiiru, or one- 
 third of the produce, with 2 or 3 pagodas in money for each plough. 
 Waste lands were let to strangers at first for small sums (called bhumi'ila 
 gntta or kola gittta) for a term of years, according to agreement, after 
 which they were annexed to the cultivated tracts and brought under the 
 same management. 
 
 Gardens and plantations were numerous in the districts of Madgiri, 
 Sira, Banavar, Chanraypatna, Nagar, and in those adjacent to Seringa- 
 patam, from the collections of which (called dgram) the Government 
 derived a considerable revenue. In the Mysore country great quantities 
 of areca-nut, and cocoanut ; and in Nagar, pepper and other kinds of 
 spices were cultivated in these plantations. These gardens were con- 
 sidered as belonging to the wet land, or nirdvari, for which the 
 Government collected the rents in some cases from the soil, and in others 
 from a share of the produce. These regulations appear to have been
 
 UNDER VIJAYANAGAR 583 
 
 established of old, so far as 1,000 years ago, as observed in some 
 inscriptions in the Banavar district. 
 
 Besides the land rent, there were several heads of customs,, duties, 
 taxes, &c., which the nadigas (or tarafdars) collected from the different 
 trades. The inhabitants were divided into three classes — Jirayati, Bagair 
 Jirayati and Khushbash. The Jirayati were those who cultivated the 
 soil ; Bagair Jirayati those from whom the Government derived revenue 
 by other means. The Khushbash were those who led a free life, the 
 servants of the Sarkar and others, who were exempted from paying any 
 revenue or taxes. 
 
 The revenue derived from the Bagair Jirayati yQ:\.x\)- for the privilege 
 of exercising their trades, for rent of the houses {matte gutta), &c., 
 according to their stations, was carried to account in the revenue lists 
 under the head of mane-bdb. The duties paid by the shopkeepers in 
 towns and villages, exclusive of the customs at the several places or 
 kattes where goods were exported and imported, were included in angadi 
 gutta. The yV'yagar and others who enjoyed lands in consequence of 
 their offices or gifts, in some places accounted for one-third or one-eighth 
 of the produce to the Sarkar, according to the usual custom of these 
 places ; this was carried to account under the head of jbdi and manc- 
 gdnike. In the countries about Seringapatam and Chitaldroog, the 
 toddy of the ichalu or country date was used for distillation, there being 
 few palmyras : the palanquin-bearers, or caste of Bestars, also made 
 arrack from sugar, the ippe flower, and some from the bark of a tree ; 
 these people, for permission to sell this spirituous liquor, paid a certain 
 revenue to Government, called kallali. 
 
 In the Sunkam or customs, there were three different heads. 
 Customs on goods imported to be sold at one place were called sthahx- 
 ddyam ; customs taken for goods in transit through a district were called 
 77idrgdddyam ; customs taken for goods exported to foreign countries 
 were called mdmuldddyaiii. Under these heads the land customs were 
 collected at the different kattes or custom-houses. All kinds of goods, 
 even firewood and straw, paid these duties, excepting glass rings, brass 
 pots and soap balls. There were no particular regulations for the rates 
 of collection of land customs ; the Government farmed out the kattes to 
 renters, who took various measures frequently for increasing the perqui- 
 sites of their respective chaukis at the e.vpense of others. For instance, 
 they advanced money to some of the merchants, requiring only one-half 
 the duty which was paid by others, thus encouraging them to come by 
 their kattes, where they paid reduced customs, with a view of inducing 
 others to follow the same route. It is impossible to fix on any certain 
 rate in collecting customs on goods imported. When one farmer
 
 5 84 ADMINISTRA TION 
 
 demanded lo pagodas for loo loads, another took only 2 pagodas, and 
 their rates widely differed as collected in various places. These farmers, 
 from the collections of the customs on different descriptions of goods and 
 trades, paid the amount of the agreed rent to the Sarkar, reserving the 
 profits, which were more or less considerable according to circumstances. 
 
 The butchers, for liberty of purchasing sheep at the first price from the 
 country and selling them in the markets for a certain profit, paid yearly a tax 
 called kasdyi-giUta, which was carried to account in the settlement of the 
 jamdbandi. The washermen, for liberty to wash and bleach their cloths on 
 the banks of rivers, tanks, &c., paid the tax iibbe giitta. In the winter season, 
 a certain class employed themselves in collecting black sand and earth in 
 channels from the hills, from which they smelted iron used for agricultural 
 and other uses. This ore was smelted in a kind of furnace or large fire-stand 
 called hoinjiial. For permission of cutting down wood for charcoal and for 
 digging the ore they paid a yearly revenue called hoinla gutta, proportioned 
 to the quantity of iron made in the district. 
 
 The Kurubas or weavers of kamblis, and the Julays or manufacturers of 
 cotton cloth, for liberty to sell their goods to the merchants, paid to the 
 Government a duty for each loom, rated according to the quantity of the 
 manufacture, which formed a separate branch of the revenue caXled. jakdyati. 
 The weavers paid no duties to the land customers for the goods they disposed 
 of in their own villages ; but the merchants who transported the cloths from 
 one place to another must first pay the customs previous to exportation. 
 The weavers generally preferred disposing of their goods to the merchants 
 of their own place. In some places the weavers paid a trifling tax, called 
 kaddivaram, to the collectors of the sunka. For the privilege of making oil, 
 the oilmakers'paid yearly gdnige gutta, a rent for their ganas or mills for 
 grinding oil-seeds ; for this the Sarkar provided a great tree for the mill and 
 a place to erect it on ; and none other was permitted to manufacture oil in 
 the village except him who paid this rent. 
 
 The Government used to appoint some aged men of the several inferior 
 classes to be the heads of their respective castes, and to administer justice. 
 These Headmen, on any complaint against their people, should investigate 
 it and fine them if guilty, adjudging the fine or punishment proportioned 
 according to the law and the nature of the case. For instance, a husband 
 convicting his wife of adultery, was allowed to sell her to another man, but 
 of his own caste, and receive the price for his use.' These Headmen 
 employed Dasaris as subordinate officers to minister in religious ceremonies 
 
 • An instance of this kind occurred at Harihar, says the writer, when we were in 
 that neighbourhood in 1800 ; a Brahman among many other fugitives from the seat of 
 war in the Savanur country, then overrun by Dundia and the contending parties, 
 offered his wife for sale, because the unfortunate woman had been violated ; but the 
 Brahmans of Harihar, though at first of opinion that she ought to be sold as a slave, 
 on further consideration, and consulting with more enlightened persons, found that as 
 her misfortune had been involuntary, it might be expiated by penance and a pecuniary 
 mulct to the offended law.
 
 UNDER VIJAYANAGAR 585 
 
 among the inferior castes. Previous to the ceremonies commencing, the 
 customary duty or gratuity was given to this minister of religion, and they 
 were then at hberty to proceed with the festival, whether of marriage or any 
 other occasion. But if the parties neglected the established presents, the 
 Dasaris returned to their houses in displeasure and no other Ddsaris would 
 perform the office, as they would be liable to punishment for interfering. Hy 
 these means the Headmen collected fines, perquisites and presents from their 
 castes, from which they paid an annual tax to the Government. This branch 
 of custom was called samaydchdrai)i and was taken credit for in the jamd- 
 bandi accounts. 
 
 As the Madiga or chuckler had a greater dyam or allowance than the 
 other A'yagdr, and that besides when he supplied ropes and leather for the 
 use of the gardens they paid him a quantity of grain proportioned to the 
 produce, he therefore \)1l\(S. jdti-vidnyavi, a higher ta.\ than the other village 
 officers, and the Sarkar people presented him with a coarse cloth at the time 
 of settlement yearly. In some places it was customary, if the chuckler was 
 not able to pay the jati-mdnyam, that the Sarkar assumed his allowances 
 and share of the crop, and giving him one-half of his perquisites, the rest 
 was included in the government rental. He must be always ready to serve 
 and obey the orders of the Sarkar officers ; and the villagers generally 
 employed the chuckler to show the roads to travellers, and carry letters from 
 their village to the next stage. Besides the dyams already mentioned, the 
 chucklers in many places had indm or free gift lands, for which they paid 
 some gratuity to the Sarkar. 
 
 The people who extracted salt from the soil of the Sarkar lands paid a 
 revenue to the Government, called nppitia molla, proportioned to the 
 produce. The cow-keepers or Gollas paid luillti-banni for the liberty of 
 feeding their flocks and cattle in the public lands. The Amildar of the 
 district appointed one headman to collect the money arising from the duty 
 of hullu-banni in different places, which was thus included in the jamabandi. 
 The jungles were let out for a certain rent, kdvali }^utta or konda gutta, to 
 people who sold the grass and firewood to the inhabitants, according to the 
 accounts of their kists. Those who farmed the exclusive sale of different 
 articles from the Sarkar, purchased these articles at a low price and sold 
 them in the market at an advanced rate ; no other shopkeepers being 
 permitted to interfere in this trade. From these articles altogether a 
 certain revenue arose to the Sarkar, payable at the terms agreed on in the 
 jamabandi. The shroff used formerly to pay a very handsome tax to the 
 Sarkar, which was suppressed in 1801 at Chitaldroog. 
 
 The Jayaris were people convicted of murder, who were under the ancient 
 government employed as executors to put criminals to death by order of the 
 magistrate. For this duty they were permitted to take one gold fanam 
 from each pariah house ; their allowance is still admitted in the Chitaldroog 
 country ; they paid yearly 100 pagodas to Government as Jayari gutta. 
 Sivdyajama, not being certain, was the only item not included in the 
 jamabandi and estimate. It is composed of the hnes imjjosed for certain 
 malversations or misdemeanours, and carried to account under this head.
 
 586 ADMINISTRATION 
 
 The foregoing formed the heads of the several branches, called Bdb, 
 of revenue arising to the sovereign, of which the Jamdbandi included 
 the estimated amount, which being settled, and the revenue collected 
 according to the kist, the occupiers used to remit the produce into the 
 general treasury, which accounts for the disbursements made by order 
 in the Civil and Military establishments of the Districts. The balances 
 due by the renters were carried to the next jamabandi, under the head 
 of Silsila Baki, which they collected from the renters with the next 
 year's rent. The Rajas and many of the other governors, even Haidar, 
 used to remit the charge of repairs of tanks. 
 
 For the improvement of the revenue, the following methods were 
 generally observed : — 
 
 The Government advanced money to the ryot who ploughed one vokkala 
 with one plough, to enable him to provide cattle, instruments of tillage and 
 other means to bring into cultivation next year three or four vokkalas of 
 waste land. They also took pains to get broken tanks repaired, as well 
 as the channels that conducted water to the fields ; and on the high 
 grounds where channels could not be led from the tanks, they dug many 
 kapile wells. 
 
 They gave kauls, or a sufficient surety of protection, to the head gaudas 
 of the country, who used their influence to introduce such inhabitants (from 
 foreign countries) as might be dissatisfied with their state at home ; these 
 were placed in convenient situations until they were settled and acquainted 
 with the management of the country, when the Sarkar gave them waste 
 lands to cultivate at a reduced rate, till the expiration of a certain term, 
 after which they were to pay the same rent as other ryots of the country. 
 
 The Government also encouraged the cultivation or manufacture of 
 various articles of commerce much in demand, by supplying seeds, plants, 
 &c., and the first expenses ; sugar, indigo, opium and other articles were 
 thus cultivated by the ryots according to instructions given on this subject. 
 
 The Government used further to make advances of money to foreign 
 merchants and encouraged them to settle in new pettas and markets, to 
 which they brought scarce and valuable goods from distant countries, and 
 in return exported the product of this country to places where they could 
 be disposed of to advantage : the customs were by this means increased, 
 and an additional income derived by the renters of the new market places. 
 
 Some of the ancient Rajas used to trade for their own advantage in the 
 following manner : — The cattle belonging to the Sarkar were employed in 
 time of peace to transport the grain and other products received in the half- 
 share of the crop from the ryots, to the market towns where they were sold 
 at the highest price, whence a more considerable price was secured, even 
 twice or thrice more than they would get in the country, by being free of 
 those duties that the merchants were liable to. 
 
 The establishments employed in the management of the Gadis were
 
 UNDER VIJAYANAGAR 587 
 
 on a very moderate footing. The Nadiga had no pay allotted to him 
 in many cases, as he rented generally the country, and was supposed 
 to derive some advantage from his district ; the pay of the Parpattegar 
 or Amildar was 10 pagodas per month ; Sheristedar, 5 pagodas ; other 
 writers from i^ to 3 pagodas; when the Rajas employed people to 
 collect the sunkam on their own account, and accounts of this depart- 
 ment were kept, they gave a salary to the Sunkadava of from 2 to 5 
 pagodas ; the regulated pay of Atthavane or revenue peons was from 6 
 to 10 Kanthiraya fanams. 
 
 Little information could be obtained of any regular Courts of Justice 
 or Judges specially appointed for that purpose under the ancient forms 
 of government.^ Among the eight established great offices of State or 
 Ashta Pradhana, we do not find any mention of a Judge ; but there 
 were seven Heads of Departments under Rama Raya, as follows, 
 among whom one was apparently so designated : — 
 
 Pradhani Durga Daksha — governor of the hill forts. 
 
 Bhila Daksha — superintendent of tanks and lower forts, master of the pioneers and 
 
 workmen. 
 Dharma Karta — lord of justice and superintendent of charities and alms. 
 Senadhipati — commander-in-chief of the army. 
 
 superintendent of the haisebs or vakils, the Intelligence Dejiartment. 
 
 Pura Daksha — superintendent of towns, &c. 
 
 Devasthan Alapati — superintendent of temples and religious buildings. 
 
 But the pandits may be considered as expounders of the law or 
 counsellors of the Rajas, who in their own persons united the office of 
 judge and legislator. The Palegars had courts of pufichdyixti, wherein 
 complaints were heard and decisions given, by five respectable persons, 
 whence the name — pa/icha, five, and ayati, gathering. 
 
 The Persian Ambassador previously quoted (p. 351) has the 
 following remarks on the administration of justice and police regula- 
 tions at Vijayanagar as he saw them in 1441, in the reign of Deva 
 Raya : — 
 
 On the right hand of the palace of the Sultan there is the divAn-klulna, 
 or minister's ofhce, which is extremely large, and presents the appearance 
 of a chihal-suiiin, or forty-pillared hall ; and in front of it there rims a 
 
 * On this subject Sir II. S. Maine says: — Though llie Urahiuiiiical written l;isv 
 assumes the existence of king and judge, yet at the present moment in some of the 
 best governed semi-independent Native States, there are no institutions corresjwnding 
 to our Courts of Justice. Disputes of a civil nature are adjusted by the ciders of each 
 village, community, or occasionally, when they relate to land, by the functionaries 
 charged with the collection of the prince's revenue. Such criminal jurisdiction as is 
 found consists in the interposition of the military power to punish l)reaches of the 
 peace of more than ordinary gravity. What must be called criminal law is admin- 
 istered through the arm of the soldier. — /'///. Com., 71.
 
 588 ADMINISTRATION 
 
 raised gallery, higher than the stature of a man, thirty yards long and six 
 broad, where the records are kept and the scribes are seated.' In the 
 middle of the pillared hall, a eunuch, called a Dandik, sits alone upon a 
 raised platform, and presides over the administration ; and below it the 
 mace-bcarers stand, drawn up in a row on each side. Whoever has any 
 business to transact, advances between the lines of mace-bearers, offers 
 some trifling present, places his face upon the ground, and standing upon 
 his legs again, represents his grievance. Upon this, the Dandik issues 
 orders founded upon the rules of justice prevalent in that country, and no 
 other person has any power of remonstrance. When the Dandik leaves the 
 chamber, several coloured umbrellas are borne before him, and trumpets are 
 sounded, and on both sides of his way panegyrists pronounce benedictions 
 upon him. Before he reaches the King he has to pass through seven gates, 
 at which porters are seated, and as the Dandik arrives at each door, an 
 umbrella is left behind, so that on reaching the seventh gate the Dandik 
 enters alone. He reports upon the affairs of the State to the King, and, 
 after remaining some time, returns. His residence lies beyond the palace 
 of the King. 
 
 On the left hand of the palace there is the mint. Opposite the mint is 
 the office of the Prefect of the City, to which it is said 12,000 policemen are 
 attached ; and their pay, which equals each day 12,000 fanams, is derived 
 from the proceeds of the brothels. The splendour of those houses, the 
 beauty of the heart-ravishers, their blandishments and ogles, are beyond all 
 description. It is best to be brief on the matter .... The revenues of 
 the brothels, as stated before, go to pay the wages of the policemen. The 
 business of these men is to acquaint themselves with all the events and 
 accidents that happen within the seven walls and to recover everything that 
 is lost, or that may be abstracted by theft ; otherwise they are fined. Thus, 
 certain slaves which my companion had bought, took to flight, and when 
 the circumstance was reported to the Prefect, he ordered the watchmen of 
 that quarter where the poorest people dwelt to produce them or pay the 
 penalty ; which last they did, on ascertaining the amount. Such are the 
 details relating to the city of Bijanagar and the condition of its sovereign. ^ 
 
 Carnatic Bijapur. — 'When from the conquests of Ran-dulha Khan, 
 the Bijapur general, parganas had been formed, he arranged the sub- 
 ordinate divisions of samats, tarnfs, inaiije, imijare of each Pargana, 
 and appointed Jamadars or collectors. In the time of the Rayals, the 
 accountants had been called Samprati, but the Mahrattas introduced 
 the different ofifices of Deshpande, Deshkulkarni, Sar-Nad-Gaud, 
 
 ' These people, he adds, have two kinds of writing, one upon a leaf of the Hindu 
 nut (palmyra) which is two yards long and two digits broad, on which they scratch 
 with an iron style. These characters present no colour, and endure but for a little 
 while. In the second kind they blacken a white surface, on which they write with a 
 soft stone cut into the shape of a pen, so that the characters are white on a black 
 surface and are durable. This kind of writing is highly esteemed. {See above, p. 503. ) 
 
 - Sir H. Elliot, Hist. Iiid., iv, 107, iii.
 
 UNDER BIJAPUR 589 
 
 Ueshmuki and Kanungo, by \Yhoni the accounts of the country were 
 kept; they also appointed Sheristedars to all the parganas. When 
 jagirs were granted to the Killedars and Mansubdars by the Sarkar, 
 the revenue accounts of the districts for the last years were previously 
 examined, and the new revenue rated annually on the jagir to be 
 granted. In fixing the revenue thus established, the inams or free gift 
 lands, land customs, &:c., were discontinued or deducted, and the net 
 revenue, more or less than the former, ascertained by means of the 
 Jamadars. 
 
 The Deshkulkarni was to write the kaul pa/fa, the contract or lease 
 for the revenue ; the Deshpande was to sign it in :\Iahratti characters 
 at the bottom of the paper ; the Deshmuki, Kanunga and Sar-Nad- 
 Gaud were also to add their signatures to the written deed, and the 
 Amildar finally to seal it. The particular accounts of the parganas 
 were kept as follows : the Shanbh6g was to keep the written accounts 
 of the mauje or village, the Deshkulkarni to keep the accounts of the 
 samats, the Deshpande the accounts of the parganas, and the Kanunga 
 to sign the patte or revenue agreements. He was also to keep a 
 written 'register of the revenue of the district, to be delivered to the 
 Sarkar. It was the duty of the Deshmuki and Sar-Nad-Gaud to control 
 and inspect all accounts, and report them to their superiors ; they were 
 also to inquire and report generally on all affairs, and the settlement 
 of the district. 
 
 Sim. — When the Moguls formed the Suba of Sira, 1 2 parganas were 
 annexed to it, and the other districts were permitted to be still held by 
 the Palcgars on condition of paying an annual tribute. Ofiicers for 
 collecting and managing the revenues were appointed in the amani 
 districts only ; at the same time the ofiices of Deshmuki, Deshkulkarni 
 and Sar-Nad-Gaud were formed into one office. Deshpandes, 
 jMajmundars, Kanungoyas, and Kulkarnis were maintained according 
 to the forms long established in the dominions of Uijajjur. The 
 Deshmuk was to settle the accounts with the patels ; the Deshpande 
 to check the accounts of the karnams ; the Kanunga to register the 
 official regulations, and to explain the ordinances and regulations to the 
 inhabitants and public officers to prevent errors or mistakes. In the 
 Majmiindar's office, the accounts of the settlement were made out and 
 issued. 
 
 The accounts of all kinds were anciently kept in Kannada, but after 
 the Mahratta chiefs attained power in the Carnatic, many Deshasts or 
 natives of their countries followed them, who introduced their language 
 and written character into the public accounts. Even in the samsthans 
 of the Palegars, where the revenue and military accounts had been kept
 
 590 ADMINISTRATION 
 
 in Kannacla alone, some of them beginning then to entertain large 
 bodies of horse, employed Mahratta accountants to check the pay 
 accounts in that language for the satisfaction of the horsemen of that 
 nation. After the Moguls came into the country and established the 
 Suba of Sira, the Persian language came into use. 
 
 Under the Rajas of Mysore, &rc. 
 
 In the south, in the growing kingdom of Mysore, about the year 
 1 701, Chikka Dcva Raja, it is stated, distributed the business of govern- 
 ment into 18 cutcherries or departments, probably from having learned 
 from his ambassadors to Aurangzib that such was the practice at the 
 imperial court. These departments were : — 
 
 I. yVzV/^/rt; i:/i(^f'Z/rt(// or the secretary's department, to which he appointed 
 one daroga or superintendent, and three daftars, registers or books of record. 
 Everything was recorded in each of the three in exactly the same manner ; 
 all letters or orders despatched, to be previously read to the Rd.ja. 2. Ekka- 
 da chdvadi, whose business it was to keep the general accounts of revenue, 
 treasury, and disbursements, civil and military ; this seems to approach 
 our office of accountant-general. 3 and 4. Ubhaika vichdra, or two-fold 
 inquiry. He divided his whole possessions into two portions ; that north of 
 the Kaverihe called the Patna H6bli ; that south of the Kaveri was named 
 the Mysore Hdbli : to each of these cutcherries he appointed one divan and 
 three daftars. 5. Shi)ne Ka7iddchdr ; it was the duty of this cutcherry to 
 keep the accounts of provisions and military stores, and all expenses of the 
 provincial troops, including those connected with the maintenance of the 
 crarrisons ; one bakshi and three daftars. 6. Bdkal Kanddchdr (bdkal, a 
 oate or portal) ; it was the duty of this department to keep the accounts of 
 the troops attending at the porte, that is to say, the army, or disposable 
 force. 7. Siinkada chdvadi, or duties and customs ; it was their duty to 
 keep the general accounts of customs levied within his dominions. 8. Povt 
 chdvadi : in every taluq where the sunka was taken, there was another or 
 second station, where a farther sum equal to half the former amount was 
 levied ; for this duty he established a separate cutcherry. 9. Tiindeya 
 chdvadi [tinide, half, i.e., half of the pom) ; this was a farther fourth of the 
 first duty, levied in Seringapatam only. 10 and 11. In the Ubhaika vichara 
 were not included the Srirangapatna and Mysore Ashtagrama (eight town- 
 ships) : for each of these he had a separate cutcherry ; besides the business 
 of revenue, they were charged with the provisions and necessaries of the 
 o-arrison and palace. 12. Benne chdvadi, the butter department ; the 
 establishment of cows, both as a breeding stud, and to furnish milk and 
 butter for the palace : the name was changed by Tipu to Amrit Mahal, 
 and then to Keren Barik. (Amrit, the Indian nectar. Keren Barik, an 
 Arabic term, may be translated almost A-erbally Cornu Copia.) 13. Patnada 
 chdvadi ; this cutcherrj- was charged with the police of the metropolis, the 
 repairs of the fortifications and public buildings. 14. Behijt chdvadi, the 
 
 I
 
 UNDER THE MYSORE RAJAS 591 
 
 department of expedition, or the post-office : the business of espionage 
 belon^^ed also to this department. 15. Samukha chavadi : the officers of 
 the palace, domestics, and personal servants of ever)- description belonged 
 to the charge of this cutcherry. 16. Dcvasthan c/uivadt\ kept the accounts 
 of the lands allotted to the support of religious establishments, the daily 
 rations of food to the Brahmans, lighting the pagodas, &c. 17. Kabbinadci 
 chdvatU, iron cutcherry : this article was made a monopoly, and its 
 management was committed to a separate cutcherry. 18. Hoge soppin 
 chavadi, the tobacco department, another monopoly by the government, 
 which in Seringapatam was the exclusive tobacco merchant. 
 
 It is certain that the revenues were realised with great regularity and 
 precision, and this Raja is stated to hvive established a separate treasury 
 to provide for extraordinary and unexpected disbursements, of which 
 he himself assumed the direct custody. It was his fixed practice, after 
 the performance of his morning ablutions, and marking his forehead 
 with the insignia of Vishnu, to deposit two bags (thousands) of pagodas 
 in this treasury from the cash despatched from the districts, before he 
 proceeded to break his fast. If there were any delay in bringing the 
 money, he also delayed his breakfast, and it was well known that 
 this previous operation was indispensable. By a course of rigid 
 economy and order, and by a widely extended and well-organized 
 system of securing for himself the great mass of plunder obtained by 
 his conquests, he had accumulated a treasure from which he obtained 
 the designation of Navak6ti Ndrayana, or the lord of nine crores (of 
 pagodas), and a territory producing a revenue calculated to have been 
 Kanthirdya pagodas 13,23,571. 
 
 The method by which he raised the revenue is thus described : — The 
 sixth was the lawful share of the crop, for which the Raja received his 
 equivalent in money ; and he was unwilling to risk the odium of 
 increasing this proportion in a direct manner. He therefore had 
 recourse to the law of the shdstras, which authorized him, by no 
 very forced construction, to attack the husbandman by a variety of 
 vexatious taxes, which should compel him to seek relief by desiring to 
 compound for their abolition by a voluntary increase of the landed 
 assessment : and this is the arrangement which generally ensued ; 
 although, from the great discontent excited by the taxes, the com- 
 promise was generally made on the condition of excepting some one or 
 more of the most offensive, and proportionally increasing those which 
 remained. But the Rdja, with that profound knowledge of human 
 nature which distinguished all his measures, exempted from these new 
 imposts all the lands which were allotted to the provincial soldiery in 
 lieu of pay, according to the ordinary practice of the smaller Hindu
 
 592 
 
 ADMINISTRA TION 
 
 States and thus neutralized, in some degree, the opposition to the 
 measure, and ensured the means of eventual compulsion. Subjoined 
 is the detail of these taxes. ^ The whole .system is stated to have been 
 at once unfolded, with intimation that it would be gradually introduced 
 according to circumstances ; but the commotions which it produced, 
 by leading to measures of extreme severity, precipitated its total and 
 abrupt introduction. 
 
 One of the earliest measures of this Raja's reign had been to compel 
 the dependent Wodeyars and Palegars, who, like his own ancestors, 
 had commenced the career of ambition by affecting in their respective 
 
 ' Mane terige, or house-tax. 2. Htil kaita, a lax upon the straw prockiced on the 
 ground which already paid kandaya, or the land-tax, on the pretence that a share of 
 the straw, as well as of the grain, belonged to government. 3. Deva Ray tttta — 
 utta is literally loss, the difference of exchange on a defective coin. Deva Raj, on 
 the pretence of receiving many such defective coins, exacted this tax as a reimlnirse- 
 ment ; this was now permanently added to the ryots' payments. It was different 
 according to the coins in use in the several districts, and averaged about two per 
 cent. 4. Bergi — a patel (for example) farmed his village, or engaged for the pay- 
 ment of a fixed sum to the government ; his actual receipts from the ryots fell short 
 of the amount, and he induced them to make it up by a proportional contribution. 
 The name of such a contribution is hergi, and the largest that had ever been so 
 collected was now added, under the same name, to the kandaya of each ryot. 
 5. Yeru siinka — sunka is properly a duty of transit on goods or grain ; yerii, a 
 plough. The ryot, instead of carrying his grain to where a transit duty is payable, 
 sells it in his own village. The yeru sunka was a tax of one to two gold fanams on 
 each plough, as an equivalent for the tax which would have been paid if the grain 
 had been exported. 6. Jdti mdnya, a tax upon the heads of those castes {Jogi, 
 Jangam, &c. ) who do not come within the general scope of Hindu establishments, 
 and form separate communities which occasionally oppose the Brahminical rule. On 
 every occasion of marriage, birth, or law-suit, or quarrel, a certain fine was levied on 
 each house concerned as parties or judges, and a chief of each caste was made 
 responsible for the collection. 7. Magga kandaya or loom-tax. 8. Kutike terige, a 
 tax on fornication. 9. Aladive terige, a tax upon marriage. 10. Angadi pattadi, or 
 shop-tax. II. Angadi passera, a tax upon the movable booths which are set up 
 daily in the middle of the bazaar streets. 12. Kavadi terige (kavadi is the name of 
 a bullock saddle) a tax upon bullocks kept for hire. 13. Mdrike (selling), a tax 
 upon the purchase and sale of cattle. 14. Uppin mala, a tax upon the manufacture 
 of inland salt, produced by lixiviating saline earths. 15. Ubbe kdnike — ubbe is the 
 kettle or vessel made use of by washermen to boil and bleach their cloths ; this was 
 a tax on each kettle. 16. Kiiri terige, a tax of a certain sum per cent, on flocks of 
 sheep. 17. Pashioara (Pasha is a fisherman, a net). 18. Gida gdval, a tax upon 
 wood for building, or fuel brought in from the forests. 19. Gulavina pommu. (Gula 
 is the name of a plough-share.) This is a separate tax on that instrument, exclusively 
 of the plough-tax, No. 5, which is professed to be a tax on the alienation of grain. 
 20. Terad hagalu (opening a door). In a country and a state of society where 
 window-glass was unknown, this was a most ingenious substitute for the window-tax. 
 The husbandman paid it, as expressed by the name, for the permission to open his 
 door. It was, however, levied only on those made of planks, and not on the common 
 bamboo door of the poorer villagers.
 
 UNDER THE BEOXUR NAYAKS 593 
 
 districts to be addressed by the title of Riija, publicly to renounce that 
 assumption of independence, to disclaim the local prerogatives of 
 punishment and confiscation without previous authority from the Raja, 
 and to revert to their original character of obedient officers of the 
 government. This object was aided by first inviting, and then com- 
 pelling, them to fix their residence at Seringapatam ; by assigning to 
 them offices of honour about the Raja's person, and gradually convert- 
 ing them from rebellious chieftains to obsequious courtiers. The 
 insurgents in the districts were left, in consequence, destitute of the 
 direction of their accustomed leaders, and the Jangam priests, deprived 
 of their local importance, and much of their pecuniary receipts, by the 
 removal of these mock courts from the provinces, were foremost in 
 expressing their detestation of this new and unheard-uf measure of 
 finance, and in exhorting their disciples to resistance. The terrible 
 mode in which this was put down has been described p. 367. The 
 new system of revenue was finally established, and there is a tradition 
 that the Raja exacted from every village a written renunciation, 
 ostensibly voluntary, of private property in the land, and an acknow- 
 ledgment that it was the right of the State. 
 
 Bedmir. — In the Bednur territory, the west of the country, the most 
 distinguished ruler was Sivappa Nayak, who reigned 1648 to 1670. 
 His shist or land assessment, and prahar paiti or rules for collecting 
 the halat on areca-nut, i!cc., are frerjuently referred to in proof of his 
 financial skill, and he is said to have framed a scale of expenditure, 
 including every contingency for each day in the year, for the Sringeri 
 matha. 
 
 During twelve successive years, he caused one field of each descrip- 
 tion of land, in every village, to be cultivated on his own account, and 
 an accurate record kept of the seed sown, the expense of culture, and 
 the quantity and value of the produce. He then struck averages of 
 the produce and prices, and taking the value of one khanclaga (of 50 
 seers) at one fanam, and the Sarkar share as one-third of the gross 
 produce, fixed the rates shown in the table on the following page, 
 land being distributed into five classes, with two rates for each class. 
 
 Gardens were measured with a rod, the length of the stone steps at 
 the Ikkeri Aghoresvara devasthan (18 feet 6 inches English exactly). 
 This rod was the space called ddya allowed for one tree. The shist 
 was fixed on 1,000 such daya at various rates. These are not given, 
 but they appear to have varied from 7 to 25 Bahaduri pagodas. 
 
 The shist continued for thirty-nine years from 1660. The following 
 additions were afterwards made :— In 1700, one anna in the pagoda, 
 called dasoha, by Chinnammaji, for the support of an establishment
 
 594 
 
 ADMINISTRA T/ON 
 
 for providing food gratis to all who applied. In 1736, one fanam four 
 as. per pagoda, called J)a_i;udi\ by Chikka Somasekhara, when the 
 Moguls threatened an invasion. In 1753, one fanam four as. per 
 pagoda, called paiii, by liasappa Nayak, to pay the Mahratta chout. 
 Shi.st on Land requiring one Khand.\ca of Seed. Wet Land. 
 
 
 Description. 
 
 Produce. 
 
 Rate. 
 
 Class of land. 
 
 Highest. 
 
 Lowest. 
 
 Highest. 
 
 Lowest. 
 
 
 Quantity. 
 
 1 
 
 Value. Quantity 
 
 Value. 
 
 ist,Uttamam. 
 
 2nd, Madhya- 
 mam. 
 
 3rd, Kanish- 
 tam. 
 
 Yeremisra, — black, 
 and black mixed 
 with sand . 
 
 Bettabis, — high 
 and open red or 
 mixed 
 
 Varavindu, — dark 
 or hght sand with 
 
 Kh.indis. 
 30 
 
 22J 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 P. 
 
 3 
 2 
 
 I 
 
 F. 
 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 7 
 
 a 
 
 
 8 
 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 Khandis. 
 26J 
 
 i8| 
 
 Hi 
 
 3l 
 17* 
 
 P. 
 2 
 
 I 
 
 F. 
 6 
 
 8 
 
 A. 
 
 4 
 
 12 
 
 P. 
 
 I 
 
 F. 
 
 7 
 
 5 
 2 
 
 T 
 
 A. 
 
 
 8 
 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 P. 
 
 F. 
 8 
 
 6 
 
 3 
 I 
 
 A. 
 
 12 
 
 4 
 
 T?. 
 
 4th, Adha-Yatte, — hard, high 
 
 
 
 
 
 /\ 
 
 5th, Adhama- Urimalal, — hot 
 
 dhamam. sand, dry, anc 
 
 above level 
 
 
 
 
 
 TO 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Dry land, or hakkal, in the Gaddenad, was included in the gadde 
 shist. In the open country the following rates were fixed per khan- 
 daga : — 
 
 Class. 
 
 1st 
 
 2nd 
 
 3rd 
 
 4th 
 
 5th 
 
 6th 
 
 Descri^ition. 
 
 Yere, — black clay 
 
 Kari Masab, — dark loam with sand.. 
 
 Kemman, — red ... 
 
 ^lalal, — sandy 
 
 Imnian, — mixed ... 
 
 Gonikal, — gravelly 
 
 F. I A. 
 
 2' 8 
 
 o o 
 
 7 S 
 
 5 i o 
 
 o o 
 
 7 I 8 
 
 Under the Basvapatna chiefs, Bedar offered higher rents for some 
 villages than were paid by the old gaudas, who were Kurubar, which 
 were accepted, which ended in the ryots at length agreeing to pay an 
 addition to the kulavana of from two to six fanams in the pagoda. 
 This was the origin of I'irado, which is found in the east of the 
 Shimoga District.
 
 UNDER HAIDAR ALI 
 
 595 
 
 Haidar AH. — Such was the system before Haidar Ali Khan ; when 
 he had subjugated the ancient Palegars, he again reinstated several of 
 them on condition of paying an annual tribute ; and he followed 
 generally the regulations formerly established, and the peculiar customs 
 and laws of the different provinces. But he was at all times accessible 
 to complaints, and never failed to pursue to its source the history of 
 an irregular demand, and to recover it with additional fines from the 
 exactor. It is true that the amount was never returned to the com- 
 plainant, but it frequently produced the dismission of the offender ; 
 the certainty of investigation tended to restrain oppression, and, as 
 Haidar was accustomed to say, rapacity in this case was nearly as good 
 for his subjects, and much better for himself, than a more scrupulous 
 distribution of justice. For though he left the fiscal institutions of 
 Chikka Deva Raja as he found them, he added to the established 
 revenue whatever had been secretly levied by a skilful or popular Amil 
 and afterwards detected : this produced a progressive and regular 
 increase, and the result of complaints gave occasional, but also toler- 
 ably regular, augmentations. 
 
 Two Brahmans, with the title of Harkaras, resided in each taluq. 
 Their duty was to hear all complaints, and to report these to the office 
 of the revenue department. They were also bound to report all waste 
 lands. This was found to be a considerable check to oppression and 
 to defalcations on the revenue. 
 
 Tipu Sultan. — But Tipu .Sultan, not approving of the old regulations, 
 introduced a new system through all his dominions. He divided the 
 whole into tiikadis of five thousand pagodas each, and established the 
 following officers in each tukadi : — One Amildar, one sheristedar, three 
 gumastas, one tarafdar to each taraf, six atlhavane peons, one golla (or 
 headman) to seal and keep money, one shroff and one munshi. To 
 twenty or thirty tukadis was attached an Asuf cutcherry : the official 
 establishment of each of them was — first and second Asufs, two 
 sherista, two gumastas willi five men each, forty peons, one shroff, one 
 munshi, one mashalchi to attend the office, one Persian sheristedar, 
 and some gumastas to keep the accounts in Persian. In this manner 
 an entire new system of management was introduced. Mir Sadak, the 
 president of the Asuf cutcherry, circulated such new orders as were 
 necessary, under the signature and seal of the Sultan, to the Head 
 Asufs of the Revenue Department, which they communicated to 
 Amildars under them, and these sent them to the Tarafdars with 
 directions to have them notified throughout their districts. He dis- 
 pensed with the Harkaras appointed by Haidar, and this measure of 
 economy contributed much to the oppression of the people. 
 
 Q Q 2
 
 596 ADMINISTRATION 
 
 The accounts of revenues were made out in the Kannada character 
 by the tarafdars ; fair copies of which they communicated to the 
 Amildars, in whose office they were translated into Mahratti, and a 
 copy of each preserved by the sheristedars in the Kannada and 
 Mahratti languages. A third set was kept in Persian. 
 
 The following salaries were attached to offices : — In the Tukadi 
 Office the Amildar got lo pagodas ; sheristedar, 5 ; gumasta, 2 ; 
 munshi, 2 ; goUa, 8 fanams ; shroff, 8 ; attavane peons, 6 ; naiks, 8. 
 The sunkadars had no pay, being renters in several districts. In the 
 Asuf cutcherry, Asufs from 50 to 60 pagodas each ; sheristedars, from 
 25 to 30 ; gumastas, Persian 8, Kannada 6, Hindavi 7 ; munshi, 8 ; 
 goUa, 2 ; shroff, 2 ; kazi, 5 ; his duty was to administer justice to the 
 Musalmans, and all of that religion who neglected to come to perform 
 the iiamdz in the mosque on Friday were liable to be fined or punished 
 by the kazi. 
 
 From Wilks the following further details are extracted, regarding 
 what Tipu Sultan in his memoirs styles his " incomparable inventions 
 and regulations," some reference to which has been made in p. 409 : — 
 "The code of military regulatio?is contained elementary instructions 
 for the infantry, which were as well given as could be expected from a 
 person copying European systems, and unacquainted with the elements 
 of mathematical science ; the invention of new words of command 
 would have been a rational improvement, if the instructions had 
 thereby been rendered more intelligible ; but the substitution of obsolete 
 Persian for French or English gave no facility in the instruction of 
 officers and soldiers, who, speaking of them in mass, may be described 
 as utterly ignorant of the Persian language. The general tendency of 
 the changes, effected in the whole of his military establishment, was 
 to increase and improve his infantry and artillery at the expense of the 
 cavalry. 
 
 The Jleet was originally placed by Tipu under the Board of Trade. 
 The experience of two wars had shown that it would always be at the 
 mercy of a European enemy; and it seemed to have been chiefly con- 
 sidered as a protection to trade against the system of general piracy 
 then practised along the western shores of India, up to the Persian 
 Gulf The loss of a moiety of every resource in 1792, gave a new 
 scope and stimulus to invention ; and the absurdity was not perceived 
 of seeking to create a warlike fleet without a commercial navy, or of 
 hoping, literally without means, suddenly to rival England in that 
 department of war which was represented to be the main source of her 
 power by the vakils who accompanied the hostages, and had been 
 specially instructed to study the English institutions. This novel
 
 UNDER TIPU SULTAN 597 
 
 source of liope was not finally organized on paper till 1796, and can 
 scarcely be deemed to have had a practical existence. He began in 
 1793 "ith ordering the construction of a hundred ships; but in 1796 
 he sunk to twenty ships of the line and twenty frigates ; eleven Com- 
 missioners, or Lords of the Admiralty {Mir-e-Yem), who were not 
 expected to embark ; thirty Mir Bahr, or Admirals, of whom twenty 
 were to be afloat, and ten at court for instruction — a school for sea- 
 manship which it is presumed a British Admiral would not entirely 
 approve. A 72-gun ship had thirty 24-pounders, thirty i8-pounders, 
 and i2-nines; a 46-gun frigate had twenty 12-pounders, as many nines, 
 and six 4-pounders ; the line-of-battle ships were 72's and 62's ; and 
 the men for the forty ships are stated at 10,520. To each ship were 
 appointed four principal officers : the first commanded the ship ; 
 the second had charge of the guns, gunners and ammunition ; the 
 third, of the marines and small arms ; the fourth, the working and 
 navigation of the ship, the provisions and stores ; and the regulations 
 descend to the most minute particulars, from the dockyard to the 
 running rigging ; from the scantlings of the timbers to the dinner of 
 the crew. 
 
 The commercial regulations were founded on the basis of making the 
 sovereign, if not the sole, the chief, merchant of his dominions ; but 
 they underwent the most extraordinary revolutions. On his accession 
 he seems to have considered all commerce with Europeans, and parti- 
 cularly with the P^nglish, as pregnant with danger in every direction. 
 Exports were prohibited or discouraged ; first, because they augmented 
 to his own subjects the price of the article; second, because they 
 would afford to his neighbours the means of secret intelligence ; and 
 third, because they would lift the veil of mystery which obscured the 
 dimensions of his power. Imports were prohibited, because they 
 would lessen the quantity of money, and thereby impoverish the 
 country ; propositions which may indicate the extent of his attain- 
 ments in political economy : and such was the mean adulation by 
 which he was surrounded, that domestic manufactures of every kind 
 were stated to be in consequence rapidly surpassing the foreign, and a 
 turban of Burhampoor would be exhibited and admired by the unani- 
 mous attestation of all around him as the manufacture of Shahar Ganjam. 
 It was under the influence of this utter darkness in commercial and 
 political economy, that in 1784 he ordered the eradication of all the 
 pepper vines of the maritime districts, and merely reserved those of 
 inland growth to trade with the true believers from Arabia. The 
 increase of this article of commerce l)ecame, some years afterwards, 
 an object of j)avticular solicitude, liul it is uncertain whether the
 
 598 ADMINISTRATION 
 
 prohibition of growing red pepper or chilli, was to be considered as a 
 commercial regulation, to increase the growth of black pepper, or 
 as a medical regimen, or as a compound of both motives. It is a 
 general opinion in the south of India, that the free use of red pepper 
 has a tendency to generate cutaneous eruptions, and the Sultan 
 certainly prevented its entering his harem for six months ; whether in 
 that period he did not find the ladies improved in the smoothness of 
 their skin, or was influenced by other causes, he withdrew the pro- 
 hibition of culture about a year after it had been promulgated. 
 
 From the personal reports of the vakils who accompanied the 
 hostages to Madras, his attention was called to a proposition, however 
 strange, yet stated to be generally admitted among the most enlightened 
 persons at Madras, that the power not only of the English Company 
 but of the English King, was founded in a material degree on com- 
 mercial prosperity ; and the Sultan devised an extensive plan for a 
 similar increase of power ; still, however, pursuing the principles 
 which he conceived to be sanctioned by the example of the India 
 Company, of combining the characters of merchant and sovereign. 
 In a long and laborious code of eight sections, he established a royal 
 Board of nine Commissioners of Trade, with seventeen foreign and 
 thirty home factories in the several Districts ; furnished with extensive 
 instructions for a profitable system of exports and imports, by land 
 and by sea, and a strict theoretical control over the receipts and dis- 
 bursements ; the monopolies, however, continued to be numerous, and 
 those of tobacco, sandalwood, pepper and the precious metals were 
 the most lucrative. 
 
 One, however, of the sections of commercial regulation is so per- 
 fectly unique that it may afford entertainment. It professes to be 
 framed for the attractive purpose of " regulating commercial deposits, 
 or admitting the people at large to a participation in the benefits to 
 accrue from the trade of the country." Every individual depositing a 
 sum not exceeding five hundred rupees was declared entitled at the 
 end of the year to receive, with his principal, an increase of 50 per 
 cent. For a deposit of from five hundred to five thousand, 25 per 
 cent. Above five thousand, 12 per cent,, with liberty at all times and 
 in all classes, to receive, on demand, any part of the deposit together 
 w'ith the proportion of interest^ up to the day. These variations of 
 profit, in the inverse ratio of the deposit, were probably intended to 
 show his consideration for the small capitalist, but a project for 
 enticing his subjects into a swindling loan was too glaring to be mis- 
 
 ' The word interest is not employed, usury being at variance with the precepts of 
 the Koran ; profit is the term used.
 
 UNDER TIPU SULTAX 599 
 
 understood. At a very early period of his government, he had, in an 
 ebullition of anger, extinguished the business of banker, and monopo- 
 lized its dependent and most profitable trade of money-changer. He now- 
 issued an ordinance, converting the trade of money-changer and broker 
 into a monopoly for the benefit of Government, furnishing coin for the 
 purpose, from the treasury, to servants paid by regular salaries. It 
 was, however, reported that the dealers kept aloof from transactions 
 with the government shops, that the expenses far exceeded the profits, 
 and that it was necessary either to abandon the jilan, or to enlarge it 
 so as to embrace not only regular banking establishments but com- 
 mercial speculations necessary to their prosperity. A part of this plan 
 was therefore gradually introduced, and the funds in the hands of the 
 money-changers were employed in advantageous loans. 
 
 The regulations of revenue, professing like those for pecuniary 
 deposits to be founded on a tender regard for the benefit of the people, 
 contained little that was new, except that the nomenclature and the 
 institutions of Chikka Deva Raja and Haidar were promulgated as the 
 admirable inventions of Tipu Sultan. One improvement occurs, not 
 undeserving the modified consideration of Western statesmen who 
 value the health or the morals of the people. He began at an early 
 period to restrict the numbers and regulate the conduct of the shops 
 for the sale of spirituous liquors, and he finally and effectually 
 abolished the whole, together with the sale of all intoxicating substances, 
 and the destruction, as far as he could effect it, of the white poppy and 
 the hemp plant, even in private gardens. For the large sacrifice of 
 revenue involved in this prohibition, the extinction of Hindu worship 
 and the confiscated funds of the temples were intended to compensate, 
 and would, if well administered, in a degree have balanced the tax on 
 intoxicating substances : the measure commenced at an early period of 
 his reign, and the extinction was gradual, but in 1 799 the two temples 
 within the fort of Seringapatam alone remained open throughout the 
 extent of his dominions. 
 
 Of his system of police, the following extract from his official 
 instructions may suffice : — " You must place spies throughout the whole 
 fort and town, in the bazaars, and over the houses of the principal 
 officers, and thus gain intelligence of every person who goes to the 
 dwelling of another, and of what people say, «S:c., iS:c." All this 
 Haidar effectually did, and all this Tipu Sultan only attempted. No 
 human being was ever worse served or more easily deceived."
 
 6oo ADMINISTRATION 
 
 The Regency of Pumaiya^ 1 799-1810. 
 
 Of the system of administration as established under the Divan 
 Purnaiya, an account is given in a report from the same pen, under 
 date 1804, from which the subjoined particulars are derived : — 
 
 Tipu Sultan attempted the subjugation of the whole of the Palegars, 
 and the annexation of their lands to those of the Sarkar ; but under the 
 complicated system of fraud and malversation of every kind which 
 prevailed, a large proportion of the palyams which continued to be 
 represented at the Presence as under Sarkar management, were, by a 
 mutual collusion of the Palegar and Amil, held by the former ; and the 
 degree of authority which should be exercised by the latter, came at 
 length to depend on the sufferance of the Palegar, who had often but 
 slender claims to that title. On the establishment of the present 
 government, there were, accordingly, few districts that did not furnish 
 at least one claimant, possessing or pretending to the hereditary juris- 
 diction. The mischief was not confined to the revival of former 
 pretensions ; in some cases the patels, and in others the officers of 
 police, emulating the Palegar character, and copying their history, 
 sought to obtain the independent rule of their respective villages and 
 the privilege of encroaching on their neighbours ; and the ryots who 
 could afford a bribe were generally successful in procuring a false entry 
 in the books of the District, of the quantity of land for which they paid 
 a rent. In some districts attempts were made by the newly-appointed 
 Asufs or Amils to reform these latter abuses ; but the frequent, and 
 latterly the systematic, assassination of such reformers terrified their 
 successors ; and these feeble and ineffectual efforts served only to 
 confirm the most base and abject reciprocation of licentiousness and 
 corruption. 
 
 With a view to compose and encourage the well-affected, and to 
 obviate unnecessary alarm in those of an opposite character, the new 
 Administration commenced its proceedings by proclaiming an un- 
 qualified remission of all balances of revenue, and the restoration of the 
 ancient Hindu rate of assessment, on the lands, and in the sayar. 
 
 For the maintenance of public authority, a small but select body of 
 cavalry, infantry and peons was collected from the ruins of the Sultan's 
 army ; and for the preservation of interior tranquillity, a plan was 
 adopted which deserves to be more particularly described. The 
 ancient military force of the country consisted of peons or irregular 
 foot, variously armed, but principally with matchlocks and pikes ; these 
 men, trained from their infancy according to their measure of discipline 
 to military exercises, were most of them also cultivators of the soil, but
 
 UNDER PURNAIYA 60 1 
 
 the vacant part of the year had usually been allotted to military enter- 
 prise, and when the circumstances of their respective chiefs offered 
 nothing more important, these restless habits led them to private 
 depredation. It was necessary that men of these propensities should 
 either be constantly restrained by the presence of a large military force, 
 or be made by proper employment to feel an interest in the stability of 
 the government ; and there was no hesitation with regard to this 
 alternative if the latter should be found to be practicable. Haidar All 
 had employed large bodies of these men in his garrisons and armies. 
 Tipu Sultan had diminished their numbers for an increase of his 
 regular infantry ; but neither of those chieftains steadily pursued any 
 systematic plan on this important subject. 
 
 The system adopted by the Divan was, to engage in the service of 
 the State at least one individual from each family of the military ; to 
 respect the ancient usages of their several districts with regard to the 
 terms on which peons were bound to military service; in all practical 
 cases to assign waste lands in lieu of one-half of their pay, according to 
 the prevailing usage of ancient times. Their local duties were defined 
 to consist, in taking their easy tour of guard in the little forts or walled 
 villages to which they were attached ; and in being ready at all times 
 to obey the calls of the officers of police. 
 
 Their village pay, half in land and half in money, varied from 2 to 3 Rs. 
 per month, with a batta of 3^ if called out from their respective dis- 
 tricts ; when frecjuent reliefs, according to their domestic convenience, 
 were always allowed. One thousand of them were prevailed on to 
 enrol themselves for occasional service as dooly bearers, and 450 of 
 that number served with the Company's army ; and 817 of the number 
 perform the duty of runners to the post-office of the (lovernmcnt of 
 Mysore. 
 
 The number of peons thus enrolled, exclusively of those in constant 
 pay, amounted during the two first years to 20,027 persons ; and their 
 annual pay to 225,862 Kanthiraya pagodas. Better information and 
 improved arrangements enabled the Divan in the third year to reduce 
 the number to 17,726; and the expense to 184,718 Kanthiraya pagodas. 
 In the fourth and fifth years they were reduced to 15,247 persons, and 
 the expense to 148,478 Kanthiraya pagodas ; and this amount was 
 considered by the Divan to be nearly as low as it could with jirudenre 
 be reduced. 
 
 The lineal descendants and familiLS of several of the most powerful 
 Palcgars were destroyed in the general massacre of prisoners which was 
 ordered by Tipu Sultan subsecjuently to the defeat of his army by 
 Lord Cornwallis on the 15th May 1792. A few persons who preferred
 
 6o 2 ADMINISTRA TION 
 
 the chance of future commotions to a suitable and respectable pro- 
 vision, retired from the country ; a still smaller number, of refractory 
 conduct, were imprisoned : but the greater proportion accepted 
 gratuitous pensions, civil offices, or military command, on the condition 
 of residing at Mysore, or accompanying the Divan when absent from 
 that place. The expedient of assassinating an Ami! was resorted to at 
 an early period ; but the police had even then assumed so efficient a 
 form that all the murderers were traced and executed, and this savage 
 experiment was not renewed. 
 
 The revolutions which had occurred at an earlier or more recent 
 period in every district of Mysore, do not seem to have altered the 
 tenures on which the lands were held by the actual cultivators of the 
 soil. With the exception of Bednur and Balam, the general tenure 
 of land may be described to be " the hereditary right of cultivation," 
 or the right of a tenant and his heirs to occupy a certain ground so 
 long as they continue to pay the customary rent of the district ; but 
 as in the actual condition of the people the rent can only be paid while 
 the land is cultivated, it is apparently held that the right no longer 
 exists than while it is thus exercised : and when the tenant ceases to 
 cultivate, the right reverts to the Government, which is free to confer it 
 on another. 
 
 In the provinces of Bednur and Balam, the property of the soil is 
 vested in the landholder ; and the hereditary right of succession to that 
 property is held in as great respect as in any part of Europe. The 
 rents being paid in money, and the officers of Government having no 
 further interference with the ryots than to receive those rents, the 
 tenure of land in those provinces is highly respectable. This venerable 
 institution of hereditary property and fixed rents is attributed to 
 Sivappa Nayak, and the rent established by him is said to have con- 
 tinued without augmentation until the conquest by Haidar Ali ; there 
 is reason, however, to believe that under the form of contributions to 
 defray the expense of marriages and aids on extraordinary occasions, 
 the rent actually paid was considerably enhanced. JNIilitary service was 
 at all times a condition of the tenure. 
 
 On the conquest of Bednur by Haidar Ali in the year 1763, he at 
 first attempted to conciliate the principal landholders ; but having dis- 
 covered a conspiracy to assassinate him, supported by the landholders 
 and headed by the chief officers of the late government and some of 
 his own confidential servants, he proceeded, after the execution of not 
 less than 300 persons, to disarm landholders, and to commute their 
 military service for a money payment, holding the country in sub- 
 jection by means of an establishment of 25,000 foreign peons. This
 
 UNDER FURXAIYA 603 
 
 assessment of the lands continued without alteration until the peace 
 of 1792, which deprived Tipu Sultan of one-half of his territories, and 
 suggested to him the singular expedient of compensating that loss by a 
 proportional assessment on his remaining possessions. This measure, 
 in Bednur as well as elsewhere, produced an effect exactly the converse 
 of what was intended; and, added to other abundant causes, terminated 
 in the absolute ruin of his finances. 
 
 On the establishment of the new government of Mysore, the land- 
 holders of Bednur attempted to stipulate for the restoration of the 
 ancient rates of land-tax of Sivappa Nayak, and the remission of the 
 pecuniary commutation of military ser\ice established by Haidar Ali. 
 It was ascertained in Bednur, and it is believed also in Canara, that 
 the commutation fixed by Haidar was fair and moderate : the rates 
 of 1764 were accordingly adopted as the fixed land-tax, and continue 
 apparently to give satisfaction. 
 
 The province of Balam was never effectually conquered until 
 military roads were opened through the forest towns by the Honourable 
 Major-General Wellesley in the year 180 1-2. The authority of Haidar 
 Ali, or of Tipu Sultan, over this province, was extremely precarious ; 
 and the presence of an army was always necessary to enforce the pay- 
 ment of the revenue. The rates of the land-tax had accordingly 
 fluctuated, but were fixed by the new government at a standard which 
 appeared to be acceptable to the landholders. 
 
 The Divan appeared to have an adequate conception of the advan- 
 tages, both to the ryots and the government, of a system of hereditary 
 landed property and fixed rents, over the more precarious tenures which 
 prevailed in other parts of Mysore. And throughout the country he 
 generally confirmed the property of the soil to the possessors of planta- 
 tions of areca, cocoanut, and other plants which were not annual. The 
 exceptions to this latter measure principally applied to gardens and 
 plantations which had gone to decay under the late government from 
 over-assessment ; and to those which had recently been formed and did 
 not yet admit of the adjustment of a fixed rent. He showed a general 
 disposition to accede to the proposals of individuals for fixing the rents 
 and securing the property on every description of land ; but he did not 
 press it as a measure of government, which the ryots habitually receive 
 with suspicion, and held the opinion that people must be made 
 gradually to understand and wish for such a measure before it could be 
 conferred and received as a benefit. 
 
 The whole of the revenue is under amani management. The culti- 
 vators of dry lands pay a fixed money rent, calculated to be equal to 
 about one-third of the crop ; and those of the wet or rice lands, a pay-
 
 6o4 A DMINISTRA TION 
 
 ment, nominally in kind, of about one-half of the crop; but generally 
 discharged in money at the average rates of the district, which are 
 adjusted as soon as the state of the crop admits of an estimate being 
 made of its value. When the Amil and ryots cannot agree on the 
 money payment, it is received in kind. The precarious nature of the 
 rice cultivation in the central and eastern parts of Mysore makes it 
 difficult to remedy this very inconvenient practice ; and it has hitherto 
 been found impracticable to adjust any money rents for wet cultivation 
 in those parts of the country. In the western range some farmers have 
 made the experiment of a money rent for rice-ground, but the waram 
 or payment in kind is generally found so much more profitable, by the 
 facility it affords of defrauding the government, that the adjustment of 
 money rents for that description of land is not making much progress. 
 
 The civil government is divided into three departments : ist, Treasury 
 and Finance ; 2nd, Revenue ; 3rd, Miscellaneous, not included in the 
 two former. The conduct of the military establishment is entrusted to 
 two distinct departments, of Cavalry and Infantry. The Kandachar, 
 or establishment of peons already described, is under the direction of a 
 sixth separate department, partaking both of civil and military functions, 
 in its relation to the police, the post-office, and the army. The Divan 
 may be considered personally to preside over every department. 
 
 The operations of the financial department are extremely simple. 
 Each district has its chief goUa, who keeps the key of the treasury ; the 
 sheristedar has the account, the Amil affixes his seal ; and the treasury 
 cannot be opened except in the presence of these three persons. The 
 saraf examines the coins received on account of the revenue, affixes his 
 seal to the bags of treasure dispatched to the general treasury, and is 
 resi^onsible for all deficiencies in the quality of the coin. A similar 
 process, sanctioned by the sealed order of the Divan, attends the dis- 
 bursement of cash at the general treasury ; and the accounts are kept 
 in the same style of real accuracy, and apparent confusion, which is 
 usual in other parts of India. 
 
 The miscellaneous department, together with several indefinite 
 duties, comprises two principal heads, viz., first, the regulation of the 
 Raja's establishment of state, and of his household ; and secondly, the 
 custody of the judicial records. 
 
 In the administration of justice, as in every other branch of the 
 government, due regard has been given to the ancient institutions of 
 the country, and to the doctrines of the Hindu law. There is no 
 separate department for the administration of justice in Mysore, with 
 the exception of khazis in the principal towns, whose duties are limited 
 to the adjustment of ecclesiastical matters among the Muhammadan
 
 UNDER PURXAIYA 605 
 
 inhabitants. Matters of the same nature among the Hindus are usually 
 determined according to mdmiil or ancient precedent, and where there 
 is no maniill by the doctrine of the shastras, if any can be found to 
 apply. 
 
 The Amil of each taluq superintends the department of police, and 
 determines in the minor cases of complaint for personal wrongs ; the 
 establishment of Kandachar peons gives great efficiency to this depart- 
 ment. Three Subadars, for the purposes of general superintendence, 
 have been established over the respective provinces of Bangalore, 
 Chitaldroog and Bednur; and these officers direct the proceedings in 
 all important cases, criminal and civil. On the ajjprehension of any 
 persons criminally accused, the Subadar or the Amil, if he sees cause 
 for public trial, orders a panchayat, or commission of five, to be 
 assembled in open cutcherry ; to which all inhabitants of respectability, 
 and unconnected with the party, have the right of becoming assessors. 
 The proceedings of this commission, in which are always included the 
 defence of the prisoner, and the testimony of such persons as he 
 chooses to summon, are forwarded to the Divan, accompanied by the 
 special re{)ort of the Subadar or Amil. In cases of no doubt, and 
 little importance, the Divan makes his decision on the inspection of 
 these proceedings. In matters of difficulty, or affecting the life or 
 liberty of the prisoner, the case is brought for final hearing before the 
 Divan, who pronounces his sentence, assisted by the judgment of the 
 Resident. 
 
 The administration of civil justice is conducted in a manner 
 analogous to that of the criminal. The proclamation which announced 
 a remission of all balances of revenue, among other benefits which it 
 conferred on the people of Mysore, shut up the most productive source 
 of litigation. The Amil has the power of hearing and determining, in 
 open cutcherry, and not otherwise, all cases of disputed property not 
 exceeding the value of five pagodas. Causes to a larger amount are 
 heard and determined by a panch:iyat compo.sed as al)ove described : 
 and as publicity is considered to afford an important security against 
 irregular or partial proceedings, the respectable inhabitants are 
 encouraged to attend as assessors, according to their leisure and con- 
 venience. In cases where both the parties arc Hindus, the panchdyat 
 is usually composed of Hindus ; where the parties are of different sects, 
 the panchayat is formed of two persons from the sect of each party, and 
 a fifth from the sect of the defendant. In plain cases, where no differ- 
 ence of opinion has occurred in the panchayat, the Amil confirms their 
 award, and forwards their proceedings to the Presence. In ca.ses of 
 difficulty, or variety of opinion, the proceedings are forwarded with the
 
 GoG ADMINISTRATION 
 
 report (jf the Subadar or Amil, to the Divan, who pronounces a final 
 decision in communication with the Resident ; or, if he sees cause, 
 orders a re-hearing before himself. In all cases whatever, the parties 
 have the right of appeal to the Divan ; and his frccjuent tours through 
 the country facilitate the practice of this right. 
 
 The form of proceeding in civil cases differs materially from the 
 practice of English courts. 
 
 Before the trial commences, the plaintiff tirst, and then the defendant, are 
 each required to give a circumstantial narrative of the transaction which 
 involves the matter at issue ; this narrative is carefully committed to writing, 
 and twice read over to the party, who corrects what has not been properly 
 stated ; the document is then authenticated by the signature of the party, of 
 two witnesses, and of a public officer. The correct agreement of this narra- 
 tive with facts subsequently established, is considered to constitute strong 
 circumstantial evidence in favour of the party, and its disagreement with any 
 material fact to amount to the presumption of a fictitious claim or false 
 evidence. The Hindu law seems indirectly to enjoin this branch of the 
 proceeding. Testimony is received according to the religion of the witness, 
 first for the plaintiff, and then for the defendant ; and the members of the 
 panchdyat, or assessors, and the witnesses called for the purpose, depose to 
 matters of general notoriety. The panchdyat, in cases of difficulty, usually 
 prefix to their award a few distinct propositions, explaining the grounds of 
 their decision, which generally seem to be drawn with considerable sagacity. 
 But the object in which the principles of proceeding differ most essentially 
 from those of an English court is in the degree of credit which is given to 
 the testimony upon oath. It appears to be in the spirit of English juris- 
 prudence to receive as true the testimony of a competent witness until his 
 credibility is impeached. It is a fixed rule of evidence in Mysore to suspect 
 as false the testimony of every witness until its truth is otherwise supported. 
 It follows as a consequence of this principle, that the panchayats are anxious 
 for the examination of collateral facts, of matters of general notoriety, and 
 of all that enters into circumstantial evidence ; and that their decisions are 
 infinitely more influenced by that description of proof than is consistent 
 with the received rules of evidence to which we are accustomed, or could be 
 tolerated in the practice of an English court. 
 
 The administration of the revenue is committed, under the control 
 of three principal Subadars, to Amils presiding over taluqs sufficiently 
 limited in extent to admit a diligent personal inspection of the whole of 
 their charge ; the number of these taluqs has varied, as convenience 
 seemed to require, from ii6 to 120. 
 
 [Each taluq is divided into Hoblis, which pay from 4,000 to 9,000 
 pagodas. These are managed by a set of officers who are interposed 
 between the Amildars and Gaudas. The head person of a Hobli is 
 called a Parpatti, and by the Musalmans a Shekdar. He visits every
 
 UNDER FURNAIYA 607 
 
 village to see the state of cultivation and of the tanks, and settles dis- 
 putes that are above the reach of the Gaucla's understanding. In this 
 he is always assisted by the advice of four old men. He ought not to 
 inflict any corporal punishment without the orders of the Amildar. 
 The Parpatti receives the rents from the Gaudas and transmits them to 
 the Amildars. Most of these officers are Brahmans ; very few are 
 Sudras. In each Hobli there arc two accountants, called Gadi 
 Shanbh6gs, but by the Musulmans named Sheristadars. Until Tipu's 
 tiine these officers were hereditary, and they ha\e always been Brah- 
 mans. In each Hobli, for every 1,000 pagodas rent that it pays, there 
 is also a Manigdr, or Tahsildar as he is called l)y Musalmans. 
 These are the deputies of the Parpatti to execute his orders. They also 
 an5 all Brahmans. The whole of the Hobli establishment is paid by 
 monthly wages.] 
 
 The Divan enters in a separate account ancient allotments of land 
 to the local institutions of the hamlets and villages (involving a detail 
 of 41,739 objects and persons, and an annual expense of 89,489 
 pagodas), and excludes the amount in the first instance from the 
 account of the gross revenue, as it can never become an available 
 source of supply. 
 
 The four distinct heads of revenue are — Land-tax, Sdyar, Toddy and 
 spirituous liquors, and Tobacco. 
 
 The head of land-tax comprises, besides the objects which it 
 describes, the house-tax and the plough-tax, being an impost, varying 
 in different districts according to ancient practice, of about the average 
 rate of one Kanthiraya fanam annually on each house and i>l<)ugh. 
 The province of Bednur, and the districts of Balam and Tayur, with all 
 plantations of trees not annual, pay a fixed money rent. The whole of 
 the dry ground of Mysore pays also a fixed money rent, with the dis- 
 tinction, however, regarding the tenures of the lands, which has been 
 noticed. The rent to be paid for dry land accordingly does not depend 
 on the quantity cultivated, and the Amil no further concerns himself 
 with that object than to observe whether the ryot sufficiently exerts his 
 industry to be able to pay the rent. All Amils are authorized to make 
 takdvi advances when necessary. The superior certainty of a dry com- 
 pared to a wet crop, is limited to wet ground under reservoirs ; and the 
 uncertainty of the quantity of water which may be collected, and of 
 course of the extent of land which can be watered, is among the 
 principal reasons which have hitherto prevented the adjustment of a 
 money rent for such lands ; and have continued the ancient practice of 
 the waram, or the payment to the government of a moiety of the actual 
 crop. The wet cultivation which depends on the embankments of the
 
 6o8 A DMINISTRA TION 
 
 Kaveri and other rivers which have their source in the western hills, is 
 of a different description, and is usually considered the most certain of 
 all the crops ; for such lands the payment of a money rent has been 
 introduced, and is gradually gaining ground. In some few cases such 
 lands are held under an ancient fixed rent, much lower than the present 
 rates. 
 
 The original proclamation which pledged the Divan to the ancient 
 Hindu assessment, both of the land and of the sayar, has in both 
 instances been attended with its appropriate advantage and incon- 
 venience. Each district having at remote periods been governed by 
 distinct authorities, each has its peculiar rates of sayar, founded on no 
 principle of general application. On areca-nut, for instance, it has 
 been the ancient custom to levy a duty in money not ad valorem ; but 
 as the areca-nut of different districts differs materially in quality and 
 price, the duty, if it were uniform, would afford no means of computing 
 the correct value of the export ; and it is certain that the increase and 
 decrease in the duty is by no means in the rates of the value, but has 
 been fixed in each district on arbitrary considerations which cannot 
 now be traced. The sayar in some districts has been farmed ; and in 
 others it has been held in amani, a difierence which still further 
 increases the intricacy of the subject. 
 
 The revenue from toddy and spirituous liquors is generally farmed. 
 
 The fourth head of revenue, tobacco, is generally farmed, with 
 proper restrictions regarding the selling price. Betel-leaf produces a 
 revenue in one town only of Mysore, namely Chitaldroog, where the 
 tax existed previously to the annexation of that district to Mysore ; the 
 produce of this tax is included with that of tobacco. 
 
 Under the expenses of management, the first head is that of Jagirs 
 and Inams for religious purposes. The detail delivered by Purnaiya 
 to the Mysore Commissioners, as allowed by Haidar Ali Khan, amounts 
 to — 
 
 Kanthiraya Pagodas. 
 Devasthans and Agrahars . . . ... ... ... ... 1,93,959 
 
 Maths of Brahmans ... ... ... ... ... 20,000 
 
 Muhammadan establishments as allowed by Tipu Sultan 20,000 
 
 Total 2,33,959 
 
 The particular attention of the Resident was directed to the 
 diminution and check of these expenses, and chiefly to guard against 
 the alienation of land to Brahmans, an abuse which was considered to 
 be not improbable under a Hindu Government administered by 
 Brahmans. The Divan in the first instance assumed the possession of 
 the lands of all descriptions, principally with the view of revising the
 
 UNDER PURNAIYA 609 
 
 grants and alienations of every kind, and this opcraticjn enabled him to 
 make many commutations of land for money payment, with the 
 consent of the parties. 
 
 The second head in the expenses of management is the repairs of 
 tanks. The ruin and neglect into which every public work of this kind 
 had fallen during the administration of Haidar AH and Tipu Sultan 
 caused the expenses in the two first years to be large. 
 
 The whole of the disbursements charged under the general head 
 "expenses of management," amounted in the fourth year (including the 
 expense of rebuilding the forts of Bangalore and Channapatna, which 
 certainly does not belong to such a head) to 510,000, which is 20 J per 
 cent, on the gross revenue ; but inams and jagirs (under whatever 
 head it may be customary to charge them) are not correctly an expense 
 of "managing the revenue," and the explanations which have been 
 already given, show that a very moderate portion of the Kandachar 
 ought to be considered as a revenue charge. If one-third should be 
 considered as the fair proportion, the expenses of management would 
 then be reduced to 342,736, and its relation to the gross revenues of 
 the same year would be 13^ per cent. In the fifth year these expenses 
 amounted (exclusively of the repair of forts) to 486,01 1, or 24,000 less 
 than in the fourth year. 
 
 These considerations belong principally to the question of the actual 
 expense of collecting the revenue, and the technical mode of reckoning 
 its net produce. If the sums discussed are not brought to account in 
 that manner, they will come to be inserted as a charge in the general 
 expenses of the government ; and as the principal part of the income 
 of the Divan is derived from his commission on the net revenue, it 
 is creditable to his moderation to observe that the account of the net 
 revenue is framed in a mode which is unfavourable to the amount of 
 his income. 
 
 It may be convenient in this place to state, that according to this 
 mode of reckoning, the net revenue, by deducting from the gross 
 amount the whole of the charges above discussed, amounted in the 
 first year to pagodas, 15,99,872; second year, 17,94,102; third year, 
 19,78,899; fourth year, 19,89,436; fifth year, 21,27,522. The gross 
 revenue for the same years, after deducting the balances not recovered 
 in the four first years, was: — first year, pagodas 21,53,607; second year, 
 24,10,521; third year, 25,47,096; fourth year, 25,01,572; fifth year, 
 25,81,550. The balances not recovered for the fifth year are not 
 ascertained, and the sum stated is the whole jamabandi. 
 
 In the general disbursements of the government, the first head of 
 subsidy to the Company, pagodas 8,42,592, is a fi.xed charge. 
 
 R R
 
 6io ADMINISTRATION 
 
 There is but one other head of general disbursements, viz., the 
 military establishment. The outline presented by Purnaiya to the 
 Commissioners for the affairs of Mysore, estimates the number of 
 troops necessary to be kept in the Raja's service for the security and 
 tranquillity of the country, exclusively of the Company's troops main- 
 tained under the provisions of the subsidiary treaty, at " Five thousand 
 Horse ; from four to five thousand Barr, formed after the manner of 
 the Company's sepoys ; and two thousand peons." The number which 
 he considers to be necessary, after an experience of five years, is : — 
 Horse, 2,000 ; Barr, 4,000 ; peons in constant pay, 2,500 ; exclusively 
 of a garrison battalion of 1,000 men on inferior pay for Mysore, and 
 about an equal number of the same description for Manjarabad. The 
 2,000 Horse to be inclusive or exclusive of 500 stable Horse, according 
 to the circumstances. 
 
 At a later period, in 1805, Purnaiya is said to have represented the 
 necessity of establishing separate departments of justice at Mysore ; 
 and a Court of Adalat was accordingly constituted, consisting of: — two 
 Bakshis as Judges ; two Sheristadars and six persons of respectability 
 taken from the Mutfarkhat, and styled Cumtee Wallahs, Hakims or 
 Panchayatdars, who formed a standing Panchayat ; with one Khazi 
 and one Pandit. 
 
 There was no regular form of proceedings laid down for the 
 observance of this court. The standing panchayat, composed as 
 described, conducted the inquiry, viva voce, before the presiding judge 
 or judges. No muchchalike was demanded from the parties binding 
 them to abide by the verdict, nor was the latter presented by the 
 panchdyat to the judge in writing. The plaintiff" and defendant used 
 to attend in person, and an examination was made of such witnesses 
 and documents as they might have to produce ; the witnesses were not 
 examined upon oath, nor had the practice of receiving the written 
 statements and counter statements called plaint, answer, reply and 
 rejoinder, been then introduced. 
 
 The two judges first appointed were Vyasa Rao and Ahmed Khan. 
 The former was chief in rank, and possessed much of the confidence 
 of Purnaiya, to whom he was in the habit of referring frequently in the 
 course of the day such judicial questions as arose ; whilst Ahmed 
 Khan merely attended the minister in the evening to make his formal 
 report and receive instructions. Besides his functions of judge, Vyasa 
 Rao used to hear and determine, in the same court, all complaints 
 whatever preferred by ryots on revenue matters, and on these subjects 
 Ahmed Khan never exercised any control. In such disputes alone 
 were muchchalikes or bonds taken from the applicants, binding them
 
 UNDER PURXAIYA 6ii 
 
 to abide by the decision which might be passed on their case. Vyasa 
 Rao was also Bakshi of the Shagird Pesha or household department 
 (in itself a very laborious office), as well as of the Sandal cutcherry. 
 Both judges sat at the same time, and the decrees were submitted to 
 their united judgment ; in forming which they were aided by the 
 personal representation of such of the panchayatdars as had heard the 
 case. In a simple matter the decision was usually confirmed and 
 sealed when presented to the judges for that purpose, and a report of 
 the decision was made at the close of the day to the prime minister, 
 whose final confirmation was in all cases necessary. But when any 
 difficulty occurred, the judges were accustomed to represent at once the 
 circumstances to Purnaiya, and take his directions. 
 
 In this court both civil and criminal cases were heard. Matters of 
 caste were referred for decision to the Khazi or Pandit, aided by a 
 panchayat of such individuals as were considered competent. There 
 was, however, little civil litigation in those days. 
 
 In the taluqs also, during Purnaiya's administration, a course of 
 proceeding similar to that already described under the ancient Hindu 
 rulers, obtained ; the parties either named a panchayat themselves, 
 and agreed to abide by their decision, or they made application to the 
 taluq authorities, who ordered a panchayat, usually composed of the 
 killedar and two or three of the principal yajmans and shettis, and the 
 matter was settled as they decided. 
 
 Thus was civil justice administered as long as Purnaiya continued in 
 office, during the course of which period Ahmed Khan, the second 
 judge, died, and Vyasa Rao continued to sit alone. 
 
 Government of Krishna Kaja W'oJeyar, 1S11-1S31. 
 
 At the time of the British assumption in 1831, Mysore consisted of 
 the following six Faujdaris, subdivided into 101 taluqs : — 
 
 Fattjdari. Taluqs 
 
 Bangalore "|^ 
 
 Madgiri J 
 
 Chitaldroog ... 13 
 
 Faiijiiiiri. Talti,j<. 
 
 -Vshtagrain ... 25 
 
 Manjarabad .. 11 
 
 \agar .. 25 
 
 Some administrative details relative to the period of the Raja's 
 government during the preceding 21 years are subjoined, compiled 
 from Notes on Mysore, by Colonel Morison, written in 1S33. 
 
 Land Revenue. — Before the Bangalore and Madgiri districts were 
 brought under the government of Mysore, the villages of the Mahratta 
 parganas were rented by Deshmuks and Deshp;indcs, and in the 
 Palyams a kind of village rent was made with the inhabitants of each, 
 
 k K 2 
 
 (
 
 6 1 2 ADMINISTRA TION 
 
 and the revenue paid sometimes in kind and sometimes in money. 
 There were certain rates of money assessment for wet lands, from 2 to 
 12 pagodas per khandi ; and on dry lands from 2\ to 30 pagodas for \ 
 the same quantity ; while sugar-cane lands were taxed from 16 to 72 
 pagodas per khandi. The same mode was observed at the time of 
 Haidar AH and his successor Tipu Sultan. During the administration 
 of Purnaiya, the lands were measured, but a regular assessment had 
 not been accomplished. His government, however, was a strong one. 
 The lands were regularly cultivated, and all affairs conducted with 
 efficiency and decision. 
 
 In Chitaldroog, in the time of the Vijayanagar dynasty, it is said 
 that the government share of the land produce was no more than one- 
 third, but there was an additional tax of i| Durgi pagoda on each 
 plough. The Nayaks, who subsequently reigned in Chitaldroog, 
 established several new taxes, both in money and kind, on various 
 occasions ; for instance, at their festivals and religious ceremonies ; but 
 all these were consolidated by Haidar Ali and added to the kandayam 
 of the land. Tipu followed the same rule, but fixed an assessment of 
 from ID to 30 pagodas upon such lands as were cultivated from wells 
 from which water was drawn by bullocks. As a relief, however, to the 
 ryots, he granted rent free as much dry land as could be cultivated by 
 one plough. Purnaiya, during his administration, and after the lands 
 were measured, established the land-tax in Chitaldroog at various rates 
 per lubu, three of which are equal to one kudu, or -^-^ of the local 
 khandi. This was in conformity with the ancient usage of that part of 
 the country, but the assessment already introduced under the rule of 
 the Palegars, was still more rigid under the management of Purnaiya, 
 and the only reduction afterwards allowed by the Raja was in the tax 
 on sugar-cane lands. 
 
 In Ashtagram, in the time of Chikka Deva Raja, about the year 
 1673, a tax of two gold fanams per kudu, which is -j'^ of the present 
 khandi, was levied upon dry cultivation ; while the produce of wet and 
 garden lands, and of cocoa and areca-nut trees, was divided between 
 the ryots and the Sarkar. Again he appears to have fixed a kandayam 
 upon lands, and newly established several other taxes called Bajebab, 
 &c. Very few of the ryots are said to have acceded to this arrange- 
 ment. The produce of the land belonging to the ryots who did not 
 was divided between the Sarkar and the ryots. Haidar Ali Khan 
 appears to have introduced a grain rent in two of the Ashtagram taluqs, 
 namely, Sosile and Talkad, and in other parts of Ashtagram it remained" 
 as in former times. During the management of Tipu Sultan, a partial 
 survey took place in several taluqs and an assessment both in money
 
 UNDER KRISHNA RAJA WODEYAR 613 
 
 and in kind was levied. The grain from the taluqs of Mysore Ashta- 
 gram, Patna Ashtagram, Sosile and Talkad was stored at the capital. 
 During the administration of Purnaiya, the lands were regularly 
 measured, the productive powers of wet lands were fully ascertained, 
 and an adequate assessment fixed. Nothing new appears to have taken 
 place in the time of the Raja. 
 
 In INIanjarabad faujdari, Krishnarajkatte, Arkalgud, Harnhalli and 
 Garudangiri were the ancient possessions of the Mysore princes, in 
 whose time the tax for wet lands was at the rate of 5^ pagodas in 
 Krishnarajkatte, and 3 pagodas in .Vrkalgud ; a tax of from 2 to 5 
 pagodas per khandi on dry lands had been long established. There 
 was no tax upon wet lands in the other two taluqs, the produce having 
 been divided between the ryots and the government, and the tax upon 
 dry land was from to per khandi. In the palyam of Aigur, 
 ■composed of the taluqs of Maharajandurga, Manjarabad, Sakkarepatna, 
 Belur, and Hassan, Sivappa Nayak, the chief of Nagar, established his 
 own assessment called shist, while it was in his possession ; and it still 
 existed, with some few alterations, even after the country reverted to 
 the palegar of Aigur. There appears to have been no measurement of 
 land in any part of this territory. The shist amounting to a certain 
 sum was fixed upon a given quantity of land, including a proportion 
 of dry, wet and garden land. During the management of Haidar AH 
 and Tipu, the village rent was irregular, being disposed of by 
 competition and collected accordingly. In the time of Purnaiya, the 
 public servants went so far as to ascertain the condition of each 
 individual, as in the ryotwar ; but during the management of the 
 Raja, the country reverted to the injurious system of renting the 
 villages to the highest bidder. The land-tax in Narsipur taluq, in the 
 time of the Palegar of that place, varied from 6 to 12 pagodas a 
 khandi for wet lands, and from i to 6 pagodas a khandi for dry lands ; 
 the produce of areca-nut trees and a part of that of cocoanut trees 
 was divided between the ryots and Sarkar, and part of the produce of 
 Ihe latter trees was assessed at i fanam per two or three trees. Haidar 
 Ali and Tipu continued the system of village rent ; but much improve- 
 ment was introduced by Purnaiya in having erected several dams on 
 -the river Hemavati, and dug about six water-courses, which proved 
 highly beneficial to cultivation, while the mode of collection was 
 revised as in other places, and affairs generally improved. Nothing 
 new was introduced by the Raja. Banavar formerly belonged to the 
 pdlegar of Tarikere, and in it the system of village rent appears to have 
 existed first and last. 
 
 In Nagar, Sivappa Nayak made an assessment in the year 1660,
 
 6 1 4 ADMINISTRA TION 
 
 called .shisl, on the lands. This assessment was a most judicious one,! 
 consistent with the localities and general condition of the country.] 
 Several taxes called patti were afterwards levied by his several] 
 successors, which ultimately became equal to the shist originally fixed,] 
 so that the actual beriz of the country was in time nearly doubled. 
 
 The amount of revenue of all descriptions in Mysore for the year' 
 1831-32, was Kanthiraya pagodas 20,88,978, of which the land revenue 
 was said to be 16,18,831 ; the amount of sayar, including the 
 monopolies of the five articles, viz., tobacco, betel-leaves, ganja, toddy 
 and arrack, was 4,01,108, and that of the other taxes of various kinds, 
 under the head of Bajebab, was 69,039. 
 
 The amount of Kanthiraya pagodas 16,18,831, said to be the land 
 revenue, did not, however, wholly belong to it ; for it appears that 
 various taxes, both connected and unconnected with the land revenue, 
 were mixed up with that head. The land revenue properly so called 
 was known under two designations only, viz., kandayamand shist: the 
 first to be found in every part of Mysore, with the exception of Nagar, 
 and the second to be found in the Nagar district only. The inferior 
 taxes directly connected with the land revenue and mixed up with it 
 consisted of 83 different designations, under which these taxes were 
 levied. The inferior taxes unconnected with the land revenue, but 
 also mixed up with it like the foregoing, consisted of 198 different 
 designations, some of which prevailed all over Mysore, some less in 
 general, and some to be found only in one or two of the taluqs. In 
 endeavouring to classify these inferior taxes, some appear to belong to 
 the Mohatarfa, some to the Bajebab, and some to the Sayar. 
 
 The country was under the management of Purnaiya for eleven years, 
 that is from 1800 to 1810. The highest amount of the jamabandi 
 during that period was 31,79,000 Kanthiraya pagodas, which was in the 
 year 1809; the average during his management being no less than 
 27,84,327 pagodas. The country was managed by His Highness the 
 Rdja for twenty-one years, from 181 1 to 1831. The highest amount of 
 the jamabandi during that period was 30,26,594, and the average was 
 26,53,614 pagodas. The difference between these averages, 1,30,713 
 Kanthiraya pagodas, is therefore the amount of the annual decrease 
 during the administration of the Raja. It would be very desirable to 
 ascertain what quantity of land produced the revenues above men- 
 tioned, but unfortunately there were no accounts showing the necessary 
 information in any of the cutcherries of the Huzur. This must be 
 sought for in the village accounts and from the shanbh6gs. 
 
 It was an ancient rule in the country, and duly provided for in the 
 instructions to the district servants, that the shanbh6g or the village
 
 UNDER KRISHNA RAJA WODEYAR 
 
 615 
 
 accountant, the patcl, and shckdar if present, should assemble in every 
 village before the commencement of the year, and then collect all the 
 inhabitants of the village for the puqjose of speaking to them upon the 
 subject of the rent, and concluding with them a revenue arrangement 
 for the year, duly recording the name of each person, the extent of land 
 to be cultivated by him, and the amount of revenue payable thereon ; 
 as also the extent of the land (if there were any) intended to be culti- 
 vated as waram, and issuing to each ryot of the kandayam land a 
 kandayam chit for the year. It was only indeed by means of these 
 preliminary arrangements that any satisfactory data could be obtained 
 as the foundation of the jamabandi, and it is fortunate that the custom 
 so far prevailed in procuring so useful a document preparatory to the 
 annual januibandi whereby the extent of land of every description in 
 every village could be easily known. 
 
 The whole extent of cultivated land in Mysore appears to have been 
 in the proportion of three-eighths wet to five-eighths of dry cultivation. 
 The lands not being classed, it is impossible to show their description, 
 but upon an estimate it appears that the land of red colour was five- 
 sixteenths, the land of the mixed sorts was one-fourth, black clay three- 
 sixteenths, and that mixed with chunam, stones, pebbles, including 
 rough land, was one-fourth. 
 
 The water-courses taken from rivers and mountain torrents were 
 rated at 1,832 in number ; the tanks, great and small, at 19,817 ; and 
 the wells at 16,371. The grain irrigated from these was chiefly paddy, 
 but garden articles were reared by the same means. All other crops 
 depended on the periodical rains, but for want of accounts at the Huzur, 
 it is not practicable to ascertain the quantities of land supplied with 
 water from each of these resources. 
 
 The crops being cut at the proper periods, the first deductions from 
 the grain were the rusums issued at the threshing-floor to the Baraba- 
 luti. The rates at which these diflerent persons were paid were various 
 in the several Faujdaris. The exact i)r()i)ortion of the [)roduce thus 
 appropriated is shown in the following table : — 
 
 Faujcl-'iris. 
 
 CenUge of the Rusums to the 
 
 gross produce when lands 
 
 were under Kandayam. 
 
 Centage of the Rusum» to the 
 
 gross produce when lands 
 
 were under W.4rain. 
 
 Bangalore and Madgiri 
 
 Chitaldroog 
 
 AslUagnim 
 
 Manjaraliad 
 
 Nagar 
 
 s 
 
 Si 
 6i 
 
 \i5 
 
 S 
 20 
 
 Si 
 
 3
 
 6i6 
 
 ADMINISTRA TION 
 
 If the produce were that of kandayain lands, it was taken by the 
 inhabitants to their houses on paying the rusunis at the above rates. 
 If tlie produce were that of the waram Lands, the; rusums were given in 
 hke manner to the Ijarabaliiti in the first instance ; the remainder being 
 then divided between the Sarkar and the ryots who had cultivated the 
 same. 
 
 The general average kandayam or government rent was usually about 
 one-third of the gross produce. This at least was the case in Bangalore, 
 Madgiri and Ashtagram. In Chitaldroog, however, the kandayam seems 
 to have been about i8 per cent, more than one-third; but as labour was 
 cheaper there than in other Divisions, the ryot was nearly as well off as 
 anywhere else. In Manjarabad, the assessment was 5 per cent., and 
 agricultural charges nearly 2 per cent, more, rendering the surplus to 
 the ryot nearly 7 per cent. less. In Nagar the agricultural charges are 
 higher than elsewhere, so that the kandayam falls off 3 per cent., and 
 the surplus to the ryot 9 per cent., below the proportionate rate of 
 Bangalore, Madgiri and Ashtagram. 
 
 In other countries there are ryots who pay a large sum in rent to 
 government, in some instances to the extent of 10,000 rupees a year. 
 It is not so in Mysore, and from many inquiries it appears that amongst 
 384,702 ryots, the highest, the medium, and the lowest kandayam rent 
 paid by one individual in the several Faujdaris were as shown in the 
 following table : — 
 
 Faujdaris. 
 
 Highest. 
 
 Medium. 
 
 Lowest. 
 
 
 
 Rs. 
 
 Rs. 
 
 Rs. 
 
 Bangalore 
 IVIadgiri ... 
 
 ) 
 
 50 
 
 10 
 
 3 
 
 Chitaldroog 
 
 
 100 
 
 50 
 
 I 
 
 Ashtagram 
 
 
 200 
 
 ISO 
 
 2 
 
 Manjarabad 
 
 
 100 
 
 50 
 
 3 
 
 Nagar (including areca-niit) 
 
 
 300 
 
 150 
 
 10 
 
 There was seldom to be found more than one village in the possession 
 of one individual, nor did one person anywhere possess one description 
 of land only ; for each ryot having dry land, had generally a proportion 
 of wet and garden also, at all events one or other of the two last. The 
 condition of the people in Mysore seems to demand this arrangement, 
 which is everywhere of easy accomplishment in Mysore.' 
 
 The highest, medium, and the lowest extent of land,- including wet 
 and dry, held by one individual in each Faujdari, were ascertained, and 
 are exhibited in the following table : —
 
 UNDER KRISHNA RAJA WODEYAR 
 
 617 
 
 Faujdaris. 
 
 Highest. 
 
 Medium. 
 
 Lowest. 
 
 
 
 
 Khandis. 
 
 Khandis. 
 
 Khandis. 
 
 Bangalore . . . 
 Madgiri ... 
 
 
 
 9 
 
 34 
 
 I 
 
 Chitaldroog 
 
 
 
 20 
 
 12 
 
 h 
 
 Ashtagram 
 
 
 
 12 
 
 5 
 
 I 
 
 Manjarabad 
 
 
 
 30 
 
 15 
 
 I 
 
 Nagar 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 The rates of kandayam were various throughout the country. The 
 following is a general abstract of the average amount of kandayam 
 assessed upon one khandi of land of all descriptions in Mysore in 
 Kanthiraya pagodas : — 
 
 
 Wet land. 
 
 Dry land. 
 
 Cocoa 
 garden. 
 
 Garden land. 
 
 Sugar-cane. 
 
 Faujdaris. 
 
 
 
 5: 
 
 
 
 1-1 
 
 k4 
 
 
 c 
 
 ^1 ^ 1^ ^1^ 
 
 « W) w w I U) 
 
 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 g 
 
 1 
 
 1^ 
 
 
 
 « 
 
 S 
 
 1-1 
 
 
 
 TT .C .w "^ |i3 
 ^ — ' ! tfl C ' ^ 
 "^1 "* 1" <^,'^ 
 
 
 'if: 
 
 
 
 "5- 
 
 tn 
 
 c 
 
 
 ■^ 
 
 Bangalore . . . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 20 16 12 
 
 1 1 1 
 10 Oi 016 
 
 12 
 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 60 
 
 50 
 
 40 
 
 30 
 
 Madgiri 
 
 .S 
 
 4 3 
 
 2 
 
 16 12 
 
 10 
 
 8 I30252016 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 IS 
 
 13 
 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 Chitaldroog ... 
 
 12 
 
 9 7 
 
 6 
 
 2SI8 
 
 13 
 
 10 ]20 15 12 10 0' 
 
 
 
 
 
 32 
 
 28 
 
 25 
 
 20 
 
 Ashtagram ... 
 
 15 
 
 10 5 
 
 4 
 
 25 10 
 
 8 
 
 3 '503825 12 io| 8 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 38 
 
 26 
 
 14 
 
 8 
 
 Manjarabad... 
 
 12 
 
 8 
 
 5 
 
 3 
 
 10' 6 
 
 3 
 
 i4 25 15 10 
 
 
 
 
 
 22 
 
 15 
 
 10 
 
 
 
 Nagar 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 3-5 
 
 lOj 8 
 
 6 
 
 5 j2o 13 10 6, Oi 
 
 1 M 1 M 
 
 
 
 
 
 5-7-8 
 
 4-7-8 
 
 4 
 
 3-5 
 
 It is now necessary to advert to the tenures of the land. 
 
 1st. The ryots cultivating kanddyam lands, held them in some instances 
 from generation to generation, paying a fi.xed money rent ; this being now 
 the general meaning of the word kandayam, whatever it may have been 
 originally. 
 
 2nd. Ryots cultivating the lands under the ivaram or batayi system, 
 whether in the same or other villages, were nothing more than hired 
 labourers. They cultivated the land and received in return a share of the 
 produce. The people of any village in which these lands existed had the 
 Ijrcfcrence before others ; nor could they be refused the work, if they had 
 tilled the lands for a number of years ; that is, if they still chose to cultivate 
 the same. In some cases the ryots of the same village, and even those from 
 other villages, were forced to undertake the cultivation of the w;iram lands 
 which belonged to the Sarkar. 
 
 3rd. In certain places there were tanks called amdni talav not belonging 
 to any particular village. The lands under these reservoirs were cultivated 
 by ryots collected from several villages in their neighbourhood, who 
 received their due share of the produce, under the superintendence of the 
 public sei'vants.
 
 6i8 ADMINISTRATION 
 
 4th. There were ryots who cultivated slwaya lands, that is, lands held by 
 those who engaged to pay a reduced kanddyam for three or four years, and 
 from the last year to pay the full amount. 
 
 5th. There were ryots who held entire villages for a fixed rent called 
 kdyamgittta, for which they received regular grants without any period being 
 specified. This tenure had its origin in the time of the Raja to favour certain 
 individuals. 
 
 6th. There were ryots C'^Wcdijddiddrs, or those who held lands under a 
 favourable rent, which lands or even villages were formerly indm enjoyed by 
 Brahmans and others rent free until the time of Tipu Sultan, who, from his 
 aversion towards the Hindu religion, sequestered the jodi lands, and levied 
 upon them the full assessment. The Brahmans, however, continued to hold 
 them, paying the full assessment rather than give them up, hoping for more 
 favourable times ; accordingly in the administration of Purnaiya their com- 
 plaints were heard, and they received the indulgence of a small remission 
 of the Sultan's assessment, and continued to hold the lands under the 
 denomination of jodi, though no longer indm. In a very few instances, 
 however, some lands continued in jodi, as given in ancient times, and were 
 as such still enjoyed. 
 
 Ryots possessing kanddyam lands and paying the full assessment could 
 only be dispossessed when they failed to pay their rent to the Sarkar. 
 Ryots possessing kandd,yam lands but paying less than the fixed assessment 
 or original kanddyam might be dispossessed in favour of ryots offering an 
 increase, if they did not choose to give the same. Suppose, for example, 
 that 12 pagodas was the original assessment, but that it had been reduced 
 to 8 pagodas in consequence of the death or desertion of the ryot, when it 
 was transferred to waram and cultiv^ated on the Sarkar account, occasioning 
 the revenue to be reduced to 8 pagodas as first mentioned. Supposing then 
 that 10 pagodas were offered and accepted ; but as this offer was still short 
 of the former kanddyam, though above what could be realized under the 
 waram management, offers would continue to be received from anyone 
 willing to give the full amount, though the actual incumbent had the prefer- 
 ence if he should choose to pay the full assessment. If not, he must make 
 way for the new tenant willing to pay in full. 
 
 The ryots who cultivated areca-nut gardens appear to have had the right 
 of hereditary possessors ; they were accordingly accustomed to sell or 
 mortgage their property. Supposing these proprietors to fail in pa>Tnent of 
 the Sarkar, and that the same should fall into arrear, the proprietor might 
 sell his lands and pay the dues of government, when the purchaser had the 
 same rights in the soil as were possessed by his predecessor. 
 
 There were ryots who possessed land which either themselves or their 
 ancestors had reclaimed from the jungle at great expense. These lands 
 were also held as hereditary possessions, with the right of disposing of them 
 by sale or otherwise. 
 
 There were also ryots who held their lands by long descent from genera- 
 tion to generation, who were in the habit of transferring the same to others, 
 either by sale, or mortgage, &c.
 
 UNDER KRISHNA RAJA WODEYAR 619 
 
 There were ryots who cuUivated lands called kodagi, on which an invari- 
 able rent was fixed, not liable to any change on account of the seasons or 
 otherwise. These lands were also saleable, and at the present day continue 
 to be disposed of at the will of the holders. These lands originally were 
 indms from the sovereigns or the villagers, but having been subsequently 
 assumed by the Sarkar, an unchangeable rent was fixed upon them. 
 Again, some ryots cultivated lands called kodagi lands, which were 
 originally indm granted by the Sarkar for the payment of a sum of money 
 as a nazar, but latterly subjected to the same fate as the lands described 
 above. Lands of both descriptions were also to be found in the Manjarabad 
 district. 
 
 There were ryots who cultivated land for an assessment called shist, and 
 •who had been subjected at different periods to additional imposts since the 
 shist was originally established by Sivappa Nayak ; they still had preten- 
 sions to a proprietary right in the soil. 
 
 There were ryots w^ho cultivated lands called rekanast, which under the 
 reign of the princes of Vijayanagar had an assessment called Rdyarcka, but 
 having subsequently been overrun with jungle, no Rdyareka or assessment 
 was levied thereon. They were then called rekanast, which means without 
 assessment; nor was any shist put upon them by Sivappa Xayak, because 
 they were not cultivated. When reclaimed, however, they became liable to 
 assessment at the average rate of the neighbouring lands, still retaining the 
 same names. These lands are accordingly described as a distinct variety 
 of tenure still known in the Nagar district. 
 
 There were ryots called jodi agrahardars, cultivating lands in some 
 villages of Nagar under an assessment called y^(//, which might be equal to 
 one-fifth, one-fourth, one-third, or even one-half of the shist of the neigh- 
 bouring villages. These lands were formerly indm or sarvamcinyam given 
 to Brahmans, who long enjoyed them as such, but being resumed by the 
 Sarkar, taxes were put upon them in the manner above mentioned. The 
 descendants of the original holders, or those who may have purchased the 
 lands from them, enjoyed them for the payment of the fixed shist ; and it 
 appears that the sale and mortgage of these lands was going on to the 
 present day, the transfer being fully recognized by the officers of government. 
 
 There were ryots who cultivated lands called gaddi battix, which signifies 
 lands paying rent in kind, which were only met with in the taluqi of Ikkeri, 
 Sagar, Mandagadde, Koppa, and Kavaledroog. 
 
 The ryots in possession of the lands held under the tenures above 
 described, appear in general to have paid their rents to the Sarkar, not 
 direct, but through the means of a renter, capable of managing so 
 intricate a business, from possessing a complete knowledge of all the 
 local customs. Sometimes the patel was a renter of the village, and 
 collected the revenue from the people without the intervention of the 
 Sarkar servants. This sort of village rent had as many varieties as are 
 indicated by the different modes now to be mentioned.
 
 620 ADMINISTRATION 
 
 The ordinary mode was effected by the Amildar, Sheristadar, and some 
 other servants setting out together in the month of January or P^ebruary for 
 the purpose of inspecting the crop. During the tour of the Amildar at this 
 season, he prepared an estimate of the November crops (already in heaps) 
 in communication with the sheristadars, shekdars, shdnbhdgs and patels, as 
 also an estimate of the expected revenue from the May crop. In the same 
 manneran estimate was made of the sugar-cane and other produce now coming 
 forward, when the total being made out. the rent was given to the patel or 
 gauda of the village, and the usual rent jiiuchchalike taken from him for the 
 payment of the amount, including suvarndddyam. The patel being the 
 sole renter of the village, any suvarndddyam which may have been already 
 collected was credited to him. He considered himself answerable for the 
 rest, took charge of all the affairs of the rent, distributed the due shares of 
 the different crops to the ryots, disposed of the government share in the 
 manner he thought best for his own benefit, collected kandayam from the 
 inhabitants, and paid his rent to the Sarkar. In case of any part of the revenue 
 falling in arrears, either from the death, desertion, or poverty of the ryots, 
 or from any other causes, the amount, if large and irrecoverable, was 
 remitted after a full investigation of all the particulars of the case ; otherwise 
 the renter remained answerable for the payment of the whole of the rent. 
 This mode of village rent generally prevailed in the faujdaris of Bangalore, 
 Madgiri, Chitaldroog and Ashtagram. 
 
 In the villages of Manjarabad, the village rent was given for two years, 
 while the rent of one village might be taken by two or three individuals. If a 
 village were desolated, it was rented to any individual willing to take it. 
 No rent was payable the first year, but engagements must be entered into 
 to pay a small rent the second year, increasing the same gradually every 
 subsequent year, until it came up to the former fixed rent. 
 
 In Nagar, there was a permanent assessment called shist. A general 
 review was made of the lands at the beginning of the year to ascertain the 
 probability of their being cultivated. The Amildar, when he proceeded to 
 the village for this purpose in the month of January, ascertained the general 
 state of cultivation and concluded the rent with the patel of each village. 
 If, however, the whole land of any individual ryot was kept uncultivated 
 from poverty, the revenue of that land was remitted. If a part only of the 
 land of one individual was cultivated, no remission was allowed on account 
 of the part uncultivated, the whole being included in the jamabandi. The 
 waram system was but little known in Nagar, but when it did occur, the 
 usual course of taxing that produce was observed as in other parts of the 
 country. 
 
 The mode of village rent called wojtti gutta was when two, three, or four 
 individuals (whether of the same village or others) made an offer to rent a 
 village. After its circumstances were duly ascertained in the usual manner, 
 and the terms were agreed on, the Amildar granted the rent and took 
 security for its payment, and in such cases there were no remissions, the 
 renters being answerable for the amount settled. They were, however, 
 obliged to enter into fair agreements with the ryots, which were to be
 
 UNDER KRISHNA RAJA JVODEYAR Gix 
 
 strictly kept, so that the ryots might not have to complain of any exaction 
 or oppression. If any arrears should be caused by the death, desertion, or 
 the poverty of the rj'ots after the rent was fixed, the loss must be borne by 
 the renter. When the ryots were averse to any particular renter or renters, 
 it was not unusual for them to take the rent themselves, declaring they 
 would otherwise leave the village. In such cases a preference was given to 
 their offers. 
 
 The mode of village rent called praja gntta may be described as 
 follows : — The Amildar proceeded to the village at the usual period of the 
 year (that is December or January), called for all the ryots, and desired 
 them to enter into engagements of the rent of praja gutta. The amount to 
 be rented was in most cases the same as in the preceding year. Any lands 
 which could not be cultivated, either from the death, desertion, or poverty 
 of certain ryots, was now struck off, and fresh lands, if there were any, added 
 to the rent ; when a general muchchalike was taken from the whole of the 
 rj'ots, or from such portion of the principal ones as might engage for the 
 rent : if the actual produce fell short, the loss was borne by the whole 
 village. If a higher offer were received, even after the conclusion of these 
 arrangements, the rent was cancelled and given up to the other, but the rent 
 in this case would be called wonti gutta. The rent once settled in one year 
 was allowed to continue for the next three or four years. This kind of rent 
 appears to have been a last resource, to which the public officers had 
 recourse when every other had failed ; but these rents, viz.^ wonti gutta 
 and praja gutta, were only very partially known, and in the faujddri of 
 Ashtagram. 
 
 The village rent called kulgar gutta was when it was managed by the 
 kulgars. Of these there might be six or eight in a village, together with 
 fifteen, twenty, or thirty common ryots. The Amildar proceeded to each 
 village in the month of December or January, investigated the real state of 
 the different sources of revenue with reference to the collections in the past 
 year and the condition of the ryots, fixed the amount of the rent, and gave 
 it up to one of the kulgars of the village, who sublet his rent to the other 
 kulgars, who again divided their respective allotments amongst the ryots 
 under them. The only way they made a profit in their rent was by exerting 
 themselves to extend the cultivation. The ryots of the village were answer- 
 able for their rent to the kulgars, these to the chief kulgar, who in his turn, 
 as the ostensible renter, was answerable to the Sarkar, which in the case of 
 this rent allowed no remissions. If any of the ryots had either died or 
 deserted, his lands, as well as claims against it, were divided among the 
 kulgars themselves. If there were no kulgar in the village to take the office 
 of renter, a shdnbhog might become so, when he was called the pattegar. 
 
 The village rent called chigar katle comes next to be mentioned. A pro- 
 portion of land including wet and dry, and requiring fifty seers of seed grain, 
 was called a chigar, of which there might be from sixteen to eighteen in a 
 village, each paying a fixed rent of from 3 to 5 pagodas ; each chigar was 
 usually held by several ryots, there being a principal ryot for every chigar of 
 land, and one of these annually rented the whole village, sub-letting the
 
 62 2 A DMINISTRA TION 
 
 different chigars to the other principal ryots : such villages were generally 
 rented in the month of December or January, when the state of the crops 
 was ascertained, but this species of rent was only to be found in one taluq, 
 Hassan, in the faujddri of Manjarabad. 
 
 There was also a village rent called blah katlc in the same taluq, the blah 
 meaning a small portion of land differing in extent from the chigar, but 
 having the same mode of assessment ; and if any of the ryots died or deserted, 
 a portion of rent was remitted by the Sarkar, giving that land to others. 
 
 Sdyar. — There were certain stations called katks in every taluq, 
 where the sdyar duties were levied on all articles. The total number of 
 these stations was no less than 761, varying in number from one to 
 twenty-one in each taluq. The duties levied were of three kinds :— 
 I St. Transit duty upon such goods as passed on the high roads without 
 coming into towns. 2nd. Transit duties on articles passing out of the 
 towns. 3rd. Consumption duties upon goods used in towns. When- 
 ever goods arrived at a station, the place to which they were destined 
 was ascertained, when the duties were levied according to rates said to 
 be established for the purpose on the spot. 
 
 The rates of duties were various, those observed in one station being 
 different at another. The duties were not charged ad valorem, but 
 according to the kind of each article, neither was there any regularity 
 with respect to the quantities chargeable with duties; for example, a cart- 
 load, a bullock-load, an ass's-load, a man's-load, &:c., were charged with 
 so many fanams each. In some of the taluqs, goods charged with duties 
 at one station were liable to be charged again with a reduced but extra 
 duty at some other place, even in the same taluq ; the extra duty was 
 called amip and kottamugam. In some taluqs goods were liable to 
 duties at every station of the same taluq through which they had to 
 pass. In others, the duties levied on goods conveyed by a particular 
 class of merchants were different from those charged when conveyed by 
 others. In some taluqs the duty was at a fixed rate provided they 
 passed by a certain road. If goods chargeable with duty in one year 
 should be kept till the next year, and then sent away, they were again 
 chargeable with duty. 
 
 In several of the districts periodical markets were held, generally 
 once a week, when fixed taxes were levied upon the shops, ist. Every 
 shop paid a few cash, and this tax was called addi kasu. 2nd. Every 
 vegetable shop paid something in kind, under the name of fuski. 
 3rd. Every cloth shop paid a tax of from 2 to 6 cash, called wundige or 
 shop duty. 4th. There was a tax called fiaftadi, which in some places 
 was called karve and bidagi, levied on every cloth shop, grain, mutton, 
 and arrack shop, &c. There was likewise a certain tax upon every
 
 UNDER KRISHNA RAJA WODEYAR 623 
 
 loom ; also upon betel-leaf plantations, areca-nut gardens, sugar-cane 
 plantations, and upon every plough of the ryots, exclusive of the land 
 revenue. There was a tax on the cattle of merchants. The taxes on 
 the above were collected some annually, some monthly, and daily from 
 temporary sho[)s. In short, there was not a single article exempt from 
 custom duties. 
 
 It is true that tariff tal)les, called prahara fa/fis, exhiljiting the rate 
 of duty to be paid on each article, were at one time issued by the 
 Sarkar, and posted up in most of the kattes, but the Government itself 
 was the first to infringe the rules, by granting kaiils, of entire or partial 
 exemption, to certain favoured individuals ; and the same mischievous 
 system was further propagated by the granting of similar kauls by 
 successive izardars and sub-renters to their own particular friends during 
 their own period of incumbency, and which became confounded with 
 those granted by the Sarkar. The consequence was that in the course 
 of time the prahara pattis were looked upon as so much waste paper, 
 and each katte came to have a set of mdmul or local rates of its own, 
 which were seldom claimed without an attempt at imposition, or 
 admitted without a wrangle. The usual result was an appeal to the 
 Sayar Shanbh6g of the place, who became the standing referee in all 
 disi)uted cases, which he may be supposed to have decided in favour of 
 the party which made it most advantageous to himself. 
 
 It became necessary therefore for the trader to purchase the good 
 will of every sayar servant along the whole line of road by which he 
 travelled, or to submit to incessant inconvenience and detention. He 
 was thus subject to constant loss of time, or money, or both ; and the 
 merchants were unable to calculate either the time which their goods 
 would take to reach a particular spot, or the expenses wliich would 
 attend their carriage. I<2ven as to the kauls which certain merchants 
 enjoyed, there were perplexing differences in the way in which the 
 deductions were calculated. With some it was a fixed percentage to be 
 deducted from the proper rate to be levied ; while with others the full 
 rate was taken, but only on certain fixed proportion of the goods. 
 Another fertile source of confusion and corruption was that, to gratify 
 some particular izardars, certain merchants and certain productions 
 were confined to particular routes ; and, if they travelled or were carried 
 by another line of custom houses, the izardars of that line were made to 
 pay compensation for the loss presumed to have been sustained by the 
 renters of the prescribed line. 
 
 When it is considered that there was hardly a luxury, certainly not 
 a necessary of life, which was not subject to pay the duty to the 
 authorities of these 761 sayar chaukis, and that some of these duties
 
 624 ADMINISTRATION 
 
 were payable daily, some monthly, and some annually ; while there were 
 others of items which involved the necessity of a prying scrutiny into 
 the most private and delicate domestic occurrences, it may be imagined 
 that the system was calculated to interfere constantly with the comfort 
 and the interests of every portion of the population. It is possible, 
 indeed, that it may have been framed originally with some such idea, 
 for a legend current in Mysore assigns the palm of wisdom among 
 monarchs to a prince who invented 365 taxes, each leviable on its own 
 particular day, so that no twenty-four hours could pass without the idea 
 of the prince's power having been brought home to each of his subjects 
 in the most unmistakable way. 
 
 Great as was the direct annoyance to the people, the indirect, by 
 the obstacles thrown in the way of trade, became still greater. In fact 
 stranger merchants were practically debarred from entering the country, 
 and the whole of the trade, such as it was, became monopolized by the 
 Sayar contractors or their servants, and a few practised traders who 
 were in close alliance with them or knew how to command powerful 
 interest at the Darbav. 
 
 The systems in force in the four different Divisions of Nagar, Ashta- 
 gram, Bangalore and Chitaldroog, were widely different. Under the 
 Raja's administration, the Sayar department in Nagar was divided into 
 three Ilakhas or branches, ist, The Kauledroog Sarsdyar, including 
 the Chikmagalur, Koppa, Kauledroog, Holehonnur, Lakvalli and 
 Shimoga taluqs, and the kasba town of Channagiri. 2nd. The Ikk'eri 
 Sarsdyar, comprising the Honnali, Sagar, Shikarpur and Sorab taluq.s, 
 together with the kasba of Bellandur in Nagar taluq. 3rd. The Phoof 
 Taluq Izdra, comprehending the Kadur, Harihar, Tarikere and Channa- 
 giri taluqs, with the exception of the kasba of the last, which was 
 included in the Kauledroog Sarsayar. 
 
 The Phoot Taluq Izara was rented by a Wot Izardar, who bound 
 himself by his muchchalike to realize a certain annual sum for the 
 Sarkar, and whatever he could scrape together or extort beyond that 
 sum was his own property. The two Sarsayar Ilakhas were made over 
 to the management of Sarsayar Amildars, nominated on the sharti system 
 of bestowing the appointment, without reference to qualification, on the 
 man who would bid highest for it. It was stipulated that they were not 
 to keep the executive in their own hands but were to sublet it to others, 
 over whom they were to exercise vigilant control, and in particular to 
 prevent all undue exactions and oppression. But these were mere words. 
 These Amildars almost invariably retained the collections in their own 
 hands, and knowing that they were liable to supersession at any moment, 
 their sole object was to feather their nests in the shortest possible period.
 
 UNDER KRISHNA RAJA WODEYAR 625 
 
 In cases where the agency of sub-renters was really employed, the 
 same description will apply, with the additional touches which must be 
 given to enable the reader to understand that the trader was even more 
 victimized than when his oppressor carried on his transactions on a 
 larger scale. These sub-renters themselves obtained their appointment 
 on the sharti system, and had to squeeze out a double profit to remune- 
 rate both themselves and their employer, while the permanency of their 
 appointment was more dubious than his, inasmuch as they not only 
 might be turned out at his pleasure, but were also removable along 
 with him when he was superseded from the Darbar. These sub-renters 
 therefore had to work double tides to make up a purse, and endless 
 were the devices resorted to. Some contented themselves with squeezing 
 more than was due from every trader who passed through their hands, 
 while others, with more enlightened views in the science of extortion, 
 attracted merchants to their own particular line of kattes, by entering 
 into private arrangements with them to let their goods pass through at 
 comparatively light rates. 
 
 The sayar collections in Nagar were classed under three heads. 
 I St. Hdlat, or the excise duties levied on areca-nut, cardamoms and 
 pepper, on removal from the place of their production. 2nd. Chardddya, 
 or transit and town dues. 3rd. Kdraka, which may be described as a 
 composition for sdyar, being a tax paid by certain classes for relief from 
 payment of sdyar duties. For carrying out the complicated sayar system 
 in this Division, there were sixty kattes established, of which thirty-one 
 were frontier, and twenty-nine internal. The establishments of such of 
 these as were situated in the two Sarsayar Ilakhas were paid by the 
 Government, the remainder by the Wot izardar. Of the former there 
 were fifty-two and of the latter eight. 
 
 The sayar of the Ashtagram Faujdari was put up to auction, and 
 rented, sometimes by single taluqs, sometimes in a number combined, 
 and sometimes the wliolc in one lump, to the highest bidder. The 
 renter had to find security, and both renter and security had to execute 
 muchchalikas. In general the security was the real renter, but some- 
 times both were merely agents of a third party who did not choose to 
 come forward. There were occasional but rare instances of particular 
 taluqs being kept under amani. When the muchchalika and security 
 bond were executed, orders were issued to place the renter in charge of 
 the various items of revenue which he had farmed. This being done, 
 he proceeded to sublet them in any manner he pleased, or to retain the 
 management in his own hands if he preferred it. The government 
 does not appear to have reserved to itself any right to interfere in the 
 arrangements of the renter, and as each of his sub-renters on appoint- 
 
 s s
 
 626 ADMINISTRATION 
 
 ment became an acknowledged public servant and adopted a seal of 
 office, it may easily be supposed in how many ways they had it in their 
 power to interfere not only in the trade of the country but in the 
 private affairs of every individual. 
 
 The same confusion existed with regard to the items which constituted 
 sayar as in the Nagar Division. It was nominally divided into the 
 heads of mdrg and pattadi. Under the head of indrg, properly speak- 
 ing, came all the items which we should call land customs, with, 
 multifarious additions, varying in each taluq and in particular parts of 
 the same taluq. Among them may be mentioned the shddi kutike 
 rents, or taxes on marriage, concubinage, births, deaths, and other 
 domestic occurrences. Of more than one hundred items which came 
 under the head of pattadi, there was not a single one which ought 
 rightly to have been included in the sayar. They were all of them 
 money assessments, mostly personal in their nature, and levied direct 
 from the ryots. They consisted of taxes on individuals on account of 
 their castes or professions, and of fees levied from ryots for permission 
 to make earth salt, to fish in tanks and streams, to collect emery 
 stones, to gather honey, cardamoms and other jungle products, or in 
 some places to sell the produce of their own lands. The poor wretches 
 even who eked out a scanty livelihood by collecting white ants for food, 
 did not escape without a tax for so doing. One item of the pattadi 
 revenue deserves particular mention. It was an extra tax collected 
 from the ryots as a percentage upon, not out of, the land revenue they 
 paid to Government. It varied in particular taluqs from i to 5 fanams 
 in the pagoda, or from 10 to 50 per cent, exacted from the ryot in 
 excess of his original rent. 
 
 The seat of government being in the Ashtagram Division, the 
 prahara pattis or Sarkar tariff tables were nominally more regarded 
 than in the distant province of Nagar. There was no rule, however, 
 compelling the sayar renters to abide by the rates set down ; and even 
 if there had been, there would still have been more confusion than 
 enough, for the duty on some articles was to be calculated by weight, 
 on others by measurement, on others by number, and on others again 
 by cart, bullock, ass, or cooly load. These modes of computation too 
 were not uniform throughout the Division, but differed in every taluq, 
 and even in every katte. They were, in fact, left very much to the 
 caprice of the chaukidar of the katte, and were another fertile source 
 of extortion and delay. Other anomalies consisted in the levying of 
 different rates from different descriptions of merchants ; the lower 
 rates probably having grown into mamiil from having been originally 
 the result of a corrupt arrangement between the renter and the
 
 UNDER KRISHNA RAJA WODEYAR 627 
 
 merchant. For instance, salt passed free into the town of Mysore if 
 brought by one particular class of people; and in the Belur taluq, two 
 bullock loads of supari were passed as one load if carried by Kormars, 
 Lambanis or AVaddars. The collusive system by which traffic was 
 attracted to one particular line to the prejudice of others was in force 
 in the Ashtagram as much as in the Nagar Division. 
 
 If the Nagar Division suffered in some respects from its distance from 
 the Darbar, Ashtagram was in its turn victimized from its propinquity, 
 for the returns show that there were no fewer than 331 kattes in this 
 Division alone. It is said to have been no uncommon thing to reward 
 a favourite by the imposition of a new tax, or the institution of a new 
 katte, and the name of a mendicant called Mohant is remembered 
 from a privilege which was granted to him for a time of exacting a fee 
 from every person passing into Mysore from a particular direction. The 
 mendicant was soon deprived of this right, but the toll was continued 
 under the title of the Mohant rusum, and put up to auction along with 
 the other items of sdyar. In the immediate neighbourhood of Mysore 
 these kattes were so close together that there were few roads on which 
 the goods of a merchant were not stopped, and (unless he came to 
 terms) unloaded and ransacked, at least four times in the course of an 
 ordinary day's journey. Even more than this : a particular bridge is 
 mentioned, on which at one time there were three of these kattes — 
 one at each end and one over the centre arch ! 
 
 In the Bangalore Division, probably owing to its containing the large 
 British Cantonment, abuses were much less rife than in Nagar and 
 Ashtagram, and the rules for levying the sayar duties which were in 
 force in the time of Purnaiya, were continued without change or 
 modification up to 1846-7, under izardars, to whom the sayar was 
 annually rented on competition. 
 
 Pdnch Iml)} — The tobacco monopoly existed in 38 taluqs only. In 
 Bangalore this rent existed only in the town and its dependencies, 
 called volagadis. The renter purchased the article from the cultivators 
 or imported it from Salem, at from 4 to 10 fanams per maund of 49 
 seers, and disposed of the same to the bazaar men at from 12 to 23 
 fanams per maund of 40 seers. The bazaar people retailed the article 
 at a small profit of one fanam per maund. 
 
 The monopoly of /v/t7-/c(j/ was not general, being found only in 15 
 districts. l\\ Bangalore the custom was to employ a renter ; he bought 
 at 20 bundles for one fanam, and sold to the public servants at 16 
 bundles the fanam, to the bazaar men at 8, and at 10 to the public 
 
 ' In the old reports this name, which means tlio Five Items, appears iwuler the 
 ludicrous form oi Punch Bob. 
 
 .S S 2
 
 628 ADMINISTRATION 
 
 servants in the Cantonment. The bazaar men sold in retail at i\ 
 bundles the fanam, the remaining f of one bundle of the 8 received 
 from the renter being the profit of the bazaar men. 
 
 The monopoly o{ ga?ija existed only in a very few taluqs. It was 
 confined in Bangalore to the town. The renter purchased his supplies 
 at the rate of from 12 to 24 1 fanams the maund, and sold it to the 
 bazaar people at from 3 to 7 pagodas. The affairs of this rent were 
 carried on by the people of the tobacco depots. 
 
 The rent of arrack was taken by an individual in each taluq. The 
 renter either sublet portions of his rent to others or managed it in 
 amani. If he sublet it, the under farmers engaged to pay their rent 
 either for every shop or for each village. If kept in amani, the renter 
 established manufactories, where the arrack was prepared for distri- 
 bution, employed his own servants and caused the arrack to be sold by 
 retail at the usual rates. There was no uniform rule as to the extent of 
 the farms, as one man might be the renter of one taluq or twenty ; 
 while there were some taluqs rented to several. There were two 
 classes of persons, the one called Bedar and the other Kalala, who had 
 been accustomed from ancient times to manage the arrack trade and 
 to rent the sales from the Sarkar ; but in latter times the business seems 
 to have been open to all classes. There was a tax on adultery by 
 women of the Bedar and Kalala castes, and also on their marriages, 
 which was farmed with the arrack. 
 
 The rent of toddy, which was not general in all the taluqs, consisted 
 chiefly of what was obtained from the lands occupied by the wild date- 
 tree, and was levied annually. These were sometimes called se'ndi 
 trees. In some cases every sendi shop was taxed, but the tax was most 
 generally levied on the beast of burden which conveyed the sendi to the 
 shops ; or on the leathern bags which contained the liquor. The renter 
 realized the tax monthly. In some taluqs there were no trees from 
 which toddy could be extracted, but shops were still maintained by a 
 caste called Idigar, who acted under a renter and supplied themselves 
 from other taluqs. In several taluqs the person who rented this article 
 employed his own people both to extract toddy from the trees and to 
 sell it in retail, paying them hire for their labour. There were certain 
 taxes payable by these people on their marriages, on the fornication 
 and adultery of their women, and on other occurrences, all of which 
 made part of the rent. When the toddy or sendi was not rented, the 
 taxes were collected in amani, according to the usual rates, by the 
 shekdar, or by such an establishment as might be kept up for manage- 
 ment of the Bajebab taxes. The accounts of this revenue were not 
 kept distinct, but mixed up with that of arrack.
 
 UNDER KRISHNA RAJA WODEYAR 629 
 
 Civil Justice. — Of the system of judicature, civil and criminal, as it 
 existed during the Raja's government, a report of 1838, by the late Sir 
 Mark Cubbon, contains a full and lacid account, from which the 
 succeeding paragraphs are compiled. 
 
 When the Raja assumed the reins of government, considerable 
 alterations were, with the concurrence of the Resident, made in the 
 judicial department. A new Sadar Court was established at Mysore, 
 with two Bakshis at its head, and under it were three inferior courts, 
 each under two presidents called Hakims. Amongst these courts the 
 business was divided as follows : — The Sadar Court heard and decided 
 all civil causes above 500 rupees ; it received reports of the decisions 
 of the three inferior branches of the court, confirmed or revised them, 
 and inspected and sealed their decrees, without which no decision was 
 considered valid. The second court had jurisdiction in civil causes, 
 from 100 to 500 rupees. The third court had jurisdiction in suits not 
 exceeding 100 rupees. The fourth court undertook the magisterial 
 department, which will be more particularly adverted to hereafter. 
 
 Although these four courts sat in one place, and were all under the 
 control of the chief judges, yet each had its separate establishment of 
 public servants. The forms of their proceedings were adopted from 
 the judicial regulations in force in the Madras Presidency. They 
 examined witnesses upon oath. Two statements were taken from the 
 plaintiff — the plaifit and the answer, — and two counter-statements — 
 the reply and the rejoinder — from the defendant ; and institution fees 
 were levied upon suits. Two-thirds of the amount of these fees were, 
 when realized, credited to the Sarkar, and the remaining third was 
 paid to the authorized vakils employed in the cause. There was no 
 express provision for an appeal to the Raja from the decision of the 
 Sadar Court ; nevertheless, when parties complained to the Raja, he 
 used often to call on the judges for explanation. 
 
 The two first Bakshis who sat in the Sadar Court, thus newly 
 constituted, were Bakar Sahib, and Gulam Mohi-ud-din Mekri. For 
 the first year and a half after their appointment it would seem that 
 justice was equally and duly administered, and though the judges were 
 subject to the solicitations of the Rdja's courtiers, yet no real hindrance 
 was offered to the course of justice so long as they steadily resisted all 
 attempts made to influence their decisions. After this interval, the 
 orders of the court issued upon its ordinary business to the various 
 cutcherries began to be neglected by the public officers of the State ; 
 the minions of the Darbar increased their interference, and the chief 
 judge, Bakar Sahib, a man reputed for integrity and independence of 
 character, finding that they were encouraged rather than checked,
 
 630 ADMINISTRAIUON 
 
 refused to exercise his judicial functions any longer, and retired to his 
 own house. After a lapse of four or five months, the Resident, by 
 earnest representations to His Highness the Raja, and persuasions to 
 Bakar Sdhib, prevailed on the latter to resume his duties. He accord- 
 ingly acted as chief judge for a year longer, during which period the 
 business of the court, so long as His Highness happened to be pleased 
 with the Resident, went on uninterruptedly ; but whenever this 
 harmony was disturbed, every sort of secret and indirect influence 
 was exercised to render the court contemptible, and its orders nugatory. 
 At last Bakar Sahib, unable to support the dignity of the court, and 
 wearied by the constant repetition of these insults, quitted office in 
 disgust, and never returned. 
 
 The second judge, Gulam Mohi-ud-din Mekri, then took the seals, 
 and being supported by Sidraj Aras (a relative of the Raja, who was 
 entrusted with much of the authority of the government, and enjoyed 
 likewise the confidence of the Resident) he was enabled in some 
 degree to maintain the character, and to enforce the authority of the 
 court. At the end of seven years, nine charges of corruption and 
 partiality were presented against this judge, but after two months' 
 investigation before the Resident nothing was proved against him. 
 He then besought the Raja to punish his accusers ; but failing in this, 
 he resigned his office. 
 
 The Khazi of the court, Sayad Ali, succeeded, but though acting as 
 Bakshi he did not keep the seals, the decrees being submitted for con- 
 firmation to Bale Aras, a maternal uncle of the Raja. One Srinivas 
 Rao was then associated with the Khazi for about ten months, when 
 the latter died, and Srinivas Rao conducted the affairs of the court 
 alone. He too was dismissed by the intrigues of the Raja's courtiers 
 after some months, and Chota Raja Khan was appointed in his place. 
 During the time of the latter judge, who remained in office about three 
 years, the court was in very bad repute. The suitors sought for and 
 obtained their ends by indirect means. The Raja often sent for this 
 judge, abused and called him names in open Darbar, dismissed him 
 from his presence, and summoned a mutsaddi of the court to give him 
 what information he wanted. It is currently believed that every 
 person about the Darbar at that time, however low, used to inter- 
 meddle in the suits, and attempt to influence the decisions of the 
 Adalat. At length one Krishna having obtained an unjust decree for 
 a large sum of money, through the influence, as it was supposed, of the 
 sheristadar of the Resident's cutcherry, the Raja, at the suggestion of 
 Dasappaji, a relative of his own, assembled a panchayat, inquired into 
 the charge, and dismissed the judge.
 
 UNDER KRISHNA RAJA WODEYAR 631 
 
 After which, at the instance of the Raja, Gulam Mohi-ud-din Mekri, 
 who had formerly resigned, again consented to act as Bakshi of the 
 Adalat, and remained at the head of the court until the assumption of 
 the country, when the functions of the Adalat were suspended. And 
 on the establishment of the newly-constituted Adalat, or Commis- 
 sioner's Court, in 1S34, he was ai)pointed one of the judges. 
 
 Thus, from its first institution by Purnaiya, until the appointment of 
 the Commission, the semblance of an Adalat Court was maintained ; 
 but it was no uncommon thing, after its decrees were j)assed, for the 
 Raja to issue a niri'ip dispensing with their observance. It has likewise 
 happened that, in the same suit, as many as four or five contradictory 
 decrees, in addition to the original decree of the court, were succes- 
 sively passed by the Raja himself, just as the influence of the one party 
 or the other predominated at the Darbar ; and other circumstances 
 might be adduced in proof of the fact that, at the time of the assump- 
 tion of the country, nothing remained which was fit to be called the 
 administration of justice. 
 
 Besides these irregularities connected with the Court of Adalat, 
 suits to the highest amount were sometimes decided in the Sar Amin's 
 choultry, and even by Raja Khan and Dasappaji when Bakshis of the 
 Barr or Infantry. Questions of property were also decided by the 
 Raja in person, without any record of the investigation, or any written 
 decree. 
 
 Criminal Justice. — Under the ancient Hindu rulers of Mysore, the 
 following classification of crimes and forms of procedure are said to 
 have prevailed : — theft; robbery; highway robbery ; murder. 
 
 Cattlestealcrs, and robbers of cloths, household furniture and 
 grain, &c., were tried by the shekdars, shanbhogs and gaudas of 
 villages, who were empowered to inflict, on conviction, corjjoral 
 punishment and imprisonment in the stocks. There was no limitation 
 either to the extent or duration of these punishments, and persons 
 confined on suspicion were seldom released, whether shown to be 
 implicated or not, until the stolen property was recovered. A report 
 of the circumstance was, however, made by the village authorities to 
 the Amil. 
 
 Primary investigations of highway and gang robberies, and murders, 
 were also made by the village officers, after which the prisoners and 
 witnesses were sent to the Amil, who, assisted by thekilledar, examined 
 them, and reported the result of the inquiry, with their opinion, to the 
 Huzur, by whose orders the prisoners were variously punished, by 
 death, imprisonment for life in hill forts, and by mutilation. But 
 records of these trials were never kept, nor does it clearly appear that
 
 632 ADMINISTKA TION 
 
 panchayats were ever employed in criminal cases previous to the 
 government of Purnaiya. 
 
 Under the Muhammadan government, no particular alterations were 
 made in the customs which had previously prevailed in the districts. 
 There was a Sadar Court at the Huzur ; and Muhammadan law was 
 administered to those of that faith according to the Koran. 
 
 The forms of criminal procedure and the punishment of crimes 
 which obtained under the administration of Purnaiya have been 
 described in the last section, when an attempt was made to reduce into 
 practice some of the mild principles of jurisprudence advocated by 
 Beccaria. The experiment, however, failed. 
 
 Under the Raja, the fourth court at Mysore undertook the magis- 
 terial department, each hakim alternately presiding in it and receiving 
 petitions ; that is to say, each hakim was employed for fifteen days 
 successively in receiving complaints and preparing them for hearing, 
 and fifteen days in presiding at trials. This Court inquired into all 
 assaults, robberies and minor offences, and having presented its finding 
 to the Bakshi of the Sadar Court, sentence was passed by the latter. 
 
 The penalty awarded for theft of all descriptions, and serious 
 assaults, was for the most part corporal punishment, and but rarely 
 fines ; the former being always inflicted on low-caste prisoners, the 
 latter on those of the higher caste. The instrument used for corporal 
 punishment was the korda, a most formidable whip, forty strokes of 
 which, when severely administered, were sufficient to exhaust the frame 
 of the stoutest criminal ; nevertheless, instances were very common of 
 prisoners suspected of theft being flogged until they fell, being 
 remanded to prison, and again subjected to the same discipline until 
 they confessed the crime, or named a spot where the property was 
 hidden ; the former being necessarily the only resource of such as 
 were really innocent. To carry on these severities there were two 
 regular Jalebdars or floggers borne on the strength of the establishment 
 of the Sadar Court, at a monthly pay of six rupees each. Afterwards, 
 ■when one was reduced, it being found that one individual was inade- 
 quate to fulfil the duty required of him, it frequently happened that 
 the floggers attached to the Anche, Shagird pesha and other cut- 
 cherries (all of which were similarly provided), were called in to assist 
 in the magistrate's department. It has been confidently stated by one 
 of the most respectable men employed in the judicial department under 
 the Raja's administration, that no day passed from the time His High- 
 ness ascended the throne in 181 2 until the appointment of the Com- 
 mission, on which, when magisterial inquiries into theft and serious 
 assaults took place, the sound of the korda was not heard in the Court
 
 UNDER KRISHNA RAJA WODEYAR 633 
 
 of Adalat.' In heinous cases the Bakshis were accustomed to report 
 to His Highness the Raja, and receive his orders on the subject. In 
 awarding the amount of punishment, the Mufti was consulted by the 
 Court, and he gave his futwah. But this mode of proceeding did not, 
 as will be afterwards explained, extend to the greater part of offences 
 committed in the taluqs ; and even with regard to those committed in 
 the town of Mysore, it must be considered rather as the rule than the 
 practice. 
 
 The preceding statements refer to the mode of procedure. \\'ith 
 regard to the punishment of criminals, there was, under all the rulers 
 of Mysore, from Haidar AH to the Raja, an utter absence of system, so 
 that it was impossible to say what kind of punishment would be inflicted 
 on any particular class of offenders. 
 
 For felony — death by hanging, throwing over precipices, and tread- 
 ing under foot by elephants, confinement for life in hill forts, amputa- 
 tion of hands, feet, noses and ears, flogging, imprisonment in the common 
 jails, confiscation of property, and fines, were indiscriminately resorted 
 to. In one respect, however, the preliminary proceedings were invari- 
 ably the same ; that is, persons suspected of murder or robbery were 
 beaten daily until they confessed the offence, or pointed out where the 
 stolen goods were deposited. Indeed, the recovery of the stolen pro- 
 perty was considered (and it is believed the current of native opinion 
 still runs in the same channel) of more importance than the punish- 
 ment of the offender, and when this was effected the culprit was as 
 commonly released as punished. The usual punishments for petty 
 thieves, revenue defaulters, and fraudulent debtors, were — flogging, 
 imprisonment, fines, exposure on the highway with a stone on the head, 
 thumb-screws, and pincers on the ears ; but these inflictions were 
 equally uncertain and variable with the preceding. Petty assaults and 
 abusive language were commonly punished with small fines of from 
 3 to 12 gold fanams. 
 
 To refer more especially to the time of Purnaiya, Major W'ilks 
 observes that sentence of death was never pronounced excepting in 
 cases of murder or [)luiKlcr on the frontier ; that theft and robbery were 
 punished with imprisonment and hard labour; that fines were dis- 
 couraged, as a dangerous instrument in the hands of subordinate 
 authorities ; and that corporal punishment was prohibited. 'I'his 
 
 ' It was a favourilc inslrumciil with Ilaidar (,scc p. 396). Il was a common Irick 
 of his chief chohdar (says Wilks), when his master appeared displeased at some sup- 
 posed relaxation, — or as he chose to interpret, was in ill-temper, — to bring him into 
 good humour hy the sound of the corla at the gale, and the cries of an innocent 
 sufferer, seized casually in the street for the purpose.
 
 634 ADMINISTRATION 
 
 statement is true only of a particular period. Previous to that time, 
 punishment by mutilation of hands, feet, noses and ears was occa- 
 sionally inflicted by order of Purnaiya, and in the latter years of his 
 government it is well known that he had recourse to all the severities 
 of former times. At the period of his administration last spoken of, 
 corporal punishment was not only permitted, but enjoined ; suspected 
 thieves were flogged by the village officers till they confessed, and if 
 obstinate (or innocent) they were sent to the taluq cutcherry, where 
 they were flogged again. Even the power of inflicting capital punish- 
 ment was not, as at the time described by Major Wilks, confined to 
 the Divan assisted by the Resident, but was exercised sometimes by 
 the Faujdars, by whom also the crime of murder, when committed by 
 persons of high caste, was either overlooked or not infrequently com- 
 muted for short imprisonment or a firie. 
 
 Murder, gang and torch robbery attended with violence, when com- 
 mitted by persons of low caste, were usually punished w'ith death. 
 Gang and highway robbery unattended with violence, were punished 
 sometimes with mutilation, but more commonly with imprisonment in 
 hill forts, or hard labour in chains. For thefts or other minor offences, 
 from lo to loo lashes, at the discretion of the Amil, were permitted to 
 be inflicted ; likewise thumb-screwing, fining, and imprisonment. 
 Revenue defaulters were subjected to these last, and various other 
 tortures, such as being made to stand on hot earth from which the fire 
 had just been removed. 
 
 During the Raja's administration, the punishment of offences was 
 much the same as in Purnaiya's time, perhaps rather increasing in 
 irregularity, until the state of disorder into which the country was at 
 length thrown led to its assumption. 
 
 Persons accused of serious offences, especially at the capital, were, 
 as has been already said, tried, according to rule, at the Huzur Adalat ; 
 but in practice, the Barr and other cutcherries were likewise not infre- 
 quently used as criminal courts. By all these tribunals, and also by 
 the Sar Amin, mutilation of the hands and feet, noses and ears, was 
 inflicted, even for ordinary theft ; while corporal punishment, thumb- 
 screws, and ear-pincers were commonly resorted to for minor offences ; 
 Avomen convicted of incontinency were sold as slaves, and, in an order 
 now before me (writes Sir Mark), a woman is sentenced to lose her 
 nose for that offence. Stripes were inflicted by the local officers without 
 limitation as to number, and were habitually resorted to in order to 
 recover balances of revenue. 
 
 The condition and treatment of females was most deplorable during 
 all former administrations, especially under Hindu rulers ; and if to
 
 UNDER KRISHNA RAJA WODEYAR 635 
 
 live in constant dread of degradation and exposure to the greatest 
 indignities, at the accusation of the meanest and most disreputable 
 informers, be considered a state of slavery — actual sale in the market, 
 which frequently followed, was but the climax of a long course of 
 previous suffering and servitude. It will hardly be credited that in the 
 large towns there were regular farmers of an item of Government 
 revenue called Samayachar, part of the profits of which arose either 
 from the sale of females accused of incontinency, or fines imposed on 
 them for the same reason. Thus the Government was placed in the 
 position of deriving direct support from the crimes of its subjects, or, 
 what is still worse, of sharing with common informers the fruits of their 
 nefarious extortion. 
 
 The rules of this system varied according to the caste of the accused. 
 Among Brahmans and Komtis females were not sold, but expelled 
 from their caste, and branded on the arm as prostitutes ; they then paid 
 to the ijardar an annual sum as long as they lived, and when they died 
 all their property became his. Females of other Hindu castes were 
 sold without any compunction by the ijardar, unless some relative 
 stepped forward to satisfy his demand. The wives and families of 
 thieves were also commonly taken up and imprisoned with their 
 husljands, notwithstanding that there was no pretence for including 
 them in the charge. These sales were not, as might be supposed, con- 
 ducted by stealth, nor confined to places remote from general observa- 
 tion, for in the large town of Bangalore itself, under the very eyes of 
 the European inhabitants, a large building was appropriated to the 
 accommodation and sale of these unfortunate women ; and so late as 
 the month of July 1833, a distinct proclamation of the Commissioners 
 was necessary to enforce the abolition of this detestable traffic. 
 
 The Amils were sometimes confined in irons for corruption or 
 neglect of duty ; or summoned to the Huzur and exposed before the 
 palace with their faces covered with mud, and with pincers on their 
 ears ; they were also occasionally flogged, to the extent of one hundred 
 lashes, or until they gave security for the balances against them ; yet 
 such men were not by any means looked upon as disgraced, but were 
 frequently reappointed to office, and some of the taluq servants now in 
 employ are said to have formerly suffered such inflictions. The natural 
 consequence of this was the extinction of all self-respect and honourable 
 feeling amongst the public servants. 
 
 Although no sentence of death could be carried into execution at 
 the town of Mysore without the sanction of the Raja, yet, at a distance 
 from the seat of government, reputed offenders were sometimes executed 
 even without the form of a trial. So late as the year 1825, a native
 
 636 ADMINISTRATION 
 
 officer of infantry was sent out for the apprehension of some Kormars 
 (a class of people notorious for their predatory habits) accused of 
 robbing a treasure party, and putting to death two men who had been 
 employed to obtain intelligence of their movements. The orders he 
 received were to hang the guilty, and bring in the women and children. 
 Sixty-five men were accordingly hanged on the spot, and 200 prisoners 
 brought to Mysore. The same officer was again employed in 1827, 
 and brought in 100 prisoners, of whom three were hanged. Of the 
 whole 300 prisoners captured on the two occasions, about 200 were 
 sold in the public bazaar of Mysore as slaves, and the rest, without any 
 form of trial, were kept in jail. The native officer was rewarded for 
 his activity with a palankeen and an increase of salary. 
 
 Towards the end of the Raja's administration, almost all the powers 
 of government had passed into the hands of his principal ofificers or his 
 favourites, by whom they were often exercised for purposes of extortion 
 or revenge. It was well know^n that notorious criminals were constantly 
 liberated for a bribe, while the innocent were imprisoned ; and on the 
 appointment of the Commission, the jails were found to be crowded 
 with supposed offenders of every description, many of whom, it was 
 found on inquiry, had been confined on mere suspicion, or for no 
 assigned reason ; while others had been imprisoned for ten years and 
 upwards without ever having been brought to trial. ^ 
 
 In short, both property and personal liberty, and sometimes life 
 itself, w^ere dependent on the mere v.'ill and caprice of a class of public 
 ofificers w'ho were not only quite incapable of executing their duties, 
 and indifferent to the fate of those under their control, but openly and 
 avowedly were subject to the orders of the debauched parasites and 
 prostitutes at court, who notoriously superintended and profited by the 
 sale of every situation under the government the emoluments of which 
 were worth their attention. Nay, more, these public ofificers were 
 themselves not infrequently in league with criminals ; and such was the 
 general and deep-rooted corruption, that men who could afford to 
 pay might commit all sorts of crimes with impunity. The capital 
 punishment of an opulent offender was a thing almost unheard of; 
 and it was thought to be an act of unparalleled disinterestedness on 
 the part of the Raja, when he was reported, in 1825 or 1826, to have 
 refused the offer of one lakh of rupees for the pardon of the supposed 
 leader of a gang which had committed some daring outrages. Com- 
 binations existed between public ofificers and gang robbers for purposes 
 of plunder, and there is too much reason to believe that, even after the 
 
 ' The Raja requested to be allowed to liberate the prisoners in jail before deliver- 
 ing over the government in 1831.
 
 UNDER KRISHNA RAJA WODEYAR 637 
 
 assumption of the country, depredations did not wholly cease to be 
 committed under the protection of the public servants. 
 
 With respect to the jails, little regard was had to accommodation or 
 management, and there was no classification of prisoners ; whether 
 convicted, accused, or only suspected, they were all confined in the 
 same place ; and a special order from the Commissioners was necessary 
 to abolish a practice, which had generally obtained, of working them on 
 the high roads before trial. 
 
 It has appeared necessary to enter into this long recital of the former 
 laws and usages of Mysore, because an impression generally prevails 
 that they were distinguished for extraordinary lenity ; whereas, with the 
 exception of a short period during Purnaiya's administration, nothing 
 could exceed the corruption and capricious severity which per\-aded 
 the department of justice, as well as all other branches of the 
 administration ; and thus it happened that the people, having lost all 
 feeling of self-respect, and accustomed to consider punishment more as 
 the sign of the anger and impatience of their rulers than a just and 
 certain consequence of crime, were left in a state of demoralization, 
 and callous indifference to shame. 
 
 Police. — Under the Hindu rulers of Mysore, the duties of the police 
 were conducted by village servants, under the following denominations, 
 and these denominations were continued with little variation under the 
 government of Haidar Ali, Tipu Sultan, and Purnaiya. These servants 
 were paid either in inam lands, shares of grain from the ryots, or direct 
 from the Sarkar. Talvars, totis, nirgantis, and kdvalgars, the usual 
 village servants so called : kattabidi peons, watchmen on public pay : 
 Hale Faiki, ancient or common peons : lanblidars, holders of inam 
 lands called umbli, it was their duty to provide a constant succession 
 of watchmen, and they were held responsible to protect all property 
 within their limits : amargars, holders of inams called amar, which 
 they held for the performance of police duties : hul-gdval, selected 
 from the thirteen castes, they were entrusted with the charge of public 
 treasure : ankamala, watchmen of the Bedar caste : kalla Kormar, 
 thieves by profession, and found useful in detecting thieves. Also the 
 patels and shanbhogs. In the time of the Palegars, these watchmen 
 were held responsible for all robberies committed, whether in fields or 
 houses ; they traced robbers by the footsteps, and if unsuccessful, 
 themselves became responsible for all lost public property of moderate 
 amount, but not for private property. 
 
 The first blow struck at the power of the patels was in the reign of 
 Kanthirava Narasa Raja in 1654. That prince, attributing the 
 opposition he met with from his subjects to the turbulence of the
 
 638 ADMINISTRATION 
 
 patcls, reduced their inams, and confiscated to his own use a great 
 part of their property. Their allowances were partially restored by 
 Chikka Deva Raja, who ascended the musnud in 1672, and he at the 
 same time regulated the rusums of the other Barabalutis. His son and 
 successor, Kanthirava Raja, however, sequestered the shares of the 
 patels, leaving the inams of other village servants as they were. 
 
 Under Haidar the effective state of the police can be much more 
 readily credited, as, indeed, it can be more easily accounted for; there 
 was then no separation of interests, and no clashing of jurisdictions. 
 His administration was as extensive as it was vigorous, and besides the 
 terror of his name, and the real sagacity of his character, it must be 
 remembered that his immense levies effectually drained the country of 
 all turbulent spirits, or, what is much the same, gave them employment 
 congenial to their tastes and a sure means of livelihood. Haidar took 
 no steps to restore to the patels their sequestered allowances ; but, by 
 continuing to the other Barabalutis their emoluments and privileges, 
 he ensured their services. The village walls and boundary hedges were 
 kept in repair ; and tranquillity was preserved by the presence of his 
 troops, who were everywhere distributed, and by the severity of his 
 punishment whenever it was disturbed. 
 
 Under Tipu Sultan, the police, though impaired by the reduction of 
 many of the patels, umblidars and amargars, and by the assessment 
 levied upon their inam lands, was still kept from utter ruin by the 
 presence of his troops under the Asofs, and the dread of his sanguinary 
 disposition. The Sultan's reductions, however, extended only partially 
 to Nagar, and not at all to Manjarabad, where his authority was never 
 sufficiently established to render such measures practicable ; and at one 
 period of his reign he appears to have had some intention of restoring 
 to the patels the inams of which they had been deprived. They were 
 accordingly summoned to his presence, inquiries were instituted for 
 that purpose, and sannads were actually issued to the taluq cutcherries 
 for delivery to them, but for some reasons which are not known, 
 probably the confusion of the affairs of his kingdom, nothing further 
 was done to replace them in their old position. 
 
 Under the administration of Purnaiya, the Kandachars selected from 
 the remains of Tipu's army w-ere employed in the police, and as the 
 country was well guarded from disturbance, by the vigilance of the 
 ruler and the presence of British garrisons, little opportunity was 
 afforded for the perpetration of those crimes which in India are almost 
 an invariable consequence of public disorder. But the ruin of the 
 patels was completed by Purnaiya in the year iSoo. Until the period 
 of his government, the patels' inams, though sequestered, were still
 
 UNDER THE MYSORE COMMISSION 639 
 
 entered as such in the accounts of the Sivayi jama, or extra revenue ; 
 thus kept separate, it was easy to restore them to their original 
 possessors, who probably still had hopes from the clemency of some 
 future sovereign. Purnaiya, however, at once destroyed such expecta- 
 tions, by including the whole of these allowances under the general 
 revenue of the country. But Purnaiya did more. He reduced many 
 of this class whom Tipu had spared ; and as this final spoliation of the 
 patels was immediately followed by the establishment of sixty-three 
 charitable feeding-houses, the two measures were inseparably connected 
 in the public opinion. 
 
 The same state of things continued for some years under the Raja. 
 In the capital the police authority was aided by the Barr or infantry, a 
 large body of which was constantly stationed in the town for that 
 purpose. The police, however, began to decline with the other 
 branches of the administration, and the general prosperity of the 
 country. 
 
 Under the Mysore Commission. 
 
 Noil- Regulation System, 1 831-1855. 
 
 On the British assumption, which took place on the 19th of October 
 1 83 1, the maintenance, as far as possible, of existing native institutions 
 was expressly enjoined. The task which lay before the Commission, 
 therefore, was not to inaugurate a new system of government, but to 
 reform flagrant abuses in the old, to liberate trade and commerce, to 
 secure the people, especially the agricultural classes, in their just rights 
 against the gross tyranny and shameful extortion of a host of un- 
 scrupulous officials in every department, to purify and regulate the 
 administration of justice, and to develope the resources of the countrj'. 
 But the treasury was saddled with heavy debts ; the subsidy and the 
 pay of troops and establishments were in arrears; hence fiscal regula- 
 tions and the emancipation of the land revenue were the most urgent 
 measures at first required. 
 
 The revenue system followed, as directed by Lord William Bentinck, 
 was the ryotwari, which appeared to be the only one adapted to the 
 wants and traditions of the people of Mysore. It was brought back as 
 far as possible to the state in which it was left by Purnaiya, but 
 liberalized in all its details and viligantly superintended in its working, 
 with higher views, however, than the mere swelling of a balance-sheet, 
 as was too much the case with that celebrated administrator. The 
 money rents were lowered in all cases where the authorities were 
 satisfied that they were fixed at too high a rate; and the payments were
 
 r,4o ADMINISTRA TION 
 
 made as easy as possible to the ryots, by abandoning the system of 
 exacting the kist before the crops were gathered, and receiving it 
 instead in five instalments, payable at periods fixed in the first instance 
 by the ryots themselves with reference to the times of harvest. This 
 had the effect of saving them from the grasp of the village usurers, 
 and they were also freed from the harassing periodical inspection of 
 their crops, and other vexatious interferences with their cultivation. 
 These changes were highly appreciated by the ryots themselves, but 
 were distasteful in the extreme to the money-lenders and lower class of 
 public servants. 
 
 In cases where the batayi system, or that of an equal division of the 
 crop between the Government and the husbandman, was found to be in 
 force, every effort consistent with the prescriptive right of the cultivator 
 was made to convert it into a money payment, and where it still 
 prevailed it was purified of its most vexatious characteristics. All the 
 preliminary authorized pilferings of the village servants were put an end 
 to ; the grain was divided in the most public manner ; the choice of 
 shares was left with the ryot, and the whole of the straw — in a cattle- 
 breeding country a very valuable portion of the crop — became his own 
 property. The result of these arrangements was, that the revenue was 
 collected without the least difficulty ; that applications for takkavi 
 (money advances from Government) became less numerous every day ; 
 and outstanding balances were all but unknown. 
 
 The following are detailed accounts of the revenue and judicial 
 systems in force during this period, and of the reformation of the 
 sayar ; compiled from a General Memorandum on Mysore, written in 
 1854. 
 
 La-nd Revenue. — It does not appear that a revenue survey of the 
 lands in Mysore was ever made prior to the capture of Seringapatam, 
 but one of the first steps adopted after that event by the Divan 
 Purnaiya was a general Paimayish or measurement of fields. The 
 execution of this work, however, was incomplete and irregular, and the 
 records of the measurement were not forthcoming in many of the 
 taluqs. Under the new administration no attempt at a general sur\-ey 
 had as yet been made. Assuming, however. Colonel INIackenzie's 
 estimate of a superficial area of 27,000 square miles to be correct, the 
 number of khandagas or khandis would be 1,306,800 : of these, 
 937,254 were calculated to be covered by mountains, rivers, nullahs, 
 tanks, roads, and wastes, leaving 369,546 of cultivable land, of which 
 about 284,276 khandis were under the plough.^ 
 
 ' This estimate corresponds with a total area of 17,280,000 acres ; 12,186,567 being 
 unculturable, and 5,093,433 culturable, with 3,965,896 cultivated. The estimated
 
 UNDER THE MYSORE COMMISSION 641 
 
 The lands in every village were classed as kushki or dry, tari or wet, 
 and bdgdyat or garden. They were divided into khandagas (or khandis), 
 kolagas (or kudus), ballas, seers and poilis ; these being the names for 
 the measures or weights of seed required to sow a given space. But, 
 as these measures varied in each different locality, they were set aside 
 by Purnaiya, and a uniform measure, called the Krishnaraj khandi, 
 established in their room. This khandi, which was fixed at 160 seers, 
 was the standard followed by the European Superintendents in their 
 revenue settlements. 
 
 Each village had its Beriz, its Chedsal Janidhandi, and the Sthal 
 shist or Rivaz. The beriz was the amount of revenue fixed in ancient 
 times to be drawn from the village. The chedsal jamabandi was the 
 maximum amount derivable at some former period from the village, 
 and the rivaz was the ancient rate of assessment on each particular 
 field. The number and extent of each field and each particular of its 
 assessment were registered in the accounts of the shanbh6gs, but these 
 books had been greatly tampered with at various periods, and had to 
 be looked upon with great suspicion where they did not stand the test 
 of actual measurement. Every field had its own particular name, and 
 its boundaries were carefully marked. 
 
 Each village in Mysore, as in other parts of India, had its own agri- 
 cultural corporation. This establishment, which was called Barabalilti 
 in Mahratti, and Ayangadi in the language of the country, was com- 
 posed as already described (p. 574). 
 
 The patel or gauda was the head nian of the village, and his office was 
 hereditary. He had police authority to a certain limited extent ; he settled 
 caste disputes among the ryots, sometimes with, but generally without, the 
 aid of a panchdyat, and he was the usual channel of communication between 
 the Government and the village community. In some villages there were 
 government lands assigned to the patcls for their support, and in others 
 there were none. So also in particular districts there were patcls of great 
 consideration and influence, while in others they could hardly be said to 
 rise above the mass of cultivators. The former was generally observable 
 in places remote from the .seat of government or difficult of access from 
 other causes. 
 
 The shanbhog was the registrar or accountant, and in some cases of more 
 villages than one. With hardly an exception, they were of the Brahman 
 caste, and the office was hereditary. In some places they were in the 
 possession of lands rent free, in others they enjoyed them on a jc5di or light 
 assessment, and in some few places they had a fixed money allowance. In all 
 
 figures in 1875 were, a total area of 27,077^ square miles or 17,329,600 acres, of 
 which it appears that 8,923,579 were unculturable and 8,406,021 culturable : 5,585,015 
 of the latter being given out for cultivation, and 4,231,826 actually cultivated. 
 
 T T
 
 642 ADMINISTRATION 
 
 instances there were certain fixed fees payable to them in money or in kind 
 
 by the ryots. 
 
 The totis were the responsible watchmen of the village and its crops. 
 They were likewise required to act as guides to government officers and 
 travellers of any importance, and in the absence of the talAri had to perform 
 the duties of that official in addition to their own. They were remunerated 
 by lands held free of rent, or on a light assessment. In all disputes about 
 boundaries of villages or fields, the evidence of the toti was looked to as 
 most essential. 
 
 The taL-tri was the scout of the village. He traced robbers and thieves, 
 watched the movements of suspicious strangers, and was, in fact, the police 
 peon to the magistrate patel. He was remunerated by rent-free or j6di 
 lands. In certain villages there were no taldris, and in these cases his duties 
 were performed by the toti. 
 
 The nirganti regulated the supply of irrigating water to the wet lands of 
 the village, whether belonging to the ryots or to the Sarkar. He had to 
 economize the supply of water in every possible way, and in the season of 
 rains might be said to hold the safety-valves of the tanks and other 
 reservoirs in his hands. Many a day's supply of water was sometimes lost 
 by the timidity or apathy of an inefficient nirganti, and on the other hand 
 many a valuable dam was carried away by the rashness or ignorance of a 
 presumptuous one. 
 
 The remainder of the Bdrdbaluti, with a few rare exceptions, were 
 dependent for their support on the fees paid to them by the ryots for the 
 e.\ercise of their crafts, and on what they might earn from travellers. 
 
 There were many villages in which the full complement of the 
 Barabaluti was not to be found, the duties and functions of one member 
 being doubled up with those of another. In some others, again, the 
 number of the complement was much extended, and we find included 
 among them in the accounts — the schoolmaster who taught the children, 
 most likely in the exact same manner and on the selfsame spot that his 
 ancestor taught their ancestors twenty centuries ago ; the calendar 
 Brahman who calculated their innumerable festivals and anniversaries, 
 and the pujari who propitiated and worshipped the village idol. It was 
 very seldom that these individuals derived any support from Govern- 
 ment, but the ryots of course were glad to assist them in the same 
 way as they did the handicraftsmen. 
 
 Should any of these village servants who enjoyed government lands, 
 or were in the receipt of a money allowance, misconduct themselves 
 and be dismissed from their appointments, they were invariably 
 succeeded, unless the crime were flagrant, by some member of their 
 own family. In cases where there were two or more claimants for the 
 same ofifice, as, for instance, in an undivided Hindu family, they were 
 allowed to select from among themselves the individual whom they
 
 UNDER THE MYSORE COMMISSION 643 
 
 considered fittest for the post, and it was his name alone that appeared 
 in the Sarkar accounts. In some instances they preferred to exercise 
 the duties in rotation, and where this was found to work harmoniously 
 the authorities never interfered. The civil courts could take no 
 cognizance of disputes for the right of succession to these offices, or for 
 shares in the lands and immunities attached to them. All such were 
 decided summarily by the Amildar, Superintendent, and Commissioner 
 in their Revenue capacities. The alienation, mortgage, or transfer in 
 any way of these lands was strictly prohibited. 
 
 In 1 850-1, it was calculated that there were 50,709 persons borne 
 on the accounts as Barabaliiti, who among them enjoyed land to the 
 annual value of K. pagodas 40,178 and received a money allowance of 
 10,531 ; being together K. pagodas 50,709 (Rs. 1,47,517). 
 
 The following is a description of the duties of the several Revenue 
 Officers, and of the principles observed in the Revenue Settle- 
 ments : — 
 
 The mungari or first rains commence about the middle of .Aj^ril, and 
 continue at intervals till the middle or end of June, by which time the 
 fields are ready to be sown. At this period the tanks should contain 
 two months, or even more, of the supply of water requisite for the 
 cultivation of the rice lands. Some time before the beginning of the 
 official year, which was the ist of July, the shanbh6g of the village 
 assembled the ryots, and inquired into the circumstances and plans of 
 each individual. After which he concluded the arrangement with them 
 for the kandayam and batayi lands they were to cultivate, and for the 
 revenue payable by each during the ensuing year. 
 
 It will thus be seen that the shanbhdg was the primary agent in 
 every arrangement between the ryot and the Sarkar. It was through 
 him that the revenue administration of his village was conducted, and 
 it was to him, and to his books, that the ryot and the Government 
 must alike look for the record of their respective rights. He kept a 
 register of all the cultivators in the village, and took an account of the 
 lands of such persons as had died, deserted, or become insolvent, and 
 used his best endeavours to induce others to cultivate in their room. 
 He had also to prepare a general annual account of all the kandayam 
 lands, setting forth both the cultivated and uncultivated portions, and 
 the reasons why the latter had not been tilled. 
 
 In the Chitaldroog and Ashtagram Divisions, the collections com- 
 menced in November; in Bangalore, in December; and in Nagar, in 
 January. Between these times and June, when the official year closed, 
 the ryot was required to pay to the shanbhog the five instalments into 
 which his kist had been divided. As each of these instalments was 
 
 T T 2
 
 644 ADMINISTRATION 
 
 collected from the village, the shanbhog proceeded with it to the taluq 
 cutcherry, and paid over the money to the Amildar. 
 
 The shanbhog was also required to keep a detailed account of 
 demand, collection and balance of every individual in the village, and 
 when the crops of the lands cultivated under batayi tenure were reaped 
 and piled into heaps, he had to make arrangements for their security; 
 and, on receiving the orders of the Amildars, to see that they were 
 threshed, and the grain properly stored till the time arrived for its 
 division. 
 
 At the season of cultivation, the shekdar made a tour of the villages 
 in his circle, and advised and directed the shanbhogs in their arrange- 
 ments. In the case of lands under tanks, he ascertained the portions 
 which were to be under sugar-cane and under rice, and should the 
 supply of water be insufificient to bring the whole of the Sarkar lands 
 under full wet cultivation, he arranged for the production of the most 
 remunerative dry crop on the portion which would remain wholly or 
 partially unirrigated. When the Amildar visited the hobli, the shekdar 
 was his main assistant in settling the jamabandi. He had to rely 
 upon him for the information which would enable him to form a true 
 judgment of the state and resources of the hobli, to bring concealed 
 cultivation to light, and to expose collusive arrangements with the ryots 
 and other frauds of the shanbhogs. When the crops under amani or 
 Sarkar management were matured, the shekdar had to see that the 
 shanbhogs took the proper steps for reaping and threshing and storing 
 them, and was held responsible for keeping the shanbhogs and other 
 village authorities of his hobli up to the proper mark of vigilance and 
 honesty in all these respects. Whenever there was a public market 
 within the limits of the hobli, the shekdar was required to prepare 
 regular prices current of the rates fetched on each day, and forward 
 them to the Amildar. He had also to secure all unclaimed property 
 found m the villages, and send it up with full particulars to the same 
 authority. 
 
 What the shekdar was to the shanbhogs of his hobli, the Amildar 
 in his revenue capacity was to the shekdars of his taluq. Every dispute 
 was referred to him, and whenever they related to kandayam lands, he 
 had the power of deciding them summarily, subject of course to an 
 appeal to the Superintendent and the Commissioner, whom also he 
 addressed direct if any extraordinary occurrence took place in his 
 taluq. 
 
 The Amildar made a tour of the hoblis in the month of September, 
 to acsertain the condition of the inhabitants and the prospects of the 
 season, and to see that the shanbhogs and shekdars were exerting
 
 UNDER THE MYSORE COMMISSIOX 645 
 
 themselves to bring the lands into cultivation. After having satisfied 
 himself on these points by personal observation, and looked narrowly 
 into all the other arrangements entered into by his subordinates, he 
 settled the kulvar jamdbandi, village by village, and furnished regular 
 ten days' , reports of the progress he had made. The whole of his 
 settlements were finished in November. 
 
 The Sarkar batayi lands of the Vaisakha fasal, or May crop, were 
 brought fully under cultivation in October and November, and by 
 February or March the Amildar was able to forward to the Super- 
 intendent an estimate of its probable out-turn. The crops were 
 threshed and heaped in May or June, and the Amildar had then to see 
 to the disposal of the Sarkar share. Sometimes they were put up to 
 public auction as they stood upon the fields uncut, but generally after 
 they were reaped and threshed. Should the sums bid be considered 
 inadequate, the grain was stored in the government granaries till prices 
 became more favourable. Exactly the same course was pursued with 
 the Kartik or November crop, which was planted in the mungdri or 
 first rains, and reaped in October or November. 
 
 One important duty of the Amildar was to inspect the bunds of the 
 tanks and the embankments of the water-courses in his taluq, and keep 
 the Superintendent constantly informed of their condition. 
 
 The duties of the Superintendent, who was at once Collector, Magis- 
 trate and Judge, were laborious in the extreme, and could only be 
 carried on by a man of a very clear head, active habits, and great 
 powers of mental and bodily endurance. The Superintendent generally 
 proceeded on his jamabandi circuit as soon after the month of Novem- 
 ber as was practicable : that is, as soon as the Amildars had concluded 
 their settlement of the taluqs. The pattas, which had been previously 
 prepared, of each cultivator's holding, according to the Amildar's 
 settlements, were then distributed to the ryots. The patta contained a 
 description of the land held by the ryot, and the amount of assessment 
 to be paid by him on each different plot of land, as well as any other 
 tax which he might have to pay. This was read over to each man as 
 he was called up to receive his patta, and he was asked if it was correct 
 Thus any discrepancy or false entry was instantly brought to notice, 
 and the matter was inquired into, the error being rectified, or the 
 doubts of the ryot satisfied, on the spot, and in the presence of all the 
 other ryots of the village. Thus each cultivator not only had an 
 account direct with the Sarkar, but he was brought face to face with the 
 European Superintendent for the purpose of assuring the latter that his 
 account was correct. In this patta were entered the kists or instal- 
 ments of the ryot as they were paid by him. Ordinarily, after the
 
 646 ADMINISTRATION 
 
 pattas had been thus distributed by the Superintendent in person in 
 one year, the Amildars of those taluqs were instructed to distribute 
 them for one or two intervening years, and only such ryots as had 
 objections to make in regard to the assessment claims against them, or 
 who were applicants for remissions, were invited to assemble at the 
 Superintendent's circuit camp. 
 
 This system of distributing the pattas was a very salutary one ; it 
 brought every tax-payer, however trifling his amount might be, in 
 personal contact with the Superintendent, and as all were obliged to be 
 present to receive their pattas, an opportunity was thus offered to 
 everyone to seek redress for any grievance which he might not other- 
 wise have had inclination or courage to bring forward. This circum- 
 stance in itself was a check to oppression, and constituted perhaps the 
 chief advantage of the Ryotwar system, which strictly prevailed in 
 Mysore. 
 
 It was on these occasions of distributing the pattas that the subject 
 of remissions was taken up and inquired into, the Superintendent keep- 
 ing this entirely in his own hands. There was no strict principle laid 
 down upon which remissions were made ; each individual case was 
 taken up and decided on its own merits, the condition and means of 
 the applicant being the ruling causes. But, generally speaking, the 
 assessment was not levied on land which had not been turned up by 
 the plough, or purposely kept fallow for pasture, whenever it could be 
 shown that the ryot had not the means of cultivating it that year. The 
 truth or otherwise of such representations was readily ascertained, for 
 all the cultivators of the village were present to refer to, and the 
 applicants for such remissions were generally of the poorer classes. 
 The Superintendent decided upon the question at once, and everybody 
 saw that it was an act of his own, and not of any bribe-expecting 
 mediator. The consequences of such summary decision of remissions 
 were : first, a check upon unreasonable or false applications for such 
 remissions, because no corrupt trade was made in them ; and secondly, 
 that there were no outstanding balances (or very small ones) in the 
 collections at the end of the year, because those who could not possibly 
 pay up the full demand had been relieved of that difficulty. 
 
 On these jamabandi circuits, the Superintendent caused an examina- 
 tion to be made of the village accounts as kept by the shanbhogs, 
 which again were compared with those (and the abstracts made from 
 them) which were kept in the taluq cutcherries. The extent of batayi 
 lands cultivated was compared with that of former years, relatively also 
 to the current season and quantity of rain which had fallen. The 
 amount value of the produce of those lands was also compared with 

 
 UNDER THE MYSORE COMMISSIOX 647 
 
 that of former years relatively to the concurrent rates of prices. The 
 changes in the holdings of kanddyam lands were closely scrutinized, and 
 concealed cultivation sought out and brought to account. 
 
 The Superintendent confirmed or modified tenders made to the 
 Amildars for leases varying from one to five years, as well as the terms 
 upon which new land was taken up on kandayam. Leases for five years 
 were usually granted upon a fair advance, on the average of the previous 
 five years' produce being tendered. As a general rule, such leases of 
 villages were only given to respectable landholders of that same village. 
 New lands were granted upon the average rivaz or rate of the village, at 
 a progressive rate, generally of three years ; ^ for the first year, f for 
 the second, and the full rate for the third : if much expense and labour 
 were to be incurred in clearing, the progressive rate was extended to 
 four or even more years, nothing being charged for the first year. 
 
 On these circuits it was expected that all disputes, of whatever descrip- 
 tion, referable to the Superintendent would be finally decided ; and ten 
 days before the Superintendent arrived at a taluq, a proclamation was 
 published in that taluq informing the people that the Superintendent's 
 cutcherry would arrive there on such a day, and remain so many days ; 
 and inviting all persons having any complaints or representations to 
 make, to present themselves before him within that period; and 
 declaring that should they omit to do so their complaints would not be 
 attended to afterwards, unless good reason could be shown for their 
 default. 
 
 A very important part of his duty was to inspect the works of irriga- 
 tion in his Division ; to see if the new works had been efficiently con- 
 structed, and the repairs properly executed, and to devise remedies for 
 defective works. He had also to look after the roads in his Division ; 
 in short, he was expected to see with his own eyes as much of every- 
 thing as possible. 
 
 Nagar. — Of the institutions of the Nagar country, which were some- 
 what different from those of other parts, Mr. Stokes, under date 1834, 
 gives an interesting account, from which the following extracts are 
 taken : — 
 
 In the Malnad, villages were almost unknown. The owner of each 
 estate had a large house on some eligible part of it, and his tenants, 
 labourers and slaves resided on their respective allotments. Each 
 village in the open country had its community, composed of gauda ; 
 talwar or watchman ; madiga, baraki or kulavadi, whose ofiice seems to 
 be the same with that of the toti, a term not used here ; sh;inbh6g 
 or accountant, whose charge, however, in Nagar generally included 
 several villages, or a whole magani ; kaiwadadavaru or handicraftsmen,
 
 648 ADMINISTRATION 
 
 including the badagi or carpenter, kammar or smith, agasa or washer- 
 man, and hajam or barber ; the ayya or Jangam priest, who performed 
 the requisite ceremonies for the l.ingavant ryots, and was sometimes 
 also a schoolmaster ; and the pujari who officiated in the village temple. 
 There was also in every village an influential and generally rather old 
 ryot, known by the title of Hiriya Rayta, " the chief ryot," or Buddhi- 
 vanta, " the wise man," who was consulted on all occasions, and was 
 usually the spokesman when any representation had to be made to the 
 superior authorities. In the Malnad, two or three leading ryots or 
 Heggades in each magani, acted in behalf of the ryots of their shime 
 or district, in all transactions of a common interest, such as arranging 
 sales of areca-nut with the merchants, and the details of the settlement 
 and collection with the Sarkar officers ; and engagements signed by them 
 were held to be binding on those ryots. There were also in every 
 taluq a few leading men called Mukhyastar, generally landholders, who 
 took an active share in public proceedings, and were nearly always with 
 the Amildar. They exercised an important influence on the manage- 
 ment of the taluq, which was frequently directed to their own private 
 profit, by combining with the Sarkar servants to defraud the Govern- 
 ment ; but was also sometimes beneficial in checking oppression, and 
 protecting the interest of the ryots. 
 
 The Gaudas of villages and the Pete Shettis had a great many rights 
 and privileges, called mdjia mariydde, of which they were exceedingly 
 tenacious ; one not the least valued by them was the right of prece- 
 dence, exercised chiefly in receiving tambula or betel in public 
 assemblies in the order established by custom, any deviation from 
 which would be stoutly resisted as a grievous insult. The Pete Shetti 
 or headman and the tradesmen {vartakani) of the trading towns, who 
 were generally Banajigar, were always treated with great respect. The 
 Shettaru, as he was called in the plural number, had commonly a manya 
 or privilege of passing one or more bullock-loads of goods, daily, free of 
 custom duties. He also levied pasigi, which was a small quantity taken 
 in kind from all produce brought for sale to his market. The Shetti 
 Vartakaru constituted a sort of court of arbitration, which was the 
 favourite tribunal of all the trading community and of many others. 
 
 Slavery, chiefly however in the agrarian form, existed from time 
 immemorial, and to a great extent, in the Malnad. It was unknown 
 in Kadur, Tarikere, Chennagiri, Plarihar and Honnali, and was rare in 
 the intermediate taluqs. The population return showed, in the five 
 Malnad taluqs, 4,169 houses, containing 9,973 persons of the Holeyar 
 caste ; and it is computed that the whole of these were properly slaves, 
 though many had now escaped from the authority of their original
 
 UNDER THE MYSORE COMMISSIOX 649 
 
 masters. Slaves were of two descriptions — hofin-dl (from hon, gold) 
 and manfi-dl (from man, earth), of which the former might, and the 
 latter might not, be transferred from the soil to which they were 
 attached. The term by which slaves were designated, dl, did not in its 
 original signification imply any notion of servitude. It merely meant a 
 person (man or woman\ and was applied equally to hired servants or 
 daily labourers. Certain limits, termed meitu, steps, were fixed, which 
 the slave must not pass without permission, on pain of being considered 
 a fugitive. When a slave ran away, his master searched for him, and 
 if successful applied to the Amildar of the taluq to compel his return. 
 The Native Government professed to comply with such applications, 
 but the interference of the Amildars was now prohibited. Masters had 
 been considered to possess the right of punishing idle or refractory 
 slaves by beating ; no express order was given on this point, but the 
 power is supposed to have been abrogated by the police regulations. 
 The ]\Ialnad landholders frequently complained of this alleged depar- 
 ture from the custom of the country, but it is clear that slavery had 
 been generally losing the support of the Government from the beginning 
 of the present century, and it was generally found, on inquiry, that 
 slaves whose return it was requested should be compelled, had left their 
 masters fifteen or twenty years. 
 
 The usual maintenance {jpaddi) of slaves in the Malnad was one 
 kolaga or six siddi of batta or rice in the husk, equivalent to a pakka 
 seer of rice, for each man, and five siddis for each woman, per diem, 
 which was doubled on the new and full moons and sometimes at the 
 feasts. An annual supply of clothes, consisting of one kambli valued 
 at half a rupee, to each man and woman ; one dhoti or waistband 
 worth half a fanam, one panche or coarse cloth five cubits long, and 
 costing about two annas, and one rumal costing a quarter of a rupee, 
 for each man ; one shire or cloth ten cubits long and costing a rupee 
 for each woman. On the occasion of marriages, the master of the man 
 had to purchase a wife for him, usually for 3 or 4 B. pagodas, from her 
 owner ; unless, which was most commonly done, he could give the 
 daughter of one of his slaves in return. This practice was called sattai 
 or barter. The expenses of the marriage were borne by the master of the 
 husband, and commonly amounted to six rupees and three khandaga 
 or 150 seers of rice ; the children belonged to the owner of the man. 
 When a slave, with the permission of his master, worked for another 
 person, that person must supply him with food and clothing as above 
 stated, and must besides pay a small annual sum, generally half a H. 
 pagoda to the master — this was called hcgal f>d</ige, shoulder hire. 
 The ordinary price of a pair of slaves, man and woman, called gudi
 
 650 ADMINISTRATION 
 
 saraku (gudi, a Holeyar's habitation ; saraku, goods or stock of any 
 kind) was 12 B. pagodas, and with a pair of bullocks they were sup- 
 posed to be sufficient for cultivating five khandaga of land. 
 
 These slaves, though degraded, are much better off (says Mr. Stokes) 
 than those in Malabar ; they are in general stout and healthy in appear- 
 ance, and show no signs of being either overworked or underfed. They 
 are rapidly approximating to the state of the better class of agricultural 
 labourers. The Ikkeri princes possessed a great many slaves, acquired 
 by conquest or otherwise, some of whom were employed in the palace 
 garden at Nagar, and others in keeping in repair the forts of Lakvalli, 
 Kavaledroog, &c. They were all retained by Haidar and his successors 
 until the end of 1834. The establishment was a source of great abuse, 
 but the slaves considered its abolition rather in the light of dismissal 
 than emancipation. Besides the Holeyar, there are a few slaves born 
 of women who have lost caste, or who in infancy have been sold by 
 their parents. 
 
 As regards the tenure of land in Nagar, the people were accustomed 
 to consider all land to belong to the Sarkar, unless specially alienated, 
 but admitted the right of sale or mortgage in gardens. In the Malnad 
 it is clear this right existed in rice-lands also. It appears from old 
 sannads that the price of the land, as well as a nazar, was paid to the 
 Sarkar by persons who founded agraharas. A ryot's land could not 
 without his written consent be permanently transferred to another. 
 Both rice-lands and gardens were cultivated by tenants of the pro- 
 prietor, on rent called gadi or guttige, generally in kind, with a small 
 payment in cash. The registered landholders paid the assessment 
 direct to the shekdar and shanbhog, and there was no umbali or village 
 establishment. Some ryots held the whole or parts of several villages. 
 The shanbhog in this case kept an account in the name of each ryot. 
 This was called kulavar grdfuvar, instead of keeping an account for 
 each village or gramvar kulavar. 
 
 In the Eastern taluqs no land was saleable but garden or umbali and 
 uttdra land. Gaudas sold their gaudike, but this merely included the 
 usufruct of the umbali, and other emoluments and privileges attached 
 to the office, but not the land of the village. The usual price in 
 Shimoga was three years' purchase of the umbali shist. In Chikmagalur 
 and Vastara were ryots called kulagars, who claimed peculiar rights, 
 amounting nearly to absolute property, in the land of their villages ; 
 and there were almost in all villages some ryots whose tenure seemed 
 to be of longer standing and more respected than others. In Haram- 
 katte, Ajimpur, and Yegati, there were traces of a tenure by shares, 
 called chigar va?itige, in which the whole village was parcelled out into
 
 UNDER THE MYSORE COMMISSION 651 
 
 lots of equal value, containing a due proportion of rice, garden, and 
 dry land. There were also traces of a similar apportionment in the 
 farm of a ryot, of a black, red, and sandy soil, and near, distant and 
 middle fields, which he was not allowed to separate. In all these 
 taluqs the settlement had been made by villages. A\'here there was 
 land assigned to the office, the old gaudas generally retained the 
 management of their villages, elsewhere they were displaced by 
 temporary renters. They controlled all arrangements for cultivation, 
 and occasionally took land from a ryot against his consent, though they 
 had no recognized right to do so, unless he left it uncultivated, in 
 which case it was transferred without ceremony to a new occupant, 
 whose tenure was the same as his predecessors. Great impediments 
 were placed in the way of a ryot throwing up land, or migrating to a 
 new village. The settlement was now made with each ryot, and all 
 restrictions regarding the occupation of land abolished. In these 
 taluqs land was seldom cultivated by tenants, except on the terms of 
 an equal division of the crop, the tenant providing seed and stock. 
 
 On a few lands the old money assessment had been commuted since 
 1800 for a payment in grain, for the ostensible purpose of supplying 
 some fort or chatra. But the disposal of this grain was liable to great 
 abuse, and the original money payments were therefore restored. The 
 batayi settlement was now abolished everywhere except in Kadur, and 
 the beds of tanks occasionally cultivated. 
 
 The shist, with the additions of dasoha, pagudi and patti (described 
 pp. 593-4), was further increased 12 as. per pagoda by Haidar in the 
 year after he took Bednur, in lieu of the shanbhogs' percentage at half a 
 fanam per pagoda called variaiie, of a private fee paid to them called 
 kaifu as-cvari, and of service and supplies required from the ryots for 
 certain forts ; but the amount of this last item varied in different 
 places according to the usage. 
 
 Sivappa Nayak's re\ision seems to have extended to the five Malnad 
 taluqs, Sorab, Shikarpur and Shimoga, but not to Honnali and Tarikere, 
 though the distinction into shist and patti was made there. In the 
 Malnad, the above shist and patti had generally continued the limit 
 of the assessment till the present time. In the gauda guttige villages 
 from Sorab eastward, the gaudas paid generally the full shist and patti 
 on the whole village, but let some land to the ryots at the shist alone, 
 which was called kattugadi ; some at the shist and 50 per cent, patti ; 
 and some at double the shist. About the year 1805-6 the difference 
 on all fields let for more than the authorized patti was collected on 
 account of government and added to the beriz of the village. Till 
 1832-3 the shanbhogs registered the shist only of each field, and the
 
 652 ADMINISTRATION 
 
 same field was s(jinclimcs let as kattugadi, sometimes at 5 fanams 
 patti, and sometimes at pagoda patti, according to the pleasure of the 
 gauda. They were now required to fix the patti as well as the shist on 
 each field, taking it at the highest rate recently paid on that field. 
 
 Alanjarabad. — For the Manjarabad country, part of the old jjrovince 
 of Balam, similar details are given by Major }vIontgomery, under date 
 1839. 
 
 The form of village government in the taluqs of Manjarabad, Belur 
 and Maharajdroog, was essentially the same as in other parts of the 
 country, but the constitution of society in the Malnad hoblis differed 
 from that of the plains, in the general absence of Brahmanical influence, 
 and a more marked difference between the upper and lower classes ; 
 the whole population being as it were divided into two distinct grades, 
 the Patrician and Plebeian ; it might perhaps be said, the freemen and 
 slaves. The former consisted of Patels and ryots of the Lingayit, Hale- 
 wakkal, Devar-makkal, Malari, &c., castes : the latter of the Dhers and 
 Bedars. But the patrician class may be again divided. There were 
 the patels of nads, who were exclusively of the Lingayit or the Hale- 
 wakkal jati ; the patels of the mandes, and grama patels, these were all 
 of the Devar-makkal jati, the Halepaika of Canara. 
 
 Uggihalli Devappa Gauda, a Lingayit, was the patel of Malavana nad, 
 consisting of five mandes, rated at 1,000 pagodas each. He was universally 
 acknowledged to be the senior patel of the Manjarabad taluq, and as such 
 was treated by the others with the greatest respect. He was called the Shime 
 Gauda. Nanja Gauda, however, the patel of the Kittal nad of Belur, was 
 descended from a senior branch of the family, and his ancestors, previous to 
 the dismemberment of the province of Balam, when Belur became a part of 
 IMysore, were admitted to be the Moktesar Patels. When therefore Man- 
 jarabad, as well as Belur, became a portion of Mysore, it was very difficult 
 to settle who should have precedence when these two met at the annual 
 jatres at Halebid and Devavrinda, and much jealousy existed. However, 
 sometime ago they wisely thought it better to compromise the matter. The 
 families intermarried ; Nanja Gauda agreed to refrain from appearing in 
 future at the jatre of Devavrinda, and Devappa Gauda, on his part, did not 
 appear at Halebid until after Nanja Gauda had paid his devotion. The 
 second in consequence amongst the patels was Manali "\'ire Gauda, also a 
 Lingayit, of Kibbat and Balam, which together form four mandes, rated 
 formerly at 1,000 pagodas each. The third was Hettur Dodde Gauda (of 
 the Hale-wakkal jati) of Hettege nad, consisting of three mandes, rated 
 formerly at 1,000 pagodas each. The fourth was Kalur \"ire Gauda (Hale- 
 wakkal) of Mokkun ndd, consisUng of three mandes rated as the last. The 
 fifth was Godena Komari Gauda (Hale-wakkal) of Bisale and Uchchangi, 
 consisting of the same number of mandes, and rated the same as the two 
 last. The sixth and last was Mudigere Sidde Gauda, a Lingayit of Mudigere
 
 UNDER THE MYSORE COMMISSION 653 
 
 n.-id, which consists but of one mande, rated at 1,000 pagodas. The Xdd 
 Patels were also patels of the mandes in which they reside. To the other 
 mandes there were separate patels. 
 
 The whole of the duties of the internal government appear formerly 
 to have been conducted through the agency of these patels, and they 
 undoubtedly enjoyed very large inams. The patels seem in fact to have 
 been feudal chiefs ; they did not, it is .said, wage aggressive warfare 
 beyond their own boundaries, but an inspection of their habitations, 
 even now, shows that they cultivated the art of military defence. The 
 houses of all are fortifications, in some instances surrounded by a broad 
 and deep wet ditch, the only passage across which is defended by a 
 strong gateway, looped for musketry and matchlocks. 
 
 Of the power of the Patels in former days, it is of course impossible 
 to obtain an accurate account. But it may be supposed to ha\e varied 
 with the character of the reigning Palegars, and the Superior Govern- 
 ment. They are said, however, at times to have exercised a despotic 
 sway, extending over the lives of those under them. During a part of 
 the reign of the Raja even, and the more vigorous administration of 
 L'urnaiya, it was not, it is said, uncommon for them to assemble their 
 clansmen and servants, and openly resist the public authorities when 
 they appeared at their villages to ask for the Sarkar dues. Their resist- 
 ance on these occasions was frequently successful, and led to a com- 
 promise of the demand. 
 
 Their ostensible power was now confined to assembling the ryots for 
 the chase, to assisting the shekdars to carry into effect the orders of the 
 xVmildar relative to the cultivation, to arbitrating in petty disputes, 
 whether relative to land or otherwise, and the legitimate weight which 
 their advice and opinion must have in all matters relative to the internal 
 management of the taluq. It could not, however, be doubted that the 
 generality of the ryots would blindly obey their orders in almost all 
 cases, whether opposed to, or in accordance with, the wishes of the 
 Government. Their privileges were now confined to the collection of 
 a fee of one fanam, termed drati kdni/cc, paid to the village patel on 
 every occasion of marriage in his village, and to the precedence accorded 
 to them at all feasts, which is principally displayed in the distribution 
 of betel. The ndd patels are helped first according to their rank, and 
 then follows the distribution in succession to the others. In cases of 
 disputed precedence, the distributor crosses his arm.s, and offers to the 
 different claimants at once. The patels had now no acknowledged 
 umblis, the whole having been resumed by Purnaiya, but there is no 
 doubt that they possessed the best lands, and managed to keep them 
 assessed much under their real value. The ryots of the higher castes
 
 654 ADMINISTRATION 
 
 who were not patois, and happened (which was very seldom) not to be 
 related to any of them, still acknowledged their superiority, and yielded 
 them obedience. 
 
 The Dhers, Bedars and others, who have been classed as the Plebeian 
 population, were almost universally the servants or slaves of the Patrician 
 classes, and but little difference existed between the free servant and 
 the slave. The latter were termed Hale-makkalu or old sons. They 
 were fed from their master's table. They were clothed by him. 
 They were married at his expense. They were feasted and received 
 presents at his festivals. They mourned as members of the family 
 when deaths occurred in it. They performed all menial offices, 
 whether domestic or agricultural. They were sometimes (but appar- 
 ently not necessarily) disposed of with the family estate. If purchased 
 separately, they were liable to be resold, but the sale of slaves 
 separately from the land was never, it appears, of very frequent 
 occurrence. 
 
 Slavery now ceased to exist, inasmuch as no interference on the part 
 of the Government servants to compel a slave to serve his master was 
 permitted, and any complaint of a slave against his master was investi- 
 gated and decided as if both parties were equally independent. But 
 at no period would it appear (as far as can be ascertained) that 
 slavery in Balam was invested with the more revolting features so 
 common to it in Africa and America. The sway of the master seems 
 generally to have partaken more of a paternal character than the terms 
 " owner and slave " would indicate, and frequently as it had been 
 inquired of those who still considered themselves bondsmen, whether 
 they would not wish to change their lot, never yet was met one who 
 acknowledged that he repined at it. Probably there had not for many 
 years been any very great difference in the condition of the slave and 
 free labourer ; the latter being generally paid with food and clothing of 
 nearly the same quality afforded to the former. Nor was it the custom 
 for the free labourer any more than the slave to employ his children with 
 any other than his own master, unless the master should have given his 
 consent, and in cases where the marriage expenses of the free labourer 
 had been defrayed by the master, he could not leave his service till the 
 amount was refunded. 
 
 The people considered a proprietary right in the land to have been 
 conveyed by the rulers of Vijayanagar to the dififerent families of emi- 
 o-rants w^ho located shortly after the subversion of the Halebid dynasty 
 in 1326. The existing gaudas and ryots who claimed to be paldars or 
 shareholders of the dififerent villages, professed to be the descendants 
 of these emigrants, and declared that their right to the land had never
 
 UNDER THE MYSORE COMMISSION 655 
 
 been disputed, and was strictly respected, till the appointment of 
 Amildars by Purnaiya and the Raja, since which time many old pro- 
 prietors had been forcibly dispossessed of their lands, which had been 
 rented to others. 
 
 Sales of paluvantige land do not seem to have been frecjuent, but the 
 right to sell and mortgage it was universally admitted. The deeds of 
 sale assimilated with those used in Mysore, more than those existing in 
 Canara. The kraya patra, which included in the transfer house, land, 
 back-yard, dung-heap, and kulvadi,^ was the most perfect conveyance 
 that could be made, and it was considered to alienate all village rights 
 in perpetuity, as well as the land. A patel selling his land, but 
 retaining his house, back-yard and dung-heap, retained with them his 
 village rights and precedence. This land was generally considered 
 recoverable by his heirs, at however remote a period, on their repaying 
 its price ; provided always that they had retained possession of the 
 house and back-yard. 
 
 Sdyar. — At the time of the assumption of the country, the sayar was 
 found to be mostly farmed out, and it was ne.xt to impossible to ascer- 
 tain the extent of its resources, the number and the nature of the 
 strangely miscellaneous articles it included, or how far it was susceptible 
 of improvement. The accounts of the Sarkar gave the nominal, not the 
 real, settlements, and those furnished by the contractors themselves 
 were of course not to be relied on. As immediate reform thus became 
 impracticable without risk of serious error, the only thing to be done 
 was to w-atch the renters narrowly, and to set about collecting the 
 required information in every possible way. In addition to this, the 
 revenues of the State were in a most reduced condition, with a heavy 
 load of arrears of uncertain amount to be cleared off, and it was 
 considered better, therefore, in every branch of the administration, to 
 proceed gradually and with caution, grappling with the most glaring 
 grievances, and correcting the others one after another as the state of 
 the finances improved, and acquaintance with the real state of the 
 country advanced. 
 
 In this way many duties were allowed for a time to remain which 
 can be justified by no abstract principles of political economy, but 
 which the state of commerce and other local circumstances rendered it 
 advisable to retain, for a time, at least, if not permanently. The rules, 
 however, under which these were levied were purged of all ambiguity, 
 and being expressed in the simplest terms, were intelligible to the 
 meanest trader ; and the sayar may very early be said to have been 
 
 ' It would appear liy this, tli.il the kulvadi was formerly considered the slave of the 
 proprietor of the land.
 
 656 A DMINISTRA TJON 
 
 collected without a wrangle. But down to the year 1854 no less than 
 769 items of Sayar taxation were gradually swept away, amounting in 
 the aggregate to the annual value of 10^ lakhs of rupees.' 
 
 Bearing heavily as these taxes must have done, it may safely be 
 assumed that they were not so much detested by the people on account 
 of the money they took from their pockets, as on account of the 
 iniquitous use which was made by the izardars and their myrmidons of 
 the police powers with which it was a necessary part of the system to 
 invest them. What these police powers must have been, and of the 
 generally vexatious nature of the taxes, an idea may be best formed by 
 selection of a few specimens. 
 
 In certain places, and in particular castes, taxes were levied on marriage, 
 on taking a concubine, and on incontinency ; on a female of the family 
 attaining puberty ; on a child being born, on its being given a name, and on 
 its head being shaved ; on the death of a member of the household, and on 
 the subsequent purification ceremonies. Umbrellas were taxed, and so 
 were individuals who passed a particular spot in Nagar without keeping 
 their arms close to their sides. There was one village whose inhabitants 
 had to pay a tax because their ancestors had failed to find the stray horse 
 of an ancient pdlegar ; and there was a caste of Sudras who were mulcted 
 for the privilege of cutting off the first joint of one of their fingers in 
 sacrifice. Fees were levied from bankrupt Government contractors for 
 permission to beg (it is not stated what classes were likely to bestow alms 
 upon them) ; and taxes were demanded from individuals who went to live in 
 new houses, or who listened to the reading of the new year's calendar. To 
 this may be added the fact, that the daring climbers who robbed the nests 
 of the myriads of wild pigeons that build against the perpendicular sides of 
 the vast ravine into which the Gersoppa river precipitates itself, were made 
 to pay a percentage on the grain which they thus collected at the daily risk 
 of their necks. 
 
 Each of these items had its own particular name, under which it was 
 formally entered on the records of government as among the resources 
 of the State. In some places capable of producing certain articles to an 
 unlimited extent, the local rates became so exorbitant as literally to 
 prevent their production. An instance of the manner in which the 
 tobacco tax was levied in one taluq will suffice to show what oppor- 
 tunities existed for oppression and extortion, as well as the impediments 
 which existed to the facilities or freedom of trade. 
 
 Every ryot in Kadur who wished to sell his tobacco, had to send for the 
 
 ' The following are the particulars : — 
 
 No. Head. Amount. | No. Head. Amount. 
 
 42 Revenue Rs. 1,57,758 187 ChiUar Bab Rs. 79,9SS 
 
 482 Sayar 8,24,625 I 18 Mohatarfii 4,166 
 
 39 Abkari 7*289 l Amrayi 78
 
 UNDER THE MYSORE COMMISSION 657 
 
 Government gumasta, who first took a \ maund, called incile, on account of 
 Government ; then another \ maund, called kai male ; then the heap was 
 weighed ; then so much, called patninii, was charged on each maund ; then 
 another tax, called siaika ; and lastly another, called Diai pamiiiti, was levied ; 
 and then it had to be taken to the nearest katte, where it paid transit duty : 
 when it was free to start, and run the gauntlet of the kattes along the road 
 to the town or market for which it was intended. 
 
 As regards the Halat or H^sil on areca-nut, the three great contractors 
 for the Ilakhas of the Nagar Division and the principal merchants used to 
 meet annually at a place called Arga, and then fix, according to quality and 
 locality of production, the price to be given for areca-nut throughout the 
 Division ; and every ryot in the country was obliged to submit to the 
 arrangements then decided upon or have the produce of his garden left 
 upon his hands, for the whole system was so complicated, and all the 
 subordinates so thoroughly and entirely under the control and authority of 
 these confederates, that no man could export for himself ; the difficulties he 
 had to contend against being such as are now scarcely credible. All 
 producers, almost without exception, were obliged to sell to these great 
 monopolists, who exported at the minimum rate which they themselves 
 fixed, and who, profiting by their position, their knowledge of the rules in 
 force, and their power to act with impunity at a distance from all control, 
 made immense fortunes and allowed the ryot only the smallest possible 
 amount of profit or remuneration. Their advantages did not end here. 
 They had also the privilege of exporting their goods without paying down 
 the h^lat or transit dues, which they were permitted to adjust at a 
 subseciuent period, to allow, as it were, of their selling the article and 
 realizing the price previously to being called upon for the full demands of 
 the Sarkar. This gave rise to arrears to a most serious extent. They also 
 possessed another immense advantage over the outside trader, — having the 
 monopoly entirely in their hands, they never paid the ryots in cash. At 
 first only sufficient money was given to enable the cultivator to pay his kist 
 to Government, the rest remaining to be adjusted at a subsequent period, 
 when a portion only was paid in cash, the balance always to a great extent 
 being made good by cloths, valued at the maximum price, and brought l)ack 
 by the merchant or an agent from the great marts of Bangalore, Walla- 
 jabad, &c. 
 
 The number of articles upon which duties were remitted in the 
 Niigar Division was 2 48, and the total annual value of remissions made 
 since the assumption of the country was Rs. 2,04,925-10-2. 
 
 In 1832-3 and 1833-4 all duties on grain were abolished. In 1834-5 the 
 information collected was sufficient to justify the Commissioner in taking 
 the sdyar under amdni in all but four taluqs ; which were also taken under 
 the same management very shortly afterwards. In 1837-8 all internal 
 duties were taken off iron, steel and cattle ; and nine other items, oppres- 
 sive, but of little value, were likewise struck off. In 1842-3 all transit 
 duties were taken off iron, steel and cattle, and nine other items struck off. 
 
 u u
 
 658 ADMINISTRATION 
 
 In the same year, all transit duties were taken off supari, pepper and 
 cardamoms ; and in 1843-4 the duty was taken off sheep's wool and coffee 
 in transit. In 1844-5 vexatious duties were taken off tobacco, and the con- 
 tract abolished.' At the same time all unequal privileges as to rates of payment 
 were done away with, and a uniform standard having been fixed instead of 
 the former interminable variations, the trade in supari, pepper and carda- 
 moms began to take its own natural course throughout the country. As a 
 substitute for the abolished tobacco contract, a hdlat of one rupee per 
 maund was fixed on all produced in Nagar, and an import duty of i| on 
 tobacco imported for consumption. A full drawback was given for all 
 imported tobacco on re-exportation. The above changes were followed in 
 1847-8 by the final abolition of all remaining transit duties, so that nothing 
 remained of the original system excepting some small dues on a few minor 
 articles, to be removed at the first convenient opportunity. 
 
 To make up for the considerable loss of revenue sustained by these 
 reductions, an additional halat was put upon cardamoms, and on the 
 first sort of supari, while a reduction was made on the second and third 
 sorts of that article, and on pepper. This step was not taken without 
 consultation wnth merchants concerned in the trade, and with their 
 full consent. These merchants expressed themselves fully sensible of 
 the weight of exaction and loss by detention from which they had been 
 relieved. 
 
 In the Ashtagram Division., from the period of the assumption, 
 the duties on 152 articles were struck off of the annual value of 
 3,09,863-4-7 rupees. 
 
 In 1832-3 and 1833-4 were struck off the whole of the duties on grain. 
 In 1835-6 the transit duty on horses was abolished. In 1836-7 duties 
 ceased to be levied on firewood, old timber, European articles, sandalwood oil, 
 and vegetables on entering the town of Mysore. Many minor duties of the 
 same kind were also struck off, among them the Mahant rusum {see p. 627). 
 And in 1837-S fruit, plantain leaves and straw were added to the articles 
 allowed to pass free. In 1838-9 and 1839-40 the tax on stalls erected for 
 the sale of parched grain, paddy, husked rice, and buttermilk was struck off. 
 An item called pasige, which was a fee in kind exacted by the renter on 
 almost all smaller articles offered for sale, was discontinued, as was also the 
 
 ' As the effect of this the revenue under the head of tobacco rose immediately 
 30 per cent. The mere withdrawal of the contractors made the true state of affairs 
 at once fully apparent. On the trade becoming free, the producers found that they 
 were able to obtain for their whole stock Rs. 3J the maund, instead of R. \\, which 
 was all the contractors gave, and all that they could obtain under the previous system, 
 as they could sell to no one else. And the extortion of the contractors will be still 
 more fully appreciated when it is mentioned that the retail price at once fell from 
 Rs. 6 to Rs. 5. Thus it will appear that the consumer, the producer, and the 
 Government all gained by the abolition of the contract system, and that the profit of 
 a contractor was scarcely less than 300 per cent.
 
 UNDER THE MYSORE COMMISSION 659 
 
 duty on butter. The tax on blacksmiths' forges was hkewise aboHshed. 
 This last only formed part of an extended measure of relief granted to the 
 manufacturers of iron throughout the country, the greater part of whose 
 heavy burthens were brought to account under the head of land revenue. 
 In 1 840- 1 was abolished a most vexatious transit duty on cattle, which 
 had been made to extend to cows and bullocks sent from the town to graze 
 on country pastures, and an item termed diikdn pasiira was struck off. 
 It consisted in a fee levied from certain poor people for the privilege of 
 sitting down in the street to sell parched grain and other things from their 
 baskets. 
 
 Up to this time no more had been done than has been here detailed, 
 except that the renters had been deprived of all police power, and their 
 proceedings in other respects been most narrowly watched. Sufficient 
 insight, however, had by this time been gained into the working of the 
 system to justify further steps. At the close of 1 841-2, therefore, the 
 accounts underwent a most searching scrutiny, and all items not properly 
 belonging to the land customs were transferred to their proper heads ; and 
 amongst them all those which constituted the Pattadi Sdyar were removed 
 from the books. 
 
 Even after this it was found that many abuses still existed in the system, 
 which it was impossible to arrive at from the falsified accounts of the 
 renters, and it was therefore resolved that the .Sdyar and Panch-bab of the 
 Mysore taluq for the year 1842-3 should be taken under amdni manage- 
 ment as an experiment. The above experiment having answered beyond 
 expectation, permission was granted to extend the amdni system in 1843-4 
 to ten more taluqs. Orders were also issued for the immediate abolition of 
 many kattes in those taluqs, and for sweeping away the remaining transit 
 duties in the taluq of Mysore, where their effects had been found to be 
 more pernicious to trade than elsewhere. In 1844-5, ^^ sayar and abkari 
 in all the remaining taluqs were brought under Sarkar management, and 
 transit duties were everywhere abolished. A most vexatious impost, called 
 daiundr, was also discontinued. It consisted in the exaction of a fee of one 
 Kanthiraya fanam on every cow or bullock sold, no matter whether by the 
 breeder to a lyot, or by one ryot to another. As the price of the small 
 cattle of the country was generally about ten or twelve fanams, this 
 apparently trifling fee, levied as it was on every transfer, became a really 
 heavy burthen. 
 
 In the Bani^a/orc Division, from the period of the assumption, the 
 duties on 312 articles were struck off, including grain, of the annual 
 value of Rs. 3,73,208-6-10. 
 
 It is of course needless to mention that in this Division the grain duties 
 had been swept away, and a vast number of items expunged from the tariff 
 as in the other Divisions. But notwithstanding that a total reform was 
 needed in the Bangalore Division only less than in the others, yet, as the 
 sdyar made up a very large item of the revenue, caution was required in 
 disturbing it. As a first step, the whole was taken out of the hands of the 
 
 U U 2
 
 66o ADMINISTRATION 
 
 izardars or renters, and put, in the year 1846-7, under Sarkar management ,- 
 and the duties were levied avowedly on the old rules and system, the 
 better, by acquirinj^ a practical knowledg-e of those old rules, to reform and 
 improve them afterwards. The result of that year's arrangements was an' 
 increase of nearly 48-| per cent, in this item of revenue over that of former 
 years under the renters, and an assurance that a fair and equitable method 
 of collecting these duties might be devised without any very gi-eat loss to 
 the Sarkar. 
 
 The first modification of the old sdyar system in this Division was 
 commenced in July 1847. It was simply the levying an ad valorem duty 
 of 4 per cent, on all articles at the place of export or despatch : and at the 
 frontier kattes on all articles entering the Division. To this general rule 
 there were but three exceptions : ist, raw silk, on which an ad valorem 
 duty of 2 per cent, only was imposed ; 2nd, tobacco was rated in three 
 classes : — i. 12 Kanthiraya fanams per maund ; ii. choora or fibres, 9 
 fanams ; iii. kaddi or scraps, 6 fanams per maund ; and 3rdly, betel-leaf for 
 the consumption of the Bangalore town was charged \\ cash per bundle. 
 The above were the rates fixed upon the tobacco entering the Bangalore 
 taluq, but in all other parts of the Division it came under the general rulie 
 of 4 per cent, ad valorem. This arrangement obtained for five months, till 
 December 1847, when the rules were revised in order that they might be 
 adapted to act in concert with the sayar rules which were being simul- 
 taneously modified in the other Divisions, and the revision thus made was 
 as follows : — Articles merely passing through the Division, to or from other 
 parts of Mysore, to or from the Company's districts, or from one part of the 
 Company's territories to others, were exempt from duty. Articles imported 
 from the Company's territories, and consumed in this Division, were 
 charged 4 per cent, ad valorem ; also articles exported to the Company's 
 territories from the Division. An ad valorem duty of 2 per cent, only was 
 leviable on articles exported to, or imported from, the other Divisions of 
 Mysore. On certain articles produced and consumed in this Division, an 
 ad valorem duty of 2 per cent, was leviable at the place of production, and 
 the same at the place of consumption. The duty on raw silk, tobacco and 
 betel-leaf was the same as stated above. All sugar and saccharine produce 
 was exported free of duty ; but sugar, &c., consumed in this Division paid' 
 duty the same as other ai'ticles. 
 
 In Chitaldroog there was, as in other Divisions, no regular system or 
 fixed principle of taxation under the former administration ; but the 
 practice was to tax every article, whether of home or foreign produce > 
 the amount of each tax was undefined and arbitrary. The tables of 
 rates which were in the sdyar kattes were never acted on, either before 
 or subsequent to the assumption of the country. In practice ever7 
 village and every custom house had its own rates, and these varied so- 
 much that the classification of them was impracticable. All disputes 
 relative to these taxes were decided bv mamul or local usage. The
 
 UNDER THE MYSORE COMMISSION 66 1 
 
 sayar duties were divided into bhara iiuirg and chillar mdrg (transit on 
 high and cross roads) ; sihal bharti (duties on exports or productions) ; 
 and karag padi (town duties), with other local taxes included under 
 the head of sayar. ^\'hile taxation was thus general as respects things, 
 there were privileged classes and persons who were altogether exempt 
 from duties. The sayar was generally rented by taluqs, but for somt 
 years the whole faujdari of Chitaldroog was rented to one individual 
 The renting system was continued till 1S45-6, and in the following 
 year the sayar was placed under the management of the public 
 servants. 
 
 Since the assumption of the country, however, many taxes levied on caste 
 and domestic customs and institutions of vexatious character were gradually 
 remitted. In 1832-3 and 1833-4 duty upon grain was abolished. In 1835-6 
 the duty was taken off china articles. In 1837-8 duty upon vegetables, 
 fruit, plantain and jungle leaves, and on horses, was discontinued. In 
 1838-9 duty upon firewood, grass, milk, sweetmeats, parched rice, butter- 
 milk, elephants, and fowls, was remitted. In 1841-2 an item termed bazar 
 pasgi, which was a collection in kind, from the renters of grain and other 
 articles, for erecting stalls on market days, was abolished. In 1845-6 the 
 duty upon cattle was abolished, and in 1847-8 duties on silk, on cotton, on 
 all saccharine produce, and all transit duties, were abolished. 
 
 The following rules for the collection of siiyar were established in this 
 Division. The sayar duties on all but thirty-eight articles were abolished. 
 ■Of the above thirty-eight articles, six were made subject to an ad valorem 
 duty, as follows : — Sthal bharti or export duty of 6 per cent, was levied on 
 supari of inferior quality, produced in the Division and exported, besides 
 the karag, or town duty, on what was retained or consumed. Sthal bharti 
 duty of 20 per cent, was levied on dry cocoanut, besides the consumption 
 duty on it, which was also to be levied according to the existing miimul. A 
 bharti duty of 5 per cent, was levied on date jaggory, besides the karag, or 
 town duty, according to mdmul. A bharti of i a rupee per maund was 
 levied on all tobacco the produce of the Division, excepting in the taluqs 
 bordering on the Bellary District, where only two annas were to be levied, 
 the produce being inferior in quality. Half a rupee consumption duty on 
 tobacco imported into the Division. A bharti duty of one rupee pcrnuumd 
 was levied on silk manufactured in the Division, both the transit and con- 
 sumption duties being abolished. The silk of the other Divisions was 
 allowed to pass free from duty. But if such silk was retained in the Division 
 beyond a limited time, it was subject to duty. 
 
 The total annual value of the remissions made in this Division under 
 the head of sayar was Rs. 1,85,907-0-5. 
 
 Judicial System. — When the Governor-General of India resolved 
 that the territories of the Raja of Mysore should be governed until 
 further orders by a sole Commissioner and four I-2uropean Super-
 
 66 2 ADMINISTRA TION 
 
 intendcnts in the ] )islricts, the system and establishments for the 
 administration of justice which then existed being considered 
 inadequate to the wants of the country, an order for the estabhshment 
 of Courts of Justice, with a draft of Rules for their guidance, was issued 
 on the 27th of October 1834. These Rules may be said to form the 
 basis of the system of Judicial administration existing up to 1854. 
 
 The Courts established during this period for the administration of 
 civil and criminal justice within the Mysore territory may be classed 
 under six heads or grades. 
 
 Taluq or Amils' Courts 85 Superintendents' Courts ... 4 
 
 Town Munsifts' Courts 2 I Huzar Adalat i 
 
 Principal Sadar Munsiffs' Courts 8 I Court of the Commissioner ... i 
 
 Of courts of original jurisdiction there were two classes : — ist, the 
 Amils' Courts; 2nd, the Town Munsiffs'. 
 
 The Amils had power to decide without record all claims not exceeding 
 Rs. 20 ; with a record of proceedings, suits not in excess of Rs. 100 ; and, 
 when assisted by a Panchdyat, all suits not exceeding Rs. 500. An appeal 
 might be filed in the Sadar Munsiffs' Court in the second and third descrip- 
 tion, but not in the first, unless when corruption or gross partiality was 
 alleged, or when the claim involved landed property, under which circum- 
 stances the higher Courts, and eventually the Commissioner, might be 
 appealed to. 
 
 The Mysore Town Munsiff had nearly identical power with that of an 
 Amil in all suits regarding real or personal property, which was connected 
 with, or may have originated within the limits of, the town of Mysore. The 
 Bangalore Town ]\Iunsiff, in addition to the powers of an Amildar, had 
 authority to decide, with a record of proceedings, all suits for real property 
 not exceeding Rs. 500, and for personal property not exceeding Rs. 1,000, 
 and an appeal from his decisions lay direct to the Superintendent of the 
 Division, whereas in the case of the two former the appeal lay only to the 
 Sadar Munsiff. A written decision had to be given in all cases, whether a 
 record of proceedings had been kept or not. 
 
 Of courts of original jurisdiction and of appeal, there may be said to 
 have been two classes : — ist, the Principal Sadar ^Munsiffs' Courts : 
 and 2nd, the Courts of the European Superintendents. 
 
 The Principal Sadar Munsiffs, of whom there were two in each Division, 
 decided all suits in appeal from the Amils, their decision in all such appeals 
 being final, unless in cases of landed property, or under circumstances of 
 corruption or gross partiality ; they also decided all original suits for real 
 property above Rs. 100 and not exceeding Rs. 1,000, and for personal 
 property above Rs. 100 and not exceeding Rs. 5,000. 
 
 All appeals from their decisions lay to the Superintendents of Divisions, 
 or to the Huzur Adalat, at the option of the suitor. The Munsiffs kept a 
 records of all proceedings, and sealed, signed, and delivered, to both
 
 UNDER THE MYSORE COMMISSIOX 663 
 
 plaintiff and defendant in a suit, copies of the decree issued in the case. 
 The Sadar Munsiffs had, moreover, authority to try all cases referred to 
 them by the Superintendents of their respective Divisions. 
 
 The Superintendents had authority to investigate all appeals whatsoever 
 from the lower courts of their Divisions, as also all original suits involving 
 real property in value above Rs. i,t>oo, or personal property above 
 Rs. 5,000. Under the Commissioner's special instructions, the Super- 
 intendents exercised control over the Munsiffs and all subordinate judicial 
 authorities within the limits of their Divisions. 
 
 Of Courts of Appeal^ there were two : ist, the Huzur Adalat, a 
 Native Court attached to the Commissioner's Olifice, and having three 
 judges; 2nd, the Commissioner's Court. 
 
 The Huzur Addlat had power to take cognizance of, and to pass a decision 
 upon, all appeals from the subordinate Native Courts. This court was not 
 assisted by a panchdyat unless specially ordered by the Commissioner to 
 convene one, but the judges might be assembled by the Commissioner and 
 employed by him as his assessors whenever he deemed such a course 
 advisable. This court was not one of original jurisdiction, excepting when 
 suits were specially referred to it for investigation by the Commissioner. 
 
 The Commissioner received appeals from the decisions of the Super- 
 intendents and of the Huziir Addlat, either in appeal direct, or by simple 
 petition through the Firiyad Department of his office. No original suits 
 were filed in the Commissioner's Court ; it was, however, optional with him 
 to take notice, in any way he deemed fit, of any representation whatever 
 laid before him. 
 
 The subordinate Revenue officers, the Superintendents of Divisions, 
 and finally the Commissioner, decided all disputes or suits connected 
 with Sarkar or mirasi lands or other revenue matters. The Amils, 
 principal Munsiffs, and Superintendents, were authorized to take 
 cognizance of all suits regarding landed property when the land lay 
 within the limits of their prescribed taluqs, Districts and Divisions, and 
 of all other transactions whatsoever when the defendant permanently 
 resided, or the cause of action originally arose, within the said limits. 
 No suits regarding personal property were admitted when it was proved 
 that no effort for its recovery had been made for a period of sixteen 
 years. 
 
 On a plaintiff presenting himself at one of the Courts of original juris- 
 diction for the purpose of filing a suit, before a writ summoning the 
 defendant was issued, the plaintiff underwent a vivA 7<oce examination in 
 open court. If the judge, after hearing his statements, and inspecting his 
 documents, was of opinion that ihc claim was tenable, the suit was at once 
 filed, and numbered ; but, on the contrary, should the claim appear to the 
 judge to be vexatious or unfounded, he refused to grant a writ until the 
 plaintiff had deposited a sum sufficient to cover the probable amount of the
 
 664 ADMINISTRATION 
 
 costs of the suit (including the fee), or until he gave good and substantial 
 security for the same. The plaintiff was permitted the option of undergoing 
 the examination or of making the deposit. Should the judge refuse to file 
 the suit, he must endorse his reasons for so doing on the back of the rejected 
 plaint. 
 
 The suitor with his plaint was obliged to state the number of his witnesses 
 and the nature of his documentary evidence ; and the defendant on being 
 summoned was obliged to do the same in his answer. The reply and 
 rejoinder were then filed, when the judge further questioned both parties, 
 and then proceeded to receive and record the evidence on both sides. The 
 judge was authorized to call for all such witnesses and documents in the 
 course of the inquiry as he deemed necessary to a right understanding of 
 the matter at issue, but should additional evidence be called for by either 
 plaintiff or defendant during the progress of the suit, the judge did not 
 comply with the requisition until he had ascertained by a viva voce 
 examination that their attendance was absolutely necessary. Should the 
 inquiry be intricate or connected with landed property, the Amil, Munsiff, 
 or Superintendent, might at his option convene a panchayat, which had, 
 under such circumstances, the power to adopt the same measures as the 
 convening authority, with a view to arriving at an equitable decision. Upon 
 the completion of the panchdyat's mahazar, the judge drew up a decree, in 
 which he recapitulated concisely the original statements, the evidence on 
 both sides, documentary and oral, the opinion of the panchayat (if one was 
 convened), his reasons for adopting or differing from the same, and lastly 
 his own opinion or decision, with the arguments upon which it was based. 
 The opinion of the Mufti or Pandit of the Court was also mentioned, should 
 the judge have considered it advisable to call for it in the course of the 
 inquiry. 
 
 Should the losing party in a suit be disposed to file an appeal in the 
 next superior court, the following conditions must be complied with : — 
 
 He must, within thirty days from the date on which he had the decree of 
 the lower court handed to him, forward to the judge of that court an appeal 
 arzi for transmission to the higher court, and he must procure an endorse- 
 ment on it by the judge to the effect that all costs, fees and fines levied in 
 his court had been duly paid, and that substantial and reliable security for 
 the amount decreed had also been lodged in his court. Non-compliance 
 with any of these conditions was held as a valid reason for refusing to 
 forward an appeal, or for its rejection in the appeal court, should the 
 appeal arzi he forwarded to the superior court direct. Special instructions 
 from the Commissioner alone warranted any deviation from this rule. 
 Should the grounds of appeal be corruption or gross partiality, proof of the 
 truth of the charges must be adduced previous to any re-investigation of 
 the case. 
 
 The appellant having complied with the established stipulations, and his 
 appeal having been filed in the superior court, the proceedings of the 
 original court were sent for, on receipt of which the respondent was called
 
 UNDER THE MYSORE COMMISSION 665 
 
 upon for an answer (no reply or rejoinder were requisite in the appeal 
 court), and on receipt of this document, the proceedings of the original 
 court were carefully re-examined, and should it be deemed necessary for the 
 further elucidation of the matter to call for additional documentary or oral 
 evidence, the appeal court's power in this respect was unlimited. All 
 available evidence having in this manner been obtained, an appeal decree 
 was drawn up, confirming or reversing the decision of the lower court, 
 as the case might be. 
 
 Unless under circumstances of corruption, gross partiality, or extreme- 
 peculiarity, an appeal decision in cases of personal property was final. 
 In cases involving landed property, however, notwithstanding a con- 
 current opinion on the part of two courts, a special or extra special 
 appeal, the former to the Superintendent or the Adalat, and the latter 
 to the Commissioner, were admissible. 
 
 In all the subordinate Native Courts, there were summon peons, who 
 were employed in summoning defendants and witnesses, and who 
 received two annas batta per diem during the time they were engaged 
 on this duty. AVitnesses received, according to their rank and circum- 
 stances, an allowance varying from one anna to one rupee daily, besides 
 travelling batta at the same rate when the distance exceeded ten miles. 
 Should the person to be summoned reside beyond the limits of the 
 jurisdiction of the Amil, Munsiff, or Superintendent, an application 
 accompanied by a summons was forwarded from each or any of these 
 authorities respectively to his co-ordinate authority within whose juris- 
 diction the person resided, requesting him to serve the summons and 
 •direct the attendance of the individual in question. Should the 
 required individual belong to the household of the Raja, the applica- 
 tion for his attendance was forwarded through the Commissioner ; and 
 should he be a person of rank, or Government servant, he was 
 summoned by the Superintendent on his own account, or through him 
 on that of the Amil, or Munsiff, but not by the two latter authorities 
 themselves. When witnesses resided at a distance, to save them 
 trouble and expense, lists of interrogatories were occasionally forwarded 
 from one court to another, and to zillah courts in the Company's 
 country under Regulation VII of 1841. Should the list be handed in 
 by either plaintiff or defendant, it must meet the approval of the judge 
 prior to being forwarded, and he was at liberty to add any further 
 questions he considered it advisable to ask : the list furnished by the 
 one party being shown to the other in order that he might insert such 
 cross questions as appeared reasonable and proper. The answers were 
 invariably given and recorded in open court. 
 
 The money for the adjustment of expenditure on the above dilTercnt
 
 666 A DMINISTRA TION 
 
 accounts was deposited in the first instance by the party requiring the 
 outlay, the whole sum paid for such purposes by the gaining party 
 being subsequently charged to whoever lost the suit ; the amount 
 expended in this way being specified in the decree under the head 
 of costs. In pauper suits, the amount of cost was adjusted by 
 Government. 
 
 A list of as large a number as possible of the most respectable and 
 intelligent inhabitants competent to perform the duties of panchayat- 
 dars, was kept in the Court of every Superintendent, Munsifif, and 
 i\mil. When the preliminary papers had been filed in a suit, from the 
 recorded list of panchayatdars five persons next in rotation were (if a 
 pancha3-at was necessary) nominated by the Court. No omission or 
 passing over was permitted, unless in cases where the next on the list 
 was sick, or engaged on another trial. The plaintiff or defendant 
 might challenge three out of the five persons named. The merits of 
 this challenge were summarily decided upon by the head of the court, 
 and his decision was final.' No panchayatdar could be changed after 
 the commencement of the investigation, unless in a case of urgent 
 necessity or sickness. Under such circumstances, four members were 
 permitted to continue the inquiry, an account of what had passed being 
 given to the absent member when he returned. Should only three 
 members remain to prosecute the inquiry, if it was nearly ended, and 
 all three were unanimous in opinion, it was optional with the head 
 of the court to direct them to conclude the matter or to take two 
 new members. 
 
 Every panchayat sat in open court, and free access to hear the 
 proceedings was permitted. No person of bad character, or who was 
 only a court hanger-on — i.e., not a permanent resident in the neigh- 
 bourhood — was permitted to sit on any panchayat whatever. Panchay- 
 atdars were permitted to retire to a separate room to consult upon and 
 draw up their mahazar. Undue influence to induce them to decide 
 against their judgment was most strictly prohibited, although the head 
 of the court, on receipt of the mahazar, was authorized to point out any 
 discrepancy which he perceived in it, and was at liberty also to suggest, 
 if requisite, that the panchayatdars should more fully explain the 
 reasons of their decisions, or reconsider their opinion. It was 
 optional with the panchayatdars to adopt or reject these suggestions, 
 and in the latter case it was necessary that the head of the court 
 
 ' Should the plaintiff or defendant be a foreigner, he was permitted to place a list 
 of his own country people before the court, out of which the judge chose by lot two 
 additional persons to sit on the inquirj-. In such cases the panchayat was composed 
 of seven members.
 
 UNDER THE MYSORE COMMISSION 667 
 
 should in his decree mention his reasons for differing from the 
 panchayat in opinion. 
 
 Unless in cases of glaring injustice, gross partiality, or corruption, it 
 was not deemed advisable to set aside the opinion of the majority of a 
 panchayat ; nor in any instance was the opinion of the minority to 
 form the basis of a decree. A new trial might be ordered, but only 
 under extraordinary circumstances. 
 
 Professional vakils were not recognized by the Courts, and were other- 
 wise discouraged. In cases of necessity, a plaintiff or defendant was at 
 liberty to appoint some other person to conduct his suit ; but such 
 individual should if possible be a relative or friend, as the employment 
 of persons who gained a livelihood solely by instituting and carrying on 
 suits for others in the courts was discouraged, their services being 
 deemed both prejudicial and superfluous under a system of simple 
 procedure. Should the head of a court be aware of any valid 
 objections to the employment of an individual deputed to conduct a 
 suit, he was at liberty to prevent him from pleading, and should any 
 person employed as a vakil behave in a tricky or dishonest manner, he 
 was prohibited from ever again practising in the courts of this Territory. 
 Foreigners were as a matter of necessity permitted to employ strangers 
 as vakils. 
 
 The declaration on oath was abolished in March 1S40, and a cir- 
 cular order was issued by the Commissioner substituting in lieu of 
 it the solemn affirmation authorized by the Government of India in 
 Act Y of 1840. 
 
 In the matter of fees and fines, several alterations took place since 
 the first establishment of the Commission, and there was scarcely any 
 subject connected with the civil procedure of the country which had 
 given rise to the same amount of discussion. Until 1834 the institu- 
 tion fee was enforced in all suits, and as a natural result they were not 
 very numerous, for only those who were well able to pay, or who by the 
 goodness of their cause were able to raise the money, applied to the 
 courts ; it was found, however, that it prevented false litigation or the 
 influx of professional vakils. But in consequence of the authorities 
 having come to look upon it as a tax upon justice, it was finally 
 abolished in 1834. 
 
 For some time, apparently, the abolition of the institution fee did 
 not cause any very great difference in the number of suits ; but as soon 
 as its discontinuance became generally known, the courts of justice 
 became crowded with needy impostors, who, by inciting the people to 
 litigate, and by the institution of false, vexatious and exaggerated suits, 
 carried on the most systematic extortion, and so swelled the files of the
 
 668 ADMINISTRATION 
 
 courts that no increase of cither the Judicial cstahlishments or of activity 
 on the part of the judges could keep pace with the demand, or clear 
 the flies, which in December 1837 showed a balance of 8,000 suits 
 still pending ; and, as it appeared that out of those decided at that time 
 in the courts 45 per cent, of the claimants were non-suited, it Ix-came 
 necessary to provide some check to this system of vexatious and 
 unfounded litigation, and also to relieve, if possible, this great and use- 
 less pressure upon the valuable time of the judges. The consequence 
 was, that in 1839 a circular was issued ordering the realization of a fee, 
 equal in amount to the former institution fee, in all suits which were 
 ascertained to be vexatious or unfounded. But this arrangement not 
 being found sufficient, in March 1841 another set of rules was issued, 
 which may be said to form the existing system at the close of the 
 period under review, with but very slight modifications, and which 
 system, as the non-suits formed then only a small percentage, was 
 looked upon as working well. 
 
 In all suits, a fee leviable at its termination became an incidental 
 expense to the bringing of an action. This fee amounted to one anna 
 in the rupee on sums not exceeding Rs. 800, and on sums above that 
 amount, in a certain fixed proportion. This fee was leviable on all 
 sums claimed in excess of the amount justly due, and as a general rule 
 in all cases of nonsuit, or where the defendant was cast in the full 
 amount. In cases where the parties had applied to the courts more 
 with the view of ascertaining their respective rights than from a desire 
 to litigate, the fee was remitted by the judge. An appeal court had 
 power, on seeing grounds for the same, to remit the fees imposed in the 
 lower courts. A fine in addition, equal to the fee in amount, was levi- 
 able in all suits which were found to be false, vexatious, or unfounded. 
 The fee was leviable by process of execution, immediately upon the 
 judgment being passed. Should the property of the party liable not 
 be sufficient to realize the amount, it was held as a debt due by him 
 to the Government, and he was not permitted to file another suit in 
 any court until the amount was adjusted ; but in the case of a fine, 
 imprisonment not exceeding six months was given in cases of default of 
 payment. 
 
 At the close of a suit, should the defendant fail to attend for the 
 purpose of receiving the decree, a notice for his attendance within ten 
 days was forwarded to the Amildar, and if he was not to be found, the 
 notice was afifixed to the outside of his door. After a month had 
 elapsed from the date of the notice, should the defendant not appear, 
 the decree was carried into effect in the usual manner. All decrees 
 against individuals who lived within the jurisdictions of the Sadar
 
 UNDER THE MYSORE COMMISSION 669 
 
 Munsiffs were carried into effect by the Amildars under their orders ; 
 the Amildars being invariably executive ofificers, excepting in the towns 
 of Bangalore and Mysore, where the Town Munsiffs had executive 
 powers. Sadar Munsiffs, when the defendant's property was beyond 
 the limits of their jurisdiction, forwarded the application for execution 
 of decree through the Superintendent. No decree was carried into 
 effect unless a special application to that effect was made by plaintiff. 
 
 When it became necessary to distrain the property of any individual, 
 the Amil, on being applied to, forwarded a statement of the defendant's 
 projicrty. This statement must be duly attested by two respectable 
 merchants of the place. The Amil was held responsible for its 
 accuracy, and it must contain mention of any Sarkar balances due by 
 the individual ; and then, should the amount not be paid within a 
 certain time specified, the property, on a requisition from the court, 
 was sold by public auction. The (Government claim having first been 
 made good, the balance was appropriated to the adjustment of the 
 decree. The only articles of property exempt from distraint were the 
 tools and implements of the individual's trade or calling, his wearing 
 apparel, his drinking lotah, and, if a ryot, grain for his subsistence until 
 the next season. Concealment of property rendered an individual 
 liable to short imprisonment and the property to seizure. Should it 
 be proved in the course of an inquiry that the defendant was disposing 
 of, or making away with, his property clandestinely, or that he was 
 about to remove himself beyond the jurisdiction of the court, the judge 
 could oblige him to give security for the amount claimed, or, if he 
 refused, place him in close custody until it was given. This course of 
 proceeding, however, was adopted only on most reliable proof Should 
 the defendant reside within the limits of the Company's Territory, the 
 decree was carried into execution under the provisions of Act XXXIII 
 of 1852. 
 
 All parties mutually consenting to adjust any ditTerences (unconnected 
 with indmti or mirasi privileges), were permitted, as in ancient times, to 
 do so through the arbitration of an lipas pancliayat of not less than five 
 members ; each party nominated two members, these four then jointly 
 appointed their own president. A muchchalika binding themselves 
 to abide by the decision of the panchdyat was registered by the parties 
 in the Amildar's cutcherry. The panchayatdars were authorized to 
 summon witnesses, &c., and their mahazar, on an application through 
 the Amil to the Superintendent, was looked upon by the latter in the 
 light of a legal decree and was acted upon accordingly. An apas 
 panchdyat was not empowered to levy fines, fees, or any penalty. 
 
 Razinamas, or bonds of mutual compact or agreement between
 
 670 A DMINISTRA TION 
 
 parties, were, when properly attested, held to be binding and valid 
 documents in all the courts of the Territory, and it was only under 
 circumstances of fraud or collusion that they were ever rejected. 
 
 Should a defendant fail to appear within the prescribed time, and 
 after due notice had been given him should be unable to assign satis- 
 factory reasons for his absence, an ex parte decree was passed by the 
 court. .£'.v/flr/^ decrees were admitted by an appellate court within 
 the prescribed period, on the appellant proving to the satisfaction of 
 that court that his default or absence from the lower court was unavoid- 
 able, and not wilful ; and should such proof be accepted, the proceed- 
 ings were returned to the lower court for re-investigation ; should it 
 be rejected, a fine was levied not exceeding double the amount of fee 
 imposed in the lower court. 
 
 ^^'ith the exception of orders limiting the rate of interest which a 
 decree could award to 12 per cent, in money dealings, and to 24 per 
 cent, in grain transactions, and also directing that a total of interest 
 greater in amount than the original loan should not under any circum- 
 stances be awarded, interest was a matter which had, to a great extent, 
 been left to self-adjustment in the Mysore Territory, until circumstances 
 induced the Commissioner to order, — that in all future transactions in 
 which the rate of interest was not distinctly laid down, the courts were 
 not to award a higher rate than 6 per cent. ; but that, where the rate 
 of interest was expressly noted in the bond, the judge was to draw up 
 his award in conformity with the agreement. 
 
 The language of all judicial proceedings and decisions was Canarese, 
 but, should the vernacular language of any officer who was head of a 
 court be other than Canarese, he was bound to write his decision, or 
 any particular points regarding which he had to call for proof, in his 
 own language, and these papers having been translated into Canarese, 
 a copy of both the original and the translation were placed on record. 
 Should any head of a court, however, be sufficiently conversant with 
 Canarese to use it instead of his own language he was at liberty to do so. 
 
 In the case of a minor, the amount to which he was heir was placed 
 in deposit in the treasury, the greater portion being, as a general rule, 
 invested in Company's paper until such time as he attained his 
 majority, which is fixed at 18 years of age in Mysore ; and during the 
 interim he was placed under a respectable relation or some trustworthy 
 person, and a suitable allowance made out of his property for his 
 education and subsistence. Should there be a large amount due to the 
 minor's estate, a curator was appointed, whose only duty it was to 
 recover the several sums due and remit them to the treasury. He 
 .received on all sums realized a commission of 5 per cent. In the case
 
 UNDER THE MYSORE COMMISSION 671 
 
 of insolvents who had a large amount of debts to pay and receive, the 
 usual course was to assemble a panchayat in the Commissioner's Court, 
 which, under his special instructions, investigated the affairs of the 
 estate, and submitted a statement and opinion on the matter. In 
 some instances, the Adalat settled such matters under instructions from 
 the Commissioner. In the case of intestates also, a panchayat was 
 sometimes convened. Should there be no heir, and money have to be 
 paid and received, a curator was appointed ; should there be no heir, 
 and no creditors, the amount of which the intestate died actually 
 possessed, was transferred to the Sivayi Jama ; and should there be an 
 heir, as soon as he had proved his right to the satisfaction of the 
 Commissioner, the property was transferred to him ; if he was a minor, 
 the usual course was pursued. 
 
 No individual of the Barr and Sawar departments, which were under 
 the control of the Military Assistant, could be summoned to attend a 
 Civil Court unless through that officer, nor could any decree against 
 them be executed without a previous intimation to him. 
 
 The Police Superintendent had power to adjudicate in all suits 
 originating within the limits of the Cantonment of Bangalore which did 
 not exceed pagodas 500 or rupees 1,750. His decisions were summary, 
 and he was not obliged to keep a record of proceedings unless in cases 
 of landed or house property. He might assemble a panchayat in any 
 case in which he deemed it advisable. An appeal from his decision 
 lay direct to the Commissioner in cases of landed property, but he was 
 not required to transmit appeals in suits regarding personal property. 
 The Commissioner could, however, take cognizance of any case what- 
 ever in which he deemed it just and right to interfere. 
 
 Suits against His Highness the Raja were filed in the Addlat Court, 
 under the immediate sanction of the Commissioner. 
 
 It was required that in all transactions the bonds, bills of .sale, 
 agreements, transfers, deeds, and other documents, should be executed 
 on stamped paper of a fixed value. Any unstamped document 
 presented in a suit was received and filed, but only on payment of a 
 sum equal to ten times the amount of stamp duty originally leviable 
 upon it. No suits for the recovery of vakil fees were permitted to be 
 filed in the Mysore courts. 
 
 Criminal Justice. — The Courts for the administration of Civil and 
 Criminal justice were identical. The Amildar was head of the police 
 in his taluq, and to assist him in revenue and magisterial business he 
 had under his orders a Peshkar, a Killedar, Shekdars, Hoblidars, 
 Dafadars and Kandachar peons ; of these the Killedar and Hoblidar 
 only were exclusively police officers.
 
 6 7 2 ADMINISTKA 170 N 
 
 In cases of personal wrong, or for petty offences, the Amildar had 
 power to confine an individual in the stocks for not more than 12 
 hours, or to confine a person not in the stocks or in irons, for not more 
 than 14 days. Unless in cases of open violence, however, the Amildar 
 was not authorized to interfere except at the instance of a complaint. 
 The Amildar could not keep any person in confinement pending 
 investigation for a longer period than seven days without a reference to 
 the Superintendent. The Shekdars and Hoblidars had authority to 
 confine, for not more than 24 hours, any persons suspected of heinous 
 crimes, such as murder, burglary, gang, torch, or highway robberies : 
 within that time they must make such inquiries as would enable them 
 to release the parties or report to the Amildar for orders, and they were 
 held strictly responsible for any abuse of this authority. Should a 
 longer detention appear necessary, they must either send the prisoner 
 and witnesses to the Amildar, or forward to that officer a statement of 
 the circumstances for his orders. All offences or unusual occurrences 
 were regularly reported by the talvars and totis of villages, as also by 
 the Killedars and Kandachar officers to the Amildar, and by him to 
 the Superintendent. It was the peculiar duty of the Killedar, and, 
 under his orders, of the subordinate police officers, to search for 
 information, and place it before the panchayat in all taluq inquiries. 
 
 The Principal Sadar Munsiffs had power to punish to the extent of 
 two years' imprisonment, with or without hard labour, in all cases 
 referred to them for investigation and decision by the Superintendent, 
 but they had no original jurisdiction in criminal matters. The 
 Superintendent had power to sentence to seven years' imprisonment, 
 with or without hard labour in irons ; he reviewed all cases inquired 
 into by Amildars or decided by Munsiffs, and commuted or confirmed 
 the decisions of the latter. In cases of murder, gang, or torch 
 robbery, or other offences which involved capital punishment, or a 
 term of imprisonment m excess of his powers, the Superintendent 
 referred the matter for the decision of the Commissioner. The Com- 
 missioner had power to pass sentence of death, transportation for 
 life, or imprisonment with or without hard labour, on parties convicted 
 of murder, or of gang or torch robbery, when the latter crimes were 
 attended with torture or other aggravated circumstances, or when from 
 the frequent occurrence of such crimes he considered an example 
 advisable. All sentences of death required to be submitted to the 
 Supreme Government for confirmation. In criminal matters, the 
 Adalat Court had no jurisdiction, unless when cases were referred to it 
 for investigation by the Commissioner. 
 
 Panchayats for civil and criminal investigations were summoned irr
 
 UNDER THE MYSORE COMMISSIOX 673 
 
 the same manner, and a prisoner had the same permission to challenge 
 as a plaintiff or defendant. There was this difference, however, that 
 no criminal investigation was permitted to be carried on without a 
 panchayat, whereas in civil cases it was optional with the head of the 
 court to convene one or not as he thought desirable. 
 
 The Police Superintendent of the Bangalore Cantonment had 
 authority to punish, with or without hard labour, to the extent of seven 
 years, and to the extent of Rs. 50 by fine. The Commissioner, how- 
 ever, had power to commute or remit any punishment awarded by that 
 officer. In cases involving a punishment in excess of seven years' 
 imprisonment, the Police Superintendent referred the case to the 
 Commissioner. 
 
 Magistrates, and district police officers under the orders of the 
 Magistrate, were permitted to apprehend and place in confinement 
 persons of notoriously bad character, or whose habits of life were 
 suspicious, until they could give good and reliable security for their 
 future good conduct. To prevent undue oppression on the part of 
 subordinate police authorities under the pretence of carrying out 
 the provisions of this order, every individual apprehended under its 
 authority was forwarded to the Superintendent or his Assistant for 
 examination, and could only be confined or punished under the 
 express orders of the former, and no individual taken up under the 
 provisions of this regulation could be confined for a longer period than 
 three years. 
 
 Villagers were authorized and encouraged to use arms of every 
 description in defending themselves and their property whenever their 
 village was attacked by either gang or torch robbers, and valuable 
 bangles were bestowed by the Government on those who distinguished 
 themselves on those occasions. 
 
 The Naiks of the Lamljanies, and the head men of the Kormars 
 and W'addars — these three castes, but more particularly the two former, 
 being looked upon as the professional thieves of this part of India- 
 were obliged to furnish good and reliable security for the good conduct 
 of their tdndas in the case of the first, and of those under their 
 immediate control in the case of the others. The different classes 
 were considered to be permanently under the surveillance of the district 
 police, and all their movements or changes of abode were watched, 
 noted and reported. A register showing the name and dwelling-place 
 of each individual of the different tribes was kept up in each taluq 
 cutcherry, copies of which were forwarded regularly to the Superin- 
 tendents of the Divisions. 
 
 X X
 
 674 ADMINISTRATION 
 
 Transit 10)1 Period, 1856- 1862. 
 
 The period of the (lovernor-General Lord Dalhousie's visit to 
 Mysore, or the year 1855-6, may be considered to mark the termina- 
 tion of the exclusively patriarchal and non-regulation system of govern- 
 ment, which, under the statesmanlike control of Sir Mark Cubbon, 
 and the exertions of his select body of able administrative officers, had 
 achieved results beyond all praise. 
 
 The administration up to this period, as set forth in the reports 
 drawn up at the time, from which the foregoing accounts have been 
 compiled, was reviewed by Lord Dalhousie in the following terms, 
 under date Fort William, the 7th February 1856 : — 
 
 " The Governor-General in Council has read with attention, and with very 
 great interest, the papers submitted. They present a record of administra- 
 tion highly honourable to the British name, and reflecting the utmost credit 
 upon the exertions of the valuable body of officers by whom the great 
 results shown therein have been accomplished. 
 
 " In the past autumn the Governor-General had the opportunity of 
 witnessing some portion of these results with his own eyes, during his 
 journey from the Neilgherries through Mysore to Madras. His journey 
 was necessarily a hasty one. Even the cursory examination of the country, 
 which alone was practicable during the course of a week's visit, enables 
 him to bear testimony to the extent to which works of public improvement 
 have been carried in Mysore, and to the favourable contrast which the 
 visible condition of that Territory and of its people presents to the usual 
 condition of the Territory of a Native Prince, and even to the state of 
 Districts of our own which may sometimes be seen. 
 
 " During the period of twenty-five years which has elapsed since Mysore 
 came under the administration of British Officers, every department has 
 felt the hand of reform. An enormous number of distinct taxes have been 
 abolished, relieving the people in direct payment to the extent of io| lakhs 
 ■of rupees a year, and doubtless the indirect relief given by this measure 
 has exceeded even the direct relief. Excepting a low tax upon cotifee 
 (which is raised on public land free of rent or land-tax), no new tax appears 
 to have been imposed, and no old tax appears to have been increased. 
 Nevertheless the public revenue has risen from forty-four to eighty-two 
 lakhs of rupees per annum. 
 
 " In the administration of Civil and Criminal justice, vast improvements 
 have been accomplished : regularity, order and purity have been intro- 
 duced, where, under native rule, caprice, uncertainty and corruption pre- 
 vailed ; substantial justice is promptly dispensed, and the people themselves 
 have been taught to aid in this branch of the administration, by means of 
 a system of Panchd.yats, which is in full and efficient operation. And in 
 the department of Police, the administration of British Officers has been 
 eminently successful. In short, the system of administration which has
 
 UNDER THE MYSORE COMMISSIOX 675 
 
 been established, whether in the Fiscal or Judicial department, although it 
 may be, and no doubt is, capable of material improvement, is infinitely 
 superior to that which it superseded : and has, within itself, the elements 
 of constant progress.'' 
 
 r>oni that time, the State debts having now been extinguished, com- 
 menced a period of transition, which continued till 1862, when Mr. 
 Eowring, on assuming the government, completed the introduction 
 into every department of the more or less regulation system which has 
 since been developed. From 1856-7 also began the publication of 
 Annual Administration Reports. 
 
 The earlier changes introduced during this period did not result 
 from a new policy adopted with regard to the State of Mysore individ- 
 ually, or from the personal views of I.ord Dalhousie. They operated 
 equally in all parts of India and arose out of the renewal of the E^st 
 India Company's Charter in 1854. The preamble of the celebrated 
 educational despatch of that year from the Court of Directors, which 
 runs as follows, testifies to this : — 
 
 " It appears to us that the present time, when by an Act of the Imperial 
 Legislature the responsible trust of the Government of India has again 
 been placed in our hands, is peculiarly suitable for the review of the pro- 
 gress which has already been made, the supply of existing deficiencies, and 
 the adoption of such improvements as may be best calculated to secure the 
 ultimate benefit of the people committed to our charge." 
 
 One of the first changes was the appointment, in 1856, of a Judicial 
 Commissioner, to relieve the Commissioner of a branch of work which 
 had grown to dimensions beyond his power to discharge in addition to 
 the various other duties devolving upon the Head of the Administra- 
 tion. The formation of a regular Department for Public Works, and 
 the institution of a Department for Education, both date from the 
 same period. In 1858, a Principal Sadar Munsiffs Court was estab- 
 lished in the Cantonment of Bangalore, to relieve the Superintendent 
 of Police of the trial of civil suits. In i860 the head-quarter estab- 
 lishments were revised, and additional European Assistants appointed. 
 The Bangalore Police force was reorganized in 1861, and the Head 
 Kotwal made Sar Amin, with magisterial powers equal to those of an 
 Amildar. Of other measures, steps were taken for the Conservancy 
 of Forests, and for the planting of topes and avenues ; Botanical 
 C.ardens were formed in the old Lai Bagh,' and a (lovernment Press 
 was established. 
 
 ' An Agri-IIorlicullural Society was established at Hangalore in 1S39, under the 
 auspices of the Commissioner, wh<i made over to it the I^il Bagh, and afl'onled other 
 assistance in the way of convict labour, etc. In all other respects the Society was 
 
 X X 2
 
 676 ADMINISTRATION 
 
 A measure of greater importance was the revision of the Mohatarfa- 
 in i860. This was levied in a manner analogous to that of the Sayar 
 and Halat, which had been dealt with during a series of years as pre- 
 viously related. It consisted of a vast number of items, and was 
 closely interwoven with the Chillar Bdb (miscellaneous items), which 
 formerly included many hundreds of trifling, partial, oppressive, and 
 in some instances indecent taxes. Year by year some of the most 
 oppressive and offensive had been struck out, until somewhat less than 
 one hundred remained. Even these included taxes so partial that 
 occasionally only one individual in a village was found to be liable to 
 the cess. Indeed so complicated was the whole system, that some- 
 times it was scarcely capable of explanation by those who were 
 supposed to be thoroughly initiated. 
 
 The Chillar Bab being completely swept away, the Mohatarfa was 
 modified. The house, shop, loom, mill and plough taxes, which 
 formed the principal items, were taken as the basis for the revision. 
 The discrepancies which obliged a man with a retail shop to pay thirty 
 or forty rupees annually, while his neighbour in the possession of a 
 large store paid only four annas ; and the system under which ryots of 
 the same village paid sometimes one rupee and a half, and sometimes 
 half an anna, on their ploughs, was finally and completely abolished. 
 All houses, shops, looms and mills were registered, and assessed under 
 four classes, with distinct rates for large and small towns and large and 
 small villages, the rates ranging from Rs. 60 a year on the largest 
 mercantile store in Bangalore or Mysore, to half a rupee on a village 
 hut or loom. All cultivating ryots were exempted from mohatarfa, 
 unless they kept a shop, loom or mill besides, but they paid a plough- 
 tax ranging from six to three annas', and the amount raised under this 
 head was formed into a Local Fund, devoted to the formation and 
 repairs of cross roads. 
 
 The subsequent radical changes introduced in 1862, and the 
 grounds for them, are thus described in the Annual Report for that 
 year. In pursuance of the principle that the elements of a Native 
 Administration should be maintained in their integrity, and no radical 
 changes permitted in the system inaugurated on our assumption of 
 the government of the country, and carried on with success for nearly 
 
 supported by private contributions ; but constant changes among subscribers led to its 
 dissolution in 1842, and the garden was then restored to the Commissioner. In 1856, 
 Dr. Cleghorn visited Bangalore with the object of conferring regarding the re-estab- 
 lishment of a Horticultural Garden, and a professional Superintendent was obtained 
 from the Royal Botanical Gardens at Kew. This arrangement still continues, and 
 the Lai Bagh has become not only a most ornamental but from a botanical point of 
 view one of the most valuable gardens in India.
 
 UNDER THE MYSORE COMMISSIOX 677 
 
 thirty years, every change in the Mysore Administration which seemed 
 to carry with it the spirit of innovation, had hitherto been introduced 
 tentatively, and with extreme care, the object being always to carry 
 the people with the Government in any reforms. The European 
 officers were few in number, great latitude of authority being exercised 
 by the Superintendents of Divisions, aided by one, or, at the most, 
 two Assistants, without any recognized or defined powers, and the 
 check over the details of administration being therefore necessarily 
 incomplete. 
 
 Under this system the true interests of the Province, as is well 
 known, materially advanced, but as years passed on, and population 
 and revenue increased, serious inconvenience arose, and it became 
 evident that the executive officers, already overburdened with multi- 
 farious duties, could not undertake the additional labour which would 
 be entailed on them by the necessity of a revision of the working of 
 the different departments, and the introduction of a more regular 
 system in every branch of the administration. In fact, it became 
 apparent that a Territory yielding an annual revenue of a crore of 
 rupees, could not be efficiently administered with the same agency as 
 that which was instituted when the revenue was not much more than 
 one-half, and hence the year 1862-3 was specially marked by a gradual 
 reorganization, and an extension, of the agency for conducting the 
 administration. 
 
 The former establishment of the Commissionership of Mysore con- 
 sisted of : — The Commissioner's staff at Head-quarters ; four Super- 
 intendents, one posted to each of the Divisions of the Mysore 
 Territory ; three Assistants and ten Junior Assistants to the Superin- 
 dents of Divisions ; the Court of the Huzur Addlat (consisting of 
 three Judges), originally intended as a superior court for the adjudica- 
 tion of cases in which either the Maharaja of Mysore personally or 
 his immediate retainers were concerned, but of late years disposing 
 only of appeals from the Principal Sadar Munsiffs and MunsifTs, of 
 whom there were ten in the different districts. 
 
 The Commission was now reorganized on the following plan : — 
 jSIysore was distributed into three Divisions, subdivided into eight 
 Districts. A Department of Audit and Account was newly instituted 
 at Headquarters. The Court of Huziir Adalat and the Munsiffs' 
 Courts were abolished ; a body of Native Assistants, analogous to 
 the class of Extra Assistants in Non-Regulation Provinces, was intro- 
 duced, and a Small Cause Court established in the Cantonment of 
 Bangalore. No material changes took place in the designation of 
 the Officers employed in the revised Commission, the names of
 
 678 
 
 ADMINISTRA TION 
 
 Commissioner of Mysore, and Superintendents of Divisions being 
 retained, while the subordinates of the latter ofificers were entitled 
 Deputy Superintendents of Districts, or Assistants, as the case 
 might be. 
 
 The former vast Divisions, averaging 7,000 square miles, were thus 
 broken up into two, each with a Supervising Officer and an Assistant, 
 European or Native, according to circumstances, three such Districts 
 being placed under the superintendence of the Divisional officer in 
 two Divisions, and two in the third. The orders of Government 
 conferred upon the Superintendents the civil and criminal powers 
 exercised by a Commissioner and Superintendent in Non-Regulation 
 Provinces. The Deputy Superintendents were empowered to adjudi- 
 cate civil suits up to any amount, appeals lying to the courts of the 
 Superintendents, and in criminal matters were vested with the full 
 powers of a Magistrate, under the Code of Criminal Procedure. The 
 powers of the Assistants, European and Native, were dependent on 
 the standard of examination passed by them, under rules on the 
 subject prescribed by Government. 
 
 The necessary arrangements for giving effect to these orders having 
 been made, on the 25th November a proclamation was issued, notify- 
 ing the future executive Divisions of the Province, with the Districts 
 and Taluqs attached to each as shown below, and intimating the 
 abolition of the Huziir Adalat Court, as also those of the respective 
 Principal Sadar Munsiffs and Munsiffs. 
 
 Division. 
 
 District. 
 
 No. of Taluqs, 
 
 Nandidroog ... 
 Ashtagram ... 
 Nagar 
 
 ( Bangalore 
 -| Kolar 
 
 I Tumkur 
 
 \ Mysore 
 1 Hassan 
 
 ( Shimoga 
 \ Kadur 
 
 I Chitaldroog 
 
 
 13 
 II 
 
 9 
 
 13 
 II 
 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 10 
 
 The territorial transfers, and changes of jurisdiction involved in 
 them, coupled with the revision of subordinate establishments, the 
 introduction of the Penal and Criminal Procedure Codes, and the 
 modern financial system of Budget and Account, necessarily affected 
 every public department. In the Judicial Department, not only were 
 the number, constitution, and jurisdiction of the Courts altered, the 
 traditionary practice by which their operations were in a great measure
 
 UNDER THE MYSORE COMMISSION 679 
 
 regulated, was abrogated or materially affected by the introduction of 
 the Codes, and the new system necessitated an immediate and com- 
 plete change in all judicial forms and returns. 
 
 Justice. — The number of Courts for the transaction of judical busi- 
 ness in Mysore amounted previously to 103, and were as follows : — 
 Judicial Commissioner, i ; Huzilr Adalat, i ; Superintendents, aided 
 by their Assistants, 4; Principal Sadar Munsiffs, 6 ; District Munsiffs, 
 4 ; Town Munsiffs, 2 ; Sar-Amins, 2 ; and Amildars, S3. The 
 criminal courts consisted of the above, with the addition of the court 
 of the Superintendent of Police, Bangalore. 
 
 The courts of original civil jurisdiction were presided over by officers too 
 underpaid to secure tolerable integrity. The bulk of the appeals lay to the 
 Munsiffs' Courts, and ultimately to that of the Huziir Addlat, the efficiency 
 of which depended on the character of the jutli^es for the time bein;^. The 
 procedure was cumbrous and dilatory, much devolving on unchecked petty 
 subordinates, and the judicial officers were entirely untrained. In criminal 
 matters, great irregularity prevailed in all preliminary inquiries, and offences 
 were so vaguely defined that no conclusions could be formed from the 
 returns, of the nature of offence committed. In both departments, officers 
 of all grades were hampered by the panchdyat system, under which the 
 finding of too o'ten a few illiterate or even corrupt individuals formed the 
 basis of the court's decision. The pressure of their multifarious duties 
 rarely admitted of the European officers trying even important cases them- 
 selves, and this, added to the circumstances above mentioned, rendered 
 their control over the proceedings of the courts very superlicial. 
 
 Under the revised constitution of the Mysore .Vdministration, the 
 following officers held courts, either of original or appellate jurisdiction, 
 in civil and criminal matters : — One Judicial Commissioner ; three Super- 
 intendents of Divisions; eight Deputy Superintendents of Districts; 
 two Judges of the Small Cause Court, one European and one Native ; 
 ten Assistant Superintendents, European, of whom one was employed 
 as Superintendent of Police in the Bangalore Cantonment and three 
 were probationary ; fifteen Assistant Superintendents, Native ; and 
 eighty-six Amildars of taluq.s. Of the above, however, the Judges of 
 the Small Cause Court took no part in the criminal, and the Superin- 
 tendent of Police, Bangalore Cantonment, took no part in the civil 
 work of the Province. 
 
 Tiic pay of the Amildars was raised, by wiiich the services of more 
 efficient and trustwortliy men were obtained. Tiie .Munsiffs and Judges of 
 the Huzur Adalat were represented by the class of Native .Assistants, on 
 liberal and progressive salaries, and whose promotion depended on depart- 
 mental examination tests. A complete but simple code of rules for the 
 guidance of Amildars in the decision of civil suits, compiled partly from
 
 <'' So ADMINISTRA TION 
 
 llic Panj.ib rules and partly from the provisions of Act VIII of 1859, was 
 drawn up, carefully translated into Canarese, and printed for distribution to 
 the Taluq Courts. The Penal Code and Code of Criminal Procedure 
 defined offences, gave the measure of punishment, and regulated the pro- 
 cedure, without entirely excluding the co-operation of juries. The reduc- 
 tion in the size of Districts admitted of the European officers assuming 
 their legitimate duties of trying cases themselves as Magistrates and 
 Judges, and of their exercising a strict control over the proceedings of the 
 subordinate courts. The system of registers and returns was revised, so 
 as to ensure greater dispatch in the disposal of judicial business of every 
 description. 
 
 The system of fees was abolished from the ist of November 1862, 
 and with it also ceased, as a rule, its concomitant system of imposing 
 fines under certain circumstances in civil suits. In lieu of the former 
 system, entailing an ever-increasing balance of fees, which, imposed as 
 they were after the decision of suits both by the original and appellate 
 courts, were found very difficult to realize, and proved not unfrequently 
 perfectly irrecoverable, it was under the revised Stamp Rules made 
 incumbent upon litigants, except in the case of pauper suitors, to pay, 
 as in Her Majesty's Territories, an institution fee in the shape of a 
 stamp paper, on which the plaint was written, and which was of value 
 corresponding with the sum claimed. 
 
 The Superintendents of Divisions having been vested with the 
 powers of Sessions Judges under the provisions of the Penal Code and 
 Code of Criminal Procedure, the Judicial Commissioner was vested 
 with the powers of the Sadar Court. Sessions cases in which a 
 sentence of death was passed on the prisoners, were forwarded for 
 confirmation to his Court, which was one of final reference, of revision, 
 and of appeal, in all judicial proceedings. 
 
 Police. — Except in the Cantonment of Bangalore, a regularly organized 
 Police Force was unknown in Mysore. From the Amildar, the 
 recognized head of police in the taluq, down to the lowest taluq peon, 
 the officials were employed promiscuously, as police, in serving judicial 
 processes, in supplying the wants of travellers, and in revenue duties of 
 all kinds. The police, which was founded on the remains of the old 
 Kandachar or armed militia of the country, and closely identified with 
 the agricultural population, had always been strictly localised, and as 
 the men were rarely removed from the vicinity of their own village, and 
 were under mere nominal supervision, they were, as a necessary 
 consequence, entirely devoid of discipline and training. By effecting 
 reductions in their numbers, and increasing the rates of pay, the most 
 inefficient men were got rid of, the character of the force improved, and 
 it was now possible for the men to live on their pay, which was clearly
 
 UNDER THE MYSORE COMMISSION 681 
 
 not the case when the average rate of a peon's pay was Rs. 3 per 
 month. The poHce generally were now confined to their legitimate 
 duties, a separation having been made between revenue and police 
 peons. The Bangalore Cantonment Police was improved, and special 
 police establishments formed for the Pettah or Town of liangalore, and 
 for Mysore, Tumkilr, and Shimoga, instead of the former system of 
 detaching men in rotation from the taluqs, or from a sejjarate cstal)lish- 
 ment attached to the Division head-quarters. 
 
 Jails. — The subject of jail management received much attention. A 
 new scale of jail dietary was framed. A system formerly prevailed in 
 the Mysore jails of supplementing each prisoner's daily allowance of 
 ragi grain with a money allowance of a few pie per diem, to enable 
 them to buy firewood, vegetables, tobacco and other lu.xuries. This 
 arrangement, as destructive of discipline, was entirely put a stop to. 
 
 Revenue. — All lands in Mysore were classified under the Budget 
 system, according to the tenure on which they were held, which is 
 shown below : — 
 
 Village Settkmeitls. Individual Settlements. 
 
 1. I'cniianenlly settled villages Govt. I. Kyotwar (kan^la>■am«>rassesse(lC■.()vcr^- 
 
 (kayam gutta). ment lands). 
 
 2. Villages on a progressive rental 2. ]5atayi, or division of produce. 
 
 (shraya). Inani. i. Ardhamanyani, uttar, <S:c., lands. 
 
 3. \'illages rented for one year 2. Judi, or lightly assessetl lantls granted 
 
 (kalavadi ijare). to village servants. 
 
 4. I(')di, or lightly assessed villages. Do. Brahmans, fakirs, and dev.isthans. 
 
 Do. private chatrams and topes. 
 
 They were subdivided, as is usual in the south of India, according 
 to the nature of the cultivation, into 7vet or irrigated, dr}\ and };ardfn, 
 the collections being shown in account as Money Payments and 
 Batayi, i.e., division of crop between the (lovernment and tenant. 
 Attention was steadily directed to reducing the extent of land under the 
 batdyi tenure, by substitution of money as.sessment where practicable, 
 ■on account of the numerous objections to the former system. The 
 batayi system, however, could only be finally and satisfactorily 
 extinguished by a Revenue Survey, as there were no other means of 
 ■equitably assessing the large area held on this tenure under tanks. 
 
 The direct manufacture of spirits, toddy, arrack, and ganja, by 
 <'.overnnient, was entirely discontinued, and the Abkari revenue 
 temporarily farmed, prior to the contemi)latcd introduction of the 
 Sadar Distillery system. 
 
 The Mohatarfa, which till a late period incltided a variety of 
 vexatious imposts founded on no uniform principles, had i)een revised
 
 682 ADMINISTRATION 
 
 in i860, and comprised now the following : taxes on houses, on shops, 
 on looms, and on oil-mills. The only other direct tax in Mysore was 
 the Plough Tax, revised simultaneously with the mohatarfa, in substi- 
 tution of the former miscellaneous taxes on ploughs, castes, professions, 
 <;v:c., styled Chillar Bab. 
 
 The annual renewal of ryohvar pattas was as far as possible dis- 
 continued, and existing pattas confirmed for five years, pending the 
 introduction of a Revenue Survey, thus giving additional security to 
 the ryot against the fraud of the shanbhog, and a great saving of 
 unnecessary labour to the Government officials. 
 
 Encouragement was given to private individuals to undertake the 
 repairs of tanks the revenue return from which did not hold out the 
 prospect of the repairs being remunerative to Government, by pre- 
 scribing such low rates of assessment on dry land converted into wet, 
 as secured to the ryots a tangible profit ; and in the case of persons 
 constructing new works, such as tanks or wells, at their own expense, 
 the former dry land rate of assessment was continued, on .the equitable 
 principle, not hitherto generally recognized, that a man should reap the 
 profits of capital laid out by himself. 
 
 Finance. — A commencement w^as made towards introducing the 
 Budget system of Accounts. Formerly the accounts were all kept in 
 Canarese, and the pre-audit of expenditure was unknown. English 
 forms and figures were now ordered to be made use of. Currency 
 notes were gradually brought into use, and the confused and 
 miscellaneous copper coins in circulation it was arranged should be by 
 degrees withdrawn. 
 
 Military. — The Mysore Horse or Silahdars, on the assumption of the 
 country in 1831, were avowedly disorganized and comparatively useless, 
 but since they had been under European supervision they had greatly 
 improved, and were now probably as efficient as any other body of 
 Savars of the same class. The Barr or Infantry were very useful men, 
 and constantly employed in police duties. They guarded treasure 
 and prisoners at the kasba of every taluq, and escorted both to the 
 District head-quarters when necessary. The pay of a trooper in the 
 Mysore Horse was fixed in 1835 at Rs. 20. In those days this pay 
 was ample, but since then the prices in Mysore had risen considerably, 
 as in other parts of India, and Government this year sanctioned the 
 rate being raised to Rs. 22 and the gradual reduction of the existing 
 strength of the seven regiments from 2,500 to 2, 100, or 300 men for each. 
 No change in regard to the other grades was considered necessary. 
 The total strength of the four battalions of the Barr was also to be reduced 
 from 2,161 to 2,000, the pay of ist class Sepoys being raised from
 
 UNDER THE MYSORE COMMISSION 6S3 
 
 Rs. 6^ to 7, and 2nd class from 5^ to 6, with a corresponding increase 
 for non-commissioned officers. 
 
 In fixing the complement of the Mysore Local F'orce, the wants of 
 the whole Province were carefully considered, and the troops utilized 
 as much as possible by redistributing them according to the require- 
 ments of the newly-formed Districts. With this object, both Silahdars 
 and Earr, instead of being scattered over the country in small parties, 
 were concentrated, by being withdrawn from those outposts where their 
 presence was not necessary, and stationed at the head-quarters of 
 Districts, and on main lines of road. 
 
 Administration from 1863 to 1881. 
 
 Instead of attempting to record in chronological order the various 
 measures which have from time to time been introduced in pursuance 
 of the policy in operation since 1S63 in the Administration of Mysore, 
 it will be more convenient to describe the system and institutions of 
 Oovernment as they existed up to the time of the Rendition in 1881, 
 under the two major heads of Civil and Military, — subdividing the 
 former into Revenue and Finance, Judicature, Public Works, Public 
 Instruction, and Medical Departments, going back to review the 
 important steps l)y which each had attained to its then constitution 
 and practice.^ 
 
 CIVIL DEPARTMENTS. 
 
 ReYenue and Finance. — The gross revenue of Mysore in 1791, 
 according to accounts furnished to Lord Cornwallis by Tipu Sultan, 
 was Kanthiraya pagodas 14,12,500, or in the present currency about 
 42 lakhs of rupees. Tipu Sultan was finally defeated and the authority 
 of the British Government established in 1799 and iSoo. The gross 
 revenue from that time is given as follows : — 
 
 Kanthiraya Pagodas or Governmenl Rupees. 
 1799-1S00 ... ... 21,53,000 ... 62,79,583 
 
 1800-1801 ... ... 24,20,000 ... 700^)333 
 
 I801-I802 ... ... 26,04,000 ... 75.95,000 
 
 1802-1803 ... ... 25,41,000 ... 74,11,250 
 
 ' The information is taken from a variety of ofiicial papers too numerous to 
 mention : but much of it, to 1872, is l)ased on the Administration Report for that 
 year by Mr. Wellesley, which contained retrospective summaries relating to each 
 Department by their respective heads, such as Pul)lic Works by Colonel (afterwards 
 Sir Richard) Sankey, R.K., Chief I-!i\i;ineer ; l-inance by Mr. Hudson, Deputy 
 Accountanl-Ceneral, »Vc.
 
 684 ADMINISTRATION 
 
 The revenue subsequently languished under the personal adminis- 
 tration of the late Mahardja, and we find that in the year after the 
 •country was placed under British Commissioners the receipts amounted 
 to Rs. 55 lakhs only, in the next to 58 lakhs, then to 67 lakhs, and to 76J 
 lakhs in the year 1835-6. It fluctuated between 68| and 8i| lakhs till 
 1853-4. The next year of increase was 1856-7, when the gross 
 receipts were 89 lakhs ; in 1859-60 they amounted to 99 lakhs, and in 
 1861-2 to ioo| lakhs. In 1865-6 they reached 109 lakhs, and in 1872-3 
 close upon no lakhs, since when the revenue stood at from 109-0- to 
 1094- lakhs. 
 
 In the year 1831, when the country was placed under British 
 management, misrule had disorganized the Native Administration and 
 brought the public exchequer to the verge of bankruptcy, and one of 
 the first subjects that demanded the attention of the British Com- 
 missioners was the State debt. The amount was approximately stated 
 in 1832 at about 65^^ lakhs of rupees, consisting of arrears of pay to the 
 local troops and civil establishments, and the personal liabilities of the 
 Maharaja, but the subsequent accounts show that they eventually cost 
 the country about 87! lakhs of rupees. The earliest efforts of the 
 Commission were directed towards the discharge of the arrears of pay 
 to public establishments, of which Rs. 8,82,000 were disbursed within 
 the first year, and 25 lacs during the next nine; but they do not appear 
 to have been finally extinguished till 1857-8, a period of twenty-six 
 years, during which the payments on this account amounted altogether 
 to Rs. 35,90,000. 
 
 The liabilities of the deposed Maharaja were eventually liquidated 
 after investigation by a special officer, Mr. (afterwards Sir) J. P. Grant, 
 who was expressly commissioned for the purpose by the Supreme 
 Government. The amount paid under the awards of his court, 
 between the years 1844 and 1850, amounted to Rs. 34,85,000; but 
 during the thirteen years preceding that settlement, while the country 
 was recovering from the effects of past misgovernment, large sums 
 continued to be paid to the Maharaja on account of his stipend of 
 Rs. 3-5 lakhs per year, and the fifth share of the net revenue secured to 
 him by treaty. Both payments averaged 1 1 lakhs annually. The fore- 
 going remarks refer to debts contracted before the British assumption 
 of the government, which were dealt with by Mr. Grant's court. In 
 1863, however, the condition of the Maharaja's finances again attracted 
 the attention of Government. Claims to the amount of 55I lakhs 
 of rupees were pressing for settlement, and two officers — Colonel 
 C. Elliot, C.B., and Dr. J. Campbell, the ^Maharaja's Darbar Surgeon — 
 were appointed to the task of inquiring into and effecting a commuta-
 
 STATE REVENUE 685 
 
 tion of these liabilities. The amount paid in the years 1864-7 on this 
 account amounted to Rs. 26,90,000. Finally, after the death of the 
 Maharaja in March 1868 other debts incurred by His Highness since 
 the year 1864 were commuted by payments in the year 1868-70, 
 amounting to Rs. 12,76,000. Thus the gross amount paid from the 
 Mysore revenues under authority of the British Government in liquida- 
 tion of the Maharaja's personal debts between the years 1844 and 1870 
 was 74^ lakhs of rupees. 
 
 To return to the earlier accounts. In order to meet the liabilities 
 of the State, the condition of the finances was such that it became 
 necessary to obtain a loan from the British Government, in 183 1-2 
 Rs. 2,50,000; in 1832-3, Rs. 10,00,000; in 1833-4, Rs. 9,78,202 ; 
 and in 1834-5, Rs. 11,94,332; in all, Rs. 34,22,534. Owing to the 
 heavy demands on the revenue on account of arrears due to establish- 
 ments, it was not till 1837-8 that the first instalment of 3 lakhs was 
 repaid to the British (Government. The subsequent payments were, 
 5 lakhs in 1839-40, 3 lakhs in each year from 1842-3 to 1844-5, I2 
 lacs in 1845-6, and 2 lacs in 1846-7 ; making up Rs. 29,50,000. 
 There was no further payment till 1849-50, mainly owing to the 
 claims of the Maharaja's creditors, when the balance — Rs. 4,72,534 — 
 of the capital sum borrowed was liquidated. The interest account, 
 made up at the rate of 5 per cent, per annum to November 1851, 
 was, however, still unredeemed. It left Rs. 16,98,261 due by the 
 Mysore State, and that amount was paid by instalments between 
 the years 1852-3 and 1855-6. The total of the capital amount 
 borrowed from the British Government, with interest, was thus 
 Rs. 51,20,795. 
 
 All the debts of the State having been licjuidatcd, as well as those 
 of the Maharaja which came within the scope of Mr. Grant's adjudi- 
 cation, the financial difliculties bequeathed to the British Administra- 
 tion by the Native Rule may be said to have been surmounted in the 
 year 1856. The task involved an expenditure from the Mysore 
 revenues, of Rs. 87,73,261 — or ;^877,326 — during a period of 
 twenty-five years. The multitude of taxes abolished or reduced down 
 to the same period, aggregating \o\ lakhs of rupees annually, have 
 previously been mentioned. Trade was thus set free and the revenue 
 continued to rise. 
 
 State Revenue. — The State Revenue, as distinguished from Local 
 and Municipal Funds, was now composed of the following items, 
 under each of which the amount aniuuilly realized down to iSSi is 
 entered : —
 
 686 
 
 ADMINISTRA TION 
 
 Year. 
 
 LandRevenue 
 
 Forests. 
 
 Abkari. 
 
 Sdyar. 
 
 Mohatarfa. 
 
 Salt. 
 
 1865-6 Rs. 
 
 77,25,767 
 
 3,42,959 
 
 10,01,944 
 
 8,88,699 
 
 3,78,304 
 
 15,850 
 
 1866-7 
 
 66,56,799 
 
 3,66,021 
 
 8,47,964 
 
 5,67,341 
 
 3,30,047 
 
 8,480 
 
 1867-8 
 
 80,92,251 
 
 4,10,012 
 
 9,69,189 
 
 7,07,125 
 
 3,89,397 
 
 18,025 
 
 1868-9 
 
 77,53,671 
 
 3,51,476 
 
 9,56,508 
 
 7,19,157 
 
 3,79,424 
 
 14,429 
 
 1869-70 
 
 61,31,402 
 
 2,95,218 
 
 9,79,838 
 
 7,56,069 
 
 2,82,673 
 
 10,611 
 
 1 870- 1 
 
 60,07,315 
 
 3,37,669 
 
 10,14,102 
 
 7,50,502 
 
 2,75,687 
 
 10,720 
 
 1871-2 
 
 73,25,280 
 
 4,07,112 
 
 10,68,754 
 
 7,23,154 
 
 3,42,771 
 
 14,844 
 
 1872-3 
 
 73,50,285 
 
 3,76,185 
 
 10,80,826 
 
 8,85,824 
 
 3,88,008 
 
 13,437 
 
 1873-4 
 
 71,77,284 
 
 5,13,661 
 
 11,50,298 
 
 8,68,633 
 
 3,73,827 
 
 18,492 
 
 1874-5 
 
 73,51,268 
 
 3,82,162 
 
 11,53,773 
 
 7,79,697 
 
 3,68,249 
 
 16,539 
 
 1875-6 
 
 73,78,225 
 
 4,45,688 
 
 12,29,646 
 
 3,67,728 
 
 5,97,060 
 
 11,485 
 
 1876-7 
 
 64,35,694 
 
 4,72,760 
 
 11,69,599 
 
 3,50,686 
 
 4,57,349 
 
 5,287 
 
 1877-8 
 
 72,70,654 
 
 4,79,283 
 
 10,25,596 
 
 3,03,662 
 
 3,66,231 
 
 6,114 
 
 1878-9 
 
 73,00,677 
 
 4,51,843 
 
 9,52,082 
 
 2,76,444 
 
 4,58,537 
 
 8,713 
 
 1879-80 
 
 69,75,406 
 
 5,29,136 
 
 8,64,621 
 
 2,40,707 
 
 4,27,437 
 
 11,359 
 
 1880- I 
 
 69,31,132 
 
 6,97,779 
 
 10,67,635 
 
 2,52,826 
 
 3,33,020 
 
 23,358 
 
 Year. 
 
 Stamps. 
 
 Post Office. 
 
 Law, Justice 
 and Police. 
 
 Public Works 
 Department. 
 
 Other items. 
 
 1865-6 ... Rs. 
 
 2,61,583 
 
 37,021 
 
 91,687 
 
 70,663 
 
 1,02,214 
 
 1866-7 
 
 2,78,381 
 
 36,308 
 
 91,406 
 
 42,590 
 
 91,762 
 
 1867-8 
 
 3,15,157 
 
 39,091 
 
 1,15,072 
 
 36,450 
 
 96,552 
 
 1868-9 
 
 3,71,946 
 
 37,620 
 
 91,077 
 
 74,726 
 
 1,28,238 
 
 1869-70 
 
 4,22,250 
 
 39,997 
 
 1,15,219 
 
 82,514 
 
 1,41,903 
 
 1870-1 
 
 2,92,975 
 
 41,720 
 
 2,64,199 
 
 65,597 
 
 1,36,556 
 
 1871-2 
 
 1,97,233 
 
 44,368 
 
 3,40,360 
 
 15,268 
 
 1,42.793 
 
 1872-3 
 
 1,88,243 
 
 44,876 
 
 4,14,397 
 
 11,077 
 
 2,43,534 
 
 1873-4 
 
 1,92,585 
 
 46,666 
 
 4,15,754 
 
 50,031 
 
 1,39,881 
 
 1874-5 
 
 2,02,384 
 
 49,749 
 
 4,24,265 
 
 48,901 
 
 1,70,456 
 
 1875-6 
 
 2,07,101 
 
 54,281 
 
 4,64,087 
 
 41,684 
 
 1,79,683 
 
 1876-7 
 
 5,07,246 
 
 59,749 
 
 1,15,899 
 
 40,843 
 
 1,45,113 
 
 1877-8 
 
 4,96,873 
 
 55,450 
 
 1,22,531 
 
 25,073 
 
 1,21,446 
 
 1878-9 
 
 5,29,685 
 
 50,347 
 
 1,32,633 
 
 60,235 
 
 2,31,657 
 
 1879-80 
 
 5,06,441 
 
 49,870 
 
 1,18,427 
 
 42,785 
 
 1,63,326 
 
 1880-1 
 
 4,67,882 
 
 51,821 
 
 1,15,603 
 
 12,085 
 
 1,40,705 
 
 The main source of revenue in Mysore is thus seen to be the land. 
 But before specifying the amounts reaHzcd from various sources under 
 this head, it is desirable to describe the then existing tenures, and the 
 system of land settlement. 
 
 The la7id tenures in the Province may be broadly divided into Sarkar 
 or Government lands, and Inam lands. Government lands are held 
 under the ryotwari tenure, either on kanddyam, i.e., a fixed money 
 assessment, or on hatayi. Except in the settled taluqs, where the term 
 of the settlement is fixed at thirty years, kandayam lands are held on 
 annual leases or pattas, but the assessment is seldom altered and hardly 
 ■ever raised. By far the larger portion of the land in the Province is 
 held on this tenure. Under the batayi system, the land is held direct 
 from Government, but the share of Government is paid in grain. The
 
 LAND TENURES 687 
 
 proportion generally claimed by Government is one-half, but it is 
 probable that in reality only one-third is received, the remaining two- 
 thirds being shared between the ryots and the village servants. The 
 batayi tenure, though still greatly prevalent in the Nandidroog Division, 
 will wholly cease and disappear with the completion of the Survey and 
 Settlement in each taluq. In the meantime the ryots can always con- 
 vert their occupation of batayi lands into that of the ordinary kan- 
 dayam tenure if they please, and every encouragement to their so doing 
 is afforded by the Government, which earnestly desires the entire 
 abolition of the batayi tenure. 
 
 In the case of private estates, such as inam and kayamgutta villages, 
 and large farms of Government lands cultivated by payakaris or under- 
 tenants, the land is held on the following tenures :— 
 
 1st. Vdraiii, under which an equal division of produce is made between 
 the landlord and the tenant, the former paying the assessment of the land 
 to the Government. 2nd. Miikkuppe, under which two-thirds of the produce 
 go to the cultivator, and one-third to the landlord, who pays the assessment 
 of the land. 3rd. Arakandaya or chaiurbhdga, under which the landlord 
 gets one-fourth of the produce and pays only a half of the Government 
 revenue, the remaining half being discharged by the cultivator, who enjoys 
 as his share three-fourths of the produce. 4th. Wolakanddya, in which the 
 tenant pays a fixed money rate to the landlord. This may either be equal 
 to or more than the assessment of the land. 
 
 An hereditary right of occupation is attached to all kanddyam lands. 
 As long as the pattedar pays the Government dues he has no fear of 
 displacement, and virtually possesses an absolute tenant right as 
 distinct from that of proprietorship. When the Government finds it 
 necessary to assume the land occupied by him for public purposes, he 
 is always paid compensation, fixed either by mutual consent or under 
 the Land Acquisition Act. 
 
 Varies. — In the Malnad or hilly taluqs of the Nagar Division, situated on 
 the plateaux of the Western Ghats, the holdings of the ryots are called 
 vargs. The varg consists of all the fields held by one vargdar or farmer, 
 and these are seldom located together, but are generally found scattered in 
 different villages, and sometimes in different taluqs. When closely 
 examined, the varg means nothing more than a patta or deed covering the 
 different lands held by one proprietor in one or more villages. The varg 
 system does not appear to be of old origin, and is said to have come into 
 existence on the assumption of the management of the country by British 
 officers in 1831, when the Superintendent, anxious to procure an accurate 
 record of each man's holding, directed a Pahani account to be framed, and 
 the holding of each man to be therein shown, with its reputed extent and 
 assessment. This precaution was necessary considering the topographical
 
 688 ADMINISTRATION 
 
 peculiarities of this portion of tlic Province, consistin;^ of hill and dale 
 covered with jungle, and not unfrequently inaccessible. The rule now is 
 that no one is allowed to relinquish or apply for a portion of the varg 
 unless the whole of it is resigned or taken up, but the new Survey Depart- 
 ment is breaking down the old system, and in settled taluqs the extent and 
 assessment of each field forming the varg is defined, so as to afford the 
 usual facilities to the ryot for retaining and resigning as much as he cannot 
 cultivate, provided that whole fields or numbers only are relinquished. 
 
 Unnkahi and Hddya Lands. — Attached to each varg are tracts of land 
 called hankalu and hddya, for which no assessment is paid, but which are 
 said to be included in the varg to which they are attached. The hankalu, 
 like the bdnes in Coorg, are set apart for grazing purposes, but have of late 
 also been used for dry cultivation. The hddya are lands covered with low 
 brushwood and small trees, from which firewood and leaves, tSic, are taken 
 for manuring the fields of the varg. 
 
 Tatjina Hankalu. — In the Malnad to each gadde or wet field are 
 attached tracts of dry land, called tattina hankalu, for which no assess- 
 ment is paid, but which are said to be included in the assessment on the 
 wet field. 
 
 Kdns. — These are large tracts of forest, extending in one case over eight 
 miles in length, for which a cess called kan khist is paid. The kdns are 
 preserved for the sake of the wild pepper-vines, bagni palms, and certain 
 gum-trees that grow in them, and also to enable the vargdars to obtain 
 wood for agricultural and domestic purposes. The privilege of cutting 
 wood in them, formerly allowed to ryots, has, after much discussion, been 
 withdrawn, and the holders of kdns are allowed only to enjoy the produce 
 above mentioned, to clear the undergrowth and clip trees where 
 necessary for the growth of the pepper-vine and also for manuring 
 purposes. It is under contemplation whether the usufruct of kdns should 
 not be leased out as in Canara, the Government reserving all rights over 
 the live timber of all kinds. 
 
 Kiiinri. — This is a system of cultivation almost peculiar to the hill tribes. 
 Soon after the rains, they fell the trees on a forest site, a hill-side being 
 preferred. The trees are left lying till January and then set on fire. The 
 ground is afterwards partially cleared, dug up, and sown towards the end 
 of the rains with ragi, castor-oil nut, and other dry grains. In the first 
 year the return is prodigious, but it falls off by one-half in the second year, 
 and the place is then abandoned till the wood has again grown up. Strong 
 fences are made to keep off wild beasts, and for a month before han-est the 
 crop is watched at night by a person on a raised platform. No doubt 
 kumri cultivation thus carried on involves great waste of timber, but if it is 
 restricted to undergrowth it is not so wasteful. 
 
 Coffee Lands. — Grants of land for coffee cultivation are made out of the 
 Government jungles, chiefly in the Western Ghats, forming the Nagar and 
 Ashtagram Malnad. On receipt of applications for a plot of such land, its 
 area is ascertained by a rough survey, the boundaries defined, and then it is 
 sold by public auction. The successful bidder is granted a patta or title-
 
 LAND TENURES 689 
 
 deed. The clauses of the coffee patta or title-deed transcribed below show 
 on what tenure land for coffee cultivation is now held by the planter. 
 
 " These lands are granted to you for the purpose of planting coffee, and 
 should you raise any other crop upon them, lands thus appropriated will be 
 liable to assessment according to the prevailing rates in the taluq. By this, 
 however, it is not intended that plaintains, castor-oil plants, or fruit-trees, 
 planted for the bo7id fide purposes of affording shelter or shade to the 
 coffee, should be liable to taxation. — On the coffee-trees coming into 
 bearing, you are to pay Government an excise duty or hdlat of four annas 
 on every maund which is produced. This is in substitution of the ancient 
 wdra. This taxation is subject to such revision as the Government of 
 Mysore may at any time deem expedient. — For every acre of land which 
 you take up under this patta, you must within a period of five years plant a 
 minimum average number to the whole holding of 500 coffee-trees to the 
 acre. The Government reserves to itself the right of summarily resuming 
 the whole of any uncultivated portion of the land mentioned in your patta 
 should you not conform to this condition. — You are exempt from the visits 
 of all jungle and petty Izardars, who will be prohibited from entering here- 
 after lands taken up for coffee cultivation, and you are empowered to fell 
 and clear away the jungle, but previous to doing so, you are bound to give 
 six months' notice to the Sarkar authorities, to enable them to remove or 
 dispose of all reserved trees which may exist on the holding. — Should you 
 wish to sell or alienate in any way the lands mentioned in this patta, you 
 must notify the same to the Commissioner of the Division, and this patta 
 must be forwarded for registration under the name of the new incumbent.. 
 Any attempt at evading the hdlat will involve confiscation of the article 
 itself, together with a fine of twice the amount of hdlat leviable upon it. 
 
 Cai'danicDi Lands. — Lands for the cultivation of cardamom are granted 
 from the jungles on the east side of the Western Ghats, where this plant 
 grows spontaneously. In these jungles are also to be found lac, resin, 
 bees'-wax, gums, pepper, and similar other articles. The farms were 
 formerly leased out, the limits of the tract being annually defined ; but to 
 afford every facility to the planter, and to encourage the cultivation of the 
 cardamoms, rules have recently been framed, under which those planters 
 who are desirous of embarking on cardamom cultivation can obtain land 
 for the purpose on more liberal and advantageous terms. Under these 
 rules, grants of land not exceeding 200 acres, nor less than 10 acres, and 
 well defined by natural features, can, after being put up to auction, be 
 secured by planters on 20-year leases : the lessee binding himself to pay 
 the actual cost of survey and demarcation at once, and the auction price by 
 twenty instalments. At the expiration of the lease, should the lessee be 
 desirous of renewing it, he is allowed to do so on terms fixed by Govern- 
 ment, and in the event of his declining to renew, he is paid compensation 
 for improvements from any surplus on the resale of the land realized by 
 Government. The lessee pays a hdlat or excise duty of two rupees per 
 maund of 281bs. on the cardamoms produced by him, and as the land is 
 granted solely for the cultivation of cardamoms, the rules provide that if 
 
 V V
 
 690 A DMINISTRA TION 
 
 any portion of it is cultivated with any other description of crop, such land 
 will be assessed at the prevailing rates. The lessee is, however, allowed to 
 make use of minor forest produce, and to fell trees (with the exception of 
 he ten reserved kinds) in order to facilitate the growth of his cardamoms. 
 On the other hand, he binds himself to plant not less than 500 cardamom 
 plants per acre on his land by the expiration of five years from the date of 
 his grant. 
 
 Kayamgutta. — This term, in its literal sense, describes a permanent 
 village settlement, and it probably owes its origin to a time when many 
 villages were depopulated and when the Government found it advantageous 
 to rent out such on a fixed but very moderate lease, the renter undertaking 
 to restore them to their former prosperous condition. These tenures were 
 also largely added to during the former Mahardja's direct administration of 
 the country, when in several cases flourishing villages were given to 
 favourites at Court. The kayamgutta lands comprise some of the most 
 valuable indm lands in the Province. 
 
 Shraya, or lands granted on progressive rent. — Waste lands, chiefly in 
 jungly districts, were granted free of assessment, at J rates for the first 
 year, and afterwards increasing yearly till the fourth or fifth year, when the 
 full assessment is attained. Under the advantages afforded by this tenure, 
 large tracts of land have been brought under cultivation and many villages 
 established. 
 
 Inam Tenures. — The following are the inam tenures in Mysore : — 
 
 . Sarvaiiidnya, villages or lands held free of all demands, including sdyar, 
 mohatarfa, &c. 
 
 Ardhamdiiya, Ardhayaswdsfi, or land assessed at half the usual rate. — 
 This proportion is not, however, maintained, the share of the Government 
 varying in some cases from iVth to ^ths. 
 
 Jodi villages, or lands granted and held on a light assessment, the pro- 
 portion of which to the full rates varies. 
 
 Jodi Agrahdfs. — These are ordinarily whole villages, held by Brahmans 
 only, on a favourable tenure ; but in some cases the agrahdrs merely 
 consist of selected streets in Government villages, to which patches of 
 cultivation, generally leased out by the Brahman agrahardars, are 
 attached. 
 
 Sthal or Mahal Jodi. — These indms appear to have come into existence 
 during the loose fiscal administration of the Mahardja's time. Their 
 holders claim to be in the position of holders of kayamgutta villages, but as 
 they derive their grants from incompetent local revenue ofiicers, they stand 
 on a different footing, and in this view the Inam Department has been 
 directed to confirm only those Mahal Jodi indms for which valid proofs of 
 alienation are adduced. 
 
 Bhatamdnya or Bralundddya. — These terms are used to designate 
 grants and endowments of land held by Brahmans for their support, which 
 are personal grants as distinguished from those held on conditions of 
 service.
 
 IN AM TENURES 691 
 
 Dcvd'Mya and Dharmdddya are grants made for the support of 
 
 religious and charitable institutions, and persons rendering services therein. 
 
 Uinbli, f///rtr.— These terms are used, chiefly in the Nagar Division, to 
 
 signify lands held by village servants on condition of service, subject 
 
 generally to the payment of a jodi. 
 
 SMst and Kutiigadi Lands.— These are also held by village servants, and 
 descendants of the holders of the defunct service of Deshpande, Kulkarni 
 and Nadigar, on a jodi, which is in fact the old Sivappa Nayak's shist or 
 assessment without the patti or subsequent imposition. 
 
 Kodigi Indms represent land granted free of tax, or on a light 
 assessment, in consideration of services rendered in the construction or 
 restoration of tank^, or on condition of their being maintained in good 
 repair. But as the repair of such tanks was almost universally neglected 
 by the indmdars, they have been relieved of the duty, and the following 
 rules since adopted for enfranchisement of the inams, the quit-rent being 
 credited to the irrigation fund for up-keep of the tanks, i. Indms granted 
 to private individuals for the construction and up-keep of tanks, are 
 enfranchised on \ quit-rent if the conditions are certified by the chief 
 Revenue Officer of the District to have been fairly observed and the tanks 
 to be in use; otherwise at |- quit-rent. ii. Indms granted to private indi- 
 viduals for the up-keep of Government tanks, are enfranchised on \ quit- 
 rent if certified to as above ; otherwise they are confirmed to the present 
 holders on \ assessment for life, and afterwards brought under full 
 assessment, iii. Kodigi indms in rent-free villages, as also in jodi or quit- 
 rent villages, when their up-keep rests with the jodidars, are confirmed on 
 the existing conditions, subject to regulations for the proper maintenance of 
 the tanks. 
 
 Bdvadi Dasavanda Iw'uns are indms granted for the digging and up-keep 
 
 of wells, chiefly in some of the taluqs of the Kolar District. Formerly 
 
 th of the produce of the lands thereby irrigated was paid to the constructor 
 
 of a well, as well as his remuneration. But this proportion is not strictly 
 
 kept up in practice. 
 
 Kercbandi and Kerekulaga Inams. — These indms were granted for the 
 annual petty repairs of tanks. As, however, the system was found practically 
 useless, and the indmdars invariably neglected their obligations, such indms 
 are confirmed to the present holders on half assessment for life, and on 
 their death brought under full assessment. 
 
 Patiaoaddcs — These are patches of land held by the ryots of one village 
 in another, not as paya karis (foreign cultivators) but as a part and portion 
 of their own village. These pattagaddes are distinguished by separate 
 boundary-marks from the other lands of the village in which they are 
 situated. The origin of these tenures is traceable to certain mutual agree- 
 ments between the cultivators of adjoining villages, to allow those of one to 
 cultivate portions of wet lands under the tank of another constructed by the 
 joint labour of all. The tenure may also be in part due to an exchange of 
 land, by which ryots who had no wet land in their own village became 
 entitled to a portion of the wet land in another. 
 
 Y Y 2
 
 692 ADMINISTRATION 
 
 Such are the principal land tenures in Mysore. By far the most 
 common of these is the ordinary kandayam, or ryotwari tenure. The 
 main distinction is between ryotwari and inam land. Each of these 
 descriptions of land is now being settled on a permanent basis, by the 
 Revenue Survey and Settlement Department, and the Inam Depart- 
 ment. 
 
 Revenue Survey and Settlement. — Immediately after the 
 conquest of the country, a general topographical survey was made by 
 Colonel Mackenzie, subsequently Surveyor-General of India. While 
 Purnaiya was Divan, a revenue survey was made, but it was necessarily 
 very imperfect at the time, and after the lapse of fifty years the records 
 had become extremely defective, advantage being taken of the insur- 
 rection to destroy the survey papers pretty generally. Though nothing 
 was subsequently done in the way of any general measure, a good deal 
 was effected by measurements of particular lands to check the 
 shanbhdgs in their attempts to falsify the records. Sir Mark Cubbon 
 was, however, fully alive to the value of a thoroughly scientific Revenue 
 Survey and Assessment, and expressed his intention, if the financial 
 state of the country continued to prosper, to propose its being carried 
 out. In July 1862 the more glaring defects apparent in the existing 
 revenue system were stated in some detail to the Government of India. 
 A brief inquiry had elicited proof of the existence of so much dis- 
 crepancy and fraud, that the Superintendents were called on to report 
 upon the classification of soils in their respective Districts, and on the 
 prevailing rates of assessment. 
 
 In one taluq of the late Bangalore Division, there were reported to be 
 596 rates of assessment on dry land per kudu, which is 3,200 square yards, or 
 about §rds of an acre, these rates being fixed on a progressive scale ranging 
 from I vis= i anna 9 pie, to 3 pagodas 2 fanams = Rs. 10 i anna per kudu, 
 or from })\d. to ^i 6i-. \od. per acre, distributed over 26 classes of land. 
 For wet and garden land, the results, though less striking, were also 
 remarkable, in one case the number of rates being 81, and in the other 451, 
 on the kudu of 500 square yards.— In Chitaldroog, the assessments were 
 nearly as complicated. The kudu is generally of the same extent as in 
 other parts of the Province, viz., 3,200 square yards on dry lands, and upon 
 it the rates were 465 in number, with a minimum of i anna and a maximum 
 of Rs. 9-4-1 1. — In parts of Ashtagram the assessment was theoretically based 
 on Purnaiya's survey, but, in fact, few traces were left of this, and its 
 principles were unknown, the practical consequence being that people paid 
 generally what their forefathers did, without much interference in time- 
 honoured abuses. In the Nagar Division, owing to the hilly nature of the 
 country, and to its having been ruled for centuries by quasi-independent 
 chiefs, the character of the landed tenure presented a notable contrast to 
 that which prevailed in the rest of the Province ; but scarcely more
 
 REVENUE SURVEY AND SETTLEMENT 693 
 
 uniformity was to be found in the rates of the assessment, or in the 
 classification of the soil, than in the other Divisions, as in one hill taluq, 
 taken at random apparently, there were 147 rates on wet land, varying in 
 rentals of from nearly Rs. 34 to a little more than R. i per khandi, i.e., 
 from about Rs. 165 to 75rds annas per acre. In the plain taluqs of the 
 District, less discrepancy existed in the rates of assessment, but some of 
 them were enormously high, and in numerous instances the returns showed 
 great deviations from the rates which formerly existed. 
 
 In consequence of this capricious and intricate system of assessment, all 
 real power had passed into the hands of the shdnbhdgs, or hereditary 
 village accountants, the recognized custodians of the records relating to the 
 measurement and assessment of lands ; and as no permanent boundary- 
 marks had ever been erected, it rested with them to regulate at will every 
 ryot's payments. On the better classes of land the rates in some cases 
 were so preposterously high, as to make it certain that unless a man so 
 assessed held considerably more land than was entered against him, he 
 could not possibly pay the Government demand ; while, on the other hand, 
 much land capable of being profitably cultivated under a moderate assess- 
 ment was thrown up, because the lighter rates had been fraudulently shifted 
 to superior lands held by public servants and others who could afford to 
 bribe the shdnbhogs. 
 
 In addition to the discrepancies in the rate of assessments, another fertile 
 source of embarrassment existed in the prevalence of the batdyi system, 
 and the unsatisfactory state of the indm holdings, regarding which it was 
 notorious that from the absence of any adequate check on unauthorized 
 occupancy extensive frauds had been practised. 
 
 The Supreme (jovernment fully recognized, as the only effectual 
 remedy for the evils pointed out, the advisability of introducing a 
 Revenue Survey and Settlement, accompanied pari passu by an equit- 
 able and low assessment, such as had given so beneficial an impetus to 
 some of the Districts of Madras and Bombay ; and it was subsequently 
 decided to adopt the Bombay Revenue Survey system, which had been 
 proved incontestably by figures, and by the well-known satisfaction of 
 the ryots, to be successful in the Districts of that Presidency bordering 
 on Mysore. 
 
 My reason, writes Mr. Bowring, for preferring the system of survey and 
 settlement pursued in Bombay may be summed up thus : — I found that in 
 Mysore, which borders both on that Presidency and on Madras, we had 
 ample opportunity of comparing the method pursued in either case. The 
 difference is as follows : — Under the Bombay system, the survey, classifica- 
 tion, and settlement are all continuous links of one chain, forged under the 
 directions of the same individual, whose interest it is to see that every 
 successive link fits closely into its predecessor, every step being also care- 
 fully taken with advertence to the next one. There is no such close con- 
 nection in the Madras system. The boundaries arc fi.xed by one person,
 
 6u4 ADMINISTRATION 
 
 the survey laid down l)y another, and the settlement by a third, these 
 several agencies not being under one responsible head. The survey, so far 
 as I can judge, is excellent, but the surveyor had not the power of altering 
 boundaries if incorrect. On the completion of the survey, the work was 
 taken up by the Settlement Officer. 
 
 In introducing the survey and settlement into any taluq, the first 
 steps taken are the division of the village lands into fields, the defini- 
 tion of the limits of such fields by permanent marks, and the accurate 
 measurement of the area of each field in itself, by chain and cross-staff. 
 In the division of the lands into fields, the points kept in view are : — 
 ist. That the fields, or at least a majority of them, should not be 
 larger than may be cultivated by ryots of limited means. 2nd. That 
 they should not be made smaller than is necessary for the above object 
 without an adequate reason. The former of these points is determined 
 by the extent of land capable of being cultivated by a pair of bullocks, 
 which area varies according to climate, soil, description of cultivation 
 and methods of husbandry. In the second case, when a holding is of 
 small area, contiguous small holdings are clubbed to bring the area 
 within the limit. The marks used for defining the limits of fields, laid 
 out as above, are rectangular mounds of earth (popularly known as 
 hdndhs) at the four corners and at intervals along the side. The pro- 
 traction on paper of the survey made of the village lands by cross-staff, 
 theodolite, and chain, constitute the village maps, which afford the 
 most minute information as to the position, size, and limits of fields, 
 roads, water-courses, &:c., comprised within each village, while they 
 possess a degree of accuracy sufficient to admit of their being united 
 so as to form a general map of a taluq or District, exhibiting the relative 
 positions and extent of villages, topographical features of the country, 
 and a variety of other information of use to the local revenue and 
 judicial officers. 
 
 The next step towards the settlement of the taluq is the classification 
 of the land, with the object of determining the relative values of the 
 fields into which the land is divided. For this purpose, every variety 
 of soil is referred to one of nine classes, such classes having a relative 
 value in annas or sixteenths of a rupee, and this division of classes 
 experience has proved to afford a sufficiently minute classification for 
 all practical purposes. All land is divided into dry-crop, wet and 
 garden-land, but in the two latter, in addition to soil classification, the 
 water-supply is taken into consideration, and its permanency or other- 
 wise regulates the class to which it is referred ; the soil and water class 
 conjointly afford an index to the value of the field. In the case of 
 gardens which are irrigated by wells, in addition to the classification of
 
 REVENUE SURVEY AND SETTLEMENT 695 
 
 soil, the su[)[)ly, depth, and quantity of water in the wells, the area oi 
 land under each, and the distance of the garden from the village, as 
 affecting the cost of manuring, &c., is carefully ascertained. The whole 
 of the fields into which each village has been broken up being thus 
 classified, the taluq is ready for settlement. 
 
 In this last proceeding, the first question taken into consideration is 
 the extent of territory for which a uniform standard of assessment 
 should be fixed. Among the most important influences admitted into 
 the considerai.ion of this point are, climate, position with respect to 
 markets, communications, and the agricultural skill and actual condi- 
 tion of the cultivators. The villages of the taluq having been divided 
 into groups, according to their respective advantages of climate, 
 markets, (Sec, and the relative values of the fields of each village having 
 been determined from the classification of the soils, command of water 
 for irrigation, or other extrinsic circumstances, it only remains to com- 
 plete the settlement by fixing the maximum rate to be levied on each 
 description of cultivation, together with the absolute amount of assess- 
 ment to be levied from the whole. 
 
 The determination of this point, involving the exercise of great 
 judgment and discrimination, is arrived at by a clear understanding of 
 the nature and effects of the past management of the taluq for twenty 
 years, and by examination and comparison of the annual settlements 
 of previous years. The maximum rates having been fixed, the inferior 
 rates are at once deducible from the relative values laid down in the 
 classification scales, and the rates so determined are applied to all 
 descriptions of land. When the calculation of the assessment from 
 these is completed, field registers, embodying the results of the survey, 
 are prepared for each village separately, for the use of the revenue 
 authorities. The registers and the village maps form a complete 
 record of the survey operations ; as long as these and the field 
 boundaries exist, all important data resulting from the survey will be 
 preserved. 
 
 The survey rules, and the guarantee which has been formally notified, 
 while securing the just rights of the State in clear and unequivocal 
 terms, also define those possessed by the ryot in the land. The benefits 
 of the improvements he makes to the land are left to him exclusively 
 during the present lease, which extends over a period of thirty years ; 
 and it has been announced that at the next revision the assessment 
 will not be revised with reference to the improvements made at the 
 ryot's cost, but acccording to the progress of natural events, the 
 benefits of which the Government have a right to share equally 
 with the ryot.
 
 696 
 
 ADMINISTRA TION 
 
 'J'he Survey and Sctllenient Department in Mysore is further 
 entrusted with the important and arduous duty of revising and settling 
 the village service emoluments. It assumes great importance owing to 
 the necessity of providing sufficient remuneration for the patels in 
 connection with the organization of the Village I'olice. At present the 
 remuneration of all classes of village servants is very uneven. Under 
 the Survey Settlement the dya payments, that is to say the fees 
 realized by patels and shanbh6gs in the shape of grain paid to them 
 direct by the ryots, have been abolished, and a scale of remuneration 
 has been fixed in the shape of money payments in the surveyed taluqs. 
 The aya payments, from which the ryot has thus been relieved, are 
 included in the land assessment he has to pay to Government. 
 
 The progress of the operations of the Survey Department, up to the 
 close of the working season of 1880-1, that is, the 31st October 1880, 
 shows that out of the 69 taluqs comprised in the Province, only 10 had 
 been wholly untouched. The remaining 59 had been measured or 
 were in course of measurement, while in 42 classification was completed 
 or in course of completion. 
 
 The survey commenced in 1863 in the north, in Chitaldroog District, 
 and worked westwards and southwards. The Department was 
 controlled by a Commissioner, under whom were a Superintendent, a 
 Deputy Superintendent, and 14 Assistant-Superintendents, but during 
 the famine most of these were transferred for famine duty and the 
 number was subsequently reduced. The total area measured and 
 classed, from the commencement of the survey operations up to the 
 end of March 1881, was 13,915,826 acres measured, and 11,292,928 
 acres classed. The total cost to the 31st October 1880 amounted to 
 Rs. 34,04,826. The following is the annual statement of work 
 done : — 
 
 Year. 
 
 Acres 
 measured. 
 
 Acres 
 classed. 
 
 1 Cost per 
 'acre of both 
 operations. 
 
 Year. 
 
 Acres 1 
 measured. 
 
 Acres 
 classed. 
 
 Cost per 
 acre of both 
 operations. 
 
 
 1 
 
 As 
 
 P. 
 
 
 
 
 As. P. 
 
 1863-4 
 
 291,595 200,176 
 
 3 
 
 27 
 
 1872-3 
 
 943>655' 
 
 1,051,076 
 
 4 3-8 
 
 1864-5 
 
 507,288 248,244 
 
 2 
 
 9-,S 
 
 1873-4 
 
 831,191 
 
 696,933 
 
 5 3-5 
 
 1865-6 
 
 817,304 454>620 
 
 2 
 
 4-0 
 
 1874-5 
 
 933,893 
 
 762,653 
 
 5 13 
 
 1866-7 
 
 743,041! 473 > 996 
 
 2 
 
 87 
 
 1S75-6 
 
 1,017,015 
 
 899,268 
 
 4 8-5 
 
 1867-8 
 
 789,780 669,521 
 
 2 
 
 9-9 
 
 1876-7 
 
 596,266 
 
 508,794 
 
 5 4-6 
 
 1868-9 
 
 995,428 680,645 
 
 3 
 
 2-6 
 
 1877-8 
 
 677,691 
 
 568,320 
 
 5 4-6 
 
 1869-70 
 
 1,015,756 526,567 
 
 3 
 
 9-6 
 
 1878-9 
 
 545>io9: 
 
 574,896 
 
 5 5-8 
 
 1870-I 
 
 972,819' 998,142 
 
 3 
 
 6-5 
 
 1S79-S0 
 
 550,214 
 
 723,176 
 
 6 5 
 
 1871-2 
 
 1,081,163 658,005 
 1 ^ 
 
 3 
 
 IO-5 
 
 ! 1880-1 
 
 1 
 
 652,423 
 
 555,860 
 
 6 37 
 
 Itidm Departmejit. — The inams in the Province may all be referred 
 to one of three epochs, and the statement below shows the value of the 
 land inams which had sprung up during each of these periods.
 
 IN AM SETTLEMENT 
 
 697 
 
 Period of Inams. 
 
 Whole Villages. 
 
 Minor Inams. 
 
 Valuation. 'J"^*^' ""^ ''8^' 
 assessment. 
 
 Valuation, j J"**' °" "^!" 
 " 1 assessment. 
 
 To the termination of Divan Pur- 
 naiya's administration in 1810. 
 
 •Granted during the Maharaja's ad- 
 ministration, 181 1 to 1S31 
 
 Granted by the Chief Commissioner 
 of Mysore 
 
 Sthal or unauthorized inams 
 
 2,86,038 
 3,19,167 
 
 1,32,150 1 4.99,528 1,48,134 
 
 62,435 35,025 
 
 ! 18,500 8,000 
 63,616 17,946 
 
 Total Rs. 
 
 6,05,205 1 1,94,585 6,16,669 1,74,080 
 
 After the fall of Seringapatam in 1799, the British Commissioners 
 directed Purnaiya plainly that no alienation of land should be made 
 without the Resident's approbation. This salutary advice was fairly 
 acted on by the Divan during his long and successful administration. 
 The alienations between 1799 and 181 1 (when the Raja assumed the 
 government of the country) were in reality few and unfrequent, and the 
 inams which are entered as having been created during Purnaiya's 
 administration, are (with the exception of his own jagir) chiefly those 
 which had been sequestrated during the Muhammadan usurpation, and 
 Avhich on the re-establishment of Hindu rule it was thought proper to 
 restore. But this measure being accompanied with an increase of the 
 jodi on such inams, the alienation of revenue in the fresh grants was 
 ■counterbalanced. From 18 10 to 1831, when the British Government 
 interfered to save the country from ruin, the Raja recklessly alienated 
 lands, some of them forming the best villages in the country, besides 
 confirming others on permanent or kayamgutta tenure, while his loose 
 system of administration afforded his subordinate officers opportunities 
 for alienating land without proper authority. The third epoch dates 
 from the commencement of the British administration in 1831. The 
 grants made during this period are comparatively of small value, and 
 are held on condition of service, consisting in the upkeep of chatrams, 
 maintenance of groves, tanks and avenue trees. In addition to the 
 above, the statement shows a considerable number of sthal inams, or, as 
 they are sometimes termed, chor inams. Under this head are comprised 
 all such inams as, although enjoyed for some time, have not been 
 properly registered as granted by competent authority. 
 
 The necessity of a searching investigation into the inam tenures of 
 the Province, with the view of securing those inams which had been 
 granted by competent authority to their possessors on a permanent 
 basis, very early attracted the attention of the British Government ; but
 
 698 ADMINISTRATION 
 
 it was not unlil J 863 that any dcfinilc scheme for this purpose was 
 mooted. It was then found that the operations of the Revenue Survey 
 and Settlement Department created alarm and evoked opposition among 
 the inamdars, and it was thought advisable that rules for the confirma- 
 tion of inams on a liberal princi[)lc; should be drawn up. After much 
 discussion, it was decided to adoi)t the principles which had after long 
 deliberation been decided on in the Madras Presidency. In one 
 important respect, however, these principles were departed from. The 
 Inam Commissioner was constituted the final judicial authority, and his 
 decision was not, as in Madras, made liable to be reversed by a Civil 
 Court. But after the transfer of the Inam Commissioner's duties to the 
 Survey and Settlement Commissioner, this provision was altered, and 
 the Madras system, with one exception, which will be noticed below, 
 prevailed in its integrity. The Inam Rules for Mysore were sanctioned 
 by the Government of India in April 1868. These rules, based on the 
 theory of the reversionary right of Government, were so framed as to 
 meet the several descriptions of inam lands existing in the Province, 
 testing their validity — ist, by the competency of the grantor, irre- 
 spectively of the duration of the inam, whether 50 or less than 50 years 
 old ; 2nd, by the duration of the inam for 50 or more than 50 years, 
 irrespectively of the competence or otherwise of the grantor. 
 
 The following are the principles on which the settlement was 
 conducted : — 
 
 i. When sannads had been granted by the Maharaja or by his pre- 
 decessors, and when they conveyed full powers of alienation and were 
 hereditary, the indms were treated as heritable and alienable property. 
 
 ii. When sannads emanating as above did not convey full powers of 
 alienation, the ind,ms might be enfranchised by payment of a quit-rent equal 
 to one-eighth of the assessment of the tenure, except in the case of indms 
 granted for the performance of religious, charitable, and village service, 
 which are still required to be rendered. 
 
 iii. When sannads have been granted by incompetent persons, and when 
 they are less than 50 years old, a compulsory quit-rent, equal to one-halt of 
 the assessment, was imposed. But in doubtful cases, and where there was 
 a probability that the indm had been enjoyed for fully 50 years, the quit-rent 
 to be imposed was one-fourth of the assessment. 
 
 At the time of its first organization in 1866, the Inam Commission 
 was composed of an Inam Commissioner, one Special Assistant, and 
 three Assistants. These officers were at first invested with judicial 
 powers. But at the commencement of the year 1872-73, the De^jart- 
 ment was reorganized. The control of its proceedings was then 
 transferred to the Survey Commissioner, while the settlement was.
 
 INAM SETTLEMENT 
 
 699 
 
 carried on, under his direction, by an officer styled Superintendent of 
 Inam Settlements, aided by three Assistants, on whom devolved the 
 preliminary work of registering the inams, taluq by taluq, and of 
 collecting all the material for settlements. Under this scheme, the 
 judicial powers hitherto exercised by Inam officers were withdrawn, and 
 claims inter partes were referred to the regularly constituted Civil 
 Courts. In other respects the rules of settlement remained the same 
 as before, except in the case of whole inam villages. Up to 1872, the 
 determination of the extent and value of inam villages for purposes of 
 enfranchisement was based upon the Madras system of procedure, 
 which is very liberal. Under this system, the Inam Department does 
 not profess to estimate the acreage of inams. Unless the terms of the 
 sannad make it perfectly clear that the Government only intended to 
 assign a certain number of acres, and was deceived as to the extent of 
 the village, the mere fact that the number of acres enjoyed by an inam- 
 dar exceeded the number entered in his sannad, was not allowed to 
 operate prejudicially to him. As regards valuation, the old assessment 
 recorded in Purnaiya's Jari Indmti accounts was adopted, with such 
 additions as were deemed suitable or equitable on account of the right 
 of the State to prospective cultivation of waste lands ; and Purnaiya's 
 old valuation was adopted when the accounts of present rental furnished 
 by the inamdars fell short of it or could not be relied upon. 
 
 But in 1872, upon a representation of the Survey and Settlement 
 Commissioner that the course above described, based upon imperfect 
 data, would be too liberal to the inamdars, and injurious to the Govern- 
 ment in not securing the full amount of quit rent and local fund cesses, 
 a survey of whole inam villages, with a view to ascertain their correct 
 valuation, was sanctioned by the Chief Commissioner for purposes of 
 the inam settlement. And as the survey could not keep pace with the 
 inam inquiry, which had already out-stepped the survey, a system of 
 charging ad ifiterim quit-rent, upon the best data forthcoming, was 
 devised, on the understanding that this settlement was to be merely 
 temporary, and to last only until the land was valued by the Survey 
 and Settlement Department. 
 
 The following statement shows the value of minor inams of different 
 descriptions, payable in cash, at the time that their investigation and 
 registration were commenced by the Inam Department in 1868 : — 
 
 1 Up to Divan Pur- 
 Granted ' naiyas resigna- 
 tion, 1810. 
 
 By tlie M.-iharija. 
 
 By the Chief ^otal. 
 (Jommissioner. 
 
 NagadMuzrayi. Rs.' i ,42, 1 1 5 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 1,40,234 
 
 7 
 
 7 
 
 19,678 
 
 4 
 
 7 3,02,027 
 
 14 
 
 7
 
 700 ADMINISTRATION 
 
 The operations of ihc Inam Department were brought to a close in 
 1881. The total number of land inums confirmed was 57,888, of which 
 57,726 were enfranchised and 162 unenfranchised. There were 
 besides 11,302 indms resumed for invalidity of tenure. In 4,658 cases 
 the land could neither be identified nor was it in enjoyment : they 
 were therefore struck off the list. Cash grants or muzrayi payments 
 were confirmed to the number of 1,942, amounting in value to 
 Rs. 2,68,940: in 415 cases the payments were resumed, and in 982 
 struck off as having been formerly resumed. 
 
 The total cost of the Commissicjn amounted to Rs. ■9,53,581, and 
 89 per cent, of this was added to the revenue through its operations, 
 though conducted on principles most liberal to the inamdars. Its 
 necessity therefore was evident. 
 
 Muzrayi Department. — A question of almost equal importance to 
 that of inam holdings in land, is the settlement of the money grants 
 made at various periods to numerous institutions and individuals for 
 services or otherwise. After the assumption of the country in 1831, 
 the management of these funds and the up-keep of the institutions were 
 vested in the Superintendents and their subordinate District ofificers. In 
 1852 Sir Mark Cubbon, the then Commissioner, took the administra- 
 tion of the Muzrayi Department into his own hands, and on his 
 departure in 1861 it again devolved on the Superintendents. In 1866 
 the Government of India observed, that although the peculiar circum- 
 stances under which Mysore was administered might render it necessary 
 that certain classes of acts should be performed which would not be 
 thought of in a purely British Province, yet where such acts were 
 connected with idolatrous buildings and practices, there seemed no 
 reason why any Christian officer of the Government, or indeed any 
 Government officer as such, should be called on to perform them. 
 Accordingly in 1867 the Muzrayi Department was finally placed in 
 •charge of a Native Assistant in each District, he being styled the 
 District Muzrayi Officer. 
 
 The orders passed by the INIuzrayi Officer were subject to appeal to 
 the Deputy Commissioner and Commissioner, and finally to the Chief 
 Commissioner. The accounts, &:c., were submitted to the Chief 
 Commissioner's Huzur Daftar Department, \vhere they were checked 
 and examined.^ 
 
 ' The total income of the Muzrayi Department for 1880-1, including balance of 
 previous years, amounted to Rs. 4,78,287, and the total expenditure to Rs. 3,30,134, 
 leaving a balance of Rs. 1,48,153. 
 
 The fixed annual grant to Muzrayi institutions stood at Rs. 2,92,986 3 a. 7 p. in 
 1880 as follows : —
 
 LAND REVENUE 
 
 7or 
 
 Land Revenue. — The land revenue, as already stated, was 
 realized either from a direct money assessment or from a division of the 
 crop under the batayi system, which was being gradually converted into 
 the former. In 1870, with the view of affording relief to the ryots by 
 enabling them to bring the bulk of their produce to market before 
 meeting the Government demand, the instalments were made payable 
 at the subjoined rates and periods : — 
 
 Districts. 
 
 Bangalore, Kolar, and Chitaldroog. Annas. 
 Tumki'ir ... 
 Mysore ... 
 Hassan ... 
 
 Shimoga and Kadur, Maidan... 
 ,, Malnad... 
 
 Dec. 
 
 Jan. 
 
 Feb. 
 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 J 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 
 3 
 
 5 
 2 
 2 
 
 But it was found that the indulgence was abused by the improvi- 
 dence of the cultivators, and the collection of revenue was attended 
 with great difficulty after they had disposed of their crops. The kists 
 were therefore in 1874 reduced to four, and the collection period or 
 
 Temples 
 
 Chattrams 
 
 Dargas 
 
 Masjids 
 
 Malts ... 
 
 Miscellaneous 
 
 R. a. 
 
 1,12,654 14 
 
 54,620 12 
 
 4,181 3 
 
 3,190 14 
 
 52,708 5 
 
 15,922 2 
 
 Rs. 2,43,278 3 7 
 
 Under the management of the officer in 
 charge of the Palace at Mysore. 
 
 R. a. p. 
 
 Temples 34,577 o o 
 
 Chattrams ... ... 6,604 o o 
 
 Other institutions ... 8,527 o o 
 
 Rs. 49,708 o o 
 
 The actual income of the institutions was : — 
 
 Money allowances from Government .. 
 Receipts from lands 
 Private contributions 
 
 R. a p. 
 
 2,50,021 2 5 
 
 69,657 15 8 
 
 35,840 14 5 
 
 l<s. 3,55,520 o 6 
 
 Besides these the Puduvat funds of Dcvasthanams amounted to Rs. 1,10,319. They 
 are classed under four heads :— I. Sums deposited by private individuals, in trust 
 with the temple manager or guardian, on condition of the interest being devoted to a 
 special oliject or service, the disposal of the principal being left to the discretion of 
 the manager. 2. Sums lent by one individual to another with the stipulation that 
 the interest shall be paid to a temple. 3. Voluntary agreements entered into by 
 private individuals to pay to a temple the interest accruing on certain sums assigned 
 for the purpose, but retained in their own hands. 4. Savings from the Government 
 allowances or Tasdik, lent out on interest by the temple managers for the benefit of 
 the institution.
 
 "jo: 
 
 A DMINISTRA TION 
 
 revenue year made conterminous with the official year, which ends 
 31st March. Under this arrangement the payments were : — 
 Dec. 2 annas, Jan. 6 annas, Feb. 6 annas, Mar. 2 annas, 
 
 except in Mysore District, where the rates first given were retained. 
 
 The following figures show the amounts obtained from direct assess- 
 ment and from batayi for ten years to 1881 : — 
 
 Year. 
 
 Money 
 Assessment. 
 
 Batayi. 
 
 , Year. 
 
 Money 
 Assessment. 
 
 BatSyL 
 
 1871-2 
 1872-3 
 1873-4 
 1874-5 
 1875-6 
 
 Rs. 
 
 70,50,091 
 
 70,41,633 
 70,90,151 
 72,04,720 
 73,19,641 
 
 1,13,942 
 1,67,820 
 
 87,133 
 1,46,548 
 
 58,584 
 
 1 
 
 i 1876-7 ... 
 1877-8 ... 
 1878-9 ... 
 1879-80 ... 
 1880-I ... 
 
 Rs. 
 64,08,876 
 72,33,658 
 71,69,502 
 69,64,657 
 69,34,262 
 
 26,818 
 36,996 
 
 1,46,499 
 30,217 
 24,196 
 
 The various sources of land revenue, with the proportion ordinarily 
 contril)uted by each towards the sum of the collections under this head 
 were as follows, but the figures were nmch affected in the famine years, 
 and the coffee halat also fell : — Dry land, 30 to 31 lakhs of rupees ; wet 
 land, 23 to 23I lakhs; garden land, 10 to lof lakhs; sugar-cane, i^ lakhs; 
 mulberry, \ a lakh ; coffee halat, -| lakh ; pasture lands, i to i^ lakh ; 
 kayamgutta villages, 62,000 ; j6di and whole inam villages, nearly 
 \\ lakh ; inam j6di and minor inams, 2 to if lakhs; sale proceeds of 
 Government land, 4,000 to 7,000; miscellaneous, i to \\ lakh. 
 
 Of the wet land, before the famine, fields irrigated with river-water 
 yielded 3 to 3^ lakhs of rupees ; with tank-water, 12 to i3;j lakhs ; with 
 rain-water, 5^ to 5f lakhs ; by means of bucket, 62,000 ; by lever, 3,500 ; 
 by wells, 60 ; from jungle streams, 32,500 to 33,250 ; from talpargi or 
 springheads, 12,000; from katte hole or dams across small streams, 
 6,600 ; marshy lands, nearly 32,000. 
 
 The following were the productions of garden lands, and the revenue 
 obtained from each for the same period : — Areca nut, 2f lakhs of rupees ; 
 cocoanut, i \ lakh ; areca and cocoanut mixed, almost 4 lakhs ; tari fasal, 
 consisting of ragi, &c., 89,000 ; plantain, 9,000 ; betel-leaf, 28,000 ; 
 vegetables, i^ lakh. 
 
 Cojfce halat. — It is known that very early in the present century 
 Mysore-grown coffee was offered for sale in the bazaars, and the culti- 
 vation was general to a small extent in many portions of the Western 
 Districts. In accordance with the invariable custom of the country, the 
 right of the State to half the produce was always acknowledged by the 
 cultivators, and enforced by the Native Government. In 1823, the 
 .Maharaja rented the Government half-share to a Madras firm (Messrs.
 
 COFFEE HALAT. 703 
 
 Parry &: Co.) for ten years, for the annual sum of Rs. 4,270, and the 
 contract was renewed at the end of this period for a further term of 
 five years, at an annual payment of Rs. 7,472. After the assumption 
 of the Government by the British, the question of encouraging the culti- 
 vation of coffee, by commuting the varam or half-share for either a 
 moderate excise duty or a light assessment on the land itself, formed the 
 subject of correspondence. Eventually, in 1838-9, Sir Mark Cubbon, 
 regarding the question of an increased revenue as quite subordinate to 
 the extension of coffee cultivation, sanctioned the adoption of a halat or 
 excise tax of R. i per maund (Rs. 4 per cwt.) on all coffee grown in 
 Mysore : a duty which at the then price of coffee, Rs. 4 per maund, was 
 equivalent to 25 per cent, in lieu of the old varam or Government half- 
 share of the produce. In 1843-4, in consideration of the disadvantages 
 under which Mysore coffee entered the general market, the rate was 
 reduced to 8 annas a maund. In 1849-50, in consequence of the heavy 
 fall in the price of the article which had taken place during the previous 
 ten years (coffee being then reported to be selling at little over R. i 
 a maund, though it had been sold at upwards of Rs. 4 a maund in 
 1839-40, and as high as Rs. 6 or 7 five years earlier), the halat was 
 still further reduced to 4 annas a maund. At this rate it has remained 
 ever since. Taking a fair average crop of coffee at 4 cwts. per acre, 
 and putting the price at Rs. 5 per cwt, the tax of 4 annas a maund, at 
 the time of its imposition, represented a land-rate of Rs. 4 per acre, or 
 an excise tax of 20 per cent, of the produce in lieu of the old Govern- 
 ment share of 50 per cent. In 1864, the Mysore Planters' Association 
 presented a memorial for a reduction of the halat, stating that the tax 
 amounted to Rs. 6 per acre on their coffee lands. Mr. Bowring 
 estimated that at the then price of coffee (Rs. 5 per maund), the halat 
 of 4 annas a maund or 5 per cent, was neither oppressive nor repressive, 
 but was willing to reduce it to 3 annas a maund. The Government 
 of India agreed to this if an acreage of 8 annas were paid in addition. 
 But as a survey of the lands could not then be made for the purpose, 
 the halat remained unchanged. The Association next memorialised the 
 Secretary of State, who declined to interfere. 
 
 The relative merits of the halat or of an acreage were constant 
 subjects of discussion for twenty years. In 1S54 it was found that 
 owing to the halat system placing the tax upon the crop instead of 
 upon the land, large tracts of forest were taken up nominally for coffee 
 cultivation by people who had neither the intention nor the means to 
 cultivate it properly, and that owing to the inferior system of manage- 
 ment on native estates the yield was often not more than 5 maunds or 
 I \ cwt. per acre. As a remedy for these abuses, a land-rate was pro-
 
 7 04 ADMINISTRA TION 
 
 posed, which Sir Mark Cubbon considered should be fixed at the 
 equivalent of one-third of the gross produce, but he was averse to the 
 change. In i860, however, he issued rules for the more close super- 
 vision of coffee cultivation, as, though the area of estates was largely 
 increasing, the halat or excise collections remained stationary. He, at 
 the same time, prescribed the present form of coffee patta, and retained 
 the clause providing for resumption unless a certain proportion of 
 every estate was planted up within a reasonable time, as he considered 
 it " the only measure for checking the tendency which exists, especially 
 in the case of European planters, to obtain a vast extent of land 
 which they have not the slightest intention nor indeed the means of 
 cultivating, but which they wish to occupy, either with the view of 
 keeping other parties out, or from a desire to retain it until it rises in 
 value and the opportunity offers of selling it piece-meal to other 
 individuals." In 1862 Mr. Bowring recommended that the halat 
 should be abolished and that the land should be held free for four 
 years, that a rental should be imposed of R. i per acre from the 
 fifth to the ninth year, and Rs. 2 per acre in the tenth and thereafter. 
 These views were carried into effect in Coorg, but not in Mysore, out 
 of consideration for objections on the part of Native planters who held 
 three-fourths of the coffee lands. Speaking from their point of view, 
 Mr. Bowring remarks, " The cultivation of coffee in the jungles where 
 it is grown being optional, no loss comparatively is entailed on the 
 proprietor if his crop fails, for his outlay is exceedingly small, and the 
 land so cultivated forms but a portion of his farm ; whereas if he paid 
 an acreage on the land, that land not being suitable for other crops, the 
 failure of his coffee would fall heavily upon him and would perhaps lead 
 to his abandoning the cultivation altogether. Large quantities of coffee 
 are grown too on the slopes of the Baba Budan range, which being 
 mostly jagir land, would probably be considered not amenable to land- 
 rent." 
 
 The radical defect of the halat system, as stated by Mr. Dalyell, is 
 that it is practically a tax upon industry, or even a positive premium 
 on slovenly cultivation, inasmuch as the tax is raised in exact propor- 
 tion to the quantity of produce obtained from the land. An acreage 
 system, he considered, would prevent smuggling, and as no land would 
 be retained by a planter which he had not sufficient means to cultivate, 
 all the tracts suitable for coffee cultivation would become available to 
 capitalists, to the manifest advantage of the revenue as well as of the 
 general interests of the Province. 
 
 The following statistics show the extension of coffee cultivation, and 
 the revenue yielded by the halat thereon, from the year 1831 : —
 
 COFFEE HALAT 
 
 705 
 
 a; 
 
 '■n ino ON ■-' 
 ri_ ■^ •>*; — 
 
 m ri- T^- j-~ r^vo 
 
 C 1 1 1 1 i. 1 
 a VO t^OO ON " 
 
 >< CO vo CO vo CO CO ! 
 
 1 
 
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 7o6 
 
 ADMINISTRA TION 
 
 In 1872 the Planters' Association raised a question in regard to the 
 vaHdity of their title-deeds, and were informed by the Government of 
 India, that " in the event of the transfer of the administration of the 
 State of Mysore to Native authority, a guarantee will previously be 
 obtained from tlie Native Government that all leases of land for the 
 purpose of coffee cultivation to British subjects, whether European or 
 Native, granted under British Administration, will be scrupulously 
 respected as far as the terms of the lease provide, and that no regula- 
 tion shall be introduced prejudicial to the interests of parties holding 
 leases at the period of the transfer." 
 
 Under miscellaneous land revenue, the principal item was Village 
 Amrayi or fruit-trees, which generally yielded from | to over i lakh of 
 rupees. 
 
 Forests. — The great source of revenue under Forests is the sale ot 
 sandal-wood, for which Mysore has long been celebrated, and which 
 appears from a very early period to have been, as now, a State 
 monopoly ; next to this, the sale of timber yields the largest amount. 
 Sandal-wood does not appear as a separate source of revenue in the 
 accounts till the year 1833-4, when it realized Rs. 30,000, and in 
 1835-6 the unprecedented sum of Rs. 3,16,000. The annual realiza- 
 tions show considerable fluctuations, varying probably with the supply 
 and the demand. During the first ten years, up to 184 1-2, the receipts 
 aggregated 13I lakhs, during the next ten years i6| lakhs, and in the 
 next, 17 lakhs, up to the year 186 1-2. The sale of timber is not shown 
 in the accounts until the year 185 7-8. 
 
 In 1863-4 the Forest Conservancy Department was introduced, and 
 its control was gradually extended over tracts which until 1872 were 
 under the management of the ordinary Revenue establishments. The 
 financial results attained before and since the introduction of the new 
 system of Forest Conservancy into Mysore were as follows : — 
 
 Decade. 
 
 Receipts, annual Charges, | Surplus, 
 average. annual average. 1 annual average. 
 
 1833-4 to 1842-3 Rs. 
 1S43-4 to 1852-3 
 1853-4 to 1862-3 
 1863-4 to 1872-3 
 1873-4 to 1880-1 
 
 1,46,795 
 1,67,456 
 2,08,520 
 3,42,403 
 4,96,539 
 
 18,905 
 
 21,773 
 
 32,635 
 
 1,10,930 
 
 2,02,703 
 
 1,27,890 
 1,45,683 
 1,75,885 
 
 2,31,473 
 2,92,129 
 
 The maximum was reached in 18S0-1, when the gross receipts 
 nearly touched 7 lakhs, and the surplus exceeded 4^ lakhs. These 
 results were principally due to the sales of sandal-wood, which realized
 
 FORESTS 707 
 
 Rs. 5,18,000, the largest sum ever attained in one year. The quantity 
 sold was 1,443 tons, at an average price of Rs. 387 per ton. 
 
 Some arrangements for the Conservancy of Forests seem to have 
 been made in 1857, but before the formation of the Forest Department 
 in 1863, the forests of the three Divisions were worked by the Commis- 
 sioners on various systems. The only general rule was, one permitting 
 a ryot requiring any wood but teak or sandal to fell it on payment 
 of a seigniorage of R. i per cart-load. In Ashtagram, though a wood- 
 yard had been established, traders were allowed to remove teak 
 from the forests on a stump fee of 8 annas per tree, a most ruinous 
 system. 
 
 The first operation of the Department, after examining the forests, 
 was to prepare two lists of reserved trees. The first included fifteen 
 kinds, declared to be absolutely the property of Government, to fell 
 wliich, wherever growing, either ryot or trader had to obtain a license 
 on payment of certain fixed rates. The second list contained twenty- 
 seven kinds of trees, reserved from the trader but free to the ryot for 
 his own use, provided they grew within his own taluq. All kinds of 
 trees not named in these two lists were free to ryots, and might be 
 felled by traders, on payment of R. i a cart-load. 
 
 In 1869 new rules were brought into operation providing for the 
 formation of State and District Forests. The first were placed under 
 the sole management of the Forest Department, while the last were left 
 under the Revenue authorities, with the proviso that all reserved trees 
 — the number of which was now reduced to nine — growing on Govern- 
 ment land, could be sold only by the Forest Department. Ryots were 
 allowed unreserved wood and bamboos free of duty, for agricultural 
 purposes, but paid a duty of R. i per cart-load for wood for house- 
 building purposes. Traders were required to pay for trees of all kinds. 
 
 Subsequently it was found that the District authorities had not 
 sufficient establishment to protect the Forests under their nominal 
 charge, and that great waste had resulted from empowering shekdars to 
 grant licenses. During 187 1-2, therefore, this power was withdrawn 
 from both Amildars and shekdars preparatory to the introduction of 
 the District Forest scheme, by 1875-6 everywhere established, the 
 main feature of which was the abolition of the license system and the 
 supply of wood from depots to all comers. Ryots paying land-rent 
 were granted an absolute right over all trees growing on their holdings, 
 provided the trees were planted by their ancestors or by themselves, 
 or by former holders of the land from whom the right of occupation 
 had been bought by the present incumbent. 
 
 In relation to the new Revenue Settlement, it was decided that the 
 
 z z 2
 
 7 o8 A DMINISTRA TION 
 
 Forest Depcartnient should be allowed one year in which to fell alt 
 reserved trees on holdings made over on assessment to private 
 individuals. After the lapse of a year, all such trees left unremoved by 
 the Department, to fall, with the exception of sandal-wood, to the land- 
 holder. The whole tendency, in short, of Forest legislation was to- 
 confer wider privileges on the holders of land and inamdars, and to 
 define and enforce the rights of Government in all forests and over all 
 trees not belonging, under certain fixed rules, to private individuals. 
 
 In 1878-9 the Forest Department was abolished as a separate 
 Department, and the Conservator was transferred elsewhere. With 
 three trained Forest officers for the great forests in the West, and for 
 plantations, the control of the forests was made over to the District 
 Revenue officers. 
 
 There were thirty-three State or reserved, and twenty-two District or 
 unreserved forests in 1881, covering areas respectively of about 454 
 and 189 square miles, or altogether 643 square miles. Plantations to- 
 the number of thirty, for the growth of teak, timber, sandal, and fuel, 
 were formed in different parts, occupying an aggregate of 4,708 acres. 
 Village topes numbered 16,293, standing on 14,376 acres, and con- 
 taining 811,306 trees ; while 3,750 miles of public road had been planted 
 with trees on both sides, at distances varying from 1 2 to 60 feet. 
 
 Abkari. — This branch of revenue was formerly known in Mysore- 
 under the name of Panch Bab, or " the five items," namely, toddy, 
 arrack, ganja, betel-leaf and tobacco. The two last were transferred,, 
 the former in 1838-9, and the latter in 1850-1, to the head of Sayar. 
 Up to 1862 the manufacture of toddy, arrack, and ganja was under the- 
 direct management of Government. In that year the Abkari revenue,, 
 including these three items, was temporarily farmed to contractors, 
 prior to the introduction of the Sadar Distillery system, which came- 
 into operation in 1863-4; but it was not till 1865-6 that steps could 
 be taken to carry its principles fully into effect in the removal of all 
 obstructions to open competition in the manufacture of spirits. 
 
 The system referred to provides for the erection of a large enclosure, 
 styled a Sadar Distillery, at the head-quarlers of each District (and in. 
 other places, if the consumption requires it), in which all country 
 spirits consumed in the District must be manufactured. Any person, 
 duly licensed may erect a still, at his own expense, within the enclosure,, 
 and distil as much liquor as he pleases, removing it himself, or selling, 
 it to the licensed vendors, on the sole condition that before removal 
 the excise duty must be paid, and the liquor reduced to the authorized- 
 strength, the officers of Government confining themselves to taking- 
 such precautions as will insure no liquor being passed out of the:
 
 ABKARI 
 
 709 
 
 distillery except on these conditions, and having nothing to do with 
 the manufacture, or the price at which the produce is sold. 
 
 The object was to secure for the consumer a superior quality of 
 spirit, of standard strength, tested at the Government distilleries within 
 the precincts of which it is manufactured, and to which it pays a still- 
 head duty before removal. A restricted system of licenses for the 
 sale of the liquor, combined with regulations for the supervision of 
 the vendors, also tended to check the promiscuous establishment of 
 shops. The sale of fermented toddy, the liquor commonly used by 
 the lower classes, was also subject to the license regulations. But only 
 the arrack portion of the Abkari revenue was worked under the Sadar 
 Distillery system. The items of toddy and ganja were farmed out to 
 ■contractors.' 
 
 In 1874 a general revision was made of the rates of still-head duty, 
 which varied in different parts from 14 annas to Rs. 3, and they were 
 raised to Rs. 2 per gallon throughout the Province, excepting in the 
 towns of Bangalore and Mysore, in which the rates were fixed at Rs. 3 
 and 2 1 respectively. The strength of the liquor to be issued from the 
 distilleries was fixed at 19° below proof. But in 1875 a special arrange- 
 ment for 3 years was made for the Mysore District with the Ashtagram 
 Sugar Works at Palhalli, by which the Company contracted to manu- 
 facture liquor at 20° under proof and sell it to Government at 13 annas 
 per gallon. The liquor was sold to vendors on the spot at Rs. 4 per 
 gallon when intended for consumption in the town of Mysore, and at 
 Rs. 3^ for consumption elsewhere within the District. The retail 
 ■vendors were bound to sell to the public within the town of Mysore at 
 Rs. 5 per gallon, and beyond the town at Rs. 4^. 
 
 The following figures will show the immediate operation of the new 
 rules on the sale and consumption of arrack : in the following years the 
 famine greatly reduced all Abkari revenue :■ — 
 
 
 
 
 
 No. of shops. 
 
 1 
 
 Year. 
 
 No. of 
 
 stills. 
 
 Gallons 
 distilled. 
 
 Amount of 
 still-head duty. 
 
 
 Amount 
 
 Whole- 
 sale. 
 
 Retail. 
 
 licenses. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Rs. 
 
 
 1872-3 
 
 54 
 
 252,194 
 
 Ks. 4,35,755 
 
 135 
 
 1,484 
 
 90,414 
 
 • License fees in 
 
 1873-4 
 
 14 
 
 271,572 
 
 4,68,521 
 
 86 
 
 1,442 
 
 57,517* 
 
 Kangalore transferred 
 lo Municiiiaiily. 
 
 1S74-5 
 
 14 
 
 219,800 
 
 4,56,601 
 
 84 
 
 1,369 
 
 60,654 
 
 t System of putting 
 
 1875-6 
 
 II 
 
 188,425 
 
 4,77,628 
 
 «S 
 
 1,149 
 
 5o,362t 
 
 up retail shops lo 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 auction discontinued. 
 
 ^ Inamdars whose sanads included the right, received the revenue from arrack 
 licenses in their inam villages.
 
 7IO ADMINISTRATION 
 
 In 1878-9 the Sadar Distillery system was discontinued in the 
 Nandidroog Division, the exclusive right of manufacturing and selling 
 arrack being given out on contract for 3 years. 
 
 The brewing of beer, at 3 breweries in operation in Bangalore, 
 rapidly increased. A still-head duty of 2 annas a gallon was imposed 
 on it in 1873-4, and the number of gallons brewed rose from 58,000 in 
 that year to 140,000 in 1875-6, but the production afterwards fell off 
 considerably. From April 1876 the still-head duty was raised to 
 4 annas per gallon, but from March 1879 it was again reduced to_ 
 2 annas. ■ 
 
 Toddy in this Province is extracted from date-trees, which grow 
 wild throughout the country, and in a few places from cocoanut and 
 sago-palm trees. All date-trees growing on Government or ryotwari 
 lands, whether occupied or unoccupied, are regarded as at the disposal 
 of Government for Abkari purposes ; but trees growing on occupied 
 Government lands in the surveyed taluqs, and those in inam and 
 kayamgutta villages the toddy revenue of which is granted to the 
 holders by their sanads, are regarded as the property of the land- 
 holder, and are therefore excluded from the contractor's lease. The 
 exclusive right of drawing and vending the toddy was rented out to the 
 contractors for a term, which varied in the different Divisions. The 
 area over which such right might be exercised varied from one taluq to a 
 District, according to the circumstances of the District and means of 
 the contractor. Till 1872 the farming of the toddy was leased out 
 annually in Nandidroog and Ashtagram, and for five years in Nagar, 
 but owing to the inconvenience of frequently changing contractors, the 
 latter period was adopted in all. Date reserves are being formed 
 in each District on waste or unoccupied lands, demarcated for the 
 purpose as the survey progresses. This measure is necessary to guard 
 against the possible inconvenience of a general destruction of date-trees 
 on their kandayam lands by the ryots. No grant of land for cultivation 
 is made within the limits of such reserves. 
 
 The revenue derived from a tax on spirituous liquors, ganja and 
 toddy, appears from the accounts of 1 799-1800, to have produced 
 Kanthiraya pagodas 28,800, or Rs. 84,000 in that year, and Kanthiraya 
 pagodas 44,290, or Rs. 1,29,179 in 1802-3. The receipts are not 
 distinctly shown in the earlier years of British Administration, but in 
 the accounts of 1836-7, the Abkari revenue is entered at 2^ lakhs of 
 rupees, and it gradually rose, producing lof lakhs in 1872-3. The 
 next two years it was \\\ lakhs, and in 1875-6 reached i2§ lakhs. 
 Owing to the famine it then diminished every year till in 1879-80 it was 
 only 8.64 lakhs. In 1S80-1 it began to revive and stood at 10.67 lakhs.
 
 SAYAR 711 
 
 Sdyar or Cusioms. — The Sayar system in Mysore under the former 
 Governments has already been fully described, and the mode in which 
 it was dealt with by the British Administration down to 1854. 
 
 In the year i860 only 24 articles were made subject lo sayar taxes, 
 the former rates of duty as prescribed in the old prahar patti being 
 entirely altered. In 1864 the number was further reduced, and the 
 export and import duties on all articles, except areca-nut, coffee, and 
 tobacco, between the Province of Mysore and the surrounding districts 
 of Her Majesty's Territory were entirely and absolutely relinquished, 
 with a view to stimulate industry and to foster the trade of the country; 
 Sayar being levied only on the following articles, produced within the 
 Province and intended for home consumption : — • 
 
 (i) Areca-nut, 6 annas to R. i.| per maund of aSlbs. ; (2) Tobacco, R. i 
 to 3I per maund of 24lbs. ; (3) Cocoanut, dry, 7 ^ annas per maund ; (4) 
 Cocoanut, fresh, 8 annas per 100 ; (5) Cardamoms, Rs. 2 per maund ; (6) 
 Pepper, 4 annas per maund ; (7) Betel-leaves, i to 2 pie per bundle of 100 
 leaves ; (8) Piece-goods, 5 per cent, ad valorem ; (9) Opium, 20 per cent, ad 
 valorem. Of these, areca-nut, tobacco, pepper, cardamoms and opium were 
 liable to the duty both when imported and when exported. 
 
 In 1875 the duty on piece-goods of local manufacture was abolished 
 permanently, and that on pepper temporarily. The excise duty on 
 areca-nut and on tobacco, assorted with or without stalks, was fixed 
 at a uniform rate of 12 annas per maund, and the duty on tobacco 
 stalks abolished. The rate for betel-leaves was fixed at i pie per 
 bundle. 
 
 Sayar duties appeared in the accounts of 1 799-1800 at the respect- 
 able sum of Kanthiraya pagodas 2,26,000 or Rs. 6,59,166, and in 
 those of 1802-3 Kanthiraya pagodas 2,57,000 or Rs. 7,49,583. They 
 rose to a sum of Rs. 10,45,000 in the year 1846-7. The bulk of the 
 numerous petty taxes which were either abolished or modified 
 between the years 1831 and 1854 were classed in the accounts as 
 Sayar. It has been seen that the gross annual amount thus remitted 
 was I of lakhs. But we still find that the Sayar collections, which had 
 never exceeded \o\ lakhs in any one year during the existence of 
 those taxes, were not seriously diminished after their removal. On the 
 contrary, the Sayar receipts amounted to 9^ lakhs annually in the 
 years 1856-7 and 1S59-60, to iotj lakhs in the next year, and to \\\ 
 in 1861-2. In 1862-3 they produced Rs. 10,46,000 only, owing to an 
 unfavourable season for the supari and tobacco crops. In the following 
 year they again reached Rs. 11,33,000. With the customs duties 
 abrogated in 1864, a vast horde of petty customs establishments, 
 numbering 1,800 men on trifling stipends, were dis[)ensed with,
 
 7 1 2 ADMINISTRA TION 
 
 reducing the cost of collection from i lakh to about Ks. 40,000 
 annually. Consequent on these measures, Sayar being levied as an 
 excise on only eight articles of home produce, the Sayar revenue, as 
 may have been expected, fell to Rs. 8,88,000 in 1865-6, and to 
 7 lakhs in 1867-8. It, however, gradually revived, and amounted to 
 7 J lakhs in 187 1-2, and to more than 9^ in 1872-3. Owing to 
 unfavourable seasons, it fell a little below this in the next year, and in 
 1874-5 to 8 J lakhs. The abolition and reduction of duties in that 
 year still further reduced the Sayar collections, which for 1875-6 stood 
 at a little below 6| lakhs. To this total areca-nut contributed 4-2 lakhs 
 and tobacco nearly a lakh. 
 
 After this the collections fell every year, till in 1880-1 they amounted 
 to less than 3I lakhs. This was due to the policy of Government in 
 gradually abolishing the duties with a view to benefiting the people. 
 Those on piece-goods and pepper were taken off in 1875-6 and that 
 on opium transferred to Abkari. In 1879-80 the Sayar duties were 
 virtually abolished as a State tax. In their stead octroi collections 
 were authorized in municipal towns, a moiety being credited to the 
 State and the other moiety being retained by the municipalities which 
 made the collections. 
 
 Mohatarfa or Assessed Taxes. — Under the former Governments of 
 Mysore, various taxes were levied on castes and professions, besides 
 taxes on houses, looms, shops, and oil-mills, and included under the 
 general head of Mohatarfa. In the year i860 a general revision of the 
 Mohatarfa taxes took place, when most of them were abolished, and 
 five were retained, viz., a tax on houses, on loom.s, on shops, on oil- 
 mills, and on ploughs. A tax on carts was introduced in 1870. In the 
 year 187 1 the plough-tax was abolished, being superseded by the local 
 cess, Mohatarfa was then levied only on the remaining items. These 
 taxes did not now directly touch the ryot, but were confined to other 
 classes. Special exemptions from house-tax were, however, accorded 
 to Brahmans, Musalmans and certain officials, in accordance with 
 ancient usage. 
 
 From 1S40 up to the year 1854-5 the receipts amounted to 6| 
 lakhs per annum, but during that period they included some items 
 afterwards classed under other heads of accounts, and several taxes 
 which no longer exist. After the abolition of these, the collections 
 fluctuated between 4 and 5 lakhs from the year 1856-7 to 1861-2, 
 ■when they amounted to Rs. 4,79,000. In 1S62-3 they declined still 
 further, to Rs. 3,52,000. In 1 87 2-3 they were Rs. 3,22,000, exclusive 
 of the cart-tax, which was levied in 1870. The decline was partly 
 attributable to the alienation, for municipal purposes, of the Mohatarfa
 
 SALT 713 
 
 taxes levied in the towns. The receipts, which stood at over 2i\ lakhs, 
 fell in 1878-9 to 2 J, and in 1S80-1 were 2\ lakhs. The famine 
 caused a general desertion of houses and looms, and even the 
 dismantling of many to obtain food. But in 1879-80 the items were 
 revised in Municipal towns in order to reduce to one item the separate 
 levy made for Government and for municipal purposes. The rates vary 
 from As. 8 to Rs. 12 per annum on each house, Rs. 2 to Rs. 30 per 
 shop, Rs. I to Rs. 8 per loom, Rs. 3 to Rs. 20 per oil-mill, Rs. 2 per 
 cart owned by the non-agricultural classes. 
 
 The following are details of the amounts realized in 1 880-1 : — 
 
 
 In Villages. 
 
 Houses 
 
 92,856 
 
 Shops 
 
 49,868 
 
 Looms 
 
 37,550 
 
 Oil-mills 
 
 8,534 
 
 Carts 
 
 19,528 
 
 Miscellaneous 
 
 262 
 
 Total Rs. 
 
 2,08,598 
 
 Moiety from 
 
 Total. 
 
 Municipal towns. 
 
 
 21,860 
 
 1,14,716 
 
 14,648 
 
 64,516 
 
 3,475 
 
 41,025 
 
 1,579 
 
 10,113 
 
 2666 
 
 22,194 
 
 — 
 
 262 
 
 44,228 2,52,826 
 
 Certain classes, who from time immemorial have enjoyed immunity 
 from taxation, were exempted from payment of the house-tax, except in 
 municipal towns, where they were required to pay the municipal tax 
 like other people. The number of houses before the famine was 
 1,027,268, of which the number claiming exemption was 890,000. Of 
 these 640,000 belonged to the agricultural classes, 150,000 to Brah- 
 mans, Musalmans and Rajbindes, 46,000 to headmen of towns and 
 villages, and the remainder were houses which paid the shop, loom, or 
 oil-mill tax. There were 28,379 shops, 39,014 looms, 3,300 oil-mills, 
 and 14,679 carts. Of the taxable houses only 17 were terraced, 
 15,000 were tiled, 25,000 mud-roofed, and the rest thatched. 
 
 Salt. — The revenue under this head was derived from fees levied on 
 pans for the manufacture of earth-salt. This article was consumed by 
 some of the poorer classes of inhabitants throughout Mysore, and by 
 most of the people in Chitaldroog District. It is also given to cattle. 
 But the bulk of the people consume the marine salt imported from 
 the sea-coast of the Madras Presidency. In 1873-4 the manufacture 
 of earth-salt within five miles of the frontier, and the exportation of the 
 article to Her Majesty's territories, were prohibited. The number of 
 pans in 1880-1 was 2,812. In this year the farming-out of the manu- 
 facture was abandoned in favour of the issue of licenses for each pan 
 worked, at rates varying from one anna to Rs. 5 per pan, according to 
 locality.
 
 7 1 4 ADMINISTRA TION 
 
 Slaiiips. — Stamp duties existed in Mysore on the assumption of the 
 government in 183 1-2, but tliey were levied on a primitive system, 
 moderate in its rates and limited in its incidence. Between the years 
 183 1 and 1861 the annual yield was between Rs. 6,000 and 9,000, in 
 two years only it reached Rs. 10,000, and in another Rs. 15,000. In 
 1 86 1-2 the old system produced its maximum revenue, which was but 
 Rs. 19,900. During these years court fees were paid chiefly in coin, 
 and were mixed in the accounts with other receipts. In 1862-3 there 
 was a revision of the local regulations, which raised the stamp revenue 
 to Rs. 71,628 in that year, to Rs. 1,57,000 in the next, and to 
 Rs. 2,41,000 in 1864-5. I^"* ^865 the Indian Stamp Act was intro- 
 duced, and the revenue has since made rapid progress, reaching \\ 
 lakhs in 1869-70. After that year the amount realized from court-fee 
 stamps was credited to the head Law and Justice, but in 1875-6 the 
 former practice was restored. 
 
 Post Office. — For many years the Anche or Local Post appears to 
 have been almost wholly devoted to the conveyance of official despatches. 
 The growth of the postal receipts was slow, but steady. During 
 1S33 to 1843 they rose from Rs. 2,000 to Rs. 6,000, in 1853 to 
 Rs. 12,000, in 1863 to Rs. 30,000. In 1872-3, notwithstanding a 
 reduction of postal rates in accordance with the British India scale, the 
 revenue was Rs. 44,000. The cost of the Department, which had 
 always exceeded its receipts — public despatches being carried free of 
 postage in any shape — was enhanced from year to year, but did not 
 grow so rapidly as the income from private correspondence. The 
 establishment cost Rs. 33,000 in the year 1833 ; Rs. 44,000 in 1843 ; 
 Rs. 49,000 in 1853 ; Rs. 95,000 in 1863 ; and Rs. 1,51,000 in 1873. 
 
 In 1875-6 the number of receiving houses was 152, the postal lines 
 traversed by runners aggregated 2,312 miles. No postage-stamps were 
 in use, but Rs. 50,000 was realized from payments on private letters. 
 The correspondence passed through the Anche rose from i^ million 
 in 1861-2 to 2f millions. In 1875-6 postage was paid on \\ millions 
 of letters, 50,000 newspapers, and 9,601 parcels. The official corre- 
 spondence, carried free of charge, consisted of i|^ million of letters, 
 30,000 packets, and 26,000 gazettes. From 1872-3 an arrangement 
 was entered into with the Imperial Post Office to distribute by Anche 
 all unpaid letters addressed to Mysore, the latter retaining half the 
 amount of postage due on all except overland letters from Europe, for 
 which latter the full charge was repaid. 
 
 Local Funds. — By 1871-2 an important change was effected in the 
 mode of raising an income for local purposes, by the abolition of the 
 ancient Plough-tax and the introduction of a Local Cess. The Mysore
 
 LOCAL FUNDS 715 
 
 Local Funds consisted of a cess levied at the rate of one anna in the 
 rupee of the land assessment in settled taluqs, and half an anna in 
 unsettled taluqs, as well as of half an anna upon the collections realized 
 from Sayar, Abkari, forest produce, coffee halat, and salt pans. In 
 towns where there were no municipalities, the revenue derived under 
 the operation of the Cattle Trespass Act, the rent from ferry contracts, 
 and certain other miscellaneous items, were also exhibited under the 
 head of local funds. In 1879-80 one anna in the rupee on the assess- 
 ment was levied in unsurveyed taluqs, instead of half an anna as 
 before. 
 
 Out of the total collections of the Local Fund cess, 24 per cent, were 
 appropriated to education, for the support of village schools, and (with 
 the exception noted below) 76 per cent, were credited to the local fund 
 account of the District in which they were raised, under the name of 
 District Local Funds, to be applied to the maintenance of roads, &c. 
 Out of the collections levied on abkari, supari (except in Shimoga and 
 Kadur Districts), and miscellaneous items, the 76 per cent, were shown 
 in a separate account, and were held in deposit in the Huzur Treasury 
 under the name of Local Funds CJeneral, which were at the disposal of 
 the Chief Commissioner for expenditure where he deemed that a special 
 grant was called for. 
 
 An irrigation cess, at one anna in the rupee of the assessment upon 
 wet lands, Sarkar or inam, was also levied in the surveyed taluqs and 
 credited to the local fund revenues to meet the cost of up-keep of irri- 
 gation works. But in 1873-4 the separate levy of this cess was abolished, 
 the amount being merged in the ordinary assessment on wet land ; 
 and at the settlement of each taluq an equivalent lump sum is set apart 
 out of the annual revenue of the taluq to form a District Irrigation 
 Fund. 
 
 The revenue credited to Local Funds since 1871-2 was as 
 follows : — 
 
 I87I-2 
 
 ... Rs. 3,47,205 
 
 1876-7 ... 
 
 ... Rs. 4,85,451 
 
 1872-3 ... 
 
 4,36,845 
 
 1877-8 ... 
 
 4,94,574 
 
 1873-4 
 
 4,59>979 
 
 1878-9 
 
 5,49,520 
 
 1874-5 
 
 4,75.207 
 
 1879-80 
 
 6,86,724 
 
 1875-6 
 
 5,12,063 
 
 1880-1 
 
 6,90,082 
 
 Mttnici/yal Finids. — Municipal Committees were first experimentally 
 formed in 1862, at l^angnlore and Mysore. The experiment proved a 
 success, and by 1864-5 '^^^^'^ of the eight District head-quarter stations 
 possessed a Municipal Committee. The measure was next extended 
 to Taluq kasbas, and eventually to other large trading towns and 
 villages. The District head-tjuarter municipalities were the most
 
 7 1 6 ADMINISTRA TION 
 
 important, the municipal proceedings in minor towns being at first 
 limited to conservancy operations, in which, however, material improve- 
 ment was visible. 
 
 In Bangalore, where the municipal operations were conducted on a 
 large scale, and their control and direction required special attention 
 and involved much labour, the President was paid Rs. 700 per mensem, 
 which was defrayed by the municipalities of the Cantonment and Town 
 of Bangalore, in the proportion of two-thirds and one-third respectively. 
 In the other District head-quarter municipalities, no salary was attached 
 to the ofifice of the President, a selected (government official of the 
 station undertaking the charge in addition to his other duties. In all 
 of these municipalities, regularly organized Boards were formed, con- 
 sisting of the most influential European and Native members of the 
 community. In the smaller towns, where it was found difficult 
 to constitute regular Boards, municipal regulations were with great 
 advantage introduced and enforced through the agency of the revenue 
 officers. 
 
 On the I St April 187 1 a new Code of INIunicipal Regulations for the 
 Cantonment and Town of Bangalore was introduced. These regula- 
 tions provided for the appointment of Commissioners, for making 
 better provision for the police, conservancy and improvement of the 
 Cantonment and Town, and for enabling the Commissioners to levy 
 taxes, tolls, town dues and rates therein. Under the operation of these 
 regulations, a material change was effected in the composition of the 
 Board. In substitution of the previous arrangements for the selection 
 of members, the Cantonment was divided into six divisions or wards, 
 and the Town into three, from each of which two persons residing 
 therein were nominated by Government to be Municipal Commis- 
 sioners. In addition to these ihe Board was further composed of six 
 ex-officio members, specially selected to represent all branches of the 
 official community, the number being restricted to a third of the total 
 number of the Commissioners. 
 
 In the year 1872-3 the revenue derived from the sale of licenses for 
 retail vend of arrack in Bangalore was transferred to the INIunicipality, 
 with a view to increase its revenues, and to prevent the number of shops 
 multiplying indiscriminately beyond the actual requirements of the 
 place. For a better administration of the abkari retail vend within the 
 Town and Cantonment municipal limits, a Bench of Magistrates, com- 
 posed of the Deputy Commissioner, the Cantonment Magistrate and 
 the President of the Municipality, was constituted, the last of the above- 
 mentioned officers being vested with the powers of a Justice of the 
 Peace. The decree of the Bench of Magistrates was considered final in
 
 MUNICIPAL FUNDS 717 
 
 matters relating to the allotment and renewal of licenses and disposal of 
 comi)]aints. 
 
 The following- were the taxes authorized to be levied by the Municipali- 
 ties : — I. An octroi or tax on articles brought within municipal limits for 
 consumption and use therein. 2. Tax on houses, buildings and lands. 
 3. Tax on professions and trades. 4. Tax on carriages, carts, &c. 5. Tolls 
 on carriages, carts, &c. 6. Ferries. 7. Tax on licenses. 8. Tax on bricks 
 and tiles. The octroi was the most productive of all the taxes. Next in 
 order stood the house-tax and tax on professions and trades. In the 
 Nandidroog Division (except the Town and Cantonment of Bangalore), the 
 house-tax was levied in substitution for the octroi in all the municipalities 
 of the Bangalore and Kolar Districts, and in four places in the Tiimkur 
 District, viz.: Tiptur, Bellavi, Gubbi and Tumkur, in the first two of which 
 great marts are held weekly, while the third is the most important entrepot 
 for the Malnad areca-nut produce, and the fourth is the head-quarters of 
 the District. Octroi was still levied in the other towns of the Tumkur 
 District, but the house-tax was regarded as furnishing a more certain source 
 of income, not being subject to the fluctuations of trade like the octroi, or 
 liable to misappropriation by the collectors. In the Ashtagram Division, to 
 avoid pressure upon the poorer classes, grain, the staple food of the people,, 
 was exempted from the tax. The number of taxable articles under octroi 
 amounted to 20 in Mysore, and 15 in Seringapatam and Hiinsiir ; at Hassan 
 the chief article taxed was tobacco. There was also an ad valorem duty at 
 5 per cent, on the sale, at these places, of country cloth manufactured else- 
 where than in Mysore. The ad valorem duty on piece-goods formed an 
 appreciable portion of the octroi duty generally, but especially in Shimoga 
 and Tarikere. But as the pressure of this tax told more on the poorer 
 classes than on the rich, its levy was under inquiry. 
 
 In the town of Mysore, all sdyar collections were trnnsfcrrcd to the 
 municipality so far back as 1863. The mohatarfa collections were 
 surrendered to the municipality of Seringapatam on condition of their 
 maintaining their own Police ; and were afterwards surrendered on the 
 same conditions to the municipalities of Bangalore, Kolar, Shimoga, 
 Chitaldroog and Chikmagalur, the latter also defraying the cost of the 
 Government schools in the town. This tax had been carefully revised, and 
 extended to the privileged classes who had hitherto been exempt, in 
 accordance with the annexed schedule ; the last three rates being specially 
 sanctioned for the town of Mysore. 
 
 Rs. Rs. Rs. I Rs. Rs. l\s. 
 
 House valued below 
 
 Do. from 50 to 100 i \ Do. 
 
 Do. ,, 100 to 200 2 Do 
 
 Do. 
 Do. 
 Do. 
 
 — 
 
 50 
 
 i 
 
 50 to 
 
 100 
 
 I 
 
 100 to 
 
 200 
 
 2 
 
 200 to 
 
 300 
 
 3 
 
 300 to 
 
 500 
 
 4 
 
 500 to 
 
 700 
 
 5 
 
 700 to 
 
 [,000 
 
 6 
 
 Do. 
 Do. 
 Do. 
 
 Do. ,, 700 to 1,000 6 I above — 
 
 1,000 
 
 to 1,500 
 
 7 
 
 1,500 
 
 to 3,000 
 
 9 
 
 3,000 
 
 to 5,000 
 
 12 
 
 5,000 
 
 to 6,000 
 
 15 
 
 6,000 
 
 to 10,000 
 
 30 
 
 0,000 
 
 to 20,000 
 
 60 
 
 — 
 
 20,000 
 
 120
 
 7i8 
 
 ADMINISTRA TION 
 
 The total amount of municipal revenue in 1 880-1 was 4*2 1 lakhs 
 of rupees. Of this sum Rs. 1,63,070 were obtained from octroi, 
 Rs. 1,05,100 from house-tax, Rs. 42,712 from licenses on trades, 
 Rs. 44,948 from mohatarfa, Rs. 18,374 from rents, Rs. 1,557 from 
 fines, Rs. 33,525 from miscellaneous items, and Rs. 11,870 from 
 grants-in-aid. 
 
 There were at this time 84 Municipalities, distributed in the Districts 
 
 as stated in the margin. There were 341 
 members composing the various Munici- 
 pal Boards, 89 of whom were ex-qfficio, 
 and 252 nominated members. 
 
 The following figures exhibit the growth 
 of municipal institutions and funds since their first establishment : 
 during the famine years the details are not given : — 
 
 Bangalore . 
 
 17 
 
 Hassan ... 11 
 
 Kolar 
 
 II 
 
 Shimoga . 10 
 
 Tumkur ... 
 
 II 
 
 Kadur ... 7 
 
 Mysore ... 
 
 II 
 
 Chilaldroog 6 
 
 
 Bangalore. 
 
 Mysore. 
 
 District Head- j Qther Towns, 
 quarters. 1 
 
 Total 
 
 Expendi- 
 
 Year. 
 
 Canton- 
 ment. 
 
 
 
 
 
 Receipts. | ture. 
 
 
 Town. 
 
 1 
 
 No. 
 
 Amount. | No. 
 
 Amount. 
 
 
 
 1862-3 
 
 37,509 
 
 21,681 
 
 23,369 
 
 
 
 
 82,559 
 
 
 1863-4 
 
 35>ooo 
 
 20,350 
 
 28,713 
 
 
 
 
 
 84,063 
 
 39,302 
 
 1864-5 
 
 58,793 
 
 19,585 
 
 33,992 
 
 
 
 
 
 1,12,370 
 
 93,900 
 
 1S65-6 
 
 71,688 
 
 26,322 
 
 35,190 
 
 "g 
 
 16,087 
 
 
 
 1,49,287 1,44,976 
 
 1866-7 
 
 58,034 
 
 23,330 
 
 31,387 
 
 6 
 
 12,078 
 
 
 
 1,24,829 1,35,150 
 
 1867-8 
 
 60,090 
 
 26,451 
 
 41,612 
 
 6 
 
 13,761 
 
 48 
 
 10,672 
 
 1,52,586 1,41,818 
 
 1868-9 
 
 62,561 
 
 48,751 
 
 30,422 
 
 6 
 
 16,297 
 
 48 
 
 17,128 
 
 1,75,159 1,49,061 
 
 1869-70 
 
 69,969 
 
 43,010 
 
 28,106 
 
 6 
 
 20,286 
 
 48 
 
 21,352 
 
 1,82,723 ,1,97,030 
 
 1870-I 
 
 56,776 
 
 52,867 
 
 47,217 
 
 6 
 
 21,520 
 
 48 
 
 28,737 
 
 2,07,117 2,08,927 
 
 1871-2 
 
 92,617 
 
 59,332 
 
 71,168 
 
 6 
 
 28,189 
 
 48 
 
 37,835 
 
 2,89,141 2,59,186 
 
 1872-3 
 
 1,18,535 
 
 61,084 
 
 76,115 
 
 6 
 
 32,930 
 
 48 
 
 51,600 
 
 3,40,264 3,01,567 
 
 1S73-4 
 
 1,19,179 
 
 61,930 
 
 80,250 
 
 6 
 
 34,398 
 
 67 
 
 57,432 
 
 3,53,189 3,39,134 
 
 1874-5 
 
 1,18,257 
 
 63,440 
 
 85,076 
 
 6 
 
 41,366 
 
 67 
 
 56,729 
 
 3,64,868 3,70.448 
 
 1875-6 
 
 1,22,737 
 
 64,769 
 
 82,775 
 
 6 
 
 45,218 
 
 67 
 
 60,019 
 
 3,75,518 3,67,370 
 
 1876-7 
 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 67 
 
 
 3,65,109 4,06,049 
 
 1877-8 
 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 67 
 
 
 3,36,606 3,52,381 
 
 1878-9 
 
 1,25,758 
 
 61,627 
 
 
 6 
 
 
 67 ! 
 
 
 3,61,499 3,48,851 
 
 1879-80 
 
 ... 
 
 6 
 
 2,05,383 
 
 68 
 
 
 3,92,768 3,52,285 
 
 I 880- I 
 
 1,44,670 
 
 59,993 
 
 
 6 
 
 2,16,473 
 
 75 
 
 
 4,21,136 3,82,158 
 
 State Expenditure. — ^^l^ile the ISIysore revenues expanded under 
 British management, as described in the preceding pages, the 
 expenditure rose rapidly with the reforms introduced in all departments 
 of the Administration, more especially since 1862. Notwithstanding 
 the exceptional demands during the first 25 years on account of the 
 debts of the State and its ruler, the accounts show that from 183 1 to 
 the close of the year 186 1-2, there was a surplus of receipts amounting 
 to Rs. 1,00,91,000, or, excluding the receipts and payments on account
 
 EXPENDITURE 
 
 719 
 
 of the loan from the British Government and the Maharaja's debts, 
 Rs. 152I lakhs. The average annual revenues and charges, without 
 those exceptional items, were as follows during the respective decades 
 from 1832-3 to 1 86 1 -2 : — 
 
 Decade. 
 
 1832-3 to 1841-2 
 1842-3 to 1851-2 
 1852-3 to 1 86 1 -2 
 
 Average Annual 
 Receipts. 
 
 Average Annual 
 Expenditure. 
 
 Average Annual 
 Surplus. 
 
 Rs. 70,08,000 
 
 69,21,000 
 
 87,000 
 
 76,61,000 
 
 68,91,000 
 
 7,70,000 
 
 86,54,000 
 
 79,92,000 
 
 6,62,000 
 
 The increase of expenditure since 1852-3 will he made intelligible 
 by the following comparison of the charges for that year and 186 1-2, 
 which was the last year of the former regime; next 1863-4, when the 
 administration had been fully reorganized; 1872-3, completing the 
 second decade ; and 1875-6, the last year before the famine. 
 
 The figures of the immediately succeeding years are of no use for 
 comparison, from their being so seriously affected, first, by abnormal 
 expenditure on account of the famine, and next, even when reductions 
 had been carried out in all departments, by the large sums paid on 
 account of compensation, pensions, and gratuities. But the approxi- 
 mate figures for 1 880-1 are given, from which it will be seen that, 
 excluding the special Railway and Pension charges (i5"65 and 271 
 lakhs respectively), the expenditure had gone down to 10 1 lakhs, and 
 even this included 4 lakhs for interest on debt, and other exceptional 
 items, such as the Maharaja's installation, census, etc. 
 
 Head of Charge. 
 
 Civil chargesof Ad- 
 ministration ... 
 
 Local Force 
 
 Religious and char- 
 ital)le Institu- 
 tions 
 
 Sul)si(ly to British 
 Government ... 
 
 Maharaja's stipend 
 and share of 
 Revenue 
 
 Ruhlic Works E.\- 
 penditure 
 
 Total Administra- 
 tion Charges ... 
 
 1852-3. 
 
 18,56,000 25,99,000 
 10,04,000 10,46,000 
 
 2,99,000 3,02,000 
 24,50,00024,50,000 
 
 14,98,000 15,11,000 
 
 1863-4. 
 
 1872-3. 
 
 1875-6. 
 
 32,78,000 40,34,000 I 47,44,000! 45,85,000 
 10,80,000! 10,86,000 8,60,000' 7,54,000 
 
 2,61,000 2,83,000 2,83,000 2,75,000 
 24,50,000 24,50,000 I 24,50,000 24,50,000 
 
 14,03,000 8,54,000* 8,80,000 10,00,000 
 
 4,64,00011,64,00013,59,000' 14,24,000 
 
 2i,97,ooo| 10,75,000 
 
 75,71,00090,72,00098,31,000 1,01,31,000 1,14,14,000 1,01,39,000 
 
 Palace charges after the Maharaja's death.
 
 720 
 
 ADMINISTRA TION 
 
 The anal)-.sis of Civil charges, as under, will show the departments 
 under which increase mainly arose and the subsequent reductions : — 
 
 Head. 
 
 1852-3. 
 
 1861-2. 
 
 1863-4. 
 
 1872-3. 
 
 187S-6. 
 
 1880-t. 
 
 General charges. Rs. 
 
 2,34,000 
 
 3,50,000 
 
 3.3S.OOO 
 
 3,25,000 
 
 3,65,000 
 
 \ 
 
 24,62,000 
 
 Revenue and Judicial 8,19,000 
 
 11,81,000 
 
 15,38,000 
 
 16,20,000 
 
 17,37.000/ 
 
 Revenue Survey ... 
 
 
 
 38,000 
 
 2,47,000 
 
 2,89,000 
 
 245,000 
 
 Inam Commission ... 
 
 
 
 ... 
 
 85,000 
 
 75.000 
 
 41,000 
 
 Sayar and Abkari . . . 
 
 2,08,000 
 
 2,60,000 
 
 97,000 
 
 59,000 
 
 72,000 
 
 14,000 
 
 Forests 
 
 18,000 
 
 53>ooo 
 
 32,000 
 
 1,86,000 
 
 2,35,000 
 
 
 83,600 
 
 Stamps 
 
 
 
 43,000 
 
 13,000 
 
 13,000 
 
 
 1 3,600 
 
 Post Office 
 
 48,000 
 
 95,000 
 
 95,000 
 
 1,51,000 
 
 1,60,000 
 
 
 1,07,400 
 
 Jails... _ 
 
 16,000 
 
 25,000 
 
 1,06,000 
 
 1,10,000 
 
 1,23,000 
 
 
 1,66,600 
 
 Registration 
 
 
 
 
 17,000 
 
 20,000 
 
 
 24,000 
 
 Police 
 
 3,25,000 
 
 3,94,000 
 
 4,97,000 
 
 4,45,000 
 
 5,70,000 
 
 4,85,000 
 
 Political Pensions ... 
 
 82,000 
 
 73,000 
 
 58,000 
 
 66,000 
 
 64,000 1 
 i,79,ooo'J 
 
 
 Service Pensions and 
 
 
 
 
 
 3,13,800 
 
 Gratuities 
 
 1,000 
 
 14,000 
 
 86,000 
 
 1,14,000 
 
 
 Medical Department 
 
 35.000 
 
 64,000 
 
 86,000 
 
 1,30,000 
 
 1,49,000 
 
 1,58,000 
 
 Education ... 
 
 6,000 
 
 43,000 
 
 73,000 
 
 2,45,000 
 
 2,45,000 
 
 I,62,OCK> 
 
 Miscellaneous 
 
 64,000 
 
 47,000 
 
 1,90,000 
 
 1,81,000 
 
 3,51,000 
 
 1,46,00a 
 
 Refunds of Revenue. 
 
 
 
 4,000 
 
 40,000 
 
 97,000 
 
 
 From the review now given of the finances of Mysore, it will be 
 apparent that during the first 45 years of British rule, a period of 
 profound peace, the country having been spared the convulsions of 
 1857, the revenues doubled from 55 lakhs to no lakhs, and the 
 administrative charges, which were about 55 lakhs in the earlier years, 
 rose to over double that. When the British assumed the government in 
 1 83 1, they found the State encumbered with debts, the liquidation of 
 which cost 87 f lakhs during the first 25 years, and the revenues had to 
 bear a further charge of 39^ lakhs between 1864 and 1869, on account 
 of fresh debts contracted by the Maharaja. The State was now free 
 from such liabilities, with a steadily improving income, an ample cash 
 balance, and an invested surplus in 1875-6 of ^t^ lakhs. But the 
 famine which ensued completely reversed the financial prospects for the 
 time, and though in 1878-9 the revenue reached the abnormal sum of 
 121 lakhs, much of this was due to collection of arrears, and the 
 regular revenue did not exceed 104 lakhs at the highest. The invested 
 surplus had disappeared, and in its place a debt of 80 lakhs had been 
 incurred. The outlook therefore, which had recently been o fair, was 
 far from encouraging on the eve of the Rendition.
 
 LEGISLATION 
 
 721 
 
 LAW AND JUSTICE 
 
 Legislation. — Mysore being a Native State, the Legislative enact- 
 ments of the Government of India do not necessarily apply to it as 
 they do in British India. When, therefore, the extension to Mysore of 
 any Legislative enactment of the Government of India, or of the 
 Governments of Madras, Bengal or Bombay, is considered necessary, it 
 is usual to make a special ai)plication to the Governor-General in 
 Council vvith this object. 
 
 The following is a list of the Acts of the (iovernment of India which 
 had been extended to Mysore either in whole or in part up to 1 880-1. 
 
 No. and Year of Act. 
 
 XX of 
 
 1847 
 
 IX of 
 
 i8so 
 
 XIX of 
 
 iSso 
 
 XVIII of 
 
 I8S4 
 
 XXI of 
 
 i8s6 
 
 VI of 
 
 I8S7 
 
 VIII of 
 
 i8sQ 
 
 XIV of 
 
 i8sq 
 
 XIII of 
 
 i8sq 
 
 XXVII of 
 
 i860 
 
 XXXI of 
 
 i860 
 
 XLV of 
 
 i860 
 
 V of 
 
 1 861 
 
 XXIII of 
 
 1 861 
 
 XXV of 
 
 1 861 
 
 XXIX of 
 
 1861 
 
 Xof 
 
 1862 
 
 VI of 
 
 1864 
 
 XIII of 
 
 1864 
 
 V of 
 
 1 86s 
 
 Xof 
 
 i86s 
 
 XI of 
 
 186S 
 
 Vof 
 
 1866 
 
 VI of 
 
 1866 
 
 Xof 
 
 1866 
 
 XIV of 
 
 1866 
 
 XX of 
 
 1866 
 
 III of 
 
 1867 
 
 VII of 
 
 1867 
 
 XXIV of 
 
 1867 
 
 XXV of 
 
 1867 
 
 XXXII of 
 
 1867 
 
 I of 
 
 1868 
 
 XXVII of 
 
 1868 
 
 II of 
 
 1869 
 
 VIII of 
 
 i86q 
 
 XVIII of 
 
 1869 
 
 XXI of 
 
 1869 
 
 XX of 
 
 1869 
 
 Name or subject of Act. 
 
 Copyright of Books 
 
 Small Cause Courts 
 
 Binding of Apprentices 
 
 Railway Act 
 
 Abkari Revenue 
 
 Acquisition of Land for public purposes .. 
 
 Civil Procedure Code 
 
 Limitation of Suits, Section 15 ... 
 
 Breach of Contract 
 
 Collection of Debts on Succession 
 
 Sale of Arms and Ammunition ... 
 
 Indian I'enal Code 
 
 Regulation of I'olice 
 
 To amend the Civil Procedure Code 
 
 Criminal Procedure Code ... 
 
 Articles of War 
 
 Indian Stamp Act ... 
 
 Whipping Act 
 
 Emigration Act 
 
 Marriages of Christians ... 
 
 Lulian Succession Act 
 
 Mofussil Small Cause Courts ... ... 
 
 Bills of Exchange ... 
 
 Arms and Ammunition, <S;c. 
 
 Trading Companies 
 
 Post Offices 
 
 Registration of Assurances 
 
 Public gambling 
 
 Purchase of Soldiers' Articles 
 
 Administrator-General's Act 
 
 Regulation of Printing Presses, &c. 
 
 Conferring on Chief Commissioner powers 
 
 Local Government 
 Cleneral Clauses Act 
 
 Limitation of Indian Registration Act ... 
 Justices of the Peace 
 Criminal Procedure Code amended 
 General Stamp Act 
 
 Rules for the Eorest Department of Mysore 
 European \'agrancy 
 Indian \'olunteer Act 
 
 Date of Exten- 
 sion to Mysore. 
 
 of a 
 
 1867 
 1863 
 1875 
 1864 
 1864 
 1867 
 1869 
 1875 
 1864 
 1868 
 1868 
 1862 
 1866 
 1869 
 1862 
 1868 
 1865 
 1864 
 1865 
 1865 
 1 868 
 1866 
 1868 
 1868 
 1868 
 1867 
 1866 
 1867 
 1871 
 
 1867 
 
 1867 
 1878 
 1868 
 
 1869 
 1870 
 1869 
 1871 
 1870 
 
 3 A
 
 722 
 
 ADMINISTRA TION 
 
 No. and ^'ear of Act. 
 
 Name or subject of Act. 
 
 Date of Exten- 
 sion to Mysore. 
 
 VII of 
 
 1870 
 
 Xof 
 
 1870 
 
 XXIII of 
 
 1870 
 
 XXVI of 
 
 1870 
 
 XXVII of 
 
 1870 
 
 I of 
 
 187 1 
 
 VIII of 
 
 1 87 1 
 
 IX of 
 
 1871 
 
 Xof 
 
 1871 
 
 XXIII of 
 
 1871 
 
 XXV of 
 
 1871 
 
 XXVI of 
 
 1871 
 
 I of 
 
 1872 
 
 IX of 
 
 1872 
 
 Xof 
 
 1872 
 
 XI of 
 
 1872 
 
 XV of 
 
 1872 
 
 XVIII of 
 
 1872 
 
 XIX of 
 
 1872 
 
 Vof 
 
 1873 
 
 Xof 
 
 1873 
 
 XI of 
 
 1874 
 
 XXI of 
 
 1876 
 
 I of 
 
 1877 
 
 III of 
 
 1877 
 
 Xof 
 
 1877 
 
 XV of 
 
 1877 
 
 I of 
 
 1878 
 
 XI of 
 
 1878 
 
 I of 
 
 1879 
 
 IV of 
 
 1879 
 
 XII of 
 
 1879 
 
 XIV of 
 
 1880 
 
 Court Fees ... ... ... ... ., ... 1870 
 
 Land Acquisition ... ... ... ... ..,1 1 870 
 
 Indian Coinage ... ... ... ... ... j 1870 
 
 Prisons' Act ... ... ... ... ... 1 1879 
 
 To amend the Indian Penal Code ... ... 1 187 1 
 
 Code of Municipal Regulations ... ... ... \ 1871 
 
 Cattle Tres])ass ... ... ... ... ... 1872 
 
 Custody and duardianshi]! of Minors, Idiots, &c. 1872 
 
 Indian Registration Act ... ... ... ... 1871 
 
 Indian Limitation Act ... ... ... ... ; 187 1 
 
 Rules under the Contagious Diseases Act ... , 1871 
 
 Excise Act ... ... ... ... ... ... , 1879 
 
 Pensions ... ... ... ... ... ... i 1873 
 
 To amend the Railway Act ... ... ... i 1871 
 
 Land Improvement Act ... ... ... ... ' 1878 
 
 Indian Evidence Act ... ... ... ... ! 1872 
 
 Indian Contract Act ... ... ... ... 1 1878 
 
 Code of Criminal Procedure ... ... ... 1872 
 
 Foreign Jurisdiction and Extradition Act ... ! 1872 
 
 Indian Christian Marriages ... ... ... j 1876 
 
 Indian Evidence Act amended ... ... ... ! 1872 
 
 To amend the Definition of Coin in Indian Penal 
 
 Code ... ... ... ... ... ... 1872 
 
 Government Savings Bank ... ... ... 1873 
 
 The Oaths Act 1876 
 
 Criminal Procedure Code Amendment Act ... 1 1874 
 
 To amend Land Improvement Act ... ... ■ 1878 
 
 Specific Relief Act... ... ... ... ... ] 1878 
 
 Indian Registration Act ... ... ... ... t 1877 
 
 Civil Procedure Code ... ... ... ... ! 1878 
 
 Indian Limitation Act ... ... ... ... ' 1877 
 
 Opium Act ... ... ... ... ... ... ' 1879 
 
 Indian Arms Act ... ... ... ... ... 1879 
 
 General Stamp Act ... ... ... ... [ 1879 
 
 Indian Railway Act ... ... ... ... I 1879 
 
 Amending Civil IVocedure Code, Registration I 
 
 and Limitation Acts ... ... ... ... 1879 
 
 Indian Census Act ... ... ... ... ... 1880 
 
 The following Acts of the Madras, Bombay, and Bengal Legislatures 
 have also been extended to Mysore : — 
 
 No. and Year of Act. 
 
 Name or Subject of Act. 
 
 Date of Exten- 
 sion to Mysore. 
 
 
 Madras. 
 
 
 
 I of 1863 
 
 III of 1869 
 
 I of 1873 
 
 VIII of 1878 
 
 Madras Local Act 
 
 To empower Revenue Officers to summon 
 
 Wild Elephants 
 
 Coffee Stealing Prevention Act ... 
 
 
 1865 
 1S69 
 1874 
 1879 
 
 I of 1865 
 IV of 1868 
 
 Boiitbay. 
 Survey, Demarcation, Assessment and Adminis- 
 tration of Lands 
 Amended Bombay Act I. of 1865 
 
 Bengal. 
 
 
 1869 
 1869 
 
 I of 1869 
 
 Prevention of Cruelty to Animals 
 
 
 1877
 
 LAW COUNTS 
 
 r- 
 
 Courts. — The following statement exhibits the gradation and lunnbers 
 of the Courts of Justice as existing in 1876, with the magisterial powers 
 and limits of jurisdiction of the several judicial officers : — 
 
 Courts. 
 
 Peshkars 
 
 Sheristadars.. 
 
 Amildars ... 
 
 Munsiffs 
 
 Sar-Amin 
 
 Town and 
 Cantonment 
 Magistrates 
 
 JiKlicial As- 
 sistants ... 
 
 Small Cause 
 Court, Ban- 
 <,'al()re. 
 
 jagirdar of 
 Velandur. 
 
 Assistant 
 C o m m i s - 
 sioners. 
 Do. ... 
 
 Judicial Powers. 
 
 Magistrates of the 3rd class 
 
 Do. 
 
 Do. 
 
 except Chamrajnagar and Ban- 
 galore Amildars, who are Magis- 
 trates of the 2nd class. 
 
 Dispose of Civil suits up to 
 Rs. 300 in value ; also have 
 SmallCau.se powers uptoRs. 20, 
 but My.sore Munsiffup to Rs. 50. 
 
 Magistrate of the 2nd class... 
 
 Magistrates of the ist Class. 
 Bangalore Town and Canton- 
 ment Magistrate hears api^-als 
 from decisions of the Sar Amin 
 and the Magistrate of the I'ete 
 in Criminal cases 
 
 Dispo.se of original Civil suits 
 from Rs. 300 to Rs. 5,000, with 
 appellate ]«)wcrs in cases trans- 
 ferred to them by the Deputy 
 Commissioners. Also Small 
 Cause powers up to Rs. 300 in 
 addition in Headquarters 
 
 Small Cause jurisdiction up 
 to Rs. 1 ,000. The Registrar up 
 to Us. 20 
 
 Magistrate of the Ist class ... 
 
 Magistrates of the 2nd cla.ss . 
 
 Magistrates of the 1st class. 
 Dispose of ajijieals from deci- 
 sions of 3rd class Magistrates in 
 Criminal cases ... 
 
 Original. I Appeal. 
 
 
 Executive or other 
 
 functions of .••ame 
 
 Officers. 
 
 All duties entrusted 
 to them by the Amil- 
 dars, and in their 
 absence all duties 
 connected witii their 
 office. Huliyurdroog 
 Peshkar was also a 
 Sub- Registrar. 
 
 Revenue and min- 
 isterial functions. 
 
 General super- 
 vision of Revenue, 
 Muzrayi, Registra- 
 tion, Municipalities, 
 &c., within their 
 respective taluqs. 
 
 Turvekere Munsiff 
 was also a Sub- 
 Registrar. 
 
 Sub- Registrar for 
 Bangalore Canton- 
 ment and Executive 
 Officer of the Muni- 
 cipal Board. 
 
 ^lysoreTown Mag- 
 istrate superintended 
 the Mysore Town 
 Police and was Presi- 
 dent of the Muni- 
 cipal Board. 
 
 In charge of District 
 Jail and Treasury. 
 
 The Jagirdar was 
 then an Assistant 
 Commissioner. 
 
 Generally assisting 
 the Dejiuty Commis- 
 sioners in all branches 
 of duties excepting 
 Civil. 
 
 3 A 2
 
 724 
 
 ADMINISTRA TION 
 
 Courts. 
 
 Deputy Com- 
 missioners.. 
 
 Commission- 
 ers... 
 
 Judicial Com- 
 missioner.. 
 
 Judicial Powers. 
 
 Original. 
 
 'l-i 
 
 Powers of a Magistrate of a 
 District with enhanced powers 
 under Section 36 of Act X of 
 1872. Dispose of original Civil 
 suits from Rs. 5,000 to 
 Rs. 10,000 in value. Hear ap- 
 peals from decisions of Munsiffs 
 in Civil cases, and of 2nd and 
 3rd class Magistrates in Criminal 
 cases 
 
 Powers of a Sessions Judge. 
 Dispose of Civil suits above 
 Rs. 10,000 in value. Hear 
 appeals from the decisions of 
 the Judicial Assistants in Civil 
 cases, and of the ist class and 
 District Magistrates in Criminal 
 cases 
 
 Powers of a High Court, and 
 original jurisdiction in granting 
 probates and letters of adminis- 
 tration ... 
 
 Appeal. 
 
 Executive or other 
 
 functions of same 
 
 Officers. 
 
 3 3 
 
 3 3 
 
 General supervision 
 of Revenue, Muzrayi, 
 Registration, Munici- 
 palities, Pulilic 
 Works and Police. 
 
 General supervision 
 in the Division. The 
 Commissioner of 
 Ashtagram was also 
 Sessions Judge of 
 Coorg. 
 
 Also Inspector 
 General of Jails and 
 Police in Mysore and 
 Coorg, and Judicial 
 Commissioner of 
 
 Coorg. 
 
 The system of Judicature was based upon the administrative 
 regulations introduced in 1862-3, as previously described. But in 
 1869 revised Rules of Civil Procedure were introduced, and in 1872 
 the new Criminal Procedure Code ; and on these the practice, functions 
 and powers of the existing tribunals, as above set forth, were more 
 immediately founded. In 1866 appeals from the decisions of Assistant 
 Commissioners to the Deputy Commissioners were abolished, such 
 appeals lying to the Commissioners of Divisions. In 1867 rules were 
 enforced for oral hearing and written judgments in appeal cases, and 
 for the enrolment of pleaders. The following remarks on these 
 changes are by Mr. J. R. Kindersley, officiating at that time as Judicial 
 Commissioner : — 
 
 "The most important alteration which has been lately made in the Civil 
 Procedure in Mysore has been the strict enforcement from the commence- 
 ment of 1867 of these two rules : ist, that no decree should ever be passed 
 on appeal without giving the parties an opportunity of appearing on an 
 appointed day ; 2nd, that the decision should invariably be written by the 
 judge. Formerly, parties to appeal were sometimes heard and sometimes 
 not. The courts were not generally built so as to be very accessible ; no 
 great regularity was observed in hearing appeals on fixed days ; and it was 
 the interest of the subordinate officials to discourage the personal attendance
 
 LAIV COURTS 725 
 
 of suitors ; while pleaders were admitted only by permission of the judges. 
 The demoralizing effects of a system which placed it in the power of 
 subordinate officials to make representations behind the backs of the parties 
 need not be fully described. It became tlie practice in several of the 
 superior courts for the facts of a case to be stated by a subordinate public 
 servant, and occasionally I have found the decision written by such a 
 person, and only signed by the judge." 
 
 In 1873 was commenced, as a step towards the separation of judicial 
 and executive functions, the formation of Munsiffs' Courts in the 
 Nandidroog Division, which relieved the Amildars of jurisdiction in 
 civil cases and enabled them to devote more attention to their revenue 
 duties, now becoming increasingly heavy. The measure was e.xtended 
 to Ashtagram and Nagar in 1875, the expense of the new establish- 
 ments being met by reducing the number of taluqs. 
 
 The civil powers oi Deputy Commissioners had been gradually 
 contracted, when in 1879 the entire separation of judicial and executive 
 functions was completed. Commissioners of Divisions ceased to 
 exercise any revenue powers, and in their place, as Civil Judges, were 
 constituted the Courts of the District Judges, who had unlimited 
 original pecuniary jurisdiction and heard appeals from Subordinate 
 Judges. The latter took the place of Judicial Assistant Commissioners, 
 and formed the next Court in grade below the District Judges, the 
 intermediate Civil Court of the Deputy Commissioner being abolished. 
 The limit of the original pecuniary jurisdiction of the Subordinate 
 Judge was Rs. 5,000, as was the case before with the Judicial Assistant, 
 but the Munsiff's having been raised from Rs. 300 to 500, that of the 
 Subordinate Judge began at the latter figure. Where they had Small 
 Cause powers too, the limit thereof was now Rs. 500 in place of 
 Rs. 300, and these Judges now heard appeals from Munsiffs direct instead 
 of upon reference by the Deputy Commissioner. \\'here the Munsiffs 
 had Small Cause powers, the limit was Rs. 50 in place of Rs. 20. The 
 only other change was in reducing the jurisdiction of the l^angalore 
 Small Cause Court, the Judge of which was Town and Cantonment 
 Magistrate for Bangalore as well, from Rs. 1,000 to Rs. 500. 
 
 But as it was in the Courts of the taluq magistrates that dismissals 
 and acquittals, including withdrawals of the complaint, were so 
 numerous, and a large number of petty cases which can be legally 
 compromised and withdrawn were entertained which should never 
 have been brought on the file, the I'eshkars and Sheristadars, wherever 
 possible, were having their powers withdrawn, leaving the Munsiff and 
 the Amildar to do the magisterial work in the taluqs. 
 
 In iSSo the final step was taken of making the Munsiffs the only
 
 726 ADMINISTRATION 
 
 taluq magistrates. The Amildar still retained his magisterial powers, 
 but as he also had charge of the Police it would not be fitting that he 
 should inquire magisterially into cases the Police had already 
 investigated. Nor could his subordinates, the Peshkars and Sheris- 
 tadars, well take these cases. On this account Munsiffs were 
 invested with powers, and those of Sheristadars were withdrawn, 
 while in the reorganization of establishments the office of Peshkar was 
 abolished. 
 
 Rules were framed for regulating the qualification and admission of 
 advocates and pleaders. Instructions were issued for opening the 
 work of the courts at 1 1 o'clock in the forenoon, and for apportioning 
 the business to different days of the week, so as to ensure, as far as 
 rule can do, punctuality and regularity in the proceedings of the 
 courts. The sums to be entered in the decrees of the courts on 
 advocates' and pleaders' fees were determined, and attention was 
 paid to a more effectual check of accounts of money paid into and out 
 of court. 
 
 CiYil Justice. — -The following is the number and value of civil suits 
 instituted for a series of years : — 
 
 
 No. of Suits. 
 
 Value of Suits. 
 
 
 No. of Suits. 
 
 Value of Suits. 
 
 1865 
 
 17,012 
 
 Rs. 23,31,666 
 
 1873 
 
 21,414 
 
 Rs, 
 
 ■ 23,45,380 
 
 1866 
 
 12,342 
 
 i3>95,o23 
 
 1874 
 
 22,652 
 
 
 23,13,082 
 
 1867 
 
 13,455 
 
 22,69,350 
 
 1875 
 
 25,052 
 
 
 25,02,152 
 
 1868 
 
 14,702 
 
 17,03,488 
 
 1876 
 
 25,051 
 
 
 21,03,785 
 
 1869 
 
 16,835 
 
 15,90,499 
 
 1877 
 
 17,341 
 
 
 19,93,023 
 
 1870 
 
 20,201 
 
 20,98,986 
 
 1878 
 
 21,509 
 
 
 25,06,341 
 
 I87I 
 
 20,764 
 
 29,06,407 
 
 1879 
 
 21,475 
 
 
 24,82,516 
 
 IS72 
 
 21,407 
 
 23,13,785 
 
 1880 
 
 17,203 
 
 
 22,45,104 
 
 From the returns for 1880 it is found that 96 per cent, of the total 
 number of suits were for sums under Rs. 500. Nearly 30 per cent, of 
 the suits which were disposed of were contested : 53 per cent, were 
 uncontested, and the rest were either disposed of without trial or 
 referred to arbitration. Of the contested suits, about three-fourths were 
 decided for the plaintiff, and one-fourth for the defendant. Of the 
 uncontested cases in 1880, 33 per cent, were decreed ex pafte or in 
 default. Only a small proportion of suits were left undecided for more 
 than 3 months. 
 
 Registratioji. — The Registration Act X^T of 1864 came into 
 operation in Mysore on the ist January 1866, and the amended 
 Act XX of 1866 on the ist January 1867. By a new Act, introduced 
 in September 187 1, a large class of documents previously subject to 
 compulsory registration was exempted, namely, coffee-land grants.
 
 CIVIL JUSTICE 
 
 727 
 
 inani title-deeds, and various assignments of land made by Government. 
 Other provisions of that enactment — such as the admission of un- 
 registered documents in evidence of contracts even where they relate 
 to immovable property, and the withdrawal of the special advantages 
 conferred on registered instruments by the old Act, by removing the 
 obligation in some cases and the incentive in others — tended to reduce 
 the work of the 1 )epartmcnt. A revised scale of fees was introduced 
 from the ist September 187S. Whilst the fees on immovable property 
 of the higher values, subject to the compulsory clauses of the Act, 
 were somewhat enhanced, the minimum fee of one rupee which 
 formerly apj; ied to all below Rs. 100 was reduced to 8 annas in the 
 case of documents not exceeding Rs. 50. So also for documents of 
 value above Rs. 1 00 relating to movable property, which are registrable 
 at the option of the parties, the fees were reduced to one-half of 
 documents of like value for which registration is prescribed, the object 
 being to encourage optional registration of all kinds. 
 
 The following statistics will show the progress of registration year by 
 year : — 
 
 Immovable Property. 
 
 Movable Property. 
 
 Year. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Compulsory 
 Registrations. 
 
 Voluntary 
 Registrations. 
 
 Total Value. 
 Rs. 
 
 Registrations. 
 
 1865-6 
 
 695 
 
 414 
 
 
 423 
 
 1866-7 
 
 3,107 
 
 1,352 
 
 
 1,392 
 
 1867-8 
 
 4,408 
 
 1,364 
 
 
 513 
 
 1868-9 
 
 4,672 
 
 1,221 
 
 
 
 1869-70 
 
 5,513 
 
 . 1,463 
 
 23,59,915 
 
 47S 
 
 I 870- I 
 
 6,086 
 
 1,619 
 
 32,65,531 
 
 462 
 
 1871-2 
 
 5,239 
 
 1,612 
 
 30,99,706 
 
 417 
 
 1872-3 
 
 6,026 
 
 1,700 
 
 33,22,641 
 
 415 
 
 1873-4 
 
 6,566 
 
 1,591 
 
 33,68,590 
 
 44S 
 
 1874-5 
 
 7,332 
 
 2,155 
 
 35,33,219 
 
 463 
 
 1875-6 
 
 8,121 
 
 2,721 
 
 41,28,556 
 
 512 
 
 1876-7 
 
 8,780 
 
 3,297 
 
 41,96,361 
 
 379 
 
 1877-8 
 
 10,635 
 
 6,413 
 
 47,30,243 
 
 
 1878-9 
 
 10,013 
 
 6,013 
 
 47,22,671 
 
 
 1879 80 
 
 10,072 
 
 4,504 
 
 42,33,465 
 
 
 I 880- I 
 
 9,959 
 
 5,110 
 
 68,98,960 
 
 
 The unusually high value of the registered property in the last year 
 is owing to registration of certain gold-mining companies. 
 
 Criminal Justice. — The following figures exhibit the statistics of 
 crime for ten years to 1880, and show a decided diminution in serious 
 offences. The increase in crimes against property in 1S77 and 1S7S 
 was due to the famine.
 
 728 
 
 ADMINISTRA TION 
 
 Crimes against 
 
 1871. 
 
 1872. 
 
 1,043 
 8,239 
 4,997 
 1,736 
 
 1873. 
 
 1874. 
 
 1875- 
 
 1876. 
 
 1877. 
 
 1878. 
 
 1879. 
 
 1880. 
 
 TheState, pub- 
 lic and justice 
 Person 
 Property 
 Special Laws . 
 
 813 
 
 10,385 
 7,256 
 1,858 
 
 2,265 
 
 6,405 
 4,186 
 1,308 
 
 1,918 
 6,750 
 3,606 
 1,591 
 
 1,775 
 6,114 
 
 3,337 
 1,792 
 
 1,931 
 
 7,285 
 5,170 
 1,610 
 
 1,146 
 
 5,393 
 16,409 
 
 1,875 
 
 989 
 4,386 
 8,927 
 1,826 
 
 774 
 4,605 
 3,906 
 2,007 
 
 681 
 
 4,820 
 
 4,077 
 2,078 
 
 Total... 
 
 20,3i2'i6,oi5 
 
 14,164 
 
 13,865 
 
 13,018 
 
 15,996 
 
 24,823 
 
 16,128 
 
 11,292 
 
 1 1 ,656 
 
 The results of criminal trials are shown in the subjoined table. The 
 average duration of cases disposed of in 1880 was 3 days. Of 346 
 appeals from the 96 magistrates of the 2nd and 3rd clas.s, in 41 per 
 cent, the conviction was upset. Of 156 appeals to the Sessions Courts 
 from the 29 Courts of the ist class, 22-4 per cent, were reversed. Of 
 159 appeals to the Court of the Judicial Commissioner only 1 2 per cent, 
 were reversed. 
 
 Head. 
 
 1871. 
 
 1872. 1 1873. 
 
 1874. 
 
 1875. 
 
 1876. 
 
 1877. 1878. 
 
 1879. 
 
 1880. 
 
 P e r s n Sj 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 brought to 
 trial 
 Persons ac- 
 
 40,015 30,810 27,858 27,098 
 
 27,041 
 
 35,294 
 
 50,16430,132 20,67918,989 
 
 1 
 
 quitted ... 
 Persons dis- 
 
 17,179 9,200 8,258' 9,018 
 
 10,06514,05711,760 8,888 1 
 
 i-10,164 9,618 
 
 charged... 
 Persons con- 
 
 10,233 5,467 3,4^7 3,482 
 
 2,852 4,491 
 
 6,272 3,975 J 
 
 victed . . . 
 
 12,474 
 
 15,926 
 
 16,058 
 
 14,465 
 
 13,419 
 
 16,259 
 
 30,789 16,995 
 
 10,043 
 
 9,242 
 
 Prisons.- — The present system of jail management may be described 
 as dating from the construction in 1863 of the Bangalore Central Jail, 
 an institution which not only serves as a model to the other prisons 
 of the Province, but is widely known as second to none in India. 
 The accommodation is intended for i,coo prisoners. 
 
 Previous to the period spoken of, the able-bodied convicts were employed 
 in making roads, and lod^-^ed in what were called Koad or Camp Jails. 
 These consisted of nothing more than temporary sheds, the materials of 
 which were pulled down, carried on, and re-erected as the place of encamp- 
 ment was changed. In the Chitaldroog District, convicts of the artisan 
 class were employed in a workshop to make up the iron and wood work for 
 travellers' bungalows and other public buildings. At Bangalore and Mysore 
 were jails of a more permanent character. In the former was the Town 
 Jail, consisting of separate wards for felons, debtors, and insane ; and the 
 Fort Jail. The Town Jail was removed in 1853 from a low and crowded 
 part of the Petta to a more airy site near the northern gate, obtained by
 
 CRIMINAL JUSTICE 
 
 729 
 
 clearing the old boundary hedge. The building was entirely of stone, 
 on the native principle of construction, and was capable of holding 400 
 prisoners. The Fort Jail was originally a temporary thatched building, 
 situated near the Mysore gate of the Fort. This was also rebuilt on the 
 same principle as the Town Jail, with accommodation for 292 inmates. It 
 was specially used for the confinement of Thugs sentenced to long periods 
 of imprisonment. 
 
 The prison diet was \\ seer of ragi and | anna in cash for each working 
 day, and i seer of rice, with the same money allowance, for Sunday. Out 
 of the money, the prisoners were allowed to purchase for themselves salt, 
 pepper, chillies, and other condiments to savour their food with, but care 
 was taken to prevent their having access to drugs, opium, or spirits. The 
 working hours were from sunrise till 3, with an hour's rest at noon. There 
 was no labour on Sunday, when oil and soap-nut were served out to each 
 man for ablution. 
 
 During the famine years the jails were overcrowded. In Mysore it 
 was found, on this account, necessary to form a branch jail at 
 Kukarhalli, and the convicts were employed on the construction of the 
 reservoir for the waterworks. This is the Camp Jail below referred to. 
 It was given up at the end of 1880. The other jails were so far 
 emptied after the famine that all danger of overcrowding was removed. 
 The mark system was introduced in 1879, by which convicts of good 
 conduct could earn appointments as warders and work-overseers, with 
 .some remission of sentence and small gratuities. 
 
 At the close of 1880 there were 8 jails, with one camp jail, and 81 
 lock-ups, containing altogether 2,899 prisoners (2,783 male and 116 
 female), distributed in the following manner : — 
 
 Prisons. 
 
 Convicts. 
 
 Under Trial, j Civil. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Central Jail 
 District Jails 
 Taluq Lock-ups 
 
 1,044 
 1,711 
 
 17 
 
 4 
 60 
 40 
 
 I 
 
 18 
 
 4 
 
 1,049 
 1,789 
 
 6t 
 
 The total cost of the jails for that year was nearly 2 lakhs, the 
 average annual charge per head being Rs. 80-4-3. 
 
 All the prison labour is intramural, consisting of manufactures, 
 gardening, and public works. The convict labour at Kukarhalli was 
 valued at Rs. 23,717 in 1879 and Rs. 22,642 in 1880. The total profit 
 on the employment of the remaining convicts in jails was about half as 
 much. The value of manufactures in the Central Jail for 1880 showed 
 a profit of Rs. i3"34 per head of effectives. Education has for some 
 years been introduced with good effect. In 18S0 there was a daily 
 average of 921 prisoners under instruction. Of the 1,281 prisoners
 
 7 30 AD. MIA 7STl'A TION 
 
 relcasi'd duriiiii; the year wIkj liad Ijccn under instrurtion in the jail, 
 1,007 were unable to read and write when they entered, but when they 
 left, the number so unable was only 587. 
 
 Police. — -The necessity for an improved organization of the Police 
 long attracted attention. The prevailing system was simply the old 
 Kandachar improved upon by better supervision. 'I'he first step 
 towards reform was the introduction, in 1866, of the Police Act V 
 of 1861 into the Bangalore District, and the appointment of an officer 
 of the Madras Police to the charge of the District. It was at that 
 time contemplated to introduce the Madras system throughout the 
 Province. Ikit the new system, although favourably reported on after 
 the lapse of a year, was found to entail a considerable increase of 
 expenditure. It moreover possessed the radical defect of overlooking 
 in great measure the existence of the A'illage Police, a class which, if 
 properly organized and remunerated, was capable of performing useful 
 service to the State. 
 
 The Government therefore resolved, in lieu of adopting the Madras- 
 system of organization, to begin the task of reconstruction by re- 
 modelling the village police, whose decayed condition called in the first 
 instance for remedy. The patels and talaris had not sufficient 
 remuneration ; in some cases inams granted for the maintenance of 
 village police had been alienated or diverted from that object : thus the 
 village system had not been sufficiendy cared for, and the superior 
 advantages which the village officers possessed, with their local know- 
 ledge, over the regular police, in detecting or giving information 
 regarding dacoits, etc., were not utilized. It was therefore considered 
 necessary that the village institutions should be duly recognized in any 
 comprehensive police system for the whole Province, with the view of 
 securing economy and efficiency, especially as the number of persons 
 registered as holding service lands from Government amounted at the 
 time to 14,000. 
 
 Accordingly, the following principles were laid down as the basis of 
 the scheme proposed for the whole Province : — 
 
 1st. The Village Police should be restored to a condition of reasonable 
 vigour and efficiency. Their duties should be carried on under the guidance 
 of a few simple rules. Their remuneration should be at once provided for 
 throughout the Province by rent-free assignments from imassessed lands, 
 all questions connected therewith being left to be settled by the Revenue 
 Survey Department in their due course of operations ; an essential feature 
 in this measure being the concession of magisterial powers in petty cases 
 to competent heads of villages. 
 
 2nd. The Kandachar police should be superseded by a constabulary
 
 POLICE 731 
 
 similar to that already introduced into Bangalore, but having the village 
 ixjlice for its basis. The functions of the latter should be to act as 
 tuxiliaries to the former; and on it (working as it ought under the village 
 licadmen) should devolve the responsibility as well of reporting a crime as 
 of discovering the criminal. No additional expenditure should be incurred, 
 as the regular force need not, under the circumstances, be numerous, but 
 the members should be well paid, and specially selected with the view of 
 lilting them to assist the \'illage Police in detection. The relations of the 
 village police with the regular police should be clearly defined, so as to 
 utilize the former to the fullest extent ; and so adjusted, that, while the due 
 performance of their duties is secured, unnecessary interference on the part 
 of the regular police in ordinary village affairs is eschewed. 
 
 3rd. The regular police need not be armed and drilled, as the local Barr 
 Force (which is otherwise useful in guarding District and local treasuries, 
 and thus largely relieves the police of some of its work) would well suffice 
 for repressive purposes. 
 
 Rules drawn up in accordance with the foregoing principles were 
 sanctioned at the end of 1872. During the following year the system 
 was introduced throughout the Chitaldroog District, the only one 
 completely surveyed and settled. But it was soon found that the re- 
 constitution of the Village Police, which had but a nominal existence, 
 would require time, as the men available for employment in the new- 
 constabulary being necessarily taken from those belonging to the old 
 Kandachar force, required training for their new duties, and the village 
 patels being generally illiterate were incapable of performing in a trust- 
 worthy manner the functions prescribed for them. 
 
 An fl'^ /«/m;« measure was therefore introduced, in 1874, for the 
 improvement of the existing force in the other Districts by the discharge 
 of incompetent men and the introduction of an improved class on 
 better pay, accompanied by a numerical reduction of the force. 
 Provision was made for instructing all grades in police duties, and 
 requiring the officers to pass an examination. I3y these special rules 
 the District Police was governed, while the Police Force of the Town 
 and Cantonment of Bangalore was administered under Act \' of 1861. 
 
 The Police Department was controlled by a Deputy Inspector- 
 (ieneral of Police, acting under the Judicial Commissioner, who was 
 the Inspector-General. In the Districts, the Deputy Commissioner 
 was ex officio Head of the Police, and was aided by one of the Assistant 
 Commissioners, who was designated the Police-Assistant. This officer, 
 while primarily responsible to the Deputy Commissioner for the dis- 
 cipline and general working of the Police, was available for other general 
 duties (excepting magisterial duties in connection with jiolice cases), 
 whenever such could t)e i)erformed without prejudice to his own duties.
 
 7 3 2 AD MINIS TRA TION 
 
 Kvcry effort was used to make the service popular. Station-houses 
 were huilt wherever shelter was not available, and huts constructed 
 where accommodation was not easily procurable, liatta was also given 
 at hilly and ghat stations, and suitable clothing i.ssued to the men of 
 the Force. 
 
 The ordinary weapon of the "Rural Police was a stout bamboo cudgel, 
 about I \ inch thick and 40 inches long, fitted with brass ferules at the 
 ends, on one end of which the name of the peon and his number were 
 engraved. A few fusils with sword bayonets were issued, but the want 
 of training to the use of firearms on the part of the men, and the 
 inadequate accommodation for their careful storage, proved obstacles to 
 the Force being more generally supplied with these weapons; but 
 arrangements were made to issue them to men stationed in isolated 
 localities where they were specially needed. 
 
 In August 1879, the Chief Commissioner assumed direct control of 
 the Police through his Secretary in the General Department, while the 
 Military Assistant supervised the discipline, clothing and equipment of 
 the Force. In December 1880, a further organization was introduced, 
 rendered necessary by the changes made in the Mysore Commission 
 and the abolition of Police Assistant Commissionerships. The general 
 management of the Police duties of the District was placed directly in 
 the hands of the Deputy Commissioner, with liberty to employ a 
 General Assistant Commissioner on any particular duty. Amildars were 
 put in executive charge of the Police of their taluqs and the Inspectors 
 were made their assistants in the Police branch. The number of 
 officers was considerably reduced, being regulated by the number of 
 taluqs and stations. At the same time the number of constables was 
 increased in some instances, and the Police Force maintained by the 
 Seringapatam and Ganjam municipalities was absorbed into the District 
 Force. 
 
 With regard to distribution, 365 officers and 3,454 men were 
 employed on patrol beat and other duties, and 51 officers and 318 men 
 in guarding lock-ups, treasuries, and on escort duty, while 596 were on 
 duty in towns. The total sanctioned strength, including those 
 maintained by Municipalities, was 510 officers and 4,061 men, or a 
 total of 4,571- The cost of the Force was Rs. 5,99,976, of which 
 Rs. 5,24,942 was payable from State revenues and the remaining 
 ^s. 75,034 from other sources. 
 
 Nothing much was done in regard to resuscitating the \'illage Police, 
 but its status was improving, and great care was exercised in selecting 
 influential and intelligent men for Patelships. Since the Amildars 
 had been invested with Police functions more interest was taken in
 
 PUBLIC WORKS 
 
 /JO 
 
 the working of the Village Police. In the famine many villages were 
 defended by these with great courage against the attacks of dacoits, 
 and the criminals pursued and ap[)rehended. 
 
 Of the officers, 28 were Christians, 171 Muhammadans, 2S7 Hindus 
 and others. Of the men, 30 were Christians, 1,495 Muhammadans, 
 2,701 Hindus and others. 
 
 In 1880 there were 6,881 cases of cognizable criuK; in which the 
 Police were engaged, and convictions were obtained in 84-62 per cent. 
 The Police arrested 7,015 persons, of whom 65 "9 1 per cent, were 
 convicted. In non-cognizable crime, the Police arrested 692 persons, 
 of whom 472 were convicted. 
 
 PUBLIC WORKS 
 
 Under the previous Native Governments there was no Engineering 
 staff as we now understand it, and the Administration which succeeded 
 in 1 83 1 made no immediate change in this respect. The Super- 
 intendents of Divisions and the Amildars of Taluqs carried out all 
 descriptions of work through Native Mestris and Mutsaddis attached 
 to the taluqs, and the maintenance of tanks and channels was always 
 regarded as specially appertaining to Revenue officials. But the 
 want of professional assistance in the matter of roads and bridges 
 early pressed itself on the Administration, and the post of a 
 Superintendent of Maramat was created in 1834. The attention of 
 this officer was almost exclusively devoted to designing and executing 
 original works. 
 
 In July 1854, the Court of Directors, in consideration of the pro- 
 sperous condition of the finances of Mysore, desired that opportunity 
 should be taken to execute " such works of unusual magnitude and 
 importance as might appear calculated to promote in the largest degree 
 the development of the resources of the country." Sir Mark Cubbon, 
 in reply, proposed to construct the Mari Kanave reservoir, as the only 
 large irrigation work coming within the scope of the Court's require- 
 ments ; but as the Superintendents were " overwhelmed with the 
 revenue and judicial business of their Divisions," and as the Commis- 
 sioner had " daily and hourly forced on him the conviction of the utter 
 breakdown of the attempt to maintain the roads by native agency 
 without the necessary minute supervision of P^uropean Officers," he 
 suggested that a Superintendent of Roads should be appointed, with a 
 proper staff. After further correspondence, the Department of Public 
 Works was constituted in June 1856, and consisted of a Chief Engineer 
 and an Assistant Chief I'jigineer for the direction, and of five Executive
 
 734 ADMINIS TRA TION 
 
 ICnginccrs, fcnir Assistant ILnginecrs, and eleven Upper and nineteen 
 Lower Subordinates for construction. 
 
 The charge of the roads was completely handed over to the new 
 I )cpartment. Not so, however, the tanks and cliannels, which were still 
 left under the charge of Revenue officers. It was only by a species of 
 lapse that the Executive Engineers found themselves in charge of such 
 special works as appeared necessary from their own personal inspection, 
 or as were brought to their notice by Revenue officers. 'I"he anomalies 
 which thus sprung up were in a great measure put an end to in 1863, 
 by a Committee which assigned the charge of tanks definitely to the 
 Revenue officers, with specific powers of sanction, reserving for the 
 Department of Public Works such works as called for professional 
 supervision. This arrangement gradually gave place to a better 
 system of tank management, which had been shown to be necessitated 
 by the tank-system peculiar to Mysore, involving as it does the solution 
 of hydraulic questions of no ordinary difficulty, and demanding the 
 services of a highly-trained professional department. 
 
 After prolonged discussion, the Secretary of State for India approved 
 of the formation of an Irrigation Department for carrying out the objects 
 in view. By this arrangement, the Revenue officers remained as before 
 charged with the up-keep of such tanks as were not immediately being 
 dealt with by the Irrigation Department. These latter selected specific 
 series for immediate work, and brought the tanks composing them up 
 to standard, to be afterwards made over to cultivators for perpetual 
 maintenance, with the exception of works like waste weirs, sluices, &€., 
 which required departmental management, and for which provision was 
 made partly by annual grants and partly from the irrigation cess of 
 two annas per rupee of wet land assessment. The avowed object of 
 this plan was that while the whole of the tanks in the country should be 
 brought up to a standard of safety, and their future up-keep thrown 
 upon the most interested parties — the ryots — under stringent regula- 
 tions, nothing but simple conservancy would of necessity be imposed on 
 the succeeding Native Government, who would be thus enabled 
 effectually to control the whole without the aid of a highly-trained 
 engineering staff. 
 
 So also for the irrigation channels under the Kaveri, Hemavati, 
 Lakshmantirtha and Shimsha rivers, a separate Channel Conservancy 
 establishment was formed in 1S64 under the supervision of Revenue 
 Officers ; and the Public ^^'orks Department only carried out such 
 original works as necessarily required their supervision. But in 1870 
 the charge of the channels and the direction of the Conservancy estab- 
 lishment were made over to the Superintending Engineer for Irrigation.
 
 PUBLIC WORKS 735 
 
 In 1873 the Public Works Department was separated into two distinct 
 branches, one for Roads and Buildings, and the other for Irrigation. 
 
 In the matter of labour, Mysore had always presented serious diffi- 
 culties, owing partly to the sparseness of the population (chiefly on the 
 west and south), and partly to the fact that the great bulk of the people 
 were cultivators, whose presence on their own fields was generally 
 called for at the very season when public works required to be pushed 
 on with vigour. The attractions offered by the tea and coffee estates 
 on the Nilgiris, in Wainad, Coorg, Manjarabad and Nagar, the advent 
 of the Railway, together with the great extension of public works, both 
 imperial and local, and the impetus given to private undertakings of 
 all kinds, combined to raise the price of labour very high. As nearly 
 as could be ascertained from an analysis of the rates for labour at each 
 decade during the previous 40 years, it would appear that the price of 
 unskilled labour had doubled since 1850, and that of skilled labour 
 risen threefold. 
 
 At all times the labour needed for the repairs of tanks and channels 
 had i)resented special difficulties, and under native rule was no doubt 
 met by expedients not now available. In addition to the forced labour 
 then resorted to, there was in many instances a tank establishment 
 {kere baiides) who, in return for certain lands held rent-free, were 
 required to maintain buffaloes for bringing earth to the tank embank- 
 ments. Whatever remained of this old institution was being put an end 
 to, by the members being released from service and allowed to retain 
 their inam lands on payment of a small quit-rent. 
 
 There were also bodies of men called Kamatis, who, in return for 
 certain privileges, were liable to be called on for effecting repairs within 
 their respective taluqs ; as also a corps called Khalihats, who were 
 organized for general service in all parts of the Province on road or 
 irrigation works as might be required. The origin of this corps, which, 
 among other privileges, enjoyed freedom frcjm house-tax, was, however, 
 of comparatively recent date. 'J'hey were originally palanquin bearers, 
 maintained by the State on the main road from Palmanair to My.sore 
 via Bangalore, their services to travellers being, it is understood, 
 rendered gratis. With the increase of travellers, and tlic introduction 
 of other means of locomotion than palanquins, the specific employment 
 for this corps ceased, and the men were as a body turned over to the 
 ISIaramat in 1841, and afterwards to the new Department of Public 
 Works. In i860 the Kdmatis and Khalihdts were fused into a single 
 corps of 10 companies, 100 strong each, with an establishment of 
 Jamedars, Dafedars, Mutsaddis, <S:c. 'J'he annual cost of this corps 
 amounted to Rs. 67,000. In this form, the corps, though rather
 
 736 A D MINIS TRA TION 
 
 reduced in numbers, was usefully employed on works to the west 
 and north-west of the Province, where it was almost impossible to raise 
 indigenous labour. 
 
 Cooly companies had at times been raised for specific purposes and 
 short periods ; but they had been found more troublesome than useful, 
 and the work turned out by them expensive. Moplas and other coast 
 men were frequently found ready to undertake the construction of 
 rough stone revetments on the ghat roads ; but in all other parts of the 
 country indigenous labour had to be relied on. 
 
 Since 1862 the system of executing work by contract had been more 
 largely resorted to than before. The practice of making advances, 
 which had led to most unsatisfactory results, was done away with, and 
 contractors were encouraged by payments made at short intervals on 
 past and approved work. While it must be conceded that in many 
 cases bad work may have been passed and paid for, there is no doubt 
 that advantageous results were nevertheless attained. The system 
 enabled the Department to extend its operations more than would 
 otherwise have been possible with its restricted establishment. 
 
 There are no means of ascertaining the sums expended on Public 
 ^^'orks before the present century. There is, however, no doubt that 
 considerable local expenditure was incurred in the construction of 
 temples, palaces, and works for religious purposes, or for the shelter or 
 convenience of travellers. Moreover, in the days of the old Palegars, 
 much of the means and labour of the people were devoted to the 
 construction of those hill fortresses called droogs, which are scattered 
 all over the Province, and form one of its distinguishing features. 
 
 Narrow and tortuous village tracks, passing through dense forests, 
 and over the mountains of the A\'estern Ghats, served the purpose of 
 roads. Over these, pack bullocks, bearing the little that had to be 
 carried from one place to another in those days, pushed their way with 
 considerable difficulty towards the coast. The only wheeled vehicles 
 used in the plains were either the small ivaddar cart, or the great halhi 
 bandi of the Malnad, both alike suited only to the small local require- 
 ments of the ryot, bringing in his supply of firewood or carting manure 
 to his fields. 
 
 There are a few bridges of singular construction which belong to this 
 period, such as those over the two arms of the Kaveri river as divided 
 by the island of Sivasamudra,' and those over the minor branches of 
 
 * Supposed to have been built 700 years ago, and repaired in 1S30 by Ramaswami 
 Modaliar, who received for his work the title of Lokopakarartham Karta, or " per- 
 former for the public good," from the British Government, and jagirs worth 
 Rs. 17,000 per annum in British and Mysore Territories.
 
 PUBLIC WORKS 737 
 
 the Kaveri at Seringapatam/ the bridge over the Kabbani river at 
 Nanjangud,- that at Betmangala on the old Kolar road, and five other 
 small works of the same class within the fortifications of the ancient city 
 of Nagar or Bednur. But these, though doubtless of local value, 
 formed no portion of a system of provincial communications. 
 
 The only works of this period which can be classed as having any 
 extensive public utility are the tanks (which stud the whole surface of 
 the maidan taluqs), and river channels, in the construction of which, 
 through many hundreds and possibly even thousands of years, an 
 incredible amount of patient industry has been devoted. 
 
 At what particular period the tank system attained its full develop- 
 ment it is now quite impossible to say ; but judging from the necessary 
 conditions of its growth, the progress could not fail to have been 
 extremely slow, and most probably it expanded with the natural 
 increase of population. It may be conjectured that the first civilized 
 inhabitants, taking possession of the higher grounds, constructed the small 
 tanks or kattes on the minor rivulets, and then step by step followed 
 these down to the larger streams, arresting and impounding the water 
 at every convenient site by throwing earthen bunds across the valley. 
 
 As, according to the plan followed, it was possible to advance only 
 steadily downwards from the watersheds of the various streams to their 
 extremities, it may be conceived how vast a time would be expended 
 in creating a single series as we now find of several hundred, and in 
 some cases over a thousand reservoirs, linked together in this fashion, 
 and forming such continued chains of works that not a single drop of 
 water falling on the catchment is lost in seasons of drought, and but 
 little in ordinary seasons. To such an extent, moreover, was this 
 system carried, that in many parts of the Province it would now be 
 quite impossible to construct a new tank without interfering pre- 
 judicially with the rights of other older w^orks on the same line of 
 drainage. This vast series of works, individually varying in size 
 according to local circumstances (from the great Sulekerc tank in the 
 Nagar Division, extending over 14 square miles, down to small kattes 
 or village reservoirs), grew into existence necessarily without reference 
 to scientific principles, and was purely experimental. 
 
 As belonging to the same period, the channels drawn by means of 
 anicuts from the Kaveri, Hemavati, Lakshmantirtha, and other streams 
 must here be noticed. The designs of these works are attributed to 
 Rajas of old, and even to certain beneficent deities, and precise dates 
 are assigned for the construction of several of them. ]'>ut whatever the 
 
 ' .Supposed to have been erected in 1656. 
 ^ Supposed to have been constructed in 1727. 
 
 3 '^
 
 738 ADMimSTRA TION 
 
 facts, it is at least clear that they are extremely ancient, and that 
 however defective as tested by our modern ideas in these matters, their 
 original construction exhibits a boldness and an appreciation of the 
 conditions of structure, which, under the circumstances of the times, 
 excite the greatest admiration. In addition to the anicuts now in 
 use, the remains of probaVjly more than three times as many others are 
 still visible when the rivers arc low. From some of these the original 
 excavations made for the old channels are still apparent, while from 
 others channels do not appear to have been excavated. It is therefore 
 clear that the success that resulted from the construction of the works 
 that are still in use was not obtained without a very large proportion 
 of failures, and the perseverance displayed by the constructors in spite 
 of these failures is none the less remarkable, and shows the high value 
 placed in former ages on irrigation works. 
 
 During the regency of Divan Purnaiya, 77;^ lakhs were expended on 
 public works, of which 315 were devoted to irrigation works, but only 
 67,000 to roads, and this not till he had been five years in power. The 
 former sum was to a great extent absorbed in the repair of old tanks 
 and channels, the majority of which had fallen into a ruinous condition 
 during the reigns of Haidar and Tipu. A further expenditure of 
 \']\ lakhs was incurred on the project of a canal, now known as 
 Purnaiya's Nala, whose object was to bring the holy waters of the 
 Kaveri into Mysore and also Nanjangud, but which entirely failed in 
 its intention. The other items of expenditure were: — Near 15 lakhs 
 on construction and repair of forts, those of Bangalore and Channa- 
 patna being the principal works ; 55 lakhs on the Wellesley Bridge 
 over the Kaveri at Seringapatam ; above 3^ lakhs on travellers' 
 bungalows, (S:c. ; near 2 lakhs on maths, chatrams and other religious 
 buildings; li lakh on taluq cutcherries and other civil buildings; 
 1 1 lakh on Webbe's monument near the French Rocks. 
 
 For the period of the Maharaja's direct government, information can 
 be gathered only from the condition in which public works were found 
 at the time of the British assumption. From Colonel Green's report, it 
 appears that there existed in 1831 only three roads in any way entitled 
 to the appellation — viz , the road from Naikneri to Mysore via Banga- 
 lore ; the road from Seringapatam to Sira and Bellary ; and the road 
 from Bangalore to Harihar : and all of these were very indifferent, 
 having portions running through swamps, the passage of which would 
 detain the baggage of a regiment an entire day ; other places bore the 
 appearance of watercourses with beds of river sand, the soil having 
 been washed away far below the level of the surrounding country. 
 The better order in which some few portions were preserved was in a
 
 PUBLIC WORKS 739 
 
 great measure neutralized by the almost total absence of bridges, which 
 in a country like Mysore, situated between the two monsoons, was a 
 most serious inconvenience, and throughout the year kept the progress 
 of the merchant, or the traveller, perpetually liable to interruption. It 
 was no uncommon thing for a regiment, or even the tappal runners, to 
 be detained for several days at a nullah not i6 miles from Bangalore, 
 and there were several other such impediments in different places on 
 the three roads, where lives were annually lost to a considerable 
 extent. 
 
 There was not, at the time of the assumption of the country in 183 1, 
 a single pass through the Western Ghats practicable for cattle with 
 loads. At the Agumbi Pass, in the Nagar country, which was the 
 most frequented, it was usual to carry everything of value on coolies, 
 the hire for which was \ a rupee per bullock load. Thus, when the 
 bales exceeded the number of porters, who were a peculiar caste of 
 men of a limited number, or when the latter were away at festivals, it 
 was not an extraordinary thing for a merchant to be detained at the 
 ghat ten days or a fortnight, before his turn came or there were means 
 available by which his goods might pass the ghat. The approach to 
 the head of the pass was marked by lame cattle, bleeding and bruised, 
 with horns broken off in scrambling about the stones on the pass, 
 while the atmosphere was tainted with the effluvia of the carcases 
 of bullocks which, taxed beyond their strength, had perished by the 
 way. 
 
 As regards irrigation works, in some cases where the Raja's Govern- 
 ment had attempted to arrest the decay accruing to a tank, the 
 measures adopted had an opposite effect to that which was intended ; 
 the remedy was worse than the disease, in reality accelerating the failure 
 of the biwd it was desired to preserve. This arose from the intentional 
 mismanagement of the parties employed to carry the earth repairs into 
 effect, whose object, if paid for their labour, was to secure, by the 
 breaching of the bund they had been engaged to strengthen, another 
 and more advantageous contract the following year ; or when, as 
 appears to have been the more usual mode of executing Sarkar work, 
 they were not paid at all, to get through their forced labour as easily as 
 they could. 
 
 From 1831-1856 the sum of 30] lakhs was spent on irrigation 
 works, 284 lakhs on roads, and 6 lakhs on buildings. As regards the 
 first, individual works were much improved, and many almost wholly 
 reconstructed from the ruinous condition into which the Maharaja's 
 Government had allowed them to drift ; yet little advance was made 
 on the native method of maintenance, because the interdependence 
 
 3 B 2
 
 74° 
 
 A DMINISTRA TION 
 
 of the tanks, and the necessity for dcahng with them in series, was 
 not suf¥icicntly recognized and acted upon. So also with river 
 channels, although some improvements were introduced, such as the 
 construction of brick facings to some of the anicuts when under 
 repair, yet most of the radical defects in these works were left 
 without remedy. 
 
 With regard to roads and bridges the case however was different. 
 The roads constructed at this period not only connected all head- 
 quarter stations with Bangalore, but some of them were great through 
 lines, extending on all sides to the frontiers of the Province. Altogether 
 1,597 miles of road, with 309 bridges, and 1,998 drains were constructed 
 in the Province after the transfer of Government and before a regular 
 Department of Public Works was organized. 
 
 Among the miscellaneous works executed was the commencement in 
 1853, and in great part completion, of flying and permanent electric 
 telegraph lines, — one from Attibele near Oossoor to Rampur on the 
 Bellary frontier, being a length of 191 miles ; the other from Bangalore 
 to Kankan-halla on the Nilgiri road, length 143 miles — at a cost of 
 Rs. 1,03,639 for the lines, and Rs. 8,253 fo'" offices at Bangalore and 
 Mysore. 
 
 Since the formation of the Department Public Works in 1856, the 
 expenditure for 20 years under the several heads, exclusive of establish- 
 ment, may be thus stated : — 
 
 Class Of Work. 
 
 Original Works. 
 
 Repairs. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Military 
 
 Civil Buildings 
 
 Agricultural and Irrigation 
 Communications ... 
 Miscellaneous Public Improve- 
 ments 
 
 1,77,233 
 25,96,501 
 
 18,73,975 
 45,63,658 
 
 7,48,722 
 
 37,563 
 
 3,23,450 
 
 34,06,202 
 
 51,11,255 
 
 70,712 
 
 2,14,796 
 
 29,19,951 
 52,80,177 
 
 96,74,913 
 8,19,434 
 
 Total Rs.... 
 
 99,60,089 
 
 89,49,182 
 
 1,89,09,271 
 
 Under military^ the chief expenditure was due to the construction in 
 1865-6 of a new Cantonment for a Native Infantry Regiment at Mysore, 
 which, however, had subsequently to be abandoned owing to the 
 unhealthiness of the situation. 
 
 Of civil buildings the largest works were the Public Offices at 
 Bangalore, built between 1S64 and 1868, at a cost of Rs. 4,27,980 
 including site ; with the Central Jail and the Bowring Civil Hospital, 
 built in 1867, at a cost for the former of Rs. 46,047 and for the latter 
 of Rs. 2,16,454. More recently, at Bangalore, the Raja's Castle,
 
 PUBLIC WORKS 741 
 
 Government House, the Division Cutcherry, and the Central College 
 {late High School) are prominent buildings which were in great measure 
 (especially the first) rebuilt according to ornamental designs, costing 
 altogether about 2^ lakhs. With these may be mentioned the Museum, 
 the Post Ofifice, and the Government Press, costing together nearly 
 I lakh. Cutcherries at head-quarters of Districts for Deputy Commis- 
 sioners, at Sub-division head-quarters for Assistant Commissioners, 
 Courts for Judicial Assistants, Taluq cutcherries. District Jails (that at 
 Shimoga costing over i lakh). School-houses, Civil Hospitals and 
 Dispensaries, offices for Executive Engineers at District head-quarters, 
 — were various classes of structure which provided throughout the 
 country suitable accommodation for the several branches of i)ublic 
 business involved. 
 
 In the category of civil buildings falls also work done to public 
 monuments and religious buildings. The chief work here was the repair 
 and re-painting of Tipu's Summer Palace, known as the Dariya Daulat, 
 at Seringapatam, under orders issued by the Marquis of Dalhousie in 
 November 1855. The work, which was almost entirely of an artistic 
 character — viz., repainting the picture of Baillie's defeat, renewal of the 
 interior enrichments, c\:c., was well completed in a little over three years 
 at an outlay of Rs. 37,000. Under the same authority Rs. 2,000 were 
 expended in 1859 in replacing the inlaid doors and executing other work 
 to the tombs of Haidar and Tipu at Seringapatam. Rs. 5,491 were 
 spent in restoring the roof and otherwise preserving the celebrated 
 temple of Halebid. 
 
 Of works of irrigation, included under the head Agricultural, the 
 following are some of the principal that were executed : — 
 
 Cost Rs. 
 Kcbuilding the Sriramdevar anient on the Hemavati, and imjiroving 
 
 channel below ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 2,78,504 
 
 Rebuilding the Maddur anient on tiie Shimsha, and improving channel 
 
 below ^5,365 
 
 Rebuilding the Maichalli anient on the Lakshmantirtha, and improving 
 
 channel below ... .. ... ... ... ... ... ... 29,339 
 
 Aqueduct over the Lokapavani on the Chikdevarayi-scigar channel ... 22,265 
 
 Rebuilding the Lakshmanpnra anient on the Nugu 12,878 
 
 Do. llalhalli anient on the Gundal ... ... ... ... 10,424 
 
 A very iniporlanl priii<:i[)le was introduced in these works — viz., the 
 substitution of solid watertight anicuts for that under the old native 
 construction, which consisted entirely of packed stone, without the 
 rc(iuisitc coherence, and carried with it the elements of destruction, 
 while it allowed nearly all sununer water to escape through unutilized. 
 The application of sound methods of construction to these works, and
 
 742 
 
 ADMINISTRA TION 
 
 to the regulation of channels below them, as also the distribution of 
 water for irrigation, may be said to have created quite a new era in 
 the channel system of Mysore. 
 
 In 1872-3, a grant of 108 lakhs, inclusive of establishment, was 
 assigned for expenditure on irrigation in the next 12 years, namely, 72 
 lakhs for tanks and 36 for channels. 
 
 Under coDimunicaiiotis the expenditure was laid out either in the 
 construction of new roads or in rectifying and improving old ones, as 
 well as in the construction of large bridges. In 1875-6 there were 
 1,552 miles of road maintained by the Department at an expenditure of 
 about 3 lakhs, and at the rate on the average of Rs. 193 per mile, 
 including the travellers' bungalows and inspection lodges. The two 
 new ghats — viz., the Bund and Haidarghar, were most important 
 additions to the provincial communications, and completed six outlets 
 for cart traffic between Mysore and the western coast. The last was 
 laid out at easier gradients than any other, and promises to be of 
 special importance, as it stands in direct connection with a w'ell-studied 
 network of roads designed to open out the whole of the Nagar Malnad, 
 This tract of country, so rich and fertile in its supari gardens, was 
 most difficult of access, and presented a serious barrier to all 
 communications with the coast. Opened by these Hnes, the whole 
 Province to its remotest corner is in communication with the western 
 coast. 
 
 The construction of numerous bridges also devolved on the Depart- 
 ment Public Works, in connection with both the old and the new 
 lines. These are so numerous that only the very largest need here be 
 noticed, from among those which have been constructed since 1856. 
 Subjoined are particulars concerning four such works : — 
 
 Name of Work. 
 
 Over what 
 River. 
 
 On what Road. 
 
 Materials of 
 Construction. 
 
 Number and Di- Dateof 
 mensions of | corn- 
 Spans, pletion 
 
 Cost Rs. 
 
 Harihar bridge 
 
 Tun£:abhadra. 
 
 Bangalore to 
 
 Stone and 
 
 14 elliptical 
 
 
 
 Dharwar . 
 
 Brick ... 
 
 spans, 60' 1 
 each ...|i868 
 
 3,48,096 
 
 Saklespur do. Hemavati ... 
 
 ! 
 
 Bangalore to 
 Mangalore 
 
 Iron 
 
 4 spans, lat-i 
 tice girders, 
 i2o'each,on 
 cylinders...; 1870 
 
 1,94,620 
 
 Shimoga do. Tunga 
 
 Bangalore to 
 Honnore . 
 
 Brick ... 
 
 16 arches of 
 50 feet span 
 each ... 1859 
 
 1,07,538 
 
 Benkipur do. Bhadra 
 
 Do. 
 
 Do. 
 
 13 arches of 
 50 feet span j 
 each ...11860 
 
 74,997 
 
 Under miscellaneous public improvements^ the works have as a rule
 
 PUBLIC WORKS 743 
 
 ceased since the introduction of municipal institutions, and are confined 
 to exceptional cases in which the assistance of Government is given in 
 the shape of a grant-in-aid. All the large towns have benefited more 
 or less, but Bangalore above others, as being the seat of Government 
 and the most important town in the Province. Nearly 2k lakhs were 
 spent on the central channel of the Cantonment Bazar, and in 
 the construction of a self-regulating main sewer which runs alongside 
 and transfers all sewage to a considerable distance from the town. 
 The largest works undertaken were the \\\iter Supply projects 
 for Bangalore and Mysore, the estimates being about 5 lakhs for 
 each. 
 
 The increasing revenue derived from District Local Funds enabled 
 the transfer to that head of the maintenance of subordinate lines of 
 road, besides providing the means of extending crossroads. Including 
 the transferred lines of road, there were, at the end of 1875-6, an 
 aggregate of 2,243 milt^s for which maintenance allowances were 
 provided out of District Funds. J Xiring the first few years, while there 
 existed inadequate means for laying out roads of this class, framing the 
 estimates and subsequently executing the work, the results were in 
 many respects unsatisfactory ; but arrangements were made for entrust- 
 ing the designs and setting out of the work to Executive officers, 
 while the work was carried into execution by local agency, under the 
 Revenue officers. The Public Works Department, moreover, construct 
 all bridges over 20 feet span on District Fund roads. 
 
 In 1876, in order to meet the necessity of increased supervision 
 consequent on a largely increased grant, a re-organization of the estab- 
 lishment and a partial re-distribution of the Divisional charges were 
 sanctioned. But the great famine which ensued upset every forecast. 
 All ordinary budget rules for sanctions and appropriations had to be set 
 aside under the severe pressure. Sanctioned works had to be abandoned 
 altogether, or postponed till better times ; unsanctioned works had to be 
 taken in hand without much regard to their ultimate usefulness, and 
 the whole energies of the 1 )epartment and all means available were 
 concentrated to find suitable and, as far as possible, remunerative 
 employment for the starving population. The principal new works 
 thus put in hand were the embankments and cuttings of the Mysore 
 Railway, Agrahara tank, Halsur tank road, and road from Railway 
 Station to Native Infantry Hospital. Works previously sanctioned and 
 already commenced were the Bangalore and Mysore \\'ater Supply 
 projects, with extensive collection of materials for, and repairs to roads 
 in Bangalore, Tumkur and Chitaldroog Districts. A number of 
 engineers from other provinces were deputed to Mysore temporarily for
 
 744 ADMINISTRATION 
 
 supervision, and thus much useful, though costly work, was carried out 
 by the famine coolies. 
 
 In 1879 the system was given up by which only Imperial works, or 
 those paid for from State revenues, were executed by the Tublic 
 Works Department, while all works paid for from District and Local 
 funds were carried out by the Deputy Commissioners, under whom in 
 two Districts were Local Fund Engineers. For the first time all works, 
 of whatever nature, thenceforward devolved on the Public Works 
 Department, the establishment charges being rateably distributed over 
 the several different funds. 
 
 The total grants for Public Works in 1878-9 was 1576 lakhs, and 
 in the two following years 17-68 and 17-10 lakhs respectively, but 
 the latter figures included Local as well as State funds. 
 
 Railway. — Though not connected with the Mysore Department of 
 Public Works, the Bangalore Branch Railway, opened on the ist August 
 1864, claims to be here mentioned as a most important means of 
 communication, which had a great effect in stimulating traffic and 
 awakening enterprise. The line is 84^ miles long, of which 53 are 
 within the limits of Mysore. It joins the Madras main south-west line 
 at Jalarpet. 
 
 A survey for an extension of the line to Tiimkur, a distance of 43 
 miles, was made in 1863-4. It was calculated that only 2 large 
 bridges would be required for this portion, that the worst gradient 
 would be I in 80, and the entire cost for a first-class railroad, including 
 stations, permanent way and rolling stock, would be Rs. 70,000 a mile. 
 The question continued to be discussed till 1867. But a preliminary 
 point for determination was, whether the line should be extended from 
 Bangalore so as to form a junction with the north-west line from 
 Madras to Bombay, or should be confined to a railway system within 
 the limits of the Province. The former would be the most costly, as 
 involving the retention of the existing gauge. The project which most 
 commended itself at the time, was the prolongation of the line to the 
 central trade emporium of Tiptur, 80 miles west-north-west of 
 Bangalore. For this trunk line, on the standard gauge, the cost, it 
 was estimated, would be about 40 lakhs of rupees. From Tiptur it 
 was proposed to construct a series of narrow gauge lines, reaching to 
 various points from the A\'ynad frontier in the south-west to the Canara 
 and Dharwar frontier in the north-west, and embracing the whole 
 province in a network comprising nearly 500 miles of railway, the 
 outlay on which was estimated at 26 lakhs of rupees. 
 
 In 1 870-1, after careful deliberation, a system of light railways, to 
 connect Bangalore, Tiimkur, Tiptur, Hassan and Mysore, was
 
 RAIL WA Y 745 
 
 determined on as the most suitable to meet the requirements of the 
 country. In accordance with this scheme, the project of the metre 
 gauge State Railway, from Bangalore to Mysore direct, as one link, of 
 the chain, was at once proceeded with, but the following year 
 postponed. The preliminary survey and arrangements had, however, 
 all been completed, . and mucli of the material collected along the 
 course of the line. 
 
 In 1877-8 the earthwork between Bangalore and Channapatna was 
 commenced as a relief work. The first section of three miles, between 
 the Bangalore Cantonment and Petta, was for the broad gauge. In 
 June 1879 the complete project was sanctioned by the Government 
 of India, at an estimated cost of 38-82 lakhs, and a railway establish- 
 ment was organized to carry it out as an ordinary public work. In 
 October 1880 the Petta extension was, by agreement, transferred to 
 the Madras Railway Company, who took it over up to formation level 
 free of cost, to complete and work it as a portion of their system. 
 The section from Bangalore to Channapatna, 35 miles, was opened to 
 traffic on the ist February 1881, and by the date of the Rendition, 
 the 25th March, a farther length of 23 miles was opened, as far as 
 Mandya. In these two months 20,749 passengers travelled by the 
 line and the total earnings were Rs. 13,219. 
 
 PUBLIC INSTRUCTION 
 
 The acquisition of learning and the imparting of knowledge have 
 
 always been held in the highest esteem by the Hindus. But 
 
 instruction seems never to have been regarded as a duty of the State ; 
 
 it was left to the voluntary principle. That it was not neglected there 
 
 is abundance of evidence, and Nripatunga, writing in the ninth century, 
 
 says expressly of the Kannacja people that they knew how to teach 
 
 wisdom to young children, and even words to the deaf. In the note to 
 
 p. 575 above, also, it will be seen that a schoolmaster was sometimes 
 
 provided among the members of the \'illage Twelve. Endowments 
 
 were freely given for teaching, and among the Jains, to whom belongs 
 
 the credit of first using the vernacular languages for literary purposes, 
 
 and who in their formula specially reverence the upadhyayas or 
 
 teachers, the highest merit was attached to gifts for three objects- - 
 
 shelter, medicine and learning. Under the Hoysala kings we find the 
 
 minister Perumala, in the thirteenth century, endowing a college, in 
 
 which, besides professors to impart instruction in the Rig-veda, there 
 
 were to be masters for teaching boys to read Nagara, Kannada, Tiguja 
 
 and Arya.^ 
 
 ' Ep. Cam., Mysore I., T.N. 27.
 
 746 ADMINISTRATION 
 
 The higher branches of learning were entirely in the hands of the 
 clergy. In the fifth century we find a Kadamba travelling all the way 
 to Kanchi in order to pursue his studies in advanced subjects {see 
 p. 298). In the same manner, Akalanka, in the eighth century, went to 
 the Bauddha college at Ponataga (near Trivatur in North Arcot). 
 The Lingayits followed the Jains in making provision for the 
 instruction of youth, but with more of sectarian purpose ; so also the 
 Muhammadans, in the maktabs attached to mosques. 
 
 Female education, in the modern sense of the word, was non- 
 existent. But girls of learned families were not left wholly without 
 instruction. Thus we find Nagavarma addressing the verses of his 
 Chhandombudhi, or work on prosody, to his wife. An ancient 
 inscription in the Kolar District records the death of the learned 
 Savinemma, daughter of Nagarjunayya. Then we have the instance of 
 Honnamma at the court of Mysore in the seventeenth century {see p. 
 501). But such cases were exceptional, like that of the celebrated 
 Pandita Ramabai of the present day, who was taught Sanskrit by her 
 father in the wilds of Gangamula in the Kadur District. 
 
 The instruction in indigenous schools did not aim at anything 
 beyond the elements of reading, writing and arithmetic, and generally 
 resulted in a marvellous cultivation of the memory. Reading was 
 from manuscripts on palm leaf The first lessons in writing were on 
 the sand, with the finger : after some progress had been made, 
 blackened boards were used, written on with potstone. Arithmetic 
 consisted principally of the memoriter repetition in chorus, led by the 
 head boy, of endless tables of fractional and integral numbers, useful 
 for mental calculation in ordinary petty business transactions. The 
 three days before new and full moon are unlucky for study, and the 
 schools are then closed : ' also on numerous festival days. Discipline 
 is maintained by a number of cruel and often grotesque punishments, 
 which are now being given up. But the cane remains, and is the 
 symbol of the schoolmaster's office. The masters are generally 
 supported by small payments and perquisities in kind, or by a 
 contract for a certain period ^Yith some influential resident. It was 
 
 * The thirteenth-day ceremony, before closing the school for the three days, will 
 serve to illustrate the style of these schools. It consists of the boys, after offering 
 flowers and repeating verses in honour of the goddess of learning, prostrating them- 
 selves before the piled-up school apparatus, surmounted by the master's cane. This 
 they do successively in the following manner : holding the left ear between the right 
 thumb and forefinger, and the right ear between the left thumb and forefinger, each 
 boy stoops down and taps the floor with his elbows. Parched rice is then distributed^ 
 purchased out of the pice the boys have brought, and fruit w'x'Ca. pan siiparizxt. pre- 
 sented to the master.
 
 PUBLIC INSTRUCTION 747 
 
 always the custom for the schoohnaster at the Maharnavami festival to 
 perambulate the streets with his pupils gaily dressed, who performed 
 the stick dance and recited humorous verses or dialogues, in all of 
 which they had been trained for some time before. In return for 
 these entertainments the masters used to pocket considerable sums 
 as presents from the parents and friends of the boys. But the practice 
 is falling out of vogue. 
 
 The course of education for advanced students begins with 
 literature, comprising the study and committal to memory of certain 
 standard poetical works. This is followed by a course of science, 
 either logic or grammar. Eventually philosophy and the vedas may 
 be made the subject of study. The training of students in the 
 monasteries is specially designed to prepare them for public dis- 
 cussion of sectarian or philosophical doctrines. 
 
 The formation of Educational Departments in the different 
 provinces of India had its origin in the celebrated despatch from the 
 Court of Directors of the East India Company, dated the 19th of 
 July 1854. Correspondence on the subject passed between the 
 (iovernment of India and Mysore during 1855, and towards the close 
 of the following year a scheme of education was drawn up by the 
 Honourable Mr. Devereux, Judicial Commissioner, which received 
 sanction on the 6th of Eebruary 1857. 
 
 The previous steps taken by the Mysore Administration towards 
 promoting education had been to supply funds to the Wesleyan 
 Mission for the establishment of schools at the principal District head- 
 quarter stations and for the erection of premises. The oldest was a 
 Canarese school at Tiimkiir, established in 1842. One was opened at 
 Shimoga in 1846. In 185 1 was established the Native Educational 
 Institution in Bangalore, for instruction in English, with a Government 
 grant of Rs. 800 a month; and English schools in 1852 at Tiimkiir 
 and Hassan, and in 1854 at Shimoga, these three together receiving 
 about Rs, 500 a month. Besides these, were two schools at l>anga- 
 lore of a special character, supported by Government, the Mutucheri 
 School for children of pensioned European soldiers (now St. John's 
 District Schools), and the Tamil Hindu Female School. At Mysore 
 the Maharaja maintained an English Free School. The entire 
 Government expenditure on education in 1855 was about Rs. 16,500 a 
 year. 
 
 "On the whole"- — observes Sir Mark Cubbon of this period — " it must 
 be admitted that the Administration of Mysore makes no particular 
 show under the head of education. In an abstract point of view this is 
 of course to be regretted, but subject nations are not kept in older and
 
 748 ADMINISTRATION 
 
 good humour on abstract principles, and it has long been the opinion 
 of some, and is rapidly becoming the opinion of many, that the 
 efforts which have been made by Government to extend the blessings 
 of education, and by tests and examinations to secure the services 
 of enlightened men even in the lowest posts, are not calculated 
 to be so fully appreciated as they ought by any class of the 
 community."' 
 
 The new scheme contemplated the establishment of 80 Vernacular 
 schools, one in each taluq, of 4 Anglo-Vernacular schools, one in each 
 Division, and eventually of a Central College. For the training of 
 teachers, 2 Vernacular Normal Schools were provided, and rules framed 
 for grants-in-aid to private institutions. For examination of the schools, 
 there were to be 2 Inspectors, 4 Deputy Inspectors, and 20 Sub- 
 Deputy Inspectors. An assignment of i;|- lakh per annum was made 
 for the Department, of which 5 per cent, was allotted for grants-in-aid. 
 In pursuance of these arrangements, a Director and an Inspector were 
 first appointed. In 1858, a High School affiliated to the Madras 
 University was established at Bangalore, the sum paid to the Native 
 Educational Institution being withdrawn ; while the Tiimkur, Shimoga 
 and Hassan Schools were taken over by Government, forming the 
 basis of Divisional Schools, the Maharaja's School at Mysore occupying 
 the place of a fourth. 
 
 In the matter of establishing Vernacular schools, it was designed 
 to leave the initiative in the first instance with the people. Schools 
 were to be established only in places from which applications for them 
 were received, and an undertaking entered into that the prescribed fees 
 would be paid. Should no such application be forthcoming, the State 
 Avas to move in the matter, by setting up a few schools experimentally 
 in those towns which appeared the most favourable for the purpose, in 
 order that the public might be familiarized with the scheme. Should 
 even this fail to draw sufficient attention to the subject of popular 
 education, an official notice was to be published that no candidate 
 would be eligible for any Government employment of which the salary 
 was Rs. 6 a month or upwards, who could not read and w'rite his own 
 vernacular. A powerful incentive, it was considered, would thus be 
 provided for obliging the people to send their children to school. But 
 although for two years not a single school was applied for, matters 
 never went to this length. During 1859-60 fifteen applications came 
 in from different taluqs. The end aimed at in the system of Govern- 
 ment education at the period referred to was expressed by Sir Mark 
 Cubbon in the following weighty words : " While the higher and more 
 ' These views, it is just to add, bear date in the time of the Mutiny.
 
 PUBLIC INSTRUCTION 749 
 
 ornamental parts of education are by no means neglected, the greatest 
 care is taken to store the pupil's mind with the knowledge which will 
 prove most advantageous to him in his passage through life, and above 
 all which will tend to reconcile him to his condition, and teach him to 
 act uprightly and speak the truth." 
 
 In 1 86 1 a Normal School was established at Bangalore, with English 
 and Canarese branches, and in 1S62 an Engineering School, for the 
 purpose of training subordinates for the Department of Public Works. 
 In 1S63 the Educational Department, which was at first under the 
 Judicial Commissioner, became separate. In this year the first candi- 
 date from Mysore matriculated from the High School : but it was not 
 till 1865 that the University course of .study was formally adopted. In 
 1866 the growing number of schools made it necessary to appoint an 
 Inspector, an office which had been vacant for five years, and this 
 resulted in a proper graduation of the various schools, the introduction 
 of prescribed courses of study (which in the higher class of schools 
 were designed to lead to matriculation), and the institution of an 
 examination for teachers' certificates in the Normal School, thereby 
 considerably raising the character and standard of teaching throughout 
 the country. 
 
 Thus far, higher and secondary education had principally received 
 attention, when, in 1868, the H6bli School system, providing a com- 
 prehensive scheme of primary education for the masses, was introduced, 
 marking an era in the development of the Department. A general 
 estimate showed, that allowing for schools of all kinds, 200,000 boys 
 alone of an age to attend school, not counting girls, were without 
 ostensible means of instruction. For the numerous classes of traders, 
 ryots and minor officials who lived out of the principal towns, all the 
 instruction available was that imparted in the indigenous schools, 
 scattered over the country in more or less abundance. The teachers 
 were, with few exceptions, illiterate, and possessed very slender claims, 
 if any, for their office other than that acquired by hereditary succession 
 to it. Ignorant as they often were, however, and incompetent, they 
 were regarded with respect by the people among whom they and their 
 forefathers had lived ; and it was certain that any popular scheme of 
 education in which these men should have been set aside or supplanted 
 would have encountered a formidable resistance which would have been 
 fatal to its success. On the other hand, by recognizing and making 
 use of them, the sympathy of the people was enlisted in favour of the 
 new project. 
 
 The system proposed was to establish a school for boys and girls in 
 each h6bli or taluq sub-division, the estimated number of hdblis being
 
 750 ADMINISTRATJON 
 
 645, wilh an average area of 41 scjuarc miles, and a population of 
 6,040 persons. The masters were to he men selected from among the 
 teachers of existing indigenous schools, and trained for their work in 
 normal schools, of which one was provided for each of the three 
 Divisions. While under training every man was to receive a main- 
 tenance allowance of Rs. 5 a month, and on appointment to the charge 
 of a school his salary was to be Rs. 7, with prospect of promotion. 
 Care was taken to nominate the men as far as po-ssible to the localities 
 in which they were known and thus had influence. The schools were 
 to be examined three times a year by Sub-Deputy Inspectors, of whom 
 one was designated for each of the eight Districts, and Local 
 Committees of influential residents in each h6bli were further to exercise 
 a general supervision. No fees were to be levied in the schools, but 
 the education would be paid for by a cess. The people, however, were 
 expected to build or provide premises as an earnest of their desire for 
 the schools. Night classes were to be formed for the benefit of those 
 who were unable to attend school during the ordinary hours of 
 labour, students in these classes paying a fee to defray the expense 
 of lights. 
 
 To meet the cost of the scheme, a cess of i per cent, was intended 
 to be levied as the land settlement in each District was completed by 
 the Survey Department. But subsequently the Local Funds being con- 
 stituted on the basis previously described, in 1S72-3 the proportion of 
 24 per cent, from the entire Local Fund cess was allotted for H6bli and 
 Village schools. This admitted of the expansion of the scheme, which 
 had all along enjoyed marked popularity and success, and an aggregate 
 of 750 such schools was thus provided for, with an examining staff of 
 15 Sub-Deputy Lispectors. 
 
 In 1875 the upper department of the Bangalore High School was 
 formed into a Central College, and in connection with it a School of 
 Engineering and Natural Science was established on an entirely new 
 footing, for the purpose of training selected Natives for both the 
 officers' and subordinate grades of the Public Works, Forest and 
 Revenue Survey Departments. 
 
 Meanwhile education by private bodies had been encouraged by a 
 liberal system of grants-in-aid, subject to Government inspection. The 
 number of private schools thus aided by the State continued greatly to 
 multiply, and the character of their instruction, influenced by the 
 general elevation of that imparted in Government institutions, was 
 vastly improved. The Department in this manner succeeded in 
 bringing within the scope of its operations and enlisting the sympathy 
 of all the educational agencies at work in the country, whether
 
 PUBLIC INSTRUCTION 
 
 European or native, together with the co-operation of the learned 
 -classes. 
 
 The following figures will serve to illustrate the growth and expense 
 ■ of the Department in two decades, and before and after the allotments 
 made from Local Funds : — 
 
 Yenr. 
 
 No. of 
 Schools. 
 
 No. of 
 Pupils. 
 
 Charges to 
 Government. 
 
 Receipts from 
 
 fees and other 
 
 sources. 
 
 Net cost to Govern- 
 ment. 
 
 Total. Per Pupil. 
 
 1855-6 ... 
 
 Before the formation of the Educational Department. 
 
 Rs. ;rs. a. r. 
 
 1,108 16,580 ; 2,566 16,580 I 14 15 5 
 
 Government 
 Schools. 
 
 1862-3 
 
 1865-6 
 
 1872-3 
 
 1875-6 
 
 Aided Schools. 
 
 1862-3 
 
 1865-6 
 
 1872-3 
 
 1875-6 
 
 After the formation of the Educational Department. 
 
 13 
 
 990 
 
 49 
 
 2,408 , 
 
 659 
 
 19,497 
 
 730 
 
 27,711 
 
 14 
 
 1,383 
 
 33 
 
 3,234 
 
 98 
 
 6,900 
 
 114 
 
 8,598 
 
 29,729 
 49,188 
 
 1,37,855 
 1,84,533 
 
 7,940 
 25,561 
 41,109 
 46,721 
 
 3,517 
 12,677 
 
 1,10,785 
 
 1,31,387 
 
 6,268 
 
 29,418 
 
 77,225 
 78,769 
 
 26,212 
 
 36,511 
 27,070 
 53,156 
 
 7,940 
 25,561 
 
 41,109 
 
 46,721 
 
 26 7 7 
 
 15 2 7 
 
 I 6 2 
 
 I 14 8 
 
 10 
 
 7 14 5 
 5 5 10 
 5 6 II 
 
 In addition to the above there were reckoned to be at this latter 
 date 1,350 private unaided schools, with 17,882 pupils. 
 
 A scheme for Industrial training for Europeans and Eurasians was 
 introduced in connection with the Anglo-Indian Aid Association. A 
 grant of Rs. 200 a month was made to it from the ist January 1876, 
 on condition that 40 youths should be on the rolls, of whom at least 
 two-thirds must be under definite engagement as apprentices. Under 
 this scheme 22 boys were under training in an Industrial school at 
 Bangalore, and i 7 others apprenticed to local firms. The Apprentice 
 Act was also introduced into Mysore in connection with the movement. 
 Besides the above, 11 junior boys and 21 girls were under subordinate 
 training. The scheme, however, did not outlive the famine. 
 
 The Educational Department was controlled by a Director of Public 
 Instruction. There were three principal circles of inspection, two in 
 charge of Inspectors, and the third in charge of a Deputy Inspector. 
 Subordinate to these were 2 Sub-Deputy Inspectors for Hindustani 
 Schools, and 15 for H6bli and Village Schools. 
 
 But the famine affected the Educational in common with all other
 
 752 A DMTNISTRA TION 
 
 Departments. In April 1878 the H6bli Normal Schools were closed. 
 In April 1879 the two European Inspectors were transferred to other 
 parts of India, and their places were supplied by four native Deputy 
 Inspectors, on much lower pay, one for each District. The previously 
 existing Deputy Inspector was also made Assistant in the 
 Directors' Office and had charge of the Town and Cantonment of 
 Bangalore. As another measure of economy, all charges for vernacular 
 education were thrown upon Local funds, thus relieving the State 
 revenues of all expenditure except what was incurred for English 
 instruction. 
 
 Under new rules of affiliation the Central College and Bishop 
 Cotton's Schools and College in Bangalore had been affiliated to the 
 Madras University up to the B.A. Examination ; and the Maharaja's 
 High School, Mysore, and the Shimoga High School up to the First in 
 Arts Examination. The School of Engineering and Natural Science in 
 Bangalore was at the same time affiliated in Civil Engineering. Its 
 abolition on the plea of economy had been proposed, but the 
 Government of India did not approve of this step. The uncertain 
 demands, however, of the public service in view of impending changes, 
 made it necessary to give it up on a collegiate scale in 1880. Scholar- 
 ships were in lieu granted to advanced students to enable them to 
 complete their Engineering course in the large Colleges at Madras or 
 Poona. The lower students continued to be trained as Overseers in 
 the Public Works Department and for subordinate appointments in the 
 Topographical and Revenue Survey Departments. Botanical classes 
 were also opened to prepare subordinates for the Forest Department ; 
 and a Medical School was formed in connection with the Bangalore 
 Petta Hospital, providing a three years' course of study in preparation 
 for Hospital Assistants. 
 
 The returns for 18S0-1 illustrate the progress of the Department up 
 to the time of the Rendition. There were then 899 Government 
 Schools, with 33,287 pupils; and 188 Aided Schools, with 9,370 
 pupils : or a total of 1,087 schools, containing 42,657 pupils, of whom 
 38,713 were boys and 3,944 girls. ^ According to race, 1,142 were 
 Europeans or Eurasians, 1,051 Native Christians, 35,757 Hindus, 
 4,330 Muhammadans, and 377 others. The total expenditure was 
 Rs. 3,91,028, of which only Rs. 1,58,423 was met from State Revenues, 
 
 ' The unaided indigenous schools may be put down at 1,000, with 15,000 pupils. 
 In addition to these were the Regimental schools, under the military authorities, which 
 were 7 in number, containing 970 pupils. These being added, which, seeing that the 
 military are included in the census of the population, is but just, we obtain a grand 
 total of 58,627 pupils (54,480 boys and 4,147 girls) under instruction, or i in 71-4 of 
 the population.
 
 MEDICAL 753 
 
 the remainder, or Rs. 2,32,605, being defrayed — Rs. 1,40,976 from 
 Local and Municipal funds, Rs. 57,250 from school fees, and the rest 
 from private sources. 
 
 The following are further details relating to the several grades of 
 instruction : — 
 
 Grade. 
 
 Schools. 
 
 Pupils. 
 
 University Education 
 
 4 
 
 132 
 
 Secondary ,, 
 
 166 
 
 3.084 
 
 Primary ,, 
 
 907 
 
 38,296 
 
 Special ,, 
 
 ID 
 
 1,145 
 
 f.overnment 
 
 Other 
 
 expcndituie. 
 
 expenditure. 
 
 22,720 
 
 1,160 
 
 63,137 
 
 40,461 
 
 145,237 
 
 48,758 
 
 7,328 
 
 1,250 
 
 The results of examinations in that year show that 6 students passed 
 the B.A. examination, 16 the First in Arts examination, 126 the 
 Matriculation examination, and 186 the Middle School examination. 
 
 ^rEDICAL 
 
 The medical institutions maintained by the Mysore Government in 
 1 88 1 were the following : — 
 
 General Hospitals, with dispensaries attached :— Bowring Civil Hospital, 
 Bangalore ; Raja's Hospital, Mysore ; Civil Hospital, Hassan. 
 
 Dispensaries, with wards for in-patients : — Kolar, Hassan, Chitaldroog, 
 Chikmagalur, Tiimkur ; for out-patients only : — Bangalore Petta, and 
 eleven taltiq headquarter stations. One at Shathalli, belonging to the 
 Roman Catholic Mission, was aided by a Government grant. 
 
 Special Hospitals : — Lunatic Asylum, Leper Hospital, both at Bangalore. 
 Maternity Hospitals at Bangalore and Mysore, newly established. 
 
 Temporary special Famine Hospitals were opened in 1877. 
 
 The Surgeon to the Mysore Commission was stationed at Bangalore, 
 and had charge of the Bowring Civil Hospital and the two Asylums, as 
 well as the general control of vaccination, while another medical officer 
 was Superintendent of the Central Jail and had the supervision of the 
 Petta Dispensary. There was a Civil Surgeon at the headquarters of 
 each of the other two Divisions, who was also Superintendent of the 
 local Jail and Inspector of all medical institutions within the limits of 
 the Division. The Deputy Surgeon-General, Indian Medical Depart- 
 ment, for Mysore and the Ceded Districts, personally inspected the 
 institutions at headquarters at Bangalore, and others which hajjpened 
 to lie in the routes of his official tours. He also acted as Sanitary 
 Commissioner and Registrar of Vital Statistics. 
 
 During the period of the Maharaja's government there was a Darbar 
 Surgeon attached to the Court, who superintended His Highness' 
 Hospital at Mysore. After the assumption of the government by the 
 British, a dispensary was established in 1833 in a room in the Com- 
 
 3 c
 
 754 ^i DAf/NISTRA TION 
 
 missioner's Office in the Fort of Bangalore, and in 1834 one in the 
 Cantonment. In 1839 a Hospital and dispensary were commenced in 
 the Petta on a small scale, but proved so popular and useful that a 
 suitable building, with accommodation for 50 patients, was erected in 
 1847. In 1849 the Fort Dispensary was also provided with a proper 
 building. In 1850 a Hospital was opened at Shimoga. In 1852 a 
 Hospital for 70 in-patients was established in the Cantonment Bazaar, 
 and the Petta Hospital was enlarged. A further addition to the latter 
 was made in 1856, and in that year the Yelwal Dispensary, established 
 in connection with the Residency, was transferred to Hassan. In 
 1866 the Petta Hospital was further enlarged, but meanwhile the 
 Bowring Civil Hospital was under erection in the Cantonment, on the 
 plan of La Riboisiere in Paris, which admits of the segregation of the 
 several castes of people and of different classes of disease. It was 
 occupied in 1868, and in 1872 the Petta Hospital was converted into a 
 Dispensar}', in-patients being transferred to the Bowring Hospital. 
 
 The numbers under treatment by the jMedical establishment steadily 
 increased every year, the totals for two decades being as given below, 
 fis well as those for 1 880-1 : — 
 
 Bangalore. Outstations. Total. 
 
 In-patients. Out-patients. In-patients. Out-patients. 
 
 11,243 3S1 6,198 19,518 
 18,711 _ _ _ 
 
 47,604 1,863 68,044 118,993 
 
 46,040 1,827 151,647 156,989 
 
 The diseases for which treatment was chiefly sought at the medical 
 institutions of Government were skin diseases, fevers, diseases of the eye, 
 injuries, dysentery and diarrhoea, respiratory and venereal diseases. 
 Among skin diseases, scabies was the most common ; among fevers, 
 the paroxysmal type ; among affections of the eye, simple and catarrhal 
 ophthalmia ; among affections of the respiratory system, bronchitis was 
 perhaps the most prevalent. 
 
 Fevers were the chief cause of mortality in the Province, not less 
 than 30,000 deaths occurring from this cause alone annually, which, 
 considering that this is not ordinarily a directly fatal class of disease, 
 will convey some idea of the extent to which it prevailed. Dengue 
 was a peculiar type that appeared in 1873 and reached its height in 
 March. It was most severe in ^Mysore and Seringapatam, proving 
 fatal in some instances. 
 
 Cholera carried off the greatest number of victims in 1866-7, ^vhen 
 18,504 deaths were reported from this cause. The cholera years since 
 have been 187 1-2, with 4,297 deaths, and 1875-6, with 3,139. The 
 minimum of deaths from this disease was in 1874-5, when there were 
 
 IS55-6 
 
 1,696 
 
 1865-6 
 
 1,800 
 
 1875-6 
 
 1,482 
 
 1880-1 
 
 1,688
 
 MEDICAL 755 
 
 only 2, 5 in 186S-9, 12 in 1873-4, and 51 in 1872-3. The outbreak 
 of 1866 was attributed to the scarcity or famine, and was general. Of 
 the course of the disease in 1870-1, the following remarks are taken 
 from the Deputy Surgeon-General's report : — 
 
 The first cases of cholera were reported in April, and were supposed to 
 have been imported from the Salem District, where, and in Southern India 
 generally, the disease prevailed at the close of 1869 and commencement of 
 1870. The disease during 1870 fell with the greatest intensity upon the 
 eastern Districts of the Province, and notably upon the Cantonment of 
 Bangalore itself, a few ripples only of the storm-wave reaching the western 
 Districts. There was an apparent lull altogether at the close of the year. 
 The months of June, July and August were those in which the disease 
 prevailed to the greatest extent. But at the close of January 1871, cases 
 were reported from the western Districts, the disease having, it is alleged, 
 been re-imported from the Western Coast, where it prevailed with some 
 intensity at the close of the year 1870. From this period the disease 
 extended its ravages. It invaded the Districts of Mysore and Hassan ; and 
 the mortality was heavy. It was not till the 15th February that undoubted 
 evidence was obtained of the disease having appeared at Hunsur in an 
 epidemic form, and it was reported to have been introduced by travellers 
 from Cannanore. From Hunsur it spread to Fraserpet, being introduced, 
 it is alleged, by cartmen frequenting the distillery there. About the time of 
 its appearance at Hunsur, reports came in of deaths in different taluqs of 
 the Ashtagram Division. The first death in the town of Mysore occurred 
 on the 22nd February, and the disease speedily spread and expanded itself 
 very much in the Ashtagram Division. A few deaths occurred in towns on 
 the high road to Bangalore, on dates subsequent to the first death at 
 Hunsur. The disease, in fact, occupied principally, indeed almost entirely, 
 the Districts which were spared in 1870, while those which experienced the 
 main incidence of the disease in that year escaped in 1871. The Districts 
 of Mysore and Hassan suffered to the greatest extent. The deaths in the 
 former amounted to 2,156, or in the ratio of 2*9 per mille of population. 
 But the Yelandur JAgir suffered far more than any taluq under the 
 direct administration of the Mysore Government. The deaths therein were 
 708 out of a population of 25,765 souls, or in the ratio of 27 per mille. 
 
 In regard to the question of invasion and propagation, whether by human 
 intercourse or by prevailing currents of wind, every medical report received 
 speaks of introduction from infected localities by travellers. At the close 
 of 1870 the disease was known to prevail on the Western Coast, and at the 
 time the first warning notes of its possible invasion by one or other of the 
 main lines of intercommunication were sounded, the prevailing winds were 
 easterly ; north of east in January, east veering to south-east in February 
 and March. Now in these months the disease certainly advanced in an 
 easterly direction, against the prevailing currents of wind. But later in the 
 year, when the disease attained its acme of intensity in the months of June 
 and July, strong south-west winds prevailed. We do not notice as coin- 
 
 3 C 2
 
 756 A DAflNISTRA TION 
 
 cidcnt with the setting in of the south-west monsoon any extension of the 
 epidemic to the eastward. On the contrary, the eastern Districts which 
 had felt the weight of the pestilence in 1870, almost entirely escaped. In 
 the Nundidroog Division, for instance, the deaths were only in the ratio of 
 0*46 per millc of population. 
 
 An interesting fact may be noted in connection with the extensive 
 prevalence of the disease in Mysore, Seringapatam, Ganjam and surround- 
 ing villages. On the fact becoming known to the Officer commanding the 
 30th Regiment at the French Rocks, that small station was as far as 
 possible put under quarantine. A cordon of sentries was thrown out round 
 the station, travellers were diverted, and communication between the 
 inhabitants of the bazaars and neighbouring infected villages as far as 
 possible prevented. The station entirely escaped, while villagers within a 
 few miles were suffering heavily. Had the extension of the pestilence been 
 due to aerial currents, the French Rocks could scarcely have escaped, 
 while the measures taken were precisely those calculated to prevent its 
 introduction by human intercourse. 
 
 In this year the special sanitary regulations now in force were 
 brought into operation at all fairs, religious festivals and other large 
 gatherings of people. 
 
 The spread of cholera in 1875 is thus described. Two sporadic cases 
 occurred in May in the Hassan District, and on the 14th July the disease, 
 imported from Coimbatore, appeared at Gundlupet, 70 miles south of the 
 town of Mysore. Subsequently the Province was invaded by cholera 
 imported from the Bellary and Kadapa Districts. In September the 
 violence of the epidemic reached its acme. In this month all the Districts 
 excepting three, in October all but one, and in November one and all, were 
 affected. In December there was a marked reduction in the aggregate of 
 mortality. Cholera attacked Bangalore in September, and in November 
 the mortality amounted to 225, and December to 95. Only 13 casualties 
 occurred in the Town of Bangalore. The ratios of death per mille in the 
 Cantonment and Town of Bangalore were 3"89 and •21 respectively. In 
 the town of Mysore the mortality was 534, equal to 9*24 per mille of the 
 population. Shimoga lost 11 "69 per mille from the epidemic. The total 
 mortality registered amounted to 3,139, of which 1,828 were males and 
 1,311 females. The largest mortality occurred in the Mysore District. 
 
 The deaths from small-pox, which had ranged from 350 to 400 in 
 the three years previous, rose to 1,494 in 187 1-2, and to 4,532 in 
 1872-3, when the epidemic reached its height. The numbers pro- 
 gressively declined each year since, bei«g 3,052 in 1873-4, 1,535 in 
 1874-5^ and 544 in 1875-6. 
 
 Vaccitiation. — Private inoculators are stated to have been formerly 
 pretty numerous, but by 1855 they had been completely deprived of 
 their occupation by the preference given to the Government vacci-
 
 MEDICAL 757 
 
 nators. These were 54 in number, and were transferred from taluq to 
 taluci as necessary. There were three grades, on the respective pay of 
 8, 10 and 12 rupees a month. Each vaccinator was expected to 
 vaccinate 10 persons for each rupee of his pay, or suffer a proportionate 
 fine. A small money reward was given at the end of the year to 
 the most active vaccinator of each division. Under this system the 
 number of operations increased with suspicious rapidity. The total of 
 62,257 in 1855-6, rose to 91,404 in 1857-8, and was little below a 
 lakh in 1862-3. It became notorious that, with the connivance of the 
 village officials, the verification lists sent in by the vaccinators were 
 frequently fictitious. The project was then formed, in 1865-6, of making 
 them work in a more systematic manner through their ranges, proceeding 
 from village to village in regular succession ; and as by this mode of 
 proceeding some difficulty might be found in making up the required 
 complement, the stipulation as to the number of operations to be 
 performed monthly was withdrawn. The total, which had fallen in 
 that year to 88,054, went down in 1866-7 to 73,793- Since that time 
 it steadily rose, until in 1875-6 it again touched a lakh, and has, with 
 some variations in the famine years, remained at near that figure. In 
 1872-3 a system of inspection, by the apothecaries attached to the 
 camps of Deputy Commissioners, was introduced as a check, which 
 appears to have worked well. There were 84 Taluq vaccinators in 
 :88o-i, and four in the Bangalore Municipality. The medical 
 subordinates in Hospitals and Dispensaries also vaccinated. 
 
 Special Hospitals. — The Leper House was opened in the Petta in 
 1845 ; the building, however, was small and badly situated; a large one 
 was therefore built in a better spot in 1857. The Lunatic Asylum was 
 opened near the Petta Hospital in 1850, the inmates being removed 
 from a smaller place of custody which had existed two years previously 
 in the Cantonment, and a few years after the old Petta Jail was added 
 to the accommodation. 
 
 Li the Leper Asylum there were 26 inmates at the close of 1S74 ; in 
 1875, 19 were admitted. Of these 7 died, 3 absconded, and 3 were 
 discharged at their own request. The population of the asylum 
 constituted about one-fourth of the total number of lepers known to 
 have resided in the Town and Cantonment of Pangalore. The gurjun 
 oil treatment was fairly carried out during the year, and the Deputy 
 Surgeon-General remarked that "as a therapeutic agent, it had been 
 found to improve the state of the skin, to assist in healing up 
 leprous sores, to corroborate somewhat the general health, and in some 
 cases to recall sensation to anaesthetic spots, but it had failed to 
 produce any permanent amelioration or to change for the better the
 
 758 A DMINISTRA TION 
 
 true leprous cachexia. Most of the i)atients were, however, averse to 
 the external use of the oil." 
 
 In the Lunatic Asylum no restraint was practised, further than 
 confining a patient to his own room when he became violent or 
 excited; and as it is believed to be an important point in the treatment 
 of the insane to find for them both mental and bodil}^ occupation, 
 those whose health would admit of it were regularly employed in some 
 sort of out-door labour, consisting chiefly of gardening, rope-making, 
 &c. For the latter two years, the males and females were allowed to 
 mix together freely in the garden without any bad results ; on the 
 contrary, it was found that they took scarcely any notice of each other. 
 Nearly half the cases of mental derangement were attributed to the 
 abuse of bangh, opium and intoxicating drugs. 
 
 MILITARY DEPARTMENTS 
 
 The Subsidiary Treaty of Seringapatam concluded in 1799, provided 
 in its Second xVrticle for the maintenance, within the Territory bestowed 
 upon the Raja of Mysore, of a British force for the defence and 
 security of His Highness' dominions, on account of which the Mysore 
 State was to pay a subsidy of 7 lakhs of star pagodas (equal to 24^ 
 lakhs of rupees) annually, the disposal of this sum, together with the 
 arrangement and employment of the troops to be maintained by it, 
 being left entirely to the East India Company. The Third Article 
 provided, that in the event of hostile operations becoming necessary 
 for the protection of either the Company's or the Mysore territories, 
 the Raja should contribute towards the increased charges a reasonable 
 amount, as determined by the Governor-General with reference to the 
 net revenues of the State. 
 
 British Subsidiary Force. — Under the first of these provisions, 
 Mysore was garrisoned by troops of the Madras Army. The ]\Iysore 
 (Military) Division in 1881 included Coorg and the Nilagiri Hills. 
 The headquarters were at Seringapatam till 1809, since when they 
 have been established at Bangalore. The only other military station 
 occupied in Mysore in 1881 was that of the French Rocks, 4 miles 
 north of Seringapatam ; Harihar (Hurryhur), on the Tungabhadra, the 
 last post given up, was abandoned in 1865. 
 
 Her Majesty's forces at Bangalore consisted in iSSi of the following 
 troops :— Headquarters and a battery of Royal Horse Artillery, and 
 two field batteries of Royal xYrtillery ; a regiment of European Cavalry ; 
 ci regiment of European Infantry ; headquarters of Royal Engineers,
 
 MILITARY 759 
 
 and 4 companit'S of Sappers and Miners ; a regiment of Native Cavalry ; 
 and 3 regiments of Native Infantry. At the TVench Rocks was 
 stationed a regiment of Native Infantry, with a detachment at Mysore. 
 The total number of fighting officers and men in March iSSi (not 
 counting the Native Cavalry, which came on the strength later in the 
 year), was 4,377 of all arms, 1,548 belonging to the European Force, 
 and 2,829 to the Native Force. The total cost during 1 880-1, 
 including contingencies, was Rs. 1,871,781. 
 
 Commencing with Colonel Arthur Wellesley, the illustrious Duke of 
 Wellington, the Mysore Division has been commanded by a dis- 
 tinguished line of Generals. The most disastrous event in its annals 
 was the short-lived mutiny of British Ofificers in 1809. This arose out 
 of certain obnoxious orders of the INIadras Government, which were 
 considered to entrench upon the privileges of the army, in consequence 
 of which the military in many stations of Southern India refused to 
 obey the Government. Prominent among the malcontents was the 
 officer commanding at Seringapatam, who took military possession of 
 the fortress on the 29th July, and stopped parties escorting treasure. 
 The force at Chitaldroog seized the treasure there and marched for 
 Seringapatam, but was dispersed^ by troops from Bangalore. But the 
 mutiny had lasted less than a month, when the officers returned to 
 their allegiance on the 22nd August. In 1857 it was the British 
 regiment withdrawn from I'angalore — the ist Madras Fusiliers — which, 
 under the since well-known designation of Neill's Blue Caps," saved 
 Allahabad, avenged Cawnpore, and took a [irominent part in the relief 
 of Lucknow, the gallant Neill falling in the assault. In 1879 a large 
 proportion of the Force was engaged on service in Afghanistan, and 
 in 1 88 1 the i4lh Hussars went on service to the Transvaal in South 
 Africa. 
 
 Mysore Local Force. — The Mysore Contingent consisted of 
 Cavalry and Infantry, or Savar and Barr as they were termed. They 
 were commanded by Native Officers, and the whole force was under 
 the control of the Military A.ssistant to the Chief Commissioner. The 
 disposal made of the Sultan's army on the capture of Seringapatam in 
 1799, and the military arrangements of the new Government, have 
 already been described (p. 601). During the Mahratta War, a body 
 of the Mysore Silahdar Horse operated in 1802 and 1803 with General 
 ^\'ellesley's army. The levies had been increased for this purpose, and 
 on the return of the troops, the sudden disbandment of the extra levies 
 
 ' (3n tlic loth of August, near Wehlic's Monument, since then called ihc rana 
 kainbha, or war pillar. 
 
 ^ From the colour of the pa^ri worn by the men round ihcir helmets.
 
 7 6o ylDMINISTRA TION 
 
 being no less impracticable than impolitic, it was gradually effected. 
 Including the cost of this, the whole expenditure incurred by the 
 Mysore State in connection with the Mahratta A\'ar amounted to a 
 little less than 5 lakhs of star pagodas. 
 
 In consideration of this auxiliary, a Supplementary Treaty was 
 entered into in January 1807, whereby all pecuniary claims under the 
 third article of the treaty of 1799 were remitted, with retrospective 
 effect ; the Raja being required in future to maintain a body of 4,000 
 effective Horse (numbering about 500 Bargeer and the rest Silahdars), 
 ready to serve with the British Army whenever required, the British 
 Government bearing the charge of batta for service in the field out of 
 the country. It was also agreed that the force should be increased 
 when required by the British Government, the latter paying a fixed 
 sum, with batta, for each extra horseman. 
 
 Silahdars. — The Savar or Silahdar Horse formed the body of 
 irregular cavalry kept up under the above treaty. They several times 
 served beyond the frontiers of Mysore as auxiliaries in the campaigns 
 of the British Army in Southern India, as also in assisting to maintain 
 order. 
 
 In 1802, 800 Silahdars accompanied Colonel Stevenson in the expedition 
 to Manantoddy. In 1802-3, 2,000 Silahdars accompanied General Wellesley 
 through the Deccan towards Poona. In 1809-10, 2,000 Silahdars marched 
 with Colonel Barry Close against Bavoo. In 181 5, 500 Silahdars accom- 
 panied the expedition to Karnul. In 181 5, the number of regiments 
 inaintained was eleven, and for a period of nearly four years a force of 
 4,500 Silahdars were employed under General Hyslop, &c., against the 
 Peshwa. In 1824-5, 2,000 Silahdars accompanied the force against Kittore, 
 and in 1826, 1,500 marched into the Dharwar country. 
 
 Subsequent to the assumption of the country, they were also frequently 
 employed. In the Canara insurrection of 1838 they were required to cross 
 the frontier and afford assistance. In 1845-6, 1,000 horse were sent to 
 Vizagapatam ; and subsequently on several occasions considerable detach- 
 ments were employed in the Bellary and other adjoining Districts. In 1S57 
 the Government of India directed that a body of 2,000 should at once 
 proceed to Hindustan. This order was subsequently countermanded, but a 
 similar number were employed in the districts to the northward of Mysore 
 as far as Sholapur, and took part in the minor affairs which arose during 
 1S57-S in those parts of India. Medals for service in the Mutiny were 
 obtained by 37S men of the Silahdars. 
 
 As there were no circumstances calling for the continued mainte- 
 nance of the full complement, the number of Silahdars from time to 
 time varied from 2,000 to 4,000, accordingly as required for field 
 service or not. The number and efficiency of the Force, however,
 
 SILAHDARS "M 
 
 gradually declined, owing to low pay, bad horses and arms, and the 
 corrupt practices of the Bakshis (as their commanders were called). 
 No proficiency in horsemanship or in the use of arms was insisted 
 upon, while the office of Silahdar was almost regarded as hereditary. 
 This state of things drew attention, and a good deal was done to 
 improve it, such as the adoption of a uniform, the arming of the men 
 with a serviceable lance, providing lines for each regiment, which did 
 not previously exist, the establishment of a Chanda Remount Fund, 
 which freed the service from its former precarious character, the raising 
 of the pay of each man from 20 to 26 Rs. per montli (one regiment of 
 the service then maintained being reduced to provide funds for this 
 most necessary measure), and lastly, the introduction of a new and 
 better system of accounts and payment. Nevertheless much remained 
 tp be accomplished to render the Silahdars even passably efficient as 
 an arm of the local militia. 
 
 In 1873, detailed arrangements were ordered for rendering the 
 Silahdars a compact body of efficient horsemen. In the first place it 
 was considered that the numerical strength of the Force was much 
 more than was called for by the requirements of the Province, and 
 that 1,000 well-disciplined and efficient men would serve all purposes 
 during the times of peace. Orders were accordingly issued for the 
 gradual reduction of the Force, to consist in future of three regiments, 
 the strength of each regiment 
 
 being as noted in the margin. ' l^egimcndar. i Kolllc Drummer. 
 
 _, , . rr 1 1 o Risalilars. 
 
 1 he reduction was effected by ^ jamadars. 
 
 offering inducements to retire, in i Sarzaffardar. 
 
 the shape of pensions. At the 36 Dafedars. 
 
 same time a carefully graduated ' >;i^hanl.ardar. 
 
 . I Trumpet Major, 
 
 .scale of invalid pensions was (3 Trumpeters. 
 
 made applicable to the Silahdars 
 
 for the future, thereby giving greater stability to the service. The 
 
 Force was properly drilled, under the supervision of a specially appointed 
 
 European Adjutant, aided by drill instructors from the Madras 1-iglU 
 
 Cavalry. They were supplied with saddles of English jiattern, and 
 
 equipped with an improved style of sabre. Boat cloaks were supplied 
 
 to both cavalry and infantry. In 1 880-1 the strength of the Force was 
 
 1,224, including 42 commissioned and 116 non-commissioned officers. 
 
 About ?ths of the Silahdars were Muhammadans, and the remainder 
 
 chieliy Mahrattas, with ,'^th Brahmans and Rajputs. The three 
 
 regiments were stationed respectively at Jiangalore, Mysore, ami 
 
 Shimoga, with detachments in certain talutis. 
 
 The Chanda Fund system was first introduced in 1S69. Its princi[)al 
 
 330 Savars. 
 
 I Farrier Major. 
 
 6 Farriers. 
 
 I Foot Mahaldar. 
 
 I SarjK'shkar. 
 
 6 I'eshkars. 
 
 4 Jhandavals.
 
 762 // DMimSTRA TION 
 
 features were, that each Silahdar was to pay \\ R. monthly towards 
 the Fund, in consideration of receiving from it Rs. 200 towards the 
 purchase of a remount, on the death or rejection of his horse. These 
 were afterwards altered in favour of the system in force in the Bengal 
 Cavalry, with Stable and Stallion funds in addition. Each Silahdar 
 then paid Rs. 2 a month towards the Fund, from which fresh horses 
 were maintained, and on the death or rejection of his horse, a Silahdar 
 contributed but a month's pay, without reference to the value of the 
 horse which he received. Precautions were, of course, adopted to 
 prevent an undue advantage being taken of this benefit, and the 
 working of the system was satisfactory, and popular among the 
 Silahdars. The horses for the force were procured from Candahar and 
 Persian dealers, or were the produce of the mares in the force by 
 Government stallions, of which there were 19. 
 
 Barr. — The Barr, or Infantry, was also a relic of Tipu's army. The 
 strength of the force was 2,270 at the beginning of 1800; it was raised 
 ., ... ,. . to 8, 000 during the war of 
 
 I Havihlar Major. ° 
 
 70 Havildars. 1803-4, when the force was dis- 
 
 20 Drummers and ciplined after the English pattern, 
 Infers. ^j^^j y,^^ 4,000 in 1817. On the 
 
 5 nva es. transfer of the country to British 
 
 rule, it was reduced to four regiments of 500 each. The strength of 
 each regiment, omitting servants, was as given in the margin. In 1879 
 the 4th regiment was disbanded, as a measure of economy. The total 
 strength in iSSo-i was 1,831, which included 67 commissioned and 
 213 non-commissioned otificers. The duties of the Barr were confined 
 to guarding the District and taluq treasuries, jails, &:c. All four 
 regiments, till 1870, were armed with old flint muskets. These were 
 gradually exchanged for percussion muskets. In 1879, owing to the 
 absence of most of the British force in Afghanistan, the Barr furnished 
 guards for the Remount Depot at Hosur. 
 
 Bangalore Rifle Volunteers. — A Volunteer Force was raised at 
 Bangalore in 186S, and was popular with the young men of the large 
 Anglo-Indian community of this station. Three companies were here 
 formed, in 1873 an additional company was raised in Mysore, and ia 
 1875 a cadet company in Bangalore. The strength of the force in. 
 1880-1 was 415, including 59 cadets. There were 55 extra eflScients 
 and 122 efficients. The corps was up to this time maintained at the 
 cost of the INIysore revenues, but it was determined, on the Rendition, 
 to keep it up in future as a charge on Imperial Funds. 
 
 I Commandant 
 
 I Risaldar. 
 
 I Adjutant. 
 10 Sulmdars. 
 10 Jamadarp.
 
 763 
 
 Since the Rendition 
 
 After the Rendition, in March 1881, the issue of Annual Adminis- 
 tration Reports was discontinued. But two Quinquennial Reports 
 have been published, bringing down the information to 1891. And 
 the Dewan's Annual Addresses, delivered before the Representative 
 .Assembly, though principally concerned with the revenues, contain brief 
 references to the more salient changes and proceedings of the year. 
 
 The form of Administration continued to be virtually the same as 
 previously under British rule, but with a preponderance of Native 
 officers. At the head of the executive administration was the Dewan, 
 under whom, as President, was the Council, composed of three 
 members, whose duties have already been described (p. 442). In 1889 
 it was decided that two members should sit regularly to hear and 
 dispose of all revenue matters coming before Government in appeal or 
 revision, which by the new Land Revenue Code were excluded from 
 the jurisdiction of the Civil Courts. In 1895, under the Regency, a 
 list was issued of additional subjects referred to the Council, giving it a 
 more effective share in executive control. Certain departments were 
 placed under each member ; the Council was ordered to meet 
 regularly once a week, and specific rules of business were laid down. 
 The constitution and functions of the Representative Assembly have 
 been sufficiently explained on pp. 442-3.^ 
 
 In pursuance of measures of retrenchment, the 8 Districts, containing 
 69 taluqs, which existed at the time of the Rendition, were in 1882 
 reduced to 6 Districts with 60 taluqs. At the same time, as a 
 compensation, 3 SubT)ivisions under Assistant Commissioners, and 17 
 sub-taluqs under Deputy Amildars, were formed. But these changes 
 proved to be of great inconvenience. In 1886, therefore, the 8 
 Districts, with somewhat altered limits, were restored, with 66 taluqs ; 
 and in consequence of this step only i Sub-Division (French Rocks) 
 and 10 sub-taluqs remained. In 1891 three more Sub-Divisions (Sagar, 
 Closepet, and Chik Ballapur) were formed. 
 
 The various Departments were at first directly controlled by the 
 Dewan, but as the finances improved, and the work of the Departments 
 expanded, several Heads of Departments were appointed, such as for 
 Forests and Police in 1885, for Excise in 1889, for Muzrai in iS9i,<S:c., 
 though different appointments were often doubled up under one head. 
 
 ' Thai tlie meniljcrs appreciate llicir position is cviileiU from tlicir voluntarily 
 relincjuishing, since 1S90, the travellini; allowances they iiseil to receive for attending 
 at Mysore.
 
 764 ADMINISTRATION 
 
 In describing the details of Administration since the Rendition, it 
 will be convenient to follow the classification prescribed since 1871 for 
 Government Annual Reports, namely. Administration of the Land, 
 Protection, Production and Distribution, Revenue and Finance, Vital 
 Statistics and Medical Services, Instruction, Archseology and 
 Miscellaneous.^ 
 
 ADMINISTRATION OF THE LAND 
 
 The various land tenures having already been described, under the 
 first head come the Topographical and Revenue Surveys and Inam 
 Settlement. 
 
 The Topographical Survey commenced in April 1886, and was 
 carried out by ofificers of the Survey of India under the orders of the 
 Surveyor-General. Triangulation was completed in 1884-5, ^•'^'^ the 
 detailed topographical survey in September 1886. The total cost of 
 the operations was 8J lakhs. The survey was on the scale of one inch 
 to the mile, except in the case of the State forests, which were on the 
 four-inch scale. The whole extended to 70 standard sheets of maps. 
 Unfortunately the different redistributions of Districts and taluqs 
 interfered with much of their utility. 
 
 Revenue Survey and Settlement. — The system of Revenue Survey 
 and Settlement has previously been explained. The appointment of 
 Survey and Settlement Commissioner was abolished, and the further 
 operations were conducted by the Superintendent of the Revenue 
 Survey, who also had charge of Inam Settlement. With this exception 
 all the European officers were gradually retired or transferred else- 
 where, their places being taken by Native ofificers on a reduced scale, 
 selected chiefly from among Amildars of suitable attainments. These 
 have proved to be efficient xVssistants. The re-survey of coffee lands 
 under the new system of settlement was carried out in 1883 and 18S4. 
 The entire work of measurement was completed in 1890, and the 
 strength of the Department reduced. In 1895 there remained 2 taluqs 
 for classification and 3 for settlement. The cost of the survey for the 
 ten years, 1881 to 1890, was Rs. 21,57,683. 
 
 Inam Settlement. — -The valuation of inam and kayamgutta villages 
 for the purpose of calculating the quit-rent and local fund cess chargeable 
 on them, was ordered in 1881 to be based on a survey. The Survey 
 Department, however, valued the villages at the full assessment of the 
 
 ^ In 1892 a change was made in reckoning the official year, which was ordered to 
 begin in future on the 1st of July, instead of the ist of April as before ; hence 
 statistics for 1891-2 relate to 15 months.
 
 LEGISLATION 765 
 
 whole culturable area, with an addition of 2 to 5 annas per acre 
 for the unculturable. This was complained of by the inanidars, and 
 orders were issued to value them at the survey assessment on lands 
 under cultivation, with 25 per cent, of the assessment on arable 
 waste. Pending the revaluation the old rates were levied. There are 
 reckoned to be 2,095 such villages, and 1,010 had been settled up to 
 1895. The question of excesses in Minor Inams in Government 
 villages of settled Maidan taluqs was finally disposed of in 1886, and 
 17,413 title-deeds for such inams had been issued up to 1895. Of 
 quit-rent registers 53,756 were compared with the original inam 
 registers and issued, out of 61,928 in the Province. The vexed question 
 of the enfranchisement of Kodigi inams at ^ or |- quit-rent was sati.s- 
 factorily settled in 1888, on the general rule that such inams were 
 granted for construction and upkeep of tanks, and not for mere 
 upkeep only. These and some other miscellaneous settlements were 
 carried out at a cost, from 1891 to 1895, of R^. 1,21,744, the additional 
 permanent revenue derived from the operations of the Department 
 being Rs. 18,948. 
 
 PROTECTION 
 
 Legislation. — The change of Government rendered it necessary to 
 revise the Acts already in force in Mysore (a schedule of which was 
 appended to the Instrument of Transfer) word by word, to render 
 them applicable to the altered state of affairs. The following Regula- 
 tions have also, after consultation with local officers and publication in 
 the official Gazette for public information, been, with the approval of 
 the Government of India, passed into law : — 
 
 Regulation 
 
 I of 18S3 >rysore Civil Courts Regulation. 
 I of 1884 Mysore Chief Court Regulation. 
 II of 18S4 To apply to Mysore the Code of Civil Procedure, Act XI\' of 1SS2, 
 in supersession of Act X of 1877, as amended by Act XII of 
 
 1879- 
 III of 1884 Mysore Legal Practitioners Regulation. 
 I of 1885 Velandur Jagir Regulation. 
 II of 1S85 To apply to Mysore, Act XVI of 1863, for levying duty on Sjiirits 
 used exclusively in arts and manufactures, or in chemistry. 
 Ill of 1885 To amend the law relating to Excise Revenue. 
 
 I of 1886 To introduce the Code of Criminal Procedure, Act X of 1882, in 
 supersession of Act X of 1872. 
 
 A separate Legislative Department was organized in January 1886, 
 under an officer designated the Legislative Secretary. Since then* 
 the following Regulations have been passed : —
 
 766 AD MINIS 7 'RA TION 
 
 Regulation 
 I of 1887 Hackney Carriages Act for the City of Bangalore. 
 II of 1887 To amend Regulation II of 1884. 
 I of 1888 To amend Regulation I of 1886. 
 II of 1888 To regulate the manufacture, possession, use, sale, transport and 
 
 importation of Explosives. 
 Ill of 1 888 To apply to the City of Mysore the Municipal Regulations of the 
 
 City of Bangalore. 
 IV of 1 888 To consolidate and amend the law relating to Revenue Officers and 
 the Land Revenue. 
 I of 1890 To amend the Municipal Regulations of 1871 in force in the Cities 
 
 of Mysore and Bangalore. 
 II of 1890 To amend Regulation I of 1884. 
 
 III of 1890 To declare the Imperial Standard Yard for the United Kingdom to 
 
 be the legal standard measure of length in Mysore. 
 
 IV of 1890 To consolidate and amend the law relating to Loans of money by 
 
 Government for Agricultural Improvements. 
 
 V of 1890 To provide for matters connected with the Census. 
 
 VI of 1S90 To consolidate and amend the law relating to Arms, ammunition 
 and military stores. 
 I of 1 89 1 To amend the Mysore Land Revenue Code of 1888. 
 I of 1892 To amend the law relating to Fraudulent Marks on merchandise. 
 II of 1892 To provide Compensation to families for loss occasioned by the 
 death of a person caused by actionable wrong. 
 
 III of 1892 To further amend Regulation IV of 1888. 
 
 IV of 1892 To regulate Labour in Factories. 
 
 V of 1892 To amend Regulation I of 1883. 
 
 VI of 1892 To amend Section 265 of the Indian Contract Act of 1872. 
 
 VII of 1S92 To amend the Code of Civil Procedure. 
 
 VIII of 1892 To amend the Cattle Trespass Act of 1 87 1. 
 
 I of 1893 For avoiding loss by the default of Public Accountants. 
 
 I of 1894 To amend Act XXV of 1S67 for the regulation of Presses, &c. 
 
 II of 1894 To amend the Indian Penal Code. 
 
 III of 1894 To provide for the trial of oftences against the Post Office Law. 
 
 IV of 1894 To amend the law relating to Railways. 
 
 V of 1894 To provide facilities for obtaining the evidence and appearance of 
 
 Prisoners, and for service of process upon them. 
 VI of 1S94 To further amend Regulation I of 1883. 
 VII of 1S94 To further amend the law for the Acquisition of Land for public 
 purposes and companies. 
 VIII of 1894 To amend the Indian Registration Act, III of 1S77. 
 IX of 1894 Government Securities Regulation. 
 X of 1894 To prevent Infant Marriages. 
 XI of 1894 Relating to the Protection of Inventions and Designs. 
 
 I of 1895 For the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals. 
 II of 1895 To assimilate the laws relating to Post Offices. 
 Ill of 1895 Mysore Companies Regulation. 
 
 Police. — The direction of the Pohce was at first in the hands of the 
 Dewan and the District officers. A PoHce Secretary was afterwards 
 appointed, and in 18S3 this position was filled by the officer who was 
 also Education Secretary. In 1SS5 an Inspector-General of Police
 
 POLICE 767 
 
 was appointed, the same officer being also Inspector-General of Forests 
 and Plantations, and Director of Agriculture and Statistics. The 
 office of Police-Assistant Commissioners was at the same time revived, 
 and these, one in each District, with the Superintendent of Police in 
 Bangalore, acted under the general supervision of the Deputy Com. 
 missioners. Amildars and Deputy Amildars continued at the head of 
 the Taluq and Sub-Taluq Police, aided by Inspectors and Jamadars. 
 At the end of 1891 the Police Department was reorganized. A Native 
 officer was appointed as separate Inspector-Ceneral of Police, and 
 Police-Assistant Commissioners were graded instead as Superintendents 
 and Assistant-Superintendents of Police. 
 
 The Police force is composed of the Regular Police and the Village 
 Police. The former includes District Police, City Police (of Bangalore 
 and Mysore), Special Reserve Police, Gold Mines Police and Railway 
 Police. The District Police, 4,522 strong in 1895, consists of the 
 Taluq Police and the District Reserve force, the former occupying the 
 various thd?tas for ordinary police duty, and the latter attached to the 
 District Police office for special duties. The City Police numbered 
 533 in 1895, ^"d form a separate body under different rules from the 
 rest. The Special Reserve consists (in 1895) of 136 officers and men, 
 selected for good physique and better paid, equipped and drilled than 
 the others. They also go through a course of musketry. They were 
 first enrolled in 1890. They are held ready for emergencies in any 
 part of the country, and are employed in putting down organized 
 dacoitics and serious disturbances of the public peace. There are 
 three detachments, located respectively at Bangalore, Mysore and 
 Shimoga. The Gold-Mines Police are employed in Kolar and Has.san 
 Districts in maintaining order at the mines. They numbered 70 in 
 1895. The Railway Police, 179 strong in 1895, forms a separate 
 body directly under the Inspector-General, but except on the State 
 Railway from Bangalore to Nanjangud, the Railway Police has now 
 passed under British jurisdiction. 
 
 The actual strength of the Police force in 1895 was 507 officers and 
 4,670 men, or 5,177 altogether. Of these, 490 officers and 2,090 men 
 were educated. A Police School is maintained at Bangalore, where 
 the men are drafted for instruction in Codes and in police duties of all 
 kinds. The cost of the Department was Rs. 7,35,000 in 1895. 
 
 Some desperate gangs of dacoits, from districts beyond the northern 
 frontier, who had been for years committing serious depredations in 
 this Province, were broken up in 1884 and the majority of their 
 members brought to justice. The entrance of similar gangs into Mysore 
 has to a great extent been barred by establishing Police outposts for
 
 768 ADMINISTRATION 
 
 the protection of ghats and passes, and for watching the movements of 
 foreign and local predatory gangs. Registers are kept up of all 
 suspicious characters, known depredators and receivers of stolen pro- 
 perty, and gangs are escorted by the Police when they move from place 
 to place. 
 
 The Village Police is under the Patel, who is assisted by the minor 
 village officials. They report crime and help the Regular Police in 
 prevention and detection of crime. The Patel is held responsible for 
 the enforcement of night watches in villages, for the upkeep of boundary 
 hedges and village choultries, and for the general safety of the villagers. 
 
 Criminal Justice. — The administration of Justice was presided over 
 by the Chief Judge, a European, exercising the powers of a High 
 Court. In 1884 a Chief Court was formed of three Judges, the Chief 
 Judge being a European (a retired Judge of the Madras High Court), 
 and the two Puisne Judges being Natives. From 1891 the Chief Judge 
 was also a Native, but in 1895 a European was again appointed. 
 
 The Chief Court exercised original jurisdiction in criminal 
 cases in Bangalore, Kolar and Tumkur Districts from May 1884, when 
 the Court of the Sessions Judge of the Nundydroog Division was 
 abolished, until September 1890, when the latter Court was re-estab- 
 lished, holding periodical sessions in the three Districts. In 1887 the 
 system of trial by jury was introduced in Sessions cases. In 1888 the 
 holding of periodical sessions at Hassan was revived. For Appellate 
 jurisdiction in Criminal cases, no separate Benches were formed ; the 
 Benches that sat for Civil Appellate work also disposing of Criminal 
 appeals. As a rule appeals against the decisions of the Chief Court 
 on the original side are disposed of by a Full Bench, and other appeals 
 by a Divisional Bench of two Judges. The Chief Court also acts as a 
 Court of Reference and a Court of Revision. 
 
 In i8go there were 131 Courts subordinate to the Chief Court, 
 presided over by the following classes of magistrates : — 
 
 Magistrates of the 3rd class ... ... ... ... ... 76 
 
 2nd ,, 24 
 
 ,, ,, 1st ,, 20 
 
 District Magistrates 8 
 
 Courts of Sessions ... ... ... ... ... ... 3 
 
 In 1892 a European Magistrate's Court was established at the Kolar 
 Gold-mines, and in 1895 a temporary Sub- Judge's Court at Shimoga. 
 The receipts of the Criminal Courts in that year were Rs. 76,257, and 
 the charges Rs. 2,32,948. 
 
 The subjoined statement exhibits the nature of the punishments 
 awarded by the various tribunals for five years : —
 
 PRISONS 
 
 769 
 
 
 Numbers 
 
 Sentenced to 
 
 
 
 
 Imprisonment. 
 
 Fine. 
 
 Whipping. 
 
 2^ 
 
 
 ■ 
 
 punished 
 
 Death. 
 
 Trans- 
 porta- 
 
 
 
 
 
 c - 
 c 3 
 
 
 
 
 ^''- ?° ' Above 
 
 10 stripes Above 
 
 t/l V 
 
 
 
 
 
 Rigorous 
 
 Simple. 
 
 and 1 n 
 
 and 10 
 
 
 a > 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 under. 
 
 
 under, stripes. 
 
 
 1886 1 7,770 
 
 .s 
 
 .s 
 
 1,282 
 
 183 
 
 6,121 
 
 62 
 
 54 
 
 S8 
 
 19 
 
 22 
 
 1887 8,886 
 
 13 
 
 4 
 
 1,150 
 
 169 
 
 7>393 
 
 S2 
 
 43 
 
 62 
 
 2^ 
 
 13 
 
 1888 8,768 
 
 2 
 
 10 
 
 1,112 
 
 222 
 
 7,256 
 
 60 
 
 41 
 
 6S 
 
 27 
 
 15 
 
 1889 1 8,784 
 
 9 
 
 9 
 
 1,287 
 
 172 
 
 7,057 
 
 I2S 
 
 51 
 
 74 
 
 46 
 
 17 
 
 1890 7,615 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 1,250 
 
 206 
 
 5,963 \ 69 
 
 40 
 
 7S 
 
 56 
 
 II 
 
 Prisons. — The Chief Judge is ex-officio Inspector-General of Prisons. 
 The temporary jail at Kukarhalli was given up in Jtuie 1881, and on 
 the revision of Districts and Taluqs in 1882-3 only three Jails, the 
 Central Jail at Bangalore and the District Jails at Mysore and Shimoga, 
 were kept up, with the Lock-ups at Taluq and Sub-Taluq headquarters. 
 Rules were at the same time framed specifying the Jails to which 
 persons sentenced by the different Courts should be sent for incarcera- 
 tion. In 1882 it was decided not to transport any more life-convicts 
 from Mysore to the Andaman Islands, owing to the cost involved in 
 maintaining them there. The Mysore convicts already there were 
 brought back (except a few dangerous characters whom it was thought 
 well to leave) and Rs. 103,252 paid for their past upkeep. They have 
 since then been confined in the Central Jail, Bangalore, and this course 
 is now pursued with all life-convicts. In 1887 the Lock-up at Bangalore 
 and in 1890 the Lock-ups at Mysore and Shimoga were absorbed in the 
 respective Jails at those places. There thus remained three Jails and 
 78 Lock-ups. In 1889 the ticket-of-leave sy.stem was introduced among 
 life-convicts, on the basis of the rules in force in the Punjab. Some 
 changes in improving the scales of diet were also made about this time. 
 
 The number of convicts in Jail, which was 1,689 in 1881, was 819 in 
 1890. Of the latter, 254 were under sentence for less than one year, 
 108 for above one and less than two years, 114 for above two and 
 below five years, 128 for above five and below ten years, 9 for above 
 ten years. There were also under sentence of transportation, 200 for 
 life and 6 for a term. The total included 762 male and 57 female 
 prisoners. There were 7 under sixteen years of age, 619 between six- 
 teen and forty, 169 between forty and sixty, and 24 above sixty. 
 
 The convicts are employed in cleaning and grinding ragi, on jirison 
 duties, such as, prison warders, servants and gardeners, on the prepara- 
 tion of articles for use or consumption in the jails, on jail buildings, 
 manufactures and i)ul)lic works. The chief industries arc printing, 
 
 \ i>
 
 770 ADMINISTRATION 
 
 carpet, tent and blanket making, cloth-weaving, gunny and coir work, 
 carpenters' and ijlacksmiths' work in the Central Jail at Bangalore ; 
 carpenters' and smiths' work in the Shimoga Jail, and weaving and 
 spinning, basket and mat making, and pottery in the Mysore Jail. 
 
 There is a paid teacher in tlie Bangalore Central Jail to give instruc- 
 tion to convicts. A large number are taught Kannada : a few 
 Hindustani and English. 
 
 The cost of the jails fell from Rs. 158,507 in 1881 to Rs. 88,517 in 
 1890. The net cost per head of average strength in the latter year, 
 after deducting the value of jail industries, was Rs. 94.3.6. 
 
 Civil Justice. — There are four classes of Civil Courts, namely : — 
 Courts of Munsiffs, of Subordinate Judges, District Courts, and the 
 Chief Court. Munsiffs exercise original jurisdiction in cases up to 
 Rs. 1,000 in value, and Small Cause powers up to Rs. 50 ; Subordinate 
 Judges have jurisdiction in cases from above Rs. 1,000 to Rs. 5,000, 
 and Small Cause powers from above Rs. 50 to Rs. 100, and hear 
 appeals from decisions of Munsiffs if referred by the District Judge ; 
 District Courts have unlimited jurisdiction, hear appeals from 
 decisions of Munsiffs, and from those of Subordinate Judges within the 
 limit of Rs. 3,000. The Chief Court, by one of its Judges sitting for 
 the purpose, acted for some time as the District Court for Bangalore, 
 Kolar and Tumkur \ sitting as a Full Bench it hears appeals from the 
 decrees of a single Judge as above, and sitting as a Bench of not less 
 than two Judges disposes of all other appeals brought before it. In 
 1890 its original civil jurisdiction over the three Districts named was 
 withdrawn and transferred to the new District and Sessions Court 
 established at Bangalore. An Additional Munsiff's Court was also 
 formed to relieve such of the Munsiffs as had heavy files. In July 
 1893, the Special Magistrate of the Kolar Gold-fields was appointed as 
 Munsiff also, with jurisdiction up to Rs. 100 in ordinary suits and 
 Rs. 50 in small causes. In August 1894, a Subordinate Judge's Court 
 was temporarily opened at Shimoga for relief of judicial work, and 
 closed in June 1895. 
 
 There were thus in 1895 three District Courts, at Bangalore, Mysore 
 and Shimoga ; two Courts of Subordinate Judges, at Bangalore and 
 Mysore, which also take up all the Small Cause cases there ; nineteen 
 INIunsiffs' Courts in various parts, including the Additional Munsiff: 
 altogether twenty-four, besides the Chief Court. The number of suits 
 instituted gradually increased from 15,788 in 18S6 to 19,861 in 1895, 
 nearly one-half of them belonging to the class of Small Causes. The 
 receipts in all the Courts in the latter year were Rs. 345,008, and the 
 charges Rs. 341,103.
 
 M UN I C IP A LI TIES 7 7 1 
 
 Registration. — Till 1S86 the Inspector-General of Registration was 
 an officer who was at the same time Comptroller, and also Super- 
 intendent of the Government Press. The office was subsequently held 
 by the Legislative Secretary. 
 
 The Deputy Commissioners were ex-officio District Registrars, and 
 the Taluq Amildars were Sub-Registrars. Wherever the work has 
 increased to a certain amount, special Sub-Registrars have been 
 appointed. In 1892 Deputy Commissioners were relieved of Regis- 
 tration work, the Treasury Assistant Commissioners being appointed to 
 do it. Likewise the Sheristadars relieved the Amildars in taluqs. In 
 1S95 Deputy Commissioners were again made District Registrars. In 
 that year the Department consisted, besides them, of fifteen special 
 Sub-Registrars and sixty-four Sheristadars as ex-officio Sub-Registrars. 
 The number of documents registered was 42,974, affecting property 
 valued at Rs. 11,360,893. Of these, 26,626 were documents whose 
 registration was compulsory, and 14,882 those whose registration was 
 optional. The receipts of the department were Rs. 95,652 and the 
 expenditure was Rs. 50,003. 
 
 Municipal Administration. — Excluding that of the Civil and .Military 
 Station of Bangalore, which remained under British Administration, 
 there were 83 Municipalities in 1881. By 1895 the number had 
 risen to 112. They are established in all District and Taluq head- 
 quarter towns and in other large places that are suitable. But those of 
 Bangalore and Mysore cities are the only ones of important magnitude. 
 The Municipal Boards are composed of official and non-official 
 members nominated by Government, with the Deputy Commissioner 
 or Taluq Amildar as President. The ex-officio members do not as a 
 rule exceed one-third of the total number. In 1892 the privilege of 
 election was granted to Bangalore and Mysore, with specific rules for 
 the qualifications of candidates and of voters, and the former has now 
 a separate paid President. In Bangalore there are 22 Municipal 
 Commissioners, 1 1 elected, 5 ex offiicio, and 6 nominated by Govern- 
 ment ; in Mysore the total is 20, composed of 10, 5 and 5 respectively. 
 The income of the former amounted to i^ lakhs in 1893-4, and of the 
 latter to i^ lakhs. These funds are derived from octroi, taxes on 
 buildings, mohatarfa, license fees, &c. ; and are expended on con- 
 servancy, lighting, roads, drains, water supply, charitable institutions, &c. 
 The income of the remaining no Municipalities came to Rs. 2,79,652 
 in 1893-4, and in many suffices for little more than sanitary operations 
 to keep the places clean, but various local improvements are carried 
 out wherever funds are available. Out of the total municipal 
 income in 1894-5 of Rs. 5,63,000, the amount spent was Rs. 4,89,000, 
 
 3 D 2
 
 772 ADMINISTRATION 
 
 dislribulLd as follows: — 23'22 per cent, on conservancy and sanitation, 
 6*22 on lighting, 37'65 on public works, 6-8o on education, and 7*29 
 on medical aid. 
 
 Military. — The Military Department is under the Military Secretary, 
 who also has charge of the Amrit Mahal. Cavalry. — In August 1883, 
 a Cavalry Officer of the British service was appointed as Staff Officer, 
 for the purpose of drilling the Silahdars and bringing them up to 
 a higher standard of efficiency. In 1885 the three regiments of 
 Silahdars, stationed at Bangalore, Mysore and Shimoga, with detach- 
 ments at other District headquarters, w^ere reduced to two, with a total 
 strength of 1,171, and stationed at Bangalore and Mysore, for greater 
 convenience of management, furnishing detachments where required as 
 before. In 1892 the two regiments were broken up and two fresh 
 corps formed, as finally sanctioned in July 1893, one, called the 
 Imperial Service Lancers, with headquarters at Bangalore, for imperial 
 service, and the other, with headquarters at Mysore, for local service. 
 The former consists of picked men, better paid, mounted and equipped, 
 and on the same footing as Native Cavalry of the British service. 
 They are commanded by a member of the Mysore Royal family, are 
 brigaded with the British troops at reviews, and are periodically 
 inspected by the British Staff Officer appointed for that purpose, and 
 by the Inspector-General of Imperial Service Cavalry with the Govern- 
 ment of India. A Transport Service, to be made up to 300 ponies, 
 and suitable camp equipment are maintained in connection with it in 
 readiness for service. The actual strength of the two regiments in 1895 
 was : Imperial Service Regiment, 645 ; Local Service Regiment, 549 ; or 
 1,194 altogether. Infantry. — -The three battalions of Barr Sepoys were 
 somewhat reduced in 1888 by allowing only eight companies to each 
 instead of ten. Their actual strength in 1895 was 1,890. The head- 
 quarters were at Bangalore, Mysore and Shimoga respectively, and 
 detachments were furnished to other Districts for Treasury guards and 
 similar duties. 
 
 The uniforms and armament of both Cavalry and Infantry have 
 undergone several changes and improvements, and are now generally 
 assimilated to those of the Native troops in the British service. The 
 military expenditure in 1894-5 amounted to Rs. 9,19,264, of which 
 Rs. 46,557 was for headquarters establishment, Rs. 5,51,707 for 
 cavalry, Rs. 3,14,097 for infantry, and Rs. 6,902 for military stores. 
 The cost of the Imperial Service Regiment, included in the above, was 
 Rs. 3,23,010.
 
 773 
 
 PRODUCTION AND DISTRIBUTION 
 
 Agriculture. — A Director of Agriculture and Statistics was appointed 
 in 1886, the office being held along with those of Inspector-General of 
 Police and of Forests and Plantations. The duties were the collection 
 of statistics of rainfall, cultivation, cattle, trade and manufacture, with 
 promotion of experiments in agriculture and in the breeding of live 
 stock. These subjects have been already treated of Agricultural 
 Inspectors, trained in the Agricultural College at Saidapet, were 
 appointed to each District. An Agricultural and Industrial Exhibition 
 was held at Mysore in October 1888, at the close of the Dasara, and 
 was well attended. The number of exhibits exceeded 30,000, and a 
 ]arge number of medals and prizes were distributed. 
 
 Weather and Crops. — Meteorological observatories, fully equipped, 
 were established, in 1892-3, at Bangalore, under the Principal of the 
 Central College, and at Mysore, Hassan and Chitaldroog under the 
 Science Assistant of the College or High School. The observations 
 recorded, of temperature, wind, clouds and rain, are daily telegraphed to 
 the ^Meteorological Reporter with the ( iovernment of India. Rain gauges 
 of a uniform pattern are maintained at 151 stations, and the registered 
 rainfall is reported to headquarters. The results are made use of in 
 Vol. II. under each District. Crops have already been fully dealt with. 
 
 Forests. — An Inspector-General of Forests and Plantations, who also 
 held other offices, as above stated, was appointed in 1885. In 1895 
 the department was placed under a separate Conservator of Forests ; 
 nearly all the Assistants are Natives, several of w^hom have passed 
 through a course of training in the Forest School at Dehra Dun. 
 
 The area of State Forests, or those which are reserved, was 643 
 square miles in 1881, and 1,654 square miles in 1895. The un- 
 reserved or District forests are under the management of the Revenue 
 authorities, and it has been found necessary, while providing for local 
 needs, to place restrictions on the indiscriminate felling of wood in 
 these tracts, in order to stop the reckless \asle that was going on in 
 several parts. I'uel reserves are also formed out of them when 
 suitable. The area of regular plantations slocked was 9 square miles 
 in 1885 and 34 square miles in 1895. This includes both forest 
 plantations and revenue plantaiions. In ihe former, a regular system 
 of nurseries, pitting and planting out of valuable kinds of trees, with 
 subsequent pruning and thinning, is pursued. In the latter, managed 
 by the Amildars, the land is merely ploughed, and in the rains seeds
 
 7 7 4 ADMINISTRA TION 
 
 arc sown in drills, of indigenous trees that will admit of coppicing 
 afterwards. l>y 1895 there were 1,520 square miles of forests and 
 plantations brought under fire conservancy measures, and 1,416 square 
 miles were successfully protected from fire in that year. Grazing is 
 permitted to a certain extent on a system of licenses. 
 
 The number of reserved kinds of trees was increased from 9 in 
 1881 to II, and in 1890 to 12. The following are their names : — 
 
 Sandalwood SaiitahiDi album. 
 
 Teak Tectoiia grandis. 
 
 Poon Calophylhim e latum. 
 
 Blackwood Dalbergia latifolia. 
 
 Honne Pterocarpus marsiipium. 
 
 Lac, Jalari Vatica laccifera. 
 
 Nandi Lagerstrcemia inicrocarpa. 
 
 Wild Jack, Hesswa, 
 
 Ileb-Halasu Ariocarpiis hirsiita. 
 
 Karachi, Kammar, 
 
 Arsina Hardwickia binata. 
 
 Bill Matti Terjiiinalia arjuna. 
 
 Kari Matti Terminaliatomentosa 
 
 Ebony, Bale, Ma- 
 
 lali Diospyros ebeniiin. 
 
 Special attention has been given to promoting the natural repro- 
 duction as well as the artificial propagation of sandalwood, teak and 
 other profitable trees. 
 
 The sales of large-sized timber are made at the regular Timber 
 Depots, and of the smaller sized at temporary depots opened in con- 
 venient places. The latter practice was introduced in 1883 in place of 
 the license system. But licenses are still granted for cutting bamboos. 
 Sandalwood, which is a State monopoly and contributes the greater 
 proportion of forest revenue, is sold at the various Sandalwood Kotis, 
 and improvements have been made in the preparation of billets and 
 roots, as such prepared wood fetches a higher price. Sleepers and 
 fuel for the railways were supplied from the forests in large quantities 
 for several years. Attention has of late been paid to improving the 
 revenue from minor forest products, such as myrobalans, lac, and 
 fangadi bark used for tanning. The elephant keddahs, already 
 described (p. 179) are also attached to the Forest department. 
 
 The surplus receipts from Forests have been steadily rising from 
 4*82 lakhs in 18S1-2, to 6"56 lakhs in 1885-6, to 8*49 lakhs in 1889-90^ 
 to 9"3i lakhs in 1890-1, and lo'io lakhs in 1893-4. The total 
 receipts in the latter year were Rs. 14,21,770, of which sandalwood 
 produced Rs. 9,29,340, and the charges were Rs. 4,11,348. 
 
 Alines and Quarries. — A Geological Department was formed in 
 1894-5, under Mr. Bruce Foote, F.G.S., retired from the Geological 
 Survey of India. Its duties involve an investigation of the geology and 
 mineralogy of the country, and the inspection of mines. A number of 
 apprentice geologists are being trained for the work, most of them natives 
 of Mysore. An account has been given above of the gold-mines. 
 
 Manufacture and Trade. — Already treated of in detail.
 
 PUBLIC WORKS 
 
 lis 
 
 Public Works. — This Department has always been under a Royal 
 Engineer officer as Chief Engineer. The majority of the executive 
 staff consists of Native engineers of Mysore origin, trained in the 
 Engineering Colleges at Madras and Poona. There has been great 
 activity in public works of all classes, especially since 1886, when the 
 transfer of the State railway to foreign capitalists allowed of larger 
 sums being placed at disposal for this purpose. The annual grant, 
 which averaged 15 lakhs before, was raised to 18^ lakhs in 1885-6 
 rose every following year to 29^ lakhs in 1 890-1, and was between 
 ■^o\ and 32 lakhs in the four years to 1894-5. A special Sanitary 
 Department was also formed in 1892, the grants for whicli were \\ lakhs 
 in the first two years, and nearly 2\ lakhs in 1894-5. 
 
 The grant for Public Works made from Provincial Funds is supple- 
 mented by grants from District Inmds and Local Funds General, 
 Irrigation Cess Fund, and Palace Fund. The following are the 
 proportions for the past five years : — 
 
 Fund. 
 
 1890-1. 
 
 1891-2. 
 
 1892-3. 
 
 1893-4. 
 
 1894-5. 
 
 Provincial Fund 
 District Fund 
 Irrigation Fund 
 I'alace Fund 
 
 11,30,000 
 
 5,57,789 
 
 12,40,940 
 
 17,000 
 
 21,25,000 
 
 5,80,000 
 
 3,71,000 
 
 7,000 
 
 24,00,000 
 
 5,57,623 
 
 2,13,000 
 
 34,000 
 
 24,50,000 
 
 4,23,065 
 
 1,50,000 
 
 28,000 
 
 25,00,000 
 
 4,13,499 
 2,84,000 
 
 I2,CXX) 
 
 Total Rs. 
 
 29,45,729 
 
 30,83,000 
 
 32,04,623 
 
 30,51,065 
 
 32,09,499 
 
 The works executed are classed as Original or Repairs, under the 
 heads Military, Civil Buildings, Communications, Miscellaneous Public 
 Imj)rovements, and Tanks and Channels. Some additional works, for 
 which funds are provided from the departments concerned, are also 
 carried out for Forests, Education, Medical, Muzrai and Municipalities. 
 But petty repairs were in 1886 entrusted to the several departments 
 themselves. 
 
 The Military works were new Rifle Butts at Hebbal, and im[)rovcd 
 lines for the Silahdar and Barr forces at the various headquarters. 
 Civil buildings included a variety of cutcherries, courts, offices, schools, 
 dispensaries, police-stations, is:c. throughout the country. Some of the 
 more important major works were extensions of the Palace at l^anga- 
 lore, erection of the i'ublic Offices at Mysore, the \'ictoria Jubilee 
 Institute, the new Maharaja's College, the Exhibition building in the 
 ]-al Bagh, the Laboratory and Observatory at the Central College, 
 the Maternity Hospital at liangalore, the Law Courts at Mysore, the 
 restoration of the Darya Daulat at Seringapatam, the Couri)alais 
 Chatram at Shimoga, the I-ansdowne Bazaars at Mysore, &c.
 
 776 ADMINISTRA TION 
 
 Under Communications, in 1X94 5 there were 1,747 miles of main 
 or trunk roads, maintained from Provincial J-'unds, and 3,344 miles of 
 branch roads maintained from District Funds. The former include 
 the Madras Cannanorc road, 502 miles ; Salem-Bellary road, 454 miles ; 
 Eangalore-Honnavar road, 559 miles ; and Bangalore-Mangalore road, 
 by the Manjarabad (ihat, 196 miles. A number of Ghat roads to the 
 west have been opened out or improved, and many new roads made as 
 feeders to the railways. But among the works of greatest magnitude 
 are the bridges that have been constructed over several rivers, such as 
 over the Tunga at Hariharpur, over the Bhadra at Bale Honnur, over 
 the Yagache at Belur, over the Kaveri at Yedatore, and others. 
 
 Among Miscellaneous improvements the most important have been 
 the water-supply of Bangalore and Mysore. The former, the subject 
 of conflicting schemes and discussions for a great number of years, 
 has found solution in the project for water from the Hesarghatta tank 
 on the Arkavati river. The Mysore scheme is in two parts, one of 
 which includes the filling up of Purnaiya's Nala within municipal limits, 
 and the other, the conveyance of water from the Kaveri to Mysore by 
 pumping up with water power and the aid of turbines. Works of this 
 nature carried out by the separate Sanitary Department were, diversion 
 of the drainage and sewage of the Mysore fort, the drainage of 
 Shimoga, water-supply of Chikmagalur, Closepet, Nanjangud, Yeda- 
 tore, Hunsur, and other towns, together with the drainage and exten- 
 sion of overcrowded localities. 
 
 The annual grant for Irrigation Tanks and Channels was from 3 to 
 3'63 lakhs from 1881 to 1884, 4'64 lakhs in 1885-6, 6'ii in 1S86-7, 
 7*29 in 1887-8, 973 in 1888-9, ^^\ lakhs in the next two years, i6"3 
 in 1891-2 (15 months), 12 '63, 14^ and 134 lakhs in the three years to 
 1894-5. The serial restoration of tanks had advanced sufificiently by 
 the time of the Rendition to allow of an abatement of the expenditure 
 on it in favour of railway extension. In 1886 it was resolved to make 
 over the minor tanks, or those yielding a revenue not exceeding 
 Rs. 300, to the Revenue authorities, the ryots doing the earthwork 
 themselves and Government paying for masonry works where necessary. 
 The scheme was at first introduced tentatively into one taluq in each 
 District, and after trial was extended to all parts. A Tank Inspector 
 was appointed to each taluq to assist the Amildar in the work, and a 
 trained Sub Overseer to each District to instruct and supervise the Tank 
 Inspectors. A large amount of useful work has been carried out under 
 this system. In 1887-8 the management of the river channels in the 
 irrigation season was transferred to the Amildars of the taluqs through 
 which they run. This, it was considered, would allow of more speedy
 
 RAILWAYS 777 
 
 attention to complaints of unequal distribution of water. In the following 
 year it was further arranged that the hot weather supply of water to sugar- 
 cane and garden tracts dependent on channels should be given at fixed 
 periods, in consultation with the Deputy Commissioners concerned. 
 
 The sums spent on Original irrigation works were, on Tanks, 4 "30 
 lakhs in the five years from 1881, 2578 lakhs in the next five, and 
 28-20 lakhs in the four years to 1895 : on Channels, 2'i8, 10-56, and 
 1033 lakhs in the same periods. For Repairs were spent 9-06, 5-41, 
 and 3-43 lakhs on Tanks, and 2-66, 2-35, and 2-81 lakhs on Channels, 
 in the same periods. It is impossible in this place to give any full list 
 of the numerous works, though of the highest utility, that have been 
 carried out under these heads. It may suffice to state that the river 
 •channels in Mysore and Hassan Districts had, in 1895, attained to a 
 length of 869 miles, and to mention the following as among a few of 
 the more considerable works carried out: — Improving and extending 
 Rampur channel, Nanjangud taluq ; constructing Borankanve reser- 
 voir, Chiknayakanhalli taluq ; restoring the Rekalgere tank, Chellakere 
 taluq ; restoring Sulekere tank, Malavalli taluq ; improving Hesar- 
 ghatta tank, Nelamangala taluq ; constructing Srinivasa Sagara tank 
 across the North Pennar, Chik Ballapur taluq ; constructing Ramasa- 
 mudram tank across the Chitravati, Sidlaghatta taluq ; improving and 
 extending Hulhalli channel, Nanjangud taluq ; improving and extend- 
 ing north channel from the Sriramdevar dam, Chanraypatna taluq. 
 
 Railways. — At the time of the Rendition, in March 1881, in 
 addition to the Bangalore branch of the Madras Railway from Jalarpet 
 to Bangalore, 55 miles within Mysore limits, on the broad gauge,' there 
 ■was the Mysore State Railway, from Bangalore to Mysore, completed 
 as far as Mandya, 58 miles on the metre gauge. The latter was 
 opened to Mysore in February 1882, and was constructed almost 
 entirely out of current revenues. In October 1882, the line from 
 Bangalore to Tumkur, 43 miles of metre gauge, was commenced, a 
 loan of 20 lakhs at 5 per cent, interest having been raised for the pur- 
 pose, and was opened for traffic in August 1S84. A further portion 
 to Gubbi, II miles, was opened in December 1884. Surveys and 
 estimates for extending the line to the frontier at Harihar were pre- 
 pared, and it was decided to hand over the construction to the 
 Southern Mahratta Railway Company, to whuni the open line of 140 
 lines was hypothecated for the amount of its cost, to be worked by 
 them on terms similar to those in force with regard to the Deccan 
 railways. The transfer was effected on the ist of July 1886, 
 
 ' The connecting link of two miles between Banj^alore Cantonment and City was 
 really opened in July 18S2.
 
 7 7 8 ADMINISTRA TION 
 
 The contract thus concluded by the Secretary of Stute, acting on 
 behalf of Mysore, was to be in force for 46 years. The Company, 
 under his guarantee of interest at 4 per cent., payable by Mysore, 
 raised a loan of ^1,200,000, which, at a premium of 2 per cent., 
 realized ;^i, 224,000. Out of Rs. 16,382,801, the equivalent in Indian 
 currency, the sum of Rs. 6,860,508 was paid to Mysore for the actual 
 outlay on the Mysore Gubbi line, and the balance, or such portion as 
 was necessary, not to exceed 80 lakhs, was to be devoted to the exten- 
 sion of the line to Harihar, 156 miles. The whole line from Mysore 
 to Harihar, 296 miles, was to be worked by the Company as a separate 
 system, distinct from their railways in British India, the cost of manage- 
 ment being apportioned according to their respective gross earnings. Out 
 of the net earnings of the Mysore line the Company were to retain one- 
 fourth, and pay three-fourths to Mysore. In February 1889 the line was 
 opened from Harihar to Birur, 795 miles, and in August 1889 it was 
 opened throughout, establishing direct communication between Mysore 
 and Poona, and thus with Bombay. In December 189 1 an exten- 
 sion of the line from Mysore to Nanjangud, 15^ miles, was completed 
 from State funds. 
 
 In December 1890 a line from Yesvantpur Junction to Hindupur, 
 5i| miles within Mysore, was undertaken by the State engineers. The 
 first section to Dod Ballapur was opened in December 1892, and the 
 remainder in September 1893, forming through connection with 
 Guntakal on the Madras-Bombay line. The Kolar Gold-Fields Rail- 
 way, ten miles on the broad gauge, from Bowingpet Junction to the 
 Mysore Mine, was completed by the State in June 1894. These are 
 all the lines at work up to 1895. The further projects surveyed are a 
 line from Arsikere, via Hassan and the Manjarabad ghat, to Mangalore ; 
 lines from Nanjangud to Gudalur, and from Nanjangud to Erode ; 
 lines from Birur to Shimoga, from Dod Ballapur to Chik Ballapur, and 
 from Mudgere to Sivasamudram ; a line from Mysore through Yedatore 
 and Coorg to Tellicherry or Cannanore. The first and fourth are in 
 course of execution. 
 
 The metre gauge lines, additional to that from Mysore to Harihar,. 
 are worked for the State by the Southern Mahratta Railway Company, 
 and the Kolar Gold-Fields line by the Madras Railway Company, on 
 triennial agreements, the net earnings, after deducting working expenses,, 
 going to Mysore. 
 
 The total capital outlay on Railways has been Rs. 20,363,427, 
 including Rs. 1,707,793 unexpended in the hands of the British 
 Government from the proceeds of the English loan. This outlay has 
 been met from the English and Local railway loans mentioned above,.
 
 P0S2' OFFICE 11^ 
 
 and from Rs. 1,980,626 provided by the State from current revenues. 
 There is a deficit on the working of the Mysore-Harihar line of about 
 3^ lakhs a year. But of the remaining railways, the Mysore-Nanjangud 
 and Bangalore-Hindupur lines earned 2 "3 and 2-5 percent, respectively, 
 and the Kolar Gold-Fields line as much as S'l per cent, on the capital 
 outlay. 
 
 Post Oj//ce.- -The Anche, as the Local Post was called, was an old 
 institution, dating from the time of Chikka Dera Raja in the 
 seventeenth century. It continued to meet the wants of the public, 
 and many improvements in working were introduced from time to time 
 l)y the Anche Bakshi, the head of the department. The number of 
 rural post-offices was greatly increased after 1882 by entrusting them 
 to the Hobli schoolmasters, who received for the work a small allowance 
 in addition to their pay. But the system of levying all postage in cash, 
 granting receipts for the same, and keeping detailed registers of 
 letters received and delivered, though safe, was behind the times. 
 Difficulties, however, arose in regard to the proposal to introduce 
 postage stamps. Eventually, after much discussion, the Anche was 
 amalgamated with the British Postal Service in April 1889, and the 
 management transferred to that department. The terms of the 
 transfer were, that the whole of the postal expenditure should be borne 
 by the British Government, and that the whole of the official 
 correspondence of the State should be carried within the limits of 
 Mysore free of any cost to the Durbar. The result has been a saving 
 of Rs. 60,000 a year to Mysore, with additional postal facilities. 
 
 REVENUE AND FINANCE 
 
 The designation of the Deputy Accountant-General, who had lieen in 
 charge for twenty years, was altered in 1882 to that of Comptroller, 
 and he was also placed in charge of Registration and of the Govern- 
 ment Press. Since 18S6 the office of Comptroller has been separately 
 held by Native officers. 
 
 Provincial Funds. — The revenue under all heads, excluding railways, 
 rose from 106^ laklis in 1881-2, with a fall in 1884-5 to loof lakhs 
 (due to an unfavourable season and the loss of the C. & M. Station of 
 Bangalore), to 174I lakhs in 1894-5. During the same period, the 
 expenditure, also excluding railways, was 103^ in 188 1-2, fell to 
 995 lakhs in 1884-5, ^^'^^ ^^en increased every year to 149 lakhs in 
 1894-5. After allowing for railway charges, there was a net surplus at 
 the latter period of 127} lakhs. 
 
 The following is a detailed statement of the revenue year by year : —
 
 78o 
 
 ADMINISTRA TION 
 
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 REVENUE 781 
 
 The increase in Land Revenue is principally due to extended 
 cultivation. In 189 1-2 it was made payable in four equal instalments, 
 in February, March, April, and May in the western districts, and in 
 March, April, May, and June in the eastern districts. Under the 
 previous system, l)y which the collections were from December to 
 March, the revenue having to be paid before the proceeds of the 
 harvest were fully realized, agriculturists were often driven either to sell 
 their crops at a disadvantage, or to raise loans and mortgage their crops. 
 In consequence of the change thus made, it became necessary that the 
 official year should thenceforward commence on the ist of July instead 
 of the I St of April. 
 
 The increase under Forests from 1885-6 was chiefly due to a revivaF 
 in the market for sandalwood from previous depression, and to a 
 greater supply of sleepers for the railway. Subsequently the returns 
 fell, owing partly to the war between China and Japan having 
 temporarily crippled one of the principal sandalwood markets, and 
 also to the fact that while, on one hand, the supply of railway sleepers 
 came to a close with the completion of the lines, on the other hand, 
 the Southern Mahratta Railway substituted Singareni coal for wood-fuel 
 for their engines. 
 
 The great increase under Abkari or Excise is due mainly to an 
 improved system of control, but also to a larger consumption arising 
 from higher wages and the influx at the gold-flelds, and for work on 
 railways, public works, and coffee plantations, of classes habituated to 
 drinking. A separate Excise Commissioner was appointed in 1889. 
 
 The following extracts, compiled from the Dewan's addresses in 1892 
 to 1894, explain the policy in regard to this subject : — 
 
 Our revenue from Excise is derived from two principal sources, toddy and 
 arrack. Toddy, the milder and comparatively innocent drink, is the 
 immemorial beverage of the aj^ricultural classes, while arrack, which is f;xr 
 stronger and more harmful, is chiefly consumed by the industrial labourer. 
 The average alcoholic strength of toddy is 2| per cent., while that of arrack 
 is 39^ per cent. The former is used by the prudent conservative agricul- 
 turist with a settled course of life and regular work, while the latter is 
 consumed mostly by the labourer and the artisan attracted to new places by 
 the prospect of profitable employment. There is every reason to believe 
 that the consumption of toddy is fairly stationary, while tliat of arrack has a 
 decided tendency to increase year after year. 
 
 The old system in regard to Toddy was one of eight large District Farms 
 for the entire Province. These farms were given out for terms of three 
 years for an annual rent, the amount of which was the highest tendered by 
 a limited number of persons whose standing in the business practically 
 excluded all outside competition. Under this system, owing to the existence
 
 782 A DMTNIS TRA TION 
 
 of a scries of middlemen between the (Government and the contractor, the 
 State did not derive its proper sliare of the revenue. And owing to the want 
 of sufficient control, the date groves were themselves deteriorating to such an 
 extent as in some places to imperil the toddy revenue of the future, while in 
 many instances the quality of toddy supplied to the public was so bad as to 
 drive many persons accustomed to this comparatively innocent drink to 
 resort to the more harmful arrack. In order to remedy these defects, the 
 Government issued orders for dividing each taluq into a number of 
 convenient farms. Attempts to introduce a similar system had failed on 
 previous occasions, and it is therefore particularly gratifying that we have 
 now succeeded in placing it on a satisfactory and workable basis. In the 
 place of the eight District Farms which before existed, we have now 1,236 
 farms distributed over the whole Province. The increase of revenue is due 
 not to any increase in the number of shops for the sale of toddy — for their 
 number remains the same as before— but entirely to the abolition of 
 needless intermediaries between the Government which owns the date 
 o-roves and the small farmer who supplies a certain number of shops from 
 a particular grove or part of a grove. This arrangement, in addition to the 
 increased revenue it secures to the State, is expected to lead to several 
 indirect benefits, such as the better preservation of our date groves,^ and 
 the improvement of the condition of the Idigar or toddy-drawing class, who 
 have suffered much under the contract system hitherto in force. 
 
 As regards Arrack, our policy has been essentially one of gradual enhance- 
 ment of the duty upon the article. In 1S81 there existed differential rates 
 of duty. The general rate was Rs. 2.3 and Rs. 2.4 throughout the Province, 
 with Rs. 2.7 for the outlying district of Chitaldroog and special rates of 
 Rs. 3.3 and Rs. 3.4 for the cities of Bangalore and Mysore. By a process 
 of o-radual assimilation and enhancement we have now arrived at the high 
 uniform rate of Rs. 4 per gallon 20° under proof, equivalent to one of Rs. 5 
 for proof. The selling price under our system is fixed as high as Rs.5.5 
 for 20° under proof, equivalent to Rs. 6.10.3 for proof. These rates are as 
 hio-h as they can be pitched consistently with the sound policy of preventing 
 illicit distillation or contraband importation. The causes which, in addition 
 to the enhanced duty, have tended to secure the increased arrack revenue, 
 j^re— the abolition in 1884 of all outlying distilleries and the introduction of a 
 system of manufacture and distribution under centralized control ;- the 
 separation in 1892 of the business of manufacture from that of distribution ; 
 and the system adopted in the same year for the sale of the privilege of 
 retail vend. The increase due to the last-named cause represents an 
 
 ' Eft'orts are being made by planting to form date groves in those Districts where 
 the uumber is small, and also to replenish the groves where ihey are in danger of 
 being overworked. 
 
 " Only two distilleries were retained, one near Bangalore, which supplied all the 
 Districts, including the C. & M. Station of Bangalore, except Shimoga and Kadur, 
 which were supplied by a distillery at Shimoga. From ist April 1S88 the distillery 
 at Shimoga was abolished and the Central Distillery at Bangalore supplied the whole 
 State.
 
 EXCISE 783 
 
 addition of Rs. 0.8.8 to the Rs. 4 duty. By separating the manufacture 
 from the sale of arrack, we were able to attract to the business of manu- 
 facture the capital, resources and technical knowledge of a large Madras 
 firm (Messrs. Parry & Co.), and thereby to reduce the price of the manu- 
 factured article to \o\ annas per gallon. This very moderate price has 
 enabled us (while retaining the old rate of retail price, namely, Rs. 5.5 per 
 gallon) to enhance the rate of duty correspondingly, from Rs. 3.5 to Rs. 4. 
 The right to vend the liquor has been sold throughout the Province ; in the 
 case of the Bangalore and Mysore cities and the Kolar Gold-fields, individual 
 shops have been sold under what is called " the separate shop system " ; 
 elsewhere the right to vend has been sold by circles of villages, and in a 
 few special cases by entire taluqs, under the " vend rent system." The 
 work of vending is thus placed in the hands of a large number of persons 
 possessing local knowledge and influence, whose watchfulness in their own 
 interest will be a most useful check upon illicit distillation in their respective 
 tracts. The increase of duty, which involved no increase of price to the 
 consumer, and the sale of the right of vend, had the effect of securing to 
 Government money which hitherto formed the profits of middlemen. 
 Satisfactory arrangements have been made through a Government agent 
 for the carriage of liquor to the various localities outside the Bangalore 
 District. 
 
 The number of toddy shops was 2,892 in 1 890-1 and 3,052 in 
 1894-5. The consumption of date toddy in the latter year was 
 15,884,269 gallons. The arrack shops numbered 943 in 1 890-1, 894 
 in 1891-2, and 925 in 1894-5. The consumption of arrack was 
 424,511 gallons in 1891-2, and 527,683 in 1894-5. These figures all 
 include the Civil and Military Station of Bangalore. 
 
 The other items of Excise revenue are receipts for licenses to sell 
 country beer, foreign liquors, and local double-distilled liquors, ganja 
 and opium. Beer in 1 895 was sold at four taverns in Bangalore, 
 supplied from a brewery on the Nilgiris. The tavern formerly existing 
 at the Kolar Gold-fields seems not to be kept up. Ganja and opium 
 are entirely supplied by importation, the cultivation being prohibited. 
 There were in 1894-5, for the sale of ganja, 64 wholesale and 145 
 retail shops ; and the consumption was 58,935 seers of ganja and 1,033 
 of majum. For the sale of opium there were 87 shops, and the 
 consunij)tion was 3,429 seers. 
 
 Sayar, or land customs, also managed by the Excise dejiartment, 
 arc now levied only on supari or areca-nut, the bulk of which produce 
 is from Kadur and Shimoga Districts. The duties on tobacco, carda- 
 moms, cocoanuts and betel-leaves were resigned to Municipalities, who 
 collected them, but only within municipal limits, as octroi, and paid 
 half the proceeds to Government. In 1S93-4 the whole was re- 
 linquished in their favour.
 
 7 84 ADMINISTRA TION 
 
 Mohatarfa, or assessed taxes, were in a similar manner made over to 
 the Municipalities, who paid half the proceeds to Oovernment. In 
 1892-3 the claim to a moiety was relinquished in the case of those 
 Municipalities which agreed to bear the cost of Police. But next year 
 Police charges were debited to State funds, and all the Municipalities 
 were allowed to retain the whole of the Mohatarfa. 
 
 Interest represents, besides that accruing on investments, what is 
 earned by current deposits in the Bangalore Branch of the Madras 
 Bank, with which an agreement was entered into in 1887 to receive the 
 surplus available cash balances, and pay 2 per cent, interest thereon. 
 In 1894 the agreement was modified by the adoption of a variable 
 scale of interest, rising, with the Bank's published minimum rate for 
 loans against Government paper, up to 6 per cent. 
 
 The annual statement of expenditure is given on the following page. 
 
 The entries under the first head include the Famine loan of 80 lakhs 
 due to the Government of India. Annual payments of 4 lakhs were 
 made from current revenue towards interest and reduction of principal 
 down to 1888-9, when the loan was discharged in full by applying for 
 this purpose the refund of Rs. 6,860,508 on account of the capital 
 outlay on the Mysore-Harihar Railway. The annual payments of 
 4 lakhs have since then been put into a fund for the redemption of the 
 Railway loan. 
 
 The Palace charges consist of H.H. the Maharaja's Civil list, fixed 
 by the Instrument of Transfer, paid in full from 1886-7, ^'""d with an 
 increase of i lakh from the ist June 1891. Some of the charge.? 
 previously met from it were also transferred to the Muzrai and Military 
 Departments. 
 
 Of Assignments under Treaties, the first is the Subsidy to the British 
 Government, which remained at 24^ lakhs per annum, as before, the 
 addition of io| provided by the Instrument of Transfer being post- 
 poned, first for 5 years, and then for 10 years more, till the 31st March 
 1896. On the other hand, the British Government from 1884-5 
 retained the net revenue of the Civil and Military Station of Bangalore, 
 Under Allowances, on account of the higher cost of living, the pensions 
 of Pallegars were increased 50 per cent, in 1893-4, the charge on this 
 account being thus raised from Rs. 37,724 to Rs. 56,586.^ 
 
 The State Accounts, in addition to the usual local audits, have been 
 examined at various times by special Auditors deputed from the 
 Government of India; in 1872 by Mr. Taylor, in 1S78 by INIr. 
 Westland, and in 1896 by Mr. Biddulph. 
 
 • The pensions had been increased 50 per cent, by Sir Mark Cubbon in 1S60, and 
 again 25 percent, by Mr. Bowring in 1S64-5.
 
 FINANCE 
 
 785 
 
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 786 
 
 .1 /JA//AVST/^A riON 
 
 Local Funds. — The l.ocal Funds consist of a cess of one anna in the 
 rupee on the land assessment and on the collections from Excise, Sdyar, 
 and some other items, and of an Irrigation cess at the same rate levied 
 separately in some taluqs and included in the net land assessment in 
 others. Out of the total raised on the land assessment, 76 per cent, is 
 credited as District Funds, to the District in which it is collected, and 
 administered by the Local Fund Boards. The same proportion of 
 collections under other heads is credited to Local Funds General, held 
 at disposal of the Government for expenditure on local projects. The 
 remaining 24 per cent, under both the above is credited to Education 
 as the Village School Fund. The Irrigation Cess Fund is administered 
 by the Public Works Department and the Revenue Officers. 
 
 The Local Fund Boards are one for each of the eight Districts and 
 one for the French Rocks Sub-Division. The Boards are under the 
 Deputy Commissioner or Sub-Division Officer, and are each composed 
 of certain ex-officio members, including all the Amildars of the District, 
 and of seven non-official members, namel)', six landed proprietors and 
 one inamdar, who is elected by the other inamdars of the circle. It is 
 proposed to raise the number of non-official members to 12. Grants 
 from Local Funds General are made to the District Funds for the 
 execution of works which are beyond their means. 
 
 The following is a statement of income and expenditure of District 
 Funds for two periods of five years : — 
 
 
 18S1-2 
 
 I 886-7 
 
 
 1881-2 
 
 1886-7 
 
 Receipts. 
 
 to 
 
 to 
 
 E.\penditure. 
 
 to 
 
 to 
 
 
 1885-6. 
 
 1890-1. 
 
 
 1885-6. 
 
 1890-1. 
 
 Opening balance. . . 
 
 69,425 
 
 402,604 
 
 Public Works — 
 
 
 
 76 per cent, of Local 
 
 
 
 Original 
 
 420,525 
 
 899,607 
 
 Cess 
 
 1,922,761 
 
 2,345,67s 
 
 Repairs 
 
 1,041,096 
 
 1,190,790 
 
 Cattle Pounds 
 
 130,296 
 
 160,320 
 
 Establishment 
 
 
 
 Ferries 
 
 — 
 
 47,391 
 
 and tools ... 
 
 407,483 
 
 481,325 
 
 Grants from Local 
 
 
 
 Dispensaries 
 
 40,745 
 
 100,130 
 
 Funds General... 
 
 144,000 
 
 341,712 
 
 Travellers' Bunga- 
 
 
 
 Grants from Public 
 
 
 
 lows and Musa- 
 
 
 
 Works 
 
 68,961 
 
 11,500 
 
 firkhanas 
 
 30,956 
 
 38,190 
 
 Miscellaneous 
 
 40,929 
 
 4,603 
 
 ^Miscellaneous ... 
 
 32,963 
 
 39,786 
 
 Loan recovered 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 from Municipali- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ties 
 
 2,376,372 
 
 14,649 
 3,328,457 
 
 Total Rs. 
 
 
 
 Total Rs. 
 
 1,973,768 
 
 2,749,828 
 
 In 1893-4 the Local Funds realized Rs. 11,56,047; namely, 
 Rs. 8,35,349 from the one anna cess on land revenue, excise and sayar, 
 Rs. 2,37,960 from the irrigation cess, and Rs. 82,738 from cattle 
 pounds, ferries, ^:c. The income of the District Fund Boards was
 
 FINANCE 787 
 
 Rs. 5,82,082, and the expenditure Rs. 5,67,194. Of this, 76 per cent. 
 was spent on roads and bridges, 8 per cent, on medical aid, 4 per cent. 
 on new wells for drinking-water, and 3 per cent, on village sanitation. 
 Their income in 1894-5 was Rs. 6,24,175, and expenditure 
 Rs. 5,91,247 ; namely, 79-4 per cent, on communications and 
 buildings, 8-8 per cent, on medical aid, 3-25 on wells for drinking- 
 water, and 2-55 on village sanitation. Besides this a sum of 
 Rs. 1,06,000 from Local Funds General was spent, chiefly through the 
 Boards, on roads, drinking-water wells, musafirkhanas, village chavadis, 
 bathing ghats, cS:c. 
 
 Agricultural Banks. — In 1894 a scheme for the establishment of 
 Agricultural Banks was introduced, in order to relieve the ryots from 
 the necessity of borrowing at the ruinous rates of interest on which 
 alone they could obtain any credit. The essential principle was that 
 the Bank should be an association of agriculturists themselves, and 
 strictly co-operative, thus doing away with the profits of middlemen. 
 
 The association was to consist of land-holders enlisted on the basis of 
 mutual confidence arising from mutual information of each others' character 
 and resources. The object to be the common benefit of cheap credit and 
 not the earning of divisible profits. There was to be no share capital, funds 
 being obtained by means of loans raised or deposits received. The members 
 to contribute their liability only, which they could limit by prescribing a 
 maximum for each individual loan or for the sum total of loans ; or they 
 could resign at any time and escape further liability. The Bank funds to be 
 lent only to its members, at such moderate rates of interest which would 
 leave a small margm for expenses and the formation of a Reserve Fund. 
 The management to be in the hands of a body elected from among the 
 members themselves and serving gratuitously. No loan to be made except 
 for an approved purpose, such as an agricultural operation which, with 
 ordinary care, might be expected to yield enough to repay the loan and to 
 leave some profit for the borrower. 
 
 Under this scheme two Agricultural Banks were established in 
 Seringapatam talu(] in 1894, and ten applications from other parts had 
 been received in 1895. 
 
 Savings Banks. — The deposits in Savings Banks rose from 4 lakhs 
 in 1 88 1 to upwards of 28 lakhs in 1894. The rate of interest, which 
 had been 3^' per cent., was then fixed at 3} per cent. The number of 
 depositors at this rate was 10,849. 'i'he amount deposited in the 
 year was nearly 17 lakhs, and the amount withdrawn 15', lakhs. 
 
 State Life /nsuranee,~The scheme for this purpose came into force 
 on the 1st December 1891, and a strong Committee of officers was 
 appointed to conduct the business connected with it. The following 
 were the main provisions of the scheme : — 
 
 3 1- ^
 
 788 
 
 ADMINISTRA TION 
 
 Insurance was compulsory on all who entered the service after its intro- 
 duction, but optional with those already in the service. No one over 45 or 
 under 2 1 was eligible. The premium was 10 per cent, of pay, recoverable 
 monthly, the maximum premium for which a policy would be issued being 
 limited to Rs. 50 a month. The insurer became entitled to a bonus, 
 calculated according to a table prescribed by Government and varying with 
 his age at time of insurance, payable on his attaining the age of 55, or at 
 death if earlier. Proposals to be accepted only after due medical 
 examination. 
 
 The results so far are thus returned : — 
 
 
 No. or 
 
 No. 
 
 Montlily 
 
 Bonus 
 
 
 applications. 
 
 accepied. 
 
 premium. 
 
 payable. 
 
 I89I-2 
 
 379 
 
 203 
 
 Rs. 1,354 
 
 Rs. 303,635 
 
 1892-3 
 
 343 
 
 260 
 
 1,2581 
 
 309,954 
 
 1893-4 
 
 434 
 
 260 
 
 694* 
 
 186,485 
 
 1894-5 
 
 541 
 
 494 
 
 1, 699 J 
 
 458,880 
 
 There were 11 casualties, on account of which a total bonus of 
 Rs. 13,567 became payable. There were 1,214 effective policies 
 running in 1895, paying a monthly premium of Rs. 5,066 and assuring 
 in the aggregate Rs. 12,65,746 The surplus funds are placed in the 
 Savings Bank. 
 
 VITAL STATISTICS AND MEDICAL SERVICES 
 
 Births and Deaths. — Provision is made by all INIunicipalities for 
 registration of births and deaths within their respective limits. In the 
 villages it is the duty of the Shanbhog, who reports to the Taluq 
 ofificer. The following are the figures registered from 1881 to 1894, 
 with the ratio per mille of population, and proportion of males to 
 females : — 
 
 Year. 
 
 . Births 
 
 Deaths. 
 
 No. 
 
 Rate per mille 
 
 Males to 
 roo females. 
 
 103-92 
 
 No. 
 
 Rate per mille 
 
 Males to loo 
 females. 
 
 1881 ... 
 
 99,223 
 
 2370 
 
 71,240 
 
 17-02 
 
 105-80 
 
 1882 ... 
 
 100,756 
 
 24-06 
 
 106-06 
 
 70,892 
 
 16-93 
 
 105-25 
 
 18S3 ... 
 
 100,903 
 
 24-10 
 
 10475 
 
 63,243 
 
 15-II 
 
 104-90 
 
 1884 ... 
 
 97,089 
 
 23-20 
 
 104-75 
 
 62,531 
 
 14-93 
 
 105-94 
 
 1885 ... 
 
 90,591 
 
 22-14 
 
 104-89 
 
 65,112 
 
 15-91 
 
 102-76 
 
 1886 ... 
 
 90,708 
 
 18-7 
 
 105-18 
 
 70,324 
 
 14-5 
 
 108-34 
 
 1887 ... 
 
 93,120 
 
 19-2 
 
 103-24 
 
 76,074 
 
 15-7 
 
 1 1 1 -40 
 
 1888 ... 
 
 97,982 
 
 20-2 
 
 105-76 
 
 70,791 
 
 14-8 
 
 IoS-55 
 
 1889 ... 
 
 86,864 
 
 17-9 
 
 103-57 
 
 74,6iS 
 
 15-4 
 
 106-33 
 
 1890 ... 
 
 82,524 
 
 17-0 
 
 105-05 
 
 85,007 
 
 17-7 
 
 108-48 
 
 189I ... 
 
 95,922 
 
 1 9 -So 
 
 104-14 
 
 67,982 
 
 14-03 
 
 1 06 -38 
 
 1892 ... 
 
 86,603 
 
 17-88 
 
 104-98 
 
 80,149 
 
 16-55 
 
 110-76 
 
 1893 ... 
 
 85,858 
 
 17-72 
 
 104-60 
 
 76,594 
 
 15-79 
 
 1 1 1 -48 
 
 1894 ... 
 
 93,928 
 
 19-39 
 
 I06-S1 
 
 59,847 
 
 12-36 
 
 110-25
 
 VITAL STATISTICS 
 
 789 
 
 The first four years include the C. and M. Station of Bangalore ; the 
 rest are exclusive of that. The diminution of births in 1890 is 
 attributed to the prevalence of influenza, which also accounts for the 
 increase of the death-rate in that year. As regards the low death-rate 
 of 1894 the Senior Surgeon writes : " I am inclined to question the 
 value of the registration statistics, as this is a lower death-rate than 
 exists in England." The death-rate is higher amongst males than 
 amongst females at all ages, except between the years 1 2 and 30, and 
 60 and upwards. 
 
 The different causes of death are thus stated year by year : — 
 
 Head. 
 
 1881. 
 
 1882. 
 
 1883. 
 
 1884. 
 
 1S85. 
 
 1886. 1 1887. 
 
 1888. 
 
 1889. 1 1890. 
 
 1 
 
 I89I. 
 
 1892-3 
 
 1893-4 
 
 Cholera 
 
 25 
 
 893 
 
 124 
 
 330 
 
 2,677 
 
 10 832 1,015 
 
 1,590; 1,326 
 
 1.204 
 
 668 
 
 856 
 
 Smallpox ... 
 
 2.566 
 
 7,940 
 
 4.84c 
 
 3.241 
 
 3.264 
 
 4,175 6,6o8J 5654 
 
 ! 1 
 5,242! 4,233' 5.099 
 
 7,229! 3.211 
 
 Fevers 
 
 43,842 36,950 
 
 33.139 33.207 
 
 33.28c 
 
 39.891 
 
 42,668'37,6o9 
 
 41 65655,10238,307 
 
 44.293 37.85^ 
 
 Bowel com- 
 plaints ... 
 
 4.844 5.032 
 
 1 
 
 4.781 
 
 4.970 
 
 5.425 
 
 5.844 
 
 5.448 
 
 5.861 
 
 5.765 5,361 4.935 
 
 5.153 
 
 4.218 
 
 Injuries 
 
 ij094 1,024 
 
 1,024 
 
 1,079 
 
 1.045 
 
 961 
 
 987 
 
 i,c6o 
 
 1.013 977I I.OOI 
 
 977 
 
 1,15a 
 
 .\11 other 
 causes ... 
 
 i8,869'i9,o73 
 
 19.335 
 
 '9.704 
 
 ■9.417 
 
 '9.443 
 
 '9.531 
 
 19.592 
 
 19, 35218.008 17,436 
 
 1 
 
 20,189 
 
 18,155 
 
 The greatest mortality is under the head Fevers, but this includes 
 many diseases other than fever which are accompanied by febrile 
 symptoms. Cholera is usually introduced by pilgrims returning from 
 Tirupati or other sacred places beyond the limits of Mysore. Rest- 
 houses for them have been provided at important points on the usual 
 routes. For the resident population efforts are being everywhere made 
 to ensure a good and pure water supply, which is the first requisite 
 towards the abatement of cholera. To adequately cope with small-pox 
 and stamp it out, the Senior Surgeon strongly recommends the making 
 of vaccination compulsory. 
 
 There are about 100 vaccinators (including 2 or 3 women), super- 
 vised since 1886-7 by a Deputy-Inspector for each District ; all the 
 dispensaries also vaccinate. Vaccination from the calf was introduced 
 in 1884-5, but it was found difficult to keep up the stock. Since 1891 
 there has been a Vaccine Institute, where lanoline paste is manu- 
 factured direct from calf lymph according to Surgeon-Major King's 
 method. There were 97,646 primary vaccinations in 1894-5 and 
 
 1,271 re-vaccinations. 
 Medical Relief. — The Senior Surgeon is also Sanitary Commissioner. 
 
 Tlie Durbar Surgeon at Mysore is also Chemical l-Lxaminer. The 
 Medical department was re-organized in 1884, when a local service of
 
 7 9o ADMINISTRA TION 
 
 well-qualified Surgeons and Assistant-Surgeons was formed, the sub- 
 ordinates from Madras previously employed reverting to their own 
 province. A Medical School was established in 1881 for the purpose 
 of training Hospital Assistants, but was closed in 1886, and scholar- 
 ships were given to students to go through a course in the Madras or 
 Bombay Medical Colleges. 
 
 On the Bowring Civil Hospital being made over to the administration 
 of the C. and M. Station of Bangalore in 1884, there remained only two 
 first-class institutions, namely, the Maharaja's Hospital at Mysore and 
 the Civil Hospital at Shimoga. But St. Martha's Hospital, opened by 
 the Roman Catholic Mission in 1886, supplied the want of a hospital 
 for the Bangalore City until 1893, when Government connection with 
 it ceased. A temporary hospital has since been opened in the Fort, 
 pending the completion of the new City Hospital which is in course of 
 erection. The six second-class institutions are the hospitals at the 
 remaining District headquarters. Dispensaries in taluq head-quarter 
 and other large towns have been generally established, and in 1895 
 numbered 97, including 5 for women and children under female 
 hospital assistants. The special hospitals previously existing are also 
 kept up, namely, the Lunatic Asylum, the Leper Asylum, and the 
 Maternity Hospital at Bangalore, the latter now under the Municipality, 
 and H.H. the Maharani's Hospital at Mysore. There are also three 
 Jail hospitals and a dispensary for the Silahdars. 
 
 Qualified native midwives are being supplied to all the taluqs as fast 
 as they can be procured, after receiving a training in the Madras 
 Lying-in Hospital, with support either from the State or from the 
 Countess of Dufiferin's Fund. In 1895 there were 63 in employ, who 
 attended 3,104 cases. Aid is also given to a private hospital at 
 Mysore in which, under adequate supervision, diseases are treated 
 according to native methods, both Hindu and Yunani. 
 
 The following statement shows the number of patients treated in 
 hospitals and dispensaries for fourteen years : — 
 
 
 In-patients. 
 
 Out-patients. 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 In-patients. 
 
 Out-patients. 
 
 Total. 
 
 I88I . 
 
 •■ 3-"4 
 
 iSo,355 
 
 183,469 
 
 1888 . 
 
 .. 2,766 
 
 371,289 
 
 374,05s 
 
 1882 . 
 
 .. 3,298 
 
 192,774 
 
 196,072 
 
 1889 . 
 
 .. 3,768 
 
 461,835 
 
 485,603 
 
 1883 . 
 
 ■• 3,463 
 
 208,244 
 
 211,707 
 
 1890 . 
 
 •• 4,143 
 
 491,250 
 
 495,393 
 
 1884 . 
 
 .. 3,284 
 
 201,538 
 
 234,822 
 
 189I . 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 537,787 
 
 1885 . 
 
 .. 1,976 
 
 236,398 
 
 238,574 
 
 1892 . 
 
 .. 4,920 
 
 551,711 
 
 556,631 
 
 1886 . 
 
 • • 1,930 
 
 282,075 
 
 284,005 
 
 1893 • 
 
 .. 6,264 
 
 600,540 
 
 606,804 
 
 1887 . 
 
 .. 2,629 
 
 316,572 
 
 319,201 
 
 1894 
 
 .. 8,729 
 
 698,186 
 
 706,915 
 
 The transfer of the Bowring Hospital accounts for the fall in the 
 number of in-patients immediately after 1SS4.
 
 791 
 
 INSTRUCTION 
 
 The Director of Public Instruction, who had held that office for 
 many years, was relieved of the charge of Coorg in Feljruary 1882, 
 and of the Civil and Military Station of Bangalore in December 1888. 
 In Mysore his designation was changed in July 1883 to Education 
 Secretary, and he was also appointed Police Secretary and to report on 
 the Census. In August 1884 Police duty was exchanged for Archae- 
 ology, and in April 1890 Education also. The Head Master of the 
 Maharaja's College, a Parsi, was then appointed Education Secretary, 
 and in July 1895 was called Inspector-General of Education. The 
 headquarters were removed from Bangalore to Mysore in May 1894. 
 Inspection was for some years carried on with the aid of four native 
 Deputy-Inspectors, and eleven Sub-Deputy Inspectors, the latter 
 specially for Hobli schools, except one for Hindustani schools. A 
 European Deputy-Inspector, who was retained for Bangalore, was 
 also Assistant in the Director's office. In September 1891 the 
 number of native Deputy-Inspectors was doubled, and three Assistant 
 Deputy-Inspectors were appointed, the grade of Sub-Deputy Inspectors 
 being abolished. The European Deputy-Inspector died in August 
 1892. 
 
 The cost of vernacular education had been entirely transferred to 
 Local Funds after the famine, and continued to be so borne until 
 1889. Ei'om that time a more liberal grant from Provincial Funds 
 became possible, and the i"35 lakhs of 1 881-2 rose to 175 lakhs in 
 1886-7, to 2'6i in 1889-90, to 3"02 lakhs in 1890- i, and has since 
 increased to 4^84 lakhs in 1894-5. At the same time Local Funds 
 have, in addition, provided for an expenditure of from somewhat less 
 than I ,\ lakhs frcjm the years after 1881 to i"95 lakhs in 1894-5. The 
 total State expenditure on education from all sources, including small 
 sums from Municipal funds, has thus risen from 274 lakhs in 188 1-2 
 to 6-82 lakhs in 1894-5. Together with this must be taken into 
 account expenditure from private sources in ^Vided schools, amounting 
 in 1894 5 to about Rs. 82,000.' 
 
 The numbers under instruction have steadily increased, as the 
 following figures for ten years past testify : — ■ 
 
 * These and oilier figures in ihis section do not include the C. and M. Station of 
 Bangalore.
 
 79: 
 
 ADMINISTKA TION 
 
 
 Pupils in 
 
 Total. 
 
 Year. 
 
 Pupils in 
 
 
 Year. 
 
 Pu-slic 
 Institu- 
 tions. 
 
 Private 
 Insiitu- 
 
 lions. 
 
 Public Piivate 
 Ins'itu- Institu- 
 tions, tions. 
 
 Total. 
 
 1885-6 ... 
 1886-7 ... 
 1887-8 ... 
 1888-9 ■■• 
 1889-90 ... 
 
 43,240 
 48,859 
 
 54,373 
 59,840 
 66,501 
 
 14,290 
 
 14,459 
 (15,000) 
 
 16,378 
 16,196 
 
 57,530 
 63,318 
 
 69,373 
 76,118 
 82,697 
 
 1890-I .. 
 189I-2 .. 
 1892-3 .. 
 1893-4 •• 
 1894-5 •• 
 
 . 72,970 23,457 
 
 . 76,288 25,041 
 
 76,963 26,586 
 
 79,496 26,003 
 
 ■ 83,398 27,662 
 
 96,427 
 101,329 
 
 103,549 
 105,499 
 111,020 
 
 Public institutions are those managed, aided or inspected by Govern- 
 ment. Private institutions are those that do not conform to Govern- 
 ment rules or standards, generally called indigenous schools. From 
 the foregoing statistics it appears that public and private institutions 
 have exactly kept pace with one another, each showing an increased 
 attendance of 51 '8 per cent. During the same period the Government 
 expenditure from State funds has increased nearly 35 per cent., and 
 that from both State and Local funds together nearly 46 per cent. The 
 vitality of the indigenous schools is thus apparent, and their equal 
 growth alongside of the public institutions indicates that the desire for 
 education is very general. Grants in aid amounted to Rs. 34,184 in 
 1885-6, and to Rs. 51,319 in 1894-5. 
 
 Distinguishing between boys and girls under instruction, the 
 following are the figures for six years ; beyond that complete statistics 
 are not available : — 
 
 1889-90 
 
 1890-1 
 
 1891-2 
 
 Boys. 
 74,640 
 86,402 
 89,967 
 
 Girls. I 
 
 8,057 I 1892-3 
 
 10,025 I 1893-4 
 
 11,362 1894-5 
 
 Boys. 
 
 Girls. 
 
 91,904 . 
 
 • 11,645 
 
 93,312 . 
 
 . 12,187 
 
 98,260 .. 
 
 . 12,760 
 
 The numbers of Government and Aided schools, with scholars in 
 each, at two intervals of ten years, were as follows : — • 
 
 
 G 
 
 a/ernment 
 
 
 Aided 
 
 
 
 Schools. 
 
 Scholars. 
 
 Schools. 
 
 
 Scholars. 
 
 I88I-2 ... 
 
 923 
 
 36,800 
 
 .. 114 
 
 
 6,326 
 
 1884-5 ••• 
 
 ... 1,007 
 
 ... 35,001 
 
 .. 130 
 
 
 7,970 
 
 I89I-2 ... 
 
 ... 1,460 
 
 63,041 
 
 .. 166 
 
 
 11,834 
 
 1894-5 ■•• 
 
 ... 1,576 
 
 69,480 
 
 .. 191 
 
 
 12,872 
 
 If the figures for the Civil and Military Station of Bangalore were 
 added they would considerably swell the totals under Aided schools. 
 A slight drop in the numbers in Government schools between the first 
 and second periods, with a rise in those in Aided schools, was due to 
 the direct action of Government in giving up the junior classes in the 
 two principal colleges and transferring the pupils. This proceeding
 
 INSTR UCTION 7 93 
 
 accorded with recommendations of the Education Commission con- 
 vened at Calcutta by the Government of India in 1882-3. 
 
 In 1884 the teaching staff of the Colleges and High schools was 
 revised, and the position of the masters much improved by grading 
 them in classes, with provision for regular increments of pay. In 1890 
 a superior grade was formed of European professors with University 
 distinctions for the first-grade colleges. The regular grading of all 
 other classes of masters has since been carried out, and their service has 
 been declared as superior with regard to pension, whatever the pay. 
 
 The standards of instruction have been re-arranged, and passing the 
 second vernacular standard made a necessary preliminary to the study 
 of English. Three years of purely vernacular instruction, followed by 
 eight years of Anglo-vernacular instruction, are intended to form the 
 course leading to matriculation. A Text-book Committee has charge 
 since 1892 of the selection and preparation of suitable school books. 
 A museum of educational apparatus and books was also then formed 
 in the Victoria Jubilee Institute. Local Committees have been 
 entrusted with the management of Ciirls' schools, and the Committees 
 for Hobli schools have been formed afresh, with definition of their 
 duties. The Karnataka Bhashojjivini Pathas'ala, founded for pro- 
 moting the study of Kannada, was in 1894 converted into a Normal 
 school. 
 
 In 1887 the Mysore Local Examination, for pupils and teachers in 
 vernacular schools, was instituted, under the management of a Com- 
 mittee. This gave a definite aim to vernacular studies, similar in effect 
 to what was provided for English by the University and Middle School 
 examinations, and proved a great stimulus to the Taluq and Hobli 
 schools. It was modified in 1891 by substituting a Lower Secondary 
 examination in English, Sanskrit and the vernaculars, with a Vernacu- 
 lar Upper Secondary and a Teachers' Certificate examination. A 
 Sanskrit Pandits' examination is held every year before the Da.sara at 
 the Maharaja's Sanskrit College, Mysore ; and an examination for 
 Kannacja Pandits was established in 1893. 
 
 The three English colleges are the Central College, Bangalore, and 
 the Maharaja's College, Mysore, both of the first grade, and the 
 Shimoga College, which is of the second grade. The Central 
 College specially instructs in >Lithematics and Physical Science as the 
 optional subjects for the B.A. degree, while the ^L1haraja's College 
 takes Mathematics and History. The Oriental Colleges are the 
 Maharaja's Sanskrit College and the Kannada Pandits' classes at 
 Mysore, and the Sanskrit College, Bangalore. Students' Homes have 
 been established in connection with some of the colleges.
 
 794 
 
 A DMINISTRA TION 
 
 Tlic following is a dulailcd classification of all educational institutions 
 borne on the returns as they stood on the 30th of June 1895 :— 
 
 
 Government. 
 
 Aided. 
 
 Unaided. 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 No. 
 
 Pupis. 
 
 No. 
 
 Pupils. 
 
 Nj. 
 
 Pupils. 
 
 No. 
 
 Pupils. 
 
 I'UBLic Institutions. 
 
 University Education. 
 
 Collenjes, English 
 
 ,, Oriental ... 
 
 3 
 2 
 
 410 
 39 
 
 I 
 
 84 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 6 
 
 13 
 
 150 
 
 15 
 
 1,438 
 129 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 
 5 
 
 36 
 
 3 
 
 533 
 
 School Education, 
 General. 
 
 Secondary Schools — 
 
 High Schools, 
 English (for Boys)..'. 
 
 10 
 
 1,733 
 
 3 
 
 1,691 
 
 
 
 3,424 
 
 Middle Schools, 
 English (for Boys)... 
 Vernacular (for 
 Boys) 
 
 46 
 
 77 
 
 7,998 
 8,191 
 
 15 
 II 
 
 1,248 
 1,360 
 
 I 
 
 44 
 
 18,841 
 
 Middle Schools, 
 English (for Girls)... 
 Vernacular (for 
 Girls) 
 
 4 
 
 1,006 
 
 5 
 5 
 
 475 
 579 
 
 I 
 
 37 
 
 2,097 
 
 Primary Schools — • 
 
 For Boys 
 
 ,, Girls 
 
 1,356 
 70 
 
 46,155 
 3,390 
 
 62 
 54 
 
 2,686 
 3,595 
 
 20 
 
 5 
 
 754 
 166 
 
 49,595 
 7,151 
 
 School Education, 
 Special. 
 
 Training Schools for 
 Masters 
 
 Training Schools for 
 Mistresses 
 
 Industrial Schools ... 
 
 Sanskrit Schools 
 
 Jail Schools 
 
 I 
 
 I 
 2 
 I 
 3 
 
 106 
 
 23 
 
 93 
 
 91 
 
 245 
 
 3 
 
 32 
 
 65 
 1,089 
 
 ' 3 
 
 i 
 I 
 
 45 
 
 106 
 
 23 
 158 
 
 1,725 
 245 
 
 Total ... 
 
 t 
 1,576 ' 69,480 
 
 191 
 
 12,872 
 
 30 
 
 21 
 i 2,079 
 
 1,046 
 
 497 
 27,125 
 
 28,668 
 
 1,797 
 
 S3.39S 
 
 Private Institi'- 
 
 TIONS. 
 
 Advanced 
 
 Elementary 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 2,100 
 
 27,622 
 
 Grand Total 
 
 1,576 69,480 
 
 191 
 
 12,872 
 
 1 
 
 2,130 
 
 3,897 
 
 1 1 1 ,020 
 
 I 
 
 The High Schools are the Anglo-vernacular schools at the head- 
 quarters of each District and at Chile Ballapur and Channapatna, with
 
 INSTjR UCTION 7 9 5 
 
 the London and Wesleyan Mission High Schools at Bangalore, and 
 Wesleyan High School at Mysore. They work up to the matriculation 
 standard of the Madras University. All the Government High 
 Schools, except two, are under native Head-masters. The Middle 
 Schools are mostly Taluq schools, preparing for the Local examina- 
 tions, with a proportion of Aided Mission and other schools. The 
 prevailing languages taught are Kannada or Hindustani, with a little 
 English in some. Fees for Muhamniadans have been reduced to a 
 half. The Primary schools are Hdbli or Village schools. In addition 
 to Kannada schools, which form the bulk, there are Hindustani and 
 Telugu, with a few Tamil and Mahratti schools where needed ; also 
 Night schools for adults. 
 
 Female education has made considerable progress. Though Mission 
 schools had long held the field and done much good, and some 
 Government schools had also been at work for a considerable time, a 
 special impulse was given to the movement by the establishment of 
 the Maharani's Caste Girls' School at Mysore in 1881. It commended 
 itself by combining a partially Hindu course of study with Western 
 methods of instruction ; and, backed by the patronage and influence 
 of the Palace, set a fashion since followed in other schools. All along 
 liberally aided, it was taken over entirely by Government in 1891, but 
 is conducted on the same lines as before, under the management of a 
 Committee ; and a similar course has been adopted with the remaining 
 Girls' schools. The present superintendent is a lady from Girton 
 College, who has taken Honours in the Mathematical tripos at Cam- 
 bridge. Home education classes have been formed for girls obliged to 
 leave school. 
 
 The Normal School for masters was opened in 1894, and contains 
 94 Hindus and 23 Muhammadans. The Training School for mistresses 
 is held in the Maharani's School, and some young widows are also 
 under preparation there for the same calling. 
 
 The Government Industrial schools are at Mysore and Hassan. The 
 pupils are of all castes and are mostly supported by scholarships. 
 They learn carpentry, rattan work, blacksmiths' and other mechanical 
 work, with drawing and modelling. Of the Aided Industrial schools, 
 two are ^\'esleyan, at Hassan and Tumkur ; the former for orphan 
 girls, who learn to knit woollen caps and stockings ; the latter for 
 orphan boys, who learn carpentry, roi)e-making, bricklaying, cVx. The 
 other school is Roman Catholic, at Mysore, where carpentry and 
 gardening arc taught, as well as the violin, with a view to providing 
 bandsmen.
 
 796 A DMINISTRA TION 
 
 ARCH/EOLOGY 
 
 Arch.4-:olo(;y had for many years received informal attention. A 
 number of inscriptions photographed by Colonel Dixon in 1865, under 
 the orders of Mr. Bowring, were translated by the Director of Public 
 Instruction, and published in 1879, with additions, under the name of 
 Mysore Inscriptions. In August 1884 he was relieved of Police 
 work in order to give more time to antiquities, and in January 1885' 
 was appointed Director of Archaeological Researches in addition to his 
 office as Education Secretary. The Coorg Inscriptions were published 
 by him in 1886. In March 1888 a regular Archaeological department 
 was formed under him, and in April 1890 he was relieved of other 
 duty for the time, but later on was appointed also to compile the present 
 work. 
 
 Epigraphy. — The entire country has been surveyed and copies of 
 all inscriptions taken i)i situ. The number discovered is nearly 9,000, 
 and they are in course of translation and publication under the 
 designation of Epigraphia Carnatica. A volume of 144 Jain inscrip- 
 tions at S'ravana Belgola was published in 1889 ; another, containing 
 803 inscriptions in the Mysore District, was published in 1894 ; and a 
 further volume, with 880, completing that District, is approaching' 
 completion. Volumes relating to the other seven Districts are also 
 going through the press. 
 
 The results obtained by the Survey have exceeded expectation. The 
 most notable discovery was that of Edicts of A'soka in the Molkal- 
 muru taluq in 1892, an event which has been described by one of the 
 highest authorities as forming "an epoch in Indian archseology." The 
 Jain inscriptions relating to Bhadrabahu and Chandra Gupta, the 
 Satakarni inscription in Shikarpur taluq, the Kadamba inscription at 
 Talgunda in the same, and one at Anaji in Davangere taluq, 
 have brought to light ancient records of the highest value 
 for the history of the first centuries. The Vokkaleri inscrip- 
 tion opened the eyes of scholars to the true significance of the 
 Pallavas. The clean forgotten dynasties of the Mahavalis or Banas, 
 and of the Gangas who ruled Mysore for so long, have been restored 
 to history. The chronology of the Cholas has been for the first time 
 definitely fixed. The birthplace of the Hoysalas has been discovered, 
 and their history worked out in detail. Great additions have been 
 made to information relating to the Chdlukyas, the Rashtrakiitas, the 
 Nolambas, the Vijayanagar kings, and other more modern dynasties. 
 
 I
 
 ARCH.-EOLOGY 797 
 
 Ahtmisniaiics. — An important find, the first in Mysore of this kind, 
 was that of Roman coins in 1892 near Yesvantpur, in making the 
 cutting for the Hindupur raihvay. There were 163 silver coins, denarii 
 of the early emperors — Augustus, Tiberius, Caligula and Claudius, 
 with one of Antonia — ranging in date from 21 r.c. to 51 a.d. The 
 find of Buddhist leaden coins near Chitaldroog has been referred to 
 above, p. 293. That of old Indian coins at Xagar is mentioned in 
 the appendix. Cold coins of the Hoysalas, before unknown, have 
 been identified and the legends deciphered. 
 
 Architecture and Scii/J>ti/rc. — Information under these heads will be 
 found on pp. 509ff. Steps have been taken for conserving ancient 
 monuments of importance, such as the A'soka inscriptions, the 
 IJhadrabahu inscription and facade of the Chandra Cupta basti at 
 S'ravana Belgola, the Halebid, Sonniathpur, Arsikere, and other 
 temples. 
 
 Ancient Ma>iuscripts. — The search for these has extended over many 
 years. The results obtained are already summarised in the chapter on 
 Literature, pp. 495 ff. 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS 
 
 Mi/zrai. — ^This department administers the revenues of endowed 
 religious and charitable institutions, that is, temples, mosques, and 
 chattrams. There are 1,8 [4 within Mysore, and 29 in British terri- 
 tory. The revenues consist of large grants of land and money 
 payments by former rulers, and of deposits of money funded by 
 votaries for the fulfilment of certain vows and ceremonies. A separate 
 Muzrai Superintendent was appointed in 1892 to more effectually 
 control these institutions and to rectify the abuses which had crept in. 
 A regular system of budgets and sanctions has Ijeen introduced. The 
 power of sanction vested in the ruler to nominations of gurus of 
 maths has been re-asscrted. Provision for more light and air is being 
 gradually made in the temples as they come under repair, and the 
 appearance and surroundings are being improved so as to be more in 
 keeping with their character as places of worship, bunds and endow- 
 ments alienated or misapplied by the priests are being restored to 
 their original purpose. Committees of local residents of influence as 
 Dharmadarsis are being apjjointed to maintain a proper supervision. 
 The priests are required to be men of some learning in regard to their 
 duties, and qualified to command respect. Dancing girls are being
 
 798 ADMINISTRAr/OiV 
 
 gradually eliminated from the temples. Over;,^ro\vn establishments 
 of ill-paid menials are being reduced and only a sufficient staff 
 retained, more adequately paid. The abuses in distribution of food 
 at chattrams are being checked, and arrangements made to carry 
 out their legitimate functions of affording shelter to travellers and 
 f)ilgrims.
 
 APPENDIX 
 
 COINS, WEIGHTS AND MEASURES 
 
 Owing to the number of Principalities into which the Mysore country 
 was broken up on the subversion of the \'ijayanagar empire, each of 
 which arrogated to itself the sovereign right of coining its own money ; and 
 to tlie subsequent conquests in succession by various rival powers, each of 
 whom introduced a separate coinage, which passed into circulation along 
 with the divers kinds previously current ; nothing could be more confused 
 or perplexing than the whole monetary and metric system down to the time 
 of the British assumption.' But a measure of uniformity may now be said 
 to prevail, though calculations continue to be made on the former system of 
 each locality. The introduction of English figures into all the Government 
 accounts since 1863, and the increase of European officers and settlers, 
 have led to increasing regularity ; while the system of arithmetic taught 
 throughout the Government schools, though recognizing to some extent the 
 methods of the country, is calculated to bring in a conformity with the 
 practice observed throughout British India. 
 
 Coins 
 
 Among the oldest Indian coins that have been found in Mysore are 
 those of lead {see p. 293), of the time of the A'ndhra or S'dtavuhana kings."'' 
 Sir Walter Elliot remarks that " the characteristic of their coinage was the 
 employment of lead with but a small proportion of copper. General 
 Pearse called attention to a passage in Pliny to the effect that India has 
 neither brass nor lead, receiving them in exchange for precious stones and 
 
 ' The value of the different coins, says Buchanan, was frequently changed by Tipu 
 Sultan ill a very arbitrary and oppressive manner. When he was about to pay his 
 tr()0]-)s, the nominal value of each coin was raised very high, and kept at that 
 standard for about ten days ; during which time the sf)ldiery were allowed to jiay off 
 their debts at the high valuation. After this the standard was reduceil to the jirojier 
 value. 
 
 After the conquest of the countr)-, the itirak, or rate of exchange by which all the 
 different coins could be offered as a legal tender of payment, was periodically fixed, 
 generally once or twice a month, at the various centres of trade, by the Amildar, 
 who first consulted the principal merchants. In Bangalore, the nirak was fixed by 
 the European Officer connnanding in the Fort. 
 
 ' The illustration given from this find is from a coin kindly lent hy Dr. Hultzsch. 
 The ol)verse shows a bull standing, with the legend round it . . J^i/iiniiiyi nia/idnija 
 .... On the reverse is a fir-tree and the chaitya symbol.
 
 8oo APPENDIX 
 
 pearls, wliicli may afford some explanation of this peculiarity. The lead is 
 generally very pure, a careful analysis detecting only a trace of copper. 
 One class of coins was found to consist of a kind of speculum of an alloy 
 of lead and tin, and another of an impure lead ore, which gave them the 
 appearance of a coarse alloy. They are stamped with symbols of a 
 Buddhist character. The reverse has figures of a lion or horse [or bull] 
 with the name of the sovereign, but his effigy, never . . . The pieces vary 
 greatly in size ; they are generally round, sometimes scjuare." 
 
 The same writer says, — "In all the countries with which we are best 
 acquainted, the metal first used for monetary purposes was silver, to which 
 India (except in the case of the A'ndhras) forms no exception. The pro- 
 portion of bullion to be given as a medium of exchange was adjusted by 
 weight. In course of time, to obviate constant recourse to the scales, the 
 use of uniform pieces, certified by an authoritative mark, suggested itself. 
 Such pieces, taken from a bar or plate, trimmed and cut to the required 
 standard weight, received the impress of a symbol, guaranteeing their 
 acceptance. 
 
 At what time and by what people they were first employed is unknown. 
 They were regarded as prehistoric by the older Indian writers, and may 
 therefore be presumed to have been found in circulation when the Aryans 
 entered Hindustan. They have no recognised name in any of the 
 vernacular dialects. They appear, however, to have been known to the 
 earlier Sanskrit writers under the designation of ptirdua, a term which 
 itself signifies ancient. 
 
 The oldest Indian examples are of all shapes, oblong, angular, square, 
 or nearly round, with punch marks on one or both sides, the older signs 
 often worn away by attrition ; in almost all cases the earlier ones partially 
 or wholly effaced by others subsequently super-impressed upon them. 
 Other specimens, which are more circular and thicker, with sharper 
 attestations, are probably of later date. All weigh about 50 grains troy. 
 A parcel of forty-three very old-looking pieces, part of a large find in Nagar 
 or Bednur, weighed 2,025"5 grains, giving an average of 47-1, but the 
 heaviest was 50 grains, the lightest only 3775- 
 
 Before quitting the subject it may be asked where the supply of silver 
 was obtained to meet the circulation of so great an extent of country. 
 Gold; iron, and copper were found in many parts of India, but no silver 
 so far as I know. It must therefore have been imported from abroad.""' 
 
 The later coins of the country were either of gold, silver, or copper. 
 Gold coins, at first so numerous, are now rarely seen, and the silver and 
 copper coins in general use at the present time are those of the British 
 Indian currency. According to Ferishta, there was no silver coinage in 
 the Carnatic countries at the beginning of the fourteenth century, and even 
 three centuries later we find only gold and copper coins in existence. In 
 fact, it was not till the jMuhammadans were permanently established in the 
 South, that their preference for the rupee led to the introduction of a silver 
 currency, without, however, displacing the gold previously in circulation. 
 ' Coins of Southern India, 22, 45, 49fi".
 
 GOLD COINS So I 
 
 Gold Coins. — These arc known to Europeans as pagodas, fan tins and 
 viohurs. The pagoda is an original Hindu coin, called varaha, from the 
 symbol on it of the vardha or boar, one of the incarnations of Vishnu, 
 which formed the crest of the Chc^lukyas and of the \'ijayanagar kings. 
 In some parts it seems also to have been called chakra. Before the rise 
 of the Chalukyas the pagoda was probably called jwtvj;-//^? or «/i-///vj:. It 
 also had in Kannada and Telugu the wvim^ i^adydna. In Hindustani the 
 coin is known as hiin. There were various pagodas,' named from the 
 States in which they were severally coined. A half pagoda was called 
 p07i or hon, and at a later period, under Vijayanagar, aXso prahipa. The 
 fanam is properly hana or pana (a word used also for money in general), 
 and is doubtless a corruption of the neuter form panam. As with the 
 pagodas, so there is a variety of fanams issued from different mints. The 
 mohur is a Muhammadan coin, bearing the impression {inohur) of a seal 
 or stamp. Mohurs came into circulation with the Bijapur and Mughal 
 conquests, and some were coined in Mysore by Tipu.^ 
 
 The oldest gold coins (to further cite Sir Walter) are spherules, quite 
 plain and smooth, save for a single very minute puncli-mark, too small to be 
 identified, by the impress of which they have been slightly flattened. In 
 Old Kannada they are called guligc, a globule or little ball, whence the 
 sign gti with a numeral is employed in old accounts as the sign for express- 
 ing pagodas. These were succeeded by flat round thicker pieces of 
 superior v/orkmanship, which have received the name of padnia-tankas, 
 from having what is called a lotus in the centre. The use of the punch 
 gradually gave way to the employment of a matrix or die. This was at 
 first of the simplest form, and the coins appear to have been struck upon 
 the single symbol placed below, the additional symbols being added by the 
 old-fashioned process around the central device. The force of the blows 
 in many instances gave the upper side a concave surHice, and this, though 
 accidental, may have led to the use at a later period of cup-shaped dies, as 
 in the Raina-fankas. The adoption of the double die led eventually to tiie 
 final and complete disuse of the punch. 
 
 The gold coins of the principal Mysore dynasties may here be described, 
 much of the information being from the same source. Those of the 
 
 1 Pagoda is a word of Portuguese origin, commonly applied by Europeans to a 
 Hindu temple, and given to this coin perhaps from the representation that ajipcars 
 on it, in some parts, of a temple. 
 
 ^ This Appendix had been already compiled before chance brought into my 
 hands a valuable little pamphlet on the Coins of Mysore ami Soiitiicrn India, by 
 Captain II. P. Ilawkes, Assistant Commissary-General, prepared for the Madras 
 Exhil^ition of 1857. Some additional information thence derived has been incor- 
 porated. I also at the same time met with Assay Tables of Indian Coins, I)y 
 Dr. Shekleton, Assay Master of II.M.'s Mint, Calcutta, which furnislieil several 
 particulars. 
 
 In this revised edition some particulars and illustrations have been added from Sir 
 Walter Elliot's Coins of Sotit/icrn India in the Nnmismala Oricntalia, Mr. Edgar 
 Thurston's Catalogue of Mysore Coins in the Madras Museum, and Captain K. II. 
 Campl^ell Tufnell's Catalogue of those in the Bangalore Museum.
 
 8o2 APPENDIX 
 
 Gangas have an clcpliant on the obverse and a floral design on the reverse. 
 Weight of the specimens, 52'3 and 58'5 grains. The characteristic device 
 of the Kadambas is a Hon looking backwards. One coin has on the obverse 
 a padma in the centre, with four punch-struck retrospectant lions round it. 
 On the reverse are a scroll ornament and two indented marks. Weight, 
 58'52 grains. Another has on the obverse a lion looking backwards, with the 
 legend (?) Ballaha in Kannada below. On the reverse is an indistinct object, 
 surrounded with a circle of dots and an ornamental outer circle beyond. 
 Examples of R^shtrakuta coins have so far been found only in silver, and 
 that recently. They resemble the GrKCO-Parthian coins which circulated 
 in Gujarat more than those of Southern India. On the obverse of those 
 found is the head of the king, and on the reverse the legend parama 
 mahcs'vara imitdpitripadamidhydta S'ri Krislma Raja. Weight, about 33 
 grains. 
 
 The Chalukya coins had the boar on the obverse and the padma or 
 chakra on the reverse. Weight, 58 grains. But some interesting coins of 
 the Eastern Chdlukyas, belonging to the eleventh century, which have been 
 found only in an island off the coast of Burma and in Siam,' are large thin 
 plates, having on the obverse a boar in the centre under an umbrella with a 
 chata-i on each side ; in front of the boar and behind it a lamp-stand ; 
 under the snout of the boar the Old-Kannada letter ra. Round these 
 emblems is the legend S'ri Chdhikya-Chandrasya on some, and S'ri 
 Rdjardjasya on others, both in Old-Kannada letters, impressed by separate 
 punch-marks. The reverse is plain. Weight, 65-9 to 66*6 grains.^ The 
 Kalachuri coins have on the obverse a human figure with a garuda or 
 bird's head, advancing to the right. On the reverse, in three lines of Old 
 Kannada, one has .... Mio'dri . . . , and another, Rdja Sova bhata . . . 
 Weight, 54*5 and 52-2 grains. 
 
 The Hoysala coins (which were unknown until the publication of the 
 first edition of this work, and of which only a few specimens have been 
 found) have on the obverse a s'drdula or mythical tiger, facing the right, 
 with a smaller one above, which is between the sun and moon : in front of 
 the larger tiger is (?) an elephant goad or lamp-stand. On the reverse is a 
 legend in three lines of Old-Kannada letters. One coin has S'ri Talakddu 
 gofjda, another has S'ri Nonambavddi goitda, and a third has S'ri 
 Malaparol ganda. The two first, weight 6175 and 63 grains, must be of 
 the time of Vishnuvardhana, and perhaps the third also. 
 
 The Vijayauagar coins hav'e on the obverse, some, S'iva and Parvati 
 seated, others the ganda bhcnuuja, a fabulous two-headed bird, either alone 
 or holding elephants in beaks and claws, and others again have some 
 different device.'* On the reverse is the king's name in three lines of 
 N^garf or Kannada letters, such as, S'ripratdpa Harihara, or S'ri pratdpa 
 Achyiita Rdya, or S'ri pratdpa Sadds'iva Rdya, and so on. Weight, 52'6 
 ojrains. One of Tirumala-Rdya has Rdma and Sita on the obverse, seated, 
 
 ' Since the above was written some have been found near the Godavari. 
 "^ See Dr. Fleet's account, Ittd. Aut. , xix, 79. 
 3 See Dr. Hultzsch in Ind. Ant., xx, 301.
 
 el. 
 
 LEAD AND GOLD COINS 
 
 Andhra 
 
 G G 
 
 '^rW^ 
 
 Padma taiika ChalukTa 
 
 '/^* ':^ 
 
 '^^-> 
 
 v?^ 
 
 '^ ■•■, 
 
 Kadamba 
 
 /'r^:i 
 
 W^- 
 
 <-- w- 
 
 Ganga 
 
 
 
 G 
 
 G 
 
 E . Ghalukya 
 
 W. Chalukya 
 
 G 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 Kadamba 
 
 G 
 
 Kalachun 
 
 G 
 
 Hoysala 
 
 \ 1 I t_l V cl i 1 rx 
 
 U' 
 
 gar
 
 GOLD COINS 803 
 
 with Lakshmana standing. On the reverse is S'ri- Tiruvtala-Rdyulu in Ndgari 
 letters. One of Venkatapati has on the obverse Vishnu, standing under an 
 arch ; and on the reverse, in Ndgari letters, S'ri Venkatcs'vardya namah. 
 
 Of the Mysore Rdjas the first to establish a mint w^s Kanthirava Narasa 
 Raja, who ruled from 1638 to 1659. He coined fanams only {Kanthiraya 
 hana), but ten of these were taken to be equal to a varaha or pagoda, which 
 had, however, no actual existence, but was a nominal coin used in accounts 
 only. And even after the coins struck by him had become obsolete, the 
 accounts continued to be kept in Kanthirdya varaha and hana, the Canteroy 
 pagodas and fanams of the English treaties with Mysore and of the official 
 accounts down to the time of the British assumption. The Mysore R.ljas 
 arc said not to have coined varahas, but specimens exist of a Chikka Deva 
 Raja varaha which must have been coined by that celebrated king, who 
 reigned from 1672 to 1704. On the obverse is Bdla Krishna trampling 
 on the serpent Kdliya, and on the reverse, in Nilgari characters, S'r{ Chika 
 Deva Rdya. This king adopted the monogram De, which continued to be 
 the Mysore Government mark down to quite modern times. It is used on 
 many of his coins, but not (I think) on the gold coins ; it appears only on 
 the obverse of the copper coinage, along with the elephant. 
 
 The pagodas or varahas in general circulation were those coined by the 
 Ikkeri rulers of Bednur. The Ikkeri varaha followed the Vijayanagar 
 coinage in having S'iva and Pdrvati on the obverse, while on the reverse 
 was S'ri Saddsfiva, or simply S'ri, in Ndgari letters. Weight, 53 grains. 
 After his conquest of Bednur, Haidar Ali issued the same coin under the 
 name of Bahdduri hun, retaining the old obverse of S'iva and lYirvati, but 
 putting on the reverse his own Persian monogram or initial surrounded 
 with a circle of dots. A coinage of it at Bangalore was known as the 
 Dodda-tale Bengaluri, or big-headed Bangalore pagoda. Under Tipu 
 Sultan it was issued as the SultAni hun. The obverse bore the legend hun 
 al-Stiltdn iil-ddil san (pagoda of the just king) in Persian characters. On 
 the reverse, besides Haidar's monogram, the number of Tipu's regnal year, 
 and often below it in Persian the name of the city in which the coin was 
 struck {Nagar, Patan for Seringapatam, Dharwar, and so on) were 
 included within the circle of dots. Some were called Fdrukhi hun from 
 the word Fdri'ikhi (after the name of the second Khdlif) appearing on them 
 as well as the name of the mint town and Haidar's initial. On the obverse 
 WAS Muhaiumad wohii ul-wohid iil-Sitltan //■/•</</// (Muhammad. He alone 
 is the just king), with the year. 
 
 When recoined by Purnaiya at Mysore and Nagar as the new or Hosa 
 Ikkdri varaha, the original device of S'iva and Pdrvati was restored on the 
 obverse, and S'ri in Nagari on the reverse, Krishna Rdja Wodeyar, on 
 assuming the government in 181 1, issued it as the Krishna R;lja varaha, 
 retaining the same obverse, but putting S'ri Krishna Rdja in N.-igari 
 characters on the reverse. It was also called (according to Buchanan) 
 Kartar Ikkeri varaha.' 
 
 ' Kartar means the ruler or ruling king, as distinguished from the Dalav.-iyi, wlio is 
 the head of another branch of the royal Aimily. 
 
 3 F 2
 
 8o4 
 
 APPENDIX 
 
 Of other pagodas coined by local rulers may be mentioned the Durgi 
 varaha, coined at Chitaldroog, probably by Barma Ndyak, in 1691. It bore 
 on the obverse a bull-headed figure representing Durgi, and on the reverse, 
 in Ndgari characters . . . Ndyaka Rdya. 
 
 Half-pagodas generally followed the type of the corresponding pagodas. 
 But some quarter-pagodas of Pratdpa Dcva-Raya II of Vijayanagar, who 
 was specially distinguished as i^aja-beniekdra, or elephant-hunter, have the 
 device of an elephant on the obverse. 
 
 The following list contains particulars regarding the various gold fanams 
 and mohurs : — 
 
 
 
 Symbols or Legends. 
 
 Name. 
 
 By whom coined. 
 
 
 Obverse. 
 
 Reverse. 
 
 
 Fanams. 
 
 
 Kanthiraya hana' 
 
 Kanthirava Narasa 
 
 FigureofNarasimha 
 
 Sun and moon, or 
 
 
 Raja 
 
 
 Sri Kanthirava 
 (in Nagari) 
 
 Chikka Deva Raja 
 
 Chikka Deva Raja 
 
 ,, Chamundi 
 
 Chikka Deva Raja 
 
 hana 
 
 
 
 (Kan) 
 
 Ikkeri hana 
 
 See pagodas of same 
 name 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 Bahaduri , , 
 
 )> j> 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 Kalikat (Calicut) 
 
 Haidar Ali 
 
 — 
 
 Haidar's monogram. 
 
 hana 
 
 
 
 in circle of dots 
 
 Adda Kalikat hana 
 
 ,, 
 
 — 
 
 )5 5) 
 
 Sultani- ,, ,, 
 
 Tipu Sultan 
 
 Kalikat, san 1166 
 
 
 ,, hana [avalf 
 
 " 
 
 Zarb e Patau, san, 
 in circle of dots 
 
 „ 
 
 ,, ,, [diiya/n) 
 
 )) 
 
 ?» J5 
 
 )) )) 
 
 Nagar Sale hana 
 
 " 
 
 Zarb e Nagar, san 
 1200 
 
 " 
 
 Dhoti ,, 
 
 ,, 
 
 Farhi 12 18 
 
 ,, ,, 
 
 Sayad Sale ,, 
 
 " 
 
 Khalekhabad^ zarb 
 1217 
 
 " 
 
 Ballapur ,, 
 
 Abbas Khuli Khan 
 
 Balcipiir^ (Hind.) 
 
 ^fl[lapur](Hind.) 
 
 Badshahi 
 
 Haidar Ali (?) 
 
 nishdn Haidar 
 
 
 
 
 (Hind.) 
 
 [Ba]/a///[r] 
 
 Chik Ballapur hana 
 
 (?) 
 
 ^rt74pur](Hind.) 
 
 ? Mahratti characters 
 
 Devanhalli ,, 
 
 " 
 
 ~ 
 
 ~ 
 
 1 Commonly written Canteroy fanam. This was afterwards called the agala 
 Kajtthiraya hana or broad Canteroy fanam, to distinguish it from a re-issue made by 
 Purnaiya, which was called \.\\e gidda Kanthiraya /^a«a or small thick Canteroy fanam. 
 
 * This coin was re-issued more than once by Tipu. 
 
 •* The words aval (first) and duyam (second) relate to the difference in size : the 
 latter is also called gidda hana. 
 
 ^ Khalekhabad was the name given by Tipu to Chandgal near Seringapatam. 
 
 * It is singular how two or three letters only of the name Balapur, apparently 
 taken at random, are stamped on these coins (figured by Captain Hawkes) as shown 
 out of the brackets. It would seem as if a strip of metal had been stamped with 
 the name, and then cut up into coins, whence a few letters only appeared on each.
 
 SILVER COINS 
 
 805 
 
 
 
 Symbols or Legends. 
 
 X'nmf 
 
 By whom coined. 
 
 
 
 Obverse. 
 
 Reverse. 
 
 Nandi hana 
 
 
 _ 
 
 
 
 Sirpi ,, 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 Mamur Khan ,, 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 Aval Muhammad 
 
 
 
 Mtthamniad Shah zarb Kolar 
 
 Shahi 
 
 
 
 
 Hoskota hana 
 
 
 
 — 
 
 
 Kunigal ,, 
 
 Kempe Gauda 
 
 ? Coat of chain mail 
 
 Two faint circles 
 
 
 Moh 
 
 iirs. 
 
 
 Sultani ashrafi, or 
 
 Tipu Sultan 
 
 din A hilt ad dar 
 
 wohii til wohid al 
 
 Ahmadi' 
 
 
 jahdii roshan se \ Sitlltin ill adil 
 fattch Haidar ast-? sty urn Bahdri^ sal 
 
 zarb Patait, sdl^ Azal san zjiiltis 
 
 Azal 1 197 Hijri | 
 
 Siddiki (half mohur) 
 
 )> 
 
 Siddiki, zarb e sal Jiiltis 
 Sard 1 
 
 1 
 
 Silver Coins. — These came in, as already stated, with the Muhammadans, 
 and were first coined in Mysore by Tipu Sultan. The coins were ri'ipayi, or 
 rupees (so called from a word meaning silver), Vir\Afafia>iis. The following 
 is a table of silver coins : — 
 
 
 By whom coined. 
 
 Symbols or Legends. 
 
 
 Obverse. 
 
 Reverse. 
 
 
 Rupees. 
 
 
 Nokara (double ru- 
 pee), or Haidari 
 
 Tipu Sultan 
 
 din Ahmad dar 
 jaltdn roslian se 
 fatleii Haidarast. 
 zarb Patan sdl 
 Azal san 1 198 
 Hijri 
 
 J> 5> 
 >> >» 
 
 Alia Mtthaiiimad 
 htm al Sultan ul 
 ddil san 1 218.* 
 
 wohu-til-wohid al 
 Stiltdn ul ddil, 
 siyum Bahari sdl 
 Azal sail zjuliis. 
 
 Sultani riipdyi, or 
 
 Imami 
 Sultani adha rupayi 
 
 (^ r.), or A'bidi 
 Bakhiri [\ r.) 
 
 
 hull Stiltdn wohid 
 iilddilicc. asabovc 
 >» »» 
 
 Bakhiri, san 7 Patan 
 
 * The Ahmadi was so named from Ahmad, a designation of the Trophcl ; the 
 Siddiki from Abu Bakr Siddiq, the first Khalif. (See Ind. Ant., xviii, 314.) 
 
 * The religion of Muhammad is made illustrious in the world through the victory 
 of Haidar. 
 
 * Siyum Bahdri, or the third day of Bahiiri, was the date of his accession to the 
 throne, and of his assuming the title of Sultan, corresponding with the 4th of May. 
 But it was fated also to be the date of his overthrow and death. 
 
 * Slight differences occur in the inscriptions, but they are all to the same efi'ect.
 
 8o6 
 
 APPENDIX 
 
 
 
 Symbols or Legends. 
 
 Name. 
 
 By whom coined. 
 
 
 
 Obverse. 
 
 Reverse. 
 
 Jdfari (ir.) 
 
 Tipu Sultan 
 
 Miikamjiiad sati 
 1226 zarb Patau 
 
 Jdfari, san 12 J tiliis 
 
 Kazimi ^''jj ,,) 
 
 >> 
 
 99 
 
 Kdzimi, ,, 
 
 Khizri (./^ ,,) 
 
 >> 
 
 Zarb dar ttl Saltanal 
 
 Khi-.ri, 12 
 
 Raja rupayi 
 
 Krishna Raja Wode- 
 
 Sikka zad bar haft 
 
 zarb Mahisiir san 
 
 
 yar 
 
 kashiir say a fazl 
 
 47 juliis niayi- 
 
 
 
 at khdmi din Mil- 
 
 vianat mdmis^ 
 
 
 
 haiiwiad Shah 
 
 
 
 
 Alain bddshdh 
 
 
 ,, ardha rupayi (ir.) 
 
 j> )) 
 
 )> ) J 
 
 J» 99 
 
 „ pavali (|„) 
 
 )) )) 
 
 Figure of Krishna, 
 
 Kisheii Raj Wodeyar 
 
 
 
 surrounded with 
 
 san 12.^^ j it Ills, 
 
 
 
 dots. 
 
 zarb Mahisiir (in 
 Hind.) surrounded 
 with dots- 
 
 
 Silver 1 
 
 '^aiiaj/ts. 
 
 
 Adda (i fanam) 
 
 Krishna RajaWode- 
 yar 
 
 Figure of Krishna 
 
 Mayili haiia? (Kan. ) 
 
 Haga(i „ ) 
 
 )) f) 
 
 )) )> 
 
 99 99 
 
 The rupee or Imami of Tipu Sultan was named after the twelve Imams, 
 and the other silver coins after individual Imdms. Thus the Haidari was 
 named after Haidar, a surname of 'Ali, the first Imam ; the A'bidi, after 
 Zainu'l-abidfn or A'bid Bimar, the fourth ; the Bdkhiri, after Muhammad 
 Bdkhir, the fifth ; the Jafari, after Jafar SAdikh, the sixth ; and the Kazimi, 
 after Musa Kdzim, the seventh. The Khizri was named after Khvvdja 
 Khizr, a prophet who is said to have drunk of the water of life. (See 
 l7td. Ant., xviii, 314.) 
 
 Persian having become established as the official language, the coins at 
 first struck by Krishna Raja Wodeyar bear inscriptions in Persian. The 
 Rdja rupee was issued in the name of the Mughal emperor. Shah 'Alam, 
 following the type of the rupees issued by the East India Company at 
 Arcot and elsewhere; but the dates and regnal years given are irreconcileable. 
 The legend on the obverse signifies — " The defender of the religion of 
 jMuhammad, the reflection of divine excellence, the emperor Shah 'Alam 
 struck this coin, to be current throughout the seven chmates." As regards 
 the latter. Moor says : — " When Timur, establishing his throne in India, 
 
 * Only a portion of the inscription occurs on each coin. Some of these may have 
 been coined first under Purnaiya. 
 
 ^ Some are dated according to the Kali yuga. 
 
 ^ Called the viayili fanam. The meaning of mayili is not very clear. It may 
 mean may Hi, reduced body, or thin. Another possible, hut not very probable, 
 explanation is Mayi, contraction for Mayisiir, and li, the locative suffix. This 
 would mean " in Mysore," indicating the mint town. The only other meanings of 
 mayili in Kannada are — dirty, and small-pox, neither of which is of any use here.
 
 GGLD.oILVER and COPPER UOINB 
 
 c 
 
 
 '^ Hoysala 
 
 tof^a 
 
 Ikkeri Varaha 
 
 41 
 
 KanthiraycL hana 
 
 
 Old Mysore 
 
 
 
 
 G 
 
 ^ 
 
 Siddiki ( ^4 TTiohur 
 
 ■■>^>. ^> 
 
 1 
 
 # «' 
 
 Krishna Raja p avail 
 
 ■^oldmoliur 
 
 Imami ( rupee
 
 COPPER COINS 807 
 
 overcame the kings of Cashmere, Bengal, Deccan, Gujarat, Lahore, Pooriib 
 and Paishoor, he united the kingdoms, and called himself conqueror and 
 sovereign of the seven climates or countries ; which title has been retained 
 by his successors." The inscription on the reverse means — " coined at 
 Mysore in the 47th (or other) year of the auspicious reign." 
 
 Copper Coins. — The copper coins were duddit, or dubs (Hindustani 
 paisa), and kdsii or cash. They as a general rule, from the earliest times 
 to which they have been traced, bore on the obverse the figure of an 
 elephant, due, whence the name dne or anna, though the latter term is 
 perhaps a compromise between ha?ja and dne. Above the elephant 
 was afterwards introduced the moon, and later on the sun also. The 
 reverse consisted of crossed lines. There was also a half paisa, with a 
 tiger on one side and a battle-axe on the other, which may have been a 
 Hoysala coin, though it has been suggested that it was a type tried but 
 abandoned by Tipu. But, besides these, there was an old series bearing 
 on the obverse a Kannada numeral, from i up to 31, in a ring of dots, with 
 the crossed lines reverse. They are attributed to the Mysore Rdjas who 
 immediately preceded Haidar Ali. Tipu brought in a new copper coinage 
 with fresh names of his own invention. The old device of the elephant, 
 with sun and moon, was retained on the obverse, the Arabic letter for the 
 number of the regnal year being inserted above. On the reverse, in 
 Persian, were the name of the mint town, the date, and the name of the 
 coin. His double paisa had at first been called Usm;ini by Tipu, after 
 Usmdn, the third Khalif. But subsequently he adopted the names of stars 
 for his copper coins. The Usmdni thus became the Mushtari, after Jupiter ; 
 the paisa was called Zuhra, after Venus ; the half paisa, Bahram, after 
 Mars ; the quarter paisa, Akhtar, meaning star ; and the one-eighth /(Z/j<?, 
 Khutb, after the Pole-star (see Jfid. Ant., I. c). 
 
 Under Krishna Rdja Wodeyar a kdsu or dne kdsu was first coined 
 bearing the elephant, with sun and moon on one side, and on the other 
 S'ri Kris/ma RdJa, in Ndgari letters. Later on were issued the niayili 
 kdsii.^ To the same obverse as above was added S'7i in Kannada, over the 
 elephant ; but the reverse bore the inscription V cash in English (or X or 
 XX as the case might be), with niayili kdsu 5 (or 10 or 20), in Kannada. 
 Afterwards the English was put below the Kannada, and C/id (for 
 Chdmundi) in Kannada added at top. At a later period 5V/ C//<f /«//«<//, i n 
 Kannada, was inserted above the elephant on the obverse, and Krishna, in 
 Kannada, put at the top of the reverse. 
 
 Eventually the tiger (or lion) of Chamundi was substituted for the 
 elephant on the obverse, and the reverse had Krishna (Kan.) in the centre, 
 surrounded by a circle containing the words XXV cash- (Eng.), sarb 
 Mahisur (Pers.), and Mayili kdsu 25 (Kan.). The smaller coins had only 
 Krishtia (Kan.) zarb Mahisur (Pers.), and the numeral 5 or 10. 
 
 The mint was removed from Mysore to Bangalore in 1S33 and abolished 
 in 1843. The last coin struck has the tiger (or lion) of Chamundi on 
 ' Mayili is spell in English on st)me coins MciUic and nn others Mailay. 
 ' So badly printed in some specimens that it reads as UAUH.
 
 8o8 
 
 dPFENBIX 
 
 the obverse, with S'rl (in Kan.) and sun and moon above, and 1843 (in 
 English) below. On the reverse is Krishna (in Kan.), Mahisur zarb (in 
 Hind.). 
 
 The following coins now in circulation are those of Britisli India, together 
 with a few native copper coins, which however since 1863 are being with- 
 drawn and sold, broken up, as old copper. 
 
 Copper. Kd.su 
 
 Duggani 
 Miir kasu 
 Duddu 
 Ardhane 
 
 I'ic or cash 
 \ duddu, 2 i^ie 
 ^ anna 
 ^ anna 
 J anna 
 
 Silver. Dodd anc 2 annas 
 
 I'avali \ rupee 
 
 Ardha rupayi \ rupee 
 
 Rupayi Rupee 
 
 Accounts. — In order to explain the way in which accounts were written, 
 it is necessary to describe the system of fractions and signs. The following 
 are the names of the fractional parts : — 
 
 111 
 
 Mukkalu 
 
 a 
 
 =: 
 
 Murvlsa 
 
 1 iT 
 
 111 
 
 Mukkani 
 
 11 
 
 Are 
 
 1 
 
 s 
 
 Bele 
 
 A 
 
 11 
 
 Arevisa 
 
 1 
 
 Kalu 
 
 1 
 
 — 
 
 \'isa 
 
 tV 
 
 I 
 
 Kani 
 
 The fractional parts of a pagoda, rupee, or fanam were expressed by the 
 marks above exhibited, but the terms varied with the coin. Pagodas were 
 marked by prefixing ao gu, rupees by prefixing "do ru., and fanams were dis- 
 tinguished by prefixing the mark ^ , called viakdra, the tail of which was 
 extended over the lower denominations to the right. 
 
 Names of fractional pat'ts of coins and niode of writing tJievi. 
 
 Value. 
 
 Pagoda. 
 
 
 Rupee. 
 
 Fanam. 
 
 1 
 
 AO 
 
 varaha 
 
 TJO 
 
 rupayi 
 
 G opphana 
 
 s 
 
 4 
 
 AO III 
 
 muddharana 
 
 ■do III 
 
 muppavali 
 
 Golll niuppaga 
 
 1 
 
 AO II 
 
 honnu,pratapa 
 
 7^0 II 
 
 adheli 
 
 tell adda 
 
 1 
 4 
 
 AJ 1 
 
 dharana 
 
 •do 1 
 
 pavali 
 
 G ol haga 
 
 ns" 
 
 AO — 
 AO III 
 AJ II 
 AO 1 
 
 muddugula 
 
 chavala 
 
 dugula 
 
 muru bottu 
 
 eradubottu 
 
 bottu 
 
 7J0 = 
 
 ^0- 
 
 murane 
 eradane 
 
 ane 
 
 G ooE mura visa 
 
 T"o 
 
 (occ= bele 
 
 1 
 
 10 
 
 (ooo— visa 
 
 ■Oi 
 
 'o ocelli mukkani 
 
 _2- 
 1 
 
 GcGoll are visa 
 
 1 
 
 64 
 
 (o coo 1 kani 
 
 In the west, the mode of writing the accounts was somewhat different. 
 Pagodas w^re expressed as above by prefixing ao to the integers, and then 
 the sign G was placed to mark the fanams, which were 10 to the pagoda. 
 In filling up the places of fanams, the integers from i to 4 were used, but if 
 the number were 5, the fractional mark || for half was placed instead of it, 
 denoting ^ a pagoda. If the number of fanams were greater than 5 and
 
 WEIGHTS 
 
 809 
 
 less than 10, figures denoting fanams were placed after the fractional parts 
 of the pagoda, and the sign (o omitted. If there were no fanams, a cipher 
 was placed after G to show that there were none. Ciphers were also used 
 to denote the relative value of the fractions.' 
 
 __ p. f. 
 
 Thus AO o (3 r> was I I 
 
 A^ silo 4 6 
 
 
 P-f- 
 
 A J o(dco-| was I -iV-S^ts'f 
 
 AO ^(3 coo I 3 ^ 
 
 AO ilGoooo- 4 ^ 
 
 AJ ^(ociol- 3 i, _L.&^ 
 
 AO f GTIimi 4 .U\: ^ 
 
 Weights.- 
 
 The seer iser) is the standard of weiglit and measure. The kachcha sir 
 (cucha seer) is equal to the weight of 24 rupees or '6067 lb. avoirdupois. 
 40 seers = i mana (maund), and 20 mana = i khandi (candy). By this 
 weight are sold areca-nut, sugar, drugs, cotton, silk, &c. 
 
 Oil and ghee are frequently sold by measure ; a seer weight of oil being 
 put into a cylindrical brass vessel that exactly contains it, which serves 
 afterwards as a standard. 
 
 The /rt/'/vi j-tV (pucka seer) is formed by mixing equal quantities of the 
 juiva dhdnya or nine kinds of grain (rice, uddu, hcsaru, hurah, togari, avare, 
 
 ' The following items (lo which 1 have added the equivalents) taken from a hill for 
 work done, i^resented to me while this sheet is going through the jiress, will serve as 
 an example of the way in which the .system is applied to British Indian money. 
 
 orlv R. 19 
 
 4 
 
 ^1! 
 
 R- 3 
 
 8 
 
 olIE 
 
 R. I 
 
 II 
 
 «tlllo«r 4 
 
 12 S 
 
 olllo 
 
 
 
 12 
 
 i;ll = 
 
 4 
 
 lo 
 
 kG = 4 
 
 3 I 
 
 olll = 
 
 I 
 
 14 
 
 111= 
 
 
 
 14 
 
 * Chikka Deva Raja is saitl to have called in the seals useil in the eighty-four gadis 
 or taluqs, and finding that they varied greatly, he had a common seal made, hearing 
 the monogram De in the middle, with the sun and moon, surrounded by a circle con- 
 taining the name of the gadi. A gold ring with this seal engraved on it was given to 
 each Amildar. Silver ones, with only De on them, were given to the hobli and 
 village officials, and the customs and tax collectors. Wooden stamps {mudrekil) 
 with the same monogram, hetween the sun and moon, were provided, lo he kept in 
 each chav;i(li and used hy the totis, talavdrs and nirgantis, as directeil by the heads 
 of villages, to be affixed to houses of criminals or defaulters, and on the heaps of 
 grain divided between the Government and the cultivators. 
 
 The same stamp was engraved on standard weights and measures ordered to be 
 used in shops and markets. The weight of 3 Kanthiraya hana being taken as cqua 
 lo 1 (ludflu, the following was the scale of weights fixed : — 
 
 I duddu = I ti'ila 
 
 24 ,, = 1 kachcha s^r 
 
 10 kachcha ser = i dhadiya 
 
 4 dhadiya = 1 chikka mana 
 
 44-46 cer =• 1 doclila mana.
 
 8io 
 
 APPENDIX 
 
 kadale, cllu and wheat), and then by taking of the mixture 84 Rs. weighty 
 which is put into a vessel that will exactly contain it when heaped. This 
 serves for a standard, and measures 74*8125 cubical inches or "3592 gallons. 
 
 This is the dry measure, of which 20 kolagas or ki'idu everywhere make 
 I khandaga or khandi, but the number of seers to the kolaga is different in 
 different parts. The Sultdni ko|aga, established by Tipu Sultan, contained 
 16 seers. One of S seers is called the Krishna Rdja kulaga, being '},-, of the \ 
 Krishna Raja khandi established by Purnaiya. The kolaga of 10 seers is | 
 called khararu kolaga. » 
 
 Measures. 
 
 Before the introduction of the English land measures, the land measures 
 in Mysore corresponded with the measures of capacity, and depended on 
 the area of land which can be sown with a given quantity of seed. This . 
 varied greatly on dry and on wet land, and for every variety of grain and of 
 soil. It is almost needless to observe that this mode of measurement 
 afforded incompetent or dishonest revenue officials plausible excuses for 
 laxity of practice and fraud. But in order to introduce uniformity, the 
 following measures have been determined. On dry land it was estimated 
 that one khandi or khandaga of seed would suffice to sow 64,000 square 
 yards, and accordingly this area represents a khandi of dry land, whereas,, 
 on wet or garden land, a khandi would only sow 10,000 square yards, which, 
 area denotes a khandi of wet land. 
 
 The following- therefore are the estabhshed standards : — 
 
 Gram Pleasure. 
 
 
 4 Chattaks 
 
 = 
 
 I Pavu 
 
 2 Pavus 
 
 = 
 
 I Payili or Padi 
 
 2 Padi or Payili 
 
 = 
 
 I Seer 
 
 2 Seers 
 
 = 
 
 I Balla 
 
 4 Ballas 
 
 = 
 
 I Kolaga or Kudu 
 
 20 Kolagas or Kudus 
 
 = 
 
 I Khandaga or Khancli 
 
 Land Measure. 
 
 
 
 
 Equivalent area 
 
 3f land. 
 
 CJuantity of seed sown. 
 
 Square 
 
 
 
 yaids. 
 
 Acres.' 
 
 Guntas. 
 
 Sq. yards. 
 
 Dry Land — 
 
 
 
 
 
 I Payili or Padi ... 
 
 200 
 
 — 
 
 I 
 
 79 
 
 2 ,, =1 Seer... 
 
 400 
 
 — 
 
 3 
 
 37 
 
 2 Seers =1 I Balla 
 
 800 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 74 
 
 4 Ballas = I Kudu 
 
 3,200 
 
 
 
 26 
 
 54 
 
 20 Kudus= Khandaga or Khandi 
 
 64,000 
 
 13 
 
 8 
 
 112 
 
 ]Vct and Garden Land — 
 
 
 
 
 
 I Payili or Padi 
 
 3ii 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 31I 
 
 2 ,, =1 Seer 
 
 62^ 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 62i 
 
 2 Seers := i Balla 
 
 125 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 4 
 
 4 Ballas = I Kudu 
 
 500 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 16 
 
 20 Kudus = I Khandaga or Khand' 
 
 10,000 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 78 
 
 ' Acres consist of 40 Guntas, each Gunta being 121 square yards.
 
 CALENDAR 8ii 
 
 Measures of Time. 
 
 Eras. — By the Hindus in Mysore the Saka era, afterwards called (see 
 p. 293) the S'dlivdhana S'aka, or era of S'ahvdhana (a corruption of S'dtavd- 
 hana),' dating (with sometimes a variation of two or three years) from 
 78 A.D., has always been and still is universally employed. Occasionally 
 the era of Kali Yuga, 3101 B.C., is used. 
 
 An attempt was made by Vikramdditya, the most powerful of the 
 Ch^lukya kings, to introduce a new era, dating from his accession to the 
 throne, and called the Chalukya Vikrama s'aka. The near coincidence of 
 the end of the first millennium of SVilivahana with the commencement of 
 his reign, and the correspondence of his name with that of the era reckoned 
 from 57 B.c , in universal use in the north of India, doubtless suggested 
 the innovation, in conjunction with the usual motives of ambition. The 
 Chalukya Vikrama era dates from 1076 A.D., and continued in use in 
 inscriptions throughout their dominions as long as the power of the 
 Chdlukyas was in the ascendant, though several of Vikramaditya's succes- 
 sors copied his example and sometimes dated from their own eras.- 
 
 By the Aluhammadans the era of the Hijra, or Flight, of Muhammad 
 from Mecca to Medina, is universally employed. It dates from 622 .A.D., 
 reckoning by lunar years.^ 
 
 Tipu Sultan, with that love of innovation which characterised his rule, 
 and from his ambition to establish a new order of things originating with 
 himself, made a reformation of the calendar ; in this also, as in so many 
 other particulars, the transactions of the French Revolution finding an echo 
 or parody in Mysore. Tipu's new system, which ended with his life, was 
 introduced with the 1200th year of the Hijra, or 1784 a.d., but was revised 
 four years afterwards. The new era, in opposition to the practice of the 
 whole Muhammadan world, dated from the Maulud, or Birth, i.e. as sup- 
 posed, of Muhammad. But the difference between Tipu's new Mauludi era 
 and that of the Hijra was only about twelve years, whereas Muhammad 
 was fifty-one years of age at the time of the Hijra. The Maulud may 
 therefore perhaps be supposed to have some possible reference to the origin 
 of Islam, counting it from the period when Muhammad first formed the 
 conception of his prophetic mission, which is said to have been at forty 
 years of age. Thus much is necessary to state on the subject in order to 
 e.xplain the apparent discrepancy of the dates on his coins, &c. Another 
 
 ? I have actually found an inscription, of ilic time of I5ukk:i Raya of \'ijayanagar, 
 dated in the S' atavdhana s'aka. 
 
 - From confounding the Chalukya Vikrama era with the northern era of \'ikra- 
 maditya, the Administration Report for 1869-70 contains the announcement that 
 inscriptions had been deciphered and translated bearing date as far back as the year 
 one! 
 
 ^ The following formula given by Sir H. Nicolas will be found useful in converting 
 Hijra into Anno -Domini dates. Multiply the years elapsed by 97D203 ; cut o(T six 
 decimals; add 622'S4, and the sum will he the year of the Christian era. — Chroii. of 
 Hist., 17.
 
 5i2 APPENDIX i 
 
 feature of the new scheme was that the numbers were written from right to 
 left, instead of in the usual manner of left to right according to the decimal 
 system. 
 
 Years. — The Bnhaspali Chakra or Cycle of Jupiter, of 60 years, is the 
 common and general mode of reckoning. Each year has a special name 
 {see below), which alone it is usual to mention, without its number according 
 to any era. 
 
 The year commences with new moon in Chaitra, which falls in March. J 
 It is divided into 12 lunar months (for names see p. 10 1), of 30 and 29 daysl 
 alternately, making altogether 354 days. As this is eleven days less thanl 
 the solar year, the Chandramd,na or luni-solar calendar was invented to 
 reconcile the difference. For this purpose a cycle of 19 solar years was 
 adopted as being equal, or nearly so, to 235 lunations, and in each cycle of 
 19 years there are added seven intercalary months, namely, in the 3rd, 5th, 
 8th, nth, 14th, i6th, and 19th years. The name and position of the 
 intercalary month are determined in the following manner : — When two 
 new moons fall within the same solar month, the corresponding lunar 
 month is repeated. The extra month is placed before the ordinary one and 
 called by the same name, but distinguished as adhika, or added, the normal 
 month being called the nija or true one.' 
 
 Each month is divided into iwo paks/ia—ih.& s'ukla paksha, or s'ltdda, the 
 bright fortnight from new moon to full moon ; and the krishna paksha or 
 bahula, the dark fortnight from full moon to new moon. Each paksha 
 contains 15 tithi or lunar days, which are reckoned from amdvdse (new 
 moon), or purnanii (full moon), as the case may be. The dajs of the 
 week are named from the planets, on the usual system. The day of 24 
 English hours is divided into 60 ghalige or Indian hours, each equal to 24 
 minutes : 7^ ghalige or 3 English hours make one Jama or watch. 
 
 As Marsden has said {N'nm. Or.), many Eastern nations, as well as the 
 Greeks and Romans, have been in the practice of expressing numbers, and 
 dates in particular, by means of letters of the alphabet, to each of which a 
 certain value is assigned. These may be either employed simply like other 
 ciphers, or, being distributed among the words of a sentence, may form 
 what is called a chronogram. In carrying out the system the Arabs did 
 not adhere to the direct order of the letters in their own alphabet as it now 
 exists, but followed the old order of the Hebrew alphabet. They thus 
 formed the scheme called abjad from the first four letters, a, b,J, d. Tipu 
 Sultan at first followed this system, which is universally employed by the 
 Muhammadans, but four years afterwards introduced one based on the 
 order of the letters in the modern Arabic alphabet, which was therefore, on 
 a similar principle, called abtas, but named by himself zar. Recognising, 
 at the same time, some advantage in the Hindu cycle of sixty years, he 
 invented names for them, formed at first according to the abjad, and four 
 years afterwards according to the abtas, the addition of the numerical value 
 of the letters in which (except for the first and second years) gave the 
 number of the cycle year. 
 
 ' Sec Cunningham's Boo/: of Indian Eras.
 
 CYCLE OF YEARS 
 
 813 
 
 For convenience of reference the following list is inserted of the Hindu 
 names, together with Tipu's names for the same.' The cycle now current 
 began in March 1867 A.D. 
 
 Names of Years. 
 
 
 
 Sultdni 
 
 
 
 Suliiini 
 
 No. 
 
 Hindu. 
 
 
 
 No. 
 
 Hindu 
 
 
 
 
 
 by abjad. 
 
 by abtas. 
 
 31 
 
 
 by abjad. 
 
 by abtas. 
 
 I 
 
 Prabhava 
 
 ahad 
 
 ahad 
 
 Hevilambi 
 
 kiya 
 
 zdr 
 
 2 
 
 Vibhava 
 
 ahniad 
 
 ah mad 
 
 32 
 
 ^'ilamb^ 
 
 kaln'id 
 
 buzar 
 
 3 
 
 S'ukla 
 
 ab^ 
 
 ab 
 
 33 
 
 \'ikari 
 
 aljal 
 
 zar.-il) 
 
 4 
 
 I'ramoduta 
 
 alxi 
 
 aba 
 
 ' 34 
 
 S'arvari 
 
 dil 
 
 said 
 
 5 
 
 Prajoti^atti 
 
 baba 
 
 bah 
 
 35 
 
 Plava 
 
 dal 
 
 zandb 
 
 6 
 
 A'ngirasa 
 
 baja 
 
 tab 
 
 36 
 
 S'ul)hakrit 
 
 jabal 
 
 rabtar 
 
 7 
 
 S'rimukha 
 
 abad 
 
 taba 
 
 37 
 
 S'olihakrit 
 
 zaki 
 
 sakh 
 
 8 
 
 Bhava 
 
 abad 
 
 baja 
 
 38 
 
 Krodhi 
 
 azal 
 
 sakha 
 
 9 
 
 Vuva 
 
 jah 
 
 taj 
 
 39 
 
 ^'is'vavasu 
 
 jalu 
 
 dardz 
 
 10 
 
 Dhatu 
 
 auj 
 
 tabat 
 
 40 
 
 Paral)hava 
 
 dalu 
 
 da.sad 
 
 II 
 
 I 's' vara 
 
 haj 
 
 aliad 
 
 41 
 
 Plavanga 
 
 ma 
 
 sha 
 
 12 
 
 Bahudhanya 
 
 jaliad 
 
 adal) 
 
 42 
 
 Kilaka 
 
 kabak 
 
 sdra 
 
 13 
 
 Pramathi 
 
 jahad 
 
 bar 
 
 43 
 
 Saumya 
 
 jam 
 
 sardl} 
 
 14 
 
 Vikrama 
 
 vajah 
 
 hajib 
 
 44 
 
 Sadharana 
 
 jam 
 
 shitd 
 
 15 
 
 Vishu 
 
 yad 
 
 jar^ 
 
 45 
 
 \'ir()dhikrit 
 
 adam 
 
 zaljarjad 
 
 16 
 
 Chitral)hanu 
 
 zahad 
 
 rija 
 
 46 
 
 Paridhavi 
 
 vali 
 
 sahar 
 
 17 
 
 Svaljhdnu 
 
 jauzah 
 
 har 
 
 47 
 
 Praniadicha 
 
 vali 
 
 sdhar 
 
 18 
 
 Tarana 
 
 haiy 
 
 dar 
 
 48 
 
 A'nanda 
 
 kaukab 
 
 rdsikh 
 
 19 
 
 Parthiva 
 
 viihid 
 
 dar 
 
 49 
 
 Raksha.sa 
 
 kavakab 
 
 shdd 
 
 20 
 
 Vyaya 
 
 Iniduh 
 
 rahat 
 
 50 
 
 Nala 
 
 yam 
 
 hard.sal 
 
 21 
 
 Sarvajit 
 
 tayab 
 
 Ijarid 
 
 SI 
 
 Pingala 
 
 davam 
 
 sdz 
 
 22 
 
 Sarvadhari 
 
 tayab 
 
 charkh 
 
 52 
 
 Kalayukti 
 
 hamd 
 
 shdddb 
 
 23 
 
 Virodhi 
 
 yauz 
 
 khirai 
 
 53 
 
 Siddharthi 
 
 hamid 
 
 barish 
 
 24 
 
 Vikriti 
 
 kad 
 
 tdz 
 
 54 
 
 Raudri 
 
 jan 
 
 rasldr 
 
 25 
 
 Khara 
 
 havi 
 
 khirad 
 
 55 
 
 Durmali 
 
 odan 
 
 bushtar 
 
 26 
 
 Nandana 
 
 kaljad 
 
 badarlab 
 
 56 
 
 Dundubhi 
 
 hamayi 
 
 bashdrat 
 
 27 
 
 Vijaya 
 
 dgah 
 
 dartaj 
 
 57 
 
 Rudhirodgari 
 
 majid 
 
 sharah 
 
 28 
 
 Jaya 
 
 vahid 
 
 dadar 
 
 58 
 
 Raktakshi 
 
 kohal 
 
 rashad 
 
 29 
 
 Manmatha 
 
 yahi 
 
 zad ' 
 
 59 
 
 Krodhana 
 
 jahan 
 
 saliah 
 
 30 
 
 Durmukhi 
 
 kaiy 
 
 zar 
 
 60 
 
 Kshaya 
 
 majiz 
 
 irshdd 
 
 Tipii Sultan s Names for the Months. 
 
 (By abjad) ahniadi lialidri j'dfari ddrdi hdshami vas'di zabarjadi liaidari tului yusufi 
 yczidi baydsi. 
 
 (By abtas) ahmadi balidri takhi sliumii j'dfari haidari khusravi diiii zakiri rahnidiii 
 rdzi rubdni. 
 
 I But as his system did not ovitiast him, and he reigned for only seventeen years, 
 the names actually used are only the four from zaki to dalu of the abjad and the 
 thirteen years .f//rt to (^rtr/.f/i of the ablas. The former are 119710 1200 Hijri, and 
 the latter 121 5 to 1227 Mauludi.
 
 Sr 
 
 ADDENDA et CORRIGENDA 
 
 Page 
 I 
 
 line 
 17 
 
 65 15 
 
 66 Note ' 
 
 67 
 
 104 
 180 
 
 194 
 205 
 
 14 
 14 
 
 After " scale " add, " The exact area by Revenue survey is 18,795,075 
 acres, or 29,367 square miles 195 acres." 
 
 With reference to "general dryness," add (as foot-note), '"The relative 
 mean annual humidity of the Mysore State is given as 66 by Mr. 
 Blanford." 
 
 Add, "After all the other factors have been considered, the jxDsition 
 of the year in the sun-spot cycle may be taken as an index of the 
 steadiness or variability of its general characteristics. Thus, in years 
 of maximum sun-spot the monsoon is distributed more evenly, and 
 local anomalies are less exaggerated. The years about the epoch t f 
 minimum are characterised by greater local contrasts and irregulari- 
 ties." — Douglas Archibald, in Nature, 1896. 
 
 After "31 Dec. 1881," add, "at about 7 A.M. There was also an 
 earthquake at Bangalore on the 13th April 1882, at 9.30 I'.M. 
 
 With reference to " nakshatras," add (as foot-note), "•'The leading 
 stars {yoga) of the nakshatras correspond with the following stars in 
 European catalogues : — 
 
 Rcgulus 
 ;3 Leonis 
 Denib 
 
 13. 5 Corvi 
 
 14. Spica 
 Arcturus 
 24 Libri 
 j8 Scorpii 
 Anlares. 
 
 206. Also sec IV, 150, and XIV, 43 
 
 1. jS Arietis. 
 
 2. 35 Arietis 
 
 3. 7j Tauri 
 
 4. Aldel)aran 
 
 5. 1 16 Tauri 
 
 6. 133 Tauri 
 
 7. Pollux 
 
 8. 5 Cancri 
 
 9. 49 Cancri 
 
 K. L. Chatre, in Ind. Ant. 
 
 10. 
 II. 
 12. 
 
 15- 
 16. 
 
 17- 
 18. 
 
 III. 
 
 19. 
 
 34 Scorpii 
 
 20. 
 
 5 Sagittarii 
 
 21. 
 
 (f) Sagittarii 
 
 22. 
 
 Altair 
 
 23- 
 
 Dclphini 
 
 24. 
 
 X Aquarii 
 
 25- 
 
 Markab 
 
 26. 
 
 Alpherab 
 
 27- 
 
 f I'iscium 
 
 15 Add, " 1892 . . . 5-01 ; 1S93 • • • 5"39-" 
 Note ' Add, " And at the end of 1895, his successor, the Earl of Elgin, visited 
 the keddahs." 
 13 After " the lasar silkworm," add, ^'(anthema paphia)." 
 38 To "river Krishna," add (as foot-note), "^Thc llullu is also called 
 Gauli ; and the Chokatu or Chakati is also called Choli and Chuli." 
 
 208 15 To " Australia," a<ld (as foot-note), "Professor Huxley observed, in 
 his paper on ' The Geographical Distribution of the Chief Motlilica- 
 lions of Mankind' {four. Ethuol. Soc), that 'the intligcnous popu- 
 lation of Australia jircsents one of the liest marked of all the tyjies or 
 princi|)al forms of the human race' ; a description of which he gives, 
 founded on their jihysical characters alone, and goes on to state that 
 the group to which he gives the name of Australoid is not confined 
 to that continent only, but includes the 'so-called hill tril)es who 
 inhaljit the interior of the Dekhan in Hindustan.' To these he adds 
 the Ancient Eg)i)tians and their modern descendants." 
 
 208 21 To " South of Europe," add (as foot-note), " As our knowledge of the 
 Ilamitic aborigines increases, it becomes more and more evident that 
 the North African and European i>eoples belong fundamentally to 
 the same jirimitive stock, which had its origin nmre probably in the 
 south than on the north si<le of the Mediterranean. I-"r<>m this 
 cradlelanil of the highest division of mankind the race sj^read itself 
 eastwards through Egypt to Asia . . . and northwards across then 
 continuous land to Europe in com]xiny with the late pliocene and 
 early pleistocene African fauna. — .\. H. Kcane, in Academy, 7 Mar. 
 1896.''
 
 Page 
 
 line 
 
 209 
 212 
 218 
 
 Note - 
 Note* 
 Note ' 
 
 223 
 
 24 
 
 236 
 240 
 287 
 292 
 
 19 
 39 
 
 17 
 7 
 
 293 
 
 22 
 
 294 
 
 20 
 
 294 
 300 
 
 26 
 6 
 
 816 ADDENDA ET CORRIGENDA 
 
 Alter authority to " Beames, Comp. Gram., Intro, xi." 
 
 Add, " Hale paiki might also, perhaps, mean ' the old lot.' " 
 
 For " the number" (I. l), read "the increase from 1801 to 1804." 
 
 To " luxury," add (as foot-note), " The origin of the Panchalas, or five 
 
 castes of skilled artificers, should he considered as an escape of Jaina , 
 
 artificers from destruction ])y assuming a seml>lance to their Saivitej 
 
 persecutors. — Sir Walter Elliot, S. I. Coins, 38." 
 
 For " from Madhva," read " from Madhva." 
 
 For " Sriangam," read " Srirangam." 
 
 I'^or " Chanda Gupta," read " Chandra Gupta." 
 
 To " Godavari," add (as foot-note), "The two branches of the Goda-I 
 vari, where the river divides to form the Delta, are still distinguished] 
 by the names of the two great queens, the northern as the Gautami, 
 and the southern as the \'as'ishthi. — Elliot, S. I. Coins, 21." 
 To " coronation," add (as foot-note), " Later discoveries throw doubt 
 
 on this, Dr. Biihler thinks.^ — See Academy, 2 May 1896." 
 For "S'ungakam," read " rajjukam," and omit the sentence which 
 
 follows. 
 For "name defaced," read "named S'iva . . . varma." 
 For "he gave up his life," ike, read " a prince named S'ivananda- 
 varma, whose territory had been laid waste, retired from the 
 world." 
 
 302 20 To " Vijayaditya II." add (as foot-note), " He was also called Pugul- 
 
 vippavar-Ganda, His son Lataraja Vira-Chola was ruling in 992. — 
 Ep. Ind., IV,' 138." 
 
 303 2 For "Vajrahastu," read "Vajrahasta." 
 
 312 Note® After " Kitthipura," add "(which I have now identified with Kittur 
 
 in Haggadadevankote taluq). " 
 215 4 To " Rachamalla," add (as foot-note), "According to an inscription 
 
 found in North Arcot, he was the son of a Rana Vikrama. — Ep. 
 
 hid., IV, 140." 
 
 316 20 To " Kalinga-nagara," add (as foot-note), "Identified wiih Mukha- 
 
 lingam, about 20 miles from Parlakimedi, on the left bank of the 
 Vams'adhara. — See j5/>. Ind., IV, 188." 
 
 317 12 To ''Jantavura," add (as foot-note), " Probably Jayantapuram, another 
 name for Kalinganagara. /.c." 
 
 For "Chalukyas," read " Chalukyas " throughout this section. 
 
 For "Rajendra, Rajadhiraja, 1016-1064," read " Rajendra-Chola ion, 
 
 Rajadhiraja 1045, Rajendra-Deva 105 1." 
 For "east" (1. 3) read "west" ; and for "west" (1. 4) read "east." 
 After " Kenchengod," add "or Chikkanhalli." 
 For "Schwartz," read "Swartz." 
 For " W. Schwartz," read " F. C. Swartz." 
 For " fastened in," read "fastened on." 
 After " Mahrattas," read "whom he finally crushed by defeating- 
 
 Holkar in the decisive battle of Mehidpur, and afterwards received 
 
 the surrender of the last Peshwa, Baji Rao." 
 Casamaijor, also spelled Casamajor. 
 After "1805," add (as foot-note), "The founder of the family in 
 
 Mysore was Bistappa Pandit from Satara, who was the father of 
 
 Rama Rao." 
 429 23 To "Divan," add (as foot-note), " This was Venkatramanaiya to the 
 
 14th May 1832, and then Babu Rao till the 19th April, 1834. The 
 
 Commissioners, it appears, had originally intended to leave in the 
 
 Divan's hands almost as much power as he had under the Raja, 
 
 but the Governor-General did not concur in this view of their 
 
 duties." 
 
 444 16 After "Sept. 1895." read "to Dec. 1S96. Colonel Donald Robert- 
 
 son . . . Dec. 1896." 
 
 445 15 After "appointed," read "In Dec. 1896, he was nominated Lieutenant- 
 
 Governor of the Punjab, and Colonel Donald Robertson, Resident at 
 Gwalior, succeeded him in Mysore." 
 
 327 
 
 8 
 
 Zll 
 
 12 
 
 336 
 
 Note 
 
 363 
 
 I 
 
 392 
 
 17 
 
 396 
 
 25 
 
 416 
 
 25 
 
 423 
 
 12 
 
 423 
 
 37 
 
 426 
 
 15
 
 ADDENDA ET CORRIGENDA. 817 
 
 Page line 
 
 445 17 After "experience," add (as foot-note), "Colonel Henderson was 
 created C.S.I, in 1876; Mr. Lee-Warner in 1S92, and Mr. Mack- 
 worth Voiing in 1890." 
 
 449 Note' Add at the end, " Tutor and Governor." 
 
 458 Note^ After " Thibaut," insert "and Professor Whitney," add at the end 
 "361." 
 
 504 31 for "about the same time " read " in 1838." 
 
 505 Note- Add"iniS47." 
 
 524 24 After "other parts" add, "The total output for I S95 in India was 
 248,885 ounces, of which Mysore ]>roduced 246,758." 
 
 527 4, 10 Add {as foot-note), "The highest prices quoted for Mysore and Cham- 
 ]Mon Reef were 8J and 8| in 1S96." 
 
 527 tal)le Add a column for 1896 — 
 
 Mysore ... ... ... ... ... 104,934 
 
 Urigam ... ... ... 65,5So 
 
 Nundydroog ... .. ... ... 44,925 
 
 Champion Reef ... ... ... ... 85,928 
 
 Others '4.373 
 
 590 
 
 15 
 
 593 
 
 21 
 
 691 
 
 30 
 
 745 
 
 30 
 
 747 
 
 18 
 
 Total ozs. ... 315,740 
 
 52S table Add amount jiaid in dividends in 1896, ^"499, 625. 
 539 21 After " years," add (as foot-note), " In Feb. 1894 it was formed into a 
 new Company, called the Mysore .Spinning and Manufacturing 
 Company, and paid dividends of 4^ per cent, in 1895 ^.nd 6 per cent. 
 in 1896." 
 After '■'■ Ekkada chiiTadi" add (or more probably Lekkada chilvadi)." 
 For " 1648 to 1670" read " 1645 ^" 1660." 
 Insert ^ at beginning of line. 
 After "also" insert "and at p. 642." 
 
 After " 1854," add (as foot-note), " Dr. Duff and Mr. Marshman 
 worked out the educational portion of their statements before the 
 (Parliamentary) Committee in a form which Lord Xorthbrook, then 
 the President's private secretary, embodied in a Slate ]iaper. That 
 was sent out to the Marquis of Dalhousie in the memorable Desixitch 
 of July 1854, signed by the Directors of the Fast India Company. 
 Dr. DufFs handiwork can be traced not only in the definite orders, 
 but in the very style of what has ever since been pronounced the 
 great educational charter of the people of India." — Geo. Smith's Life 
 of Dr. Duff, II, 245. 
 750 22 After "Survey Department," add (as foot-note), " What John Knox 
 and his associates did for Scotland in 1560. He ( ? Dr. DufT) urges 
 (in 1841) that the same means which the Scottish Parliament then 
 decreed, be a<lopted by the Indian Government, in levying a scho<iI 
 cess on the land tax, as a road cess had even then begun to l)e levied. 
 . . . Such a cess was raised first in Hi)ml)ay. and then by the late 
 Earl of KcUie in a district in Central India, till now it is exacted all 
 over India." — ih. I, 437.
 
 INDEX 
 
 Adbas Khi'i.i Kuan, 372 
 Abbasi-Persian, 538 
 Ablje Dubois, 483 
 Abdalis, 379 
 Alxlul P'azI, 290 
 Abdul Hakim Khan, 383 
 Abdul Rasul Khan, 372 
 Abilur Razzak, 350 
 Abc'icronil))-, General, 405, 
 
 406, 407 
 Abhinianyu, 285 
 Abhinava Ketala Devi, 
 
 Abhinava IMangaraja, 500 
 Abhinava Panipa, 499 
 Abhinava S'arvavarma, 499 
 Achyugi Dcva, 330 
 Achyuta Kaya, 353 
 Adam, Right Hon. W. P., 
 
 Adil Shahi Kings, List of, 
 
 Adityanagara, 278 
 A'dityavarnia, 323, 333 
 Adoni, 357, 358, 381, 489 
 Adrisai^i^a, 501 
 ^'^sculapian rod, 454 
 Afghanistan, 759 
 Agastya, 272 
 Aggala, 499 
 Agiii, 280, 469 
 Agnimilra, 291 
 Agund)i ghat, 5, 739 
 A'havamalla, 307, 328, 329 
 Ahichchatra, 216, 298, 464 
 Ahichchatrapura, 309 
 Ahmadnagar, 350, 479 
 Alinied Khan, 610 
 ,, Shah, 350 
 Ahobala, 474 
 Ahvali Ilaidar Naik. 397 
 Aigur, 36S, 419 
 Aindra-dhvaja-puja, 309 
 Ainslie, 17 
 Ajanta, 319, 323 
 Ajatasatru, 466 
 iVjini|Hir, 8 
 Aiijialli, 43 
 Ajmere, 445 
 
 Akalanka, 461, 465, 471, 
 
 746 
 Akalavarsha, 312, 326, 498 
 Akl)ar, 290 
 
 Akhxmenian Period, 491 
 Akkadian fasii, 209 
 Alasingarya, 501 
 A'lattur, 313 
 
 Ala-ud-Din, 341, 343, 479 
 Alberuni, 489 
 Alinujuerque, 482 
 Alexander the (Ireat, 277, 
 
 287, 293, 519 
 Alexandria, 353 
 Alfred the C.reat, 481 
 Ali Adil Shah, 354 
 
 ,, Barid Shah, 354 
 
 ,, Rrija, 383 
 Allahabad, 281, 759 
 A'luvas, A'lu]xis, 319, 323 
 A'iva, 336 
 A'lvakheda, 336 
 Amaiii Konda, 32 
 ^Vniara Prabhu, 27S 
 Aniaravali, 465 
 Amaru, 471 
 Ambaji durga, 1 1 
 Ambav.-idi, 317 
 Ambera, 323 
 Ainbikadevi, 328 
 Ambur, 385, 403 
 •\nierica. North, 488 
 
 Vmir Khusru, 344, 348 
 Aniitrachades, 288 
 Aniitraghata, 288 
 Animanavaru 456 
 Amnianga, 334 
 Anioghavarsha, 313, 315, 
 
 326, 497 
 Aniritapura, 471 
 Anuirath, 388 
 Anaji, 796 
 Anamalai, 9 
 
 Ananga Hhinia Deva, 317 
 Ananlapur, 2, 38, 399, 489 
 Anantavarma, 317 
 Ananlesvara. 477 
 Andaman Islands, 769 
 Andhari, 313 
 
 A'ndhra, 4SS, 799 
 Andhrabhritya, 292, 303 
 Andhraka, 278 
 A'ndhras, 291 
 Anegundi, 277, 345, 355 
 Anekal, 4, 5 
 Anekatte, 6 
 Anekonda, 60 
 Anemale, 369 
 Anga, 325 
 Angadi, 335 
 Angas, 463 
 Anhalvara, 527 
 Anicuts, 741 
 Aniruddha, 301 
 Ankanhalli, 4S, 49 
 Annapjja, 427 
 Anniga, 307 
 Annigeri, 331 
 Antarasante, 70 
 Antonia, 797 
 Anyadcs'ya, 494 
 Apabhrams'a, 494 
 Apapajniri, 465 
 Apelles, 519 
 Appaji Ram, 384 
 Appaya Dikshiia. 353 
 Arabia, 345, 410, 479 
 Arabian Sea, 4 
 A'radhya, 332 
 
 ,, Hrahman, 476 
 A'raga, 347 
 Aramaic, 491 
 A'rali Kanike, 653 
 Arava, 4S8 
 Arcot. North, 2 
 Ardashir, 304 
 Arddha-.Magadhi, 463 
 Ardhamansa, 690 
 Ardha Nemi, 499 
 Ardhayaswasti, 690 
 Arga, 657 
 
 Ariakc (.Maharashtra), 292 
 Arikcri, 405 
 Arikesari, 498 
 Ari rayavibhaila, 346 
 AriU<'> Ncini, 509 
 .Xriya-l'illai, 341 
 .\rjuna, 280, 281. 49S 
 ;? G 2
 
 820 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Aikali,nul, 70 
 Arkavati, 4, 273 
 Arkotar, 363 
 Armenia, 6 
 Arsacidre, 304, 320 
 Arsacidan I'artliians, 303 
 Arsakes, 293, 303 
 Arsikere, 57, 486, 797 
 Artabanus, 293 
 Artaxerxes, 304 
 Arthur, Captain, 17 
 Aryans, 209 
 Asanivega, 278 
 Asnaper, 538 
 As'oka, 210, 458, 459, 466, 
 
 491 
 As'oka-vardhana, 289 
 Assam, 445 
 Assyria, 6 
 Asiiras, 271 
 As'va sena, 464 
 Asvattha, 455 
 Atharvani, 299 
 Athens, 515 
 Atthavane, 579, 582 
 Attikuppa, 17 
 Auckland, Lord, 430 
 Augustus, 797 
 Aurangzel, 295, 358, 520 
 Auvergne, 29 
 Avadhuta, 478 
 Avamukta, 281 
 Avanashi, 376 
 Avani, 32, 479 
 Avinita, 312 
 A'yagar, 579 
 Ayakota, 402 
 Ayangadi, 575, 641 
 Ayaputa, 572 
 Ayodhya, 276, 319, 330, 
 
 471 
 Ayyana, 324, 327 
 Ayyankere, 7 
 Ayyapa Deva, 307 
 
 Baba Budan Hills, 8, 10 
 Babhruvahana, 280, 282 
 Babylon, 6, 538 
 Babylonia, 51 1 
 Badagas, 211,213, 508 
 Badami, 273, 319, 321, 400 
 Badarikasrama, 477 
 Baddega, 315 
 Baddiga, 326 
 Bagepalli, 16, 21 
 Baghdad, 445 
 Baginad Seventy, 315 
 Bahmani Sultans, List of, 
 
 347 
 Bahrein, 209 
 Baillie, Colonel, 393 
 Bail shime, 3 
 Bama-Devi, 464 
 
 Bairandurga, 1 1 
 Baird, General, 414 
 Bajcbal), 612 
 15akar Sahib, 630 
 Bakasura, 273 
 Baktria, 287, 293 
 Bakr-id, 480 
 BaLiditya, 317 
 Balagami, 454, 465, 513 
 Balam, 218. 602 
 Bale aras, 630 
 Balehalli, 476 
 Balery, 37 
 Balharas, 325 
 Bali, 475 
 Balldla, 337 
 Ballalrayan-durga, 4, 9, 10, 
 
 382 
 Ballenahalli, 50 
 Bana, Banas, 298, 333, 796 
 ,, Kings, List of, 302, 
 
 311 
 Banadhiraja, 302 
 Banasura, 301 
 Banat marl betta, 1 1 
 Banavar, 20, 34, 357, 55 1 
 Banavase, Banavasi, 23, 
 
 277, 295, 315, 330, 
 
 331-338.459,490,574 
 Bandelkhand, 331 
 Bandhuvarma, 500 
 Bandipur, 69 
 Bangalore, 5, 21, 24, 34, 
 
 37,38 
 BaniVisaji Bandit, 218 
 Bankapura, 338, 339, 349 
 Bankot, 358 
 Bannerghatta, II, 16 
 Bannur, 413 
 
 Barabaluti, 575, 579, 616 
 Baragyza, 209 
 Baramahal, 218, 357, 368 
 Barkalur, 357 
 Barmagiri, 1 1 
 Baroda, 438, 445 
 Barth, A., 468, 481 
 Basalat Jang, 381, 388 
 Basava, 332, 476 
 Basavanka, 500 
 Basavapatna. 8 
 Basavappa Nayak, 594 
 ,, Sastri, 502 
 Basavaraj-durga, 279, 382, 
 
 385 
 Bassora, 401 
 Bauddhalaya, 465 
 Baudhayana, 210 
 Bayalnad, 336 
 Bazodeo, 293 
 Beccaria, 632 
 Beder, 489 
 
 Bednur, 295, 382, 602 
 Beejanuggur, 348 
 
 Begur, 16, 285 
 
 Bchar, 287, 465 
 
 Behistun, 493 
 
 Belagami, 281 
 
 Belavadi, 36 
 
 Belgaum, 476 
 
 Belgumba, 57 
 
 Belladaira, 33 
 
 Bellary, 2, 21 
 
 Belli betta, 17, 54, 55 
 I Belligudda, 50 
 I Bellur, 33 
 
 j Belur, 5, 470, 514, 518 
 j Belvola, 315 
 
 Benares, 465 
 
 Benkipur, 39, 40 
 
 Bentinck, Lord Wm. , 428, 
 I 639 
 
 Berar, 350 
 i Beresford, General, 43, 525 
 
 Berki Venkata Rao, 373 
 
 Bernard, Sir Charles, 445 
 
 Betarayan hills, 4 
 ' Betmangala, 32, 33, 34 
 
 Betrayan-Konda, 11 
 
 Bettada Chama-Raja, 364 
 
 Bettadakote, 336, 337, 363 
 
 Bettadpur, 365 
 
 Bettadpura hill, 10 
 
 Betur, 342 
 
 Bhadra, 4, 60 
 
 Bhadrabahu, 287, 796, 797 
 
 Bhagadatta, 309 
 
 Bhagala-devi, 328 
 ; Bhagiratha, 299 
 
 Bhairava, 469 
 
 Bhanuvarma, 299 
 
 Bharadvaja, 303 
 \ Bharata, 210 
 
 Bharata-varsha, 210 
 
 Bharavi, 313, 496, 497 
 
 Bhargavapuri, 276 
 j Bharhut, 291 
 I Bhasha Bhushana, 499 
 I Bhaskara-Kavi, 500^] 
 
 Bhattacharya, 471 " ' 
 
 Bhattakalanka, 462, 496, 
 
 ^?\ 
 Bhavani, 360, 469 
 
 Bhelupura, 464 
 
 Bhillama, 342 
 
 Bhilsa, 291 
 
 Bhima, 26, 281, 324, 327, 
 
 332, 358 
 
 ,, Danayak, 336 
 
 ,, Kavi, 500 
 Bhiman katte, 281 
 Bhoja Raja, 327 
 Bhujaga, 312 
 Bhulokamalla, 330 
 Bhuvanaikamalla,'329 
 Bhuvikrama, 3o6,''3i3 
 Bibi-betta, 11
 
 INDEX 
 
 821 
 
 Bidar, 350, 354 
 
 liijanaj^ar, 345 
 
 Bijapur, 295, 319, 350, 
 
 357, 399. 479 
 Bijeyilta Banarasa, 302 
 Bijjala, 331, 332, 459 
 ,, Devi, 340, 341 
 Biligirirangan hills, 3, II 
 Bindusara, 289 
 Bira Mahendra, 307 
 ,, Nolamba, 307 
 Birdwood, Sir (ieorge, 537 
 Bisale (Ihat, n, 337 
 Bisnagar, 345 
 Bitti Deya, 337 
 Bula Chama Raja, 365 
 Bombay, 46, 78, 319, 555 
 Bommarasa, 500 
 Bontha-devi, 327 
 Boiitta, 288 
 Bowling, Mr. L. B. , 434, 
 
 675, 796 
 Bowringpet, 4, 37, 43 
 Brachmanes, 288 
 Brahma, 469 
 Brahmagiri, 1 1 
 Brahmanemidalta, 471 
 Brahnianism, 458 
 Brahmi lipi, 491 
 Brailhwaile, Colonel, 394, 
 
 415 
 Brihadratha, 289, 291 
 Broach, 209 
 Buchanan, Dr., 5, 191, 
 
 419, 505, 520 
 Ikiddha, 321, 458 
 Budi Basavap[)a, 426 
 Budikole, 32, 372 
 Biihler, Dr., 329, 458,491, 
 
 572 
 Bukka, 344, 346 
 Bukkapalna, 76 
 Bukka Rriya, 347 
 Buonajiarle, 41 1 
 Burma, 445 
 Ikirnell, Dr., 481 
 Bussy, M., 374, 398 
 Butarasa, 315 
 Ikituga, 315, 326, m 
 Butugahalli, 526 
 
 C>ESAR, FrEDERIKE, 355 
 Caldwell, Dr., 488 
 Caligula, 797 
 Campl)ell, Dr., 433, 624 
 Canara, i, 2, 32 
 Canarijs, 488 
 Candachar, 428 
 Candahar, 762 
 Cannanore, 755 
 Canning, Lady, 433 
 Carnatic I 
 
 Carnatic Bijapur I'ayan- 
 
 ghat, 359 
 Carwar, 489 
 Casamaijor, Mr. J. A., 423, 
 
 504 
 Castes, list of, 266 
 Cawnpore, 759 
 Celtic, 493 
 Ceylon, 274, 318, 382, 465, 
 
 515 
 Chaitanya, 243, 318, 460, 
 
 478 
 Chaki Raja, 314, 325 
 Chakra, 508 
 Chakragolta, 337 
 Chakrantikam, 243 
 Chalas'eravi, 340 
 Chaldean, 213 
 Challakeri, 508 
 Chalukya, 281, 295, 332 
 Chalukyahharana, 320 
 Chalukyas, 316, 319, 796 
 
 ,, Eastern, List of, 
 321 
 
 ,, Western, List of, 
 320, 324, 327 
 Chama Riijendra, 435 
 Chiimarasa, 500 
 Chamhal, 489 
 Champakanagara, 281 
 Chanunula Ra)a, 316,461, 
 
 498 
 Chamundi, i, 456 
 
 ,, hill, II, 47 
 Chanakya, 287 
 Chandadanda, 300, 305 
 Chandagal, 413 
 Chandala-devi, 330 
 Chandanavati, 284 
 Chanda Sahib, 480 
 Chandika, 307 
 Chandra, 497 
 Chandrabhalta, 497 
 Chandraditya, 323 
 Chamlradona, 339 
 Chandra-giri, 287, 355,356, 
 
 460, 511 
 Chandra (aipta, 287, 289, 
 
 458, 510, 797 
 Chandragulti, 10, 18, 276, 
 
 346, 428 
 Chandrahasa, 283 
 Chandralekha, 330 
 Chandramanam, 102 
 Chandramauli, 499 
 C-handrangada, 29S 
 Chandrapur, 280 
 Chandrar.-ija, 499 
 Chandrasena, 298 
 Chandravali, 293 
 Chandravarma, 296 
 Changama, 403 
 Channarayan durga, 1 1 
 
 Channarayapalna, '■^l 
 
 Chajiuis, 41 1 
 
 Charmanvali, 489 
 
 Charukirti Pandilacharya, 
 461 
 
 Charu I'unnera, 307 
 
 Chashtana, 292 
 
 Chaturapana, 292 
 
 Chaturbhaga, 687 
 
 Chaundardja, 500 
 
 Chedi,'326, 330, 331 
 
 Chensabaras, 304 
 
 Chensuars, 304 
 
 Chikka-Deva Raja, 365, 
 366 
 ,, Kampana, 347 
 ,, Krishna arasu, 435 
 „ Raya, 357 
 
 „ Odeyar, 347 
 ,, Somala-devi, 341 
 ,, Somasekhara, 593 
 
 Chikk6]iadhyaya, 501 
 
 Chiknriyakanhalli, 15, 38, 
 47, 62, 317 
 
 China, 78, 353 
 
 Chingalpat, 356 
 
 Chinkurali, 387, 405 
 
 Chinnammaji, 593 
 
 Chintamani, 303 
 
 Chiranhalli, 59 
 
 Chitaldroog, 11, 18, 36 
 
 Chiirakantha, 323 
 
 Chitrakot, 464 
 
 Chitraki'ita, 325 
 
 Chitrangada, 280, 283 
 
 Chitravati, 4 
 
 Choda, 333 
 
 Chokalu, 204 
 
 Chola, 20S, 217, 287, 323, 
 333, 460, 796 
 
 Chola-danga, 317 
 
 Chola Kings, List of, },})}, 
 
 Chota Raja Khan, 630 
 
 Chotnare Maradi, 58 
 
 Chi'idamani, 496 
 
 Chulaka, 320 
 
 Chuluka, 320 
 
 Chunchanakatte, 479 
 
 Chunchangiri, S, 1 1 
 
 Churchuvaytla, 312 
 
 Chutia Nagpur, 215 
 
 Claudius, 797 
 
 Cleghorn, Dr., 676 
 
 Clive, 373 
 
 Close, Colonel Barry. 417. 
 760 
 
 Coancancul I'cak, 3S 
 
 Cochin, 401 
 
 Coimbatore, 2, 402, 4S2, 
 489 
 
 Cole, Hon. Arthur IL, 423 
 
 Colossus of Rhodes, 509 
 
 Comorin, Cai>c, 1,318
 
 822 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Conjcs-cram, 442, 474 
 Ciinsla-ntiiiople, 401 
 Coorg, 2, 34, 35, 316,484, 
 
 735 
 Coote, Sir Eyre, 393 
 Cornwallis, Lord, 403, 601 
 Corracle, 6 
 Corraigh, 6 
 
 Cosmos Indicopleustes, 481 
 Cranhorne, Lord, 435 
 Cranganore, 402, 471, 481 
 Cul)bon, Sir Mark, 199, 
 
 428, 550 
 Cuddalore, 4 
 Cumtee Wallahs, 610 
 Cunningham, General, 291 
 Curliiis, 308 
 Cust, Mr., 491 
 Cuttack, 353, 478 
 
 DaDHIMUKHA - PARVATA, 
 279 
 
 Dadiga, 309 
 
 Dahala, 331 
 
 Daksha, 469 
 
 Dalavayi, 319 
 
 Dalhousie, Lord, 430, 521, 
 
 674 
 Dalyell, Mr. R. A., 439, 704 
 Damodara, 299 
 Danaikankote, 365 
 Danarnava, 317 
 Danayaks, 336 
 Dandaka, 276 
 Dandakaranya, 271 
 Dandanayaka, 573 
 Dankanachari, 513 
 Dannayaka, 573 
 Dantiga, 307, 325 
 Dantidurga, 324, 325 
 Dariya Daulat, 378, 521, 
 
 741 
 Dartmoor, 18 
 Dasanapura, 303, 305 
 Dasappaji, 630 
 Das'aratha, 276, 289, 291 
 Dasarhosahalli, 32 
 Das'avarma, 328 
 Dasoji, 510 
 Dattatreya, 273, 275 
 Daulatabad, 342, 344, 358 
 Daulat Bagh, 413 
 Davangere, 60, 342, 539 
 Davasi-betta, 337 
 Day, Captain, 523 
 de Kritto, 482 
 De Havilland, 522 
 Dehra Dun, 773 
 Deimachos, 288 
 Dekhan, 319, 324 
 Delhi, 345, 439 
 Deniiimbika, 347 
 Depa, 501 
 
 Der Mokh, 212 
 Deshayis, 575 
 
 ,, of Nargund, 399 
 
 Deshkulkarni, 588 
 Deshmuki, 589, 61 1 
 Deshpande, 588, 61 1 
 Des'ya, 494 
 
 Devagiri,33l, 342,343,479 
 Devaiya, 387 
 
 Devala-mahadevi, 340, 341 
 Devambika, 307 
 Devanam I'iye, 290, 291 
 Devapjm (iauda, 652 
 Devar Makkalu, 212, 652 
 Deva Raja, 348 
 Devara])uri, t,2>^ 
 Deva Raya, 479 
 Devarayadurga, 11, 45 
 Devar betta, 10 
 Devarddhiganin, 463 
 Devas, 271 
 Devavarma, 299 
 Devavrinda, 652 
 Devendra, 316 
 Devereux, Hon. Mr., 747 
 Deviramnianagudda, 10 
 Devoja, 514, 515 
 Dewul Roy, 349 
 Dhanakataka, 292 
 Dhananjaya, 308 
 Dhara, 337 
 Dharana, 464 
 Dharanidhara, 464 
 Dharanikotta, 292 
 Dharapuram, 365 
 Dharavarsha, 314, 325 
 Dharmamrita, 499 
 Dharwad, 331 
 Dharwar, 2, 36, 320, 460 
 Dhavala Kirtti, 278 
 Dhora, 325 
 Dhruva, 325 
 Dhundia Wahag, 419 
 Dibgiri, 11 
 Digambara, 244, 462 
 Dilavar Khan, 520 
 Dilipayya, 307 
 Di4mun, 209 
 Dindigal, 375 
 Divabbarasi, 307 
 Dobbs, General, 432 
 Dod Ballapur, 317 
 Dodbele, 5 
 Dodda betta, 1 1 
 Dodda Deva Raja, 365 
 Doddaiya, 368 
 Doddiganahalli, 38 
 Dodrampur, 50, 62 
 Dokkal konda, 1 1 
 Doni, 6 
 
 Dorapayya, 315 
 Dorasamudra, 331, 336, 
 
 341. 479 I 
 
 t Doshe, no 
 Dost AH Khan, 371 
 Doveton, Major, 411 
 Draupadi, 280, 281 
 Dravida, 488 
 Dravidian, 209, 492 
 Dridha|)rahara, 342 
 Druhyu, 210 
 Dubois, A])be, 483 
 Duljuc, 41 1 
 Dufferin, Karl of, 448 
 Duggamara, 314 
 Di'ipa, 70 
 Durga, 456 
 
 Durvinita, 305, 313, 496 
 Dushta buddhi, 283 
 Dushyanla, 209, 210 
 Dvajjara, 286 
 Dvaraka, 209, 301, 361 
 Dvarapuri, 336 
 Dvarasamudra, 336 
 Dvaravati, 336, 342 
 Dviparadana, 279 
 
 Echala-Devi, y:,-j, 339 
 Edessa, 481 
 
 Edicts of Asoka, 333, 796 
 Edoardo Barbessa, 353 
 Egypt, 293, 411,491, 509 
 Elgin, Lord, 434, 449 
 Elles'a Vijaya, 223 
 Elliot, Sir Charles, 440 
 
 ,, Walter, 488, 
 
 510, 799 
 Ellora, 344, 511, 512 
 EUore, 320 
 
 Elphinstone, Lord, 424 
 Elura, 325 
 
 Enniskillen, Earls of, 423 
 Epiphanius, 481 
 Erambarige, 299 
 Ereyanga, 337 
 Ereyappa, 307, 315 
 P>idu, 209 
 Erode, 365 
 Esarhaddon, 538 
 Ethiopian, 213 
 Euphrates, 209, 210, 320, 
 
 401 
 Eusebius, 481 
 Ezra, Book of, 538 
 
 FaTTEH MUHA.MMAI), 37I 
 
 Fattepet, 428 
 Faujdar Divan, 361 
 Fazal-ulla-Khan, 379, 385 
 Fergusson, Dr., 322, 454, 
 
 475. 509. 510, 514 
 Ferishta, 347, 355, 800 
 Finnish, 492, 493 
 Firoz Shah, 348, 479 
 Fitzpatrick, Mr., 445 
 Floyd, Colonel, 402, 415
 
 INDEX 
 
 82 
 
 Foote, Mr. R. Bruce, 17, 
 
 36, 526, 774 
 Foulkes, Rev. T. , 301 
 France, 78 
 Fraser, Colonel J. S., 429 
 
 ,, Mr. S. M., 449 
 Fraserpet, 755 
 French Rocks, 1 1 
 Fuzzul Oollah, 350 
 
 Gada-vuddha, 498 
 Gaja-bentikara, 351 
 Gajalhatti, 27, 311, 375, 
 
 402, 489 
 Gajapatis, 317 
 Gajas'astra, 314 
 Gajashtaka, 314 
 Gama, 482, 524 
 Gamut, 524 
 Ganapali, 342 
 Gandhara, 289 
 Gandhari-devi, 308 
 Ganes'a, 469 
 Ganga, 217, 316, 325 
 
 ,, Kings, List of, 311 
 Ganga dhvaja, 323 
 Gangadikara, 217 
 Gangaikonda Chola, 333 
 Gangaikondasolapuram, 
 
 329 
 Gangakunda, 329 
 Ganga Malava, 315 
 Ganganuila, 746 
 Ganga-pani, 81 
 Ganga Raja, 316, 318, 337 
 Gangaridic, 308 
 Gangas, 308, 323, 796 
 Gangavadi, 217, 316, m, 
 
 574 
 Ganges, 209 
 Gangeya, 309, 316 
 Gangu, 347 
 Ganjam, 316 
 Ganjikota, 372 
 Gargita, 4 
 
 Garrett, Rev. J., 486 
 (Jaruda, 475 
 Garudangiri, lO 
 Gauj, 285 
 Gaujri, 204 
 (jaula, 281 
 Gauraml)ika, 347 
 Gautama, 273, 465 
 (jaya, 471 
 George IV., 504 
 tlermany, 78 
 Gersappe, 502 
 (iersoppa, 279 
 
 Falls, 4, 35 
 Ghulam Ali, 410 
 Giijayanvaddargudi, 53 
 (lirdlestone, Mr., 444 
 
 Giridurgamalla, 331, 340 
 
 (iirigudda, 48 
 
 Goa, 300, 329, 337, 355, 
 
 476, 482 
 Godavari, 277, 320 
 Gokarna, 279 I 
 
 ,, Svanii, 316 
 Golkonda, 350, 354 
 Gollarhalli, 15, 33, 57 | 
 
 Gomanta-guhe, 298 ] 
 
 Gomata, 316, 461, 498 
 Gomatesvara, 509 
 Gondophares, 293 
 Gopaka, 300 
 Gopal Hari. 376 
 
 ,, Rao Hari, 218 
 Gopalswami Hill, 8, 11, 
 
 336 
 Gordon, Sir James. 440 
 Goribidnur, 323, 551 
 Gorresio, 469 
 Gotami, 304 
 Gotamiputra, 222, 292 
 Govardhanagiri, 10 
 Govinda, 307, 314, 324, 
 
 325 
 
 Govinda \ ogi, 471 
 
 Grama, 482, 524 
 
 Ciramya, 494 
 
 (Jrant, Sir J. 1'., 684 
 
 Gray, Mr. ,'392 
 
 Greece, 6 
 
 Green, Colonel, 738 
 
 Grishma rilu, 63 
 
 Grilsamada, 469 
 
 (iroves and Co. , 55' 
 
 GuddaRangavvanahalli, 50 
 
 Gudiljanda, 8, 1 1 
 
 (u'ldigar, 522 
 
 Guhasura, 273, 475 
 
 Guhesvara hetta, II 
 
 Guido d'Arez/.o, 524 
 
 (Aijarat, 315, 343,. 460 
 
 Gulam-Mohi-ud-iiin Mekrr, 
 I 630 
 
 I Gumhaz, 521 
 
 Gumiuanur, 52 
 
 Gunat)hadra, 497 
 
 Gunarnava, 317 
 j Ciunavarma, 499, 500 
 ; Clundal, 4 
 
 Gundert, Dr., 488 
 
 Gundlupct, 8, 69 
 
 (luptas, 323 
 
 Guramkonila, 385, 406, 
 
 , 417 
 
 I Gurjaras, 325 
 
 Gurjjara, 315, 330 
 ' Gulti, 370, 417, 489 
 
 Guzrati, 222 
 
 Gwalior, 43S 
 
 Hadi-naI', 361 
 Hagalvadi, 5, 201 
 
 Hills, 8, II 
 Hagari, 4 
 Haggari, 3S4 
 Ilaidar Ali, 5, 20, 295, 363, 
 
 377, 381, 417 
 Haidarabad, 179,319. 324> 
 
 489 
 Haidarghar, 398 
 Haidar-nagar, 382 
 Haiga, 276, 295 
 Haihaya, 323 
 Haihayas, 274, 295, 303 
 Haines, Colonel, 433, 437 
 Hainu, loi 
 Hakims, 610 
 Hakka, 344 
 Haja-Gannada, 490 
 Haiat, 625 
 Halebid, 5, 59. y:>(>> 5 '4. 
 
 797 
 
 Halekal, 51 
 
 Halekalgudda, 51 
 
 Halemakkal, 652 
 
 Hale I'aika, 212 
 
 Hallu-bandi, 736 
 
 Halsur belta, il 
 
 Ilaltibetta, 48 
 
 Hampe, 274, 277 
 
 Hamsa Dhvaja, 2S0 
 ,, dvipa, 279 
 I Hanagal, 277, 281 
 I Hands, Rev. J., 4J^5 
 
 Hangal, 277 
 I Hangala, 366 
 ' Ilankahi, 688 
 
 Hanumiin, 279 
 
 ,, durga, 10 
 
 llanumappa Nayak, 520 
 
 Hanuruha dvii)a, 279 
 
 1 lanuvara, 279 
 
 Hara, 460 
 
 Hardanhalli, 373 
 
 Hardinge, l.ord, 43! 
 
 Hari, 460 
 ' HarigoUi, 6 
 
 I Harihara, 345- 346, 422, 
 I 460, 475, 499. 553 
 
 Hariharesvar belta, 1 1 
 I Haripala, 344 
 
 Hari I'ant, 389 
 
 ,, ,, I'urkia, 21S 
 
 Haris'chandra; 308 
 
 Hari Singh, 375 
 I Hariti, 293, 299, 320 
 I Harivams'a, 499 
 I Harivarma, 299, 31 1 
 I Harnhalli, 5, 526 
 I Har]xinahalli, 329, 400 
 I Harris, Cieneral, 417 
 
 ] Harshavardhana, 321, 322 
 Has.in. 347
 
 824 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Hassan, 56 
 Ilaslimalla, 301, 314 
 Ilastinapura, 345 
 Ilaslinavati, 345 
 Ilastivaniia, 281, 305 
 Haug, Dr., 481 
 Hawker, Major - General, 
 
 428 
 Hawkes, Captain H. P., 
 
 801 
 Hazar Dinari, 343 
 Hel)bal, 775 
 Hebl)ar, 574 
 Hcblie betta, 10 
 Hedatala, 337 
 Heggadadevankote, 8, 69 
 Heggades, 648 
 Hejjaji, 317 
 Heleyabbe, 307 
 Hemakuta, 345 
 Hemanta ritu, (yT, 
 Hemasitala, 307, 461, 465 
 Hemavati, 33, 286, 470, 
 
 734 
 Henderson, Colonel, 445, 
 
 449 
 Henjeru, 286, 307 
 Heraiis, 293 
 Hermann, 509 
 Herodotus, 6 
 Hettege-nad, 652 
 Heyne, Dr., 66, 530 
 Hidimbasura, 273 
 Himalayas, 472 
 Hindu, I, 220 
 Hinduism, 468 
 Hire Chama Raja, 363 
 Hiremugalur, 276, 285, 454 
 Hiriya Madhava, 311 
 Hiriyur, 7 
 Hittu, no 
 
 Hiuen Tsiang, 306, 322 
 Hoblidars, 671 
 Hodson, Rev. T., 485, 486 
 Holalur, 460 
 Holgere, 47, 62, 526 
 Hole Honnur, 357, 406 
 Honavar, i ^ „ 
 
 Honore, (279,347, 3S2 
 Honnali, 8, 36, 41, 42, 325 
 Honnamma, 501, 746 
 Honnamaradi, 51 
 Honnebagi, 49 
 Honnebetta, 48 
 Honnehatti, 61 
 Honnehattimaradi, 61 
 Honnu Hole, 4 
 Hornblende schist, 14, 15 
 Hosa-Gannada, 490 
 Hosakote,Kenchamman,33 
 Hosapattana, 346, 347 
 Hosdurga, 11 
 Hosur, 346, 365, 484, 486 
 
 Hoysala Kingdom, 338 
 ,, Kings, List (jf, 336 
 ,, Mahadevi, 336 
 
 Hoysalas, 295, 316, 331, 
 332, 335, 796 
 
 Hoysales'vara, 337, 514 
 
 Hubasiga, 298 
 
 Hudson, Mr., 683 
 
 Hugel, M., 380 
 
 Huggisiddankatte, 59 
 
 Hughes, Sir Edward, 393 
 
 Huliyar, 328 
 
 Hulyurdurga, 11, 365, 406 
 
 Ilumberstone, Colonel, 395 
 
 Humcha, 5, 308, 454, 455, 
 460 
 
 Hummel, 77 
 
 Hungarian, 493 
 
 Hunsur, 16, 345, 455, 544 
 
 554 
 Hunter, Sir W. W., 444, 
 
 505 
 Hus, 210 
 
 Husen Nizam Shah, 354 
 Hutri durga, 11, 18, 2,t, 
 Huvishka, 293 
 Hyslop, General, 760 
 
 Ibrahim adil Shah, 354 
 ,, Kutb ,, 354 
 Ikhaku, 294 
 Ikkeri, 5, 279, 593 
 Ikshvaku, 308, 464 
 Ila, 334 
 Ilavala, 273 
 Iliad, 538 
 Ilvala, 273 
 Immadi Raja, 364 
 India, i, 521 
 
 ,, Central, 31 1, 460 
 
 ,, South, 46 
 Indore, 438 
 Indra, 278, 320, 324, 325, 
 
 327, 
 Indrabhuta, 465 
 Indra-giri, 461, 509 
 Indrayudha, 278 
 Indukanta, 319 
 Indus, 210 
 Inquisition, 482 
 Irattapadi, 328, 334 
 Ireland, 6 
 
 Iriva Nolamba, 307, 328 
 Isila, 290 
 Ispahan, 521 
 I'svara, 352 
 I'svarakavi, 500 
 I'svarapotaraja, 306 
 I'svara-vamsa, 307 
 Italy, 6 
 Itikal durga, 1 1 
 
 Ja(;ai)Ekamai.i.a, 328, 330 / 
 Jagadeva Raya, 356, 364 
 
 Rayal, 319 
 Jagalnr, 46 
 
 Jagannath, 318, 471, 478 
 Jagat Guru, 345, 475 
 Jagattunga, 326 
 Jaggay3a])eta, 294 
 Jaiiiiini liharata, 281, 501 
 Jaitugi, 340 
 JakaJjbe, 328 
 Jakanachari, 513 
 Jalal-ud-Din-Khilji, 343 
 Jalarpet, 36, 37 
 Jalebdars, 632 
 Jalgaranhalli, 56 
 Jamadagni, 275 
 Jamaica, 550 
 Jamali, 464 
 Jamljudvipa, 290 
 Janamejaya, 285, 454 
 Jangamkote, 4 
 Janivara, 241 
 Janna, 499 
 Jantavura, 317 
 Jatayu, 279 
 Jatinga Ramesvarahill, 1 1, 
 
 279 
 Java, 491 
 Jayabandhu, 497 
 Jayabbe, 307 
 Jayadaman, 292 
 Jayakes'i, 329 
 Jayanta, 296 
 Jayantipura, 295 
 Jayasimha, 320, 324, 327, 
 
 328, 330 
 Jenkal betta, 10 
 Jerome, 481 
 Jerusalem, 282 
 Jetti, 257 
 Jigani, 404 
 Jimuta-ketu, 278 
 
 ,, -vahana, 27S 
 Jina, 458 
 
 Jinadatta, 454, 462 
 Jinasenacharya, 326 
 Jinendra, 310 
 Jinnagara, 37 
 Jug Deo Raj, 369 
 Junagadh, 304 
 Jupp, Stanley, 167 
 
 Kabhal-durga, ii, 371, 
 
 388 
 kabbani, 4, 5, 737 
 Kabir, 478 
 
 „ Beg, 379 
 Kabul, 293, 410 
 Kadaba, 49, 281 
 Kadale, 109, 128 
 Kadamba, 216, 277, 294, 
 796
 
 INDEX 
 
 825 
 
 Kadamlm Raya, 576 
 Kadaml)as, 295, 321, 329 
 Kadanur Seventy, 317 
 Kadapa, 2, 370 
 Kadata, 503 
 Kadava, 340 
 Kadekalgudda, 49 
 Jvadiir, 39 
 
 Kaduvetli, 305, 306, 313 
 Kapur, 341 
 Kaikoya, 299 
 Kailancha, 371 
 KaiLisa, 325, 512 
 Kailasanalha, 305 
 Kai male, 657 
 Kakka, Kakkala, 327 
 Kakkaragond, 328 
 Kakustha, 299 
 Kalabhra, 323 
 Kakahhuris, 331 
 Kakihhuryas, 323 
 Kalachuii Kings, List of, 
 
 Kalachuris, 331 
 Kalachurya, 295, 319, 321, 
 
 323 
 
 Kalale Diddi, 414 
 
 Kalanjara, 331 
 
 Kalasoka, 466 
 
 Kakavar durga, 1 1 
 
 Kalhappira, 287 
 
 Kalhappu, 2S7 
 
 Kaklroog, 427 
 
 Kaklurga, 10 
 
 Kalliatti giri, 10 
 
 Kali, 456 
 
 Kalidasa, 210, 497 
 
 Kaligaiiahalli, 48 
 
 Kalinga, 290, 318 
 ,, Gangas, 316 
 ,, Nagara, 316 
 
 Kalinjara, 330 
 
 Kalleha, 347 
 
 Kalles'vara, 294 
 
 Kalliir (aidda, 308 
 
 J\alur \"ire Cjauda, 652 
 
 Kalvarangan hill, 10 
 
 Kalyana, 320, 328, 330, 
 331. 332, 476, 481 
 
 Kama, 499 
 
 Kamalahliava, 500 
 
 Kamaki-devi, 341 
 
 Kamamhika, 346 
 
 Kamandroog, 427 
 
 Kamarnava, 317 
 
 KaniMia, 314 
 
 Kambhaiya, 325 
 
 Kamhharasa, 325 
 
 Kamhoja, 338 
 
 Kdnihoias, 274 
 
 Kanimara, 222 
 
 Kamniar-iid-Din, 406, 413 
 
 Kammasandra, 273 
 
 j Kampa, 309, 346 
 
 Kamjiili, 328, 329 
 I Kamyaka, 281 
 ' Kanaka, 501 
 
 Kanakavali, 298 
 
 Kanara, 460 
 
 Kanave, 163 
 
 Kanchi, 281, 303, 323, 340, 
 461 
 ,, Meke, 207 
 
 Kanchipura, 338 
 
 Kandachar, 579, 604, 671 
 
 Kandahar, 445 
 
 Kandarpa Bhi'ishana, 298 
 
 Kandhara, 340, 342 
 
 Kandy, 307, 465 
 
 Kanerki, 293 
 
 Kangavarma, 299 
 
 Kangundi, 328 
 
 Kanha, 292 
 
 Kanishka, 299, 466 
 
 Kankanhalli, 8, 405 
 
 Kankankole, 179 
 
 Kankupi)a, 8 
 
 KankuiJ})a hill, 1 1 
 
 Kanna, 273 
 
 Kannamhadi, 405 
 
 Kannanur, 340 
 
 Kannara, 315, 326, 498 
 
 Kanlaka, 317 
 
 Kanlhirava Narasa Raja, 
 364. 637 
 Raja, 369 
 
 Kaiuinga, 589 
 
 Kani'ir-gana, 309 
 
 Kanva)ana, 310 
 
 Kanyakuhja, 308, 321, 330 
 
 Kapardi, 326 
 
 Kapi-dhvaja, 277 
 
 Kai>i Ketu, 278 
 
 Kapila-vaslii, 465 
 
 Kapile, 7 
 
 Kapputgodc, 36 
 
 Karachuri, 371 
 
 Kaiadi lielta, 10 
 
 Karadi giidda, 10 
 
 Karadihalli, 57, 62 
 
 Karag padi, 661 
 
 Karahata, 278 
 
 Karaka, C25 
 
 Karata, 276 
 
 Kargudari, 300 
 
 Karhad, 278 
 
 Karhata, 330 
 
 Karidurga, 34 
 
 KarigaHa, 1 1, 62 
 
 Karikala Chola, 474 
 
 Karimaddanhalli, 53 
 
 Karnajiarya, 499 
 
 Karna-suvarna, 210 
 
 Karnatas, 307 
 
 Karniii, 4, 347, 370, 760 
 
 Kartaviryarjuna, 275 
 
 Karungahalli, 361 
 Kashmir, 290 
 Kasmira, 289 
 Kasyapa, 275 
 Katarghalta, 54 
 Katavapra, 287 
 Kathari-saluva, 352 
 Kalhiawar, 209 
 Katmandu, 318 
 Kalti (jopalraj arasu, 435 
 Kaula Devi, 343 
 Kaurava, 31 1 
 Kaiisamhhi, 465 
 Kautilya, 287 
 Kavalediirga, 5, lo, 28 1, 
 
 399. 650 
 Kavera, 323 
 Kaveri, 2, 4, 734 
 Kaveripalam, 32, 403 
 Kavi Homma, 500 
 Kaviparimeshthi, 496 
 Kavirajamarga, 326, 496, 
 
 497 
 Kavisvara, 496 
 Kavyavalokana, 499 
 Kayamgiilta, 690 
 Kedara, 471 
 Keckiresvara, 513, 514 
 Kedarnath, 472 
 Keleyahhe, 337 
 Keleyala-Devi, 337 
 Kempe (iaiida, 370 
 Kemjiinkote, 55 
 Kemi>eiifelt, Admiral, 395 
 KemiHikal River, 15 
 Kenchengod, 363 
 Kengeri, 403 
 Kere I'admarasa, 499 
 Kerala, 209, 276, 281, 283, 
 
 323. ill 
 Keralas, 325 
 Kesimuja, 515 
 Kesirrija, 500 
 Khaharatas, 292 
 Khalihats, 735 
 Khande Rao, 374 
 Khanesluimari, 217 
 Kharavela, 292 
 Kharoshthi, 491, 572 
 Khasim Khan, 361,369,480 
 Khilji, 341 
 Khi/r Klian, 344 
 Khokhand. 293 
 Khorsidiad, 538 
 Khosru II, 322 
 Khushhash, 583 
 Kibhanhalli, 8 
 Kielhorn, Professor, 331 
 Kilimale, 31S 
 Killedar, 671 
 Kin-rhi-jni-l", 306 
 Kinilersley, Mr. J. R., 724 
 Kirata, 307
 
 826 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Kiralarjuniyti, 313, 496 
 Kiii)a Maclliava, 311 
 Kirkpalrick, Ll.-Col., 417 
 Kirtivarma, 306, 319, 321, 
 
 323, 324, 327 
 Kishkindha, 274, 277, 278, 
 
 344. 345 
 KisukricI Seventy, 315 
 Kisuvulal, 497 
 Kittal-nad, 652 
 Kittel, Rev. !•"., 494, 504 
 Kitthipura, 312 
 Kittore, 760 
 Kittur, 400 
 Kodachaclri, 5, 10 
 Ivodikonda, 381 
 Kodu, loi 
 Kokanur, 322 
 Kola, 7 
 Kolahala, 316 
 Kolahalamnia, 276 
 Kolala, 209 
 Kolalapuia, 338 
 Kolar, 34, y] 
 
 ,, Gold-field, 43, 44 
 
 ,, Hills, II 
 
 ,, Mines, 45 
 Kollegal, 484 
 Kolhapur, 332 
 Kols, 209 
 Konanur, 380 
 Kondada betta, 10 
 Kondapur, 5 
 Kongas, 217 
 Kongu, 337 
 
 Kongimivarma, 311, 328 
 Konkan, 326 
 Konkana, 276, 281, 336 
 Konkanas, 276 
 Konkanapura, 322 
 Kopal, 403 
 Kopana, 322, 497 
 Koppa, 69, 328 
 ,, betta, II 
 ,, durga, 10 
 Koparakesarivarma, 333, 
 
 334 
 Kortagiri, 5, 11 
 Kosala, 466 
 Kotas, 211 
 Kotemaradi, 50, 52 
 Kottayam, 481 
 Koula, 538 
 
 Kovirajakesarivarma, 334 
 Koyatur, 337 
 Koyundjik, 538 
 Krishna, i, 2, 4, 26, 315, 
 
 320, 324, 325, 340, 
 
 361, 478 
 Krishna II, 326 
 
 „ HI, 326, 327 
 
 giri, 44 
 Krishnamachari, 504 
 
 Krishnarajnct, 54 
 Krishna RajaVVodeyar, 449 
 
 ,, Rao, 403 
 
 ,, Rava, 352 
 
 Raya, 318, 352, 
 
 353 
 Krishnavarnia, 299 
 Kritavirya, 275 
 Kshatrapa Senas, 292 
 Kshatrapas, 292 
 Kshetravarma, 298 
 Kubattur, 283, 513 
 Kubja, 321 
 Kudalur, 475 
 Kudrikonda, 61 
 Kudumi, 274 
 Kudure Mukha, 10 
 Kukarhalli, 729, 769 
 Kulaipa, 304 
 Kulaketana, 303 
 Kulburga, 347 
 Kulinda, 284 
 
 Kulottunga Chola, 334, 335 
 Kumaraiya, 368 
 Kumarila Khatta, 459, 471 
 Kumara Valmiki, 501 
 
 ,, Padmarasa, 500 
 
 ,, Paika, 212 
 
 ,, Vyasa, 501 
 Kumbhakona, 347 
 Kumri, 163, 688 
 Kumsi, 382 
 Kumudendu, 500 
 Kundagrama, 464 
 Kundapur, 398 
 Kundava, 333 
 Kunigal, 48, 365 
 Kuntala, 283 
 Kuntra, 42 
 Kupatur, 308 
 Kuppagadde, 285 
 Kuppam, 328 
 Kurgod, 331 
 Kurnagal, 70 
 Kurudu-iiiale, 11, 32, 274 
 Kuruva, 325 
 Kushana, 293 
 Kuvalala, 310, 334 
 
 Lakke parvata, 10 
 Lakshmana, 309, 327 
 Lakshmammanni, 435 
 Lakshmanlirtha, 4, 34, 734 
 Lakshmes'vara, 320, 328, 
 
 497. 
 Lakshmi, 469 
 
 ,, Devi, 339 
 Lakshmis'a, 501 
 Lakvalli, 70, 283 
 Lalliya, 315 
 Lally, 377 
 Lanka, 274, 333 
 
 Lansdowne, Marcjuess of, 
 
 448. .^ 
 La Riboisiere, 754 
 Lassen, 4, 273, 311 
 Lata, 325 
 Latf AH Beg, 376 
 Lavelle, Mr. M. F., 3O, 
 
 38, 47, 51, 524, 525 
 Lawrence, Major, 373 
 Layartl, 538 
 Lee Warner, Mr., 445 
 Lilavati, 499 
 Linga, 209, 500 
 Lingayit, 331, 476 
 Lokadilya, 298, 314 
 Lokambika, 340 
 Loka-mahadevi, 306, 323. 
 Lokapala, 497 
 Lokapavani, 4 
 Lokkigundi, 340 
 London, 525, 550 
 Louis XVI, 403 
 Loyola, Ignatius, 482 
 Lucknow, 759 
 Lyall, Mr., 444, 445 
 Lytton, Lord, 440 
 
 Mac HA, 499 
 Machiavelli, 287 
 Mackenzie MSS., 336 
 
 ,, Captain, 506 
 
 ,, Col. Colin, 460, 640 
 Macleod, Mr. J. M., 428 
 Macqueen, Col., 433 
 Madaga-kere, 7 
 Madakeri Nayak, 4S0 
 Madaksira, 381 
 Madana, 284 
 
 ,, tilaka, 499 
 
 Madarkale, 310 
 Maddur, 318, 412 
 Madesvaran Betta, 204 
 Madgiri, 8 
 
 ,, durga, II 
 Madhari, 294 
 Madhava, 300, 309, 344, 
 
 345. 346, 496 
 Madhava varma, 303 
 Madhukes'vara, 296 
 Madhuparvata, 278 
 Madhura, 500 
 Madhurantaka, 334, 335 
 Madhu Rao, 218 
 Madhva, 236 
 Madhvacharya, 236, 460, 
 
 471. 477 
 Madhyatala, 477 
 Madiraikonda, 333 
 Madoji Bhonsla, 394 
 Madras, 474, 555 
 Madura, ^^3, 365 
 Magadha, 287, 325, 466 
 Mahseer, 189
 
 INDEX 
 
 827 
 
 Maha Bali, 300 
 Mahabalipur, 301, 512 
 Mahabharala, 210 
 Mahdljhashya, 501 
 Mahabhoji, 294 
 Mahadeva, 342 
 Mahamalla, 301 
 Mahamatras, 290 
 Maha Pradhana, 573 
 Maharajan durj^a, 10 
 Maharashlri, 463 
 Maharnavami, 378, 747 
 Maha Samantddhipali, 573 
 Maha-sati-kalhi, 508 
 Mahavalabham, 294 
 Mahavali Kings, 311 
 Mahavalis, 294, 300, 796 
 Mahavira, 458, 463 
 Mahawanso, 223, 289 
 Mahendra, 276 
 
 ,, mountain, 316 
 
 Mahendrantaka, 315 
 Mahendra parvata, 279 
 Mahindo, 291 
 Mahipala, 309 
 Mahisa-niandala, I, 459 
 Mahishasura, i, 273, 475 
 
 ,, -mardani, i 
 
 Mahishmati, 211, 274, 280 
 Mahishiir, i 
 Mahudadhi, 278 
 Mailala-devi, 328 
 Mailapur, 480 
 Maisurnad Seventy, 312 
 Majjhanlika, 289 
 Makara, 340 
 Makbara, 521 
 Makhdum Ali, 378, 395 
 Makutes'vara, 321 
 Malabar, 2, 32, 332, 337, 
 
 481 
 Malai)an bctta, 44 
 Malari, 652 
 Malartic, 411 
 Malaparoj-ganda, 336 
 Malapas, 336 
 
 Malava, 323, 325, 330, 337 
 Malavalli, 293, 294, 376, 
 
 487, 522 
 Malavana-nad, 652 
 Malavas, 325 
 Malavikagnimitra, 291 
 Malay alani, 488 
 Malcolm, Major, 422 
 Male, 163, 337, 657 
 
 ,, Bennur, 8, 59, 318 
 
 ,, rajya, 347 
 Maleyas, 214 
 Maleyur, 460, 462 
 Malik Krifur, 343, 479 
 Malkhed, 324 
 Mallana Odeyar, 347 
 Mallanarya, 501 
 
 ■ Mallayanne, 347 
 Mallenahalli, 56 
 Malleson, Colonel CI B., 
 
 439 
 Mallikarjuna, 352, 500 
 Mallinatha, 296, 347 
 Malnad, 2, 3 
 Malprabhd, 332 
 Mahir, 37, 273 
 Malurpatna, 334 
 Malyavant, 278 
 Mamallapura, 301, 305, 
 
 465,510 
 Manaji I'ankria, 3S9 
 Manali'ir, 334 
 Manasollasa, 330 
 Manantoddy, 760 
 Mana\-ya, 299 
 
 ,, gotra, 320 
 Mancha Danayaka, 337 
 Mandali, 311 
 Mandana-misra, 471 
 Mandara Mali, 278 
 Mandhatrivarnia, 299 
 Mandya, 16 
 Manes, 507 
 Mangalesa, 319, 321 
 Mangalore, 319, 382, 489 
 Mangarasa, 500 
 Manipura, 280, 282 
 Manjarabad, 4, 69, 335, 
 
 4i9> 456, 735 
 Manjista, 296 
 Mankir, 325 
 Mankunda, 313 
 xManne, 314, 325 
 Mansahra, 289 
 Manu, 209 
 
 Manyakheta, 324, 325 
 Manyapura, 314 
 Mara, 456 
 
 ,, Kona, 456 
 Mara])pa, 346 
 Marasimha, 307, 314, 315, 
 
 317 
 
 Marco I'olo, 480 
 
 Mariamma, 456 
 
 Mariapura, 484 
 
 Mari Kanave, 733 
 
 Markanda, 273 
 
 Markuiipam, 32 
 
 Marochelti, Baron, 433 
 
 Marsden, 812 
 
 Marshall, Colonel, 213, 
 456 
 
 Maruhalli, 421 
 
 Marula Deva, 315 
 
 Marvad, 325 
 
 Masana, 515 
 j Masarur, 5 
 
 Mastamma, 214 
 ! Maslikal, 506 
 
 Mdsli-kallu, 508 
 
 Masulipatam, 45, 66, 423, 
 
 53S 
 Masur, 427 
 
 Masur-Madaga-Kere, 7 
 Mdtangas, 321 
 Mathura, 478 
 Matpod hill, !I 
 Malsya, 297 
 Mattakere, 325 
 Matiapatti. 294 
 Maithews, General, 39S 
 Mattod, 544 
 Mauritius, 392, 410 
 Mauryas, 217, 287, 319, 
 
 321, 50S 
 Maxwell, Colonel, 403 
 Mayakonda, 480 
 Mdyana, 500, 515 
 Maya Sugriva, 279 
 Mayi'irakhandi, 324 
 Mayurasarma, 296, 29S 
 Mayi'iravarma, 29S, 471 
 McKerrell, 504 
 Meda, 255 
 
 Meade, Sir Richard, 438 
 Mead(j\ss, General , 402 
 Metlini-misara ganda, 352 
 Medo- Persians, 493 
 Meer Soodoor, 417 
 Megasthenes, 287 
 Megha-vdhana, 277 
 Meke. 207 
 Meld Devi, 347 
 Melukote, 474. 479 
 Mercara, 521 
 Mercury, 449 
 Merti gudda, 10 
 Metcalfe, Sir Charles, 430 
 Midagesi durga, 1 1 
 Miles, Colonel W., 504 
 Mill, John Stuart, 435 
 Mimdmsa, 471 
 Mirdj, 497 
 Mir Ibrahim, 376 
 
 ,, Sadak, 391, 404, 521 
 
 ,, Sahib, 384 
 Mitakshara, 330 
 Mithridates II, 293 
 Mitli, 168 
 Mochi, 254 
 
 Moegling, Rev. Dr., 504 
 Molkalnuiru, 7. 76, 279, 
 
 507. 508 
 Mongolian, 493 
 Morison, Colonel W., 42S, 
 
 611 
 Morkhand, 324 
 Morari Rao, 374, 381 
 Mornington, l,ord, 411 
 .Morya Dinne, 508 
 Mane, 50S 
 Moryas, 508 
 Moti Talah, 7, 371
 
 828 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Moyar, 27 
 Mrigcsavarma, 299 
 Mubarak, 344 
 Muchikar, 553 
 Muddapa, 346 
 Mi'ides, 112 
 MudikondaChoki-niandala, 
 
 334 ' 
 Mudiniadagu, 1 1 
 Mutliyanur, 301 
 Mudkal, 348, 349 
 Mudra-rakshasa, 287 
 Mudvadi durga, 1 1 
 Mufti, 633 
 Mughals, 295, 361 
 Mugli, 403 
 Muhammad, 480 
 
 in, 341 
 
 Ali, 372 
 ,, Bhek>l, 372 
 ,, the Great, 358 
 Toghlak, 344 
 Wali, 372 
 
 Mukanna, 298, 459 
 
 Mi'ik-arasu, 369 
 
 Mukkuppe, 687 
 
 Mukunda, 313 
 
 Mukunti, 459 
 
 ,, I'allava, 303 
 
 Mulainagiri, 9, 10 
 
 Mula Raja, 327 
 
 Mulbagal, 32 
 
 Miiller, Max, 493 
 
 Muluvagil, 347 
 
 Munro, Captain Thomas, 
 422 
 
 Munro, Sir Thomas, 424, 
 
 504 
 Munro, Sir Hector, 392 
 Murigi, 477 
 Murkangudda, 10 
 Murugundur, 314 
 Mus'angi, 328, 334 
 Muscat, 410 
 Mushkara, 313, 319 
 Mutfarkhat, 610 
 Muttarasa, 314 
 
 ,, Tirumalai, 302 
 Mysore, i, 34, 36, y], 40, 
 
 46, 47, 460, 474, 484, 
 
 796 
 Mysore Rajas, List of, 362 
 
 Nadapanhalli, 53, 61 
 Nadiya, 478 
 Nagachandra, 499 
 Nagadatta, 312 
 NagamangaUi, 8, 47, 357 
 Nagaki Devi, 352 
 Nagamba, 352 
 Nagar, 69, 735 
 Nagarakere, 318 
 
 Nagarapura, 337 
 Nagarjuna, 497 
 Ncigarjuni, 291 
 Nagarjunayya, 746 
 Nagas, 274, 454 
 Nagavarma, 490, 494, 498, 
 
 746 
 Naghakhandaka, 308 
 Nagini, 454 
 Nagiyalilje, 307 
 Nagiyaka, 465 
 Naglapura, 513 
 Nahapana, 292 
 Nahusha, 209 
 Naikneri, 738 
 Nairs, 280, 401 
 Nakshatras, loi 
 Nalas, 2, 231 
 Nalkote, 315 
 Nalkundi, 49 
 Namburi, 280 
 Nana Farnavis, 394 
 Nanaghat, 292 
 Nandagiri, 310 
 Nandas, 287 
 Nandi, 69, 479 
 Nandidurga, 4, 11, 18, 34, 
 
 406 
 Nandi Raja, 318 
 Nandipotavarma, 323 
 Nandivarma, 325 
 Nandyal, 358 
 Nangali, 338 
 Nanjangud, 46, 337 
 Nanjunda, 500 
 Nanni Nolamba, 307 
 Nanniga, 307 
 Nanya Deva, 318 
 Napoleon Buonaparte, 423 
 Narasimha, 339, 340 
 
 „ 11, 475 
 
 „. Ill, 341 
 Narasimhapotavarma II, 
 
 3p6, 313 
 Narasimhaswami, 49 
 Narasimhavarma I, 305 
 Narasingha, 352 
 Narayandurga, II 
 Narmada, 274, 330 
 Nasik, 222, 292, 304, 342 
 Nasir Jang, 371 
 Nataputta, 464 
 Nava Danayak, 336 
 Navakoti Narayana, 369, 
 
 591" 
 Navane, 116 
 Nayakanhatti, 479, 521 
 Nayaputa, 464 
 Nayasena, 490, 499 
 Nayinda, 223, 249 
 Nazaraljad, 400 
 Nazarana, 389 
 Nejef, 401 
 
 i 
 
 Nela haga, 216 
 Nemichandra, 499 
 Nepal, 318, 444, 465 
 Nerbudda, 319 
 Nestorians, 481 
 Netravati, 4 
 Nevayet, 372 
 Newbold, Captain, 12, 33 
 Nicene Council, 481 
 Nidugal, 8, II, 38 
 Nijagal, 11 
 
 Nijagali Kataka Raya, 346 J 
 NikariliChola-man(lala,334 t 
 pura, 334 I 
 Nilachala, 478 ' 
 
 Nila Dhuaja, 280 
 Niladri, 337 
 Nilagiris, 1,2, 11, 735 
 Nilakantna, 303 
 Nila Raja, 280 
 Nile, 412 
 Nineveh, 538 
 Nira, 358 
 Nirgranthas, 463 
 Nirgunda, 307 
 Nirupama, 306, 314, 325 
 Nitimarga, 307, 315 
 Nityavarsha, 326, 327 
 Nolamba, 286, 303 
 Nolambadhiraja, 315 
 Nolambakulantaka, 315, 
 
 326 
 Nolambalige, 307 
 Nolambas, 295, 796 
 Nolambavadi, ^217, 329, 
 Nonambavadi, / 574 
 Norali, 214 
 Northcote, Sir Stafford, 
 
 435 
 Nripalunga, 326, 490, 497, 
 
 7.45 
 Nuggihalli, 56 
 Nunke Bhairava hill, 1 1 
 Nurmadi Taila, 330 
 
 Obambika, 353 
 Odu-rayindra, 317 
 Odyssey, 538 
 Oldham, R. D., 9 
 Oldenberg, Dr., 293 
 Ole, 503 
 Ongole, 66 
 Onkunda, 497 
 Ooerki, 293 
 Ootacamund, 449 
 Orangal, 344, 346, 353 
 Orekod, 31 i 
 Orissa, 316 
 Ormazd, 475 
 Ostiak, 492 
 Ottoman Porte, 410
 
 INDEX 
 
 829 
 
 I'ADAVIDU, 302 
 
 I'adi-nad, 312 
 I'admala Devi, 340 
 Padmanahha, 309 
 Padniaprahha, 309 
 Padmasale, 223 
 Padmavati, 309, y^,!, 455 
 Paduvipuri, 302 
 Pahlavas, 274, 303, 304 
 T'ahlavi, 4S1 
 Paiyanihhar, 400 
 Paima)i.sh, 640 
 Paniani, 398 
 Paisachika, 494 
 I'ailhan, 292 
 Palachi, 489 
 I'ala-CIannada, 490 
 Paiakka, 303 
 Palakkad, 305 
 Palakkada, 303 
 Palal, 212 
 Palar, 4, 311, 328 
 Palasil<a, 299 
 Palavanhalli, 41, 42, 61 
 Palt^hat, 9, 402, 489 
 Palhalli, 550 
 Palkiirike Soma, 500 
 I'ali dhvaja, 323 
 I'allava, 323 
 Pallavadhinija, 326 
 Pal lava Kings, List of, 304 
 Pallavas, 217, 303, 320, 
 
 321 
 Palni,9, 369 
 Palya, 70 
 Pamhabhe, 315 
 I'ampa, 345, 498 
 I 'anas, 222 
 Panchavati, 277 
 Panchdyatdars, 610 
 Pdndava-kula, 285 
 Pandavas, 279, 455 
 Pandila Raniabai, 746 
 Pandii Kolis, 507 
 I'andus, 345 
 Pandya, 208,287,323,333, 
 
 460 
 Panini, 524 
 Panipat, 379 
 I'antivnus, 481 
 Papaghni, 4 
 I'dpajniri, 465 
 I'aradas, 274 
 Parakalaswanii, 474 
 i'arama-bhattaraka, 320 
 Paramcs'vara, 320, 321 
 
 ,, -varnia, 306 
 
 Parantaka, 303, 333 
 I'arasika, 323 
 Parasikas, 303 
 Parasu Rama, 275, 334 
 Parasiuam lihao, 2 1 9, 3S9, 
 
 405 
 
 Pariksliii, 285 
 
 Paris, 401, 754 
 
 Parojiamisus, 303 
 
 I'ars'va, 464 
 
 Parsvanatha, 458, 463, 464 
 
 I'arthenon, 515 
 
 Parthia, 293 
 
 Parthian, 320 
 
 Parvati, 296, 360 
 
 Patala, 210 
 
 ,, Lanka, 278 
 Pataliputra, 287, 319, 463 
 Patandorc, 37 
 I'alanjali, 501 
 I'atna, 287 
 Pattadi, 626 
 
 Pattadkal, 306, 327, 497 
 Pavana, 464 
 Pavanjaya, 279 
 Pavugada, 4, 5, 11 
 Payanghat, 369 
 Peacock, Colonel, 445 
 Pearse, General, 799 
 Peddore, 340 
 I'egu, 353 
 
 Peile, Mr. J. IL, 422 
 Penjeru, 307 
 Pennagara, 313 
 Pennar, 4 
 Penugonda, 347, 352, 355, 
 
 381 
 Penukonda, 8 
 I'eriplus, 6 
 
 Periyapatna, 3, 35, 357 
 Permacoil, 393, 403 
 Permadi (langa, 328 
 I'ermanadi, 306, 314 
 Persia, 350, 388, 410, 445, 
 
 521 
 Perumala, 745 
 Perumal Danayak, 336 
 Perundurai, 341 
 Perur, 309 
 I'eshkar, 671 
 Phallus, 209 
 Phoenicia, 538 
 l'h<enician, 491 
 Phr^gia, 538 
 Pisachis, 63 
 Piya<lasi, 291 
 Pliny, 308, 799 
 Plummer, Captain K. I)., 
 
 526 
 Po, 6 
 
 Pope, Dr., 493 
 Polal Chora Nolamba, 307 
 Polalu, 338 
 PoUilva, 475 
 Pollilore, 394 
 Ponataga, 746 
 i'ondicherry, 382, 403 
 I'oni-ar, I'onn-ar, 4 
 Ponna, 49S 
 
 Ponnambala-mahddevi, 341 
 
 Ponnata, 313 
 
 Porter, Mr. W. A., 441 
 
 Poridare, 313 
 
 Poms, 277 
 
 Posa-tlannada, 490 
 
 Pot a, 305 
 
 Poysala, 335 
 
 Prahhavali, 464 
 
 Prabhulingahle, 500 
 
 Prabhutavarsha, 314, 325, 
 
 326 
 Praharapattis, 623 
 I 'raja gutta, 621 
 i'rasenajit, 275, 464 
 Prasii, 308 
 Pratajw, 801 
 
 ,, Deva Raya, 347 
 
 ,, Rudra, 318 
 Pratibindu, 278 
 Pratisthana, 303 
 I'raudha Deva, 352 
 Prcmara, 299 
 I'rendergast, Sir Harry, 
 
 445 
 Prithuvipati, 313, 317 
 Prithuyas'as, 313 
 Priyabandhuvarma, 309 
 Priyadarsana, 464 
 Ptolemies, 293, 313 
 Pujyapada, 313, 496 
 Puligere, 320, 497 
 Pulikara-nagara, 328 
 Pulikesi,305, 319, 321,322, 
 
 324 
 Puliydr-pattana, 32S 
 Pidumayi, 292 
 I'unajur hill, 1 1 
 PuMganur, 32 
 I'unjal), 491, 572, 769 
 Pimnad, 312, 574 
 
 ,, Rajas, 312 
 Pura, 55 
 Piiragadi, 363 
 Purale, 308 
 I'urana, 800 
 Purandara, 296, 501 
 Puri, 478 
 Purigere, 315 
 l'uris;i(latta, 294 
 Purnaiya, 392, 402, 521 
 Purniiah, Dewan, 55 
 Push pa vat i, 297 
 Pusiiyamitra, 291 
 I'uru, 210, 277 
 Purukutsji, 274 
 Purvishottama Deva, 318 
 I'l'irvas, 463 
 
 (,)l'KTr.\, 445
 
 830 
 
 Raciiamai.i.a, 307, 315, 
 
 316 
 Radha, 478 
 Raghavanka, 499 
 Raghunalha Narayan, 360 
 
 ,, Rao, 218 
 
 Raghujiai-lhiva, 299 
 Rahman (jhar, il 
 Rajadhiraja, 328 
 Rajaditya, 315, 333 
 Rajagriha, 465 
 Rajah Khan, 415 
 Rajaniaheiidri, 320, 321 
 Rajanialla, 301 
 Rajaraja, 316, 317, 328, 334 
 Rajarajapura, 334 
 Rajas'ekhara Vilasa, 501 
 Rajasimha, 304, 305, 321, 
 
 333 
 Rajasimhes'vara, 305, 323, 
 
 Rajasundari, 317 
 Rajasuya, 280 
 Raja-tarangini, 290 
 ,, Vallabha, 298 
 Rajendra Chola, 316,' 317, 
 
 328, 333> 334 
 Rajendraname, 504 
 
 l^aj'ga, 330 
 Rajigundi, 32 
 Rajpora, 395 
 Rajputana, 460 
 Rajput Rathors, 324 
 Rakkasa, 316 
 Rakkhita,'289 
 Rakshasas, 271 
 Rama, 81, 309, 401 
 Ramachandra, 276, 342 
 Rama Deva, 343, 344, 347 
 Ramanand, 243, 460, 477 
 Ramanalha, 341 
 Ramanna, 341 
 Ramanuja, 477 
 Ramanujacharya, 236, 338, 
 
 460, 474 
 Rama Rao, 426 
 Ramasagara, 7 
 Ramasamudra, 32 
 Ranies'vara, 277, 325 
 Ramgiri, II, 405 
 Ranaraga, 305 
 Ranarasika, 305 
 Ranavaloka, 314, 325 
 Rana \'ikramay)a, 315 
 Ran-dulha Khan, 358, 365, 
 
 479, 520, 528 
 Ranga, 353 
 
 Rangacharhi, Mr. C, 442 
 Rangapataka, 305 
 Ranna, 498 
 Raravi, 389 
 Rashtrakuta, 306 
 
 ,, Kings, List of, 
 324 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Rash tiak alas, 294, 319, 796 
 Rashtravarma, 312 
 Rataninir, 274, 280 
 Ratlianupura - chakravala- 
 
 pura, 274 
 Ratnagiri, 359 
 Ratnakararya, 500 
 Ratnapura, 283 
 Ratna puri, 337 
 Ratnasrava, 278 
 Rattas, 295 
 Rattavadi, 324 
 Rattihalli, 383 
 Ravana",'8i, 275, 276, 278 
 Ravidalta, 312 
 Ravikirti, 497 
 Ravivaima, 299, 305 
 Rawlinson, Sir H., 435 
 Rayakota, 412 
 Rayals, 588 
 Rayamurari Sovi, 332 
 Recha, 499 
 Red Sea, 411 
 Rees, Mr., 179, 521 
 Reeve, Rev. W., 485, 504 
 Renuka, 275 
 Revati-dvipa, 321 
 Reza Ali Khan, 382 
 Rice, Rev. B., 485 
 Rikshaja, 278 
 Ripaud, 410 
 Rishya Sringa, 277 
 Rochfort, Lieut., 427 
 Rohilkhand, 216 
 Rohini-devi, 308 
 Rome, 29 
 Rudra, 469 
 Rudrabhatta, 499 
 Rudradaman, 292, 304 
 Rudragiri, 10 
 Rudraksha, 241 
 Rudrasena, 292 
 Rudrasimha, 292 
 Rukmanga, 469, 470 
 Rumbold, Sir Thomas, 482 
 
 Sabar.-e, 210 
 Sabdanusasanam, 501 
 Sabdamanidarpana, 500, 
 
 504 ' 
 Sabda-smriti, 499 
 Sadar Malla, 426 
 Sadasiva, 353 
 
 ,, Yogi, 501 
 Sadat-ulla Khan, 369 
 Sadras, 4 
 Sagar, 69 
 Sagara, 21 1 
 Sahadeva, 280 
 Sahasrara, 278 
 Sahyadri, 280 
 
 ,, Khanda, 233 
 
 Saidapet, 773 
 
 SaigoUa, 314 
 St. Helena, 423 
 St. John, Sir Oliver, 445 
 St. Thomas, 480 
 Saka, 293 
 
 Sakas, 274, 303, 304 
 Sakkada, 490, 498 
 Sakrcljail, 69 
 Sakrepatna, 8, 356, 470 
 Sakuntala, 210, 502 
 Sala, 335, 336, 509 
 Salabat Jang, 374 
 ' Salamis, 481 
 Salankayana, 305 
 Salem, 2, 337 
 S'alis'uka, 289 
 S'alivahana, 292, 303 
 Salsette, 353 
 Saluvanakuppa, 305 
 Saluva Tikkama, 343 
 Salva, 500 
 Samantalihadra, 496 
 Samara Vira, 464 
 Sambayya, 302 
 Samet S'ikhara, 464 
 Sampige, 281 
 Samprati, 588 
 Samudra, 279 
 
 ,, Gupta, 281, 303 
 Sanderson, Mr., 179 
 
 ,, Rev. Dr., 4S6, 
 
 504 
 Sandrakoptus, 287 
 Sandrakottos, 287 
 Sangama, 345, 346 
 Sangames'vara, 332 
 Sangata, 289 
 Sanghamitta, 291 
 Sangola, 6 
 S'ankaracharya, 345, 459, 
 
 471 
 S'ankara Deva, 343, 344 
 Sankaragana, 321 
 S'ankara Narayana, 475 
 Sankey, Sir Richard, 522, 
 
 683 
 S'ankha, 508 
 Sannyasi, 242 
 S'anlala Devi, 339 
 Sante Bennur, 520 
 S'anti Purana, 498 
 S'antappa, 502 
 S'antas, 325 
 Santes, 555 
 Santigudda, 11 
 S'antivarma, 299 
 San Tome, 4S0 
 S'arada, 346 
 S'arad-amma, 471 
 S'arad ritu, 63 
 Sarandip, 351 
 Sarasvati, 346, 469 
 Sardanapalus, 538 
 
 I 
 
 I
 
 INDEX 
 
 831 
 
 Sargon, 538 
 Sarmancs, 288 
 Sar-Nad-Gaud, 588 
 Sarvadhikari, 573, 582 
 Sarvajna, 330 
 S'as'adharman, 289 
 Sasakapura, 335 
 Sasanika, 465 
 S'as'ankamudre, 298 
 Sasipral)he, 298 
 Sasive, 128 
 Sassanidre, 304 
 S'a'strasaia, 499 
 Satakani, 292 
 Satakanni, 293 
 S'atakarni, 292, 294, 299, 
 
 _ 304>459> 572, 796 
 Satanana, 478 
 Satavahana, 292, 490, 799 
 Satavahanas, 292, 293, 
 
 303, 310, 465 
 Salhalli, 483 
 Satyagala, 318 
 Satyaniangala, 311, 337, 
 
 375 
 Satyasraya, 321, 322, 323, 
 
 328, 498 
 Saukars, 210 
 Saundara Piirana, 500 
 Saunders, Mr. C. B. , 434, 
 
 439 
 Saunsi, 389 
 Saiiras, 327 
 Sau-rashtra, 2IO 
 Sauvira, 338 
 Sauviras, 210 
 Savandroog, 11, 17, 18, 
 
 19, 370, 406 
 Savanur, 336, 370 
 Savimale, 336 
 Silvincnima, 746 
 Sayad Ali, 630 
 Sayyid Gaft'ur, 415 
 
 ,, Ilnahim, 399 
 
 ,, Sahib, 415 
 Sayana, 345, 346 
 Scotland, i 
 ScoU, Sir Waller, 505 
 Scythian, 492 
 Seleucidi^, 303, 320 
 Seleukeia, 320 
 Seleukida.', 293 « 
 Seleiikos Nikalor, 2S7 
 Semitic, 491 
 S'enji, 360 
 
 ,, P.dja, 341 
 Sennacherib, 538 
 Seringapatani, S, 16, 20 
 Seringhani, 403 
 Selu, 340 
 
 Seuna, Sevuna, 342 
 Seven Malavas, 315 
 Sevuna, 340 
 
 Sewell, Mrs., 485 
 Shabaz, 372 
 Shadakshara Deva, 501 
 Shadi Kutike, 626 
 Shahar Ganjam, 406 
 Shahbazgarhi, 289 
 Shagird I'esha, 61 1 
 Shahji, 359 
 Shamaiya, 391 
 Sharavati, 4, 279 
 Shatpada, 495 
 Shekh Ayaz, 398 
 Shekleton, Dr., 801 
 Shcrvegars, 201 
 Sheshadri Iyer, Sir K., 444 
 Shevaroy, 9 
 Shikarpur, 3, 544 
 Shimoga, 5 
 Shimsha, 4, 49 
 Shiraz, 388 
 Sholapur, 476, 760 
 Sholingur, 394 
 Shus or Sus, 210 
 .Shushan, 210 
 Sidda, 572 
 Siddapura, 572 
 Siddarhalli, 539 
 Siddes'vara hill, 412 
 Siddhartha, 297, 464 
 Sidraj Aras, 630 
 Sige Chidda, 5 
 Sikandar Jah, 406 
 S'iladitya," 321, 322 
 Silahara, 330, 332 
 Silahdars, 760 
 Silaharas, 278, 326 
 Silara, 278 
 S'ila-sanipadane, 500 
 Siluvepura, 484 
 Slma-nnilam, 579 
 Simhala, 278, 323 
 Simhanandi, 309, 310, 31 1, 
 
 496 
 Simhapota, 307 
 Sinihavarnia, 299, 305 
 Siniuka, 292 
 Sinai, 345 
 Sindas, 300 
 Sinilh, 489 
 .Sindhia, 394 
 Sindhu-suvarna, 210 
 Singararya, 501 
 Singhana, 342 
 Singiraja, 500 
 Sira, 23, 76 
 Siri Polemaios, 292 
 ,, I'ulumaya, 292 
 Sirisena, 292 
 Siriyana Satakani, 292 
 S'isira-ritu, 63 
 Siskal belta, 10 
 Sila, 81, 276 
 Silakal, 535 
 
 Siva, I, 455, 458 
 Sivabhakta, 476 
 Sivaganga, 9, 11, 17, 18, 
 
 i . .476 
 
 ' Sivaji, 60 
 
 I S'ivamara, 307, 313, 314, 
 
 ! . 325. 
 
 \ Sivangiri, li, 405 
 
 I S'ivannugiri, 290 
 
 Sivappa Nayak, 279, 356 
 
 Sivaratha, 299 
 
 Sivasamudra, 736 
 
 Sivasamudram, 318, 405, 
 
 ' . 521 
 
 Sivaskandavarnia, 305 
 
 Skandapura, 31 1 
 
 Skandavarma, 312 
 I Smarta, 235, 236 
 I Sobagina Sone, 501 
 , Suda or Seda, 317 
 
 Soligas, 213 
 
 Solomon, 282 
 
 Somala Devi, 340 
 
 Somanatha, 514 
 
 Somaraja, 500 
 
 Somas'arman, 289 
 
 Soma-vamsa, 285, 320 
 
 Somes'vara, 328, 329, 330, 
 
 331. 340 
 Somma, 21 
 
 Somnath]iur, 514, 797 
 Sondur hills, 25 
 Sonnahalli, 52, 53 
 Sora, 333 
 Sorab, 69, 522 
 Soratur, 340 
 Sosevur, 335 
 Sosile, 379, 413. 477 
 Sramanas, 291 
 S'ravaka, 247 
 
 Sravana Belgf)la, 55, 287, 
 316, 325, 458, 460, 
 i 498, 522 
 
 Sravanas, 288 
 Srenika, 465 
 S'ridatla, 309 
 Srikantha Kumara, 278 
 Sringa-giri, 472 
 S'ringcri, 273, 345, 459, 479 
 S'ri - Nonamba\adig()nda, 
 
 Sriparvata, 298 
 Sri I'ermatur, 474 
 Sri I'urambiyam, 314 
 S'riinirusha, 306, 314 
 
 , Sri Kanga, 356, 474 
 
 J „ „ Kaya, 319, 365 
 „ ,, Rayal, 356 
 
 j S'ri-rajya, 314 
 S'risaila, 4, 360, 471 
 
 I S'ri-Talakadu-gonda, 33S 
 
 I S'rivaishnava, 236 
 
 : S'rivallabha, 313
 
 832 
 
 INDEX 
 
 S'livarddha, 496, 497 
 S'rivijaya, 497 
 S'ri'vikrania, 313 
 Srivilliputtur, 302 
 S'rulaki'rti, 500 
 Slambhodadhi, 273 
 Stc\cnson, Col., 760 
 Slhavira, 241 
 Sthanagundur, 298, 459 
 Stokes, Mr. II., 576 
 
 ,, Major R. I)., 430 
 Strabo, 523 
 Stuart, General, 412 
 Suari, 210 
 Suhahu, 342 
 Svd)hadra, 2S5 
 Suhrahmanya, 477, 478 
 Sudhanva, 281 
 Sudhyumna, 280 
 Sudugadu Sidda, 216 
 Sugatur, 357 
 Sugriva, 277, 278 
 Sujanottamsa, 499 
 Sukesha, 278 
 Suladamaradi, 60 
 Sulekere, 7, 10, 737 
 Sullivan, Mr. John, 399 
 Sumali, 278 
 Sumanobana, 499 
 Sumerian, 210 
 Sumuka, 291 
 Sunda, 382 
 Sundara Tol, 302 
 S'unga, 291 
 S'ungabhrityas, 291 
 Sunka, 657 
 Sunnakal, 4, 5) ' ^ 
 Surabhi, 274 
 Surappa, 483 
 Surashtra, 292 
 Sural, 389 
 
 Suresvaracharya, 471, 473 
 Surparaka, 209 
 Surya, 469 
 Suryaja, 278 
 Surya-vamsa, 333 
 Sus'arman, 291 
 Sushena, 280 
 Sutari, 278 
 Su-varna, 210 
 Suvarnavarsha, 326 
 Suvela. 279 
 Suvelachala, 279 
 Suvisakha, 304 
 Suyas'as, 289 
 Svetambara, 244, 462 
 Swartz, Rev. F. C, 392,396 
 Svadvadins, 463 
 Sylhet, 478 
 Syria, 293 
 
 Tachchaxmt.iri, 290 
 Tadangdla Madhava, 312 
 
 Tadbhava, 494 
 
 Tagara, 342 
 
 Tagadur-l)etta, 56 
 
 Tahir Khan, 371 
 
 Taila, 327 
 
 Tailapa, 324, 327, 498 
 
 Takkola, 315, 333 
 
 Talavanapura, 310 
 
 Talcose schist, 15 
 
 Talgunda, 294, 522 
 
 Talgupjja, 5 
 
 Talikota, 354 
 
 Talkad, 6, 32, 311, 312, 
 
 316, 333> 334, ll(y 
 Tamil, 488 
 Tanjapuri, 315 
 Tanjore, 333. 360 
 Tantia Topee, 438 
 Taranatha, 471 
 Tarikere, 359 
 Tavarekere, 34 
 Taylor, Col. Meadows, 505 
 
 ,, Mr. John, 525, 526 
 
 ,, Mr., 784 
 Telingana, 345 
 Tellicherry, 399 
 Telunga, 342 
 Temple, Sir Richard, 440 
 Ten-nad country, 312 
 Teutonic, 493 
 Thurston, Mr. Edgar, 801 
 Tiastenes, 292 
 Tiberius, 797 
 Tiele, Dr., 457 
 Tigris, 320 
 Timmanna, 501 
 
 ,, dannayaka, 352 
 
 Timma Raja, 353 
 Tippaji, 352 
 Tippakshi, 352 
 Tippamba, 352 
 Tippa Rudra, 479 
 Tiptur, 56 
 Tipu Sultan, 295, 363, 505 
 
 555 
 Tirthahalli, 69 
 Tirthankaras, 462, 464 
 Tirumala, 356 
 Tirumalaiyangar, 367, 369 
 Tirumalarya, 501 
 Tirumal Raja, 354 
 
 ,, Rao, 399, 418, 479 
 Tirupati, 474, 478 
 Tiru Purambiyam, 314 
 Tiruvannamalai, 342 
 Tochari, 293 
 Todas, 211, 456 
 Tohavar Jang, 400 
 Tonda-mandala, 323 
 Tonda-nad, 310 
 Tondanur, 341 
 Tonnur, 341, 371 
 Tontadarya, 500 
 
 Tour-sha, 209 
 Tovari, 109, 112 
 Toyada Vahana, 277 
 Trailokyamalla, 328, 330, 
 
 336 
 Trairajya Pallava, 306, 323 
 Transvaal, 759 
 Travancore, 9, 402, 471, 
 
 481 
 Trevelyan, Sir Charles, 431 
 Tricalorc, 395 
 Trichinopoly, 279, 311, 
 
 333. 373 
 Trikalinga, 317 
 Trilochana Kadamba, 296 
 Triloka-s'ataka, 500 
 Trimurti, 468 
 Trinayana, 307 
 Trinetra, 459 
 
 ,, Kadamba, 296 
 Trinomalai, 385, 403 
 Tripassore, 394 
 Tripati, 112 
 Tripatur, 384 
 Tripitaka, 466 
 Tripura, 274 
 Tripura-dahana, 500 
 Tripurasura, 470 
 Trisala, 464 
 Trivadi, 360 
 Trivatur, 746 
 Tryambak Mama, 387 
 
 ,, Rao, 218 
 Tudas, 211 
 Tuduve, 197 
 
 Tulava, 276, 295, 319, 352 
 Tulu, 338 
 Tuluva, 212, 477 
 Tumbalur-A'charya, 496 
 Tumkur, 38, 39 
 Tundaka, 306, 323 
 Tunga, 4 
 
 Tungabhadra, 26, 325, 345 
 Turanian, 209, 212, 492 
 Turkish, 493 
 Tur-sene, 209 
 Turushka, 293 
 Turuvekere, 20 
 Turvasu, 209, 309, 316 
 Tyagar, 378, 379, 403 
 Tyakal, 37 
 
 ,, hills, II 
 Tyrrhenians, 209 
 
 Ubrani hills, 8, 10 
 Uchchangi, 33, 338, 642 
 
 „ -droog, 51 
 Uchchas'ringi, 299 
 Udaya, 497 
 Udayaditya, 329, in 
 Udipi, 477, 481 
 Uduve, 163 
 Uggihalii, 652
 
 INDEX 
 
 833 
 
 Ugradanda, 305 
 Ugras, 297 
 Ugrasena, 305 
 Ugrian, 492 
 Ujari, 109 
 Ujjayini, 286 
 Ulavi, 476 
 Ulive, 332 
 Ulupi, 283 
 Unnamale, 341 
 Upades'a, 242 
 Upangas, 463 
 Upasaka, 290 
 Uppara, 223, 252 
 Uraiyur, 333 
 Urigani, 45, 525, 527 
 Ushak, 538 
 Utkala, 317 
 Uttara, 285 
 
 \'adiraja, 497 
 Vaidumba, 303, 317, 333 
 \'aijayantipura, 295 
 \'aira Mudi, 479 
 \'ajraliasta, 303, 317 
 Vajrakantha, 278 
 \'akkaleri, 37 
 \'akkunda, 497 
 \'alal3hi, 296, 463 
 \'alerius P^laccus, 308 
 \'ali, 278 
 \'allabha, 324 
 \'allal)haraja, 305 
 Valmiki, 277 
 Valse, 219 
 \'ama, 464 
 \'anavasi, 289 
 \'anga, 325 
 \ anianibadi, 385 
 \'aiml)alguli, 313 
 \'arada, 295 
 \'araguna, 313 
 ^"arahamihira, 4S9 
 \'araha-parvala, 10 
 \'arddhamana, 458, 464 
 ^'arna, 221 
 \'arsha rilii, 63 
 \'asanla ritii, 63 
 \'asaiUika, 335, 336 
 \'asi.shlha, 210, 274 
 Vasilhi, 292 
 
 \'asilhi[)utra ruliima)i, 292 
 \aslara, 70, 212, 368 
 \'astukos'a, 499 
 \'a.sii(leva, 293 
 Xiisuki, 283 
 
 Vauipi, 273, 303, 319, 320 
 Xatajiipura, 273 
 \'atsa.s, 325 
 \'cdavali, 4, 64 
 \'elandha-pura, 279 
 \'clavura, 340 
 \cllore, 356, 393 
 
 V'engalaniba, 356 
 
 Vengi, 281, 305, 317, 320, 
 
 321, 325 
 Vengin, 338 
 Venkatadri, 354 
 Venkatapati, 371 
 
 ,, Kaya, 356 
 \'enkat arasu, 371 
 \'enkatsubbaiya, 424 
 \'enkayya, 333 
 Venkoji, 360 
 \'e.suvian, 21 
 \'il)han(laka, 273 
 \'i(iliarbha, 297 
 Vidisa, 291 
 Vidura, 455 
 \'idhyadharas, 274, 278 
 \'idyanagara, 344 
 \'idyaranya, 344 
 Vijaya, 361 
 
 ^'ijaya-bhattarika, 323 
 Vijaydditya," 314, 317, 323 
 ,, Narendraniri- 
 
 garaja, 325 
 Vijayakuniari-kathe, 500 
 Vijayalaya, 333 
 Vijaya-Mahadevi, 308, 323 
 Vijayanagar, 277, 295, 344 
 
 ., Kings, List of, 
 
 3,46 
 \'ijayaratha, 278 
 \'ijaya Simha, 278 
 Vijnanes'vara, 330 
 Vikrama, 328, 329, 330 
 
 Chola, 335 
 Vikrama Chola - mandala, 
 
 334 . 
 \ ikramaditya, 293, 301, 
 
 323. 327 
 \ ikraniarka, 330 
 Vikramapiira, 340 
 Vila, 323 
 \'ilanda, 313 
 \illavas, 335 
 Viniala, 497 
 Vimaladitya, 333 
 Viniana, 512 
 Vinayadilya, 306, 323, 336. 
 
 337, 514 
 \ inaya-mahack'\i, 317 
 V'iiulhya-giri, 461 
 \'inguvalli, 326 
 \'inhukaddavulii, 294 
 Vira Hallaia, 339 
 \'iral)hadra, 318 
 Vira ( ".anga, 337 
 Vira Narasiniha, 352 
 \"ira X.-irayana, 301 
 \'ira Raja Arasu, 426 
 \'irarajendra]K'l, 35 
 Virasarnia, 298 
 Virasimha, 317 
 Virata, 276, 2S1, 33S 
 
 Virgil, 308 
 
 \'irochana, 316 
 
 \'irupaksha, 345, 346, 347 
 ,, Ballala, 341 
 
 ,, pandita, 501 
 
 Viru])akshipur, 56 
 
 Visaji Pandit. 37S 
 
 Vis'akha, 287 
 
 Vishalaksha Pandit, 366 
 
 Vishaya, 284 
 
 Vishnu, 275, 316, 455, 458 
 
 Vishnugopa, 281, 305, 312, 
 
 459 
 
 Vishnu-Gupta, 287 
 Vishnus'arnia, 339 
 Vishnu Somayaji, 304 
 Vishnuvarddhana,32i, 338, 
 
 339. 459, 474, 5 '4, 
 Vishnuvarddhana \'ijayadi- 
 
 tya, 329 
 \ ishnuvarnia, 299 
 Vis'vakamnia, 294 
 ' \'is'vakarma, 522 
 I \'is'vaniitra, 210, 275 
 1 Vithala, 501 
 
 I Vizaga]ialani, 212, 316, 760 
 I Vokkaleri, 796 
 I Vrishabhapura, 332 
 j Vrishasena, 280 
 I Vyasa Rao, 610 
 ,, Sanuidra, 7 
 
 ; Wainad, S, 484, 735 
 
 Wales, South, 6 
 
 Wandiwash, 393 
 
 Warren, Lieut., 32 
 
 Warth, 16 
 
 Waterloo, 413 
 i Walt, Mr , 4S6 
 I Wcbbe, Mr. Josiah, 41 8, 
 1 .422,738 
 
 Weigle, Rev., 504 
 
 Wellesley, Colonel Arthur, 
 
 413, 417, 759 
 ,, Ilon'ble Henry, 
 
 417 
 Mr., 683 
 I ., Sir .Vrlhur, 509 
 
 Wellington, Duke of, 509, 
 
 521 
 Welsh, Colonel, 420, 424 
 I Weslland, Mr., 7S4 
 ' Whitefield, 37 
 Whiteley, Mr. J. J., 449 
 Whitney, Professor, 493 
 Wilks, .Major, 7, 505 
 Wilson, 345, 465 
 j Williams, Monier, 456 
 
 ,, Captain, 1". A., 
 
 ! 44' 
 
 Woddin gudda, lo 
 
 Wodeyars, 575 
 I Wolakandaya, 687 
 3 H
 
 834 
 
 Wurralkonda, 15 
 Wynatl,'36, 38 
 
 XA\IKR, I'KANCIS, 482 
 
 Vai>ava Kings, Lisl of, 
 
 342, 347 
 Vadavas, 295, 331, 335, 
 
 341 
 Yadvi, 209 
 Yadugiri, 11 
 Yagachi, 4 
 Yamuna, 325 
 
 ,, dhvaja, 323 
 
 Yarkand, 293 
 
 INDEX 
 
 \'as6da, 464 
 Vasodhara, 465 
 Yasovarma, 325 
 Vavanas, 209, 2io,' 274, 
 
 303. 304 
 Yayali, 209, 210, 309 
 Vayavati, 316 
 Yediyur, 49 
 \'elaga, 205 
 Yelandur, 366 
 Yelburga, 299 
 Yellavari, 57 
 Yelle kallu, 508 
 Yehisavirashime, 574 
 Yelwal, 273 
 Yenur, 509 
 
 \'erra Konda, 1 1 
 V'esvantpur, 797 
 Y(jnas, 210 
 Young, Mr. Mackworth, 
 
 445 
 Yudhishthira, 280, 281 
 \unani, 790 
 Yusufahad, 410 
 Yusuf Adil Shah, 25S 
 Yusufzai, 289 
 Yuvardja, 337 
 
 Zain-L'l-Abidin, 408 
 Zamorin, 383, 401 
 Zend Turanians, 209 
 Zulfikar Khan, 368 
 
 PRINTED BY 
 
 WOODFALL AND KINDER, LONG ACRE 
 
 LONDON
 
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