EXCHANGE A Comparative Study of the Township District, ConsoHdated, Town and City School A Indiana BY LESTER BURTON ROGERS, A.M. Professor of Education, Lawrence College Appleton, Wisconsin Research Scholar, Teachers College, 1910-11 Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for TEE Degree of Doctor of Philosophy, in the Faculty OF Philosophy, Columbia University GEoaoE Banta Publishing Company Menasha, Wisconsin Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2007 with funding from IVIicrosoft Corporation http://www.archive.org/details/comparativestudyOOrogerich A Comparative Study of the Township District, ConsoUdated, Town and City Schools of Indiana BY LESTER BURTON ROGERS, A.M. Professor of Education^ Lawrence College Appleton, Wisconsin Research Scholar, Teachers College, 1910-11 Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for THE Degree of Doctor of Philosophy, in the Faculty OF Philosophy, Columbia University Georoe Banta Pubushing Company Men ASH A, Wisconsin / Copyright 1915 By Lester Burton Rogers l^ l.rl'1 '. TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter I. — Introduction page Current opinions concerning rural education and consolidation. 2. Pur- pose of this investigation. 3. Selection and distribution of school corporations investigated. 4. Original data. 5. Definition of terms. 6. System of organization and administration. 7. Statistical method employed. . .1 i Chapter II. — School Plants Basis for comparison. 2. Original data presented. 3. Comparison of the different types of schools. 4. Recent legislation relative to the sanitation of school buildings. 5. Standards applied to existing schools > 14 Chapter III. — Teachers Legal qualifications. 2. Sex. 3. Grade teachers; (a) Professional training, (b) Experience, (c) Classification and salary. 4. High School teachers; (a) Professional training, (b) Experience, (c) Sal- ary. 5. Special teachers ; (a) Number and distribution, (b) Salary., y? Chapter IV. — Enrichment of Curricula The /course of study as an index of the work of the school. 2. The state course of study. 3. Legal requirements. 4. Extent of the use of the state manual. 5. Local courses of study 7Z Chapter V. — Supervision Supervisory staffs. 2. Nature and extent of the supervision of instruc- tion. 3. Professional improvement of teachers in the service. 4. Medical inspection. 5. School and community activities 80 Chapter VI. — School Statistics Original data. 2. Changes in population. 3. School census. 4. Enroll- ment. 5. Average daily attendance. 6. Length of school year 92 Chapter VII. — School Finances — Receipts Basis of support of schools. 2. Distribution of state tax. 3. Distribu- tion of county and local levies and wealth per capita school population. 4. Relation of wealth per capita and tax levies. 5. Tuition receipts. 6. Distribution of the Common School Fund. 7. Results obtained by use of teacher-average-daily-attendance basis 103 Chapter VIII. — School Finances — Expenditures Distribution of expenditures. 2. Relation of expenditures to wealth per capita and tax levies. 3. Distribution of expenditures in the corporations spending more than the average for the group 152 Chapter IX. — Summary and Conclusion Application of facts revealed to the claims made for consolidated schools. 2. Needs for reorganization. 3. Suggestions for reorgani- zation. 4. The effect of reorganization on the different types of schools. 5. Conclusion 201 iii 327798 LIST OF TABLES TABLES PAGE I-IV Buildings, sanitation and equipment in the four types of schools 15-26 V Summary of statistics on school plants 28 VI-IX Distribution of grade teachers on basis of sex, pro- fessional training, experience, rank and salary.... 40-47 X Summary of distribution of grade teachers on basis of sex 48 XI Summary of distribution of grade teachers on basis of professional training 49 XII Percentile distribution of teachers on basis of training 49 XIII Distribution of grade teachers on basis of experience 54 XIV Percentile distribution of grade teachers in periods of years of experience 55 XV Distribution of grade teachers on basis of rank and salary 55 XVI Salaries of all grade teachers in the four types of schools compared with salaries in earlier years... 56 XVII-XIX Distribution of high school teachers on basis of sex, training, experience and salary 58-60 XX Training of high school teachers 61 XXI Percentile distribution of high school teachers on basis of training 61 XXII Distribution of high school teachers on basis of experience 63 XXIII- Distribution of high school teachers, including prin- XXIV cipals, on basis of salary 67-68 XXV Special teachers and supervisors 70 XXVI Salaries of special teachers 71 XXVII Median salaries of grade, special, and high school teachers in the different types of schools ^2 XXVIII Courses of study used in different types of schools. . . ^^ XXIX Number and per cent of schools offering the newer subjects 78 XXX Supervision in the different types of schools 80 XXXI Nature and extent of school and community activities 89 XXXII- Population and school statistics for the four types XXXV of schools 93-96 XXXVI- Changes in population, and school statistics given in XXXIX per cents 97-100 XL Central tendencies and deviations in population and school statistics lOi XLI-XLIV Property valuation and tax levies in the four types of corporations 106-111 XLV Central tendencies and deviations in corporation wealth and tax levies 113 V VI List of Tables XLVI- XLIX L LI-LIV LIVa LV-LVIII LIX-LXII LXIII- LXVI LXVII LXVIII LXIX- LXXII LXXIII LXXIV- LXXVII LXXVIII- LXXXI LXXXII- LXXXV LXXXVI LXXXVII- XC XCI XCII-XCV XCVI Wealth per capita school population and percentile distribution of tax levies 114-117 Central tendencies and deviations of wealth per capita, and tax levies on basis of per cent of total tax levies 119 Data for comparison of wealth per capita and tax levies in the four types of corporations 121 -122 Quartile ratios of wealth per capita and tax levies in the four types of corporations 123 Sources and amounts of tuition receipts 124-127 Percentile distribution of tuition receipts 128-131 Distribution of tuition receipts on basis of number of pupils in average daily attendance 134-13/ Central tendencies and deviations in percentile dis- tibution of tuition receipts 138 Central tendencies and deviations in tuition receipts on basis of amount received per pupil in average daily attendance 141 Data showing the effect of distribution of state funds on teacher-average-daily-attendance basis 142-145 Comparison of effect of teacher-average-daily-attend- ance basis of distribution on the four types of schools 148 Distribution of school expenditures 149-158 Percentile distribution of school expenditures i59-i75 Distribution of expenditures on basis of pupils in average daily attendance , 176-183 Central tendencies and deviations from central ten- dencies in distribution of school expenditures 184 Data for comparison of total cost per pupil to teach- ers' salaries, wealth per capita and tax levies 188-191 Relation of total cost per pupil to expenditures for teachers' salaries, wealth per capita and tax levies in the four types of schools 192 Distribution of excessive expenditures 195-198 Comparison of excessive expenditures in the four types of schools 199 CHAPTER I Introduction Much is being written and more said concerning the limitations and deficiencies of the one- room district or rural school of today as compared with the efficiency of the township consolidated, town, and city schools. The question has provided subjects for many series of lectures, magazine articles, special reports by commissions and quite a number of books. All are agreed that the rural schools do not effectively meet the needs of country life but do not agree as to the changes that should be made in order that the desired results may be obtained. It is a case where the doctors disagree. One insists that the greatest need is a more modem and sanitary school plant, another prescribes better trained teachers, a third insists that an enriched course of study is the most imperative need, while a large percentage offer consolidation as a panacea for exist- ing ills since all these other things will be assured as a natural result. The attitude of a very large group of writers is illustrated by the following: "The retention of the small one-room school as a local institu- tion and as a land-mark is a worthy sentiment, but a sentiment much more worthy is that which would create a new rural school conse- crated to a new principle in education and farm life and founded to endure through another period of national greatness until in a later generation, other wise men shall rebuild the educational struc- ture again suited to their needs and their conditions How- ever useful and effective the small district was in its day, it is, in most localities, getting out of touch with present-day rural affairs and with the rural community." (G. W. Knorr — A Study of Fifteen Consolidated Rural Schools, p. lo.) In speaking of the great advantages of the consolidated school over the one-room rural school the same writer in another bulletin (No. 232, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture) expresses himself as follows: "The advantages of the new system are obvious : The fusion of a number of small districts into a larger administrative unit fur- nishes a stable and extensive basis for financing the school and thereby make for higher efficiency. The school, no longer seriously affected by fluctuations in school population, becomes an institution v '' •• •* • ^* • . 2 A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana with fixed location and belongings. An incentive is given to make permanent improvements, to beautify the school grounds, secure modem sanitation and provide ample schoolroom equipment. The large number of children assembled at a centrally located school makes possible graded classes and a better division of the school day. Studies can be introduced which require special equipment and specially trained teachers, such as agriculture, home economics, manual training, music — advantages almost unattainable in small district schools. These centrally located country-life schools, too, form convenient social centers for communities; local interests and activities affiliated with the schools, so that public use is fre- quently made of their commodious classrooms or auditoriums. Encouragement is given to the growth of literary and debating societies, social and agricultural clubs, grange meetings, reading circles, athletic and other competitives among pupils, and entertain- ments of various kinds It was assimilated into the rural-school system as a result of observation and careful experi- ment, and fortunately lacked every element of a fad. It gains a foothold chiefly where civic ambition and high educational ideals establish high standards and determine to attain them." Another writer (See The American Rural School by Foght) speaks of the efficiency of urban schools as follows : "Graded schools, in cities and villages alike, have reached a stage of development or evolution so satisfactory that their future is practically assured Secondary and higher education within our country have attained a satisfactory degree of excellency and efficiency." While such generalizations as those quoted above may be true, they certainly would be given much greater consideration if based on something more than general observations. Furthermore, there seemed to be a tendency, and it still prevails to a certain extent, to assume that the city school has reached a high degree of perfec- tion and is the standard by which the efficiency of the rural school is to be measured. If a rural school imitates the city school to a large extent in its organization and practices it is considered pro- gressive and worthy of great commendation. In the beginning of a new movement it is always necessary to theorize concerning the probable results, and in this regard the consolidated school is no exception. This, however, should not continue longer than is necessary for educational practice in har- A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 3 mony with the advanced theories to have continued for a sufficiently long period to provide data for a study of the results. The con- solidated school has been in existence long enough to justify itself on this basis. If an investigation clearly shows that the consolidated school, on account of its organization and administration, is a much more efficient institution for the training of children than the one- room rural school and that the results of this better training are manifested through improved economic and social conditions of the community, there is no need for further discussion of the question ; it is a time for decisive action. If, on the other hand, these results are lacking or are not sufficiently in evidence to offset the objec- tions to consolidation, it means that there must be a more intensive study of the situation before the problems of rural education are solved satisfactorily. With the development of the statistical and survey methods of investigation have come a number of studies which bear more or less directly on the problems of the rural schools. One of the most recent and intensive of these and one that is devoted entirely to rural education is that made by Dr. Burnham. (See his Two Types of Rural Schools.) In this he gives a careful survey of the economic and social conditions of the communities in which the schools are located before attempting an intensive study of the schools. His conclusions indicate that some of the generalizations concerning the merits of the consolidated schools based on general impressions are not well founded. This study is especially valuable in two respects, (a) It presents correlated data concerning the two types of rural schools, (b) The tables showing the relative standing of the two communities economically and socially, fail to reveal any pronounced advancement of the community in which the consoli- dated schools are located over the communities in which there are only the one- room rural school. In order to obtain perfectly reliable data, however, concerning the relative influence of the two types of schools on the community life, it would be necessary to secure correlated data for a period of years. When considering one type of schools alone, it is difficult to estimate the true value of the different phases of the work. In order to see things in their true relationship it is necessary to have some basis for comparison. For example, one may emphasize the fact that a teacher in a consolidated school has only one grade to teach, but fail to observe that a pupil in the one-room rural school 4 A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana is given more individual attention and has a greater opportunity to exercise his own initiative and originality. The same difficulty, in a little more complex form, is present when the rural situation is considered apart from the conditions and practices in the urban schools. There is a tendency to over-emphasize the deficiencies of the one and the excellencies of the other. While recognizing the fact that both the rural and urban schools have problems that are pecu- liarly their own, it is also true that in dealing with many of the larger phases of the work a comparative study is profitable. Such a comparative study will not only aid in seeing the rural situation in proper perspective, but may correct some of the misconceptions and reveal some of the needs of the urban schools. Purpose The efficiency of a school may be tested in two ways : either on a basis of results as seen in increased attendance, advanced standing of its graduates and the improved social conditions of the commu- nity in which the school is located, or on a basis of relative efficiency of the various parts of the organization and thus judge the efficiency of the whole as an institution for the right training of children. This study will approach the situation from the latter point of view, presenting correlated data of the four types of schools, the one- room township district school, the township consolidated school, the village or town school, and the city school of Indiana. An effort will be made to present correlated data that will reveal the exact condition of these four types of schools with reference to school plants, teachers, school population, attendance, curricula, super- vision, revenue and expenditures, and to determine: — (i) To what extent do the facts substantiate the claims made by the advocates for consolidation. (2) Which of the advantages gained by consolidation are limited to this type of organization. (3) To what extent is the present plan of organization and administration of consolidated schools applicable to the rural situation. (4) The essentials in the reorganization and administration of all rural and town schools to insure equality of opportunity for all children of school age. A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 5 Selection and Distribution of School Corporations Great care was taken to insure a random selection of the school corporations considered and to include only such schools as would clearly fall within the limitations of the four types indicated above. School corporations from twenty-five of the ninety- two counties of Indiana were selected as follows: It was first determined in what counties of the state were located consolidated schools that provided educational facilities for all of the children of the town- ship (the township being the unit of taxation and administration), and were not united with the schools of a village or town. From such counties data were obtained for one township in which were only one-room rural schools, the township or townships in which there was complete consolidation in one or two buildings, the one town whose population was nearest one thousand, and a city, pro- vided its population was greater than twenty-five hundred and did not exceed twenty thousand, if there were any such town and city within the county. The township selected was the first in each county, taken alphabetically, that met the required conditions, namely, that had only one-room district schools and had no town or city within its limits. (Two exceptions were discovered after the data were collected and work well under way. Such cases were omitted if exceptional in any respect.) In some cases where there were only a few schools in this township, a second was taken, in which case the last township on the list that met the requirements was selected. Since there were so few townships within the state in which the consolidated schools met the above conditions, it was found advisable to include the two townships that met the require- ments in two counties and the three in the third. In all other cases not more than one township with consolidated schools is taken from any county. It sometimes happened that the records on file in the county offices were incomplete so that it was not possible to get the desired data for the towns and cities. In such cases the writer selected the nearest town or city in an adjoining county. The dis- tribution of the counties in which are located the consolidated schools is quite wide, extending to almost every part of the state except the extreme northeastern and southern parts, though a greater number are to be found in the middle half than in the northern and southern fourths combined. In addition to the coun- ties which had one or more townships with consolidated schools, a number of other counties were selected, so that the total number 6 A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana of counties included in the study are as nearly equally distributed throughout the state as it is possible to select them. Only in cases of counties with consolidated schools do any two selected have a common boundary line. Original Data The first effort to secure the data for this study was made during the summer of 191 1 while the writer was teaching in the Summer School of Indiana University. A blank, somewhat simpler in form than the one given below, was given at the close of the term, to members of classes in Secondary Education and sent to friends and fellow students who were located in the different counties through- out the state. The returns received varied so greatly and some were so incomplete that it was thought best to discard all except the returns from three counties. This experience was sufficient to show that any form of a questionnaire method would be inadequate for an investigation of this kind. The summer of 191 2 and some time during the summer of 19 13 was spent by the writer visiting cities, county seats, towns, and a few townships in the different counties, securing the material on which this investigation is based. The forms given below served as a guide in this work. The information concerning buildings, equipment, sanitation, etc., was secured, for the cities, by personal observation and con- ferences with city superintendents; for towns and consolidated schools, by personal observation and conferences with the principals of the schools and county superintendents, and in a number of cases by correspondence as it frequently happened that the principals of these schools did not reside in the town or were away during the summer vacation ; for townships, by personal observation in a few cases but usually by conference with the county superintendent and by some correspondence with some teacher in the township. The information concerning teachers and supervision was se- cured from records in the offices of the county superintendent and by interviewing city, town and county superintendents. Where it was impossible to meet the superintendent personally the desired information was obtained through correspondence. Records in the offices of the state superintendent of public in- struction, county auditors, and county superintendents supplied the statistical and financial data. A complete transcript of the expendi- tures in each corporation was made and classified by the writer with the aid of one assistant, so that uniformity prevails throughout. A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana y BUILDINGS, EQUIPMENT AND SANITATION 1. Number of buildings in use? Rooms in use? 2. Number of rooms heated by means of — a. Stoves? b. Stoves with jackets or screens? c. Furnace? d. Steam? e. Hot water? f. Direct - indirect system? 3. Number of rooms ventilated by means of — a. Doors and windows only? b. Some form of gravity system? c. Fan or force system? 4. Number of rooms lighted by windows on — a. One side only? b. Two adjacent sides? c. Two opposite sides? d. Three sides? 5. Number of rooms furnished with — a. Single non-adjustable desks? b. Single adjustable desks? c. Double non-adjustable desks? d. Double adjustable desks? 6. Number of buildings at which water is provided by means of — a. Pail and common drinking cup? b. Pail and individual drinking cups? c. Pump or faucet and common cup? d. Pump or faucet and individual cups? e. Drinking fountains? 7. Decorations. a. How often are the walls redecorated? b. What per cent of the rooms are provided with pictures? At public expense? Through efforts of teachers and pupils? 8. Sanitation. a. How often is the furniture and woodwork washed? b. How often are all marks, carvings, etc., removed and furniture revamished? c. How often are the rooms disinfected? d. Are floors kept clean by means of a broom? Oil and brush? Mop? Vacuum cleaning system? e. Are toilets inside or outside of school building? Sanitary or unsanitary? Are they free from marks, carvings, etc.? 9. Libraries. a. Have you a public library maintained at public expense? b. Have you a library in school? Maintained at public expense? Through efforts of teacher and pupils? c. In what subjects have you supplementary books? TEACHERS Number of — Men teaching in Women teaching in Total in Grades Grades Grades High School High School High School Special Special Special 8 A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana GRADE TEACHERS Number of years (or weeks) ■»j Teaches in Present Normal College Experi- Daily Class A, JName ^jj^^^ Position Training Training ence salary B or C I. 2. 3- 4- k 7- 8. 9- lO. II. 12. 13- 14.. 15- HIGH SCHOOL TEACHERS SPECIAL TEACHERS ADMINISTRATORS AND SUPERVISORS (nOT INCLUDED ABOVE) I 2 3 4 I 2 3 4 ^ SUPERVISION Average number of visits made by the superintendent to each room during the year? Average length of each visit? State, in order of importance, the purpose of such visitation. a b c d e Number of institutes held, in the corporation during the year? Teachers' meetings? Average length of each? Per cent of the time devoted to (a) routine work of school? (b) larger problems of education ? Any other means of professional improve- ment of teachers and if so, what was nature of same? Do you have medical inspection other than city or county Board of Health? How often? Dental inspection? How often? A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana STUDENT AND COMMUNITY ACTIVITIES a — What student organization or activities in school? b — Number of meetings of each during the year? c — Per cent of students taking part in each? a be Number of patrons' meetings held during the year? What social center activities carried on by the school and how often? COURSE OF STUDY Do you use the "State Course of Study" in the grades? In the high school? If not, by whom formulated? In what respects does it differ from the "State Course of Study"? Please indicate what work is done in the following subjects: — Tr. wTiat HraHpQ? ^O- °^ Lessons Average Length In what Grades? ^^^ ^^^j^, ^^ Periods? a. Music b. Drawing c. Nature-study d. Agriculture e. Manual training f. Domestic Science g- Domestic Art h. Physical culture i. School gardens Have you a kindergarten in your school? If so, is it a part of public school system or maintained by philanthropic effort? In what subjects do you have* special supervisors? Definition of Terms Since there may be some doubt as to what is meant by the differ- ent types of schools mentioned, it may be well to give the chief characteristics of each at this time. The term "city school" is used in this study to indicate the school in centers of population varying from twenty-five hundred to twenty thousand. The term "town" in Indiana has the same meaning as the term "village" in many other sections of the country. While the civic organization of a lO A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana town is more simple than that of the city, the school organization is practically the same in towns where an independent school as well as civic corporation is maintained, except that the head of the school is sometimes called a principal and devotes the larger part, if not his entire time, to teaching. The towns included in this in- vestigation vary in population from five to fifteen hundred people and are limited to towns with independent school corporations, that is, not combined in any way with the organization of the township in which the town is located. The unit of administration in rural affairs is the township or what is called "town" in some states such as Massachusetts and Wisconsin. The size of the township varies greatly, but the average area will be a little larger than the congressional township but the boundary lines by no means coincide with the boundary lines of the congressional township. The term "township consolidated school" is used to indicate the one centrally located school ; sometimes there are more than one in a township, to which all the children of the township are transported, thus abandoning the one-room schools of that township. Only townships with complete consolidation are included in this study, since it would complicate matters very ma- terially to include townships which have one or more one-room schools in addition to a consolidated school, since the township is the basis for statistical and financial reports and no distinction is made between the two types. . The Organization and Administrative System The schools of Indiana are more centralized than in many states. The head of the system is the state superintendent of public instruc- tion who is elected by popular vote and holds office for two years. The state superintendent and the state board of education, composed of the governor of the state, the state superintendent of public in- struction, the president of the state university, the president of Purdue University, the president of the state normal school, the superintendents of the three largest city schools in the state and three citizens prominent in educational affairs, one of whom shall be a county superintendent, exercise control over the schools of the state. While the state superintendent has jurisdiction over all the schools of the state it has been the practice of many superintendents to give much greater attention to rural school problems and thus A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 1 1 leave the city school problems to be worked out by the city school superintendent in his own way. Exceptions to this general state- ment occur when the state superintendent is emphasizing industrial education, sanitation, medical inspection, and other movements that affect both rural and urban schools. The problems the state super- intendent wishes to be considered by teachers and school officials are brought to their attention by means of bulletins, reports, insti- tute outlines, and through city and county superintendents. The county superintendent has supervision over all the schools of his county except those located in cities and towns which main- tain independent school corporations. The duties of the county superintendent specified by law are somewhat limited, consisting of holding examinations, granting county certificates, visiting all the schools of the county under his supervision at least once each year, making out a success grade for each teacher, conducting county and township institutes, making reports to the county board of commissioners and the state superintendent concerning educational matters in his county. The influence of the county superintendents varies greatly. Some are little more than clerks attending to the routine work of the office, while others, through their leadership and authority by virtue of their office, exercise much greater control and do much constructive work. , The city school is administered by a board of school trustees composed of three members appointed by the city council. This board employs the superintendent, principals and teachers, levies taxes, purchases supplies, determines when school shall open and the length of the school year, may uphold or rescind the action of the superintendent in the administration of the schools, etc. In many cities the superintendent is given great freedom in many of these matters as well as in determining the internal workings of the school. The tendency of the board in a few of the larger cities is to consider the superintendent an expert and competent to direct the work of the school in all its details and merely concern itself with the larger problems referred to them by the superintendent and with financial affairs. Unfortunately this attitude is not general. The smaller the city the more jealous the school board is of its prerogatives. The administration of the town school is very similar to that of the city except that it is more simple and that the head of the school is little more than a regular teacher. He usually has nothing 12 A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana to say in school affairs except in mere routine matters such as making out the schedule, attending to problems of discipline, etc. The rural township schools, whether consolidated or one-room, are under the administration of the township trustee who has the three-fold duty of administration of schools, caring for the poor and looking after all public highways except macadam roads which are under the supervision of the county commissioners. School affairs require the greater portion of the time that is devoted to his official duties. He is responsible for the building of new school houses, keeping old buildings in repair, purchasing equipment and supplies, employing teachers, levying taxes, etc. The number of schools under the jurisdiction of the township trustee varies from one consolidated school with four teachers or three or four one- room schools to a number of consolidated schools with commis- sioned high schools or a great number of one-room schools. In some cases a trustee employs as many as four superintendents or principals of consolidated schools and thirty or more teachers. It should be added that the law provides for the election of a school director by the voters of a school district, who shall look after the repairing of the building, provide fuel, visit schools, suspend or expel incorrigible pupils, etc. If the voters of the district fail to elect such a school director at the time specified the trustee is to appoint some one in the district to fill this office. In actual practice, however, few such directors are to be found in the state, as the township trustee prefers to attend to all these matters himself. It gives him a certain prestige and an opportunity to increase his salary, but it may also mean economy to the township and a more equal distribution of funds for repairs and supplies. Briefly summarized, Indiana has a state system of schools under the direction of the state superintendent of public instruction and state board of education. The smaller units of administration under the state organization in certain respects, are the city, town, and the county. The schools of cities and towns are administered by boards of school trustees and superintendents elected by them. The rural schools of the county are under the supervision of the county superintendent; the county, in turn, is divided into smaller units called townships for administrative purposes. At the head of each township is the township trustee. All financial and statistical re- ports of townships, towns, and cities are filed with the county super- intendent who in turn compiles a report for the entire county which is forwarded to the state department. A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 13 Statistical Methods Employed In making tabulations and computations, an effort has been made to use methods that are fair to all types of schools considered and to avoid technicalities as far as possible. In all tables that follow, except the first, it will be observed that the original data are given, followed by tables derived from the same that will give an adequate basis for comparison. The average and median are used to indicate the central tenden- cies and the average deviation and quartile to express variabilities. The median, M, is a measure above and below which exactly fifty per cent of the cases lie. In data with fairly normal distribution in which we wish to retain the influence of all cases and to give due consideration to variations in the size of cases included, the average is a better index of the true character of each measure and was about as readily determined as the median, since computations were made by use of machines, mathematical tables, and slide rule wherever possible. The mean or average deviation, A D, is the sum of the deviations of the individual measures from the central tendency divided by the number of cases. The quartile, Q, was used more extensively than the average deviation. This is found by counting in from the lower end of the distribution twenty-five per cent of the cases and counting in from the higher end of the dis- tribution twenty-five per cent of the cases. The two points found mark the limits of the middle fifty per cent, which is always a fairer index of characteristic groups than the total range of cases. Sub- tracting the lower from the higher value found and dividing the difference by two gives the quartile or variability in terms of unit of measure. Any individual case will probably fall within the limits of this variability when applied both above and below the median or average. Any reader wishing more detailed information con- cerning the statistical methods is referred to Thorndike's Mental and Social Measurements, or to Rusk's Experimental Education. CHAPTER II School Plants It is somewhat difficult to find a basis for comparison of school plants that will not give a wrong impression of one or more of the types considered. The most common basis used has been the valua- tion of school property. In some cases attempts have been made to give valuation statistics meaning by showing the amount of money per capita school population is invested in school property. It is needless to say that these valuation statistics as given in most reports are of little value since the estimates are made by a great number of individuals with different attitudes and ideals of values, and with no common basis for judgment. Neither is there much, if any, relationship between the amount of money invested and ability of the corporation to pay ; nor does it necessarily follow that a large expenditure means better accommodations and more modem conveniences. A very striking illustration of the last fact mentioned was observed in one of the towns of the state in which the school board, or rather one of the members who dominated the board, erected an expensive building according to his own architectural ideas and pecuniary inclinations. Some objections were made by members of the community which reached the state board of health. The result was, the building was condemned and had to be recon- structed before it could be used for school purposes. From an educational point of view it is worth a great deal more to make a comparison on the basis of conformity to scientific principles of hygiene and sanitation than on the basis of valuation. The data hereafter presented were collected with this idea in mind. Most of the items call for information that could be given by anyone familiar with the situation with little variation on account of indi- vidual standards or bias, hence are fairly reliable. One or two items permit of some variation but are included to show tendencies rather than to give accurate information on the subject involved. The per cent basis has been used in all the tabulations so that comparisons may be made with little difficulty. The sum of all the items under each general heading such as "heating", etc., for each corporation or type of school equals one hundred per cent except under sanitation in which case there is an over-lapping since a number of schools reported two or more methods used in cleaning floors. After the complete tabulations of the data for the four types of schools studied will be found a table showing the summary and relative standings of the township district, township consoli- dated, town, and city schools. M Q -IsnfpB-uou aiqnoQ 9iqBisnfpBai3uis aiqB^smpB -nouaiSuts 8^ 88^8^^888^^ 8^^88^^8^^888158 3 sapis aajq J, 8 :2 ^ S sapts 9)isoddo omx 8?i8288i^8S ?2 lC!je88^C;8^8i^^^82gSSS8S3 tH T-< rH »-(l-l T-* tH ^ ,-( tH tH sapis ^uaDBfpB OMX XiuoapisauQ th t^ ro loioro Tfi *>• t^ 1 1 uia^sXs we} jo sdjo^ ma^sXs X^iAUio 2 :2 ^ ^'g *- 8 XjUO SMOpUlM pUB SJOOQ §^§§§§§§§§l§§§§§§^§^§^^§§^§§§ 1 533JipUI-133Jia aatjBM-tjoH oreads t^ SOTUinj s^aipBf-aTTJ JO SU33JDS qiiM 'saXo^s l^^ § § - ^'^^ - ^^§ saAO^s Xq pai'Baq suiooj }o ^uaD jaj §^§§§^§^^§§§§ §§ ^8?^8:^iCS58^8S^ asn m sraoo>i iOO\Ost^vOOOOO'-HVOt^O\OOTi»vOt^fO'-HOOt^T*<'^NOt>^vO ^ ^ CS T-H 1-H 1-ICS T-fr-l,-H asn tn sSutpima -^vOOvvOiOOOOmvOr^l^OvOO-^TfOOt^vOt^iOt^fOOOt^NO^jOOt-^vO diqsuMO^ JO iaqumN *h*HtHtH^-h^-HtHi— iTHi-HCNCNCSCNCNCSCNeNCNCSrO [15] -uisip sraooj jBaA 'paqsrajBAaj sijsap puB paAomaj '-o^a 'SSOTAJTO 'S:5IJBJ\[ ^paqs'BM. SI '"oja ':5[iOM -pOOM JBaX J3Cl saxin; jo aaqmnj^ij W »H M I- »H ^^ >-|»-I»-i6SS»_|JhSS»h»_1 a o o .>.;z;:z;:z;c^c^cJ^;z;;z;c^c^;z::z: s c lU OJ o poqDS JO sijoga q3nojq; papiAOjd 11130 J3 PLh pL4 IOH [IH _ g g__ ^_ ^^ ^ <^ O > sniB^ano} Sm^piuQ dna {BtipiAipui •jaanBj jo dmno O O sdto {BnpiAipm pire n^d dno nonnnos pac {re j CSOOO O OOio r^ lO ^ dtqsuMO} JO isJqum^ [i6] -aiddns noX SABq s^oafqns )«qM aj fl C ^ 9 a> o r J2:;2:;z;w OOOOOO OOOOOOOOOiOO 1001004 88 88 c/jcncntni/jc/jcncncncncocncocncncncn OOOOOcSoOOOOOOOOOOOOo) ^ tn _, ^ to , ^ O , C^ C^ C^ C^ C^ -7^ cn t/1 cn tn tfl M c c c c C^ 5 B B -Jj -2 5 -5 'c'S'S'S'S'2'S "3 '3 nJ «5 en tn tn tn en tfl .t3 .bj wJ E3 c/5 tn '3 bbbb bb ^ B 2 § ^^ B ^ *3'3"S'S eg '3 '3 eg tnenentnSenen'^ a a a a B a a aj aj 4) o 4j 4)4)4)4JaJD4)UU4J4J4>4i4)4i4) •^ *^ '^ '^ "^ *^ "^ *XJ T^ "XJ "^ *^ '^ 'O '^ '^ ' tn 'tn *tn *S '55 'en *55 'en *55 *55 ' r2 rs r2 1^ r^ ^ 'en 'tn 'en *en *cn . t/i en e/j en en en tn tn en en tn en tri OOOOOO oooooooooooooooo ;3 ;3 :3 OOO 'tn 'en 'E3 '55 ■M -<-> -l-) 4J 88 88 8888 8 88^88888888^ 888 88 drqeuMO) jo jaqum^ THesrOTjirort^u^vpr^<»ONOT:HcscoT^io<3^QOO^ (N«NeSCSCNCNj 00 '^ -^r^ '-* ^^«NCS?N»H04 IX191}0 AVOq paqsTUjBAaj s^sap poBpaAouiaj '-3:13 When needed Every 2 years Never Never Never Never Yearly When needed Never Every 2 years When needed Yearly Never Never Never ^paqsBM SI '-D^a '^JOM -pooM iB3A aad S3XJUIJ JO jaqiun^j i lOoqDS JO siJOfla qSnojqj papiAOjd 5U30 J3 J §§§ § §§§°§ §§§i §§ asuadxa otiqnd jb papiAOjd Vu33 J3d ^ sajn^Dtd q;iM SXUOOJ JO 5U3D J3 J ^§§1'- °§§§§ §l°§§§ ^paj^joDapaj subm 3XB U3:)J0 MOJJ New bldg., never Every year Never Never Irregularly New building Irregularly Every 3 or 4 years Irregularly Every 2 or 3 years Every 2 or 3 years New building Every 5 years New building New building sureiinioj gui^piuQ 11 i § § §§ § dno pnpiAipuT ^SDn'Bj JO dam j 8 ^ 8^ 8 dna uouraioD ^aon'Bj lo dum.>H>.>H>^ >H>H>^>.>H >H>H >.>.>. >H>H < ^iCjBjqn o o o o o o o o o o O O O O O o o 'ji[qnd « noX sabjj :z;:z;;z;;z:;2; ;z::2::2;^:z; ;z;:^:z;:z;^ ^iz; 's3aiAjBo s 4-. +J 2 2 'S^JBUI UIOJ} 93JJ tn en en H H s ^ ^ ^ ^ o s b ^ b bbb b b b ^ b b .|b a «j XjB^iuBsnn tn bJ *S'S'Sr.-.'3 mil J JO AlB^IOBS No Almo Sanit No i-a H C^C^J^ ^ C/D C/D O) C/2 CO .§ apisai .1 aoapis^no D D 4) 4> a> 0) 'd oj a; a; t3 4> "Td 3.. a •S-J^-d'S 12 ^ .'S 3 .'2 -d -O 'Jn -XJ 'en •InTJ eS 4-> -1.^ "^ 4-1 • »H ..1 4J ..^ +J (fi -j ^ en ^ C/3 CA C/1 ^ CA en tn ^ en — =3 ^ uia^sXs i umxiDBA doH 1 1 qstuq paB UMOp 8^ 8 88 8 2 ^snp JO no tH »-I '"' moojg; 88 ^8 8 88 88888 8 '-tcs rOTj* »o vOt^ OOOs O i-H . On O lOt^ 00 ■^ t>- 00 VO §^ ^8 \^^^ ^ SKSS8 Xiao apis 9U0 lO '-H OO 8 ^ 1—1 ° § "^^ S^ 2 1 taaisXs UBJ JO 3DJO J § § § 8 uia^sXs X?iAui9 On O g 8 888 »-H *-H tH OOvO 8 §§ XjUO SMOpUIM pUB SiOOQ 28S8 § §§ =^;? 88 1 ma^sXs ^oaorpm-tlDajTa 8 8 88 aa^BM-iOH 8 ^ UIB3JS § ^ 88 On § §s aowtmj g 8 §§ 88 28 § § sia^lOBf-iiB JO snaaj3B q;tM 'saXo^s 88 § 8 saAOjs Xq pa;Baq BtUOOJ JO 1U90 jaj o o ?^ On NO to asn ui b-iuou-^ Or*00 0\^H Tl^oOt-OvO Ot^OO CN o c;;:::2:::?j 10 00»;;JVOO asn ui sSuipimg CN*H*HC4CS cs^es^es ^ «-4C4*Hes JO jaqumN th cs Ti<»o NO t^ 00 On O NOt^OOONO T-t T-( T-t tH CN| ;3S?Q^^ [21] 1 •a J! M.o\\ 'pa^Dajaisid (sj ^ CT) tH ^ CS ,-1 ^ cs CS CS tH 1-1 i^ tH ,-( CS i-t ^ua-jjo Moq 'paqsiujBAaj sijsap pUB P3AOUI3J 'Dja 'SSUIAJBD 'S:5IJBJ\[ ■ Never Every 3 years 1 Never Irregularly Never Irregularly Every 10 years Never 1 1 No marks Every 3 years ? 1 Never Seldom 1 ^paqsBM SI '"353 'jjjoMpooM jviA J3d sauip JO jaqtun^ >^r-l CS-MCS Tti-lCSi-l o'^'""^^ CXJi-ItH cm i-ICNVOr-li-t 1 1 1 " 1 [ooqos JO svoga qSnojq:> papiAOjd ;U33 J3J §ii§§ §§2§ §!§§§ !§§§§ §§§§§ 3su3dx3 oqqnd ^b papiAOjd iu33 J3 J sajTHDid q^iM sraooi JO :jriaD jaj lOiovOOO r^iOOCS OOOOOO OiOOOO r^oooo ^ tH 1-1 1-1^ 1-1 1-1 1-1 ,_( T-H l-( pH 1-1 1-1 T-l ^ ^pa^BJODapaj sh^av 3JB uayo Mojj Every 5-6 years Every 3 years Seldom Yearly Never 1 2 3 Irregularly Every 10 years Never Yearly Every 5 years Irregularly Irregularly New Building Every 3-5 years Seldom Every 3 years Seldom Irregularly C \n oo vo -^ o o c\ oo o sdno I'BTiptAipui ■^sonsj 10 diim j 888 ^ 8 8 § dno uoraraoD ^aon^j JO drnnj § ^ i ""^ 11 §1 sdnD {•enpiAipm puB ^re j § § dno uouimoD pu-B ired to uMo; JO xsqum^ 1-1 CS CD rt< »0 vo*^OOOnO i-( {N CO Tt u-5 vO t^ OO t^ O i-i CM ro Tt< »0 1— < 1— ( 1— ( 1— 1 T— 1 1—1 1— t tH 1— i 1— 1 CN CM CM CN CS CS [22] -§ to CO to' CO Hi ^ ^ 4 c/3 1 -a^ddns noX 3ABq <^ C/3 C C/3 H-l W o d t^ bb 1 s:joatqns ?BqM nj MCAJ 3«» 1 8 toO (4 ,r cn Hist., ies Geog to u r o _J' ^ J S. Subj St., Geoj subject 1?a¥ s ■■§i§ |i^i Mostg H. S. S Read., H. S. S 1 None AUGra Readin AllGra WW? l^^fS WpS jooqas JO swoga qSnojqri JJOddtlS JO ^U3D J3J 8888 8^888 88^^ 88 ° § 8^ 88 ^ spunj DTiqnd uiojj Ijoddns jb juao jaj 8 ^ ^ °§ ^§ iXjwqn to tfl tn tn tn to CO to to C/3 C/2 C/l C/} ^ s ^ ^ s ^ s $ $s looqos B noX aA'cu >>.>.>.>. >H >.>.>. >.>.>H>H >H>.>H>>H >.>.>.>.>< ^XjBjqq O o S o o o o o o o o o f^."5 .^o o o « o o Dnqnd B noX savh ^^>H iz;;^;^^^ ;z;^;2;:z; >^>^ >^!z; ;z:;2;>.^;| i W ^ 'S3UTAJB3 CO 'SJJXBm to to to CO fl raojj aajj ll^>^l ^>^l^l |^;S;S^ ^^ >'>i zzi^ bbbb b b bb £> £• & XjFjniBsun nita nita nita nita Sanitary Sanitary Sanitary Sanitary Unsanita l^^ll .3 'a s-^ Unsanita Sanitary Sanitary Unsanita c ^ I JO idBiiuBS ? Unsa Unsa Unsa Unsa Unsa Almo Sanit Unsa Unsa Sm *a*a c^J5 Q .2 apism l-H joapis^no sapis a^isoddo oavx Tt< 'TH rsi tH 1— t °° ^^ .t^O CS fO ---I a> (U > ;2:w paqsBM SI -353 ^JOAVPOOM. ivoA jdd CN ^ ^ CS CN th T-i i^es ^ CN fO CN >'7n ir; lO lO c3 >^ tn w « <^ c q C3 CN «J cd «J 3 > H H fc fc 2 2 2 g g J2 bbbbl o oj 4> a> «^ > > > > fa pq^^»^»jq Md^fsq^A HAu to rtfo (13 &5,bg saie^uno} Jhn^pnjQ Ot^ONOO 00 O O O O OOOO 000\00 fOt^OO sdno jOTipiAipui pu'B :i3onBj JO dam j dno uouiuioD puB duinJ CD -^ [25] J>' ■a 1 -aiddns noX SA'Bq < 1 . s 5P ^J stjDafqns ye^JA uj 8 o .23 Pi 1^^^ .§^^^1^ a J ag= m 4-J ding ding d.,Hi d., Ge > H>^K>H>H >.>H>H>.>. >H>.>H>.>^ >.>.>.>^ >» iXj^iqil ojiqnd B noX sab jj O O h:z;>^>h>h >.>H >.>.>. :z:;z;>^>h:2; ^>'^ >H>H>H>< •d:>3 ^ "^"^ 'SSOIAJBD 's:5iJBm o o [S ^ S S S S o ^ ^>*>H >.>H>.;z;>. >h;z:!2;:z:;z; ><'A<< >HpH:z:>^ b bbbbb bbbbb Sanitary 20-30 Sanitary Sanitary Unsanita t^t:'t:'^t^ bbbb XjB^TU'BSUn JO XjB:)raBS iS ij ^ ^ ij B ij ij ij ij ttt>tt ^iSiSiS 1 •s-a-a-a-s •a-a-a-a-a •a-a-a-a-a •a -a -a -a k5 cj c3 rt (rf c3 oj rt c^ rt c3 ci cj rt ctJ (tJ Bj «3 cj H° mmxntnxn C/3 C/3 C/2 CAJ C/2 a!c/3c/3aico C/2C/3C/3C/3 J apism ^ JO spisino > Xi uinnD^A M doH ;: 8 I 8 8 gg 1 tH qsTuq puB UAVOp |^§§§ 8888 8S8S8 8 88 88g§ isnp JO no ^— I 1— 1 1— 1 --( »-( ■.— 1 moojg ^ ^ i *-4snfp'B-uou aiqnoa 20.8 7.6 1.0 aiqBlsnf ^ OOt^ 0\ aiqBlsnfpB cf) ro IT) q t^ ••-H T-lO t^ 00 On 0\ 1 sapis aajtix sapis ajis -oddo OA^x sapis :iiOD -■Bfp? OMX 17.9 66.0 60.7 72.4 Xpio apisauo rl^ ON Ov Ov 1 ura^sXs aojojaou'Bj 17.6 16.0 24.0 9.0 73.6 51.3 67.1 SMopum pwB saooQ q 00*--. 00 t-( 00 «S 00 On pO ■ -ipui-:>33Jia 16.7 16.0 8.1 aa;rM-;oH lO lO '«*< UIB31S csooTtjoq thnocn 3j«ujnj Tj^^qqfo TflO-^ON fj CO fO JO suaajos q:)iMsaAo:»S CS '-I S3A01S Xq pairaq smooj JO rjTOD »d *-- Township Consolidated Town City [28] 3mp|mq I'ooqDS ;noqiiM Suipimq jooqos uiqim 1U33 J3 J luaisXs dopv: qsruq pu'B ILWOp vjsnp JO no uioojg J3A3JS^ AiivinSaui om:} Xj3Aa qoBa 9000 -3JJ SJOJi^ JB3X qa'Ba aDmx qoBa 33U0 uiBjanoj dno jBnpiAipm puB VaoriBJ JO duinj dno UOUItUOD pUB 53DnBJ JO duinj sdno (•enpiAipui puB {re J dno UOIUUIOD puB irej 8^ lo r^ O lo ON «N O ON NO vOt^ 00 lO O OO O - o o O t'- O re O cs o 00 »0 CO On !>; Os O t^ vo 10 00 O CO '-H eo 00 cc Ov r^ t-* f*^ O fO o o o.t; HUHU A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 31 many as the town schools, while very few adjustable seats are to be found in the township district schools. No double seats are to be found in the consolidated schools while a few are to be found in city schools, usually in some remote one-room building. Seven per cent in town schools and about twenty-nine per cent in the township district schools are equipped with desks of this type. The table shows that about twenty per cent of the township district schools are provided with sanitary drinking facilities as compared with seventy per cent of the consolidated schools, seventy-eight per cent of the town schools and eighty-one per cent of the city schools. The data concerning decorations are not so reliable as that which we have been considering but indicate that little or no attention is given to the walls in sixty-seven per cent of the township district schools and fifty-two per cent of the town schools as compared with forty-one per cent of the township consolidated schools and twenty per cent of the city schools. Very few pictures are to be found in the township district schools and it is only in the city schools that the matter is considered of sufficient importance to lead the school officials to appropriate public funds for the purchase of pictures. Practically the entire expense for pictures in town, consolidated, and township district schools is met by the efforts of the teachers and pupils. All except about ten per cent of the township district schools are provided with school libraries. The most that can be said from the data at hand is that some attention is being given to reading outside of textbooks. It may be safely added from general observation that the libraries in all except the larger city schools consist, for the most part, of books selected from the Young Peo- ple's Reading Circle and a few reference books in the high school subjects. In the matter of public support of libraries it will be observed that the town schools rank lowest with twenty-two per cent of the cost of maintenance being borne by the public as com- pared with thirty-one per cent in the township district schools, forty-three per cent in the consolidated schools, and sixty-nine per cent in the city schools. Few supplementary books are to be found in the one-room rural schools, while the consolidated and town schools rank about the same in this regard and the city schools are fairly well supplied. Reading is the one subject for which supple- mentary books are most frequently reported. History ranks second and geography third. 32 A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana The data concerning sanitation reveals nothing new in regard to the township district schools but show that there is room for decided improvement along some lines in both the town and city schools. The township district buildings are usually cleaned just before the opening of school at which time the floors are scrubbed and the woodwork washed, but little or no effort is made to remove the marks, carvings, etc., from the desks. This one cleaning ends the efforts for the year unless there is an epidemic in the school in which case the building is thoroughly cleaned and disinfected. Some of the floors are oiled at the beginning of the school year and some form of "dustdown" and brush is used in ten per cent of the buildings, while the broom continues to hold sway in all other build- ings. Only thirteen per cent of the toilets are reported as sanitary and sixteen per cent free from marks and carvings. Much more consideration is given sanitation in the consolidated schools than in the rural schools just considered. Thirty-five per cent of the con- solidated school buildings are cleaned more frequently than once each year; twenty-five per cent of the desks are kept free from all marks and carving and an effort is made in sixty- three per cent of the buildings to clean the floors by some method that will eliminate the dust. Fifty-three per cent of the toilets of the consolidated schools are located within the buildings, which indicates that these buildings have water systems of their own which provide water for all school purposes. Usually these buildings are equipped with gasoline engines which are used to run the ventilating systems dur- ing the regular school hours and to pump water into pressure tanks at other times when needed. This is an excellent showing when compared with what we find in the town schools where only forty per cent of toilets are located within the school buildings. Sixty- five per cent are reported as sanitary in the consolidated schools as compared with forty per cent in the town schools. Fifty-nine per cent are free from all marks and carvings as compared with fifty- two per cent in the town schools and forty-nine per cent in the city schools. Recent Legislation Prior to 191 1 there was little direct legislation concerning the sanitation of school buildings though some control was exercised by the state and county boards of health. The assembly of 191 1- 1912 passed a number of laws requiring all buildings erected or A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 33 remodeled to be constructed according to certain hygienic and sani- tary specifications. A digest of these laws is given after which an eifort will be made to show how these laws will affect the different types of schools we have been considering. Sites. The sites shall be dry and well drained ; not nearer than 500 feet to a railroad, livery, or other stable used for breeding pur- poses, or "any noise-making industry, or any unhealthful condition". Dry walks from street or road to school building and to all out- buildings and suitable playgrounds must be provided. Buildings. If it is a brick building it shall have a foundation of stone or a layer of non-absorbing material above the ground line. Every two-story school building shall have a well-lighted basement with concrete floor and a ceiling not less than ten feet high, under the entire building. The ground floor must be at least three feet above the ground level and the area between the ground and floor well ventilated. Each pupil shall be provided with not less than 275 cubic feet of space and the interior walls painted or tinted some natural color as gray, slate, buff, or green. Lighting. All schoolrooms used for study shall be lighted on one side only and the glass area shall not be less than one-sixth of floor area and the windows shall extend from not less than four feet from the floor to at least one foot from the ceiling. All win- dows shall be provided with adjustable shades of natural color. Seating. Adjustable seats and desks are • recommended and twenty per cent in each room required to be adjustable. They shall be so arranged that the light will fall over the left shoulder of right-handed pupils and over the right shoulder of left-handed pupils. Blackboards. Blackboards shall be preferably of slate, but of whatever material, the color shall be a dead black. Cloakrooms. Well-lighted, warmed and ventilated cloakrooms, or sanitary lockers, shall be provided for each study schoolroom. Water Supply. All school houses shall be provided with pure drinking water which shall be supplied from driven wells or other source, approved by the health authorities. Only smooth stout glass or enameled metal cups shall be used. All pumps shall be supplied with drains to take away the waste water. No pools shall be allowed about the well. Water buckets and tin drinking cups are unlawful and forbidden. Drinking fountains are recommended and required if practicable. "When water is not supplied at pumps or water 34 A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana faucets or sanitary drinking fountains, then covered tanks or coolers supplied with spring or self-closing faucet shall be provided." (A later law prohibits the use of common drinking cups.) Heating and Ventilating. Ventilating heating stoves, furnaces and heaters of all kinds shall be capable of maintaining a tempera- ture of 70 degrees Fahrenheit in zero weather and of maintaining a relative humidity of at least forty per cent. All heaters shall take air from outside the building and after heating, introduce it into the schoolroom at a point not less than five feet nor more than seven feet from the floor and at a minimum rate of thirty cubic feet per minute for each pupil, regardless of outside conditions. (An ex- ception is made for the direct-indirect system of heating.) All halls, cloakrooms, laboratories, etc., must be heated. Direct steam heat- ing is forbidden. All rooms must be provided with ventilating ducts of ample size to withdraw the air at least four times every, hour and said ducts must be on the same side of the room with the hot air ducts. Toilets. Water-closets or dry closets when provided shall be efficient and sanitary in every respect, detailed specification being given. Good dry walks shall lead to all outhouses. Screen or shields must be provided. Cleaning and Disinfecting. All school houses shall be well cleaned and disinfected each year before they are used for school purposes. The cleaning shall consist in first sweeping, then scrub- bing the floors, washing the windows and wooden parts of seats and desks. The disinfecting shall be done in accordance with the rules of the state board of health. The penalty for the violation of above law is a fine in any sum not less than one hundred dollars and not more than five hundred dollars; and any money claim for material entering into or any money claim for the construction of any schoolhouse, which does not in every way and in all respects comply with the requirements specified, shall be null and void. A graphic representation of the extent to which the present school plants in the different types of school corporations measure up to the requirements summarized above is given in Figure i. It will be observed that the buildings for consolidated schools equal or surpass buildings for all other types in all requirements except water supply and toilets and second only to cities in these particu- A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 35 lars. In the one item, that of lighting, in which all schools of each type might have been made to measure up to hygienic requirements without additional expense is the one in which all show greatest deficiency. The enforcement of these laws will result in a radical change in the architecture for rural schools. ' 6.4 99.1 81.9 . 94.6 ' 9. 91.2 67.3 - 92.7 4.4 26.9 27.9 - 19. 9.5 93.5 39.5 - 46.5 ' 18.3 70.4 62.2 L 88.7 ^ 0. 64.7 40. ^ 95.7 a b c d a b c d a b c d a b c d a b c d a b c d ■™ _ - ^^ 1 Figure i. A chart showing what per cent of the schools of each type studied, measure up to the standard set by recent legislation. a — township district schools; b — township consolidated schools; c — town schools; d — city schools. [36] CHAPTER III Distribution of Teachers on Basis of Sex, Training, Experi- ence, AND Salary While the only true measure of efficiency of the teaching force of a school system is to be determined by testing the results before and after a period of instruction, we do know, as has been shown by investigations that have been made, that there is a corre- lation between the training and experience of the teachers in a system of schools and the ability of these teachers to do effective work. It will be necessary, however, before attempting to give the distribution of teachers on basis of training, experience, and salary, in the four types of schools studied, to indicate briefly the condi- tions and legislation that have led to the present situation in order to have a basis for a rational interpretation of the facts presented. Prior to 1894 no academic or professional training was required of teachers other than the ability to pass an examination in the "Common School Branches" and "Theory and Art of Teaching". It was no unusual occurrence for a boy or girl from the common or elementary school, to study the "Teachers' Reading Circle" books on which the questions in theory and art of teaching were based, and to pass an examination which permitted him or her to teach in the elementary schools of the state without having had any train- ing beyond the eighth grade. There was a law requiring applicants to be eighteen years of age before they could be granted a certifi- cate, but it was no unusual thing to find beginning teachers who were only sixteen and seventeen years of age. Before any legisla- tive measures had been enacted requiring teachers to have had some academic and professional training, some county superintendents attempted to raise the standard of scholarship of the teachers by being more stringent in grading the manuscripts of applicants for certificates and thus caused beginning as well as experienced teach- ers to attend some normal school or college during the spring or summer terms. In a similar manner some of the more aggressive city superinten(ients encouraged many of their teachers to attend the summer sessions of normal schools and colleges by promises of promotion and increase of salaries on the one hand, or threatened dismissal on the other, but such efforts were spasmodic and not far-reaching. Under these conditions the natural result was that 38 A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana the cities with their longer terms of school, better conditions for work and higher salaries, would have a larger and superior group from which to select their teachers than the schools in the rural communities. The first step to remedy the situation was taken in 1898 by the passage of a minimum salary law whereby the salary a teacher received was determined by the grade of certificate held. The grade of certificate of a beginning teacher was determined by scholarship alone, while that of an experienced teacher was determined by scholarship and a "success grade" given by county or city superin- tendent. A teacher holding a twelve months' certificate received a salary per diem equal to two and one- fourth cents multiplied by the average scholarship attained in all subjects in which the teacher was required to pass an examination, or in the case of an experi- enced teacher, the salary per diem was determined by multiplying two and one-fourth cents by his general average, that is the average of average scholarship and "success grade". A teacher holding a twenty- four months' certificate received a salary per diem equal to two and one-half cents multiplied by his general average, and a teacher holding a thirty-six months' certificate received a daily salary equal to two and three- fourths cents multiplied by his gen- eral average. The effect of this legislation was to eliminate the six-months' or trial license on which many beginning teachers had been teaching and to stimulate scholastic attainment among all teachers. It also caused the rural teachers to be paid the same salary per month as the city teachers since very few cities paid more at that time than the minimum salary specified by law. A higher scholastic attainment and more specific professional training was required of all teachers by the law that went into effect in 1907, and at the same time the minimum salary was in- creased. All young men and women wishing to enter the teaching profession after this date were required to have had an academic training equivalent to a four year high school course and to have had at least twelve weeks of specified professional training before being eligible to write for a certificate. All candidates who met the above requirements and passed an examination^ in the common school subjects and the theory and art of teaching, which entitled them to a twelve months' certificate, were in class A and received a salary per diem equal to two and one-half cents multiplied by average scholarship, or by general average, in the case of an experi- A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 39 enced teacher. All teachers, who in addition to the requirements for class A, had had one year of successful experience, an addi- tional twelve weeks of professional training and held a twenty-four months' certificate were in class B, and received a salary per diem equal to three cents multiplied by their general average. Teachers who were graduates from schools maintaining a professional course for training of teachers, had had three or more years of successful experience and passed an examination which entitled them to a thirty-six months' certificate, were in class C and received as the minimum salary per diem, the amount equal to three and one-half cents multiplied by their general average. With this brief survey of the requirements that obtained for all schools, a presentation of the facts concerning sex, training, ex- perience, salary, and classification of the teachers in each type of schools is given followed by some inferences that may be made from the same. Table vi shows the number, sex, professional training, experience and salaries of teachers in the rural schools of each township included in this study. For example, in township number one, there were five teachers employed, three of whom were men and two were women ; two had had twelve weeks and three had had one year of professional training; one was a begin- ning teacher, that is, had had no experience ; one had had one year ; one ten years; one fourteen years; and one fifteen years of ex- perience. Two of the five teachers were in class A with an average daily salary of $2.00; two in class B with an average salary of $2.92 ; and one in class C with a daily salary of $3.46. Tables vii, VIII, and IX, giving data for consolidated, town and city schools, are to be read in the same way. At first it was thought advisable to distribute the salaries of all teachers and to determine the central tendency and mean varia- tion of the whole group, but it was found that such a method would result in a tri-modal curve and that the average for each class would give a more reliable basis for comparison. This holds true in corporations where more than the minimum salary is paid, since the basis for the salary schedule is the classification of teachers according to the requirements mentioned above. There is little variation in the amount paid teachers in the same class in any corporation; so that the average salary of the teachers of each class is a fair index of all the teachers of that class. The mean variation is so small for any one corporation that it is almost negligible. < pq o CO O 2 >^. pq 00 <: O H SIV3/i l-t sj'BaX f X SJB3X 2X SJB3/C n sj'BaXoi SIB9iC6 sj^ea^ 8 sj'Baii ^ SJB9X9 sj'raX s saraX ^ SJ'BaX £ SXB3A 2 j^iC X auo^ IJJOM sjBaA ^ SJB3X £: sj^X 2 leaXX s^aaAV t3 S3133AS. 2X ouo^ I^ox uaiuo^ U3K dtqs -UAvo; JO jaquifi^ »-l 1— t CS tH t-i y-i tH ^ - ^ ^ ^ ^ CS CO CN -- tH vH tH tH 1-t 1-1 1— 1 »-l ^ ^ CN y* - 1—1 -- CS T-f CN ^ - -H 1—1 1—1 1-1 T-l 1-H CN ▼-• T-H l-H 1— 1 CN 1-1 *-< 1-1 ^ «S 1-H cs cs ^ - T-( vO 1-1 1-1 CN 1-1 1-1 i-< ro ^ fO CM ,-( rt 1-1 ro rsj th p^ 1-1 lO i-H lo T-l Tt i-H i-( r^i CS 1-1 i-( 1-1 1-1 T-l T-H tH ^ (^ CO t^i lO CS 1-1 iH lO CO ■^ • CO CO -^ t^ 1-1 -^ T-i 1-1 1-1 ro 'O CO CO CN lO 0\ co i-^ -^ CN !>- co i-< [40] 33BJ3AV jaqiun^i O lO o O «0 ICO CNOOiO OQQO lO O O O »-} »o O O '^. ^ "1 "^. *^ "^ "^ ^ '^. "^. ^ "1 ■^. H "^ es lo o o f«^ o T^ lo •.-I ro CN Tj< rh iC tH fO rt 0\ •.-I th CN es ••-< CO t-i tH CN CN t>~ i-h t-< ,-i fO »0 «N aS'BjaAV O O CS lO O O 00 00 Q uoOiC O lOQiOOO o Ov C\ 00 t^ Ov OM:^ CN O OS 00 00 -"iti r^ O cs vo ■^ 00 «N CN CN CM CS CN CN CN CN CN CS rO CN CS «N rO CN fO fO Cvl CO CN jaqum|,j CS lO fC VO lO "<*i "-I T-H ro fO '-H .^ »-H CN Tt CN i-H fCi rO '-C '-I rf r*^ »0 CS fO ^-" 33BJ9AV lO O O »0 O »0 »0 O 0«0 O Q O O O iO O 0»0»0 »0 Q O O O CN iq «s CN » cs cs CN cn cs cn «n r^ «n «n cn es (N «n j CNO'^ioeNrt*t^'OcsiOf00sesiO sjraXsj SJ'BaiC tZ sreaXfz sj^Sit 33 SXB9X t2 sxeaXoz sxeaX 61 &IB9X 81 sjTOiC 11 sresXQi SJB3X St diqsuMOi JO jaqmn^ [41] tn to >t < P^ PQ 3 O CO > ^ 5 PQ 1/3 <3 i snaXfii SIB3X£l SIB3X2I sj'eaX n sj^XOI sj'BaiCe sjraXg SJ1B3X £ sjeaX 9 sj'esA 9 sj'CdXt sjBaXf sj^aX z XBSX. I auo^ IJJOM sxesKf SJB3X e sjTOiC z XBSAl S^39Mt.fZ s^paM^i 9U0^ l«;ox narao^ IKH djqsxiAvo} ^ T-l ^ CSJ CN . 00 0*0 •-H CN CO T*< lO [43] <: o w o si'BaiC^X SJB3X ft SJB3X 21 sj'caX n SJBSXOI SJB9i? 6 sJBaX 8 sresA. I srnsA 9 sj'BaA s sj^aX ^ SJB3X £ areaX j jraX T 3UOtJ IJJOM SJB3X t sj^aX £ SJB9X 2 j^Xx S5p9M^3 Slp3MJX auoifij CN ^ ^^ rO ■^ CN »-H •^ CN ^ •.-H tH (>) CN (M — I CN CS r-1 rH fSJ •^ tH CO '-H ■<-< CS ■^ f<5 '-I CS CO CO th csj • CN rH ro CM CO ■* lO ■'-I (N T-H T-i CO th vO 1-1 CN i-H CN •<-< (M CO t-H CN l^ox t^ CO lO -rf VO CO t^ lO O -^ vo Tt< lO lO ^ On"01:^'0\0 co O lO -^ uauiOjVV lO CN «0 -^ lO CO lO CO lO -^ lO ■<* CO lO VO OOcovOiOt- CO rfi ■^ CN uaj^i CNi-t i-l CNCNt-i •.-h CN O tHCO'-I'-Ii-H CNt-hcN tH CN CO 'sf lO v0t^000\O UAiorj jojaqumj^j [44] i 1 o 3.54 3.50 4.00 3.90 3.35 3.50 3.40 3.40 CO CO CO CO CO 8^ Tt*CO CO 3.35 3.40 3.40 3.30 3.75 jaqum>i CN ^ •^ •^ rO 1C0 coco 8 CO CNCOCOCNCO jaqum^ rj< CMT^-HfO tHIO Tt «N Tj^^CN-^r** ^c^ Tt< T-ICOCN'-^CO < 33BJ3AV CM 2.75 2.35 2.54 2.22 3.00 2.90 2.90 CO«N CN 2.60 2.40 3.00 laquin^ T-* «S ^ CS CN ^^ ^^ ^ CN - CN i-tCSI ^-^ »H T-t vH srea/Csz - siraAtZ areaXfj SIB3XJ2 ^-1 sjb3A:i3 - sreaXoz 1—1 - sjraX6T sjw»X8i - sxraXii STC3iC9I SIB3iCsX 1-t - HMO} JO -^«srO'«**iO vOt^OOOO T-t T^ «N Cf) -<*» »0 »-(*-* »-l »-( »-( ^t^OOOjO CNCSCNCSCS [45] X (4 W a en w tn H^ < PQ pq < J^ H o r/) Kl O o n o CO SJB9X tl 1-1 1-1 CS tH CS CS T-i CN tH tH 1H sjBsXei tH 1-H (N 1-.^^^ - TH CN SJB3iC3T r-t COtH^ CC «N CN 1-1 CD CS T-H ^ T-( iH CN O CS sjB3yin lO 1-1 1—1 i-< i-Hl^(N tH CN 1-t 1-f tH q lO 1-1 tJh CD t^f-- i^t- VO CD NO NO CS Sip3Mt3 CN CS 1-* Tf CD lO 1-i 00 -^ T^ lO t^ rfi Ttl ^ U3W ; On cocsescscN 3.00 2.75 2.80 3.00 jaqran^ ^t^ •rt< (N vO Of-.CN fO rt 00 «N «0 »-H CO ^rj<^00'<** CO rt< vOtO 1 3SBJ3AV So 2.60 2.75 3.50 JO 2.40 2.25 2.30 2.50 lOiOCOiO . 00 0\0 1—1 ^ «NfOTf IT) 1-H »-( »-( *H »-< vOt>.00OvO ^ ^ ^ ^ cs es CN CNCS [47] 48 A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana Table x gives the distribution of grade teachers according to sex in each of the four types of schools considered. Ward princi- pals are included with the grade teachers in the cities since much of their time is devoted to teaching. The total number of cases in each type is given first, followed by the number of men and women and the per cent of each. TABLE X DlSTHIBUTION OF GrADE TeACHERS ON BaSIS OF SeX School Corporation Total Men Women Per cent of Men Per cent of Women Township Consolidated • • Town City 296 90 130 623 102 IS 61 194 562 ^^6 18.5 9.48 65.6 83.4 81.5 90.5 It will be observed that feminization is much more pronounced in the city schools in which less than ten per cent of the total grade teaching population are men, as compared with sixteen and six- tenths per cent in the consolidated schools, eighteen and five-tenths per cent in town schools, and thirty- four and four-tenths per cent in the rural schools. Notwithstanding the fact that one-third of the rural teachers are men, fewer men are found in consolidated schools than in the town schools. With consolidation comes the feminization of the teaching population. Professional Preparation of Teachers Before summarizing the data on the training of teachers and attempting an analysis of the same, a brief explanation of one or two points is necessary. It might seem that other periods of train- ing than those given in the tables should be included, but when we keep in mind the fact that practically each period given has a legal significance and that all schools of Indiana which train grade teachers are organized on the twelve week term basis, it is readily understood why so few report periods of training longer or shorter than those called for in the table. These few cases are grouped with the teachers with a period of training which most nearly represents the training each has had. For example, if a teacher reported twenty weeks, that teacher was included with the group that has had twenty-four weeks of professional training. It is also necessary to keep in mind the fact that the law requiring teachers to have had a four year high school course or its equivalent before A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 49 being eligible to teach, had been in force five years when the data for this investigation were collected, so that all teachers with five or less years of experience were high school graduates before taking the required professional training reported. Teachers with six or more years of experience may or may not have been high school graduates and may or may not have had professional train- ing. An effort was made to collect data relative to academic training of all teachers, but the reports were so incomplete as to render it impossible to secure detailed information that was suffi- cient in quantity or reliability to justify a distribution, anaylsis, and comparison on this basis. It is obvious that the greater the percentage of teachers with five or less years of experience, the less the percentage without academic and professional training. On the other hand it is probably true that from among the experienced teachers in the rural schools only those who have shown some superior natural ability would be selected for positions in the towns and cities ; so that the advantage gained by the rural school on account of the former is more than offset by the latter. TABLE XI Summary of the Distribution of Grade Teachers on Basis of Training Corporation 1 CM 1 ^ - u a m s >> 1 >> V V M H f s C Township Consolidated . Town City 35 6 32 99 12 13 54 7? 18 25 93 59 23 47 171 27 137 1 18 100 3 5 4 30 2 2&8 42.0 52.0 55.1 TABLE XII Percentile Distribution of Grade Teachers on Basis of Training Corporation 4> a % CM CM s S 1 u 09 V >> H in u s >> u 3 i 2 1 .s c 2 II Township Consolidated Town City 6.7 5.0 5-2 32.0 13.5 23.3 20.2 17.8 15.0 19. 1 25.8 33.5 27.7 8.7 21.3 18.5 22.2 12.8 16.2 .9 5.6 2.8 4.8 .03 28.8 42.0 52.0 55-1 [so] A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 51 A summary of the training of teachers in the grades of the four types of schools studied is given in Tables xi and xii. The rela- tion of distribution of teachers in one type of schools to the other types is shown graphically in Figure 11. From these tables it is seen that there are twice as many teachers in the township district schools who have had no professional training as in any of the other types. That is to say, there are twice as many teachers in the rural schools of Indiana with five or more years of experience that have made no effort to fit themselves for the work they are trying to do as are found in the consolidated, town, or city schools. The average training of all teachers in the rural schools is twenty-eight and eight-tenths weeks, while the average training of all teachers in the consolidated schools is forty-two weeks; of teachers in town schools, fifty-two weeks, and of teachers in city schools, fifty-five and one-tenth weeks. Teachers in the rural schools have had only sixty-eight and five-tenths per cent the pro- fessional training that teachers in the consolidated schools have had, fifty-five and four-tenths per cent the training of the town teachers, and fifty-two and three-tenths per cent the training that the grade teachers in cities have received. Experience of Teachers The extent to which the rural schools are made the training schools for teachers in other types is seen by referring to Table XIII. Of the total number of beginning teachers in 1912-1913 in the schools studied, seventy-two per cent were in the rural schools, eleven per cent in the city schools, nine per cent in the town schools, and six per cent in the consolidated schools. By taking into consid- eration the percentage of beginning teachers in each type, we find that one out of every four teachers in the rural schools has had no experience as compared with one in every fifteen in consolidated and town schools, and one in every fifty in the city schools. When we take into consideration the fact that there were fewer teachers in the township district schools in the year 1912-1913 than the previous year, while there was an increase in the number of teachers in the city schools, the facts indicated above are even more marked. The median number of years of experience of township district teachers is two and sixty-five hundredths, while the median for teachers in consolidated schools is five and five-tenths, for teachers in town schools it is six and thirteen-hundredths, and for teachers TT^ [52] A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 53 in city schools it is seven. Fifty per cent of the teachers in the rural schools have taught one to seven years as compared with the same number in consolidated schools who have taught two and one-half to ten years. Fifty per cent of the town teachers have taught three to nine years, and an equal number in city schools have taught five to twelve years. The distribution of teachers in the four types of schools on basis of service is shown graphically in Figure in. It will be observed that the curve of distribution of rural teachers is uni- lateral with the mode at zero. The mode for consolidated school teachers is three years. The curve for town teachers is bi-modal, one mode being at three years and the other at six years. This may be due to a lack of sufficient number of cases, but it will be observed that the mode for city school teachers falls between these two, being at five years, which might be inferred to indicate a point of greatest transition from one type to another. In order to compare the results of this investigation with other data secured by a diflferent method, the writer took such parts of Dr. Colfman's tabulations (See The Social Composition of the Teaching Population) as pertained to Indiana and reduced them to the same basis as the tabulations given in this study. The com- parison of the results of Dr. Coffman's investigation and the totals of the four types of schools as derived in this study are shown in Figure iv. The similarity of the two curves is quite marked. The variation for the first two years seems to indicate that Dr. Coflfman had a relatively larger number of rural teachers than is included in this investigation. This inference will probably account for the fact that the median experience of all teachers included in this investigation, which is six and six-tenths years, is slightly higher than the median given by Dr. Coflf man's data, which is five and two-tenths years. TABLE XIII Distribution of Grade Teachers on Basis of Experience Number of teachers in each type Per cent of teachers each type in AU types combined >* a, Ut3 e2 ■5 H H (A 1 Ph All tsrpesby Coffman 72 6 9 11 24.5 6.8 6.5 1.9 98 8.7 40 10 6 20 17.0 11.4 4.3 3.4 86 7.6 37 9 11 25 12.6 10.2 7.9 4.2 82 7.3 16 11 18 40 5.5 12.5 13.0 6.7 85 7.5 13 5 14 38 4.4 5.9 10.0 5.7 70 6.2 11 3 8 67 3.7 3.4 5.8 11.3 89 7.9 12 4 19 53 4.2 4.5 13.8 8.9 88 7.8 11 4 11 40 3.7 4.5 7.9 6.7 66 5.9 9 5 5 27 3.1 5.9 3.6 4.5 46 4.1 7 5 7 26 2.4 5.9 5.1 4.4 45 4.0 11 4 6 37 3.7 4.5 4.3 6.2 58 5.1 4 1 6 20 1.4 1.1 4.3 3.4 33 2.9 5 3 4 28 1.7 3.4 2.9 4.7 40 3.6 5 2 2 12 1.7 2.3 1.4 2.0 21 1.9 4 3 1 15 1.4 3.4 .7 2.5 23 2.0 5 4 2 23 1.7 4.5 1.4 3.9 34 3.0 4 1 13 1.4 1.1 2.2 18 1.6 3 1 9 1.1 1.1 1.5 13 1.2 3 2 1 13 1.1 2.3 .7 2.2 19 1.7 2 1 9 .7 1.1 1.5 12 1.1 2 1 2 22 .7 1.1 1.4 3.7 27 2.4 1 1 5 .3 .7 .8 7 .5 1 1 4 .3 .7 .7 6 .5 1 4 .3 .7 5 .4 4 .0 .7 4 .3 4 1 1 9 1.4 1.1 .7 1.5 15 1.3 3 2 4 28 1.1 2.3 2.9 4.7 37 3.3 78 83 61 49 46 50 44 25 24 25 30 11 21 9 13 15 6 7 11 3 9 2 6 4 9 11.6 12.3 8.9 7.2 6.8 7.4 6.5 3.7 3.5 3.7 4.5 1.6 3.2 1.3 1.9 2.4 .9 1.0 1.2 1.2 1.6 .4 1.3 .3 .9 .6 1.3 [54] A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 55 TABLE XIV Percentile Distribution of Teachers in Given Number of Years OF Experience Years Township Consolidated Town City None - 24.5 43.2 I7.I 7.9 5.0 2.3 I.I 6.8 43-4 25.3 % I.I 2.3 6.5 41.0 33-7 10.7 2.1 2.1 2.Z 1.9 31.3 21.9 16.5 II. I 4.4 4.7 I - 5 years . . . 6-10 years . . II - 15 years . . 16-20 years . . 20-25 years . . 26 and above . Notwithstanding the fact that the rural schools have a much larger percentage of beginning teachers, it will be observed that the number of teachers with one to five years of experience in the first three types is nearly the same, and that the teachers in the city schools with one to five years of experience is much smaller, but that in the longer periods of service the city has a larger per cent. This would seem to indicate that the migration from the rural schools to consolidated and town schools occurs during the first five years, and from the rural, consolidated and town schools to the city schools after, as well as during this time. Classification and Salaries of Teachers TABLE XV Summary of Classification and Distribution of Teachers on Basis OF Salaries Received Corporation Total Numbers ABC Per cents ABC Salaries ABC Township Consolidated Town City 141 83 72 19 30 40 21 60 47 52 168 373 47.6 28.0 24.3 2I.I 2,Z:l 45.5 16.4 46.8 36.7 9.8 31.5 58.7 $2.36 $2.88 $3.36 2.50 2.91 3.53 2.65 2.94 3.56 2.53 3.06 3.58 From the previous table it is to be expected that there would be a much larger per cent of class A teachers in the rural schools than in any other type. The consolidated schools rank second. Notwithstanding the fact that the consolidated schools had about the same per cent of inexperienced teachers as the towns, according to Table xv, the towns have a much smaller per cent of class A teachers which indicates that a smaller per cent of experienced teachers in the consolidated schools have met the scholastic and professional training necessary for promotion to a higher class. On the whole the consolidated schools with forty-five and five-tenths 56 A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana per cent of class C and thirty-three and three-tenths per cent of class B teachers outrank the town schools with thirty-six and seven-tenths per cent of class C teachers and forty-six and eight- tenths per cent of class B teachers. The general effect of the legislation concerning the minimum salary and professional training of teachers has been to cause a gradual increase in the salaries of teachers in all types of schools, especially the rural schools. By taking the reports of the state superintendent of public instruction for the years 1904 and 1910 and computing the average salary for all teachers in each type as tabulated in this investigation, we get the following results which verify the above statement: TABLE XVI Average Salary of All Grade Teachers in Each Type of Schools Com- pared WITH Amounts Received in 1904 and 1910 Township Consolidated Town City 1904 (report) 1910 (report) .... 1912 (this investigation) M.36 I $ . . . 2.62 2.97 2.75 I 310 ^2.69 3-II 3-12 $3.05 3.14 3-34 It would seem that teachers in the same class should receive the same salary, regardless of the type of schools in which they teach. The fact that class A teachers in the rural schools receive on an average only two dollars and thirty-six cents per day, while teachers in the same class in the consolidated schools receive two dollars and fifty cents per day and the teachers in the towns and cities even a greater amount, may be due to one of two reasons. It may be due to the fact that the township trustees usually pay only the minimum amount called for by law even to a fraction of a cent, while the officials in the other schools are governed only in a general way by the minimum salary law and may pay even a little more than this amount, or it may be due to the fact that the general average of all teachers in each class in the rural schools is lower than in the other types. The minimum salary law has affected the distribution of teachers in another way. It is a frequent occurrence for township trustees,, on account of a false notion of economy, to refuse to employ any but class A teachers, while officials in other schools, especially of city schools, emphasize the fact that they want only class C teachers. A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 57 High School Teachers The legislation, a summary of which was given above, has to do almost entirely with grade teachers. Beginning high school teachers, however, must have had the professional training equiva- lent to that required for class A before entering the profession, but neither advancement nor salary is dependent on the classification that obtains for grade teachers, since very few high school teachers receive a smaller salary than is paid elementary teachers in class C. It is usually assumed that the more poorly prepared and less experienced as well as the most poorly paid teachers are to be found in the more remote and smaller high schools of the state. It will be our endeavor to see to what extent this assumption holds true, by giving as many of the facts that bear on the situation as possible and forming such conclusions as these facts will warrant. The original data are given in Tables xvii-xix and should be read in the same manner as the tables for grade teachers. On account of the difficulty in tabulating the data pertaining to salaries of the teachers in each school, the original data are not given in these tables. It would have been more satisfactory if we had had a greater number of cases, but this was impossible in the case of consolidated schools, since practically all that have been established any length of time are included. The results obtained from data for town and city high schools indicate that we have a representative sampling and that a greater number of cases would not change the final results materially. The summary of the distribution of high school teachers on the basis of training is given in total numbers in Table xx and in per cents in Table xxi. A graphic representation of the same is given in Figure v. The returns were too indefinite to permit a detailed distribution of those who had had post-graduate work. It ranged from six weeks to two years. In computing the average training of the teachers in each type of high schools, it was arbi- trarily assumed that one year would be a fair average for all who reported having had post-graduate work. This is probably too large and would favor the city high schools since one out of every four have had some work beyond that required for an A.B. degree, while only one in every fifteen in the town and consolidated high schools report having had any graduate work. The central ten- dency for teachers in consolidated schools is a little higher than H < pq § o 1 SJB3A0^9Z T-l 1-4 1 sivs/isz-lZ 1— 1 S1V9A 03 SJB3X 61 SJB9X 81 sa^aX ii - SJB3X 91 SJB3XSI ^-H 1— ( SJB3X tX ^— 1 SJB3X ex - - SJBSX 21 - SJB9iC XX siBaX 01 - SJB3X 6 ^— ( SJB3A8 - ^ ^ ^ SJB3X i ^— f sj'BayCg ^^ SJ'Bai^ 5 - SJV^/i f tH i-( tH CN 1-1 SXB3iC e ^ ^ ^ - - SJB3X z ^ - 1—1 i-esA. X ro auojs[ tH ^ T-l T-H 1—1 .s' 1—1 1—1 - SIB3X t ^ ^ rj< -^ fO CN CO CS T-H T-l 1-1 CN cs si'BaX f 1-1 cs ■^ 1^^ ^ - SJB9X J - ro 1—1 T-l jBaX X - S1I33M tZ S1I33M ZX auoN 1 F;ox 1-1 CD ^ CO lo vo-^est-. fo cs cs rsi c^cs U3UIOM CN CN CN cs cs -^ cs ■^ tH ^^ a3H y-i y-{ y-i r-i ro •^ cs cs ro •^ CS ■^ ^ THI^ dtqsuMO } ojaqum^ 1-1 CNJ fO -^ LO vOt^OOCsO 1-1 cs po 1*1 lo 1—1 1—1 1—1 1-1 1-t vor^ [58] SJB3X l£ sxeaA Of-93 SJB3X 93-12 SJB3iC OZ sa^a^C 61 sj'BoX 8X sjBaX ^t Si-BSiC 9 J SJB3X sx SJB3X ^t SJB3X £1 SJB9X 21 siTOX n SIV9K 01 SJB3X 6 SJB3X 8 SJ-B3X i sj'BaX 9 SIV3S. S «N ^ es ^ ^ ,-1 SJB3X £ SJB3X 3 JB3A I aao^i J[JOAl 3'J'Bnp'BiO sj^aX f CN»-H «-t «N sj-eaX f f-H th T-i es cs * - - - CN CN SIB3X 6 ^ 1— 1 »— 1 1— 1 y-i SJB3X 8 es ^^^ ^ y-t SiV9A I «N .00 OwoovO U3UIOM CN CO 00 t^ VO CO Tt""* 00 CM CO Tt^Tt^cococo vOco-^co a3K Tt^- ■'i^ Tf Tt< CN ■^ »0 CO CO »0 CO X; pjojaqumx 'HtsrO'^io vOt^-OOOvO »-H CN CO ^ «0 »-l t-l 1-H 1— 1 1-t Ot^OO On J^?3S^ [60] A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 6i TABLE XX Summary of the Training of High School Teachers Corporation c o CM u « >> 1 (A cd >i o H Si S 3 •a bO 1 It Consolidated Town . . . • City I I I 7 6 14 8 27 42 113 50 3-55 TABLE XXI Percentile Distribution of High School Teachers on Basis of Training M t t 3 ^ S 0) s -% -s Corporation S ID % >> o (L) 3 C ^ J3 > e J2; -• oq O H H fe PL4 <■•• Consolidated . . 2.2 13.3 17.8 60.0 6.7 3..S.S Town 1.2 18.I 19.2 53.8 77 3.48 City •5 .. 3-3 6.6 I3.I S3.I 23.5 3.85 that of the town high schools, but a little lower than the central tendency for city high schools. The curves of distribution are very similar except that the variation for city teachers is greater. On the whole, the training of teachers in the city high schools is very little superior to the training of teachers in the consolidated and town high schools, which would indicate that some other factor than the amount of professional training was the determining factor in the distribution of high school teachers. [62] 1 Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 63 TABLE XXII Distribution of High School Teachers on Basis of Experience Total Numbers Per cents I 5 1 1 1 1 § 1 1 ^^ 1 1 ^ > ^ H u e2 u 5 3 3 11.4 3.8 1.5 1 3 6 11 6.8 7.6 5.4 2 4 4 9 9.1 5.1 4.4 3 5 6 19 11.4 7.6 9.3 4 6 11 22 13.6 13.9 10.7 5 1 9 20 2.3 11.4 9.8 6 2 6 12 4.6 7.6 5.9 7 1 6 16 2.3 7.6 8.8 8 5 7 10 11.4 8.9 4.9 9 1 3 6 2.3 3.8 3.0 10 1 4 14 2.3 5.1 6.9 11 2 9 2.6 4.4 12 1 1 7 2.3 1.3 3.5 13 2 2 5 4.6 2.6 2.5 14 1 3 5 2.3 3.8 2.5 15 2 1 7 4.6 1.3 3.5 16 5 2.5 17 1 3 2.3 1.5 18 1 .5 19 2 1.0 20 2 5 2.6 2.5 21 1 4 2.3 2.0 22-25 3 5 3.85 2.5 26- 2 4 4.6 2.0 A summary of the distribution of high school teachers on the basis of experience is given in Table xvii. It will be observed that there is a much greater percentage of beginning teachers to be found in the consolidated high schools than in the town and city high schools. This field is so limited, however, that the consolidated schools cannot be said to be the training schools for the other two types as the rural schools are said to be training schools for grade teachers in consolidated, town, and city schools. The limited num- ber of beginning teachers in the high schools may be explained by the fact that most high school teachers have had experience in grade work before entering the high schools. To what extent this holds true, cannot be determined from the data at hand. It can be ^sr5 [64] A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 65 said, relatively speaking, that three times as many inexperienced teachers entering the high schools without experience, begin in the township consolidated high schools as begin in the town high schools, and seven times as many as begin in the city high schools. In other words, a college graduate with no experience will find it three times easier to get a position in a consolidated high school than in a town high school, and seven times easier than to enter a city high school, leaving out of consideration for the moment, the difference in the number of schools in each type. The graph. Figure vi, showing the distribution of teachers as given in Table xvii, shows that we have too limited a number of cases in the consolidated high school to warrant many inferences with reference to experience of teachers. The curves of distribu- tion for towns and cities are quite similar notwithstanding the fact that there are three times as many cases in the latter as in the former. It will be observed that the modes for the three types of schools are the same. The median number of years of experience of teachers in the consolidated schools is four and eight-threehun- dredths. The median number of years of experience of the teachers in the high schools of the towns is six and eight-hundredths, and that of the teachers in the 'city high schools is seven and thirty- eight hundredths years. These facts as well as the limited returns as to "length of service in present position" indicate that changes are more frequent in consolidated schools than in either of the other two types. An effort was made to secure data that would permit an analysis of the situation as to length of service in one position, but the returns were inadequate for this purpose. Con- sidering all the facts at hand, it is safe to conclude that experience is a much more vital factor in the distribution of high school teachers than is academic and professional training. Contrary to common opinion, the facts as revealed in Table XXIII fail to show the great advantage that teachers in the city high schools are thought to enjoy from the standpoint of salaries received, over the teachers in the consolidated and town high schools. The median salary of all teachers, including the principals, in the city high schools is four dollars and fifty- four cents per day with an average deviation of sixty-one cents, while the median salary of teachers in the consolidated high schools is four dollars and forty-eight cents with an average deviation of fifty-five cents, and in the town high schools it is four dollars and forty-six cents lU NO O NO 5 a « ^^ -s O j2 6^ A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 67 TABLE XXIII Distribution of High School Teachers , Including the Principals, on the Basis of Daily Salary Number of teachers in each tjrpe Per cent of teachers in each type receiving salary given receiving salary given DaUy Salary Consoli- dated Town City Consoli- dated Town City $3.00 1 1 1.95 1.38 0.00 3.25 3 2 2 5.88 2.77 1.25 3.50 4 8 8 7.84 11.11 5.00 3.75 4 6 15 7.84 8.22 9.37 4.00 7 14 27 13.92 18.43 16.87 4.25 7 6 25 13.92 8.22 15.62 4.50 6 6 19 11.76 8.22 11.88 4.75 3 4 19 5.88 5.55 11.87 5.00 7 6 17 13.92 8.22 10.62 5.25 2 2 7 3.92 2.77 4.57 5.50 3 4 3 5.88 5.55 1.88 5.75 1 2 1.95 2.77 1.25 6.00 1 4 1.95 1.38 2.50 6.25 1 4 1.95 6.94 2.50 6.50 1 1.38 .63 6.75 2 2.77 1.25 7.00 1 1 1.95 1.38 .62 7.25 3 1.38 1.87 7.50 1 1.38 .66 Median $4.48 $4.46 $4.54 A D $0.55 $0.82 $0.61 with an average deviation of eighty-three cents. There is a greater variabiUty in the salaries of teachers in the town high schools than in either of the other two types. With the thought of determining the cause of this greater deviation, a second table was compiled (see Table xxiv), omitting the high school principals who on account of some administrative work and supervision of the work of the grades receive a higher salary than the regular high school teachers. Naturally the effect will be much more pronounced on the type of high schools employing the fewer number of teachers. The median salary was found to be four dollars and fourteen cents per day with an average deviation of forty-one cents for teachers in the consolidated high schools, not including the principals, four dollars and seven cents with an average deviation of forty-three cents for teachers in the town high schools, and four dollars and forty- two cents with an average deviation of forty-five cents for teachers in the city high schools. While the median salary of the entire teaching population in the three types of schools is practically 68 A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana the same, the higher salary paid the principals of the consolidated and town high schools as compared with the salary paid regular teachers, causes the salary of the regular teachers in the high schools to be a little lower than that paid the teachers in the city high schools. Generally speaking, the principalship of a smaller high school is more desirable from the standpoint of salary than is a regular teaching position in city high schools. Figure vii shows the distribution of high school teachers on basis of salary in the three types of schools when the principals were included, while Figure viii shows the distribution without the principals. The second mode at five dollars for teachers in consoli- dated schools and at six dollars and twenty-five cents for teachers in the town high schools in Figure vii are not present in Figure viii, which would indicate that these are the most frequent salaries of the principals in these two types. The greater difference in the median salaries of consolidated and town high school teachers when principals are included, also shows that the principals in the town schools receive a larger salary in relation to the number of teachers TABLE XXIV Distribution of High School Teachers, Not Including the Principals, on Basis of Salary Number of teachers receiving Per cent of teachers in each type receiving salary given salary given Daily Salary Consoli- dated Town City Consoli- dated Town City $3.00 1 1 3.12 2 3.25 3 2 2 9.36 4 1.46 3.50 4 8 8 12.48 16 5.84 3.75 4 5 15 12.48 10 10.95 4.00 7 13 27 21.85 26 19.70 4.25 6 5 25 18.73 10 18.10 4.50 3 5 14 9.36 10 10.20 4. 5 3 4 19 9.36 8 13.80 5.00 1 6 15 3.12 12 10.90 5.25 1 6 2 4.30 5.50 1 1.46 5.75 1 1.46 6.00 2 2.92 6.25 1 1.46 6.50 6.75 1 1.46 Median A D $4.14 .405 $4.07 .426 $4.42 .541 A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 69 under them than do the principals of consolidated schools. Taking the school as a whole, the consolidated high school teachers are better paid than teachers in the town high schools. Special Teachers and Supervisors The nature and extent of the work of special teachers and super- visors is so varied that it is difficult to get any basis for comparison of the work in the different types of schools. In one school a supervisor may do all the teaching in a special subject, such as music, or she may plan the work for the entire system, giving special instruction and supervising the work of the grade teachers, or she may devote the greater part of her time to instruction in the high school and merely plan the work, secure materials and special aids for the regular teachers. Be that as it may, the fact that a school system has a special teacher on its pay-roll who devotes all her time and energy along the line of her specialty would indicate that that system of schools is giving greater consideration to that line of work than a school system that has no such teacher. The state board of education requires high schools to give work in music and drawing in order to be commissioned or certified, as the case may be. In order to meet this requirement, some school boards secure local talent to give a few hours' instruction in the high school each week. In one case it was reported that the salary per day of a music teacher was five dollars while the monthly pay- roll showed that she received twenty-five dollars per month. In a number of cases the work in music and drawing was taught by teachers of the regular high school subjects, which would mean that no attention was given to these subjects in the grades except as was given by the grade teachers themselves. Cases were found where teachers were employed to give instruction in a special line of work, but were also required to take one or more classes in the regular high school subjects. The two cases in Table xxv where a special teacher gives in- struction in music and drawing in the township district schools, are examples of a recent movement in Indiana to provide instruction for the rural schools in some of the special subjects that is in a way comparable with that given in consolidated, town, and city schools. A few townships or combination of townships employ a special teacher who goes from school to school to give instruction in music and drawing. Recent legislation has provided for an agent or yo A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana supervisor for each county who shall devote his whole time to the rural schools. While it is not mandatory, many counties are pre- paring to take up this work as provided for by law. In some cases the transportation of these special teachers is provided by the town- ship, while in others the teachers have to provide their own con- veyances. These teachers give out plans and material and give instruction to the teachers at each regular meeting of the teachers in township institutes; so that the work can be made as effective as in schools located in centers of population. TABLE XXV Special Teachers and Supervisors Number Per cent Number and per cent of school corpora- tions with 2 Pi !« a^ a Pi ^ H i 1 No special teacher or supervisor 2 One special teacher or supervisor 3 Two special teachers or supervisors 4 Three special teachers or supervisors Four special teachers or supervisors Five special teachers or supervisors Number of school corporations in which the special subjects are taught by Regular teachers One special teacher for music One special teacher for drawing One special teacher for music and draw- ing One special teacher for music, drawing, and domestic art One special teacher for domestic science One special teacher for manual training One special teacher for agriculture One special teacher for penmanship One sf>ecial teacher for German in grades Supervisor of primary work 29 2 2 6 7 7 6 6 1 3 12 2 2 7 1 1 11 1 5 1 8 4 8 7 3 2 3 13 10 10 8 9 2 1 2 93.5 6.4 6.6 17.6 35.3 41.3 41.2 35.3 35.3 5.8 32 48 8 8 28 4 4 44 4 20 4 00 16.6 33.3 28.0 12.5 8.3 12.5 54.2 41.6 41.6 33.3 37.5 8.3 4.16 8.3 Table xxv shows that consolidated schools are giving greater consideration to the newer subjects than the town schools. Thirty- two per cent of the latter have no special teacher or supervisor, forty-eight per cent with only one, and eight per cent with two spe- cial teachers, as compared with seventeen per cent of the consoli- dated schools with no special teacher, thirty-five per cent with only one, and forty-one per cent with two special teachers. This same A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 71 fact is shown a little farther down in the table where forty-four per cent of the towns have the one special teacher for both music and drawing, while the consolidated schools have a special teacher for the two subjects in only thirty-five per cent of the schools. The consolidated schools far surpass the town schools and compare very favorably with the city schools in the number in which there is a special teacher for each of the two subjects, music and drawing. In all cases in the consolidated schools manual training was taught by some teacher who was selected primarily to teach other subjects. The same was true in the town schools with one exception. While agriculture was given considerable attention by a number of schools, TABLE XXVI Distribution of Special Teachers on Basis of Salary Number Per cent 1 c3^ e2 •5 1 P4 I1 Ut3 ^ B $2.00 1 1 1 5.8 6.2 2 2.50 1 2 1 1 50 11.7 6.2 2 3.00 4 2 2 23.5 12 A 4 3.25 1 4 2 4 50 23.5 12 A 8 3.50 4 2 4 23.5 12 A 8 3.75 2 2 6 11.7 12 A 12 4.00 3 10 18.6 20 4.25 1 9 6.2 18 4.50 8 16 4.75 3 6 5.00 2 1 12.4 2 6.00 1 Median $3.34 $3.67 $4.17 especially the town and consolidated schools, only one teacher was found who was selected primarily for that work, and that was in a town school. While domestic science and domestic art are given as much attention in the consolidated schools as in the town schools, as we shall see a little later, we find that the former have only one school where a special teacher has this work, while special teachers are provided in twenty-four per cent of the town schools, and thirty- three per cent of the city schools. Special teachers of penmanship, German in the grades, and supervisors of primary work were found only in a very small per cent of the cities. 72 A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana The salaries of special teachers per diem in the consolidated schools are lower than the salaries of special teachers in the towns, which is the reverse of what was found concerning the salaries of regular teachers, both in the grades and high school. The median salary of the special teachers in the consolidated schools is three dollars and thirty- four cents per day as compared with the median salary of three dollars and sitxy-seven cents for the special teachers in the town and the median salary of four dollars and seventeen cents for the special teachers in the city schools. The salaries of special teachers in all schools are lower than the salaries of the regular high school teachers, but somewhat better than the salaries of the regular grade teachers as will be observed by referring to Table xxvii. TABLE XXVII Median Salaries of Grade, Special, and High School Teachers in Con- SOLIDATED, Town, and City Schools Grade Teachers Special Teachers High School Teachers Consolidated $3.10 3.12 3-34 $3.34 3.67 4.17 $4.14 4.07 4.42 Town City CHAPTER IV Enrichment of Curricula A good test of the kind of work a school is doing, though some- what intangible, is to study the nature and extent of the effort of that school to enrich its course of study. Not plans and outlines on paper merely, but enrichment in the sense that an effort is made to bring to the child those things demanded by the life he is living and the problems he will have to meet and in such a manner as to cause an appreciation and response on the part of the child. It may happen that a certain school has introduced manual training with the idea of satisfying the ambitious desires of a city superintendent to keep apace with what some other school or superintendent is doing and there be a decided lack of any understanding of what should be attempted or the values to be realized. On the other hand a superintendent and his teachers may gradually develop a line of work in response to local needs without giving a specific name to it or a definite time and place in the curriculum, but correlate it with some of the traditional subjects. While it may be true that one school does more work in a certain line, nature study, for example, in connection with home geography, than another school which has a definite time and place in its course for this work, it is more than probable, at this stage in the evolution of our schools, that the extent to which the newer subjects are given a definite place in the curricula of the different types of schools may be considered a fair index of the nature and extent of the work that is being done by them along these lines. It is on this assumption that a presentation of the time and place of the newer subjects in the curricula of the different types of schools is given in a more or less detailed manner. The legislature and the state board of education have had a de- termining influence on the curricula of schools. The law enacted in 1869, which is still in force, pertaining to what shall be taught in the common schools of the state is as follows : "The common schools of the state shall be taught in the English language and the trustee shall provide to be taught in them orthog- raphy, reading, writing, arithmetic, English grammar, physiology, history of the United States, and good behavior, and such other branches of learning and other languages as the advancement of the pupil may require and the trustees from time to time direct. And whenever parents and guardians of twenty-five or more chil- 74 ^ Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana dren in attendance at any school of a township, town, or city shall so demand, it shall be the duty of the school trustee or trustees of said township, town, or city to procure an efficient teacher and introduce the German language as a branch of study in such schools; and the tuition in said schools shall be without charge, provided such demand is made before a teacher for said district is employed." To the above list of required subjects was added ''Scientific Temperance" in 1895. The great factor in determiniiig the curricula of the schools of the state has been the initiative and leadership of the state superin- tendent of public instruction supported by the state board of edu- cation. The control the state superintendent has in formulating the course of study for the schools of the state has been gained by the exercise of initiative on the part of certain men who have held this position and by virtue of the power delegated to this office rather than by any direct legislation. Prior to 1894 each county board of education was supposed to adopt a course of study for the schools of the county, but at a meeting of the county superinten- dents* association of that year a resolution was passed which placed the construction of the course of study in the hands of the state superintendent. The course is adopted and enforced by the county board of education of each county, though modifications and addi- tions may be made by any school corporation if sanctioned by the state department so long as these changes do not interfere with the subjects specified by law. On account of the fact that the rural schools had the greatest need for a definite course of study to guide the work in these schools, it has been planned to fit the conditions and meet the needs of the rural school particularly so that modifica- tions need to be made to fit the course of study to the organization of town and city schools with their longer school year as well as local needs. Naturally, a course of study planned for a six months' rural school would not be suited to a nine or ten months' school year of town and city without some adjustments. The course of study issued by the state superintendent for the year 1913-1914 is a marked improvement over preceding courses. It is organized on the semester basis with a maximum and minimum amount of work specified, the minimum amount to be covered by the rural schools with a shorter school year, and the maximum to be completed by schools which continue in session eight or nine months. It also provides for the correlation of the work in rural schools so as to A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 75 make possible a reduction in the number of classes and specifies in more detail the work that should be covered by schools with short school year and what should be added in schools which continue in session a longer period. While the matter of seeing that teachers follow the state course of study in the grades is left, for the most part, to local officials, the state board of education exercises direct supervision of the work of the high schools. A high school is not compelled to use the course of study issued by the state department, but the courses used must be approved in order for this school to retain its commission or certificate as the case may be. The required work in the more recent courses is limited and definite, with exten- sive electives, so that it is possible for a pupil to select most any kind of a course he may desire. He may take work that will fit him to meet college entrance requirements or he may take more practical work and specialize in science and agriculture. The state manual or course of study for the grades for the year 1911-1912 gave definite outlines for the work in the required sub- jects for each year they were to be taught, combining and corre- lating physiology, hygiene and scientific temperance, and in addi- tion, gave detailed outlines for work in music and agriculture, and general suggestions for work in drawing. This course was adopted by most, if not all, county boards of education and became the official guide for all rural and consolidated schools. All rural schools were found to be using this state manual, but when a more detailed investigation was made, it was found in several cases, and probably is true in many schools, that it was followed in so far as it pertained to the textbook work in the traditional subjects but that little attention was given to elementary language and history work and to the newer subjects of the curriculum such as music, drawing, agriculture, manual training, and domestic science. Ex- ceptions were found where schools were in charge of well-trained, experienced teachers. All consolidated schools use the state course of study in the grades without modification, with one exception, in which case a local course in geography was planned. The situation in the town schools was very similar to that found in the consoli- dated schools, while the greatest deviations from the state course of study were found in the city schools. The number and per cent of schools using the state manual without and with modification and the number using a course of study planned for the one school, is given in Table xxviii. 76 A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana TABLE XXVIII Courses of Study Used in the Four Types of Schools Grades High School Number Per cent Number Per cent h §•2 art using using using usmg § >> 1 4> S 1 -% a i "« ^ i S 1 Rural 30 30 100 Consolidated 17 16 1 94.1 5.6 12 4 1 70.4 23.5 5.9 Town 25 25 100 21 4 84.0 16.0 City 24 4 10 10 16.6 41.6 41.6 4 10 10 16.6 41.6 41.6 It will be observed from the above table that the state manual is used in practically all schools in the grades except in the cities. While the table shows that eighty-three per cent of the city schools used either a modified form of the state course of study or a course locally planned, an examination of these courses shows that few of them differ greatly from the state manual. The answers to the inquiry, "How different from state course of study?" show that the efforts to adapt the state course of study or to plan a course that would meet the local conditions and needs were confined, for the most part, to a redivision of the work outlined in the state manual and to suggestions for supplementing this work. Some of the answers given to this question by superintendents who were not influenced by the state course of study any more than by courses from other cities were: "Greater correlation of subjects", "Less formal grammar and more constructive language work", "Emphasis on manual training and domestic science", "German in the grades", "Place for physical and social education", and "Use of supple- mentary readers". The last refers to a series of texts not adopted by the state. The fact that the state manual is so extensively used as issued and in a modified form in the different schools of the state is due to the nature of the training and experience of the principals or superintendents in the consolidated, town, and quite a number of the city schools. The men are selected with reference to academic training and ability to teach certain high school subjects, since the greater part of their time is devoted to teaching in the high schools, rather than to professional training or ability to plan elementary work. The men coming directly from the colleges or departmental A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana yy positions in the high schools are neither familiar with elementary school problems or with the educational literature giving the experi- ence of other schoolmen and specialists in dealing with these prob- lems. As these men advance to the superintendency of schools and other inexperienced men take their places, it is not until they have become superintendents of larger schools that they have become familiar enough with the problems of the grades and have acquired sufficient experience in dealing with them to be competent to plan, unaided, a course of study for the grades. The state course of study for high schools does not occupy sq definite and fixed a position in the schools of the state as does the course of study for the elementary schools. This is true for two reasons. The effort of school officials was first directed toward the elementary schools and secondly, the high schools of the state were in charge of men who were more able to plan their own work. The need of standardization, college entrance requirements and the more recent changes in secondary education led to an increased activity on the part of the state officials. The state course of study being planned for the greater number of high schools would natur- ally be better fitted for the towns and smaller city high schools than for consolidated and larger city high schools. It was found that only sixteen per cent of the city high schools and seventy per cent of the consolidated high schools used the state course of study without modifications as compared with eighty-four per cent of the town high schools. The changes made by the consolidated schools were usually with the idea of making possible greater specialization in science and agriculture and in the larger city high schools in order to offer a greater number of courses from which the pupil might select. These city high schools usually offer a commercial course, but none offered an industrial course. A comparative study of the time and place given the newer sub- jects in the different types of schools will give some idea of the efforts made in each to enrich the course of study. This was done to a certain extent when the subject of special teachers was consid- ered, but to get a definite basis for comparison that is fair to all types, it is necessary to include work done by regular as well as by special teachers. Superintendents and principals were asked if they gave regular and systematic instruction in music, drawing, etc., mentioning all the newer subjects. In all subjects to which an affirmative answer was given further inquiry was made as to the grade in which the work was given, number of lessons per week »J o Ho o w sapuiS m ireouao o*-t uav^aiapui^ OCS 1^ ■7;^ CM^ apBJO C*5I>. .y ft, II looqJS qsiH vOiOVO apwo t^^ 00 If looqas qSiH OOlOt^ apBiO OOt^O 1 lOoqDS q^iH vO On 00 apBio OnOsCOO 1 1 '°® ^OO ap^iO »0 0\ Ovt^ 1 looqos sp^iO lO »0 On CN i-H T-i es 1 S '°?i;i ^^^ apBio 2^?;;^ aonuiodjoD JO laquma p^ox CO'"-" cs cs Rural Consolidated Town City " i W g PQ I " f- 8 a o CO 3 w U p< w PU uBuuso U3?IBgj3pOT3 o 1 .a looqDS q3iH vovo 1—1 ap^iO 1'^ lOoqDS qsiH fopo CO CN O) ap^iO qsiH ■^ CN 0 9PBI0 Ovqp 1 looqos q^iH 00 lOOO ap^JO vq p p ^^ \0 ro vOO\ 1 looqos q^IH 00«N00 ap^JO vq tN p vq 1 looqos q^IH U 111 mi 1 -14 -1.2 26.1 89.7 84.5 8.3 2 26.4 76.8 82.0 4.9 3 95 5.5 25.1 66.3 11.7 4 -49 -1.6 26.6 88.0 84.8 8.9 5 -40 -3.5 26.4 65.6 75.1 13.1 6 35 1.8 24.6 86.2 84.6 10.6 7 44 2.8 25.7 70.1 11.9 8 -63 -4.4 27.5 81.0 92.8 11.8 9 -143 -16.1 24.5 83.8 88.1 7.2 10 -330 -14.9 24.0 87.5 87.8 8.0 11 -66 -8.5 23.1 85.0 97.8 6.6 12 -5 -.8 26.1 83.1 77.8 5.1 13 -100 -11.5 24.4 87.1 75.1 10.2 14 7 1.1 23.2 90.6 85.2 6.7 15 -36 -6.8 24.6 63.8 85.0 18.9 16 -123 -20.1 29.0 77.1 86.3 5.1 17 -110 -11.2 26.6 71.3 81.3 small grade attendance. Since, however, the town and consolidated schools are very similar in this respect, it is doubtful if the relative standing of the two in the above table would be changed if we had exact data concerning this point. Table xl shows the central tendencies and deviations in data given in the preceding tables and provides a basis for comparison of the standing of the different corporations and schools in the different phases considered. It will be seen from this table that there is a decrease in population in all types of school corporations except the city, in which there is a marked increase. While there is an increase in a few of the corporations of township district, consolidated and town schools, this increase is more than offset by the number which show a decreasing population as well as the amount of the decrease. The total change in all the townships with district schools was a decrease of 3,250 or 5.7 per cent. The de- crease in townships with consolidated schools was a total of 838 A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 99 TABLE XXXVIII Changes in Population and Statistics of Town Schools Given in Per cent f Change in popiilation in ten years U "§1 it Iji 2 ^ 1 II ft 1-- 111 nil 1 -827 -63.8 30.7 70.0 82.6 7.7 2 -37 -8.4 30.8 83.6 66.7 2.4 3 79 8.7 20.9 78.5 77.5 8.6 4 -51 -5.9 22.2 71.3 79.5 12.4 5 -288 -23.9 26.6 73.0 82.9 5.7 6 -40 -9.4 20.5 89.9 85.0 7.6 7 -139 -9.7 25.4 85.6 83.2 12.4 8 53 5.5 28.6 75.8 78.1 9.9 9 490 44.0 31.4 74.7 85.2 10 34.0 66.0 75.1 11 -121 -10.2 26.9 68.0 90.2 10.2 12 104 11.1 18.0 85.0 9.3 13 145 11.8 22.8 74.1 83.8 7.7 14 -28 -2.8 22.6 84.8 75.2 10.0 15 -40 -3.2 25.3 83.2 89.9 6.8 16 634 52.2 26.3 84.1 9.8 17 141 13.2 32.6 86.1 87.5 10.1 18 -219 -17.5 23.0 88.1 14.3 19 27 3.0 59.8 82.2 18.6 20 119 6.8 25.8 80.0 83.9 9.6 21 -104 -23.0 23.8 86.2 83.1 22 -58 -6.8 29.5 91.2 88.1 10.9 23 -77 -6.7 22.9 89.0 95.3 9.4 24 61 9.0 26.5 87.1 87.5 16.1 25 -76 -8.5 24.6 80.8 85.0 9.3 or 4.4 per cent. The number of towns with a decrease in population slightly exceeded the number with an increase in population during the preceding ten years. The total change was a decrease of 262 or one per cent. Only one-sixth of the cities show a decrease in population, while the total change was an increase of 25,276 or 15.5 per cent. It will also be noted that the townships with district schools have a greater number of children of legal school age in proportion to the total population than the consolidated town or city schools, while the city ranks second and townships with con- solidated schools and towns have about equal ratios. This would lOO A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana TABLE XXXIX Changes in Population and Statistics of City Schools Given IN Per cent Change in population ^i .- ra >j 1 in ten years "§1 3'rt *?> "o S « •^2 "o.SS •S^'l.'^ o 52: 1 d lit 1 pLi cd cd 60 en 1 523 13.4 22.6 72.8 82.8 11.3 2 330 10.0 24.0 64.0 82.2 13.2 3 2378 26.8 33.6 77.2 4 1554 16.6 31.2 66.5 81.5 5 902 11.6 24.5 65.8 78.5 6.3 6 3311 53.2 27.4 68.3 77.2 5.7 7 683 77.5 24.1 83.6 77.9 11.1 8 190 4.3 25.4 56.7 79.5 9.6 9 704 8.2 23.8 74.4 82.2 9.9 10 386 7.1 27.8 59.8 81.1 11.4 11 -53 -2.2 31.3 54.8 79.9 10.4 12 -362 -3.5 42.7 40.8 76.3 7.1 13 6401 37.5 25.4 69.0 64.0 6.1 14 3412 32.5 33.8 42.8 73.8 5.6 15 -396 -10.1 27.1 55.5 86.7 9.7 16 491 10.8 30.2 47.5 82.3 9.3 17 281 5.5 25.1 70.7 83.4 8.6 18 91 3.1 26.1 55.1 77.1 19 332 6.5 26.3 78.1 85.6 6.8 20 384 7.8 24.3 67.3 80.8 11.3 21 997 24.1 26.8 86.0 82.3 22 311 7.7 30.2 75.0 88.1 6.9 23 HS97 -8.9 31.8 53.6 90.6 6.6 24 561 13.2 27.1 78.2 25 1865 9.3 28.4 53.3 81.0 7.8 seem to indicate that the population of townships with consolidated schools and towns is made up more largely of older residents, many of whom have perhaps retired from active business and whose children are beyond legal school age. The statistics bear out the contention made by advocates of consolidated schools that consolidation means a larger enrollment of children in the schools of the township, since the ratio of enroll- ment to school census for consolidated schools is 81.1 per cent, while that of the town is 79.5 per cent, township district schools 78.1, and that of the city schools is only 61 per cent. It will also be noted that the variation for consolidated schools is less than that Ill •ail aji^jEnO *-H > a a .a 1 % M u 1 dSu'cqa JO -5.7 -4.4 -1.0 15.5 aSimio -3250 -838 -262 25279 i 93uvxp JO 1U3D J3 J \q 00 CN ^^ t^t^-oo O non^iodaoo jo^uaD aa J roiofosq <^ NOOO vO aonraodJOD jo'jaqumN CS ^ i-H 1 aStreqajo juaD jaj t-^pvqto lOCOsOOv notiBjodioo jd^naDjaj vqiot^po CNCSTt< 00 uonuiodjoo JO jaqiuuN OOrt^OO •^CN Township Consolidated Town City [lOl] I02 A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana for any other type. While the enrollment in consolidated schools surpasses that in all other types, it will be noted that in average daily attendance the consolidated schools rank second to the town schools, but excel both city and township district schools. This is probably due to the fact that town school corporations are small and offer few inducements to older boys and girls to drop out to engage in some economic pursuit. Taking the tables as they are given, we note that the town schools rank first in the retention of their pupils and that the consolidated schools rank second, while the township district and city schools are about equal. The average length of the school year for township district schools is 139 days with a variation of 14 days as compared with 1 56. 1 days for consolidated schools with a variation of 10, 160.6 days for town schools, and 179 for city schools. In conclusion it may be said that the consolidated schools are found in townships in which there is less decrease in population than in townships with district schools, and in townships with older residents and comparatively fewer children of legal school age; that consolidation increases the enrollment, average daily attend- ance, the power of the school to retain its pupils, and the length of the school year, but the consolidated school does not equal its pupils, which surpasses both the township district and city schools with reference to these points. CHAPTER VII School Finances — Receipts The question of financial support of schools is a vital one and will bear much study. No investigation concerning the educational situation in the different types of schools would be complete, which did not take into consideration the corporation wealth upon which the financial support of the school is based, the distribution of the total receipts of each corporation, the ratio of the amount raised for schools to the amount raised for other purposes, and a compari- son of the amount received for tuition or teachers' salaries, with the amount received for buildings and equipment, as well as a study of the distribution of the state funds among the schools of each type. The data on which the first part of this phase of the investigation is based, is the property valuation and tax levies in each corporation, and the distribution of the state funds and other indirect receipts as given in total number of dollars received from each source. The tax levies, instead of the total amounts received or the budget for the year, are made the basis for comparison on account of availability and completeness of the data. The total receipts for each item, if available, would be a little more satisfactory basis for comparison, since the somewhat variable factor, poll tax, which is not included when we consider property tax alone, would be elimi- nated. This, however, is a very minor factor since there are no wide variations among different corporations and the property tax without the poll tax is a better index of the support given the various accounts or departments in each corporation. The number of polls and amount assessed were given, but there was nothing to show how many paid the assessment. A comparison of the amount of tax levied on each poll by the state, county, and local corporation, shows little or no difference in the township with district schools and the township with consolidated schools, while the amount of the levy by cities is greater than either, and the amount of the levy by towns exceeds that of the cities. It will be observed that the same relationship exists among the various corporations in the amount of the tax levied on property in the different types considered, so that the elimination of poll tax in consideration of support of schools will not affect the results materially. I04 A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana The tables giving the property valuation and tax levies differ from preceding tables in that they are exact and complete and have been compiled from reports according to the specifications of the law governing the same and are thus free from the variations which might otherwise have been noticeable. This is one phase of the in- vestigation that is based on uniform reports and is a good illustra- tion of what might be expected if such uniformity prevailed in other departments. While the items given for the township and consoli- dated schools differ somewhat from those given for town and city corporations, the similarity is so great that valid comparisons are easily made. In the tables which follow, it will be observed that the first column calls for total assessed valuation less mortgage exemptions. It might be explained that there is a law in force in Indiana at the present time which permits any resident holding property on which there is a mortgage to file an affidavit with the county auditor, which will exempt such property from taxation to the amount of seven hundred dollars valuation, provided the mort- gage is equal to or greater than this amount. The total tax which any resident of the state pays is the sum total of the levies made by the state, county, and local corporation. The state tax for 191 1 was $0.3185 on each one hundred dollars valuation and was divided as follows : State $0.09 Debt 015 School 136 State university and state normal school 0275 Benevolent institutions 05 This tax, as will be observed, is the same for all corporations. It should be explained that the state levy for schools is distributed in two ways. A part is given^as special aid to those school corporations whose local taxes are not sufficient to maintain schools equal to the standard specified by law, and the remainder is distributed on the census basis. The county levy is the same for all corporations in each county. The local tax is levied, in the case of townships by the township trustee, and in the towns and cities by the town and city councils. In Table xliv it will be observed that the local tax is distributed as follows : Township, Tuition, Special School, Poor, Road, Gravel road, and all other purposes. The township levy is made for the purpose of meeting the general running expenses of a township and A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 105 corresponds very closely to the corporation levy of the towns and cities. The salary of the trustee, the road supervisor, office expenses, traveling expenses, and the like, are paid from this fund. The tuition of pupils attending schools in other corporations may also be paid out of this fund. The tuition levy is made to pay the salaries of the teachers. The salaries of the advisory staff and the expenses of buildings and equipments are paid out of the special school fimd. The distinction between roads and gravel roads is that the levy for "Roads" is for the purpose of maintaining all highways that have not been macadamized, while "Gravel roads" is the levy made to pay the bonds which were issued by a special vote of the citizens of the township for the purpose of building macadam roads. All levies for purely local purposes are given under the item "All other purposes". The distribution of local taxes in town and city corporations needs no explanation. Anyone interested in the taxes of the townships in which rural schools are maintained, will observe by study of Table xliv that there is little correlation between the assessed valuation of a cor- poration and the amount of the local tax for that corporation. A corporation with high valuation may have a high local levy, as in the case of township number two, or a low local levy, as in the case of township number twenty-eight, and in like manner it will be observed that a township with a low valuation may have a low tax levy, as in the case of township number fourteen, or a high local tax, as in the case of township number eighteen. If the size of the townships and the number of schools maintained were the same, these facts might justify an investigation, but since there is a con- siderable variation in the size of the townships and the density of the population, no inferences are justifiable on these data alone. The variability observed in the townships with district schools is also to be observed in the townships with consolidated schools, but not in such a marked degree. Notwithstanding the fact that the state levy is uniform in all corporations and that the variation in the county is not great, it will be observed that the total amount of taxes in towns greatly exceeds that in the townships, but is not equal to the total tax levies in the cities. The central tendencies and variations in the tax levies on one hundred dollars, is given in Table XLV. The variation in the amount of the county tax in the four types of schools considered is probably due to the additional office expenses necessary to keep the records of the counties in which I sssodjnd SpBOJ pABJO pBO^ aooj s ^ B Ot^ Tf Ot^ tC PD ff) O OO CO "«4< cs »o ■.-I lO lO to »0 tJ< *T-(tNCS a eSC0C0r0i-iCN'-^*-HC0eNCMCSCV|»-ti-tCSC0 a SOCS'-llOiO00OOO'<^>OOt^t^»OO>O»Ov000CNOv0 . CO O t^ I-" CO O 00 00 ■.-I Xjuno^ iOCOcococoiOsOJOOiO T^^OvO■<^■^u^rt^u^•<^cOTi^T^T^cOri^cocovO•<^ri^co><;t^_T:tOfN ^ 0\ fOCS'-jcoi-j OOnOoooo ONOOescT) OcN Ot*< Ov'-tO^CN OiOtooOiO lO^ iOCOt1* CO O O 00 00 (M tJ* lO '-h \0 lO »0 >0 »0 lO lO »0 lO »0 lO lO «0 «0 >0 lO >o »o »-t ,-( T-I »-H »-l ,_H ,_( tH T-4 ^— I »H ^-H 1— I »-l 1-H »-H T-^ lOCNONONTh lOOOOOOOO oooo»o»o»o t^vo Ti« lO CO CO •^ Tj< CM CO Tj< Tt" ^ T^ rt< tJh tJ* »0 CO 8 a?^S suopduiaxa 33^3 -Vioia ssaj uoi^Bn I -i«A passassB ib^oj, CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO co co co co CO coco a OOioioi t^ •rH OO -^ I COOOOl Q lO >0 lO O T-iO\ O-"* 0\ OOOco' 0\ ^o _ - - _ t^ O CS t^t>^co^co^r>r PM^T*" Tt< CN •«* lO O CO -^ CO CN OO lO »0 OO dn{s -OMO) JO jaqnm^ ^CSCOTt<»0 vOt^OOOsO '-I tN CO •«i< »0 vOt^ [107] ,^^ Oj 1 HK UNIV t Ui:f ' s a 8 rorOOmi^ Ov T*i ro ro «N a i i-l rO CM CO CS CO r<^ CS ^-H CS »-• CO CN r^ CS CNJ »-J ^ •>* CO CO CO CO CO CO0»OOs Tfi CO lO CO Tt to lO »0 lO lO »-H T-1 ^— I ^— ( 1— I OO to lO oo •^ CO tJ< Tt" CO -^ in IT) \n in iTi ioio>o>o>o ""^ to TjH -^ Tj< s CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO co CO co co co co co co co CO CO co co CO cO a iO»OOiOO uooo»oo CO On fN CN '— I OO '-H r* to lO t^ OO OO 00 OO T*< vo NO O CO o»oo«oo OOiOtoO On *>. NO '-H »-< ■^r-tOO'-tt^ 00 rt< CN 0>0 ^r-lOO •«-H 00 CO O On O CO th CO CO coconO^^On •^toOvNOON ^thcococo CN lO CSJ -^ CS NO OO ■r-i vo rt< 0\ OO ■»-• lO Cq tH tJ< O OO '-t OO CO On 00 ■>-• CO es OO O On t^ »-i rf 00 O CO lO CO lO -^ NO Tt< NO CO lO *-t fO ^ . *-< ■ ^-t ^q ^H c3 o q q 113 E ^ § •o »o o •o o Xi «i o o OtO »o OO OfN •o ^ CN '-H ro c*5t-h ro rocM i-t»-i •^ t>0 i . . • J E M »o lo O OO o »o Wat( >o lO fS «N Csj ^ a A) « lO o ITS ^ >o o o»o«o tn es th «N p r4 «N CSJi-J<>l O "5 8 S P«S •S a li-5 C^CoS rOOOOCN Tjj CO «^ TlJ ;:?E^^^ * ^* 1 g ■ ' ' o ot-.ooo»o -«-< o ^ »-4 ▼-! <-l 1-1 *H ,^ ,-4 ,-« vH ro| CNKNCSCMr^ 1° 9 [109] u ^101052*0 rc^^»::^»0 •i-HCsio^»0 OOJCN'^fO rc^r<5*-iro 00000 00000 00000 -^oooo 00000 0000»0 Of^O^t^ u-)Ot^»OiO 0»OOiOiO Tt<0»000 ^lOiOiOr^ iqoivqvOrO Tj^UT^Tj^ro tO'^TfTj^rJ* •^LO^OiOiT) OOOO-^ O >0 O 00 O O fO O O 000»OiO Ot^00OTt< ^lOiOiOtN irj^-rHTtfO co^rO"«^"«* lOiOfOTffO ^ ro re •^J ^ ^^.g.3^. S.^.jq^S ^Si2^8 ^^2^^ i^;;^?5J^^ ir; d On '-tOO'O'^ ^^^88 ?28^S8 rvi f<5 f*:) fO «N roro rr; (N CO CO CO fN OsiOCNt^PO »-J CO t^ 10 00 ^P^^?| t^ 10 «M^- 00 On P0 T*< Tt< <>< O\coo0t>-V0 t>-'»-H^t^QO ioio«ovooo ■^ Th 00 VO CO O rj< t}< -^^ 10 rt< ■'^ CO >0 Tt< rf ^^ 0\ rf rj< CO tJ< lO CO tJi 8 CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO co co co co co co CO CO CO co co co co co E o o to vo o 10 o o »o »o OOtOOO o 10 10 o o COOOCNt-- 00lO^C0»O OOlO^tO^ '*ONt^Tj. «N O t^ 8^§S 28 §^ q Jq ^ g ' (/I "2 lO O>o»o ?q , § c^ «ooo to to »"• CO '-^ c^. q csoi CS <>« 1 8 ^ 2 g^ «o . to 1 '^ a -o 1 to S S?5 to to to o to ») q ■pnq q .9 c a CO o ^»o to O O to Jc -rH ^fO pq ■«-H rg l-H bo 13 s 5 >o O OO 00 lOtO O OO to ^ ■^ CS ro CN tH THfO es ea • • . ^ a 1 is «N O ^iO 00 o o o » 8 s rt 0} 1 OeSTj* CMIO^ . OOOn O THCsro rt<»0 tH ▼H tH n-l »H »-H T-t ^ »-) ^es «N4 CM lO vOfOOvCM anv^D CN CM CM . § o " lOiO lO lOCX) On 32BJ3AV E anuwio OOOO rt 00 00 00 C» C/3 3»W3AV E O oo Q CM t^OONO .0 aipjTOO •ooTthno 1 «^ -H & S •a 1 On '-it^ 00 OCSO^OO c3 t>> th ro ▼— < 98BJ3AV ^^??;^ »-H »-l CO «» -s a«j ^1 gig& i o o o.ti 1 HUHO 3 anu^O ? $0.09 .21 .159 aSuiaAV $0,010 .067 .270 .363 1 1 aipjBTi^ $0,145 .160 .148 .141 33BJ3AV $0 .585 .37 .447 .302 1 aipiTO^ $0,015 .005 .015 .015 a8BJ3AV $0,022 .008 .02 .053 1 1 1 ^II^renf) $0.07 .074 .095 .117 38UI3AV lO oo lO t^ Tjtt^ONOO 8 ' ■ ' .a anVBnO CM lO E 33b»av $0,244 .450 .456 .485 1 aipjrenO $0.05 .055 .05 .095 3SBJ3AY NOOO-HVO 1— 1 lO lO t^ CM CM Tf CO E ' ' It aniJTO^ $0,032 .031 .15 .25 aScaaAv $0,146 .103 .485 .871 Township Consolidated Town City [113] TABLE XLVI Wealth per Capita School Population and Percentile Distribution of Tax Levies in Township with District Schools « 1 *© T3 3 1 h l! II >. c D. j 1 C/3 (2 1 1 1 o 1 $3371 15.6 21.4 63.0 6.7 12.2 13.0 .8 21.3 46.0 2 1835 11.5 22.8 65.7 5.5 22.0 27.5 1.1 11.0 33.0 3 2208 13.5 26.8 59.7 15.2 21.5 14.3 10.6 38.4 4 3052 15.8 21.4 62.8 8.7 23.6 10.3 1.6 31.5 23.6 .8 5 971 14.3 19.3 61.4 11.0 18.2 11.0 1.4 22.0 36.4 6 1677 11.3 19.7 69.0 7.6 16.4 20.5 1.5 12.9 41.1 7 2205 13.1 19.1 67.8 17.3 18.4 18.4 1.3 24.6 18.4 2.5 8 1641 13.5 22.2 64.3 6.6 19.7 19.7 23.0 31.0 9 3089 19.3 26.7 54.0 18.0 18.0 18.0 1.2 44.8 10 2527 15.7 19.4 64.9 7.5 19.0 11.5 23.0 39.0 11 1411 18.3 28.3 53.4 25.8 12.9 10.8 2.1 10.8 37.6 12 2338 19.8 30.7 49.5 31.6 6.3 6.3 1.2 12.6 42.0 13 3854 20.6 28.6 50.8 12.2 23.1 24.4 3.7 36.0 14 2893 19.5 19.2 61.3 17.0 20.0 20.0 3.0 40.0 15 6121 18.9 26.9 54.2 18.7 26.4 12.1 5.5 23.1 11.0 3.2 16 4230 16.1 19.4 54.5 12.8 15.7 7.8 15.7 44.9 3.9 17 2490 13.2 15.8 71.0 5.8 17.7 29.4 .6 14.7 31.8 18 1171 12.4 27.1 60.5 16.2 16.2 25.8 22.6 19.3 19 4204 16.0 22.3 61.7 12.3 12.3 20.5 8.2 46.7 20 4475 16.5 23.5 60.0 7.0 17.4 17.4 1.7 13.1 39.1 4.3 21 4674 21.3 25.6 53.1 10.1 20.2 15.2 2.5 22.8 29.1 22 2350 15.2 22.6 62.2 9.2 23.1 23.1 7.7 23.1 10.0 3.8 23 3588 18.5 23.4 58.1 10.0 26.0 22.0 10.0 30.0 2.0 24 3550 21.7 24.8 53.5 20.5 25.6 25.6 28.3 25 5794 16.3 24.8 58.9 10.4 22.0 8.7 .9 24.6 33.4 26 3318 15.7 17.3 67.0 7.4 14.7 33.2 1.4 11.8 31.6 27 4483 17.7 26.8 55.5 14.0 19.0 22.0 11.0 34.0 28 4338 19.7 27.8 52.5 8.3 18.8 18.8 4.7 49.4 29- 5481 17.9 33.9 48.2 11.6 25.5 29.1 4.6 11.6 17.5 30 4184 17.6 25.2 57.2 16.5 29.1 23.4 1.9 29.1 [114] A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 115 TABLE XLVII Wealth per Capita School Population and Percentile Distribution of Tax Levies in Township with Consolidated Schools ^1 ll ^^ 1 i C/3 1 a, e2 e t :2-3 1 1 ll OS 1 $5001 13.6 19.3 67.1 6.6 12.7 31.5 1.3 16.4 31.5 2 6041 14.4 23.8 61.8 5.8 18.5 36.0 5.8 33.9 3 3995 15.0 18.5 66.5 7.1 16.3 35.5 12.8 28.4 4 3735 13.5 16.6 69.9 9.1 9.1 30.3 18.2 33.4 5 1909 15.0 21.0 64.0 4.4 30.0 37.3 15.0 13.2 6 4309 15.6 21.9 62.5 6.2 24.0 38.8 23.3 7.7 7 3892 16.0 13.0 71.0 7.1 21.3 35.5 2.8 12.1 21.2 8 3820 15.8 19.2 65.0 10.0 28.5 30.8 .8 13.9 15.4 .7 9 6117 17.3 26.2 56.5 8.7 17.4 31.6 1.0 24.0 17.3 10 4292 17.5 26.5 56.0 5.9 24.5 39.1 2.0 17.6 10.8 11 7530 19.9 30.1 50.0 12.3 25.0 50.0 1.2 10.0 1.3 12 7178 19.3 29.2 51.5 9.4 22.4 58.8 9.4 13 3961 15.6 22.4 62.0 11.2 24.8 40.0 24.0 14 3459 14.1 20.1 65.8 10.2 20.3 33.7 .7 23.6 11.5 15 3938 13.7 19.5 66.8 6.4 22.5 35.5 19.4 16.2 16 5801 15.6 28.1 56.3 4.4 17.3 15.6 .9 17.4 44.4 17 3986 13.7 15.8 70.5 12.3 12.3 31.2 18.7 11.8 13.7 Levies in towns and cities for water, lighting, and the like, are grouped in Table xlv under the heading, "All other purposes," simply because there is nothing in the other corporations which is comparable to these expenditures. Tax levies for all these purposes are much greater in the cities than in the towns. Tables xlvi, xlvii, xlviii, and xlix are derived from the preceding tables and express in per cents the distribution of the tax levies for the various purposes. For example township number one in Table xlvi is read as follows : The wealth per child of school age is $3,371, 15.6 per cent of the total tax levy is levied by the state^ 21.4 per cent by the county, and 63 per cent by the township. Six and seven-tenths of the total local levy in this township is levied for township purposes, 12.2 per cent is levied for tuition purposes, 13 per cent for special school fund, .8 of one per cent for poor, 21.3 per cent for roads, and 46 per cent for gravel roads, or in other words, in this township one-eighth of the total levy is for salaries of the teachers in that township, which is about one-half as much as is raised for the roads and about one-fourth as much as is raised for sasodmd laipo nv NO CO to ^nsd iCreiqn to to spooqiooqDS O^ t-i tJ< cm o 1-t spnoqiBdiaiunH 13.0 3.4 NO CO 1-1 pan} Smiiuis 2.0 10.6 8.6 ^q8n 7.5 6.8 10.6 es so 1-1 T-4 o 1-H 13.5 8.4 4.2 4.5 I3JBAV »o 8.2 11.8 7.5 CM 1^ laapS ^o pBo^ 11.3 3.5 NO vO 1— t p 10.0 8.5 Or-'TH PBOI pABJO 21.0 10.0 16.2 21.2 lO NO NO 1-H 00»O On a\ CS) 1-1 «N T-i 36.5 18.2 13.2 17.7 to p Ov to CO CO Tti 00 O •^ 1— 1 CO 1— 1 CN T-i 12.5 21.4 31.5 lOOJ *--; '-J^-; p 00 ■^ TtJ 00 rsi i-< CM lO On vq ■^^ NO «N 1-1 p 00 to On CM '-• CM CM lOrJ* 1-t lowps i«ijjas t^ Tt; CO CS rtj 00 i-H o\»ooo vq p •^^ p >o NO Ol^ cOrt< 1-t CO CN CS 1-1 CO 00 CNj 00 TjH lOlO 00 CN rti (>a CM 1-1 CN 1-1 O^ «0 p CO ON CM CO 1-1 ^ 00 1-1 ; CsJ rJH p !>; 00-^ CN t>.t^ tH CO «N CN T-l »0 O CN p CN NO O ^ CO O CN CS «N CN »-^ CN CM CM lO T^H O ^ OOOOrfi CMtHi^CSi^ rj^ CN t^ CO On OON'* -r-^00 CN 1-1 T-l CM ^ lOpONt^'^ CM t^ rf< CM t>» CN C^ CM CMCM noijuiodioo tot^esiot^ lONO No»o>o ■^-pHt^^rJ^ CN On ■^ oo ■>* CO CM to NO t^ C0 CO »0 tJ< ■<* i^^fOcOi^ ^^^^g5 Ort00l^0 OnOOcO'^ CM O NOOiO CMOtOtOTj< f* iOI>-t^t^ ^{^i:^i5^ CO O 00 1-t rM t^ NO t^ t^ 00 lO CO lOlOt^ CO iH CMCMO jCjunoo vO o\ »-i »ooo ^-^^(MOO CO to On t^^ NO 1-t cooes nOOnOCOtJ* ^^OvvOvO o M1«M 3.7 10.1 22 ' 4.3 3.5 12.4 On 00 5MJ1S IT) to io»o 11.9 7.0 00 t- spuoj pABJO 4.2 11.8 5.5 2.5 14.6 14.5 tooN oqoqio lOOOT^ThO vqcot^T^ OOCO CN ^ i-H^CNCS JOOJ 00(MO0«Nt^ Tt OvOrt C^ lOONCNt^ «S COOn OOtJ* CS coes 1-H T^ lo »-l CN l-H T-< T-l ^y-< CN (N CS Tt ^^ 1-4 ^-H 1— t 1-H looqos Tsioads •^ ro Tt lO vO t^COCN OOvO 00 CO T-l CN T** »0 CS lO VO >o OO CO 00 VO 00 '-• 00 o\ -^ CN CS ••-1 »0 to CNCSCS'.^'rH ^^^"^^ On VO cot^'^ nopmx Tt ro Tjj lo -^ 00 ^ 00 ON <^ t^ 00 ro Th T-i CO -"i^ On to to to Tf rt< CO t>- iq lO tH vq TjH ■—1 CN CN lO •<* CN . lONOiOTtt 00 ^^?5^^ ^;^;^S^ rot^tO lO -"^ ^lOiONO VO CN CO Tfi »-l CS CN OvOO CN ■^ CO Tt< Tt4 T.H ^ >t?!0 CS ro CO '-H tJh lOlO (M '-H . ^>. VO t~- t-- t^oot^oot^ X?imo3 Oto»o vOt^ cocNroTt*'* t^'*COQ0CS coOv^^OO 00 t^t- CO '-t »Or*4 ^t^CM OsvOO-^t-. t-Tt rOTj^tO ^cqvoc«j^ ^■^lO OI>- 31B5S 00 * sqt^CN ro ^OOOOO oa oq vq vq 00 O OOO 00 On t~<. CN CO CN « i-- OO Tf NO ro •— 1 ^ i-H '-H CS X5P JO J3qum^[ •^OirOTt^iO vO«><-OOOnO •"-H 0 »0 CN cs aSBiSAV ^ vq«o 00 C 3 c3 ailU^nO t^_ On On rsj CO fO M CN 93BJ3AV Tl^ 00 CN -rH V s C/3 gipjrenO ^ONTtJOs dS-eiSAY cN o a fil Si "73 n I il % .Is 1^8 3 e2 1 1 41.2 1.9 2.8 9.7 4.1 59.7 40.3 2 25.0 1.4 1.1 1.4 7.3 36.2 63.8 3 36.8 .9 1.9 4.1 3.3 47.0 53.0 4 42.2 1.1 2.1 .8 2.6 48.8 51.2 5 20.6 2.9 1.0 22.2 1.4 48.0 52.0 6 23.2 1.8 .5 .4 1.6 27.5 72.5 7 24.6 .8 8.2 1.1 .9 35.6 64.4 6 23.0 1.1 16.9 3.2 44.2 55.8 9 27.4 2.0 1.1 .9 5.4 37.4 62.6 10 11 15.3 6.4 5.4 .4 5.7 3.4 36.6 63.4 12 6.9 13.4 5.1 .4 5.5 3.2 34.5 65.5 13 25.8 2.3 3.6 1.6 2.9 4.3 40.5 59.5 14 23.3 1.9 3.3 1.4 13.2 2.7 45.8 54.2 15 26.1 2.7 3.1 1.6 3.0 2.6 39.7 60.3 16 22.5 5.6 4.6 .4 1.8 3.5 38.4 61.6 17 38.1 3.1 1.8 1.3 4.2 38.5 61.5 Tuition Receipts Thus far we have been considering the support given to schools as compared with revenue received for other purposes. If a local community provided all the funds for the schools, no further analysis of tuition receipts would be necessary, but since much of the money received for the payment of teachers' salaries is derived from other sources, and since this money is distributed on a very inequitable basis, an investigation may lead to a better understand- ing of the problems of the different types of schools under considera- tion. It has already been shown that there is a wide variation in the wealth per capita school population in each type and especially among the schools of the different types, as well as a variation in the ratio of the average daily attendance to the total number of chil- dren of legal school age, so that the distribution of any fund on a census basis is inequitable, fails to stimulate local effort and to give relief where most needed. 130 A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana TABLE LXI Percentile Distribution of Tuition Receipts for Town Schools Indirect Direct !z;*s \\^ si 111 II 1 .3I H i^8 1 I 1 29.7 .9 1.5 20.9 19.2 6.5 57.8 42.2 2 29.6 .6 6.2 2.0 12.4 .9 72.6 27.4 3 21.7 2.1 .3 .8 28.8 .3 54.0 46.0 4 15.6 .3 2.4 .5 24.6 .9 44.3 55.7 5 24.5 .3 .8 38.3 2.4 66.8 33.2 6 IS .3 1.3 3.7 1.0 29.4 2.2 55.9 44.1 7 29 A .8 1.7 14.1 1.0 47.0 53.0 8 32.0 1.1 1.0 26.9 1.6 62.6 37.4 9 16.8 .1 .4 42.5 8.4 68.2 31.8 10 64.5 2.1 13.6 4.9 4.3 .8 90.2 9.8 11 21.1 .5 1.3 43.5 1.6 68.0 32.0 12 23.5 3.2 3.3 1.5 11.9 2.4 45.8 54.2 13 27.3 1.2 1.9 24.6 .5 55.5 44.5 14 20.5 1.0 1.0 21.7 43.2 56.8 15 18.6 .5 19.8 .6 28.1 .7 69.3 30.7 16 32.1 1.5 .6 13.2 1.0 48.4 51.6 17 20.2 .9 .9 37.8 1.2 61.0 37.0 18 33.5 .7 1.0 10.3 1.4 46.9 53.1 19 24.1 1.1 .3 .4 1.3 27.2 72.8 20 26.5 1.2 .6 25.2 .9 54.4 45.6 21 18.8 .9 1.3 33.8 .8 55.6 44.4 22 9.6 .3 1.2 27.2 1.7 56.7 43.3 23 21.0 .4 .6 27.0 2.3 51.0 49.0 24 19.8 1.2 .9 22.5 15.2 4.7 64.3 35.7 25 16.7 1.5 1.3 43.7 1.4 64.6 35.4 Dr. Cubberly in his book, School Funds and Their Apportion- ment, makes, in his summary of conclusions, the following state- ment : "The use of the school census basis for the apportionment of funds as required by so many state constitutions and as used in whole or in part by thirty-eight different states, though an im- provement over the *taxes-where-paid* basis is nevertheless one of the worst and unjust bases of apportionment we have in use and its complete abandonment in the future for some better single basis or a combination basis plan is greatly to be desired." After presenting the data relative to this point, we shall attempt to show that a dis- tribution of forty per cent of the state revenue on the teacher basis A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 131 TABLE LXII Percentile Distribution of Tuition Receipts for City Schools Indirect Direct 1^ 55-0 6ta is II 1 li 1 Is 1^8 ^ 3 1 20.7 .4 .6 26.6 1.5 49.8 50.2 2 3 4 25.2 2.0 .6 15.5 2.9 46.2 53.8 31.4 .1 .9 11.9 7.3 51.6 48.4 5 35.2 .8 3.0 7.4 1.7 48.1 51.9 6 39.3 .6 .5 1.2 5.8 1.8 49.2 50.8 7 27.0 1.2 1.9 11.4 5.8 47.3 52.7 8 23.1 .6 24.4 .7 13.7 3.3 65.8 34.2 9 35.2 .4 1.5 5.8 2.0 44.9 55.1 10 21.9 1.4 1.2 13.3 .7 3S.5 61.5 11 30.7 .7 6.4 2.5 16.3 1.2 57.8 42.2 12 67.1 1.3 10.1 2.0 3.9 2.2 86.5 13.5 13 33.7 .8 1.7 16.2 .6 53.0 47.0 14 42.7 .7 7.7 .8 4.1 1.4 57.4 42.6 15 32.3 1.2 6.4 1.7 11.1 2.3 55.0 45.0 16 23.8 1.1 .5 24.0 49.8 50.2 17 23.8 1.2 1.2 15.1 20.1 60.4 39.6 18 30.8 1.4 2.1 30.7 1.6 66.6 33.4 19 28.7 1.4 .3 12.4 3.9 46.7 53.3 20 24.4 1.8 1.6 16.2 2.7 46.7 53.3 21 22.3 .2 .5 18.7 2.7 44.4 55.6 22 30.1 2.7 1.9 14.2 .4 49.2 50.8 23 34.0 1.2 1.1 13.6 .7 50.5 49.5 24 25 36.3 .2 9.1 .7 2.0 4.1 52.4 47.6 and sixty per cent on average daily attendance basis would result beneficially to the schools in greatest need. For convenience we have classified the sources of revenue for tuition purposes under the two headings : Indirect, and Direct. This division is more for convenience and is somewhat arbitrary, as will be observed when we present the sources of each fund classified under the indirect receipts. The common school fund which is distributed by the state is derived from two sources : interest on a permanent endowment, and the money received from the state tax levy of $0,136 on each $100.00 of property and $0.50 levy on each poll. The, permanent endowment is made up of the bequests of the 132 A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana national government to the state for educational purposes and cer- tain funds reverting to this endov/ment in accord with the provisions of the state constitution, and amounted to $8,846,825.10 in 191 1. The interest received annually from this permanent fund to- gether with the money received from the state tax levy was distri- buted semi-annually among the counties of the state on the census basis. The legislature of 1907 amended the law then in force by setting aside 5.2 per cent of this fund so that all school corporations levying a tuition tax of $0.25 on each $100.00 should receive aid sufficient to maintain a six months' term of school, and all corpo- rations levying a tuition tax of $0.40 on each $100.00 should receive aid sufficient to enable them to maintain a seven months' term of school. The fund for distribution in 191 1 amounted to $132,245.57. The total number of corporations applying for aid was one hundred eighty- four, representing thirty-five counties. The total demand made by these corporations amounted to $169,316.51. The addi- tional amount required to meet the provision of the law was met at a subsequent date by a special appropriation. The amount of money received from this special fund by the corporations included in this study is given under "Special State Aid." Under Congressional Interest is given the amount of money re- ceived in interest by each corporation from what is known as the congressional school fund. The United States government in the convention of 1787 obligated itself to the encouragement of schools and the means of education. The Indiana Territorial Convention in 1816 ratified this policy and reserved the sixteenth section of each congressional township for the use of schools. A little later a second township was set aside for the same purpose. Some townships dis- posed of this section when land was very cheap so that little was received, while others retained this property and received a much larger amount. The aggregate amount derived from the sales of these lands was $2,476,297.00. The Constitution of 1850 provided for the consolidation of this congressional fund with other funds to constitute what is known as a ''Common School Fund." Complaints were made against this law, since some communities which had re- ceived much greater returns would be deprived of a part of that sup- port if distributed on the census basis, so that the matter was brought in the form of a test case before the supreme court. The decision of the court was such as to require the distribution to be made to each congressional township pro rata with the amount of A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 133 money received from the sale of the school land of that township. In order to secure an equal distribution of funds, a law was passed requiring the county auditors, after having distributed the congres- sional funds to the various school corporations composing a con- gressional township, to so distribute the common school fund as to bring about an equal distribution in all corporations. This practi- cally places the distribution upon a per capita basis and substantially carries out the purpose of the law of 1852. This method of account- ing, however, is somewhat complicated and the state department has experienced some difficulties with certain county auditors in enforc- ing all the provisions concerning the distribution of these two funds. These facts will account for the slight variation in the amounts re- ceived per capita school population in the different school corpora- tions. The amounts given under "Liquor License" is the money each corporation received for the licenses to liquor dealers within that county. Since local option has become effective in a great num- ber of counties, many of the corporations received no money from this source. The law requires the assessor in each civil corporation to collect at the time of making the assessment, a special dog tax trom all owners of dogs. The money received constitutes what is known as a "Dog Fund," which is used to pay for all animals killed or maimed by dogs. When this fund in any township in the state amounts to more than $100.00 on the first Monday in March of each year, the surplus must be reported and transferred to the county treasurer and constitutes what is known as the "County Dog Fund," which in turn is distributed among the townships of the county in which the orders drawn against the dog fund exceed the money on hand on the second Monday in March of each year. Any surplus left from the county dog fund after provisions have been made for the payment of all live stock and fowls killed or maimed in the town- ships of the county, must be distributed among the schools of the county in the same manner as the common school revenue of the state is distributed. The larger part of the money tabulated under "Miscellaneous Sources" is received from the interest on the money in possession of the school officials in each corporation and from tuition received from nonresident pupils attending the schools of that corporation. The amount of money given under the local tax is the money re- ceived from each corporation on the basis of the tax levy made by TABLE LXIII Distribution of Tuition Receipts on Basis of Amount Received per Pupil in Average Daily Attendance in Township District Schools Indirect Direct *S S CN tJ^ t^ lO Oslo li-) vO -^ -^ vo VOCX)»0 vq "-t^ -rH CO rOTt< es fO »o OO POI^ CvJ rot^_ On *-• !>; rO»0 CS CM ^ vOOv fO ■■-JfO CS t^iOVOOv rlj i-jt^ On ■^t^ o\ 0\ (>4 CS) '? 1 1 p. HUHU [138] A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 139 amounts received from liquor licenses, though more than half the schools received no money from this source. City number eight received one- fourth of the money for support of teachers from liquor licenses. The central tendencies and variabilities are given in Table lxvii. It is usually assumed that cities receive a much larger per cent of their total tuition revenues from common school funds than do any other type of schools, but statistics show that the township with district schools, which receives 32.8 per cent, with a variability of 6.1 per cent, from the common school fund, ranks first, while cities with an average of 32.6 per cent with a variability of 5.1 per cent rank second. Consolidated schools with a central tendency of 25 per cent, with a variability of 7.1 per cent, rank third, while towns with a central tendency of 23.1 and a variability of 5.1 per cent, receive the lowest amount, relatively speaking, from the state. Con- solidated schools rank first in the relative amount received from the congressional fund, while townships with district schools rank sec- ond. If school officials equalize the amount of money received from these two sources, the ratio of the amount received fails to indicate it It is ordinarily assumed that towns would rank second in the relative amount of money received from liquor licenses but our statistics show that this is not the case. This is due to the fact that local option has eliminated practically all saloons from the smaller centers of population and that a relatively larger number of the total school population of towns is enrolled in the schools. The report of the city superintendents for 1911-1912 shows that the larger per cent of the deficiencies was paid to townships in coun- ties in which there are no consolidated schools. Of all the corpora- tions included in this study, townships with consolidated schools and towns were the only ones receiving special state aid. A relatively larger number of townships with districts schools would show that the greater amount of money is paid to schools of this type. Few townships with consolidated schools find it necessary to call for state aid since the wealth per capita in these townships is so large that when the minimum levy required for the state aid, is made there is sufficient money to pay the salaries of all teachers in that corporation. It would be the exceptional city that would find it pos- sible to avail itself of this special aid. The miscellaneous receipts, under the provision of the law, show that school officials of consoli- dated schools receive greater returns for the money they have in I40 A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana their possession when not in use for school purposes. Notwith- standing the fact that the towns receive the lowest amount, rela- tively speaking, from the common school fund, they rank first in the total amount received from indirect sources. This is due to the fact that one- fourth of the total income for the payment of teachers is received from transfers, as compared with 1 1.7 per cent in city schools, 4.2 per cent in townships with district schools. City schools which receive 52.5 per cent from indirect sources rank second, while townships with consolidated schools, receiving 40 per cent, rank fourth. Naturally, the relative amounts received from local taxes, vary inversely as the amounts received from indirect sources. It will also be observed that the variability in the amount received from both indirect and local taxes is greatest in the town schools, while townships with district schools rank second. While there is a great variation in the amount received from the common school fund by the different school corporations as com- pared with the amount received from other sources, it is even more pronounced when we compare the amount received per pupil in aver- age daily attendance. By referring to Tables lxiii, lxiv, lxv, and Lxvi and the summary of which is given in Table lxviii, the effects of the distribution of school funds on the inequitable census basis will be seen. Notwithstanding the fact that the state distributed approximately $4.00 per capita school population, town- ship number twenty received as much as $15.17 per pupil in average daily attendance, while township twenty-five received only $5.08. A similar variation may be observed in townships with consolidated schools ; for example, township number one received $6.86 per pupil in average daily attendance while township number twelve received only $1.93 per pupil in average daily attendance. In town schools, number nineteen received $7.94 per pupil while number seventeen received only $2.94 per pupil in average daily attendance. The same inequality is found among city schools. City number fourteen re- ceived $13.62 per pupil in average daily attendance while number twenty-one received only $4.68. The total amounts received from indirect sources show the same variations in a more pronounced form. The reverse conditions will be found in the amounts received from local taxes. By referring to Table lxviii it will be observed that townships with district schools which receive on an average $7.90, with a varia- bility of $0.80, rank first in the amount received from the state w ^ « a e? o CO en « ?: < o cn ^ ^ O s^ 5 Z S tic a Bo anw^nO 3SBJ3AV anw^n^ 3SBJ3AV ailVBnf) 3»BJ3AV rf) lO cs p lO fO » o o o.ti HUHU [141] "ij S)dl33 O; Sldl3D3J JO oiiB^ 3SUI3AB ui |idnd J3d s;dpD3H ■.-HiOOOOOfO'-iOO'^fO OOT**TtvOsOsOiOi-<0 OOOCOvOPOONOOi vo t^ T-H ff> O 0\ t^ 0\ '-< t^ On t^ t^ 00 00 ro VO QO uon-Bindod lOoqDs ■KjidBD J3d qi[^3M. TfCNScOfOfOOCNfO '^'^■.-iCSriHCNCO'^fO •^O-rJ^T-HlOTt^t^'r-lOO ONOvt^oofOioCNt^r^ t^-^VO-^OOOOlO'-HTjH lOCNThlO'-lfOCS'-lCO uonnn joj Aa3\ xevix sjdpoaj uoptn; YBioi oi pnnj \6oips uotcnuoD oioij S}dl903I JO OpB^ 0*0000100000 CM^rorc^Oco0 pxmj looqDS nom -uioD aiojj paApa -91 ■iunoure {bjox OvCNCS'-iTjHoor^fO'-f vOONOOOl>-OS'-'t^t^ vOOst^fO'-i-^OO'OOO ^^tHCNtHCsI^'-H diqs -XIM.O:) jo aaqoin^ [142] Q w « o ^ § 4> -S o >, ^?« I- .a p O) S)dl3D3J JOOpB>I dSCJSAB UI jtdnd aad Sldl3D3^ panj looqos uounuoD uiojj sjdiaa -3J JB^OX 93crepa9);c X|rBp 33CJ9AC m sjidnd JO jaqum^ paXo^doia siaqo'ed) jo jaqmn^ uop'qTxdod looqDs B;idBO J3d q?i«3A\. uopm^ loj Aa3i iB;bx sid»33J uopm; {■B^o:} o^' punj lobqas aouimoD tuoj} sjdiaoaj jo opB^ punj looqDS uomiuoD niojj aoirepuai^B iCirep m jidnd jsd p3A{3D3i 'lunotuv pan| looqDS uoai -OIOD aiCUJ p3AI3D -w tjanouiB iB^ox lO 0\ 00 lO Tt< ■^ ^ O t^ Tt< t^ -^^ lO vo vo t^ t^ vO *0 OO t^ lo OO ■^ fO O O f^ r<5 lO CN 0\ O On Os 0\ Q r^ On ▼-• »H lO tJ^ 00 On OO . 00 OO t^ »^ NO diqs -OMO) }o jaqoih^ bO W) ^ to t^ < »-4 "^ 00 CO NO S3 [143] Is S-S o ™ .J2 C O^ S;dl933J }0 OpB^ 93U'EpU3J 93BjaA3 Ul jidnd J3d Sjdl3D9^ p unj |ooqDS UOUltUOD ,_( ,-4 T-i t^ lO t^ lO 00 O O «r> re 00 CN -^ VO 00 PO vOsOvOvOvOOOOt^t^ ir5»oOOt^vOiOOO CN t^ On O 00 ro Tt< O On t— ■.-h (N ■^ O O tJ< oo 00 irj ,-H T— n>. lo Tti IT) On ^ vO On t^ r— lO fO '— I Tt* vO NO On NO PD OO rfi lO CN ro On '-i fO t-i nO 00 •■-h CN u") 9DUBpU9:i5B y^jrep DS-BjaAB ai s^idnd JO jaqmn^ CS CN CN T-H T-t ■ t^t^lOt-^CNNONOCNOO fOrO0000O\J>-iOONiO ro CN CO '— CN CO tH CN paXoiduia sj3qDB9:j JO jgquin^ O »0 -rt* 00 »-H 00 ■fi On OO On On CN vO Tt" O O t^ OO uop^indod {ooijDS •B^ld^D J9d qilB3j\\ CO On O t^ NO vO lO t~^ -^ On CO '-H On tJh NO t^ 00 • 3f <>j NC 00 On lO O On co •^ On ^ •^ lO r^a rs On O O O O CO CS On CO CN OO CN no -^ no co O •^ 1-1 I-! ^-H ^-1 -r-l CN '-I »-l T-( 1-H CN T-H CN T-H i-H CO CS uopini joj Xa91 [Bib J, sridt9D9a uopmrj |b;05 o^ipunj ]obqDs uommoD luoaj S:idl9D9J JO opB^ ,-H»ovqoi>;co>ot^rN; •^•TflONCNOvt^O'-lTH .t^NOcoOON»-iOO ONi^CNNOCOOCNt^OO UAvoi JO J9qtun2>j ONOCNOOi-HCOrt^cO J3 X^iCOO-^nOcoOnCN ■t-t Cs| 1-1 CN CN y-t [144] H < i| 1^ OO }0 OpB^ aouBpua; -;b XjiBp 3SBJ3AB ui [idnd aad sjdpoa^ punj [ooqas UOUIUIOO UIOJJ s^dpD -31 lEJOX 3DUt;pu3} -^B XllBp 33V13\V Ul s]idnd JO jaquin^ p3X0(dUI3 SJ9 -qD'eai jo jaquin^sj uopcpidod jooqas B^idra J3d q^l^jYV uoii -tni joj Xa3i 1^0 x s:)di333j uopm; yeio'i oi punj lobqDs U0U1UX03 UIOIJ S;dl3D3J JO OpB^ ptmj looqos uoiuuioD UIOJJ aouBpoajiB Xjrep UI jidnd jad P3AI3D9J '^unouiy punj looqas uoui -UIOD XUOiJ P3AI3D -3J lunoui-B jiJ^bx Alp JO jaquinfj^ OMOOOOvO'-hOvOOn ■.-Ht^00-«+iiOON0000tO rNirti->*^OOOOvOOO NO vO vO vO 10 VO vO VOIOSOOVDVOVOVOVO 10 vO O '-• >0 •>;*< •r-H t^ 00 t^ 00 NO O ■•-I -"^ »-H vO rt< O CN fO ro '-H 10 O O fS O fr> 10 0\ »0 O fO '-H t^ 10 --I O lO 00 O On 00 "^ 10 CN Tfi CN •■-• "O O 10 O t^ 0\ o CN -^ vc o o Ov CN 00 00 ^ O00iO«NrJ<"^0CiC lOOOTHCNOOCNfOrt' 00'^Tj0 10 lO »0 vO lO »-ii— iiO»Ot^lOOOCNCN 00 Ov On On O t^ »0 t^ CN _ . _ O CN Tt" 00 ^ 00 10 PO '-H CN PO lOPO TfO OnpO ^ NO t^ Pf> CN •^ »0 On t^ CN Tt tJh PO lO -^ »0 CN »0 ■<* I es 10 '-H 10 po po »o [I4S] 146 A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana while cities which receive an average of $7.41 per pupil in aver- age daily attendance with a variability of $0.96 rank second and that consolidated schools receiving an average of $5.39, and a varia- bility of $0.84 rank third, while towns receiving only $4.50 per pupil in average daily attendance receive the lowest amount from the common school fund. While the towns rank first in the relative total amount received from indirect sources, it will be observed that they rank third in the actual amount received per pupil in aver- age daily attendance, the city schools ranking first, and townships with district schools ranking second. Only one explanation can be offered for this situation, and that is that towns find it necessary to run their schools on a much more economical basis than do the schools of other corporations. Notwithstanding the fact that town- ships continue in session a much shorter period than schools in the other types of corporations, the average cost per pupil in daily attendance for tuition is greater than that in any other corporation. Townships with district schools pay an average of $24.10 per pupil, as compared with $22.75 i^ city schools, $21.45 i^ consolidated schools and $18.73 i^ town schools. In other words, it is more economical from the standpoint of the amount of money paid teach- ers, to consolidate the district schools, but not so economical as to provide school facilities in the natural centers of population. One or two factors, however, have not been considered when comparing the amount of money received from the common school fund by the different types of corporations and the relative amount received from indirect and direct sources. One of the reasons for the great varia- tion in the amount received from the common school fund, which in turn will affect the total amount received from indirect sources, is that a great number of pupils are transferred to a corporation which has on the census basis a relatively low school population. Thus, towns receiving a great number of pupils from other corpora- tions for whom transfers are provided, receive only a small amount from the state fund on account of their very limited number of pupils of legal school age in that corporation. Another element which must be considered is the relative wealth per capita. In order to determine to what extent these factors enter into the situation and the effect of the application of a more scientific method of distribu- tion. Tables lxix, lxx, lxxi, and lxxii have been compiled. A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 147 Eight townships were selected in the order of the amount re- ceived per pupil in average daily attendance from the common school fund, beginning with the highest, and a second group of eight townships were selected on the same basis, except beginning with the township receiving the lowest amount per pupil in average daily attendance from the common school fund. The ratio of the amount received per pupil from the common school fund to the total tuition receipts, the tax levy for tuition purposes, wealth per capita, school population, number of teachers employed, and pupils in average daily attendance in each corporation, were taken from the preced- ing tables and the average for each group in each of these items determined. In like manner six townships with consolidated schools receiving the greatest amounts per pupil in average daily attendance and the six townships receiving the lowest amounts per pupil, were selected and in the same way sixteen towns and sixteen cities were selected. In order to determine the effect of the distribution of the money received from the common school fund on the basis advo- cated by Dr. Cubberly and which is now employed in one or two states, the total amount received from the common school fund, the total number of pupils in average daily attendance and the total number of teachers employed in these selected groups of cor- porations were determined. Forty per cent of the total amount re- ceived from the common school fund was divided by the total num- ber of teachers employed, thus determining the distribution of the forty per cent of the total amount received on this basis. The re- maining sixty per cent of the common school fund received in these corporations was divided by the total number of pupils in average daily attendance, which gave the amount received per pupil on the average daily attendance basis. The amount of money received per teacher multiplied by the number of teachers employed plus the amount received per pupil in average daily attendance multiplied by the number of pupils gave the total amount received on the proposed basis of distribution. In order to make a comparison with the amounts received per pupil in average daily attendance on the old basis, this total amount was divided by the number of pupils in aver- age daily attendance which in turn gave the amount received per pupil in average daily attendance on this combination basis. In like manner, for purposes of comparison, the ratio of the total amoum received on this combination basis to the total amount received for tuition purposes, assuming that each corporation 148 A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana modified its local levy so that the total amount would not be altered by the change in basis of distribution, was determined and given in the last column of these tables. A summary of these re- sults is given in Table lxxiii. The application of the combination basis of distribution not only makes a more equitable distribution among the schools of the same type, but also equalizes the distribution among the schools of different types, as well as to give assistance to the schools in great- est need and to stimulate consolidation of rural schools. The eight townships with district schools receiving a larger amount from the TABLE LXXIII Summary of the Results if the Common School Fund were Distributed on Teacher- Average-Daily-Attendance Basis Average total amount received from common school fund Average amount received per pupil in daily attend- ance from com- mon school fund Ratio of re- ceipts from common school fund to total tui- tion receipts II Township j Higher ( Lower ConsoUdated | ^^^^ Town City j Higher \ Lower j Higher ( Lower \ 1871 1428 937 1026 1164 881 12122 4413 $1554 1585 1009 1334 1339 1568 8428 5074 $10 .05 5.96 6.33 4.23 6.17 3.45 9.04 5.42 $8.10 6.78 7.03 7.34 7.07 6.08 6.42 6.20 32.7 32.3 32.2 21.0 31.2 21.2 39.0 25.0 27.3 36.0 34.1 33.6 35.0 38.3 27.9 28.5 .208 .25 .26 .25 .435 .435 .279 .285 $3328 3478 4102 5297 1397 2198 1669 1710 common school fund received, on the old basis, an average of $1,871.00, while the eight townships receiving the lowest amount averaged $1,428.00; but when we apply the combination basis of distribution, we find that the first group receives on an average a smaller amount than the latter group. When we consider the amount received per pupil, it will be observed that the upper a^roup of townships received $1.95 per pupil less on the combination basis than on the census basis, while the lower group received $0.82 more per pupil on the combination basis of distribution than on the census basis. The ratio of the total amount received from the common sji'cdaj AiBuipiQ OiOQr+iTt< ..-H r<5 --I ro »-i vo CS CN»-(»-tfNCNi-Hf<5'^eSCOM On O^O'^Q Oi •OOsQO toOO»OOTl< »-i O lo T-i lo cs ■«*( fs sajiddns looqas O CN OC 00 CN C\ »0 vO «0 t^ CO vO tJ< lO On On «N NO '-t CN 0\ »0 0\ '-' lO fO «0 O -^ ^ ro CS ro -^ lO *00>OT-OONON»O00NO>OiOiO«O»OO\^ t--'— •TfNOONOfO'— itO'— iOn»0<0»— 'CN^OnOnOnOnOOnOnOnOCN*— iiOCNiO ' ' - . - Tj* CN O CO rt< NO 00 NO Tt< NO NO NO NO NO &raqDB3x ONONONVOOCNC^JNONO»OOOCN«0»000'-OONt^ONNO'-O diqsxiMo:) jo jsqinn^ ^-HCNCO'^'ONOt^OOONO'-iCSf'l'^iONOt^OOONO'-ieNc^^rt^iONOt^OOONO j^ j^i ^"-"^^i::;^^^;::5^^^c^o,(MesrMcscNCNeNCNco [149] IBdpUTjd uo pred ^unouiy 1 1 2100 300 2000 500 1200 1000 ssaupa -^iqapu] uo rjsaaa^uT ui pred lunouiv ■^ t^ CM 00 00 ^ CO ^ 0\ Q CN CN T-< voco X^wdojd PIO JO 5U3UI3AOjd -uii laauBuuaj ro vO '-H t^ t^ OOt^ vO «0 »0 •«-i 10 fO CO th t^ On ••-1 On 00 T-t »-( fo t^ Ov CN CO to ^-* 10 ^ 10 tH ,^ CN CO -.^ CO -r-H ^U9mdinb9 's3ui -pimq ''salts Aiaj^ 10480 186 1691 to CN 1-H XjBjqn D!iq"d 1 snoauBiposij^ 00 cs 00 CN 00 00 JOOJ sjjooq AjiViU3iu3\(i -dnS pUB 9Da3J3J3^ 00 * vO "* Tt t^ CM CN 8^ ^?2 auoqdapx 93B;sod puB qdBjB9px ro CS 00 »o cs es ■<^ 10 ro T-^ to CO CO T-H \0 CN CO 93bXbjp •ssajdxa ';q3iajj vo vo 00 vo CN vo ON T-4 T-( fO tH to CN 10 10 CO CO 1-H tH CO 00 '^OO'-H uopBiJodsuBJX oovor-Q fO vO •^ TiH fNC000000000O«M vOCO-^CNT-llOCNtO CNi-lt^CN-^'-llO'* OvOv— I 00 »0 Ti< vOt^OO Ov CNCN CN CN CO [150] A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 151 school fund to the total amount of tuition receipts in the two groups on the old basis are approximately the same, while on the combination basis the lower group with a higher tax levy will receive a relatively larger amount from the state ; thus in every particular the application of the combination basis to the township district schools will give the greater amount where there is the greatest local effort and the greatest need. The application of this basis of distribution to townships with consolidated schools would give a greater amount of money, not only to the lower group, but to the higher as well. The lower group would receive the greater amount and would practically equalize the ratio of the amount received from the common school fund to the total tuition receipts, with that received by the upper group. The greatest change would be ob- served in the case of the town schools. Since the town schools with their limited wealth per capita and high tax levy for tuition pur- poses, receiving relatively smaller amounts from the common school fund on account of the limited number of pupils within these corpo- rations, would receive much more money if distribution was made on the combination basis than any other type of school. The amount received per pupil in average daily attendance, however, does not equal the amount received in the townships with district schools and the townships with consolidated schools. The great variation in the amount received by the upper group as compared with the amount received by the lower group on the basis would, also, be eliminated. Naturally, it is the larger cities with their larger number of pupils and greater wealth per capita which would suffer on this new basis for the benefits received by the smaller cities and towns, yet the amount received per pupil in average daily attendance by the lower group on the combination basis would be greater than now received on the old census basis, while the amount received per pupil in average daily attendance in the upper group on the com- bination basis would be much less than that received on the old basis. This, however, is not inequitable when we consider the ratio of the amount received from the common school fund to the total tuition receipts and the tax levy of the lower as compared with the same items in the upper group. CHAPTER VIII School Finances — Expenditures As was stated in one of the preceding chapters, the total expendi- tures for the support of schools are met, so far as local efforts are involved, by tax levies made for two distinct purposes ; the one for the payment of salaries of teachers, and the other for the mainte- nance and operative expenses of the school. The former is called the tuition fund, the latter, the special school fund. In the preceding chapter an analysis was made of the funds for the payment of teachers, while in this chapter a study will be made of the distribu- tion of the money received for maintenance and operation. It was stated in the introduction that the data from which the following tables were compiled were taken from the itemized reports of the school officials to the county atiditors and that the classifica- tion of expenditures as herein given were made by the writer with one assistant; so that uniformity prevails throughout. Some diffi- culty was experienced in classifying some of the expenditures for supplies, since many school officials used that term to include most anything that might be needed for office or school purposes. In most cases, however, it was possible to determine for what the ex- penditure was made by reference to the original vouchers filed with the reports. The writer was influenced to a large extent by the investigation of City School Expenditures by Dr. Strayer in the classification of expenditures. Certain modifications were made to suit the local conditions. A few items are included in order to eliminate an un- usual element in a few of the schools, rather than for the purpose of comparing one type of schools to another in this particular. For example, a few school corporations spent quite a little money for legal services which was an unusual expenditure, and to be included under business administration would give erroneous results for that school in this particular. The practice of school officials and recent legislation has changed the distribution of funds somewhat from that originally intended by the law concerning the same. While the law originally specified that teachers' salaries must be paid from the tuition fund, it is possible under certain conditions for an unexpended balance in the special school fund to be used for this purpose when there is a ja^BAV j3Mod pu'B ;q3ii pnj sasuad -xa inaraaDuauiuioD sai^ddns aDuaps apsauioQ puB auiuJBJx F" -UBJ\[ 'XJo'l'BJOqBT saiiddns ,sjoitu-Ef sai|ddns looqag sai[ddns ,sjos -LAjadns' puB aoc^ aoiAjas jo^iiuBf sjajsrrejx saaj ajnipsuj aDiAjas ^BSaq uopBjr) -sraimpB ssauisng l«40X sapBJQ looqos qSt jj uoisiAjadng sajn^ipuadxa ib^ox diqs rO -^ — I lO 0 O On '-I O lO to CN O (N lO 'it CO fC •— I ^— ( T-i ^ rf lO (M Ost^ Ov ■^ •^ t^ lO Tt r<^ CN lO CN l^ CN OO Ov rt« P>J»H ■«* r^ T-H lo (N V0»0 00 O fO StNOO O Os CO T-i ^ \0 l>» lO 0\ CN 00 OO »0 f^ r<0 tJ< On '-H CN VO Q CN On 0\ O VO CS O CN VO vOr^ "^ r;*< CN T-H T^ ■r-l ■.-( 00 >0 OO '- ID On O t^ lO >0 NO On 1^5 CO t-» O On On On lO CD rM^ OO On lO CC lO 'JT CC VOCN T-^ OO CN CN t^ O "-H CN CN t^ CO nOnO CM CN lO CN Tf fO O CD NO O lO DO On -^ CO '-HO vOO ON 00 00 NO CO O OOiOth nOCN vOCN NO CNt^ 00 CN CN CO ■•-< '-H CN CN On O O O -rf tn noj^ooonO •H (N CO-^ »0 [153] ^^ vOt^ ■^ On CN -i Tft CN 1^ •■-i T-l CN diqs -UAvo:j JO aaqumfi T-icsrO'*»0 vOt>-00ONO *H«Nr<:>Tt<>0 no t^ [154] »?«M JSMOd poB ?qSii PM »0 ^-H OO CS vO O fO O 0\ T-i ID «r> ec \0(N -^ rt< CO '-HVOOrJ<0 00 '-H fOO 00 »o .,-1 '-H CN f<5 fO CS CS sasuad -X3 1U3UI3DU3U1UIOD sat^ddns SDuaps opsauioQ -OBJ^i 'iCJOJBJOqB'J ^ 8 S CN i-H T-i saijddns .sjo^ra'ef S3i]ddns lOoqDS es rt CS OO 00 t^voio o i0^^tJ< (N lO O t^ t^ fS »0 t^ CO o •rH VO CN CO CO t^ co-^ CO sai|ddns ,sjos -lAjadns' pu-B aatgo CN CN r^ CN S3DlAjaS JO^IO'Bf lO^iOfO vO ^^ ^^ O^ ^*^ t*^ CO CN CN VO VOO -^ CN CN Th CNlOOO VO lO CO VO CN lO '-H CN CO ^ CN * lO •^ CN 00 t^ vO vO t^ T-i 0Q»0 On CO ^ 0\Tt< »0 l^oj. \0 ■^ '-H lO CO ^ OMO'-H OO »0 00 t^ Ov lO lO ,-H rt C0»0 CO vO "O < vOt^ vO < CO CO 00 CO lO CO lOCO Tj< ^ O CO CNi^ lO COVOCOO:* CO Tt< O VOO Oslo *0 OOO >00\000»0 '-^ 0\ Tt CO Tt* OO 1-H VO O^t^ CN 00 CO CN -^lOCO ■<*' CO sapwQ vO ■^ T-< lO CO Os Ov 00 00 OO Tf OO O O On CO '-H CO CN CN Ov "«^ VO vO Ov CN -^ t^ OO CO TjH VO 00 CN O »-ICO'-H co^ OV '-H U-) Q CN CN CN -^ Q CO t^ OO Q ^ VOOOO^ VO 0\ OOQQ ■^ »0 «M CO -^lO 8-<*i CNOO lO VO VO t^ '-' 00 CN »0 ••-H CNt^ *0 »-< ^- vO Ov CN >0 vO CO _ t^ CN CO i^ CO t-* ■.-HOO-^t^CN t^rfiO ^ T* vOOOiO CN vO OM:^ »-H lO lO t^ to 00 Ov CN t~~ 00 CO O -r-* lO CO to to CO to covO Ovto VO ■»!< ouo) JO jsqum^ ^CNCO'^tO vOt^OOOvO i-HCNcOTfiO [155] .§ - no [ityni ^unoiiiv 875 1660 1 i 8 s ssdn -pa^iqapm no piBd :)S3J35ui jo':junouiv 00 -* fooo lo ^ s Xvadojd pjo JO juauiaAojd -UIT }UaUBUIJ3i 00 CNI Amiqii Dtiqnj 8 sno3u^pDSip\[ SS t>- 8 CN 00 CNOO OO s3jooq XjB^uamajd -dns puB aauajap^ ^?^ ?^ t^ 00 00 ro NO *^ to o CO t— CM CC C00»0 3DUBjnSUI •>— I CN ^ ^ ^S^ § ^^ § 2 aaoqdapj. 1-H 1— t -H O CN 1—1 ^ ^ 00 CN aSB^sod puB qdBj33[3X lO tH as 2-^^ Tf" 'ssajdxa ':)qSi3aj CO lO lO .0^-00 ro«0 »0 th lo On CD 1-1 O CN CN CO siidnd JO uop'B:jjodsu'BJx VOCN P snsu33 ■--it-O OOO ■.-H lO CD ■•-1 CN 1-H o lo Oio r-< 1-1 CO i-H t-.NOOO t^ -jaAp'B puB Smjuu J O I rfi O -io»o ^ lO fO »0 CN ^ lOCNiOOt^ CN CO to 00 rj* t^ ir-l t^ c?t^ oorrt^'-tt^ vo ro oo O 00 r-i ic cn ^-i vo OO 00 »0 ^ Ov «r> CSOVOO'^ vOr^TfOvO O 00 CN Os O CS 0\ 0\ CN CN CN 00 O 0 PC t^ 00 -"^ »-• CO 0\ PT) CN CN CN -^ CN PC to P O '-H CS ■<* sajiddns .sjo^iuBf saiiddns looqDg O 00 CN '-H On O »0 PC O 00 PC CN CN -^ ■rH SvO lO ■i-H 00 PC '-I ■p-i PC lO t^ P<^ O ^ I NO PC o o •<*! 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S to NO »Ot^ CSl T-J CM Cq .16 .25 1.18 2.34 1.41 «o saqdclns ^sjos -lAiadns pxre soyjQ qSS ? 288 q s lO CM i-H qp p ^.q q CM CM 33UU3S jo^nref 1.27 .52 1.80 1.64 2.16 lO'i-Ht^rM *-*_ in T-j p ^S.^ 1— < tMoOOnco 1-J On t~* 1— 1 lO 1—1 ,-( T-4 T-( »-( 1-1 1— 1 CM 1— < 1-1 siajsoBJi -. q S33} a;nr>nsai ^ S 1-< 33UU3S [BiVJ NO ^. ^^. q -siuinipB ssdnisng O.iO On 7.61 5.77 13.99 12.13 6.01 1-^ to On H IB^ox »0 »-tt-~o OCMOOfOt^ CSICNOJCNf-t 15.53 21.74 18.19 16.76 13.65 17.74 18.38 19.81 o c^ NO CM CM t^ CM CO CM CM 00 On On NOt^t^ ■— 1 i-« 1-1 i-t CM CM fOto tONOO *^. ^. *^. *^ ^ Tj< OnO*^ O CM 1-tCN 1-lCM NO CM sapwo o »-tooNO»r> ON»Ot^tN CO CN CNOOtM 0\ C0«0 00f0>0 »0 NO CM tN \q »0 CM OnOn PO 9.80 10.99 11.49 CO 11.70 8.78 10.09 20.28 14.01 NO CM to 00 CS !>. !>. 00 1-H CO CO 00 1-1 Om-« vO 1-t lOOqDsqSiH 7.45 10.19 10.76 8.15 9.09 8.91 7.53 0\fO CO t>.*^ 00 On ^^.-.^? O ^00 00 On ON l«JOx 26.77 27.87 41.54 30.00 27.12 18.92 30.12 23.58 20.48 16.34 25.80 22.75 25.92 CM »0 0 pnB ssajdxa '?q3i3ij S S g Sq S pp pop pop spdnd JO aojiTsuodsuBJx ?P §8 So snsn33 ?P^pS PPPP* p p P?P? pop? P -j3Ap« pITB SupaU J p ^pp P pop p ?PP P p-.pp S. t»a3^ ^ 3JtH lujn] fvaoi^ippY ^ ? rO«N ^-. ?i ^^ 00 fiireda^ .64 2.14 2.45 2.56 .44 *>; cm CN -rH <~0 so t^ i-H rt* •^ CN 00 t^ O lO O ro fO q '-^ CN '"1 ^ '^. ^. *^ ^ '^ '^. "^ th cs; •r-i CN rt^ O »-i fO CN csi ■^ CN O ro O ro 00 r-HrorO(M CN CN •^ rg tJ< Os ■<-H ^-1 1-1 ro CS Os O CN t^ 1-1 Os "^ t-~ fNt^OsCNiO (T) sO O sO t^ fO'-jrjH-rj^o ^*^'~!q'^ '^^^'^^^^ '^^**iq'^. oqcoiocNio t^OOt^sOO lO O 00 •■-I '-I so MO OO «N O OsOOr^OsoO OO Os sO O OO OO 00 00 CN O O 00 O CN Os sOrOLOsOt^ MO lO MO lO fO mo 00 "O "^ i-i moio'-jsOt;^ T-;qfOioos O0»-jOsC0SO MO T-i Tfi 1-1 SO OS Ov lO so lO r:J< uo -^ MO i~< OO 00 MO O t^ CN lO O OO t^ CN - "<*OssOi>-00 lO 0\ OO rO CM CN O sO tJ^ Os tJ< Os -^ O '-i i-H 1-1 1-1 i-H ,-4 ^^^^^ ^ ^ ^ <>, ^ ^^^^^ r-l 1-H CS (M VO 1-1 ID 1-1 CN OsiOrOCMOO O ^ ■^ sO 00 r-i t^ Os fS lO O -^ CN * t^ Os sO MOPa p ?^^q q^ ?? ^q q auoqdapx sssqs S8S.^^ q q q ^?q2^ aSBisod puB qdBjaapx p qq 28 qq 2 q q aSBXBjp pUB SS3jdX3 q?S§S q^S?^ S^So oo oS ^2 88 s^idnd JO uoi}B:iJodsuBax 8S q ^. Poor .49 .08 snsuao ?28?§ jqSS •^»0 CT"* O 8S8?2 p p p p p -J3ApB puB Smiiiu J q^p^.S SqS.88 Sg?qS ?-.q q 8?p88 lua^ ?^ q S^S. 00 t^ iq p q^ ^. q q ami -nunj ^Baopippv i2 §8^ ^SS^gJ S^i52g5 S ^S"^ 88 8S sjiBda-a ••-1 vot>. CN es :2?Q^sg iS^^SS oo>o tH tH CS y-> ja^BA^ ? ?q jaMod puB ^qSiq g5SS:::2; ?q ^ ^S^.iqS q^ q^. ^^B ^ PM O cNoot^ «r> t^ On CS ■^ '-H lO CS vO CN 0\ t^\0 PO Ov NO s^i^ss VOt^OOt^iO ■>-H ro t-~ <>0 oo ^^ ^ (M ^ ^ ^^^ CSt-H ■r-i'T^ -i-i ti-t ^-1^-1 A;p JO jaqum^j ■rHCSPOrflO vOt^ OO On O ;::^:2^i2 vOt^OOONO ^-t »-* tH »-t CN [183] w 5 ^ >> w S2 Ij aiiUBTif) 1.93 2.09 .43 .48 CO CO NO 5;; t-; Ov P P a3Bj3AV 7.55 6.04 .94 .63 1 aipjBn^ .11 1.15 .71 3SUI3AV t^ONO to CO On 10 10 t>-co to ailJBnf) rJ^ 10 vq CO t-* NO to CO 00 "^ CO On t^_ to On 00 aS'BjaAV 40.30 50.84 23.72 25.95 13.75 22.76 7.11 8.53 i2 1 an^i^n^ t^t^ lOCO o^ cor--Tj< On to p 10 CO "^ CsJ CN aSBjaAv 59.60 49.16 76.28 74.05 20.31 22.09 19.91 24.22 1 a[rjjren^ 1^ e^ rt< CO 3.99 3.08 2.04 2.16 aSBjaAV 59.60 33.28 46.24 51.45 20.31 14.93 12.00 16.84 an^TOf) 5.70 4.60 2.69 NO On<>4 aSBjaAV 15.88 30.04 22.60 7.16 7.91 7.38 3 O-^nOnO 34 .06 44.85 27.02 32.75 ^ Township g 1 Consolidated g iTown a^ I City T3 (U ^ C ^ >N o.ti HUHU pdnd j3d -lop tn ;so3 [184] i aipimiO ^^^ ^.-.^ 93BJ3AV ^.^^. "o (X ailVOTO .... qSS? 3»BJ»AV ??i^.^. -.-.q§ 1 aipjBnO ^.^^^. CN cs; CO T-j 33UI3AV ?^.-.^ ^.^.^.? ii 3[itren0 qS^S a2Bj3AV r^^Osio qq^.-. 2.S II anVBnO ^ vO o oo ll anvrenO •i-t »o vo CO n-. r>-. 2?J 33BJ3AV CO cs gS;SS 1 tlt ^ c: ^ >^ HUHO 3[T;n3DJ3i a 111 ^ fl ^ >^ o o o.ti HUHU siidnd oad -FPim 1S03 [i8s] anvBTiO q^^2 SSS? a3Bj3Av q2i^?5 ?qS^ & anv^n^ :2^^^q qS^s 33BJ3AV II anw^nO sOt^vOO On 00 CN PO CN fO lO Tin q »-J »-H ■^ a3Bj3AV ^ fN O lO •.-1 Os ro ^ CO tj^ »o vq T-H ^^ T-^ CN i anw^nf) 00 O -H "^ o^ '^ ^-: a3BJ3Ay qioqio qt^oqoq fO ■r-l CO CN tH Is anVBnO q^ s^ a3'Bi3AV ^^ vq q^ » 1 aiipBn^ CNVOt^-^ «N O NO 0\ vq-^ONro ■<;ijNqr<) aSBiaAv ir> NO •<* 00 1-^ (^g CN NO q q •rH •--< fo oq ••-j cn ailV^nO ^?3^: ^::^s aS'BjaAv iq?5^_q S22^ pdnd J3d -Iopm;so3 l86] i 1 anvBnO SSS^. <-qSS ^q^^. °^S§ 1| 1 siIUBn^ :q?:^^?:? q^sq 33BJ3AV -.^.^^ 0^22:2 1 anVTOf) ^.^.^^. -.^.R-. 3SUI3AV \q t^ 00 1--. CN CO es cs 4> 1 anv^nf) SS2 ?SS 3SBJ3AV C:p:2 ^SS 1 ft anUBnO qpqo ori-n-q 38BJ3AV sqs? ssss l|l 3IipBn(^ -_q§g s§ss a3BJ3AV PO 0\ «N vO Tt<00eNiO r anv^nf) aaBJ3AV ro «0 Ov T^i »— 1 1— 1 r^ rj; T-J ^ "1 <^. J ann^n^ ^^^s ^SBB 33BJ3AV ^^^^, ^^.^s 1 1 s[idnd J3d amoaoja J s:ju3d jj sjb| -lop ui isoo 187] i88 A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana TABLE LXXXVII Statistics Showing the Relation of Total Cost per Pupil to the Amount Spent FOR Teachers' Salaries, Wealth per Capita, and Tax Levies in Townships with District Schools i 2s3 i Tax levy per $100 "S -zt^ Ig. 1^ 1 8 s|| gl a § rt 11 II 1 I 1 CO 1 19 $73 .84 72.2 27.8 $4204 $0.15 $0.25 $1.98 20 61.41 74.2 25.8 4475 .20 .20 1.92 29 54.44 40.9 59.1 5481 .22 .25 1.78 30 49.51 57.3 42.7 4184 .30 .24 1.80 27 45.08 53.9 46.1 4483 .19 .22 1.80 14 44.01 57.7 42.3 2893 .20 .20 1.63 23 39.54 61.1 38.9 3588 .26 .22 1.72 25 39.30 68.9 31.1 5794 .25 .10 1.94 Average 50.89 60.9 39.2 4388 .21 .21 1.82 18 19.35 69.2 30.8 1171 .25 .40 2.56 2 19.79 69.7 30.3 1835 .40 .50 2.77 3 21.06 67.7 32.3 2208 .30 .20 2.36 21 21.27 59.3 40.7 4674 .16 .12 2.36 7 22.91 62.4 37.6 2205 .30 .30 2.42 5 24.35 70.1 29.9 971 .25 .15 2.24 10 24.57 66.7 33.3 2527 .25 .15 2.02 6 24.78 72.1 27.9 1677 .32 .40 2.82 Average 22.26 67.2 32.8 2158 .28 .28 2.43 ers' salaries and that the lower group not only has less wealth per capita, but also a smaller levy for tuition and special school pur- poses, yet the total tax levy for the lower group exceeds by seventeen cents the average levy for the higher group. While there is a direct relation between the amounts of wealth per capita and the cost per pupil in townships with district schools, no such relationship prevails in the cost of consolidated schools. In the higher group of town- ships an average of $6.51 more is spent than the average for the group, while the lower group spends an average of $6.31 less than the average for the group, but this variation is offset, as was the case of township with district schools, by a greater per cent of the total amount of the lower group of corporations being spent for teachers' salaries than in the higher group. While the higher group spent 3.5 per cent less than the average for the entire group for teachers' salaries, the lower group spent 4.1 per cent more than the average for the entire group. The average wealth per capita, how- A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 189 ever, for the higher group exceeds the average for the entire group $2i8.cx), but the average for the lower group exceeds the average for the entire group $305.00. The tax levy for tuition purposes of the higher group was at the maximum fifty cents on the hundred dollars, while the average for the lower group was only thirty-seven cents on the hundred dollars and the tax levy of the special school fund of the higher group was fifty-two cents, while the levy for the lower group was thirty-nine cents on the hundred dollars. TABLE LXXXVIII Statistics Showing the Relation of Total Cost per Pupil to the Amount Spent FOR Teachers' Salaries, Wealth per Capita, and Tax Levies in Townships with Consolidated Schools i "(3 « ^U "S. Tax levy per $100 2^1 K 3 ! ^ u? CO a ^ i, 1^ III ^=3 1 § 1 1 11 $57 .35 49.8 50.2 $7530 $0.20 $0.40 $1.60 15 56.27 54.3 45.7 3938 .35 .55 2.32 12 55.60 35.9 64.1 7178 .19 .50 1.65 2 52.58 51.6 48.4 6041 .25 .49 2.20 7 50.59 54.8 45.2 3892 .30 .50 1.99 6 49.09 50.9 49.1 4309 .31 .50 2.06 Average 53.58 49.5 50.5 5481 .27 .49 1.97 14 32.70 42.2 57.8 3459 .30 .50 2.25 3 32.90 53.8 46.2 3995 .23 .50 2.12 4 34.42 39.4 60.6 3735 .15 .50 2.36 9 38.58 51.8 48.2 6117 .18 .33 1.84 13 40.60 61.5 38.5 3961 .31 .50 2.02 8 41.81 49.7 50.3 3820 .37 .40 2.00 Average 36.85 49.7 50.3 4181 .26 .46 2.10 These facts with reference to the town schools go to show that while the schools are spending a less amount per capita for school pur- poses, yet they spend a relatively larger amount for teachers' salaries, the smaller amount paid by the lower group is due in most part to the unwillingness on the part of the towns to levy a tax equal to that of the higher group. The average cost per pupil in the higher group of city schools, is $38.68 and exceeds the average for the entire group, on the basis of cost per pupil $5.93, while the average for the lower group is $27.17 which is $5.58 less than the average for the entire group,. 190 A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana yet the per cent of the entire cost devoted to teachers' salaries in the lower group is less than the average for the entire group, as is also the average for the higher group. When we compare the wealth per capita for the two groups, we find that the average for the higher group exceeds the average for the entire group $347.00, while the average for the lower group is $480.00 less than the aver- age for the entire group. This difference in wealtth per capita is offset to a large extent by the increase in the tax levy which for the TABLE LXXXIX Statistics Showing the Relation of Total Cost per Pupil to the Amount Spent FOR Teachers' Salaries, Wealth per Capita, and Tax Levies in Town Schools ^ -3 S a% c3 Tax levy per $100 1 ! I{1 It 1 •s 1 8 ^S3 a. g -3 i III 11 1 1 i 1 3 $41.54 69.5 30.5 $1905 $0.50 $0.65 $3.14 26 35.58 73.3 26.7 23 34.14 59.9 40.1 1654 .50 .50 2.77 19 32.95 84.6 15.4 .50 .50 3.14 21 32.34 76.3 23.7 1583 .50 .50 3.52 20 31.59 70.0 30.0 1314 .50 .50 3.42 7 30.12 72.3 27.7 1508 .50 .73 3.14 4 30.00 76.8 23.2 1941 .50 .28 2.61 Average 33.53 72.8 27.2 1650 .50 .52 3.11 10 16.34 83.2 16.8 1043 .07 .10 1.50 6 18.92 82.1 17.9 2419 .40 .25 2.29 17 19.15 84.6 15.4 1234 .45 .55 2.25 9 20.48 81.9 18.1 1326 .50 .50 2.18 12 22.75 80.9 19.1 3027 .20 .30 1.93 8 23.58 77.1 22.9 1060 .50 .65 3.23 18 25.18 68.5 31.5 2293 .35 .50 3.16 16 25.28 84.5 15.5 1492 .50 .30 3.22 Average 21.71 80.4 19.6 1737 .37 .39 2.47 lower group is three cents more than the average for the higher group for tuition purposes and six cents more than the average for the upper group. A similar relationship exists with reference to special school funds. Taking all these things into consideration it is safe to conclude that most corporations with a limited wealth per capita so distribute their school funds that the amount for teachers' salaries more nearly equals the amount spent for this purpose by the wealthier communities, and economize in other expenditures but are not able to pay as large salaries as the wealthier commu- nities. A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 191 We have seen that corporations spending less than the average for the entire group per capita for schools distribute the school expenditures in such a way as to minimize the difference in the amount paid for teachers' salaries by these corporations and the amount paid by the corporations spending a much larger amount per capita for school purposes. In order to do this these corpora- tions with limited means must necessarily economize in all other TABLE XC Statistics Showing the Relation of Total Cost per Pupil to the Amount Spent FOR Teachers' Salaries, Wealth per Capita, and Tax Levees in City Schools. -3 S al 1 Tax levy per $100 1 1 g II 1 *o 1 1 3^ In .2: =3 1 [a 1 14 $46.50 71.5 28.5 $1567 $0.40 $0.45 $3.86 7 39.80 73.4 26.6 2782 .40 .23 2.79 24 39.10 73.5 26.5 1584 .40 .50 3.48 9 37.31 70.3 29.7 2188 .40 .64 3.06 10 37.22 69.3 30.7 2260 .38 .37 3.06 20 36.88 75.6 24.3 2378 .35 .45 3.23 25 36.41 72.4 25.6 3025 .24 .45 2.46 5 36.18 76.4 23.6 2288 .24 .50 2.83 Average 38.68 72.8 27.0 2259 .35 .45 3.09 6 24.33 78.5 21.5 1101 .50 .50 3.12 22 24.54 61.4 38.6 1413 .37 .50 3.90 17 26.32 68.4 37.6 1861 .50 .45 2.96 23 27.45 76.6 23.4 1415 .38 .35 3.51 4 28.03 76.9 23.1 1385 .50 .50 3.52 16 28.32 66.9 33.1 1704 .50 .50 3.12 12 28.84 87.0 13.0 965 .10 .50 3.00 19 29.57 69.6 30.4 1614 .45 .45 3.67 Average 27.17 73.2 26.6 1432 .41 .47 3.35 expenditures for school purposes. This necessarily gives rise to the question, "What is the distribution of the additional money spent by the school corporations in the different types which spend more than the average for the entire group?" In order to answer this question eight corporations from townships with district schools, towns, and cities, and six corporations from townships with con- solidated schools were selected in the order of the amount spent for all purposes except teachers' salaries, beginning with the highest. In like manner an equal number of corporations were selected be- o > 1 o3v -13\V UIOIJ UOi;'BTA3Q 1 1 1 .17 -.47 VO O '"J '"I 1 aS'BjaAV ra 00 ro oqos^ i-i ■^ rsi ■.-1 CN CM ro CS ^^^ 1 I 93b -jaA'B UIOJJ UOp'BTA9Q S 8 1 q q q q 1 q q 1 aS'BjaAV ■.-1 (N 00 CN CN CN t^ lO VO CN ^ lo eNt>^ OvOsOn ■^ -^ -^ 00 ro^ (M VO • I>.1>. 00 00 p «N r^ r^i CO 93b -J9AB UIOJJ UOi;BIA9a ^ 00 1 lO CO VO VO lO up 93BJ9AV oo »o lo lo o 00 CO CS tH "iq*~^ CO t^ '— 1 col ooiot^ vq !>;•>-< 00 CNt^ CO CO CS dnojf) Township f Higher District < Total Schools [Lower 1^1 T 11 a'o Is [192] A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 193 ginning with the lowest. The amount spent by these corporations for the more important items, such as business administration, janitors' services, supplies, fuel, repairs, census, transportation of pupils, insurance, and reference books, were tabulated as given in Tables xcii, xciii, xciv, and xcv. The central tendencies of each selected group and the deviations of the same from the central tendencies of the entire group are given in Table xcvi. A study of the results given in the above table shows no unusual variations. The average for the higher group of townships with district schools exceeds the average for the entire group of all expenditures for school purposes, exclusive of teachers' salaries, $6.25, while the average for the lower group is $6.33 less than the average for the entire group, which means that the higher group spends about three times the amount of money for current expenses as does the lower group. When we study the distribution of the money among the items mentioned, we find that practically the same ratio prevails in business administration, school supplies, and re- pairs. The higher group spends more for transfers and transporta- tion of pupils, but spends about the same amount for school census and reference and supplementary books. The amount spent for janitor service by the higher group exceeds the amount spent by the lower group about fifty per cent. The same ratio prevails in the amount spent for fuel. The ratio of the average of the two selected groups for town- ships with consolidated schools is much smaller than the ratio for the townships with district schools. The average for the higher group is $29.41 or $6.65 more than the average for the entire group, while the average for the lower group is $18.32 or $5.56 less than the average for the entire group; that is, the average of the higher group exceeds the average of the lower group about sixty per cent. The average of both the higher and the lower groups exceeds the average for the entire group in business administration and fuel. The amount spent for transfers by the higher group is $1.02 more than the average for the entire group, while the average for the lower group is $0.18 less than the average for the entire group. A similar relationship but not quite so pronounced will be observed in the amounts spent for supplies, repairs, and transportation of pupils. When we consider the relationship of the two groups of town schools, much the same condition prevails as in the other types of 194 A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana schools considered. While the average for the higher group is little more than twice the average spent for the lower group, considerable variation is observed in the different items of expenditures. The upper group spends relatively more for janitor service, supplies, repairs, and reference and supplementary books, but the amount spent by the lower group for fuel and insurance almost equals that spent by the higher group and is greater than the average for the entire group. The average for the higher groups of city schools varies much less from the central tendency of the entire group than do the higher groups in the other types considered. Taking all these facts into consideration, it will be observed that more money for the township and consolidated schools means rela- tively larger expenditures for business administration, while a greater amount of money in town and city schools does not affect the cost for this purpose. A greater amount of money means a relatively greater amount spent for janitor service, supplies, labora- tory, manual training and domestic science supplies, and repairs, but does not necessarily mean a greater amount of money for fuel, school census, or insurance. C C/3 o O o W JQ S^S 8S 88?Q2q^ aDUBjnsui iqg^::;^^ q;^ ^ ^ ^^^ nopnJodsuBJx 9.89 8.11 7.51 4.85 4.99 .05 1.21 4.58 .91 .40 1.13 .79 .59 1.28 .64 snsn33 jq;: iqi;? q?^:2 z\s ^^8:^^:2 sjiBda^i 8;^s^:2^iq^^:^ i^iq^s;^:^^^^ pnj »-l ^-1 CN '-H 1-1 ^-1 »— 1 1—1 y-t -r-i 1— 1 tH sajiddns S301AJ3S JO^niBf ?2S3^^§8?^^oS ^?^S^;;^:2SSq sjajstrejx O 00 ••-no (M lO so O O i-^'rH y-t 1-1 -siuraipB ssamsng 3.17 1.68 6.72 2.95 6.06 4.34 1.93 2.36 3.65 1.76 1.25 2.05 1.48 2.43 2.00 1.94 3.43 2.04 :)d3DX3 sajTurpuad -xa iiB JO i^^ox so «r> ■«* 00 tN 1-4 so OO Q OQiO O sOOs i-i'^ fS 1-t lO i-l(M i-< so O O O OS O 00 1-1 CN Os O so CN diqs -UMO} JO jaqum^ Os so 0\ t^ O tJ* oO ■^ nS 00 ~ t^ g CN CN 1-1 CN fO 1-f C>J 1-t 53 1-t '^ a3 [195] X SDoaps Dqsam oo cs vo On cno t^t~* ^ CN ;* CN rf VO •pHIO Gir> lO ^ p CN ^. »-; "1 '^ SDUBjnsai vO tJ< lO vO r^ OO 00 lOcsiOt^ t^ t^ On 00 ro t>; CS O cO Ov CN SUOpBVOdSlTBJX 1-1 Ov tJ< t^ fO 00 CN CS t^ »0 00 fO On ■»-H O VO lO ■rH T-H m Ttl 00 ^ t^ 00 ••-1 OS 00 snsu33 ^ :2 §^ 5 :2:2 c:§ sjiBda^ vO c0 CN tJ* •«* CO «N t- 00 CN oq oq t>.^ vo »-^ - OO CS CO CO ■^ p On !>; lO 1-J NO vq CO CO CO 00 00 CN 1-1 CN 1-1 T-l CS 1-1 ,-1 tH 1-1 1-1 1-1 SJ3JSUBJX lOTjH 1-1 l-( 1-1 1-1 -smtmp'B ssauisng tJ< CN CO CO -^ CN CO CS ■'ti CO CN Cs| CO CS 5d3DX3 S3jniipu3d -X3 IIB JO p^OX ON O CO CO r^ Tfi .^ CO 00 On t^ NO 1-1 CN rJJvqONOqcOCNri^^ CNt-.CNNqTj< >i H W s U CA pq o < 6 g H en P 1^ g O <5 Ph 1 i a g S p* CA Q M u 2.53 .30 .67 .04 .42 .50 .11 .31 .48 .11 -dns pire 3Da3J3ja>j 1.45 .03 .09 .10 .02 .21 .01 .30 .26 .54 .01 .16 .16 aDUBjnsaj .15 .40 .48 1.13 .48 .12 .34 .41 .60 .67 .48 .09 .24 .31 suopevodsirejx snsnao §^.S?SSS S 8S8§S8 ?^ sjreds's »-l(M »-i ^ 1-1 1-1 (N i-t PM i-t CN y-it-lt-l 1-1 i-t »-( ,-( ,^ i»»i[ddns (M 00 00 1-1 CN O t-- t^ ro O »0 lO 0\ iTt^ot-:oqoq-;-j <>J J -1 -^ «-; ^o v<3 ^ saouuas jo^nref ^?^^^?i^^? ^^sqc^s^ss sjajsuuix ^ q S -STUiuip'B ssauisng ?^?5^^^^?5jqp? q8 ^,^ ^2C; S3UBJBS ,SJ3qD-B31 ?d3DX3 sainnpuad -X3 11^ JO i^OX CO «N «M 0\ On Ov 00 00 O CN rO »0 »0 »0 "O «0 vO «0 UMO? JO jaquin^sr fO fO "* O to vo t^ i-< 2 t- On O C^ 00 CS NO JO g CM J '^ ^. 00 CO S25 SS^SC; lOfOOvOiOOO oooo rjj rq CN vO «N CO p CN ^^ pqi^;^ SDU'BjnSUI tNt^fOiOt^ fN -^ VO cTiOOOth O CN fO fO csj t^ ■.-< co»ovo -^O CNO Tj^^^ .. snsuaQ T-i p '-^ r-00O\00'*t-.'*vO vOlOt^t^t^lOOOOt-; sanddns t^t^-OOoot^oovOoo co^-tt^'-ifS'-tiOt^-vO ^TtirovOiOcoiOt^Tf ^-H T-l 30TAJ3S JO'^ni'Bf cocs'-i'-ifO'-ci-H^eN "^^ JVOOT^fS (NVO^TtcoOO^CO fj < [198] wO -JSAB UIOJJ aopBiASQ 1 1 1 ^ q 1 aSBjaAv 2?;g °^.^ t^ Tt< t~* 3 3SB -J3AB UIOJJ UOpBlAaQ .40 -.29 .07 -.24 ^ ^ .15 -.24 33BJ9AV 1.17 .77 .48 O\oq vq ^-.^ 8 > 1 -J3AB laojj UOi:)BIA3Q .07 -.20 q ^. .33 -.30 1 38BJ3AV \q vq^i^ »-( tH tH »-l »-( 1-H q^.R . CO cs rt< -^ .rH CO CN CO vOOv ^O COCS •^ 2 a a 33b -JSAB XUOJJ UOpBIAaQ 2.34 -1.60 3.31 -2.80 1 1 33BJ3AV 4.58 2.24 .64 14.82 11.51 8.71 3 c3 33b -J3AB raojj U015BIA3a q S q q 1 q q 1 > 33BJ3AV vOcovO ss§ §S^ s§s 1 33b -J3AB UIOJJ UOpBIA3Q 5? ? 1 q ^ 1 ^ q 1 2o ^ 1 33BJ3AV On •^ CO !>. t^ lO 1.42 .84 .46 1 3SB -J3AB UIOJJ UOI5BIA3Q VO ON 1 ^ q ^ g r 33BJ3AV rot^ 00 lo CO q 2.26 1.82 1.84 lO vO vO dnojr) r Higher Township < Total . Lower r Higher Consolidated 1 Total [Lower [Higher Town J Total [Lower r Higher City J Total . [ Lower .200] f CHAPTER IX Summary and Conclusion Having presented the data and determined the facts relative to the different phases of school work in the four types of schools mentioned, let us now consider to what extent the facts revealed justify some of the claims which have been made for the con- solidated schools and at the same time consider some changes that might be made which would result in the material improve- ment of the schools of all types. In the quotation given at the beginning of this study, we find the statement that consolidation gives an incentive for permanent improvement, beautifying the school grounds, and providing modern sanitation and schoolroom equipment. The facts revealed in this study justify this statement. The typical rural school is housed in a rectangular building that is lighted on opposite sides. The building is entered directly from the outside, heated by means of a wood or coal stove located in the center of the room, has no means of ventilation except doors and windows, shows little or no evidence of attempts at decorations, is equipped with non-adjust- able desks, twenty per cent of which are double desks, provided with unsanitary water supply and outbuildings, and has very meager library facilities. On the other hand the typical consolidated school is housed in a building that is modern in all its appointments, even surpassing the city and town schools in heating and ventila- tmg equipments, lighting, and the number of adjustable desks supplied, and ranks second to city schools in sanitary water supply and toilet facilities. Another claim made for consolidation is that it will enable a rural community to attract and hold better trained and more ex- perienced teachers. When we examine the facts presented, we find that sixty-seven per cent of the township district schools are taught by teachers with twenty-four weeks or less of professional training. One in every four schools is taught by an inexperienced teacher, and more than fifty per cent are taught by teachers with two or less years of experience. Approximately fifty per cent of teachers are in class A and receive an average minimum salary of $2.36 per day. On the other hand only fotry per cent of the teachers in consolidated schools have twenty-four weeks or less 202 A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana of professional training, and only one in fifteen is an inexperienced teacher. The average training of all the teachers in consolidated schools is forty-two weeks, while the average training of the teachers in townships with district schools is twenty-eight and eight-tenths weeks. Consolidated schools have less than half the number of class A teachers we find in the township district schools, while they have almost twice the number of class C teachers. The salary of class A teachers in consolidated schools is $2.50 per day. which is $.14 more than is received by class A teachers in town- ship district schools and the average salary for class C teachers in consolidated schools is $3.53, which is $.17 more than is received by class C teachers in township district schools. Thus we see that consolidation of schools means better trained and more experi- enced teachers and an increase in daily salaries. When we com- pare these facts with reference to training and experience of teachers in consolidated schools with the training and experience of teachers in town and city schools, we find that the teaching staff in the schools of this type surpasses the teaching staff in town schools and almost equals that found in the city schools. One fact, however, which should be emphasized is that with consolida- tion also comes feminization of the teaching force. In townships with district schools thirty-four and four-tenths per cent of the total teaching population were men, as compared with sixteen and six-tenths per cent in consolidated schools. Fewer men are found in consolidated schools than in the town schools, but there are almost twice as many as are found in the city schools. Thus the facts presented bear out the claim that with consolidation comes the professional improvement of teachers, longer years of service, and increase in salaries. The facts fail to substantiate the statement made by advocates of consolidated schools that consolidation means the introduction of specially trained teachers in such subjects as agriculture, home economics, manual training, domestic science, music, and art; an enrichment of the course of study, the enlargement of the school as a factor in the community life, and the development of the social activities in the school itself. It is true that quite a number of consolidated schools are provided with special teachers or supervisors, but when we come to the question of the enrichment of the course of study we find that consolidation has not brought about the general introduction of the newer subjects, which are A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 203 peculiarly well adapted to rural life. Less than fifty per cent of the consolidated schools have made any special provision for these subjects, while nearly all have followed the lead of the schools in the larger centers by providing special teachers for music and drawing. On account of the nature of the organization and timely interest in consolidated schools, much more supervision is given the work in the schools of this type than in the township district schools, but little effective constructive supervision is found out- side of the larger cities. The facts relative to the social activities both in the school itself and in the community fail to reveal any marked improvement in the consolidated schools over that found in the township district schools. Notwithstanding the fact, that consolidation makes possible the organization of a great variety of student activities that would foster and develop interests in the problems of the community, no such organizations are found. Practically every school reporting student organizations have reported an athletic association or a literary society, such as are found in the larger centers of population, while all neglect these other phases of work which would be of much greater significance. A few schools conduct corn contests, but these are also found in communities in which there are no consolidated schools. A similar situation is found with reference to the activity of the school in the life of the community. While consolidation means enlarging the school constituency sufficiently to insure community activities in the common center, the only activities found in this type have been the one or two patrons' meetings per year, such as are found in the larger centers of population. The one school making the most consistent effort to stimulate interest in problems of the community through pupil organizations and to make the school a factor in community life by initiating and directing organizations for the patrons, was not a consolidated school, but a town school with a limited number of pupils from rural communities. This was an exceptional case, as the town schools as a type are inferior to con- solidated schools in these matters. While it may be said that consolidation makes possible these larger social activities of the school, our investigations conclusively show that these possibilities are not realized. A comparison of the statistics of the different types of schools bear out in part the claim made for the superiority of consolidated schools over township district schools in increasing the school 204 A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana attendance and ability to retain the pupils enrolled in school. The ratio of the enrollment to the school census of consolidated schools is 81.1 per cent as compared with 78.1 per cent for township district schools, 79.5 per cent for town schools and 61 per cent for city schools. When we consider the average daily attendance in each type, we find that while the consolidated schools excel the town- ship with district schools and city schools, they do not equal the town schools in this particular. Two other conditions, however, need to be observed in summarizing the facts revealed, viz., con- solidation is found in townships where the ratio of pupils of school age to the total population is relatively small and where the decrease in total population is less marked, and that consolidated schools are located in townships with greater wealth per capita school population. The average for the schools of this type is $4,412.00 as compared with $3,251.00 in townships with district schools. Taking the tax levies as a basis for comparison, we find that consolidation requires a greater amount of money, not only for the payment of teachers, but also for the general maintenance and operating expenses of the schools, as is shown by the tuition and special school levies of the two types of corporations. This conclu- sion is not only substantiated by a comparison of school expendi- tures, but we also observe that while this increase is due in part to the additional cost of transportation of pupils, there is also an in- crease in practically all items except transfers. The average cost per pupil in townships with consolidated schools is $44.85, which is 30 per cent more than the average cost per pupil in townships with dis- trict schools, 38 per cent more than the average cost per pupil in city schools, and 50 per cent more than in town schools. When we con- sider all these facts as well as the fact that consolidated schools are located in townships with 25 per cent greater wealth per capita, and that townships with consolidated schools spend much less money for the building and upkeep of the roads than do townships with district schools, we see at once that it is not at all feasible to adopt the policy of consolidation as the one general plan of education in rural communities, since it would be impossible to finance them under the present organization. The features in which the con- solidated schools surpass the township district schools as well as the failure of the consolidated school to realize some of the things which have been claimed for it, bear out this conclusion. While the typical consolidated school is housed in a modern school build- A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 205 ing, a sufficient number of equally well equipped one-room rural school buildings have been found to indicate that these things are not dependent upon this type of organization so much as upon the education of the community to the importance of these things. The failure of the consolidated school to realize the possibilities for the enrichment of the curriculum and to be a more vital factor in the social life of the pupils as well as the community, also show that these things are not dependent so much upon the form of organization as upon initiative and personal characteristics of the teachers in charge. We have instances reported in other states where the one-room rural school has given as much attention to the problems of the community and interests of the pupil as any larger school as well as being a genuine community center. While it must be conceded that consolidation makes possible a greater con- sideration of these things, it must also be acknowledged that empha- sis on the form of organization is not enough to attain these desired results. Too much attention in the past has been given to form and not enough to the real work of consolidated schools. The results of this investigation also show the need of further legislation concerning sanitary conditions of buildings now in use. While the law provides that all buildings remodeled and erected must conform to certain standards, it should also be provided that within a specified time all buildings used for school purposes should measure up to these standards. It has been shown that the two types of schools needing the greatest consideration, the township district schools and the town schools, would be greatly aided should the state adopt the plan of distribution of state funds on the com- bination basis instead of the census basis. The results of this investigation show, however, that the adoption of this plan of dis- tribution would be inadequate to meet the needs of all schools, so should be supplemented by a law requiring a greater tax levy by the state for school purposes to be distributed on the combination basis suggested. This would eliminate the necessity of granting special state aid to a large per cent of schools that now find it necessary to avail themselves of this special privilege, which has a certain tinge of charity that is displeasing to some communities. If there should be added to the increase in state tax levy for school purposes and the combination basis of distribution, a provision for special subsidies to stimulate local communities to provide superior equipment and initiate plans of correlation of the work of the school 2o6 A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana and community problems, which would result in a knowledge and appreciation of rural life and its opportunities, a good beginning will have been made toward the solution of many of the problems of rural education. It would also provide for an equality of educa- tional advantages and an equitable distribution of the burden of the schools throughout the state. The necessity for reorganization of the administration of rural and town schools is emphasized by the facts revealed by this investigation. While consolidation as a policy of rural education has its advantages and possibilities, these are frequently offset by the criticisms and difficulties encountered in administration under the present organization. When we find a number of schools paying as much for the transportation of pupils as is paid teachers for instruction and especially when we find a township paying more than twice as much for transportation as for instruction, we begin to wonder if the interests and welfare of the pupils have not been sacrificed for the sake of carrying out an idea. It is generally recognized and is verified by the expenditures of the different corporations for transfers and transportation of pupils that the civil township is not a natural unit for consolidation. It frequently happens that a small village or area of dense population is quite removed from the center of the civil township, so that to combine all the schools of that corporation into one, involves long hauls that are objectional to parents as well as involving an unreasonable expenditure. It also deprives these remote communities which have the greatest needs of much of the influence that a consolidated school should have on that community. Should the schools be reorganized on a basis that would eliminate civil township boundaries and make it possible to plan consolidation of schools with reference to centers of population, topography of the country, and condition of the roads, many of these objections would be eliminated. In comparing the expenditures in the different types of schools, it was pointed out that the business administration in the townships with both district and consolidated schools cost ten to twelve times as much as the business administration of schools in towns and cities. This is due in part to the fact that the office of township trustee is a political office which is supposed to compensate the incumbent for trouble and expense in securing it. This, however, is not the most serious phase of the situation from an educational standpoint. The township trustee is not selected on account of /] Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 207 qualifications or interest in the schools, but either on account of his political leadership or association with some political leader. It also frequently happens that the township trustee is aspiring for some county office and wishes to economize at the expense of the schools in order to make a record that will command support for the higher office. These facts emphasize the need of a reorganization that will eliminate waste and place the schools in charge of men qualified for the responsibilities and interested in the schools instead of leaving them in the charge of men interested primarily in the financial returns and political prestige gained through the admin- istration of this office. A third reason for the reorganization of the rural schools is found in the need for a more adequate supervision of township districts, consolidated, and town schools. Under the present organi- zation and laws it is impossible for the county superintendent to do any constructive supervision on account of the number of teachers under his jurisdiction and multiplicity of duties. While the town- ship district schools suffer most from lack of supervision, a reorgani- zation which would insure a more adequate supervision of consoli- dated and town schools and at the same time provide for a continuity of purpose in the township district schools is greatly needed. As was pointed out in a preceding chapter, the principals of the smaller schools are selected with reference to ability to teach high school subjects rather than training and experience in supervising grade work. It has been shown that consolidation as a policy of rural edu- cation is somewhat limited in its application under present condi- tions. While a reorganization would make possible a wider adop- tion of this policy there would still remain a great number of one- room rural schools that are entitled to the educational advantages enjoyed by the consolidated schools. Under the present organiza- tion, where consolidation is under way, it is commonly thought that little can be done for the improvement of the township district schools, so that they are neglected with the idea that they may ultimately become a part of the consolidated school notwithstanding the difficulties that would be involved. There is need for a reorgani- zation that will insure the same consideration and definitely planned efforts to meet the needs of these communities as obtains where schools have been consolidated. 2o8 A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana A negative criticism of any system of schools is worth Httle unless followed by constructive suggestions. The problems indicated above can best be met by making the county the unit of school organization. While it is not our purpose to give the details of such a reorganization, it would involve the following: a. The election of a county board of education, composed of seven to nine members, which would have the management of the educational affairs of the county. The members should be selected for a term of five years at a special election with total disregard for political affiliations. They may be elected from districts or from the county at large. The duties and powers of this county board of education should be similar to the duties and powers of the city board of education under our present organization. Only traveling expenses and nominal salary should be paid each member. b. The selection of a county superintendent by the county board of education, who would be the chief executive of the board. The county board should be free of all restrictions in making its selection except certain qualifications as to training and experience that should be required by the state board of education for eligibility to this position. The salary should be sufficient to command the con- tinued services of strong well-qualified men for this important office. c. The county superintendent should be relieved of all clerical duties and the certification of teachers and have in addition to the powers now exercised, the power to nominate and place all teachers and assistants and to exercise supervisory power over all appoint- ments and work of the county board of education. d. The county board should elect a secretary or business mana- ger whose duties shall be to act as secretary of the board, to attend to all clerical and financial work of the office under the direction of the county superintendent and the county board of education, as well as to look after all other matters of this nature, which usually fall to such officials. e. There should be provision made for a special supervisor in each of the special subjects such as agriculture, household art, manual training, music, art, etc., for every thirty teachers or frac- tion thereof in the county and an assistant superintendent in all counties employing more than fifty teachers. f. All towns should be encouraged to disband local organiza- tions and become parts of larger school units with the towns as the A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana 209 centers. All towns in which the principal devotes less than half his time to supervision, all towns that do not provide special supervisory staff equivalent to that provided by the county organizations and all towns that receive one-half or more of tuition receipts from the common school fund and transfers, should be under the direction and supervision of the county organization. g. Provision should be made whereby a certain per cent of the salaries of the county superintendent, assistant supermtendent, and supervisor would be paid from state funds before these funds are distributed among the counties of the state. The adoption of the suggestion made, as a part of the school code of the state and the reorganization of the school with the county as a unit, as outlined above, may seem to many to be Utopian and too complicated to be of practical value. It should be kept in mind, however, that the present system with its changing, shifting, teaching population, unprofessional and oftentimes insufficient business administration and lack of supervision, does not provide an adequate basis on which to build an organization that will meet the present needs. If any real progress is to be made it is impera- tive that we have a strong centralized school organization with edu- cational experts in charge. The changes suggested are not Utopian and impractical, since many of them are in actual operation in other states. The United States Commissioner of Education has just issued a rural school letter describing the undivided districts in Minnesota, which have many of the characteristics of the organiza- tion suggested above. His closing statement is as follows : "There is close supervision of the rural schools. A corps of supervisors go from the central school at Grand Rapids to all the villages and one- teacher schools. Thus, for example, the manual training instructor, the domestic science teacher, and agricultural supervisor, or their assistants, spend a certain number of hours each week with all the schools in the outlying districts. This means that the teacher of the little school is under the immediate direc- tion of supervisors of the high school at Grand Rapids. It means satisfactory supervision and intelligent and efficient work." It should also be kept in mind that Indiana has already taken some steps in the direction suggested by providing a county agent who devotes his time to advancing agriculture, domestic science, and industrial work in the county. On account of lack of unity of purpose and the amount of territory he has to cover, it will be dif- 210 A Comparative Study of the Four Types of Schools of Indiana ficult to accomplish the things that could be accomplished under more favorable conditions. A reorganization which would more definitely correlate this work with the regular work of the school and provide for supervisors in related activities who would be free during the summer months to assist in directing practical work in the homes of the pupil as well as to assist in developing community interests and activities, would make possible great progress along these lines. The effect of such a reorganization would be observed in all schools, but would be most pronounced in the two types, the town- ship district and town schools, which have the greatest needs. It would result in better equipment, efficient business administration, more permanent teaching population, continuity of educational policy, adequate supervision and professional leadership, which are essential for real progress. VITA Lester Burton Rogers, bom near Seymour, Indiana, Novem- ber 4, 1875 ; received his elementary education in the public schools of his native state; completed the work of Moores Hill Academy in 1893; entered Moores Hill College in 1895 ^^^ graduated with the B.S. degree in 1899. His post-graduate work consists of one year (1902-1903) in Chicago University and two years (1906-1907 and 1910-1911) in Columbia University. He received the Master of Arts degree from Columbia in 1907 and was awarded a "Re- search Scholarship" in Teachers College for the year 1910-1911. His published works consist of a Laboratory Manual for Physics, a series of articles on Physical Nature-study and a Syllabus for Secondary Education. ' j^^^^^ f UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRAR^ YC 03219 Sililii