UC-NRLF 
 
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 MMARI 
 ONS 
 
 GORDY 
 
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 No. 
 
 
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GRAMMAR LESSONS 
 
 A SECOND BOOK IN ENGLISH 
 
 BY 
 
 WILBUR FISK GORDY 
 
 PRINCIPAL OF THE NORTH SCHOOL 
 HARTFORD, CONN. 
 
 AND 
 
 WILLIAM EDWARD MEAD 
 
 PROFESSOR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE 
 WESLEYAN UNIVERSITY 
 
 NEW YORK 
 
 CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS 
 1904 
 
COPYRIGHT, 1904, BY 
 CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS 
 
 EDUCATION DEPT, 
 
 TROW DIRECTORY 
 
 PRINTING AND BOOKBINDING COMPANY 
 NEW YORK 
 
PREFACE 
 
 THE advisability of teaching English grammar in 
 the elementary school has of late years been much 
 debated. Some teachers maintain that too much time 
 is devoted to the subject, and some find no place for 
 it in grades below the high school. At present the 
 general trend of educational opinion decidedly favors 
 the teaching of at least the rudiments of technical 
 grammar in the higher elementary grades. There is, 
 however, a growing conviction that the unavoidable 
 difficulties of the subject have been needlessly increased 
 in many cases by dealing too much with mere abstrac- 
 tions, and by dwelling upon a multitude of relatively 
 unimportant details. 
 
 The aim of the present book is so to simplify the 
 subject as to bring it within the comprehension of 
 grammar-school pupils. It therefore takes little ac- 
 count of matters of secondary importance, and lays 
 emphasis upon the fundamental principles underlying 
 the expression of thought in English. Part I is de- 
 voted to a simple exposition of such matters as can 
 in no case be omitted. Part II contains a fuller state- 
 ment of the principles outlined in Part I, and a more 
 copious body of exercises and other illustrative matter. 
 
 S4M52 
 
vi PREFACE 
 
 No effort has been spared to bring the pupil, by 
 means of carefully graded exercises, to understand 
 clearly what a sentence is, as distinguished from a 
 phrase or a clause, and also to recognize the various 
 kinds of sentences that he spontaneously employs in 
 his everyday speech. Hence there have been presented 
 at the outset the two main divisions of the sentence 
 the complete subject and the complete predicate. The 
 elements that appear in more complicated sentence 
 structure are then considered. 
 
 The analysis of the sentence into its component ele- 
 ments naturally involves the classification of words as 
 parts of speech. In the explanation of this classifica- 
 tion repeated emphasis is laid upon the function of a 
 word, a phrase, or a clause, in a sentence, as determin- 
 ing what part of speech each represents. The func- 
 tional character of every part of a sentence cannot be 
 too often emphasized, since English is, in the main, 
 an analytic rather than a synthetic language, and the 
 grammatical character of each element in a sentence 
 is in most cases indicated by its relations to other 
 words. Moreover, owing to the extremely scanty in- 
 flectional variation of English words, our language is 
 in large measure a language of phrases, and the ad- 
 jectival or adverbial nature of each phrase must be 
 determined according to the work each has to do. A 
 special effort has therefore been made to lead the pupil 
 to appreciate the prime importance of the phrase as a 
 means of expressing fine shades of meaning. 
 
 Analysis of essential relations, as already suggested, 
 
PREFACE vii 
 
 is a central feature of the present book, but detailed 
 formal parsing has been reduced to the minimum. 
 This course has been adopted in the belief that the 
 essentials in the study of English grammar are few, 
 but that these must be so impressed upon the pupil 
 that he shall be unable to escape or to forget them. 
 Accordingly, in the parsing exercises special stress has 
 been laid upon the case relations of nouns and pro- 
 nouns, upon the grammatical character and relations 
 of phrases and clauses, upon the tenses of verbs, and 
 the relation of a verb to its subject or its object. But, 
 on the other hand, little space has been devoted to 
 complicated rules with numerous unimportant excep- 
 tions, and to elaborate formulae dealing with minor 
 details. The system of diagrams suggested for use in 
 graphic analysis is extremely simple and is designed 
 to save time for pupil and teacher alike. In the first 
 place, it enables the pupil to indicate by a line or two 
 the relations of the various elements that compose 
 the sentence; and, in the second place, it enables the 
 teacher to assign to large classes definite tasks that 
 can be rapidly and easily examined. But this system 
 of graphic analysis has obvious limitations. The at- 
 tempt to take account in a diagram of all the ramifica- 
 tions of long and involved sentences is sometimes as 
 unwise as the attempt to reproduce in a map every 
 minute difference in elevation. 
 
 On the constructive side the aim throughout the 
 book has been to lead the pupil to use his grammatical 
 knowledge as an aid in expressing his thoughts with 
 
viii PREFACE 
 
 clearness and accuracy. The exercises have been made 
 as practical as possible, and the principle involved in 
 each has been repeatedly put to the test in the class- 
 room. Experience has shown that by skilful and pa- 
 tient training almost any pupil can be made to see 
 that consciously or unconsciously he must conform to 
 grammatical principles whenever he speaks or writes, 
 and that even so apparently arbitrary a matter as 
 punctuation is rational and simple when approached 
 with a thorough grounding in the elements of gram- 
 mar. But this desirable result will not be accomplished 
 in the elementary school unless fine-spun subtleties and 
 needless technicalities are studiously avoided. The 
 competent teacher will limit the field to matters of the 
 first importance ; he will be content to do one thing at 
 a time, and he will " make haste slowly." 
 
SUGGESTIONS TO THE TEACHER 
 
 THE teaching of English grammar in the elementary school 
 presents more than one knotty problem, even to the teacher 
 of long experience. No apology, therefore, need be offered 
 for calling attention to some matters of fundamental impor- 
 tance for the successful treatment of the subject. 
 
 Without doubt, one reason why many boys and girls 
 heartily dislike grammar is that they find themselves con- 
 fronted with difficulties beyond their comprehension. The 
 logical powers of grammar-school pupils are too immature 
 for the analysis of complicated sentences written in a style 
 far above their habitual modes of expression. If, therefore, 
 such work is forced upon them, they naturally evade it as far 
 as they can, for they feel that in large measure they are deal- 
 ing with masses of unmeaning words. 
 
 But grammar is far too important both as a discipline and 
 as a practical instrument to deserve to be regarded as some- 
 thing out of all relation to everyday speech. Pupils can, we 
 believe, be made to see that grammar is a study full of interest 
 and profit, but, in most cases, such a result is possible only 
 through a method of presentation that proceeds very gradu- 
 ally and illuminates every principle with an abundance of 
 concrete ilustrations. 
 
 The present book has been carefully constructed on the 
 inductive plan. In the explanation of fundamental prin- 
 ciples there has been introduced a large amount of illustrative 
 
x SUGGESTIONS TO THE TEACHER 
 
 matter leading up to a generalized statement. But, in addi- 
 tion to this, the teacher must be ready at any point to furnish 
 supplementary matter such as a class may require. A suffi- 
 cient number of concrete examples to illustrate every gram- 
 matical principle for every sort of pupil would expand a 
 text-book to a size far too bulky for convenient handling. 
 Yet such illustrative material is easy to find, for it lies 
 abundantly at hand in readers, histories, and other text- 
 books. Moreover, there is a greater amount of such matter 
 in this grammar itself than may at first appear. As is sug- 
 gested at various points, a set of examples may be used for 
 some purpose in addition to the one in view in the special 
 exercise where they occur. There should, then, be no diffi- 
 culty in finding abundance of illustration for every principle 
 discussed in this book. 
 
 The definitions, based upon the examples, have been 
 framed with unusual care, but we hope that the teacher will 
 not require them to be learned until they are thoroughly 
 understood. When, however, the meaning is firmly grasped, 
 each definition should be memorized as a compact statement 
 of a truth embodied in the examples. 
 
 As for the exercises, some are designed to illustrate prin- 
 ciples, and some to test the pupil's grasp of the subject by 
 requiring him to put his knowledge to actual use in sentences 
 of his own. Nothing is better than actual sentence construc- 
 tion by the pupil as a means of fixing a principle in mind. 
 
 Pupils will, as a rule, not make satisfactory progress in 
 their study of grammar unless they have frequent practice 
 in selecting the various parts of speech. We recommend, 
 therefore, that additional exercises of this sort be introduced 
 by the teacher whenever a class shows the need of such drill. 
 
 Parsing is a matter of much importance. But we beg the 
 
SUGGESTIONS TO THE TEACHER xi 
 
 teacher not to waste time in going through a monotonous 
 formula in which all the properties of a given part of speech 
 are enumerated, when the thing desired is a knowledge of the 
 essential part which the word plays in the sentence. We 
 therefore suggest that the abbreviated form of parsing, out- 
 lined on page 268, be taken up as soon as the formal parsing 
 is understood. 
 
 Pupils must somehow learn punctuation. But most pupils 
 will be unlikely to understand the reason for punctuation 
 unless they are taught that it has value only in so far as it 
 aids in making thought clear. We have therefore endeavored 
 to connect the principles of punctuation with the principles 
 of grammar. This matter deserves special attention, and 
 should receive further illustration at the hands of the teacher. 
 Dictation exercises are particularly valuable for this side of 
 the work. For convenient reference, the scattered suggestions 
 on punctuation are gathered together in the Appendix, and 
 should be thoroughly learned. 
 
 Intelligent review is of great value in all study of lan- 
 guage, and it has received careful attention throughout this 
 book. In Part III w r ill be found, in addition to the occasional 
 reviews, a comprehensive series of review exercises dealing with 
 all the important aspects of the subject. This portion of 
 the book will doubtless be especially welcome to more than 
 one practical teacher. 
 
 If studied according to right methods, grammar should 
 no longer be a lifeless, repulsive study, but one of genuine 
 interest. Yet, however carefully planned a text-book may 
 be, and however skilled the teacher, the study of mere gram- 
 matical principles will never of itself result in giving the 
 learner the power of habitually correct speech. It may enable 
 him to see what his mistakes are and to make the corrections. 
 
xii SUGGESTIONS TO THE TEACHER 
 
 But he must go a step further, and develop right habits of 
 speech by persistently repeating the correct forms and ex- 
 pressions. We have suggested exercises for such repetition, 
 but not so many as may in some cases be necessary. This is 
 a matter that must be left in large measure to the discretion 
 of the teacher. 
 
 The value of well-directed work in grammar appears in 
 one of the most difficult tasks that pupils in elementary 
 schools have to do, that is, the expression of their thoughts 
 in correct sentences. As an aid to accuracy of expression, 
 the study of grammar may be made invaluable. A pupil will, 
 of course, use all sorts of sentences and all sorts of phrases 
 and clauses long before he knows what they are to be called. 
 But unquestionably he will use them with far greater pre- 
 cision when he has learned to recognize each without hesita- 
 tion. For drill in this kind of work, lessons may be given in 
 selecting phrases, clauses, and various kinds of sentences from 
 the best literature. 
 
 More than all this, no pains should be spared by the teacher 
 in bringing pupils to a realization of what constitutes a really 
 good sentence. Mere correctness is not always enough. A 
 grammatically correct sentence may be intolerably stiff and 
 involved, and it may violate all canons of good taste. The 
 ultimate test of expression is to be found in the conversation 
 of cultured, though not always bookish, people, and in the 
 works of the orators, the poets, the essayists, the novelists, 
 the historians, in short, in every utterance, whether spoken 
 or written, that presents a thought in the form that the occa- 
 sion requires. Familiarity with the best forms of expression 
 will supply a standard to which one's speech and writing will 
 gradually conform. As an aid in the quick apprehension of 
 grammatical principles, nothing will be of more service than 
 
SUGGESTIONS TO THE TEACHER xiii 
 
 the habit of reading well-chosen books. No teacher of gram- 
 mar can afford to neglect this incomparable help. In other 
 words, every teacher of grammar should be, in a sense, a 
 teacher of literature. An incidental suggestion in the class- 
 room now and then may yield unexpectedly large results. 
 Above all, the teacher of grammar should cultivate a form 
 of speech at once easy and accurate, but not unduly prim or 
 affectedly pedantic. If the teacher is careless or over-careful, 
 pupils can hardly be blamed for imitating their daily model. 
 In the matter of equipment, it is obvious that some ac- 
 quaintance with the history of the language will prove of 
 great advantage to the teacher of grammar. Many of the 
 mysteries of exceptional forms and apparent anomalies of 
 syntax are readily understood when one has a sound, even 
 though elementary, knowledge of the language in the early 
 formative periods. 
 
A FEW WORDS TO THE PUPIL 
 
 IF you will consider for a moment the language that you 
 hear and read, you will observe that the English in use is 
 not all of the same sort. Some of it is English of an old 
 type, such as appears in the Bible and in the language of 
 prayer and poetry. The older fashion of speech is preserved 
 in such forms as " thou hast heard," " he hath wrought," 
 " we be brethren," " he spake," and many others. These 
 expressions are now used in what we call the solemn style, 
 and do not appear in conversation or in ordinary writing. 
 Hundreds of years ago, however, these were common forms. 
 We are chiefly concerned in this book with the English of 
 our own time. 
 
 In the works of the best modern authors we find our stand- 
 ard of written English. As a usual thing, one writes more 
 carefully than one talks, and if the form of expression when 
 first written is not satisfactory, it can be corrected. But the 
 real language is, after all, the language that is spoken, and 
 it is used by every one long before he learns to write. The 
 language of books is at best only an imperfect reflection of 
 spoken language. All language, however, whether spoken or 
 written, is bound to conform to the principles that govern 
 its structure. In other words, it must obey the rules of 
 grammar. 
 
 This term calls for a word of explanation. When a speaker 
 or writer disregards accepted forms of expression that have 
 
 xiv 
 
A FEW WORDS TO THE PUPIL xv 
 
 been slowly taking shape for hundreds of years, we say that 
 his language is ungrammatical. But grammar is not a mere 
 set of rules invented for the sake of showing us how to speak 
 and write correctly. It is, rather, a statement of the actual 
 practice of the best speakers and writers in the use of their 
 mother tongue. 1 What we mean, then, by saying that some 
 one has violated a rule of grammar, is not merely that he has 
 broken a rule found in some text-book, but that he has put 
 words together in a way that the best speakers or writers are 
 careful to avoid. It is with language somewhat as it is with 
 manners. One may learn rules of deportment out of a book, 
 but one's bad manners are condemned, not because some book 
 pronounces them bad, but because they are at variance with 
 accepted standards of propriety. 
 
 What you should therefore try to do is to become familiar 
 with the best forms of English. If you have had the good 
 fortune to live among cultured people, and have read much 
 good literature, you have unconsciously learned in large 
 measure what the best usage is. In your case the study of 
 grammar will be of service mainly in confirming you in your 
 already correct habits of speech. If, on the other hand, you 
 have been less favored in your early associations, you will 
 find grammar of great use in acquainting you with those 
 forms of speech which are most worthy of imitation. 
 
 But no mere learning of rules important though they 
 are will make you accurate in your use of language. That 
 must be the result of long practice and patient attention to 
 more than one little detail. The particular errors that you 
 commit you may well jot down in a note-book as your atten- 
 
 1 Historical grammar takes account of the forms of words and of sen- 
 tences in earlier centuries, and shows how our present forms have grown out 
 of them. 
 
xvi A FEW WORDS TO THE PUPIL 
 
 tion is called to them. You should then drill yourself in the 
 use of the correct forms of expression until they seem as 
 natural to you as the incorrect forms. The process of self- 
 correction may be slow, but you must persist in it unless you 
 are willing to be classed among the illiterate. 
 
 Self-interest, to say nothing of any higher motive, should 
 lead you to spare no effort to master the principles that are 
 involved in every sentence you speak or write. Those prin- 
 ciples you will find outlined in the present book. The amount 
 of text to be learned is comparatively small. The number of 
 exercises to be worked out in application of the principles 
 explained in the text is comparatively large. Nothing that 
 is here presented is unimportant, and there is nothing that 
 you can afford to leave unmastered. You need not be stiff 
 and formal in your conversation and " talk like a book," but 
 you should strive for that easy and natural utterance which 
 is one of the surest marks of good breeding. 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 PAGES 
 
 PREFACE . ... v-viii 
 
 SUGGESTIONS TO THE TEACHER . . . . ix-xiii 
 A FEW WORDS TO THE PUPIL, xiv-xvi 
 
 PART I 
 
 CHAPTEB 
 
 I. The Sentence 1-5 
 
 II. The Subject of the Sentence .... 6-8 
 
 III. The Predicate of the Sentence .... 8-11 
 
 IV. The Subject and the Predicate . . . 11-12 
 
 V. The Noun 12-16 
 
 VI. The Pronoun 16-19 
 
 VII. The Adjective 19-21 
 
 VIII. The Adjective Phrase 21-23 
 
 IX. The Possessive Form of the Noun . . . 23-26 
 
 X. The Appositive 26-28 
 
 XI. The Simple Subject and the Complete Sub- 
 ject 28-30 
 
 XII. A Review 30-31 
 
 XIII. The Verb ........ 31-33 
 
 XIV. The Verb-Phrase 33-35 
 
 XV. The Transitive Verb 35-37 
 
 XVI. The Intransitive Verb 37-39 
 
 XVII. The Copula 40-43 
 
 XVIII. The Predicate Noun 43-44 
 
 XIX. The Predicate Adjective ..... 44-46 
 
xviii CONTENTS 
 
 CHAPTER PAGES 
 
 XX. The Adverb 46-48 
 
 XXI. The Adverbial Phrase .... 48-50 
 XXII. The Preposition and the Prepositional 
 
 Phrase 51-55 
 
 XXIII. The Noun Used as an Adverb . . 55-57 
 
 XXIV. The Indirect Object of the Transitive 
 
 Verb 57-59 
 
 XXV. The Simple Predicate and the Com- 
 plete Predicate 59-61 
 
 XXVI. A Review 62 
 
 XXVII. Nouns Used Independently by Direct 
 
 Address 62-64 
 
 XXVIII. The Interjection 64-65 
 
 XXIX. The Clause . . . . . . 66-68 
 
 XXX. The Clause Used as an Adjective . . 68-7Q 
 
 XXXI. The Clause Used as an Adverb . . 70-72 
 
 XXXII. The Clause Used as a Noun . . . 72-73 
 
 XXXIII. The Complex Sentence .... 74-77 
 
 XXXIV. The Compound Sentence . . . 77-80 
 XXXV. Conjunctions 80-83 
 
 XXXVI. Simple Sentence with Compound Ele- 
 ments 84-86 
 
 XXXVII. Words Used as Various Parts of 
 
 Speech 86-90 
 
 XXXVIII. Oral and Graphic Analysis . . . 90-96 
 XXXIX. For Review, For Analysis, and For the 
 
 Selection of Parts of Speech . . 96-98 
 
CONTENTS xix 
 
 PART II 
 
 PAGES 
 
 INTRODUCTION 99-100 
 
 CHAPTEB 
 
 XL. The Sentence 101-103 
 
 XLI. The Simple Subject and the Complete 
 
 Subject 103-104 
 
 XLII. The Simple Predicate and the Complete 
 
 Predicate 104-105 
 
 XLIIL The Noun 105-109 
 
 XLIV. Number of Nouns 109-114 
 
 XLV. Gender 115-116 
 
 XL VI. Case ........ 117-118 
 
 XL VII. The Nominative Case 118-120 
 
 XLVIII. The Possessive Case ..... 120-123 
 
 XLIX. A Review 123-124 
 
 L. The Objective Case 124-125 
 
 LI. Personal Pronouns 126-131 
 
 LII. Relative Pronouns 131-137 
 
 LIII. Interrogative Pronouns .... 137-138 
 
 LIV. The Adjective 139-141 
 
 LV. Comparison of Adjectives .... 141-146 
 
 LVI. Articles 146-147 
 
 LVII. Pronouns Used as Adjectives . . . 148-152 
 
 LVIII. A Review 153-154 
 
 LIX. Transitive and Intransitive Verbs . . 154-155 
 
 LX. Voice 156-160 
 
 LXI. Tense 160-164 
 
 LXII. Person and Number of Verbs . . . 164-168 
 LXIII. Special Rules for Person and Number of 
 
 Verbs 168-171 
 
 LXIV. Verbal Nouns . 171-178 
 
XX 
 
 CONTENTS 
 
 CHAPTER PAGES 
 
 LXV. The Participle a Verbal Adjective . 178-182 
 
 LXVI. The Verbal Noun and the Participle . 182-184 
 
 LXVII. Strong and Weak Verbs . . . 185-187 
 
 LXVIII. Principal Parts of Verbs . . . 188-189 
 
 LXIX. Forms of the Present, Past, and 
 
 Future Tenses 189-190 
 
 LXX. Shall and Will 190-194 
 
 LXXI. The Complete Tenses .... 194-195 
 LXXII. The Formation of the Complete 
 
 Tenses . . . . . . 195-198 
 
 LXXIII. A Review 198 199 
 
 LXXIV. Difficult Verb-Forms . . . . 199-203 
 
 LXXV. Mood . . ... . . 203-205 
 
 LXXVI. The Indicative and the Imperative 
 
 Moods 205-209 
 
 LXXVII. The Subjunctive Mood . . . 209-217 
 LXXVIII. Conjugation of the Active Voice . 218-222 
 
 LXXIX. The Passive Voice 223-226 
 
 LXXX. Conjugation of Move in the Passive 
 
 Voice 226-230 
 
 LXXXI. Auxiliary Verbs 230-233 
 
 LXXXII. Potential Verb-Phrases . . . 233-238 
 
 LXXXIII. Progressive Verb-Phrases . . . 238-241 
 
 LXXXIV. Do and Did as Auxiliaries . . . 241-243 
 
 LXXXV. Defective and Impersonal Verbs . . 243-246 
 
 LXXXVI. A Review 246-247 
 
 LXXXVII. The Nominative Absolute . . . 248-250 
 LXXX VIII. The Objective Complement . . 250-253 
 
 LXXXIX. The Adverb 254-261 
 
 XC. The Predicate Nominative and the 
 
 Predicate Adjective . . . 262-266 
 
CONTENTS xxi 
 
 CHAPTEB PAGES 
 
 XCI. Words Used as Various Parts of Speech . 266 
 
 XCII. Parsing 266-268 
 
 XCIII. A Review 269 
 
 PART III 
 
 XCIV. For Parsing, Analysis, and a General 
 
 Review 270-281 
 
 APPENDIX 
 
 STRONG AND WEAK VERBS 283-295 
 
 HINTS ON PUNCTUATION . 295-300 
 
GRAMMAR LESSONS 
 PART I 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 
 THE SENTENCE 
 
 In Book I a sentence was defined as a complete 
 thought expressed in words. We have now to see what 
 various kinds of sentences there are. In a sentence we 
 may simply assert something, as, "The wind is blow- 
 ing." We may ask a question, "Is the wind blowing!" 
 We may order something done, "Come in out of the 
 wind." We may express surprise or strong feeling, 
 "How the wind blows!" "How sorry I am that you 
 had to walk through such a wind!" 
 
 These kinds of sentences we will now take up and 
 discuss more fully. 
 
 THE DECLARATIVE SENTENCE 
 
 If we write the single word, captain, we do not tell 
 what we wish to say about him. Even if we write, 
 
 The captain of the steamer 
 
 The captain of the large ocean steamer 
 
GRAMMAR LESSONS 
 
 we have not told anything outright, and hence we have 
 not made a sentence. But if we write, 
 
 "The captain stood," we assert something about him. 
 We can thus say various things about the captain, 
 
 The captain stood. 
 
 The captain of the steamer stood. 
 
 The captain of the large ocean steamer stood on the deck. 
 
 The captain had a heavy gray beard. 
 
 All these sentences tell something definite about the 
 captain. 
 
 sentence that tells or asserts something is called 
 a Declarative Sentence. 
 
 Exercise 1 
 
 In the following sentences you will see that each tells 
 you something about some person or thing: 
 
 The country was rolling and wooded. From the foot of a 
 long hill a wide plain extended to the sea. Far away the roar 
 of a great waterfall was heard. The air was cool. The sky 
 was overcast. Soon the rain began to pour down from the 
 heavy gray clouds. After a little the wind came up. Then 
 the sun peeped out. The sails of the black windmill went 
 swiftly round. Up the hill came a shabby old man. He was 
 evidently a stranger. His lips were pale and closely pressed 
 together. But his eyes sparkled at sight of a clean, well-kept 
 farm-house in the distance. 
 
 What person or thing does the first sentence in this 
 exercise tell about! What does it tell about the coun- 
 
THE INTERROGATIVE SENTENCE 3 
 
 try? Ask similar questions for each of the remaining 
 sentences. For example, What "extended to the sea"? 
 
 Exercise 2 
 
 Before the open fire lay a large black cat. The shadows of 
 the chairs danced like ghosts in the light of the flames curling 
 over the great logs. But the glossy cat considered none of 
 these things. With untiring gaze she watched a small hole 
 behind one of the doors. Presently a faint scratching of little 
 feet was heard behind the casement. Two bright eyes and a 
 sharp gray nose peered out from the hole. The shadows went 
 on dancing. The cat lay still as if asleep. The eyes came 
 nearer. There was a sudden spring, a squeak, and then all was 
 still again. 
 
 What lay before the open fire ! What did a large black 
 cat do I Ask similar questions for each of the remain- 
 ing sentences. 
 
 Exercise 3 
 
 Reproduce a short story from your reader. Before beginning 
 to write, think carefully about what you are to say. Write short 
 sentences, and say something definite in each. 
 
 NOTE. An exercise of this sort affords a good opportunity for work 
 in composition and in grammar. One or two of the best of the stories 
 may be copied on the blackboard and used as additional material for 
 training pupils in the selection of the subjects and predicates of sentences. 
 
 THE INTERROGATIVE SENTENCE 
 
 In the sentences, ' ' Have you any news for me ! ' ' ' ' Do 
 you believe this report?" "Did you see him!" we ask 
 
4 GRAMMAR LESSONS 
 
 questions. All such sentences are called Interrogative. 
 Note the following: 
 
 Is that our carriage? Is father coming? Do you see 
 him? Where is he now? Do you know that other man? 
 Which one do you mean? What is his name? Have you 
 forgotten it? Isn't that your old gardener? What do you 
 suppose he is doing here? Shall I ask him to come in? Is 
 that a book in his hand? What has he to do with books? 
 
 An Interrogative Sentence is used to ask a question. 
 
 Exercise 1 
 
 Write flye interrogative sentences, in each of which you ask a 
 question about some city in your State; five in which you ask 
 questions about the rivers of your State ; and five declarative sen- 
 tences in which you tell facts about the cities of your State. 
 
 THE IMPERATIVE SENTENCE 
 
 To illustrate sentences of another sort we may sup- 
 pose that a boy has been in mischief and is called to 
 account by his father. You can easily decide who is 
 speaking. 
 
 Come in. Tell me where you have been. Begin at the 
 beginning. Sit down in that chair. Do as I tell you, and 
 make no reply. Now go on with your story. Don't speak so 
 fast, but take time to recall just what happened. Leave me 
 now. Go to your own room and stay there until morning. 
 Don't make me stay there all the evening. Let me come down 
 to supper. Let me see the procession for five minutes. Don't 
 tease me now. Wait until you have shown that you deserve 
 favors. 
 
THE EXCLAMATORY SENTENCE 5 
 
 Of these sentences, some express commands, as, 
 "Come in." Some of them make requests, as, "Let 
 me come down to supper." Such sentences are called 
 Imperative. 
 
 Find all that make requests. 
 
 An Imperative Sentence is used to express a command, a 
 request, or an entreaty. 
 
 Exercise 5 
 
 Write ten imperative sentences, each expressing a command or 
 a request. 
 
 THE EXCLAMATORY SENTENCE 
 
 We may feel surprise or strong emotion that may 
 appear in the sentence; as, "How strange that is!" 
 "How tired I am!" "What a fine fellow he was!" 
 "How generous he always was!" "What! must I show 
 respect to a man like that? Never!" "Get out of my 
 way!" "Go at once!" 
 
 These may be called exclamatory sentences, but they 
 are really declarative, interrogative, or imperative 
 sentences, and are only for convenience put into a 
 class by themselves. 
 
 An Exclamatory Sentence is used to express surprise or 
 strong feeling. 
 
 Any sentence, whether declarative, interrogative, or 
 imperative, that expresses deep feeling, may be called 
 exclamatory. The exclamatory sentence is followed by 
 an Exclamation Point ( !). 
 
6 GRAMMAR LESSONS 
 
 CHAPTER II 
 
 THE SUBJECT OF THE SENTENCE 
 
 If we study any sentence closely we find that it is 
 made up of two distinct parts. For example, in the 
 sentence, "Clouds gather," the two parts are the word 
 Clouds, about which an assertion is made, and the 
 word gather, which makes the assertion about Clouds. 
 
 In the sentence, "Water flows," by asking "What 
 flows 1" we see that the assertion is made about water. 
 In the sentences, "Robert is flying his kite. His uncle 
 made it for him. The kite goes soaring into the air," 
 the answer to the questions, "Who is flying his kite! 
 Who made it for him! What goes soaring into the air!" 
 is in each case the Subject of the Sentence. 
 
 part of a sentence about which an assertion is 
 made is the Subject. 
 
 Exercise 6 
 
 After reading the following sentences ask questions beginning 
 with who or what. In each case the answer will be the subject of 
 the sentence. Find the subject of each sentence : 
 
 1. Near my home is a narrow road through the woods. 
 
 %. From one side of the road the slope descends steeply to 
 a brook. 
 
 3. On the other side a cliff rises to a height of two hundred 
 feet. 
 
 4. Ferns and mosses cover the rocks. 
 
 5. The brook dashes over a black bed into a deep pool. 
 
THE INTERROGATIVE SENTENCE 7 
 
 6. Here the foam whirls round and round in great white 
 circles. 
 
 7. Gray squirrels abound in the high woods. 
 
 8. Partridges often whirr past you from their nests. 
 
 9. Many rare wild-flowers grow in these woods. 
 
 THE INTERROGATIVE SENTENCE 
 
 In questions the words do not usually stand in the 
 same order as they do in statements. But you can 
 easily find the subject and the assertion made about 
 it by changing the sentence to the declarative form. 
 For example, the interrogative sentence, "Are the 
 birds singing?" when changed to the declarative form, 
 becomes " The birds are singing." By a similar change, 
 "Are mosquitoes common here?" becomes "Mosquitoes 
 are common here." In some cases questions are actu- 
 ally asked in the declarative form, the question being 
 indicated by the inflection of the voice. 
 
 Exercise 7 
 
 After studying the following interrogative sentences, change 
 each to the declarative form and then find the subject: 
 
 1. Are mornings in October often frosty in your neighbor- 
 hood? 
 
 2. Have the leaves on the trees changed color? 
 
 3. Have the insects all gone into winter quarters? 
 
 4. Will some of them be killed by the first frost? 
 
 5. Have the toads and turtles buried themselves in the earth? 
 
 6. Has the black bear selected his sleeping-place for the 
 winter? 
 
8 GRAMMAR LESSONS 
 
 7. Will he go into it before the winter comes ? 
 
 8. Are the fish trying to go down stream to the sea? 
 
 To find the subject of an interrogative sentence, first change 
 the sentence to the declarative form. 
 
 CHAPTER III 
 
 THE PREDICATE OF THE SENTENCE 
 
 In every declarative sentence, as we have seen, we 
 make an assertion about some person, place, or tiling. 
 
 For example, "A grove stands near the old farm- 
 house." Here "A grove" is the subject, and "stands 
 near the old farmhouse" is the assertion made about 
 the subject. In the sentence, "A gray squirrel was 
 chattering in the branches of an oak," "A gray squir- 
 rel" is the subject, and "was chattering in the branches 
 of an oak" is the assertion made about the subject. 
 In the sentence, "The gay little fellow lived in the 
 hollow trunk of a chestnut-tree," what is the subject! 
 What assertion is made about the subject! In the 
 sentence, "He has built himself a summer-house of 
 small leafy twigs," what is the assertion! In the sen- 
 tence, "We saw him hiding some nuts," what is the 
 assertion! In the sentence, "He was storing away 
 food for the coming winter," what is the assertion! 
 
 That part of the sentence which makes an assertion is 
 the Predicate. 
 
 Exercise 8 
 
 After reading the following sentences, point out the subjects and 
 the predicates: 
 
THE PREDICATE OF THE SENTENCE 9 
 
 1. The gray squirrel is nimble and daring. 
 
 . His passage through the trees is almost a flight. 
 
 3. He leaps recklessly from branch to branch. 
 
 4. His career of frolic and festivity begins in the autumn. 
 
 5. His presence adds much to the pleasure of a stroller in 
 the quiet October woods. 
 
 6. We have often studied his habits there. 
 
 7. One sunny afternoon not long ago we stepped lightly 
 into the forest behind our house. 
 
 8. We sat down upon a big bowlder near a gray squirrel's 
 nest. 
 
 9. In a few minutes we heard the rustling of a branch. 
 
 10. Then we saw other branches swaying under the weight 
 of the leaping squirrel. 
 
 11. The frisky little creature soon darted down to the 
 ground near us. 
 
 1. He even took a nut out of my hand. 
 
 By asking questions with who you can easily find 
 the subjects of the seventh, ninth, and tenth sentences, 
 which are the most difficult. The remainder of the 
 sentence in each case is the predicate. 
 
 Write flye declarative sentences about Vacation, and in each 
 find the subject and the predicate. Write flye interrogative sen- 
 tences. Change each to the declarative form, and name the subject 
 and the predicate. 
 
 Exercise 9 
 
 Make an assertion about each of the following subjects and thus 
 complete the sentences : 
 
 1. The gray cat 
 
 . A narrow hole 
 
10 GRAMMAR LESSONS 
 
 3. Two old rats - 
 
 4. The cat patiently 
 
 5. One day the rats 
 
 6. The noise - 
 
 7. At last a trap - 
 
 8. A piece of toasted cheese 
 
 9. All these attractions 
 
 10. But some meat 
 
 11. Early the next morning a large brown rat 
 
 12. From that time the house 
 
 Exercise 10 
 
 Form sentences by supplying subjects for the following 
 predicates : 
 
 1. was stopped by the conductor. 
 
 2. sat preparing his lesson for the next day. 
 
 3. From the hill watched every movement of the 
 
 army. 
 
 4. dashed high up on the rocks. 
 
 5. flooded the valley with light. 
 
 6. strewed the street with leaves and branches. 
 
 7. Through the window crawled out into the street. 
 
 8. ran rapidly down the road. 
 
 9. From a high rock flew to a dead pine. 
 
 10. Across the bridge marched in single file. 
 
 11. In the early morning sailed for Liverpool. 
 
 12. stood on the bank of the river. 
 
 13. had a fishing-rod and a basket. 
 
 14. For a while caught nothing. 
 
THE SUBJECT AND THE PREDICATE 11 
 
 15. - brought up a big fish. 
 
 16. - - did not succeed in drawing it to shore. 
 
 17. - - snapped his rod in two pieces. 
 
 18. - saw the broken rod and the fish go down stream. 
 
 CHAPTER IV 
 
 THE SUBJECT AND THE PREDICATE 
 Exercise 11 
 
 In the following groups of words select the complete sentences, 
 and in every case name the subject and the predicate. Unless a 
 group of words contains both a subject and a predicate l you may 
 know that it is not a complete sentence: 
 
 1. Found a very tall oak-tree. 
 
 2. He noticed a flag waving in the air. 
 
 3. Went farther and farther from home. 
 
 4. A gust of wind blew off his hat. 
 
 5. Caught it after a chase. 
 
 6. A brook in the meadow. 
 
 7. He saw a bright flower. 
 
 8. Then a red apple drew his attention. 
 
 9. On the garden wall. 
 
 10. Spied his sister in the distance. 
 
 11. Walked together into the fields. 
 
 12. Home with their father in a carriage. 
 
 Make complete sentences out of such groups of words as are not 
 already sentences. 
 
 1 Even such expressions as "You here?" "la cheat?" clearly imply 
 the full form with the predicate: "Are you here?" "Am I a cheat?" In 
 conversation we often omit the subject or the predicate : 
 " I (did it)." " What did you do then ? " " (I) went home." 
 
12 GRAMMAR LESSONS 
 
 When a sentence contains but one subject and one predi- 
 cate it is called a Simple Sentence. 
 
 Exercise 12 
 Use the following words as subjects in sentences : 
 
 Steamship, engine, engineer, factory, storm, waterfall, 
 flag, army, soldier, tent, chieftain, attack, explorer, North 
 Pole, doctor, judge, governor, gentleman, Pilgrims, settlers, 
 stranger, minister, scholar, people, friends, cattle, horses, fair, 
 foot-ball, boat-race. 
 
 Exercise 13 
 
 Use the following words as predicates in sentences :- 
 Have, grow, promise, give, go, ride, speak, see, notice, help, 
 ask, carry, pass, drive, leave, sit, reply, refuse, come, learn, 
 prepare, bring, finish, find, make, knock, break, sweep, fill. 
 
 NOTE. In most of the exercises we have used the simple forms of 
 the verb. But the pupil should be encouraged to use as great a variety 
 
 of verb-forms as -possible, 
 j j i 
 
 CHAPTER V 
 
 THE NOUN 
 
 In all our speaking and writing we are constantly 
 using the names of persons, places, or things. In fact, 
 we give a name to every object that we know. 
 
 Exercise 14 
 What names are used in the following sentences: 
 
 1. Last year we bought an old abandoned farm in New 
 Hampshire. 
 
 2. The place was overgrown with weeds. 
 
COMMON AND PROPER NOUNS 13 
 
 3. In one field we cut several large loads of thistles. 
 
 4. We found that the thistles had not stopped for the fences. 
 
 5. Burdocks and mullein stalks and golden-rods were every- 
 where. 
 
 6. At present all the farm-buildings are in bad repair. 
 
 7. The house is a quaint, rambling old place. 
 
 8. On three sides of the house are verandas. 
 
 9. From every window the views are enchanting. 
 
 Point out the subject and the predicate of each of the sentences 
 above. Draw a straight line under every name used as a subject. 
 Write in columns all the names in the sentences. 
 
 Exercise 15 
 
 . Write the names of six kinds of animals ; of six kinds of trees ; 
 of six kinds of fruit ; of six kinds of vegetables ; of six kinds of 
 groceries; of six countries; of six lakes; of six towns; of six 
 great men. Using your lists, write six declarative and six inter- 
 rogative sentences. 
 
 All names of persons, places, or things are nouns; 
 or, more briefly, 
 
 A word used as a name is a Noun. 
 
 Every word in a sentence, whether spoken or writ- 
 ten, plays a definite part, and is therefore called a 
 Part of Speech. There are eight parts of speech- 
 Nouns, Pronouns, Adjectives, Verbs, Adverbs, Prepo- 
 sitions, Conjunctions, and Interjections. The noun is 
 the first part of speech that we have to consider. 
 
 COMMON AND PROPER NOUNS 
 
 When you say, "A man came across the street to 
 speak to us," no one can tell from your language ex- 
 
14 GRAMMAR LESSONS 
 
 actly whom you mean, for there are so many men that 
 the word man does not point out any particular one. 
 But if you say, " Henry Wadsworth came across the 
 street to speak to us," you plainly indicate that you 
 have in mind only one individual. 
 
 The word man is a name given to any one of a large 
 number of individuals of the same kind or class. It 
 is a name common to all men. We therefore call it a 
 common name or a Common Noun. 
 
 But the name Henry Wadsworth points out some 
 particular person. A single person perhaps only one 
 in the world owns that name. It is his property. 
 We therefore call it a Proper 1 Noun. 
 
 In the same way we use the common name dog to 
 refer to a certain kind of animal, but Prince, Rover, or 
 some other proper name if we wish to refer to some 
 particular dog. The word river may be applied to 
 any river in the world, but Potomac is applied to that 
 particular river which flows between Maryland and 
 Virginia. 
 
 A proper noun may consist of more than one word; 
 as, Rocky Mountains, Ohio River, Atlantic Ocean. 
 
 Exercise 16 
 
 Write your teacher's name ; your own name ; the names of six 
 persons living near your home. Are these names common to a 
 class of persons or do they belong to individuals 2 
 
 Every proper name has a general name or class 
 name corresponding to it, for every individual belongs 
 
 1 The word proper is derived from a Latin word meaning one's own. 
 
COMMON AND PROPER NOUNS 15 
 
 to some class of persons or objects. For example, the 
 class name of Napoleon is man, of Russia is country, 
 of Paris is city, and so forth. A general name or 
 class name is one shared by several persons or objects, 
 and is of course a common noun. 
 
 Exercise 17 
 
 Copy the following proper names, and write opposite each an 
 appropriate class name: 
 
 New York, California, Vesuvius, Danube, Yosemite, Erie, 
 December, Cuba, Texas, Monday, Memorial Day, Abraham 
 Lincoln, Longfellow, George III, Columbus, U. S. Grant, 
 The Youth's Companion, A Tale of Two Cities. 
 
 A Common Noun is a name common to all objects 
 of the same class ; or, more briefly, 
 
 A Common Noun is a general name. 
 
 A Proper Noun is the name of a particular person, 
 place, or thing; or, more briefly, 
 
 A Proper Noun is an individual name. 
 
 Exercise 18 
 
 Indicate which of the following nouns may be used as common 
 or class names, and which as proper or individual names: 
 
 Country, river, state, ocean, city, air, water, fire, apple, 
 plant, tree, shrub, fruit, bird, beast, sea, capital, governor, 
 Washington, Sunday, July, England, Albany, mountains, 
 Rocky Mountains, road, meadow, Thursday, farmers, hay, 
 cyclone, buildings, barns, fences, monument, Ohio, Texas, 
 
16 GRAMMAR LESSONS 
 
 engineer, falls, Niagara Falls, mills, George Mills, bank, coun- 
 ter, land, Cleveland. 
 
 CHAPTER VI 
 
 THE PRONOUN 
 
 In the preceding lesson you learned that every per- 
 son, place, or thing has a name. But suppose that 
 every time you wished to refer to yourself you had to 
 use your own name, George, Frank, Ethel, or Helen, 
 in place of saying 1 or me. We should feel the same 
 difficulty if we had to repeat your name every time we 
 now use you or your. Note the following sentences : 
 
 The writer remembers with pleasure one ruddy-faced Mon- 
 tana farmer. The farmer was a graduate of Harvard Uni- 
 versity and of the Harvard Law School, but here the farmer 
 was with the farmer's trousers tucked into the farmer's 
 boot-legs, helping to cultivate the farmer's corn, or looking 
 after the farmer's herds upon the farmer's broad acres. The 
 farmer was almost the ideal of a genuine, hearty, educated 
 country gentleman. 
 
 You observe that in this short paragraph the name 
 farmer or farmer's occurs nine times. This repeated 
 use of the same word is extremely unpleasant, and if 
 there were no way of preventing such repetitions our 
 language would be very clumsy. But in this passage 
 we can easily avoid the frequent use of the word 
 farmer by putting lie in its place, or by putting his 
 in the place of farmer's. With the suggested changes 
 
PERSONAL PRONOUNS 17 
 
 in mind, read the paragraph, and you will find that it 
 sounds much more natural. 
 
 All the words that take the place of nouns are called 
 Pronouns. 1 We have, therefore, the definition: 
 
 A word used instead of a. noun is a Pronoun. 
 
 PERSONAL PRONOUNS 
 Exercise 19 
 
 In the following sentences study the words in italics. Tell what 
 noun each of these words stands for: 
 
 Just then Sarah Maud came up the back-stairs, so radiant 
 with joy that Peter could have pinched her with a clear con- 
 science. Carol gave them both a joyful welcome. " But 
 where is Baby Larry? " she cried. " Didn't he come? " 
 
 " Larry ! Larry ! " they all cried. Susan knew that he 
 had come, for she remembered scolding him for catching his 
 toe in the door-mat and tripping over it as they came in. 
 
 " Are you sure Larry was with you? " asked Uncle Jack. 
 
 " Yes, / am," said Susan. 
 
 " Oh, well, cheer up ! " cried Uncle Jack. " 7 think he is 
 not lost only mislaid. / will go and find him before you can 
 say ' Jack Robinson.' " 
 
 We note here that certain little words, such as I, me, 
 you, he, his, him, she, her, it, they, and them, are used 
 in the place of nouns, and are therefore pronouns. 
 
 What question does Uncle Jack first address to 
 
 1 The word pro-noun means for a noun. 
 
18 GRAMMAR LESSONS 
 
 Susan? In her answer what pronoun does she use 
 instead of her own name? The pronoun I is used in 
 place of the name of the person speaking, and is said 
 to be in the first person. 
 
 In asking Susan a question, what pronoun does 
 Uncle Jack use instead of Susan's name? The pro- 
 noun you, which takes the place of the name of the 
 person spoken to, is in the second person. 
 
 When Uncle Jack says to Susan, "I will go and find 
 him before you can say ' Jack Kobinson,' " what pro- 
 noun does he use in place of Larry's name? He and 
 him are in the third person because they take the place 
 of the name of the person spoken of. 
 
 A pronoun is in the first person when it stands for 
 the person or persons speaking. 
 
 A pronoun is in the second person when it stands for 
 the person or persons spoken to. 
 
 A pronoun is in the third person when it stands for 
 one or more persons or things spoken of. 
 
 A pronoun the form of which shows whether the first 
 person, the second person, or the third person is meant is 
 a Personal Pronoun. 
 
 Exercise 20 
 
 Select the personal pronouns in the following paragraph. Giye 
 the person of each pronoun, and point out the noun for which it 
 stands : 
 
 I am sure you would like my dog. He came to me early 
 one morning five years ago. I found him sitting patiently 
 before the front door, waiting for his breakfast. He did not 
 
THE ADJECTIVE 19 
 
 bark nor whine, but he sat up quietly and held out his fore- 
 paws as if he knew just what to do. We watched him for a 
 time before we opened the door. On seeing us he held up 
 one paw for us to shake and strolled out to the kitchen. 
 The cook scowled a little when she saw him coming, but she 
 adopted him at once, and now always takes him with her 
 when she goes to market. 
 
 CHAPTER VII 
 
 THE ADJECTIVE 
 
 If you say, "I saw a horse trotting along the hill- 
 side," you tell us nothing about the kind of horse you 
 saw. But if you add that it was a large, black horse, 
 you help us to form a more definite idea. The words 
 large and black thus make clearer the meaning of the 
 noun horse by describing what kind of horse you saw. 
 In the same way the word stream, if taken alone, con- 
 veys no clear picture to the mind, but the words wind- 
 ing stream, rapid stream, deep, narrow stream do. 
 The words, winding, rapid, deep, narrow, describe the 
 noun stream in such a way as to aid us in forming a 
 distinct mental picture. Thus we see that the word 
 stream merely names an object, and that the words, 
 winding, rapid, deep, narrow, add new meaning by 
 describing the object. Such words as these are used 
 with nouns and pronouns to modify their meaning. 
 
 A word used to modify the meaning of a noun or a pro- 
 noun is an Adjective, 
 
20 GRAMMAR LESSONS 
 
 The adjective is called a modifier because it modi- 
 fies, that is, changes somewhat, the meaning of a noun 
 or pronoun. 
 
 THE ARTICLE 
 
 Two peculiar little words, a or an (a being a short- 
 ened form of an) and the are often used in spoken and 
 written language. Although called articles, they are 
 really adjectives, because they modify the meaning of 
 nouns. The is called the Definite Article, because it 
 points out some definite or particular object. A or an 
 is called the Indefinite Article because it does not refer 
 to any definite or particular object. 
 
 Exercise 21 
 
 Select from the following sentences all the adjectives, and tell 
 what nouns they modify: 
 
 1 . The modest little cottage overlooked the white sea-beach. 
 . In the low doorway stood a young girl. 
 
 3. " Do you think we shall have a stormy night, father? " 
 said she to the old man by her side. 
 
 4. Before answering he looked up at the heavy, inky clouds. 
 
 5. He felt the thick mist driving across the headland. 
 
 . 6. " Yes, daughter," was the quiet answer. " See that great 
 wave dash over the breakwater. The fishermen will have a 
 hard pull to get home." 
 
 Exercise 22 
 
 Use adjectives to modify the following nouns: 
 Shoemaker, book, house, chair, picture, village, mountain, 
 room, curtain, snow, mirror, story, pin, hair, New York, song, 
 
THE ADJECTIVE PHRASE 21 
 
 bundle, shower, weather, damage, mill, reception, escape, jour- 
 ney, apples. 
 
 Exercise 23 
 
 Use each of the following words as adjectives to modify the 
 meaning of some noun : 
 
 Hard, great, kind-hearted, good, bright, polite, proud, old, 
 little, big, wrong, poor, rich, red, white, blue, deep, wide, high, 
 long. 
 
 Exercise 24 
 
 Use each of the following words as adjectives in a simple de- 
 clarative sentence, and point out the subject and the predicate of 
 each sentence: 
 
 Square, round, thin, yellow, soft, woolly, feathery, cold, 
 rude, flat, rough, low, marshy, stony, ragged. 
 
 CHAPTER VIII 
 
 THE ADJECTIVE PHRASE 
 
 It is not always desirable, and sometimes not pos- 
 sible, to describe an object satisfactorily by using 
 adjectives only. We therefore employ groups of 
 words, as in the following sentences : 
 
 1. Beautiful violets are blooming. 
 
 2. Those are violets of rare beauty. 
 
 3. The violets in our garden are very fragrant. 
 
 4. The violets near the hedgerow are withered. 
 
 5. The violets behind the arbor are yellow. 
 
22 GRAMMAR LESSONS 
 
 In the first sentence the adjective beautiful modi- 
 fies violets. But in each of the remaining sentences 
 a group of words, used like an adjective, modifies violets. 
 For example, in the second sentence violets of rare 
 beauty are pointed out ; in the third, the violets in our 
 garden; in the fourth, the violets near the hedgerow; 
 and in the last, the violets behind the arbor. 
 
 Each of these groups of words, used as an adjective 
 to describe or limit the meaning of the noun violets, 
 is called a Phrase. Hence 
 
 A phrase that modifies the meaning of a noun or a pro- 
 noun is an Adjective Phrase. 
 
 Exercise 25 
 
 What phrases are used below to modify the meaning of orange ? 
 of dandelion ? 
 
 1. The orange in your hand. 
 
 2. The orange of golden hue. 
 
 3. The orange on the tree. 
 
 4. The orange of delicious flavor. 
 
 5. The orange from Florida. 
 
 6. The orange in the grocer's wagon. 
 
 7. The dandelion along the roadside. 
 
 8. The dandelion in the meadow. 
 
 9. The dandelion near the river. 
 
 10. The dandelion on the lawn. 
 
 11. The dandelion under the tree. 
 
 12. The dandelion beside the log. 
 
 Find a suitable phrase to modify the meaning of each of the 
 following nouns: 
 
THE POSSESSIVE FORM OF THE NOUN 23 
 
 Lumber, house, town, street, city, oak, Indian, banana, 
 steamer. 
 
 NOTE. If the teacher so desires, the study of the preposition and the 
 prepositional phrase (p. 61) may be taken up in connection with this 
 chapter. 
 
 Exercise 86 
 
 Use in a sentence each of the following phrases to modify the 
 meaning: of some noun: 
 
 On the tree ; under the table ; in the cellar ; over the door ; 
 at the station ; at the window ; beside the lake ; of easy tem- 
 per ; with green spectacles ; with bright, twinkling eyes ; from 
 China; from the best milliner in Paris; in comfortable cir- 
 cumstances. 
 
 Observe that a phrase does not contain a subject 
 and a predicate. 
 
 CHAPTER IX 
 
 THE POSSESSIVE FORM OF THE NOUN 
 
 We have already seen that adjectives are used to 
 modify the meaning of nouns. We have now to learn 
 that certain forms of nouns and pronouns are some- 
 times used as noun modifiers. We find illustrations 
 in the following sentences: 
 
 1. The carpenter's tools are again mislaid. 
 
 2. It was James's fault. 
 
 3. That man's temper is always disturbing our workmen. 
 
 4. Their foreman presented a complaint at the office. 
 
24 GRAMMAR LESSONS 
 
 Whose tools are mentioned in the first sentence? 
 Carpenter's modifies the meaning of tools. Whose 
 fault is pointed out in the second sentence? What 
 word, then, modifies the meaning of fault? Of temper? 
 Of workmen? Of foreman? 
 
 Our in the third sentence and their in the fourth are 
 possessive forms of personal pronouns. 
 
 You will notice that the Apostrophe (') and the letter 
 s are added to the word carpenter to indicate whose 
 tools are meant. You will notice, also, that each of 
 the other nouns indicating possession is treated in the 
 same way. 
 
 If you are not careful you may confuse some ex- 
 pressions, such as the following: 
 
 1. The boy's boat. 
 
 2. The boys' boat. 
 
 3. The soldier's camp-fire. 
 
 4. The soldiers' camp-fire. 
 
 When we write, "The boy's boat," we indicate that 
 only one boy owns the boat ; but when we write, " The 
 boys' boat," we signify that more than one boy pos- 
 sesses the boat. In the expressions, "The robin's 
 song," "The robins' song," is one robin meant or more 
 than one? 
 
 When the noun denoting possession names but one 
 object the apostrophe and the letter s ( J s) are added 
 to indicate possession. The word thus formed is said 
 to have the Possessive Form. When the word denoting 
 
THE POSSESSIVE FORM OF THE NOUN 25 
 
 possession names more than one object and ends in s, the 
 apostrophe alone is added to form the possessive; but 
 when such a word does not end in s, both the apos- 
 trophe and s are needed to form the possessive. 
 
 Exercise 27 
 Write the possessive form of the following words: 
 
 Bird, birds, lion, lions, man, men, woman, women, fox, foxes, 
 mouse, mice, goose, geese, pony, ponies, cow, cows, tiger, tigers, 
 Indian, Spaniard, merchant, farmer, lambs, Frenchman, citi- 
 zens, captain, troop, senators, officers, clerk, serpent, animal, 
 painter, Frank, duke, friends, bride, father, boy, cousin, 
 cashier, author, uncle, aunt. 
 
 Exercise 8 
 
 In the following sentences select the nouns that denote posses- 
 sion, and show what words they modify. In each case tell whether 
 the possessive form indicates one object or more than one: 
 
 1. Hawthorne's " Scarlet Letter " brought him great fame. 
 . Have you ever read about Mr. Winkle's experience on 
 skates ? 
 
 3. Do you think he profited much by Sam Weller's assist- 
 ance? 
 
 4. " Tom Brown's School Days. " describes the life of a boy 
 at Rugby. 
 
 5. " Sindbad the Sailor " is one of many strange stories in 
 " The Arabian Nights' Entertainments." 
 
 6. Irving's best known tales are " Rip Van Winkle " and 
 " The Legend of Sleepy Hollow." 
 
26 GRAMMAR LESSONS 
 
 7. The President's annual message is received by Congress 
 in December. 
 
 8. The boys' playground was a spacious one. 
 
 NOTE. This and many other exercises may well be used as dictation 
 lessons. 
 
 CHAPTER X 
 
 THE APPOSITIVE 
 
 As already explained, the noun and the pronoun 
 may be modified by an adjective, an adjective phrase, 
 and the possessive form of the noun or pronoun. 
 Sometimes the noun and the pronoun have still an- 
 other modifier, which we will now study. Examples 
 of its use occur in the following sentences : 
 
 1. Kane, the Arctic explorer, had many wonderful ad- 
 ventures. 
 
 2. Sir Walter Scott, " the Wizard of the North," wrote 
 " Kenilworth." 
 
 3. Alexander Hamilton, a great statesman, was killed by 
 Aaron Burr. 
 
 4. We boys enjoyed the lecture on Hamilton. 
 
 In the first sentence the word explorer is added to 
 the noun Kane to explain who he was. What word 
 in the second sentence explains who Sir Walter Scott 
 was? What word in the third sentence explains who 
 Alexander Hamilton was? What word in the fourth 
 sentence explains the meaning of the pronoun we? 
 
THE APPOSITIVE 27 
 
 Words used in this way to describe or explain the mean- 
 ing of nouns or pronouns are called Appositives, 1 and are 
 said to be in apposition with the nouns or the pronouns 
 which they describe or explain. 
 
 Exercise W 
 
 In the following sentences why are the nouns in italics apposi- 
 tives ? With what noun or pronoun is each of them in apposition, 
 and why? 
 
 1. Brom Bones, the hero of the country round, was a pow- 
 erful rival. 
 
 2. Nataline, the light-keeper's daughter, fought the dark- 
 ness like a soldier. 
 
 3. Robert, the keeper of the lighthouse, made ready the 
 clockwork for the night. 
 
 4. That old sleeper, the woodchuck, awakes in March and 
 stays out in all sorts of weather. 
 
 5. Thomas Newcome artfully invited Barnes, his nephew, 
 to dinner. 
 
 6. Last summer we visited Owl's Head, a little seaside 
 resort, not far from Gloucester. 
 
 7. Jo, the guide, was a good canoeman. 
 
 8. The cook's wages, forty dollars a month, were ample 
 for his needs. 
 
 9. Thousands of birds, sea-fowl, nested there. 
 
 10. That difficult march led us through a sublime waste, a 
 wilderness of mountains and pine-forests. 
 
 A group of words containing an appositive and its modi- 
 fier or modifiers is called an Appositive Phrase. Appositive 
 phrases are usually set off from the rest of the sentence 
 by commas, but if the connection is very close the commas 
 are sometimes omitted. 
 
 1 From a Latin word meaning to put near. 
 
28 GRAMMAR LESSONS 
 
 Exercise 30 
 
 Select the appositive phrases from the sentences in the pre- 
 ceding exercise. 
 
 Exercise 31 
 
 In each of the following- groups of words which word is the 
 appositive, and why ? Put each of these groups of words into a 
 written sentence. Be careful to separate each appositive phrase 
 from the rest of the sentence by commas : 
 
 The captain, a weather-beaten veteran; the porter, a jolly 
 fellow ; a refined-looking man, a teacher ; a bent figure, a mere 
 shadow ; the carriage, a well-worn vehicle ; a raw-boned horse, 
 a vicious-looking beast; our landlady, a severe-faced matron 
 of fifty. 
 
 CHAPTER XI 
 
 THE SIMPLE SUBJECT AND THE COMPLETE SUBJECT 
 
 We have learned that the subject of a sentence is 
 that about which an assertion is made. The complete 
 subject may consist of a single word, but this is not 
 always the case. Note the following sentences: 
 
 1. Ponies were performing in the circus-ring. 
 
 2. Shetland ponies were performing in the circus-ring. 
 
 3. Black Shetland ponies were performing in the circus- 
 ring. 
 
 4. Three black ponies from the Shetland Islands were 
 performing in the circus-ring. 
 
 In the first sentence the subject is the single word 
 ponies; in the second sentence it consists of the words 
 
THE COMPLETE SUBJECT 29 
 
 Shetland ponies; in the third sentence, of the words 
 Black Shetland ponies; and in the fourth, of the words 
 Three black ponies from the Shetland Islands. 
 
 By looking again at the second sentence we find that 
 the subject, " Shetland ponies," is made up of the noun 
 ponies and its adjective modifier Shetland. We call 
 ponies the Simple Subject and Shetland ponies the Com- 
 plete Subject. In the third sentence ponies is the simple 
 subject, while ponies and its modifiers, black and Shet- 
 land, together form the complete subject. In the fourth 
 sentence what is the noun that is used as the simple 
 subject? What are its adjective modifiers? Add them 
 to the simple subject, and you form the complete 
 subject. 
 
 The Simple Subject is a noun or a. pronoun. 
 The Complete Subject consists of the simple subject and 
 its modifiers. 
 
 Exercise 32 
 
 In each of the following- sentences what is the simple subject? 
 What is the complete subject? 
 
 Yellowstone Park in Wyoming is a great national play- 
 ground thousands of square miles in area. It is full of hot 
 springs and geysers and other wonderful sights. People from 
 all parts of the world flock here to make the tour of the Park. 
 No railroads are allowed in the Park, but every sight-seer has 
 to drive or walk or ride on horseback. Great coaches holding a 
 dozen people and drawn by four horses take you in less than 
 a week to the most important points. The smaller carriages 
 with two horses and with seats for only four or five people are 
 
30 GRAMMAR LESSONS 
 
 more comfortable. Very little rain falls in summer, and the 
 travelled roads are thick with dust by the end of August. But 
 the sight of a geyser spouting a great jet of water a hundred 
 feet into the air makes one forget all discomfort. 
 
 Exercise S3 
 
 Copy the sentences of Exercise 1, p. 2, putting a single 
 straight line under the simple subject and a waTed line with the 
 letter s. under the modifier of the simple subject, whether this 
 modifier is a word or a phrase. For example, 
 
 The country to^thejeast was rolling and wooded. 
 
 "^^sT^ 
 
 CHAPTER XII 
 
 A REVIEW 
 
 Define a declarative sentence. Write six declarative 
 sentences, using in each an adjective to modify the 
 subject. Define an interrogative sentence. Write six 
 interrogative sentences and change them to the de- 
 clarative form. Define an imperative sentence; an 
 exclamatory sentence. Write five imperative sentences. 
 
 What is a noun! A common noun? A proper noun! 
 Make two lists, one containing ten common nouns and 
 the other ten proper nouns. 
 
 Write three sentences, each containing a noun in the 
 possessive form to modify a noun used as a simple 
 subject. In each of these sentences mark the subject 
 and its modifier, as indicated in Exercise 33. Remem- 
 ber that the possessive form of the noun is used like 
 an adjective. 
 
 What is a pronoun! What is the difference between 
 
THE VERB 31 
 
 a noun and a pronoun! What is the advantage in 
 having pronouns? Name six personal pronouns and 
 use each of them in a declarative sentence. 
 
 What is an adjective? Write five declarative sen- 
 tences, each containing an adjective. What is an 
 adjective phrase? Write five declarative sentences, 
 each containing an adjective phrase. 
 
 Write five sentences, in each of which you use a 
 noun in apposition. What is the difference between 
 the simple subject and the complex subject? 
 
 Exercise 34, for Review 
 Point out the nouns and the adjectives in Exercise 29 (p. 27). 
 
 CHAPTER XIII 
 
 THE VERB 
 
 We have discussed the subject and the predicate 
 of a sentence. We are now ready to study the word 
 or phrase used in the predicate to make the assertion. 
 
 1. The fisherman went to the river. 
 
 2. He rowed his boat down the stream. 
 
 3. He threw his hook into the water. 
 
 4. In a few minutes he caught a large bass. 
 
 In the first sentence we make an assertion about the 
 fisherman. We assert that he went somewhere. In 
 the second, we assert that he rowed something; in the 
 third, that he threw something ; and in the fourth, that 
 he caught something. 
 
32 GRAMMAR LESSONS 
 
 What word is used to make an assertion in the first 
 of the sentences above! In the second! In the third? 
 In the fourth? 
 
 1. The robin comes in early spring. 
 
 2. He builds his nest near our house. 
 
 3. He sings a cheerful song. 
 
 What word in the first sentence asserts something 
 about the robin? In the second! In the third? 
 
 Exercise 35 
 
 Find the asserting word in each of the following sentences, and 
 draw two horizontal lines under it: 
 
 At last came a very wet summer. The streams rose high. 
 The hay-stacks floated down the valley. The hail cut all the 
 grape-vines to pieces. A black blight killed most of the corn. 
 Yet Fritz saw little of the trouble. Most of the wet days he 
 spent beside the roaring fire. There he worked quietly turning 
 the great roasts. One day, however, he crept out over the hill. 
 Then he saw for the first time the awful destruction. 
 
 Exercise 36 
 
 Use each of the following words in an oral sentence to make an 
 assertion about an appropriate subject: 
 
 Take, say, run, hear, dance, spend, lead, do, carry, march, 
 bring, work, watch, blow, buy, see, throw, walk, sell, shut, 
 melt, shake, wind, promise, spin, catch, creep, sweep, leave, 
 wave, pull, ring. 
 
 A word used to make an assertion is a Verb. 
 
THE VERB-PHRASE 33 
 
 Exercise 37 
 
 Use an appropriate verb to make an assertion about each of the 
 following words used as subjects : 
 
 Ant, bees, owls, fox, sheep, fish, wheat, corn, coal, ice, sun- 
 shine, clouds, sky, moon, garden, blossoms, gold, pepper, 
 pencil, rocket, rocks, moss. 
 
 CHAPTER XIV 
 
 THE VERB-PHRASE 
 
 A verb does not always consist of a single word. 
 Note the following sentences: 
 
 1. The dog chased the rabbit. 
 
 2. The dog was chasing the rabbit. 
 
 3. The dog has chased the rabbit. 
 
 4. The dog has been chasing the rabbit. 
 
 5. The dog had chased the rabbit. 
 
 6. The dog had been chasing the rabbit. 
 
 What single word makes the assertion about the dog 
 in the first sentence! What group of words in the sec- 
 ond sentence? What group in the third! What in 
 the fourth! In the fifth! In the sixth! 
 
 A group of words used as a verb is a Verb-Phrase. 
 
 We call the verb-phrase a verb just as if it were a 
 single word. 
 
 Exercise 38 
 
 Select A ,he verbs and the verb-phrases in the following sentences 
 and also the noun or pronoun used as the subject of each : 
 
34 GRAMMAR LESSONS 
 
 A heavy sea had come up in the night. The wind fresh- 
 ened and finally blew a gale. The outlook was not encour- 
 aging. Every one knew that the islands with their dangerous 
 rocks were somewhere near, but no one could decide exactly 
 where the ship had drifted. The steerage passengers had 
 mostly gone below, for the decks were constantly flooded. 
 But some preferred to be where they could save themselves 
 in case of accident. Happily, after the storm had lasted 
 fourteen hours, the wind began to go down. The waves still 
 rolled high, but they did not wash everything off the decks. 
 After dinner the passengers crept outside. They found that 
 all the boats but one had gone overboard, the rails were bent 
 and broken, and the funnels were coated with salt to the tops. 
 But the danger was past, and every one could enjoy the sight 
 of the sunlight flashing on the foaming waves. 
 
 Exercise 39 
 Use in declarative sentences the following verb-phrases: 
 
 Has been writing; is sleeping; might have gone; may be 
 heard ; had gone ; would have seen ; had been hurt ; could have 
 driven ; were shouting ; had fallen ; should have written ; can be 
 seen ; will be known. 
 
 Exercise 10 
 
 Use in interrogative sentences the verb-phrases in the preceding 
 exercise. 
 
 Exercise Jl, for Review 
 
 Draw two straight lines under each of the verbs in the follow- 
 ing sentences, and one straight line under each noun or pronoun 
 used as the subject of a verb : 
 
THE TRANSITIVE VERB 35 
 
 Hans struggled on. The sun was sinking, but its descent 
 seemed to bring no coolness. The leaden weight of the dead 
 air pressed upon his brow and heart, but the goal was near. 
 He saw the cataract of the Golden River springing from the 
 hillside, scarcely five hundred feet above him. He paused for a 
 moment to breathe, and sprang on to complete his task. 
 
 CHAPTER XV 
 
 THE TRANSITIVE VERB 
 
 We have found that a verb is a word used to make 
 an assertion. Usually the verb asserts action, as, "The 
 boy drove the horse." Note also the following sen- 
 tences : 
 
 1. For several minutes the hawk wheeled in wide circles. 
 
 2. Then with a sudden swoop she caught a fish and carried 
 it off in her claws. 
 
 In the first sentence the verb wheeled asserts action ; 
 in the second sentence the verbs caught and carried 
 also assert action. But there is a difference in the use 
 of the verbs in these sentences. In the first sentence 
 the verb asserts action only, while in the second sen- 
 tence the verbs assert action and also take objects to 
 complete their meaning: she caught a fish and carried it 
 off in her claws. 
 
 Exercise 4 
 
 Use in sentences the following yerbs, which assert action and 
 take an object to complete their meaning: 
 
36 GRAMMAR LESSONS 
 
 Wish, pay, make, mend, finish, take, have, do, carry, touch, 
 throw, buy, ask, lift, bring, lose, hear, build, weave, lay, say, 
 cut see, raise. 
 
 Exercise 43 
 
 In the following sentences name the verbs that assert action 
 and take an object. Point out the nouns or pronouns that are the 
 subjects of the verbs : 
 
 1. When we saw the shore Mildred drew a breath of relief. 
 
 2. I tossed up my cap, and she waved her handkerchief. 
 
 3. The rain had soaked our clothing and chilled us through. 
 
 4. A stiff breeze drove our boat rapidly into the harbor. 
 
 5. At times our ears caught the roar of the breakers. 
 
 6. With much difficulty we anchored our boat. 
 
 7. A little later we reached the land in safety. 
 
 8. Friends and even strangers welcomed us. 
 
 9. They laughed and cried to see that we were safe. 
 
 A verb that asserts action and requires an object to com- 
 plete its meaning is a Transitive 1 Verb. 
 
 Exercise 44 
 
 In the following sentences fill out the blanks with transitive 
 verbs, and name the objects: 
 
 1. In spring the farmer - - his field. 
 
 2. He various kinds of seed. 
 
 3. In July he - - his hay and - - it to the barn. 
 
 4. The gardener - - the gate for our party. 
 
 1 From a Latin word meaning to pass over. That is, the action of the 
 verb is thought of as passing over to the object so as to affect it. 
 
THE INTRANSITIVE VERB 37 
 
 5. We - - the humming of busy bees among the 
 flowers. 
 
 6. We greatly - our visit to the garden. 
 
 7. We - - some roses to Mabel. 
 
 8. We - - her sitting in the shade of a beautiful 
 maple. 
 
 9. She - - a thrilling story. 
 
 10. She - us for bringing her the roses. 
 
 CHAPTER XVI 
 
 THE INTRANSITIVE VERB 
 
 When we say, "Henry made a snowball," the verb 
 made asserts action, and takes the object snowball. 
 Hence made is a transitive verb. But when we say, 
 "Snow flies," the verb -flies fully expresses the action, 
 and does not require an object to make its meaning clear. 
 Since the verb does not require an object it cannot 
 be a transitive verb, but is called Intransitive. We have, 
 then, the definition: 
 
 A verb that expresses action and does not require an 
 object to complete its meaning is an Intransitive Verb. 
 
 Exercise 45 
 
 Explain why the words in italics in the following- exercise are 
 intransitive verbs : 
 
 1. Our boat -floated lazily in the quiet bay. 
 
 2. Not a ripple played on the glassy surface of the sea. 
 
 3. Birds drowsily twittered in the grove near by. 
 
 4. Fleecy white clouds scudded here and there. 
 
38 GRAMMAR LESSONS 
 
 5. Suddenly the sky darkened and the wind arose. 
 
 6. Almost without warning a furious storm came up. 
 
 7. A solemn silence fell upon the crew of rough boatmen. 
 
 8. For four or five hours they struggled with the great 
 waves. 
 
 9. Then the rain slackened and the sunshine burst through 
 the clouds. 
 
 In this exercise all of the verbs, though intransitive, 
 express action. But there are some intransitive verbs 
 that do not express action. If, for instance, we say, 
 "The tired horseman rests," the intransitive verb rests 
 asserts that the horseman is in a certain state or 
 condition. Such verbs are sometimes called Verbs of 
 Rest; as, for example, abound, dwell, lie, pause, remain, 
 repose, stay, stop, tarry, and so on. 
 
 Some intransitive verbs assert State or Condition. 
 
 Exercise 46 
 
 Arrange the following words in two columns, one containing 
 those which may be used as transitive verbs, and the other con- 
 taining those which may be used as intransitive verbs : 
 
 Take, lay, wander, select, like, give, go, need, bake, sink, 
 flatter, make, chase, keep, place, touch, fasten, stretch, reach, 
 swing, turn, ride, march, sleep, stay, smile, listen, choose, climb, 
 ask, knock, shudder, bind, fall, hold, bring, find, point, spend. 
 
 Exercise Jfl 
 
 Write six sentences, each containing one of the transitive verbs 
 found in Exercise 46; also six with intransitive verbs found in 
 Exercise 46. 
 
TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE VERBS 39 
 
 Remember that for a verb to be transitive it must 
 assert action, and must take some object to complete 
 its meaning. "The cow drank water." Why is drank 
 a transitive verb? "The cow drank." Why is drank 
 an intransitive verb here? 
 
 It is plain that many verbs may be transitive or in- 
 transitive, according to the way they are used. In 
 general, the way a word is used determines the gram- 
 matical name we apply to it. 
 
 Exercise 48 
 
 Which of the verbs in the following sentences are transitive 
 and which intransitive 1 In every case give reasons for your 
 answer : 
 
 Janet lived on a rocky island off the coast of Maine. Her 
 father was a fisherman. Early every morning he would go 
 away in his boat to his favorite fishing-ground. Janet stayed 
 at home on the island and did the work of the little house. The 
 days went very slowly for the young girl. But she studied all 
 the shells and strange creatures cast up by the sea. She gath- 
 ered delicate seaweeds and raised brilliantly hued flowers in the 
 scanty soil near the house. One day her father came in with 
 an unopened letter in his hand. He carefully cut the envelope 
 and painfully spelled the longer words. At first he hardly 
 grasped the meaning. Then he lifted the lid of an old chest 
 and dropped the letter in. For a time he said nothing. At 
 last he looked at his daughter and said, " Janet, your aunt 
 from Boston is coming to-morrow. She has promised a 
 thousand dollars for your education." 
 
40 GRAMMAR LESSONS 
 
 CHAPTER XVII 
 
 THE COPULA 
 
 You have learned that a transitive verb asserts 
 action and requires an object to complete its meaning. 
 You have also learned that some intransitive verbs 
 assert action, but do not require objects to complete 
 their meaning; and that others assert state or condi- 
 tion. You have now to consider a peculiar kind of 
 intransitive verb that of itself expresses no definite 
 idea, For example, if you say, "The country is," you 
 have the subject country and the predicate is, but your 
 sentence is evidently unfinished. If, however, you add 
 the adjective flat to describe country, your assertion 
 is complete. The sentence, " Napoleon was," conveys 
 little meaning, but "Napoleon was a great general" 
 expresses something definite. The noun general in 
 the predicate explains Napoleon in the subject. In each 
 of these sentences the verb requires the additional 
 word to complete its meaning. 
 
 For further illustration, read the following ex- 
 amples : 
 
 1. His figure was slight. 
 
 2. His shoulders were narrow. 
 
 3. His eyes were blue. 
 
 In the first sentence what is the connecting verb? 
 What word in the predicate does it connect with its 
 subject figure? In the second sentence what word in 
 the predicate does the verb were connect with its sub- 
 
THE COPULA AND COPULATIVE VERBS 41 
 
 ject? In the third, what word in the predicate does 
 the verb were connect with its subject? Such verbs 
 as was and were in the sentences above are called 
 Copulas, because in every instance they are used to 
 connect some word in the predicate with the subject. 
 
 You will observe that, although the verb in each of 
 these three sentences makes the assertion, the meaning 
 is incomplete without the words slight, narrow, and 
 blue. These words, called Complements, form a part 
 of the predicate, but they also describe or explain the 
 subject. The office of the verb in each case is to connect 
 these completing words with the subject. 
 
 Some intransitive verbs may be followed by nouns or 
 adjectives explaining the subjects. Such verbs include 
 the Copula and Copulative verbs. 
 
 Nouns and adjectives thus used are called noun com- 
 plements or adjective complements. 
 
 NOTE. The teacher should impress upon the pupil the fact 
 that the function of the complement is to complete the meaning 
 of the sentence. The old word completement is no longer used, 
 but it might help to bring out more clearly the essential mean- 
 ing of the term complement. So, too, the term copula should be 
 associated in the pupil's mind with the familiar word couple. 
 The copula of a sentence is a verb which couples or joins one or 
 more words with the subject. A copulative verb is one that behaves 
 like the copula in joining one or more words with the subject. 
 
 Exercise J$ 
 
 In the following- sentences the words in italics are copulas or 
 copulative verbs. Explain by the aid of the following 1 model why 
 
42 GRAMMAR LESSONS 
 
 each is a copula or a copulative verb. For instance, in the sen- 
 tence, "Nathan Hale was a spy," was is a copula because it joins 
 the noun complement spy to the subject Nathan Hale: 
 
 1. The captain was brave and handsome. 
 
 2. Miss Quigley appeared very grim on an old white pony. 
 
 3. My aunt's horse was so old that he had become gray. 
 
 4. Nothing could be more pleasant and cordial than Sir 
 Barnes's manner. 
 
 5. Gladstone was an English statesman. 
 
 6. The animal that seemed so tame grew suddenly fierce and 
 vicious. 
 
 7. If you prove faithful to others they will become and 
 remain your friends. 
 
 8. He grew rich very fast. 
 
 9. The sky became clear again. 
 
 10. That remark holds true even yet. 
 
 Exercise 50 
 Put the following copulative verbs into short sentences : 
 
 Appear, seem, become, look, sound, taste, feel, grow, prove, 
 remain. 
 
 Exercise 51 
 
 Complete each of the following sentences with a suitable noun 
 or adjective complement. Then explain the use of each verb by 
 telling what noun or adjective complement it requires to describe 
 or explain the subject. In each of your explanations name the 
 noun or adjective in the predicate, and the subject which it de- 
 scribes or explains: 
 
 1. The fall of snow has been 
 
 2. The wind last night was 
 
THE PREDICATE NOUN 43 
 
 3. Even jet the air feels 
 
 4. This morning the country roads appear 
 
 5. All the trains are - 
 
 6. It will be - - before they can run again. 
 
 7. The station-agent is - 
 
 8. His own family is - - to get home. 
 
 9. The stories that one hears sound 
 
 10. Some think that the roads will remain for days. 
 
 Exercise 52 
 
 Copy the sentences that you completed in the foregoing exer- 
 cise, marking the subjects and their modifiers as before. Put two 
 straight lines under the verb and three under its complement, as 
 follows : 
 
 The soldiers were brave. 
 
 CHAPTER XVIII 
 
 THE PREDICATE NOUN 
 
 "The hunter was a Canadian." The copula was 
 connects the subject hunter with the noun complement 
 Canadian, which describes hunter. The noun comple- 
 ment is called a Predicate Noun. 
 
 A noun that follows a copula or a copulative verb and 
 describes or explains its subject is a Predicate Noun. 1 
 
 Exercise 53 
 
 In the following sentences select the copulas. Explain also the 
 use of the predicate nouns in italics, following the model given in 
 Exercise 49: 
 
 1 See also page 119. 
 
44 GRAMMAR LESSONS 
 
 1. This was the last session of the school for the year. 
 
 2. The season was spring. 
 
 3. The weather was glorious. 
 
 4. All was silence for a long time. 
 
 5. Such a spot is no place for a camp. 
 
 6. The dark, moving shapes were Indians on the trail. 
 
 7. The warrior at the head of the band was the chief. 
 
 8. His head-dress was a tuft of feathers. 
 
 Exercise 54 
 
 Use in sentences some of the following words as predicate 
 nouns: 
 
 Village, traveller, fame, beads, mountains, horses, war, pipe, 
 prairie, coward, country, rifle, children, statue, pine-tree, jour- 
 ney, smoke, neighbor, soldier, trade, whirlwind, morning, tent, 
 grass, furs, robes, blankets, occupation, table-cloth, cheese, 
 venison, trail, camp, trader, chief, moccasin. 
 
 Note that in interrogative sentences, such as "Who 
 [What] am I?" "Who [What] is he?" the word fol- 
 lowing the copula is the subject of the verb. 
 
 CHAPTER XIX 
 
 THE PREDICATE ADJECTIVE 
 
 In Chapter XVII we learned that the complement 
 of the copula or the copulative verb is sometimes an 
 adjective. 
 
 An adjective that follows the copula or a copulative verb 
 and describes its subject is a Predicate Adjective. 
 
THE PREDICATE ADJECTIVE 45 
 
 An adjective phrase may be used as an adjective complement. 
 For example, " Bolton was in excellent condition." 
 
 Exercise 55 
 
 Why are the words in italics in the following sentences predi- 
 cate adjectives ? Point out and explain each copula and each 
 copulative verb: 
 
 The October days grew more and more frosty. The woods 
 turned golden and crimson and scarlet. Every man in the party 
 became eager for an early start. After some delay everything 
 was ready. Five of the horses were brown and four were bay. 
 Few were handsome, but all were fresh and active and very 
 fleet. At a warning signal from the guide each man was alert. 
 The new men seemed nervous, but they were perfectly quiet. 
 For a moment the suspense was painful. 
 
 Exercise 56 
 
 In the following sentences find the subjects, the copulas or 
 copulative verbs, and the predicate adjectives. Explain the use of 
 the verbs and the adjectives. Copy the sentences, as indicated in 
 Exercise 33 <p. 30), marking the subjects, the modifiers of the 
 subjects, the verbs, and the complements: 
 
 1. Yesterday turned cold and wet. 
 
 2. All the birds grew quiet. 
 
 3. The clouds hung low and thick. 
 
 4. Nobody seemed very happy. 
 
 5. To-day the sky is blue. 
 
 6. The breezes are warm. 
 
 7. Many trees are green. 
 
 8. Everything is pleasant. 
 
 9. All the children are good-natured. 
 
46 GRAMMAR LESSONS 
 
 Exercise 57 
 
 Use in sentences some of the following words as predicate 
 adjectives : 
 
 Certain, sharp, high, scarce, broad, sandy, glistening, sud- 
 den, clear, cold, blue, glad, hollow, dreary, lively, strong, little, 
 quick, gentle, brave, pure, beautiful, deep, calm, dull, bright. 
 
 CHAPTER XX 
 
 THE ADVERB 
 
 As already remarked, we often need to use an ad- 
 jective with a noun in order to express our full mean- 
 ing. Similarly, the assertion made by a verb may 
 require various sorts of modification. Examine the 
 following sentences: 
 
 1. The birds flew. 
 
 2. The birds flew away. 
 
 3. The birds flew away slowly. 
 
 4. The birds flew away yesterday. 
 
 How does away make clearer, or modify, the mean- 
 ing of flew? How does slowly? How does yesterday? 
 Words thus used to modify the meaning of verbs are 
 called Adverbs. 
 
 Adverbs often modify the meaning of adjectives; 
 as, very smooth, exceedingly good, quite true, rather 
 crooked, somewhat sour, wicommonly beautiful. 
 
 Adverbs may also modify the meaning of other 
 adverbs; as, very rapidly, where very modifies the 
 meaning of the adverb rapidly. 
 
THE ADVERB 47 
 
 Hence the definition: 
 
 A word used to modify the meaning of a verb, an adjec- 
 tive, or another adverb is an Adverb. 
 
 Exercise 58 
 
 What words in the following selection are used to modify the 
 meaning of verbs? In each case tell which verb is modified: 
 
 Yesterday I took a long ride through the mountains on 
 horseback. I started early in the morning. The sun had just 
 risen. The air was frosty. Everywhere the grass and the 
 twigs glistened in the sunshine. I rapidly gained the crest of 
 the mountain and scanned closely the wide plain that stretched 
 westward. The sun rose higher. Suddenly I spied the flag 
 of the fort waving gracefully in the breeze. 
 
 Exercise 59 
 
 Complete each o. the following sentences by using a suitable 
 adverb to modify the meaning of the verb. By asking questions 
 with when, where, how, how long, how much, etc., you will 
 easily find an appropriate word: 
 
 1. The boys are walking - 
 
 2. In this light I can see. 
 
 3. The lightning flashed - 
 
 4. Thunder-showers come up in the tropics. 
 
 5. The shoemaker sat at his work. 
 
 6. On the altar the candles blazed 
 
 7. The messengers appeared - 
 
 8. The boat floated - down the quiet river. 
 
 9. He read the letter - 
 
 10. The horse dashed - - through- the street. 
 
48 GRAMMAR LESSONS 
 
 11. She received her guests - 
 
 12. I know him 
 
 Exercise 60 
 
 Put into sentences the following words as adverbs to modify 
 the meaning of verbs : 
 
 Quickly, gently, smoothly, now, then, to-day, yesterday, 
 politely, truly, kindly, outside, inside, well, usually, exactly, 
 soon, already, sensibly, sternly, drowsily, briefly, often, some- 
 times. 
 
 CHAPTER XXI 
 
 THE ADVERBIAL PHRASE 
 
 Just as nouns may be modified by phrases, so, too, 
 may verbs. 
 
 Compare the following sentences: 
 
 1. The ship sailed away. 
 
 2. The ship sailed through the blue water. 
 
 3. The ship sailed across the sea. 
 
 4. The ship sailed to foreign lands. 
 
 5. The ship sailed with a huge cargo. 
 
 6. The ship sailed on the first day of June. 
 
 What word modifies the meaning of the verb sailed 
 in the first sentence? What group of words modifies 
 sailed in the second sentence? What group in the 
 third? What in the fourth? In the fifth? In the 
 sixth? 
 
 1. The book was found on the floor. 
 
 2. The book was- found under the table. 
 
ADVERBIAL PHRASES 49 
 
 3. The book was found on the desk. 
 
 4. The book was found upon the shelf. 
 
 5. The book was found in the satchel. 
 
 What groups of words tell where the book was found? 
 What groups, then, modify the meaning of the verb 
 "was found"? 
 
 Since all these groups of words modify the meaning 
 of verbs they are used like adverbs. Each group is a 
 phrase, and hence does not contain a subject and a 
 predicate. Such phrases we call Adverbial Phrases. We 
 have, then, the definition: 
 
 A phrase that is nsed like an adverb is an Adverbial 
 Phrase. 
 
 Adverbs may also be modified by adverbial phrases. 
 For example, "He acted in some respects foolishly." 
 
 Adjectives may be modified by adverbial phrases. 
 For example, "This tree is dead at the top," "This 
 light is bad for the eyes" 
 
 Exercise 61 
 
 Point out the adverbial phrases in the following 1 sentences, and 
 tell what verbs they modify. Copy the sentences, and draw under 
 each verb two straight lines and under each adverb and adverbial 
 phrase a waved line with the letter p. below it : 
 
 We met a squall that tore our sails to pieces. A Dutchman 
 fell overboard. After a troubled voyage we came to land. In 
 the morning there was a heavy rain, but in the afternoon 
 a breeze sprang up and in an hour swept the sky clear. At 
 the pier we found a queer-looking crowd. In one corner sat 
 an aged negro, who had come on foot to see our vessel land. 
 
50 GRAMMAR LESSONS 
 
 On the opposite side an Indian leaned against a bale of cotton, 
 and with unchanged expression gazed at us for a full half- 
 hour. From all sides peddlers pressed to the front, deter- 
 mined to sell, at the first opportunity and at the highest 
 possible price, everything that they had. 
 
 Exercise 62 
 
 In the following sentences fill out the blanks with adverbial 
 phrases, and tell in each case what verb the phrase modifies. 
 Put under each of the adverbial phrases a waved line with the 
 letter p. below it : 
 
 1. Our boat started and arrived 
 
 . we saw some fine scenery. 
 
 3. We fished - 
 
 4. The boy climbed 
 
 5. He threw the unripe fruit 
 
 6. The flies buzzed - 
 
 7. The footman brushed the hat and hung it 
 
 8. The angry servant shut the door - 
 
 9. Come with me - 
 
 10. Old Roger tossed the ball - 
 
 11. He held a pair of worn gloves - 
 
 12. A row of portraits hung 
 
 Thus far you have found three kinds of phrases, ad- 
 jective phrases, verb phrases, and adverbial phrases. 
 
 Remember that a phrase never contains a subject 
 and a predicate, and is always used like an adjective, 
 a verb, an adverb, or a noun. Hence 
 
 A group of words not containing a subject and a predi- 
 cate and used as some part of speech in a Phrase. 
 
PREPOSITIONS 51 
 
 CHAPTER XXII 
 
 THE PREPOSITION AND THE PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE 
 
 Thus far we have studied nouns, pronouns, adjec- 
 tives, verbs, and adverbs. We have next to consider 
 some important words that help to shape the meaning 
 of the sentence. One of these words is found in each 
 of the following sentences : 
 
 1 . The boys went through the village. 
 
 2. The boys looked across the brook. 
 
 3. The boys in the tree were waving flags. 
 
 4. The boys stood behind the two big trees. 
 
 What word shows the relation between village and 
 went in the first sentence? Between brook and looked 
 in the second sentence! Between tree and boys in the 
 third sentence! Between trees and stood in the fourth 
 sentence 1 
 
 If you take the word through out of the first sen- 
 tence the remaining words do not convey any definite 
 meaning. The same will be found true if you take 
 across, in, and behind out of their respective sen- 
 tences. In each case the word is needed to show the 
 relation between the noun used with it and some other word. 
 Through shows the relation between the noun village 
 and the verb went; across shows the relation between 
 the noun brook and the verb looked; in shows the re- 
 lation between the noun tree and the noun boys; and 
 behind shows the relation between the noun trees and 
 the verb stood. 
 
52 GRAMMAR LESSONS 
 
 Such words as through, across, in, and behind, when 
 used to show the relation between words in the sen- 
 tence, are called Prepositions. Hence the definition: 
 
 A word used to show the relation between a noun or 
 pronoun and some other word in the sentence is a Prepo- 
 sition. 
 
 THE PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE 
 
 You will notice that the principal word following 
 the preposition in each of the examples given above 
 is a noun. In the first sentence it is the noun village. 
 What is it in the second ? In the third ? In the fourth ? 
 
 The group of words introduced by a preposition is 
 called a Prepositional Phrase. In the first sentence the 
 phrase is "through the village." What is it in the 
 second? In the third? In the fourth? 
 
 In the first sentence the noun village is said to be 
 the Object of the preposition through. What is the 
 object of the preposition across in the second sentence? 
 Of the preposition in in the third sentence? Of the 
 preposition behind in the fourth? 
 
 If we say, "The stranger came to us," "He spoke 
 to us," "He went to the station with me," what prepo- 
 sition is used in each sentence? What is the object of 
 each of these prepositions ? Between what words does 
 the preposition show the relation in the first sentence? 
 In the second? In the third? What is the preposi- 
 tional phrase in the first sentence? In the second? In 
 the third? 
 
 From the study of these sentences you observe that 
 
PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES 53 
 
 pronouns, as well as nouns, may be used as the objects 
 of prepositions. 
 
 Exercise 63 
 
 In the following sentences what are the objects of the preposi- 
 tions ? What are the prepositional phrases ? In each sentence 
 point out the words between which the preposition shows the 
 relation : 
 
 Under the pelting rain the snow melted rapidly. Muddy 
 streams dashed down the hills into the little river. Great cakes 
 of ice crashed against the piers of the old stone bridge. Boats 
 were torn from their moorings. Rubbish of various sorts was 
 spread over fertile fields. On every side was a scene of desola- 
 tion and ruin. 
 
 Exercise 64 
 
 Using some of the following prepositions, make twenty prepo- 
 sitional phrases : 
 
 After, against, about, above, across, along, among, around, 
 at, before, below, beside, behind, between, beyond, by, con- 
 cerning, down, during, except, for, from, in, into, off, on, 
 over, since, through, throughout, to, till, toward, under, 
 underneath, up, upon, until, unto, with, within, without. 
 
 Sometimes a group of two or more words is used 
 like a preposition. Such groups may be called Phrasal 
 Prepositions. The following are some of the phrasal 
 prepositions most often used: 
 
 According to, away from, because of, by means of, instead 
 of, on account of, out of. 
 
54 GRAMMAR LESSONS 
 
 Exercise 65 
 
 Put into sentences at least ten of the prepositional phrases 
 that you made in the last exercise. Explain in each case whether 
 the prepositional phrase is used as an adjective or an adverb. 
 
 Exercise 66 
 
 Put some of the following prepositional phrases into sentences. 
 In every sentence underscore the words between which the preposi- 
 tion shows the relation: 
 
 In the shade ; in the valley ; from the woods ; over the river ; 
 in bloom ; in winter ; through an opening ; in the yard ; in a 
 tangle; between my hands; of the birds; upon the stair; in 
 the corner ; against the tree ; to her nest ; by the wayside ; under 
 the eaves; with their bright blossoms; on their perch; at the 
 time ; before the house. 
 
 Exercise 67, for Review 
 
 In the following sentences select all the phrases and explain 
 how each is used, as a verb, an adjective, or an adverb. Draw 
 two straight lines under each verb or verb-phrase, and a waved 
 line with the letter p. below it under each adverbial phrase: 
 
 Our steamer sailed late in the afternoon. We had expected 
 to start earlier, but a thick white fog crept up the bay and 
 hid everything. At noon we could hardly see the masts. I 
 had bought a newspaper of a ragged little fellow, but I could 
 not read it in the clammy mist, and I was unwilling to stay in 
 the crowded, stuffy cabin. The fog hung over the bay until 
 four o'clock. Then suddenly I saw a flash of sunlight on the 
 deck and felt a fresh breeze. In half an hour the fog was 
 swept off to the east, so that we could see the open ocean break- 
 ing on the beach far away. On every side of us were vessels 
 
THE NOUN USED AS AN ADVERB 55 
 
 at anchor. In front lay a square little craft with brown 
 sails. Beside her was a large schooner, with three tall masts. 
 There were great ocean-steamers, coasting- vessels, fishing- 
 boats, barges full of coal, all perfectly quiet. We did not 
 delay much longer. Our anchor was heaved up ; our whistle 
 blew; and soon we were on our way at full speed. 
 
 CHAPTER XXIII 
 
 THE NOUN USED AS AN ADVERB 
 
 Yon have already been told that the way in which 
 a word is used in a sentence determines what part 
 of speech you are to call it. You are now to see 
 how a noun becomes an adverb. Note the following 
 
 sentences : 
 
 1. Birds that dislike our winters go home to the South 
 before the winter begins. 
 
 2. In so doing they travel many hundred miles. 
 
 3. They remain away from us several months. 
 
 4. Last Thursday a flock of crows flew away on their winter 
 trip. 
 
 Whither do the birds go! What noun indicates this? 
 How far do they travel ! What noun tells us ! How long 
 do they remain away, and when did a flock of crows 
 start off! What nouns answer the questions! 
 
 Nouns that indicate which way, how far, how long, 
 or time when are used as adverbs. In the first sen- 
 tence the noun home is used as an adverb to modify 
 the meaning of the verb go by telling which way birds 
 
56 GRAMMAR LESSONS 
 
 go. In the second sentence how does the noun miles 
 modify the verb travel / In the third sentence what 
 verb does months modify? What verb does Thursday 
 modify in the fourth! 
 
 Nouns are sometimes used as adverbs. 
 
 f 
 
 Exercise 68 
 
 In the following sentences what question does each noun used as 
 an adverb answer, and what word does each modify I 
 
 1. The chipmunk sat still five or six minutes, and then ran 
 hurriedly to the ground. 
 
 2. Last year a wood-thrush built her nest in one of our trees. 
 
 3. One day I found a hawk's nest full of eggs. 
 
 4. Last Wednesday there was a heavy snow-storm. 
 
 5. Next week our friends will sail for Bermuda. 
 
 6. Before Raymond could fire, the elk was two hundred 
 yards away. 
 
 7. The fort was distant two days' journey. 
 
 8. Last September our friends had fine fishing in the lake. 
 
 9. The camp, that season, was beside the Cedar Rapids. 
 10. One evening the fisherman came up the rocks dragging 
 
 a young seal behind him. 
 
 If a noun is preceded by a preposition the noun is of course the 
 object of the preposition. Some nouns used as adverbs may thus 
 become a part of prepositional (adverbial) phrases. For example, 
 in the first sentence, we may say, "for five or six minutes"; in the 
 ninth sentence, "during that season." In some cases there is 
 little choice between the forms: in others, there is a decided 
 advantage in using one rather than the other. 
 
THE INDIRECT OBJECT 57 
 
 Exercise 69 
 Write ten sentences, each containing a noun used as an adverb. 
 
 Exercise 70, for Review 
 
 Write ten sentences, each containing a prepositional phrase used 
 as an adjective. 
 
 Exercise 71, for Review 
 
 Write ten sentences, each containing a prepositional phrase used 
 as an adverb. 
 
 CHAPTER XXIV 
 
 THE INDIRECT OBJECT OF THE TRANSITIVE VERB 
 
 Why is the verb in each of the following sentences 
 transitive? What is the direct object of each of these 
 verbs ? 
 
 1. Rip told his story. 
 
 2. The guide showed the trail. 
 
 3. Jean gave a dollar. 
 
 Now read the following sentences, which still retain 
 the direct objects, and note the additions: 
 
 4. Rip told his story to the stranger. 
 
 5. Rip told the stranger his story. 
 
 6. The guide showed the trail to Ronald. 
 
 7. The guide showed Ronald the trail. 
 
 8. Jean gave a dollar to the beggar. 
 
 9. Jean gave the beggar a dollar. 
 
 To whom did Rip tell his story? To whom did the 
 guide show the trail? To whom did Jean give a dollar? 
 
58 GRAMMAR LESSONS 
 
 In every case where the preposition is expressed the 
 answer points out the object of the preposition; in 
 every case where the preposition is not expressed the 
 answer points out the Indirect Object of the Transitive 
 Verb. You will observe, also, that when there is both 
 a direct and an indirect object the indirect object 
 stands nearer the verb than the direct object does, and 
 that it answers the question To whom? By asking the 
 questions To whom or For whom? and To what or For 
 what? we can find the indirect object of a transitive 
 verb. We have, then, the definition : 
 
 When the action of a transitive verb is merely directed 
 toward an object, this object is said to be the Indirect 
 Object. 
 
 Exercise 72 
 
 In the following sentences point out and explain all transi- 
 tive verbs, all direct objects, and all indirect objects. Ask the 
 proper questions to find the direct and the indirect objects: 
 
 1. The traveller told Donald a long story. 
 
 2. Ralph paid his cousin frequent visits. 
 
 3. A door left ajar gave him a peep into the best parlor. 
 
 4. The captain ordered him a good dinner on the spot. 
 
 5. Soon the fragrant odors from the kitchen gave him an 
 appetite. 
 
 6. " Pray do me the favor of dining with me again to- 
 morrow," said the officer. 
 
 7. The engineer promised him a finished plan for the pro- 
 posed fort. 
 
 8. When the captain went away he left the engineer five 
 hundred dollars. 
 
SIMPLE AND COMPLETE PREDICATES 59 
 
 Exercise 73 
 
 The following is a list of some of the transitive verbs that often 
 take an indirect object. Write at least six sentences, in each of 
 which you supply one of these verbs with an indirect object: 
 
 Do, refuse, give, leave, send, forgive, bring, tell, write, lend, 
 owe, allow, grant, show, yield, throw, pay, make, present, 
 answer, hand, pass. 
 
 Exercise 74 
 
 Rewrite the sentences in Exercise 72 in such a way as to put 
 all the indirect objects into prepositional phrases. What other 
 changes do you notice in the new sentences in every case? 
 
 NOTE. It is important to remark that the indirect object is equivalent 
 to a prepositional phrase and is a modifier of the verb. 
 
 CHAPTER XXV 
 
 THE SIMPLE PREDICATE AND THE COMPLETE PREDICATE 
 
 We have noted the difference between the simple 
 subject and the complete subject. We have now to 
 consider the difference between the simple predicate 
 and the complete predicate. Examine the following 
 sentences : 
 
 1. Antelopes were running lightly. 
 
 2. Antelopes were running lightly in all directions. 
 
 3. Antelopes were running lightly over the plains. 
 
 4. Antelopes were running lightly at break of day. 
 
 In each of the foregoing sentences the words were 
 running are used to make an assertion about the ante- 
 
60 GRAMMAR LESSONS 
 
 lopes. Were running, therefore, is a verb. It is also 
 the Simple Predicate of each sentence. In the first sen- 
 tence lightly is an adverbial modifier of were run- 
 ning, because it tells how the antelopes were running. 
 By combining the simple predicate were running with 
 its modifier lightly we form the Complete Predicate were 
 running lightly. 
 
 In the second sentence what adverb and what phrase 
 modify the meaning of the verb were running? Unite 
 these modifiers with the simple predicate and you have 
 the Complete Predicate. 
 
 What are the modifiers of the verb in the third sen- 
 tence? What is the complete predicate? What are 
 the modifiers and the complete predicate in the fourth 
 sentence? How would the sentence read with all the 
 modifiers combined? 
 
 The Simple Predicate consists of a verb. 
 
 The Complete Predicate consists of a verb with its 
 complements and modifiers. 
 
 Exercise 75 
 
 In the following sentences find first the simple predicates ; then 
 put with them their complements and modifiers to form the com- 
 plete predicates. If the simple predicate has no complement and no 
 modifier, it is simple and complete at the same time: 
 
 1. The yellow sunshine flooded the hills. 
 
 2. The maples flamed with scarlet and purple and gold. 
 
 3. A lumbering brown bear pattered down the rocky slope 
 to a bubbling spring. 
 
 4. A deer watched the bear from a neighboring thicket. 
 
SIMPLE AND COMPLETE PREDICATES 61 
 
 5. Then a light breeze came down from the hills. 
 
 6. It ruffled the surface of the lake with broken curves. 
 
 7. The reflections vanished from the water. 
 
 8. A hunter kindled a fire on the bank of the lake. 
 
 9. The smoke rose in thick clouds. 
 
 10. Suddenly the hunter paused with his hand to his ear. 
 
 Exercise 76 
 
 Indicate by lines, as before directed (pp. 30, 43), the simple 
 subjects with their modifiers and the simple predicates with their 
 modifiers and complements in Exercise 75. 
 
 Exercise 77 
 
 In the following sentences find the simple and the complete 
 predicates : 
 
 Early in the evening the two children started for home. 
 Their path lay over the steep ridge of the mountain. Here 
 and there the way was very narrow. The chilly air threatened 
 snow. But they went off with a laughing " Good-by." The 
 old shepherd silently shook his head, with an anxious look. 
 Then he said to himself, " We shall have snow in an hour or 
 two." An hour passed. The sheep were safe in the fold. The 
 cows were fed. A bright fire crackled on the hearth. But the 
 shepherd was uneasy. From time to time he looked out of the 
 door. The sky had grown very black. Then a whirling flake 
 of snow fell on the old man's hand. The dreaded storm had 
 begun. He hastily caught up his cap and his heavy staff. A 
 moment later, with his lighted lantern held high above his head, 
 he hurried toward the ridge with his shaggy dog bounding 
 beside him. 
 
62 GRAMMAR LESSONS 
 
 CHAPTER XXVI 
 
 A REVIEW 
 
 What is a verb? A verb-phrase? Select five verbs 
 and three verb-phrases from Exercise 77. Write five 
 sentences with a verb-phrase in each. 
 
 What is a transitive verb? An intransitive verb? 
 How does a transitive verb differ from an intransi- 
 tive verb that expresses action? Illustrate this dif- 
 ference by writing four short sentences. 
 
 What is a copulative verb? Explain the difference 
 between the complement of a transitive verb and the 
 complement of a copulative verb. Illustrate this dif- 
 ference by writing four sentences. 
 
 What is an adverb? An adverbial phrase? Write 
 three sentences illustrating the use of adverbs and 
 three illustrating the use of adverbial phrases. Write 
 two sentences, the first containing an adjective phrase 
 and the second an adverbial phrase. Write five sen- 
 tences to illustrate the indirect object. 
 
 CHAPTER XXVII 
 
 NOUNS USED INDEPENDENTLY BY DIRECT ADDRESS 
 
 We often have occasion to address others, either by 
 their proper names or by a name common to a group 
 of persons. Note the following: 
 
 1. " Boys, are you ready for our game of base-ball? " 
 
 2. " Yes, Tom, you know we are always ready." 
 
 3. " Mr. Hudson, will you be our umpire? " 
 
NOUNS USED INDEPENDENTLY 63 
 
 In the first sentence to whom does Tom address his 
 question! Who is addressed by name in the second sen- 
 tence? In the third sentence? 
 
 The name of the person or thing addressed is said to 
 be used Independently by Direct Address. 
 
 Exercise 78 
 
 In the following sentences select the name of the person or 
 thing addressed, and notice how in every case it, with its modifiers 
 (if it has any), is set off from the rest of the sentence by one or more 
 commas : 
 
 As the general looked anxiously down the dusty road he saw 
 a messenger in uniform galloping toward him. In a moment 
 the man had dismounted. " A letter for you, General," said he 
 respectfully, holding out a soiled envelope. " Well, my man," 
 said the general, " you seem to have had a hard ride. Orderly, 
 give this man a glass of water. Colonel Newcome, I wish to 
 see you a moment. Captain Briggs, will you keep your eye 
 on that ridge beyond the river? Lieutenant Martin, you will 
 hold your men ready for an instant advance." Then, turning 
 toward the soldiers drawn up in line, he added, " I have only 
 one word to say to you, my men : everything to-day depends 
 upon you." 
 
 Exercise 79 
 
 Write sentences in each of which you represent some one of the 
 following persons as being addressed. You may ask a question, 
 express a command, or make a request: 
 
 A coachman; a conductor; a boy; a group of boys; a 
 group of girls; a governor; a judge; a presiding officer; 
 
64 GRAMMAR LESSONS 
 
 Mr. Simmons ; Mrs. Herbert ; Miss Holman ; your uncle ; 
 your aunt; your grandfather; your cousin. 
 
 CHAPTER XXVIII 
 
 THE INTERJECTION 
 
 We may sometimes crowd much meaning into a 
 single word, as is illustrated in the following sen- 
 tences : 
 
 1. " Hurrah! " shouted officers and soldiers alike. 
 
 2. Oh! what good news. 
 
 3. Ah! you don't mean it, do you? 
 
 4. Pshaw! the whole story is absurd and ridiculous. 
 
 In the foregoing sentences the words in italics ex- 
 press strong feeling or emotion. Hurrah expresses joy 
 and exultation ; oh, delight ; all, surprise ; and pshaw, 
 disgust. Words so used have no grammatical connec- 
 tion with the other words of the sentence in which 
 they occur, but are interjected or "thrown in" for the 
 purpose of indicating joy, sadness, wonder, pity, pain, 
 or some other sudden or intense emotion felt by the 
 writer or speaker. Such words are called Interjections. 
 
 The interjection oh may be used in spoken language 
 to express various emotions, the tone of voice indicat- 
 ing the feeling of the speaker. The same is true of 
 some other interjections. 
 
 An interjection is a word that expresses strong feeling 
 or emotion. 
 
INTERJECTIONS 65 
 
 Since as a rule the interjection has no grammatical connection 
 with the rest of the sentence, some grammarians would not include 
 it among the parts of speech. 
 
 Exercise 80 
 Point out the interjections in the following sentences: 
 
 1. Shame! How dare you play such a trick on an old 
 man? 
 
 2. Good ! good ! I'm glad of it. 
 
 3. Lo! this is the joyful day. 
 
 4. Alas! there is no hope for him. 
 
 5. Hello! give me number forty-one. 
 
 6. Bravo, my boy ! Remember all I have told you ! 
 
 7. Whew ! how hot it is here ! 
 
 8. Oh ! if I had only known ! 
 
 9. Ah! as usual, he is looking out for himself. 
 
 10. Pshaw! don't stay there. 
 
 11. Oh! don't hit me in that way again. 
 
 12. Alas ! those days will never return. 
 
 13. " Fie, fie! " said the major, who was fond of old-fash- 
 ioned phrases. 
 
 All interjections are exclamations, and hence the 
 exclamation point [ !] usually follows the interjection, 
 but it sometimes stands at the end of the exclamatory 
 sentence or expression. 
 
 Exercise 81 
 Frame sentences to include the following interjections: 
 
 Oh, ah, pshaw, hurrah, hush, nonsense. 
 
66 GRAMMAR LESSONS 
 
 CHAPTER XXIX 
 
 THE CLAUSE 
 
 It is often desirable to have more than one way of 
 expressing the same thought. For example, 
 
 1. Washington was a fearless man. 
 
 2. Washington was a man without fear. 
 
 3. Washington was a man who did not fear danger. 
 
 4. The man in the carriage was the governor of New York. 
 
 5. The man that sat in the carriage was the governor of 
 New York. 
 
 What words are used to modify mem in the first 
 sentence? What group of words is so used in the 
 second sentence? What group in the third sentence? 
 Why is without fear a phrase? Why can we not call 
 "who did not fear danger " a phrase? 
 
 In the fourth sentence what group of words de- 
 scribes man? You will remember (p. 52) that such 
 a group of words is called a prepositional phrase, and 
 that when used, as it is here, to describe a noun, it is 
 called an adjective phrase. You will also remember 
 that a phrase contains neither subject nor predicate. 
 
 In the fifth sentence the group of words used to 
 describe man is "who sat in the carriage." This 
 group of words, like the phrase, is used as a part of 
 speech, but it contains the subject who and the predi- 
 cate sat. It is, therefore, not a phrase, but a Clause. 
 
 We have, then, the definition: 
 
CLAUSES 67 
 
 A group of words containing a subject and a predicate 
 and used as a part of a sentence is a Clause. 
 
 Exercise 82 
 
 In the following sentences tell whether the italicized groups of 
 words are phrases or clauses, in every case giving reasons. What 
 does each italicized phrase or clause modify 2 
 
 1. The old man in the corner looked grimly at the 
 stranger who entered. 
 
 2. The young man, who was very nervous, said nothing 
 for a moment. 
 
 3. Then the old man raised the heavy cane that lie always 
 carried. 
 
 4. The visitor, who was watching every movement, drew 
 back a little. 
 
 5. " Are you the young fellow who came to the village 
 last week? " 
 
 6. " Did you see the advertisement that I put into the 
 paper? " 
 
 7. " Yes, I thought I could do the work that you wanted 
 to have done." 
 
 8. " I have studied in the new school of forestry, which is 
 probably the best in the country." 
 
 9. " Well, I want somebody who knows how to manage 
 a farm." 
 
 10. " Most of the young fellows in this town hardly know 
 what work is." 
 
 Exercise 83 
 
 In the following sentences find the subject and the predicate in 
 each italicized group of words. What noun or pronoun does each 
 italicized group of words modify 2 
 
68 GRAMMAR LESSONS 
 
 1. The man who thoroughly understands his business is not 
 often without employment. 
 
 2. People who talk loudest sometimes know least. 
 
 3. The sirocco is a hot, dry wind that scorches the leaves 
 on the trees. 
 
 4. We live in the house that you, see on the Mil. 
 
 5. The evil that men do lives after them. 
 
 6. The small trees that bear the red apples are the best. 
 
 7. A boy that is always playing may have to work some day. 
 
 8. He who hunts for flowers will find flowers ; and he who 
 loves weeds may find weeds. 
 
 9. The cynic is one who never sees a good quality in a man 
 and never fails to see a bad one. 
 
 A group of words containing a subject and a predi- 
 cate and used as a part of speech is called a Dependent 
 Clause. 
 
 Explain why each of the italicized groups of words in the fore- 
 going exercise is a dependent clause. 
 
 CHAPTER XXX 
 
 THE CLAUSE USED AS AN ADJECTIVE 
 RELATIVE PRONOUNS 
 
 In the following sentences you will find some short, 
 but very important, words used unlike any others you 
 have yet studied: 
 
 1. A poor woman who lived near a little English village 
 had an only son. 
 
 . This boy, who was called Jack, was unwilling to work. 
 
RELATIVE PRONOUNS 69 
 
 3. One day he sold his mother's cow for some odd-looking 
 beans, which he planted in the garden. 
 
 What is the adjective clause in the first sentence? 
 How do you know? What word connects this clause 
 with the noun woman? What is the adjective clause 
 in the second sentence! What word connects it with 
 the noun boy? What is the adjective clause in the 
 third sentence? What word connects it with the noun 
 beans? 
 
 You have already learned that a pronoun is a word 
 used instead of a noun. Who, which, and that are so 
 used in the exercises illustrating this lesson. But who, 
 which, and that usually refer back, or relate, to some 
 noun going before. Hence they are called Relative 
 Pronouns. The noun to which they relate is called the 
 Antecedent. 1 
 
 We have, then, the definition: 
 
 A pronoun used to connect a dependent clause with a 
 noun or pronoun in the main clause is a Relative Pronoun. 
 
 The principal relative pronouns are who, which, 
 what, and that. 
 
 Exercise 84 
 
 In the following sentences select the adjective clauses, and tell 
 what word connects each clause with some noun in the rest of the 
 sentence : 
 
 1 . The slope of the hill, which was very steep, was covered 
 with rolling stones. 
 
 1 Antecedent means going before. 
 
70 GRAMMAR LESSONS 
 
 2. Upon the hill were two great buildings, the cathedral, 
 which overlooked the river, and the castle, which frowned down 
 on the plain. 
 
 3. The sky, which had been blue, turned to a dark gray. 
 
 4. The coachman, who drove the shining horses, had a 
 portly figure. 
 
 5. The squire was a man who disliked parade. 
 
 6. The island was a rocky place that was hard to reach. 
 
 7. In the path of the storm were sights that made the 
 watchman turn pale. 
 
 8. He uttered a cry that no one heard. 
 
 9. Before him lay a heavy timber that two strong men 
 could hardly move. 
 
 10. But he was a man that was not easily daunted. 
 
 Exercise 85 
 
 In Exercises 82, 83, and 84 select the relative pronouns and 
 the antecedents of each. 
 
 Exercise 86 
 Write six sentences, each containing 1 an adjective clause. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXI 
 
 THE CLAUSE USED AS AN ADVERB 
 
 As often remarked before, a word that modifies a 
 verb is an adverb. But the modifier of a verb may 
 be not merely a single word, but a phrase or a 
 clause. Observe the italicized words in the following 
 sentences : 
 
ADVERBIAL CLAUSES 71 
 
 1. While we were in the town, a company of immigrants 
 passed through. 
 
 2. As they crossed an open meadow, they were attacked by 
 roving Indians. 
 
 3. When the Indians saw the resolute front of the immi- 
 grants, they retreated in confusion. 
 
 How do you know that the italicized groups of words 
 are used as adverbs? How do you know they are 
 clauses 1 
 
 Exercise 87 
 
 Copy the following sentences and draw a line under each group 
 of words used as an adverbial clause. In each case explain why 
 the group is a clause and why it is an adverbial clause: 
 
 1. When you have time, tell me all about your trip. 
 
 2. Do as well as you can. 
 
 3. He was in good health as long as he was in Colorado. 
 
 4. While I am waiting for the postman, I will write a few 
 words more. 
 
 5. Wherever he is he finds work to do. 
 
 6. Dinner is served as soon as the boat leaves the pier. 
 
 7. Frank had to leave school after his father went to 
 Europe. 
 
 8. Our school closes when the hot weather begins. 
 
 9. The vacation continues until the cool days of September 
 come. 
 
 10. There has been no good skating since the races were held 
 on the ice. 
 
 11. Before you write anything, spend some time in thinking. 
 
 thing 
 
72 GRAMMAR LESSONS 
 
 12. After you have been in France a year, you will probably 
 understand French well. 
 
 13. When I am rich I shall be glad to help you. 
 
 Exercise 88 
 Write six sentences, each containing an adverbial clause. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXII 
 
 THE CLAUSE USED AS A NOUN 
 
 A group of words taken as a whole may be re- 
 garded as a noun, just as if the group were a single 
 word. For example, note the clauses in the following 
 sentences : 
 
 1. The colonel learned that the messenger had come. 
 &. The messenger told him how near the enemy was. 
 3. The colonel told his men that they must conquer or die. 
 
 What did the colonel learn? What group of words 
 answers the question? Why would you call this group 
 a noun! Why is it a dependent clause! What did 
 the messenger tell the colonel? What did the colonel 
 tell his men! What group of words answers each of 
 these questions! How is each group used as a de- 
 pendent clause and also as a noun? 
 
 Exercise 89 
 
 Explain why each italicized group of words in the following- 
 exercise is a noun-clause: 
 
 1. What is true of this book is true of all books published 
 within the last twenty years. 
 
NOUN-CLAUSES 73 
 
 2. He feared that Tie might never escape from the island. 
 
 3. What we want to do is not always what we ought to do. 
 
 4. You have already learned that some patience is needed 
 in studying English grammar. 
 
 5. I see in the paper that there has been a great fire in New 
 York. 
 
 6. I will tell you where I live. 
 
 7. I cannot say how sorry I am. 
 
 8. I hear there was a disturbance last night in the lower 
 part of the city. 
 
 9. Few of the guests knew who the stranger was. 
 
 10. I wish the Colonel were in Calcutta. 
 
 11. They say a mule will walk over a trestle bridge like 
 a dog. 
 
 12. He noticed that the house was surrounded by a high 
 stone wall. 
 
 13. I hardly remember who was there. 
 
 14. I thought that I heard somebody speak. 
 
 15. Can you guess what I have in my hand? 
 
 You will observe from a study of these and other sentences that 
 noun-clauses used as subjects are much less frequent than noun- 
 clauses used as objects. 
 
 A noun-clause may be used as an appositive. For 
 example, 
 
 The hope that they may one day be rich is wonderfully 
 attractive to some people. 
 
 The governor has sent word that he cannot come to-day. 
 
74 GRAMMAR LESSONS 
 
 CHAPTER XXXIII 
 
 THE COMPLEX SENTENCE 
 
 We have learned that a simple sentence contains but 
 one subject and one predicate. We have learned, too, 
 that a group of words containing a subject and a 
 predicate and used as some part of speech is a de- 
 pendent clause. 
 
 Let us see what we find in the following sentences : 
 
 1 . While the band played the people stood motionless. 
 
 2. The orator, who moved his hearers at will, was a plain 
 workingman. 
 
 3. When he stopped speaking the applause was long and 
 loud. 
 
 How do you know that the italicized group of words 
 in each of these sentences is a dependent clause? By 
 taking the dependent clause out of each of the sen- 
 tences you have the following expressions left: 
 
 4. The people stood motionless. 
 
 5. The orator was a plain workingman. 
 
 6. The applause was loud and long. 
 
 When a simple sentence is a part of another sen- 
 tence it is called a Clause. A clause that forms a com- 
 plete sentence when taken by itself is called a Main 
 or Independent Clause. All other clauses are Dependent 
 Clauses. The three sentences above that contain main 
 and dependent clauses are called Complex. 
 
 We have, then, the definition: 
 
COMPLEX SENTENCES 75 
 
 A sentence that contains a main or independent clause 
 and one or more dependent clauses is called a Complex 
 Sentence. 
 
 Observe that commas are often used to separate de- 
 pendent clauses from the rest of the sentence. But if 
 the connection in thought is very close the comma 
 should be omitted. 
 
 Exercise 90 
 
 In the following paragraphs point out the complex sentences and 
 the simple sentences, and explain why each is simple or complex : 
 
 The barn that we built last year is much too small. An 
 architect who happened to be in town for a few days drew the 
 plans. But there are some things that we should have ar- 
 ranged differently. For instance, the door that was placed in 
 the corner nearest the house is of no use to us. The space that 
 is wasted in our carriage-room would be useful in the harness- 
 room. But, unfortunately, the week when the architect was 
 here was a time when father had to be out of town. 
 
 The garden where they were sitting had been planted two 
 centuries before. It was full of great rose-bushes, tangled 
 vines, and beds of bright old-fashioned flowers. A bubbling 
 fountain splashed softly in the midst of the long rich grass. 
 The shadows grew longer as the sun slowly sank. Nothing 
 broke the stillness except the falling water. Everything seemed 
 like a dream of the days that had long since vanished. 
 
 Exercise 91 
 
 In Exercises 82, 83, and 84 point out the dependent clauses 
 that are separated from the rest of the sentence by one or more 
 commas. 
 
76 GRAMMAR LESSONS 
 
 Exercise 92 
 
 In the following sentences what are the principal clauses and 
 the dependent clauses, and why? Explain how each dependent 
 clause is used, whether as an adjective, an adverb, or a noun: 
 
 1. Since he had arrived on the island he had seen no human 
 being. 
 
 . He listened to the steady drip, drip, of the water as it 
 fell to the floor of the cavern. 
 
 3. He did not know how long he had been lying there. 
 
 4. The fear that he might slip from the narrow shelf of 
 rock into the boiling flood below made him tremble. 
 
 5. If you pass his door, you will probably hear him singing. 
 
 6. He would not talk so much if you. would talk more. 
 
 7. If you had moved, the lion would have sprung. 
 
 8. The place where this occurred was about a mile from 
 the town. 
 
 9. I remember the day when I first saw him. 
 
 10. Where once the bark canoe lay along the strand, 
 steamers now lie moored along the crowded levee. 
 
 11. Where the stream had overflowed the bank, mud was 
 heaped up in long ridges. 
 
 12. The crash of falling trees resounded in front, where a 
 hundred axemen labored with ceaseless toil to hew a passage for 
 the army. 
 
 13. The painter turned as he spoke. 
 
 14. While they were laughing and talking together, they 
 met a party of Frenchmen. 
 
 15. As the carriage rolled out of sight he turned away 
 from the window. 
 
COMPOUND SENTENCES 77 
 
 Exercise 93, for Review 
 
 In the following paragraph select all the simple and all the 
 complex sentences, and explain why they are simple or complex : 
 
 On the edge of the deep pit which he had dug the miner stood 
 holding a large stone in his hand. Gleams of dull yellow shone 
 on the rough surface as the sunlight struck it. He sat for a 
 time on the grass. The birds that were perched just above his 
 head sang as if they knew what had happened. That stone 
 meant that he was a rich man. He thought over all the 
 struggles that he had had. He remembered the sacrifices that 
 he had made. He trembled at the possibilities that he saw be- 
 fore him. Then he knelt in silence on the ground. He arose 
 with a smile on his lips. For the rest of the day he sang 
 snatches of songs that he had learned in childhood. 
 
 Exercise 94 
 
 Indicate by waved lines, as before directed, the modifiers of 
 the subjects and of the predicates in Exercise 93. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXIV 
 
 THE COMPOUND SENTENCE 
 
 Hitherto we have studied simple and complex sen- 
 tences and the various dependent elements they may 
 contain. We have now to consider how two or more 
 sentences may be combined into one. Observe the 
 following : 
 
 1. The leaves are falling. 
 
 2. The rooks are calling. 
 
78 GRAMMAR LESSONS 
 
 Why is each of these groups of words a simple 
 sentence? By connecting them with the word and we 
 can combine them into a single sentence, as follows : 
 
 3. The leaves are falling, and the rooks are calling. 
 
 By using but as a connective we can in the same 
 way unite simple sentences into a single sentence, as 
 follows : 
 
 4. The rain fell in torrents. 
 
 5. The clouds were beginning to break. 
 
 6. The rain fell in torrents, but the clouds were beginning 
 to break. 
 
 Sentences 3 and 6, which are formed by combining 
 simple sentences, are called Compound Sentences. Each 
 of the sentences 1, 2, 4, and 5, when used as a part 
 of a compound sentence, is called a Member or a Clause. 
 The members of compound sentences may be simple 
 sentences or complex sentences. 
 
 NOTE. We may regard as unimportant the question whether the 
 sentences united to form the compound sentence are themselves simple 
 or complex. We thus avoid the necessity of using the awkward term 
 complex-compound when referring to compound sentences that contain 
 a dependent clause. 
 
 The connectives between the clauses of compound 
 sentences are sometimes omitted; as 
 
 7. The waves dashed higher, the great vessel staggered, and 
 one of the masts snapped with a fearful crash. 
 
COMPOUND SENTENCES 79 
 
 8. She could tell him everything: there was no one else to 
 whom she could tell it. 
 
 9. Neither of them spoke : they stood looking at each other. 
 
 The members of a compound sentence, whether 
 joined by a connective or not, are usually separated 
 by a comma. If the connection is not very close a 
 semicolon or a colon is used. 
 
 Exercise 95 
 
 In the following exercise point out: (a) the members of the com- 
 pound sentences; (b) what word, if any, is used to connect the 
 members ; and (c) what mark of punctuation is used to separate the 
 members. Tell in every case whether the member is simple or 
 complex : 
 
 1 . The gray had not left the west yet, and I could still see 
 a star or two twinkling there. 
 
 2. The fires were lit, and the table was spread. 
 
 3. The square was filled with white tents and gay uni- 
 forms, and on all sides was a noisy conversation. 
 
 4. The weather was fine, and the sea was almost smooth. 
 
 5. In five minutes after we really began to climb we gained 
 the top of the hills, but here we came to a stop. 
 
 6. The sun scorched like fire, and the air swarmed with 
 flies and mosquitoes. 
 
 7. We were sure that we had passed the more tedious part 
 of our j ourney ; but many miles still intervened between us and 
 the fort. 
 
 8. Not one of the little party hesitated, but their faces 
 grew more anxious as they proceeded. 
 
80 GRAMMAR LESSONS 
 
 9. Gradually the darkness increased, and a driving storm 
 came on. 
 
 10. The storm soon drenched every one to the skin, but the 
 rapid march kept the men warm. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXV 
 
 CONJUNCTIONS 
 COORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS 
 
 We have just seen that certain words are used to 
 connect the members of compound sentences. In the 
 following sentences you will observe that the italicized 
 words connect words that are of the same grammatical 
 kind nouns with nouns, adjectives with adjectives. 
 
 1. Bees and ants belong to the insect world. 
 8. His speech was brief but pointed. 
 
 3. All were so tired that neither man nor beast could go a 
 rod farther. 
 
 In the first sentence cmd connects the words bees 
 and ants, each of which is a noun used as the subject 
 of the verb belong. In the second sentence but con- 
 nects the adjectives brief and pointed, both of which 
 describe speech. In the third, neither and nor are used 
 to connect the nouns man and beast, which are the 
 subjects of the verb could go. We call all such con- 
 necting words Conjunctions. Those that connect words, 
 
CONJUNCTIONS 81 
 
 phrases, and clauses of equal grammatical importance 
 are called Coordinate Conjunctions. 1 
 
 Some of the coordinate conjunctions most often used 
 are and, also, but, hence, moreover, or, therefore. 
 
 When coordinate conjunctions are used in pairs they 
 are called Correlative Conjunctions. For example, as 
 as, both and, either or, neither nor, ivhether or 
 are correlative conjunctions. 
 
 A Conjunction is a word used to connect words, phrases, 
 clauses, or sentences. 
 
 Coordinate Conjunctions are words used to connect the 
 parts of a sentence that are of the same rank. 
 
 SUBORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS 
 
 Connectives are not all of the sort we have just dis- 
 cussed. Note the following sentences: 
 
 1. The horse ran because it was frightened. 
 
 2. It continued to run until it fell exhausted. 
 
 3. Unless rain comes soon, the crops will wither. 
 
 Why is each of these sentences complex? What is 
 the principal clause of each? What is the dependent 
 clause? How do you know? What word is used to 
 connect each of these dependent clauses with the prin- 
 cipal clause of the sentence? 
 
 Such words as because, until, and unless are con- 
 junctions because they are connectives and nothing more. 
 But, unlike coordinate conjunctions, they connect de- 
 pendent or subordinate clauses with main clauses. They 
 
 1 Coordinate means of equal rank. 
 
82 GRAMMAR LESSONS 
 
 are therefore called Subordinate Conjunctions, the word 
 subordinate meaning of lower rank. 
 
 A Subordinate Conjunction is used to connect a de- 
 pendent clause with the main clause of the sentence. 
 
 Among the subordinate conjunctions of most com- 
 mon use are after, although, as, although, because, 
 before, except, if, than, that, though, till, unless, until. 
 
 PHRASAL CONJUNCTIONS 
 
 A few groups of words are sometimes used like 
 conjunctions. Such groups are called Phrasal Conjunc- 
 tions, Examples of these are as if, as though, as well 
 as, except that, in order that, so that. 
 
 Exercise 96 
 
 Select the conjunctions in the following 1 sentences, and tell what 
 words or what groups of words they connect: 
 
 1. The child could hardly speak, but it cried for water. 
 
 2. Although rain is unknown in Peru, parts of the 
 country are irrigated by streams. 
 
 3. On the higher ground grew a few bushes, while the 
 face of the rock in places was covered by hanging vines. 
 
 4. The coast curved a little oceanward, so that an ex- 
 tended view could be had. 
 
 5. The farmers must cut their hay this week or it will be 
 spoiled. 
 
 6. Neither this nor that has anything to do with the case. 
 
 7. If the brushwood and dry leaves were cleared away, the 
 fires would not spread so rapidly. 
 
CONJUNCTIONS 83 
 
 8. At Linden, when the sun was low, 
 All bloodless lay the untrodden snow. 
 
 9. We must require either a cash payment or a note with 
 good security. 
 
 10. Both in his words and in his actions he showed guilt. 
 
 11. In a day or two we shall know whether our money is 
 lost or whether our fortunes are made. 
 
 12. To think that we could have been so deceived ! 
 
 13. We must wait until we can get another letter. 
 
 14. He knows the way as well as I do. 
 
 15. Those clouds look as though we should have rain. 
 
 16. In order that there may be no disturbance, a few 
 policemen should be present. 
 
 Exercise 97 
 Use conjunctions in sentences in the following ways : 
 
 1. To connect two nouns used as subjects. 
 
 2. To connect two nouns used as objects of transitive verbs. 
 
 3. To connect two predicate adjectives. 
 
 4. To connect two simple sentences. 
 
 5. To connect a dependent clause with the principal clause 
 of a complex sentence. 
 
 Exercise 98 
 In Exercises 83 and 84 find the conjunctions. 
 
 Exercise 99 
 
 Write a paragraph of at least a hundred words on the topic, 
 What I See From My Window. 1 When you have finished make a 
 list of all the conjunctions in your paragraph. 
 
 1 The teacher will at discretion suggest a substitute topic. 
 
84 GRAMMAR LESSONS 
 
 CHAPTER XXXVI 
 
 SIMPLE SENTENCE WITH COMPOUND ELEMENTS 
 
 As has been explained, a simple sentence has but 
 one subject and one predicate, and a compound sen- 
 tence consists of two members, either of which may 
 be a simple or a complex sentence. But there are 
 some simple sentences that may have more than one 
 subject for the same predicate; while there are others 
 that may have more than one predicate for the same subject. 
 
 Note the italicized words in the following sen- 
 tences : 
 
 1. Daisies and buttercups were in bloom. 
 
 2. All the groves and woods were lightly touched with new 
 foliage. 
 
 3. The captain sat and stared. 
 
 4. The raging flood roared and surged outside. 
 
 In the first sentence the single predicate were has 
 two subjects, which are daisies and buttercups. It is 
 therefore a Simple Sentence with a Compound Subject. 
 What are the two subjects in the second sentence, and 
 what is their predicate! What kind of sentence, then, 
 have you! In the third sentence there are two predi- 
 cates for the same subject. We therefore call it a 
 Simple Sentence with a Compound Predicate. How many 
 subjects in the fourth sentence! How many predi- 
 cates! What kind of sentence is it! 
 
EXERCISES ON SENTENCES 85 
 
 Exercise 100 
 
 Tell which of the following- sentences are simple, which are 
 compound, which are simple sentences with compound subjects, 
 and which are simple sentences with compound predicates: 
 
 1. The trill of the sparrow and the note of the meadow lark 
 came up from the field. 
 
 2. The farmer walked up to the humble bed and sat down 
 on a chair near it. 
 
 3. He took a book from the table, but his friend stood si- 
 lently at the window. 
 
 4. Barks, brigs, and schooners loomed white in the distance. 
 
 5. These fellows or some of their companions had rummaged 
 through the camp. 
 
 6. The smoke of the engine appeared in the distance. 
 
 7. The older man took out his pocket-book, extracted a bill, 
 and began to run. 
 
 8. One crowd swarmed out of the train, and another stood 
 waiting on the platform. 
 
 9. The cabmen hurried about and drove off rapidly. 
 
 Exercise 101 
 
 In the following paragraph tell whether the sentences are sim- 
 ple, complex, or compound. How is each dependent clause used? 
 What connectives join the members of the compound sentences, 
 and what marks of punctuation separate them I 
 
 With the first flush of dawn in the east the bell-ringers began. 
 The great tower trembled as the bells swung to and fro. 
 People in the street stopped and listened. They knew that 
 good news had come. Banners were hung out from the towers 
 and windows. As the morning advanced, processions were 
 
86 GRAMMAR LESSONS 
 
 formed in several parts of the city, and men and boys and even 
 women, in fantastic costume, marched through the streets with 
 drums and trumpets and flags for hours together. At midday 
 a great feast was spread in the principal squares, and the whole 
 population united in rejoicing that peace was proclaimed. In 
 the evening all the windows were ablaze throughout the city. 
 Fireworks were seen everywhere. 
 
 CHAPTER XXXVII 
 
 WORDS USED AS VARIOUS PARTS OF SPEECH 
 
 You have now studied in brief outline the various 
 ways in which sentences are made and used. You 
 have also studied every part of speech, and should be 
 prepared to recognize each wherever it occurs. But 
 some care is necessary in order to avoid error. When, 
 for example, we say, "Our friends sail this afternoon," 
 the word sail is used as a verb. But when we say, 
 "The crew unfurled the sail to the breeze," sail is used 
 as a noun. Explain the different uses of the word in 
 the two sentences. 
 
 As a rule we cannot tell what grammatical name to 
 apply to a word until we find it associated with other 
 words in a sentence and see in what way it is used. 
 The use of words in sentences is what chiefly concerns 
 us in the study of modern English grammar. 
 
 Exercise 102 
 
 Explain whether the words in italics in the following sentences 
 are used as nouns or verbs : 
 
SUMMARY OF DEFINITIONS 87 
 
 1. The masons work rapidly. 
 
 . They will soon finish the work. 
 
 3. He offered his right hand. 
 
 4. Did he hand you the book? 
 
 5. The men rush down the street. 
 
 6. The wind and the rain came with a great rush. 
 
 7. In vacation we get a good rest. 
 
 8. We rest a little every day. 
 
 Exercise 103 
 
 Use each of the following words in two sentences, making it an 
 adjective in the first sentence and a verb in the second: 
 
 Last, welcome, open, free, content, wet, cool, dull, steady, 
 warm, dry, clean, idle. 
 
 Exercise 104 
 
 Use each of the following words in two sentences, making it a 
 noun in the first sentence and a verb in the second: 
 
 Iron, plough, cover, crowd, question, answer, name, seat, 
 step, sleep, look, drink, ship, board, play, bat, jump, run, 
 swing. 
 
 NOTE. This work can be easily extended by the teacher. 
 
 Gathering together the definitions scattered through 
 the preceding pages we note once more that 
 
 1. A word used as a name is a Noun. 
 
 2. A word used instead of a noun is a Pronoun. 
 
 3. A word used to modify the meaning of a noun or a 
 pronoun is an Adjective. 
 
88 GRAMMAR LESSONS 
 
 4. A word used to make an assertion is a Verb. 
 
 5. A word used to modify the meaning of a verb, an 
 adjective, or adverb is an Adverb. 
 
 6. A word used to show the relation between a noun or 
 pronoun and some other word is a Preposition. 
 
 7. A word used to connect words, phrases, clauses, or 
 sentences is a Conjunction. 
 
 8. A word used to express strong feeling is an Inter- 
 jection. 
 
 Applying these definitions, let us determine what 
 part of speech every word in the following sentence 
 may be called: 
 
 633 161 1 4 575 
 
 In his early years at school Robert worked well, but now, 
 
 825 4 3 ^1 
 
 alas ! he sadly wastes his time. 
 
 In and at are prepositions because they show the 
 relation between certain words. In shows the relation 
 between years and worked; at shows the relation be- 
 tween school and years. His, early, and his are ad- 
 jectives (see page 127) because they modify nouns. 
 The first his modifies years, early modifies years, and 
 the second his modifies time. Years, Robert, and time 
 are nouns because they are names. Worked and wastes 
 are verbs because they make assertions. Worked makes 
 an assertion about its subject Robert and wastes makes 
 an assertion about its subject he. Well, now, and sadly 
 are adverbs because they modify verbs. But is a con- 
 junction because it connects the two members of the 
 compound sentence. Alas is an interjection because it 
 expresses strong feeling. 
 
DESIGNATION OF PARTS OF SPEECH 89 
 
 NOTE. Much time will be saved by requiring pupils in their written 
 work to designate the parts of speech by figures as is indicated in the 
 model sentence. That is, the noun is indicated by 1; the pronoun, 
 by % ; the adjective, by 3 ; the verb, by 4; the adverb, by 5; the prepo- 
 sition, by 6; the conjunction, by 7; and the interjection, by 8. 
 
 Exercise 105 
 
 In the same way indicate the use of every word in the follow- 
 ing sentences: 
 
 The wind came up suddenly and in a moment struck the little 
 craft. Flecks of foam blew into our faces. We could hardly 
 see the lighthouse. A second squall was evidently working its 
 way up the lake. In three minutes it was upon us. For a time 
 we did not try to keep our course. All of us except the steers- 
 man were bailing out the water. Five minutes more passed. 
 We looked about. The wind had again died down. We were 
 safe. But oh ! what a tossing we had for five minutes ! 
 
 Exercise 106 
 Select and explain the parts of speech as in Exercise 105. 
 
 " My story is not a very long one," said the tramp. " I 
 have not always been a tramp. Years ago I was well dressed. 
 I had money in my pocket. I had saved several hundred dol- 
 lars. Naturally enough I wanted to see something of the world. 
 I had been a foreman in the factory. My friends thought I 
 could do anything. I was, in fact, a sort of jack-of -all-trades. 
 For some reason I decided to go to Australia. The season was 
 winter when I started, but it was summer when I arrived. For 
 a time I was clerk in a large office. 
 
 "But money was scarce. The crops were bad. The fields 
 
90 GRAMMAR LESSONS 
 
 were bare in many places. Soon I had no position. Then I 
 became a miner, but I was not very successful. I was for a 
 time a sheep-farmer, but the climate was so hot that I could 
 count on nothing. Then I decided to return to America. I 
 worked as a stoker on the steamer. I have been a brakeman on 
 a freight- train. I have been a cowboy, and now I am only a 
 tramp. My life is hard enough in winter, but in summer it is 
 not unpleasant. Do you object to lending me a dime? " 
 
 CHAPTER XXXVIII 
 
 ORAL AND GRAPHIC ANALYSIS 
 
 You have learned that a complete thought expressed 
 in words is a sentence; that a sentence may be divided 
 into two parts, called the complete subject and the 
 complete predicate; that the complete subject may be 
 separated into the simple subject and its modifiers; 
 and that the complete predicate may be separated into 
 the simple predicate, its modifiers, and, in case of 
 verbs of incomplete meaning, the complements and 
 their modifiers. 
 
 It now remains to consider more in detail the com- 
 ponent parts of simple, complex, and compound sen- 
 tences. When you name the parts of a sentence and 
 explain their relations you analyze the sentence. 
 
 In analyzing a simple sentence you necessarily an- 
 swer the following questions: 
 
 1. What is the complete subject and what is the 
 complete predicate? 
 
ORAL AND GRAPHIC ANALYSIS 91 
 
 2. What are the parts of the complete subject? 
 
 3. What are the parts of the complete predicate? 
 
 We will now analyze the following simple sen- 
 tences : 
 
 SIMPLE SENTENCES 
 
 Example 1 
 
 A flood of yellow light streamed from the open door. 
 Making an oral analysis we find 
 
 1. This is a simple declarative sentence. 
 
 2. The complete subject is A -flood of yellow light, 
 and the complete predicate is streamed from the open 
 door. 
 
 3. The complete subject consists of the noun flood, 
 the adjective Ay and the adjective phrase of yellow 
 light modifying flood. 
 
 4. The complete predicate consists of the verb 
 streamed and the adverbial phrase from the open 
 light modifying flood. 
 
 GRAPHIC ANALYSIS 
 
 A flood of yellow light streamed from the open door. 
 "sT B. "pT^ 
 
 Explanation of Symbols 
 
 The single straight line under flood indicates that 
 flood is the simple subject. The two straight lines 
 under streamed indicate that streamed is the simple 
 predicate. The waved lines with the letter s. below 
 
92 GRAMMAR LESSONS 
 
 indicate that A and of yellow light are modifiers of 
 the subject flood, and the waved line with the letter p. 
 below indicates that from the open door is a modifier 
 of the predicate streamed. 
 
 Example 2 
 
 The dark, heavy masses on the distant hillsides were herds 
 of buffaloes. 
 
 ORAL ANALYSIS 
 
 1. This is a simple declarative sentence. 
 
 2. The complete subject is The dark, heavy masses 
 on the distant hillside; the complete predicate is were 
 herds of buffaloes. 
 
 3. The complete subject consists of the noun masses 
 with the adjectives The, dark, heavy, and the adjec- 
 tive phrase on the distant hillside modifying masses. 
 
 4. The complete predicate consists of the verb were, 
 its noun complement herds, and the adjective phrase 
 of buffaloes, which modifies herds. 
 
 GRAPHIC ANALYSIS 
 
 The dark, heavy masses on the distant hillsides were herds 
 
 S. 8. S. S. ' " 
 
 of buffaloes. 
 
 ^^scT"'^ 
 
 In this sentence there are but two new symbols: 
 The three straight lines to indicate the complement of 
 the verb (in this case the subject complement), and the 
 waved line with sc. to denote the modifier of the sub- 
 ject complement. 
 
ORAL AND GRAPHIC ANALYSIS 93 
 
 Example 3 
 
 A bitter, whirling wind drove the fine snow rapidly into 
 drifts. 
 
 ORAL ANALYSIS 
 
 1. This is a simple declarative sentence. 
 
 2. The complete subject is A bitter, whirling wind, 
 and the complete predicate is drove the fine snow 
 rapidly into drifts. 
 
 3. The complete subject consists of the noun wind 
 and its adjective modifiers A, bitter, and whirling. 
 
 4. The complete predicate consists of the verb drove, 
 the object complement snow, with its modifying adjec- 
 tives the and fine, and the adverbial modifiers rapidly 
 and into drifts. 
 
 GRAPHIC ANALYSIS 
 
 A bitter, whirling wind drove the fine snow rapidly 
 
 *sT ~~"X ' s^ ^^ *"ocT' ^oc^" :^EEE ' """"pP^ 
 
 into drifts. 
 ~^~ 
 
 In this sentence but one new symbol occurs, the 
 waved line with oc. to indicate the modifiers of the 
 object complement as distinguished from the subject 
 complement illustrated in the preceding sentence. 
 
 NOTE. The graphic analysis here suggested is, as already remarked 
 in the Suggestions to the Teacher, an excellent device for testing the pu- 
 pil's knowledge of fundamental principles. But we have not suggested 
 any method of indicating by symbols various complicated relations of sec- 
 ondary modifiers. To attempt it in elaborate diagrams to be used by 
 grammar-school pupils is at best very questionable. Such modifiers can 
 be disposed of, if at all, by oral analysis. 
 
94 GRAMMAR LESSONS 
 
 COMPLEX SENTENCES 
 
 In analyzing complex sentences the dependent clause 
 may first be marked as a subject, an object, or a modi- 
 fier. It may then be analyzed separately, to show the 
 relation of the parts. 
 
 In analyzing a complex sentence you have to ask 
 
 1. What are the clauses, and what is the relation of 
 the dependent clause or clauses to the main clause? 
 
 2. What is the complete subject and what is the com- 
 plete predicate! 
 
 3. What are the parts of the complete subject? 
 
 4. What are the parts of the complete predicate? 
 
 5. What are the parts of the dependent clause or 
 clauses ? 
 
 Example 4 
 
 The elks made broad, dusty paths that stretched across the 
 mountain-side. 
 
 ORAL ANALYSIS 
 
 1. This is a complex declarative sentence. 
 
 2. The independent clause is The elks made broad, 
 dusty paths, and the dependent clause is that stretched 
 across the mountain-side. The dependent clause modi- 
 fies the noun paths. 
 
 3. The complete subject is The elks and the complete 
 predicate is made broad, dusty paths that stretched 
 across the mountain-side. 
 
 4. The complete subject consists of the noun elks 
 modified by the adjective The. 
 
ORAL AND GRAPHIC ANALYSIS 95 
 
 5. The complete predicate consists of the simple 
 predicate made, the modifying adverbial phrase across 
 the mountain-side, the complement paths, modified by 
 the adjectives broad and dusty and the adjective clause 
 that stretched across the mountain-side. 
 
 6. The complete subject of the dependent clause 
 is that, unmodified, and the complete predicate is 
 stretched across the mountain-side. The complete 
 predicate is the simple predicate stretched modified 
 by the adverbial phrase across the mountain-side. 
 The two clauses are connected by that. 
 
 GRAPHIC ANALYSIS 
 
 The elks made broad, dusty paths that stretched 
 
 s. oc. oc. . oc. 
 
 across the mountain-side. 
 
 oc. 
 
 The dependent clause takes two sets of markings. 
 The marks below indicate the relation of the clause to 
 the sentence as a whole, while those above indicate the 
 relation of the parts to each other. 
 
 In the analysis of compound subjects each subject should be 
 disposed of separately. The same is true of compound predicates. 
 
 COMPOUND SENTENCES 
 
 In analyzing a compound sentence first separate it 
 into its members and then treat each member like a 
 simple or a complex sentence. 
 
 NOTE. In the graphic analysis no account is taken of connectives and 
 independent elements. 
 
96 GRAMMAR LESSONS 
 
 SECONDARY MODIFIERS 
 
 Up to this point we have noted the two kinds of modi- 
 fiers, adjectives and adverbs. But modifiers them- 
 selves may be modified by words, phrases, or clauses. 
 Such modifying words, phrases, or clauses are called 
 Secondary Modifiers. Illustrations of these occur in the 
 following sentences: 
 
 1. A very large tree stands near the house where Uncle 
 Robert lives. 
 
 2. What is the last word in the first line on this page? 
 
 In the first sentence large is an adjective modifying 
 tree and near the house is an adverbial phrase modi- 
 fying stands. But the adverb v ery, which modifies 
 large, and the clause where Uncle Robert lives, which 
 modifies house, are secondary modifiers. 
 
 Why is on this page, in the second example, a sec- 
 ondary modifier? 
 
 CHAPTER XXXIX 
 
 FOR REVIEW, FOR ANALYSIS, AND FOR THE SELECTION OF 
 PARTS OF SPEECH 
 
 Exercise 107, for Review 
 Write a sentence to illustrate each of the following : 
 
 A noun used independently by direct address ; an interjec- 
 tion; an adjective phrase; an adjective clause; an adverbial 
 phrase; an adverbial clause; a noun-clause; a conjunction. 
 
EXERCISES FOR ANALYSIS 97 
 
 Exercise 108 
 
 Write flve simple sentences and flye compound sentences. Ex- 
 plain the difference between a complex and a compound sentence. 
 
 Exercise 109 
 
 In Exercise 2 (p. 3) name the parts of speech and analyze the 
 sentences. 
 
 Exercise 110 
 Name the parts of speech and analyze the sentences. 
 
 1. The hunter discharged his gun. 
 
 2. The fishermen drew their nets to shore. 
 
 3. Our dog chased a fox over the hills. 
 
 4. Agents send me books every day. 
 
 5. When you post a letter be careful to seal it. 
 
 6. The player struck the ball and drove it over the fence. 
 
 7. Gordon pitched the ball into the air and watched it as 
 it fell. 
 
 Exercise 111 
 Name the parts of speech and analyze the sentences. 
 
 '1. I made my way cautiously through the woods. 
 2. Suddenly a white wolf jumped up from among some 
 bushes. 
 3. Then I heard a rustling sound at a little distance. 
 4. Moving above the tall bushes were the branching antlers 
 of an elk. 
 5. I was in the midst of a hunter's paradise. 
 
98 GRAMMAR LESSONS 
 
 Exercise 112 
 Name the parts of speech and analyze the sentences. 
 
 1 . This afternoon I took the train shortly after three o'clock. 
 
 2. On the platform of the station stood a company of 
 Swedes. 
 
 3. Several women were weeping bitterly. 
 
 4. A few seats ahead of me in the car sat a young man 
 who was on his way back to Sweden. 
 
 5. His eyes were dry, and he did not lose his self-control. 
 
 6. Presently the train started. 
 
 7. He paid no attention to the weeping of the women, and 
 waved a smiling farewell. 
 
 8. A moment later we left the station far behind us. 
 
 Exercise 113 
 Name the parts of speech and analyze the sentences. 
 
 No sign of danger appeared as the party entered the woods. 
 For an hour they struggled along through the dense under- 
 brush. They were now within a mile of the camp. Once or 
 twice they thought that they heard faint cries. But the roar 
 of the waterfall that they were approaching drowned every 
 other sound. About noon they sat down upon the ground 
 for a scanty meal. They had scarcely begun when they saw 
 one of the men from the camp running toward them. He 
 motioned to them that they were to utter no sound, and pointed 
 in the direction of the camp. His clothing was torn, and he 
 was evidently wounded. 
 
PART II 
 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 You have now finished Part I, and before taking 
 up Part II you will do well to think for a moment of 
 the ground you have already covered. In brief sum- 
 mary, the most important facts are the following : Sen- 
 tences, according to the way they are used, may be 
 divided into four kinds, Declarative, Interrogative, 
 Imperative, Exclamatory. 
 
 The two main parts into which a sentence may be 
 divided are the Complete Subject and the Complete 
 Predicate. The complete subject consists of the sim- 
 ple subject and its modifiers, if it has any, and the 
 complete predicate consists of the simple predicate 
 with its modifiers, if it has any, its complements, and 
 the modifiers of the complements. The simple subject 
 is commonly a noun or a pronoun, but sometimes it is 
 a phrase or a clause used like a noun. The simple 
 predicate is a verb or a verb-phrase. If the simple 
 predicate is a verb of incomplete meaning, it must have 
 a complement. 
 
 The modifiers of the simple subject may be an 
 adjective, a noun indicating possession, an appositive, 
 
 99 
 
100 GRAMMAR LESSONS 
 
 or a group of words used like an adjective. The modi- 
 fiers of the simple predicate may be an adverb or a 
 group of words used like an adverb. 
 
 But, besides simple subjects, simple predicates, com- 
 plements, and modifiers, there are words used to con- 
 nect other words and show the relation between them. 
 Such words are called Prepositions. There are also 
 words used to connect words and groups of words 
 without showing the relation between them. Such 
 words are called Conjunctions. 
 
 Sentences have also independent elements, such as 
 Interjections and Nouns Used Independently by Direct 
 Address. 1 
 
 By breaking up a sentence into its component ele- 
 ments we have found that words are divided, according 
 to their grammatical use, into eight parts of speech, 
 Nouns, Pronouns, Adjectives, Verbs, Adverbs, Prepo- 
 sitions, Conjunctions, and Interjections. The Article 
 may be classed as an adjective. 
 
 1 Other independent elements are considered later (pp. 119, 248). 
 
CHAPTER XL 
 
 THE SENTENCE 
 
 Before reaching the chapter in which we considered 
 the parts of speech we studied sentences according to 
 their /orm, as Simple, Complex, and Compound. We 
 are now ready to study more fully the various kinds 
 of sentences, as to their use and form, together with 
 the various parts of speech, their subdivisions and 
 properties. 
 
 Exercise 114, for Review 
 
 Tell what kinds of sentences the following are; select all the 
 compound subjects and predicates; and tell what part of speech 
 every dependent clause and phrase represents: 
 
 1. When you are lost in the woods, follow the line of least 
 resistance. 
 
 2. The man pulled the broad brim of a gray hat over his 
 eyes, but he could not hide his face. 
 
 3. A light breeze now and then wrinkled the blue water. 
 
 4. The fresh breeze, the dewy road, and the pleasant sum- 
 mer dawn revived his spirits. 
 
 5. We planned an excursion to Sandpeep Island. 
 
 6. Another guard of soldiers, in double rank, brought up 
 the rear. 
 
 7. When the roll of the drum was heard, the advancing 
 
 line stood still. 
 
 101 
 
102 GRAMMAR LESSONS 
 
 8. His voice stirred their souls. 
 
 9. Did you hear a rustling of the leaves? 
 
 10. He had been rowing his boat across the lake. 
 
 11. I turned and faced Captain Nutter. 
 
 12. How proud he was of his company ! 
 
 Exercise 115 
 Analyze the sentences in Exercise 114. 
 
 Exercise 116, for Review 
 
 By introducing a relative clause to modify each subject, make 
 the following simple sentences complex: 
 
 1. A horse drew the heavy cart. 
 
 2. The driver sat unsteadily. 
 
 3. Some flower-pots fell to the ground. 
 
 4. The crash aroused the old man. 
 
 5. A bird - - on the roof flew away. 
 
 6. Two dogs in the road sniffed suspiciously at the 
 
 broken flower-pots. 
 
 7. A boy picked up a broken flower. 
 
 8. Just at that moment a handsome, portly man 
 
 rounded the corner of the street. 
 
 9. The bystanders - grew interested at once. 
 
 10. A policeman - came up with an important air, 
 
 11. At his approach the noise - - quieted rapidly. 
 
 12. The inquiries - - soon brought out the facts. 
 
 13. Five minutes later the crowd had vanished. 
 
 Exercise 117 
 Analyze the sentences in Exercise 1. 
 
THE SIMPLE AND THE COMPLETE SUBJECT 103 
 
 Exercise 118, for Review 
 
 In the following sentences select the phrases and the dependent 
 clauses, and tell what part of speech each phrase or clause stands 
 for. Which sentences are simple, and why ? Which are complex, 
 and why 2 
 
 1. The day after my arrival dawned gray and cloudy. 
 
 2. The season was unusually warm. 
 
 3. The rain poured down steadily. 
 
 4. At length the clock in the tower struck seven. 
 
 5. The old man lay still with closed eyes. 
 
 6. He seemed to be asleep, though he was really awake. 
 
 7. His face wore a peaceful expression. 
 
 8. By and by the sun shone out again in fiery splendor. 
 
 9. After he had read my letter the old man asked me to 
 dine with him next day. 
 
 10. When I was announced he greeted me with a warm 
 grasp of the hand. 
 
 11. He wore the black gown of the pensioners of the Hos- 
 pital of Grey Friars. 
 
 12. Candles of all sorts and sizes lit up the room, which 
 was the usual meeting-place of the pensioners. 
 
 13. In the midst of the confusion he was quietly reading. 
 
 14. His favorite book was a history of India, which he had 
 learned almost by heart. 
 
 CHAPTER XLI 
 
 THE SIMPLE SUBJECT AND THE COMPLETE SUBJECT 
 
 What is the simple subject of a sentence! How do 
 you find it? What is the difference between the sim- 
 ple and the complete subject? 
 
104 GRAMMAR LESSONS 
 
 What is the simple predicate of a sentence! How 
 do you find it? What is the difference between the 
 simple predicate and the complete predicate! 
 
 Exercise 119, for Review 
 
 Enlarge the following sentences by adding modifiers to the 
 subjects and to the predicates: 
 
 1. Ships sailed. 10. Men shouted. 
 
 2. Armies fought. 11. Horses ran. 
 
 3. Eagles soared. 12. Clouds gathered. 
 
 4. Birds sang. 13. Flies buzzed. 
 
 5. Flowers bloomed. 14. Children laughed. 
 
 6. Smoke curled. 15. Dogs barked. 
 
 7. Boys sang. 16. Dust flew. 
 
 8. Rain fell. 17. Doors opened. 
 
 9. Fruit grew. 18. Waves dashed. 
 
 CHAPTER XLII 
 
 THE SIMPLE PREDICATE AND THE COMPLETE PREDICATE 
 Exercise 120, for Review 
 
 Find all the simple and the complete subjects; also all the 
 simple and the complete predicates. 
 
 For some distance the road skirted a deep ravine. Then it 
 mounted the hill, and turned sharply every few rods. Evi- 
 dently, the tired horses could not drag heavy wagons and guns 
 up such a road. The commander was in despair. But soon the 
 scout hurried back and reported important news. At least a 
 
THE SIMPLE AND THE COMPLETE SUBJECT 105 
 
 hundred abandoned horses and oxen were grazing some miles 
 ahead. At this announcement a squad of mounted men dashed 
 up the narrow road and passed out of sight in an instant. 
 The whole baggage-train halted. Officers and men dismounted 
 and prepared for the noonday meal. Before nightfall every 
 gun and wagon was safe in the camp on the crest of the moun- 
 tain. 
 
 Exercise 1%1 
 Analyze the sentences in Exercise 118. 
 
 CHAPTER XLIII 
 
 THE NOUN 1 
 Exercise 122 
 
 Select and arrange in columns all the proper nouns and the com- 
 mon nouns in the following list of words, and beside each proper 
 noun place a common noun corresponding to it in meaning: 
 
 John, Ann, queen, woman, river, Germany, mountain, sea, 
 California, city, town, boy, man, street, lake, country, Asia, 
 Charles Dickens, Chicago, author, poet, novelist, Ivanhoe, 
 Sheridan, Vesuvius, Africa, Albany, Cuba, volcano, Christmas, 
 continent, general, island, holiday, capital, Victoria, Missis- 
 sippi, Mediterranean, State, Broadway, Erie. 
 
 THE ABSTRACT NOUN 
 
 Two special kinds of common nouns, abstract and 
 collective nouns, are of frequent use. Abstract nouns 
 
 1 Review Chapter V. 
 
106 GRAMMAR LESSONS 
 
 do not name objects, but they name qualities, actions, 
 or conditions. For example, when a stone is rough 
 we say it has the quality of roughness ; when a horse 
 runs it performs the act of running; when there is a 
 fog there is a state or condition of fogginess. 
 
 In these cases the words roughness, running, foggi- 
 ness are common nouns in the sense of being general 
 or class names, yet they differ from other common 
 nouns in naming not a concrete object, but some quality, 
 some action, or some condition. When qualities, actions, 
 or conditions are separated or abstracted from the ob- 
 jects or things with which they are associated, the 
 names of such qualities, actions, and conditions are 
 called Abstract Nouns. 
 
 An Abstract Noun is the name of a quality, an action, 
 or a condition. 
 
 Many abstract nouns, expressing quality, are formed 
 from adjectives. For example, from good we form 
 goodness; from great, greatness; from strong, strength; 
 from free, freedom; from high, height; from wise, 
 wisdom; from prudent, prudence. 
 
 NOTE. The help of the teacher will be needed here in de- 
 fining and illustrating the difference between concrete and 
 abstract conceptions. Of especial importance is it to point out 
 the close connection between the quality expressed by an adjec- 
 tive and the quality expressed by an abstract noun; as, for ex- 
 ample, " The carpet has a rich color/' " The carpet has richness 
 of color/' " The color of the carpet is rich." 
 
ABSTRACT NOUNS 107 
 
 Exercise 123 
 
 What names of qualities can you form from the following 
 adjectives 2 
 
 Bright, clear, keen, cheerful, damp, dark, cruel, rough, soft, 
 hard, late, brisk, slow, cool, warm, hot, true, false, swift, slow. 
 
 Exercise 14 
 
 What quality can you name as belonging to each of the follow- 
 ing objects? 
 
 Mountain, rock, snow, river, torrent, prairie, swamp, desert, 
 valley, melon, diamond, steel, coal, glass, leather, milk, lemon, 
 sugar, grass, razor, sun, ice, orange. 
 
 Exercise 125 
 
 Many abstract nouns expressing action are formed from verbs. 
 What names of actions can you form from the following verbs 2 
 
 Leap, throw, walk, run, ride, read, write, talk, wink, climb, 
 jump, swing, thump, think, paint, build, dig, call, sing. 
 
 Exercise 126 
 Select the abstract nouns from the following paragraph: 
 
 The rain still fell, and a chilly dampness was in the air. 
 The clouds had no motion, but they hung at a great height and 
 presented surfaces of dense blackness. Presently a small boat 
 hove in sight, steered by a man of uncertain age. His dress 
 was shabby, but the sternness of his expression showed that he 
 was used to being obeyed. The oarsmen handled the boat with 
 much skill, and in spite of the roughness of the waves easily 
 made a landing. Without hesitation the skipper for the 
 steersman was evidently in command of the vessel anchored in 
 
108 GRAMMAR LESSONS 
 
 the bay made his way up the hill to where the smugglers were 
 sitting in silence about the fire. The whole scene had an air 
 of strangeness about it that I still remember. The richness of 
 the men's weapons contrasted strongly with the poverty of 
 their surroundings. The vigilance of the three watchers on 
 the cliff made possible the easy carelessness of the rest of the 
 company. 
 
 THE COLLECTIVE NOUN 
 
 Besides the abstract noun, there is another special 
 kind of common noun, denoting a group or collection 
 of persons or objects of the same kind. For example, 
 we call a collection of birds a -flock; a collection of 
 soldiers a company; a collection of cattle a herd; a 
 collection of bees a swarm; and a collection of trees 
 a grove. 
 
 Exercise 127 
 
 What objects or persons may be included under each of the 
 following collective nouns? 
 
 School, jury, staff, court, trades-union, congregation, as- 
 sembly, crowd, tribe, squad, crew, party, shoal, regiment, 
 troop, fleet, cluster, bunch, pack, drove, committee, board, 
 orchestra, family, brotherhood, menagerie, army. 
 
 NOTE. In preparing this and similar exercises pupils should make 
 free use of a good dictionary. 
 
 Exercise 128 
 
 What noun in the singular may denote a group or collection 
 of the following persons or objects 2 
 
 Cars, sheep, trees, neighbors, members, dogs, ships, soldiers, 
 sailors, directors, keys, chickens, apples, grapes, Indians. 
 
THE PLURAL OF NOUNS 109 
 
 A Collective Noun is one that names a group or collec- 
 tion of objects of the same kind. 
 
 Although a collective noun is usually a common 
 noun, it may become a proper noun if it names a par- 
 ticular object; as, The Second Regiment, Company K, 
 Congress. 
 
 GHAPTER XLIV 
 
 NUMBER OF NOUNS 
 THE USUAL METHOD OF FORMING THE PLFRAL OF NOUNS 
 
 Nouns name either one object or more than one, but 
 they are not all exactly alike in the way they indicate 
 the change in the number. The most common method 
 
 illustrated by the following examples: 
 
 boy ruler book 
 boys rulers books 
 
 Here we see that the form of the noun is changed to 
 indicate a change in the number of objects that are 
 leant. A noun that denotes but one object is said to 
 in the Singular Number; a noun that denotes more 
 tan one object is said to be in the Plural Number. 
 
 Most nouns form their plural by adding s to the singular. 
 
 But to the general rule just stated there are many 
 exceptions. For example, how is the plural formed 
 in the following nouns: Fox, box, wish, dish, loss, 
 Church, crutch, lunch? If we should add only the 
 itter s to the singular of each of these words we 
 
110 GRAMMAR LESSONS 
 
 should get a sound hard to pronounce. We add, there- 
 fore, es. Hence the rule: 
 
 Nouns ending in s, x, z, eh, and sh form their plurals by 
 adding es to the singular. 
 
 Exercise 129 
 
 Write the plural form of as many nouns as you can find ending 
 in s, x, z, ch, and ,s/i. 
 
 THE PLURAL OF WORDS ENDING IN Y 
 Note the plural of the following nouns ending in y: 
 
 fly flies lady ladies cry cries body bodies 
 
 key keys story stories city cities pony ponies 
 
 toy toys valley valleys boy boys baby babies 
 
 Which of these words change y to i and add es? In 
 these cases is y preceded by a consonant 1 or a vowel? 
 Which of the words simply add s to the singular? In 
 these cases is y preceded by a consonant or a vowel! 
 
 Exercise 130 
 
 Form the plural of five words ending in y preceded by a 
 Towel 5 of five words ending in y preceded by a consonant. Make 
 a rule for the formation of the plural of words ending in y. 
 
 THE PLURAL OF WORDS ENDING IN 
 
 Words ending in o most commonly form their plu- 
 rals by adding es to the singular, but there are many 
 exceptions. 
 
 1 The alphabet is made up of vowels and consonants. The vowels are 
 o, e, i, o, w, and sometimes w and y. 
 
IRREGULAR PLURALS 111 
 
 THE PLURAL OF WORDS ENDING IN F on FE 
 
 A small number of nouns ending in / or fe change 
 f to v and add es or s. These include the following 
 common words: Beef, calf, half, knife, leaf, life, loaf, 
 self, shelf, thief, wharf, wife, wolf. Write the plural 
 of these words. 
 
 Exercise 131 
 
 Form the plural of flye words ending in o. Use in sentences 
 the plural of fire words ending in f or fe. 
 
 IRREGULAR PLURALS 
 
 A few survivals of old ways of forming the plural 
 have come down to us. The plural of child is children, 
 of ox, oxen. The plural of brother is brothers or 
 brethren, with some difference in the meaning. The 
 following add no ending but modify the vowel of the 
 singular : 
 
 foot goose man mouse tooth woman 
 
 feet geese men mice teeth women 
 
 The plural of letters, figures, and other symbols is 
 formed by adding an apostrophe and s ('s) ; as, "How 
 many n's in Tennessee?" "There are eleven 9's in 
 ninety-nine." 
 
 The plural of proper nouns preceded by titles is 
 formed in two ways. For the singular forms, "Mr. 
 Brown," "Dr. Brown," and "Miss Brown," we may 
 write "the Mr. Browns" or "the Messrs. Brown," "the 
 Dr. Browns" or "the Drs. Brown," "the Miss Browns" 
 or "the Misses Brown." Since there is no plural form 
 
GRAMMAR LESSONS 
 
 for the abbreviation Mrs. we must write "the Mrs. 
 Browns" as the plural for "Mrs. Brown." 
 
 Some compound words form the plural by changing 
 only the most important part of the word. Thus, son- 
 in-law becomes in the plural sons-in-law, father-in-law f 
 fathers-in-law, and court-martial, courts-martial. But 
 sometimes the sign of the plural is added at the end 
 of the entire word; as, spoonfuls. Some compound 
 words make a change in both elements. The plural of 
 Knight Templar is Knights Templars, and the plural 
 of man-servant and woman-servant, men-servants and 
 women-servants; but s alone is added to form the 
 plural of Brahman, German, Mussulman, Ottoman, and 
 talisman. 
 
 The last syllable of these words does not mean man (a human 
 being). Norman, however, a shortened form of Northman, has the 
 plural Normans, and is an exception. 
 
 A few nouns have two plural forms, with different 
 meanings; as 
 
 SINGULAR PLURAL 
 
 brother brothers (of a family) brethren (of a society) 
 
 cloth cloths (separate pieces) clothes (garments) 
 
 die dies (for stamping) dice (for playing games) 
 
 fish fish (collectively) fishes (singly) 
 
 head head (collectively) heads (singly) 
 
 penny pence (collectively) pennies (singly) 
 
 Among the nouns that have the same form for both 
 singular and plural are deer, she&p, trout, means, odds, 
 
FOREIGN PLURALS 
 
 113 
 
 pains, mathematics, politics, and other words having 
 the ending ics. But words ending in ics are commonly, 
 though not uniformly, regarded as singular. 
 
 Some foreign words retain their foreign plurals, but 
 some of them also form their plurals by adding s or 
 es to the singular. Examples of these may be found 
 in the following list. Others will become familiar to 
 you through your reading: 
 
 SINGULAR 
 
 alumna (feminine) . 
 alumnus (masculine) 
 analysis .... 
 
 bandit 
 
 beau 
 
 cherub 
 
 crisis . . 
 datum 
 
 formula 
 
 genius . . . . 
 
 index 
 
 memorandum 
 
 PLURAL 
 
 alumnae 
 
 alumni 
 
 analyses 
 
 bandits 
 
 banditti 
 ( beaus 
 | beaux 
 j cherubs 
 | cherubim 
 
 crises 
 
 data 
 
 j formulas 
 | formulas 
 
 {geniuses (persons of remarkable powers 
 of mind) 
 genii (spirits) 
 indexes (of books) 
 indices (a mathematical term) 
 memorandums 
 memoranda 
 
114 GRAMMAR LESSONS 
 
 SINGULAR PLURAL 
 
 parenthesis . 
 
 . . . parentheses 
 
 phenomenon . 
 
 . . . phenomena 
 
 seraph 
 
 I seraphs 
 
 
 ( seraphim 
 
 stratum . . 
 
 strata 
 
 The nature of some nouns requires that they should 
 be commonly used only in the singular ; as, self-control, 
 temperance, love, hatred. 
 
 Nouns that are used only in the plural include ashes, 
 assets, billiards, bitters, clothes, dregs, goods, pincers, 
 proceeds, riches, scissors, shears, spectacles, tongs, 
 trousers. 
 
 Some nouns, including gallows, measles, news, are 
 plural in form but singular in meaning. 
 
 As we shall see in a later lesson (p. 127), personal 
 pronouns, unlike nouns, form their plurals by a com- 
 plete change in form. 
 
 Exercise 132 
 
 Write the plural of the following words and, wherever you can, 
 give the rule for the formation of the plural : 
 
 Tree, house, river, glass, bunch, match, lass, rose, calico, 
 tomato, loaf, thief, knife, brother, man, Englishman, French- 
 man, Dutchman, Ottoman, German, Norman, father-in-law, 
 mother-in-law, forget-me-not, mother, cousin, cloth, fish, penny, 
 beau, memorandum, cherub, alumnus, phenomenon. 
 
INDICATION OF GENDER 115 
 
 CHAPTER XLV 
 
 GENDER 
 
 boy man king father lad drake 
 
 girl woman queen mother lass duck 
 
 You will notice that in each of these pairs of words 
 the first noun, as boy, father, drake, which is the name 
 of a male person or animal, is different from the second 
 noun, girl, mother, duck, which is the name of a female 
 person or animal. Here we have different words to in- 
 dicate a difference in sex. 
 
 The distinction of sex is called Gender. 
 
 A noun used as the name of a male being is of the Mas- 
 culine Gender. 
 
 A noun used as the name of a female being is of the 
 Feminine Gender. 
 
 A noun used as the name of an object neither male nor 
 female is of the Neuter Gender. 
 
 The word neuter means neither. 
 
 Nouns that may be either masculine or feminine are 
 said to be of the Common Gender. 
 
 To express difference of sex we either (1) use 
 different words, as in our first list, and in the follow- 
 ing: 
 
 MASCULINE FEMININE 
 
 bachelor maid 
 
 buck doe 
 
 gander goose 
 
 nephew niece 
 
 uncle aunt 
 
116 GRAMMAR LESSONS 
 
 or (2) we change a part of the word, as in the fol- 
 lowing : 
 
 he-bear she-bear 
 
 he-goat she-goat 
 
 landlord landlady 
 
 man-servant maid-servant 
 
 or (3) we add a termination to indicate the feminine: 
 
 actor actress 
 
 giant giantess 
 
 host hostess 
 
 lion lioness 
 
 patron patroness 
 
 priest priestess 
 
 prophet prophetess 
 
 tiger tigress 
 
 hero heroine 
 
 Sometimes objects without animal life are spoken 
 of as if they were persons, having the power to think, 
 and feel, and perform actions. Such objects are said 
 to be personified, and may then be regarded as having 
 sex. For example, we often refer to a ship as she. 
 
 Gender is a matter of relatively slight importance in English 
 grammar. Of the pronouns, only he, she, it really agree in gender 
 with the nouns for which they stand. Who refers to persons, 
 but does not indicate their gender. Which commonly refers to 
 neuter objects, though frequently used to refer to the lower 
 animals. Moreover, except for the comparatively few nouns that 
 denote sex, nouns in English are of the neuter gender, that is to 
 say, they have no gender at all. 
 
CASE IN ENGLISH 117 
 
 CHAPTER XLVI 
 
 CASE 
 
 When words have changes in form to denote a dif- 
 ference in use or meaning they are said to be inflected. 
 Such changes occur in nouns, pronouns, adjectives, 
 verbs, and in some adverbs. Some languages, as, for 
 example, Latin, make free use of inflection, but Eng- 
 lish words have few changes of form, and hence very 
 little inflection. But English words may have as many 
 relations to other words in the sentence as Latin words 
 have. One of these relations we have to consider here. 
 
 We have learned that nouns and pronouns may be 
 used as the subjects of verbs, as the direct or indirect 
 objects of transitive verbs, and as the objects of 
 prepositions. Some of the pronouns when used as 
 objects take a form different from that proper for a 
 subject. We should not think of saying 
 
 Him sees I. 
 Me sees he. 
 Them sees she. 
 But we say 
 
 I see him. 
 He sees me. 
 She sees them. 
 
 In other words, we have in these pronouns a change of 
 form corresponding to the change in the relation to 
 other words in the sentence. In some languages, as, 
 for example, Latin, nouns commonly change their end- 
 
118 GRAMMAR LESSONS 
 
 ings whenever they are used as objects of verbs or of 
 prepositions. Many hundred years ago some nouns 
 did this in English. But most of the old case-endings 
 have been lost, and now the only change in the form 
 of a noun to indicate relation to other words in a sen- 
 tence consists in adding 's or ' to denote ownership or 
 possession. 
 
 If you put nouns in place of the pronouns in the 
 sentences above you see that you can use the same 
 noun as a subject or as an object without changing its 
 form in order to indicate its case. But nevertheless for 
 convenience we say that any word used as the subject 
 of a verb is in the Nominative Case and that any word 
 used as the object of a verb or a preposition is in the 
 Objective Case. Since the form of the nominative and 
 the objective is the same, it is called the Common Form 
 of the noun. The Possessive Case which is a real case, 
 since it takes a case-ending is called the Possessive 
 Form. The only words that have case are nouns and 
 pronouns. The only words that indicate their case by 
 their form are nouns in the possessive form and pro- 
 nouns. 
 
 CHAPTER XLVII 
 
 THE NOMINATIVE CASE 1 
 
 The Nominative Case is sometimes called the subject 
 case. This case is most common, for every sentence 
 must contain a subject, and every subject must be in 
 the nominative case. 
 
 * Review Chapters XI, XV, XVIII, and XXVII. 
 
THE NOMINATIVE CASE 119 
 
 But a noun in the nominative case may stand in 
 various relations to other words in the sentence. It 
 may be the subject of the verb; it may be a predicate 
 nominative; it may be used independently by direct address; 
 and it may be used in exclamations. The following are 
 examples of these four uses of the nominative case: 
 
 1. The Nominative as Simple Subject. 
 The young man had recently come to town. 
 
 2. The Predicate Nominative. When a noun in the 
 nominative stands after the copula or a copulative verb 
 it is called the predicate nominative. 
 
 The young man was a stranger in town. 
 
 3. The Nominative Independent by Direct Address. 
 " Young man, I have a word to say to you." 
 
 4. A noun or pronoun may be used without a verb 
 as the Nominative in Exclamations. 
 
 " Poor fellow! I'm afraid there's no help for him," ex- 
 claimed the Captain. 
 
 There is also the Nominative Absolute, but that we 
 shall consider later (p. 248). 
 
 Exercise 133 
 
 Write five sentences to illustrate the nominative independent 
 by direct address, and five to illustrate the predicate nominative. 
 Name the subject nominatiye in each of your sentences. 
 
120 GRAMMAR LESSONS 
 
 Exercise 134 
 Point out the words used as nomi natives in exclamations. 
 
 1. Strawberries! Strawberries! fresh this morning. 
 
 2. He! He has no head for business. 
 
 3. She! She a painter! She can hardly draw. 
 
 4. Morning papers! All the news! 
 
 5. Happy thought! The very thing! 
 
 CHAPTER XLVIII 
 
 THE POSSESSIVE CASE 1 
 
 It has been explained that the possessive singular 
 is formed by adding to the noun the apostrophe and 
 the letter s ('s). If the plural ends in s the apostrophe 
 alone is added, but if it does not end in s both the 
 apostrophe and s are added, as in the singular. It 
 must not be supposed that the apostrophe represents 
 a sound. It is nothing more than a convenient aid to 
 the eye in reading. 
 
 Exercise 135 
 
 Write the possessive singular and plural of the following 
 nouns : 
 
 King, queen, prince, ruler, man, senator, governor, boy, 
 lady, thief, wife, wolf, brother, child, ox, mouse, woman, 
 neighbor, friend, writer, historian, novelist, poet. 
 
 1 Review Chapter IX. 
 
THE POSSESSIVE CASE 
 
 When nouns end in s or the sound of s, usage is 
 divided in the writing of the possessive. Most writers 
 form the possessive singular of such nouns according 
 to the general rule by adding 's, but others add only 
 the apostrophe. Accordingly, we may write, " James's 
 hat" or " James 7 hat"; " Francis's bow" or "Francis' 
 bow"; "Dickens's Oliver Twist" or "Dickens' Oliver 
 Twist." Certain phrases, such as, "for appearance' 
 sake," "for conscience' sake," "for goodness' sake," 
 take only the apostrophe. 
 
 In forming the possessive of words ending in s or 
 the sound of s we can often make the sound more 
 agreeable by the use of a prepositional phrase with of. 
 In some cases there is little to choose between the 
 two forms; as, for example, between "Burns's poems" 
 and "the poems of Burns." In other cases, such as 
 "Xerxes's army," "Confucius's teachings," we have no 
 hesitation in selecting the prepositional phrase. 
 
 The prepositional phrase with of is commonly used 
 to express the possessive case of names of objects 
 without animal life, which the best writers seldom use 
 in the possessive form. We say "the back of the chair," 
 but not "the chair's back"; "the door of the house," 
 but not "the house's door"; "the handle of the knife," 
 but not "the knife's handle"; "the waterworks of Bos- 
 ton," but not "Boston's waterworks." 
 
 In some phrases, however, such as, "the day's work," "a 
 week's wages," "a year's absence," the possessive form with 's 
 is used. 
 
GRAMMAR LESSONS 
 
 Exercise 136 
 
 Write the possessive singular of the following nouns. Where 
 you think it preferable, use instead of the possessive form the 
 prepositional phrase with of: 
 
 horse 
 
 wall 
 
 Xerxes 
 
 bird 
 
 pony 
 
 Cuba 
 
 hammock 
 
 carpenter 
 
 England 
 
 floor 
 
 barn 
 
 United States 
 
 horseman 
 
 rabbit 
 
 Germany 
 
 rock 
 
 hen 
 
 France 
 
 goddess 
 
 head 
 
 Spain 
 
 girl 
 
 field 
 
 New Mexico 
 
 chimney 
 
 clock 
 
 Paris 
 
 fence 
 
 band 
 
 widow 
 
 gate 
 
 husband 
 
 Kansas 
 
 gate-keeper 
 
 sea 
 
 Lucius 
 
 Compound nouns add the sign of the possessive to 
 the end of the word; as, "commander-in-chief's" and 
 " father-in-law's." Where the noun consists of two or 
 more words, as, "William of Orange," "Queen Eliza- 
 beth," and "Abraham Lincoln," the possessive sign is 
 attached to the last word of the expression; as, "Will- 
 iam of Orange's," "Queen Elizabeth's," and "Abraham 
 Lincoln's." But in such cases the prepositional phrase 
 with of is often preferable to the possessive form. 
 
 To indicate joint ownership the sign of the possessive 
 is used with the last of two or more connected nouns ; 
 as, "Brown and Thompson's mill"; "Smith, White, and 
 Northam's workshops." 
 
THE POSSESSIVE CASE 
 
 To indicate separate ownership the sign of the posses- 
 sive is used with each of the connected nouns; as, 
 "Robert's and Frank's watches." This indicates that 
 each of the persons named possesses a watch. 
 
 Nouns that have the same form in the singular and the plural 
 add 's in the singular and *' in the plural, as deer's (singular) and 
 deers (plural). 
 
 Exercise 137 
 
 Form the possessive of the following words. Use a prepositional 
 phrase with of in place of the possessive with s wherever you 
 think the phrase is preferable: 
 
 Fountain, stars, world, car, writer, poet, poem, boot, town, 
 city, reservoir, government, bank, association, community, 
 painter, judge, Congress, Erie Canal, beggar, gentleman. 
 
 CHAPTER XLIX 
 
 A REVIEW 
 
 What is the difference between a common noun and 
 a proper noun? Write five sentences, each containing 
 a common and a proper noun. What is an abstract 
 noun! Name five abstract nouns. What is a collective 
 noun? Name five collective nouns, and use three of 
 them in sentences. 
 
 Write the singular and the plural forms of ten com- 
 mon nouns. How do nouns ending in y form their 
 plurals? Nouns ending in of Nouns ending in / or 
 Write the plural of the following: Child, man, 
 wman, Miss Smith, daughter-in-law, German, cloth, 
 
 ih, crisis, formula, parenthesis. 
 
124. GRAMMAR LESSONS 
 
 Define gender. Name six nouns of the masculine 
 gender, six of the feminine, and six of the neuter. 
 
 Name the three cases of nouns and pronouns. Write 
 three sentences to illustrate each of the following: The 
 nominative as simple subject, the nominative as inde- 
 pendent by direct address, and the predicate nominative. 
 
 Write the possessive singular and the possessive 
 plural of the following nouns: Robin, canary, hawk, 
 crow, monkey, elephant, bear, ox, wolf, horse. 
 
 Name ten nouns that preferably form the possessive 
 by the use of a prepositional phrase with of. 
 
 Write three sentences containing a noun or pronoun 
 used (1) as the object of a transitive verb, (2) as the 
 object of a preposition, (3) as indirect object. Write 
 a sentence containing a noun used as an adverb. 
 
 CHAPTER L 
 
 THE OBJECTIVE CASE 
 
 You will remember that in only one case, the pos- 
 sessive, is the form of the noun changed to denote the 
 relation of the noun to other words. Hence, to de- 
 termine whether a noun is in the nominative or the 
 objective case, we must see how it is used. Our under- 
 standing of its use depends, to some degree, upon its 
 position in the sentence. If we say, "And then the 
 youth the aged man addressed," we are uncertain 
 
 1 Review Chapters XV, XXII, XXIII, and XXIV. 
 
THE OBJECTIVE CASE 125 
 
 about the subject and the object of the verb addressed. 
 Did the youth address the man or did the man address 
 the youth? We cannot tell. If, however, we say, 
 "And then the youth addressed the aged man," or 
 "And then the aged man addressed the youth," the 
 position of the nouns makes clear which is the subject 
 and which is the object of the verb. 
 
 A noun may be in the Objective Case when used (1) 
 as the direct object of a verb, (2) as the indirect object of 
 a verb, (3) as the object of a preposition, (4) as an adverb, 
 and in some other ways, which will be explained later. 
 
 Illustrations of these four uses of the objective case 
 appear in the following sentences : 
 
 1. Direct object of a transitive verb. 
 The old man dropped the key. 
 
 2. Indirect object of a transitive verb. 
 A little girl handed the old man the key. 
 
 3. Object of a preposition. 
 
 A little girl handed the key to the old man. 
 
 4. Noun used as an adverb. 
 The old man waited an hour. 
 
 Exercise 138 
 
 Write five sentences to illustrate each of these four uses of 
 the objective case. 
 
126 GRAMMAR LESSONS 
 
 CHAPTER LI 
 
 PERSONAL PRONOUNS 1 
 
 A pronoun, as explained in Chapter VI, is a word 
 used instead of a noun. But some pronouns indicate 
 persons or things which have not been named by any 
 noun. Examples appear in the following sentences : 
 7 came. You came. He came. She came. It came. 
 The first word of each of these sentences is not a noun, 
 because it is not a name of any person, place, or thing. 
 But it is a pronoun, because it represents some person 
 without mentioning any name. 
 
 The pronoun I is always in the First Person, you is 
 always in the Second Person, and he, she, and it are 
 always in the Third Person. 
 
 Thou, thy, thine, thee, and ye are not now often 
 used, except in prayer or in poetry. You was originally 
 a plural pronoun only, but it is now used as either a 
 singular or a plural. Its number in a given sentence 
 must be determined by the sense. 
 
 Pronouns of the first and second persons are neces- 
 sarily masculine or feminine, that is, of the common 
 gender. Those of the third person have gender forms 
 in the singular, he, she, it, but none in the plural. 
 
 DECLENSION OF PERSONAL, PRONOUNS 
 
 When we arrange pronouns according to their per- 
 son, number, and case, we are said to decline them. 
 
PERSONAL PRONOUNS 
 
 127 
 
 Nominative 
 
 Possessive 
 
 Objective 
 
 Nominative 
 
 Possessive 
 
 Objective 
 
 First Person 
 SINGULAR 
 I 
 
 my or mine 
 me 
 
 Second Person 
 thou 
 
 thy or thine 
 thee 
 
 Third Person 
 MASCULINE 
 
 PLURAL 
 
 we 
 
 our or oui*s 
 
 us 
 
 ye or you 
 your or yours 
 you 
 
 Nominative 
 Possessive 
 
 he 
 his 
 
 they 
 their or theirs 
 
 Objective 
 
 him 
 
 them 
 
 
 FEMININE 
 
 
 Nominative 
 Possessive 
 
 she 
 her or hers 
 
 they 
 their or theirs 
 
 Objective 
 
 her 
 
 them 
 
 
 NEUTER 
 
 
 Nominative 
 Possessive 
 
 it 
 its 
 
 they 
 their or theirs 
 
 Objective 
 
 it 
 
 them 
 
 The personal pronouns in their possessive forms, 1 my, 
 our, your, his, her, its, and their, are used as adjectives. 
 
 1 These words may be considered as either pronouns or adjectives. His 
 is strictly the possessive case of he, as John's is the possessive case of John, 
 but in modern English his is in effect an adjective and may be so regarded. 
 The same is true of the other words. 
 
128 GRAMMAR LESSONS 
 
 The forms mine, ours, yours, his, hers, theirs, are used 
 in the predicate. In the sentence, "The book is mine," 
 mine stands for the two words "my book." Ours, 
 yours, his, hers, its, and theirs should never be written 
 with the apostrophe. 
 
 Exercise 139 
 
 Select all the pronouns in the following sentences, and tell the 
 number, person, and case of each : 
 
 1. She was clad entirely in white. 
 
 2. She never showed any dislike for her work. 
 
 3. He is witty in his way. 
 
 4. You frighten me. 
 
 5. We will talk about them at another time. 
 
 6. Feeding his mind with many sweet thoughts he jour- 
 neyed along. 
 
 7. They had now reached the road leading to Sleepy 
 Hollow. 
 
 8. His heart began to sink within him. 
 
 9. " Your excellency," said he, " I am a soldier." 
 
 10. I take thee at thy word. 
 
 11. Hush, hush! do not let her hear you. 
 
 12. Thou art the man. 
 
 13. Thy will be done. 
 
 Exercise HO 
 
 Fill out the blanks with appropriate personal pronouns. Give 
 the number, person, and case of each : 
 
 She unfastened the single window, raised and leaned 
 
 out, watching the yellow leaves as fluttered down from 
 
PERSONAL PRONOUNS 129 
 
 the elms. A swallow darted past , but thoughts 
 
 were on other things. - mused on the quaint old por- 
 
 traits that hung in the long gallery. There was the soldier of 
 
 a hundred years before, wearing gay uniform ; there 
 
 was a sweet-faced girl with golden curls sweeping 
 
 shoulders; there were ladies with hair powdered and 
 
 - gowns strangely figured; there was a family group, 
 
 the mother holding - youngest child upon knee 
 
 and the father standing with four sons about . 
 
 As - - mused - - thought, " Shall look so 
 
 strange a hundred years hence? One of those men reminds 
 
 of own father." 
 
 In the midst of revery heard the door softly 
 
 open and the voice of the old housekeeper, " Do want 
 
 to see the other rooms ? If do have j ust enough 
 
 time to see before supper." 
 
 COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUNS 
 
 Some of the personal pronouns are combined with 
 self or selves to form compound personal pronouns. In- 
 stances occur in the following sentences: 
 
 1. Robert himself was there. 
 
 2. Robert hurt himself. 
 
 In the first sentence himself is used to give emphasis 
 to Robert, and is an appositive. In the second, himself 
 is the object of hurt and has a reflexive 1 use. Robert 
 hurt, not somebody else, but himself. 
 
 1 Reflexive means turning back. 
 
130 GRAMMAR LESSONS 
 
 The compound personal pronouns are: 
 
 SINGULAR PLURAL 
 
 myself .... ourselves 
 
 thyself ) 
 
 ! f . . . . yourselves 
 yourselt ) 
 
 himself \ 
 
 herself r . . . themselves 
 
 itself ) 
 
 oneself | 
 
 one^s self j 
 
 Be careful to avoid hisself and theirselves. 
 
 Exercise 1^1 
 
 Fill the blanks in the following sentences with appropriate 
 compound personal pronouns, and tell whether each is used in a 
 reflexive or an emphatic sense: 
 
 1 . The President came to the window. 
 
 2. The soldier saved by a quick turn to the right. 
 
 3. Queen Victoria in her later years kept in retire- 
 ment. 
 
 4. The shopkeepers busied to make ready for the 
 
 spring season. 
 
 5. The actress read the letter . 
 
 6. That, in , was enough to attract attention. 
 
 7. After an hour the fury of the storm spent . 
 
 8. I can hardly forgive . 
 
 9. He does not trust . 
 
 10. We have reserved these rooms for . 
 
 11. The boatman braced against a post. 
 
RELATIVE PRONOUNS 131 
 
 12. The fanatics threw into the river. 
 
 13. It is well sometimes to see - as others see us. 
 
 14. You ought to be ashamed of . 
 
 15. As well as I could I excused . 
 
 Exercise 11$ 
 
 Use six compound personal pronouns in sentences in an em- 
 phatic sense and six in a reflexive sense. 
 
 CHAPTER LII 
 
 RELATIVE PRONOUNS 1 
 
 We must now study more in detail some pronouns 
 that we have already briefly considered (p. 68). Note 
 the pronouns in the following sentences: 
 
 1. In the meantime the captain, who had said nothing, was 
 studying a large chart. 
 
 . The other vessel, which was lying at the wharf, was a 
 long, slender craft. 
 
 Who is a pronoun because it is used instead of the 
 noun captain, and refers to him without naming him. 
 It also introduces the dependent clause, "who has said 
 nothing," and connects this clause with the noun cap- 
 tain, which stands in the main clause, "In the mean- 
 time the captain was studying a large chart." Who is 
 called a Relative Pronoun, 1 and captain is its Antecedent. 
 Give two reasons why which, in the second sentence, 
 is a relative pronoun. What is its antecedent? 
 
 1 Review Chapter XXX. 
 
132 GRAMMAR LESSONS 
 
 The relative pronouns are who, ivhich, that, as, and 
 what. 
 
 Who refers to persons, which to things, and that to 
 either persons or things. As is used when the ante- 
 cedent is such, many, or same. What has no antecedent 
 and is always used in a noun-clause. 
 
 DECLENSION OF RELATIVE PRONOUNS 
 Who and which are declined as follows : 
 
 SINGULAR AND PLURAL SINGULAR AND PLURAL 
 
 Nominative who which 
 
 Possessive whose whose 
 
 Objective whom which 
 
 What, that, and as are not declined. 
 
 Who is either masculine or feminine, ivhich is gen- 
 erally neuter, and as and that may be masculine, femi- 
 nine, or neuter. 
 
 Which is often used to refer to lower animals, and could formerly 
 be used in referring to persons. Whose is the possessive of both 
 who and which, and hence may refer to persons or things. But 
 usually of which is used in referring to lifeless things. 
 
 AGREEMENT WITH ANTECEDENT 
 
 Relative pronouns, like personal pronouns, have the 
 same gender, number, and person as the nouns for which 
 they stand. 
 
 Exercise H3 
 
 Select the antecedents of the relative pronouns, and the verbs 
 used in the relative clauses: 
 
CASE OF RELATIVE PRONOUNS 133 
 
 1. I, who am now in Chicago, have just received your letter. 
 
 2. You who are still young do not understand such mat- 
 ters. 
 
 3. My uncle, who stands at the window, sees us. 
 
 4. The Simpsons, who are now in New York, have lived for 
 years in California. 
 
 5. I, who have been a soldier, find the life here very tame. 
 
 6. The men who know most about danger are not always 
 ready to talk about it. 
 
 7. I like music that has some life in it. 
 
 8. But you, who are always dreaming, prefer music that 
 puts you to sleep. 
 
 9. Yet I, who see how much need there is for wisdom, dare 
 say no more. 
 
 10. No one here knows me, who am carrying the good news 
 from city to city. 
 
 11. Here is one of the novels that have been most popular 
 this year. 
 
 12. That is one of the steamers which sail for Liverpool 
 on Saturday. 
 
 CASE OF RELATIVE PRONOUNS 
 
 Although a relative pronoun agrees with its ante- 
 cedent in gender, number, and person, its case depends 
 upon its relation to other words in the dependent 
 clause in which it stands. For example: 
 
 1. The messenger who dashed into camp had ridden hard. 
 
 2. The messenger whom we saw had ridden hard. 
 
 3. The messenger, whose horse was covered with foam, had 
 ridden hard. 
 
134 GRAMMAR LESSONS 
 
 In all three sentences messenger is the antecedent, 
 but the construction of the relative pronoun, that is, 
 its relation to other words in the sentence, requires 
 that it should have the nominative form in the first sen- 
 tence, the objective form in the second, and the possessive 
 form in the third. 
 
 THE EXPLANATORY RELATIVE CLAUSE AND THE RESTRICTIVE 
 RELATIVE CLAUSE 
 
 Some details about the use of relative pronouns re- 
 quire a word of explanation. Study the following 
 sentences : 
 
 1. This morning I met George Blake, who has lived in 
 France ten years. 
 
 2. An animal that has four feet is a quadruped. 
 
 In the first sentence the relative clause, "who has 
 lived in France ten years," tells something about 
 George Blake by adding the fact that he has lived ten 
 years in France. A relative clause so used is called an 
 Explanatory Relative Clause. It is separated from the main 
 clause by a comma. 
 
 In the second sentence the relative clause, "that has 
 four feet," limits or restricts the meaning of animal. 
 It is an animal "that has four feet" and not an animal 
 "that has two feet." The relative used to introduce 
 such a restrictive clause is called the Restrictive Relative. 
 A restrictive relative clause cannot be omitted without 
 destroying the sense. It is never separated by a comma 
 from the main clause. 
 
THE RELATIVE WHAT 135 
 
 The relative pronoun, used in an explanatory clause, may be dis- 
 tinguished from the restrictive relative by substituting the words 
 and I (you, he, she, it, they) for the relative pronoun. If the relative 
 is restrictive, no such substitution is possible. 
 
 Restrictive relative clauses are most commonly in- 
 troduced by that, but sometimes by who or which. 
 
 The relative is often omitted in short sentences such as, " He is 
 the man [that] I saw yesterday," "Here is the book [thatj I want." 
 
 THE RELATIVE What 
 
 What is unlike the other relative pronouns in having 
 no antecedent. It is equivalent in meaning to "that 
 which" or "the thing which," and has a double con- 
 struction. Note the following sentences : 
 
 1. I remember what you said. 
 
 2. What you said is forgotten. 
 
 3. What is ill spent is wasted. 
 
 In each of these sentences what introduces a de- 
 pendent clause. In the first sentence the dependent 
 clause is the direct object of the verb remember; in 
 the second, the clause is the subject of is forgotten; 
 in the third, the clause is the subject of is wasted. 
 In each sentence what has a double construction. In 
 the first sentence it is the direct object of the two 
 verbs remember and said; in the second, it is the direct 
 object of said and the subject of is forgotten; in the 
 third, it is the subject of both verbs. This double con- 
 struction may be made still clearer if in each sentence 
 
136 GRAMMAR LESSONS 
 
 we substitute for what the equivalent expressions that 
 ivhich or the thing which. 
 
 What always introduces a noun- clause. 
 
 COMPOUND RELATIVES 
 
 Ever and soever are combined with who, which, and 
 ivhat to form the Compound Relatives tvhoever, whoso- 
 ever, whichever, whichsoever, whatever, whatsoever. 
 
 Exercise 144 
 
 In the following sentences point out the relative pronouns. 
 Tell what dependent clause each relative pronoun introduces; 
 what its antecedent is; how it agrees with its antecedent in 
 gender, number, and person; and explain its case: 
 
 1. The tree that grows nearest the fence is a poplar. 
 
 2. The trees that grow on this side are oaks. 
 
 3. Sir Walter Scott was a writer who was equally great 
 as poet and as novelist. 
 
 4. Her health, which was not robust, sank under the blow. 
 
 5. I wish you would send me all the varieties of golden-rod 
 that you find. 
 
 6. Those red brick buildings, which were once intended for 
 a hospital, are now used for a school. 
 
 7. The people who write asking for money sometimes for- 
 get to enclose stamps for a reply. 
 
 8. A novelist who has written one endurable story is too 
 often tempted to write another. 
 
 9. The old writing-desk, which was of solid mahogany, 
 was sadly battered. 
 

 INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS 137 
 
 10. Stanley shouted to the guide, whom he saw far in ad- 
 vance of the party. 
 
 1 1 . This is the little island that I want to buy. 
 
 12. On the other side is an old stone house, which we shall 
 see in a moment. 
 
 Exercise 14.5 
 
 In Exercises 143, 144 which relative clauses are re- 
 strictive and which are explanatory? Explain the use or 
 omission of commas. 
 
 CHAPTER LIII 
 
 I INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS 
 
 Among the most useful pronouns are those used in 
 asking questions. Who, which, and what, when used 
 in this way, are called Interrogative Pronouns. 
 
 The interrogative ivho refers to persons, what usu- 
 ally refers to things, and which to persons or things. 
 
 Who in its interrogative use is declined like the rela- 
 tive who, but which and what remain unchanged. 
 
 Exercise 146 
 
 What is the construction, that is, the case, of each interrogative 
 pronoun in the following sentences: 
 
 1 . Who are those men at the head of the procession ? 
 
 2. What have they in their hands? 
 
 3. What do you suppose they will do next? 
 
 4. What are those gilded wagons? 
 
 5. Which do you mean? 
 
 6. Which are the soldiers and which are the sailors? 
 
 7. Whom do you mean? 
 
138 GRAMMAR LESSONS 
 
 8. Who is coming? 
 
 9. What does he want? 
 
 10. For whom are you waiting? 
 
 INDIRECT QUESTIONS 
 
 Who, whom, which, ivhat are often used in questions 
 that do not exactly reproduce the words of the ques- 
 tioner. Such questions are called Indirect Questions, 
 
 All indirect questions are Indirect Quotations. 
 
 Exercise H7 
 Point out the indirect questions in the following sentences : 
 
 1. The superintendent asked what the girls were studying 
 at school. 
 
 2. The surly watchman asked the boy who had given him 
 permission to sleep in working hours. 
 
 3. My aunt asked what I expected to do in town. 
 
 4. The conductor asked the man who he was, and what 
 was his destination. 
 
 5. The inspector inquired who had broken the windows in 
 the factory. 
 
 6. The general inquired who the stragglers were. 
 
 7. A captain asked the stragglers who had allowed them 
 to pass the lines. 
 
 8. The merchant inquired who the messenger was and 
 whom he represented. 
 
 9. He asked me which I meant to sell first. 
 
 Exercise 148 
 
 Change to direct questions the indirect questions of the pre- 
 ceding exercise. Be careful in your punctuation. 
 

 KINDS OF ADJECTIVES 139 
 
 CHAPTER LIV 
 
 THE ADJECTIVE 1 
 
 We now return to the Adjective, which we studied 
 briefly in a preceding chapter. The adjective is of 
 great value in enabling us to give much information in 
 small space. Sometimes the adjective is as important 
 a part of the sentence as the noun it modifies. Note 
 the following sentences: 
 
 1. Soldiers were riding. 
 
 2. Fifty soldiers were riding across the plains. 
 
 3. Fifty American soldiers were riding across the hot, dusty 
 plains. 
 
 4. All these men had served during the Spanish- American 
 War, 
 
 5. This brave company was a part of the Second Regiment. 
 
 In the first sentence the noun soldiers stands with- 
 out any modifying word. In the second sentence the 
 word fifty modifies the meaning of soldiers by limiting 
 the company to a definite number, although it tells us 
 nothing about the kind or quality of the soldiers. But 
 American describes soldiers by telling us something 
 about their nationality, Spanish- American describes the 
 war, and the words hot, dusty present qualities very 
 descriptive of the plains. All includes the entire body 
 of men, and these and this point out those just men- 
 tioned. Brave indicates the quality of the company. 
 
 1 Review Chapter VII. 
 
140 GRAMMAR LESSONS 
 
 Second limits the company to men from a particular 
 regiment. 
 
 American, hot, dusty, Spanish- American, brave, are 
 called Descriptive Adjectives 1 because they describe the 
 object named by the noun. All, these, this, Fifty, 
 Second, are called Limiting Adjectives because they limit 
 the meaning of the noun by telling which objects are 
 meant, how many, and so on. 
 
 Descriptive Adjectives also limit the meaning of 
 nouns, as may be seen by the following examples: 
 Men, white men, red men, brown men, yellow men, 
 tall men, short men. The word men includes all ob- 
 jects of a certain kind. But white limits the applica- 
 tion of the noun to a certain kind of men, red to a still 
 different kind, brown to a third kind, and so on. 
 
 Some grammarians carefully distinguish between descriptive 
 adjectives and limiting adjectives; and it is evident that some 
 adjectives are highly descriptive, while others add nothing to our 
 knowledge of the character of the things themselves. But the 
 distinction is in many cases difficult to draw, and often not very 
 important. In the strictest sense, every descriptive adjective is to 
 some extent limiting, though a limiting adjective may be in no 
 sense descriptive. 
 
 Since pronouns are used to take the place of nouns, 
 they too may be modified by adjectives. 
 
 Adjectives derived from proper names are called 
 Proper Adjectives; as, American from America. 
 
 1 Sometimes called Qualifying Adjectives. 
 
COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES 141 
 
 Exercise 149 
 Form proper adjectives from the following words: 
 
 Europe, Africa, Australia, Rome, Paris, Germany, Austria, 
 and Italy. 
 
 Notice that proper adjectives, like proper nouns, should begin 
 with capitals. 
 
 The possessive pronouns are used as adjectives (see 
 page 127). 
 
 Numerals are used as adjectives to indicate a definite 
 number of objects; as, one, two, three. Numeral Ad- 
 jectives include also such words as first, second, third, 
 fourth, etc., which tell definitely which object of a series 
 is meant. 
 
 A numeral may be used as a noun. For example, 
 "Six of the men were Germans." 
 
 An adjective preceded by the definite article may 
 be used as a noun; as, 
 
 The rich, the poor, the young, the old, the middle-aged, the 
 good, the bad, the best, the worst, are to be found in a great 
 city. 
 
 CHAPTER LV 
 
 COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES 
 
 We are constantly making comparisons, and we find 
 adjectives very useful in the process. Note the fol- 
 lowing sentences: 
 
 John is quick. 
 
 William is quicker. 
 
 Henry is the quickest messenger boy in town. 
 
GRAMMAR LESSONS 
 
 You will notice that the descriptive adjective quick 
 indicates a quality belonging to John; quicker is used 
 in comparing William with John; quickest, in com- 
 paring Henry with all the messenger boys in town. 
 From this we see that the adjective quick changes its 
 form to indicate different degrees of quality. This change 
 is called Comparison. There are three degrees of com- 
 parison, the Positive, the Comparative, the Superlative. 
 
 The Positive Degree is the unchanged form of the 
 adjective. 
 
 The Comparative Degree indicates that one object has 
 a quality in a higher or lower degree than another. 
 
 The Superlative Degree indicates that one object has 
 a quality in the highest or lowest degree. 
 
 Study the comparison of the following words: 
 
 OSITIVE 
 
 COMPARATIVE 
 
 SUPERLATIVE 
 
 great 
 
 greater 
 
 greatest 
 
 true 
 
 truer 
 
 truest 
 
 long 
 
 longer 
 
 longest 
 
 Study also the following: 
 
 Helen is intelligent. 
 
 Maud is more intelligent. 
 
 Sarah is the most intelligent of all. 
 
 POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE 
 
 beautiful more beautiful most beautiful 
 
 eloquent more eloquent most eloquent 
 
 bashful more bashful most bashful 
 
COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES 143 
 
 From these examples we see that adjectives are com- 
 pared in two ways: (1) By adding er and est to the 
 positive; (2) by using more and most with the posi- 
 tive. Sometimes less and least are used in compari- 
 sons; as, intelligent, less intelligent, least intelligent. 
 
 Adjectives of one syllable and some adjectives of 
 two syllables form their comparatives by adding er and 
 est to the positive. Some adjectives of two syllables 
 and all adjectives of more than two syllables are compared 
 by combining more and most or less and least with 
 the positive form. Some adjectives are compared in 
 both ways. 
 
 There is no invariable rule to be followed in the comparison 
 of adjectives. In some cases the form to be preferred depends 
 largely upon the sound. We should, for example, find more gracious 
 and most gracious easier to pronounce than graciouser and graciousest. 
 But such forms were once common. Double comparatives such as 
 more hotter and more darker, and double superlatives such as most 
 hottest and most gladdest were formerly in good use, but they are no 
 longer permissible. 
 
 The following adjectives have an irregular com- 
 parison : 
 
 POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE 
 
 worse .... worst 
 
 ( farther .... farthest 
 
 far . . . . A 
 
 ( further .... furthest 
 
144 
 
 GRAMMAR LESSONS 
 
 POSITIVE 
 
 good . . . 
 late . . . 
 
 little . . 
 
 many ) 
 much j 
 
 near . . . 
 old . 
 
 COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE 
 
 better best 
 
 later latest 
 
 latter last 
 
 less ) , 
 
 V least 
 
 lesser ) 
 
 more .... most 
 
 nearer 
 
 older 
 elder 
 
 nearest 
 next 
 oldest 
 eldest 
 
 A considerable number of other adjectives present irregularities 
 that may be learned by practice. 
 
 Some adjectives, such as daily, dead, living, golden, 
 entire, whole, etc., properly admit no comparison. 
 
 Such adjectives also as perfect, round, straight, and 
 square cannot, in the strictest sense, be compared, for 
 if anything is square or perfect it cannot be more 
 so. But in actual use such adjectives are often com- 
 pared, since we do not commonly think of a quality as 
 existing to perfection in any object. Hence we often say 
 straight, straighter, straightest, meaning thereby nearly 
 straight, more nearly straight, most nearly straight. 
 But comparisons of this sort should not be employed 
 to excess. 
 
 In using adjectives in the comparative degree we 
 must be careful to use the word other so as to exclude 
 
COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES 145 
 
 the first object from the group of objects with which 
 it is to be compared: 
 
 "Helen was quicker than any girl in her class" is 
 not correct, because "any girl in her class" includes 
 "Helen," and she cannot be quicker than herself. But 
 if we say, "Helen was quicker than any other girl in 
 her class," the word other excludes Helen from the 
 group of girls with whom she is compared. 
 
 In using the superlative degree, however, the first 
 object must be included in the group with which it is 
 compared; as, "Helen is the quickest of all the girls 
 in her class." If we should use the word other our 
 statement would be untrue. 
 
 FORMS OF PRONOUNS AFTER COMPARISONS 
 
 In making comparisons the verb is often omitted 
 after the conjunctions than or as. In such instances 
 the proper pronoun may be found by supplying the 
 omitted verb; as 
 
 He can read better than I [can], 
 I can read better than he [can]. 
 He can read better than she [can]. 
 He can read as well as they [can], 
 
 Exercise 150 
 
 In what degree of comparison is each of the following adjec- 
 tives ? Write the comparison of each : 
 
 Less, famous, handsome, longer, sudden, firmer, bitter, like, 
 ruddy, newest, safe, little, close, more transparent, icy, gray, 
 
146 GRAMMAR LESSONS 
 
 calm, plain, high, lofty, manly, greatest, most unpleasant, 
 fine, dismal, low, next, large, fearful, gloomy, dark, fragrant, 
 invisible, least. 
 
 Exercise 151 
 
 Use an appropriate adjective to describe each of the following 
 nouns : 
 
 Carpet, chair, water, spray, foam, hill, rocks, peaks, scenery, 
 pain, fever, pride, field, river, boat, street, dust, ship, sails, 
 mast, light, cry, stars, moon, eye, face, hand, work, frost, snow, 
 rain, fog, wind, waves, butterfly, roses, diamonds, silver, dog, 
 orange. 
 
 CHAPTER LVI 
 
 ARTICLES 
 
 Two adjectives of frequent use are the Definite Arti- 
 cle the and the Indefinite Article a or an. The may 
 be used with either singular or plural nouns. A or an 
 is used with nouns in the singular number only. 
 
 A stands before words which begin with consonant 
 sounds; as, a boy, a man, a soldier, a united people. 
 Here you will notice that in the last example a stands 
 before a word beginning with the letter u. But the 
 initial sound of united is like that of y as in young. 
 
 An stands before words which begin with vowel 
 sounds; 1 as, an acorn, an eagle, an inch, an omnibus, 
 an honest man. You will notice that the last an stands 
 
 1 See footnote (p. 110). 
 
THE ARTICLES 147 
 
 before the word honest, which is written with initial 
 h but has an initial vowel sound, since the h is silent. 
 
 When an article stands before only the first of two 
 or more connected nouns, it indicates that but one 
 object is named; as, "The secretary and treasurer." 
 But when an article stands before each of the nouns it 
 indicates that different objects are named; as, "The 
 secretary and the treasurer." 
 
 With adjectives the articles are similarly used. 
 When the article stands before only the first of two 
 or more connected adjectives it indicates that but one 
 object is meant by the noun; as, "The brown and 
 yellow leaf." But when the article is repeated with 
 each of the adjectives it indicates that different objects 
 are meant; as, "The brown and the yellow leaf." 
 That is, two leaves, one brown and one yellow, are 
 named. 
 
 An exception to this rule occurs when for the sake 
 of emphasis the article is repeated before each noun 
 or adjective of a series where only one object is meant; 
 as, "The solemn, the stately, the majestic procession." 
 
 Exercise 152 
 
 a or an before each of the following words, and give 
 reasons for your choice: 
 
 Book, letter, newspaper, exception, table, journey, anchor, 
 nty, mountain, useful, sleigh, snow-storm, cloud, season, home, 
 
 intry, house, company, office, egg, fort, army, platform, 
 opinion, cannon, undertaking, library, ink-bottle, year, union. 
 
148 GRAMMAR LESSONS 
 
 CHAPTER LVII 
 
 PRONOUNS USED AS ADJECTIVES 
 
 We have already discussed at some length the use 
 of pronouns and adjectives. We now briefly notice 
 a class of words which are used sometimes as pro- 
 nouns and sometimes as adjectives. Some gramma- 
 rians call such words Pronominal Adjectives, and others, 
 Adjective Pronouns. These include Relative Adjectives, 
 Interrogative Adjectives, Indefinite Adjectives, and 
 Demonstrative Adjectives. 
 
 RELATIVE PRONOUNS USED AS ADJECTIVES 
 
 The relative pronouns which and what are some- 
 times used as adjectives. For example, 
 
 I do not know which piece of work to do first. 
 It does not matter so much what work you do as how well 
 you do it. 
 
 Which and what when used thus with nouns are 
 called Relative Adjectives. 
 
 Exercise 153 
 "Write ten sentences, each containing* a relative adjective. 
 
 INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS USED AS ADJECTIVES 
 
 The interrogative pronouns which and what have a 
 similar use; as, 
 
INDEFINITE ADJECTIVES 149 
 
 Which part of the programme did you like best? 
 What sound was that? 
 
 Which and what when so used are called Interrogative 
 Adjectives. 
 
 Exercise 154 
 
 In which of the following sentences are which and what used 
 as pronouns and in which as adjectives] 
 
 1. What did you say ? 
 
 2. What book have you in your hand? 
 
 3. Which of these books is yours? 
 
 4. Which train goes to Boston? 
 
 5. What is the delay? 
 
 Exercise 155 
 Write ten sentences, each containing an interrogative adjective. 
 
 INDEFINITE PRONOUNS USED AS ADJECTIVES 
 
 There is another class of pronouns that represent 
 objects so indefinitely that they are called Indefinite 
 Pronouns. Many of them may be used as adjectives, 
 and when so used they are called Indefinite Adjectives. 
 Compare these sentences : 
 
 1. Each boy did his best. 
 
 2. Each did his best. 
 
 3. Both sailors were Englishmen. 
 
 4. Both were Englishmen. 
 
 In which sentences are each and both used as pro- 
 nouns, and why? In which are they used as adjec- 
 tives, and why? 
 
150 GRAMMAR LESSONS 
 
 The following list contains some of the indefinite 
 
 pronouns in most common user- 
 All, any, another, both, certain, each, each other, either, 
 
 few, many, none, neither, one, other, one another, several, 
 
 some, such. 
 
 All the pronouns of the foregoing list except each 
 other and one another may be used as adjectives. 
 These are sometimes called Reciprocal Pronouns. 
 There are other indefinite pronouns, such as every one, 
 everything, everybody, any one, anything, anybody, no 
 one, nobody, nothing, somebody, some one, and some- 
 thing, that cannot be used as adjectives because they 
 cannot be used to modify nouns. 
 
 Grammarians do not precisely agree as to the words properly to 
 be classed here, for the number of words that are used some- 
 times as adjectives, sometimes as nouns, and sometimes as indefi- 
 nite pronouns is considerable. 
 
 Exercise 156 
 
 In the following sentences explain whether the words in italics 
 are used as pronouns or as adjectives: 
 
 1. Either course of action presents difficulties. 
 
 2. Have you any other to suggest? 
 
 3. Have all the boys come? 
 
 4. Here are six, but are there others? 
 
 5. Some are coming to-morrow. 
 
 6. In such weather we must try to find some dry place. 
 
 7. Each man here must do his duty. 
 
 8. Do not try to hide behind one another. 
 
DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS 151 
 
 9. They see none of us, I am sure. 
 
 10. Any man that tries to run away disgraces himself. 
 
 11. You may keep all you find. 
 
 12. Few are worth keeping. 
 
 13. Have you found any yet? 
 
 14. Neither of us can find any thing. 
 
 15. Here is one. 
 
 16. There is another. 
 
 17. Each is somewhat damaged. 
 
 Exercise 157 
 Write ten sentences, using in each an indefinite adjective. 
 
 DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS USED AS ADJECTIVES 
 
 Observe the use of this and that in the following 
 sentences : 
 
 1. This is your book. This book is yours. 
 
 2. That is his apple. That apple is his. 
 
 It is clear that this and that in the first sentence of 
 each pair are pronouns, because they represent objects 
 without naming them. This refers to objects near at 
 hand; that to objects farther away. Since they point 
 out definitely the objects to which they refer they are 
 called Demonstrative 1 Pronouns. 
 
 In the second sentence of each pair the demonstra- 
 tive pronoun becomes an adjective because it is used 
 to modify the meaning of the noun. Demonstrative 
 
 1 Demonstrative is derived from a Latin word which means to point out. 
 
152 GRAMMAR LESSONS 
 
 pronouns when used as adjectives are called Demon- 
 strative Adjectives. 
 
 These and those, the plural forms of this and that, 
 must agree in number with the nouns they modify. 
 We sometimes hear the expressions, " These kind of 
 people," "Those sort of things." What is wrong in 
 each instance? 
 
 Be careful not to use them for those in such cases as " Where are 
 those books ? " " Have you seen those boys? " 
 
 Exercise 158 
 
 In the following sentences tell when this, that, these, and 
 those are pronouns and when they are adjectives: 
 
 1 . We must do that if we can. 
 
 2. That is more than we can do. 
 
 3. That work is too hard. 
 
 4. This train goes at nine o'clock. 
 
 5. Is this the train for Boston? 
 
 6. No, this is the train for Montreal. 
 
 7. These exercises are easy. 
 
 8. These are easy exercises. 
 
 9. Those are the best grapes. 
 
 10. Those grapes in the basket are better than these. 
 
 11. Do these grapes cost much more than those? 
 
 Exercise 159 
 Write ten sentences, using in each a demonstrative adjective. 
 
REVIEW OF PRONOUNS 153 
 
 CHAPTER LVIII 
 
 A REVIEW 
 
 What is the difference between a noun and a pro- 
 noun! To illustrate this difference write five sen- 
 tences, each containing both a noun and a pronoun. 
 
 When is a pronoun in the first person 1 In the 
 second person? In the third person? Decline the 
 personal pronouns of the first, second, and third per- 
 sons. Name the possessive pronouns. 
 
 Define a relative pronoun. What is meant by the 
 antecedent of a relative pronoun? Name the relative 
 pronouns and illustrate their use by putting each of 
 them into a sentence. In each of your sentences point 
 out the antecedent, the relative clause, and the main 
 clause. 
 
 Write three sentences, each containing an explana- 
 tory relative clause; also three containing restrictive 
 relative clauses. Which of these relative clauses must 
 be set off from the rest of the sentence by one or more 
 commas ? 
 
 In what two respects is what unlike the other rela- 
 tive pronouns? Write five sentences in each of which 
 you use what as a relative. 
 
 What are the interrogative pronouns? Why so 
 called? Use each of them in two interrogative sen- 
 tences. 
 
 Define an adjective. Compare the following ad- 
 jectives: Goody true, honest, manly, noble, earnest^ 
 
154 GRAMMAR LESSONS 
 
 sincere, industrious. Write three sentences, each con- 
 taining an adjective in the positive degree ; three con- 
 taining adjectives in the comparative degree; and 
 three containing adjectives in the superlative degree. 
 
 Why is the called the definite article, and a or an 
 the indefinite article? What is the difference in the 
 use of a and an? Illustrate this difference by writ- 
 ing each of these articles before ten words. 
 
 Write three sentences to illustrate each of the fol- 
 lowing pronouns used as an adjective: A relative pro- 
 noun, an interrogative pronoun, an indefinite pronoun, 
 and a demonstrative pronoun. 
 
 Why are the demonstrative pronouns so called? 
 What is the difference in the meaning of the demon- 
 strative and the indefinite pronouns? 
 
 CHAPTER LIX 
 
 TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE VERBS 1 
 
 In Chapter XIII we learned that a verb is a word 
 that makes an assertion, and that there must be a 
 verb expressed or implied in every sentence we speak 
 or write. It is therefore important to study verbs in 
 more detail, for when verbs are once mastered most 
 of the difficulties of grammar disappear. 
 
 You will remember that a transitive verb must ex- 
 press action, and that it must take an object to com- 
 plete its meaning. Unless these two things are true of 
 
 1 Review Chapters XIII, XIV, XV, XVI. 
 

 TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE VERBS 155 
 
 any verb it is intransitive. Remember that although 
 most intransitive verbs express action they do not require 
 objects to complete their meaning. Furthermore, the same 
 verb may sometimes be used as a transitive verb in one 
 sentence and as an intransitive verb in another. 
 
 Exercise 160 
 
 Select all the verbs in the following paragraph and write them 
 in two columns. In one column place the transitive verbs, and in 
 the other the intransitive: 
 
 An American ignorant of French often finds some difficulty 
 when travelling in the country districts of France. He asks the 
 way to a cathedral, and he mistakes the names of the streets. 
 He loses his baggage, and he has trouble in explaining what 
 he has lost. He goes to a hotel and orders strange dishes. 
 The dishes he gets are probably not what he expects. He 
 wastes money on cabs. He has daily trials of his patience. 
 He wishes a hundred times for the gift of tongues. He 
 despises the people who do not understand him. They appear 
 so stupid to him. They listen politely enough, but they know 
 nothing of his meaning, though they pretend to follow every 
 word. 
 
 Exercise 161 
 
 Construct two sentences for each of the following words. In 
 the first sentence use the word as a transitive verb, and in the 
 second, as an intransitive verb: 
 
 Draw, hide, ring, begin, choose, break, bend, shake, catch, 
 cut, feel, speak, hear, teach, sting, wind, burn, watch, see. 
 
156 GRAMMAR LESSONS 
 
 CHAPTER LX 
 
 VOICE 
 
 We have learned that all transitive verbs express 
 action. We now observe two distinctly different ways 
 in which the verb expresses the action as related to 
 the subject. This difference is clearly illustrated in 
 the following sentences: 
 
 1. The fisherman caught a trout. 
 
 . A trout was caught by the fisherman. 
 
 In the first sentence the subject fisherman is the 
 actor, and the object trout is the receiver of the action. 
 In the second sentence the fisherman is again the actor 
 and the trout is the receiver of the action, but the word 
 fisherman is not the subject of the verb was caught. 
 The subject is trout. In the first sentence trout re- 
 ceives the action as the object of the verb. In the 
 second sentence, although trout receives the action, it 
 receives it as the subject of the verb. 
 
 The verb caught is said to be in the Active Voice, 
 because the subject is the actor, and the verb was caught 
 is said to be in the Passive Voice, because the subject 
 is the receiver of the action. Hence we say: 
 
 A verb indicating that the subject is the actor is in the 
 Active Voice. 
 
 A verb indicating that the subject is the receiver of the 
 action is in the Passive Voice. 
 
 In the two sentences used for illustration observe 
 that the same verb is used, but with a change in the 
 form of expression. 
 
EXERCISES ON VOICE 157 
 
 Exercise 162 
 
 Why are the verbs in the following sentences in the active 
 voice 2 Rewrite them, and change the verbs from the active to the 
 passive voice. Explain in every case what changes you make: 
 
 1. He drove our coach rapidly down the narrow road. 
 
 2. Above us on the hills we heard the roar of the storm. 
 
 3. Again the driver lashed the horses. 
 
 4. But he frightened them with his blows. 
 
 5. By accident he dropped his whip. 
 
 6. Then he stopped the coach and picked up his whip. 
 
 7. Suddenly a great rolling stone blocked the path. 
 
 8. Serious danger now threatened us. 
 
 9. But an army engineer, with the help of the other pas- 
 sengers, rolled away the stone. 
 
 10. The rest of the trip we made without other accident. 
 
 Exercise 163 
 
 Why are the verbs in the following sentences in the passive 
 voice I Rewrite the sentences, and change the verbs to the active 
 voice. Explain all changes: 
 
 1. The hall was filled with a noisy crowd. 
 
 2. The speaker was greeted with hisses by the mob. 
 
 3. At times he was interrupted by shouting and applaud- 
 ing boys. 
 
 4. After a half-hour he was compelled by the growing 
 tumult to break off his speech. 
 
 5. While bathing at the beach yesterday Judge Medway 
 was seriously injured by a huge wave. 
 
 6- He was carried by his companions to the nearest hotel. 
 
158 GRAMMAR LESSONS 
 
 7. As soon as possible he was examined by Dr. Streeter. 
 
 8. Late in the morning he was taken by four attendants 
 to the hospital in an ambulance. 
 
 Exercise 164 
 
 Use each of the following verbs in two sentences. In the first 
 sentence use the verb in the active voice; in the second, in the 
 passive : 
 
 Catch, carry, print, break, call, cut, burn, wrap, take, blow, 
 strike, climb, gain, tell, eat, spread, shoot, chase, paint, build, 
 carve, measure. 
 
 Exercise 165 
 
 Tell whether the verbs in the following sentences are in the 
 active or the passive voice, and why. Change the voice of each 
 verb, and in every case rewrite the entire sentence. What changes 
 in form are necessary? 
 
 1. Health filled every fibre of his body. 
 
 2. The sparrows beat the windows with their wings. 
 
 3. Every afternoon the little girl was taken to the beach by 
 her father. 
 
 4. The major was struck by a heavy piece of timber. 
 
 5. The schoolmaster received the letter at ten o'clock. 
 
 6. Our grapes were spoiled by the frost last week. 
 
 7. Eight men rowed the heavy boat. 
 
 8. A strong northwest wind soon drove the clouds out of 
 sight. 
 
 9. Three boys were bitten by a dog this morning. 
 10. Five fishermen drew the net to the shore. 
 
THE PASSIVE VOICE 159 
 
 11. The diver was lifted off his feet by a huge wave. 
 
 12. Two delegates were appointed by the committee. 
 
 Since in all changes from the active to the passive 
 the word which was the object of the verb in the active 
 voice becomes the subject of the verb in the passive voice, 
 it follows that intransitive verbs, which of course have 
 no object, can have no passive form. Hence, none but 
 transitive verbs have a passive voice. On the other hand, 
 any verb that cannot be changed into the rcassive form is 
 intransitive. 
 
 Though intransitive verbs in general take no object, some verbs 
 that are essentially intransitive may take an object with a meaning 
 similar to the meaning of the verb, as 
 
 He lived a busy life. 
 
 He dreamed a strange dream. 
 
 Such an object is called a Cognate Object. 
 
 Sometimes by placing a preposition after an intransitive verb 
 we may make a verb-phrase that takes an object like a transitive 
 verb. For example, " The dogs barked at him/' Intransitive 
 verbs thus combined with prepositions may be used in the pas- 
 sive, as, " He was barked at by dogs." 
 
 Exercise 166 
 
 Put into sentences the following intransitive verbs. Then note 
 why you find it impossible to use these verbs in the passive. 
 
 " 
 
 Go, laugh, weep, die, shine, bloom, twitter, sleep, arrive, rise, 
 ile, become, appear, seem, wait, perish, flow, wander: 
 
160 GRAMMAR LESSONS 
 
 Exercise 167 
 
 Write sentences containing the following: verb-phrases in pas- 
 sive form: 
 
 Look at, hoot at, laugh at, laugh down, look upon, talk 
 about, glance at, listen to, attend to. 
 
 Exercise 168, for Review 
 
 Construct six sentences, using in each a copulative verb. In 
 three of them use a predicate noun, and in the others a predicate 
 adjective. 
 
 CHAPTER LXI 
 
 TENSE 
 
 Examine the verbs in the following sentences: 
 
 1. The army marches. 
 
 2. The army marched. 
 
 3. The army mil march. 
 
 In each of these sentences the same kind of action 
 is expressed. The only difference is in the time when 
 the action of marching takes place. In the first sen- 
 tence the verb asserts the action as taking place in 
 present time; in the second, it asserts the action as 
 taking place in past time; and in the third, it asserts 
 that the action will take place in future time. 
 
 The same verb, then, is used to express the same 
 action in all the sentences; but the verb changes its 
 form to denote a change in the time of the action. 
 
 The indication of time by the form of the verb is called 
 Tense. 
 
THE PRESENT TENSE 161 
 
 The verb marches is said to be in the Present Tense 
 because it expresses action that takes place at the 
 present time. 
 
 The Present Tense indicates present time. 
 
 The present tense sometimes expresses a general 
 truth; as, "Fire melts wax," "Three times four are 
 twelve." It also states what is customary or habitual ; 
 as, "The President of the United States issues a 
 Thanksgiving proclamation every year," "The people 
 of the United States elect a President every four 
 years." 
 
 In order to make a narrative more vivid, historians 
 and other writers sometimes represent past events as 
 taking place in present time. The present tense when 
 so used is called the Historical Present. For example, 
 
 In his cramped position the spy sits, busily filling his note- 
 books. Now he counts the tents, now he draws an outline map 
 of the camp. He hears a footfall and crouches closer to the 
 ground. Then he stealthily crawls to the rear and makes his 
 way to a safer position. 
 
 The present tense is often used to indicate future 
 time. For example, "We sail to-morrow," "I am 
 going to England next summer," instead of "We 
 shall sail to-morrow," "I shall go to England next 
 summer." 
 
 This use of the present tense to express future time is as old 
 the English language. In the oldest English the future had 
 
162 GRAMMAR LESSONS 
 
 no special tense -form, and the future meaning was regularly ex- 
 pressed by the present tense. 
 
 The verb marched is said to be in the Past Tense 
 because it expresses action that took place in past time. 
 
 The Past Tense indicates past time. 
 
 By past tense we mean simply indefinite past time. 
 For simplicity we use the term past rather than preterite. 
 
 The verb will march is said to be in the Future Tense 
 because it expresses action that will take place in 
 future time. 
 
 The Future Tense indicates future time. 
 
 Exercise 169 
 
 In what tense are the verbs in the following sentences? 
 Using he as subject, write in corresponding columns the present, 
 the past, and the future tense of each verb : 
 
 1. The Golf Club has seventy members. 
 
 2. The Club House is a handsome building. 
 
 3. Members pay twenty dollars a year, but the initiation fee, 
 with other expenses, amounts to a hundred dollars. 
 
 4. Each member has the privilege of inviting ten friends on 
 special occasions. 
 
 5. Our greatest day is in June. 
 
 6. People come up from New York for single games. 
 
 7. Our best player practises four hours a day. 
 
 Exercise 170 
 
 In what tense are the verbs in the following sentences? 
 Using he as subject, write in corresponding columns the present, 
 the past, and the future tense of each verb : 
 
EXERCISES ON TENSES 163 
 
 1. We went on Tuesday to see Bunker Hill Monument. 
 
 2. On the way I bought some books at a very low price. 
 
 3. The bookseller had them bound handsomely. 
 
 4. On Thursday morning we took the train for New York. 
 
 5. The car was overheated, as usual. 
 
 6. As a result I caught a severe cold, to remind me of my 
 trip to Boston. 
 
 7. In New York we spent the first day at the hotel. 
 
 8. On Tuesday we attended an open-air concert. 
 
 9. We enjoyed most of all a sail to Sandy Hook. 
 
 Exercise 171, for Review 
 
 Select the verbs in the following sentences. What is the sub- 
 ject of each 2 Is the verb transitive or intransitive 1 How do you 
 know? In what tense is it, and how can you tell? 
 
 1. David raised his eyes. 
 
 2. Before him he saw a little girl. 
 
 3. She shyly covered one bare foot with the other. 
 
 4. Then in a gentle voice she asked the way to the beach. 
 
 5. " Take the first road to the left," said David, " and it 
 will bring you straight to the beach. Are you looking for 
 somebody? " 
 
 6. " Yes, I have lost my little brother. He wandered away 
 from home yesterday morning." 
 
 7. David watched the little girl's eyes. 
 
 8. They had a troubled expression. 
 
 9. In an instant he formed a plan. 
 
 10. He called to one of the servants, " Harness the bay 
 mare as soon as you can." 
 
164 
 
 GRAMMAR LESSONS 
 
 11. Five minutes later a handsome horse with a light car 
 riage stood at the door. 
 
 12. " Climb up to the seat, little girl," said he. 
 
 13. " I think I know where your little brother is." 
 
 14. He spoke to the horse, and drove rapidly down the lane. 
 
 15. Two hours later he returned with two rosy faces beam- 
 ing beside him. 
 
 CHAPTER LXII 
 
 PERSON AND NUMBER OF VERBS 
 
 We have considered the person and number of nouns 
 and pronouns (pp. 109-114). We must now see what 
 changes verbs undergo when there is a change in the 
 person and number of the subject. Note the follow- 
 ing verb-forms: 
 
 PRESENT TENSE 
 
 SINGULAR 
 
 1. I am 
 
 2. You are (thou art) 
 
 3. He is 
 
 PLURAL 
 
 1. We are 
 
 2. You are 
 
 3. They are 
 
 1. I move 1. We move 
 
 2. You move 1 (thou movest) 2. You move 
 
 3. He moves 3. They move 
 
 NOTE. The forms of the solemn style have been added for complete- 
 ness, but they need not be made prominent. 
 
 1 In such verbs as mart the ending est with the subject thou in the sec- 
 ond person singular was once common in everyday speech, but it is now 
 confined chiefly to the language of prayer and poetry. The same is true of 
 eth in the third person singular. The endings est and eth occur frequently 
 
THE PERSON AND NUMBER OF VERBS 165 
 
 You here observe that the form of the verb in sev- 
 eral instances changes whenever there is a change in 
 the person and number of its subject. In other words, 
 the form of the verb depends upon the person and num- 
 ber of its subject. Am must be used with the subject I, 
 and since / is in the first person, singular number, the 
 verb am is also said to be in the first person, singular 
 number, to agree with the subject. How many different 
 verb-forms do you find here! What are they? 
 
 In the past tense of the first of these two verbs 
 there is (if we disregard the thou-forms) only one 
 change in the form to denote a change in person and 
 number, and in the second verb there is no change. 
 
 PAST TENSE 
 
 SINGULAR PLURAL 
 
 1. I was 1. We were 
 
 o xr \ (thou wast) vr 
 
 J2. You were 1 %. You were 
 
 ( (thou wert) 
 3. He was 3. They were 
 
 1. I moved 1. We moved 
 
 %. You moved (thou movedst) 2. You moved 
 3. He moved 3. They moved 
 
 Most verbs are inflected like move. 
 
 in the Bible. You in the second person singular is plural in form, but it is 
 singular in sense, and is regularly used in place of thou in ordinary language, 
 but always with the plural form of the verb. Thou art was formerly used in 
 ordinary speech, but it is now found only in the older, solemn style. Ye 
 for you is used in the solemn style. 
 
166 GRAMMAR LESSONS 
 
 We see, then, that (except for the endings est and 
 eth) the only change to indicate agreement with the 
 subject in person and number is the addition of s (es) 
 in the third person singular of the present tense. 
 
 Exercise 172 
 
 In what person and number is each of the following verbs, and 
 why? 
 
 You see. He heard. They knew. You promised. I swung. 
 He swam. They sleep. You will walk. She teaches. I learn. 
 We play. He threw. Will they run? Who speaks? The 
 boat leaked. The wind blew a gale. The clouds hung dark 
 over the mountains. 
 
 Exercise 173 
 
 Write the third person singular number of each of the follow- 
 ing verbs in both the present and the past tense. In each case 
 use he as subject of the verb. 
 
 Lead, have, say, hang, build, go, hold, accept, succeed, read, 
 sleep, obey, walk, write, see, shake, steal, cost, hurt, shine, 
 catch, think, believe, leap, keep, complete, shatter, ride, live, 
 send. 
 
 Exercise 174 
 
 Use each of the verbs in the preceding exercise with the pro- 
 noun thou as subject. 
 
 DON'T FOR DOESN'T 
 
 A large proportion of the errors in grammar arise 
 from a failure to make a verb agree with its subject. 
 Sometimes, for example, don't is incorrectly used with 
 a singular subject instead of doesn't. 
 
DOESN'T AND DON'T 167 
 
 Always use doesn't (not don't] when the subject is 
 in the third person, singular number. 
 
 Compare the following correct and incorrect forms : 
 
 CORRECT INCORRECT 
 
 1. He doesn't see well. He don't see well. 
 
 2. She doesn't dress in good She don't dress in good taste. 
 
 taste. 
 
 3. It doesn't seem true. It don't seem true. 
 
 Exercise 175 
 
 Fill out the blanks in each sentence with doesn't or don't, 
 and give reasons for your choice: 
 
 1. George - - play base-ball. 
 
 . He - - like America. 
 
 3. These books - - please most readers. 
 
 4. That table - - stand firmly. 
 
 5. My watch - - go well since I dropped it. 
 
 6. The weather - - seem promising. 
 
 7. - - you think this exercise a very easy one? 
 
 8. It - - seem to call for much thinking. 
 
 9. A careless pupil - - observe things that are very 
 evident. 
 
 10. As a result he - make rapid progress and 
 
 enjoy his school-work. 
 
 You WAS FOR You WERE 
 
 Another mistake is the use of You was for You were, 
 when but one person is meant. 
 
168 GRAMMAR LESSONS 
 
 In the eighteenth century You was, for the second person sin- 
 gular, was commonly used by the best speakers and writers, but 
 it is no longer in accord with good usage. 
 
 Exercise 176 
 
 Write five declarative sentences, beginning each with "You 
 were," and five interrogative sentences, beginning: each with 
 "Were you." 
 
 NOTE. In connection with thin chapter Exercise lJf.3 (p. 132) should 
 be carefully studied again. 
 
 CHAPTER LXIII 
 
 SPECIAL RULES FOR PERSON AND NUMBER OF VERBS 
 
 Having studied the general rule for the agreement 
 of verbs in person and number with their subjects, you 
 may well give attention to a few special applications 
 of this rule. The following are to be noted : 
 
 1. Two nouns or pronouns connected by and usually 
 have a plural verb agreeing with them; as, "The organ 
 grinder and the woman with him were Italians." 
 
 2. Two singular nouns connected by or, either or, 
 neither nor, require a verb in the singular ; as, 
 "Either Helen or her mother is ready to help us out 
 of the difficulty," "Neither James nor John was able 
 to reach the train in time." 
 
 3. Collective nouns, though singular in form, denote 
 more than one object, and may therefore take a plural 
 verb. 
 
THE AGREEMENT OF VERBS 169 
 
 For example : 
 
 A number of trees have been cut down on the school grounds. 
 The committee are not agreed. 
 
 But when the separate objects are considered as a unit 
 the verb should be singular. 
 For example : 
 
 The number of trees remaining is surprisingly large. 
 The committee is in session. 
 
 In other words, if the various objects named by 
 the collective nouns are thought of as individuals the 
 verb must be in the plural number. In these, as in 
 all other difficult cases of agreement, you must decide 
 whether the subject really denotes but one thing or 
 more than one. Hence 
 
 If the subject is singular in sense, a singular verb 
 must be used; but if the subject is plural in sense, 
 a plural verb must be used. 
 
 4. In determining the agreement of the verb, you 
 should take no account of words that come between 
 
 te subject and the predicate. 
 
 For example : 
 
 Every one of these men has (not have) to work for a living. 
 
 The labor of thousands of men was (not were) required to 
 iar the pyramids. 
 
 A young man, with his mother and three brothers, was 
 'alking down the street. 
 
 The early study of arithmetic and geography is important. 
 
170 GRAMMAR LESSONS 
 
 5. As remarked above, two or more singular sub- 
 jects connected by and commonly take a plural verb. 
 But when the subjects are modified by each or every 
 the verb is singular. For example : 
 
 Each town and city throughout the country has to meet 
 this question. 
 
 Every tree and bush was levelled to the ground. 
 
 Exercise 177 
 
 Fill the blanks with verb-forms of the proper number, and in 
 every case explain why the verb is in the singular or plural: 
 
 1. A man and a boy - picking apples. 
 
 2. The first day and the fifth - - much alike. 
 
 3. A man or a boy picking apples in our orchard. 
 
 4. Neither running nor dancing - - permitted. 
 
 5. Tom and Arthur together in the hall. 
 
 6. Either the work or the worry more than he could 
 
 stand. 
 
 7. Our football team - very good this year. 
 
 8. The entire company - here. 
 
 9. All the company - - here. 
 
 10. His family - - at the seashore all summer. 
 
 11. That handsome pair of horses to my uncle. 
 
 12. The committee agreed. 
 
 13. A regiment marching through the street. 
 
 14. The band - playing. 
 
 15. A raft and a sailboat in sight. 
 
 16. Your knowledge of language and grammar 
 
 increasing. 
 
THE INFINITIVE 171 
 
 Exercise 178 
 
 Fill the blanks with verbs of proper number, and in every case 
 explain why the verb is in the singular or the plural form: 
 
 1. In Africa the summers - very hot. 
 
 2. Tropical countries - many strange plants and 
 
 animals. 
 
 3. One of the strangest animals I ever seen 
 
 the ant-eater. 
 
 4. He - - a long, sticky tongue with which he 
 
 the ants. 
 
 5. I - - not know how many years he . 
 
 6. Some other tropical animals - - of enormous size. 
 
 7. Last October we at the menagerie. 
 
 8. We - - interested to see how the lions . 
 
 9. They - - in a great cage with strong iron bars. 
 10. I - - not afraid, but we - - as well satisfied 
 
 fhen we on our way home again. 
 
 CHAPTER LXIV 
 
 VERBAL NOUNS 
 THE INFINITIVE 
 
 Thus far we have considered the verb as that part 
 )/ the sentence which makes an assertion about the 
 subject. But there are some verb-forms that do not 
 assert action or being. They merely name it. These 
 verb-forms are the Infinitive and the Participle. Let us 
 first give our attention to the Infinitive. 
 
172 GRAMMAR LESSONS 
 
 1. The captain wishes to reach the harbor before night. 
 
 2. To work hard without immediate success is sometimes dis- 
 couraging. 
 
 3. Learn to labor and to wait. 
 
 4. Strive to do well whatever you do at all. 
 
 In the first sentence the verb wishes is in the third 
 person, singular number, to agree with its subject 
 captain. If you change the subject to they, the form 
 of the verb must also change to agree with they in 
 person and number. 
 
 Now examine to reach. Although it expresses action, 
 it does not assert this action about any subject, and 
 therefore does not change its form to express person 
 and number. Being thus unchanged in form it is 
 called the Infinitive. 1 It is like a verb, however, because 
 it takes the noun harbor as its object and is modified 
 by the adverbial phrase before night. 
 
 In the second sentence the infinitive to work is like 
 a verb because it is modified by the adverb hard, and 
 the infinitive to do in the fourth sentence is like a verb 
 because it is modified by the adverb well. 
 
 The infinitive, therefore, is like a verb because (1) it 
 expresses action, (2) (if transitive) it can take an object, 
 and (3) it can be modified by an adverb. 
 
 Looking again at the first sentence, you will find 
 that to reach is used like a noun because it is the direct 
 object of the transitive verb wishes. In the second sen- 
 tence to work is used like a noun because it is the 
 
 1 From a Latin word meaning indefinite, unlimited. 
 
THE INFINITIVE A VERBAL NOUN 173 
 
 subject of is. In the third sentence to labor and to wait 
 are treated like nouns because they are used as the 
 direct objects of the verb learn. The infinitive there- 
 fore is like a noun because it can be used as the subject 
 or the object of a verb. 
 
 Because the infinitive is used partly like a verb and 
 partly like a noun it is called a Verbal Noun. 
 
 Except when used with certain verbs the infinitive 
 consists of the infinitive sign to and the simple form 
 of the verb. The sign to is not really a part of the 
 infinitive, but is a preposition. For convenience, how- 
 ever, we now speak of it as a part of the infinitive. 
 
 The sign to is usually omitted after the verbs bid, 
 dare, feel, hear, help, let, make, need, please, see, watch, 
 and some others, when they are in the active voice. 
 
 A group of words introduced by the infinitive is called 
 an Infinitive Phrase. 
 
 Exercise 179 
 
 Find the infinitives, and note the omission of the sign to. 
 Point out the infinitive phrases: 
 
 Please come here a moment and see this strange animal run 
 up the tree. I can hear him claw the bark. The sound made 
 me shiver at first. Will you help me lift this branch? Now 
 let it come down slowly, so as to hide us. I hardly dare stay 
 here any longer. You need not say you are not afraid. Can 
 you feel the branch tremble as he mounts ? What ! is it noth- 
 ing but a cat? Well, another time I hope I shall be brave 
 enough to watch a cat climb a tree ! 
 
174 GRAMMAR LESSONS 
 
 VERBAL NOUNS IN ing 
 
 The verbal noun in ing is often called an infinitive. 
 The term is accurate enough, but for our purpose the 
 term verbal noun seems simpler. The verbal noun is 
 formed by adding ing to the simple form of the verb. 
 The verbal noun may be modified by an adjective or 
 an adverb. For example, 
 
 Too rapid working leads to mistakes (adjective). 
 Working too rapidly leads to mistakes (adverb). 
 
 The verbal noun may take a direct or an indirect 
 object like a verb. For example, 
 
 In painting a portrait every line is important. 
 By giving him money we induced him to go away. 
 
 Exercise 180 
 
 Find the infinitives and the verbal nouns in ing. Point out 
 the infinitive phrases: 
 
 1. May I take the liberty of inviting you to visit me in 
 Boston ? 
 
 2. Before packing your trunk, go to see the tourist agent. 
 
 3. He will be glad to show you how to escape all annoyance 
 in crossing the city. 
 
 4. My brother insists on my taking a cab at the station. 
 
 5. His way of managing is certainly very simple and saves 
 time. 
 
 6. You will be able to see the principal sights in a week. 
 
 7. Everybody ought to go at least once to the Bunker Hill 
 Monument. 
 
VERBAL NOUNS IN ING 175 
 
 8. You should spend one morning in visiting the Art 
 Museum and the Public Library. 
 
 9. But I will not undertake to tell all that there is to see. 
 
 Exercise 181 
 
 From the following- verbs form the infinitives and verbal nouns 
 in ing. Use five of them as subjects of verbs; five as objects of 
 verbs : 
 
 Promise, love, rise, grow, write, walk, enjoy, fish, run, read, 
 speak, .eat, work, seek, find, whistle, make, spend, catch, spring, 
 jump, know, sing, freeze, wash. 
 
 Exercise 182 
 
 Write the verbal nouns in ing derived from the following 
 verbs : 
 
 Forget, forsake, freeze, have, heave, hide, keep, knit, leave, 
 let, lie, lose, pay, pen, put, rid, run, seethe, sell, shape, shave, 
 shine, shoe. 
 
 Exercise 183 
 
 Fill out the blanks with infinitives or with verbal nouns in 
 
 1. I had no opportunity - him. 
 
 2. When he returns I shall hope - him. 
 
 3. The visitor began - with his fingers on the table. 
 
 4. I am obliged - - the train at once. 
 
 5. I dislike here without anything - . 
 
 6. We prefer - - to the station. 
 
 7. But we do not refuse - with you. 
 
 8. He is accustomed - - when the weather is good. 
 
176 GRAMMAR LESSONS 
 
 9. The clouds made it difficult - - the top of the 
 
 mountain. 
 
 10. Most of us like - - things in order. 
 
 11. The train arrived too late for me - the steamer. 
 
 12. I am sorry - - that I must stay here another week. 
 
 In many cases there is little to choose between the infinitive 
 and the verbal noun in ing as a means of expression. For 
 example, " Most people dislike to work (working) in the 
 dark." Sometimes, however, only one of these forms of ex- 
 pression is possible. For instance, " I recollect seeing that 
 man a year ago," but not, " I recollect to see that man a 
 
 year ago." 
 
 Exercise 184 
 
 Change the infinitives to verbal nouns in ing, and the verbal 
 nouns in ing to infinitives: 
 
 1. I should like to learn another trade. 
 
 2. His chief occupation was to imitate the birds. 
 
 3. We intend to build a new house. 
 
 4. To spend money wisely is not always easy. 
 
 5. To find good illustrations for this exercise requires time. 
 
 6. The workmen began to cut down the trees this morning. 
 
 7. He likes working as much as playing. 
 
 8. In that country riding on horseback is harder than 
 going afoot. 
 
 9. Many people dislike attending to business in hot 
 weather. 
 
 10. Reading aloud is sometimes less tiresome than listening 
 to others. 
 
THE INFINITIVE 177 
 
 VARIOUS USES OF THE INFINITIVE 
 
 We have found (p. 173) that the infinitive may be 
 used as a noun and may be the subject or the object 
 of a verb. The infinitive may also be used (1) as 
 a predicate noun, (2) as a complement, (3) as an 
 adjective, (4) as an adverb, and (5) in an absolute 
 construction. 
 
 1. The infinitive as a predicate noun. 
 His greatest desife was to go to Europe. 
 
 2. The infinitive as a complement. 1 
 
 He might go now. 
 
 We used to attend the concerts in Berlin. 
 
 I am compelled to think so. 
 
 3. The infinitive as an adjective. 
 
 There is always some sweeping to do. 
 He has no money to waste. 
 There is a lesson to learn. 
 
 4. The infinitive may be used as an adverb. 
 (1.) To modify verbs. 
 
 We went to see the pictures. 
 
 (2.) To modify adjectives. 
 
 I am unwilling to give anything. 
 
 He is ready to go. 
 
 This apple is too sour to eat. 
 
 1 See page 231. 
 
178 GRAMMAR LESSONS 
 
 (3.) To modify an adverb. 
 
 He is rich enough to build a large house. 
 
 5. The infinitive in the absolute construction. Some- 
 times the infinitive has no grammatical relation to the 
 rest of the sentence, as 
 
 To tell the truth, the company is not very prosperous. 
 
 An infinitive used in this way is said to be used 
 absolutely. 
 
 The infinitive preceded by a noun or pronoun in the objective 
 case may be used after many verbs. Such an infinitive is equiva- 
 lent to a clause. For example we may say, " We expected him to 
 come last evening," or, "We expected that he would come last even- 
 ing." Him is here said to be the subject of the infinitive, though 
 of course the infinitive never changes its form to agree with any 
 word. See page 172. 
 
 NOTE. Some of the more difficult uses of the infinitive are purposely 
 omitted. 
 
 Exercise 185 
 
 Explain how each infinitive and verbal noun in ing in Exer- 
 cise 184 resembles a verb and how each resembles a noun. 
 
 CHAPTER LXV 
 
 THE PARTICIPLE A VERBAL ADJECTIVE 
 
 A verb-form that in appearance is exactly like the 
 verbal noun in ing behaves very differently in actual 
 use. 
 
 Examine the italicized words in the following sen- 
 tences : 
 
THE PARTICIPLE A VERBAL ADJECTIVE 179 
 
 1 . We saw men running rapidly along the shore. 
 
 2. The sailors soon left their boats anchored in the harbor. 
 
 3. We observed a boy sitting on the sand and eagerly read- 
 ing " Robinson Crusoe." 
 
 In the first sentence running is a verb-form, and is 
 like a verb because it expresses action. It is also modi- 
 fied by the adverb rapidly and by the adverbial phrase 
 along the shore. But it is unlike a verb because it 
 has no subject. We know that the verb in the sentence 
 is saiv because it makes an assertion about its subject 
 we. But running, although it is derived from the verb 
 run and expresses action, makes no assertion about any 
 subject. Moreover, it is used like an adjective in de- 
 scribing the noun men. 
 
 In the second sentence anchored is a verb-form de- 
 rived from the verb anchor, and is modified by the 
 adverbial phrase in the harbor. But since it describes 
 the noun boats it has also the force of an adjective. 
 
 In what respect is sitting like a verb! In what 
 respect is it like an adjective! What adverb modi- 
 fies reading? What noun is its object! 
 
 From these examples we see that these italicized 
 words resemble both verbs and adjectives. 
 
 We have, then, the definition: 
 
 A verb-form that is used partly like a verb and partly 
 like an adjective is called a Participle. 
 
 There are two simple participles, the Present Participle 
 and the Past Participle. 
 
 The Present Participle denotes action as incomplete. 
 
180 GRAMMAR LESSONS 
 
 It is sometimes called the Imperfect Participle because 
 it refers to unfinished action. 
 
 The Past Participle denotes action that is past or com- 
 plete. 
 
 It is sometimes called the Perfect Participle because 
 it refers to complete action. 
 
 Besides the two simple participles there are three 
 compound participles. They are formed by combining 
 a past participle with being, having, or having been; 
 as, having moved, being moved, or having been moved. 
 
 Participles formed with being and having been are found only in 
 the passive voice, and do not belong to intransitive verbs. 
 
 A group of words introduced by a participle is called a 
 Participial Phrase. 
 
 As you may observe in Exercise 187, participial phrases are 
 often set off from the rest of the sentence by one or more commas. 
 
 Exercise 186 
 Form all the participles from the following verbs : 
 
 Sell, build, offer, use, carry, give, hold, call, find, take, 
 feel, slay, swell, glow, warm, flush, change, tremble, shake, 
 heave, pant, cut, beat, melt, turn, touch, kindle, sting, quicken, 
 raise, sharpen, stun, rivet, flash, foam. 
 
 Exercise 187 
 
 Why are the words in italics participles ? Indicate clearly 
 how they are like verbs and how like adjectives: 
 
 1. Dover has a harbor protected by a breakwater. 
 
 2. Having already waited an hour, Danton sat drumming 
 his fingers on the table. 
 
PARTICIPIAL PHRASES 181 
 
 3. A little brook, glancing in the sunshine, ran winding 
 through the meadow. 
 
 4. Rustling in the breeze, the leaves in the high branches 
 seemed to whisper a welcome. 
 
 5. Propped against a tree, Manton swung his lantern and 
 called for help. 
 
 6. The deer ran through the water and, facing about, 
 dashed off at full speed. 
 
 7. One day Nelson, having secured a quantity of corn to 
 grind and knowing that the roads were bad, set out at sunrise. 
 
 8. The entire party, consisting of thirty persons, made the 
 journey in four days. 
 
 9. Marching to music, the procession entered the great 
 church. 
 
 10. The hyenas and jackals fought constantly, growling, 
 laughing, chattering, and howling without intermission. 
 
 11. Next morning we saw a lion dragging a heavy load up 
 the river bank. 
 
 12. Continuing our advance, we presently heard dogs bark- 
 ing. 
 
 13. My followers were glad to see me returning. 
 
 14. I had lain watching the animals for four hours. 
 
 15. Claude stood looking at the floor. 
 
 Exercise 188 
 What are the participial phrases in the preceding exercise? 
 
 
 
 Exercise 189 
 
 Point out the participles, and tell in every case the noun or 
 pronoun which the participle modifies: 
 
182 GRAMMAR LESSONS 
 
 Rising with a sudden movement, the old boatman stood 
 watching the sunset. Far in the distance lay the river winding 
 until it lost itself among the hills. Before him ran troops of 
 children, shouting and laughing as they played. But he heard 
 them not. His thoughts dwelt on a day long past when he came 
 home, leading his bride to the very door where he now stood. 
 He looked about the little cottage. There was the old clock 
 still ticking busily that she used to wind. There was the old 
 armchair where she used to sit knitting, knitting. Every ob- 
 ject reminded him of the early years when he was a young 
 giant, towering head and shoulders above his fellows and the 
 envy of all who knew him. " No, I'll not think of those years," 
 said he, brushing a tear from his eye. Then, whistling for his 
 dog, he strode down the hill to the river. 
 
 Exercise 190 
 
 What are the participial phrases in the preceding exercise 
 which are set off by commas] Write ten participial phrases. 
 
 CHAPTER LXVI 
 
 THE VERBAL NOUN AND THE PARTICIPLE 
 
 We must now distinguish more carefully the verbal 
 noun in ing from the participle in ing. 
 Examine closely the italicized words: 
 
 1. Rowing is good exercise. 
 
 . Do you like rowing? 
 
 3. After rowing our boat for a mile we began to fish. 
 
 4. Our friend saw us rowing down stream. 
 
VERBAL NOUNS AND PARTICIPLES 183 
 
 In the first example rowing is the subject of the 
 verb is, and is therefore a noun. In the second exam- 
 ple it is also a noun used as the object of the verb do 
 like. In the third it is the object of the preposition 
 after. But in the fourth it is an adjective modifying 
 the pronoun us. Hence 
 
 To distinguish a verbal noun in ing from a partici- 
 ple in ing, see whether the word is used as the subject 
 of a verb, as a predicate nominative, as the object of 
 a verb or of a preposition, or whether it is used as an 
 adjective. 
 
 Exercise 191 
 
 Select all the participles and the verbal nouns in ing. Ex- 
 plain the case of the verbal nonns in ing, and tell what nouns 
 or pronouns the participles modify. What objects and adverbial 
 modifiers have the verbal nouns and the participles? 
 
 1. A bullet sped past, barely missing Kenyon's ear. 
 
 2. After arriving in London you will have little time for 
 writing. 
 
 3. I can't help bringing in some mud from the street. 
 
 4. Covering his face with his hand, he marched out. 
 
 5. By covering his face he could remain undiscovered. 
 
 6. Gerson gave Manly a sudden push that sent the books 
 flying to the floor. 
 
 7. " Come here," said the master, addressing Gerson. 
 
 8. An hour was occupied in preparing the lesson. 
 
 9. Suiting the action to the word, the pilot cut the rope. 
 10. He now steered more carefully, studying the chart and 
 
 watching the compass in the box before him. 
 
184 GRAMMAR LESSONS 
 
 11. There was a strong feeling against buying and selling 
 votes. 
 
 12. On examining the wound the surgeon found the injury 
 to be slight. 
 
 13. Leaning back contentedly, he smiled at the new arrival. 
 
 14. The man lay groaning on the grass. 
 
 15. The art of entertaining is difficult. 
 
 Exercise 192, for Review 
 
 Write ten participial phrases. Write ten sentences, 
 each containing participial phrases. Explain the use 
 of each phrase. 
 
 Exercise 193, for Review 
 
 What is an infinitive phrase? Write ten such 
 phrases. Write five sentences, each containing an in- 
 finitive phrase used as a noun; five sentences, each 
 containing an infinitive phrase used as an adjective; 
 and five, each containing an infinitive phrase used as 
 an adverb. 
 
 Exercise 194, f or Review 
 
 (What is a prepositional phrase? Write ten such 
 phrases. Write five sentences, each containing a 
 prepositional phrase used as an adjective; also ten 
 sentences, each containing a prepositional phrase used 
 as an adverb. 
 
 Remember that in form phrases are divided into prepositional 
 phrases, infinitive phrases, and participial phrases. In use, they 
 may be noun-phrases, adjective phrases, or adverbial phrases. 
 
THE PAST TENSE OF WEAK VERBS 185 
 CHAPTER LXVII 
 
 STRONG AND WEAK VERBS 
 
 Verbs may be divided into two great classes accord- 
 ing to the way in which they form their past tense. 
 We consider first the most common method. 
 
 WEAK VERBS 
 
 Compare the italicized verb-forms in the following 
 sentences : 
 
 PRESENT TENSE PAST TENSE PAST PARTICIPLE 
 
 They fish now. They fished yesterday. They have fished. 
 They work now. They worked yesterday. They have worked. 
 They hunt now. They hunted yesterday. They have hunted. 
 
 Observe that the past tense and the past participle 
 of these verbs are exactly the same, and that each is 
 formed by adding ed to the present. 
 
 If for the verbs fish, work, hunt, the verbs love, smile, 
 or hope be substituted all of which end in e the past 
 tense and the past participle will be formed by adding 
 only d to the present. 
 
 Some verbs, like feel, sleep, add t instead of ed or 
 d to form the past tense and the past participle. 
 
 Most verbs form the past tense by adding the endings ed, 
 d, or t to the present. Such verbs are called Weak Verbs. 
 These verbs are very numerous, and, largely for that 
 reason, are often called Regular Verbs. This name is, 
 however, not very accurate. 
 
186 GRAMMAR LESSONS 
 
 Exercise 195 
 
 Write in the third person plural the present tense and the 
 past tense of the following verbs : 
 
 Sharpen, stir, arouse, please, suffer, grieve, mourn, enjoy, 
 bless, charm, create, afford, delight, bewitch, flatter, treat, 
 amuse, satisfy, attract, interest, provide, comfort, cause, sweep, 
 bend, bereave, dwell, have, hear, send. 
 
 STRONG VERBS 
 
 There is another group of verbs, much smaller in 
 number yet very frequently in use, that form the past 
 tense in another way. Note the following verbs : 
 
 PRESENT TENSE PAST TENSE PAST PARTICIPLE 
 
 They see now. They saw yesterday. They have seen. 
 
 They run now. They ran yesterday. They have run. 
 
 They sing now. They sang yesterday. They have sung. 
 
 They write now. They wrote yesterday. They have written. 
 
 Here we see that the past tense is formed, not by 
 adding ed, d, or t to the present, but by making a 
 change in the vowel of the present. Such verbs are 
 called Strong Verbs. 
 
 A Strong Verb forms its past tense, not by adding an 
 ending to the present, but by changing its vowel. 
 
 Since less than a hundred strong verbs are now in use (if no 
 account is taken of compounds) they are often called Irregular 
 Verbs. They are, however, as regular in their way as the more 
 numerous weak verbs. It is important to note that many of the 
 verbs that add the endings ed, d, or t, show some irregularity. 
 
STRONG AND WEAK VERBS 187 
 
 Some verbs are partly strong and partly weak. In the Appen- 
 dix you will find a list of verbs presenting various irregularities. 
 In Chapter LXXIV special attention is called to some that are 
 often misused and that require careful study. 
 
 As for the terms Strong and Weak, which are now in general 
 use, we may in a sense say that the Strong Verbs are strong 
 enough to form their past tense without the help of the endings 
 ed, d, or t, whereas the Weak Verbs require the help of these 
 endings in forming the past tense. This explanation must, how- 
 ever, be taken only as a convenient aid to your memory. A full 
 explanation of the differences between the two kinds of verbs is 
 too difficult to be presented here. 
 
 By some grammarians the weak verbs are called verbs of the 
 New Conjugation, since they are largely derived from other 
 words, such as nouns, adjectives, and so forth ; ad the strong 
 verbs are called verbs of the Old Conjugation. The names are 
 not a matter of much importance, but the distinction between the 
 two great classes of verbs is something that deserves the most 
 careful attention. 
 
 Exercise 196 
 
 Write the present tense, the past tense, and the past participle 
 of the following verbs, and tell whether they are strong or weak : 
 
 Soothe, soften, chew, sing, hold, shout, split, roar, bathe, 
 shake, dance, throw, fret, follow, play, hope, feel, trust, draw, 
 slay, swear, tread, rise. 
 
 NOTE. In the preparation of this and similar exercises the list of 
 verbs in the Appendix should be consulted. 
 
188 GRAMMAR LESSONS 
 
 CHAPTER LXVIII 
 
 PRINCIPAL PARTS OF VERBS 
 
 We have just seen that strong verbs form their past 
 tense in one way and weak verbs in another. In most 
 verbs the change from the present to the past tense is 
 indicated by a change in the form. But this is not true 
 of any other tense. The other tenses are formed by 
 combining auxiliaries with the infinitive l or the past 
 participle. 
 
 It is evident, then, that before we can form the 
 various tenses of a verb we must know the present 
 tense, the past tense, and the past participle. These 
 three forms are called the Principal Parts of the verb. 
 
 Exercise 197 
 Write the principal parts of: 
 
 Give, hold, look, tell, run, string, fight, stand, strike, burst, 
 cry, ride, leap, wish, yearn, raise, rise, quench, spoil. 
 
 The past participle of weak verbs has the same form 
 as the past tense. The past participle of a strong verb 
 is that simple verb-form that can be combined with 
 some form of have or be to make a verb-phrase. For 
 example: has fallen, have ridden, was sunk, was 
 stolen, were shown. 
 
 1 The form of the infinitive is always the same as that of the present 
 indicative. 
 
PRESENT, PAST, AND FUTURE TENSES 189 
 
 No general rule can be given that will cover all the methods of 
 forming the past participle of strong verbs. In Old English the 
 past participle of all strong verbs had the ending n or en, but this 
 ending is retained by only about half of the surviving strong verbs. 
 
 Exercise 198 
 
 Write the proper form of the verbs in the preceding exercise 
 to be used with he has. 
 
 Exercise 199 
 Write the past tense of the following verbs : 
 
 Arise, begin, bite, blow, break, choose, draw, drink, fall, fly, 
 flee, forget, grow, hide, lie, ride, rise, see, shake, show, sink, 
 suit, sow, steal, strew, swell, swim, take, write. 
 
 CHAPTER LXIX 
 
 FORMS OF THE PRESENT, PAST, AND FUTURE TENSES 
 
 As was explained in an earlier chapter (p. 160), 
 all action must take place in present, past, or future 
 time. In every case the form of the verb depends 
 upon the time referred to. For the present and the 
 past tenses we use simple forms of the verb, but for the 
 future we employ a verb-plirase made up of shall or will 
 and the infinitive of a verb without the sign to. 
 
 Let us take the verb tell and see how we form the 
 various numbers and persons of the present, past, and 
 future tenses. 
 
 Using the personal pronouns as subjects, we arrange 
 the forms as follows: 
 
190 GRAMMAR LESSONS 
 
 Present Tense 
 
 SINGULAR PLURAL 
 
 1. I tell 1. We tell 
 
 2. You tell (thou tellest) 2. You tell 
 
 3. Retells 3. They tell 
 
 Past Tense 
 
 1. I told 1. We told 
 
 2. You told (thou toldest) 2. You told 
 
 3. He told 3. They told 
 
 Future Tense 
 
 1. I shall tell 1. We shall tell 
 
 2. You will tell (thou wilt tell) 2. You will tell 
 
 3. He will tell 3. They will tell 
 
 CHAPTER LXX 
 
 SHALL AND WILL 
 
 The future tense, as already noted, consists of a 
 verb-phrase formed by uniting shall or will with the 
 infinitive without the sign to. To express simple future 
 time shall is used in the first person, and will in the 
 second and third persons. 
 
 Simple Future 
 
 SINGULAR PLURAL 
 
 1. I shall go 1. We shall go 
 
 2. You will go (thou wilt go) 2. You will go 
 
 3. He will go 3. They will go 
 
USE OF SHALL AND WILL 
 
 191 
 
 If will takes the place of shall in the first person, 
 and shall the place of will in the second and third per- 
 sons, we no longer have simple future expressed. For 
 example : 
 
 {I promise to go 
 or 
 I am determined to go. 
 You shall go " that the speaker puts upon you the 
 
 necessity of going. 
 
 He shall go " that the speaker puts upon him the 
 
 necessity of going. 
 
 In questions in the first person shall is used, what- 
 ever answer is expected. In the second and third per- 
 sons, if shall or will is used in the question, shall or will 
 is expected in the answer. Note the illustrations : 
 
 Shall you go ? Answer expected, 7 shall go (7 shall not 
 
 Will you go ? 
 Shall he go ? 
 Will he go? 
 
 / will go (I will not 
 
 66 66 
 
 He shall go (He shall 
 
 not go). 
 He will go (He will 
 
 not go). 
 
 Exercise WO 
 
 Show the difference in meaning caused by using shall or will 
 in each sentence: 
 
 1. The orator will (shall) address us. 
 
 2. I shall (will) start on the early train. 
 
192 GRAMMAR LESSONS 
 
 3. I will (shall) fall. 
 
 4. No one shall (will) help me. 
 
 5. We will (shall) meet you at the train. 
 
 6. The train will (shall) arrive at ten o'clock. 
 
 7. Will (shall) you meet him? 
 
 8. You shall (will) meet him. 
 
 9. George shall (will) go with me. 
 
 10. The concert will (shall) begin promptly at eight o'clock. 
 
 11. Where shall (will) we find the entrance to the building? 
 
 12. Shall (will) we have dinner now? 
 
 13. Shall (will) I wear my thick coat? 
 
 14. You will (shall) wear what you think best. 
 
 15. Will (shall) you lend me a dollar for a few hours? 
 
 16. I will (shall) pay it back this evening. 
 
 17. We shall (will) be in New York three weeks. 
 
 18. Mary shall (will) stay at home. 
 
 19. The celebration will (shall) be general throughout the 
 country. 
 
 20. Shall (will) we call a carriage? 
 
 Exercise Wl 
 
 Fill the blanks with shall or will, according to the sense. 
 Where either shall or will can be used, explain the difference 
 in meaning: 
 
 1. you come in? 
 
 2. Father return in a moment. 
 
 3. He be glad to see you. 
 
 % We not stay in the room after he returns. 
 
 5. You not disturb us. 
 
 Q t I as k Uncle's advice. 
 
SHALL AND WILL 193 
 
 7. Time - show who is right. 
 
 8. He - pay the bill next week. 
 
 9. No one - look for you in London. 
 
 10. How - your brother like to have you there? 
 
 11. You - arrive too late to meet him. 
 
 12. We -- start to-morrow. 
 
 13. - we find a carriage at the station? 
 
 14. When - the train start? 
 
 15. When - we arrive at Washington? 
 
 16. - - Congress be in session? 
 
 - enjoy seeing the government buildings. 
 you visit us while we are there? 
 
 - come we -- meet you at the train. 
 not remain there more than three months. 
 
 Exercise 
 Select the verbs. In what tense is each? 
 
 This letter will help you to follow a part of my movements. 
 I arrived in New York last Tuesday and began at once to see 
 what I could. On Wednesday I drove through the principal 
 streets and visited some of the most important buildings. On 
 Thursday I saw a great procession, which filled the thorough- 
 fares and made traffic difficult for hours. But I succeeded in 
 escaping a part of the crowd. I shall not be able to describe 
 half the interesting sights I have seen, but I will write a long 
 letter in a day or two. 
 
 I shall take the early train on Monday for Chicago. There 
 I shall remain four days. The weather will not be too warm 
 in October, and I shall be very comfortable. There will be 
 
194 GRAMMAR LESSONS 
 
 some good music, and I shall hear as much as I can. You 
 will receive a letter from me every few days. 
 
 CHAPTER LXXI 
 
 THE COMPLETE TENSES 
 
 It is often sufficient to express somewhat indefinitely 
 the time of an action. But sometimes we feel the need 
 of being more exact. 
 
 Compare the following sentences : 
 
 1. They row the boat. 4. They have rowed the boat. 
 
 2. They rowed the boat. 5. They had rowed the boat. 
 
 3. They will row the boat. 6. They will have rowed the boat. 
 
 In the first three sentences the time of the rowing 
 is somewhat indefinitely indicated. In the next three 
 sentences the additional fact that the rowing is fin- 
 ished or complete is indicated. They have rowed the 
 boat, but they are not rowing it now. The action is 
 complete at the present time. We therefore say that have 
 rowed is in the Present Perfect Tense. 
 
 The Present Perfect Tense indicates action completed 
 at the present time. 
 
 "They had rowed the boat" suggests that the com- 
 pleted act of rowing was finished, but at some past time. 
 If we say, for example, "They had rowed the boat 
 across the river before we saw them," the verb had 
 rowed would indicate that the rowing was finished be- 
 fore the past action expressed by the verb saiv. We 
 therefore say that had rowed is in the Past Perfect Tense. 
 
FORMATION OF COMPLETE TENSES 195 
 
 The Past Perfect Tense indicates action completed at 
 some past time. 
 
 We may also refer to action that will be completed 
 at some future time. In this case we may use the 
 Future Perfect Tense, as in the sixth sentence. 
 
 The Future Perfect Tense indicates action that will be 
 completed at some future time. 
 
 The Present Perfect, the Past Perfect, and the 
 Future Perfect are called Complete Tenses because 
 they indicate completed action. 
 
 CHAPTER LXXII 
 
 THE FORMATION OF THE COMPLETE TENSES 
 
 Each of the complete tenses is a verb-phrase formed 
 by uniting with the past participle of the principal verb 
 some form of have. It is therefore necessary to know 
 the various forms of have which must be united with 
 the past participle. 
 
 Present Tense 
 
 SINGULAR PLURAL 
 
 1. I have 1. We have 
 
 2. You have (thou hast) 2. You have 
 2. He has 3. They have 
 
 Past Tense 
 
 1. I had 1. We had 
 
 2. You had (thou hadst) 2. You had 
 
 3. He had 3. They had 
 
 1 Often called the Pluperfect Tense. 
 
196 GRAMMAR LESSONS 
 
 Future Tense 
 
 SINGULAR PLURAL 
 
 1. I shall have 1. We shall have 
 
 2. You will have (thou wilt have) 2. You will have 
 
 3. He will have 3. They will have 
 
 The Present Perfect Tense is formed by uniting the 
 past participle of the principal verb with the present tense 
 of have; as, have heard, have seen. 
 
 The Past Perfect Tense is formed by uniting the 
 past participle of the principal verb with the past tense of 
 have; as, had heard, had seen. 
 
 The Future Perfect Tense is formed by uniting the 
 past participle of the principal verb with the future tense 
 of have; as, shall or will have heard, shall or will have 
 seen. 
 
 The Future Perfect is less frequently used than any other tense. 
 
 Exercise 203 
 
 Write the present perfect, the past perfect, and the future 
 perfect of the following verbs, using each form with the pronoun 
 he as the subject: 
 
 Arise, begin, bind, bleed, break, bring, buy, drive, find, for- 
 get, go, grow, hit, know, lose, put, ride, rise, sell, chase. 
 
 Exercise 204 
 
 Fill each blank with the three complete tense- forms of the 
 rerb suggested for the sentence. 
 
 1. catch The boys a large string of fish. 
 
 2. mow The men - - the hay in the meadow. 
 
THE COMPLETE TENSES 197 
 
 3. see We ten blackbirds in the cornfield. 
 
 4. saw Our farm-hands - - a cord of wood for us. 
 
 5. buy My father three new horses. 
 
 6. blow The wind - 
 
 7. bite That dog several persons to-day. 
 
 8. sing The pupils - - five songs. 
 
 9. shake This wind - all the apples off the trees. 
 
 10. do He a great deal of harm. 
 
 11. ride I ten miles. 
 
 12. stand The captain on the bridge all day. 
 
 13. teach They him arithmetic. 
 
 14. write He - - six letters. 
 
 15. speak Hamilton an hour every evening. 
 
 16. fall Some workmen from a scaffold. 
 
 17. grow The wheat several inches in two weeks. 
 
 18. rise The river to the top of the pier. 
 
 19. choose General Lawton only the strongest men. 
 
 20. sell The thief - the diamonds. 
 
 21. break Our servants all the best china. 
 
 Exercise 05, for Review 
 
 What is the tense of every italicized yerl> in the following 
 paragraph : 
 
 The storm yesterday afternoon was very severe. For several 
 days the weather had been unbearably hot, but the sky had re- 
 mained cloudless so long that we hardly expected even a light 
 shower. Shortly before three o'clock the air was unusually 
 still. A few minutes later a furious wind was blowing. Greenish 
 yellow clouds hid the sun. Dust and flying boards and bricks 
 filled the air. Hailstones smashed heavy plate-glass windows. 
 
198 GRAMMAR LESSONS 
 
 I have seen several of the hailstones that weighed two or three 
 ounces each. I shall not be able to estimate closely the damage 
 to the crops, but I will try to learn something to-morrow. The 
 corn crop will be very small in this region. Wheat suffered a 
 good deal but will probably recover somewhat. Oats will bring 
 high prices. I shall drive about the neighboring counties in 
 the course of a few days and will report what I can learn. Will 
 you be good enough to let me know what most interests you? 
 
 CHAPTER LXXIII 
 
 A REVIEW 
 
 Write four sentences to illustrate the difference be- 
 tween a transitive and an intransitive verb. 
 
 Write five sentences, each containing a verb in the 
 active voice. Rewrite them, and change the verb in 
 each to the passive form. Explain the changes. 
 
 Define tense. Write five sentences to illustrate each 
 of the following: The present tense, the past tense, 
 the future tense. 
 
 What determines the person and number of the 
 verb? 
 
 Why is the infinitive so named 1 In what respects is 
 it used like a verb and in what respects like a noun? 
 
 Why is thQ participle so named! In what respects 
 is it used like a verb and in what respect like an 
 adjective? 
 
 What is a weak verb? A strong verb? W T rite the 
 principal parts of ten weak verbs ; of ten strong verbs. 
 
DIFFICULT VERB-FORMS 199 
 
 What are the principal parts of a verb, and why are 
 they so called? 
 
 Explain the use of shall and will in expressing sim- 
 ple future time. Write six declarative sentences, each 
 containing shall in the first person. Substitute will 
 for shall, and notice the change in the meaning. In 
 questions, which of these auxiliaries should be used in 
 the first person! Which in the second and third 
 persons! 
 
 What is the difference in meaning between the pres- 
 ent and the present perfect tense! Between the past 
 and the past perfect! Between the future and the 
 future perfect! Why are the complete tenses so 
 named! Use each of these tenses in three sentences. 
 
 CHAPTER LXXIV 
 
 DIFFICULT VERB-FORMS 
 
 Several verbs present special difficulties from the 
 fact that one verb-form is often confused with another. 
 You should carefully learn the principal parts of the 
 verbs commonly misused. In this chapter a number 
 of these verbs are considered. 
 
 Lie AND Lay 
 
 Do not confuse the forms lie (to lie down) with lay 
 (to place). 
 
 PRESENT PAST PAST PARTICIPLE 
 
 lie lay lain 
 
 lay laid laid 
 
200 GRAMMAR LESSONS 
 
 Remember that lie (to lie down) is an intransitive 
 verb, and can therefore have no object, but that lay 
 (to place) requires an object to complete its meaning. 
 
 Exercise 206 
 
 In the following sentences supply the correct form for lie or 
 lay, and give your reasons: 
 
 1. He used to for hours on the grass. 
 
 2. When I entered the room the books on the floor. 
 
 3. The snow - deep in the woods. 
 
 4. The carpenter - his tools on the bench. 
 
 5. You must not - so late in the morning. 
 
 6. The glossy black cat - quietly before the fire. 
 
 7. Silently the clergyman - his hands on the young 
 
 man's head. 
 
 8. The hunter on the ground, wrapped in his 
 
 blanket. 
 
 9. When he arose he folded the blanket and - - it 
 beside his saddle. 
 
 10. The clerk stopped writing and - down his pen. 
 
 11. Then he yawned and - down on the couch. 
 
 12. Bits of paper - scattered about the floor. 
 
 Sit AND Set 
 
 PRESENT PAST PAST PARTICIPLE 
 
 sit sat sat 
 
 set set set 
 
 Sit is an intransitive verb. Set is a transitive verb. 
 
DIFFICULT VERB-FORMS 201 
 
 NOTE. We use the verb set mirans&vely when we refer to the set- 
 ting sun and say, "The sun sets " or "The sun is setting." 
 
 Exercise 207 
 
 In the following sentences supply the correct form of sit or 
 set, and give your reasons: 
 
 1. A gray -haired old man in the corner. 
 
 2. His daughter the tea-kettle on the stove. 
 
 3. Then for a few minutes she beside her father. 
 
 4. He his worn hat upon his head. 
 
 5. At noon they down to a plain dinner. 
 
 6. The boys scattered about the large hall. 
 
 7. The manager told the boys to - on the front 
 
 bench. 
 
 8. Five of them, however, beside the open windows. 
 
 9. Do not on the wet grass. 
 
 10. Please - - the plants in even rows. 
 
 11. I wish that the agent would his wet umbrella in 
 
 the rack. 
 
 12. Will you - down? 
 
 13. We all - - down. 
 
 Seen AND Saw 
 
 PRESENT PAST PAST PARTICIPLE 
 
 see saw seen 
 
 Seen should not be used for saw in the past tense. 
 Seen can never be used except as a past participle, 
 either alone in a participial phrase or in combination 
 with some form of have or be. 
 
202 GRAMMAR LESSONS 
 
 Exercise 08 
 Select the correct word, saw or seen, for the blanks: 
 
 1. I the train leave the station. 
 
 2. We some great glaciers in the Canadian Rockies. 
 
 3. Have you the geysers in Yellowstone Park? 
 
 4. My brother them last summer. 
 
 5. I - the sun rise this morning. 
 
 6. You should have - - his face. 
 
 7. If you had only - - Paris! 
 
 8. We - - it last summer. 
 
 9. Some people more than they should. 
 
 Ate AND Eaten 
 
 PRESENT PAST PAST PARTICIPLE 
 
 eat ate eaten 
 
 Be careful to use ate as the past tense and eaten as 
 the past participle of the verb eat. 
 
 Eat (pronounced et) for ate and eaten is common, but is not used 
 by careful writers and speakers. 
 
 Exercise 209 
 Select the correct word, ate or eaten, for the blanks: 
 
 1. The trapper his dinner in silence. 
 
 2. When he had - , he mounted his pony and rode 
 away. 
 
 3. We our dinner on the train. 
 
 4. We should like to have - - with you. 
 
 5. The scanty meal was soon . 
 
 6. The children have all the fruit. 
 
 7. Four beggars on a bench in the corner. 
 
MOOD 203 
 
 8. We - strange food in China. 
 
 9. One would think the drivers might have - - their 
 dinner by this time. 
 
 Took AND Taken 
 
 PRESENT PAST PAST PARTICIPLE 
 
 take took taken 
 
 Exercise 210 
 
 Write five sentences in which you use took correctly as the 
 past tense; live in which you use taken as the past participle. 
 
 Did AND Done 
 
 PRESENT PAST PAST PARTICIPLE 
 
 do did done 
 
 Exercise 
 
 Write five sentences in which you use did, and five in which 
 you use done. 
 
 Various other verbs call for a word of caution. Do 
 not confuse let and leave; flowed and floivn; lead and 
 led; rode and ridden; drank and drunk; came and 
 come; shook and shaken; spoke and spoken; stole and 
 stolen; swam and swum. 
 
 CHAPTER LXXV 
 
 MOOD 
 
 Note the various ways in which the verbs are used 
 in the following sentences: 
 
 1. The tourist was in Yellowstone Park. 
 Here the verb was asserts a fact. 
 
204 GRAMMAR LESSONS 
 
 2. Was the tourist in Yellowstone Park? 
 Here the verb ivas asks a question. 
 
 3. If the tourist were in Yellowstone Park he could see the 
 geysers. 
 
 The verb in this case does not assert a fact but a 
 condition contrary to fact. The tourist is not in Yellow- 
 stone Park, and therefore he cannot see the geysers. 
 
 4. Oh ! that Lincoln were here to-day ! 
 
 But Lincoln is not here, and the verb makes it clear 
 that he is not. Were expresses in this case not a fact, 
 but a mere wish. 
 
 5. Go to Yellowstone Park. 
 
 The verb go expresses a command. 
 
 Thus we see that in making an assertion the verb 
 does not always make it in the same way. As you 
 see in the examples, the thought may be presented 
 (1) as a fact; (2) as a question; (3) as something which 
 is not a fact, but is merely thought of; (4) as a wish; 
 and (5) as a command. 
 
 The mode or manner in which the verb makes an as- 
 sertion or presents a thought is called Mood. 
 
 In English there are three Moods : the Indicative, the 
 Imperative, and the Subjunctive. 
 
 The older grammarians added a fourth mood, the Potential,, but 
 the term Potential Mood is not used by the best modern gram- 
 
THE INDICATIVE MOOD 205 
 
 marians. Later (p. 233), we shall discuss potential verb-phrases, 
 all of which may be regarded as either indicative verb-phrases or 
 subjunctive verb-phrases. 
 
 NOTE. It is obviously out of place to discuss in a book of this char- 
 acter the subtleties involved in determining the mood of some of the more 
 difficult verb-phrases. 
 
 CHAPTER LXXVI 
 
 THE INDICATIVE AND THE IMPERATIVE MOODS 
 THE INDICATIVE MOOD 
 
 The Indicative Mood is used to assert a fact or to ask a 
 question. 
 
 Exercise 
 
 
 Select the verbs used to assert facts. In what mood, tense, 
 person, and number is each ? 
 
 1. The driver stopped at the corner of the street. 
 
 2. All the crowd turned to look at him. 
 
 3. " That is a tired-looking horse," said one. 
 
 4. " He has come a long distance," remarked another. 
 
 5. " A policeman will be here soon," added a third. 
 
 6. Then one man, bolder than the rest, called out, " You 
 are stopping at the wrong place." 
 
 7. " Your horse needs a rest." 
 
 8. " Yes," replied the driver, " we have hardly rested for 
 two days." 
 
 9. " The country in my district has suffered from 
 drought." 
 
 10. " The streams and wells are dry." 
 
206 GRAMMAR LESSONS 
 
 11. " No one has ever known such a summer in our region." 
 
 12. " We expect every crop to be a failure." 
 
 13. " Many of the farmers are returning to the East." 
 
 14. At this recital of troubles every one felt that he had 
 misjudged the dusty driver. 
 
 Exercise 
 Select the verbs used to ask questions. In what tense is each 1 
 
 " Where have you been, little man ? " asked the kindly woman 
 at the door. "Are you lost? Have you had any dinner?" 
 The boy shook his head. " Come in, then," said she. " Where 
 do you live? In the country?" "Yes." "How old are 
 you? " " Ten years old." " Did you carry that heavy bundle 
 yourself? Have you any friends in New York? What do 
 you expect to do there? Can you read? Have you been five 
 years at school, did you say? Should you like to stay here? " 
 The boy nodded. " What started you on the way to the city ? 
 You wanted work? What sort of work can a little mite like 
 you do? " 
 
 Exercise 214 
 Use each verb in a question: 
 
 Wish, surprise, admire, forget, expect, enjoy, excuse, thank, 
 forgive, command, approve, hear, spend, dare, shoot, tell, send, 
 leave, give, speak, whisper, conceal, mention, hide, catch, follow. 
 
 The Indicative Mood has six tenses, the Present, the 
 Past, the Future, the Present Perfect, the Past Perfect, 
 and the Future Perfect. 
 
THE MOOD OF COMMAND 207 
 
 THE IMPERATIVE MOOD 
 
 It is frequently necessary to make a request or to 
 express a command. You may, for example, order or 
 command your dog, as follows: "Come here, Rover. 
 Jump over the fence. Chase the cow out of the yard. 
 Be quick about it. Now lie down." 
 
 In each of these cases a verb is used to express a 
 command. No subject is expressed, but the subject 
 you is implied. We may therefore say that the sub- 
 ject you is understood. Sometimes, however, in col- 
 loquial language, you is expressed when the speaker 
 wishes to be especially emphatic; as, "You do as you 
 are told. You go at once. You keep quiet, perfectly 
 quiet." 
 
 The Imperative Mood is used to express a command or 
 make a request. 
 
 Direct commands are of course addressed to some 
 one, and hence the verb is in the second person. In 
 bidding others do something we often include our- 
 selves; as, for example, "Let us go now," in which let 
 is imperative, us is the direct object, and go is an 
 infinitive depending upon let. The Imperative Mood 
 is always in the present tense. 
 
 Requests or entreaties are also frequently expressed 
 by the indicative in the form of a question. For 
 example : 
 
 Will you kindly hand me that book ? 
 Will you help me raise this window ? 
 
208 GRAMMAR LESSONS 
 
 In cases where there is no doubt that an order will 
 be obeyed the command is sometimes expressed by 
 the future indicative in the form of an assertion : 
 
 You will take five pages for your next lesson. 
 Mr. Simmons, you will detail ten men and bring a supply 
 of water for the camp. 
 
 Exercise 
 
 Select the verbs used to express a command or make a request : 
 A great crowd was at the golf grounds yesterday, and I was 
 interested to note the variety of requests and commands that I 
 overheard. " Run for that ball. Throw it here. Don't stand 
 in my way. Make more room in front. Bring me a glass of 
 water. Show me your list of players a moment. Sit down ! 
 Get me another golf-ball. See that play. Let me try. Keep 
 very quiet. Do not wait for me. Go to that end of the field. 
 Stay there till five o'clock. Grasp the club with both hands. 
 Don't hold it too stiffly. Now raise it over your shoulder. 
 Now make a stroke ! " 
 
 Exercise %16 
 
 Name the moods and tenses of the verbs : 
 
 You will be interested to know that we shall move into the 
 new house next week. I have been packing books and china 
 all this morning. The old house has been our home for ten 
 years. It had grown rather shabby before we bought it, and 
 required constant attention. If we had known more we should 
 have built at once. The new house has fifteen rooms and com- 
 mands a magnificent view. We expect you to spend at least 
 a week with us in October. 
 
THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD 
 
 209 
 
 Exercise 217 
 
 Using the following 1 verbs, construct sentences expressing com- 
 mands or requests: 
 
 Give, tell, come, ask, go, call, write, break, take, like, listen, 
 keep, begin, hurry, try, obey, speak, watch, drive, hide, wait, 
 fill, see. 
 
 CHAPTER LXXVII 
 
 THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD 
 
 The earlier English writers used the Subjunctive 
 Mood far more freely than is the case to-day. At 
 present the best writers and speakers rarely use dis- 
 tinctive forms for the subjunctive of any other verb 
 than be in the present and past tenses. 
 
 Compare these two tenses of be in the indicative and 
 the subjunctive moods: 
 
 INDICATIVE MOOD 
 Present Tense 
 
 SINGULAR 
 
 1. lam 
 
 2. You are (thou art) 
 
 3. He is 
 
 Past Tense 
 
 1. I was 
 
 2. You were 
 
 3. He was 
 
 (thou wast) 
 ; 
 
 (thou wert) 
 
 PLURAL 
 
 1. We are 
 . You are 
 3. They are 
 
 1. We were 
 
 2. You were 
 
 3. They were 
 
210 
 
 GRAMMAR LESSONS 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD 
 Present Tense 
 
 SINGULAR PLURAL 
 
 1. If I be 1. If we be 
 
 2. If you be (if thou be) 2. If you be 
 
 3. If he be 3. If they be 
 
 Past Tense 
 
 1. If I were 1. If we were 
 
 2. If you were (if thou wert) 2. If you were 
 
 3. If he were 3. If they were 
 
 In all verbs except be the subjunctive forms in all 
 the tenses are exactly like those of the indicative except 
 in the third person singular of the present tense, 1 as in the 
 following example: 
 
 INDICATIVE MOOD 
 Present Tense 
 
 SINGULAR PLURAL 
 
 1. I give 1. We give 
 
 2. You give (thou gives t) 2. You give 
 
 3. He gives 3. They give 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD 
 
 1. If I give 1. If we give 
 
 2. If you give (if thou give) 2. If you give 
 
 3. If he give 3. If they give 
 
 The subjunctive mood in dependent clauses is most 
 frequently introduced by the subordinate conjunctions, 
 if f as if, though, although, unless, lest, and so on. 
 
 1 This statement of course takes no account of the th'ou-forms. 
 

 MEANING OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE 
 
 In the forms presented above, if is used, not because 
 it is a part of the verb, but because it is oftener used 
 with the subjunctive than any other conjunction. 
 
 THE USE AND MEANING OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE 
 
 Turning from the form of the subjunctive to its use 
 and meaning, let us examine the third and fourth ex- 
 amples in Chapter LXXV. In neither of these sen- 
 tences does the verb express a fact. In the third sen- 
 tence were expresses a condition that does not exist 
 except as it is conceived by the mind. "The tourist" is 
 not in Yellowstone Park, but if he were there, he could 
 see the geysers. In the fourth sentence were expresses 
 the wish that something might be true. But we know 
 that it is not true, that it is only thought of. 
 
 In these two examples we find the key to the use of 
 the subjunctive mood. It makes assertions not about 
 facts, but about things that are merely thought of 
 that are doubtful, uncertain, or even contrary to fact. 
 Hence 
 
 The Subjunctive Mood is used to assert something 
 doubtful, uncertain, or contrary to reality. 
 
 We often express doubt or possibility by using the indicative 
 with words that modify the assertion. But in this case the doubt 
 or possibility is expressed by the modifier and not by the verb. 
 For example : 
 
 Possibly he is coming. 
 
 It is possible that he is coming. 
 
 Perhaps he is coming. 
 
GRAMMAR LESSONS 
 
 The subjunctive is used in old phrases such as had rather, had 
 better and some others. Objection is sometimes made to these 
 forms on the ground that they cannot be easily parsed. But these 
 expressions have been employed for hundreds of years by the best 
 speakers and writers, and may be used without hesitation. 
 
 The Subjunctive Mood is often used to express 
 purpose, as in the following example: 
 
 " Carlton worked faithfully, that he might win the prize." 
 Might win, expressing Carlton's purpose, is in the Subjunctive 
 Mood. 
 
 THE CONDITION AND THE CONCLUSION 
 
 Every sentence that contains a dependent conditional 
 clause introduced by the subordinate conjunction if is 
 of course complex and contains also a main clause. 
 The conditional clause is called the condition, and the 
 main clause the conclusion. In the example, "If the 
 day were fair I could go to the picnic," which is 
 the dependent clause, or condition? Which is the main 
 clause, or conclusion? The verb could go, quite as much 
 as the verb were, asserts something contrary to reality. 
 
 In could go we have an instance of a subjunctive 
 verb-phrase. In modern usage such verb-phrases are 
 much more common than the inflectional subjunctive 
 forms. 
 
 The dependent clause that we call the condition is always an 
 adverbial clause. 
 
 Exercise 
 
 Does the italicized verb in each sentence express a wish or a 
 condition contrary to reality? 
 
CONDITIONS AND WISHES 
 
 1. If I had more money I would help jou. 
 
 2. If you were a king, what would you do first? 
 
 3. Were you suddenly to become rich, what would you 
 do first? 
 
 4. If he had written, we might have met him at the station. 
 
 5. May you be happy in your new home. 
 
 6. The Lord keep thee in all thy ways. 
 
 7. If he had been able to swim, he could have saved 
 himself. 
 
 8. If we had only known what was coming, we could have 
 prepared ourselves. 
 
 9. Were I differently situated, I might hope to accom- 
 plish something. 
 
 10. May you be spared what we have suffered. 
 
 11. Thy kingdom come, thy will be done. 
 
 12. May we be led in a plain path. 
 
 13. Suppose you were to go to New York, what would you 
 do there? 
 
 14. Frank would like to go with you, if there were more 
 room. 
 
 15. Had Napoleon started an hour earlier, he might have 
 won the battle. 
 
 16. O that I had the wings of a dove! 
 
 17. O that he knew what we know! 
 
 DOUBT OR UNCERTAINTY 
 
 In many cases something doubtful or uncertain is ex- 
 pressed both by the verb in the condition and the verb 
 in the conclusion, as the following examples show: 
 
GRAMMAR LESSONS 
 
 If you should join our party, you would receive a welcome. 
 If it should rain to-morrow, the ground would be too wet 
 for the picnic. 
 
 Each italicized verb here asserts something uncer- 
 tain or doubtful, and is therefore in the subjunctive 
 mood. We are uncertain whether you will join our 
 party or not, just as we are uncertain whether it will 
 rain. The conclusion, which cannot be realized unless 
 the condition is fulfilled, is also subjunctive. 
 
 If either the condition or the conclusion asserts 
 something as a fact or assumed to be a fact, the verb 
 is in the indicative mood; as, "If it is rainy to-morrow, 
 we shall not go on our picnic. If he joins our com- 
 pany, he will receive a hearty welcome." 
 
 Exercise 219 
 
 In the following conditional sentences which is the dependent 
 clause, or condition? Which is the main clause, or conclusion? 
 Name the verbs, and tell why each is in the subjunctive mood: 
 
 1. If Washington were living to-day, he would see strange 
 sights. 
 
 2. If the captain had expected such a storm, he would have 
 waited another day. 
 
 3. If it were worth while, we could have a special train. 
 
 4. Were that once admitted, every man would have to be 
 a soldier. 
 
 5. He might be rich to-day, if he had cared for business. 
 
 6. If the concert had begun promptly, it would have been 
 over at nine o'clock. 
 
TENSE IN THE SUBJUNCTIVE 215 
 
 7. If the train had not been delayed, George would have 
 arrived this morning. 
 
 8. Had we anticipated such a delay, we could have made 
 some other plan. 
 
 9. The wheat crop would have been enormous, if the season 
 had been warmer. 
 
 10. If we had had more rain, the roads would be pleasanter. 
 
 11. If men could fly, they could often save time. 
 
 12. If we had seen you, we should have waited for you. 
 
 TENSE IN THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD 
 
 We have now to look at the use of tenses in the 
 subjunctive : 
 
 If the dinner were ready, we should eat. 
 
 If the dinner had been ready, we should have eaten. 
 
 Where the condition and the conclusion are contrary 
 to reality, the past subjunctive is used to indicate present 
 time, as in the first sentence, and the past perfect sub- 
 junctive to express past time, as in the second sen- 
 tence. But it is important to note that the tenses of 
 the subjunctive do not indicate time so definitely as 
 the tenses of the indicative do, the subjunctive present 
 often referring to future time. This, as already noted 
 (p. 161), is sometimes true also of the indicative present. 
 
 Exercise 
 
 Name all the verbs in the following exercise, and explain those 
 that are in the subjunctive mood. Tell whether the condition and 
 the conclusion express something doubtful or something' contrary 
 to reality: 
 
216 GRAMMAR LESSONS 
 
 1. If wishes were horses beggars might ride. 
 
 2. He walks as if he were lame (as he would walk if he 
 were lame). 
 
 3. We hoped that we might find a satisfactory house. 
 
 4. Were he here now, no one would be afraid. 
 
 5. Had he been here, every one would have been satisfied. 
 
 6. If you were to see him now, what would you say ? 
 
 7. If you were to fall into a river, could you swim out? 
 
 8. Had he fallen into the river, he would have drowned. 
 
 9. If I should tell you the news, you would hardly believe it. 
 
 10. Even if it be true, it will not harm him. 
 
 11. You would like the house if you were to see it. 
 
 12. Supposing your friend were to come, we could not 
 meet him. 
 
 Exercise 81, for Review 
 Explain the moods of the verbs : 
 
 " Children, come here a moment," said Ethel. " I have 
 something to show you. Try to keep quiet." The children 
 sat down on the grass. Each one looked up at the speaker. 
 She held in her hand an ivory box mounted with silver. 
 " Look at this ivory box with the carved lid. Will you tell 
 me how you would open the box? " " We would if we could," 
 said three or four. " If you had ever seen one like it, you 
 could tell easily enough. Well, watch me, and see what I do." 
 
 All watched the box as it lay on the table. Then, after a 
 wave of her hand over the box, the lid slowly opened. The sur- 
 prise of the children knew no bounds. " There is some secret 
 in the box," said they. " What did you do, Ethel ? " " Noth- 
 ing at all. I will explain the secret," said she. " If you were to 
 
MOODS AND TENSES 
 
 examine the bottom of the box you would find it full of wheels. 
 These wheels wind up like a clock when you turn this knob. 
 Every five minutes the cover opens." 
 
 " I couldn't make any use of such a box if I had it," said one 
 of the girls. "No," said Ethel, " it is nothing but an expensive 
 toy. You shall see some other things that will interest you 
 just as much, and that are far more useful." 
 
 Exercise 222, for Review 
 
 Select the verbs in this exercise. In what tense is each, and 
 why ? What is the subject of each ? Point out the objects of the 
 transitive verbs: 
 
 For several weeks a large number of workmen have been 
 building a factory near my house. I often watch them from 
 my window. When they began the work they had to clear the 
 land of trees and bushes. Then they dug the cellar and laid the 
 foundations. They brought the stone from a quarry near by. 
 They found good sand in digging the cellar, and they made 
 lime for mortar by burning limestone in an old kiln beside the 
 quarry. 
 
 As I see them now they are raising heavy steel girders to 
 support the floors. The masons have nearly finished the walls 
 for the first story, and there are huge piles of brick and stone 
 waiting for the carriers. The carpenters have laid a rough 
 floor for the first story, and they will begin the second story 
 next week. 
 
 The contractors have hastened the work as much as possible* 
 for they expect a large sum of money if they present the entire 
 factory ready for use at the end of the summer. The work- 
 men will get some share of the extra profits, and they well de- 
 serve it. 
 
218 
 
 GRAMMAR LESSONS 
 
 CHAPTER LXXVIII 
 
 CONJUGATION OF THE ACTIVE VOICE 
 
 From time to time we have considered various forms 
 of the verb that have appeared in the sentences we 
 have studied. It now remains for us to put together in 
 an orderly arrangement the verb-forms and verb-phrases 
 used for the different moods, tenses, persons, and num- 
 bers. Such an arrangement of the parts of a verb we 
 call Conjugation. 
 
 CONJUGATION OF THE VERB Move IN THE ACTIVE VOICE 
 Principal Parts 
 
 PRESENT TENSE PAST TENSE 
 
 move moved 
 
 INDICATIVE MOOD 
 Present Tense 
 
 PAST PARTICIPLE 
 
 moved 
 
 SINGULAR 
 
 1. I move 
 
 2. You move (thou movest) 
 
 3. He moves 
 
 Past Tense 
 
 1. I moved 
 
 2. You moved (thou movedst) 
 
 3. He moved 
 
 Future Tense 
 
 1. I shall move 
 
 2. You will move (thou wilt 
 
 move) 
 
 3. He will move 
 
 PLURAL 
 1. We move 
 &. You move 
 3. They move 
 
 1 . We moved 
 8. You moved 
 3. They moved 
 
 1. We shall move 
 
 2. You will move 
 
 3. They will move 
 
THE CONJUGATION OF MOVE 219 
 
 Present Perfect Tense 
 
 SINGULAR PLURAL 
 
 1. I have moved 1. We have moved 
 
 . You have moved (thou hast 2. You have moved 
 
 moved) 
 
 3. He has moved 3. They have moved 
 
 Past Perfect Tense 
 
 1. We had moved 1. We had moved 
 
 %. You had moved (thou 2. You had moved 
 
 hadst moved) 
 3. He had moved 3. They had moved 
 
 Future Perfect Tense 
 
 1. We shall have moved 1. We shall have moved 
 
 2. You will have moved (thou 2. You will have moved 
 
 wilt have moved) 
 
 3. He will have moved 3. They will have moved 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD 
 
 Present Tense 
 
 1. If I move 1. If we move 
 
 2. If you move (if thou move) 2. If you move 
 
 3. If he move 3. If they move 
 
 Past Tense 
 
 1. If I moved 1. If we moved 
 
 2. If you moved (if thou 2. If you moved 
 
 movedst) 
 
 3. If he moved 3. If they moved 
 
220 GRAMMAR LESSONS 
 
 IMPERATIVE MOOD 
 Present Tense 
 
 SINGULAR PLURAL 
 
 move (thou or you) move (you) 
 
 INFINITIVE 
 
 PRESENT PERFECT 
 
 (To) move (To) have moved 
 
 PARTICIPLES 
 
 PRESENT PERFECT 
 
 moving having moved 
 
 NOTE. For the sake of brevity we give the conjugation of the sub- 
 junctive in the present and past tenses only. The other tenses can be 
 supplied without difficulty. 
 
 Exercise 223 
 
 Using the subject he, write 
 
 1. All the tenses of the indicative mood of the verbs love, 
 hear, and see. 
 
 . The present and past subjunctive of the same verbs. 
 
 Exercise 224 
 Write 
 
 1. The imperative present in both numbers of take, know, 
 say, remember, command, make, lay. 
 
 2. The infinitive forms and participles of save, have, hear, 
 see, salute, bring, say, wish, buy. 
 
 Exercise 225, for Review 
 
 Select the verbs in the following paragraphs. In what tense is 
 each? 
 
 I have had no time to write before, for I have been very 
 busy. I have seen your friend. He says he has lived in the 
 
EXERCISES ON VERB-FORMS 
 
 city ten years, but he prefers the country, and will soon sell his 
 house and buy a small farm near the seashore. 
 
 He tells me that when he built his present house there was 
 no other dwelling in his neighborhood. But three years ago 
 a contractor bought all the land that was for sale, and cut it 
 up into small building-lots. Since that time there has been 
 confusion. Carts have filled the streets. Heaps of sand and 
 piles of brick and lumber have covered the stretches of green 
 turf that were the principal attraction of the place. 
 
 Within a year, the contractor has erected at least a hundred 
 houses, and he will probably put up fifty more next year. 
 " I shall be glad," remarked your friend, " to forget that I 
 have ever had a house here. The place has changed so much 
 that it no longer seems like home. It is hard for me to realize 
 that by next May I shall have lived here exactly ten years." 
 
 Exercise 226 
 
 Give the tense, person, and number of the following verb- 
 forms : 
 
 We may hear, you have seen, he compelled, they saved, we 
 are, you have, I met, he glared, they surrounded, they were, 
 she kept, it led, he requires, they will come, has she spoken, you 
 had heard, he will have gone, he believes, we have driven, they 
 had looked, it has arrived, we worship, they will have found, 
 you have welcomed, she gives. 
 
 Exercise 227 
 Write the infinitives and participles of the following verbs: 
 
 Think, choose, buy, cost, lend, have, swallow, jump, hold, 
 keep, die, fly, use, take, vote, settle, decide, glean, sift, mark, 
 fling, throw, flow, flee, blow, sink. 
 
GRAMMAR LESSONS 
 
 Exercise 228, for Review 
 
 1. In what mood, tense, person, and number are the verbs in 
 Exercise 92 (p. 76)? 
 
 2. In what mood and tense are the verbs in Exercise 93 (p. 77)? 
 
 Exercise 229, for Review 
 
 Explain the mood and tense of each verb in the following 
 paragraphs. With what subject is each used? 
 
 Early one morning last week I heard two dogs barking 
 furiously under my window. I looked out and saw a pair of 
 robins quietly building a new nest in an apple-tree. They 
 gathered bits of straw and twigs and string, and then wove 
 the whole firmly together. The sight was so interesting that 
 I called George to come and watch them. He had never seen 
 anything like it and exclaimed, " See them pick that string 
 out of the grass. Look, look there, the big bird has found 
 something else. Stop that barking," said he to the dogs, " you 
 will frighten the birds. Do you think, mother, that if I were 
 to go nearer the tree the birds would be frightened ? " I told 
 him to wait a few minutes, and added, " If the mother bird 
 were to see you she might be as much afraid of you as of the 
 dogs." 
 
 I was curious myself to know what the robins would do. 
 After a little I said, " Come, George, we will try to make friends 
 with the birds." We went out quietly and stood perfectly still 
 near the tree. At first the robins flew about as if they were 
 frightened. Then when they saw that we made no movement, 
 they came nearer. Presently they picked up twigs at my feet 
 and hopped about as if they had always known us. 
 
FORMATION OF THE PASSIVE 
 
 CHAPTER LXXIX 
 
 THE PASSIVE VOICE 
 
 You have already learned that a transitive verb is 
 in the Active Voice if the subject is the actor ; and that 
 a transitive verb is in the Passive Voice if the subject 
 is the receiver of the action. It now remains to be seen 
 how the form of the verb is altered when the verb is 
 changed from the active to the passive voice. 
 
 ACTIVE VOICE PASSIVE VOICE 
 
 1. The boy holds the child. The child is held by the boy. 
 
 2. The boy held the child. The child was held by the boy. 
 
 3. The boy will hold the The child will be held by the 
 
 child. boy. 
 
 4. The boy has held the The child has been held by 
 
 child. the boy. 
 
 5. The boy had held the The child had been held by 
 
 child. the boy. 
 
 6. The boy will have held The child will have been held 
 
 the child. by the boy. 
 
 It is evident, on comparing the sentences in the first 
 column with those in the second column, that the 
 meaning is the same whether the active or the passive 
 voice of the verb is used. But note the changes in the 
 form of the sentences, taking for illustration the first 
 pair of examples. 
 
 The subject boy of the active verb holds becomes in 
 the passive form the object of the preposition by. 
 
GRAMMAR LESSONS 
 
 The object child of the active verb holds becomes in 
 the passive the subject of the verb is held. 
 
 The simple verb-form holds of the active becomes in 
 the passive a verb-phrase consisting of the past participle 
 of the verb hold and the present tense of the verb be. 
 
 In changing from the active to the passive voice, 
 the object of the active verb becomes the subject of the 
 passive verb. Intransitive verbs, therefore, since they 
 have no object, can have no passive voice. 1 
 
 On looking again at the examples you will find the 
 past participle of the verb hold used in each of the 
 six tenses of the indicative. United with this participle 
 is some form of the verb be. We have, then, the 
 rule : 
 
 To make the Passive Voice of any transitive verb we 
 unite some form of the verb be with the Past Participle 
 of a transitive verb. 
 
 CONJUGATION OF BE 
 
 INDICATIVE MOOD 
 
 Present Tense 
 
 SINGULAR PLURAL 
 
 1. I am 1. We are 
 
 2. You are (thou art) 2. You are 
 
 3. He is 3. They are 
 
 Past Tense 
 
 1. I was 1. We were 
 
 2. You were (thou wast or 2. You were 
 
 wert) 
 
 3. He was 3. They were 
 
 1 But see page 159. 
 
CONJUGATION OF BE 225 
 
 Future Tense 
 
 SINGULAR PLURAL 
 
 1. I shall be 1. We shall be 
 
 2. You will be (thou wilt 2. You will be 
 
 be) 
 
 3. He will be 3. They will be 
 
 Present Perfect Tense 
 
 1. I have been 1. We have been 
 
 2. You have been (thou 2. You have been 
 
 hast been) 
 
 3. He has been 3. They have been 
 
 Past Perfect Tense 
 
 1. I had been 1. We had been 
 
 2. You had been (thou 2. You had been 
 
 hadst been) 
 
 3. He had been 3. They had been 
 
 Future Perfect Tense 
 
 1. I shall have been 1. We shall have been 
 
 2. You will have been (thou 2. You will have been 
 
 wilt have been) 
 
 3. He will have been 3. They will have been 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD 
 Present Tense 
 
 1. If I be 1. If we be 
 
 2. If you be (if thou be) 2. If you be 
 
 3. If he be 3. If they be 
 
 Past Tense 
 
 1. If I were 1. If we were 
 
 2. If you were ( if thou wert ) 2. If you were 
 
 3. If he were 3. If they were 
 
226 GRAMMAR LESSONS 
 
 INFINITIVE MOOD 
 
 PRESENT PERFECT 
 
 (To) be (To) have been 
 
 PARTICIPLES 
 
 PRESENT PAST PERFECT 
 
 Being Been Having been 
 
 IMPERATIVE MOOD 
 
 Present Tense 
 Be (thou or you) Be (you) 
 
 CHAPTER LXXX 
 
 CONJUGATION OF MOVE IN THE PASSIVE VOICE 
 
 We will now combine the various forms of the verb 
 be with the past participle moved and conjugate move 
 in the passive voice. 
 
 INDICATIVE MOOD 
 Present Tense 
 
 SINGULAR PLURAL 
 
 1. I am moved 1. We are moved 
 
 2. You are moved (thou art 2. You are moved 
 
 moved ) 
 
 3. He is moved 3. They are moved 
 
 Past Tense 
 
 1. I was moved 1. We were moved 
 
 2. You were moved (thou 2. You were moved 
 
 wast or wert moved) 
 
 3. He was moved 3. They were moved 
 

 CONJUGATION OF MOVE IN THE PASSIVE 227 
 
 Future Tense 
 
 SINGULAR PLURAL 
 
 1. I shall be moved 1. We shall be moved 
 
 2. You will be moved (thou 2. You will be moved 
 
 wilt be moved) 
 
 3. He will be moved 3. They will be moved 
 
 Present Perfect Tense 
 
 1. I have been moved 1. We have been moved 
 
 2. You have been moved 2. You have been moved 
 
 ( thou hast been moved ) 
 
 3. He has been moved 3. They have been moved 
 
 Past Perfect Tense 
 
 1. I had been moved 1. We had been moved 
 
 2. You had been moved 2. You had been moved 
 
 (thou hadst been 
 moved) 
 
 3. He had been moved 3. They had been moved 
 
 Future Perfect Tense 
 
 1. I shall have been moved 1. We shall have been moved 
 
 2. You will have been moved 2. You will have been moved 
 
 (thou wilt have been 
 moved ) 
 
 3. He will have been moved 3. He will have been moved 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD 
 Present Tense 
 
 1. If I be moved 1. If we be moved 
 
 2. If you be moved (if thou 2. If you be moved 
 
 be moved) 
 If he be moved 3. If they be moved 
 
228 GRAMMAR LESSONS 
 
 Past Tense 
 
 SINGULAR PLURAL 
 
 1. If I were moved 1. If we were moved 
 
 2. If you were moved (if 2. If you were moved 
 
 thou wert moved ) 
 
 3. If he were moved 3. If they were moved 
 
 IMPERATIVE MOOD 
 Be (thou, you) moved Be (you) moved 
 
 INFINITIVES 
 (To) be moved (To) have been moved 
 
 PARTICIPLES 
 
 Present Past Perfect 
 
 Being moved Moved Having been moved 
 
 Exercise 230 
 
 In what mood, tense, person, and number are the following 
 passive verb-phrases? 
 
 He will be heard, they had been seen, you are heard, I shall 
 be pleased, we have been brought, they will be chosen, you 
 had been found, he will be found, he was found, you will have 
 been found, they have been seen, he is seen, you will be heard, 
 I was heard, they will have been heard, I am heard, he had been 
 heard. 
 
 Exercise 231 
 
 Using love as the verb and he as the subject, write passive 
 verb-phrases in the indicative mood for the following tenses : 
 
 The future perfect, the present, the future, the past, the 
 present perfect, the past perfect. 
 
EXERCISES ON VERB-FORMS 229 
 
 Exercise 
 
 Write all the participles and the infinitive forms of the fol- 
 lowing verbs: 
 
 Build, drink, find, hit, lay, sow, spend, write. 
 
 Exercise 
 
 Write in all the tenses of the indicative the third person singular 
 of the verbs in the preceding exercise. Use lie as the subject of 
 each verb. 
 
 Exercise 234 
 
 Select all the verbs in the passive voice. W r hat is the tense of 
 each ? 
 
 I was called to the telephone early this morning. An im- 
 portant message was given me. A schooner had been stranded 
 for several hours on the Michigan side of the lake. The cargo 
 had been unskilfully loaded, and the vessel had been caught 
 in a heavy gale. As soon as possible, -assistance was sent. Two 
 tugboats were ordered up from Chicago. Cables were fastened 
 to the stern of the vessel, and it was moved a little distance. 
 But it had been driven well up on the shore, and could not be 
 hauled off in the face of the heavy waves. 
 
 About noon I was informed that the schooner was completely 
 wrecked. The hull was injured by a hidden rock, the hatches 
 were torn off by the force of the wind and the waves, the masts 
 were broken, and the cargo of wheat was spoiled by the water. 
 When this was announced, word was sent to the captains of the 
 tugs, and the wrecking-party was recalled. Fortunately all 
 the crew have been saved, but everything else has been lost. 
 
230 GRAMMAR LESSONS 
 
 Exercise 235, for Review 
 
 Write in parallel columns all the verbs of the paragraph in the 
 present, past, and future tenses: 
 
 The French country districts well repay a lover of quaint, 
 old-fashioned things. The little towns sleep quietly and 
 hardly know what busy life is, but they have a charm for 
 any one who is not in a hurry. They abound in narrow, 
 crooked streets. They possess rare treasures in the stained 
 glass and the carvings of old churches. They boast hotels 
 built hundreds of years ago. You find ruined castles where 
 you least expect them. The parks contain huge trees. No 
 country is perfect, but rural France certainly is almost per- 
 fect in its way. 
 
 CHAPTER LXXXI 
 
 AUXILIARY VERBS 
 
 Observe the following sentences: 
 
 I see the tree. 
 I read the book. 
 I walk to school. 
 I study at home. 
 
 Here each of these verbs is simple and makes sense 
 without reference to any other verb. We have, how- 
 ever, a small, but very important, group of verbs that 
 are peculiar in that they are not commonly used alone 
 but along with other verbs. If you say, "I can," "I 
 will," "I must," "I should," we do not know fully what 
 you mean. But when you say, 
 
AUXILIARY VERBS 
 
 I can see the tree, 
 I will read the book, 
 I must walk to school, 
 I should study at home, 
 
 we get your complete thought. Verbs like can, will, 
 must, should are called Auxiliary (that is, helping] Verbs. 
 They unite with other verbs to make verb-phrases. We 
 have, then, the definition: 
 
 Auxiliary verbs are those by the help of which other 
 verbs form various moods, tenses, persons, and numbers. 
 
 Some of the auxiliary verbs, such as am, was, liave, 
 do, may be used independently. For example: 
 
 He lias everything there is. 
 You have the book. 
 Who did the work? 
 
 The common auxiliaries are be (am, was), may, 
 might, can, could, must, shall, should, will, would, do, 
 did, have, had. 
 
 All the auxiliaries except be (am, was), have, had, 
 unite with the infinitive 1 of other verbs to form verb- 
 phrases. In such cases the infinitive sign to is omitted. 
 
 Be (am, was), have, had, unite with the participles 
 of other verbs to form verb-phrases. 
 
 Verbs employ auxiliaries very freely. In fact, there 
 are at most in everyday use only four simple verb- 
 forms in weak verbs, and five in strong verbs. For 
 example, the weak verb move has only the following 
 
 1 See page 177. 
 
GRAMMAR LESSONS 
 
 simple forms : move, moves, moving, moved. The 
 strong verb see has the five following: see, sees, see- 
 ing, saw, seen. Some strong verbs have the past tense 
 and the past participle alike. Such verbs have only 
 four simple verb-forms. For example, sit, sits, sitting, 
 sat. Some weak verbs have the present and past tenses 
 and the past participle alike, and only three forms. 
 For example, cut, cuts, cutting. 
 
 In this enumeration we take no account of the verb-forms used 
 in the solemn style. 
 
 Exercise 236 
 
 Which of the italicized words are auxiliary verbs 1 In every 
 case give reasons for your answers. 
 
 1. Do not waste time when you study. 
 
 2. One may often seem busy when accomplishing nothing. 
 
 3. Can you study in a noisy room? 
 
 4. I have succeeded sometimes. 
 
 5. For myself I should prefer a room some distance from 
 the street. 
 
 6. We will try to accommodate you. 
 
 7. Will you look at this one? 
 
 8. I shall be glad to see it. 
 
 9. Will you pay in advance? 
 
 10. I will leave the matter entirely to you. 
 
 11. The painters have not finished the back rooms. 
 
 12. What have they done all the week? 
 
 13. Where does the superintendent live? 
 
 14. You might find him at his office. 
 
 15. Have you seen him this morning? 
 
POTENTIAL VERB-PHRASES 
 
 16. He must have gone out. 
 
 17. Yes, he has left a notice on his door. 
 
 18. He may not return to-day. 
 
 19. We should have been earlier. 
 
 20. We did not know that he would be away. 
 
 21. We should be willing to wait if we could be sure he 
 would come back. 
 
 22. We might leave word where we shall be this afternoon. 
 
 23. Do you think we may hope to see him this evening? 
 
 24. Yes, you may safely rely upon seeing him then. 
 
 CHAPTER LXXXII 
 
 POTENTIAL VERB-PHRASES 
 
 We have commented upon auxiliaries in general. 
 We now consider a very important group of verb- 
 phrases formed by the help of auxiliaries. 
 
 Among the auxiliaries of very frequent use in mod- 
 ern English, as our examples have shown, are may, 
 can, must, might, could, would, and should. These, 
 united with the infinitive without to, form verb-phrases 
 that are by earlier grammarians classed together as a 
 distinct mood called the Potential 1 Mood. More properly, 
 however, these verb-phrases may be regarded as forms 
 either of the indicative or the subjunctive mood, ac- 
 cording to the thought they convey. If they assert a fact 
 or ask a question, they are in the indicative mood. But 
 if they assert what is conceived as doubtful, improbable, or 
 
 1 Potential means "having power." 
 
GRAMMAR LESSONS 
 
 contrary to fact, they are in the subjunctive mood, and 
 are called subjunctive verb-phrases. They are now 
 used, except in the case of the verb be, far more than 
 the simple subjunctive verb-forms. 
 Note these principal parts and conjugations : 
 
 PRESENT PAST PAST PARTICIPLE 
 
 may might 
 
 can could 
 
 will would 
 
 shall should 
 
 In each case the present and past participles of these 
 verbs are lacking. 
 
 CONJUGATION OF May 
 Present Tense 
 
 SINGULAR PLURAL 
 
 1. I may 1. We may 
 
 2. You may (thou mayst) 2. You may 
 
 3. He may 3. They may 
 
 Past Tense 
 
 1. I might 1. We might 
 
 2. You might (thou mightest or 2. You might 
 
 mightst) 
 
 3. He might 3. They might 
 
 Present Perfect Tense 
 
 1. I may have 1. We may have 
 
 . You may have (thou mayst . You may have 
 
 have) 
 3. He may have 3. They may have 
 
CONJUGATION OF AUXILIARIES 235 
 
 Past Perfect Tense 
 
 SINGULAR PLURAL, 
 
 1. I might have 1. We might have 
 
 2. You might have (thou might- 2. You might have 
 
 est or mightst have) 
 
 3. He might have 3. They might have 
 
 CONJUGATION OF Can 
 
 Present Tense 
 
 1. I can 1. We can 
 
 2. You can (thou canst) . You can 
 
 3. He can 3. They can 
 
 Past Tense 
 
 1. I could 1. We could 
 
 . You could (thou couldst) 2. You could 
 
 3. He could 3. They could 
 
 Present Perfect Tense 
 
 1. I can have 1. We can have 
 
 2. You can have (thou canst have) 2. You can have 
 
 3. He can have 3. They can have 
 
 Past Perfect Tense 
 
 1. I could have 1. We could have 
 
 . You could have (thou couldst 2. You could have 
 
 have) 
 3. He could have 3. They could have 
 
 We have already discussed will and shall as aux- 
 iliaries employed to form the future of the indicative. 
 Would and should are frequently used in a future 
 
236 GRAMMAR LESSONS 
 
 sense in subjunctive verb-phrases; as, "He would go 
 to-morrow if he could." 
 
 May indicates permission or possibility. "You may 
 write" means that you are permitted to write. "I may 
 write" is the same as "It is possible that I shall write." 
 May in the subjunctive is often used to refer to future 
 time; as, "I will ask whether I may go with him." 
 
 Can indicates ability. "We can do much if we are 
 hopeful" means "We are able to do much if we are 
 hopeful." May and can are often confused. You are 
 correct when you ask your teacher, "May I go home!" 
 for you are asking permission to go. But if you say, 
 "Can I go home!" you say in effect, "Am I able to go 
 home!" and of course you do not mean that. 
 
 Exercise <237 
 
 Select the potential verb-phrases in the following 1 sentences. 
 In what tense is each 1 
 
 1. You may have seen some of the great ocean steamers in 
 New York. 
 
 2. Such a man may be generous, but one can hardly call 
 him honest. 
 
 3. You cannot expect to learn a new language in three 
 months. 
 
 4. Could you lend me ten dollars for a day or two? 
 
 5. We must be prepared for all sorts of weather. 
 
 6. I think that the conductor might have stopped the car. 
 
 7. On a quiet day a small boat might venture outside the 
 breakwater. 
 
THE USE OF AUXILIARIES 237 
 
 8. The man that can do the work he likes best is to be 
 envied. 
 
 9. The wind blew so hard that we could not row against it. 
 
 10. From where the officers sat they might have seen every 
 movement of the enemy. 
 
 11. You may as well take an umbrella. 
 
 12. I wish you could have met my friend. 
 
 13. The landlady could not say that we were welcome. 
 
 14. The house may have been comfortable years ago. 
 
 15. You may be right. 
 
 16. He might as well risk a little money and enjoy life. 
 
 17. A pupil cannot afford to worry over his work. 
 
 18. We may perhaps suggest some improvements. 
 
 19. A man may easily fall in crossing an icy street. 
 
 Exercise 238 
 
 Fill out the blanks in each case with may or can and explain 
 the meaning of the sentence. 
 
 1. I not read in the evening. 
 
 2. None but a strong man lift that great stone. 
 
 , perhaps, catch the three o'clock train. 
 
 I be excused at half-past three? 
 
 we play ten minutes longer? 
 
 tell what you learned so carefully this 
 
 we go home by this path? 
 
 - do anything we are able to do. 
 
 - do anything we are permitted to do. 
 
 10. Many people would like to read but - not. 
 
238 GRAMMAR LESSONS 
 
 easily learn about the trains by looking at 
 
 read interesting books you need not be 
 
 one help making mistakes now and then? 
 start at any time. 
 say only what I have been told. 
 
 drive home if you wish. 
 call a peach an apple, but it - not 
 
 be an apple after all. 
 
 CHAPTER LXXXIII 
 
 PROGRESSIVE VERB-PHRASES 
 
 Examine the verbs in italics : 
 
 1. The farmer mows his The farmer is mowing his 
 
 hay. hay. 
 
 2. The farmer mowed his The farmer was mowing his 
 
 hay. hay. 
 
 3. The farmer will mow his The farmer will be mowing 
 
 hay. his hay. 
 
 4. The farmer has mowed his The farmer has been mowing 
 
 hay. his hay. 
 
 5. The farmer had mowed his The farmer had been mowing 
 
 hay. his hay. 
 
 6. The farmer will have The farmer will have been 
 
 mowed his hay. mowing his hay. 
 
 When we say, " The farmer mows his hay," the verb 
 mows is used to make a simple assertion about the 
 
PROGRESSIVE VERB-PHRASES 239 
 
 farmer. The same is true when we say, "The farmer 
 is mowing his hay," but the verb asserts that the 
 action is going on, or progressing, at the present time. 1 
 "Was mowing" asserts that the action was going on, 
 or progressing, at some past time. Hence, is mowing, 
 was mowing, will be moiving, has been mowing, had 
 been mowing, and will have been mowing are called 
 Progressive Forms of the verb, or Progressive Verb-Phrases. 
 You will observe that each consists of the present par- 
 ticiple mowing and some form of the verb be. Hence 
 
 We make Progressive Verb -Phrases by uniting the 
 present participle with some form of the verb be. 
 
 Exercise 39 
 
 Make progressive verb-phrases in all the tenses of the indicative 
 mood. 
 
 Run, swim, sing, play, row, read, cut, wait. 
 Exercise 
 
 Write progressive verb- phrases in the present and past indica- 
 tive, and use each of them with they as subject : 
 
 Float, fly, skim, paddle, row, sail. 
 
 You must be careful not to confuse progressive verb- 
 phrases in the active voice with passive verb-phrases. 
 Compare the sentences standing opposite each other in 
 the parallel columns : 
 
 1 In the present tense the progressive forms are far more commonly used 
 than the simple forms. 
 
240 GRAMMAR LESSONS 
 
 PROGRESSIVE VERB-PHRASES PASSIVE VERB-PHRASES 
 
 1. The boy is striking the ox. The boy is struck. 
 
 2. The fox is chasing the hen. The fox is chased. 
 
 3. The soldier is shooting the The soldier is shot. 
 
 gun. 
 
 Note that progressive verb-phrases in the active voice 
 are made by uniting the present active participle with 
 some form of the verb be; but that passive verb-phrases 
 are made by uniting the past participle with some form 
 of the verb be. 
 
 Progressive verb-phrases in the present and past 
 tenses are formed in the passive voice by using am 
 being, is being, was being, etc., with the past participle ; 
 
 for example, "The fox j j- being chased." 
 
 Progressive verb-phrases in the passive are often 
 awkward, and should be sparingly used. 
 
 Exercise 
 
 Write in parallel columns the progressive verb-phrases and 
 the passive verb-phrases for all the tenses of the indicative, and 
 use each phrase with they as subject: 
 
 Write, hear, see, love, call, grieve. 
 Exercise 
 
 Show which are progressive verb-phrases and which passive. 
 What is the mood and tense of each ? 
 
 1. The workmen have been building the house for a year. 
 
 2. The house has been built a year. 
 
 3. I am writing a letter. 
 
 4. The letter is written. 
 
THE EMPHATIC FORM OF THE VERB 
 
 5. The letter will be written this morning. 
 
 6. Frank has been writing a letter. 
 
 7. Boys were tossing a ball from one to another. 
 
 8. A ball was being tossed from one boy to another. 
 
 9. Far in the distance every movement was noted. 
 
 10. Two men were noting every movement in the distance. 
 
 11. A boy was picking strawberries. 
 
 12. At length the strawberries were picked. 
 
 13. In the dining-room two servants were quietly laying the 
 table. 
 
 14. The table had been laid in the dining-room. 
 
 15. That book has not been read. 
 
 16. We are reading history. 
 
 17. The expressman is bringing a parcel to our house. 
 
 18. A parcel was brought to the house an hour ago. 
 
 19. Already the street-lamps are being lighted. 
 
 20. A man was rapidly lighting the street-lamps. 
 
 CHAPTER LXXXIV 
 
 DO AND DID AS AUXILIARIES 
 
 A distinctive verb-phrase in common use is formed 
 by uniting do or did with the infinitive without its sign 
 to. This form of expression is called the Emphatic Form, 
 because it is used to give emphasis to the assertion. 
 
 We often employ it when we wish to assert some- 
 thing that has been denied or doubted; as, "I do know 
 what I'm talking about"; "I did hear what you said"; 
 "I do know my lesson"; "I did read every page of the 
 book." 
 
GRAMMAR LESSONS 
 
 Do and did are regularly used in negative and inter- 
 rogative sentences with no intention of being emphatic; 
 as, "Do you believe me?" "Didn't you attend the 
 concert!" "I don't believe you." "I didn't attend the 
 concert." 1 
 
 Do and did are often used to take the place of a verb in a pre- 
 ceding clause; as, "Try to write as he does." 
 
 Exercise 
 Select the emphatic forms in the following sentences: 
 
 1. Do you know that the train is waiting? 
 
 2. I did not hear the porter announce it. 
 
 3. The showers in this district do not last long. 
 
 4. My friend does not care for study ; what he does care 
 for is hunting. 
 
 5. The captain was invited to describe his life in the West 
 Indies, and he did talk about it for a few minutes, but soon 
 branched off upon something else. 
 
 6. Did you ring? 
 
 7. Does the noise in the street annoy you ? 
 
 8. Where do the boys stay when it rains? 
 
 9. Do the workmen understand what you want? 
 
 10. Does the roof leak? 
 
 11. It did not give any trouble until lately. 
 
 12. I do enjoy travelling. 
 
 13. Do not think for a moment that I prefer to stay here. 
 
 14. I do wish that the steamer company would send our 
 tickets. 
 
 1 The older forms, such as I believe you not ; Believest thou me ? are rarely 
 used except in solemn, formal speech. 
 
DEFECTIVE VERBS 243 
 
 Exercise %44 
 
 Write ten verb-phrases formed by uniting; various auxiliaries 
 with the infinitive or the participles of the following verbs: 
 
 Weep, send, give, live, say, return, saw, make. 
 
 CHAPTER LXXXV 
 
 DEFECTIVE AND IMPERSONAL VERBS 
 DEFECTIVE VERBS 
 
 In Chapter LXXXII we saw that one of the principal 
 parts of each of the auxiliary verbs there considered 
 was lacking. Such verbs are called Defective. 
 
 Two of the best examples of defective verbs in Eng- 
 lish are must and ought. 
 
 Must 1 never changes its form. It indicates necessity. 
 "You must do what your parents direct" means that, 
 whether you wish to do so or not, you are obliged to do 
 what your parents direct. Must is rarely used now 
 except in the present tense. 
 
 Ought 2 is used with the present infinitive to indicate 
 present time, and with the perfect infinitive to indicate 
 past time. 
 
 Ought indicates moral obligation. "You ought to do 
 what your parents direct," means that a sense of duty 
 should lead you to do what your parents direct. 
 Should is sometimes used in the same sense; as, "You 
 should always do what your parents direct." 
 
 Do not say, "He hadn't ought to do it," when you 
 
 1 In Old English must was the past tense of the verb mot. 
 
 2 Ought was once the past tense of owe. 
 
244 GRAMMAR LESSONS 
 
 should say, "He ought not to do it," for ought has no 
 participles and therefore cannot be combined with the 
 auxiliary had. 
 
 IMPERSONAL VERBS 
 
 When we say, "It blows," "It pours," "It snows," 
 "It is stormy," "It is dark," we use it in a very indefi- 
 nite sense, without referring to any person or thing. 
 A verb used with indefinite it as a subject is called an 
 Impersonal Verb. 
 
 EXPLETIVES 
 
 It is sometimes used to introduce sentences whose 
 real subject follows the verb. When thus used it is 
 called an Expletive. 1 
 
 The verb in this case is not impersonal as in the instances above, 
 but the subject it merely anticipates the real subject. 
 
 There is at times used in the same way, and is then 
 called an Expletive. 
 Examine the following sentences: 
 
 WITH THE EXPLETIVE WITHOUT THE EXPLETIVE 
 
 1. It seems good to see you. To see you seems good. 
 
 2. It is pleasant to know that To know that you approve is 
 
 you approve. pleasant. 
 
 3. There were many people Many people were at the fair. 
 
 at the fair. 
 
 4. There are millions of peo- Millions of people are in 
 
 pie in New York. New York. 
 
 1 An expletive is really a word used as a "filler." The term is derived 
 from Latin words meaning to fill up or fill out. 
 
IT AND THERE AS EXPLETIVES 
 
 What is the real subject of the verb in the first sen- 
 tence? In the second? In the third? In the fourth? 
 
 You must be careful not to confuse there used as an 
 expletive with there used as a simple adverb of place. 
 
 Compare the following sentences: 
 
 THERE AS AN EXPLETIVE THERE AS A SIMPLE ADVERB 
 
 1. There seemed to be two 4. Two men seemed to be 
 
 men on the mountain. there. 
 
 2. There appeared to be a 5. A hundred people ap- 
 
 hundred people. peared to be there. 
 
 3. There once reigned in 6. A good king named Al- 
 
 England a good king fred once reigned there. 
 
 named Alfred. 
 
 Exercise %45 
 
 Wherever it or there is used as an expletive rewrite the sen- 
 tence, omitting the expletive and underscoring the real subject : 
 
 1 . There has been a fog here all this week. 
 
 2. It is hard work to row in hot weather. 
 
 3. It seems easy to swim, until you try. 
 
 4. It is absurd to buy things merely because they are 
 cheap. 
 
 5. There are ten thousand volumes in this library. 
 
 6. It was no plan of mine to cross on that thin ice. 
 
 7. It would have been possible to pay a part of his debts. 
 
 8. There was a large audience at the concert last evening. 
 
 9. It was his greatest ambition to go to college. 
 
 10. There had been a crowd of people watching the 
 boat-race. 
 
246 GRAMMAR LESSONS 
 
 11. There is a good hotel not far from here. 
 
 12. It would be desirable to have the exact truth known. 
 IB. But it is not pleasant to have to listen to gossip. 
 
 14. There are handsome rugs on the floor. 
 
 15. It is unnecessary to invite him to come again. 
 
 16. It was his rule to walk four miles every day. 
 
 17. There is a stranger at the door. 
 
 18. It seemed strangely familiar to hear the old songs once 
 more. 
 
 CHAPTER LXXXVI 
 
 A REVIEW 
 
 Write the principal parts of lie (to lie down), lay, 
 sit, set, see, ate, took, do. Put into a written sentence 
 the past and the past perfect tense of each of these 
 verbs. 
 
 Define indicative mood, imperative mood, and sub- 
 junctive mood. Write three sentences to illustrate the 
 use of the indicative mood and three to illustrate the 
 use of the imperative. 
 
 Conjugate the verb be in the indicative and subjunc- 
 tive present and past. 
 
 How is the subjunctive mood used? Write three 
 sentences to illustrate each of the following : The sub- 
 junctive used to express a wish and the subjunctive 
 used to express a condition contrary to fact. Explain 
 the difference between a main clause and a dependent 
 clause. In the sentences that you write to illustrate 
 the subjunctive used to express condition contrary to 
 fact, which is the main and which the dependent clause f 
 
A REVIEW OF VERBS 247 
 
 Using lie as the subject, write the third person sin- 
 gular of the verb see in all the tenses of the indicative 
 mood in the active and the passive voice; that is, 
 write a Synopsis of the verb. 
 
 Write all the imperative forms, the infinitives, and 
 the participles of the same verb. 
 
 Wliat are auxiliary verbs? W 7 hy are they so im- 
 portant in English? Explain the formation of the 
 tenses of the passive voice. Name auxiliaries that you 
 find in the conjugation of any verb in the active voice ; 
 in the passive voice. 
 
 What auxiliaries are used to form potential verb- 
 phrases? Write twenty potential verb-phrases and 
 use five of them in sentences. Write four sentences 
 to illustrate the difference in meaning between may 
 and can. 
 
 Using he as subject, write the third person singular 
 of the verb read in the progressive form for all the 
 tenses of the indicative active. What is the difference 
 in form between passive verb-phrases and progressive 
 verb-phrases in the active voice? Illustrate. 
 
 Write five sentences to illustrate each of the follow- 
 ing uses of the auxiliary do: In emphatic forms, in 
 negative sentences, and in interrogative sentences. 
 Write three sentences, each containing doesn't, and 
 three, each containing don't. 
 
 Define expletive, defective verb, and impersonal verb. 
 Write five sentences introduced by the expletive there, 
 and five introduced by the expletive it. 
 
248 GRAMMAR LESSONS 
 
 CHAPTER LXXXVII 
 
 THE NOMINATIVE ABSOLUTE 
 
 You have grown familiar with the idea that sen- 
 tences consist almost entirely of three elements: The 
 subject and its modifiers, the predicate and its modi- 
 fiers, and complements and their modifiers. 
 
 In addition to these you have studied independent 
 elements, such as interjections and the nominative in- 
 dependent by direct address. Independent elements 
 are so called because they have no grammatical rela- 
 tion to the rest of the sentence. 
 
 An independent use of the noun hitherto undiscussed 
 in this book may be seen by comparing the italicized 
 parts of the following pairs of sentences : 
 
 1. The storm having subsided, we started for our drive. 
 When the storm had subsided, we started for our drive. 
 
 2. Wolfe having succeeded in scaling the rocky heights 
 above Quebec, the capture of the city was certain. 
 
 When Wolfe succeeded in scaling the rocky heights above 
 Quebec, the capture of the city was certain. 
 
 3. The assault failing, the army beat a hasty retreat. 
 As the assault failed, the army beat a hasty retreat. 
 
 In the first example of the first pair we notice two 
 distinctive things about the noun storm: it is used 
 with the participle having subsided and it has no 
 grammatical connection with the rest of the sentence. 
 
 In the first example of the second pair the noun 
 
THE NOMINATIVE ABSOLUTE 249 
 
 Wolfe is used with the participle having succeeded, 
 and is without grammatical relation to the rest of the 
 sentence. 
 
 With what participle is assault, in the first example 
 of the third pair, used! 
 
 A noun or pronoun modified by a participle (expressed 
 or implied) and having no grammatical relation to the rest 
 of the sentence is in the Nominative Absolute. 
 
 By comparing the sentences in the pairs above, you 
 will see clearly that though the noun used in the nomi- 
 native absolute has no grammatical relation with the 
 rest of the sentence, the entire phrase of which the noun 
 forms a part is equivalent to an adverbial clause. 
 
 The nominative absolute should not be used to excess, but 
 it occasionally serves to give variety of expression. 
 
 Exercise 46 
 
 Find all the nouns and pronouns used in the nominative abso- 
 lute. With what participle is each used? 
 
 1. He went up the lonely path, his fear rising with every 
 step. 
 
 2. The steamer having gone, the party had to wait three 
 days. 
 
 3. A strong wind having risen in the night, the waves were 
 very high. 
 
 4. This done, we need remain no longer. 
 
 5. The coach stopped suddenly, one of the traces having 
 broken. 
 
 6. The weather being very dry, all the grass was brown. 
 
250 GRAMMAR LESSONS 
 
 7. In single file, their hands tied behind their backs, the 
 prisoners were driven along the narrow path. 
 
 8. He stood silent before the king, his head bowed in 
 submission. 
 
 9. These demands once granted, what may we not expect ? 
 10. You sleep in peace, the tyrant being slain. 
 
 Exercise 247 
 
 Rewrite the sentences in Exercise 246, changing the nominative- 
 absolute phrases to adverbial phrases or clauses. 
 
 CHAPTER LXXXVIII 
 
 THE OBJECTIVE COMPLEMENT 
 
 Some transitive verbs take two objects, the second 
 of which is required to complete the meaning of the 
 predicate. 
 
 Examine the italicized words in the following sen- 
 tences : 
 
 1. The Indians called the river Niagara. 
 
 2. The company chose Lincoln captain. 
 
 3. La Salle made Tonti his lieutenant. 
 
 4. All the world deemed Gladstone a great statesman. 
 
 5. The boys called the umpire unfair. 
 
 If we omit from each of the examples the word in 
 italics, the sense is incomplete. To say, "The Indians 
 called the river," "The company chose Lincoln," "La 
 Salle made Tonti," "All the world deemed Gladstone," 
 "The boys called the umpire," is to tell nothing definite. 
 
THE OBJECTIVE COMPLEMENT 251 
 
 We naturally expect a word to complete the meaning 
 of the verb and to explain its object. What did the 
 Indians call the river! Niagara tells us, and not only 
 explains the noun river, which is the object of the transi- 
 tive verb called, but completes the meaning of the verb. 
 We therefore call it the Objective Complement. Show 
 how captain explains the object Lincoln and completes 
 the meaning of the verb. Why are lieutenant and 
 statesman objective complements'? 
 
 In the fifth sentence the adjective unfair also is 
 called an objective complement. 
 
 We have, then, the rule: 
 
 A word that explains the object of a transitive verb and 
 completes the meaning of the verb is called an Objective 
 Complement. 
 
 Verbs of appointing, calling, choosing, electing, mak- 
 ing, naming, regarding, thinking, and some others of 
 a similar meaning, may be followed by the objective 
 complement. 
 
 Now note what change takes place in the construc- 
 tion of the objective complement when the verb be- 
 comes passive: 
 
 The Indians called the river Niagara. (Active.) 
 
 The company chose Lincoln captain. (Active.) 
 
 The river was called Niagara by the Indians. (Passive.) 
 
 Lincoln was chosen captain by the company. (Passive.) 
 
 Reviewing here the copula and copulative verbs, you 
 will see that in the passive form of the sentences the 
 
GRAMMAR LESSONS 
 
 nouns Niagara and captain are predicate nouns, for 
 they complete the meaning of the verb and at the same 
 time describe or explain the subject. How would you 
 change the fifth sentence to the passive form! What 
 name would you give to the adjective in the predicate? 
 
 Exercise %48 
 
 Select the objective complements. Show how each one explains 
 an object of a transitive verb and completes the meaning of the 
 verb. Point out the adjectives that are used as objective comple- 
 ments : 
 
 1. They chose Rawson director of the new iron works. 
 
 2. They called him superintendent. 
 
 3. The company made Coleman foreman. 
 
 4. They deemed him the best manager who had ever been 
 at the factory. 
 
 5. Some persons considered Randall a good man for the 
 superintendent's place. 
 
 6. Others regarded him as better fitted for other work. 
 
 7. But everybody thought him trustworthy. 
 
 8. The directors will probably appoint him paymaster. 
 
 The objective complement is frequently preceded by 
 as. In which of these sentences may it be used? 
 
 Exercise 249 
 Fill out the blanks with objective complements: 
 
 1. The Indians thought Red Wing a great . 
 
 2. Early in the campaign they made him their . 
 
 3. The people of the United States elected Lincoln . 
 
 4. All the company agreed to appoint Singleton . 
 
PREDICATE NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES 253 
 
 5. The foot-ball team made Harry Gordon - - this 
 afternoon. 
 
 6. The President appointed Charles Graham - . 
 
 7. We have called this book - . 
 
 8. The parents named the boy - . 
 
 9. The clergyman pronounced them - . 
 
 Exercise 
 
 1. Change Examples 3, 4, and 5 at the beginning of the chapter 
 to the passive form, and underscore the predicate nouns and 
 predicate adjectives. 
 
 2. Do the same with all the sentences in Exercise 248. 
 
 Exercise 251 
 
 Select the predicate nouns and predicate adjectives, and explain 
 each : 
 
 1. The savages were deemed unworthy of notice. 
 
 2. New York was formerly called New Amsterdam. 
 
 3. Edward the Third's eldest son was also named Edward. 
 
 4. Washington was chosen commander of the little army. 
 
 5. Manton has been elected captain of the foot-ball team. 
 
 6. The President has appointed John Bryan postmaster. 
 
 7. Henry Orton has been made administrator of his broth- 
 er's estate. 
 
 8. Red Wing was called the greatest warrior in his tribe. 
 
 9. Rachel was deemed unusually skilful with her needle. 
 
 10. Of all the contestants Linton was thought the most 
 likely to win. 
 
 11. The old abandoned camp has been made a paradise. 
 
 12. Simmons has been appointed superintendent of the 
 water-works. 
 
254 GRAMMAR LESSONS 
 
 CHAPTER LXXXIX 
 
 THE ADVERB 
 ADVERBS CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO MEANING 
 
 Notice the difference in the meaning of the follow- 
 ing sentences: 
 
 1. The boys played. 
 
 2. The boys played yesterday. 
 
 3. The boys played there. 
 
 4. The boys played well. 
 
 5. The boys played very little. 
 
 The words in italics are adverbs because they modify 
 the meaning of the verb played. 
 
 Since yesterday answers the question, when? it is 
 called an Adverb of Time. Adverbs that answer the 
 question, when? include always, early, ever, often, sel- 
 dom, soon, to-day, to-morrow, and many others. 
 
 There answers the question where? and is called an 
 Adverb of Place. Some other adverbs of place are here, 
 anywhere, someivhere, yonder. 
 
 Well is an Adverb of Manner because it answers the 
 question how? Some other adverbs of manner are 
 so, thus, badly, clearly, easily, smoothly, gracefully, 
 slowly, rapidly, awkwardly, carelessly. 
 
 Many adverbs of manner ending in ly are formed 
 from adjectives. 
 
 Little is an Adverb of Degree because it answers the 
 question how much? Some other adverbs of degree 
 
ASSERTIVE ADVERBS 255 
 
 are very, much, almost, enough, too, so, somewhat, 
 rather, uncommonly, quite, entirely. 
 
 According to meaning, therefore, adverbs may be 
 classified as adverbs of time, place, manner, and degree. 
 
 Some words have the same form both as adjectives 
 and adverbs. For example, fast, hard, little, long, loud, 
 much, wide, and so on. 
 
 ASSERTIVE ADVERBS 
 
 As you learned in Chapter XX, adverbs modify 
 verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs. But there are ad- 
 verbs that modify the meaning, not of single parts of 
 speech, but of the thought expressed in the entire clause 
 or sentence. These are called Assertive Adverbs. Indeed, 
 perhaps, possibly, certainly, surely, and some others 
 may be used as Assertive Adverbs. For example, 
 "This is, indeed, so clear that it needs no illustration." 
 
 Yes and No are sometimes called adverbs, but they 
 are equivalent to an entire sentence, and may be called 
 Sentence-Adverbs. 1 If, for instance, some one asks, "Do 
 you like Longfellow's poetry!" you are likely, in giv- 
 ing an affirmative answer, to use the single word 
 "Yes," which stands for the whole sentence, "I like 
 Longfellow's poetry." The assertive adverbs are in 
 many cases sentence-adverbs. 
 
 Exercise 
 From the following adjectives form adverbs of manner : 
 
 Easy, constant, steady, industrious, pleasant, droll, comical, 
 awkward, gaudy, courteous, elegant, beautiful, graceful, 
 1 This term is borrowed from Sweet's New English Grammar. 
 
256 GRAMMAR LESSONS 
 
 dainty, happy, quiet, slow, quick, quaint, smart, playful, 
 witty. 
 
 Exercise 
 
 Fill out the blanks with adverbs. What part of speech does 
 each modify I 
 
 1. - this morning two robins fought - in the 
 road. 
 
 2. There was nothing that Larry wanted - than this. 
 
 3. He - behaved himself - . 
 
 4. The mother watched her daughter - . 
 
 5. We understand him - . 
 
 6. Show me - you do it. 
 
 7. He will - arrive on the noon train. 
 
 8. School opens - at nine o'clock. 
 
 9. The boat drifted -- down the stream. 
 
 10. We - misjudge our best friends. 
 
 11. The sun shone - . 
 
 12. This is the decision to which I have - come. 
 
 13. I have eaten - . 
 
 14. Montgomery was - nearing the scene. 
 
 15. Winslow had been working - in the library. 
 
 16. He stopped - . 
 
 17. Lucinda laughed - in reply. 
 
 Exercise 
 Select the adverbs. What word does each modify? 
 
 1. We rode directly toward the encampment, over the arid 
 plains and barren hills. 
 
 2. Anxious to see the sport, I galloped forward. 
 
PHRASAL ADVERBS 257 
 
 3. Suddenly my bridle was seized, and I was ordered to 
 dismount. 
 
 4. I was flung forcibly to the ground, and lay there 
 stunned. 
 
 5. At length, I regained control of my limbs. 
 
 6. Then I moved noiselessly away from the village. 
 
 7. Now and then I could hear the low laughter of some 
 girl in a neighboring lodge. 
 
 8. The long limbs of the pines waved slowly up and down. 
 
 9. The deep glen was completely shadowed. 
 
 10. As I descended still farther, the view changed rapidly. 
 
 11. A vast white canopy of smoke partially obscured the 
 rays of the sun. 
 
 12. I could see the valley below, alive with Indians passing 
 rapidly through it. 
 
 13. Slowly, hour after hour, that weary afternoon wore 
 away. 
 
 Exercise 255 
 Use in sentences some of the following adverbs : 
 
 Often, easily, almost, somewhere, possibly, perhaps, rather, 
 carelessly, somewhat, certainly, again, yesterday, then, there. 
 
 PHRASAL ADVERBS 
 
 There are some phrases that are always used like 
 adverbs, and are therefore called Phrasal Adverbs. These 
 include the following :-* 
 
 Again and again, at all, at best, at last, at least, at> 
 length, at once, loy all means, Toy far, by and by, for 
 good, in and out, in general, in short, in the main, in 
 
258 GRAMMAR LESSONS 
 
 vain, now and then, of course, one ~by one, out and out, 
 through and through, and many others. 
 
 Exercise 
 Write ten sentences, using in each a phrasal adyerb. 
 
 COMPARISON OF ADVERBS 
 
 Some adverbs admit of comparison, like adjectives ; 
 as, soon, sooner, soonest; clearly, more clearly, most 
 clearly. 
 
 Most adverbs of one syllable form the comparative 
 and superlative degree by adding er and est to the 
 positive ; but adverbs of more than one syllable usually 
 form their comparative and superlative degree by 
 using more and most with the positive. 
 
 Some adverbs have an irregular comparison. They 
 include the following: 
 
 POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE 
 
 badly, ill worse worst 
 
 far farther, further farther, furthest 
 
 late later latest, last 
 
 little less least 
 
 much more most 
 
 well better best 
 
 Many adverbs are from their meaning incapable of 
 comparison. For example, once, yesterday, now, here- 
 
 after. 
 
 INTERROGATIVE ADVERBS 
 
 When adverbs are used to ask questions they are 
 called Interrogative Adverbs. The italicized words in 
 
CONJUNCTIVE ADVERBS 
 
 259 
 
 the following sentences are sometimes used as inter- 
 rogative adverbs: 
 
 When 
 
 Where 
 
 Why 
 
 Whither 
 
 How 
 
 " is he going? 
 
 When 
 Why 
 Whence 
 How 
 
 is he coming? 
 
 Exercise 
 
 Select the words used as interrogative adverbs. What does 
 each modify 2 
 
 1. Where have you seen this book before? 
 
 2. When did your letter come? 
 
 3. How has the sea bathing been this year? 
 
 4. Whence has this trouble come? 
 
 5. Why have you stayed away so long? 
 
 6. When are you going home? 
 
 7. How can you find the road in the dark? 
 
 8. Where do you make the first turn? 
 
 9. Why must you go to-night? 
 
 10. " Whither goes this messenger? " says the Duke in the 
 play. 
 
 CONJUNCTIVE ADVERBS 
 
 In the sentence, "I do not know where he lives," the 
 word where is used to connect the dependent clause 
 with the rest of the sentence. If it did nothing but 
 connect we should call it a conjunction. But it also 
 modifies the verb lives, and thus has an adverbial use. 
 
260 GRAMMAR LESSONS 
 
 We therefore call it a Conjunctive Adverb. Some of the 
 more common conjunctive adverbs are when, where, 
 how, why, since, and while. 
 
 A conjunctive adverb may be expanded to a phrase. Thus, 
 ee Show me how you do it " becomes " Show me in what way you do 
 it." Try to expand other conjunctive adverbs. 
 
 Exercise 258 
 
 Select the conjunctive adverbs. What clause does each connect 
 with the rest of the sentence 2 What verb in the dependent clause 
 does each modify? 
 
 1. When money is plentiful prices are high. 
 
 &. Maxon saw where the road made a sudden turn. 
 
 3. Do you understand why there is no game to-day ? 
 
 4. A careful sailor knows when he must take in sail. 
 
 5. Where the cove was sheltered the water was still. 
 
 6. When Arthur stopped there was a long pause. 
 
 7. No one knows how we reached home. 
 
 8. The wind bloweth where it listeth, and thou hearest the 
 sound thereof, but canst not tell whence it cometh and whither 
 it goeth. 
 
 9. Brooke showed Tom how he should hold the boat. 
 
 10. Do you remember where you left the tickets? 
 
 11. Tell me how he was hurt. 
 
 12. Every one knew why the game was stopped. 
 
 13. My rose-bushes have not done well since they were 
 trimmed. 
 
 14. You should have been here when the band played. 
 
 15. Can any one tell whither our world is moving? 
 
NOUNS USED AS ADVERBS 261 
 
 DOUBLE NEGATIVES 
 
 Remember that two negatives are equal to one affirma- 
 tive. "I don't make no mistakes in spelling," really 
 says the contrary of what the speaker intends. "He 
 is not unacquainted with the rules of grammar," means 
 "He is acquainted with the rules of grammar." 
 
 NOUNS USED AS ADVERBS 
 
 In Chapter XXIII you learned that nouns are some- 
 times used as adverbs. What tests were given for 
 determining when nouns are so used? 
 
 Exercise 859 
 Find the nouns used as adverbs: 
 
 1. Wait a minute, will you? 
 
 2. After breakfast walk a mile. 
 
 3. The engine ran three months without a break. 
 
 4. In some places the Atlantic Ocean is a mile deep. 
 
 5. Our train stopped only three minutes in Philadelphia. 
 
 6. The lion sprang several feet into the air. 
 
 7. You ought to have been here last night. 
 
 8. This hotel has been built ten years. 
 
 9. In some states the law requires that heavy wagons shall 
 have tires four inches wide. 
 
 10. That stone wall is twelve feet high. 
 
GRAMMAR LESSONS 
 
 CHAPTER XC 
 
 THE PREDICATE NOMINATIVE AND THE PREDICATE ADJECTIVE 
 
 In the chapter on the objective complement (p. 251) 
 we found that verbs of making, calling, choosing, and 
 the like take a second objective word to explain the mean- 
 ing of the object, and this second objective word is 
 called the objective complement. When these verbs 
 are made passive the objective complement becomes a 
 predicate noun, and an adjective used as an objective 
 complement becomes a predicate adjective. 
 
 THE PREDICATE NOMINATIVE 
 
 The predicate noun must always agree in case with 
 the subject which it describes or explains. In other 
 words, the predicate noun must always be in the nomi- 
 native case because the subject is in the nominative 
 case. 
 
 This rule is not so important when a noun is used 
 after the copula, because in nouns the form of the 
 nominative case is like that of the objective case; but 
 when a pronoun follows the copula the rule will help 
 you to use the correct form. To understand this better 
 examine the following examples: 
 
 CORRECT FORMS INCORRECT FORMS 
 
 It is I. It is me. 
 
 It is he. It is him. 
 
 It is she. It is her. 
 
 It is they. It is them. 
 
THE PREDICATE NOMINATIVE 
 
 Since the predicate noun or pronoun must be in the 
 same case with the subject, the nominative form of the 
 pronoun must be used in each of the examples cited. 
 
 The nominative is used after the infinitive in such a 
 sentence as, "It seemed to be he;" the objective is used 
 in such a sentence as, "I thought it to be him" 
 
 The verb of course always agrees with its subject 
 and not with the predicate nominative. Hence we 
 must say, "The two are one." 
 
 NOTE. "// is me," "It was me" may sometimes be heard in con- 
 versation from speakers otherwise careful, but such forms as "It was 
 him" etc.) are avoided by every one pretending to be educated at all. 
 
 Exercise %60 
 
 Referring to Chapter LXXXVIII, write six sentences each con- 
 taining a noun used as an objective complement. Change each sen- 
 tence to the passive form, and underscore the predicate nominatives. 
 
 Exercise %61 
 Point out and explain the predicate adjectives: 
 
 1. Markham was considered most fit for the position. 
 
 2. He is deemed very skilful. 
 
 3. Kirkham was thought too young. 
 
 4. He has been kept very anxious for the last few days. 
 
 5. He will be left very poor if he gets nothing. 
 
 6. Girton was made uneasy by some unfounded reports. 
 
 7. He was even called dishonest. 
 
 8. He will doubtless be proved innocent. 
 
264 GRAMMAR LESSONS 
 
 ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS WITH COPULATIVE VERBS 
 
 With certain verbs, like feel, look, smell, sound, and 
 taste, it is not always easy to know whether to use 
 an adjective or an adverb. Study the following ex- 
 amples : 
 
 1. Look at the matter thoughtfully before you go further. 
 
 2. Washington looked thoughtful. 
 
 The adverb thoughtfully is correctly used because it 
 modifies the verb look. But in the second example 
 thoughtful does not modify the verb. It does not show 
 how Washington looked at anything, but describes the 
 subject Washington. He was thoughtful or at least ap- 
 peared to be. Thoughtful is therefore an adjective. 
 
 In other terms, if the modifying word modifies the 
 verb it must be an adverb; but if it modifies the subject 
 it must be an adjective. 
 
 We properly say, then, "The apple tastes sweet," 
 for this means the same thing as "The apple is sweet 
 to the taste," where the word sweet modifies apple. 
 
 As a general rule, whenever we may substitute some 
 form of be for the copulative verb, the adjective and 
 not the adverb should be used. 
 
 Exercise 
 
 Fill out the blanks with adjectives or adverbs, and in every 
 case give reasons for your choice: 
 
 1. Those clouds appear . 
 
 2. The stove looks . 
 
 3. I feel very for your loss. 
 
PREDICATE NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES 265 
 
 4s. You seem more than I should be. 
 
 5. This lesson seems . 
 
 6. The weather this morning appears . 
 
 7. This lemon tastes . 
 
 8. The old trapper looked at the newcomer. 
 
 9. Most of the orange crop remains . 
 
 10. That milk looks . 
 
 11. Sea water tastes . 
 
 12. The soldier lay on the ground. 
 
 1&. Gertrude always appears in company. 
 
 14. The new bell sounds . 
 
 15. I wish that dog would not look so at us. 
 
 16. On examination the beggar's story proved . 
 
 17. The wind is growing . 
 
 18. The poor girl was left . 
 
 Exercise 263 
 
 Point out the subjects, the copulas and copulative verbs, and 
 the predicate noun and the predicate adjectives : 
 
 1. The heat was intense. 
 
 2. The dogs lay panting on the ground, too languid even 
 to growl. 
 
 3. I was thirsty and knelt down by the little stream to 
 drink. 
 
 4. That day was the first of August. 
 
 5. The next morning dawned chill, damp, and dark. 
 
 6. The camp soon became alive with the bustle of prepara- 
 tion. 
 
 7. The country in front looked wild and broken. 
 
266 GRAMMAR LESSONS 
 
 8. The woods were fresh and cool in the early morning. 
 
 9. The scene appeared grand and imposing. 
 
 CHAPTER XCI 
 
 WORDS USED AS VARIOUS PARTS OF SPEECH 
 
 In preceding pages you have often noted how the 
 same word may be used as one part of speech in one 
 sentence and as a different part of speech in another 
 sentence. You may well test your knowledge of gram- 
 mar by trying to put into sentences of your own the 
 following words used as various parts of speech. Some 
 of these words may be used as two parts of speech, 
 some as three, and others as four : 
 
 All, above, about, after, as, before, both, but, either, 
 enough, except, fast, for, like, much, near, only, since, still, 
 that, what, which, while, who, why, yet. 
 
 In this work you will find a good dictionary very 
 helpful. 
 
 NOTE. The extent to which this work should be carried may be left 
 to the teacher. 
 
 CHAPTER XCII 
 
 PARSING 
 
 From the beginning of this book to the present 
 .chapter the one question that has been kept before you 
 is this: How are words used in sentences? If a word 
 is used as a name we call it a noun, if it is used to 
 
PARSING 267 
 
 make an assertion we call it a verb, and so on for the 
 six remaining parts of speech. Now, when we classify 
 a word as one of the parts of speech and show its rela- 
 tion to other words in the sentence we are said to parse 
 it. For instance, we may tell in detail the properties 
 and relations of words in some such way as the fol- 
 lowing outline suggests: 
 
 1. In parsing a noun tell its kind (common or 
 proper), gender, number, and case. 
 
 Since every noun used as a subject takes a verb in the third 
 person, there is little use in requiring the pupil to name the 
 person of nouns. As for gender, it need not be given if the 
 noun is neuter, but only when it is masculine or feminine. 
 
 2. In parsing an adjective tell its degree of com- 
 parison and what it modifies. 
 
 3. In parsing a pronoun tell its kind, gender, per- 
 son, number, and case. If it is a relative pronoun 
 name its antecedent and explain its agreement there- 
 with in gender, person, and number. If it is an inter- 
 rogative pronoun tell its number and case. 
 
 4. In parsing a verb tell whether it is strong or weak, 
 transitive or intransitive, and name its voice, mood, 
 tense, person, number, and subject. 
 
 5. In parsing an adverb tell its kind and what it 
 modifies. 
 
 In some cases the teacher may easily waste time by requiring 
 pupils to determine whether a given word is a conjunction or a 
 conjunctive adverb. 
 
268 GRAMMAR LESSONS 
 
 6. In parsing a preposition point out the words be- 
 tween which it shows relation. 
 
 7. In parsing a conjunction tell its kind (coordinate 
 or subordinate) and point out what words or groups 
 of words it connects. 
 
 8. Why is the word an interjection 1 
 
 This scheme of parsing omits many minor details. 
 But simple as it is, a still simpler scheme suffices to 
 show the essential relations of the words in a sentence. 
 We may therefore save much time by confining our- 
 selves to such relations. For instance, in parsing the 
 various parts of speech it is enough to answer the 
 following questions: 
 
 Noun. In what case is it? 
 
 Pronoun. Of what kind and in what case is it? 
 
 Adjective. What noun or pronoun does it modify? 
 
 Verb. Is it complete in meaning, and if not, what is 
 its complement! What is its subject? 
 
 Adverb What verb, adjective, or other adverb does 
 it modify? 
 
 Preposition. Between what words does it show re- 
 lation? 
 
 Conjunction. What words or groups of words does 
 it connect? 
 
 Interjection In parsing an interjection simply 
 name it. 
 
EXERCISES FOR REVIEW 269 
 
 CHAPTER XCIII 
 
 A REVIEW 
 
 Write five sentences, each containing a, noun or a 
 pronoun in the nominative absolute. Name five verbs 
 that may take an objective complement, and use each 
 of these verbs in a sentence containing an objective 
 complement. 
 
 Define an adverb. Write three sentences, each con- 
 taining a simple adverb ; three containing interrogative 
 adverbs; three containing conjunctive adverbs. 
 
 Name five copulative verbs. Use each of them in a 
 sentence containing a predicate nominative. Name five 
 verbs that, when used in the passive voice, may be 
 followed by a predicate nominative or a predicate ad- 
 jective. Put into sentences five of these verbs in the 
 passive voice. 
 
 Write sentences to illustrate the difference between 
 the complement of a transitive verb and the comple- 
 ment of a copulative verb. 
 
PART III 
 
 CHAPTER XCIV 
 
 FOR PARSING, ANALYSIS, AND A GENERAL REVIEW 
 Exercise 
 
 Review pages 12-15. Explain the cases of all the 
 nouns in Exercise 67 (p. 54). 
 
 Exercise 265 
 
 Review pages 105-108. In Exercise 100 (p. 85) 
 write the possessive singular and plural of all the 
 nouns that are the names of living objects. Explain 
 the cases of all these nouns. 
 
 Exercise 266 
 
 Review pages 126-128. Give the inflection and ex- 
 plain the use of the personal pronouns in Exercise 147. 
 
 Exercise 267 
 
 Review pages 139-145. In Exercise 263 compare 
 the adjectives that admit comparison and show what 
 noun or pronoun each modifies. Use in sentences these 
 same adjectives or five of your own in the compara- 
 tive and the superlative degree. 
 
 270 
 
EXERCISES FOR REVIEW 271 
 
 Exercise 
 
 Parse the words and analyze the sentences in the 
 following paragraphs : 
 
 A bell rang in the long corridor, and the slight sound re- 
 called her to life and action. She walked toward the door 
 which led into the sitting-room and opened it without 
 knocking. 
 
 There was a little balcony at her command. As she noise- 
 lessly stepped out upon it, between three and four o'clock in 
 the morning, she felt herself the solitary comrade of the mist- 
 veiled lake and of the high, rosy mountains on the eastern 
 verge. 
 
 Exercise 269 
 
 Review pages 51-53. In Exercise 77 (p. 61) select 
 the prepositional phrases and explain their use. Cor- 
 rect the faulty grammar in the phrase "between you' 
 and I." 
 
 Exercise 270 
 
 Eeview pages 120-123. Use the following nouns 
 as subjects in simple declarative sentences. Write the 
 possessive plural of each noun: Dog, fox, horse, wolf, 
 bear, robin, canary, crow, hawk. 
 
 Exercise 271 
 
 Review pages 26-28. Write twelve sentences, each 
 containing an appositive. Be careful about the punc- 
 tuation of the appositive phrases. In the first four 
 sentences make the appositives explain nouns in the 
 
873 GRAMMAR LESSONS 
 
 nominative case, in the next four make them explain 
 nouns in the objective case, and in the last four make 
 them explain pronouns. 
 
 Exercise 
 
 Review pages 21-23, 48-50, 66-73. In Exercise 93 
 (p. 77) select the phrases and dependent clauses and 
 explain their use. 
 
 Exercise 273 
 Parse the words and analyze the sentence: 
 
 Pushing with restless feet the snow 
 To right and left, he lingered ; 
 
 As restlessly her tiny hands 
 
 The blue-checked apron fingered. 
 
 Exercise 274 
 
 Write ten sentences, each containing a prepositional 
 phrase used like an adjective. 
 
 Exercise 275 
 
 Write ten sentences, each containing a prepositional 
 phrase used like an adverb. 
 
 Exercise 276 
 
 Review pages 131-136. Add to the following sen- 
 tences explanatory or restrictive clauses. What is the 
 difference in the punctuation of explanatory and of 
 restrictive clauses ? 1 
 
 1 The punctuation of the sentences in the exercise is purposely left 
 incomplete. 
 
EXERCISES FOR REVIEW 273 
 
 1. The breeze had been blowing strongly died 
 
 suddenly down. 
 
 2. At the entrance to the harbor the man-of-war 
 
 lay at anchor swung lazily with the tide. 
 
 3. On the deck the sailors were gathered in groups 
 
 looked like dark moving specks. 
 
 4. The officer was giving orders to the watch could 
 
 be made out by the help of a glass. 
 
 5. The great guns shone like silver seemed harmless 
 
 enough. 
 
 6. In the town the rumors were flying about were 
 
 of the wildest sort. 
 
 7. One man - talked incessantly was running up and 
 
 down the pier with papers in his hands. 
 
 Exercise 877 
 
 In Exercise 82 (p. 67) explain the use of commas 
 with relative clauses. 
 
 Exercise 278 
 
 Find in one of your text-books adverbial clauses set 
 off by one or more commas. Find other adverbial 
 clauses that are not set off by commas. When is the 
 comma used to separate an adverbial clause from the 
 main clause! 
 
 Exercise 279 
 Review pages 188, 189. 
 Write the principal parts of the following verbs : 
 
 Blow, bring, burst, come, do, eat, fly, freeze, give, go, grow, 
 ride, rise, shake, show, sing, smile, steal, choose. 
 
274, GRAMMAR LESSONS 
 
 Exercise 
 
 Put into a sentence the indicative past or past per- 
 fect tense of each of the following verbs : 
 
 Awake, begin, break, drink, know, lay, ring, run, see, set, 
 sink, sit, spring, take, throw, write. 
 
 Exercise 281 
 Parse the words and analyze the sentences: 
 
 Down the narrow street sounded the steady tramp of the 
 advancing columns. The red light of smoking torches flared 
 in the faces of women looking timidly down from upper win- 
 dows. No lights appeared in the houses. There was no 
 shouting. There were no spectators in the streets. The sol- 
 diers seemed to see nothing but the figure of their leader 
 riding silently at the head of the regiment. 
 
 Exercise 
 
 Review pages 35-39. In Exercise 140 select the 
 verbs. Put into separate columns the transitive and 
 the intransitive verbs. 
 
 Exercise 283 
 
 Eeview pages 185-187. In Exercise 160 put into 
 separate columns the strong and the weak verbs. 
 
 Exercise 284 
 
 Use some of the following verbs in sentences, and 
 explain in each case whether the verb is used transi- 
 tively or intransitively: 
 
EXERCISES FOR REVIEW 275 
 
 Break, put, sail, share, endure, shrink, rise, advance, hasten, 
 attack, happen, move, capture, learn, assist, excite, feel, reach, 
 praise, draw, plunge, favor, cross, flatter, lose, struggle, live. 
 
 Exercise 285 
 
 Keview pages 194-196. Using he as the subject, 
 write the complete tenses of the following verbs in the 
 active and the passive voice : 
 
 Break, do, know, see, write. 
 
 Exercise 
 Parse the words in the following stanza: 
 
 The curfew tolls the knell of parting day, 
 The lowing herd winds slowly o'er the lea, 
 
 The ploughman homeward plods his weary way, 
 And leaves the world to darkness and to me. 
 
 Exercise 287 
 
 Review pages 40-45. Select and explain the copulas 
 and the copulative verbs in Exercise 2. 
 
 Exercise 288 
 
 Review pages 205, 206. Write five sentences, each 
 containing a verb that asserts a fact. 
 
 Exercise 289 
 
 Write five questions. In what mood and tense is the 
 verb in each? 
 
276 GRAMMAR LESSONS 
 
 Exercise WO 
 
 Review pages 207, 208. Write ten sentences illus- 
 trating the use of the imperative mood. 
 
 Exercise 291 
 
 Parse the words and analyze the sentences in the 
 following paragraphs: 
 
 Through the long, dull day the rain fell in light showers. 
 The clouds hung low, but they no longer descended in rush- 
 ing torrents. Gradually the fugitives mustered courage to 
 peer out of the narrow entrance to the cave. In the distance 
 they could still see thin lines of blue smoke rising above what 
 had been the village. But the band of raiders was already 
 miles away. 
 
 At nightfall a low whistle like the hoot of an owl sounded 
 in the distance. A little later it sounded nearer. " That's 
 our messenger," said Hendon. " He can tell us where the 
 raiders are." 
 
 Exercise 
 
 Review pages 160-162. In what mood, tense, per- 
 son, and number is each of the verbs in Exercise 78? 
 Show whether the verbs are transitive or intransitive. 
 
 Exercise 293 
 
 Review pages 178-183. Write ten sentences, each 
 containing a participle. Tell what noun each participle 
 modifies. Underscore each participial phrase in your 
 sentences. 
 
EXERCISES FOR REVIEW 277 
 
 Exercise 
 
 Review pages 171-178. Write ten sentences, each 
 containing a verbal noun. Explain the case of each 
 noun. 
 
 Exercise 295 
 
 Review pages 254-261. In Exercise 82 (p. 67) select 
 the adverbs and explain their use. Use in sentences 
 the following adverbs in the comparative and the super- 
 lative degree: 
 
 Well, smoothly, rapidly, slowly, fiercely. 
 
 Exercise 296 
 
 Parse the words and analyze the sentences in the 
 following paragraph: 
 
 The path was a narrow trail notched in the steep slope of 
 the mountain. On one side rose towering cliffs that lost them- 
 selves in the scudding clouds. On the other side the loose 
 rocks clung to the rocky wall as if they feared that they too 
 might plunge into the pale green lake a mile below. Unused 
 to such danger, the women shuddered as the ponies went for- 
 ward with steady pace. But the little horses gave no signs 
 of fear and munched contentedly mouthfuls of grass and 
 leaves that they caught up in passing. 
 
 Exercise 297 
 
 Review pages 55, 56. Write five sentences, putting 
 in each a noun used adverbially. 
 
278 GRAMMAR LESSONS 
 
 Exercise 298 
 
 What is the difference between an adjective and an 
 adverb? Illustrate the difference by writing ten sim- 
 ple declarative sentences, each containing an adjective 
 and an adverb. 
 
 Exercise 299 
 
 Eeview pages 35-37, 57-59. Write ten sentences, 
 each having a direct and an indirect object. 
 
 Exercise 300 
 Analyze the sentences in the following paragraph: 
 
 We began the ascent of the mountain at four o'clock in the 
 morning, for we did not wish to sink deeply into the snow. We 
 were tied together with a rope. Each of us had an axe and 
 a pole shod with iron. The first mile or two was made almost 
 in silence. Then the dawn began to light up the highest 
 peaks and tinge the snow-fields with a ruddy glow. Half an 
 hour later the sun peered through a gap in the mountain wall 
 and flooded the valleys with radiance. Seven thousand feet 
 below we saw the images of the flying clouds moving across 
 the blue lake. An eagle wheeled just above our heads. We 
 now rested for a time and prepared for the steep climb to the 
 still distant summit. 
 
 Exercise 301 
 
 Eeview pages 64, 65. Write six sentences contain- 
 ing interjections. Remember to use the exclamation 
 point in each sentence. 
 
EXERCISES FOR REVIEW 279 
 
 Exercise 302 
 
 Review pages 66-77. In the following sentences 
 select the clauses and explain their use : 
 
 1. At the moment the soldier raised the flask he saw a 
 thirsty child lying by the roadside. 
 
 2. After he had climbed for an hour he again grew very 
 thirsty. 
 
 3. While he was hanging his flask to his belt again he saw 
 a little dog on the rock. 
 
 4. When he came in sight of the valley he saw a river 
 springing from a new cleft of the rocks above it. 
 
 5. He went out every day after the weather became settled. 
 
 6. When he reached his home his father could not recog- 
 nize him. 
 
 Exercise 303 
 
 Parse the words and analyze the sentences in the 
 preceding exercise. 
 
 Exercise 304 
 
 Make a simple sentence of each clause in the com- 
 plex sentences of Exercise 83 (pp. 67, 68). What con- 
 nective is used in each dependent clause? 
 
 Exercise 305 
 
 Parse the words and analyze the sentences in the 
 following paragraph: 
 
 The moon was just rising. At that moment the soft plash 
 of oars was heard, and a light skiff cut through the broad 
 band of moonlight and made for the opposite shore of the 
 
280 GRAMMAR LESSONS 
 
 lake. The oarsman was a young man, powerfully built, and 
 wore no hat. He tossed his heavy dark hair as he swayed 
 backward and forward with the steady swing of the oars. In 
 a few minutes he landed, drew his boat out of the water, and 
 hid it in a dense thicket of willows. Then he gave a low 
 whistle and started rapidly up the path leading to the castle. 
 
 Exercise 306 
 
 Review pages 248-250. Write five sentences, each 
 containing a nominative absolute. Remember that the 
 phrase containing the nominative absolute should be 
 cut off from the rest of the sentence by one or more 
 commas. 
 
 Exercise 307 
 
 Rewrite all the sentences you wrote for the preced- 
 ing exercise, changing the nominative absolute phrases 
 to clauses. 
 
 Exercise 308 
 
 Review pages 62-64. Write ten sentences to illus- 
 trate the use of the nominative independent by direct 
 address. Use quotation marks in every sentence, and 
 be careful about the use of commas to set off from the 
 rest of the sentence the nouns used independently. 
 
 Exercise 309 
 
 Parse the words and analyze the sentences in the 
 following paragraph: 
 
 The spring night had fallen. The room was hot, and she 
 threw a window open. Some thorns in the garden below had 
 
EXERCISES FOR ANALYSIS 
 
 thickened into leaf. They rose in a dark mass beneath the 
 window. Overhead, beyond the haze of the great city, a few 
 stars twinkled, and the dim roar of London life beat from all 
 sides upon the quiet corner which still held the old house. 
 
 Exercise 310 
 
 Parse the words and analyze the sentences in the 
 following paragraph: 
 
 One of my friends has recently bought a large estate on 
 one of the Great Lakes. I visited him the other day. He 
 spends much of his time in planning improvements. He 
 keeps twenty men at work throughout the year. If you were 
 to meet him you would hardly suspect him to be the owner. 
 He always dresses very plainly. Some of his men make far 
 more display than he does. 
 
 Exercise 311 
 
 Parse the words and analyze the sentences in the 
 following paragraph: 
 
 The boy paused as he approached the great river. Before 
 him lay the city with its thousands of lights twinkling through 
 the darkness. The receding tide carried the rushing flood of 
 water through the huge stone arches of the bridge. Here 
 and there he saw a black vessel straining at its anchor. But 
 the roar of the city streets was hushed. Now and then a 
 belated householder glanced at him in passing. But the boy 
 said nothing. He felt more and more that he was alone in 
 the largest city in the world. 
 
APPENDIX 
 
 STRONG AND WEAK VERBS 
 
 The strong verbs were once far more numerous 
 than they are now. But during a long period when 
 English was almost wholly a spoken rather than a 
 written language, the strong verbs tended more and 
 more to become like the weak verbs. We notice the 
 tendency even now among children and uneducated 
 people to use such forms as growed and knowed for 
 grew and knew. Some verbs once strong are now 
 weak in all their parts. Some strong verbs have taken 
 on a weak form in the past tense or the past participle, 
 and are now partly strong and partly weak. A few 
 weak verbs have taken strong forms. Where there are 
 both strong and weak forms for the past tense or the 
 past participle the strong forms are as a rule more 
 commonly used in the higher, solemn style than in 
 ordinary speech or writing. Sometimes the strong 
 form is used as an adjective and the weak form as a 
 participle. 
 
 For convenience of reference the strong and the 
 weak verbs are here put together in an alphabetical 
 list and their principal parts given. The strong verbs 
 and the strong forms of weak verbs are printed in 
 
 283 
 
284 GRAMMAR LESSONS 
 
 bold-faced type. The reference after each verb is to 
 the group of verbs with which it may be classed. In 
 the course of centuries there has been so much shift- 
 ing of forms that no classification is entirely satisfac- 
 tory. The same verb may have forms in part like 
 those of one class and in part like those of another 
 class. But the value of any system that groups to- 
 gether verbs of the same sort is considerable. 
 
 NOTE. Owing to the practical aim of this book the archaic and 
 rare forms are kept in the background. A few of the more com- 
 mon archaisms are added, but with an indication of their charac- 
 ter. The teacher should emphasize the fact that these forms are 
 survivals which are common in the Bible and in poetry, and now 
 and then occur in proverbial expressions, but which should be 
 avoided in ordinary speech and writing. 
 
 ALPHABETICAL LIST OF STRONG VERBS 
 AND OF IRREGULAR 1 WEAK VERBS 
 
 abide 
 
 alight 
 
 am(be) 
 arise 
 
 awake 
 
 bear 
 
 beat 
 
 beget 
 
 begin 
 
 1 Many of the apparent irregularities are easily intelligible when the forms of the 
 verbs are studied as they appear in the older periods of the language. 
 
 2 Less common. 3 Born is always used as a passive participle. 
 
 abode 
 
 abode i (b) 
 
 f alighted 
 
 {alighted 
 
 (alit 
 
 alit 2 
 
 was 
 
 been vm 
 
 arose 
 
 arisen i (a) 
 
 ( awoke 
 
 f awoke 
 
 ( awaked (rare) 
 
 , , vi (b) 
 ( awaked 
 
 \ bore 
 
 f borne 
 
 ( born (brought forth) 3 r 
 
 beat 
 
 beaten vm 
 
 begot 
 
 begotten v (b) 
 
 began 
 
 begun in (a) 
 
STRONG AND WEAK VERBS 
 
 285 
 
 behold 
 
 beheld 
 
 beheld vn (b) 
 
 bend 
 
 bent 
 
 bent 3 
 
 bereave 
 
 f bereaved 
 ( bereft 
 
 {bereaved _ 
 bereft 1 
 
 beseech 2 
 
 besought 
 
 besought 9 
 
 
 jbet 
 
 j bet 12 
 
 bet 
 
 ( betted (rare) 
 
 ( betted (rare) 
 
 bid (order) 
 
 jbade 
 ( bid (rare) 
 
 f bidden 
 
 | bid (rare) 
 
 bid (offer) 
 
 bid 
 
 bid 12 
 
 bind 
 
 bound 
 
 {bounden (adj.) /t v 
 bound m(b) 
 
 bite 
 
 bit 
 
 bitten i (c) 
 
 bleed 
 
 bled 
 
 bled 4 
 
 bless 
 
 f blessed 
 ( blest 
 
 (blessed 
 ( blest 
 
 blow 
 
 blew 
 
 blown vii (a) 
 
 break 
 
 broke 
 
 broken iv 
 
 breed 
 
 bred 
 
 bred 4 
 
 bring 
 
 brought 
 
 brought 9 
 
 build 
 
 built 
 
 built 3 
 
 
 ( burned 
 
 r burned . 
 
 burn 
 
 ( burnt 
 
 ( burnt 
 
 burst 
 
 burst 
 
 ( burst 1O 
 { bursted (adj.) 
 
 buy 
 
 bought 
 
 bought 9 
 
 cast 
 
 cast 
 
 cast 12 
 
 catch 
 
 caught 
 
 caught 9 
 
 chide 
 
 chid 
 
 ( chidden , x 
 {chid I(c) 
 
 choose 
 
 chose 
 
 chosen n 
 
 
 C cleaved 
 
 C cleaved 
 
 cleave (split) 
 
 ] cleft 
 
 j cleft 
 
 
 (. clove 
 
 (. cloven (adj.) 
 
 cling 
 
 clung 
 
 clung in (c) 
 
 1 Bereft is not used as an adjective. 
 
 2 It will be observed that some weak verbs, like the strong verbs, change the vowel 
 of the present to form the past tense, but, unlike the strong verbs, they add an end- 
 ing. See Classes 9 and 11 (p. 294). 
 
286 
 
 GRAMMAR LESSONS 
 
 clothe 
 
 f clothed 
 (clad 
 
 ( clothed 1 ft 
 (clad 
 
 come 
 
 came 
 
 come vin 
 
 cost 
 
 cost 
 
 cost 12 
 
 creep 
 
 crept 
 
 crept 5 
 
 crow 
 
 ( crowed ) 
 ( crew J 
 
 crowed 8, vii (a) 
 
 
 ( cursed 
 
 | cursed - 
 
 curse 
 
 ( curst 
 
 ( curst 
 
 cut 
 
 cut 
 
 cut 12 
 
 dare 
 
 ( dared } 
 ( durst ) 
 
 dared 1 
 
 deal 
 
 dealt 
 
 dealt 5 
 
 dig 
 
 dug 
 
 dug in (d) 
 
 do 
 
 did 
 
 done vin 
 
 draw 
 
 drew 
 
 drawn vn (a) 
 
 
 ( dreamed 
 
 ( dreamed 
 
 dream 
 
 ( dreamt 
 
 ( dreamt 
 
 
 f dressed 
 
 ( dressed . 
 
 dress 
 
 ( drest 
 
 ( drest 
 
 drink 
 
 drank 
 
 f drunken (adj.} , x 
 {drunk m 
 
 drive 
 
 drove 
 
 driven i (a) 
 
 dwell 
 
 dwelt 
 
 dwelt 1 
 
 eat 
 
 ate 
 
 eaten v (a) 
 
 engrave 
 
 engraved 
 
 f engraved g 
 ( engraven l 
 
 fall 
 
 fell 
 
 fallen vn (b) 
 
 feed 
 
 fed 
 
 fed 4 
 
 feel 
 
 felt 
 
 felt 5 
 
 fight 
 
 fought 
 
 fought in (b) 
 
 find 
 
 found 
 
 found in (b) 
 
 flee 
 
 fled 
 
 fled 6 
 
 fling 
 
 flung 
 
 flung in (c) 
 
 fly 
 
 flew 
 
 flown vn (a) 
 
 forbear 
 
 forbore 
 
 forborne iv 
 
 forget 
 
 forgot 
 
 forgotten v (b) 
 
 
 1 Used in the solemn 
 
 style. 
 
STRONG AND WEAK VERBS 
 
 287 
 
 forsake 
 freeze 
 
 freight 
 get 
 
 gird 
 
 give 
 go 
 
 grave 
 
 grind 
 grow 
 
 hang 
 
 have 
 hear 
 
 heave 
 hew 
 
 hide 
 
 hit 
 
 hold 
 
 hurt 
 keep 
 
 kneel 
 
 knit 
 
 know 
 
 lade 
 
 lay 
 lead 
 
 forsook 
 
 forsaken vi (a) 
 
 froze 
 
 frozen n 
 
 freighted 
 
 ( freighted 
 ( fraught (adj.) 
 
 got 
 
 {gotten 1 v(b) 
 
 ( girded 
 
 C girded 
 
 (girt 
 
 I girt 
 
 gave 
 
 given v (a) 
 
 went (weak) 
 
 gone vin 
 
 graved 
 
 f graved ~ 
 { graven (adj.) 
 
 ground 
 
 ground in (b) 
 
 grew 
 
 grown vn (a) 
 
 | hung 
 
 f hung 
 
 ( hanged (executed) 
 
 ( hanged (executed) 
 
 had 
 
 had 10 
 
 heard 
 
 heard 6 
 
 ( hove 
 
 f hove ,, . 
 
 ( heaved 
 
 1 , , vi (b) 
 ( heaved 
 
 hewed 
 
 ( hewn 8 
 
 ( hewed 
 
 hid 
 
 C hidden . . 
 (hid 
 
 hit 
 
 hit 12 
 
 held 
 
 held vn (b) 
 
 hurt 
 
 hurt 12 
 
 kept 
 
 kept 5 
 
 ( kneeled 
 
 f kneeled 1 
 
 I knelt 
 
 ( knelt 
 
 ( knitted 
 
 C knitted . 
 
 (knit 
 
 (knit 
 
 knew 
 
 known vn (a) 
 
 laded 
 
 f laden (adj.) R 
 ( laded 
 
 laid 
 
 laid 7 
 
 led 
 
 led 4 
 
 in (c) 
 
 1 Gotten is common in America, but is much less used in England. 
 
288 
 
 GRAMMAR LESSONS 
 
 lean 
 leap 
 
 learn 
 
 leave 
 lend 
 let 
 lie 
 
 light 
 
 lose 
 make 
 mean 
 meet 
 
 melt 
 mow 
 
 pay 
 
 pen (inclose) 
 
 put 
 
 quit 
 
 read 
 
 rend 
 
 rid 
 
 ride 
 
 ring 
 
 rise 
 
 run 
 
 saw 
 
 say 
 see 
 
 ( leaned 
 
 ( leaned 1 
 
 { leant 1 
 
 (leant 1 
 
 ( leaped 
 
 C leaped ^ 
 
 ( leapt (rare) 
 
 ( leapt (rare) 
 
 ( learned 
 
 ( learned ^ 
 
 ( learnt 
 
 ( learnt 
 
 left 
 
 left 2 
 
 lent 
 
 lent 3 
 
 let 
 
 let 12 
 
 lay 
 
 lain v (c) 
 
 ( lighted 
 
 (lighted 
 
 (lit 
 
 {lit 
 
 lost 
 
 lost 6 
 
 made 
 
 made 10 
 
 meant 
 
 meant 5 
 
 met 
 
 met 4 
 
 melted 
 
 ( melted ~ 
 ( molten (adj.} 
 
 mowed 
 
 ( mowed ~ 
 ( mown (adj.) 
 
 paid 
 
 paid 7 
 
 ( penned 
 
 ( penned ^ 
 
 ( pent 
 
 ( pent 
 
 put 
 
 put 12 
 
 ( quitted 
 
 ( quitted ^ 
 
 (quit 
 
 ( quit 
 
 read 
 
 read 4 
 
 rent 
 
 rent 3 
 
 rid 
 
 rid 12 
 
 rode 
 
 ridden i (a) 
 
 rang 
 
 rung in (a) 
 
 rose 
 
 risen i (a) 
 
 ran 
 
 run in (a) 
 
 sawed 
 
 ( sawed , 
 < o 
 
 (sawn 
 
 said 
 
 said 7 
 
 saw 
 
 seen v (a) 
 
 1 Less common. 
 
 
STRONG AND WEAK VERBS 
 
 289 
 
 seek 
 seethe 
 
 sell 
 
 send 
 
 set 
 
 sew 
 shake 
 
 shape 
 
 shave 
 
 shear 
 
 shed 
 shine 
 
 shoe 
 shoot 
 
 show 
 shred 
 
 shrink 
 
 shut 
 sing 
 
 sink 
 
 sit 
 slay 
 
 sleep 
 
 slide 
 
 sling 
 slink 
 
 sought 
 ( sod 
 
 { seethed 
 sold 
 sent 
 set 
 
 sewed 
 shook 
 
 shaped 
 
 shaved 
 
 r shore l 
 \ sheared 
 
 shed 
 ( shone 
 
 ( shined (rare) 
 shod 
 shot 
 
 showed 
 
 ( shredded 
 ( shred 
 
 shrank 
 
 shut 
 sang 
 
 sank 
 
 sat 
 slew 
 
 slept 
 
 slid 
 
 slung 
 slunk 
 
 8 
 
 sought 9 
 f sodden (adj.) 
 \ seethed 
 
 sold 11 
 
 sent 3 
 
 set 12 
 f sewed 
 ( sewn 
 
 shaken vi (a) 
 J shaped 
 ( shapen (adj.) 
 ( shaved 
 ( shaven (adj.) 
 ( shorn 1 
 ( sheared 
 
 shed 12 
 | shone i (b) 
 | shined (rare) 
 
 shod 6 
 
 shot 6 
 | shown 
 ( showed 
 f shredded 
 \ shred 
 f shrunken (adj.) 
 \ shrunk 
 
 shut 12 
 
 sung in (a) 
 ( sunken (adj.) 
 \ sunk 
 
 sat v (c) 
 
 slain vn (a) 
 
 slept 5 
 ( slidden 
 (slid 
 
 slung in (c) 
 
 slunk in (c) 
 
 ii 
 
 8 
 
 8 
 
 1 
 
 in (a) 
 
 in (a) 
 
 1 Used in the solemn style. 
 
290 
 
 GRAMMAR LESSONS 
 
 slit 
 
 smell 
 
 smite 
 
 sow 
 
 speak 
 
 speed 
 
 spell 
 
 spend 
 
 spill 
 
 spin 
 spit 
 
 split 
 
 spoil 
 
 spread 
 spring 
 stand 
 
 stave 
 
 stay 
 
 steal 
 stick 
 sting 
 
 strew 
 stride 
 
 strike 
 
 string 
 strive 
 swear 
 
 sweat 
 
 slit 
 
 ( smelled 
 ( smelt 
 
 smote 
 
 sowed 
 
 spoke 
 
 ( speeded 
 ( sped 
 J spelled 
 ( spelt 
 
 spent 
 ( spilled 
 ( spilt 
 
 spun 
 
 spit 
 
 split 
 
 {spoiled 
 spoilt 
 spread 
 sprang 
 stood 
 C stove 
 ( staved 
 J stayed 
 \ staid 
 stole 
 stuck 
 stung 
 strewed 
 strode 
 
 struck 
 
 strung 
 strove 
 swore 
 
 ( sweated 
 1 sweat 
 
 i (a) 
 
 v(b) 
 1 
 
 slit 12 
 j smelled 
 ( smelt 
 
 smitten 
 ( sowed 
 ( sown 
 
 spoken 
 j speeded 
 ( sped 
 ( spelled 
 ( spelt 
 
 spent 
 ( spilled 
 I spilt 
 
 spun in (c) 
 
 spit 12 
 
 split 12 
 | spoiled 
 ( spoilt 
 
 spread 12 
 
 sprung in (a) 
 
 stood vi (b) 
 f stove 
 ( staved 
 
 {stayed ^ 
 staid 
 
 stolen iv 
 stuck HI (d) 
 stung in (c) 
 strewn 8 
 stridden i (a) 
 
 f stricken (adj.) 
 
 \ struck 
 strung in (c) 
 striven i (a) 
 sworn iv 
 
 {sweated 
 sweat 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 vi (b) 
 
 in (d) 
 
STRONG AND WEAK VERBS 
 
 291 
 
 sweep 
 
 swept 
 
 swept 5 
 
 swell 
 
 swelled 
 
 ( swollen l 
 ( swelled 
 
 swim 
 
 swam 
 
 swum in (a) 
 
 swing 
 
 swung 
 
 swung in (c) 
 
 take 
 
 took 
 
 taken vi (a) 
 
 teach 
 
 taught 
 
 taught 9 
 
 tear 
 
 tore 
 
 torn iv 
 
 tell 
 
 told 
 
 told 11 
 
 think 
 
 thought 
 
 thought 9 
 
 thrive 
 
 | throve 
 
 ( thrived 
 
 f thriven 
 
 {thrived I(a) 
 
 throw 
 
 threw 
 
 thrown vn (a) 
 
 tread 
 
 trod 
 
 ( trodden ,, x 
 {trod v(b) 
 
 wake 
 
 C woke 
 
 ( waked 
 
 j w ke . vi (b) 
 
 ( waked 
 
 wear 
 
 worn 
 
 worn .TV 
 
 weave 
 
 wove 
 
 woven v (b) 
 
 wed 
 
 wedded 
 
 j" wedded 1 
 
 11 -* 
 
 
 
 (wed 
 
 weep 
 
 wept 
 
 wept 5 
 
 wet 
 
 wet 
 
 wet 12 
 
 
 f whetted 
 
 C whetted . 
 
 whet 
 
 (whet 
 
 ( whet 
 
 win 
 
 won 
 
 won in (c) 
 
 wind 
 
 wound 
 
 wound in (b) 
 
 
 j" worked 
 
 f worked 
 
 work 
 
 ( wrought l 
 
 ( wrought 2 
 
 wring 
 
 wrung 
 
 wrung in (c) 
 
 write 
 
 wrote 
 
 written i (a) 
 
 NOTE. The teacher may profitably use the following lists as a basis 
 for exercises in requiring pupils to write or give orally the principal 
 parts of verbs that form their parts in the same or similar ways. It 
 need hardly be said that the lists are not to be committed to memory. 
 
 1 Commonly an adjective. 
 
 2 Less common. The adjective form is wrought. 
 
292 GRAMMAR LESSONS 
 
 CLASSES OF STRONG VERBS 
 
 
 CLASS I 
 
 
 
 (a) 
 
 
 arise ride 
 
 smite 
 
 strive write 
 
 drive rise 
 
 stride 
 
 thrive 
 
 
 (b) 
 
 
 abide 
 
 
 shine 
 
 
 (c) 
 
 
 bite 
 
 chide 
 
 hide slide 
 
 
 CLASS II 
 
 
 choose 
 
 freeze 
 
 seethe 
 
 
 CLASS III 
 
 
 
 (a) 
 
 
 begin ring 
 
 shrink 
 
 sink swim 
 
 drink run 
 
 sing 
 
 spring 
 
 
 (b) 
 
 
 bind fight 
 
 find 
 
 grind wind 
 
 
 (c) 
 
 
 cling hang 
 
 slink 
 
 sting swing win 
 
 fling sling 
 
 spin 
 
 string wring 
 
 
 (d) 
 
 
 dig 
 
 stick 
 
 strike 
 
 
 CLASS IV 
 
 
 bear 
 
 break 
 
 steal tear 
 
 forbear 
 
 shear 
 
 swear wear 
 
 
 CLASS V 
 
 
 
 (a) 
 
 
 bid (order) 
 
 eat 
 
 give see 
 
 
 (b) 
 
 
 get 
 
 forget 
 
 tread 
 
 beget 
 
 speak 
 
 weave 
 
 
 (c) 
 
 
 lie 
 
 sit 
 
STRONG AND WEAK VERBS 
 
 293 
 
 
 
 CLASS VI 
 
 
 
 forsake 
 
 
 (a) 
 shake 
 
 
 take 
 
 awake heave 
 
 
 (b) 
 stand 
 
 stave 
 
 W 
 
 
 
 CLASS VII 
 
 
 
 draw 
 blow 
 
 behold 
 
 crow 
 fly 
 
 (a) 
 
 (b) 
 fall 
 
 grow 
 know 
 
 slay 
 throw 
 
 hold 
 
 
 
 CLASS VIII 
 
 
 
 am beat 
 
 
 come 
 
 do 
 
 
 CLASSES OF 
 
 IRREGULAR WEAK 
 
 VERBS 
 
 
 
 CLASS 1 
 
 
 
 bless 
 burn 
 curse 
 dare 
 dream 
 dress 
 dwell 
 
 gird 
 kneel 
 knit 
 lean 
 leap 
 learn 
 light 
 
 
 pen (inclose) 
 quit 
 shred 
 smell 
 speed 
 spell 
 spill 
 
 spoil 
 stay 
 sweat 
 wed 
 whet 
 
 
 
 CLASS 2 
 
 
 
 bereave 
 
 
 cleave 
 
 
 leave 
 
 
 
 CLASS 3 
 
 
 
 bend 
 build 
 
 gird 
 lend 
 
 
 rend 
 send 
 
 spend 
 
 
 
 CLASS 4 
 
 
 
 bleed 
 breed 
 
 feed 
 lead 
 
 
 meet 
 speed 
 
 read 
 
GRAMMAR LESSONS 
 
 lay 
 
 CLASS 5 
 
 creep 
 deal 
 
 feel 
 keep 
 
 
 mean 
 sleep 
 
 sweep 
 weep 
 
 
 
 CLASS 6 
 
 
 
 
 hear 
 
 lose 
 
 shoe 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 CLASS 7 
 
 
 
 shoot 
 
 pay 
 
 say 
 
 stay 
 
 CLASS 8 
 
 crow 
 grave 
 engrave 
 hew 
 
 lade 
 melt 
 mow 
 saw 
 
 
 sew 
 shape 
 show 
 
 sow 
 strew 
 swell 
 
 
 
 CLASS 9 
 
 
 
 beseech 
 bring 
 
 buy 
 catch 
 
 seek 
 freight 
 
 think 
 teach 
 
 work 
 
 
 
 CLASS 10 
 
 
 
 clothe 
 
 
 make 
 
 
 have 
 
 sell 
 
 CLASS 11 
 
 tell 
 
 CLASS 12 
 
 bet 
 
 cut 
 
 rid 
 
 spit 
 
 bid (offer) 
 
 hit 
 
 set 
 
 split 
 
 burst 1 
 
 hurt 
 
 shed 
 
 spread 
 
 cast 
 
 let 
 
 shut 
 
 thrust 
 
 cost 
 
 put 
 
 slit 
 
 wet 
 
 1 Burst was originally a strong verb and is sometimes classed so even now. 
 
HINTS ON PUNCTUATION 
 
 In your study of sentences you have from time to 
 time been told what marks of punctuation are to be 
 used in certain cases. A few words further on this 
 matter may enable you to see more clearly why you 
 should punctuate at all and how the study of grammar 
 will help you in punctuating accurately. Marks of 
 punctuation are not to be used at random, but only for 
 the sake of making a thought more clear. They serve 
 to indicate a break of some sort, and are therefore some- 
 times known as stops. When we speak we of course 
 use no commas or periods or other marks of punctua- 
 tion, but we indicate by pauses or by the inflection of 
 the voice what words are to be taken together. 
 
 When we have made a complete statement we stop, 
 and in writing we use a period. Hence the rule, 
 
 A period is used after a complete statement, that is, 
 after a declarative sentence (p. 2). 
 
 Questions (p. 4) are conveniently indicated to the 
 eye by a question mark, or interrogation point, and ex- 
 clamations by an exclamation point (p. 5). All inter- 
 jections are exclamations. 
 
 If a sentence is brief and there is no break in the 
 thought, no mark of punctuation is needed until the 
 close. But, as we have seen throughout this book, 
 
 295 
 
296 GRAMMAR LESSONS 
 
 sentences frequently contain independent elements or 
 modifiers which would hardly be missed if they were 
 dropped out altogether. All these require to be set off 
 by one or two commas to indicate that the connection 
 between them and other words in the sentence is not 
 close enough to warrant their being put together with- 
 out some mark of separation. For the indication of 
 breaks in the sentence we use the comma if the connec- 
 tion is somewhat close, the semicolon if the connection 
 is less close, and the colon if the connection is slight. 
 The precise marks to be used in the sentence are in 
 some measure a matter of judgment, since there is often 
 more than one way of correctly punctuating the same 
 sentence. 
 
 We now gather together the various suggestions on 
 punctuation that are scattered throughout the book. It 
 is important to note that you should not leave the 
 marks of punctuation until you have finished writing, 
 and then add them as an after-thought. You should 
 punctuate as you write, and unless you have properly 
 punctuated a sentence you should not regard it as 
 finished. 
 
 Appositive phrases (p. 27) are usually set off from 
 the rest of the sentence by commas, but if the connec- 
 tion is very close the commas are sometimes omitted. 
 
 Exercise 1 
 
 Write ten sentences to illustrate the use of commas with apposi- 
 tive phrases. 
 
HINTS ON PUNCTUATION 297 
 
 The name of the person or thing addressed (p. 63) 
 is set off from the rest of the sentence by one or more 
 commas. 
 
 Exercise 8 
 
 Write ten sentences, using in each the nominative independent 
 by direct address. Tour sentences will be more interesting if you 
 will put them in the form of a dialogue. 
 
 Commas are often used to separate dependent clauses 
 (p. 75) from the rest of the sentence, but if the con- 
 nection in thought is very close the comma should be 
 omitted. 
 
 Exercise 3 
 
 Write ten complex sentences, using in each a dependent clause 
 that must be set off from the main clause by a comma. 
 
 Exercise 4 
 
 Write ten complex sentences in which the connection in 
 thought is so close that no comma should be used to separate 
 the clauses. 
 
 The members of a compound sentence, whether joined 
 by a connective or not, are usually separated by a 
 comma (p. 79). 
 
 Exercise 5 
 
 Write ten compound sentences, using in each a comma to sep- 
 arate the members. 
 
 In your reading you will find compound sentences 
 in which semicolons or colons are used to separate the 
 members, but in your own writing you will do well to 
 
298 GRAMMAR LESSONS 
 
 avoid for the present the use of sentences that require 
 the use of such marks of punctuation. 
 
 An explanatory relative clause (p. 134) is separated 
 from the main clause by a comma. The restrictive 
 relative clause is never separated by a comma from 
 the main clause. 
 
 Exercise 6 
 
 Write ten sentences in which you use explanatory relative 
 clauses. Write ten sentences in which you use restrictive relative 
 clauses. 
 
 Exercise 7 
 
 Copy from one of your text-books five sentences containing 
 explanatory relative clauses, and five containing restrictive relative 
 clauses. 
 
 The participial phrase (p. 180) is often separated 
 from the rest of the sentence by one or more commas. 
 When a noun or pronoun is used absolutely with a 
 participle (p. 249), the entire phrase must be set off 
 by one or more commas. 
 
 Exercise 8 
 
 Write ten sentences to illustrate the use of commas to set off 
 participial phrases. 
 
 Exercise 9 
 
 Write ten sentences, each containing a noun used as the nomi- 
 native absolute with a participle. 
 
 NOTE. Although the rules that follow have not been illustrated in 
 this book, they should receive some attention. They have already been 
 presented in " Language Lessons," the first book of this series. 
 
HINTS ON PUNCTUATION 299 
 
 Words, phrases, and clauses, used in a series, with- 
 out conjunctions to connect them, are separated by 
 commas. 
 
 Exercise 10 
 
 Write four sentences, using in each a series of nouns; four 
 sentences, using in each a series of adjectives ; and four sentences, 
 using in each a series of adverbs. 
 
 The comma should be used to introduce short quo- 
 tations. 
 
 This rule refers to direct quotations. On page 138 
 you have illustrations of indirect quotations, which, as 
 you remember, do not give the exact language but the 
 substance of what has been spoken or written. Such 
 quotations are not introduced by a comma. 
 
 Exercise 11 
 
 Write ten sentences, using in each a short direct quotation. 
 Be careful in the use of quotation marks. 
 
 Exercise 12 
 
 Rewrite the sentences you wrote for the preceding exercise, 
 and change the direct to indirect quotations. Do not use quota- 
 tion marks with indirect quotations. 
 
 NOTE. It is obvious that the grammar-school pupil should make 
 sparing use of the semicolon, the colon, the dash, parentheses, and 
 the exclamation point. The essential thing for the beginner is that 
 he shall master the proper use of the comma, which presents the 
 principal difficulty, and shall form the habit of inserting the period, 
 the interrogation point, the apostrophe, and quotation marks where 
 they regularly belong. 
 
 Dictation exercises and the careful copying by pupils of selected 
 
300 GRAMMAR LESSONS 
 
 pages of well-punctuated books not dictated are the most efficient 
 means for drilling large classes in punctuation. If the sentences 
 dictated to a class have been previously copied upon the blackboard, a 
 curtain may be used to cover the matter until the time comes for cor- 
 rection. Pupils may then be required to correct one another's work by 
 comparison with the proper form upon the blackboard. If the teacher 
 desires to select exercises for dictation from this book, the material on 
 the following pages will prove serviceable : 20, 25, 27, 54, 56, 61, 
 63, 65,, 67, 68, 76, 79, 85, 101, 133, 136, 163, 205, 206, 213, 214, 
 222, 253. 
 
INDEX 
 
 A or an, 146, 147 
 Abstract nouns, 105-107 
 Active voice, 156-159 
 
 conjugation in, 218 ff. 
 Adjective clauses, 68-70 
 Adjective phrases, 21-23 
 Adjectives, 19-21, 139-1 52 
 
 articles, 20, 146, 147 
 
 in predicate, 45, 46 
 
 kinds, 139-141 
 
 comparison, 141-145 
 
 pronouns used as adjectives, 
 148-152 
 
 used as nouns, 141 
 
 parsing of, 267, 268 
 Adverbial clauses, 70-72 
 Adverbial phrases, 48-50 
 Adverbs, 46-48 
 
 nouns used as, 55-57, 125, 
 261 
 
 classes of, 254, 255 
 
 assertive, 255 
 
 sentence, 255 
 
 phrasal, 257 
 
 interrogative, 258 
 
 conjunctive, 260 
 
 comparison of, 258 
 
 301 
 
 Analysis, oral and graphic, 90- 
 
 96 
 
 Analysis and parsing, 270-281 
 Antecedent of relative pronoun, 
 
 69, 188 ff. 
 Apostrophe, 24 f. 
 Appositives, 26 ff. 
 Articles, 20, 146, 147 
 As, as a relative pronoun, 132 
 Assertive adverbs, 255 
 Ate and eaten, 202 
 Auxiliary verbs, 230-233 
 
 shall and will, 190-193 
 
 have, 195, 196 
 
 be, 224-226 
 
 do, 241-242 
 
 may, 234, 235 
 
 can, 235 
 
 must, 243 
 
 Be, conjugation of, 224-226 
 case after, 262, 263 
 
 Can, conjugation of, 235 
 Case, 117-123 
 
 nominative, 119 
 
 possessive, 120-123 
 
302 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Case, objective,, 124, 125 
 
 of relative pronouns, 133 
 Clauses, 66-68 
 
 adjective, 68-70 
 
 adverbial, 70-72 
 
 as nouns, 72, 73 
 
 independent and dependent, 
 74 
 
 in compound sentences^ 78 
 
 analysis of, 94-96 
 Cognate object, 159 
 Collective nouns, 108, 109 
 Common gender, 115 
 Common nouns, 13-15, 105 if. 
 Comparative degree, 142 
 Comparison 
 
 of adjectives, 141-145 
 
 of adverbs, 258 
 Complement, meaning of, 41 
 Complete tenses, 194-198 
 Complex sentences, 74-77, 81 if. 
 
 analysis of, 94, 95 
 Compound personal pronouns, 
 129-131 
 
 used for emphasis, 129 
 
 reflexive use, 129 
 Compound relatives, 136 
 Compound sentences, 77-79 
 Conjugation of the active voice, 
 
 218 ff. 
 Conjunctions, 80-83 
 
 co-ordinate, 80, 81 
 
 correlative, 81 
 subordinate, 81 
 phrasal, 82 
 
 Conjunctive adverbs, 260 
 Co-ordinate conjunctions, 80, 
 
 81 
 
 Copula, 40-42 
 
 Copulative verbs, 41, 264-266 
 Correlative conjunctions, 81 
 
 Declarative sentences, 1-3 
 Defective verbs, 243 
 Definite article, 20, 146, 147 
 Demonstrative adjectives, 151, 
 
 152 
 Demonstrative pronouns used as 
 
 adjectives, 151, 152 
 Dependent clause, 74 
 Descriptive adjectives, 140 
 Did and done, 203 
 Difficult verb-forms, 199-203 
 Do and did, use of, 241, 242 
 Double negatives, 261 
 
 Emphatic forms of the verb, 
 
 241,242 
 
 Exclamatory sentences, 5 
 Explanatory relative clause, 
 
 134 
 Expletives, 244 
 
 Feminine gender, 115 
 Future tense, 162 
 Future perfect tense, 195 
 
 Gender, 115, 116 
 
 of personified objects, 116 
 
INDEX 
 
 303 
 
 Have, conjugation of, 241-242 
 Historical present, l6l 
 
 Imperative mood, 207, 208 
 Imperative sentences, 4, 5 
 Impersonal verbs, 244 
 Indefinite adjectives, 149-151 
 Indefinite article, 20, 146, 147 
 Indefinite pronouns used as ad- 
 jectives, 149-151 
 Independent clause, 74 
 Independent use of nouns, 62- 
 
 64 
 
 Indicative mood, 205-207 
 Indirect object, 57, 59, 125 
 Indirect questions, 138 
 Indirect quotations, 138 
 Infinitive, a verbal noun, 171- 
 178, 182, 183 
 
 an adjective, 177 
 
 an adverb, 177, 178 
 
 a complement, 177 
 
 in absolute construction, 178 
 
 equivalent to a clause, 178 
 
 subject of, 178 
 
 the sign to omitted, 173 
 Interjections, 64-65 
 Interrogative adjectives, 148- 
 
 149 
 
 Interrogative adverbs, 258 
 Interrogative pronouns, 137, 
 138 
 
 used as adjectives, 148, 149 
 Interrogative sentences, 3, 4, 7 
 Intransitive verbs, 37-39 
 
 Intransitive verbs, use of, in 
 passive, when combined 
 with prepositions, 159 
 
 Irregular comparison of adjec- 
 tives, 143, 144 
 of adverbs, 258 
 
 Irregular verbs, 186, 284, 292 
 
 It, uses of, 244 
 
 Lie and lay, 199 
 Limiting adjectives, 140 
 
 Main clause, 74, 8 1 
 
 Masculine gender, 115 
 
 May, conjugation of, 234, 235 
 
 Mood, 203-217 
 
 Must, 243 
 
 Neuter gender, 115 
 New conjugation, 187 
 No, 255 
 Nominative case, 
 
 as subject, 119 
 
 after the copula or the copu- 
 lative verb, 119 
 
 by direct address, 119 
 
 in exclamations, 119 
 
 as nominative absolute, 119 
 Nominative absolute, 119, 248, 
 
 249 
 
 Noun-clauses, 72, 73 
 Nouns, 12 
 
 common and proper, 13-15 
 
 possessive form, 23-26 
 
 appositives, 26-28 
 
304 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Nouns, predicate nouns, 43, 44 
 
 used as adverbs, 55-57, 125, 
 261 
 
 as indirect objects, 57-59 
 
 used independently by direct 
 address, 105-107 
 
 collective, 108, 109 
 
 number, 109-114 
 
 gender, 115, 116 
 
 case, 117-123 
 
 verbal nouns, 171-178, 182, 
 
 183 
 Number of nouns, 109-114 
 
 of pronouns, 114 
 
 of verbs, 164, 165 
 Numerals, 141 
 
 Object, 
 
 of a verb, 35, 125 
 
 of a preposition, 52-54, 125 
 
 indirect, 57-59, 125 
 
 as adverb, 125 
 
 cognate, 159 
 Objective case, 
 
 uses of, 124, 125 
 
 See also Object. 
 Objective complement, 250-253 
 Old conjunction, 187 
 Ought, 243 
 
 Parsing, 266 if. 
 
 Parts of speech, defined and il- 
 lustrated, 86-90 
 words used as various, 86, 87, 
 266 
 
 Participles, as adjectives, 178- 
 181,182, 183 
 
 Passive voice, 156-159, 223, 224 
 intransitive verbs with prep- 
 osition, 159 
 conjugation of verbs in, 
 
 226 if. 
 
 Past tense, 162 
 Past perfect tense, 194 
 Person and number of verbs, 
 
 164-171 
 special rules for agreement, 
 
 168-171 
 
 Personal pronouns, 17-19, 126- 
 131 
 
 declension, 127 
 
 compound, 129-131 
 
 emphatic, 129 
 
 reflexive, 129 
 Phrasal adverbs, 257 
 Phrasal conjunctions, 82 
 Phrasal prepositions, 53 
 Phrases, 
 
 prepositional, 51-55, 121 
 
 infinitive, 173 
 
 participial, 180 
 Plural of nouns, 109-114 
 Positive degree, 142 
 Possessive case, 123 
 Possessive form of nouns, 23- 
 
 26 
 
 Potential mood, 233 
 Potential verb-phrases, 233- 
 
 238 
 
 Predicate of sentence, 8 fF., 59' 
 61 
 
 compound, 84 
 
INDEX 
 
 305 
 
 Predicate adjectives, 44-46, 
 
 262, 264-266 
 Predicate nominative, 119, 262, 
 
 263 
 
 Predicate noun, 43, 44 
 Predicate, simple and complete, 
 
 59-61 
 
 Prepositions, 51-53 
 Prepositional phrase, 51-55, 
 
 121 
 
 Present tense, 160, 161 
 Present perfect tense, 194 
 Principal parts of verbs, 188 
 Progressive verb-phrases, 238- 
 
 241 
 Pronouns, 16 
 
 personal, 17-19 
 
 relative, 68-70, 131-137 
 
 indefinite, 149-151 
 
 forms after comparisons, 145 
 
 reflexive use, 129 
 
 used for emphasis, 129 
 Proper adjectives, 140 
 Proper nouns, 13-15 
 Punctuation, 295 
 
 Reflexive pronouns, 129 
 Regular verbs, 185 
 Relative pronouns, 68-70, 131- 
 137 
 
 introducing clauses, 131 
 
 antecedent, 131 
 
 declension, 132 
 
 case, 133 
 
 kinds of relative clauses, 1 34- 
 135 
 
 Relative pronouns, lack of an- 
 tecedent for what, 135 
 what introducing noun-clause, 
 
 136 
 
 compound relatives, 136 
 as adjectives, 148 
 Relative adjectives, 148 
 Restrictive relative clauses, 1 34, 
 
 135 
 
 Reviews, 30, 31, 62, 96, 123, 
 153, 246, 247, 269, 270- 
 280 
 
 Seen for saw, 201 
 Sentence-adverbs, 255 
 Sentences, kinds, 1-5 
 
 declarative, 1-3 
 
 interrogative, 3, 4 
 
 imperative, 4, 5 
 
 exclamatory, 5 
 
 subject of, 6 
 
 predicate of, 8 
 
 analysis, 90-96, 270-281 
 
 simple, 12 
 
 complex, 74-77 
 
 compound, 77-79 
 
 simple with compound ele- 
 ments, 84, 85 
 Shall and will, 190-193 
 Should, 233-236 
 Simple and complete subject, 
 
 28-30, 103, 104 
 Singular number, 109 
 Sit and set, 200 
 Solemn style, 164, 165 
 Strong verbs, 185-187, 283 
 
306 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Subject of sentence, 6, 1 1 
 
 simple and complete, 28, 103, 
 
 104 
 
 compound, 84 
 case of, 119 
 
 subject of an infinitive, 178 
 Subjunctive mood, 209-215 
 conjugation of, 210 
 use and meaning of, 211 
 condition and conclusion, 212 
 doubt and uncertainty, 213 
 tense, 215 
 
 Subordinate clauses, 81 
 Subordinate conjunctions, 81 
 Superlative degree, 142 
 
 Tense, 160-163, 189, 190 
 in the indicative mood, 206 
 in the subjunctive mood, 215 
 in the imperative mood, 207 
 
 Than, form of pronoun after, 
 145 
 
 That, in restrictive clause, 135 
 
 There, an expletive, 244 
 
 To, infinitive sign, omitted, 173 
 
 Took and taken, 203 
 
 Transitive verbs, 35-37 
 
 Verbs, 31-33 
 
 verb-phrases, 33-35 
 transitive, 35-37, 154, 155 
 intransitive, 37-39, 154, 155 
 state or condition, 38 
 copula, 40-42 
 
 Verbs, voice, 156-160 
 
 intransitive verb with prep- 
 ositions, 159 
 
 tense, 160-163, 189, 194-198, 
 206 
 
 person and number, 164-171 
 
 the infinitive, 171-178 
 
 verbal nouns in ing, 174-176, 
 182, 183 
 
 the participle a verbal adjec- 
 tive, 178-181, 182, 183 
 
 strong and weak verbs, 185- 
 187,283-294 
 
 regular and irregular, 185, 
 186 
 
 conjugation, 187 
 
 principal parts, 188 
 
 shall and will, 190-193 
 
 difficult forms, 199-203 
 
 mood, 203-217 
 
 conjugation of the active 
 voice, 218 
 
 passive voice, 226 
 
 defective, 243 
 
 impersonal, 244 
 Voice, 156-160 
 
 Weak verbs, 185-187, 283-294 
 What, 135, 136 
 Would, 233 
 
 Words used as various parts of 
 speech, 86, 87, 266 
 
 Yes, 255 
 

YC 4980! 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY