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 THEORY AND PRACTICE 
 
 TEACHING 
 
 THE MOTIVES AND METHODS 
 
 GOOD SCHOOL-KEEPING 
 
 By DAVID P. PAGE, A.M. 
 
 FiBOT PRINCIPAL OF THE STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, ALBANY, NEW TORF 
 
 TO WHICH IS PREFIXED 
 
 A BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH OF THE AUTHOR 
 
 A NEW EDITION, EDITED AND ENLARGED 
 
 BY 
 
 W. H . PAYNE 
 
 PBOFXSBOB OP THE aCIENCE AND THE ABT Ot TEACHIMO IX THE DNIVEBSITY 0» UICHIOAi. 
 
 NEW YORK •:• CINCINNATI •:• CHICAGO 
 
 AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY
 
 Copyright, 1885, by 
 A. S BARNES & COMPANY 
 
 w. p. 3
 
 /02S 
 
 AUTHOR'S PREFACE. 
 
 MANY a meritorious book has failed to find 
 readers by reason of a toilsome preface. 
 If the following volume meets a similar fate, what' 
 ever its merits, it shall lack a like excuse. 
 
 This work has had its origin in a desire to 
 contribute something toward elevating an impor- 
 tant and rising profession. Its matter comprises 
 the substance of a part of the course of lectures 
 addressed to the classes of the Institution under 
 my charge, during the past two years. Those 
 lectures, unwritten at first, were delivered in a 
 familiar, colloquial style, — their main object being 
 the inculcation of such practical views as would 
 best promote the improvement of the teacher. 
 In writing the matter out for the press, the same 
 style, to a considerable extent, has been retained, — 
 as I have written with an aim at usefulness 
 rather than rhetorical effect. 
 
 If the term theory in the title suggests to any 
 mind the bad sense sometimes conveyed by that 
 
 272j_65
 
 4 AUTHOR'S PREFACE. 
 
 ■word, I would simply say, that I have not been 
 dealing in the speculative dreams of the closet, 
 but in convictions derived from the realities of 
 the school -room during some twenty years of 
 actual service as a teacher. Theory may justly 
 mean the science distinguished from the art of 
 Teaching, — but as in practice these should never 
 be divorced, so in the following chapters I have 
 endeavored constantly to illustrate the one by 
 the other. 
 
 If life should be spared and other circum- 
 stances should warrant the undertaking, perhaps 
 a further course comprising the Details of Teach- 
 ing may, at some future time, assume a similar 
 form to complete my original design. 
 
 State Normal School, 
 Albany, N. ¥., Jan. 1, 1847. 
 
 David P. Page.
 
 EDITOR'S PREFACE. 
 
 NEARLY forty years have passed since Mr. 
 Page wrote his Theory and Practice of 
 Teaching, and within that period some marked 
 changes have taken place in the state of edu- 
 cational thought and practice ; and in under- 
 taking the preparation of this new edition, my 
 purpose has been, by making some additions to 
 the text, to carry forward the main lines of 
 thought, so that the book may be as useful to 
 the coming generation of teachers as it has been 
 to the past. Since its first appearance, the Theory 
 and Practice of Teaching has held a unique place 
 in our educational literature. Far more than any 
 other book of its kind, it has set before the 
 young teacher, in a clear and attractive manner, 
 the problem of the school, and at the same time 
 has enlisted the feelings as a motive power in 
 attaining the ends thus pointed out. This treat- 
 ment embodies the highest philosophy; for to 
 know the end is almost to know the way, and to
 
 6 EDITOR'S PREFACE. 
 
 feel a strong impulse to reach the end, is finally 
 to find the way. 
 
 My reverence for Mr. Page and his work has 
 forbidden me to make the slightest change in 
 the expression of his thought, and in this new 
 edition the text is essentially untouched. In only 
 a very few places have I made omissions of origi- 
 nal matter. The Program of the Albany Normal 
 School, and a few sentences in explanation of it, 
 have been omitted, and a new list of books has 
 been substituted for the one given on page 278 
 of the original edition. In every respect I have 
 tried to treat this work as I would wish a suc- 
 cessor to treat any piece of my own writing that 
 may have survived my professional life. 
 
 W. H. Payne, 
 
 !HIGAN, I 
 
 July 1, 1885. 
 
 Univeksity of Michigan, )
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGS 
 
 Biographical Sketch of the Author 11 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 Fitness for Teaching 19 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 Spirit op the Teacher 25 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 Responsibility of the Teacher 30 
 
 Section I. — A Neglected Tree 30 
 
 Section II. — The Teacher is Responsible 35 
 
 Section III. — The Auburn State Prison 54 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 Pbrsonal Habits of the Teacher 60 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 Literary Qualifications of the Teacher 71
 
 8 CONTENTS, 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Right Views op Education 91 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 Right Modes op Teaching 105 
 
 Section I. — Pouring-in Process 107 
 
 Section II. — Drawing-out Process 109 
 
 Section III. — The more excellent Way 114 
 
 Section IV. — Waking up Mind 117 
 
 Section V. — Remarks 130 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 Conducting Recitations 137 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 Exciting Interest in Study 154 
 
 Section I. — Incentives. . .Emulation 155 
 
 Section II. — Prizes 162 
 
 Section III. — Proper Incentives 175 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 School Government 186 
 
 Section I. — Requisites in the Teacher for Good 
 
 Government 186 
 
 Section II. — Means of Securing Good Order 197 
 
 Section III. — Punishments 216 
 
 I. Improper 219 
 
 II. Proper 230
 
 CONTENTS. 9 
 
 PAOB 
 
 Section IV. — Corporal Punishment 235 
 
 Section V. — Limitations and Suggestions 249 
 
 Motives 259 
 
 CHAPTER XL 
 
 School Arrangements 262 
 
 Section L— Plan of the Day's Work 269 
 
 Program 273 
 
 Remarks 274 
 
 Section IL — Interruptions ....... 279 
 
 Section III. — Recesses 283 
 
 Section TV. — Assignment of Lessons 286 
 
 Section Y. — Reviews 288 
 
 Section VI. — Public Examinations. .Exhibitions. . 
 
 Celebrations 290 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 The Teacher's Relation to the Parents of his 
 
 Pupils 296 
 
 CHAPTER XIIL 
 
 Teacher's Care of his Health 304 
 
 Health . . Exercise . . Diet 305 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 Teacher's Relation to his Profession 319 
 
 Section I. — Self-culture 325 
 
 Section II. — Mutual Aid 333
 
 10 CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER XV. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Miscellaneous Suggestions 344 
 
 Section I. — Things to be Avoided 344 
 
 Section II. — Things to be Performed 361 
 
 CHAPTER XVI. 
 THji Rewards of the Teacher 388 
 
 CHAPTER XVII. 
 
 Notes on the Teacher's Authority and Rights 405 
 
 INDEX 412
 
 BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH 
 
 OF 
 
 DAYID PERKINS PAGE. 
 
 Taken from Barnard's Journal of Education. 
 
 A MONG the self-educated teachers of our time, the men 
 j[~\_ who, as was said of old, of poets, "were born, not 
 made " teachers, and in whom the instinct for knowledge, and 
 for imparting it to others, was sufficiently strong to overpower 
 all obstacles and carry them to the highest eminence in their 
 profession, there are none who have excelled the subject oh 
 this brief memoir. ^=H..^^.^_^t^ I —^.Av— -- -. r>-*'^^' "* 
 
 David Perkins Page was born at Epping, N'ew Hampshire, 
 on the 4th of July, 1810. His father was a prosperous, though 
 not an affluent farmer, and his early life was passed as a 
 farmer's boy, with that scant dole of instruction which, forty 
 years ago, fell to the lot of farmers' sons in small country vil- 
 lages in New Hampshire, or, for that matter, anywhere in New 
 England. From his earliest years, however, the love of books 
 was the master-passion of his soul, and in his childhood he 
 plead often and earnestly with his father for the privilege of 
 attending an academy in a neighboring town, but the father 
 was inexorable ; he had determined that David should succeed 
 him in the management of the farm, and he did not consider 
 an academical education necessary for this. His refusal doubt- 
 less exerted a good influence on his son ; for a mind so active 
 as his, if denied the advantages of the school, must find vent
 
 12 BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH. 
 
 in some exercise, and the admirable illustrations he drew from 
 nature, so often, to embellish and enforce his instructions in 
 after years, showed conclusively that at this period of his life, 
 the pages of the wondrous book of nature had been wide open 
 before him, even though his father's fiat had deprived him of 
 other sources of information. 
 
 But He who guides the steps of his creatures had provided 
 a way for the gratification of the thirst for knoAvledge which 
 was consuming the farmer's boy, and that by what seemed an 
 untoward Providence. At the age of sixteen, he was brought 
 to the borders of the grave by a severe illness ; for a long time 
 he lingered between life and death ; and. while in this condi- 
 tion, his friends despairing of his recovery, and his father, 
 whose heart yearned over him, watching his enfeebled frame, 
 seemingly nigh to dissolution, the apparently dying boy turned 
 his large, full eyes upon his father's face, and, in an almost 
 inaudible whisper, begged that if he recovered, lie might be 
 allowed to go to Hampton Academy and prepare to become a 
 teacher. Was not this, indeed, an example of " the ruling 
 passion strong in death " ? The father could not refuse the 
 request jji-offered at such a time ; Avliat father could ? The boy 
 did recover, and he did go to the academy, a plain farmer's 
 boy: he dressed in plain farmer's clothes, and hence, some 
 self-conceited puppies, whose more fashionable exterior could 
 not hide the meanness of their souls, deemed him fit subject 
 for their gibes and sneers ; but his earnest nature and his in- 
 tense love of study Avere not to be thwarted by such rebuffs ; 
 he pursued the even tenor of his Avay, and, having spent some 
 months at the academy, he taught a district school for the ensu- 
 ing winter, and then returned again to the academy. Here liis 
 progress in study Avas rapid ; but, the ensuing Avinter, Ave find 
 him again teaching in his native toAvn, and his further studies 
 Avere prosecuted Avithout assistance. The next Avinter, he had 
 determined to make teaching a profession, and accordingly, 
 having taught a district scliool at KcAvbury, Mass., during the 
 Avinter, at its close he opened a private school : a daring step for 
 a young man but nineteen years of age, and who had enjoyed
 
 BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH. 13 
 
 SO few advantages of education. The success which followed 
 fully justified the self-reliance which led him to attempt it. 
 At the beginning he had five pupils, Lut lie persevered, and 
 before the close of the term, the number he had contemplated 
 was full. Here, as every-where else, during his career as a 
 teacher, was manifested that diligence, industry, and careful 
 preparation for his duties, which made him so eminently sue 
 cessful. He_j>tu4iedr^te-4es8oas-.lt^^w as to teach, t hoyoughl 
 that he might im})art instruction with that freslniess find: in 
 terest which sucli^ study jffliuld^__givej_ he studied his scholars 
 tlioroughry, that he might_,o£liipl-liisJxeadlings_jQ their s& vernl 
 cifpacfETe's^ encgurjffliig^ the^djffidfi'iit nnd sluggislyre&training 
 the froward j^_ajaiL£OU£ing^_tha-- b'st1ess nnd c gj^eless^ to __un wonted 
 interest and energy ; he ^ studie d, toa|_t]ieir,Kioral natures, and 
 sought to rouse in their^youthful hearts aspi rations for good- 
 ness and purity; and he studied whatever would ^nlarge-4iis 
 spHere'bf thought, intelligenciv^irLdjiSGfttLness. 
 ^^^^iSireira Teacher was sure to rise in reputation, — slowly, per- 
 haps, but certainly; and hence it need not surprise us to learn 
 that within two years he was associate principal of the New- 
 buryport High School, having charge of the English depart- 
 ment. Here, for twelve years, he was associated with Roger 
 S. Howard, Esq., one of the most eminent teachers in Massa- 
 chusetts, and how well he fulfilled his duties, Mr. Howard, 
 who survived him, testifies. The same intense fondness for 
 study characterized him, leading him to acquire a very compe- 
 tent knowledge of the Latin language, and something of the 
 Greek ; that same earnest and conscientious performance of all 
 his school duties, and delight in them, were manifested here as 
 in his humbler position. It Avas while occupying this post, 
 that he first began to come before the public as a lecturer. He 
 was an active and prominent member of the Essex County 
 Teachers' Association, one of the most efficient educational 
 organizations in Massachusetts, and delivered before that body 
 several lectures Avhich Hon. Horace Mann characterized as the 
 best ever delivered before that or any other body. Of one of 
 these, on " The Mutiud Duties of Parents and Teachers" six
 
 14 BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH. 
 
 thousand copies were printed and distributed (3,000 of -tliem at 
 Mr. Mann's expense) throughout the State. Mr. Page's powers 
 as an orator and debater were of a very high order ; he pos- 
 sessed, says Mr. Mann (liimself an orator of no mean powers), 
 " that rare quality, so mdispensable to an orator, the jtower to 
 think, standing on his feet, and before folks." As a teacher, he 
 exhibited two valuable qualifications : the ability to turn the 
 attention of his pupils to the principles wliich explain facts, 
 and in such a way that they could see clearly the connection ; 
 and the talent for reading the character of his scholars, so 
 accurately, that he could at once discern what were their gov- 
 erning passions and tendencies, what in them needed encour- 
 agement, and what repression. Thus, useful, active, and 
 growing in reputation, Mr. Page remained at Newburyport, till 
 December, 1844. 
 
 In the winter preceding, the Legislature of New York, 
 Avearied with the costly but unsuccessful measures which, year 
 after year, had been adopted for the improvement of her public 
 schools, had appointed a committee of their own body, warm 
 friends of education, to visit the normal schools of Massachu- 
 setts, and make a report thereon. The committee attended to 
 their duties and made an elaborate report in favor of the 
 adoption of the normal school system. That report was 
 adopted, and an appropriation of ten thousand dollars outfit 
 and ten thousand dollars per annum, for five j'^ears, was voted, 
 to establish a normal school as an experiment. The friends of 
 education in ]^ew York felt that, liberal as this appropriation 
 was, every tiling depended u])on securing the right man to 
 take charge of it, and long and carefully did they ponder the 
 question, who that man should be. 
 
 Mr. Page's reputation had already outrun the town and the 
 county in which he resided ; and, on the recommendation of 
 Hon. Horace Mann, and other friends of education in Massa- 
 chusetts, Dr. (afterward Bishop) Potter, Col. Young, and other 
 members of the executive committee, entered into correspond- 
 ence with him on the subject. In reply to the first communi- 
 cation, he addressed numerous inquiries to the committee, con-
 
 BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH. 15 
 
 ceming the plan proposed for the organization and management 
 of the school. 
 
 These questions were so pointed and so well chosen, that 
 Col. Young, on hearing them, at once exclaimed, " That is the 
 man we need ", and expressed himself entirely satisfied, with- 
 out any further evidence. So cautious, however, were the 
 committee, that it was decided that, before closing the negotia- 
 tion. Dr. Potter should visit Newburyport and have a personal 
 interview Avith Mr. Page. He accordingly repaired thither, 
 called at Mr. Page's residence, and found him in his every-day 
 dress and engaged in some mechanical work connected with 
 the improvement of his dwelling. An interview of a single 
 half hour so fully prepossessed him Avith Mr. Page's personal 
 bearing and conversation, that he at once closed the negotia- 
 tions with him and secured his services as Principal of the 
 New York State Normal School. 
 
 Mr. Page closed his connection with the Newburyport 
 High School about the middle of December, 1844, not without 
 numberless demonstrations of regret and affectionate regard on 
 the part of his pupils and friends. While on his way to Al- 
 bany, he spent a night with Mr. Mann, in Boston, and the 
 new duties he was about to undertake, the obstacles and diffi- 
 culties, the opposition and misrepresentations he would meet, 
 and the importance and necessity of success, formed themes of 
 converse which occupied them till the early morning hours ; 
 in parting, Mr. Mann said to ]\Ir. Page, as a veteran commander 
 might have said to a youthful officer going to lead a forlorn 
 hope, " Succeed or die." The words sank deep into his heart ; 
 they were adopted as his motto in the brief but brilliant career 
 which followed, and once, on recovering from a dangerous 
 ilhiess, he reminded his friend of his injunction, and added, 
 "I thought I was about to fulfill your last alternative." He 
 arrived at Albany a few days before the commencement of the 
 " experiment ", as the Normal School was designated, and 
 found every thing in a chaotic state ; the rooms intended for 
 its accommodation, yet unfinished ; there was no organization, 
 no apparatus, and indeed very few of the appliances necessary
 
 16 BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH. 
 
 bo a successful begiiiniug ; while tlie few were hoping, though 
 not without fear, for its success, and the many were prophesy- 
 ing its utter faihire. From this chaos, the systematic mind of 
 Mr. Page soon evolved order : full of hope and confident of 
 the success of the Normal School system himself, he infused 
 energy and courage into the hearts of its desponding friends, 
 and caused its enemies to falter, as they saw how all obstacles 
 yielded to the fascination of his presence, or the power of his 
 will. The school commenced with twenty-five scholars, but 
 ere the close of its first term, the number had increased to one 
 hundred. At the commencement of the second term, two 
 hundred assembled for instruction. From this time its course 
 was onward ; every term increased its popularity ; and the 
 accommodations provided for it, large as they were, were soon 
 crowded. For the first three years, it had to contend with 
 numerous and unscrupulous foes, some of whom attacked the 
 system, others its practical workings, others still, who were 
 strangers to his person, attacked the character of the prineipal 
 of the school. Meantime, Mr. Page labored indefatigably : 
 against the assaults upon the organization, or its practical 
 operations, he interposed able, manly, and courteous defenses ; 
 those Avhich were leveled at himself, he bore in silence ; but 
 no man, whatever his position in the State, and however bitter 
 might have been his hostility to the school, or to its principal, 
 ever came within the magnetism of his presence and influence 
 without being changed from an enemy into a friend. Among 
 the most decided, as Avell as the most conscientious opposers of 
 the Normal School, was the Hon. Silas Wright ; indeed, in 
 his election as governor, the enemies of the school claimed a 
 triumph and counted largely on his eminent abilities to aid 
 them in putting it down; but a very few months' residence in 
 Albany converted this man, of strong and determined will, 
 into one of its sincerest friends. During the vacations of the 
 school, Mr. Page gave himself no rest ; he visited different 
 parts of the State, attended teachers' institutes, lectured day 
 after day, and, wlierever he went, removed prejudices, cleared 
 up doubts, and won golden opinions. Every such visit drew
 
 BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH. 17 
 
 a large iimnber of pupils to the school, from the section visited, 
 the ensuing term. The Htate Superintendent was accustomed 
 to say " that he needed oidy to look at the catalogue of the 
 Normal School, to tell where Mr. Page had spent his va- 
 cations." 
 
 Before four years had passed, the school had ceaseil to be 
 an "experiment"; it was too firmly rooted in the hearts of 
 the people to he abandoned, and the opposition, which had at 
 first been so formidable, had dwindled into insignificance. 
 But the t(jil re([uisite to accomplish this had been too arduous 
 for any constitution, however vigorous, to endure. The au- 
 tumnal term of 1847 found him cheerful and hopeful as ever, 
 l)ut with waning jihysical strengtli ; he sought (an unusual 
 thing fr;r him) the aid of his colleagues in the performance of 
 dutiiis he had usually undertaken alone, and at length con- 
 sented to take a vacation of a week or two during the Christ- 
 mas holidays. Alas ! the relaxation came too late ; the evening 
 before he was to leave, there was a meeting of the faculty at 
 his residence ; he was cheerful, but complained of slight indis- 
 ])Osition, anil retired early, AVith the night, however, came 
 violent fever and restlessness, and by the morning light the 
 physicians in attendance pronounced tlie disease pneumonia. 
 At first, the attack excited little alurni, fmt it soon became evi- 
 dent that his overtasked vital powers had not the ability to 
 resist the violence of the disorder. On the fourth day, he ex- 
 pressed to a friend his conviction that he should not recover. 
 
 y) /The severity of the disease soon increased, and, on the morning 
 
 /v^f January 1, 1848, he passed away. 
 n Six months before his death, he had, in company with one 
 of his colleagues, made a brief visit to his former home, at New- 
 buryport ; and, while visiting the beautiful cemetery there, he 
 stopped suddenly near a shady spot, and said, " Here is where 
 I desire to be buried." The sad funeral train which Ijore the 
 clay that once had been his earthly habitation from Alljany to 
 Newburyport, laid it sadly, yet hopefully, in that quiet nook, 
 to repose till tlie archangel's trump shall be heard, and the 
 dead be raised.
 
 18 BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH. 
 
 His life had been short, as men count time ; he lacked six 
 months of completing his thirty-eighth year when he was sum- 
 moned to the better land ; but, if life be reckoned by what is 
 accomplished, then had his life been longer far than that of 
 the antediluvian patriarchs. Of the hundreds of teachers 
 who were under his care at Albany, there was not one who 
 did not look iip to him with admiration and love ; not one 
 who did not bear, to some extent, at least, the impress of his 
 character and influence. Men who were trained under him at 
 Albany are occupying liigh positions in the cause of education 
 in several of the Western States ; and gifted women, who, under 
 his teachings, were moved to consecrate themselves to the holy 
 duty of training the young, are now at the head of seminaries 
 and female schools of high order, extending his influence in 
 widening circles over the boundless prairies of the West. 
 
 Our brief narrative exhibits, we think, clearly what were 
 the marked traits of Mr. Page's character — industry, perse- 
 verance, decision, energy, great executive ability, ready tact, 
 and conscientious adherence to what he regarded as duty. But 
 no language can describe the fascination of his manner, the 
 attraction of his presence, his skill in what he Avas accustomed 
 to call the drawing-out process, or his tact in making all his 
 knowledge available. His familiar lectures to his pupils on 
 subjects connected with the teacher's life and duties, could 
 they be published, would form an invaluable hand-book for 
 teachers. He possessed, beyond most men, the happy talent 
 of always saying tlie right thing at the right time. In personal 
 appearance, Mr. Page was more than ordinarily prepossessing — 
 of good height, and fine form, erect, and dignified in manner, 
 scrupulously neat in person, and easy in address, he was a liv- 
 ing model to his pupils of what a teacher should be. Aside 
 from a few lectures, published at different times, to some of 
 ivhich we have already alluded, Mr. Page left but one pub- 
 lished work — " The Theory and Practice of Teaching" a work 
 Avhich lias had a large circulation, and one which no teacher 
 
 - — -7^1 
 
 /li 
 
 can afford to be without.
 
 THEORY AND PRACTICE OF TEACHING. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 FITNESS FOR TEACHING. 
 
 THE history of education shows that there 
 have been three well marked and progress- 
 ive stages of opinion with respect to fitness for 
 teaching. During the earlier and the greater part 
 of the historic period, when learning was monopo- 
 lized by the few, all scholars were necessarily 
 teachers, and it was an easy step to the inference 
 that all who were learned could teach. At a 
 m.uch later period, when a general diffusion of 
 knowledge had taken place, and the number of 
 schools had greatly increased, it was observed 
 that some scholars had high teaching power, 
 while others had little or none of this gift. As 
 this difference could not be attributed to differ- 
 ences in scholarship, nor wholly to differences in 
 natural ability, it was ascribed to high and low 
 degrees of slcill, and so the question of method 
 was called into prominence. This step necessarily 
 led to a comparison of methods, and finally to a 
 search for some criterion by which they could be 
 tested. This criterion turned out to be some gen-
 
 20 FITNESS FOR TEACHING. 
 
 Three phases of opinion. 
 
 eral principle or law of psychology, physiology, 
 or ethics. In this way there began to appear a 
 science of teaching. If we arrange these three 
 conceptions of fitness for teaching in the order 
 of their historical sequence, they will stand as 
 follows : 
 
 1. Scholarship. 
 
 2. Scholarship and Method. 
 
 3. Scholarship, Method, and Science. 
 
 In which stratum of thought are we living to- 
 day? In all three. The first is represented in 
 the laws regulating the granting of licenses to 
 teach ; the second, speaking generally, in normal 
 schools ; and the third, in universities where the 
 study of education has been made a part of the 
 curriculum. The conservatism of law is well 
 known, and in prescribing scholarship as the 
 main, if not the only test of fitness to teach, it 
 has preserved the primitive conception of compe- 
 tence for the teaching office. In the main, the 
 distinctive feature of the normal school is that it 
 instructs its pupils in the best methods of doing 
 the various work of the school, at the same time 
 that it carries forward their academic training. 
 This instruction in methods is either given out of 
 books or by lecture, or in observing the work done 
 in model schools, or by doing actual teaching 
 work in practice schools. In this country, the 
 professional instruction of teachers in universities 
 is of recent date, and consists chiefly in commu- 
 nicating the cardinal doctrines of education and
 
 FITNESS FOR TEACHING. 21 
 
 Natural ability.— Study.— Experience. 
 
 teaching, on the hypothesis that students who 
 have been hberally trained will be able, on the 
 occasion of experience, to draw a rational art of 
 teaching out of a science of teaching. The cur- 
 rent of the educational thought of to-day may be 
 interpreted as follows : True fitness for teaching, 
 so far as it can be gained from instruction, con- 
 sists first of all in a liberal scholarship, then in a 
 knowledge of the best methods of doing the 
 work of the school, and of the principles that 
 underlie these methods. Many, perhaps the most, 
 of those who are to teach for a long time to 
 come, will fall short of these attainments ; but 
 this is a reasonable ideal toward which all should 
 aspire. 
 
 The professional education of two teachers 
 may be the very same in kind and amount, and 
 yet their actual teaching power may be very un- 
 equal ; and this inequality we ascribe to differences 
 in ability. Some are born with a predisposition 
 to this kind of labor, and for others it is more or 
 less unnatural. How are natural ability, study, 
 and experience related to each other? This has 
 never been more forcibly or more truly stated 
 than by Lord Bacon in these terms : '' To spend 
 too much Time in Studies, is Sloth ; To use them 
 too much for Ornament, is Affectation ; To make 
 Judgement wholly by their Rules is the Humour 
 of a SchoUer. They perfect Nature, and are per- 
 fected by Experience : For Katurall Abilities, are 
 like Naturall Plants, that need Proyning by Study :
 
 22 FITNESS FOR TEACHING. 
 
 Knowing prepares for doing. 
 
 And Studies themselves, doe give forth Directions 
 too much at Large, except they be bounded in 
 by experience." The proper sequence, then, is 
 this : Natural ability, study, experience. No 
 rhatter what our natural gifts may be, they 
 should be improved by study ; and the purpose 
 of professional study should be (1) to take ad- 
 vantage of the recorded experiences of those who 
 have made high attainments in the vocation 
 which we purpose to follow ; (2) to form a proper 
 conception of the work we are to do ; and (3) to 
 gain the instrumental knowledge that is needed 
 in the practice of our art. Only when we have 
 done this are we ready to undertake the duties 
 of our chosen profession, for the antecedent to 
 doing is knowing ; it is only the quack who will 
 venture to learn his art by the practice of his 
 art. 
 
 Those who are beginning the study of educa- 
 tion should be reminded that the field of inquiry 
 is a vast one, and that if they would attain the 
 highest professional standing, they must pursue 
 this subject in its three main phases — the practi- 
 cal, the scientific, and the historical. If the time 
 for preparation is short, a beginning should be 
 made in becoming acquainted with the best cur- 
 rent methods of organizing, governing, and in- 
 structing a school. Then should follow a study 
 of the science of education, to the end that the 
 teacher may interpret the lessons of daily expe- 
 rience, and thus be helped to grow into higher
 
 FITNESS FOR TEACHING. 23 
 
 Professional study.— Culture. 
 
 and higher degrees of competence ; and, finally, 
 for giving breadth of view, for taking full advan- 
 tage of all past experience and experiments, and 
 for gaining that inspiration which comes from 
 retracing the long line of an illustrious profes- 
 sional ancestry, there should be a study of the 
 history of education. 
 
 All who propose to teach need to recollect 
 that the very basis of fitness for teaching, so far 
 as it can be gained from study, is a broad and 
 accurate scholarship. To be a teacher, one naust 
 first of all be a scholar. So much stress is now 
 placed on method, and the theory of teaching, 
 that there is great danger of forgetting the su- 
 preme importance of scholarship and culture. For 
 these there is no substitute ; and any scheme of 
 professional study that is pursued at the expense 
 of scholarship and culture, is essentially bad. To 
 be open-minded, magnanimous, and manly; to 
 have a love for the scholarly vocation, and a wide 
 and easy range of intellectual vision, are of in- 
 finitely greater worth to the teacher than any 
 authorized set of technical rules and principles. 
 Well would it be for both teachers and taught, if 
 all who read this book were to be inspired by 
 Plato's ideal of the cultured man : " A lover, not 
 of a part of wisdom, but of the whole ; who has 
 a taste for every sort of knowledge and is curi- 
 ous to learn, and is never satisfied ; who has mag- 
 nificence of mind, and is the spectator of all time 
 and all existence ; who is harmoniously consti-
 
 24 FITNESS FOR TEACHING. 
 
 Plato's idea of culture. 
 
 tuted ; of a well-proportioned and gracious mind, 
 whose own nature will move spontaneously to- 
 wards the true being of every thing ; who has a 
 good memory, and is quick to learn, noble, gra- 
 cious, the friend of truth, justice, courage, tem- 
 perance." * 
 
 * B:ej>uhlio, passim, 475-487.
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 SPIRIT OF THE TEACHER. 
 
 PERHAPS the very first question that the 
 honest individual will ask himself, as he 
 proposes to assume the teacher's office, or to 
 enter upon a preparation for it, will be — " What 
 manner of sjjirit am loff No question can be 
 more important. I would by no means under- 
 value that degree of natural talent — of mental 
 power, which all justly consider so desirable in 
 the candidate for the teacher's office. But the 
 true spirit of the teacher, — a spirit that seeks not 
 alone pecuniary emolument, but desires to be in 
 the highest degree useful to those who are to be 
 taught; a spirit that elevates above every thing 
 else the nature and capabilities of the human 
 soul, and that trembles under the responsibility 
 of attemf)ting to be its educator ; a spirit that 
 looks upon gold as the contemptible dross of 
 earth, when compared with that imperishable gem 
 Avhich is to be polished and brought out into 
 heaven's light to shine forever ; a spirit that 
 scorns all the rewards of earth, and seeks that 
 highest of all rewards, an approving conscience 
 and an approving God ; a spirit that earnestly
 
 26 SPIRIT OF THE TEACHER. 
 
 True spirit.— Motives often wrong. 
 
 inquires what is right, and that dreads to do what 
 is wrong ; a spirit that can recognize and rever- 
 ence the handiwork of God in every child, and 
 that burns with the desire to be instrumental in 
 training it to the highest attainment of which 
 it is capable, — such a spirit is the first thing Xo 
 be sought by the teacher, and without it the 
 highest talent can not make him truly excellent 
 in his profession. 
 
 The candidate for the office of the teacher 
 should look well to his motives. It is easy to 
 enter upon the duties of the teacher without 
 preparation ; it is easy to do it without that lofty 
 purpose which an enlightened conscience would 
 ever demand ; but it is not so easy to undo the 
 mischief which a single mistake may produce in 
 the mind of the child, at that tender period when 
 mistakes are most likely to be made. 
 
 Too many teachers are found in our schools 
 without the spirit for their work which is here 
 insisted on. They not only have not given atten- 
 tion to any preparation for their work, but resort 
 to it from motives of personal convenience, and 
 in many instances from a consciousness of being 
 unfit for every thing else ! In other professions 
 this is not so. The lawyer is not admitted to 
 the bar till he has pursued a course of thorough 
 preparation, and even then but warily employed. 
 The physician goes through his course of reading 
 and his course of lectures, and often almost 
 through a course of starvation in the country
 
 SPIRIT OF THE TEACHER. 27 
 
 Preparation neglected. 
 
 village where he first puts np his sign, before he 
 is called in to heal the maladies of the body. It 
 is long before he can inspire confidence enough 
 in the people to be intrusted with their most dif- 
 ficult cases of ailing, and very likely the noon 
 of life is passed before he can consider himself 
 established. But it is not so with the teacher. 
 He gains access to the sanctuary of mind with- 
 out any difficulty, and the most tender interests 
 for both worlds are intrusted to his guidance, 
 even when he makes pretension to no higher mo- 
 tive than that of filling up a few months of time 
 not otherwise appropriated, and to no qualifica- 
 tions but those attained by accident. A late 
 writer in the Journal of Education hardly over- 
 states this matter : — " Every stripling who has 
 passed four years within the walls of a college ; 
 every dissatisfied clerk, who has not ability enough 
 to manage the trifiing concerns of a common re- 
 tail shop ; every young farmer who obtains in the 
 winter a short vacation from the toils of sum- 
 mer, — in short, every young person who is con- 
 scious of his imbecility in other business, esteems 
 himself fully competent to train the ignorance 
 and weakness of infancy into all the virtue and 
 power and wisdom of maturer years, — to form a 
 sreature, the frailest and feeblest that heaven has 
 made, into the intelligent and fearless sovereign 
 of the whole animated creation, the interpreter 
 and adorer and almost the representative of 
 Divinity ! "
 
 28 SPIRIT OF THE TEACHEE. 
 
 Teaching a secondary object.— Ignorance does not excuse. 
 
 Many there are who enter upon the high em- 
 ployraent of teaching a common school as a 
 secondary object. Perhaps they are students 
 themselves in some higher institution, and resort 
 to this as a temporary expedient for paying their 
 board, while their chief object is, to pursue their 
 own studies and thus keep pace with their classes. 
 Some make it a stepping-stone to something be- 
 yond, and, in their estimation, higher in the scale 
 of respectability, — treating the employment, while 
 in it, as irksome in the extreme, and never mani- 
 festing so much delight as when the hour arrives 
 for the dismissal of their schools. Such have not 
 the true spirit of the teacher ; and, if their labors 
 are not entirely unprofitable, it only proves that 
 children are sometimes submitted to imminent 
 danger, but are still unaccountably preserved by 
 the hand of Providence. 
 
 The teacher should go to his duty full of his 
 work. He should be impressed with its over- 
 whelming importance; He should feel that his 
 mistakes, though they may not s^Deedily ruin him, 
 may permanently injure his pupils. Nor is it 
 enough that he shall say, "I did it ignorantly". 
 He has assumed to fill a place where ignorance 
 itself is sin ; and where indifference to the well- 
 being of others is equivalent to willful homicide. 
 He might as innocently assume to be the physi- 
 cian, and, without knowing its effects, prescribe 
 arsenic for the colic. Ignorance is not in such 
 cases a valid excuse, because the assumption of
 
 SPIRIT OF THE TEACHER. 29 
 
 Dangerous to mislead mind. 
 
 the place implies a pretension to the requisite 
 skill. Let the teacher, then, well consider what 
 manner of spirit he is of. Let him come to this 
 work only when he has carefully pondered its 
 nature and its responsibilities, and after he has 
 devoted his best powers to a thorough prepara- 
 tion of himself for its high duties. Above all, let 
 him be sure that his motives on entering the 
 school-room are such as will be acceptable in the 
 sight of God, when viewed by the light beaming 
 out from His throne. 
 
 "01 let not then unskillful hands attempt 
 To play the harp whose tones, whose living tones 
 Are left forever in the strings. Better far 
 That heaven's lightnings blast his very soul, 
 And sink it back to Chaos' lowest depths. 
 Than knowingly, by word or deed, he send 
 A bhght upon the trusting mind of youth."
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 RESPONSIBILITY OF THE TEACHER. 
 
 SECTION I.— A NEGLECTED PEAR-TREE. 
 
 SOME years ago, while residing in the north- 
 eastern part of Massachusetts, I was the 
 owner of a small garden. I had taken much 
 pains to improve the condition and appearance 
 of the place. A woodbine had been carefully 
 trained upon the front of the little homestead ; 
 a fragrant honeysuckle, supported by a trellis, 
 adorned the door-way; a moss-rose, a flowering 
 almond, and the lily of the valley, mingled their 
 fragrance in the breath of morn, — and never, in 
 my estimation at least, did the sun shine upon a 
 lovelier, happier spot. The morning hour was 
 spent in "dressing and keeping" the garden. Its 
 vines were daily watched and carefully trained ; 
 its borders were free from weeds, and the plants 
 expanded their leaves and opened their buds as 
 if smiling at the approach of the morning sun. 
 There were fruit-trees, too, which had been 
 brought from far, and so carefully nurtured, that 
 they were covered with blossoms, filling the aii 
 with their fragrance and awakening the fondest 
 hopes of an abundant harvest.
 
 RESPONSIBILITY OF THE TEACHER. 31 
 
 Neglected pear-tree.— Pruning commenced. 
 
 In one corner of this miniature paradise there 
 was a hop-trellis ; and, in the midst of a bed of 
 tansy hard by, stood a small, knotty, crooked pear- 
 tree. It had stood there I know not how long. 
 It was very diminutive in size ; but, like those 
 cedars which one notices high up the mountain, 
 just on the boundary between vegetation and 
 eternal frost, it had every mark of the decrepi- 
 tude of age. 
 
 Why should this tree stand here so unsightly 
 and unfruitful? Why had it escaped notice so 
 long ? Its bark had become bound and cracked ; 
 its leaves were small and curled ; and those, 
 small as they were, were ready to be devoured 
 by a host of caterpillars, whose pampered bodies 
 were already grown to the length of an inch. 
 The tendrils of the hop-vine had crept about its 
 thorny limbs, and were weighing down its growth, 
 while the tansy at its roots drank up the refresh- 
 ing dew and shut out the genial ray. It was a 
 neglected tree ! 
 
 "Why may not this tree be pruned?" No 
 sooner said, than the small saw was taken from 
 its place and the work was commenced. Com- 
 menced ? It was hard to determine where to 
 commence. Its knotty branches had grown thick 
 and crooked, and there was scarcely space to get 
 the saw between them. They all seemed to de- 
 serve amputation, but then the tree would have 
 no top. This and that limb were lopped off as 
 the case seemed to demand. The task was nei-
 
 32 RESPONSIBILITY OF THE TEACHER. 
 
 Disagreeable toil. — Grafting of a Bartlet Pear. — Anxiety. 
 
 ther easy nor pleasant. Sometimes a violent 
 stroke would bring down upon my own head a 
 shower of the filthy caterpillars ; again, the long- 
 cherished garden coat — threadbare and faded as 
 it was — got caught, and, before it could be dis- 
 engaged, what an unsightly rent had been made ! 
 With pain I toiled on, for one of the unlucky 
 thorns had pierced my thumb ; and I might 
 have been said to be working on the spur of the 
 occasion ! 
 
 The hop-vine, however, was removed from its 
 boughs, the tansy and weeds from its roots, the 
 scales and moss from its bark. The thorns were 
 carefully pared from its limbs, and the caterpil- 
 lars were all shaken from its leaves. The mold 
 was loosened and enriched — and the sun shone 
 that day upon a long neglected, but now a prom- 
 ising tree. 
 
 The time for grafting was not yet passed. 
 One reputedly skilled in that art was called to 
 put the new scion upon the old stock. The 
 work was readily undertaken and speedily accom- 
 plished, and the assurance was given that the 
 Bartlet Pear — that prince among the fruits of 
 New England — would one day be gathered from 
 my neglected tree. 
 
 With what interest I watched the buds of the 
 scion, morning after morning, as the month grew 
 warmer, and vegetation all around was " bursting 
 into birth ! " With what delight did I greet the 
 first opening of those buds, and how did I rejoice
 
 RESPONSIBILITY OF THE TEACHER. 83 
 
 The pears ripen. — Chagrin and mortification. — A moral garden. 
 
 as the young shoots put forth and grew into a 
 fresh green top ! With tender solicitude I cher- 
 ished this tree for two long summers ; and, on 
 the opening of the third, my heart was gladdened 
 with the sight of its first fruit blossoms. With 
 care were the weeds excluded, the caterpillars 
 exterminated, the hop-vine clipped, the bark 
 rubbed and washed, the earth manured and wa- 
 tered. The time of fruit . arrived. The Bartlet 
 pear was offered in our market — but my pears 
 were not yet ripe ! With anxious care they were 
 watched till the frost bade the green leaves 
 wither, and then they were carefully gathered 
 and placed in the sunbeams within doors. They 
 at length turned yellow, and looked fair to the 
 sight and tempting to the taste ; and a few 
 friends who had known their history, were in- 
 vited to partake of them. They were brought 
 forward, carefully arranged in the best dish the 
 humble domicile afforded, and formally intro- 
 duced as the first fruits of the ^^ neglected tree^ 
 What was my chagrin and mortification, after all 
 my pains and solicitude, after all my hopes and 
 fond anticipations, to find they were miserable, 
 tasteless — choke pears ! 
 
 This pear-tree has set me to thinking. It has 
 suggested that there is such a thing as a moral 
 garden, in which there may be fair flowers, 
 indeed, but also some neglected trees. The plants 
 in this garden may suffer very much from neg- 
 lect — from neglect of the gardener. It is deplor-
 
 34 RESPONSIBILITY OF THE TEACHER. 
 Many neglected trees. — Infancy. 
 
 able to see how many crooked, Linseemly branches 
 shoot forth from some of these young trees, 
 which early might have been trained to grow 
 straight and smooth by the hand of cultivation^ 
 Many a youth, running on in his own way, in- 
 dulging in deception and profanity, yielding to 
 temptation and overborne by evil influences, pol- 
 luting by his example, and wounding the hearts 
 of his best friends as they yearn over him for 
 good, has reminded me of my neglected tree, its 
 caterpillars, its roughened bark, its hop-vine, its 
 tansy bed, its cruel piercing thorns. And when 
 I have seen such a youth brought under the in- 
 fluence of the educator, and have witnessed the 
 progress he has made and the intellectual promise 
 he has given, I have also thought of my neglected 
 tree. When, too, I have followed him to the years 
 of maturity, and have found, as I have too often 
 found, that he brings not forth "the peaceable 
 fruits of righteousness", but that he disappoints 
 all the fondly-cherished hopes of his friends — per- 
 haps of his own teachers, because the best prin- 
 ciples were not engrafted upon him, I again think 
 of my neglected tree, and of the unskillful, per- 
 haps dishonest gardener, who acted as its respon- 
 sible educator. 
 
 From the above as a text, several inferences 
 might be drawn. 1. Education is necessary to 
 develop the human soul. 2. Education should 
 begin early. We have too many neglected trees. 
 3. It should be right education. And 4. The
 
 RESPONSIBILITY OF THE TEACHER. 35 
 EiXtent of a teach.er's responsibility. 
 
 educator should be a safe and an honest man ; 
 else the education may be all wrong — may be 
 worse, even, than the neglect. 
 
 But especially we may infer that 
 
 SECTION II.— THE TEACHER IS RESPONSIBLE. 
 
 It is the object of the following remarks feebly 
 to illustrate the extent of the teacher's responsi- 
 bility. It must all along be borne in mind that 
 he is not alone responsible for the results of edu- 
 cation. The parent has an overwhelming respon- 
 sibility, which he can never part with or transfer 
 to another while he holds the relation of parent. 
 
 But the teacher is responsible in a very high 
 degree. An important interest is committed to 
 his charge whenever a human being is placed 
 under his guidance. By taking the position of 
 the teacher, all the responsibility of the relation 
 is voluntarily assumed ; and he is fearfully re- 
 sponsible, not only for what he does, but also for 
 what he neglects to do. And it is a responsibility 
 from which he can not escape. Even though he 
 may have thoughtlessly entered upon the relation 
 of teacher, without a single glance at its obliga- 
 tions ; or though, when reminded of them, he 
 may laugh at the thought, and disclaim all idea 
 of being thus seriously held to a fearful account 
 — yet still the responsibility is on him. Just as 
 true as it is a great thing to guide the mind 
 aright, — just as true as it is a deplorable, nay,
 
 36 RESPONSIBILITY OF THE TEACHER. 
 
 Bodily health. 
 
 fatal thing to lead it astray, so true is it that he 
 who attempts the work, whether ignorant or skill- 
 ful, whether thoughtless or serious, incurs all the 
 responsibility of success or failure, — a responsi- 
 bility he can never shake off as long as the hu- 
 man soul is immortal, and men are accountable 
 for such consequences of their acts as are capable 
 of being foreseen. 
 
 I. The teacher is in a degree responsible for 
 the BODILY HEALTH of the cMld. It is well estab- 
 lished that the foundation of many serious dis- 
 eases is laid in the school-room. These diseases 
 come sometimes from a neglect of exercise ; 
 sometimes from too long confinement in one 
 position, or upon one studj^ ; sometimes from 
 over-excitement and over-study ; sometimes from 
 breathing bad air; sometimes from being 
 kept too warm or too cold. Now the teacher 
 should be an intelligent physiologist ; and from 
 a knowledge of what the human system can 
 bear, and what it can not, he is bound to be 
 ever watchful, to guard against all those abuses 
 from which our children so often suffer. Espe- 
 cially should he be tremblingly alive to avert 
 that excitability of the nervous system, the over- 
 action of which is so fatal to the future happi- 
 ness of the individual. And should he, by appeal 
 ing to the most exciting motives, encourage the 
 delicate child to press on to grasp those subjects 
 which are too great for its comprehension, and 
 allow it to neglect exercise in the open air, in
 
 HESPONSIBILITY OF THE TEACHER. 37 
 Laws of physical health. —Nervous excitement. 
 
 order to task its feverish brain in the crowded 
 and badly ventilated school-room ; and then, in a 
 few clays, be called to look upon the languishing 
 sufferer upon a bed of exhaustion and pain — 
 perhaps a bed of premature death, could he say, 
 " I am not responsible " ? Parents and teachers 
 often err in this. They are so eager to develop 
 a precocious intellect, that they crush the casket 
 in order to gratify a prurient desire to astonish 
 the world with the brilliancy of the gem. Each 
 is responsible for his share of this sin ; and the 
 teacher especially, because by his education he 
 should know better. 
 
 The growing prevalence of myopia among 
 school children should excite the watchful care 
 of all teachers. Specialists have observed that 
 cases of near-sight rapidly increase from the pri- 
 mary grades upward ; and so common has this 
 defect of the eye become, that it is now called a 
 " school disease ". The causes acting within the 
 school-room to induce this m.alformation of the 
 eye are the following : Insufficient light, causing 
 the pupil to bring the book too near the eye ; a 
 stooping posture of the body, inducing congestion 
 of the membranes of the eye ; typography that is 
 "trying to the eye". In his "School and Indus- 
 trial Hygiene," Mr. Lincoln states that a child 
 with normal eyes ought to be able to read from 
 a page like this, in a good light, at a distance of 
 forty inches, and at all intervening distances 
 down to four inches ; and that a child who can 
 
 272165
 
 38 RESPONSIBILITY OF THE TEACHER. 
 Care of the eyes. — Order of study. 
 
 not read under such conditions as far as fifteen 
 inches off, should have his eyes examined by a 
 competent oculist (p. 49). The best light is that 
 vvhich comes from above, and falls vertically 
 upon the book. Though in most cases this mode 
 of lighting is impracticable, it is a hint that the 
 windows of school -rooms should be placed as 
 high as possible. The worst light is that which 
 falls in the face of the pupil, or that which, com- 
 ing from the rear, throws a shadow on his book. 
 In rooms of moderate width, the best light is 
 that which falls over the left shoulder. 
 
 11. The teaclier is mainly responsible for the 
 INTELLECTUAL GROWTH of the cMM. This may be 
 referred chiefly to the following heads : — 
 
 1. The order of study. There is a natural 
 order in the education of the child. The teacher 
 should know this. If he presents the subjects 
 out of this order, he is responsible for the injury. 
 In general, the elements should be taught first. 
 Those simple branches which the child first com- 
 prehends, should first be presented. Beading, of 
 course, must be one of the first ; though I think 
 the day is not distant when an enlightened com- 
 munity will not condemn the teacher, if, while 
 teaching reading, he should call the child's atten- 
 tion by oral instructions to such objects about 
 him as he can comprehend, even though in doing 
 this he should somewhat prolong the time of 
 learning to read. It is indeed of little conse- 
 quence that the child should read luords simply;
 
 RESPONSIBILITY OF THE TEACHER. 39 
 Translation of thoiight. — Mental Arithmetic. 
 
 and that teacher may be viewed as pursuing 
 the order of nature, who so endeavors to develop 
 the powers of observation and comparison, that 
 words when learned shall be the vehicles of ideas. 
 Whether the pupil is merely learning words, or 
 is really gaining ideas, may be tested in a very 
 simple and effective way : Require him to express 
 the thought of the paragraph in his own ivords. 
 It he can do this accurately, it is certain that he 
 has comprehended the thought ; for he is able to 
 separate it from the form of words employed by 
 the author, and to embody it in a different form. 
 This translation of thought should form an essen- 
 tial part of every reading exercise ; expressive 
 reading will then be a very simple thing. Read- 
 ing proper, or the gaining of thought from the 
 printed page, should be distinguished from elocu- 
 tion, or the expression of thought. A rule for 
 good teaching is, first make sure that the thought 
 has been gained, then attend to its proper 
 expression. 
 
 Next to Reading and its inseparable com- 
 panions — Spelling and Defining — I am inclined to 
 recommend the study of Mental Arithmetic. The 
 idea of Number is one of the earliest in the mind 
 of the child. He can be early taught to count, 
 and quite early to perform those operations which 
 we call adding, subtracting, multiplying, and di- 
 viding. This study at first needs no hook. The 
 teacher should be thoroughly versed in " Colburn's 
 Tntellectual Arithmetic ", or its equivalent, and he
 
 40 RESPONSISILITY OF THE TEACHER. 
 Recite without book.— G-eograpliy. 
 
 can find enough to interest the child. When the 
 scholar has learned to read, and has attained the 
 age of six or seven, he may be allowed a book in 
 preparing his lesson, but never during the recita- 
 tion. Those who have not tried this kind of 
 mental discipline, will be astonished at the facility 
 which the child acquires, for performing opera-' 
 tions that often puzzle the adult. Nor is it an un- 
 important acquisition. None can tell its value but 
 those who have experienced the advantage it gives 
 them in future school exercises and in business, 
 over those who have never had such training. 
 
 Oeography may come next to Mental Arith- 
 metic. The child should have an idea of the re- 
 lations of size, form, and space, as well as number, 
 before commencing Geography. These, however, 
 he acquires naturally at an early age ; and very 
 thoroughly, if the teacher has taken a little pains 
 to aid him on these points in the earliest stage ^3 
 of his progress. A map is a picture, and hence a 
 child welcomes it. If it can be a map of some 
 familiar object, as of his school -room, of the 
 school district, of his father's orchard or farm, it 
 becomes an object of great interest. A map of 
 his town is very desirable, also of his county and 
 his own State. Fui'ther detail will be deferred here, 
 as it is only intended in this place to hint at the 
 order of taking up the subjects. 
 
 The purpose of geographical study may be 
 stated to be, to form an adequate conception of 
 the earth as the dwelling-place of man.
 
 RESPONSIBILITY OF THE TEACHER. 41 
 History. — Literature. — Other studies. 
 
 History should go hand in hand with Geogra- 
 phy. Perhaps no greater mistake is made than 
 that of deferring History till one of the last things 
 in the child's course. 
 
 The purpose of historical study may be thus 
 defined : To form an adequate conception of the 
 most notable things done by the human race. 
 
 Literature should hold a co-ordinate rank with 
 Geography and History, its purpose being to give 
 the pupil an adequate conception of the most 
 notable things written by the wisest and the best 
 of the human race. These three subjects are 
 entitled to be called the modern culture trivium. 
 
 Writing may be early commenced with the 
 pencil upon the slate, because it is a very useful 
 exercise to the child in prosecuting many of his 
 other studies. But writing with a pen may well 
 be deferred till the child is ten years of age, when 
 the muscles shall have acquired sufficient strength 
 to grasp and guide it. 
 
 Written Arithmetic may succeed the mental ; 
 indeed, it may be practiced along with it. 
 
 Composition — perhaps by another name, as De- 
 scription — should be early commenced and very 
 frequently practiced. The child can be early 
 interested in this, and in this way he probably 
 acquires a better knowledge of practical grammar 
 than he could in any other. 
 
 Grammar, in my opinion, as a study, should be 
 one of the last of the common school branches to 
 be taken up. It requires more maturity of mind
 
 42 EESPONSIBILITY OF THE TEACHEE. 
 How to study. — Not words, but thoughts. 
 
 to understand its relations and dependencies than 
 any other ; and that which is taught of grammar 
 without such an understanding, is a mere smatter- 
 ing of technical terms, by which the pupil is in- 
 jured rather than improved. It may be said, that 
 unless scholars commence this branch early, they 
 never will have the opportunity to learn it. Then 
 let it go unlearned ; for, as far as I have seen the 
 world, I am satisfied that this early and superfi- 
 cial teaching of a difficult subject is not only use- 
 less, but positively injurious. How many there 
 are who study grammar for years, and then are 
 obliged to confess in after life, because "their 
 speech bewrayeth" them, that they never under- 
 stood it ! How many, by the too early study of 
 an intricate branch, make themselves think they 
 understand it, and thus prevent the hope of any 
 further advancement at the proper age ! Gram- 
 mar, then, should not he studied too early. 
 
 That form of grammatical study known as 
 Language Lessons, may be begun at an early 
 age. The purpose of these lessons is to instruct 
 the pupil in the correct use of language, both in 
 speaking and in writing, not by precept and rule, 
 but by practice. This is the proper introduction 
 to grammar proper, or the formal study of lan- 
 guage. At present, there is such a strong reac- 
 tion from grammar to Language Lessons, that 
 there is danger of losing sight of the high claims " 
 of the formal study of language, based on pars- 
 ing, or the classification of words. The parsing
 
 RESPONSIBILITY OF THE TEACHER. 43 
 How to atudy. — Not words, but thoughts. 
 
 exercise, when properly conducted, is an invalua- 
 ble means of mental discipline ; in the art of clas- 
 sifying, and in reasoning on contingent matters 
 parsing is the logic of the x)rimary school. It is 
 stated in objection to the study of formal gram- 
 mar, that the rules of syntax so laboriously 
 learned have but little effect in promoting accu- 
 racy of speech. It is a fact of common observa- 
 tion that an accurate knowledge of the proper 
 uniformities of speech, is no absolute defense 
 against a violation of these same uniformities ; 
 but this merely proves how obstinate ingrained 
 habit is. If the young heard only the authorized 
 forms of speech, they would have no need of the 
 rules of formal grammar for purposes of guid- 
 ance ; but since they are always in imminent 
 danger of copying the incorrect forms of speech 
 which they hear, they need a defense against 
 this danger ; and the most available and the 
 most effective is a knowledge of the much de- 
 cried English Grammar. 
 
 Of the manner of teaching all these branches, 
 [ shall have more to say in due time. At present, 
 I have only noticed the order in which they 
 should be taken up. This is a question of much 
 consequence to the child, and the teacher is gen- 
 erally responsible for it. He should, therefore^ 
 carefully consider this matter, that he may be 
 able to decide aright. 
 
 2. The manner of study. It is of quite as much 
 importance how we study, as what we study. In-
 
 44 RESPONSIBILITY OF THE TEACHER. 
 How to study. — Not words, but thoughts. 
 
 deed, I have thought that much of the difference 
 among men could be traced to their different 
 habits of study, formed in youth. A large por- 
 tion of our scholars study for the sake of prepar- 
 ing to recite the lesson. They seem to have nc 
 idea of any object beyond recitation. The con- 
 sequence is, they study mechanically. They en- 
 deavor to remember phraseology rather than 
 principles ; they study the hooh, not the subject. 
 Let any one enter our schools and see the schol- 
 ars engaged in preparing their lessons. Scarcely 
 one will be seen who is not repeating over and 
 over again the words of the text, as if there was 
 a saving charm in repetition. Observe the same 
 scholars at recitation, and it is a struggle of the 
 memory to recall the forms of words. The va- 
 cant countenance too often indicates that they 
 are words without meaning. This difficulty is 
 very much increased, if the teacher is confined 
 to the text-book during recitation ; and particu- 
 larly if he relies mainly upon the printed ques- 
 tions so often found at the bottom of the page. 
 
 The scholar should be encouraged to study the 
 subject; and his book should be held merely as 
 the instrument. " Books are but helps ", is a 
 good motto for every student. The teacher should 
 often tell how the lesson should be learned. His 
 precept in this matter will often be of use. Some 
 scholars will learn a lesson in one tenth of the 
 time required by others. Human life is too short 
 to have any of it employed to disadvantage. The
 
 RESPONSIBILITY OF THE TEACHER. 45 
 Books but helps. — Study objects. 
 
 teacher, then, should inculcate such habits of 
 study as are valuable ; and he should be particu- 
 larly careful to break up, in the recitations, those 
 habits which are so grossly mechanical. A child 
 xiay almost be said to be educated, who has 
 iearned to study aright; while one may have 
 acquired in the mechanical way a great amount 
 of knowledge, and yet have no profitable mental 
 discipline. 
 
 For this difference in children, as well as in 
 men, the teacher is more responsible than any 
 other person. Let him carefully consider this 
 matter. 
 
 3. Collateral study. Books to be sure are to 
 be studied, and studied chiefly, in most of our 
 schools. But there is much for the teacher to do 
 toward the growth of the mind, which is not to be 
 found in the school-books ; and it is the practical 
 recognition of this fact which constitutes the 
 great difference in teachers. Truth, in whatever 
 department, is open to the faithful teacher. And 
 there is such a thing, even in the present gener- 
 ation, as " opening the eyes of the blind ", to 
 discover things new and old, in nature, in the 
 arts, in history, in the relation of things. With- 
 out diminishing in the least the progress of the 
 young in study, their powers of observation may 
 be cultivated, their perception quickened, their 
 relish for the acquisition of knowledge indefinitely 
 increased, by the instrumentality of the teacher. 
 This must, of course, be done adroitly. There is
 
 46 RESPONSIBILITY OF THE TEACHER. 
 Teaching to observe. — Mind not to be crammed. 
 
 such a thing as excessively cramming the mind 
 of a child, till he loathes every thing in the way 
 of acquisition. There is such a thing, too, as 
 exciting an all-pervading interest in a group of 
 children, so that the scholar shall welcome the 
 return of school-hours, and, by his cheerful step 
 and animated eye, as he seeks the school-house, 
 disclaim as false, when applied to him, the lan- 
 guage of the poet, who described the schooj-boy 
 of his darker day, — 
 
 "with his satchel, 
 And shining morning face, creeping, lilce snail. 
 Unwillingly to school." 
 
 The teacher, who is responsible for such a re- 
 sult, should take care to store his own mind with 
 the material, and exercise the ingenuity, to do 
 that which is of so much consequence to the 
 scholar. 
 
 The desire to interest pupils m the common 
 things about them, to call their observing powers 
 into systematic exercise, and to cultivate their 
 use of language, led to an elaboiate system of Ob- 
 ject Lessons ; but it now seems to be the verdict 
 of experience that this formal study of objects 
 has not proved of high value. The teacher who 
 accepts the lesson on the ear of corn, and the 
 elm-tree, given in the chapter on "Waking up 
 Mind", as types of this kind of instruction, will 
 stand on safe ground. 
 
 III. The teacher is in a degree responsible for 
 the MORAL TRAINING of the child.
 
 RESPONSIBILITY OF THE TEACHER. 47 
 Moral training neglected. — Precept. —Example. 
 
 I say in a degree, because it is confessed that 
 in this matter very much hkewise depends upon 
 parental influence. 
 
 This education of the heart is confessedly too 
 much neglected in all our schools. It has often 
 been remarked that "knowledge is power", and 
 as truly that "knowledge without principle to 
 regulate it may make a man a powerful villain " ! 
 It is all-important that our youth should early 
 receive such moral training as shall make it safe 
 to give them knowledge. Very much of this 
 work must devolve upon the teacher ; or rather, 
 when he undertakes to teach, he assumes the 
 responsibility of doing or of neglecting this work. 
 
 The precept of the teacher m.ay do much to- 
 ward teaching the child his duty to God, to him- 
 self, and to his fellow-beings. But it is not mainly 
 by precept that this is to be done. Sermons and 
 homilies are but little heeded in the school-room ; 
 and unless the teacher has some other mode of 
 reaching the feelings and the conscience, he may 
 despair of being successful in moral training. 
 
 The teacher should be well versed in human 
 nature. He should know the power of conscience 
 and the means of reaching it. He should himself 
 have deep principle. His example in every thing 
 before his school should be pure, flowing out from 
 the purity of his soul. He should ever manifest 
 the tenderest regard to the law of right and of 
 love. He should never violate his own sense of 
 justice, nor outrage that of his pupils. Such a
 
 48 RESPONSIBILITY OF THE TEACHEE. 
 Conscience can be cultivated. —How? 
 
 man teaches by his example. He is a "living 
 epistle, known and read of all." He teaches, as 
 he goes in and out before the school, as words 
 can never teach. 
 
 The moral feelings of children are capable of 
 systematic and successful cultivation. Our mus- 
 cles acquire strength by use ; it is so with our 
 intellectual and moral faculties. We educate the 
 power of calculation by continued practice, so 
 that the proficient adds the long column of fig- 
 ures almost with the rapidity of sight, and with 
 infallible accuracy. So with the moral feelings. 
 "The more frequently we use our conscience," 
 says Dr. Wayland, "in judging between actions, 
 as right and wrong, the more easily shall we 
 learn to judge correctly concerning them. He 
 who, before every action, will deliberately ask 
 himself, 'Is this right or wrong'? will seldom 
 mistake what is his duty. And children may do 
 this as well as grown persons." Let the teacher 
 appeal as often as may be to the pupil's con- 
 science. In a thousand ways can this be done, 
 and it is a duty the faithful teacher owes to his 
 scholars. 
 
 By such methods of cultivating the conscience 
 as the judicious teacher may devise, and by his 
 3wn pure example, what may he not accomplish ? 
 If he loves the truth, and ever speaks the truth ; 
 if he is ever frank and sincere ; if, in a word, he 
 shows that he has a tender conscience in all 
 things, and that he always refers to it for its
 
 RESPONSIBILITY OF THE TEACHER. 49 
 
 Evil example to be dreaded. — Consequences. 
 
 approval in all his acts, — what an influence does 
 he exert upon the impressible minds under his 
 guidance ! How those children will observe his 
 consistent course ; and, though they may not 
 speak of it, how great will be its silent power 
 upon the formation of their characters I And in 
 future years, when they ripen into maturity, how 
 will they remember and bless the example they 
 shall have found so safe and salutary. 
 
 Responsibility in this matter can not be avoided. 
 The teacher by his example does teach, for good 
 or for evil, whether he will or not. Indifference 
 will not excuse him ; for when most indifferent, 
 he is not less accountable. And if his example 
 be pernicious, as too often, even yet, the example 
 of the teacher is ; if he indulges in outbreaks of 
 passion, or wanders in the mazes of deceitful- 
 ness ; if the blasphemous oath pollutes his tongue, 
 or the obscene jest poisons his breath ; if he 
 trifles with the feelings or the rights of others, 
 and habitually violates his own conscience, — 
 what a blighting influence is his for all coming 
 time ! 
 
 With all the attachment which young pupils 
 will cherish, even toward a bad teacher, and with 
 all the confidence they will respose in him, who 
 can describe the mischief which he can accom« 
 plish in one short term ? The school is no place 
 for a man without principle ; I repeat, the school 
 
 IS NO PLACE FOR A MAN WITHOUT PRINCIPLE. Let 
 
 such a man seek a livelihood anywhere else ; or,
 
 50 RESPONSIBILITY OF THE TEACHER. 
 Trample not on the mind. — Religion our glory — our hope. 
 
 failing to gain it by other means, let starvation 
 seize the body, and send the soul back to its 
 Maker as it is, rather than he should incur the 
 fearful guilt of poisoning youthful minds and 
 dragging them down to his own pitiable level. 
 If there can be one sin greater than another, on 
 which heaven frowns with more awful displeas- 
 ure, it is that of leading the young into princi- 
 ples of error, and the debasing practices of vice. 
 
 "O, woe to those who trample on the mind, 
 That deathless thing 1 They know not what they do, 
 Nor what they deal with. Man, perchance, may bind 
 The flower his step hath brmsed ; or light anew 
 The torch he quenches; or to music wind 
 Again the lyre-string from his touch that flew; — 
 But for the soul, O, tremble and beware 
 To lay rude hands upon God's mysteries there I " 
 
 Let then the teacher study well his motives 
 when he enters this profession, and so let him 
 meet his responsibility in this matter as to secure 
 the approval of his own conscience and his God. 
 
 lY. The teacher is to some extent responsible 
 for the RELIGIOUS training of the young. 
 
 We live in a Christian land. It is our glory, if 
 not our boast, that we have descended from an 
 ancestry that feared God and reverenced his 
 word. Very justly we attribute our superiority 
 as a people, over those who dwell in the darker 
 portions of the world, to our purer faith derived 
 from that precious fountain of truth — the Bible. 
 Very justly, too, does the true patriot and philan- 
 thropist rely upon our faith and practice as a
 
 RESPONSIBILITY OF THE TEACHER. 51 
 Avoid sectarianism. — Common ground. 
 
 Christian people, for the permanence of our free 
 institutions and our unequaled social privileges. 
 
 If we are so much indebted, then, to the Chris- 
 tian religion for what we are, and so much de- 
 pendent upon its life-giving truths for what we 
 may hope to be, — how important is it that all our 
 youth should be nurtured under its influences ! 
 
 When I say religious training, I do not mean 
 sectarianism. In our public schools, supported at 
 the public expense, and in which the children of 
 all denominations meet for instruction, I do not 
 think that any man has a right to crowd his own 
 peculiar notions of theology upon all, whether 
 they are acceptable or not. Yet there is common 
 ground which he can occupy, and to which no rea- 
 sonable man can object. He can teach a reverence 
 for the Supreme Being, a reverence for his Holy 
 Word, for the influences of his Spirit, for the 
 character and teachings of the Savior, and for 
 the momentous concerns of eternity. He can 
 teach the evil of sin in the sight of God, and the 
 awful consequences of it upon the individual. 
 He can teach the duty of ^repentance, and the 
 privilege of forgiveness. He can teach our duty 
 to worship God, to obey his laws, to seek the 
 guidance of his spirit, and the salvation by his 
 Son. He can illustrate the blessedness of the 
 divine life, the beauty of holiness, and the joyful 
 hope of heaven ; — and to all this no reasonable 
 man will be found to object, so long as it is done 
 in a truly Christian spirit.
 
 52 RESPONSIBILITY OF THE TEACHER. 
 Sectarianism for the pulpit.— Danger of skepticism. 
 
 If not in express words, most certainly his life 
 and example should teach this. Man is a religious 
 being. The religious principle should be early 
 cultivated. It should be safely and carefully 
 cultivated ; and as this cultivation is too often 
 entirely neglected by parents, unless it is at- 
 tempted by the teacher, in many cases, it will 
 never be effected at all. 
 
 Of course all those points which separate the 
 community into sects, must be left to the family, 
 the Sabbath-school, and the pulpit. The teacher is 
 responsible for his honesty in this matter. While 
 he has no right to lord it over the private con- 
 science of any one, he is inexcusable, if, believing 
 the great truths of the Bible, he puts them away 
 as if they concerned him not. They should com- 
 mand his faith and govern his conduct ; and their 
 claims upon the young should not be disowned. 
 
 At any rate, the teacher should be careful that 
 his teaching and his example do not prejudice the 
 youthful mind against these truths. It is a hazard- 
 ous thing for a man to be skeptical by himself, 
 even when he locks his opinions up in the secrecy 
 of his own bosom : how great then is the responsi- 
 bility of teaching the young to look lightly upon 
 the only book that holds out to us the faith of 
 immortality, and opens to us the hope of heaven ! 
 Let the teacher well consider this matter, and take 
 heed that his teaching shall never lead one child 
 of earth away from his heavenly Father, or from 
 the rest of the righteous in the home of the blest.
 
 RESPONSIBILITY OF THE TEACHER. 53 
 
 Inexcusable indifference.— Who is sufficient? 
 
 In view of what has been said, the young can- 
 didate for the teacher's office, almost in despair 
 of success, may exclaim, "Who is sufficient for 
 these things?" "Who can meet and sustain such 
 responsibility?" My answer is, the true inquirer 
 after duty will not go astray. He is insufficient 
 for these things, who is self-confident, who has 
 not yet learned his own weakness, who has never 
 found out his own faults, and who rushes to this 
 great work, as the unheeding " horse rusheth into 
 the battle ", not knowing whither he goeth. Alas, 
 how many there are who enter this profession 
 without the exercise of a single thought of the 
 responsibleness of the position, or of any of the 
 great questions which must, in their schools, for 
 the first time be presented for their decision ! 
 How many there are who never reflect upon the 
 influence of their example before the young, and 
 are scarcely conscious that their example is of 
 any consequence ! Such, in the highest sense, 
 will fail of success. How can they be expected 
 to go right, where there is only one right way, 
 but a thousand wrong? Let such persons pause 
 and consider, before they assume responsibilities 
 which they can neither discharge nor evade. Let 
 such ask with deep solicitude, "Who is sufficient 
 for these things?" 
 
 But to the young person really desirous of im- 
 provement ; to him who has taken the first and 
 important step toward knowledge, by making the 
 discovery that every thing is not already known ;
 
 54 EESPONSIBILITY OF THE TEACHEE. 
 
 The honest inquirer may hope.— Visit to the prison. 
 
 to him who sees beforehand that there are real 
 difficulties in this profession, and wLo is not too 
 proud or self-conceited to feel the need of special 
 preparation to meet them ; to him who has some 
 idea of the power of example in the educator, 
 and who desires most of all things that his char- 
 acter shall be so pure as to render his example 
 safe ; to him who has discovered that there are 
 some deep mysteries in human nature, and that 
 they are only to be fathomed by careful study ; 
 to him who really feels that a great thing is to 
 be done, and who has the sincere desire to prepare 
 himself to do it aright ; to him, in short, who has 
 the true spirit of the teacher, — I may say, there 
 is nothing to fear. An honest mind, with the 
 requisite industry, is sufficient for these things. 
 
 SECTION III.— THE AUBURN STATE PRISON. 
 
 During my visit at Auburn in the autumn of 
 1845, I was invited by a friend to visit the prison, 
 in which at that time were confined between six 
 and seven hundred convicts. I was first taken 
 through the various workshops, where the utmost 
 neatness and order prevailed. As I passed along, 
 my eye rested upon one after another of the con- 
 victs, I confess, with a feeling of surprise. There 
 were many good-looking men. If, instead of their 
 parti-colored dress, they could have been clothed 
 in the citizen's garb, I should have thought them 
 as good in appearance as laboring men in general.
 
 RESPONSIBILITY OF THE TEACHER. 55 
 Neatness and order.— Library.— Wyatt the murderer. 
 
 And when, to their good appearance, was added 
 their attention to their work, their ingenuity, and 
 the neatness of their work-rooms, my own mind 
 began to press the inquiry, Wliy are these men 
 here ? It was the afternoon of Saturday. Many 
 of them had completed their allotted work for 
 the week, and with happy faces were performing 
 the customary ablutions preparatory to the Sab- 
 bath. Passing on, we came to the library, a col- 
 lection of suitable books for the convicts, which 
 are given out as a reward for diligence to those 
 who have seasonably and faithfully performed 
 their labor. Here were many who had come to 
 take their books. Their faces beamed with delight 
 as they each bore away the desired volume, just 
 as I had seen the faces of the happy and the free 
 do before. Why are these men here ? was again 
 pressed upon me ; — why are these men here ? 
 
 At this time, the famous Wyatt, since executed 
 upon the gallows for his crime, was in solitary 
 confinement, awaiting his trial for the murder of 
 Gordon, a fellow-prisoner. I was permitted to 
 enter his room. Chained to the floor, he was re- 
 clining upon his mattress in the middle of his 
 apartment. As I approached him, his large black 
 eye met mine. He was a handsome man. His 
 head was well developed, his long black hair hung 
 upon his neck, and his eye was one of the most 
 intelligent I ever beheld. Had I seen him in the 
 Senate among great men, — ^had I seen him in a 
 school of philosophers, or a brotherhood of poets.
 
 56 RESPONSIBILITY OF THE TEACHER. 
 Sabbath, mom.— Worship.— Singing.— Prayer. 
 
 I should probably have selected him as the most 
 remarkable man among them all, without sus- 
 pecting his distinction to be a distinction of vil- 
 lainy. Why is that man here? thought I, as I 
 turned away to leave him to his dreadful solitude. 
 
 The morrow was the Sabbath. I could not 
 repress my desire to see the convicts brought to- 
 gether for worship. At the hour of nine, I entered 
 their chapel and found them all seated in silence. 
 I was able to see most of the faces of this inter- 
 esting congregation. It was by no means the 
 worst looking congregation I had ever seen. There 
 were evidently bad men there ; but what congre- 
 gation of free men does not present some such ? 
 
 They awaited in silence the commencement of 
 the service. When the morning hymn was read, 
 they joined in the song, the chorister being a 
 colored man of their own number. They sung as 
 other congregations sing, and my voice joined 
 with theirs. The Scripture was read. They gave 
 a respectful attention. The prayer was begun. 
 Some bowed in apparent reverence at the com- 
 mencement. Others sat erect, and two or three 
 of these appeared to be the hardened sons of 
 crime. The chaplain's voice was of a deep, per- 
 haps I should say, o, fatherly tone, and he seemed 
 to have the Father's spirit. He prayed for these 
 "wayward ones", who were deprived of their 
 liberty for their offenses, but whom God would 
 welcome to his throne of mercy. He prayed for 
 their homes, and for their friends who this day
 
 RESPONSIBILITY OF THE TEACHER. 57 
 Deep feeling.— Speculation. — Their teachers. 
 
 would send their thoughts hither in remembrance 
 of those in bonds. He alluded to tlie scenes of 
 their childhood, the solicitude of their early friends, 
 and the affection of their parents. When the 
 words home, friend, childhood, were heard, several 
 of those sturdy sons of crime and wretchedness 
 instinctively bowed their heads and concealed 
 their faces in their hands ; and, as a father's bless- 
 ing and a mother's love were alluded to, more than 
 one of these outcasts from society, were observed 
 to dash the scalding tear from the eye. These 
 men feel like other men, — luhy cti^e they here ? was 
 again the thought which forced itself upon my 
 mind ; and while the chaplain proceeded to his 
 sermon, in the midst of the silence that pervaded 
 the room, my mind ran back to their educators. 
 Once these men were children like others. They 
 had feelings like other children, affection, rever- 
 ence, teachableness, conscience, — why are they 
 here ? Some, very likely, on account of their ex- 
 traordinary perversity ; but most because they 
 had a wrong education. More than half, undoubt- 
 edly, have violated the laws of their country not 
 from extraordinary viciousness, but from the 
 weakness of their moral principle. Tempted just 
 like other and better men, they fell, because in 
 early childhood no one had cultivated and 
 strengthened the conscience God had given them. 
 I am not disposed to excuse the vices of men, 
 nor to screen them from merited punishment ; 
 neither do I worship a " painted morality ", based
 
 58 EESPONSIBILITY OF THE TEACHER. 
 
 View to the final Judgment. 
 
 solely upon education, thus leaving nothing for 
 the religion of the Bible to accomplish by purify- 
 ing the heart, that fountain of wickedness : yet 
 how many of these men might have been saved 
 to society ; how many of them have powers which, 
 under different training, might have adorned and 
 blessed their race ; how many of them may date 
 their fall to the evil influence and poisonous ex- 
 ample of some guide of their childhood, some 
 recreant teacher of their early days, — God only 
 knows ! But what a responsibility still rests upon 
 the head of any such teacher, if he did not know, 
 or did not try to know, the avenue to their hearts ; 
 if he did not feel, or try to feel, the worth of 
 moral principle to these very fallen ones ! And 
 what would be his feelings if he could look back 
 through the distant days of the past, and count 
 up exactly the measure of his own faithfulness 
 and his own neglect? This, the all-seeing eye 
 alone can do, — this. He who looketh upon the 
 heart ever does ! 
 
 Teachers, go forth, then, conscious of your 
 responsibility to your pupils, conscious of your 
 accountability to God, go forth and teach this 
 people ; and endeavor so to teach, that when 
 you meet your pupils, not in the walks of life 
 merely, not, perhaps, in the Auburn Prison, not, 
 indeed, upon the shores of time, but at the final 
 Judgment, where you must meet them all, you 
 may be able to give a good account of the 
 influence which you have exerted over mind.
 
 RESPOIS'SIBILITY OF THE TEACHER. 59 
 
 Study to know and to do. 
 
 As it may then be forever too late to correct 
 your errors and efface any injury done, study 
 now to act the part of wisdom and the part 
 of love. 
 
 Study the human heart by studying the work- 
 ings of your own ; seek carefully the avenues 
 to the affections ; study those higher motives 
 which elevate and ennoble the soul ; cultivate 
 that purity which shall allure the wayward, by 
 bright example, from the paths of error'; imbue 
 your own souls with the love of teaching and 
 the greatness of your work ; rely not alone upon 
 yourselves, as if by your own wisdom and might 
 you could do this great thing ; but seek that di- 
 rection which our heavenly Father never with- 
 holds from the honest inquirer after his guid- 
 ance, — and though the teacher's work is, and 
 ever must be, attended with overwhelming re- 
 sponsibility, YOU WILL BE SUFFICIENT FOR THESE 
 THINGS.
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 PERSONAL HABITS OF THE TEACHER. 
 
 THE importance of correct habits to any- 
 individual can not be overrated. The influ- 
 ence of the teacher is so great upon the chil- 
 dren under his care, either for good or evil, 
 that it is of the utmost importance to them, as 
 well as to himself, that his habits should be 
 unexceptionable. It is the teacher's sphere to 
 improve the community in which he moves, 
 not only in learning, but in morals and man- 
 ners ; in every thing that is " lovely and of 
 good report". This he may do partly by pre- 
 cept, — but very much by example. He teaches, 
 wherever he is. His manners, his appearance, 
 his character, are all the subject of observation, 
 and to a great extent, of imitation, by the 
 young in his district. He is observed not only 
 in the school, but in the family, in the social 
 gathering, and in the religious meeting. How 
 desirable, then, that he should be a model in all 
 things ! 
 
 Man has been said to be a " bundle of habits " ; 
 and it has been as pithily remarked : " Happy 
 is the man whose habits are his friends". It
 
 PERSONAL HABITS. 61 
 
 Cleanliness. — Ablution. 
 
 were well if all persons, before they become 
 teachers, would attend carefully to the formation 
 of their personal habits. This, unhappily, is not 
 always done, — and therefore I shall make no 
 apology for introducing in this place some very 
 plain remarks on what I deem the essentials 
 among the habits of the teacher. 
 
 1. Neatness. This implies cleanliness of the 
 person. If some who assume to teach were not 
 proverbial for their slovenliness, I would not 
 dwell on this point. On this point, however, I 
 must be allowed great plainness of speech, even 
 at the expense of incurring the charge of excess- 
 ive nicety ; for it is by attending to a few little 
 things that one becomes a strictly neat person. 
 The morning ablution, then, should never be 
 omitted ; and the comb for the hair, and brush 
 for the clothes should always be called into 
 requisition before the teacher presents himself 
 to the family, or to his school. Every teacher 
 would very much promote his own health by 
 washing the whole surface of the body every 
 morning in cold water. This is now done by 
 very many of the most enlightened teachers, as 
 well as others. When physiology is better under- 
 stood, this practice will be far more general. 
 To no class of persons is it more essential than 
 to the teacher ; for on account of his confine- 
 ment, often in an unventilated room, with half 
 a hundred children during the day, very much 
 more is demanded of the exhalents in him than
 
 62 PERSONAL HABITS 
 
 The teeth. — The nails. — The dress. 
 
 ill others. His only safety is in a healthy action 
 of the skin. 
 
 The teeth should be attended to. A brush and 
 clean water have saved many a set of teeth. It is 
 bad enough to witness the deplorable neglect 
 of these important organs so prevalent in the 
 community ; but it is extremely mortifying to 
 see a filthy set of teeth in the mouth of the 
 teacher of our youth. The nails, too, I am sorry 
 to say, are often neglected by some of our teach- 
 ers, till their ebony tips are any thing but orna- 
 mental. This matter is made worse, when, in 
 the presence of the family or of the school, the 
 penknife is brought into requisition to remove 
 that which should have received attention at the 
 time of washing, in the morning. The teacher 
 should remember that it is a vulgar habit to 
 pare or clean the nails while in the presence of 
 others, and especially during conversation with 
 them. 
 
 The teacher should be neat in his dress. I 
 do not urge that his dress should be expensive. 
 His income ordinarily will not admit of this. 
 He may wear a very plain dress ; nor should it 
 be any way singular in its fashion. All I ask 
 is, that his clothing should be in good taste, and 
 always clean. A slovenly dress, covered with 
 dust, or spotted with grease, is never so much 
 out of its proper place, as when it clothes the 
 teacher. 
 
 While upon this subject I may be indulged in
 
 OF THE TEACHER. 63 
 
 Tobacco. — Order, system. 
 
 a word or two upon the use of tobacco by the 
 teacher. It is quite a puzzle to me to tell why 
 any man but a Turk^^ who may lawfully dream 
 away half his existence over the fumes of this 
 filthy narcotic, should ever use it. Even if there 
 were nothing wrong in the use of unnatural 
 stimulants themselves, the filthiness of tobacco 
 is enough to condemn it among teachers, espe- 
 cially in the form of chewing. It is certainly 
 worth while to ask whether there is not some 
 moral delinquency in teaching this practice to 
 the young, while it is admitted, by nearly all 
 who have fallen into the habit, to be an evil, 
 and one from which they would desire to be 
 delivered. At any rate, I hope the time is com- 
 ing when the good taste of teachers, and a re- 
 gard for personal neatness and the comfort of 
 others, shall present motives sufficiently strong 
 to induce them to break away from a practice 
 at once so unreasonable and so disgusting. 
 
 2. Order. In this place I refer to that system 
 and regularit;) so desirable in every teacher. 
 He should practice it in his room at his board- 
 ing-house. Every thing should have its place. 
 His books, his clothing, should all be arranged 
 with regard to this principle. The same habit 
 should go with him to the school-room. His 
 desk there should be a pattern of orderly ar- 
 rangement. Practicing this himself, he may with 
 propriety insist upon it in his pupils. It is of 
 great moment to the teacher that, when he de-
 
 64 PERSONAL HABITS 
 
 Courtesy. —Coarseness. — Profanity. 
 
 mands order and arrangement among his pupils, 
 they can not appeal to any breach of it in his 
 own practice. 
 
 3. Courtesy. The teacher should ever be cour- 
 teous, both in his language and in his manners. 
 Courtesy of language may imply a freedom from 
 all coarseness. There is a kind of communi- 
 cation, used among boatmen and hangers-on at 
 bar-rooms, which should find no place in the 
 teacher's vocabulary. All vulgar jesting, all dou- 
 ble-entendres, all low allusions, should be forever 
 excluded from his mouth. And profanity — can 
 it be necessary that I should speak of this as 
 among the habits of the teacher ? Yes, it is even 
 so. Such is the want of moral sense in the com- 
 munity, that men are still employed in some dis- 
 tricts whose ordinary conversation is poisoned 
 with the breath of blasphemy ; ay, and even the 
 walls of the school-room resoiind to undisguised 
 oaths ! I can not find words to express my aston- 
 ishment at the indifference of parents, or at the 
 recklessness of teachers, wherever I know such 
 cases to exist. 
 
 Speaking of the language of the teacher, I 
 might urge also that it should be both pure and ac- 
 curate. Pure as distinguished from all those cant 
 phrases and provincialisms which amuse the vul- 
 gar in certain localities ; and accurate as to the 
 terms used to express his meaning. As the teacher 
 teaches in this, as in every thing, by example as 
 well as by precept, he should be very careful to
 
 OF THE TEACHER. 65 
 
 Courtesy of manner. — Politeness. 
 
 acquire an unexceptionable use of our language, 
 and never deviate from it in the hearing of his 
 pupils or elsewhere. 
 
 There is a courtesy of manner^ also, which 
 should characterize the teacher. This is not that 
 ridiculous obsequiousness which some persons as- 
 sume, when they would gain the good opinion of 
 others. It is true politeness. By politeness I do 
 not mean any particular form of words, nor any 
 prescribed or prescribable mode of action. It 
 does not consist in 'hoiving according to any ap- 
 proved plan, nor in a compliance simply with 
 the formulas of etiquette in the fashionable world. 
 True politeness is founded in benevolence. Its 
 law is embodied in the golden rule of the Sav- 
 ior : — " Whatsoever ye would that men should 
 do to you, do ye even so to them." It is the ex- 
 ercise of real kindness. It entertains a just 
 regard for the feelings of others, and seeks to do 
 for them what would make them really happy. 
 
 The teacher should possess this quality. When- 
 ever he meets a child, it should be with the looks 
 and words of kindness. Whenever he receives 
 any token of regard from a pupil, he should ac- 
 knowledge it in the true spirit of politeness. 
 Whenever he meets a pupil in the street, or in a 
 public place, he should cordially recognize him. 
 In this way and a thousand others, which, if he 
 have the right spirit, will cost him nothing, he 
 will cultivate true courtesy in his pupils. He can 
 do it in this way more effectually than he can
 
 66 PERSONAL HABITS 
 
 Q-ood manners may be inculcated. 
 
 by formally lecturing upon the subject. True 
 politeness will always win its true reciprocation. 
 Two teachers were once walking together in the 
 streets of a large town in New England. Several 
 lads whom they met on the sidewalk, raised their 
 caps as they exchanged the common salutations 
 with one of the teachers. "What boys are these 
 that pay you such attention as they pass?" in- 
 quired the other, "They are my scholars," an- 
 swered his friend. "Your scholars! Why, how 
 do you teach them to be so very polite ? Mine 
 are pretty sure never to look at me ; and gen- 
 erally they take care to be on the other side of 
 the street." "I am unable to tell," said his friend; 
 " I never say any thing about it. I usually bow to 
 them, and they are as ready to bow to me." The 
 whole secret consisted in this teacher's meeting 
 his pupils in the spirit of kindness. 
 
 I would not, however, discourage a teacher 
 from actually inculcating good manners by pre- 
 cept. It should indeed be done. The manners of 
 pupils are too much neglected in most of our 
 schools, and, I am sorry to say, in most of our 
 families. Our youth are growing up with all the 
 independence of sturdy young republicans, — and, 
 in their pride of freedom from governmental re- 
 straint, they sometimes show a want of respect 
 for their seniors and superiors, which is quite 
 mortifying to all lovers of propriety. It is the 
 teacher's province to counteract this; and in 
 order to do it well, he should possess the
 
 OF THE TEACHER. 67 
 
 The commercial value of politeness. 
 
 virtue of true courtesy, both in theory and 
 practice. 
 
 The law of good manners and politeness is the 
 duty of being kind and agreeable to others. By 
 means of this test, pupils may be made to dis- 
 criminate between rudeness and politeness, and 
 so to form an ideal of conduct. Cases in illustra- 
 tion may be cited by the teacher and discussed 
 by the pupils, such as boisterous conversation in 
 public places, smoking in cars where ladies are 
 sitting, whispering and giggling during concerts 
 or lectures, etc. 
 
 The young should be shown the commercial 
 value of politeness, and taught that nothing pays 
 better in the conduct of business than uniform 
 courtesy to all with whom we have dealings. I 
 once reached a town at night, and made my way 
 to a hotel for refreshment and rest. It was with 
 no little difficulty that I finally gained the ear of 
 the clerk, who graciously permitted me to register 
 my name. The next night I sought the hospitali- 
 ties of another hotel. The clerk spied me from 
 afar, took my hand -baggage, promptly ordered a 
 supper, and conducted me to one of his best 
 rooms. He seemed to have been awaiting my 
 arrival I I would go many miles to shun the first 
 place, and as many to gain the second. The dif 
 ference in the two cases was that between rude- 
 ness and courtesy. We patronize the tradesman 
 who treats us kindly and courteously ; and we 
 instinctively shun one who is rude and ill-natured.
 
 68 PERSONAL HABITS 
 
 Punctuality.— Dismiss punctually. 
 
 Punctuality. This, as a habit, is essential to the 
 teacher. He should be punctual in every thing. 
 He should always be present at or before the 
 time for opening the school. A teacher who goes 
 ,late to school once a week, or even once a month, 
 can not very well enforce the punctual attendance 
 of his pupils. I once knew a man who, for seven 
 long years, was never late at school a single 
 minute, and seldom did he fail to reach his place 
 more than five minutes before the time. I never 
 knew but one such. I have known scores who 
 were frequently tardy, and sometimes by the space 
 of a ivhole hour ! 
 
 A teacher should be as punctual in dismissing 
 as in opening his school. I know that some make 
 a virtue of keeping their schools beyond the regu- 
 lar hours. I have always considered this a very 
 questionable virtue. If a teacher wishes to stay 
 beyond his time, it should be either with delin- 
 quents, who have some lessons to make up, or 
 with those who voluntarily remain. But, after 
 all, if he has been strictly punctual to the hours 
 assigned for his various duties in school, there 
 will scarcely be the necessity for him, or any of 
 his pupils, to remain beyond the time for dismis- 
 sion ; and, as a general rule, a regard both for his 
 own health and theirs should forbid this. It is 
 better to work diligently while one does work, and 
 not to protract the time of labor, so as to destroy 
 one's energy for to-morrow. 
 
 This habit of punctuality should run through
 
 OF THE TEACHER. 69 
 
 Regular study.— Time for it. 
 
 every thing. He should be punctual at all en- 
 gagements ; he should be studiously so in all the 
 detail of school exercises ; he should be so at his 
 meals, at his private studies, at his hour of retir- 
 ing at night and of rising in the morning, and 
 also at his exercise and recreation. This is neces- 
 sary to a truly exemplary character, and it is 
 equally as necessary to good health. 
 
 5. Habits of study. Unless the teacher takes 
 care to furnish his own mind, he will soon find 
 his present stock of knowledge, however liberal 
 that may be, fading from his memory and becom- 
 ing unavailable. To prevent this, and to keep 
 along with every improvement, he should regu- 
 larly pursue a course of study. I say regularly ; 
 for in order to accomplish any thing really de- 
 sirable, he must do something everj^ day. By 
 strict system in all his arrangements, he may 
 find time to do it ; and whenever I am told by a 
 teacher that he can not find time to study, I 
 always infer that there is a want of order in his 
 arrangements, or a want of punctuality in the 
 observance of that order. Human life, indeed, is 
 short ; but most men still further abridge the 
 period allotted to them, by a disregard of system. 
 
 What has now been said, upon the teacher's 
 spirit^ the teacher's responsihility, and the teach- 
 er's personal habits, will embody, perhaps, my 
 views upon the character of the individual, who
 
 70 PERSONAL HABITS. 
 
 A high standard.— Excelsior 1 
 
 may be encouraged to engage in the work of 
 teaching. Nor do I think the requirements in 
 this department have been overstated. I know, 
 indeed, that too many exercise the teacher's 
 functions without the teacher's spirit as here de-= 
 scribed, and without the sense of responsibihty 
 here insisted on, and with habits entirely incon- 
 sistent with those here required. But this does 
 not prove that such teachers have chosen the 
 right calling, or that the children under their 
 care are under safe and proper guidance. It 
 proves, rather, that parents and school officers 
 have too often neglected to be vigilant, or that 
 suitable teachers could not be had. 
 
 Let none think of lowering the standard to 
 what has been, or what may even now be, that 
 of a majority of those who are engaged in this 
 profession. Every young teacher's eye should be 
 directed to the very best model in this work ; 
 and he should never be satisfied with bare medi- 
 ocrity. Excelsior, the motto of the Empire State, 
 may well be the motto of the young teacher.
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 LITERARY QUALIFICATIONS OF THE TEACHER. 
 
 I AM now about to enter an extensive field. 
 Since the teacher is to be the life of the 
 school, it is of great consequence that he have 
 within him the means of sustaining life. 
 
 As the statutes in many of the states prescribe 
 the minimum of attainment for the teacher, I 
 might, perhaps, spare myself the labor of writing 
 on this iDoint. Yet in a thorough work on the 
 Theory and Practice of Teaching, this very prop- 
 erly comes under consideration. 
 
 The profession of teaching is advancing*. The 
 present standard of acquirement demanded of 
 the teacher, excludes many who were considered 
 quite respectable in their vocation ten years ago. 
 This may well be so ; for within that time quite 
 an advance has been made in the compensation 
 offered to teachers. It is but reasonable that 
 acquirement should keep pace with the reward 
 of it. Indeed, the talent and attainment brought 
 into the field must always be in advance of the 
 rate of compensation. The people must be first 
 convinced that teachers are better than they 
 were years ago, and then they will be ready to
 
 72 LITERARY QUALIFICATIONS 
 
 What a teacher ought to know. 
 
 reward them. In Massachusetts, according to 
 statistics in the possession of the Hon. Horace 
 Mann, Secretary of the Board of Education, the 
 compensation of teachers has advanced thirty- 
 three per cent, within ten years ; nor is it reason- 
 able to suppose that this advance has been made 
 independent of any improvement among the 
 teachers. Their system of supervision has in- 
 creased in strictness, during this time, in an equal 
 ratio ; and many teachers, who were entirely in- 
 competent for their places, have thus been driven 
 to other employments. The course is still onward ; 
 and the time is not far distant when the people 
 will demand still more thorough teachers for the 
 common schools, and they will find it to their 
 interest to pay for them. 
 
 Under these circumstances, it will not be my 
 design to give the very lowest qualifications for 
 a teacher at present. I shall aim to describe 
 those which a teacher ought to possess, in order 
 to command, for some time to come, the respect 
 of the enlightened part of the community. I will 
 not say that a man, with less attainment than 
 I shall describe, may not keep a good school ; I 
 have no doubt that many do. Yet if our profes- 
 sion is to be really respectable, and truly deserv- 
 ing of the regard of an enlightened people, we 
 must have a still higher standard oi qualification 
 than I shall now insist on. The following is 
 a list of the studies of which every teacher 
 should have a competent knowledge. I add also
 
 OF THE TEAGHEB. 73 
 
 Orthography.— Our alphabet. 
 
 to each such word of comment as appears to be 
 necessary. 
 
 1. Orthography. This imphes something more 
 than mere spelling. SpelKng is certainly indis- 
 pensable. No person should ever think of teach- 
 ing who is not an accurate speller. But the 
 nature and powers of letters should also be mas- 
 tered. We have in our language about forty 
 elementary sounds ; yet we have but twenty-six 
 characters to represent them. Our alphabet is 
 therefore imperfect. This imperfection is aug- 
 mented by the fact that several of the letters 
 are employed each to represent several different 
 sounds. In other cases, two letters combined 
 represent the element. There are also letters, as 
 c, g, and a;, which have no sound that is not fully 
 represented by other letters. Then a very large 
 number of our letters are silent in certain posi- 
 tions, while they are fully sounded in others. It 
 were much to be desired that we might have a 
 perfect alphabet — that is, as many characters as 
 we have elementary sounds — and that each letter 
 should have but one sound. For the present this 
 can not be ; and the present generation of teach- 
 ers, at least, will have to teach our present 
 orthography. Those sj^stems of orthography are 
 much to be preferred which begin with the ele- 
 mentary sounds, and then present the letters as 
 their representatives, together with the practice 
 of analyzing words into their elements, thus 
 showing at once the silent letters and the equiv-
 
 74 LITERARY QUALIFICATIONS 
 
 Few good readers.— Mr. Mann's statement. 
 
 alents. These systems may be taught in half 
 the time that the old systems can be ; and when 
 acquired, they are of much greater practical 
 utility to the learner. As my views have been 
 more fully presented in the "Normal Chart of 
 Elementary Sounds," prepared for the use of 
 schools, I will only refer the reader to that 
 work. 
 
 2. Reading. Every teacher should be a good 
 reader. Not more than one in every hundred 
 among teachers, can now be called a good reader. 
 To be able to read well implies a quick perception 
 of the meaning as well as a proper enunciation of 
 the words. It is a branch but poorly taught in 
 most of our schools. Many of the older pupils 
 get above reading before they have learned to 
 read well ; and, unfortunately, many of our 
 teachers can not awaken an interest in the sub- 
 ject, because, very likely, they can not read any 
 better than their scholars. 
 
 It would be interesting to ascertain how large 
 a proportion of our youth leave the schools with- 
 out acquiring the power readily to take the sense 
 of any common paragraph which they may at- 
 tempt to read. I am inclined to think the num= 
 ber is not small.* In this way, I account for the 
 
 : * Since writing the above, my eye has fallen upon the following, 
 from the Second Annual Report of the Secretary of the Massachusetts 
 Board of Education. "I have devoted," says Mr. Mann, "especial 
 pains to learn, with some degree of numerical accuracy, how far the 
 reading in our schools is an exercise of the mind in thinking and feel- 
 ing, and how far it is a barren action of the organs of speech upon
 
 OF THE TEACHER. 75 
 
 Hard labor.— Analysis of words. 
 
 fact that so many cease to read as soon as they 
 leave school. It costs them so much effort to 
 decipher the meaning of a book, that it counter- 
 acts the desire for the gratification and improve- 
 ment it might otherwise afford. It should not be 
 so. The teacher should be a model of good read- 
 ing ; he should be enthusiastic in this branch, 
 and never rest till he has excited the proper in- 
 terest in it among the pupils, from the oldest to 
 the youngest, in the school. 
 
 It would be well if our teachers could be 
 somewhat acquainted with the Latin and Greek 
 languages, as this would afford them great facil- 
 ities in comprehending and defining many of our 
 own words. As this can not be expected for the 
 present, a substitute may be sought in some 
 analysis of our derivative words. Several works 
 on word - analysis have been prepared, to sup- 
 ply, as far as may be, the wants of those who 
 have not studied the classics. I should advise 
 
 the atmosphere. My information is derived principally from the writ- 
 ten statements of the school committees of the different towns, — gen- 
 tlemen who are certainly exempt from all temptation to disparage 
 the schools they superintend. The result is that more than eleven 
 twelfths of all the cliildren in the reading classes in our schools do 
 not understand the meaning of the words they read; that they do 
 not master the sense of their reading lessons ; and that the ideas" 
 and feelings intended by the author to be conveyed to and excited in 
 the reader's mind, still rest in the author's intention, never ha\'ing 
 vet reached the place of their destination. It would hardly seem that 
 the combined efforts of aU persons engaged, could have accomplished 
 more in defeating the true objects of reading. How the cause of this 
 deficiency is to be apportioned among the legal supervisors of the 
 schools, parents, teachers, and authors of text-books, it is impossible 
 to say ; but surely it is an e\'il gratuitous, widely-prevalent, and threat- 
 ening the most alarming consequences."
 
 76 LITERARY QUALIFICATIONS 
 
 "Writing. — Greography. — History. 
 
 every teacher, for his own benefit, to master 
 some one of these. 
 
 8. Writing. It is not respectable for the 
 teacher of the young to be a bad writer ; nor can 
 it ever become so, even should the majority of 
 bad writers continue to increase. The teacher 
 should take great pains to write a plain, legible 
 hand. This is an essential qualification. 
 
 4. Geography. A knowledge of the principles 
 of geography is essential. This implies an ac- 
 quaintance with the use of the globes, and the 
 art of map-drawing. The teacher should be so 
 well versed in geography, that, with an outline 
 map of any country before him, he could give 
 an intelligent account of its surface, people, 
 resources, history, etc, ; and if the outline 
 map were not at hand, he ought to be able to 
 draw one from memory, — at least of each of the 
 grand divisions of the earth, and of the United 
 States. 
 
 Nothing is more necessary for giving interest 
 and charm to geographical instruction than a 
 fund of anecdote and illustration, that may be 
 found in books of travel ; and such literature 
 should be regarded as a part of the necessary 
 outfit of the teacher. 
 
 5, History. The teacher should be acquainted 
 with history, — at least, the history of the United 
 States. He can hardly teach geography success- 
 fully without a competent knoAvledge of both 
 ancient and modern history. It should, in the
 
 OF THE TEACHER. 77 
 
 Literature.— Mental Arithmetic. 
 
 main, be taught in our common schools in con- 
 nection witli geography. 
 
 6. LiTERATUEE. If the teacher aims to be a 
 man of culture, he must have an acquaintance 
 with general literature. Not to know what the 
 better spirits of the world have written, and not 
 to have gained some appreciation of their master- 
 pieces, is to have missed one of the prime con- 
 ditions of high teaching power. A defense against 
 the many narrowing tendencies in the teacher's 
 life, may be found in the three catholic studies 
 just named, — Geography, History, and Literature. 
 
 7. Mental Arithmetic. Let every teacher be 
 thoroughly versed in some good work on this 
 subject. Colburn's was the first, and it is proba- 
 bly the best that has been prepared. That little 
 book has done more than any other for the im- 
 provement of teaching in this country. It is not 
 enough that the teacher is able in some way to 
 obtain the answers to the questions proposed. 
 He should be able to give the reason for every 
 step in the process he takes to obtain them, and 
 to do it in a clear and concise manner. It is this 
 which constitutes the value of this branch as a 
 discipline for the mind. 
 
 I may never forget my first introdiiction to 
 this work. On entering an academy as a student, 
 in 182 7, after I had "ciphered through" some 
 four or five arithmetics on the old plan, my 
 teacher asked me if I had ever studied Mental 
 Arithmetic, extending to me the little book above
 
 78 LITEEARY QUALIFICATION'S 
 
 ■Written Aritlunetic. 
 
 named. "No, sir." "Perhaps you would like to 
 do so." I opened to the first page, and saw this 
 question : " How many thumbs have you on your 
 right hand?" This was enough; the color came 
 into my face, and I pettishly replied, " I think I can 
 find out the number of my thumbs Avithout study- 
 ing a took for it." "But," said the teacher, "many 
 of our young men have studied it, and they think 
 they have been profited. If you will take it, and 
 turn over till you find a little exercise for your 
 mind, I think you will like it." His manner was 
 open and sincere, and I took the little book. In 
 three weeks, I had mastered it ; and I had gained, 
 in that time, more knowledge of the principles of 
 arithmetic than I had ever acquired in all my life 
 before. I no longer "saw through a glass darkly," 
 
 8. Written Arithmetic This everybody de- 
 mands of the teacher ; and he is scarcely in dan- 
 ger of being without fair pretensions in this 
 branch. He should, however, know it by its prin- 
 ciples, rather than by its rules and facts. He 
 should so understand it, that if every arithmetic 
 In the world should be burned, he could still 
 make another, constructing its rules and explain- 
 ing their principles. He should understand arith- 
 metic so well, that he could teach it thoroughly 
 though all text-books should be excluded from 
 his school-room. This is not demanding too much. 
 Arithmetic is a certain science, and used every 
 day of one's life, — the teacher should be an entire 
 master of it.
 
 OF THE TEACHER. 79 
 
 English Grrammar.— Algebra. 
 
 9. English Grammae. It is rare that a teacher 
 is found without some pretensions to English 
 Grammar; yet it is deplorable to observe how 
 very few have any liberal or philosophical aa 
 ciuaintance with it. In many cases, it is little 
 else than a system of barren technicalities. The 
 teacher studies one book, and too often takes that 
 as his creed. In no science, is it more necessary 
 to be acquainted with several authors. The per- 
 son who has studied but one text-book on gram- 
 mar, even if that be the best one extant, is but 
 poorly qualified to teach this branch. There is a 
 philosophy of language which the teacher should 
 carefully study ; and if within his power, he 
 should have some acquaintance with the peculiar 
 structure of other languages besides his o^ti. It 
 can hardly be expected that the common teacher 
 should acquire an accurate knowledge of other 
 languages by actually studying them. As a sub- 
 stitute for this, I would recommend that the 
 teacher should very carefully read the little work 
 of De Sacy on General Grammar, also the article 
 "Grammar" in the Edinburgh and other ency- 
 clopedias. In this science, the mind naturally 
 runs to bigotry ; and there is no science where 
 the learner is apt to be so conceited upon small 
 acquirements, as in grammar. Let the teacher 
 spare no pains to master this subject. 
 
 10. Algebra. This branch is not yet required 
 to be taught in all our schools ; yet the teacher 
 should have a thorough acquaintance with it.
 
 80 LITERARY QUALIFICATIONS 
 
 Greometry.— Trigonometry. — Surveying.— Natiiral Philosophy. 
 
 Even if he is never called upon to teach it (and 
 it never should be introduced into our common 
 schools till very thorough attainments are more 
 common in the other branches), still it so much 
 improves the mind of the teacher, that he should 
 not be without a knowledge of it. He will teach 
 simple arithmetic much better for knowing alge- 
 bra. I consider an acquaintance with it indispen- 
 sable to the thorough teacher, even of the common 
 school. 
 
 11. Geometry. The same may be said of this 
 branch that has been said of algebra. Probabh^ 
 nothing disciplines the mind more effectually tha_i 
 the study of geometry. The teacher should pur- 
 sue it for this reason. He will teach other things 
 the better for having had this discipline, to say 
 nothing of the advantage which a knowledge of 
 the principles of geometry will give him, in un- 
 derstanding and explaining the branches of 
 mathematics, 
 
 12. Plane Trigonometry and Surveying. In 
 many of our schools, these branches are required 
 to be taught. They are important branches in 
 themselves, and they also afford good exercise for 
 the mind in their acquisition. The young teacher, 
 especially the male teacher, should make the 
 acquirement. 
 
 13. Natural Philosophy. This branch is not 
 taught in most of our district schools. The teacher, 
 however, should understand it better than it is 
 presented in many of the simple text-books on
 
 OF THE TEACHER. 
 
 Chemistry.— Human Physiology. 
 
 this subject. He should have studied the philoso- 
 phy of its principles, and be fully acquainted with 
 their demonstration. If possible, he should have 
 had an opportunity also of seeing the principles 
 illustrated by experiment. This is a great field ; 
 let not the teacher be satisfied with cropping a 
 little of the herbage about its borders. 
 
 14. Chemistry. As a matter of intelligence, 
 the teacher should have acquaintance with this 
 branch. It is comparatively a new science, but it 
 is almost a science of miracles. It is beginning 
 to be taught in our common schools ; and that 
 department of it which relates to agriculture, is 
 destined to be of vast importance to the agricul- 
 tural interests of our country. "Instead of con- 
 jecture, and hazard, and doubt, and experiment, 
 as heretofore, a knowledge of the composition of 
 soils, the food of plants, and the processes of nat- 
 ure in the culture and growth of crops, would 
 elevate agriculture to a conspicuous rank among 
 the exact sciences." * The teacher should not be 
 behind the age in this department. 
 
 15. Human Physiology. The teacher should 
 well understand this subject. There is an unpar- 
 donable ignorance in the community as to the 
 structure of the human body, and the laws of 
 health, the observance of which is, in general, a 
 condition of longevity, not to say of exemption 
 from disease. By reference to statistics, it has 
 been ascertained that almost a fourth part of all 
 
 ♦ Col. Young.
 
 82 LITERARY QUALIFICATIONS 
 
 Importance of a knowledge of tlie laws of health. 
 
 the children that are born, die before they are 
 one year old. More than one third die before 
 they are five years of age ; and before the age of 
 eight, more than one half of all that are born re- 
 turn again to the earth ! Of those who survive^ 
 how many suffer the miseries of lingering disease, 
 almost sighing for death to deliver them from 
 the pangs of life ! There is something deplorably 
 wrong in our philosophy of living, else the con- 
 dition of man would not so commonly appear an 
 exception to the truth that God does all things 
 well.* Dr. Woodward, late of the Massachusetts 
 State Lunatic Hospital, says : " From the cradle 
 to the grave, we suffer punishment for the viola- 
 tion of the laws of health and life. I have no 
 doubt that half the evils of life, and half the 
 deaths that occur among mankind, arise from 
 ignorance of these natural laws ; and that a 
 thorough knowledge of them would diminish the 
 sufferings incident to our present state of being in 
 very nearly the same proportion." I know not how 
 an acquaintance with these laws can be in any way 
 so readily extended as through the agency of our 
 
 * "It is the vast field of ignorance pertaining to these subjects, in 
 Which quack£ry thrives and fattens. No one who knows any thing of the 
 organs and functions of the human system, and of the properties of those 
 objects in nature to which that system is related, can hoar a quack des- 
 cant upon the miraculous virtues of his nostrums, or can read his adver- 
 tisements in the newspapers,— wherein, fraudulently toward man and 
 impiously toward G-od, he promises to sell an 'Elixir of Life', or 'The 
 Balm of Immortality ', or ' Resurrection Pills ',— without contempt for his 
 ignorance or detestation of his guilt. Could the quack administer his 
 nostrums to the great enemy. Death, then indeed we might expect to live 
 forever 1 "—Horace Mann.
 
 OF THE TEACHER. 83 
 
 Intellectual Philosophy. 
 
 teachers of the young. At any rate, the teacher 
 himself should understand them, both for his 
 own profit and the means thus afforded him of 
 being directly useful in the discharge of his duties 
 to others. I have already shown that he is re- 
 sponsible to a great extent for the bodily health 
 of his pupils. A thorough knowledge of physi- 
 ology will enable him to meet this responsibility. 
 In several States, legislation now enjoins on 
 teachers the duty of giving instruction on the 
 physiological effects of alcohol ; and to do this 
 discreetly and effectively, requires exact knowl- 
 edge of the subject. Text-books on Physiology 
 have been expressly prepared to meet this new 
 requirement. 
 
 16. Intellectual Philosophy. This is neces- 
 sary for the teacher. His business is with the 
 mind. He, of all men, should know something 
 of its laws and its nature. He can know some- 
 thing, indeed, by observation and introspection ; 
 but he should also learn by careful study. His 
 own improvement demands it, and his usefulness 
 depends upon it. 
 
 For the teacher. Psychology may have all the 
 concrete interest of Botany or Geology. The study 
 of mental phenomena is almost forced on his 
 notice ; and, with enough knowledge of mental 
 science to enable him to interpret the phenomena 
 of hourly appearance, he would soon feel a new 
 zeal in his work and might make needed contri- 
 butions to educational science.
 
 84 LITERARY QUALIFICATIONS 
 
 Moral Philosopliy.— Rhetoric— Book-keeping. 
 
 17. Moral Philosophy, A knowledge of this 
 may be insisted on for the same reasons which 
 apply to intellectual philosophy. It is so impor- 
 tant that the moral nature of the child be rightly 
 dealt with, that he is a presumptuous man who 
 attempts the work without the most careful atten- 
 tion to this subject. 
 
 18. Rhetoric and Logic These are of great 
 service to the teacher personally, as means of 
 mental discipline and the cultivation of his own 
 taste. Even if he is never to teach them, they 
 will afford him much assistance in other depart- 
 ments of instruction. He certainly should have 
 the advantage of them. 
 
 19. Book-keeping. Every teacher should know 
 something of book-keeping, at least by single 
 entry; and also be conversant with the ordinary 
 forms of business. The profound ignorance on 
 this subject among teachers is truly astonishing.* 
 Book-keeping should be a common-school study. 
 In looking over the able Report of the Superin- 
 tendent of Common Schools in New York, I 
 notice in fifty-three counties, during the winter 
 of 1845-6, that among 225,540 pupils in the 
 common schools, only 922 studied book-keeping! 
 
 * A teacher, who kept a private school, was met in a country store 
 one day by one of his patrons, who paid him for the tuition of his child, 
 asking at the same time for a receipt. The teacher stared vacantly at his 
 patron. " Just give me a bit of paper," said the patron, " to show you've 
 got the money." "O, yes, sir," said the teacher; and taking a pen and 
 paper, wrote the following : 
 
 pW° I have got the money. 
 
 J D .
 
 OF THE TEACHER. 85 
 
 Science of Qovemment. 
 
 That is, a study, which in practical hfe comes 
 home to the interest not only of every merchant, 
 but of every farmer, every mechanic, in short, 
 every business man, is almost entirely neglected 
 in the schools, — while it is yet true that our 
 courts of justice display evidences of the most 
 deplorable ignorance in this important art. Some 
 still keep their accounts on bits of paper ; others 
 use books, but without any system, order, or intelli- 
 gibility ; and others still, mark their scores in chalk, 
 or charcoal, upon the panel of the cellar-door ! 
 
 The teacher should qualify himself, not only to 
 understand this subject, but to teach it in such a 
 waj^ that it can be easily comprehended by the 
 classes in our common schools. 
 
 20. Science of Government. The teacher 
 should, at least, be well acquainted with the his- 
 tory and genius of our own government, the con- 
 stitution of the United States, and of his own State. 
 In a republican government, it is of great im- 
 portance that the young, who are to take an active 
 part in public measures as soon as they arrive at 
 the age of twenty-one, should before that time be 
 made acquainted with some of their duties and 
 relations as citizens. This subject has been in- 
 troduced successfully into many of our common 
 schools ; but whether it is to be matter of formal 
 teaching or not, it is a disgrace * to a teacher and 
 
 * Not long since a teacher of a public school alforded lasting amtise- 
 ment for the hangers-on at a country grocery. He was jeered for he- 
 longing to the whig party by which Mr. Tyler was brought into power.
 
 86 LITERARY QUALIFICATIONS 
 
 Drawing.— Vocal Music. 
 
 to his profession, to be ignorant of the provisions 
 of the constitution for the mode of choosing our 
 rulers.* 
 
 21. Drawin'g. The good teacher should under- 
 stand the principles of drawing. He should also 
 he able to practice this art. It is of great conse- 
 quence to him. Without neglect of other things, 
 children can be very profitably taught this art in 
 the common schools. In the absence of apparatus, 
 it is the teacher's only way of addressing the eye 
 of his pupils, in illustrating his teaching. Every 
 teacher should take pains, not only to draw, but 
 to draw well. 
 
 2 2. Vocal Music. It is not absolutely essential, 
 though very desirable, to the good teacher, that 
 he should understand music, theoretically and 
 practically. Music is becoming an exercise in our 
 best schools ; and wherever introduced and judi- 
 ciously conducted, it has been attended with pleas- 
 ing results. It promotes good reading and speak- 
 ing, by disciplining the ear to distinguish sounds ; 
 and it also facilitates the cultivation of the finer 
 feelings of our nature. It aids very much in the 
 government of the school, as its exercise gives 
 vent to that restlessness which otherwise would 
 find an escapement in boisterous noise and whis- 
 
 "No, no," said he, " I voted for Q-en. Harrison, but I never voted for John 
 Tyler.'''' "How did you do that?" inquired a by-stander. '■'■ 'Why, 1 cut 
 T'yler''s name off of the ticlcet, to be sure 1 " 
 
 * " That which contributes most to preserve the state, is to educate 
 children with reference to the state ; for the most useful laws will be of 
 no service, if the citizens are not accustomed to and brought up in the 
 principles of the constitution."— ^mtoife.
 
 OF THE TEACHEE. 87 
 
 Safety-valve.— Martin Luther.— Remarks. 
 
 pering, — and thus it often proves a safety-valve, 
 through which a love of vociferation and activity 
 may pass off in a more harmless and a more 
 pleasing way. "The school-master that can not 
 sing," says Martin Luther, "I would not look 
 upon." Perhaps this language is too strong ; but 
 it is usually more pleasant to look upon a school 
 where the school-master can sing. 
 
 I have thus gone through with a list of studies 
 which, it seems to me, every one who means to 
 be a good teacher, even of a common school, 
 should make himself acquainted with. I w^ould 
 not condemn a teacher who, having other good 
 qualities, and a thorough scholarship as far as he 
 has gone, might lack several of the branches 
 above named. There have been many good teach- 
 ers without all this attainment; but how much 
 better they might have been with it ! 
 
 I have made this course of study as limited as 
 I possibly could, taking into view the present 
 condition and wants of our schools. No doubt 
 even more will be demanded in a few years. I 
 would have the present race of teachers so good, 
 that they shall be looked upon by those who suc- 
 ceed them, as their " luorthy and efficient prede- 
 cessor s^ 
 
 I ought in this place to add that the teacher 
 increases his influence and, consequently, his use-
 
 88 LITEEAEY QUALIFICATIONS 
 
 General knowledge desirable.— A suggestion. 
 
 fulness, in proportion as he makes himself con- 
 versant with general knowledge. This is too 
 much neglected. The teacher, by the fatigue of 
 his employment and the circumstances of his life 
 is strongly tempted to content himself with what 
 he already knows, or, at best, to confine himself 
 to the study of those branches which he is called 
 upon to teach. He should stoutly resist this 
 temptation. He should always have some course 
 of study marked out, which he will systematically 
 pursue. He should, as soon as possible, make 
 himself acquainted generally with the subject of 
 astronom}^, the principles of geology, in short, the 
 various branches of natural history. He will find 
 one field after another open before him ; and if he 
 will but have the perseverance to press forward, 
 even in the laborious occupation of teaching, he 
 may make himself a well-informed man. 
 
 I will venture one other suggestion. I have 
 found it a most profitable thing in the promotion 
 of my own improvement, to take up annually, or 
 oftener, some particular subject to be pursued 
 with reference to writing an extended lecture 
 upon it. This gives point to the course of read- 
 ing, and keeps the interest fixed. When the 
 thorough investigation has been made, let the 
 lecture be written from memory, embodying all 
 the prominent points, and presenting them in the 
 most striking and systematic manner. It should 
 be done, too, with reference to accuracy and even 
 elegance of style, so that the composition may be
 
 OF THE TEACHER. 89 
 
 A point gained.— Self-improvement. 
 
 yearly improved. In this way, certain subjects are 
 forever fixed in the mind. One who carefully 
 reads for a definite object, and afterward writes 
 the results from memory, never loses his hold 
 upon the facts thus appropriated. 
 
 No matter what a teacher's opportunities for 
 professional training may have been, he should 
 ever feel himself under obligations to work in 
 the line of self -improvement. As education is a 
 matter of life, activity, and growth, these qualities 
 should manifest themselves in the teacher in a 
 pre-eminent degree. A teacher who has ceased 
 to be an active student, has lost the secret of his 
 greatest power.* In the presence of a cultured 
 man or woman who is animated by the zeal of a 
 scholar, the young imbibe the scholarly spirit by 
 a sort of induction. Taking the teaching class 
 as it is, it must be confessed that active scholar- 
 ship is not one of its marks. There is more than 
 one cause for this. In most cases, teaching is an 
 avocation, and so professional improvement is 
 not a matter of self-interest ; in many cases, an 
 imperfect academic training has left behind it 
 the bane of complacent self-satisfaction ; and in 
 all cases, generally speaking, there is lacking the 
 stimulus to progress which comes from an exact- 
 ing auditory. As our pupils are satisfied with 
 less than we have, we do not feel obliged to strive 
 after more than we have. 
 
 * " How shall he give kindling in whose inward man there is no live 
 coal, but all is burnt out to a dead grammatical cinder? "— Carlyle.
 
 90 LITERARY QUALIFICATIONS. 
 
 Public opinion.— Reading Circles. 
 
 Public opinion, acting through school officers, 
 is now stimulating the teaching class to higher 
 literary and professional qualifications, and there 
 is every-where manifest a sincere desire on the} 
 part of teachers to meet these reasonable require- 
 ments. The difficulty consists in not knowing 
 what definite things to do, or how to do them, 
 and in not having the hope of a tangible reward. 
 In response to these needs, State organizations, 
 known as "Reading Circles", are now in process 
 of formation.* The general plan is to prescribe 
 a course of reading in two main fines, — profes- 
 sional, including the art, the science, and the 
 history of education, and in general literature, 
 comprising History and Belles-lettres. Examina- 
 tions and certificates of proficiency are provided 
 for, and it is expected that examining boards will 
 credit candidates with the work done in these 
 Circles. This is a movement in the right line, 
 and deserves hearty encouragement. 
 
 * Such organizations have now been made in Ohio, Indiana, niinois, 
 Iowa, Michigan, Minnesota, and New York.
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 RIGHT VIEWS OF EDUCATION. 
 
 EVERY teacher, before he begins the work of 
 instruction, should have some definite idea 
 of wliat constitutes an education ; otherwise, he 
 may work to very httle purpose. The painter, 
 who would execute a beautiful picture, must have 
 beforehand a true and clear conception of beauty 
 in his own mind. The same may be said of the 
 sculptor. That rude block of marble, unsightly 
 to the eyes of other men, contains the godlike 
 form, the symmetrical proportion, the life-like 
 attitude of the finished and polished statue ; and 
 the whole is as clear to his mental eye before 
 the chisel is applied, as it is to his bodily vision 
 when the work is completed. With this perfect 
 ideal in the mind at the outset, every stroke of 
 the chisel has its object. Not a blow is struck, 
 but it is guided by consummate skill ; not a chip 
 is removed, but to develop the ideal of the artist. 
 And when the late unsightly miarble, as if by 
 miraculous power, stands out before the aston- 
 ished spectator in all the perfection of beauty, — 
 when it almost breathes and speaks, — it is to the 
 artist but the realization of his own conception. 
 Now let the same astonished and delighted spec-
 
 92 EIGHT VIEWS OF EDUCATIOlSr. 
 
 A spectator's eflPorts.— The diflference. 
 
 tator, with the same instruments, attempt to pro- 
 duce another statue from a similar block. On this 
 side, he scores too deep ; on the other, he leaves a 
 protuberance ; here, by carelessness, he encroaches 
 upon the rounded limb ; there, by accident, he 
 hews a chip from off the nose ; by want of skill, 
 one eye ill-mates the other ; one hand is distorted 
 as if racked by pangs of the gout ; the other is 
 paralyzed and deathlike. Such would be his sig- 
 nal failure. Thus he might fail a thousand times. 
 Indeed, it would be matter of strange surprise, if, 
 in a thousand efforts, he should once succeed. 
 
 Now the difference between the artist and the 
 spectator lies chiefly in this : the one knows be- 
 forehand what he means to do, — the other works 
 without any plan. The one has studied beauty 
 till he can see it in the rugged block ; the other 
 only knows it when it is presented to him. The 
 former, having an ideal, produces it with unerring 
 skill ; the latter, having no conception to guide 
 him, brings out deformity. 
 
 "What sculpture is to the block of marble," 
 says Addison, " education is to the human soul ; " 
 and may I not add, that the sculptor is a type 
 of the true educator, — while the spectator, of 
 whom I have been speaking, may aptly represent 
 too many false teachers, who, without study or 
 forethought, enter upon the delicate business of 
 fashioning the human soul, blindly experimenting 
 amidst the wreck of their heaven-descended ma- 
 terial, maiming and marring, with scarcely the
 
 RIGHT VIEWS OF EDUCATION. 93 
 
 Blindness of employers.— Illustrated. 
 
 possibility of final success, — almost with the cer- 
 tainty of a melancholy failure ! 
 
 In other things besides education, men are 
 wiser. They follow more the teachings of nature 
 and of common sense. But in education, where 
 a child has but one opportunity for mental train- 
 ing, as he can be a child but once, — where suc- 
 cess, unerring success, is every thing to him for 
 time and eternity, and where a mistake may be 
 most ruinous to him, — in education, men often 
 forget their ordinary wisdom and providence, and 
 commit the most important concerns to the most 
 incompetent hands. "The prevailing opinions," 
 says Geo. B. Emerson, " in regard to this art are 
 such as the common sense of mankind and the 
 experience of centuries have shown to be absurd 
 as to every other art and pursuit of civilized life. 
 To be qualified to discourse upon our moral and 
 religious duties, a man must be educated by 
 years of study ; to be able to minister to the 
 body in disease, he must be educated by a care- 
 ful examination of the body in health and in 
 disease, and of the effects produced on it by 
 external agents ; to be able to make out a con- 
 veyance of property, or to draw a writ, he must 
 be educated ; to navigate a ship, he must be edu- 
 cated by years of service before the mast or on 
 the quarter-deck ; to transfer the products of the 
 earth or of art from the producer to the con- 
 sumer, he must be educated ; to make a hat or 
 a coat, he must be educated by years of appren-
 
 94 RIGHT VIEWS OF EDUCATION. 
 
 Many poor teachers.— Defects in teaching. 
 
 ticeship ; to make a plow, he must be educated ; 
 to make a nail, or a shoe for a horse or an ox, 
 he must be educated. But to prepare a man to 
 do all these things, — to train the body in its 
 most tender years, according to the laws of health, 
 so that it should be strong to resist disease — to 
 fill the mind with useful knowledge, to educate it 
 to comprehend all the relations of society, to bring 
 out all its powers into full and harmonious ac- 
 tion — to educate the moral nature, in which the 
 very sentiment of duty resides, that it may be 
 fitted for an honorable and worthy fulfillment of 
 the public and private offices of life, — to do all 
 this is supposed to require no study, no appren- 
 ticeship, no preparation ! " 
 
 Many teachers, therefore, encouraged by this 
 unaccountable indifference in the community, 
 have entered the teacher's profession without any 
 idea of the responsibilities assumed, or of the end 
 to be secured by their labors, aside from receiv- 
 ing, at the close of their term, the compensation 
 for their service in dollars and cents. And even 
 many who have entered this profession with good 
 intentions, have made the most deplorable mis- 
 takes from a want of an adequate idea of what 
 constitutes an education. Too often has educat- 
 ing a child been considered simply the act of 
 imparting to it a certain amount of knowledge^ 
 or of " carrying it through " a certain number of 
 studies, more or less. Education has too fre- 
 quently been held to be a cultivation of the in-
 
 EIGHT VIEWS OF EDUCATION. 95 
 
 Knowledge may be unsafe. — A great question. 
 
 tellectual to the neglect of the moral powers ; 
 and the poor body, too, except among savages, 
 has had but little share in its privileges or bene- 
 fits. In a very large number of our schools, the 
 physical and the moral have both been sacrificed 
 to the intellectual. Even some of our public 
 speakers have dwelt upon the necessity of intel- 
 ligence to the perpetuity of our free institutions, 
 scarcely seeming to be aware that intelligence, 
 without moral principle to direct and regulate it, 
 might become the very engine through which 
 evil men might effect our overthrow. Who has 
 not seen that an educated man, without virtue, 
 is but the more capable of doing evil ? Who does 
 not know that knowledge misdirected, becomes, 
 instead of a boon to be desired, a bane to be 
 deprecated ? 
 
 From what has been said, I place it among 
 the highest qualifications of the teacher that he 
 should have just views of education. I consider 
 it all-important that he should have a well- 
 defined object at which to aim, whenever he 
 meets a young mind in the transition state. He 
 should have an ideal of a well-educated human 
 soul, tenanting a healthy, well-developed human 
 body ; an ideal which he at once and systematic- 
 ally labors to reach, as does the sculptor when 
 he commences his work upon the quarried mar- 
 ble. "What is it to educate a human being 
 aright?" should be one of the first questions the 
 candidate for the teacher's office should ask him-
 
 96 EIGHT VIEWS OF EDUCATION. 
 
 Resulti of inqtiiry.— Knowledge not undervalued. 
 
 self with the deepest seriousness. I say the can- 
 didate ; for this question should be settled, if 
 possible, hefore he begins his work. It is a great 
 question, and he may not be able to answer it in 
 a day. Let him consult the dictates of his own 
 mind, — let him consult the teachings of experi- 
 ence and of wisdom, as they are to be found in 
 the writings of Milton, Locke, Wyse, Cousin, 
 Brougham, and others of the eastern continent, 
 and of Wayland, Potter, Mann, Gr. B. Emerson, 
 Dwight, and many others of our own countrymen. 
 Let him, enlightened by all this, carefully observe 
 human nature around him ; consider its tenden- 
 cies, its wants, and its capabilities ; and after a 
 patient survey of all the truth he can discover 
 upon the subject, let him come to an honest con- 
 clusion as to what is a correct answer to the query 
 v/ith which he started — "What is it to educate a 
 human being aright?" 
 
 The conclusions of the honest and intelligent 
 inquirer after the truth in this matter, will be 
 something like the following : — That education 
 (from e and duco, to lead forth) is development ; 
 that it is not instruction merely — knowledge, 
 facts, rules — communicated by the teacher, but 
 it is discipline, it is a waking up of the mind, a 
 growth of the mind, — growth by a healthy assim- 
 ilation of wholesome aliment. It is an inspiring 
 of the mind with a thirst for knowledge, growth, 
 enlargement, — and then a disciplining of its 
 powers so far that it can go on to educate itself.
 
 RIGHT VIEWS OF EDUCATION. 97 
 
 Discipline the primary purpose. 
 
 It is the arousing of the child's mind to think, 
 without thinking for it ; it is tlie awakening of 
 its powers to observe, to remember, to reflect, to 
 combine. It is not a cultivation of the memory 
 to the neglect of every thing else ; but it is a 
 calling forth of all the faculties into harmonious 
 action. If to possess facts simply is education, 
 then an encyclopedia is better educated than a 
 man. 
 
 It should be remarked that though knowledge 
 is not education, yet there will be no education 
 without knowledge. Knowledge is ever an inci- 
 dent of true education. No man can be properly 
 educated without the acquisition of knowledge ; 
 the mistake is in considering knowledge the end 
 when it is either the incident or the means of 
 education. The discipline of the mind, then, is 
 the great thing in intellectual training ; and the 
 question is not, how much have I acquired? — 
 but, how have my powers been strengthened in 
 the act of acquisition? 
 
 Nor should the intellectual be earlier culti- 
 vated than the moral powers of the mind. The 
 love of moral truth should be as early addressed 
 as the love of knowledge. The conscience should 
 be early exercised in judging of the character of 
 the pupil's own acts, and every opportunity af- 
 forded to strengthen it by legitimate use. Nor 
 should the powers of the mind be earlier culti- 
 vated than those of the body. It is the theory of 
 some, indeed, that the body should engross most
 
 98 RIGHT VIEWS OF EDUCATION. 
 
 The whole man to be educated. 
 
 of the attention for several of the first years of 
 childhood. This, I think, is not nature's plan. 
 She cultivates all the powers at once, — the body, 
 mind, and heart. So should the teacher do. 
 "Education," in the pertinent language of Mr. 
 Fox,* " has reference to the whole man, the body, 
 the mind, and the heart ; its object, and, when 
 rightly conducted, its effect is, to make him a 
 complete creature after his kind. To his frame 
 it would give vigor, activity, and beauty ; to his 
 senses, correctness and acuteness ; to his intellect, 
 power and truthfulness ; to his heart, virtue. The 
 educated man is not the gladiator, nor the scholar, 
 nor the upright man, alone ; but a just and well- 
 balanced combination of all three. Just as the 
 educated tree is neither the large root, nor the 
 giant branches, nor the rich foliage, but all of 
 them together. If you would mark the perfect 
 man, you must not look for him in the circus, 
 the university, or the church, exclusively ; but 
 you must look for one who has ^mens sana in 
 corpore sano' — a healthful mind in a healthful 
 body. The being in whom you find this union, 
 is the only one worthy to be called educated. To 
 make all men such, is the object of education." 
 
 I have dwelt thus fully on thife subject, be- 
 cause it is so obvious that egregious mistakes 
 are made in education. How many there are 
 who are called " good scholars " in our schools, of 
 whom we hear nothing after they go forth into 
 
 ♦ Lecture before the Am. Institute, 1835.
 
 EIGHT VIEWS OF EDUCATION, 99 
 
 Errors in education. 
 
 the world. Their good scholarship consists in 
 that which gives them no impulse to go on to 
 greater attainments by themselves. Their learn- 
 ing is either that of reception — as the sponge 
 takes in water — or that of mere memory. Their 
 education is not discipline ; it kindles none of 
 those desires which nothing but further progress 
 can satisfy ; it imparts none of that self-reliance 
 which nothing but impossibilities can ever sub- 
 due. Wliile these are pointed out by their teach- 
 ers as the ornaments of their schools, there are 
 others, known as the heav}', dull, "poor scholars", 
 in no way distinguished but by their stupidity, — 
 of whom no hopes are entertained, because of 
 them nothing is expected, — who in after-life fairly 
 outstrip their fellows and strangely astonish their 
 teachers. Almost every teacher of fifteen years' 
 experience has noticed this. Now, why is it so? 
 There must have been somehow in such cases a 
 gross misjudgment of character. Either those 
 pupils who promised so much by their quickness, 
 were educated wrong, and perhaps educated too 
 much, while their teachers unwittingly and unin- 
 tentionally educated their less distinguished com- 
 I)anions far more judiciously ; or else, nature in 
 such cases must be said to have been playing 
 such odd pranks that legitimate causes could not 
 produce their legitimate effects. We must charge 
 nature as being extremely capricious, or we must 
 allege that the teachers entirely misunderstood 
 their work, failing where they expected most, and
 
 100 RIGHT VIEWS OF EDUCATION. 
 
 Need of a science of education. 
 
 succeeding, as if by chance — almost against their 
 will — where they expected least. I incline to the 
 latter alternative ; and hence I infer that there is 
 such a thing as teaching a mind naturally active 
 too much — exciting it too much, — so that it will 
 prematurely exhaust its energies and gladly settle 
 back into almost imbecility ; and that there is 
 such a thing as leaving the mind so much to its 
 own resources, that without dazzling the beholder 
 like the flash of the meteor when it glares upon 
 the startled vision, it may be silently gathering 
 materials to support the more enduring light of 
 the m.orning-star which anon will rise in majesty 
 and glory. 
 
 It will be well for our youth when our teachers 
 shall so understand human nature, and so com- 
 prehend the science and the art of education, 
 that these mistakes shall seldom occur ; and when 
 he who tills the nobler soil of the mind, shall, 
 with as much faith and as much certainty as he 
 who tills the literal field, rely upon the fulfillment 
 of heaven's unchangeable law : " Whatsoever a 
 man soweth that shall he also reap." 
 
 Education, in its absolute sense, is a process 
 that aims at realizing the typical man. 
 
 Among trees, we observe various degrees of 
 perfection as to form and structure ; and in esti- 
 mating the degree of perfection, we compare the 
 given specimen with a typical tree of its kind. 
 We conceive that each tree of a species is fash- 
 ioned after an ideal — a perfect and invariable
 
 RIGHT VIEWS OF EDUCATION. 101 
 
 Education as an ideal. 
 
 pattern ; and the ideal cultivation of a tree 
 would consist in causing it to grow into its typi- 
 cal form. 
 
 Every animal of a given species, as a horse^ 
 approaches its type in a greater or less degree ; 
 and the ideal training of an animal would consist 
 in having it grow into the type of its kind. 
 
 In man, there are numberless degrees of phys- 
 ical perfection. At one extreme, there is un- 
 sightly deformity, at the other divine beauty, and 
 between, an ascending scale of infinite gradations. 
 In mind, the range is from imbecility to inspired 
 genius, with countless gradations between. In 
 morals, the slow ascent is from the monster to the 
 saint. In each of these three orders of growth, 
 the ascent is toward an ideal type ; and the 
 sphere of education, as a conscious art, is to lead 
 man up to the typical perfection of his physical, 
 mental, and moral being. 
 
 The type toward which education aspires is a 
 mental creation. The best specimens that come 
 under our notice are imperfect ; and to the ideal 
 that is formed from the aggregate of the highest 
 observed excellences, the mind adds something of 
 its own to complete the tj^De. 
 
 All human beings are under the law of ascent 
 toward a typical form. This is their law of 
 growth. The natural education of man takes 
 place through the unassisted action of this law; 
 just as a plant, when abandoned to itself, will 
 undergo a fortuitous growth. This natural edu-
 
 102 RIGHT VIEWS OF EDUCATION. 
 
 Education defined.— Limitationa 
 
 cation is the typical education in only one re- 
 spect : an upivard tendency in the line of growth. 
 
 Education in the absolute sense above illus- 
 trated, has been thus defined : " The harmonious 
 and equable evolution of the human powers." 
 
 This conception of education is subject to the 
 following limitations in practice : 
 
 1. It comprehends the whole period of life, 
 from the cradle to the grave, while in practice, 
 the period of education is limited to a few years. 
 
 2. It involves physical, mental, moral, and re- 
 ligious training, while the efforts of the actual 
 educator can scarcely extend beyond the train- 
 ing of the intellect. 
 
 8. It aims at the perfection of the human 
 being as a whole, while the exigencies of life 
 require men to be trained for specific duties. 
 
 Under these limitations, education becomes 
 nearly synonymous with instruction, and may be 
 defined as a process having three purposes : 
 
 1. To develop the intellectual faculties, so as 
 to produce robustness of mind and habits of ready 
 and accurate thinking. 
 
 2. To furnish the mind with knowledge for 
 use. 
 
 3. To impart skill in the use of instrumental 
 knowledge. 
 
 The difference between education in its abso- 
 lute sense, and education under its practical limi- 
 tations, may be illustrated as follows : 
 
 If a tree or a shrub is needed for a special
 
 RIGHT VIEWS OF EDUCATION. 103 
 
 Special training, and its results. 
 
 use, as for a hedge, the cultivator abandons the 
 tj^pical form and determines tlie growth into a 
 modified form. Whenever one part of a vegeta- 
 ble, as the root, the flower, or the seed, becomes 
 especially valuable, the idea of symmetrical growth 
 is abandoned, and this part is given an abnormal 
 (unnatural) growth. 
 
 In training a horse, instead of aiming at the 
 most perfect specimen of his kind, the horse- 
 man may train him for the race-course, or the 
 plow, or the saddle. A modified form is found 
 more useful, and so the typical form is aban- 
 doned. 
 
 There is an antagonism between man as an 
 ideal of his kind, and man as an instrument of 
 service ; and education is forced to depart from 
 her ideal in order to fit man for the limitations 
 under which he lives. To make a lawyer, or a 
 carpenter, there must be some departure from the 
 course of training that would lead up to the typ- 
 ical man. 
 
 By reason of the limitations of time, education, 
 as a practical art, must abandon formal physical 
 and moral training. Phj^sical soundness must be 
 a postulate, and direct moral and religious train- 
 ing must be relegated to the family and the 
 church. 
 
 A liberal education aims at the ideal perfec- 
 tion of the mind. Its purpose is to give it all 
 possible perfection as the instrument of thought, 
 to furnish it with knowledge the most fit for
 
 104 EIGHT VIEWS OF EDUCATION. 
 
 A professional education. 
 
 the man, and to train it to a dexterous use of 
 all its energies. 
 
 A professional or technical education either 
 supplants or supplements a liberal education. It 
 is either the instrument alone, or the man first 
 and then the instrument.* 
 
 * " The end desired must be known before the way. All means or 
 arts of education will be, in the first instance, determined by the ideal 
 we entertain of it."— Kichtek, Levana, p. 29.
 
 CHAPTER YII. 
 
 RIGHT MODES OF TEACHING. 
 
 FROM what has been said of Education, it is 
 very obvious that it is no small thing to be 
 a successful teacher. It is admitted by all that 
 the teacher should be apt to teach. He can not 
 be useful without this. He may have an unim- 
 peachable character ; he may have the most lib- 
 eral and thorough literary acquirements ; he may 
 deeply feel his responsibility, and yet after all he 
 may fail to teach successfully. 
 
 Aptness to teach has been said to be a native 
 endowment, a sort of instinct, and therefore in- 
 capable of being improved by experience or in- 
 struction, — an instinct such as that which guides 
 the robin, though hatched in an oven, to build a 
 perfect nest like that of its parent, without ever 
 having seen one. I am of opinion that such in- 
 stincts in men are rare ; but that aptness to teach, 
 like aptness to do any thing else, is usually an 
 acquired power, based upon a correct knowledge 
 of what is to be done, and some accurate estimate 
 of the fitness of the means used for the end. If 
 there are exceptions to this, they are very un- 
 common ; and the safer way, therefore, for the 
 majority of teachers, is, to study carefully the
 
 106 EIGHT MODES OF TEACHING. 
 
 A mistake.— The way literary nurselings are made. 
 
 rationale of their processes, and to rely rather 
 upon sound and philosophical principles in their 
 teaching, than upon a very doubtful intuition. 
 
 One of the most common errors into which 
 young teachers fall (and some old ones too), is 
 that of misjudging of the degree of assistance 
 which the young scholar needs in the pursuit of 
 learning. There are a few who forget the diffi- 
 culties which impeded their own perception of 
 new truths when learners, and therefore have no 
 sympathy with the perplexities which surround 
 the children under their charge, when they en- 
 counter like difficulties. They refuse to lend a 
 helping hand, even where it is needed, and by 
 making light of the child's doubts, perhaps sneer- 
 ing at his unsuccessful struggles, they dishearten 
 him so far that imaginary obstacles become insur- 
 mountable, and he gives up in despair. But a 
 far more numerous class tend toward the other 
 extreme. From a mistaken kindness, or a mis- 
 taken estimate of the child's ability, or both, they 
 are disposed to do quite too much for him, and 
 thus they diminish his power to help himself. 
 The child that is constantly dandled upon the 
 lap of its nurse and borne in her arms to what- 
 ever point it may desire to go, does not soon 
 learn to walk ; and when it at length makes the 
 attempt, it moves not with the firm tread of him 
 who was early taught to use his own limbs. 
 There is a great deal of literary dandling prac- 
 ticed in our schools ; and as a consequence, a
 
 RIGHT MODES OF TEACHING. 107 
 
 Anecdote of folly. — Pouring-in.— The "oral hobby." 
 
 great many of our children are mere sickly 
 nurselings, relying upon leading-strings while in 
 the school and falling, for very weakness, just 
 as soon as the supporting hand is withdrawn. 
 This evil is so common and in some instances 
 so monstrous,* that I shall be pardoned if I dwell 
 upon it a little more fully. 
 
 In illustrating this subject, I must mention 
 two processes of teaching, not, indeed, exactly 
 opposite to each other, though widely different, — 
 into one or both of which many of our teachers 
 are very liable to fall. I shall, for the sake of a 
 name, designate the former as the 
 
 SECTION I.— POURING-IN PROCESS. 
 
 This consists in lecturing to a class of children 
 upon every subject which occurs to the teacher, 
 it being his chief aim to bring before them, in 
 a limited time, as many facts as possible. It is 
 as if he should provide himself with a basket of 
 sweetmeats, and every time he should come 
 within reach of a child, should seize him and 
 compel him to swallow — regardless of the condi- 
 tion of his stomach — whatever trash he should 
 
 * Not long since I visited a school, where the teacher with much self- 
 complacency requested me to examine the writing of the children. It 
 was indeed very fair. But when I drew from him the fact that he first ■ 
 wrote each page himself with a lead pencil and only required his schol- 
 ars to Mack his marks over with ink, and that with imremitting labor he did 
 this week after week for all the writers in his school, I knew not which 
 most to wonder at, the docility of the children or the weakness of the 
 teacher. The writing ceased to be wonderful.
 
 108 RIGHT MODES OF TEACHING. 
 
 Victims of kindness.— Passive recipient.— A jug. 
 
 happen first to force into his mouth. Children 
 are indeed fond of sweetmeats, but they do not 
 like to have them administered, — and every 
 physiologist knows there is such a thing as eat- 
 ing enough even of an agreeable thing to make 
 one sick and thus produce loathing forever 
 after. Now many teachers are just such mis- 
 guided caterers for the mind. They are ready to 
 seize upon the victims of their kindness, force 
 open their mental gullets, and pour in, without 
 mercy and without discretion, whatever sweet 
 thing they may have at hand, even though they 
 surfeit and nauseate the poor sufferer. The mind, 
 by this process, becomes a mere passive recipient, 
 taking in, without much resistance, whatever is 
 presented till it is full. 
 
 "A passive recipient!" said one to his friend, 
 " what is a passive recipient ? " " A passive recip- 
 ient/' replied his friend, " is a two-gallon jug. It 
 holds just two gallons, and as it is made of pot- 
 ter's ware, it can never hold but just two gal- 
 lons." This is not an unfit illustration of what I 
 mean by making the mind a passive recipient. 
 Whenever the teacher does not first excite in- 
 quiry, first pre], are the mind by waking it up to 
 a desire to know, and if possible to find out by 
 itself, but proceeds to think for the child, and to 
 give him the results, before they are desired or 
 before they have been sought for, — he makes the 
 mind of the child a two-gallon jug, into which 
 he may pour just two gallons, but no more. And
 
 RIGHT MODES OF TEACHING. 109 
 
 Mind weakened.— Drawing-out.— Leading questions. 
 
 if, day after day, he should continue to pour in, 
 day after day he may expect that what he pours 
 in will all run over. The mind, so far as reten- 
 tion is concerned, will act like the jug ; that is, 
 a part of what is poured in to-day, will be diluted 
 by a part of that which is forced in to-morrow, 
 and that again will be partially displaced and 
 partially mingled with the next day's pouring, till 
 at length there will be nothing characteristic left. 
 But aside from retention, there is a great differ- 
 ence between the jug and the mind. The former 
 is inert material and may be as good a jug after 
 such use as before ; but the mind suffers by every 
 unsuccessful effort to retain. 
 
 This process of lecturing children into imbe- 
 cility is altogether too frequently practiced ; and 
 it is to be hoped that intelligent teachers will 
 pause and inquire before they pursue it further. 
 
 The other process to which I wish to call 
 attention, is that which, for the sake of distin- 
 guishing it from the first, I shall denominate the 
 
 SECTION II.— DRAWING-OUT PROCESS. 
 
 This consists in asking what the lawyers call 
 leading questions. It is practiced, usually, when- 
 ever the teacher desires to help along the pupil. 
 "John," says the teacher when conducting a 
 recitation in Long Division, " what is the num- 
 ber to be divided called?" John hesitates. "Is 
 it the dividend?" says the teacher. "Yes, sir —
 
 110 EIGHT MODES OF TEACHING. 
 
 An example.— A spectator astonislied.— TeacMng Histoiy 1 
 
 the dividend." "Well, John, what is that which 
 is left after dividing called? — the remainder — is 
 it?" "Yes, sir." A visitor now enters the room, 
 and the teacher desires to show off John's tal- 
 ents. "Well, John, of what denomination is the 
 remainder ? " 
 
 John looks upon the floor. 
 
 "Isn't it always the same as the dividend, 
 John?" 
 
 "Yes, sir." 
 
 "Very well, John," says the teacher, sooth- 
 ingly, " what denomination is this dividend ? " 
 pointing to the work upon the board. " Dollars, is 
 it not?" 
 
 "Yes, sir ; dollars." 
 
 "Very well; now what is this remainder?" 
 
 John hesitates. 
 
 "Why, dollars^ too, isn't it?" says the teacher. 
 
 " O, yes, sir, dollars ! " says John, energetic- 
 ally, while the teacher complacently looks at the 
 visitor to see if he has noticed how correctly John 
 has answered ! 
 
 A class is called to be examined in History. 
 They have committed the text-book to memory — 
 that is, they have learned the words. They go 
 on finely for a time. At length one hesitates. 
 The teacher adroitly asks a question in the lan- 
 guage of the text. Thus : " Early in the inorning, 
 on the 11th of September^ what did the ivhole 
 British army do?" The pupil, thus timely reas- 
 sured, proceeds : " Early in the morning^ on the
 
 EIGHT MODES OF TEACHING, 111 
 
 A further example. 
 
 11th of September, the whole British army, drawn 
 up in two divisions, commenced the expected as- 
 sault." Here again she pauses. The teacher pro- 
 ceeds to inquire : " Well, — ' Agreeably to the plan 
 of Howe, the right wing ' did what ? " 
 
 Pupil. " Agreeably to the plan of Howe, the 
 right wing " 
 
 Teacher. " The right wing, commanded by 
 whom ? " 
 
 Pupil. " O ! ' Agreeably to the plan of Howe, 
 the right wing, commanded by Knyphausen, made 
 a feint of crossing the Brandywine at Chad's 
 Ford,'" etc. 
 
 This is a very common way of helping a dull 
 pupil out of a difficulty ; and I have seen it done 
 so adroitly, that a company of visitors would agree 
 that it was wonderful to see how thoroughly the 
 children had been instructed ! 
 
 I may further illustrate this drawing-out pro- 
 cess, by describing an occiu'rence, which, in com- 
 pany with a friend and fellow-laborer, I once 
 witnessed. A teacher, whose school we visited, 
 called upon the class in Colburn's First Lessons. 
 They rose, and in single file marched to the, usual 
 place, with their books in hand, and stood erect. 
 It was a very good-looking class. 
 
 "Where do you begin?" said the teacher, tak- 
 ing the book. 
 
 Pupils. On the 80th page, 3d question. 
 
 Teacher. Read it, Charles. 
 
 Charles. {Beads.) "A man being asked how
 
 112 RIGHT MODES OF TEACHING. 
 
 Yes, sir. —Hard mental labor. 
 
 many sheep he had, said that he had them in 
 two pastures ; in one pasture he had eight ; that 
 three fourths of these were just one third of what 
 he had in the other. How many were there in 
 the other?" 
 
 Teacher. Well, Charles, you must first get 
 one fourth of eight, must you not? 
 
 Charles. Yes, sir. 
 
 Teacher. Well, one fourth of eight is two, 
 isn't it? 
 
 Charles. Yes, sir ; one fourth of eight is two. 
 
 Teacher. Well, then, three fourths will be 
 three times two, won't it? 
 
 Charles. Yes, sir. 
 
 Teacher. Well, three times two are six, eh ? 
 
 Charles. Yes, sir. 
 
 Teacher. Very well. (A pause.) Now the 
 book says that this six is just one third of what 
 he had in the other pasture, don't it? 
 
 Charles. Yes, sir. 
 
 Teacher. Then if six is one third, three thirds 
 will be — three times six, won't it? 
 
 Charles. Yes, sir. 
 
 Teacher. And three times six are — eighteen, 
 ain't it? 
 
 Charles. Yes, sir. 
 
 Teacher. Then he had eighteen sheep in the 
 other pasture, had he? 
 
 Charles. Yes, sir. 
 
 Teacher. Next, take the next one. 
 
 At this point I interposed, and asked the
 
 RIGHT MODES OF TEACHING. 113 
 
 An interposition.— Process of Extraction. 
 
 teacher if lie would request Charles to go through 
 it alone, " O, yes," said the teacher ; " Charles, 
 you may do it again." Charles again read the 
 question, and — looked up. "Well," said the 
 teacher, "you must first get one fourth of eight, 
 mustn't 3'ou?" "Yes, sir." "And one fourth of 
 eight is two, isn't it?" "Yes, sir." And so the 
 process went on as before till the final eighteen 
 sheep were drawn out as before. The teacher 
 now looked round, with an air which seemed to 
 say, "Now I suppose you are satisfied." 
 
 " Shall I ask Charles to do it again ? " said I. 
 The teacher assented. Charles again read the 
 question, and again — looked up. I waited, and he 
 waited ; but the teacher could not wait. " Why, 
 Charles," said he, impatiently, " you want one 
 fourth of eight, don't you?" "Yes, sir," said 
 Charles, promptly ; and I thought best not to 
 insist further at this time upon a repetition of 
 " yes, sir ", and the class were allowed to proceed 
 in their own way. 
 
 This is, indeed, an extreme case, and yet it is 
 but a fair sample of that teacher's method of 
 stupefying mind. This habit of assisting the 
 pupil to some extent, is, however, a very common 
 one, and as deleterious to mind as it is common. 
 The teacher should at once abandon this practice 
 and require the scholar to do the talking at reci- 
 tation. I need hardly suggest that such a course 
 of extraction at recitation, aside from the waste 
 of time by both parties, and the waste of strength
 
 114 RIGHT MODES OF TEACHING. 
 
 Study discouraged.— Helping tlie pupil. 
 
 by the teacher, has a direct tendency to make 
 the scholar miserably superficial. For why should 
 he study, if he knows from constant experience 
 that the teacher, by a leading question, will re- 
 lieve him from all embarrassment? It has often 
 been remarked, that " the teacher makes the 
 school". Perhaps in no way can he more effectu- 
 ally make an inefficient school, than by this 
 drawing-out process. 
 
 I look upon the two processes just described, 
 as very prominent and prevalent faults in our 
 modern teaching ; and if by describing them thus 
 fully, I shall induce any to set a guard upon 
 their practice in this particular, I shall feel amply 
 rewarded. 
 
 SECTION III.— THE MORE EXCELLENT WAY. 
 
 It is always a very difficult question for the 
 teacher to settle, " How far shall I help the pupil, 
 and how far shall the pupil be required to help 
 himself?" The teaching of nature would seem to 
 indicate that the pupil should be taught mainly 
 to depend on his own resources. This, too, I 
 think, is the teaching of common sense. What- 
 ever is learned, should be so thoroughly learned, 
 that the next and higher step may be compara- 
 tively easy. And the teacher should always in- 
 quire, when he is about to dismiss one subject, 
 whether the class understand it so well that they 
 can go on to the next. He may, indeed, some-
 
 RIGHT MODES OF TEACHING. 115 
 
 Dangerous when excessive.— The true medium. 
 
 times give a word of suggestion during the prep- 
 aration of a lesson, and, by a seasonable hint, 
 save the scholar the needless loss of much time 
 But it is a very great evil if the pupils acquire 
 the habit of running to the teacher as soon as a 
 slight difficulty presents itself, to request him to 
 remove it. Some teachers, when this happens, 
 will send the scholar to his seat with a reproof 
 perhaps, while others, with a mistaken kindness, 
 will answer the question or solve the problem 
 themselves, as the shortest way to get rid of it. 
 Both these courses are, in general, wrong. The 
 inquirer should never be frowned upon ; this may 
 discourage him. He should not be relieved from 
 labor, as this will diminish his self-reliance with- 
 out enlightening him ; for whatever is done for a 
 scholar without his having studied closely upon 
 it himself, makes but a feeble impression upon 
 him, and is soon forgotten. The true way is, 
 neither to discourage inquiry nor answer the 
 question. Converse with the scholar a little as 
 to the principles involved in the question ; refer 
 him to principles which he has before learned, or 
 has now lost sight of ; perhaps call his attention 
 to some rule or explanation before given to the 
 class ; go just so far as to enlighten him a little 
 and put Mm on the scent ^ then leave him to 
 achieve the victory himself. There is a great 
 satisfaction in discovering a difficult thing for 
 one's self, — and the teacher does the scholar a 
 lasting injury who takes this pleasure from him.
 
 116 RIGHT MODES OF TEACHING. 
 
 "Not to-day, sir."— "I've got it!" 
 
 The teacher should be simply suggestive, but 
 should never take the glory of a victory from the 
 scholar by doing his work for him, at least, not 
 until he has given it a thorough trial himself. 
 
 The skill of the teacher, then, will be best 
 manifested, if he can contrive to awaken such a 
 spirit in the pupil, that he shall be very unwilHng 
 to be assisted ; if he can kindle up such a zeal, 
 that the pupil will prefer to try again and again 
 before he will consent that the teacher shall 
 interpose. I shall never forget a class of boys, 
 some fourteen or fifteen years of age, who in the 
 study of algebra had imbibed this spirit. A diffi- 
 cult question had been before the class a day or 
 two, when I suggested giving them some assist- 
 ance. "iVb^ to-day, sir," was the spontaneous ex- 
 clamation of nearly every one. Nor shall I forget 
 the expression that beamed from the countenance 
 of one of them, when, elated with his success, he 
 forgot the proprieties of the school and audibly 
 exclaimed, "Tve got it I Fve got it!'"' It was a 
 great day for him ; he felt, as he never before 
 had felt, his own might. Nor was it less gratify- 
 ing to me to find that his fellows were still un- 
 willing to know his method of solution. The 
 next day, a large number brought a solution of 
 their own, each showing evidence of originality. 
 A class that has once attained to a feeling like 
 this, will go on to educate themselves, when 
 they shall have left the school and the living 
 teacher.
 
 RIGHT MODES OF TEACHING. 117 
 
 Other than book-studies. 
 
 As to the communication of knowledge, aside 
 from that immediately connected with school- 
 studies, there is a more excellent way than that 
 of pouring it in hj the process already described. 
 It is but just that I should give a specimen of 
 the method of doing this. I shall now proceed 
 to do so, under the head of 
 
 SECTION IV.— WAKING UP MIND. 
 
 The teacher of any experience knows, that if 
 he will excite a deep and profitable interest in 
 his school, he must teach many things besides 
 hook-studies. In our common schools, there will 
 always be a company of small children, who, not 
 yet having learned to read understandingly, will 
 have no means of interesting themselves and 
 must depend mainly upon the teacher for the 
 interest they take in the school. This to them is 
 perhaps the most critical period of their lives. 
 Whatever impression is now made upon them 
 will be enduring. If there they become disgusted 
 with the dullness and confinement of school, and 
 associate the idea of pain and repulsiveness with 
 that of learning, who can describe the injury 
 done to their minds? If, on the other hand, the 
 teacher is really skillful, and excites in them a 
 spirit of inquiry and leads them in suitable ways 
 to observe, to think, and to feel that the school 
 is a happy place even for children, it is one great 
 Doint gained.
 
 118 RIGHT MODES OF TEACHING. 
 
 Q-eneral exercise.— A specimen. 
 
 I may suggest, here, then, that it would be 
 well to set apart a few minutes once a day for a 
 general exercise in the school, when it should be 
 required of all to lay by their studies, assume an 
 erect attitude, and give their undivided attention 
 to whatever the teacher may bring before them. 
 Such a course would have its physiological ad- 
 vantages. It would relieve the minds of all for 
 a few minutes. The erect attitude is a healthful 
 one. It would also serve as a short respite from 
 duty and thus refresh the older scholars for 
 study. I may further add, that, for the benefit 
 of these small children, every general exercise 
 should be conducted with reference to them, and 
 such topics should be introduced as they can 
 understand. 
 
 It is the purpose of the following remarks to 
 give a specimen of the manner of conducting 
 such exercises, for a few days, with reference to 
 waking up mind in the school and also in the 
 district. 
 
 Let us suppose that the teacher has promised 
 that on the next day, at ten minutes past ten 
 o'clock, he shall request the whole school to give 
 their attention five minutes, Avhile he shall bring 
 something there to which he shall call the atten- 
 tion, especially of the little boys and girls under 
 seven years of age. This very announcement will 
 excite an interest both in school and at home ; 
 and when the children come in the morning, 
 they will be more wakeful than usual till the
 
 RIGHT MODES OF TEACHING. 119 
 
 A fixed time.— Preparation.— Ear of com. 
 
 fixed time arrives. It is very important that this 
 time should be fixed, and that the utmost punct- 
 uahty should be observed, both as to the begin- 
 ning and ending of the exercise at the precise 
 time. 
 
 The teacher, it should be supposed, has not 
 made such an announcement without consider- 
 ing what he can do when the time arrives. He 
 should have a well-digested plan of operation, 
 and one which he knows beforehand that he can 
 successfully execute. 
 
 Let us suppose that in preparing for this ex- 
 ercise he looks about him to find some object 
 which he can make his text ; and that he finds 
 upon his study-table an ear of corn. He thinks 
 carefully what he can do with it, and then with 
 a smile of satisfaction he puts it in his pocket 
 for the "general exercise." 
 
 In the morning, he goes through the accus- 
 tomed duties of the first hour, perhaps more 
 cheerfully than usual, because he finds there is 
 more of animation and wakefulness in the school. 
 At the precise time, he gives the signal agreed 
 upon, and all the pupils drop their studies and 
 sit erect. When there is perfect silence and strict 
 attention by all, he takes from his pocket the ear 
 of corn and in silence holds it up before the 
 school. The children smile, for it is a familiar 
 object ; and they probably did not suspect they 
 were to be fed with corn. 
 
 Teacher. "Now, children," addressing himself
 
 120 RIGHT MODES OF TEACHING. 
 
 Teacher's address to the children. — Their answers. 
 
 to the youngest, "I am going to ask you only 
 one question to-day about this ear of corn. If 
 you can answer it I shall be very glad ; if the 
 little boys and girls upon the front seat can not 
 give the answer, I will let those in the next seat 
 try ; and so on till all have tried, unless our time 
 should expire before the right answer is given. 
 I shall not be surprised if none of you give the 
 answer I am thinking of. As soon as I ask the 
 question, those who are under seven years old, 
 and think they can give en answer, may raise 
 their hand. What is this ear of cork for?" 
 
 Several of the children raise their hands, and 
 the teacher points to one after another in order, 
 and they rise and give their answers. 
 
 Mary. It is to feed the geese with. 
 
 John. Yes, and the hens too, and the pigs. 
 
 Sarah. My father gives corn to the cows. 
 
 By this time the hands of the youngest scholars 
 are all down ; for having been taken a little by 
 surprise, their knowledge is exhausted. So the 
 teacher says that those between seven and ten 
 years of age may raise their hands. Several in- 
 stantly appear. The teacher again indicates, by 
 pointing, those who may give the answer. 
 
 Charles. My father gives corn to the horses 
 when the oats are all gone. 
 
 Daniel. We give it to the oxen and cows, and 
 we fat the hogs upon corn. 
 
 Laura. It is good to eat. They shell it from 
 the cobs and send it to mill, and it is ground
 
 RIGHT MODES OF TEACHING. 121 
 
 Closing at the time.— Hear no more till to-morrow. 
 
 into meal. They make bread of the meal, and 
 we eat it. 
 
 This last pupil has looked a little further into 
 domestic economy than those who answered be- 
 fore her. But by this time, perhaps before, the 
 five minutes have been nearly expended, and yet 
 several hands are up, and the faces of several 
 are beaming with eagerness to tell their thoughts. 
 Let the teacher then say, " We will have no more 
 answers to-day. You may think of this matter 
 till to-morrow, and then I will let you try again. 
 I am sorry to tell you that none of you have 
 mentioned the use I was thinking of, though I 
 confess I expected it every minute. I shall not 
 be surprised if no one of you give this answer 
 to-morrow. I shall now put the ear of corn in 
 my desk, and no one of you must speak to me 
 about it till to-morrow. You may now take your 
 studies." 
 
 The children now breathe more freely, while 
 the older ones take their studies, and the next 
 class is called. In order to success, it is abso- 
 lutely necessary that the teacher should positively 
 refuse to hold any conversation with the children 
 on the subject till the next time for " general 
 exercise ". 
 
 During the remainder of the forenoon, the 
 teacher will very likely observe some signs of 
 thoughtfulness on the part of those little children 
 who have been habitually dull before. And per- 
 haps some child, eager to impart a new discovery,
 
 122 RIGHT MODES OP TEACHING. 
 
 The children go home.— They ohserve.— They inquire. 
 
 will seek an opportunity to make it known during 
 the forenoon. "Wait till to-morrow" should be 
 the teacher's only reply. 
 
 Now let us follow these children as they are 
 dismissed, while they bend their steps toward 
 home. They cluster together in groups as they 
 go down the hill, and they seem to be earnestly 
 engaged in conversation. 
 
 "I don't believe it has any other use," says 
 John. 
 
 " O, yes, it has," says Susan ; " our teacher 
 would not say so if it had not. Besides, did you 
 not see what a knowing look he had, when he 
 drew up his brow and said he guessed we couldn't 
 find it out?" 
 
 "Well, I mean to ask my mother," says little 
 Mary; "I guess she can tell." 
 
 By and by, as they pass a field of corn, Samuel 
 sees a squirrel running across the street, with 
 both his cheeks distended with ^'' plunder ''\ 
 
 At home, too, the ear of corn is made the 
 subject of conversation. " What is an ear of corn 
 for, mother?" said little Mary, as soon as they 
 have taken a seat 'at the dinner-table. 
 
 Mother. An ear of corn, child ? why, don't you 
 know? It is to feed the fowls, and the pigs, and 
 the cattle ; and we make bread of it, too 
 
 Mary. Yes, we told all that, but the teacher 
 says that is not all. 
 
 Mother. The teacher ? 
 
 Mary. Yes, ma'am, the teacher had an ear of
 
 RIGHT MODES OF TEACHING. 123 
 
 Their family become interested.— Second day.— Anecdote. 
 
 corn at school, and he asked us what it was for; 
 and after we had told him every thing we could 
 think of, he said there was another thing 
 still. Now, I want to find out, so that I can tell 
 him. 
 
 The consequence of this would be that the 
 family, father, mother, and older brothers and 
 sisters, would resolve themselves into a committee 
 of the whole on the ear of corn. The same, or 
 something like this, would be true in other fami- 
 lies in the district ; and by the next morning, 
 several children would have something further to 
 communicate on the subject. The hour would 
 this day be awaited with great interest, and the 
 first signal would produce perfect silence. 
 
 The teacher now takes the ear of corn from 
 the desk and displays it before the school ; and 
 quite a number of hands are instantly raised as 
 if eager to be the first to tell what other use they 
 have discovered for it. 
 
 The teacher now says pleasantly, "The use I 
 am thinking of, you have all observed, I have no 
 doubt ; it is a very important use indeed ; but as 
 it is a little out of the common course, I shall 
 not be surprised if you can not give it. However, 
 you may try." 
 
 " It is good to boil ! " * says little Susan, almost 
 springing from the floor as she speaks. 
 
 * The children themselves wiU be sure to find some new answers to 
 such questions as the above. In giving in substance tliis lecture to 
 a gathering of teachers in the autumn of 1845, in one of the busy vil- 
 lages of New York, where also the pupils of one of the district schools
 
 124 RIGHT MODES OF TEACHING. 
 
 Older pupils interested.— The secret revealed. 
 
 "And it is for squirrels to eat," says little 
 Samuel. " I saw one carry away a whole mouth- 
 ful yesterday from the corn-field." 
 
 Others still mention other uses, which they 
 liave observed. They mention other animals 
 which feed upon it, or other modes of cooking it. 
 The older pupils begin to be interested, and they 
 add to the list of uses named. Perhaps, however, 
 none will name the one the teacher has in his 
 own mind; he should cordially welcome the 
 answer if perchance it is given ; if none should 
 give it, he may do as he thinks best about giving 
 it himself on this occasion. Perhaps, if there 
 is time he may do so, — after the following 
 manner. 
 
 "I have told you that the answer I was seek- 
 ing was a very simple one ; it is something you 
 have all observed, and you may be a little disap- 
 pointed when I tell you. The use I have been 
 thinking of for the ear of corn is this : — It is to 
 plant. It is fo7' seed, to propagate that species of 
 plant called corn." Here the children may look 
 
 were present by invitation, I had described a process similar to that 
 which has been dwelt upon above. I had given the supposed answers for 
 the first day, and had described the children as pressing the question at 
 home. Wlien I had proceeded as far as to take up the ear of corn the 
 second day, and had spoken of the possibility that the triie answer to the 
 question might not be given, I tiirned almost instinctively to the class 
 of children a+ my right, saying, " Nmo ivhat is the ea?- of corn for / " A little 
 boy, some six years of age, who had swallowed every word, and whose 
 face glowed as if there was not room enough for his soul within him, 
 bounded upon his feet, and forgetting the publicity of the place and the 
 gravity of the chairman of the meeting, clapping his hands forcibly to- 
 gether, "■ Ifs to pop/" he exclaimed emphatically, very much to the 
 amusement of the audience. His mind had been waked up.
 
 EIGHT MODES OF TEACHING. 125 
 
 A new question. — Another. 
 
 disappointed, as mnch as to say, "we knew that 
 before." 
 
 The teacher continues: "And this is a very 
 important use for the corn ; for if for one year 
 none should be planted, and all the ears that 
 grew the year before should be consumed, we 
 should have no more corn. This, then, was the 
 great primary design of the corn ; the other uses 
 you have named were merely secondarj^ But I 
 mean to make something more of my ear of 
 corn. My next question is : — Do other plants 
 
 HAVE SEEDS?"* 
 
 Here is a new field of inquiry. Many hands 
 are instantly raised ; but as the five minutes by 
 this time have passed, leave them to answer at 
 the next time. 
 
 " Have other plants seeds ? " the children be- 
 gin to inquire in their own minds, and each be- 
 gins to think over a list of such plants as he is 
 familiar with. When they are dismissed, they look 
 on the way home at the plants by the roadside, 
 and when they reach home they run to the gar- 
 den. At the table they inquire of their parents, 
 or their brothers and sisters. 
 
 At the next exercise, they will have more than 
 they can tell in five minutes, as the results 
 of their own observation and research. When 
 enough has been said by the children as to the 
 plants which have seeds, the next question may 
 be : — Do all plants have seeds ? This question 
 
 ♦ Hant is here vised in the popular sense.
 
 126 RIGHT MODES OF TEACHING. 
 
 Th.e recipient has gained capacity.— The elm. 
 
 will lead to much inquiry at home wherever bot- 
 any is not well understood. There are many who 
 are not aware that all plants have seeds. Very 
 likely the ferns (common brakes) will be noticed 
 by the children themselves. They may also name 
 several other plants which do not exhibit their 
 apparatus for seed-bearing very conspicuously. 
 This will prepare the way for the teacher to im- 
 part a little information. Nor is there any harm 
 in his doing so, whenever he is satisfied that the 
 mind has been suitably exercised. The mind is 
 no longer a "passive recipient"; and he may be 
 sure that by inquiry it has increased its capacity 
 to contain, and any fact which now answers in- 
 quiry, will be most carefully stored up. 
 
 The next question may be : — Do trees have 
 SEEDS? As the children next go out, their eyes 
 are directed to the trees above them. The 
 fruit-trees, the walnut, the oak, and perhaps the 
 pine, will be selected as those which have seeds. 
 They will, however, mention quite a number 
 which do not, or which, they think, do not have 
 seeds. Among these may be the elm, the birch, 
 and the Lombardy poplar. After hearing their 
 opinions, and the results of their observations, 
 take one of their exceptions as the subject of the 
 next question : — Does the Elm have seeds ? * This 
 will narrow their inquiries down to a specific 
 
 * It is a very common opinion in the country that the elm has no 
 seeds. I once knew a man who grew gray under the shade of a large 
 elm, and who insisted that it never bore any seeds.
 
 RIGHT MODES OF TEACHING. 127 
 
 A pi'OTTiiae.— A caution.— Example of teaching. 
 
 case, and every elm in the district will be in- 
 quired of as to its testimony on this point. 
 
 If the children can any of them collect and 
 give the truth in the matter, so much the better •, 
 but if they, after inquiring of their parents and 
 their grandparents, as I have known a whole 
 school to do, come back insisting that the elm 
 has no seeds ; after hearing their reasons for their 
 belief, and perhaps the opinions of their parents, 
 you may promise to tell them something about it 
 at the next exercise. This will again awaken ex- 
 pectation, not only among the children, but among 
 the parents. All will wish to know what you 
 have to bring out. 
 
 Great care should be taken not to throw any 
 disparagement upon the opinions of parents. Per- 
 haps, after giving the signal for attention, you 
 may proceed as follows : — 
 
 " Has the elm-tree any seeds ? Perhaps, chil- 
 dren, you may recollect after the cold winter has 
 passed away, that, along in the latter part of 
 March, or the first of April, we sometimes have 
 a warm, sunny day. The birds, perhaps, appear 
 and begin to sing a little, and as you look up to 
 the elm, you notice that its buds seem to swell, 
 and you think it is going to put out its leaves. 
 Everybody says we are going to have an early 
 spring. But after this the cold frosty nights and 
 windy days come on again, and then you think 
 the leaves can not come out so early. Now, if 
 you observe carefully, the leaves do not come out
 
 128 RIGHT MODES OF TEACHING. 
 
 Elm-dust.— A new question. 
 
 till about the 20th of May, or perhaps the first 
 of June. Did you ever see any thing like what 
 I have described?" 
 
 "Yes, sir, we remember that." 
 
 "Well, the next time you see the buds begin 
 to open, just break off a twig of a good large 
 tree, and you will find they are not the leaf- 
 huds. But if you will watch them carefully for 
 two or three weeks, you will find that each bud 
 will put out some beautiful little flowers, brightly 
 colored, and slightly fragrant. If you will still 
 continue to watch them, you will find, as the 
 flowers fall off, that seed vessels are formed, 
 shaped very much like the parsnip seed. These 
 will grow larger and larger every day, and by 
 and by they will turn brown and look as if they 
 were ripe. Just about this time the leaves will 
 come out ; and soon after these seeds, during 
 some windy day or night, will all fall off. The 
 ground will be covered with thousands of them. 
 Perhaps you have seen this." 
 
 "Yes, sir," says John, "Grandpa calls that 
 elm-dusty 
 
 "Perhaps next year you can watch this and 
 ask your parents to examine it with you. But 
 the flve minutes are ended." 
 
 Now, information thus communicated will 
 never be forgotten. The mind, having been put 
 upon the stretch, is no longer a passive recip- 
 ient. 
 
 The next question : — How are seeds dissemi-
 
 RIGHT MODES OF TEACHING. 129 
 
 Another question.— Resvilts.—StiU another. 
 
 NATED? — (of course explaining the term "dissem- 
 inated ".) 
 
 This will bring in a fund of information from 
 the pupils. They will mention that the thistle 
 seed flies, and so does the seed of the milkweed ; 
 that the burs of the burdock, and some other 
 seeds are provided with hooks, by which they 
 attach themselves to the hair of animals or the 
 clothing of men, and ride' away to their resting- 
 place, which may be a hundred miles off. Some 
 fall into the water and sail away to another 
 shore. Some, like the seed of the Touch-me-not, 
 are thrown at a distance by the bursting of the 
 elastic pericarp ; others, as nuts and acorns, are 
 carried by squirrels and buried beneath the 
 leaves. These facts would mostly be noticed by 
 children, when once put upon observation. 
 
 Next question : — Are plants propagated in any 
 other way than ty seeds f 
 
 This question would call their attention to the 
 various means of natural and artificial propaga- 
 tion — by layers, by offsets, by suckers, by graft- 
 ing, by inoculation or budding, etc., etc. 
 
 Again : — Have any plants more ways than one 
 of natural propagation f Some have one way 
 only, — by seeds, as the annual plants ; some have 
 two, — ^by seeds and by roots, as the potato ; some 
 have three, — as the tiger lily, by side-bulbs from 
 the roots, by stalk-bulbs, and by the seeds. This 
 can be extended indefinitely.
 
 130 RIGHT MODES OF TEACHING. 
 
 Remarks.— Effects upon children.— Advantages of observation. 
 
 SECTION v.— EEMARKS. 
 
 Let it be remembered, that the above has been 
 given simply as a specimen of what could easily 
 be done by an ingenious teacher, with as com- 
 mon a thing as an ear of corn for the text. Any 
 other thing would answer as well. A chip, a 
 tooth or a bone of an animal, a piece of iron, a 
 feather, or any other object, could be made the 
 text for adroitly bringing in the uses of tvood, 
 the food and habits of animals, the use and com- 
 parative value of metals, the covering of birds, 
 their migration, the covering of animals, etc., etc. 
 Let the teacher but think what department he 
 will dwell upon, and then he can easily select his 
 text; and if he has any tact, he can keep the 
 children constantly upon inquiry and observation. 
 
 The advantages of the above course over sim- 
 ply lecturing to them on certain subjects, that is, 
 over the pouring-in process, are many and great. 
 Some of the most obvious I will briefly state. 
 
 1. It immediatety puts the minds of the chil- 
 dren into a state of vigorous activity. They feel 
 that they are no longer passive recipients. They 
 are incited to discover and ascertain for them- 
 selves. They are, therefore, profitably employed 
 both in and out of school, and as a consequence 
 are more easily governed. A habit of observa- 
 tion is cultivated in them ; and what an advan- 
 tage is this for a child ! It is almost unnecessary 
 to remark that many people . go through the
 
 RIGHT MODES OF TEACHING. 131 
 
 Children shoiild be taught to think.— Parents benefitted. 
 
 world without seeing half the objects which are 
 brought within their reach. It would be the 
 same to them if their eyes were half the time 
 closed. K they travel through a country pre- 
 senting the most beautiful scenery or the most 
 interesting geological features, they see nothing. 
 They grow up among all the wonders of God's 
 works, amid all the displays of his wisdom, of his 
 design, to no purpose. They study none of the 
 plans of nature ; and by all the millions of ar- 
 rangements which God has made, to delight the 
 eye, to gratify the taste, to excite the emotions 
 of pleasure instead of pain, they are neither the 
 happier nor the wiser. What a blessing, then, it 
 is to a child, to put his mind upon inquiry ; to 
 open his eyes to observe what his Creator in- 
 tended his intelligent creatures should behold, of 
 his goodness, his wisdom, his power. And how far 
 superior is he who teaches a child to see for him- 
 self and to think for himself, to him who sees 
 and thinks for the child, and thus practically in- 
 vites the pupil to close his own eyes and grope 
 in darkness through the instructive journey of 
 life. 
 
 2. It is of great service to the parents in the 
 district to have this ivaking-up process in opera- 
 tion. Our children are sometimes our best teach- 
 ers. Parents are apt to grow rusty in their ac- 
 quirements, and it is no doubt one of the designs 
 of providence that the inquisitiveness of child- 
 hood should preserve them from sinking into
 
 132 RIGHT MODES OF TEACHING. 
 
 Take an interest in the school. — Teacher is improved. 
 
 mental inactivity. Who can liear the inquiries of 
 his own child after knowledge, without a desire 
 to supply his wants. Now it is right for the 
 teacher to use this instrumentality to wake up 
 mind in his district. Parents, by the course I 
 have recommended, very soon become interested 
 in these daily questions of the teacher ; and they 
 are often as eager to know what is the next 
 question as the children are to report it. This 
 course, then, will supply profitable topics of con- 
 versation at the fireside, and very likely will en- 
 courage also the pursuit of useful reading. It 
 will, moreover, soon awaken a deeper interest in 
 the school on the part of the parents. They will 
 begin to inquire of one another as to this new 
 measure ; and when they find by conference that 
 the feeling in this matter is becoming general, 
 they will desire to visit the school to witness this 
 as well as the other operations of the teacher. 
 This will secure parental co-operation, and thus 
 in every way the influence of the school will be 
 heightened. It is no small thing for a teacher to 
 enlist the interest of his patrons in the success 
 of his school ; and this is the most happily done, 
 when it is achieved through the medium of the 
 pupils themselves. 
 
 3. It wakes up the teacher's own mind. This 
 is by no means the least important point to be 
 gained. The teacher, by the very nature of his 
 employment, by daily confinement in an un- 
 healthy atmosphere, by teaching over and over
 
 EIGHT MODES OF TEACHING. 133 
 
 The teaclier's temptations.— He must improve his own mind. 
 
 again that with which he is quite famiUar, by 
 boarding with people who are inchned to be so- 
 cial, and by the fatigue and languor with which 
 he finds himself oppressed every night, is strongly 
 tempted to neglect his own improvement. There 
 are but few who rise above this accumulation of 
 impediments and go on in spite of them to emi- 
 nence in the profession. A large proportion of 
 all who teach rely upon the attainments with 
 which they commence ; and in the course of two 
 or three years, finding themselves behind the age, 
 they abanaon the employment. This is very nat- 
 ural. Any man who treads in a beaten track, 
 like a horse in a mill, must become weary, how- 
 ever valuable the product may be which he 
 grinds out. It is essential that he should keep 
 his own interest awake by some exercise of his 
 ingenuity, and that he should compel himself to 
 be industrious by undertaking that Avhich will 
 absolutely demand study. The above process will 
 do this ; and while he may have the exquisite 
 pleasure of seeing the growth of his pupils' minds, 
 he may also have the higher satisfaction of feel- 
 ing the growth of his own. 
 
 I must here add, that it has not been my in- 
 tention, in what I have said, to inculcate the idea 
 that the study of books should in the least de- 
 gree be abated to make room for this process of 
 waking up mind. The various branches are to 
 be pursued, and as diligently pursued, as ever
 
 134 RIGHT MODES OF TEACHING. 
 
 Books not to be neglected.— Given only as a specimen. 
 
 before. The time to be set apart for this exercise 
 should be short, — never probably to exceed five 
 minutes. It is to come in when the scholars need 
 rest for a moment, and when, if not employed 
 about this, they would probably be doing nothing, 
 or, perhaps, worse than nothing. It should be 
 managed with care and should never be made a 
 hobby by teachers, as if it were of more impor- 
 tance than any thing else. One secret of success 
 in this — as, indeed, in every thing — is, that it 
 should not be continued too long at once. The 
 pupils should be left " longing — not loathing ". 
 
 Let me again remind the reader that I have 
 given the above as a specimen. The choice of 
 the ear of corn was merely accidental ; it hap- 
 pened to lie on my table when I wanted a text. 
 The teacher should look upon this simply as a 
 specimen, and then choose his own subjects. The 
 main point aimed at is this : — Never ask leading 
 questions, which your scholars can hardly fail to 
 answer ; and never lecture to your pupils till you 
 have somehow first kindled in them a living de- 
 sire to know ; that is, avoid alike the *' drawing- 
 out " and the " pouring-in " process. Rather let it 
 be your object to excite inquiry by a question 
 they can not answer without thought and obser- 
 vation, — and such a question as they would deem 
 it disgraceful not to be able to answer. This, 
 adroitly done, is ^^ waking up mind". 
 
 Within the last few years, a great extension 
 has been given to oral instruction, as distin-
 
 RIGHT MODES OF TEACHIXG, 135 
 
 Oral instruction, its use and abuse. 
 
 guished from text-book instruction ; and this re- 
 action has now gone to such an extreme that 
 there is a marked tendency to regard the use of 
 books as an evidence of a poor quahty of teach- 
 ing. It has been assumed that the ideal teaching 
 is that which causes tlie pupil to discover, or at 
 least to rediscover, every thing for himself. It 
 seems to be forgotten by some that there is 
 knowledge, the reproduction of which, without 
 the aid of books, is even inconceivable ; and that 
 there is other knowledge, the reproduction of 
 which, without the aid of books, though conceiv- 
 able, is practically impossible ; and that in all 
 cases, capitalized knowledge is accessible only 
 through books. " Language," says J. S. Mill, " is 
 the depository of the accumulated body of expe- 
 rience to which all former ages have contributed 
 their part, and which is the inheritance of all yet 
 to come." {Logic, p. 413.) The misuse of books 
 should not be taken as an argument for their 
 disuse. An intelligent instructor will not allow a 
 pupil to confound w^ords with ideas, but will 
 teach the art of interpreting language. " Words," 
 says Hobbes, " are wise men's counters ; they do 
 but reckon by them : but they are the money of 
 fools." {Leviathan, Chap. IV.) 
 
 The assumption, sometimes made, that in- 
 struction by word of mouth is necessarily bet- 
 ter than the same instruction given in the written 
 form, is thus disposed of by Mr. Bain : " The sug- 
 gestion is oft«n made and is probably act-ed on
 
 136 RIGHT MODES OF TEACHING. 
 
 The preparation of an improved book. 
 
 by some teachers, to teach grammar without 
 books, on the assumption that the difficulties are 
 not inherent in the subject, but come into being 
 when it is reduced to form and put into the pu- 
 pil's hand in print. There must be some fallacy 
 here. What is printed is only what is proper to 
 to be said by word of mouth ; and if the teacher 
 can express himself more clearly than the best 
 existing book, his words should be written down 
 and take the place of the book. No matter what 
 may be the peculiar felicity of the teacher's 
 method, it may be given in print, to be imitated 
 by others, and so introduce a better class of 
 books ; the reform that proposes to do away with 
 books entirely, thus ending in the preparation of 
 another book."
 
 CHAPTER YIII. 
 
 CONDUCTING RECITATIONS. 
 
 IN considering a teacher's qualifications, the 
 power of exciting an interest in the recita- 
 tions of his school may not be overlooked. No 
 man can be successful for any length of time 
 without this. This comprises what is usually im- 
 plied by APTNESS TO TEACH. All men have not 
 this faculty by nature in an equal degree. Some 
 may talk for an hour upon an interesting topic 
 in the presence of children without commanding 
 their attention ; while there are others who can 
 take even a commonplace subject and secure for 
 any length of time an all-absorbing interest in 
 every word. This difference is seen in every 
 grade of public speakers and in all descriptions 
 of writers; but perhaps more strikingly than 
 anywhere else, it is observable among teachers. 
 Enter one school, and you may notice that the 
 scholars are dull and listless ; indifference sits 
 undisturbed upon their brows ; or perhaps they 
 are driven by the activity of their own natures 
 to some expedient to interest themselves, while 
 the teacher is, with very commendal)le spirit, 
 laboriously — perhaps learnedly — explaining some 
 principle or fact designed for their edification.
 
 138 CONDUCTING KECITATIONS. 
 
 A contrast.— Not always a natural gift. 
 
 The secret is, he has not yet learned to awaken 
 then' attention ; he fails to excite their interest. 
 
 Pass to another school. A breathless silence 
 pervades the room ; the countenances of the chil- 
 dren, upturned toward the teacher, beam with 
 delight. As he kindles into earnestness and elo- 
 quence, they kindle into responsive enthusiasm. 
 Whenever his eye meets theirs, he sees — he feels 
 the glow radiated by the fire he is lighting in 
 their souls, and his own gathers new warmth 
 and enthusiasm in return. Such a man is apt to 
 teach; and you could scarcely break the spell by 
 which he holds his class, " though you should give 
 them for playthings, shining fragments broken 
 from off the sun ". 
 
 He who possesses this gift naturally, has very 
 great advantage as a teacher to begin with. The 
 ability to tell well what he knows, is of more con- 
 sequence to the teacher, than the greatest attain- 
 ments without the power to communicate them. 
 Combine high attainments with the ability to tell, 
 and you have the accomplished teacher. 
 
 But this power to communicate is not neces- 
 sarily a natural gift; it comes not always by 
 intuition. It can be acquired. It is founded in 
 philosophy ; and he who can understand any 
 thing of the workings of his own mind, who can 
 revert to the mental processes he went through 
 in order to comprehend a principle, who can go 
 back to that state of mind he was in before he 
 comprehended it, and then, by one step more, can
 
 CONDUCTING RECITATIONS. 139 
 
 How acquired.— Natural order. 
 
 put himself in the place of the child he is teach- 
 ing, realizing exactly his perplexities and feeling 
 his precise wants, can become the apt teacher. 
 Those who fail in this are usually those who 
 have forgotten the steps they took to acquire 
 their own knowledge, or perhaps who never no- 
 ticed what steps they did take. 
 
 To acquire this rare qualification should be 
 the constant study of the teacher. To this end 
 he should recall, as far as possible, the operations 
 of his own mind in childhood. By studying his 
 own mind, he learns, often most effectually, what 
 he needs to know of others. Whenever he is pre- 
 paring to teach any principle or fact to others, let 
 him ask himself questions like the following : — 
 What was the dark point in this, when I studied 
 it ? Where did my mind labor most ? What point 
 did my teacher fail to explain? Such questions 
 will frequently suggest the very difficulty which 
 perplexes every mind in the same process. Again, 
 the following inquiries may be very useful : — In 
 studying this, what was the first point which 
 appeared clear to me? After this, what was the 
 second step, and lioiv did that follow the first? 
 The next in order? And the next? Was this 
 the natural order ? If not, what is the natural 
 order ? The right answers to these questions will 
 suggest the course to be pursued in the instruc- 
 tion of a class. 
 
 The teacher can scarcely ask a more impor- 
 tant question than this: — What is the natural
 
 140 CONDUCTING RECITATIONS. 
 
 Science of teaching.— Thorough knowledge. 
 
 order of presenting a given subject ? The ability 
 to determine this, is what constitutes in a great 
 degree the science of teaching. This inquiry 
 should occupy much thought, because a mistake 
 here is disastrous, and ever Avill be as long as 
 divine wisdom is superior to human. He who 
 can ascertain the order of nature, will be most 
 sure of exciting an interest in the subject he is 
 endeavoring to teach. 
 
 Some further suggestions as to conducting 
 school recitations are contained in the following 
 paragraphs. 
 
 1. The teacher should thoroughly understand 
 what he attempts to teach. It is destructive of all 
 life in the exercise, if the teacher is constantly 
 chained down to the text-book. I have no objec- 
 tion, indeed, that he should take his text-book 
 with him to the class, and that he should occa- 
 sionally refer to it to refresh his own memory or 
 to settle a doubt. But who does not know that 
 a teacher who is perfectly familiar with what is 
 to be taught, has ten times the vivacity of one 
 who is obliged to follow the very letter of the 
 book? His own enthusiasm glows in his coun- 
 tenance, sparkles in his eye, and leaps from his 
 tongue. He watches the halting of the pupil, 
 perceives his difficulty, devises his expedient for 
 illustrating the dark point in some new way, and, 
 at the proper moment, renders just the amount 
 of assistance which the pupil needs. Not con- 
 fined to the text, he has the use of his eyes ; and
 
 CONDUCTING RECITATIONS. 141 
 
 Printed questions —Special preparation. 
 
 when he speaks or explains, he can accompany 
 his remark with a quickening look of intelligence. 
 In this way his class is enlivened. They respect 
 him for his ready attainment, and they are fired 
 with a desire to be his equal. 
 
 How different is it with a teacher who knows 
 nothing of the subject but what is contained in 
 the text before him, and who knows that only 
 as he reads it during the intervals occasioned by 
 the hesitations of the class. Every question he 
 proposes is printed at the bottom of the page ; 
 and as soon as he reads the question, without a 
 glance at the pupil, his eye sets out on a chase 
 after the answer in the text. If the scholar has 
 not already been stupefied by such teaching, and 
 happens to give an intelligent answer, yet not in 
 the precise language of the book, he is set right 
 by the teacher's reading the very words, — just so 
 much detached from the sentence, as he fancies 
 was intended to answer that one question ! In 
 this way he discourages thought in his pupils, 
 and sets a bounty on mechanical study. In this 
 way, too, he congeals whatever of interest they 
 bring with them to the recitation, and they sink 
 into indifference, — or, following the instincts of 
 their nature, they seek occupation in play or mis- 
 chief, even under the sound of his voice ! 
 
 2. The teacher should specially prepare him- 
 self for each lesson he assigns. This is naturally 
 suggested by what has just been said. The 
 teacher's memory needs to be refreshed. We all
 
 14:2 CONDUCTING RECITATIONS. 
 
 The tables turned. — Commoiiplace-'book.— Its use. 
 
 know how difficult it would be to recite a lesson^ 
 in geometry for instance, weeks after studying it 
 It is so in other things. Now, the teacher should 
 be so familiar with the lesson which he proposes 
 to hear recited, that he could recite it himself as 
 perfectly as he would desire his scholars to do it. 
 This is seldom the case. I have heard a teacher, 
 with the text-book in his hands, coinplain of the 
 dullness or inaccuracy of his classes, when, if the 
 tables had been turned, and the pupils allowed 
 to ask the questions, the teacher would scarcely 
 have recited as well. And I may add, this is no 
 very uncoinmon thing ! If any one is startled at 
 this assertion, let him request a friend, in whom 
 he can confide, to ask him the questions of a 
 particular lesson in geography, or history, or 
 grammar. The teacher should daily study his 
 class lessons. This will enable him the better 
 to assign his lessons judiciously. In this daily 
 study, he should 'master the text-book upon the 
 subject ; and, more than this, he should consider* 
 what collateral matter he can bring in to illus- 
 trate the lesson. He should draw upon the re- 
 sources of his own mind, — upon the treasures of 
 his commonplace -hook, '^ — upon the contents of 
 
 * It is an excellent plan for every teacher to keep a commonplace 
 book of considerable size, different portions of it being set apart for the 
 different subjects upon which he is to give instruction. On the first 
 twenty pages, " Geography " may be the head,—th.e next twenty pages 
 maybe set apart for " History,"— twenty more maybe assigned to "Read- 
 ing,"— and a like number to "Arithmetic," "Grammar," "Spelling," 
 " Writing," etc., reserving quite a space for " Miscellaneous Matter." 
 This would make a large book ; but when it is remembered that it is to
 
 CONDUCTING RECITATIONS. 143 
 
 Improvement in teaching jwwer.— Use of the eye. 
 
 some encyclopedia, — upon any source, from 
 whence he can obtain a supply of knowledge for 
 his purpose. This will improve his own mind, 
 and he will be encouraged, as from time to time 
 he teaches the same branch, to find that he is 
 able to do better than ever before, and that, in- 
 stead of becoming weary with repetition, he is 
 more and more enthusiastic over the subject. 
 
 Going thus to his class — so full of the subject, 
 that were the text-book annihilated, he could 
 make another and better one — he will have no 
 difficulty to secure attention. As he speaks, his 
 eye accompanies his word, and as his pupils an- 
 swer, he sees the expression of their countenances ; 
 and what a world of meaning there is in this ex- 
 pression ! It betrays, better than words can do, 
 the clearness or obscurity of the mind's percep- 
 tion, when a truth is presented. How different 
 the beaming of the eye when the soul appre- 
 hends, from that almost idiotic stare at vacuity 
 when words are used without import. And how 
 necessary it is that the teacher should be free to 
 observe the inward workings of the soul as indi- 
 cated upon the countenance. 
 
 be vised for several years, it is well to have it large enough to contain a 
 large amount of matter. Now, whenever the teacher hears a lecture oa 
 a peculiar method of teaching either of these branches, let him note the 
 prominent parts of it under the proper head, and especially the tllustrations. 
 When he reads or hears an anecdote illustrating Geography, History, or 
 Grammar, let it be copied under the proper head. If it illustrates Ge- 
 ography, let the naine of the place stand at its head. When he visits a 
 school, and listens to a new explanation or a new process, let him note it 
 under its head. In this way he may collect a thousand valuable tilings 
 to be vised with judgment in his school.
 
 144 CONDUCTIJSG RECITATIONS. 
 
 Correct language. — " Siiins." — " Question." — ^Anecdote. 
 
 3. The teacher should he able to use our lar^ 
 guage fluently and correctly. In this many are 
 deficient. They hesitate and stammer, and after 
 all, express their ideas in vague terms, and per- 
 aaps by the nse of inaccurate or inelegant lan- 
 guage. A teacher in no way gives so effectual 
 instruction in grammar as by his own use of our 
 language ; and there can be no sight more morti- 
 fying than that of a teacher laboring to fix in 
 the minds of his class some rule of syntax, when 
 his own language at the very moment shows an 
 entire disregard of the rule. It is very common 
 to hear teachers talk of "sums" to their classes 
 in arithmetic, and even to ask them to do " sums " 
 in subtraction or division I The term " question " 
 is often as improperly applied, when no question 
 is asked. The teacher should be accurate in the 
 use of terms. " Question " is soinetimes the proper 
 word ; sometimes, " problem. "; and sometimes, " ex- 
 ercise " or "example", may with more propriety 
 be used: but "sum" means the amount of several 
 numbers when added, and it should not be ap- 
 plied as the name of an exercise. Some teachers 
 use the terms ratio and 'proportion^ interchange- 
 ably, as if they were synonyms. Such inaccu- 
 racies in the teacher will be sure to be repro- 
 
 * We are reminded by this of the college student who was exam- 
 ined rather closely by his tutor. "What is ratio?" inquired the tutor. 
 
 ' Ratio ?" said the younj? man; "ratio is proportion." "Well, what is 
 proportion?" "Proportion? proportion is ratio." "Well, then," said 
 the tutor, looking perplexed, " what are both together ? " " Excuse me," 
 
 aid the pupil. " / can define but one, at a tim/>. ' "
 
 CONDUCTING RECITATIONS. 145 
 
 Animation.— Children imitative.— Attitude. 
 
 ducecl in the school, and it is a great evil for 
 the scholar to acquire a careless habit in the use 
 of terms. 
 
 4. He should have proper animation himself. 
 Horace Mann describes some of the Scotch teach- 
 ers as working themselves up into a feverish ex- 
 citement in the presence of their classes, and the 
 classes in turn as literally bounding from the 
 floor when they answer their hasty questions. 
 Now, while I think these Scotch teachers go quite 
 too far, I do think that many of our own teachers 
 come short of a proper standard of animation. 
 A teacher should be readj^, without being rapid ; 
 animated, without being boisterous. Children are 
 imitative beings ; and it is astonishing to observe 
 how very soon they catch the manners of the 
 teacher. If he is heavy and plodding in his 
 movements, they will very soon be dull and 
 drowsy in theirs ; then, if he speaks in a sprightly 
 tone, and moves about with an elastic step, they 
 almost realize a resurrection from the dead. If 
 he appears absent-minded, taking but little in- 
 terest in the lesson which is recited, they will be 
 as inattentive, at least^ as he ; while, if ail his 
 looks and actions indicate that the subject is of 
 some importance, he will gain their attention. 
 Nor can I refrain in this place from suggesting 
 to the teacher the importance of regarding his 
 manners, while engaged in conducting a recita- 
 tion. His attitude should not be one of indolence 
 or coarseness, — and when he moves from his seat.
 
 l46 CONDUCTING RECITATIONS. 
 
 The attention of the class.— A routine.— " Books but helps." 
 
 and appears at the blackboard to illustrate any 
 point, it should be done gracefully, and with a 
 constant regard to the fact, that every look and 
 every motion teaches. 
 
 5. He should never proceed ivithout the atten- 
 tion of the class. A loss of interest is sure to 
 follow a want of attention. Besides, a habit of 
 inattention, while it is very common, is also a 
 great calamity to the person who falls into it 
 during life. Many a sermon is lost upon a por- 
 tion of the audience in our churches every Sab- 
 bath from this cause. When the attention is 
 aroused, the impression made is enduring ; and 
 one idea then communicated is worth a hundred 
 at any other time. 
 
 6. Avoid a formal routine in teaching. Chil- 
 dren are very apt to imbibe the notion that they 
 study in order to recite. They have but little idea 
 of any purpose of acquirement beyond recitation ; 
 hence they study their text-book as mere words. 
 The teacher should, as soon as possible, lead them 
 to study the subject, using the book simply as an 
 instrument. "Books are but helps" — should be- 
 come their motto. In order to bring this about, 
 the instructor would do well occasionally to leave 
 entirely the order of the book, and question them 
 on the topic they have studied. If they are pur- 
 suing arithmetic, for instance, and they have 
 carefully prepared a definite number of problems, 
 it might be well to test their ability by giving 
 them at the recitation, others of the teacher's
 
 CONDUCTING RECITATIONS. 147 
 
 Utility.— Intelligible language. 
 
 own preparing, involving an application of what 
 they have learned to the business of life. This 
 will lead them to study intelligently. Besides, as 
 soon as they begin to see how their knowledge 
 is to be useful to them, they have a new motive 
 to exertion. They should be so taught as to dis- 
 cover that grammar will improve their under- 
 standing and use of language ; that writing will 
 prepare them for business, and by enabling them 
 to communicate with their friends, will add to 
 their enjoyment ; and so of reading and the other 
 branches. 
 
 7. Be careful to use language which is intel- 
 ligible to children, whenever an explanation is 
 given. The object of an explanation is to eluci- 
 date, to make clearer. How is this object accom- 
 plished when the explanation is less intelligible 
 than the thing explained ? Suppose a child should 
 ask her teacher to explain the cause of cold in 
 winter and heat in summer ; in other words, the 
 cause of the change of seasons. ''O, yes," says 
 he, pleasantly. "The annual revolution of the 
 earth round the sun in connection with the obli- 
 quity of the ecliptic, occasions the succession of 
 the four seasons."* The child listens to these 
 "words of learned length" and is astonished at 
 the learning of her teacher ; but she has no 
 clearer idea, than before, of the point she inquired 
 about. 
 
 Mr. S. R. Hall, in his lectures, gives the foUow- 
 
 ♦ Worcester's Geography.
 
 148 CONDUCTING RECITATIONS. 
 
 A forcible illustration. 
 
 ing forcible illustration of the same point. "Will 
 you please tell me why I carry one for every 
 ten?" said little Laura to her instructor. "Yes, 
 my dear," said he, kindly. "It is because num- 
 bers increase from right to left in a decimal 
 ratio." Laura sat and repeated it to herself 
 two or three times, and then looked very sad. 
 The master, as soon as he had answered, pursued 
 his other business and did not notice her. But 
 she was disappointed. She understood him no 
 better than if he had used words of another lan- 
 guage. *' Decimal " and " ratio " were words that 
 might have fallen on her ear before ; but if so, 
 she understood them none the better for it. She 
 looked in the dictionary and was disappointed 
 again, and after some time, put away her arith- 
 metic. When asked by her teacher why she did 
 so, she replied, ' I don't like to study it ; I can't 
 understand it.' 
 
 " Now, the injury to little Laura was very great. 
 She had commenced the study with interest ; she 
 had learned to answer a great many questions in 
 arithmetic, and had been pleased. She wac now 
 using a slate and writing her figures on it, and 
 had found the direction to carry one for every 
 ten. This she might have been made to under- 
 stand. The master loved his scholars and wished 
 to benefit them, but forgot that terms perfectly 
 plain to hitn would be unintelligible to the child. 
 From that moment, Laura disliked arithmetic, 
 and every effort that could be used with her
 
 CONDUCTING RECITATIONS. 149 
 
 Honest confession,— not mystification.—" More requires more ! " 
 
 could not efface the impression that it was a hard 
 
 study, and she could not understand it." 
 
 While upon this subject, I might urge that 
 teachers should not resort to evasion when thej 
 are not able to explain. It is a much more hon- 
 orable, and far more satisfactory course, for the 
 teacher frankly to confess his inability to explain, 
 than to indulge in some ridiculous mysticism to 
 keep u]3 the show of knowledge. I may never 
 forget the passage I first made through the Rule 
 of Tlirce, and the manner in which my manifold 
 perplexities respecting " direct and inverse " pro- 
 portion were solved. "Sir," said I, after puzzling 
 a long time over "more requiring more and less 
 requiring less" — "will you tell me why I some- 
 times multiply the second and third terms to- 
 gether and divide by the first — and at other 
 times multiply the first and second and divide 
 by the third?" "Why, because more requires 
 more sometimes, and sometimes it requires less — 
 to be sure. Haven't you read the rule, my boy?" 
 "Yes, sir, I can repeat the rule, but I don't un- 
 derstand it." " Why, it is because ' more requires 
 more and less requires less' ! " "But ivhy^ sir, do 
 I multiply as the rule says?" "Why, because 
 'more requires more and less requires less' — see. 
 the rule says so.'' "I know the rule says so, but 
 I wished to understand tuhy.'' "Why? why?'' 
 looking at me as if idiocy itself trembled before 
 him — " why ? — why, because the rule says so ; 
 don't you see it ? — ^^^ More requires more and
 
 150 CONDUCTING RECITATIONS. 
 
 Accurate and prompt recitation.— It saves time. 
 
 less requires less I " — and in the midst of this in- 
 exphcable combination of more and less, I shrunk 
 away to my seat, blindly to follow the rule be- 
 cause it said so. Such teaching as this is enough 
 to stultify the most inquiring mind ; and it is to 
 secure the blessing of relief from such influence 
 to the children of any particular district, that we 
 come to consider an occasional change of teachers 
 a mitigated evil. 
 
 8. Require prompt and accurate recitation. 
 I know of nothing that will abate the interest of 
 a class sooner than dull and dragging recitations. 
 The temptation in such cases is very strong for 
 the teacher to help the class by the "drawing- 
 out process" before described. This, however, 
 only makes the matter worse. The dull recitation 
 calls for the teacher's aid ; and his aid reproduces 
 the dull recitation. The only way is to stop at 
 once, and refuse to proceed till the recitation can 
 go alone. It is just as easy to have good lessons 
 as poor ; and the teacher should have the energy 
 to insist upon them. Mark the countenances of 
 a class as they go to their seats after a good 
 recitation. They feel that they have done some- 
 thing, and they look as if they valued their 
 teacher's approbation and their own so highly, 
 that they will learn the next lesson still better. 
 
 It is, moreover, a great saving of time, to have 
 •the lessons promptly recited. This saving will 
 afford the opportunity to introduce those addi- 
 tional illustrations I have before suggested, in
 
 CONDUCTING RECITATIONS. 151 
 
 Simultaneous recitation. — Its evils. — Sometimes allowable. 
 
 order to excite a still deeper interest. It may 
 sometimes, though not always, be well to make a 
 prompt and perfect recitation the condition of 
 introducing the additional matter, 
 
 9. Rely not too much upon simultaneous reci- 
 tation. This has become quite too fashionable of 
 late. It had its origin in the large schools estab- 
 hshed some years since, known as Lancasterian 
 schools, and perhaps was well enough adapted to 
 schools kept upon that plan in large cities. But 
 when this mode of reciting is adopted in our dis- 
 trict and country schools, where the circumstances 
 of large numbers and extreme backwardness are 
 wanting, it is entirely uncalled for, and, like other 
 city fashions transferred to the country, is really 
 out of place. 
 
 Seriously, I look upon this as one of the prom- 
 inent faults in many of our schools. It destroys 
 all independence in the pupil by taking away 
 his individuality. He moves with the phalanx. 
 Learning to rely on others, he becomes superficial 
 in his lessons. He is tempted to indolence by a 
 knowledge that his deficiencies will not stand out 
 by themselves ; and he comforts himself after a 
 miserable recitation with the consoling reflection 
 that he has been able to conceal his want of 
 thoroughness from his teacher. 
 
 It may sometimes be useful. A few questions 
 thus answered may serve to give animation to a 
 class when their interest begins to flag ; but that 
 which may serve as a stimulant must not be
 
 152 CONDUCTING RECITATIONS. 
 
 The teaclier makes his mark at recitation. 
 
 relied on for nutrition. As an example of its 
 usefulness, I have known a rapid reader tamed 
 into due moderation by being put in companion- 
 ship with others of slower speech, just as we 
 tame a friskful colt by harnessing him into a 
 team of grave old horses. But aside from some 
 such definite purpose, I have seen no good come 
 of this innovation. I am satisfied its prevalence 
 is an evil, and worthy of the careful considera- 
 tion of teachers. 
 
 By the foregoing means, and others which will 
 suggest themselves to the thoughtful teacher's 
 mind, he can arouse the interest of his classes so 
 that study will be more attractive than play. 
 For this object every teacher should labor. It is 
 of course impossible to give specific rules to meet 
 every case ; it is not desirable to do it. The 
 teacher, put upon the track, will easily devise his 
 own expedients ; and Ms own, be it remembered, 
 will usually l>e found the best for him. 
 
 As a motive for every teacher to study care- 
 fully the art of teaching well at the recitation, it 
 should be borne in mind that then and there he 
 comes before his pupils in a peculiar and promi- 
 nent manner ; it is there his mind comes specially 
 in contact with theirs, and there that he lays in 
 them, for good or for evil, the foundations of 
 their mental habits. It is at the recitation in a 
 peculiar manner, that he makes his mark upon 
 their minds ; and as the seal upon the wax, so
 
 CONDUCTING RECITATIONS. 153 
 
 Attitude of attention important.— How secured. 
 
 his mental character upon theirs leaves its im- 
 press behind ! 
 
 During the recitation, pupils should be kept in 
 an attitude of constant attention, and this end 
 may usuall}^ be secured as follows : Much is 
 gained by massing pupils. There is always a 
 great dissipation of nervous force in attempting 
 to teach pupils who are scattered over a large 
 area, for inattention is sure to result from such 
 isolation. A long line should be broken up into 
 two or three shorter lines, the shortest pupils in 
 front, the tallest in the rear. In carrying forward 
 the work of the recitation, the questions should 
 always be asked before pupils are summoned to 
 answer them ; and in calling up pupils to recite^ 
 there should be no fixed order, or no order that 
 can be foreseen ; and where there is a strong 
 tendency to inattention, one call should not ex- 
 empt a pupil from further service. There are 
 decided advantages in calling up pupils by means 
 of cards on which their names are written.
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 EXCITING INTEREST IN STUDY. 
 
 IT is ever an interesting question to the teacher, 
 and one which he should consider with great 
 care — "How can I excite among my pupils an 
 interest in their studies ? " The intelligent teacher 
 feels that this is the great question ; for he fore- 
 sees that, if he fails here, his difficulty in govern- 
 ing his school will be very much increased. He 
 therefore turns his attention with deep solicitude 
 to the motives he may present, and the methods 
 he may employ to awaken and keep alive the 
 interest of the school. 
 
 If he has reflected at all upon the subject, he 
 has already arrived *at the conviction, that it is 
 necessary for the good of all concerned that the 
 interest awakened should be an abiding one ; that 
 it should not only not abate during the term of 
 school, but continue — nay, grow stronger and 
 stronger — even after school -days have passed 
 away. There is probably no greater mistake in 
 education, than that of raising in school an arti- 
 ficial excitement, which may aid perhaps in 
 securing better recitations, but which will do 
 nothing toward putting the mind into such a 
 state, that it will press on in the pursuit of
 
 EXCITING INTEREST IN STUDY. 155 
 
 A common mistake.— Emulation.— Perplexity. 
 
 knowledge even after the living teacher has closed 
 his labors. 
 
 The higher principles of our nature being 
 aroused with difficulty, are too apt to be neglected 
 by the teacher, and thus they remain in their 
 original feebleness ; while he contents himself 
 with appealing to our lower characteristics, — thus 
 doing a lasting injury by unduly cultivating and 
 strengthening them, at the same time that he 
 awakens, after all, but a temporary interest. 
 
 In view of the importance of the subject, and 
 the difficulty of judging aright upon it, I shall 
 make no apology for devoting a few pages to the 
 consideration of 
 
 SECTION I.— INCENTIVES TO STUDY— EMULATION. 
 
 The teacher will find, in a greater or less de- 
 gree, in the mind of every child, the principle of 
 Emulation. It is a question very much debated 
 of late. What shall he do with it ? Much has 
 been said and wTitten on this question, and the 
 ablest minds, both of past ages and the present, 
 have given us their conclusions respecting it ; 
 and it often increases the perplexity of the young 
 teacher to find the widest difference of opinion 
 on this subject among men upon whom in other 
 things he would confidingly rely for guidance. 
 Why, asks he, why is this? Is there no such 
 thing as truth in this matter ? or have these men 
 misunderstood each other ? When they have writ-
 
 166 EXCITING INTEREST IN STUDY. 
 Bxperimeiitiiig. — Its evil consequences. 
 
 ten with so much abihty and so much earnest- 
 ness, — some zealously recommending emulation 
 as a safe and desirable principle to be encouragea 
 in the young, and others as warmly denouncing 
 it as altogether unworthy and improper, — have 
 they been thinking of the same thing ? Thus 
 perplexed with conflicting opinions, he is thrown 
 back upon his own reflection for a decision ; or 
 what is more common, he endeavors to find the 
 truth by experimenting upon his pupils. He tries 
 one course for one term, and a different one the 
 next ; repeats both during the third, and still 
 finds himself unsettled as he commences the 
 fourth. Meantime, some of his experiments have 
 wrought out a lasting injury upon the minds of 
 his pupils ; for, if every teacher must settle every 
 doubt by new experiments upon his classes, the 
 progress that is made in the science and art of 
 teaching must be at the untold expense of each 
 new set of children ; — just as if the young doctor 
 could take nothing as settled by the experience 
 of his predecessors, but must try over again for 
 himself the effect of all the various medical 
 agents, in order to decide whether arsenic does 
 corrode the stomach and produce death, — whether 
 cantharides can be best applied inwardly or out- 
 wardly, — whether mercury is most salutary when 
 administered in ounces or grains, or whether re- 
 pletion or abstinence is preferable in a fever ! 
 When such is the course of a young practitioner 
 in a community, who does not confidently expect
 
 EXCITING INTEREST IN STUDY. 157 
 Two senses.— Define the terms.— The good sense. 
 
 the church-yard soon to become the most populous 
 district, and the sexton to be the most thrifty 
 personage in the village, unless indeed he too 
 should become the subject of experiment? 
 
 But is there not a good sense and a bad sense, 
 associated with the term Emulation ; — and have 
 not these eager disputants fallen into the same 
 error, in this matter, that the two knights com- 
 mitted, when they immolated each other in a 
 contest about the question whether a shield was 
 gold or silver, when each had seen hut one side 
 of it ? I incline to the opinion that this is the 
 case, — and that those who wax so warm in this 
 contest, would do well to give us at the outset a 
 careful dejlnition of the term Emulation, as they 
 intend to use it. This would perhaps save them- 
 selves a great deal of toil, and their readers a 
 great deal of perplexity. 
 
 Now, it seems to me the truth of this question 
 lies within a nutshell. 1. If emulation means a 
 desire for improvement, j^^ogress, growth, — an ar- 
 dent wish to rise above one's present condition 
 or attainments, — or even an aspiration to attain 
 to eminence in the school or in the world, it is 
 a laudable motive. This is self-emidation. It 
 presses the individual on to surpass himself. It 
 compares his present condition with what he 
 would be — with what he ought to be ; and, " for- 
 getting those things which are behind, and reach- 
 ing forth unto those which are before, he presses 
 toward the mark for the prize." "An ardor
 
 158 EXCITING INTEREST IN STUDY. 
 The bad sense.— Characteristics. 
 
 kindled by the praiseworthy examples of others, 
 inciting to imitate them, or to equal, or even 
 excel them, without the desire of depressing 
 them ",* is the sense in which the apostle uses 
 the term [Romans, xi. 14] when he says: "If by 
 any means I may provoke to emulation them 
 which are my flesh, and might save some of 
 them." If this be the meaning of emulation, it 
 is every way a worthy principle to be appealed 
 to in school. This principle exists to a greater or 
 less extent in the mind of every child, and may 
 very safely be strengthened by being called by 
 the teacher into lively exercise ; provided always, 
 that the eminence is sought from a desire to 
 be useful, and not from a desire of self-glorifi- 
 cation. 
 
 2. But if emulation, on the other hand, means 
 a desire of surpassing others, for the sake of sur- 
 passing them; if it be a disposition that will 
 cause an individual to be as well satisfied with 
 the highest place, whether he has risen above his 
 fellows by his intrinsic well-doing, or they have 
 fallen below him by their neglect ; if it puts him 
 in such a relation to others that their failures 
 will be as gratifying to him as his own success; 
 if it be a principle that prompts the secret wish 
 in the child that others may miss their lessons, 
 in order to give him an opportunity to gain ap- 
 plause by a contrast with their abasement, — then, 
 without doubt, it is an unworthy and unholy 
 
 ♦ Dr. Webster.
 
 EXCITING INTEREST IN STUDY. 159 
 
 Ambition.— The two views of emuJatioii compared. 
 
 principle, and should never be encouraged or 
 appealed to by the teacher. It has no similitude 
 to that spirit which prompts a man to "love his 
 neighbor as himself". It has none of that gen- 
 erosity which rejoices in the success of others. 
 Carried out in after-life, it becomes amhition, such 
 as fired the breast of a Napoleon, who sought a 
 throne for himself, though he waded through the 
 blood of millions to obtain it. 
 
 It is to this principle that the apostle, before 
 quoted, alludes, when he classes emulation with the 
 " works of the flesh ", which are these : " adultery, 
 fornication, uncleanness, lasciviousness, idolatry, 
 witchcraft, hatred, variance, Emulation, wrath, 
 strife, seditions, etc., — of the which things, I tell 
 you before, as I have told you in times past, that 
 they which do such things shall not inherit the 
 kingdom of God." It is of this principle that the 
 commentator, Scott, remarks : — " This thirst for 
 human applause has caused more horrible viola- 
 tions of the law of love, and done more to deso- 
 late the earth, than even the grossest sensuality 
 ever did." 
 
 Thus, Emulation is a term which indicates a 
 very good or a very bad thing, according to the 
 definition we give it. In one view of it, the 
 warmest aspirings to rise are consistent with a 
 generous wish that others may rise also. It is 
 even compatible with a heartfelt satisfaction in 
 its possessor at the progress of others, though 
 they should outstrip him in his upward course.
 
 160 EXCITING INTEKEST IN STUDY. 
 
 The teacher's duty.— Objections. 
 
 It is the spirit which actuates all true Christians, 
 as they wend their way heavenward, rejoicing the 
 more as they find the way is thronged with those 
 who hope to gain an immortal crown. 
 
 In the other view of it, we see men actuated 
 by selfishness mingled with pride, inquiring, in 
 the spirit of those mentioned in the Scripture, 
 "Who among us shall be the greatest?" We 
 every-where see men violating these sacred in- 
 junctions of divine wisdom : " Let no man seek 
 his own, but every man another's wealth." "Let 
 nothing be done through strife or vain-glory ; but 
 in lowliness of mind, let each esteem other bet- 
 ter than themselves." — " In honor preferring one 
 another." 
 
 If such be the true picture of emulation, in 
 both the good and the bad sense, certainly teach- 
 ers can not hesitate a moment as to their duty. 
 They may appeal to the principle first described, — 
 cultivate and strengthen it ; and in so doing, they 
 may be sure they are doing a good work. But 
 unless they intend to violate the teachings of 
 common sense, and the higher teachings of Chris- 
 tianity, / know not how they can appeal to the 
 principle of emulation as defined in the second 
 case. 
 
 But it may be urged that the teacher will find 
 emulation, even in this latter sense, existing in 
 human nature ; that he can not get rid of it if 
 he will ; that it will be one of the most active
 
 EXCITING INTEREST IN STUDY. 161 
 
 Eurther objections.— Emulation not essential to success. 
 
 principles to which he can resort in arousing the 
 the mind to exertion ; and, furthermore, that it 
 has been appealed to by many of the most emi- 
 nent teachers time out of mind. 
 
 To this it is replied, that it is not disputed 
 that children are selfish ; and that this selfishness 
 may indeed be made a powerful instrumentality 
 in urging them forward to the attainment of a 
 temporary end. But does the existence of selfish- 
 ness prove that it needs cultivation in the human 
 character? And will the end, when attained, jus- 
 tify the means ? Is the end, whatever it may be, 
 if attained at such a cost, a blessing to be de- 
 sired? Will not the heart suffer more than the 
 head will gain? 
 
 It may be further urged, that the child will 
 find the world full of this principle when he 
 leaves the school ; and why, it is asked, should he 
 at school be thrown into an unnatural position? 
 I answer that evil is not to be overcome by mak- 
 ing evit more prevalent, — and though there may 
 be too much of self-seeking in the world, that is 
 the very reason why the teacher should not en- 
 courage its growth. The more true Christianity 
 prevails in the world, the less there will be of 
 that spirit which rejoices at another's halting ;• 
 hence I am convinced the teacher should do 
 nothing to make that spirit more prevalent. 
 
 Nor is it essential to the progress of the pupil 
 even temporarily, since there are other and wor- 
 thier principles which can be as successfully
 
 162 EXCITING INTEREST IN STUDY. 
 Tlie conclusion.— Prizes. 
 
 called into action. If we look carefully at the 
 expediency of thus stimulating the mind, we find 
 that after the first trial of strength, many become 
 disheartened and fall behind in despair. It will 
 soon be obvious, in a class of twenty, who are 
 the few that will be likely to surpass all others ; 
 and therefore all the others, as a matter of course, 
 fall back into envy, perhaps into hopeless indif- 
 ference. Who has not seen this in a class in 
 spelling, for instance, where the strife was for the 
 "'Jiead'" of the class, but where all but two or 
 three were quite as well satisfied with being at 
 the ''''footV It does not, then, accomplish the 
 purpose for which it is employed ; and since those 
 who are aroused by it, are even more injured 
 than those who are indifferent, their undesirable 
 qualities being thus strengthened, the opinion is 
 entertained that those teachers are the most wise, 
 who bend their ingenuity to find some other 
 means to awaken the minds of the children 
 under their charge. 
 
 From what has been said, then. Emulation is 
 to be recognised or repudiated among the incen- 
 tives of the school-room, according to the signifi- 
 cation we assign to the term. 
 
 SECTION II.— PRIZES. 
 
 It has for a long time been the custom of 
 teachers to offer some prize as an incentive to 
 exertion in school ; a prize of some pecuniary
 
 EXCITING INTEREST IX STUDY. 163 
 
 Honest investigation.— Experience.— Its result. 
 
 value, a book, or a medal. In some places benefi- 
 cent individuals have bestowed by legacy the 
 means to purchase annually the prizes thus to be 
 used. Every young teacher is called upon, there- 
 fore, to inquire whether such an incentive is a 
 proper one to be employed in the school-room. 
 If there is any good to be expected from such 
 incentive, will it counterbalance the evils that 
 spring from the practice? Will the good of the 
 whole school be promoted by such a measure, — 
 and will this be a permanent or a temporary 
 good? These are questions which press for an 
 honest answer ; and the faithful teacher should 
 not shrink from a careful investigation of the 
 ■whole matter ; and if he finds good reason to 
 differ from time -honored authority, he should 
 abide by the truth rather than by prescriptive 
 usage. 
 
 In my own case, I may be allowed to say, my 
 mind was early turned to this point ; though, 1 
 confess, with a strong bias in favor of the use of 
 prizes. Pretty thoroughly for a series of years did 
 I test their efficacy, but with a growing convic- 
 tion that the prize was not the proper instrumen- 
 tality to create a healthy interest in the school. 
 This conviction acquired additional strength by 
 three or four years' trial of other incentives ; and 
 it was fully confirmed afterward by a trial made 
 for the purpose of testing again the efficiency of 
 a prize, at an age when I could more carefully 
 watch the workings of the human mind, and
 
 164 EXCITING INTEKEST IN STUDY. 
 Keasons assigned.— Prize becomes the leading motive. 
 
 better appreciate the benefits or evils resulting 
 from such a measure. I am now free to say that 
 I am satisfied that prizes offered to a school in 
 such a way that all may compete for them, and 
 only two or three obtain them, will always he 
 productive of evil consequences, far overbalancing 
 any temporary or partial good that m,ay arise 
 from them, and therefore they ought not to he 
 used as incitements in our schools* 
 
 Having expressed an opinion so decidedly upon 
 a measure which claims among its friends and 
 advocates some of the best minds in the country, 
 I shall be expected to assign some reasons for 
 the faith I entertain. From this I shall not 
 shrink. I proceed therefore to express such ob- 
 jections to the use of prizes, as have been sug- 
 gested to my mind by my own experience, and 
 confirmed by the experience and observation of 
 others in whom I have great confidence. 
 
 I. The offer of a prize gives undue pronfiinence 
 to a comparatively unworthy object. It practi- 
 cally teaches the child to undervalue the higher 
 reward of a good conscience, and a love of learn- 
 ing for its own sake. The dazzling medal is 
 placed in the foreground of his field of vision ; 
 and it is very likely to eclipse those less showy 
 
 * It may be well to remind the reader that I have used the term 
 Piizes here in contradistinction from a sj'stem of Bewards, by which the 
 teacher proposes to give some token of his regard to every one who does 
 well,— and the more brilliant success of a few does not necessarily pre- 
 clude others from participating in the favor according to their merit. 
 Of such a system of Howards I shaU have something to say presently.
 
 EXCITING INTEREST IN STUDY. 165 
 
 Engenders rivalry.— The /ew only are stimulated. 
 
 but more abiding rewards found in a sense of 
 duty and a desire to be qualified for usefulness. 
 In studying his lesson he thinks of the prize. He 
 studies that he may merely recite well ; for it is 
 a good recitation that wins the prize. He thinks 
 not of duty, or of future usefulness ; the prize 
 outshines all other objects. 
 
 II. The pursuit of a prize engenders a spirit 
 of rivalry among the pupils. Rivalry in pursuit 
 of an object which only one can attain, and which 
 all others must lose, must end in exultation on 
 the part of the winner, and disappointment and 
 envy on the part of the losers. It may be said, 
 this ought not to he so; but seldom can it be said, 
 that it is not so. Such is human nature, and 
 such it ever will be. Unpleasant feelings — some- 
 times concealed, to be sure, but generally expressed 
 in unequivocal terms — grow out of the award of 
 almost every school prize, and sometimes con- 
 tinue to exert their baleful influence through life. 
 Now, as long as human nature brings forth un- 
 lovely traits almost spontaneously, such direct 
 efforts to cultivate them surely are not called for. 
 It is the part of wisdom, then, to omit such cult- 
 ure and avoid such results, especially when safer 
 means are so accessible. 
 
 III. The hope of gaining the prize stimulates 
 only the feiv, while the many become indifferent. 
 This is admitted to be true, even by the advo- 
 cates of the prize system. Let a prize be offered 
 in any class as a reward for the best scholarship,
 
 166 EXCITING INTEREST IN STUDY. 
 Exceptions.— In spite of the system. 
 
 and in a very few days it becomes perfectly ob- 
 vious to all, who the two or three are that will be 
 likely to outstrip all the others. These two or 
 three will be stimulated to exertion ; but the 
 strife is left entirely to them. All others, despair- 
 ing of success, resolve at once to "let their mod- 
 eration be known to all men"; and since the 
 prize has been made so prominent an object, 
 they can not be expected now to look at any 
 thing above and beyond it. Feeling that they 
 are not likely to participate in the honors of the 
 class, they have but little disposition to share in 
 its toils. 
 
 This, to be sure, is not always so. There are 
 some, who, ceasing to strive for the prize, toil for 
 the more substantial blessing — a good education, — 
 and in the end come out the best scholars. This 
 is the way indeed most of our strong men are 
 made ; for it has long been remarked that the 
 prize scholars in our schools, and even in our 
 colleges, do not usually become the most distin- 
 guished men. On the other hand, many of them 
 are never heard of after receiving their honors. 
 But, though some of the slower scholars do thus 
 hit upon the true path to eminence, it is not to 
 be set down to the credit of the system ; they 
 rise in spite of the system, rather than by virtue 
 of it ; while the ultimate failure of the prize 
 scholars is usually directly attributable to the 
 defect of the system ; for having been unduly 
 stimulated to study solely with reference to red-
 
 EXCITING INTEREST IN STUDY. 167 
 Why prize scholars finally fail.— The teacher should reach all. 
 
 tation, and not with regard to future usefulness, 
 their memories have been developed out of all 
 proportion to the other faculties of their minds ; 
 and, though they may have been very good re- 
 citers, they have no power to become independent 
 thinkers. Under different training, they might 
 have become strong men. 
 
 But to look no further than the school, the 
 remark holds true in general, that prizes stimu- 
 late the fetv, and the many become indifferent, 
 not only to prizes, but to other and better mo- 
 tives. That system of incentives only can be 
 approved, which reaches and influences success- 
 fully all the mind subjected to its operation. 
 
 Nor is this an unimportant consideration. It 
 is not sufficient praise for a teacher that he has 
 a feiv good scholars in his school. Almost any 
 teacher can call out the talent of the active 
 scholars and make them brilliant reciters. The 
 highest merit, however, lies in reaching all the 
 pupils, the dull as well as the active, and in mak- 
 ing the most of them, or rather in leading them 
 to make the most of themselves. It should be 
 remembered of every child, that the present is 
 his only opportunity of being a child, and of re- 
 ceiving the training appropriate to childhood; 
 and that teacher who rests satisfied with a sys- 
 tem that does not reach the many, while he 
 amuses himself and his visitors with the precoc- 
 ity of a few of his most active scholars, is recre- 
 ant to his responsible trust.
 
 168 EXCITING INTEREST IN' STUDY. 
 
 Difficulty in awarding the prize.— Judges disagree.— A fact. 
 
 rV. There is much difficulty in awarding the 
 prize so as to do strict justice to all. So many 
 things are to be taken into the account in order 
 to determine the excellence of a performance 
 compared with others, that some particulars are 
 very likely to be overlooked. Those who are 
 called to judge of the results often disagree 
 among themselves. The following anecdote will 
 illustrate this : Three literary gentlemen were 
 appointed to select the best from several compo- 
 sitions, presented by a class who had written 
 them in competition for a gold medal. Each of 
 the gentlemen carefully read the whole number 
 in private, and conscientiously selected the best 
 according to his judgment. When they came to- 
 gether to compare results, it was found that each 
 man had selected the test, but that no two had 
 selected the same ! They carefully read and com- 
 pared the three, and still each insisted that his 
 original choice was the best. After much debate 
 and considerable delay, one of the parties being 
 obliged to go to his business, relieved himself 
 from a painful detention, and his friends from a 
 perplexing doubt, by saying he believed the com- 
 position he had selected was the best; but as he 
 could not stop to claim its rights, he would yield 
 them in favor of the second best in the hands of 
 one of his associates. This ended the dispute, 
 and the action in favor of the successful one, was 
 declared to be unanimous ! 
 
 This only proves how difficult it is to decide ;
 
 EXCITING INTEREST IN STUDY. 169 
 
 The parties dissatisfied. — Various external aids: exemplified. 
 
 and in the case just cited, it might well be asked, 
 why should one of these competitors be held up 
 to the multitude to be applauded and admired, 
 and the others sent back to their classes covered 
 with the shame of a failure? What principle of 
 justice sanctioned this decision? 
 
 Nor is this a solitary instance. It rarely hap- 
 pens that the case is perfectly clear. There is 
 usually much perplexity about it ; and hence one 
 reason why the decision seldom satisfies the 
 friends of the parties, either in the school or at 
 home. But other considerations besides the in- 
 trinsic merits of the performance, are to be taken 
 into account in awarding a prize ; as, 
 
 1. A difference in the external facilities ivhicJi 
 the competitors enjoy for getting the lessons. One 
 pupil may be the son of poverty, and be com- 
 pelled to labor during all the hours out of school ; 
 another may be in easy circumstances and have 
 nothing to prevent giving undivided attention to 
 study during the whole day. One may be the 
 child of parents who have no power to render 
 assistance by way of explaining a difficult point; 
 while the other may have all his doubts removed 
 at once by parental aid. One may never even be 
 encouraged by a kind word at home ; another is 
 constantly urged to effort, and perhaps not allowed 
 to be idle. One may have access to no books but 
 his school-manuals ; the other may have at his 
 command a large library. This difference in cir- 
 cumstances should be taken into the account ;
 
 170 EXCITING INTEREST IN STUDY. 
 Improper means iised.— An " authoress I " 
 
 but it never can be fully understood by those who 
 are called to decide. 
 
 2. The improper means luhicli rnay have been 
 employed to secure the prize. Ambition, when 
 aroused, is not always scrupulous of its means. 
 One competitor may be high-minded ; may enter 
 the arena determined to succeed by an honorable 
 strife ; may resolve to succeed by his own exer- 
 tions, or to fail rather than bring in any thing 
 which is not the fruit of his own study. Another, 
 regardless of honor or principle, resolves only to 
 succeed, whatever it may cost ; hesitates not to 
 copy from others if possible, or to apply to a 
 brother in college or some friend in the High 
 School to furnish the difficult solution, prepared 
 to order. One young lady spends days and nights 
 in arranging the glowing thoughts for her com- 
 position, determined, if industry, study, good taste, 
 and a careful application of the rules of rhetoric 
 can effect any thing, that her production shall be 
 worthy of a prize. Another, in no way distin- 
 guished for scholarship, industry, or honor, writes 
 a careless letter to a married sister in a distant 
 city, invoking her aid. In due time the mail 
 brings an elegant essay. It is copied with suffi- 
 cient accuracy to be read, and at the examination 
 takes the prize ! The fair " authoress " stands 
 forth and is flattered before the multitude, — is 
 perhaps made to believe that she is worthy of 
 praise ; she grasps the golden bauble, and, covered 
 with the blushes of modesty, receives the con-
 
 EXCITING INTEREST IN STUDY. 171 
 
 Abuses.— System unsafe. 
 
 gratulations and caresses of friends, and is after- 
 ward reputed a good scholar. Her competitors 
 meantime become convinced that effort can not 
 rival genius; they are mortified to think they 
 have presumed to enter the arena with native 
 talent, and become disheartened as to any future 
 attempt. 
 
 Now, where is the justice in all this proceed- 
 ing ? Yet this is not fiction ; it is history ! If 
 such abuses — abuses that might well make an 
 angel weep, revealing, as they do, that woman's 
 heart can be thus sold to deception — are the ac- 
 companiments of a prize system, may we not well 
 doubt the utility of that system? 
 
 Yet who can know either the different facili- 
 ties enjoyed by the competitors, or the want of 
 principle in some of them? Who can enter the 
 secret chambers of the mind or the heart, and 
 estimate with any accuracy the just amount of 
 merit in any action ? This is God's prerogative ; 
 while " man looketh only on the outward appear- 
 ance ". My inference then is : A system can 
 hardly he safe which is so uncertain. 
 
 Y. The prize reiuards success, not effort ; 
 TALENT, not WORTH. Evcry one knows that in 
 estimating the value and virtue of an action, the 
 motive which prompted it, and the effort it neces- 
 sarily cost, should be taken into the account. 
 Every one knows, too, that success in study is by 
 no means a criterion by which to judge of the 
 merits of the scholar. Some learn their lessons
 
 172 EXCITING INTEREST IN STUDY, 
 
 Success overrated.— But God rewards.— How? 
 
 with great facility and with but httle effort ; 
 others study long and patiently without any brill- 
 iant results. One competitor for a prize may 
 bring results which have cost him midnight toil 
 and the most unremitting perseverance ; another 
 with brighter parts, and with but little labor, is 
 able to surpass him, and takes the medal. Now, 
 the former deserves in a far higher degree the 
 encouragement of the reward ; 3^et it is given to 
 him who has the talent, but who lacks the indus- 
 try. The rule of Scripture which announces that 
 "to whom much is given, of him shall much te 
 required^\ is violated, and he is rewarded for 
 producing but little more than the one to whom 
 little is given. 
 
 It is often urged by those who advocate a sys- 
 tem of prizes and rewards, that God rewards; 
 and therefore it is at least justifiable that we 
 should imitate his example. I admit that God, 
 in his government, does reward ; but he rewards 
 effort rather than success; he "looketh upon the 
 heart " as man can not do, and rewards worth, not 
 talent. We might, indeed, imitate his example, 
 if we had less frailty, and were not so liable to 
 be imposed upon by the outward appearance. 
 God indeed rewards men ; but he estimates the 
 secret intention, seeing the inward springs of 
 thought before they find expression in words or 
 actions. He regards the motive, and holds out 
 for the encouragement of the humblest child of 
 earth, who does the best he can, as rich a crown
 
 EXCITING INTEREST IN STUDY. 173 
 
 Studying for a prize only.— Argument perverted. 
 
 of glory, as he does for those whose outward cir- 
 cumstances, in the eyes of mortals, are more aus- 
 picious. When man can as wisely and as right- 
 eously bestow his prizes and rewards, there will 
 be far less objection to their use. 
 
 VL The pupil luho studies for a prize as his 
 chief motive, will seldom continue to study when 
 the prize is withdraiun. This is so obvious as 
 scarcely to need illustration. If it be necessary 
 to add any thing to the mere statemcDt of the 
 fact, an appeal to almost universal experience 
 would confirm it. A teacher who has depended 
 upon prizes in a school, finds it very difficult to 
 awaken an interest there, when he withdraws the 
 prize. Hence many have, on trying the experi- 
 ment of abandoning the prize system, become 
 discouraged, and have returned again to the use 
 of prizes, believing them essential to their suc- 
 cess. Thus the very argument which shows most 
 clearly their pernicious tendency, is made a reason 
 for continuing them. As before hinted, the prize 
 scholars in our academies, and even our colleges, 
 are seldom distinguished men in after-life, — a fact 
 that speaks conclusively on this point. But it 
 can scarcely be necessary to spend words to prove 
 a truth almost self-evident. 
 
 VII. By the prize system, the influence of the 
 good example of some of the best pupils, is lost 
 upon the school. All who have taught, know how 
 important this influence is to the success of the 
 school. It tells with resistless power upon the
 
 174 EXCITING INTEREST IN STUDY. 
 
 "He is studying for the prize."— Rewards, not necessary. 
 
 other scholars, wherever it exists, unless some 
 unworthy motive can be assigned for it. But 
 under the prize system, let a teacher appeal to 
 the example of his best scholars, and the reply 
 is, "O, yes, he behaves well, or he studies dili- 
 gently, but he is trying to get the prized With 
 this understanding, his example becomes power- 
 less, unless, indeed, there may be a disposition to 
 be unlike him in every thing. It is believed this 
 is a consideration of considerable importance. 
 
 I have thus assigned, at some length, the 
 reasons why I should discountenance, among the 
 incentives of the school, the use of Prizes. As to 
 the use of " Bewards^\ when they are made so 
 numerous that every one who is really deserving 
 may receive one, — and when the basis of their 
 distribution is not talent, not success merely, but 
 good intention and praiseworthy effort, — I have 
 much less to say. As expressions of the teacher's 
 interest in the children, and of his approval of 
 their well-doing, they may serve a good end. 
 Perhaps there is no very strong objection to 
 them in principle ; though if the teacher subjects 
 himself to the necessary outlay in the purchase 
 of them, it may become burdensome to him. I 
 may add, however, that / do not thinh reiuards 
 are necessary to the teacher^s success. I should 
 prefer to do without them. It is possible to pro- 
 duce such a feeling in the school-room, that the 
 approving conscience of the child, and the com- 
 mendatory smile of the teacher, shall be the
 
 EXCITING INTEREST IN STUDY. 175 
 Prizes interfere with study.— Love of approbation. 
 
 richest of all rewards. These come without money 
 and without price, and may always be freely and 
 safely bestowed, wherever there is a good inten- 
 tion exhibited by the child. That is the most 
 healthy state of things where these are most 
 prized. As children whose parents begin early to 
 hire them to do their duty, are seldom ready 
 afterward to render their cheerful service as an 
 act of filial obligation, whenever the pay is with- 
 held, — so children at school, who have been accus- 
 tomed to expect a reward, seldom pursue their 
 studies as cheerfully when that expectation is 
 cut off. 
 
 SECTION III.— PROPER INCENTIVES. 
 
 In what has already been said, it has. been 
 more than hinted that there are higher attributes 
 than emulation, which the teacher should ad- 
 dress, and which, if he is successful in calling 
 them into exercise, will be quite sufficient to in- 
 sure the proper application of his pupils to their 
 studies. They have the merit, moreover, of being 
 safe. They do not unduly stimulate the intel- 
 lectual, at the expense of the moral faculties. 
 Their very exercise constitutes a healthy growth 
 of the moral nature. Some of these I may briefly 
 allude to. 
 
 I. A DESIRE TO GAIN THE APPROBATION OF THEIR 
 
 PARENTS AND TEACHER. The lovc of approbation 
 is as universal in the human mind as emulation. 
 Not one in a thousand can be found who does
 
 176 EXCITING INTEREST IN STUDY. 
 A desirable trait.—" Twice blest."— Desire to advance. 
 
 not possess it. Within proper limits, it is a de- 
 sirable trait in human character. It is, to be 
 sure, one of the selfish propensities ; but among 
 them all, it is the most innocent. Carried to an 
 extreme, it would lead its possessor to crave the 
 good opinion of the bad as well as of the good, 
 and to become an obsequious seeker after popu- 
 larity. This, of course, is to be deprecated. But 
 there can be no danger of this extreme, as long 
 as the approbation of parents and teachers is the 
 object aimed at. It implies in the child a respect 
 for the opinions and a confidence in the justice 
 of his parents and teachers ; and hence it implies 
 in him a generous desire to please, as a condition 
 of being commended by them. 
 
 In this sense, the love of approbation may be 
 appealed to by the teacher. He perhaps need not 
 frequently use the language of praise. It will 
 generally be sufficient, if the smile of approval 
 beams forth in his countenance. If he is judi- 
 cious as well as just, this boon soon becomes a 
 precious one to the child. It is a reward, more- 
 over, which 
 
 "is twice blest; 
 It blesseth him who gives and him who takes." 
 
 II. A DESIRE OF .ADVANCEMENT. This is emula- 
 tion in its good sense. It leads the child, as before 
 remarked, to compare his present standing and 
 attainments with what they should be, and to 
 desire to surpass himself. This is ever commend- 
 able. Man was made for progress ; and it is no
 
 EXCITING INTEREST IN STUDY. 177 
 Desire to be useful.— Desire to do right. 
 
 unworthy aspiration, wlien this desire fires the 
 3'outhful breast. The teacher, tlien, may appeal 
 to tliis desire, may Ivindle it into a flame even, 
 witli safety, — because it is a flame that warms 
 witliout consuming that on which it feeds. 
 
 III. A DESiEE TO BE USEFUL. The good tcachcr 
 should never fail to impress upon the child that 
 the object of his being placed on earth, was that 
 he might be of some use to the world by which 
 he is surrounded. "ISTo man liveth to himself, 
 and no man dieth to himself." He can be thus 
 useful by storing the mind with knowledge and 
 the heart with right affections. He may be re- 
 minded of the connection betvv-een his present 
 studies and the pursuits of life to which they 
 may be applied. Some judicious hint at the 
 future application of any branch is always a 
 good preparation of the mind to pursue it. If 
 there is a definite object in view, there will always 
 be more alacrity in the labor of study ; and this 
 may be made to influence the young pupil as well 
 as the more advanced. It is no small thing for 
 the child if he can be early made to feel that he 
 is living to some purpose. 
 
 IV. A DESIRE TO DO RIGHT. This, in other 
 words, is a disposition to obey conscience by con- 
 forming to the will of God. This indeed is the 
 highest and holiest of all the motives to human 
 action. In its fullest sense it constitutes the 
 fundamental principle of a religious character. 
 The teacher should most assiduously cultivate in
 
 178 EXCITING INTEREST IN STUDY. 
 Conscience active in cMldliood. 
 
 the child a regard for this principle. God has 
 implanted the conscience in every child of earth, 
 that it should early be made use of to regulate 
 the conduct. That teacher is either grossly igno- 
 rant or madly perverse, who disregards the con- 
 science, while he appeals alone to the selfishness 
 of the young, and thus practically teaches that 
 moral obligation is a nullity ; that the law of God 
 — so beautifully expounded by the Saviour — 
 "Thou shalt love the Lord thy God with all thy 
 heart, and with all thy soul, and with all thy 
 m.ind," and "Thou shalt love thy neighbor as 
 thyself" — is of little consequence; and that the 
 injunction of the apostle — ""Whether ye eat or 
 drink, or whatsoever ye do, do all to the glory of 
 God," is as good as obsolete. 
 
 In early childhood, the conscience is most act- 
 ive. It needs, to be sure, at that period, to be 
 enlightened ; but if the teachings of Revelation 
 are made plain to the child, he seldom disregards 
 them. The teacher has at this period very much 
 to do, as I have before said in the chapter on 
 Responsibility of Teachers ; and he can not neg- 
 lect his duty without the most aggravated culpa- 
 bility. The point I urge here, is, that he should 
 use these motives as incentives to study. The 
 child can be made to feel that he owes the most 
 diligent efforts for improvement to his teacher, 
 who daily labors for his improvement; to his 
 parents, who have kindly supplied his wants, and 
 have provided the means for his cultivation ; to
 
 EXCITING INTEREST IN STUDY. 179 
 Sense of obligation. 
 
 society, whose prmleges he may enjoy, and to 
 which he is bound to make a return by becoming 
 an intelUgent and useful member of it ; to him- 
 self, as a rational and immortal being, capable of 
 unbounded enjoyment or untold misery, just in 
 proportion as he prepares himself for either ; and, 
 above all, to his Creator, by whose bounty he 
 lives, surrounded with friends and blessed with 
 opportunities, which are denied to millions of his 
 fellow-beings, — by whose gracious providence he 
 has been endowed with faculties and capabilities 
 making him but little lower than the angels, and 
 which he is bound to cultivate for usefulness and 
 for heaven, — by whose mercy he has been sup- 
 plied, as millions have not, with the word of God, 
 to guide his mind to things above, and with the 
 influences of Christian society, to cheer him in 
 his path to heaven ; — above all, I repeat, should 
 the child be taught to feel that he owes to God 
 his best efforts to make the most of all his powers 
 for time and eternity. If this can be done (and 
 I believe to a great extent it can be done), there 
 will be no need of a resort to those questionable 
 incentives found in exciting children to outstrip 
 their fellows by prizes and rewards ; while in this 
 very process, the foundation of a good moral 
 training will be laid, without which the perfect 
 structure of a noble character can never be reared 
 in later life. 
 
 To the motives already alluded to, if it be nec- 
 essary to add another, I would urge.
 
 180 EXCITING INTEREST IN STUDY. 
 
 Tlie pleasure of acquisition.— Acquirements of tliree years. 
 
 V. The pleasure of acquisition. This is often 
 underrated by teachers. Our Creator has not 
 more universally bestowed a natural appetite for 
 the food which is necessary for the growth of 
 the body, than he has a mental longing for the 
 food of the mind ; and as he has superadded a 
 sensation of pleasure to the necessary act of eat- 
 ing, so he has made it a law of the mind, to ex- 
 perience its highest delight while in the act of 
 receiving the mental aliment. Whoever has ob- 
 served childhood with an attentive eye, must 
 have been impressed with the wisdom of God in 
 this arrangement. How much the child acquires 
 within the first three years after its birth ! He 
 learns a difficult language with more precision 
 than a well-edilcated adult foreigner could learn 
 it in the same time ; yet language is not his only 
 or his chief study. During these same three 
 years, he makes surprising advances in general 
 knowledge. He seeks an intimate acquaintance 
 with all the physical objects by which he is sur- 
 rounded. The size, form, color, weight, tempera- 
 ture, and use of each are investigated by the test 
 of his own senses, or ascertained by innumerable 
 inquiries. His ideas of height and distance, of 
 light and heat, of motion and velocity, of cause 
 and effect, are all well defined. He has made no 
 mean attainments in morals. He comprehends 
 the law of right and wrong, so that his decisions 
 may well put to the blush his superiors in age ; 
 and, unless grossly neglected, he has learned the
 
 EXCITING INTEREST IN STUDY. 181 
 Mr. Mann quoted.— The blind and the dumb. 
 
 duty of obedience to parents and reverence toward 
 God. Now, all this amazing progress has been 
 made, because of the irrepressible curiosity with 
 which God has endowed him, and the unspeaka- 
 ble delight he experiences in acquiring the knowl- 
 edge which gratifies it. 
 
 All must have noticed the delight with which 
 the child grasps a new idea ; but few have been 
 able so eloquently to describe it, as it is done by 
 Mr. Mann. "Mark a child," says he, "when a 
 clear, well-defined, vivid conception seizes it. The 
 whole nervous tissue vibrates. Every muscle 
 leaps. Every joint plays. The face becomes au- 
 roral. The spirit flashes through the body like 
 lightning through a cloud." 
 
 "Observe, too, the blind, the deaf, and the 
 dumb. So strong is their inborn desire for knowl- 
 edge, — such are the amazing attractive forces of 
 their minds for it, that although the natural in- 
 lets, the eye and the ear, are closed, yet they will 
 draw it inward, through the solid walls and en- 
 casements of the body. If the eye be curtained 
 with darkness, it will enter through the ear. If 
 the ear be closed in silence, it will ascend along 
 the nerves of touch. Every new idea that enters 
 into the presence of the sovereign mind, carries 
 offerings of delight with it, to make its coming 
 welcome. Indeed, our Maker created us in blank 
 ignorance, for the very purpose of giving us the 
 boundless, endless pleasure of learning new 
 things."
 
 182 EXCITING INTEREST IN STUDY. 
 
 The pleasure abates in after life.— Mind may be surfeited. 
 
 It is, of course, not to be expected that the 
 same degree of pleasure will attend the learner 
 in every acquisition, as the novelty . diminishes 
 and as he advances in age. The bodily appetite 
 is less keen in after life than in childhood, so 
 that the adult may never realize again to the 
 full extent, the delicious flavors which regaled 
 bim in his earliest years. Still there will ever be 
 a delight in acquisition. And to carry our illus- 
 tration a little further, — as the child is soonest 
 cloyed whose stomach is surfeited with dainties 
 and stimulated with condiments and pampered 
 with sweetmeats, till his taste has lost its acu- 
 men, and digestion becomes a burden — so the 
 mental appetite is soonest destroyed, when, under 
 the unskillful teacher, it is overloaded with what 
 it can neither digest nor disgorge. The mind 
 may be surfeited ; and then no wonder if it loathes 
 even the wholesome aliment. Artificial stimu- 
 lants, in the shape of prizes, and honors, and 
 flattery, and fear, and shame, may have impaired 
 its functions, so that it ceases to act except under 
 their excitement. But all must see that these 
 are unnatural conditions, superinduced by erro- 
 neous treatment. There is still a delight in 
 acquisition, just as soon as the faculties are 
 aroused to the effort ; and the skillful teacher 
 will strive to wake up the tnind to find this de- 
 light, — and if he understands his work, he will 
 scarcely need a stronger incentive. If he under- 
 stands the secret of giving just so much instruc-
 
 EXCITING INTEREST IN STUDY, 183 
 A desire to know.— Instance of God's wisdom and goodness. 
 
 tion as to excite the learner's curiosity, and then 
 to Leave him to discover and acquire for himself, 
 he will have no necessity to use any other means 
 as stimulants to exertion. 
 
 To this might be added that irrepressible 
 curiosity, that all-pervading desire to know, which 
 is found in the mind of every child. The mind, 
 as if conscious of its high destiny, instinctively 
 spreads its unfledged wings in pursuit of knowl- 
 edge. This, with some children, is an all-suffi- 
 cient stimulant to the most vigorous exertion. 
 To this the teacher may safely appeal. Indeed, 
 it is a convincing proof of the wisdom as well as 
 the goodness of God, that this desire to Tcnoiu, as 
 well as the delight of acquisition, are the most 
 active at that early period of childhood, when a 
 just appreciation of the utility of knowledge, and 
 the higher motives already detailed, could scarcely 
 And a lodgment in the tender mind. It seems 
 to be, therefore, an indisputable dictate of our 
 very nature, that both these principles should be 
 early employed as incentives. 
 
 If, then, the desire of the approval of parents 
 and teachers, — the desire of advanceinent, — the 
 desire to he useful, — and the desire to do right, can 
 be superadded to the natural love in the child for 
 acquisition, and a natural desire to know, there 
 will, as I bejieve, be but little occasion to look 
 further for incentives to exertion in the pupil ; 
 and I may venture to add, as a scholium to what 
 has already been said, that the teacher who was
 
 184 EXCITING INTEREST IN STUDY. 
 
 "Wise instruction will aim at making learning pleasurable. 
 
 not yet learned to call into exercise these higher 
 motives, and to rely for success mainly upon 
 them, and who dares not abandon the system of 
 exciting stimulants, for fear of a failure, has yet 
 "much to learn as a true educator of the young. 
 Wise instruction will certainly aim at making 
 the process of learning pleasurable ; but it is easy 
 to apply this test too rigorously. When pupils 
 manifest a distaste for any kind of learning, it is 
 usual to assume either that the instruction is 
 unskillful, or that the knowledge presented is not 
 adapted to the pupil's present needs ; but there 
 is often a deeper and more significant indication. 
 The pupil may have a predisposition to certain 
 modes of mental activity, and the exercise of 
 these will always be pleasurable ; but there may 
 be other modes of mental activity that have not 
 yet been established, and the exercise of these 
 will at first be painful. As one dominant aim 
 of education should be symmetry, these dormant 
 modes of activity should be stimulated, and though 
 this stimulation may be unpleasant, it should be 
 kept up till habit has made the exercise agree- 
 able. Under the same conditions of age, sex, and 
 quality of instruction, some pupils will find a de- 
 light in mathematical study, while to others it it 
 a repulsive drudgery, the difference being due to 
 the cause just assigned. That a certain study is 
 agreeable, is no reason in itself why it should be 
 pursued ; nor is the fact that another study is 
 disagreeable, a reason in itself why it should not
 
 EXCITING INTEREST IN STUDY, 185 
 The best teachers sometimes miss their ideal. 
 
 be pursued. But in all cases the aim of the 
 teacher should doubtless be to make study pleasur- 
 able, to inspire what Mr. Bain has happily called 
 "intrinsic charm"; but the best of teachers will 
 sometimes fall short of this ideal through no 
 fault of their own.
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 
 
 IT is not necessary that any space in this work 
 should be occupied in speaking of the im- 
 portance of order in our schools. Every body who 
 has written or spoken on this subject, has con- 
 ceded the necessity of obedience on the part of 
 the pupil. "Order is heaven's first law"; and 
 it is scarcely more essential to the harmony of 
 heaven, than it is to the happiness and success 
 of the school. 
 
 If such be the necessity of order in the school, 
 then the ability to secure and maintain it, is no 
 mean part of the qualification of the good teacher. 
 It is lamentable that so many fail in this partic- 
 ular ; and yet this frequent failure can in most 
 cases be traced to some defect in the constitu- 
 tional temperament, or some deficiency in the 
 mental or moral culture of the teacher himself. 
 It shall be my first object, then, to point out 
 lome of the 
 
 SECTION I.— REQUISITES IN THE TEACHER FOR GOOD 
 GOVERNMENT. 
 
 I. Self-government. It has frequently been 
 <^aid that no man can govern others till he has
 
 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 187 
 
 Angry passions. — Manner. — Levity and moroseness. 
 
 learned to govern himself. I have no doubt of 
 the truth of this. If an individual is not perfectly- 
 self-possessed, his decisions must fail to command 
 respect. The self-government of the teachei 
 should be complete, in the following particulars; 
 
 1. As to the passion of anger. The exhibition 
 of anger always detracts from the Aveight of 
 authority. A man under its influence is not 
 capable of doing strict justice to his pupils. Before 
 entering upon teaching, therefore, a man should 
 somehow obtain the mastery over his temper, so 
 that under any provocation he can control it. 
 He should consider that in school his patience 
 will often be severely tried. He should not expect, 
 indeed, that the current of affairs in school will 
 for a single day run perfectly smooth. He should, 
 therefore, prepare for the worst, and firmly resolve 
 that whatever unpleasant thing shall occur, it 
 shall not take him entirely by surprise. Such 
 forethought will give him self-command. If, how- 
 ever, from his past experience, and from the 
 nature of his temperament, he is satisfied he can 
 not exercise this self-control, he may be assured 
 he is the wrong man to engage in teaching. A 
 man who has not acquired thorough ascendency 
 over his own passions, is an unsafe man to be 
 intrusted with the government of children. 
 
 2. As to levity and moroseness of manner. 
 Either extreme is to be avoided. There are some 
 teachers who exhibit such a frivolity in all their 
 intercourse with their pupils, that they can never
 
 188 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 
 
 Ridiculous assumption of smartness.— Mr. Abbot's case. 
 
 cominaiid them with authority, or gain their 
 cordial respect. This is a grievous fault ; and 
 the teacher should at once find an antidote for 
 it, by serious reflection upon the responsibility of 
 his position. If this will not cure it, nothing else 
 can. 
 
 There are others who are characterized by a 
 perpetual peevishness, so that a pleasant word 
 from them is indeed a strange thing. They can 
 never expect to gain the affection of their pu- 
 pils ; and without securing the love of children, 
 the government of them will never be of the 
 right kind. This habit of snappishness should be 
 broken up at once. 
 
 There are some very young teachers, who 
 sometimes assume one or the other of these pe- 
 culiar modes of address, or perhaps both, to be 
 used alternately, — fancying that they will gain 
 popularity by the one, or give themselves greater 
 authority by the other. This is a very mistaken 
 notion ; for children have more discernment than 
 most men give them credit for, and they usually 
 see directly through such a flimsy disguise, — and 
 the teacher becomes ridiculous rather than great 
 in their estimation, whenever he takes any such 
 false position. 
 
 Mr. Abbott, in his "Teacher," states a fact 
 which well illustrates this point. " Many years 
 ago," says he, "when I was a child, the teacher 
 uf the school where my early studies were per- 
 formed, closed his connection with the establish-
 
 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 189 
 
 "Take off your hats."— Treatment of peculiar pupils. 
 
 merit ; and, after a short vacation, another was 
 expected. On the appointed day the boys began 
 to collect, some from curiosity, at an early hour, 
 and many speculations were started as to the 
 3haracter of the new instructor. We were stand- 
 ing near a table with our hats on, — and our posi- 
 tion and the exact appearance of the group is 
 indelibly fixed on my memory, — when a small 
 and youthful-looking man entered the room and 
 walked up toward us. Supposing him to be some 
 stranger, or, rather, not making any supposition 
 at all, we stood looking at him as he approached, 
 and were thunderstruck at hearing him accost us 
 with a stern voice and sterner brow : — ' Take off 
 your hats ! Take off j^our hats, and go to your 
 seats.' The conviction immediately rushed upon 
 our minds that this must be the new teacher. The 
 first emotion was that of surprise, and the second 
 was that of the ludicrous ; though I believe we 
 contrived to smother the laugh until we got out 
 into the open air." 
 
 The true rule is to act the part which is agree- 
 able to nature. The teacher having gained the 
 self-command just insisted upon, and having in 
 him the spirit of kindness and a desire to be 
 useful, should assume nothing unnatural for ef- 
 fect. His manner should be truly dignified, but 
 courteous. 
 
 3. As to his treatment of those pupils that are 
 marked by some peculiarity. There will usually 
 be some pupils who are very backward, and per-
 
 190 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 
 
 In j ustice.— Self -reliance. 
 
 haps very dull, — or who may have some physical 
 defect, or some mental eccentricity. The teacher 
 should be able to govern himself in all his remarks 
 concerning such pupils. He should avoid all allu- 
 sion to such singularities before the school ; and 
 it is the height of injustice — I was about to say, 
 of malevolence — for him ever to use those low 
 and degrading epithets so often found upon the 
 teacher's tongue, — such as dunce, thickskull, and 
 the like. Is it not misfortune enough for a child 
 to be backward or dull, without having the pain 
 and mortification increased by the cruelty of an 
 unfeeling teacher? The teacher should take a 
 special interest in such children ; he should en- 
 deavor to enter into the feelings of their parents, 
 and to treat them in such a way as to encourage 
 rather than crush them. 
 
 II. A CONFIDENCE IN HIS ABILITY TO GOVERN, 
 
 We can generally do what we firmly believe we 
 can do.* At any rate, a man is more likely to 
 succeed in any enterprise, when he has the feel- 
 ing of self-reliance. The teacher, by reflection 
 upon the importance of good government to his 
 success, and by a careful study of the means to 
 be employed and the motives to be presented, 
 should be able to bring himself to the determina- 
 tion to have good order in his school, and so 
 fully to believe he can have it, that his pupils 
 shall detect no misgivings in him on this point. 
 Whenever they discover that he has doubts of 
 
 ♦ Possurd quia posse videntur. — Vibgil.
 
 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 191 
 
 Views of government.— Not tyranny. 
 
 his success in governing, they will be far more 
 ready to put his skill to the test. It would be 
 better that a young teacher should decline to 
 take a difficult school, rather than enter it with- 
 out the full belief of his ability to succeed. I 
 would not wish to be understood by these re- 
 marks to be encouraging an unreasonable and 
 hlind presumption. A confidence in one's ability 
 should be founded upon a reasonable estimate of 
 his powers, compared with the difficulties to be 
 overcome. What I recommend is, that the teacher 
 should carefully weigh the difficulties, and can- 
 didly judge of his own resources, and then un- 
 dertake nothing which he thinks is beyond 
 his ability. If, after this, he believes he can suc- 
 ceed, other things being equal, success is almost 
 certain. 
 
 III. Just views of government. 1. It is not 
 tyranny, exercised to please the one who governs, 
 or to promote his own convenience. The despot 
 commands for the sake of being obeyed. But 
 government in its proper sense, is an arrange- 
 ment for the general good, — for the benefit of the 
 governed as well as of the ruler. That is not 
 good government which seeks any other object. 
 The teacher should so view the matter ; and in 
 establishing any regulations in school, he should 
 always inquire whether they are suggested by a 
 selfish regard to his own ease, or whether they 
 spring from a sincere and disinterested wish to 
 promote the improvement of the school.
 
 192 SCHOOL GOVEENMENT. 
 
 Uniformity.— Equality.— No aristocracy ra school. 
 
 2. He should see the necessity of making the 
 government uniform ; that is, the same from day 
 to day. If he punishes to-day what he tolerates 
 to-morrow, he cannot expect the cordial respect 
 of his pupils. Some teachers, not having learned 
 the art of self-government, take counsel too much 
 of their own feelings. To-day they are in good 
 health and spirits, and their faces are clothed in 
 sunshine; they can smile at any thing. To- 
 morrow, suffering under bad digestion, or the 
 Avant of exercise, or the want of sleep, the thun- 
 der-storm hovers about their brow, ready to burst 
 upon the first offender. Woe to the luckless wight 
 who does not seasonably discover this change in 
 the condition of the weather. A teacher can not 
 long respect himself who is thus capricious ; he 
 may also be sure that his school will not long 
 respect him. 
 
 3. He should so view government as to make 
 it equal; that is, equal in its application to the 
 whole school, — the large as well as small scholars, 
 the males as well as females. This is often a 
 great fault with teachers. They raise up a sort 
 of aristocracy in their schools, a privileged class, 
 a miniature nobility. They will insist that the 
 little boj^s and girls shall abstain from certain 
 practices, — whispering, for instance, — and most 
 promptly punish the offenders, while they toler- 
 ate the same thing among the larger pupils. 
 This is cowardly in itself, and as impolitic as it 
 is cowardly. The teacher makes a great mistake.
 
 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 193 
 
 No partiality.— "Views of the governed.— Keason. 
 
 who begins his government with the small chil- 
 dren, in the hope of frightening the larger ones 
 into obedience. He should have the manliness 
 and the justice to begin with the larger pupils ; 
 the smaller ones never resist, when authority is 
 established with those above them. Besides this, 
 the very class who are thus indulged, are the 
 very ones who soonest despise, and justly too, 
 the authority of the teacher. 
 
 He should make his government impartial in 
 every respect. He should have no favorites — no 
 preferences, based upon the outward circum- 
 stances of the child, his family, or his personal 
 attractions and the like. The rich and the poor 
 should be alike to the teacher. He should remem- 
 ber that each child has a soul ; and it is with 
 the soul, and not with the wealth of this world, 
 that he has to do. He should remember that a 
 gem, as bright as a sunbeam, is often concealed 
 under a rough exterior. It should be his work, 
 nay his delight — to bring out this gem from its 
 hiding-place, and apply to it the polish of a 
 "workman that needeth not to be ashamed." 
 
 IV. Just views of the Governed. Notwith- 
 standing the imperfection of human nature, as 
 developed in the young, they have some redeem- 
 ing qualities. They are intelligent and reason- 
 able beings. They have more or less love of 
 approbation ; they have affection, and, above all, 
 they have a moral sense. All these qualities are 
 considerably developed before they enter the
 
 194 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 
 
 Aifection.— Conscience.— Decision.— Finnness. 
 
 school. The teacher should remeraber this, and 
 prepare himself to address, as far as may be, all 
 these. Love of approhation, as we have before 
 seen, is not an unworthy motive to be addressed, 
 and it is well known that many children are 
 very easily controlled by it. It is not the highest 
 m.otive, to be sure, nor is it the lowest. The 
 affection for a teacher, which many children 
 will exercise, is one of the most powerful instru- 
 mentalities in governing them with ease. The 
 conscience, early trained, is all-powerful, I allude 
 to these principles of action once more, in order 
 to say that the peculiar character of each should 
 be well studied by the teacher. He should 
 understand the human mind so well, as to be 
 able to find the avenues to these better parts of 
 the child's nature, remembering that whenever 
 several ways of doing the same thing, are pre- 
 sented, it is always wise to choose the best. 
 
 V. Decision and Firmness. By decision, I 
 mean a readiness to determine and to act in any 
 event, just as duty seems to dictate ; a willing- 
 ness to take the responsibility just as soon as 
 the way is plain. By firmness is meant that 
 fixedness of purpose which resolutely carries out 
 a righteous decision. Both of these qualities are 
 essential to good government in the teacher. 
 Much time is often lost by a teacher's vacillating 
 when action is more important. Besides, if the 
 pupils discover that the teacher hesitates, and 
 dreads to take any responsibility, they very soon
 
 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 195 
 
 The unjiist judge.— A practical example. 
 
 lose their respect for him. I would not urge 
 that a teacher should act hastily. He never 
 should decide till he is confident he decides 
 right : any delay is better than hasty error. But 
 his delay, in all matters of government should 
 have reference to a true knowledge of his duty ; 
 when that is clearly known, he should be decided. 
 Many teachers suffer in their government, for 
 want of firmness. They act upon the principle 
 of personal convenience, as did the unjust judge 
 mentioned in the parable. "And he would not 
 for a while : but afterward he said within him- 
 self. Though I fear not God nor regard man ; 
 yet because this ividoiu trouMeth me, I will 
 avenge her, lest by her continual coming she 
 weary 7??e." How often we hear something like 
 this in the school-room. " May I go and drink " ? 
 — says James, in a peculiarly imploring tone. 
 "No," says the teacher, promptly, and evidently 
 without any reflection as to the decision he has 
 made. James very composedly sits down, eyeing 
 the countenance of the teacher expressively, as 
 much as to say, ''I'll try you again soon." 
 Before long he observes the teacher quite busy 
 with a class, and he again pops the question : 
 "May I go and drink"? Stung at the moment 
 with impatience at the interruption, the teacher 
 answers instantly and emphatically, "No, no, 
 James, sit down." James still watches his teach- 
 er's expression, and cannot discover there any 
 signs of a mind seeking the path of duty, and
 
 196 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 
 
 • Philosophizing.— Conclusion.— A better way. 
 
 he silently thinks to himself, "The third time 
 never fails." So, after a minute or two, when 
 the teacher is somewhat puzzled with a knotty 
 question, and is on the point of nibbling a pen 
 besides, — '^ May I go and drink, sir?'' again 
 rings upon the teacher's ear. " Yes, yes, yes ! do 
 go along ; / suppose you'll beep asking till you 
 get itr 
 
 Now James goes to drink, and then returns 
 to philosophize upon this matter, perhaps as fol- 
 lows : — " I don't believe he stopped to think 
 whether I needed drink or not ; therefore, here- 
 after I shall never believe he really means no, 
 when he says it. He acts without thought. I 
 have also found that if I will but ask several 
 times, I shall get it. So I shall know how to 
 proceed next time." — I do not know that any 
 child would express this thought in so many 
 words ; but the impression upon his mind is 
 none the less distinct. 
 
 Now the teacher should carefully consider the 
 question addressed to him. How long since this 
 child had water? Can it be necessary for him 
 to drink so often ? Then let the answer be given 
 mildly, but decidedly — "No, James." The very 
 manner, quite likely, will settle the question, so 
 that James will not ask again. The answer once 
 given should be firmly adhered to. It would 
 even be better that James should suffer for the 
 want of water, than for the want of confidence in 
 his teacher's firmness. In this way the teacher
 
 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 197 
 
 Moral and religious principle.— First impressions. 
 
 ■would establish his word with the school in a 
 very few days ; and his pupils would soon learn 
 that with him "no means no," and "yes means 
 yes " — a matter of no small importance to the 
 teacher of a school. 
 
 VI. Deep Moral Principle. The teacher 
 should ever be a conscientious man ; and in 
 nothing is this more necessary than in the exer- 
 cise of good government. In this matter the 
 teacher can never respect himself when he acts 
 from caprice or selfishness. His inquiry should 
 be, What is right ? What is justice — justice to 
 my pupils — to myself? And if he could add to 
 moral obligation the high sanctions of religious 
 principle, and could habitually and sincerely turn 
 his thoughts to his Maker, with the heartfelt 
 inquiry — What wilt thou have me to do ? — then 
 he would seldom err in the discharge of this 
 trust. His pupils, seeing that he acted from 
 fixed and deep principle, would respect his hon- 
 esty, even if he should cross their desires. 
 
 Having now dwelt at some length upon the 
 requisites in the teacher for good government, I 
 shall next proceed to present some of the 
 
 section ii.— means of securing good order. 
 
 1. Be careful as to the first impression you 
 MAKE. It is an old proverb, that "what is well 
 begun is half done." This holds true in school- 
 keeping, and particularly in school government.
 
 198 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 
 
 Respect precedes attachment.— The rough and the gentle way. 
 
 The young study character very speedily and 
 very accurately. Perhaps no one pupil could 
 express in "words an exact estimate of a teacher's 
 character after a week's acquaintance ; but yet 
 the whole school has received an impression 
 which is not far from the truth. A teacher, 
 then, is very unwise who attempts to assume to 
 be any thing which he is not. He should ever 
 be frank ; and in commencing a school ht; should 
 begin as he can hold out. Any assumption of 
 an authoritative tone is especially ill-judged. 
 The pupils at once put themselves in an attitude 
 of resistance, when this is perceived by them. 
 
 A teacher should ever remember that among 
 children — however it may be among adults — 
 respect always precedes attachment. If he would 
 gain the love of the children, he must first be 
 worthy of their respect. He should therefore act 
 deliberately, and always conscientiously. He 
 should be firm, but never petulant. It is very 
 important at the outset that he should be truly 
 courteous and affable. It is much wiser to request 
 than to command, at least until the request has 
 been disregarded. There are usually two ways 
 of doing a thing, — a gentle and a rough way. 
 "John, go and shut that door," in a gruff tone, 
 is one way to have a door closed, John will 
 undoubtedly go and shut the door — perhaps with 
 a slam^ — ^but he will not thank the teacher for 
 the rough tones used in commanding it. Now it 
 costs no more time or breath to say, "John, I'll
 
 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 199 
 
 Avoid tlie suspicious spirit. — A bad boy saved. 
 
 thank you if you will shut that door." Most 
 cheerfully will John comply with the request, 
 and he is grateful that he has heard these tones 
 of kindness. If he could but know the teacher's 
 wishes afterward, he would gladly perform them 
 unasked. I would by no means recommend the 
 adoption of the fawning tone of the sycophant, 
 by the teacher. He should be manly and digni- 
 fied ; but the language of that courtesy which 
 springs from real kindness, and which ever 
 becomes the gentleman, is always the most suit- 
 able as well as most expedient for him. 
 
 II. Avoid exhibiting or entertaining a suspi- 
 cious SPIRIT. It is a maxim of law, that one 
 charged with crime is always to be presumed 
 innocent, until proved guilty. This should be a 
 maxim with the teacher who would govern well. 
 There is no more direct way of making a school 
 vicious, than by showing them that you suspect 
 they are so. A good reputation is dear to all ; 
 and even a bad boy will be restrained from 
 wicked acts as long as he thinks you give him 
 credit for good intentions. But if he finds that 
 he has lost your good opinion, he feels that he 
 has nothing further to lose by being as bad as 
 you suspect him to be. A teacher is wise, there- 
 fore, if he tries to see something good even in 
 a vicious pupil. It may be, as it often has been, 
 the means of saving such a pupil. I have known 
 a very depraved boy entirely reformed in school, 
 by his teacher's letting him know that he had
 
 200 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 
 
 Token of confidence.— Employment. 
 
 noticed some good traits in his character. He 
 afterward told his teacher that "he had been so 
 often suspected to be a villain, that he had almost 
 come to the conclusion that he would be one ; 
 but that, when he found one man who could do 
 him the justice to give him credit for a few 
 good feelings — (for he knew he had them) — he 
 at once determined to show that man that his 
 confidence had not been misplaced ; and that he 
 would sooner die than knowingly offend the only- 
 person who ever had understood him." 
 
 It is wise sometimes, not only to withhold the 
 expression of suspicion, but to give some token 
 of your confidence to the pupil who is trouble- 
 some. Intrust him with some errand involving 
 responsibility, or assign to him some duty by way 
 of assistance to yourself, and very likely you will 
 gain his good-will ever after. This is founded 
 upon the well-known principle in human nature 
 acted upon by Dr. Franklin, who, when he would 
 gain his enemy, asked him to do him a favor. 
 
 III. As SOON AS POSSIBLE, GIVE REGULAR AND 
 
 FULL EMPLOYMENT. It is an old provorb that " idle- 
 ness is the mother of mischief." The nursery 
 hymn also contains a living truth — 
 
 " And Satan finds some miscMef still 
 For idle hands to do." 
 
 It is the law of a child's nature to be active ; and 
 as the teacher is placed in the school to give di- 
 rection to such minds, he can hardly complain 
 of their going upon forbidden objects, unless he
 
 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 201 
 
 Tiie teacher may enforce employment.— Few rules. 
 
 seasonably provides something better for them 
 to do. 
 
 Very early, then, the teacher should endeavor 
 to classify his school, and furnish constant and full 
 employment — whether of study, recitation, or re- 
 laxation — for every hour in the day. The teacher 
 should have a plan when he opens the school, 
 and the sooner it is carried into full operation 
 the better.* Besides, when a teacher has given 
 employment, he has a right to insist upon the 
 pupil's being engaged in study. Nobody will ques- 
 tion this right ; and it is far more profitable to 
 require a positive duty than to enjoin a nega- 
 tive, — such as abstinence from whispering or from 
 mischief in general. 
 
 rV. Make but few rules. It is a very com- 
 mon thing for teachers to embarrass themselves 
 by a long code of requirements and prohibitions. 
 Some go so far as to write out a system of laws ; 
 and, annexing to each the penalty for its infringe- 
 ment, post them up in a conspicuous place in the 
 school-room. Others content themselves with a 
 verbal announcement of them, and rely upon the 
 memories of the pupils to retain the details of 
 them and to govern themselves accordingly. This, 
 it seems to me, is a great mistake. The multi- 
 plicity of specific rules for the government of a 
 school, will naturally lead to a multiplicity of 
 offenses. Children will be confused by the vary- 
 ing and sometimes conflicting demands of a for- 
 
 * See CTiap. xi. of this work.
 
 202 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 
 
 The world lias been governed too much.— Do right. 
 
 midable code of regulations, and in endeavoring 
 to avoid Scylla will be likely to fall into Charyb- 
 dis. It is believed by some honest statesmen that 
 "the world has been governed too much"; and it 
 is often alleged in support of this belief, that suc- 
 cessful compliance with the laws requires far 
 more wisdom than was displayed in making them ; 
 that is, the science of obedience is far more ab- 
 struse than the science of legislation ! Whether 
 this be true in the civil world or not, I shall not 
 attempt to decide ; I will only say that such has 
 too often been the fact in the school-room. 
 
 It is, in my opinion, the part of wisdom, and 
 I think also the teaching of experience, that it is 
 best to make but few rules. The great rule of 
 duty, quoted once before, "Do unto others as you 
 would that they should do to you", comprises 
 quite enough to begin with. The direction — Do 
 RIGHT, is a very comprehensive one. There is in 
 children an ability to distinguish between right 
 and wrong, upon which the teacher may ever 
 rely ; and by insisting upon this as the standard, 
 he daily brings into exercise the conscience of 
 the child, who is called upon to decide, is this 
 right ? Besides, if a school is to be governed by 
 a code of laws, the X->u-pils will act upon the prin- 
 ciple that tuJiatever is not proscribed is admissi- 
 ble. Consequently, without inquiring whether an 
 act is right, their only inquiry will be, is it for- 
 bidden f Now, no teacher was ever yet so wise 
 as to make laws for every case ; the consequence
 
 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 203 
 
 Embarrassment in executing laws.— No discretion. 
 
 is, he is daily perplexed with unforeseen troubles, 
 or with some ingenious evasions of his inflexible 
 code. In all this matter the worst feature is the 
 fact, that the child judges of his acts by the laiu 
 of the teacher, rather than by the law of his con- 
 science, and is thus in danger of perverting and 
 blunting the moral sense. 
 
 To this it may be added, that the teacher will 
 often find himself very much perplexed in at- 
 tempting to judge the acts of his pupils by fixed 
 laws, and in awarding to all violations of them a 
 prescribed penalty. Cases will frequently occur 
 in which two scholars will offend against a given 
 prohibition, with altogether different intentions, — 
 the one having a good motive and forgetting the 
 law ; the other with the law in his mind and 
 having a wicked design to violate it. Now, the 
 written code, with its prescribed penalty, allows 
 the teacher no discretion. He must maintain his 
 law and punish both offenders, and thus violate 
 his own sense of justice ; or he must pass both 
 by, and thus violate his word. He can not ex- 
 cuse the one and punish the other, as justice 
 would evidently demand, without setting at 
 naught his own laws. 
 
 An example will illustrate this point. A 
 teacher has made a rule that "any child who 
 whispers without leave shall be feruled." Now 
 two little boys sit side by side. William is an 
 amiable, obedient, and diligent little boy, who 
 has never violated intentionally any wish of his
 
 204 SCHOOL GOVEENMENT. 
 
 Uliistration.— A dilemma. 
 
 teacher ; while Charles is a sour-tempered, vicious, 
 unprincipled fellow, who a dozen times within a 
 week has sought to make his teacher trouble. 
 Little John, who sits near to William, drops his 
 pencil, and it falls under William's desk. John 
 looks for his pencil on the right and left of his 
 seat, grows anxious and perplexed. William has 
 noticed him, and he carefully picks up the pencil, 
 while John perhaps is looking for it in another 
 direction, — and with the kind intention of reliev- 
 ing his neighbor's anxiety and restoring his prop- 
 erty, he touches his elbow, and softly whispers, 
 " Here is your pencil, John," — then immediately 
 resumes his own studies, and is probably entirely 
 unconscious of having violated any law. At the 
 same instant, the artful Charles, half conceal- 
 ing his face with his hand, with his wary eye 
 turned to the teacher, willfully addresses another 
 pupil on some point in no way connected with 
 study or duty. The teacher sees both these cases 
 and calls the offenders to his desk. The one 
 trembles, and wonders what he has done amiss, 
 while the other perhaps prepares himself to deny 
 his offense, and thus to add falsehood to his other 
 sins. The rule awards to both the ferule. It is 
 applied to Charles with energy, and with the con- 
 viction that he deserves it ; but I ask, can a man 
 with any sense of justice raise his hand to punish 
 William ? If so, I see not how he can ever again 
 hold converse with his own conscience. Yet the 
 rule allows him no discretion. He must violate
 
 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 205 
 
 Hint for young teachers.— Threatening.— Wake up mind. 
 
 either the rule or his conscience ; and too often 
 in such cases, he chooses the latter alternative. 
 
 Now my advice is, make but few rules, and 
 never multiply them till circumstances demand 
 it. The rule of right will usually be sufficient 
 without any special legislation ; and it has this 
 advantage, that it leaves the teacher the largest 
 discretion, 
 
 I have been thus full on this point, because 
 so many fail here, and especially young teachers. 
 It has cost many a young teacher much bitter 
 experience to make this discovery for himself, and 
 I have desired to save others who may hereafter 
 engage in teaching, the pain and perplexity which 
 they may so easily and so safely avoid. 
 
 For similar reasons, I should also urge that 
 the teacher should avoid the too common prac- 
 tice of threatening in his school. Threatening is 
 usually resorted to as a means of frightening 
 children into their duty, — and, too often, threats 
 are made without any expectation of a speedy 
 necessity either to execute or disregard them. 
 The consequence is, they are usually more ex- 
 travagant than the reality, and the teacher's word 
 soon passes at a discount ; his threats are viewed 
 as very much like the barking of a dog who has 
 no intention to bite. As threatening is, moreover, 
 the language of impatience, it almost always leads 
 to a loss of respect. 
 
 V. Wake up mind in the school, and in the 
 DISTEICT. There is usually but very little trouble
 
 206 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 
 
 Varieties in scliool.— Vocal music. 
 
 in government where the scholars are deeply 
 engaged in their studies or school exercises, and 
 especially if, at the same time, the feelings of the 
 parents are enlisted. To this end I would recom- 
 mend that early attention should be given to 
 some efforts to wake up mind, such as have been 
 described in a former section of this work. It 
 will be found, when skillfull}^ conducted, one of 
 the most successful instrumentalities in aid of 
 good order and good feeling in the school. 
 
 An ingenious teacher, too, may introduce other 
 varieties into the scliool exercises, and thus some- 
 times turn the attention of discontented pupils 
 from some evil design to give him trouble. So 
 long as the teacher keeps steadily the main object 
 of his school in view, namely, progress in the 
 studies, he is excusable if occasionally, to break 
 up monotony and excite a deeper interest, he 
 introduces a well-considered new plan of study or 
 of recitation. Indeed, much of his success will 
 depend upon his power to do this, and in nothing 
 wiU its advantages appear more obviously than 
 in the government of the school. A great por- 
 tion of the disorder and insubordination in our 
 schools, has its origin in a want of interest in the 
 school exercises. He is the successful teacher 
 and the successful disciplinarian who can excite 
 and maintain the necessary interest. 
 
 As one of these varieties, I may mention the 
 exercise of vocal music in school. I have already 
 alluded to it. As a means of keeping alive the
 
 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 207 
 
 German proverb.— Music in heaven.— Easily introduced in schools. 
 
 interest in. a school, it is very important. Music 
 is the language of the heart, and though capable 
 of being grossly perverted — (and what gift of God 
 is not?) — its natural tendency is to elevate the 
 affections, to soothe the passions, and to refine 
 the taste. 
 
 "The Germans have a proverb," says Bishop 
 Potter, "Avhich has come down from the days of 
 Luther, that where music is not, the devil enters. 
 As David took his harp, when he would cause the 
 evil spirit to depart from Saul, so the Germans 
 employ it to expel the obduracy from the hearts 
 of the depraved. In their schools for the refor- 
 mation of juvenile offenders (and the same 
 remark might be applied to those of our own 
 country), inusic has been found one of the most 
 effectual means of inducing docility among the 
 stubborn and vicious. It would seem that so long 
 as any remains of humanity linger in the heart, 
 it retains its susceptibility to music. And as 
 proof that music is more powerful for good than 
 for evil, is it not worthy of profound consideration 
 that, in all the intimations which the Bible gives 
 us of a future world, music is associated only 
 with the employments and happiness of Heaven ?" 
 Almost any teacher can introduce music into 
 his school ; because if he can not sing, he will 
 always find that it will only require a little en- 
 couragement to induce the scholars to undertake 
 to conduct it themselves. It will consume but 
 very little time, and it is always that time which.
 
 208 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 
 
 Visit parents.— Reasons why. 
 
 if not employed in singing, would otherwise be 
 unemployed or misemployed. It is the united 
 testimony of all who have judiciously introduced 
 singing into their schools, that it is among the 
 best instrumentalities for the promotion of good 
 feeling and good order. 
 
 VI. Visit the parents of your scholars. I 
 shall more particularly enjoin this, when I speak 
 of the teacher's relation to his patrons [chap, xii.]; 
 but I can not forbear in this place to urge it upon 
 the teacher as one of the means of securing good 
 order in school. A great deal of the insubordina- 
 tion in our schools, arises from some misunder- 
 standing, or some dislike entertained by the 
 parent toward the teacher, and spoken of in 
 presence of the children. Whatever the pupils 
 hear at home, they will be likely to exemplify 
 in school. It should be the teacher's first object 
 to become acquainted with the parent, and to 
 let him understand, by a personal interview, all 
 his plans and aims for the improvement of the 
 school. This can be done best at the parent's 
 own fireside. It has often happened, that by a 
 friendly visit of an hour by the teacher, the 
 parent's heart has been softened, his prejudices 
 removed, his co-operation gained, and the cheer- 
 ful and cordial obedience of his children in school 
 secured. 
 
 These visits should of course be made in the 
 true spirit of the teacher. They should be made 
 in the honest desire of his heart to render his
 
 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 209 
 
 Registers of credits.— Why credits. 
 
 labors more successful. A visit made in such a 
 spirit seldom fails to make the parents persona] 
 friends ever after ; and, of course, in case of a 
 collision afterward between him and their chili 
 dren, this is a very important point. 
 
 VII. Registers of Credits. Registers of the. 
 standing of pupils in their schools and their 
 classes, are very highly recommended by some, 
 whose experience is entitled to confidence. I am 
 inclined to place this among the means of se- 
 curing good order. I would recommend, however, 
 that they should be registers of credits only. 
 Some recommend the use of ^^hlack marks", that 
 is, the record of prominent faults and perhaps of 
 punishments. My own experience teaches me 
 that this is unwise. The teacher should not 
 show a willingness to record and publish the 
 faults of a pupil. He should, on the contrary, 
 show a tender regard for his reputation. Besides, 
 the child is less likely to be mindful of his duty, 
 when his reputation is already Nachened by his 
 teacher. If Registers are to be kept at all, they 
 should record the successes and virtues of thfe 
 child, rather than his failures and faults. And 
 if, at the end of a week or a month, he is fur- 
 nished with an abstract for the inspection of his 
 parents, let it be so much of good character as 
 he has earned for himself during the specified 
 time. 
 
 I confess I am less sanguine than many others 
 as to the utility of the register, either as an in-
 
 210 8CH00L GOVERNMENT. 
 
 G-overnment not tlie business of the teaclier. — Mr. Howard's remark. 
 
 centive to obedience or diligence ; but, if used 
 at all, I think the above restiiction is highly 
 important. 
 
 VIII. Avoid governing too much. By this I 
 would be understood to urge upon the teacher 
 the fact that his main business in school is in- 
 struction and not government. Government is a 
 means and not the end of school-keeping. A 
 very judicious and practical teacher — Mr. R. S. 
 Howard — has well remarked: "The real object to 
 be accomplished, the real end to be obtained in 
 school, is to assist the pupil in acquiring knowl- 
 edge, — to educate the mind and heart. To effect 
 this, good order is very necessary. But when 
 order is made to take the place of industry, and 
 discipline the place of instruction, where the time 
 of both teacher and pupils is mostly spent in 
 watching each other, very little good will be 
 accomplished." 
 
 It is a mistake that many teachers fall into, 
 that they seem to regard government as their 
 chief occupation ; and, as we should naturally ex- 
 pect in such cases, it is often very poorly exer- 
 cised. That is not the best government which is 
 maintained as a matter of formal business. The 
 noiseless under-current is far more efficient. I 
 have always noticed that men govern best luhen 
 they do not seem, to govern ; and those who make 
 most effort and bustle about it themselves, are 
 pretty sure to have the most boisterous schools. 
 
 I once, in company with a friend, officially
 
 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 211 
 
 An official visit.— " Order, there !"— A scene. 
 
 visited a school, where the teacher, a man of 
 strong frame — six feet high, and with lungs in 
 proportion — was laboring to keep order. Every 
 word he uttered was in a stentorian voice Avhich 
 would have been painful to the pupils in a quiet 
 room ; hence, they took care to keep up a constant 
 clattering of books, slates, and rulers, mingled 
 with the constant hum of their own voices, as if 
 for self-defense. It seemed to be a mighty effort 
 of each party to rise, if possible, above the noise 
 of the other. " Silence ! Order, I say ! " was con- 
 stantly ejaculated in a voice that was almost 
 sufficient, as Shakspeare's Hamlet would say, to 
 "split the ears of the groundlings." 
 
 One of the most ludicrous scenes I ever wit- 
 nessed, occurred in this school during an exercise 
 in English grammar. The class occupied the 
 back seats, while the teacher stood by the desk 
 in front of the school. The children between the 
 teacher and his class were variously employed, — 
 some manufacturing paper fly-boxes, some ivhit- 
 tling the benches — (it was in New England) ; some 
 were trying their skill at a spit-ball warfare ; 
 others were making voyages of exploration be- 
 neath the seats. The school, consisting of some 
 seventy pupils, were as busy as the occupants of 
 an ant-hill. The sentence to be parsed was, "A 
 good boy loves study." No written description 
 can present the scene as it was acted in real life. 
 
 It should be borne in mind that every word 
 spoken by the teacher, whether to the class or to
 
 212 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 
 
 Parsing.— A dialogue.— " The Rtile, sir!"— A Babel. 
 
 the school, was in a tone of voice which might 
 have been heard at least an eighth of a mile, 
 and that every exclamation was accompanied by 
 several energetic thumps of a large oaken '''' rule'' 
 upon the lid of his desk. The language of the 
 teacher is in italics. '' Mary, parse A.'' "A is an 
 indefinite " — " Silence ! Order there ! " — " article, 
 and is prefixed to " — " John ! " — " No, sir, it is pre- 
 fixed to " — ^''Martha, Martha ! sit up ! " — " it is pre- 
 fixed to— boj:'—" Bight:'— '' Good, next."— '' Good 
 is an adjective," — " Order, order, order ! " — thump, 
 thump, thump ! — " Go on, go on, I hear you ! " — 
 thump, thump ! — " and belongs to " — " Speah 
 louder ! Sit up there ! What are you doing ? 
 And belongs to ? " — " boy." — " The Rule. The 
 Rule ! / say." — Here several children looked ear- 
 nestly at the piece of timber he held in his hand. — 
 " The Rule, sir, the Rule ! " — thump, thump ! — 
 "You've got it in your hand," vociferated a little 
 harmless-looking fellow on the front seat, while 
 the scholar proceeded to recite the rule. — " Adjec- 
 tives belong to" — ^^ Lazy, lazy fellow! sit up 
 there." — Here the class smiled, and the scholar 
 completed his rule, asserting, however, that "ad- 
 jectives belong to nouns," and not to " lazy fel- 
 lows," as the class seemed to understand the 
 master to teach. Word after word was parsed in 
 this way (a way of teaching our language, which, 
 if we could know it had been practiced at the 
 erection of Babel, would sufficiently account for 
 that memorable confusion of tongues without the
 
 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 213 
 
 "^^^lo made it?— Another visit.— A new teacher. 
 
 intervention of a miracle), till the teacher, nearly 
 exhausted by this strange combination of mental, 
 oral, and tnanual labor, very much to the relief 
 of all, vociferated, " Tliafll do I " and the scene 
 was changed. 
 
 At the close of the afternoon, we were told 
 that " it was a very hard school, that it was 
 alnnost impossible to keep order, and that he 
 should be discouraged were it not that he saw a 
 manifest improvement within a few days past ! " 
 
 jSTow this teacher made the school what it 
 was, by his own manner. He would have done 
 the same in any school. He taught in the most 
 effectual way the science and art of confusion ; 
 and notwithstanding the hard name he gave his 
 school, he was emphaticalhj the most disorderly 
 and noisy member of it. 
 
 There was a change. On another day, accom- 
 panied by the same friend, we presented our- 
 selves at the door of this same room for admit- 
 tance. We heard no sound as we approached the 
 entrance, and almost began to suspect we should 
 find there was no school within. We knocked ; 
 and presently, without our hearing the footstep 
 of the person who approached, the door opened, 
 and we passed in. The children looked up a 
 moment as we entered, and then bent their eyes 
 upon their lessons. The teacher softly handed us 
 seats, and then proceeded with the recitation. 
 His manner was quiet and deliberate, and the 
 school was orderly and busy. He had no rule in
 
 214 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT, 
 
 Good order.— The secret. — Excessive silence. 
 
 his hand, no heavy boots on his feet (he had 
 exchanged them for shppers on entering the 
 school), and no other means of giving emphasis 
 to his words. He kindly requested, — never com- 
 manded, — and every thing seemed to present the 
 strongest contrast with the former scene. The 
 hour of dismission arrived, and the scholars quietly 
 laid by their books, and as quietly walked out of 
 the house, and all was still. 
 
 "How have you secured this good order?"' said 
 we to the teacher. "I really do not know," said 
 he with a smile, " I have said nothing about 
 order." "But have you had no difficulty from 
 noisy scholars ? " "A little at first ; but in a day 
 or two they seemed to become quiet, and we 
 have not been troubled since." 
 
 Now the secret was, that this latter teacher 
 had learned to govern himself. His own manner 
 gave character to the school. So it will ever be. 
 A man will govern more by his manner than in 
 any other way. 
 
 There is, too, such a thing as keeping a school 
 too still by over-government. A man of firm 
 nerve can, by keeping up a constant constraint 
 both upon himself and pupils, force a death-like 
 silence upon his school. You may hear a pin drop 
 at any time, and the figure of every child is as 
 if molded in cast iron. But, be it remembered, 
 this is the stillness of constraint, not the stillness 
 of activity. It is an unhealthy state both of body 
 and mind, and when attained by the most vigi-
 
 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 215 
 
 Recapitulation.— Force sometimes needful. 
 
 lant care of the teacher, is a condition scarcely to 
 be desired. There should be silence in school, a 
 serene and soothing quiet ; but it should if pos- 
 sible be the quiet of cheerfulness and agreeable 
 ievotion to study, rather than the " palsy of fear." 
 
 Thus far I have confined mj^self to those quali- 
 fications in the teacher, and to those means which, 
 under ordinary circumstances and in most dis- 
 tricts, would in my opinion secure good order in 
 our schools. With the qualifications I have de- 
 scribed in the mental and moral condition of the 
 teacher, and the means and suggestions above 
 detailed — combined, I believe a very large major- 
 ity of our schools could be most successfully 
 governed without any appeal to fear or force. 
 
 But as some schools are yet in a very bad 
 state, requiring more than ordinary talents and 
 skill to control them ; and as very many of those 
 who must teach for a long time to come, have 
 not, and can not be expected to have, all the 
 qualifications described, and much less the moral 
 power insisted on, it is unreasonable to expect, 
 taking human nature as it is, and our teachers 
 as they are, that all can govern their schools 
 without some appeals to the lower motives of 
 children and some resort to coercion as an instru- 
 mentality. I should leave this discussion very 
 incomplete, therefore, were I not to present my 
 views upon the subject of
 
 216 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 
 
 Punishinent defined.— Comments on definition. 
 
 SECTION III.— PUNISHMENTS. 
 
 As a great deal has been written and spoken 
 upon the subject of school punishments, I deem 
 it important that the term, as I intend to use it, 
 should be defined at the outset. I submit the 
 following definition : 
 
 Punishment is pain inflicted upon the mind 
 
 OR BODY of an INDIVIDUAL BY THE AUTHORITY TO 
 WHICH HE IS SUBJECT ; WITH A VIEW EITHER TO 
 REFORM HIM, OR TO DETER OTHERS FROM THE COM- 
 MISSION OF OFFENSES, OR BOTH. 
 
 It is deemed essential to the idea of punish- 
 ment that the inflictor have legitimate authority 
 over the subject of it, — otherwise, the act is an 
 act of usurpation. It is also essential that the 
 inflictor should have a legitimate object in view, 
 such as the reformation of the individual or of 
 the community in which his example has exerted 
 an influence, — otherwise, the act becomes an abuse 
 of power. Infliction for the purpose of retaliation 
 for an insult or injury, is not punishment ; it is 
 revenge. Whenever, therefore, a teacher resorts 
 to such infliction to gratify his temper, or to 
 pay off, as it is expressed in common language, 
 the bad conduct of a pupil, without any re- 
 gard to his reformxation or the prevention of 
 similar offenses in the school, the pain he 
 inflicts is not punishment ; it is cruelty. Very 
 great importance is to be attached to the motive 
 in this matter; because the same infliction
 
 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 217 
 
 ■Whence authority is derived.— Dr. "Webster.— A common error. 
 
 upon the same individual and for the same 
 offense, may either be just and proper punish- 
 ment, or it may be the most unjustifiable and 
 revengeful abuse, according to the motive of the 
 inflictor. 
 
 The authority to inflict punishment in general, 
 is either by the constitution of God or of civil 
 society. "The punishment of the faults and of- 
 fenses of children by the parent," says Dr. Web- 
 ster, "is by virtue of the right of government 
 with which the parent is invested by God him- 
 self." The right to punish the offenses of chil- 
 dren while at school, is by the common law 
 vested in the teacher, as the representative of 
 the parent for the time being. It is the declara- 
 tion of this law as interpreted from time imme- 
 morial, that the teacher is in loco parentis — in 
 •place of the parent. 
 
 Some have alleged that fear and shame, the 
 two principles addressed by punishment, are 
 among the lowest in our nature ; and have hence 
 endeavored to show that punishment is always 
 inexpedient, if not indeed always wrong. To this 
 I answer, that both fear and shame are incor- 
 porated in our nature by God himself ; and hence 
 I infer they are there for a wise purpose. I find, 
 moreover, that God himself, in his word and in 
 his providence, does appeal to both of these prin- 
 ciples ; and hence I infer that punishment in the 
 abstract is not wrong, and after the higher motives 
 have been addressed, not altogether inexpedient.
 
 218 SCHOOL GOVEENMENT. 
 
 The ri^M assumed.— Plan of discussion.— Two classes. 
 
 Living in a community as we do, where the 
 right of punishment in general, is assumed by 
 our government, and the right of teachers to 
 punish is conceded by our laws, I do not feel 
 called upon to establish the right by argument ; 
 I shall assume that the teacher has the right to 
 punish, in the sense in which I have defined pun- 
 ishment, — and shall therefore proceed to consider 
 the various kinds of punishments used in our 
 schools, and to distinguish those which are justi- 
 fiable from those which are not ; and also to con- 
 sider some of the conditions and limitations of 
 their use. 
 
 In preparing the way to do this, I may remark 
 that punishments consist of two classes. 1. Those 
 which address themselves directly to the mind ; 
 as privation from privileges, loss of liberty, degra- 
 dation, some act of humiliation, reproof, and the- 
 like. 2. Those which address the mind through 
 the body ; as the imposition of a task — labor, for 
 instance, — requiring the pupil to take some pain- 
 ful attitude, inflicting bodily chastisement, etc. 
 
 I have mentioned these two classes for the 
 purpose of calling attention to the fact, that 
 there are those who approve of the first class, 
 and at the same time denounce the second, scout- 
 ing the idea of reaching the mind through the 
 senses of the body. This seems to me, however, 
 to indicate a want of attention to the laws of our 
 being ; for in the economy of nature, we are made 
 at every point sensitive to pain as a means of
 
 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 219 
 
 Mind maybe reached through the body.— Improper punishments. 
 
 guarding against injury. Why has the Creator 
 studded the entire surface of our bodies with the 
 extremities of nerves, whose function is to carry to 
 the brain with lightning speed the intelligence of 
 the approach of danger? And why should this 
 intelligence be transmitted, if its object is not to 
 influence the will, either to withdraw the suffer- 
 ing part from immediate danger, or to avoid 
 those objects which cause the pain? The mind, 
 then, by the economy of nature, or rather by the 
 arrangement of God, is capable of being influ- 
 enced through the bodily sensations ; and those 
 who deny this, either do not observe attentively, 
 or, observing, do not reason fairly as to the laws 
 of our being. With these preliminary observa- 
 tions, I now proceed to consider, 
 
 I. Improper Punishments. Some punishments 
 ■are always wrong, or at least always inexpedient. 
 The infliction of them either implies a wrong 
 feeling on the part of the teacher, or it promises 
 no wholesome result on the part of the pupil. I 
 shall mention in detail, 1. Those that from their 
 nature excite the feeling in the pupil, that an 
 indignity has heen committed against his person. 
 No man is ready to forgive another for luringing 
 his nose. There is almost a universal sentiment 
 that this organ is specially exempted from such 
 insult. Nearly the same feeling exists as to 
 pinching or pulling the ear, or twisting the hair, 
 or snapjjing the forehead. Each child feels that 
 these parts of his person are not to be trifled
 
 220 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 
 
 Head to be exempted from infliction. 
 
 with, and the feeling is natural and proper. Now, 
 though it is not common for teachers to wring 
 the noses of their jDupils, it is very common for 
 them to do each of the other things enumerated. 
 I have often seen such punishments ; but I think 
 I never saw any good come of them. The pupil 
 always looked as if the teacher had done despite 
 toward his person. Whenever I have seen the 
 teacher twist the locks of a child's hair about his 
 finger till the tears would start in the eye, I have 
 supposed the feelings called forth were any thing 
 but desirable, — any thing but favorable to refor- 
 mation. A pupil must love his teacher very 
 strongly, to be able to keep his temper from 
 rising under such circumstances ; and there is 
 great doubt whether either of these punishments 
 does any thing to secure cheerful obedience in 
 the child, one time in a hundred ; probably in 
 ninety-nine cases in the hundred, the evil pas- 
 sions are very much strengthened by them. Be- 
 sides, these are undignified modes of punishment. 
 They savor so much of a weak and childish im- 
 patience, that the pupils find it hard to respect a 
 man, much more to love him, who will stoop to 
 so small a way of giving vent to his angry feel- 
 ings. Snapping the forehead is subject to strong 
 physiological objections ; and, as a general rule, the 
 head and its appurtenances should be exempted 
 from penal violence. 
 
 In this place I may very properly allude to 
 another mode of assailing the ears of children,
 
 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 221 
 
 Scolding.— Poor investment. 
 
 quite as undignified in itself, and quite as un- 
 profitable in its results, as pulling them, — and 
 until they are hardened to it by familiarity, prob- 
 ably more painful. I refer, I need not sayj tc 
 scolding. This is a punishment altogether toe 
 common. There is a physiological law, that the 
 exercise of any organ will give it greater strength 
 and generally greater celerity. From this fact, 
 .and the additional one, that the more a child is 
 scolded the harder his heart becomes, so that 
 here, as in the Rule of Three, "more requires 
 more," — it follows that those who once begin to 
 scold, are fortunate if they stop short of high 
 attainments in the art. 
 
 There is no enterprise in which the investment 
 yields so small a profit, as the business of scold- 
 ing. It is really pitiable to witness the teacher 
 given to this practice, making himself and all 
 around him unhappy, without the hope of allevia- 
 tion. The command of the tongue is a great virtue 
 in a teacher ; and it is to be feared that very many 
 children still suffer in their moral feelings* as well 
 as their ears, because so many teachers do not 
 seasonably learn the right control of the " unruly 
 member ". 
 
 While upon this subject, I may allude to 
 
 * A blacksmith, it is said, who had been accustomed to scold his 
 family, quite too freely, was one day attempting to harden a piece of 
 steel ; but failing after two or three attempts, his little son, who had 
 been an observer of this as well as other operations of his father, is said 
 to have exclaimed, " Scold it, father, scold it— if that won't harden it, nothing 
 else will."
 
 222 SCHOOL GOTERXMEXT. 
 
 Cockney blackguardism. — Examples.— Beg ardon. 
 
 another very objectionable mode of address prac- 
 ticed by some teachers toTrard their schools. I 
 refer to a mixture of scolding with a species of 
 low "wit or cockney blackguardism, that should 
 ever be banished from the school-room. Such 
 expressions as, " Sit down, John, or I'll shiver your 
 top-timbers,' —" Attend to your studies, or some 
 of you will be a Jwad sliorter,'' — "Keep quiet, or 
 you'll hear thunder," — and the like. To these I, 
 might add those empty and debasing threats 
 which are too often and too thoughtlessly uttered ; 
 as, "I'll skin you alive," or '"I'll shake you to 
 pieces," or "I'll use you up," — with others of the 
 same character. I perhaps ought to beg pardon 
 for placing these "vulgarisms before the general 
 reader ; but they are so frequently employed in 
 our schools, in some of our schools of good repute, 
 too, that I thought it to be my duty to quote 
 them (for they are all literal quotations), in order 
 if possible to aid those who have fallen into 
 such a low habit, to see themselves as others see 
 them. 
 
 It is so very easj' for a teacher to raise a laugh 
 among his pupils, that he is in danger of being 
 seduced into the use of coarse and quaint expres- 
 sions by the supposition that they are witty. But 
 the mirth of school-boys is not a more reliable 
 criterion of wit in the modern teacher, than it was 
 in the case of the school-master described by Gold- 
 smith ; and possibly the exercise of a little discern- 
 ment on his part would convince him that children
 
 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 223 
 
 Prolonged tortures.— The Bible at arm's length. 
 
 sometimes laugh, as they did of old, because they 
 
 think it prudent to do so. 
 
 " A man severe he was and stem to view, 
 I knew him well, and every truant knew; 
 "Well had the boding tremblers learned to trace 
 The day's disasters in his morning face; 
 Pull well they laughed, with counterfeited glee. 
 At all his jokes, for many a joke had he I " 
 
 It is unquestionably true that there are schools 
 and many such, now of high standing, the lan- 
 guage of whose teachers, could it be noted down 
 and printed for the parents, would perfectly as- 
 tonish them ; and such is the force of habit, it 
 would very likely astonish the teachers them- 
 selves. Let all who mean to respect themselves, 
 or who desire to be long respected by others, most 
 carefully avoid the first approach to the use of 
 such kind of language. Its influence in school 
 is "only evil, and that continually." 
 
 2. Those punishments that from their nature 
 i'mply in the inflictor a love of prolonged torture. 
 These are quite numerous, and are resorted to, 
 often for the purpose of avoiding what is usually 
 deemed severer punishment. Some of them also 
 have very serious physiological objections. As an 
 instance, I may mention the holding of a weight 
 at arm's length until the muscles of the arm 
 become painful from over-exertion and fatigue. 
 Sometimes the Bible, being the largest book at 
 hand, is chosen as the weight ; and thus that book, 
 which should have no associations connected with 
 it in the minds of the young, but those of rever-
 
 224 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 
 
 Physiological effects.— Moral effe<)ts. 
 
 ence and love, is made the instruraent of torture — 
 the minister of cruelty ! 
 
 Imagine that you see — v^^hat I have seen — an 
 offending boy called to the teacher's desk, and, 
 after words of reproach, sentenced to hold the 
 large Bible at arm's length for a specified time, 
 or until the teacher is willing to release him. At 
 first it is raised with a smile of triumph, almost 
 a smile of contempt. Soon the muscles thus ex- 
 erted at disadvantage, begin to be weary and to 
 relax. '' Hold it up ! " exclaims the vigilant teacher, 
 and it is again brought to its position. Sooner 
 than before the muscles are fatigued, and they 
 almost refuse to obey the mandate of the ivill, 
 which itself is half luilUng to rebel against aur- 
 thority so unreasonable, ''Up with it!" — again 
 brings it to its place, or perhaps a stroke of the 
 rattan repeats the command with more urgency. 
 At this moment every nerve sympathizes, and 
 the muscles are urged on to their greatest effort. 
 The limb is in agony, — and what agony can sur- 
 pass that of an overstrained muscle? — and the 
 whole system reels and writhes with suffering. 
 Now look into that child's face, and tell me, what 
 is the moral effect of this sort of punishment? 
 Unless he is one of the most amiable of the sons 
 of Adam, he inwardly curses the cruelty that he 
 thinks is delighted with pangs like these, pro- 
 tracted yet intolerable. He almost curses the 
 blessed book which was given to warm his soul 
 into life and immortality. He cries with pain,
 
 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT, 225 
 
 Hold a nail 1 —Sitting on nothing. — On worse than nothing. 
 
 but not with penitence. He may submit, indeed, 
 and he may abstain from similar offenses in time 
 to come ; but it is the submission of self-pres- 
 ervation, and the abstinence of an eye-servant. — 
 while the stain that has thus been inwrought in 
 his moral sensibilities, may long remain unex- 
 punged. Such a punishment I unhesitatingly 
 pronounce to be improper^ whatever may be the 
 circumstances. 
 
 Akin to this are those other contrivances to 
 give prolonged pain, which in different parts of 
 the country have taken a variety of forms, and 
 as great a variety of names. One of these has 
 been termed " holding a nail into the floors It 
 consists in requiring the pupil to bend forward, — 
 and, placing the end of a single finger upon the 
 head of a nail, to remain in that position till the 
 whole system is agonized. Another has, by some 
 of its inflictors, been termed "sitting on nothing." 
 The pupil is required to place his back against 
 a wall of the room, and his feet perhaps a foot 
 from its base, and then to slide his body down till 
 the knees are bent at right angles, and his person 
 is in a sitting posture without a seat ! The 
 muscles, acting over the knee at the greatest dis- 
 advantage, are now made to support the body in 
 that position during the pleasure of the teacher. 
 / have seen another mode of punishment prac- 
 ticed, and as I have heard no name for it, I shall 
 give it the cognomen of "sitting on worse than 
 nothing." The boy in this case was required to
 
 226 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 
 
 EidicTile.— "Wliy objectionable. 
 
 sit upon the floor, and then, -placing the feet 
 upon a bench or chair, to support the body in 
 an erect position by reversed action of the 
 muscles ! 
 
 But I gladly turn away from a description of 
 the punishments I have witnessed in the common 
 schools of New England within a quarter of a 
 century, exhibiting as they do so many character- 
 istics of the dark ages. Some of these I have 
 witnessed quite recently ; and to what extent any 
 or all of them are now in use, I am unable to 
 say. I only desire to say, that they are all im- 
 proper, — debasing to the morals of the pupils, and 
 degrading to the profession of the teacher ; and 
 the sooner such punishments are entirely ban- 
 ished from our school-rooms, the sooner will the 
 profession of the teacher rise to its proper level. 
 
 3. Ridicule. This is a weapon that should not 
 be wielded as a school-punishment. It often cuts 
 deeper than he who uses it imagines ; and it 
 usually gives most pain where it is least merited. 
 Some physical defect, or some mental incapacity, 
 or eccentricity, is most frequently made the sub- 
 ject of it ; and yet nothing can be more unfeeling 
 or more unjust than its use in such cases. If the 
 designed failings of the indolent, or the premedi- 
 tated mischief of the vicious, could be subjected 
 to its influence, its use would be more allowable, — 
 but even then it would be questionable. But the 
 indolent and the vicious are usually unaffected 
 by ridicule. They sin upon calculation, and not
 
 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 227 
 
 1,089 of love — of confidence. 
 
 without counting. the cost ; and they are therefore 
 very wiUing to risk their reputation, where they 
 have so Uttle to lose. It is the modest, the con- 
 scientious, the well-meaning child, that is most 
 affected hy ridicule ; yet it is such a one that, for 
 various reasons, is oftenest made the subject of 
 it, though of all children, his feelings should be 
 most tenderly spared. 
 
 A strong objection to the use of ridicule, is the 
 feeling which it induces between the teacher and 
 pupil. The teacher, conscious that he has injured 
 the feelings of the child, will find it hard to love 
 him afterward; for we seldom love those whom 
 we have injured. The child, on the other hand, 
 loses confidence in his teacher ; he feels that his 
 sensibilities have been outraged before his com- 
 panions, and that the teacher, who should be his 
 best friend in the school, has invited the heartless 
 laugh of his fellow-pupils against him. With a 
 want of love on the one hand, and of confidence 
 on the other, what further usefulness can reason- 
 ably be expected? 
 
 But the strongest objection of all to the use of 
 ridicule, is the fact that it calls forth the worst 
 of feelings in the school. Those who participate 
 in the laugh thus excited, are under the influ- 
 ence of no very amiable motives. And when this 
 is carried so far as to invite, by direct words, 
 some expression from 'the school-mates, by point- 
 ing the finger of shame, and perhaps accom- 
 panying the act by a hiss of scorn, the most
 
 228 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 
 
 Little Mary.— A scene. 
 
 deplorable spirit of self - righteousness is culti- 
 vated. 
 
 Little Mary was detected one day in a wrong 
 act by her teacher. "Mary, come here," said the 
 teacher, sternly. Little thinking she had been 
 seen, she obeyed promptly, and stood by the 
 chair of her teacher, who, without giving Mary 
 time to reflect, and thus allow the conscience 
 opportunity to gain the mastery, immediately 
 asked, "What naughty thing did I see you do 
 just now?" "Nothing," said Mary, partly dis- 
 posed to justify herself, and partly doubting 
 whether indeed the teacher had seen her do any 
 thing wrong. " Oh, Mary, Mary, who would think 
 you would tell me a lie ! Did you ever hear of 
 Ananias and Sapphira ? " Here a lecture followed 
 on the sin and danger of lying, and particularly 
 the danger of sudden death by the vengeance 
 of God. Mary began to tremble, and then to 
 weep, probably from terror. Now came the second 
 part. "I should think you would be ashamed to 
 be known to lie. All the children now know 
 that you have lied. I should think they would 
 feel ashamed of such a naughty little girl in the 
 school. I should not wonder," she continued, "if 
 all the little girls and boys should point their 
 fingers at you and hissJ' In an instant, all the 
 children who were not too old to be disgusted 
 with the management and tone of the teacher, 
 pointed their fingers, and uttered a long succes- 
 sion of hisses, while their faces beamed with all
 
 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 229 
 
 Self-rigliteousness.— Defiance.— Freezing the affections. 
 
 the complacency of self-righteousness, triumph- 
 ing over the fall of a companion, who perhaps 
 was, after all, as good and as truthful a child as 
 any of them. The poor child at first turned her 
 back upon them ; but soon, feeling that her 
 reputation was gone, she turned, as woman ever 
 will when her self-respect is blighted, with a look 
 of indifference, almost a look of defiance. Fear 
 was first swallowed up in shame, and shame 
 gave place to reckless audacity. The whole scene 
 was rendered still more ruinous to the child, from 
 the fact that it took place in the presence of 
 visitors ! 
 
 When will our teachers learn the human heart 
 well enough to be able to distinguish between a- 
 work of devastation and of true culture ; between 
 a process of blighting the sensibilities, searing 
 the conscience, freezing up the fountains of sym- 
 pathy, and of mutual love and confidence, — and 
 a course of training which warms the conscience 
 into activity, inculcates the reverence and love 
 of God, instead of a slavish fear of his power, 
 and instills into the soul a desire to do right, 
 rather than to do that which will avoid the 
 reproach of an unfeeling multitude, more wicked 
 than those they censure? Goldsmith has shown 
 that woman may " stoop to conquer " ; but the 
 above narrative shows how she may stoop, not 
 to conquer, but to Jay waste the youthful heart. 
 
 These punishments, and such as these, which 
 I have classed under the list of improper punish-
 
 230 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 
 
 Let teachers tliink.— Proper punishments.— Keproof in private. 
 
 ments, should all be carefully considered by the 
 teacher. They should be considered before he 
 enters his school. It would always be well for 
 him to determine beforehand what punishments 
 he will not use. It may save him many a seri- 
 ous mistake. I have written what I have under 
 this head, in order to put teachers upon thought ; 
 believing that men seldom earnestly and hon- 
 estly inquire, without arriving at the truth in 
 the end. 
 
 n. Proper punishments. Every teacher's mind 
 should, if possible, be settled, as to what punish- 
 ments are proper, so that when they are inflicted, 
 it can be done in good faith and with an honest 
 conviction of the performance of duty. Among 
 the proper punishments, I may mention — 
 
 1. Kind Reproof. This will probably be con- 
 ceded by all. I say kind reproof, because no 
 other reproof can be useful. I would distinguish 
 it from reproach. Reproof, judiciously admin- 
 istered, is one of the most effectual punishments 
 that can be used. As a general rule, this is best 
 administered privately. The child's spirit of 
 obstinacy is very likely to exhibit itself in the 
 presence of his fellows ; but in private, the con- 
 science is free to act, and the child very readily 
 submits. It is always perfectly safe to reprove 
 privately ; that is, not in the presence of the 
 school. The child has no motive to misrepresent 
 the teacher ; and if the teacher so far spares the 
 reputation of the pupil, as to take him by him-
 
 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 231 
 
 IjOSS of privileges, consequent upon abuse. — Confinement. 
 
 self, this very circumstance will often give the 
 teacher access to his better feelings, 
 
 2. Loss of Privileges. By abuse of privileges 
 we forfeit them. This is a law of Providence. 
 It is unquestionably proper that this should be 
 a law of our schools. All those offenses, there- 
 fore, against propriety in the exercise of any 
 privilege, may be attended with a temporary or 
 permanent deprivation of such privilege. A pupil 
 who is boisterous at the recess, disturbing the 
 quiet of the school or impeding the enjoyment 
 of his playfellows, may be deprived of the recess. 
 A child, who disfigures his seat with his knife, 
 may be deprived of his knife ; and so for any 
 other similar offense. Some consider it proper 
 to extend this punishment to other classes of 
 offenses ; as, for example, whispering or idleness. 
 While I would not deny the right or the propriety 
 of doing so, I should think it more expedient not 
 thus to extend it. It is well, as far as it can be 
 done, so to punish the child, that he shall see that 
 his conduct naturally leads to its punishment as 
 a consequence. And it is, moreover, very probable 
 that in most schools there will be demand enough 
 for this punishment, in its natural application, 
 without extending it to other cases. 
 
 3. Restraint, or confineinent. When liberty 
 is abused, a scholar may be put under restraint. 
 When duty is violated, and the rights of others 
 are wantonly disregarded, confinement will afford 
 time for reflection, and at the same time relieve
 
 232 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 
 
 Not in a dark room.— "Why not.— Humiliation.— Seldom. 
 
 others from the annoyance and detriment of evil 
 example. Such restraint is often a wholesome 
 discipline ; and confinement, if it be not too far 
 protracted, is always safe. It should be remarkedj 
 however, that confinement in a dark apartment 
 should never be resorted to by any teacher. 
 There are insuperable objections to it, growing 
 out of the fears which many children early en- 
 tertain of being alone in the dark, as also the 
 fact that light as well as air is necessary to the 
 vigorous action of the nervous system during 
 the waking hours, especially in the day-time. It 
 is well known that a child shut up in a dark room 
 even in the warmth of summer, speedily under- 
 goes a depression of temperature ; and if the 
 confinement is unduly protracted, cold chills 
 come over the system. For these reasons, and 
 others, if confinement is ever used as a punish- 
 ment, it should be in a room properly lighted 
 and heated. Our prisoners enjoy, as far as may 
 be, both of these favors. 
 
 4. Hutniliation. This should be resorted to 
 with great caution. When a fault has been openly 
 committed, and attended with circumstances of 
 peculiar obstinacy, it may sometimes very prop- 
 erly be required of the offender that he should 
 confess the fault in a manner as public as its 
 commission. This may be due to the school. 
 Sometimes, when an offensive act is very strongly 
 marked, a confession and a request for the for- 
 giveness of the teacher or the individual injured
 
 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 233 
 
 A task.— When and how. 
 
 may be made a condition of restoration to favor. 
 This is usually considered a very proper punish- 
 ment. I would, however, suggest, that it be used 
 with great care, and never unless the circum- 
 stances imperatively demand it. It may be the 
 means of cultivating the grossest hypocrisy, or 
 of inducing open rebellion ; and it sometimes 
 gives the other pupils an advantage over the 
 culprit, which may do him personally much 
 harm. The teacher should be convinced that 
 this is the best thifig he can do, before he resorts 
 to it. 
 
 5. The imposition of a task. In every school 
 there is more or less work to be done ; such as 
 sweeping the floors, washing the benches, pre- 
 paring the fuel, and making the fires. Unless 
 objection should be made by parents, this is one 
 of the most effectual punishments, especially in 
 cities and large villages, where work is a burden, 
 and the attractions of play are most powerful. 
 Some difficult schools have been governed for 
 months with no other punishment than labor 
 thus imposed. The plan is, that if two boys 
 neglect their studies so as to attract the atten- 
 tion of the teacher, they shall be nominated as 
 membeis of the committee on sweeping, — a duty 
 to be performed after school hours. If one oi 
 two more are decidedly disorderly, they shall be 
 required to make fires, bring up wood, or perhaps 
 wash a certain portion of the room. This is 
 always assigned pleasantly by the teacher, with
 
 234 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 
 
 An objection.— Answer.— Not strongly urged.— The rod. 
 
 the understanding, however, that any failure to 
 do the allotted work thoroughly and faithfully, 
 will be attended with a reappointment till the 
 object is secured, 
 
 K parents should object to this, it is not abso- 
 lutely essential to the teacher's success ; but 
 where no objection is made, if judiciously man- 
 aged, it may do very much in naany of our schools 
 toward producing that quiet order, which other- 
 wise it might require more cogent and less agree- 
 able means to secure. 
 
 It has sometimes been urged as an objection 
 to this mode of punishment, that it would tend 
 to attach the idea of disgrace to useful labor. It 
 is conceived that this is by no means the neces- 
 sary consequence. On the other hand, it would 
 serve to teach the difference there always is be- 
 tAveen a duty imposed and one voluntarily under- 
 taken. The same objection would apply to our 
 prison discipline, where a man by a Avillful disre- 
 gard of law and the rights of others, very justly 
 forfeits his services for a time to the State. 
 
 I would not lay very much stress upon this 
 mode of punishment, though I have known it 
 resorted to, under favorable circumstances, with 
 very good effect. It would, of course, be more 
 effectual in a large town or city, than in the 
 country, where boys are in the habit of laboring 
 at home and would be quite as willing to labor 
 after regular hours at school. 
 
 6. Actual chastisement tvith the rod of correc-
 
 SCHOOL govern:m£NT. 235 
 
 Corporal punishment.— "Views of others.— NotMng to conceal. 
 
 tion. I have no hesitation (though others have) 
 in placing this among the class of proper punish- 
 ments. As this involves a great question on the 
 subject of school government, and one that is 
 debated with great zeal and warmth in almost 
 every educational meeting that is held, I shall 
 feel justified in giving a little more space to the 
 consideration of it. 
 
 SECTION IV.— CORPORAL PUNISHMENT. 
 
 I am aware that when I enter this field I am 
 treading on ground every inch of which has been 
 disputed. I come to the task of writing on this 
 subject, however, I think, without prejudice or 
 asperity. Having nothing to conceal, I shall ex- 
 press my own views honestly and frankly, — views 
 which I entertain after diligently seeking the 
 truth for some twenty years, during which time 
 I have listened to a great deal of discussion, and 
 have read carefully and candidly whatever has 
 been written by others. ISTor do I expect to give 
 universal satisfaction. There are strong men, and 
 I believe honest men, who run to the opposite 
 extremes in their doctrine and practice, and who 
 defend the one course or the other as if the ex- 
 istence of the world depended upon the issue. 
 There are those who not only claim the right to 
 chastise, but who insist that whipping should be 
 the first resort of the teacher in establishing his 
 authority ; and to show that this is not a dormant
 
 236 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 
 
 Men see differently.— A privilege claimed.— Authority at any rate. 
 
 article of their faith, they daily and almost hourly 
 demonstrate their efficiency in the use of the rod, 
 so that their pupils may be living witnesses that 
 they act in accordance with their creed. Again, 
 there are others who as earnestly deny the right 
 of the teacher to resort to the rod at all, and who 
 urge with all their power the efficacy of moral 
 suasion to subdue and control the vicious and 
 the stubborn in our schools ; and who are ready 
 to assert unequivocally that no man is fit to be 
 employed to teach the young, who has not the 
 ability to govern all the various dispositions he 
 may meet in any school, without the use of cor- 
 poral punishment. 
 
 I have no disposition to question the sincerity 
 and honesty of each of these classes, knowing as 
 I do, that different men see with different eyes, 
 even when the circumstances are the same ; much 
 more when their circumstances are widely diverse. 
 I have no bitterness of language to apply to those 
 who go to the extreme of severity ; nor any sneer 
 to bestow upon the name of " moral-suasionist." 
 But while 1 accord to other men the right of ex- 
 pressing their own opinions, I claim the same 
 privilege for myself, — j^et without wishing to ob- 
 trude my opinions upon other men any further 
 than they will bear the test of reason and expe- 
 rience. 
 
 It is agreed on all hands that the teacher 
 must establish authority in some way, before he 
 can pursue successfully the objects of his school.
 
 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 237 
 
 We must take the world as it is.— Mr. Mann quoted. 
 
 I have described the qualifications which the 
 teacher should possess in order to govern well, 
 and I have also given some of the means of se- 
 curing good order without a resort to severity. 
 Probably in a large majority of our schools, the 
 teacher with these qualifications and the employ- 
 ment of these means, could succeed in establish- 
 ing and maintaining good order without any such 
 resort. This should, in my opinion, always be 
 done, if possible, — and no one will rejoice more 
 than myself to see the day, should that day ever 
 come, when teachers shall be so much improved 
 as to be able to do this universally. But in 
 writing on this subject, it is the dictate of com- 
 mon sense to take human nature as it is, and 
 human teachers as they are, and as many of 
 them must be, for some time to come, — and adapt 
 our directions to the circumstances. Human 
 nature, as it is exhibited in our children, is far 
 from being perfect ; and I am sorry to say that 
 the parents of our children often exhibit it in a 
 still less flattering light. Perhaps no language 
 of mine can so well represent the concurrence 
 of circumstances making corporal punishment 
 necessary in our schools, as it has been done by 
 the Hon. Horace Mann in his lecture on " School 
 Punishments." " The first point," says he, "which 
 I shall consider, is, whether corporal punishment 
 is ever necessary in our schools. As preliminary 
 to a decision of this question, let us take a brief 
 survey of facts. We have in this Commonwealth
 
 238 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 
 
 DtfHculties to be met,— in children,— in parents. 
 
 [Massachusetts], above one hundred and ninety- 
 two thousand children between the ages of four 
 and sixteen years. All these children are not 
 only legally entitled to attend our public schools 
 but it is our great desire to increase that attend 
 ance, and he who increases it is regarded as a 
 reformer. All that portion of these children who 
 attend school, enter it from that vast variety of 
 homes which exist in the State. From different 
 households, where the widest diversity of parental 
 and domestic influences prevails, the children 
 enter the school-room, where there must be com- 
 parative uniformity. • At home, some of these 
 children have been indulged in every wish, flat- 
 tered and smiled upon for the energies of their 
 low propensities, and even their freaks and whims 
 enacted into household laws. Some have been 
 so rigorously debarred from every innocent amuse- 
 ment and indulgence, that they have opened for 
 themselves a way to gratification, through arti- 
 fice and treachery and falsehood. Others, from 
 vicious parental example, and the corrupting 
 influences of vile associates, have been trained 
 to bad habits and contaminated with vicious 
 principles, ever since they were born ; — some 
 being taught that honor consists in whipping a 
 boy larger than themselves ; others, that the chief 
 end of man is to own a box that can not be 
 opened, and to get money enough to fill it ; and 
 others again have been taught, upon their father's 
 knees, to shape their young lips to the utterance
 
 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 239 
 
 A dilemma. 
 
 of oaths and blasphemy. Now all these disposi- 
 tions, which do not conflict with right more than 
 they do with each other, as soon as they cross 
 the threshold of the school-room, from the dif- 
 ferent worlds, as it were, of homes, must be 
 'made to obey the same general regulations, to 
 pursue the same studies, and to aim at the same 
 results. In addition to these artificial varieties, 
 there are natural differences of temperament and 
 disposition. 
 
 " Again : there are about three thousand pub- 
 lic schools in the State, in which are employed, 
 in the course of the year, about five thousand 
 different persons, as teachers, including both 
 males and females. Excepting a very few cases, 
 these five thousand persons have had no special 
 preparation or training for their employment, 
 and many of them are young and without expe- 
 rience. These five thousand teachers, then, so 
 many of whom are unprepared, are to be placed 
 in authority over the one hundred and ninety- 
 two thousand children, so many of whom have 
 been perverted. Without passing through any 
 transition state for improvement, these parties 
 meet each other in the school-room, where mutiny 
 and insubordination and disobedience are to be 
 repressed, order maintained, knowledge acquired. 
 He, therefore, who denies the necessity of resort- 
 ing to punishment, in our schools, — and to cor- 
 poral punishment, too, — virtually affirms two 
 things : — first, that this great number of children.
 
 240 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 
 
 jSTeither horn to be chosen.— A miracle. 
 
 scooped up from all places, taken at all ages and 
 in all conditions, can be deterred from the wrong 
 and attracted to the right without punishment ; 
 and secondly, he asserts that the five thousand 
 persons whom the towns and districts employ to 
 keep their respective schools, are now, and in 
 the present condition of things, able to accom- 
 plish so glorious a work. Neither of these prop- 
 ositions am I at present prepared to admit. If 
 there are extraordinary individuals — and we know 
 there are such — so singularly gifted with talent 
 and resources, and with the divine quality oi 
 love, that they can win the affection, and, by 
 controlling the heart, can control the conduct of 
 children, who, for years, have been addicted to 
 lie, to cheat, to swear, to steal, to fight, — still I 
 do not believe there are now five thousand such 
 individuals in the State, whose heavenly services 
 can be obtained for this transforming work. 
 And it is useless, or worse than useless, to say, 
 that such or such a thing can be done, and done 
 immediately, without pointing out the agents by 
 whom it can be done. One who affirms that a 
 thing can be done, without any reference to the 
 persons who can do it, must be thinking of mira- 
 cles. If the position were, that children viay be 
 so educated from their birth, and teachers may 
 be so trained for their calling, as to supersede 
 the necessity of corporal punishment, except in 
 cases decidedly monstrous, then I should have 
 no doubt of Hs truth ; but such a position must
 
 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 241 
 
 Divisions in. district.— East end.— "West end.— "We will see." 
 
 have reference to some future period, which we 
 should strive to hasten, but ought not to an- 
 ticipate." 
 
 Aside from, the causes demanding punishment, 
 so ably portrayed in the passage just quoted, 
 there is still another, growing out of divisions and 
 quarrels in the district. It is by no means uncom- 
 mon, in our districts, owing to some local matter, 
 or to some disunion in politics or religion, for the 
 people to be arrayed, the one part against the other. 
 The inhabitants of the upper road are jealous of 
 the dwellers on the lower road ; the hill portion of 
 the district is aggrieved by the influence of the 
 valley portion ; the " east end " complains of the 
 selfishness of the "west end,"' and so of the north 
 and south. Whenever a school-house is to be 
 built, these different interests are aroused, and a 
 protracted and baleful quarrel is the result. One 
 party "carries the day" by the force of numbers, 
 but the prosperity of the school is impaired for 
 years. At every district meeting, there will be 
 the same strife for the mastery. If one divis- 
 ion gains the power, the other bends its ener- 
 gies to cripple the school, and to annoy the 
 teacher who may be employed by the dominant 
 party, however excellent or deserving he may be. 
 "We will see," say those who find themselves in 
 the minority, " we will see whether this man can 
 Keep our school as well as it was done last year 
 by our master." This is uttered in presence of 
 their children — perhaps their half-grown sons,
 
 242 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 
 
 Disobedience encouraged. — The teaclier's course. 
 
 who will be very ready to meet their new teacher 
 with prejudice, and to act out the misgivings of 
 their parents as to his success. When the teacher 
 first enters the school, he is met by opposition, 
 even before he has time to make an impression 
 for good ; opposition, which he can scarcely hope 
 to surmount as long as it is thus encouraged at 
 home. Now, what shall he do? Shall he yield 
 the point, abandon the idea of authority, and en- 
 deavor to live along from day to day, in the hope 
 of a more comfortable state of things by and by ? 
 He may be sure that matters will daily grow 
 worse. Shall he give up in despair and leave 
 the school to some successor? This will only 
 strengthen the opposition and make it more vio- 
 lent when the successor shall be appointed. It is 
 but putting the difficulty one step farther off. 
 Besides, if the teacher does thus give up, and 
 leave the school, he loses his own reputation as a 
 man of energy, and, in the eyes of the world, 
 who perhaps may not know — or care to know — al] 
 the circumstances, he is held ever after as incom- 
 petent for the office. 
 
 Now, it would be very gratifying if the teacher, 
 under any or all of these difficulties, could possess 
 the moral power to quell them all by a look or 
 by the exercise of his ingenuity in interesting his 
 pupils in their studies. Undoubtedly there are 
 some men who could do it, and do it most tri- 
 umphantly, so as to make their most zealous 
 enemies, in a few days their warmest friends.
 
 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 243 
 
 Shall he yield? JVb, no.— Establish authority. 
 
 But there are not many who can work thus at 
 disadvantage. What, then, shall be done? Shall 
 the school be injured by being disbanded, and the 
 teacher be stigmatized for a failure, when he has 
 been employed in good faith ? I say no. He has 
 the right to establish authority hy corporal inflic- 
 tion ; and thus to save the school and also save 
 himself. And more than this ; — if there is rea- 
 sonable ground to believe that by such iuiliction 
 he can establish order, and thus make himself 
 useful, and save the time and the character of 
 the school, he not only has the right, but he is 
 bound by duty to use it. The lovers of order in 
 the district have a right to expect him to use it, 
 unless by express stipulation beforehand, they 
 have exempted him from it. I repeat, then, that 
 it is the teacher's duty to establish authority ; 
 "peaceably, indeed, if he may, — forcibly, if he 
 must." 
 
 I ought in fairness here to add, as I have be- 
 fore hinted, that not unfrequently the necessity 
 for corporal infliction exists in the teacher him- 
 self. This is often proved by a transfer of 
 teachers. One man takes a school, and can only 
 survive his term by the exercise of whipping. 
 He is followed by another who secures good order 
 and the love of the school without any resort to 
 the rod. The first declared that whipping was 
 necessary in his case to secure good order, and 
 truly; but the necessity resided in him, and not 
 in the school. So it often does, — and while
 
 244 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 
 
 Daily flogging condemned.— Say nothing about it. 
 
 teachers are zealously defending the rod, they 
 should also feel the necessity of improving them- 
 selves as the most effectual way to obviate its 
 frequent use. 
 
 When authority is once established in a school, 
 it is comparatively easy to maintain it. There 
 will, of course, be less necessity for resorting to 
 the rod after the teacher has obtained the as- 
 cendancy, unless it be in the event of taking 
 some new pupil into the school, who is disposed 
 to be refractory. I have but little respect for the 
 teacher who is daily obliged to fortify his au- 
 thority by corporal infliction. Something must 
 be fundamentally wrong in the teacher whose 
 machinery of government, Avhen once well in mo- 
 tion, needs to be so often forcibly wound up. 
 
 From what has already been said, it will be 
 seen that I do not belong to the number who 
 affirm that the rod of correction sJiouId never he 
 used in schools. Nor am I prepared to advise 
 any teacher to publish beforehand that he will 
 not punish with the rod. It would always be 
 wiser for the teacher to say nothing about it. 
 Very little good ever comes of threatening the 
 use of it. Threatening of any sort avails but little. 
 A teacher may enter a school with the determina- 
 tion to govern it, if possible, without force. In- 
 deed, I should advise one always to make this 
 determination in his own mind. But whenever 
 such a determination is published, the probability 
 of success is very much diminished.
 
 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 245 
 
 There is an arm of power.— Proposed substitutes.— Solitary confinement. 
 
 The true way and the safe way, in my opin- 
 ion, is to rely mainly on moral means for the 
 government of the school, — to use the rod with- 
 out much threatening, if driven to it by the force 
 of circunastances, and as soon as authority is 
 established, to allow it again to slumber with the 
 tacit understanding that it can be again awakened 
 from its repose if found necessary. The knowl- 
 edge in the school that there is an arm of power, 
 m.ay prevent any necessity of an appeal to it ; 
 and such a knowledge can do no possible harm 
 in itself. But if the teacher has once pledged 
 himself to the school that he will never use the 
 rod, the necessity may soon come for him to 
 abandon his position or lose his influence over the 
 pupils. 
 
 As much has been said against the use of the 
 rod in any case in school government, it may be 
 proper to consider briefly some of the substitutes 
 for it, which have been suggested by its opposers. 
 
 Some have urged solitary confinement. This 
 might do in some cases. Undoubtedly an oppor- 
 tunity for reflection is of great use to a vicious 
 boy. But then how inadequate are the means 
 for this kind of discipline in our schools. Most 
 of our school-houses have but one room. In such 
 cases, solitary confinement is out of the question. 
 In other instances, there may be (as there always 
 should be) a room not constantly devoted to the 
 purposes of the school. Here a pupil could be con- 
 fined ; and I have no objection whatever to this
 
 246 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 
 
 Its futility.— Parental folly. 
 
 course, provided the room is not a dark one, and 
 its temperature can be comfortable. But even 
 with this facility, confinement can not be relied on 
 as the only punishment, because if offenses should 
 m.ultiply, and the offenders should all be sent to 
 the same place, then confinement would soon 
 cease to be solitary ! And suppose some philan- 
 thropist should devise a plan of a school-house 
 with several cells for the accommodation of of- 
 fenders ; still this punishment would fail of its 
 purpose. The teacher has no power to confine a 
 pupil much beyond the limit of school-hours. 
 This the obstinate child would understand, and 
 he would therefore resolve to hold out till he 
 must be dismissed, and then he would be the tri- 
 umphant party. He could boast to his fellows 
 that he had borne the punishment, and that, 
 without submission or promise for the future, 
 he had been excused because his time had 
 expired. 
 
 This substitute is often urged by parents, who 
 have tried it successfully in the case of their own 
 children, in their own houses, where it was known 
 that it could of course be protracted to any 
 necessary length. Besides, if the confinement 
 alone was not sufficient, the daily allowance of 
 food could be withheld. Under such circum- 
 stances, it may be very effectual, as undoubtedly 
 it often has been ; but he is a very shallow parent 
 who, having tried this experiment upon a single 
 child, with all the facilities of a parent, prescribes
 
 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT, 247 
 
 Expiilsion.— Not expedient.— Why ? 
 
 it with the expectation of equal success in the 
 government of a large school. 
 
 Others have urged the expulsion of such schol- 
 ars as are disobedient. To this it may be replied, 
 that it is not quite certain, under existing laws, 
 whether the teacher has the right to expel a 
 scholar from the common schools; and some 
 deny even the right of the school officers to do it. 
 Whether the right exists or not, it is very ques- 
 tionable whether it is ever expedient to expel a 
 scholar for vicious conduct ; and especially in 
 cases where there is physical power to control 
 him. The vicious and ignorant scholar is the 
 very one who most needs the reforming influence 
 of a good education. Sent away from the fount- 
 ain of knowledge and virtue at this — the very 
 time of need — and what may we expect for him 
 but utter ruin? Such a pupil, most of all, needs 
 the restraint and the instruction of a teacher 
 who is capable of exercising the one and afford- 
 ing the other. 
 
 But suppose he is dismissed, is there any rea- 
 son to hope that this step will improve the cul- 
 prit himself, or better the condition of the school ? 
 Will he not go on to establish himself in vice, 
 unrestrained by any good influence, and at last 
 become a suitable subject for the severity of the 
 laws, an inmate of our prisons, and, perhaps, a 
 miserable expiator of his own crimes upon the 
 gallows? How many youth — and youth worth 
 saving, too — have been thus cast out perversely
 
 248 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 
 
 Mr. Mann quoted.— " Free trade."— A creed, and its basis. 
 
 to procure their own ruin, at the very time when 
 they might have Iteen saved by sufficient energy 
 and benevolence, no mortal tongue can tell ! Nor 
 is the school itself usually benefited by this 
 measure. "For all purposes of evil," Mr. Mann 
 justly remarks, "he continues in the midst of 
 the very children from among whom he was 
 cast out ; and when he associates with them out 
 of school, there is no one present to abate or 
 neutralize his vicious influences. If the expelled 
 pupil be driven from the district where he be- 
 longs into another, in order to prevent his con- 
 tamination at home, what better can be expected 
 of the place to which he is sent, than a recipro- 
 cation of the deed, by their sending one of their 
 outcasts to supply his place ; and thus opening a 
 commerce of evil upon free-trade principles. 
 Nothing is gained while the evil purpose re- 
 mains in the heart. Reformation is the great 
 desideratum ; and can any lover of his country 
 hesitate between the alternative of forcible sub- 
 jugation and victorious contumacy?" 
 
 From all that has been said, it will be seen 
 that I do not hesitate to teach that corporal inflic- 
 tion is one of the justifiable means of establishing 
 authority in the schoolroom. To this conclusion 
 I have come, after a careful consideration of the 
 subject, modified by the varied experience of 
 nearly twenty years, and by a somewhat atten- 
 tive observation of the workings of all the plans 
 which have been devised to avoid its use or to
 
 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 249 
 
 The Scriptures.— Limitations.— The best thing. 
 
 supply its place. And although I do not under- 
 stand the Scriptures, and particularly the writ- 
 ings of Solomon, to recommend a too frequent 
 and ill-considered use of it, I do not find any 
 thing in the letter or spirit of Christianity incon- 
 sistent with its proper application. It is the 
 abuse, and not the use of the rod, against which 
 our better feeling, as well as the spirit of Chris- 
 tianity, revolts. It is the abuse of the rod, or 
 rather the abuse of children under the infliction 
 of the rod, that first called forth the discussion 
 referred to, and awakened the general opposition 
 to its use. I am free to admit there has been 
 an egregious abuse in 'this matter, and that to 
 this day it is unabated in many of our schools. 
 I admit, too, that abuse very naturally accom- 
 panies the use of the rod, and that very great 
 caution is necessary in those who resort to it, 
 lest they pervert it. I feel called upon, there- 
 fore, before leaving this subject, to throw out, 
 for the consideration of the young Teacher par- 
 ticularly, a few hints to regulate the infliction 
 of chastisement, under the head of 
 
 SECTION v.— LIMITATIONS AND SUGGESTIONS. 
 
 1. The teacher should be thoroughly con- 
 vinced that the rod is the best thing for the 
 specific case, before he determines to use it. Nor 
 should he hastily or capriciously come to this 
 conviction. He should carefull}^ and patiently
 
 250 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 
 
 Never in anger.— The yotmg Sliaker. 
 
 try other means first. He should study the dis- 
 position of the offender and learn the tendencies 
 of his mind ; and only after careful deliberation, 
 should he suffer himself to decide to use this 
 mode of punishment. In order that the punish- 
 ment should be salutary, the scholar should plainly 
 see that the teacher resorts to it from deep prin- 
 ciple, from the full behef that under all the ciiv 
 cumstances it is the hest thing that can 'be done. 
 2. The teacher should never he under the ex- 
 citement of angry passion when inflicting punish- 
 ment. This is of the utmost importance. Most 
 of the abuses before spoken of, grow out of a 
 violation of this fundamental rule. A teacher 
 should never strike for punishment till he is 
 perfectly self-possessed, and entirely free from 
 the bitterness which, perhaps, tinctured his mind 
 when he discovered the offense. It was a wise 
 remark of a young Shaker teacher, that "no 
 teacher should strike a child till he co^dd hold 
 his arm.'" So long as the child discovers that 
 the teacher is under the influence of passion, 
 and that his lip trembles with pent-up rage, 
 and his blood flows into his face as if driven by 
 inward fires of wrath, he looks upon him, not as 
 his friend seeking his welfare, but as his enemy 
 indulging in persecution. This will call forth the 
 evil passions of the child, and while he bears the 
 pain, he feels no real penitence ; and very likely, 
 in the midst of his suffering, he resolves to go 
 and do the same again, out of mere spite.
 
 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 251 
 
 Public opinion.— In presence of the school— Seasons for it. 
 
 It is, moreover, of great consequence in the 
 infliction of a punishment, that the teacher 
 should be fully sustained by the public opinion 
 of the school. He can never expect this when 
 he loses his self-control. K the pupils see that 
 he is angry, they almost instinctively sympathize 
 with the weaker party, and they associate the 
 idea of injustice with the action of the stronger. 
 A punishment can scarcely be of an}^ good ten- 
 dency, inflicted under such circumstances. 
 
 3. Corporal punishment, as a general rule, 
 should he inflicted in presence of the school. I 
 have before advised that reproof should be given 
 in private, and assigned reasons for it, which 
 were, perhaps, satisfactory to the reader. But in 
 case of corporal punishment, the offense is of a 
 more public and probably of a more serious 
 nature. If inflicted in private, it will still be 
 known to the school, and therefore the reputa- 
 tion of the scholar is not saved. If inflicted in 
 the proper spirit by the teacher, and for proper 
 caiise, it always produces a salutarj^ effect upon 
 the school. But a still stronger reason for mak- 
 ing the infliction public Ls, that it puts it beyond 
 the power of the pupil to misreprresent t?oe 
 teacher, as he is strongly tempted to do if he is 
 alone. He may misstate the degree of severity, 
 and mi-srepresent the manner of the teacher ; 
 and, without witnesses, the teacher is at the 
 mercy of his reports. Sometimes, he may ridi- 
 cule the punishment to his comrades, and lead
 
 252 SCHOOL GOVEKNMENT. 
 
 Punishment delayed.— Reason for delay. 
 
 them to believe that a private infliction is but a 
 small matter; again, he may exaggerate it to his 
 parents, and charge the teacher most unjustly 
 with unprincipled cruelty. Under these circum- 
 stances, I am of the opinion that the safest and 
 most effectual way, is to do this work in pres- 
 ence of the school. An honest teacher needs not 
 fear the light of day ; and if he has the right 
 spirit, he needs not fear the effect upon his 
 other pupils. It is only the violent, angry pun- 
 ishment that needs to be concealed from the 
 general eye, and that we have condemned as 
 improper at any rate. 
 
 4. Punishment may sometimes he delayed ; and 
 always delayed till all anger has subsided in the 
 teacher. It is often best for all concerned to 
 defer an infliction for a day or more. This gives 
 the teacher an opportunity in his cooler moments 
 to determine more justly the degree of severity 
 to be used. It will also give the culprit time to 
 reflect upon the nature of his offense and the 
 degree of punishment he deserves. I may say 
 that it is generally wise for the teacher, after 
 promising a punishment, to take some time to 
 consider what it shall be, whether a corporal in- 
 fliction or some milder treatment. If, after due 
 and careful reflection, he comes conscientiously 
 to the conclusion, that bodily pain is the best 
 thing, — while he will be better prepared to inflict, 
 the pupil, by similar reflection, will be better 
 prepared to receive it and proflt by it.
 
 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 253 
 
 The instrument. — Pimisliment effectual.— Deliberation. 
 
 5. A proper instrument should be used and a 
 proper mode of infliction adopted. No heavy and 
 hurtful weapon should be employed. A light 
 rule for the hand, or a rod for the back or lower 
 extremities, may be preferred. Great care should 
 be exercised to avoid injuring any of the joints 
 in the infliction ; and on no account should a hloiv 
 he given upon the head. 
 
 6. If possible, the punishment should he made 
 effectual. A punishment that does not produce 
 thorough submission and penitence in the sub- 
 ject of it, can hardly be said to answer its main 
 design. To be sure, in cases of general insubor- 
 dination in the school, I have said that punish- 
 ment may be applied to one, having in view the 
 deterring of others from similar offenses. But such 
 exemplary punishment belongs to extreme cases, 
 while disciplinary punishment, which has mainly 
 for its object the reforro.ation of the individual 
 upon whom it is inflicted, should be most relied 
 on. Taking either view of the case, it should, if 
 possible, answer its design, or it would be better 
 not to attempt it. The teacher's judgment, there- 
 fore, should be very carefully exercised in the 
 matter, and all his knowledge of human nature 
 should be called into requisition. If, after care- 
 ful and conscientious deliberation, he comes to 
 the conclusion that the infliction of pain is the 
 best thing, and to the belief that he can so in- 
 flict it as to show himself to the school and to 
 the child, in this act as in all others, a true and
 
 254 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 
 
 Thorough work.—" Little whippings." 
 
 kind friend to the child, — then he is justified in 
 making the attempt ; and having considerately 
 undertaken the case, it should be so thorough as 
 not soon to need repetition. 
 
 I would here take the opportunity to censure 
 the practice of those teachers who punish every 
 little departure from duty with some trifling 
 appliance of the rod, which the scholar forgets 
 almost as soon as the smarting ceases. Some 
 instructors carry about with them a rattan or 
 stick, in order to have it ready for appliance 
 as soon as they see any departure from their 
 commands. The consequence is, they soon come 
 to a frequent and inconsiderate use of it, and 
 the pupils by habit become familiar with it, and 
 of course cease to respect their teacher or to 
 dread his punishments. I have seen so much of 
 this, that whenever I see a teacher thus ^^ armed 
 and equipped^'' I infer at once that his school is 
 a disorderly one, an inference almost invariably 
 confirmed by a few minutes' observation. My 
 earnest advice to all young teachers would be, 
 next to the habit of scolding incessantly, avoid 
 the habit of resorting to the rod on every slight 
 occasion. When that instrument is not demanded 
 for some special exigency, some great occasion 
 or some high purpose, allow it to slumber in a 
 private corner of your desk, not again to be 
 called into activity till some moral convulsion 
 shall disturb its quiet repose.
 
 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 255 
 
 How to discTiBS this subject.— Experience of very yoving men. 
 
 I have a single caution to give in regard to 
 the discussion of this subject, which in all our 
 educational gatherings occupies so much time 
 and talent. It is this -.—Do not adopt a general 
 principle from too few inductions. There is an 
 old proverb that declares, " One swallow does not 
 make a summer." Young teachers are very prone 
 to rely on the experience of a single term. If 
 they have kept one term without corporal pun- 
 ishment, they are very likely to instruct their 
 seniors with their experience; and if they have 
 happened to be so situated as to be compelled to 
 save themselves by the rod, why then, too, their 
 experience forever settles the question. It re- 
 quires the experience of more than one, or two, 
 or three schools, to enable a man to speak dog- 
 matically on this subject ; and I always smile 
 when I hear men, and sometimes very young 
 men, who have niever kept school in their lives, 
 perhaps, or at most but a single term, speaking 
 as with the voice of authority. Experience is 
 indeed one of our safest guides in this as in 
 every other matter ; but they who tell their 
 experience should at least wait till they have 
 that ivhich is worthy to be told. 
 
 There is another point. It is quite fashion- 
 able at the present day, whenever this subject is 
 to be discussed, to propose the matter in the 
 form of a resolution; as, "Resolved, that no per- 
 son is fit to be employed as a teacher, who can 
 not govern his scholars by holier means than
 
 256 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 
 
 Resolutions.— A false position.— Erench resolution. 
 
 bodily chastisement"; or, "Resolved, that no limit 
 should be set to the teacher's right to nse the 
 'rod of correction,' and that they who denounce 
 the teachers for resorting to it are unworthy of 
 our confidence in matters of education." Now 
 whoever presents the question in this form, 
 assumes that he has drawn a line through the 
 very core of the truth ; and he undertakes to 
 censure all those who are unwilling to square their 
 opinions by the line thus drawn. In the discus- 
 sion, a man must take one side or the other of the 
 question as it is proposed, and consequently he 
 may take a false position. The better way would 
 be to present the whole subject as matter of free 
 remark, and thus leave every one to present his 
 own views honestly as they lie in Ms own mind. 
 In this way no one is pledged to this or that 
 party, but is left unprejudiced to discover and 
 embrace the truth wherever it is found. 
 
 It should moreover be remembered, that re- 
 solving by the vote of a meeting in order to 
 force public opinion, can never affect the truth. 
 A few impious, heaven-daring men in France, 
 at one of their revels, once resolved, "There is 
 NO God I " — but did this blasphemous breath efface 
 the impress of Deity on all this fair creation of 
 his power ? And when they rose from their vile 
 debauch, and sought with tottering step to leave 
 the scene of madness and to court the dim for- 
 getfulness of sleep, — rolled not the shining orbs 
 in heaven's high arch above them as much in
 
 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 257 
 
 A more excellent way.— Higher motives first. 
 
 duty to His will, as when they sang together to 
 usher in creation's morning ? So it will ever be. 
 Men may declare, and resolve as they please ; 
 but truth is eternal and unchangeable : and they 
 are the wisest men who modestly seek to find 
 her as she is, and not as their perverted imag- 
 inations would presume to paint her. 
 
 Yet, after all, in the government of schools, 
 there is a more excellent way. There are usually 
 easier avenues to the heart, than that which is 
 found through the integuments of the body. 
 Happy is that teacher who is so skillful as to find 
 them ; and gladly would I welcome the day when 
 the number of such skillful and devoted teachers 
 should render any further defense of the rod su- 
 perfluous. Although I believe that day has not 
 yet arrived, still, in the meantime, I most ear- 
 nestly urge all teachers to strive to reach the 
 higher motives and the finer feelings of the 
 young, and to rely mainly for success, not 
 upon appeals to fear and force, but upon the 
 power of conscience and the law of reciprocal 
 affection. 
 
 As I have placed the higher motives and the 
 more desirable means first in order in these re- 
 marks on government, so I would always have 
 them first, and perseveringly employed by the 
 teacher; and if, by earnestness in his work, by 
 unfeigned love for the young, by diligence in the 
 study of their natures and the adaptation of
 
 258 SCHOOL GOVEENMENT. 
 
 Mintmiiin the maximum.— Three essential points. 
 
 means to ends, which true benevolence is sure to 
 suggest, he can govern successfully without cor- 
 poral punishment — as in a large proportion of 
 cases I believe it can be done — none will rejoice 
 more than I at such a desirable result ; — and I 
 most cordially subscribe to the principle so hap- 
 pily stated by another, that in the government 
 of schools, if thorough obedience be but secured 
 and order maintained, other things being equal, 
 "the minimum of punishment is the maximum of 
 excellence." 
 
 The three essential points of school manage- 
 ment are organization, government, and instruc- 
 tion. The final purpose of a school is the in- 
 struction of its pupils ; but to this end the 
 school must first be organized ; but that the or- 
 ganization m.ay be preserved, there must be some 
 system of government, or discipline. The condi- 
 tion under which the integrity of an organiza- 
 tion can be preserved, is obedience to authority. 
 In some way the wills of the governed must fol- 
 low the lead of the one will that governs. In 
 the last analysis, the direction of human wills 
 depends on the deft manipulation of motive. 
 Motives are of two sorts ; they are either attract- 
 ive or propulsive. There is either something 
 ahead of us, inviting us forward ; or there is a 
 stimulus behind us, urging us forward. The at- 
 tractive motives are the more economical, and 
 the ingenuity of the teacher should be taxed to 
 discover them and to employ them. But when
 
 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 259 
 
 Motives.— A commeiidable feature. 
 
 these fail, as they sometiraes will, then the pro- 
 pulsion, or painful motives, must be employed ; 
 the least painful first, but, in the last resort, as 
 painful as may be necessary to secure obedience 
 while the pupil is allowed to retain his member- 
 ship in the school. When the limit of painful 
 stimulation has been reached, membership must 
 cease, through suspension or expulsion. This 
 limit is determined by public opinion or by 
 law. 
 
 The classification or gradation of motives may 
 be exhibited as follows : 
 
 1. Love of order and right. 
 1. Attractive, -j 2. Regard for the one who governs. 
 
 J 
 
 3. Self-interest. 
 
 MOTIVES, -j f 4. Admonition. 
 
 5. Rebuke. 
 
 2. Propulsive. 
 
 6. Loss of privilege. 
 
 7. Fear of punishment. 
 
 A characteristic and very commendable feat- 
 ure of modern school discipline, is the large use 
 that is made of the attractive motives ; but with 
 this better practice, there is sometimes joined the 
 false assumption that this mode of government 
 is adequate for all cases. In actual practice it 
 often fails, and then there are but two courses tc 
 pursue ; either the disobedient pupil must lose 
 his membership in the school, or some form of 
 painful stimulatign must be employed. For the 
 teacher, expulsion would doubtless be the pref- 
 erable alternative ; but, in most cases, public
 
 260 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 
 
 A disputed question.— Manner of censure. 
 
 opinion will not justify expulsion save as a last 
 resort. 
 
 It is a disputed question in the theory of the 
 school, whether the exemplary or the remedial 
 element in punishment should be kept uppermost 
 in the thought of the disciplinarian. If we con- 
 ceive that the organization is superior to the 
 units that may chance to compose it, and that 
 the units are to be affected mainly through the 
 working of the organization, then the exemplary 
 element in punishment becomes prominent, and 
 a pupil may suffer chastisement, even when it is 
 probable that his amendment may not be directly 
 promoted by it. On the other hand, the remedial 
 element in punishment assumes the first place 
 when the individual, rather than the organi- 
 zation, holds the first place in thought. In the 
 State, the exemplary character of punishment 
 is primary and almost supreme, while in the 
 family, the remedial character is chief ; and 
 as the school mediates between the State and 
 the family, the two elements stand nearly in 
 equipoise. 
 
 In the employment of censure, it should be 
 noted that there is a vast difference between such 
 charges as "You have told a falsehood," and "You 
 are a liar." The first is an impeachment of con- 
 duct ; the second, of character. In extreme cases, 
 it may sometimes be justifiable to make censure 
 general ; but in all ordinary cases it ought to be 
 specific. Thus Richter says: "What is to be fol-
 
 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 261 
 
 A rule of prudence. 
 
 lowed as a rule of prudence, yea, of justice, toward 
 grown-up people, should be much more observed 
 toward children ; namely, that one should never 
 judgingly declare, for instance, 'You are a liar,' 
 or even, 'You are a bad boy,' instead of saying, 
 'You have told an untruth,' or 'You have done 
 wrong.'" (Levana, p. 114.)
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 SCHOOL ARRANGEMENTS. 
 
 EVERY teacher, before opening a school, 
 should have some general plan in his 
 mind, of what he intends to accomplish. In 
 every enterprise there is great advantage to be 
 derived from forethought, — and perhaps nowhere 
 is the advantage greater than in the business of 
 teaching. The day of opening a school is an 
 eventful day to the young teacher. A thousand 
 things crowd upon him at the same time, and 
 each demands a prompt and judicious action on 
 his part. The children to the number of half a 
 hundred, all turn their inquiring eyes to him for 
 occupation and direction. They have come full 
 of interest in the prospects of the new school, 
 ready to engage cheerfully in Avhatever plans the 
 teacher may have to propose ; and, I was about 
 to sa^^, just as ready to arrange and carry into 
 effect their owrt plans of disorder and misrule, if 
 they, unhappily for him and for themselves, find 
 he has no system to introduce. 
 
 What a critical — what an eventful moment is 
 this first day of the term to ail concerned i The 
 teacher's success and usefulness, — nay, his repu- 
 tation as an efficient instructor, —now "hang upon
 
 SCHOOL ARRANGEMENTS. 263 
 
 Angelic solicitude.— Low qualiiications. 
 
 the decision of an hour." An hour, too, may 
 almost foretell whether the precious season of 
 childhood and youth now before these immortals, 
 is to be a season of profit and healthful culture 
 Linder a judicious hand, or a season of wasted — 
 perhaps worse than wasted — existence, under the 
 imbecility or misguidance of one who " knows not 
 what he does or what he deals with." 
 
 If angels ever visit our earth and hover un- 
 seen around the gatherings of mortals, to survey 
 their actions and contemplate their destiny as 
 affected by human instrumentality, it seems to 
 me there can be no spectacle so calculated to 
 awaken their interest and enkindle their sym- 
 pathy as when they see the young gathering to- 
 gether from their scattered homes in some rural 
 district, to receive an impress, for weal or woe, 
 from the hand of him who has undertaken to 
 guide them. And, supposing them to have the 
 power to appreciate to the full extent the conse- 
 quences of human agency, how must they be 
 touched with emotions of joy and gratitude, or 
 shudder with those of horror and dread, as they 
 witness the alternations of wisdom and folly, 
 seriousness and indifference, sincerity and du- 
 plicity, purity and defilement, exhibited by him 
 who has assumed to be at once the director and 
 exemplar in the formation of human character, 
 at such an important period. How deplorable is 
 the thought that aL the fond hopes of the parents, 
 all the worthy aspirings cf the children, and all
 
 264 SCHOOL ARRANGEMENTS. 
 
 The first day.— A suggestion.— Its advantages. 
 
 the thrilling interests of higher beings, are so 
 often to be answered by qualifications so scanty, 
 and by a spirit so indifferent in the teacher of 
 the young. How sad the thought that up to this 
 very moment, so pregnant with consequences to 
 all concerned, there has been too often so little 
 of preparation for the responsibility. 
 
 I fain would impress the young teacher with 
 the importance of having a plan for even the 
 first day of the school. It will raise him sur- 
 prisingly in the estimation of the pupils and also 
 of the parents, if he can make an expeditious 
 and efficient beginning of the school. While the 
 dull teacher is slowly devising the plans he will 
 hy and hy present for the employment and im- 
 provement of his school, the children taking 
 advantage of their own exemption from labor, 
 very promptly introduce their own plans for 
 amusing themselves or for annoying him ; — 
 whereas, if he could but have his own plans 
 already made, and could promptly and efficiently 
 carry them into execution, he would forestall 
 their mischievous designs and make co-operators 
 out of his opposers. 
 
 In order to be sure of a successful commence- 
 ment, I would recommend that the teacher 
 should go into the district a few days before the 
 school is to begin. By careful inquiry of the 
 trustees or the school committee, he can ascer- 
 tain what is the character of the district and the 
 wants of the school. This will afford him con-
 
 SCHOOL ARRANGEMENTS. 265 
 
 Impoi'tant inquiries.— Caution against meanness. 
 
 siderable aid. But he should do more than this. 
 He would do "well to call on several of the fami- 
 lies of the district, whose children are to become 
 members of his school. This he can do without 
 any ceremony, simply saying to them that, as 
 he has been appointed their teacher, he is desirous 
 as far as he may to ascertain their wants, in 
 order to be as prompt as possible in the organ- 
 ization of his school. He will of course see 
 the children themselves. From them he can 
 learn what was the organization of his school 
 under his predecessor ; how many studied geog- 
 raphy, how many arithmetic, grammar, etc. ; and 
 he can also learn whether the former organiza- 
 tion was satisfactory to the district or not. The 
 modes of government and the methods of inter- 
 esting the pupils practiced by the former teacher, 
 would be likely to be detailed to him ; and from 
 the manner of both parents and children, he 
 could judge whether similar methods would still 
 be desirable in the district. By calling on several 
 of the largest families in this way, he would 
 learn beforehand very accurately the state of the 
 school and the state of the district. 
 
 I will take this occasion to insist that the 
 teacher in these visits, should heartily discourage 
 any forwardness, so common among children, to 
 disparage a former teacher. It should be his 
 sole object to gain useful information. He should 
 give no signs of pleasure in listening to any 
 unfavorable statements as to his predecessor ;
 
 266 SCHOOL ARRANGEMENTS. 
 
 Making personal friends.— A common error. 
 
 and I may add that during the progress of the 
 school, he should ever frown upon any attempt 
 on the part of the pupils to make comparisons 
 derogatory to a former teacher. This is a prac- 
 tice altogether too prevalent in our schools ; and 
 I am sorry to say there are still too many teach- 
 ers who are mean enough to countenance it. 
 Such a course is unfair, because the absent party 
 may be grossly misrepresented ; it is dangerous, 
 because it tends to cultivate a spirit of detrac- 
 tion in the young ; and it is mean, because the 
 party is absent and has no opportunity of defend- 
 ing himself. 
 
 Another important advantage of the visits 
 proposed would be, that he would make the 
 acquaintance of many of the children beforehand, 
 and very likely, too, if he should go in the right 
 spirit and with agreeable manners, he would 
 make a favorable impression upon them, and 
 thus he would have personal friends on his side 
 to begin with. The parents, too, would see that 
 he took an interest in his employment ; that he 
 had come among them in the spirit of his voca- 
 tion — in the spirit of earnestness, and they would 
 become interested in his success, — a point of no 
 small importance. 
 
 I might here caution the teacher against a 
 very common error. He should not confine his 
 visits to the more wealthy and influential families. 
 The poor and the humble should receive his 
 attentions as soon as the rich. From the latter
 
 SCHOOL ARRANGEMENTS. 267 
 
 Mr. Abbot.— Early at the school.— Wby? 
 
 class very likely a large portion of his school 
 will come ; and it is wrong in principle as well 
 as policy to neglect those who have not been as 
 successful as others in the one item, of accumu- 
 lating property. 
 
 On the day of opening the school, he should 
 be early at the school-house. Mr. Abbott, in his 
 Teacher, has some valuable suggestions on this 
 point. " It is desirable," he says, " that the young 
 teacher should meet his scholars at first in an 
 unofficial capacity. For this purpose, he should 
 repair to the school-room, on the first day, at an 
 early hour, so as to see and become acquainted 
 with the scholars as they come in, one by one. 
 He may take an interest with them in all the 
 little arrangements connected with the opening 
 of the school. The building of the fire, the paths 
 through the snow, the arrangement of seats, 
 calling upon them for information or aid, asking 
 their names, and, in a word, entering fully and 
 freely into conversation with them, just as a 
 parent, under similar circumstances, would do 
 with his children. All the children thus addressed 
 will be Dieased with the gentleness and affability 
 of the teacher. Even a rough and ill-natured 
 boy, who has perhaps come to the school with 
 the express determination of attempting to make 
 mischief, will be completely disarmed by being 
 asked pleasantly to help the teacher fix the fire, 
 or alter the position of a desk. Thus by means 
 of the half hour during which the scholars are
 
 268 SCHOOL AKRANGEMENTS. 
 
 It should be habitual.— Roguery promoted. 
 
 coming together, the teacher will find, when he 
 calls upon the children to take their seats, that 
 he has made a large number of them his per- 
 sonal friends. Many of these will have com- 
 municated their first impressions to others, so 
 that he will find himself possessed, at the out- 
 set, of that which is of vital consequence in 
 opening any administration — a strong party in 
 his favor." 
 
 It will be well for the teacher, for several 
 days, both in the morning and afternoon, to be 
 early at the school-room. He can thus continue 
 his friendly intercourse with the pupils, and ef- 
 fectually prevent any concerted action among 
 them, at that hour, to embarrass his government. 
 Many a school has been seriously injured, if not 
 broken up, by the scholars being allowed to 
 assemble early at the school, with nothing to 
 occupy them and no one to restrain them. Hav- 
 ing so convenient an opportunity for mischief, 
 their youthful activity will be very likely to find 
 egress in an evil direction. Many a tale of 
 roguery could be told, founded upon the incidents 
 of the school-rOom before school-hours, if those 
 who have good memories would but reveal their 
 own experience ; — roguery that never would have 
 occurred had the teacher adopted the course 
 here suggested.
 
 SCHOOL ARRANGEMENTS. 269 
 
 A day's work.— "Wliat shall I do?"— "Yes, m'm."— Veto. 
 
 SECTION I.— PLAN OF THE DAY'S WORK. 
 
 It will be remembered by many of the readers 
 of this volume, that in former times numerous 
 teachers were accustomed to work without a plan, 
 attempting to do theu^ work just as it haiJpened 
 to demand attention, but never taking the pre- 
 caution to have this demand under their own 
 control. If one scholar or class was not ready to 
 recite, another would be called ; and there being 
 no particular time for the various exercises, the 
 school would become a scene of mere listless- 
 ness, and the teacher would hardly know how to 
 find employment for himself in the school. 
 
 I shall make this point clearer by an example. 
 Having occasion, in an official capacity, to visit 
 a school which had been kept by a young teacher 
 some two weeks, she very naturally asked — 
 "What shall I do first, this afternoon?" 
 
 " Do precisely as you would if I had not come 
 in," was the reply. 
 
 She looked a little perplexed. At length she 
 doubtingly asked, — "Is the geography lesson 
 ready?" 
 
 "Yes, m'm"— "No, m'm"— "Yes, m'm,"— was 
 the ambiguous reply from the class. There was 
 so much of veto in the looks of the young geog- 
 raphers that it amounted to prohibition. 
 
 " Well, are the scholars in Colburn's arithmetic 
 ready ? " 
 
 This was said with more of hope ; but the
 
 270 SCHOOL ARRANGEMENTS. 
 
 A hard time.— A hint given. 
 
 same equivocal answer was vociferated from all 
 parts of the room. The teacher, placing her 
 finger upon her lip, looked despairingly ; but, 
 recollecting one more resort, she said, — "Is the 
 grammar class ready?" 
 
 Again came the changes on "Yes, m'm" and 
 "No, m'm." 
 
 The teacher gave up, and asked what she 
 should do. She was again told to go on as usual 
 for that afternoon. It was a tedious afternoon 
 to her, as it was to her visitor. She at length 
 called one of the classes, unprepared as many of 
 them said they were, and the exercise showed 
 that none but those who said "Yes, m'm," were 
 mistaken. The whole afternoon seemed to be 
 one of pain and mortification to all concerned ; 
 and I fancied I could almost read in the knitted 
 brow of the teacher a declaration that that should 
 be her last school. 
 
 At the close of the afternoon, a single hint 
 was suggested to her, — viz., that she should make 
 out a list of her scholars' duties, and the times 
 when they would be expected to recite their sev- 
 eral lessons. She was told that it would be well 
 to explain this plan of her day's work to her 
 school in the morning, and then never again ask 
 whether a class was ready. The hint was taken ; 
 and on subsequent visitations the several classes 
 were ever ready to respond to the call of their 
 instructor. 
 
 Now this matter is no unimportant one to the
 
 SCHOOL ARRANGEMENTS. 271 
 
 Improvement.— A case supposed.— Classification. 
 
 teacher. Indeed, I judge of a teacher's ability 
 very much by the wisdom and tact with which 
 he apportions his time for his own duties, and 
 divides the time of his scholars between their 
 studies and recitations. 
 
 In order to aid the young teacher in forming 
 a plan for himself, I subjoin a scheme of a day's 
 duties adapted to a school of the simplest grade. 
 Suppose a school to consist of thirty scholars, and 
 that the teacher finds, by inquiry and by exam- 
 ination, that there may be four grand divisions ; 
 the first, which he designates [A,] may unite in 
 pursuing Reading, Grammar, Mental Arithmetic, 
 Written Arithmetic, and Writing. The second, 
 [B,] can pursue Reading, Spelling, Writing, Geog- 
 raphy, Mental and Written Arithmetic. The 
 third, [C,] attend to Reading, Spelling, Mental 
 Arithmetic, Writing, and Geography. The fourth, 
 [D,] consisting of the small pupils, attend to 
 Reading, Spelling, Tables, and sundry slate exer- 
 cises. 
 
 Now, it is very desirable that as much time 
 should be devoted to recitation as can be afforded 
 to each class. It may be seen at once, that in 
 certain studies, as geography, mental arithmetic, 
 and spelling — the teacher can as well attend to 
 fifteen at once as to seven. In these studies, 
 unless . the disparity in age and attainment is 
 very great, two divisions can very properly be 
 united. All can be taught writing at once, thus 
 receiving the teacher's undivided attention for the
 
 272 SCHOOL ARRANGEMENTS. 
 
 Preliminary considerations.— A scheme. 
 
 time. Besides, it is necessary to reserve some 
 little time for change of exercises, and also for 
 the interruptions which must necessarily occur. 
 The recesses are to be provided for, and some 
 time may be needed for investigation of viola- 
 tions of duty, and for the punishment of of- 
 fenders. All this variety of work will occur in 
 every school, even the smallest. Now, if the 
 teacher does not arrange this in accordance with 
 some plan, he will be very much perplexed, even 
 in a small school ; and how much more in a 
 large one ! He will do well to consider very 
 carefully the relative importance of each exercise 
 to be attended to, and then to write out his 
 scheme somewhat after the following model. It 
 must not be forgotten that studying is also to 
 be provided for, and that it is just as important 
 that the pupils should be regular in this as in 
 recitation. Indeed, without such regularity, he 
 can not expect acceptable recitations.
 
 SCHOOL ARRANGEMENTS. 
 
 273 
 
 PROGRAM. 
 For the above supposed circumstanceB. 
 
 Time. 
 
 M. 
 
 Kecitntlons, etc. 
 
 Sttidien. 
 
 9 to 9.15 
 
 15 
 
 Reading Scbept , & Prater. 
 
 
 0.15 to 9.40 
 
 25 
 
 D. Reading, Spelling, or Tables. 
 
 A. Reading ; B. Arith. ; 
 C. Geography. 
 
 9.40 to 9.43 
 
 2 
 
 Rest, Change of Classes, etc. 
 
 
 9.42 to 10 
 
 18 
 
 A. Reading. 
 
 jB. Arith.; C. Geog. ; 
 1 D. Slates. 
 
 10 to 10.5 
 
 5 
 
 J Rest, Singing, or Answer- 
 1 iNG Questions. 
 
 
 10.5 to 10.25 
 
 20 
 
 B. Arithmetic. 
 
 J A. Gram. ; C. Geog. ; 
 ( D. Books or Cards. 
 
 10.25 to 10.2S 
 
 3 
 
 Rest, etc. 
 
 
 10.28 to 10.48 
 
 20 
 
 B. & C. Geography. 
 
 A. Gram.; D. Recess. 
 
 10.48 to 11 
 
 13 
 
 Recess. 
 
 
 11 to 11.15 
 11.15 to 11..35 
 11..35 to 11.50 
 
 15 
 20 
 15 
 
 D. Reading, etc. 
 
 A. Grammar. 
 
 B. & C. Spelling. 
 
 j A. Gram.; B. M. Arith.; 
 1 C. Spelling. 
 JB. Spelling; C. Spell- 
 1 ing; D. Slates. 
 
 J A. M. Arith. ; D. Books 
 ( or Cards. 
 
 11.50 to 12 
 
 10 
 
 General Exercise. 
 
 
 
 
 Intermission. 
 
 
 2 to 2.15 
 
 2.15 to 2.45 
 2.45 to 3.10 
 
 3.10 to 3.30 
 
 15 
 
 30 
 25 
 
 20 
 
 D. Reading, Spelling, Tables. 
 
 A. B. & C. Writing. 
 
 A. & B. Mental Arithmetic. 
 
 C. Reading. 
 
 j A. Arith. ; B. Reading ; 
 ( C. Reading. 
 
 D. Slates. 
 
 C. M. Arith. ; D. Recess. 
 (A. Arith.; B. Arith.; 
 j D. Books, etc. 
 
 3.30 to .3.40 
 
 10 
 
 Recess. 
 
 
 3.40 to 4 
 
 20 
 
 B. Reading. 
 
 A. Arith.; CM. Arith.; 
 ( D. Drawing. 
 
 4 to 4.5 
 
 5 
 
 Rest, or Singing. 
 
 
 4.5 to 4.25 
 4.25 to 4.55 
 
 20 
 30 
 
 C. IVIental Arithmetic. 
 A. Arithmetic. 
 
 J A. Read. ; B. Arith. or 
 ( Draw.; D. Slates. 
 
 i B. Arith. or Draw. ; C. 
 j Draw. ; D. Dismissed. 
 
 4.55 to 5 
 
 5 
 
 Gen. Exer. and Dismission. 

 
 274 SCHOOL ARRANGEMENTS. 
 
 A clock.— Study provided for.— Drawing. 
 
 REMABK8. 
 
 In the foregoing Program, the first column 
 shows the division of time, and the portion 
 allowed to each exercise. I need not say the 
 teacher should be strictly punctual. To this end 
 a clock is a very desirable article in the school. 
 Both teacher and pupils would be benefited by 
 it. . The second column shows the recitations, ad- 
 mitting, perhaps, some variety, especially in case 
 of the younger children ; while the third shows 
 the occupation of those classes which are not 
 engaged in recitation. 
 
 It will be seen that the classes are studying 
 those lessons which they are soon to recite ; and, 
 as in this case it is supposed that all the lessons 
 will be learned in school, each one has been pro- 
 vided for. It would, be well, however, in practice 
 to require one of the studies to be learned out of 
 school, in which case no time should be allowed 
 to the study of that branch in the program. 
 
 It Avill be perceived that drawing is placed as 
 the occupation of the younger classes near the 
 close of the afternoon. This is based upon 
 the supposition that the teacher, during recess, 
 has placed an example on the blackboard, to be 
 copied by the children upon their slates. This is 
 perhaps the most effectual way to teach drawing 
 to children. Those more advanced, however, may 
 use paper and pencil, and draw from an engraved 
 copy, or from a more finished specimen furnished
 
 SCHOOL ARRANGEMENTS. 275 
 
 An assistant.— A large school.— Alternation.— Thorough work. 
 
 from the teacher's portfoHo. It is essential that 
 the teacher should, if possible, give some speci- 
 mens of his own in this branch, I have seldom 
 known a teacher to excite an interest in draw- 
 ing, who relied altogether upon engravings as 
 models for imitation. 
 
 It should be remarked further, concerning 
 such a program, that in case of an assistant 
 in school, two columns under the head of Reci- 
 tations should be formed — one for the principal's 
 classes, and one for the assistant's. If there are 
 a few talented scholars, who are able to do more 
 than their class, they can be allowed to join some 
 of the classes out of their division, or they may 
 be provided with an extra study, which will not 
 need daily recitation. 
 
 In case the school is much larger than the 
 one supposed above, and the classes necessarily so 
 numerous as to make the time allowed to each 
 study very short, then the principle of alterna- 
 tion may be introduced ; that is, some studies 
 may be recited Mondays, Wednesdays, and Fri- 
 days, — and some other studies, with other classes, 
 take their places on the alternate days. It is de- 
 cidedly better for the teacher to meet a class, in 
 arithmetic, for instance, especially of older pu- 
 pils, but twice or three times a week, having 
 time enough at each meeting to make thorough 
 work, than to meet them daily, but for a time 
 so short as to accomplish but little. The same 
 remark may be applied to reading, and, indeed,
 
 276 SCHOOL AREANGEMENTS. 
 
 Nibbling.— Difficulty of classifying.— Way to correct a scheme. 
 
 almost any other branch. The idea is a mischiev- 
 ous one, that every class in reading, or in any 
 other branch, must be called out four times a 
 day, or even twice a day, — except in the case of 
 very young children. It may be compared to nib- 
 bling at a cracker as many times a day, without 
 once taking a hearty meal, — a process which 
 would emaciate any child in the course of three 
 months. These scanty nibblings at the table of 
 knowledge, so often and so tenaciously practiced, 
 may perhaps account for the mental emaciation 
 so often discoverable in many of our schools. 
 
 The difficulty of classifying and arranging the 
 exercises of a school, becomes greater as the num- 
 ber of teachers to be employed increases ; and 
 there is much greater inconvenience in allowing 
 any pupils to study out of their own division, 
 when the number of teachers is more than one or 
 two. Few are aware of the difficulty of arranging 
 the exercises of a large school, but those who 
 have experienced it. It can he done, however ; 
 and it should always be done as soon as possible 
 after commencing the school. 
 
 If at any time the arrangement, when made, is 
 not found to be perfect, it is not wise to change it 
 at once. Let it go on a few days, and watch its 
 defects with great care ; and in the meantime 
 study, out of school, to devise a better. When 
 this has been accomplished, and committed to 
 paper, and perfectly comprehended by the teacher, 
 it may be posted up in the school-room, and the
 
 SCHOOL ARRAKGEMENTS. 277 
 
 Models not to be copied.— Teacher must think. 
 
 day announced when it will go into operation. It 
 will soon be understood by the pupils, and the 
 change can thus be made without the loss of 
 time. 
 
 Times for reviews of the various lessons could 
 be found by setting aside the regular lessons for 
 some particular day, once a week, or once in two 
 weeks ; and for composition, declamation, etc., a 
 half day should be occasionally or periodically 
 assigned. 
 
 If I have devoted considerable space to this 
 subject, it is because I deem it of very great im- 
 portance to the teacher's success. With one other 
 remark I dismiss it. These models are not given 
 to be servilely copied. They are given to illus- 
 trate the great principle. The circumstances of 
 schools will be found to vary so widely, that no 
 model, however perfect in itself, would answer 
 for all. The teacher must exercise his own inge- 
 nuity and judgment to meet his own wants ; and 
 in general it may be remarked that where a 
 teacher has not the skill to adapt his own plans 
 to his own circumstances, he can hardly be ex- 
 pected to succeed in carrying out the plans of 
 another. 
 
 The following general rules may serve a good 
 purpose in constructing a teacher's time-table : 
 
 1 . The recitations of the youngest pupils should 
 he short and frequent. As the power of continu- 
 ous attention, in the case of such pupils, is weak, 
 the maximum time of recitation should not ex-
 
 278 SCHOOL ARRANGEMENTS. 
 
 Exercises for morning.— Alternations.— Few classes. 
 
 ceed fifteen minutes ; and as they can be in- 
 structed only during the class exercise, not yet 
 having learned the use of books, they should be 
 called up as frequently as the teacher's time will 
 permit. 
 
 2. The exercises that require the greatest stress 
 of mental effort should come in the earlier part 
 of the day. The working power of the mind is 
 at its best from nine till twelve ; and so a subject 
 like arithmetic should come by preference in the 
 forenoon, while penmanship, drawing, reading, 
 etc., might come later in the day. 
 
 3. Provide alternations that afford nest or an 
 agreeable change. To pass from an exercise in 
 reasoning to another where memory is chiefly 
 involved, is an agreeable change, for a new mode 
 of mental activity is called into play, while the 
 one just employed has a period of rest. 
 
 4. Have as few classes as possible. The reason 
 for this rule is obvious, but it is often disregarded. 
 Cases are on record where the teacher of a coun- 
 try school has had upward of forty classes during 
 the day. One such teacher, in explanation of the 
 apparent impossibility of attending to so many 
 classes, said that he sometimes heard three at a 
 time ! By securing a uniformity of books, by 
 conducting some recitations by topic, by uniting 
 two classes in the same study, and by reducing 
 the number of recitations in some subjects to 
 two or three per week, it is quite possible to re- 
 lieve an over-charged time-table.
 
 SCHOOL AERANGEMENTS. 279 
 
 Pupils without system.— Disorder. 
 
 SECTION II.— INTERRUPTIONS. 
 
 In every school consisting of pupils of different 
 ages and circumstances, there will be more or less 
 of interruption to the general order and employ- 
 ment of the school. Some of the pupils have 
 never been trained to system at hom.e ; perhaps 
 most of them have been positively taught to dis- 
 regard it at school. At any rate, ''it must needs 
 be," in this particular, "that offenses come." Nor 
 should the teacher lose his patience though he 
 should be often disturbed by the thoughtlessness 
 of his pupils. He should expect it as a matter 
 of course, and exercise his ingenuity as far as 
 possible to prevent it. It may well be one of his 
 sources of enjoyment to witness an improvement 
 in the habits of his pupils in regard to system. 
 
 These interruptions proceed from various 
 causes, — such as soliciting leave to speak, or to 
 go out ; asking for some assistance in learning 
 lessons, or for leave to drink, or to stand by the 
 fire ; requesting the teacher to mend pens or to 
 set copies ; disorderly conduct in pupils, making 
 it necessary, in his judgment, to administer re- 
 proof or punishment in the midst of other 
 duties, — and sometimes the vociferous and im- 
 patient making of complaints by one scholar 
 against another. 
 
 How many times I have seen a teacher in- 
 volved in indescribable perplexity, while trying 
 to perform the duty of instruction, and to "get
 
 280 SCHOOL ARRANGEMENTS. 
 
 Scene from nature.— Biisiness accumulates.— A crisis.— A pail of water. 
 
 through" in time. While hearing a grammar 
 lesson, a scholar brings up his atlas to have some 
 place pointed out which he had upon one trial 
 failed to find. The teacher, turning to look for 
 the place, is addressed with "Please mend my 
 pen," from another quarter. Having the knife in 
 hand, as if such things were to be expected, the 
 obliging teacher takes the pen, and, holding it 
 between his eyes and the atlas, endeavors to 
 shape its nib and to discover the city at the same 
 glance. " Jane keeps a pinching me," — vociferates 
 a little girl who is seated behind the class. 
 " Jane, Jane," says the teacher, turning away 
 from both the nib and the city, "Jane, come to 
 me instantly." Jane, with the guilty fingers 
 thrust far into her mouth, makes her way side- 
 ling toward the teacher. "May I go out?" — 
 says John, who is thinking only of his own con- 
 venience. "No, no," answers the teacher, a little 
 pettishly, as if conscious that in a crisis like this, 
 a request simply to breathe more freely is 
 scarcely justifiable. '^Please, sir, let me and 
 Charles go out and get a pail of water ? " This 
 is said by a little shrewd-looking, round-faced, 
 light-haired boy, who has learned how to select 
 his time, and to place the emphasis upon the 
 "please, sir.'' The teacher, by this time being 
 considerably fretted b}^ such an accumulation of 
 business on his hands, very naturally thinks of 
 the refreshment contained in a pail of cool water, 
 and very good-naturedly answers the little urchin
 
 SCHOOL ARRANGEMENTS. 281 
 
 A juncture and a conjunction !— A truce.— Sunshine again. 
 
 in the affirmative, who most Hkely is, by this 
 time, more than half way out of the door, so 
 confident is he of success. Just at this juncture, 
 a considerate-looking miss in the class earnestly 
 appeals to the teacher, to know if the word next 
 but three to the last, was not a common noun, 
 though called a conjunction ! This reminds the 
 teacher that several words have been parsed 
 without his notice, and he asks the class to 
 " stop there." Glancing at his watch, he dis- 
 covers that he has gone three minutes beyond 
 the time for recess, and he relieves himself by 
 saying, "boys may go out." This grants a truce 
 to all parties. The pen goes back unmended ; 
 the atlas with its sought city undiscovered ; John 
 "goes out" now by common law, taking to him- 
 self the credit of this happy release, as he asked 
 only to remind the master that it was time for 
 recess ; Jane takes both thumb and finger from 
 her precious little mouth, and smiling, seats her- 
 self by the side of her late challenger, who is by 
 this time more than half repentant of her own 
 impatience ; the shrewd-looking urchin and his 
 companion return with the refreshing pail of 
 water, — the boys and girls gather round to obtain 
 the first draught, while the little chubby-faced 
 lad comes forward, clothed in smiles, with a cup 
 filled with the cooling liquid on purpose for the 
 master ; the boon is accepted, the perplexed brow 
 becomes placid, and all is sunshine again. — This 
 is not a very extravagant picture of the inter-
 
 282 SCHOOL ARRANGEMENTS. 
 
 Lancaster's motto. — System. 
 
 ruptions in a district school. Those who have 
 been brought up in such a school will recognize 
 the fidelity of the likeness, as it has been drawn 
 from nature. 
 
 Now, whoever has any knowledge of human 
 nature, and of school teaching, will at once see 
 that this is all wrong. It is a law of our being, 
 that we can do well but one thing at a time. 
 He who attempts more, must do what he attempts 
 but very imperfectly. There was a great deal of 
 wisdom embodied in that motto which used to 
 be placed in the old Lancasterian schools : " A 
 
 I'IME FOR EVERY THING, AND EVERY THING IN ITS 
 
 TIME." It should be one of the mottoes of every 
 teacher. In the construction of the plan or 
 program for the day's duties, great care should 
 be taken to provide for all these little things. 
 If whispering is to be allowed at all in school, 
 let it come into one of the intervals between 
 recitations. If assistance in getting lessons is to 
 be asked and rendered, let it be done at a time 
 assigned for the special purpose. As far as pos- 
 sible, except in extreme cases, let the discipline 
 be attended to at the time of general exercise, 
 or some other period assigned to it, so that there 
 shall not be a ludicrous mixture of punishments 
 and instruction during the progress of a class 
 exercise. 
 
 It is pleasant to visit a school, where every 
 thing is done, and well done, at its proper time. 
 Teaching under such circumstances, becomes a
 
 SCHOOL AREAN6EMENTS. 283 
 
 Reverse.— Recesses.— How often ? 
 
 delightful employment. But where all is confu- 
 sion, and the teacher allows himself, by the accu- 
 mulation of irregularities, to be oppressed and 
 perplexed, it is one of the most wearing and un- 
 desirable vocations on earth. The teacher goes 
 to his lodgings harassed with care, oppressed with 
 a consciousness of the imperfection of his labors, 
 and exhausted by the unnatural and unwarrant- 
 able tax imposed upon his mental faculties. He 
 groans under the burden incident to his calling, 
 and longs to escape from it, never once dream- 
 ing, perhaps, that he has the power of relieving 
 himself by the introduction of system, and thus 
 changing his former habel into a scene of quiet- 
 ness and order. 
 
 SECTION III. -RECESSES. 
 
 In speaking of the arrangements of a school, 
 the subject of recesses demands attention. It is 
 the belief of many enlightened instructors, that 
 the confinement in most of our schools is still 
 too protracted, and that more time devoted to 
 relaxation would be profitable, both to the phys- 
 ical and the mental constitution of our youth. 
 Some have urged a recess of a few minutes every 
 hour, in order to afford opportunity for a change 
 of position and a change of air. This could better 
 be done in schools composed only of one sex, or 
 where the accommodation of separate yards and 
 playgrounds permits both sexes to take a recess
 
 284 SCHOOL ARRANGEMENTS. 
 
 One each session.— Ten minutes to each sex.— Separate playgrounds. 
 
 at the same time. Where these accom.modations 
 are wanting, and one sex must wait while the 
 other is out, the time required for two recesses, 
 in half a day, for the whole school, could scarcely 
 be afforded. I am of the opinion, as our schools 
 are at present composed, that one recess in the 
 half day for each sex is all that can be allowed. 
 The question then is, how can that one recess be 
 made most conducive to the purposes for which 
 it is designed ? 
 
 1. As to its duration. Ten minutes is the 
 least time that should be thought of, if the chil- 
 dren are to be kept closely confined to study 
 during the remainder of the three hours' session ; 
 that is, ten minutes for each sex. It would be a 
 very desirable thing if our school-houses could be 
 so furnished with separate playgrounds and sep- 
 arate out-door accommodations, that both sexes 
 could take recess at the same time. This would 
 save much time to the district in the course of 
 a term, and it would also give opportunity for 
 thoroughly ventilating the room during recess, 
 while it would afford the teacher opportunity to 
 take the air, and overlook the sports of the chil- 
 dren to some extent, — a matter of no small im- 
 portance. 
 
 Where these facilities are wanting, and the 
 teacher must remain within to preside over the 
 one half of the school while the others are out, 
 he may still give at least ten minutes to each 
 sex, contriving to employ the time profitably
 
 SCHOOL ARRANGEMENTS. 285 
 
 Teaclier's work at recess.— Proper hour. 
 
 within doors. He may reserve this time for set- 
 tling such difficulties as may have arisen in the 
 school ; he may administer reproofs, inflict his 
 punishments if any are necessary, or he may 
 spend the time in giving assistance to the pupils 
 or in drawing upon the blackboard for the ad- 
 vantage of the younger pupils as they come in. 
 In a large school, where a longer recess is the 
 more necessary on account of the bad air of the 
 school-room, he will find the more duty to be 
 done at this time ; so that in any event the time 
 need not be lost, even if fifteen minutes be al- 
 lowed to each sex. 
 
 2. As to the proper lioui" for recess. It was 
 an old rule to have recess when " school was half 
 done.'' Indeed, this expression was often used as 
 synonymous with recess in many districts twenty- 
 five years ago. It is now generally thought better 
 to have the recess occur later, perhaps when the 
 school session is two thirds past. It is found that 
 children, accustomed to exercise all the morning, 
 can better bear the confinement of the first two 
 hours than they can that of the third, even 
 though the recess immediately precedes the third. 
 In a school the half-daily sessions of which are 
 three hours, I should recommend that the recess 
 be introduced so as to terminate at the close of 
 the second hour. As far as possible, it would be 
 well to have all the pupils leave the room at the 
 time recess is given them ; and, as a general 
 thing, they should not ask leave to go out at any
 
 286 SCHOOL ARRANGEMENTS. 
 
 Young children.— Teachers fail in assigning lessons.— Not too long. 
 
 other time. A little system in this matter is 
 as desirable as in any other, and it is quite as 
 feasible. 
 
 In a school composed partly of very young 
 children, there is no difficulty in giving such 
 children two recesses each half day. Nor is there 
 any objection to such a course. It is more irk- 
 some to young children to bear confinement than 
 to the adult ; especially as they can not be ex- 
 pected to be constantly occupied. It will relieve 
 the teacher very much to have the children go 
 out of the room as soon as they become fatigued ; 
 and, as it will promote their own health and hap- 
 piness to go, it is very justifiable to grant them 
 the privilege. This may properly and easily be 
 provided for upon the Program. 
 
 SECTION IV.— ASSIGNING LESSONS. 
 
 Many teachers fail in this department. Judg- 
 ing of the difficulty of the lesson by the ease 
 with which they can acquire it, even in a text- 
 book new to themselves, they not unfrequently 
 assign more than can possibly be learned by the 
 children. They forget that by long discipline of 
 mind, and by the aid of much previously ac- 
 quired knowledge, the lesson becomes compara- 
 tively easy to them ; they forget, too, the toil a 
 similar lesson cost them when they were chil- 
 dren. Now the effect of learning a lesson poorly 
 is most ruinous to the mind of a child. He, by
 
 SCHOOL ARRANGEMENTS. 287 
 
 Why?— Not how much, but how well.— Good habits of study. 
 
 the habit of missing comes to think it a snaall 
 thing to fail at recitation. He loses his self- 
 respect. He loses all regard for his reputation as 
 a scholar. It is truly deplorable to see a child 
 fail in a lesson with indifference. Besides, the 
 attempt to acquire an unreasonable lesson induces 
 a superficial habit of study, — a skimming over the 
 surface of things. The child studies that he may 
 live through the recitation ; not that he may 
 learn and remember. He passes thus through a 
 book, and thinks himself wise while he is yet a 
 fool, — a mistake that is no less common than 
 fatal. 
 
 The motto of the wise teacher should be, " Not 
 HOW MUCH, BUT HOW WELL." He should always 
 ask, is it possible that a child can master this 
 lesson, and probable that he luill ? It is better 
 that a class should make but very slow progress 
 for several weeks, if they but acquire the habit 
 of careful study, and a pride of good scholarship, 
 — a dread of failure, — than that they should ram- 
 ble over a whole field, firing at random, missing 
 oftener than they hit the mark, and acquiring a 
 stupid indifference to their reputation as marks- 
 men, and a prodigal disregard to their waste of 
 ammunition and their loss of the game. 
 
 In assigning lessons, the importance of good 
 habits of study should be considered, and the les- 
 sons given accordingly. At the commencement 
 of a term the lessons should always be short, till 
 the ability of the pupils is well understood, and
 
 SCHOOL AKRANGEMENTS. 
 
 A failiire is a fault.— Reviews.— Prequent.— Why? 
 
 their habits as good students established. As the 
 term progresses, they can be gradually lengthened 
 as the capacity of the class will warrant, or their 
 own desire will demand. It is frequently judi- 
 cious to consult the class about the length of the 
 lessons, though, to be sure, their judgment can 
 not always be relied on, for they are almost 
 always ready to undertake more than they can 
 perform well. Assigning, however, somewhat less 
 than they propose, will take from them all excuse 
 for failure. When the lesson is given, a failure 
 should be looked upon as a culpable dereliction 
 of duty, as incompatible with a good conscience 
 as it is with good scholarship. This high ground 
 can not be taken, however, unless the teacher 
 has been very judicious in the assignment of the 
 lesson. 
 
 SECTION v.— REVIEWS. 
 
 In the prosecution of study by any class of 
 students, frequent reviews are necessary. This is 
 so because the memory is very much aided by 
 repetition and by association. But, further, the 
 understanding is often very much improved by a 
 review. Many of the sciences can not be pre- 
 sented in independent parts, nor can all the terms 
 employed be fully appreciated till these parts are 
 again viewed as a whole. Many things which 
 were but dimly seen the first time they were 
 passed over, become perfectly clear to the mind
 
 SCHOOL ARRANGEMENTS. 289 
 
 Application of principles to practical life.— A general review. 
 
 when viewed afterward in. connection with what 
 follows them. 
 
 In conducting reviews, regard must be had to 
 the age and character of the pupils, and to the 
 branch pursued. In arithmetic, and, indeed, in 
 mathematics generally, where so much depends 
 upon every link in the great chain, very frequent 
 reviews are necessary. Indeed, almost daily it is 
 profitable to call up some principle before gone 
 over. In several branches, where the parts have 
 a less intimate connection, as in geography, nat- 
 ural philosophy, and some others, the reviews may 
 be at greater intervals. It would be well, I think, 
 in every common school, to have a review-day 
 once a week. This, besides the advantages already 
 indicated, will lead the children to study for some- 
 thing beyond recitation. Nor is it enough at the 
 re\dew, that the questions of the text-book be 
 again proposed to the children. If this be all, they 
 will only exercise their ^memories. As far as pos- 
 sible, the subject should be called up, and the ap- 
 plication of principles to practical life should be 
 dwelt upon. If this course is expected by the 
 learners, they will think during the week, in order 
 to anticipate the examination of the teacher ; and 
 this thinking is more profitable to them than the 
 knowledge itself. 
 
 It is always well, besides the periodical reviews, 
 to have a general review at the close of any 
 particular study. This enables the teacher to 
 detect any false conceptions which the pupil has
 
 290 SCHOOL ARRANGEMENTS. 
 
 An exception. 
 
 entertained during the first course. He can now 
 present the subject as a whole, and view one 
 part by the light of another. In natural philoso- 
 phy, how much better the law of reflected mo- 
 tion can be appreciated after the subject of optics 
 has been studied, in which the doctrine of reflec- 
 tion in general has been fully discussed and 
 illustrated. In physiology, what light is thrown 
 upon the process of growth in the system, by 
 the subsequent chapters on absorption and secre- 
 tion. How . much clearer is the economy of 
 respiration understood when viewed in connec- 
 tion with the circulation of the blood. A general 
 review then is an enlightening process, and it is 
 always profitable, with, perhaps, one exception. 
 When it is instituted with reference to a public 
 examination, it is very doubtful whether the 
 evil is not greater than the good. It then degen- 
 erates into an effort to appear well at a particu- 
 lar time : again, it is studying in order to recite ; 
 and I look upon it as no small evil, that the 
 mind should have any object in view which 
 comes in between it and the grand desire to 
 Jcnow, — to master the subject for its own sake, 
 and not simply for the purpose of being able to 
 talk about it on one great occasion. 
 
 SECTION VI.— PUBLIC EXAMINATIONS. 
 
 It is now the usage in all our schools to have 
 public examinations, — generally at the close of a
 
 SCHOOL ARRANGEMENTS. 291 
 
 Examinations not without objections. 
 
 term, or a portion of a term, — in order to test, in 
 some measure, the industry and skill of the teacher, 
 and the proficiency of the pupils. I am hardly 
 prepared to oppose this usage, because I am in- 
 clined to believe examinations are of some utility 
 as a means of awakening an interest in the parents 
 of the children : perhaps they do something to 
 stimulate school-officers, and also to excite both 
 teacher and pupils to greater effort during the 
 term. Still, public examinations, as frequently 
 conducted, are not without serious objections. 
 
 1. They certainly can not be looked upon as 
 criterions of the faithfulness or success of teach- 
 ers. A man ivith tact, and without honesty, may 
 make his school appear to far greater advantage 
 than a better man can make a better school 
 appear. This has often happened. It is not 
 the most faithful and thorough teaching that 
 makes the show and attracts the applause at a 
 public exhibition. It is the superficial, mechan- 
 ical, memoriter exercise that is most imposing. 
 Who has not seen a class, that recited by rote 
 and in concert at a celebration, win the largest 
 approbation, when many of the individuals knew 
 not the import of the words they uttered. Names 
 in geography have been thus "said or sung," 
 when the things signified were to the children 
 as really terrce incognitce as the fairy lands of 
 Sindbad the Sailor. 
 
 2. Nor can such exhibitions be claimed justly 
 to indicate the proficiency of the pupils. Every
 
 292 SCHOOL ARRANGEMENTS. 
 
 Not to be taken as indices of proficiency.— Encourage deception. 
 
 experienced teacher knows that the best scholars 
 often fail at a public examination, and the most 
 indolent and superficial often distinguish them- 
 selves. The spectators, not unfrequently, in point- 
 ing out the talent of the school, make the teacher 
 smile at their blunders. 
 
 3. They present a strong temptation to dis- 
 honesty on the part of the teacher. Since so 
 much stress is laid upon the examination, and 
 particularly, in some regions, upon the Celebra- 
 tion, where several schools are brought together 
 to make a show for few hours, it must be rather 
 an uncommon man who will have sufficient prin- 
 ciple to exhibit his school as it is, and refuse to 
 make those efforts so very common to have it 
 appear luhat it is not. The wish, expressed or 
 implied, of the parents, and the ambition of the 
 children, all conspire to make the teacher yield 
 to a usage so common. Consequently, several 
 weeks will be spent to prepare the children to 
 appear in public. During this time, they study 
 not for improvement, not for future usefulness, 
 but simply to make a sliow at the public cele- 
 bration. An unworthy and unwarrantable motive 
 actuates them during all this process ; and, at 
 last, unless strangely benighted, they are con- 
 scious of holding up a false appearance to the 
 world. Now, under such circumstances, what- 
 ever of good is effected, by way of enkindling a 
 zeal in the parents, is dearly purchased. The 
 sacrifice of principle in a teacher — much more in
 
 SCHOOL ARRANGEMENTS. 29S 
 
 Teacher sh.ovild be honest.— Great motives.— Purther caution. 
 
 the children — is a large price to pay for the 
 applause of a few visitors, or even for an increase 
 (jf interest among them, in the cause of popular 
 education. 
 
 Examinations, however, which are less showy, 
 and which are of such a character as thoroughly 
 to sift the teachings that have been given, and 
 to thwart any ingenious efforts specially to pre- 
 pare for them — examinations that look back to 
 the general teaching of the term or the year, 
 and test the accuracy and thoroughness of the 
 instructions — are unquestionably very desirable 
 and useful. To make them so in the highest 
 sense, and to exempt them from an evil tendency 
 upon the minds of the young themselves, the 
 teacher should he strictly honest. Not a lesson 
 should be given with sole reference to the exhi- 
 bition at the close ; not an exercise should be 
 omitted because the examination ajjproaches. 
 The good teacher should keep those great mo- 
 tives before the mind, which look to future use- 
 fulness, and to the discharge of duty. The child 
 should be taught that he is accountable for what 
 he acquires, and what he may acquire, and not for 
 what he may appear to have acquired ; and that 
 this accountability is not confined to a single 
 day, soon to pass and be forgotten ; but it runs 
 through all time and all eternity. 
 
 I know not but the expectation of an exam- 
 ination may stimulate some to greater exertion, 
 and make them better scholars. If this be so, it
 
 294 SCHOOL AKEANGEMENTS. 
 
 Restrictions and limitations. 
 
 may be well enough ; and yet I should be slow 
 to present such a motive to the mind of a child, 
 because a special or secondary accountability 
 always detracts from the general and chief. 
 
 A strong reason, in addition to those already 
 assigned, why special preparation should not be 
 made for the examination, is, that where such 
 preparation is expected, the pupils become care- 
 less in their ordinary exercises. 
 
 While, then, I think too much stress is at 
 present placed upon showy exhibitions and cele- 
 brations, and that objections and dangers attend 
 examinations, as frequently conducted, I would 
 not recommend altogether their discontinuance. 
 I would rather urge that the teacher, by his 
 inflexible honesty, should make them fair repre- 
 sentations of the actual condition of his school, 
 without relying very much upon them as a means 
 of stimulating the pupils to exertion ; that the 
 pupils should be made to feel that the results 
 of their exertion through the term, rather than 
 a few special efforts near its close, would be 
 brought into review ; that no hypocrisy or man- 
 agement should ever be tolerated, in order to 
 win the applause of the multitude ; that no par- 
 ticular lessons should ever be assigned for the 
 occasion ; that it should be remembered, that 
 the moral effect of an occasional failure at exam- 
 ination, will be more salutary upon the school 
 than unbroken success ; and that the children 
 are irreparably injured, when they are made in
 
 SCHOOL ARRANGEMENTS. 295 
 
 Profitable examinations. 
 
 any way the willing instruments of fake pre- 
 tension. 
 
 Under such circumstances, examinations may 
 be profitable to all concerned. If teacher and 
 pupils have done well, they have the opportunity 
 of showing it without violence to their own con- 
 sciences. The employers, and patrons too, have 
 some means of forming a correct estimate of the 
 value of their school ; and all parties may be 
 encouraged and stimulated. But above all things, 
 
 LET THE TEACHER BE HONEST.
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 THE teacher's RELATION TO THE PARENTS 
 OF HIS PUPILS. 
 
 IN the choice of a clergyman, after estimating 
 his moral and religious character, and ascer- 
 taining the order of his pulpit- talents, a third 
 question remains to be answered, viz. : — What 
 are his qualifications as a pastor ? How is he 
 adapted to fulfill the various relations of private 
 friend and counselor ; and in the family circle, 
 in his intercourse with the aged and the young, 
 how is he fitted to 
 
 " Alliire to brighter worlds and lead the way " f 
 
 In that sacred profession, every one knows that 
 nearly as much good is to be done by private 
 intercourse as in the public ministration. Many 
 a heart can be reached by a friendly and in- 
 formal conversation, that would remain unmoved 
 by the most powerful eloquence from the pulpit. 
 Besides, many are prepared to be profited in the 
 public exercises by that intercourse in private 
 which has opened their hearts, removed preju- 
 dice, and engendered a feeling of friendly interest 
 in the preacher. The admonitions of the gospel 
 thus have the double power of being truth,
 
 teacher's relation to parents. 297 
 
 Social qualities in a teacher.— He should call on the parents. 
 
 and truth uttered by the Hps of a valued 
 friend. 
 
 It is, to some extent, thus with the school 
 teacher. He may be very learned and very apt 
 to teach, and yet fail of success in his district. 
 Hence, it is highly important that he should 
 possess and carefully cultivate those social quali- 
 ties, which will greatly increase his usefulness. 
 The teacher should consider it a part of his duty, 
 whenever he enters a district, to excite a deeper 
 interest there, among the patrons of the school, 
 than they have ever before felt. He should not 
 be satisfied till he has reached every mind con- 
 nected with his charge in such a way that they 
 will cheerfully co-operate with him and sustain 
 his judicious efforts for good. Being imbued with 
 a deep feeling of the importance of his work, he 
 should let them see that he is alive to the in- 
 terests of their children. To this end, — 
 
 1. He should seeJc frequent opportunities of 
 intercourse with the parents. Though the ad- 
 vances toward this point, by the strict rules of 
 etiquette, should be made by the parents them- 
 selves (as by some it is actually and seasonably 
 done) — yet, as a general thing, taking the world 
 as we find it, the teacher must lead the way. 
 He must often introduce himself uninvited to 
 the people among whom he dwells, calling at 
 their homes in the spirit of his vocation, and 
 conversing with them freely about his duty to 
 their children and to themselves. Every parent,
 
 298 THE teacher's relation 
 
 Object of his calls.— He should explain his plans. 
 
 of course, will feel bound to be courteous and 
 civil in his own house ; and, by such an inter- 
 view, perhaps a difference of opinion, a prejudice, 
 or a suspicion may be removed, and the founda- 
 tion of a mutual good understanding be laid, 
 which many little troubles can never shake. It 
 may be very useful to have an interview with 
 such parents as have been disturbed by some ad- 
 ministration of discipline upon members of their 
 families. Let me not be understood, however, to 
 recommend that the teacher should ever go to the 
 parent in a cringing, unmanly spirit. It would 
 probably be far better that the parties should 
 ever remain entire strangers, than that their 
 meeting should necessarily be an occasion of 
 humiliating retraction on the part of the teacher. 
 Neither should the parents ever be allowed to 
 expect that the teacher always will, as a matter 
 of dut}^, come to their confessional. But it is 
 believed, if there could be a meeting of the par- 
 ties as men, as gentlemen, as Christians, as co- 
 adjutors for the child's welfare, it would always 
 be attended with good results, 
 
 2. He should he luiUing to explain all his plans 
 to the parents of his pupils. If they had implicit 
 confidence in him, and would readily and fully 
 give him every facility for carrying forward all 
 his designs without explanation, then, perhaps, 
 this direction might not be necessary. But, as 
 the world is, he can not expect spontaneous con- 
 fidence. They wish to know his designs, and it
 
 TO THE PARENTS OF HIS PUPILS. 299 
 Encourage inquiry.— No mystery. 
 
 is best they should be informed of them by him- 
 self. The best way for the teacher to interest 
 them in the business of education, will be freely 
 to converse with them concerning the measures 
 he intends to adopt. If his plans are judicious^ 
 he of course can show good reasons why they 
 should be carried into effect ; and parents are 
 generally willing to listen to reason, especially 
 when it is directed to the benefit of their own 
 children. Many a parent, upon the first an- 
 nouncement of a measure in school, has stoutly 
 opposed it, who, upon a little explanatory con- 
 versation with the teacher, would entertain a 
 very different opinion, and ever after would be 
 most ready to countenance and support it. 
 
 It seems to me a teacher may safely encour- 
 age inquiry into all his movements in school. 
 There is an old saying — in my opinion a mis- 
 chievous one, — which enjoins it as a duty upon 
 all, to "tell no tales out of school." I see no ob- 
 jection to the largest liberty in this matter. Why 
 may not every thing be told, if told correctly? 
 Parents frequently entertain a suspicious spirit 
 as to the movements of the teacher. Would not 
 very much of this be done away, if it was under= 
 stood there was no mystery about the school ? 
 The teacher who would thus invite inquiry, would 
 be very careful never to do any thing which he 
 would not be willing to have related to the 
 parents, or even to be witnessed by them. I 
 would have no objection, if it were possible, that
 
 300 THE teacher's RELATION" 
 
 Encourage parental visitation.— Begin with mothers.— Be honest. 
 
 the walls of our school-rooms, as you look inward, 
 should be transparent, so that any individual un- 
 perceived might view with his own eyes the 
 movements within. The consciousness of such 
 an oversight would work a healthy influence upon 
 those who have too long delighted in mystery. 
 
 3. The teacher should encourage parents to 
 visit his school frequently. There is almost every- 
 where too great backwardness on the part of 
 parents to do this duty. The teacher should 
 early invite them to come in. It is not enough 
 that he do this in general terms. He may fix 
 the time, and arrange the party, so that those 
 who would assimilate, should be brought together. 
 It will frequently be wise to begin with the 
 mothers, where visitation has been unusual. They 
 will soon bring in the fathers. As often as they 
 come they will be benefited. When such visits 
 are made, the teacher should not depart from his 
 usual course of instruction on their account. Let 
 all the recitations and explanations be attended 
 to, all praises and reproofs, all rewards and pun- 
 ishments be as faithfully and punctually dis- 
 pensed as if no person were present. In other 
 words, let the teacher faithfully exhibit the school 
 just as it is, its lights and its shadows, so that 
 they may see all its workings, and understand all 
 its trials as well as its encouragements. 
 
 Such visitations under such circumstances, it 
 is believed, would ever be highly beneficial. The 
 teacher's difficulties and cares would be better
 
 TO THE PARENTS OF HIS PUPILS. 301 
 Be frank and true with parents. 
 
 understood, and his efforts to be useful appre- 
 ciated. The hindrances, thus seen to impede his 
 progress, would be promptly removed, and the 
 teacher would receive more cordial sympathy and 
 support. 
 
 But if the teacher makes such visits the occa- 
 sion for putting a false appearance upon the 
 school ; if he takes to himself unusual airs, such 
 as make him ridiculous in the eyes of his pupils, 
 and even in his own estimation ; if he attempts 
 to bring before the visitors his best classes, and 
 to impress them with his own skill by showing 
 off his best scholars, they will, sooner or later, dis- 
 cover his hypocrisy, and very likely despise him 
 for an attempt to deceive them. 
 
 4. The teacher should be frank in all his rep- 
 resentations to parents concerning their children. 
 This is a point upon which many teachers most 
 lamentably err. In this, as in every other case, 
 "honesty is the best policy." If an instructor 
 informs a parent during the term that his son is 
 making rapid progress, or, as the phrase is — "do- 
 ing very well," he excites in him high expecta- 
 tions ; and if at the end of the term, it turns out 
 otherwise, the parent, with much justice, may feel 
 that he has been injured, and may be expected to 
 load him with censure instead of praise. Let a 
 particular answer, and a true one, always be 
 given to the inquiry — "How does my child get 
 along?" The parent has a right to know, and 
 the teacher has no right to conceal the truth.
 
 302 THE TEACHER'S RELATION 
 
 No evasion.— Study the art of conversation.— Be modest. 
 
 Sometimes teachers, fearing the loss of a pupil, 
 have used some indefinite expression, which, how- 
 ever, the doting parent is usually ready to inter- 
 pret to his child's advantage. But sooner or later 
 the truth will appear ; and when the teacher is 
 once convicted of any misrepresentation in this 
 particular, there is rarely any forgiveness for him. 
 For this reason and for his own love of truth, for 
 his own reputation and for the child's welfare, he 
 should keep nothing back. He should tell the 
 whole story plainly and frankly, — and the parent, 
 if he is a gentleman, will thank him for his 
 faithfulness to him ; and if he has any sense of 
 justice, he will be ready to co-operate with him 
 for his child's improvement. At any rate, such 
 a course will insure the reward of a good con- 
 science. 
 
 The teacher, as I have before urged, should 
 have the habits and manners of a gentleman. 
 He should strive also to acquire the ability to 
 converse in an easy and agreeable way, so that 
 his society shall never be irksome. He, in other 
 words, should be a man who does not require 
 much entertaining. Modesty, withal, is a great 
 virtue in the teacher ;. especially in his intercourse 
 with the people of his district. Teachers, from 
 their almost constant intercourse with their pu- 
 pils, are apt to think their own opinions infallible ; 
 and they sometimes commit the ridiculous error, 
 of treating others wiser than themselves, as chil- 
 dren in knowledge. This infirmity, incident to
 
 TO THE PARENTS OF HIS PUPILS 303 
 "Out-door work."— Its resiilt. 
 
 the profession, should be carefully avoided ; and 
 while the teacher should ever endeavor to make 
 his conversation instructive, he should assume no 
 airs of superior learning or infallible authority 
 He should remember the truth in human nature, 
 that men are best pleased to learn without being 
 reminded that they are learners. 
 
 I have known some teachers who have sneered 
 at what they have termed the "out-door work" 
 here recommended. They have thrown them- 
 selves upon their dignity, and have declared that 
 when they had done their duty within the school- 
 room, they had done all that could be expected, 
 and that parents were hound to co-operate with 
 them and sustain them. But, after all, we must 
 take the world as we find it ; and since parents 
 do not always feel interested as they should, I 
 hold it to be a part of the teacher's duty to excite 
 their interest, and to win them to his aid by all 
 the proper means in his power. In doing this he 
 will, in the most effectual way, secure the prog- 
 ress of his school, and at the same time advance 
 his own personal improvement.
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 teacher's care of his health. 
 
 No employment is more wearing to the con- 
 stitution than the business of teaching. 
 So many men falter in this employment from ill 
 health, so many are deterred from entering it, 
 because they have witnessed the early decay and 
 premature old age of those who have before 
 pursued it, and so many are still engaged in it, 
 who almost literally " drag their slow length 
 along," groaning under complicated forms of dis- 
 ease and loss of spirits, which they know not 
 how to tolerate or cure, — that it has become a 
 serious inquiry among the more intelligent of 
 the profession, "Can not something be known 
 and practiced on this subject, which shall remove 
 the evils complained of?" Is it absolutely neces- 
 sary that teachers shall be dyspeptics and inva- 
 lids? Must devotion to a calling so useful be 
 attended with a penalty so dreadful? 
 
 A careful survey of the facts, by more than 
 one philanthropist, has led to the conclusion that 
 the loss of health is not necessarily attendant 
 upon the teacher of the young. It is believed, 
 indeed, that the confinement from the air and 
 sunlight, and the engrossing nature of his pur-
 
 TEACHER'S CARE OF HIS HEALTH. 305 
 Laws of health should be studied.— Effect of a change of employment. 
 
 suits, have a strong tendency to bring on an irri- 
 tability of the nervous system, a depression of 
 spirits, and a prostration of the digestive func- 
 tions ; but it is also believed that, by following 
 strictly and systematically, the known laws of 
 health, this tendency may be successfully resisted, 
 and the teacher's life and usefulness very much 
 prolonged. The importance of the subject, and 
 a desire to render this volume as useful as possi- 
 ble, has induced me to ask leave to transfer to 
 its pages, with slight abbreviation, the very judi- 
 cious and carefully written chapter on " Health — 
 Exercise — Diet," contained in the " School and 
 School-master," from the gifted pen of George 
 B, Emerson, Esq., of Boston, — one of the most 
 enlightened educators of the present age. 
 
 HEALTH— EXERCISE— DIET. 
 
 "The teacher should have perfect health. It 
 may seem almost superfluous to dwell here upon 
 what is admitted to be so essential to all per- 
 sons ; but it becomes necessary, from the fact 
 that nearly all those who engage in teaching, 
 leave other and more active employments to 
 enter upon their new calling. By this change, 
 and by the substitution of a more sedentary life 
 within-doors, for a life of activity abroad, the 
 whole habit of the body is changed, and the 
 health will inevitably suffer, unless precautions 
 be taken which have never before been neces-
 
 806 teacher's care of his health. 
 
 Exercise.— Teacher specially needs it.— "Walking.— How? 
 
 sary. To all such persons — to all, especially, who 
 are entering upon the work of teaching, with a 
 view of making it their occupation through life, 
 a knowledge of the laws of health is of the 
 utmost importance, and to such this chapter is 
 addressed. I shall speak of these laws briefly, 
 under the heads of Exercise, Air, Sleep, Food, 
 and Dress. 
 
 "Exercise. So intimate is the connection be- 
 tween the various parts of our compound nature, 
 that the faculties of the mind can not be natu- 
 rally, fully, and effectually exercised, without the 
 health of the body. And the first law of health 
 is, that which imposes the necessity of exercise. 
 
 " The teacher can not be well without exer- 
 cise, and usually a great deal of it. No other 
 pursuit requires so much, — no other is so ex- 
 hausting to the nerves ; and exercise, air, cheer- 
 fulness, and sunshine, are necessary to keep them 
 in health. Most other pursuits give exercise of 
 body, sunshine, and air, in the very performance 
 of the duties that belong to them. This shuts 
 us up from all. 
 
 " One of the best, as one of the most natural 
 modes of exercise, is walking. To give all the 
 good effects of which it is susceptible, a walk 
 must be taken either in pleasant company, or, if 
 alone, with pleasant thoughts ; or, still better, 
 with some agreeable end in view, such as gath- 
 ering plants, or minerals, or observing other 
 natural objects. Many a broken constitution has
 
 TEACHER'S CARE OF HIS HEALTH. 307 
 President Hitchcock.— Riding on horseback.— Garden. 
 
 been built up, and many a valuable life saved 
 and prolonged, by such a love of some branch of 
 natural history as has led to snatch every oppor- 
 tunity for a walk, with the interest of a delight- 
 
 ful study, 
 
 'Where living things, and things inanimate 
 Do speak, at Heaven's command, to eye and ear.' 
 
 The distinguished geologist of Massachusetts, 
 President Hitchcock, was once, when teacher of 
 a school, reduced to so low a state by disease of 
 the nerves, which took the ugly shape of dys- 
 pepsia, that he seemed to be hurrying rapidly 
 toward the grave. Fortunately, he became inter- 
 ested in mineralogy, and this gave him a strong 
 motive to spend all his leisure time in the open 
 air, and to take long circuits in every direction. 
 He forgot that he was pursuing health, in the 
 deeper interest of science ; and thus, aided by 
 some other changes in his habits, but not in his 
 pursuits, he gradually recovered the perfect 
 health which has enabled him to do so much for 
 science, and for the honor of his native State. 
 
 " Riding on horseback is one of the best modes 
 of exercise possible for a sedentary person. It 
 leads to an erect posture, throws open the chest 
 gives a fuller breathing, and exercises the mus- 
 cles of the arm and upper part of the framec 
 * * * In weakness of the digestive organs its 
 efficacy is remarkable. * * * 
 
 "J. garden furnishes many excellent forms of
 
 308 teacher's care of his health. 
 
 Farm labor.— Rowing.— Sawing and splitting wood. 
 
 exercise, and the numerous labors of a farm 
 ■would give every variety, if the teacher could be 
 in a situation to avail himself of them. This it 
 not often the case. When accessible, the rake^ 
 the pitchfork, moderately used, can not be too 
 highly recommended. A garden is within the 
 reach of most teachers in the country. It has 
 the advantage of supplying exercise suited to 
 every degree of strength, and of being filled with 
 objects gratifying to the eye and taste. * * * 
 The flower-garden and shrubbery commend them- 
 selves to the female teacher. To derive every 
 advantage from them, she must be willing to 
 follow the example often set by the ladies of 
 England, and use the hoe, the rake, the pruning- 
 hook, and the grafting-knife, with her own hands. 
 
 ^^ Rowing, when practicable, is a most health- 
 ful exercise. It gives play to every muscle and 
 bone in the frame. * * * When the river is 
 frozen, skating may take the place of rowing ; 
 and it is an excellent substitute. * * * Driv- 
 ing a chaise or a sleigh, is a healthful exercise, 
 if suflBcient precaution be used to guard against 
 the current which is always felt, as it is produced 
 by the motion of the vehicle, even in still air. 
 
 '' Sawing and splitting wood form a valuable 
 exercise, particularly important for those who 
 have left an active life for the occupation of 
 teaching. 
 
 "Exercise should be taken in the early part 
 of the day. Warren Colburn, the author of the
 
 TEACHER'S CARE OF HIS HEALTH. 309 
 "Warren Colbum.— In the morning.— In open air.— In the light. 
 
 Arithmetic, whose sagacity in common things 
 was as remarkable as his genius for numbers, 
 used to say, that half an hour's walk before 
 breakfast did him as much good as an hour's 
 after. Be an early riser. The air of morning is 
 more bracing and invigorating ; the sights, and 
 sounds, and odors of morning are more refresh- 
 ing. A life's experience in teaching declares the 
 morning best. * * * 
 
 "Exercise must always be taken, if possible, 
 in the open air. Air is as essential as exercise, 
 and often, in warm weather particularly, more so. 
 They belong together. The blood flows not as it 
 should, it fails to give fresh life to the brain, if 
 we breathe not fresh air enough. The spirits 
 can not enjoy the serene cheerfulness which the 
 teacher needs, if he breathe not fresh air enough. 
 The brain can not perform its functions ; thought 
 can not be quick, vigorous, and healthy, without 
 ample supplies of air. Much of the right moral 
 tone, of habitual kindliness and thankful rever- 
 ence, depends on the air of heaven. 
 
 "Exercise must be taken in the light; and if 
 it may be, in the sunshine. AVho has not felt 
 the benignant influence of sunshine ? The sun's 
 light seems almost as essential to our well-being 
 as his heat, or the air we breathe. It has a great 
 effect on the nerves. A distinguished physician 
 of great experience, Dr. J. C. Warren, of Boston, 
 tells me that he almost uniformly flnds diseases 
 that affect the nerves, exasperated by the dark-
 
 310 TEACHER'S CARE OF HIS HEALTH. 
 Cleanliness.— Water.— Sleep.— Six or eight hours. 
 
 ness of night and mitigated by the coming on 
 of day. All plants growing in the air lose their 
 strength and color when excluded from light. 
 So in a great degree does man. They lose their 
 fine and delicate qualities, and the preciousness 
 of their juices. Man loses the glow of his spirits, 
 and the warmth and natural play of his finer 
 feelings. * * * 
 
 "Next to air and light, water is the most 
 abundant element in nature. It can hardly be 
 requisite to enjoin upon the teacher the freest 
 use of it. The most scrupulous cleanliness is 
 necessary, not only on his own account, but that 
 he may be able always to insist upon it, with 
 authority, in his pupils. The healthy state of 
 the nerves, and of the functions of digestion, 
 depends in so great a degree on the cleanliness 
 of the skin, that its importance can hardly be 
 overstated. * * * 
 
 " Sleep. No more fatal mistake in regard to 
 his constitution can be made by a young person 
 given to study, than that of supposing that Nature 
 can be cheated of the sleep necessary to restore 
 its exhausted, or strengthen its weakened powers. 
 From six to eight hours of sleep are indispensa- 
 ble ; and with young persons, oftener eight or 
 more, than six. It is essential to the health of 
 the body, and still more to that of the mind. It 
 acts directly on the nervous system ; and irrita- 
 bility, or what is called nervousness, is the con- 
 sequence of its loss. This, bad in any person, is
 
 teacher's care of his health. 311 
 
 Diet.— Simple food.— Extremes in kind and quantity. 
 
 worse ill the teacher than in any one else. It is 
 an unfailing source of unhappiness to himself and 
 to all his school. He would be unwise to sub- 
 ject himself to the consequences of the loss of 
 sleep ; he has no right to subject others. * * * 
 
 "Diet. To no person is an attention to diet 
 more important than to the teacher. For his 
 own guidance, and that he may be able to give 
 proper instructions in regard to this subject to 
 his pupils, the conclusions of experience, or what 
 we may consider the laws of diet, should be 
 familiar to him. Some of these are the fol- 
 lowing : 
 
 "1. Food should be simple; not of too little 
 nor too great varietj^ The structure of the teeth, 
 resembling at once those of animals that natu- 
 rally subsist on flesh, and of animals that take 
 only vegetable food, and the character and length 
 of the digestive organs, holding a medium be- 
 tween the average of these two classes, indicate 
 that a variety of food, animal and vegetable, is 
 natural to man, and in most cases probably neces- 
 sary. The tendency in most parts of this coun- 
 try, from the great abundance of the necessaries 
 of life, is to go to excess in the consumption of 
 food, particularly of animal food. The striking 
 evils of this course have led many to the oppo- 
 site extreme — to renounce meats entirely. Expe- 
 rience of the evils of this course also has in 
 most cases brought men back to the safe me- 
 dium. No person needs to be more careful in
 
 312 TEACHER'S CARE OF HIS HEALTH. 
 True medium.— Taken at intervals.— Moderate quantity. 
 
 regard to the quality and nature of his food 
 than the teacher, as his exclusion from air for a 
 great part of the day leaves him in an unfit con- 
 dition to digest unwholesome food, while the 
 constant use of his lungs renders his appetite 
 unnaturally great, or destroys it altogether. 
 Animal food seems to be necessary, but not in 
 great quantities, nor oftener, usually, than once 
 a day, * * * Jn winter, the food should be 
 nourishing, and may be more abundant ; in sum- 
 mer, less nutritious, less of animal origin, and in 
 more moderate quantity, 
 
 "2. Food should be taken at sufficiently dis- 
 tant intervals. * * * The operation of diges- 
 tion is not completed, ordinarily, in less than four 
 hours. Food should not be taken at shorter 
 intervals than this ; and intervals of five or six 
 hours are better, as they leave the stomach some 
 time to rest. 
 
 " 3. It should be taken in moderate quantity. 
 In the activity of common life excess is less to 
 be dreaded than with the sedentary habits and 
 wearying pursuits of the teacher. * * * The 
 exhaustion of teaching is that of the nervous 
 power, and would seem to call for hours of quiet, 
 and freedom from care, with cheerful conversa- 
 tion, and the refreshment of air and gentle exer- 
 cise. Probably all the kinds of food in general 
 use are wholesome when partaken of moderately. 
 Those who, from choice or compulsion, pass from 
 an active to a sedentary life, should at the same
 
 TEACHER'S CARE OF HIS HEALTH. 313 
 Avoid fat.— Fruit.— Drink water. — At meals. 
 
 time restrict themselves to one half their accus- 
 tomed quantity of food. 
 
 "4. As a general rule, fat should be avoided. 
 * * * None but a person who takes a great deal 
 of most active exercise, or is much exposed to 
 cold, can long bear its use with impunity. If 
 taken, fat in a solid form is less injurious than 
 liquid fat. 
 
 " 5. Fruit may be eaten with the recollection 
 of the proverb of fruit-producing countries : ' It is 
 gold in the morning, silver at noon, and lead at 
 night.' Ripe fruit in its season is wholesome, and 
 preferable for a person of sedentary habits, to more 
 nourishing and exciting food. But it should be a 
 substitute for other food, not an addition. A bad 
 practice, common in some places, of eating fruit, 
 especially the indigestible dried fruits, raisins, 
 and nuts, in the evening, should be avoided by 
 the teacher. He must have quiet and uninter- 
 rupted sleep and early hours, to be patient, gen- 
 tle, and cheerful in school. 
 
 " 6. The drink of a sedentary person should 
 be chiefly water, and that in small quantities, 
 and only at meals. The intelligent Arab of the 
 desert drinks not during the heat of the day. 
 He sees that watering a plant in the sunshine 
 makes it wither ; and he feels in himself an anal- 
 ogous effect from the use of water. There are 
 few lessons in regard to diet so important to be 
 inculcated as this : ' Drink not between meals.' 
 
 " 7. The last rule to be observed is, that no
 
 314 teacher's care of his health. 
 
 Dress. — Clieerfuliiess. 
 
 unnecessary exertion of mind or body should be 
 used immediately after a meal. If a walk must 
 be taken, it should rather be a leisurely stroll than 
 a hurried walk. 
 
 "Dress. The teacher should be no sloven. 
 He should dress well, not over nicely, not extrav- 
 agantly ; neatly, for neatness he must teach by 
 example as well as by precept ; and warmly, for 
 so many hours of the day shut in a warm room 
 will make him unusually sensitive to cold. The 
 golden rule of health should never be forgotten : 
 ' Keep the head cool, the feet warm, and the body 
 free.' The dress of the feet is particularly im- 
 portant. Coldness or dampness of the feet causes 
 headache, weakness and inflammation of the 
 eyes, coughs, consumptions, and sometimes fe- 
 vers. A headache is often cured by sitting with 
 the feet long near a fire. Keeping the feet warm 
 and dry alleviates the common affections of the 
 eyes, repels a coming fever, prevents or quiets 
 coughs, and serves as one of the surest safe- 
 guards against consumption. Many of our most 
 sensible physicians trace the prevalence of con- 
 sumption in Northern States, not to our climate, 
 but to the almost universal custom of wearing 
 insufficient clothing, especially on the feet. 
 
 " There is another subject intimately connected 
 with health, which has been alluded to, but which 
 ought, from its importance, to receive more than 
 a passing remark. It is cheerfulness. This should 
 be one of the ends and measures of health. It
 
 teacher's care of his health. 315 
 
 Cause of low spirits.— A home.— Sociality. 
 
 ought to be considered the natural condition of a 
 healthy mind ; he who is not cheerful is not in 
 health. If he has not some manifest moral 
 cause of melancholy, there must be something 
 wrong in the body, or in the action of the powers 
 of the mind. 
 
 "A common cause of low spirits in a teacher 
 is anxiety in regard to the well-doing of his pu- 
 pils. This he must feel ; but he must endeavor, 
 as far as possible, to banish it from his hours of 
 relaxation. He must leave it behind him when 
 he turns from the school-house door. To prevent 
 its haunting him, he must seek pleasant society. 
 He must forget it among the endearments of 
 home, the cheerful faces and kind voices of 
 friends. This is the best of all resources, and 
 happy is the man who has a pleasant home, in 
 the bosom of which he may rest from labor and 
 from care. If he be among strangers, he must 
 endeavor to find or make friends to supply the 
 place of home. He must seek the company of 
 the parents and friends of his pupils, not only 
 that he may not be oppressed by the loneliness 
 of his situation, but that he may better under- 
 stand the character of his pupils and the influ- 
 ences to which they are subjected. The exercise 
 of the social affections is essential to the healthy 
 condition of a well-constituted mind. Often he 
 will find good friends and pleasant companions 
 among his pupils. Difference of years disappears 
 before kindliness of feeling, and sympathy may
 
 316 TEACHER'S CARE OF HIS HEALTH. 
 Music— A pernicious habit.— " Comforter." 
 
 exist between those most remote in age, and pur- 
 suit, and cultivation. 
 
 ******* 
 
 "A delightful, but somewhat dangerous recre- 
 ation is offered by music ; delightful, as always 
 soothing to the wearied mind ; but dangerous, 
 because liable to take to itself too much time. 
 It would be desirable if every instructor could 
 himself sing or play. If he can not, let him listen 
 to songs or cheerful music from voice or instru- 
 ment, or to the notes of birds. 
 
 " 'I'm sick of noise and care, and now mine ear 
 Longs for some air of peace.' " 
 
 To the foregoing excellent remarks, I could 
 scarcely wish to add any thing, save to call atten- 
 tion to that pernicious habit among both clergy- 
 men and teachers, of dressing the neck too 
 warmly whenever they go into the open air. 
 There seems to have obtained an impression that 
 those who have occasion to speak often, should 
 be peculiarly careful to guard their throats from 
 the cold. Hence many are seen in a winter's day 
 with a collar of fur, or a woolen "comforter," or 
 at least a silk handkerchief of extraordinary di- 
 mensions, around their necks, and often extend- 
 ing above their mouths and nostrils. If they 
 have occasion to step out but for a moment, they 
 are still subject to the slavery of putting on this 
 unnatural incumbrance.
 
 TEACHER'S CARE OF HIS HEALTH. 317 
 Bronchitis.—" Lung complaint."— Experience. 
 
 Now, I believe that this extra covering for the 
 neck, instead of preventing disease of the throat 
 and lungs, is one of the most fruitful sources of 
 such disease. These parts being thus thickly 
 covered during exercise, become very warm, and 
 an excessive local perspiration is excited ; and 
 the dampness of the throat is much increased if 
 the covering extends above the mouth and nose, 
 thus precluding the escape of the exhalations 
 from the lungs. When, therefore, this covering 
 is removed, even within-doors, a very rapid evap- 
 oration takes place, and a severe cold is the con- 
 sequence. In this way a cold is renewed every 
 day, and hoarseness of the throat and irritation 
 of the lungs is the necessary result. Very soon 
 the clergyman or teacher breaks down with the 
 bronchitis^ or the "lung complaint," and is obliged 
 for a season, at least, to suspend his labors. This 
 difficulty is very much enhanced, if the ordinary 
 neck-dress is a stiff stock, which, standing off 
 from the neck, allows the ingress of the cold air 
 as soon as the outer covering is removed. 
 
 Having suffered myself very severely from this 
 cause, and having seen hundreds of cases in 
 others, I was desirous to bear the testimony of 
 my experience against the practice, — and to sug- 
 gest to all who have occasion to speak long and 
 often that the simplest covering for the neck is 
 the best. A very light cravat is all that is neces- 
 sary. If the ordinary cravat be too thick and 
 too warm, as the large-sized white cravats, so
 
 318 TEACHER'S CARE OF HIS HEALTH. 
 Swaddling the neck. 
 
 fashionable with the clergy, usually are, during 
 the exercise of speaking, an unnatural flow of 
 blood to the parts will be induced, which, after 
 the exercise ceases, will be followed by debility 
 and prostration. A cold is then very readily taken, 
 and disease follows. I am confident, from my 
 own experience and immediate observation, that 
 this unnatural swaddling of the neck is one of 
 the most fruitful causes of disease of the lungs 
 and throat that can be mentioned.
 
 CHAPTER XIY. 
 
 teacher's relation to his profession. 
 
 IT has long been the opinion of the best minds 
 in our country, as well as in the most en- 
 lightened countries of Europe, that teaching 
 should be a profession. It has been alleged, and 
 with much justice, that this calling, which de- 
 mands for its successful exercise the best of tal- 
 ents, the most persevering energy, and the largest 
 share of self-denial, has never attained an appre- 
 ciation in the public mind at all commensurate 
 with its importance. It has by no means received 
 the emolument, either of money or honor, which 
 strict justice would award, in any other depart- 
 ment, to the talents and exertions required for 
 this. This having been so long the condition of 
 things, much of the best talent has been at- 
 tracted at once to the other professions; or, if 
 exercised awhile in this, the temptation of more 
 lucrative reward, or of more speedy, if not more 
 lasting honor, has soon diverted it from teaching, 
 where so little of either can be realized, to en- 
 gage in some other department of higher promise. 
 So true is this, that scarcely a man can be found, 
 having attained to any considerable eminence as 
 a teacher, who has not been several times solic-
 
 320 TEACHER'S RELATION" 
 
 Some noble souls. — Some small men.— Two evils. 
 
 ited — and perhaps strongly tempted — to engage 
 in some more lucrative employment ; and while 
 there have always been some strong men, who 
 have preferred teaching to any other calling,— 
 men who would do honor to any profession, and 
 who, while exercising this, have found that high- 
 est of all rewards, the consciousness of being 
 useful to others, — still it must be confessed that 
 teachers have too often been of just that class 
 which a knowledge of the circumstances might 
 lead us to predict would engage in teaching; 
 men of capacity too limited for the other pro- 
 fessions, of a temperament too sluggish to engage 
 in the labors of active employment, of manners 
 too rude to be tolerated except in the society of 
 children (!), and sometimes of a morality so per- 
 nicious, as to make them the unfailing contam- 
 inators of the young whenever permitted — not to 
 teach — but to "keep school." Thus, two great 
 evils have been mutually strengthening each 
 other. The indifference of the employers to the 
 importance of good teachers, and their parsimony 
 in meting out the rewards of teaching, have 
 called into the field large numbers, in the strict- 
 est sense, unworthy of all reward ; while this 
 very unworthiness of the teachers has been made 
 the excuse for further indifference, and, if pos- 
 sible, for greater meanness on the part of em- 
 ployers. Such has been the state of the case for 
 many years past, and such is, to a great extent, 
 the fact at present.
 
 TO HIS PEOFESSION. 321 
 
 Educational miHeniiium.— How ushered in?— Different views. 
 
 It has been the ardent wish of many philan- 
 thropists that this deplorable state of affairs 
 should be exchanged for a better. Hence, they 
 have urged that teaching should be constituted 
 a profession ; that none should enter this pro- 
 fession but those who are thoroughly qualified to 
 discharge the high trust ; and, as a consequence, 
 that the people should more liberally reward 
 and honor th )se Avho are thus qualified and em- 
 ployed. This would, indeed, be a very desirable 
 change ; it would be the educational millennium 
 of the world. For such a period, we all may well 
 devoutly pray. 
 
 But how shall this glorious age — not yet arrived 
 — be ushered in ? By whose agency, and by what 
 happy instrumentality must its approach be has- 
 tened ? Here, as in all great enterprises, there is 
 some difference of opinion. Some have urged 
 that the establishment of normal schools and 
 other seminaries for the better education of 
 teachers, and the institution of a more vigilant 
 system of supervision, by which our schools should 
 be effectually guarded against the intrusion of 
 the ignorant and inefficient teacher, is all that is 
 necessary to bring in this brighter day. Others 
 have zealously urged that such preparation and 
 such supervision are entirely superfluous and 
 premature in the present state of the public 
 mind. They say that the public must first be- 
 come more liberal in its appropriations for schools ; 
 it must at once double the amount it has been
 
 322 TEACHER'S RELATION 
 
 Truth between the extremes.— A mutual evil, and a mutual remedy. 
 
 accustomed to pay to teachers, and thus secure 
 to this vocation the best talent without further 
 trouble. To this the former class reply, that 
 the public has seldom been known to raise its 
 price, so long as its wants could be supplied at 
 the present rates. They say that the last century 
 has afforded ample opportunity for the exhibition 
 of this voluntary generosity of the public, and 
 yet we still wait to see this anomaly in human 
 prudence, of offering in advance to pay double 
 the price for the same thing ; for until better 
 teachers are raised up, it must be an advance 
 upon the present stock. So there is a division 
 among them, " for some cry one thing, and some 
 another." 
 
 Now, I believe, in this case as in most others, 
 the truth lies between the extremes. As the 
 evil complained of is a mutual one, as has already 
 been shown, — that is, an illiberal public has toler- 
 ated incompetent teachers, and the incompetence 
 of teachers has enhanced in turn the parsimony 
 of the public, — so the remedy must be a mutual 
 one ; the public must be enlightened and teachers 
 must be improved ; the pay of teachers must be 
 raised, but there must be also something to war- 
 rant the higher rate. Nor is it easy to determine 
 which shall begin first. We can hardly expect 
 the people to pay more, till they find an article 
 worth more ; nor, on the other hand, can we 
 expect the teachers to incur any considerable 
 outlay to improve themselves, until better encour-
 
 TO HIS PROFESSION". 323 
 
 Teachers should elevate their caUing.— Encouragements. 
 
 agement shall be held out to them by theh 
 employers. The two must generally proGeed to- 
 gether. Just as m. the descending scale^ inere 
 was a mutual downward tendency, so here, bet- 
 ter service will command better pay, and in turn, 
 the liberality of employers will stimulate the 
 employed to still higher attainments in knowledge 
 and greater exertions in their labors. 
 
 In this condition of things, the question recurs, 
 What is the duty of teachers in relation to their 
 calling? I answer, they are bound to do what 
 they can to elevate it. Lord Bacon said, "Every 
 man owes a debt to his profession." Teachers 
 being supjjosed to be more intelligent than the 
 mass of the community, may justly take the 
 lead in the work of XDrogress. They should, as a 
 matter of duty, take hold of this work, — a work 
 of sacrifice and self-denial as it will be, at least 
 for some time, — and heartily do what they can 
 to magnify their office and make it honorable. 
 In the meantime they may do what they can 
 to arouse the people to a sense of their duty. 
 The more enlightened are to some extent with 
 them already. The press, the pulpit, the legisla- 
 tive assemblies, all proclaim that something must 
 be done. AU admit the faithful teacher hus not 
 been duly rewarded, and some are found who 
 are willing to do something for the improvement 
 both of the mind and condition of the teacher. 
 This is encouraging ; and while we rejoice at the 
 few gleams of light that betoken our dawning,
 
 324 TEACHER'S RELATION 
 
 Public safety restricts membership of professions. 
 
 let US inquire, for a little space, how we can 
 hasten the "coming in of the perfect day." 
 
 Any one who will may become a tailor, a 
 carpenter, or a mason ; but the practice of sur- 
 gery, dentistry, and law, is restricted to a privi- 
 leged few. Why are there thus open occupations 
 (trades), and closed occupations (professions) ? 
 The reason lies in the fact that it is easy to 
 judge of the quality of the service rendered in 
 one case, and very difficult in the other ; or that 
 the public needs no formal protection against 
 the incompetence of masons, while there is need 
 of such protection against the incompetence of 
 surgeons. It is therefore a measure of public 
 safety that restricts the membership of profes- 
 sions to those who have given a formal proof of 
 their competence. 
 
 On the other hand, as it requires a high grade 
 of ability, a high degree of skill and peculiar 
 knowledge, that can be obtained only at a great 
 expense of time, labor, and money, to become 
 qualified for the dil3icult and highly responsible 
 duties of a profession, some hope of reward must 
 be held out to induce men to undertake this 
 arduous preparation. The most direct way to 
 insure this reward has been found to be to pro- 
 tect such men by cutting off unjust competition ; 
 and this is effected by forbidding the incompe- 
 tent to practice. It thus happens that by pro' 
 tecting the professions, society protects itself ; 
 and that the lowering of professional standards
 
 TO HIS PROFESSION. 325 
 
 Teaching reqviires to be treated as a profession. 
 
 is equivalent to exposing the public to the dan- 
 gers of incompetence and pretense. 
 
 So long as we regard general scholarship as 
 constituting fitness for teaching, it is merely an 
 occupation open to all the well educated. But, 
 under the conception that to scholarship must 
 be added skill and science, and that these ele- 
 ments of fitness are of difficult attainment, there 
 emerges the notion that the public should be 
 protected in their dearest interests against in- 
 competence and pretense ; and, as in the cases 
 cited, the measure of public protection will be in 
 exact ratio to the teacher's protection against 
 unjust competition ; so that the whole case may 
 be summed up as follows : 
 
 1. Skill gained through the study of educa- 
 tional science, should be counted as the pro- 
 fessional mark of competence for teaching. 
 
 2. The practice of teaching should be gradu- 
 ally restricted to those who furnish formal proof 
 of this professional competence. 
 
 3. This protection against unjust competition 
 will attract men and women of talent into the 
 profession of teaching. 
 
 4. There will be a gradual rise in the degree 
 of public protection against incompetence in 
 teaching. 
 
 SECTION I.— SELF-CULTURE. 
 
 The teacher should labor diligently to improve 
 himself. This is a duty incumbent on all persons,
 
 326 TEACHER'S RELATION 
 
 Teachers should possess general Informatioii. 
 
 but particularly upon the teacher. The very nat- 
 ure of his employment demands that his mind 
 should be frequently replenished from the store- 
 houses of knowledge. To interest children in 
 their studies, how necessary is it that the teacher's 
 mind should be thoroughly furnished with the 
 richest thoughts of the wise ; to inspire them 
 with a desire to learn, how important that he 
 should be a living example of the advantage and 
 enjoyment which learning alone can bestow ; to 
 strew the path of knowledge with flowers, and 
 thus make it the path of pleasantness, how de- 
 sirable that he should abound with the aptest 
 illustrations, drawn from all that is wonderful 
 and curious in nature and art ; to awaken the 
 young mind to a consciousness of its capacities, 
 its wants, its responsibilities, how thoroughly 
 should he know all the workings of the human 
 soul, — ^how wisely and carefully should he touch 
 the springs of action, — how judiciously should he 
 call to his aid the conscience and the religious 
 feelings 1 
 
 Besides, let it be remembered that in this, as 
 in other things, the teacher's example is of great 
 importance. The young will be very likely to 
 judge of the importance of their own improve- 
 ment by the estimate the teacher practically 
 places upon his ; nor can he, with any good 
 grace, press his pupils to exertion, while they 
 see that he makes none whatever himself. 
 
 There is great danger, in the midst of the
 
 TO HIS PROFESSION. 327 
 
 Stagnation accounted for.— The teacher has time. 
 
 confinement and fatigue of the school-room, and 
 the pressure of anxiety and care out of school, 
 that the teacher will yield to the temptations of 
 his position, and fall into habits of indolence as 
 to his own improvement. Compelled, as he often 
 is, to labor at great disadvantage, by reason of a 
 small and poorly furnished school-room ; confined 
 through the day from the sunshine and the fresh 
 breeze ; subjected to a constant pressure ot duty 
 amid untold trials of his patience, arising from 
 the law that impels children to be active as well 
 as inconsiderate ; required to concentrate his 
 powers upon the double duty of governing and 
 teaching at the same instant, and all through 
 the session, — it is not strange, when the hour of 
 release comes, that he should seek rest or recrea- 
 tion at the nearest point, even to the neglect of 
 his own mental or moral culture. I am of the 
 opinion that this accounts for the fact that so 
 many persons enter the work of instruction, and 
 continue in it for a longer or a shorter period, 
 without making the slightest progress either in 
 the art of teaching or in their own intellectual 
 growth. Their first school, indeed, is often their 
 best. This tendency or temptation, incident to 
 the calling, it is the teacher's duty constantly 
 and manfully to resist. He can do it, 
 
 1. He has the time to do it. He is usually 
 required to spend but six hours in the day in 
 the school-room. Suppose he add two hours
 
 828 TEACHER'S RELATION 
 
 Illustrated.— Punctuality in all things. 
 
 more for the purpose of looking over his lessons 
 and devising plans for improving his school, — he 
 will still have sixteen hours for sleep, exercise, 
 recreation, and improvement. Eight hours are 
 sufficient for sleep, especially for a sedentary 
 man (some say less), and four will provide for 
 meals, exercise, and recreation. Four still re- 
 main for improvement. Any teacher who is 
 systematic and economical in the use of his 
 time, can reserve, for the purpose of his own 
 improvement, four hours in every twenty-four^ 
 and this without the slightest detriment to his 
 school duties, or to his health. To be sure, he 
 must lead a regular life. He must have a plan, 
 and systematically follow it. He must be punct- 
 ual^ at his school, at his meals, at his exercise 
 or recreation, at his hour of retiring and rising, 
 and at his studies. Nor should he ordinarily de- 
 vote more time than I have mentioned directly 
 to his school. He should labor with his whole 
 soul while he does work, and he will the more 
 heartily do this, if he has had time to think of 
 something else during the season of respite from 
 labor. It is a great mistake that teachers make 
 when they thinic they will be more successful 
 by devoting all their thoughts to their schools. 
 Very soon the school comes to occupy their 
 sleeping as well as waking hours, and trouble- 
 some dreams disturb the repose of night. Such 
 men must soon ivear out. 
 
 But according to the laws of our nature, by
 
 TO HIS PROFESSION. 329 
 
 Immediate reward.— Proof.— Z/bw) to improve. 
 
 a change of occupation the jaded faculties find 
 rest. By taking up some new subject of inquiry, 
 the intehect is reheved from the sense of fatigue 
 which before oppressed it, the thoughts play freely 
 again, the animation returns, the eye kindles, and 
 the mind expands. 
 
 2. Such labor finds immediate reivard. The 
 consciousness of growth is no small thing toward 
 encouraging the teacher. He feels that he is no 
 longer violating his nature by allowing himself 
 to stagnate. Then he will find every daj^ that 
 he can apply the newly-acquired truth to the 
 illustration of some principle he is attempting to 
 teach. He has encouraging and immediate proof 
 that he is a better teacher, and that he has made 
 himself so by timely exertion. He is thus again 
 stimulated to rise above those temptations before 
 described, — this immediate availability of his ac- 
 quirements being vouchsafed to the teacher, as it 
 is not to most men, in order to prompt him to 
 stem the current which resists his progress. 
 
 And now, if I have shown that a teacher is 
 bound to improve himself, both from a regard to 
 his own well-being, and the influence of his exam- 
 ple upon others, — and if I have also shown that he 
 can improve himself, I may be indulged in mak- 
 ing a few suggestions as to the manner of his 
 doing it. 
 
 1. He should Jiare a course of professioncU 
 reading. It will do much for his improvement to 
 read the works of those who have written on the
 
 330 TEACHER'S RELATION 
 
 A course of professional reading.— The bookB. 
 
 subject of education, and the art of teaching. If 
 possible, he should collect and possess a small 
 educational library. It will be of great service to 
 him to be able to read more than once such 
 suggestions as are abundantly contained in the 
 "School and School-master," by Potter and Em- 
 erson ; the " Teacher," by Abbott ; " Lectures," by 
 Horace Mann ; " Lectures of the American Insti- 
 tute of Instruction ; " " Thoughts on Education," 
 by John Locke ; " Education," by Spencer ; " Es- 
 says on Educational Reformers," by Quick ; 
 " Emile," by Rousseau ; " Leonard and Gertrude," 
 by Pestalozzi ; "Education as a Science," by 
 Bain ; " John Amos Comenius," " Primary In- 
 struction," and the "Training of Teachers," by 
 Laurie ; " Home Education," by Isaac Taylor ; 
 "Household Education," by Miss Martineau ; "The 
 Cyclopedia of Education," by Kiddle and Schem ; 
 "Theory and Practice of Teaching," and "Edu- 
 cation and School," by Thring ; "Day Dreams of 
 a School-master," by Thompson ; " School Man- 
 agement," by Landon ; " Lectures on Teaching," 
 by Fitch ; " Histoire de la Pedagogic," by Com- 
 payre ; " Levana," by Richter ; " School and In- 
 dustrial Hygiene," by Lincoln ; " The Law of 
 Public Schools," by Burke ; the writings, if they 
 can be obtained, of Wyse, of Cousin, of Lalor, of 
 Lord Brougham on Education, together with such 
 other works as are known to contain sound and 
 practical views. It is not to be expected that 
 every teacher will possess all these, or that he
 
 TO HIS PROFESSION. 331 
 
 A course of general study.— One thing at a time. 
 
 will read them all in a single term. But it is 
 well to hold converse with other minds, and to 
 have it in our power to review their best thoughts 
 whenever our own need refreshing. I have given 
 a somewhat extended list of books, because the 
 inquiry is now so often made by teachers, what 
 they shall read. 
 
 2. By pursuing systematically a course of 
 general study. Many teachers who have a desire 
 to improve themselves, still fritter away their 
 time upon little miscellaneous matters, without 
 making real progress. It is well in this to have 
 a plan. Let some one study, — it may be geology, 
 or astronomy, or chemistry, or botany, or the 
 pure mathematics, — let some one study receive 
 constant attention till no mean attainments have 
 been made in it. By taking one thing at a time, 
 and diligently pursuing it, at the end of a term 
 the teacher feels that he has something to show 
 for his labor, — and he is, by the advance already 
 made, prepared to take the next and more diffi- 
 cult step. In a course of years, while a neighbor, 
 who began teaching at the same tinae, has been 
 stagnating or even retrograding, for the want of 
 a plan and a purpose, a diligent man, by system 
 and perseverance, may make himself at least 
 equal to many who have enjoyed better advan 
 tages in early life, and at the same time have 
 the superadded enjoyment of feeling that he has 
 been his own teacher. 
 
 3. Keep a journal or commonplace-hook. The
 
 332 TEACHER'S RELATION 
 
 A journal or commonplace-book.— Wliy ?— A demonstration. 
 
 habit of composing daily is very valuable to the 
 teacher. In this book he may record whatever 
 plans he has devised with their results in practice 
 He may enter remarkable cases of discipline, — ^in 
 short, any thing which, in the course of his prac- 
 tice, he finds interesting. Those valuable sugges- 
 tions which he receives from others, or hints that 
 he may derive from books, may be epitomized 
 here, and thus be treasured up for future refer- 
 ence. Sometimes one's best thoughts fade from 
 his own mind, and he has no power to recall 
 them. Such a book would preserve them, and 
 would, moreover, show the character of one's 
 thoughts at any particular period, and the 2^rogress 
 of thought, from one period to another, better 
 than any other means.* 
 
 To these means of self-culture I would add 
 the practice of carefully reading and writing on 
 chosen subjects, more fully described in the chap- 
 ter on Habits of the Teacher. 
 
 By all these means and such others as may 
 come within his reach, if a teacher succeeds in 
 his attempts at progress, he does much for his 
 profession. The very fact that he has given prac- 
 tical demonstration that a man may teach and 
 still improve ; that the temptations of his profes- 
 sion may be resisted and overcome ; that the life 
 of the pedagogue which has required him to keep 
 the company of small minds, and to be occupied 
 
 * For further remarks on the Commonplace-book, see Chap. \'iil., 
 p. 142. Note.
 
 TO HIS PROFESSION. 333 
 
 Encouragement to others.— Mutual aid.— Selfishness. 
 
 with minute objects, has never prevented his 
 holding communion with the greatest men our 
 earth has known, nor circumscribed in the least 
 the sphere of his grasping research, — I say the 
 very fact that h(3 has thus shown what a man 
 may do under such circumstances, may do much 
 to encourage others to like effort. 
 
 But there are other and direct duties which he 
 owes to his profession, which I proceed to consider 
 under the head of 
 
 SECTION II.— MUTUAL AID. 
 
 Every teacher should be willing to impart as 
 well as to receive good. No one, whatever may 
 be his personal exertions, can monopolize all the 
 wisdom of the world. The French have a proverb 
 that " Everybodj^ is wiser than anj^body." Acting 
 on this principle, the teacher should be willing to 
 bring his attainments into the common stock, 
 and to diffuse around him, as far as he is able, 
 the light he possesses. I have no language with 
 which to express my abhorrence of that selfish- 
 ness, which prompts a man, after attaining to 
 some eminence as a teacher by the free use of 
 all the means within his reach, self-complacently 
 to stand aloof from his fellow-teachers, as if he 
 would say, " Brethren, help yourselves — I have no 
 need of you, and you have no claim upon me. 
 I have toiled hard for my eminence, and the 
 secret is with me. I will enjoy it alone. When
 
 334 teachek's relation 
 
 An exclusive spirit— witliout excuse.— Mutual visitation. 
 
 you have toiled as long, you may be as wise. 
 Brethren, help yourselves." Such a spirit would 
 perhaps be tolerated by the world in an avaricious 
 man, who had labored to treasure up the shining 
 dust of earth. But no man may innocently mo- 
 nopolize knowledge. The light of the sun is shed 
 in golden refulgence upon every man, and no one 
 if he would, may separate a portion for his own 
 exclusive use, by closing his shutters about him, — 
 for that moment, his light becomes darkness. It 
 is thus with the light of knowledge. Like the 
 air we breathe, or like the rain from heaven, it 
 should be free to all. The man who would lock 
 up the treasures of learning from the gaze of the 
 whole world, whether in the tomes of some dusty 
 library, as of old it was done, or in the recesses 
 of his narrower soul, is unworthy of the name 
 of man ; he certainly has not the spirit of the 
 teacher. 
 
 An exclusive spirit may be borne where meaner 
 things, as houses, and lands, and gold, are at 
 stake; but in education and religion — light and 
 love, — where giving doth not impoverish nor with- 
 holding make rich, there is not even the shadow 
 of an excuse for it. The man who is exclusive in 
 these things, would be so, I fear, in heaven. 
 
 How can teachers encourage each other ? 
 
 1. By mutual visitation. Very much may be 
 done by social intercourse. Two teachers can 
 scarcely converse together an hour without bene- 
 fiting each other. The advantages of intercourse
 
 TO HIS PROFESSION. 335 
 
 Dr. Young.— Even one's faults may instruct us. 
 
 with friends, as delineated by Dr. Young, may not 
 be denied to teachers : 
 
 "Hast thou no friend to set thy mind abroach? 
 Good sense will stagnate. Thoughts shut up want air. 
 And spoil like bales imopened to the sun. 
 Had thought been all, sweet speech had been denied. 
 
 Thought, too, delivered, is the more possessed: 
 Teaching, we leam; and giving, we retain 
 The births of intellect; when diimb, forgot 
 Speech ventilates our intellectual fire ; 
 Speech burnishes our mental magazine. 
 Brightens for ornament, and whets for use." 
 
 But not only should teachers visit one another, — 
 it is profitable also for them to visit each other's 
 schools. I have never spent an hour in the school 
 of another without gaining some instruction. 
 Sometimes a new way of illustrating a difficult 
 point, sometimes an exhibition of tact in manag- 
 ing a difficult case in discipline, sometimes an 
 improved method of keeping up the interest in 
 a class, would suggest the means of making my 
 own labors the more successful. And even should 
 one's neighbor be a bad teacher, one may some- 
 times learn as much from witnessing glaring de- 
 fects as great excellences. Some of the most 
 profitable lessons I have ever received, have been 
 drawn from the deficiences of a fellow teacher. 
 We seldom "see ourselves as others see us"; and 
 we are often insensible of our own faults till we 
 have seen them strikingly exhibited by another; 
 and then by a comparison we correct our own. 
 
 Besides, by a visitation of a friend's school we 
 may not only receive good, but we may impart
 
 336 TEACHER'S RELATION 
 
 Stated teachers' meetings. — Their use.— Employ the pen. 
 
 it. If there is mutual confidence, a few words 
 may aid him to correct his faults, if he has any, 
 — faults which, but for such suggestion, might 
 ^row into confirmed habits, to his permanent 
 injury. 
 
 So important is this mutual visitation among 
 teachers, as a means of improvement, that I 
 doubt not employers would find it for their in- 
 terest to encourage it, by allowing the teachers 
 to set apart an occasional half day for this 
 purpose. 
 
 It would, moreover, be very useful for the 
 teachers of a town to hold stated meetings, as 
 often as once a month, for the purpose of mu- 
 tual improvement. It would cultivate a fellow- 
 feeling among them, and it would afford them 
 an opportunity to exchange thoughts on most of 
 the difficulties which they meet in their schools, 
 and the best methods of surmounting them. At 
 these meetings, a mutual exchange of books on 
 the subject of teaching, would extend the facih- 
 ties of each for improving his own mind, and 
 his methods of instruction and government. 
 
 2. By the use of the pen. Every teacher 
 should be a ready writer. Nearly every teacher 
 could gain access to the columns of some paper, 
 through which he could impart the results of his 
 experience, or of his reflection. Such a course 
 would benefit him specially, and, at the same 
 time, it would awaken other minds to thought 
 and action. In this way the attention, not only
 
 TO HIS PROFESSION. 337 
 
 Teachers' Associations.— Institutes.— Their utility. 
 
 of teachers, but also of parents, would be called to 
 the great work of education. One mind in this 
 way might move a thousand. If a teacher does 
 not feel qualified to instruct, let him inquire, and 
 thus call out the wisdom of others. This could 
 be done in nearly every village. The press is 
 almost always ready to promote the cause of edu- 
 cation. By the use of it, teachers may profitably 
 discuss all the great questions pertaining to their 
 duty, and at the same time enlighten the com- 
 munity in which they live. This is an instru- 
 mentality as yet too little employed. 
 
 3. By Teachers' Associations or Institutes. 
 These are peculiarly adapted to the diffusion of 
 tne best plans of instruction. Rightly conducted, 
 they can never fail of being useful. Every man 
 who lectures or teaches, is profited by the prep- 
 aration. If he is a man of wisdom and experi- 
 ence, he will benefit his hearers. If otherwise, 
 the discussion, which should ever follow a lect- 
 ure, will expose its fallacies. It has often hap- 
 pened, in such associations, that an honest and 
 experienced man has, in a half-hour, given to the 
 younger portion of the members, lessons of wis- 
 dom which it would take them years to learn by 
 their own observation. Errors in principle and 
 practice have been exposed, into which many a 
 young teacher was unconsciously falling, and 
 hints have been given to the quicker minds, by 
 which their own modes of teaching and govern- 
 ing have been speedily improved.
 
 338 TEACHER'S RELATION 
 
 Should be practical.— A perversion.— Talk. 
 
 As far as possible, such meetings should be 
 made strictly practical. The older teachers, who 
 usually have the most to do with the manage- 
 ment of them, should bear in mind that they are 
 mainly designed to diffuse practical ideas of 
 teaching, particularly among the younger mem- 
 bers. Too often these meetings are made the 
 arena of debate upon questions of very little 
 practical importance to the teacher. I have seen 
 a body of men spend an entire session of a half- 
 day, in discussing a series of over-wrought reso- 
 lutions, upon some topic scarcely at all connected 
 with any duty of the teacher, frequently leaving 
 the main question to wrangle about some point 
 of order, or of " parliamentary usage " ; and after 
 the resolutions were passed or rejected, as the 
 case might be, — (and it was of very little conse- 
 quence whether " carried " or " lost," ) — the ladies 
 and younger teachers, who had borne no part in 
 the talk^ would find it difficult to tell " wherefore 
 they had come together." Nothing had been said 
 or done, by which they could be aided in their 
 schools. Lecturers, too, have frequently mistaken 
 their aim. Ambitious to shine out as literary 
 men, they have given orations instead of practi- 
 cal lessons. In these meetings, it seems to me, 
 nothing ostentatious, nothing far-fetched is what 
 we need ; but rather tlje modes and experience 
 of practical men. We need to come down to 
 the school-room, to the every-day business of 
 the teacher, and thus prepare him to do his
 
 TO HIS PROFESSION. 339 
 
 Encouragement by meeting friends.— Illustration.— PTO/■e8«^07^a^ feeling. 
 
 work more successfully on his return to his 
 duties. 
 
 Another, and no inconsiderable advantage of 
 such associations, is, that the teacher gains en- 
 couragement and strength, by being thus brought 
 in contact with, others engaged in the same pur- 
 suit. Toiling on alone, in his isolated district, 
 surrounded by obstacles and discouragements, 
 weighed down by care, and finding none to sym- 
 pathize with him, he is almost ready to faint in 
 his course, and perhaps to abandon his calling. 
 At this crisis, he reads the notice for the teach- 
 ers' meeting, and he resolves to go up once more 
 to the gathering of his friends. From the various 
 parts of the county, from the populous and 
 crowded city, and from the by-ways of the 
 country towns, a goodly number collect together 
 and greet each other. Smile answers to smile, 
 the blood courses more freely through the veins, 
 the spirits, long depressed perhaps, partake of 
 the general glow, and each feels that he is not 
 toiling alone. He feels that a noble brotherhood 
 of kindred spirits are laboring in the same field, 
 under trials and discouragements similar to those 
 which have oppressed him. He derives new 
 strength from the sympathy of friends. 
 
 A professional feeling is engendered, which 
 will accompany him to his school-room ; and 
 when he goes home, it is with renewed vigor 
 and fresh aspirings to be a better man, and a 
 better teacher. He labors with more confidence
 
 840 TEACHER'S RELATION 
 
 Pupils work better.— Objects of Teachers' Institute. 
 
 in himself ; and, enlightened by what he has 
 seen and heard, he is far more successful than 
 before. His pupils, too, respond to the new life 
 they see enkindling in him, and go to their work 
 more cheerfully. One difficulty after another 
 vanishes, and he begins to think teaching, after 
 all, is not the worst employment in the world, 
 but that it has some flowers as well as thorns ; 
 and he concludes to remain in the profession. 
 This has been the history of at least one man. 
 Long may many others have occasion to exer- 
 cise gratitude like his, for the enjoyment of sim- 
 ilar privileges. 
 
 The Teachers' Institute may be defined as a 
 normal school having a very short course of 
 study. Owing to this limitation of time, instruc- 
 tion must be given mainly by lecture, and must 
 bear on methods and principles rather than on 
 subjects. It should not be presumed that an 
 Institute can make any considerable addition to 
 a teacher's general scholarship ; but it may and 
 should do the following things : 
 
 1. It should make clear the nature of educa- 
 tion and of instruction, and the purposes of the 
 school. 
 
 2. It should present the best current methods 
 of instructing and governing. 
 
 3. It should awaken a zeal in teaching, and 
 provoke to higher attainments in scholarship, 
 
 4. Perhaps the Institute has done its best work 
 if it has led to what may be called the intel-
 
 TO HIS PROFESSION. 341 
 
 limitations. — Experience must be truly stated. 
 
 lectual conversion of its members ; that is, if it 
 has induced a love for the vocation of the scholar. 
 
 The Teacners' Institute is subject to serious 
 hmitations, such as the shortness of its term, the 
 method by which the instruction must be given, 
 and the too often aimless nature of the attend- 
 ance ; but despite these drawbacks, there is proba- 
 bly no agency now at work, which is so efficient 
 in disseminating improved methods, and in rais- 
 ing the general tone of educational thought. 
 
 I ought not to leave this subject without a 
 word or two of caution. 
 
 1. Be honest. In all your intercourse with 
 your fellow-teachers, be careful to use the words 
 of "truth and soberness." In stating your expe- 
 rience, never allow your fancy to embellish your 
 facts. Of this there is great danger. The young 
 are sometimes tempted to tell a good story ; but 
 a deviation from the truth — always perilous and 
 always wrong — may be peculiarly disastrous here. 
 Experience overstated, may egregiously mislead 
 the unwary inquirer after truth. Never over- 
 color the picture ; it is better to err on the 
 other side. 
 
 So, likewise, in exhibiting your school to fellow- 
 teachers, be strictly honest. They come to learn 
 from your every-day practice, and not from a 
 counterfeit ; and whenever you dress your school 
 in a showy garb, to win the applause of a fellow- 
 teacher, you do him a great injustice. You may 
 not please your friend so much by your ordinary
 
 342 TEACHER'S RELATION 
 
 "Nothing extraordvimry.'''' — Avoid imitation. 
 
 mode, as by something assumed for the occa- 
 sion ; but you may profit him far more ; and in 
 the end, you lose nothing by pursuing the hne 
 of duty. 
 
 I well remember, that a somewhat distin- 
 guished teacher once visited my own school, who, 
 on going away, expressed himself somewhat dis- 
 appointed, because he did not see any thing "ea;- 
 traordinary ^''^ as he said, in my mode of pro- 
 cedure. The truth was, nothing extraordinary 
 was attempted. He saw what I wished to show 
 him, an ordinary day's work ; for I had before 
 that time imbibed the opinion, that a man's repu- 
 tation will be more firmly established, by sustain- 
 ing every day a fair mediocrity, than it ever can 
 be by an attempt to outdo himself on a few special 
 occasions. As the value of biographical writing 
 is often very much diminished, because the writer 
 has endeavored to paint his character too perfect 
 to be human, — so these visitations will lose their 
 utility, whenever, by substituting hollow preten- 
 sion for sober reality, the teacher endeavors to 
 exhibit such a school as he does not daily keep. 
 
 2. Avoid servile imitation of any model. It is 
 often remarked, that every man's plan is the best 
 for him ; and that many besides David can never 
 fight in Saul's armor. This is generally true. All 
 experience, then, should be considered, in connec- 
 tion with the circumstances under which it was 
 tried, never forgetting the character and genius of 
 the person who relates it. What might succeed
 
 TO HIS PROFESSION. 343 
 
 Adapt rather than adopt another's plans.— Avoid self-sufficiency. 
 
 in his hand, may fail in yours ; particularly, as 
 you will lack the interest of an original inventor. 
 
 The true secret lies in listening to the views 
 of all, and then in making a judicious combina- 
 tion to meet your own character, and your own 
 circumstances. It is often better to adjust and 
 adapt the plan of another, than to adopt it. 
 Servile imitation precludes thought in the teacher, 
 and reduces him to a mere machine. The most 
 successful teachers I have ever known, were those 
 who would listen attentively to the plans and 
 experience of others, and then strike out a course 
 for themselves, attempting that, and that only, 
 which they were confident they could successfully 
 execute. 
 
 3. Avoid undue self-sufficiency. Men usually 
 cease to learn, when they think they are wise 
 enough. The teacher is in danger of falling into 
 this error. Moving for the most part among chil- 
 dren, where his decisions are seldom questioned, 
 he is veiy apt to attach undue importance to his 
 own opinions. Such a man meets his fellows 
 with much self-complacency, and is but poorly 
 prepared to be profited by the views of others. 
 But the teacher should never cease to be teach- 
 able. There are very few men too old, or too 
 wise, to learn something ; and they are the wisest, 
 if not the oldest, who are willing to welcome a 
 real improvement, even though it should come 
 from comparative "babes and sucklings," out of 
 tvhose mouths God has sometimes perfected praise.
 
 CHAPTER XY. 
 
 MISCELLANEOUS SUGGESTIONS. 
 
 ON looking over the notes which I have at 
 various times made of my own experience 
 and observation, during twenty years of practical 
 teaching, I find there are several thoughts which 
 may be of some service to the young teacher, 
 and which have not been introduced under any 
 of the general topics of this volume. I have 
 therefore thought best to introduce a special 
 chapter, with the above title, where I might law- 
 fully bring together, without much regard to 
 method, such varied hints as may convey to 
 some reader a useful lesson. Some of these 
 hints will refer to faults which should be care- 
 fully avoided^ while others will point out some 
 duties to be performed. 
 
 SECTION I.— THINGS TO BE AVOIDED. 
 
 1. Guard against prejudice on entering a 
 school. It is not always safe to rely upon first 
 impressions as to character. At the opening of 
 a school, perhaps fifty individuals, for the first 
 time, are brought before the teacher. Some of 
 them are from humble life, and, perhaps, bear
 
 MISCELLANEOUS SUGGESTIONS. 345 
 
 Danger of prejudice.— Its injustice.— Why? 
 
 upon them the marks of parental neglect. Their 
 persons and their clothing may present nothing 
 to attract and gratify the eye of a stranger. 
 Little accustomed to society, they exhibit an 
 awkward bashfulness, or an impertinent forward- 
 ness, in their manner. Contrasted with these, 
 others appear who have been the children of 
 indulgence, and who have seen much more of 
 the world. A more expensive garb attracts the 
 eye ; a more easy and familiar address, conform- 
 ing to the artificial modes of society, is very 
 likely to win the heart. The teacher is very 
 prone to find his feelings committed in favor of 
 the latter class, and against the former. But 
 this is all wrong. A judgment thus hastily 
 formed is extremely hazardous, — as a few days' 
 acquaintance will usually show. The child of 
 blunt or shy demeanor often has the truest 
 heart, — a heart whose sentiments go out by the 
 shortest course, — a heart that has never learned 
 the artificial forms of the world, because it has 
 never felt the need of them. And how unjust 
 to the child is a prejudice founded on the cir- 
 cumstance of dress ! Must the inability or 
 neglect of his parent be doubly visited on him? 
 Is it not enough that he daily feels the inward 
 mortification of a contrast with his more favored 
 school-fellows ? Must he be painfully reminded of 
 it by discovering that his teacher repels him on 
 that account, and bestows his kindliest smiles upon 
 those who are " the brightest and best clad " ?
 
 S46 MISCELLANEOUS SUGGESTIONS. 
 
 Pupils not to direct their studies.— Tliis the teacher's proviiice. 
 
 And yet, such unjust prejudice is common ; 
 wrong and unfeeling as it is, it is too common. 
 A fine dress, and a clean face, and a graceful 
 manner, I know, are attractive ; but the teacher 
 has to do with the mind and the heart ; — and he 
 should never be deterred by any thing exterior, 
 from making a diligent and patient search for 
 good qualities which have their home behind the 
 surface, — and he should ever possess a smile as 
 cordial and a tone as parental for the neglected 
 child of poverty and ignorance, as for the more 
 favored son of wealth and ease, 
 
 2. Do not allow your pupils to direct their 
 own studies. Whatever their age may be, they 
 are seldom capable of doing this. It is the aim 
 of the young to get over a long course of study. 
 They are usually pleased to belong to higher 
 classes, before they have mastered the branches 
 taught in the lower. If children are suffered to 
 direct their own studies, they usually make 
 themselves very poor scholars. This is the bane 
 of many of our select schools and academies, 
 where the teacher yields this right in order to 
 Secure pupils and a salary. But no one, not even 
 the parent, is as competent as the teacher ought 
 to be, to direct in this matter. He has the best 
 opportunity, daily, to fathom the pupil's attain- 
 ments, and to understand his deficiencies. He 
 may claim the right to direct. In case the pupil 
 withstands his decision, the teacher should appeal 
 to the parent, and endeavor there to sustain his
 
 MISCELLANEOUS SUGGESTIONS. 347 
 A mistake.— An egregious evil in all schools.— Illustrated. 
 
 point, a thing generally within his power, if, 
 indeed, he is right. If the parent, too, is obsti- 
 nate, and firmly insists upon the wrong course, 
 the teacher may, perhaps, submit, though he 
 can not submit without the consciousness that 
 his province has been invaded. 
 
 It is too frequently the case that the teacher 
 at the first yields all this ground voluntarily, by 
 asking the children what they wish to study, 
 'WTien he has once made them a party in this 
 question, he need not wonder if they claim to be 
 heard. This he should not do. He should first 
 be sure that he is qualified to direct aright, and 
 then, as a matter of course, proceed to do it, 
 just as the physician would prescribe for the 
 physical malady of such a child. The latter is 
 not more the rightful duty of the physician, than 
 the former is of the school-teacher. Neither has 
 the power to enforce his prescription against the 
 parents' consent, — but that consent may be taken 
 for granted by both, till informed that it is 
 withheld. 
 
 I may here remark that in all my intercourse 
 with the young, whether in the common or the 
 higher school, I have found no greater evil than 
 that of proceeding to the more difficult branches 
 before the elementary studies have been mastered. 
 It is no uncommon thing to find those who have 
 "attended" to the higher mathematics — algebra, 
 geometry, and the like — whose reading and writ- 
 ing are wretched in the extreme, and whose
 
 34:8 MISCELLANEOUS SUGGESTIONS. 
 
 Do not attempt too many things. 
 
 spelling is absolutely intolerable ! They have 
 been pursuing quadratics, but are unable to ex- 
 plain why they " carry one for every ten " ; they 
 have wandered among the stars in search of 
 other worlds, by the science of astronomy, with- 
 out knowing the most simple points in the 
 geography of our own ; they have studied loga- 
 rithms and infinite series, but can not be safely 
 trusted to add a column of figures or to com- 
 pute the simple interest upon a common note ! 
 In short, they have studied every thing, except 
 what is most useful to be known in practical 
 life, and have really learned — nothing ! 
 
 Now if this evil — grievous and extensive as it 
 is at present — is destined ever to be abated, it is 
 to be accomplished by the instrumentality of the 
 teacher, acting in his appropriate sphere, in the 
 capacity of a director as to the course of study 
 for the young. He must not be a man who can 
 merely teach, but one who understands the high 
 import of a true education, and knows how to 
 prescribe the order of its progress ; one, in short, 
 who will never attempt to erect a showy super- 
 structure upon an insufficient foundation. 
 
 3. Do not attempt to teach too many things. 
 There is a tendency at present to introduce too 
 many things into all our schools. Nothing is 
 more common than to hear our public lecturers 
 declare, as they become a little enthusiastic in 
 any given department, that "this branch should 
 at once be made a study in our common schools."
 
 MISCELLANEOUS SUGGESTIONS. 349 
 
 Make no ambiguous mark upon mind. — " Mind your business." 
 
 This is heard of almost the whole round of the 
 natural sciences. But it seems to me to be dic- 
 tated by over-wrought enthusiasm. Every thing 
 can not he ivell taught in our schools ; nor should 
 too much be attempted. It is the province of 
 our schools — particularly our common schools — 
 to afford thorough instruction in a few things, and 
 to awaken a desire for more extended attain- 
 ment. The instruction given should, as far as 
 possible, be complete in itself, — while it should 
 afford the means of making further advance- 
 ment ; but that instruction which being merely 
 superficial, neither itself informs the mind nor 
 imparts the desire and the means of future self- 
 improvement, is worse than useless ; it is posi- 
 tively injurious. A few branches thoroughly 
 possessed are worth more than a thousand merely 
 glanced at, — and the idea of changing our com- 
 mon schools to universities, where our children, 
 before they pass from the years of their baby- 
 hood, are to grasp the whole range of the sciences, 
 is one of the most preposterous that has grown 
 up even in this age of follies. The teacher, then, 
 should not undertake too much ; he should be 
 sure that he can accomplish what he undertakes. 
 The 'mark he makes upon the young should be 
 no uncertain sign. 
 
 4. Never attend to extraneous business in 
 school hours. This is a common fault. Many 
 teachers neglect their duties in school to write 
 letters, or transact such other business as should
 
 350 MISCELLANEOUS SUGGESTIONS. 
 
 Excuses.— Dr. Frankliii's remark.— An illustration. 
 
 be done at home. This is always wrong. There 
 is no time for it in any school ; for a diligent 
 teacher can always find full employment even 
 with a small number. Besides, he has engaged 
 to devote himself to the school ; and any depart- 
 ure from this is a violation of his contract. 
 The children will so view it, and thus lose much 
 of their respect for the teacher. Moreover, if 
 they see him neglect his business for some other, 
 they will be very likely to neglect theirs, and 
 thus disorder will be introduced. I hold that the 
 teacher is bound to devote every inoment of 
 school hours to active labor for the school. 
 
 5. Avoid making excuses to visitors for the 
 defects of your school. Franklin, I think, said that 
 " a man who is good for making excuses, is good 
 for nothing else." I have often thought of this 
 as I have visited the schools of persons given to 
 this failing. It is sometimes quite amusing to 
 hear such a teacher keep up a sort of running 
 apology for the various pupils. A class is called to 
 read. The teacher remarks, ''This class have but 
 just commenced reading in this book." Stephen 
 finishes the first paragraph, and the teacher adds, 
 " Stephen has not attended school very regularly 
 lately." William reads the second. "This boy," 
 says the teacher, "was very backward when I 
 came here — he has but just joined this class." 
 Charles executes the third. "That boy has an 
 impediment in his speech." Reuben follows. "It 
 is almost impossible to make a good reader of
 
 MISCELLANEOUS SUGGESTIONS. 351 
 
 Pity excited.—" "When / came here." 
 
 Reuben ; he never seems to pay the least atten- 
 tion. I have bestowed unwearied pains upon 
 him." Mary takes her turn. " This girl has lost 
 her book, and her father refuses to buy her an= 
 other." Mary here blushes to the eyes, — for 
 though she could bear his reproof, she still has 
 some sense of family pride ; she bursts into tears, 
 while Martha reads the next paragraph. " I have 
 tried all along," says the teacher, "to make this 
 girl raise her voice, but still she will almost stifle 
 her words." Martha looks dejected, and the next 
 in order makes an attempt. 
 
 Now, the teacher in all this has no malicious 
 design to wound the feelings of every child in 
 the class, — and yet he as effectually accomplishes 
 that result as if he had premeditated it. Every 
 scholar is interested to read as well as possible 
 in the presence of strangers ; every one makes 
 the effort *to do so ; yet every one is practically 
 pronounced to have failed. The visitors pity the 
 poor pupils for the pain they are made thus need- 
 lessly to suffer, and they pity also the weakness 
 of the poor teacher^ whose love of approbation has 
 so blinded his own perception that he is regard- 
 less of the feelings of others, and thinks of nothing 
 but his own. 
 
 This over-anxiety for the good opinion of others 
 shows itself in a still less amiable light, when the 
 teacher frequently makes unfavorable allusions to 
 his predecessor. "When I came here^' says the 
 teacher, significantly, " I found them all poor read-
 
 352 MISCELLANEOUS SUGGESTIONS. 
 
 Meanness.—" How old are you ? " — Such arts recoil. 
 
 ers." Or, if a little disorder occurs in school, he 
 takes care to add, " I found the school in perfect 
 confusion," — or, "the former teacher, as near as I 
 can learn, used to allow the children to talk and 
 play as much as they pleased." Now, whatever 
 view we take of such a course, it is impossible to 
 pronounce it any thing better than despicable 
 meanness. For if the charge is true, it is by no 
 means magnanimous to publish the faults of an- 
 other ; and if it is untrue in whole or in part, as 
 most likely it is, none but a contemptible person 
 would magnify another's failings to mitigate his 
 own. 
 
 There is still another way in which this love 
 of personal applause exhibits itself. I have seen 
 teachers call upon their brightest scholars to re- 
 cite, and then ask them to tell their age, in order 
 to remind the visitor that they were very young 
 to do so well ; and then insinuate that their older 
 pupils could of course do much better. 
 
 All these arts, however, recoil upon the teacher 
 who uses them. A visitor of any discernment 
 sees through them at once, and immediately sus- 
 pects the teacher of conscious incompetency or 
 willful deception. The pupils lose their respect 
 for a man whom they all perceive to be acting a 
 dishonorable part. I repeat, then, never attempt 
 to cover the defects of your schools hy tnahing 
 ridiculous excuses. 
 
 6. Never compare one child luith another. It 
 is a poor way of stimulating a dull pupil to com-
 
 MISCELLANEOUS SUGGESTIONS. 353 
 
 Tenderness to a duU child.— Kindness and patience stimulate. 
 
 pare him with a better scholar. It is the direct 
 way to engender hatred in the mind of the one, 
 and the most consummate self-complacency in 
 the other. Not one child in a thousand can be 
 publicly held up to the school as a pattern of ex- 
 cellence, without becoming excessively vain ; at 
 the same time, all the other scholars will be more 
 or less excited to envy. Such a course is always 
 unsafe ; almost always injurious. 
 
 7. Avoid wounding the sensibilities of a dull 
 child. There will always be those in every school 
 who are slow to comprehend. After their class- 
 mates have grasped an idea during the teacher's 
 explanation, they still have the vacant stare, the 
 unintelligent expression. This may be so after a 
 second or a third explanation. The teacher is now 
 strongly tempted to indulge in expressions of im- 
 patience, if not of opprobrium. This temptation 
 he should resist. Such children are to be pitied 
 for their dullness ; but never to be censured for 
 it. It is an unfeeling thing to sting the soul 
 that is already benighted. He should cheer and 
 encourage such a slow mind to greater effort, by 
 the sunshine of kind looks and the warm breath 
 of sympathy, rather than freeze up the feeble 
 current of vivacity which yet remains there by a 
 forbidding frown or a blast of reproach. A dull 
 child is almost always affectionate ; and it is 
 through the medium of kindness and patience 
 that such a one is most effectually stimulated. 
 
 8. Never lose your patience when parents
 
 354 MISCELLANEOUS SUGGESTIONS, 
 
 Never get out of temi>er with parents.— Why f— An incident. 
 
 unreasonably interfere with your plans. It must 
 be expected that some of the parents will wish 
 to dictate to the teacher what course he shall 
 pursue, at least in relation to their own children. 
 This will sometimes bring them to the school- 
 room, perhaps in a tone of complaint, to set the 
 teacher right. "Wlienever a parent thus steps be- 
 yond the bounds of propriety, the teacher should 
 never lose his self-possession. He should always 
 speak the language of courtesy, in frankness, but 
 in firmness. He should reason with the parent, 
 and if possible convince him, — but he should 
 never insult nor abuse him. It may be well to 
 propose to see him at his own house, in order to 
 talk over the matter more at his leisure. I recol- 
 lect once a parent sent a hasty refusal to pur- 
 chase a necessary book for his son, — a refusal 
 clothed in no very respectful language. I gave 
 the lad a courteous note directed to his father, 
 in which I intimated my desire to have an inter- 
 view with him at his house at such time as he 
 might appoint. In half an hour the boy came 
 bounding back with the desired book, informing 
 me that his father said, " he guessed he might as 
 well get the book, and done with it." My inter- 
 course with that parent was ever afterward of 
 the most pleasant kind. A supercilious parent 
 can never gain an advantage over a teacher, un- 
 less he can first provoke him to impatience or 
 anger. As long as the teacher is perfectly self- 
 possessed he is impregnable.
 
 MISCELLANEOUS SUGGESTIONS. 355 
 
 The study of the Bible.— Eide no hobbies in teaching. 
 
 9. Never make the study of the Bible a pun- 
 ishment. I have known a teacher to assign sun- 
 dry passages of the Bible, condemnatory of a 
 particular sin, to be committed to memory as a 
 punishment. I have also known the idle scholar 
 to be detained after school to study passages of 
 Scripture, because he had failed to learn his 
 other lessons in due time. I believe this to be 
 bad policy, as well as doubtful religion. The les- 
 sons that a child thus learns are always con- 
 nected, in his mind, with unpleasant associations. 
 His heart is not made better by truths thus 
 learned. The Bible, indeed, should be studied by 
 the young ; but they should be attracted to it by 
 the spirit of love, rather than driven to it by the 
 spirit of vindictiveness. They who suppose that 
 children can be made to love the Bible by being 
 thus driven to the study of it, have sadly mis- 
 taken the human heart. 
 
 10. Ride no ^^ hobbies'' in teaching. Almost 
 every man, in whatever vocation, has some hobby, 
 some "o?^e idea,'' which he pushes forward on all 
 occasions, no matter what may be the conse- 
 quences. It is not strange that it is often thus 
 with the teacher. If the teacher has any inde- 
 pendence of mind, any originality, he will, at 
 some period in life, naturally incline to try some 
 experiments in teaching. Partly on account of 
 the novelty of the plan, and partly on account 
 of the teacher's interest in the success of his 
 own measure, he finds it works well in the class
 
 356 MISCELLAKEOUS SUGGESTIONS. 
 
 A discovery becomes a Ao66y.— Oral instruction. 
 
 where it was first tried ; and he rejoices that he 
 has made a discovery. Teaching now possesses 
 a new interest for him, and he very likely be- 
 comes enthusiastic. He applies his new measure 
 to other classes and loudly recommends it to 
 other teachers. For a time it succeeds, and it be- 
 comes his hobby. Whenever a stranger visits his 
 school, he shows off his new measure. Whenever 
 he attends a teachers' meeting, he describes it, 
 and perhaps presents a class of his pupils to 
 verify its excellence. He abandons his old and 
 long-tried plans, and persists in the new one. 
 By and by the novelty has worn away, and his 
 pupils become dull under its operation, and rea- 
 son suggests that a return to the former methods 
 would be advisable. Still, because it is his inven- 
 tion, he persists. Others try the experiment. 
 Some succeed ; some fail. Some of them by a 
 public speech commit themselves to it, and then 
 persist in it to preserve their consistency. In this 
 way a great many objectionable modes of teach- 
 ing have gained currency and still hold their 
 sway in many of our schools. 
 
 Among these I might mention concert recita- 
 tion, and oral instruction when made a substi- 
 tute for study. Of the origin and tendency of 
 the former, I have spoken more at length in the 
 chapter on "Conducting Recitations." Of the 
 latter, a word or two may be said in this place. 
 
 It was found years ago, in the earlier at- 
 tempts to teach the blind, that they made very
 
 MISCELLANEOUS SUGGESTIONS. 357 
 
 Origin of the oral 7«««ta.— Baby-talk 1— Great learning ! 
 
 rapid strides in acquiring knowledge tlirough the 
 sole medium of oral instruction. As might have 
 been foreseen, they became intensely interested 
 in hearing about things which had surrounded 
 them all their days, but which they had never 
 seen. Shut in as they were from the privilege of 
 sight, there was nothing to distract their atten- 
 tion from whatever was communicated to them 
 through the sense of hearing ; and as they had 
 been blind from their birth, this discipline of at- 
 tention had been going on from infancy. Under 
 these circumstances, their progress in knowledge 
 by mere oral teaching was astonishing. This was 
 all well. But soon, some one conceived the idea 
 of substituting oral instruction for study among 
 seeing children. Immediately there was an oral 
 mania. Infant schools grew up in every vil- 
 lage, — infant school manuals were prepared, filled 
 with scientific hahy-talk, for the use of the 
 worthy dames who were to drive the hobhy^ and 
 the nineteenth century bade fair to do more 
 toward lighting up the fires of science than all 
 time before had accomplished ! It was truly 
 wonderful, for a time, to listen to the learned 
 volubility of these same infant schools. The 
 wonders of astronomy, chemistry, botany, and 
 zoology, with the terms of Cuvier's classification, 
 and a thousand other things, were all detailed 
 with astonishing familiarity by pupils under five 
 years of age ! Some eminent teachers sagely 
 took the hint and adopted the oral system with
 
 358 MISCELLANEOUS SUGGESTIONS. 
 
 Extended to higher classes.— A royal road 1— Eyes are useless orbs 1 
 
 their older classes. The sciences were taught by- 
 lectures. The pupils of this happy day had 
 nothing to do but to sit and receive. To be 
 sure, sometimes, they would become inattentive, 
 and it would be discovered by their teachers that 
 they did not retain quite all that was told to 
 them. This, however, was no fault of the system, 
 it was urged ; the system was well enough, but 
 unfortunately, the pupils had eyes, and their 
 attention was frequently diverted by the unlucky 
 use of these worthless organs. A royal road, sure 
 enough, was found to the temple of science, too 
 long beyond mortal reach, by reason of the 
 rugged footpath over which the student was 
 compelled to climb. Happy, glorious day ! No 
 more must toil and thought be the price of suc- 
 cess ! No more must the midnight oil be con- 
 sumed, and the brain be puzzled, in search of 
 the wisdom of ages ! No more must the eyes be 
 pained — (they are hereafter to be considered en- 
 cumbrances) — in searching the classic page ; the 
 ear is to be the easy inlet to the soul. * * * 
 
 Such was the hobby of 1829 to 1831 in our 
 own country. During sixteen years past, those 
 babes of the infant schools have grown into 
 "young men and maidens," in no way distin- 
 guished, after all, unless they have since achieved 
 distinction by actual study. The pupils of those
 
 MISCELLANEOUS SUGGESTIONS. 359 
 
 Gk)d wiser than men.— Other hobbies.— Patent methods. 
 
 higher schools have obtained whatever they now 
 vakie in their education, mainly by the use of 
 their eyes, notwithstanding at one time their 
 worthy guides would have almost deemed it a 
 blessing to have had their eyes put out. It has 
 been found that God was indeed wise in the 
 bestowment of sight, — and some, at least, have 
 acknowledged that a method that is well suited 
 to the instruction of those who are blind, be- 
 cause it is the only possible one for them, may 
 not be the best for those who can see. At the 
 present time, the sentiment begins to prevail, 
 that oral instruction can never supply the place of 
 study ; that the lecturing, or " pouring-in process," 
 can not long secure the attention ; that the mind, 
 by merely receiving, gains no vigor of its own ; 
 and that scholars must be made, if made at all, 
 mainly by their own exertions in the use of books. 
 It would be easy to mention other examples 
 of hobbies which have been ridden by teachers 
 very much to the injury of their schools. Those 
 already given may, however, suffice for the pur- 
 pose of illustration. Let it be remembered, then, 
 that no one method of instruction comprises all 
 the excellences and avoids all the defects of 
 good teaching; and that he is the wisest teacher 
 who introduces a judicious variety into his modes 
 of instruction, profiting by the suggestions of 
 others, but relying mainly upon his own careful 
 observation, eschewing all "patent methods," and 
 never losing his common sense.
 
 360 MISCELLANEOUS SUGGESTIONS. 
 
 Higher branches.— Things to be done.— The scholars' friend. 
 
 Under the head of hohhies, I may add one 
 other remark. Many teachers have some favorite 
 branch of study, in which, because they excel, 
 they take special delight. One man is a good 
 mathematician, another an expert accountant, a 
 third a skillful grammarian. Now the danger is, 
 that the favorite branch of study may become 
 the hobby, — and that the other branches will be 
 neglected. This is, indeed, not unfrequently the 
 case. 
 
 Again, some teachers are more interested in 
 the higher branches generally, because they were 
 the last pursued in their college course, or for 
 some other reason. They therefore neglect the 
 lower studies, to the great detriment of the youth 
 under their charge. Against all such partial views, 
 the teacher should take great pains to guard 
 himself. He may fall unconsciously and almost 
 imperceptibly into some of these errors. Let me 
 add the caution, then, — never allow your par- 
 tiality for one study, or a class of studies, to 
 divert your attention from all those other branches 
 which are necessary to constitute a good edu- 
 cation. 
 
 It is surely to the discredit of teachers that 
 they are so readily "tossed to and fro, and car- 
 ried about with every wind of doctrine, by the 
 slight of men, and cunning craftiness." Growth 
 or evolution is entirely consistent with modera- 
 tion and stability. To know what we should 
 grow into, we must trace our route into the
 
 MISCELLANEOUS SUGGESTIONS. 361 
 
 Spasmodic efforts at reform.— Their results. 
 
 future by the light of educational science, and 
 that there may be perfect continuity of growth, 
 we must know the past and the present of edu- 
 cation. We will gain sureness and stability in 
 the formation of our opinions by recollecting 
 that a course of practice that has had the long 
 sanction of the wise and the good is likely to 
 have a large measure of truth in it ; and that 
 "the suppression of every error is commonly fol- 
 lowed by a temporary ascendency of the contrary 
 one." {Spencer.) Every decade has its educa- 
 tional epidemic made possible by shallow think- 
 ing and a chronic discontent with things as they 
 are. These spasmodic efforts at reform are the 
 source of some good and much evil. They call 
 attention to imperfections ; but by a gross exag- 
 geration of defects they destroy public faith in 
 what is good, and by the show of false lights 
 betray the cause of substantial progress. "Prog- 
 ress,"" says the Dictionnaire de Pedagogie, "is 
 not a force that acts spasmodically, but is a 
 logical and graduated evolution, in which the 
 idea of to-day is connected with that of yester- 
 day, as the latter is to a still more remote past." 
 
 SECTION II.— THINGS TO BE PERFORMED. 
 
 I. Convince your scholars by your conduct 
 that you are their friend. It is all-important 
 that you should gain complete ascendency over 
 the minds of your pupils. In no way is this
 
 362 MISCELLANEOUS SUGGESTIONS. 
 
 Delightful task.— Love for scholars,— for teaching,— to bs fdt. 
 
 point SO successfully gained as by leading them 
 to feel that you are their true friend. When 
 they feel this, all their sentiments of generosity, 
 gratitude, and love, conspire to lead them to 
 render cheerful obedience to your wishes. Govern- 
 ment then becomes easy ; instruction is no longer 
 irksome ; and you can most cordially respond to 
 the poet, in that beautiful sentiment too seldom 
 fully realized : — 
 
 " Delightful task I to rear the tender thought, 
 And teach the young idea how to shoot, 
 To pour the fresh instniction o'er the mind, 
 To breathe the enlivening spirit, and to fix 
 The generous purpose in the glowing breast." 
 
 But effectually to convince them that you are 
 thus their friend, is not the work of a moment. 
 Words alone can never do it. You may make 
 professions of interest in them, but it is all to 
 no purpose. Your actions, your looks, your whole 
 sjjirit must show it. In order thus to exhibit it, 
 you must feel a deep, an all-pervading interest 
 in the welfare of every child. You must love 
 your profession, and you must love — ^sincerely 
 love — those whom you are called to teach. If 
 you do not love the work of teaching, and can 
 not bring yourself to love the children of your 
 charge, you may not expect success. It was long 
 ago declared that 
 
 "liove only is the loan for love,"— 
 
 and this is specially true with the love of chil- 
 dren. Their souls spontaneously go out after
 
 MISCELLAJSTEOUS SUGGESTIONS. 363 
 
 Care of school-house.— Resist the beginnings. 
 
 those who love them. Strive, then, to gain this 
 point with them, not by empty pretensions, 
 always quickly read and as quickly despised by 
 the young; but by that full, frank, cordial ex- 
 pression of kindness in your manner toward 
 them, which, being based upon deep principle in 
 yourself, is sure at once to win their affection, 
 and their ready compliance with all your reason- 
 able requisitions. 
 
 II. Take special care that the school-house and 
 its appendages are kept in good order. This is a 
 part of every teacher's duty. He should have an 
 eye that is constantly on the alert to perceive the 
 smallest beginnings of injury to any part of the 
 premises. It is often painful to see a new school- 
 house, that has with much care and expense been 
 put in perfect order, very soon cut and otherwise 
 disfigured by the pupils, — the glass broken, the 
 ceiling soiled, the desks and floors stained with 
 ink, and every thing bearing the marks of youth- 
 ful destructiveness. The teacher should be held 
 accountable for such results, for he can by proper 
 vigilance prevent them. 
 
 Some of his first lessons to his pupils should 
 be upon the subject of practical neatness, in re- 
 gard to every thing that pertains to the school. 
 They should be impressed with the belief that he 
 holds neatness as a cardinal virtue. Daily should 
 he watch to discover the first violation of pro- 
 priety upon the premises. This first violation 
 should be promptly met. There is great wisdom
 
 364 MISCELLANEOUS SUGGESTIONS. 
 
 Care of books, desks, etc.— Rights of property. 
 
 in the adage which enjoins us to 'Wesist the he- 
 ginning s^ 
 
 So, too, he should exercise an oversiglit of the 
 books belonging to the pupils. Many books are 
 speedily destroyed by children for the want of a 
 little care of the teacher, — probably more than 
 are worn out by use. He should also occasionally 
 inspect the desks, with a view to promote a com- 
 mendable neatness there. The teacher has an 
 undoubted right to inspect any part of the premi- 
 ses, — but by a little adroitness he can interest the 
 children in a reform of this kind, and then they 
 will desire that he should witness their care- 
 fulness. 
 
 I may add further, that the children should not 
 only be required to respect the school-house and 
 its appendages, but they should also be taught to 
 regard the sacredness of all property, either pub- 
 lic or private. The neighboring garden or or- 
 chard should be held to be inviolable. The 
 teacher may not have the authority to compel 
 compliance with his direction or advice beyond 
 school-hours ; but he should endeavor to exercise 
 a moral influence in the school which will be 
 more powerful even than compulsion. So in 
 regard to public buildings, such as churches and 
 court-houses ; and all public grounds, — as parks, 
 commons, and cemeteries, — the teacher should 
 inculcate not only the duty to abstain from in- 
 juring them, but a commendable desire to see 
 them improved and beautified. In America, it is
 
 MISCELLANEOUS SUGGESTIONS. 365 
 
 American destructiveness. — General reformation. — niustration. 
 
 remarked by foreigners, there is a strange ten- 
 dency to destructiveness. In our public buildings 
 the walls are usually disfigured by names and 
 drawings ; and even our cemeteries do not escape 
 the violence of the knives of visitors, the trees 
 being cut and marked with names, and the 
 flowers plucked off and carried away. It is to be 
 hoped that our teachers will so exercise a reform- 
 ing influence, that the next generation shall ex- 
 ercise a higher principle, as well as a better taste, 
 in all these matters, which, small as they are, 
 make up no mean part of the manners and mor- 
 als of a people. 
 
 III. When scholars do wrong, it is sometimes 
 best to withhold imm^ediate reproof, but to describe 
 a similar case in general instruction. This is 
 one of the most effectual modes of curing the 
 evil in the wrong-doer himself. It, moreover, 
 gives the teacher a valuable text for a lesson on 
 morals before the whole school. Care should gen- 
 erally be taken not to lead the school to suspect 
 the individual in your m.ind, while at the same 
 time the parable should so fit the case, as to pre- 
 clude the necessity of saying to the offender, as 
 Nathan did to David : " Thou art the man." 
 
 A case will illustrate this. I recollect once to 
 have found, among a large number of composi- 
 tions presented by a class, one that I knew to 
 have been copied. No notice was taken of it at 
 the time ; but some days afterward, a case was 
 described to the class, resembling the one that
 
 366 MISCELLANEOUS SUGGESTIONS, 
 
 A confession. — Accuracy. 
 
 had actually occurred. After exciting considera- 
 ble interest in the case, they were told that such 
 a thing had happened among their own number : 
 that I did not choose to expose the individual ; 
 but, if any of them thought it would be honor- 
 able for them to confess such an offense to me 
 in case they had committed it, they might seek 
 a private opportunity to do so. In less than 
 twenty-four hours no less than four made such a 
 confession, detailing freely the extent and the 
 circumstances of their offending. In this way 
 four were reformed, where by direct reproof only 
 one could have been reached. It was a frank, 
 not a forced confession ; and I was thus easily 
 made to know the extent of this sin in the school. 
 By this simple expedient, I have reason to believe, 
 plagiarism was effectually eradicated, for that 
 term at least, in the whole class, and that too 
 without the loss of any pupil's good-will. 
 
 It is generally wiser to endeavor to reach the 
 evil in its whole extent, than to expend one's 
 strength upon a single instance of wrong-doing. 
 The conscience of the whole school may some- 
 times be profitably aroused, while the particular 
 individual is quite as effectively corrected as he 
 would be by a direct reproof. 
 
 IV. Be accurate. This is necessary in order to 
 secure the respect of your pupils. What the 
 teacher professes to know he should be sure of. 
 Approximations to the truth are not enough to 
 satisfy the young mind. Whenever a teacher
 
 MISCELLANEOUS SUGGESTIONS. 367 
 
 Certain knowledge.— Prof. Olmsted. 
 
 makes a blunder by stating what is not true in 
 regard to any fact or principle in science, any 
 event in history, or any item of statistics, he 
 lowers himself very much in the estimation of 
 all those who are capable of detecting his error. 
 If he does not know, he may frankly say so, and 
 incur no just censure, provided the point be one 
 about which he has not had the opportunity to 
 gain the requisite information. But when he 
 attempts to speak with the authority of a teacher, 
 he "should know that whereof he affirms." "The 
 character of the teacher," says Professor Olmsted, 
 "is sullied by frequent mistakes, like that of a 
 book-keeper or banker. It is surprising to see 
 how soon even the youngest learner will lose his 
 confidence and respect for his teacher, when he 
 has detected in him occasional mistakes. At 
 every such discovery he rises in his own estima- 
 tion, and the teacher proportionally sinks. The 
 very character of the pupil is injured by such an 
 incident. He rapidly loses the docility and mod- 
 esty so essential to the scholar, and becomes up- 
 lifted with pride and self-importance." The super- 
 ciliousness thus induced in the pupils, becomes 
 a sore vexation to the teacher. He finds that 
 his pupils are watching for his halting, — and he 
 frequently fails, from this very circumstance, to 
 do as well as he might. I know of no more piti- 
 able condition on earth than that of a teacher, 
 who is attempting to teach what he does not 
 fuUy understand, while he is conscious that his
 
 368 MISCELLANEOUS SUGGESTIONS. 
 
 A pleasant countenance.— A description. 
 
 pupils doubt his ability, from a frequent detec- 
 tion of his mistakes. 
 
 V. Cultivate a pleasant countenance. Frowns 
 and scowls always sit with ill grace upon the 
 teacher's brow. I know that the trials and per- 
 plexities incident to his daily life are eminently 
 fitted "to chafe his mood" and to provoke his 
 impatience. I know, too, that protracted confine- 
 ment from the pure air and the bright sunlight, 
 will almost necessarily render the nervous system 
 morbidly sensitive, and the temper of course ex- 
 tremely irritable. The outward exponent of all 
 this is a dejected, and perhaps an angry, counte- 
 nance. The eyebrows are drawn up so that the 
 forehead is deeply and prematurely furrowed, 
 while the angles of the mouth are suffered to drop 
 downward, as if in token of utter despair. By 
 and by the roguishness of some unlucky urchin 
 disturbs the current of his thoughts, — and sud- 
 denly the brow is firmly knitted with transverse 
 channels, the nostrils are distended, the jaws are 
 firmly closed, the lips are compressed, the cheeks 
 are flushed, and the eyes almost emit sparks from 
 the pent-up fire within him. For the next half- 
 hour he frowns on all about him. The children, 
 at first, are awed by such a threatening aspect,— 
 but soon they become accustomed to it, and 
 the terrible very naturally gives place to the 
 ridiculous. 
 
 No man has a moral right to render those un- 
 comfortable who surround him, by habitually
 
 MISCELLANEOUS SUGGESTIONS. 369 
 
 Sympathy between the heart and the countenance. 
 
 covering his face with the looks of discontent and 
 nioroseness. It is peculiarly wrong for the teacher 
 to do it. It is for him to present an example of 
 self-government under all circumstances, so that 
 he can consistently enforce the duty of self-con- 
 trol upon the young. It is for him to show him- 
 self a man of principle, of benevolence, of cheerful 
 devotion to his duty, however full of trials that 
 duty may be ; and in no way can he do this more 
 effectually than by an amiable and engaging 
 countenance. A peevish, frowning teacher is very 
 likely to produce petulance and suUenness in his 
 pupils ; while a cordial smile, like the genial beam 
 of the spring-day sun, not only sheds a welcome 
 light on all around, but it imparts a blessed heat, 
 which penetrates the frigidity of the heart, dis- 
 sipates the cheerless mists that hover there, 
 and warms the generous affections into life and 
 beauty. 
 
 We are so constituted that the inward and the 
 outward sympathize with each other. Solomon 
 says, "a merry heart maketh a cheerful counte- 
 nance," — and I may venture to add, and with 
 almost as much truth, a cheerful countenance 
 maketh a merry heart. An honest attempt to 
 bless others with the sight of a countenance that 
 is expressive of content and patience, is an act 
 so praiseworthy in itself, that it will never go 
 unrewarded. The gratifying response which such 
 a countenance is sure to call forth from others, 
 brings with it a rich revenue of inward enjoy-
 
 370 MISCELLANEOUS SUGGESTIONS. 
 
 A question.— Yes.— Carlyle.— Means recommended. 
 
 ment. He, therefore, who habitually bears about 
 with him. a sad or an angry countenance, while 
 he constantly impairs the happiness of others, 
 lacks at the same time an important instrumen- 
 tality for securing his own. 
 
 But the question will arise, — can a man gain 
 such ascendency over himself as to control the 
 expression of his countenance? I answer, with- 
 out hesitation, yes. '' Whatever ought to be done, 
 can be done." It is not perfectly easy to do it, 
 especially for the teacher. Still, self-control — full, 
 complete self-control — is his appropriate duty as 
 well as privilege. He must, as Carlyle quaintly 
 enjoins, "learn to devour the chagrins of his lot." 
 He must calculate beforehand that every day will 
 bring its cares and its trials ; but he should daily 
 resolve that they shall never take him by surprise, 
 nor betray him into sudden impatience. Each 
 morning, as he walks to the scene of his labors, 
 he should fortify himself against sudden anger or 
 habitual moroseness on this wise : " No doubt this 
 day some untoward occurrence will transpire, cal- 
 culated to try my patience and to provoke me to 
 fretful words and angry looks. All my past expe- 
 rience leads me to expect this. But this day I 
 will try to resist the temptation to this weakness. 
 I will try to be self-possessed. If any child is 
 vicious, or fretful, or dull, or even impudent, I 
 will endeavor to show that I can command my- 
 self. If I feel some angry passion enkindling 
 within me, I will stop and think, and I will en-
 
 MISCELLANEOUS SUGGESTIONS. 371 
 
 I'll try. — A victory.— Art of illustrating,— illustrated. 
 
 deavor to smile before I speak. If I can to-day 
 gain the victory over impatience, and can main- 
 tain an even and cheerful temper, and express it 
 constantly in my countenance, it will be easier 
 to do it to-morrow. At all events^ Til try.^^ 
 
 Taking hold thus in earnest, any man may 
 soon be his own master. He can gain the vio 
 tori). If he can do it, he ought to do it. Hence 
 I urge it as a duty. Nor is it merely a duty. 
 It is a high privilege. A complete victory for a 
 single day will bring its own reward. A man 
 who feels that he has risen above his temptation, 
 can return to his rest with a light and happy 
 heart. Sleep to him will be sweet, and he will 
 arise on the morrow with renewed strength for 
 the fresh conflict, — and in the moral as well as 
 in the literal warfare, every contest which ends 
 in victory gives additional strength to the victor, 
 while it weakens and disheartens his enemy. 
 
 VI. Study to acquire the art of aptly illustrat- 
 ing a difficult subject. Some teachers content 
 themselves with answering in the precise lan- 
 guage of the book, whenever a question for 
 information is propounded. This, however, is by 
 no means sufficient, even when the language of 
 the book is strictly accurate ; much less, when 
 the language is so vague as to convey no definite 
 idea to the mind, either of the learner or the 
 teacher. On the other hand, a man who is apt 
 to teach, will devise some ingenious method of 
 enlightening the mind of his pupil, so that he
 
 372 MISCELLANEOUS SUGGESTIONS. 
 
 Lesson in philosopliy.— Media. 
 
 shall lay hold of the idea as with a manly grasp, 
 and make it his own forever. 
 
 This point will, perhaps, be best illustrated by 
 an example. A young man was employed to take 
 3harge of a school for a few days during a tem- 
 porary illness of the regular instructor. He was a 
 good scholar, as the world would say, and was 
 really desirous to answer the expectation of his 
 employers. After the regular teacher had so far 
 recovered his health as to be able to leave his 
 room, he walked one pleasant day to the school, 
 to see what success attended the labors of the 
 new incumbent. A class was reciting in natural 
 philosophy. The subject under consideration 
 was — the obstacles which impede the motion of 
 machinery. The attraction of gravity, as one of 
 these, was pretty easily disposed of; for the 
 class had before been instructed on that point. 
 Friction came next. Here, too, the pupils, hav- 
 ing had some practical experience of their own, 
 in dragging their sleds, in skating, or perhaps in 
 turning a grindstone, found no great difficulty. 
 The book spoke a language sufficiently clear to 
 be understood. Next came the "resistance of 
 the various media," to use the language of the 
 text-book. "Yes," said the teacher, as one of 
 the pupils gravely quoted this language, "that 
 has no inconsiderable effect." 
 
 "The Resistance of the various media'?" — 
 repeated one of the boys inquiringly, "I do not 
 know as I understand what media means."
 
 MISCELLANEOUS SUGGESTIONS. 373 
 
 A puzzle.— Purtlier doubts.— An interposition. 
 
 "A medium is that in which a body moves," 
 was the ready reply which the teacher read from 
 the book. 
 
 Pupil. A medium ? 
 
 Teacher. Yes ; we say medium when we 
 mean but one, and m^edia when we mean mo^-e 
 than one. 
 
 Pupil. When we mean but one? 
 
 Teacher. Yes ; medium is singular — media is 
 plural. 
 
 After this discussion, which began in philoso- 
 phy but ended in grammar, the teacher was 
 about to proceed to the next question of the 
 book. But the scholar was not yet satisfied, and 
 he ventured to press his inquiries a little further. 
 
 Pupil. Is this room a medium? 
 
 Teacher. This room? 
 
 Pupil. Yes, sir ; you said that a medium was 
 "that in which anybody moves," and we all 
 move in this room. 
 
 Teacher. Yes, but medium does not mean a 
 room ; it is the substance in which a body 
 moves. 
 
 Here the lad looked perplexed and unsatisfied. 
 He had no clear idea of the meaning of this new 
 term. The teacher looked at his watch, and then 
 glanced at the remaining pages of the lesson, 
 and seemed impatient to proceed, — so the pupil 
 forbore to inquire further. 
 
 The regular teacher, who had listened to the 
 discussion with no ordinary interest, both because
 
 374 MISCELLANEOUS SUGG-ESTIONS. 
 
 A smile.— Light bresiks in. 
 
 he admired the inquisitiveness of the boy, and 
 because he was curious to discover how far the 
 new incumbent possessed the power of illustra- 
 tion, here interposed. 
 
 "John," — taking his watch in his hand — 
 "would this watch continue to go, if I should 
 drop it into a pail of water?" 
 
 " I should think it would not long," said John, 
 after a little reflection. 
 
 " Why not ? " said his teacher, as he opened 
 his watch. 
 
 "Because the water would get around the 
 wheels of the watch and stop it, I should think," 
 said John. 
 
 " How would it be if I should drop it into a 
 quart of molasses?" 
 
 The boys laughed. 
 
 "Or into a barrel of tar?" 
 
 The boys still smiled. 
 
 " Suppose I should force it, while open, into a 
 quantity of lard." 
 
 Here the boys laughed heartily, while John 
 said, "the watch would not go in any of these 
 articles." 
 
 ^^ Articles V said his teacher, "why not say 
 media 7 " 
 
 John's eye glistened as he caught the idea. 
 "O, I understand it now." 
 
 His teacher then said, that many machines 
 worked in air, — then the air was the medium. 
 A fish swims in water, — water is his medium.
 
 MISCELLANEOUS SUGGESTIONS. 375 
 
 The class proceed.— The diflference.— Study expedients. 
 
 A fish could hardly swim in molasses or tar. 
 'Now," inquired he, "why not?" 
 
 "Because of the resistance of the medium," 
 said John, with a look of satisfaction. 
 
 "Now why will the watch go in air and not 
 in water ? " 
 
 " Because the water is more dense," said John 
 promptly. 
 
 "Then upon what does the resistance of a 
 medium depend ? " 
 
 Here the new teacher interposed, and said that 
 was the next question in the book, and he was 
 just going to ask it himself. The regular teacher 
 put his watch into his pocket and became a 
 spectator again, and the lesson proceeded with 
 unwonted vivacity. The difference between these 
 two teachers mainly consisted in the fact, that 
 one had the ingenuity to devise an expedient to 
 meet a difficulty whenever occasion required, — 
 the other had not. 
 
 Now in order to teach well, a man should 
 diligently seek for expedients. He should en- 
 deavor to foresee the very points where the 
 learner will stumble, and provide himself with 
 the means of rendering timely aid. If an object 
 can not be described in words, let it be compared 
 with what it resembles, or with what it contrasts. 
 If it be an object of sense, and words and com- 
 parisons fail to describe it, — in the absence of 
 apparatus to represent it, let the teacher spring 
 to the blackboard and execute a hasty drawing
 
 376 MISCELLANEOUS SUGGESTIONS. 
 
 A moral impression.— Set lessons not useful.— The fit occasion. 
 
 of it. In this way the construction or the work- 
 ing of a machine, the form of a bone or the 
 action of a joint, the shape of a town or the 
 plan of a building, — in short, almost every sub- 
 ject that involves the relation of form, size, pro- 
 portion, quantity, or number, will admit of visible 
 illustration. He, then, is the successful teacher 
 who is able at the moment to seize upon the 
 best expedient, and render it subservient to his 
 purpose. 
 
 VII. Take advantage of unusual occurrences 
 to make a moral or religious impression. In a 
 former chapter I have urged it as a part of the 
 teacher's work, to cultivate and strengthen both 
 the moral sentiments and the religious feelings 
 of the members of his school. This is not most 
 effectually done by a formal mode of speaking 
 to them on these subjects. If a particular hour 
 is set apart for formal lectures on their duty to 
 their fellow-men and their obligations to God, 
 they are very apt to fortify their sensibilities 
 against the most faithful appeals, and thus ren- 
 der them powerless. The wise teacher will watch 
 for the fit opportunity, and, just at the moment 
 when the heart is prepared by some suitable 
 occurrence, — when by some exhibition of the 
 Creator's power it is awed into reverence, or 
 softened into submission ; or by some display of 
 his goodness it is warmed into gratitude, or ani- 
 mated with delight, — with a few words, season- 
 ably and "fitly spoken," he fixes the impression
 
 MISCELLANEOUS SUGGESTIONS. 377 
 
 Example I.— A thunder-storm. 
 
 forever. Speaking at the right time, every ear 
 listens, and every heart feels. 
 
 Perhaps many of my readers can revert to 
 some season in their childhood, endeared to them 
 by a precious recollection of golden words thus 
 opportunely uttered, — words fraught with truth 
 which in after-life has had an unspeakable influ- 
 ence in the formation of their character. One 
 or two examples connected with my own expe- 
 rience may be presented, more fully to illus- 
 trate my meaning ; while at the same time they 
 may afford, it is hoped, some valuable hints for 
 the encouragement and guidance of such young 
 teachers, as desire in this way to make them- 
 selves the instruments of lasting benefit to the 
 young. 
 
 Example I. I can never forget — nor would I 
 if I could — a lesson impressed upon my own 
 youthful mind, conveying the truth that we are 
 constantly dependent upon our Heavenly Father 
 for protection. In a plain country school-house, 
 some twenty-five children, including myself, were 
 assembled with our teacher on the afternoon of 
 a summer's day. We had been as happy and as 
 thoughtless as the sportive lambs that cropped 
 the clover of the neighboring hill-side. Engrossed 
 with study or play, — for at this distance of time 
 it is impossible to tell which, — we had not noticed 
 the low rumbling of the distant thunder, till a 
 sudden flash of lightning arrested our attention. 
 Immediately the sun was veiled by the cloud,
 
 878 MISCELLANEOUS SUGGESTIONS. 
 
 Confiision.—AlaoTii.— Teacher's self-possession. 
 
 and a corresponding gloom settled upon every 
 face within. The elder girls, with the charac- 
 teristic thoughtfulness of woman, hastily inquired 
 whether they should not make the attempt to 
 lead their younger brothers and sisters to the 
 paternal roof before the bursting of the storm. 
 For a moment our little community was thrown 
 into utter confusion. The teacher stepped hastily 
 to the door, to survey more perfectly the aspect 
 of the western heavens. Immediately returning, 
 he signified to the children that there would not 
 be time for them to reach their homes before the 
 tempest would be upon them. Oppressed with 
 dread, — for it is no uncommon thing for children 
 in the country to be terrified by lightning, — some 
 of the youngest of us clung to our older brothers 
 or sisters, while others, being the sole represent- 
 atives of their family in the school, for the first 
 time felt their utter loneliness in the midst of 
 strangers, and gave utterance to their feelings in 
 audible sighs or unequivocal sobs. 
 
 The teacher, meanwhile, with an exemplary 
 calmness and self-possession, closed the windows 
 and the doors, and then seated himself quite near 
 the younger pupils, to await the result. The thick 
 darkness gathered about us, as if to make the 
 glare of the lightning, by contrast, more startling 
 to our vision ; while the loud thunder almost in- 
 stantly followed, as it were the voice of Grod. 
 The wind howled through the branches of a ven- 
 erable tree near by, bending its sturdy trunk, and
 
 MISCELLANEOUS SUGGESTIONS. 379 
 
 A fearful tempest.— Awful pause.— Teacher's words. 
 
 threatening to break asunder the cords which 
 bound it to its mother earth. An angry gust 
 .assailed the humble building where we were shel- 
 tered ; it roared down the capacious chimney, 
 violently closed a shutter that lacked a fastening, 
 breaking the glass by its concussion, and almost 
 forced in the frail window-sashes on the westerly 
 side of the room. Quicker and more wild the 
 lightnings glared — flash after flash — as if the 
 heavens were on fire ; louder and nearer the 
 thunder broke above our heads, while the in- 
 mates of the room, save the teacher, were pale 
 with terror. 
 
 At this moment there was a sudden cessation 
 of the war of elements, — a hush — almost a pro- 
 phetic pause ! It was that brief interval which 
 precedes the falling torrent. A dread stillness 
 reigned within the room. Every heart beat hur- 
 riedly, and every countenance told the consterna- 
 tion that was reigning within. It was an awful 
 moment ! 
 
 With a calm voice, breathing a subdued and 
 confiding spirit, the teacher improved this oppor- 
 tunity to impress upon our young minds a great 
 truth. "Fear not, children," said he, "it is your 
 Heavenly Father that sends the storm as well as 
 the sunshine and the gentle breeze. You have 
 been just as much in his power all day, as you 
 are at this moment. He has been as near you, 
 supporting you, supplying you with breath, with 
 life, all through the pleasant morning ; but then
 
 380 MISCELLANEOUS SUGGESTIONS. 
 
 Rain.— Sunshine.— Bright faces. 
 
 you did not see him. He is just as able to pro- 
 tect you now, for 'not a sparrow falls to the 
 ground without his notice,' — and he ruleth the 
 storm and 'rideth upon the Avings of the wind.' 
 We should ever feel willing to trust him ; for 
 he is ever able to grant us deliverance from all 
 dangers which threaten us. God is here now to 
 protect us." 
 
 Just as he had finished these words the rain 
 began to fall. First the drops were few and scat- 
 tered ; but soon the windows of heaven were 
 opened, and the thirsty ground was abundantly 
 satisfied. The sound of the thunder became 
 fainter and fainter as the cloud passed away ; the 
 sun burst out again in renewed splendor; the 
 full drops glittered in his beams upon the grass; 
 the birds began their songs ; the rainbow spanned 
 the eastern hills ; and our hearts, taught by the 
 timely instructions of a good man, began to ex- 
 pand with eager gratitude for our preservation by 
 the hand of our Heavenly Father. 
 
 The remainder of the afternoon passed happily 
 away ; and when our books were laid aside, and 
 we were ready to burst out of the room to enjoy 
 the refreshing air and participate in the general 
 joy, the teacher, taking the Bible from the desk, 
 asked us to remain quiet a moment, while he 
 would read a few words that he hoped we should 
 never forget. 
 
 The passage was the following, from the 65 th 
 Psalm : —
 
 MISCELLANEOUS SUGGESTIONS. 381 
 
 The Bible speaks.— "Words fitly spoken.— Tlie effect. 
 
 By terrible things in righteousness wilt thou answer us, O God of 
 our salvation ; who art the confidence of all the ends of the earth, 
 and of them that are afar off upon the sea. Which by his strength 
 setteth fast the mountains ; being girded with power : which stilleth 
 the noise of the seas, the noise of their waves, and the tumult of the 
 people. 
 
 They also that dwell in the uttermost parts are afraid at thy 
 tokens : thou makest the outgoings of the morning and evening to 
 rejoice. 
 
 Thou visitest the earth and waterest it: thou greatly enrichest 
 it with the river of God, which is full of water : thou preparest them 
 corn, when thou hast so provided for it. 
 
 Thou waterest the ridges thereof abundantly: thou settlest the 
 furrows thereof : thou makest it soft with showers : thou blessest the 
 springing thereof. 
 
 Thou crownest the year with thy goodness ; and thy paths drop 
 fatness. They drop upon the pastures of the wilderness : and the little 
 hills rejoice on every side. 
 
 The pastures are clothed with flocks ; the valleys also are covered 
 over with corn ; they shout for joy, they also sing. 
 
 After closing the book, the teacher said, "Go 
 out now, children, and witness how perfectly 
 these words have been fulfilled toward us this 
 afternoon, — and from this day's mercies, learn 
 hereafter to trust God as confidently in the 
 storm, when he displays his power by his out- 
 ward 'tokens,' as when he kindly smiles upon 
 you in the beams of the glorious sun, or gently 
 breathes upon you in the morning breeze." 
 
 We went forth bounding in gladness and 
 gratitude, and saw the "outgoings of the evening 
 to rejoice," — "the pastures clothed with flocks," 
 — "the valleys covered over with corn," — "the 
 little hills rejoicing on every side " ; — ^we heard 
 also the general shout for joy, — and we felt as 
 we never before had felt, a deep, thorough, 
 abiding conviction of the truth that God is
 
 382 MISCELLANEOUS SUGGESTIONS. 
 
 Blessed memories.— Example U.— A dark day. 
 
 our father and our friend ; the Q-od of our sal- 
 vation. 
 
 I know not how soon these impressions faded 
 from the minds of the other children, — ^but for 
 myself I can say, that from that time to the 
 present, whenever I have been exposed to ap- 
 parent danger from the impending tempest, the 
 warring elements, or the ravages of disease, the 
 teachings of that hour have always revived in 
 my mind to soothe my troubled spirit, and to 
 re-assure my faith and confidence in the presence 
 of an all-sufficient and merciful Preserver. A 
 thousand times have I devoutl}^ blessed the 
 memory of that faithful teacher, for having so 
 early and so happily turned my thoughts upward 
 to Him, in whom "we live, and move, and have 
 our being." 
 
 Example II. It was in the afternoon of a 
 gloomy day in the latter part of ISTovember, when 
 the pupils, consisting of some fifty boys, belong- 
 ing to a school in a pleasant sea-port town in 
 New England, were told by their teacher, a few 
 minutes before the usual hour, that they might 
 lay aside their studies, and prepare for dismis- 
 sion. During the early part of the day there 
 had been one of those violent south-east rain 
 storms, so common upon the sea-coast at that 
 season of the year. It is well known to the 
 observing mariner, that a storm from the south- 
 east never continues bevond twelve or fifteen
 
 MISCELLANEOUS SUGGESTIONS. 383 
 
 liTiU of the storm. — Change of wind.— Early dismission. 
 
 hours ; and when the "V'iolence of the storm 
 abates, it is a common remark of the sailor, that 
 "the north-wester is not long in debt to the 
 south-easter." Previous to this change of wind, 
 however, there is what is expressively termed 
 the " lull of the storm," — a period when the rain 
 ceases to fall, the wind dies away to a perfect 
 calm, the barometer is suddenly depressed, the 
 clouds hover almost upon the face of the earth, 
 shutting out the light of the sun, and causing a 
 cheerless damp to settle upon every thing ter- 
 restrial, and a dreary gloom to enshroud the 
 mind itself. When the wind changes, these clouds 
 are not gradually dissolved and broken up, so 
 that the eye can catch transient glimpses of the 
 blue sk}^ beyond, as after a snow-storm in winter ; 
 but the dark drapery is suddenly lifted up, as if 
 by an unseen hand, and the western sky, from 
 the horizon upward, is left more bright and 
 more charming than ever, to refresh the eye and 
 reanimate the soul. 
 
 It was such a daj^, as before remarked, when 
 the pupils of this school — partly because of the 
 darkness in the school-room, and partly because 
 of their protracted confinement within a close 
 apartment during a gloomy afternoon — were, a 
 little earlier than usual, about to be dismissed. 
 The pupils all seemed to welcome the happy 
 release ' that awaited them, — and in their eager- 
 ness to escape from confinement, they very natu- 
 rally neglected to observe their accustomed regard
 
 884 MISCELLANEOUS SUGGESTIONS. 
 
 Impatience.— Light breaks in.— The "garment of praise."- Song. 
 
 for quiet and order in laying aside their books. 
 It was, however, a fixed habit with the teacher, 
 never to give the signal for leaving the room 
 till all the pupils had taken the proper attitude for 
 passing out with regularity, and then had com- 
 posed themselves to perfect silence. On this occa- 
 sion, perhaps two minutes passed away while the 
 boys were gradually, almost impatiently, bringing 
 themselves to a compliance with this rule of the 
 teacher. 
 
 During this interval of waiting, the cloud, 
 unperceived by the teacher, had been slowly 
 raised up from the western horizon, just in time 
 to allow the setting sun to bestow a farewell 
 glance upon the sorrowing world at his leave- 
 taking. Through the Venetian blinds that 
 guarded the windows toward the west, the celes- 
 tial light gleamed athwart the apartment, and 
 painted the opposite wall, in front of the pupils, 
 with streaks of burnished gold ! In an instant 
 every countenance was changed. A smile now 
 joyously played, where before sadness and dis- 
 content had held their moody reign. The teacher 
 was reminded, by all these circumstances, of the 
 beautiful language of the prophet, which promised 
 the gift of "the garment of praise for the spirit 
 of heaviness^ What could be more appropriate 
 on this occasion than a song of praise ? With- 
 out speaking a single word, the teacher com- 
 menced one of the little songs already familiar 
 to the whole school : —
 
 MISCELLANEOUS SUGGESTIONS. 385 
 
 Singing witli the spirit.— An impression. — God is good. 
 
 lio, tlie heavens are "breaking, 
 
 Pure and bright above; 
 Xiife and light awaking, 
 
 Murmtir — God is love. 
 
 QOD IS LOVE. 
 
 Round yon pine-clad mountain, 
 
 Hows a golden flood; 
 Hear the sparkling fountain 
 
 Whisper— Goci is good. 
 
 God is good. 
 
 Wake, my heart, and springing. 
 
 Spread thy wings above,— 
 Soaring still and singing, 
 
 God is ever good. 
 
 God 13 GOOD. 
 
 Instantly every voice that had ever sung, now 
 uttered heartfelt praise. The attendant circum- 
 stances, taken at the happy moment, furnished 
 such an impressive commentary upon the import 
 of the words, that they were felt, as they never 
 before had been felt, to be the words of precious 
 truth. Every heart throbbed in unison with the 
 sentiment. At the close of the song, there was 
 profound silence in the room. After a moment's 
 pause, during which the truth that God is good 
 seemed to pervade each mind and hold it in 
 silent reverence, — the signal for departure was 
 given. One after another the boys passed from 
 their seats with a light and careful step, as if 
 noise and haste would be a desecration both of 
 the time and place,— and when they reached the 
 open air, refreshing and exhilarating as it was, 
 there was no boisterous shout, no rude mirth ; 
 each took his homeward course, apparently with 
 a new and lively conviction that Q-od is good.
 
 886 MISCELLANEOUS SUGGESTIONS. 
 
 Other occasions. 
 
 It has always been a source of pleasure to 
 that teacher to recall from the " buried past " the 
 associations connected with that delightful hour 
 and that charming song ; and it has been among 
 the most gratifying incidents of his experience 
 as a teacher, to hear more than one of those 
 pupils in later life recur to the memory of that 
 day, and acknowledge with thankfulness the last- 
 ing impressions which then and there were made 
 upon their minds. 
 
 It would be easy to furnish examples to al- 
 most any extent, of the manner in which this 
 principle has been, or may be carried out in 
 practice. The degradation of an intoxicated per- 
 son who may pass the school, — the pitiable con- 
 dition of the man who may wander through the 
 streets bereft of his reason, — any instance of 
 sudden death in the neighborhood, particularly 
 of a young person, — the passing of a funeral pro- 
 cession, — in short, any occurrence that arrests the 
 attention of the young and enlists their feeling, 
 may be seized upon as the means of making 
 upon their minds an impression for good. The 
 facts developed in many of their lessons, too, 
 afford opportunities for incidental moral instruc- 
 tion. The adaptation of means to ends, — the 
 evidence of design and intelligence displayed in 
 the works of creation, — the existence of constant 
 and uniform laws as developed in the sciences,
 
 MISCELLANEOUS SUGGESTIONS. 387 
 
 Teacher's satisfaction.— Pleasant retrospection. 
 
 all furnish the means of leading the young mind 
 to God. 
 
 That teacher will enjoy the richest satisfaction 
 in the evening of life, who, in looking back upon 
 his past experience, shall be conscious that he 
 has improved every opportunity which God has 
 given him, to turn the youthful affections away 
 from the things of earth to seek a worthier ob- 
 ject in things above.
 
 CHAPTER XVI. 
 
 THE REWARDS OF THE TEACHER. 
 
 IT is proverbial that the pecuniary compensa- 
 tion of the teacher is, in most places, far 
 below the proper standard. It is very much to 
 be regretted that an employment so important in 
 all its bearings, should be so poorly rewarded. In 
 New England there are many young women who, 
 having spent some time in teaching, have left 
 that occupation to go into the large manufact- 
 uring establishments as laborers, simply because 
 they could receive a higher compensation. I 
 have known several instances in which young 
 ladies, in humble circumstances, have left teach- 
 ing to become domestics, thus performing the 
 most ordinary manual labor, because they could 
 receive better pay ; that is, the farmers and me- 
 chanics of the district could afford to pay more 
 liberally for washing and ironing, for making 
 butter and cheese, for sweeping floors and clean- 
 ing paint, than they could for educating the im- 
 mortal minds of their children ! 
 
 Nor is this confined to the female sex. Young 
 mechanics and farmers, as well as those employed 
 in manufacturing, frequently receive higher wages 
 than the common-school teacher in the same dis-
 
 THE REWARDS OF THE TEACHER. 389 
 Driving pegs.— Injustice.— Extra expense. 
 
 trict. Many a young man who has only genius 
 enough to drive the pegs of a shoe in a regular 
 row, and skill enough to black the surface of the 
 article when it is completed, having spent but a 
 few weeks in learning his trade, receives more 
 money for his work than he who, after having 
 spent months, or even years, in gaining the requi- 
 site qualifications, labors to polish that nobler 
 material, the human soul. 
 
 The injustice of this becomes more apparent 
 when we bear in mind that public opinion de- 
 mands, and justly too, that the teacher should 
 be not only gentlemanly in his manners, but 
 better clad than the mere laborer, — thus throwing 
 upon him a greater burden without affording him 
 the means of sustaining it. The female teacher 
 of a district school, in order to be respectable, 
 must be much more expensively dressed than the 
 domestic in the family where she boards, and is 
 thus compelled to consume most of her receipts 
 upon her wardrobe, — while the domestic is able 
 to place surplus money at interest in the Savings 
 Bank. This injustice has so often been laid be- 
 fore the people, and yet has been so long con- 
 tinued, that many have given up in despair, and 
 abandoned an employment that has yielded so 
 little, choosing rather to engage in that lower 
 service which is so much better paid. 
 
 This sufficiently explains why so many un- 
 qualified teachers have been found in our com- 
 mon schools. Men of talents and ability being
 
 390 THE REWARDS OF THE TEACHER. 
 
 Living by wits.— Improvement. — Means of mental growth. 
 
 tempted to other employments, have left the field 
 unoccupied ; and those men who have failed to 
 gain a comfortable living by their hands, have 
 been allowed to try the experiment of support- 
 ing life hy their wits, — that is, by becoming 
 teachers ! 
 
 Such has been the case for a long time past ; 
 and, though in many quarters the people are be- 
 ginning to open their eyes to their true interest, 
 and are gradually and commendably coming up 
 to their duty, yet, for some time to come, the 
 pecuniary compensation will not constitute the 
 chief reward of the teacher. If he will go cheer- 
 fully to his work, and find his daily enjoyment 
 in his daily toil, he must have a higher object, 
 some more elevating, inspiring motive, than mere 
 money-getting. The chief encouragements of the 
 faithful teacher lie in another direction. 
 
 It is the object of the following paragraphs 
 to point out some of these encouragements ; for, 
 having in the preceding pages required very 
 much at his hands, I feel that it is but just that 
 he should be invited to look at the brighter side 
 of the picture, so that when he is ready to sink 
 under the responsibilities of his position, or to 
 yield to the obstacles that oppose his progress, he 
 may have something to animate his soul, and to 
 nerve him anew for the noble conflict. 
 
 I. The teacher^s employment affords the means 
 of intellectual growth. If a man teaches as he 
 should teach, he must of necessity improve him-
 
 THE REWARDS OF THE TEACHER, 391 
 Means of moral growth.— Illustrated. 
 
 selfo Teaching, understandingly pursued, gives 
 accuracy. I know it is possible for a man to be 
 a mere school-master — a pedagogue^ without any 
 self-improvement. But I am speaking of the 
 faithful, devoted teacher, — the man who studies, 
 reflects, invents. Such a man learns more than 
 his pupils. Every time he takes a class through 
 any branch of study, he does it more skillfully, 
 more thoroughly than before. He brings some 
 fresh illustration of it, presents some new view of 
 it, and hence takes a lively interest in it himself, 
 and awakens a new zeal among his pupils. Meas- 
 uring himself by his new success, he feels a con- 
 sciousness of growth, of progress. This conscious- 
 ness is a precious reward. 
 
 II. The teacher's employment affords the 
 means of "moral growth. Brought constantly in 
 contact with those who need a careful guidance, 
 he feels impelled to earnest effort in order to 
 obtain the mastery over himself, as the best 
 means of gaining complete influence over others. 
 Studying the weak points in their character, he 
 is constantly reminded of those in his own ; and 
 self-knowledge is the first step toward self-im- 
 provement. Beginning in the feebleness of inex- 
 perience, he bolsters up his authority at first by 
 a frequent resort to force ; but, as he goes on, he 
 finds himself gradually gaining such ascendency 
 over the vicious as to control them quite as 
 effectually by milder means. At first, easily 
 excited to anger or impatience, he frequently in-
 
 392 THE REWARDS OF THE TEACHER. 
 Moral power.— Progress in the art of teaching. 
 
 dulged in severe language when it was unneces- 
 sary, — ^but, by careful discipline, he has learned 
 to " set a watch before his mouth, and to keep 
 the door of his lips." Encouraged by one victory 
 over himself, he is prepared for another. Hav- 
 ing learned by self-discipline to control his out- 
 ward acts, he next attempts the mastery of his 
 thoughts. He soon finds that his moral power 
 over others is very much increased. Somehow — 
 though perhaps he can not yet tell the reason 
 why — he finds he can secure obedience with half 
 the effort formerly required, — he gains the love 
 of his pupils more readily, — and, with the excep- 
 tion, now and then, of an extreme case, he finds 
 that he excites a deeper interest than ever before 
 in the whole round of duty among the scholars. 
 Why is this? he asks, — and the consciousness of 
 increased moral power rising up within him, is 
 a source of the highest satisfaction. Pecuniary 
 emolument sinks into nothing considered as a 
 reward, when compared with a conscious victory 
 over himself. 
 
 HI. A consciousness of improvement in the art 
 of teaching is another reward. Such improve- 
 ment will follow as a matter of course from his 
 self-improvement in the particulars just named. 
 As his own mind expands, he feels a new im- 
 pulse to exert himself to interest others in the 
 subjects he teaches. He soon comes to look upon 
 the work of instruction, not as a mere mechan- 
 ical business, to be done in a formal way, but as
 
 THE REWARDS OF THE TEACHER. 393 
 Pupils' growth of mind.— Immediate resTilts. 
 
 a noble art, based upon certain great principles 
 that are capable of being understood and applied. 
 He employs all his ingenuity to discover the nat- 
 ural order of presenting truth to the mind, — to 
 ascertain the precise degree of aid the learner 
 needs, and the point where the teacher should 
 stop. He studies carefully the proper motives to 
 be presented as incentives to exertion. Inter- 
 ested in his labor as a great work, looking upon 
 his influence as telling upon all future time, he 
 devotes himself daily with new zeal, and is rc-^ 
 warded with the consciousness of new success. 
 
 IV. The teacher is permitted also to witness 
 the constant groiuth of mind among his pupils. 
 I say constant, because the teacher is not obliged 
 to labor without seeing immediate results. The 
 minister of religion may sometimes sow the seed 
 of the good word, while the fruit does not ap- 
 pear for a long season. Sometimes a spiritual 
 apathy prevails, so that the most faithful warn- 
 ings, and the most earnest appeals, seem to fall 
 powerless upon the conscience ; and he is led 
 almost to despair of ever being able to break 
 the deathlike slumber. It is not thus with the 
 teacher. His labor tells immediately upon the 
 young mind. Even luhile he is yet speaking, he 
 is gratified with observing the soul's expansion, 
 as it grasps and assimilates some new idea which 
 he presents. From day to day, as he meets his 
 classes, he sees how they go on from strength to 
 strength, — at first, indeed, with the halting, tot-
 
 394 THE REWARDS OF THE TEACHER, 
 
 " They were my pupils."— Useful calling. 
 
 tering step of the feeble babe, but soon with the 
 firm and confident tread of the vigorous youth. 
 
 A teacher who is for several years employed 
 in his vocation, is often astonished at the rapidity 
 with which the young, who come to him as 
 mere children, grow into men and women, and 
 take their places on the stage of life as promi- 
 nent actors. Some of them distinguish them- 
 selves in the arts ; some become noted for their 
 attainments in science ; some receive the honors 
 of office and become leaders in civil affairs ; some 
 gain eminence as professional men ; and very 
 likely a large portion of them are engaged in 
 the various departments of honorable industry. 
 Wherever they are, and whatever they are, they 
 are now exerting a powerful influence in the 
 community. They have grown up under his eye, 
 and have been essentially shaped by his plastic 
 hand. He looks upon them almost with the in- 
 terest and pride of a father. He counts them as 
 his jewels ; and when he hears of their success, 
 their usefulness, and their honors, his heart leaps 
 within him, as he thinks, "they tvere my pupils^ 
 Even though he may have wasted the strength 
 of his best days in the service, what a reward is 
 this for the teacher! 
 
 V. The teacher has the consciousness of being 
 engaged in a useful and honorable calling. 
 What though he may not become rich in this 
 world's goods? Who would not prefer above 
 houses and lands, — infinitely above all the wealth
 
 THE REWARDS OF THE TEACHER. 395 
 Professor Agnew.— Educates the mind.— Trains the affections. 
 
 of earth, the consciousness of being engaged in 
 a work of usefulness? Man was made for use- 
 fuhiess, — and who would not desire to answer 
 the design of his creation ? 
 
 My pen is too feeble to attempt to portray 
 the usefulness of the faithful teacher. He edu- 
 cates the immortal m,ind, — wakes it to thought, — 
 trains it to discipline — self-discipline, — moves it to 
 truth and virtue, — fills it with longings for a 
 more perfect state, and sends it forth to exert 
 its power for good through all coming time ! 
 " To this end," in the glowing language of Pro- 
 fessor Agnew, "he communicates a knowledge 
 of letters, opens out gradually before the child 
 the book of nature and the literature of the 
 world ; he disciplines his mind and teaches him 
 how to gather knowledge from every source ; 
 he endeavors to impart quickness and retentive- 
 ness of memory, to cultivate a refined and well- 
 regulated imagination, to task, and thus to give 
 vigor to his reasoning powers. He points out 
 the appropriate objects of the several affections, 
 and the proper exercise of the passions ; he gives 
 lessons to conscience, derived from the pure 
 fountain of God's own revelation, and teaches 
 him to subject his own will to the Highest Will 
 He instructs him in the various sciences, and 
 thus displays before him worlds of wondrous 
 interest, and invests him with the sources and 
 means of pure enjoyment. He trains him for 
 the sweet sympathies of social life ; and unfolds
 
 396 THE REWARDS OF THE TEACHER. 
 
 The infant becomes a man.— A transit.— No limits to usefulness. 
 
 before him the high behests of duty — duty to 
 himself, his fellow-creatures, his family, his God. 
 
 " Under such a tuition, behold the helpless 
 infant grown to manhood's prime, — a body well 
 developed, strong, and active ; a mind symmetric- 
 ally unfolded, and powers of intellection closely 
 allied to those of the spirits in celestial spheres. 
 He becomes a husband and a father ; in these, 
 and in all the relations of life, he performs well 
 his part. Above all, he is a Christian, with well- 
 trained affections and a tender conscience, su- 
 premely loving God, maintaining a constant war- 
 fare with the world, the flesh, and the devil, — 
 growing up into the stature of a perfect man in 
 Christ, and anticipating the fullness of joy and 
 pleasure for evermore which are at God's right 
 hand. The time of his departure at length ar- 
 rives ; he has fought the good fight, he has fin- 
 ished his course, and he goes to obtain his crown 
 and to attune his harp, and forever to dwell on 
 the hills of light and love, where angels gather 
 immortality. O, what a transit ; from the de- 
 pendent helplessness of infancy to the glory of a 
 seraph ; from mind scarcely manifested, to mind 
 ranging over the immensity of Jehovah's empire, 
 and rising in the loftiest exercises of reason and 
 affection ! And how much has the faithful 
 teacher had to do in fitting him for the blissful 
 mansions of the skies ! " 
 
 If such be the teacher's work, where is the 
 limit to his usefulness ? Yet he may do this not
 
 THE REWARDS OF THE TEACHER. 397 
 Honorable.— Wiy?— Our great men began as teachers. 
 
 for one merely, but for scores, or even hundreds. 
 Eternity alone can display the immeasurable, 
 inconceivable usefulness of one devoted teacher. 
 
 And is not the teacher's calling honorable ? 
 It is, — for its usefulness makes it honorable. To 
 scatter the light of truth is always honorable. 
 So some of the greatest and best men the world 
 ever saw have believed, and have illustrated their 
 faith by their practice. Confucius, Socrates, 
 Seneca, Aristotle, and Plato were specimens of 
 the teachers of ancient date. Roger Ascham, 
 John Milton, Francke, Pestalozzi, Arnold, and a 
 host of others, have adorned the profession in 
 later times. Yet these are men who have taught 
 the world to think. Their works live after them, 
 — and will continue to live, when the proud fame 
 of the mighty warriors, who have marked their 
 course in blood, shall have perished from the 
 earth. 
 
 If it were necessary and not invidious, how 
 many distinguished men in our own country 
 could be mentioned, who have been teachers of 
 the young, or who are still engaged as such. 
 Besides those who have made teaching the busi- 
 ness of their lives, how many have been tem- 
 porarily employed in this calling. Some of our 
 presidents, many of our governors, most of our 
 jurists and divines, — indeed, some of every pro- 
 fession, ^^ and of the chiefs women not a few''' — 
 have first distinguished themselves as school- 
 teachers. Well may teachers, then, regard their
 
 398 THE REWARDS OF THE TEACHER. 
 Gratitude of pupils.— Gratitude to parents first. 
 
 profession as an honorable one ; always remem- 
 bering, however, that " it is not the position 
 which makes the man honorable, but the man 
 the position." 
 
 VI. The teacher enjoys the grateful remerrir- 
 hrance of his pupils and of their friends. When 
 a distinguished writer said, ''God be thanked for 
 the gift of mothers and school-masters," he ex- 
 pressed but the common sentiment of the human 
 heart. The name of parent justly enkindles the 
 warmest emotions in the heart of him who has 
 gone out from his native home to engage in the 
 busy scenes of the work-day world ; and when 
 sometimes he retires from the companionship of 
 new-made friends to recall the picture of the past 
 and the loved of other days, — to think 
 
 " Of childish joys when bounding boyhood knew 
 No grief, but chased the gorgeous butterfly, 
 And gambol'd with the breeze, that tossed about 
 His silken curls—" 
 
 how sweetly do the gentle influences of home 
 and childhood, with all their tender and hallowed 
 associations, come stealing over the soul ! The 
 world is forgotten ; care may not intrude upon 
 this sacred hour ; objects of sense are unheeded ; 
 the call to pleasure is disregarded ; — while the 
 rapt soul introverted — transported — dwells with 
 unspeakable delight upon its consecrated recol- 
 lection of all that is venerable, all that is sacred 
 in the name of parent. At this favored hour, 
 how the heart swells at the thought of a mother's
 
 THE REWARDS OF THE TEACHER. 399 
 A devoted mother.— Teaclier next to the parent. 
 
 love ! The smiles, the kind words, the sympathy, 
 the counsels, the prayers, the tears, — how fondly 
 the memory treasures them all iip, and claims 
 them for its own ! And though Death may have 
 long since intruded, and consigned that gentle 
 form to the cold earth, rudely sundering the 
 cherished bonds of affection, and leaving the 
 hearth-stone desolate, — though Change may have 
 brought strangers to fell the favorite tree, to re- 
 move the ancient landmarks, to lay waste the 
 pleasant places, and even to tread thoughtlessly 
 by the humble mound that marks the revered 
 spot where " departed worth is laid," — though 
 Time, ''with his effacing fingers," may have been 
 busy in obliterating the impressions of childhood 
 from the mind, or in burying them deeply be- 
 neath the rubbish of perplexing cares, — still the 
 true heart never tires with the thought of a fond 
 parent, nor ever ceases to " thank God upon every 
 remembrance " of a pious, devoted mother! 
 
 Thus it should ever be. Nothing on earth 
 should be allowed to claim the gratitude which 
 is justly due to judicious parents. But the faith- 
 ful, devoted teacher, the former of youthful char- 
 acter and the guide of youthful study, will be 
 sure to have the next place in the grateful heart. 
 Whether the young man treads the deck of the 
 noble ship, in his lonely watch, as she proudly 
 walks the waters by night, — or journeys among 
 strangers in foreign lands ; — wherever he goes, or 
 however employed, — as often as his thoughts re-
 
 400 THE REWARDS OF THE TEACHER. 
 Gratitude of parents.— Example. 
 
 visit the scenes of his childhood, and dwell with 
 interest upon the events that marked his youth- 
 ful progress, he will recur to the old familiar 
 school-house, call up its well-remembered inci- 
 dents — its joys and its sorrows — its trials and its 
 triumphs — its all-pervading and ever-abiding in- 
 fluences, and devoutly thank God for the gift of 
 a faithful, self-denying, patient teacher. 
 
 But the teacher is rewarded also by the grati- 
 tude of parents and friends. Some of the sweetest 
 moments a teacher ever experiences, are those 
 when a parent takes him by the hand, and with 
 cordial sincerity and deep emotion, thanks him 
 for what he has done for his child. It may have 
 been a wayward, thoughtless, perhaps a vicious 
 boy, whom kind words and a warm heart, on the 
 part of the teacher, have won back to the path 
 of rectitude and virtue. 
 
 I have seen an old lady — and I shall never 
 forget the sight — bending under the infirmities 
 of age, — blind, and yet dependent mainly upon 
 her labor for support, invoking the richest of 
 heaven's blessings upon the head of a teacher, 
 who, by kindness and perseverance, had won back 
 her wayward grandson to obedience and duty. 
 How her full soul labored as she described the 
 change that had taken place ! Her emotion^oo 
 deep for utterance in words — found expression 
 only in tears that streamed from her sightless 
 eyes! She felt that her boy was again a child 
 of hope and promise, and that he might yet be
 
 THE REWARDS OF THE TEACHER. 401 
 Widow's gratitude.— Approval of Heaven.— The Great Teacher. 
 
 a /irtuous and a useful man. The world may 
 raise its empty acclamation to honor the man of 
 power and of fame, — it may applaud the statesman 
 and weave the chaplet for the conqueror's brow ; — 
 but the teacher, humble and obscure though he 
 may be, who is the object of the widow's grati- 
 tude for being the orphan's friend, with the con- 
 sciousness of deserving it, is a happier, I had 
 almost said a greater man. Surely he receives a 
 greater reward. 
 
 VII. The faithful teacher enjoys the approval 
 of Heaven. He is employed, if he has a right 
 spirit, in a heavenly mission. He is doing his 
 Heavenly Father's business. That man should 
 be made wiser and happier, is the will of Heaven. 
 To this end, the Son of God — The Great Teacher 
 — came to bless our race. So far as the school- 
 master has the spirit of Jesus, he is engaged in 
 the same great work. Heaven regards with com- 
 placency the humble efforts of the faithful teacher 
 to raise his fellow-beings from the darkness of 
 ignorance and the slavery of superstition ; and 
 if a more glorious crown is held in reserve for 
 one rather than another, it is for him who, un- 
 cheered by worldly applause, and without the 
 prospect of adequate reward from his fellow- 
 men, cheerfully practices the self-denial of his 
 master, spending his strength, and doing with 
 diligence and patience "whatsoever his hand 
 findeth to do," toward raising his fellow-beings 
 to happiness and Heaven.
 
 402 THE REWARDS OF THE TEACHER. 
 Lord Brougham.— An epitapli. — Cease repining. 
 
 It is such a teacher that the eloquent and 
 gifted Lord Brougham describes in the following 
 beautiful language : 
 
 "He meditates and prepares, in secret, the 
 plans which are to bless mankind ; he slowly 
 gathers around him those who are to further 
 their execution, — he quietly, though firmly, ad- 
 vances in his humble path, laboring steadily, but 
 calmly, till he has opened to the light all the 
 recesses of ignorance, and torn up by the roots 
 the weeds of vice. His progress is not to be 
 compared with any thing like the march of the 
 conqueror, — but it leads to a far more brilliant 
 triumph and to laurels more imperishable than 
 the destroyer of his species, the scourge of the 
 world, ever won. Each one of these great teach- 
 ers of the world, possessing his soul in peace, 
 performs his appointed course, awaits in patience 
 the fulfillment of the promises, and resting from 
 his labors, bequeaths his memory to the genera- 
 tion whom his works have blessed, and. sleeps 
 under the humble, but not inglorious epitaph, 
 commemorating ' one in luhom mankind lost a 
 friend, and no tnan got rid of an enemy.'' " 
 
 In view of what has been said, let the teacher 
 cease to repine at his hard lot. Let him cast an 
 occasional glance at the bright prospect before 
 him. He deserves, to be sure, a higher pecun- 
 iary reward than he receives ; and he should 
 never cease to press this truth upon the com-
 
 THE REWAEDS OF THE TEACHER. 403 
 Magnify Ms office. — How? — Moral recompense. 
 
 munity, till talent in teaching is as well compen- 
 sated as talent in any other calling. But whether 
 he gains this or not, let him dwell upon the 
 privileges and rewards to be found in the calling 
 itself, and take fresh encouragement. 
 
 The apostle Paul exhibited great wisdom when 
 he said, "/ magnify mine office^ If the fore- 
 going views respecting the importance of the 
 teacher's calling are correct, he may safely fol- 
 low the apostle's example. This is not, however, 
 to be done merely by boastful words. No man 
 can elevate himself, or magnify his office in pub- 
 lic estimation, by indulging in empty declama- 
 tion, or by passing inflated resolutions. He must 
 feel the dignity of his profession, and show that 
 he feels it by unremitted exertions to attain to 
 the highest excellence of which he is capable, — 
 animated, in the midst of his toil, chiefly by the 
 great moral recompense which every faithful 
 teacher may hope to receive. 
 
 Let every teacher, then, study to improve 
 himself intellectually and morally ; let him strive 
 to advance in the art of teaching ; let him watch 
 the growth of mind under his culture and take 
 the encouragement which that affords ; let him 
 consider the usefulness he may effect, and the 
 circumstances which make his calling honorable ; 
 let him prize the gratitude of his pupils, and of 
 their parents and friends ; and above all, let him 
 value the approval of Heaven, and set a proper 
 estimate upon the rewards which another world
 
 404 THE REWAKDS OF THE TEACHER. 
 
 Final reward. 
 
 will unfold to him, — and thus be encouraged to 
 toil on in faithfulness and in hope, — till, having 
 finished his course, and being gathered to the 
 home of the righteous, he shall meet multitudes 
 instructed by his wise precept, and profited by 
 his pure example, who "shall rise up and call 
 him blessed."
 
 CHAPTER XYII. 
 
 NOTES ON THE TEACHER'S AUTHORITY AND 
 RIGHTS.* 
 
 TEACHERS are peculiarly exposed to criti- 
 cism, censure, and to the annoyances and 
 dangers of legal persecution. The relations of 
 the teacher to school oflflcers, pupils, parents, and 
 the general public are so many, so delicate, so 
 poorly defined, and so little understood, that dan- 
 ger from these sources is always imminent; and 
 it should be a matter of first concern, for one so 
 situated, to have some tolerably definite knowl- 
 edge of his legal rights. ^Vhat follows is a mere 
 summary ; but the references will enable any one 
 to supplement this outline almost at will. 
 
 In public school administration, the downward 
 distribution of rights, prerogatives, and duties is 
 made as follows : By the election of the board of 
 
 ♦ The references are to the following works by number and page : 
 1. The Lawyer in the School-room. By M. McN. Walsh. New 
 York : 1867. 
 
 *. Conomon School Law. By C. W. Bardeen. Sjrracuse : 1878. 
 
 3. A Treatise on the Law of Public Schools. By Pinley Burke. 
 New York : 1880. 
 
 4. Eecent School Law Decisions. Compiled by Lyndon A. Smith. 
 Washington: 1883. 
 
 5. The Power and Authority of School Oflacers and Teachers. New 
 
 York: 1885.
 
 406 NOTES ON THE TEACHER'S 
 
 Trustees.— Superintendent.— Teachers. 
 
 trustees or school committee, there passes from 
 the hands of the people that part of their sover- 
 eign power which relates to the management of 
 the school and its resources ; and the power thus 
 transferred to such officers can not be recalled 
 at will, nor can the people interfere with their 
 agents save in cases of gross maladministration, 
 which would justify impeachment. In case of 
 dissatisfaction, the people have their remedy in 
 the opportunity for better selections when terms 
 of office are about to expire. 
 
 The board of trustees may delegate certain 
 duties to a superintendent or principal, and by 
 this act they invest him with certain rights and 
 prerogatives ; and when this transfer has been 
 made it is no more subject to recall than in the 
 case just stated. Within his province the super- 
 intendent has just the same immunity from in- 
 terference as the board has within its province. 
 
 In his turn, the superintendent delegates cer- 
 tain duties to his subordinates, and so invests 
 them with certain rights and prerogatives ; and 
 within their province teachers should be as free 
 from interference as their superior is in his. 
 
 A clear definition of these respective spheres 
 of duty would relieve public school administra- 
 tion of many of its difficulties, and at the same 
 time would promote a manly independence among 
 teachers. It is a good thing to be charged with 
 responsibilities, and at the same time allowed all 
 proper freedom of action in working out required
 
 AUTHORITY AND RIGHTS. 407 
 
 Prerogatives of board,— superintendent,— teacher. 
 
 results. Noble natures are made better and 
 stronger by being trusted. Without attempting 
 an exact definition of the prerogatives of board, 
 superintendent, and teacher, the following state- 
 ments will indicate where the lines should be 
 drawn. 
 
 Prerogatives of the hoard. The entire mate- 
 rial support of the school ; the employment of 
 teachers ; the adoption of courses of study ; the 
 selection of text-books ; the making of general 
 rules and regulations. 
 
 Prerogatives of the superintendent. The clas- 
 sification of pupils ; general methods of instruc- 
 tion and government ; the execution of the gen- 
 eral rules of the board ; the movements of pupils 
 within the building and on the grounds ; exam- 
 inations and promotions. 
 
 Prerogatives of the teacher. The arrangement 
 of the time-table ; the seating of the pupils ; the 
 movements of pupils within the room ; mode of 
 recitation ; methods of instruction and govern- 
 ment within the general limits prescribed above. 
 Where there is no superintendent or principal, 
 the teacher's prerogatives will be considerably 
 enlarged ; and in isolated schools, as in the coun= 
 try, a wider jurisdiction should be allowed in the 
 way of authority. 
 
 While the selection of subordinate teachers 
 and of text-books is nominally a prerogative of 
 the board, it should always be based on the judg- 
 ment of the superintendent or principal ; for the
 
 408 NOTES ON" THE TEACHER'S 
 
 The State, as the patron of the public schools. 
 
 hearty co-operation of teachers can scarcely be 
 secured unless they are conscious that their elec- 
 tion and retention are somewhat dependent on 
 the approval of their superior ; and the relative 
 merits of text-books can best be determined by 
 those whose duties have given them special com- 
 petence in such matters. 
 
 The State, as the patron of the public schools, 
 may make certain studies compulsory; but be- 
 yond this, the board must prescribe what branches 
 are to be taught. The teacher has no legal right 
 whatever to introduce a study or a text-book on 
 his own motion (5: 24, 33; 3: 108, 111; 2: 
 41). 
 
 It appears from recent decisions, that while 
 the board may determine what subjects shall be 
 taught, it may not compel pupils to pursue all 
 the studies in the course ; but must make ex- 
 ceptions on the demands of parents (5: 34, 41, 
 46; 3: 112, 113; 3 : 42 ; 4: 65, 78). If par- 
 ents were generally to act in accord with these 
 decisions it would be very difficult, if not impos- 
 sible, to m.aintain a graded course of instruction ; 
 for in one case (5: 46) it would seem that a pu- 
 pil who had not completed the studies of one 
 grade might demand admission to a higher 
 grade. Some check on these irregularities may 
 be found in refusing graduation to those who 
 have not completed the entire course of study. 
 
 The decisions of the courts uphold the right 
 of boards to make regularity of attendance a
 
 AUTHORITY AND RIGHTS. 409 
 
 Suspension.— Expulsion.— Corporal punishment. 
 
 condition of membership, and to suspend pupils 
 who have violated the attendance rule (5: 3, 10; 
 3: 94; 4: 74; 2: 34). However, the law will 
 not justify a teacher in barring the door against 
 a tardy pupil, especially in inclement weather 
 (5:9). In case of absence, the teacher may re- 
 quire a written excuse from the parent (5 : 22). 
 
 The power to expel lies with the board, and 
 not with the teacher (5: 81, 84, 159; 2: 56). 
 The teacher may suspend pupils, even when 
 there are no rules on the subject (5 : 77 : 
 3: 117; 4: 76). 
 
 The law will sustain the teacher in inflicting 
 corporal punishment, provided it be reasonable 
 and for sufficient cause (1: 71; 2: 74; 3: 119; 
 4: 77; 5: 105, 113, 114). The reasonable as- 
 sumption is, that in respect of restraint and cor- 
 rection, the teacher is in loco parentis, and may 
 exercise that degree of force that would be justi- 
 fiable in a parent (1: 72, 73, 74, 109; 2 : 84 ; 
 3: 119, 123; 4: 77; 5: 111). 
 
 The law regards the pupil as under the juris- 
 diction of his teacher, from the time he leaves 
 his home till he returns there ; and the pupil 
 may be punished for offenses committed on his 
 way to school and from school, if such offenses 
 tend to injure the school, or bring the teacher or 
 his authority into disrespect (1: 98, 110; 2: 63; 
 3 : 129 ; 5 : 96). A pupil may be punished, even 
 for offenses that he commits at home, if thereby 
 the teacher suffers contempt (3: 129; 5: 9 6).
 
 410 NOTES ON THE TEACHER'S 
 
 Religious exercises.— "Written contract. 
 
 Pupils over twenty-one years of age have no ex- 
 emption from the rules of the school (5 : 133; 
 3: 130). A pupil may be detained after school 
 hours for discipline, or for learning a lesson 
 (3: 72). 
 
 In general, the law leaves the question of re- 
 ligious exercise to the discretion of the board 
 (3: 102; 3: 50 ; 1: Chapters II. and III; 5: 68). 
 
 In all cases it is prudent for the teacher to 
 have a written contract, in which should be speci- 
 fied the duration of the term of service, the time 
 of beginning, the vacations and holidays that 
 may be allowed, the length of the school month, 
 and the amount and manner of payment {2 : Part 
 II. ; 3 : Chapter VIII.). Before a teacher can 
 make a valid contract, he must have a license 
 (3: 70). The teacher can collect pay for time 
 lost while the school was closed by the board on 
 account of an epidemic (3: 82). 
 
 What is known as " janitor's work," i. e., sweep- 
 ing, building fires, etc., can not be exacted of the 
 teacher, unless there is an express agreement to 
 this effect in the contract. It is the duty of the 
 board to make provision for things of this kind, 
 and the amount paid for such work can not be 
 deducted from the teacher's wages. Very often 
 such work is done by the teacher and older pu- 
 pils, and this is well, where it is done voluntarily ■ 
 but such service can not be required (2: 25). 
 It would be unwise for a teacher at all times to 
 insist on what he knows to be his rights ; it is
 
 AUTHORITY AND RIGHTS. 411 
 
 The laws favor the teacher. 
 
 sometiraes prudent to hold these in abeyance. 
 There is sometimes a proneness, especially in the 
 smaller communities, for those who are in au- 
 thority to magnify their office unduly, and so to 
 put a narrow construction on the jurisdiction of 
 the teacher. The rule of safety is to keep clearly 
 within the sphere of one's rights. In case these 
 rights are assailed, it is both a public as well as 
 a private duty to defend them. The law recog- 
 nizes the difficulties incident to the teacher's of- 
 fice, and the necessity of upholding his authority ; 
 and the courts are ever disposed to put a gener- 
 ous construction on his acts and motives when 
 engaged in the defense of decency and good 
 order.
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Abbott, Jacob, 188, 330 ; on " first 
 day", 267. 
 
 Ability, 324. 
 
 Accuracy, 150, 366, 367, 391. 
 
 Acquisition, 180, 182. 
 
 Adaptation, 343, 386. 
 
 Addition, 92. 
 
 Additions to Text, 5, 6. 
 
 Admonition, 259. 
 
 Advancement, 176. 
 
 Affection, 194, 257, 395; freez- 
 ing, 229. 
 
 Agnew, Professor, 395. 
 
 Agriculture, 81. 
 
 Aid, Mutual, 333-343. 
 
 Aim of education, 100-102, 184, 
 340. 
 
 Air, 306, 309. 
 
 Albany Normal School, 4, 6, 15, 16. 
 
 Alchohol, Physiological effects 
 of, 83. 
 
 Algebra, 79. 
 
 Alphabet, 73. 
 
 Alternations, 275, 278. 
 
 Ambition, 159. 
 
 Analysis, 75. 
 
 Anger, 187, 250, 252. 
 
 Animation, 145. 
 
 Answers, 124, 125, 141. 
 
 Approbation, 175, 176, 194. 
 
 Aptness, 105, 137, 138, 380. 
 
 Aristocracy, 192, 266, 345, 346. 
 
 Aristotle, Science of G-overnment, 
 86. 
 
 Arithmetic, 77, 78, 275; Col- 
 burn's Intellectual, 39; Men- 
 tal, 39, 77 ; Written, 41. 
 
 Arnold, Matthew, 397. 
 
 Arrangements of schools, 262- 
 295. 
 
 Art, 104 ; of illustration, 371- 
 
 376; of teaching, 4, 22, 325, 
 
 327, 392. 
 Ascham, Roger, 396. 
 Assistant, 275. 
 Assumption, 188, 189, 341. 
 Astronomy, 88, 331, 357. 
 Attainments, 22, 71, 72, 73, 88, 
 
 103, 323, 340. 
 Attendance, Regularity of, 408, 
 
 409. 
 Attention, 119, 123, 127, 137, 
 
 138, 143, 146, 153. 
 Auburn Prison, 54-57. 
 Authority, 187, 188, 216, 217, 
 
 236, 237, 243, 405-411. 
 
 Baby-talk, 357. 
 
 Bacon, Francis, 21, 323. 
 
 Bain, Alexander, 135, 185, 330; 
 
 on Text-books, 136. 
 Bardeen, C. W., 405. 
 Barnard, Henry, 11 ; Journal of 
 
 Education, 11, 27. 
 Bartlett pear, 32. 
 Bathing, 61. 
 Belles-lettres, 90. 
 Bible, 50, 52, 178, 207, 249 ; study 
 
 of, 355, 380 ; a means of tort- 
 ure, 223, 224, 355. 
 Blackguardism, 222. 
 Black marks, 209. 
 Blind, 181. 
 Boasting, 352. 
 Body, 396 ; punishment through, 
 
 218, 219, 23^249. 
 Book-keeping, 84, 85. 
 Books, Care of, 364; helps, 44, 
 
 45, 146 ; list of, 6, 330 ; use of, 
 
 40, 44, 135, 136.
 
 INDEX. 
 
 418 
 
 Boorishness, 67. 
 Botany, 83, 331, 357. 
 Branch of study, 360. 
 Bronchitis, 317, 318. 
 Brougham, Lord, 96, 330, 402. 
 Burke, Finley, 330, 405, 408, 409, 
 
 410. 
 Business in school hours, 349, 
 
 350. 
 
 Cailiko of the Teachee, 319- 
 343, 391, 394, 395, 396 ; honor- 
 able, 397. 
 
 Care of health, 304-318. 
 
 Care of school-room, 363, 410. 
 
 Carlyle, Thomas, 89, 370. 
 
 Catholicity, 52, 235, 236, 256, 
 260, 326. 
 
 Censure, 260. 
 
 Chagrin, 33, 229, 353, 370. 
 
 Change, 339; of program, 276; 
 of work, 329. 
 
 Character, 60, 69, 95, 99, 177, 
 179, 260, 344, 345, 367. 
 
 Chart, Normal, 74. 
 
 Chastisement, 234, 249, 260. 
 
 Cheerfulness, 314, 315, 367-370. 
 
 Chemistry, 81, 331, 357. 
 
 Child, Capacity of, 27, 96, 97, 
 102, 180, 181 ; choice of studies, 
 346-348; danger of misguid- 
 ance, 26, 94, 95, 106, 263, 347, 
 366; deformity of, 190; emu- 
 lation in, 158 ; growth of, 180, 
 181, 393; health of, 36, 98, 
 180 ; home of, 238, 239 ; imita- 
 tion of, 145 ; intellectual devel- 
 opment of, 38, 95, 393; moral 
 - training of, 46, 96, 179, 217, 
 238, 395 ; neglect of, 34 ; obedi- 
 ence of, 181, 362 ; qualities in, 
 193, 194, 353. 
 
 Choice of studies, 347, 348. 
 
 Christianity, 51, 161, 176, 177, 
 396. 
 
 Classes, 278. 
 
 Classification, 271, 272, 273, 407 ; 
 difficulty of, 276. 
 
 Cleanliness, 61, 62, 310. 
 
 Clock, 274. 
 
 Coarseness, 64, 145, 198, 222, 
 320. 
 
 Colbum, Warren, 309. 
 Colbum's Intellectual Arithmetic, 
 
 39, 77. 
 Comenius, S. S. Laurie's, 330. 
 "Comforter," The, 316. 
 Commonplace-book, 142, 143, 331, 
 
 332. 
 Common School Law, Bardeen's, 
 
 405, 408, 409, 410. 
 Comparisons, Invidious, 352-, 353. 
 Compayre, G., 330. 
 Competence, 324, 325. 
 Competitors, 169, 170, 171, 172, 
 
 324, 325. 
 Composition, 41, 277, 332, 336. 
 Concert recitation, 151, 356. 
 Conduct, 260. 
 
 Conducting recitations, 137-153. 
 Confession, 368. 
 Confidence, 200 ; loss of, 227. 
 Confinement, 231, 232, 245, 246; 
 
 of children, 286; futility of, 
 
 246. 
 Confucius, 397. 
 
 Confusion illustrated, 280-283. 
 Conscience, 47, 48, 97, 177, 178, 
 
 194, 229, 257, 368 ; a law, 203 ; 
 
 a reward, 174, 391. 
 Consciousness of success, 391, 392, 
 
 393, 395. 
 Conservatism, 20, 321. 
 Contract, 410. 
 Contradictories, 157, 159, 160, 
 
 fll, 213, 223, 235, 236, 260, 
 
 322, 373, 374. 
 Conversion, Intellectual, 341. 
 Convicts, Appearance of, 55, 
 
 56. 
 Com, an object lesson, 119-125. 
 Corporal piinishment, 235-249, 
 
 409 ; its abolition ideal, 241 ; 
 
 limitations, 249-261, 409; Hor- 
 ace Mann on the necessity of, 
 
 237-241. 
 Countenance, 367-371. 
 Course of study, 330, 331, 348, 
 
 407, 408. 
 Courtesy, 64, 67, 198, 199. 
 Cousin, Victor, 96, 330. 
 Cramming, 46, 287, 290, 294. 
 Credits, 209. 
 Crime, 55.
 
 414 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Cruelty, 223, 224. 
 
 Culture, 23, 88, 89, 229, 325- 
 
 333. 
 Curiosity, 180, 182, 183. 
 Cuvier, 357. 
 Cyclopaedia of Education, Kiddle 
 
 and Schem's, 330. 
 
 Day-dreams of a School-mastee, 
 
 Thompson's, 330. 
 Deaf, 181. 
 
 Decimal notation, 148. 
 Decision, 194. 
 Declamation, 277. 
 Defining, 39. 
 
 Delay in punishment, 252. 
 Deliberation, 252, 253. 
 De Sacy, General Grammar, 79. 
 Description, 41. 
 Desires, 183 ; proper, 175-185. 
 Desks, 364. 
 
 Details of teaching, 4. 
 Detention, 410. 
 Development, 96, 361, 396; of 
 
 the -whole man, 98, 396. 
 Dictionnaire de Pedagogic, 361. 
 Diet, 305, 311, 312, 313. 
 Direction of pupils' study, 346, 
 
 347. 
 Disciplinary punishment, 253, 
 
 260. 
 Discipline, 97, 210, 395, 410. 
 Discovery, 116, 121, 130, 135, 183, 
 
 336. 
 Discretion, 203, 253. 
 Dismissing, 68, 383, 384. 
 Disrespect, 409. 
 District, Pactions in, 241 ; state 
 
 of, 265. 
 Divinity, 27. 
 Doing, 22; after knowing, 92, 
 
 119. 
 Do right, 177, 178, 202, 205, 229, 
 
 259, 333. 
 Drawing, 86, 274. 
 Drawing-out process, 109 - 114, 
 
 134. 
 Dress, 62, 306, 314, 345. 
 Drink, 313. 
 Driving, 308. 
 Dullness, 353. 
 Duty, 323. 
 
 Ear, 181, 219, 220, 221. 
 
 Education, 91, IOC, 102, 330 ; aim 
 of, 100-102, 184, 340 ; is devel- 
 opment, 96, 98; discipline, 97, 
 184 ; history of, 19 ; not knowl- 
 edge of facts, 97, liberal, 103; 
 a life-work, 89; limitations of, 
 102 ; necessity of. 34 ; phases 
 22, 98, 102; professional, 21, 
 89, 93, 94, 104, 321, 330; right 
 views of, 91-104. 
 
 Education, Spencer's, 330. 
 
 Educational epidemic, 361. 
 
 Educational library, 330. 
 
 Educational millennium, 321. 
 
 Education and School, Thring's, 
 330. 
 
 Education as a Science, Bain's, 
 330. 
 
 Efifort, 169, 170, 171, 172. 
 
 Elementary sounds, 73, 74. 
 
 Elements of education, 38, 347, 
 348. 
 
 Elm, 126-129. 
 
 Elocution, 39. 
 
 Emerson, George B., 93, 94, 96, 
 305, 330. 
 
 Emile, Rousseau's, 330. 
 
 Employment, 200; of teachers, 
 320, 407. 
 
 Emulation, 155-162 ; in a good 
 sense, 157-159 ; in a bad sense, 
 158, 159, 160. 
 
 Encouragements, 323, 324, 339, 
 340, 390, 401, 402. 
 
 Ends, 105, 258, 306, 386; of edu- 
 cation, 5, 97, 100. 
 
 English grammar, 42, 79 ; bigotry 
 in the study of, 79. 
 
 Enthusiasm, 138, 140, 143. 
 
 Envy, 158, 162, 165, 353. 
 
 Epidemic, 410. 
 
 Epping, 11. 
 
 Errors, 265, 266, 267, 268, 835, 
 337, 343, 366; in education, 
 99, 347. 
 
 Essays on Educational Reformers, 
 Quick's, 330. 
 
 Ethics, 20, 84, 178, 179; profes- 
 sional, 333-343. 
 
 Evasion, 149. 
 
 Evolution, 102, 360, 361.
 
 INDEX, 
 
 415 
 
 Examinations, 290 - 295, 407 ; 
 
 objections to, 291 ; profitable, 
 
 294, 295. 
 Example, 47, 64, 66, 326; e%'il, 
 
 49; lost, 173. 
 Excitement, 145 ; artificial, 154, 
 
 182, 184; nervous, 36, 37, 219, 
 
 310. 
 Exciting interest in study, 154- 
 
 185. 
 Exclusiveness, 334. 
 Excuses from parents, 409; to 
 
 \'lsitors, 350. 
 Exemplary punishment, 253, 260. 
 Exercises, 36, 305, 306; general, 
 
 118, 206; time for, 308, 309, 
 
 328. 
 Exercises, Religious, 410. 
 Exhibitions, 292, 294, 341, 342. 
 Expedients, 377. 
 Expenses, 389. 
 
 Experience, 21, 143, 255, 342. 
 Experiments, 22 ; upon children, 
 
 156, 163, 389, 390. 
 Explanations, 147; to parents, 
 
 299, 300. 
 Expulsion, 247; last resort, 259; 
 
 260 ; objection to, 247, 248 ; 
 
 power of, 409. 
 " Extraordinary "to be avoided, 
 
 342. 
 Eye, 37, 38, 181 ; care of, 38. 
 
 Eacts, 97 ; not fancy, 341. 
 
 Failure, 288 ; of teachers, 335. 
 
 Faith, 381, 382. 
 
 Family, The, 260, 315. 
 
 Fat, 313. 
 
 Favorite branch, 360. 
 
 Fear, 217, 259, 378, 379. 
 
 Feet, 314. 
 
 Few, The, 166, 167, 266. 
 
 Ilrmness, 194. 
 
 First-day, 263, 264, 267. 
 
 First impressions, 197, 198, 262, 
 
 208, 344. 
 Fitch, J. G., 330. 
 Fitness, grades of, 20, 325; for 
 
 teaching, 19-24, 105, 138, 325. 
 Food, 306, 311, 312, 313; quan- 
 tity of, 312. 
 Force, 215, 243, 244, 245, 409. 
 
 Form of thought, 39. 
 
 Fox, Mr., 98. 
 
 Francke, A. H., 397. 
 
 Franklin, Dr., 200; on excuses, 
 
 350. 
 Frankness, 367 ; to parents, 301. 
 
 302. 
 Friends, Personal, 265, 266, 26-^ 
 
 300, 301, 315, 339, 361, 362. 
 Friendship, 335. 
 Frowns, 368. 
 Fruit, 313. 
 
 GARDEjrrNG, 307. 
 
 General Grammar, 79. 
 
 Genius, 171. 
 
 Geography, 40, 76, 271; anec- 
 dote in, 76 ; purpose of, 40. 
 
 Geology, 83, 331. 
 
 Geometry, 80. 
 
 Gifts, 138, 139, 172. 
 
 God, 27, 47, 50, 51, 52, 179, 379, 
 385; approval of, 29, 50, 177, 
 343, 379, 401, 402; kingdom 
 of, 159, 179, 395, 396; our 
 Protector, 380, 381, 382, 383 
 punishment from, 218, 219 
 rewards, 172, 179, 380, 382 
 teacher's need of, 53, 58, 59 
 wisdom of, 183, 217, 359, 379. 
 
 Groldsmith, Oliver, 222. 
 
 Government, 22, 191, 268, 407; 
 equahty in, 192, 193 ; a means, 
 210; of school, 186-261, 336. 
 340, 407 ; uniformity in, 192. 
 
 Graduation, 408. 
 
 Grammar, 41, 42, 43, 79, 144. 
 
 Great Teacher, The, 401. 
 
 Greek, 75. 
 
 Growth, 180, 326, 327, 329, 360, 
 390-394, 396. 
 
 Habits, Mechanicax, 45 ; of studjj^ 
 69, 146 ; of teacher, 60-70. 
 
 HaU, S. E., 147. 
 
 Hampton Academy, 11. 
 
 Head, 220, 253. 
 
 Health, Bodily, 36, 81, 82, 304, 
 305-318. 
 
 Heaven, 396, 401, 403. 
 
 Helping pupils, 114. 
 
 Higher branches, 360.
 
 416 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Hissing, 227, 228. 
 
 Histoire de la Pedagogie, Compayre's, 
 330. 
 
 History, 41, 7G, 90 ; drawing out, 
 110, 111; of education, 19, 20, 
 23, 90 ; piu-pose of, 41. 
 
 Hitchcock, President, 307. 
 
 Hobbes, Thomas, 135. 
 
 i" Hobbies " in teaching, 355, 356 ; 
 of 1829 to 1831, 358, 359 ; cause 
 of, 361. 
 
 "Holding a nail," 225. 
 
 Home, 315, 398, 399. 
 
 Home Education, Taylor's, 330. 
 
 Honesty, 54, 300, 341 ; in exam- 
 inations, 293, 368. 
 
 Honor, 366. 
 
 Hope, 53, 54 ; disappointed, 33. 
 
 Household Education, Miss Mar- 
 tineau's, 330. 
 
 Howard, E. S., 13, 210. 
 
 Humiliation, 232, 366. 
 
 Hypocrisy, 232, 292, 293, 294, 
 300, 301, 342, 352, 363, 365. 
 
 Ideal, 70, 91, 92, 95, 100, 101, 
 103, 104, 157, 184. 
 
 Ideas, 39 ; in child, 180, 181. 
 
 Ignorance, Inexcusable, 28. 
 
 Illustration, 76, 86, 329, 335, 371 ; 
 of assumption, 189 ; the Auburn 
 prison, 54 ; of immature choice 
 of studies, 347 ; decimal nota- 
 tion, 148 ; of lack of discretion, 
 203, 204 ; drawing-out process, 
 109-114 ; of perfection in edu- 
 cation, 100, 101 ; of relative 
 and absolute in education, 102, 
 103 ; of effect of ridicule, 228, 
 229 ; of excuses to visitors, 350, 
 351 ; of lack of firmness, " the 
 unjust judge," 195, 196; of 
 parental gratitude, 400 ; of 
 ignorance in science of gov- 
 ernment, 85; of interruption 
 in district school, 280-282 ; that 
 judges disagree, 168 ; the neg- 
 lected pear-tree, 30-34 ; of 
 " Order there ! " and " teach- 
 ing," 211-214 ; of lack of plan, 
 269, 270 ; of reformation, 365 ; 
 of religious training, 377-387 ; 
 
 of scolding, 221 ; sculptor and 
 spectator, 91, 92, 93; of self- 
 control, 354 ; of lack of skill ; 
 372-375 ; waking-up process, 
 117-129. 
 
 Imitation, 342, 343. 
 
 Immortality, 52, 396. 
 
 Impartiality, 193. 
 
 Impatience, 205, 221, 322, 392. 
 
 Impression, 197, 268, 365, 386. 
 
 Improvement, 143, 264, 270, 323, 
 325-333, 336, 337, 392, 403. 
 
 Impulse, 6. 
 
 Incentives, 155, 163, 167 ; proper, 
 175, 182. 
 
 Indifference, 53, 117, 141, 287; 
 from the prize system, 165. 
 
 Inductions, 255. 
 
 Industry, 54, 210, 331. 
 
 Information, 326. 
 
 Injustice, 190, 219, 345, 388, 389. 
 
 In loco parentis, 217, 409. 
 
 Inquiry, 122, 265, 299, 300 ; time 
 for, 264. 
 
 Institutes, Teachers', 16, 337, 338 ; 
 benefit from, 340-343; defini- 
 tion of, 340 ; perversion of, 
 338. 
 
 Instruction, 20, 22, 96, 102, 182, 
 210, 258. 
 
 Instrument, 103, 104 ; in punish- 
 ment, 253. 
 
 Intellectual growth, 390, 391. 
 
 Interest, 154-185. 
 
 Intermission, Duration of, 284, 
 285; hoiu^ for, 285; for each 
 sex, 284. 
 
 Interruptions, 272, 279-283. 
 
 Intuition, 106, 138. 
 
 Janitor's woek, 410. 
 
 Jokes, 222, 223. 
 
 Journal of Education, 11, 27. 
 
 Judges, 168 ; ignorant of con- 
 ditions, 169, 345 ; ignorant of 
 improper means employed, 170. 
 
 Judgment, 345, 370 ; of principal, 
 407. 
 
 Jug, Mind not a, 108. 
 
 Jurisdiction of teacher, 409. 
 
 Justice, 47, 169, 171, 187, 191, 
 192, 200, 203, 261.
 
 INDEX. 
 
 417 
 
 Kiddle, H., 330. 
 
 Knowing, 22 ; before doing, 91, 
 92, 93. 
 
 Knowledge, 102, 135, 181, 323, 324, 
 326, 395 ; certain, 362 ; desire 
 for, 181, 183 ; not education, 
 97 ; not an end, 97 ; self, 391 ; 
 important step to, 53, 54; un- 
 safe, 95. 
 
 Laloe, 330. 
 
 Lancaster, his motto, 282. 
 
 Landon, Mr., 330. 
 
 Language, 64, 135, 144, 147, 180; 
 
 how to study, 42, 43. 
 Language lessons, 42, 43. 
 Latin, 75. 
 
 Laughing, 223, 227. 
 Laurie, Simon S., 330. 
 Law, 20, 201, 203, 259; of con- 
 science, 203 ; of physical health, 
 
 37, 82 ; of mind, 83. 
 Law of Public Schools, Burke's, 
 
 330, 405, 408, 409, 410. 
 Lawyer, 26. 
 Lavryer in the School-room, 
 
 "Walsh's, 405, 409. 
 Leading questions, 109, 134. 
 Lecturers, 338. 
 
 Lectures, 88, 107,134, 340, 358,359. 
 Lectures, Mann's, 330. 
 Lectures of the American Listi- 
 
 tute, 330. 
 Lectures on Teaching, Pitch's, 
 
 330. 
 Legal rights, 405. 
 Leonard and Gertrude, Pesta- 
 
 lozzi's, 330. 
 Lessons, 274, 286-288, 410. 
 Letters, Silent, 73, 74. 
 Levana, Richter's, 261, 330. 
 Levity, 187. 
 
 Library, Teacher's, 330. 
 License to teach, 20, 410. 
 life. Practical, 177 ; professional, 
 
 6, 332, 333; sedentary, 312; 
 
 regular, 328. 
 Light, 309, 310. 
 
 Limitation of topics taught, 349. 
 Limitations and suggestions on 
 
 corporal punishment, 241-261. 
 Lincoln, D. P., 37, 330. 
 
 Literary quaUflcations of the 
 
 teacher, 71-90. 
 Literature, 77, 90 ; educational, 
 
 5, 330 ; purpose of, 41. 
 "Living by wits," 390. 
 Locke, John, 96, 330. 
 Logic, 84. 
 Love, 188, 194, 198, 227, 257; of 
 
 scholars, 362, 392. 
 "Lull in the storm," 383. 
 Luther, Martin, 88, 207. 
 
 Man, an instrument, 102, 103; 
 prize, 166 ; strong, 167. 
 
 Management of school, 258, 340. 
 
 Mann, Horace, 13, 15, 72, 96, 145, 
 181, 330 ; on expulsion, 248 ; 
 on quackery, 82 ; on corporal 
 punishment, 237-241 ; on read- 
 ing, 74, 75. 
 
 Manners, 66, 346, 365 ; of teach- 
 er, 60, 65, 145, 187, 188. 
 
 Many, The, 167, 266, 345, 346. 
 
 Map-drawing, 76. 
 
 Maps, 40. 
 
 Martineau, Miss, 330. 
 
 Mathematics, 80, 331 ; necessity 
 of review in, 289. 
 
 Meanness, 266, 345, 351, 352. 
 
 Means, 105, 258, 386; of educa- 
 tion, 96, 97, 98 ; improper, 170, 
 171 ; of moral growth, 391 ; to 
 secure order, 197-215 ; of self- 
 control, 370, 371, 391. 
 
 Meeting of teachers, 336, 337. 
 
 Memory, 44, 97, 99, 141, 167, 289, 
 332, 395 ; in examination, 291. 
 
 Mental arithmetic, 39, 40, 77, 
 271. 
 
 Methods, 19, 21, 23, 105-136, 139, 
 335, 336, 340, 373, 407 ; patent, 
 359. 
 
 Mill, J. S., 135. 
 
 Milton, John, 96, 397. 
 
 Mind, 102, 180 ; reached through 
 the body, 218 ; development of, 
 102, 139, 140, 180 ; dignity of, 
 27, 50, 94, 179, 181, 395, 396; 
 not like a jug, 108 ; crime of 
 misleading, 29, 49, 50, 95, 100, 
 109, 182, 263. 
 
 Minimum of punishment, 258.
 
 418 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Miscellaneous suggestions, 344r- 
 387. 
 
 Misjudgment, 99, 106, 169, 170, 
 263. 
 
 Models, use of, 277 ; servile imi- 
 tation of, 342. 
 
 Modern culture trivinm, 41, 77. 
 
 Modes of teacMng, 105-136. 
 
 Modesty, 302, 303, 345. 
 
 Morality, 33, 46, 48, 95, 97, 98, 175, 
 180; how developed, 48, 97, 
 365, 376-381, 386, 391, 393. 
 
 Moral suasion, 236. 
 
 Moroseness, 187, 315, 368, 370. 
 
 Mothers first, 300, 398, 399. 
 
 Motives, 154, 167, 172, 173, 178, 
 179, 180, 194, 293, 294, 393, 
 411 ; attractive, 259 ; classes 
 of, 258, 259 ; in punishment, 
 216, 227, 257 ; repulsive, 259 ; of 
 teaching, 25, 26, 95, 394-397. 
 
 Music, 86, 206, 207, 316. 
 
 Mutual aid, 333-343. 
 
 Myopia, 37, 38. 
 
 Nails, 62. 
 
 Napoleon, 159. 
 
 Natural Philosophy, 80, 290, 371- 
 
 375. 
 Neatness, 61, 314, 363, 364. 
 Neck, 316, 317, 318. 
 Neglected pear-tree, 30. 
 Newbury, 12. 
 Newburyport, 15, 17. 
 NibbUng, Mental, 276. 
 Normal schools, 14, 16, 20, 321, 
 
 340. 
 Number, 39. 
 Nurslings, 106, 107, 112, 113, 
 
 114. 
 
 Obedience, 181, 202, 259, 362. 
 Object of the Author, 3, 4 ; of 
 
 the Beviser, 5, 6 ; unworthy, 
 
 164. 
 Objections to prizes, 164-174. 
 Object lessons, 46, 119-129, 130. 
 ObUgation, 177, 178. 
 Observation, 45, 122, 130, 131. 
 Offenses at home, 409. 
 Olmsted, Professor, 367. 
 Oral mania, 357, 358. 
 
 Oral teaching, 107, 134, 135, 356, 
 357. 
 
 Order, 63, 186, 197, 211, 213, 363, 
 384 ; of nature, 39, 139 ; of reci- 
 tation, 153 ; of study, 38, 43. 
 
 Organization, 22, 258, 265, 405. 
 
 Orthography, 73. 
 
 Page, David Perkins, 4, 5, 6 ; age, 
 18 ; biographical sketch, 11-18 ; 
 birth, 11 ; character, 18 ; death, 
 17 ; education, 12 ; experience, 
 344 ; lecturer, 13 ; methods, 
 13, 14 ; Principal of Normal 
 School, 15 ; private school, 12 ; 
 qualifications of, 15, 344. 
 
 Pain, Bodily, 218. 
 
 Parents, 217, 398, 405 ; acquaint- 
 ance with, 265, 266, 297 ; bene- 
 fited, 131, 132 ; not the teach- 
 er's confessional, 298 ; mutual 
 duties with, 13, 208, 354 ; foUy 
 of, 246, 354 ; gratitude of, 399, 
 400; moral influence of, 47, 
 52, 242 ; teacher's relation to, 
 296-303; responsibility of, 35, 
 217, 238. 
 
 Partiality, 193, 360. 
 
 Passion, 187, 250, 370. 
 
 Patience, 279, 353, 354, 368. 
 
 Paul, The Apostle, 403. 
 
 Pay, 71, 72, 319, 320, 388, 402 ; 
 in epidemic, 410 ; how to in- 
 crease, 322, 323. 
 
 Pear-tree, 30. 
 
 Perfect manhood, 390. 
 
 Personal friends, 266, 268; of 
 .parents, 298, 299. 
 
 Personal habits of the teacher, 
 60-70. 
 
 Pestalozzi, 330, 397. 
 
 Philosophizing, 196. 
 
 Philosophy, 106, 138; the high- 
 est, 5, 24 ; of language, 79. 
 
 Phraseology, 43, 44. 
 
 Physician, 26, 28, 156, 347. 
 
 Physics, 80, 290 ; a lesson in, 
 371-375. 
 
 Physiology, 20, 81, 223, 224, 290. 
 
 Plagiarism, 366. 
 
 Plan, 201, 262, 264, 299, 331 ; of 
 day's work, 269-278.
 
 INDEX. 
 
 419 
 
 Plants, 125-129. 
 
 Plato, of culture, 23. 
 
 Pleasure, 181, 182 ; in learning, 
 l«i. 
 
 Politeness, 6-1, 6.5 ; value of, 67. 
 
 Potter, Dr., 14, 15, 96, 207, 330. 
 
 Pouring-in process, 107-109, ISl, 
 357, 358. 
 
 Power and Authority of School 
 Ofllcers and Teachers, 405, 408, 
 409, 410. 
 
 Practice, 4, 22, 66, 177, 324, 325, 
 332, 338, 361; language les- 
 sons, 42 ; in morals, 48, 326. 
 
 Precept, 47, 64. 
 
 Precocity, 37. 
 
 Predecessor, 265, 266, 351. 
 
 Preface, Author's, 3, 4 ; Editor's 
 5, 6, 
 
 Prejudice, 344, 345. 
 
 Preparation, 22, 23, 28, 140, 
 262, 324; of lesson, 40, 140, 
 141, 142; neglect of, 27, 29, 
 141. 
 
 Prerogatives, 405, 406 ; of school 
 hoard, 407 ; of superintendent, 
 407 ; of teacher, 407. 
 
 Press, The, 337. 
 
 Primary Instruction, Laurie's, 
 S30. 
 
 Principle, 20, 44, 78, 139, 250, 340, 
 393; application of, 287, 393; 
 caution in adopting, 255 ; of 
 emulation, 158, 159, 161 ; moral, 
 47, 49, 177, 197. 
 
 Pri%'ileges, Loss of, 231, 259. 
 
 Prizes, 162-175, 179; difficalties 
 of award, 168 ; improper mo- 
 tives, 173 ; objections to, 164, 
 165; reward what? 168. 
 
 Problem of the school, 5. 
 
 Profanity, 64. 
 
 Profession, The teacher's, 4, 22, 
 26, 71, 90 93, 319-343, 397, 
 398 ; dignity of, 403 ; protec- 
 tion of, 325 ; a stepping-stone, 
 28. 
 
 Professional feeling, 339. 
 
 Professional reading, 90, 329-331. 
 
 Proficiency, 291, 391. 
 
 Program of recitation and study, 
 273 ; remarks on, 274-278. 
 
 Promotions, 407, 408. 
 
 Promptness, 150. 
 
 Propagation, 129. 
 
 Proportion, 144. 
 
 Prosecution, Legal, 405-411. 
 
 Protection of the public, 325. 
 
 Prudence, 261. 
 
 Pruning, 31. 
 
 Psychology, 20, 83, 138, 139, 140. 
 
 Public examinations, 290-295 ; en- 
 courage deception, 292. 
 
 PubUc opinion, 251, 259, 322, 323; 
 attempt to force, 256. 
 
 Punctuality, 68, 121, 267, 328. 
 
 Punishment, 203, 215, 216-261, 
 409 ; advertising, 244 ; classes 
 of, 218 ; corporal, 235-249, 409 ; 
 definition of, 216 ; improper, 
 219-230 ; in presence of the 
 school, 251; proper, 230-235; 
 right of, 218, 409. 
 
 Pupils, 399, 400, 405 ; bright, 275 ; 
 detention of, 410 ; examination 
 of, 291 ; laughing at " jokes," 
 223; regularity of, 409; self- 
 respect of, 287, 288 ; studies of, 
 408 ; success of, 394 ; tardy, 
 410 ; treatment of, 189, 190 ; 
 vicious, 239, 240, 247, 248. 
 
 Quacks, 22, 82, 321. 
 Qualifications, 95, 264; literary, 
 
 71-90. 
 Questioning, 120-129, 141, 153. 
 Questions, 44, 109, 144. 
 Quick, E. H., 330. 
 
 Eatio, 144. 
 
 Beading, 38, 39, 74, 275, 332 ; not 
 elocution, 39, 74, 75 ; profes- 
 sional, 329-331. 
 
 Reading circles, 90. 
 
 Reasons, 139 ; in arithmetic, 77. 
 
 Recess, 272, 283-286. 
 
 Recipient, Passive, 108, 126, 128, 
 130. 
 
 Recitation, 44, 45, 137-153, 166, 
 271, 274, 407 ; length of, 277 ; 
 time of, 278. 
 
 Recreation, 328, 329. 
 
 Reformation, 365, 366. 
 
 Register of credits, 209.
 
 420 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 EeUgion, 51, 177, 178. 
 Eeligiotis exercises, 410. 
 Religious training, 50, 378. 
 Remembrance of pupils, 399. 
 Reproof, 230, 2.51, ::59, 365, 366. 
 "Resolutions," 255, 338, 404. 
 Respect, 198, 259, 367. 
 Respensibility, 25, 34, 46; of the 
 
 teacher, 30-59, 83, 167, 177, 
 
 178, 263, 390. 
 Restraint, 231. 
 Revenge, 216. 
 Reviews, 277, 288-290 ; frequency 
 
 of, 289. 
 Rewards, 164; of God, 172, 403, 
 
 404 ; not necessary, 174 ; of 
 
 teacher, 320, 388-404. 
 Rhetoric, 84. 
 
 Eichter, J. P., 104, 260, 330. 
 Ridicule, 226, 227, 228. 
 Riding, Horseback, 307. 
 Righteousness, 177, 178, 205. 
 Right modes of teaching, 105-136. 
 Right to punish, 218. 
 Rights, 405-411. 
 Rights of property, 364. 
 Right views of education, 91-104. 
 Rivalry, 165. 
 Rod, The, 234, 235 ; a last resort, 
 
 244, 249, 250, 254; substitutes 
 
 for, 245-248. 
 Roguery, 268. 
 Rousseau, J. J., 330. 
 Routine, 146. 
 Rowing, 308. 
 Rudeness, 67. 
 Rules, 23, 78, 201-205, 407; for 
 
 teaching, 39 ; for constructing 
 
 time-table, 277, 278. 
 
 Sawing wood, 308. 
 
 Schem, A. J., 330. 
 
 Scholars, 19, 46, 99; the best, 
 166, 167 ; classiflcation of, 271 ; 
 morals of, 48 ; politeness of, 65 ; 
 recitations of, 287. 
 
 Scholarship, 19, 20, 98, 99, 287, 
 288; liberal, 21, 23, 138, 325, 
 340. 
 
 School, The Albany Normal, 4, 6 ; 
 arrangements, 262-295 ; author- 
 ity in, 236; dismissal of, 236; 
 
 government, 186-261 ; manage- 
 ment, 258 ; model, 20 ; practice, 
 20 ; problem of, 5 ; punishment, 
 216-261 ; not a university, 349. 
 
 School and Industrial Hygiene, 
 Lincoln's, 37, 330. 
 
 School Law Decisions, Smith's, 
 405, 408, 409. 
 
 School Management, Landon's, 
 330. 
 
 School officers, 320, 322, 323, 405, 
 406. 
 
 School-room, 327, 363 ; annoy- 
 ances in, 279, 280, 281, 282; 
 attractive, 46 ; hygiene of, 36» 
 37, 38 ; in institutes, 338. 
 
 School and School-master, Potter 
 and Emerson's, 330. 
 
 Science, 349 ; of arithmetic, 78 ; 
 of education, 22, 83, 100; of 
 government, 85 ; of obedience, 
 202 ; of teaching, 4, 20, 90, 140, 
 156, 214, 325, 361. 
 
 Scientific baby-talk, 357. 
 
 Scolding, 221, 254. 
 
 Sectarianism, 51, 52. 
 
 Seeds, 125-189. 
 
 Self-control, 367-371, 378, 391, 
 392. 
 
 Self-government, 186, 187, 188, 
 
 189, 214, 250, 354, 368-370. 
 Self -improvement, 88, 89, 133, 
 
 143, 325-333, 391, 403. 
 Self-interest, 259. 
 Selfishness, 161, 191, 333, 334. 
 Self-reliance, 115, 116, 143, 151, 
 
 190, 191. 
 SeLf-right«ousness, 229, 343, 367 
 Seneca, 397. 
 
 Shame, 217, 227, 229. 
 
 Silence, 214, 215. 
 
 Simultaneous recitation, 151, 152 
 
 Sincerity, 48. 
 
 Singing, 384, 385. 
 
 " Sitting on nothing," 225. 
 
 " Sitting on worse than nothing," 
 
 225. 
 Skating, 308. 
 Skepticism, 52. 
 Sketch, Biographical, 11-18. 
 Skill, 19, 29, 102, 103, 156, 324, 
 
 325.
 
 INDEX. 
 
 421 
 
 Skimming, 287, 288. 
 Sleep, 306, 310, 313, 328. 
 Smiles, 222, 224, 346, 353, 367, 
 
 368, 399 ; a reward, 174, 371. 
 Sm^ith, Lyndon A., 405. 
 Society, 315, 345. 
 Socrates, 397. 
 Solicitude, 32. 
 Sounds, 73. 
 Spelling, 39, 73. 
 Spencer, Herbert, 330, 361. 
 Spirit of the teacher, 25-29, 54, 
 
 70, 122, 266. 
 Stagnation, 820, 327, 329, 331. 
 State, The. 260, 406. 
 Stimulants, 183 ; abnormal, 182, 
 
 184 ; for a dull child, 353. 
 Studies, 21, 346, 347 ; compiilsory, 
 
 408 ; sequence of, 22, 345, 346, 
 
 347 ; right to introduce, 408. 
 Study, 21, 88, 133, 141, 146, 201, 
 
 327, 331 ; agreeable, 185 ; col- 
 lateral, 45, 69, 88, 89, 142, 307, 
 331 ; direction of, 346 ; interest 
 in, 154-185 ; manner of, 43 ; 
 order of, 38, 272 ; professional, 
 22, 69, 152, 327, 330 ; of school, 
 264. 
 
 Subject, Order of, 139, 140 ; study 
 of, 44, 140, 146, 332, 348, 349. 
 
 Success, 171, 172. 
 
 Suggestions, Miscellaneous, 344- 
 387. 
 
 Sums, 144. 
 
 Superintendent, 407. 
 
 Support of school, 407. 
 
 Surveying, 80. 
 
 Suspicion, 199. 
 
 Suspension, 409. 
 
 Symmetry, 184, 396. 
 
 System, 63, 262, 279, 282, 283, 
 
 328, 331. 
 
 Talent, 171, 292 ; how acquired, 
 139 ; condition of the highest, 
 26 ; in the teacher's profession, 
 319. 
 
 "Talk," 338. 
 
 Tasks, 233, 234. 
 
 Taylor, Isaac, 330. 
 
 Teacher, Accomplished, 138 ; at- 
 tainments of, 22, 27, 72-87, 93, 
 
 138, 319, 336, 403; authority 
 of, 405^11; benefited, 132, 
 133, 388-404 ; duty to commu- 
 nity, 60, 93, 94, 208, 240, 323, 
 337 ; duty to pupils, 167, 189, 
 263, 350, 409 ; government in, 
 186, 240; health of, 304-318; 
 honesty of, 293-295, 367; lan- 
 guage of, 144 ; magnifying his 
 profession, 398, 403 ; motives 
 of, 20, 50, 94, 362, 390 ; of prin- 
 ciple, 49, 197; pay of, 319-325, 
 388, 389, 390; purity of, 47; 
 relation to his profession, 319- 
 343, 362, 403; relation to pa- 
 rents, 296-303 ; relation to pa- 
 trons, 208 ; responsibility of, 
 35-59, 83, 167, 177, 178, 203, 
 390 ; rights of, 405-411 ; social 
 qualities of, 297, 315, 367 ; spirit 
 of, 25, 145, 189, 208, 266, 333, 
 362; temptations of, 133, 327, 
 329, 333, 343, 350, 353, 370; 
 time-table of, 277, 278, 407. 
 
 Teacher, The, 330. 
 
 Teachers' Associations, 13, 337. 
 
 Teachers' Meeting, 336. 
 
 Teaching, Art of, 4, 152, 392 ; De- 
 tails of Teaching, 4 ; fitness for, 
 19, 25, 138, 191, 325; mechan- 
 ical, 141 ; true medium of, 115, 
 116; modes of, 105-136; an 
 occupation, 325 ; practical, 338, 
 344 ; a profession, 31 9-343 ; a 
 science, 4, 20, 140 ; a secondary 
 object, 28, 94, 320 ; works on, 
 330. 
 
 Teeth, 62. 
 
 Tests, 290-295 ; for reading, 39. 
 
 Text-books, 44, 117, 135, 136, 140, 
 407, 408 ; age for, 40 ; use of, 
 140, 141, 142. 
 
 Theology, 52 ; common ground of, 
 51. 
 
 Theory, 3, 4, 23, 66. 
 
 Theory and Practice of Teaching, 5- 
 18, 19, 71. 
 
 Theory and Practice of Teaching, 
 Thring's, 330. 
 
 Thinking, 167, 289, 374. 
 
 Thompson, D'Arcy W., 330. 
 
 Thoroughness, 348, 391.
 
 422 
 
 INDEX, 
 
 Thought, 102, 139, 230, 290, 332, 
 389; habits of, 102, 131, 392; 
 not words, 44. 
 
 Thoughts on Education, Locke's, 
 330. 
 
 Threatening, 205, 221, 244. 
 
 Thring, E., 330. 
 
 Thunder-storm, its lesson, 377-382. 
 
 Time, 327, 328. 
 
 Tobacco, 63. 
 
 Topics, 14C; of the day, 117; 
 practical, 147. 
 
 Training, 103; mental, 38, 102, 
 103 ; moral, 46, 102, 179 ; phys- 
 ical, 36, 102, 103; rehgious, 
 50, 102, 103. 
 
 Training of Teachers, Laurie's, 
 330. 
 
 Translation of thought, 39. 
 
 Trigonometry, 80. 
 
 Truth, 48, 256, 257 ; how revealed, 
 45, 257. 
 
 Tyranny, 191. 
 
 Uniformity, 192 ; of books, 278. 
 University, 20 ; study of educa- 
 tion in, 20, 21. 
 Unusual occurrences, 376. 
 Usefulness, 177, 179, 394, 395. 
 
 Vacations, Mr. Page's, 16. 
 Vandalism, 363, 364, 365. 
 Vices, Inexcusable, 49, 320. 
 Victims of kindness, 108. 
 Victory, 371. 
 
 Views of education, 91-104. 
 Views of government, 191-193. 
 Views of the whole, 288, 289, 
 290. 
 
 Virgil, 190. 
 
 Visitation, Mutual, 334^336, 342. 
 Visits of patrons, 300, 335. 
 Vocal music, 86, 87, 206, 207, 385. 
 Avocation, of scholar, 341 ; of 
 
 teacher, 391, 394, 395, 396, 
 
 397, 402. 
 Vulgarity, 64. 
 
 Waking-up process, 108, 117-129. 
 133, 134, 182, 205, 206. 
 
 TValking, 306. 
 
 Walsh, M. McX., 405. 
 
 AYarren, Dr. J. C, 309. 
 
 "Way, 104 ; of education, 5, 6 ; the 
 more excellent, 114-117 ; me- 
 chanical, 44, 45. 
 
 TVayland, Dr., 96. 
 
 Webster, Dr., 158, 217. 
 
 Whipping, 235 ; thorough, 254. 
 
 Whittling, 365. 
 
 Wisdom, 326, 343. 
 
 Woodward, Dr., 82. 
 
 Word-analysis, 75. 
 
 Words, 38, 39, 135 ; without mean 
 ing, 44. 
 
 Worship, in prison, 56, 57. 
 
 Worth, 169-173. 
 
 Wright, Silas, 16. 
 
 Writer, 336. 
 
 AVriting, 41, 76, 107, 271. 
 
 Written arithmetic, 41, 78. 
 
 Young children, 286. 
 Young, Col., 14, 15, 81. 
 Young, Dr., 335. 
 Y'outh, The dignity of, 29. 
 
 Zoology, 357.
 
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