mm THE LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LOS ANGELES i. Calosoma sycophanta. \ 2. Pimpla varicotnii. 3. Ichneumon raptorius. \ IN THE WOOD. 4. Sarcophaga albiceps. 5. Bombyx monaclta, 6. Caterpillar of ditto. 7. Bowbyx monacha, pupa. 8. Bonibyx processionea. 9. Caterpillar of ditto. THE HOME NATURALIST; - COLLECTING, ARRANGING, AND PRESERVING NATURAL OBJECTS, to Assist BY HARJLAJSID Late Lecturer on Botany at the School of Medicine, Chaiing-Cross Hospital. LONDON : THE RELIGIOUS TRACT SOCIETY, 56, PATERNOSTER Row; 65, ST. PAUL'S CHURCHYARD; AND 164, PICCADILLY. *^pHE present volume is a free adaptation of a German work, entitled Das Buck der Sammlungen, by Otto Klasing (second edition, Leipsic. 1875). The requirements of English collectors have throughout been carefully kept in view ; much, therefore, that was chiefly or exclusively suitable for Germany has been omitted. No doubt an expression or reference, here and there, will show the original intention of the book; but it is hoped that this will not render it the less serviceable. To interest young people in the study of Natural History, teaching them "how to observe," and, especially, how to methodize and arrange the results of their observations, has been the main object both of the Author and of the lamented Translator. The latter, during a life of much feebleness and affliction, was an enthusiastic student of nature, and, no less, a sincere and ' humble Christian. He could not write, especially for the young, without some distinct reference to the truths of the Gospel ; and the lessons of faith and piety scattered by him through these pages derive a touching interest from the fact that the writer has passed into the perfect life above. SECTION I. ODn tlte Capture of 3n&ert0. Beetles Butterflies and Moths . SECTION II. Caterpillar Gtaihction. Caterpillar Breeding . . . The Caterpillar House ... Preparation of the Caterpillar Collection . SECTION III. JSeetle attb Gtolhdion. Setting-out and Mounting Beetles and Butterflies Preservation and Arrangement of the Collection . Order I. Coleoptera, or Beetles .. The Classification ..... Order VII. Lepidoptera, or Butterflies and Moths Classification of Butterflies . . . The Diurnal Lepidoptera, or Butterflies (Diurna) Nocturnal Lepidoptera, or Moths (Nocturna) . 29 33 37 48 49 49- 52 viii Contents. PAC.E The Lepidarium ....... 59 An Outline Sketch of the Insect Orders . . . . .60 Sub-class I. Insects having a sudden and complete metamorphosis 61 Order iv. Membrane-winged Insects (Hymenoptera) . . .61 Order viii. Two-winged Insects (Diptera) .... 68 Sub-class II. Insects having a gradual and incomplete metamorphosis 73 Order m. Nerve-winged Insects (Neuroptera) ... 73 Order u. Straight-winged Insects (Orthoptera) . . . .74 Order vn. Half- winged Insects (Hemiptera) ... 78 SECTION IV. lite $la The Herbarium ........ 82 How to Collect, and Where to Find the Plants ... 83 On Pressing, Drying, and Mounting Plants . ... 85 How to Name the Plants and Arrange the Herbarium . . 89 Arrangement of Plants according to the Natural System of Botany . 96 The Cryptogamous, or Flowerless Plants .... 99 I. The Higher Cryptogams (Vasculares) ..... 100 II. The Lower Cryptogams (Cellulares) .... 104 Mosses ......... 104 Liverworts . . . . . . . . no Lichens .... . m SECTION V. ^hx (EoUectian xtf A Wood Collection Recommended , . . . . 122 How to Recognise the Wood of a Tree . . . . .123 How to Prepare the Collection . . . . . 124 The Needle Woods . . . . . . .-127 The Leaf Woods ... I2 3 Contents. SECTION VI. CcrUwticm. PAGE The Continual Changes in the Mineral Kingdom .... 135 What a Mineral Collection should contain . . . . 139 Tools used for obtaining Minerals and Fossils . . . .139 How to Preserve the Specimens . . . . . 140 How to Recognise and Analyse Minerals ..... 140 The Classification of Minerals ...... 144 Saline Minerals ........ 144 Earthy Minerals . . . . ... . 146 Metallic Minerals . . . . . . . -153 Metals associated with Oxygen . . . . . 153 Minerals united with Sulphur . . . . . .156 Minerals associated with Arsenic . . . . . 159 Pure Metals . . . . . . . . .159 Combustible Minerals . . . . . . 161 SECTION VII. Aquarium. The Principles on which Aquaria are Constructed . . .165 Practical Directions for Making an Aquarium . . . . 167 The Plants suitable for an Aquarium, and Where to find them . . 168 The Animals suitable for the Aquarium . . . . 172 Fresh- water Mollusca . . . ; . . .172 The Fish ........ 172 The Reptiles ........ 174 Insects and Larvae . . . . . . . 177 Insect Transformations . . . . . . .183 Fresh-water Crustacea, Polyps, and Infusoria .... 187 The Management of the Aquarium . . . . .189 Animal Life in the Aquarium ...... 190 Contents. SECTION VIII. PAGE The Study of Natural History promotes Health, Longevity, and Religion 196 Practical Difficulties in the Study of Natural History, and how to over- come them . ...... 197 Instructions for the Formation of a Terrarium . . . 197 The Animals suitable for a Terrarium, and how to Manage them . 199 Harmless Reptilia . . . . . . 199 Transitional forms between Lizards and Snakes .... 203 Tnte Reptiles . ...... 206 SECTION IX. Origin of the Insectarium . . . . . . .212 How an Insectarium should be Constructed and Regulated . 214 Caterpillar Breeding in the Insectarium . . . .216 How to Preserve Butterflies in the Insectarium . . . 219 Ichneumon Parasites . . . . . . .219 Insects suitable for the Insectarium ..... 220 Closing Religious Reflections . . . . . 223 J_s, a sheath, and irrfpov, a wing), because the true membranous wings with which they fly are transversely folded, when in a state of repose, beneath another pair of protecting wings of a hard and horny texture, called elytra (Gr., eXvrpov, a covering). Beetles are the best known and most numerous of all the insect tribes. Their immense numbers, the ease with which they may be 2 The Home Naturalist. preserved, the metallic brilliancy of some of the species, and the in- teresting habits of others, their singular forms, and the fact that all are harmless, and may therefore be handled with impunity, have won for them the enthusiasm of the collector and the love of the naturalist. Coleoptera occur in almost every country capable of supporting animal life. Even the ungenial sun of Greenland and Iceland awakens to a short and precarious existence a few small species, which endure, or rather escape from, the rigours of an arctic winter by a kind of hibernation partly analogous to that of some of the vertebrate animals. Beetles may be found beneath almost any piece of loose moss- covered wall, under any great stone that has been long undisturbed, the deeper sunk in the soil the better; or beneath the moss and lichen covering the trunks of old trees crumbling into decay : such places, carefully examined, will often prove to be the haunts of rare and beautiful species. In very early spring, before the snow is melted, and when the rays of the sun fall obliquely, so that the earth is only slightly warmed, beetles are alive and active under stones, on grassy mound and heath, or by the wood and meadow pathway. If the stones are turned over in order to surprise them, these active little animals can soon be seized. No boy sharing the kindly feelings inseparable from a true naturalist will, without good and sufficient reason, deprive any creature, however humble, of its life; for all the handiworks of God enjoy the life and powers He has given them, have their part to perform in nature, and are, to a greater or less extent, useful. A beetle or spider running on the ground, or a bee or butterfly on the wing, in diligent search of the honey or pollen of flowers, seeking the food which its Creator has provided for it, or delighting in the pleasure of its existence, will be allowed to pass unmolested, unless it is really wanted as a specimen for the study or a sample for the cabinet. And even then it is incumbent on the young naturalist to employ all care and skill in the painless extinction of life ; so as ' ' Never to blend his pleasure or his pride \Yith sorrow of the meanest thing that feels." Wordsworth. On the Capture of Insects. 3 Beetles as soon as taken should be put into a wide-mouthed phial about 2\ inches high and ii inch in diameter, containing spirits of wine, and having a cork stopper, which should be secured to the neck of the bottle by a piece of string or twisted wire. A smaller bottle should be used for smaller insects, which are usually killed by the prussic acid given off by bruised laurel leaves placed in the Great and small Beetle-glass. Tin Box for Beetles. Collecting Net. bottom of the bottle. Sometimes the mouth of the bottle is tightly closed with a cork, through which is passed a quill tube, projecting about an inch below the bottom of the cork. This allows the admission of air when the smaller insects are to be kept alive, and at the same time prevents their escape. Trees often afford food for beetles, every part of the tree being liable to their attacks. In spring their buds, leaves, and flowers are devoured, and in autumn their fruits. If watched, the woodpecker teaches us where and how beetles are to be found, viz., in the stems of hollow trees ; for by his repeated blows on the bark he brings many of them to the surface. The water has its own peculiar species of Coleoptera, great and small varieties swimming on the surface or diving below it. After sunset, water-beetles will come to the surface, attracted by the light of a lamp, or even leave the water and fly around it. Small ponds and pools filled with an abundance of water-plants .are usually the haunts of different kinds of aquatic beetles, which are 4 The Home Naturalist. easily taken with a dip-net, and are all deserving a place in every collection. The nets required for catching insects are few, simple, and easily made. The wood-cut on page 3 represents a net commonly used in Germany for the capture of beetles, which is strongly recommended. It consists of a simple sack, made of strong, light linen or cotton, which is sewn over a jointed iron hoop, like a butterfly-net, having a depth equal to twice its diameter. The bottom of a strong walking-stick is provided with a hollow joint, into the thread of which a short screw projecting from the hoop tightly fits. The net can thus be firmly screwed on to the end of the stick. When the hoop is folded at the joint, the mouth of the net is closed. When in use, the net is held open-mouthed under the bushes which are beaten, the insects or larvae falling into it. The net may also be used to sweep the grass and flowers. When done with, the net is unscrewed from the end of the stick and folded, and both net and stick are easily carried home. All beetles produce eggs, and undergo a perfect transformation or metamorphosis. From the egg comes a soft-bodied grub or maggot, with a horny head and jaws. The grub in a shorter or longer time changes into a chrysalis, out of which emerges the perfect beetle. Some beetles appear to have been created expressly to consume unhealthy organized matter, or to effect its removal. Among the beetles thus usefully employed is the sexton beetle (Necrophorus, Gr., 1-e/cpos, dead; and 0e/>, to bear), of which several species are found both in England and North America. These beetles have the remarkable habit of burying the dead body of any small Sexton Beetle. animal which they may meet, such as a mouse, mole, frog, lizard, or bird. When the carcase is thus interred, the female lays her eggs in it ; these are quickly hatched into grubs, which, as soon as they become perfect insects, pierce the ground and come forth. The Silphida (Gr., alX^rt) is another group of carrion-beetles which employ themselves in this manner. This genus is easily known by On the Capture of Insects. 5 its wide, depressed, and somewhat flattened form of body and wing sheaths. The silphides quickly congregate around putrescent animal matter, so that wherever the carcase of an animal is decaying, or even a bone is not perfectly bleached, we may find them at work, performing their part as scavengers, destroying and removing the carrion, which would otherwise poison the atmosphere. Carrion Beetle - In the creation of large numbers of scavenger-beetles, we see the provision God has made for preventing the impurity of the air, which would impair the health of man and other animals. Those insects which some persons look upon as ugly, and as engaged in what is disgusting, are really doing a good work. Acting according to the instinct God has given them, they are fulfilling a most useful pur- pose, showing that nothing in nature is to be regarded with contempt and abhorrence ; and showing, too, that the Creator of all things cares for the health and welfare of His creatures. To another class of scavenger-beetles appears to have been allotted the task of burying offensive animal deposits. Some convey the dung to the bottom of holes dug to receive it, and place their eggs in the midst of the heap thus accumulated, leaving their offspring surrounded by a plentiful supply of food. Such are the common Geotrnpes (Gr., yij, earth ; rpvirnia, to bore). This dung-beetle is common in pastures, making its abode near the fresh excrement of the cow, which it lowers into a hole about a foot in depth. The hills made in the excavating process may ( ^Q usually be seen near the manure. Other kinds of dung-beetles live in the midst of the droppings of Cattle, which they COnSUme Scavenger Beetles. for food; one of these is the Aphodinus, a small beetle with black head and thorax and red elytra, or wing-covers, found commonly in horse-dung. These small beetles, continually living in the midst of 6 The Home Naturalist. the dung, and feeding upon it, perforate the mass with holes in all directions, and thus make it pervious to the air and wind, by which it is soon dried and scattered. The most remarkable of the dung-beetles is the Scarabceus sacer, the sacred beetle of the Egyptians, which was an object of super- stitious worship, and which was figured on their monuments and ancient sarcophagi. Dung-beetles are com- mon in America and England, and are models of industry and parental care, being continually oc- cupied in making balls of fresh manure mixed a b out t h e Egyptian Sacred Beetle. w i t size of a common marble, in which they deposit an egg. After making a hole two or three feet deep in a convenient place, as soon as the ball is dry, they roll it with their hind legs into the hole, burying the offspring which has been the object of so much care. Upon the dung thus deposited the larvae, when they are hatched, feed. It appears that the instinct of these beetles does not enable them to distinguish their own ball, as, if they lose it, they seize upon that belonging to another. It is also quite common to see several of these beetles assisting each other in rolling the same ball. The leading characteristic of the spring beetles, Elateridcz (Gr., eAariyp, a driver), ?-_ is their remarkable power, when laid upon r- their backs, of immediately reversing their position, and alighting on their feet. Hence Spring Beetle. the j r sc j ent jfl c namej which refers to the driving or impelling force by which this is accomplished. The larvae of these Elaterida are called wire-worms, and are often very de- structive to the root crops of the farmer; but, although they may On the Capture of Insects. 7 occasionally do harm, as they live chiefly on the wood of decaying trees, which they thus help to destroy and reduce to dust after they have passed their prime, they must be considered on the whole as serviceable insects. The largest of the British Coleoptera is the stag-beetle (Lucanidce), the larva of which lives for several years burrowing in the wood of Stag the oak ; afterwards, when in the beetle form, flying about the tree on summer evenings, and settling down occasionally on the trunk and branches. At all seasons decayed wood is a favourite haunt for the larvae of beetles, and is therefore an object of interest to young entomologists. In searching the woods for Coleoptera, not only should old logs be rolled over to uncover the beetles lurking beneath them, but also, if practicable, they should be knocked to pieces, for the perforations in the wood indicate the presence of larvae, and they are therefore worth examination. Many different varieties of Coleoptera may be found in such fungi as Agarici (mushrooms), Boleti (toadstools), and dry-rot, plants of 8 The Home Naturalist. very little use to man, many of them poisonous, and very offensive when in a state of decay ; beetles are very useful in removing these substances. The entomologist will find in gardens in the spring of the year the flea-beetle (Haltica\ so called from its size and its habit of leaping. These insects feed on the leaves of the radish, horse-radish, turnip, cabbage, and other cruciferous plants, which they very often injure. They conceal themselves during winter in dry places, under stones, and in chinks of walls, in the spring i a yi ng their eggs upon the leaves of the plants on which they feed. During the spring the harmless lady-bird (Cocdnetta) may be frequently observed. The species are usually distinguished by the colour and spots of their wings. Both in their larval and perfect state the ladybird-beetles are usefully employed in greedily devouring the aphides, or plant- lice, which infest the leaves of plants. In summer, tiger-beetles (Cidndelidce) are found flying in the hot sunshine, and occasionally alighting on the pathway. They are carnivorous, subsisting wholly on other insects, to which they give chase either on wing or on foot. The most common and beautiful of the English species is the green tiger-beetle (Cidndela campestris\ the head, thorax, and elytra of which has a beautiful golden green metallic lustre; there are five small white spots on the elytra, and the legs are long and slender, enabling it to run rapidly as soon as it alights upon the ground. It has a white Tiger Beetle. labium or upper lip, and a pair of powerful jaws crossing each other horizontally. Its large prominent eyes give it great accuracy of vision, so that when it takes its flying leaps it invariably alights on the insects aimed at. It instantly tears them in pieces and devours them. This beetle is an admirable type of the family to which it belongs, which are the most predaceous of the Coleoptera. Oil the Capture of Insects. 9 The larva of this insect lives in cylindrical holes in the ground, excavated by itself, varying from six inches to a foot in depth. It is a whitish grub, with a large flat metallic-looking head, and two hooked tubercles on the eighth segment of the body. These tubercles enable the creature to fix itself firmly to the inner walls of its burrow, at such a height that its head exactly occupies and closes the mouth of its hole. Here it lies in wait for its prey, generally some other insect or larva, which it seizes with the greatest ferocity, carrying it off in its powerful jaws. The larva of the tiger-beetle may be easily taken by thrusting a piece of straw down its hole, which the larva will try to push out again ; in doing this it will come to the surface, and is then easily captured, as it clings to the straw. The ground beetles (Carabidtz) belong to another group of very common carnivorous beetles, and are easily known by their rapid movements on the ground and their metallic lustre. The Carabus auratus, or goldsmith beetle, 1-fp* will often be noticed, especially in sum- mer, when they most abound, attracting j! attention by their activity, energy, and Goldsmith Beetle, brilliant hues. This family, as well as that of the Cicindelidae, are very useful, and deserve encouragement both from farmers and gardeners, as they capture and extirpate other insects, especially those that feed upon vegetables, and are therefore hurtful to the crops. The bodies of the Cara- bidse are particularly hard and firm, enabling them to sustain the weight of the heavy stones, under which they frequently run in search of other beetles and larvse. Another most remarkable species is the bombardier beetle, or Brachinus crepitans, which is found under stones in 10 The Home Naturalist. damp and grassy places. It derives its name from a. peculiar dis- charge, which, when irritated, the creature rapidly ejects, with an audible noise. This discharge is an acrid fluid having a penetrating odour. It thus checks the pursuit of the carabus or other insect which is in chase of it, enabling it frequently to escape. The insect fires its artillery as soon as it is touched, and the collector is usually not a little surprised and startled at such an unexpected phenomenon, the report being somewhat loud, considering that the insect is only about half an inch in length. On sultry summer evenings, more especially after thunder-showers, in shady lanes, on grassy banks, and in woodlands, the glow-worm (Lampyris noctiluca) is to be seen exhibiting its beautiful greenish phosphorescent light amongst the grass. It is not yet decided by entomologists whether the male glow- Glow-worm (male and female). WQrm {& luminous at ^ but ft is univer . sally agreed that, if it be so, it is only in a very slight degree. The light proceeds from the last segment of the abdomen. The male is provided with wings, and flies freely ; the female is apterous, or wing- less, and her luminosity is intended to attract her companion. The light can be varied or suspended at the pleasure of the insect; it may be increased by placing the creature in warm water, but is extin- guished by cold water. The acrid discharge of the bombardier beetle, and the brilliant radiance of the glow-worm, are both proofs of God's provision for the welfare of His lowlier creatures. In autumn those beetles which feed upon the fruits of the season make their appearance ; amongst these is the weevil tribe ( Curculionidce) ; the corn-weevil (Calandra granaria) destroying the corn, the pea- weevil (Bruchus pisi) peas, and the nut-weevil (Bala- ninus nucum) nuts. The last beetle is furnished with a long slender rostrum or snout. Its larvae or grubs Com Weevil, are commonly found in nuts. The egg is deposited in the nut whilst it is young and soft; therefore the wound soon heals, and the nut continues to grow and ripen. The larva, which On the Capture of Insects. ir Pea-Weevil. is hatched in a fortnight, feeds upon the kernel, and ultimately escapes through the shell, leaving a small round open- ing. This occurs in September, when the nut has dropped to the ground. The grub changes into a pupa, and remains in that state until the following summer, when it comes forth a perfect insect. During autumn, small weevils may also be observed laying their eggs in the bloom-buds of apple and plum trees. In the spring the grubs are hatched, and feed on the petals, destroying the bloom ; they then descend to the ground, and pass into the chry- salis state. In autumn they assume their beetle- life, and in their turn injure the bloom-buds of the following year. In autumn, as also on dry, frosty winter days, which are free from snow, leaf-mould from under groves and thickets should be sifted with a beetle-sieve over a white cloth or a sheet of paper. In addition to beetles, mille- [ pedes, or thousand-legs which are allied to ' '., f^|?*s. the centipedes of warm climates, but are per- j 1 |jjJaB| sPN^X fectly harmless in this country as well as wood-lice (Onisada), will remain in the sieve. The beetle-sieve is large, flat, and circular, the upper edge being secured by an iron ring ; the sides of the box are made of linen or cotton, and its bottom is formed of fine wire. Few insects are stirring during winter ; Beetle sieve, nevertheless, in the months of January and February, pupae may be found by digging at the roots of trees. BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS. MOST butterflies and moths are abroad in the months of June and July, although individual species may be taken from February, if circumstances are favourable, and as late as the month of November. 12 The Home Naturalist. On still, calm days these insects appear in woodlands, flowering meadows, and clover fields; or flying downward, visit valleys abounding in springs and bushes ; or rising upward, career away over barren heaths and mountain sides, whilst life is fresh, enjoyable, and in its spring; glad in their life, and gladdening the eye and heart of man, for whom the Creator has provided such varied sources of pleasure. The butterfly and moth hunter must try at all hours for captures : in the morning or evening twilight, for many beautiful and delicate moths, then awake and active, are not to be taken at any other time ; or during the day, for then the butterflies are the most common, especially at noon, when the sun is highest and brightest ; or, finally, at night, for then if the air is tranquil and the weather warm, moths may be attracted, even from some distance, by the light of a candle in a room, there to be captured. Or boys may resort to various flowers at night, such as the sallow, ivy, and honeysuckle in their season; and, as the year advances, the French marigold, fuschia, lobelia, and different varieties of the great natural order of com- positse, or compound flowers; for all will be found to be much frequented by moths at night. Moths are sometimes lured by sweet- tasted food, as honey or sugar diluted with water, about which they will fly, and on which they will settle down. Early in the morning bushes may be beaten with a club, or fruit- trees may be violently shaken over an umbrella ; and caterpillars in abundance will fall into it. Pick them up, put them into tin boxes, and take them home. If a butterfly or moth is on the wing, and promises to settle near you, it must be approached with the net as quietly as possible, taking care that your shadow is behind ; for its great eyes are observant of every motion, and if it descries you it will change its position or fly off. Supposing, however, that the object of your chase has at last settled upon a flower, it is easily captured with the butterfly shears, which it is only necessary to open, and then close instantly over the insect, and you have your prisoner secured between the two shallow sieve-like bags of green muslin sewn around the iron rings of your shears. On the Capture of Insects. 13 Another mode of capture is by the common bag-net, or by one which tapers to a point. Both kinds are represented. In either case the length of the net should be double the diameter of the ring at its mouth. The net is stitched around a circular hoop of cane or Butterfly Net and Tapering Bag. Butterfly Shears. wire ; this is screwed to the top of your walking-stick, and the imple- ment is complete. These nets can be bought at any shop in London where insects are sold, and where also you can obtain suitable pins with which to fasten your butterflies. When the butterfly is in the net, it may be instantaneously killed by simple pressure of the thorax (that part of the body to which the Death-grip of the Butterfly. Placing the Butterfly in the Shears. wings are attached) between the thumb and fore-finger. The pinching of the thorax should be immediate and thorough, that the creature may suffer as little as possible; for, we repeat, any 14 The Home Naturalist. approach to cruelty to the smallest of God's creatures is avoided l>y a true student of nature. The butterfly is then transferred from the net to the shears, where its wings are laid out flat, and a pin is passed perpendicularly through the centre of the thorax. The insect, thus pinned, is placed in the collecting box. This must always have a cork bottom, which holds the pin more firmly than wood. Butterfly hunters should always have with them a pincushion containing plenty of pins of suitable size. To prevent any return to life, butterflies and moths should always have placed with them in the collecting box a small bag of camphor, or crushed laurel-leaves ( Cerasus lauro-cerasus). If the latter be used, they should be cut small, and crushed between two stones, when they will give out exhalations of prussic acid. If the box be kept closely shut for about five minutes every insect in it will become lifeless. It is difficult to kill large moths. A frequent way is to enclose the moth in a small tin box, and plunge the whole into boiling water; and this is perhaps the best plan, being both speedy and effective. Our collection of moths and butterflies will not be complete unless we have samples of each insect in its egg, caterpillar, and pupa or chrysalis state. Where to find the eggs and pupae, and how to breed the caterpillars, will furnish matter for future consideration. Pupae are to be found in the most varying circumstances and places, and at all seasons of the year. Sometimes they may be met with hanging freely from the stems of trees and from walls, or on the ground naked or enveloped in a cocoon; especially may they be looked for at the foot of trees which stand in open places. The pupae of moths are found on and in the earth, often in the neigh- bourhood of the plants on which the caterpillars have last lived; sometimes in holes under moss, or under a stone or piece of wood. Decayed branches often contain caterpillars or pupae. The pupa- hunter will therefore deem no place unsuitable for his search. THE CATERPILLAR COLLECTION. CATERPILLAR BREEDING. '"PHE study of this phase of insect life is in many respects both -*- attractive and instructive. We observe the growth and develop- ment of the caterpillar, its various changes of form, the growth and renewal of its skin ; we feel deeply interested in cherishing its life, and rejoice in its welfare throughout the several stages of its progress. In order to secure the growth of healthy pupae 'or cocoons, and the production from them of perfect moths and butterflies, we must supply the caterpillars from time to time with an abundance of fresh air, moisture, warmth, and proper food. These demands are of the utmost importance in the feeding and tending of caterpillars. Now it is obvious that, to commence aright, we must begin with the eggs of the butterfly, and the place where they were first de- posited; and this brings us to the consideration of the food of the larva, as soon as it emerges from the egg. That an unerring instinct should guide the butterfly in selecting the plant best adapted for the nourishment of the caterpillar as soon as it comes out of its shell, i6 The Home Naturalist. is a most remarkable fact. It is a proof of the wisdom and goodness of the great Creator. That a butterfly should select one, and only one, out of all the shrubs and trees of the field and forest, on which to deposit its eggs, is indeed wonderful. How does it know one plant from another ? How does it know that the leaves of the plant selected will afford suitable nourishment for the creature that is to come into existence months afterwards ? Whence does it derive its marvellous instinct, but from its All-wise and Almighty Creator? And what increases our wonder and admiration is that each species makes its own selection, and that God has so created all things that they correspond with each other, and that one object in nature is adapted to the wants of another the leaf of a shrub to the young caterpillar. Thus, in a coppice crowded with every variety of shrub, the emperor (Apatura Iris, or Ilia) selects the sallow, the white admiral (Papilio Camilla) the honeysuckle, and the brimstone butterfly (Gonepteryx rhamni) the buckthorn. The eggs of the swallow-tailed butterfly (Papilio machaon) are laid upon the dill and carrot, and those of the Apollo but- terfly (Papilio Apollo] on the leaves of the orpine. As is well known, the silkworm-moth (JBombyx mori) lays its eggs 011 the leaves of Swallow-tailed Butterfly. the mulberry- tree, upon which the caterpillars feed. The magpie-moth (Abraxas grossulariata) selects for the residence of its larvae gooseberry-bushes, which they often almost entirely strip of their leaves. The cater- pillars of the red-admiral ( Vanessa Atalanta), and the thistle-butterfly ( Cynthia cardui\ feed on the thistle ; and that of the mourning-cloak Caterpillar Breeding. 17 ( Vanessa Antiopa) on the birch and willow. The larvae of the death's-head moth (Acherontiet atropos] are nourished by the leaves of the potato ; and those of the oak-lappet moth (Gastropacha querci- Red Admiral. Thistle Butterfly. folia) feeds upon the oak. The larvae of the cabbage butterflies (Pontia Brassicce and Rapce) often do much injury to those garden vegetables ; and those of the hawk- moth (Sphinx con- ( volvulf) injure the vine. The cater- pillars of the cod- ling-moth (Tor- tricidcz), or leaf- rollers, are the most destructive enemies of the apple crop. The larvae Of the COm- Mourning Cloak. mon blue butterfly (Lycana) feed on the rest-harrow, of the orange-tip (Pontia cardamines), on hedge-garlic and ladies' smock, and of the ringlet butterfly (Hipparchid) on various species of grass. The small copper butterfly (Polyommatus Phlceas} lays its eggs on the sour dock or sorrel ; and, lastly, the caterpillar of the silver-spotted fritillary (Argynnis adippe) feeds on the leaves of the various species c 1 8 The Home Naturalist. of violet, especially the dog-violet ( Viola canina). The marbled white butterfly (Melanagria callithea) must be regarded as a remark- able exception to the usual rule of butterflies providing suitable food Common Blue Butterfly. Ringlet Butterfly. for their offspring ; for she drops her eggs at random, as if well aware that the young caterpillars will, as soon as hatched, crawl up some blade of grass in the neighbourhood, and there find suitable food. The eggs of the butterfly or moth, when first deposited, are always covered with a coat of varnish, which serves the double purpose of fastening them to the leaf and protecting them from the weather. Sometimes the eggs are of a peculiar shape and colour, and laid in a regular manner on the twig or bark of a tree. This regularity is generally adopted by the purple hairstreak (Thecla quercus). When the eggs are hatched, the caterpillars should be swept with a quill feather into an appropriate receptacle, to be presently described, called the "Caterpillar House," where their appropriate food should be provided. When going out to collect caterpillars, several of the perforated paper-boxes already described should be taken, to bring home the prisoners separately, as there may be among them some who would kill and devour the others like cannibals. In the early days of spring, some of the most beautiful of the British moths and butterflies, such as the tiger-moth (Arctia caja), the tortoise-shell, red admiral, and peacock butterflies, which hibernate under moss, old leaves, stones, and roots, sometimes make their appearance, if the weather become mild ; and many more will be disturbed in their winter haunts if the caterpillar- Caterpillar Breeding. 19 rake be employed, and the ground well examined. Those days are the most prolific in specimens on which there has been just sufficient warmth to disturb their torpor, while the weather continues sufficiently stormy, cold, and unsettled to intimidate them. The increasing warmth of spring soon lures them upwards, and they may be found in the crevices of bark, and hiding in sheltered situations among the branches. The tiger-moth lays its eggs in autumn. The caterpillars are hatched the same month; and after remaining for two weeks in the larval state, and attaining a length of about three quarters of an inch, they retire into winter quarters. In the spring they reappear, feeding on the leaves of the daisy and hollyhock. In June the hairy caterpillar, Cater P ilIar Rake - which is known as the woolly-bear, is feeding in every garden and on almost every plant. Some precaution is necessary in handling it, for the fine points in which the hairs terminate break off, and remain in the skin between the fingers, producing an intolerable itching. In July the creature loses its hairy coat, and becomes a smooth, black, shining chrysalis ; the moth emerges from this last state during the same month. Caterpillars, like moths, may be hunted and captured after nightfall by lamp-light; indeed, this is the only time in which some are abroad and active, as during the day they rest, hiding away as much as possible from observation. It is a matter of common observation that the leaves of certain plants are devoured by unseen insects. We trace their operations day after day, and are unable to solve the mystery, as, after careful examination of the plants, no trace of them is seen. But if we resort to the plants at night, we find the cater- pillars have revisited their feeding ground, have availed themselves of the darkness, and are now devouring the plants voraciously. To obtain further information, therefore, as to the life and habits of such mischievous and destructive nocturnal caterpillars, it becomes desirable to have a caterpillar house, where these and other larvae can be confined, properly fed, and the peculiarities of their meta- morphoses noticed. 20 The Home Naturalist. Caterpillar He THE CATERPILLAR HOUSE. THIS consists of a rectangular case, whose sides and sloping roof are formed of a network of wires crossing each other at right angles, so as to admit of thorough ventilation, and having the front of glass, to allow a complete view of all parts of the interior. Wire- work is necessary for the roof and sides, as wooden lattice-work would be speedily gnawed through by the larvae. The bottom of the enclosure is of wood, which is covered to the depth of three inches with a mixture of sand and fine garden mould, kept moist by occasional sprinklings with water. For par- ticular varieties, as the emperor-moth (Saturnta pavonia), pots in which the plants suitable for their food are grown are placed within the enclosure. A cheap and excellent larva-house may be made as follows : Fill a common garden-pot with mould, and bend a couple of canes over each other at right angles, pushing the ends of the canes down by the sides of the pot into the mould. Over the support thus formed spread a thin gauze net, fastened firmly to the upper rim of the pot with a fine cord. The illustration is a garden-pot containing plant and larvae, with gauze-net tied down ; this net is made to bulge out with two little sticks. The dome cover made by the arched canes is the better plan, however ; this is shown in the garden-pot behind the boy in the cut at the head of this section. To keep the plants in the caterpillar house green and fresh, as in a state of nature, they must be placed in vases of spring water, which will save the trouble of their daily renewal. Caterpillars prefer to eat the leaves from off the branches to feeding on torn-off leaves. When Garden Pot, Net, and Larvae. Caterpillar Breeding. 21 Pupa Ches the foliage is eaten, fresh branches must be furnished. The principal conditions of success are cleanliness and fresh air. The dirt made by the larvae should be daily removed with a brush. The house should be kept in a cheerful but not too sunny situation. When the caterpillars become irregular in their eating, or cease entirely to eat, changing colour and appearance, it indicates that they are about to pass into the pupa state ; and the larvae should be at once placed in the pupa-chest. This is a box made of rough unplaned boards, or with the inside lined with bark. The interior of the box is purposely made rough, to assist the butterfly in creeping out of its pupa case, and afterwards in rising and unfolding its wings. The box is divided into several compartments, each of which is numbered and labelled with the name of the pupa. In the partition wall between each compartment there is a rough upright post, up which the new-born insect climbs as soon as it is out of the chrysalis, and stretches and airs its wings, which, without such a convenience, would be dwarfed and crumpled. Those that become pupae in the flower- pot should be allowed to remain there during winter, as they do not suffer from the cold, however severe. The pupae in the box should be also kept in a cold room ; because even a slight degree of warmth threatens the health of the pupa, by causing it to become dry. The first appearance of the butterfly is indicated by a change of colour in the pupa, beginning at the head. At last the long-ex- pected spectacle of a splendidly- coloured butterfly, emerging out of an unsightly pupa as out of a COffin, and in a Short time elC- Emperor-Moth emerging from its Pupa Case. vating its drooping wings, and committing itself for the first time to the atmosphere, richly rewards all toil and trouble. The emperor- moth, emerging from its pupa case, is here shown, drawn from nature, life size. And a splendid, uninjured specimen may be thus obtained for the collection. 22 The Home Naturalist But we may be disappointed. The pupa may become dry or mouldy ; or, instead of a butterfly, it may produce only a wasp-like animal, or a brood of ichneumon-flies, whose eggs were laid in the body of the caterpillar, and afterwards developed into footless grubs or parasitic larvae, at the expense of its fatty parts. The larvae thus introduced devour the inside of the caterpillar without attacking any essentially vital part, but ultimately ensure its destruction. The life of the caterpillar thus infested appears to be prolonged for the benefit of these parasites; and it sometimes even acquires the pupa form before any signs of its internal enemies become perceptible. Col- lectors of butterflies and moths are often grievously annoyed in this manner, their carefully preserved pupa producing nothing but the swarming progeny of cuckoo-flies, which have introduced their eggs into the bodies of the caterpillars by piercing them with their ovipositors. These ichneumon-flies, however, render good service to farmers and gardeners, by destroying the voracious caterpillar which does so much injury to the crops. This is another illustration of the wise arrangement of God, that what is insignificant may be useful, and that what is apparently destructive may really serve some good purpose. The flies belong to the order of hymenopterous insects, as may be seen by a glance at the structure of the four membranous wings; and they have an ovipositor instead of a sting at the extremity of the abdomen, which is pedunculated, or attached to the thorax by a slender and thread-like fleshy tube. They are easily dis- tinguished by their active habits, as they are continually flying about and alighting on the leaves and stems of plants, over which they run with considerable agility, stopping frequently, while their antennae are in a state of continual vibration. They feed solely on the juices of flowers, and are in constant search of the two great objects of their existence food and caterpillars. Caterpillar Breeding. PREPARATION OF THE CATERPILLAR .COLLECTION. A PERFECT collection of moths and butterflies should contain a sample of each insect in the egg, larva, pupa, and imago, or per- fected stage of transformation. Our space does not admit the attain- ment of this object in every case ; it is sufficient to have before us one typical form of these most remarkable transformations, which will be sufficient to show that there are different disguises of one individual. For this 2 object we select one well-known species the silkworm-moth and show it in all its stages of progressive development, from the egg to the mature insect. The eggs are fast- ened to a card with gum. The cocoon is mounted in the same manner. The pupa is first killed in spirits, afterwards well dried, and then fastened with a pin next to the imago or moth. To prepare the caterpillar is neither agreeable nor easy ; but exercise and patience ultimately lead to success; and the trouble taken in the preparation will be found to have been well expended. The caterpillar destined to this fate should be kept the previous day without food. The caterpillar is first killed by being placed in an empty test-tube, which is then corked, and immediately plunged into a vessel of boiling Caterpillar water. in Test - tube " Tender and thin-skinned caterpillars should be suffocated in olive Changes of the Silkworm Moth, i, Ejrgs ; 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7, Caterpillar in different stages of growth j 8, Cocoon ; 9, Pupa ; 10, Moth, or Perfected Insect. 24 The Home Naturalist. oil. If killed in diluted spirits of wine, they should not be left in it long, otherwise all their colours will be destroyed. Caterpillars may be drowned in water without injury to the preparation, but the practice is cruel, and should therefore be avoided. Lay the larva, as soon as killed, between two sheets of blotting- paper; and having opened it at the end with a penknife, press the contents through the outlet. The greatest caution must be used in applying pressure to avoid injuring or tearing the skin. The evacuation may be helped by a pair of for- ceps. The emptied skin must be soaked in water or spirit for a few minutes ; it should then be taken out, warmed, blown out, and turned till perfectly dry. Blown-out and dried caterpillar-skins are Evacuation of Contents of very fragile, however. In order to make Caterpillar. them stron g er> t h e y ma y fog fiH e( J w [ t h hycopodium powder, which can be obtained from chemists ; if neces- sary, they can be coloured with some other powder ; but care must be taken that the air does not escape from the inflated skin. Many fill the skin with a composition of melted tallow and wax. The opening should be closed with gum-arabic. Stuffed caterpillars can be preserved by a varnish of colourless lac. To secure an appearance which is true to nature is not an easy task, but is the result of much close and patient observation. We cannot have anything better than a living model, and must therefore provide ourselves with the branches and leaves of the plant on which the caterpillar lives ; because, if it is to look natural when stuffed, it must be exhibited in a natural posture on the branches and leaves. The box containing such a group of caterpillars should be rectan- gular, from four to six inches in depth, and of an area proportionate to the number of caterpillars to be preserved. It should have a glass cover, and the bottom must have an earthy colour ; this may be produced by sprinkling earth, saw-dust, and similar matters over a liberal coating of gum. The bodies of the caterpillars must be taken Caterpillar Breeding, 25 while they are yet flexible and soft, and bent carefully until their natural curves and position are secured. This is a difficult task, and the skill necessary to accomplish it can only be acquired by practice. If the whole arrangement is so far successful, all other defects may be covered artistically and concealed. The caterpillars should be fastened on to branches and foliage by means of gum or shellac. If the work is properly done, the caterpillars will deceive the spectator into the belief that they are living insects. The curved form of the geometer, and the rigidity of the larva of the brimstone-moth, will be found to render the preparation of those specimens somewhat difficult. As we have already said, the skill necessary for such work can only be acquired by patience, per- severance, and the careful study of nature. The boy who has prepared and is admiring the caterpillar of the puss-moth, repre- sented at the beginning of this Section, may very fairly be regarded as a master in this art. Group of Caterpillars prepared from Nature. i. Geometer Caterpillar of the co., mon White Wave (Cabera fiursaria) ; 2. Caterpillars of the Kyed Hawk -moth (Spkinx ocellatus); 3, of the Brimstone-moth (Burnia crat&gata) ; 4, of the Puss-moth (Cerura mnula) ; 5, of the Leaf-roller (Tortrix) ; 6, of the Hawk-moth (Sphinx). THE BEETLE AND BUTTERFLY COLLECTION. SETTING-OUT AND MOUNTING BEETLES AND BUTTERFLIES. WHEN it is intended to mount beetles, they should be taken out of the collecting bottle and placed on blotting-paper to dry. A pin should be thrust down vertically through the right wing-cover, so that its point will come out between the second and third pair of legs, without breaking the joint. The insect should be placed two- thirds up the pin, a uniform height being preserved through the collection, so that all in the cabinet stand on the same level. Very small beetles, which the finest pin would divide, should be gummed to the point of a triangular piece of card, and the pin thrust through the broad part. The legs and antennae of larger insects must be spread out and properly arranged ; for this purpose a slab of cork or turf will be found very useful. Sticking the pin in the slab so as to fix the insect, the organs of the mouth, where possible, the antennse, and the feet should be set out with smaller pins in natural positions, The Beetle and Butterfly Collection. 27 and then left to dry. If a cake of turf be used, pieces of wood may be nailed on behind to give it greater firmness and solidity. Mounted Beetles. Slabs for Mounting. Some of the greater beetles, such as the common cockchafer (Melolontha vulgaris), may be spread out like butterflies in a flying position, not only their elytra or wing-covers being expanded, but their true membranous wings dis- played. It sometimes becomes necessary to take away old pins and intro- duce new ones, or to spread out and display the limbs of insects after they have become stiffened and dried. Insects of all kinds may be relaxed, and their limbs rendered pliable and soft, by placing them in a moist sand bath over- night ; in the morning it will be found that, by carefully turning the pins, they may be drawn out, and that the limbs, antennae, and other parts can be re-adjusted. In setting out insects it is desirable to have on one board insects approximating to each other in size, and collected, if possible, on the same day, so that all may be treated alike. The setting-board for butterflies consists of soft linden or poplar wood, containing a deep semi-cylindrical longitudinal groove, tapering on either side, so as to be the better adapted to the body of the insect. This board slopes a little towards the groove, in order to elevate the wings. When the wood is not soft enough, strips of cork may be glued to its surface, 28 The Home Naturalist. the groove being furrowed in the cork ; or two boards may be united with cross-pieces of wood, and the opening between them filled up with turf. It is desirable at first to draw lines across the setting- Setting-boards for Butterflies. board at right angles with the groove, in order thereby to extend the wings at exactly the same height. The body of the butterfly must be pinned down in the groove in such a position that the upper edges of the groove are at the same height as the centre line of the body of the insect, so that the wings may lie flat upon the board. With a needle the wings should be drawn apart until the inner margin of the border wings forms a right angle with the long line of the body ; the hinder wings will thereby be exposed and drawn after the fore-wings so far that they will be partly covered by the posterior part of the fore-wings, their hinder portion only being visible. The wings thus stretched out must be fixed firmly and held in position by strips of cardboard laid across them, which should be pinned down to the setting-board. The antennse and the first pair of legs must be directed forward at an acute angle, the other pair of legs directed backwards. The abdomen of the larger species should be supported beneath by layers of paper or cotton wool. If the upper and under surfaces of the wings are very different in their appearance and markings, there should be duplicate specimens, The Beetle and Butterfly Collection. 29 so that both surfaces may be displayed, as in the case of the beautiful argus (Polyommatus Argus) : the upper side of the wings of which insect is blue, while the under side has many eyes, and a yellow border. The butterflies, after they have been displayed on the setting-out board, must be laid aside to dry in a place free from dust, airy and warm, but in the shade. The small ones dry quickly, but large species sometimes take three or four weeks, or even a longer time, before the process is completed. In order to determine whether they are dry, it is only necessary to touch the abdomen with a needle ; if the skin is stiff and immovable, it may be concluded that all moisture has evaporated, and that the process of drying is completed. Argus, under side. PRESERVATION AND ARRANGEMENT OF THE COLLECTION. WE will now suppose that the season is over, and that after much toil in the hot sunshine and in all sorts of weather, and after many successful and happy explorations in field and forest, and much discouragement and failure, you have at last succeeded in getting together a fair sample collection of the insects of your neighbour- hood. Naturally, you are anxious to preserve them from being injured or destroyed; and their proper scientific arrangement is equally desirable. You may have already expended some con- siderable time in unsuccessfully trying to find out the names of your insects; and perhaps you have laid out some money in the purchase of suitable collecting tools and materials for making insect preparations pins and cork, store-boxes and setting-boards, for 30 The Home Naturalist, moths and butterflies ; and glass-stoppered bottles, containing spirits of wine, for beetles, etc. It frequently happens that a beetle and butterfly collection begun by boys in high spirits, and carried on for awhile with a corresponding amount of energy and success, is ultimately abandoned, because, as it has not been properly prepared, insects have attacked the collection. When this is the case, brown powder accumulates under the bodies of the insects ; they are soon dismembered, and heads, limbs, and antennse lie scattered through the cases. There has been no time to attend to the collection. The thoughts of the young collectors have been turned aside from natural history by the more urgent claims of study or business. They have noticed that some beetles are injured, while others have become mouldy, and that everywhere amongst them are signs of decay ; and they have ceased to feel any interest in the collections of which they were formerly so proud. It is indeed a thousand pities when this happens. For the study of God's works must always furnish an inexhaustible supply of enter- tainment and instruction. It must never be forgotten that every beetle, butterfly, or other natural object is really the work of an Infinite and Eternal Being, whose " wonderful works " we can never fathom, however deeply we may examine them. Each star in the heavens, each flower or animal on the earth, is in reality the product of the hand of God. To study correctly these works of the Creator is the aim of natural history, and certainly there can be no grander or loftier employment Not only, therefore, whilst young and strong, and capable of climbing the hills and mountains, in school-boy days, whilst free from the cares of business, but in after years, let us keep up our acquaintance with natural history. That our readers may have this pleasure, and may again work at their insects with renewed hope, we shall now give them some hints as to the best means of preserving their accumulated treasures, and also show how to arrange and name them scientifically in the cabinet. The principal condition for the preservation of insects is the careful and skilful preparation of the specimens. As we have already intimated, the collection often contains the germs of its own destruction from the moment of its origin. The greatest cleanliness The Beetle and Butterfly Collection. 31 of setting-boards and store-boxes, their absolute freedom from worms, and the perfect dryness of insects, especially such as have been killed in water or spirits, should be made a constant aim. New- comers from other collections, or suspected inhabitants, should be carefully examined for those small insects which do so much mischief. Before any scientific arrangement is attempted, boys should make a catalogue of the insects in their collection, as far as their names have become known to them ; they will thus obtain a better idea of what they have and what they require, and can thus intelligently supply their own deficiencies. Passing in review the number ot genera and species already ' possessed, they must next proceed to arrange their collection according to some trustworthy text-book, as Stephens' British Coleoptera, Westwood's British Butterflies, New- man's British Moths. The number of extra insect-boxes required for the collection to make it complete can thus be determined. The boxes should be made out of dry wood, perfectly sound, and free from worms ; if there are any cracks or openings, they must be Insect Forceps. closed with wax or putty. The cover should work on hinges, and open and shut so as to close accurately over the sides of the box. The joinings must be carefully adjusted, and may be further secured by a lining of cloth where the cover and the sides of the box meet. The bottom of the box should be covered with cork, and lined with white paper. Fine needles, with the insects attached to them, may be most conveniently pressed down into the wood or cork of the boxes with a pair of forceps. Smaller collections may be arranged in drawers, to slide in or out on the shelves of a cabinet, which is opened or closed with folding- doors. The insects should be arranged in columns at the bottom The Home Naturalist. of each drawer, lines being drawn at equal distances vertically and horizontally, so as to mark out the whole space into distinct compart- Collecting Drawers. ments, one for each insect. The perpendicular columns should be marked with Roman and the horizontal lines with English figures, so that any compartment can be easily found by the two kinds of numbers. In the compartments thus mapped out, the scientific names are registered at the bottom of the drawer, as in the figure above. For more minute divisions and subdivisions, the generic and specific names of the insect are written on a ticket, through which the pin is passed, so that the ticket is placed below the insect. The name of the family may be printed at the head of the column. Genera, when closely allied and only represented by one species, are t placed next each other, as well as the specific forms of and Ticket. the same genus. Large public collections of insects should always be inspected as opportunity offers. There collectors will not only see and anticipate the riches of nature yet in store for them, but they will be able generally to find out the scientific names of insects in their own collection, and learn other things about it of which they can take note, and which will add to its educational value. To determine the names of beetles and butterflies, numerous text-books for beginners have been published, from which our readers can make their own selection. The Beetle and Butterfiy Collection. 33 The following is an outline sketch of the two great orders of beetles and butterflies, with the principal divisions and subdivisions of their families. ORDER I. COLEOPTERA, OR BEETLES. The beetles form the first order of the class of insects. They are distinguished from the other orders by the masticating or biting parts of the mouth (mandibles), as also by their horny wing-covers (elytra) and membranous wings. In every coleopterous insect there are three obvious divisions, the head, the thorax, and the abdomen. THE HEAD. The head appears as a single piece, without any obvious suture or division, and is generally of a harder substance than the rest of the body. The form is most commonly triangular, with the angles somewhat rounded. The hinder part is occasionally narrowed into a short neck, which works in the interior cavity of the thorax, and therefore admits of a considerable degree of motion in every direction. THE PARTS OF A BEETLE. 1 Antenna:. Eyes. Anterior pair of legs. Prothorax Thorax. Scutellum. Middle pair of legs. Mesothorax. Elytra. Suture. Posterior pair of legs. Metathc 34 The Home Naturalist. The head contains the mouth, two antennae, and two compound eyes. The thorax consists of three segments, viz., i, the prothorax, to which the first pair of legs and the neck are articulated ; 2, the mesothorax, which contains the second pair of legs and the meso- thoracic pair of wings, or the horny elytra, or wing covers ; 3, the metathorax, to which are attached the third pair of legs and the metathoracic pair of membranous wings, which are protected or covered by the elytra. The elytra vary greatly in form, and are sometimes very handsome, as in the red-spotted caterpillar-hunter (Calosoma calidum], an American beetle common in Pennsylvania. When expanded they are of little use in flight, generally remaining nearly motionless. When closed they meet along the back in a straight line, called the suture. Sometimes the elytra adhere along the suture permanently, so as to prevent the expansion of the wings, which are consequently never developed, as in the churchyard-beetle (Blaps Mortisagd) and the family Melasoma. The portion of the body immediately behind the metathorax is called the abdomen, and consists of a series of rings or segments, usually nine in number, moveable upon each other, and divided into dorsal and ventral rings, the former being more or less covered by the elytra, and the latter visible on the under surface. The breathing pores or spiracles are situated on the upper inflected portion of the ventral segments, and are easily discovered on the removal of the elytra and wings. These spiracles, called trachge (Gr., rpa^ws, rough ; 2 Z e d I a c hence Lat, trachea, an air-tube), are each ! furnished with a muscular apparatus, by means )\ of which the insect can close the aperture at pleasure. In the masticating or biting insects the mouth consists of six separate organs : , Mandibles, or upper jaws ; b, Maxillae, or under jaws ; c, Maxillary palpi ; d. Labial Parts of the Mouth of a . J > ' f- j T 1 Carabus. palpi ; e, Labmm, or lower lip, and Labrum, or upper lip. The labrum, or upper lip, is a small moveable piece on the upper The Beetle and Butterfly Collection. 35 side of the mouth, closing it from above. Its form is variable, commonly quadrate, wider than its length, and sometimes rounded or triangular. The mandibles, or upper jaws, are two strong horny projections, which take their rise one from each side of the mouth, immediately beneath the upper lip, which usually covers their base. They are generally of a triangular form, more or less curved, especially toward the tip, and usually toothed or serrated on their inner edges. The term mandible, derived from Lat., mando, to chew, at once indicates their function, which is to bite and bruise the food. The maxilla, or under jaws, are inserted on each side of the mouth, immediately below the mandibles. As with the last-named organs, their action is horizontal, but their texture is less hard than that of the others, their colour paler, and their internal edges are ciliated, or fringed with hairs. These organs are simply accessories to the mandibles, and are employed sometimes in simply holding the food which the upper jaws are engaged in cutting to pieces, or in sub- jecting the food to a still finer division, after the harder parts have been bitten and broken by the more powerful action of the upper jaws. The maxillary palpi. Towards the middle of the outer edge of the maxillae there emerge two slender-jointed, filiform, thread- like processes, named palpi. These are called maxillary palpi, to distinguish them from the labial palpi, which take their origin in the labium, or under lip. These organs generally consist of four joints, of which the terminal one is remarkable for the variety of forms which it assumes, affording valuable characteristics for specific description. The palpi are susceptible of rapid vibration, and are supposed to constitute the organs of touch. The labitim, or under lip. As the mouth is covered by the labrum, so it is closed by the labium. This part is situated between the maxillae, and is composed, as it were, of two portions joined together by their inner edges. The part immediately behind, which may be considered as forming its base, is named the chin (inentum'). This piece is usually transverse, or broader than its length, and is in The Home Naturalist. most instances sinuated or notched in the middle of its anterior edge, with an acute tooth in the centre of the notch, which is sometimes cleft in two parts. The labial palpi. These- are similar to those borne by the maxillae, only smaller, and are attached to the lateral margin of the labium, projecting from each side. They consist of three moveable articula- tions, attached to a fourth, which is adherent and forms a support to the others. The antenna. These are the most conspicuous appendages of the head; they are two jointed organs which stand out like Forms of Antenna. a, Bristle-form; I, necklace-form; c, serrated, having teeth like a saw; d, lamellate (Lat., lamella, a thin plate) ; e, clavate, or club-formed ; /, geniculate, or bent so as to form a knee or angle; g, irregular. horns from the forehead, and are inserted a little in front of the region of the eyes. The antennae are usually composed of eleven conical tubular joints. The function of these organs is not known. Great difficulty has been experienced by entomo- logists in forming a simple natural classification of this most numerous order of insects, on account of the great number of species which it contains, and their general resemblance to each other. No better system of arrangement has yet been devised than that made by the French naturalist Latreille, who took as the foundation of his classification the number of joints in the tarsus or last portion of the foot. Leg of a Beetle. l n beetles there are six legs, each of which may be considered as composed of four principal pieces, viz., the coxa, or The Beetle and Butterfly Collection. 37 haunch, a the femur, or thigh, b ; the tibia, or shank, c ; and the tarsus, or foot, d; and the claws, e, as represented in the preceding figure. The last joint of the tarsus supports the claws (e), which are : a, simple ; I, cleft ; c, lobed ; d, toothed ; and which are pre- eminently carnivorous and rapacious in their habits, and are easily detected by the rapidity of their motions, their large prominent eyes, and their metallic lustre. They run quickly, and take flying leaps, alighting on the back of other beetles, chiefly vegetable-feeders, which they instantly tear to pieces. They hunt in dry sandy situa- tions, and are most active about noon, flying about in the hot sun- shine. The larvae excavate cylindrical burrows in the earth, and are as voracious as the perfect insect. These beetles are most abundant in the summer months. 38 The Home Naturalist. The ground beetles (Carabidce) have ordinarily the head smaller than the thorax, and are similar in their carnivorous habits to the preceding group. They also run quickly over the ground, are usually of a darker colour than the tiger-beetles, being often of a beautiful bronze hue. These beetles are found hiding under moss, stones, and the bark of trees, and, like the Cicindelidce, are very useful to the farmer and gardener in the extirpation of other insects, especially such as feed on vegetables. The Carabidce are somewhat nocturnal in their habits, and are to be found at all seasons. (6) Water Beetles (Dytiscidce). The aquatic division of this section of carnivorous beetles consists of Coleoptera, both large and small, which habitually reside in the water. Hence their bodies are oval or boat-shaped, their antennae are formed like bristles, and their legs are flattened, compressed, ciliated on the margin, and fitted to serve as oars. All these beetles are air-breathers ; and as there is not enough for them in the water, they are obliged occa- sionally to seek the surface for a renewed supply from the atmosphere. This is done by resting on the surface, and raising their elytra or wing-covers. The air is thus brought into contact with their spiracles, or breathing- pores. The larvae reside in the water, and are as . voracious as the imago, or perfect insect, feeding upon 1V Beftie. ater other aquatic insects, larvse, and the ova of small fish. f Wh gn about to change into the pupa state, the larva IJMF burrows into the bank of .its native pond, and there {PL undergoes its transformations. The diving water-beetle JHT (Dytiscus marginalts), the large water -beetle (Hydro- philus piceus), the two-spotted agabus (Agabtis bimacu- whiriigig Beetle. fafyj^ ^g furrowed acilius (Acilius sulcatus), the Colym- betes fuscus, and the common whirligig-beetle (Gyrinus Natator), are among the commonest genera of- water beetles, and are most frequently found in ponds and fresh-water reservoirs. The Beetle and Butterfly Collection. 39 2. BRACHELYTRA (Gr., /Sperms, short; and eXvrpov, a sheath), or beetles distinguished by short wing-cases and an elongated form of body, run and fly with equal agility. They have filiform or thread- like antennae, a mandibulate, or chewing mouth, and feed chiefly upon dead and decaying animal and vegetable matter, fungi, rotten wood, and manure heaps. Some small and beautiful species are found in flowers. The larvae are very similar to the insect in appearance, and are nourished by the same kind of food. To every insect has been assigned by the Creator some means of defence against its enemies. These beetles, when irritated or alarmed, have the power of secreting a very pungent and unpleasant odour, and on the least appearance of danger immediately assume a very threat- ening attitude, elevating their tails like a scorpion, and making believe to bite with their long and powerful jaws. This attitude, when assumed by some of the larger species, gives them a truly for- midable appearance; as, for example, by a common black English species known as the " devil's coach-horse" (Goeritis olens) ; yet this insect is quite harmless. 3. SERRICORNIA (Lat., serra, a saw ; and cornu, a horn), or beetles distinguished by the serrated or toothed form of their antennae. In this family the wing-cases, or elytra, completely cover the body, which varies greatly in appearance. Many interesting Serricornia inhabiting warm climates are remarkable for the splendour of their colours. The larvae are chiefly vegetable-feeders, residing in the interior of plants. The following are the names of some of the most remarkable genera : The spring-beetles (Elateridce) are commonly found under the bark of trees, and are easily known by their power of rapidly regaining their feet by a spring upwards when laid on their backs, which very often happens, as their legs are very short. These beetles have, as it were, been made natural gymnasts, to remedy this defect in the structure of their limbs, affording an illustration of the all-pervading Divine law of adaptation of means to ends. A species of Elater inhabiting the West Indies is one of the most brilliant of fire-flies. The larvae of some of the British species 4O The Home Naturalist. live in the ground, and feed upon the roots of plants. The larva of one species devours the roots of corn, and is but too well known to the English farmer as the wire-worm. The glow-worms (Lampyridce), of which sufficient mention has been already made (see p. 10), are closely allied to the Elateridcz. Very few of the Buprestidce are found in Europe, and they but poorly represent the genus, which consists of large and splendidly- beautiful insects in tropical countries ; some of those in India are upwards of two inches in length. Our native species are not above a quarter of an inch long ; if an attempt is made to seize them, they counterfeit death, and fall to the ground, where it is next to impossible to find them : this is a common trick amongst insects to avoid capture ! But patience in this, as in many other matters, will be rewarded ; quietly wait and watch, and when all danger appears to be past, the creature will be discovered by its movements, and can then be retaken. Some of the Buprestida live for many years in the larval state. A merchant in the city of London had a desk that had been brought from India, in which was one of the grubs of a species of Buprestis. Several years afterwards the perfect insect made its appearance, and thereby put an end to many surmises of the merchant and his clerks as to certain scratchings which they had long heard in silent wonder. Death-watch The death-watch (Anobium tessellatum}, already described, Beetle. a j so belongs to the family of Serricorne beetles. 4. LAMELLICORNIA (Lat, lamella, a thin plate of metal; and cornu, a horn) have antennae which terminate in a club or large knob, composed of several lamellae or thin plates, disposed like the leaves of a book, or arranged like a comb or fan, which the insect can open or shut at pleasure. The insects of this family feed on manure and decomposing vegetable substances, on rotten wood, and the roots of plants. Their head and thorax exhibit a great variety of forms, and their limbs show many striking modifications of structure with especial reference to their instincts ; in this respect it is one of the most beautiful families of the Coleoptera. The majority of the The Beetle and Butterfly Collection. 41 beetles are of an uniform black or brown colour; some, however, display metallic colours of great brilliancy. The Lamellicorne family is subdivided into two leading groups, the Scarabczida and the Lttcanida, of which the following are the most prominent and characteristic genera : The sacred-beetle (Scarctbceus sacer\ the type of the first group, of which so many models and carvings have been discovered, occasionally of gigantic size, among the monuments and sarcophagi of the ancient Egyptians. The common dorr, or shard-borne beetle, as the boys Sculpture of Sacred Beetle. call it (Geotrufes stenorarius), which flies abroad in the evening, is appointed by the Almighty to be one of the most effective scavengers of the earth. And here it is worthy of remark that these beetles, notwithstanding their dirty employment, are themselves remarkable for the cleanliness and glossiness of their covering, and their habitual freedom from defilements of any kind. But " cleanliness is next to- godliness," and purity of covering amongst animals seems to be a The Home Naturalist. precept throughout nature. Hence beasts and birds are almost incessantly cleaning and polishing, the former their fur and the latter their feathers. The cat licks and trims her coat; the canary washes and arranges his plumes ; the beetle comes clean and untainted from its dirty home and feasts, and may be taken up without defiling the hands. These creatures thus read a lesson of cleanliness to those boys who have little liking for soap and water. The common cockchafer (Mdolontha vulgaris] devours the foliage of the oak and other trees as soon as it takes to the wing, and is itself the prey of innumerable birds. In seasons when these insects are abundant, they greatly injure the produce both of the field and garden in their larval state by devouring the roots of the crops. But in April the plough turns up their long white grubs, which the birds greedily pick up; and towards the end of May and June, when as beetles they attack the foliage, the birds again abate the nuisance ; for nearly every sparrow has a chafer in its mouth, captured on the wing or snatched from the spray ; the thrush and blackbird, and other insectivorous birds, also feast on them ; and then our groves and woodlands re-echo their songs of thankfulness to their Creator. The rose-chafer (Cetonia aurata) is a common British insect, about an inch in length, of an oblong oval form, green above, coppery red beneath, with white marks on the elytra. It flies well, with a humming noise, in the hottest part of the day, and feeds on the honey and pollen of -Chafer. flowers, not confining itself to rose-trees, although it seems to prefer them. In the larval state it is found in rotten wood and timber. The other division of the Lamellicorne beetles comprises the Common Cockchafer. The Beetle and Butterfly Collection. 43 stag-beetles (Lucanufa), of which the stag's-horn-beetle (Lucanus Cervus) is a characteristic species. It flies about the oak on summer evenings, upon the wood of which the larva feeds. This and the small stag's-horn-beetle {Dorcus parallelipipediis) are both British beetles. (5) CLAVICORNIA (Lat, clava, a club; and cornu, a horn) is a class of beetle having antennae which become enlarged and club- shaped at their extremity. This family includes the group of carrion beetles (Necrophori} al- ready described ; and the skin- stag Beetle, beetles (Derrnestidce), of which the larvae are very voracious, feeding on the skins or carcases of animals, and often committing great ravages in fur warehouses; the bacon-beetle (Dermestes lardaritis), and the fur-beetle (Attagenus Pellid). Section 2. HETEROMERA (Gr.,erepo, different; and pepos, a division) are phytophagous, or plant-eating beetles, having five joints to the tarsi of the first and second pair of legs, and only four joints to the hinder tarsi. The beetles of this section have been arranged under the following families : 1. The Melasoma, or black-bodied beetle, to which the churchyard- beetle (Blaps Mortisaga) belongs a common British insect of a black colour, found in damp, dark, and dirty places about houses ; also the Tenebrionidce (Lat., tenebrce, darkness), so called because these insects avoid the light, and are most active at night. The meal-worm beetle (Tenebrio Molt tor) belongs to this family, of which the larva, known as the meal-worm, lives on flour, meal, and bran, and, like the perfect insect, does much damage in corn-mills, granaries, and bake-houses. 2. The Trachelia, or neck-beetle, in which the head is united 44 The Home Natiiralist. to the thorax by a distinct neck, is active in the day-time, devouring the leaves and feeding on the juices of flowers ; the colours of some of this species, as the blister-beetle (Cantharis vesicatoria) being sometimes brilliant. This beetle is of a shining green metallic lustre, and is imported from Italy and Spain as a means of raising blisters on the skin. For this purpose the insect is reduced to powder, which, mixed with ointment or lard, is spread on linen or leather, and then applied to the skin. Closely allied to this insect is the oil- beetle (Meloe Proscarabtzus}, which ap- pears in spring, and is frequently seen on the leaves of the common catchweed (Galium aparine), over the foliage of which it crawls slowly. When alarmed, it sends out from the joints of its legs an oily, yellowish liquor, which constitutes a means of defence. Section 3. TETRAMERA (Gr., rerrapes, four ; and pepos, a division) are plant-eating beetles, having four distinct joints to all the tarsi. The larvae of these insects generally live in the interior of vegetables and trees, often doing great injury to timber. They appear to pass a considerable time as pupae thus concealed, as the perfect insects have been known to eat their way out of wood even after it had been for some considerable time worked up into furniture. The following families contain the insects under this section. A few of the most interesting of the genera only are mentioned. i. Phytophaga (Gr., QVTOV, a plant ; and a snout ; and 0epo>, to bear), have the head prolonged into a snout, at the end of which the mouth is situated, the antennae being short, elbowed, and inserted at the sides of the snout in every intermediate position from base to apex. To this family belong : The nut-weevil (Balaninus nucum), whose larva is the little white grub so frequently met with in nuts and filberts; the pea-weevil (Bruchus pisi], the larvae of which makes the small circular holes observed in peas, sometimes even destroying the entire pea crop; the com -weevil (Calandra granaria), which often commits great havoc in granaries. These insects are effectually destroyed by kiln-drying the wheat. Most of the Rhyncophora are more or less covered with minute scales, like those on the wings of butterflies, and there are species of great beauty which, under the microscope, exhibit in their scales a splendour of colour equal to that of our most beautiful native butter- flies ; they are found on every common bank of nettles in England. 4 6 The Home Naturalist. In some foreign species, as the diamond beetle (Curailio imperialis) these scales are truly magnificent. 4. Xylophaga, or wood-eaters (Gr., v\ov, wood ; and 0ayw, to eat), usually live in wood and bark, especially that of the pine and fir, which they perforate and channel in all direc- tions, interrupting the flow of the sap, and loosening the bark from the wood, so that the tree is ultimately killed. The typographer-beetle (Bostrichus typographic} is so named from the figure of its burrows. These are often very pretty, although the insect producing them is most destructive to the pines, especially in the Hartz Forest of Germany ; where, in 1783, one million and a half of these trees are said to have been destroyed. The saw- beetle and the Cerambyx heros are Longicorn beetles. Section 4. TRIMERA (Gr., rpeTs, three; and /ue'pos, a division) in- clude those beetles which have three j oints in each tarsus. To this section belongs the family of the lady-birds (Coccinellida), of which the Coccinella septempunctata, or seven-spotted lady-bird, a well- known summer visitant of every Cerambyx heros. field an( j gar d en , IS a typical form. These insects are of great service to plants, by greedily devouring the aphides, or plant-lice, which infest them, and this they do both in the larval and the perfect state. The Beetle and Butterfly Collection. 47 In reviewing the various phenomena of insect life manifested by the order Coleoptera, we are naturally led to consider that remarkable substitute for reason in the lower animals which is called instinct. Now, however we may regard instinct whether as a manifestation of reason, the same in kind as our own, but inferior only in degree ; or as different in kind, and having nothing in common with human intelligence we are assured of one truth : that insects, as well as ourselves, have been carefully supplied with an abundance of such food as they require, together with capacity for choosing suitable food, also with some means of protection against their natural enemies, and of defending themselves when they observe danger approaching. It is matter of little moment by what name we call these capacities ; but it is of consequence that we recognise in them the wise arrangement and the merciful care of God. We see, too, that in merely following the bent of their own inclinations or natural instincts, these creatures are, in some way or other, usefully employed, and working for God, in whom all created things " live, and move, and have their being." God has given them their instincts, and still directs them; so that insects are really only instruments under the control of Him who has allotted to each its station and duties in life, fulfilling the purpose of Him who is " wonderful in counsel and excellent in working." It has been also shown that weeds and wild flowers, in countless millions, minister to the wants of beetles, which in their turn furnish food not only for their own carnivorous families, such as the Cicin- delidcz and Carabidcz, but for hosts of insect-eating birds. We have seen how usefully spent are the lives of scavenger beetles, such as Geotrupes and Necrophorus, in burying below the soil nuisances left on its surface, which would otherwise contaminate the air, whilst providing at the same time food for their future offspring. In nothing is the care of the Creator over the works of His hands more clearly seen than in the instincts of animals. Nor is there anything beneath the dignity of the Creator in this constant oversight and guidance of the humblest of His works, any more than there is in His care of man. We read in the Scriptures that we ourselves are comparatively insignificant, and that our earth itself, with all the nations that tread its surface, is " as a drop of a bucket " in His presence. How truly 4 8 The Home Naturalist. sublime is the Scripture conception of the Supreme Being, so beauti- fully confirmed as it is by the discoveries of science and the teachings of the microscope and telescope as to the extent, magnificence, and duration of the universe ! All of us should aim at acquiring grand and ennobling conceptions of the grandeur and extent of God's universe. To do this we must " search the Scriptures," and study God's works in nature, which, when properly understood, are ever in harmony in their teaching, and are only different revelations of Himself; but how far inferior in brightness to that " light of the glorious gospel of Christ, who is the image of God 1" ORDER VII. LEPIDOPTERA, OR BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS. THE order of Lepidoptera (Gr., Xetfls, a scale, and Trrepov, a wing) is characterised by the downy covering of their wings, which are four in number. The down, when nibbed off, appears like powder or farinaceous dust, but under the microscope it is seen to consist of layers of beautiful scales, arranged in rows on the membranous frame- work of the wings, and overlapping each other like tiles on the roof of a f. house. The number f \\JmUmS great; accordin s to |MnrHHf Leuwenhoeck, there yipf||| ^S are more than 400, ooo \^'yir on tne wings of the f-_ -^1^ silkworm-moth. In f\ :J 1 1 v/U some species the I \]f I wings are partially or T A (j even almost wholly W devoid of scales ; I and, in others, small Scales of Butterflies. patches Of the wingS only are thus denuded, as in the great atlas moth (Saturnia Atlas). The bodies of the Lepidoptera are always more or less covered with hair; their antennae are of variable form, feathery, bristle-form, or clubbed; and, as they feed on the honey or juices The Beetle and Butterfly Collection. 49 of flowers, their mouth is provided with a slender tubular apparatus, which they carry coiled up like the mainspring of a watch, and which in a moment is darted down to the bottom of the corolla, or flower-cup, whence the honey or food of the insect is sucked up through the centre of the tube. CLASSIFICATION OF BUTTERFLIES. The Lepidoptera are subdivided into two great groups, or sub- orders, named after the form of their antennae, Rhopalocera, or club- horned (Gr., 'poiraXov, a club ; and /ce'/aas, a horn), and Heterocera, or variable-horned (Gr., eVepos, various; and icepas, a horn). The first group includes all the butterflies whose antennae are invariably clavate, or club-shaped ; and the last all the moths, which have antennas of various forms, usually bristle-shaped, or like a plume of feathers, but very rarely club-shaped. The number of butterflies and moths already known to naturalists, according to Dr. Burmeister, amounts to not fewer than twelve thousand species, and of these nearly two thousand have been de- scribed as British. These species of Lepidoptera are included in the above two groups or sub-orders, and have been further classed into diurnal and nocturnal Lepidoptera, according to their time of flight. THE DIURNAL LEPIDOPTERA, OR BUTTERFLIES (Diurna). The Diurnal Lepidoptera include all those species commonly known as butterflies, which fly only by day, having antennas clavate or clubbed at their extremities, and whose wings are vertical, or stand upright in repose. Their caterpillars have usually sixteen feet, which are attached in pairs to the body, and nine spiracles, or breathing orifices, on either side. The first three pairs of caterpillar feet enclose those parts which are developed into the legs of the future butterfly ; the remaining five pairs are membranous, thick, and short, and are finally lost with the moulting of the skin. The pupae of British butterflies are nearly always naked, or desti- tute of any silken envelope or cocoon ; there are a few, however, which are so provided, and which conceal or hide their cocoon, 5O The Home Naturalist. although their number is small, and they are insignificant in appear- ance ; but in tropical and sub-tropical climates they are very large, abundant, and showy. The following is a classification of British butterflies, with their orders, families, and genera, according to Edward Newman, F.L.S. Section I. Butterflies known as Exposers (Detegentes), whose pupse are naked or exposed. This section includes the greater part of those butterflies which are natives of the United Kingdom. They are exposed in the chrysalis state to the full influence of the weather, heat in summer, and cold in winter, with wind, rain, and snow ; so that their pupae are frequently found frozen in winter into solid and brittle lumps of ice, which may even be broken in pieces without exhibiting the slightest symptom of vitality; yet if left undisturbed they will recover, and revert to the condition in i which they were when the frost I overtook them. This section is subdivided into two sub- sections. A. Butterflies having only four perfect legs instead of six, and the pupae suspended by the tail (Siispensi). This sub- section is divided into Natural Order i. Spine- bearing caterpillars (Spinigeri\ which embraces four families i. Silver-spotted fritillaries, Argynnida (Gr., apyvpos, silver). Silver- washed fritillary, Argynnis paphia. 2. Gregarious fritillaries (Melit&idcE). Example, greasy fritillary (Afelit&a Ar- temis], or scabious butterfly. 3. Angle-wings ( Vanessidiz). Comma butterfly ( Vanessa C-albuni). The name "scabious ButterfljT of this species refers to a white mark The Beetle and Butterfly Collection, 51 on the dark brown under surface of the hinder pair of wings, resem- bling, some say, a comma, and others, the letter c. 4. White admirals (Limenitis). Example, white-admiral butterfly (Litnenitis Camilla). Natural Order n. Slug-shaped caterpillars (Limadformes). 5. Emperors (Apaturidcz). Example, purple emperor (Apatura Iris). This is the most beautiful of all the British butterflies, having a bold and soaring flight. The chrysalis is of a pale green hue. The caterpillar feeds on the leaves of the oak, ash, and willow. The perfect insect appears in July. 6. Satyrs (Satyridce). 1 Example, ringlet but- terfly (Hipparchia Hy- peranthus}. B. Butterflies with six perfect legs, having girted chrysalids (Suc- dncti], or pupae not only suspended by the tail, but also supported Eraperor Butterfl y- by a belt of silk, which passes round the middle of the pupae, and is firmly fixed on either side. This second sub-section is divided into Natural Order in. Woodlouse-shaped caterpillars (Onisciformes), in which the caterpillars are shaped like a woodlouse. 7. Dryade (Erycinidtz). Example, Duke of Burgundy butterfly (Nemeobius Lucina). 8. Argus butterfly (Lyctznida). This family includes several distinct groups of small but beautiful butterflies, as the hair-streaks (Theclcz), coppers (Lyccence), and the blues (Polyommati). The majority of these butterflies have the under surface of the wings ornamented with eye- like spots of various colours The caterpillars resemble woodlice, and the chrysalis is short, blunted at each end, and girt round the middle, as well as attached by the tail. 52 The Home Naturalist. Natural Order iv. Cylindrical or worm-shaped caterpillars (Cylin- dracei, or Vermiformes). 9. Redhorns (Rhodoceridtz), so named from the colour of their antennas. Example, clouded yellow butterfly (Colias hyale). 10. Swallow-tails (Papilionidce). Many of the butterflies of this family have their hind-wings extended into a pair of tails, whence they have obtained the name of swallow-tails. The family of Papilionida3 is abundantly represented in the tropics ; but only one species is found in England the swallow-tailed butterfly (Papilio machaon). 11. The white butterflies (Pieridtz). Example, large white cabbage butterfly (Pieris brassicce). Section II. Concealers (Celantes). Butterflies whose caterpillars hide themselves in a silken follicle or cocoon before changing into chrysalids. These cocoons are usually hidden in rolled leaves, in clefts of the bark of trees, and at the roots of grasses. The Con- cealers may be regarded as an intermediate form between butter- flies and moths, and as a type of the butterflies of warmer climates the Exposers, on the contrary, or those whose chrysalids are exposed, are the true type of the butterflies of the colder climates of the north. The Concealers undergo their transformation into chrysalids after the manner of moths, and may be all included in one family that of the 12. Skippers (Hesperidce). Butterflies with six perfect legs; wings, when at rest, in a semi-vertical position, never upright, and lying back to back. The members of this species are of comparatively small size and dim colour, and have a peculiar short, jerking mode of flying, which has obtained for them the name of skippers. Example, grizzled skipper (Hesperia malvce). NOCTURNAL LEPIDOPTERA, OR MOTHS (Nocturnd). Moths are easily distinguished from butterflies by their time of flight, which is usually in the morning or evening twilight, or during the night ; by their antennae, which taper to a point instead of termi- The Beetle and Butterfly Collection. 53 nating in a knob ; and by the position of their wings, which are not upright, but horizontally extended or turned downwards when the moth is at rest. The division between the thorax and abdomen of a butterfly, too, is more distinct than in a moth, where there is no such well-marked separation of these parts. Hence butterflies are called in science Lepidoptera pedunculata, or Pedunculated Lepidoptera; and moths Lepidoptera sessiliventrea, or Sessile-bodied Lepidoptera. The Nocturnal Lepidoptera are now divided by our best ento- mologists into sections and families, as follows : Section I. NOCTURNI, or the Sphingides and Bombycides of Linnaeus. Thirteen families are comprised in this section, but we can only mention the most remarkable. i. Hawk-moths (Sphingidce). These are robust and powerful insects, easily distinguished by their large size and peculiar flight, only seen on the wing in the twilight hour, when they hover like hawks over the flowers, from which they extract the honey with their long tubular Hawk-Moth. proboscis. The caterpillars are naked, cylindrical, sixteen-footed, with a curved horn at the extremity of the body, and are remarkable for the peculiar attitude which they usually assume, resembling that of the sphinx of ancient Egypt, from which the name of the family is derived. Example, hawk-moth (Sphinx Ligustri}. The most 54 The Home Naturalist: remarkable member of this family is the death's-head moth (Ache- rontia atropos), distinguished by the skull-like patch on the back of the thorax, as well as by the squeaking sound which the insect emits when disturbed or irritated. 2. Clearwings (Sesida). Moths flying in the hottest sunshine, with a hovering motion, distinguished by the trans- parency of a portion of their wings. These moths are certainly an exception to the law of the twilight or nocturnal hour, when moths are usually awake and active. Example, bee-formed clear-wings (Sesia bombyliformis, Sesia fucif or mis). 3. Swifts (Hcpialidce). This family contains two interesting genera, ffepialus and Cossus. The moths of the genus Hepialus are called swifts from the rapidity of their flight ; the males and females are very dissimilar in colour. Example, ghost-moth (Hepialus humu- lus) ; probably so called because, in the twilight, it may be seen with tolerable distinctness, if it flies below the level of the eye, on account of its silvery-white colour above ; whereas if it rises above the level, the brown colour of the underside of the wings renders it almost in- distinguishable ; it appears, therefore, to pass suddenly out of sight. The genus Cossus contains the goat-moth, so called from the scent emitted by its larva. The goat-moth is one of the largest of the British Lepidoptera, and remains three years in the larval state, during which time it is engaged in destructive operations, per- forating the timber of trees, and killing them by inches ; this de- structiveness is alluded too in its specific name, Ligniperda, or wood-destroyer. 4. Silkworm-moth family (Bombycidce). The moths of this family are large, with plumose or feathered, thick, stout, hairy bodies, white, grey, or fawn-coloured wings, and six stout legs. All assume the pupa state in a silken cocoon spun for its protection. Its most valuable member is the silkworm-moth (Bombyx mori), which lays its eggs on the leaves of the white mulberry tree (Morus alba), on which the larva feeds. The Beetle and Butterfly Collection. 55 Section II. GEOMETRID.E, or Geometers. This section is of some considerable extent, embracing seventeen families. It takes its name from the peculiar mode of progression of its caterpillars, which are called loopers, or geometricians. These have six pairs of true legs at the front part of the body, and two pairs of claspers at the hinder extremity, without any intermediate feet, and therefore in pro- gression proceed as follows : holding on by their hinder claspers, they extend their body to its greatest length, then putting down their forefeet, and taking firmly hold of whatever is before them, they un- fasten their claspers, and draw them as near as possible to their fore- feet. The intervening portion of the body between their forefeet and claspers thus becomes elevated into a sort of loop or arch. Again holding on by their pos- terior claspers, and unfastening their forefeet, they stretch out their body into a right line as before; when again, by the help of the powerful muscular grasp of their forefeet, they proceed onwards, measuring the ground over which they travel, every step of which they appear care- fully to survey. Many of these caterpillars closely resemble in colour the bark of the plants on which they feed, and instinctively take Surveyor Caterpillar, advantage of this circumstance to deceive their enemies, fixing them- selves by their claspers to a twig in a manner so stiff and motionless that they may be easily mistaken for a portion of the plant ; by this means they escape not only the sharp eyes of the young naturalist, but even the more penetrating vision of insectivorous birds, who are continually on the look-out for such morsels. For the names of the families, genera, and species of this section of British moths the works of Mr. Newman and Mr. Humphreys may be consulted. 56 The Home Naturalist. We give but one instance of a geometer, the common magpie-moth (Abraxas grossulariata\ the caterpillar of which often deprives the gooseberry-bush of its leaves. Section III. The CUSPIDATES embrace four families, of which the most remarkable is the Ceruridse, to which the puss-moth (Cerura vinula} belongs. Section IV. The NOCTUAS or NOCTUID^E. While most of the moths of this section, as the name implies, fly only by night, and appear in very sombre colours, hiding away during the day in cre- vices of bark and old walls, some species are in the habit of flying abroad in the day-time : the wings of these, es- pecially the posterior or under wings, are more gaudy, as those of the Scarlet Under-Wing Moth. scarlet under-wing (Cato- cala), and the gamma-moth (Plusia Gamma). The latter is so called in allusion to a silvery or gold-coloured shining mark, situated ^^near the inner border of the upper wings, ^^fc^V/^JJgP which resembles the Greek letter gamma (y). The section is very extensive, and includes ^^^ thirty-five families. The larvae have from twelve to sixteen feet, and at the close of their caterpillar life let themselves down by a single thread to the earth, beneath the surface of which they undergo their transformation in cocoons. Section V. The PYRALIDES. This section is of moderate extent, and consists of ten families. The moths are small, and their wings during repose are generally placed in a triangular form; example, the pebble moth (Pyralis forficula). The caterpillars of this species do much mischief to the leaves of the garden cabbage, and common horse-radish : it is for this destructiveness that the species is noted. The Beetle and Butterfly Collection. 57 Section VI. The TORTRICES, or LEAF-ROLLERS. This section com- prises an extensive group of minute, dull-coloured moths, distinguished by their short filiform antennae, and their broad triangular wings, which also assume the figure of a triangle when the moth is at rest The Leaf-Rollers. larvae are naked fleshy grubs, which live in the midst of their food, in a leaf curled up by the insect itself into a sort of tube, and securely fastened with silken threads. Within this they hide, mining their way into the leaf, and here they undergo their transformations. From this habit of larval existence they have derived their name Tortrices, or leaf-rollers. Although so minute and apparently insig- nificant, some of the species are very injurious. The larvae of the 58 The Home Naturalist. codling-moth ( Carpocafsa pomonella) do great damage to the apple crops of this country ; while the larvae of the Tortrix vitana attack the vines of France. Section VII. The TINE^E are small moths, distinguished by their bristle-shaped antennae, and narrow, elongated, fringed wings, which are usually folded together when in repose. The majority of the larvae live upon vegetable matter, mining their way into leaves, where they find ample shelter and nourishment ; the leaves showing their winding galleries only on one side. The clothes-moth larva is notoriously destructive to woollen materials of every description ; feathers, furs, skins, and similar sub- stances are devoured by others, the ma- terials being also used for the con- struction of their cases, in which, when full-grown, they be- come chrysalids. Two species of Gal- Icria infest bee-hives, feeding upon honey, and forming galleries in the honeycomb. Larvse feeding on cloth. The beetle and butterfly collections may be scientifically arranged by following the preceding classification of these two great orders of insects. But, after all the rules for the preparation of natural history specimens have been observed, a diligent and careful supervision of the collections is indispensable. The boxes or cabinet drawers in which the insects are kept should totally exclude the light when they are closed, as sunlight, or even ordinary daylight, injures the colours, and causes the bright fresh hues to fade. They should also be tightly fitted, so as to exclude dust and mites, and should be lined with cork a quarter of an inch The Beetle and Butterfly Collection, 59 thick, having white paper pasted on its surface. Camphor must be kept in the drawers and boxes, and replenished as it evaporates. When mites once get into a collection they make sad havoc in it. Their presence is easily detected by the accumulation of little heaps of brown or white powder under the bodies of the speci- mens. If the objects attacked are common and easily replaced, the best plan is to throw them into the fire ; but if they are rare and valuable species, the drawer containing them must be inverted over a piece of cloth saturated with naphtha for one hour or more. The fumes from the naphtha will effectually destroy the mites without injuring the specimens. It is difficult to prevent the entrance of mildew into the col- lections, but keeping them in a dry warm room is a preventive. The neighbourhood of an oven is hurtful; but a dry, cold wind on a fine sunny autumn day will evaporate damp and completely dry the insects. Mildew can be easily removed from beetles by brushing the insects with pure alcohol. After a time, the bodies of many insects exude an oily or fatty matter, which spreads to the wings, thorax, and finally to the paper, and thus spoils the appearance of cabinet and boxes. In- sects in this condition may be cleaned by immersion in benzoin or naphtha, and afterwards sprinkling them with finely-prepared chalk or magnesia, which absorbs the grease ; remove this, when the insect is dry, with a camel's-hair brush. THE LEPIDARIUM. This is a collection of butterfly impressions, obtained fnxn the powder on their wings in the following manner : spread a thick solution of gum arabic over a sheet of fin'e paper, so that it readily adheres to the finger. Take off the wings of a dead butterfly, and lay them carefully on the gummed paper, spread out as in the act of flying. Place another sheet of paper over the wings, and rub them gently with the finger, or the smooth handle of a knife. The wings will then be left on the paper. Afterwards draw the form of the body, with the head and antennae in the space between the wings. 6o TIte Home Naturalist. AN OUTLINE SKETCH OF THE INSECT ORDERS. For Young Collectors. Most young insect collectors give their time and attention exclu- sively to beetles and butterflies, certainly the most striking to the eye of all the natural orders. They know, indeed, that there are wasps, hornets, bees, humble-bees, ants, and house-flies ; gnats and gad-flies are sufficiently annoying, both at home and in their expe- ditions, to make them aware of their existence; locusts are met with in the field, and crickets in the house ; in summer-time dragon-flies may be seen in active pursuit of gnats ; and mos- quitoes and other insects may be noticed flying to and fro over the surface of their native swamps, but only superficial thought is given to these samples of the other orders of the insect king- dom. Although the insects belonging to these orders are not so attractive in form and colour as beetles and butterflies, they claim some share of attention, if it is only for the wonderful instinct which they display in providing food for themselves and their off- spring, and in the construction of their various works. It is well, therefore, that something should be known of these orders, and of the insects belonging to them, which are occasionally included in the sweep of the bag-net. And, though no regular collection is made, samples of the insects and their works may be placed in the cabinet. The order and family to which an insect belongs should be known, and the larva and changes (complete or other- wise) through which the insect passes recognised, all of which will be found most instructive and interesting. It has been shown that all insects, in their development from the egg, pass through a series of changes. The degree of these changes is, however, very different in the various orders of insects. In beetles, butterflies, and moths (Coleoptera and Lepidoptera), the metamorphosis is complete, the larva, pupa, and imago constitut- ing three distinct phases of life. In other groups of insects, as in the dragon-flies (Neuroptera) and grasshoppers (Orthoptera), the transformation is more gradual, the larva, pupa, and perfect insect re- sembling each other, or the metamorphosis is incomplete. The class The Beetle and Butterfly Collection, 61 Insecta is, therefore, according to Dr. Carpenter (whose numbering of the Linnsean orders is here adopted), divided into two leading sub- classes, according to the different degrees of transformation, under the names of complete and incomplete metamorphosis. Sub-class i. Insects having a sudden and complete metamorphosis. ORDER IV. MEMBRANE-WINGED INSECTS (Hymenopterd). The HYMENOPTERA (Greek, vpf/v, a membrane; and -n-repov, a wing) have four wings, transparent, membranous, and the veins few the hinder pair smaller than the others. The mouth is furnished with powerful horny jaws, and the females are armed with a many-valved sting or ovipositor. This enormous order is divided into two groups, or sub-orders, and these again into six families. Sub-order I. The Terebrantia, or Borers, are stingless insects, the females characterised by the possession of an ovipositor capable of perforating the substance of plants or the bodies of animals. This weapon is used, as its name implies, to prepare a suitable place in which to deposit the eggs, where the larva, as soon as it emerges from the egg, shall find itself surrounded by appropriate food. The larvae somewhat resemble caterpillars, but differ from them in having twenty-two feet, instead of sixteen. In this sub-order there are two families. 1. The saw-flies (Tenthredinidce) are so called from the saw-like character and action of the ovipositor. They cut numerous small slits in the leaves of plants, in each of which they deposit an egg, and close the hole with a drop of frothy fluid. Their larvae feed upon the leaves and other soft parts of plants ; hence their scientific name, Phyllophaga, or leaf-eaters. 2. The borers (Terebrantia) are the type after which the sub-order is named. In this family the ovipositor differs in its structure from that of the saw-flies ; it consists of three long and slender pieces, two of them forming a sheath for the third, all three being serrated at the 62 The Home Naturalist. extremities. These insects perforate the bark and wood of trees, and often inflict much damage on timber, especially in those parts of Europe where pine forests abound. Their scientific name is Xylophaga, or wood-eaters. 3. The ichneumon flies (Ichneumonidtz) deposit their eggs in the bodies of other living insects, generally caterpillars, by piercing them with their ovipositors, which are straight and of variable length. If the caterpillar to be attacked lives below the bark, the ovipositor is very long, and capable of penetrating almost any substance ; while those ichneumons hav- ing short ovipositors place their eggs in cater- pillars more easily ac- cessible. In a few days the ichneumons are hatched as footless grubs, which devour the fatty portions of the ca- terpillar without injuring any vital part, so that the larva thus infested still continues to live and supply them with nourishment. When the ichneumons are ready Ichneumon Fly depositing Eggs. to Undergo their final change, they pierce the skin of their caterpillar prison, and become pupae, in a few hours enveloping themselves in a clear, yellow spun yarn. The cluster thus formed on the body of the caterpillar is sometimes falsely called caterpillar's eggs. After a time the perfect ichneumon flies emerge from these chrysalids, leaving the perforated skin of the caterpillar behind The Beetle and Butterfly Collection. 63 In autumn, this process may be easily observed in the caterpillar of the common white or cabbage butterfly. The perfect ichneu- nd Female Ichneumon Flies. mons are useful, active insects, feeding on the juices of flowers, and constantly hunting for caterpillars in which to deposit their eggs. In this way countless millions of larvae are annually de- stroyed by them. Their scientific name is Entomophaga, or insect- eaters. 6 4 The Home Naturalist. 4. The gall-flies .(Cynipidcz) puncture the leaves and branches of trees with their ovipositors, inserting an egg in each hole. The con- sequent irritation of the sur- rounding surface causes the growth of those well-known excrescences on the leaves of the oak which are called oak spangles or oak galls, and on the branches of the rose bedeguar or hairy galls; these products nourish the larvae which they invariably contain. If one of these galls be cut through the centre, the small white grub will be easily detected. The gall of the rose has an agree- able acid flavour, and it is therefore often eaten by boys Oak Gaiis. w ho are not aware of the presence of the grubs inside. Galls are of different degrees of consistency. The hardest known is the common gall-nut of com- merce, which is produced on the leaves of an oak growing in the Levant (Quercus infectoria), and is employed in the manufacture of ink and in the process of dyeing. The " apples of Sodom," which are found on the borders of the Dead Sea, are only soft galls, which appear beautiful to the eye, but turn to ashes on the lips. When the insect has escaped, a circular perforation is visible on the surface of the gall. Sub-order 2. The Aculeata, or Stinging Hymenoptera, have ovipositors resembling an aculeus, or prickle, which not only deposit the eggs, but also convey a poisonous fluid into the wounds which they inflict. These Aculeated Hymenoptera are divided into two groups or families. The solitary and social predaceous wasps (Pradones), solitary The Beetle and Butterfly Collection. 65 insects such as wood-wasps (Crabronidce), sand-wasps (Ammophila\ mud-wasps (Pelopceus), and social wasps and hornets ( Vespa}, are all insects which sting painfully if molested, and sometimes prove troublesome through their fondness for sweets. Yet, as they feed them- selves and their offspring not only with the honey of flowers, but with the softer parts of insects, which they destroy in vast numbers for this purpose, their occasional trespasses may well be for- given. The ant, so well known for its industrious habits, and which is men- Wasp, tioned in Scripture as an example of diligence, 1 belongs to this group of insects. Very wonderful are the communities of ants, wasps, and bees, and the nests which are erected in common by them, in which the larvae, all sharing alike, are kept and fed. The solitary and social bees (Apida) live wholly on the honey and pollen of flowers, and feed their young on a mixture of the same, called bee-bread. The habits of both solitary and social bees are very interesting, and will well repay investigation. The nests of the solitary carpenter-bee (Xylocopd] are constructed in rotten wood, are entered by a circular hole, and consist of from eight to twelve cells, in each of which an egg is deposited, with a quantity of honey and pollen, as food for the future larva. These cells are formed in succession, and are separated from each other by walls of saw- dust. The whole structure may easily be laid bare by cutting through the wood. This bee is unknown in England, but is common in France, the southern parts of Europe, and in the United States of America. The mason -bees (Osmfa) form their nests of grains of sand, 1 Prov. vi. 6. F 66 The Home Naturalist. cemented together with a glutinous secretion, and place them sometimes in the ground, or on the angle of a wall, or in a crevice between bricks. The upholsterer-bees (Megachile) form their nests in the interior of decayed trees, lining them with circular pieces of leaves, clipped off by means of their powerful jaws, which are used like a pair of scissors. These fragments of leaves (usually of the wild rose) are so admirably fitted that, although not coated with gum, they are honey-tight. These little architects, without scale or compasses, mete out the materials of their work into portions of an ellipse, into Rose-leaf-cutter Bee and Nest. ^^ and cirdeS) and then j om the pieces with the most perfect accuracy, not making a single mistake. Thus even human art and reason are excelled by the teaching of the Almighty. Indeed, the accurate instruments and complex machinery of man go no further than the imitation of forms which exist around him, or which have been produced with consummate skill by inferior creatures. The original device is Divine, the copy is human. We should therefore be ready to recognise the designs and works of God everywhere, and to acknowledge how imperfect is our best performance when compared even with His lowlier works wrought by His inferior creatures. There are several species of upholsterer-bees besides the Megachile, or rose-leaf-cutter. Only one can be mentioned here, the poppy upholsterer (Apis papaveris). This species, says Reaumur, " invariably chooses for the hangings of her apartments the brilliant scarlet petals of the wild poppy, which she dexterously cuts into the proper form." The social -bees (Apidcz) consist of two principal groups, the The Beetle and Butterfly Collection. 67 well-known humble-bees (JBombi) and the honey-bees (Apis melltfica), to whose proverbial industry we are indebted for our annual sup- plies of honey and bees'-wax. The humble - bees construct their nests of moss, which are situated under the surface of meadows and pastures. These insects are easily recognized by their large size and hairy bodies, which are often black, with yellow or orange bands. They usually form communities of from fifty to sixty in- dividuals. The cold weather, however, kills all but a few females, who alone survive the winter. During the first fine days of spring these females commence rebuilding, and furnish their nests with pollen and honey. The honey is neither so fine nor so good, nor is the wax as clean or as easily melted as that of the hive-bee. The honey-bee is the species which is the most interesting and important. In the natural state these invaluable insects generally construct their nests in hollow trees; but they are rarely found wild, being now almost universally hived or domesticated. It is a remarkable fact that we derive the greater part of our knowledge of the economy and habits of the hive-bee from the labours of a blind naturalist named Huber, who lost his sight when only seven- teen. He kept bees in glass hives, and, aided by his wife, be- came acquainted with all that went on in them. Through her faithful description of what she saw, and her labours as his secre- tary, Huber collected the materials of his celebrated work. The societies of the honey- bee, consisting generally of about twenty-two thousand individuals, are permanent, and survive the winter. The stores of honey which they collect are intended to support them through that period. We cannot enter fully into the details respecting the construction of the comb, with its beautiful hexagonal cells, the collection of honey and other stores, and the general govern- Festoons of Bees secreting Wax. 68 The Home Naturalist, ment of the hive. The eggs are laid, the larvae are hatched, and the honey is stored in the cells. There are three kinds of bees in every hive the queen, the workers, and the drones. In every hive there is one queen, with about two thousand drones, and about twenty thousand workers. The queen lays the eggs, the workers construct the cells and collect the honey and pollen, and the drones act as attendants on the queen, but Queen Bee. the specimens in doing this. The damp sheets should be spread out to dry, and when free from moisture are again fit for use. This process must be repeated until all the moisture is extracted from the specimens. Some plants for instance, most of the fir tribe in drying cast their leaves. This may be prevented by dipping them in boiling water before they are put in the drying sheets. If the plants are kept too long in damp paper, their foliage blackens, and the blossoms lose their beauty. As a rule the paper should be changed at least twice on the first day, and afterwards once a day, the pressure being increased each time. Three or four days will be sufficient to dry most specimens; but where they are of a juicy nature a much longer time will be required. Thick roots, stems, and bulbs must first be divided lengthwise, and then thinned with a knife. The colours of blossoms likely to be lost in drying may be preserved by pressing the petals between oiled paper, and afterwards drying them with a warm flat-iron. When the plants cease to adhere to the drying sheets, and the paper itself is free from moisture, the process is completed. 88 The Home Naturalist. Specimens in every stage of drying may be in the press at the same time, if thin wooden boards or stout millboards are interposed between the different piles; these prevent the moisture of a fresh collection spreading to the drier plants. The collecting portfolio and strap are absolute necessities when the excursion is a prolonged one. At the first convenient oppor- tunity the package should be unstrapped, the damp sheets taken out, fresh dry paper introduced between the plants, and the package strapped up afresh. The operation must be repeated morning and evening until the plants are dry. They should then be transferred to fresh paper, tied up loosely, and laid aside. In this way the specimens collected on a botanical excursion of several days' or even weeks' duration, may be brought home in a good state of preservation. The dried specimens are exhibited to advantage when mounted upon white, firm cartridge paper. The best size is seventeen inches by ten and a half. Each species should occupy a separate half sheet, and must be fastened to the paper with strong glue or by gummed strips of paper placed across the stem and branches. This may be pre- pared as follows : Cover one side of a sheet of paper with a strong solution of gum or glue, and spread it out to dry. The paper thus prepared should afterwards be cut into strips of the required size, and three or four of such strips moistened and placed across the stem and branches of a plant, if well rubbed down, are quite sufficient to fasten them firmly to the sheet. If each group of specimens has placed at its base a broad strip of red or blue paper cut into the shape of a flower- pot, the effect will be very pleasing. The plan of fastening the plants by strips of adhesive paper is certainly better than the practice of securing them by gumming their entire surface. Mode of securing Plants. By the former method, if it be desirable to The Plant Collection. 89 transfer the specimen to another sheet, it is only necessary to cut the strips, and the plant is at once free from the paper, uninjured, and with very few stains upon its surface. At the foot of the sheet should be written the scientific and com- mon names of each plant, the place where it was found, and the day of the month when it was gathered. Where a specimen has been given, the name of the donor should also be recorded. How to Name the Plants and Arrange the Herbarium. Hitherto it has been supposed that help was at hand, and that it was only necessary to ticket the plants accurately before placing them in the collecting box. Such opportunities, however, do not occur every day; and it is therefore very desirable that the collector should be able to determine the scientific names of the specimens without assistance. The first steps in any science are always the most difficult and tedious, and for this reason the help of a teacher or an experienced botanist is invaluable, and a great saving of both time and study to the beginner on his earlier excursions. Nevertheless, sufficient information to create an interest having been once acquired in this way, an intelligent person will examine his own specimens, and try if he cannot determine their botanical names for himself. For this purpose a good book and a flower microscope are alike essential. Babington's Manual of British Botany, and Bentham's Handbook of the British Flora, are recommended for consultation. The first thing to be done after bringing home a bundle of plants is to compare each specimen with the description given of it in the book. Bentham's Handbook gives the popular as well as the scientific names of all the common British plants, with drawings which are sufficiently accurate for all practical purposes. If the common name of the plant is known, the scientific name is easily found in the Handbook. The description of the specimen should then be studied, commencing with the root, stem, and leaves, and proceeding thence to the flower, the parts of which must be carefully dissected with pins, needles, or the sharp point of a knife, and examined with the flower microscope. QO The Home Naturalist, As before remarked, in order to secure complete specimens, it will be necessary to gather two examples of the same plant ; for after the leaves and blossoms have been collected, it will be requisite to add samples of the mature ovary or seed-vessel later on. It is only by personal inspection and constant handling of the plants, and comparing what really exists in nature with the details given in books, that accurate knowledge of their properties, and of their position in the vegetable kingdom, is acquired. But there are numerous plants without popular names, which have been noticed only by accomplished botanists, as, for example, Lepidium Smithii, described by Dr. Hooker, and Caltha radicans, first discovered and delineated by Mr. Forster. These can only be recognised after some knowledge, not only of structural, but of systematic botany, has been gained. The latter is an attempt to unfold and follow out that principle of order which exists in nature. Linnseus, who has been deservedly called " The Father of Natural History," has done excellent service in arranging plants. His artificial system, which is founded on the parts of the flower, is the best for beginners, and is, at the same time, an excellent introduction to the Natural System now universally adopted in our schools and universities. After the season has been spent in diligently collecting, pressing, drying, mounting, and naming the plants, the formation of the Herbarium, or Hortus siccus, may be commenced. At the outset it will be advisable to select a room which will be free from disturbance ; perhaps one at the top of the house will be the best. The room should have one or two chairs and a large plain deal table ; it should also contain the press, boards, and drying papers ; glue bottle, brush, cartridge-paper, sheets of adhesive paper, and scissors for mounting; penknife, needles, and microscope for dissection and examination ; tickets, pens, and ink for labelling ; and a few shelves for standard works on British plants, such as Withering's British Botany, Smith's English Flora, Hooker's British Mosses, London's Encyclopedia of Plants, etc. When all these arrangements are completed, the packages should be opened out on the table, and all the nameless plants separated The Plant Collection. 91 from the named and mounted specimens. All the specimens, both known and unknown, should at least have had noted on the tickets their place of growth, or habitat, and the day of the month when collected. The unnamed parts of the collection should be set aside for future scientific examination ; and the named and mounted plants arranged, according to the Natural System of Botany, into orders, genera, and species. The prominent natural orders, such as the Ranunculacea or Crowfoot family, the Crucifera, or Mustard family, the Leguminosce or Pulse family, the Rosacece, or Rose family, the Umbelliferce, or Parsley family, the Composites, or Composite family, the Ericacecz, or Heath family, and the Labiatce, or Mint family, should be placed in separate piles in the order indicated in Babington's Manual or Bentham's Handbook. Reference must be made to the index of the book consulted for the generic names of the plants whose natural orders are unknown. After arranging all the specimens in orders, those containing the smallest number of plants should be collected together, for the sake of saving space. The orders must next be sorted consecutively into genera and species, commencing with Ranunculacece. The following genera and species of this order will be found in most collections. Wood anemone (Anemone nemorosa, L.), pilewort (Ranunculus Ficaria, L.), buttercup or bulbous crowfoot (Ranunculus bulbosus, L.), upright meadow crowfoot (Ranunculus acris, L.), creeping crowfoot (Ranunculus repens, L.), celery-leaved crowfoot (Ranunculus sceleratus, L.), water crowfoot (Ranunculus aquatilis, L.), which commonly ornaments the surface of ponds with its snow- white flowers in the spring of the year, and marsh marigold (Caltha palustris, L.). The following rarer and more local genera may also have been secured. Travellers' joy (Clematis Vitalba, L.), European globe flower (Trollius Europceus^ L.), and green hellebore (Helleborus viridis, L.). It will be easy to arrange all these genera by the help of Babington or Bentham ; and the numbers will ensure to each its proper place in the collection. Even if there be only one representative species, it should be set out on a half-sheet of cartridge paper, enclosed in a 92 The Home Naturalist, whole sheet, and the name and number of the genus written in bold characters on the outside, in the upper left-hand corner. Where there are several species of one genus, they must all be enclosed in one envelope. All the preceding genera have the letter L. affixed to them ; this means that Linnaeus was the first naturalist who described them. Since the time of Linnaeus, however, the number of botanists has increased, and the science of botany has advanced, so that many plants have been discovered, and added to the list of those which were known to Linnaeus. Thus, in Babington's Manual, among the rarer or more recently discovered species Ranunculus, we find floating-water crowfoot (Ranunculus fluitans, Lam.), and Ranun- culus hirsutus, Curt. Both of these species were unknown in the days of Linnaeus ; the former being first described by Lamarck, and the other by Curtius. The abbreviated forms of their names are therefore attached to the scientific names of the plants as authority for the species. The newly-discovered species of plants have become so numerous, especially in new countries, and the claims amongst botanists to priority of discovery are so conflicting, that in all cases the botanical name must be regarded as incomplete, unless it has been traced to its origin and includes that of the person by whom it was first described. The genera, after having been thus separated, named, and num- bered, should be enclosed in a stout, coloured paper wrapper, and distinguished as plants of the order Ranunculacetz, or Crowfoot family, the number and name of the order being written or printed in the middle on the outside. The orders themselves may also be arranged in extensive groups, each being characterised by some common structural peculiarity. For example, all the orders from Ranunculacea to Rutacece, which form the first sub-class THALAMI FLORAE (Greek, OaXafios, a couch), have flowers with both calyx and corolla, the latter consisting of dis- tinct petals (polypetalous), which, together with the stamens, are in- serted in the receptacle. In this, the highest group, all the parts of the flower are present and distinct from each other. The buttercup and wallflower are examples of this group. In like manner, all the The Plant Collection. 93 orders from Celastracece, the Spindle-tree family, to Cornacece, the Dog- wood family, are included within the second sub-class CALYCIFLOR^E (Greek, K