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A TREATISE (Qn % gipjjUcaiion of |"ron to t!je Construction of BRIDGES, GIRDERS, ROOFS AND OTHER WORKS SHOWING THE PRINCIPLES UPON .WHICH SUCH STRUCTURES ARE DESIGN KD, AND THEIR PRACTICAL APPLICATION ESPECIALLY AKRAXGED FOR THE USE OF STUDENTS AND PRACTICAL MECHANICS, ALL MATHEMATICAL FORMULAE AND SYMBOLS BEING EXCLUDED BY FRANCIS CAMPIN, C.E. VAST PRESIDENT OF THE CIVIL AND MECHANICAL ENGINEERS' SOCIETY, LOXDOX, op A "PRACTICAL TBEATISK ox MECHANICAL ENGINEERING," ETC. ETC. liJjj numerous ^lustrations FOURTH EDITION, REVISED AND CORRECTED LONDON CROSBY LOCKWOOD AND SON 7, STATIONERS' HALL COURT, LTJDGATE HILL 1888 o 3 o PREFACE. IN introducing the present work to the Public, a few prefatory words appear called for to explain the objects with which the Author prepared it. The great pro- ficiency in mathematics requisite for the comprehension of more elaborate treatises on girders, roofs, &c., has rendered such works unsatisfactory to the great bulk of engineering students, and useless to those artizans who, having spent their early years in labour, have not had leisure for the more abstruse branches of education. For these two classes the present work has been espe- cially written, after several years' consideration of the subject, and throughout care has been taken to preserve the pure principles of structures in their exactitude, without using any mathematical processes beyond arith- metic, except in the simple algebraical demonstrations of the rules which are inserted for the use of such as may desire to study them. JUIANCIS CAMPIN. ADVERTISEMENT TO THE SECOND EDITION. A SECOND edition of this Treatise having been called for, advantage has been taken of the opportunity thus offered to correct certain typographical and clerical errors that found their way into the first edition. The Author has also carefully revised the work throughout, and, where it appeared desirable, re- written portions, but in no case has he altered the opinions ex- pressed in the first edition, the practice of the intervening period of five years having in all cases tended to confirm them. C N T E N T S. PAGI PREFACE. Introduction * 1 CHAPTER 1. Cast and Wrought Iron and Steel 7 CHAPTER 2. Strains on Structures . . . . . . ,16 CHATTER 3. Combinations of Elements and Distribution of Loads . ,51 CHAPTER 4. Joints and Connections , . .81 CHAPTER 5. Girders and Columns for Buildings , . , 104 CHAPTER 6. Iron Hoofs , 123 CHAPTER 7. Iron Floors ,, 137 CHAPTER 8. Miscellaneous Iron Structures . , , , , .142 CHAPTER 9. Practical Execution of Iron Structures 146 CHAPTER 10. Inspection and Testing of Materials 108 CONCLUSION !...,, . 174 INTBODUCTION. THE vast progress made during the last fifty years in metallurgical art has caused the metals to assume a very forward place amongst the materials used for structures of all descriptions, such as bridges, roofs, lighthouses, and public and private buildings of all kinds, and it may specially be remarked that at the present time much more attention has been drawn to the adaptation of iron to the purposes of the builder than that subject had hitherto attracted. Iron being, from its physical qualities, suitable for a great variety of uses, extending up to the construction of the greatest works, it is easy to account for the fact that almost only works of great magnificence have received that general consideration which smaller undertakings equally deserve. The engineer may point with justifiable pride to the bridges which in safety carry our heavy traffic over the widest rivers, and contemplate with satisfaction the colossal roofs which afford a covering to our spacious railway stations ; but equally with these the student should examine the requirements and principles of those works which, though less pretentious, acquire equal importance from 2 THE APPLICATION OF IRON their greater frequency. It cannot be denied, even by the most ardent admirer of stupendous works, that the due proportioning and arrangement of iron structures, which may perhaps form the nucleus of a future colony, and afford comfort and security to its founders, are not inferior in importance to the more elaborate designing of the most expensive structure required by the economic and aesthetic exigencies of a civilised community ; hence, the engineer who would perform the duty which devolves upon him of extending his art through the widest sphere of usefulness must study the application of the materials with which he has to deal, even to works of apparent insignificance, and, moreover, by so doing he will acquire a knowledge which will subsequently be of great vaiae to him in setting out the subordinate details of any larger structures with the execution of which he may be entrusted. In treating of wrought and cast iron structures, we shall endeavour to set forth in the simplest possible form the fundamental principles which rule the applica- tion of the metals referred to, to structural purposes, whether as arches, pillars, girders, or trussing, and subsequently to explain the mode in which works having been designed in accordance with such principles are executed, in the iron-yard or foundry, as the case may be. It is not sufficient that the engineer should merely be able to calculate the strength of every part of his work, which he may generally do by the aid of books of rules, &c., but he requires a keen perception of possible con- tingencies which may arise during the process of manu- facture, and a knowledge of aesthetics, so that by duly considering the characters of his materials, ho may produce a work combining in the highest degree utility TO BUILDING STRUCTURES. 3 with a pleasing appearance. Of course no one can ex- pect to possess these qualifications without previously having extensive practical experience ; but careful unre- mitting study of the works of predecessors will tend very materially to assist in educating the eye and maturing the judgment of the student, provided that he reflects carefully upon the good and bad features both constructive and artistic observed in such structures as come under his notice ; and speaking of bad features, let it be remembered that much useful information is to be gained from studying errors, for from an examination of their causes, their future occurrence may be avoided t and from their results the importance of obviating them may be estimated. In respect to the production of pleasing effects in iron structures we have always held a very decided opinion that such a result can seldom be attained by ornamenta- tion, having no other duty than that of hiding unsightly work ; it must be due to a consistency of design, the forms introduced should be such as are suggested by the nature of the material wrought, otherwise they are not in accordance with common sense, hence are opposed to good taste. If we consider some of our stone structures, there is but little of actual ornament about them, such, for instance, as London Bridge and Waterloo, but yefc from the consistency of design both these noble works produce a pleasing effect upon the eye ; the same results may doubtless be secured with other, materials, but it must not be forgotten that each typical material has a style of architecture specially suited to it, and if that style be not followed in its application, discordant effects will be produced, and in point of fact it is better to have a work absolutely plain than loaded with ornamentation inconsistent with its general character. B 2 4 THE APPLICATION OF IRON In regard to the strength, of structures, the modes of ascertaining it are sufficiently clear and reliable, and once comprehended cannot give rise to failure if correct data are used as to those matters which are determined by experiment, such as the resistance of the materials to the various forces to which they are subjected when fitted into their respective places in the structures of which they form the details. It is, however, very re- markable that engineers in this country have not availed themselves of the improvements in the iron trade to so great an extent as they might in reducing the weight of wrought-iron structures ; in fact, these works are made stronger, and therefore more costly, than is necessary. If metal will safely carry five tons in tension per sectional square inch, surely it is a waste to make bridges of such proportions that the heaviest strain cannot exceed two and a half or three tons it may be instructive to ex- amine the amount of loss thus caused. If we merely take the area of the metal required to carry the live or moving load, the waste caused by using too low a co-efficient of strength, is at once observable ; but by increasing the areas of the parts of a structure, the dead load or weight of such structure is also in- creased, and all the strength taken up in the support of the work itself (although a necessary absorption of re- sistance), must be regarded as prejudicial. One reason to which may be assigned the excessive sectional area found in the works of many engineers, is that habitually in the first calculation of strains the dead load is much over estimated, sometimes as much as fifteen or twenty per cent. Now, although undoubtedly it is always best to have some excess of strength, yet it is both unwise and un- scientific, as well as ruinous, to have too great an excess j TO BUILDING STRUCTURES. O and moreover it shows a deficiency or mistrust some- where ; the engineer loses faith either in his own design or in the quality of materials or workmanship supplied by the manufacturer, and he can assure himself of the two latter points by exercising personally, or by a com- petent representative, proper supervision of the work during its construction. Turning to the works of nature, which should ever guide the engineer, there is seen ample strength pro- vided, but no waste of material ; each object is nicely adapted to meet the exigencies of its own case, and the works of certain insects exhibit such examples as are well worthy of the careful study of human constructors, for we have to arrive by our intellectual efforts at a stage of perfection comparable to that evolved from the instincts of the lowest orders of the animal world. In making allowances for possible weakness of ma- terial and for other uncontrollable emergencies, these should be treated en masse, and the requisite excess of strength above that required by theory at once deter- mined, instead of pursuing the common system of assuming the loads and strains to be greater than they ever can be, and after calculating from the data of these unattainable loads to throw in an excess of sectional area over that ascertained. It is not as if maximum loads were difficult to be determined, for, on the con- trary, the means of finding their amounts are always available. If a bridge is required to carry general traffic, the weight of that traffic and the nature of the concussions or vibrations produced by it may be found. If the work forms a portion of a line of railway the weight of the stock on such line is known to the engineer. Similarly with girders and columns used in the erection of warehouses and other buildings, the 6 THE APPLICATION OP IRON total superimposed load can always be ascertained. The actual maximum load having been arrived at, there need be no further allowance made, provided the metal be duly tested and the workmanship good, then a sound but light work will be obtained, one combining the two requisites of ample strength and minimum weight. Sometimes it may, of two plans, be more economical to adopt the heavier ; and this will be the case when in the lighter design all that is saved in material is lost by increased cost of manufacture or material ; hence, that the engineer may be thoroughly competent to judge in such instances, he must have a knowledge of the mechanical manipulations to which his materials are subjected in the process of being manufactured into the required forms, otherwise he will be at the mercy of the contractor to whom he applies for advice, and whose business it is to turn out the work in such a manner that, whilst it does him no discredit, he can make the greatest profit out of it. In fact, the civil engineer is the buyer, or rather is entrusted virtually with the buying, of certain things of which the contractor is the seller ; hence, considering the great trust reposed in aim and the heavy responsibilities attaching to his position, he should, by every means in his power, endeavour to gain a thorough knowledge of his pro- fession, theoretically and practically, and thus qualify himself for the sphere of usefulness he has selected. TO BUILDING STRUCTURES. CHAPTEE I. CAST A20) WROUGHT IRON AND STEEL. THE mechanical properties of cast-iron differ widely from those of the wrought metal, hence the modes of manipulation, and the purposes to which these materials are especially suitable, also vary considerably. Cast-iron is rigid, inflexible, and brittle, incapable of being forged, welded, or drawn, although it may readily be cast into any required form. Wrought-iron is remarkable for its toughness ; it may be beaten into various shapes at a red heat, and welded at a white heat; these welded joints being, when properly exe- cuted, equal in strength to the solid metal ; in fact, J, good weld is solid metal. Wrought-iron may be drawn cold into fine wire, hence is very ductile. Of cast-iron there are several qualities and kinds, varying from that which has a silvery- white, crystalline fracture, to the tougher kinds, exhibiting a grey fracture. By certain modes of treatment castings, when made, may be rendered malleable ; but, in fact, tlie nature of the material becomes more similar in the process used to that of wrought-iron ; but malleable castings have not nearly the strength of ordinary wrought-iron, although they lose the brittleness of common cast-iron, and thus become less liable to fracture ; hence this metal is valuable for articles of common use, which, although subject to rough handling and falls, are not called upm to bear strains of any magnitude. The quality of malleable iron depends upon the 8 THE APPLICATION OF IRON foreign bodies associated with it, hence in great mea- sure upon the quality of cast-iron from which it is made, being prepared from that metal by processes of purifi- cation; but this is also influenced by the amount of hammering or working the wrought metal has under- gone while in a state approaching semi-fusion, the continued working rendering the metal more homo- geneous or uniform in its structure, and, therefore, tougher and of more equal strength throughout. Steel, which consists of iron combined with a portion of carbon, possesses most of the properties of wrought- iron in a higher degree ; it must, however, be forged at a lower temperature ; it admits also of being cast, and various degrees of hardness may be imparted to it by a process of hardening and tempering, the greatest hard- ness being obtained by plunging the red-hot metal into cold water. In this state, however, it is exceedingly brittle, hence for most purposes it is necessary to temper it lower, which is effected by gradually heating the metal to a certain temperature, regulated according to the degree of hardness and elasticity required in the work under manipulation. The resistance of wrought-iron to a tensile or stretch- ing strain is far greater than that of cast-iron, but the strength of the latter as opposed to compressive or crushing strain is superior to that of the former. The tensile resistances of the materials per square inch of sectional area are : Swedish bar-iron . . 65,000 Ibs. = 29-01 tons. Russian . . . 59,470 =: 26-54 English . . . 56,000 = 25-00 Wire rope .... 90,000 = 40-17 Cast-iron 17,628 = 7-87 TO BUILDING STRUCTURES. 9 The compressive resistances are : Cast-iron 120,000 Ibs. = 53-57 tons, Wrought-iron . . . 36,000 = 16-07 Generally in practice no strain is allowed upon metal which shall exceed one-sixth part of its ultimate strength or breaking weight, although sound metal is not sup- posed to be injured until one-third of its breaking weight is reached, injury being shown by permanent alteration of form, for although a body may be bent, extended, or compressed, no injury can be assumed to have been caused so long as upon the removal of the strain such body resumes its former figure and dimen- sions. The permanent deflection of structures due to imperfections in the joints is not to be confounded with that due to physical injury of the material, and is, in fact, quite immaterial to the strength of the work, pro- vided it be kept within reasonable limits. In calculating bridges and other works specified to be of good (i.e. above the average) iron, it is usual to allow as safe strains per square inch, Wrought-iron in tension 5 tons in compression 4 tons. Cast-iron ,, 1'5 ,, ,, 7 tons. These mechanical differences in the properties of the various kinds of commercial irons are due to variations in chemical composition, hence it is desirable briefly to consider the constitution of the metal and the changes brought about in it by processes of manufacture. In nature but little iron, comparatively speaking, occurs in the metallic state, the largest deposit being probably found in the beds of magnetic iron-sand at Taranaki. This sand may be regarded as almost pure iron, con- taining as it does about 95 per cent, of that metal ; the B3 10 THE APPLICATION OF IRON remainder consists of small proportions of various foreign substances, such as manganese, titanium, &c. This material is not largely used, on account of its con- dition rendering it awkward to manipulate. The ores or iron-stones, from which the iron of com- merce is mainly derived, contain the metal in the con- -lition of oxide or rust, associated with various metallic and earthy matters, which must be got rid of by metal- lurgical operations. The ores contain the iron in pro- portions varying from 70 per cent, down to 28 per cent. ; those poorer than the latter are not worked to extract their metal, though they are used as fluxes in the treat- ment of the richer minerals. The iron being found combined with oxygen, it is necessary to remove the latter in order to release the metal, and this is effected by the smelter in a process of reduction. The iron-stone is put into a blast-furnace in contact with carbon (as fuel), and a high temperature being maintained, the carbon combines with the oxygen of the oxide of iron, and the reduced metal melts and flows through the fuel to the bottom of the furnace. Besides the fuel and iron-stone, it is also necessary to put into the furnace certain materials to act as fluxes, which, becoming partially liquified, dissolve some of the foreign matters associated with the iron, retaining them in the form of slags. The theory of the action set up is sufficiently simple, but in practice the processes are somewhat more complex than might be imagined, hence it is advisable to explain the operations by which the iron is eliminated from its ores. As a general rule, a mixture of several different kinds of oro is used for smelting, because experience has thown that this process is then more easily and com- pletely carried out than if one kind of ore be employed TO BUILDING STRUCTURES. 11 alone. Such ores as contain carbonic acid, water, or sulphur must, previous to undergoing the smelting pro- cess, be roasted in suitable furnaces to expel those bodies which will pass off in the gaseous state under the influence of heat. The ores always contain a certain amount of impurities termed gangues, such as silica, clay, lime, phosphorus, manganese, &c. Silica espe- cially forms a principal ingredient in iron ores, and this will not melt, even when exposed to the greatest furnace heat, alone ; but it must be melted in order that the iron may flow out from its ores and be obtained as a coherent mass. This is effected by the addition of a flux, commonly lime, which, being a base, combines with the silicic acid ; a lime-glass is thus formed, and if loam and clay be also present, an alumina-glass, both of which, when combined, melt more easily than each separately, and flow off as slag. The combination of ores and fluxes ready for the smelter is called the mixture. Alternate layers of this mixture and of wood-charcoal or coke are thrown into the blast- furnace in suitable proportions, according to the quality of the mineral used. The top or mouth of the furnace serves both for charging the materials and for the escape of smoke ; it is thus at once a door and a chimney. In the upper part of the shaft the mixture is heated to redness, hence a roasting effect is produced ; during this process the carbonic acid of the limestone also escapes. Further down the carbon abstracts from the 'iron ore its oxygen, and escapes with it as carbonic oxide, which at the mouth, on coming into contact with the atmospheric air, is consumed, exhibiting a bright flame. In the boshes or lower part of the furnace, where the heat is most intense, the reduced iron melts and falls in 12 THE APPLICATION OF IRON drops upon the hearth, together with the silica, lime and clay ; these form a slag which floats on the melted iron, and is drawn off from time to time, as occasion may require. The molten iron is allowed at intervals to flow off through a hole in the side of the hearth. After having heated to 200 or more the air requisite for the combustion of the charcoal or coke, it is forced into the blast-furnace by a blowing-engine or other suitable apparatus, and a temperature of probably 2000, or 2600 Fahr., is obtained. In proportion as the melted iron and slag are removed from beneath, fresh charges of ore, lime and fuel are introduced at the top, and in this manner the smelting is often continued for five or six years, according as the furnace holds out. The following table shows the mate- rials used and the resulting products : MATERIALS. PRODUCTS. fa-on ore Oarburetted iron (cast-iron). Flux Carbonic oxide and carbonic acid (gases of com- bustion). Fuel Silicates of lime and alumina (slag). The siliceous slags from the blast-furnace usually have a green or blue colour, which is due to the oxides of iron and manganese dissolved in it whilst in a state of fusion ; it is frequently formed into square blocks, and used for building stones. The metal obtained by the above process is termed crude cast-iron ; it is by no means pure, but is che- mically combined with carbon, and also contains small proportions of other foreign bodies, such as silica, alumina, manganese, &c. A hundredweight of iron will take up at the hottest white heat from about four TO BUILDING STRUCTURES. 13 to five pounds of carbon, likewise some silicon from the silicic acid, and aluminum from the clay. Traces of sulphur, phosphorus, and arsenic are also sometimes present. As the molten crude iron flows from the hearth of the furnace, it is directed into a trough or channel formed in a bed of sand, from which other channels branch off on either side ; the iron cast in the main channel is termed the -sow, and that in the smaller ones the pig* t whence the term pig-iron. Of the two kinds of iron commonly known in com- merce, grey iron has a granular texture, and admits of being filed and bored with facility ; hence it is suitable for castings. White iron is of a silvery whiteness, and too hard to be worked with steel instruments, and is most suitable for the manufacture of malleable iron and steel. Crude white iron, by remelting and very slow cooling, is changed to grey, and, on the other hand, grey iron is changed to white by heating and then suddenly cooling it. Thus, by pouring molten metal into a cold mould it acquires a very hard surface, and presents what is termed a chilled casting. Castings may be locally chilled by forming the mould with means for cooling that part of the surface which corresponds with the portion of the casting required to be hard. Malleable iron is obtained from crude iron by de- priving it of its carbon, which is done by various pro- cesses of oxidation, such as the following : 1. The carbon is oxidised by the action of atmo- spheric air on the molten iron, which is kept stirred to expose new surfaces to its action whilst in a refinery 14 THE APPLICATION OF IRON or a puddling furnace. (The old method of pud- dling.) 2. Air is forced through the iron while in a state of fusion in a vessel termed a converter, through the bottom of which the air is blown. (Bessemer's method.) 3. Super-heated steam is forced through the molten metal, thus oxidising the carbon, and also removing sulphur and phosphorus as sulphuretted and phos- phoretted hydrogen. (Galy-Cazalat's method.) 4. The melted metal is acted on with certain salts, such as nitrate of soda, &c., by which the carbon is oxidised out. (Heaton's process.) In all these processes the carbon escapes as carbonic oxide or carbonic acid. The process invented by Galy- Cazalat has not yet been applied on a large scale in England, but in France it has been found to yield results eminently satisfactory, and it certainly is a very elegant process, both the constituent gases of the water which are evolved by its decomposition being rendered subservient to some useful purpose. The quality of malleable iron is improved by being well hammered and cut up, and again worked up in the forge, as by these means its quality is rendered more uniform and its texture more homogeneous ; thus scrap iron, that is old iron re-worked, is much esteemed for certain manufactures, such as for gun -barrels, &c., requiring great strength and soundness. Steel is iron containing a certain quantity of carbon, but not so much as is found in cast-iron ; it may be prepared in either of the two following ways : 1 . By keeping bars of wrought-iron at a temperature close upon the melting point in contact with powdered TO BUILDIXG STRUCTURES. 15 charcoal, access of air being prevented for a length of time, dependent on the size of the bars. This process is called cementation, and evidently the bars will be more carbonised on the exteriors than the centres ; hence, to obtain the steel uniform, the cemented bars must be cut up and re-wrought into bars or plates, as may be required. 2. By carrying the refining of crude iron to such, a point that there is sufficient carbon left in it to form steel, and then arresting the process. This method gives better results at a much reduced cost of pro- duction. Malleable iron, for general commercial purposes, is manufactured in the following forms : Bars. Round, square, flat, elliptical. Do. Angle, tee, and flanged, having sections L T and H, also half-H iron or channel iron bars. Plates. Of various sizes. Special forms frequently used, as railway-bars, sash- bars, deck-beams, rolled-girders, &c. The rolls in which the bars and plates are formed are adjustable, so that any required thickness may be obtained. In ordering iron of a manufacturer for any consi- derable work, it is usual, after the working drawings have been finally settled, to go carefully through them, and note the sizes of all the plates and bars required, then from these data the order list for the rolling-mills can be made out. Medium-sized bars will run up to 25 feet in length, and similar angle-iron bars up to 30 feet; but whea 16 THE APPLICATION OF IRON bars or plates exceed certain gross weights per plate or per bar, the price per ton is increased, otherwise the longer the bars the better, as reducing the number of joints in a structure. Some years back a method of plate-welding was intro- duced, to supersede rivetting, by Mr. Bertram, but it has not come largely into use, although it was found that joints thus made were equally strong with the rest of the plate when experimentally tried. Probably the practical difficulties in manipulation have militated against its adoption. CHAPTEE n. STRAINS ON STRUCTURES. THE strains which are brought to bear upon the different elements of structures are five in number, namely, ten- sion, compression, transverse or bending strain, shearing, and torsion or twisting strain. The two first are direct, and the third may be resolved into them. Shearing force tends to cut or shear off some portion of material, such for instance as the head of a rivet. Twisting strain does not often occur in the elements of structures, being more common in machinery, it may, however, be resolved into shearing force. A strain of a direct character may act upon an element lying in the same direction such is the stress produced by a load on a column or a weight hanging at the extremity of a chain or vertical suspending rod; but, on the other hand, the strain may not act in the direc- tion of the sustaining framework, being borne by two or more inclined bars. In such a case the intensity of TO BUILDING STKUCTURES. 17 the strain on the element will be different from that of the force to which it is due, and, moreover, in each element different from the proportion or share of force resisted thereby. Let a I in Fig. 1 represent an inclined bar forming part of a truss, or lattice girder, its lower end resting on the point of support or pier, b, and let this inclined bar sustain a weight or part of a weight, transmitting the load thus imposed upon it to the pier. Let this load, which passes through a b, be represented by the ball w. From the foot I of the in- clined bar draw the line b c, horizontal, then it will be at right angles to the vertical line a c. It is required to find the strain on the bar a b, due to the load w. Taking b as a starting point, the position of the extremity a will be described by giving the two measurements b c and c a. a is the point at which the load is applied, and evidently b c is its horizontal distance from the point b ; that is to say, its distance from b, measured only in a horizontal direction; and, in like manner, a c is the perpendicular distance, or height of the point a above the point b ; that is, c a is the distance from b, measured perpendicularly. The rule to find the strain on the inclined bar will be as follows : KULB (1). To find the strain, multiply the load by the length of the bar in feet, and divide the product by the " perpendicular distance " in feet.. The quotient will be the strain, which will be in pounds if the load is taken in pounds, or in tons if the load is taken in tons, 18 THE APPLICATION OF IRON Example. Let the weight be 2,500 Ibs., the length of the bar 20 feet, and the height or " perpendicular distance " 16 feet, then the rule should be thus worked : 2,500 Ibs. weight or load, 20 feet length of bar, 1 'Perpen. distance," 16 ) 50,000 ( 3, 125 Ibs.' strain on bar. 48 20 16 40 32 80" 80 Had the load been 25 tons, the working would be 25 tons' load, 20 feet length of bar, "Parpen. distance," 16 )50,000( 31-25 tons, or 31 tons 1 48 strain on bar, 20 16 ~4(T 32 80 80 This practical rule will serve in every case to determine the strain on a bar due to the force or load transmitted TO BUILDING STRUCTURES. 19 by it, no matter in what position such bar is placed, when the following quantities are given, viz., the amount of weight or force acting upon the bar, the length and position of the bar, and the direction of the force. To make the diagram, the bar is drawn in any convenient position, as a b, Fig. 1 ; a c is then drawn from the point of application, , of the force, and b e is drawn from the end b of the bar at right-angles to a c, so as to complete the right-angled triangle a b c, the " perpendicular distance" always lying in the direc- tion in which the force or load is acting upon the inclined bar. Having given the rule and exemplified its applica- tion, it is now necessary to show in what manner it is obtained ; we will, therefore, proceed to its demon- stration. In Fig. 2, let W be a weight at the extremity of a cord or rod, a W, which weight is supported by the two inclined bars, a b, a e, the load being suspended from apex a, and the lower ends resting on suitable abut- ments at b and c ; of course, a W will be vertical, and the supporting elements are assumed to be straight. It is required to determine the proportion of the load borne by each point of support and the strain upon each of the bars a b, a c. Let x and y represent the respective distances of the points of support b and c from the weight W, then, accord- Eig. 2. SO THE APPLICATION OF IRON ing to the principles of the lever, the load on b will be = W x y . x + y Here c is the fulcrum and b the point at which the pressure is given off, the former having a leverage y, the latter a leverage x + y. For simplicity, let x -f- y /, as I will be generally put for the span or clear dis- tance between the points of support in all kinds of structures, then the load on b = TFx *- and by a similar mode of reasoning the load on c, is found to be = W X T hence the loads on the points of support are inversely as the distances of the supports from the weight W. Next let the strains on a b, a c be determined. On the vertical line a W, and with any convenient scale of equal parts, mark off from a a distance a /, representing the intensity of the weight W t and from the point /draw the lines fd, fe, intersecting a b and a c in the points d and e, then, according to the doctrine of the parallelogram of forces, the strains will be represented on the scale of equal parts by the lengths a d and a e t a d being the strain on a b, and a e the strain on a c. aefd being a parallelogram the opposite sides are equal (Euc. Bk. 1, prop. 34), hence d f = a e but the suras of the strains caused by the weight W = a d -\- ae=.ad-\-df TO BUILDING STRUCTURES. 21 Thus it is seen that the sum of the strains produced by the weight W will be represented by the two sides a d, dfof the triangle dfa, but, because any two sides of a triangle are, together, greater than the third side (Euc. Bk. 1, prop. 20), a d, dfare, together, greatei than a f. But a f is equal to W, hence the sum of the strains due to the weight W are, together, greater than the intensity of such weight. Let, in the present case, the points of support b and c be in the same horizontal plane, and let h = the height of the point a above such plane, the same scale of equal parts being used for measurement throughout. From the points d and e let fall the perpendiculars d g, e k, upon af, fhenag and a k will represent the pro-, portions of the weight borne by the points of support b and c respectively. But the triangles a d g, a It e are similar to the triangles a j b, a j c, therefore, by the principles of similar triangles, ad a 1) a b a g a j h and a k a c a e a e a j h But a d has been shown to be equal to the strain on a b, due to the weight W t and a g = to the proportion of such weight carried through the bar a b on to the point of support b, and by previous reasoning this proportion was shown to be I 22 THE APPLICATION OF IRON hence, if S = the strain on a b, we have 8 = ad, and Wy _ I therefore, replacing the letters by these values, wo find, a d S a b W / ~ ^T~ a g I Let a I =. Z, the length of the bar under consideration, then S. I L_ W y ~ '' h wherefore W.y.L Th~ S = Fig. 3. This is one of the fundamental formulae for inclined bars of every kind under direct strain; hence it is necessary to set it very clearly forth, so that it may always be recalled to mind by a diagram, which is very easy to be remembered. In Pig. 3 let a b represent an element of framework inclined to the horizon, the position of its extremities being determined by the form of such framework, and let it be required to support a load or proportionate part of some load), = w it is required to find the d Jj strain on a b due to the load (^\ \ tf} J to. Prom the point a draw the vertical line a c t and from the point b draw the TO BUILDING STRTJCTTIIES. 23 horizontal line b d, intersecting the line a e in the point 0, then tc= Wy ab-L a e = h and the strain will therefore be from which is stated the rule for determining the strain on trussing due to a weight. The strain on the bar is equal to the load carried by it, multi- plied by the length of the bar and divided by the vertical height of its summit above its base. It does not, however, always happen that the load or force producing the strain acts in a vertical direction, hence it is necessary to have a general law applicable to all cases, and having regard to the direction of the force relatively to that of the bar upon which it brings a strain. Let the force w act upon a b in any direction a c, and from the point b let fall the perpendicular b e upon a c, then a e is the perpendicular distance between the point at which the force acts (a) and the abutment or point to which the force has to be transmitted (b). The for- mula remains the same as before, but the general rule will be, calling a e for brevity the " perpendicular dis- tance" to the bar a i, as follows : The strain on the bar is equal to the force acting on it, multiplied by the length of the bar and divided by its " perpendicular distance." This may be accepted as the universal rule by means of which the strain on any bar produced by a force acting at an angle to it may be determined, when the intensity of the force and the directions of the force and bar are known. 24 THE APPLICATION OF IBON Tliere is, however, one special case which requires separate consideration ; it is that in which the force is acting at right angles to the element, the strain upon which is required to be determined. In Eig. 4 let a I be a horizontal "bar forming part of a frame or truss, its duty being to fix the position of the upper end a of an in- clined bar, shown by the dotted T 1 * lines a e, and which inclined is bar has to transmit a load or ^' force, w, from the point, a, of its action to the pier c. It is required to determine the amount of strain upon the bar a b. This case will always apply where the bar receiving the strain is at right angles to the direction of the strain; and it may be here observed that the bar does not carry any load, but merely pre- serves the angular position of a c, hence the strain on a b will be ruled by the position of a c in relation to it and to the direction of the strain. Draw a d in the direction of the strain and draw from c the line c d parallel to a b, and therefore at right angles to a d, then e d will be the " horizontal distance," referred to in the description of Fig. 1. To find the strain on a b the rule is as follows : RULE (2). To find the strain on the horizontal bar (or "bar at right angles to the direction of the force), multiply the weight or load "by the "horizontal distance" in feet, and divide the product by the " perpendicular distance " in feet, the quotient will be the strain (in pounds or tons as the weight is taken in pounds or tons). TO BUILDING STRUCTURES. 25 The perpendicular distance (as in Fig. 1) is the mea- surement of a d. Example : Let the weight or load be 4,000 Ibs., the "horizontal distance" 4 feet, and the "perpendicular distance " 8 feet : 4000 Ibs.' weight or load, 4 ft. " horizontal distance, ' ' Perpendicular distance- 8)16000 2000 Ibs., strain on the hori- === zontal bar. Let the weight or load be 15 tons, the "horizontal distance" 5 feet, and the "perpendicular distance" 12-5 feet: 15 tons weight or load, 5 feet "horizontal distance," Perpendicular distance- 12-5)75-0(6 tons' strain on 75-0 horizontal bar. We will now proceed with the demonstration of this second or special rule. In Fig. 5 let a weight or force, W, be sustained by an inclined bar, a b, the extremity being retained in position by another element a c, which is at right angles to the direction a e, of the force. Proceed* ing as in the general case for a b, from b draw I. d at right angles to a e, and from the point d draw d /parallel to a, parallelogram of forces a b df, the side a in the d will 26 THE APPLICATION OF IRON represent the strain on the bar a c ; if the diagonal a d is taken as equal to the load or force, TF, put a d = h = " perpendicular distance " = P "b d = base of triangle = B then it is evident that the strain is found Lorn the formula, Thus the special or supplementary rule to find the strain produced by any given force upon the element at right angles to its direction will be as follows : The strain on the bar is equal to the force multiplied by the length of the perpendicular drawn from the foot of the inclined bar to the direction of the force, and divided by the " perpendicular distance " of the inclined bar. These two general rules, or rather, we would say, the general law and its supplement, furnish all that is required for the resolution of the strains on elements of structures of every description when the intensities and directions of the forces producing such strains are known ; hence the importance of becoming thoroughly conversant with them cannot be over-estimated in considering what is necessary and what is superfluous to the education of those who may be called upon to design structures in which trussing is used. The fundamental principles being seen, elaborate theories, which at first sight would, without this primary knowledge, be perplexing, become simple and easy ; and, moreover, the courses taken by the strains in their pas- sage from the point of application of the load to the foundations of the structure are more readily perceived. The direct force acting on any bar will necessarily TO BUILDING STRUCTURES. 27 Pig. 6. produce either tension or compression ; in the former case the bar acts as a tie, in the latter as a strut ; we must, therefore, proceed to consider the circumstances which determine the nature of a strain that is, whether it will be tensile or compressive. In Fig. 6 let a I represent a bar upon which a force is acting towards the abutment or point of support b, then the strain on a b will be a compressive strain, and a b will act as a strut. Let c d represent a bar on which a force acts in the direc- tion of the arrow at c, then the strain on c d will be in tension, and c d will act as a tie. Let e /, e g be two rafters sup- ported on abutments / and ^, and meeting at the point e. If a force act at e downwards, as shown by the arrow h, the rafters e /, eg will be in com- pression, but if the force act upwards, as shown by the arrow i, they will be in tension ; in the former case they will do duty as struts, in the latter as ties. For general guidance the following five rules may be laid down in order to prevent any confusion of ideas on this very important subject: RULES. 1. If a force act on a bar in a direction towards the point of support of the bar, the strain on the bar will be compressive, and the bar will be a strut. 2. If a force act on a bar in a direction away from the point of support of the bar, the strain on the bar will be tensile, and the bar will be a tie. 3. If a force is sustained by two bars, and acts between them c 2 28 THE APPLICATION OF IRON and towards their points of support, those bars act as struts and are in compression. 4. If a force is sustained by two bars, and its direction is from the points of support, but between the lines formed by producing the bars (as e k and/ /, Fig. 6), the strains are tensile, and the bars are ties. 5. If a force is sustained by two bars, and its direction lies between one bar and the prolongation of .the other (as bet ween f e and e k, Fig. 6), one bar will be in tension, the other in compres- sion, that bar being in compression towards the point of support of which the force is acting, and the other bar being in tension. If these rules be once thoroughly considered and under- stood, there canbe no subsequent difficulty in determining the nature of the strain on any part of a structure when the position of the load or force is known. Having given criteria for determining the nature of strains, and also the general and special rules for finding their intensities when produced by forces inclined to the elements which sustain them, we will now pass on to consider the results of loads producing transverse strain. Those elements which are subject to transverse strain may be classed under two heads : 1st. Cantilevers, which are supported at one end. 2nd. Beams or girders, which are supported at both ends. Let A , Fig. 7, represent a side view of a cantilever fixed at 7? to a wall or pier, the end view or cross section of this cantilever being shown at C, It consists of two flanges, e and /, united by a central web, g, this being the ordinary section of flanged girders and canti- TO BUILDING STRUCTURES. 29 levers. Let it be required to determine the strain on either flange at any point, d, the distance of which from the end A being known, as also the depth of the section. The strain on the top flango will be tensile, that on the bottom compressive. First find the strain due to a weight suspended from the end A of the cantilever. RULE (3). The strain is equal to the weight at the end of the cantilever multiplied by the distance of the point at which the strain is required, from the end of the cantilever in feet, and divided by the depth of cantilever in feet. The strain will be in terms of the same name as the weight. Example: Let the weight be 5 tons, the depth of the cantilever 1 foot 6 inches, and the distance of the point at which the strain is required from the free end 11 feet : 1 1 feet distance of point of strain, 5 tons' weight, cantilever } " 1>5 ) 55 '( 36 ' 66 tons ' strain on either flange. 45 100 90 10 This will be tensile on the top flange and compressive on the bottom. The geatest strain upon the flanges -will be at the end B of the cantilever, which is at a distance from the free end equal to the length of the cantilever. Let the length of the cantilever be 18 feet, the other quan- tities remaining as before, then the maximum strains 30 THE APPLICATION OF IRON on the flanges at the point of support will be thus found : 18 feet distance of point of strain, 5 tons' weight cantilever j ' 1 ' 5 ) 90 '( 60 tcms ' strain on eitlier flan S e - 90 Next, - let the strain be due to a weight or load uniformly distributed along the whole length of the cantilever, then we have RULE (4). The strain is equal to the weight per foot multiplied by the square of the distance of the point of strain in feet from the free end of the cantilever, and divided by twice the depth of cantilever in feet. The strain will be in terms of the same name as the weight. Let the distance of the point at which the strain is required from the free end of the cantilever be 7 feet, the depth of the cantilever 1 foot 3 inches, and the load 1,500 Tos. per lineal foot of length of cantilever : 7 feet distance of point of strain, 7 ditto ditto 49 square of distance of point of strain, 1500 Ibs.' weight per foot. Hepth of cantilever - 1-25 2 4500 2 49 2-5 ) 73500-0 ( 29400 Ibs. strain 50 on either flange. 235 JS25 ^100 100 o-o TO BUILDIXO STHUCTURES. 31 As in the last case, the maximum strain occurs at that point where the distance is equal to the whole length of the girder, which occurs at the point of support. It sometimes happens that a cantilever has to carry both descriptions of load at once that is, both a load at the free extremity and a load uniformly distributed over its entire length. In this case, calculate the strains produced by each load separately, and add them together for the total strain on the flange. The demonstration of the rules given above is as follows i- Let A B, Fig. 8, repr^ent a cantilever fixed at the end in a wall, and free at the other end, and sup- porting at its free end a weight W. Let I total *.!c *< length of cantilever from its | free end to its point of fix- ture, and d = depth of canti- D | lever. It is required to find the strain at any point, n, in s (say) the top flange, distant R | x from the point A. We may regard the part of ^ the cantilever A m n as a bent lever in equilibria, m being the fulcrum, the weight acting at the extremity A of the arm A m, and the re- sistance of the flange acting at the end n of the arm n m. That equilibrium may be maintained the resist- ance of the flange must be equal to the strain to which it is subjected ; hence let S = this strain, then, by the principles of the lover, S x m n = W x A m but, m n = d and A m =*- x C 32 THE APPLICATION Oi 1 IH02J wherefore, S . d = Wx and By putting which equation into words is obtained the practical rule (as above) following : RULE. The strain is equal to the weight at the end of the canti- lever multiplied by the distance of the point at which the strain is required from the end of the cantilever in feet, and divided by the depth of the cantilever in feet. To ascertain the formula for the maximum strain, make the distance of the point of strain equal to the length of the cantilever, then wherefore, replacing x in the above equation, There is no strain at the free end A, for if x = o, S = x o = o Next, let C D (Fig. 8) illustrate a cantilever loaded with a weight uniformly distributed over its length. It is required to find the strain 011 (say) the top flange at the point n, distant x from the free end C. Let I = length of cantilever d= depth of ,, w = load per lineal unit. The weight acting to produce a strain at n will be that TO BUILDING STRUCTURES. 33 lying between n and 0, the total weight of which evi- dently is = W X but this may be considered as collected at its centre of gravity, which is situated midway between m and C ; hence, regarding C m n as a bent lever, we have the weight w x acting in the centre of the arm C m, pro- ducing a strain at the end of the arm m n on the flange at n, hence, by the laws of the lever, calling S = strain on flange, C m w x X = o X m n but, C m =. x and m n d wherefore, Q , w o a = - and 2 d from which formula is obtained the practical rule : RULE. The strain is equal to the weight per foot multiplied by the square of the distance of the point of strain in feet from the free end of the cantilever, and divided by twice the depth of cantilever in feet. For the maximum strain at the point of support, putting x = I, we have wl* 8 = ^T The next cases of transverse strain to be dealt with c3 34 THE APPLICATION OF IKON are those referring to beams supported at botli ends and loaded between the points of support. There will be three cases for consideration, ae follows : 1st. A beam loaded in the ,-,. centre of its span, as at ' " A B. 2nd. A beam loaded at a JA. point not central, as at C D. 3rd. A beam having the load uniformly distributed over its length, as at E F, In the first and third cases the maximum strain on either flange is at the centre of the span, but in the second it is immediately under the load, wherever that may be. We shall deal with the first case first. RULE (5). To find the strain on either flange at the centre multiply the weight by the span (or distance between points of sup- port), and divide the product by four times the depth of the beam. The strain will be in terms of the same name as the weight. Example : Let the weight be 7-5 tons, the span of the beam 12 feet, and its depth 1 foot 3 inches. Depth of beam - 1'25 7-5 tons weight, 4 12 feet span, ) 90- 18 tons' strain on either flange at centre . To determine the strain at ary other point than the TO BUILDING STRUCTURES. 35 centre on either flange, we must proceed as fol- lows : HULE (6). To find the strain on either flange at any point, due to a central load, multiply the load by the distance of such point from the nearest pier or point of support, and divide by twice the depth of the beam. The strain will be in terms of the same name as the weight. Retaining the notations of the last case, let it be required to determine the strain at a distance of 4 feet from one of the piers. Depth of beam 1*25 7* 5 tons, 2 4 ft. distance of point, 2-5 ) 30-0 ( 12 tons' strain on 25 either flange. 50 50 Beams supported at each end and loaded between the points of support, have their top flanges in compression and their lower flanges in tension, this being just the reverse of what is observed in the case of a cantilever fixed at one end and free at the other. Proceeding to the second case, it is required to deter- mine the strain on either flange at a point immediately under the weight or load W. RULE (7). To find the strain on either flange under the load, mul- tiply the load by its distance in feet from the farthest pier (C], multiply the product by its distance in feet from the nearest pier, and divide this product by the span of the beam in feet and by its depth in feet. The strain will be in terms of the same name as the load. Example: Let the span of the beam be 10 feet, its depth 1 foot 6 inches, the load 4 tons, and let the load 00 THE APPLICATION OF IEON be placed 3 feet from the nearest point of support, then will it be 7 feet from the farthest pier. 4 tons' load 7 feet distance from pier C, Span of beam- 10 28 Depth of beam 1-5 3 feet distance from 2), 15 )84( 5 A tons' strain on either 75 flange. 9 It is next required to find in this second case the strain at any point not immediately under the load, such as at c. RULE (8). To find the strain at any point on either flange, such point lying between the weight and one pier, multiply the weight by its distance from the other pier in feet, multiply the product by the distance of the point of strain in feet from that pier which is on the opposite side of it to that occupied by the weight, and divide this product by the span of the beam in feet and by its depth in feet. The strain will be in terms of the same name as the load. Example : Retaining the notations above, let the strain be required at a point distant 4 feet from the pier farthest from the weight. 4 tons' weight, 3 feet distance from pier, Span of beam- - 10 12 [opposite pier, Depth of beam - 1-5 4 feet distance of point from 15 )48( 3J tons' strain on either 45 flange. B TO BUILDING STRUCTURES. 87 In the third case the load is uniformly distributed over the girder or beam E F. To find the strain in the centre we have RULE (9). To find the strain on either flange at the centre, mul- tiply the total load on the beam by the span of beam in feet, and divide the product by eight times the depth of the beam in feet. The strain will be in terms of the same name as the load. Example : Let the span of the beam be 50 feet, the total distributed load 75 tons, and the depth of the beam 4 feet. Depth of beam- 4 75 tons total load, 8 50 feet span of beam, 32 )3750( 117 f s tons' strain on 32 either flange at centre. 32 230 224 6 Now let it be required to determine the strain under an uniformly distributed load at any other point. RULE (10). To find the strain on either flange at any point, mul- tiply the span of the girder in feet by the distance in feet of the nearest point of support ; from the product subtract the square of the distance in feet of the nearest support, and mul- tiply the remainder by the load per foot, and divide by twice the depth of the beam in feet. The strain will be in terms of the same name as the load. "With the previous notations, let it be required to determine the strain on either flange at a point distant 88 THE APPLICATION OF IRON 12 feet from the nearest pier. As the total load is 75 tons, and this load is uniformly distributed over a distance of 50 feet span, it follows that the load per lineal foot will be 1 '5 tons ; from this we can obtain the required strain. 12 ft. distance of nearest pier, 50 span, 12 ft. ,, 12 feet distance of "HTsquareof dist. ~600~ [nearest pier, 144 square of dist. of 45g [nearest pier, 1-5 tons' load per ft., Depth of beam - 4 2280 2 456 8 )G84-0 85-5 tons' strain on either flange. If a girder supported at both ends, subject to two or more loads differently arranged, let the effect of each load on any point at which the strain is required be separately determined, and then those effects added together to find the total strain on the flange ; then the foregoing rules will serve to solve any case that may arise. These practical rules, however, we must now proceed to demonstrate. In the first case we have a beam loaded in the centre with a weight W. Let, in all three cases, I = span and d = depth of beam, and S = the strain on the flange. Because W, the weight, is situated at equal dis- tances between the points of support A and B, each TO BUILDING STRUCTURES. 89 pier \vill sustain one-half of the weight; but as action and reaction must be equal and opposite, in order to satisfy the condition of equilibrium, each pier must react upwards in the direction of the arrow, with a force equal to the pressure upon it, hence the reaction of the pier will be D w ~2~ Let the strain be required JM ^b-^fly on the flange at the point n, Jr distant x from the pier A, then, regarding A m' n' as a bent lever, we find the reaction at the end of the arm A m' exerting a strain at the end n of the arm m n hence 8 X m' n = x A m but, m' n d and A m' = x wherefore, 2 and 8 whence is derived the practical rule, thus : RULE. To find the strain on either flange at any point due to the central load, multiply the load by the distance of such point from the nearest pier or point of support, and divide by twice the depth of the beam. 40 THE APPLICATION OF IRON In order to ascertain the strain at the centre of the span on either flange from the above formula, make then we find Wl S = 4 d giving the following rule : RULE. To find the strain on either flange at the centre, multiply weight by the span (or distance between points of support), and divide the product by four times the depth of the beam. In treating analytically the second case C D, let it be required to determine the strain on either flange at any point n distant x from the pier (7, the weight W being distant y from the pier D. The reaction of the pier C must first be determined ; it will be equal to the weight upon it. Regarding C D as a lever on which the force is applied at W, the fulcrum being at D, the weight on C will be W.y I and this will represent the amount of reaction which, acting at the extremity C of the imaginary bent lever Cm n', produces a strain at n on the flange ; we have, therefore, 8 X m' n' = - x Cm t but, m' n' = d and C m = x TO BUILDING STRUCTURES. 41 wherefore, s.d= Y and tie-bar. 66 THE APPLICATION OF IRON Proceeding to the primary truss, the load on the strut d g is composed of three quantities, the load acting simply at d, and the portions of the loads transmitted from c and e, through the bars / d and d h, being half of each of these loads, hence on d g we have 6000 Ibs.' load at d, 8000 Ibs ' from c, 3000 Ibs.' e, 12000 total load. From this the strains on g a, g b, due to the load at d g, are found, half the load, or 6,000 Ibs., being on each. 6000 Ibs.' load, 33 ft. length of bar, Perpendicular distance - 8)198000 24750 Ibs.' strain on bare 1 g a and g I. This will be the amount of strain on the parts g f and g h of the bars g a, and g b, but the parts /, k b will, in addition, have the strains due to the loads on c and ^ hence the total strain will be 12375 Ibs. from load c, 24750 Ibs. on ,, d g, 37125 total tension on fa or h b. It now remains to determine the thrust on the horizontal member a b ; it will be the sum of the thrusts brought upon it by the load on c f acting through a /, and on d g acting through g a. TO BUILDING STEUCTURES. 57 The load transmitted through a f is 3000 Ibs. ; hence, by Eule (2), 3000 Ibs/ load, 16 feet " horizontal Perpendicular distance- - 4 ) 48000 [distance." 12000 Ibs.' thrust due to = load on a/. The load transmitted through g a is 6000 Ibs., hence 6000 Ibs.' load, Perpendicular 32 feet " horizontal distance." distance- - - 8 ) 192000 24000 Ibs.' thrust due to loadon^/, 12000 Ibs.' /. 36000 Ibs.' total thrust on a b. Frequently two inclined trusses are put together to form a main principal for a roof, a half principal thus formed is shown in Fig. 16. A b d is a simple truss placed at an angle to the horizon, and at F & IQ ' the point J, meet- ing another similar truss (not shown), which completes the roof principal, the two trusses are pre- vented from separating under the load by the tie-bar d is usually attached, the whole being connected with the arch by the vertical suspension-rods C d, e f, &c. The diagonal bracing is interposed to give increased steadi- ness, and hinder any slight distortion of the arch which might occur. It is important thoroughly to understand the duties of the different elements of the bowstring girder, so that it may in no way be confounded with a trussed or lattice girder. In point of fact it is not, strictly speaking, a girder at all, but a tied arch ; that is, an arch of which the abutments are united by a tie, instead of being otherwise enabled to resist the thrust thrown upon them by the arch. The load comes upon the arch through the suspen- sion-rods, at the lower ends of which, /, h t d, the weights are suspended, and these rods have no other duty to perform. Their lower ends are kept in position by attachments connecting them with the chord. The arch may be regarded and treated as an arch uni- formly loaded. The chord or tie A B is in ten- sion, and the amount of strain upon it is equal to that at the crown of the arch, and the tension on the chord is the same throughout. Hence it may be found thus : RULE. To find the tension on the chord of a bowstring or tied arch in tons, multiply the total load on the arch in tons Ly its span, and divide the product by eight times the rise or versine of the arch, the quotient is the required strain in tons. Example. Let the total load be HO tons, the TO BUILDING STRUCTURES. 79 span of the arch 83 feet, and its rise or versine 7 feet: 1 40 tons' total load, 83 feet span of arch, Eise of arch, 7 420 8 1120 23. 56 ) 11620(207-5 tons' tension on chord. 112 ~~420 392 280 280 In two or three instances arches and chains have been combined together in the general form shown in Fig. 23, and in one case for so large a clear span as 445 feet. We allude to the late Mr. Brunei's magnificent bridge at Saltash, of which the two main spans are designed on this prin- ciple : A c B is the arch, and A d B the chain, which are connected together at each extremity in such a way that the thrust of the arch equi- poises and is equipoised by the pull of the chain. e f is the roadway, which is suspended from the arch and chain by the rods c g, h i, &c., so that the chain carries one half of the load and the arch the other, under which circumstances the thrust and pull at the piers A B will be equal. The suspension-rods have no duty to perform beyond 80 THE APPLICATION OF IRON transmitting the load on the roadway to the sustaining members, and the diagonal bracing between the suspen- sion-rods tends to check vibration. In calculating the strains on these combined elements it is only necessary to assign one half of the load to the arch and the other half to the chain, and proceed as usual by means of the RULES (17) and (18). Between the suspension-rods the roadway is carried by any con- venient description of light, straight girder. This mode of construction may at first sight appear heavy and complicated, but in reality it is not so, but, on the con- trary, forms a light and elegant structure. Amongst other buildings in metal which the engineer is called upon to design are included lighthouses. These may be conveniently formed of columns of iron braced together laterally and diagonally to enable them to re- sist the force of the winds and waves ; but in the present chapter they need no notice, as sufficient information has already been given to show how, in any case of combined elements, the loads may be apportioned and the strains arising from them calculated, and to enter into special consideration of the great variety of systems which are proposed, would occupy far more space than can be with propriety devoted to this subject. In concluding this chapter we would strongly urge upon our readers, but more especially upon those entering on the profession, to thoroughly master those rules which have been set forth, and upon which our future calculations are based, for in the comprehension of the principles from which they are derived consists the knowledge of the fundamental doctrines upon which that branch of engineering to which the present volume is devoted depends, and these doctrines, once understood, will not readily be forgotten TO BUILDING STRUCTURES. 81 CHAPTER IV. TOINTS AND CONNECTIONS. UNDER the head of "Joints and Connections" are included an almost innumerable variety of methods of uniting the various elements of which structures are built up; and it not unfrequently occurs that the greatest amount of study and care devoted to the designing of any work must be expended in determining the best arrangement of the joints, and from the mode adopted the practical ability [of the designer may gene- rally be estimated. It is comparatively easy to learn to calculate the right dimensions of the various elements of any combina- tion; but to unite them in such a manner that, whilst the strength is not impaired, the appearance shall not be injured, requires a certain amount of that kind of knowledge known as " tact," and without it one can scarcely expect to become a neat designer. Many things may be copied from previous examples, or modi- fied from them in such a manner as to suit an emer- gency ; but joints most frequently cannot be copied. Of course we are not speaking of simple rivetted or bolted joints, by means of which two or three thicknesses of plates or bars are held together ; we- refer to such more complex joints as occur in some kinds of lattice girders, and also in the connection of a number of girders with one column, and .others cf a similar nature. We cannot well illustrate the importance of correctly arranging the joints of girders used in sustaining buildings E 3 82 T1IE APPLICATION OF IKON more strikingly than by inference to a catastrophe which occurred on the 6th of December, 1869, in the dining-hall of King's College, London. The dining-hall was 70 feet long by 26 feet wide, and its floor and roof were supported by cast-iron girders put down about thirty- five years since. Lengthwise of the apartment three pairs of piers, 3 feet deep and 1 foot 9 inches wide, sup- ported three cast-iron cross girders. Longitudinal girders rested upon these and upon the end walls, so that the roof was divided into sixteen bays of brick arches, carrying superstrata of tiles, concrete, and earth covered with turf, the whole being about 2 feet in thick- ness. Each cross girder had a top flange 3^ inches wide by 2 inches deep (a not only useless but positively destructive addition, but of the general design we shall not speak, as here we are treating of joints only), an upright web, and a bottom flange ; the longitudinal girders had bottom flanges and upright webs. Where, however, the longitudinal girders rested on the trans- verse girders where the greatest amount of strength was requisite the top flange was omitted, evidently for the purpose of more conveniently dropping in the ends of the longitudinal girders; hence, whatever strength would have been given by the upper flange otherwise was by this arrangement lost, so that the whole weight of that top flange was an additional load upon the web and lower flange of the girder. A pair of vertical snugs were also in each case cast at this point, inclining in- wards so as to form a recess to receive the butt-end of the longitudinal girder. The effect of such snugs on the castings would be to weaken them still further by affecting them in the cooling in the weakest part. It maybe argued in reply to these remarks that the girders would not Lave stood thirty-five years had they not had TO BUILDING STRUCTURES. 88 sufficient strength for the end to which they were designed; but, be it remarked, so soon as an extra strain was put upon these girders by the settlement of some cf the masonry, they immediately gave way, breaking at the joint in each case, that is, fracturing across the recess or pocket, thus showing that through- out the girders the joints were the weakest places ; and the maxim to be followed and made a. rule, never to be swerved from, is : In any structure the joints should be at least as strong as the solid parts of the work, and if a little stronger so much the better, as they are liable to special defects, such as arise from unequal bearing, &c. It now devolves upon us to show how these joints should be forme** , but in the first instance we would make a few remarks as to the proper shape of the girders themselves. Cast-iron having a much greater resistance to com- pression than to tension, it follows that girders made of that material require either no top flange or else one small in proportion to the bottom flange, say in the ratio of 1 to 5 for sectional area. We shall purposely as- sume the girder to have a top flange, for otherwise the mat- ter would be simple enough, as abolishing the whole top flange would leave the joints in the same state as in the above case, excepting as far as the recesses are concerned ; hence, the cross girders will be assumed of the section shown in Fig. 24, though we do not in this place enter upon details as to the section required to sustain any particular load, a shows the Fig. 24. - a THE APPLICATION OF IRON top and b the bottom flange, the web being between them and connecting them together ; c, c, are the ends of the longitudinal girders as seen in situ. The sides d, laterally holding the longitudinal girders, should be of the same thickness as the web, so as to cool in the same time and so avoid straining from unequal contraction in cooling when cast. It is, however, necessary for steadi- ness that there should be something for the ends of the longitudinal girders to butt against, and it would not be proper to make the thickness of the web between the cheeks d equal to the breadth of the top flange, as then the web at that place would, when cast, be slower in cooling ; but the matter might be arranged in either of the ways shown in Fig. 25. ^ 25 < Both views show the trans- verse girder in horizontal sec- tion and the longitudinal girders in plan. It will be observed that in the longitu- dinal girders the top web is expanded at the ends so as to be equal there in width to the bottom flange. In the first arrangement a is the transverse girder, and between the cheeks are cast small fillets for the ends I b of the longitudinal girders to butt against; in the second the web divides into two, as shown, to give butments for d d. In the latter instance the core must be left in the cavity formed, as the space between the divisions of the web must not be carried through either flange. In both instances it will be observed the integrity of the top flange is not interfered with, hence the transverse girder maintains its strength unimpaired all through its length. c i d i c? f ( I TO BUILDING STRUCTURES. 35 Having mentioned the above disaster and pointed out its cause as an evidence of the importance of care being taken in the proportioning of joints, we will return to the more systematic treatment of our subject. We will, in the first place, consider the question as relates to rivets and bolts. The strains on bolts or rivets are of two sorts, tensile and shearing, sometimes shearing strain only being upon them, and sometimes both strains. If there is a tensile pull in the direction of the length of the bolt or rivet, its sectional area must be proportioned to bear such pull according to the quality of the metal of which it is made (commonly five tons per square inch is allowed as a safe load), and if the tendency of the strain is to shear the bolts or rivets asunder the areas must be similary pro- portioned (four tons per square inch may be allowed as safe for shearing strain). RULE. To find the sectional area of a rivet or bolt in square inches, multiply the square of its diameter by 0-785. Example. What is the area of a rivet f inch in diameter ? 0-75 inch in diameter, 075 5-625 square of diameter, 0-785 28125 45000 39375 441-5625 square inch area of rivet or bolt (say 0-44). 80 THE APPLICATION OF IRON Let it be required to determine the number of f -inch bolts required to sustain a force of twenty-seven tons, safe load being five tons per inch tension : 0'44 square inch area of bolt, 5 tons per inch, 2-20 strength of one bolt. Tons' load. 2-2) 27-0 (12-2, that is, 13 bolts 22 44 60 44 How many f rivets will be required to resist a shear- ing strain of fifty tons at a strain of four tons per square inch area ? 0-44 square inch area of rivets, 4 1*76 strength of one rivet. Tons' load. 1-76 )50-00( 28-4, that is, 29 rivets. 352 1480 1408 720 704 TO BUILDING STRUCTURES. 87 The heads of bolts should never be of a thick- ness less than 5-16 of their diameters, nor should tho nuts be less than double this, or f of their dia- meters. Let A, Fig. 26, represent one end of a bar forming part of the chain of a suspension bridge, or of the bottom member of a lattice girder, and in the end let there be a hole through which to pass a bolt, in order to connect it '^ with the other bars. It is [~o ~3* ] very evident that the bolt- hole weakens this bar by as much as it reduces its sec- tional area, which, supposing it to be of uniform thickness, ^ , r~i *> ^ will be reduced in the same t j - I ^ ratio as the width of the bar. _E We will take an example, in order to make the matter clear, the bar being supposed to be, when in position between two others, as shown in plan A', being the bar with which we are dealing, which is held between two other bars, D and E. Let the bar A be 12 feet long from end to end (when not otherwise stated the lengths are taken from centre to centre of the bolt-holes), 10 inches in width, and f -inch in thickness First, let us ascertain the weight of this bar. A piece of wrought- iron of 1 inch sectional area, 1 foot in length, weighs 3% Ibs., hence to find the weight of a bar of iron we have the following rule : RULE. To find the weight of a rectangular bar of iron, multiply its length in feet by its breadth in inches, and by its thickness in inches, and by 10, and divide the product by 5. The quotient will be the weight of the bar in pounds. 88 THE APPLICATION OF IKON The weight of the above bar is thus found : 12 feet length of bar, 10 inches breadth of bar, 120 75 inch thickness of bar, 90-00 10 multiplier, Divisor - 3)900-00 300- Ibs. weight of bar. Next must be ascertained the size of the pin or bolt which shall be of equal strength with the bar, and we shall assume that it is made of material which will safely carry a shearing strain of 5 tons to the square inch of sectional area, hence as the iron of the bar is assumed to be capable of sustaining the same strain per square inch in tension, the area to be sheared in fracture must not be less than the sectional area of the bar itself; the latter is 10 inches breadth of bar, 75 inch thickness of bar, 7-50 square inches sectional area. A glance at the plan A' D E shows that for the bar A 1 to be pulled away from the two bars D and JE the pin or bolt connecting them must be sheared through in two sections, hence the sectional area of the pin must be not less than one half the sectional area of the bar, and as the latter is 7-5 square inches the former will be 3'75 TO BUILDING STRUCTURES. 89 square inches. To find the diameter corresponding to this area we have this rule : RULE. To find the diameter in inches of a bolt to give any area it* square inches, divide such area by 0.78,5, and extract the square root of the quotient. 785)3,750(4-7770, &c. 3140 6100 5495 We have now to extract the square root of the quotient, 4-7770, which is carried to a sufficient number of decimal points for our present purpose. 2)4-7770(2-18 inches, (say) 2 inches 4 [diameter of bolt. 41) 77~~ 41 428)3670 3424 246 The bolt-hole then would be 2 inches in diameter, hence the width of the bar A would require to be in- creased by 2^ inches in order that its full strength may be retained ; the weight of the bar will of course be in- 90 THE APPLICATION OF IKON creased in proportion, that is, in the ratio of 2 to 10 ; let us see how much per cent, this will add to the weight of the chain : 10)225-00 22-5 per cent. This loss of metal in the chains is not, however, the only one which occurs through this form of bar, for the chains being 22 -5 per cent, heavier than they need be, necessitates the giving of increased strength to some other parts of the structure which have to sustain the weight of the chains. In order to avoid this loss, a form of link swelled at the end, as shown at , has been adopted, and should in every case be applied when the weight of the links is at all considerable. The breadth of the link, measured across the eye in the direction of the dotted line, should be slightly in excess of the breadth of the body of the bar, added to the diameter of the bolt-hole. The amount of metal beyond the bolt-hole at a must be sufficient to afford area enough to resist the shearing strain caused by the tendency of the bolt to push out the piece of metal beyond it ; therefore, measured from the edge of the hole along the dotted line to a, the dis- tance should not be less than one and a half times the diameter of the bolt. Wherever it is necessary to weld links the greatest care must be taken that the weld is sound, as an internal flaw does not admit of easy de- tection when the work is finished, for although a method has recently been discovered of detecting defects by means of a magnetic needle, yet, as far as we can TO BUILDING STRUCTURES. 91 ascertain, it has not yet found its way into the work- shop. Fig. 27 represents two methods of attaching an up- right bar or standard to a horizontal flange. A and B are the upright bars, or rather the extremities of them, and C, D, represent the horizontal flanges. Both the upright and horizontal bars are supposed to be in tension, hence it is important not to weaken the section of either by rivet holes more than is absolutely necessary. Let the number of rivets required be eight, then in the arrangement shown by A and C it will be observed that no section of C has more than two rivet holes in it, but two sections of A, taken on the line of rivets, have each four rivet holes in them. If, how- ever, the arrangement shown at E and D be adopted, neither of the bars will have more than two rivet holes in any one section. But care must be taken that any section taken zig-zag across the bar from centre to centre of rivet holes, less the rivet holes through which it passes, shall not be smaller than the cross section of the bar less two rivet holes, because as a matter of course the bar will break in its weakest part ; and if the effective zig-zag section be less than the effective transverse section, the former will be the measure of the strength of the bar. It is a common practice in setting out girder work to make the total sectional area of the rivets equal to the sectional area of the plates when the strain actually comes upon the rivets, as it does in^ali-JGittts under UNIVERSITl xV\ 92 THE APPLICATION OF IRON tension, and in some under compression, we shall there- fore take a few examples by way of illustration. As rivets f inch in diameter are very generally used for light and moderately heavy girders, we shall in each case assume that as the adopted size. Lap joints are those in which one end of one plate overlaps that of the other simply. Butt joints are those in which the ends of the plates are placed against each other (or butted together), the ends of the two plates being covered either with one cover plate or with two, one being on each side. Let it be required 'to determine the number off-inch rivets to make a lap joint between two bars 11 inches wide and f -inch thick, the rivets being placed in two longitudinal rows. First, the effective sectional area of the bar must be found. RULE. To find the effective sectional area of a bar on any line of rivets under tension, multiply the diameter of the rivets in inches by the number of rivets in the section ; deduct the product from the width of the bar in inches, multiply the re- mainder by the thickness of the bar in inches, and the product will be the effective area of the bar in square inches. Applying this to the above case we have 75 inch diameter of rivet, 2 number of rivet, 1-50 .... (a) 11-00 inches width of bar, 1.50 . . . . (a) 9-50 75 inches thickness of bar, 4750 6650 7*1250 square inches effective area of bar. TO BUILDING STRUCTURES. 93 And to this effective area of the bar the sum of the rivets' areas must be made equal, the number of rivets will be found by dividing the above area by the area of one rivet. The sectional area of a f -inch rivet is '44 square inches 44)7-125(16 44 272 264 Thus we see somewhat more than 16 rivets will be required ; hence, as the rivets go in pairs, there being two rows of them, not less than 18 rivets will answer the required purpose, that will be 9 rivets in each row ; so that if the rivets have a "pitch " or distance apart from centre to centre of 3 inches, and at each end of the joint a lap or distance from the last rivet centre to the end of the plate of 1 inches be allowed, the total length of the joint will be 9 rivets in length, 3 inches' pitch, 27 inches length of joint, For another example of a lap joint let the plates be 30 inches wide and 1^ inch thick (in one or two thick- nesses), let the number of rows of rivets be six, and the pitch of rivets 4 inches, then we have 75 inch diameter of rivet, 6 number of rivets, 4*^50 . . . (a) 94 THE APPLICATION OF IRON 30-0 inches width of bar, 4-5 ... (a) 25-5 1-128 28 7640 square inches effective sectional area of plate. To find the number of rivets requisite we have 44 ) 28-764 ( 65 2G4 236 220 JL64 Tims rather more than 65 rivets, that is to say, 66 rivets, will be required to make the joint, and as there are six rows of rivets, this will give 11 rivets in each row. The pitch of the rivets being 4 inches, the length of the joint (allowing at each end half a pitch for lap) will be 44 inches, or 3 feet 8 inches. If, instead of being a lap joint, the plates were butted with one cover plate, then it is evident that the strain has to pass first from one main plate on to the cover plate, and then from the cover plate on to the other main plate, thus virtually making two joints of it, hence, in this case, twice the number of rivets will be required. If, however, two cover plates be used, one on each side of the main plates, then each rivet presents two sections to be sheared before failure can take place; TO BUILDING STRUCTURES. 95 hence, a butt joint, in tension with, two cover plates, requires the same number of rivets to hold it as a single lap joint, the dimensions and other particulars being the same. In butt joints in compression, if truly made, there should be no shearing strain on the rivets, as the pressure passes from the end of one plate to that of the one against which it is butted ; hence, the only duty the rivets have to perform is to hold the ends of the plates opposite to each other. In this case it is evident that very short cover plates will suffice for butt joints in compression, nor is any deduction to be made for the loss by rivet holes, for the rivets filling the holes the thrust or compressive strain will be transmitted through the bodies of the rivets the same as through the solid plate. In determing the length of rivets required for any joint two matters have to be taken into consideration, the thickness of metal through which the rivets have to pass, and the amount of length of rivet necessary to make that head which is completed in the act of rivetting up the joint. The first is the sum of all the thicknesses of metal through, which the rivet has to pass, the second is generally provided for by allowing an extra length, equal to one and a "half times the diameter of the rivet. The length, of the rivet is measured from under the head to the point. If it is required, therefore, to determine the length of f-inch rivets necessary to unite three thicknesses of metal being respectively ^-inch, f : inch, and f-inch, the sum of these three thicknesses will be If inches, and one and a half times the diameter, f -inch, will be 1 inch ; hence, the total length of the rivet will be If inches added to 1 inches, making altogether a length of 3 inches. 9(5 THE APPLICATION OF IRON This is applicable when the number of plates to be joined together is but small, but when a larger number are to be connected an allowance must be made for their not lying perfectly iU'c and close together, the following will then be a safe rule: RULE. To find the length of rivets in inches, measured from under the head to the point, to hold together a number of plates of iron, add together the thicknesses in inches of all the plates, to this add 1-32 part of the number of the plates and one-and- a-half times the diameter of the rivet in inches. Example. Let it be required to find the length of rivets 1 inch in diameter necessary to hold together six wrought-iron plates, of which three are f-inch and three f-inch in thickness : 75 inch thickness, 3 2-25 inch thickness of three f-inch plates, 625 inch thickness, 3 1-875 inch thickness of three f-in. plates. The number of plates is 6, hence we must find 1-32 part of 6, 82)6-00(0-1875 . . (a) 32 280 256 240 224 160 160 TO BUILDING STRUCTURES. 97 And, finally, one and a half times the diameter of rivet (1 inch is 1'5) inch. Adding all these quantities together we arrive at the required length of the rivets : 2 '25 inches' thickness of three f-inch plates, 1-875 inches' thickness of three f-inch plates, 1875 ... (0) 1-5000 inches' length of 1 diameters, 5*8125 inches' total length of rivets. Practically, this length would be taken as 5 inches, decimal measurement only being used in calculation. Where cover plates are used to joints they must, of course, be equally strong with the main plates, as they have to convey the whole strain from one plate to another ; hence, assuming the widths of the cover plates to be the same as that of the main plates For a single cover the thickness must equal thickness of main plate. For two covers the thickness of each must equal half the thickness of main plate. We must now pass on to speak of joint plates. These are plates introduced to unite elements where they can- not conveniently be united directly that is, one to the other ; in fact, joint plates serve as cover plates, but are very frequently of irregular forms, to suit the nature of the work for which they are designed. In Fig. 28 is shown a joint plate for enabling a standard or upright to bo joined to the flange of a girder. A B is the horizontal member or flange, D the standard, and C the joint plate. The joint plate, which ' 3 wide at the bottom, is rivetted on to the F 98 THE APPLICATION OF IRON Fig. 28. angle iron, or rather it should be between the two angle irons of the flange, and D the upright is rivetted, as shown, on to the upper part of the joint plate, which tapers down in width until it is at its top the same width as the piece D ; if the latter consists of two bars one will be placed on each side of the joint plate, and all three will then be rivetted together in the manner shown. In this case, if the element D had been rivetted direct on to the angle iron without the intervention of the joint plate, it would, in order to get in the necessary number of rivets, have required them to be placed so close together as very seriously to weaken both the upright and the flange ; but as the joint plate may be made of any height and width desirable, a sufficient number of rivets may be brought into action without the slightest amount of crowding. In Fig. 29 is shown a joint plate, which at the same time acts as a gusset plate. (A gusset is a plate inserted at an angle in order to main- tain the proper relative in- clination of any two parts of a structure.) ABC shows a part of the corner of girder and D a diagonal bar to be attached to it ; E is the joint plate. The height and width of this plate allow of a suffi- cient number of rivets being B brought into play to hold it to the bottom flange and end O o o o o TO BUILDING STRUCTURES. 99 of the girder, and its diagonal measurement affords room for the insertion of the number of rivets requisite to the proper attachment of the diagonal bar D. In this case the plate, in its capacity as a gusset plate, keeps the end A B of the girder to which it is supposed to belong at right angles to the bottom flange B C, but of course plates of this description may be cut to any angle according to the requirements of the case. Fig. 30 shows a form of joint plate not unfrequently seen in roof-work and in the larger class of lattice girders used in buildings of magnitude. A is the joint plate, and its duty is to . connect the four diagonal ties, b, c, d, e, which are assumed to come from the four corners of some bay which requires brac- ing. The plates are two in number, the swelled ends of the tie bars being placed be- tween them and there secured by bolts or rivets. Pairs of plates of this description are made in a great variety of forms to meet the requirements of light trussed work, where the ties and struts are so small as not to allow of rivet-holes being punched in them con- veniently, and also where a number of ties lying in the same plane meet. It may also here be observed that where plates of this description have to be employed, by care in design- ing them they may be caused to add very materially to the general appearance of the work. In some instances wrought-iron tie-rods have been joined in the centre or some other part of the length, as the case might be, by means of coupling boxes. The two extremities of the bars to be joined have screws cut 100 TUE APPLICATION OF IKON upon them, but the threads are cut in opposite directions, that is to say, on one end a right-hand screw is cut, but on the other a left-hand screw, in the same manner as the railway couplings are made. A box, or long nut, is made to fit these screws, having an internal right-hand thread at one end, and an internal left-hand thread at the other ; when this box or nut is adjusted to the two ends to be brought together, it is evident that by turn- ing it in one direction or the other the ends of the tie-bars are caused to approach, or recede from, each other, and thus the required length of the whole tie, which is made up of the two bars, admits of being adjusted with the greatest nicety, not only at the time of its erection, but also at any future time, if from any cause it should be thought desirable. If an adjustable joint be required for a strut, it can be arranged in the following manner : Let one piece of the strut have an ordinary screw- thread cut upon its extremity, being that extremity which meets the other piece of the strut. The latter part is to be tubular at its end, so as to admit the former, and the tubular part must be sufficiently long to give a steady good hold, and of such a diameter that the screwed portion will just slide in or out, but without play. The strut being put together, it can be screwed out to the required length when in place, by turning the nut which bears upon the end of the tubular part, and thus affords a means of adjustment whenever it may be required. In connecting different cast-iron elements generally, rivets are out of the question, as, from the very unyield- ing nature of that metal, it would be constantly being fractured, either in the rivetting or by the subsequent TO BUILDING STRUCTURES. 101 Contraction of the rivets in cooling, hence bolts and nuts are invariably used. It is held by many mechanical engineers that a well- made bolt, one inch in diameter, should safely carry a load of five tons, and this may be safe where no violent jars or shocks are likely to come upon it ; but in girder work the safe tensile strength of iron is assumed to be five tons per sectional square inch, and the sectional area of a bolt, one inch in diameter, is 0' 785 square inch. Hence the safe strength of such a bolt is thus found: 785 square inch sectional area, 5 tons per square inch, 3-925 tons strength of bolt. We may, however, with perfect prudence, call this 4 tons; then, as the sectional areas and therefore the strengths of the bolts vary as the squares of their diameters, we have the following simple rules : RULE (25). To find the safe load on any given wrought-iron bolt, multiply the square of the diameter of the bolt by 4 : the pro- duct is the load in tons. Example. What is the safe load on- a bolt f inch in diameter ? 625 inch diameter, 625 3125 1250 3750 390625 square of diameter, 4 1*562500 tons working strength of in. bolt 102 THE APPLICATION OP IRON The next rule serves to find the number of bolts re- quisite to support a given load. HULE (26). To find the number of bolts of a given diameter to support a given load in tons, divide the given load by four times the square of the diameter of the bolts in inches, the quotient will be the number of bolts required. Example. Let it be required to. be determined how many bolts f inch in diameter will be necessary to carry safely a load of 43 tons : 75 inch diameter of bolts, *7o ,, ,, , 5625 square - 4 2-2500 Load in tons. 2-25 )43-00( 19 225 2050 2025 25 Practically this will be 20 bolts required. The following rule serves to determine the diameter of the bolts when the load and number of bolts are given. RULE (27). To find the diameter of bolts in inches, the load and number of bolts being given, divide the load in tons by four times the number of bolts given, and the square root of the quotient will be the required diameter of bolts in inches. TO BUILDING STRUCTURES. 103 Example. Let the load to be sustained be 25 tons, and the number of bolts admissible 14, then applying the rule, we find, Number of bolts, 14 4 Tons. 56 )25-0( 0-446, &c. 224 260" 224 360 336 24 We must extract the square root of 0-446. 6 )6-4460( 0-66 diameter of bolts 36 126 ) 860 756 104 Practically, these bolts would be 9-16 inch in diameter. The different elements of cast-iron structures, which, from being at an angle, cannot be bolted directly together, are joined through the medium of brackets or dogs, either cast on to one of the pieoes, or else bolted to both of them. Lugs, or ears, also cast on to the sides of certain elements, are used as a means for bolting them together. As a general rule, wherever a bolt passes through a piece of cast-iron, at that place the metal should be made thicker than in the general body, and 104 THE APPLICATION OF IRON that for a distance round the hole about as far as the nut or head of the bolt will extend. In conclusion, it may be observed that although bad joints of all descriptions will sometimes make their presence in a structure evident the first time it is tested, yet such is not always the case, and, in fact, they must be bad indeed to yield at the first strain ; and in general it is after the structure has for a long time undergone continuous strain and frequent vibration that the joints find their real bearings. Sometimes the actual resist- ance of rivets to shearing will not be called into play at all, because their contraction in cooling has pressed the plates together with so great a force that the friction of their surfaces of contact is alone sufficient to prevent them from sliding one upon the other. CHAPTER Y. GIRDERS AND COLUMNS FOR BUILDINGS. THE application of iron columns and girders to the con- struction of warehouses and other buildings is now so i^pidly extending that the circumstances of its adapts tion to such purposes require the most careful considera- tion on the part of builders and engineers. In ordinary warehouses and private buildings the loads on the girders will generally be of an uniformly distributed character, being due to the weight of walls, merchandise, and inhabitants. Of course in each case the weight must be taken at a maximum. A few examples of modes of determining the loads on ware- house girders, &c., -will serve to illustrate this portion of our subject TO BUILDING STRUCTURES. 105 Let it be required to construct a wrought-iron flanged girder of the common 1 section, to carry a wall 25 feet high and 2 bricks thick across an opening or gateway 20 feet in the clear span or distance between the points of support. To find the weight of the wall we have the following rule : HULE. To find the weight of a brick wall in pounds, multiply its height in feet by its length in feet, by its thickness in bricks (each brick is 9 inches) and by 75. The product will be the weight of the wall in pounds. Applying this to the above case, we have 25 feet height of wall, 20 feet in length car. by girder '500 2 bricks thick, 1000 75 75,000 Ibs. load on girder. To reduce this to tons we must divide by 2240, being the number of pounds in a ton : 2240 )75000( 33'48 tons. 6720 7800 6720 10800 8960 18400 17920 480 Ibis will in practice be taken as 34 tons' load distri- buted over the whole length of the girder. F 3 106 THE APPLICATION OF IRON From this load the size of the girder may be deter- mined when its general proportions have been arranged. For flanged plate girders, about the most economical proportion of span to the depth is as 12 to 1, but we cannot always get even so much depth as this would indicate on account of limitations as to space or head- way; hence, in many instances, girders for buildings have to be made with unusually heavy flanges ; in the present example, however, we shall assume that the desired depth of girder may be attained ; the span being 20 feet, the depth will be 12)20 1-667 feet depth of girder. Then, to find the strain on either flange, we have RULE. To find the strain on either flange of a girder supported at both ends and uniformly loaded, multiply the load in tons by the clear span in feet, and divide the product by eight times the depth of the girder in feet ; the quotient will be the strain at the centre on either flange in tons. Depth of girder - 1-667 34 tons' load, 8 20 feet span, 13-336 )680-000(50-9 tons' strain. 66680 132000 120024 11976 Practically, the sectional area for such girders is so proportioned as to allow a safe strain of 4 tons per square inch both in tension and compression, no allow- ance being made for loss by rivet holes. This, in fact, amounts to the same as allowing 5 tons for tension per square inch of nett effective area and 4 tons per square inch in compression ; for it will generally be found that TO BUILDING STRUCTURES. 107 the effective sectional area of the bottom flange is about four-fifths of the gross sectional area ; hence if the top and bottom flanges be made of the same gross sectional area the proper proportions will be obtained. In the example selected the sectional area of either flange at the centre will be found thus : 4 )50'9 tons' strain, 12-725 square inches. The thickness of the wall being 2 bricks, or 1 8 inches, the breadth of the flanges of the girder should not be less than 15 inches, and the thickness may be taken at half an inch, the flanges to be attached to the web by angle-irons to be 3 inches by 3 inches and half an inch thick. To find the sectional area of an angle-iron, the following rule may be used : RULE. To find the sectional area in square inches of an angle-iron add together the lengths of its two limbs or sides in inches, from the sum subtract the thickness of metal in inches, and multiply the remainder by the thickness-in inches ; the pro- duct will be the sectional area in square inches. The two sides of each angle-iron each measure three inches, the thickness of metal is half an inch, hence the area is formed thus : 3 inches on side, 3 do. do. e*o 5 inch thick, 5-5 5 inch thick, [iron. 2-75 inch sectional area of each angle- There are two angle-irons to each flange, hence the gross sectional area of each flange will be 108 THE APPLICATION OF IRON Flange plate, 15"by" . . .7-5 square inches, Two angle-irons, 3" by 3" by " j^ 1 3 -00 square inches, which gives a very slight excess over that required, 12*725 square inches. This sectional area will be continued throughout the girder, as in those of small span it is not worth while varying the sections to accommodate them to the dimin- ishing strain towards the points of support. The rule for determining the sectional area of the flanges at the centre becomes much simplified if we assume that the ratio of depth to span of one-twelfth is adhered to, thus RULE. To find the sectional area of either flange at centre, imil- tiply the total load on the girder in tons by three, and div ide the product by eight. Or, multiply the total load on the girder by 0*375. Thus, i the above case 34 tons' load. 375 12-750 The slight deficiency in the area previously obtained is due to the omission of decimals in calculating the strain, which is in reality somewhat more than 50'9 tons on each flange. If the flanges be made of plates 10 feet in length TO BUILDING STRUCTURES. 109 there will be one cover plate required on each flange ; the length of it must be determined. Let the girder be put together with rivets three-quarters of an inch in dia- meter pitched three inches apart from centre to centre. The joints are to be butt joints, according to invariable practice. As we have previously shown, there is no necessity for having long cover plates over joints in the compression member, but yet in such small work as that under consideration it is usual to make the covers on both flanges alike ; hence we shall take them to be so. Taking the nett area of the flange plate (there being two rows of rivets) we find 7 '50 sq. in. gross area 75 do. loss by two rivet hole*. Area of J rivet, 0'44) 6.75 ( 15*3 44 235 220 150 132 18 Hence we must use on each side of the joint 16 rivets, or 32 rivets altogether in the cover plate ; that will be 16 rivets in each row ; and as the pitch of the rivets is 3 inches, the length of cover plates is thus found : 16 rivets 3-inch pitch, 48 inches. Or, oach cover plate must be 4 feet in length. Some- times, in order to save metal in the cover plates, the rivets are pitched closer where they occur ; thus in the 110 THE APPLICATION OF IRON present case, by pitching them 2 inches apart where the covers occur, the length saved on each cover plate would be 1 6 inches, but the arrangement would require 1 6 extra rivets in each flange, hence it becomes a question whether there be any saving or not. This is not an imaginary case, as in many instances when setting out girder work which has been taken at a very low price, we have been obliged to consider every trifling detail, and have at times had as many as four different pitches in one girder. The amount of metal saved on each cover will be a piece 15 inches by 16 inches and half an inch thick, but one square foot of wrought-iron one quarter of an inch thick weighs 10 Ibs., hence the weight of this piece will be 1-25 feet, 1-33 feet, 375" 375 125 1-6625 20 Ibs. per sq. foot of " plate. 33-2500 Ibs. Taking iron at 9 10$. per ton the cost of 33 Ibs. will be thus found : * s - 9 10 20^ 190 shillings per ton, 33 Ibs of iron, 570 570 Ibs. per ton, 22*0 ) 6270 ( 2'79 4480 17900 L5680 22200 20160 2040 TO BUILDING STRUCTURES. Ill This shows a saving of 2/10 on each cover plate ; the extra cost of rivets, taking them at 2d. each, will be, 10 rivets, 20 pence, being an outlay of 1/8, hence the actual saving by putting the rivets closer together where the cover plates occur will be * d - 1 8 1 2 and as there are two cover plates to each girder, the saving per girder will be 3/2. According to the rules already laid down the greatest shearing strain on the web is equal to half the total load, or 1 7 tons, and allowing 3 tons per sectional square inch as safe stress on the web, we find 3 ) 17 tons' load, 5 -66 square inches. The depth of the web is 20 inches less the thickness of the top and bottom flange plates, or 20 inches total depth, 1 inch sum of thickness of flange plates. 19 inches depth of web. Lot the Aveb be \% of an inch in thickness, then 19 inches deep. 5 16 ) 95 ( 5-9 square inches. 80 150 144 112 THE APPLICATION OP IRON Each end of the girder should be strengthened by an end plate of the same thickness as the flange plates, and there should also be three T irons on each side of the web to act as stiffeners ; these should measure five inches on the back by three through the feather, the metal being half an inch thick. These T irons will also serve as covers to the joints in the webs. We can now proceed to calculate the weights of the girder under con- sideration : A bar of iron 1 square inch sectional area and 1 foot long weighs 3 Ibs., and from this datum we can deter- mine our quantities. In the first place we have plate 1 5 inches by inch ; that is, 7*5 inches in area, the length used being Feet. Two flanges, each 20 feet . 40-0 Two covers for each ea. 4 feet 8-0 Two end plates ea. 1 ft. 8 inches 3*3 51-3 feet length, 7 -5 inch. area. 384-75 3-34 Ibs. per ft. 153900 115425 115425 1285-0650 Ibs.of plate 15* b* TO BUILDING STRUCTURES. 113 The web plates amount to 20 feet of plate, having an area of 5 '9 inches : 20 feet length, 5 -9 inches' area. 394-12 Ibs. weight of web. Of angle-iron running round the girder on both sidea of the web, we have Feet Top and bottom flanges 80*0 Jilnd plates . . 6 -6 86-6 feet length, 5'5 square inches' area of. angle-iron 4330 4330 476-30 3-34 Ibs. per foot. 19052 14289 14289 1590 842 Ibs. weight of angle-iron. H4 THE APPLICATION OF IRON The length of T-iron stiffeners (six, each 19 inches) will be 9-5 feet; the sectional area is thus found : 5 inches' breadth, 3 depth, 8-0 5 inches' thickness, 7-5 5 inches' thickness, 3*75 square inches' area. Hence the weight of the T irons will be 9-5 feet length, 3 '75 inches' area. 35-625 3-34 Ibs. per foot. 142500 106875 106875 118-98750 Ibs. weight of T iron By adding all these weights together, and allowing 5 per cent, for rivet heads, we get the total weight of the girder, dropping the decimals TO BUILDING STRUCTURES. 115 Ihs. Plates, 15 inch by inch . . 1285 Webs, 19 inches by ^ . 394 Angle-iron, 3 inch, by 3 inch, by inch 1591 Tee-irons, 5 inch, by 3 inch, by inch 119 3389 5 per cent, for rivets . 169 2240 )3558( 1-59 tons 2240 [nearly. 13180 11200 _19800 Assuming this work can be completed at 12 per ton, the cost per girder will be 1-59 12 19-08 20 . 1-60 12 d. ~1^ In all, 19 1/7. Let us now see what amount per cent, was saved on this by shortening the cover plates to four feet. The total cost is 19-08, the saving effected is, per girder, 2/4, which is equal to 0*1 16 nearly 116 100 19-08 ) 11-600(0-6 per cent. 11448 JL52 Hence this saving is hardly worth effecting. 110 THE APPLICATION OP IRON Such, girders as this, when put up, should be very carefully bedded, so as to avoid any lateral or twisting force upon them, and the rivets on the bottom flange at each end where the bearing is taken on the points of support, should be countersunk flush with the surface of the girder, so that the plate itself may take a bearing on the piers. Beams thus used to support walls are not usually liable to much vibration ; but in some cases they are, as, for instance, when used in buildings which, being founded on sandy soil, are shaken by passing vehicles. The method of designing the girder will be the same in all cases where the load is uniformly distributed, but the amount of such load must always, in the first instance, be very carefully determined. If the load, or a portion of the load, consist of an assembly room, where there is liable to be a crowd, the greatest weight of people that the room can hold must be taken as the maximum load. It may be safely assumed that six men will occupy one square yard of floor surface, each man on the average being supposed to weigh 1 60 pounds ; hence, the live load which may come upon any floor per square yard is 160 6 960 Ibs. Hence, to find the total load on any given floor, we have the following rule : RULE. To find the maximum load that can come upon any floor due to persons standing on it, multiply the length in feet by the breadth in feet, and divide the product by 21, then the quotient will be the live load in tons. TO BUILDING STRUCTURES. 117 Example. Required the load in tons on a floor 50 feet by 75 feet : 75 50 '21 )3750( 179 tons (nearly), 21 765~ 147 TsiT Of course no general rule can be given for merchan- dise, the weight of which must be ascertained for each special case. It does not always happen that the girders used in buildings are under a uniformly distributed load, as sometimes they are required to sustain a central load or some other concentrated load. The stress thus thrown upon the flanges may be determined by the rules already laid down in a previous chapter. The maximum strain in each case will be immediately under the load. Supposing the ratio of depth to span adopted to be as above taken, 1 to 12, then the rule for the area of flange of a wrought-iron girder for a central load will be : RULE. To find the sectional area of either flange in square inches, multiply the load in tons by 0'75 for a central load. Example. Required the sectional area of the flanges of a girder to support a load of 156 tons in the centre of its span. 156 tons' load, 75 780 1092 117-00 sectional square inches. 118 THE APPLICATION 0* IRON If the load is not central, the following rule wil) serve : RULE. To find the sectional area of either flange under a concen- trated load not in the centre of the girder, multiply the dis- tance of one point of support in feet from the point of application of the load by the distance of the other support in feet from the load ; multiply the product by the amount of the load in tons and by 3, and divide by the square of the span in feet ; the quotient will be the required sectional area in square inches. Example. Let it be required to find the sectional area of either flange of a girder 20 feet in span, which has to carry a load of 14 tons at a distance of 7 feet from one pier ; then the distance from the other pier will be 13 feet. 13 feet, " 91 14 tons' load, 364 91 1274 3 Square of span, 4,00 )38,22 9-555 square inches. If, however, there be two equal loads placed equi- distant from the centre of the span, then the maximum strains will exist at the two points under such loads, being equal ; and the sectional area of the flange may be found from this rule : RULE. To find the sectional area in square inches of either flange of a girder to carry two equal loads placed equidistant from the centre of the span, multiply one of the loads by its distance from the nearest point of support in feet, and divide the product by four times the depth of the girder in feet. TO BUILDING STRUCTURES. 119 Example. A girder is required to carry two load? of 1 1 tons each, so placed as to be each, one 9 feet from the nearest pier or point of support*, the depth of the girder being 2 feet : Feet. Depth of girder, 211 tons' load, 4 9 feet distance, 8)99 12-375 square inches. It will here be noticed that so long as the distance of the loads from the piers remains unaltered, the span of the girder does not enter into the calculation of the area. When the loads to be carried are very considerable, it is usual to apply girders having double webs, being like two I girders put together thus, II forming what is called a box girder. These also possess greater lateral rigidity than the single-webbed girders, and are specially suitable where wide flanges are required, in which case the flanges gain much in rigidity by the additional web. In designing ordinary girders for building purposes, the stiffeners should be in proportion to the angle-irons, and placed on both sides of the web, if single, or one outside each web, if double, at distances of about five feet apart. If there is much vibration, the stiffeners must be put closer together, and where very heavy loads are to be sustained, one or two extra stiffeners should be introduced over the points of support. If the general angle-irons be 3 in. by 3 in. by % in., the tee-irons should be 5 in. by 3 in. by in. ; if the angles are 4 in. by 4 in. by in., the tee-iron should be 6 in. by 3|in. by f in. 120 THE APPLICATION OF IRON As a general rule, the metal of angle irons should never in thickness be less than of the length of the longest side. Thus an angle-iron 4 inches by 3 inches should not be less than -inch thick. A very serviceable-sized angle-iron for average work is that which measures 3 inch by 3 inch by | inch thick. If angle-irons having unequal sides are used, the broadest side should be placed against the flange of the girder, as the more metal there is at the greatest distance from the centre of the girder the greater will be its strength. It is evidently desirable to have as few joints in a girder as possible ; hence it is desirable to have the plates as long as may be without running to extra expense, for when plates get over a certain weight they require extra men to handle them, hence cost more per ton, both in production and in subsequent working. Ten feet is a very convenient general length for flange- plates, but if light they may sometimes be used 12 to 15 feet in length. Angle-irons up to 4 inch by 4 inch by f inch may be easily obtained over 30 feet in length, hence in nearly all warehouse and similar girders the angle-irons can be run in one length from end to end of the girder, thus avoiding any joint in the angle- irons. In applying stiffeners to a girder on the sides of the web, it is evident that their ends must be bent or joggled or else have a packing-piece under it, the latter plan being generally the most economical. These two methods are shown in Fig. 31. In the first view the T-iron stiffener is bent. A is a plate of the main flange in section, b the web, and c the T-iron bent as shown at the top over one limb of the angle- iron, which unites the flange to the web-plates of TO BUILDING STRUCTURES. 321 the girder. In the second view d shows the flange- plate, e the web-plate, and / the T-iron stiffener, which is brought up to the level of the vertical limb of the angle-iron by having under- neath it a packing- piece shown shaded at g. The method to be adopted depends upon the length of the stiffeners prin- cipally, for which the cost of bending the ends is constant and independent of length ; the weight and cost of packing-pieces vary directly as their lengths hence there is a point at which the cost of working the iron is equivalent to the cost of packing-pieces. We must now pass from girders to treat of the columns by which they are frequently supported, and which are also commonly applied for other purposes where loads have to be sustained. Hollow cast-iron columns are most commonly used, and their strength was some years back determined experimentally by the late Professor Eaton Hodgkinson, who tried columns of Low moor iron and arrived at the following rule, which, however, can only be worked by the aid of a table of logarithms. RULE. To find the breaking weight of a hollow cast-iron column in tons, multiply the logarithm of the outer diameter in inches by 3*6, and also multiply the logarithm of the inner diameter in inches by 3-6 ; find the natural numbers corresponding to the two logarithms thus obtained and subtract the latter from the former, multiply the remainder by 44. Find the logarithm of the length in feet, multiply it by 1'7, find the natural number corresponding to this logarithm, and by it divide the former product. 122 THE APPLICATION OF IRON This rule applies to columns having- a length of mor than thirty times the diameter. Example. Required to know the breaking weight of a column 14 feet high, 12 inches outside and 10-5 inches inside diameter. (The logarithms are found from the Table of Logarithms of Numbers, p. 35 of the Author's "Engi- neer's Pocket Remembrancer.") Log. outer diam. (12 in.) 1-079181 3-6 647508G 3237543 3-8850516 Number 7675 Log. inner diam. (10-5 in.) 1-021189 3-6 6127134 3063567 3-6762804 This is the first product Log. of length (14 feet) Number 4745 2930 44 11720 11720 128920 1-146128 1-7 8022896 1146128 1-9484176 Number 88-* 1O BUILDING STRUCTURES. 123 88-8 )128920-0( 1452 tons nearly. 888 4012 3552 4600 4440 1600 Hence, allowing as the safe working strength of the column, we should have 8)1452 181-5 tons' safe load. CHAPTER VI. IRON ROOFS. FROM its strength, durability, and incombustible nature, iron is a material eminently suitable for the construc- tion of roof principals and purlins for warehouses, rail- way-stations, factories and store-houses ; and, more- over, it admits of being arranged in such forms as will occupy a minimum space. Eoofs admit of being clas- sified under four distinct heads : 1st. Eoofs supported by triangular trusses or prin- cipals. 2nd. Eoofs supported by arched trusses or principals. 3rd. Eoofs supported by straight girder trusses or principals. 4th. Eoofs supported by dome-shaped framework. G 2 124 THE APPLICATION OF IRO'ST The actual loads to which a roof may be subject con- sists of three elements, viz. : The weight of the main principals, &c., The weight of the covering used, The weight of snow, ice, &c. for any particular case the two first elements will be constant, but the last must be taken for maximum cases. The load due to weather can of course only be de- termined from the nature of the climate in the locality for which the roof is required, by which also to a very great extent the material used for the covering will be determined, but conjointly with the purpose to which the structure is to be applied. Thus in some cases, such as for sheds in temperate climates, corrugated iron sheets, weighing 6 or 7 Ibs. per square foot, may be used, whereas in other instances, as for exposed buildings in tropical climates, thick coverings of sand or concrete may be required to exclude the intense heat, and we have known of cases in which it has been stipulated that roof principals should be tested with a load of 100 Ibs. per square foot of area. In such positions, as we are much exposed to wind, care must be taken to prevent the covering being blown off by the wind getting underneath. Obviously in all cases of roofs the load may be taken as uniformly distributed over the whole area of such roof, hence if it be required to find the load on any one principal it may be done by means of the following rules : . To find the total load on any main principal in pounds, multiply the total load per square foot by the span of the principal in feet and by the distance between two contiguous principals in feet, the product will be the total distributed load in pounds on each principal. TO BUILDING STRUCTURES. 125 Example. Let it be required to find the total load in pounds on a principal in a roof 50 feet span, the load per square foot being 30 Ibs,, and the distance between the principals 10 feet : > 30 Ibs. load per foot, 50 feet span of principal, 1500 10 feet distance between principals, 15000 Ibs. total load on principal. This may, if required, be reduced to tons by dividing by 2240 thus : 2240 ) 15000 (6-69 (say) 67 tons. 13440 15600 13440 21600 20160 1440 To find the load per foot run of the main principals, we have RULE. To find the load in pounds per foot run on a main principal, multiply the load in pounds per square foot of roof by the distance in feet between two principals the product will bf the required load. Example. Let the load per square foot be 25 Ibs., and the distance between the principals 12 feet, then 25 Ibs. load per square foot, 12 feet distance between principals, 300 Ibs. load per foot run of principal. 126 THE APPLICATION OF Let us take, as a general example, a light shed-roof of which each principal consists of two rafters meeting at the centre of the span, and having their ends tied by a horizontal tie-bar supported in the centre by a vertical tie-rod passing up to the crown of the roof. The two rafters will sustain the load, their ends being prevented from spreading by the tie-rod connecting them; the vertical rod only serves to prevent the tie-rod from sagging. This will in effect be the truss shown in Fig. 13, but in an inverted position. Let the span of the roof be 12 feet, its rise or height in the centre 2 feet 6 inches, the length of each rafter will be 6 feet 6 inches. Let the maximum load be 20 Ibs. per square foot, and the distance of the principals apart 10 feet, then, by the above rule, the load on each principal will be found, 20 Ibs. load per foot, 12 feet span, 240 10 feet distance between principals, 2400 Ibs. load on principal. But the rafters being equal, each of them will carry one half of this load, or 1200 Ibs., and the maximum strain on each rafter will be found from the rule as follows : RULE. To find the maximum strain on each rafter, multiply the load in pounds on the rafter by the length of the rafter in feet, and divide the product by the height of the roof in feet ; the quotient will be the strain on the rafter (thrust) in pounds. This, the maximum strain on the rafter, occurs at its root, from which point the thrust diminishes towards TO BUILDING STKUCTUELS. 127 the crown of the roof; but the practice is, in build- ing large roofs, to make the rafters of the same sec- tional area throughout. In the above case the maximum strain is thus found : 1200 Ibs. load on rafter, 6-5 feet length of rafter 6000 7200 Height of roof 2-5 ) 7800-0 ( 3200 Ibs. thrust on rafter 75 (nearly). 30 Allowing 6000 Ibs. per square inch of sectional as a safe strain on wrought-iron, the theoretical area of the rafter would be 6000 ) 3200 Ibs. thrust, 0*o33 square inches, which would be furnished by a T iron of which the web was 1 inches, and the back or flange. 1 inch wide, the metal being |-inch thick ; but this would be insufficient to carry the transverse or bending strain due to the load on the rafter; hence it will be necessary to use stronger rafters, or to carry a strut from the foot of the central vertical tie or king-rod to the centre of the rafter. We will consider the web part of the T iron as carrying the load in the manner of a beam resisting transverse strain, and determine what depth would be requisite, the thickness of metal being taken at half an inch, to sustain the load of 1200 Ibs. which rests upon 128 THE APPLICATION OF IRON each, rafter. The effective span of each rafter is repre- sented by the horizontal distance between the foot of any rafter and the centre or crown of the principal; this will evidently be one half of the whole span of the. principal, and therefore 6 feet, the load being uniformly distributed. The rule by which the depth of the bar will be determined is as follows : KULE. To find the depth in inches of a wrought-iron bar to carry a load producing transverse strain, multiply the load in pounds by the span of the bar in feet, divide the product by 600 times the breadth in inches, then the square root of the quotient will be the required depth in inches. As resistance to transverse strain is a property requi- site in roof rafters, the T irons used in their construc- tion are usually made of a depth which is large in proportion to the width of the flange or back of the T iron. Applying the foregoing rule to the case under consi- deration, we obtain the following result : Breadth of bar 0-5 1200 Ibs. load on bar, 600 6 feet span of bar. 300-0 ) 7200 24 The square root of 24 is nearly 5 inches ; hence, in this case, it would be preferable to apply the strut referred to, when the depth of the T iron might be safely reduced to 2 inches, eufUcient strength being given by a bar 2 inches by 1 inches by inch thick ; but by adopting this arrangement it must be remembered that one half of the load on the whole principal will be transmitted through the king-rod or vertical tie, thus producing on it a strain of 1200 Ibs. TO BUILDING STRUCTURES. 129 If we allow 10,000 Ibs. pei sectional square inch as Bife load upon wrought-iron suspension rods, the sec- tional area required for this tie-rod will be 0'12 square inch ; hence we may apply a round bar 7-16 of an inch in diameter, which will give an area of 15 square inches. The strain on the tie-bar joining the lower extremities of the rafters will be found from the following rule : RULE. To find the tension on the tie-bar in pounds, multiply the whole load in pounds on the principal by the span of the principal in feet, and divide the product by eight times the rise of the roof in feet ; the quotient will be the required tension in pounds. In the present case the whole load on each principal is 24CO Ibs. Rise of roof 2-5 2400 Ibs., 8 12 feet span, 2,0-0 ) 2880,0 1440 Ibs. tension on tie-rod. Allowing, as before, 10,000 Ibs. per square inch as safe strain, the area of the horizontal tie must not be less than 0'144 square inches; hence a half-inch round rod may be used, which will give an area of 0'196 square inch. The joints of the rods and struts may be determined according to the general principles and methods shown in Chapter IV. If the roof be pitched at such a slope that snow instead of lodging on it slides off, not being obstructed by parapet walls, then the load becomes so exceedingly slight in cases like that under consideration, that the proportioning of the rafters and ties becomes a mere G 3 130 THE APPLICATION OF IRON matter of adopting a rigid form, and in many cases where corrugated iron forms the covering, it is not. necessary to have any principals at all in the work the corrugated iron being curved to a circular form, and so retained by light tie-rods. We will now take an example of a roof of a larger description of which we shall assume the principals to be circular arches, having the section of an ordinary flanged plate girder. Let the span of the roof be 120 feet, its rise being 15 feet, and the distance between the principals 20 feet, and the maximum load, per square foot, 40 Ibs. The total load on each principal will be 40 Ibs. per foot, 120 feet span, 4800 20 ft. distance between principals, 96000 Ibs. Or reducing this to tons, we have 2240 ) 96000 ( 42'85 tons nearly. 8960 6400 4480 19200 17920 "l280o" 11200 1600 To find the thrust at centre we have the following rule : RULE. To find the strain in tons at the centre of an arch, multiply TO BUILDING STRUCTURES. 131 the total load in tons on the arch by the span of the arch in feet, and divide the product by 8 times the rise of the arch in feet. The quotient will be the required strain. In the present case we have Else - 15 42-85 tons load, 8 120 feet span, 42-85 tons strain at centre. For this class of work we may allow 4 tons per sec- tional square inch as a safe strain, hence the sectional area required at the centre will be 4)42-85 10-7125 square inches. The total depth of the central section may be made 10 inches, and the width of the flanges 5 inches, the thickness of the flanges being f ths of an inch, and that of the web plates -inch, these being connected together by angle-irons 2 inches by 2 inches by f -inch thick, then the sectional areas will be as follows being deter- mined by rules already given in a previous chapter : Sectional area of 2 flange plates, 5 in. by f-in. 3-75 sq.ins. ,, 4 angle irons, 2 in. by 2 in. by f-in. 5-43 ,, 1 web plate, 9 in. by -m. - 2-31 Total sectional area - Thus we have a sectional area somewhat in excess of that required according to the calculation. The width (or depth) of the web plate is found by deducting the sum of the thicknesses of the flange plates from the total depth of the girder ; thus the thickness of each flange plate being f -inch the sum of the thick- nesses of the two will be f -inch, which, deducted from 132 THE APPLICATION OF IRON 1 inches, the total depth of the rib, leaves 9| inches for the depth of the web plate. We must, in the next place, ascertain the sectional area at the points of support, or abutments, the strain at which point will be found by the following rule : RULE. To find the thrust in tons at the abutment of an arch, square the thrust in tons at the crown of the arch and add to it the square of half the total load in tons on the arch, extract the square root of the sum, and the result will be the thrust in tons on the abutment of the arch. As stated above, the strain at the centre or crown of che ribs is 42 '85 tons, and the total load on the arch is also 42-85 tons, hence half the total load on the ribs will be 2)42-85 21-425 tons. The thrust at the abutments will be found as follows : 42-85 thrust at centre, 42-85 21425 34280 8570 17140 1836-1225 square of thrust at centre. 21-425 tons half total load, 21-425 107125 42850 85700 21425 42850 459-030625 square of half total load, 1836-1225 square of thrust at centre, 2296-153125 sum of squares. TO BUILDING STEUCTURES. 138 The square root of this sum must now be extracted ; it will be enough for practical purposes to take it to four places of decimals. 4 ) 2295-1531 ( 47-90 tons nearly. 16 87 ) 695 609 949) 8615 8541 9580 ) 7431 Allowing, as before, 4 tons per inch as safe strain on the metal, the sectional area required at the abutments will be 4)47-9 11-975 square inches. By gradually increasing the depth of the rib from the centre towards the abutments, so that at the latter it is 13 inches deep, the additional area due to increased depth of web will be equal to 3 inches by -inch, or 0-75 square inches ; hence, adding this to the sectional area at the centre of the rib, the sectional area at the abutment will be 11*49 inches at centre, *75 ,, additional, 12-24 ,, at abutments, which is slightly in excess of what is required by calculation. A few remarks are now necessary as to the con- struction of the ribs or arched principals. The correct form for an arch which is loaded with nil 134 THE APPLICATION OF IRON uniformly distributed load is that of the parabola, but the true curve will, in the case of arches formed as circular segments, be found to be contained between the inner and outer flanges that is, between the intrados and extrados of the arch provided that the rise of the arch, or its versine, be not very great in proportion to the depth of the ribs, hence the circular form is commonly adopted. There is, however, no reason why the arch should not be made to a parabolic curve, as it is as easy to set out in marking the metal as is the circle. A rib of the description to which we have been referring should ^ave stiffening irons of angle or tee iron rivetted on to the web at intervals of four or five feet, or sometimes closer, as the web being made thin is not of itself sufficiently rigid to preserve the relative distances of the top and bottom flanges of the rib. These stiffeners are usually proportioned according to the size of the angle-irons used to connect the flange plates with the web plates ; thus in the present instance, where these angle irons are 2 inches by 2 inches by f-inch, if tee-irons were used they should be made 3 inches by 2 inches by f-inch. The purlins, which are supported by the main principals, may consist of angle or tee irons, or where the load to be carried is great they may be flanged girders, either rolled or made of plate and angle iron and rivetted up, but in any case they are calculated according to the rules already laid down for beams subject to an uniformly distributed load. The amount of load upon a purlin may be ascer- tained from the following rule : RULE. To find the load on anj r purlin of a roof, multiply the load per square foot on the roof by the distance in feet between the main principals, and by the distance in feet between the purlins. The product will be the load on one purlin TO BUILDING STRUCTURES. 135 Example. Let the distance between the main prin- cipals be 20 feet, that between the purlins 4 feet, and the weight of the covering of the roof 8 Ibs. per square foot : 8 Ibs. per square foot, 20 feet distance between principals, 160 4 feet distance between purlins, 640 Ibs. load on each purlin. Let it be assumed that these purlins are to be rolled girders four inches in depth ; it is necessary to deter- mine the sectional area of the flanges ; the rule for strain on either flange at centre is RULE. To find the strain in pounds on either flange of a girder at the centre, multiply the total load in pounds on such girder by the span of the girder in feet, and divide product by eight times the depth of the girder in feet. In the present case we have Depth of purlin - '3*3 640 Ibs. load, 8 20 ft. length of purlin 2-66 ) 12800-00 '( 4816 Ibs. strain 1064 nearly. 2128 "420 266 1640 From this it will be seen that in ordinary cases of light covering the strain on the purlins is almost nominal, so that what we have to attend to is to see that they are 136 THE APPLICATION OF IRON sufficiently deep to give the required rigidity. Let us, therefore, instead of considering them to be rolled girders, regard them as bars placed on edge and half an inch thick, and determine the required depth tr sustain the load. We find it as follows : Breadth in inches - -5 640 Ibs. load 600 20ft. span of purlin. 3/X) ^128,00 42-66 The square root of 42-66 must now be found 6 ) 42-66 ( 6-5 inches nearly. 36 125 )666 625 "IT Of roofs supported by straight girders, having either lattice or plate webs, it is here only necessary to remark that they are treated according to the ordinary rules for such girders already set forth in a previous chapter. The framework of % a dome-shaped roof may be regarded as being formed by a number of arched prin- cipals intersecting each other at one common point; hence, the ribs may be treated as arches ; but in deter- mining the load upon each the mean distance must be taken between them, and multiplied by the load per square foot to which the roof will be subject. We shall not dilate further upon roofs, our object being to show by one or two examples how the rules TO BUILDING STRUCTURES. 137 already fully set forth, are in practice brought to bear, without encumbering our space with special cases of a lengthy description. CHAPTER VIL IRON FLOORS. floors are used for two reasons. In the first place, iron is the most suitable material to employ where very heavy weights have to be supported ; and, in the next, it is fire-proof; and it may also be added that in many places iron girders act as ties to the walls of large buildings. As to the calculations of the girders used in iron floors but little need be said in this place, as, the loads being given, these girders are, as a matter of course, calcu- lated in precisely the same manner as those employed for any other purposes where loads have to be sus- tained. On the other hand, as regards the application of iron to fire -proof floors, there is much to be remarked both pro and con. What is required in a fire-proof floor is : 1 . That it shall be incombustible. 2. That it shall not spread combustion by transmitt- ing heat freely from one combustible body to another. 3. That it shall not lose its strength or rigidity under the action of the greatest heat likely to be evolved in accidental fires in buildings. 4. That the materials of which it is composed shall not injure the walls of the building of which it forms a part. 138 THE APPLICATION OF IRON The first condition is perfectly complied with in iron, as, although this metal is chemically combustible, yet practically it is perfectly incombustible in large masses. The second requirement demands careful considera- tion, for it is certain that iron is a good conductor of heat, and will, in fires of long duration, become red hot, or even white hot, in which case it may, when other circumstances favour such a result, cause a fire which has occurred in one apartment to be transmitted to one above or below it, hence iron girders used in the con- struction of floors should not be so arranged as to allow of their remaining in contact with combustible bodies. To fulfil the third condition cast-iron is evidently better suited than is wrought, as the latter from its malleability will soften when exposed to a very high temperature, and is, therefore, more liable to bend and give way than cast-iron, though the latter will some- times fail by cracking. The last stipulation iron scarcely accords with, on account of the changes of size which occur under changes of temperature ; thus the expansion and con- traction of long girders under the influences of a fire and the subsequent cooling may seriously impair the stability of the walls of a building. Considering all things, then, we observe that when iron is used in the construction of a fire-proof floor it should itself be protected from fire as much as possible, and that for several reasons : first, in order that it may not become red hot, and by conducting the heat from one place to another extend a conflagration ; second, to counteract great and rapid changes of dimensions by excluding heat, or rendering its influence upon the metal more gradual in its action ; and thirdly, to pre- vent the girders from being cracked or split through TO BUILDING STRUCTURES. 139 water falling upon them when in a highly heated con- dition. Hence we come to the conclusion that to attain the most satisfactory results the floor must be of a compound character, consisting of iron in combination with some non-conducting material. A method rather extensively used some years since consisted in laying brick floors on cast-iron girders ; the girders were made of the ordinary section proposed by Eaton Hodgkinson, that is, having a small topflange and a large bottom one, and being placed parallel to one another, brick arches were turned between them. The spaces on the springings of the arches were filled in with concrete or some other similar composition, which is a bad conductor of heat, and therefore prevents the iron from conveying the heat from one apartment to another ; but here the difficulty of expansion and con- traction is not overcome, for the lower flanges of the girders are exposed to heating from the combustion of materials beneath them. Another kind of fire-proof floor is made of bricks so formed as to fit together, somewhat after the style of a joggled joint, but in such a way as -to form a very flat brick arch, having a very trifling rise. Of course in such an arrangement the thrust at the springing sides of the floor is enormous in proportion to the load supported, but this does not come upon the side walls, being taken up by a number of tie-rods, which may pass under or even through the bricks, which are made hollow. There is much ingenuity in this mode of construction, but there are two causes of failure to be apprehended. The tie-rods being of wrought-iron would be apt to become ductile in the temperature accompanying a fire of any magnitude, when, stretching even a little, so flat an arch 140 THE APPLICATION OF IRON as that tied by it would yield under its own weight, and by falling form a new source of danger. Again, there is the possibility of ordinary changes of temperature between summer and winter, causing a settlement of the arched floor, and a corresponding displacement of the walls of the fabric in which it is contained. In making floors supported by straight girders the expansion and contraction of the met'al may be allowed to proceed without producing any deleterious effects by inserting the ends of the girders into loose sockets or boxes, in which they can slide, so as to allow for altera- tions of length accompanying variations of temperature. These girders may be covered with flags of refractory stone, such as will not very readily split with heat, and in addition to this the lower flanges may carry light plates of cast-iron, forming a sub-floor, to intercept heat or flame rising towards the stone above and thus render them more safe from cracking, besides serving to pre- vent their falling through, and leaving a hole in the floor if they should from any cause give way. This is a somewhat heavy floor, but we are inclined to think it a sound one. The stones should only rest upon the girders, but the cast-iron plates beneath should be secured to them, as they will serve to brace them late- rally, and will expand and contract in the same manner. Where flat cast-iron floor-plates are used to support any weight, the following rule may be useful to deter- mine the proper thickness of metal to use : RULE. To find the thickness of cast-iron floor-plates in inches, multiply tho square root of the load in pounds per square foot on the plates l3 r the length of the plates in inches, and divide the product by 380, the quotient will be the required thickness in inches. Example. Let the length of the plates be 30 inches, TO BUILDING STRUCTURES. 141 and the maximum load to which they will be subject 144 pounds per square foot, which would be a fair allowance. The square root of 144 is 12, hence we have 12 square root of lead in Ibs.' per foot. 30 length of plates. 380 )360-0( .97 thickness of plates 3320 2800 2660 140 or something in excess of nine-tenths of an inch, hence practically such plates would be made one inch in thickness. Instead of using flat cast iron plates, curved or corru- gated plates may, with much advantage, be substituted, inasmuch as the curving adds very materially to the strength of the flooring, and so allows of thinner material being used. In iron floors for bridges curved wrought iron plates, varying from three-sixteenths of an inch to three-eighths of an inch, are now coming largely into use, but for the reasons already stated they are not suitable for fire proof floors. THE APPLICATION OF IS05J CHAPTEE VIII. MISCELLANEOUS IRON STRUCTURES. IN addition to those iron structures which may be specially classified as bridges, roofs, &c., there are numerous others, composed of girders, columns, &c., of a miscellaneous character, which we must here briefly notice. Iron piers are now frequently formed of a number of iron piles, screwed or otherwise sunk into the ground, at moderate distances apart, and carrying on their summits the girders and flooring comprised in the superstructure. Formerly, cast iron piles were princi- pally used in these works, but during the last few years wrought iron piles have come pretty generally into use, being made of various diameters, varying from three to seven inches in diameter. These piles, although having the disadvantage of being much more costly than those of cast iron, yet possess superior properties more than counterbalancing that evil, as the wrought iron is not so liable to rupture from collision of floating bodies as the cast, and if fairly protected is also more durable, and less trouble in erection. On the tops of the piles are fitted caps, to the flanges of which the girders carrying the platform may be bolted, and between the piles are ties or bracing bars to retain them in position, and maintain the general form and rigidity of the structure. The bracing bars are attached to the piles by means of TO BUILDING STRUCTURES. 143 clips encompassing the piles, and holding iho ends of Fig. 32. the bracing bars be- tween their flanges, as shown in Fig. 32, where a represents a round bracing bar, flattened at its end, and formed into an eye, which is placed between the ends of the clip c, and secured there by the bolt d, which, in tightening up, also causes the clip firmly to embrace the pile I. It will be observed that in this arrangement the position of the clip may be determined to suit the length of the bracing bar by slipping it up or down the piles, as the circumstances of the case may require. Another mode of adjustment is shown at /, which represents a screw shackle, having a right-handed screw at one end and a left-handed screw at the other, the shackle receiving -the end g of the halves of the tie-bar. By this means the practical length of the tie may be regulated by turning the shackle to the right or left, according as it may be desired to lengthen or shorten the tie. That some means of adjusting thej^ngth of bracing ,S^ZcC\\DCiT^*- [( UNIVERSITY 144 THE APPLICATION OF IRON bars is absolutely indispensable is evident, for it is impossible to be certain of putting down the piles of a pier dead true, as the inequalities of the soil may be such as to cause their deviation to a slight extent from the position which they were designed to occupy. When the wrought iron piles are too long to be made in one piece they may conveniently be joined by couplings, preferably made of steel, and fixed by bolts, as shown at e in the above woodcut. No general rule can be laid down for determining the scantlings of these bracing bars, as they are usually proportioned by practical experience in the construction of such works, regulated by a due consideration of the exigencies of climate, &c., to which the proposed structure will probably be subject. It may here be observed, that in regard to bracing designed to resist vibration, and ensure general rigidity, that the strains upon such bracing is not susceptible of calculation the same as in the case of inclined bars bearing loads, hence a familiar acquaintance with practical examples alone can guide us in this matter. Similar in general principles of construction to piers, are lighthouses and beacons, which may conveniently be carried upon iron piles, well braced together so as to resist the storms to which works are exposed, and, it will be seen, that the open braced work carrying the superstruction of a wrought iron light-house, by not op- posing so large a surface to the action of the waves as does a mass of solid masonry, stands much less chance of being injured or swept away in a hurricane. Moles and breakwaters have always occupied much attention amongst engineers who devote themselves to marine practice, and several methods for forming them of wrought and cast iron have been promulgated, and TO BUILDING STRUCTURES. 145 Fig. 33. one we may especially allude to. It consists of a num- ber of cast or wrought iron girders arranged in a step- like form, but at a certain distance apart, so that as the waves break upon the girders, the water does not rush back upon the following wave, but falls harmlessly through the girders into the tranquil waters, protected by the structure. The cast iron girders forming tho breakwater proper may be sustained upon cast or- wrought iron piles firmly set in the subsoil. In all kinds of braced structures where the supporting columns are of cast iron the clips may be dispensed with, as the tie bars can be bolted direct on to ears or lugs, cast in suitable positions upon the columns, as shown at a a a a &c in Fig. 33 which represents a portion of fram- ing for a water tower, hoist, or other lofty work. As a matter of course the support- ing columns are proportion- ed according to the load they are designed to sustain. In the bracing round or Hat, ties may be used or tie and angle iron bars accord- ing to the nature of the works, and the views of the designer. The latter sec- tions of iron being better adapted for resisting vibra- tion seem to us to be de- cidedly preferable, as when long round ties or flat bars are used, they offer little or no resistance to vibratory disturbances which act in a lateral direction and hence 146 THE APPLICATION OF IRON do not sufficiently resist any force which may tend to sot the structure in a state if general tremor which may not unfrequently be caused by recurring guss of wind, or by the motion of machinery, connected with or contiguous to the structure. From what we have now said about miscellaneous structures it will be evident that the rules set forth in the earlier chapters of this treatise are sufficient to determine all calculable sections, for every class of structure composed of cast or wrought iron, no matter what may be its form or the duty it is intended to perform. We shall now conclude our discussion of the principles upon which structures are designed and proceed to the not less important consideration of the gen- eralmethods in which such works when duly detailed are practically executed in the contractors, yards and shops, for it should always be borne in mind that it is impos- sible satisfactorily to design a work, unless the designer is acquainted with the manipulations to which the materials will be subjected in carrying out his plans, and the more thoroughly practical he is, the more econo- mical in execution can he make those works which are entrusted to him. CHAPTEE IX. THE PRACTICAL EXECUTION OF IRON STRUCTURES. Ix the present chapter we purpose discussing, in a gene- ral way, the principal processes to which iron is subjected in the course of forming it into structures of various descriptions. "We will assume that a wrought iron bridge, of the plate girder description, is to be con- structed, and that the Engineer's plans and general TO BUILDING STRUCTURES. 147 drawings have been furnished. In the first place a few remarks as to working drawings will be necessary, as it happens most frequently that the drawings supplied by designers require revision before they can conveniently be worked to ; and this is, in a great measure, due to the mode adopted by designers in determining the dimen- sions of the various parts of the work in hand. It is always advisable to get an even pitch for the rivets in the flanges throughout; and this might, in almost all cases, be done, if the matter were but duly considered in the first place. A very convenient and general pitch for bridge-work of ordinary dimensions is four inches ; hence let a case be supposed in which that pitch is to be adopted for the top and bottom flanges. It is evident that the lengths of the flange plates should be multiples of four inches, in order that the four inch pitch may work in, without any half holes in the ends, for of course, at each end of a plate, the distance of the end from the centre of the last hole should be half the pitch, that is to say, in this case, two inches. In the angle irons attaching the flange plates to the web plates, half holes will occur, on account of the alternate pitching of the rivets on the two limbs of the angle iron, if it be cut square across. This is more clearly explained by reference to p- g QA Fio-. 34, wliiVTi represents an j angle iron / jj punched ready f n t yi v A tf,i p cr , , " |o o a b shows a r^ f plan of one end of a bar looking down upon it, in the direction of the arrow at the section c, and it will be noticed that in the H 2 148 THE APPLICATION OF IRON upper row of holes there is a distance of half a pitch from the end hole to the end of the bar, whereas in the lower row of holes the end of the bar coincides with the centre of a rivet-hole. By shaping the end of the bar as shown at e, in the view e f this point is obviated, but this method is scarcely ever adopted in practice, except for angle iron covers where the one limb is continued beyond the other, sufficiently far to get the room neces- sary for the rivet. The actual importance of the results produced by the halved rivet hole, depends entirely upon the duty of that portion of the structure in which it occurs ; thus, if it be in an element subject to compressive strain only, it is not of any consequence for the ends of the plates or bars pressing against each other, the rivet has no strain upon it if the work be true ; but on the other hand, if the member should be in tension, the whole efficiency of the one rivet is lost, and it might as well be left out altogether. The pitch and position of rivets must also be con- sidered in respect to the locating of cross girders, stiffening pieces, gussets and other adjuncts to the main girders, hence it is very evident that if a bridge be designed, and the position of its various elements determined without due consideration of the position of the rivets, that much subsequent difficulty may arise ; and this is often the case, and it becomes necessary to vary the pitch, increasing or decreasing it at certain places, according to the exigencies of the case in hand. This in itself does not materially weaken or injure the fabric, but it is not sightly, nor is it the right way to execute work, and, as before observed, it causes much trouble, and some very odd pitches are arrived at at times, such as 4*21 inches, pitch, &c. TO BUILDING STRUCTURES. 149 In regard to the web plates, but little need be said about pitching the rivets where the joints occur, as these may be worked in to any convenient pitch, as shown in Fig. 35. a a shows a portion of the top flange plate, b b Fig. 35. 6 N^ o ^o ~o ~o ~o ~o V*o' ' o^o^ o v o~ o" o" o ojj / ' C o c . l' Voooo o o o /* r*. f^ f\ ^ ^ o o wj^ CO OOO O O \ . ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ top flange angle iron, c c bottom flange angle iron, d d bottom flange plate, e e cover strip under which is the joint in the web plates, shown by the dotted line //. There are usually two covers used to web plate joints, one on each side, and the vertical distance between the centre lines of the rivets in the web at top and bottom is divided into any convenient number of equal parts or pitches, being in the case shown four, so that there are five rivets in the depth of the web plate. If the pitch of the rivets in the top and bottom flanges be three inches, it is evident that the width in full of the cover strip should be six inches, but in many cases a portion of the metal on each edge is dispensed with, and the strip would then be made only five inches in width, and this does not weaken the structure, as there is not sup- posed to be any longitudinal strain whatever upon the web plates, so long as the top and bottom flanges remain unimpaired in strength. Various opinions exist as to the relative values of different pitches used in bridge-work, so while on the subject of rivets we may express the views arising from 150 THE APPLICATION OF IRON our own experience in the matter. In bottom flanges in tension, and in other members under tensile strain only, it is evident that there can be no object in pitching the rivets closely, their sole use being to connect the differ- ent elements of the bridge together, and to transmit the strains from one part to another, and of course, where such duty has to be done, as in joint plates and cover plates, the rivets will be found in clusters pretty close together. In compression members, however, the rivets have another duty to perform, which is to keep the various plates forming such members from buckling away from one another, as shown in the following Fig. Fiq. 36. II o o o t\ o o o o o o o o o ooooo ooo o o ooooo o o o o o o c ooo ooooo In Fig. 36, a a represents the edges or side elevation of two plates forming a compression flange with the rivets pitched very widely apart. Now, as soon ns a TO BUILDING STRUCTURES. 151 strain conies upon the member, the plates may have a tendency to buckle and shorten, as shown in an exaggerated form at b I ; and should this occur, even in a very slight degree, it stands to reason that moisture and rain will get between the edges of the plates and cause their rapid decay. If, however, the rivets wer closer in their pitch, as shown at c, this result would be far less likely to ensure, in fact the strength of rivetted work to resist this class of distortion, varies inversely, as the square of the pitch of the rivets : thus a three- inch pitch, under these circumstances, would be four times as strong (to resist buckling) as a six-inch pitch. For narrow plates the two rows of rivets necessary for attaching the angle irons to the flanges, may be suffi- cient to hold the plates together, but for others four rows as shown at d d, or more if necessary, according to the width of the plates are used ; and these rivets may be arranged in even rows as shown at d d, or may be alter- nated as shown at e e. The latter mode is preferable, as the plate is not so much weakened by the alternate as by the opposite rows of rivets. In ordinary bridge-work it is not necessary in com- pression members to adopt any pitch less than three inches, below which we only need to go, in extreme cases where remarkably thin plates are used, which, however, is seldom done, as it is evidently more con- venient in every way to use one-half-inch plate, than to have one-quarter-inch plate superposed on another ; hence we may set down for small girders three-inch pitch as proper for the compression member, and six- inch for the tension member ; this is convenient, as the three-inch and six-inch pitches will work into equal lengths : that is, a plate suited for six-inch pitch will always work with three-inch pitch, and the rivets thus 152 THE APPLICATION OF IRON being opposite each other in the top and bottom flanges, suit equally well for the attachment of stifFeners, &c. As the plates in the compression flanges are made thicker, so may the rivets be pitched wider apart ; and it is very usual practice for bridges from eighty feet span to two-hundred feet, to adopt uniformly four-inch pitch for both top and bottom flanges, although a wider pitch, may bo used with advantage for the tension member. "When four-inch pitch is used for the top, and six-inch pitch for the bottom flange, care must be taken in arranging the stiffeners, as the top and bottom rivets will only be opposite each other at the end of every even foot from the starting point, in setting out the rivets. At certain times, ideas have been held that very close pitching of rivets in the flanges, under compression, gives a great increase of strength, but this is a in practical sense utterly fallacious and now is in all pro- bability ignored by all practical engineers, for not only is there nothing gained by the very close pitching but it actually involves an element of danger, as the great number and close proximity of the rivet holes indicate the removal of a very great portion of the metal of the members accompanied, very likely, by injury to the strength of that metal which remains to resist those strains which the structure is destined to sustain. Rivets are usually made one-sixteenth of an inch in diameter less than the rivet hole is drilled or punched, and in the process of heading up, the rivet spreads out and fills the rivet hole, and the rivets, as they contract in cooling, draw together the various plates through which they pass, thus rendering the various plates as rigid almost as if they formed one thick plate. It may here be observed, that in determining the diameter of the rivets it should be remembered never to make it less TO BUILDING STUUCTUHES. 153 than the thickness of the plate through which it passes : thus, two-inch plates require rivets one-inch in diameter to join them together, therefore the rivet holes would be punched or drilled one-inch in diameter, and the rivets made of round iron fifteen- sixteenths of an inch in diameter. In speaking of rivet holes, punching and drilling are mentioned, and this raises a point of great importance, both to designers and manufacturers of bridges. Amongst civil engineers there prevails a very great objection to punched holes on account of the sup- posed straining of the plates and bars due to the action of the punch, therefore, let us in the first place consider how far this objection holds good in a practical sense. It must be admitted that in punching a hole, the metal immediately surrounding that hole is somewhat strained; one might almost say that the edge of the hole is in all probability slightly starred for a certain distance from the edge of the hole, this distance depending on the diameter of the whole, and the thickness of the plate punched. Allowing this to be the case it will be ob- served that the injury to the metal in punching is limited to a certain area, beyond which the material remains with unimpaired strength : hence in order to secure sound work we may punch holes smaller than ultimately required, and subsequently drill out to the finished size of the hole : thus if we want a hole three quarters of an inch in diameter in a half inch plate, a five-eighth inch hole may be punched and drilled out to three quarters of an inch in diameter, thereby removing the injured edges of the hole and leaving it clean to receive the rivet or bolt for which it is provided. Not only is simple drilling unadvisable on account of its cost but there are many practical objections to it on other scores. With ordinary drills and machines it may H 3 154 THE APPLICATION OF IRON be said to be practically impossible to drill a perfectly circular hole, as tlie drill will run according to the direc- tion of the fibre of the metal and the greater the diameter of the hole in proportion to the thickness of the plate, the worse will be these irregularities, and to properly secure the plates and drills, so that perfectly circular holes are obtained, would be too tedious and costly to be adopted for bridge work, especially considering that the hole first punched and then drilled is equal, if not superior, to the hole which has been drilled through- out. As a general maxum holes having a diameter less than the thickness of the plate must be drilled, while those having a diameter greater than the plate may be punched, and very thin plates such as three-eighth, quarter, five-sixteenth, &c. should never be drilled for girder work. It is very evident that rivetted work will not turn out perfectly satisfactorily, except the holes be opposite one another, so that the heated rivets may pass fairly through them as illustrated in Fig 37. In Fig, a a I b, and c c show three plates, pro- perly punch- ed, and in position with the rivet in- serted ready to be headed up, the head being made from the me- tal in the end h of the Fig. 37. TO BUILDING STRUCTURES. 155 rivet which is hammered up into a head as shown by the dotted lines at i. If however the holes be not in line, but as shown at d d e e, then the rivet is in fact partly sheared through in the process of manufacture, and is of course weakened in a proportionate degree. Care should also be taken, that the plates to be rivetted are in close contact, hence under the blows of the rivetting hammer, the soft body of the heated rivet may form a collar as shown between the plates //, and gg. It is impossible when the rivet holes are marked on the plates by hand one by one from templates, that they can be got dead true throughout but for all ordinary work, they may be got sufficiently near for any purpose, a little rhymering out being sometimes necessary, but when a great number of plates are to be rivetted together, more accurate means of pitching the rivet holes may be requisite ; in cases of this sort the multifarious punching machine designed by the late Richard Roberts is very useful, as by its means the plates way be punched one after another with per- fect truth ; so true indeed is the action of this machine, that we have after punching a large plate throughout, again passed it through the punching apparatus, and the punches have fallen into the same holes without even jarring, and a pile of plates thus punched, several feet in height, will be so true that rods may easily be passsd from top to bottom of the plates through the rivet holes. Multifarious drilling machines are much used where very exact pitching of the rivets is required, and if well made they give satisfactory results. In these machines the plates may be drilled separately or laid together in piles and drilled throughout at once, the latter process is undoubtedly the best, but requires care in its 156 THE APPLICATION OF IRON execution. The lengths of rivets will depend upon the thicknesses of plate, through which they have to pass, and may be arrived at in the following way, add together the thicknesses of all the plates or bars through which the rivet has to pass, to that add one-thirty-second of an inch for each plate, and to the whole add one and a half times the diameter of the rivet to allow sufficient material to form the head. The one-thirty-second of an inch per plate is allowed for irregularities in the surfaces of the plates, preventing them from lying perfectly close together over their entire surfaces. It may here, while speaking of rivets, be well to mention a mistake often made by designers through mere thoughtlessness in arranging the size of angle irons, and the iron stiffeners for girder work, which is that they frequently determine the size of such elements without considering whether there is room in their flanges to hold the rivets necessary for their attach- ment to the web and flanges of the girder. Let us suppose that the iron stiffeners, three inches by two inches by half an inch thick, are specified, and at the same time three-quarter inch rivets to be used, the dimensions will then be as shown *V ^8. in Fig. 38. It will be seen here that on each side of the web of the tee iron there is but one and a quarter inches to receive the three-quarter inch rivet, so that outside the rivet there would be but a quarter inch of metal, which would very likely burst out in the process of rivetting up- and this case we have selected is by no means one of the worst that has come under our notice. We will now pass from this special point of rivetting, and proceed to consider the general manipulations to TO BUILDING STRUCTURES. 157 which the iron is submitted in the iron yards, where bridges are constructed, commencing with the delivery of working drawings into the hands of the makers. The first step to be taken is to prepare the specifi- cation (or list) of iron, bolts, &c., which is taken from the drawings, either by measuring the various dimen- sions to scale, or working from dimensions figured on the drawings, which latter is of course best, as there is less chance of error than exists when the scale is relied upon. This done, the drawings are handed over to the template makers, and copies of any cast iron work to the pattern makers, so that both the wrought and cast iron work may be proceeded with without delay The business of the template maker is to form frames or skeleton models of the plates, so as to comprise all parts where rivet holes occur, and on such templates (or battens, as they are termed in some yards) mark accu- rately out the position of the holes to be drilled in the various plates and bars, and drill them in the wood ; from these templates the iron parts of the bridge are marked, a stump of suitable size being dipped in white paint and struck through the holes in the templates which have previously been securely clamped on the iron plates to be marked. By these white marks on the iron the punchers are guided in handling the plates under the punching machines, when those of the ordi- nary description are used, making one hole at a time, and without self-acting motions for working the plates along under the punches. When, however, self-acting punching machines are used, the templates may, for the greater part of the work, be dispensed with. If the pitch of the holes is even, as in such cases, the plate to be punched is fastened to the carriage or traverse table of the punching machine, and when set in motion 158 THE APPLICATION OF IRON that table is automatically moved between the strokes of the punch through a distance corresponding to the pitch of the rivets. The templates being completed, and sent into the plating shop, the marking is soon effected, and the iron is then ready to pass into the hands of the various workmen who carry out the subsequent operations. With ordinary flat plates and bars, punching and truing the edges is all that is required before putting the work together. The former is simple enough, requiring merely care on the part of the workmen to follow the marks as closely as possible. For truing the edges, in most cases shearing, in an ordinary shearing machine, is all that the works needs, but, where exact butt joints are to be made, the ends of the plates must be planed, which may be done either with a rectilineal planing machine, or a rotating cutter. The latter is most convenient, and if carefully adjusted will turn out sufficiently accurate work. These cutters consists of discs, similar to the face plates of lathes, but furnished with short cutters, which act in turn as the face plate revolves. Usually, a number of the plates are fastened together, and the ends of them all planed at one operation, which both saves time and makes a better job than would result if they were planed one by one. Joints of this description are requisite for members in compression, where equal bear- ing is required throughout, but in tension members it is a matter of no consequence. Plates requiring to be curved must be passed through ordinary boiler makers bending rolls until the required form, gauged by a template, is obtained, but knees and joggled stiffeners and strips must be made into the proper forms by smiths before being punched or drilled. TO BUILDING STBUCTUEES. 159 Fig. 39. In Fig. 39 A represents an ordinary angle, or leo iron, which, is required to be bent at an angle as shown at 2) or D. It will be noticed that in the first case the horizontal part or as it is com- monly called, the table of the bar is at the back, or on the outside of the angle, but in the second case it is on the inner side or front. There are two ways of making the joint ; in the first case, a piece is cut out as shown by the dotted lines at 0, and the angle iron is then bent, as shown at JB, and the severed edges of the web welded or shut to- gether, and in making this shut, it is of the greatest importance to secure soundness of work ; for if it be weak, the knee is altogether useless, for as such knees are used to preserve the angular positions of other ele- ments, they must possess full strength at the angle. From the liability of such shuts as these to be defective, it is always well to avoid them, if possible, and to make the bend without severing any part of the bar. In this ICO THE APPLICATION OF IRON process it is evident that the web of the bar is pressed into itself, being thickened or upset at the part where the angle occurs, and this is not in any way objection- able, as the thickening of the metal makes it stronger in the angle, but the operation should be so managed that the web shall not crumple or buckle up under the smith's hands, hence a swage block as shown at /, in side elevation, and g in end or front elevation, is used, having a groove suited to the thickness of the web of the tee iron, and made at the angle to which the bars are required to be bent. The bar of tee iron having been heated in the furnace until it is red hot, it is placed with its web in the groove, as shown in the figure, and the smith's assistant or striker draws it down over the angle of the block by blows upon the end, k t of the bar, the sides of the groove in the block preventing any serious buckling of the web, which is afterwards set quite flat by a few blows from the sledge, subsequent to its removal from the block. The section of the bar is here preserved very nearly uniform throughout, the web is somewhat compressed into itself as it were, while the table or horizontal member of the bar is slightly drawn and extended in length. It may here be well to mention a difference in consumption of material between the two modes of making these knees, in order to aid in determining the lengths of bars requisite for making such elements without waste. In either case the knee should be accurately drawn out, either full size, or to as large a scale as possible, so that its finished length may be accurately measured ; let this be represented in Fig. 40. Then, if the bar is to be bent, by cutting a piece out in accordance with the first method above described, the length of bar required will be equal to the mea- surement of the knee or stiffener, along the back of TO BUILDING STRUCTURES. 1G1 the iron as at a I c 9 , , . n ,, , Fig. 40. but 11 the bars are c to be drawn over a block, as described secondly, the length required will be that measured on the inside of the table of the bar, as shown by the dotted line d, e, /, the extra length being made up by the drawing of the table, which takes place in the pro- cess of bending the bar. It is well to be careful in determining these lengths, for if they be a little too short it becomes necessary to order new bars, or else to weld on pieces to make them long enough, thereby causing increase of expense unnecessarily, and, in addi- tion to this, tee irons are somewhat awkward shapes to weld together, so as to obtain a satisfactory result. On the other hand, if the iron be ordered too long, that which has to be cut off becomes waste, and, as stiffeners are usually comparatively short in proportion to other elements, it follows that even short pieces of waste cut off them, run up to a greater per-centage of their total weight than in the case of other elements; thus, on stiffeners three feet in length, the waste of one and a half inches at each end would amount to 8^ per cent, on the total weight of iron used in making the knees, and this on a large work, would soon mount up, for the knees, though small, are frequently so numerous as to form a considerable item in the weight of a bridge, and moreover, as a general rule, the amount of waste in any structure, or part of a structure, must not be judged of by its actual weight, but by the relation of that weight to that of the material in which it occurs, and by care- fully watching such points as those, very sensible incre- 1G2 THE APPLICATION OF IRON ments may be ensured, for it is rather in the number of small extra expenses than in the magnitude of great ones, that losses are most frequently made. To return to Fig. 40, let us now take the second case, in which the bar is required to be bent into the form shown at D. In this case the bar cannot be bent without cutting the web, as the latter would not draw out without contract- ing so much in section as to be practically useless, (unless, indeed, the angle at which the bar is bent is so obtuse as nearly to approach the straight form of the original bar), hence the web of the bar must be cut through, as shown by the dotted line at 0, and then heated and bent, after which, an angular piece of iron, or V piece, as it is commonly called, is welded in to fill up the deficiency previously existing in the web of the tee iron. In any case, the length of the iron required for making these knees is determined by measuring along the back of the bar, but this form is not of common occurrence in girder work, never being adopted from choice, but only inserted where other forms could not be used. It is very evident that such changes in form of elements as those above described, cannot be made without, at least the risk of straining the fibres of the metal operated upon, therefore, such work should be avoided in all cases if possible, so that the girders may be made of the iron as it comes out from the rolling mill, without any further subjecting to processes requiring the application of heat until the work is rivetted together, and this should be remembered by those who are engaged in designing bridges, or roofs, for though it may be argued that by the introduction of smith work in such structures, they may be made lighter, it may be clearly shown that in the majority of cases they are not made any cheaper, TO BUILDING STKUCTURES. 1G3 find, as a plain business point in such, circumstances, there is a direct loss in having the lighter work, lor practically the intrinsic or money value of a bridge lies in its weight for if sold as old iron, it would be at per ton, and workmanship would count for nothing, hence if two bridges are equal in strength, cost and design, it is best to have that where there is most material, in preference to that in which the cost is represented by labour. When angle or tee irons require to be bent in curved forms as for the curves of turn-tables, gas-holders, &c., a mould bar or metal template must be used. Let it bo required to curve a number of angle irons for roofing principles ; in the first place, one bar must be carefully bent to a true curve to serve as a template for the rest ; this bar is then secured on a cast iron bed and the other bars being made red hot are successively bent round it, a few blows of a light hammer being all that is requisite to set it to shape ; by this means bars may be very rapidly bent, and, at the same time with great accuracy to any required form. After the various elements have been shaped to the required forms they are punched or drilled, as the case may be, in the usual manner, and then are ready to be attached to the girders of which they are destined to form parts. AY here the rods or bars with swelled ends are used these must be forged, except they are made by rolls espe- cially adapted for their formation, and, which, are formed 1G4 THE APPLICATION OF IRON Fig. 41 n e c e d as shown in Fig. 41 A and B represent the top and bottom rolls of a mill for rolling links with swelled ends. The ends of these rolls are made with col- lars a a. b b, that if a bar equal in thick- ness to the space be- tween the centra] part of the rolls be passed lroadivise\>Q- tween these rolls its centre portion will remain unaltered but its ends will be widened out or swelled as shown at at c where d is the centre part of the bar and e e shows the widened ends of the same after passing through the the mill. If the bar be now passed lengthwise between plain rolls as shown at D the centre part d of the bar becomes elongated and the ends e e remain unaltered so when the bar has been rolled down to an uniform thick- ness we have a long link with swelled ends and no weld in it, but of solid section from end to end. In this way all such bars when of any magnitude should be made as it is preferable to and far safer than that in which the ends of the bars are made, separately and subsequently shut or welded on to the body, or central part of the bar D f TO BUILDING STRUCTURES. 166 but for round bars the latter course must be adopted, or some other equivalent to it for it is plain that the flat end of a link could not be passed through rolls grooved in a suitable way to form the cylindrical body of the rod. It used to be a common custom to make eyes to the ends of round bars by bending the extremities round on to the body of the bar and then welding them up, but this is not satisfactory as by this method the hole in the eye is not cylindrical throughout, hence affords insufficient bearing for a bolt passing through it. In making the rods, with eyes at their ends, it is neces- sary to forge the ends separately, and then shut them on to the round iron of which the ties are to be made, care being taken to keep the centres at the right distance apart, so that the ties may be of the proper length. The holes in the ends may be made in the forging, and subsequently drilled out true, or, if preferred, the holes may be drilled out of the solid metal, which is, perhaps, the best where considerable accuracy of fit is indispens- able. Of course great care must be taken in shutting on the ends of such links, in order that the joint or scarf may be equally strong with the body of the bar. Screwed ends of ties and ends for cotters, &c., are in like manner made separately, and subsequently welded on to the body of the bar. In fitting bolts to eyes in links, and holes in castings, they may be made true fits, the holes being carefully bored out and the bolts as truly turned ; or on the other hand both the hole and bolt may be' left rough, and a certain play allowed, in order to get the bolt into the holes in the elements it is intended to join together ; the amount usually allowed is one-eighth of an inch, so that for a bolt three-quarters of an inch in diameter the bolt hole would be made seven-eighths of an inch diameter, 1G3 THE APPLICATION OF IKON and for a bolt one-and-a-lialf inches in diameter the bolt hole would be made one inch and five-eighths in diameter, and so forth. All the different elements of the structure having been duly prepared, they are ready to be put together in the erecting shop, and rivetted up so far as is consistent with the requirements of subsequent conveyance from the manufacturer's yard. The girders are erected on a series of bars or blocks, supported on iron brackets firmly set in the ground; these brackets may carry cross bars, which are so arranged as to admit of adjustment, so that their upper surfaces may be placed at the same level, or disposed to give the girder any required amount of camber. On these bars the bottom plates of the girders are duly laid, and so piece by piece they are built up until the full height is reached, the various parts being held together by bolts or cotters passed through some of the rivet holes, only a sufficient number being used to hold the plates and bars together, while they are permanently rivetted up. When the work is being thus put together, any discrepancy in length of plates, &c., may be ascertained and rectified ; and it may then also be seen if the rivet- holes are truly in line through the various layers of material, and if they be not so they may betrued-upby rhymering out the holes, which will do no harm if the work be tolerably accurate, although some engineers are so strict as to prohibit in their specifications the use of the rhymer ; we consider this injudicious, as a slight clearing of the hole smooths the edges of the holes at the contact of the plates, and renders their bearing upon the rivets more uniform than it would otherwise be, unless the plates were perforated dead true, which, in ordinary bridge-work, is a thing not to be expected. TO BUILDING STRUCTURES. 167 The work being sufficiently held together, and found accurate, is now rivetted up, either completely or not, according to circumstances. If it is not intended to test the bridge on the contractor's premises, it is sufficient to rivet it together at all parts, except those where it breaks for shipment or carriage, where for the time being it may be held by temporary bolts, but if the bridge is to be submitted to a test before leaving the yard in which it is made, it should be completely rivetted up ; even though it will afterwards be necessary to cut out some of the rivets, in order to pull the structure down for shipment, for although bolts may be amply strong to sustain the load, yet they do not (unless turned, which is not done in such cases), hold so closely as the rivets intended ultimately to connect the various parts of the structure ; hence the deflection will, in all probability, be much greater if the rivets be left out. and so justice would not be done to the manufacturer, and very possibly the inspecting engineer would not be satisfied, In ordinary girder- work there is not usually much to be done in the way of fitting, and what there is is not of a delicate nature ; hence highly skilled artizans are not required for this purpose, all that needs -to be done, con- sisting in planing bed plates, &c., and boring bolt-holes and turning up bolts and cast-iron friction rollers, and in some cases the bolts are not turned but merely ground bright on a revolving lap or stone, which, however, naturally makes them but little truer than when in their rough state. In rivetting girders together it is usual to strike up the head of the rivets first with the flogging hammers, and finally to reduce them to a uniform shape and size by placing over them a die with a recess sunk on its face (and which is termed a snap), and striking it with 1C3 THE APPLICATION OF IKON a hammer. In some instances, if too much length of rivet has been allowed for making the head, it will form a slight collar under the edge of the snap and around the head of the rivet; in order to preserve appearances this collar is sometimes cut off, but it is best to let it remain, for in cutting it off the chisel used for that purpose may injure the plate underneath the rivet head. The work being so far completed, it only remains to oil and paint the work, and to mark it previous to taking it apart, so that, by the aid of key plans, the erector may be enabled readily to re-construct the work on the site for which it is destined. CHAPTEE X. INSPECTION AND TESTING OF MATERIALS. THE most carefully prepared designs cannot, in exe- cution, give satisfactory results unless the quality of the material used is up to the standard of strength assumed by the engineer in calculating the dimensions of the various elements of the proposed structure, hence it is necessary to be assured that the material used shall be sufficiently good, and this is invariably stipulated in specifications. It is not unusual to specify that iron shall be procured from a certain maker, or of a certain brand, or, in event of that iron not being procurable, that such material as is used shall be equal to it in strength and elasticity. Now the quality of iron, even of the same brand, will vary slightly from year to year, .hence, instead of specifying a given brand, it would be TO BUILDING STEUCTUEES. 169 more consistent merely to stipulate for a certain amount of strength and elasticity in the material to be used. The first tests in respect to wrought iron consist chiefly in determining its resistance to tensile force, which force it is best qualified to withstand. Plates, flat bars, angle irons, &c., may be considered of excellent quality for girder- work if they do not break under a strain of twenty-three tons per sectional square inch, or stretch before breaking more than one inch per foot of length, or less than half an inch. If the bars stretch over much, the structures made from them will be liable to take a considerable permanent set, but if it will not stretch fairly there is a danger of its snapping under sudden loads, or violent vibration or concussion. The iron should not stretch permanently under a strain of ten tons per sectional square inch, and its maximum load should never in working exceed five tons per square inch, or one half of the load at which permanent set commences, thus, if the material is such as to reach twelve tons, tensile strain per square inch before perma- nent set commences, it may safely be worked ordinarily at a strain of six tons per square inch. Bars that have been used for testing should never be used in making a structure, as testing them over their working weight may possibly cause some slight injury to the fibre, which will gradually be augmented by other, even smaller, strains, until ultimately failure ensues, perhaps under a comparatively small load, whereas, had no such excessive test Keen applied, the work would have stood the weight of the maximum ordinary load for an indefinite period of time. In compression wrought iron will most generally give way by crippling, hence the strength of members in compression must be secured by making them of a form i 170 THE APPLICATION OF IBON suited to resist bending tendencies, but the resistance of wrought iron to crushing force should be equal to not less than sixteen tons per sectional square inch, and it should not show signs of failure under a smaller load than eight tons per square inch, then it may safely be loaded in ordinary working up to as much, as four tons per sectional square inch. Cast iron is admirably adapted to withstand com- pressive strains, both, on account of its rigidity, and also by reason of its superior resistance to crushing stress. Good cast iron will not yield to compressive force until it reaches about forty-five tons per square inch, hence seven- and-a-half tons per square inch is perfectly safe as a working strain in compression upon cast iron of good quality, but in tension cast iron breaks at about seven tons per square inch, hence should not be loaded ordinarily with any tensile strain exceeding one-and-a- half tons per sectional square inch. For shearing strain on wrought iron, four tons is the working strain usually allowed on bolts or rivets if of iron, or six tons if of steel. When the preliminary tests are made and found satis- factory by the inspecting Engineer, it remains for him to see that the material used in the work under his charge is made of uniform quality throughout, and well and cleanly rolled. In order to be thoroughly compe- tent to undertake this duty, it is necessary he should be well acquainted with the manufacture of iron in all its branches, for there are many apparent blemishes on rolled iron which are not of the slightest consequence as regards the actual strength, whereas defects of a more serious character which do not so obviously appear, often would escape the notice of any one not practically acquainted with the manufacture of wrought iron. TO BUILDING STKTJCTUKES. 171 We will now proceed to briefly refer to the testing of entire structures, such, as girders, bridges, &c., in their complete form. In these tests there is not only the strength of the structure to be verified, but also the quality of workmanship put into it, especially in the joints and articulated parts of the work, which will be found to yield more or less uniformly, according to the care which has been taken in the manufacture. The curvature, or camber given to a bridge, which is usually one inch rise at centre for every forty feet of span, is intended to secure that it shall not deflect below a straight line when its greatest load comes upon it, and if the work is well done this is generally found sufficient to ensure that result. When the bridge is ready to 'be tested, a diagram should be carefully drawn to show the exact curvature of the bridge as it stands, then the supports are gradu- ally removed from beneath, so that it has then to sustain its own weight ; the diagram of deflection under this load may now be taken, and the work then by degrees loaded up to the full test load which it is required to sustain, when the diagram of the curve due to this maximum load is to be noted. The test load having been allowed to remain on the structure, for such time as may be thought sufficient, in order that all the joints may take their proper bearings, it may be removed and another diagram drawn showing Fig. 42 C i 2 172 THE APPLICATION OP IRON to what curve the bridge has returned, these diagrams may be blotted on a sheet of paper, in the form shown at Fig. 42. This diagram should be for clearness drawn to a distorted scale, that is to say, the horizontal scale may be half-inch to one-foot and the vertical scale natural size, then the curves of deflection can be more accurately judged. A a B is a Horizontal line drawn between the piers upon which the bridge or girder to be tested, is supported, and ACS the curve showing the position of the of the bottom flange of the girder as constructed and before the supports upon which it has been built, are removed. On removal of the blocks, the girder assumes the position indicated by the curved line A c B and when the total load is added A d B shows the curve of ultimate deflection, on removal of the test load the girder will return to some position more or less nearly approaching the curve A c B. This curve shows the permanent de- flection or permanent set of the girder, and of this and the causes whence it arises, it is necessary to make a few remarks here. If the bridge is properly tested, the load being allowed to remain on it for a sufficient length of time, the deflection curve should never afterwards descend below A d B so long as the test load is not exceeded, nor should the permanent set of the girder increase, and if the permanent set be found to increase continually, this will indicate that the work is not sufficiently strong and that it is certainly though gradually giving way, and will sooner or later fracture and fail altogether. If how- ever, the permanent set should only continue to increase for a moderately short period and then stop altogether, it may be due the fact that the test load was not left Inog enough on the girder for the joints to find their TO BUILDING STRUCTURES. 173 bearing, but it does not indicate any danger of future failure. The cause of the deflection from the curve A C B to A e B is duplex in its nature being partly found in the weight of the structure itself and partly in the settlement due to the various joints which occur through- out the work. Bi vetted joints will generally give a little before all the rivets take a fair bearing, and to this is due the permanent set, over and above the deflection due to the weight of the structure itself. If, in taking permanent set, the girder assumes the form of a tolerably true curve, it may be concluded that the workmanship is good, and the joints uniformly made throughout, but if an irregular line of permanent set occurs, it indicates slovenly work, and rivets which do not nearly fill the rivet holes. An irregular deflection curve under a maximum load uniformly distributed, indicates a want of uniformity in the strength of the girder, showing that the various sections have not been all proportioned in the same ratio to the strains to which they are sub- ject. If the permanent set continually increases, it is certain that either the iron itself is overstrained, and is gradually stretching to its breaking point, or that the joints themselves are giving way by degrees. In the former case there is no remedy but to reconstruct the work, but in the latter, the joints may be renewed. 174 THE APPLICATION OF IRON CONCLUSION. IN concluding the present treatise, a few general remarks upon the subject considered in the previous pages, are necessary in order to state the comparative merits of various systems of construction and their adaptability to certain specific requirements. To commence with bridges, it is to be observed that there are two main purposes, for which bridges are required, first to carry railways, and secondly to carry miscellaneous traffic, such as occurs on ordinary carriage roads. In the first case, the load in its full intensity, passes from one end of the bridge to the other, being a concentrated rolling load, whereas on a road bridge, the load is more uniformly distributed as it usually consists of a number of comparatively trifling loads passing in both directions, so as to nearly maintain the symmetry of the load, and correspondingly that of the strains. In order that the strains on an arched girder may be only thrust, it is necessary that the load should be uniformly distributed over the whole length of the arch, other- wise if one haunch be loaded more than the other, there will be a tendency to distort the arched ribs, and of course this will produce a bending strain on the arch, a strain for which it is not especially designed, hence it is evident that an ordinary arch though very suitable to carry a roadway bridge, if by no means so well adapted for a railway bridge. For a roadway bridge of any dimensions, where taste has to be regarded, it may be indeed said that we have but two forms of structure to chose from, viz., the arched bridge and the suspension chain, either of which well afford a good TO BUILDING STRUCTUIIES. 175 basis for an elegant structure, but those of the latter description are not sufficiently rigid to give results as satisfactory as are shown by arches. For railway bridges, however, tied arches, or bow- string girders, may be used, more conveniently as the bracing bars between the arch and the tie, uniting the extremities of the former in a very great degree, resist the tendency to distort the bow, hence, when large spans are required, this form is not unfrequently adopted. In very large girders, with parallel flanges, there appears to be a considerable element of unsteadiness, inasmuch as a great proportion of the load on the piers may be regarded as passing through the end uprights or pillars of the girders, and being, as it were, resting on the tops of them ; if, however, the bowstring form be used the weight is delivered from the arched mem- ber directly on the pier or foundation plate, upon which it rests, and thus obviates the objection found to the loftier girders. Lattice girders present many advantages for railway bridges of large spans. In the first place, they both look light and really are light if properly designed. They are easily erected, and convenient for carriage and shipment, consisting as they do chiefly of elements of small section in proportion to their length, whereas, in plate web girders, the web plates, being of a square or oblong form, are awkward to pack or to move about. For foreign work, Warren girders, being composed of bars which form equilateral triangles, have been used to an exceedingly great extent, not only on account of the convenience of packing them, but also because of the readiness with which they may be erected in situ in countries where it is impossible to obtain skilled labour, in such places, in fact, whatever style is adopted,, it 176 THE APPLICATION OF IRON frequently becomes necessary to build up the work without doing any rivetting whatever on it, and then it becomes imperative to join the different elements of the bridge together by means of bolts, which should be turned, and accurately fitted to drilled holes, so as to hold as tight as rivets. The flooring of bridges of course depends upon the purpose for which they are required, and the convenience of getting materials in the locality where it is to be erected. For railway bridges, corrugated iron sheets are frequently used, or timber planking, if timber is plentiful. For road- way bridges, buckle plates have been, perhaps, more extensively used than any other kind of covering, but they are now being superseded by simple curved iron plates, tied at the edges, so as to prevent their springing. Cast-iron plates which were formerly used, are scarcely ever now applied. Eoofs may be divided into two classes, large and small roofs. For the former it is necessary to adopt strong ribs to form the principals, and for this the arch or trussed arch is extremely useful. The trussed arch is in fact a bow-string girder, of which the tie has a very con- siderable rise in the centre of the span, being held up by vertical or queen rods, which attach it to the arch above. These principals are often placed at consider- able distances apart, in which case it is necessary to have very rigid purlins, and not unfrequently lattice girders are employed to do this duty. For small spans, the various kinds of triangular or trussed principals, simple and compound are used, but they are not suitable for spans of great width, not having sufficient rigidity. The coverings of roofs are very various, according to TO BUILDING STRUCTURES. 177 the purposes to which they are applied ; thus for store- houses and sheds, corrugated iron is sufficient for the purpose. For dwelling-houses, gas-houses, &c., slated roofs are very generally used ; in this case the purlins have to be put very close together if the roof is not boarded previously to having the slates fastened on, in fact the distance between them is only ten and a-half inches generally, and the purlins consist of small angle irons one and a-half inches by one and a-half inches, by a quarter of an inch thick ; for roofs of this description the principals should not be placed farther apart than six feet or else, the purlins will not be sufficiently rigid to sustain the weight of the super-imposed slates. Glass, though heavy, is very frequently used, partially or entirely, for the roof coverings of public buildings, railway stations, and other places where much light is required ; and in some tropical climates the roofs are, in some instances, covered with layers of sand or concrete three or four inches thick, in order to exclude the heat, which would otherwise be unbearable. INDEX. A. PAGE. Arches, Strain on 51 Arched Hoofs 130 B. Bessemer Iron and Steel 14 Bertram's Plate Welding 13 Bowstring Girders 77 Bolts 80, 101 Butt Joints 92 Bending Angle Irons - .. 159 C. Cast Iron, different qualities of ............ 7 Strength of 8 Commercial Iron, Forms of 15 Criteria of Strain 27 Cantilevers, Strain on /, 28 Combined Trusses < 54 Cast Iron Girders, Joints of 83 Cover Plates 97 Columns, Strength of 121 Cast Iron Floor Plates .... 140 Cast Iron Breakwater 144 Camlier of Bridges 171 180 INDEX. D. PAGE. Drilled and Punched Holes 152 Drilling Machine, Multifarious 155 E. Eyes, Swelled 90, 164 F. Flanged Girders for Buildings 106 Floors, Load on 116 Fire Proof 139 Floor Plates, Cast Iron 140 G. Galy-Cazalat's Process 14 Girders, Warren's 60 Trellis 63 Lattice 73 Bowstring 77 Cast Iron, Joints of 83 Gussets ........, 98 n. Heaton's Process 14 Horizontal Bars, Strain on 24, 62, 72, 74, 75 I. Iron, Strength of 8 Metallurgy of Cast 10 Malleable.... 13 INDEX. PAGE. Iron, Bessemer 1^ Galy-Cazalat's u Heaton 14 Stretching of 169 Inclined Trusses 57 J. Joints of Cast Iron Girders 83 Eivetted 85, 92 ofTJprights 91 Lap , 92 Butt .., 92 Plates 98 Gussetts 98 for Piles 143 L. Length of Eivets 95 Load on Koofs 124 RoofPurlins 134 M. Metallurgy of Cast Iron 10 Malleable Iron 13 Multifarious Punching Machine ^ 155 Drilling Machine 155 P. Puddling of Iron 14 Plate Welding 16 182 INDEX. PAGE. Plate Girders 106 Piles 142 Joints of 143 Pitch of Rivets , 148 Punched and Drilled Holes ,, 152 K. Eivetted Joints 85, 92 Eivets, Length of 95 Pitch of 148 Eoofs, Load on 124 Eoof Ties, Tension on 129 Arched 130 Purlins, Load on 134 Strain on 135 Eafters, Strain on 126 S. Strain on Inclined Bars 17 Horizontal Bars 24 Strain, Criteria of 27 Strain on Cantilevers 28 Arches 51 Lattice Ears 60, 71, 73, 75 Eafters 126 Purlins 135 Strength of Columns 121 Wrought Iron Bars.... 128 Swelled Eyes 90, 164 Saltash Bridge < 79 Stretching of Iron 169 Simple Trusses ^ 62 INDEX 183 T. PAGE. Trellis Girders 63 Tie Link? 87 Tension on Roof Ties .. 129 Warren's Girders 58 Weight of Brick Walls 105 PRINTED BY J. S. VIRTUE AND CO., LIMITED, CITV ROAD, LONDON. LONDON, 1862, THE PRIZE MEDAL Was awarded to the Publishers of "WHALE'S SERIES." A NEW LIST OF WEALE'S SERIES RUDIMENTARY SGIENTIFICjEDUCATIONAL, AND CLASSICAL. Comprising nearly Three Hundred and Fifty distinct works in almost every department of Science, A rt, and Education, recommended to the notice of Engineers, Architects, Builders, Artisans, and Students generally, as well as to those interested in li^orfcmen's Libraries? " Litera^^and Scientific Institutions, Colleges, Schools, Science Classes, &*c., d^g. 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Comprising a Treatise on Modern Engines and Boilers : Marine, Locomotive and Sta- tionary. And containing a large collection of Rules and Practical Data relating to recent Practice in Designing and Constructing all kinds of Engines, Boilers, and other Engineering work. The whole constituting a comprehensive Key to the Board of Trade and other Examinations for Certi- ficates of Competency in Modern Mechanical Engineering. By WALTER S. HUTTON, Civil and Mechanical Engineer, Author of "The Works' Manager's Handbook for Engineers," &c. With upwards of 370 Illustrations. Third Edition, Revised, with Additions. Medium 8vo, nearly 500 pp., price i8s. Strongly bound. IS" This work is designed as a companion to the Author's "WORKS' MANAGER'S HAND-BOOK." It possesses innny new and original features, and COM- tains, like its predecessor, a quantity of matter not originally intended for publica- tion, but collected by the author for his own use in the construction of a great variety of modern engineering work. The information is given in a condensed and concise form, and is illustrated ly upwards of 370 Woodcuts; and comprises a quantity of tabulated matter of great value to all engaged in designing, constructing, or estimating for ENGINES, BOILERS and OTHER ENGINEERING WORK. *** OPINIONS OF THE PRESS. " We have kept it at hand for several weeks, referring to it as occasion arose, and we have not on a single occasion consulted its pages without tin -.ling the information of which we were in quest. " Atheittzum. " A thoroughly good practical handbook, whi ;h no engineer can go through without learning something that will be of service to him." Marine Engineer. 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English M^chan if. B 2 CROSBY LOCKWOOD &> SON'S CATALOGUE. HandbooJc for Works' Managers. THE WORKS' MANAGER'S HANDBOOK OF MODERN RULES, TABLES, AND DATA. For Engineers, Millwrights, and Boiler Makers; Tool Makers, Machinists, and Metal Workers; Iron and Brass Founders, &c. By W. S. HUTTON, Civil and Mechanical Engineer, Author of "The Practical Engineer's Handbook." Fourth Edition, carefully Revised, and partly Re-written. In One handsome Volume, medium 8vo, price 155. strongly bound. \Just published. I3S* The Author having compiled Rules and Data for his own use in a great variety of modern engineering work, and having found his notes extremely useful, decided to publish them revised to date believing that a practical work, suited to the DAILY REQUIREMENTS OF MODERN ENGINEERS, would be favourably received. In the Third Edition, the following among other additions have been made, viz.: Rules for the Proportions of Riveted Joints in Soft Steel Plates,the Results of Experi- ments by PROFESSOR KENNEDY for the Institution of Mechanical Engineers Rules for the Proportions of Turbines Rules for the Strength of Hollow Shafts of Whit- worth's Compressed Steel, &c. *** OPINIONS OF THE PRESS. " The author treats every subject from the point of view of one who has collected workshop notes for application in workshop practice, rather than from the theoretical or literary aspect. The volume contains a great deal of that kind of information which is gained only by practical experi- ence, and is seldom written in books." Engineer. "The volume is an exceedingly useful one. brimful with engineers' notes, memoranda, and rules, and well worthy of being on every mechanical engineer's bookshelf." Mechanical World. "The information is precisely that likely to be required in practice. . . . 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Fcap. 8vo, nearly 500 pp., with Eight Plates and upwards of 250 Illustrative Diagrams, 6s., strongly bound for workshop or pocket wear and tear. [Just published. \* OPINIONS OF THE PRESS. "In Its modernised form Hutton's ' Templeton ' should have a wide sale, for it contains much valuable information which the mechanic will often find of use, and not a few tables and notes which he might look for in vain in other works. This modernised edition will be appreciated by all who have learned to value the original editions of ' Templeton.' " English Mechanic. " It has met with great success in the engineering workshop, as we can testify ; and there are a great many men who, in a great measure, owe their rise in life to this little boo\i."i>titMing r News. " This familiar text-book well known to all mechanics and engineers is of essential service to the every-day requirements of engineers, millwrights, and the various trades connected with engineering and building. 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With a History of Fire-Engines, their Construction, Use, and Management ; Re- marks on Fire-Proof Buildings, and the Preservation of Life from Fire ; Statistics of the Fire Appliances in English Towns; Foreign Fire Systems ; Hints on Fire Brigades, &c. &c. By CHARLES F. T. YOUNG, C E. With numerous Illustrations, 544 pp., demy 8vo, i 45. cloth. " To such of our readers as are interested in the subject of fires and fire apparatus, we can most heartily commend this book. It is really the only English work we now have upon the subject." Engineering; " It displays much evidence of careful research ; and Mr. Young has put his facts neatly together. It is evident enough that his acquaintance with the practical details ot the construction of steam fire engines, old and new, and the conditions with which it is necessary they should comply, Is accurate and full." Engineer. Estimating for Engineering Work, tc. ENGINEERING ESTIMATES, COSTS AND ACCOUNTS: A Guide to Commercial Engineering. With numerous Examples of Esti- mates and Costs of Millwright Work, Miscellaneous Productions, Steam Engines and Steam Boilers; and a Section on the Preparation of Costs Accounts. By A GENERAL MANAGER. Demy 8vo, izs. cloth. [Just published. " Thi; is an excel'ent and very useful book, coverirg subject-in tier in constant requisition m every f-.ctory and workshop. . . . The bo^k is inval u..ble, not only to the young engineer, but also to the estimate department of every works." Builder. " This book bear* on every pige evidence that it has been prepared by an engineer accus- tomed to the work, and is no mere compilation, but contains a mass of valuable information oi a kind useful even to experienced engineers." Practical Engineer. " We accord the work unqualified praise. The information is given in a plain, strai^htforwarl imnner, and heirs throughout evidence of the intimate practical ac-juaiitance of the author with every phrass of cjm:n:rcial enginee'ing." Mechanical World. LOczwoob &. SON'S CATALOGUE. THE POPULAR WORKS OF MICHAEL REYNOLDS ("THE ENGINE DRIVER'S FRIEND"). Locomotive-Engine Driving. LOCOMOTIVE-ENGINE DRIVING : A Practical Manual for Engineers in charge of Locomotive Engines. By MICHAEL REYNOLDS, Member of the Society of Engineers, formerly Locomotive Inspector L. B. and S. C. R. Eighth Edition. Including a KEY TO THE LOCOMOTIVE ENGINE. With Illus- trations and Portrait of Author. Crown 8vo, 45. 6d. cloth. "Mr. Reynolds has supplied a want, and has supplied it well. We can confidently recommend the book, not only to the practical driver, but to everyone who takes an interest in the performance of locomotive engines." The Engineer. " Mr. Reynolds has opened a new chapter in the literature of the day. This admirable practical treatise, of the practical utility of which we have to speak in terms of warm commendation." Athenaunt, " Evidently the work of one who knows his subject thoroughly." Railway Service Gazette. "Were the cautions and rules given in the book to become part of the every-day working of ur engine-drivers, we might have fewer distressing accidents to deplore." Scotsman. Stationary Engine Driving. STATIONARY ENGINE DRIVING : A Practical Manual for Engineers in charge of Stationary Engines. By MICHAEL REYNOLDS. Fourth Edition, Enlarged. With Plates and Woodcuts. Crown 8vo, 45. 6d. cloth. "The author is thoroughly acquainted with his subjects, and his advice on the various points treated is clear and practical. . . . He has produced a manual which is an exceedingly useful one for the class for whom it is specially intended." Engineering. "Our author leaves no stone unturned. He is determined that his readers shall not only kn&w something about the stationary engine, but all about \t" Engineer. "An engineman who has mastered the contents of Mr.Reynolds's bookwill require but little actual experience with boilers and engines before he can be trusted to look after them." ILitglishMtchanic, The Engineer, Fireman, and Engine-Boy. THE MODEL LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEER, FIREMAN, and ENGINE-BOY. Comprising a Historical Notice of the Pioneer Locomotive Engines and their Inventors. By MICHAEL REYNOLDS. With numerous Illus> trations and a fine Portrait of George Stepherison. Crown 8vo, 45. 6d. cloth. " From the technical knowledge of the author it will appeal to the railway man of to-day more forcibly than anything written by Dr. Smiles. . . . The volume contains information of a tech- nical kind, and facts that every driver should be familiar with." English Mechanic. "We should be glad to see this book in the possession of everyone in the kingdom who has ever laid, or is to lay, hands on a locomotive engine." Iron. Continuous Railway BraJces. CONTINUOUS RAILWAY BRAKES : A Practical Treatise on the several Systems in Use in the United Kingdom; their Construction and Performance. With copious Illustrations and numerous Tables. By MICHAEL REYNOLDS. Large crown 8vo, gs. cloth. " A popular explanation of the different brakes. It will be of great assistance in forming public opinion, and will be studkd with benefit by those who take an interest in the brake." English " Written with sufficient technical detail to enable the principle and relative connection of the various parts of each particular brake to be readily grasped." Mechanical IVorld. Engine-Driving Life. ENGINE-DRIVING LIFE : Stirring Adventures and Incidents in the Lives of Locomotive-Engine Drivers. By MICHAEL REYNOLDS. Second Edition, with Additional Chapters. Crown 8vo. 2s. cloth. "From first to last perfectly fascinating. Wilkie Collins's m< ' ' JPocJcet Companion for Enginemen. THE ENG I NEMAN'S POCKET COMPANION AND PR AC. TICAL EDUCATOR FOR ENGINEMEN, BOILER ATTENDANTS, AND MECHANICS. By MICHAEL REYNOLDS. With Forty-five Illustra- tions and numerous Diagrams. Second Edition, Revised. Royal i8mo, 35. 6d. t strongly bound for pocket wear. " This admirable woik is well suited to accomplish its object, being the honest workmanship of t competent engineer." Glasg CIVIL ENGINEERING, SURVEYING, etc. MR. HUMBER'S IMPORTANT ENGINEERING BOOKS. The Water Supply of Cities and Towns. A COMPREHENSIVE TREATISE on the WATER-SUPPLY OF CITIES AND TOWNS. By WILLIAM HUMBER, A-M.Inst.C.E., and M. Inst. M.E., Author of " Cast and Wrought Iron Bridge Construction," &c. &c. Illustrated with 50 Double Plates, i Single Plate, Coloured Frontispiece, and upwards of 250 Woodcuts, and containing 400 pages of Text. Imp. 4to, 6 6s. elegantly and substantially half-bound in morocco, List of Contents. Conduits.-XIII. Distribution of Water. XI V. Meters, Service Pipes, and House Fittings. XV. The Law and Economy of Water Works. XVI; Constant and Intermittent Supply. XVII. Description of Plates. Appendices, giving Tables of Rates of Supply, Velocities, &c. &c., together with Specifications of several Works illustrated, among which will be found : Aberdeen, Bideford, Canterbury, Dundee, Halifax, Lambeth, Rotherham, Dublin, and I. Historical Sketch of some of the means that have been adopted for the Supply of Water to Cities and Towns. II. Water and the Fo- reign Matter usually associated with it. III. Rainfall and Evaporation. IV. Springs and the water-bearing formations of various dis- tricts. V. Measurement and Estimation of the flow of Water VI. On the Selection of the Source of Supply. VII. Wells. VIII. Reser. voirs. IX. The Purification of Water. X. Pumps. XI. Pumping Machinery. XII. others. ng Machinery. The most systematic and valuable work upon water supply hitherto produced in English, or In any other language. . . . Mr. Humber's work is characterised almost throughout by an exhaustiveness much more distinctive of French and German than of English technical treatises." Engineer. " We can congratulate Mr. Humber on having been able to give so large an amount of Infor- mation on a subject so important as the water supply of cities and towns. The plates, fifty in number, are mostly drawings of executed works, and alone would have commanded the attention of every engineer whose practice may lie in this branch of the profession." Builder. Cast and Wrought Iron Bridge 'Construction. A COMPLETE AND PRACTICAL TREATISE ON CAST AND WROUGHT IRON BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION, including Iron Foundations. In Three Parts Theoretical, Practical, and Descriptive. By WILLIAM HUMBER, A.M.Inst.C.E., and M.Inst.M.E. Third Edition, Re- vised and much improved, with 115 Double Plates (20 of which now first appear in this edition), and numerous Additions to the Text. In Two Vols., imp. 4to, 6 i6s. 6d. half-bound in morocco. "A very valuable contribution to the standard literature of civil engineering. In addition to elevations, plans and sections, large scale details are given which very much enhance the instruc- tive worth of those illustrations." Civil Engineer and Architect's Journal. "Mr. Humber's stately volumes, lately issued in which the most important bridges erected during the last five years, under the d'rection of the late Mr. Brunei, Sir W. Cubitt, Mr. Hawk- shaw, Mr. Page, Mr. Fowler, Mr. Hemans, and others among our most eminent engineers, are drawn and specified in great detail." Engineer CROSBY LOCKWCOD & SON'S CATALOGUE. MR. HUMBER'S GREAT WORK ON MODERN ENGINEERING, Complete in Four Volumes, imperial 4to, price 12 izs,, half-morocco, Each Volume sold separately as follows : A RECORD OF THE PROGRESS OF MODERN ENGINEER- ING. FIRST SERIES. Comprising Civil, Mechanical, Marine, Hydraulic, Railway, Bridge, and other Engineering Works, &c. By WILLIAM HUMBER, A-M.Inst.C.E., &c. Imp. 4to, with 36 Double Plates, drawn to a large scale, Photographic Portrait of John Hawkshaw, C.E., F.R.S., &c., and copious descriptive Letterpress, Specifications, &c., 3 35. half-morocco. List of the Plates and Diagrams. Victoria Station and Roof, L. B. & S. C. R. (8 plates) ; Southport Pier (2 plates) ; Victoria Station and Root, L. C. & D. and G. W. R. (6 plates); Roof of Crcinorne Music Hall; Bridge over G. N. Railway ; Roof of Station, Dutch Rhenish Rail (2 plates) ; Bridge over the " Handsomely lithographed and printed. It will find favour with many who desire to preserve In a permanent form copies of the plans and specifications prepared for the guidance of the con- tractors for many important engineering works." Engineer. HUMBER'S RECORD OF MODERN ENGINEERING. SECOND SERIES. Imp. 4:0, with 36 Double Plates, Photographic Portrait of Robert Stephensqn, C.E., M.P., F.R.S., &c., and copious descriptive Letterpress, Specifications, &c., 3 33. half-morocco. List of the Plates and Diagrams. Thames, West London Extension Railway (5 plates) ; Armour Plates : Suspension Bridge, Thames (4 ' ' n Br; ly (3 plates). Thames (4 plates) ; The Allen Engine ; Sus- pension Bridge, Avon (3 plates); Underground Railway (3 plates). Birkenhead Docks, Low Water Basin (15 plates); Charing Cross Station Roof, C. C. late Railway (3 plates); Digswell Viaduct, Great Northern Railway ; Robbery Wood Viaduct, Great Northern Railway ; Iron Permanent Way; Clydach Viaduct, Merthyr, Tredegar ( and Abergavenny Railway; Ebbw Viaduct, Merthyr, Tredegar, and Abergavenny Rail- way ; College Wood Viaduct, Cornwall Rail- way ; Dublin Winter Palace Roof (3 plates) ; D. Railway Bridge over the Thames, L. C. & D. (6 plates) ; Albert Harbour, Greenock (4 plates). " Mr. Humber has done the profession good and true service, by the fine collection of examples he has here brought before the profession and the public." Practical Mechanic's Journal. HUMBER'S RECORD OF MODERN ENGINEERING. THIRD , SERIES. Imp. 4to, with 40 Double Plates, Photographic Portrait of J. R. \ M'Clean, late Pres. Inst. C.E., and copious descriptive Letterpress, Speci- fications, &c., 3 35. half-morocco, List of the Plates and Diagrams. MAIN DRAINAGE, METROPOLIS.- North Side. Map showing Interception of Sewers ; Middle Level Sewer (2 plates) ; Outfall Sewer, Bridge over River Lea (3 plates) ; Outfall Sewer, Bridge over Marsh Lane, North Woolwich Railway, and Bow and Barking Railway Junc- tion ; Outfall Sewer, Bridge over Bow and Barking Railway (3 plates); Outfall Sewer, Bridge over East London Waterwork Sewer, Reservoir and Outlet (4 plates) ; Outfall Sewer, Filth Hoist ; Sections of Sewers (North and South Sides). THAMES EMBANKMENT. Section of River Wall ; Steamboat Pier, Westminster (2 plates): Landing Stairs between Charing Cross and Waterloo Bridges ; York Gate (2 plates) ; Over- flow and Outlet at Savoy Street Sewer (3 plates) j Steamboat Pier, Waterloo Bridge (3 plates) ; Junction of Sewers, Plans and Sections ; Gullies, Plans and Sections; Rolling Stock; Granite and Iron Forts. rks' Feeder (2 plates); Outfall Sewer, Reservoir (2 plates) ; Outfall Sewer. Tumbling Bay and Outlet ; Out- fall Sewer, Penstocks. South Side. Outfall Sewer, Bermondsey Branch (2 plates) ; Outtall " The drawings have a constantly increasing value, and whoever desires to possess clear repre- sentations of the two great works carried out by our Metropolitan Board will obtain Mr. number's volume." Engineer. HUMBER'S RECORD OF MODERN ENGINEERING. FOURTH SERIES. Imp. 4to, with 36 Double Plates, Photographic Portrait of John Fowler, late Pres. Inst. C.E., and copious descriptive Letterpress, Speci- fications, &c., 3 35. half-morocco. List of the Plates and Diagrams. Abbey Mills Pumping Station, Main Drain, age, IT plates) \btey Mills Pumping Station, Main Dram- Metropolis (4 plates); Barrow Docks (5 is); Mnnquis Viaduct, Santiago and Val- pacaiso R.iilway (2 plates); Adam's Locomo- tive, St. Helen's Canal Railway (2 plates) ; Cannon Street Station Roof, Charing Cross Railway (3 plates) ; Road Bridge over the River Moka (2 platctt) ; Telegraphic Apparatus for Mesopotamia ; Viaduct over the River Wye, Midland Railway (3 plates) ; St. Germans Via- lidland Railway (3 plates) duct, Cornwall Railway (2 plates) ; Wrought- Iron Cylinder for Diving Bell ; Millwall Docks s) ; Milroy's Patent Excavator ; Metro- )litan District Railway (6 plates) ; Harbours, arts, and Breakwaters (3 plates). "We gladly welcome another year's issue of this valuable publication from the able pen of Mr. Humber. The accuracy and general excellence of this work are well known, while its useful- ness in giving the measurements and details ot some of the latest examples of engineering, as carried out by the most eminent men in the orofession, cannot be too highly prized." Artisan, CIVIL ENGINEERING, SURVEYING, etc. 9 MR. HUMBER'S ENGINEERING BOOKS continued. Strains, Calculation of. A HANDY BOOK FOR THE CALCULATION OF STRAINS IN GIRDERS AND SIMILARSTRUCTURES,AND THEIR STRENGTH. Consisting of Formulas and Corresponding Diagrams, with numerous details for Practical Application, &c. By WILLIAM HUMSER, A-M.Inst.C.E., &c. Fourth Edition. Crown Svo, nearly 100 Woodcuts and 3 Plates, 75. 6d. cloth, " The formulae are neatly expressed, and the diagrams gcod." Athenaum. " We heartily commend this really handy book to our engineer and architect readers." Eng- lish Mechanic. Barloiv's Strength of Materials, enlarged byHumber A TREATISE ON THE STRENGTH OF MATERIALS; with Rules for Application in Architecture, the Construction of Suspension Bridges, Railways, &c. By PETER BARLOW, F.R.S. A New Edition, revised by his Sons, P. W. BARLOW, F.R.S., and W. H. BARLOW, F.R.S. ; to which are added, Experiments by HODGKINSON, FAIRBAIRN, and KIRKALDY ; and Formulas for Calculating Girders, &c. Arranged and Edited by W. HUMBER, A-M.Inst.C.E. Demy Svo, 400 pp., with 19 large Plates and numerous Wood- cuts, i8s. cloth. " Valuable alike to the student, tyro, and the experienced practitioner, It will always rank in future, as it has hitherto done, as the standard treatise on that particular subject." Engineer. " There is no greater authority than Barlow." Building News. " As a scientific work of the first class, it deserves a foremost place on the bookshelves of every civil engineer and practical mechanic." English Mechanic. Trigonometrical Surveying. AN OUTLINE OF THE METHOD OF CONDUCTING A TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY, for the Formation / Geographical and Topographical Maps and Plans, Military Reconnaissance, Levelling, &c., with Useful Problems, Formulae, and Tables. By Lieut.-General FROME, R.E. Fourth Edition, Revised and partly Re- written by Major General Sir CHARLES WARREN, G.C.M.G., R.E. With 19 Plates and 115 Woodcuts, royal Svo, 165. cloth. " The simple fact that a fourth edition has been called for Is the best testimony to Its merits. No words of praise from us can strengthen the position so well and so steadily maintained by this work. Sir Charles Warren has revised the entire work, and made such additions as were necessary to bring every portion of the contents up to the present date." Broad Arrow. Field Fortification. A TREATISE ON FIELD FORTIFICATION, THE ATTACK OF FORTRESSES, MILITARY MINING, AND RECONNOITRING. By Colonel I. S. MACAULAY, late Professor of Fortification in the R.M.A., Wo <1- wich. Sixth Edition, crown Svo, cloth, with separate Atlas of 12 P.ates, 125. Oblique Bridges. A PR A CTICAL AND THEORETICAL ESS A Y ON OBLIQUE BRIDGES. With 13 large Plates. By the late GEORGE WATSON BUCK, M.I.C.E. Third Edition, revised by his Son, J. H. WATSON BUCK, M.I.C.E. ; and with the addition of Description to Diagrams for Facilitating the Con- struction of Oblique Bridges, by W. H. BARLOW, M.I.C.E. Royal JJvo, 12$, cloth. " The standard text-book for all engineers regarding skew arches is Mr. Buck's treatise, and it would be impossible to consult a better." Engineer. "Mr. Buck's treatise is recognised as a standard text-book, and his treatment has divested the subject of many of the intricacies supposed to belong to it. As a g>ide to the engineer and archi- tect, on a confessedly difficult subject, Mr. Buck's work is unsurpassed." Building News. Water Storage, Conveyance and Utilisation. WATER ENGINEERING : A Practical Treatise on the Measure- ment, Storage, Conveyance and Utilisation of Water for the Supply of Towns, for Mill Power, and for other Purposes. By CHARLES SLAGG, Water and Drainage Engineer, A.M.Inst.C.E., Author of " Sanitary Work in the Smaller Towns, and in Villages," &c. With numerous Illusts. Cr. Svo. 75. f>cl. cloth. " As a small practical treatise on the water supply of towns, and on some applications of water-power, the work is in many respects excellent." Engineering. " The author has collated the results deduced from the experiments of the most eminent authorities, and has presented them in a compact and practical form, accompanied by very clear and detailed explanations. . . . The application of water as a motive power is treated very carefully and exhaustively." Builder. 'Vor anyone who desires to begin the study of hydraulics with a consideration of the practica' applications of the science there is no better guide- '' Architect, _ . 10 CROSBY LOCK WOOD & SdN'S CATALOGUE. Statics, Graphic and Analytic. GRAPHIC AND ANALYTIC STATICS, in their Practical Appli. cation to the Treatment of Stresses in Roofs, Selid Girders, Lattice, Bowstring and Suspension Bridges, Braced Iron Arches and Piers, and other Frameworks. By R. HUDSON GRAHAM, C.E. Containing Diagrams and Plates to Scale. With numerous Examples, many taken from existing Structures. Specially arranged for Class-work in Colleges and Universities. Second Edition, Re- vised and Enlarged. 8vo, i6s. cloth. "Mr. Graham's book will find a place wherever graphic and analytic statics are used or studied." Engineer. " The work is excellent from a practical point of view, and has evidently been prepared with much care. The directions for working are ample, and are illustrated by an abundance of well- selected examples. It is an/ excellent text-book for the practical draughtsman." Athcnaunt, Student's Text-Boole on Surveying. PRACTICAL SURVEYING: A Text-Book for Students pre- paring for Examination or for Survey-work in the Colonies. By GEORGE W. USILL, A.M.I. C.E., Author of "The Statistics of the Water Supply of Great Britain." With Four Lithographic Plates and upwards of 330 Illustra- tions. Second Edition, Revised. Crown 8vo, 75. 6d. cloth. [Just published, ' The best forms of instruments are described as to their construction, uses and modes of employment, and there are innumerable hints on work and equipment such as the author, in his experience as surveyor, draughtsman and teacher, has found necessary, and which the student in his inexperience will find most serviceable." Engineer. " The latest treatise in the English language on surveying', and we have no hesitation in say- ing that the student will find it a better guide than any of its predecessors Deserves to be recognised as the first book which should be put in the hands of a pupil of Civil Engineering, and every gentleman of education who sets out for the Colonies would find it well to have a copy." Architect. " A very useful, practical handbook on field practice. Clear, accurate and not too con- densed." journal of Education. Survey Practice. AID TO SURVEY PRACTICE, for Reference in Surveying, Level- ling, and Setting-out ; and in Route Surveys of Travellers by Land and Sea. With Tables, Illustrations, and Records. By Lowis D'A. JACKSON, A.M.I. C.E.. Author of " Hydraulic Manual," "Modern Metrology," &c. Second Edition, Enlarged. Large crown 8vo, 12S. 6d. cloth. " Mr. Jackson has produced a valuable vadc-mecn-m for the surveyor. We can recommend this book as containing an admirable supplement to the teaching of the accomplished surveyor." Athenaum. " As a text-book we should advise all surveyors to place it in their libraries, and study well the matured instructions afforded in its pages." Colliery Guardian. " The author brings to his work a fortunate union of theory and practical experience which, aided by a clear and lucid style of writing, renders the book a very useful one." Builder. Surveying, Land and Marine. LAND AND MARINE SURVEYING, in Reference to the Pre- paration of Plans for Roads and Railways ; Canals, Rivers, Towns' Water Supplies; Docks and Harbours. With Description and Use of Surveying Instruments. By W. D. HASKOLL, C.E., Author of " Bridge and Viaduct Con- struction," &c. Second Edition, Revised, with Additions. Large cr.8vo,gs. cl. " This book must prove of great value to the student. We have no hesitation in r. commend- ng it. feeling assured that it will more than repay a careful study." Mechanical ll'orld. "A most u e'u! and well arranged book for the aid of a student. We can strongly recommend it as a carefully-written and valuable text-book. It enjoys a well- deserved repute among surveyors." Builder. " Tliis volume cannot fail to prove of the utmost practical utility. It may be safely recommended to all students who aspire to become clean and expert surveyors." Mining Journal. Tunnelling. PRACTICAL TUNNELLING. Explaining in detail the Setting- out of the works, Shaft-sinking and Heading-driving, Ranging the Lines and Levelling underground, Sub-Excavating, Timbering, and the Construction of the Brickwork ot Tunnels, with the amount of Labour required for, and the Cost of, the various portions of the work. By FREDERICK W. SIMMS, F.G.S., M.Inst.C.E. Third Edition, Revised and Extended by D. KINNEAR CLARK, M.Inst. C.E. Imperial 8vo, with 21 Folding Plates and numerous Wood Engravings, 305. cloth. "The estimation in which Mr. Simms's book on tunnelling has been held for over thirty years cannot be more truly expressed than in the words of the late Prof. Kankine : ' The best source of in- formation on the subject of tunnels is Mr.F. W. Simms's work on Practical Tunnelling.' "-Architect. " It has been regarded from the first as a text book of the subject. . . . Mr. Clarke his added immensely to the value of the book." l CIVIL ENGINEERING, SURVEYING, etc. 11 Levelling. A TREATISE ON THE PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF LEVELLING. Showing its Application to purposes of Railway and Civil Engineering, in the Construction of Roads ; with Mr.TELFORD's Rulesfor the same. By FREDERICK W. SIMMS, F.G.S., M.Inst.C.E. Seventh Edition, with the addition of LAW'S Practical Examples for Setting-out Railway Curves, and TRAUTWINE'S Field Practice of Laying-out Circular Curves. With 7 Plates and numerous Woodcuts, 8vo, 8s. 6d. cloth. V TRAUTWINE on Curves may be had separate, 55. " The text-book on levelling in most of our engineering schools and colleges." Engineer. " The publishers have rendered a substantial service to the profession, especially to the younger members, by bringing out the present edition of Mr. Simms's useful work." Engineering. Heat, Expansion l>y. EXPANSION OF STRUCTURES BY HEAT. By JOHN KEILV, C.E., late of the Indian Public Works and Victorian Railway Depart- ments. Crown 8vo, 35. 6rf. cloth. SUMMARY OF CONTENTS. Section I. FORMULAS AND DATA. Section II. METAL BARS. Section III. SIMPLE FRAMES. Section IV. COMPLEX FRAMES AND PLATES. Section V. THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY. Section VI. MECHANICAL FORCE OB HEAT. Section VII. WORK OF EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION. Section VIII. SUSPENSION BRIDGES. Section IX. MASONRY STRUCTURES. ' The aim the author has set before him, viz., to show the effects of heat upon metallic and other structures, is a laudable one, for this is a branch of physics upon which the engineer or archi- tect can find but little reliable and comprehensive data in books." Builder. " Whoever is concerned to know the effect of changes of temperature on such structures as suspension bridges and the like, could not do better than consult Mr. Keily's valuable and handy exposition of the geometrical principles involved in these changes." Scotsman, f radical Mathematics. MATHEMATICS FOR PRACTICAL MEN: Being a Common- place Book of Pure and Mixed Mathematics. Designed chiefly for the use of Civil Engineers, Architects and Surveyors. By OLINTHUS GREGORY, LL.D., F.R.A.S., Enlarged by HENRY LAW, C.E. 4th Edition, carefully Revised by J. R. YOUNG, formerly Professor of Mathematics, Belfast College. With 13 Plates, 8vp, i is. cloth. " The engineer or architect will here find ready to his hand rules for solving nearly every mathe- matical difficulty that may arise in his practice The rules are in all cases explained by means of examples, in which every step of the process is clearly worked out." Builder. On 2 of the most serviceable books for practical mechanics. ... It is an instructive book for the student, and a text-book for him who, having once mastered the subjects it treats of, needs occasionally to refresh his memory upon them." Building News. Hydraulic Tables. HYDRAULIC TABLES, CO-EFFICIENTS, and FORMULA for finding the Discharge of Water from Orifices, Notches, Weirs, Pipes, and Rivers. With New Formulae, Tables, and General Information on Rainfall, Catchment- Basins, Drainage, Sewerage, Water Supply for Towns and Mill Power. By JOHN NEVILLE, Civil Engineer, M.R.I.A. Third Ed., carefully Revised, with considerable Additions. Numerous lllusts. Cr. 8vo, 145. cloth. " Alike valuable to students and engineers in practice ; its study will prevent the annoyance ot avoidable failures, and assist them to select the readiest means of successfully carrying out any given work connected with hydraulic engineering." Mining journal. " It is, of all English books on the subject, the one neares^'to completeness. . . . From the good arrangement of the matter, the clear explanations, and abundance of formulas, the carefully calculated tables, and, above all, the thorough acquaintance with both theory and construction, which is displayed from first to last, the book will be found to be an acquisition." Architect. Hydraulics, HYDRA ULIC MANUAL. Consisting of Working Tables and Explanatory Text; Intended as a Guide in Hydraulic Calculations and Field Operations. By Lowis D'A. JACKSON, Author of "Aid to Survey Practice," " Modern Metrology," &c. Fourth Edition, Enlarged. Large cr. 8vo, i6s. cl. " The author has had a wide experience in hydraulic engineering and has been a careful ob- server of the facts which have come under his notice, and from the great mass of material at his command he has constructed a manual which miy be accepted as a trustworthy guide to this branch of the engineer's profession. We can heartily recommend this volume to all who desire to be acquainted with the latest develjpment of this important subject." Engineering. " The standard-work in this department of mcchnnics." Scotsman. '' The most useful feature of this work is its freedom from what is superannuated, and Its thorough adoption of recent experiments ; the text is, in fact, in great part a short account of the gr jat modern experiments." Nature. 12 CROSS? LOCKWOOD & SdN'S Drainage. ON THE DRAINAGE OF LANDS, TOWNS AND BUILD- INGS. By G. D. DEMPSET, C.E., Author of "The Practical Railway En- gineer," &c, Revised, with large Additions on RECENT PRACTICE IN DRAINAGE ENGINEERING, by D. KTNNEAR CLARK, M.Inst.C.E. Author of "Tramways : Their Construction and Working," " A Manual of Rules, Tables, and Data for Mechanical Engineers," &C. &c. Crown 8vo, 75. 6d. cloth. [Just published. "The new matter added to Mr. Dempsey's excellent work is characterised by the comprehen- sive grasp and accuracy of detail for which the name of Mr. D. K. Clark is a sufficient voucher." Atheneeum. " As a work on recent practice in drainage engineering-, the book Is to be commended to all who are making that branch of engineering science their special study." Iron. " A comprehensive manual on drainage engineering, and a useful introduction to the student." Building News. Tramivays and their WorJcing, TRAMWAYS : THEIR CONSTRUCTION AND V/ORKING. Embracing a Comprehensive History of the System ; with an exhaustive Analysis of the various Modes of Traction, including Horse-Power, Steam, Heated Water, and Compressed Air ; a Description of the Varieties of Rolling Stock ; and ample Details ot Cost and Working Expenses : the Progress recently made in Tramway Construction, &c. &c. By D. KINNEAR CLARK, M.Inst.C.E. With over 200 Wood Engravings, and 13 Folding Plates. Two Vols., large crown 8vo, 305. cloth. " All interested in tramways must refer to it, as all railway engineers have turned to the author's work ' Railway Machinery.'" Engineer. " An exhaustive and practical work on tramways, In which the history of this kind of locomo- tion, and a description and cost of the various modes of laying tramways, are to be found." Building News. " The best form of rails, the best mode of construction, and the best mechanical appliancei are so fairly indicated in the work under review, that any engineer about to construct a tramway will be enabled at once to obtain the practiced information which will be of most service to him." Athenaum, Oblique Arches. A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON THE CONSTRUCTION OF OBLIQUE ARCHES. By JOHN HART. Third Edition, with Plates. Im- perial 8vo, 8s. cloth. Curves, Tables for Setting-out TABLES OF TANGENTIAL ANGLES AND MULTIPLES for Setting-out Curves from 5 to zoo Radius. By ALEXANDER BEAZELEY, M.Inst.C.E. Third Edition. Printed on 48 Cards, and sold in a cloth box, waistcoat-pocket size, 35. 6d. " Each table is printed on a small card, which, being placed on the theodolite, leaves the hands free to manipulate the instrument no small advantage as regards the rapidity of work." Engineer. "Very handy ; a man may know that all his day's work must fall on two of these cards, which he puts into his own card-case, and leaves the rest behind." Athenn. JZarthworJc. EARTHWORK TABLES. Showing the Contents in Cubic Yards of Embankments, Cuttings, &c.,of Heights or Depths up to an average of 80 feet. By JOSEPH BROADBENT, C.E., and FRANCIS CAMPIN, C.E. Crown 8vo, 55. cloth. " The way in which accuracy is attained, by a simple division of each cross section into three elements, two in which are constant and one variable, is ingenious." A!henn. Tunnel Shafts. THE CONSTRUCTION OF LARGE TUNNEL SHAFTS: A Practical and Theoretical Estay. By J. H. WATSON BUCK, M.Inst.C.E., Resident Engineer, London and North- Western Railway. Illustrated with Folding Plates, royal Svo, izs. cloth. ' Many of the methods given are of extreme practical value to the mason ; and the observations on the form of arch, the rules for ordering the stone, and the construction of the templates will l>e found of considerable use. We commend the book to the engineering profession." K^t.Udiny A'e-u:. " Will be regarded by civil engineers as of the utmost value, and calculated to save much time and obviate many mistakes." Colliery Guardian. Girders, Strength of. GRAPHIC TABLE FOR FACILITATING THE COMPUTA- TION OF THE WEIGHTS OF WROUGHT IRON AND STEEL GIRDERS, etc., for Parliamentary and other Estimates. By J. H. WATSON BUCK, M.Iiist.C.E. On a Sheet, as.Cd. CIVIL ENGINEERING, SURVEYING, etc. 13 River Engineering. RIVER BARS: The Causes of their Formation, and their Treat- inent by "Induced Tidal Scour; " with a Description of the Successful Re- duction by this Method of the Bar at Dublin. By I. J. MANN, Assist. Eng. to the Dublin Port and Docks Board. Royal 8vo, 75. 6rf. cloth. " We recommend all interested in harbour works and, indeed/those concerned in the im- provements of rivers generally to read Mr. Mann s interesting work on the treatment of river b.irs/' Engineer. Trusses. TRUSSES OF WOOD AND IRON. Practical Applications of Science in Determining the Stresses, Breaking Weights, Safe Loads, Scantlings, and Details of Construction, with Complete Working Drawings. By WILLIAM GRIFFITHS, Surveyor, Assistant Master, Tranmere School of Science and Art. Oblong 8vo, 45. 6d. cloth. " This handy little book enters so minutely into every detail connected with the construction of roof trusses, that no student need be Ignorant of these matters." Practical Engineer. Hallway Working. SAFE RAILWAY WORKING. A Treatise on Railway Acci- dents: Their Cause and Prevention; with a Description of Modern Appliances and Systems. By CLEMENT E. STRETTON, C.E., Vice- President and Con- sulting Engineer, Amalgamated Society of Railway Servants. With Illus- tratious and Coloured Plates. Second Edition, Enlarged. Crown 8vo, 35. 6d. cloth. [Just published. " A book for the engineer, the directors, the managers ; and, in short, aM who wish for informa- tion on railway matters will find a perfect encyclopaedia in ' Safe Railway Working.' "Rail-way " We commend the remarks on railway signalling to all railway managers, especially where a uniform code and piactice is advocated." Herepath's Kailivav Journal. "The author maybe congratulated on having collected, in a very convenient form, much valuable information on the principal questions atiecting the safe working of railways." Rail' v. ay Engineer. Field-JBook for Engineers. THE ENGINEER'S, MINING SURVEYOR'S, AND CON- TKA CTOR 'S FIELD-BOOK. Consisting of a Series of Tables, with Rules, Explanations of Systems, and use of Theodolite for Traverse Surveying and Plotting the Work with minute accuracy by means of Straight Edge and Set Square only ; Levelling with the Theodolite, Casting-out and Reducing Levels to Datum, and Plotting Sections in the ordinary manner; setting-out Curves with the Theodolite by Tangential Angles and Multiples, with Right and Left-hand Readings of the Instrument: Setting-out Curves without Theodolite, on the System of Tangential Angles by sets of Tangents and Off- sets ; and Earthwork Tables to 80 feet deep, calculated for every 6 inches in depth. By W. DAVIS HASKOLL, C.E. With numerous Woodcuts. Fourth Edition, Enlarged. Crown 8vo, I2S. cloth. "The book is very handy; the separate tables of sines and tangents to every minute will make t useful for many other purposes, the genuine traverse taljes existing all the same." Athenautn. " Every person engaged in engineering field operations will estimate the importance of such a work a.d the amount of valuable time which will be saved by reference to a set of reliable tablts prepared with the accuracy and fulness of those given in this volume." Railway News. Earthivorlt, Measurement of. A MANUAL ON EARTHWORK. 'By ALEX. J. S. GRAHAM, C.E. With numerous Diagrams. Second Edition. i8mo, 2s. 6d. cloth. " A great amount of practical information, very admirably arranged, and available for rough estimates, as well as for the more exac: calculations required in the engineer's and contractor's offices." Artizan. Strains in Ironwork. THE STRAINS ON STRUCTURES OF IRONWORK; with Practical Remarks on Iron Construction. By F. W. SHEILDS, M.Inst.C.E, Second Edition, with 5 Plates. Royal 8vo, 5$. cloth. "The student cannot find a better little book on this subject." Engineer. Cast Iron and other Metals, Strength of. A PRACTICAL ESSAY ON THE STRENGTH OF CAST IRON AND OTHER METALS. By THOMAS TREDGOLD, C.E. Fifth Edition, including HODGKINSON'S Experimental Researches. 8vo, s, cloth, 14 CROSBY LOCK WOOD & SON'S CATALOGUE. ARCHITECTURE, BUILDING, etcT~ Construction. THE SCIENCE OF BUILDING : An Elementary Treatise on the principles of Construction. By E. \VYNDHAM TARN, M.A., Architect. Third Edition, Revised and Enlarged, with 59 Engravings. Fcap. 8vo, 45. doth. [Just published. " A very valuable book, which we strongly recommend to all students." Builder. " No architectural student should be without this handbook of construclional knowledge." Architect. Villa Architecture. A HANDY BOOK OF VILLA ARCHITECTURE: Being a Series of Designs for Villa Residences in various Styles. With Outline Specifications and Estimates. By C. WICKES, Architect, Author of "The Spires and Towers of England," &c. 61 Plates, 4to, i us. 6d. half-uiorocco, Kilt edges. " The whole of the designs bear evidence of their being the work of an artistic architect, and they will prove very valuable and suggestive." Building News, Text-Book for Architects. THE ARCHITECT'S GUIDE: Being a Text-Book of Useful Information for Architects, Engineers, Surveyors, Contractors, Clerks of Works, &c. &c. By FREDERICK ROGERS, Architect, Author of " Specifica- tions for Practical Architecture," &c. Second Edition, Revised and Enlarged. With numerous Illustrations. Crown 8vo, 6s. cloth. "As a text-book of useful information for architects, engineers, surveyors, &c., it would be bird to find a handier or more complete little volume." Standarii. "A young architect could hardly have a better guide-book." Timber Trades Journal, Taylor and Cresy's Rome. THE ARCHITECTURAL ANTIQUITIES OF ROME. By the late G. L.TAYLOR, Esq., F.R.I. B. A., and EDWARD CRESY, Esq. New Edition, thoroughly Revised by the Rev. ALEXANDER TAYLOR, M.A. (son of the late G. L. Taylor, Esq.), Fellow of Queen's College, Oxford, and Chap- lain of Gray's Inn. Large folio, with 130 Plates, half-bound, 3 35. N.B. This is the only book which gives on a large scale, and with the precision of architectural measurement, the principal Monuments of Ancient Rome in plan, elevation, and detail. Taylor and Cresy's work has from its first publication been ranked among those professional books which cannot be bettered. ... It would be difficult to find examples of drawings, even among those of the most painstaking students of Gothic, more thoroughly worked out than are the one hundred and thirty plates in this volume." Architect. Architectural Drawing. PRACTICAL RULES ON DRA WINGJoy the Operative Builder and Young Student in Architecture. By GEORGE PYNE. With 14 Plates, 4to, 75. f>d. boards. Sir Win. Chambers's Treatise on Civil ArcJiitecture. THE DECORATIVE PART OF CIVIL ARCHITECTURE. By Sir WILLIAM CHAMBERS, F.R.S. With Portrait, Illustrations, Notes, and an Examination of Grecian Architecture, by JOSEPH GWILT, F.S.A. Revised and Edited by W. H. LEEDS, with a Memoir of the Author. 66 Plates, 410, 2is. cloth. House Building and Repairing. THE HOUSE-OWNER'S ESTIMATOR ; or, What will it Cost to Build, Alter, or Repair? A Price Book adapted to the Use of Unpro- fessional People, as well as for the Architectural Surveyor and Builder. By JAMES D. SIMON, A.R.I. B.A. Edited and Revised by FRANCIS T. W. MILLER, A.R.I. B. A. With numerous Illustrations. Fourth Edition, Revised. Crown 8vo, 35. 6d. cloth. " tn two yoars it wil! t " A verv handy book." Enelish Mectianic, Cottages and Villas. COUNTRY AND SUBURBAN COTTAGES AND VILLAS: How to Plan and Build Them. Containing 31 Plates, with Introduction, General Explanations, and Description of each Plate. By JAMES W. BOGUE, Architect, Author of "Domestic Architecture," &c. 410, IDS. 6d. cloth. [J u^ published, i\\ repay its cost a hundred times over." Field, \:'-ld. cloth. " This most useful and much wanted handbook should be in the hands of every architect and builder." Building- IVorld. " It is an excellent manual for students, and interesting to artistic readers generally." Saturday Revieiu. " A carefully and usefully written treatise ; the work is essentially practical." Scotsman. Marble Working, etc. MARBLE AND MARBLE WORKERS: A Handbook for Architects, Artists, Masons and Students. By ARTHUR LEE, Author of "A Visit to Carrara," " The Working of Marble," &c. Small crown Svo, 2S. cloth. " A really valuable addition to the technical literature of architects and masons."/ Neivs. iS CROSBY LOCKWOOD &> SON'S CATALOGUE. DELAMOTTE'S WORKS ON ILLUMINATION AND ALPHABETS, A PRIMER OF THE ART OF ILLUMINATION, for the Use of Beginners : with a Rudimentary Treatise on the Art, Practical Directions for its exercise, and Examples taken from Illuminated MSS. .printed in Gold and Colours. By F. DELAMOTTE. New and Cheaper Edition. Small 4to, 6s. orna- mental boards. "The examples of ancient MSS. recommended to the student, which, with much good sense, the author chooses from collections accessible to all, are selected with judgment and knowledge, as well as tes>te"Athend. ornamental wrapper. "The book will be of great assistance to ladies and young children who are endowed with the art of plying the needle in this most ornamental and useful pretty work." East Anglian Tius. Wood Carving. INSTRUCTIONS IN WOOD-CARVING, for Amateurs; with Hints on Design. By A LADY. With Ten Plates. New and Cheaper Edition. Crown 8vo, as. in emblematic wrapper. " The handicraft of the wood-carver, so well as a book can impart it, may be learnt from ' A Lady's ' publication." Athenxunt. " The directions given are plain and easily understood." English Mechanic. Glass Painting. GLASS STAINING AND THE ART OF PAINTING ON GLASS. From the German of Dr. GESSERT and EMANUEL OTTO FROMBERG, With an Appendix on THE ART OF ENAMELLING. I2mo, 2S. 6d. cloth limp. Letter Painting. THE ART OF LETTER PAINTING MADE EASY. By JAMES GREIG BADENOCH. With 13 full-page Engravings of Examples, is. 6d. cloth limp. " The system is a simple ore, but quite original, and well worth the careful attention of letter painters. It can be easily mastered and remembered, "Bitilding N?ws. CARPENTRY, TIMBER, etc. ig CARPENTRY, TIMBER, etc. Tredgold's Carpentry, Revised & Enlarged by Tarn. THE ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF CARPENTRY. A Treatise on the Pressure and Equilibrium of Timber Framing, the Resist- ance of Timber, and the Construction of Floors, Arches, Bridges, Roofs, Uniting Iron and Stone with Timber, &c. To which is added an Essay on the Nature and Properties of Timber, &c., with Descriptions of the kinds of Wood used in Building ; also numerous Tables of the Scantlings of Tim- ber for different purposes, the Specific Gravities of Materials, &c. By THOMAS LD, C.E. With an Appendix of Specimens of Various Roofs of Iron TREDGOLD, and Stone, Illustrated. Seventh Edition, thoroughly revised and considerably enlarged by E. WVNDHAM TARN, M.A., Author of "The Science of Build- ing," &c. With 61 Plates, Portrait of the Author, and several Woodcuts. In one large vol., 4to, price i 55. cloth. "Ought to be in every architect's and every builder's library." Builder. " A work whose monumental excellence must commend it wherever skilful carpentry Is con- cerned. The author's principles are rather confirmed than impaired by time. The additional plates are of great intrinsic value." Building News. Woodworlcinff MacJiinery. WOODWORKING MACHINERY : Its Rise, Progress, and Con- struction. With Hints on the Management of Saw Mills and the Economical Conversion of Timber. Illustrated with Examples ot Recent Designs by leading English, French, and American Engineers. By M. Powis BALE A.M.Inst.C.E.,M.I.M.E. Large crown 8vo, 125. 6d. cloth. " Mr. Bale is evidently an expert on the subject and he has collected so much information thai his book is all-sufficient for builders and others engaged in the conversion of timber." Architect. "The most comprehensive compendium of wood-working machinery we have seen. The author is a thorough master of his subject." Building News. " The appearance of this book at the present time will, we should think, give a considerable Impetus to the onward march of the machinist engaged in the designing and manufacture ol wood-working machines. It should be in the office of every wood-working factory." English Mechanic. Saiv Mills. SAW MILLS: Their Arrangement and Management, and the Economical Conversion of Timber. (A Companion Volume to " Woodworking Machinery.") By M. Powis BALE. With numerous Illustrations. Crowe 8vo, IDS. 6d. cloth. " The administration of a large sawing establishment is discussed, and the subject examinee from a financial standpoint. Hence the size, shape, order, and disposition of saw-mills and the like are gone into in detail, and the course of the timber is traced from its reception to its delivery in its converted state. We could not desire a more complete or practical treatise." Builder. "We highly recommend Mr. Bale's work to the attention 'and perusal of all those who are en gaged in the art of wood conversion, or who are about building or remodelling saw-mills on im proved principles." BtMding News. Carpentering. THE CARPENTER'S NEW G UIDE ; or, Book of Lines for Car penters ; comprising all the Elementary Principles essential for acquiring z knowledge of Carpentry. Founded on the late PETER NICHOLSON'S Standarc Work. A New Edition, Revised by ARTHUR ASHPITEL, F.S.A. Togethei with Practical Rules on Drawing, by GEORGE PYNE. With 74 Plates 4to, i is. cloth. Handrailinfj and Stairltuildihf/. A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON HANDRAILING : Showing New and Simple Methods for Finding the Pitch of the Plank, Drawing the Moulds, Bevelling, Jointing-tip, ani Squaring the Wreath. By GEORGE COLLINGS. Second Edition, Revised and Enlarged, to which is added A TREATISE ON STAIRBUILDING. With Plates and Diagrams, izmo, 2s. 6tl cloth limp, [Just published "Will lie found of practical utility in tlir r\- SON 'S CATALOGUE. Timber Merchant's Companion. THE TIMBER MERCHANT'S AND BUILDER'S COM- PANION. Containing New and Copious Tables of the Reduced Weight and Measurement of Deals and Battens, of all sizes, from One to a Thousand Pieces, and the relative Price that each size bears per Lineal Foot to any given Price per Petersburg Standard Hundred ; the Price per Cube Foot of Square Timber to any given Price per Load of 50 Feet; the proportionate Value ot Deals and Battens by the Standard, to Square Timber by the Load of 50 Feet ; the readiest mode of ascertaining the Price of Scantling per Lineal Foot of any size, to any given Figure per Cube Foot, &c. &c. By WILLIAM DOWSING. Fourth Edition, Revised and Corrected. Cr. 8vo, 35. cl. "Everything is as concise and clear ss it can possibly be made. There can be no doubt that every timber merchant and builder ought to possess it." Hull Advertiser. We are glad to see a fourth edition of these admirable tables, which for correctness and simplicity of arrangement leave nothing to be desired." Timber Trades yonrnal. "An exceedingly well-arranged, clear, and concise manual of tables for 1" or sell timber." Journal of forestry. Practical Timber MercJiant. THE PRACTICAL TIMBER MERCHANT. Being a Guide for the use of Building Contractors, Surveyors, Builders, &c., comprising useful Tables for all purposes connected with the Timber Trade, Marks of Wood, Essay on the Strength of Timber, Remarks on the Growth of Timber, &c. By W. RICHARDSON. Fcap. 8vo, 35. 6d. cloth. "This handy manual contains much valuable information for the use of timber merchant?-, builders, foresters, and all others connected with the growth, sale, and manufacture of timber. ' Journal of Forestry. Timber Freight Book. THE TIMBER MERCHANT'S, SAW MILLER'S, AND IMPORTER'S FREIGHT BOOK AND ASSISTANT. Comprising Rules, Tables, and Memoranda relating to the Timber Trade. By WILLIAM RICHARDSON, Timber Broker; together with a Chapter on "SPEEDS OF SAW MILL MACHINERY," by M. Powis BALE, M.I.M.E., &c. ismo, 35. 6d. cl. boards. "A very useful manual of rules, tables, and memoranda relating to the timber trade. We re- commend it as a compendium of calculation to all timber measurers and merchants, and as supply. ing a real want in the tratle." Building News. Fackinff-Case Makers, Tables for. PACKING-CASE TABLES ; showing the number of Super- ficial Feet in Boxes or Packing-Cases, from six inches square and upwards. By W. RICHARDSON, Timber Broker. Second Edition. Oblong 4to, 35. 6d. cl. "Invaluable labour-saving tables." AroMwux^m "Will save much labour ard calcu'ation." Grocer. Superficial M easurement. THE TRADESMAN'S GUIDE TO SUPERFICIAL ME A- SUREMENT. Tables calculated from i to 200 inches in length, by i to 108 inches in breadth. For the use of Architects, Surveyors, Engineers, Timber Merchants, Builders, &c. By JAMES HAWIUNGS. Third Edition. Fcap., 35. 6d. cloth. " A useful collection of tables to facilitate rapid calculation of surfaces. The exact area of any surface of which the limits have been ascertained can be instantly determined. The book will be found of the greatest utility to all engaged in building ooerations." Scotsman. " These tables will be found of f reat a instance to all who require to make calculations in super- f rial measurement." English Meihani:. THE ELEMENTS OF FORESTRY. Designed to afford In- formation concerning the Planting and Care of Forest Trees for Ornament or Profit, with Suggestions upon the Creation and Care of Woodlands. By F. B. HOUGH. Large crown 8vo, IDS. cloth. Timber Importer's Guide. THE TIMBER IMPORTER'S, TIMBER MERCHANTS AND BUILDER'S STANDARD GUIDE. By RICHARD E. GRANDY. Compris- ing an Analysis of Deal Standards, Home and Foreign, with Comparative Values and Tabular Arrangements for fixing Nett Landed Cost on Baltic and North American Deals, including all intermediate Expenses, Freight, Insurance, &c. &c. Together with copious Information for the Retailer and Builder. Third Edition, Revised, isino, zs. cloth limp. " Everything it pretends to be : built up gradually, it leads one from a forest to a treenail, and throws in, as a makeweight, a host of material concerning bricks, columns, cisterns, &c." English Mtfhan-c. MARINE ENGINEERING, NAVIGATION, etc. Chain Cables. CHAIN CABLES AND CHAINS. Comprising Sizes and Curves of Links, Studs, &c., Iron for Cables and Chains, Chain Cable and Chain Making, Forming and Welding Links, Strength of Cables and Chains, Certificates for Cables, Marking Cables, Prices of Chain Cables and Chains, Historical Notes, Acts of Parliament, Statutory Tests, Charges for Testing, List of Manufacturers of Cables, &c. &c. By THOMAS W.TRAILL, F.E.R.N., M. Inst. C.E., Engineer Surveyor in Chief, Board of Trade, Inspector of Chain Cable and Anchor Proving Establishments, and General Superin- tendent, Lloyd's Committee on Proving Establishments. With numerous Tables, Illustrations and Lithographic Drawings. Folio, 2.2$. cloth, bevelled boaids. "It contains a vast amount of valuable information. Nothing seems to be wanting to make it a complete and standard work of reference on the subject." Nautical Magazine, Marine Engineering. MARINE ENGINES AND STEAM VESSELS (A Treatise on). By ROBERT MURRAY, C.E. Eighth Edition, thoroughly Revised, with considerable Additions by the Author and by GEORGE CARLISLE, C.E., Senior Surveyor to the Board of Trade at Liverpool. I2mo, 55, cloth boards. " Well adapted to give the young steamship engineer or marine engine and boilt r maker a general introduction into his practical work." M'eihanicul World. " We feel sure that this thoroughly revised editon will continue to be as popular in the future as it has been in the past, as, for its size, it contains more useful information than any similar treatise. "Industries. " As a compendious and useful guide to engineers of our mercantile and royal naval service; wo should say it cannot be surpassed." Building News. The information given is both sound and sensible, and well quali*ied to direct young sea- going hands on the straight road to the extra chief's certificate. Most useful to survejors inspector.-;, draughtsmen, and all young engineers who take an interest in their profession." Glasgow Herald "An indispensable manual for the student of marine engineeiing." Liverpool Mercury. PocJcet-Bookfor Naval Architects and Shipbuilders. THE NAVAL ARCHITECT'S AND SHIPBUILDER'S POCKET-BOOK of Formula;, Rules, and Tableland MARINE ENGINEER'S AND SURVEYOR'S Handy Book of Reference. By CLEMENT MACKROW, Member of the Institution of Naval Architects, Naval Draughtsman. Fourtli Edition, Revised. With numerous Diagrams, &c. Fcap., izs. 6d. stronglj bound in leather. "Should be used by all who are engaged in the construction or design of vessels. . . . Wil be found to contain the most useful tables and formula; required by shipbuilders, carefully collectec from the best authorities, and put together in a popular and simple form." Engineer. " The professional shipbuilder has now, in a convenient and accessible form, reliable data foi Solving many of the numerous problems that present themselves in the course of his work." Iron. "There is scarcely a subject on which a naval architect or shipbuilder can require to refresh his memory which will not be found within the covers of Mr. Mackrow's book." English Mechanic A'ochet-IZook for Marine Engineers. A POCKET-BOOK OF USEFUL TABLES AND FOE- UVLM FOR MARINE ENGINEERS. By FRANK PROCTOR, A.I.N.A Third Edition. Royal 32rno, leather, gilt edges, with strap, 45. " We recommend it to our readers as going far to supply a long-felt want." Naval Science. "A most useful companion to all marine engineers." U?;ited Service Gaeette. Introduction to Marine Engineer iny. ELEMENTARY ENGINEERING: A Manual for Young M mint Engineers and Apprentices. In the Form of Questions and Answers or Metals, Alloys, Strength of Materials, Construction and Management o Marine Engines and Boilers, Geometry, &c. &c. With an Appendix of Uscfu Tables. By JOHN SHERREN BREWER, Government Marine Surveyor, Hcng kong. Small crown 8vo, zs. cloth. " Contains much valuable information for the class for whom it is intended, especially in th< chapters on the management of boilers and eng ; nes." Nautical Magazine. - A useful introduction to the more elaborate text books." Scotsman. " To a student who has the requisite desire and resolve to attaia a thorough knowledge, Mr Brewer offers decidedly useful help.'' Alhenaum. Navigation. PRACTICAL NAVIGATION. Consisting of THE SAILOR'' SEA-BOOK, by JAMES GREENWOOD and W. H. ROSSES; together with th< requisite Mathematical and Nautical Tables for the Working of the Problems by HENRY LAW, C.E., and Professor J. R. YOUNG. Illustrated, urno, 75 strongly half-bound. 22 CROSBY LOCKWOOD & SON'S CATALOGUE. MINING AND METALLURGY. Metalliferous Mining in the United Kingdom. BRITISH MINING : A Treatise on the History, Discovery, Practical Development, and Future Prospects of Metalliferous Mines in the United King- dom. By ROBERT HUNT, F.R.S., Keeper of Mining Records; Editor of " Ure's Dictionary of Arts, Manufactures, and Mines," &c. Upwards of 950 pp., with 230 Illustrations. Second Edition. Revised. Super-royal 8vo, * 25. cloth. "One of the most valuable works of reference of modern times. Mr. Hunt, as keeper of mining records of the United Kingdom, has had opportunities for such a task not enjoyed by anyone else, and has evidently made the most of them. . . . The language and style adopted are good, and the treatment of the various subjects laborious, conscientious, and scientific." Engineering. "The book is, in fact, a treasure-house of statistical information on mining- subjects, and we know of no other work embodying so great a mass of matter of this kind. Were this the only merit of Mr. Hunts volume, it would be sufficient to render it indispensable in this library of everyone interested in the development of the mining and metallurgical industries of this country." Athenaum. "A mass of information not elsewhere available, and of the greatest value to those who may be interested in our great mineral industries." Engineer. " A sound, business-like collection of interesting facts. . . . The amount of information Mr. Hunt has brought together is enormous. . . . The volume appears likely to convey more Instruction upon the subject than any work hitherto published." Mining Journal. Colliery Management. THE COLLIERY MANAGER'S HANDBOOK; A Compre- hensive Treatise on the Laying-out and Working of Collieries, Designed as a Book of Reference for Colliery Managers, and for the Use of Coal-Mining Students preparing for First-class Certificates. By CALEB PAMELY, Mining Engineer and Surveyor; Member of the North of England Institute of Mining and Mechanical Engineers; and Member of the South Wales Insti- tute of Mining Engineer?. With nearly 500 Plans, Diagrams, and ether Illustrations. Medium 8vo, about Coo pages. Price /i ;s. strongly bound. [Just ready, Coal and Iron. THE COAL AND IRON INDUSTRIES OF THE UNITED KINGDOM. Comprising a Description of the Coal Fields, and of the Principal Seams of Coal, with Returns of their Produce and its Distribu- tion, and Analyses of Special Varieties. Also an Account of the occurrence of Iron Ores in Veins or Seams ; Analyses of each Variety ; and a History of the Rise and Progress of Pig Iron Manufacture. By RICHARD MEADE, Assistant Keeper of Mining Records. With Maps. 8vo, i 8s. cloth. "The book is one which must find a place on the shelves of all Interested in coal and iron production, and in the iron, steel, and other metallurgical industries." Engineer. "Of this book we may unreservedly say that it is the best of its class which we have ever met. ... A book of reference which no one engaged in the iron or coal trades should omit from his library." Iron and Coal Trades Review, Prospecting for Gold and other Metals. THE PROSPECTOR'S HANDBOOK: A Guide for the Pro- spector and Traveller in Search of Metal-Bearing or other Valuable Minerals. By J. VV. ANDERSON, M.A. (Camb.), F.R.G.S., Author of "Fiji and New Caledonia." Fifth Edition, thoroughly Revised and Enlarged. Small crown 8vo, 35. 6d. cloth. Will supply a much felt want, especially among Colonists, in whose way are so often thrown mineralogical specimens the value of which it is difficult to determine." Engineer. How to find commercial minerals, and how to identify them when they are found, are the leading points to which attention is directed. The author has managed to pack a; much practical detail into his pages as would supply material for a book three times its size." Mining Jour>tal . Mining Notes and Formula?. NOTES AND FORMULAS FOR MINING STUDENTS. By JOHN HERMAN MERIVALE, M.A., Certificated Colliery Manager, Professor of Mining in the Durham College of Science, Newcastle-upon.-Tyne. Third Edition, Revised and Enlarged. Small crown 8vo, zs. 6d. cloth. [Just published. " Invaluable to anyone who is working up for an examination on mining subjects." Coal and Iron Trades Review. " The author has done his work in an exceedingly creditable manner, and has produced a book that will be ot service to students, and those who are practically engaged in mining operations. 1 ' Engineer. " A vast amount of technical matter of the utmost value to mining engineers, and of consider- able interest to students." Schoolmaster. ta, and we strongly recommend it to al, MINING AND METALLURGY^ 23 Explosives. A HANDBOOK ON MODERN EXPLOSIVES. Being a Practical Treatise on the Manufacture and Application of Dynamite, Gun- Cotton, Nitro-Glycerine and other Explosive Compounds. Including the Manufacture of Collodion-Cotton. By M. EISSLER, Mining Engineer and Metallurgical Chemist, Author of " The Metallurgy of Gold," " The Metallurgy of Silver," &c. With about 100 Illustrations. Crown 8vo, IDS. 6d. cloth. [Just published. "Useful not only to the miner, but also to officers of both services to whom blasting and the use of explosives generally may at any time become a necessary auxiliary." Nature. " A veritable mine of information on the subject of explosives employed for military, mining and blasting purposes." Army and Navy Gazette. " The book is clearly written. Taken as a whole, we consider it an excellent little book and one that should be found of great service to miners and others who are engaged in work requiring the use of explosives." Athenaum. Gold, Metallurgy of. THE METALLURGY OF GOLD: A Practical Treatise on the Metallurgical Treatment of Gold-bearing Ores. Including the Processes of Concentration and Chlorination, and the Assaying, Melting and Refining of Gold. By M. EISSLER, Mining Engineer and Metallurgical Chemist, formerly Assistant Assayer of the U. S. Mint, San Francisco. Third Edition, Revised and greatly Enlarged. With 187 Illustrations. Crown 8vo, 12$. 6d. cloth. [Just published. "This book thoroughly deserves its title of a ' Practical Treatise.' The whole process of gold milling, from the breaking of the quartz to the assay of the bullion, is described in clear and orderly narrative and with much, but not too much, fulness of detail." Saturday Review. " The work is a storehouse of information and valuable data, and w all professional men engaged in the gold-mining industry." Mining y< Silver 9 Metallurgy of. THE METALLURGY OF SILVER : A Practical Treats on the Amalgamation, Roasting and Lixiviation of Silver Ores. Including the Assaying, Melting and Refining of Silver Bullion. By M. EISSLER, Author of "The Metallurgy of Gold.'' With 124 Illustrations. Crown 8vo, IDS. 6d. cloth. " A practical treatise, and a technical work which we are convinced will supply a long-felt want amongst practical men, and at the same time be of value to students and others indirectly connected with tne industries." Mining Journal. " From first to last the book is thoroughly sound and reliable." Colliery Guardian. " For chemists, practical miners, assayers and investors alike, we do not know of any work on the subject so handy and yet so comprehensive." Glasgow Herald. Silver-Lead, Metallurgy of. THE METALLURGY OF ARGENTIFEROUS LEAD ORES A Practical Treatise on the Smelting of Silver-Lead Ores and the Refining of Lead Bullion. Illustrated with Plans and Sections of Smelting Furnaces and Plant in Europe and America. By M. EISSLER, Author of "The Me- tallurgy of Gold," " The Metallurgy of Silver," &c. Cr. 8vo. [In the press, Metalliferous Minerals and Mining. TREATISE ON METALLIFEROUS MINERALS AND MINING. By D. C. DAVIES, F.G.S., Mining Engineer, &c., Author of "A Treatise on Slate and Slate Quarrying." Illustrated with numerous Wood Engravings. Fourth Edition, carefully Revised. Crown 8vo, I2S. 6d. cloth. "Neither the practical miner nor the general reader interested in mines can have a better book or his companion and his guide." Mining Journal. " We are doing our readers a service in calling their attention to this valuable work " Mining World. " A book that will not only be useful to the geologist, the practical miner, and the metallurgist, but also very interesting to the general public." Iron. "As a history of the present state of mining throughout the world this book has a real value, and it supplies an actual want." Athenceuin. Earthy Minerals and Mining. A TREATISE ON EARTHY 6- OTHER MINERALS AND MINING. By D. C. DAVIES, F.G.S. Uniform with, and forming a Com- panion Volume to, the same Author's " Metalliferous Minerals and Mining." With 76 Wood Engravings. Second Edition. Crown 8vo, i2S. 6d. cloth. " We do not remember to have met with any English work on mining matters that contains the same amount of information packed in equally convenient form." Academy. " We should be inclined to rank it as among the very best of the handy technical and trades manuals which have recently appeared." British Quarterly Review t 34 CROSBY LQCRWOQD & SOWS CATALOGUE. Mineral Surveying and Valuing. THE MINERAL SURVEYOR AND VALUER'S COMPLETE GUIDE, comprising a Treatise on Improved Mining Surveying and the Valua- tion of Mining Properties, with New Traverse Tables. "By WM. LINTERN, Mining and Civil Engineer. Third Edition, with an Appendix on " Magnetic and Angular Surveying," with Records of the Peculiarities of Needle Dis- turbances. With Four Plates of Diagrams, Plans, &c, izmo, 45. cloth. [Just published, " Mr. Lintern's book forms a valuable and thoroughly trustworthy guide." Iron and Coal Trades Review. " This new edition must be of the highest value to colliery surveyors, proprietors and mana- gers." Colliery Guardian. Asbestos and its Uses. ASBESTOS: Its Properties, Occurrence and Uses. With some Account of the Mines of Italy and Canada. By ROBERT H.JONES. With Eight Collotype Plates and other Illustrations. Crown 8vo, i2s. Gd. cloth. [Just published. " An interesting and invaluable work." Collierv Guardian. " We counsel our readers to get this exceedingly interesting work for themselves ; they will find in it much that is suggestive, and a great deal that is of immediate and practical usefulness." " A valuable addition to the architect's and engineer's library." Building Nevis. Underground limping Machinery. MINE DRAINAGE. Being a Complete and Practical Treatise on Direct-Acting Underground Steam Pumping Machinery, with a Descrip- tion of a large number of the best known Engines, their General Utility and the Special Sphere of their Action, the Mode of their Application, and their merits compared with other forms of Pumping Machinery. By STEPHEN MICHELL. 8vo, 155. cloth. "Will be highly esteemed by colliery owners and lessees, mining engineers, and students generally who require to be acquainted with the best means of securing the drainage of mines. It Is a most valuable work, and stands almost alone in the literature of steam pumping machinery." Colliery Guardian. " Much valuable information is given, so that the book is thoroughly worthy of an extensive circulation amongst practical men and purchasers of machinery." Mining Journal. Mining Tools. A MANUAL OF MINING TOOLS. For the Use of Mine Managers, Agents, Students, &c. By WILLIAM MORGANS, Lecturer on Prac- tical Mining at the Bristol School of Mines, izmo, zs. 6d. cloth limp. ATLAS OF ENGRAVINGS to Illustrate the above, contain- ing 235 Illustrations of Mining Tools, drawn to scale. 4to, 45. 6d. cloth. " Students in the science of mining, and overmen, captains, managers, and viewers may gain practical knowledge and useful hints by the study of Mr. Morgans' manual." Colliery Guardian. "A valuable work, which will tend materially to improve our mining literature." Mining Journal. Coal Mining. COAL AND COAL MINING: A Rudimentary Treatise on. By the late Sir WARINGTON W. SMYTH, M.A., F.R.S., &c., Chief Inspector of the Mines of the Crown. Seventh Edition, Revised and Enlarged. Witli numerous Illustrations. 121110, 45. cloth boards. [Jtittpvblishid. " As an outline is given of every known coal-field in this and other countries, as well as of tho principal methods of working, the book will doubtless interest a very large number of readers." Mining Journal. Subterraneous Surveying. SUBTERRANEOUS SURVEYING, Elementary and Practical Treatise on, with and without the Magnetic Needle. By THOMAS FENWICK, Surveyor of Mines, and THOMAS BAKER, C.E. Illust. i2ino, 33. cloth boards. Granite Quarrying. GRANITES AND OUR GRANITE INDUSTRIES. By GEORGE F. HARRIS, F.G.S., Membre de la Societe Beige de Geologic, Lec- turer on Economic Geology at the Birkbeck Institution, &c. With Illustra- tions. Crown 8vo, zs. 6d. cloth. " A clearly and well-written manual for perscns engaged or interested in the granite industry." Scotsman. " An interesting work, which will be deservedly esteemed." Colliery Guardian. " An exceedingly interesting and valuable monograph on a subject which has hitherto received unaccountably little attention iii the shape of systematic literary treaunent." Scottish Leader. ELECTRICITY, ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING, etc. a5 ELECTRICITY, ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING, etc* Electrical Engineering \ THE ELECTRICAL ENGINEER'S POCKET-BOOK OF MODERN RULES, FORMULAE, TABLES AND DATA. By H, R. KEMPE, M.Inst.E.E., A.M.Inst C.E., Technical Officer Postal Telegraphs, Author of " A Handbook of Electrical Testing," &c, With numerous Illus- trations, royal 32010, oblong, 55. leather. IJust published. " There is very little in the shape of formula; or data which the electrician is likely to want in a liutry which cannot be found in its pages." Practical Engineer. "A very useful book of reference for daily use in practical electrical engineering and its vaiious applications to the industries of the present day." Iron. " It is the best book of its kind." Electrical Engineer. "We;l arranged and compact. The Electrical Engineer's Pocket-Book is a good one.' Electrician, 'Strongly recommended to those engaged in the various electrical industries." Electrical Re-iteiu. Electric Lighting. ELECTRIC LIGHT FITTING : A Handbook for Working Electrical Engineers, embodying Practical Notes on Installation Manage- ment. By JOHN W. URQUHART, Electrician, Author of " Electric Light," &c. With numerous Illustrations, crown 8vo, 55. cloth. \_Just published. " This volume deals with what may be termed the mechanics of electric lighting, and is addressed to men who are already engaged in the work or are training for it. The work traverses a great dtal of ground, and may be read as a sequel to the same author's useful wonc on ' Electric Light.' " Electrician. " This is an attempt to state in the simplest language the precautions which should be adopted In instal ing the electric light, and to g : ve information, for the guidance of those who have to run the plant when installed. The book is well wonh the perusal of the workmen for whom it is Wiitten." Electrical Review, ' Eminently practical and useful. . . . Ought to be in the hands of everyone in charge of an electric light plant.' Electrical Engineer. " Altogether Mr. Urquhart has succeeded in producing a rpally capital booV, which we have no hesitation in recommending to the notice of working electricians and electrical engineers. Mechanical U'orld. Electric Light. ELECTRIC LIGHT : Its Production and Use. Embodying Plain Directions for the Treatment cf Dynamo-Electric Machines, Bat^erie", Accumulators, and Electric Lamps. By J. W. URQUHART, C.E., Author of " Electric Light Fitting," "Electroplating," &c. Fourth Edition, carefully Revised, with Large Additions and i-<5 Illustiaticns. Crown 8vo, 73. 6d. cloth. [Just published. " The book is by far the best that we have yet met with on the subject." Athenceum. "It is the only work at present available which gives, in language intelligible for the most part to the ordinary reader, a general but concise history of the means which have been adopted up to the present time in producing the electric light." Metropolitan. "The book contains a general account of the means adopted in producing the electric light, not only as obtained from voltaic or galvanic batteries, but treats at length of the dynamo-electric machine in several of its forms." Colliery Guardian. Construction of Dynamos. DYNAMO CONSTRUCTION : A Practical Handbook for Vie Use. of Engineer Constructors and Electricians in Charge. With Examples of leading English, American and Continental Dynamos and Motors. By J. W. URQUHART, Author of "Electric Light," "Electric Light Fitting," &c. Crown 8vo. [/ the press. Text Book of Electricity. THE STUDENT'S TEXT-BOOK OF ELECTRICITY. By HENRY M. NOAD, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. New Edition, carefully Revised. With an Introduction and Additional Chapters, by W. H. PREECE, M.I.C.E., Vice-President of the Society of Telegraph Engineers, &c. With 470 Illustra- tions. Crown 8vo, 12$. 6d. cloth. "The original plan of this book has been carefully adhered to so as to make it a reflex of the existing state of electrical science, adapted for students. . . . Discovery seems to have pro- gressed with marvellous strides ; nevertheless it has now apparently ceased, and practical applica tions have commenced their career ; and it is to give a faithful account of these that this fresh edition of Dr. Noad's valuable text-book is launched ioi^."Extractfrom Introduction by W. H. Preece, Esq. "We can recommend Dr. Noad's book for clear style, great range of subject, a good index, and a plethora of woodcuts. Such collections as the present are indispensable." Athenceum. " An admirable text book for every student beginner or advanced of electricity." Engineering, 26 CROSBY LOCKWOOD & SON'S CATALOGUE. Electric Lighting. THE ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF ELECTRIC LIGHT. ING. By ALAN A. CAMPBELL SWINTON, Associate I.E.E. Second Edition, Enlarged and Revised. With 16 Illustrations. Crown 8vo, is. 6d. cloth. "_ Anyone who desires a short and thoroughly clear exposition of the elementary principles of electric-lighting cannot do better than read this little work." Bradford Observer, Electricity. A MANUAL OF ELECTRICITY: Including Galvanism, Mag. netism, Dia-Magnetism, Electro-Dynamics, Magno-Electricity, and the Electric Telegraph. By HENRY M. NOAD, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. Fourth Edition. With 500 Woodcuts. 8vq, i 43. cloth. " It is worthy of a place in the library of every public institution." Mining Journal, Dynamo Construction. HO \V TO MAKE A D YNAMO : A Practical Treatise for Amateurs. Containing numerous Illustrations and Detailed Instructions for Construct- ing a Small Dynamo, to Produce the Electric Light. By ALFRED CROFTS. Third Edition, Revised and Enlarged. Crown 8vo, 2s. cloth. [Just published. "The instructions given in this unpretentious little book are sufficiently clear and explicit to enable any amateur mechanic possessed of average skill and the usual tools to be found in an amateur's workshop, to build a practical dynamo machine." Electrician. NATURAL SCIENCE/ etc. Pneumatics and Acoustics. PNEUMATICS : including Acoustics and the Phenomena of Wind Currents, for the Use of Beginners. By CHARLES TOMLINSON, F.R.S., F.C.S., &c. Fourth Edition, Enlarged. With numerous Illustrations, lamp, is. 6d. cloth. " Beginners in the study of this important application of science could not have a better manual." Scotsman. " A valuable and suitable text-book for students of Acoustits and the Phenomena of Wind Currents." Schoolmaster, Conchology. A MANUAL OF THE MOLLUSC A : Being a Treatise on Recent and Fossil Shells. By S. P. WOODWARD, A.L.S., F.G.S., late Assistant Palaeontologist in the British Museum. With an Appendix on Recent and Fossil Conchological Discoveries, by RALPH TATE, A.L.S., F.G.S. Illustrated by A. N. WATERHOUSE and JOSEPH WILSON LOWRY. With 23 Plates and upwards of 300 Woodcuts. Reprint of Fourth Ed., 1880. Cr. 8vo, 73. 6d. cl. " A most valuable storehouse of conchological and geological information." Science Gossip. Geology. RUDIMENTARY TREATISE ON GEOLOGY, PHYSICAL AND HISTORICAL. Consisting of "Physical Geology," which sets forth the leading Principles of the Science ; and " Historical Geology," which treats of the Mineral and Organic Conditions of the Earth at each successive epoch, especial reference being made to the British Series of Rocks. By RALPH TATE, A.L.S., F.G.S., &c. &c. With 250 Illustrations. i2mo, 55. cloth boards. " The fulness of the matter has elevated the book into a manual. Its information is exhausth e and well arranged." School Boar<% Chronicle, Geology and Genesis. THE TWIN RECORDS OF CREATION; or, Geology and Genesis : their Perfect Harmony and Wonderful Concord. By GEORGE W. VICTOR LE VAUX. Numerous Illustrations. Fcap. 8yo, 55. cloth. " A valuable contribution to the evidences of Revelation, and disposes very conclusively of the arguments of those who would set God's Works against God's Word. No real difficulty is shirked, and no sophistry is left unexposed." The Rock. " The remarkable peculiarity of this author is that he combines an unbounded admiration of science with an unbounded admiration of the Written record. The two impulses are balanced to a nicety ; and the consequence is that difficulties, which to minds less evenly poised would be seri- ous, find immediate solutions of the happiest kinds." London Review. Astronomy. ASTRONOMY. By the late Rev. ROBERT MAIN, M.A., F.R.S., formerly Radcliffe Observer at Oxford. Third Edition, Revised and Cor- rected to the present time, by WILLIAM THYNNE LYNN, B.A., F.R.A.S., formerly of the Royal Observatory, Greenwich. lamo, 2S. cloth limp. "A sound and simple treatise, very carefully edited, and a capital book for beginners." Knowledge. \tional Times. '_' Accurately brought down to the requirements of the present time by Mr. Lynn." Lduca* NATURAL SCIENCE, etc, 27 DR. LARDNER'S COURSE OF NATURAL PHILOSOPHY, THE HANDBOOK OF MECHANICS. Enlarged and almost re- written by BENJAMIN LOEWY, F.R.A.S. With 378 Illustrations. Post 8vo, 6s. cloth. cs to the industrial arts, and to the practical business 01 me. Mining journal. _ >( Mr. Loewy has carefully revised the book, and brought it up to modern requirements. a "'Natural philosophy has had few exponents more able or better skilled in the art of popu- -rising the subject than Dr. Lardner ; and Mr. Loewy is doing good service in fitting this treatise, and the others of the series, for use at the present time." Scotsman. THE HANDBOOK OF HYDROSTATICS AND PNEUMATICS. New Edition, Revised and Enlarged, by BENJAMIN LOEWY, F.R.A.S. With 236 Illustrations. Post 8vo, 55. cloth. "For those 'who desire to attain an accurate knowledge of physical science without the pro- found methods of mathematical investigation,' this work is not merely intended, but well adapted. " The volume'before us has been carefully edited, augmented to nearly twice the bulk of the ormer edition, and all the most recent matter has been added. . . . It is a valuable text-book. Nature Candidates for pass examinations will find it, we think, specially suited to their requirements." English Mechanic. THE HANDBOOK OF HEAT. Edited and almost entirely re- written by BENJAMIN LOEWY, F.R.A.S., &c. 117 Illustrations. Post 8vo, 6s. cloth. " The style !s always clear and precise, and conveys instruction without leaving any cloudiness or lurking doubts behind." Engineering. "A most exhaustive book on the subject on which it treats, and is so arranged that it can be understood by all who desire to attain an accurate knowledge of physical science Mr. Loewy has included all the latest discoveries in the varied laws and effects of heat." Standard. "A complete and handy text-book for the use of students and general readers." linglish Mechanic. THE HANDBOOK OF OPTICS. By DIONYSIUS LARDNER,D.C.L., formerly Professor of Natural Philosophy and Astronomy in University College, London. New Edition. Edited by T. OLVER HARDING, B.A. Lend., of University College, London. With 298 Illustrations. Small 8vo, 448 pages, 55. cloth. "Written by one of the ablest English scientific writers, beautifully and elaborately illustrated. Mechanic's Magazine. THE HANDBOOK OF ELECTRICITY, MAGNETISM, AND ACOUSTICS. By Dr. LARDNER. Ninth Thousand. Edit, by GEORGE CAREY FOSTER, B.A., F.C.S. With 400 Illustrations. Small 8vo, 55. cloth. " The book could not have been entrusted to anyone better calculated to preserve the terse and lucid style of Lardner, while correcting his errors and bringing up his work to the present state of scientific knowledge." Popular Science Review. THE HANDBOOK OF ASTRONOMY. Forming a Companion to the " Handbook of Natural Philosophy. 1 ' By DIONVSIUS LARDNER, p.C.L., formerly Professor of Natural Philosophy and Astronomy in University College, London. Fourth Edition. Revised and Edited by EDWIN DUNKIN, F.R.A.S., Royal Observatory, Greenwich. With 38 Plates and upwards of 100 Woodcuts. In One Vol., small 8vo, 550 pages, 95. 6d. cloth. " Probably no other book contains the same amount of information in so compendious and well- arranged a form certainly none at the price at which this is offered to the public." Athenceum. " We can do no other than pronounce this work a most valuable manual of astronomy, and we strongly recommend it to all who wish to acquire a general but at the same time correct acquaint- ance with this sublime science." Quarterly Journal of Science. "One of the most deservedly popular books on the subject . . . We would recommend not only the student of the elementary principles of the science, but he who aims at mastering the higher and mathematical branches of astronomy, not to be without this work beside him." Practi- cal Magazine. Dr. Lardner's Electric Telegraph. THE ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH. By Dr. LARDNER. Re- vised and Re-written by E. B. BRIGHT, F.R.A.S. 140 Illustrations. Small 8vo, 2S. 6d. cloth. 1 One of the most readable books extant on the Electric Telegraph." English Mechanic. 28 CROSBY LOCKWOOf) & SON'S CATALOGUE. DR. LARDNER'S MUSEUM OF SCIENCE AND ART, THE MUSEUM OF SCIENCE AND ART. Edited L DIONYSIUS LARDNER, D.C.L., formerly Professor oi Natural Philosophy ar. Astronomy in University College, London. With upwards of 1,200 Engra ings on Wood. In 6 Double Volumes, i is., in a new and elegant cloth bim ing ; or handsomely bound in half-morocco, 315. 64. %* OPINIONS OF THE PRESS. "This series, besides affording popular but sound instruction on scientific subjects, with wh'u the humblest man in the country ought to be acquainted, also undertakes that teaching of ' Coi tut uuuALHcsi man m uie country ougnc LO ue acquainted, aiso unueriaKes mat leacnini Uion Things ' which every well-wisher of his kind is anxious to promote. Many thousand this serviceable publication have been printed, in the belief and hope that the desire for and improvement widely prevails ; and we have no fear that such enlightened faith will disappointment. " Times. "A cheap and interesting publication, alike informing and attractive. The pape lects of importance and great scientific knowledge, considerable inductive pow ular style of treatment." Spectator. "The ' Museum of Science and Art" is the most valuable contribution that has ever bee le to the Scientific Instruction of every class of society." Sir DAVID BREWSTER, in tt 'th. RfLtjftl KfJI-if7ll Many thousand copies "or instruct!' *. u iiii^i wtmcin. wiuciy ptevcuib ; iuiu we iiuve iiu iccti luai suon eiiugmeueu iaii.ii will meet wi disappointment. " Times. _" A cheap and interesting publication, alike informing and attractive. The papers combir subjects of importance and great scientific knowledge, considerable inductive powers, and popular style of treatment." Spectator. North British Review. " Whether we consider the liberality and beauty of the illustrations, the charm of the writin or the durable interest of the matter, we must express our belief that there is hardly to be foun among the new books one that would be welcomed by people of so many ages and classes as valuable present." Exa *** Separate books formed from the above, suitable for Workmen's Libraries, Science Classes, etc. Common Things Explained. Containing Air, Earth, Fire, Water, Tim Man, the Eye, Locomotion, Colour, Clocks and Watches, &c. 233 Illu trations, cloth gilt, 55. The Microscope. Containing Optical Images, Magnifying Glasses, Origi and Description of the Microscope, Microscopic Objects, the Solar Micro scope, Microscopic Drawing and Engraving, &c. 147 Illustrations, clot gilt, 2S. Popular Geology. Containing Earthquakes and Volcanoes, the Crust the Earth, &c. 201 Illustrations, cloth gilt, 2s. 6d. Popular Physics. Containing Magnitude and Minuteness, the Atm sphere, Meteoric Stones, Popular Fallacies, Weather Prognostics, tl Thermometer, the Barometer, Sound, &c. 85 Illustrations, cloth gilt, zs. 6 Steam and its Uses. Including the Steam Engine, the Locomotive, an Steam Navigation. 89 Illustrations, cloth gilt, zs. Popular Astronomy. Containing How to observe the Heavens Tl Earth, Sun, Moon, Planets, Light, Comets, Eclipses, Astronomical I " ences, &c. 182 Illustrations, 45. 6d. Tlftc Jtee and White. Ants : Their Manners and Habits. With Illustr tions of Animal Instinct and Intelligence. 135 Illustrations, cloth gilt, zs The Electric Telegraph Popularized. To render intelligible to all wl can Read, irrespective of any previous Scientific Acquirements, thevariou; forms of Telegraphy in Actual Operation. 100 Illustrations, cloth gilt Dr. Lardner's School Handbooks. NATURAL PHILOSOPHY FOR SCHOOLS. By Dr. LARDNER, 328 Illustrations. Sixth Edition. One Vol., 35. 6d. cloth. " A very convenient class-book for junior students in private schools. It is intended to convey,-. In cleat and precise terms, general notions of all the principal divisions of Physical Science. "- British Quarterly Review. ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY FOR SCHOOLS. By Dr. LARDNER, With 190 Illustrations. Second Edition. One Vol., 3$. 6d. cloth. ' Clearly written, well arranged, and excellently illustrated." Gardener's Chronicle. WUNTING-HOUSE WORK, TABLES .CALCULATORS, etc. 29 COUNTING-HOUSE WORK, TABLES, etc. Accounts for Manufacturers. FACTORY ACCOUNTS: Their Principles and Practice. A Handbook for Accountants and Manufacturers, with Appendices on the No- menclature of Machine Details ; the Income Tax Acts ; the Rating of Fac- tories ; Fire and Boiler Insurance ; the Factory and Workshop Acts, &c., including also a Glossary of Terms and a large number of Specimen Rulings. By EMILE GARCKE and J. M. FELLS. Third Edition. Demy 8vo, 250 pages, price 6s. strongly bound. ' Averj' interesting description of the requirements of Factory Accounts. . . . the principle assimilating the Factory Accounts to the general commercial books is one which we thoroughly Tee with." Accountants' Journal. " Characterised by extreme thoroughness. There are few owners of Factories who would derive great benefit from the perusal of this most admirable work." Local Government hronicie. ^oreign Commercial Correspondence. THE FOREIGN COMMERCIAL CORRESPONDENT: Being Aids to Commercial Correspondence in Five Languages English, French, German, Italian and Spanish. By CONRAD E. BAKER. Second Edition, Revised. Crown 8vo, 3$. 6d. cloth. ' Whoever wishes to correspond in all the languages mentioned by Mr. Baker cannot do better an study this work, the materials of which are excellent and conveniently arranged. They con- t not of entire specimen letters, but w'nat are far more useful short passages, sentences, or rases expressing the same general idea in various forms." Athenaum. "A careful examination has convinced us that it is unusually complete, well arranged and iable. The book is a thoroughly good one." Schoolmaster. ntuitive Calculations. THE COMPENDIOUS CALCULATOR; or, Easy and Con- cise Methods of Performing the various Arithmetical Operations required in Commercial and Business Transactions, together with Useful Tables. By DANIEL O'GoRMAH. Corrected arid Extended by J. R. YOUNG, formerly Professor of Mathematics at Belfast College, Twenty-seventh Edition, care- fully Revised by C. NORRIS. Fcap. 8vo, 2s. 6ty. "he Metric System and the HritisJi Standard's. A SERIES OF METRIC TABLES, in vhich the British Stand- ard Measures and Weights are compared with those of the Metric System at present in Use on the Continent. By C. H. DOWLING, C.E. 8vo, 105. 6d. strongly bound. "Their accuracy has been certified by Professor Airy, the Astronomer-Royal." Builder. "Mr. Dowlings Tables are well put together as a ready-reckoner for the conversion of one item into the oti\er."Atltena:um. ron and Metal Trades 9 Calculator. THE IRON AND METAL TRADES' COMPANION. For expeditiously ascertaining the Value of any Goods bought or sold by Weight, from is. per cwt. to ii2s. per cwt., and from one farthing per pound tc one shilling per pound. Each Table extends from one pound to 100 tons. To which are appended Rules on Decimals, Square and Cube Root, Mensuration Hding Nea/s. "Although specially adapted to the iron and metal trades, the tables will be found useful in ny other business in which merchandise is bought and sold by weight." Rail-nay Neivs, 30 CROSBY LOCKWOOD & SON'S CATALOGUE. Calculator for Numbers and Weights Combined. THE NUMBER, WEIGHT AND FRACTIONAL CALCU LA TOR. Containing upwards of 250,000 Separate Calculations, showing a a glance the value at 422 different rates, ranging from -rJ^th of a Penny t 2ps. each, or per cwt., and 20 per ton, of any number of articles consecu tively, from i to 470. Any number of cwts., qrs., and Ibs., from i cwt. to 47 cwts. Any number of tons, cwts., qrs., and Ibs., from i to 1,000 tons. B; WILLIAM CHADWICK, Public Accountant. Third Edition, Revised and Im proved. 8vo, price i8s., strongly bound for Office wear and tear. [Just published *** This work is specially adapted for the Apportionment of Mileage Charge for Railway Traffic. |^& = This comprehensive and entirely unique and original Calculator is adaptei for the use of Accountants and Auditors, Railway Companies, Canal Companies " Jers, Shipping Agents, General Carriers, etc. ironfounders, Brassfotmders, Metal Merchants, Iron Manufacturersjronmonger: Engineers, Machinists, Boiler Makers, Millwrights, Roofing, Bridge and Girdt Makers, Colliery Proprietors, etc. Timber Merchants, Builders, Contractors, Architects, Surveyors, Auctioneer Valuers, Brokers, Mill Owners and Manufacturers, Mill Furnishers, Merchants ani General Wholesale Tradesmen. *** OPINIONS OF THE PRESS. " The book contains the answers to questions, and not simply a set of Ingenious puzzl methods of arriving at results. It is as easy of reference for any answer or any number of answei as a dictionary, and the references are even more quickly made. For making up accounts or est mates, the book must prove invaluable to all who have any considerable quantity of calcuiatioi nvolving price and measure in any combination to Ao" Engineer. " The most perfect work of the kind yet prepared." Glasgow Herald, Comprehensive Weight Calculator. THE WEIGHT CALCULATOR. Being a Series of Table upon a New and Comprehensive Plan, exhibiting at One Reference the exac Value of any Weight from i Ib. to 15 tons, at 300 Progressive Rates, from n to i68s. per cwt., and containing 186,000 Direct Answers, which, with the Combinations, consisting of a single addition (mostly to be performed ; sight), will afford an aggregate of 10,266,000 Answers ; the whole being calci lated and designed to ensure correctness and promote despatch. By HENF HARDEN, Accountant. Fourth Edition, carefully Corrected. Royal 8vi stiongly half-bound, i 55. " A practical and useful work of reference for men of business generally ; it is the best of tl kind we have seen.' Ironmonger. "Of priceless value to business men. It is a necessary book in all mercantile offices. SM field Independent. Comprehensive Discount Guide. THE DISCOUNT GUIDE. Comprising several Series ( Tables for the use of Merchants, Manufacturers, Ironmongers, and other by which may be ascertained the exact Profit arising from any mode of usir Discounts, either in the Purchase or Sale of Goods, and the method of eithi Altering a Rate of Discount or Advancing a Price, so as to produce, by or operation, a sum that will realise any required profit after allowing one t more Discounts : to which are added Tables of Profit or Advance from ij no per cent., Tables of Discount from ij to g8| per cent., and Tables of Cor miss : on, &c., from $ to 10 per cent. By HENRY HARBEN, Accountant, Authi of " The Weight Calculator." New Edition, carefully Revised and Corrccte Demy 8vo, 544 pp. half-bound, i 55. " A book such as this can only be appreciated by business men, to whom the saving of tir means saving of money. We have the high authority of Professor J. R. Young that the tab) throughout the work are constructed upon strictly accurate principles. The work is a nioc of typographical clearness, and must prove of great value to merchants, manufacturers, a) general' traders." British Trade Journal. Iron Shipbuilders 9 and Merchants' Weight Tables. IRON -PLATE WEIGHT TABLES: For Iron Shipbuilder: Engineers and Iron Merchants. Containing the Calculated Weights of u wards of 150,000 different sizes of Iron Plates, from i foot by 6 in. by J in. 10 feet bv 5 ieet by I in. Worked out on the basis of 40 Ibs. to the squa foot of Iro i of i inch in thickness. Carelully compiled and thoroughly R vised by II. BURLINSON and W. H. SIMPSON. Oblong 4to, 255. half-bound. "This work will be found of grcnt utility. The authors have had much practical experien of what is wanting in making estimates; and the use of the book will save much time in maki Vaborate calculations.' 'English Mechanic. INDUSTRIAL AND USEFUL ARTS. 31 INDUSTRIAL AND USEFUL ARTS. Soap-making. THE ART OF SOAP-MAKING: A Practical Handbook of the Manufacture of Hard and Soft Soaps, Toilet Soaps, etc. Including many New Processes, and a Chapter on the Recovery of Glycerine from Waste Leys. By ALEXANDER WATT, Author ot " Electro-Metallurgy Practically Treated," &c. With numerous Illustrations. Fourth Edition, Revised and Enlarged. Crown 8vo, 75. 6d. cloth. [Just published. "The work will prove very useful, not merely to the technological student, but to the practical soap-boiler who wishes to understand the theory of his art." Chonical Ne-ws. "Mr. Watt's book is a thoroughly practical treatise on an art which has almost no literature !n our language. We congratulate the author on the success of his endeavour to fill a void in English technical literature." Mature, faper MaJting* THE ART OF PAPER MAKING : A Practical Handbook of the Manufacture of Paper from Rags, Esparto, Straw and other Fibrous Materials, Including the Manufacture of Pulp Irom Wood Fibre, with a Description ot the Machinery and Appliances used. To which are added Details of Processes for Recovering Soda from Waste Liquors. By ALEXANDER WATT. With Illustrations. Crown Svo, 75. 6d. cloth. [Just published. "This book is succinct, lucid, thoroughly practical, and includes everything of interest to the modern paper maker. It is the latest, most practical and most complete work on the paper-making art before the British public." Paper Record. ' It may be regarded as the standard work on the subject. The book is full of valuable in- fo -mation. The 'Art of Paper-making,' is in every respect a model of a text-book, either for a technical class or for the private student." Paper and Printing Trades Journal. " Admirably adapted for general as well as ordinary technical reference, and as a handbook for students in technical education may be warmly commended." 7'/ze Paper .Maker's Monthly Journal. Leather Manufacture. THE ART OF LEATHER MANUFACTURE. Being a Practical Handbook, in which the Operations of Tanning, Currying, and Leather Dressing are fully Described, the Principles of Tanning Explained and many Recent Processes introduced. By ALEXANDER WATT, Author of " Soap-Making," &c. With numerous Illustrations. Second Edition. Crown Svo, gs. cloth. "A sound, comprehensive treatise on tanning and its accessories. This book is an eminently valuable production, which redounds to the credit of both author and publishers." Chemical "This volume is technical without being tedious, comprehensive and complete without being prosy, and it bears on every page the impress of a master hand. We have never come across a better trade treatise, nor one that so thoroughly supplied an absolute want." Shoe and Leather Trades' Chronicle. Boot and Shoe Malting. THE ART OF BOOT AND SHOE-MAKING. A Practical Handbook, including Measurement, Last-Fitting, Cutting-Out, Closing and Making, with a Description of the most approved Machinery employed. By JOHN B. LENO, late Editor of St. Crispin, and The Boot and Shoe-Maker. With numerous Illustrations. Third Edition. i2mo, 2s. cloth limp. " This excellent treatise is by far the best work ever written on the subject. A new work, embracing all modern improvements, was much wanted. This wnnt is now satisfied. The chapter on clicking, which shows how waste may be prevented, will save fifty times the price of the book." Scottish Leather Trader. Dentistry. MECHANICAL DENTISTRY: A Practical Treatise on the Construction of the various kinds of Artificial Dentures. Comprising also Use- ful Formulae, Tables and Receipts for ,Gold Plate, Clasps, Solders, &c. &c. By CHARLES HUNTER. Third Edition, Revised. With upwards of 100 Wood Engravings. Crown Svo, 35. 6d. cloth. " The work is very practical." Monthly Review cf Dental Surgery. " We can strongly recommend Mr. Hunter's treatise to all students preparing for the profession of dentistry, as well as to every meclianical dentist." Dublin Journal of Medical Science. Wood Engraving. WOOD ENGRAVING: A Practical and Easy Introduction to the Study of the Art. By WILLIAM NORMAN BROWN. Second Edition. With numerous Illustrations. i2mo, is. 6d. cloth limp. "The book is clear and complete, and will be useful to anyone wanting to understand the first elements of the beautiful art of wood engraving." Graphic. 32 CROSBY LOCKWOOD & SON'S CATALOGUE. HANDYBOOKS FOR HANDICRAFTS. By PAUL N, HASLUCK. Metal Turning. THE MET A L TURNER'S HA ND YBOOK. A Practical Manual for Workers at the Foot-Lathe: Embracing Information on the Tools, Appliances and Processes employed in Metal Turning. By PAUL N. HAS- LUCK, Author of " Lathe-Work." With upwards of One Hundred Illustra- tions. Second Edition, Revised. Crown 8vo, as. cloth. " Clearly and concisely written, excellent in every way." Mechanical World. Wood Turning. THE WOOD TURNER'S HANDYBOOK. A Practical Manual for Workers at the Lathe: Embracing Information on the Tools, Appliances and Processes Employed in Wood Turning. By PAUL N. HASLUCK. With upwards of One Hundred Illustrations. Crown 8vo, zs. cloth. "We recommend the book to young turners and amateurs. A multitude of workmen have hitherto sought in vain for a manual of this special industry." Mechanical World. WOOD AND METAL TURNING. By P. N. HASLUCK. (Being the Two preceding Vols. bound together.) 300 pp , with upwards of 200 Illustrations, crown 8vo, 33. 6d. cloth. Watch Repairing. THE WATCH JOBBER'S HANDYBOOK. A Practical Manual on Cleaning, Repairing and Adjusting. Embracing Information on the Tools, Materials, Appliances and Processes Employed in Watchwork. By PAUL N. HASLUCK. With upwards of One Hundred Illustrations. Cr. 8vo, as. cloth. " All young persons connected with the trade should acquire and study this exce lent, and at the same time, inexpensive work." CUrkemuell CnronicU. Clock Repairing. THE CLOCK JOBBER'S HANDYBOOK : A Practical Manual on Cleaning, Repairing and Adjusting. Embracing Information on the Tools, Materials, Appliances and Processes Employed in Clockwork. By PAUL N. HASLUCK/. With upwards of 100 Illustrations. Cr. 8vo, zs. cloth. " Of inestimable service to those commencing the trade." Coventry Standard. WATCH AND CLOCK JOBBING. By P. N. HASLUCK. (Being the Two preceding Vols. bound together.) 32J pp., with upwards oi 200 Illustrations, crown 8vo, 35. 6d. cloth. Pattern Making. THE PATTERN MAKER'S HANDYBOOK. A Practical Manual, embracing Information on the Tools, Materials and Appliances em- ployed in Constructing Patterns for Founders. By PAUL N. HASLUCK. With One Hundred Illustrations. Crown 8vo, as. cloth. " This handy volume contains sound information of considerable value to students and artificers." Hardware Trades Journal. Mechanical Manipulation. THE ME CHA NIC'S WORKSHOP HA ND YBOOK. A Practical Manual on Mechanical Manipulation. Embracing Information on various Handicraft Processes, with Useful Notes and Miscellaneous Memoranda. By PAUL N. HASLUCK. Crown 8vo, 2s. cloth. " It is a book which should be found in every workshop, as it is one which will be continually referred to for a very great amount of standard information." Saturday Review. Model Engineering. THE MODEL ENGINEER'S HANDYBOOK: A Practical Manual on Model Steam Engines. Embracing Information on the Tools, Materials and Processes Employed in their Construction. By PAUL N. HASLUCK. With upwards of 100 Illustrations. Crown 8vo, 2s. cloth. " By carefully going through the work, amateurs may pick up an excellent notion of the con- struction of full-sized steam engines." Telegraphic Journal. Cabinet Making. THE CABINET WORKER'S HANDYBOOK: A Practical Manual, embracing Information on the Tools, Materials, Appliances and Processes employed in Cabinet Work. By PAUL N. HASLUCK, Author of " Lathe Work," &c. With upwards of 100 Illustrations. Crown 8vo, zs. cloth. . [? itst published. " Thoroughly practical throughout. The amateur worker in wood will find it mcst useful." Glasgow Herald. INDUSTRIAL AND USEFUL ARTS. 33 Electrolysis of Gold, Silver, Copper, etc. ELECTRO-DEPOSITION : A Practical Treatise on the Electrolysis of Gold, Silver, Copper, Nickel, and other Metals and Alloys. With descrip- tions oi Voltaic Batteries, Magneto and Dynamo-Electric Machines, Ther- mopiles, and of the Materials and Processes used in every Department of the Art, and several Chapters on Electro-Metallurgy. By ALEXANDER WATT. Third Edition, Revised and Corrected. Crown 8vo, 95. cloth. "Eminently a book for the practical worker In electro-deposition. It contains practical descriptions of methods, processes and materials as actually pursued and used in the workshop." Engineer. Electro-Metallurgy. ELECTRO-MET A LL URG Y ; Practically Treated. By ALEXANDER WATT, Author of " Electro-Deposition," &c. Ninth Edition, Enlarged and Revised, with Additional Illustrations, and including the most recent" Processes. i2mo, 45. cloth boards. "From this book both amateur and artisan may learn every thing necessary for the successful prosecution of electroplating." Iron> Electroplating. ELECTROPLATING: A Practical Handbook on the Deposi- tion of Copper, Silver, Nickel, Gold, Aluminium, Brass, Platinum, &c. &c. With Descriptions of the Chemicals, Materials, Batteries and Dynamo Machines used in the Art. By J. W. URQUHART, C.E. Second Edition, with Additions. Numerous Illustrations. Crown 8vo, 53. cloth. " An excellent practical manual." Engineering, " An excellent work, giving the newest information." Horological Journal. Electrotyping. ELECTROTYPING : The Reproduction and Multiplication of Print- ing Surfaces and Works of Art by the Electro-deposition of Metals. By J. W. URQUHART, C.E. Crown Svo, 5$. cloth. 'The book is thoroughly practical. The reader is, therefore, conducted through the leading aws of electricity, then through the metals used by electrotypers, the apparatus, and the depositing processes, up to the final preparation of the work." Art jfourna.1, Horology. A TREATISE ON MODERN HOROLOGY, in Theory and Prac- tice. Translated from the French of CLAUDIUS SAUNIER, by -JULIEN TRIP- PLIN, F.R.A.S., and EDWARD RIGG, M.A., Assayer in the Royal Mint. With 78 Woodcuts and 22 Coloured Plates. Second Edition. Royal Svo, 2 2s. cloth ; 2 i os. half-calf. There is no horological work in the English language at all to be compared to this produc- tion of M. Saunier's for clearness and completeness. It is alike good as a guide for the student and as a re'erence for the experienced horologist and skilled workman." Horological Journal. " The latest, the most complete, and the most reliable of those literary productions to which continental watchmakers are indebted for the mechanical superiority over their English brethren - in fact, the Book of Hooks, is M. Saunier's ' Treatise. ' " Watchmaker, Jeweller and Silversmith. Watchmaking. THE WATCHMAKER'S HANDBOOK. A Workshop Com- panion for those engaged in Watchmaking and the Allied Mechanical Arts. From the French of CLAUDIUS SAUNIER. Enlarged by JULIEN TRIPPLIN, F.R.A.S., and EDWARD RIGG, M.A., Assayer in the Royal Mint. Woodcuts and Copper Plates. Third Edition, Revised. Crown Svo, gs. cloth. " Each part is trul" a treatise in itself. The arrangement is (jood and the language is clear and concise. It is an admirable uide for the young watchmaker." Engineering. " It is impossible to speak too hujh'.y of its excellence. It fulfils every requirement in a hand- book intended for the use of a workman." U'atch and Clxkmaker. " This book contains an in.mense number of practical derails bearing on the daily occupation of a watchmaker." Watchmaker and Metal-worker (Chicago). Goldsmiths' Work. THE GOLDSMITH'S HANDBOOK. By GEORGE E. GEE, Jeweller, &c. Third Edition, considerably Enlarged. 12010, 35. 6d. cl. bds. "A good, sound educator, and will be accepted as an authority." Horological Journal. Silversmiths' Work. THE SILVERSMITH'S HANDBOOK. By GEORGE E. GEE, Jeweller, &c. Second Edition, Revised, with numerous Illustrations, izmo, 35. &d. cloth boards. "Workers in the trade will speedily discover its merits when they sit down tuy*Vdy it." echanic. Tbe above two works together, strongly half-bound, price 75. D 34 CROSBY LOCKWOOD & SON'S CATALOGUE. Bread ami Biscuit Baking. THE BREAD AND BISCUIT BAKER'S AND SUGAR- BOILER'S ASSISTANT. Including a large variety of Modern Recipes. With Remarks on the Art of Bread-making. By ROBERT WELLS, Practical Baker. Second Edition, with Additional Recipes. Crown 8vo, 2s. cloth. [Just published. " A large number of wrinkles for the ordinary cook, as well as the baker." Saturday Review. Confectionery. THE PASTRYCOOK AND CONFECTIONER'S GUIDE. For Hotels, Restaurants and the Trade in general, adapted also for Family Use. By ROBERT WELLS, Author of " The Bread, and Biscuit Baker's and Sugar Boiler's Assistant." Crown 8vo, 2s. cloth. [Just published. " We cannot speak too highly of this really excellent work. In these days of keen competition our readers cannot do better than purchase this book." Bakers' Times. Ornamental Confectionery. ORNAMENTAL CONFECTIONERY: A Guide for Bakers. Confectioners and Pastrycooks; including a variety of Modern Recipes, and Remarks on Decorative and Coloured Work. With 129 Original Designs. By ROBERT WELLS. Crown 8vo, 55. clotb. "A valuable work, practical, and should be in the hands of every baker and confectioner. The illustrative designs are alone worth treble the amount charged for the whole work." Bakers 'J :';;!i'S. Flour Confectionery. THE MODERN FLOUR CONFECTIONER. Wholesale and Retail. Containing a large Collection of Recipes for Cheap Cakes, Biscuits, &c. With Remarks on the Ingredients used in their Manufacture, &c. By R. WELLS, Author of "Ornamental Confectionery," "The Bread and Biscuit Baker," " The Pastrycook's Guide,' 1 &c. Crown 8vo, zs. cloth. \_Just published. Laundry Work. LA UN DRY MANAGEMENT. A Handbook for Use in Private and Public Laundries, Including Descriptive Accounts of Modern Machinery and Appliances for Laundry Work. By the EDITOR of "The Laundry Journal." With numerous Illustrations. Crown 8vo, zs. 6d. cloth. CHEMICAL MANUFACTURES & COMMERCE. Alkali Trade, Manufacture of Sulphuric Acid, etc. A MANUAL OF THE ALKALI TRADE, including the Manufacture of Sulphuric Acid, Sulphate of Soda, and Bleaching Powder. By JOHN LOMAS. 390 pages. With 232 Illustrations and Working Drawings. Second Edition. Royal 8vo, i IDS. cloth. " This book is written by a manufacturer for manufacturers. The working details of the most approved forms of apparatus are given, and these are accompanied by no less than 232 wood en- gratings, all of which may be used for the purposes of construction. Every step in the manufac. ture is very fully described hi this manual, and each improvement explained." Athenaum. The Blowpipe. THE BLOWPIPE IN CHEMISTRY, MINERALOGY, AND GEOLOGY. Containing all known Methods of Anhydrous Analysis, Work- ing Examples, and Instructions for Making Apparatus. By Lieut. -Col. W. A. Ross, R.A. With 120 Illustrations. New Edition. Crown 8vo, 55. "The student who goes through the course of experimentation here laid down will gain a better insight into inorganic chemistry and mineralogy than if he had 'got up' any of the best text-books ot the day, and passed any number of examinations in their contents." Chemical News. Commercial Chemical Analysis. THE COMMERCIAL HANDBOOK OF CHEMICAL ANA- LYSIS; or, Practical Instructions tor the determination oi the Intrinsic or Commercial Value of Substances used in Manufactures.Trades, and the Arts. By A. NORMANDY. New Edition by H. M. NOAD, F.R.S. Cr. 8vo, 125. 6d. cl. "Essential to the analysts appointed under the new Act. The most recent results are given, and the work is well edited and carefully written." Nature, AGRICULTURE, FARMING, GARDENING, etc. 35 Breiving. A HANDBOOK FOR YOUNG BREWERS. By HERBERT EDWARDS WRIGHT, B.A. An Entirely New Edition, much Enlarged. [/ the press. Analysis and Valuation of Fuels. FUELS: SOLID, LIQUID AMD GASEOUS, Their Analysis and Valuation. For the Use of Chemists and Engineers. By H. J. PHILLIPS, F.C.S., Analytical and Consulting Chemist to the Great Eastern Railway. Crown 8vo, 35. 6d. cloth. [Just published " Ought to have its place in the laboratory of every metallurgical establishment, and wherever fuel is used on a large sctle." Chemical News. " Mr. Phillips' new book cannot fail to be of wide interest, especially at the present time." jL>ye-Wdres and Colours. THE MANUAL OF COLOURS AND DYE-WARES: Their Properties, Applications, Valuation, Impurities, and Sophistications. For the use of Dyers, Printers, Drysalters, Brokers, &c. By J. W. SLATER. Second Edition, Revised and greatly Enlarged. Crown 8vo, 75. 6d. cloth. " A complete encyclopaedia of the materia tinctoria. The information given respecting each article is full and precise, and the methods of determining the value of articles such as these, so liable to sophistication, are given with clearness, and are practical as well as valuable." Chemiit atid Drug-gist. " There is no other work which covers precisely the same ground. To students preparing or examinations in dyeing and printing it will prove exceedingly useful." Chemical News. Pigments. THE ARTIST'S MANUAL OF PIGMENTS. Showing their Composition, Conditions of Permanency, Non-Permanency, and Adul- terations ; Effects in Combination with Each Other and with Vehicles ; and 4 the most Reliable Tests of Purity. Together with the Science and Arts Department's Examination Questions on Painting. By H. C. STANDAGE. Second Edition. Crown 8vo, as. 6d. cloth. " This work is indeed mulhim-in-parvo, and we can, with good conscience, recommend it to all who come in contact with pigments, whether as makers, dealers or users." Chemical Review, Ganging. Tables and JKules for Revenue Officers, JBrewers, etc. A POCKET BOOK OF MENSURATION AND GAUGING : Containing Tables, Rules and Memoranda for Revenue Officers, Brewers, Spirit Merchants, &c. By J. B. MANT (Inland Revenue). Second Edition, Revised. Oblong i8mo, 45. leather, with elastic band. \_Jiistpublished. ' This handy and useful boofe is adapted to the requirements of the Inland Revenue Depart- ment, and will be a favourite book of reference. The range of subjects is comprehensive, and the arrangement simple and clear." Civilian. " Should be in the hands of every practical brewer." Brewers' "Journal. AGRICULTURE, FARMING, GARDENING, etc. Youatt and Burn's Complete Grazier. THE COMPLETE GRAZIER, and FARMER'S and CATTLE- BREEDER'S ASSISTANT. A Compendium or Husbandry; especially iu the departments connected with the Breeding, Rearing, Feeding, and General Management of Stock; the Management oi the Dairy, &c. With Directions for the Culture and Management of Grass Land, of Grain and Root Crops, the Arrangement of Farm Offices, the use of Implements and Machines, and on Draining, Irrigation, Warping, &c. ; and the Application and Relative Value of Manures. By WILLIAM YOUATT, Esq., V.S., and ROBERT SCOTT BURN. A Ne-v Edition, partly Re-Written and greatly Enlarged by W. FREAM, B.Sc. Lond., LL.D. One large Svo Volume, nearly i.oco pages. [In preparation. Agricultural Facts and Figures. NOTE-BOOK OF AGRICULTURAL FACTS AND FIGURES FOR FARMERS AND FARM STUDENTS. By PRIMROSE McCoNNELL, Fellow of the Highland and Agricultural Society ; late Professor of Agricul- ture, Glasgow Veterinary College. Third Edition. Royal samo, full roan, gilt edges, with elastic band, 45. " The most complete and comprehensive Note-book for Farmers and Farm Students that we have seen. It literally teems with information, and we can cordially recommend it to all connected with agrcuilture." North British Agriculturist. 36 CROSBY LOCKWOOD 6- SON'S CATALOGUE. Flour Manufacture, Milling, etc. FLOUR MANUFACTURE: A Treatise on Milling Science and Practice. By FRIEDRICH KICK, Imperial Regierungsrath, Pro r essor of Mechanical Technology in the Imperial German Polytechnic Institute, Prague. Translated from the Second Enlarged and Revised Edition with Supplement. By H. H. P. POWLES, A.M.I.C.E. Nearly 400 pp. Illustratec with 28 Folding Plates, and 167 Woodcuts. Royal 8vo, 255. cloth. ' This valuable work is, and will remain, the standard authority on the science of milling. . . The miller who has read and digested this wo'k will have laid the foundation, so to speak, ot' a suc- ress'ul career ; he will have acquired a number of genera! principles which he can proceed to apply. In this handsome volume we at last have the accepted text-book of modern milling in good, sound English , which has little, if any, trace of the German idiom.": The Miller. " The apper.r.mce of this celebrated work in English is very opportune, and British millers wftl, we are sure, not be slow in availing themselves of its pages." Milters' Gazette. Small Farming. SYSTEMATIC SMALL FARMING; or, The Lessons of my Farm. Being an Introduction to Modern Farm Practice for Small Farmers in the Culture of Crops; The Feeding of Cattle; The Management of the Dairy, Poultry and Pigs, &c. &c. By ROBERT SCOTT BURN, Author of "Out- lines of Landed Estates' Management." Numerous Illusts., cr. 8vo, 6s. cloth, "This is the completest book of its class we have seen, and one which every amateur farmer will read with pleasure and accept as a guide." Field. "The volume contains a vast amount of useful information. No branch of farming is let untouched, from the labour to bo done to the results achieved. It may be safely recommended to all who think they will be in paradise when they buy or rent a three-acre farm." Glasgow Herald. Modern Farming. OUTLINES OF MODERN FARMING. By R. SCOTT BURN. Soils, Manures, and Crops Farming and Farming Economy Cattle, Sheep, and Horses Management of Dairy, Pigs and Poultry Utilisation of Town-Sewage, Irrigation, &c. Sixth Edition. In One Vol., 1,250 pp., half- bound, profusely Illustrated, 12$. " The aim of the author hae been to make his work at once comprehensive and trustworthy, and in this aim he has succeeded to a degree which entitles him to much credit." Morning Advertiser. " No farmer should be without this book."an6ury Guardian. Agricultural Engineering. FARM ENGINEERING, THE COMPLETE TEXT-BOOK OF. Comprising Draining and Embanking ; Irrigation and Water Supply ; Farm Roads, Fences, and Gates; Farm Buildings, their Arrangement and Con- struction, with Plans and Estimates; Barn Implements and Machines; Field Implements and Machines; Agricultural Surveying, Levelling, &c. By Prof. JOHN SCOTT, Editor of the " Farmers' Gazette," late Professor of Agriculture and Rural Economy at the Royal Agricultural College, Cirencester, &c. &c. In One Vol., 1,150 pages, half-bound, with over 600 Illustrations, 12$. "Written with great care, as well as with knowledge and ability. The author has done his work well ; we have found him a very trustworthy guide wherever we have tested his statements. The volume will be of great value to agricultural students." Mark Lane Express. " For a young agriculturist we know of.no handy volume likely to be more usefully studied." Belt's Weekly Messenger. English Agriculture. THE FIELDS OF GREAT BRITAIN : A Text-Book of Agriculture, adapted to the Syllabus of the Science and Art Department. For Elementary and Advanced Students. By HUGH CLEMENTS (Board of Trade). Second Ed., Revised.with Additions. i8mo, zs. 6d. cl. [Just published. "A most comprehensive volume, giving a mass of information." Agricultural Economist. " It is a long time since we have seen a book which has pleased us more, or which contains such a vast and useful fund of knowledge." Educational Times. Tables for Farmers, etc. TABLES, MEMORANDA, AND CALCULATED RESULTS for Fanners, Graziers, Agricultural Students, Surveyors, Land Agents Auc- tioneers, etc. With a New System of Farm Book-keeping. Selected and Arranged by SIDNEY FRANCIS. Second Edition, Revised. 272 pp., waist- coat-pocket size, is. 6d. limp leather. [Just published. " Weighing less than i oz., and occupying no more space than a match box, it contains a mass of facts and calculations which has never before, in such handy form, been obtainable. Every operation on the farm is dealt with. The work may be taken as thoroughly accurate, the whole of tne tables having been revised by Dr. Fream. We cordially recommend it," Belts Weekly Messenger. " A marvellous little book. . . . The agriculturist who possesses himself of it will not be disappointed with his investmant." The Farm. AGRICULTURE, FARMING, GARDENING, etc. 37 Farm and Estate Book-keeping. BOOK-KEEPING FOR FARMERS 6- ESTATE OWNERS. A Practical Treatise, presenting, in Three Plans, a System adapted for all Classes of Farms. By JOHNSON M. WOODMAN, Chartered Accountant. Second Edition, Revised. Cr. 8vo, 35. 61. cl. bds. ; or 2s. 6d. cl. limp. [Just published. ' The volume is a capital study of a most important subject." Agricultural Gazette. " Will be found of great assistance by those who intend to commence a system of book-keep- ing, the author's examples being clear and explicit, and his explanations, while full and accurate, being to a large extent free from technicalities." /e Stock Journal, Farm Account Book. WOODMAN'S YEARLY FARM ACCOUNT BOOK. Giving a Weekly Labour Account and Diary, and showing the Income and Expen- diture under each Department of Crops, Live Stock, Dairy, &c. &c. With Valuation, Profit and Loss Account, and Balance Sheet at the end of the Year, and an Appendix of Forms. Ruled and Headed for Entering a Com- plete Record of the Farming Operations. By JOHNSON M. WOODMAN, Chartered Accountant, Author of "Book-keeping for Farmers." Folio, 75. 6cl. half bound. [culture. "Contains every requisite form for keeping farm accounts readily and accurately." Agri- Early fruits, Floivers and Vegetables. THE FORCING GARDEN ; or, How to Grow Early Fruits, Flowers, and Vegetables. With Plans and Estimates for Building Glass- houses, Pits and Frames. Containing also Original Plans for Double Glazing, a New Method of Growing the Gooseberry under Glass, &c. &c., and on Venti- lation, Protecting Vine Borders, &c. With Illustrations. By SAMUEL WOOD. Crown 8vo, ss.6rf. cloth. " A good book, and fairly fills a place that was in some degree vacant. The book is written with great care, and contains a great deal of valuable teaching." Gardeners' Magazine. "Mr. Wood's book is an original and exhaustive answer to the question 'How to Grow Early Fruits, Flowers and Vegetables ? ' " Land and Water. Good Gardening. A PLAIN GUIDE TO GOOD GARDENING ; or, How to Grow Vegetables, Fruits, and Flowers. With Practical Notes on Soils, Manures, Seeds, Planting, Laying-out of Gardens and Grounds, &c. By S. WOOD. Fourth Edition, with considerable Additions, &c., and numerous Illustrations. Crown 8vo, 35. 6d. cloth. "A very good book, and one to be highly recommended as a practical guide. The practical directions are excellent." Athen&um. " May be recommended to young gardeners, cottagers, and specially to amateurs, for the plair, simple, and trustworthy information it gives on common matters too often neglected." published OTHER" MATTERJL WILL BE FOUND To COMPRISE (AMONGSI THE RIGHTS AND WRONGS OF INDIVIDUALS LANDLORD AND TENANT VFNDORC SURETIES CRIMINAL LAW-PART T A P T WARDENS, ETC. INSANITARY DWELLINGS AND AREAS PUBLIC HEALTH Airn NUISANCES-FRIENDLY AND BUILDING SOCIETIES-COPYRIGHT AND PATW^TP A nS MARKS AND DESIGNS-HUSBAND AND WIFE, DlTORCE ETC ^-TRUSTEES AKD~EXECV TORS-GUARDIAN AND WARD. INFANTS, ETC.-GAME LAWS AND SPORTING-HOR^Es" LlCENSING ' ETC.-FORMS OF NOTE The object of this work is to enable those who consult it to help them- J%Jfi*\i ana thereby to dispense, as far as possible, with professional There are many wrongs and grievances which persons sub- mit to from time to time through not knowing how or where to apply for redress and many persons have as great a dread of a lawyer's office as of a lion's den. With this book at hand it is believed that many a SIX-AND-EIGHTPENCE may be saved many a. wrong redressed ; many a right reclaimed; many a law suit avoided; and many an evil abated. The work has established itself as the standard legal adviser of all classes, and also made a reputation for itself as a useful book of reference for lawyers residing at a distance from law libraries, who are glad to have at hand a work em- bodying recent decisions and enactments. *** OPINIONS OF THE PRESS. "It Is a complete code of English Law, written In plain language, which all can understand b h. ould be m tne hands of every business man, and all who wish to abolish lawyers' bills.'' A useful and concise epitome of the law, compiled with considerable care." La-w Magazine. "A complete digest of the most useful facts which constitute English law." Globe. " This excellent handbook. . . . Admirably done, admirably arranged, and admirably cheap. Leeds Mercury. A concise, cheap and complete epitome of the English law. So plainly written that he who runs may read, and he who reads may understand." Figaro. " A dictionary of legal facts well put together. The book is a very useful one." Spectator. " A work which has long been wanted, which is thoroughly well done, and which we most cordially recommend." Sunday Tttncs. " The latest edition of this popular book ought to be in every business establishment, and on every library table." Sheffield Post. Private Bill Legislation and Provisional Orders. HANDBOOK FOR THE USE OF SOLICITORS AND EN- GINEERS Engaged in Promoting Private Acts of Parliament and Provi- sional Orders, for the Authorization of Railways, Tramways, Works for the Supply of Gas and Water, and other undertakings of a like character. By L. LIVINGSTON MACASSEY, of the Middle Temple, Barrister-at-Law, and Member of the Institution of Civil Engineers; Author of " Hints on Water Supply . " Demy 8vo, 950 pp., price 255. cloth. The volume is a desideratum on a subject which can be only acquired by practical experi- ence, and the order of procedure in Private Bill Legislation and Provisional Orders is followed. The author s suggestions and notes will be found of great value to engineers and others profession- ally engaged in this class of practice." Building- News. " T he a j thor l s , double experience as an engineer and barrister has eminently qualified him for il point of promoting >Ch, '- Die experience as an engineer and barrister has eminently qualified the task, and enabled him to approach the subject alike from an engineering and legal view. The volume will be found a great help both to engineers and lawyers engaged in pr Private Acts of Parliament and Provisional Orders." Local Government Chronicle. OGDEN, SMALE AND CO. LIMITED, PRINTERS, GREAT SAFFRON HILL, E.G. YA 01 A SELECTION FROM WE ALE'S SEEIES. STEAM AND MACHINERY MANAGEMENT: a Guide to the Arrangement and Economical Management of ' Machinery, with Hints on Construction and Selection. By M. Powis BALE, M.Inst.M.E., &c. 2s. 6d. ; cloth boards, 3s. I PRACTICAL MECHANISM, the Elements of, and C[ Machine Tools. By T. BAKER, C.E. ; with Additions by J. c NASMYTH, C.E. 2s. 6d. ; cloth boards, 3s. 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Is. 6d. IRON BRIDGES OF MODERATE SPAN: Their Construction and Erection. By HAMILTON W. PSSTDEEH. late Inspector of Ironwork to the Salford Corporation. 2g. 5BY LOCKWOOD & SON, 7> SIATIOKEK3' HALL COITBT, &a