UC-NRLF lllllilll ^B no 3^2 OniFT OF Miss Sue Dunbar >S^^: ^^^rri KT'^ >.>>??f:t^.' .'^. ^k.^ >'«?^ -i- WWi '^ *« .^■# Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2007 with funding from IVIicrosoft Corporation http://www.archive.org/details/familyencyclopaeOOcrabrich J-' / ./ FAMILY ENCYCLOPAEDIA; OB, AM EXPLANATION OF WORDS AND THINGS WITH Alili the: arts AXD SCI£NC£S« ILLUSTRATED WITH NUMEROUS WOOD CUTS. BY GEORGE CRABB, A. M. Author of 'English Synonymes,' 'Technological Dictionary,* and 'Historical Dictionary Mercury, piided by Minerva, bearing Science round the World. ENLARGED AND IMPROVED. TO WHICH IS ADDED, aUESTIONS ADAPTED TO THE TEXT, BT THE AUTHOR OF POPULAR LESSONS. PUBLISHED BY C. S. DUNNING. 1831. Southern District of New York, ss. BE IT REMEMBERED, That on the 24th day of January, A. D. 1831, in the flfty-fifth year of the Independence of the United States of America, Henry C. Sleight, of the said Dis- trict, hath deposited in this office the title of a book, the right whereof he claims as pro- prietor, in the words following, to wit : "A Family Encyclopaedia ; or Explanation of Words and Things connected with all the Arts and Sciences. Illustrated with numerous wood cuts. 'By George Crabb, A. M. Author of ' English Synonymes,' ' Technological Dictionary,' and ' Historical Dictionary.' Mer- cury, guided by Minerva, bearing Science round the world. Enlarged and improved. To which is added. Questions adapted to the Text, by the Author of Popular Lessons." In conformity to the Act of Congress of the United States, entitled, " An Act for the encouragement of Learning, by securing the copies of Maps, Charts, and Books, to the authors and proprietors of such copies, during the time therein mentioned." And also to an Act, entitled, "An Act, supplementary to an Act, entitled, an Act for the encourage- ment of Learning, by securing the copies of Maps, Charts, and Books, to the authors and proprietors of such copies, during the times therein mentioned, and extending the bene- fits thereof to the arts of designing, engraving, and etching historical and other prints." FRED. J. BETTS, Clerk of the Southern District of New York. Slbiqut & Robinson, Printbrs. PREFACE, TO THE LONDON EDITION. This volume contains definitions of all terms of art and science, with such additional explanations, in some cases, as serve to illus- trate something more than the bare meaning of the word. It is drawn up with special regard to brevity, in order to comprehend within a convenient space- all words on which the reader may wish for immediate information. To the juvenile and less inform- ed class of readers, a work of this kind cannot fail to be accepta- ble, particularly as it has been so liberally supplied with illustra- tions by means of engravings. Although so small in bulk, yet this book will be found to contain a vast number of words which are not to be met with in any other work whatever, the explana- tion of which is nevertheless highly necessary for those who are not in the constant habit of hearing them used in ordinary dis- course. Of this description are the Latin phrases now adopted into our langueige, as Sine qua non, Ne plus ultra, and the like. The historical essays on each science, which have been expressly composed for this Dictionary, serve to show the progress of the arts and sciences from the earliest periods to the present time. NOTE TO THE NEW- YORK EDITION. This edition has been carefully revised, and such alterations and additions made as were necessary to perfect the work, and- adapt it to the United States. The numerous local articles, which abounded in the English copy, have been omitted in this, and their place suppliisd by such as were suited to our own country. Many .errors in the Natural History have been corrected, and numerous rii^^QQ'^/lO Vi PREFACE. articles added. The present volume contains between seven and eight hundred handsome engravings ; a great number of new cuts having been inserted, while most of the original ones have been re- tained. A series of questions adapted to the work, have been appended. It is believed that this edition is well adapted to the use of the young, and to those whose avocations prevent them from making profound researches, or whose means are restricted. It is often said that superficial acquirements mark the present age ; — ^that abundance of abstracts and compendious methods of obtaining knowledge, in some degree exclude the necessity of dili- gence and patient thought, and that innumerable facilities and mechanical helps encourage indolence rather than incite to appli- cation. To this it may be replied, that those who without these helps would know nothing beyond the narrow range of their own observation, may now, for a small expense of time and money obtain a considerable fund of information from this book, and from many others of a similar character and design. The minds of children, and persons of neglected education, can here be furnished with particular facts in Physics, in Chymistry, in Natural History, and in Intellectual Philosophy, that may open the senses to new per- ceptions, may stimulate curiosity, may turn the mind inward to the cultivation of its own abiHty, and may suggest the wisdom of God's laws, and the bounty of his providence. Such being the use of which this work is susceptible, and its execution being as faithful and perfect as its limits permit, it will be found serviceable as a school book — its simplicity of definition and variety of matter strongly recommending it to those engaged in Education. Author op American Popular Lessons. DICTIONARY OP GENERAL KNOWLEDGE ABE A, the first letter of the alphabet in most lan- guages. It stands for the indefinite article, as, a man ; for the sixth note in the gamut ; for the first of the dominical letters in the calendar ; as a numeral for one, among the Greeks, and 500 among the Romans, or with a stroke over it, A, 5000 ; for an abbreviation, as A. M. Anno Mundi, A. B. Baccalaureus Artium, Bachelor of Arts, A. C. Ante Christum, A. D. Anno Domini; in antiquity, A. Augustus, A. A. Augusti, A. A. A. Auruin, Argentum, ^s ; among chymists, Amalgam. AAM. A liquid measure, used by the Dutch, containing 280 pints Enghsh measure. ABAFT. A sea term, the hinder part of a ship. ABAGI. A silver coin in Persia, value about thirty-six sols, French money. ABATIS, or ABBATIS. In fortification, an entrenchment made of felled trees, tlie trunks being planted in the ground, and the branches interwoven. ABBEY. A monastery or convent, governed by a superior under the title of Abtot when ocupied by msdes, and Abbess when appropri- ated to females. At the reformation there were 490 of these establishments dissolved. ABBREVIATION. The contracting of a word or sentence, by omitting some of the letters. ABDOMINALES. The fourth order of fishes, which have the ventral fin placed be- hind tlie pectoral fin ; as salmon, trout, her- rings, gold fish, carp, sprats, &c. ABDUCTION. The unlawful carrying away a person. ABERRATION (in Astronomy.) An ap- parent motion of the celestial bodies, produced •by the progressive motion of light, and the earth's annual motion in its orbit. Tims, in the sun, the aberration in longitude is 20" con- Btantly, that being the space moved by the A ABS earth in 8' 7" of time, the interval in which light passes from the sun to the earth. ABETTOR. One who instigates another to commit a crime. ABEYANCE. The expectancy of an es- tate, honour, or title. ABLUTION. A religious ceremony of washing the body, still used by the Turks and Mahomedans ; also, the washing away the su • perfluous salts out of any body, in chymistry. ABOLLA. A kind of military garment worn by the Greek and Roman soldiers. ABOMASUS (in Comparative Anatomy.) The fourth stomach of ruminating animals. ABORIGINES. The earliest inhabitants of a country. ABRAUM. A kind of red clay used by cabinet-makers to deepen the colour of new mahogany. ABRIDGING (in Algebra.) The reducing a compound equation to a more simple form. ABRIDGMENT. Tlie bringing the con- tents of a hook within a short compass ; in Law, the shortening a count or declaration. ABSCEiSS. An inflammatory tumour con- taining purulent matter. ABSCISSE. The part of any diameter or axis of a curve line, cut off by a perpendicular Une, called the ordinate. ABSOLUTION. The forgiveness of sins, w^hich the Romish Church claims to iteelf the power of granting; in Civil Law, a sentence whereby the party accused is declared innocent of the crime laid to his cliarge. ABSORBENTS. Medicines that have the power of drying up redundant humours ; also what causes acids to eft'ervesce, as quick lim^ soda, &c. ABSORBENT VESSELS. Vessels which carry any fluid into the blood, as the iuhalent arteries. ABSORPTION (in Chymistry.) The con- 2 ACA version of a gaseous fluid into a liquid or soEd, on being united with some other solid. ABSORPTION (of the eartli.) A phrase applied to the swallowing up of mountains and portions of land. The earth beneath the sur- face, has, doubtless, many large caverns, which giving way, from time to time, the upper parts are absorbed. Ancient history records several cases; and modern history, some in China, France, and Switzerland. ABSTERGENTS. Medicines for cleansing the body from impurities. ABSTINENCE. An abstaining from meat diet, as practised in the Romish Church. ABSTRACTION (in Logic.) The intel- lectual act of separating accidents or qualities from the subjects in which they reside, as whiteness from snow or a wall, &c. ; animal from man or the brutes; in Chymistry, the process of drawing off by distillation any part of a compound, and returning it again any number of times to be redistilled. ABUTMENTS. The extremities of any body adjoining another, as the extremities of a bridge resting on the banks or sides of a river. ABYSS. Any deep place that is bottomless, or supposed to be so, as the deepest or unfa- thomable part-s of the sea. ABYSSYNIAN CATTLE. These catUe are rerajirkable for the size of their horns, as represented in the engraving ; some of which are four feet long, seven inches in diameter near the head, and hold ten quarts. ACACIA. A beautiful shrub, a species of which bears rose-coloured flowers. ACADEMICS. A sect of ancient philoso- phers; the term is sometimes applied to the followers of Socrates and Plato. ACADEMY. A school or college for the improvement of arts and science, so called from the grove of Academus in Atliens, where Plato kept his school of philosophy. The first mo- dern school of this name is said to have Ijeen established by Charlemagne at the instance of Alcuin, an English monk. This was followed by the Academia Sceretorum Naturse, estab- lished at Naples by Baptista Porta in 1560, •nd the Academia Lyncei at Rome, &c. AGO ACANTHUS (in Botany.) Bearsbreech, or Brank Ursine, a plant, the leaves of which resemble those of the thistle ; in Architecture, an ornament representing the leaves of the an- cient acanthus, and used in the capitals of the Corinthian and Composite orders. ACCELERATION (in Mechanics.) The increase of velocity in a moving body. Acce- lerated motion is that in which the velocity i» continually increasing, from the continued ac- tion of the motive power. Uniformly accele- rated motion, is that in which the velocity increases equally in equal times. The in- creasing velocity with which a body falls to the earth, is an instance of accelerated motion^ which is caused by the constant action of gravity. The spaces described by a falling body in a series of equal moments, or intervals of time, will be as the odd numbers 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, &c. which are the differences of the squares or whole spaces ; that is, a body which falls through 16 1-12 feet in the first second, will fall through 3 X 16 1-12 in the second, 5X16 1-12 in the third, and so on. ACCENT. The raising or lowering of the voice in pronouncing certain words or sylla- bles ; also the marks on the words or syllables, as the acute accent marked thus ('), the grave accent thus (^), the circumflex thus ("). ACCEPTANCE. The signing or subscrib- ing a bUl of exchange with the word 'accepted,' and one's name, by which the acceptor obliges himself to pay the contents of the bill. ACCESSARY, or ACCESSORY (in Law.) One guilty of an offence, not principally but by participation. ACCIDENCE. The rules of tlie inflexions of nouns and conjugations of verbs arranged in grammatical order. ACCIDENT. That which belongs acci- dentally, not essentially, to a thing, as sweet- ness, softness, &c. ; in Grammar, the termina- tion of words. ACCIPITRES. The first order of birds, including four genera of birds of prey, who have hooked bills, strong legs, and sharp claws. These are vultures, falcons, owls, and butcher birds. ACCLAMATION. A shouting in concert,, which was practised among the Romans as a token of applause, particularly in the theatres. This consisted in the chanting or repetition of certain words in a modulated ton^ so as to make a kind of harmony. ACCOMPANIMENT. An instrumental part added to any piece of music. ACCOUNT, or ACCOMPT. The reckon- ing or bill of a tradesman ; the statement of » merchant's dealings and affairs drawn out in regular order in his books, and called collect- ively Merchant's Accounts ; also tlie books in which these accounts are kept. ACCOUNTANT. A person employed to compute, adjust, and range in due order, ao- counts- in commerce. ACT ACCOUTREMENTS. The necessaries of « soldier, aa pufts, bdte, pouches, cartridge- boxes, &c. ACETATES. A kind of salts formed by the combination of acetic acid with a salifiable base, as the acetate of potash. ACETIC ACID. Radical vinegar, or tlie strongest acid of vinegar. ACHROMATIC. Colourless ; a term ap- plied to telescopes which were first contrived by J3r. Bevis, to remedy tlie aberrations of colom*. ACIDIPIABLE. An epithet signifying capable of being converted into an acid by an acidifying principle ; an acidifiable base or ra- dical is any substance that ia capable of uniting with such a quantity of oxygen as to become possessed of acid properties. ACIDS and their SALTS. Acids are either solid, liquid, or gaseous. They have so strong an attraction for water, as to be generally inca- pable of appearing in a solid form. TTte general characteristic properties of acids : 1. They are sour when applied to the tongue. 2. They change vegetable blues to a red co- tour. 3. They combine with metals and metallic oxides ; among the latter are included earths and alkaUs ; with all these they form salts. 4. They combine with water in all propor- tions. In this state they are said to be diluted. Very many contain oxygen as one of their components : but this substance is by no means a necessary ingredient in acids ; for there are several which possess the above properties which do not contain oxygen. ACONITE, Wolfsbane, or Monks- hood. A plant, the flower of which resem- "Ues the hood of a monk ; it is a violent poison. ACORN. The fruit of tlie oak, used to fat- ten hogs. ACOUSTICS. The science which teaches the physical laws and phenomena of sounds and hearing. ACQUITTAL. A deliverance or setting free from tlie suspicion of guilt, as where a person, on the verdict of a jury, is found not guilty. ACRE. A measure of land containing four square roods, or 160 square poles of 5 yards and a half, or 4840 square yards. The French acre is equal to one and a quarter of em English acre. ACROSTIC. A short poem whose succes- sive lines commence with tiie successive letters in a word or words. ACTION (in Physics.) The pressure or percussion of one body against another. By a law of nature, action and reaction are equal ; that is, the resistance of the body moved is ■ always equal to the force communicated to it. ACTION (in Rhetoric.) The carriage and motion of the body, and the modulation of the speaker's voice ia delivering an addiess. ADJ 3 ACTION (in Law.) The same as law- suit ACTIVE. An epitliet for what communis cates action or motion to another thing. ACTUARY. The chief clerk, or person, who compiles minutes of the proceedings of a company in business. ACUMEN. Mental sharpness, or great in- tellectual talent. ACUPUNCTURATION. A method of bleeding, in use among the Chinese and Japa- nese, by making punctures or pricks with a gold or silver needle in any part of the body, it is chiefly employed in headaches, convul- sions, letliargies, &c. A. D. Anno Domini, in the year of our Lord.^ ADAGIO. A degree quicker than grave time, in music, but with graceful and elegant execution. ADAMANT. The hardest sort of diamond. ADAMANTINE SPAR. A sort of earth brought from India and China, that is of tlie hardness of adamant ADDER. A large-headed poisoiious ser- pent of Britain, and of a brown colour, the light spotted snakes being harmless. The b^t remedy for their bite is sweet oil. ADDER-PLY. A name of the dragon- fly. ADDERS-GRASS. A plant about which serpents lurk. ADDERS-TONGUE. A plant whoee seeds are produced on a spike resembling a serpent's tongue. ADDERS-WORT. Snakeweed ; a plant so named from its supposed virtue in curing the bite of serpents. ADDITION. That rule in arithmetic which directs the connecting into a total smn several small ones. When tne number has only one kind of figures, it is called simple addition ; when it has two or several denominations, it is compound. ADHESION. The property of certain bodies to attract other bodies to tnemselves, or the force by which they adhere to each otlier. Adhesion denotes a union to a certain point between two distinct bodies; cohesion, the union of the parts of the same body so as to form one mass. AD INFINITUM. Indefinitely, or to infi- nity, ADIPOCERE. A substance resembling spermaceti, which is formed from an animal in its progress towards decomposition. ADIT OF A MINE. The aperture whereby it is entered, and the v/ater and ores carrien away; it is distinguished from the air-sheift, and usually made on the side of a hill. ADJECTIVE. A part of speech in gram- mar, which is added to a noun to qualify its signification, as bitter, sweet, &c. ADJUTANT. Oiie who assists a superior officer in a regiment ; the adjutant-general as- MD AER sists the general with hia counsel and personal service. ADJUTANT. A large bird which lives on carrion. AD LIBITUM. At pleasure. ADMEASUREMENT (in Law.) A writ against those who usurp more than Uieir own share, as the Admeasurement of Pasture, or tlie Admeasurement of Dower. ADMINISTRATOR (in Law.) The per- son to whom the estate and effects of an intes- tate are committed, for wluch he is to be ac- countable when required. ADMIRAL. An officer of the first rank and command in a fleet In England, the Lord High Admiral has the government of the king's navy. The admiral of the fleet is the highest officer in the command of a fleet. There are besides two gradations of admirals, namely, the vice eidmiral and the rear admiral, each of which is distinguished into three classes by the colour of their flags, as white, blue, and red. In the United States, the commander of a fleet is called commodore. ADONAI. The name of Jehovah among the Jews. ADONIS. A beautiful youth, the favourite of Venus, who was killed by a wild boar. ADOPTION. A practice among the Greeks and Romans, of making a person one's heir, and investing him with all the rights and pri- vileges of a son. AD VALOREM. According to the value. ADVANCED GUARD, or Van-guard (in the Military Art.) The first line or division of an army ranged or marching in order of battle. ADVENT. The coming of our Saviour; also, a festival of the Episcopal cluirch, com- memorative of the Advent, which falls about a month before Christmas. ADVERB. A part of speech in grammar, added to a verb to complete its signification, as largely, neatly, &c. ADVERSARIA. A term among literary men for a common place book, wherein they enter whatever occurs to them in reading or conversation that is worthy of notice. ADVERTISEMENT. Any printed publi- cation of circumstances, either of public or pri- vate interest, particularly that inserted in the newspapers. ADULT (in Civil Ijaw.) Any person of lawful age. ADULTERATION. The debasing of the coin by the mixture of impure metals ; also, the debasing and corrupting any article of trade by putting improper ingredients in it, as is done very frequently by bakers, brewers, and other traders. ADVOCATE. One who pleads for a fee in a court of law, and in England called a bar- rister or counsellor. £DILE. A Roman magistrate who had the charge of all public buildings, particularly temples and theatres, also of all streets, high- ways, &c.. MGIS. A shield, particularly Jupiter's shield. ^NEID. The title of Virgil's epic poem, in which he celebrates the adventures of Mneas, as founder of Rome. jEOLIAN HARP. An arrangement of strings placed in a window and played upon by the wind. iEOLIC DIALECT. One of the five dia- lects of the Greek tongue. iEOLIPILE. A hollow metal ball with a slender pipe, used to show the convertibility of water into steam. ^iRA, or ERA. Any date, period, or event, from which a calculation of years is made to commence. The principal seras are the vul- gar, or Christian era, dated from the birth of our Saviour ; the ara of the creation, dated by Usher and most chronologists 4004 years be- fore the vulgar sera ; the sera of the Olympiads, dated about 776 years before the vulgar aera ; tlie sera of the building of Rome, according to Varro, is 753 years before Christ ; the sera of Nabonassar, so dated from Nabonasssu- the first king of Babylon, 747 years before Christ ; the sera of the Hegira, or the Mahometan sera, dated from the hegira or flight of Mahomet from Mecca, dated about 622 years after Christ, or the vulgar sera, AEROLITES. Air stones, or meteoric stones falling from the atmosphere. These are semi metallic substances, the descent of which, though mentioned several times in history, has not Ijeen authenticated until these few years. The fact is, however, by recent and frequent observations, now put beyond all doubt. Two showers of stones are recorded by Livy and Julius Obsequens to have happened at Rome in the reign of Tullus Hostilius, and during the consulate of C. Martins and M. Torquatus ; a shower of iron, in Lucania, mentioned by Pliny, and a shower of mercury by Dion. Among the moderns, Garden speaks of about 12,000 stones, one of 120 lbs. another of 60 lbs. that fell at Padua in Italy, in 1510; Gassendi of a stone of 59 lbs. on Mount Vaiser in Pro- vence ; Muschenbrock of two large stones in Ireland ; St. Amand de Baudin and others of a great shower of stones in the environs of Agen, in 1790 ; the earl of Bristol of twelve stones at Sienna in Tuscany, in 1794 ; Captain Top- ham of a stone of 56 lbs. at Wold Cottage in Yorkshire, in 1795 ; Dr. Southey of a stone of 10 lbs. in Portugal, in 1 796 ; Philosophical Ma- gazine, of a mass of iron 70 cubic feet, in Ame- rica, in 1800 ; and M. Fourcroy of several stones from 10 lbs. to 17 ll)s. that fell near L'Aigle in Normandy, besides other instances equally well attested. The larger sort of tliese stones have l)een seen as himinous liodies to move with great velocity, descojiding in an oblique direction, and frequently with a loud hissing noise, resembling that of a mortar shell AES AEBOKAUT. Oiie iAd flA or nartarnk- . ^^ _ lfce«ir. ly t of nRBBB ar fldkctad » WfeoB (see Bal- «rtke yor 178^«4vM ■KB, MM vm papa^ sm ohmb ». 'AliOl^ HtsrOKT w. 11a jlheMls«riheMciB«L Dt.Bbe^ 1783^ M. Pfihire tadk ha aatft ia *e gAi^ Ifr. Cwqiah^ dbwwry of ifce height rf 84 fai.^ dkr i ii i ji^ it ifc^ psntfofi I MMnLtoi llwi Ih iiaai In* iif * _hBriB air. aai riK at it Bk wmi. of kanre prevEBlBd hia fixm ttyiagneacpai- wldkiM^fe it faiglh » ■Mki«g«ap b*^ SLrk wliii a of «ijs »*JB° * ^^ uiSmm ueUaddBT, aneadod i^piay. firataatofi " j^Bd^ ivu LiulhLU^ hi Ifa^gnlfar, pyr aaiiifci I w l i ■ af Ai^ r, had aade tafii ■iiawti hwnriicar- Ihe pnqcct haa caaemiHL VariiBB to1heheigjte«r70fict. Thiseqwi- ^as male a ATigDia, abiMI die '" B the apaoe af tai gf MM feet: aha aiartaa to da hi^lft li I jkMtolhe rfa«* iiwifcBl< Acafc^r of SCKaaa^ a krae hiA aafc to « dgl* f HIM faa da ahaaoriihai Oa ffe i^^teaf tecnriMMaatheU^ aad 43 ia &MBIV, a ahBBK aeaek, aai adtaS ihefcat II I li^cwr aeaatol ia a M. taam, ■ wetaii eiaadbBit I4m t »t, awl dhi — — g">toc— "I — *" 6 — — — ''^*— ^ todhe oiiMil iaperfaetarfcir,at Ae&aaee «ri%»OftEtlnMlhB|faKofMaal. ^ hohMW tfcaocnaeal. H. Mk ^ whithaaaiMfeWn 11 a^haaoafc^ P«V»^ vhhTgrikfy aal snii^ Ac to f toiiMifaaagiaearlye^ofatift. cariiethepaaaiaaadaetoa^ipif thefce oilana&vartaAtBetonaeraaaatoMna mam tma, aM Oaa taep ■ ha^MheiiHMd. Omi ITSa^lLPfihlretodkhia aa|.1ha.aMaahea«ia kighftof84fal.^ai abaat ib» .iaai. aad a hdK ha Mir *• aeeakd: fedaa naewMi tothekykoT 810 fiat. Ml Ihe IfeM^e to SOL & *e agHtof totheheJ^ ofaoft et. Boicn^g ow Pa a it katt aiaB aaaata^ ai right of di the all Jiila, aad tia If ITSa^heaaiertodka da Hanah ^Ailaribi^Mdiathenaceof lialj ill awaiaBaaeatafcaatfacaiha. la ihia i Bjaau they aat with aeaeni dtforeat ato «f ar, dhecAet of ahich-aaa tooie ■ II I J iiaaiii Ami In Ihii lahia Aqr acre alao hi darner of hanag Iha aaehae faaiM dtoeelha^da fce lai aot baa qvh. aaa aenoa aavaaac oafcanBa aoacKvaaa lyFJ II ar €«iaa4, iaitorf «f fcn aidiahiah Meanu ■ointoMlCfaaha aafc ladaacaedabagaaa 6 AER lieing filled with considerable difficulty, il was found to be 35 pounds lighter than an equal bulk of common air. With tliis they ascended, and in tliree quarters of an hour traversed fifteen miles. Their sudden descent was occa- sioned by a rupture which happened to the ma- chine when it was at its greatest height On a subsequent day the same gentlemen made an ascent in a balloon filled with inflammable air. This machine was formed of gores of silk, covered with a varnish of caoutchouc, of a spherical figure, and measuring 27 feet 6 inch- es in diameter. A net was spread over the upper hemisphere, and fastened to a hoop which passed round the middle of the balloon. To this a sort of car was suspended, a few feet below the lower part of the balloon ; and in or- der to prevent the bursting of the machine, a valve was placed in it, by opening of which pome of the inflammable air might be allowed to escape. In the car, which was of basket- work, and covered with linen, the two adven- turers took their seats in the afternoon of the 1st of December, 1783. At the time the bal- loon rose the barometer was at 30° 18', and it continued rising until the barometer fell to 27°, from which they calculated that they had ascended 600 yards. By throwing out ballast occasionally they found it practica- ble to keep nearly the same distance from the earth during the rest of their voyage, the mercu- ry fluctuatingbetween 27° and 27° 65', and the thermometer between 53° and 57° the whole time. They continued in the air an hour and three quarters, and alighted at the distance of 27 miles from Paris, having suffered no incon venience, nor experienced any of the contrary currents described by the Marquis d'Arlandes. M. Roberts having alighted, and much of the inflammable gas still remaining, M. Charles de- termined on taking another voyage. No soon- er therefore was the balloon thus lightened of 130 pounds of its weight, than it arose with immense velocity, and in 20 minutes was 9000 feet above the earth, and out of sight of all ter restrial objects. The globe, which had become flaccid, now began to swell, and when M. Charles drew the valve, to prevent the balloon from bursting, the inflammable gas, wliich was much warmer than the external air, for a time diffused a warmth around, but afterwards, a considerable change was observable in the tem- perature. His fingers were benumbed with cold, which also occasioned a pain in his right ear and jaw, but the beauty of the prospect compensated for these inconveniences. The sun, which had been set on his ascent, became again visible for a short time, in consequence ofthe height which he had reached. He saw for a few seconds vapours rising from the val- leys and rivers. The clouds seemed to rise from the earth, and collect one upon the other ; •only their colour was gray and obscure from the dimness of the light. By the light of the moon lie perceived that the machine was turn- AER ing round with him, and that there were con- trary currents which brought him back again : he also observed witli surprise, that the "wind caused his banners to point upwards, although he was neither rising nor descending, but mov- ing horizontally. On alighting in a field about 3 miles distant from the place where he set out, he calculated that he had ascended, at this time, not less than 10,500 feet. Hitherto all experi- ments of this kind had been unattended with any evil consequences; but an attempt which was made to put a smallaerostatic machine with rare fied air under an inflammable air balloon, proved fatal to the adventurers, M. Pilatre de Rozier and M. Romaine. Their inflammable air balloon was about 37 feet in diameter, and the power of the rarefied air one was equivalent to about 60 pounds. They were not long in tlie air when the inflammable air balloon was seen to swell considerably, and the aeronauts were observed, by means of telescopes, to be very anxious to descend, and busied in pulling the valve and giving every possible facility of escape to the in- flammable air, but, in spite of all their endea- vours, the balloon took fire without any explo- sion, and the unfortunate gentlemen were pre- cipitated to tlie earth, at the height of about three quarters of a mile. M. Pilatre seemed to have been dead before he came to the ground ; but M. Romaine was found to be alive, although he expired immediately after. The ill success of this experiment, wlaich had been made for tlie purpose of diminishing the expense of inflat- ing the machine with gas, did not interrupt the progressof aerostation. Aerial voyages continu- ed to be made on the old scheme. The first ti-ial in England was made by Vincent Lunardi, an Italian, on the 15th of September, 1784. His balloon, the diameter of which was 33 feet, was made of oiled silk, painted in alternate stripes of blue and red. From a net, which went over about two thirds of the balloon, de- scended 45 cords to a hoop hanging below it, and to which the gallery was attached. Instead of a valve, the aperture at the neck of the bal- loon, which was in the shape of a pear, served for admitting or letting out the inflammable air. The air for filling the balloon was produ- ced from zinc, by means of diluted vitriolic acid. M. Lunardi a.scended from the Artillery Ground, at two o'clock, having with him a dog, a cat, and a pigeon. He was obliged to throw out some of his ballast in order to clear the houses, when he rose to a considerable height, proceeding first N. W. by W. and then nearly N. About half after three he descended very near the earth, and landed the cat, which was half dead with the cold; he then reascended by throwing out some more of his ballast, and ten minutes past four he alighted in a meadow near Ware in Hertfordshire. His tliermome- ter stood in the course of his voyage as low as 29°. and he observed that the drops of water collected round the balloon were frozen. The second aerial voyage in England was perform- 75 w at the nie cf aboot 20 maim wt hoar. Mr. Bhadivdaeaidedaoliightkat ]ie(Uta£fitiikf m braadniig; mdap' ^nsBo ■Bar uuoi thB boi^ ■lioiirBa Kr tiw»t» soMam MdC bntwai A I and rcBtoa tibe boaC [ TOTaeeBiMnr became freqaeot in Eag- iBHl and daeirtiercv and aAvded Bodm^ mr- thf ofnodte bfAce die aaoem of M. GaracriB, inl802;vhovndanaaktlie m^nhr anddea- t of deacendbig b^ meHiB «f a (See Pa&achutb.) In Ada de- aeentk was ofaaerred that the paradbn*^ with the appcndwe ofeordi anddKbaAat in « the lewei, or ^lUte hutiunlH, wfaicB ffo- aeatled a femifie apeelade «f danger to the nee- laiar. They Amimafaed, however, as ILGar- ■orin afipniached the cav^ and he was landed in matajt thoo^ alra^ afeted wth. the violent inodcatfaAhiBfitame had experiented. Mr. Saddier,Mr. Graen, ndotheraL AEirrBS^or E;a6I.b.stoks. A latoneaD caled^ betanaeit van origindl^ fimaif giearneata. It is a sort of oie of a of a AFPBCrrUOSO. in n tf the AFFIDAYIT. An oath in writi^ faeftreaome penoB who is legdDj AFPOilTTCmCifilUw.) The rinp in which Okdi of dw povticBman to the kindred of the odier. AFPINITT (m Chytuatij.) uuiici otMKrvabfeintheaant)_ hf which the^ caadbine; aa the afini^ of anl^ pBBricacid for potash andlBn& AFFHtMAnON (in Law.) TheeanfinD- ing A> wwnr> of an mfarior court: abo^the aa^ladadantianof a Qnaiur to the trath of i !of»oath. AFFRAY. A twoomoRL. AGARIC. Anemooie^orsartof room, whadherowB AGATEl a m Sidlj; it is a Ac i dao a stooeof ih» i^Ble kind aign' AGI AG£u A ewtain poriod or Gait of tnM^ marked for the eonrcnitace of chi i iiiig y and Mitoy by aoaae inwaika iiii i n ita Carae. hgn iianiniai ly m fam aat m Mt h 5^ nancij; L Firam die uealiua to the ddngb 2l Fhandiedeiiiipeto the birdi of AfaralMau ofthelaraeliles oat of Egypt 4. Fhmths departnreof the londtea to tke baOdnr of thetenfile by SokanoB. & Fkona the bmag thefmndalWa ofdie temple to die idga of Cy« raainBabyhm. «. F^ram die tdgn of C^yns totheeoBangofCbriaL 7. Sineelfaefairthaf onr SaviuurJ Cfaranaiagere are griiwaily ^ned aa to die diTkiing die timefrom the creatiaBiaCo atiui apa^ bat thevAflermaia- riailyae tothe limi iianaJinil m ttaae psio^ intonara^; iaaBB(iy,intothegaldBBagB^ar agi^ wtucbwaaniienarto tbe goldan agein CBJoymeafto; in dBaagB nMBbq^totadw graond far Aeir 8aBtennBe& b the braaoi idonafaega carried to die nUnoatntwl, Id ac eacry cvfl tnMafliBiB mas. bia moat probdblednt dna nodoa of the fbor ^s wv takoafirom Ae fairtory of the aeeondsilvvr, die third] mm. ^le Groeka^ who derived tfaoi bgy from the Egyplianis dooiitlBB thia idea finooi die aameatMBCi^ and itinto a 6fale by dmrngeni^ of thai AGEL Atenninkwfortb which enable men and woBBcn to do that which they eoold not do before; tfaoa^ amanaaay tdcB the oadi of aHegianee at twdve yeara of aeeL is at the mm of diaaredai ' choflBH hiB eaardnn and eontraet a and iaatfoU age at twenty-one. A the age of nine ia dowaUc^ aft twelve may innho-aaiaatt AGENT On Ii>nr.) A poaan to act for another. AGENT (in Pfaysica.) A17 dng hmag the power to act on another obiec^ aa cold or heat. AGCaiEGAm Anordo-flf pfantoindie AgSbGATION Cm Chmntey.) adheaaonof partBof theaamekiBd; aa ) Tha AGIO. Ata Yenicfv to denote the l E fl ani ce between dn bank Boa^ »d the cmROt money, or 8 AGR as when a mercliant stipulates to receive for his goods 100 livres bank money, or 105 cash, or current money, the agio is said to be 5 per cent. AGRICULTURE. The art of tilling the land according to certain rules of experience and sciecfce. AGRICULTURE, History op. As the ground was, by divine appointment, to ftirnish subsistence for man, and after his fall he was doomed to procure it by labovir, husbandry, or the practical part of agricultiu-e, was of neces- sity the first and most important occupation of the descendants of Adam ; wherefore we learn from Scripture, that his two sons, Abel and Cain, were both employed in this manner, tlie former being a keeper of sheep, and the latter a tiller of the ground. Witli what implements this work of tillage was carried on, and what degree of art was employed in producing the fruits of the earth, is left to conjecture ; but writers on those early periods are generally agreed that the antediluvians were in pos- session of many arts and inventions which were in process of time lost, or at least but im- perfectly retained among the different nations that were scattered abroad after the confusion of tongues. Agriculture was one of the arts which Noah and his posterity retained ; for we find that he cultivated the vina Those of the line of Shem appear to have followed the breed- ing and feeding of cattle ; but those of the line of Ham, who took possession of Egypt, applied themselves to the tilling of the ground, and with so much ingenuity, industry, and suc- cess, that, owing to the inundations of the Nile, and the consequent fertility of the soil, Egypt was enabled in the time of Abraham, and still more so in tlie time of Joseph, to supply its neighbours with corn during a period of fa- mine. Nor were the inhabitants backward in assisting the liberality of nature : they busied themselves in embanking, irrigation, and drain- ing, in order to derive all the benefits which the benignant river was capable of affording them. These works are said to have been car- ried on with particular spirit under the aus- pices of Sesostris, 1800 years before the Chris- tian era. So sensible were the Egyptians of the blessings which agriculture aflbrded, that, in tlie blindness of their zeal, they ascribed the invention of the art to their god Osiris, and the culture of barley and wheat to their goddess Isis. The Pelasgi, or aboriginal inhabitcints of Greece, were among the number of those whg lost all the primeval arts, and fed upon acorns and wild fruits, until they were led by the Egyptians, with whom they had an early com- munication, to the cultivation of the ground. Like them, too, they placed their benefactress Ceres, to whom they ascribed the introduction of corn, among the number of their deities ; a goddess whom authors agree was no other than tlie Egyptian Isis. In the time of Homer, AGR agriculture was in such esteem, that King Laertes laid aside his royal dignity, that ho might cultivate a few fields. Hesiod, the con- temporary of this author, has devoted a whole poem to the labours of the field in the different seasons of the year. Of other writings, among the Greeks, on agriculture, little remains, ex- cept a treatise by Xenophon on rurd affairs, and scattered notices on the subject in tlie works of Aristotle and Theophrastus ; but we learn from Varro, that there were in his time not less than fifty Greek authors to be consult- ed on agricultural matter. The Jews, as Scripture informs us, applied themselves, when tliey came into the land of Canaan, to the cultivation of the soil, having each their territory allotted to them. We may also infer, from the frequent allusions to tliis subject in different parts of the Old Testament, that husbandry formed tlieir principal occupa- tion. The laws of Moses have, many of them, for their object, the regulation of their flocks, their herds, and their fields. David cultivated his own land, having ofiicers to take charge of his flocks, his herds, his camels, his asses, and liis warehouses of wine and oil, &c. Elisha was in the field with twelve yoke of oxen when Elijah found him. Besides the frequent men- tion of huslmndry business in different parts of the sacred writings, as the digging of wells, the planting of vineyards, the leasing, gathering in, thrashing, sifting, and winnowing of corn, with a number of other things of the like kind. That the Carthaginians did not neglect agri- culture, is evident from this, that they had wri- ters on the subject, of whom a famous general, Mago, was one, who is quoted by Varro. He wrote no less than twenty-eight books. It is probable that, under the auspices of these peo- ple, agriculture flourished in Sicily, which waa afterweirds the granary of Rome. No subject engaged the attention of the Ro- mans more than agriculture, theoretically as well as practically. They divided their time between war and husbandry; their greatest men, in the early ages of the repubhc, be- ing employed alternately in tlie one eind the other. Cincinnatus was taken from the plough to fill the office of dictator ; and Regulus be- sought the senate that he might return to his little farm for a short time, to prevent it fi-om being ruined. Pliny observes, tliat the Romans ploughed their fields with the same diligence that tliey pitched their tents, and sowed tlieir corn with as much care as they raised their ar- mies. When riches had introduced luxury, and artificial manners and habits, the labours of the field were performed by their slaves ; but there remained many among them of the higher orders who directed their personal at- tention to the subject. The writings of Cato the Censor, Varro, Plmy, Columella, aiid Palladius, as well as those of the poet Vir- gil, abound witli ' practical and useful obser- vations on the whole round of farming busi- AGR AIR Bess. At the same time they all agree in la- mentinsr that agi-icullure was not pursued with the s£ime zeal as formerly. Tl»e great among ,ae Romans had town houses as well os \nUas, and hving more in the former than in the latter, the management of tlieir farms was left to their bailiffs or servants. The ox, which is, that since the revival of the arts, the science of agriculture has been zealously cultivated by the higher orders. The writers likewitio on this subject have within the last century been more numerous than at any former pe- riod ; and every effort has been made by ex|ie- riments, inventions, and improvements, to ren- WBS the princijjal beast of burden among the der the land productive. Nor have thtssa Egyptians, the Jews, and Grecians, was also efforts been without effect, for, nolwitlistand highly esteemed amon^- tlie Romans. Many --~ '*-- • —■ • — — - "• *' '—" — directions for tlie breeding, bi-eakiiig, feeding, and working this animal, are to be found in the mg the immense increase in the population, there has been no such scarcity as we read of in former times. AGUE. An intermitting fever, with hot and cold fits alternately. AGUTI. An American animal, like a gui- nea pig, having the characters of the rat kind, and the hair and voice of the hog. When provoked, it raises all the hair of its back up- right, and strikes the earth with its hinder feec writers abovementioned ; as also in regard to the management of bees, which were highly prized. As to the implements of husbandly jsed among the Romans, Uie description cS" them not being illustrated by any representa- tion, it is not ea.sy to speak precisely of them ; but it is clear that they used the plough Avith and without wheels, with and without boards, with and without coulters, also with shares of different constructions. A reaping machine is likewise spoken of both by Pliny and Palla- dius, which was driven by an ox ; but for the most part they cut their corn with the hand, either with the hook close to the ground, or only the ears with a curved stick and a saw attached to it, or otherwise they cut the stalks in the middle, leaving the stubble to be after- wards mowed. They thrashed either with a machine composed of rollers, or with rods or flails, or they trod it out with their feet Hay- AID-DEi-CAMP. An officer that always makincr was performed among tlie Romans i attends on each of the generals in his camp, to much m the same manner as at present Har- ' receive and carry orders, rowing the corn was particularly recommend- 1 AILANTHUS. A Ctiinese tree, called Uie ed by the Roman writers ; who also speak of | tree of heaven, on account of its lofty growth ; hoeing, weeding, watering, draining, and fal- |it rises with a straight trunk forty or fifty feet lowing the ground, which was universal high. among them. AIR (in Natural Philosophy.) That fluid. Agriculture shared the fate of all the other | transparent substance, which surrounds our arts on the decline of the empire : from the globe, reaching to a considerate height above time of Pliny to the fifteenth century, there is no work extant on the subject, except the Geoponics, which was published by Constan- tine Pogonatus, and probably collected by the emperor himself. Crescenzio, a writer of Bologna, was the first who called the attention of his countrymen to this subjc-ct after tliis its surface, perhaps 45 miles ; and Uiis ocean of air is the great laboratory in which niofc-t of the actions of life go on ; and on the competi- tion of wiiich they depend. Tiiough invisible, except in laige masses, witliout smell or taste, yet it is a suhetauice poeset^siug all the principal attributes of matter ; it is impenetrable, ponde- long interval His little work, which was raUe, compreseible, dilataWe, perfectly elastic, collected from Uie Roman writers, was followed and its particles are operated on like those of by some other Italian productions : but proba- other bodices, by chemical operations. It is iu- bly nothing contributed more to give an im- dispensable to the liie of all organic beings ; portance to aaricultural pursuits than the in- 1 animals respire it incessantly, emd decompc&e troduction of tlie feudal system, which gave to [ it ; a part of its oxygen is tremsformed into every man a remk and distinction according to ■ carbonic acid, and this combination produces the quantity of land he either pos.stssed or oc- 1 caloric, wliich contributes principally to the cupied ; for not only the great lord, who was | preservation of animal heat Vegetables im- the owner of the soil, or reaped the fruits of it, ' hibe the carbon which the carbonic acid, dif- but also his tenants, who culti\'ated it, were in- j ftiscd through the air, contains. The air is vested with poUtical privileges, that were en- the agent of combustion ; the particles of bo- joyed by no other members of the community ; dies combine with its oxygen and evolve heat and although the feudal burdens and restraints , and light Finally, the air is the principal me- have ceased, vet tlie privileges and advantages i dium of sound. attaclied to the possession of landed property AIR (in Music.) Any melody whose pae- still give itaiKueunountadvautasc. H [ciico it , sages lie within tlic province of vocal cxpri*- w ALA mm, which when sung or played, form the connected sounds we call tune. AIR-GUN. An instrument by which air, after it is condensed into an enclosed cavity, may be let out in sufficient quantity to dis- charge a bullet through the barrel of Uie gun, with great force, without causing any explo- fiion. Air may be condensed into ten or fifty times smaller space ; its elastic force being thus rendered equal to gunpowder, which it- self is merely concentrated air set at liberty by heat. Steam confined in the like manner is a less convenient variety of the same power. ALD transparent, marble ; used for oruameuts in houses, and by statuaries. ALBATROSS. A large and voracious wa- terfowl, which inhabits many countries between the tropics. ^6^ AIR-JACKET. A jacket made of leather, in which are several bags or bladders of the same material, communicating with each other, and fitted to receive air bjf means of a brass tube. This jacket is used by persons who cannot swim, to support them in the water. AIR-PLANT. A singular plant, which grows suspended from the ceiling of a room, and derives its nutriment from the air. The first plant of this kind which has blowm in England is to be seen at Claremont at the seat of Prince Ijeopold. AIR-PUMP. A machine which operates on the aft- just as a common pump operates on water ; and by means of which a considerable portion of the air under a glass receiver may be extracted, and a number of amusing and instructive experiments performed, by Which the uses of atmospheric air are discovered, and many phenomena shown to aiise from its ac- tion and re- action. AIR-SHAFTS (in Mining.) Holes or shafts .et down from the open air to discliarge the fold vapours. AIR-VESSELS. Spiral ducts or canals in the leaves and other peu-ts of plants, which are supposed to supply theui with air, after the n-anner of lungs in animals. _ ALABASTER. A well known sulphate of Ibti*:, Ibrming a soft, granular, imjcrfectly ALBINOS. The white Moors, so called by the Portuguese ; they have flaxen hair, blue rolling eyes, and a paJe livid whiteness. ALBUMEN. A white or transparent vis- cous fluid, without taste or smell, which is the substance of the nerves ; the serous part of tiie blood ; and the white of eggs and of milk. ALBURNUM. The soft white substance between the inner bark and the wood of shrubs ALCHYMY. The original name of chy- mistry ; but owing to the alchemists pretend- ing to transmute base into precious metals, the name of their science fell into disrepute. ALCOHOL, or Spxkit. A result of chy. mical decomposition, previously to which the spirit was masked by combinations. In a ve- getable fluid an excitement is caused by intro- ducing a fermenting substance, and cai-bonic acid gas, or fixed air, is separated from the mass, from which, if excited by heat, the lighter gas, called hydrogen, mingled with carbon, risea, and teing recondensed by peiss- ing through a worm placed in cold water, it falls down as spirit or alcoliol. Tlie object is to produce the greatest quantity of fixed hy- drogen with the smallest quantity of carbon. Its discovery has been a scourge to the world. ALCOR. A small star, adjoining ihe bright one in the middle of the tail of Ursa Major. ALCORAN, or the Koban. The name of the volume containing the doctrines and pre- cepts of Mahomet. ALDEBARAN, or The Bull's Eye. A star of the first magnitude in the constellation Taurus. ALDER. A tree which thrives particularly in moist places. The principal sorts of alder are the round leaved, or common alder, tlie long-leaved, and the dwarf alder. ALDERMAN. A superior judge, who sat with the bishop in tlie county courts in the time of the Saxons. The alderman is now a magistrate next to the mayor iii a city or bo« rough. ALG ALE. A poiinBg hot wwtBt vpaa laaB; warn m iDtd aS, mi ana bakd with hopsi ichliaiMri8tha>lenMitffedwith VOL and which fiqaor is then lioTaUor I£B. A PaflflrkiDailBfr torm, agnifying to tfaeloe- ALEIffilC. ATeBadfiiniKri]rinBdfar£a- [; m the place of whadi ralarto are now ALGJK. A BBlnral order of ptante u die aiDd odier OMriae pbali^ iHuK roo^ kiC and «Btem are one. ALGEBRA. The adence of onmpating riv etract qnantitaeB by means of syndnla or aigna. It a called SpeaaoB Arithmelie by Tiela, and UaivcrBal Aridawtic by liewtan. The int kaora of the alphabet 01, &, c; 4 Ac are BMde to r ep r esent known qnanririfw ; and die fast ietten^ ^ 9V s. to r^resat those dot are on- The operatiaDB wkh these leOers are BseaiM of tfaecharactere (-4-) for (— ) fcr aofatnction, rX) for mnki- ■ttan, (-T-) for cBviaaon, { =) for ALOEBRA, History of. bra is of Arabic original, and is derived aome from algerinr ahnocafadeh, aigt^iii^ which properly espvenes the naliue of the diing ; oden have derived it from GSeber, a < I'l ri ji tu A iiial h * "** ^ ' *^* !'* This science is not of very anciant date^ aldiaa^ it is not paanUe to £x the eaact penod of its "" '* " ' — tise on this 81 is that of Diophantos, a Greek aodiar <€ Alex- andria, vHboiloarished aboot the year 350, and wrote thirteen books of Azithmedoonnn, of which sax only we preserved, lliese books do not contsin the Ammtary parts of algebra, only some difficult problems respecting sqosre and ccbe ■omben^ and the properties of mm- bers mgenoal, to winch the wi i tiu gs of the aothon^ asBodid, and ApoOonios, ra^htnatoraDy besoppoaed to i^venfairdi. Whedier the Ardbmns Cook hiniB from this ai have J the Gieeb^ and drew odt the acienoe of A^ bra for themaetves, or whether they naae mk- nedialety derived it, as they did dieir noiadon, from die ffindooB,b a mailer of dbofat. Itw oertun, however, that the scienoe was &Bt trsnanAtrd fay the Arabians or Sarariens to Europe, about die year 1100; and diat after ita isttedoBtian die ItdBais took die lead m its cnltivMiaa. Lucas PadoioB, or Lucas de Bu^ waa one of the fiiat wlio vrrato on the subject, and has kft sercfal treatises, poUisfa- ed between d». years 1470 and 1S09L In fan ct Geometriae Proportioaamque Propfxtionafi- to trade to the aeapoiis^ andttaenoe lobi the science of algdsaialeltoly. A&r de Borgo^ many odier balian writers tookvp the aidwBc^ and treated it more at larae^ as Sd^ Fteriens^ who finnd out anile Jorie- solvnc one case of a fxanii i mMd cafasc eq[a»- tJonTbot more eqiwaally ffiaonyia ns Gar- dan, who^ in ten books published in 1539^ has given the vHufe doctrine of eidnc eqoa- tsns ; for part of wlnch^ however, he was m- debledto Nicholas T^iitaka, or Tarla^ea, of nddished a book on edbk eqaatMna^ eotided, C^QCBibB in iL'p>^ T**^"p cnvcc9& woigIi. U^BUCd. in 1596. Cardan ofien osed die fitcnTnota- don of a,i^c^ d, Ac^ bK Tartden made no akeratiaa m die forms of exprcwioB oaedby Locas de BoigD^ cafling die first power of the aeoond cenaa, the third cain^ Ac writing die of all the qierstians inwards al length, t osing any eoalnctiaas, eaocpt the mi- tial 9^ for roo^ or raficali^. Aboot this tioae the adeooe of a^efan also attracted the atien- tion of the Germane, among whooi we find tbe writers SUKiins and SefaadxUos. Sdfe- |iiiB ]Q ins An ^im^i'^i ^^ Inftesnu nQDiistieQ at Murenberg in 1514^ iaiiodaoed the charsders 4-, — , V% for pfan^manas, and radix, or root, as hecaDed it;alaodieimtiab4, 3,Y3,for the power 1, 3^3^ Ac and tfaeBumeral eMm- fl^ I, S^ a^ Ac whbh 1» caUed Jy tte he literal notadon. A, B; C, D, Ac for the ooknown or genenl quantities. John Scheabel■al^ vdto wrote about the same time as Csrdaa and SdfrHnis treats largely on anrda^ and gives a genenl rale for extracting the root oTany biiwrnial or residnal, «4nfi^ where one or both parts are sards. These soooeeded by Bobert Beoorde, a and physician of Wales, who in his works^ in 15S2 and 1657, on Aridme- tie^ showed that the scienoe of akgefan had not been overiooked in FSngfatud. He first gave rules fir the extracting^ of the roots of oom- pamd dgefaraic qnsntitifs, and made use of the lenns binnmial and rnadnaJ, and intre- doeed the a%n of equali^, or =^ Peletsrin^ a F\rencfa algebraist, in lus work, which ap- peared at Pans in 1558, made many inmtove- on those puts of aJgidbra wliich had been trested oC He was fiJkiwed tiy mna^ wfao puUisfaed iw ArUunebc and Atoebn in 1560 ; BaphMl BombeB^ whose Algafan appeared at Boloraia in 1579; and Smon Steven, of Bn»e% w^ pidiiished his Afidunede in 1585, ai^ his Algebra a lit- de after. This htter invented ler fir the imknownoosnti^, namely,* circle (O), within which he plaoed die I 1-2 ALG ALL ral exponent of the power ; and also denoted root.s, as well as powers, by nmneral exjio nents. The algebraical works of Vieta, tlie next most distingnislied algebraist, appeared about the year 1600, and contain many im- provements in the methods of working alge- braical questions. He uses the vowels. A, E, I, O, Y, for the unknown quantities, and the consonants, B, C, D, Ac. for the known quan- tities.; and introduced many terms which are in present use, as coefficient, affirmative and negative, pure and adfected, and <, for greater and less ; and in the reduction of equations he arranged the operations in separate steps or lines, setting the explanations in the margin, on the left hand, for each line. In this manner he brought algebra nearly to the form which it now bears, and added also much information on the subject of etpiations. Oughtred, in his Clavis, which was first published in 1631, set down the decimals witliout tlieir denominator, separating them thus 21(56. In algebraic multiplications he either joins the letters which represent the factors, or connects them with the sign of multiplication X) which is the first introduction of this character. He also Beems to have first used points to denote pro- portion, as 7 . 9 : : 28 . 36 ; and for continued projwrtion has the mark -H-. In his work we likewise meet with the first instance of apply- ing algebra to geometry, so as to investigate new geometrical properties : which latter sub- iect is treated at large by Descartes, in his work on Geometry, published in 1637, and also by several other subsequent w^riters. Wal- lis, in his Arithmetica Infinitorum, first led the way to infinite series, particularly to the exprf'ssion of the quadrature of the circle by an infinite series. He also substituted the fractional exponents in the plawi of radical signs, which in inany instances facilitate the operations. Hiiygens, Barrow, and other inatheinaticians, employed the algebraical caF- cuius in resolving many problems which had hitherto baffled mathematicians. Sir Isaac Newton, in his Arithmetica Universalis, made many improvements in analytics, which sub- ject, as well as the theory of infinite series, was further developed by Halley, Bernoulli, Taylor, Maclaurin, Nicole, Stirling, De Moivre, Clairaut, Lambert, Waring, Euler, &c. ALGOL. A fixed star of the second mag^- nitude in the constellation of Pereius or Me. dusa's Head. ALGORITHM. An Arabic word, fre- quently used to denote the practical rules of algebra. ALIAS (in Law.) A word signifying, lite- rally, otherwise ; and emploj^ed in describing the defendant, who has £issumed other names besides his real one. ALIBI (in Ijaw.) A term signifying, HtC' rally, elsewhere; and used by the defendant in a criminal prosecution, when he wishes to prove his innocence, by showing that he was in another place, or elsewhere, when tlie act was committed. ALICONDA. An Ethiopian tree, from the bark of which flax is spun. ALICONDA-TREE. A native of Congo, on the coast of Africa, and supposed to be the largest tree that grows. It bears a melon -like fruit, which aflbrds pulpy nutritious food, and the bark yields a coarse thread, with which the Africans weave a kind of cloth. ALIEN (in Law.) One born in a foreign country, out of the allegiance of the govern- ment under which he is residing. An alien is incapable of inheriting lands until he is natu- ralized by a legislative act. He has likewise no right to vote at elections, or to enjoy any office, nor to be returned on any jury, unless where an alien is to be tried. ALIMONY (in the Civil Law.) The al- lowance made to a married woman upon her separation from her husl)and. ALIQUANT PARTS. Such nmnbers in arithmetic as will not divide or measure a whole number exactly, as 7, which is the ali- quant part of 16. ALIQUOT PARTS. Such part of a num- ber as will divide or measure a whole num- ber exactly, as 2 the aliquot part of 4, 3 of 9, and 4 of 16. ALKALI, or Kali, sometimes called natron, or nitre, a very important salt in soap and glass-making. Potash and soda are called fixed alkalis, and ammonia, volatile alkali. ALLAH. The Arabian name of God. ALLEGIANCE. The duty of subjection to law, under which subjects lay themselves in establishing tlieir own protection under tlie law. AI/LEGORY. A series or chain of meta- phors continued through a whole discourse ; thus the prophets represent the Jews under tb« ALL ■Btgw-y of a vine, planted, cahixated, and wa- terad bjr the hand of God. ALLEXjiRO. An Italian wcm^ veed in mu- tae, to doiote that the part is to be played in a br^t and sprightly manner. ALLELUIAH. The Hebrew few Praise the Lord. ALLIGATION. A rule in arithmetic, tewing how to compound several ingredients for any design proposed. It is eitb^ medial or alternate. Alligation medial is the method of finding the rate or quality of the composi- tion from having the rates or qualities of the several ingredients, as to find the value of brandy per gallon, which is composed rf 10 gallons at 24«. per gallon, 12 at 30a. per &allhcmeris, is a kind of natumal nlmafnir, begun in 1 767, un- der the direction and by the advice of the as- tronomer royal, the late Rev. Dr. Maskelyna Besides most things essential to general i^e, wliich are found in other almanacs, it contains many new and important matters, particnlar- Iv the distance of the moon frt«n the sun and fixed stars, computed to the meridian of Green- wich, for every three hours of time, for the mirpoae of computing the longitude at sea. This almanac is generally computed a few years forward, for the convenience of ships going out upon long voyages. ALMOND. The fruit of the almond tree, which is a nut, and is eitlier sweet or bitter. It contains so much oil, that it yields one third of its weight. ALMdND TREE A tall tree, resembling the peach tree, whicli flourishes in the eastern countries, and the southern jiarts of EUirope. It is - stance, mostly semitransparent, or opaque, and of a glossy surface. It is higlily electiic, and if a piece be kindled, it burns to the end wiUi pungent white vapours, without melting. AMBERGRIS. A solid sebaceous or fat substance, fomid floating in the sea, near the coasts of various tropical countiies. It is sup- posed to be the excrement of the spermatic whale, having frequently been met with in the intestines of that fish. AMBER TREE. A shmb, the beauty of which lies in its small evergreen leaves ; these grow as close as heath, and when rubbed emit a fragrant odour. AMBIDEXTER. A person who can use both hands with equal facility. AMBUSCADE. A place where soldiers lie concealed, in order to surprise an enemy. AMEN. A conclusion to prayer, signifying, 80 be it. AMENDE. A pecuniary punishment im- to tlie ancients, is a kind of whitish friable I posed, according to tlie custom.s of France, by stone, formerly found in the island of Melos, a judge, for any fake prosecution or grounci- Macedouia, E^gypt, «ic. Factitious alum is |k,i* appeal. 'j-4 16 AMP AMENDE HONORABLE. An Irifa- mous kind of punishment formerly inflicted in France on traitors, parricides, or sacrilegious persons, who were to go naked to the shirt, witli a torch in their hand, and a rope about their neck, into a church or a court, to beg par- don of God, the court, and the injured party. AMERCEMENT. A pecuniary punish- ment imposed on offenders at the mercy of the court ; it is contracted from the Latin words a misericordia, whicli signify literally //ow or at the mercy. Amercements differ from fines, in as much as tlie latter are defined, and the former are proportioned to the fault, or more properly at the discretion of the court. AMETHYST. A stone of secondary valu^ so named from a weak supposition, that wear- ing it was an antidote to stupor. It is a violet- blue quartz crystal. It is found in India. AMIANTHUS. An incombustible mineral flax, which may be drawn into threads and wove into cloth. It is mostly found among rocks. AMMONIA. An extremely volatile spirit, which, like other spirits, arises from hydro- gen fixed in combination witli some substimce, which in this case is nitre or alkali ; and as animals contain much nitrogen, so ammonia is a spirit of hartshorn, or urine, or camel's ANA tries, or that branch of optics which relates to refracted light. ANACREONTIC VERSE. A sort of verse so called from the Greek poet Anacrewi, by whom it was first used. It consists of three feet, generally spondees emd iambic. It is adapted to soft and tender subjects. ANAGRAM. The transposition of the let- ters of one word so as to form another, as amor changed into Roma. ANALEMMA. A projection of tlie sphere on the plane of the meridian, orthographically made by straight lines and ellipses, the eye bang supposed at an infinite distzmce, in aa equinoctial point. ANALEMMA. Is also an instrmnent, a kind of astrolabe, made either of brass or wood, with an horizon fitted to it ; it is used for finding the time of the sun's rising or set- ting, the length of the longest day, &c. The most ancient treatise on this instrument was written by Ptolemy, and published in 1562, with a commentary by Commandine. Other autliors, as Aquilonius, Jacquet, Deschales, &c. have since written on the same instrument ANALOGY. An important process of rea- soning, by which we infer similar effects and phenomena from similar causes and events; as when an animal who has tumbled into a pit and injured himself, approaches anothar pit, he infers, by analogy, that without care he shall injure himself again. This same princi- [Ae constitutes all reasoning from past experi- ence, however complicated. Many analogies are false, that is, smiilarities are assumed or fancied, and then false conclusions drawn. ANALYSIS (in Logic.) The resolution or imfolding of any thing, so as to discover its component parts as opposed to synthesis. Analysis is the method of finding out truth, and synthesis is the method of explaining that truth to others. Among mathematicians, it is the art of discovering the truth or falsehood of a proposition, by supposing the question to be solved, and then examining the conse- quences, till some trutli is discovered, or tiie absurdity and impossibility of the proposition is discovered. The analysis of finite quanti- ties is properly called specious arithmetic, or algebra ; the analysis of infinite quemtities is the method of llujtions or differential calculus. ANALYSIS (in Chymistry.) Is the decom- position of bodies, as vegetables and minerals, to discover their component parts. ANALYTICS. A name given to algebra, being nothing else but a general analysis of Eure mathonatics ; or else because it teaches ow to solve questions, emd demonstrate theo- rems, by searcliing into the fimdamental na- ture and fi-ame of the thing, which is, as it were, resolved into parts, or taken to pieces, and then put together again. ANAMORPHOSIS (in Perspective and Painting.) A monstrous projection, or repre- eentation of an image on a plane or curve sur C 2' ANA face, which beheld at a certain distance appear regular and in proportion. 17 ANAP^ST. A metrical foot having the two first short and the last long ( ), as pietas. ANARCHY. A society witliout a govern- ment, or where tliere is no supreme go- vernor. ANATHEMA. In the general sense, a re- ligious curse ; in the particulzir sense, ecclesi- astical excommunication. ANATOMY. The act of dissecting bodies for the purpose of examining their sUiicture, and the neaure, uses, and timctions of their several parts ; also the knowledge of tlie hu- man body derived from such dissections ajid examinations. It is generally applied to the examination of animals, and it has discovered the following circumstances of their stiucture. 1st A system of bones which in a human subject amount to 246; 2. Of cartilages or grisdes, which imite the bones, and contribute to their motion, assisted by ligaments, mem- branes, and bundles of muscles, called flesh, all relating to the strength and motion of the animal. Anatomy also discovers nerves, or white threads, which extend trcm the brain amd the spinal marrow through all tlie organs, and are the means of sensation, and ufutru- 18 ANA rnents of the will. It appears, also, that the body is sustained and warmed by means of blood flowing from the heart through the ar- teries, to every part of the body, and brought back by veins. There is also a stomach for digestion, and glands for separating and assi- milating the element; and intestines to carry off what is not appropriated. When applied to animals, it is termed Comparative Anatomy. In the science of anatomy the body is divided into the head, trunk, and extremities, and is composed of solids and fluids. The solids are the integuments, bones, cartilages, ligaments, membranes, vessels, muscles, nerves, and glands. The principal fluids are the blood, the chyle, the lymph, and the bile. Anatomy, from the names of the parts treated of, is di- vided into osteogeny, or the doctrine of the growth of the bones ; osteology, the doctrine of the bones in the adult subject; chondrology, the doctrine of the cartilages ; syndesmology, the doctrine of the ligaments; myology, the doctrine of the muscles ; bursalogy, the doc- trine of the bursas mucosae; splanchnology, tlie doctrine of the viscera; angeiology, the doctrine of the vessels ; adenology, the doctrine of the glands ; neurology, the doctrine of the nerves, &c. Anatomy, taken absolutely, ap- plies only to the dissection of human subjects ; the dissection and examination of brutes is call- ed Comparative Anatomy. It is a wonderful system, and a most interesting object of study. ANATOMY, History op. The science of anatomy was doubtless coeval with that of medicine, for the connexion between the two studies would naturally suggest to the inqui- rer into the diseases of the human body, the necessity of becoming acquainted with its com- ponent parts. In Egypt, tlie practice of embalm- ing rendering it necessary to open tlje body, led them first to make observations on the structure of the human frame, which was afterwards en- couraged by their kings, who ordered dead bodies to be regularly dissected for the perfec- tion of the art ; but, judging from some speci- mens which have been preserved of their ana- tomical observations, the science did not make any considerable progress among them. There is, however, no doubt but they laid the founda- tion, and the Greeks, wlio derived their ear- liest information from tliem, enlarged the boundaries of the science by their researches. Hippocrates, who lived about 400 years before Christ, is the first who expressly wrote on this subject ; and the first anatomical dissection re- corded was made by his friend Democritus, Of Abdera. In Aristotle's works there are many minute particulars on this subject, which show that he had made the animal body his particular study. From the Greeks this sci- ence, after an interval of several centuries, passed again into Egypt, wheie, by the foster- ing care of the Ptolemiet?, it was revived, and made great advances. Erastratus, tlie pupil and friend of Theophrastus and Heropliilus, ANA laid the foundation of the famous school of euiatomy at Alexandria, which was for many centuries in such high repute, that no one was supposed qualified for the medical art who had not studied at Alexandria. Herophilus is said to have dissected not less than 700 bodies, and among the rest some living subjects, but probably, as such a monstrous piece of cruelty must have defeated its own purpose, this lat- ter part of the story is only an exaggeration. The Romans learnt from the Greeks the sci- ence of anatomy, as they did most other arts and scier>ces; for the first rudiments were taught to them by Archagathus, a Greek phy- sician, who first established himself at Rome, and afterwards by Asclepiades, who flourished in the time of Pompey, and gained such repute, that he was looked upon as a second Hippo- crates. He was succeeded V^y Cassius, wlio was supposed to be the disciple of Asckpiades, Celsus, Rufus, Pliny, Coelius Aurelianus, and Aratffius, whose works abound with anatomi- cal observations, and prove that,' altliough their researches were not deep, their attention was drawn towards the subject. This is also still more evident from the works of Galen, who, in point of accuracy and minuteness of detail, surpassed all that went before him, and also all that followed him, until within the last three centuries. The Arabians and Saracens, on the decline of the empire, took the place of the Greeks and Romans in the cultivation of the sciences, but as by the tenets of their religion they were prohibited from touching dead bo- dies, and consequently could not practise dis- section, they were obliged to content themselves with commenting upon Galen. To effect this object, we find that AbdoUatiph, a teacher of anatomy in the thirteenth century, examined and demonstrated the structure of the bones by going to the burying grounds; and by that means he detected some errors in Galen. Al- though tlie Europeans were not under tlie same restrictions, yet during the middle ages it is certain that the science of anatomy made no advances. The best treatise then extant, which gained the author great repute, and was the standard book in the schools, was that of Mundinus, which appeared in 1315, yet this was nothing but an abstract of Galen. On the expulsion of the Moors, the prejudice against dissection abated, and copies of the Greek au- thors having found their way into Europe af- ter the sacking of Constantinople, the study of anatomy revived considerably in the fifteenth century. Among the Italians, Achilhnus, Be- nedictus, Berengarius, and Massa, added to the stock of anatomical knowledge by disco- eries of their own from dissections. But the most distinguished names among the anato- mists of that period, are those who flourished in the following century, namely, Vesalius, a native of Brussels, Sylvius, in Prance, Colum- bus, Fallopius, and Eustachius, in Italy, who, contrary to the practice of Galen, drew their ANA mflioos &Dm the bmnaBjbgdhf, nllier firoB tlni of the HUMS tot to thk day. GUbrid Falk^nae^ in of winch are mica of in 1563, have ever been admired fcr ^tt oor- ■ of their <- tended far a large work oa the aobiecl, were not in andd cabinet they were edified fay f— rini, the pope^ fhjtaaaitf who added a short eq^Jamorj tex^ becanae that of EoBta- ehnn eoald not be fbond. Tbe next in the «d W. Harvey, who^ aftei kahrwBder Vtbndm ah kdfavthe wiitiiieB of hia master to the BMBV in which the blood over the whofe body, and the offices of the se- «f the valves which he This disuivM^ afteted the eataUished doc- tiiae of aU agei^ that the veins carried the blood finom the Kver toall parts of the body fbr ' Harvey was led by dus to TowtyAe limctiaaB of the Hie resah «f his investigatian wa^ diat the heait is the gnmi reservar of the blood, that die arteries, whiih had hkherto been e oos iifc red aaair veg- aeli^ were the fhamieb by iduch it was ooo- tefed to aD parts of the body, and the veins were the riannelit bywhidi it was cairied back to the heart. EEs doctrine at first met with ecBodeaiie ofuw ni t i o n, bat fiulfaa- le- « a rchc s pot itatlo^gth beyond all qoestian, awl led to otho- d iBem er ies of considerabfe impnrtannf . The bdeah^ or veasds which carry the diyleto die iniesdne^ weredtsco- vered by Asedim^ an Italian; the thoracic dnct by Peoqpiet, in 1651 ; the lympfaafties by Thonaa Baidiafoe, a Danish anatonot ; be- sides nnmeroos other discoreries which were made by the hdp of magnifyii^ glasses. These were first broogfat into use by Ifei^aghi, dkrhyLBBRndnsKDnms, a &tii^uiAed SBitonuBt of Itafy, Swauunefdau^ van Horn, DsGraa^ and odKr Dotch anatomista, paiti- oiiriy AntamoB liewcnhoed^ of Ddfi, who ianoved on Malpt^fai's nse of nacrosoopeB^ and soeeeededin dnooveriag gMnles in the blood, snimiilnilpw in the semen, and many other frtirnfairs which had faidiato escaped notice. Fkomthistimethescienoeof anattniy made pnidiaoiis advances towards accoracy, so thttf eaoa puticalv part has fomisbed mitia- fcr die hfaoois of oeletnted anatomists. Ihe ^ores of the bones have beoi giren in fian- hrge fiilio vofaimes, by Albinos, Cbesd- den. Trews, Ac; those of the mnscles are fivenin two large fiilioi^ fay Cowper and Al- AND I* the fanerof which are partacolarly ad- for then- eanectneH& nafier haspni^ iiefaedafidioaadieblood v«8Kb;Dr. Ifam- ro^ junior, on the nerves; Alfainn% Rowtefe i , and Hnnter, on the gravid nfieros; Weafarecfac mera^on the farain; Ziim on the ^e; Gatm- *^ff^^ snclBel, jonmr, and others^ on the earz Waller OB the nerves of the thorax and ahdo- men; Mmno oa the famsai mneosae; hpsidfs die aovuainraleDsof ansbsny from the pens of AbBiiB,Sdl, Gheseiden, HonSer, Uonm, Dougl as Fife, Winatow, Ac ANCESTRY. The fine of aoended. ANCHOR An which dnps are fixed to one pbee on the wa. ler. It is made of iron, widi a beam of wmd placed in an onpoaite direction to thai of dw berfaed iron flidtes, so thst when die besm fies ANCHORAGE! The groond thatis fit far holding the anchor; also the du^ taken of fir the uaeof the haven where they cast ANCHOVY. A in sanee; it is so like the thekoeris oAoi |Mckkd and sdd mider its ANCIENTSL A word eomraaniy appikd toperaons and nations who fiaundied befiire theiatrodnctian of Christianity, and specially i^ip&edtodieGredES, Rnmaw^ and their con- iSSS^TE Cm Music) BaliaB fir enct and jnst time in fdajrin^ so as to keep tbe notes distinct fixim each other. ANDROn>BS (in Mechanks.) A term naed to denote an antomaioB in the figure of a maI^ wliKh, fay means of certain spruigs and other mechanical oootrivanoea^ is enabled to walk, and perfirm other actions of a smn. The nust celefar^ed of dMse aKonntans which hare been exhibited in modem times, are tlie flnto«byer of IL Yanomson, exhibited at Pa- rian die cfaessiJayer of M. de Kfmp l in , of Preaborg^ and the chess-playn- who iatdy perfiamed woodeis in that game in ' The constmcdcn vf these anuanaifci 90 AXG ANDROMEDA, A small nortlwrn constel- lation consisting of twenty-seven stars. ANEMOMETER. An instrnment used for measuring the force and velocity of the wind. ANEMONE. A beautiful flower originally brought from the east, but now much culti- vated in our gardens. The word signifies properly wind-flower, because it was supposed that it opened only when the wind blew. ANEMOSCOPE. A machine showing ,iirom what point of the compass the wind blows. ANEURISM. A diseased swelling of an artery, attended with a continued pulsation. ANGELS. Spiritual inteUigences, the first in rank and dignity among created beings. Although the angels were originally created j)erfect, yet they were mutable ; some of them sinned, and kept not their first estate ; and so, of the most blessed and glorious, became tlie most vile and miserable of all God's creatures. They were expelled the regions of light, and with heaven lost their heavenly disposition, and fell into a settled rancour against God, and malice against men. ANGEL. A gold coin, in value ten shil- lings, having the figure of an angel stamped npon it, in commemoration of the saying of Pope Gregory, that the English were so beau tiful that they would be Angeli, not Angli, if thev were Christians. ANGELICA (in Botany.) A plant, of which there are seven species. ANGLE. The space which lies between two lines which cross each other or meet at a point. When they meet perpendicularly, it is called a right angle, and is 90 degrees ; when less than a right angle, it is called an acute an- gle; and when larger than a right angle, an obtuse angle ; and when two circles cross each other, it is called a spherical ans^le; or two curves, a curvilinear angle ; an5 the angles made by solids, are called solid angles. ANGLER. A singular fish, also known at present by the name of the fishing frog, from the resernblance which it bears to that animal in the state of a tadpole. ANGLICISM. An idiom or manner of speech peculiar to the English. ANGLING. The art of fishing with a rod and line, to which is attached a hook and baiL The best season for angling is from April to October. A cloudy day, after a bright moon- light night, is good for fishing. Cool weather in Slimmer, and warm weather in winter, are fit seasons, from six till nine in the morning, and from three till sun-set in the afternoon. A southerly wind in a dull warm day is the best time of any. Dean Swift is keenly satiri- cal on angling. He describes it as " a stick and a string, with a fool at one end and a worm at the other." I ANI i.s al«o remarkable as liaving one bine eye and the other yellow. ANIMAL (in Natural History.) An or. ganized and living body, endowed wth sensa- tion. Minerals increjise; plants grow and live; but animals have the power of locomotion, of seeking and appropriating nourishment. ANIMAL-FLOWERS. Sometimes caUed sea-nettles and sea-anemones, formed by worms or polype, called mollusca, from their softneen having no bones. Sea Flowers. ANGORA CAT. A species of the felis ge- nus; its form is given in the engraving, but it ANl UtnbreU VorticOl. ANN 21 ing a few days, innumerablfi animalcoles of difierent species, many thousand times smaller than a grain of Eand, are visiUe by the micro- scope. Vinegar Eds. ANIMALCULES. Such animals as are ttearly discernible only by means (rf" micro- scopes, for millions of millions of them might be contained in a thimble full of water, which is the best elanent for studying their motions. By the microscope many kinds of animalcules have been discovered, as diffCTent from each other as the horse finom the mouse ; some in- deed so exceedingly minute, that a million would not equal in magnitude a large grain of sand, and, as more and smaller objects have ever been discovered, in proportion to the goodneas (rf the glasses with which they have been 'viewed, it is highly probable that there are numberless other species, of a size much less than those already discovered. Every drop of wat^, and almost any fluid, except oils and ardent spirits, either does or will by stand- ing exposed a few days in warm weather, swarm with living creatures. Some seem na- tural inhabitants of the fluids in which they are found ; others live there only occasionally, in the manner of gnats, which from eggs drop- ped in water by their parents, become swim- ming animals; 'but, after a short time, shed their skins, appear in a form without resem- Hance to that befc^e assumed, take wing, and claim kindred with the countless millions which rqoice in the air. The largest sort are thin and transparent ; they turn frequoiUy, and have many feet, resemWing a tail Their raotion is swift, and their frequent turns and eodden stops vrould intimate that they were bxmting after their prey, probably insects in- d^nitely smallo- than thenudves, that have hitherto escaped notice with the best glasses. L«enwenho» says, no living creatures appear in rain >vater fresh descended, but after stand- Bay^tea Eels. ANIMAL KINGDOM. One of the three principal divisions, into which all organized bodies are divided by Linnaeus. It compre- hends six classes of animals ; namely. Mam- malia, or such as suckle their young, mostly quadrupeds ; Aves, birds, which are ovipa- rous; Amphibia, amphibious animals; Pis- ces, fishes, such as live only in water, and are covered with scales; Insecta, insects, whidi have few or no organs of soise, and a bony coat of mail; Vermes, worms, which have mostly no feet ANIME, or GUM ANIME. A resinous substance imported from New Spain and tha Brazils. ANNALS. A species of h'lstory, in which events are related in the exact order of chro- nolo?v. ANNEALING. The process of heating steel and other metal bodies, and then suflTmng them to cool again gradually. ANNO DOMINI. Latin words for in the year of our Lord. ANNOTTO. Tlie pellicles of the seeds of a foreign liliaceous shrub, pressed together; tMed for colouring. ANNUAL. An epithet for whatever hap- pens every yew, or lasts a year. An annual, in Botany, is a plant which diai within &• year. 22 ANT ANT ANNUITY. The periodical payment of money, either yearly, half yearly, or quarter ly; for a determinate period, as ten, fifty, or a hundred years ; or for an indeterminate period, dependent on a certain contingency, as the death of a person; or for an indefinite term, in which latter case they are called perpetual an nuities. ANNULET. A small square member in the Doric capital. ANNUNCIATION. The delivery of a message, particularly the angel's message to the Virgin Mary, concerning the birth of our Saviour. The festival in commemoration of that event is called Lady Day. ANODYNES. Medicines so called because they ease pain and procure sleep, such as the medicinal preparations of the poppy. ANOMALISTICAL YEAR (in Astrono my.) The time that the earth takes to pass through her orbit. ANOMALOUS VERBS (in Grammar.) Verbs which are not conjugated regularly. ANOMALY. In a general sense, irr^u larity ; in Astronomy, the irregularity in the motion of a planet. ANSER. A star of the fifth magnitude in the milky way. ANSERES. The third order of birds, web- footed, including swans, geese, &c. ANTARCTIC (in Astronomy.) The name of a circle of the sphere, which is opposite to the arctic or northern pole. It is nearly 23 and a half degrees distant from the south pole, which is also called the antarctic pole. ANT-EATER. A quadruped which lives OB ants, in Guinea or Brazil. ANTECEDENT. The word in grammar to which the relative refers ; as, God, whom we adore, the word God is the antecedent. ANTEDATE. A date that precedes the- real one ; as the antedate of a bill, that which is earlier than the time when it is drawn. ANTEDILUVIANS. Persons living be- fore the deluge. ANTELOPE. A beautiful kind of quadru- ped, of an elegant make, and is the roe of the Scriptures. Antelopes are singularly swift in tiieir motion, and in general natives of hot climates, particularly in Africa and Asia. Europe has but two species, and America none. ANTENNTI'^ The horns or feelers of in- sects wliich project from their heads, and serve them in the sense of feeling and seeing. ANTHEM. A sacred composition used as a part of Christian worship. ANTHER. A part of the stamen of a flower which is at the top of the filament It con- tains the pollen or farina, which it emits or explodes when ripe. ANTHOLOGY. A collection of choice poems, particularly a collection of Greek epi- grams so called. ANTHROPOPHAGI; or CANNiBAts. Persons who eat the flesh of men as well as animals. Whole nations have been addicted to this practice, and it still prevails among some of the South Sea Islands. It is said that in some African cities, human flesh is exposed in the markets for sale, with that of animals, and is regarded as a great delicacy. ANTI-CLIMAX. When a writer or speak- er suddenly descends from the great to the hltle. ANTIDOTE. A counterpoison, or any me- dicine generally that counteracts the effects of what has been swallowed. ANTIMONY. A metallic, solid, heavy, brittle substance, which is very seldom found pure, but mostly mixed withoUier metals. In its pure state it is called the regulus of anti- mony. Crude antimony, in commerce, is a metallic ore, consisting of tlie metal called an- timony combined with sulphur. ANTIPAROS. A small island in the Medi- terranean, famous for its large grotto, 250 feet deep, and 300 broad. ANTIPODES. Persons so named in geo- graphy, who live diametrically opposite to one another, as it were feet to feet They have equal latitudes, the one north, and the other south, but opposite longitudes; consequently when it is day to the one it is night to the other, and when summer to the one winter to the other. ANTiaUARY. One who searches after the i-emains of antiquity. The monks who Airr wveoFMsorold ANTISCU (in Geaenpifjr.) live on diflerent sides of the eqator, i dwir dmiams al BBoa hSk directly ^^^jfT EEPTICaL Soh fiiitrefeft mnii ANTITHES^ A figure of qieedi, in winch coattteiesare pot in oantnatwidi each oCho^ ai^ He gained by losing and by fiiOing rose; ANTOBCI (in Geography.) People who five onder the same meridian, east orirest, but ooderi^iposilepanDeisoI'latitade; they have thdr noon or midn^fat at the same hour, bat AMTS^ WHITE. InfaabitaDts of East Infia, A&ica, and Sooth America, frr ezeeed- and policy, die bee, the ant, lliey bcdld pyramidal idi- vrided into cbui^iera, magazines^ &c as re- prcaenled in the annesed engraving. These iiilfa^ar hoose^ areao8ti«»as to bear fmr nen to stand iqwathem, and in the plains of Senegal tfacy afpear like villages, dalee u ma ny isof themostregnlar kind, anditheodher lifgBina— es of them act as aoldSera. trained for aufajy - It iiJinff and defenoe^and thdr assaoik is so vi- ingor gomos, that even men and large qoadrnpeds^ oAen beoonie thdr victims. AORTA, otlxTvrise caDed Magha Ab- TEUA. The great artery _ the leftvcntrideof the henr^finom APATTTB. Pluqinteariime; vrfaidi ooonrB m tin vidn^ and is ComvraUi APE Thehighest or of feur-faanded mjwmJb^ having a thumb on each, eqiaUe of bdng eppond to the other fingers. Their haand^ Ac nearly resemble those of men; tbejr are — ia i iiBii ■liJw toJiailftodly dK Je«i^ » «. Alpli^ I, «e: to «^ Kipp^ li^ Ac : to w, One^ .880; Aoi 980 wm «x- by a poibt vodBT Aekttnirfkr «t.;lheaato. ber flf ML800 vis aaHKtpBOi txanmei hf a ■irt ifah theinto,lh^ 4 W ^h.— MtodwilbtbeEppliHa; faM dhv aoliaB. as :pnanbr<' Wi.wiao ■BaJBgn—inncf tbearif wriiiagB — Aia aMJBd, >.Kjf|it vtait "7 ^^ BOKffd vohi vkeaaHBoiaryorPratiiBaa tteRntBook 41 Eadiih EhmBBfeB. It au'wiii dMt i dlMtiooB wm kdtofizapaBtbeMBKBu- ■enlatak^vr tbe eamoua mElfaod of b^ Ac n^BB ; whieh, firai iuAumuI m^ frvB oae to tea, wly owT ■gpaa, wwM nBr iod to tbe t treason, felony, or breach of the peaoe^ most be done by the lawful warrant of eoine coort of record or (^cer of justice. Ar- rest of judgment, is the staying of jud^moit, ARROW. Amissile weapmi, which is omn- aooly discharged from a bow. When this weapon b borne in coats o[ arms, it is said to he barbed and feathered. ARROW-ROOT. An Indian root, of which starch is made. It is also used medicinally. ARSEINAL. A depository for military stores. ARSENIATE. A sort of salts formed by Ike combination of arsenic add with diffo-ent bases, as the arseniate (rf* ammonia, &c. ARSENIC. A poDderoos mineral body. It isyeUow, white, and red. Yellow arsenic is the native arsenic dug oat of the mines, other- wise called Arsenic Ore. White arsenic k drawn from the ydlow by sublimating; and is reduced to powu<>iny by which the food is converted into nourishment for the body. ASSIZERS. A meeting of tlie judges, tlie pherifli and juries, for the pmiwsc of making jail ddiveries, and trying causes between in- dividuals. ASSOCIATION (of Ideas.) Two or several ideas constantly and immediately following each other ; so tliat the mention of the one shall almost certainly suffsrest tlie other.' ASSUMPSIT (in Law) A voluntary pro- mise by which a man binds hini.«^lf to [-ay any thing to another, or to do any work. Hi AST 33 ASSURANCR, or INSURANCE. .Vn en- gageraent by which a person bwomes bound tor a specified sum. and for a limited period, to indemnify another for any losses which his pro- perty may sustain from fire or shipwreck, &c. ASTERISK. A sUr (') used in printing as a mark of reference. ASTERN. Behind a ship. ASTEROIDS. The new planets, Ceres, Juno, Pallas, and Vesta, lately discovered. ASTHMA. A disea.se of tlie lungs, causing painful, difficult, and laborious bresolung, with a hissing cough. ASTRAGAL (in Anatomy.) The 'ancle lione ; in Architecture, a small round mould- ing serving as an ornament to the tops and bottoms of columns. ASTRAGAL (iu Gunnery.) A small niould- insf encompcissiiig a cannon. ASTROL.\BE. An instrument for taking the altitude of the sun or stars at sea ASTROLOGY. An art formerly much cultivated, but now exploded, of judging or predicting human events from the situatioa and different aspects of tlie heavenly bodies. ASTRONOMY. The science wliich treats of the sun, moon, earth, planets, and other heavenly bodies, showing their magnitudes, order, and distances from each other, measur- ing and marking their risings, settings, mo- tions, appearances, tlie times and qhantities of their eclipses, &c. It comprehends what was anciently called tlie doctrine of the sphere, and is a mixed mathematical science. ASTRONOMY, History of. Of 'all the sciences which have engaged the attention of mankind, none appears to have been cultivated so early as that of astronomy, which treats of the noblest and most interesting objects of con- templation. Josephus informs us that Seth, the SOB of Adam, is said to have laid the foun- dations of tliis science, and that his posterity, understanding from a prediction of Adam that there would be a general destruction of all things, once by the rage of fire and once by the violence and multitude of waters, made two pillars, one of brick and the other of stone, and engraved their inventions on each, that if the pillar of brick happened to be overthrown by the flood, that of stone might remain ; wiiiclt latter pillar. Josephus adds, was to be seen in his day. He also ascribes to tlie antediluvi- ans a knowledge of the astronomical cycle of 600 years, but upon what authority we are not informed. The account is, however, not improbabJe ; for historians generally agree in assigning the origin of astronomy to the Chaldeans soon after the deluge, when, for the purpose of mak- ing their astrological predictions, to which they were much addicted, as also for that of advanc- ing the science of astronomy, they devoted themselves to the study of the heavenly bodies. The Chaldeans were in fact a tribe of Bal>ylo- iiianc. who constituted tlic priest;*, philosc>- M AST •phers, astronomers, astrologers, and soothsay- ers of this people, whence a Chaldean and a soothsayer became synonyraous terms. These Chaldeans discovered the motions of the hea- venly bodies ; and, from their supposed influ- ences on human afl'airs, pretended to predict what was to come. The planets they called their interpreters, ascribing to Saturn the high- est rank ; the next in eminence was Sol, the sun ; then Mars, Venus, Mercury, and Jupiter. By the motions and aspects of ejl these they foretold storms of wind ?ind of rain, or exces- sive droughts, as also the appearance of comets, eclipses of the sun and moon, and other phe- nomena. They also marked out thirty-six constellations, twelve of which they placed in the zodiac, assigning to each a month in the year, and thus dividing tlie zodiac into twelve signs, through which they taught thai the several pkmets performed theii" revolutions. They appear not to have had much idea of the immense distance of some of the planets from the sun, but accoBnted for the- time they took in performing their revolution* by the slow- ness of their motions. They, however, held that tlie moon completed her course the soon- est of anj', not because of her extraordinary velocity, but because her orbit, as it would now be called, was less than that of any of the hea- venly bodies. They taught that she shone with alight not her own, and that when eclips- ed she was immersed in the shadow of the eartli. Of the eclipses of the sun they appear to liave had no just idea, nor could they fix the time when they should happen. Their ideas of the earth as a celestial body were also crude and imperfect. Astronomy was cultivated in Egypt nearly about tlie same time as among tlie Chaldeans ; and, according to the opinions of some, the honour of the invention is due to them : but the most probable conclusion is, that as these two nations were coeval, and both addicted to the arts and sciences, they cultivated astrono- my at the same time. Tlic Egyptians had at a very early period their college of priests, who were all accurate observers of the stars, and kept, as Diodorus observes, registers of their observations for an incredible number of years. It is said, tliat in the monument of Osyman- dyas there was a goklen circle of 365 cubits in circumfeience and one cubit thick, divided in- to 365 parts, answering to the days of the year, lie. The Egyptians discovered that the stars had an anniuil motion of 50", 9'", 45'"' in the year ; and Macrobius assei'ts that they mJkle tlie jilaneLs revolve about the sun in tlie same order as we do. From Clialdea and Egypt astronomy patsed into Phoenicia, where it was applied by that trading people to the pur- ; of navigation. The Arabians also, one of the most ancient nations in the world, culti- vated astronomy as far as was needful to an- swer the ends of their postered life, by observ- ing the stars, their position, and influence on AST the weather. In travelling tliroagh the desert, we are informed that, at a very- early period, they used to chrect their course by the Great and Little Bear, as is done at sea to this day. They also gave names to the stars, mostly in allusion to their flocks and herds ; and they were so nice in this matter, that no language aboimds with so many names of stars and as- terisms as the Arabic. As to the Indians and Chinese, there is no doubt but that they caltivated astronomy at a very early period, and that the Braiimins of the former people, being altogetlier devoted to speculative sciences, made advances in that of astronomy equal to any of the nations of an- tiquity. M. Bailly informs us, in his history, that he examined and compared four different sets of astronomical tables of the Indian phi- losophers, namely, that of the Siamese explain- ed by M. Cassini in 1689 ; that brought from India by M. le Gentil, of the Acaiinoctial points. They als» assign inequalities to the motions of the planets^ answering very well to the annual parallax, pnd the equation of the centre. The Greeks, without doubt, derived their astronomical knowledge from tlie Egyptian;* and PhcBnicians by means of several of tlieii- countrymen, particularly Thales the Milesiany who, about 640 years before Christ, travelled into Egypt, and brought fitrm thence the chief principles of the science. He was the firsi among the Gi-eeks who observed the stars, the solstices, the eclipses of the sun and moon, and proceeded so far as to predict an e«dipse of the sun. It appears, howc\ er, that, before his time, many of the constellations were knovpn, for Ave find mention of them in Hesiod and Homer, two of Iheir earliest writers. After Thales, Anaximander, Anaximenes, Anaxeigo- ras, but above all, Pythagoras, distinguished themselves among the number of those who cultivated astronoiuy. The latter, after having resided a long time in Egypt and other foreign porta, estabiished a sect of phil(«opherB ia us AST kjrthei lofPythage- ovBGoontry, ^ ^ ^Mi. He ungfat, ancag otber tiuieB, tiat AeHBtwas in the centre of the oaivcrae and inaave^bfe; that the entk vis fQ Jk BhdbitaalB were «itiped» to eachodier; ml Ae laotn reflected the rays of the SOD, and «M infaabilBd like Aeearth wuderiog stazs ; tliat the milky way was an aneBfabgeof stars, which derived its white coJoor frem tihe farigfaftaesB of tbeir Egte, be- sides a auBber of other particabrs, some of the the preaott day. Phi- kiiaa% a Pythagorean, maimaned the doctfine «f theearth^ BMlim rookd the son, 4S0 years hefive Christ, aad Hioetas, a Sjrracnsan, uaght, a haubed yean after, the dioraal mo- tian af the earth am. its own axis ; abo Meloa, the inveolor of the Metooic cyde^ and Eocte- moB, observed the aw»mer aoistaoe 432 years before Christ, besides the riangs and setting of Ifarstara^ and what aeasons thqr answered to. Tlte aanw sid^ect was treated of at bi^ a Cyienaa, who was bom in M. c mfaiiund the drcamfereBee of the and, being invited to the court of Ptole- my E aa mn fty, wUili flearootof his hand at a feast, and retanMdaflBB, after ^ingabont the mora. Dr. Heobe BMdb die msdd of a ffyiag chariot, of amnwrti i^ itadf m the air. M. YanoBiaDa made a %iae diat played on the so aa atrai^ to reaemble those of a dncfc. M. fe Dne, of la Ohu de presealed a dock to die bag of &ain, imi, anu^ odier coriodties^ asneep t a bleatiBgnoiaE^ and a dog watdiing a beaked that snaned ami barked when any one ofered to take it away. AUTOMN. The seaaon between aananer the fiioits of the earth ripen, cat&mmBh. In ^north- em Immpliere^ Seplendier, Odober, ud Norenibar, are Ae antmniial awatfas ; and ia die soudMra heawphen^ March, April, and AUXIUART TEKBS (in Granunar.) Soch verbs as heh> to fenn or eonjogate others, aa^ in Ea^tisli, the vcfbs 'tohav^' and *tobe.» AWL. A s hMgaafcei ^ tool, vidi which holes ate bond in Ae leaOer, fiw dbe adue- aiew of the thread Jna t ite lriag j a dw w ia g. Tha Uadeoftheawlisi AWNIN€L A piece of tarpanlin or sail, Ac Inu^ aboiA the dedm or any other part of aTessd, to screen persoaa from the son and AXIOM. A setfevideat Iralh; or a prapo- alian, thetralh of wfaaefa is peroerred at feat sigfat Thoa^ daA a whole w r latadnagcaaaotbe and not b^ at the thiiPIPeeqnalto each other; tha^iftoeiiad dnsis eqnal tha ee^nl,4i AXlS(m to be drawn of die base dangs be added, das wholes wa CSeometry.) Ariffatfineconoetved from tfaeTortezof a figmetotfaa It ii iw caUcd becauaa Ilia 42 AZI figure, by revolving round this line, is con- ceived to generate a solid. The axis of a cir- cle is the same as tlie diameter. AXIS (in Mechanics.) A certain line, about which a body may move, as the axis of a ba- lance, &c. AXIS IN PERITROCHIO, or Wheel AND Axle. One of the five mechanical pow- ers or simple machines, which is principally used in the raising of water. AXIS (in Astronomy,) or Axis of the Sphere. An imaginary right line conceived to pass through the centre of the earth from one pole to tlie other. The sun and all the planets are each conceived to revolve about their respective axes. That of the earth dui'ing its revolution round the sun remains parallel to itself, inclined to the plane of the ecliptic in an angle of 66 d^ees and a half AXLEl, or Axle-thee. The piece of wood which passes through the middle of any wheel, and on which it turns. AZIMUTH. An arch of the horizon, inter- cepted between the meridian of the place and the azimuth or vertical circle passing tlirough the centre of the object. AZIMUTH CIRCLES, or Vertical Cm CLES. Imaginary ereat circles passing through the zenith and nadir, and cutting the horizon at right angles. AZU AZIMUTH COxMPASS. An instrnmeni for finding in a more accurate manner than by the common sea compass, the magnetical am- plitude or azimuth of the sun or stars. AZIMUTH, Magnetical. An arc of the horizon, intercepted between the vertical circle passing through the centre of any heavenly body and the magnetical meridian. AZOTE, or Nitrogen (in Chymistry.) A simple substance, which, tliough not percep- tible to the senses, is known to exist, by ob- serving its passage from one combination to another, and tracing tlje laws of chjmical at- traction to which it is subject. It is the radi- cal principle of atmospheric air, which con* tains nearly four-fifths of it in bulk,^ and three- fourths in weight ; it also forms a part of ni- tric acid, ammoniac, and other substances. Its most remarkable combination is that which it enters into with light and caloric, so as to form the compovmd well known by the name of ni- trogen gas, or azotic gas. AZURE (among Painters.) The beautiful blue colour, uath a greenish cast, prepared from the Lapis Lazuli, generally called Ultra- marine. AZURE (in Heraldry.) The blue colour in the coats of arms of all persons vnader the de- gree of barons. In engraving, the azure is represented by horizcHital lines across the shield from side to side. B. B, the second letter of the alphabet, is often used as an abbreviation for Bachelor, as R A. Bachelor of Arts, B. D. Bachelor of Divinity, &c. It is the first consonant, and first mute, and its pronunciation is supposed to resemble the bleating of a sheep. B is also one of those letters which are called labial, because the prin- cipal organs employed in its pronunciation are the lips. It is j)ronounced by pressing the whole length of them together, and forcing them open with a strong breath. B as a nu- meral among the Romans stood for 300, and with a dash over it thus, g; for 3000. B, in chronology, stands for one of the Dominical letters, and in music for the seventh note in the gamut. BAAL. The name of an idol in the Chal- daic language, whom the priests personified in their temple by a figure like tliat of Mars. These stond to tlie sherilV fiw the due execution of their office, are called bound bailiffs, vulgarly bum-bail i(ts. BAILIWICK. Any district wherein a bailiflf has a jurisdiction. BAILMENT. The delivery of goods in trust upon a contract expressed or implied. BAL^NA. The whale ; a genus of the class Mammalia, and of the order Ceti. BALANCE. One of the simple powers in mechanics, which serves to find out the equali- ty or difference of weight in heavy bodies. It is a peculiar application of the lever to this particular purpose. The common balance consists of a lever with equal arms, at the ex- tremity of each of which is attached a scale. Before loading it with any weights, the whole ought to preserve a perfect equilibrium ; and this equilibrium must arise from an exact dis- tribution of tlie weight of each arm and scale of the balance, as well as from the equal length of the former ; for on this depends the correct- ness of its action. The Assay-Balance is a very delicate kind of balance, used for deter- mining the exact weight of minute bodies. It is so called because it is paiticularly used in the different processes of assaying ; it is also frequently used in chymical analysis. Bal- ances also vary in their form, as the Bent- Lever Balance, the Compound Balance, con- sisting of a combination of balances used in weighing vwy heavy bodies ; also the Danish Balance, a kind of steel-yard. BALANCE OP TRADE. A term in cwn- merce, denoting the equality between the value of the commodities bought of foreigners, and the value of the native productions transport- ed into other countries. Balance in a mer- chant's account is when the debtor and credi- tor account are made even. BALE (in Commerce.) A quantity of mer- chandise packed up in cloth. BALISTER, or Pile-Pish. A fish so called from the resemblance of its backbone to a file. It is remarkable for the brilliancy of its colours. BALL, in a general sense, is a round or spherical body, whether formed by nature or art. Thus, the terraqueous globe which we inhabit, appears to have assumed that form, in consequence of the revolution round its own axis, not unlike a mass of clay, when turned in a circular direction. BAIjL and SOCKET. An instrument of brass with a perpetual screw, constructed to move in any direction. It is used in the man agement of surveying and astronomical in Btruments. BALLAST. Gravel, sand, or any weighty matter, put into a ship's hold, to poise her and bring her sufficiently low in the water. BALLET. A theatrical representation, con eisting of music and dancing. BALLISTA. A warlike engine used by tlw BAL anci(^nts in besieging cities, to throw larg» stones, darts, and javelins. BALLOON. A globe commonly made of lutestring, and covered with an elastic varnish, to render the substance impervious by the gas. When filled with hydrogen gas, from ten to thirteen times lighter than atmospheric air, the balloon will ascend, and convey heavy bodies - suspended to it. The weight which the kdloon is capable of raising will be in pro- portion to the diameter of the sphere. Prom experiments it has been found that a cubic foot of hydrogen gas will raise about one ounce avoirdupois. The first balloon ascended at Paris, in 1782 BALLOT. A little ball ; also the manner of giving votes at an election by putting little balls, black or white, or slips of paper, into a box. BALM, or BALSAM. A liquid resin of a wliitish or yellow colour, a fragrant smell, and a penetrating aromatic taste. It flows from the balsam tree, and is much used by the females in Turkey as a oismetic. BALM, or BALM MINT. A jierennial, so called from the fragrance of its smell, which resembles that of balsam. BALSAM TREE. A tree growing in Ara- bia and Egypt, the bark of which yields the balm or bafsam aboven)entioned. BALSAMICS. Softening, healing, and cleansing medicines. BALUSTRADE. A series or row of ba- lusters or small pillars, serving as a guard oi fcuc« to balconies or staircases. BAN BALTIMORE ORIOIjE. A bird of North America, which suspends its nest to the hori- eontal forks of tlie tulip and poplar trees, form- e«l of the filaments of tough plants ; it is of a pear shape, open at top, with a hole on the side, through whicli the young are fed, &c. Some other birds build their nests in like manner, as the bottte-nested sparrow, Ac BAN 4S -^>V^^ BAMBOO, or BAMBa. An Indian reed with larger knots than the common reed. The poorer inhabiumts of India make their dwell- ings of this reed; paper is also made of the same material, by bruising it, and steeping it in water until it be reduced to a paste. BANANA, or Plantain. An invaluable tropical fruivtree. It serves the Indians for bread, and grows to the height of 15 or 20 feet. At the top of the stalk, leaves expand from six to eight feet long, and two to three feet broad, whidi grow so quick that their expansion may be almost discerned. The flower forms a spike in the centre, often nearly four feet long, and nodding on one side. The fruit, or plantains are twelve inches long and two inches in di- ameter, at first green, and afterwards of a pale yellow. The spikes of fruit weigh from 30 to 40 pounds. They are generally cut before ripe, the green stud pulled off, and the heart roasted, and served at table as bread. The negroes almost live upon them, and they serve, likewise, to fatten all domestic animals. Every other part of the tree is usi. ful, and tlie leaves ^^v/ ct^^^^a. are used as napkins and taUe-cVithg. Of an- other sort, the fruit is rounded and more lus- cious, and, wlien ri|»e, eaten raw or fried in slices, emd is relished by all ranks in the West Indies. It is only perennial in its roots, for tlie stalk dies down to the ground every year ; but, by cutting them down, suckers rise from tlie root, and there is a constant succession of fruit all the year. BAND (in Architecture.^ Any flat, low member or moulding, which is broad but not deep. BANDANA HANDKERCHIEFS. A kind of silk handkerchiefs manufactured in India, of silk and cotton. BANDITTI. A l)and of outlawed robbers. BANDOLEER, or BANDOLIER. A large leathern belt, formerly worn over the right shoulder, and hanging under tlie left arm, to carry some warlike weapon. BANDROL. A litde flag or streamer. BANERET. A knight made in the fiield, whose standard was converted into a banner wliich he could display in the king's army as the barons did. BANGUE, a species of opiate, in great use throughout tlie east, for drowning care and inspiring joy ; is extracted from a kind of wild hemp that grows in countries of the Le- vant The leaves are dried in tlie shade, ground to powder, and made into pills or con- serves, or taken as a powder. The Turks take this deleterious drug and opium as sub- stitutes for wine, which is forbidden by tlie Koran to all true Mussulmans. Banian-tree, one of the greatest won- ders of tlie vegetable kingdom. For many centuries it continually extends itself; for every branch shoots downward, and, striking into the ground, becomes itself a parent tree, whose branches, in like manner, spread. One of thein, the Cubbeer Burr, has 350 stems, equal to large oaks, and more than 3000 small- er ones, covering space sufficient to shelter 7000 persons. Its br£uiches are crowded with families of monkeys, and with birds of every description, and also Avith enormous bats, all of which find luxurious subsistence on the 46 BAN rich scarlet figs that grow upon it. The com- mon fig-tree, and tlie syc^ninore of Scripture, is of the same species, and tlie wood of Uie latter is almost imperishable. BANISHMENT. A quitting the realm, either voluntarily, as by abjuration ; or com- pulsorily, as by transportation. BANK (in Commerce.) An establishment for the receiving of mone)'^s, and letting them out on interest. Banks, like most commercial institutions, originated in Italy, where, in the infancy of European commerce, the Jews were wont to assemble in the market places of the principal towns, seated on benches, ready to lend money; and the term bank is derived from the Italian word banco, (bench.) Banks are of three kinds, viz. -. ofdeposite, of discount and of circulation. In some cases, all tliese functions are exercised by the same establisli ment ; sometimes two of them ; and in other instances, only one of them. The first bank was established at Venice about 1157, and the name of Banco was given to it in Italian, from the bench which the money-changers or bank- ers used to sit upon in their courses or ex- changes. The bank of Genoa was established in 1345; that of Amsterdam, in 1G09; that of Hamburgii, in 1619 ; that of Rotterdam, in 1635. The Bank of England, one of the last, but at present the greatest of its kind, was es- tablished by charter in the reign of William and Mary, into a corporate lx)dy, by the title of the Governor and Company of the Bank of England. Its notes form the currency of the kingdom to a certain extent, and amount to Ixtween tAventy and thirty millions. The Bank of England is also the Government Bank, and pays the interest of the national debt. The present bank of the United States was charter- ed in 1816, with a capital of 35 millions of dollars. In January, 1829, it had 21 branches in different parts of the Union, and its general concerns were highly prosperous. There arc about 400 other banking companies in the Uni- ted States, incorporated by state legislatures. About seven eighths of these have capital and credit, and business : the otlier one eightli are either broken or of doubtful standing. Public and private banks are now very comnaon in mo.st civilized countries. BANKER. A person who traffics in money, l>y receiving the current cash of individuals free of interest, and negotiating willi it, either in the discount of bills or the advance of money ©n sufficient securities. BANKING-HOUSE. Any mercantile house which carries on the business of a private banker, tis distinjuished from a Bank. bankrupt: a trader who fails or breaks, so as to be unable to carry on his business or pay his debts. In Law, a bankrupt is one who has committed an act of bankruptcy, so as to bring him under the protection of the bankrupt laws, which is allowed to none but actual traders, or such as buy and sell, and gain BAR a livelihood by so doing. It is derived finm bancum, a bench, and rumpere, to break, be- cause the bench of the Italian banker or u)oney- changer is said to have been broken by way of infamy, when he failed. BANNER. A decorated piece of cloth fast- ened to a pole or lance. BANNIANS. A religious sect among the Hindoos, who believe in the transmigration of souls, and therefore abstain from eating the flesh of animals, whicli they carefully pre- serve. They are so cautious of having com- mimication with any but their own caste, that if any of another nation or tribe has drunk out of or touched their cup, tliey break it. BANNOCK. A sort of oaten cake used in the north of England, baked in the embers or on a hot stone. BANNS OF MATRIMONY. The pul)- lishing of marriage contracts before the per- formance of the marriage ceremony. In sojne churches, when persons are to be married, the banns of matrimony are published in the church where they dwell three several Sun- day's or holidays in the time of Divine Service; and ifj at the day appointed for their mairiage, any man do allege any impediment, or precon- tiact, consanguinity or affinity, want of pa- rent's consent, infancy, &c. why tliey should not be married, (and become bound with sure- ties to prove tliis allegation,) then the solem- nization must be deferred until the trutli ia tried. BANTAM. The name of a domestic fowl of the hen tribe, having short legs, and tlie shemks well fcatlieied. BAPTISM. A sacrament of the Cluistian church, administered either by immersion, that is, dipping in water, or by sprinkling witli water, as is practised in the church of Eng- land. BAR (in Courts of Law.) The place part- ed off by a bar or railing, within* which ser- geants and counsellors stand to plead; also the profession of a barrister or pleader. BAR. A sea term for a rock lying before the harlx)ur in such a manner that ships can- not sail over except upon the flood. BAR (in Music.) A line which divides the notes into equal portions in respect to their duration. BAR BAR (ia Heral«ky.) OneflTtiie He ofd mai ie s , oonei^iag «f two hariamul fiaei dnnm across the eacoiricaaL BARAUPTON. Anvbilnrr oM^firai iadieet node «r the fintig- BAR from iIk ofGgggelfae! T. AtMtbmy, thefrntoTdbs [CAM. liaa to a d^ or caitte^ and as ft I a wiichlovcr, to deaciy theiyoMciicf an BARDl TIki akof eadbkd RT (in CoBBerae.) A i ■Mier of a read or dK theq imga iy wi i l i ri iliag their gnoik) roBnag awa^ widi tibeaUp. BARBl Abt magtiiai tnic nows anc aUea a beard : ailfae Ahth «tfi wUch of of Iimk w ji « l atdiettpofanamwr;al80^ die name €« a naraeoTthe Barinty bne^ rcnarlBUe far ^ BARB ARBM. a Metfaod of emiioying taKoafledtfeRat to dbatof aecreAod wrilas. BABBHi. AfiAofdKcvp lies ia hake Mv Ae b^b^ «ad bksitonHne TlaB lofi BARBER. One who feDom die tra& of dttving and d mwing faau; and anciently abo dutofb fae&ift wfaepeetariws amre caDed Bwfaer-Chirorgaaaa, and need a pole aaa sign to iqa eae n t die ati£[ windi p CTaon s used to baUwbendiej were bled. Thebartns safaraBcni baIegain ANDSAIfnalMT.) Aa» ydtoprapet^orr ferredfioaoBe |craaa toanadier. Riaedi- edarari waaiai i npoa a ^ a iadMe coatodeni- tioB far iiawiMiL oftoaKf riawli, aad he- W deed aidealed Mid cmtfled. BARGXL AToylargebaalnaBdaariren^ dier far ^eaanreor nr trader BARILLA. Aki need in die gfaaa trade. BARITONO. A low pilck of the voice be- BARIUM. A metal 80 called by SrH. Da- TV, die dihtumM, addch ia ofataiaed fay dM Coy PIICJll QBOD^BpOBlrtlOtt QK DBTyteB* iBtARK. Tbe akia or cowcriag of a figaeaai planL BiA-lui&^ is a dwaae ia tras cored by slittinf the bark. BARK Oa CSaamove.) A staff B»al tared in India of the bwfc of trees; aim bari^ whidb iBpracaRd ee growing ia Qwila. BARK. Aseatenafar a amaB vessd!, pr. le canying datee maatB. ri. A sort of cora or gram winch Ifarefa, - — beat in fagfac ^7 ' ntarly one canymg t BARLEY. Aaorto is sown in Iftuvfa, Aprii,ar Mmj, mad wmnuA» aoOa Pknm barler. whoa BARLEY, or PKAU.-BAai.KY. Batkj 1 of ita fitst ooa^ and ttocd in maUag a BARI£YCORN. The le»t of oar laa« being the third of Ml inch. ,orYK stacks to the bocfaan of BARNA( fowl. BARN-POWI^ 48 BAR opposed to one of his own sficcics; and the brutal diversion of cock-fighting is a favourite eport, wherever refinement and polished man- ners have not entirely taken place. The female, if well supplied with food and water, will lay about two hundred eggs in a year ; when attending her brood, nothing can exceed her patience, courage, and affection. BAR quicksilver low ; it al«o rises higher in cold weather than in warm. BARON. A degree of nobility next to a viscount. All barons in England are lords of parliament and peers of the realm. Barons were originally so by tenure, that is, by virtue of the barony annexed to their lands or office. BARON AND FEME. A term iu law for husband and wife, who are deemed but one person. BARON'S CORONET. On a gold circle six pearls, which were assigned to barons by King Charles II., after the Restoration. BAROLITE. A stone of the ponderous or- der, called also the carbonite of terytes. BAROMETER. An instrument for mea- suring the weight of the atmosphere, invented by Torricclli. The common barometer is glass tube hermetically sealed at one end, and filled with mercury, so as to have no air over. Then the maker, putting his finger on the open end, immerses it in a basin of quicksilver or water ; and on his removing his finger, the quicksilver in the tube endeavours, by its own weight, to descend into the basin, but by tlie pressure of the external air on the surface of the fluid in the basin, and no air being in the tube at the top, the quicksilver -will rise from 28 to 31 inches in mercury, and from 30 to 33 inches in water. In dry weatlier, the air, being free from vapours, is consequently heavy, and presses up the quicksilver ; but in moist rainy weather, the atmosphere being charged with clouds and fogs, tlie air is lighter, and greases with less force on the quicksilver. In liigh winds tlie atuio3])here is light, and the BARONET. The lowest degree of heredi- tary honour created by letters patent, It was founded by James I. of England, in 1604. BARONS OP THE EXCHEQUER. The four judges who officiate in tlie court of exchequer at Westminster. BARONY. The honour and territory which gave title to a baron, including the lees and lands of loids, lx)th temporal and spiritual. BARRACKS. Places erected for the ac- commodation of both men and horses in ar- mies. BARRAS. A substance consistmg «f resin and oil, which exudes from the wounds of fir trees in winter. BARRATOR (in Law.) A common mover of suits and quarrels, either in courts or else- where. BARREL. A cask or vessel for holding H- quor, that is, thirty-one and a half gallons of vvinCj &c. and thirty-two gallons of Ijccr. BAS BARREL. The cylinder of a watch, about which the spring is wrapped. BARRIER. A kind of fence, composed of great stakes, and serving to defend the entrance of a passaga BARRl'STElR. A person qualified and em powered to plead and defend the causes of clients in courts of justice. BARROW (in Husbandry.) An unplement of conveyance with a single wheel, and driven with the hand. It is made of different forms, according to the purpose for which it is in- tended. BARROWS. A mound of earth raised over the dead, of which graves are imitations, and of which the pyramids of Egypt were a mag- nificent variety. They abound in many parts of England, particularly in Wiltshire, and near Marlborough ; one of them, called Silbu- ry Hill, is nearly as large as the smallest pyra- mid of Geza. When opened, they are found to contain bones and rehcs. BARTER. The exchanging of one commo- dity for another. Barter was the original and natural way of commerce, there being no buy- ing till money was invented, emd used in ex- changing; also, the rule in Arithmetic by which the proportionate value of commodities is found. BARYTES. A sort of ponderous earth, very brittle, and perfectly soluble in boiling Bulphuric acid. It is compounded of oxygen and barium. BASALT. A sort of argillaceous earth, con- sisting of silica, with a certain portion of alu- mina and oxide of iron, lime, and magnesia. It is always found near volcanoes. Columns of basalt form the Giant's Causeway, the Isle of Staffa, and Fingal's Cave, and are always found near great volcanoes, as Etna, Hecla, &c. BASE (in Architecture.) The foot of a pil- lar, by which it is sustained ; in Greometry, the base of a figure is the lowest plane side, or that on which it stands. BASE (in Chymistry.) The inert substance which combines with and is Jicted upon by the more volatile and active menstrua, as the alkalies, earths, and metallic oxides, which are the principal ingredients in the formation BAS 49 BASE LINE (in Perspective.) The com- mon section of a picture, and the geometrical plane. BASEMENT. A continued base extended along any building, as the basement or lower storv ofahovise. Base tenure, or Base Estate (in Law.) A holding by villenage, or other cus- tomary service. BASHAW, or Pacha. The title given to the grand officers of the court at Constantino- ple ; as the capudan bashaw, the admiral or commander at sea ; bostangi bashaw, the cliief officer of the garden, &c. Their degrees of dignity were marked by their bearing one^ two, or three horses' tails. BASIL. The sloping edge of a chisel, or of the iron of a plana BASIL. A plant which has an aromatic smell, BASILICON. An ointment, consisting of resin, pitch, oil, weix, &c. BASILISK. A serpent of the lizard tribe, with remarkably piercing eyes, and a white spot on its hea4 resembling a diamond. It was formerly called a cockatrice, and fabled to be produced from the eggs of a cock. BASIN. Any hollow place capable of hold- ing liquids. Basin of a dock, a place where the water is confined by double flood-gates. The basin of a haven is that part which opens from a narrow passage into a spacious recep- tacle. BASKET. A vessel made either of rushes, splinters, willows, osiers, or any other flexible material that can be interwoven. To render osiers fit for use, they must be soaked for some time. Those that are intended for the finer kind of work, as washing-baskets or nuirket- baskets, and the like, must be peeled while they are green, and then steeped. Hamp- ers, and the coarser kind of work, do not re- quire that preparation: basket making was one of the arts that was carried to a considera- ble degree of perfection among the ancient Britons. BASKING SHARK. A species of the shark, which lies much on the surface of the water, basking in the sun. It grows to a pro- digious size, but is not very fierce. BAS-RELIEF. See Basso Relievo. BAS.S (in Music.) The lowest or deepest part of any composition. This note is played on the largest pipes or strings of instruments of the common size, as the organ, lute, &c. or on the largest kind of instruments. The basa is the principal part of a musical composition, and the foundation of harmony, whence it is called the fundamental bass. Thorough basa is that which includes the fundaments rules of composition. Ground bass is tliat which commences with some subject of its own, that is continually repeated throughout the move- ment, whilst the upper parts pursue a separate air, BASS CLIFF, or P Cliff. The chai-ac- ter mai'ked thus, and placed at the beginning ofa stave in which the bass or lower notes are placed. BASSO RELIEVO. In En^hsh, bas-re- lief, a sort of sculpture in which the figures are repr^ented as projecting not far alwve the plane on which they are formed. Figures cut are said t» be done in relief] and when tlie work is low or flat, it is called bas-relief, or basso relievo, in distinction from alto relievo and mezzo relievo. 50 BAT BASSOON, A musical wind instrument blown with a reed, and has eleven holes. It serves to play the bass part in concerts. BASS VIOL. A stringed musical instru- ment of the same shape as a vioUn, but much larger. BASS VOICE. The gravest and deepest of the male voices. BASTARD (in Law.) One born out of wedlock, who cannot inherit. BASTILE. A fortress in Paris, which was used as a prison, and destroyed during the French revolution. BASTINADO. A mode of punishment usual among the Turks, of beating the offender on the soles of the feet. BASTION. A large mass of earth, standing out from a rampart, of which it forms the principal part BAT. An animal resembling both a bird and a mouse. It has wings not of feathers, but of a skin distended, and flies only at night It lays no eggs, but brings forth its young aliv^ and suckles them. BATEMENT (in Carpentry.) The wast- ing of stuff in cutting it for the pm-pose de- Bigned. BATH. Any receptacle for water which is convenient for bathing ; also any artificial con- trivance which is to supply the place of a bath, as a shower bath, or an apparatus for applying water to tlie body in the form of a shower ; a vapour bath, or a mode of conveying moisture to the body by means of steam ; a medicinal bath is that in which certain chymical prepa- rations are minded. BATH (in Chymistry.) A contrivance by which heat is conveyed to any substance; also, in the refining of metals, tlie fusion of the metalHc matter is called a bath. BATH, KNIGHTS OP THE. A military order ofknighthood, restored, if not instituted, by Henry IV. These knights wear a red rib- bon, and their motto is, Tria juncta in uno, alluding to the three cardinal virtues, faith, hope, and charity, which every knight ought to possess. JBATON. The staff or truncheon given as a symbol of authority to generals intlxe French army. BATTA. Allowances made to troops in India. Dry batta is money given in lieu of rations ; wet batta, what is given in kind. BATTALION. A body of foot soldiers of from 600 to 800 men. BATTEL. An ancient mode of trial by sin- BAT gle combat, which has lately been abolished in England. BATTERING-RAM. A military machine, with which the ancients effected breaches in fortifications. These engines were variously constructed, and of different sizes. Plutarch informs us, that Marc Antony, in the Parthi- an war, used a ram of 80 feet long ; and, ac- cording to Vitruvius, they were sometimes 106, and even 120 feet long, and weighed 100,000 lbs. This engine was frequently used in the fourteenth century, and occasionally for other purposes besides that of war in later periods. Sir Christopher Wren is said to have employ- ed it in demolishing tlie walls of the old church of St Paul, previously to his rebuilding it. Sometimes they were swung on ropes, and at others driven by men, who were protected from the besieged by suitable coverings. BATTERY (in Law.) The striking, beat- ing, or offering any violence to the person of another, as by spittmg in his face, or any way touching him in anger, or violently jostling against him. It is distinguished from an as- sault, inasmuch as the latter does not necessa- rily imply a hitting or blow. There may be an assault without battery, but there cannot be a battery without an assault BATTERY (in MUitary Affaii-s.) Any raised place on which cannon are placal. Bat- teries are of different kinds, as open batteries, which are exposed to view ; masked batteries, ■iiiiii BAT which «re hidden by >hra Mf > Mk ; enm^ kk defined in luju^ two battencB firiw «■ the Bune object, AcL AtlmtiagbMerjmm. huttry encted on tATTERT Qa tioBofeoatBdrarfre ed that they 1H7 be charged atonee^ and dm- ch a i - B Bd ly a «""»■»«" condnctor. A bittery or pne it ain vi ap p arat o a employed fir ac- eam^^rths dectnci^ in24 hoars; it is camposedof ax<«idbd cdb arranged in two layers with oppasiie openings, so constmeled as to afford tibe greatest apace Dndi die least material, and the wh<4e ia geometrically perfieL It is a woodeHal system ; and every bee is so much engiged in tti own ind u s tr io u s p unwUft that it nefcrnttacks or stingB, enxpt when aBsank- ed er endneered. An admirable system of M e iMUfiug &m, instead of batbaronsiy sof- fbeatng ttem with solphnr, has latidy been i nOoduc ed, and cannot be too much conunend- aiid strong bear, a sjitan nam BEEB. Adrinkma ihopsbf the process of brewing , .> .^ -^^ ^^ee kmdst nam^v, ^rong beer, tie, and tabie bes, or small beer. KSSTINCSl a terminHorinndirTfir the first milk taken from a cow after die CMTes. BEETI£. The scarabeeos of LinnaBos, a wdl known insect, prodneed firom the lame or grabs thatKtemyrgw wnd. Ithas mfce^ is hairy at one eno^ nd lives in dry decayed woo^ 4ec^ BEX-HIYE. A raoeptatk for bees, made of straw and other materialB. Tbebeesinone hive are caBed a swarm, and herein th^ form their edls and awjnimHy snfficient honey by SfptiTOhpr to last them tin Jane; but as they MSB the winter ddefly in a letharjg^ stat^ die honey may be taken by smtafale means, and the bees led with honey, or with a mixture ofl BEETI^ A large wooden hammer fat driving palisadom. BELFRT. Thatpartof a chorch steeple in iduch the befls «e hong. A metallic inatramaBt of sound. used fiir giving notice in churches and hooses^ They were introdnced into ] afaoot die year 700, and used to be fasptiaed Hsd named befive they were hong. Thenmn- ber of changes may befbond by nmhiplying the dagia in the nmnber into one anotner: 54 BEL thus, four bells will give 24 changes, and 6 bells 720 ; and 10 changes may be rung in a minute. St. Peter's bell atRon.e weighs 18,000 lbs. ; Great Tom, of Oxford, 17,000 lbs. ; Lin- cohi, 9900 lbs. ; and St. Paul's, 8400 , St Ivan's, of Moscow, weighs 128,000 lbs. BELLES LETTRES. A French term for polite literature. BELLIGERENT. An epithet applied to states that are at war. BELL METAL. A metal employed in the manufacture of bells, which usually consists of three parts of copper and one of tin. BELLONA. The goddess of war, and sis- ter of Mars. BELLOWS. A machine for blowing the fire. This machine is so contrived as to ex- pire and respire the air alternately, by enlarg- ing and contracting its capacity. The air which enters the bellows is compressed when they are closed, and flows out of the pipe with a velocity proportioned to the force by which it is compressed. The bellows of smiths and founders are worked by a rocker. BELLOWS OP AN ORGAN. The pneumatic part of the machine, by which it is supplied with Avind. The bellows of a large organ are worked by a man called the blower ; those of smaller organs by the foot of the player. BELLU^. The sixth order of animals in the Linnean system, ha\ang their feet hoofed, as the equus, or horse ; sus, the swine ; the hippopotamus, and the tapir. BELT. A girdle for hauiging a sword or any other weapon in. BELT (in Heraldry.) A badge of the knightly order, given to a person when he was raised to the knighthood. BELT (in Siu-gery.) A bandage applied round the body. BELT (in Masonry.) A range or course of bricks projecting from the rest. BELTEIN. An ancient festival in Ireland, celebrated on the 2lKt of June, the siunmer Bolstice, when fires were DMide on the tops of the hills. BELTS, or Fascijb. Two zones or girdles BEN round the planet Jupiter, more lucid than the other parts of his body, and terminated by pa- rallel straight lines, sometimes broader and sometimes narrower, varying both in magni- tude and position. These belts were first ob- served at Naples, by Zuppi and Bartoli, two Jesuits. BENCH. A seat of justice; also the per- sons sitting on a bench, as a bench of magis- trates. BENCHER. A lawyer of the oldest stand- ing in the inns of court. BEND (in Heraldry.) One of the ten ho- nourable ordinaries, di-a^vn from the dexter, or right corner, at the top of the escutcheon, to the sinister base, or left corner, at the bottom. It is supposed to represent a shoulder belt, or scarf, and to show the wearer to be valiant in war. It is sometimes called a bend dexter, to distingwish it from the bend sinister, which is drawn from the left side of the shield to the right. BEND. A sea term for the knot by which one rope is fastened to anotlier, or to an an- chor. BENDING. A sea term for the tjpng two cables or ropes together, or to any thing else. BENDING (in Physiology.) The reducing a body to a curved or crooked form. The bending of boards, planks, &c. is effected by means of heat, whether by boiling or other- wise, by which the fibres become relaxed and flexible. BENDS IN A SHIP. The outermost tim- bers of the side, to set the foot on in climbing up the side. They are reckoned from we wa- ter, first, second, and third bend, and are of great service in strengthening the ship, as into them the beams, knees, and foothooks, are bolted. BENEFICE. An ecclesiastical living, but particularly rectories and vicareiges. BENEFIT OP CLERGY. A privilege in law, at first peculiar to the clergy, but in afl^r times made common to the laity. When any one was convicted of certain crimes, he had a book given him to read, and if the ordinary or his deputy pronounced these words, ' Legit ut clericus, he reads like a clergyman, or scholar,' he was only burnt in the hand, and set free for the first ofience ; otherwise he was to suffer death. BENZOIN. A dry solid resin, of a fra- grant smell, produced by incision from the styrax, an Indian tree. It is brought to us from the East Indies, particularly Siam and the Islands of Java and Suniatra, in masses o€ Tarkxis sizes, composed of small granules of a whitish or yellowish colour, with a purple cast on the surface. It is very inflammable, and diffuses a fragrant smdl while burning, and so in like "M>mi«»r when robbed in the hand. When the boiaoin tree is six years tAd, the natives cot it in several places m an oblique directkm, and the bouoin flows fixHn the WDunds. Benzoin is used by perfumers in nmUng swcet bags, &c and was finrmerly ▼erymnm esteemed as an expenAorsnt. The tree was faroo^ firMn Virginia into England. BECIUBST. Al^acyj what is bequeath- ed or Wt by will BERE^'ICB'S HAQL A ooosteUadoa in the northern hemi^here. BERGAMOT. A fine sort of pear, which is of two sorts, namdy, the sinnmer bergamot and the autumn bergamot BERGAMOT (in Chymistry.) A fragrant essenoe, extracted from a fruit which is pro- duced by ingrafting a branch of a lemon tree vpoa the ^ock of a bergamot pear. This es- s»ioe iagatby catting the extonal rind c^die fruit mto Binall pieces, and squeezing them into a glass Tessel, in the same manner as the juice at a lonon is squeezed out, by which means an ethereal oil is procured of a very lY. A round fiTiit, fijr the most part soft, and covered with a thin skin, attaining eeeds in a pulpy substance. BERYL. A precious stoiMi, which, in its parity, is (rf* a perfect^ sesrgreea ocdoor, and w«t dc BRCTE-WEIGHT. A term emnioyed when merchandises are weighed witn the cases, &c in distinctku finom the net wdgfat. BUBBLE AUadderin water, oransicle fiDed with air ; abo tm idle or rhmdng pro- ject, such as the Sooth Sea babble in 17^ and numeroas progeeta of a similar character which have been set afloat within the last few years, to the rodn of many. BUCCANEERS, Pirates or freebooters ; a race of adventurers who committed great de- predations in the 16th and 17th centuries. BUCK. A male deer of the &Uow kind; also amaleraUaL BUCKET. A kind of paO, made of leather.. BUCKLE. A festening ibr a shoe^ or the harness of a hone^ by meansofanirontaogue within a hoop. BUCKLER. An ancient piece of defenBive ', made of wicker work, and worn on thearm. BUC KRAM. Asortof stifBeneddoth. BUCKWHEAT, otherwise caUed Bb akk. Asortofgrainthatisuaedaafeod. Hie flow- ers grow in a spike^ or branched from the win^ of the leaves. BUCOLICSi Pwtoral poems, so from the Bucolica ped barrel, fastened by a rope to the an- chor, to point out its situation. It is also a piece of wood or cork fastened by a chain, serving to point oiit dangerous places. hkps, unjustJy stigmatized for destroying the' . 5^??^^^ °'. ^^^f ^=^T=«- ^ ^'\ o.*" buds of trees, though it appears that its object '^"''^ "^ ,*« o''^*^'" P**^^' ?""*^ 'I ^[''f' }^ « is not the bud itselfj but " the worm in the bud," and that the bullfinch is one of those spe- cial of birds that defend the embryo fruit, by destroying the nests of innumerable insects. so called because it alights on the backs of cat- tle, and picks holes in them to get at the larvae of the gad-fly, on which it lives. BUPRESTIS. An insect of the coleopterous order, remarkable for the brilUancy of its co- lours, which emulate the polish of the finest metals. BURDEN (a Sea Term.) Whatever can be stowed in a hold, or the number of tons which it can carry. Beasts of burden, in Husband- ry, are those which are fitted for bearing bur- dens or drawing weights. BURGESS. An inhabitant of a borough, or one who possesses a tenement therein ; it is now more commonly taken for the representa- tive of a borough town. BURGLARY (in Law.) The breakmg and entering the dwelling of another in the night, with Uic intent to commit some felony, 4 BUR whether the felonious intent be put in execu- tion or not. BURGOO. A kind of porridge, is a nutri- tive dish, eaten by mariners, and much used in Scotland ; it is made by gradually adding oat-meal to boiling water, stirring it constant- ly, 80 that tlie whole may mix smoothly ; after which a little salt and butter should be added. It is considered very proper for correctmg that unwholesome disposition to costiveness, so fre- quent to persons of a sea- faring life. BURGUNDY PITCH. The juice of the fir tree boiled in water, and strained through a linen cloth. BURNING-GLASS. A concave or convex glass, commonly spherical, which collects the rays of the sun towards a common point, call- ed the focus. Those burning glasses which consist of refracting convex lenses appear to have been but little known to the ancients, but the burning mirrors which consist of concave reflecting surfaces must have been brought to treat perfection, if what is related by some istorians be true, for we are informed that Archimides set fire to the fleet of Marcellus when he was besieging Syracuse; and that Proclus, in the same way, d.estroyed the navy of Vitellius at the siege of Byzantium. Among the moderns. Lord Napier was one of the first who conceived the idea of making such burn- ing glasses, which have since been constructed of a prodigious size. The burning glass of M. de Villette was three feet eleven inches in diameter, and it burnt at the distance of three feet two inches ; by it were melted a silver six- pence in seven minutes and a half, a King George's halfpenny in sixteen minutes, which ran in thirty-four minutes ; a diamond weigh- ing four grains lost seveneighthsof its weight. That of Buffon was a polyhedron, six feet broad, and as many high, consisting of one lumdred and sixty-eight small mirrors, or flat pieces of lookmg glass, each six inches square, by means of which, with the faint rays of the Bun in the month of March, he set on fire boards of beech wood at one hundred and fifty feet distance. BURNING OF WOMEN. A superstitious practice in India for the widows to burn them- selves on the funeral piles of their husbands. 6ec Suttee.) BUT BURNISHER. A round pobshed piece of steel, serving to smooth and give a lustre to BUSS. A small vessel, used in the herring fisheiy, about 50 tons burden. BUSHEL. A dry measure, containing four pecks, or eight gallons. BUSH-HARROW. An implement of hus- bandry for harrowing grass lands, and cover- ing grass or clover seeds. It consists of a frame with three or more bars, in which bushes are interwoven. BUSKIN. A kind of high shoe, anciently worn by tragedians ; also, a sort of leather stocking, serving the purpose of a boot. BUST. The figure or portrait of a person in relievo, showing only the upper parts of the body. BUTCHER BIRD. A sort of shrike, ro- markable for its ferocity towards the little birds, which it kills, and tearing them to pieces, sticks them on thorns. BUTT. A measure of wine, containing 126 gallons. BUTTEND. The largest end of a piece of timber nearest to the root. BUTTER. A fat unctuous substance, pro- cured firom the cream of milk by churning ; a term in Chymistry for substances of similai* consistency, as butter of antimony, butter of bismuth, butter of wax, &c. BUTTERBUR. A plant with a floscular flower, consisting of many florets. BUTTERFLOWER. A yellow flower, which abounds in the meadows in May. BUTTERFLY, or PAPILIO. A genus of insects, of which tliere are many hundred spe- cies. Curious and elegant as they are, this is the last state of the varied existence of the same creature ; first in the grub, or caterpillar form, in which it emerges from the eggs laid by a former generation ; the grub then passes into an insensible state, called the chrysalis or aurelia, in which it continues some weeks or months, having neither legs, wings, nor mo- tion : at length the case is burst, and motlis and butterflies emerge, which pass a short and flut- tering existence, during which tliey lay eggs for future successions of the same kind. That which seems to be powder upon the wings of this insect is an imiumerable quantity of fc» CAB then^wbich are onljr to be diaoened tfaroogfa ■ iiuuo>c<^pe. CAD 7S C%rfaaii9 of the Butterfly. BUTTOCK. The breech or IiBiiBcli. of « ^tnimal^ next Xo the tail; tin, aaea term fiir that part of a ship wfakhftrms her farteddi, righ t aatem from the tnck u^ iwa r da. BUTTON. Any thing in a raoDd form which serves to ftsten, porticolafif what ia used in garments; abo^ a part of me caacdbel in a gun or howitaer, which is in the form of abatton. BUTTRESS. A kind of botment, hoik archwise, serving to sopport a holding or walL BUZZARD. A very sh^gisfa \>rd of the hawk kind. It will remain perdied npon the same boagfa for many hours, and is generally found in one {dace. It feeds on small birds, rabiats, midee^ and mice; but it w31 also eat fr(^8, worms, and insects. Hie eoloiir of the bnatard is varioas: the breast and belly cf some are brown, bat more freqneody die fir- mer is of a yellawish whiter wmi obka^ mat- ooloored a|Ml8 : the bvk of the head, neck, and eoverts of Uie wings, are of a den brown, edeed wUiapalerast ooloar; thetau is bar- red either with blad^ or ash ooloar. There is another inecies, the a r ugii iu wi p, moor-boxzard, wiui a giayidi bM^, and yellow legs. It makes its nest in a loft of grass or among rashes, is a fierce and Tora- etoos wrd, and a great destroyer of rabbits^ yoangdoi^B, and other water-fiiwL BY-LAW. A priyalelawmade within some particnlar jdaoe or jariadictioo. All by4aw8 are to be reasonable, and for the common bene- fit, and most be agreeable to the pabKc bwa in bein^. C, the thnd letter and second eoBSonant of the alphabet; as a numeral, C stands for 100, and CO fiir 200, dc ; in Mosic, it is the high- est part in the thoroagfa bass; as an Abbreria- Cian, itstands fix- Chnst, as A. C. Anno Chris- ti, or ante Christum. CAABA, tbe temple of Mecca, towards which Mahometans torn whai thejr pn^. CABALA A traditional or mysterioas doc- trineamong the ancient Jews, wmch they say was ddlvered fay word of mouth to Moees, anid b^ Imntothefotfaers. Anxxig Christian^ the eahaia is an abuse of certain passiges of Scr^ tore fiy magical purpos es. CABBAGE TR^ A tree of the Gme of Good Hope;, so called from the reaembianee which its leaves bear to thoee of the cabbage plant CABIN. The apartment in a vessd for the officers and superior passei^ers. CABINET. ThesecretcooncQofagovem- term for a strong rq>e or serves to keq> a ship at CABLEu A sea iron chain, which CABLE'^LENGTH. Themeasureof 120 fathoms. CACOETHES. An ill habit or prniensi- ty ; as the cacoethes scribendi, an itch for au- tncNTship. CACOPHONY. The harsh sound of two letta^ or svIlaUes. CADENCE (in Grammar.) The 60 of the voioe; alaa^ die flow of verses or periods; in Music, k is a paoae or sni yfiwinn at the end of an air, resembfang points or viignleB in prose; in Dancing cadence is used when the steps foUow the notes and measures (rf* the mu- sic; ■» fix* iffangg p f hf mdmrr in thr iia aiiiii 1 1 or proportion observed by a horae in afl Us motions when he is thoroughly managed. CADET. One who is trained up for the army by a oonrseof military (fisapUne. Every son of a fiimily, bdow the ddest CADL A magistrate^ or sort of jnstioe of the peace, among the Arabs and Tuns. CADMIA. Asort of mineral among thean- dents, now called oobalL CADUCEU& A name for MercoT^ rod or soeptr^ which on medds is an cmUcm of 76 CAL CAL peacft. It \va« carried by the Roman heraWsjofa:; and fluxions by a dot over it, as iis tli« when they went to proclaim peace. fluxion of x. The diflferential calculus is now generally referred to the method effluxions. CALENDAR. A distribution of time into months, weeks, and days, throughout the year, together with an account of the festivals and such other matters as serve for the daily pur- poses of life. Calendars vary according to the different forms of the year and the divisions of time in different countries, as the Roman find Julian Calendars used by the Romans, the Gregorian and Reformed Calendars among the moderns. CALENDAR MONTH. The name given to the months as they stand in the almanac. CALIBER. The thickness or diameter of any thing, particularly of the bore of a cannon. CALIBER COMPASSES. A particular in- strument used by gunners for measuring the diameters of shot, shells, &c. They resemble other compasses, except in their legs, which are arched, in order that the points may touch the extremities of the arch. CjESAR. The name of a Roman family, of whom Caius Julius, born 100 B. C. distin- guished himself as a conqueror, who, having overthrown Pompey, and the constitutional au- thorities of the republic, was assassinated, March 15, 44 B. C. He was succeeded as Emperor by his nephew, Augustus, and by an irregular succession for 500 years. The name of Ceesar is still retained by the Emperor of Austria, and by the Emperor of Russia, as Czar. CAIRNS. Heaps of stones in aconical form, which are frequently to be met with in Scot- land and Wales. CAISSON. A wooden chest filled with bombs or powder, and buried under some work to blow it up ; also, the frame used in laying the foundations of a bridge. CALAMANCO. A kind of woollen stuff manufactured in England and Brabant. It has a fine gloss, and is chequered in the warp. CALAMARI^. The third natural order of plants in the Linnsean system, containing the reeds resembling grasses. CALAMINARIS, or Lapis Calamina- ais. The calamine stone, or oxide of zinc among the chymists ; a kind of bituminous, fossile earth, which, when mixed with copper, produces brass. CALCAREOUS EARTH, or Lime, as marble, limestone, marie, and gypsum, form- ing ranges of mountains, and containing ma- rine shells and bones of animals, of which it is supposed to be the concentrated ruins. CALCINATION. The solution of a mixed body by the means of heat or any corroding substance, as mercury, aquafortis, &c. whereby it is reduced to powder. The body so reduced was named a calx, in common language a cin- der, and in chymistry an oxide. CALCULATION. The act of computing several sums by means of addition, subtrac- tion, multiplication, division, &c. CALCULUS, or Stone. A name general- ly given to all hard concretions, not bony, which are formed in the bodies of animals. CALCULUS, Differential. A method of finding a small quantity, which, talven an infinity of times, is equal to a given quantity, or it is the arithmetic of infinitely small quan- tities, and similar to fluxions, which considers momenta as quantities. Differentials are dis- tinguished by the letter d, as d Xf differential CALICO. A cloth made firom cotton wool, resembling linens ; the name is from Calicut, a city in India, from whence the Spaniards or Portuguese first brought calicoes. CALICO-PRINTING. The art of apply- ing coloured patterns on a white or coloured ground of Hnen or cotton. It has been prac- tised in India for more than two thousand years, but has not been cultivated in Europe more than a century, and but a few years in the United States. This art depends on the action of certain bodies, which, by ch)maical agency, permanently unite the colouring matter of dye- ing materials to particular parts of the cloth. The substances which bind the colouring mat- ter to the faces of the cloth are denominated mordants, The mordant is applied to the cloth by wooden blocks, in which the patterns are carved in relief. This effect is also pro- duced by means of a small brush, by sheet cop- per fixed in a block, like filagree work, or by the copper-plate. When the mordant has been applied, the cloth is made completely dry, and washed in water, till the thickening matter, and those parts of the mordants uncombined with the cloth, are removed. After this Uie cloth is rinsed in clean water. It is then dip- ped in the dye liquor, by which the whole is dyed. The parts which have been impregna- ted in the mordants receive a brighter colour than those which have not. The colour of th« CAL (brmer is permanent, but that of the latter is dischareed by repeated washing. CALIPH, in the ^Vrabic Khalifa, which signifies successor. A title assumed by the successors of Mahomet, who reigned in Beig- dad. CALKERS. Persons employed in calking vessels; that is, driving oakum and other things into the seams of vessels to keep out the water. CALL. An artificial pipe made to catch quails ; also, a sea term for a whistle or pipe used in cedling the sailors to their duty. CALOMEL. Mercury well pounded with sulphur ; it is also called a muriate of mer- cury. CALORIC. The name given in chjmaistry to that agent which produces the phenomena of heat and combustion. It is hypothetically regarded as a subtile fluid, the particles of which repel one another, and are attracted by all other substances. It is ponderable, and, by its distribution in various proportions, among the particles of matter, gives rise to three gene- ral forms of gas, liquids, and solids. The par- ticles of water, by losing caloric, have their co- hesion so much increased, that they assume the solid form of ice ; by adding caloric they again become fluid; and by a still further ad- dition, they are converted into vapour. Calo- ric exists in different states — free or uncom- bined, and in a state of combination. In the former condition, it creates the sensation of heat, and produces expansion in other bodies. The power which it has of exciting the sensa- tion of heat, and occasioning expansion, is un- derstood by the expression of its temperature. This is supposed to vary with the given quan- tity of free caloric in a given quantity of mat- ter ; a high temperature being ascribed to the presence of a large quantity of free caloric, and a low temperature to that of a small qucmtity. We are ignorant, however, of the extremities of temperature, and may compare it to a chain, ef which a few of the middle links only are exposed to our observation, while its extremi- ties are concealed from our view. With re- gard to combined caloric, it has been shown, that solids, during liquefaction, imbibe a quan- tity of caloric, which ceases to be obvious both to our senses and the thermometer. The same is also true of solids and liquids in their conversion into vapours and gases ; a portion of caloric, which is essential to the elasticity of the product, ceases to become apparent When- ever this effect takes place, cold is said to be produced ; by which we are only to under- stand the pas^e of caloric from a free to a latent form. The sources of caloric are six, viz. the sun's rays, combustion, percussion, friction, the mixture of different substances, and electricity. CALORIMETER. An instrument to mea- sure the capacity of a body for caloric, or its specific caloric. The thermometer measures CAM 77 merely ttie variations of temperature, or sensi- He heat The body in the calorimeter ia placed in the innermost of three concentric vessels, the two outer ones containing ice ; the quantity of water produced by the cooling of the body at a given number of degrees, deter- mines its spec&c caloric. CALVARY. The name of a cross in He- raldry, as it is borne in coats of arms. It is so called because it resembles the cross on which our Saviour suffered. CALUMET. An Indian pipe, which was otherwise called the Pipe of Peace, because it served the bearer as a pass or safe conduct among the neighbouring tribes of Indisms. It was very similar to the caduceus, or Mercu- ry's wand, of the ancients. CALX. A fine powder remaining after the calcination of metals and other mineral sub- stances ; also, another name for lime. CALYCANTHEMA. The 17th practical Linnsean order of plants, the corolla and sta- mina inserted in the calyx. CALYCIFLORiE. The sixteenth natural order of plants in the Linnaean system, com- prehending those plants which nave only a calyx, in which the stamina are inserted. CALYPTRA. The tender skin in mosses that loosely covers the top of the theca, like a cup. CALYX. A general name for the cup of n flower, or that part of a plemt which svu'rounds and supports the other parts of a flower. CAMBERED. A sea term applied to a deck, the flooring of which is highest in the middle. CAMBRIC. A sort of very fine white linen, made of flax. CAMEL. A quadruped called Arabian, or Dromedary, when he has a single bunch, and Bactrian, when two bunches, on his back. They are common over the greater part of Af- rica and Asia Minor, and are exceedingly use- ful as beasts of burden in traversing the sandy deserts and mountainous districts of those countries, being very sure footed, and capable of carrying from 1200 to 1500 lbs. weight, and enduring great abstinence both of food and wa- ter ; part of their hair is also very valuaUe. 78 CAM CAM CAMELEOPARD, or Giraffe. A na- tive of South Africa, usually 16 or 17 feet high, and named from its resemblance to a camel and a panther. These animals are ex- ceedingly docile, and delicate in constitution. In 1S27, the Bey of Tunis sent two as presents to the kings of France and of England. The one in Prance is kept at the Jardin des Plan- ies at Paris, and attended with great care ; the one to England was sent to Windsor, where the climate seemed unfavourable for it. CAMEO. A sort of onyx stone, having va- rious figures upon it ; in Natural History, a Bort of pellucid gem. CAMERA LUCIDA. An optical instru- ment invented by Dr. Hook, for the purpose of making the image of any object appear on the wall in a light room, either by day or night. This name has since been applied to an instru- ment invented by Dr. Wollaston, for drawing objects in true perspective. CAMERA OBSCURA. An optical machine or apparatus, representing an artificial eye, by which the images of external objects, received through a double convex glass, are shown distinctly, and in their native colours. CAMLET. A sort of stuff originally made of camel's hair and silk mixed, but now of wool and silk. CAMP. The spot of ground where an army rests and intrenches it=5elf CAMPAIGN. The space of time during tt'hich an army is kept in the field. jCAMPAN ACE.'E. One of Linnaus's na- tural order of flowers, including those thot are bellshaped, as the campanula, convolvulus, &c. CAMPANULA, or Bell Flower. A sort of plants, mostly perennials, and bearing a bell-shaped flower. CAMPHOR. A white concrete crystalline substance, of an acrid bitter taste, and a pene- trating smell. It was formerly supposed to be a resin which was procured from a tree, much like a walnut tree, growing in Borneo, and thence called the camphor tree ; but modern chymists consider it to be a peculiar substance not to be classed either with the oils or the re- sins. It is procured from the volatile oil of several plants, as rosemaiy, sage, lavender, &c. CAN. A drinking vessel ; particularly that used by sailors. CANADA BALSAM. A transparent re- sinous juice, of an agreeable smell, and a warm pungent taste. It is imported from Canada, m North America. CANADIAN LYNX. An animal twice the size of a cat, of a bright bay colour, with dusky spots. CANAL. An artificial river, provided with locks and sluices, and sustained by banks and mounds, to afford an easy, speedy, and cheap conveyance of goods, &c. in boats and vessels, from one part of a country to another. Egypt has been celebrated for its canals from the earliest periods of authentic history. The Chinese have a more extensive inland naviga- tion, than any other nation, if not greater than that of all other nations. All the European nations have opened numerous and extended canals since the 17th century. Great Britain has great investments in canal stock. Thougli the United States had done little for inland navigation 15 years ago, they have done won- ders since. The Erie or Western Canal, 365 miles in length, connecting the Hudson rivei-, at Albany, with lake Erie, is one of the noblest works of art ; it was commenced on the 4th of July, 1817, and completed Oct. 26, 1825, and cost about seven millions of dollars. The Chesapeake and Delaware canal, and others, completed or commenced, amount to about 2500 miloB in all, and strongly attest the enter- CAN CAN 79 prise of this nation. The engraving repre-jthe sugai", and grows freely in the East and amtB a section of tlie western canal and the] West Indies. The skin of the sugar cane is aqueduct at Rochester. m I 1 M ;:*.;iVK| iD '. m f m CANARY-BIRD. An el^ant yellow bird much bred in England smd tl^ United States ; brought, originally, from the Canary Islands, where it is of a wliite colour. CANCEai, the Crab (in Astronomy.) A constellation, and the fourth sign in the zodiac, marked thus £oj w^hich the sun enters on the twenty-first of June, thence called the sununer Bolstice. CANCER, Tropic of. A small circle of the sphere, parallel to the equator, and passing through the beginning of Cancer. CANCER (in Medicine.) A hard ulcerous and exceedingly painful swelling, and general ly seated in the glandulous part of the body, CANDLE. A long roll or cylinder made of tallow, wnx, or spermaceti, in which is in eerted a wick of cotton or rush, for the purpose of bmning. CANDLEMAS DAY. The festi^'al ob- served on the second of February, in com memoration of the purification of ths Virgin Mary. CANDT. A preparation of sugar made by mdting and crystallizing it several times. CANDYTUFT. An annual that is cultiva ted in gardens, bearmg a white or purple flower. CANE. A kind of strong Indian reed, used for walking stkks ; also the plant which yields isoft, and the spongy matter or piA it contains, 'very juicy. CANE (in Commerce.) A long measure of different dimensions in different countries, from two to five ysirds. CANIS (in Astronomy.) The name of two constellations in the southern hemisphere j namely, Canis Major jmd Canis Minor. CANKER. A cancerous affection which- occurs frequently in fruit trees ; also a fimgoua excrescence in the feet of horses. CANNIBAL. A man eater. CANNON. A piece of ordnance, or a great gun for a battery, which is mounted on a car- riage : the principal parts of a cannon are Uie muzzle, or mouth, the entrance of the bore or tlie hollow part which receives the charge ;- the chase, or the whole space from the muzzle to the trunnions ; the trunnions, or two solid? cylindrical pieces of metal, which project from the piece, and by which it is supported on the carriage ; the vent, which in small fire-arms is called thetouchhole, a small hole pierced at the end of the bore or chamber, for the purpose of priming the piece witli powder, or to introduce the tub^ in order, when lighted, to set fire to the charge ; the chamber, that part of the bore or hollow of the piece where the powder is lodged which forms the charge ; the breech, tlie solid piece behind, the hindermost part of which is called the cascabel. That part next to the breech is called the reihforce, which is made stronger to resist the force of the pow- der. The ornaments of a cemnon are the muzzle astragal and fillets, the chase astragal and fillets, the reinforce ring, and the breech mouldings. According to the sized ball which they will explode, they are called 6, 12, or 43 pounders. The first cannon was used in 1304, on the coast of Denmaik. CANO E. A light boat formed of the trunk or bark of a tree ; xjsed mostly by the Indiana 80 CAP CAP CANON. A law or ordnance of the chtirch. The Canon Law consists of rules drawn from Scripture, from the writings of the ancient fa- thers, from the ordinances of councils, and the decrees of the pope. CANON. A dignity in a cathedral church* CANON OP SCRIPTURE. That body of books of the Holy Scripture which serves for a rule of faith and practice. CANONIZATION. The act of enrolling any one among the number of the saints, which is the practice of the Romish church, and performed by the pope. CANOPIS (in Astronomy.) A bright star of the first magnitude, in the rudder of the Bhip Argo. CANTATA. A piece of music for one, two, or more voices, chiefly intended for a single voice with a thorough bass. CANTEEN. A suttling house for both officers and men ; also a small vessel of tin plate or wood, in which soldiers on their march carry their liquor. CANTERBURY-BELL. A fine flower much cultivated in gardens. The plant is biennial, and tlie flower is white or blue, and of an oblong figure. CANTHARIDES, or Spanish Flies. This fly is nine or ten lines in length, of a shining green colour, mixed with azure, and has a nauseous smell. It feeds upon the leaves of trees and shrubs, preferring the ash. These flies, when bruised, are universally used as a vesicatory, or blistering plaster. The largest come from Italy, but the best from Spain. CANTON. A division or small parcel of a country, such as the cantons of Switzerland. CANTON (in Heraldry.) An ordinary, so called because it occupies but a cantel or cor- ner of the escutcheon. CANVAS, or CANVASS. The cloth on which painters usually draw their pictures ; and also that of which the sails of vessels are made ; also, the examination of the votes given at an election. CAP. In general, any covering for the head ; sometimes of a particular make, as a cardi- nal's cap. CAP. The name of several things similar in figure or use, as the cap of a great gun, a piece of lead laid over the touchhole ; the cap in a ship, the square piece of timber placed over the head of a mast. . CAP (in Architecture.) The upperinqsl part of any member, as the capital of a co lumn, the cornice of a door, «S;c. CAP OP MAINTENANCE (in Herald- ry.) One of the regalia or ornaments of state, carried before the king of Great Britain at tho coronation and other great solemnities. CAPE (in Geogi-aphy.) A promontory or headland projecting into the sea farther than the rest of the coast, as the Cape of Good Hope, Cape St. Vincent, &c. CAPELLA. A star of the first magnitude in Auriga. CAPER-BUSH. A shrub or tree, the bud or flower of which is converted into a pickle called caper. CAPILLAIRE. This pleasant syrup is much used in the West Indies, when mixed with water, to allay thirst, and ought to be generally introduced into this country during warm weather, instead of brandy, or spirits and water. To make the syrup, put 1 oz. of the leaves of capillaire, (adiantum pedatum, or maiden- hair) into a pint of boiling water ; pour the water off" in a minute or two, and after gently stewing them, at least twelve hours, rub them through a sieve, and mix them vpith sugar, prepared in the following manner : Put a pound of sugar into half a pint of water, boil and skim it well, let it boil till upon dipping a silver spoon first into water, and then into the sugar, and into cold water again, the sugcir which remains on the spoon may be broken off clear ; add to this the water which the leaves were put into, and put it in au earthen pan over hot coals, covered up close — care must be taken to have the heat always equal for three days, and not too great, or it will burn. Take some of this syrup between your fingers, and in drawing them apart, if a thread be formed which cannot be easily broken, it has been sufficiently done ; then add the capillaire as before directed, and put it into bottles, which must not be corked till quite cold. CAPILLARY. An epithet for what is as fine as a hair. Capillary tubes are pipes of tlie fineness of a hair, by which various phe- nomena in physics and hydrostatics are dis- played. Capillary vessels, in Anatomy, the smallest and extreme parts of the minutest ramifications of the veins and arteries. One of the most singular phenomena of these tubes is, that if you take several of them of diffe- rent sizes, open at both ends, and immerse them a little way into water, or any other fluid, it will immediately rise in the tubes to a con- siderable height above the surface of that into which they are immereed ; these heights vary- ing in nearly a reciprocal proportion of the diameters ; the greatest, according to Dr. Hook, being about 21 inches, CAPITAL. The chief or head of a thing. CAPITAL (in Geography.) The eeat of government. 4^ CAP CAPITAL (in Architecture) The uppor- moei part of a column, serving as the head. CAPITAL (in Priutin^.) The large letters, which serve as initials, or m titles. CAPITAL (in Commerce.) The stock or ftmd of a trading company. CAPITOL. A femous fort or castle on the Mons Capitolinus at Rome, wherein was a temple dedicated tn Jupiter. CAPITOL. The building in which the legislature of a state or nation assemUe for public business. The engraving represents the Capitol of the United States, erected for the accommodation of Congress. It is built of white free-stone, and is tie most magnifi- cent edifice in the United States. The princi- pal building is 340 feet by 120, with two pro- jections, one 1 70 feet by 65, the other, 170 feet by 83. It is surrounded by an elegant iron paling, which encloses 20 acres of ground, planted with various kinds of trees and shrubs. It cost $3,000,000. CAR 81 CAPRICORN, Tropic or. A small circle of the sphere, parallel to the equinoctial, pass- ing through the beginning of Capricorn or the winter solstice, which is the sun's greotest southern declination, namely, 23 degrees and a half CAPSICUM. A plant, native of Sou»Ji America, the fruit of which is a pod, and the strongest kind of pepper, known by the name of Cayenne P^per. CAPSTAN. A large piece of timber resem- bling a windlass, plat^ behind the mainmast. It is a cylinder with levers, used to wdgh anchors, to hoist up or strike down topmast*, CAPITULATION. A treaty between the l^esieged and the besiegers of any place, whereby the former surrender it and them- selves on certain conditions. CAPIVI. A tree of Brazil, the flower of which resembles a rose. It grows to the height of sixty feet CAPRICORN. A southern constellation, and one of the twelve signs of the zodiac, which the Kim enters on the 21st of December. It is marked thus, V?. L CAI^TAIN. A cwnmander of a company of foot or a troop of horse ; and in the naval or merchEUit service, the commander of a ves- sel : also, in grammar schools, the bead boy of his class. CAPTION (in Law.) The act of taking any person by any judicieJ process. CAPUCaiN. An order of Franciscan monks in the Romish church, so called from their capnch or hood sewed to their habits. CAPUT MORTUUM. The uiert residuum of any bod}', remaining after all the volatile and humid parts have been extracted. CAR. A small carriage of burden, drawn by one or two horses. CARABINE, or CARBINE. A sort of short gun, between a musket and a pisto^ having its barrel two feet and a half long. CARACT, or CARAT. The weight of 24 grains ; or one scruple 24 carats make one ounce. This is the standard weight by which the fineness of gold is distinguished. If the gold be so fine tliat, in purifying, it loses nothing, or but very little, it is said to be gold of 24 carats ; if it lose h\^ applied to animak that feed on fl«sh. 84 CAR CAS CAROTID-S, Two arteries in the neck, intended to represent the Carian women wlio •which convey tlie blood from the aorta to the brain. CARP. A fresh- water fieh fitted for stock- ing ponds, as it spawns three times a year. CARPENTER'S RULE. A tool gene- rally used in taking dimensions, and casting n[) the contents of "timber and ihe artificer's ■work. CARPENTRY. The art of cutting, framing, and joining large pieces of wood, for the uses of building : it is subservient to architecture, and is divided into House Carpentry and Ship Carpentry. Carpentry differs from join- ing only inasmuch as the work is coarser, lar- ger, and not so curious. CARPET. A sort of stuff wrought either with the needle or the loom, and used as a covering for the floor. Persian and Turkish carpets are most in esteem. CARRIAGE. In general, a vehicle for car- rying goods and persons ; in Gunnery, the machine upon which the gun is mounted; in Carpentry, the frame of timber- work which supports the steps of wooden stairs. CARRIERS. All persons carrying goods for hire ; also, a soit of pigeons that are used in conveying letters to a distance. CARROT. A fleshy root, cultivated as a garden vegetable. CART. A common vehicle on two wheels, used for transporting goods. CARTE BLANCHE. A blank paper, de- livered to a person to be filled up as he pleases ; applied generally in the sense of unlimited terms granted to a person. CARTEL. An agreement between two states at war for the exchange of prisoners. CARTILAGE. A part of the animal body, harder and drier than a ligament, and softer than a bone ; its use is to render the ai'ticula- lion of the bones more easv. CARTILAGINOUS Wishes. Tha«!e hav- ing cartilaginous instead of bony skeletons. CARTOON. A design made on strong paper, to be afterwards calked through, and transferred to the fresh plaster of a wall to be painted in fresco, such as the famous cartoons of Raphael. CARTOUCH. A case of wood holding about four hundred musket balls, besides iron balls, from six to ten, to be fired out of a how- itzer. CARTOUCHES. Blocks or modillions used in the cornices of wainsrx)ted apartments ; also, ornaments representing a scroll of paper. CARTRIDGE. A case of paper or parch- ment filled with gunpowder, and used in the charging of guns. were taken captives by the Athenians. CARYOPHYLLJE. A natural order of plants consisting of such as have pinklike flowers. CASE. Any outside covering which serves to enclose a thing entirely, as packing cases or knife cases ; in Carpentry, the case of a door is the wooden frame, in which it is hung ; in Printing, it is a frameof wood, with numerous small partitions for the letters. CASE (in Grammar.) An accident of nouns which have different inflexions or termina- tions. CASE-HARDENING. A method of pre- Earing iron, so as to render its outer surface ard, and capable of resisting any edged tool. CASEMENT. A window that opens on hinges. CASE-SHOT. Musket balls, stones, oW iron, &c. put into cases and shot out of great guns. CASH. Ready money, distinguished from bills. CASHEW-NUT. The fruit of the cashew, that abounds in Jamaica and Barbadoes. From this nut is expressed a juice that is made into a pleasant wina CASHIER. The keeper of the cash or money, which it is his business to receive and ^^SaSHIERS op THE BANK. Officers of the bank who sign the notes that are issued out, and examine and mark them when they are returned. CASHIERING. A dishonourable dismissal of an officer or soldier from the service of a government. CASHMERE. A light kmd of cloth, made of the very fine wool procured from a sort of CARVEL. A small ship or fly-boat. I goat that abounds in Cashmere, a country of C ARVI NG. The art of cutting wood into Thibet, various forms and figures. CASSAVI. An American tree, Ijearing a CARYATIDES. A sort of columns or pil- bell-shaped flower. Its roots, when dried and lers shaped like the bodies of women, and in ground to flour, was converted into bread by the dress of the Carian people. The)' were the original inhabitants. CAT CASSU FISTULA, or Pcddixg Pipe TuEK. Atwt large tree, a native of Afcxan- Aia and the West Lm&b, which bears a long erican8. CASSOCK. A vestment worn by clergy- men undar their gowns. CASSOWARY. A large bird of prey. CAST. The name <^ figures or small { toes in bronze. CASTEl The name of difierent tribes in Hindostan, of which the Brahmins is the BUBtnoUe. CASTING (among Sculptors.) The tak- ing of casts (N- impressions of figures, basts, &c ; in a Foundcry, the running c^mcials in- to any mould prepared for this purpoEC. CAST IRON. The iron as it is extracted from the o res by means of casting. CASTUa. A fortrres or place rendered de- fensible by nature and art Castles being an emblem « grandeur, are frequently borne in coats of arms. CASTOR, A soft, grayish yellow substanoe, found in the hags of the beaver, near its groin. In a warm air, the castor grows by degrees hard, brittle, and rfa daik coloar. CAT. A wdl known animal nearly allied to the tiger, is eitho- domestic or wild The wild or moimtain cat is bom« in coats of arms CAT 86 m «i emblem of liberty, v^ilanc^ and fan- CAT. A sea tenn far ash^ iBoaUy em- jdovcd in the ooal trade ; alao^ a sortof strong tadde for drawing up tbe anchor; also, a mili- tary term (or a kind of shed mider which soldiers ccmeeal themsdves while filling up a ditch or mining a walL CATACOMBS. Grottoes or subterraneous places for the burial of the dead, frequently found in Egy^ and in Italy. CATALOGUE. A list of books or any other matters, arranged in order, &>r purposes of sale or referoioe. CATAMARAN. A sort of floating raft ori- ginally used in China as a fighing boaL CATARACT. Anc^ncity oftLeoystalline lens c^ the eye, or an c^Mii^ie pellide^ which covers the papil, causing Mindnfiw. A fall of water, as that of Niagara. CATCH (in Music.) A dioit and hmnoor- ons song ; also, a sea term for a swift-sailing vesseL CATCH-FLY. A plant much cultivated in gardens, having grass-like leaver and a long stalk terminated 1^ a dustor <^ arimson flow- ers. CATECHISM. A system of instnictinn, conveyed in questions and answers. CATEXDHU. A juice of a very astringent quality, pressed from out of several Indian fruits. CATECHUMENS. A name fwmerly given in the Christian church, to such as were prepared to receive the wdinance of CATEGORY (in Logic) A name for the predicates or attributes contained under any goras, of which Aristotle reckons ten, namdy, substauice, quantity, quality, relation, acting, miBEains. time, place, sittuuion, and habit. CATENARY. A curve or a crooked line firmed W a rope when hanging. CATf^lER. A provider of victoals and CATERPILLAR. The larva produced from the ees, which is transformed first into tlie or nymph, and afterwards into tbt 86 CAT CATGUT. A name for the strings made of the intestines of sheep or lambs, and used in musical instruments, tic CATHEADS. Two strong beams of tim- ber in a vessel which serve to suspend the an- chor clear of the bow. CATHEDRAL. The episcopal church, or a church where is a bishop's seat or see. CATHERINE WHEEL (in Architec- ture.) A large circular ornament in Gotliic windows. CATHERINE WHEEL (in Fire Works.) An arrangement of tubes in the periphery of a circle, the re-action of the burning of which, a^nst the air, occasions the wheel to revolve Wth a pleasing effect CATHOLIC. An epithet properly signify- ing universal, which the Romish church as- sumes to itself as its title ; whence the name of Roman Cathohcs has been applied, since the Reformation, to the folio weiB of the Romish doctrine and discipline. CATHOLIC KING. The title of the king of Spain. CATHOLIC PRIEST. A clergyman or priest ordained to say mass and administer the sacraments, &c. according to the rites of the Romish Church, and dressed as represented in the engraving. CATKIN, or Ament (in Botany.) A long Btem thickly covered with scales, under which are the flowers and the essential parts of the fruit, which is so called from its resemblance to a cat's tail. Catkins are to be found on the hazel, willow, &c CAT'S EYE (in Mineralogy.) A stone of a glistening gray, \nth a tinge of green, yel- low, or white. CAY CAT'STAIL GRASS. A kin J of reed, bearing a spike, like the tail of a cat. CATTLE. Horned beasts, that feed in pas- ture, or generally all four-footed beasts, that serve for domestic purposes. CAVALCADE. A pompous procession of horses and carriages, &c. CAVALIER. A horseman ; a person mounted on a horse, or expert in horseman- ship ; in Fortification, a work raised withiA the body of a place, above the other works. CAVERN. A natural cavity in the earth, arising either from arches accidentally made, or from streams of water floAving under ground. The most remarkable is that in Kentucky, call- ed the Mammoth Cave. Among caverns of celebrity, that of Antiparos, that of Crete, and those of the Peak in Derbyshire, may be named. CAVETTO (in Architecture.) A concave moulding, the curvature of whose section does not exceed the quadrant of a circle. CAVIAR. A species of food chiefly im- ported from Russia : it is made of the hard rocs of tlie sturgeon, formed into small cakes, about an inch thick, and three or four inches in breadth ; but sometimes the whole is loose- ly packed up in small kegs. It is prepared by taking all the nerves or strings out of tlie spawn, washing it in white wine vinegar, or spreading it on a table, then salting and pressing it in a fine bag ; after which it is put into a vessel perforated at the bottom, to allow the moisture to run out, if any should re- main. As the sturgeon abounds in the rivers of the United States, caviar might be easily made in immense quantities. CAUL. A membrane in the abdomen, which serves to cover the intestines. CAULIFLOWER. The finest sort of cab- bage, with a seeded head. CAUSE. That which produces eflfects, or something which follows. It may be either a proximate or a remote caiise. Much has been said and written of cause and effect in physics, and yet the infant capacities of man on earth are too contracted to grasp much of a subject so deep. C AUSE W A Y, or CAUSEY. A path raised above the level of the ground, and paved with stones or gravel. CAUSTIC CURVE* A curve formed by the concourse or coincidteice of the rays of light reflected or refracted from any other curve. CAUSTICS. Medicines which, when ap- plied to any part of Uie body, bum it to a hard crust. CAUTERY. Any burning application. CAYENNE PEPPER. A>owder prepared from the pods of several sprjcies of the capsicum, which originallv came from Cayenne, but is now brought from both the Indies. This powerful spice is much esteemed for its fla- vour, and the qualitv it is supposed to po»- GEN ■as, of promoting the digiestioa of 6^ and other articles of strong fcod. CAYMAN. Tl»e American alligator. CEDAR. A well known evererreen, very like the juniper in appearance, which delights in cold mountainous places. The leaves are much narrower than those of the pine tree, and tlie seeds are produced in large cones. CEILING. The inside of die roof or top of an apartment in distinction from the surface of a floor. CELERY. A smt of parsley, moch used as a winter salad. CELESTIAL. In theok^, relating to the abodes of die blessed. In astronomy, cekstial is applied to the visible heavens, particularly the starry firmament. CELESTIAL GLOBE. An artificial re- presentation of the heavens. CELL. The apartment or chamber of a monk or nan ; also, a small close apartment in a prison. CELLAR. A place commonly under ground, which serves as a store-room. CELLS (in Anatomy.) B:^ or bladders who-e fluids are lodged ; in Boteny, the parti- tions in (he bosks or pods of plants, where the seeds are lodged. CELLULAR MEMBRANE. One of the largest membranes in the human body, of a Taacalar texture, fitted for holding the fat CEMENT. A plastic substance, which, when dry or cold, so coheres as to join sur- &ce8 of other bodies together. CEMETERY. A repository for the dead. CEN.SOR. A magistrate among the Romans, who valued and ta^d msa's estates, and abo punislied any acts of immorali^. CENSORS. In modem times, persons of learning, appointed to examine all books before thev go to press, and to see that they contain notoing contrary to good morals. CENT. An abbreviation, in commeroe, for centom, a hundred, as five per o^iL ; that, is, ^ve poiindg interest, discount, or profit, upon ' every hundred; also, a coin of the United Spates. CENTAURUa One of the forty ^iglit c: . consieUations in the southern hemisphere. CENTRE. The middle point of any thing, especially of a circle or sphere. CENtRE>BIT. A carpenter's tool, which' CEN S7 Hudces a cyliodi ical excavation by turning en an axis or centre^ CENTRE OP GRAVITY. A point in a' body firom which, if that body could be sus- pended, the whole body would remain at rest, (with respect to its tendeut^ to the earth,) ia whatever respective position the surrounding parts may be turned. Thus, the centre of gravity of a globe is its oxmnon centre, and that of a balanted beam is the pivot on which it turns. Hence;, as in the engraving, when the centre of the mass is within the perpendicu- lar of the wheels^ it es not yield ; but if so inclined as that the perpendicular from the centre &Us beyond the whiaels, then the centre falls, and thecairiage is overset. In cases of danger, tboefore, as in a boat or carriage, the object shoidd be to lower the centre of the mass by lyii^ down. CENTRIFUGAL FORCE. That by which the parts of a body moving round a centre, eideavcur to recede from the centre. Thus, if a strnie be tied to one end of a string, and swung round in a cirde, while the other end of the string is hdd by the hand, as the centre of motion, the stone will be felt pulling the hand, as if* endeavouring to escape ; and, in fact, if allowed, would fly off in a tangent to the circle in which it moves. It is thus that a stone is projected from a sline. CENTRIPETAL FORCE. That force by which a I'ody is perpetually urged onward to ' i ihprebj'^ made to revolve in a curve licrht line. > - L RION. A military officer among ilie Romans, who had the command of a bun* dredmen. CENTITRY. A period of 100 yews com- utencing with the year I, and ending wkb the CHA CHA decimal completion, Dec. 31, I900> being the last day of the present, or 19th century, since the birth of Christ. CERATE. Wax combined with oil. CEREBELLUM. The part of the brain in the back of the skuU, divided into two lobes. CEREBRUM. The large part of the brain which occupies the front and top of the skull, divided into three lobes, and of two colours. CERECLOTH. Cloth smeared over with glutinous matter. CERES (in Heathen Mythology.) The daughter of Satiorn and Vesta, and goddess of corn and fruits. She first taught men the art of cultivating the ground. CERES. A small planet which revolves round the sun in four years, seven months, and ten days, at the distance of 260,000,000 of miles. CERTAINTY. The intellectual conviction that a proposition is true; as mathematical, when demonstrated; moral, when founded on the testimony of others ; physical, when derived from the senses, or the regular course of nature; or theological, when founded on faith in the divine testimony respecting reli- gious doctrine. CERIUM. A new metal obtained from Sweden, of a flesh-red colour, semitransparent, becomes friable from heat, but does not melt. CERTIFICATE. A testimony given in wi-iting to declare or certify the truth of any thing. CERUMEN. The viscid yellow liquid which flows from the ear, and hardens on ex- posure to the air. CERUS, or White Lead. A sort of calx of lead, made by exposing plates of tliat metal to the vapour of vinegar. CETACEOUS. A class of fishes, whose structure resembles that of quadrupeds; but to retain their heat in the water, they are sur- rounded by a thick coat of fat or blubber. They suckle their young like land animals. CETERIS PARIBUS. Other things alike. CETE. An order of animals in the Lin- naecm system, including such as have breath- ing apertures on the head, tail horizontal, and pectoral fins instead of feet ; as the dolphin, porpoise, and grampus, &c. CHAFF. The husks of corn when thrash- ed and separated from the grain. CHAFFINCH. A bird so called because it delights in eating chaff. It sings very prettily. CHAGRIN. Ill humour, vexation. CHAIN (in Surveying.) An instrument of which tliere are three different^ kinds, but that which is most commonly employed for this purpose, is the Center Chain, so called from the name of the inventor. Tliis chain is 4 poles, or 66 feet Icmg, and is divided into 100 square lengths or links, each link being 7,72 inches in length. 1 square chain = 10,000 links = 16 poles; 10 square chains = 100,000 links = 160 poles =: 1 acre. CHAIN. A series of rings or links fitted into one another. Chains are made of various metals, sizes, and forms, suited to different purposes. CHAIN-BOAT. A sea term for a large boat fitted for getting up moving chains, ein- chors, &c. CHAIN-SHOT. Two balls with a chain betwreen them. They are used at sea for cut- ting the shrouds and rigging of a ship. CHALCEDONY. A sort of agate or onyx stone. CHALDRON. A dry measure, consisting of 36 bushels. CHALICE. The communion cup used at the sacrament of the eucharist CHALK. A kind of white fossil, containing a litde siliceous earth, and sometimes a small portion of iron. Black chalk, or drawing slate, IS a gray or bluish-black mineral, that is massive; the fracture glimmering and slaty. CHALLENGEl In general, a summons to fight, whether in a duel or in a pugilistic con- test ; in Law, an exception against j uror s made by the party put on his trial. CHALYBEATE. An epithet for waters in which iron forms the principal ingredient- CHAM. The title of the cmpa'or or sove- reign of Tartaiy. fiHAM^ELEON, or CHAMELEON. A quadruped of the lizard tribe, that was origi- nally supposed to live on air, but is now known to live on flies, whicli it catches with its tongue. Its most remarkable characteristic is, that it adsuraes the colom- of the thing to which it is CHA CHA . appliea, oui its natural colour in inc * ■no at rest, is said to be a bluish gray. )lied, but its natural colour in the shade, [judge of a court of chancery or equity e«tal> flifihed by statute. CHANCERY. A court of equity to which appeals may be made from the higher conns of law. Though intended to remedy e\'il3, the expense and delay attending its decisions, in England, detract much from its ntilit}'. CHANCES, DocTBiKE or. A branch of modem mathematics, which treats of the pro- babilities of certain events taking place. CHANNEL. The middle or deepest part of any sea ; also a strait or narrow sea between two lands. CHANTRY. A Roman callioUc chapel an- ciently joined to some cathedral or parish, where mass used to be said daily for the souls of the founders. CHAOS. A dark and rude mass of matter, out of which the heathen philosophers suppos- ed the world was formed. CHAPEL. A smaller kind of church, which, being built for the convenience of die parish church, is denominated a chapel of ease. CHAPERON. A hood or cap, particularly that worn by the knights of the garter. CHAPLAIN. In Europe, one who offici- ates as clergyman for prayers eujd preaching in families of royalty and rank. In the Uni- ted States, the name is confined almost exclu- sively to those who officiate in the haUs of legislation, or in the army and navy. CHAPLET. A wreath or garland worn about the head. Chaplets are borne in coats CHAMBER (in Gunnery.) That part of af mortar or great gun, as far as the powder and shot reach when it is loaded. CHAMBER (in Law.) A coiu-t ; in Com- merce, a room set apart for mercantile busi- ness. CHAMBER OP A MINE. The place wha'ethe powder is confined, that is to be used for Wowing up the works. CHAMBERLAIN. An officer who has the care of any particular chamber or place, as the Lord Great Chamberlain of England, a great officCT of state, to whom belongs the govern ment of the palace at Westminster ; the Cham berlain of London, who receives the rents of of arms, as trophies or ensigns of military the city, and deposites them in the chamber or treasury of London. * CHAMBERS. Rooms or apartments be- longing to the inns of court ; in Anatomy, two spaces between the crystalline lens and the cornea of the eye, divided off by the iris, CHAMOIS, or, The Wild Goat, which inhabits the Alpine mountains, having horns erect, round, and smooth. See Gazelle. CHLAMOMILEl. An odoriferous plant, which has a very bitter taste, but many medi- cinal virtues. CHAMPAGNE. A fine French wine, so called from Chjunpagne, a former province of France. CHAMPION (in Law.) The combatant who undertook to fight in the trial by battel, formerly in use. CHANCE-MEDLEY (in Law.) The ac- cidental killing of a man, not without the fault of the killer, but without any evil intent CHANCEL. That part of a church be- tween the altar and communion table, and the rails or balustrade by which it is enclosed. CHANCELLOR. In England, an officer of state, known by the tide of the Lord High Chancellor of England, and the chief person next to the sovereign in the administration of justice; tlie Chancellor of the Exchequer is an officer who has the principal management of the king's revenue. In the Uaiicd Smtes, a M I prowess. CHAPTER (in Law.^ A body of the clergy belonging to a cathedral, collegiate, or conventual church ; also, the place of their meeting. CHARACTER Any mark which serves as a sign to denote some particular object, as the astronomical duuracters, mathematical characters, &c. CHARADE. A sort of riddle, the subjert of which is a word of one or two syllables. CHARCOAL. The substance from wood half burnt, which is much used in the manu- facture of gimpowder. CHAREWOMAN, or CHARWOMAN. A woman who goes out by the day to job. CHARGE (in Law.) The instructions given by the judge to the grand jury ; in Ecclesiastical Law, the instructions given by a bishop to the clergy of his diocess. CHARGE (in Gunnery.) The quantity of powder and ball, or shot, with which a gun is loeided ; in Electricity, the accumula- tion of electric matter on one siu-face of an electric machhie ; in Heraldry, whatever is hotne on coats of arms ; in Painting, an ex- ^gerated representation of a person. CHARGE OP LEAD. A weight ctMi- sistingof 36 pigs, each pig containing 6 stons all but 2 lbs. CHARIOT. An ancient c«i in whieU 90 CHE armed men naed to ride to battle. They were furnished with scythes, hooks, and other offensive weapons. CHARMS. Incantations or verses used by magicians and sorcerers. CH ARR. A small fish of the salmon kind. CHARTER (in Law.) A writing or letter patent, wherebV privileges are granted. CHARTS. Draughts or descriptions of coasts; or, in general, projections of some parts of the sea m pleuas for the use of sailors. CHARYBDIS. A vortex or gulf at the entrance of the Sicilian straits, which is much celebrated by the ancient writers ; but its exact situation is not known in the present day. CHASSEURS. A select body of light in fantry in the French army. CHASTE-TREE. A tree growing to the height of eight or ten feet, having the leaves fingered like those of hemp. CHATEAU. Formerly a castle or baronial Beat in France, now simply a country seat. CHATTELS (in Law.) Personal goods. CHEKY (in Heraldry.) A term for the shield, or any part of it, when it is divided into cheques or squares. CHEEKS. A general name among me- chanics for pieces of timber in any machine, which are two of a kind. CHEESE. The coagulated part of milk, made vnih rennet, and constituting a branch of agriculture, called dairy farming, which is very extensive and profitable in England and the United States. CHEESECAKES. A sort of cakes made of curds, sugar, butter, &c. CHEESE- VAT. The case in which curds are pressed into the form of a cheese. CHEF-D'OEUVRE. A masterpiece or superior performance of any artist. CHELIDONIUM. There are two species of this genus indigenous in the United States. 1. C. Majus, greater, or Common Celandine. The juice of the plant is extremely acrid. It is a common remedy for warts, and it is said will cure the itch, tetters, and ring-worms. 2. C. Glaucium, Sea Celandine, yellow horned poppy. This plant is very ornamen- tal to sandy shores, but poisonous. CHEMISTRY. See Chymistry. CHERRY. The well known fruit of a tree which was introduced into Britain at CHE the time of the invasion of the island by the Romans, and from thence into the United States. CHERUB. A spirit, which in the celestial hierachy is placed next in order to the Sera- phim. CHERUBIM. The Hebrew plural of Cherub. CHERVIL. An umbelliferous plant, whoso leaves are divided into many segments. CHEISS. An ancient interesting and difficult game, calculated to teach the practice of rea- soning with acuteness. It is performed with little roimd pieces of ivory, on aboard divided into sixty-four squares. Each side has eight men, consisting of a king, queen, two knights, two bishops, and two rooks or castles, besides eight pawns or foot soldiers ; which are all moved according to certain rules. CHESS-BOARD. The board on which the game of chess is played. CHESS-ROOK. Another name for the castles which stand at the outer corners of the chess-board. CHEST (in Anatomy.) The breast, thorax, or that part of the human body which con- tedns the heart and lungs. CHESTNUT. A tree bearing a very fine nut of the same name, which is enclosed in a large prickly burr. CHEVALIER. Literally a knight or horseman, answering to the English cavalier. CHEVAUX DE PRISE (in Fortification.) A sort of turnpikes or tournequots, consisting of spars of wood set into a piece of timber, and armed with a short spike, so as to point all ways. They serve to stop up breaches. CHEVRON (in Heraldry.) One of the honourable ordinaries, representing two rafters of a house joined together in chief, Clfl Mch M carpenters set oa the higheet part of a house to support the nx£ ^*r -7 CHI 91 CHURO OBSCURO. See CtABO Ob- 8CUR0. CHIEF (in Heraldry.) One of the ho- nourable ordmaries, wmch occupies the head or upper part of the escutcheon. As the head m the chief part of a man, so is the ehief the principal peirt of the escutcheon, and contains a tUrd part of the field. die smoke. Various devices haye been tried to prevent the smoking of chimneys, as the carrying them up zigzag, or narrower at the top than at the bottom, and the like, which have all been found ineffectual It is now supposed that chimneys should be built as nearly perpendicular as possible, should be free from all roughness in the inside, and be a httle wider at me top than at the base. CHINESE! A native of the Chinese Ekn- pire, which is one of the most populous and extensive empires on the globe ; it embraces China, Thibet, Corea, and Chinese Tartary. One of its greatest curiosities is a wall ex- tending 1500 miles over rivers and moun- tains, from 20 to 30 feet in height, and suflS- ciently wide for six horsemen to ride side by side. It was built as a defence against the Tartars, and is said to have been completed 214 years before the Christian era. The Chinese are very ingenious, industrious, mild, and intelligent ; but in general timid, vain, artful, and jealous of stremgers. The capital is Pekin, which is surrounded by a wall 30 feet high, and 14 miles in circmiSe- rence ; it is the most populous city d the globe, containing 3,000,000 souls. CHIGRE. A species of flea, found only in warm countries, particuhu-ly in the West Indies, in dry and szmdy places. It is not odIt a troublesome but a dangerous insect, ■■ mey get on the feet of the negroes, and others who go bare-footed, and teing very small, they bury themselves under Ihe skin, where they lie until they grow big and lay their eggs, producing swellings and sores oxx the feet, winch sometimes mortify and cause CHIMJERA (in the Heathen Mythology.) A monster feigned to be like a hon in the fore part, a dragon behind, ^nd a goat in the middle. CHIMES OP A CLOCK. A particular apparatus by which the clock at certain times is enabled to play certain tunes. CHIxMNEY. That pert of a house which, by the means cf a funnel, serves to carry off CHINTZ. A fine Indian painted calico. CHIROMANCY. The pretended art of foreteUing a person's fortune by the lines in his hands. CHIVALRY, The name anciently given to knighthood, a military dignity ; also, the martial exploits and qucdifications of a knight Chivalry, as a military dignity, is suppwed by some to have taken its rise from the cru- sades, becaxise these expeditions gave rise to many chivalrous exploits and feats of arms ; but it is evident that its origin may be traced much higher, to the northern nations who settled in Europe on the decline of the Ro- man empire, wnose miutial habits and temper 92 CHR CHR led lliem to make valuiir and prowces the only Sources of hniioiir and distinction. CHIVES. A sort of small onions. CHLORINE, or Oxymuriatb acid Gas. It is by some considered as a com- pound, and by others, as a simple substance. It combines with carburetted hydrogen, and thereby exhibits the phenomena of combus- tion ; but will not support animal life. As it discharges colours, it is used as a bleaching liquid. Its specific gravity 2.4733. CHLORITES. A kind of green jasper, almost as pellucid as the coarse emerald. CHOCOLATE (in Commerce.) A kind of paste, prepared chiefly from the nut of the cocoa, with a mixture of other ingredients. CHOIR. That part of a cathedral where the service is performed. CHOKED AMP (in Mining.) The noxious air occasionally found at the bottom of mines. CHOKEPEAR. A very rough tasted pear. CHOLERA MORBUS. A disease &)nsist- ing of a violent perturbation in the bowels, accompanied with a discharge of bile up- wards and dow^nwards. CHORD (in Geometry.) A right line drawn from one part of an arc of a circle to another. CHORDS (in Music.) Strings, by the vibration of which the sensation of sound is excited. CHOROGRAPHY. A part of geography which treats of the description of particular countries. CHORUS. A company of persons all sing- ing in concert. CHOULTRY. An East Indian inn. CHRIST. Which properly signifies anointed, is the name of the ever blessed Redeemer of the world* CHRISTENDOM. The whole Christian world. CHRISTENING. The first ceremony of initiation into the Christian church. It is a terra particularly applied to the baptism of infants, in which the parents become an- nwerabls for the Christian education of the fcbild. CHRISTIAN. One who believea in the fundamental doctrines of Christianity, and whose life is habitually governed by its pre- cepts. CHRISTMAS. A festival observed in the Christian church on the twenty-fifth of De- cember, in commemoration of our Saviour's nativity. CHROMA. A soft kind of music, CHROMATICS. That part of optics which explains the several properties of light and colour. CHRONICAL. An epithet for diseases of long duration. CHRONOLOGY. The science which teaches the measures and divisions of time. The divisions of time are either natural or artificial ; the natural divisions of time are the year, month, week, day, and hour, dedu- ced from the motions of the heavenly bodies, and suited to the purposes of civil life ; tlie artificial divisions of time are the cycle or period, the epoch, and the era or epocha, which have been framed for the purposes of history. CHRONOLOGY, History of. Chro- nology, as regards the natural divisions of time, was doubtless coeval with the creation, for we learn from the sacred historian that the work of creation was performed within the period of a week, or seven days, whence this division was observed by the Hebrews, and from them ti-ansmitted to the Egyptians and other nations. But the Persians are said to have been ignorant of such a division. The Greeks had weeks of ten days, and the Romans weeks of eight days. It is evident from the names of the days of the week among most European nations, that we derive this division from the ancient Celts or Scy- thians, who, in all probability, at the disper- sion of mankind afi;er the deluge, borrowed this patriarchal mode of measuring time. The year is that division of time which was regulated by the motions of the sun, being that period of time in which the sun passea through the signs of the zodiac. This divi- sion was doubtless formed at the time that astronomical observations were first made ; but the Egyptians are the first people on record who formed this division, which they made to consist of 360 days, and sub- divided into 12 months of 30 days each ; to these Trismegistus is said to have added five more days. The ancient Jewish year waa the same as tlie Egyptian ; but on tlieir de- parture from Egypt they adopted the lunar year, consisting of 30 days and 29 days alternately, and in order to make it agree with the solar year, they sometimes added 11 or 12 days at the end of the year, and sometimes a whole month after a certain number of years. The Greeks also reckon- ed by the same kind of year. The ancient Roman year was also lunar, and at firrt con- CHR noted of 10 months of 30 and 31 days ; two UKMitbs were allerwaida added by Nunia Pompilius, which consisted of 29 and 31 days, making in die whole 355 days. Juhus Caesar first reformed the calendar, and adopted the solar year of 365 dajrs in the common year, with the addition of a day in every fourth year, called Bissextile, or Leap Year ; in order to adjust the computation to the true solar year, it was then reckoned 365 days 6 hours, but as the true solar year was found to be 365 days, 5 hours, 48 minutes, 48 seconds, a farther reformation of this calendar haus been mzuJe, on the assumption that the solar year consists of 365 days, 5 hours, and 49 minutes. According to this computation, which was made by Pope GreecH-y XIIL in 1582, and thence called the Gregorian style, an intercalation of one day in February should be made every fourth year, and that the sixteen hundredth year of the Christian era, and every fourth century hereafter, should be a bissextile or leap year. One day consequentiy is to be intercalated in the years 2000, 2400, 2800, «tc. ; but in the intervening centuries 1700, 1800, 1900, 2100, &c. itistobesuppre^ed, and they are to be reckoned common. More- over, as the equinoxes had fallen back ten days, and the full moons four days, since the Nicene council, A. D. 325, he ordidned that ten days should be cut off aller the fourth of October, so that the fifth should be the fif- teenth. This mode of reckoning, which is now introduced in most countries'of Ekirope, is called the New Style, to distinguish it from the Old Style, or the former reckoning. This is however still not perfecdy correct, for as the excess of the Julian year, within the space of four centuries, is three days, one hour, and twenty minutes, that of the Gre- gorian is one hour «md twenty minutes with- in the same period, or about a day in 7200 yean. Besides thes^ alterations in the fcH-m and length of the year, attempts had been made by the Greeks at an early period to adjust in their reckonings the lunar year to the solar year, for which purpose they hit on the device of firaming cycles or series of years, which being numbered in an orderly man- ner from first to last, should return to the same point of reckoning from which they commenced. The first of these cycles was framed by Cleostratus, about 532 years be- fore Christ It consisted of eight years, or 2922 days, during the course of which 96 lunations would elapse of 29 and 30 days al- ternately, together with three intercalary months. By this cycle he proposed to adjust the lunar to the solar year, so that at the conclusion of each cycle the moon should be renewed, but he failed in his object, for at the end of 16 years there was found to be an •rtor of three days, which in the space of 160 CHR 93 jeara would amount to more than a whol« montli. The Metonic Cycle, formed by Meton at the commencement of the Pelopon- nesian war, for the pmrpose of correcting the former, consisted of 19 years, at the end of which the sun and moon would be in the same quarter. This cycle, which was so much esteemed by the Greeks as to be called the Grolden Number, nevertheless failed to the amount of eight or ten hours at the end of one period, and of three days in 133 years. The cycle of Eudoxus was an im- provement on that of Cleostratus, by sub- tracting a month of 30 days from a period of 160 years, which was supposed to be equal to the difference that would subsist at the expiration of that period between the solar and the lunar motions. The Calippic Period, contrived by Cahppus at the new moon of the summer B. c. 331, was intended as an improvement upon that of Melin, which it multiphed by four, so as to make a period of 76 years, or 27,759 days. As 940 luna- tions are equal to 97,758 days, 9 hours, 5 minutes, and 9 seconds, which is only 40' 29* 57"' les than 76 solar tropical years, it fol- lows that the lunar motion, according to thia calculation, did not vary more than 14 hours, 13 minutes, and 22 seconds, wherefore this period has been chosen to form the basis to the modem cycle of the moon, which is said to have commenced one year before the Christian era. There is silso a solar cycle, consisting of a series of 28 years, at the com- pletion of which the Bame order of bissextile and dominical letters return, a cycle which came into use in the early ages of Christian- ity ; besides the cycle of inchction, or a series of 15 years, introduced in the reign of Con- stantino; the Epacts, or excesses of any solar revolutions above the lunar, which were introduced for the purpose of ascertain- ing the time when Blaster ought to be cele- brated ; the Dionysian Period, or series of 532 years, formed by Dionysius Exiguus, a Roman abbot, by midtiplying the solar cycle 28 into the lunar 19, for'the purpose of res- toring the new and full moons to the same day ; and lastly, the Julian Period, invented by Scaliger, and so called because it is adapted to the Julian year ; this is a series of year9 formed by the multiplication of the solar and limar cycles and the cycle of indiction into one another, making the sum of 7980 Julian years. The appUcation of chronology to history is of comparatively modern date. In Homer and other ancient writers there appears to have been no idea of recording events in any exact order of time. The succession of Jimo's priestesses at Argos served Hellanicus for the regulation of his history, but the principal Greek historians followed no other order than what was furnished by the series of events which they narrated. The Roman historian 94 CHT Livy defines the periods of the events de- scribed in his history by the appointment of consuls, and afterwards the succession of em- perors and kings served a similar purpose in forming the histories of other European na- tions, until a more exact computation of time began to be observed. CHRONOMETER. An instrument for the exact measurement of tima CHRYSALIS. The second state of an in- sect, which it passes into from the caterpillar or reptile form, previous to its becoming a butterfly or a moth, &c. CHUB. A river fish of the carp kind, so called on account of its great head. CHURCH. Properly signifies the Lord's house ; and is generally applied to those build- ings which are consecrated to the honour of God, and set apart for his worship. It is also applied to the communicants in a congregation, in distinction from otliers worshipping with them. It is likewise subjoined to the distinc- tive appellation of denominations, as the Epis- copal church, the Presbjrterian church, the Etaptist church, &c. CHURCH SERVICE. The common prayer, collects, and other parts of public wor- ship performed in the church according to the forms of the English church. CHURCHWARDENS. Officers annually chosen by the ministers and vestry, to take care of the church, churchyards, &c. CHURN. A utensil in husbandry, which is used in making butter, by a long and violent agitation of the cream. CHYLE. A white juice in the stomach, consisting of the finer and more nutritious ijarts of the food, which is received into the acteal vessels, and serves to form the blood. CHYLIFICATION. The conversion of food into a nutritious milky fluid, or chyle, in the lower stomach, which conveyed into the blood, sustains the body. CHYME. The name of that humour which is immediately drawn from the aliment, and afterwards by a farther process is converted into clivle. CHYMISTRY. The science which teaches the composition and properties of material substances, together with the changes they undergo. The extensi ve utility of this science is shown by its immediate connection with the arts, subservient to the subsistence or the com- forts of man. Dying, bleaching, tanning, glass-making, the working of metals, &c. are CHY chymieal opwations. In agriculture Its use is very important, because it explains the phe- nomena of the action of manure, &c The culinary arts, the arts of baking, brewing, distilling, &c. owe their improvement to chym- istry. In medicine it affords invaluable as- sistance, by giving the medical man a know- ledge of the various substances used as medi- cines. In short, tliere is scarcely any art, trade, or manufacture, th=it does not depend, either immediately or remotely, upon the knowledge of this science. Besides, it enlarges the mind, by affording us a more extensive and intimate knowledge of nature, and pro- cures for us some of the most sublime plea- sures and rational enjoyments. Chymists now distinguish bodies generally into simple and compoimd substances. Simple substances comprehend such as have hitherto not been decompounded. Of these some are denominated combustibles, because they can undergo combustion, or, in other words, can burn, as hydrogen, carbon, phosphorus, and borax, besides the alkalis, earths and metals. Some are supporters of combustion, which, though not of themselves capable of undergo- ing combustion, are necessary to produce this effect in other bodies, of which there are three, namely, the three gaseous bodies, oxygen, chlorine, and iodine. There is one body, namely, azote or nitrogen gas, which is proper- ly an incombustible, because it neither under- goes combustion in itself, or supports it in other bodies. To this list of simple substances must be added four others, which are consi- dered as such by modern chymists, namely, light and heat, which were formerly looked upon as properties of matter, and electricity and galvanism. Light, heat, and electricity, are powerful chymieal agents, which produce the most important phenomena. Compound substances are formed by the union of simple substances with each other, or by that of compound substances with others. That which forms the basis as it were of the combination in this case, is denominated the base or radical ; tliis may either be an acidifia- ble base or a salifiable base ; thus phosphorus is the acidifiable base in phosphoric acid, and pot- ash is the salifiable base in tlie sulphate of pot- ash. Acids hold the first rank among the compounds. These are formed by the combina- tion of oxygen with some acidifiable base, and are distinguished according to the proportion of the oxygen which enters into the acid by the terminations ic and ous, as nitric acid and ni- trous acid, sulphuric acid and sulphurous acid, &c., the former of which, namely, the nitric and sulphuric acid, denote tlie large dose or por- tion of the oxygen ; the latter, namely, nitrous acid, the smaller portion. There are also me- tallic bases, which are distinguished by the termination um, as potassium, the base ot pot- ash ; sodium, the base of soda. When the compounds possess no sensible properties of au if tb^ u« iflf eonriMHtiai^ «id et if thejr utile qridi^ cMoride, or iodide of araobc, fOtaA, eadb, Ae^ the a^horat of pflfHwriam, phaqpboret of carbon, Ac Acids fcr die nost Ml oomfaiiie with alka- tiea, entlHL ad aelaffiB asides, aofd form an- other impoMMcbaiof eooBiMiaBii aaltt; t i—aw dwdagniriiedhy the tkoofitewiMB ifeafcideealnaB die brger partaoB of OBjeeB, and that of ile wben the wad mnfiwi me amaller portaan ; thus the ocMaiainliaB of aolpfanrieacid and poCaah is a aidDfaile of poluli, and that of 1 wimpaCaBhiBa vinfaetheKsalt Chjnnical |wiau|Heof 1 of afiiilj, coheHMB^dbe, and abo on thai of The of 'die fix aoper is added, dnminates it is denoted by die preix abb diua the M^hate ofpntaidi deaotea the sak in ito periisct staie^ witnoot anj exDeaa of the aul- phmicacadortfae.palaah; the si^eEBol^iale irf* potash is the aaoM sak widi an eBDeas of add; die aohadl^hale of potaA is the same loffaaoe. Whenanacad of yropcr plaBe. CHYMIS1ST, HisTOST or. Cbynis- add tiy,aBapiacticalart « o nnnciHJ wi d imclaItoigt or the eztractianof oMtalsfiroai their orei^ vat of hj^aoljuuily, lor we kam from Scriptm It Tdbal Gun, die a^aOi from Adam, was an eapat Ttifioer m la aws imd iron. TanoBa of the comical ar^ anch aa die pre- of ■ ' '■ " ' oSi^and also aoaoa fafned by the comhinalinn of fixed oOs of two piHti^ the eonatitQeat parts ofbodieB are acpa' rated fixm each other, the bo&s areaaid to be and the actof aq i ai s tin g them is : CO the odier hand, when bodies are ao intimalely onked as to fiam new and dW>i^^ sabstaooes, this dijmical amon is e, n^iears to have been known about the end of the 16th ceatmnr. Gireat care must be taken not to roast come too mtKh. As soon as it has acquired a deep cinnamon colour, it should be taken fr«n the fire and cooled ; otherwise much of its aro- matic flavour wfll be dissipated, and its taste win become disagreeably bitter. Boilmg hot water extracts firom coffee, which has been pn^)erly roasted and ground, an aromatic sitfwtanre of an exquisite flavour, together with a conaiderable qtontity of astringent matter, of a bitter, but a very agreeable taste ; bat thb aromatic substance^ which is sup- posed to be an oil, is eztrondtjr volatile ; and is so fully united to the wattjr, that it into the air with great finility. 102 COI I COPPEB ROASTER. A boUow iron cylinder into which coffee berries are put, and turned about in a strong heat, till they are fitted for grinding in a mill. COFFEE TREE. A tree of thejaseamine kind, an evergreen shrub, growing in Arabia, the island of Java, and tlie West Indies. It seldom rises more than 16 or 18 feet high ; the flowers are of a pure white, and the ber- ries grow in clusters, resembling cherries. t COFFER. A chest or trunk ; in Miner- alogy, a trough in which tin ore is broken to pieces ; in Fortification, a trench cut in the bottom of a dry ditch. COFFERDAM. A circular double range of piles rammed with clay, Avithin which the foundations of bridges are laid. COFFIN. A case or box for tlie reception of a dead body that is to be buried ; in the ve- terinary art, the whole hoof of a horse's foot above the coronet. COG. The tooth of a wheel. COGNIZANCE (in Law.) The hearing of a thing judicially ; also the acknowledg- ment of a fine. COHEiSION, OH Attraction of Co- hesion. That power by which the particles of bodies are held together : the ateolute cohe- sion of bodies is measured by the force ne- cessary to pull them asunder. COHORT. A military body among the Romans, consisting of the tenth of a legion, or about 500 men. COIF. A sort of hood or cap for the head, formerly worn by sergeants at law. COIL. The ring or circle formed by a ca- ble in coiling or winding it. COIN. A piece of metal stamped with cer- tain marks, and made current at a certain value. COINING. The process of stamping or COL making coins, which has undergone an entire change within the last few years, in conse- quence of the invention of machinery, first made by Messrs. Bolton and Watt, of Eng- land. The coining press is now worked by means of complicated machinery, placed in an apartment over the coining room, and connected with the steam engine. To this is attached a contrivance by which it feeds itself with the blanks to beimpressed, and removes them the instant they have received tlie im- pression. There are eight of these presses fixed in the coining room in the English Mint, which, by the aid of the machinery, may be worked by four boys, so as to strike off 20,000 pieces of money in an hour. COINS (in Architecture.) The angle* formed by the two sides of any building. COINS (in Gunnery.) Large wedges of wood for altering the position of a gun. COKE, or COAK. A preparation of fossil coal, whereby it is deprived of the naptha, bitumen, or asphaltum, it may contain. Id great towns which are lighted with gas, coke is obtained in great abundance from the gas- works, being left in the retorts after the gas is driven off by the heat. COLD. In common language it denotes the sensation which is felt, or the eflect wliich is produced, by the abstraction of heat ; that is, heat and cold are opposite to eacli other, and the existence or increment of one, is equal to the want or decrement of the other; so that the same degree of temperature may be called hot or cold, according as it is compared with a colder or hotter temperature. Thus, the climate of Grc;it Britain is a cold climate in comparison with the West India islands ; and a hot climate in comparison with that of Siberia. If a man warms one of his hands nesir a fire, whilst he cools liis other liand by means of ice ; and if afterwards he plunges both his hands in a basin of water of the com- mon temperature of tlie atmosphere, that water will feel cold to tlie liand that was heated, and hot to the other hand. From this it appears that the cold is not any tiling real, but merely a privation of heat ; so that in- stead of saying, that a body has been cooled CX)L toacettaia degree, it may with equal (ruth and propriety te said, tJiat tlie body has been deprived of heat to that certain degree. COLEX)PTElRA. The first order of insects in the LinnaBan system, comprehending all those witli four wings, as tl»e be^e, glow- worm, lady-bird, leatlier-eater, &c. COLEWORT, or Kale. A variety of the cabbage, which thrives in the winter, and im- proves from tlic action of the frost upon it. COLIC. A violent pain in tlie abdomen, so called from the colon, the intestine formerly supposed to be affected. COLLAR (in Heraldry.) An ornament for the neck, worn by knights, such as the collar of the order of Uie Garta: in the sub- joined figura COL 103 COLIjATERAL (in Law.) A term for what is sideways, or not direct, as collateral kinsmen, those who are not descended from one common stock, as the issue of two sons, who are collateral kinsmen to one another. COLLATING (among Bookbinders.) The csamining tlie whole number of sheets be longing to a book, in wder to see if they are all gathered properly. COLLATION OP A BENEFICE. The bestowing of a benefice by tlie bishop, when he has the right of patronage ; it differs from institution in ttiis, that institution into a bene fice is performed by the bishop at the present- ation of another who is patron. COLLATOR. One who compares copies or manuscripts. COLLEAGUE. An associate in the same office or magi.stracy. COLIiECT. A short prayer, particularly such prayers as are appointed with the epis ties and gospels in tlie pubUc service of the clmrcli of England. COLLECTION. The act of collecting or bringuig thin^ together from different quar- ters, as a collection of money for charitable purposes, eitlier at the churcli door or from liouse to lK>u.se ; also, tliat whfch is collected or biought together into an assemblage, as a colletl.on of coins, paintings, &c. COLLEGE. Any establishment for the study of the sciences. COLLEGIATE. An cpitlict for a church that is endowed for a society, &c. COLLIER. A vcosel employed in cairyii coals from one port to anothw- ; also, one who works in tiie coal mines. COLLUSION (m Law.) A compact be- tween two persons to bring an action one against the otlier for some fraudulent or im- lawful purpose. COLOCYNTHIS. See Coloquintida. COLOGNE EARTH. A substance used by painters, much approaching to amber in its structure, and of a deep brow^n. COLON (in Anatomy.) The second of the three large uitestines ; in Grammar, a point marked thus (:) to divide a sentence. COLONEL. The first in command of a regimenL COLONNADE. A range of pillars run- ning quite round a building. COLONY. A company of people removed from one country to another, where they form a settlement under the sanction of tlie govern- ment ; also, tiie place where such a settlement is formed, as tlie colonics belonging to Great Britain in the Eiast and West Indies, and ia North America, &c. COLOdUINTIDA. The fruit of the wikl gourd, brought from the Levant The pulp, which is light, spongy, and white, is remarka- ble for its intense bitterness, whence it has tlie name of tlie bitter. COLOSSUS. A statue of a prodigious size, such as that of the sun anciently in tlie harbour of the island of Rhodes. It was placed at the entrance of the harbour, with the right foot standing on one side the land and the left on the other. COLOURS. They were supposed by the ancients to be an inherent property of tlie coloured substance, and were therefore defined to be the sensation produced by looking on any- coloured body, or the quality in bodies whicu produces this sensation ; but, according to the doctrine of Sir Isaac Newton, which is now generally admitted, tlie difference of colour lies in the different rays of light, so that colour may be defined the property possessed by tlie elementary rays, separated by any means what- ever, of exciting different sensations, according to their different degrees of refi^ngibility. Co- lours are either primary or secondary. The primary or original colours are tlie colours of simple or homc^eneal light ; or produced by rays Uiat have the same cl^ree of refrangi- bility, and the same magnitude of their parts : of these colours tliere are seven, namely, violet, indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange, and red, whicii all admit of infinite gradations. Second- ary, or heterogeneous colours, are tliose which are compounded of the primary ones : of this kind of colours the most remjirkable is that of w^hiteness, which requires all tlie primary co- lours to enter into its composition ; wliereas, on tlie contrary, black is produced by the absorptioa of all the rays of light, so that being suppress- ed in the black Iwdy they aie not reflected outwai d Accurduig to this theory, the difier* 104 COM ence of colours in natural bodies is supposed to arise from the disposition which they pos- sess to reflect rays of this or that colour alone, or of this or that colour more abundantly than any other. COLOURS (in Painting.) The various tints which are produced by the different mix- ture and application of certain drugs. COLOURS (in Heraldry.) Tlie tinctures with which the field or any part of the escut- cheon is distinguished, namely, or, yellow ; argent, white; gules, red; azure, blue; sable, black ; and vert, green. COLOURS. A military term, for tlie ban- ners, flags, and ensigns used in the army. COLUMN. A cylindrical pillar, which serves either for the support or ornament of a building. It consists of a capital, which is the top or head ; the shaft, which is the cylindri- cal part ; and the base, or that on which it rests. Columns are distinguished as to their form into the Doric, Ionic, Corinthian, Com- posite, and Tuscan. COLUMN (in the Military Art.) A long deep file of troops or baggage. COLUMNIPER^ (in Botany.) One of Linnseus's natural orders, including the mal- 'ow-like plants. COLURES (in Astronomy.) Circles which pass through the equinoctial and solstitid points, and meet at the poles. COMB (in Commerce.) An instrument for disentangling flax, wool, hair, &c. Combs are made of the horns of bullocks, of elephants' teeth, tortoise shell, and box or holly wood. Bullocks' horns are prepared by sawing off" the tips, then holding them in the flame of a wood fire till they Income soft. In this state they are plunged into water, from whence they come out hard and flat. They are next sawn into proper lengths, and, to cut the teeth, each piece is fixed m a tool called a clam. The teeth are cut with a fine saw, or rather a pair of saws, and they are finished with a file. The process for making ivory combs is nearly the same as the above. A method has been recently invented for cutting combs by machi- nery. COMBINATION (in Chymistry.) The intimate union of the particles of different sub- stances, so as to form a new compound ; in Mathematics, the alterations or variations in all possible ways of quantities, letters, sounds, and the like; thus, two square pieces, each divided diagonally into two colours, may be arranged and combined sixty-four ways. COMBUSTIBLES (in Chymistry.) All substances which have the property of uniting with the supporters of combustion, such as sulphur, phosphorus, carbon, &c. COMBUSTIBLE. A body which in its rapid union with others, causes a disengage- ment of heat and light. To determine this ra- pidity of combination, a certain elevation of temperature ia necessary, which diflfers for COM every different combustible. Combustibles have been arranged into simple and compound. The former consists of hydrogen, carbon, bo- ron, sulphur-phosphorus, and nitrogen ; be- sides all the metals. The latter class compre- hends the hydrurets, carburets, sulphurets, phosphurets, metallic alloys, and organic pro- ducts. COMBUSTION. A body burning in gas capable of supporting flame. Supporters of combustion have the property of shining in the dark. Various kinds of animal and vegc- table substances seem to have a great deal of this kind of phosphorus ; the glow-worm is a remarkable instance. Dead fish, sea- weed, and numbers of insects, have this property in a great degree. Instruments for measuring the degree or intensity of light are called photometers. Oxygen is a substance known only in combina- tion with other bodies, and has never been ob- tained alone. It is absorbed by combustible bodies, and converts them into acids. Oxygen is necessary for combustion, uniting itself to bodies which burn, augmenting their weight, and cluinging their properties. It is necessary for the respiration of animals. It is a constitu- ent part of atmospheric aii", of water, of acids, and of all bodies of the animal and vegetable kingdoms. This is the principal supporter of combustion, and the only one which need here be described. COMEDY. A dramatic representation of the light, humorous, and pleasant kind, par- ticularly intended to ridicule the follies of men. COMET. An opaque, spherical, and solid body, like a planet, performing revolutions about the sun in elliptical orbits, which have the sun in one of the foci. It is divided into the nucleus or dense part; the head; thecoma, a faint light sturrounding the head ; and the tail, which is the long train of light by which these bodies are distinguished. The comet is sometimes borne in coats of arms, when it is said to be streaming. COMMA (in Grammar.) A point marked thus (,) and put between words and sentences. COMMANDER. A military term, for one who has the command of a body of men. COMMENTARY. An explanation of the obscure passages in an author. COMPREY (Symphytum oflicinale, L.) A native, perennial plant, which grows about two feet high, is found on the banks of rivers and wet ditches ; and produces yellow-white flowers, in the months of May and June. It ,is eaten by sheep and cows, but horses, goats, and hogs, refuse it The leaves of this plant impart a grateful flavour to cakes and pana- da ; the young stems, when boiled, are ex- cellent and nutritious eating. A decoction of the stalks, with leaves and flowers, gives to wool prepared by a solution of bismuth, a fine and permanent brown colour. COMMERCE. The intercourse of nations in each other's produce or manufactures iii COM which the superfluities of one arc given for those of another, and then re-exchanged with other nations for mutual wants. COM 105 COMMERCE, HisTOKT or. The inter- xxirse between different nations for purposes -4 commerce, doubtless took place soon after |be dispersion of mankind, for we find it re- corded in holy writ that the IshmaeUtes, who were settled in higher parts of Arabia, carried on a trade with Egypt in spices, balm, and myrrh, and that in one of their journey's Joseph was sold to them by his brethren. As the commodities in which they dealt, as gums and sweet scented woods, which were to be procured only from the East Indies, there is no doubt that these people and the Egyptians WCTe among the first who made distant voy- ages and travels in the way of trade. They were succeeded by the Phoeoicians, an adven torous people, who were the first t^iat raised any naval power that makes any figure in history. By their enterprise and industry they became a wealthy and luxurious people, and their two cities, Tyre and Sidtm, became the emporiums of the universe. In the time of David and Solomon we find the Jewish na- tion availed themselves of the assistance of this people in equipping their fleets. After the de- struction of old Tyre, a new city arose out of the ruins, which rivalled the other in wealth, industry, and commerce; and while in her glory she planted the colony of Carthage, on the coast of Africa, which from the conve- nience of her situation and the industry of hw inhabitants, rose to an eitraordinay pitch of prosperity. The Carthaginians made them selves masters of Spain, and of the islands of Sicily and Sardinia, discovered the greatest part of the coast of Africa and the Canary Is- lands, traded with Britain by the route of the Scilly Islands, and ai-e supposed to liave made their way even to America. In the mean time E^pt, under the Ptolemies, also attained a high deCTee of grandeur and affluence. Ptole- my Phil^lphus in particular, by encourag- ing trade, made his people rich and himself powerful. Such was the greamess of Alexan- dria alone, that the produce of the customs fell Uttle short of two millions annually. Under the Romans commerce was encouraged in every part of the world where they had any influence, an may l« le^irncd not only from j for a long time throughout all Euroi^e historians, but also from various medals and inscriptions, showang that every considerable city had several colleges or tradmg companies. On the decline of the empire, commerce was, owing to tlie unsettled state of all Europe, and the constant irruption of the barbarous tribes, almost at a stand. About this period it hap- pened tliat some straggling people, rather for- ced by necessity or led by inclination, took tlicir abode in a few scattered islands that lay n«^ar the coast of Italy, and as these islands were separated from each other by narrow channel.", full of shallows, that prevented strangers from navigating, the inhabitants found themselvt-s protected from all hostile inroads, and in the midst of this security lliey followed their pur- suits vrith 90 much industr}' and success, that these once insignifiamt islands rose in the space of two centuries, that is, from the sixth to the eighth century, into a great city and a powerful republic. Such was the humble ori- gin of the once potent state of Venice, which by degrees acquired an extent of commerce and a naval power that had not for a length of time any rival. She drew to herself the profits of the Indian trade, and by availmg herself of every favourable conjuncture, she not only mo- nopolized the trade of all Italy, but of all the counUries in subjection to the Mahometans; but as other countries in Europe began to en- large their commerce, Venice lost the monopo- ly, and this combining with her own immcKi*"- rate ambition, caused the decay of her trade and the decline of her power. From the league of Cambray, which was formed against her by the powers of Europe, Venice may be said to have ceased to hdd the first rank as a commercial state. The origin of the proud city of Genoa, as it was called, was very similar to that of Venice. Like Venice, she rose from an assemblage of fugitives and adventurers on the rock)% barren, and inhospitable shores of Liguria ; and like her she gained, by the industry and perseve- rance of her inhabitants, a prodigiotis extent of commerce.. Her merchants traded with all countries, and throve by becoming the carriers from one country to another. Her fleets were formidable and her conquests numerous ; IxJt after perpetual wars with her rival, Venice, she was at length compelled to yield the dominion of the sea, and finally lost all her consequence. In the mean time, tlie trade of Germany was rising in consequence. Some commer- cial cities, confederating together, formed & commercial league, known by the name of the Hanseatic League, the object of which was, by combming their resources, to form a fleet for the protection of their trade with other coun- tries. These cities not only associated amonj themselves, but also forrned alliances with other slates, as England and France, and had a code of la\v8 which were respected and oh- served, imder the name of the Lex Mei catoria, hi 106 COM this manner the Hanse Towns acqiiired a con- siderable share of influence, and were respect- ed by all the sovereigns in Europe. The kings of Prance and England granted them considerable privileges, exempting their ves- sels in case of shipwreck from sdl demands whatsoever, either on the part of the admiralty or of private persons, and respecting their flag in times of war. This good understanding between them and the states of Europe was considerably increased by the freedom with which they lent their money to different prin- ces in time of need, particularly during the crusades, when they gave powerful succours both in ships as well as in money. This con- federacy did not, however, always retain its moderation ; for, as they increased in wealth and power, so they grew ambitious and do- mineering, and more than once they ventured to se* themselves up against the states of Ger- many ; in consequence of this, the German princes gradually withdrew the cities that were subject to themselves from the confederacy, and thus effected its dissolution. Tlie only cities which now retain the name of Hanse Towns, and some other vestiges of the Han- eeatic league, are Hamburg, Bremen, and Lubeck. The next important change in the state of European commerce was brought about in Portugal and Spain, by meems of the discove- ries which took place in the fifteenth and sub- sequent centuries. To the spirit and enterprise of EmeinueljKing of Portugal, we are indebted for the discovery of the Cape of Good Hope, which was effected by Vasco de Gama, in 1498, and by opening a new way to the In- dies afforded to the Portuguese an opportunity of making conquests and settlements which secured to them the commerce of India, which the Venetians had hitherto enjoyed through the medium of the Arabians. The discovery of America by Columbus, which followed quickly after, paved the way for a still greater extension of mercantile enterprise, which, though at first enjoyed only by the Portuguese and Spaniards, was at length shared by other states. The Dutch, an enterprising people, were the first who wrested from the Spaniards a portion of their conquered possessions, and made so good a use of the advantages they gained as to become oneof the greatest trading people in Emope. By the help of increasing weahh, they converted their little fishing vil- lages into large and populous cities and towns. Although their country was far from being fertile, and their native commodities few or none, yet by commerce they succeeded in fill- ing their storehouses with all the productions and manufactures of the world. Having given this general sketch of com- merce from its earliest beginnings, we must not close this account without making men- tion of the rx)ramerce of GJreat Britain, which, though among the last to avail itself COM of this source of wealth and aggrandizanent, has by slow and gradual steps raised its com- merce to a pitch which has never been, and probably never can be, surpassed by any na- tion. It appears that a commercial intercourse with Britain was begun at a very early period, and that the Phoenicians and Cartta^inians traded with this island for the tin of Cornwall, but it is probable that the native Britons did not for many ages take any active part in this traffic, or make any attempt to share in the advantages of commerce beyond the giving their commodities to such as wished to trade with them. They had nothing better than leather or wicker boats, which were too slight to enable them to leave their shores, even so as to cross the Channel, The Saxons made considerable endeavoura to extend their intercourse with foreign nations, particularly in the time of Alfred the Great, who sent people as far as the East for com- mercial purposes, as also for the sake of pro- curing information. After the Conquest, our princes were for a long time too much engag- ed in political and military concerns to turn their attention to this subject, and little was done beyond that of giving encouragement to foreigners to settle in England or to have deal- ings -mth her. One provision of Magna Char ta held forth indemnity and protection to foreign merchants in the passage to and from Ekig- land, as also during their stay there. Safe conducts were afterwards given to the English going abroad, which afforded them the opportunity of carrying on a traffic for their commodities with foreign nations. In conse- quence, we find that staples or markets were established both there and on the continent, where wool, lead, and other productions, were bought and sold ; and as encouragement was given to the Hanseatic League, a trading company was in consequence formed in the reign of Edward I. first called the Company of Merchants trading to Calais, &c., after- wards the Merchant Adventurers of England, or the Company of Merchant Adventurers trading to Hamburg. Tliis company, which is the first of the kind in England, was incor- porated by Eklward I, in 1296. In the reign of Eldward III. commerce and manufactures both met with considerable encouragement, but the intercourse of foreigners with Eng- land was now more encouraged than that of Englishmen with foreign nations. In con- sequence the staple or mart was confined to certain towns, where, by the statute of the staple, as it was called, it was ordained that foreigners might resort for the purchase of our commodities, but Enghshmen were prohibited under great penalties from exporting any themselves. A number of other laws were made for the establishment and government of the staple, which formed that branch of the English law since known by the name of the Law Merchant. For the encourageraent of COM protection was gmn lo »fromfiscign prtsaad Ave; latheiogBcr^^ardYL plerfcMJaiagker mmt widn MpoBee of the re- altarad. An in- ^ ,_ by ingoaaTOygeaf«B BUj» e iy in order to aorta port of iliiii owijl in 01 ■MB to duna, came to the AidMHEely wtievB id^t wre ^Pdl F&- ty die feM eoritHi ^ whe nce Ae y aacr- juiyp*^! a eonnany Htd recenwdT a dMr- thetndeto Tina eonpany vaa inoonofated in the reign ixmpoaed of theMiycr, Aldermew.and of Pbfip and Mary, onder the name of the ant AldermaL The leign of to eommerod ad- tof erefykind. Drake^ Sir Walts ~~ deClifibrd,E«rlafOam- thmwrfres by their mnrMWMl dMoovenea; hpsidnt wmcn^ we- ral mA. *»— |»i«i*a vere finned nnder the apqaeeaof tlnsfioBaL The Eaatlaiid Codh nuj was ineorporalBd under the title of the €>Mii|My of MmlMuto to the Eaat ; theTmr- fayor UevaBtCtwuianywaaaboiucoipuralBd in 1581 ; bat the moat inqiortant of all the *«fipi?»i«» which had hitherto been firmed was the Ekat bdBa Company, which was first m rffinK H ly charter in 1600l In Ae niga t£ Wiffiam m. a new Bast India Conqny was fiamed, which was fir a tone a riral to the eld one, bat in 1708 die two cnrnpames were they hare their th^wereofali^ to aeonenoe of which diey hate lostoncfa of their inaep e wdf a i c c, and are n caasaiily soliject to more eonlral than ihef were finufly. Eng- Kih ' ^ ff iMi M f ■ » ■ ■ eontiniied to inareaaefinm the reign of PiKsHtirth aatfl the htt. wv, when EaAnd had at one dme afanoatthe whole trade of the nniverse in its hands, with the eaeepbon of what im to the share of the ABMricaaa. The imports of England have aaaedmes f fv ^ir*^ uiii^ nuDiooe^ and the enwtts fifty miTKnns. ^^massART (i omcer nitwinled to i FfrlfmtM.il ASam, a'dowty, or one who I the pboe of the bishop. SIGN (in Law.) The warrant, Mililary Ai&int.) An patent, by w Mch jmdietMai; in Wmtary A&inS the neholdsany the order by fiir ano- poatBithewmy "*" ^^ the par eentage nrentof fi y tTMMncti ng the bosiness of others. COMMITTEE. A certain number of per- 0ns apfwinted for the examinatkn of any COM 107 i i ngeaera i^ ha or they to iH m— wmj isiuured hf aoBK fegidbtiTe bod^ for COMMODITT. Alky ' aneraoBde* COMMODORE. An of shqa of war dratinfd fir a jaatiBulB i por- paa& The Conuoodire of a eoBfoy ia dw leadnff ahn> in a fleet of merdtantmea. COlOiDNCinLnr.) A right or privfleee dauned fay more peraaaa in .anodier man^ hnde, waters, woods, A& COMMON COUNCIL. A eoort in a city. COMMON LAW. ted by andent dedsic tice, fixmded OB aodal neeeailf , and on naaon and justiee; bataidxrdinateto]natifeeBaet- ment8ofdiel e gi ri a t i u e, n i nfdS latnl ft Law. COMMON PLACE BOOK. A oort of register or ordc^ collection of thJneswCTthy to be noted in a book. COMMON PI£AJSL A oooit of bw dero- ted to tnak between mdindnalB. COMMON PRATES. The Htey, or pdbbcfirm of pi'ayq pteaciibed by thefiiunh ofEt^tand, to beoaed in aD dnrdnaMd (^ap£ al staled periods. COMMONSl a w«r< to an uneohiTaied tract of eooBliy, and at odieES to dae body of the ] one branch of the BriliA die House of Common^ ito 6S8i ing elected, within every seven yean^ by tha ^'^MMONS Qn Uw.) See Docrou Co]f]uw& Cgp iONWEALTH. covelBhent in which the Iti or aristocracy. ^ON. A BBcramoDt of the Lord^ 1 COMMUmON SERTICB. The o » ale bo^; ia Conancrce^ a firm a joint slock, widb whkhthCT trade fir the common mtereat of the stock hoUerai, such as the Eaat India and odier com- fanJpB See Coxxkbck. COMPANY fin Sen Affaire.) The whole crew of a nhip, inclnding the officers. COMPARATIVE ANATOMY. Thatez- tension of die art of dissKtioD which aitu- 108 COM COM mists have practised for tliC purpose of com- jKiring UiQ structure of all organized bodies witli one anotiier. The number of its dis- coveries is highly ciwious and insti'uctive. COMPARATIVE DEGREE (in Gram- mar.) The second degree, as, better. COMPASS, or the Mabiner's Compass. An instrument used by mariners to point out the course at sea. it consists of a card or fly, on which are drawn the several points of the compass; the needle, or magnetic needle, a Bmall bar of steel, which has the property of turning one of its ends to the north pole ; and the box, which contains the card and needle. COMPASSES, or Pair of Compasses. A mathematical instrument, consisting of two •harp pointed branches or legs of iron, brass, or steel. COMPLEMENT (in Astronomy.) The distance of a star from the :!enitli. COMPLEMENT (in Military Affairs.) The full establishment of a r^ment. COMPLEMENT OF AN ARC (in Geo- metry.) What an arc wants of 90" or the quadrant of a circle ; thus the complement of 50° is 40°, and the complement of 40° is 50^ COMPOSING. That branch of the art of printing which consists in arranging the types or letters in such an order as to frt them for the press. The compositor usually stands at a pair of wooden cases, in the divisions of which the different letters are deposited, and he ranges them in a small metal frame, called a composing-stick, with such rapidity, that a page of this work may be composed in two or three hours. The operation is not altogether u.tchiiincal, for much intellectual skill, and pr(jmrontical knowledge, are requisite in the introduction of proper stops and dinsions of words, and in adjusting the lines. Tlie lower case contains the small letters andf figures, and the upper one the capitals, &c. The lines are transferred from the composing- stick to a small frame, which lies on the ujv per case; and are afterwards made up into pages, then into sheets, corrected, and worked off at press. COMPOSITiE. One of Linnseus' natural orders, comprehending the plants with com- pound flowers, as the dandelion, sunflower, &c. COMPOSITENUMBERS. Such numbers as some otlier numbers besides units will mea- sure, as 12, which is measured by 2, 3, 4, and 6. COMPOSITE ORDER (in Architecture.) One of the five orders of architecture, so called because it is composed of the Ionic and Coriit thian orders. COMPOSITION (in Music.) A piece of music composed according to the rules of art. COMPOSITION (in Painting.) The put- ting together the several parts of a pictur^ so as to set off the whole to the best advantage. COMPOSITION (in Commerce.) An agreement entered into between an insolvent debtor and his creditor, by which the latter ac- cepts apart of the debt in compensation for the whole. COMPOST, pronounced COMP0 (in Husbandry.) Several sorts of soils or eartns and other matters mixed together, in order to make a particularly fine kind of motild. CON COMPOUND. A term in Botany applied to a flower consisting of several distinct lesser CON 109 COMPOUND INTEREST. Is that in- tereat which arises firam principal and interest ■rat together. COMPOUNDING FELONY, or Theft Bote (in Law.) Where the party robbed takes his goods again of the thief upon an agreement not to prosecute. COMPOUNDING WITH ONE'S CRE- DITORS. Where the debtor, not being able to pay ail his debts, agrees with his creditors to pay apart CONCAVE LENS. This operates diffe- rently from the convex lens, the obliquity of the sur&ces from the centre being in an en- tirely different direction : hence, rays of light pafsemg through it, diverge, instead of converg- ing; }Mit it is useful to diminish the too rapid conrergency of a convex lens, and therefore BCi f i ceable in certain telescopes, and to per- soiw whose crystalline lens in the eve is too convex. A is a plano-convex lens, 6 a dou- ble convex lens, C a plano-concave lens, D a " " : concave lens. A B C U lift fill CONCENTRATION (in Chymistry.) The act of increasing the strength of fluids by volatilizing part of their water. (X)NCEKTRIC. An epiUiet for figures having one common centre. CONCEPT. A musical performance in which any number of practical musicians unite in the exercise of their taknL CONCERTO. A piece of music consisting <^ several parts tluit are all to be performed together. CONCHOLOGY. That branch of natural histary which treats of testaceous animals, or SQch animals as have a permanently testace- ous covering, which are comprehended under the testacea in the Linnaean system. A is a trochus, or top-shaped shell ; ' B is a species of whelk. Testaceology is a term synony- ntooB with conchology, but is of later origin and apphcation. All testaceous animals are composed of two parts, one of which, the animal itsdf, is soft and moluscous ; ttie other is the shell or habitation, which is hard, of a finny or calcareous nature, and either rar- tially OT entirely covers the animal Thei animal is attached to the shell by means of ligaments or muscles. It was long consider- ed as a matter of dispute among naturalists whether the arrangement of shells should be constituted from the animals or their habita- tioD. There is much difficulty in either plan of proc««ding ; but the latter is now generally adopted, because it is certain that the best characters upon which to found all systems of iKttural history, must be those most obvious and accessible. All ranks of animals, as nearly as can be with convenience, should be ar- ranged by apparent and external characters. A 10 CONCLAVE. The room in the Vatican who-e the cardinals assemUe to choose a pope ; also the assembly itself. CONCORD (in Grammar.) That part of syntax which treats of the agreement * ney, ammunition, Ac COOK. One who practises the ut of cookery. A cran^anv of cooks was incorpo- rated in En^and in nie fifteenth centnry. COOLER. A Tesad used by brewers for cooling the beer after it is drawn off. COOLY. An East Indian labourer. COOMB. A measure (rf* grain, cwtaining four bushels. COOP. A jAace where fowls are kept confined ; also a vessd made <^ twigs, in which &h are omght, and a tNorel or vessel for keeping liquids. COOPER. An artisan whose biKiness is to form vessdsfbr contarnii^ fluids, Ac of staves or sectioiKS oi wood, bound toother by hoops of wood or iron, so as to be rendered air and water tight COOT. A water fowl, mostly of a black colour, called also a Moor Hen. These birds frequent lakes and still rivers, where they make their nests among the rii^ies, &c. float- ing on the water, aoas to rise and fall with it COPAL. An American name for all odoriferous gums, but particularly applied to a reCTMNB substance imported from Guinea. It is bard^ rfrining, transparent, and citron coloured COPERNICAN SYSTEM. A particular S3rstem of the sphere, first proposed fay Pythik- goras, and afterwards revived by Copernicus, a Pofish astnnoBier. According to this sys- tem, the sun is su{^)oeed to be placed in the centre, and all the other bodies to revolve round it in a particular wdor; winch nodoa is now universally adopted, under the nama of the Solar System. COPING. The stone covering on the top <^ a wall. COPPER. A weU known metal, orange- cdoured, nine times heavier than water, uid very elastic; it is nert to iron in specific eravi^, but lighter than gold, sflver, or lead h is one of the six primitive metals. COPPEIRAS. Anamegiventoblue,green, and white vitricd: it C3 a factitious sulphate of iron. COPPERPLATR A plate on which figures arc engraven j also (he imprenioa 114 COR which is taken off the plate on paper, by means of printing. COPPERPLATE PRINTING. The pro- cess of taking engravings from copperplates, by means of a rolling press, as in the sub- joined cut. The engraved plate is covered with ink, made of oil and lamp-black, then cleanly wiped on the smooth parts, and laid on damp soft paper, and bemg passed between two cylinders with great force, the impression of the engraved part is perfectly transferred to the paper. COPPERSMITH. An artisan who works copper into different utensils. COPPICE, or Copse. A small wood, consisting of underwood, COPULA (among Logicians.) The verb that connects any two terms in an affirmative or negative proposition, as, God made the world ; made is the copula. COPULATIVE (in Grammar.) An epi- thet for such conjunctions £is join tne sense as well as the words ; as, and, or, &c. COPY (in Law,) The transcript of an original writing. COPY (among Printers.) The original MS. or the book from which the compositor Bets his page. COPYHOLD (in Law.) A sort of tenure by which, in England, the tenant holds his land by copy of court roll of the manor at the will of the lord. COPYRIGHT (m Law.) The exclusive right of printing and publishing copies of any literary performance, which is now confirmed by statute, to authors or their publishers, for a certain number of years, that is to say, for fourteen years, and by improvements, and re- newals of the copy-nght, rendered perpetual; besides, as an action lies to recover damages for pirating the new corrections and additions to an old work, publishers may acquire al- most a perpetual interest in a work by repub- lishing it with additions and annotations. CORAL. A hard, brittle, calcareous sub- stance, which was formerly supposed to be of a vegetable nature, but is now found to be com COR posed of a congeries of animals, endued with the faculty of moving spontaneously. They are distinguished by the form of their branches, and are found in the ocean, adhering to stones, bones, shells, &c. The islands in the South Sea Eire mostly coral rocks covered with earth. The coral fishery is particularly followed in the Mediterranean, on the coast of France, where the red coral most abounds. Broken branches of coral have been seen to attach themselves to other branches, and thus con- tinue to grow. The three varieties are re^ white, and black. CORBEL. A shoulder piece jutting out in walls to bear up a post. CORCLE, or CORCULUM (in Botany.) The essence of the seed, or the rudiment of the future plant, CORD OP WOOD. A parcel of firewood, four feet broad, four feet high, and eight feet long, CORDELIERS, An order of monks, so called because they wear a cord fiill of knots about their middle. CORDOVAN. A sort of leather made of goat skin at Cordova in Spain, CORINTHIAN ORDER (in Architec- ture.) The noblest and richest of the five orders, so called because columns were first made of that proportion at Corinth. Its cap- COR kal ia adorned with two rows of leaves, be- tween which arise little stalks or caulicoles, forming sixteen volutes. CORK TREEL A glandiferous tree which flourishes in the south of Europe, the bark of which, when stript, grows eigain ; and if not stript, sheds itself. It is one fourth the weight of water, and therefore, as a cubic foot of water weighs 1000 ounces, a cubic foot of the bark of the cork tree will in water sustain 750 ounces, and smaller weights in proportion. CORMORANT, or CORVORANT, An exceedingly voracious bird of the pelican tribe. It is about the size of a goose, and eats to such excess, that it is easily caught by nets, and trained by the Chinese to eaten fish, which it is prevented swallowing by a ring put about its neck. It builds on the highest ciifb hanging over the sea. COR 115 CORNICE. Any moxilded projection that crowns or finishes the part to which it is affixed, as the cornice of a room, a door, &c. CORNISH CHOUGH. A sort of crow, of a fine blue or purple black colour, widi red beak and legs. It was reckoned the finest bird of its kind, and therefore bcane in coats of arms. CORN-MILL. A combination of ma- chinery for pulverizing wheat into flour; worked by wind, water, or steam. The wheat is put into the hopper, whence it runs between the stones, while these are turned by a combination of wheels. CORN, Indian. In the United States, two kinds of Indism corn, or maize, are com- monly cultivated. The gourd seed corn, and the yellow com. Com in England is the general term for all kinds of grain, but in the United States, by com, is always meant Indian Com. The uses to which this inva- luable plant is applied in the United States are well known. The articles of diet into which it entCTS as a component part, are vari- ous and important Alone, it is served up in several forms, all of which are excellent. As a strong nourishing food for horses and swine, it is probably superior to any other grain. CORNEA. One of the coats of the eye, which is transparent in the fore part, to ad- mit the rays of UghL CORNELIAN. A precious stone, of a flesh colour. CORNET (in Military Afiairs.) An instru- ment very sioular to a trumpet, which is used also a commissioned officer in m tne army ; a troop of horse or dragoons. CORNFLAG. A plant having a double ^ tuberose root, with leaves like the fleur de lis, I It is obliged to lay his hand on the Bibl& and a flower consisting of one petal, shaped CORPORAL (in Military Affairs.) A like the lily. 'rank and file man, with superior pey to a CORNUCOPIA, or Thk Hobn op Plenty. Fabled to be the horn which Her- cules broke off fix)m Achelous' head. It was filled by the nymphs with all manner of flow- ers and fi-uits, and made the emblem of abim- dance. COROLLA. The leafy parts of a flower which is marked with divers colours. Each leaf or division of the corolla is called a petaL COROLLARY. A consequence drawn from some proposition already proved or de- monstrated. CORONARLE. One of Linnaeus' natural orders of plants, containing those of the liba- ceous tribe, which are most fitted for making garlands. CORONATION. The act or solemnity of crowning a king ; also the ceremony of investing the pope with his sacerdotal ensigns and dignity. CORONER. An officer whose particular duty it is to make inquisition into the untimC' ly death of any person. CORONET (in Heraldry.) A small crown worn by the nobiUty. CORONET, or CORNET (in Farriery.) The upper part of a horse's hoof CORPORAL (in Law.) An epithet for any thing that belongs to the body, as corporal punishment, in distinction firom a fine ; a cor- poral oath, so called because the party taking 116 COT common soldier, and vsith nominal rank un- der a Serjeant. CORPORATION. A body politic or in- corporate, so called because tlie persons com- posing it are made into one body. CORPS. A French term for any body of forces forming the division of a grand army. CORRECTION (in Printing.) The cor- recting of proof sheets as they come from the compositor's hands, in order to free them from all faults. CORRECTIVES. Medicines which serve to correct the qualities of other medicines. CORRECTOR. The person appointed in a printing office to correct the proofs as they come rough from the compositor's hands. CORRIDOR (in Fortification.) A covert way round a fortress ; in Architecture, a long gallery leading to several chambers. CORROSIVES. SaUne menstruums, which have the property of dissolving bodies, as burnt alum, white \itriol. CORROSIVE SUBLIMATE OF MER- CURY. An oxymuriate of mercury, and an extremely acrid and poisonous preparation. CORRUPTION OF BLOOD. An in- fection growing to the blood, estate, and issue of a man attainted of treason. CORSAIR. A pirate or sea robber, parti- cularly on the coast of Barbary. CORSLET. An ancient piece of armour with which the body was protected. CORTES. The states or the assembly of the states of Spain and Portugal. CORTEX. The outer bark of a plant. CORUNDUM. A mineral of the sapphire kind, which is found in the East Indies, especially in Pegu and the island of Ceylon. CORUSCATION. A gleam of light issu- ing from any thing, particularly that which is produced by the electrical fluid. CORVUS (in Astronomy.) A constellation in the southern hemisphere. 1 CORYDALES. One of Linnaeus' natural orders oT plants, containing tliose which have helmet-shaped flowers. CORYMB (in Botany.) A mode of flow- ering, in which the lesser flower stalks are produced along the common stalk on both Bides, rising to the same height CO-SECANT (in Geometry.) The secant of an arc, which is the complement of another arc to ninety degrees. COSMETICS. Preparations which whiten and soften the skin. COSMOGRAPHY. The science of de- scribing the several parts of the visible world. COSMOPOLITE. A citizen of the world. COSSACKS. Irregular troops attached to the Russian army ; a predatory tribe which Inhabit the banks of the Nieper and Don. COSTS OF SUIT. The expenses attend- ing a law suit which are in part recoverable from the party who loses the cause. COTOPAXI. A mountain of the Andes, COT 20,000 feet high, covered with snow, but a perpetual volcano, often very destructive. COTTON. A sort of wool or flax, which encompasses the seed of a shrub that is muck cultivated in the Indies and in the United States. The fabric or cloth which is manu- factured from this wool, when spun, is also called cotton. This article is manufacturecl in the United States, to such an extent as nearly to preclude the necessity of importa- tion. COTTONGRASS. A perennial of the grass tribe, so called because its seeds have a downy suljstance attached to them which re- sembles cotton, and has been used in its stead. COTTONTHISTLE. An herbaceous plant, with a biennial root, which is so called because it has downy loaves. COTYLEDONS (in Botany.) The lob« of the seed, of which there are mostly two. They ar* destined to nourish the heart of tlj« seed cou COUCH. A seat, or small moveable bed to lie on. COUCH (in Husbandry.) A layer or licap of malt or barley. COUCH (in Painting.) The ground or basis on which the colour Jies. COUCHGRASS. A noxious weed, which spreads very fast in arable land, and chokes every thing else that is sown. COUCHING (in Surgery.) The removing the opaque lens out of the axis of vision, so as to restore the sight, COVENANT (in Law.) An agreement or consent of two or more by deed or writing. COVERT. A thicket or shady place for deer or other animals. COVERT- WAY fin Fortification.) A space of ground level with the field on the edge of the ditch ranging quite round the works. COVERTURE (in Law.) The state of a married woman who is under the power and protection of her husband, whence she is called a feme covert COVING (in Architecture.) The projec- tion in houses beyond die ground plot. COUNCIL (in Law.) An assembly of the different members of any government who meet to consult about affairs, COUNCIL (in Ecclesiastical Aflairs.) The eame as the synod. COUNCIL OP WAR (in Military Affairs.) An assembly of the chief officers in the eirmy or navy, called by the general or admiral in particular emergencies, to concert measures for their conduct. COUNTERFEIT. A fraudulent imitation of any thing, made so as to pass for genuine, as counterfeit coin. COUNTERMINE, A mine made by the besieged, in order to blow up the mine of the besi»ers. COUNTERSCARP (in Fortification.) That side of the ditch which is next the camp, and faces the body of the place. COUNTER-TENOR (in Music.) One of the middle parts, so called because it is as it were opposed to the tenor. COUNTINGHOUSE. An office in which a merchant transacts his business. COUNTRY DANCE (in Music) A Uvely pointed air calculated for dancing, COUNTY, Any certain portion of coun- try into which a state or empire may be di- vided. COUP DE MAIN. A sudden impremedi- tated attack. COUP D'(EIL, The first glance of the eye, with which it surveys any object at large, COUP DE SOLEIL. Any disorder sud- denly produced by the violent scorching of the Eun. COUPLE. A band with which dogs are tied together. COUPL&CLOSE (in Heraldry.) An or- dinary, 80 termed from its enclosing the chevron COW 117 by couples, being always borne in pairs^ one on each side a chevron. COUPLES (in jBuilding.) Rafters framed together in pairs with a tie, COUPLET. The division of a hymn, ode, or song, wherein an equal number or an equal measure of verses is found in each part. COURANT, An epithet for any beast rejjresented in an escutcheon in a running attitude. COURSE. A sea term, for that point of the horizon or compass for which a ship steers. COURSE (in Masonry.) A continued range of bricks or stones of the same height COURSE OP EXCHANGE (in Com- merce.) The current price or rate at which the coin of one country is exchanged for that of another; which, as it depends upon the ba- lance of trade and the politicEd relations which subsist between the two countries, is always fluctuating. COURSER. A race horse, COURSING, The pursuing of any beast of chase, as the hare, &c. with greyhounds. COURT (in Law.) The place where jus- tice is judicially administered. COURTS OF CONSCIENCE. Courts for the recovery of small debts. COVY. An assemblage of wild fowl, par- ticularly partridges. COW. The female of neat cattle, and one of the most useful of domestic animals, which supplies milk, butter, and cheese. The engra- ving represents some of them in their favourite summer position, in water, to which they re- tire to escape from the attacks of insects. There are numerous breeds, but the Holderness and Aldemey are preferred in South Britain, and the Ayrshire, represented in the engraving, is the most esteemed in North Britain. COW-POX. A pustule which, when transferred from the udder of a cow to the hu- man body, exhausts or neutralizes some mor- bid action of the rete mucostun, and prevents a disease of the same membrane, calloi variola, or small pox. COWRY. A testaceous animal which is said to have the power of leaving its shell and 118 CRA forming a new one. These animals live in sand at the bottom of the sea. The shell is used as a coin in India. COWSLIP. A plant which grows wild in the meadows ; and tears a pretty yellow flower, CR. An abbreviation for creditor. CRAB. A sort of shell-fish, which every year cast off tlieir old shells. There are 204 species, which in general have eight legs, be- sides two large claws. The most remarkable are the violet crabs of the Bahamas, which live in die mountains, but once a year proceed to the eea in a body of many millions, a journey which employs tHem some weeks. Here they cast their spawn, and soon after millions of young crabs travel into the mountains. Crabs are often used as food, and in a merciless manner put to death in boiling water. Shrimps, prawns, and lobsters, are of the same genus. CRAB (in Astronomy.) Cancer, one of the signs of the zodiac. CRAB (in Botany.) A wild apple treei and also the fruit of that tree. CRAB (among Shipwrights.) An with three claws for launching of ships CRAB'S EYE. A stone found in the craw fish, resembling_an eye. CRAB-TREE, or Pyrus mains, L. is an indigenous plant, growing in woods and hedges ; it flourishes better on declivities and in shady places, than in open, exposed situations, or on boggy soils. Its blos- soms are white, and appear in the month of May. GRADLE (with Surgeons.) A wooden machine to lay a broken leg in after it has been set ^ CRADLE (with Shipwrights.) A frame of timber raised on each side of a ship, for the more convenient launching of her. CRAMP. A spasmodic aflfection, which causes a violent distortion of the muscles, nerves, &c. ; also, a disease to which hawks are subject in their wings. CRAMP IRONS. Irons which fasten stones in buildings. CRANBERRY. A pale red berry of a tart taste, the fruit of the cranterry tree. CRANE. A species of heron, with long, straight, sharp bills, and feet with four toes, of which there are 96 species. The common crane, or ardea grus has black wingfeathers, with an ash-coloured body, and flies in great fiocks in many countries. The Siberian crane ORE is noted for its sagacity, and the flocks keep a sentinel to warn them of danger. CRANE. A simple contrivance, by which a pulley is projected so as to be perpendicular to the weight intended to be raised. y^ CRANESBILL." The English name for the geranium. CRANIOLOGY. The science which pro- fesses to discover men's faculties and charac- ters from the external appeartmces of the skull. CRANIUM. The skull, or superior part of the head. CRANK. A machine resembling an elbow, projecting from an axis or spindle, which by its rotation serves to raise or lower the pistons of engines for raising water ; also, a piece of brass work of a similar shape, on which the bell wire is fixed, so as to move the bell. CRAPE. A light transparent stuj^ resem blinggauze. CRATE. A large case made of open bars, in which earthen ware is packed. CRATER. The mouth of a volcano, from which the fire issues. CRAY FISH, or CRAW FISH, A small sort of lobster. CRAYON. A small pencil of any sort of colouring stuflf, made into a paste and dried. CREAM OP TARTAR. The common CRO white tartar freed from its imparities ; a salt ^rroared from the lees of wine. CREDIT (in Conuneraa) A mntual loan of merchandises, &c Letters of Credit, letters giv&a by merchants to p»sons whom they can trost to draw mwiey from their correspon- dents. CREEZ). A summary of the principal ar- ticles of the Christian raith ; as the Apostles Creed, the Athanasian Creed, &c. CREOLE A descendant of black and white parents. CREPITATION. The crackling noise inade by some salts during the process of cal- CRO 119 CRESCENT. The state of the moon when in her increase ; in Heraldry, an honouraWe ordinary, or a mark of distinction for the se- cond SODS of families, or those descended from 9. A garden salad. CREW. The company of sailors belonging to a vessel. CRICKET. A little insect that haunts stoves and ovens. CRIMES. Offences against morals, as far as they are prohiiHted by law. CRITICISM. An art which discriminates the morit or demerit of any production, but is often much abused. CRISIS. That stage of a disorder from which some judgment may be formed of its termination. CROCODILE. An amphibious animal, and the largest of the lizard tribe, which in- habits the Jfile and the Indian Sea. It is co- vered with hard scales, that cannot easily be pierced, except under its belly. CROCUS. A bulbous plant, that flowers very early in spring. CROP. The craw of a bird ; aHao, the pro- duce of what is sown in a field. CROSS. An instrument of cruel pimish- ment cunong the Romans, (Sec to which cul- prits were nailed by the hands and feet, ard suspended for a tim^ or till dead ; among tha Catholics it is a religious emblem ; and in ths southern hemispho-e it is a small consCella* tion of five stars, which discriminates the south pole. CROSS (in Heraldry.) The itost ancient and the noblest of all the hy the juror^ when an action passes for the p biintrfT DAMASCENE, pronounced Dam sm. A fruit tre^ yielding a small black jdum, of an oval sh^ie, socaDed firom Damascus, erf* which It is a native. DAMASK. A silk stuff with a raised pat- tern, cu n tB H t iug of figores and flowers. DAMASK-aOSR A fine sort of rose, of a red odour. DAMPS. Noxious exhalations in mines which sometimes suffocate those that work in DAMSIN. See DAMAscEms. DANCEI, or Dakci2«g, as at present ]wac- dsed, may be defined " an agreeable motioa of the body, adjiKted by art, to the measures or tune reUed with the Pope. DEFILE. A narrow lane or passage through which a company of soldiars can pass only in file. DEFINITION. The determining the na- ture of things by words, or explaining the signification of a word. DEFLAGRATION. The burning off in a crucible any mineral body. DEFLEXION. The turning of any thing out of its true course. DEFLUXION (in Surgery.) The faUing of a humour in the body from a superitw upon an inferwr mrt DEGRADATION (in Ecclesiastical Af- fairs.) The depriving a person of his dignity and degree, as the degradation of a clergyman by depriving him of holy orders. DEGRADATION (in Mihtary Affairs.) The depriving an officer of his commission. DEGREE (in Mathematics.) The 360th part of tlie circumference of a circle, marked thus (°.) DEGREE (m Law.) An interval of rela- tionship between persons more or less nearly allied. DEGREES ( in a University.) Tides of honour conferred on persons for their merit in the arts £ind sciences. DEGREES OF COMPARISON (m Grammar.) The inflexions of adjectives to e-xpress different degrees of the same quality. D. G. An abbreviation for Dei GraDa, By the Grace of God. I3S DEP DEIST. One wlio believes in a God, but rejects revelation. DE JURE. By right. DELEGATES. Commissioners appoint- ed by a public body to attend to some particular business. DELETERIOUS. An epithet for drugs or any substances of a destructive and poison- ous quality. DELFT ware, a kind of potter's vrare, originally made at Delft in Holland; it is covered with an enamel or white glazing, in imitation of porcelain. DELIQ,UIUM, or Deliquescence. A stwntaneous solution of some salts by expo- sure to the air; ateolving moisture. DELIVERY, or Gaol Delivery (in Jjaw.) A term applied to the sessions of the Court of Common Pleas, &c. by whiclj the gaol is delivered or cleared of prisoner. DELIVERY (in the Mint.) The quantity of moneys coined within a given period. DELIVERY (in Oratory.) The manner of pronouncing an address, as regards the voice and utterance of the speaker. DEMESNE LANDS. Lands which the lord of a manor has in his own hands. DEMI. A half fellow at Magdalen Col- lege at Oxford, (England ;) also, a term in composition signifying half, as, demi-god, a hero who was enrolled among the gods. DEMOCRACY. A form of government where the supreme power is lodged in the peo- ple at large, or in persons chosen by them. DEMONSTRATION. A proof or chain of arguments serving to prove the truth. DEMURRER (in Law.) A pause or stop in a suit upon some difficulty. DEMY. A sort of paper much used in printing. DENIER. One of the earliest French coins, answering nearly to the English penny. DENIZEN. An alien who is naturalized. DENOMINATOR. That part of a fraction which stands below the line, as 10 in the frac- tion five tenths. DENOUEMENT. The developement of tlie plot in a play, or the result of any event. DE NOVO, Afresh, or from the begin- ning. DENSITY. The property of bodies of containing a certain quantity of matter under a certain bulk. DENTIST. One who draws teeth, and prescribes for their diseases. DEODAND. A thing as it were forfeited to God, to atone for tlie violent deatli of a man by misadventure. DEPARTURE. The easting or westing of a ship in resjject to the meridian it depart- ed from. DEPHLEGMATION. The depriving any liquid of its superfluous water. DEPONENT. One who gives informa- tion on oath before a magistrate. DES DEPORTATION. The banishment of a person among the Romans, to some distant island. DEPOSITION. The testimony of a wit- ness taken upon oath. Also, the settlement of substances dissolved in fluids. DEPOT. A place where military stores are deposited. DEPRESSION. The distance of a star from tlie horizon below. DEPRESSION OF THE POLE. la said of a person sailing from the pole to the equator. DEPRESSION OP THE VISIBLE HORIZON, or Dip of the Horizon. Its dipping or sinking below the true horizontal plane, by the observer's eye being above the surface of the sea. DEPUTY. A person appointed by com- mission to act for another. DERELICT. Forsaken, left; as dere- lict lands, lands which the sea has left; dere- lict ships, vessels left at sea, &c. DERIVATIVE (in Granamar.) Any word which is derived from another. DERMESTES. An insect, called in vul- gar language the Leather-eater, destructive to the binding of books. DERNIER. Last, as a tribunal of dernier resort, the last or highest court of appeal. DERVISE. An order of religious persons who practise great austerities on themselves. DESCENSION. An arc of the equator which descends or sets with any sign or point in the zodiac. Descension is either right or oblique, according as it takes place in a right or oblique sphere. DESCENSIONAL DIFFERENCE. The difference between the right and oblique descension of a star, &c. DESCENT. In general, the tendency of heavy bodies towards the earth. DESCENT (in Law.) Hereditary succes- sion to an estate. DESCENT (in Military Affairs.) Landing in a country for the purpose of invasion. DESCRIPTION. An imperfect kind of definition that includes many accidents and circumstances peculiar to an object, without defining its nature precisely. DESERTER. A soldier who runs away from his colours, or goes over to the enemy. DESIDERATUM (in Literature.) What is wanted or inquired after. A work is a desideratum, which, though w^anted, is not executed. DESIGN. The first draught or sketch rf any picture. DESPATCHES, Letters sent to or from a government on public business. DESPOTISM. A form of government where the monarch rules by his sole and sovereign authority. DESUNT CflETERA. The rest want- ing} words put at the end of any chasm or Dlk DBTACHM ENT ^ IHifcT Attn} A Ivcaqndkim NATDfG POl orietdaM%lockor DE»CAIi01iL Ibe^ wLu wioD BB wife PyiiiH Huu >Med danig lXnSB,AaAc£haithrlm,wm^ giftenndilyl I^W. A T^oor vluch fik at cbj; firflbeheiftoftfaeaimlHniira an dbe Eqpiid naliar ob Ae chuI^b inm aqiiBOBg gn^ tfaa Hinui fc rie it o iy sMontod with i^ Bad Ob k made KBBaiie if a deoBler he flkd vith eoid sfirii^ vater, viiea ttie aqaeoaB gBB m die or bfr,- ject under the microscope. DIANA. The goddess of hunting, the daughter of Jupiter and Latona, and twin sister of Apollo ; she is commonly represented with a bow and arrow. Die DIANDRIA (in Botany.) dtases in the Ldonsean meh f^ants as hare with two stamens, as the the nightshade, &c. DIP 129 One of the Bowers the privot, DIAPASON (in Ancient Music.) The in- terval of an octave ; among Musical Instru- ment Makers, the diapason is a scale or mea- sure. DIAPER. A kind of linai for the table, wrought with flowers. DIAPHANOUS. Transparent like glass, DIAPHONIA. The precepts formerly taug^ht for the ib€ of the organ. DlAPHORETICa Medicines which promote poi^iFation. DIAPHRAGM. A muscular membrane whidi divides the thorax fhxn the abdomen. DLARRHGBA. A disorder which consists in the frequait discharge, by stool, of a bilious humour from the intestines. DIARY. An account of what passes in the course of a day. DIATESSERON (in Music.) An interval composed of a greater and less tone. DIATESSERON (in Thedogy.) The four Goep^. DIATRIBEI. A disputation or controversiai DIBBLE. A pointed tool for making hc4eB to plant in. DICEi. Pieces of bone or ivory, of a cubi- cal form, and marked with dots oo each of their kces from one to six. Tha-e are divers ways of making dice to suit the purposes of gamblers and villains : as by sticking a hog's bristle in them, so as to make them run high or low :— -or by drilling and loading them with quidcsilvar, which cheat may te discovered b^ eodeavoaring to balance than by their aspen, amber tree, willow, ozier, &c. kw. DIGIT. A measure equal to three quarters of an inch; also, a character denoting a figure, as 1, for one ; 2, for two, &c. DIGIT (in Astronomy.) The twelftli part of a diameter of the sun or moon. DIGITALIS, or Foxglove. A kind of plant which is for the most part herbaceous, with a root that is either biennial or jxirennial. The stalk of this plant rises two or tliree feet high, and bears spikes of iron coloured or pur- ple flowers. The purple foxglove is a native of England, and is much used in medicine. DIGNITY (in Law.) Honour and au- thority. DIGYNIA (in Botany.) An order in the LirmcBan system, consisting of plants that have two pistils. DILAPIDATION (in Law.) The ruin or damage wliich accrues to a house in conse- quence of neglect DILEMMA. An argument which cannot be denied in any way without involving the party deriying in contradictions. DILETTANTE. A lover of the fine arts. DIMENSION. The measure or compass of a thing ; a line has one dimension, namely, length; a surface two, namely, length and breadth; a solid three, namely, length, breadth, and thickness. DIMINUTIVE (in Grammar.) A word or ending which lessens the meaning of the ori- ginal word ; as, rivulet, a small river. DIOCESAN, A bisliop who has diarge of a particular diocess. DIOCESS. The district or circuit of a bishop's jurisdiction. DIODON. A genus of fishes, consisting of three species, of which the diodon hystrix, or sea porcupine, claims notice. It inhabits the Indian and American seas, and is about two feet in length. It [tossesses the faculty of raising and depressing its spines at pleasure, and likewise of flattening its body, or changing it to a globular form. DIOECIA (in Botany.) A class in the Lin- mean system, cotni)rehending such planti? as have no hermapluraJite flowors, but the male^ DIOPTRICS. That branch of optics which considers the different refractions of light in its passing through different mediums, as air, water, glass, &c. DIP OP THE MAGNETIC NEEDLE. The property of the needle, when rubbed with the loadstone, of inchning the north end below the level of the horizon. DIP OP THE HORIZON. See Depres- sion. DIPHTHONG. Two vowels sounded as one; as, ae. DIPLOMA. A licence or certificate given by colleges, &c. to a clergyman to exercise the ministerial fimctions, or to a physician to prac- tice physic. DIPLOMACY. The functions of an am- bassador residing at a foreign court DIPPING NEETDLE. The magnetical needle so duly poised about an horizontal axis, that, besides its direction towards tlie pole, it will always point to a determined degree below the horizon. The dipping needle was invent- ed by Robert Norman, a compass maker at Ratcliffe, about the year 1580, and arose, ac- cording to his own account of the matter, from the following circumstance : — It was his cus- tom to finisJi and hang the needles of his com- passes before he touched them, and he always found, after the touch, the north point woiUd dip or decline downward, pointing in a direc- tion under the horizon ; so tliat to balance the needle again, he was always forced to put a piece of wax on tlie south end, as a counter- poise. After having observed this effect fre- quently, he was at length led to mark tlie quantity of tlie dip, or to measure tlie greatest angle which the dip would make with the ho- rizon ; he found at London it was 71° GO', but by subsequent experiments the dip is found to decrease about I' A" every year. DIPTERA (in Entomology.) An order in tlie LinnjBan system, comprehending insects tliat have two wings, with a poiser, as the fly, the gnat, &c. DIPUS, the Jerboa, a genus of Mammalia in Natural History, containing four species. DiS DUUSCTION (in A^ooomy.) The na» :tion and Qfther pbtanaienaof a pkneiwii^ ^i»u> pay- DISEASE That state of a living body jiHuch interrnpts any of its functians. DISEMBOGUING. A term applied to rivers which diechar^ themeelves into the a. DISJUNCTIVE. An epithet for coajnac- tions which separate die aoae^ a^ bat, anr, Ac DISLOCATION. ThepaltiDe a bone oat of its place. DISPENSARY. A efavittUe iHtitaiioo, where medicine and advice are given gratis to thepoor. DISPENSATION Cm Law.) An exclusive privilege to do any thing that is odkffwise {N-o- bibited by law. DISPENSATION (in EBcfcsfcwtiral Af &ii8.) An indnigenee granted by the Pope to downatis cfBatae. DI^ENSATORY, or Phabxacopsxa. A book which directs apothecaries in the oom- ■inding or nutkma op medicineaL DISPERiaON j^ Opdcs.) Thedivogea- cy of the rays of ligfat. DISPOSrriONCm MiliiaryAfl&irBL) Tbs adngan army reray for attack or defence. DISPOSITION (inArchitectnreL) Thejost icing an the several ports of a building. DISSECTION. The cutting wu mde r ani- mal bodies, in order to come at the knofidedge otherwise forbidden bf the church DISS^IISIN (in Law.) The wrongfiil put- tmg oat of one d at is s^ed of his freehoM. JISSENTER. Oae who dissents or departs from the forms of the l^aso^ial Church as es- slished in Ei^^nd. DISSIPAinON (in Meifidne.) An insen- sibie loss or oonsmnptian of the minute parts DISSIPATION (in Optics.) The Cirdeof Dismpatinn is that areolar spaice iqfKn there- tma which is takoi iq> by the rays of each ndi in indistinct vision. DISSOLVENT. A liqoor proper for re- ducing a stJid body to the state of a fiuid. dSsOLUTION. The redndng of a solid body into a fluid state^ by the action of some ?nstmam or dissolvent DISSONANCE (m Music) A fisagreea- \Ae interval betweoi two sounds, which, being coat inoed together, o^nds the ear. DIBSTAFF. An imitniment ancieody vBoi DISTEMPER (m Paindng.) Colours not miiced with oil w water, but wMi sixe, whites of eggs, Ac DKSTEMPER' (in Farriery.) A dkease inddnit todogs^ horss, and odier domcatir. DISTICH. A ooqplet or couple of vases in poetrymaking complete sense. DISTILLATtON. A d^rmical proeeiB of drawing out the humid, spnitoons, oleagi- noas, or saline parts (^ nuxed bo&s, by means of heat, these parts being first resolved into a gas or vapour, and then recondensed into a nuid, by passii^ through a spiral tube or worm, immcr^ in coW water, proving them- 132 DIV selves wliflt is called the spirifnous part of the compound, which, submitted again to the same process, becomes pure or rectified spirit. In the preparations of the original compound, and in the management of the results, consists the art of a distiHer. DISTRESS (in Law.) The distraining or seizing upon a person's goods for the payment of rent or taxes, &c. DISTRIBUTION (in Printing.) The taking a form asunder, so as to separate the letters. DISTRIBUTION (in Medicine.) The cir- culation of the chyle with the blood. DISTRIBUTION (in Logic.) The dis- tinguishing a whole into its several constituent parts. DISTRIBUTIVE JUSTICE. Justice ad- ministered by a judge, so as to give every man his due. DISTRIBUTIVE NOUNS. Words which gerve to distribute things into their several orders, as, each, either, every, &c. DISTRICT (in Law.) That circuit or territory within which a man may be forced to make his appearance. DITCH. A trench cut in the ground about a field. DITHYRAMBIC. A sort of hymn an- ciently sung in honour of Bacchus; any poem written with wildness. DITTO, abbreviated D°. The same as the aforesaid ; a term used in accounts. DIVAN. A council of state among the Turks ; also, a court of justice. DIVER. A waterfowl that frequents lakes, and goes with difficulty on land. DIVERGENT, or Divehging. An epi- thet for several things which have the proper- ty of divergency. DIVERGING RAYS (in Optics.) Those which, issuing from a radiant point, continu- ally recede from each other. DIVERGING SERIES (in Mathematics.) A series the terms of which always become larger the farther they are continued. DIVIDEND (in Arithmetic.) The num- ber to be divided. DIVIDEND (in Commerce.) The share of profit in a joint stock, which is to be di- vided among the shareholders; also, that part of a debtor's effects which is to be divided among the creditors. DIVINATION. A practice among the heathens of foretelling fiiture events by the flight of birds or other signs. DIVINEJ. A minister of tlie gospel, a clergyman. DrVINER. One who professes the art of divination ; a conjuror. DIVING. The art of descending under water to a considerable depth, and remaining there for a length of time, as occasion may re- Quire. The practice of diving is resorted to for the recovery of things that are sunk, &c. DOC DIVING BELL. A machine which de- pends on tlie principle, that air maintains it* own space as well as water. Hence, if a bell, or other inverted cavity, filled with air, bo sunk in the water, the air, by its elastic force^ keeps the water out of the vessel, and a per- son or persons may live in the said cavity, and perform any labour at the bottom of tho water, provided they are supplied with air through a tube or pipe, to re-supply the oxygen which they fix by breathing, or by their can- dles. The engraving represents such an ap- paratus with men at work, and in this manner much property lost in wrecks has been re- covered. DIVISION. One of tlie four first rules or operations in arithmetic, by which we find how often one quantity is contained in ano- ther. There are three numbers contained in this operation, namely, the dividend, or num- ber to be divided ; the divisor, or that by which one divides ; and the quotient, or that number which shows how often the second is contain- ed in the first. DIVISION (in MiUtary Affairs.) A body of men commanded by a particular officer. DIVISION (in Music.) That part into which an octave is divided, as quavers, &c. DIVISION (in Printing.) A mark to di- vide compound words, ass (-) in May-pole. DIVORCE (in Law.) A lawful separation of man and wife, pronounced by a competent judge, on cognizance had of tl)e cause. DIURETICS. Medicines which promote the urinary discharge. D. M. Doctor Medicinae, Doctor of Me- dicine. DOCK (in Shipbuilding.) A trench near DOG a tmbonr, fitting for the building and nfair iaecf shipe. DOCK (in Botaay.) A plant which frows wHd, aodinfects com fields; wane specMB of it have medidnal virtoes. DOCK (in Farriery.) The stamp of a horse's tail DOCKET CinCoiBtterce.) A bill with a dhwtion tied to goods. DOCKET (in Law.) A amall pieee of pano- or peidxnent containing tbe heads of alarge wrding; also, a sobscri{iti<^\WN^^'* CMS in the United States, as the nta^i^ bnD- iog, hound, greyhound, spaniel, terrierj poin ter, itc.^ beades thoaeof foreign extractioii, as the Newfoundland dog, the pudel, the Danish dog, the Spaniah btoodhound, &c Tfaewolf, the hyaena, and the fax, are c^ the aame genus. DOG-DAYS. Certain days in the month of July and August, which are usually very hot, owing, as is rappoeed, to the influence of the Dogstar, which thai rises and sets with the sun. DOGE. The chief magistrate in the re- poUics of Venice and Genoa. DOGFISH. A fish of the shark kind. DOGGREL. An hregular kind of vwsi- fication. DOGMATIC SECT. An ancient sect of f^ysicians, of wbich Hippocrates and Gialen were at the head. They supposed princi{deBy and fi-cHn them drew inferences «|yliraHe to particular cases; they were opposed to th« empirici, or theorists, answoing to the qaa<^ of modern days. DOGSTAR, or Sirius. A star rf the greatest magnitade in the constellation Canis. DOG'S TOOTH. A plant, the root of which re semb les the tooth of a dog. DOLPHIN. An animal which, though commcmly reckoned among the fidies, is da»- ed by Tinnapna under the tnammjilii^ It has an cUong bod^, firom two to four feet in length, and swims with great rapidity. DOME. A vaulted roof or churdi. DOMESDAY BOOK. An ancient record, made in the reign of William the Conqueror ; or a book of the s'jrvey of England, con- taining an account of all the demeroes of the crown. DOMINICAL LETTER. One of the first sevea letters in the alfrfiabet, with whidi the Sundi^ throughout the \idiole year are marked in the Almanac After the torm of twenly.eigbt years, the same letters return in the sameoraer again. DOMINO. A game playad by two or four persons, with twenty-eigltt pieces of ivory, caUed cards. DOMINO (in Eodeaastical Ati&irs.) A sort <^ hood worn by canons of a cathedral. DON. A title of b(Hiour in Spain, answer- ing to Dom, or Dominus, Lord. DONATIVE (in Law.) A benefice given to a dak by the patrwi, without presentation to the bi^iop. DONJON (in Fortification.) A tower or redoubt, where the troops of a fortress may retreii in case c£ necessity. DORIC ORDER (in Architecture.) The most ancient of the -Grecian orders, made, as Jl2 134 DOW is said, in imitation of the hovel« erected by the original inhabitants of Greece. w II 1 1 e^ DORMER, or DORMENT (in Architec- ture.) A window made in the roof of a build- ing. DORMOUSE. An animal of the mouse kind, which makes a bed of moss or dry leaves in a hollow tree, or under shrubs ; lays in a store of nuts or other food, and on the approach of cold weatlier, rolls itself in a boll, and sleeps the greatest part of the winter. niiiunnwittH DORSAL. An epithet for what belongs or lelatee to the back, as the dorsal fins of the fishes. DOSE. The quantity of any medicine pre^ scribed by the physician to be taken by the patient at one time. DOSE (in Chymistry.) The quantity of any substance which is added to any solution, in order U) produce any chymical effect. DOUBLE ENTENDRE. An ambiguous expression, mostly intended to convey some improper insinuation. DOUBLING A CAPE. A sea term, for sailing round or passing beyond it. DQUBLON. A Spanish coin, varying in value from $13 to $17. DOUCEUR. A gift made to gain the fa- vour or interest of a person. DOVE. A wild pigeon, of which there are three sorts, namely, Uie ring dove, the largest of the pigeon tribe, so wild that it cannot be domesticated ; the stock dove, tliat is migrato- ry ; and the turtle dove, a shy and retired bird, living in the woods. DOVE-TAILING. A method of joining one biy&rd into another, by pins in the one fit- ted to holes in the other. DOWAGER (in Law.) Properly, a vridow DRA who enjoys a dower ; commonly applied ae a title to the widows of princes and nobility. DOWER (in Law.) The portion which a widow has of her husband's lands at his de- cease. DOWLAS. A sort of linen cloth. DOWN. The finest and softest part of the featho^ of a goose, &c. DOWNS. A bank of sand formed by the j?ea along its shoi-es ; also a large open pkdn. DR. An abbreviation for debtor and doctor. DRACHM. The eighth part of an ounce DRACO. A constellation in the northern hemisphere. DRACO VOLANS. A meteor which ap- pears in the form of a flying dragon in cold marshy countries, consisting of phosphuretted or carburetted hydrogen. DRAFT (in Commerce.) A bill drawn by one person upon anotlier for a sum of money. DRAG. A sort of hook to catch hold of things under water. DRAGOMAN. An interpreter in the eastern countries, whose office it is to interpret for the European ambassadors at the Ottoman court DRAGON. See Flying Dragon. DRAGON PLY, or Devil's Needle. An insect which hovers over stagnant waters, having four extended wings; they are fur- nished witli jaws ; the antennae are shorter than the thoi-ax; and tlie tail of tlie male is terminated by a kind of hooked forceps. There are many species, witli a great diversity of colours. DRAGON'S BLOOD. A gum or resin of a tree in the Canaries and New Spain, for- merly called Draco Arbor, now Astragalus ; it is hard, compact, moderately heavy, and of a dusky red colour, but of a bright scarlet wh^n powdered. DRAGON'S HEAD. One of the nodes of the planets, particularly the moon, as distin- guished from the dragon's tail. The former, marked thus, {^) is the northward point, as she ascends from the soutli to the north; the latter is the southward point, marked (^.) DRAGOON. A soldier who fights some- times on foot and sometimes on horseback. DRAGS. Floating pieces of timber, joined so that they may carry a load down a river. DRA " DRAIN. A watercourse sunk in a field for the purpose of carryinff off the water. DRAINING.or LAND DRAINING. The process of carrying water off from the land, sometimes by means of open drains, but more commonly by drains made to a certain depth undei- the ground, which are fdled with biislies so as to achnit the water. DRAM. See Drachm. DRAMA. A play, or any place fitted for theatrical representation. Dramas are either tragedies, comedies, operas, or farces. DRAMATIS PERSONiE. The performers and characters in any particular place. DRAPEai. A seller of cloth ; as, a woollen draper and a linen draper. DRAPERY. In sculpture and painting, signifies the representation of the clothing of hiunan figures, and also hangings, tapestry, and curtams. DRAUGHT, or DRAFT (in Architecture.) The figure of an intended building, described on pa^r. DRAUGHT (in Navigation.) The quantit^r of water which a ship di-aws when she is afloat DRAUGHT (in Military Affairs.) A de- tachment of soldiers drawn dT from the main army. DRAUGHT (in Husbandry.) What iier- tains to drawing, as draught horses. DRAUGHTS. A game played with pieces on a checkered board, like a chess Ixard, where by particular movements they are enabled to take each otlier, according to certain rules. DRAUGHTSMAN. One who follows the profession of teiking plans and sketches of build- ings and places. DRAWBACK ^in Commerce.) An allow- ance made to mercliants on the exportation of goods which paid duty inwards. DRAWBRIDGE. A bridge made so as to let up and dovm at pleasura DRO 136 DRAWER OP A BILL. One who writes and signs a bill for a sum of money to be paid to another. DRAWING. The art of representing ob- jects on paper, canvass, &c. by means of a ]>en- cil or a pen ; also, Uie representations so made, as drawings in India ink, pencil drawings, &c. DR A Wl NGROOM. The room to whicli, in polished society, ladies witlidraw after dinner parlies. DRAW-WELL. A deep wdl, in which water is drawn up by means of a wheel, a rop^ and a bucket. DRAY. A brewer's cart DRAYMAN. The driver of a dray. DREAM. The imagination, fancy, 6r ro- verie, of a sleeping man ; which is said to Ic dcducible from the three following causes : 1. The impressions and ideas lately received, and particularly those of the preceding day. 2. The state of the body, particularly the stomach and brain ; and, 3. Association. DREDGE. A kind of net for catching oysters. DREDGING. The process of catching oysters by the removing or dragging the mud with dredges, «S:c. DRESS. Clothing for the body. DRESS (in Husbandry.) Any staff, such as loam, sand, &c. which is put on land to im- prove the soil. DRESSER (in Military Affairs.) One who dresses a line of soldiers, or makes them stand with an even front. DRESSER (in Housewifery.) A bench on which meat is dressed or prepared for tlie cook. DRESSING (in Husbandry.) The clean- ing of hemp, flstx, ng meralM'ane, the albiunen or white, and the yolk. EGLANTINE. The wild rose. EGRET. A bird of the heron tribe. EGYPTIAN ARCHITECTURE. Dis- tinguished by capitals like the engraving, and lately much introduced. EIDER-DUCK. A kind of duck remarka- ble for the softness of its down. EIDOURANION. An exhibition of the heavens and the heavenly bodies. EJECTMENT. A writ or action which lies for the lessee for a term of years, who is cast out before his term is expired; also, the putting any one out of an estate by a legal process. ELASTIC. That power which a body has of returning to the form from which it has been distorted. Thus, the branch of a tree, the Uadc of a sword, &c are said to be elastic, because, if they are bent to a certain degree, and then let go, they will of themselves return to their original form. Hence elastic bodies are such as admit of having their form altered by the application of a force or pressure, on the removal of which they will recover their original form or figure. In this respect, all l)odies which come within our knowledge, are comprehended under one of these three dis- tinctions. If two bodies, when pressed to- gether, Buflfer an alteration in their form, and if, aflerwards, on removing that pressure, they recover their original figures, they are called elastic. If, when pressed, their forro» ELB «re not in Uie least altered, Uiey are called hard And if, when being pressed as above, they al ter their forms, and retain tlie eanie aftt-r the press«re is discontinued, they are called soft. And both these last kinds of bodies are termed non-ela^jtic We know, however, of no bodies that are perfectly hard, soft, or elastic, but all partake of tliese qualities in a greater or less degree. Water was a long time supposed to be inoompressiUe, and perfectly non-elastic; but experience shows that this supposition was erroneous ; and air, which is the most elastic fluid we know of, is now known not to pos sess that property in a perfect degree. Vari ouB hypotheses have b^n advanced by philo- sophers to account for this importemt proper ly, some attributin? it to one cause, and some to another ; it is, however, now more general- ly suppoeed to arise from the presence of ca loric, and the attractive and repulsive powers that have place between the minute particles which constitute a body, whether solid or fluid. ELECTION (in Law.) The choice of two remedies, either of which, when chosen, the party is compelled to abide. ELECTION. Theclioosingofpersonstoa particular office or situation by a majority of voices, as the election of members of con- gress, members of a legislature, town officers, and to the admission of members into socie- ties ; sometimes practised by show of hands, at others, by every elector giving his vote se- paratdy, with an oath in r^ard to his right and integrity ; at other times, by black and white bails put into a box, called a ballot box ; and occasionally by folding pieces of paper with the name of the candidate printed or writ- tt^ on the same. ELECTIVE ATTRACTION. Another name for chymical affinities. ELECTOR (in Poliucal Aflairs.) The title of such German princes as formerly had a voice in the election of the emperor of Ger- many. ELECTOR. Any one who has the right of giving his voice at an election, particular- ly at an election o( members of legislatures, r the most usual experiments in electricity, are two or three glass tubes, from three to five feet in length, and an inch and a half in diameter, one of which should be closed at one end, and furnished at the other end with a brass cap and stopcock, to rarefy or condense the en- closed air ; insulated stools or supports of va- rious forms, wires, fine Iwass chains, sticks of sealing wax, or cylinders of baked wood, for producing the negative electricity ; proper rub- bers, as black oiled silk, with amalgam upon it, and soft new flannel or hare or cat skins tanned with the hair on ; coated jars, or plates of glass, either single or combined in a batte- ry for accumulating electricity; m<^ rods, or dischargers; an electrical machine, elec- trometers, &c ELECTRICAL BATTERY. This is merely a combination of a number of coated glass jars, which serve as a continuation of the conductor, the outside of them being in actual or virtual contact with the rubber, and tlie disturbed plate being separated only by the thickness of the glass, on which account its intei^ty is greatly increased. The sud- den restoration of the two sides produces as- tonishing effects on any interposed semi-con- ducting substances, melting and dispersing them, and even killing animals like ligntning. ELECTRICAL EEL. A particular sort of fish, so called fi-om its power of producing an electrical shock whenever it is touched. ELECTRICAL JAR. See Leyden Phial. ELECTRICAL KITE. A contrivance de- vised by Dr. Prankhn, for verifying his hy- pothesis respecting the identity of electricity and lightning. It consists uf a large thin silk handkerchief, extended and fastened at the four 142 ELE corners to two slight strips of cedar, and ac- commodated with a tail, loop, and string, so as to rise in the air like a paper kite. To the top of the upright stick of the cross was fixed a sharp pointed wire, rising a foot or more above the wood, and to the end of the twine, next the hand, was attached a silk riband. Prom a key suspended at the union of the twine and silk, when tfee kite is raised during a thunder storm, a phial may be charged, and electric fire col- lected, as is usually done by means of a rubbed glass tube or globe : kites made of paper, co- vered with varnish, or with well boiled linseed oil, in order to preserve them from the rain, Avith a stick and cane bow, like those of school- boys, will answer the purpose extremely well, particularly in determining the electricity of the atmosphere. ELECTRICAL MACHINE. The princi pal part of the electrical apparatus, so construct- ed as to be capable of exciting a great quantity ef the electric fluid, and exhibiting its eflfects in a very sensible manner. It is constructed in various forms, but the cylindrical machine is in most common use. This consists of a glass cylinder, fixed in such a manner that it may be turned with a winch ; a cushion, sup- ported by a glass pillar, and having a piece of silk, which comes between it and the cylin- der ; and a tube, supported by a glass pillar, which is called the prime conductor, or sim- ply the conductor. A more modern inven- tion, called the Plate Machine, is here repre- sented. ELECTRICAL RUBBER. A part of the electrical apparatus, consisting of black oiled silk, which serves to aid the friction in tlie electrical machine. ELECTRICAL SHOCK. The sudden ex- plosion between the opposite sides of a charged electric ; also, the effect produced on the frame 4n the act of being electrified. ELECTRICITY, or Electric Powbk. That property first discovered in amber of at- BLE tracting light bodies when excited by heat or friction. This property, which derives its name from the Greek Electron, amber, in which it was first observed, has since been found in other bodies, as sealing wax, agate, and most kinds of precious stones, and has also, by subsequent discoveries, been found capable of being communicated under different circumstances. Dr. Franklin proved, by a variety of experiments, that the lightning spark of electricity, and the lightning thai flashes from the clouds in a thunder storm, aie exactly of tlie same kind, and operate in tlie same manner. ELECTRICITY. The science which treats of the electric power, and its various laws, ope- rations, effects, experiments, &c. ELECTRICITY, ANIMAL. Some fishes have the property of giving shocks analogous to those of artificial electricity; namely, the torpedo, thegymnotus electricus, and the silu- rus electricus. If the torpedo, while standing in water, or out of water, but not insvdated, he touched with one hand, it generally communi- cates a trembling motion or slight shock to the hand. If the torpedo be touched with both hands at the same time, one hand being appli- ed to its under and the other to its upper sur- face, a shock will be received exactly like that occasioned by the Lcyden phial. The shock given by the torpedo when in air is about four times as strong as when in water ; and when the animal is touched on lx)th surfaces by the same liand, the thumb being applied to one surface, and the middle finger to the opposite, the shock is much stronger than when the cir- cuit is formed by both hands. The gymnotus electricus, or electrical eel, possesses all the electric properties of the torpedo, but in a supe- rior degree. When small fish are put into tlie water wherein the gymnotus is kept, they are generallv stunned or killed by the shock. ELECTRICITY, History of. It does not appear that the ancients had any thing more than an imperfect and partial knowledge of the electric fluid. Thales, the Milesian, who lived about six hundred years before Christ, was aware of the electrical property of amber, that when rubbed it would attract light bodies to itself; and Theophrastus observed that lyncurium or tourmjilin possessed the same property ; b)it beyond this there is no mention of the subject, either by this or any other writer, until the seventeentli century, when Dr. William Gilbert, a native of Col- chester, published his treatise, • De Magnete,' ^ in which we find many important and interest- |j| ing particulars. These received farther illus- " tration from the experiments of Boyle, Otto Guericke, Dr. Wall, and some others, but more especially from Mr. Hawksbee, who, in his work on electricity, first noticed the elec- trical power in glass, and the light proceeding from it. He also first heard the snapping noise that accompanies excitation, and noticed the DIA different ph^omena relating to deetrical at tractioD and repulsion : besides, by introducing the glass globe into the electrical apparatns, he much facilitated his own experiments and tliose of others. After an inter\'al of about twenty years, Mr. Stephen Grey added very material- ly to the science of electricity by niunerous im portant experiments. He first showed how the power of native electrics might be commu- nicated to other bodies in which it cannot be excited, by supporting them on silken lines hair lines, cakes of resin, or dass. He also more accturatdy distinguished between elec- trics and non-electrics, and displayed the effect of electricity on water more clearly that Gil- bert had done. The experiments of Mr. Grey were eluci- dated and enlarged by M. du Fay, member of the Academy of Sciences at Paris. He ob- served that electrical operations were obstruct- ed by great heat, as well as by a moist air ; that all bodies, both solid and fluid, would re- ceive electricity, when placed on warm or dry glass or sealing wax ; that those todies which are naturally Uie least electric have the great est degree of electricity communicated to them by the approach of the excited tube. He first observed the electric spark from a living body suspended on silken lines, and established a principle first suggested by Otto Guericke, that all electric Wies attract others that are not so, and repel them as soon as they are be- come electric by the vicinity or contact of the electric body. He likewise distinguished electricity into two kinds, which he called vi- treous, as bdonging to glass, rock crystal, «5c. and resinous, as applied to that of amber, gum lac, &c. ; the former of these has since been called positive electricity, and the latter nega- tive. Mr. Grey resumed his eiperrmenta in 1 734, the result of which wae the discovery of conductors. He also concluded from several experiments that the electrical power was of the same nature as lliat of thunder and light- ning. Desaguliers and otlier experimental- ists^in Prance, Ekigland, and Crermany, fol- lowed np the experiments of Mr. Grey with further researches, which displayed tlte power of etectricity in new forms, particularly by the discovery that if electricity be aoctunula- ted in a phial, it may be discHarged agam so as to occasion the etectric shock. Mr. Van Kleist, of Leyden, first observed the property of the phial, and Cunaeus followed it by ex- hibiting the experiment Mr. Muschenbroeck, who also tried tlie experlmoit with a very thin bowl, assured M. R means bidiftreitf artists. It is, however, famnSiy snpposec^ that there are ao ^ — '-^ either in aodpture, painting, wr ENN 147 eammngf prior to thoeeof Etruscan origi- nal. Some of tboae which are preserved in the British Mnaeom are exceedingly nide, and evidently executed with the graver only upon a flat sariaee^ and if filled with ink and run throng a printing press, provided the plate would endure the operation, might produce a &ir and perfect impression. The art of engraving on their shields was practised by the Saxons, in comnnm with the other northern tribes. Alfired the Great en- couraged this among the other arts, and the works of the Saxon artistai, as their shrines and riii^rfn, rose by his eocooragement and that of im soccessors, coi^iderably in estima tion not ooty in Ekigland, but on the continent. Strutt mentions a curious remnant of antiquity in the Museum at Oxford, namely, a very valuable jewd, made of gold, and richly Vtdonwd with a kind of work resembling fila- E, in the midst of which is seen the half re of a man, supposed to be Saint Cuthbert back of this jewel, which was ex^raved by oonunand of Alfred, is ornamaoted with foliage very ridtfolly executed. Saint Dunstan, the edAntei archbishq) of Canterbury, who died A. D. 988, is ako noted for his skiU'in the arts. Osborn, his biographer, onamerates among his other endowments that he could ' scalpello im- primere ex auro, argento, aere, et ferro.' After the conquest, it appears that engraving, which had hitherto been mostly followed in conjunction with the sister arts of carving and chasing, was now followed as a distinct art, and carried to a higher state of perfection, as may be learned from the brass plates so fre- qoendy to be met with in the churches or p a iabm by Mr. Crwifkahank. of Woolwie^ which wh ed a galvanic troli^i^ and oonaisls of a boor of fadked woodl, in which pliiBs of or of silver and sine, aoldered together edgeS) are oementad in anchamsnner ive a mmdnr of water-tight odk^ cor- to the nmnfaer of the aeries; this to remedy die defect of the voltUB pik^ , on aooovBttof theloas of nsoistare^ kaes inafewdiys; botl^Mr. ilsacdvi^maybe renew ed fay filling the oeOs 15* GAMBOGE. A yefiow nainons i ii d is lMP S and liy paintenL It is the prodaoe of n 174 GAR GAR tree native of Cambogia or Cambaja, in the East Indies, GAME. All sorts of birds and beasts that are objects of the chase. The laws which par- ticularly protect this sort of property are known by the name of the Game Laws. By these laws, in England, certain qualifications of property are required to give a person the privilege of being allowed to kill game; and penalties are imposed on all persons who kill game either without such qualification or at improper seasons ; likewise, the sale of game is prohibited under every circumstance. At- tempts have been repeatedly made in the Eng- lish parliament to procure a repeal, either wholly or in part, of these laws, which are thought to be oppressive in their operation. GAME. Any sjiort or amusement which affords a subject of contest, and a display of skill or superiority. GAMECOCK. A cock bred to fight. GAMESTER. One who is viciously ad- dicted to playing at games. GAMING. The wanton and extravagant playing at games for purposes of gain. GAMUT (in Music^ The table or scale of notes laid down by Guido, and marked by the monosyllables ut, re, mi, fa, sol, la ; also the first note in the scale. GANG (among Mariners.) A select num- ber of a ship's crew appointed on any parti- cular service. GANG (in the Police.) ' A number of per- sons who go or herd together for wicked pur- GANGLIONS. Small, hard, knotty tu- mours, formed on the nervous and tendinous parts. GANGRENE. A mortification in its first beginning. GANGWAY (among Mariners.) The name of several ways or passages from one part of a ship to another. GANTLOPE, or GANTLET (in Military Affairs.) An old punishment in which the criminal, running between the ranks, receives a lash from every man. GAOL (in Law.) A prison for the confine- ment of ci iniinals or debtors. GAOL DELIVERY. The clearing of a prison by a judicial condemnation or acquittal of the prisoners. GARB. A wheatsheaf, signifying peace and plenty, in coats of arms. GAREIEN. a plot of ground enclosed and cultivated with extraordinary care, and fur- nidied with the fine kinds of plants and flow- ers, for pleasure and use. GARDENING. The process of tilling a garden and keeping it in order. GARDENING, Hi.story of. Gardening is one of those domestic arts so essentially connected with the refined enjoyments of man- kind, that with a garden has ever been asso- ciated every idea of cultivation and pure plea- sure. From Holy Writ wc leara tlmt our fii-st parents, before their fall, pas.sed their lives in a garden, and their po.sterity, al- though, according to the denunciation of their Maker, doomed to till the ground with the sweat of their brow, nevertheless have at all times endeavoured to sweeten their labour by bringing home to themselves the enjoyments of cultivation within the narrow circle of their own habitation. The accounts of gardens among the ancients are confined to those of princes or gi-eat men, as the garden of Solo- mon and the garden of Alcinous the Phasa- cian king, which is minutely de.scribed by Homer in his Odyssey. The hanging gardens of Babylon, particularly spoken of by Diodo- rus and Strabo, may be reckoned among the wonders of art. Each side extended four hundred feet, so that the area of the base was nearly an acre. They rose with terraces, constructed one above another, and supported Avith pillars to the height of four hundred feet. These terraces were formed of stone, covered with reeds, and cemented with bitu- men, over which was laid a double row of bricks, and then a layer of earth of sufiicient depth for plants to grow in it. The Persian kings also dispkyed their magnificence in their gardens, which they took care should contain all that was useful as well as beautiful. Their trees were ranged in straight lines and regular figures, and the margins of the walks were lined with tufLs of roses, violets, and other odoriferous flowers. Firs and planes were their favourite trees. The Greeks appear to have derived their ideas of gardening from the Persians, if we may judge from the allusions of ^vriters to tliis subject. Xenophon particularly admires the garden of Cyrus at Sardis. The narcis- sus, the violet, the rose, the ivy, the pines, and other plants chosen by the Persians, either for then- beauty or their fragrance, were the theme of praise among the Grecian poets and philosophers. They also consulted shade, fresh breezes, and the beauties of verdant scenery, as we learn from the vale of Tempe described by jElian, and the shady groves of Athens described by Plutarch. With the beauties of nature they also associated those of art, particularly such as derived an interest from their religious or social attachments. Hence we find that their gardens were deco- rated with temples or altars dedicated to their gods, or the tombs of their ancestors, or of great men whose memory they held dear. Their favourite fruits were the vine, the fig, the pomegranate, and the melon. The first garden mentioned among the Ro- mans is that of Tarquinius Superbus, which abounded with flowers, chiefly roses and pop- pies. As the Roman people extended their conquests, and their intercourse with other nations became more frequent, they increased in luxurious and expensive indulgences, GAS whkh they di^iayed ia the deoonluaa of their gaidens. LoeaQas, the cootfoom of Mkhndaftes^ who iotrodooed from Asia the cherry, the peach, and the afmco^ first gave the Romans a spedmea of Aaitir grandem*, in his garden near Baiae, in Namlea, which WW remarkaUe fer prafigioas worira of art, as and numenxM costly embdlislmienls. Thk gave that tone of artificiality to the Boman gavdeu which was fiir so many oentnriesafta^ retained in Earope. Slopes, terraces, a wil- dorneai^ sfarBfas methodically trimmed or cut into oertnn dia|W8, a marble basin, artificial fbontaini^ or a caw ca de fi«ning into the basin, b^ trees alternately pbnteS widi pfames, a straigfat walk, from which issued others, parted off by hedges of box, and apf^ trees, with obdi^ plarad between erery two ; these were the ingredients of a Roman garden, as descrfiied by Pliny the younger, in which was waoled noUiii^ bat the decoration of a par- terre to make a garden in the reign of IVajan tu serve far a deacriptioa of one in die sevcn- teeitfh oentnry. A more correct taste in die art <^ gardening has obtained within the last centory. Natnre now derives every possiUe assistance fran art without jpsing any thing ci her aimi^idty. GARLAND. An omament of flowers made for the head or other puipoees. GARLAND (amot^ Mariners.) A collar of rope wound np aboot the head of a main mast, to keep die sfaroods from galUng-. GARLIC. A bolboas root, eanmBting of many small tnbotJes indaded in its coats. It hw a strong smdl and an acrid tast^ bat is much Qsedfcr food. GARNET. A red gem of a Imiwmsh tmt, rBBRmhJhg the seed of a pomegranate. GARDnSEDiEINT (in Law.) A warning givai to any one for his appearance in court. GARRISON. A place c£ deieoce occupied by troo ps; al so, the troMH themselves. GARTER (m Heraldry.) The prineqal badge of the hi^iest order of knighthood in England, called die Most Noble Order of the Garter. GARTEai, Obdeb of the. An order of kn^fatB institQied by Eklward UL wfaieh ooo- ststs of twen^-fiiz knights companions. The h2ibit and ensignB of tlus order are the garter, mantle, cap, md cdlar. The badge of the order is the image of Saint George, called the George. GAS. A ehyraical term derived fiom the Ciennan geist, spirit, denoting an dastie aerial floid, of which there are diflmnt kinds, some being add, as earfaooic add; some alkaUea^ as GAS LIGHT. Light prodaced by gas in lamps, ice, Tbas gas, which is a on a£ oxygen and hydit^en, is ear- by pipes and burnt at the orifice of It is produced adier from pit coal, GAS 175 whale oil, or resin. The process far prodsdng coalgasisasfaOowB. The coQj,bemg broken to a convenient six^ is fdaced in oUoog cKt iroarelorta^ ranged in furnaces to keep them ataredh6at,andallthev men and least sulphur. Afier the discovery of obtaining gas firom coal, attempts were made to extract it fitxn odier sufastanoesL The method of nrocuring it finom ofl is said to hove orignnted in an at- tend made in 1814 to convert coal tar into gas. Since that period numerous woiks iMve been oonstnictea in diflferoit parts of the country far the manufacture of od gas, iHiici% in the opinioa of many, is preferable to dw coal gas. GASOMETER, or GAZOMETE& A reservoir Sar hohyng gas afier it has been evdved in the retocts, whence it is pressed in- to pipes far oonsnn^ition. It c onsi sts of a veesd inverted in water, and the gas passes imder it, and raises it np by its ^sticity or momenta, till it is full, and when wanted, weights are {daoed upon it. D is die |Hpe firom the retort, or furnace^ A; Pisthetadk filled with water ; G is the igasoaieter or ves- sel inverted; and Y the pal%s by which the weight, W, regulates the gasoineter in ascent and descmL It is made of thin tinned iron pbt^ and moady provided with some oootri- vance farmeasurinK the quantity of gas it oan> 17& GEM GASTRIC JUICE. A fluid separated by the capillary vessels in the stomach, and ser- ving as the principal solvent of the food. This juice in a healthy subject is inodorous, of a saltish taste, and limpid like water. GAVELKIND. A tenure or custom in Kent, England, whereby tlie lands of the fa- ther were divided equally at his death among his sons. GAUGING. The art of measuring the ca- pacities of all kinds of vessels. GAUNTLET. An iron glove for the hand, which was formerly used in single combat. It is borne in coat armour. GAUZE. A very thin sort of silk. GAZELLE. An animal partaking the na- ture of both goat and deer, but forming a dis- tinct kind; it is so very fleet that it is hunted only by tlie falcon and the ounce. Of all animals, it has the most beautiful eye ; eastern poets compare the eyes of tlieir mistresses to tliose of the gazelle. GAZETTE. The name of a Venetian coin, about a half-penny in England, or a sous in France, and transferred to the first printed newspaper, because sold at that price, and from this origin Gazettes spread over Europe, and newspapers have now become almost necessa ries of life, and as useful as agreeable. The first Gazette in England was published in 1665, at Oxford, where the court then was. GAZETTEER. A writer or pubUsher of a Gazette ; also, the title of a geographical dictionary. GELATINE, or Jelly. An animal sub- stance, soluble in water, and capable of assu ming an elastic or tremulous consistence when cooled, and liquefying again by the application of heat, as glue and isinglass. GEM. A precious stone ; or a sort of siliceous earth, consisting of silica and alu- mina, with a small portion of lime and oxide of iron. The gem is remarkable for its hard- ness and internal lustre. Under this name is comprehended the diamond, ruby, sapphire, hyacinth, beryl, garnet, chrysolite, &c. To these have been added rock crystals, the finer flints of pebbles, the cat's eye, the oculus mundi, the chalcedony, the moon stones, the onyx, the cornelian, the sardonyx", agate, &c. GEN The imitation of antique gems, by taking the impressions and figures upon them, in glass of the colour of the original gem, or on sealing wax or brimstone, has been practised at dif^ ferent times by persons who, in respect to the first method of taking them on glass, have kept the art to themselves, and sutTered it to die with them. But the process adopted by Mr. Romberg, which has also been communi- cated by him to the world, is highly esteemed for the perfection to which he has brought the art. From the engraved gems of the king's cabinet, he took such exact resemblances of the originals as sometimes to deceive the nicest judges, who mistook tliem for the true antique stones. His method consists in taking the impression of the gem in a very fine earth, and then conveying the impression from the earth to a piece of half melted glass. GEMINI, the Twins. A constellation and sign in the zodiac, marked thus H. GEN. An abbreviation for General and GENDARMES, or GENS D'ARMES. A select body of horse in the French army, who are now much employed by the police. GENDER (in Grammar.) A distinction in nouns to mark the sexes ; genders are either masculine, for the male sex ; feminine, for the female sex ; or neuter, for those which are of neither sex. GENEALOGY. A series or succession of ancestors ; also, an account of the relations and alliances of any person or family. GENERAL (in Military Affairs.) An officer in chief, to whom the command of troops is intrusted ; also, a particular beat of drum in the morning to give notice to the foot to march. GENERALISSIMO. The supreme gene, ral or commander in chief of an army. GENERAL ISSUE ([in Law.) That plea which traverses or denies at once the whole declaration or indictment. GENERAL OFFICERS. All officers above the rank of lieutenant-colonel in the line. GENERATING (in Geometry.) A term for a hne or figure which by its motion pro- duces any other figure. GENERIC CHARACTER (in Natural History.) The cheu-acter which distinguishes the genera or general kinds of plants, animals, &c. from each other. This character belongs to all the species of the same genus or kind. GENERIC NAME (in Natural History.) The name of any genus or kind of animal, plant, or mineral. This name can be described only by describing the generic character. GENET. An animal of the weasel kind, resembling the civet cat in its musk smell. GENEVA. See Gin. GENITIVE CASE. The second case in Latin and Greek nouns, which denote posses- sion. It is marked in English by s with an apostrophe, thus ('«.) [ GEO OENIl. Good or evil spirits, much thought of in the eastern nations. The Tales of the Genii profess to give an accoimt of their pro- ceedings and dealings with mankind. 'GENTILES. A name given by the Jews to all who were not of the twelve tribes of Is- rael ; among Christians, it is the name of all heathens who have not embraced tlie Christian feith. GENTLEMAN. A man of probity, good manners, and intelligence. Anciently, one above the state of a vet^man. GENTRY (in EngHsh Law.] Tlie order and rank of genllemeo, descended from an- cient families, that had always borne coat ar- mour. GENTOO. A native of Hindostan. GENUS (in Natural History.) A subdi- vision of a class or order of natural objects, animal, vegetable, or mineral, and having under it different species or varieties. GENUS (among Logicians.) That which is common to a number of individuals ; the summum genus, or higher genus, is that which appertains to the greatnstra- ted; it is a proUon'when it proposes any thing to be done^^as to divide a given line into two equal parts, or to raise a j^rpendicolar, 18S GEO &c. ; and a theorem when it proposes some thing to be shown, as that triangles of the same base and altitude are equal to each other, or that all the angles in the same segment of an arch are equal, &c. GEOMETRY, History of. The origin of geometry is ascribed by Herodotus to the Egyptians, who, in consequence of the inunda- tions of the Nile, which carried away all their landmarks, were imder the necessity of distin- guishing and laying out their lands by the consideration of their figure and quantity, whence the word geometry in the Greek sig- nifies literally land-measuring. The Greeks, who cultivated this science more than any other people, doubtless learned the rudiments from the Egyptians ; fijr Thales, who travel- led into Egypt and acquired a sufficient know- ledge of astronomy to calculate, must also have first become acquainted \vith the princi- ples of geometry to assist him in his astro- nomical inquiries. Pythagoras, the pupil and friend of Thales, distinguished himself by his discx)veries in arithmetic, as well as geometry. He invented the multiplication table, called after him the Abacus Pythagoricus ; and in geometry he discovered the thirty-second and forty-seventh propositions in the first book of Euclid's Elements. Soon after tliis flourished Anaximander, Anaximenes, Anaxagoras, Cle- ostratus, ^nopides, and Zenodorus, all cele- brated geometricians, of whose works nothing remains except of the last. They were suc- ceeded by Hipparchus, who rendered himself celebrated by ihe quadrature of the lines called after him, as also by his attempt at the qua- drature of the cube, which was a matter of great interest among the ancient mathemati- cians, and is said to have taken its rise in an answer of the oracle at Delphi, which, when consulted on the occasion of some public ca- lamity, answered, ' Double the altar,' which was an exact cube. Notwithstanding the failure of Hipparchus, others renewed the attempt, which, although it proved unsuccess- ful as to that particular object, nevertheless is said to have led to the discoveries of other geometrical properties, as the conchoid of Ni- comedes, the cissoid of Diodes, and tlie qua- dratrix of Dinostratus. This latter geometri- cian was the follower and friend of Plato, whose devotion to the science of geometry was such that he caused it to be inscribed over the door of his school, ' Let no one enter here who is ignorant of geometry.' To Plato we are indebted for that branch of geometiy known by the name of conic sec- tions, of which his scholar, Aristeus, is said to have composed five books that are highly spoken of by the ancients, but are not now ex- tant. Eudoxus and Menecliemus were also disciples of Plato, and distinguished them- selves, the former in geometry as well as as- tronomy, the latter by his application of conic sections to many problems. After an interval GEO of ninety years from their time, that is, al)ont three himdred years before Christ, flourished Euclid, who, by collecting and methodizing all the principles of geometry then known into a regular system, called his Elements of Geometry, secured to himself a celebrity which, in point of extent, has never been sur- passed, and perhaps scarcely ever equalled, liis work having ever since been considered as the standard of all geometrical knowledge. Euclid was quickly followed by Archimedes, a mathematical genius, who added many dis- coveries to the sciences of geometry, mechanics, optics, and hydrodynamics. In geometry he discovered the ratio between the sphere and the circumscribing cylinder, found the quadra- ture of the parabola, and the solidity of its co- noid ; he invented the spiral which bears his name, and discovered its rectification, besides a variety of other important geometrical propo- sitions, many of which are extant, and attest the skill and ingenuity of the author. Apollonius, of Perga, who, from his wri- tings, acquired the name of the Great Geome- trician, flourished about thirty years after Ar- chimedes. His work on the Conic Sections, which is the principal piece of his extant, was in all probability the best of its kind in that day, and has since been the groundwork of all - works published on that subject Of those who after Apollonius distinguished themselves in their time in the cultivation of the geome- trical science, there are but few who added any thing worthy of particular notice. Era- tosthenes attempted to measure the circumfe- rence of the earth ; Ctesibius invented water pumps ; Hero of Alexandria, clepsydra; ; Theodosius, who lived in the first century erf" the Christian era, wrote a treatise on tlie sphere, which was one of the first on spherical trigonometry. After an interval of three or four centuries from the time of Theodosius, we meet with the names of Pappus, the commentator of Apollo- nius, Theon, the commentator of Ptolemy, and of Proclus, another commentator on the ancient mathematicians. The destruction of the li- brary of Alexandria by the Saracens was very fatal to the cultivation of geometry, which had flourished there more than any where else : all the geometricians from every part had as- sembled there, and when driven away they were deprived both of their books and instru- ments. It is not surprising, therefore, that the study of geometry was for many centu- ries almost entirely forgotten amidst the troubles which desolated all Europe on t;ie ir- ruption of the northern tribes. The Arabs, who, ty the ravages they committed at Alex- andria, had done the most injury to the science of geometry, were, afi^er the lapse of two cen- turies, the cultivators of that which they had nearly annihilated. They studied the works of the Greeks, and showed tneir proficiency in thp correctness of their comments on th^e writings. GER Whilst the Arabs were thus promoting the cause of science generally, Europe remained in a state of comparative barbarism, nor was the study of geometry revived among the Europeans before the fourteenth and fifteentli centuries, when by the translations of the ancient Avritings, the taste for geometry be- came very general among the thinking pait of the comnumity. In the following century there arose mathematicians who added very materially to the stock of geometrical know- ledge. Garden applied algebra to the resolu- tion of geometrical problems ; and Descartes who followed at the distance of nearly a cen tury, pursued this application of algebra to geometry still farther. At the same period with Descartes flourished Cavelerius, who, in his work on ' Indivisibles,' struck out a new path to himself, in which he was followed by many writers of great celebrity, as Wallis, Pascal, Fermat, Roberval, Liebnitz, Newton, and many others, who set forth geometry in a new light, and formed a new system of the science. Among the treatises in which are embodied the geometrical principles of the moderns and ancients may be reckoned the Elements of Euclid by Simson and Playfair, tlie treatises of Ozanam, Clavius, Bonny castle, Hutton, &c. GEORGE, St. The patron saint of Eng land, is said to have been a great warrior of Cappadocia, and a martyr in the Christian cause. GEORGICS. Books treating of husband- ry, after the manner of Virgil's poems on rural subjects, which are so called. GERANIUM. A genus of plants, the nu- merous species of which are remarkable for the beauty either of their leaves or their flowers, or both. The seeds of tlie flower are contained in a husk, which resembles a stork's beak, ^whence it has acquired the English name of crane's bill. GEIRMAN. A native of Germany, a con- GIL 183 federated kingdom of Eurojie, whicn mcludes the kingdoms of Bavaria, Hanover, Saxony, and Wirtemberg, together with Uiirty-four small states and free cities. The inhabitants are distinguished for gravity, industry, and perseverance. Germany is remarkable for its number of literary men. GERMAN (in Law.) Whole or entire as respects genealogy or descent, as brothers german, those who are so on both father and mother's side. GERMEN (in Botany) The germ, ovary, or seed bud, which is the lower part or base of the pistil. GERMINATION. The act of sprouting forth, as applied to the seeds of vegetables ; also, the time when they vegetate. GIANTS' CAUSEWAY. A vast collec- tion of a black kind of manle, called basaltes, in the county of Antrim in Ireland. The masses of rock are there disposed in such re- gular order, and to such an extent, as to make this causeway one of the greatest curiosities in nature; GIBBOUS (in Astronomy.) A term applied to the enlightened part of Uie moon, during her course from full to new, when the dark part appears falcated or horned, and the light part convex or gibbous. GIFT (in Law.) A conveyance which passeth either lands or goods ; a transfer of any thing without a valuable consideration. GIG. The name of a light chaise, with two wheels, drawn by one horse, to which whim or fasliion have annexed various names, as tilburies, dennets, cabriolets, &c., as they slightly vary. GILD. See Guild. GILDING. The art of covering the snr- face of IkkUcs with gold. GILLIFLOWER, or July Flower. A smaller kind of carnation that flowers m July. m GLA GLU GIMTjET. a carpenter's tool for boring holes. GIN, or Geneva. A hot fiery spirit, for- merly drawn from the berries of the genevre or juniper tree, bnt now made by the distillers of the oil of turpentine and malt spirits. The Hollands Geneva is manufactured chiefly at a village near Rotterdam, and is drawn from wheat and the juniper berries. GIN (among Sportsmen.) A machine which serves as a trap or snare for catching GIN (among Mechanics.) A machine for driving piles. GINGER. A root which grows in the East and West Indies. It has a biting hot taste ; the flower consists of five petals, shaped some- thing like those of the iris. GIPSIES. A wandering tribe, who are to be found in different covmtries of Europe, and are supposed to be of Egyptian origin. They are altogether a distinct class of people, both in their habits, which are predatory and un- civilized ; and in their complexion, which is sallow and brownish. Bnt they are now be- ginning to follow the occupations of civilized life, and in winter to reside in towns, where they occasionally send their children to school. GIRDERS (m Architecture.) Some of the largest pieces of timber in a floor. GIRT. The circumference of a tree. GLACIERS. A name in Switzerland for the extensive tracts of ice and snow which occur in the Alps. GLACIS (in Fortification.) A mass of earth serving as a parapet to the covered way. GLADIATORS. Persons who fought in the arena at Rome for the amusement of the people. These Avere usually slaves, who fought until one was killed, This cruel cus- tqm was abolished by Constantino the Great. GLANDS, A sort of kernels in the animal body, which serve to secrete the fluids. They are composed of blood vessels, nerves, and absorbents. GLANDERS. A virulent disease in horses, which shows itself by a discharge of mucus from the nostrils. GLASS. An artificial substance formed by the action of fire on sand, or siliceous earth with salts and metallic oxides. It is remark- able for its brittleness and transparency, which latter quality renders it available for many purposes of domestic use. There are five kinds of glass, namely, flint glass, or glass of lead ; plate glass, or glass of pure soda ; crown glass, the best window glass ; broad glass, a coarse window glass ; and bottle glass, a coarse green glass. The materials of glass when fluid, are so perfectly ductile and plastic, that the glass is blown into shapes by the breath of the workman, through an iron pipe, about tliree feet long, assisted by a few very trifling tools. He dips tlie end of his blowing-pipe into the melting-pot, U)rough the hole in the furnace, and the fluid which sticks to the iron is blown with some management, and with the aid of a boy, who, while it is still red hot, joins to the blown vessel any peculiar parts. When finished, it is placed in an upper furnace, and kept in a red heat for some hours. Window glass is first rolled with the pipe, and then unrolled on a flat surface. GLASS (among Mariners.) Sometimes the telescope, and sometimes the hour glass or sand glass. GLASS-BLOWER. One who blows glass in a glass-house. GLASS-HOUSE. A house where glass b manufactured. GLAUBER'S SALTS. The sulphate of soda ; a purgative. GLAZIER. One who wwRs with glass, or makes glass windows. GLAZING. The crusting over earthen- ware with a vitreous substance ; also, the putting glass into windows, or making glass fights for windows. GLEANING. Picking up the scattered ears of corn after the corn is cut and carried. It was once thought that, by the common law, the poor might claim this liberty as their right; but it has been adjudged by a solemn judgment of the English Court of Common Pleas, that no such right exists by the common law of the land. GLEBE LAND (in Law.) A portion of land belonging to a parsonage or vicarage. GLEE (in Music.) A composition of three or more parts ; originally used for convivial purposes. GLIRES. The fourth order of the class mammalia in the Linneean system, including such animals as have two fore teeth, a cutting one in each jaw, no tusks, and feet with claws formed for running, as the beaver, the hare, &c. GLOBE (in Geometry.) A round spheri- cal body, more commonly called a sphere ; as the aimillary sphere. GLOBE (in Astronomy.) An artificial sphere, or a round solid body, on which is drawn a representation of the earth, as on the terrestrial globe ; or of the heavens, as on the celestial glote. GLOBULES. Little globes or round bo- dies observable in fluids. GLOSSARY. A vocabulary or small dic- tionary, attached for the most part to any work, and serving to expl||^n the obscure words used therein. GLOWWORM. An insect that shines in the dark. The female is larger than the male, and emits a beautiful pliosphoric light. GLUCINE. An earth of a sweetish taste^ which has been lately discovered by Vauque- lin in analyzing the beryl. It is infiisible in the fire and insoluble in water, but combines with acids, making with them soivJ^dc salts. GOL GLUE. An iiiJ4 J 'wil | ri jclty, made from lite ouinffB of liideB and other oAb bybofl- MpOiemniwaler, then alninaig off the im- GLDIIE (m fkamj.) fheeiijxcr iiiii sahrtaiioeB, of which it fonag apart. GLUTTON. A canniiig ToracHMis luiimal, Ui^er than a badger, whka inhahite Europe^ Aaia| ana Ainenca, and pnyson tbacvcaseB fl( aaras, whh^ vc> G9r AT. An active Gttle by soeUnf the blood of oil GNE^ A sort of rock thatfies <^K»MHoS^iDiaIlin?.) The «ib or pin ofadUlitheahailowaf which paiMBoatthe GOO The doctility and Mrileafaility of gold, is soch, that one grain of it will cover npwards of fi% aqaare inches and ■■ «■■» is capable of bei^ eztetMied in the fbnn ofwin ika. GeUiafiMdaibefc GNOMO N Cm Astranomy.) An J ^S^Soft^aiGM^.) A ig u re fe tmed by the two oompkoMBte with either of the pa- flaBelMranB aboat the diameter. GlIU. Apaiticalarkindoranteiope^faairiiig hgms beat firward ai the faaae^ and bM:kwani in the middle. GOAD. A staff poinled with a sharp iron fiir driving catiieL GOAT. A qnadnipedfand orh%, rocky of the goat are dirtily In inwiycomi ma with flsh GOAT-SUCKER. An American faird^ so caBedbecanae it was s up posed to sock theteats oftheeoate. €iOD. Ti^Minp in ttiA Rn gligh Lmgnagp. of the First Caoae, or Creator, Coatinoatar, and Preaorver, of all th^s, to whom belong the attribotea of omnifwHuci;, omniscienoe, h GODPATHI^ One who stands fcr a child in l a ^ i ti s m . GOLD. The richest and heaviest metal cicept jdotina, being the raost solid and the 2 A 16* nven^ paitKofarly ia Pera, in ninateand kr^ goiar grain, which are known fajf the aHM of golddiwL GOLDBEATERS' SKIN, lie akin or membrane of anjr animal, partic ula i ly the got c^ an ox, wfaicfa is and by the gaMbealeta in preparing gold leaC Tl in m rrrrllmr inli i iai to keep the air from woonds an A GOLDEN NUMBHft tonmeteen, when it one agam, and is used toabow wtaC year in the lunar cvde any given year is. G0LD£N rod. a plant which if for the most part a native <^ North America. Tw» ape c i e a only are found in EUvope. GOLDfiN RULE. A name given to Ah RnleofThree. ^so^ to do onto others aa yon woaU haw them do onioyoo. GOLDFINCH. A beaolifnl fainl with a fine ydknr marie in iti falaA qpiB frilitiii. k i GOLD FISH. An cakmr, originally broug- a gold na, and 9W kentby way of omameBljUiglaBBgiabeB. GOLD LEAF, or LsafGola. GOdtte is Hammered by the I as thin and e xtend ed as a lea£ GOLDSMITH A workEr or seller ofgold GONDCPLA. A pleasure Yeniee. The mw oie siaeo gonooiaa aie np' wards of thirty feet ha^aadfeorfiwt knad. Ibeytimmpi tominate iC each end ra a v«ry GOODS (in Law.) Tbe vafadbki of which a man is paaaeand. GOOSANDER. A wafer fiini^thsaaior ffooae. m^ GOV GOOSE. Wild geese are seen migraUng north and south, over the United States, in the seasons of spring and fall, at a great height, in flocks of from 50 to 100. The tame geese, which are so abundant in our farm yards, are a source of profit, and every author must ac- knowledge the value of their quills. The gray lay goose, or common wild goose, is easily tamed : from this sort has sprung the domestic breed. GOOSEBERRY (in Botany.) A plant that is set with prickles, and yields a fruit of an oval and globular figure, containing many small seeds in a pulpy substance. It is a bush much cultivated in gardens. GORGE (in Fortification.) The entrance of a bastion, ravelin, or other outwork. GORGET. A piece of armour round the neck ; something similar is now worn by offi- cers on duty by way of ornament. GOSHAWK. That species of hawk which was formerly much used in falconry. GOSPEL. The four books in the New Testament written by the Evangelists, St. Matthew, St. Mark, St. Luke, and St. John GOSSAMER. A fine filmy substance, like a cobweb, which is seen in clear days in autumn in stubble fields, and is probably worked by spiders for catching flies. GOTHIC ARCH. An arch called by the Italians arche de tcrzo ct di quarto acuto, i, of the third and fourth point, consisting of two arcs of a circle meeting in an angle at the top. GOTHIC STYLE. A style of architecture in which pointed arches of greater height than breadth, and a profusion of ornaments, in imi- tation of leaves and flowers, are the principal characteristics. GOVERNMENT. The power in a state by which the whole is governed ; if this power be in the hands of one, it is a Monarchy ; if in the hands of the nobility, an Aristocracy ; and if in the hands of the people, or those cho- sen by them, a Democracy. The Executive Government is the power of administering public affairs, the Legislative Government that of making the laws. In England, the Executive Government is in the king and his GSLA ministers ; but tlie Legislative Government is in the Parliament, that is, the King, Lords, and Commons ; whence the constitution of England, is denominated a Mixed Government. In the United States the govermnent is vested in a President and Congress. GOUGE. An instrument for boring holes. GOURD. A plant nearly allied to the cu- cumber, and still nearer to the melon. The fruit of some species arc long, and others round or bottle-shaped. GOURD WORM. A worm which infests the intestines of animals. GOUT. A painful periodical disease, which may aff"ect any membraneous part, but commonly those at the greatest distance from the heart and the brain, as the feet or hands. GOUTWEED. A perennial, so called from its supposed efficacy in curing the gout. GRACE, Days of (in Commercial Law.) Three days allowed for tlie payment of a bill after it has become due. GRACE (m Heraldry.) The style used m speaking of or to a duke or duchess, as your Grace, his or her Grace. GRADATION (in Chymistry.) A process by which metals are gradually raised to a still higher degree of purity. GRADUATE. One who has taken a de- gree m a university. GRADUATION. Dividing any thing into equal parts or degrees. GRAFTING (in Horticulture.) The pro- cess of inserting a branch of one, tree into the stock of another, so that it may receive nourish- ment fi-om it, while at the same time it pro- duces a new tree, like the old one whence the graft was taken. The engraving repre- sents the parts thus prepared, and after the graft has been inserted, and the barks closely united, they are tied together, and covered with a lump of clay till they unite. GRAPTING-TOOL. A kind of curved spade fit for cutting trenches. GRAIN. A general name for all kinds of seed corn. GRA GRAIN Cm Commerce.) A small weight, the twentieth part of a scruple in Apothecaries weight, and twenty- fourth in Troy weiglit. CRAIN(in Mineralogy.) The veins of wood or the component particles of stone and njetals as they are disposed in the mass, &c. GRAINS OP PARADISE. The seeds of tlie ammonium, which have a pungent taste like pepper. GRAfN TREE. The cochineal tree. GRAKLE. A bird not inhabiting Europe, having a thick bill and sharp hooked claws. GRALL£. An order of birds in tlie Lin- nsean system, with obtuse bills and long legs, as the crane, snipe, stork, and ostrich. GRAMINA. Grasses ; the fifth family in the Linnaean system, comprehending among the species the ray grass, clover, trefoil, saii- foin, lucern, &c. which are called artificial grasses, as distinguished from the meadow GRA IS7 GRAMMAR. The art of speaking and writing truly, according to the riiles establish- ed by custom and the authority of good wri- ters. Universal Grammar is that which treats of the first principles or elements of language, which are founded on logic ; Par- ticular Grammar is the grammar of each lan- guage, containing not only the general princi- ples of grammar, but also the peculiarities in the structure of each language. Grammar is divided into four parts, namely, I. Orthography, or the right mode of writing and spelling, which treats of letters, their powers, different offices, and divisions into vowels, consonants, diphthongs, mutes, liquids, syllables, words, &c. together with punctua- tion, or the right mode of distinguishing words, &C. by points or accents, &c. 2. Ety- mology, which treats of the formation or derivation of words from one another, and their distribution into the several parts of speech, according to tlieir several offices, into nomis, adjectives, pronouns, verbs, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections. Etymology also treats of the several inflec- tions to express nimiber, gender, case, mood, tense, person, &c. Sometimes etymology treats of the derivation of words of one language from those of amither, which is called remote etymology. 3. Syntax treats of words as they are comiected with or dependent on each other, giving rules for the right construction and dis- position of words in a sentence. 4. Prosody treats of the quantities and accents of syllaUes as parts of a verse, and the right rules of ver- sification. GRAMMAR, History of. Grammar, as a practical art, must have existed long before it was considered as a science, and the rules of gi-amraar must have lieen formed after language had assumed a settled shape by tlie practice of good writers. The works of Ho- mer contained a practical illustration of all the rules of the Greek grammar long before the subject of grammar excited any attention. It is likewise clear that as there is a close con- nexion Ijetween correctness of Uiinking and correctness of speaking, die study of logic preceded that of grammar; hence we find that Aristotle makes a logical distinction be- tween words denoting time and words not denoting time, the former of which he denomi- nates by a word answering to the verb in gram- mar, and tlie latter Jjy a word answering to the noun. But although the Greeks, par- ticularly the Athenians, cultivated their lan- guage for purposes of oratory, yet there ap- pears to have been no particular advances made towards bringing it under grammatical rules. They seem to have studi^ their lan- guage by the ear, wliich was so universally nice that an herb woman at Athens is said to have distinguished Theophrastus to be a stranger fnsn the affectation of a single word in expressing himself; and for the same rea- son the orators were careful not to let a single injudicious expression escape them which might offend the audience. We are likewise informed that it was a common thing for the young people to get the tragedies of their fa- vourite authors by heart, which tliey would recite on various occasions. When the Athe- nians, after their defeat at Syracuse, were made slaves, they softened their slavery by reciting the works of Euripedes to their mas- ters, who treated them tlie better on that ac- count In this manner the Grecian youth were taught their language at school, where a Homer was looked upon as indispensable. To a light minded people, like the Athenians, this mode of learning a language would be far more agreeable than the dry method of study- ing grammar ; but as this former course was not so practicable in the acquiring a foreign language, this is probably the reason why grammar seems first to have been cultivated among the Romans, who, being studious of tlie Greek, were naturally led to a comparison of languages, and to a logical and abstract consideration of language in general. Certain it is, tliat the study of grammar commenced with tlie Romans, and that the names of all the parts of speech are Latin, and to be found in the writings of authors subsequent to the age of Veuto and Cicero, as ^lius Dionysius, Julius Pollux, Valerius Probus, Herodian, Suetonius, Charisius, Macrobius, Diomedes, Augiistin, Priscian, Julius Donatus, <&c. GRAMMARIAN. One who is skilled in grammar learning. GRAMMAR SCHOOL. A school m which the leaincd languages are gi'ammatical- ly taught. GRAMME. A small French weight GRANARY. A storehouse for thrashed corn. GRAND JURY (in Law.) The jui^ which find bills of indictment against offend- ers, who are afterwards tried before a petty 183 GRA GRE ury, in cose tlie former find a trno bill against. the party accused. GRAND SEIGNIOR. The title of the sultan or emperor of the Turks, who, in going daily to mosque, rides in state, as represented in the engraving. GRANITE. A compound rock, consisting of quartz, felspar, and mica, crystallized and cohering without cement. Granite is hard, and admits of an elegant polish. GRANT (in Law.) A gift in wrking of such things as cahnot conveniently be passed or conveyed by word of mouth. GRANULATION (in Chymistry.) Pour- ing melted metals into cold water, that they may divide themselves into grains. GRAPE. The fruit of the vine, growing in clusters, from which wine is expressed. Grapes are found by a chymical analysis to contain supertartrate of potash, tartaric acid, citric and malic acids, abundance of sugar, a portion of mucilage jelly, some albumen, and also, as is said, some gluten. GRAPESHOT (in Artillery.) A combina- tion of small shot put into a thick canvass bag, and corded so as to form a kind of cylinder. GRASSHOPPER. An insect that hops in the summer grass : it is allied to the locust in its make, but is very harmless. GRAVEL. A kind of loamy sand mixed with pebbles, which adhere so as to form a solid handsome path. GRAVER. A tool used in engraving. GRAVIMETER. An instrument for mea- suring the specific gravities of bodies. GRAVITATION. The pressure that a body, by the force of its gravity, exerts on another body tmder it. GRAVITY (in Physice.) The natural tendency or inclination of bodies towardis a centre. Terrestrial gravity, is that force by which all bodies are continually urged towards the centre of the earth. It is in consequence of this force that bodies are accelerated in this fall, and when at rest that they press the body, or that part of the body by which they are supported. As to the cause of gravity, or its nature, nothing whatever is known, and it would be useless and unprofitable to occupy any part of this article in detailing the several vague hypotheses that have been advanced to account "for tliis most important law of nature. All that can be said is, that it appears to be an essential property of matter, or, at least, of all matter that has hitherto become the object of human investigation, though it is by no means certain that matter may not exi.st which is not subject to its influence. Specific gravity, is the relative gravity of any body or substance, considered with regard to some other body which is assumed as a standard of comparison, and this standard by universal consent and practice, is rain water, on account of its being less subject to variation in different circum- stances of time, place, &c. than any other body, whether solid or fluid. And, by a very fortunate coincidence, at least to English phi- losophers, it happens that a cubic foot of rain water weighs 1000 ounces avoirdupois; and consequently, assuming this as the specific gravity of rain water, and comparing all other bodies with this, the same numbers that ex- press the specific gravity of bodies, will at the same time denote the weight of a cubic foot of each in avoirdupois ounces, which is a great convenience in numerical computations. GREAT GEYSER. A fountain of hot water in Iceland, supposed to arise from t buildings, and spedmeiM of scolptnre. The climate is mild ani healtiiy. The GredcB of the present day are mgeoaous, brsTC^ and coorteoas, and pro- fess the Christian rriigioo. For centuries they have been held in the BMSt abject slate of slavery; but in 1820 they threw off the Turkish yoke, and fay the aid of France and Russia, have succeeded in obtaining a nominal iAdepadaKe, after much bloodshed, privatitHi, and unparalided suffering. GRO 189 extremely ferocioos, attacking, indismmi- nately, GREEK ALPHABET. It is used m Fn gKah books to distinguish tlie stars in the twilniiatinns. die first eight of which it may beoadaltokBfnr; as a. Alpha, e, Epsikm, ABeta, ^Zrta, y, Gamma, l^ Eka, i. Delta, 5, or 6, Theta. GRE1E£ FIRE. An artificial fire invented by the Greeks in the middle ages, during their wars wkh the Arabs and Turks. It GREENSHANK. A sort of snipe. GREGORIAN STYLE, or the New Styi^ (in ClutMMdogy^ A ne^ f time, aceovffi^ to the Calendar der of Pope Gregory XHI. GRENADE. A hollow globe of iron, filled with combustibles, and thrown out <^ a mortar. GRENADIERS. Foot soldierB aeleclcd for their Etatore, being the tallest and atoolcat men in the army. GREYHOUND. An elegant EngUdi do^ remarkable for its fleetneas; and there in an Italian breed, smaller and more ddicate. , bitumen, sulphur, gum, <&c. GREEN. One of the seven original cdours excited hf the rays of Kght, which is the most grateful to the eye and most faroorable to the sight GREENFINCH. A yellowish green bird, an inhabitant of Europe, which lays green GREENHOUSE. A place of sheher for exotics and tender plants. GREENLANDER. A native of Green- land, a cold, deadate region, belonging to the Danes, formerly supposed to be a part of North America, bat now believed to be an ex- tensive island. Theeoaat is usnlly lined with liiiiln of ice It is inhabited by Esquimaux I and Norwegians^ who are generally tire in aze^ h^, and sttperstiuous. The whte bear is the principal animal, and is GRETWACKE. A mountain formatioo, consisting mostly of a sort of slate. GRIST. Com soit to mill to be ground. GRIT. The smallest particles of sand; also, the coarser parts (^ meaL GROAT. A silver cmu, first struck in the reign of Exiward I. It has since been used as a money of account eqxud to eight cents. GRC)CER. One who sells tea, sugar, plums, spices, &c GROOM. A servant who looks after horses. GROOM OP THE STOLE. An officer of the Ekighsh court, who has the charge of the king's wardrobe. GROOYR A hollow channel cut with a tod. GROSS-BEAK. A bird with a stout biD. and of a fiery red colour, except round the biD and on tlie throat, which is Uack. h iato 190 GRO be met with in North America, and is called the Virginia Nightingale, on account of the fineness of its song. GROSS WEIGHT. The weight of goods, together with the cask or vessel. GROT, or Ghotto. A hollow under ground; also, an artificial hollow made in a garden. GROTESQUE (in Painting and Sculp- ture.) A work or composition in the grotesque or wild state. GROVE. A small wood or place set with trees. GROUND (in Husbandry.) Any piece of land in cultivation, or set apart for cultivation. GROUND (in Architecture.) The ground plot, or piece of ground selected for a building. GROUND (in Military Tactics.) The field or place of action. GROUND (in Painting.) The surface on which the figures and objects are raised and represented. GROUND (in Music.) The plain song or tune in which the descents are raised. GROUND (among Mariners.) The place where the anchor is fixed. GROUND-IVY. An herb, the shoots of which trail upon the ground, and take root at their different joints. GROUNDLING. A fish, so called because it keeps undnr stones in small brooks. GROUND-PINE. A plant, the smell of which resembles resin. It grows on dry and barren hilLs, and on the ditchbanks by the roadside. GROUNDSILL. The lowest horizontal timber on which the exterior wall is erected. GROUP (in Painting.) An assemblage of figures, appearing to have a connexion with each other. GROUPING (among Painters.) Putting figures togotlier in groups. GROUSE. A bird larger than a partridge, but otherwise very similar in appearance ; of which, however, there are several varieties. It inhabits the mountains and woody parts of Europe and Asia, and some |iarts of the United States; is solitary in its habits, except in breeding time, when it is very inattentive to GVI its safety, and is easily caught. The wood grouse is here represented. GRUB. The worm or maggot produced from the beetle, which afterwards becomes a winged insect. GRUINALES. One of Linnseus' natural orders of plants, containing the geraniums, flax, lignmn vitse, &c. GRUS. One of the new constellations. GUIACUM. A resinous substance procured from a tree in the West Indies, called lignum '.se. GUARANTY (in Diplomacy.^ A prince or power appointed by the stipulating powers, to see that tlie articles of any treaty or agree- ment are performed on each side. GUARD. The duty of guarding or defend- ing any post or person from an attack or sur- prise ; also, the soldiers who do this duty. GUARD (in Fencing.) A posture or action proper to defend the body. GUARDED AT (in Naval Tactics.) A boat appointed lo row among ships of war, to see that the officers keep a good look out. GUARDIAN. One who has the charge of a person committed to him ; as the guardian of an infant, who sees to his education and manages his afiairs, &c. GUARDSHIP. A vessel appointed to su- perintend the marine afiairs in a harbour or river. GUEBRES. A Persian sect, who still worship fire as an emanation or emblem of the Deitv. GUDGEON. A fresh water fish, of the carp kind, the flesh of wMch is very delicate. GUIDE (among Travellers.) One who ac- companies another in order to show him the way. GUIDE (in Music.) The leading note in a figure. GUILD (in Law.) In England, a company or incorporated society. GUILDHALL. The common hall of the guilds or companies, which was built in Lon- don in 1411. GUILLOTINE. A machine for beheading, which is used in Prance, and was introduced during the revolution. GUINEA. An English gold coin, first coined in the reign of Chartes 11. and till late- GUL ly current for 2U. sterling. U was ao called becauee it was made from the gold thai was faroo^ht from Guinea, on the coast of A6rica. GUINEA HEN. A native rf Africa, but commoit in the United States; it is larger than the common domestic lien, and has a kind of coloured fleshy horn on each side c^ the bead. Itsodoorua daric gra^-, beautifully varieigaled widi ■mall white spots. Its voice is hardb p*^ lunleasant* OOV 191 ••«%»Wl»\\»W* GUINEA PIG. An animal betwixt a rab- it aad a meoae^ an inhabitant of BraaL It iperpetoaDy iiatlfai when awake. GUITAR. A musical stringed instrument, rather larger than a violin, and played with the fingers. GULES. a tincture in heraldry, marked in engraving by straight lines. GULP. A part of the sea running in land, I the Gulf of the Adriatic. GULL. A8eab«d.5>fwhichtlttrearemaay varietieB. GUM. A concreted vegetable juice, which exudes through the bark of trees. A gum, properly speann^ isthat only among cbymists which K5 soluble m water ; that which is inso- luUe in ^vta is a gum resin. The gam ara- ble flows from the acacia, in Egypt; g«n be is the juice of the crotoo lacifera; gum am- moniac was first dra°\vn frcwa ammonia. GUMS. The \'ascular and elastic substance that covers tlie arches of the upper and under jaws, embracing the roots of the teeth. GUN. Any sort of offensive vreapon frtxn which shot, bullets, Ac are discharged. GUNBOAT. A boat with a flat bottom, serving as a floating battery. GUNNER. One who managca the artil- iery. GUNNERY. A science which directs tfaa 192 (iUR elevation In which a piece of cannon should be placed, so that the shot or ball shall strike a certain object. The gun is elevated to a cer- tain fixed angle, given in tables accurately calculated, and then the ball passes tluough a curve, and reaches the proposed spot. GUNPOWDER. A composition of sul- phur, nitre, and charcoal, invented early in the fourteenth century, by Schwartz, a chymi- cal monk, if not earlier. The proportions of the dry materials are 75 parts of nitre, 16 of charcoal, and 9 of sulphur, which are combin- ed with water, vinegar, urine, or spirit of wine ; and the velocity of a musket ball is, on an average, 1600 feet per second, and its range half a mile. The greatest velocity with which a cannon ball is projected, is 2000 feet per se- cond. The range of the Congreve rockets is nearly two miles, and large mortars have thrown bomb-shells three miles. GUNPOWDER PLOT. The plot or con- spiracy in which Guy Pawkes was the princi- pal agent, to blow up the parliament house in England, by means of gunpowder placed un- derneath, which was to have been set fire to when King James I. was a^embled with his parliament ; also, the emniversary of that day, namely, the fifth of November, when this plot was discovered. GUNSHOT. The reach or range of a gun. GUNSTOCK. The wood to which the barrel of a gun is fixed. GUNTER'S CHAIN. The ehaincommon- ly used in measuring or surveying land, so- called from Mr. Gunter, the inventor. The chain is 66 feet in length, and is divided into 100 links of 7.92 inches each, consequently an acre of land is equal to 10 square chains. GUNTER'S LINE. A logarithmic line, usually graduated upon scales, sectors, &c. GUNWALE, or GUNNEL. The upper- most wale of a ship. GURNARD. A fish, of which there are several species. The head is loricated with GYP bony plates, and there are seven rays in the membrane of the gills. GUST (among Mariners.) A sudden and violent squall of wind. GUTTA SERENA. A disease in the eye, which deprives the patient of his sight. GUTTURAL LETTERS. Letters wliich are pronounced with the throat. GYMNASIUM. A place among the an- cients, where the youth were trained in gym- nastic exercises ; also, a public school of learn- ing, in which latter sense it is now frequently employed. GYMNASTICS. Athletic exercises, such' as wrestling, leaping, running, and throwing the dart or qwoit, which was much in «so among the Greeks, from whom the wcwrd is derived. GYMNOSOPHISTS. A sect of Indian philosophers, who always went naked, and lived a solitary life. GYMNOTUS. An eel, remarkable for ito power of affecting the nervous systeui, in the manner of electricity. This animal £Hid tlie torpedo, on dissection, appear to have an ar- rangement of muscular plates, not unlike a galvanic trough, and well adapted to produce the effect GYNANDRIA. One of riie classes in the Linnaean system, consistii^ of pltmts with hermaplirodite flowers, in which the stamina are placed on the style. GYPSUM. A sort of calcareous earth, com- posed of 42 parts of lime, and 58 of sulphuric acid. When highly burnt it falls into pow- der, from which plaster of paris is made. It is used in the arts and agriculture. HAI HA9 Its H. H,tlied^Mii lotto' of the alphabet, fcrmerij not oo the DntriraeDt fiv sapport. TheMcm- ood aa a uum n al ftrSOQ^ with a dash orer scopeslfewB them to be t rian gu l a r and anoa iu , it far 20,000| m Heraldry, k atanda for the dependiiig on the form of tbe porea vfaenca MiBtiatheeBcatchetm; as an they ibsik; and the ends, when long tpbt • hour. imo two or diree branchea. A naaa of nur HABEAS CORPUS. A writ which nay anafyaed was fimnd to eomani a lUrtaeMh of Le mada oae of by coorls ibr remo v ii ^priaop-ica i tnna te of ammnni a, a at t aa l h of waster, a en to aaawer any canai^ as a Habeas Corpos foorth of oil, a fourth of gaaes, and oaetlikd «1 leapoDdendum, ad satiafinendran, «c;lof coaly mailer. Bed faav difiera Iran Utek. bat the moat oelebratod writ of thia kind is jin c nnt a inin g red oti, inatead of bhrlr ia h green thaftofHabeaaCatpnaadsafaiicieodanijWhichjcHl; and ia white hair the oA is ooioivleai, a nan who is, or supposes hianelf i sneted by haieoatafthe IS, or supposes 1 onlawrnl imi tobe, ag- MDt, may Conirl, direded to tlK to pro fa aae the body of the priaooer, to to or iceeiTe iilrti in the court AaU consider in that hfhalf ^nus wnt was faunded on the cnmmfln kw. Hid secured bj many sta- talea. partiialifly that of the 31 CfaasL IL whadi w by dMnctian caDed die Habeas Cor- pv Act H A PF «P A>^H Kit A deakr in aman ^ a m» Mj as tape^ direwl, pins, needles, Ac HADDOCK. Aikhaftheoodkiiail,wfaich inkilalH tl^ uim ling ii f jimjiIl HADI£Y'S aUADRANT. A quadrant, .... . fcr tmhmtr on the of h. a ptoffided wim a mofeatA^ or udex n- dioB^ attheaiccBd of which ia a Termer fix* ^mJMiiyKiii*!* nto Inrtlm oie dtvusions oq the are; and aho whfa a plain object mirror, moveable widi the index. Other mirrars fir foreandback o b aer vaU nn are then fixed on the left hand Kml^ »t^ sights on the r^ht hnb^ to determine ^ what angle tbe OMyveaUe and fixed mirrors beeome paraDeL HAMORRHAGB. A flax of blood from ong an^ea betwee n matant obfects, n the nrindple^ that, in r cflrr li nn , the ai inciaence IS equal to the angle of ledecti ia p t u r aie d wMi a mofeafal^ or index the angle and it also contains some phoqihaieaf mag^ HAIR (in Botany.) The down, or hairiiks threads on the aormce of planta. HAIR.GRASS. A plant, sane spedea of any pert of the body. ^ Metearology.) of irregular fiirm, descending fimn the rel&e fi When failing in sum- mer, it is fau ae d by a rcw fl n enr *'. oi winds which drive the denae Tapours into the higher repons of the air, above the line of perpetual oongdatkm; there die haiUtones are fbnned, and j^eaaui by ifaeir gravity, but oAen ob- liipidy, through the atrength of the wind. HAILING (amoo^ Mariners.) Sakdng or %pf^^jfi g a ship ; ' HAK Smdl akimaf 2B HAIR'&BREADTH. A equal to the ibrty-eigfadi part of i HALBERT. A weapon aont spear, fivmeriy carried by the toot and artillery. HALCYOK. A name fcr the 1 HALF-BLOOD (in Law.) by the lather's or the mother's side only. HALP-MOON (in Portifieatian.) An out- work having two fiMea. HALL. A public edifice, a oourt of justice. HALL (in ArchitectureL) A large room at the entrance of a fine booae. HALLIARDS. Ropes for hoiatii^ 19 iha yards. HALLOO. A hunter's cry after the don. HALLUCINATION. Anafisctiondlherin person to feel, aee, orliear wrong. HALO. A meteor, in the finn of alni- nous rmg or drdei, appearing round the bodiea of the sun, uMion, or alara. ELkMMOCK (among Mariners.) A swing, ing bed used on board oif ships. HAMSTER. An animal of the moMe tribes entirely Uack^ except at the t^ of the nose^ ed^esof the eaia^ ieel, and ■■M»*iinn— the tail, which we white. HAND. 1 i prove the w 1 fiame. Itisj^^^v. ^ L^t. .ov^v» ,>^^ ,^~,,j, of tbe arm by the carpus, or wrist, windi eonsialB of ei^ smaO bones, in two rows; to these we attadied four bones within the piite, called BKtKarpuaL and tmck of (be fincn 194 HAR and the thumb contains tlu-ee bones, connected by cartilages : hence the hand contains twen- tynseven bones. It is so important an instru- ment to man, that without it his reason and speech would not have availed him against other animals. HAND (among Watchmakers.) The index of a clock or watch. HAND (in the Manege.) The fist clenched or a measure of three inches, by which the heighl of a horse is computed ; also, the parts of a horse, as the forehand, for the head, neck, and fore quarters ; the hindhand, which in- cludes the rest; and also the horseman's hand, as the spur hand, which is his right ^^ hand ; and the bridle hand, which is his left ^"hand. "SHAND-BARROW. A barrow without \frheels. HANDCUFFS, Two circular pieces of iron locked over the wrists of a prisoner to prevent him using his hands. HANDSPIKES. Wooden levers used at sea. HANSE towns. Port towns of Ger- many which were incorporated for the purpose of protecting their trade. The tliree princi- pal of these towns were Hamburgh, Bremen^ and Lubec, which stiD retain the name. HARBOUR. A place where ships may ride in safety. HARDNESS (in Physiology). The resist- ance opposed by a body to the separation of its parts. HARE. A timid animal of exquisite sight and hearing, about two feet long, which sub- sists on vegetables, produces about nine young HAR Its fears prevent its leaving its re- treat during the day, and when taken, its cries resemble tliose of a child, which leads Thom- son to remark, " Poor is the triumph o'er the timid hare." HARMATTUN. a wind which blows pe- riodically from the interior parts of Africa to- wards the Atlantic. This wind is remarkable for its dry and parching character. HARMONICA. A musical instrument constructed with pieces of glass. HARMONICS. That branch of music which considers the differences and propor- tions of sounds. HARMONY (in Music.) The agreeable result or vmion of several musical sounds heard at one and the same time. Melody is produced by a succession of mvisical sounds, as harmony is produced by their combination. HARMONY OF THE SPHERES. A kind of music, supposed by the ancients to be produced by the accordfaBi,lheIeawx of which are cat iato naair minntPirgiatnlii, Ifte panlejr. h k ibdM whether this be thetrae hendock of dK ancieato. HEMP. Afifaraaaplm^ofwhichfiBeD ■id raps are Bade. HEN. AfeBriehird( ANE A |iroc»s?kos, aud regulate anoonai en- wgiiir, A^ ThehenU8areaxiaaBnber,awl ^ lytheiHMaof York. ThyagreaDeqnaliBdneevwd praeedenee oaii^ aeoanfiag to Vat m HBRAUMIT. Tlie acion Aetrve oeofnaa; ashvwl HKRAIiPgr, Banm of. Ahhonghtfae aeace of heiJ i hy, aa Car ae reearda tte £b- IM tiiaii of JaiuiKw hf nwaim at cut, annoor, ia caa|Hralivcly of UHidau dile^ yet uie Ro> raaaawcreaat withoat thor narhsof hoooar, 'aaapraof of wSaa^af j. ofhki '■flUiw;* Igwtocoaid aBlyaa BlMawaw tont laWi'iWea a coat of 1 198 HER of military honour which belonged to the indi- vidual. Thus the collar or chain on the statue of Torquatus, and the tuft of hair on that of Cincinnatus, were the trophies of which these brave wairiors had despoiled their enemies. These statues commonly stood in their courts in a cabinet of wood, whence probably origina- ted our cabinets of arms, where the helmet, crest, gauntlet, spurs, banner, &c. were kept ; and as, upon particular occasions, tliese cabi- nets were set open, and the statues were ex- posed to public view before the porch or gate of their houses, so the nobility and gentry have their coats of arms cut in stone, and painted in escutcheons over their gates. At their funerals those statues were borne before such as had the jus imaginum, whence in af- ter times it became the practice, at the funerals of great men, to carry their ensigns of nobility, and the arms of those from whom they were descended, which, being all painted, are placed under the name of an atchievement on the house of the person deceased. As a farther proof that heraldic distinctions take their rise from the jus imaginum of the Romans, it ap- pears that the law of arms among the Euro- peans in the middle ages was regulated by the civil law. The introduction of armorial bearings, in place of the images and statues of the Romans, IS to be ascribed to the northern tribes who overran Europe on the decline and fall of the empire. The Goths, Vandals, and other such people, were in the practice, like their ances- tors, the Celts and Scythians, of painting on their shields the figures of animals, either for the purpose of rendering themselves formida- ble, or more probably by way of distinction ; and although, from their martial character, their ensigns of honour were at first purely military, yet, by being transmitted to their posterity, they became badges of civil rank and honour ; and, in process of time, other circumstances gave rise to bearings which were not purely military. Thus, on the es- tablishment of the feudal system, the tenants of tlie king, or the great lords, represented on their shields the services they owed to their superiors by way of an acknowledgment of their fidelity, whence originated roses, cinque- foils, spurrowels, bows and aiTows, hunting- horns, ships, -FLOWER (m Botany.) A iilimL Laving the appearfmce of a shrub^ and ao? HOP bearing spikes of chocolate-coloured flowers in May, in each of which a quantity of black sweet liquor is found. HONEY-SUCKLE (in Botany.) A shrub with a climbing stalk, the flowers of which form a tube in the shape of a huntsman's horn. They are produced in clusters, and are very sweet HONI SOIT dUI MAL Y PENSE. The motto of the order of the Garter, signifying, Evil be to him that evil thinks. HONOUR, Maids of (in Court Eti- quette.) Ladies in a queen's householc^ who attend the queen when she goes out. HONOURS OP WAR. Honourable terms granted to a vanquished enemy, when he is permitted to march out of a town with all the insignia of military etiquette. ilOOD. An upper covering for the head of a woman. HOOD (at tlie University.) An ornamen- tal fold that hangs down the back of a gradu ate, to mark his degree. HOOP. The horny part of the foot of a horse or other cattle. HOOK. A bended iron to hang things upon ; also, a bent piece of iron or wire at- tached to a fishing-rod for catching fish. HOOPOE. A beautiful crested bird, some- times called the Marsh-cock, inhabiting Europe, Asia, and Africa, which fe solitary and migratory, HOP. A plant with a creeping root, the stalks of which climb and twist about what- ever is near them ; wherefore, in hop grounds, poles are fixed near to the plant for them to rise upon. Hops are said to have been in- troduced into England from the Netherlands in the 16th century : they are principally used to boil up wfth beer, in order to prevent it from turning sour, and to give it a strengthening qujility. Hops require to be planted in open situations, and in a riclr strong ground. The two best sorts are the white and the gray kind. These shovdd be planted in hills about eight or nine feet asunder. About the begin- ning of July hops begin to blow, and are ready to gather about the latter end of August; when, by their Btrong scent, their hardness, HOR and the brown colour of the seed, they may be known to be fit. The best method of dry- ing hops is on a kiln, over a charcoal fire ; when the stalks are brittle^ and tlie top leaves easily fall ofl", tliey are properly dried. When taken from the kiln, they should be laid to cool for three weeks or a month before they are bagged. HORIZON (in Astronomy.) A great cir- cle of the sphere, which divides it into upper and lower hemispheres. The apparent or sensible horizon is that circle of the heavens which bounds the view of the observer, in distinction from tlie rational or real horizon, which is a circle encompassing the earth exactly in the middle. It is represented in the globes by the wooden frame which con- tains the globe. HORN (in Natural History.) The hard, pointed bodies which grow on the heads of some granivorous animals, and serve eitlier for defence or ornament; also, the slender bodies on the heads of insects, &c. HORN (in Chymistry.) Is mostly com- posed of albumen, gelatine, and phosphate of lime, but the horns of the buck said stag are of an intermediate nature between horn and bone. HORN (in Music.) A wind instrument, chiefly used in hunting and in the chase. HORNBEAM. A tree that has leaves like the elm or beech tree ; it was formerly used in hedgerows. The timber is very tough and inflexible. HORNBLENDE (in Mineralogy.) A sort of slaty stone, of a green and blackish green colour. It is found in great abundance in many parts of Great Britain and America. HORN-BOOK. The first book for chil- dren, containing the alphabet, which was for- merly covered with transparent horn. HORNED SNAKE. A native of Afi-ica and Arabia, with a pair of horns above the eyes, and the species used by Eigyptian con- jurers, in performing their tricks. HORNET. A large, strong, and stinging insect, of the wasp kind. HORN-ORE (in Mineralogy.) One of the species of silver ore. HORNPIPE. An animated sort of dance. HORN-STONE. A species of flint. HORNWORK (in Fortification.) An out- work which advances towards the field. HOROLOGY. The science which treats HOR HOR 209 wmAe measnring of portions of ti Briadoal instrumeBtB used ia tbe ; The «r time are did^ deneTdns cr vater-dods, doclB% intfhrn, and m sane cases abo hoar- glssBes. Hk dial was doaibtless one of the first in- Sbroments c onl riTcd fcr the measuring of time ly means of the COB. Tbe first on record is the dial of Ahaz mentiooed in Isaiah. This king began to reign 400 jrears befiire Alexan- der, »d within 12 years of the bmHing of ~ The Chaldee faistarian Berasos is to have eonstaucted a dial on a jedining paralW to the eqnalor dms the Samean, Thale% and odien, are also memiaoed as the makers of cBak. Thefirst sun-dial at Borne was set op fay PqnrioB Cor sor in die 460th year of die boilding of the city. The siAject of dSaDo^ or of *-^ - e upward pressure of fluids, and the hydrobtalical paradox. HYDROSTATICAL PARADOX. A principle in hydrostatics, so called because it has a paradoxical appearance at first view ; it is this, that any quantity of water or other fluid, how small soever, may be made to balance and support any quantity or any weight, however great it may be. HYDROSTATICS. The science which treats of the laws regulating the motions, pres- sure, gravitation, and equilibrium of fluid bodies, particularly water, and also of solid bodies inunerged therein. This science is divided into three hMranches, namely, hydro- statics, properly so called, which treats of fluids in an equilibrium, their density, gravity, &c. ; hydraulics, which treats of fluids in a state of motion ; and pneumatics, which treats of elas- tic fluids. These two last branches will be found explained in their respective places. The first branch of hydrostatics engaged the attention of Archimedes, who appears to have first attempted to d^ermine the specific gravi- ty of bodies, in consequence of tne following circumstance Hiero, king of Syracuse, having reason to suspect that a goldsmith, whom he employed to make him a crown of gold, had adulterated it with a quantity of sil- ver, he requested Archimedes to detect the cheat Accordingly, this philosopher procured two masses of gold and silver of equal weight with the crown, which lie immersed in a vessd hill of water, at the same time carefully no- ticing the quantity of water which each dis- placed ; after which he immersed the crown of gold also in the same vessel, and by compar- ing the quantity of water which flowed over each time, he was enabled to ascert£iin the pro- portions of gold and silver in the crown. He is said to have been led to this idea by observ- ing on one occasion, whilst he was bathing, tha^ as he immerged his body, the wetter ran over the bath, whence he concluded that the water which ran out when his whole body was immerged, was equal in bulk to his body ; and on the same prindi^ be considered that if tlte dOS JAC crown were altogether of gold, the bail of gold, being of tlie same bulk as the crown, would, when immersed, raise the water just as high as the crown immersed, but if it were wholly of silver, the ball of silver being immersed would raise the water no higher than the crown immersed ; and if the crown was of gold and silver mixed in a certain proportion, this pro- portion would be discovered by the height to which the crown would raise the water higher than the gold and lower than the silver. The authors who have treated further on this sub- ject may be found under the article HyDKO- DVNAMICS. HYGROMETER. An instrument for measuring the degree of moisture and dryness of the atmosphere. HYGROSCOPB. The same \nih hygro- meter. In all names of instruments to which there are these two several terminations, as thermometer and thermoscope, the only diffe- rence is, that the first expresses something which measures, and the latter, which shows or exhibits to view. HYMEN. The god of marriage. HYMENOPTBRA. An order of insects in the Linneean system, having membranaceous wings, as the gall-fly, the saw-fly, the bee, the wasp, the ichneumon, &c. HYPERBOLA. One of the curves formed by cutting a cone obliquely to its axis ; and if e plane be produced so as to cut the opposite JAC cone, another hyperbola will be formed, which is called the opposite hyperbola to the former. 1 HYPERBOLE. An exaggerated represen- tation of any thing. HYPOCHONDRIAC. One troubled with the spleen or melancholy. HYPOTHENUSE. The longest side of a right-angled triangle. HYPOTHESIS. A principle taken for granted, in order to draw conclnsions there- from for the proof of a point in question. HYSSOP. A plant with long narrow feaves, bearing a crest of flowers. It is doubtful whether this be the hyssop mentioned in Scripture. HYSTERICS. Spasmodic, convulsive af- fections of the nerves, to which women are particularly subject. I. and J. I, the ninth letter of the alphabet, used as a numeral signifies one, and stands for any num- bers of units as often as it is repeated, as, II, two. III, three, &c. When placed before a higher numeral, it diminishes it by one, as, IV, four, IX, nine ; and when after, it increases it by one, as, XI, eleven, XII, twelve, XIII, thirteen, &c. JACK (in Mechanics.) An instrument in common use for raising very great weights of any kind. JACK (among Mariners.) The flag which hung out in the bowsprit end. JACK (in Natural History.) A kind of pike that is very destructive in fishponds. ^ JACK, Smoke. A very useful instrument in kitchens, sometimes turned by the force with which smoke and rarefied air ascend in a chimney. The smoke-jack consists of a hori zontal wheel, the radii of which are placed ob- liquely, so as to permit the smoke to pass through them; the axle then turns a small crank wheel, which works into another at right angles, jind at the end is a pulley with a chain to turn a spit set before the fire, with any article intended to be turned and roasted. Many jacks are, however, turned by means of a weight, which pulls round a cylinder, and JAG JAV tof m cfada, ro- JACKAI^ A beMtofpreyKMijr to the dog. it rouseB other barts bf ito «y, ao that &!f are omIt takn bjr the lioo, vhone k ■ oBed die ban's prander. JALAP. The root of a Wot] of the ooavolTidns tnbe^ of « faiwk o liM oataide^ and reddHli within, with lOBMMB vciiiB. b was not known in Fiigland oatil after the nii'i j of America, and reueived its inne froBi XaSbpa, a town in New Spain. The fvindpd ii—titort paitsof jdap are resin aadatarch. JAMB (amoi^ C ar pent e rs.) Anj si rter on ekher A, as the poslBaf a^oor. of fcot JACKDAW. A bird of the craw knd, havii ^a w hile onllar about its neck. JACKS. Small bits of wood tzed to tke ka^afTimnaiBiharpeiehonis, andapmaels. JACK-WITH THE LANTERN, or Wnx-o'THS-Wisp. Vulgar names for the or meteor wh^h borers in the marsh J places, «id seems to be moalJIy ori'Msimfd I^ an aeoeat fivm die grawndof phoephnretled hydiugen gas^ de- eonposedfinm amaaal and vegetable remain^ adkose own molioBS ignite it m the air. It ap- pears like a candle in a hnteni, and Ims snmftiniffi caused traveDere to kise tbew way. JACOBIN. A partisan of die Raich rerohitioa. JACOBITES. A naiDe given to dw ad- herents of James IL at and after the revolo- tioB ki Ettglaiid. JACOffS STAFF. A stromeBt far taknw heigfals and JACOBDS. A gold can in die rdgn of ^BMs L vabe fi«n 94 to 96. JACTITATION OP MARRIAGE. A emt in the wrIfiMBtiral court of Engimd, when one of the parties b o asts or avm oat that he or die is mviied, wfakdi lie odier partf denying mod no adeqpate proof of the JAMB (amoi^ IGnen.) A duck bed of stone that ofastnaxs the I ing tfae'moE of ores: IAMBIC \'ERSE. V< iambic feet, that ii^ a short and • akemateiy. JANIZARIES. The grand sagniaea goard, or the soldiers <^the Tmkiah infiolrr, whkh have bidy been dbolishei^ and then- ^aces aqipfied by trooin tniaed sAer dw JANUARY. ThefintmoadiiBdbey«r. s up pos e d to take its nsne from Janni^ «■ oentki^ of Italy. JAPANG9S ODOLu In Jiman,andClnBi^ they stillinctise the ancient Egyptian, Gre- easBj and oriental syslem of reprea powen of nature^ die Tfrtnos and imases, onen moBBtrons and ' ■nrriaeebeii^ brought, the oflaaing party is e ni ui a w silence on head. IFADE. See NKPHKrrB. JAG by whom the accused may have been ap- pointed to office. IMPERATIVE (in Grammar.) One of the moods of a verb, used when we would com- mand, entreat, or advise. IMPERSONAL VERB (in Grammar.) A verb used only in the third person. IMPLEMENTS. All things necessary for following any mechanical business, as tools, furniture, &c. IMPORTATION. The bringing goods into a countiy. IMPOSTS (in Architecture.) The capitals of pillars which support arches. IMPRESSING. A compulsory mode of ob- taining men for the king's service in the Eng- lish navy. IMPRESSION (among Printers.) The number of copies of any book printed off at one time. IMPRIMATUR, i. e. Let it be printed. The form of a license for printing a book, which was formerly required in England. IMPRIMIS. In the first place. IMPROMPTU, i. e. ofi'hand, without pre- paration, applied particularly to poetic effu- sions of the moment. IMPROVISATORE. One who repeats or recites verses extemporaneously, as is the practice in Italy. This gift of reciting extern- poraneous verses has been carried to a high pitch, it being no uncommon thing to see two ma.sks meeting during the carnival, and chal- lenging each other in verse, and answering stanza for stanza in a surprising manner. IMPULSE, or Impetus (in Mechanics.) The single or momentary force with which one body strikes or impels another. IN. An abbreviation for inch. INARCHING. A method of ingrafting, called grafting by approach, where the stock: and tree are properly joined. INAUGURATION. The ceremony per- formed at the coronation of a king, or the investing a person with a new office, as Presi- dent of the United State.s, &c. INC A. The prince of the Peruvians. INCARNATION. The act of assuming body, or taking flesh, as the Incarnation of our blessed Saviour. INCENDIARY (in Law.) He who sets fire to houses maliciously. INCH. A measure of length, being the twelfth part of a foot. INCIDENCE, or Line op Incidence (in Mechanics.) The direction or inclination in which one body acts or strikes on another. INCIDENCE (in Optics.) The place where two ravs meet. INCLINATION. The mutual tendency of two bodies or planes to each other. INCLINED PLANE (in Mechanics.) A plane inclined to the horizon, or making an angle with it, which is one of the mechanical powers. Its common application is to elevata INC bodies, which are raised perpendloularly while they are moved up the plane ; and the force gained is as the increafied distance moved over, that is, as the len^h of the in- clined plane is to the perpendicular height gained. IND 213 INCOGNITO, or INCOG. LiteraUy, un- known, not to be recognised ; a mode of tra- velling without £uiy mark of distinction, which is sometimes adopted by princes and great people who do not wish to be recognised. INCOMBUSTIBLE. A body that is in- capable of undergoing combustion. INCOMBUSTIBLE CLOTH. A sort of linen cloth made from a stone in the fonri of a talc ; which stone is called lapis amianthus, and asbestx)s. INCOME. Revenue, profit, or produce from any thing. INCOMMENSURABLE (in Geometry.) A term applied to two lines or quantities which have no common measure by which they can be divided. INCORPORATION (in Law.) The for- mation of a body politic. INCORPORATION (in Chymistry.) The mingling the particles of different bodies together into one mass, in such manner that the different ingredients cannot be distin- guished. INCREMENT (in Fluxions.) The small increaise of a variable body. Dr. Brook Tay- lor, to whom we are indebted for the doctrine of increments or finite differences, denoted his increments by a dot under the variable quantity, thus the increment of a: was denoted by X ; others have employed a small accent, thus ar', or thus pc. M. Nicole uses another letter to denote the increment of a:, or any variaUe, eis by n ; but Euler employs the character A, thus Aar the increment of ar, and Ay the increment of y. Dr. Brook Taylor first published his Methodus Incrementorum in 1715, which was afterwards illustrated by M. Nicole in the Memoirs of the Royal Aca- demy of Sciences for the years 1717, 1723, and 1724. In 1723, Emerson published his Method of Increments ; but the writer who contributed most to the elucidation of this subject was Euler, who, in his Institutiones Calculi Differentialis, gave a new and extend ed form to this branch of analysis. Viuious other writers have since treated on tliis sub- ject, among w4iom Lacroix, in hb Traites des Differences, &c. is thought to hav« been the most happv. INCUBATION. The process of a bird sitting on eggs and batching its young; the time requir^ for this varies in different birds ; domestic fowls sit three weeks, ducks, geese, and turkeys, a month, pigeons eighteen days, &c. INCUBUS, or Night Mare. A disease which consists in an obstructed respiration, that produces the sensation in sleep of a weight pressing on the breast. INCUMBENT. One in present possession of a benefice. INDECLINABLE. Not varied by termi- nations, as an indeclinable noun. INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. Wordsthat are loose and undetermined in their meaning, whatsoever, any, every, &c. INDEMNITY (in Law.) The saving harmless ; or, a writing to secure one from all damage and danger that may ensue from any act. INDENTURE (in Law.) An agreement or contract made between two or more per- sons, so called because it was indented or cut scallopwise, so as to correspond with another writing containing the same words. INDEPENDENTS. A sect of Protestants in England and Holland, who govern them- selves in then- own congregations, without ac- knowledging any dependence upon or con- nexion with any other church. INDEX (in Arithmetic and Algebra.) The number that shows to what power the quanti- ty is to be raised, as, in 103, the figure 3 is the exponent or index. INDEX (in Watchmaking.) The little stile or hand fitted eitlier to a clock or watch, &c. INDEX (in Literature.) An alphabetical table of the contents of a book. INDIAN ARROW ROOT. The root of a plant growing in the West Indies, where it was formerly used as an antidote against poisons. INDIAN FIG. Ficus Indica in the Lin- nsean system ; another name for tlie Elanian tree. INDIAN RUBBER, or Caout-choitc. An elastic gum, a substance procured from a tree in South America, called the syphonia elastica. It is mostly brought into Europe and America in the sliape of bottles, which are formed by spreading the gum over a mould of clay. INDICATIVE MOOD (in Grammar.) That mood of a verb which simply affirms or denies. INDICTED (in liaw.) That is, accused of some offence by bill preferred to jurors at tlie suit ortihe people. INDlCTION, or Cycle of Indiction (in Chronology.) A mode of computing time by the space of fifteen years, instituted by Con- 214 INF stanline the Great. The popes, since the time of Charlemagne, have dated their acts by the y^ear of tlie indiction, which was fixed on the first of January. At the time of the reforma- tion of the calendar, the year 1582 was reckon- ed the tenth year of the indiction. Now this date, when divided by fifteen, leaves a re- mainder seven, that is, three less than the in- diction, and the same must necessarily be the case in all subsequent cases ; so that, in order to find the indiction for any year, divide the date, by fifteen and add three to the remainder. INDICTMENT. A bill or accusation drawn up in form of law, and exliibiting some offence, which is preferred to a grand jury preparato- ry to the trial in open court INDIGENOUS. Native, as applied to ani- mals and plants. INDIGO. A beautiful Uue colovir or dye procured from a plant growing in America, called the anil ; in the Linnaean system, Indigo- fera. The indigo used by the dyers is a fsecula {)rocured from the leaves of the plant, which are aid in vats full of water, and left to ferment. The liquor is then drawn off into another vat, and after having been well stirred up, it is drawn off, and what remains at the bottom is exposed to the air until it is thoroughly dry, when it is fit for use. The principed constitu- ent parts of indigo are mucilaginous, resinous, and earthy matter, with some oxide of iron. INDORSING. See Endorsing. INDUCTION (in Law.) Putting a clerk in passession of his living. INDUCTION (in Logic.) A mode of ar- gumentation or reasoning, when the species is gathered out of the individuals, and the genus out of the species, &c. : as, if it be true that all planets borrow their light from the sun, then, by induction, it is true that Jupiter, Mars, and each individual planet, do the same. INDULGENCES (in the Romish Church.) Pardons for sin, granted by the pope to such as profess to be penitents. INERTIA, or Vis Inertijk (in Physiolo- gy.) A passive principle, supposed by Sir Isaac Newton to reside in bodies, by which they persist in their motion or rest, and re- ceive motion according to the force impressed upon them, and resist as much as they are re- sisted. INFANT (in Law.) Any person under the age of twenty-one. INFANTA. The title given to the eldest daughter of the king of Spain or Portugal. INFANTE. The title given to the eldest Bon of the king of Spain or Portugal. INFANTRY. The bodv of foot soldiers. INFECTION. The communication of a disease by certain efHuvia which fly off from distempered bodies, or from goods tJiat are in- fected. INFINITESIMALS. Indefinitely small parts. INFINITIVE MOOD. The mood of a ING verb, 80 named because it is not limited by number or person. INFINITY. A term applied to the vast and the minute, to distances and spaces too great to be expressed in any numbers of measures, or too small to be expressed by any fraction ; and one of the incomprehensible, but necessa- rily existing wonders of the universe; for we can imagine no space, however distant, which there must not be space beyond, nor any atom, however small, which has not an upper and under side. But being located ui a definite portion of space, we are more interested, af- fected, and wrought upon, by the infinitely little through which Providence works up- wards, as it were, than by the infinitely great, for tlie perfect conception of which we are our- selves too small. Such considerations serve more than any others to exalt our conceptions of the Creator of tlie universe. INFIRMARY. A place where the sick poor are received, or can get advice and medicines without charge. INFLECTION (in Optics.) A multiplex refraction of the rays of light, caused by the unequal thickness of any medium. INFLECTION (in Grammar.) The change which a word undergoes in its end- ing, to express case, number, gender, mood, tense, &c. INFLECTION, Point of (in Geometry.) A point where a curve begins to bend a con- trary way. INFLORESCENCE. The manner in which plants flower, or in which flowers are fastened to the stem by means of the peduncle. INFLUENZA. A sort of catarrh or disease from cold, so called because it was supposed to be produced by the peculiar influence of IN FORMA PAUPERIS. See Fobma. INFORMATION (in Law.) An accusa- tion or complaint exhibited against a person for some criminal offence. An information differs from an indictment, inasmuch as the latter is exhibited on the oath of twelve men, but the information is only the allegation of the officer or individual who exhibits it. INFORMER (in Law.) One who gives in- formation, particularly private information, to a magistrate. INFUSIBLE. Not to be fused or made fluid. INFUSION. A method of obtaining the virtues of plants, roots, &c. by steeping them in a hot or cold liquid. INFUSORIA. One of the Linnaean orders of animals, of the class vermes, including such as are simple, microscopic animalculse, found in stagnant water. INGOT. A wedge or bar of gold. INGREDIENT. Any simple that enters into the composition of a compound medicine. INGRESS (in Astronomy.) The sun's en- tering into the first scruple of Aries, &c. UiQ, INS 215 INGRO^. See Ekgbosb. INHERITANCE (in Lnr.) Aa i ■B and bn heira. INJBCnONdB r tne aoporaMiB «f 1 DiQ^^rOR Cm Lnr.) Any afikxr, m die Aeriff and the ooraoer, hmag yamtr to A ton firAe DUECnON Cm Sngery.) Tlie fiwdog of the MTf Hqmd JBtothebodybymeiiBofactyiter. IlilTIAI& Letters placed ii the begin- inrc' of -woeda cr aenl ^aOD N CTION . AJdnd of giaulud by eonrts of eq^nty, a Tieir of lauuvnu^ |MU|MJtj INK. AUaekfiqpBorfcrwnling; itia timea red, when k is called red ink. Bbc^ tnk ia of Ihioe kindi ■adeinOnnatoflanip-hiarkandaiae; print- er's ink, eompoaed of ofl and bmp^lai^ fia- theUadcinfc, orof TemnKonfirtfae red ink; writing inl^ eompoaed of an infusion of nol- gall^ snlphatB of iron or copper ifiaaolfed in wiier, higvfUM^ and gnm arafaic ^lereduik is < uny uaed of Braau amud, gmn, and afani INl^ Sympathetic. SeeSncPATHxric IXK. INLAND. That pbee which naitnaled the nUerior of a ooontiy, 6r firom the aea- pnnapally with r pcDonnr a aoiL orfly, haYmg of joints and INLAND BILLS (in Conmieroe.) BiDs povafale in the eoontry where thi^ are drawn. INLAND IVADEL Trade OKTied on within the eoontiy; home trade, ^^^TING (among Mechanics.) Wark- IN UmNEL In theontaeirbeibrenj thioe is aaid or doDBL INN. Ahonaeof enlertainmot fir tn- INNS OP COCHT. Hooaes or colleges for the entertainmetit of students in die mri the p r in c ipa l of theae a odcrteB at present are lincoioPs bm, die Inner Ten^le^ and die Middle Ten^4n London. INNCEIJDO (m Law.) A hint, adoiriiCfU CMT OQBODTC CZINrBBBMIL INOCULATION (in Sorgery.) Theope- ratian trf" giring the small pox to persons br inririon When a person is inoadaled witn IN( fhmtreeiaaet in die stock or branch of ther, aoastomakeaereral aorts of finit grow on the sam e tree. INOSCULATION (in Anatomy.) Tte ; fining the "»«— «*«a of the capillary Tesos and NoS^TION On Gardening.) A kind of graftii^in thebod; as when £e bod of a See Emtoxologt. fee^ and bodiea eompoaed •raonenls; in aomecaaea thqr fanvedie head ditinct from the body, as flies. beer^ 4e.^ ^ Thoae dot are csfidie of beii^ " ot destrayn^ life were also in- cloded nnder this head, but Lamms haa daaaed diem nnder the head of vermes worms. INSIGNIA. Ensisns. INSOLUBLE (in Chymktry.) Anepidiet fiir any body winch is not to be daaaivedor LYENCT (in Law.) The stale of t being able to pay onc?fc ddte. INSOLYENT. In a atttoof iu B ul ieuty . DiSOLYENT AGT& Aett naned fay Htgiwialitg bodiea fer die porpoaeof icluu and aometimes man IN ra OPMA PEBSONA. Inone'sown INaCEST Cm Uw.) An inquisition by jonn^-the most nsusl mode of tnal in cases bodi orfl md eriminsi in tins cu uiUfy. INQUISITION Cm^kxksiasdcal Affidrs.) INSPECTION Cm L«r.) AmodeoftfialL when the judges deads a pomt of dvpole npon of their own aenaes. OR. A nnliisry officer wfaoae it is to inspect regiments, dc TION (in Anatomy.) The act of farctfhii^ or taking in the air ly the aher- le contraction and dilatation of the chest INSPIRATION Cm Theology.) The con- veying certain extrnordini tions into die mind; or, in to ral i nflwnre on the i DiSTALLATION. The ceremony of m- or patting into any office or dignibr, as a dean or p r ebendary in his staU or INSTALMENT. The payment of a cer- tain potlion of a groaa sana, whach is to be paid at difflewait times, or, as the phrase ia^ fay in- INSTANCE Cm Civil Law.) The itioaofasiiiL INSTANT. TlKsmdest perceptible por- on of tmie; that whereia we perceive no 216 INT INSTANTER. Instantly. IN STATU aUO (in Diplomacy.) A term signifying that condition in which tilings were left at a certain period, as when belligerent parties agree that their miitual relations should be in statu quo, or as they were before the commencement of a war, and the like. INSTINCT. The sagacity or natural aptitude of brutes, which supplies the place of reason. INSTITUTE. Any society instituted or established according to certain laws, or regu- lations for the furtlierance of some particular object, such as colleges, or academies, as they are sometimes called, Literary Institutes, Me- chanics' Institutes, and the like. INSTITUTES. A book so entitled, con- taining the elements of the Roman or Civil Law. The institutes are divided into four books, and contain an abridgment of the whole body of the Civil Law. INSTITUTION. An English term for the putting a clerk into possession of a spiritual benefice, previous to which the oath against simony, and the oaths of allegiance and supre- macy, are to be taken ; besides which the party must subscribe the thirty-nine articles, the articles concerning the king's supremacy, and the Book of Common Prayer. INSTRUMENT. A tool to do any thing with. INSTRUMENT (in Law.) A deed or writing drawn up between two parties, and containing several covenants agreed between them. INSTRUMENT (in Music.) Any frame, Btructure, or contrivance, by which harmo- nious sounds may be produced. INSTRUMENTAL (in Music.) An epithet for the music of instruments, as distinguished from the vocal music, or that of the human voice. INSULATE. Properly, standing alone ; as, in Architecture, an insulate column, that vi^hich stands alone. INSULATED (in Chymistry.) A term for bodies that are supported by electrics or non- conductors, so that their communication with the earth, by conducting substances, is inter- rupted. INSURANCE, or ASSURANCE (in Law.) A contract or agreement by which one or more persons, called insurers or assurers, erigage, for a certain premium paid, to make good the loss of any house, ship, or goods, by fire, ship- wreck, or otherwise. Casualties by fire are protected by annual payments. The premium on ships and merchandise is so much on the voyage. INSURANCE COMPANIES. Compa- nies of persons who form a fund, or capital, which they dispose of in insuring the property of others against casualties by fire, &c. INTAGLIOS. Precious stones, having the heads of great men or inscriptions, &c. cngra- INT ven on them, such as are to be seen on ancient rings, seals, &c. INTEGER (in Aritlunetic.) A whole num- ber, as distinguished from a fraction ; as one pound, one yard, &c. INTEGRAL PARTS. Parts which make up a whole. INTEGUMENTS (in Anatomy.) The coverings of any part of the body, as the cuticle, cutis, &c. The common integuments are the skin, with the fat and cellular mem- brane adhering to it; also, particular mem- branes, which invest certain parts of the body, are called integuments, as the tunics or coats of the eye. INTENDANT. A military officer who has the inspection and management of certain affairs. INTENSITY. The state of being affected to a high degree ; the power or energy of any quality raised to its highest pitch. INTERCALATION (in Chronology.) An inserting or putting in a day in the month of February every fourth year. INTERDICT. A papal censure, prohibit- ing divine offices to be performed within any parish or town, &c. ; which was put in force in England in the reign of King John, and in Germany several times at different periods. INTEREST (in Commerce.) Money paid for the use or loan of money. The sum lent is called the principal ; the sum paid by the borrower, the interest ; emd when the two are incorporated, the interest paid upon that is called compovmd interest, or interest upon in- terest. INTEREST (in Arithmetic.) A rule by which the interest of money is computed, which is either simple or compound. INTERJECTION. An indecUnable pait of speech, serving to express the emotions of the mind. INTERLOCUTORY ORDER (in Law.) An order which does not decide the cause itself, only some intervening matter relating to it. INTERLOPERS (in Law.) Those who, without legal authority, intercept or hinder the trade of a company lawfully established to trade in a particular way or part INTERLUDE. An entertainment between the acts of a play, for the purpose of allowii\g the performers time to rest, &c. NTERPOLATING (among Critics.) In- serting a spurious passage into the writings of some ancient author. INTERREGNUM. The vacancy of a throne by the death or deposition of a king. INTERREX. He who governs while ther« is no king. INTERROGATION. A question put INTERROGATION, or Notk op In- TEEHOGATION (in Grammar.) A mark thus (?) put at the end of a question. INTERROGATIVES. Words used in asking a question, as why, whwefwe, &c. ION 217 INTERROGATIVE SYSTEM. A mode of teaching bv means of questions and answers. INTERROGATORIES (in Law.) Q,ues- tioos in writing demanded oC witnesses in a causey particularly in the Court of Chancery. IN TERROREM. By way of frightening or deterrin?. INTERSECTION (in Mathematics.) Tlie cutting of one line or idane by another. INTERVAL (in Music.) The diflerence be- tween two sounds, as respects acute and grave. INTESTATE. One dying wiUwwt a wilL • INTBSTINA (in Zoology.) An order in the Linnaean system, of tlte class vermes, in- dnding earthworms and leeches. INH^STINE MOTION (in Physiology.) That motion which takes piaoe in tl^ corpos- des or anallest particks of a body. INTESTINES. The convohited neons tube in the body of animah. In human subject, the intestines are divided into large and small, each of which ctHisists of three distinct portions. INTOLERANCE. The not tokanating or allowing of every man's private judgemoit in meters of doctrine or discipline. INTONATION (in Music) The act of Boonding the notes in the scale with the rdce, or any other given order of musical tones. INTOXICATION. The state of intoxica lion greatly resembles that of an incipient Daisy or apoplexy. Inebriated persons stag- ger in all directiroportion, and tl»e amtrary. JNUNDATJ5 (in Botany.) One of the linnsan natural orders, cunsi^ing of aquatic dlants. INVOCATION (among Poets.) An ad- dress to their favourite poet INVOICE. A bill or account of goods seut fay a merchant to his correspondent in a fixeign country. INVOLUNTARY HOMICIDE (in Law.) The killing a man by accident, which differs from excisable homicide by nusadventure in this, that the latter happens m the poibrmance of a bwful act, but Uie former may be an in- different or a positively unlawful act, which is murder or manslaughter, according to the nature of the case. INVOLUTION. The raising any quanti- ty to a given power by multi|Jymg it into it- self the required number of tinies ; thus, the culie of 3 b got by multiplying 3, the root, in- to itself twice, as,' 3X3X3=27. JOBBER. In England, one wfa« buys and sells cattle for anotho-. In the United Stales, a person who is cugagedin acbance I JOCKEY. A man who rides horses at races ; also, one who deals in horses. IODINE. A deadly poison, of a black co- lour and metallic lustre, procured from kelp, which resembles chlorine in its odoiu-, and power of destroying ve^?etafale colours. Iodine is incombustible, but wtfh axote it forms a cu- rious detonating powder. JOINED A worker in wood, who fits to- paralytic, and th^ are deprived of gether the several pieces which have been pre- pared for each other. He differs from the car- penter inasmuch as he does the finer worl^ that requires more skilL JOINT (in Anatomy.) The phice where any bone is articulated or joined with another. JOINT (in Mascmry.) The separation be- tween the stones which is filled with mortar. JOINT (in Joinery.) The parts where two pieces of wood join. JOINT (in Botany.) The knot in the stalk of a plant. JOINT (among Butchers.) The limb that is cut from the carcass of an animal. JOINT STOCK (in Ckjmmerce.) A stock or fund formed by the union of several shares fi-om different persons. JOINT STOCK COMPANIES. Com- nteroal associations, havinf a stock consisting of many shares: in suoi associations the sharehcMers gain or lose according to the number of shares w^hich they Ih^ JOINTURE (in Law.) The wife's sqnrate estate, secured by will, or by marriage settle- ment; in other cases, the wife inherits one third. JOISTS. Timberp fiiped into the girders or summers c.f a txiiidih^ IONIC ORDER (ill Architeclure) An order ao called from^^^Bta, in Lesser Asia. SIS mo The body of the pillar is usually channeled or furrowed with twenty-four gutters, and its length, with the capital and base, is twenty- nine modules, the chapiter being chiefly com- posed of volutes or scrolls. JONQUIL. A plant of the Narcissus kind, the flowers of which are either single or double, and are much esteemed for their sweet scent. JOURNAL. Any book in which is kept an account of what passes hi the day. JOURNAL (in Merchants' Accounts.) A book wherein every thing is posted out of the waste-book. JOURNAL (among Publishers and Book- sellers.) A periodical work, either daily, weekly, or monthly, &c. JOURNAL (among Mariners.) A bdok wherein is kept an account of the ship's way JOURNEYMAN. One who works by the day, the week, or the year, &c. for another. IPECACUANHA. A medicinal root, which grows in America, and was introduced into Europe in the seventeenth century, when it was much esteemed for the cure of dysente- ries, but afterwards fell into disuse. IPSE DIXIT. Literally, he himself said it ; a term signifying an opinion that rests on the word or authority of an individual only. IPSO FACTO. The very fact. IRIDIUM. A metallic substance procured from platina. IRIS (in Anatomy.) A striped, variegated circle, next to the pupil of the eye. IRIS (in Botany.) The flower de luce, or fla^-flower, Ac. ; a plant with a bulbous root, which bears a beautiful blue flower. There are many species of it, as, the common yellow or water iris, the flag iris, the dwarf iris, &c. IRIS (among Opticians.) The changeable colours whidi appear in the glasses of tele- scopes, &c. IRON. One of the most useful and abundant metals, which was one of the first that was known and worked. This metal is easily oxidized, but is infusible except by an intense heat ; it is, however, malleable at a less degree of heat, and several pieces may be ISS united into one mass by a process called weld- ing. Iron is the only metal that is susceptible of magnetic attraction. Pure iron is very rarely to be found ; the principal varieties of iron are the cast or pig iron, or that which is immediately extracted from the ore ; wrought iron, that which has gone through the process of melting in a furnace ; and steel, that which has been heated in charcoal, and hardened by its combination with carbon. The substance called black lead, is a carburet of iron ; green vitriol is a sulphate of iron ; and the loadstone is an oxide of iron. IRON. The name of several tools made of iron, particularly that which serves, when heat* ed, to smooth linen after it has been washed. IRONMONGER. A dealer in u-on. IRONMOULDS. Spots in linen, left after ironing. IRONMOULDS (among Miners.) Yellow lumps of iron or stone found in chalk-pits. IRON SMELTING. One of the most for- midable of the manufacturing processes of man. The iron-stone is exposed in a suitable receptacle to the action of an intense furnace beneath, raised to the highest degree by means of enormous blasting-bellows, the roar of which, as the air is driven into and fixed in the fire, is deafening. The iron then runs out in a li- quid stream, and being received in a channel formed of sand, is easily cast by the workmen into any desirable shape. IRRATIONAL (in Mathematics.) An epi- thet applied to surd quantities. ISINGLASS. A gelatinous matter, formed of the dried sounds of cod and other fish. It is the principal ingredient in tlie blancmanger of the cooks, and is also used medicinally. ISIS (in the Mythology of the Egyptians.) The wife and sister of Osiris. ISLAND. A country surrounded on all sides with water, as Great Britain, Ireland, &c. ISLAND CRYSTAL. A transparent stone of the nature of spar, a piece of which laid up- upon a book, every letter seen through it will appear double. It was originally found in Iceland, whence it was called Iceland or Island Crystal, but is to be met with in France and other parts of Europe. ISOCHRONAL or Isochronous Vi- BBATIONS. Vibrations of a pendulum per- formed in the same space of time. ISOPEREMETRICAL FIGURES. Fi. gures having equal perimeters or circumfe< rences. ISOCELES TRIANGLE. A triangle having two sides or legs equal to each other. ISSUE (in Law.) 1. The children begot- ten between a man and his wife. 2. The profits arising from lands, tenements, fines, &c 3. The point of matter at issue between con- tending parties in a suit, when a thing is Jif- firmed on the one side, and denied on the other- Issues may be either on matters of fact or mat- ters of law. JUB ISSUE (in Medicine) An artificial aper- ture, giving vent to noxious humours in the ISSUES (in Military Aflaire.) Certain ■ams of money givai into the hands of agents far theMvment of the army. ISSUES (in FcHtification.) Ootlets in a town. ISTHMIAN GAMES. Games formerly celebrated by the Greeks at the Isthmus of Corimh, every three, four, or five years. ISTHMUS. A little neck of land ioining a peninsula to a continent, as the Isthmus of Corinth, &c. ITALIAN. A native of Italy, the country c€ the ancient Romans, and one of the most beaatiiiil and interesting in Eurqie, having a fertile soil, mild climate, serene air, and great diversi^ of scenery, abounding with the ruins of ancient cities and builfings. The inhahfemte of the northern parts are an en- lightened people, distinguished for their pro- ficiency in music, paintings, and sculpture; bat those of the aaatbera parts are ignorant, degraded, and immoraL The population of Roiae, the capital, is about 140,000 ; but in the time of the Romans contained about 7,000,000. JUN 21t ITALIC. A kind of letter \Ked in print- ing, by way of distinction from the roman^ as in this word, Italy. ITCH. A cutaneous disease, supposed to be caused by an insect of the acarus tribe called the itchmite. This small insect, which is white, with reddish legs, is found in the small pellucid vesicles of the hands and joints affected with the itch. ITEM. Also ; a word used to denote an article added to an account ITINERANT. Going from place to place. ITINERARY. A book pointing out the roads and distances of places, for the ijse of travellers. JUBILEE. A time of public and solemn festivity among the ancient Hebrews. This was kept every fiftieth year ; and began about the autumnal equinox. At this time all slaves vci« rele^ed, all dt^As annihilated, and all lands, «&c. however alienated, were restored to their first owners. During this whole year all kind of agriculture was forbidden, and the poor had the" benefit of the harvest, vintage, and other productions of the earth. JUBILEE (in the Romish Church.) A solonnity instituted a. d. 1300, by Pope Boni- face, to be observed every hundredth year, or every twenty-fifth year, as enjoined by Pope Sext'us rV. for the performance of seven! ca-emonies in order to obtain pardons, remia- sions finom sins, indulgences, &c l^e jofailee lasts a whole year, and as it brings in great stores of wealth to the popes, it lus been call- ed the Golden Year. JUDAISM. The rites, customs, and doc- trines of the Jews. JUTK3E (in Law^.) One learned in the law, appointed to preside in a court of justice and explain the actual bearings of the law oo a case before the jury. JLT)GE MARTIAL, or Jt;DGE Advo- CATK, or Advocate General- The su- premejadge in courts martiaL JUIX5MENT (in Law.) The sentence of the court pronounced by the judge on the mat- ter in the record, either in cases of default, where the defendant puts in no plea ; or of confession, who-e the defendant acknowledges the action ; or, upon demurrer, where the de- fendant pleads a bad plea in bar ; or upon a nonsuit or retraxit, when the plaintiff with- draws or abandons the prosecution. Judg- ments are either interlocutory, that is, given in the middle of a cause on some intermeidiiate point, or final, so as to put an end to the acticHi. JUDICIAL (in Law.) An epithet for what appertains to a court, as judicial de- cisions, &c. JUGULARES (in Ichthyology.) An order of fishes in the Linnaean ^stem, including those that have the ventral fins placed before the pectoral, as the cod, the whiting, the had- dock. <&c JUGLTiAR VEINS. Veins running from the head down the sides of the neck. JULIAN PERIOD (in Chronology.) A period of 7980 consecutive years, produced by the multiplication of the three cjrcles of the sun, moon, and indiction, into one another. It w^ so called because it consists of Jnhan years. JLTJAN YEAR- A space of time con- sisting of 365 days and 6 liours, so caUed fi:*om Jnhus Caesar, by whom it was established. The calendar, which contained an account of Julian time, was called the Juhjm Calendar ; and the time when it was first instituted, name- ly, 46 A. c, the Julian Epocha, JULY. The seventh month in the year, so called in honour of Juhos Caesar. JUNIPER TREE. A sort of tree or shrul^ having long, narrow, and prickly leaves, and bearing a soft pulpy berry. This sfardb k coaunonly found on heaths and barren hlll% 220 JUP but the berries which are used metlicinally are brought from Germany. From the berries is made, in HoUancJ, the gin callerl Hollands gin Juniper-berries possess a strong, not un pleasant smell ; and a warm, pungent, sweet taste ; which, on chewing, or previously well bruising them, is succeeded by a bitterish fla- vour. They require two years before they ripen, and yield, on expression, a rich, sweet, aromatic juice, bearing some resemblance to the taste of honey. These berries are useful carminatives ; for which purposes a spirituous water, and an essential oil, are prepared from them. JUNO (in the Heathen Mytliology.) The vnfe of Jupiter, whose emblem was the peacock. JUNO (in Astronomy.) One of the newly discovered planets. JUNTA. A S|ianish term for a meeting of men sitting in council. IVORY. A finer sort of bone, or an in- termediate substance between bone and horn, prepared from the tusk of tlie male elephant, which sometimes weighs 200 pounds. It is much used in various manufactures, and its coal forms ivory black. In decomposition 100 parts contain 24 of gelatine, and 64 of phosphate of lime. JUPITER (in the Heathen MyUiology.) The son of Saturn and Ops, and chief of the JUS JUPITER (in Astronomjr.) The large?* planet of the solar system, being 89,522 miles in diameter, or 1400 times larger Uian the earth. It revolves round the sun in 4332 days 14 hours of our time, and on its own axis in 9 hours 56 minutes, inclined to the ecliptic 86^ 54 1-2'. It is attended by four satellites. gods, was the most honoured among men. His mofst usual attributes are the eagle, and thun- der, and BometimcB a figure of victory, and a epear, &c. JURISDICTION. The power or autho- rity invested in any individual or court, of doing justice in the causes brought before them. JURISPRUDENCE. Properly, a know- ledge of the laws, or skill in interpreting and applying them; also, the laws themselves, together with all that relates to their adminis- tration. English jurisprudence comprehends the common and statute law, together with such parts of the civil and canon law as have been admitted into our courts. JURY (in Law.) A certain number of persons sworn to inquire of and to declare the truth upon the evidence offered to them rela- ting to the matter of fact. Juries are of dif- ferent kinds, as the grand jury, petit jury, special jury, common jury, coroner's jury, &c. The grand jury, consisting of twenty- four men, is chosen to consider all bills of in- dictment preferred to the court, which they return as true, by writing upon them, 'billa vera,' true bill, or throw out by indorsing tlie word ' ignoramus.' The petit jury, consisting of twelve men, is chosen to try all causes civil and criminal : in the latter causes they give a verdict of Guilty or Not Guilty; in civil causes they bring a verdict either for tlie plaintifi'or the defendant ; and in real actions, either for the demandant or tenant. A jury is called special when it is returned for a par- ticular cause, and common when it is return- ed by the sheriff in tlio same panel to try every cause at the same assizes. JURYMAN. One who is sworn on a JURY-MAST. A great yard used in the place of the foremast or mainma'^t when it is broken down by n .storm. JUSTICE (in Law.) A magistrate ap- pointed in a district or county to hear crimi- CAM Ml chigu ^ «Bd dedde in thebw. JCS11FICAT10N Cm Lanr.) iag^ SDod peasoii is a ooor^ why a the Am? for wldch Ik is eaBed to display o as the I has done KEG JUXTAPOSITiON (with Tlie slate of bdog (faoed m to each olfafec. IT. A paivilic or tvim aboat trees, vdkb ^ ^^ Gbna fnan ilB LraiM 20 feet in one Tear, and grade the top of the %hfest boiWng 281 of rootB to K. K, the mdi letter in the aJ^phabel, stood as a nnineral for 250, arath a dtrafce oivcr ' thus, ^ for 250,000; as an afibreriatiaai, it stands for Knight, as K. G. Knight of the Garter, K. Bu Knight of the Bath. KALE. A hai^ kind of winter caLbage^ withacoriedleaC KALBI0D06C0PE. An optical ment for eraMtii« i ~ taiwtj 01 Iwiihfiil aocii a namer as cither to pkase the eye^b^ sfdeodid tinta forms, or to emMe the ofaser- soch as may appear for any of the m bramJieB of the ornamental arta. k vented by Dr. Brewster, and is dneiy nsed by calioo-printers, potters, and carpet ma fectnrers^ who are tfaas supplied with an iBumi waiicty of patterns. KAU (caBed in Botany SALEvlM;k TieMa moch ofl by pRasue^ and when iwiiul ibnns die Tenr heA fanpoO, •nd abHndance of carimrened hjifeapen gas for gas iigfatB. b is iwHt oaed fir inpariiig points. UNT. linen acn^ mla a et^ woolly subMaaee, fit ftr apipiynig to wounds. UOfTEL. The i^iper part of a door or windewfiame^ UON. The fiercest and noUest of aD wfld bewtB. aometinKs called the kinga fiyhkwanfanwdytiTiQr, strength, MM HMries^ w found ooly in landAfrica. T\Mey i eight feet from the nose to the n^Pk vidi atafl about ftfor feet; the ooloar being a pale brown, and the make, having a ness is withooL strength is nodigioas, and i—aiill lerrUe; fan^ « brought op tame, and mmaed to attack and de- fence;, they allow their keepers l» play wkfa them, and are kind to Email animals phoed ~ thevdens; indeed, aaappears bya Ueati dons aMeoipt to ezhftat a fight between ah and dogi^ the ban by natnre proved himsdf to fmmm none of that ferocity which appeare to be engendered by the interconise of one uv 237 LIONES& LIQUIDS (m Cl^mistry.) Fhiids which -e not elastic, nor AminitJf sensiUy in bulk, 1 distinction from gases or elastic nuids. UCIUIDS (in Grammar.) The letters 1, m, , r, 80 called from thdr soft and mdting Miad. LIQUOR. Any thing Uqaid that may be drank, partkohrly what is of a sptritaous namrp. IJQUORICEl a ahmb^ die root of which is frill of a sweet jaiee. LIST (among Mariners.) An indinatian to one sidhs, a|>pbed to a ship. LIST (among Cfodners.) Aborderorcdge of doth. LIST, or LISTELL (in Architecture.) A smaO band or square moolding, serving ta cww n lareer mooMinga. UST& A iJacecDckieedwidi rails, within which tDamameBls or feaM of arms were ex- hibited. LITANT. AgenerrisoppKcalionornrayer, song or said in some diarehes, eqwddly that in the Book of Common Prayer. LITHARGE. The scorn or dross dot arises in pmifying silver with lead, h is an oxide of lead. LrrmC acid. An acid extracted from die urinan* calciilL UTHO'GRAPmC. An epidiec for what which are idkcB on HY. TheartofiakinffnB- r mafSsan pertams to oiffravmg on from engiavugs c LrraoG&AP preasions fitm drawings or writiag stone. It is a modem inventian ; and anfikB letter-press or coi>perplate printing, which are eeasea^ depends oi- prmctples, ^nd has there- in German' fore oeen calleam Uermany. cbj^mical printing The principles on which it is fimn^d, first, the qiBh^ wUdi a compact |rannlar hmeslone has of imkbing grease or moiBtnre; and second- ly, the decided antiptfi^ of grease and water. A drawii^ is made on the stone, cither wUi ink or wiun a crayon of a greasy composition ; it is then washed over wi£ water, which sinks in those pc«tions of the stone not touched with the grease of drawing. A cylindrical rcAer, chained with priirting ink, is then passed over thestone; and while the drawii^nedves the ink, the rest of the stone is pfc a a re d from it by the water, <» acootmt of the greasy nature of the ink. LITHOBCARGE. An earth of the clay kind, which is kiKiwn by the name of fiiUer's eagthand potter's clay. LITHOTOMY (m Surgery.) The opera- tion of removing a calcolos or stone from the UTMUS (m ChyniBtry.) A substance fiom which is fi)rmed a tinelDre that serves as a test of the presence of an add or an alkali. All adds and salts chaise the natural violet of the litmus into red, and all «lfa>K(* reatore it to its n atural colour, the violeL UTURGY. A set fijrm of prayer, or a formulary of public devotion, called fay the Romanists the Mass, and in the English church the Common Prayer. LIVER (in Anatomy.) A very lai^ visens of a red coknir, situated i the right hypo ch on S3S LOA driutn, and divided into two lobes, which ewvea for the secretion of the bile. LIVERY (in Domestic E>x»nomy.) A dress of a certain form and colour, which gendemen require tlieir servants to wear by way of dis- tinction. LIVERY, or Li VERY of Seisik (in Law.) Is a delivery of-possession of Ifinds, tenements, or other corporeal things. LIVERYMEN. A certain number of per- sons chosen from among tlie freemen of each company in the city of London. Out of this body are chosen the common council, sheriff, and other superior officers of the city, and they alone have the privilege of voting at the elec- tion of members of parliament. LIVERY STABLES. Public stables, where horses are let out to hire. LIVRE. A money of account formerly used in Prance, equal to 19 cents. LIXIVIUM. A ly e made of ashes. LIZARD. An extensive tribe of animds, classed by Linnaeus under the genus lacerta, comprehending the crocodile, basilisk, chame- leon, and salamander. The lizard, properly so called, is a little reptile of a green colour, and is frequently to be met with in gaideos or under dunghills, &c LLAMA (in Natural History.) An animal of the camel kind in Peru and Chili, which has a bunch on the breast, long, soft hair, and a neighing voice. LOG when fresh broken, it Is often tinged with a brownish or reddish colour. LOAF (among Sugar-bakers.) A lump of sugar of a conical form. LOAM, or LOME. A particular kind of fat, unctuous, and tenacious earth, that is used much by gardeners in making compost. LOAN. In general, any thing intrusted to another to be returned again ; particularly money. LOAN (in Political ISconomy.) Sums of money borrowed from individuals or public bodies for the service of the state. In Eng- land this has been carried to a frightful extent, and the debt amounts to a larger sum than could be paid by all the money in existence ; certain heavy taxes, called the consolidated fund, being appropriated to pay an annual interest, nominally about 3 per cent, and which amounts to above 30 miUions. LOBBY (in Architecture.) A kind of passage room, or gallery, as the lobby in a theatre. LOBBY (in Naval Architecture.) A small room near the bread room in a vessel of war, appropriated to the use of the surgeon. LOBE (in Anatomy.) A division in any body, as the lungs or Uver. LOBE (in Botany.) A division in Eoeds, such as beans, peas, <&c. LOBSTER. A small crustaceous fish, having a cylindrical body, with a long tail and long antennae. Lobsters are found on most rocky coasts. Their eggs are hatched in the sands, and 12,444 have been counted under the tail of one animal. LL. D. i. e. Legum Doctor, or Doctor of the Civil and Canon Laws. LOAD (among Miners.) A vein of ore, the leading vein of a mine. LOADSTONE. A sort of ore dug out of iron mines, on which die needle of the mari- ner's compass is touched, to give it a direction north or south. It is a peculiarly rich ore of iron, found in large masses in England, and most other places where there are mines of that metal. It is of a deep iron gray, and LOCAL COLOURS (in Painting.) Such as are natural and proper for each particular object in a picture. LOCAL PROBLEM (in Mathematics.) That which admits of innumerable solutions. LOCK (among Smiths.) A piece of iron work, which is looked upon as a masterpiece in smithery, as much art and nicety is re- quired in contriving and varying the springs, bolts, and different parts, to the uses for which they are intended. Locks intended for outer doors are called stock-locks, those on chamber doors spring-locks, besides which there are padlocks, trunk-locks, &c. The principle on which all locks depend is the application of a lever, that is, the key, to an interior bolt, by means of a communication from without; and the security of locks depends upon the impediments which may be interposed betwixt this lever and the bolt These impedimenta have commonly been produced by means of LOG I the fc^ to the boh. Aa these oontri- vamoBB bftve not, bu m mu, been ahrajrs an ~ bv, Mr. Bnm^ of Europe, has ~ n lock an soeh a |irind|)le thai the i m. other VbAb jb perfbraed by Doiotof tfehBriabere mmatni to m lever, whiah ra— nt mroach VBtfl evenr put of the bek bs and fh a iH se 01 poanian. LOG 2M LOCCM TENEHB. A CQ> Ivijr in Africa, frD Vk» *.(^o"^ npQa_the couuR OK iimitiflHi hOCK, or WEIR (in Iidaad Naription.) Anameftralwofhaofwood or atone which areavde to eoafine or roaethe water of a river orcanaL In artificial narigatiaa, the lodi coaaiatB of two gaka^ the mper one caiB- ed the alBBe n«& aid the under one the flood oonntry, and hy waale all befixe arenoleaaternUedend than ali potrified earcaaaea cai di^ happen to dighL LOGKraBun^GamDiidiB.) llntpartof a nnahiet W wmkh fire ia produced fir the rfarhign of die pjeee LOCKED JAW. A aftheiawa. LOCKET. AyitlehKkofagoU alaoa apring or catdi to ftatwi a necki LOCOlfOnON. The power pooaeMed by aniaaah of changing their piaee, or moTiiig froaa one piaee to aiMther. LOCCMfOnVE SrrEAM ENGINE. aa osed at the coIUerieB in the northern coon- fiea of En^iid. G resireaentB the boiler, and FF the piatone, which ateeraaftefy vwk iq» and down a fiwne, to which the rods, A and B, ara fiaed^ wlueh tnnia two amdl wheds at bottitan, md revolve with ftroe the wheel C, wfaach again renhna the ooter wheel, and dua worica in iron teeth fixed in the graoid^ by which die mafjune u pro- pelled. The other wheda ran on an interior amoodi iroo rail, and are adapted to saj^wrt the carri^e; the chain in the rear drags other call iagwi ; die fiont chimnejr > off the HBolDe^ and An centre onetb aieHi finom die piMons. The other ode is enedr fikeit, the finme, AandB, the rooB on each aide ESnginea of thia VkAy to become very generaL * If^HI 1 — 1 afive^ fir then- LODGE. Aoottageataparkgate. LODGEafE3iiT On Fvtificatian.) A w«k raised by w^ of ahdler fiir die bca i egua ; abo, a place ^defence Faiaed by die beai^en^ when in an attack they hare gaaed faaaM sitmoC apoaL LOG (among Marinera.) A fld piece of wood, with leadai one ena and a line at the other, fir m taaui i ii ^ die raie of adrip^aaaabg. LOGABITHMSC NambecB ao co otii ted and n^^Keu to other nranbers, thai theanaan of the firmer ahau oorreapoBn andqootientoofdw ther: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, Ac Indaoea or 1,2, 4, 6, 16, 32, 4c< Or, 0, 1, 2; 3, 4, S, Ac Infioea or Logs. 1, 3, 9, 27, 81, 243, Ac. Gramrt Prog. 0, ' 1, 2, 3, 4, Ac fak&es or Log. 1, 10, 100, 1000, 10,000, Ac Geonu Prog. Where it is evident that the same nombers in arithmetical progreseioo, which are the logarithma or infieea, aa've eq^mlBy he any geometrical aeriee^ oonaeqnently there may be an endleaa varie^ of ^alema of kgaritniiia to the same oonnnon nondiera, by only chang- ing the second term, 2; 3; 10, Ac. of the ee»- metrical aeriea. If avr two indioea be added dr anm wiU be eqad 1 two Us ma m etrical progrennM uaieHpond, thna, » and 3 added together are eqnal to 5, and the nombaa 4 ani 8, correapn ii dii^ with dnae iodieea, being mohipfied together are equal to 32, which is the noniier aua w «iing to dto index & So if any index be siAtracted fironi another, Uk difference win be the index of Ihtf 540 LOM number, which ig equal to llie quotient of the two terms to which those indices belong, thus the index 6 — 4=2, then 64 divided by 16, the terms corresponding to these two indices leaves the quotient 4, which answers to the index 2. Logarithms being the exponents of ratios are on that account called indices, thus the logarithm 2 is the exponent or index of the several numbers in the geometriceil series over which it stands, as 22, or the square of 2 equal to 4 in the first series, 32 or square of 3, that is 9, in the second series, and 102 or the square of 10, that is 100, in the third series ; BO likewise 3 is tlie index or exponent for the cube numbo-s 8, 27, 1000, &c. over which it stands. LOG-BOARD. A table on which an ac- count of the ship's way is marked. LOG-BOOK. The book in which the ac- count of the log and of the ship's course are kept. LOGIC. The useful science which ana- lyzes the art of thinking, and teaches the practice of reasoning, the terms and classifi- cations in which are essential to every finish- ed writer. Its first step is to develope the faculties of the mind — ^the next to consider propositions and arrangements — the third to illusti'ate syllogisms and their forms, by which from two terms, a major and minor, a just con- clusion is drawn — the fourth to detect error by sophistry — and the last is method emd ar- rangement. LOG-LINE. The line fastened to the log, which is divided into certain spaces fifty feet in length, by knots or pieces of knotted twine, unreeved between the strands of the line, which show, by means of a half-minute glass, how many of these spaces or knots are run out in half a minute, and as the distance of the knots bears the same proportion to a mile that half a minute does to an hour, whatever number of knots the ship runs in half a minute, the same number of miles she runs in an hour. LOGOGRAPHY. A method of printing in which the types form whole words instead of letters. By this method the memory of the compositor is less burdened, and the business proceeds with more expedition and less liabili- ty to err. It is, however, but little used. LOGWOOD. A sort of wood used by dyers, called also Campeche wood, because it was originally brought from Campechy, in New Spain. Logwood is very dense and firm in its texture, exceedingly heavy, so as to sink in water, of a deep red colour, and admits of a fine polish. It yields its colour both to spirituous and watery menstrua, but alcohol extracts it more readily than water. Acids turn its dye to a yellow, alkalies deepen its colour, and give it a purple or violet hue. LOMENTACiEJ (in Botany.) The name of the thirty-third natural order in Linnaeus' Fragments, consisting of plants many of which furiiish beautiful dyes, and the peri- LON carpium of which is always a pod contalinnr seeds that are carinaceous, or mealy, lik« those of the bean, as the cassia, the wild senna, logwood, mimosa, or the sensitive plant, «S:c. LONDON PRIDE. A plant bearing a small fiower. LONG (in Music.) A note equal to two breves. LONG-BOAT (among Mariners.) The strongest and longest boat belonging to a vessel of war. LONGIMETRY. The art of measuring the distance of objects by means of a triangle, and trigonometry. A base line is measured, and the angle which the object makes with the base is taken with a theodolite at each end of the base, and we thus have one side of a trian- gle, and its angles to determine the other sides. LONGITUDE (in Astronomy.) An arc of the ecliptic intercepted between the begin- ning of Aries and the point of the ecliptic cut by the circle of longitude belonging to any star. LONGITUDE (in Geography.) The ex- tent of the earth from east to west. LONGITUDE OP A PLACE. An arc of the equator intercepted between some given point called the first meridian and the meridian passing through the proposed place. This may be either east or wes^ according as it is reckoned on the east or west side of the first meridian, LONG -SIGHT. This is a disease of age, when the eye becomes too flat to converge rays of light to the distance of the optic nerve; but the light, as is shown in the engraving, ar- rives at a focus beyond the nerve, and gives a confused picture at the nerve; nevertheJess, if the object is carried farther ofl^, the conver- gency is then perfect, but the object at the in- creased distance becomes too small to be dis- cerned distinctly, as for reading, &c., and hence, such persons are called long-sighted. The defect is, however, corrected by means of a convex lens, by which the rays are made convergent before they reach the eye, therefore, has less to perform. Pig. 1, explains long, sight, and the use of a convex lens ; and fig. 2, short-sight, and the use of a concave lens. LOO LOOP. A sea term for the after part of a ■bip'sbow. LOOM (among Weavers.) A frame b^ which the process of weaving cioth, &c is performed. LOOMING. A phrase applied to states of the atmosphere when, by increased refraction, distant objects are elevated above the level of the earth's carvature. LOOPHOLES (among Mariners.) Holes in the coamings of the halclies of a ship for firing muskets through. LOOPHOLES (in Fortification.) Liule holes in the walls of a castle or foriificatioD, through which arrows were discharged. LORD (in Law.) Any peer of the English realm ; also, a title of honour sometimes given to persons in Edigland by virtue of their office, as the Lord Chancellor, the Lord Chief Jus- tice, the Lord Mayor. LORD'S DAY. Sunday, the first day of the week, kqpt by the early Christians to cde- brate the day of the week on which our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ arose from the dead, and still kept by Christians ; a day of rest, or substitute for the seventh day of appointed rest LORY. A bird of the parrot kind. LOTE TREEl a kind of tree which firom its jagged leaves was called the nettle tree. LOTION. The washing or cleansing of any medicine with water ; also, a wash for the skin. LOTTERY, A game of chance in the nature of a bank, wherein are put tickets for sums of money or other things, called prizes, and others of no value, that are called Uanks ; these being all mixed together, the tickets are drawn at a venture, and each person has the value of the lot drawn to the number of his ticket Lotteries are often anployed by go- vernment as a means of increasing the re- venue, bat the moral mischiefs were so great, that it is now abandoned in England, and ousrht to be every where. LOVE APPLE. The fruit of a tree in %)ain, that Is of a violet colour. LOUIS D'OR. a French coin, first struck in the reign of Louis XUL in 1640, equal in value to about $4 1-2. The modern Louis d'or is equal only to about $3 1-2. LOUK, St., Obdeb or. An order of knighthood instituted by Louis XIV. in 1693. LOUSE. A disgusting insect, which lives LUN 24. by extracting animal juices; it and brutes. It is remarkidile for the traDspa 2H ^ rency of its skin, and is highly curiouB in its structure. LOZENGE (in Geometry.) A quadrila- terdJ figure, having two oj^posite angles acute, and two obtuse. LOZENGE (in Heraldry.) A figure which is used to contain the coats of arms of all maidens and widows. L. S. An abbreviation for locus sigilli, tho place of the seal. LUCJGEK. A small vessel canying either two or three masts, with a running bowsprit, upon whicli lugsaiJs are set, and topsaib adapted to them. LUMBAGO. A rheumatic affectioD of the muscles about the loins. LUNACY. A kind of madness, so called because supposed to be influenced by the moon. LUNAR. Belonging to the moon, as a lunar eclipse, month, year, &c, LUNATICS. Properly, such as hare diseased imaginations, which deprive tliem of the use of their reasoning faculty, sometimes altc^ethar, and sometimes only on particular subjects. LUNATION, otherwise called the Syno- DicAL MoKTH. A revolution of the mocHi, or the time between one new moon and ano- ther, being 29 days, 12 hours, 44 minutes, 3 seconds, and 1 1 thirds. LUNE (in Mathematics.) A getMnetrical figure in form of a crescent LUNGS (in Anatomy.) A viscus in the animal body, composed of two lobes or di- visioQi, which are spongy bodies^ situated in 242 MAC the chest, and serving the purpose of respi- ration. They constitute the main spring of animal life, fixing part of the gas which they inspire, and deriving from it the heat and energy of the animal. Their action is chymi- cal and galvanic, while that of the heart is purely mechjinical, LUPINE. A sort of pulse, which bears a papilionaceous flower. There are , several species of lupuies cultivated in gardens, as the white lupine, the small blue lupine, and the great blue lupine, &c. which are all annuals except one species, called by distinction the perennial lupine. LUPUS (in Astronomy.) The Wolf, a con- stellation in the southern hemisphere. LURID^ (in Botany.) A natural order of plants in the Linnsean system, which are poisonous, as the nightshade, digitalis, &c. LUSTRATION. The ceremony of puri fication performed by the ancient Romans every five years; whence that space was called a lustrum. LUSTRE (in Mineralogy.) One character of mineral bodies, which in that respect are distinguished into splendent, shining, glisten ing, glimmering, and dull. LUTE. A stringed instrument, containing at first only five rows of strings, to which were afterwards added six more. It was for merty much used. LUTE (in Chymistry.) A compound paste made of potter's clay, sand, and other mate- rials, for the purpose of closing up the necks of retorts, receivers, &c. in different chymical experiments. LUTHERANISM. The doctrines of Mar- tin Luther, the German reformer, who died in 1546, which form the creed of all the pro- testants in Germany who are not Calvinists. LYCOPODIUM, or Club Moss. A sort of moss, the seeds of which when ignited burn ofi" like a flash of lightning. LYDIAN STONE. A stone of a grayish black colour, which is found in Bohemia and other parts of Germany, and also in Scotland. When polished, it is used as a test stone for determining the purity of gold and silver. It was used for that purpose among the ancients by whom it received this name, because it was found only in the Tmolus, a river of Lydia. MAC LYE. Water impregnated with the alkali of wood ashes. LYMPH (in Anatomy.) A clear limpid humour, secreted from the blood, which is car- ried by the lymphatic vessels into the thoracic duct, where it mixes with the chyle. LYMPHATICS. Vessels which absorb the superfluous moisture or lymph in the animal system, and convey it to the chyle. LYNX. A wild beast, of a tawny brown colour, with black spots, and very quick sight- ed, which in its habits resembles the wild cat. In Asia they are tamed for hunting, and are proverbial for the keenness of their sight. ^"itiHmttnAVA^^^^Uf,.,^ LYRA. The Lyre, a constellation in the northern hemisphere. LYRE. A musical stringed instrument ; a kind of harp much used by the ancients. LYRIC. Pertaining to the harp, as, lyric verse, poetry made for or set to the harp. M. M, the twelfth letter of the alphabet, which as a numeral stands for mille, a thousand, and with a stroke over it, thus, m, it stood for 1,000,000. As an abbreviation M. A. stan^ for Master of Arts, M. D. Doctor of Medicine, D. Mns. Doctor of Music, MS. Manuscript, MSS. Manuscripts. MACADAMIZING. A method of making roads, intxoduced by Mr. Mac Adam, which parrot Uibe. consists in breaking the stones so small that they may bind with the earth into a sohd smooth MACARONIC POEM. A sort of burlesque poetry. MACAROON. A sweetmeat made of al- monds. MACAW. Aa elegant tropical bird, of the MAD MAOBCw Bolaiiv.) A mmttt mamicm of tfe bradofliwi fiagrant anmtiB perfiBK^ ndaplBMUtbat far which VbBf an mBifiaio^iemAttBtbani ■MCBBBCL enCinCBI BMoHM^ HVUfttUDC ■!•- MACHINE^ INFERNAL. A o»diiiie vaed m maderm warfuc^ fbrtiie porpoae of y^^SlB^ «dl kwrnn prolific fiah, ia the HMBor aoBOB, IB TMt flhaak. MAG of B uny M M i ffluwrth, tnt d^t finoB the LevsMt is aliil MAIXEOLA. Arich MADRIGAL. A shaft MAELSTROOM. A thecoHtcf Norwsr; Ab of tfaBvatar of Ihe iide^ every near the idm^pool k drawn p^goea. .) D|rk spirts «e9af the anal and BOOB, aadevoiaanieof the pfanets. TVv ware firat diaoofcred br Galieah aooB af. : : tedansntadhHteleorani ft 1m beo^ ^ . the anrfroe of the an, \wrnm, L Mmy of thcHi are ofaaerved to break near the middfe of die aiB^s dist, odien to dscw and vanisfa ~ ee fitan hia lii^ 2. \iimajB of die disc, and gradmAy Iknbi 3. Tie ah^e of the^qtoto cordiiig to their position on f of the disc; duae which are roond and broad in theimddfe nmr oUai^ and dender aa di^ aoproach die finii^ SB tfa^ ought by die ndcB ofopiks. ByaBBanBoftheaespotsdieAomal rerolotianB of dieaiBi and pfaoett have been MACDL£ Cm Medkme.) on die sorftee of the body. MADDER. A aolManoe need *m dyeing, I the «MI of a plut bo- ceontriesof Borope; &atof Ikmlsnd isthebest MAGAZINE (i^ __^__ , A -e^ boose for all sorts of aserdiandiBe. MAGAZINE (in Miiilaiy Attn.) A feranm^ Ac MAGAZINE Cm lilentine.) Aperiodkri MAGGOT. Thefas^ of ffiaa, faee^ 4c MAGL Astralo^eraandi P enaaua and Afljahm, who «san fnwuMiinw of theDdty. MA GIC. T lieUnek art, orte prehsded art of prodnrmg aBycraai xn tne Pfli'auu onei. MAGIC LANTraOf . An ( aaaof which nre n poaitewalmadntkrooB magnified to any aiae at pleasore. TUs oon- trivanee oonsiBiB of a eoouncai lantern with a by die naoM of roUa. candle ia it, as in die adiiaaied figure, to PS in France and odier| which is added a tidie, and a leas dnft thrawa die ligfat on the object, and anodier len which 244 MAG magnifies the image on the wall. Then by contracting the tube, and bringing the glass nearer to the object, the image will be en- larged. MAGIC SaUARE (in Arithmetic.) Fi- gures so disposed into parallel and equal ranks as that the sums of each row, as well diago- nally as laterally, shall be equal. 4 3 9 2 5 7 8 1 6 MAGNA CHART A. The great charter of the laws and liberties of England, boimding the powers of the sovereign, and defining some rights of the people. It was first grant- ed by King John, in tho seventeenth year of his reign, A. D. 1215. This was afterwards renewed, with some alterations, by his son and successor, Henry III., and repeatedly confirm- ed both by this king and King Eldward I. The Magna Charta which is the first statute given in the English statute books, is the same as that granted by Henry III. in the ninth year of his reign. MAGNESIA. A white, soft powder, and one of the primitive earths, having a metallic basis called magnesium. It is mostly ex tracted from talc, asbestos, boracite, and other stones. MAGNESIUM. See Manganese. MAGNET. See Loadstone. MAGNETICAL MERIDIAN. A great circle in the heavens, which intersects the ho rizon in the points to which the magnetical needle, when at rest, directs itself. MAGNETIC NEEDIiE. See Needle MAGNETISM. The property of attracting and repelling iron, as the loadstone does, which was partially known to the ancients! but it does not appear that they knew any tiling of its directive power, which has been so usefully employed by the moderns. The natural magnet has tlie power of communi eating its properties to iron or steel, which then becomes a magnet itself, and is employed as such cri most occasions. The engraving MAI represents the curved forms in,which particles of Bteel dust range themselves when sifted on paper laid over a magnet. MAGNETISM, Animal. A pretended science, which professed to cure diseases, par- ticularly nervous disorders, by communicating a sort of magnetical fluid or virtue from one body to another. MAGNIFYING (in Philosophy.) The making objects appear larger by the means of glasses than they do to the naked eye ; convex glasses, which have this power, are called magnifying glasses, of which microscopes are made. MAGNITUDE. The extension of any thing, whether it be in one direction, as a line ; in two directions, as a surface ; or in three directions, as a solid. MAGNOLIA. A plant, of which the magnolia grandiflora, or the great magnolia, is the principal species. It is a native of Florida, and bears a beautiful milkwhite flower. MAGPIE. A variegated crafty bird of the crow kind, which resembles the daw, except that the tail is very long, and the breast and part of the wings white. It can be taught to imitate the human voice as well as a parrot. It is a noisy, mischievous, and wily bird. MAHOGANY (in Botany.) A beautiful wood, belonging to a tree that grows in Ame- rica and the West Indies, upwards of 60 feet high, and 4 feet in diameter, known by the botanical name of the swetenea mahogani, or the mahogany tree. It has a beautiful deep- green foliage, flowers of a reddish saffi'on colour, and fruit of an egg form. The wood varies with the soil ; that growing on rocks being hard and close, and that on richer lands light and porous. MAHOMETANS. Believers in the doc- trines and divine mission of the impostoi MAL Maboniel, the warrior and prophet of Arabia, wiiose creed 'maititains that there is but oae Ciod, and tliat Mahomet is his prophet. MAlDENHAIIt A plant, native of the south of Prance. MAJEiSTY. A title given commonly to kings. It was first used in England in the reign of Henry VIII. instead of highness. MAIHEM, or MAYHEM. A corporal wound or hurt, by which a man loses the use of any m«nber. It origiaallv applied to such corporal injuries as rendered a man unfit for vrar. MAIL. A public mode of carrying letters, pamphlets, and newspapers, with much safety and expedition. MAINPRIZE (in Law.) Receiving a per- son into friendly custody who might other- wi^ be committed to prison, on security given for his forthcoming on a day appointed ; a sort of bail. MAINTENANCE (in Law.) The wrong- ful upholding another in a cause. MAJOR (in Military Affairs.) An officer above a captain. MAJOR-GENEaiAL. An <^cer second in rank to a eeneral. MAJOR OP A BRIGADE. The officer who receives the orders from the major- general. MAJOR OP A REGIMENT. The officer next to the lieutenant-coloneL M.UOR, Town. The thwd officer of a garrison. MAlZEi, or Indian Corn. A plant cul tivated in North and South Am«ica, where the seed or fruit of it is much used for food by the inhabitants. It somewhat resembles the sugar cane in appearance. MALACHITE. A mineral, Ae greoi car- bonate of copper, found fireqoently crystallized in long slender needks. It consists of cop- per, carbonic acid, oxygen, and water. MALACOLITE. A mino^ found in the silver mines in Sweden, and also in Norway, ccmsisting of silica, lime, magnesia, alumina, oxide of iron, &c. MALADMINISTRATION. Bad manage- ment of public affairs, or a misdemeanour in public emplojrments. MALAPROPOS. Unseasonably, or at an improper time. MALATES. (Salts formed by the union of the malic add with different bases. The malates of potash, soda, and ammonia, are ddiquesoent MALAY. A native of Sumatra, one of the Isles of Sunda. Sumatra is the largest, being 900 miles long, and 200 broad ; a chain of mountains rim through it, the highest of which is 13,400 feet in height Although directly under the equator, the climate is not very ^ the thermometer seldom rising above 85 degrees. Its population is about 4,500,000. The inhabitants of the coast are Malays. Of MAM 245 the interior but little \s known ; the inhabi- tants, however, are said to be cannibals. Its ex}X)rts are rice, pepper, cotton, cassia, coffee^ camphor, &c. ffl l\^MHBF=rF=j ^pCh^ n9i^^^^ t 21- MALE PLOWER. A flower thai "bear* stamens onlv. witliout pistils. MALE SCREW. A screw that has the spiral thread on the outside of the cylinder. MALIC ACID. An acid discovered by Scheele, abotH the year 1785. It is procured from the juices of many fruits, but particu- Iju-ly from that of apples. It is composed of oxygen, hydr<^en, and carbon, and combines with alkalies, earths, and metallic oxides, so as to form malates. MALLEABILITY. The property of metak of being capable of extension by beating with the hamma-, and (^ being worked into diffe- rent forms. MALLOW. An herbaceous plant, most species of which grow wild in the field. The common mallow is an annual ; but there are several species which are perennials and bien- nials. The leaves of the Commcm Mallow possess a mucilaginous, sweetish taste, and were formerly often used in food, with a view to prevent costiveness. At present, decoc- tions of this plant are sometimes prescribed in dvsenterics and urinary complaints, though it is chidly employed in emollient cataplasms, clysters, and fomentations. MALT. Barl^ steeped in water, fer- mented and re-dried; which, when ground, with the addition of hot water, fonxts wort, far making beer. MALT KILNS. Chambers fiill of holes in the floor, through which the heat ascends from the furnace below and dries the barley that is laid upon it. MAMELUKES. The name of a dynasty that reigned in Egypt They were originally Turkish or Circassian slaves tliat were trained to arms, and being employed in the highest offices of the statc^ at length succeeded to th« 246 MAN thi-one, but were sulxliied by sultftn Selim, Tliey are now a distinct body of soldiers. MAMMALIA. The first class of animals in the Linnaean system, comprehending such as suckle their young by means of lactiferous teats, and are for the most part quadrupeds. MAMMOTH. An antediluvian animal, whose remauis have been discovered in vari- ous countries, and are supposed to be those of an immense species of elephant, now extinct MAN. A being consisting of a rational Boul and organical body. By some he is de- fined thus: "He is the head of the animal creation; a being who feels, reflects, thinks, contrives, and acts ; who has the power of changing his place upon the earth at pleasure; who possesses the faculty of communicating his thoughts by means of speech, and who has dominion over all other creatures on the fece of the earth." The constituent and essential parts of man created by God, are two : body and soul. The one was made out of dust ; the other was breathed into him. The varieties of the human species, as arrang- ed by Blumenbach, are five in number : 1. Caucasian variety, which includes the Euro- peans, (excepting the Laplanders, and the rest of the Finnish race^ the western Asia- tics, as far as the river Ob, the Caspian sea, and the Ganges, and the northern Africans. 2. Mongolian variety, which includes the rest of the Asiatics, (excepting the Malays,) the Finnish races of the colder parts of Europe, as the Laplanders, &c., and the tribes of Es- quimaux ; extending over the northern parts of America from Bhering Straits to the ex- tremity of Greenland. 3. Ethiopian variety, contains the remaining Africans, besides tliose classed in the first variety. 4. American va- riety. To this belong all the Americans, eX' cept tlie Esquimaux. 5. Malay variety, in- cludes the inhabitants of Malacca, of the South Sea, Ladrone, Philippine, Molucca, and Sunda Islands. Each variety is distin- guished by the colour of the hair, and some striking peculiarities of feature. MAN. A sea term for a vessel, as a mer MAN chnntman, that is, a vessel used in transport- ing mercliants' goods ; a man-of-war, the largest kind of vessels used in war, sometimes carrying 120 guns and 1000 men. MANDAMUS (in Law.) A writ granted by the chancellor, or a judge of the supreme court, so called from the first werd, Manda- mus, we command, commanding corporations and infeiior courts, or other persons, to do some particular thing, as to admit any one to an office, and the like. MANDARIN. A Chinese magistrate. MANDATE. A judicial command. MANDIBLE. The jaw of brutes; in Or- nithology, the bill of birds. MANDRAKE. A plant, whose divided root bears some resemblance to the legs and thighs of a man. MANDRIL, or MANDERIL. A wooden pulley, part of a turner's lathe. MANEGE. A riding school ; also, the art of horsemanship, or the management of both the horse and the rider. MANEQ,UIN (in the Fine Arts.) A little statue or model, usually made of wood or wax, and so contrived as to be put into posture at pleasure. MANGANESE. A mineral which, when pure, is of a grayish white colour, and consi- derable brilliancy ; it has neither taste nor smell, is of the hardness of iron, and very brittle ; when reduced to powder it is attracted by the magnet. The ore of manganese is re- markable for its spontaneous inflammation with oil. It is much used by .glass makers and potters, and is sometimes called soap of glass. MANGE. A cutaneous disease incident to horses, dogs, and other domestic animals ; it is attended with eruptions and loss of hair. MANGEL WURZEL. A sort of beet root, that is in the shape of a carrot, but much larger ; it is reckoned a good winter fodder for cows, and has been sometimes used in Ger- many as the food of man in times of scarcity, whence it derives its name, signifying literally root of scarcity. MANGER. A trough out of which horses eat their corn or dry food. MANGER (among Mariners.) A place on the deck of a vessel for receiving the sea water. MANGROVE TREE. A tree of Suri- nam, which, like the banian tree, sends forth numerous branches, that take root in the earth and form fresh trees, so as to make a wood out of one main stock. MANICHEES. The followers of a Persian impostor in the third century, who taught that there were two independent principles or gods, one good and one evil. MANIFEST (in Commerce.) The draught of the cargo of a ship, MANIFESTO. A public declaration made by a prince, explaining his reasons for going MAN to war or adopting any hostile measure to- wards another country. MANILLE. A large brass ring, like a bracelet, whicli was given by the Europeans in their traffic for slaves on the African coast MANIS. An animal inhabiting India, hav- ing no teeth, a body covered above with scales, and a round extensile tongue, with which it catches insects. MAR 247 MANNA. "niB food sent from heaven for the support of the Israelites in the wilderness. MANNA (iu Botany.) A sweet juice or gum which flows from many trees and plants in Syriji, and also in Calabria, where it eitudes from two species of the ash. Its smell is strong, its taste rather nauseously sweet ; if exposed on hot coals it swells up, takes fire, and leaves a light coal, which aflbrds a fixed alkali. It is dissolved by water, and affords by distillation water, acid, oil, and ammonia. MANOMETER, or MANOSCOPE. An instrument for showing the alterations in the rarity and density of the air. It differs from the barometer, iu as much as the latter only serves to measure the weight of the atmos- phere, but the former the density of the £iir in which it is found. MANOR (in Law.) A noble sort of fee anciently granted by the king of England to some baron to dwell upon, and to exercise a jurisdiction greater or less witliin that circuit : this was in part let out to the lord's tenants, and part was reserved for the use of his family, which latter was called terra domini- calis, or demesne. Some part was left uncul- tivated, which was called the lord's waste. MANSION (in Law.) The lord of the ma- nor's chief dwelling house within his fee. MANSLAUGHTER (in Law.) The kfll- ing a man by misadventure without malice prepense. MANTELETS (in Fortification.) A kind of moveable parapets used in a siege. MANTIS. A sort of insects, of which tliere are numerous species, distinguished by the difference and singularity of tlieir shape. The chief species in Europe is the camel cricket, or praj-iiig mantis, so called because when sitting it holds up its two fore legs as if in the attitude of prayer. This is a rapacious insect, that attacks other insects with great fierceness. MANUAL. Pertaining to the hand, as manoal operatun, an operation performed by the hand. MANUAL, Sign (in Law.) The signing of a deed or writing under hand and suaL MANUAL (in Literature.) Any book small enough to be carried in the hand, which contains a compendium of science. MANUFACTURE. Any commodity made by the hand, or any thing formed from the raw materials or natural productions of a country, as cloths from wool, and cotton or silk go<-ids from the cotton and silk, die. MANUFACTURER, One who employs his capital in manufacturing goods. MANUMISSION (in Law.) The act of enfianchisiug or setting a slave or bondman free. MANURR Wliatever serves to enrich the ground and fit it for husbandry purposes, as dung, loam, soap ashes, &c. MANUSCRIPT, abbreviated MS. or in the plured MSS. A book or copy written with the hand, in opposition to printed copy. MAP. A plane figure representing the surface of tlie earth, or any part thereof, to- getlier witli tlie several divisions of lamd and water, and the several countries, towns, and the like. It is called a universal map when it represents the wliole surface of the earth, or the two hemispheres, and a particular map when it only represents particular regions or countries. A map is properly a representa- tion of land, as distinguished from a chart, which only represents tlie sea or seacoast. MAPLE (in Botany.) A tree of which there are num^ous species, classed by Lin- naeus under tlie scientific name acer. The acer saccharinum, or sugar maple, in North America, is one of tlie most remarkable spe- cies, fi-om which, by tapping the trees early in the spring, the inhabitants procure a vast quantity of sugar, a tree of an ordinary size yielding in a good season firom twenty to thirty gallons of sap. MARBLE. A calcareous mineral, or car- bonate of lime, moderately hard, fermenting with and soluble in acid menstruum, and cal- cining in a slight fire : as marbles admit of a fine polish, they are used much as ornjunen'ui in building. Marble is found in most of tlM mountainous parts of Europe^ of which ihat 248 MAR obtained in Italy is the most valuable. Derby shire, in England, abounds in this article, as also the Isle of Anglesea, where there is a beautiful marble called Verde de Corsica, be- cause it is found likewise in Corsica. Several varieties of beautiful marble are found in dif- ferent parts of the Ignited States. MARBLING. The painting any thing with veins and douds, so as to represent marble. MARCH (in Chronology.) The third month in the year, which was formerly the first month. MARCH (in Military Affairs.) The move- ment of a body of troops from one place to another ; or the stepping of a soldier accord- ing to a certain form. MARCH (in Music.) Any piece adapted to a soldier's march. MARIGOLD. A plant cultivated in gar- dens, which bears a radiated, disCous flower. MARINE. A general name for the navy of a kingdom or state, comprehending also all that relates to naval affairs, as the building, rigging, arming, equipping, navigating, and employingships, either for merchandise or war. MARINE. Belonging to the sea, as ma- rine stores, &c. ; also the name of a body of soldiers raised for the s6a service. MARINE REMAINS. The shells of sea fishes and parts of crustaceous and other sea animals found in digging down great depths into the earth, particularly on the tops of mountains, which, as they prove that these places were once covered with water, are evidences of the general deluge. MARINER. One accustomed to a sea life. MARINES. Soldiers who serve on board a ship, and trained to fight either by sea or on land. MARITIME. Bounded by the sea, as a maritime province or country, that is, one bounded by the sea; so likewise maritime countries, such as Ens^land or Holland. MARK, or MARC. A weight used in several states of Europe; in France it is equal to eight ounces : also, a money of ac- count equal to about 83 cents. MARKET. A public place and time for selling provisions and other things. MARL. A sort of fat earth, consisting of a mixture of carbonate of lime and clay, used in agriculture for enriching barren land, and valuable according to the proportion of lime which it contains. MARMOTTE, A quadruped about the MAR size of the rabbit, which inhabits the higher regions of the Alps and Pyrenees. The woodchuck of North America, is called the Maryland marmotte. MARCIUETRY. A curious kind of inlaid work, composed of several fine, hard jjieces of wood, of various colours, fastened in thin slices on the ground, and sometimes enriched with silver, ivory, and other matters. MARQ,UIS. A peer in Britain, in rank, between an earl and a duke, and bearing a coronet on state occasions as in the engraving. The title of marquis was first given in the reign of Richard II, The coronet of a marquis has flowers and pyramids with pearls on them intermixed. MARROW. A fat and oleaginoiis sub- stance in the bones of animals. MARS (in Astronomy.) One of the seven primary planets, distinguished by the red colour of his light, and usually marked by this character ^. It performs its revolution around the sun in 686 days 23 hours 30 minutes and 30 seconds, and its revolution on its axis in 24 hours 40 minutes. This planet is 4444 miles in diameter, and 144 milUons of miles distant from the sun. MARS (in the Heathen Mythology.) The son of Jupiter and Juno, and. the god of war, whose common attributes are his helme^ spear, and sword. MARSHAL. The chief officer of arms in Europe, whose duty it is to regulate com- bats in the lists. Also, one who regulates rank and order at a feast or anjr other assembly, directs the order of procession, &c. In the United States, a civil officer in each judicial dis- trict, answering to the sheriff of a county. MARSHAL, or Field Marshal (in MAS Military A&irs.) The higfaert military otBcer ia Ekjrope. MARSHALUNG (in Heraldrj .) The dis- posing of the several ccats of arms belonging to distinct families m one and the same es- cutcheoo, ti^ether with their ornaments : one branch of the aaeaee of heral^by. MASSHALSEA. A coort originally in- stitiited in Ekigtand, to hear and determine caosee between the senrants of the king's booae- hold and others within the ver?e of the coort, that is, within 12 miles roand Whitehall. MARTEN, or Mabtlbt. A large kind of weaad, and one of the prettiest of the beasts of prey which is found in America. It has a OBatt head, an agile body, and lively eyes. Tbe finr of the marten is valuable. MAS 249 MARTEN. A small species of the swallow; a bird of passage, which visits Ekigland and the Doiled States in May, and departs in Oc- tober, ami builds its nest under the eaves of MARTIAL LAW. The law that has to do only with the nalitaay of a goi^mment In cases of riolB and rebdhonSf Martial Law is ! the civil power is ■01 stroBg gpoogh «p p ir e s c ry c ihe peace. MAimNGAL (in iiie Manege:) A thong of leAfaer attached to a bri(fle and 6steaed at the other end to the girte mider the belly of the horse; to firevent his raising his head above a certain pcnnt MARTINGAL, A sea term for a rope ex from the jib boom to the end of the MASCULINB GENDER. The gender of ■earns that denote the male sex MASH. Bran scalded in hot water and given to a horse or cow, &e. It s prepared by infusing half a peck of grofttid malt in a sufficient quantity of boitiog witter, then i^- tatii^ the Uquor, till it acqanres a t s m vH taste, and when tokewarm, administering it to the bound by an oath of secrecy not to reveal any thing that passes within the Eociety, and the members throughout the whole world are known to each other by certain secret sigiM. In Spain, Portugal, and Italy, free mastmry is proscribed. MASORITES. The rabbies who, under E«dras the scribe, are supposed to have purged the Hebrew Bible of the errors that crept into it during the Babylonish c^>tivity. They di- vided the canonical books into twenty4wo, and these twenty-two books iiito chapters, and the chapters into verses. MASQUE (in Afchiteeture.) Certain pieces of sculpture - - - - -•;"-^ hideous forms, which serve to fiii -.i:es. MASQl i \ n exhibition in which persms wearing m isks or vizards, meet to- gether and represent different characters, MASS (in Ecclesiastical Affairs.) The ritual or service of the Romish church ; when the prayers are simply rehearsed, without singing, it is called Low Mass : but when the prayers are sung by choristers, and the service is perfermed by a deacon and subdeacon, it is caHed High or Cnrand Mass. The form of the ahar und the dress ef ttie priest are repre- soited in the engraving. 'in • ^ •- ^ 1 ^M ^^^^^ ^19^ MASHING. The mixing of malt jmd hot water together in brewing. MASK. A coverio? for the face. MASONRY. The art of hewing, cutting, or sqoarn^ toace, and fitting than for the OBeoflnfliiags; aJao,of joining them together. with mortar. MASONS, PbcBjOt Acceptbd Masons.' A fraternity of great vitiquity, so caOed pro- htkky because the first faaaiidere of that society I of that prntMTinii. They are • 21 MASSES (in Painting.) The nerts of a picture containing ereat bghts and shadows. MASSICOT. aVHow oxide of lead. MASS-PRIEST. The name for Romidi priests who are kept in chantries or at particii- lar altars, to say so many masses for the soola of the deceased. MAST. The upright beam or post on the deck of a vessd, to which the yards, sails, &c. are fixed. The mainmast is the largest mast in the ship ; the foremast is tbe next in size, stsmding near the stem of the ship ; the mizen- mast, the smallest of the three, stands between the mainmast and the stern; they are sup- ported by an ingenioos combination of ropes^ adapted to ascenti for the purpose of adjusting the sails. MASTER OP ARMS. In a ship of wsr, he who has charge of the small arms, and as* tbe pcuy officers, &c. 250 MAT MASTER OF ARTS. The second honora- ry degree conferred at colleges. MASTERS IN CHANCERY. In England, assistants to the Lord Chancellor, of which there are twelve ordinary masters, who sit in court every day during term, taking affidavits and acknowledgments of deeds, &c. To them are referred all interlocutory orders, and com- puting damages, &c. There are also Masters Extraordinary appointed to act in every coun- ty beyond ten miles distant from London. In the United States, the Chancellor appoints, in different sections of the state, as many masters or assistants as he thinks necessary. MASTICATORY. A medicine tliat requires to be chewed, to promote the saliva. MASTICK, or MASTIC. A resinous Bub- Btance in the form of tears, of a very pale yel- low colour, and farinaceous apfjearance, having little smell and a bitter astringent taste. It exudes mostly from a tree of the turpentine kind, called in botany pistocia lentiscus, which grows in Turkey. MASTICOT (in Painting.) A yellow co- lour, prepared from tin. MASTIFF. A kind of dog with pendubus lips and a robust body. MATCH (in Gunnery.) A rope slightly twisted and prepared wiUi inflammable ingre- dients, which will burn for a lengtli of time without going out. MATER. See Alma Mater. MATERIALIST. One who maintains that the soul is material. MATERIA MEDICA. All Uiat is used in the art of medicine for the prevention or cure of diseases, whether prepared from vegetables, minerals, or animals. MATHEMATICS. The science which teaches or treats of whatever is capable of be- ing numbered or measured, and is divided into arithmetic, or that branch which has numbers for its object, and geometry, which treats of magnitude. It is also distinguished into Pure Mathematics, which consider quantities ab- stractedly, and witliout any relation to matter, and Mixed Mathematics, which treat of tlie properties of quantit)^ as applied to material or sensible objects, and interwoven witli physical MAT considerations, as astronomy, geography, na- vigation, mechanics, surveying, architecture, &c. The following list of the writers who have distinguished themselves in the different branches of the mathematical science, will furnish the best historical view of mathematics 722 Confucius, the Chinese philosopher. 600 Thales, a Greek astr^omer. Anaxiraander, an inventor of globes. 500 Cleostratus, an astronomer. Anaxagoras, a philosopher. Anaximines, adiallist Pythagoras, an astronomer and geome- trician. 400 Plato, a geometrician. Euctemon, an astronomer. Meton, the inventor of the Metonic cycle. Hippocrates, a geometrician. Oenopides, a geometrician, Zenodorus, a geometrii^un. 300 Aristotle, a philosopher. Calippus, an astronomer, and inventor of the Calyppic period. Dionocrates, an architect Theophrastus, a philosopher. Xenocrates, a philosopher. Eudoxus, an astronomer and geometii- cian. Pytheas, an astronomer. Archytas, a philosopher. Aristaeus, a geometrician. Denostratus, a geometrician. Menechmus, a geometrician. 200 Apollonius, a geometrician, autlior of the Conic Sections. Archimedes, a geometrician, and invent- or of machines. Aristarchus, an astronomer. Erasthones, a mathematician. Euclid, a geometrician, author of the Elements. Aratus, an astronomer and poet Aristillus, an astronomer. Nicomedes, a geometrician, the inventor of the conchoid. 100 Hipparchas, an astronomer, numbered tlie stars, Ctesibius invented water pumps. Hero invented the clepsydra and a foun- tain. A. D. Cleomedes, a Roman astronomer. Greminus, an astronomer of Rhodes. Manilius, astronomer and poet. ManUus, an astronomer. Vitruvius, an architect. Julius Caesar, the reformer of the calen- dar. Sosigenes, an Egyptian astronomer. Menelaus, a writer on spherical trigo- nometry. Possidooius, a mathematician. MAT MAT 251 A. D. Theoflosia*!, a writer on splieres. Jamblichiis, a Syrian plii!osofus snbstame^ urtnch serves as a covering for diflferent parts of the body, ptoiiculariy we brain and the viscera. MEMENTO. AhiBitoawakeatbememo- MEMOmSu HiatariBBwrittmbytfaasewbo have been witnessescf the IraBsaciMiisaadae- qoaifiledwith the peraooB wkiek Aey ^DKribe: MEMORANDUM. Aahoit note^ fir the belter remembrance of a Uiing. MEMORIAL. A mooamem, or wfaate eke serves to call a thing or person to remc MEMORY, AxTinciAL. A metbod of as- sisting the memory by some artificial eoolii- vanoe^ as that of forming certain wonfl^ the letbers of whidi shall signify the date or era to be remonbered. Various devices <^ this kiod have been hit upon at di&rent tmeBL MENDICANTS. Mooksi, so caDed, who, in Catholic countries, go about begging alms. MENSTRUTM. A liquid which serves to extract the virtues of any substance by infu- sion, decoction, &c Water is the menstruum of all salts, oib ol resins, acids of alkalis, and MR N -I RATION. The art !i S; s .;• riicies, and scdids, which, in conse- qoenoe of its ejCtensive a^ipiicatioa to the por- poees of bfe, is conddered as <^ the greatest importance. Euclid treats of men Bor a li un, as &r as re- gards surfaces, only of the measurii^ of trian- ^es; and ii! irvflinear ^ures^ be attooptadtii : it of the circle and the sphere. carried this subject to a nrach grcalcr extent : he found the area of a parabola lo be two thirds of its circum- scritfflig triangle, which, with the exception of Ae kaniles of Hippocrates, was the fir^ in- stance of the quadrature of a curvilinear space. Hie liibBwise detntnined the ratio of spheroids and ooBoite to tfieir drcninacribing cyfinderB, aid has left us his attempt at the qoadratmv afdiedrde. He deraoB^rated that d»e area ef a circle is equd to tihe area of a right-angled triangle, of which one of its sides about tibe riffht angle is equal to tbe radius, and tl»e othar Uy tbe circumference ; and thus reduoyd the quadrature oTtfae circle to the detemiiniog the ralip of the cJrciBBdferaKe to the djameier. a pct^iiem, hi theaolntioa <^ «n Rhetoric.) A figure of qpeech whereby one thing is put ibr an as the caase fcr the efiect, the pert for the wh ole, an d the like. METRE (in Poetry.) A system of feet eomnoang a verse ; as pentameter, a verse of five teet, hexameter, a verse of six feet, Ac METRE (in Commerce.) A Frendi measure equal to rather more than thirty-nine inc hes. METROPOLIS. The chief citf of any MIC is about 1800 unfes in lengtib, and 257 MEXICAN. A native of Mexico, a coun- try in North America, formerly befeoging to Spain, cektratad fir its mmes of geld and si^ ver. Mfezioo is tfainfy inhabited m the interior, and aboaods in herds of cattle and wHd horses. The dimate near the sea coast is hot and sickly, bat the interior is cool and healthy. It contains about 1,000,000 square miles, and be^ tween nine and ten millions of inhabitants. It averages thecapiu^ 150,00a Ihs ancient Mexicans, were ihe most enfightened of any of the aborigines of North America, and hadeicquiredmany of thearts of civilized life;. MEZZOTINTO. A particolar kind of engraving, so called from its reHmbianee to drawings in India ink. Thisisperfivmedbir punching the cooper {dates with tte groondiag tool, scraping than with the sarafier, and theM ndibtng them with the homidKror smooth piece of steel, to prodnee the cflnt desired. MIASMA. The noxious effluvia which arises fromswamps and putrifying masses. MICA, or MuscovT Gi.ass. A stone which forms the essential part of may moon- tains. It consislsofa number of thin bnuMe adhering to each other. Ithasloagbeenased asaanbstitn tefor gla ss, particniurly in Ruesia. MICROMETEX. An wtranomkal ma. chine fitted to atefescope in the focus of the object-gbsB^ fiv measurii^ small angles or distances, as the apparent diameters. of the planets, &c. MICROSCOPEu An optical instrument which magnifies objects, so that the wnaBfst may be di^nctly seen and descrflied by means of a pfQfMer adjustment and oombniatJaa of len- ses or mirrors. Microscopk. Single, is one vtincheonastsofasingfelens. Micsoscopb, Compound, oottists c^two lenses at least, hat generally threes and often more. Micao- SCOPK, Sdar, invented by Dr. Lieburkhun, is employed to re pr e sent very small obiects on a very large scale, in a dark roam. HiCBO- scops^ Botanica, is a compact instrument, which rarticularly recommends itself to the practieal IwlwniHt and natnraUat, as a truly able assistant in their researches through the animal, vegetable, and mineral kingdoms, and moreeqieaally when its &cility of I «38 MIL and portability, combined witii its extent of magnifying powers, me brought into conside- ration. The invention of microscopes, like many other ingenious discoveries, has been claimed for dilierent authors. Huygens in- forms us tliat Drebell, a Dutchman, construct- ed the first microscope in 1621 ; but Borelli states, in a letter to his brother, that when he was ambassador in England in 1619, (yorne- lius Drebell showed him a microscope, which he said was given him by the archduke Albert, and had been made by Jansen, whom he con- siders to have been the real inventor, although P. Fontana, a Neapolitan, claimed, in 1646, the honour of the invention to himself] and dated it from the year 1618. The engravings represent a section of a tree as viewed through a microscope. MIDRIFF, or DIAPHRAGM (in Anatomy.) A membrane which divides the trunk of the body into the thorax and abdomen, the upper and lower cavity. MIDSHIPMAN. A junior officer in the navy, so called from his quarters being in the midships. MIDSUMMER. The summer solstice. The 24th of June is the Midsummer Day. MIDWIFERY. The art of assisting wo- men in cliildbirth. MILE. A long measure, containing 8 fur- longs, or 1760 yards, or 5280 f»M)t. MILIARY GLANDS. The small and in- finitely numerous glands, which secrete the perspiration. MILITARY. A name for the whole body of soldiery, with their equipments, &c. MILITARY. An epithet for what belongs to soldiers, as Military Architecture, Military Exercises, &c. MILITARY ARCHITECTURE. See Fortification. MILITARY EXECUTION. Ravaging a country that refases to pay the contribution levied ujwn it ; also, the punishment inflicted by the sentence of a court-martial. MILITIA. The Iwdy of soldiers enrolled for discipline, but not engaged in actual ser- vice except in emergencies. MILK. A fluid which serves for tlie nou- rishment of young animals. It is secreted by particular glands in the female of all animals which suckle their young, which on that ac- count are denominated mammalia. The con- stituent parts of cows' milk, procured by chy- mical analysis, are, aroma, an odorous, volatile principle; water, which forms a considerable part; bland oil, from which the cream is. form- ed ; curd, or animal gluten ; sugar, or the serum of milk ; and some neutral salts. Hu- man milk is the thinnest of all, and next to that, asses' milk, which is prescribed for consump- tive persons. MILK-THISTLE. A biennial, the leaves of which are eaten as a salad. MILKY WAY, or VIA LACTEaY (in As- MIM tronomy.) A broad track or psrth cncompwj- sing the whole heavens, Avhich is easily dis- cernible, from its milky white appearance, consisting of an extensive shoal of innomer- able fixed stars, of which the sun is one, and of which all visible single stars are pai'ts ; other visible stars being, in reality, clusters similar to the milky way. Taken Iwigth- wise in direction, our cluster contains 100,000 stars, each distant from the other at least 30 billions of miles, and the entire cluster consists of many millions of stars. MILK-WORT, the Common. An indige- nous perennial plant, thriving on heatlis and dry pastures ; flowering in the months of June and July. MILL. A nrachine for grinding corn, &c. of which there are diflferent kinds, according to the different methods of putting them in motion, as watermills, windmills, horsemills, handmills, and also steammills. They are also distinguished according to the uses they serve, as cornmills, cottonmills, papermills, barkmills, &c. Corn is ground Ijy two mill- stones placed one above the other without touching, the space between them being mado greater or less, according as the miller would have the flour finer or coarser. MILLENNIUM. A thousand years, gene- rally taken for the thousand years of Christ's reign here on earth. MILLER. An insect whose wings appear as if covered with a white dust or powder, like a miller's clotlies. MILLET. A plant that bears an immense number of small grains. MILLING. The same as fulling. MILLING. The stamping of coin by means of a mill. This is one part of the pro- cess in coining. MILLION. The number of ton hundred thousand. MILLREA. A Portuguese gold coin, equal to one dollar and twenty-five cents. MIMOSA, or the SENSITIVE PLANT, so called on account of the sensibility of its leaves. It is a numerous tribe of plants, which are all natives of warm climates. They have all the singular property that their leaves recede from the touch and run rapidly together ; in some, the footstalks and all are affected. The humble sensitives instantly fall downward, as if fastened by hinges. These plants have all winged leaves, each wing MIN consisting of many small pinnae. Prom the Mimosa Nilotica, represented underneath, is procured tl)e gum aiabic. MIR 259 MINE. A cavity under ground, formed for the purpose of obtaining minerals, often very deep and extensive. The descent into them is by a pit, called a shaft, and the excavations which follow the mineral souglit are called the workings. The enemies of miners are fixed or inflammable air, and water ; and to %'entilate them, and pump out the water, are troublesome operations. There are mines of gold, silver, copper, iron, diamonds, salt, alum, antimony, &c. The clues by which mines are discovered, are mineral waters, the discolouration of vegetables, the appearance of pieces of ore, or metallic sand, or various exhalations from the soil. MINE (in Fortification.) A subterraneous passage dug under the wall or rampart of a fortification, for the purpose of blowing it up by gunpowder. The place where the powder is lodged is called the chamber. MINERALOGY. That science wliich treats of the solid and hard component parts of the earth. Minerals have been variously classed by different writers. The system of Werner comprehends them under the foiu- of earths, salts, inflammables; and metals. To this Linnaeus has added a fifth cla.^ of petrifactions. MINERAL WATERS. Springs impreg- nated with mineral substances. MINERVA. The daughter of Jupiter, and goddess of wisdom and the fine arts. She is commonly represented with all the emblems of war, as the helmet, spear, and shield. MINERVALIA. Presents among the an- cients, made by the bo^'s to their masters be- fore the feast of MinervEU MINIATURE. A delicate kind of paint- ing, consisting of little points or dots instead of lines, commonly done on ivory, and used in taking portraits ; also, the portrait itself MINIM (in Music.) A measure of time marked thus, (1, equal to two crotchets. MINIMUM (in MaUiematics.) The least quantity attainable in a given case. MINISTER, Foreign. A person sent into a foreign country, to manage the affairs of the state by which he is sent. MINIUM, or Red Lead. An oxide of lead, procured by exposing this metal to a great heat and a free access of air. MINOR (in Law.) Any one under the age of twenty-one. MINORITY (in Law.) A state of nonage ; also, the smaller number of persons who give their votes on any question. MINSTREL. A player on any musical instrument ; an itinerant performer. MINT (in Botany.) A genus of plants, the roots of which are perennial, used for culinary and medicinal purposes. There are 19 spe- cies, all of which contain much essential oil, of an aromatic flavour. MINT (in Jjaw.) The place where money is coined by public authority. MINUTE (in Geometry,) marked thus ( ' ). The sixtieth part of the degree of a circle ; also, the sixtietli part of an hour, MIRACLES. Works effected in a manner different from tlie ordinary course of nature, by the inmiediate power of the Almighty, for some particular purpose. MIRROR. The surface of any opaque body polished, and adapted to reflect the rays of light which fell upon it, and to represent objects. Murrors areeitlier flat, as looking- glasses } concave, for the purpose of convcrg- S60 MIT ing the rays of HglU ; or convex, for the pur- pose of diverRincc the ravR of light. MISADVENTURE (in Law.) A homicide when a man doing a lawful act, witliout any intention of injury, unfortunately kills another. MlSCELLANEiE. One of Linn^us^ natural orders of plants, comprehending such as were not included in the other orders. MISCHIEF (in Law.) Damage or injury done to the property of another, not for gain, but with a malicious intent. MISDEMEANOUR (in Law.) An offence less than felony, as assault, &c. MISLETOE. A plant which always grows on trees, and was thought therefore to be an excrescence of the tree ; but it has been found to be propagated by the seed or berr which is conveyed by the misletoe thrus from one tree to another : this bird being fond of these seeds, it sometimes happens that the viscous part of the berry slicks to his beak, and in his attempts to disengage himself from it by striking his beak against^the bark of the tree, the berry sticks to the latter ; and if it happen to light on a smooth part, it will take root, and sprout out the next winter. This plant adheres most readily to the ash and other sraooth-rinded trees, as the apple, &c. MISNAH. The code or collection of the civil law of the Jews. MISNOMER (in Law ) The giving a per- Eon a wrong name. MISSAL. The book of the Romish cere- monies. MISSILE. Any weapon thrown or discharg- ed from a machine, as stones from a sling. MISSIONARIES. Ministers sent into any country to preach Christianity. MISTS. Vapours hovering over the earth, which are either drawn upward by the rays of the sun, or fall down by their own weight in the shape of dew, or, in cold weatlier, in that of hoar frost. MITE. One of the smallest insects, that is scarcely visible to the naked eye, except by its motion. As seen through a microscope, it is found to have eight legs, two eyes, one on each side the head, and two jointed tentacula. It mostly lives in cheese. MITRE (among Carpenters.) An angle just 45 deg>-cea or half a right angle. MITRE. A sacerdotal ornament worn on MOC the head by bishops on solemn occasions ; it is a cap of a conical form. MNEMONICS, The art of memoi-y ; and as memory itself arises from association of ideas, so mnemonics consists in associating things to he remembered, with some set of familiar objects, as the rooms in a house, the streets in a city, or the buildings on a well- known road. About 1740, Mr. Lowe pub- lished the art of remembering dates and figures by converting them into syllaMes, and joining them to their proper words, or parts of them. He used vowels or consonants as they best suited the formation of a syllable : a e i o u au oi ei ou y 12345 6 7890 100 1000 1000000 bdtfls pknzg th m Therefore we remember the dates of the fol- lowing events, and any others, thus : Deluge 2348 we call Del. dif k. Troy 1184 Tro. bako. Socrates 396 Socra. tous. Alexander 323 Alexan. tet. making as many as we please; and in this way 200 or 300 dates and numbers may easily be remembered through life. The in- terrogative system of education is partly founded on the same principle of association. MOAT (in Fortification.) A deep trench dug round the ramparts of a fortified place. MOCKING-BIRD. A sort of Americaa thrush, which has the faculty of imitating the notes of other birds. MOM MODE (in Music.) A regtilar disposition of the tunc in relation to certain principal sounds, wliicb are called the essential chords of the Ixiss. MODEL. An original pattern, or the ehape or design of any thing in miniature; particularly applied to an artificial pattern made in wood, stone, plaster, or other matter, with all its parts and proportions, in order to give a full idea of the work that is to be ex ecuted. MODERNS. A name given generally to those who have distinguished themselves Bincc the revival of learning, as compared with tlie ancients, and also with those of the middle ages. MODULE (in Architecture.) A certain measure by which the proportions of columns are regidated. MODUS DECIMANDI (in Law.) Some- thing paid as a compensation for tithes, on the principle of a moderate equivalent MOHAIR. The hair of a kind of goat at Angora in Turkey, of which the natives make camMcts. MOIDORE. A Portuguese coin, equal to six dollars. MOLASSES. The gross fluid matter that remains of sugar after boiling ; the scum of the sugarcane. MOLE (among Mariners.) A long pier or artificial bulwark of masonry, extending obliquely across a harbour. MOllE. A quadruped about six inches in length, living in subterranean burrows, which it rapidly forms by its snout and feet, being able to withdraw its eyes at pleasuse. MON 2&1 MOIJLUSCA. An order of animals under «he cla^^ vermes in the Ijinnaian system, com- preliending naked simple animals not included in a shell, but furnished witli limbs, as the slug, star-fisli, cuttle fish, sea urchin, «S;c. MOLTING. Tl»e clumging of feathers, hairs, or horns, in birds and brasts. MOLYBD ATES. Salts formed from molyl> die acid in combination with earths, alkalies, &c. MOLYBDENUM. A metal which exists, mineralized by sulphur, in the ore called the ore of Molybdena. Molybdenum has hitlierto been obtained only in small globules. JIOMENT. The quantity of motion in a moving body. MONADELPHIA (in Botany.) One of the Linnaean classes, consisting of plants in which all the stamens are united below into one cylindrical body. MONANDRIA (in Botany.) One of the Linnxan classes, consisting of plants that have only one stamen. MONARCHY. A government in which the supreme power is vested in one person. MONASTERY. A coUege of monks or nans ; a house of religious retirement MONDAY. The second day of the week. MONEY. Whatever is made the medium of trade for determining tlie value of commodi- ties in buying or selling. It consists either of coins, or pieces of stamped metal, or of paper money, or moneys of account Paper money is called paper currency, to distinguish it from specif metallic currency, or cash. When it is plentiful with reference to commodities and labour, they are said to be dear ; but when commodities and labour are plentiful in refe- rence to money, they are said to be cheap; dearness and cheapness being mere relative terms. MONGREL. Any creature of a mixed breed. MONK, Oae of a religious community, who dwells in a monastery, under a vow of observing the rules of tlie order he bdongs lo. MONKEY. A well known animal, with a long tail, checks pouched, and haunches naked, 362 MON MOO aa represented unJerneull). It is the geneial name of the ape, baboon, and Biinia tribcj the several varieties of wliich are principally found in the tropical climates. They inhabit forests in prodigious numbers, and, though mis- chievous, their manners are fantastical and interesting. They have hands like man, and some of them walk on two legs, but they prac- tise no arts beyond the necessities of tlie hour. They are affectionate to their young, and often exhibit great sagacity, but their brain is smaller than that of man, and they are without his risi- ble muscles. They throw missiles with great dexterity, and live on vegetables. MONKEY (in Military Affairs.) A ma- chine used for driving large piles of wood. MONKSHOOD, or Aconite. A poison- ous plant, bearing a fine blue flower. MONOCEROS. One of the new constella- tions in the northern hemisphere. MONOCHORD. A musical instrument with one string. MONODY. A funeral ditty. MONOECIA (in Botany.) Oneof tlieLin- naean classes, including plants that have male and female flowers on the same plant, as the plane-tiee, hazel, chestnut, cucumber, Ac. MONOGYNIA (in Botany.) An order in Ihe Linnjean system, comprehending plants that have only one pistil or stigma in a flower. MONOLOGUE. A soliloquy, or scene where one only speaks. MONOPETALOUS. One-petalled, appli- ed to flowers, the corolla of which consists of one petal only. MONOPOLY. A grant from the public authorities to any person or persons for the sole trading in any commodity ; also, the en- grossing any tradq, or the sale of any commo- dity, by an individual or company, in order to enhance the price. MONOSYLLABLE. A word of one syl- lable. MONOTONY. Sameness in the tone of the voice ; a fault in elocution or delivery. MONSOONS, or Thade Winds. Peri- odical winds in the Indian sea, that blow one half tlie year one way, and the other half on the opposite points. These points and times of shifting are different in different parts of the ocean. MONTH (in Chronology.) The twelfth part of a year, otherwise called a calendar month, to distinguish it from the astronomical montli, which is either solar or lunar. A so- l£ir month, or the time in which the sun passes thiough a whole sign of the zodiac, is 30 days 16 hours 29 minutes 5 seconds ; a lunar month, or the period of one lunation, is 29 days 12 hours 44 minutes. MOOD (in Grammar.) The manner of forming a verb, or the manner of the verb's inflections, so as to express the different forms and manners of the action, or the different in- tentions of the speaker : as the indicative mood, which declares a thing ; the imperative mood, by which one commands ; the subjunc- tive mood, which implies a conditional action ; the potential mood, which denotes tlie possi- bility of doing tlie thing ; and the infinitive mood, which expresses the action indefinitely. MOON. One of the secondary planets, and a satellite to the earth, 240,000 miles distant, marked thus }) ; is in diameter 2160 miles, and fifty times less than the earth. The sur- face of the moon is diversified with mountains and valleys. Her sidereal or periodical mo- tion on her own axis she performs in 27 days 7 hours 43 minutes and 1 1 seconds ; her sy- nodical motion, or her motion in her orbit round the earth, she performs in 29 days 12 hours 44 minutes 12 seconds ; the former is called the periodical, and the latter the synodi- cal month. MOONSTONE. A pure kind of feldspar, found in Ceylon and Switzerland. MOOR, or Moor-Land. A black, light, soft soil, remarkably loose, without any ad- mixture of stones, and containing a very small proportion of clay or sand. This earth usual- ly forms the uppermost stratum of fen lands, and consists almost wholly of pure vegetable matter, which renders it very fertile. MOOR. A native of the Barbary States, in Africa. These states, which consist of Tri- poli, Tmiis, Algiers, and Morocco, occupy the narrow country between the great desert and the Mediterranean Sea, and extend from Eigy\A to the Atlantic Ocean. The part between the Atlas mountains is remarkably fertile, and is well watered. The Moors are the ruling peo- I MOR pie, and form the majority of the inhabitants m all the cities; they are proud, mdolent, vi- cious, cruel, and perfidious. The climate is remarkably mild and salubrious. MOS 969 ^ .) m ^ m^ i Hff 1 l^ •:S^J=JlCS*rS*i^ MOOR-COCK. A bird of the gronse tribe, inhabiting the heaths of Scotland and the north of Ekigland. MOOR-HEN. A water-fowl of the coot tribe. MOORING. Laying out the anchors for the secure riding of the ship. MOOSE. An animal of the deer kind, as large as a horse, the skin of which is so hard that it can almost resist a musket balL MORALITY. That relation or proportion which actions bear to a given rule. It is ge- nerally used in reference to a good life. Mo- rality is distinguished from religion thus : — " Bfuirality comprehends only a part of reli- gion ; but religion comprehends the whole of morality. Morality finds all her motives here below; religion fetches all her motives from above. Tl^ highest principle in morals is a iust regard to the rights of men ; the first principle in religion is the love of GiDd" MORAVIANS, or Hebnh utters. A sect of professing Christians, wIkj prevail in Germany, and are distinguislied both by the singularity of their doctrine and their man- ners. MORDANTS (in Dyeing.) Substances combined witli the vegetable or animal fibre, in order to fix the dye-stufi". MOROCCO. A fine kind of leatho-, pre pared from the skin of an animal of the goat kind, and formerly imported from the Levant. MOROXYLIC ACID. An acid procured from tlie white mulberry. MORSE. An amphibious animal, like a sea-ox in size, but like a lion in shape. It in hal>its the ocean near the Arctic Pole. MORTAR. Athick, shiMlcaimon, liavinga large bore, and mounted on a low, strong car- riage^ which serves fcr throwing bombs, &c MORTAR (with Apothecaries.) A strong vessel for pounding things in with a pestle. MORTAR (among Masons.) Lime, sand, and hair mixed with water, so as to make a ment. MORTGAGE. The assignment of an es- tate or any other property, in pledge fijr th« payment of a debt mortise; or MORTOIS (amone Car- penters.) A kind of joint consisting of a Me of a certain depth cut in a piece of^t as to receive another piece called the MOSAIC, or Mos.Aic Woek. An i Wage of little pieces of glass, marble, precious stones, &c. of various colours, cut square, and cemented on a ground of stucco, in imitation of paintine. MOSCIUE. A temple or place of religious worship among the Mahometans. The church of St Sophia, at Constantinople, ia converted into a Turkish mosque. MOSQUITO. A largerkind of gnat, com- mon in warm climates, which inflicts deep woonds on those whom it attacks. MOSS. A parasitic plant, something like down, that adheres to the trunks of trees, and was formerly supposed to be merely an ex- cresccucc, but is now found to be n perfect 264 MOT j-Iant, having roots, flowers, and seeds, yet cannot be propagated by seed. It is often times very injurious to fruit trees, and ought to be scraped off in the spring season and in moist weather. MOTH. An elegant insect, something simi- lar to the butterfly, but not so large. It is very injurious to cloth and furniture. MOTHER. The female parent, to whose care, tenderness, and personal sacrifices, chil- dren are indebted for their existence through the helpless state of infancy, and for all their early education and welfare; and to whom, as their devoted friend, they ought always to display unabated affection, gratitude, and sym- pathy. Mt)THER. The mouldy lees of wine, beer, &c. MOTHER OP PEARL. The sheU of pearl fish. MOTION (in Physiology.) A change of place, which is absolute if it be independent of any other body, and relative if it changes the relative place of a moving body, as in the case of two vessels sailing in the same or contrary directions with different velocities. Animal motion is that by which the situation, figure, or magnitude of the paits of animals is changed, which takes place in the act of their growth. MOU MOTION (in Law.) An application in court, either by the parties themselves or their counsel, in order to obtain some order or rule of court. MOTTO. A word or short sentence put to an emblem or device, or to a coat of arms in scroll at the bottom of the escutcheon. MOVEABLES. Personal goods. MOVEMENT (in Music.) The progress of sounds from grave to acute, or from acute to grave. MOVEMENT (among Watchmakers.) A name for the inner works of a watch, &c. that move. MOULD (in Horticulture.) Earth mixed with dung, &c. fit for the reception of seeds. MOULD (among Mechanics.) A form or frame in which any thing is cast, as glaziers' moulds, tallovvchandlers' moulds, and the lik& MOULDINESS. A term applied to bodies, as bread, &c. which are in a state of corrup- tion, from the action of the damp or air. This shows itself by a white down, which, when seen throtjgh a microscope, appears, like the moss, to be a kind of plants, althougli some have imagined it to look like animalculae. MOULDINGS (in Architecture.) Project- ures beyond the naked wall, such as cornices, door-cases, &c. which are cut so as to be orna- mental. MOUND (among Antiquarians.) A ball or globe witli a cross upon it, which kings are represented as holding in their hands, to desig- nate their sovereign majesty. I MOUND (in Fortification.) Any thing raised, as a bank of eartli, &c. to fortify or de- fend a place. MOUNT. An artificial elevation of earth. MOUNTAIN ASH. An ornamental tree, which in its leaf resembles the common ash, but it bears a clustered flower, that is succeed- ed by a beautiful red berry. MOUNTAINS. Extraordinary elevations of the earth's surface, appertaining to all pla- netary bodies, as appears by viewing the moon and Venus through a telescope. On the earth they consist of primitive rocks, as granite, trapp, and porphyry, other rotks and eartlis beuig subsequent formations of fire, water, and air, abutting against the mountains, and filling up the valleys. The principal ridges are, the Andes, in South America, from (luce to five miles liigh ; Uie Hunalayas, in North Hindos- tan, of equal heiglit ; the Alps, in Europe; the Stony Mountains, in North America; the MUP of Caucasus aud Thibet, in Ask; of the Moon, in Africa; those of Nor- way ; the PvTcnees, in Spain ; and the Welch and Scotch moantains. The action of air, water, and volcanic fires, waste and level tbeae ridges, and under different circumstances, their d€bris, or ruins, form by successive ope- nUi(»8 all varieties of earths and soils. The ascent of them carries men into colder regions, and above the clouds, and presents nature under a variety of novel aspects. Their height is determined by trigonometry : tiius, the height of E is determined by the distance D, at which its top can be seen. We then know the angle D C B, and the radius, C D, to find C E, from which, deducting C D, or C B, we have B E, the height required. MUM 36& self. He is the oracle in all doubtful qaertioM of their law. MULATTO. Any one born of a black man and white woman, and vice versa. MULBERRY TREE. A large spreading tree, the fruit of which resembles the raspber- ry in its seedy make, but is much larger. The white mulberry is cultivated in France and Italy for its leaves to feed silkworms, but the Persians make use of the conunon Uack mul- berry for this purpose. The Japanese make paper of the bark, and in the Sandwich IsMndsa kind of cloth is made from its fibres. MULE. A mongrel kind of quadruped, generated between an ass and a mare, and sometimes between a horse and a she ass. Mules are hardy sure-footed animals, used much in mountainous coimtries, as about the Alps and Pyrenees ; but they are inc-apabie of propagating their species. If ill-treated, it displays proverbial obstinacy. MOUNTING (in MUitary Affairs.) Going opon some arduous or specific duty, as mount- ing a breach, that is, running up to it; mount- ing the trenches, going upon duty in the Hwiches, &c.; but mounting a cannon is setting it on its carriage MOUSE! A little animal that haunts houses and fields. It is nearly allied to the rat, and is classed with it under the name of Mus in the Linnaean system. Field mice are fre quently white. M0USE:-EAR. a plant very sunilar to cfaic^weed, but the flower is larger, and the fruit shi^)ed like an ox's horn, gaping at the top. MOUTH. The aperture in the head of any animal at which the food is received, and by which the inspiration and expiration of the au- is performed ; also, the aperture of many other things, so called frorft the similarity of situation or use, as tte mouth of a cannon, where the powder and ball go in and out ; the mouth of a river, where tho water passes in and out, &c. MS. An ablweviation for manoseri^ MSS. An abbreviation for manuscripts. MUCILAGE. A slimy substance of suf- ficient consistence to hold together, as a solu- tion of gum or any tenacious liquid, or a viscous extraction from roots and other parts of wetaUes. MUCUS. A viscoos fluid secreted by cer tain glands in the body. MUFFLE. A small earthen oven used for cupellation. MUFTI. The chief priest among the Mus ■olmen, appointed by the grand seigoior him 2L 23 MULE (in Botany.) Any flower or fruit produced from two sorts. MULETEER. A driver of mules. MULLET. A fish with a head ahnost square, and a silvery body. MULTIPLE. A number which includes anothar a certain number of times, {b 6 the multiple of 2. MULTIPLICATION. One of the four simple rules of arithmetic, which consists in the increasing of any one number by another as often as there are units in that number by which the one is increased. The number multiplying is the multiplier; the number multiplied the multiplicand ; and the result of the operation is the product- MULTIPLYING-GLASS. A glass other- wise called a polyhedron, being ground into several planes that make emgles with each other, and cause objects to appear increased in numbo-. MULTUM IN PARVO. Much in a small compass. MUM. A kind of liquM- made of wheat, and brought from Brunswick in Germany. MUMMIES. The name of dead bodies which have been preserved for ages fr«n cor- 266 MUS ruption in Egypt, by a particular method of embalming; also, the liquor running from such mummies, which approaches more or less to a state erf" Bolidity. MUNDIC. A sort of copper ore ; a sul- phuret of copper of a greenish yellow colour. MUNICIPAL (in the Civil Law.) An epithet signifying, 'invested with the civil rights of a citizen ;' with us, it is an epithet for what belongs to a town or city, as munici pal laws, laws enjoyed by the inhabitants of a town or city ; and in an extended sense, muni- cipal law is the law by which any particular state or country is governed. MURAL CROWN. A crown among the Romans given to him who first scaled the walls of a city. MURDER (in Law.) The wilful and felonious killing a man with malice prepense MUREX. A shell-fish noted among the ancients for its purple dye ; in the Linnsean system it is a genus of insects under the class vermes, the animal of which is a limas : the shell is univalve and spiral. MURIATES. Salts formed from muriatic acid with certain bases, as the muriate of ammonia, of soda, &c. MURIATIC ACID (otherwise called Spirit of Salt.) An acid procured from salt, consisting of hydrogen combined with chlorine gas. Its odour is pungent, and its taste acid and corrosive. If an inflamed taper be immersed in it, it is instantly extinguished: it is also destructive of human life. MURRAIN. A wasting contagious disw- der among cattle. MUS (in Zoology.) A generic term, in the Linnsean system, for a tribe of animals of the class mammalia, and order glires, dis- tinguished principally by their teeth. The most remarkable species are the common rat and mouse, the musk rat, the Norway rat, &c. MUSCI. Mosses; one of the families into which Linnaeus has divided the vegetable kingdom. It is of the class cryptogamia, and comprehends a vast variety of species, as the earth-moss, bristle-moss, spring-moss, w'ater- moss, &c. MUSCLE (in Anatomy.) A fleshy fibrous part of the body, consisting of a bundle of thin parallel plates, divided into a great num- ber of fasciculi or little threads and fibres, so constructed as to admit of relaxation and con- traction, and serving as the organ of motion. The extremities of the muscles are inserted : MUS into the bones. There are in man 201 muscles, or pairs of muscles. MUSES (in the Heathen Mythology.) Di- vinities supposed to preside over the arts and sciences. Some writers reckon only three Muses, Mneme, Aoede, and Melite ; or Memo- ry, Singing, and Meditation ; but the most an- cient authors reckon nine, viz. Clio, or glory ; Euterpe, pleasing ; Thalia, flourishing ; Mel- pomene, attracting ; Terpsichore, rejoicing the heart; Erato, the amiable; Polyhymnia, a multitude of songs ; Urania, the heavenly ; and Calliope, sweetness of voice. To Clio, tliey attributed the invention of history ; Mel- pomene, the invention of tragedy ; Thalia, of comedy; Euterpe, of the use of the flute; Terpsichore, of the harp ; Erato, of the lyro and lute ; Calliope, of heroic verse ; Urania, of astrology ; Polyhymnia, of rhetoric. Hero- dotus divided his history into nine books, to each of which he gave the name of one of tho muses. MUSEUM. A collection of rare and in- teresting objects, particularly in the depart- ments of Natural History; also, the place where the collection is deposited. The term was originally applied to a study or a place set apart for learned men in the royal palace of Alexandria by Ptolemy Philadelphus, who founded a college, and gave salaries to the se- veral members, adding also an extensive li- brary, which was one of the most celebrated in the world. MUSHROOM. A plant, the generic name of which, in the Linnaean system, is agariciis. It is a spongy substance, which grows up to its bulk on a sudden. The seeds of mush- rooms have not long been discovered. MUSIC. The science which treats of the number, time, division, succession, and com- bination of sounds, so as to produce harmony. It is divided into Theoretical Music, which inquires into the properties of concords and discords, and explains their combinations and proportions for the production of melody and harmony ; and Practical Music, which is the art of applying the theory of music_ in the composition of all sorts of tunes and airs. MUSIC, History of. The first traces of music are to be found in Egypt, where musical instruments, capable of much variety and ex- MUS preseicni, existed at a time when othrn- nations were in an uncivilized state. The invention of the lyre is by tliem ascribed to Hermes Trismegistus, tlie Mercury of the Egyptians, which is a proof of its antiquity ; but a still greater proof of the existence of musical in- struments among them at a very early period is drawn from the figure of an instrument said to be represented on an obelisk, erected, as is supposed, by Sesostris at Hehopolis. This instrument, by means of its neck, was capable, with only two strings, if tuned fourths, of furnishing that series of sounds called by the ancients a heptachord; and if tuned fifths, of producing an ocuve. As Moees was skilled in all tLe learning of tlie Egyptians, it is probable that the IsraeUtes, w1k» interwove music in all their rdigious ceremonies, borrowed much from that people That the Greeks took their first ideas of music from the EWptians is clear from this: that they ascribOT^ the invention of the lyre to Mercury, although they made Apollo to be the god of music, and gave him that instru- ment to play upon. In no country was music so much cultivated as in Greece. The muses, as well as Apollo, Bacchus, and other gods and demigods, practised or promoted it in some way or other. Their poets are supposed to have been Uke the Celtic and German bards, and the scalds of Iceland and Scandinavia, who went about singing their poems in the streets, and the palaces of princes. In this manner did Orpheus, Homer, Hesiod, Sappho, and others, recite thdr verses; and in after times, on the institution of the games, Simo- nides, Pindar, and other poets, celebrated in public the exploits of the victors. The in- struments known in the time of Homer were the lyre, flute, syrinx, and trumpet The in venbon of notation and musical characters is ascribed to Terpander, a poet and musician, who flourished 671 years before Chrisl We afta'wards find philosophers, as well as poets, among the number of those who admired and cuMv&ted music theoretically as well as practically, as Pythagoras, Plato, Aristode, Aristoxenns, Ekiclid, and many others. Py- tiiagoras is celebrated for his discoveries in tKis sdeoce ; namdy, for that of musical ratios, and the addition of an eighth string to the lyre. The former of these he is suppcMed to have derived from the E^gyptians. He also explained the theory of sounds, and re- duced it to a science. Aristoxenus is the most ancient writa* on music of whose works there are any remains. Euclid followed up the idea of Pythagoras' ratios, which he re- duced to matlKmatical demonstration. To this list of Gredt writers may be added Nicho- machus Gerasenus, Alypius, Gaudentit^ Bacchius senior, Ptolemy the astronomer, and Aristides Quintilian, whose works are mill extant These wrote under the Roman emperors, many of whom cultivated music MUS 267 ]and followed tlie theory of the Gre^. Among •the Roman writers may be reckoned Vitru- vius, who, in his architecture, touches lightly [on this subject; also Martianus Capdla and jBoethius, who wrote on the decline of the empire. After them some centuries elapsed before the science of music met with any par- ticular attention. Its introduction into the church service prevented it fran falling, like other arts, into total neglect. Instrumental music was introduced into the public sctttcc of the church under Constantine the Great. The practice of chanting the psalms was be- gun in the western churches by St. Ambrose about 350 years after Christ ; three hundred years after, tlie method of chanting was im- proved by St Gregory the Great It was probably introduced into England by St. Au- gustine, and greatly improved by St jDunstan. Tlie use of the organ probably ccsnmenced in the Greek church, where it was called hy- draulicon, or the water-organ. The first orgjui known in Europe was sent as a present to King Pepin from the Emperor Constantine Copronymns. It came into general use in France^ G«Tnany, and England, in the tenth century. Soon after this, music b^an again to be cultivated as a science, par^mlarly in Italy, where Guido, a monk of Arezzo, first conceived the idea of counterpoint, or the division of music into parts by points set op- posite to each other, and formed the scale afterwards known by the name of the gamut. This was followed by the invention of the time-table, and afterwards by regular c^nnpo- sitions of music. But the exercise of the art was for a long time confined to sacred music, during which pmod secular music was fol- lowed by itinerant poets and musicians, after the manner of the ancients. Of this descrip- tion were the troubadours in France, the Welsh bards ot harpers in England, and the Scotch minstrels. ^ MUSICIAN. A professor of and practi- tioner in music; one who po'fbnns on any musical instrument MUSK. A quadruped, in size and figure resembling a small roebuck. It is a native of Thibet aiKi other parts of India, and is re- markable for having an oval bag in the lower 268 NAD NAN part of its belly, containing the perfume caHed muek. MUSK. An oily, friable, brownish Bub- stance, generated in the body of the musk, of the most powerful and penetrating smell, which is used as a perfume. It is partially BoluUe in water, which receives its smell, and also in alcohol, to which, however, it does not communicate its odour. MUSK- APPLE and MUSK-PEAR. A sort of apple and pear having the perfume of musk. MUSKET. A commodious sort of fire-arms used by soldiers. The regular length of a musket is 3 feet 8 inclies from the muzzle to the pan. MUSKET-SHOT. The distance that a musket will carry, which is about a hundred and twenty fathoms. MUSK-RAT. An animal of the beaver kind, which jnelds an oily fluid, having the perfume of musk. MUSK-ROSE. A sort of rose from which a highly odorous oil is extracted at Tunis. MUSLIN. A fine sort of cotton cloth. MUSQUETEERS. Soldiers armed with muskets. MUSSEL. A testaceous animal inhabiting two shells, from which, in some seas, pearls are often obtained. It is found in large beds, adhering to other bodies by a long silky beard. MUSSULMAN, or MOSLEM, i. e. Faith- ful. The name assumed by Mahometans. MUST. The newly pressed juice of the fjrape, Avhich, by a chymical analysis, is b\md to contain water, sugar, jelly, gluten and bitartrate of potash. MUSTER. A review of soldiers under arms. MUSTER-ROLL. A specific list of the officers and men in every regiment, troop, or company. MUTATIS MUTANDIS. Things being changed as they ought to be. MUTE (in Law.) Not answering directly to the arraignment, on an indictment for felo ny. A prisoner is said to stand mute when he will not put himself upon the inquest MUTE (in Mineralogy.) An epithet for minerals which do not ring when they are struck. MUTES (in Grammar.) Letters which can- not form a sound without a vowel after them, as, b, c, d, g, k, p, q, t. MUTES (in the Grand Seignior's Seraglio.) Dumb officers, who are sent to strangle, with the bow-string, bashaws or other persons who fall under the sultan's displeasure. MUTINY. A revolting from lawful au- thority, more particularly among soldiers and sailors. MYRMELEON, A genus of insects in the Linngean system, one species of which is re- markable on account of its larva, which has the property of preparing a sort of pitfall for the ensnaring of other insects. MYRRH. A resinous concrete juice, pro- cured from a tree growing in Arabia and Abyssinia. The sort of tree which yields this substance is not exactly known, but, according to Bruce, it is a sort of mimosa. Myrrh is in the form of tears, brittle, of an aromatic taste, not melting when heated, and burning with difficulty ; yields oil by distillation, and forms a yellow solution with water. MYRTLE. A fragrant phrub, which, among the ancients, was sacred to Venus. The common myrtle is a native of Asia, Afri- ca, and Europe. M YRTUS. The generic name of the myr- tle in the Linnaean system ; includes also among its species the pimento or allspice tree. MYTHOLOGY. The history of the mys- teries and allegories of the fabulous heathen deities and heroes, and of the divine honours paid to them. N. N, the thirteenth letter of the alphabet, stood B6 a numeral for 900, and, with a dash over it, thus, N» 9000. N. or No. stands as an abbre- viation for numero, number ; also, for north, note, noun, &c. NABOB, or NAVOUB. An Indian word for a deputy ; a title of dignity and power ap- plied to those who act under the soubahs or viceroys. NABONASSAR. First king of Babylon, in whose reign, according to Ptolemy, astro- nomical observations were made ; whence, an era was formed from this king's reign, called the era of Nabonassar, dated 747 years before Christ. NADIR (in Astronomy.) That point in the heavens opposite to the zenith, and directly under our feet, or a point in a right line, sup- posed to be drawn from our feet through the centre of the earth, and terminating in the lower hemisphere. NAIL (in Anatomy.) The homy lamina on the extremity of the fingers and toes. NAIL (with Ironmongers.) Spikes of iron and brass, having heads, and fitted for binding several pieces of wood together. NAIL (in Commerce.) A measure of length, containing the sixteenth part of a yard. NAKED. A term in Architecture, apphed either to a column or a wall, to denote the face or plain surface from which the projec- tions take their rise. NANKIN. A well known stuff, bo called from Nankin, a city in China. NAT NAPE. Tlve hinder part rf the neck. NAPHTHA. A native combustible liqnid, and one of the thinnest of the liquid bitumens issuing from the earth, and found on the borders of springs on the shores of the Cas- pian Sea. It feds greasy, has a bitundnons smell, takes fire on die approach of flame, and is so light as to float on the water, NARCISSUS. A genas of plants, which is cultivated in gardens on account of its sweet- smelling flowers, which are eitho: yellow or white. NARCOTICS (in Medicine.) Soporiferous and stupif3ring medicines, as opium and its preparations. NARVAL. An animal of the whale tribe, remarkaUe for its single tooth standing out like the bom of the unicorn. NASTURTIUM. A plant, which is eidti vated in gardens, and bears a flower of a deep crimson colour. The seeds, when green, make fine pickles, and when dried and bruised, have a pungent smell that causes sneezing. NATION. Families of men, living under the same institutions and laws, generally created by the ambition of a chief^ as in mo- narchies, or by mutual convention, as in re- publics. Eivery nation is large enough which is able to protect itself by its own power, or by alliances, against the outrages of other nations, and nothing is gained to the people by an en- largement, while it adds to the patronage of the government, and to its power of enslaving the whol& GJovemments, therefore, encourage a passion of aggrandisement, and hence the wars and follies of history; but wise men should prefer to belong to a happy and well- governed rather than an extended empire. NATIONAL DEBT. Loans advanced to government, which constitute the funds or stocks, for which interest is paid from reve- nues set apart for the purpose. NATRON (in Chymistry.) A term fre- quently given to soda, upon the supposition that it is the natron or nitrum of the ancients. Natural natron occurs either as an efliores- cence on the sur&ce of the soil, or on decom- posing rocks of particular kinds, or on the sides and bottoms of lakes that become dry during the summer. In Hungary, the natron lakes are very numerous, and afford a vast quantity of it annually. About sixty miles north-east of Grand Cairo, in Egypt, there is a lime stone valley, in which there are several extensive lakes, which become dry during the 23 NAV and leave their aides and bodoniB covered with a great quantity of soda or na- tron. NATITRAL BRIDGE. A great natural curiosity over Cedar Creek, in Virginia. It is a huge rock extending across a deep fissore, at the height of about 200 feet firom the wa- ter. The bridge is covered with earth and trees, is 90 fe^ long. 60 feet wide, and 40 feet thkk. NATLHAL HISTORY. That branch of knowledge which treats of the characteristics or distinctive marks of each individual object, whether animal, vegetable, or mineral ; as also of its peculiar habits, qualities, uses, rEGATl\^ QUANTITIES (in Algeln.) Qoantities baring the negative sign set before NEG.ATIVE SIGN (in Algebra.) A sign marked this — , to denote less than nothh^. NEGOTIATION. The conducting a treaty either in political or commercial matters. NEGROES. Tbe Mack inhabitants of Af- rica, having wooUy hair and a peculiar cast of coontenenee. Their krw state of civilization enables their goremments to seize and 9i»ll than for dares, to per&nn the toite of' nominal Christians in hot climates. Great exertions are now making by tbe Christian world for the total extinction of tbe slave trade, and tb« ciriliiatk» of the African race. The English have a seitiemem at the Sierra Lmoe, on the w^em coast, and the American Coknizatioa Sociei^ one at Liberia. )LEu An instrument of steel for sewing havii^ a diarp ponit for piercing, and an eye to receive the thread ; also, an in- stiuitnt for knitting, which is a simple steel wi n. NEEDI£, or Maonbticaj. Needle. A needfe toadied with the loadstone^ and sos- peiidttiooajMVOt,aD which, playing at liber- ty, it chrects itsdf to the north and sooth of the Canaan. Magnetical needles are called bori- zoatd when balanced equally on both sides, aod incUnalory or dipfMng vrhen they are con- assemblies stmcted so as to diow the dip of the how for it points below the horizon. NEG.\TiyE. An q>ithei for what impties neeation. NEGATTV'E ELECTRICITY. Thatstate of bodies in which they are deprived of some portion of tbe electricity which tbey naturally NEGATIVE PREGNANT (in Law.) A negalivB which impbes an affirmation, as when a person dends having done a thing ir « certain manner or at a certain tioM^ as stated ia^dedantion, which in^>lies that he did it 2-M NEGUS. A well known co mp o un d beve- ra^ prepared of one part of Port-wine and two parts of water, to which is nsnally added a small quantity of sugar, lemon-ped, Ac. This iiqioor is pleaBant, especially if the juice of a Seville orange be snbetitated for that of lonons. NEM.CON. An abfarwiatioB for nenine contrachoente, that is, no one o|ipQEa^ applied to the decisions of pariiament and other public NEM. DISS. An abbreviation for aemine dissentiente, no one dissenting that ia, with NEPHRITE. A sort of stone of the talc kind, of a dark leek-green edoor, ver^g to Uoe. It is found in Chma, Amarica, and EWpt, and is faighty priaed by the Hindoos and Chinese^ by whom it is made into talis- VPPM R fxiC. Relating to the kidneys. -: ULTRA, L e no farther. The r utniObt extent to which any tkiig i' NEPTUNE. Thegodortheaei^brothflr 274 NEW of Jupiter in the heathen mythology, who is by his trident NERITA. A sort of testaceous worms, whose shells are adorned with a beautiful painting in miniature. NERVES (in Anatomy.) Long white me- dullary cords, which pass in pairs from the brain and the spinal marrow, as instruments respectively of sensation and volition; of which nine pairs proceed from the brain, and thirty from the spine. They spread over the body like fine net-work. NEIRVES (in Botany.) Longtough strings, whicli run lengthwise in the leaf of a plant. NERVOUS. An epitliet for what relates to the nerves, as, the nervous system, nervous disorders, &c. NEST. The lodging prepared by birds for incubation and receiving their young. NET. A device for catching either fish or fowl, formed by threads interlaced. NETTINGS. Small ropes seized together gratewise with rope yarn, to stretch in diffe- rent parts of a ship. NETTLE. A stinging herb, NET WEIGHT. See Neat Weight. NEUROPTERA. An order of insects in the Linnajan system, including those vtrhich have the wings reticulate, as, the diagon fly, tlie day fly, the lion ant, &c. NEUTRALIZATION (in Chemistry.) The process by which an acid and an alkali are so combined as to disguise each other's properties. NEUTRAL SALTS. Salts which pmtake of the nature of both an acid and an alkali. NEWSPAPER. A periodical publication, which appears once or oftener in the week, containing an account of the political and do- mestic occurrences of the time. It is capable of doing good or mischief, according as it is honestly or dishonestly, ignorantly or intelli- gently, conducted. NEW STYLE, abbreviated N.S. The me- thod of reckoning the days of the year in ac- cordance with the Gregorian Calendar, which adjusts the odd hours and niinutesi, by which the earth's revolution exceeds 365 days, and NIA renders celestial phenomena and terrcstriel reckoning equal. NEWT. An animal of the lizard tribe. NEWTONIAN PHILOSOPHY. Tlie doctrine of the universe as explained by Sir Isaac Newton, respecting the properties, laws, affections, forces, motions, &c. of bodies, both celestial and terrestrial. The chief pai-ts of the Newtonian philosophy are explained by the author in his Principia, or Principles of Natural Philosophy. NIAGARA FALLS. One of the most sub- lime natural curiosities on the globe. The river flows from south to north, and is 35 miles long. At its efllux from Lake Erie it is tliree quarters of a mile wide, from 40 to 60 feet deep, and flows with a current of 7 miles an hour. As it proceeds, the river expands to tiie width of 6 or 7 miles, embosoming several consider- able islands, particularly Grand and Navy islands, which terminate in beautiful points a mile and a half above the falls, A little below the termination of these islands, commence the rapids, which extend a mile to the preci- pice, in which space the descent is 57 feet At the precipice the river is three quarters of a mile wide, and is divided by Goat Island into two channels; the channel between Goat Island and the eastern or United States shore, is also divided by a small island. Over the precipice the river falls perpendicularly about 160 feet Much tlie greater part of the water passes in tlie channel between Goat Island and ma the Canada shore, and this fall is callrtl from its shape the Horseshoe fall. Between Gioat Island and the small island in tlie eastern channel, the stream is only 8 or 10 yards wide, forming a beautiful cascade. Between this small island and the United States shore, the sheet of water is broad, and the descent is greater by a few feet than at the Horseshoe rail, but the stream is compsuratively shallow. The falls are seen to advantage from different positions. The best single view is that from the TaUe rock, on the Canada side ; and the best view of the rapids is firom Goat Island, which is ingeniously connected by a bridge with the eastern shore The view from the river below is the most entire. Below the fells, the river nms between perpendicular banks 300 feet high to Queenston, 7 miles ; thence to Lake Ontario the country is open. About two miles below the falls is the Devil's hole, where the current is forced into a narrow bay bordered by high rocks, and forms a tre- mendous whirlpool. NiCENE CREED. A particular creed formed at tlje first general council a.ssembled at the city of Nice by Constaniine the Great, A. D. 315. This creed has since been adopted by the church of England. NICKEL. A metallic substance, mostly found in a metallic state, but sometimes in that of an oxide. Its ores have a coppery red colour. It is nearly as hard as iron, and its specific gravity is eight or nine times greater than tliat of water. Nickel forms alloys with a number of metals. NICKEL KUPFER, or the Sulphfhet OF Nickel. A compound of nickel, arsenic, and asulphuret of iron. NICTITANT MEMBRANE (in Compa- rative Anatomy.) A thin membrane chiefly found in birds and fishes, which covers the eyes of these animals, so as to shelter them from the dust and excess of light. NIGHT. The period of darkness, being the time of the eartli's rotation in which it is turned firom the sun, and equal in minutes in the year to the days, though shortened by the twilight At the poles there is but one day and one night in the year, and thence to the arctic circle, the days and nights are of months du- ration, according to Uie distance. At North Cape, for example, the longest day is six weeks. The longest night, at tlie distance of six months, is also six weeks, twilight ex- cepted, NIGHTHAWK. A bird resembling the whippoorwill, and generally supposed to be the same. They are, however, different birds. The nighthawk is often seen on summer eve- nings, with his long wings, flying high in the air, uttering a frequent plaintive cry, and oc- casionally sweeping downward with a rapid and almost perpendicular descent, and tlien, by the impulse of his flight, rising high again \M the air. He lives oo ffies ana gnat^ and NIL S7S descends, as described above, with his mouth open, to catch the insects tliat may chance to come within his range. NIGHTINGALE. A small brown bird, well known for the fineness of its tones, dnefly in the evening, equalled only by the eky-lark in eprightliness, compass, and execution ; but the latter is greatly inferior in meUowness and plaintiveness, in which two qualities the wood- lark alone approaches the nightingale. Night- ingales are birds of passage ; they never unite in flocks, and their habitations are generally at a distance from each other. Tfe female constructs her nest in low bushes or quickset hedges, well covered with foliage, in the vi- cinity of brooks ; it is externally composed of dry leaves, mixed with grass and fibres, and lined with hair or down : here she deposits four or five olive-greei eggs. NIGHTMARE. A heavy, pressing Bcnsa- tion on the brea.st during the night, to which nervous persons are subject. NIGHTSHADE, or Deadly Night- shade. A poisonous plant, bearing a bell- shaped corolla, from the leaves of which paint- ers extract a fine sn^een. NIHIL DICIT (in Law.) A failure on the part of the defendant to put in an answer to the plaintiff's declaration, &c. by which omis- sion judgement is of course had aeainst him. NILGHAU, or NYLGHAU. The Persian name for a species of blue aDtel<^»e, the ante- 275 NIT NON lope picta of Linnsnug, having short 'horns bent forward, and the upper and under parts of the neck maned. NIMBUS (among Antiquarians.) A circle observed on some metals, or round the head of some emperore, answering to the circlea of light drawn around the images of saints. NISI PRIUS (in Law.) A writ which lies in cases where the jury being em pannelled and returned before the justices of the bench, one of the parties requests to have this writ for the ease of the county, that the cause may be tried before the justices of the same county. NITRATES. Salts formed of nitric acid with salifiable bases, as the nitrate of potash, soda, &c. NITRE, vulgarly called Saltpetre. A neutral salt, being a crystallized, pellucid, and whitish substance, of an acrid and bitterish taste, impressing a strong sense of coldness on the tongue. It is found ready formed in the East Indies and in the southern parts of Eu- rope, and in this country ; but by far the great- er part of the nitre in common use is produced by the combination of substances in suitable situations, which tend to produce nitric acid, particularly whei'e animal matter becomes de- composed by the air, such as slaughter-houses, drains, and the like. NITRIC ACID. A heavy, yellow liquid, procured by the chymical combination of oxy- gen and nitrogen gas. Diluted w^ith the sul- phuric and muriatic acids, it forms the well known liquid aquafortis. NITROGEN, or Azote. A substance ex- isting in great abundance, but never found ex- cept in combination with some other lx)dy. It is a principal component part of the air which we breathe, which consists of 78 parts of ni- trogen, and 22 of oxygen. It is accordingly here united with oxygen, and a certain por tion of caloric and light. The nitrogen and oxygen of the atmospheric air may be separa ted, so that we may have the nitrogen by itself, but then only in a state of gas, and its proper ties are very different from those of the atmos- pheric air. Nitrogen gas will not support animal life. It is a little heavier than at mospheric air, clastic, and capable of expan- sion and condensation. It produces no change on vegetable colours, and, when mixed with lime-water, does not make it milky, as does carbonic acid gas. Nitrogen gas and oxygen gas artificiallv mixed, in the proportions in which air is found in the atmosphere, have exactly the same properties as atmospheric air, which tliey become in every respect. All ani- mal and vegetable substances contain a large proportion of nitrogen. NITRO MURIATIC ACID. A compound of nitric and muriatic acids, formerly called aqua rccjia, which dissolves gold. NITROUS ACID. An acid which has less of oxvgen tlian the nitric acid. NfTROUSOXIDE OP AZOTE. A gase- ous substance, best procured from nitrate of ammonia, which, if inhaled, produces an ex- hilirating and intoxicating effect. NOBILITY. Those who hold a rank above the degree of a knight, and are distinguished from the commonalty in Europe by titles and privileges. NOBLE. A coin, \vorth about one dollar and fifty cents, which was struck in the reign ofFxlwardlll. NOCTANTER. By night. NOCTURNAL. An epithet for what be- longs to the night ; as, a nocturnal arch, the arch described by a star in the night. NOCTURNAL, or NocTURLABiUM. An instrument used at sea for finding the latitude and hour of the night. NODDY. A sea fowl ofthe tern kind. NODE (in Surgery.) A hard tumour risinsr out of a Iwne. NODE (in Dialling.) The axis or cock of a dial. NODES (in Astronomy.) Two points where the orbit of a planet intersects the ecliptic ; the Northern or Ascending Node, called the dragon's head, is marked thus, ^ , the Southern or Descending Node, the dra- gon's tail, marked thus, §^. NOLLE PROSEQUI. An agreement on the part of the plaintiff not to prosecute his suit. NO MAN'S LAND. A sea term for the space in midships, between the after part of the belfry and the fore part of a ship's boat, when she is stowed upon the boom. NOMENCLATURE. A catalogue of the most useful and significant words in any lan- guage or in anv particular science. NOMINATIVE (in Grammar.) The first case of a noun, or the name itself, the subject of a sentence which governs the verb. NONAGESIMAL. The ninetieth degree of the ecliptic. NONCHALANCE. An affected indiffer- ence. NON COMPOS MENTIS (in Law.) Not of sound mind. NON CONDUCTORS (in Electricity.) Bodies which do not become electric by bein^ NOR -|2aced in the neighboarhood of an eTcited body. The follow uig flubstanc€8 are die prin- cipal electrics : Glass of all kinds ; all pre- cious stones, the most transparent the best ; amber; sulphur; all resinous substances; wax, silk, and cotton ; dry external animal substances, as, feathers, wool, and hair ; pa- per ; loaf sugar ; air, when dry ; oils and me- tallic oxides ; ashes of animal and v^etaUe Bubstances ; and most hard stones. NONCONFORMIST. A person not con- formine to die church of England. NOS EST INVENTUS, i. e. Uterally, He has not been found. The answer made by the sheriff in the return of the \\Tit, when the defendant is not to be found in his baili- wick. NONPLUS. A difficulty or embarrassment, when one cannot proceed any way. NON PROS. i. e. Non prosequitur, he does not prosecute. A nonsuit, or the form of renouncing or letting fall a Buit by the plaintiff. NONSUIT. A cause lost from some 1^ informality, by which the plaintiff is compelled to pay the costs. NOON. Mid-day, or twelve o'clock ; call- ed apparent, as sliown by the sundial, and real, as shown by a clock; for the clock is faster than tlie dial from December 24 to April 15, and from June 16 to August 31, and slower at other times, bodi agreeing only on those days. At other times the true day lieing respectively more or less tlian the twenty-four hours. The difference is aiven in every al- manack, and the causes are toe unequal motion of the earth, and the oblique course of the ecliptic, in regard to the equator. NORMAL. A perpendicular. NORTH POLE. A point in the northern hemisphere, ninety d^ees di^ant from the MOD 277 equator. N0RWEX5IAN. A native of Norway, which is a mountainous and barren country, abounding, notwithstanding, in sublime and beautiful scenery: the inhabitants are rude and illiterate, UU honest and ha6pitBbk>. Its exports are lumber, iron, copper, fish, and some silver. It is subject to the king of Swe- den. It is remarkable for the maelstroom, a dieadful whirlpool, on its coast. NOSOLOGY. A systematic arrangement sind description of diseases. NOSTRUM, i. e. Ours. The name given to the medicmes offered by quacks as univer- sal remedies. NOTARY (in Law.) A scrivener who takes notes and draughts of contracts. NOTARY PUBLIC (in Commerce.) A scrivener who witnesses deeds, in order to make them authentic in foreign courts. NOTATION (in Arithmetic and Algebra.) The method of eijiressing numU^rs or quan- tities by signs or characters appropriated for that purpose. The Jews, Greeks, and Ro- mans, expressed their numbers by the letters of their alphabet ; the Arabians had particular characters, called figures, which have been universally adopted in Europe in all arith- metical oj>erations. The Roman mode of no- tation is also still in use in marking dates or nimibering cliapters, &c. NOTATION (in Music.) The manner of expressing sounds by characters. NOTE. Any short writing or mem(M-an- dtun. NOTE (in Music.) A character to distin- guish the pitch and time of a sound. NOTE OP HAND. A writing under a man's hand, by which one person engages to pay another a sum of money on a certain day ; this may either be in die form of a ImII or of a promissory note. NOT GUILTY (in Law.) The general issue or plea of tlie defendant in a criminal action. NOTICE (in Law.) The making some- thing known that a man was or might be ig- norant of, and which it w^as proper he should be made acquainted with. NOV. An abbreviation for November. NOVEL. A narrative of fictitious events and cliaracters. WIicti the incidents and per- sons are not probable, it is called a romance ; and if only a short story^ a novelette. NOVEMBER. The eleventh month of the Julian year. It was called November be- cause it was tlie ninth of Romulus' j^ear. NOVICE (in the Romish Church.) One who has entered his noviciate or year of pro- bation, before he takes his vow ; in a genaral sense, a learner in any profession, an miskil- ful person. N. S. An abbreviation for new style, or the new mode of forming the calendar. NOUN (in Grammar.) A part of speech, the r.amr of th.? thing itself, as horse, dog, &c M • : ~ The kernel of a nut, &c. > n Astronomy) The body of It I - !• wi?e called the head . NUDE CONTRACT, A bare, naked 24 278 OAK OAK contract, without a consideration, which is roid in law. NUISANCE (in Law.) Any annoyance which tends to the hurt or inconvenience of another. NUMBER (in Arithmetic.) An assem- blage »{ several units or of several things of the same kind. Whole numbers are other- wise called integers, as I, 2, 3. Broken num- bers are fractions, as J. Cardinal numbers express the number of things, as 1, 2, 3. Or- dinal numbers denote the order of things, as 1st, 2d, 3d, &c. Even numbers are those which may be divided into two equal parts, without a fraction, as 6, 12, &c. Uneven num- liers are such as leave a remainder after being divided, as 5, 13, &c. A square number is the product of any number multiplied by itself, as 4, the product of 2 multiplied by 2. NUMBER (in Grammar.) An inflection or change of ending in nouns and verbs, to de- note number. Numbers are singular to de- note one, dual to denote two, or plural to denote more than one. NUMBERS (in Poetry.) Measures or cadences which render a verse agreeable to the ear. NUMERAL. Any character which ex- presses a number, as 1, 2, 3. NUMERAL LETTERS. The Roman let- ters I. II. III. IV. &c. which denote num- bers. NUMERATION. The art of expressing in figures any number proposed in words, or expressing in words any number proposed in figures. NUMERATOR. The number in the upper line of a fraction, denoting the number of the given parts taken, as 3 in f, that is three out of the four parts of an integer. NUMERICAL. Relating to numbers, as numerical algebra, that which is performed by the help of numbers. NUMISMATICS. The study of coins and medals of all nations, as means of history and rectification of dates in chronology. The earliest coins are Phenician, and were struck or imprinted from dies unreversed, so that the inscription was reversed. Greek coins are scarce, and so are many Roman ones ; but, as money was often secreted under ground, pots of it are often discovered, containing coins of great rarity. NUNCIO. The pope's ambassador. NUNCUPATIVE WILL. A will made by word of mouth. NUNNERY (in the Romish Church.) A religious house for nuns, or females who have bound themselves by vow to a single life. NURSERY. A chamber for young chil- dren. NURSERY. A place set apart for young trees and shrubs. NUTATION (in Astronomy.) A tremulous motion of the earth's axis. NUTGALLS. Excrescences on the leaf of the oalf . The Aleppo galls are imported for the use of dyers, calico printers, &c. NUTMEG. A spice, the fruit of a tree as large as a pear tree, growing on the island of Banda. The nutmeg is the kernel of the fruit, not unlike the peach, the rind or coat of which is called mace. NUX VOMICA. A flat, compressed, round fruit, about the breadth of a shilling, brought from the East Indies ; it is a certain poison for dogs, cats, &c and is one of the ingredients unlawfully infused into beer, to give it a stu- pifj,i ing quality. YMPH^. The chrysalis, or third stage of insects, between the grub and the fly. NYMPHS. The goddesses of the woods, according to the poets. o. O, the fourteenth letter of the alphabet, tised as a numeral^ for eleven, and with a stroke over it, thus O, for eleven thousand. OAK. A tree celebrated for its timber, which is so tough that the sharpest tools will •carcely penetrate it. It is also remarkable for into Ioob« hemp for calking ships, its slowness of growth, bulk, and longevity. Oaks have been found to grow only^ from fourteen to twenty inches in diameter in the space of eightyvears. OAKUM. Old ropes untwisted and made OBS OAR. A long pole with a flat thin end, by which boats are driven along in the water. OATH (in Law.) A solemn affirmation accompanied with an invocation of God to witness what we say, and with an imprecation of his vengeance, or a renunciation of his favour, if what we affirm be fake, or what we promise be not performed. OATH OP ALLEGIANCE. The oath which the subject takes when required to bear true allegiance to a government OATH OP SUPREMACY. The oath which establishes the supremacy of the king over every other power, temporal or spiritual, in England, whereby the supremacy of the pope was renounced at the Reformation. OATH OP ABJURATION. An oath which expressly establishes the succession of the reigning family to the throne of Elngland, to the exclusion of the Stuart family or any other. OATS. A grain, the peculiar food of horses, and in Scotland and the north of England also the food of man. Oatmeal, the flour of the oats, is also much used medicinally. OBELISK (in Architecture.) A square stone growing smaller from Uie base to the sunmiiL OBELISK (among Printers.) A mark of reference, thus (t). OBJECT-GLASS. A glass in a telescope or microscope at the end of tlie tube next to the object OBIT (in the Romish Church.) An annual service for the dead. OBITUARY. A register of the deaths. OBLATE. Flattened; an epithet for a sphere or spheroid. The oUateness of the earth refers to the diminution of the polar axis, in respect to the equatorial. OBLATION. What is laid on an altar, or given at the altar, by way of offering. OBLIGATION (in Law.) A bond con- taining a penalty on condition of not perform- ing certain covenants annexed. OBLIQUE. Deviating from a perpendi- cular line or direction, as an oblique angle, &c. th.1t which is not a right one OBLIQUE CASES (in Grammar.) The cases of nouns declined from the nominative. OBLIQUITY OP THE ECLIPTIC. The angle which the ecliptic makes with the equator, being now estimated at something less than 23 degrees 28 minutes, as the eclip- tic approaches nearer to a parallelism with the equator at tite rate of about 42 seconds in 100 vears. OIBOLUS. a small Grecian coin ; value near three cents. OBSERVATION. The observing the phe- nomena of the heavenly bodies by means of any instrument ORSERVATORY. A place erected in some lofty situation, and fitted up with tele- scopes, quadrants, &c. fur the purpose of vaar OCE 9^ king astronomical observations, such as the observatory at Greenwich, Paris, Munich, and Palermo, which are the most celebrated among the modern observatories. The ancient Chal- deans had also similar plac«. OBSERVATORY EQUATORIAL, or PoHTABLE. An instrument for solving many problems in asu-onomy, as finding the meri- dian, pointing the telescope on a star, though not in the meridian, in full daylight, &c. OBSIDIONAL CROWN. A crown made of the grass that grew in a besieged place, which the Romans gave to the general by whom the town was taken. OBT. An abbreviation for obedient OBTUSE ANGLE. Any angle grealec than a ri^ht angle. See Angle. OCCIDENT. Westward, as the Occident equinoctial <&c. OCCIPUT. The back part of Uie head. OCCULTATION. The obscuration of any star or planet by the interpositit^n of any other body, as the moon, &c. OCCULTATION, Circle or. An ima- ginary circle round the poles, which omtains those stars Aat are not visible in our hemi- sphere. OCCULT DISEASF>S. Diseases U.c cau- ses and treatment of which are not understood. OCCULT QUALITIES. Qualities in bodies which do not admit of any rational ex- planation. OCCUPATION (in Law.) The possession and use of lands or tenements. OCEAN. A vast collection of salt and navigable waters, enclosing the continents or quarters of the globe, Europe, Asia, Africa, and America, and comprehended under the several divisions of the Atlantic, the Pacific, and the Indian Oceans, which cover three-fourths of the earth's surface, to an average deptJi, esti- mated at two miles, salt every where, owing to the solution of muriate of soda ; but whethw this is a constituent of sea-water, » whether the muriate of soda is a salt lying in beds, and disserved by the ocean, is uncertain; but it proves useful in preventing putridity. 380 OGE Otl OCHRE. A sort of earth consisting of alumina and red oxide of iron. i OCTAGON. A figure of eight sides and angles. OCTAHEDRON. One of the five regular bodies, consisting of eight equal and equilateral triangles. OCTANDRIA (m Botany.) One of the Linnsean classes, consisting of plants having eight stamina to eesch flower. OCTANT. An aspect of two planets when they are distant from each other 45 degrees, or the eighth part of a circle. OCTAVE (in Music.) The eighth interval in a scale of sounds. OCTAVO, i. e. in eight, expressed by printers thus, 8»ro. The form of a page by folding a sheet into eight leaves, so as to make it consist of sixteen pages. OCTOBER. The tenth month in the year, containing thirty-one days. OCULIST. One who cures the disorders of the CTes. ODD. An epithet for any number in the series of 1, 3, 5, 7, &c. ODE. A poem written to be sung to music. ODOUR. The scent or smell. OEDEMA. Any tumour or swelling. OESOPHAGUS. The gullet, a membra naceous canal, reaching from the fauces to the stomach, and conveying into it the food taken in at the mouth. OFFENCE (in Law.) The violation of any law ; this is capital if punished with death, and not capital if visited with any other pu nishment. OFFICE. That function by virtue whereof a man hath some employment, either in the public affairs or those of a private individual OFFICER (in Law.) One filling an office or post under government OFFICER (in Military and Naval Affairs.) One acting under government in a military or naval capacity. OFFICINAL. An epithet for what is sold ir shops, as officinal plants, herbs, medicines, &c OFFING. The open sea, or that part of the sea at a distance from the shore, where there is deep water. OFFSETS (in Botany.) Young shoots that spring and grow from shoots. OFFSETS (in Surveying.) Perpendiculars let fall and measuring from the stationary lines to the hedge, fence, or extremity of an enclosure. OGEE (in Architecture.) A moulding formed like the letter S. OIL. A fat, unctuous substance, which d» rives its name from the olea, the olive, because it was at first principally known as the pro- duce of the olive. Oils are distinguished by chemistry into volatile or essential oils, which have a strong acrid taste and a strong fragrant smell, being obtained from smelling plants and fixed oils, which are thick and viscid, in soluble in water, and do not boil under 600 degrees ; these latter oils are obtained from both animal and vegetable substances, as train oil, olive oil, linseed oil, &c. OIL GAS. A gas extracted from fish oil, which is more expensive and not reckoned so good as that procured from coals. If oil, tal- low, or wax, be let fall upon red-hot iron, or made to pass through red-hot iron pipes, it will be resolved into combustible gas. OLEIC ACID. An oil obtained fi-om potass and hog's lard saponified, which has the property of saturating bases and forming natural compounds. OLERACE.fi. One of the Linnsean natu- ral orders of plants, containing potherbs, aa spinage, thyme, mint, &c. OLERON, Laws of. A code of maritime law, so called because it was framed by king Richard I. on an island off the coast of France. OLFACTORY NERVES. The pair of nerves which proceed from the brain to the nose, and give the sense of smelling. OLIGARCHY. A form of government wherein the administration of affairs is lodged in the hands of a few persons. OLIVE TREE. A tree, native of the OPA OPO Boathern parte of Europe, which rises witli solid upright stems, and branches numerouslv on every side The olive, which is the fruit of this tree, yields an oil that is of an emollient and solvent nature, and is known by the name of olive or sweet oil. OLYMPIAD. The space of four years, whereby the Greeks reckoned their time from the circumstance of the Olympic games having been celebrated once in four years. The first Olympiad is dated, according to some, 774 years before Christ. OLYMPIC GAMES. Solemn games among the Greeks, in honour of Jupiter Olyrnpus, at which five kmds of exercises were exhibited, namely, leaping, running, wrestling, quoiting, and whh*lbats. OMEGA. The last letter of the Greek alphabet. OMENTUM. A double netlike membrane spread over the entrails. OMER. A Hebrew measure about three pints and a half English. OMNIPOTENCE. The almighty unli- mited power of Deity. His infinite duration and continual presence is omnipresence ; and his inconceivable knowledge and skill, is om- niscience. OMNIUM. A term among stockbrokers for all the kinds of stock, as 3 per cents, 4 per cents, &c. which are sold together as they were bought by the contractors from government. ONION. A bulbous edible root, growing in gardens, and used for various culinary par- poses. ONYX. A precious stone, accounted a species of opaque agate. It is a semipellucid gem of different colours, but the Huish white kind is looked upon as the true onyx of the ancients. OPACITY. That property in bodies by which they are rendered impervious to the rays of the sun, owing probably to the density of the parts. OPAH. A krge fish with a smooth skin, found on the coast uf Guinea. OPAL. A precious stone of varrious colours, which comes under the class of pellucid gems. It is found in many parts of Europe, especially in Hungary. When first dug o\it of tlie eartli it is soft, but it hfu-dcnsand diminishes in bulk by exposure to the air. The subatance in 2N 24- which it is found is a ferrnginouB sand stone. OPERA. A dramatic comjxiBiiion set to music. It is sung on tlie stage, accompanied and interspersed with dialoe^ue. OPERA-GLASS. A kind of glass con- structed in a small wooden tube, so as to view a person in a theatre, and as the glass is made to point at a different object from that which is viewed, it may be used without any one know- ing exactly who is obeerved. OPERATION (in Siu-gery.) Any exercise of the surgical art which is performed by the use of instruments. OPERATION (in Chymistry.) Any pro- cess that leads to a given result. OPERATION (in Military Affairs.) Any movement of an army for the attainment of a particular object. OPHTHALMIA. An inflammation of the membranes of the eye, a disease which parti- cularly affected the English soldiers during their stay in Eigj'pt. OPIATE. A medicine made of opium. OPIUM. The concentrated juice of the white poppy. It is imported in cakes from Persia, Arabia, and other warm climates ; is of a reddish brown coloor, and a nauseous bitter taste ; and has a powerfully narcotic property. It is used by the Turks as a sub- stitute for spirituous liquors and wine, which were prohibited by Mahomet OPOBALSAMUM, Balm of Gilead. A gummy ioice of the balsam tree. OPOPONAX. a gummy resinous juica obtained from the root of an umbelliferous plant growing in warm clnnates. OPOSSUM. An animal chiefly found in America, that lives in holes and woody places. The female is remarkable for having two or three pouches, wherein the young conceal themselves in time of danger. It is about the size of a cat, with short legs, feet formed like hands, each having five fingers, with white crooked nails. It is slow on the f round, but climbs trees with great expedition, t feeds upon birds, and lives among the foli- age to take tliem by surprise; it also fre- quently hangs by its tail to watch its prey. OPT OPT Also, oy means of its tail, it slings from tree to tree to hunt insects^ and to escape from its pursuers. OPPOSITION (in Astronomy.) One of the aspects of the planets, when they are 180 degrees distant from each other, that is, in a diametrically opposite relation to each other. OPTATIVE (in Grammar.) A mode or form of a verb by which is expressed the wish or desire to do a thing. OPTIC. Pertaining to the sight; as Optic Glasses, glasses contrived for viewing objects which cannot otherwise be seen, as spectacles, telescopes, microscopes, &c. OPTICIAN. A dealer in or maker of op- tical instruments. OPTIC NERVES. The second pair of nerves of the brain, whicli perforate the bulb of the eye, and serve for the sense of sight. OPTIC PLACE OP A STAR. That point of its orbit in which it appears to be to our eye. OPTIC PYRAMID. A pyramid formed by rays drawn from the several points of the perimeter to the eye. OPTICS. That branch of natural philoso- phy which treats of the nature of light and colours, or of the general doctrine of vision. It is distinguished into three kinds : namely, optics, properly so called, which treats of di- rect vision ; catoptrics, which treats of reflect- ed vision, or that which is performed by means of rays reflected from speculums or mir- rors ; and dioptrics, which treats of refracted vision, or that which is performed by means of rays refracted or turned out of their course by passing through mediums of difl'erent densities, cliiefly through glasses or lenses, OPTICS, History of. The properties of light naturally attracted, at an early period, the attention of philosophers who made nature their study. Empedocles, who flourished up- wards of four hundred years before Christ, is said to have written a treatise on light ; and the works of Aristotle present us with a num- ber of questions and observations concerning optical appearances. This philosopher was aware that it is the reflection of the li^ht from the atmosphere whicli prevents total darkness after the sun sets, and in those places where he does not shine in the daytime. He also considered that rainbows, halos, and mock suns, were all occasioned by the reflection of the sunbeams in different circumstances, by which an imperfect image of his body was produced, the colour only, and not his proper figure, being exhibited. Euclid wrote a treatise on optics and catoptrics, in which he shows the chief properties of reflected rays in plane, convex, and concave surfaces, in a geo- metrical manner, beginning with that con- cerning the equality of the angles of inci- dence and reflection. He also takes some notice of dioptrics, and remarks on the effect of refraction in regard to an object at the bottom of a vessel, which, when water ia poured in, is brought to view, that was not to be seen above the edge of the vessel before the water was poured in. As to the eflfect of burning glasses, both by reflection and refrac- tion, this is noticed not only by Euclid, but by many other of the ancients ; and, if w« give credit to historians, the exploits perform- ed by Archimedes in setting fire to the vesseli of the Romans before Syracuse by means of burning mirrors, prove that his practical knowledge exceeded that of modern times. There is no doubt that he wrote a treatise on burning glasses, as also concerning the ap- pearance of a ring or circle under the water, which shows that this phenomenon had not escaped his notice. The ancients were also acquainted with the production of colours by means of refracted light. Seneca observes that when the light of Uie sun shines through an angular piece of glass, it shows all tn« colours of tiie rainbow ; also that the colours seen in a pigeon's neck, when it changes its position, are the effect of refraction, and on the same principle that a speculum, not having any colour of its own, will assume tliatof any other body. Besides, the ancients were not unacquainted with the magnifying power of glass globes filled with water, for the ancient engravers used to employ such a glass globe, in order, as is supposed, to magnify the figures, that they might execute their work with more cor rectriess. Ptolemy, who wrote a considerable treatise on optics, was well acquainted with the refraction of light, and determined the ratio of the angles of refraction, as compared with that of the angles of incidence, with such accuracy, that there is but a trifling dif- ference between the results of his observations and those of Newton ; not more than might arise from his having used glass and water of specific gravities something different from those employed by Newton. It appears also from tliis work of Ptolemy, as also from bia Almagest, that he employed his knowledge of optics in his astronomical observations, foi he was fully aware that refraction decreases from the horizon to tlie zenith, and that, by means of this refraction, the intervals between the stars appear less when near the horizon than in the meridian. He also accounts for the remarkably great apparent size of the sun and moon when seen near the horizon, by as- cribing the appearance to the refraction of the rays by vapours, which actually enlarge the angle under which the luminaries appear, just as the angle is enlarged by which an ob- ject is seen from under water. The next writer of any importance on the science of optics was Alhazen, an Arabian philosopher, who flourished in the twelftli century^ He made many oleervations and ex- periments on the effects of refraction at Uio surface between air aiid water, air and glass, OPT iAd water and g^m, from whkh he deduced that atinaspbencal refraction increases the althodes ot all objects in the heavens. He also first obeerved that the stars are sometimes seen above the horizon by means <^ refraction, when ther are really betow it; an ofaserraiion eoofirmed by Vite&io and other optidans. He hkewise maintained that refraction con- tracts the diank^ans and distances of heavenly bodies, and that it is the cause of the twink- ling of the stars. Beades, Alhazen treats kurgely on the maj^niiying power of glasses, so that probably he ofaservatMOs kd to the in- vention of spectacles. In the next centmy fiiDowed ^tdhc^ a Pole, who digested the conieatB of Alhnen's work, and orade many additional observations on the power of re- fraction. He gave a table of the results of his experiments on tl^ r^racting power of air, water, and glass, corresponding to different angles of incidence. R<^cr Bacon, a con- temporary vrith Vitellio^ also wrote on this science^ and is generally considered to be the inventor of the magic hntem. Maoroly- cos, who kSkmeA thoe two at the dirtance of nearly two oeotnries^ ezplaim, in his trea- tise De LomiDe et Uo^jra, the process of vi- sion, ahowing that the crystalline hcuuour of the eye is a lens which collects the rays of light issuing from the objects, and throws th^ on the retina, where the fecos of each pencil is formed. From this princifde he dis- covered the reason wl^ some people have a diort sight and others a long one; ako^ why the former are assisted by concave and the latter by convex ones. John Porta, his contemporary, discovered the ra obseora, and took the first public notice of the magic hntem, the original invention of which has been ascribed to Roger Bacon. Kircher, who followed Baptista, enlarged on his hints, and put them into execution. Be abo made many experiments with the camera obseora, by which he satisfied himself that vision is parformed by the intromission of something into the eye, and not fay visial rays proceeding from it, as had been fixmerly imagined. He considered the me as a camera obscura, the papil to be the boae in the win- dow shutter, aiMl the crystalhne fa^moor to eorrespwd to the wall vriiieh recdves the images; bot in this latta- point lus idea has been proved, bj doeer ofaservatians, to be in- correct, for it IS BOW known that this office is performed by the retina. The observations and ejgperiments of this writer <» the science of optics, and on the nature of visian, wpear to have led the way to the discovery of tele- scopes, which was doobtkss made veiy soon after his time. After j|p% the writers on optics beeame very flmeroos, and their labours contriboled to the confirmation and 'improvemoit of those who had ihcm.. ^^Among die works entitled to'porticn- lar notK* are Barrow's Optical Lectures^ ORA a» Biuygm*9 Dioptrics, Hartaoeker'B Eosaie Dit^ittriqae, David Gregory's Ekments of Dioptrics and Catoptrics, Dr. Smith's Optics, Wolfius's EHoptrics and Catoptrics, Harris's Optics, but above all, Newton's Treatise on Optics, and bis Optical Lectures. OPtlME. A scholar in the first ckas of mathematics at C^ambridge, ELngland. OR (in Heraldry.) The ydlow or gold co- lour, represented on the escutcheon by sooall dots. ORA. A Saxon coin, in value {nxa cents to 38 cents. ORACIfS (among the Heathens.) to deliver by the inspiratian of their gods, such as the oracks of ApoDo at Deif^ui^ and those of Jupiter Ammon in llMhes. ORANG&TREB. An evergreen, resem- bling the laurel in its leaf. It is a native of the tropics, where it produces fruit throc^hoot the year, the average annual crop of each tree being from 6000 to 8000. The orange- tree was transplanted fitxn China into Eoropb by the Portngoese, ahoot 1650^ and now flooridies in Portngal, Spain, the sootfa of Prance;, the diores and islajods of the Metier- ranean, and in the West Indies. ORATORY. Theartfaywhichaspedter n enabled to afieet and convince his hearers ; the first of which pnrposes is achieved b\- g<>stare, modulation, and language; 284 ORD ORE and llie last by logic, knowledge, and method ; wliich last divides every perfect discourse into an exordium, a Btatemeiit oC the question, an illustrative narration, an exliibition of argu- ments in proof, a reply to objections, mid a peroration. ORB. A hollow sphere or space contained between two concentric spherical surfaces, as, the orb of the heavens. ORBIT. The course of a planet in its pas- sage round llie sun, described with inconceiva- ble rapidity; Mercury moving 109 thousand, and the Earth 68 tliousand miles an hour. Orbits arc elliptical, the longer axis being called tlie line of epsides, and the central sun being at imequal distances, the least distance being called the perihelion, and the greater the aphelion. The difference in the Earth is three millions and a quarter o[ miles, and in Mars twenty-seven millions. ORBITS (in Anatomy.) The two large cavities in which the eyes are placed. ORCHARD. A piece of ground planted with fruit trees. In planting an orchard great care sho\ild be taken that the soil is suitable to the trees transplanted in it, and that they are procured from a soil nearly of the same kind, or rather poorer than that laid out for an orchard. As to the situation, an easy, rising ground, open to the northeast, is to be preferred. ORCHESTRA. The stage or middle of the theatre among the Greeks, where the chorus used to drmce, and the performers used to sit. It is now the place set apart for the musicians, as the front of the stage in a theatre, a gallery in an ass