/ OS AN'IELES NORM 'VL SCHOOL \ <\ ^ VV SOCIALIZING THE CHILD A GUIDE TO THE TEACHING OF HISTORY IN THE PRIMARY GRADES BY SARAH A. DYNES HEAD OK THE DEPARTMENT OF HISTORY, STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, TRENTON, NilW JERSEY ' <^' e.-^ b SILVKI{, I'.ri.'DKTT AND ("OMI'ANY BOSTON NKW YnltK TIMCACiO .soa95 Copyright, 1916, bt silver, burdett and company. B .1 PREFACE A MARKED characteristic of the new century in all pro- gressive nations is the quickened interest in the child and his education. Owing to this deepened interest in both the nature and the nurture of the child, professional educators are beginning to look more earnestly to history, sociology, psychology, and ethics for guidance and help in their work. This book treats certain aspects of social educatio7i in pri- mary grades witli the greatest possible simplicity. Especial emphasis is placed upon ways and means of enlarging the child's exi)erience so as to favor the development of the his- toric sense. The various solutions of the problems of procur- ing shelter, food, clothing ; of l)eiiring burdens, of traveling ; of exchanging goods and of celebrating liolidays, make an excellent background for later work in history. Because each of tlie various countries selected by the author for in- struction in primary grades solves these problems in its own characteristic way the contrasts are conspicuous, and serve as a stimulus to both observation and further curiosity con- cerning human institutions and discoveries. Because each school is a center of {;ommuni(y life, each pupil can be trained inlo responsible mcMubc^rship in that oommunity. lie can be saturated with the s{)irit of service and j)rovidod with tlu; instruments (»f effective self-direction suited to liis stag*; of dr^vclopmcnl . TIm- problems there solved reHect the \\U'. of thi; larger socicity of which the schofd is a part. In this way the surest gunrantee of a worthy iU IV PREFACE democratic society in the future is secured. The pupil is trained daily in adapting means to ends. He is acquiring neatness and skill in handling materials, tools, and utensils. He is forming habits of order and industry. Upon the solu- tion of such problems and processes society depends. The demand of primar}^ teachers for aids and suggestions to help them to make more effective use of the "Report of the Committee of Eight " ^ is met by this book. This re- port states that "A leading aim in history teaching is to help the child to appreciate what his fellows are doing and to help him to intelligent voluntary action in agreement or disagreement with them." To carry out these aims the report advises continuous attention in each of the grades to events in the past which the pupil can understand and also to contemporary problems suited to his intelligence. The various fields of human activity must be drawn upon for these events — political, industrial, social, educational, religious, and no one of them should exclude the others. See introduction to the report, page x. The inexperienced primary teacher who is not a specialist in history asks : How can I determine which events of the past are suited to my j)upils ? How am I to know which contemporary problems are within the range of their intel- ligence ? What are the natural processes of a child's mental life ? How does his mind work upon the material presented to it ? What are the outward signs of these mental pro- cesses, and how may we recognize them in our daily expe- rience with children ? What criteria will help me to decide how to adapt historic material to the needs of primary children ? 1 The Study of History in tiie Elementary School. A report to the American Historical Association by the Committee of Eight (1909). Charles Scribner's Sons, N. Y. PREFACE V Answers to these and many other practical questions are given with concrete illustrations in this book, which is not written for the initiated few, but for the interested many, who are alert and eager for concrete suggestions and prac- tical guidance. Technical language is avoided wherever it seems possible to do so. In Part I, a careful analysis is made of the child's expe- rience. The function of the imagination in the learning process is described and illustrated. The instincts and interests of children are discussed and tabulated. All dis- cussions are based upon the most recent thought with which our ablest psychologists and specialists in child study supply us. Practical suggestions for the use of the sand table, pic- tures, and construction work, as well as the type lessons, are given to show how the theory is carried out in practice. By a careful study of Part II the teacher sees how time may be saved by unifying the various kinds of work done in primary grades. All the material selected and all the sug- gestions for directing the child's activities so as to lessen hapliazard work and secure more systematized and better organized results have been tested repeatedly in daily work in primary grades. The book is an outgrowth of personal experience in every grade of school work in b(jth rural and city schools, together with much observation of able teachers and practice teachers. No teacher is a perfect teacher, but all teachers can profit by the best examples which come down to us from the greatest teachers in all ages. The utmost we can do for each other is to give the results of ])t-rsonal experience. I am deeply indebted to my students in the Kast and in the West, whose inspiration has made the work possible. To one of them, Miss Nellie Lair, who is now a colleague, VI PREFACE I am especially indebted for generous and valuable service in preparing tbe type lessons for grade one and in the criticism of the manuscript. if the book proves to be suggestive, instructive, or stimulating to those engaged in teaching in primary grades, the author will be amply compensated for the work. SARAH A. DYNES. State Normal School, Trenton, N. J. June, 1916. CONTENTS PART ONE CHAPTCB PAGB I. Introduction 1 Limitations of Primary Chikrs Sense Experience. To Socialize the Child, the First Step in History Teach- ing. Beginning with Child's Immediate Environment. The (iradiial Widening of Ciiild's Horizon. Siunmarv of Subject Matter of the Book. II. Thk Teachkk .\nd tiik Child 5 Sympathy with Children a Necessity to the Teacher. Value of Free Play to a Child. Play Reveals Character to the Symi)athetic Observer. The Cnsympathetic Observer. The Choice of Stories for Children. The Humor that Appeals to Children. Books as Interpreters of Childhood. III. TiiK Child's Expkkiknck 12 The Child's Experience as a Basis for HLstory Study. The Child's Lack of a Time Sense. Elements of the Historic Sen.s(i. A Child's Understanding of Phenomena Limited by his Experience. His Understanding r)f Histxiry Similarly Limited. How a (.'liild Olitains the Images Necessary for History .Study. IV. Tiik Child's Normal Instincts a.nk Intkkkhts . . \H The Child's Communicative Instinct. Dramatic Iimtinct. vU VIU CONTENTS CHAPTRr. PAGE The Value of Observing the Child's Responses. The Need of Self-expression. The Coiiutry Child's Opportunity for Expression. The City Child's Limitations. The Child of the Professional Classes. Aids to the Discovery of the Normal In1«rests of Chil- dren. V. Function of Imagination 28 Importance of IMay Conditioned by Imagination. Value of Imagination in Study of History. The Percept the Basis for the Image. Imagination Classified according to Sense Type. Verbal Imagination. Reproductive and Creative Imagination. Criticism of Imagination. History and Fiction. Historic Material that Stimulates the Imagination. PART TWO I. The Sand Tablk and its Uses 41 A Means of Expressing Impressions Gained from Every- day Experiences. A Measure of the Correctness of Conceptions. Appeals to Instincts of Expression, Constructiveness, and Sociability. Develops Ideas of Space Relations. Value of Concrete Instruction. 11. Use of Pictures in Primary Grades .... 48 Value of the Picture to the Child. How to Select Pictures. How to Get the Pictures. How to Use the Pictures. The Misuse or Abuse of Pictures. CONTENTS IX OHAPTEB PAGE III. Construction Work 56 Aims in Construction Work. Suggestions concerning Construction Work. ,___^Illustrations of Construction Work. ly. First Gradk Work 74 Teacher's Outline for Grade One. Subject Matter for Grade One. The Family. Individuals who Serve the Family. The Community. Comparison of Home Life in City with Home Life of the Farmer, the American Indian, the Eskimo. Type Lessons for Grade One. Conversational Lessons. An Excursion to the Shoe Store. Les.sons on Farm I^ife. V. Second (trauk Work 08 Practical Suggestions concerning I hi' Work of Grade Two. Teacher's Oiitiiin' of .Siihjf^ct Mattf-r for Grade Two. Primitive Man. The Eskimos of Arctic America. The Indians of the United State.s. VI. Tmiti) GuAnK Wouk ........ 13'J Teacher's Outline of Subject Matter for (irade Three. Lift' in Holland from a Cliild's I'oint of View. I.,ife in Germany from a Cliilfl's Point nf View. J..ife in -Japan from a CliiM's Point of View. F>ife in France froin a ('hild's Point of View. Vil. How f<> I.NIIioDIW I IIkKoI'S ok HisToKV Io ClIIIlHtKN IN TIIK TllllMi (HfAKH', . . . . • . 1 !>S The Story of Josejih. The Story f>f Ulysses.! The Story of Alexander the (J real. The niscoveiv of Americii li\ Coiumbus. ' X CONTENTS rHM-TFK PAOK VIII. The Celebration oi IIolii>ays 253 The V^alue of Holiday Celebrations Summarized. Opportunities for Comparisons and Contrasts. The History of Thanksgiving- Celebrations. Prei^ration for the Thanksgiving Celebration. The Celebration of Washington's Birthday. List of References 282 List of Publishers 295 Index 297 PART ONE I> (X- Chapter I INTRODUCTION A CHILD can see in any person, object, social group, or situation only what his ])ersonal exjDerience brings the power of seeing. When he enters the first year of the primary department, he is living in a veiy small social world. His interests are centered largely in , . . , Limitations the present and m the hero m the concrete, of Primary For instance, he admires the carpenter who Child's saws and hammers, the man who manages a Sense Ex- pcricncc* boat, the motorman who controls a trolley car, the policeman, and the expressman who brings packages, because his sense experience has embraced the activities in which they are engaged. Father is his greatest hero. The home, the street, and the school constitute his universe. It is impossible for the child to picture society of other countries anrl f)ther times until he has first learned to observe the simple, conspicuous elements in „ , ... -1 I r 1 • To Social- society about hiin. impossible for hmi to grasp j^^ the the significance of events of the j)ast until he Child, the has some concej)tion of organized society as First step it exists to-day. rVmse(|uently, the first step Teachin/ toward laying a foundation for the future study of history and of other social subjects is to deepen the child's appreciation of the human relations with which he is already familiar, in other words, to socialize him. 1 2 SOCIALIZING THE CHILD The teacher of primary grades knows that in all civi- lized coniniunitieiif .we hav6 division of labor, cooperation in various forms, and regularly organized society so that our lives may become richer and better than they could possibly be if each individual attempted to live in isola- tion, or tried to supply all of his own needs. She has arrived at this understanding of modern society in many different ways : through personal observation ; through the rendering of services to the community ; through con- versation with others ; and through the study of history and the social sciences. The primary pupil, however, has no such point of vantage from which to view the life around him. No child of this age can grasp the far- reaching benefits of organized society, but he can be led to appreciate the value of a policeman in the concrete instance where he helps the lost playmate to find his way home, or to realize the service rendered by the splendid fireman who saves a burning house. He can understand that there must be some one to turn the rope as well as some one to jump over it, and that a child who wants to choose every game and to take the best part in each deserves to have no playmates. It is partly by observation, partly by actual service in the family, on the street, in school, and in the community that the child learns why individuals ''work together" to accomplish certain results. He can be led wkh"^"''^^ to see how the home helps the school ; how the Child's school helps the home ; how both help the Immediate neighborhood and the town or city. The first m"nT° three years of school life offer many opportuni- ties for pupils to render in the home, in the school, and in the community, actual service appropriate INTRODUCTION 3 to their stage of development. The faithful perform- ance of such service helps to develop in each child a sense of individual responsibility and leads him to take the first steps in apjjreciating the sacrifices that have been made and the price that has been paid for the blessings and privileges that others have passed on to him. This process of socializing the child not only gives the background necessary for the intelligent study of history, but at the same time trains for good citizenship, since cooperation, or union of effort for the common good, is the very essence of good government from the democratic point of view. Beginning with the immediate • enviromnent of the home, the school, and the town or city, the woi-k of the first three grades sliould gradually widen ^^ IDC the horizon of the primary child's conscious Gradual life. He should be given an idea of men of Widening primitive times, how they lived and what we °^ Child's owe to their hardihood and perseverance. His interest should be awakened in boys and girls who live in places ver\' different from his own countiy, who dress difT(;rently and play differently. Stories of great men of other times, especial!}' of men connected with the history of (nir own country and whose deeds many of our holidays commemorate, are a form of history especially adapted to the j)riniar>' grades. This book outlines in i*art II subject matter adapted to the first three years of sdiool life. In I lie summary first year emphasis is placed on what, the (•liii) The ^^^^ ^^^^ pompous tread, with a cold, searching Pompous eye, and with a 'Svorld-sufficient-unto-itself " Adult. jjjj. ghg inspires either hatred or fear, — the two emotions which are responsible for most of the misery in the world. Such a person lacks the imagination to see how her conduct affects little children, because she lacks greatness of soul. It would be utterly impos- sible for her to understand either the joys or the sorrows of the child's heart. Not unless she were born again, and the gods were kind to her, could she become sympa- thetic with children or fit to lead them. The primary teacher must know how to interpret chil- dren's play, their serious moods, their dreams and as- pirations, their faults and their dangers. She must know how to give indirect suggestion and put the child at ease. Then she can put new courage into his heart by her strong, kind words, or shed light on his i)erplexities by her wise ones. * A teacher will easily become a favorite with children if she can tell with epic smoothness stories which have ^, been selected with reference to their consistent The . Choice of objectivity and clear comprehensiveness. All Stories for experienced story-tellers will tell her to select a Children. g^Qjy ^j^}^ action in it. Stories full of action — great, good, heroic actions — and supernatural traits at- tract the child. He likes stories filled with the richness of power which comes from life, embodied in concrete shape so that it may be sensibly perceived. It is in this THE TEACHER AND THE CHILD 9 roundabout waj' that he comes to understand emotions and sentiments. The child combines in himself ideal- ism and realism, and that is the combination found in epic national poetry. This is why such poetry appeals to him so strongly. He will probably want to hear the same story innumerable times, because he has an uncon- scious need of assimilating thoroughly that which harmo- nizes with his stage of development. His imagination is incessantly creating and reconstructing ; consequently he needs full, entire, and dee]) impressions as material for such mental activity. The primary teacher must remember that not all humor appeals to children. A simple anecdote presenting a humorous situation doubles them up with laugh- ^ The ter. But they have no relish for the ironic ty]3e Humor of Immor. Comic psychological stories about that Ap- children seem stujiid to a child. He has not the P^^^^ *° , • . • r ^•r J. 1 1 Children. necessary maturity or ex])erience ot lite to enable^ him to appreciate them. The tale that will leave an imj)ressi(m is the tale full of life, with action or sur])rises, siiiij)l(' in style without any noticeable moral. When one can tell sucli stories exceedingly well, one will have bridged the ;^;i|) between llie adnlt and the ell i Id and lia\'e becoinc \\(»itli\' of his esteem and , " . Stones as friendship, 'i'lie teacher's labor will be lichly ^ Lj^k rewarded by additional joy in li\ing, as well as between by gi-eatiy incica-ed power in enabling little Adult and 111 I II 1 I • Child cnildreri to nn(lerstan abo for him th,- mo-l iiomishing. She is then well on hei' way to a jnst comprehension of 10 SOCIALIZING THE CHILD the conditions surrounding child hfe and of the funda- mental principles upon which all good teaching must be based. Such intimate understanding of children as has just been described will give the teacher a first-hand knowledge that will be of paramount importance in all future work related either directly or indirectly to child development. No treatise on child study can be understood except in terms of one's experience with children. This experience will vitalize what is read, increase one's sensitiveness to the child's expressive acts, and serve as an index to the child's real nature and needs. It will enable one to learn much from every child with whom it is her privilege to live, and consequently she will be of greater service to children in general. The next step in widening one's experience of children is to look at them through the eyes of a person who is g ^ gifted in interpreting their actions. This will as Inter- E^^^ the primary teacher an opportunity to com- preters of pare her own insight with that of another, and Child- y^ii suggest new ways of interpreting child nature. The possible number of children of different types that one may know will be greatly in- creased by this means. Every lover of children may have her sympathies aroused by means of a good story about children. A clever story of this type written in the last twenty- five years is ''Emmy Lou; her Book and Heart," by George Madden Martin (McC^ure, Phillips & Co., New York, 1902 ; copyright now owned by Doubleday, Page and Co.). "Emmy Lou" is a book of unusual charm, and from a pedagogical point of view deserves a place in THE TEACHER AND THE CHILD 11 the private library of every teacher. It deals with school life from the entering class to the close of the high-school course. The book shows how many op- portunities the school offers for indirect instruction in social virtues and brings into clear view a child who is exceedingly miserable because she is not understood eithei- at home or in school. She is easily mystified and per- plexed and adapts herself to new situations with great difficulty. From the description of Emmy Lou's confusion in regard to the meaning of words and her distress in various tr\4ng social situations in which she is placed, the teacher can infer the difficulty that a pupil has in studying history in the higher grades when the foundation has not been well laid. She will also realize the child's sore need of sympathetic guidance by a person who knows the cud from the beginning. The book will helji primary teachers to appreciate why the primary' grades must prepare for both the vocabulary and the ideas that are to be used later in their study of history. It shows that genuine personal desire, when keen, will induce even an Eniniy Lou to put forth strenuous efforts. The concrete elucida- tion makes tlif reader feci the necessity of searching diiigcMitly for tlie child's needs, and the value of setting definite eoncrete problciiis to be worked out on the snnd table, or through some other form of coust ruction work. Not until the teaeher finds a motive for work that makes a strong a])j)eal to the rliiM can slie hope to secure that active, interested, concentrated jittention which will Htimulate children to jxTsevere to the end 'tf the task f the otiiers. The child's hiterest in a true record and in historical time is seldom strong before ten years of age, imless these elements of the historic sense have been stimulated and guided by careful instruction. Historical dates are understood by few childreii under thirteen. One day (hiring llic inoniiiig (>xercises, a child in the third grade who vohiiiteered to tell his class some- thing about (leoi'gc Washington luiidc this remarkable statement : "(Icorgc \\';ishiiigtoii \v;is I lie first man that ever lived." lie was then asked by liis tcncher to tell what made him think so. His rc])ly was, " P>cc;iuse he was first in war, first in pcMcc. ;iii(l first in the hearts of his conntrs'mon." The reply shows tli;it he was deficient in more tji;in one element of tlie iiistoric sense. 14 SOCIALIZING THE CHILD His classmate who added, ''That can't be true because we have a book at home that says (leorge Washington married a widow, so there must have been a man ahead of him," had a better developed historic sense. The second boy had gained the power to infer, a capacity which can be hastened by judicious training. However, the expression "a book at home" is not quite definite enough to indicate that even he appreciates the real nature of a true record. It is quite possible that the first boy neither knew nor cared ivho said " Washington^as first in war, first in peace, and first in the hearts of Ins countrymen." He probably did not know when it was said, under what circumstances it was said, where it was said, or whether it was true or not. The second boy can make some legit- imate inferences, but a statement in print in a book is probably a true statement to him. He has not yet realized that books, as well as boys, can make inaccura^^^ate- ments. ^^^ The experience of a child of six is farther* from that of a child of ten or twelve than the latter's experience is A Child' ^^^^^ that of a youth of twenty-one. When the Under- adult student of historj^ endeavors to gain an im- standing pression of the past that shall be true not only to of Phe- ijfg^ 1^^^ ^^ j-fg ^Yia^, has been lived by real people nomena • i /- -x i i • i • i . , Limited "^ dehmte places during designated periods of by his time, he knows that the impression should be Expen true in feeling, in motive, in character, in pro- portion, and in perspective. Or, if he visits a legislative body, he finds the procedure there filled with meaning because of the nature of his experience. Let us suppose that a primary child accompanies him. How would the phenomena before his eyes impress him? THE chili's experience 15 Would he not be blind to both the facts and the factors that enUst the closest attention of the adult? The child and the adult may be looking at the very same phenomena, but they view them from different planes. Their re- sponses differ. The whole idea of representation in government, of passing a bill, of making a motion, and especially of controlling different sections of the count ly, is something entirely outside of the primar>'^ child's life .plane. If we were to analyze the nature of his difficulty, we should find that it is not merely a matter of the meaning of words, although most of them would be without .significance to him. It is a question of complex, unseen, and unsuspected relations. It is a question of motives affecting a large social organism of which the cliikl has little ap])rehensi()ii. It is a (juestion of gencralizaticms for the construction of whicli there are basal particulars still unkno\\ii to llic child. It is quite evident, then, that the child's attitude toward histoiy (litters materially from thai of the adult. The child ill the primar>' grades is living in a little world of his own which as yet is (luitc lacking in His Under- perspective and in proportion. His critical .sense standing of ,., ,, , , , , 1 • 1 • , • 1 • • History IH so little devei(»j)e(l lliat Ins Instorical iniagma- similarly tion cannot develop raj )idly. He can admit into Limited, his picture of far-away times or distant sceiu^s tlic familiar surroimdings of his cNcryday existence without any feeling of iiicongniity. Things of the out(!r world gradually assume >hape for him nnly as he comes to know them thiongh p<'r>onal ex|)erience. Any at- tempt to force upon him the abstract, the complex, or the circnitous will result in failui'e. He is not ready for 16 SOCIALIZING THE CHILD kn()wledf2;e in this form. Some children enter the primary grades without knowing the right hand from the left. They have no conception of north or south, east or west, valley or mountain. Some do not laiow whether or not a book in their hands is right side up. They may have fairly good control of arms and legs, and at the same time be so "pudding-fisted" that they handle a pencil as if it were an unwieldy club. Surely maps are out of the question for them, but personally conducted tours, are in place. From well-conducted excursions they get sense impressions and imagery to be used later in repre- sentative work. The primary teacher's first aim, then, will be to make sure that the pupils under her guidance have every op- How a portunity to get vivid' sense impressions as a Child Ob- basis for comparisons and inferences. The pri- tains the mary child's plane of life is one of activity, not mages reflection. He is more interested in apprecia- Necessary . ... for tions of the external and the objective than in History the subjective. He is not given to introspec- Study. ^-Qj^ What he really gets out of any subject is the images formed by himself, and all imagery is made out of the raw material furnished by sense perception. Success in history study is dependent upon rich, concrete imagery. Gesture, pantomime, and dramatization help to secure imagery and to stimulate expression. Con- struction work suited to the child's stage of development is of great value in helping the child to gain clear-cut, definite images. Pictures, stories, and anecdotes are of value. Perception and expression are closely related in the process of leaniing history. Wh(;n a child enters the primary school he becomes a member of a "social THE child's experience 17 grou])." This new experience of social life with children of his own age and stage of development furnishes an excellent basis for gaining ideas of "the social unit" which is one of the elements of the historic sense. We may conclude then : 1. That a child can interpret only such knowledge as touches closely his owii experience, and that his interests are largely in the inmiediate present. 2. That the material which feeds the child's present desires and illuminates and interprets present environ- ment for him is legitimate history to present to the child in the })rimar>' grades. 3. That the child is always in direct contact with present social life at home and in school, and he can be- come socially efficient in it only through the exercise of certain approj)riate social activities. 4. Tliat dramatic expression should be encouraged in all grades of primaiy work in vvvvy ])()ssible way. History lends itself easily lo sucli treatment, and the value of it can scarcely be overestimated. It devel()])s the sym- pathetic imagination and lays a foundation for toler- ance,, compassion, charity, and a genuine a})])re('iati()ii of humanity. It stimulates a desire to emulate the heroic and the nol)l(' in human conduct. "). That we sliould in piiiiiary work avoid depending upon interests rooted in time and s])ace until concepts of time and i)lacc have been develoi)ed ))y school instruc- tion. Chapter IV THE CHILD'S NORMAL INSTINCTS AND INTERESTS The teacher in the primary grades must take advan- tage of the child's desire for intercourse with others, or his communicative instinct. He wants to talk to The Child's parents and grandparents, to uncles and aunts, Commu- to brothers and sisters and playmates, to his nicative nurse and to his teacher. He wants to tell them what he has done, what he has seen, what he has felt and thought ; and he wants them to tell him not only their own experiences, but also what other persons have done, in other times and in other countries. He desires intercourse with other lives. If this communicative instinct is to make healthy growth, the balance between the two desires, to talk and to listen, must be well main- tained. The teacher should give the child plenty of wholesome things to talk about and should systemati- cally encourage free conversation. The teacher should also take advantage of the child's desire to identify his life with the lives of other people, or other living things. In his play he is fre- Dramatic q^gJ^^|y pretending to be some grown-up person of his ac(iuaintance, some hero of history, some traveler, some adventurer, some giant, dwarf, or fairy, or some animal, wild or tame. He enjoys having playmates, but, if they are not present, then a doll or a toy animal 18 THE child's normal INSTINCTS AND INTERESTS 19 must for the time being become endowed with Ufe and assume the part of playmate, and thus become his fellow actor. This is a manifestation of the dramatic instinct. As the child indulges these natural instincts, he goes out of himself by means of sympathy and imagination and participates in the lives of others. When the primary teacher of history tells the chiklren about people of other times and in other lands, she must give them abundant opportunity for acting out what they are learning. No matter how crude the histrionic efforts may be at first, the children will gain from them a vital interest in the subject dramatized. The< teacher's clue as to the pupil's attitude toward any material presented for his instruction, is the nature of that pupil's response. She must endeavor to learn from the character of his response what the „ ^^^ ^ pupil's individual activities mean to himself in observ- terms of his own mental endowment, so that she ing the may give him intelligent and sympathetic guid- ^^'^'^ ^ ance in enriching liis experience and in causing it to become more adequate to the situations of real life. She must strive to discover both the sentiment and the intellect of the child in his own expressive acts, so as to secure a vantage ground for suc(ressful teaching. Even a teacher who is (juite inexperi(!nced in ()})serviiig young children can readily see that noinial chihhcii Hke to talk and listen ; to act out or iiiukc believe; t<> diaw, paint, and model; to dance and sing; 1o know the why and the how of things ; to construct things. Tlic primary teacher's succe.ss depends in .'i large measure upon the way she fosters and encourages the growth of desirable instincts and intere.sts. 20 SOCIALIZING THE CTTILD Such instincts manifest themselves in various ways, but chiefly in wliat is commonly called "children's play." The Need Every experienced teacher knows that a child's of Self- pl(i!J is for him a very serious occupation. ( 'onse- expres- quently, the wise primary teacher models the ^'°"' work of the school as much as possible on the lines which children spontaneously follow when at play. If a child is to grow, it must be by his own efforts. No one can exercise his limbs except himself. Unless he does it himself, it can never be done. In a similar way his own exertions develop his mental and spiritual powers. Consequently, the habit of doing things foi- himself by himself, of expressing himself, must be built up. The child needs to become accustomed to sincere, fearless self-expression. When a child's natural instincts are suppressed, his wholesome development is retarded. The country child is, as a rule, pennitted to yell, to pound, to ham- ^^^ mer, to run, to jump, and to dance, because he Child's ^^y ^o ^11 these things without interfering with Oppor- the comfort or convenience of neighbors. He tunity for ^^^ easily come into close quarters with field ^^^^^ and stream and forest. He can play on the sion. ^ "^ grass and pick flowers and berries and nuts. His playgrounds are as large and as varied as he chooses to make them. If he is brought up in humble surroundings, he is trained in assuming responsibilities and in obeying promptly. He will probably really enjoy work of a practical nature before he enters school. The city child brought up in a crowded tenement or poorly constructed flat has no such opportunities. His playground may be on top of mother's bed or under it, or THE child's normal INSTINCTS AND INTERESTS 21 in the back alley where the garbage is placed. He seldom knows what would happen were he to scream with all his might because the rights of neighbors must be considered. The delights of pounding, of .... . The hammering, or jumping or running, or even ^j^y dancing are seldom sufficiently familiar to per- Child's mit nonnal development. His natural instincts Limita- are suppressed daily, and consequently his wholesome growth is retarded. If he has one i-oom in which he may play, or even a sand pile, he is fortunate. His opportunities for genuine chikUsh fun and frolic are too Umited to pennit his full, free development. In such cases the school should supplement the home and give the child, so far as possible, wliat liis interests crave. The chil(h'en of the well-to-do, professional classes usually hear good language in their homes and see models of good art on the floors and walls of their own residences. Such a cliild has the privilege of c^ild of listening to good stories and good music. lie the Pro- gives parties and attends parties. lie spends a Sessional portion of the summer at the seashore or- the mountains with intelligent adults who delight in directing his observations, so as to help him to get some idea of place relations. He has many op|)ort unities to learn how to be polite .'ind coui'teous in nianner. His intei'ests ought to be wider and his \'ocabn1.'ti'V lai'gei' than those of the otiiei' chiUien (ie--ciil)e(i abo\-e. in ulial direct ion will his siioit comings lie? lias his dex-elopmeni been retarded in any way? I >oes he want to (ind (miI things for himself Is he inventix'e? Is he peiseveiing? How abiHit his sense of responsibility? I> he selfish? Is he domineering? Will he (»bey instantly? Or will 22 SOCIALIZING THE CHILD he come after a while? What can he make, cut out, or saw, or act out? Can he use hammers with ease? Of course good food has been provided for him, but has he assimilated nourishment from it? Or is he anemic? Wliat kind of muscles has he ? Some such inventory as the above each teacher must make for herself and govern her procedure by what she learns, because physical endurance, muscular strength, nervous control, general intelligence, imagination, and receptivity, all help to determine what should be done next and what should be avoided.! Unless a child can be induced to choose a task and concentrate his attention upon it and keep at it until it is completed, there is little chance for healthy growth. It is natural for an individual to be dominated at dif- ferent times by quite different impulses and ideas, but Value of unless each stage prepares for the next, there is Adequate a loss of efficiency. When the fullest develop- Seif-ex- ment of the personality at each stage is hindered, pression. ^^^ consequeiices may be serious. Any impulse that is not given some sort of outlet or replaced by an- other may result in hysteria, diseased will, insanity, etc. Interests are mental states closely identified with per- sonal development. \ The abnonnal mind and the un- healthy mind may result from too much seclusion. ^They may be due to allowing one idea or passion to rule. ((Varied interests and a social environment accelerate wholesome growtn. Find out what the child's needs are, in what direction real growth needs to be made, and stinmlate him to choose pi-oblems that will lead to that end. To work vigorously, to do well whatever he or she undertakes, is what brings real joy and real growth to a THE child's normal INSTINCTS AND INTERESTS 23 child. Ill finding out what are the normal interests of a child at any given stage in his development, ^j^g ^^ which are ripening, which are declining, the the Dis- inexperienced teacher can gain assistance from covery of the written records of other observers, such as ^^ ' Normal Mrs. W. S. Hall, :Milicent W. Shinn, W. Preyer, interests Earl Barnes, and G. Stanley Hall. She can also of gain much from experienced interpreters of child ' ^^^' life ; e.g. John Dewey, James Sully, Irving King, Edwin A. Kirkpatrick. The following tabulation of children's interests is based on King's interpretation of "Studies of Children's Interests" made by careful observers. It is given here in the hope that it may serve to impress upon the mind of the primary teacher that the activities of each stage of childhood make possible the activities of later stages, and really condition the a(le(|uate j^erformance of tlie functions of maturity. The tabulation sets before us a general view of the possible natural resources of childroii between the ages of two and li.ilf mikI twelve years. It may help the primary teacher to secure a standard l)y which to detennine the possible needs of children This experience f)f fellow teachers and of competent obs(M"\'(M's of chil(h-eii ciii only point out what to exjXH't , or what may be theic Notliintr less than the histoi-y of each child and the nature of his experience can deteriniiu; what actually interests him here and now . ( 'onseciuently, the teaciier must ex|)loi-e the contetits of the minds of the children who compose her class before she can deter- mine what does really inlerot thi'in ami in that way secure a point of contact with their minds. 24 SOCIALIZING THE CHILD A TABULATION OF THE INTERESTS OF CHILDREN I. First Period of Childhood (from two and one half years to six or seven years). A. Distinctively a play period. 1. Child at firet does not differentiate self from activity and the object or objects that occasion the experience. This is impulsive expenditure of energy. a. Mere activity is of al)sorbing interest. h. Activities are more real than the objects which sug- gested them. 2. Possibility of play as distinct from mere impulsive activity due to growth of an image abstracted from the activity. a. Questioning ag(5 begins. h. Child has strong interest in the real experiences of world immediately about him. c. He is interested in the mytli, jjecause it lu^lps him to interpret the situations in which he is placed. d. He is interested in mimic plays and reproductions of simple social activities. B. Tendency to run away. 1. Tendency from the age of two to four seems to be aimless, no consciousness of danger. The activity is almost reflex. 2. Tendency from the age of four to seven seems to be due to a feeling of restlessness and a craving to rove and to escape the unpleasant. C. Characteristics of games ])layed between ages of three and six. 1. They are rarely spontaneous. 2. They tend to be individual but not competitive. 3. At about six years of age, amusements begin to center about objects serving as means to arouse impulsive Note. — This tabulation is based upon the discussion of children's interests in "The Psychology of Cliild Development" by Irving King, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, III., 1903, and is made with his permission. THE child's normal INSTINCTS AND INTERESTS 25 action — the objects used symbolically. Imitative games appeal strongly to the child of six, and more strongly to girls than to boys. 4. Between the ages of six and eight the interest in guessing games and riddles is strongest. D. Collecting instinct weak. 1 . Articles collected are easy of access — spools, broken china, etc. 2. There is no definite purpose — crude, groping, scrappy. E. Degree of control. 1. Child of four or five is master of certain motor reactions and sense adjustments. 2. As a rule, he is fairly well adjusted to the requirements of hLs own social group. 3. He is master only of the larger bodily movements, — finer adjustments not yet ar(|uired. 4. Pijwer of attention is uncertain. Tiie imagery is Hitting. Attention within the limits of a given image constant but interrupted by constant change of images. 5. He has little grasp of an activity as a whole or as related to its setting. To a child at this stage one detail or .salient feature is emphasized. Illmiration: To shoe horses is blacksniithiiig. To wash dishes is liousekeepiiig. ('». At the age of six or seven he readies a transition stage. He comes into a broader and more confusing environ- ment. II. Second Period of Childhood (from six or seven years to ten years). ,1. A jM-rifid of bewilderment and lack of adjustment. I. ("Iiild's energy may be largely consumed in ctlectinu liner motor adjustments. '/. ('Iiild's inlere.sl in ilel;iils lie^ins. h. The element of skill is now .seen t^» have importance. c. riie element of sueress has value for him. 26 SOCIALIZING THE CHILD 3. 2. Keynote of the period seems to be an effort to get control or mastery not of self but of his objective environment. a. Interest in stirring biographies. b. Interest in stirring events. c. Desire to be a soldier to fight for country. B. Tendency to run away during this period due to : 1. His impatience under restraint. 2. The fact that his home life seems to him to be unresponsive to his needs. C. Games of this period. 1. They are still exclusively individual, but the element of competition enters. 2. Significant features of the games of this period are : a. Motor coordinations. b. Exercise in sense judgments. Imitative games still have interest for boys up to the age of ten. Imitative games still have interest for girls up to tlie age of eleven. Group games have only limited interest until the age of ten. Interest in running games is high with boys. Interest in running games with girls is only slight at any time, and declines rapidly after eight. D. Collecting instinct much as in previous period. 1. No definite attempt at cla.ssification. 2. No great sacrifice made to procure specimens. E. Degree of control. 1 . Coordinations are not definitely worked out as seen in : a. Child's reluctance to undertake what will not be plainly successful. b. Great increase in error in mental work at the age of eight. c. Child's distrust of self and diffidence. 2. Child's horizon has widened. a. Boys are interested in more games than formerly and less eager t(j follow the father's occupation. 6. Most girls wish to be teachers or dressmakers. THE child's NORxMAL INSTINCTS AND INTERESTS 27 III. Third Period of Childhood (from ten years to twelve years). .1. The formation of (•lul)s and secret societies a preeminent characteristic of tliis period. 1. Strong interest hi athletic clubs. 2. Great eagerness for adventure — predatory clubs. 3. Tendency in girls to become gregarious and form themselves into cliques or sets. 4. Definite appearance of altruistic feeling. B. Characteristics of the games of this period. 1. The favorite games of this period afford the most vigorous activity for the whole body and give scope and depth to prexnous coordinations. 2. The group game is prominent now. 3. The boy glories in the success of the team or of the club rather than in his individual prowess. C. Collecting instinct far greater than in either of the preceding periods. 1. Stores are increa.sed l)y discovery and trading. 2. Efforts to cla.s.sify on basis of color and size arc made ; no attempt at scientific classification. D. Degree of control. 1. Rapid flecrea.se of error in mental tests at twelve shows a notable gain in \irihty of mind over the child at eight. 2. The coordinations on the intellectual si(h' at twelve and fliirteen correspond to those on the physical side at or before tls his own jKtwers because the .social situation seems Ux) complex for him to control. Chapter V FUNCTION OF IMAGINATION A KNOWLEDGE of the elements of psycholoj^y is neces- sary to enable a teacher to select suitable history material for children's study or to choose wisely the mode t^ce of *^^ ^^^ presentation. Attention has been called to Play Con- the necessity of a sympathetic knowledge of ditioned child life. Child psychology and child study y magi- \^^yq been reviewed for the purpose of impressine; nation. -ii i- ii upon the mind the predommant mental char- acteristics of the child at each stage of the elementary course. The teacher has learned that the child enters school in what is known as the play stage of his develop- ment, and that his play serves as an index of certain interests, capacities, and even epochs of development or stages of growth. The importance of the child's play is conditioned largely by the share the imagination has in it. Consecjuently, the teacher's first problem is to find history material or material from other social fields which will enrich the pupil's imagination, lay a foundation for the future study of history, and enlarge his personality. The externals of history, such as pageants, roadmaking, houses, scenes or explorations, clothing, and amusements, can be vividlyM^^produced by the mental processes of a child of eight or nine. Such a reproduction, however, is possible only when the senses and the memory of the learner are adequately trained to furnish the necessary 28 FUNCTION OF IMAGINATION 29 material out of which the hnagination can construct the pictures. If such sthnuhis is not offered in the early years of a child's school life, his power to ap- preciate history later is greatly impaired, imagina- WTien the upper-grade pupil begins to reflect, tion in to trace relations, to compare, to contrast, to ^*"^y °^ pass judgment, the value of each mental pro- *^ ^' cess will depend largely upon the accuracy with which his imagination can revive the pictured scene. The development of a child's miagination is prhnarily an education of perception. To gain clear antl vivid images he must first possess accurate and vivitl ^^^ ^^^ percepts, for the image is evolved from the per- (.gpt the cept. Every image, however vague, contains Basis for sense elements and must therefore be condi- *^^ , , , . . f. , Image. tioned by the excitation of sense centers. P.sychologists have called our attention to individual differences in imagination. There is no oiio particular in which iiidivi of sight, (2) anditonj, based on sense of hearing, i'A) innlor, based on .sen.se of muscular exertion, (4) IdcHlr, based on dermal Hen.ses. or (5) mixed, sometimes eallefj iiornidl, which includes elements from some (tr all of the others. (1) Visual type. Each person's type of mind is largely 30 SOClALIZIN(i THE CHILD determined by the character of the images which pre- dominate therein. In the opinion of those who have investigated most thoroughly, the visual type is the type to which the majority of people belong. Visual images predominate in their thinking. George Sand was a good visualizer in mature life. As a child her imagina- tion was fertile, and it is well described by Sully in his studies of childhood. The painter Dore was a good visualizer. Many famous painters, sculptors, architects, and inventors belong to this class. Some well-dressed women and milliners have imagery of this character. On the other hand, some eminent painters and sculptors claim that they belong to the motor type and that tactile images are utilized by them. Their images are of the motions necessary to produce the figure or the statue, and while they recognize both colors and form readily, they are not able to imagine them. (2) Auditory type. The auditory type is less common than the visual. Many musicians belong to this type. The concrete auditory imagination belongs in some degree, however, to all who can recall voices and melo- dies. The auditory type is frequently combined closely with imagery of the motor-tactual sort. It seems to have been so combined in the great Beethoven, who com- posed his symphonies when unable to hear a single note. (3) Motor type. In the motor type images of move- ment predominate. All of us depend largely upon motor images. Probably the blind deaf-mutes and the blind are especially dependent on such images, but they also make use of tactile images. Laura Bridgman and Helen Keller are often cited as examples of the tactile-motor type of imagination. FUNCTION OF IMAGINATION '31 (4) Tactiles are those who reproduce in imagination impressions from the dermal senses. Most people can reproduce hnages of touch with some degree of vividness, the feel of velvet, the feel of dough or putty, of a polished or a rough surface. A blind person's sense of touch is keener in some respects than that of one who can see. This type of imagery is usually combined closely with motor imagery. Allied to images of movement and touch are images of pressure and of smell and taste. The most significant pressure images are those of internal pressure occasioned by bodily movement, such as the image of the feeling of .shortened breath in wheeling a bicycle up hill. Smell and taste images are not so frequent. Some psycholo- gists say there are im such images, but on the other hand, some intelligent persons maintain that they are conscious of odors such as the smell of tar. or burning sulphur, or furnace gas, or mignonette, or sj)ices and mixed per- fumes when al)sorl)ed in imagining certain scenes or situations. (5) The mixed lijpe is sometimes called the normal type. This is the foiin nf imagination in wliicli several sense types are ('oinbine*!, no one of tlicni IxMng especially prominent. A good iliuslcation of this is the manner in u'liicli one icprodiiccs in his iniaiiinal ion an alumni dinner, or a connncncement, or a reception, or a small dinner party, imagery of several sense types coml»in(! for most of us while the .scene is being repnxluced. There are the combination sounds of laughter, <»f nuisic, of con- yprsation. There are the colors of the dresses, of the decorations, (»f the china, of the fruit, of the favors; the odor of flowers and food, and possibly tiie feel of cut gla.ss, 32 SOCIALIZING THE CHILD soft damask, or delicate china. Many distinguished men of history had imagination of this sort. The era of the Renaissance alone abounds in numerous illustrations, such as Alberti, Verrochio, Leonardo da Vinci, Benvenuto Cellini, and Michael Angelo, "the man of four souls," — sculptor, architect, painter, and poet. Contrasted with this concrete imagination, that is, the imagination of objects, scenes, and events, we have Verbal verbal or symbolic imagination. It is well for imagina- primary teachers to emphasize in their minds *^°°- the fact that words are only conventional symbols. Experienced teachers often find that word images have taken the place of what should be a rich experience with young children. They are able to make a verbal report in history because they remember the words as they ap- peared on the page of their history book, or as they have heard them from the teacher's lips. But the words are quite meaningless to them and do not call up images that either feast the eye or delight the ear. This is an artificial state of affairs which impoverishes the child's experience. Nothing worth while can be done in study- ing history unless the pupils can have the concrete images that the language of the teacher, or the child, or the text suggests. There are various types of verbal or symbolic imagina- tion also depending upon the predominating type of imagery, so that we have : 1. Visual verbal imagery. 2. Auditory verbal imagery. 3. Motor verbal imagery. 4. Tactile verbal imagery. 5. Mixed verbal imagery. FUNCTION OF IMAGINATION 33 As illustrations of these forms of imagination, outside the schoolroom, we have the orator who sees his manu- script in his mind's eye when he is delivering his Types of oration \\'ithout manuscript ; the minister who Verbal can see his written sermon in the same way ; imagina- and the musician who can see in his mind's eye ^°" the score. These are all type^of visual verbal, or symbolic imagination. Pla\^vrights tell us that when writing tiie parts of a play they can hear the actor's voice in each phrase. The poet, who suits his words to sound, hnages the words as heard when he writes. Sometimes one hears again, as it were, one's own words or those of another. This is auditory verbal imagination. Or one may im- agine the movement of the lips and throat and get control of the word through a sense of movement in motor images. This is verbal imagination of the motor type. The mixed tactile-auditory or tactual-motor is tlie type in which one 1ms the image of both hearing and feeling one's self talk. It is tlie coniiiioii fonu of v(M'l):d imagery. When a child whis|)ers the words as he ic^ids, docs lie gain images of articulation, oi- of liearing? Or of both? These images may be divorced, for if they could not be, no deaf-mute could be taught to talk. So far. in classifying imagin.ilion. we have looked at our image-consciousness from the point of \-ic\\ of the most predominant sense order of images utilizeil. 'I'li.ii gave us concrete imagination of li\-e types, nnd ;ilso vcib.il symbolic im;igination of (iv(^ types, WC ni.iy, liowever, re- gard our imaginative processes from aiiothei" jxtint of vi(nv. When any individual re|)?-oduces in liis ini.'iginiit ion the j)laces he has .seen, tlie music lie li;is iicard. or IIm^ events he has already lived through, or heard about, his 34 SOCIALIZING THE CHILD imagination is said to be reproductive imagination. On the other hand, when he imagines relatively new faces, new scenes, new environments, by selecting only diicdve i^uch (jualities as he chooses for a particular and purpose and thus making novel combinations. Creative his imagination is called creative imagination. imagina- -jhis classification*()f imagination is based upon tion. ,,..., , , the distniction between the repeated experience and the relatively novel experience. A definite purpose is one of the distinctive character- istics of creative imagination that is fully matured. This creative imagination may be manifested in the field of mechanical invention, or science, or art. In Purpose . ... in each case there are certain restrictions imposed. Creative The Combination of mechanical contrivances Imagina- must be such as will work, if the invention is to be successful. The hypotheses formed by the imagination of the man of science must stand the crucial test when submitted. And in a similar way, the imagina- tive artist must test the product of his imagination to see if it is a true expression of the ideals which he would embody in the materials of his art if he hopes to present to our view such masterpieces as the "Apollo Belvidere" or the "Sistine Madonna" or ''Othello." In productive {i.e. mature creative) imagination the mind does not weave together factors of experience Criticism capriciously, but rather under the guidance of of Imagi- conditions which limit the freedom of the con- nation, structive process. The extent to which imagi- nations are criticized naturally depends upon the stage of development of the individual who possesses them, and upon the type of ideas under examination. For FUNCTION OF IMAGINATION 35 instance, the savage thinks of the thunder or the wind as a personal agency. To an adult accustomed to our modern scientific ways of thinking, the myths of early peoples seem like the play of the most capricious imagina- tion ; but to a young mind, untrained in forms of critical scientific imagination, nothing could seem more natural than just such explanations. A child derives much pleasure from the personification of his toys, but the adult is so clearly conscious of the falsity of these same imaginations that he could derive little pleasure from them. The imaginations in early life are not subjected to any careful criticism. The child's experience is too meager to allow him to construct any system of tliought that can serve as a basis for the criticism of his particulai- hnagination. As one approaches maturity, the indul- gence in fanciful imaginations unchecked by criticism becomes less and less connnon. When one attempts to reconstruct some system of thought which deals with Imniaii interests and human activities, and the reconstruction agrees with History certain records in definite places at definite and periods of time, we call it history and we demantl ^'ction. that it shall conform to the canons of congruit^^ with all the legitimate records of the period in (juestion. If, on the other hand, tjic reconstruction aims to be free from any |)articul;ir idcrence to definite situations, it is not history, but imaginative literature, and is known as fiction. But as fietion it must bear certain relations to experience; a wholly unnatural creation has no jiistiliea- tion even in fiction. The principles of combination nnist be recogni/eil a> principles in haiinony \\\\\\ the general nature of human exjjericuKU's. 36 SOCIALIZING THE CHILD From the above discussion the elementary teacher can readily see the primary importance of sense train- ing. It is only through imagination combined Material ^^^^^ Sympathy that the student in history can that stim- hope to appreciate the point of view, enter uiates into the feelings, or understand the motives and e mag- ^.j^^^j-j^^^^gj. ^f ^^^y important personage, only through the imagination that the past lives for us and clothes itself with meaning. No normal person is wholly unimaginative. Almost everybody is capable of rousing with n his consciousness vivid and accurate images of some kind. The experience of Helen Keller is a source of encouragement to all connected with the teaching of history. She is a conspicuous illus- tration of a person blind and deaf from childhood ; con- sequently she has neither visual nor auditory images. Nevertheless, we know she has peculiarly vivid and detailed images of pressure, movements, and even of taste and smell. The crudity of imagination in many adults is due largely to defective education. Sense material, such as armor, uniforms, pictures, stories, and poetry, all have power to stimulate imagination. The story will help to enrich the child's personal experience and increase his comprehension. Gesture and pantomime and dramatization will help to secure imagery and ex- pression. The teacher must appeal to the mind by as many avenues as possible, — eyes, ears, hands, vocal organs. There must be drawings, diagrams, and other graphic illustrations for the eye-minded, and construction work to stimulate motor and tactual motor images. The motor side should receive more emphasis than it has in the past. It has been unduly neglected. FUNCTION OF IMAGINATION 37 The child of to-day is far better off in the matter of pictorial illustration than were the children of his grand- father's day. Our illustrators present things outwai'dly as they really were. So there is little excuse for the teacher who fai s to show children that the mere outward appear- ance of men, women, houses, furniture, and conveyances of a bygcjne time differ materially from the outward appearance of people and similar objects to-day. In matters of dress, customs, home surroundings, means of travel, the teacher nmst see to it that the pupil does not, for instance, picture the Greek in a frock coat riding in an automobile, or the Roman in a high silk hat. The child must realize tliat neither Greek nor Roman used damask napkins of Irish linen at their banquets ; that the early Teuton did not live in a palace of marble. It is easy also for the teacher to make vivid and clear the crude, primitive life of our American ancestors so that the puj)il may realize that they ate coarse food, wore coarse clothing, and enduicd the hardshii)s incident to life in the wilderness without good roads or easy carriages ; with no railroads or trolleys; witli only clumsy l)(>ats, lumbering stagecoaches, and buffnlo trails, Indian trails, or i)ridle paths. TIh^ picturesfjue and jjanorainic in history helj) to give atmosphere and j)crspective and, when properly |)resente(l, will enable the child to picture life in other lands. Such processes widen iiis horizon, enl;iri;c his sympathies, and tend to prevent vulfi;arity anj 46 SOCIALIZING THE CHILD we see is literally hand made. From a psychological point of view, space is that in ivhich one can move. The amount of energy spent in moving is the measure of the space moved in." In order to secure accurate and care- fully arranged imagery from verbal description, which is the form in which most of his history must come, a child must be familiar with established standards of form, size, distance, and space relations. Such familiarity the sand table will help him to secure if his activities are wisely directed. Because the mind of a child and its modifications can be known only through external expression, the teacher must study carefully the various ways of providing stimuli that may be utilized to produce efficient reactions. She must also consider how reactions may influence intellec- tual processes. The more opportunities a child has for expression the clearer will his impressions become. Every child's notions of space are vague until his mus- cular experiences render them clear and precise. His notions of distance are made clear by actually measuring and testing. Until he has reached and traveled and made use of his eye movements, he cannot get a knowledge of space. Retinal images alone will not suffice. The eye movement supplements or contributes much of the data. Space in two dimensions or in three is realized through explorations accompanied by eye movements. Thus we see that notions of space are all primarily built up from muscular experiences. A child must also actually lift a pound and an ounce to get a clear idea of them. All of our notions of weight, size, distance, hardness, roughness, are dependent upon motor activity. Whole classes of ideas would remain vague and incomplete with- THE SAND TABLE AND ITS USES 47 out the knowledge furnished through the motor actiWties. The child's proper method of gaining knowledge is through his senses aided by motor acti\'ity. The child's mind may disclose itself in talking, drawing, construction work of various kinds, singing, and planning. The objective result expressed through nmscular activity helps the teacher to infer something of his perceptions, memories, motives, choices, aims, hopes, joys, or sorrows. In order to picture an historic scene or situation in a world beyond the child's unmediate surroundings, he must arrange his images and represent them ^ . , according to description, not fancy. By con- concrete structive imagination he relates and combines instruc- the standard images with which he is familiar *'°"' according to description. Some facts of history, some historic situations and conditions, are so remote, so far removed from the realm of a child's experience, that they have no point of contact with his thinking. After he has had some l)ackground of j^resent-day experience through which to view them they may be in a measure comprehended by him. No greater })etlag()gical blunder could be made than to neglect concrete instruction in the early grades. M'lic cliild needs concrete exp{>rieMces to call forth his responses. Although he lives in the midst of complex social mikI iiuhistrial conditions, he can respond only to that for which his stage of dcvelo|)m(Mit has at- tuned him. The sand table probh'iiis gixc the child nioti\es and make the work seem W(jrth while. Chapter II USE OF PICTURES IN PRIMARY GRADES Some city children have never seen grain growing. They have no mental picture of how a waving field of Value of wheat looks, either when it is green or when it is the Picture ready to harvest. They have never played to the among "haycocks," and the expression is not Child. filled with meaning to them. They have never seen large fields of daisies. Cherries or apples or nuts on trees, and berries on vines or bushes are to them unfamiliar sights. They have not seen cows driven to pasture, or coming home to be milked, or going to get salt or a drink of water. They have not coaxed fish to nibble at a dainty morsel on a bent pin fastened to a thread and dropped into a cool, willow-shadod brook. Good pictures will help such children to learn of all these familiar experieaces of the country child, and furnish their imagination the necessary material with which to picture the scenes and situations. In a similar manner, the country children may learn of the daily traffic in a busy city street ; the trains coming into and going out of the large railway stations, the great ocean liners at the docks ; the Labor Day parade, the circus parade, and the various social and civic parades ; the decorations on lujlidays or festive occasions ; the ways in which the streets are cleaned, and fires are ex- tinguished, and what "a run to a fire" is like; the ap- 48 USE OF PICTURES IN PRIMARY GRADES . 49 pearance of the large stores and shops and pubhc build- ings ; the arrangement of parks and playgrounds and the apparatus usetl in the latter. Both city children and country children gain much insight into life in other lands and a knowledge of the manners and customs of other days in our own land, from pictures. All this has great \'alue in preparing them to understand the books they will read later. Young children have definite preferences. They prefer colored- pictures to photographic reproductions. They are interested in pictures of children at play, jjq^ ^o pictures of home life, and dcmiestic animals, Select especially pets. Their artistic taste is still Pictures, crude. They prefer primary colors. Their next pref- erence is for the warm coloring of nature. They want action in a picture, and to please them the jHcture nuist "tell a story." They are easily confused by nmch de- tail in a picture; consecjuently the teacher should clioose for them pictures (h'awii witli large, simple lines, and only siich detail as helps to interj)ret the story which tlie picture tells them. They are interested in railroad trains, in shij)s, in firemen, in soldiers, in workingnien at work, in dolls' housekee|)ing. All of these can be utilized easily in school instruction. ( "hoose |)irtures telling in seipHMice whole tales of wonder and action, such as K. Boyd Smith's " l''ann Book, " which shows pictures of phtwing, sow- ing, I'eaping, churning, feeding chickens, and going to market; ny " Nos Mnfants" (I-'rench children), shown in colored picture- by iioutet de Monxcl. or " I''illes et Gargons" by the same illustrator, or " l''nui- and Twenty Toilers," picturing iMiglish scenes, illust lat ions by Bedford. Avoid impressionistically colored pictures, poster pic- 50 SOCIALIZING THE CHILD tures heavily printed in hlnck and wliite, the merely decorativ(' illustration, and even the photographic re- production, unless it tells a story. Illustrations in black and white that tell a story smiply, and in a human way, will interest the children, and pictures that interest them easily stir their imaginations and produce educative results in keener realization, greater curiosity, and renewed zeal to learn more. We have excellent "picture books " illustrated in color by able English, French, and American artists, and a few by How to Danish and German artists, in the "children's Get the rooms" of our best libraries. (Some of them Pictures, a^g alluded to in the references for teachers under Grade I in this book. The' addresses of the pub- lishers can be found in the Bibliography preceding the Index.) Some of the illustrators who have done work greatly appreciated by children are Cruikshank (in fairy tales), Galdecott (in humorous works), Walter Oane, in his delightful seciuences of pictures, each of which is warm and rich in coloring and tells a story (nursery literature), Sir John Tenniel (illustrations of "Alice in Wonderland "), Boutet de Monvel, referred to before, and Kate Greenaway, who expresses the joy and the delicacy that characterize happy childhood and the freshness of the glad springtijue. L. Leslie Brooke's color- ing is attractive to children, and the funny detail of his pictures convulses a young child with laughter. Arthur Rackham's soft ivory effects illustrating nursery rhymes and stories please aesthetic children. Helen Stratton handles primary colors in a way that causes them to lose much of their (-rudeness. She illustrates nursery tales in large, .snnj>l(; lines, very pleasing to little children. USE OF PICTURES IN PRIMARY GRADES 51 Among Americans who suit the child's point of view well in some of their illustrative work are the Rhead brothers, Elizabeth Shippen Green, Jessie Willcox Smith, and Maxfield Parrish. Much of their work is not suited to children's needs for reasons mentioned above. Other American artists who have already achieved notable success in meeting the needs of children are Howard Pyle, Fretleric Remington, E. Boyd Smith, Palmer Cox, Gelett Burgess, Peter Newell, and Reginald Birch. The grotesque drawings of Palmer Cox, Gelett Burgess, and Peter Newell satisfy the child's embryonic sense of humor. He considers them "rollicking good" books and shakes with laughter as he turns the pages of, e.g., "Brownie Books," "Goops and How to be Them," "Topsys and Turv-ys." They have a tendency to dis- place the "Buster Brown" and "Foxy Grandpa" variety of pictures. Tliere are also a few artists, English and American, ('mi)loyed in illustrating juvenile fiction, St. Nicliolas, primers, first readers, and supplementary readers. They keep close to the children's interests and select ami present subject-matter that helps children greatly in visualizing distant scenes and situations. Lucy Fitch Perkins, Hope Dunlaj), Blanche Ostertag, M. W. l<]nriglit, l^eatrix Potter, M. L. Kirk, 'I\ 11. Robinson, aiid A. G. Walker are in this group of illustratois. By going carefully over the kind of work described al)ov(' the iiiex|)erienced teaciier learns by experience the ap|)eal tli.it the Ix-sl illustrations make. She gels from tliciu slaiidaids l)y wliidi to test otiier illustrations. Some of llicin come in cheap eilitions. Many of them are expensive. Our illustrated magazines often c(»iii;ilii plrtinc- tlial 52 SOCIALIZINCi THE CHILD are excellent both from the staiKljioint of children's in- terests unci from the artistic point of view. Even the ad- vertising section is valuable to the teacher for its pictures, e.g. pictures advertising;- cliocolate, soaps, cereals, etc. (lift calendars used for advertising are often excellent for the primary teacher's purpose. Postcards in color, gioiiped ill series, are easily obtained and help to make life in other lands real. One ])icture skillfull}^ used is better than twenty used in n way that tends to confuse or mystify the child. Even How to ^^^^ ^^^^t pictures are likely to give children in- Use the correct notions of size ; hence care must be Pictures. taken to helj) the child to acquire standards by wliicli to judge the actual size of objects seen in a i^icture. For example, the teacher may place a full- lengtli cabinet -sized photograph of herself in plain view. After allowing the children time to recognize it and realize that it represents her ''standing up," she may stand uj) beside the photograph and give them an opportunity to see that it is really very nuich ^liorter than her "real self." After a series of opi:)()rtunities to observe and compare under skillful guidance, children realize that objects ill a i)iclu!(' represent only relative size, just as the re])resentati()ns on the sand table show relative dis- tance. A ])icture of a mother and child shows that the child is smaller than the mother; a picture of hens and chickens, a cat and kittens, etc., illustrates the point. But the child is still in danger of inferring that a cow is probably two or three inches high, or about the size of his closed fist, if he has never seen a real cow. The teacher must be ever on the alert to guard against such perfectly natural errors of childhcjod. USE OF PICTURES IN PRIMARY GRADES 53 In a similar way, owing to lack of knowledge of the laws of perspective, objects shown in the background of a picture will not tell the real facts to a child ; and again, when he draws the picture of an apple, he puts the seeds ill where he knows they are, and he draws the feet in the shoes so that you can see them. The fact that the seeds and the feet cannot be seen while the apple is uncut and the shoes laced, and so should not be represented, has to l)e learned by him. It is very easy for the inexperienced teacher to fall into the error of supposing that because the picture is (}uite clear to her in every respect, it is e(iually so to the child. Still one other illustration : a row of cattle headed for a stream means to the child large cattle in the foreground and little cattle in the rear of the line, although as a matter of fact the largest animals may be the last. The experience of country children teaches them while still (|uite young that horses two miles away are not colts, ahliough they seem so to the eye ; but it takes numerous excursions to make some of these elementary notions deal- to the city child. He can interpret city life far more accurately than his country cousin ))ecause of his numerous experiences with it. lie does not ex])ect tlic hou.ses on the opposite sides of tlie street to meet in a line a few blocks ahead of him, for instance. 'I'hc teacluT must (|iicsti(>ii to sec that the ol)jects or purposes she had in mind in using the j)icture an* achieved, and endeavor to select piclurcs that show clearly what is wanted, jind iiicln'lc nolhid^!; nioi-c. lOven in such (!ases tiic problem of si/e must be kept in mind, c.f/. slie may be showing the i)ictui'e of a singh' siieep t<» show how the wool looks on the sheej), .'ind her objectt is to prevent the 54 SOCIALIZINt; THE CHILD child from tliinkinj;- that "skeins of woolen yarn" are found ready-nuulc on a sheep's back. Consequently she chooses a large picture to give the children a vivid impression of the wool. If she says nothing about the size of the animal, and the chiklren have never seen a real sheep but do know that the animal is still larger than the picture, and if they have seen a picture of a whole herd of cattle the previous day, they quite naturally infer that an ox is smaller than a sheep. In using pictures eternal vigilance is necessary to guard against a wrong "first unpression," for the good l^icture clearly perceived makes a strong appeal to the cliild, and the first impression is likely to remain the permanent one. Constant comparison with well-known standards that can be seen or easily understood will be necessary when using pictures, to convey correct im- pressions of life in other lands, or in our own land in other days. The linages which the child really gets, not what the teacher hoped he might get, are the net result of the work. 1. Some teachers use too many pictures. The child may be interested in handling them, but the thoughts The Mis- ^^^^Y ^tinmlate in him or the activities they sug- use or gest are far from the purpose the teacher had Abuse of i,, niind in presenting the pictures. Conse- ic ures. quently the pictures defeat the end for which they were used. 2. Some teachers select pictures that are excellent from the point of view of art, which are unsuited to the child's age or stage of development because they are so far re- moved from his conceptions of everyday life. They are mystical or abstract to him. USE OF PICTURES IN PRIMARY GRADES 55 3. Careful (questioning is often necessary to help the child to really see the points the teacher wishes to em- phasize. a. The picture may suggest only in part what the child has previously learned, and the teacher is trying to stimulate the child's memory to reproduce the full particulars. b. The teacher's aim may be to stimulate more careful observation, to aid the child in gaining control of his hnagination by educating the perceptions to truer discernment. c. The teacher's aim may be to stimulate comparison and thus lead the child into fuller knowledge. All these aims may be defeated by lack of care in choos- ing the picture or lack of skill in (juestioning. 4. Some teachers use pictures merely to cover up their own lack of preparation. This is abusing a valuable tool. Chapter III CONSTRUCTION WORK The pedagogical piiiiciplc undorlying all the construc- tive activities of chiklren is ihatlpoing is essential to the Aims in leaminq process.i The first-grade teacher who Construe- asks little children to illustrate a story by draw- tion Work, j^g ^t, j^Qt aiming to increase the child's artistic sense, or to give him an opportunity to acquire skill in tirawing. Her specific aim is to assist him in getting clear, definite images from the story. She makes use of his instinctive tendency to make something, or to do something, by suggesting a specific direction in which his self-activity may be expressed in such a way as to achieve a result that gives pleasure to himself. The character of his product indicates to the teacher the kind of images the child has obtained from the story. The child in- cidentally gains some control of tools and materials and is getting the experience of working with a definite pur- pose in view. Her aim in asking the child to model an animal in clay to be used later in a sand table representa- tion of farm life is not to give him an ()ppf)rtunity to acfjuire skill in modeling animal life, but rather to make use of his present interest in farm life to sthnulate him to observe carefully and image cl(>arly the outward form and appearance f)f a domestic animal that he has seen. The child's interest is in the finished product. He is interested in what he can do with the clay animal when 56 CONSTRUCTION WORK 57 made. He is interested in what it is good for to himself and to other members of the class. The various ways in which it can be used in play are what appeals to him. The teacher, on the other hand, is interested chiefly in the images he is getting, in the will training that results from his persistent, purposeful effort which is now as- suming tangible shape and may be the embodiment of his definite aim and a source of encouragement for future efforts. If his dog and his cow look so much alike that the one cannot be distinguished readily from the other, they will not satisfy his purpose ; and he must try again and again, until he can feel that he has actually achieved what he undertook to do. When he succeeds in his aim, the immediate purpose the teacher had in view is also accomplished. ' Of course the teacher must be conscious of the child's attitude, nmst think in liis terms, and talk about the pr()l)k'm undertakoii from his point of view. She nmst also keep clearly in miiid her own specific aim of stimu- lating anl( Uol.l.'s UoLsl--. Mfasured and iiuileii l)y first grade <-liildrL'ii under .supervision, as problem work ill measurement. Mattress, pillows, slips, and sheets, made in the same way. way. The house will serve as a large center of interest around which may be grouped many minor interests. In making the furniture the teacher may direct the work of tiic cliiichcM (hwing a regular scliool period. Or the cliihhcn iii;iy be given j)eriiiission to eonslnict tlie furniture fmni material found at home witliout the direct help of the teachei'. Tiie house ma\- be refurnished from time to time according to \arious plans. The materials usefl for the furniture may be small blocks of wood to which children nail slabs, or cardboard boxes, spools, ribbon 1mi||>, coi-?'ugated paix'i'. clay, tinfoil, oc (»ther .SlX-lN«H iJlJl.l-M l-)ak..->r.KI) UV I''lH.ST (iltAlJK ( 'ill LIjUKN 1()H JJoLL's HoUSK. Hats are the result of uri.suiiervised experimental lesnoii with craftsiiian paper Clothing mar(i(i(ms. Paper rliains to dccoiatc the looms for any festal occasion may he made by the cliikhcn lanterns, chains, j)aper flowcis, etc., for a ('hristmas tree which will be passed on to give pleasure to soujc one 66 SOCIALIZING THE CHILD in the community, to a poor family, for example, or a mission school. Suitable friezes and posters representing the different =■-%■-?■: I \ Problems in Weaving and Paper Construction. Mario as unsupervised seat work in first Kradc. The table, bed, and sled are oriKina! forms. The ruK i.s made of cotton roviiiKs arifl the hot plate mat of raffia. seasons may also be used in decoratinj^ the schoolroom. The nature of the social service rendered is evident to all. 4. Gifts for parents and other members of the family, either for birthdays or for Christmas, may be made by the children, e.fj. picture frames made by winding raffia over CONSTRUCTION WORK 67 cardboard, calendars, blotters, boxes for candy, envelopes for various uses, needlebooks. 5. Toys to be used in sand table construction serve a general social purpose that all the children can appreciate. a. The animals for the farm maj' be made from clay, or cut from cardboard or from paper. b. Trees may be cut from card- board and colored, or made from fringed green paper pasted on sticks. c. Wild animals modeled in clay or cut from paper may be used to represent what was seen in the park, or in the circus parade. d. Houses, barns, wagons. I'kOIII.I.MS in l»ll|I.IN\L Dl-.SKiN AND lUKi; Mcilil-.l.- INU KOH I''lllh>'l' (lUAUK. Portfolio, blotter corners, lioldor, aiifl iimtcli Kcrutchor. MufJoliiiK ill |)litsticiiK>. boats, benches, and many sim|)l(' tools oi- farminji im- plements may lie const luctcd jmd ('ontiil)utc(l by tiie children to help make tlic scene (piite compldc. Other toys that may be uscil in the schoolroom on fcst.'il days, or on tlic playground in rccreatioti hour, are soldiers' Bahkets Madk by Thihd Grade Pupils. Reed and raffiu baskets holding glass receptacles for vines. An Easter basket showing free-hand paper cutting. [(i8J CONSTRUCTION WORK 69 hats, flags, kites, pinwheels, tops, dolls' hats, and horse reins. 0. Other objects which have a practical value easily appreciated by the pupils are portfolios, baskets for excursions, boxes for material, curtain strings and tassels, dustcloth bags, etc. The following are illustrations of construction work for childi-en in the second and third years of primary work. No attempt has been made to make the list complete. It is merely suggestive. 1. Indian life. Dress Indian dolls ; make headdress. Make moccasins and Indian cradle. Make bows and arrows and tomahawks. Make baskets and wigwams and canoes. Make stockades, forts, and brush huts. In a scrapbook paste pictures of totem poles, different types of Indian dwellings, pottery and baskets, costumes and wami)um, weapons and implements. Make a collection of Indian relics for the school museum. Arrange on a sand table : An Indian lu)me scene. An Indian village. An lOskimo scene. 2. Primitive life. Primitive axes, hammers, awls, war clubs, water jars, drinking cur)s, baskets, foot appaicl, carrying straps for burden bearing, a cradle made of vines or branches. (( 'liildren may find 70 SOCIALIZING THE CHILD a sharp-edged, hard stone which might serve as an ax, another that would serve as a hammer, and try to invent a way of making handles for them without using modern tools. They can find a thorn or sharp bone for an awl. The water jar is to be molded out of clay ; a goui'd is used as a drinking cup. They can procure for themselves material out of which baskets, etc., can be made.) PAI'KH C'oNrtTKO city. 2. The topic must be something that appeals strongly to \\\v child's interest just now. In general, to follow the cycle of the seasons will be safe. lUu.slrnlion.s: (I. The family's prepanil ions for winter, spring, sunnner, etc., furnish lopics concerning wliicli the cjiild will li;i\(' much to say. h. ('oniing to school hel|)s the child to ;i|)- preciate how useful the |)olicein;iii is on crowded streets, on stormy days. 78 SOCIALIZING THE CHILD c. St. Valentine's Day brings an interest in the postman. d. A fire in the vicinity, or a circus coming to town suggest appropriate lessons. e. Each holiday should be celebrated, and of course anticipated by instructions as to its purpose. B. Emphasis must be placed on personal service. (children need to get the feeling of appreciation and gratitude rather than an intellectual knowledge of facts. Illustration: The policeman is not only an officer, but a real friend of little children. 1. He helps to make the street a safe place. 2. He helps little children to cross crowded streets, or icy streets, or windy streets. 3. He helps lost children to find their homes. Questions: How could you help a policeman? How can you help your class? How does the class help you ? How can you help the janitor? How can you help the street sweeper? Have you ever seen a card in a window with "scarlet fever" on it? Who placed it there? C. Comparisons should be made of what children have seen with what they have learned from stories or classroom instructions in regard to — FIRST GRADE WORK 79 1. An Indian home. 2. Life on a farm. 3. An Eskimo home. SUBJECT MATTER FOR GRADE I Home Life L The Family — its Members, and Duties of Each. A. The parents. 1. Supply such needs as — Shelter. Toys. Food. Books. Clothing. Companionship. 2. Plan the family pleasures such as — Picnics and excursions. Vacation outings. Family celebrations. Week-end holidays. B. The children help in such ways as — Being prompt at mealtime. Helping each other to dress. Running errands. Playing with and guarding l)aby. Taking care of wraps and toys. Setting table. C. Activities carried on in iIh' home for the family : Washing and ironing clothes. Mailing and mending clothes. Cleaning and caring for clothes. Cleaning and caring for the iiome. ■M Wt "•^>-, .^•fi ^'^ J I .-1 A Gkhman Castle. A South African Hut. A Swiss Mountain Home. "t ._J'^ A Japanese Home. A Turkish Palace. Types of Dwellinos. •-■/■ [80] FIRST GRADE WORK 81 Baking. Cooking and preparing meals. Marking linen. Preserving fruit. Selecting linen and bedding and clothing suitable for summer use. > Selecting linen and bedding and clothing suitable for winter use. D. The location of the home in regard to — Convenience to business office. Convenience to school. Beauty of surroundings. Health — amount of light, air, and sun- shine. II. How the Occupations of Other Individuals Serve the Family Needs and the Home Life: Carpenter. BaktM-. Plumber. Iceman. Drayman. Tailor. Newsboy. Coal dealer. Milkman Hardware merchant. (Jrocer. Stationer. Shoemaker. Printer. P'armer. Expressman. ill. What the Community (i.e. all the People) Furnish for the Benefit of Everybody (the Public): Pure water. Beautiful parks. A Wigwam. An Eskimo's Home. A Fa KM House. A \ n.i.Ai.K HouHE. A City Home. .\n .Vi'AKiMENT House. Types of Dwellings. 182) FIRST GRADE WORK 83 Suitable playgrounds. Clean streets, etc. Schoolhouses. Hospitals for the sick. Homes for the friendless. IV. What Each of the Following Does for Children : Policeman. Health officer. Fireman. School janitor. Street sweeper. Mail carrier. V. Comparison of City Homes with — The Indian's. The Eskimo's. The farmhouse. TYPE LESSONS FOR GRADE ONE I. Conversational lessons in connection with the family. A. The family as a unit. The child needs to \r,ot the idea of a " group unit " hcfon; he can understand the rela- tion of one unit to the grouj). For con- veying this idea, the teacher should use such pictures as a family of cats, a family of squirrels, a family of ral)l)it,s, etc. These may Ix- ohtuinod from llic collection of Perry pictures. 1. W'itli a picture of a human family, teacher asks such questions as — TWU Mu'iUi:.Hc> AND iHbltt i' AMLL.ll:i:j. [84] FIRST GRADE WORK 85 a. What do you see in this picture? h. Wlio is this? And this? [Teacher uses the word family, asking- children to show her who belong to the family, and to point as they tell.] 2. With a picture of a family of animals, e.g. bears, teacher asks : a. What kind of family is this? h. Show me which bears belong to this family. 3. Similar work with other families of animals. 4. Teacher questions the child about his own family at home. a. Have you a fainily at home? h. Who belong to your family? B. The members of the family and their relations to each other. 1. lieview the animal families, naming members, Illu.Htrations : a. Monkey family. (Use picture " The Sick Monkey" included in llie Perry l^icture Company's collection.) QuesHoii.s: Show mo the motluM- monkey. Do you tliink she loves tlie ba))y monkey? What ill tlic picture makes you (liink so? I>. The cat family. Qucslions: Do Vdii tliink the inotlicr cal loves her kittens? What in llic ])ictun' ninkes you think so? I )id you ever see a real mollicr cat with her kittens? 86 SOCIALIZING THE CHILD Did she make you think she loved them ? How? 2. Review the human family. (In the following lessons refer to "Seven Ages of Childhood," illustrated by Jessie Wilcox Smith.) Illustrations : (I. The mother. (Use picture opposite page 18.) Questions: Do you think this mother loves her baby? What in the picture makes you think so? TiOok at the baby and tell me what you think the mother has been doing for it. Tell me what kind of mother you think this little girl has. What in the picture makes you think so ? Have you a mother at home? Does she do anything to make you happy? "Where did you get your nice dress? WTio combed your hair so neatly? How did you get your face and hands so nice and clean ? Did you have breakfast this morning? Does j^our mother do anything for the rest of the family to make them happy? Aren't you very glad you have such a good mother in your home? h. The father, c. The brother. (L The sister. Questions: Who is this in the picture ? Does she look FIRST GRADE WORK 87 big enough to do something to make the family happy? WTiat do you think she might do to make the baby happy? The mother? The father? The brother? Have you a sister in your home? Are j^ou a sister? Have you grown big enough to make anyone in your family happy? To-morrow I shall ask you if you have been able to make someone in your family happy to-day. II. Suggestions for an Excursion. The Shoe Store [The purpose of all excursions and conversa- tional lessons should be to help the child to understand his environment and his own relation to it. Hence, the point of departure should always be the object or experience with which the child is familiar.] A. Preparation. 1. iicgin with some child's pair of new shoes, or newly-solod shoes, or a discussion of shoes in connection with the change of seasons and warm winter clothing. Clet the children 1(» tell what they know about shoes, their purchase, material, making, and mending. 2. Tell them a very kind storekeeper has invited them to his store to see his shoes and learn how shoes are mended. Emphasize the 88 SOCIALIZING THE CHILD expected kindness and courtesy on the part of all wlio accept his invitation. Make clear what is to be looked for in the shop, e.g. materials, tools. B. The excursion. 1. It is necessary to have a trustworthy and obedient person at the head and foot of the line. It may be a coveted honor for a child to be trusted there, because of street cross- ings and the care of smaller children. 2. At the store it will be necessary for all to be quiet, unless addressed. The teacher will need to have each thing of interest pointed out and named, or many children will see very little for themselves. If the place is small, a few at a time may watch the work. They should know the names of materials and tools they see the cobbler using, and have a little time to watch the work grow. On leaving, they should all thank the store- keeper for his kindness. C. Activities in connection with the excursion. 1. The next day ascertain what each child has gained from the excursion. A good way to make each feel equally responsible and pre- vent one from monopolizing the conversa- tion is to have a child describe one thing he saw, the next a different thing, etc. 2. Draw pictures of the tools on the blackboard, and see if children can remember their names and uses. FIRST GRADE WORK 89 3. Let some child play he is a cobbler and do what he saw the cobbler doing. Let others guess what he is doing. Let another show something else, etc. 4. Show pictures of a cobbler at work and let children tell all they can about the picture. 5. Show a picture of a big factory and tell chil- dren that most of our shoes are made in a large factor}^ with machines. 6. Give children paper and pencil, or blackboard space, and let them draw a picture of a cobbler doing something, or of the shoe- store window. Have children hold up finished pictures and describe them. 7. Have children cut out shoes in pairs, free- hand, from paper, black, white, large, small, higli, low. Mount on a sheet of i^aper on which a window is drawn and arrange for the window display of the shoe store. 8. Let children put some in boxes in pairs and play store. Children bu}' and sell, make believe fit them, and pay for them. 9. Tcucli song, "The Little Wee Man " — (iaynor. 10. Tell stories sucli as — "(loody Two Shoes." "M'hc Fairy Shoes." 111. Suggestions for a Series of Lessons in Connection with Farm Life. A. ( Icncrul pn'iKiration. 1. The cliild must have clearly defined ideas oi 90 SOCIALIZING THE CHILD a. Open space in fields. /). How live farm animals really look and act. c. How seeds and plants grow. d. Appearance of fruit, vegetables, grain, and other farm products. e. Simple methods of transportation by bar- row% w^agon, train, etc. 2. These ideas may be gained in the following ways: a. By making an excursion to a large park. b. By visiting the county fair. c. By planting seeds, in window gardens or school gardens and watching the plants grow. d. By noticing the appearance of fruit, vege- tables, grain, etc., as they may see them in their own homes, in store windows, or in the schoolroom. e. By watching for evidences of how farm products are brought to the city. Note to Teacher. — An excursion to a farm would naturally be the most satisfactory method of giving a basis for this series of lessons. This method of approach is seldom practicable, however, since farms in the concrete vary much and often depart widely from tlie ideal ; since no one is complete ; and since they cannot always be easily reached. Some children in the class will doubtless have visited farms and can contribute to the (;lass discussion the impressions they have received of a dairy farm, a truck farm, or a stock farm. FIRST GRADE WORK 91 B. Season. 1. The work should be begun in October or early November, in time to finish the series by Thanksgiving and give a meaning to the celebration of that festival. C. Outline of a lesson. 1. A first lesson, meeting the child's experience and finding out what he knows. Show an apple. Ask where it probably came from. Trace back, step by step, as far as the child can go, to the market, the farm, the tree. At each step ask children if they have seen a market, an apple tree, etc., and have them tell you what they know about it. Have pictures of an apple tree in fruit, of apple blossoms in color, of a ladder, a basket, and someone picking apples. Prints or rough sketches made by teacher on board with colored crayons are helpful. Cut open an apple, notice the seeds. Ask what they are good for. Recall experi- ences witli seeds in the school garden. Ask children what they suppose these would grow iri(f) if they were planted. Plant some ill :i pot of oMrth and see if they will grow. Various activities may be carried on in con- nection with this lesson on the apple. Teacher may ask children to make up stories about the pictures she has shown them. Or the children may act out scenes 92 SOCIALIZING THE CHILD from the story of the api^lo from planting the tree to picking the rii)o applets. They may draw pictures illustrating parts of the life story which they have really seen. They may see which can cut the best picture of an apple from paper or model the best one in clay. (These activities will be carried on as language work, seat work, drawing or manual work.) 2. An excursion to the market. The excursion should he followed by a dis- cussion of the various objects and activities noticed and by \vorking out the same in dramatic play, drawing, cutting, clay modeling, etc. Vegetables and fruit or pictures of them may be used in the classroom to strengthen the impressions gained. The discussion should bring out how these vegetables, fruits, etc., look when they are growing. Teacher or chil- dren may illustrate by drawing tree, vine, or bush, as they look when growing. 3. iVn excursion to the farm, noting hayfields, cornfields with ]iumpkins, nut trees, brook, pond, sheep, ducks, etc. Work out as before. 4. A study of grains. a. Wheat. Trace the story of a piece of bread to the wheat field. Show wheat stalks in head, grains of wheat, flowers, and pictures of wheat fields. FIRST GRADE WORK 93 Let children make flour by pounding grains of wheat with a mortar and pestle and sifting through a sieve. Let children chew wheat seeds. Show j)ictures of farmer preparing soil to plant wheat. Then let children at sand table ]:)low with a stick, rake and harrow with their fingers, and make believe plant, relating all their previous observa- tions and experience on the subject. Let them lay out fields, build stick fences, grow fields of wheat with sticks, cut, rake, gather in sheaves, tie, stack, cart with cardboard wagon and horse to a paper barn, etc. 6. Corn. This lesson should be conducted similarly to the preceding lesson. Corn stalks, corn in the ear, grains of corn, corn meal, and pictures of cornfields may be brought into the classroom. 5. Farm animals. a. The cow. Start with a bottle of milk. Ask (juestions, such as — \\ lici'c (lid it cotiH* from ? ^\'her(• did the iiiilkiii;m got it? Where did the farmer get it ? Dramatize the activities of the milkman at the sand tMble with block houses, toy horse ;iiid wagon, toy bottles, ;iiid j)ap('r dolls. 94 SOCIALIZING THE CHILD Show toy cow and pictures of cows, taking care about size impressions for children who have not seen cows. Churn real butter in a quart jar and make cheese. b. The sheep and wool. Begin with child's new, warm, winter coat, another's skating cap or mittens which you hold in your hand and test by touch. Teach children to distinguish wool from other materials, by touch, when blind- folded. Associate picture of sheep with those seen in the park. Recite " Baa, Baa, Black Sheep " and " Little Bo-peep." Dramatize these rhymes. Make the noises that sheep make. Feel specimens of new wool. Twist raw wool into a thread. Ravel goods woven from coarse woolen thread. Begin exer- cises in weaving. c. The horse. How it helps the farmer and others. How it is cared for. An excursion to the blacksmith shop. 6. Sand table construction. Build up a cooperative farm on the sand table, letting children suggest all the objects and do all the work. Teacher guides with questions to keep all in congruity. A sys- tematic way to begin is with a long road leading out into the country where the FIRST GRADE WORK 95 farmer lives, putting it through the middle of the sand table. Then children can work all around the table on either side, laying out, one by one, the farmer's house, barn, chicken coop, pigpen, duck pond, garden, orchard, fields, etc. Toy trees, paper dolls, sticks, beads, toy and cardboard animals, wagons, etc., made by the children as con- struction work previously, will add interest and reality to the scene when completed, and the representation will give the chil- dren a connected and unified idea of scat- tered ))its of experience and information. This scene is not yet enough, for the children now want to ])lay out farm activities on this little farm, feed the chickens and ani- mals, take them to the brook to drink, milk the cow, turn her out to pasture, put her in shelter for the night, plant and harvest fields, pick apples, gather vegetables, drive the wagon to the town and about the fields on various errands. Through lliis play they will enter more fully into the spirit of farm life than through hearing about it. 7. Stories about fann life and tliosc which em- phasize the tying logethcc of a series of activities in an int(!rdependent relationship, as — "The House That .lack Huilt." "The Old Woman and Iler IMg." George Washington, I he \ irginia Planter. Thomas Jefferson's Merino Sheep. 96 SOCIALIZING THE CHILD REFERENCES FOR TEACHER S USE On Community Life. Carpenter, Frank G., How the World Is Housed. Carpenter, P'rank G., How the World Is Clothed. Carpenter, Frank G., How the World Is Fed. Chamberlain, James F., How We Are Sheltered. Dunn, Arthur W., The Community and the Citizen. Button, Maude Barrows, Fishing and Hunting. Button, Maude Barrows, In Field and Pasture. Descrilx's child and animal life among the Eskimos and Indians and in the Philippines and Alaska. HoLDEN, Edward S., Our Countn/s Flag. Jewett, Frances G., Town and City. Johnson, George Ellsworth, Education by Plays and Games. On Construction Work of All Kinds. Beard, Lina, and Beard, Adelia, Little Folks' Handy Book. Teaches little children how to make simple toys froiVi empty spools, clothespins, kindling wood, etc. Boyd, Ida E., When Mother Lets Us Cut out Pictures. Buxton, George F. and Curran, Fred L., Paper and Cardboard Construction for Primary (hades. Baniels, Fred H., School Drawing. A real C(^rrelation. BoBBS, Ella Victoria, Primary Handwork. GiL,MAN, Mary Louise and Wii.mams, Elizabeth B., Seat Work and InduMrial Occupations. A practical course for Primary Grades. Henderson, Anna, and Palen, II. ()., What and How. A systemized course of liandwork. HoxiE, Jane L., Handwork for Kindergartens and Primary Schools. .\ewell, C. E., Construction Work for Schools without Special Equipment. Tkybo.m, J. Herman, assisted hy O'C^^nner, E. F. and Wilson, .A. Fl, Cardboard Cmistruction. Worst, Edward F., and Keith, Edna, Educative Seat Work. FIRST GRADE WORK 97 On Picture Books. Adelbokg, O., translated bj^ Wallas, Ada, Clean Peter and the Children of Grithbijlea. Bedford, F. D., and Lucas, E. V., Four and Twenty Toilers. Bedford F. D., and Lucas, E. V., The Book oj Shops. Greenaway, Kate, Under the Window. Pictures and rhymes for children. Moore, Clement C. Illustrated by Smith, Jessie Willcox, 'Twas the Night Before Christmas. Smith, Elmer B., The Circus and All About It. Smith, Elmer B., The Farm Book. Smith, Elmer B., Bob and Bctfi/ Visit Uncle John. Smith, Elmer B., The Sea Shore Book. Smith, El.mer B., Chicken World. Equally charming and with even less text than "The Farm Book." Humorous though not greatly exaggerated colored pictures of scenes in the lives of growing chicks. Smith, Jkssii; Willcox, and Wells, Carolyn. The Seven Ages of Childhood. On Stories and How to Tell Them, also Selections of Poetry. Bailey, Carolyn S. and I j;\vis, ( "i,au.\ .M., Fnr the Children's Hour. Daily progratn of gill mikI dcciip.it inn work. Bryant, Sara Cone, Iloir to Tell Slorir.s to Children. CoE, Fanny C., First Book of Stories for the Star!/ Teller. CofHSENS, PenrHYN W., Foeins Children Lore. HARRisf)N, Elizabeth, //; Stori/ Loml. Hoi'KLNs, \\ . .]., SanduKin: If is Form Stories. Proudfoot, Andrea IIofek, Child's Christ-Tales. Verhokik, Caroline, .1// .\l>oul Johnnie Jones. 'i'licsc are simple realistic; stories that rcflccl I lie cx-cry-day experiences of real life ; stories which beaut ifidly show t lie process by which a child .id/ipts himself to tlic •-tniid.irds of society. Rioos, Mrs. Kate Douoijvs Wkjcjin and Smith, Nora Auciiih.mJ), The Slori/ Hour. Chapter V SECOND GRADE WORK PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS CONCERNING THE WORK OF GRADE U In the work of the first year the child's appreciation of his parents and other members of the family has deep- Results ened because he has been made conscious of of First j^Q^Y much they help him. He has learned Work ^^^^ each occupation has a definite relation to Summa- himself and that his own family could not "zed supply his needs without help from others. The interdependence is felt by him, and his appreciation of what " working together " means has been intensified in his daily experiences in the classroom and on the playgroimd. His own knowledge of pet animals, his experience in the school garden, his knowledge of what is done on a farm and what we get from a farm, lead him to see that human beings are dependent in many ways on vegetation and on animals, wild and tame. His " self " has expanded. His known world is larger. He feels much more at home, since he can appreciate what the conspicuous elements in his surroundings are " good for "' and that he is an important helper in com- munity life. His emotional life has had many opportunities to ex- press itself in helping to celebrate the birthdays of school- mates, and the holidays of the nation, and in trying 98 SECOND GRADE WORK 99 to put himself in another's place and become the person whose action he tries to interpret. At one time it was an Eskimo baby, or an Eskimo mother, at another it was a farmer, or a shoemaker, or a motorman. In each case, he has expanded and enlarged his own emotional life and has learned how to appreciate sympathetically people unlike himself. To try to show how a grief- stricken mother feels, or how she sings a lullaby, or rocks the cradle, how the Indians dance to express their joy, how a command or a hospitable invitation is given, or an entreaty is made, has helped the child to gain concep- tion of mood, of motive, of cause and effect, and made them stand out in relative proportion. Such experiences illuminate much that will help later in controlling his imagination according to fixed principles. To control the imagination is a prere(|uisite to any serious study of histor>', for the student of history nmst approach sympathetically the past that he has never seen if he hopes to get a picture of it that is real and true. If he wants to relate to others what he has made real to him- self, he must be able to portray vividly and make his account both attractive and pleasing as well as true to the period of time and place in which the events occurred. The fairy tale may ignore dates, escape laws, deligiit in the improbable, and even record the impossil)le. The historic tale, no matter liow interesting, how full of movement and life, can be neither inii)rol)able nor im- possible. Every item in it must be tf^sted and verified. Consequently each step that the child makes toward controlled imagination is a decided gain as a basis for future history study. The ahn in the second year's work is to see that the n. 100 SOCIALIZING THE CHILD children gain definite notions of liow progress toward Aim in the ^^^tter ways of living is made possible. All Work of work in the second year must still appeal to the Grade II combined energy of heart, head, and hand in order to develop the child's own personality and at the same time increase his social serviceableness. One of the easiest ways of bringing about such a result is to introduce him to primitive man and his environment and the problems which confront him. The contrast between the conditions under which primitive man lived and those under which the child is The "^^^ living is so great that the child sees a dif- study of ference at once. In making comparisons, he is Primitive constantly using the experience gained by last M " f y®^^'*^ work. He gradually begins to realize the Con- ^^^'^^^ inventions are a response to meet the ception of needs of society, and since the manner of living Progress j^^ ^j^^ ^-j^^ q£ primitive man was so simple in character the old way of solving such a problem as getting food and the new way of performing the same task after the invention was made are both within the child's com- prehension. Gain or progress can be appreciated and its consequences felt. For example, the bow and arrow, or the weighted spear bi-ing advantages to the inventor that a child can comprehend. So does the discovery of how to make fire and how to keep fire. He can be led to appreciate why a cave is a more desirable home than a tree top. Every activity of primitive man selected for instruction appeals strongly to the child because he is interested in how food is obtained, how it is prepared, how shelter is secured, and how the dwellings and the clothing are made. SECOND GRADE WORK 101 The crudeness of it all is a challenge to his own inven- tive powers and stimulates him to try to make awls, hammers, throwing sticks, bows and arrows, . x ^^ ^ and baskets, as primitive man made them. Basis for He is more than willing to go on an exploring History expedition to find nuts, berries, and roots that a^^d <5eog- , _. , , . , raphy are good to eat. In these outdoor excursions he is getting valuable experience in regard to his own natural environment and laying a foundation that will make him a more intelligent student of both history and geog- raphy. He is prepared to see that the inventor of a new tool, or the discoverer of a new process that makes life easier for these people, would be a hero. Only the capable man, the alert and the persevering man, could find out the better process, discover the clue to a situ- ation that was puzzling, improve an old tool or make a new one; conseciuently tliis power calls forth admiration from the others. The benefits received make the tribe or clan grateful, and so the hero would receive both the honor and the glory that every hero deserves. The child can also be led to see that even in these early tribes of human beings the sick were given food, the swiftest did the hunting, and the less active (3) As a gathereci fruit or nuts. There was some ex- Means to , r 1 •• J • 1- the Con- cliangc ot work, some coof)eration, some di- ceptlon of vision of labor. W'licti these jx'ople le:irn«'(l Coiipera- to cultivate plants and to domesticate animals, ^ion they wen; overcoming, con(juering, and controlling their enviromnent. Kaeh advance stej) in gaining control of nature meant an onward step in progress. Men nnist have been inoH' intelligent than I he luMite beasts by which they were surroundeil or they could ne\er lia\(' discovered 102 SOCIALIZING THE CHILD the way to do these things, but no matter how intelhgent they were, if they had not agreed " to work together " they could not have conquered nature. Men in organized society can do such things, but no man acting in isolation could achieve any such result, no matter how great his mental capacity. It is only by combinations of united effort that natural resources can be controlled so that protection from danger, the care for the helpless or the weak, the acquisition of food and shelter may be se- cured. To-day we have soldiers and farmers, carpenters and blacksmiths, people who make houses and people who make hats, people who make pins and people who paint pictures. As a rule man becomes strong in proportion to the strength of the associations which he forms. No man in isolation has ever yet reached his highest development, and great progress is possible only in an organized community or nation. A highly civilized state is not only difficult to gain, but it is difficult to re- tain. The following elementary stages by which civilization is reached can be made fairly intelligible to second-grade children : 1. The early leaders must have been men of great courage and bodily vigor so as to resist the attacks of enemies wliether human or brute. They St&C6S of • . Progress must have been inventive : to find the best Toward hunting grounds, devise the best ways of Civihza- killing game, and secure abundant supplies of food ; to fashion tools and domestic utensils ; to choose the sites for villages and make the clearings ; to undertake the domestication of animals and the cultixation of plants. SECOND GRADE WORK 103 2. Comniiinication with other communities probably shortened the time required to secure the bare necessities of food, shelter, and clothing. 3 Protection of life and property for the common or general good of the whole community had to be secured. 4. When some men could procure the necessary food, shelter, and clothing for their families, and have leisure for reflection and study and were willing to devote their acquisition of knowledge to the general welfare, the progress was more rapid. 5. Men were enabled to have more leisure in the following ways : Progress in the improvement of tools. The change of motor power from man to beast. Making the wind and the running water do what man once did. 6. The discovery of how to use and to keep and to make firr not only gave control over animals, on account of their fear of fire, but improved the con- ditions of living in many other ways which young children can appreciate. At the close of th(; year the child ouglit to hav(> gained considerable insight as to how progress takes place, what I)roiiiotes it, and what retards it. TEACHER'S OUTLINE OF SUBJECT MATTER FOR GRADE TWO 1. Rapid Review lor t lie piir|)ose of stimulating chil- dren to recall tlic work in (iiadc 1 and their experience during vacation in travel and in methods of transportation. 104 SOCIALIZING THE CHILD Questions: With what does the family provide us? (Home, food, clotliing, books, toys, pleasures, etc.) What do the farmers provide for everyl)ody? (Grain, vegetables, fruit, nuts, eggs, chickens, butter, milk, hay, cattle, horses, sheep, etc.) What do the farmers buy at the stores when they come to the city? (Groceries, clothing, kitchen utensils, farm- ing tools, furniture, bedding, etc.) How do the merchants deliver goods to the homes within the city ? W^hat conveyances are used ? How are the farm products brought to the city? 11. Primitive Man Before He Had Fire. [Ask the children to tell anything they can about him. Some may have had instruction in their own homes concerning this stage of man's development. Make the most of any contri- butions offered.] A. The appearance of the tree dweller's country.' 1. Dense forests. 2. River valleys. 3. Wooded hills. B. How the tree dweller lived. Questions: Why did he not live on the ground? What kind of animals could he see? * Use sand table to help in picturing how it would look. SECOND GRADE WORK 105 Have you ever seen such animals? Have you seen tame cattle? Have you seen very young calves? How could the tree dwellers take care of their babies? ^^^lere would the mother get the cradle? Could she get it at a store? How could she make one? How could she do her se\\ang? Could she buy needles, tliimble, thread? What did she use for thread? What could she use for a needle? Did the children go to school? Wliy not? What would the children need to learn? (There were no books, there were no news- papers ; so of course it was not necessary to learn to read.) Suppose you were a primitive woman, what would you want to teach your ciiildren? C. Food. Quest ions: Wlicrc would the tree dweller get his food? (Tlicrc were no gardens, or farms, or mar- kets.) What could he liiid growing wihl'.' (I"'niit, nuts, wild roots.) How could he get <'gM;s or meat? (iiird's eggs, young animal.'^.) ( OuKI priniitiNc man ha\'e veal'.' Ilow could lie innoNc the skin of un aiumai? Ila\(' >'ou cxcr seen a stone knife? Where? Have you ever seen cattle drinking from a stream? Have you ever seen anyone milking cows? 106 SOCIALIZING THE CHILD Could primitive man milk the cows that he saw? (Give children an opportunity to ask ques- tions and other children an opportunity to answer. Stinmlate curiosity in all directions.) Whsii tools did he use in getting food? (His own hands ; claws of animals ; clubs.) (His own teeth ; teeth of animals ; and stones.) (His own nails ; bones of animals.) Could he cook his food? Name some roots and berries that we eat raw. Where do they grow? D. Clothing. 1. Ornaments — kinds. 2. Troi)hies. 3. Skins of animals. 4. Feathers. No one could wear them unless he was brave. 111. Primitive Man Sees a Fire and Does Not Know What It Is. Questions: Suppose you were a tree dweller and had never seen a fire, and then one day you saw a whole forest ablaze ; what would you think it was? What would you fear most if you were a tree dweller? Have you ever seen a fire that was not made by man? SECOND GRADE WORK 107 A. How a fire might be produced when no man knew how to make it and there were no matches. 1. By lightning. 2. By volcanoes. 3. By falling rocks. 4. By friction of dry bamboo stems in a high wind. B. Traditional stories and myths telling how people obtained fire. 1. Greeks believed it came down from Heaven. They called lightning flashes Jove's thun- derbolts. (See story of Prometheus.) 2. Some tribes in the Pacific Islands still think it was brought up from the lower regions by their god, Massi, who learned the secret of making it by rubbing two sticks together. 3. Natives of Tonga Islands still believe that the god of the earthquake is also the god of fire. 4., Some American Indians say that when the buffaloes galloped over the prairies they set the grass ablaze by the sparks from their hoofs, and that was the first fire. .'). Sfandiiiavians lielicN'ed that tli(> god Thoi- held a mallet in one hand and a Hint in the otiier and with tiicin made a fire. f». Ancient Peruvians believed that one of tlicir gods lnirle(i stones with a sling. They callf'fl lightning flashes "the god's chil- dren." 108 SOCIALIZING THE CHILD IV. Primitive Man Learns to Save Fire and to Use It. A. Wliat he learned to use it for. 1. He could warm his body with it. 2. He could dry his clothing with it. 3. He could conquer animals with it, for they were afraid of fire. 4. By means of fire he procured a cave for a home, and so he could live more comfortably. 5. He could cook and preserve food with it. a. Boil food. c. Dry fish. h. Bake meat. d. Smoke meat, (i. He could drive away noxious insects. 7. He could drive away venomous serpents. 8. He could clear the forests and jungles of malaria by fire. B. Result — a degree of cooperation. 1. Because people collected around the fire in groups (clans) to be safe, a better life became possible. 2. Then people learned how to live together and to be of service to each other. Suppose all our fires should go out some day and no matches could be found and no one could remember how to make fire, what would you eat? How would you heat your house? How would you light the streets? Could you ride on the railroad trains? Name all the ways in w'hich we use fire. SECOND GRADE WORK 109 V. Primitive Man Learns How to Make Fire. A. By the friction of sticks. 1. Moving witli the grain (called plo^^^ng, used by Polynesians). 2. Moving across the grain (called sawing, used in bamboo regions by Malays). 3. Twirling (most interesting). B. By striking pyrites, or stone containing iron, with flint. VI. Modern Man's Use and Control of Fire. A. Great service fire renders to us now. 1. It illuminates houses, streets, subways, tunnels, etc. 2. It heats our houses, trains, schools, public buildings, etc. 3. Il moves cars upon the railroad. 4. It makes possi))le the rails upon which the cars run. 5. It moves steamships on the ocean. (). It moves automobiles, and enables us to have flying machines and all kinds of manufactures. B. We do not need to save fire because we ha\(^ HO many ways of making it and matches are so cheap. C. Ways in which fire may injure us. QiiPHlionH: Have you ever seen a prairie (ire? Have you ever seen a forest fire? no SOCIALIZING THE CHILD Have you ever seen a building on fire? What can be done to prevent such damage? In what ways can the community protect itself from fire? Make a list of all the ways in which children may help to prevent fire and see who will have the longest list. D. How we protect ourselves against loss from fire. 1. The community taxes itself to support a fire department. a. All the stations are built and equipped by money that is contributed by the tax payers. Questions: How many engine houses have you seen? Have you seen the ladders? Have you seen the ropes? Have you seen the life nets? Have you seen the hose? Have you seen the axes? Have you seen the engine? Have you seen the tender? How do you send in an alarm? Can you call up the fire department by telephone? h. The firemen. Questions: Are the firemen paid for their services? Who is the chief of our fire depart- ment? SECOND GRADE WORK 111 What does he do when there is a- fire? What do the firemen do? What do they do at the engine house between fires? Tell true stories of tlie heroism of firemen at fires that have occurred within your experience.^ 2. The community requires the builders to put up fire escapes on public buildings and to have outside doors open outwards. Questions : How do the schoolhouse doors open? What difference does it make? Where are our fire escapes? If a fire should break out now what would be the wisest thing to do first ? Whose orders should you obey ? 3. Ways in which the little chiklren assist the comnmnity in preventing fires. a. By care of matches, oily rags, and dust cloths. b. By care of bonfires, firecrackers, alcohol, etc. (Stories (jf fires caused by careless use of matches. We have safety matches now ; does everybody use them?) 4. Ways in which parents and servants can hcl|) to |)r(!vent fires. ' Note to Tea<:hek. .See aampU' atory at close of this outline. 112 SOCIALIZING THE CHILD a. Care of gasoline cans. b. Care of kerosene cans. c. Keepinjj; basement clean. d. Keepinfi^ oily rags in a safe place. e. Keeping fire escapes clear. 5. Ways in which schools help. a. By having fire drills so that children can become skillful in obeying orders, acquire speed in their movements, and learn to keep mouths closed tight in passing out. b. By keeping the building clean. c. By keeping the fire escapes in repair and clear. 6. How policemen help to prevent fires. a. The police stations — where located ? b. How is a policeman called when needed? c. Kinds of policemen. (1) Mounted and unmounted. (2) Park police. (3) Health police. (4) Traffic police, etc. 7. Ways in which insurance companies help to distribute the loss caused by fire. A TRUE STORY IMIIEFLY TOLD TO SHOW THK NEED OF FIREMEN A .small villaji;(' in lujithcrn New Jersey had no fire depart- ment. The people said, "We don't need any fireinen. Our houses never get on fire. Wli(» ever saw a fire in this town?" Only a few days later everybody- in tliat town saw a fire. Nor will anyone who saw it ever forget it. This is how it happened. SECOND GRADE WORK 113 One Sunday morning in the windy month of March a long oil train was climljing a steep grade on a mountain side above the village. There were sixty carloads of oil. One engine was pull- ing the train, and another engine in the rear was pushing it up the hill. When the last oil car reached the very top of the hill, the engine in the rear cut loose because it was no longer needed. Surely one engine could take the train down the grade easily. One engine had taken it down again and again. But this time something unusual happened. A coupling snapped between car thirty-seven and car thirty-eight. The engine and thirty-seven cars were going down the hill chased by twenty-three cars without any engine. There were twenty- three cars running away on a down grade of a mountain side and every car fillocl with oil. The engineer did not know what had happened. A brakeman saw the coupling break and tried to signal the conductor. In his excitement he gave the wrong signal. The signal given was to stop. The engineer had the brakes applied, and the front train halt(Ml just at the village. Then the people of the village heard a ci-ash followed by a shattering blast. I'\)ur oil cars were smashed. <>il was gush- ing forth in streams. Then an explosion with a noise that sounded like a cannon shot was heard. Burning oil came down on the fields, on the trees, on the house tops. A larg(> tire column shot up into the air. It was Uh\ by the oil flowing toward it. Streams of fire rolled down the hill int.o the village. Whole torrents of blazing oil fift.een feet, high swept, right through the stn^ets of the village. Mouses burst into flame (luilc as rapidly as electric lights appear in a village at nightfall. Tlie warehouse w.'us burned. All the buildings across t lie t racks Imi ikmI. 'I'lieii the hardware store, a carpenter's shoj). and a hot.el ; then two other stores and a restaurant, were all burning at. once. The fences were burning. The trees were burning. Th<' poor people were in a pitiable condition with no trained fire fighters 114 SOCIALIZINC, THE CHILD until the trained firemen from two neighboring cities came to help the unfortunate village. No community is really safe unless it has men trained to fight fire. VII. Progress of Primitive Man After He Learns How to Save, Use, and Make Fire. A. What the children had to learn. 1. To secure food. 2. To protect themselves from wild animals. 3. To hunt and to fish. Pkepauing a Skin. B. Occupations of the grown people. 1. Making baskets. 2. Making tools such as : SECOND GRADE WORK 115 c Stone hammers with handles Stone knives with handles. Stone spears weighted. Strap fire drill and bow drill. Snares and pitfalls. Harpoons from aiitlers. The spear noose. Poisoned spearheads The throwing stick. Dressing skins. a. Tools used : Stone knife. Stone scraper Stone saw. Bone awl. See pictures. Chippeu Implement OF Early Man. Indian Knife WITH Handle. (Oregon.) Stone maul. Stone flaker. Stone comb. Bone needle. b. How it was done. (1) By scraping the inner side. (2) By rubbing the inner surface with fat. (3) By drying the skin in the sun. M) Later they learned — To stretch the skin on a frame. To roughen tlic inner side by scraping it cross- wise. To soften it by beating, by 1 reading, or by chewing. To flatten seams with sandstone. To polish the skin. (Use pictures to make above points clear.) Uui>K \x, Uafild (.'uiPPtU I.MPLKMENT. i.Mofloru Indian.) 116 SOCIALIZING THE CHILD Making clothing. a. By lacing skins together with sinew thread. b. By selecting tough skin for sandals and moccasins. c. By braiding grass for sandals. d. By using strips of skins for leggings. e. By using branches for snowshoes. Guarding the cave dwelling from wild animals. C. Travel and Transportation. Woven Sanual FROM A Cave in Kentucky. 1. Conveyance by land. a. Persons carried : (1) Those in authority. (2) The sick or wounded. (3) Small children. (All others walked.) 6. Footgear and accessories to walking, running, or climbing. (1) Snowshoes. (2) Sandals to protect feet from stones, (3) Leggings to prevent snake bites. (4) Moccasins to protect from thorns, etc. (5) Boots in cold regions. (6) Socks of soft grass. (7) Stilts. (8) Staff or walking stick (notched or forked at top as a rest). SECOND GRADE WORK 117 (9) Ladders of rope or bamboo used in climbing. c. Burden bearing by one person on'land. (1) Burdens were carried — On the head. On the shoulder. On both shoulders. On the arms. On the back. Suspended from the forehead and rested on the back. Suspended from the shoulder. (2) Inventions : The pad for the head. The forehead pad. The porter's knot. The yoke. The market basket. The kiiai)sa('k. The burden Ijasket. The panniers. The haversacks. The gripsacks, etc. (Use pictures to make this clear.) d. C'ooperative l)ur(len carrying by lanil. 2. Conveyance by water. a. Individual locomotion. (1) Svvinuning. (2) Use of floats made of bundles of reeds or inflated goat skins. (3) Use of life |)n'servers of bladders, or light wood. EsjiiiMos. [118] SECOND GRADE WORK 119 (4) Riding on a log. (5) Riding on a scooped-out log. h. Traffic upon the water. (1) Boats, rafts, and coracles propelled by poling, paddling, sailing, row- ing, cordeling, or tracking. (2) Use of carrying places or portages around falls, etc., or from one stream to another. VIII. The Eskimos of Arctic America. A. Their dwellings in winter and in summer. 1. How they look. a. Front view. h. Ground plan. c. Section. d. Interior view. 2. How they are made, and the materials used. B. The children. 1. How llicy play. n. With puppies. h. With dog whips. c. With luirncssos. (I. With sleds made of ice. e. With wlialohono hows and arrows. /. Ivciiidocr liniit in^;. (/. ivoliiiig down jiill. //. Placing. i. .Iuni|)ing. j. " San(l-l)ag hall." Use pictures and sand table. liUTcau of Amirican lilhtwlouu. Jli'tbiui :',, I'lalL I Adobe Dwellings of the San Xaviek Papago. [120] SECOND GRADE WORK 121 2. How they work. a. Chinking and banking the house. h. Feeding the dogs, c. Driving the dogs. 3. How they are clothed. a. Material used for clothing. h. How their clothing is made. C. Their acquaintance with the white men. Questions : What do they get from the white men? How do these tools and implements help the Eskimos? What does the white man get from the Eskimos? IX. The Indians of the United States. A. Their habitations. 1. I )(»p('H(loiice on immediate surroundings for material out of which they make t hcii' houses. 2. Stage of jjrogress indi(tated by their house life and domestic institutions. .3. A|)|)earance of different types of dwellings that can be observed. a. ('omnnmity houses cotitainin); nioic tliaii one family. (1) 77/r froqiiois hnu/ Jioiisc, FA) to KM) iecl id length and l(» to IS feet, wide. The frame work of |)oIes, tlie sides and triangular roof cov- ered with l)ark (usually the (I in). HUH'IU of AlH' Groups of Huichol in Native Costume [122] li)'.l\l. BulUlln -i:.. fhiii. I. SECOND GRADE WORK 123 Interior had compartments. The smoke-hole in the roof was above the central fire. (2) The pueblos, or many-celled clusters of stone or adobe in New Mexico and Arizona. They are semicir- cular or oblong, in terrace form. Access to them is by ladders. b. Other types of homes. (1) The tent, or tepee, of the tribes of the plains. (2) The Navajo hogan (earth lodge). (3) The palmetto house of Louisiana. (4) The brush and canvas dwelling of the Apache. (5) The ancient cliff dwelling, Mesa Verde, Colorado. (Use pictures to make clear.) B. Their aits, which help us to understand the stage of progress they have reached. 1 . Those who can make pottery have gained an i mport ant step onward toward civilization. 2. Those who use adobe l)rick in the construc- tion ot houses have gained better condi- tions of living. A. 3. Those who have learned how to cultivate maize and dtlier j>lants jukI 1h>w Io irri- gate the land have gained :i decided advantage. C. Their modes of tr;i\-el ;in(l burden bearing, showing how much progn^ss they have made. ifc*-- li '^ "^^^ Hureaii of American Ethnology, liulhtin .1.',. Plate VI. Pima Dwelling. Made Partly of Adobe Brick. J Amirlcan Elhnolouy, UtdklinS/,, PlaU2a. Navaho Hogan. (124] liiiriau nf Anil rlr'iii ICIIinoloiiy. HlilliHli .i ', . I'InIr l\' . llKED AND Mud Hou.sk. ^^^st,. \^<*% •ft^ lliiriiiliii/ .\ III' rlriiii l:i'niiii'i,ii/. iiiiiiiliii i,, I'lnli IV BnuHH HoiHKs. 1125) 126 SOCIALIZING THE CHILD D. Their division of labor and community life, showing how far they understand how to " work together " for the benefit of all. E. Indian myths, symbolism, customs, cere- monies, and the stories they tell their chil- dren, indicating their religious beliefs and their ideals. ANTIQUITIES OF THE JEMEZ PLATEAU, NEW MEXICO The greater part of the plateau is occupied by the Jemez forest reserve. Six Indian reservations or grants border or lie partly within its limits. This region was the seat of a considerable population in prehistoric times, and innumerable ruins of the civilization are found throughout the plateau. The habitations are clifT dwellings and pueblos. Buried under the debris of buildings and in the graves of the dead are various artifacts of stone, bone, wood, fiber, and clay, displaying the simple industries and domestic life of the inhabitants. These, together with ceremonial objects, the symbolic ornamentation of domestic and mortuary pottery, yield important data relative to the social and religious life of the time. A few illustrations of these artifacts are found in plates XII, XIII, XIV, and XV of Bulletin 32, Bureau of American Ethnology. Food bowls have been preserved to us through the symbolic act of placing food with the dead. The ab- original potters had considerable knowledge of colors and handled them with good effect in decoration. Yellow and gray ware was decorated with black lines, plate X\'. Red ware was decorated with black and red lines and with a salt glaze, see Bulletin, plate XV, e, /, h. Certain •symbolic motives are very persistent, see Bulletin, plate XV, a, b, d. Reproductions of a few of these antiquities are shown on the pages following. r BulMin S3. Plate XIII. o, 6, c, rf — Bone Wmihti.es; r, f, a. h -\Uisr. Awi.h; i,j,k — Stone Hatiiiki-, Srovf. IIvmmk;!!, Stonf. M MJL.. 11271 liuUttin .ii, Plate XIV Smooth Black Undkcorated Warb. Bulletin 3^, Plate XIV Incised Ware. 1128] uiiiiiiiii (.'. ri'iit w Typeb of Mortuahy Potteky. 1129] 1130] SECOND GRADE WORK 131 REFERENCES FOR TEACHER'S USE AND FOR SUPPLEMENTARY READING Primitive Man. American Anthropologist, 1890, Vol. VI, pp. 207-210, Vol. VIII, pp. 359-371. Boas, Fr.\xz, The Mind of Primitive Man. Clodd, Edwakd, The Story of Primitive Man. Dopp, Kathaui.ve E., Early Cave Men; The Later Cave Men; Tree Dwellers. These books are adapted to children's use and contain good bibliographies for the teacher. FoRMAX, Samuel E., Stories of Useful Inventions. Frobenius, Leo, The Childhood of Man. Contains good illustra- tions. Translated by A. H. Keane. JoLY, N., Man before Metals. Keaxe, a. H., The World's Peoples. With 270 illustrations reproduced I'runi photographs. McIntyre, Margaret A., The Cave Boy. Adapted for children. Mason, Otis T., The Origin of Inventions. Morga.v, Lewis H., Ancient Society. Osborx, Hknry Fairfield, Men of the Old Stone Age. Their en- vironiiieiit, life, and art. It is profusely illustrated. Dr. Osljorn of the American Museum of Natural History gives an authoritative summary of the series of archajological discoveries made in recent years by Cartailhac, Breul, Obermaier, and others. The book contains a synthesis of all that is known to date in the four sej)arate domains of geology, paleontology, anthropology, and archa-ology. A complete index and a comjjrehensive bibli- ography are commendable features of this work. Proceedings of United States National Museum, 1888, pj). 181-184. Proceedingn of United States National Museum, 1887-1888, \^\^. 531- 587. Proceedings of United Sttites National Museum, 1890, p|). .395- 409. Rocheleau, W. F., Transportation. Watkhi.oo, Sr.wi.KY, The Story of Ab. Protection Against Fire. Hill, ( haiu.e.s J., Flighting a Fire. 132 SOCIALIZING THE CHILD Jenks, Tudor, The Fireman. The Mainial of the Fire Department in the community where the seliool is located. The Eskimo. Bureau of American Ethnology. Annual Report, Vol. XVIII. Cakroll, Clarence F., Around the WorUI, Book One. Peary, Mrs. Josephine, The Snow Baby. ScANDLiN, Christiana, Hans, the Eakimo. Schwatka, Frederick, Children of the Cold. The Indian. For an account of Indians given by themselves see — The Indian'.'i Book by Natalie Curtis. For customs and symbolism see — Articles by Alice Cunningham Fletcher, especially her account of The Hako: a Pawnee Ceremony in the Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, Vol. XXII. For houses and house life see — North American Ethnology, \o\. IV, article by Lewis H. Mor- gan; also Bulletin 30 of the Bureau of American Ethnology under " Habitations." For music of the Chippewa see — Bureau of Aynerican Ethnology, Bulletins 45 and 53, articles by Frances Dens.more. For mythology .see — Journal of Arnerican Folk Lore, 1905, Vol. XVIII, page 111. For pottery and textiles see — Bureau of American Ethnology, Annual Reports, Vols. IV, VI, XX, articles by Wm. H. Holmes. For stories adapted to children see — Brooks, Dorothy, Stories of the Red Children. Burton, Al.ma H., The Story of the Indians of New England. Chase, Anna, Children of the Wigivam. Ea.st.man, Charles A., Indian Boyhood. Fox, Florence C, Indian Primer. Newell, Cicero, Indian Stories. Wiley, Belle, Mewanee, the Little Indian Boy. Chapter VI THIRD GRADE WORK TEACHER'S OUTLINE OF SUBJECT MATTER FOR GRADE lU I. Life in Holland from a Child's Point of View. A. Location of the country with a brief description of its general characteristics. 1. Pronounce the word Holland and write it on the blackboard. 2. Locate Holland on a glol^e (not on a map). 3. Tell how to take a trip to Holland. a. Partly by land — the conveyances used. h. Partly by water — the conveyances used. 4. Describe the dikes. (Use pictures and sand table.) (I. llow tlicy look. /;. I low they arc made, r. (Jf what use are they? 5. Describe the canals and their various uses. C'dW attention to tlicir minibc'- and to the necessity' loi- ninncrous bridges. (). Describe the windmills. ( U.se i)ictures.) (t. Hou I Ik'v look. h. I'or what arc tliry used'.' (1) To saw wood. (2) To grind grain. (3) To pmnp water. I3:i (134) THIRD GRADE WORK 135 7. Relate anecdotes that tell why Holland is called the " Land of Pluck." B. Home life in Holland. 1. The houses. (Use pictures.) a. How they look on the outside. b. Description of the interior. c. Furniture — its simplicity. d. Kitchen — the chief room. 2. Occupations of father. a. Dairy farming. 6. Raising garden vegetables. c. Raising tulip bulbs. d. Fishing. e. Managing the boats that transport cheese, garden products, and fish. 3. Occupations of mother. a. Making butter. b. Making cheese. c. Caring for the house. d. Caring for the children. 4. How the children help. n. They feed the geese and the ducks. h. They deliver milk in little carts drawn by dogs, r. They sell water in the same way. fl. They helj) father load and unload boats. ('. They help mother take care of the l)al)V. /. They help mother make l)utter and cheese, r/. Older children carry on their heads baskets of green vegetables or of fresh fish, and sell them in the streets. 136 SOCIALIZING THE CHILD h. Hoys also sell V)nishes, brooms, wooden shoes, tinware, and sometimes cheese, in the streets. ?". The girls knit the thick stockings that everybody wears. C. How the children play. 1. Small children jilay with wooden shoes, using them as doll carts or as boats. 2. Small children play with tiny windmills. 3. All children skate in the wintertime and play many games on the ice. They use various kinds of skates, sleds, and ice boats, also a chair with runners. (Use pictures.) 4. Children make snow forts and snow men in winter. 5. " Tag " is one of the favorite evening games in the spring. 6. In sunmier children sail toy boats on canals, ponds, and lakes, and fairly live on rafts. 7. The chief celebrations are connected with : a. Christmas. b. Easter. c. Birthdays. D. Personal aj^pcarancc and dress of the children. 1. Children usually have rosy cheeks, blue eyes, and golden hair. 2. The boys dress like their fathers and grand- fathers. a. Wide trousers V>uttoned to a short waist. 6. Thick, woolly stockings. THIRD GRADE WORK 137 c. Wooden shoes (except when going to church or to visit). d. Small cap with a black visor. 3. The girls dress like their mothers. a. Long, full skirt, usually black, and tight- fitting waist. b. An apron, usually blue. c. A white cap with a gold button on each side. d. Wooden shoes (except when going to church or to visit), e. Thick stockings. /. A httle shawl. 4. Red and black are the colors worn by orphan children (both boys and girls) brought up in institutions. E. Descrijition of New Market in Amsterdam. 1. Stalls covered with bright awnings. 2. Commodities sold in stalls. a. Fruits. h. lieautiful embroideries. c. Flowers. d. Cal)l)ages. e. Coarse woolen stockings. 3. Handcarts loaded with vegetables, loaves of bread, fruit, |)ans of ciiiiKiinon cake, cheese. 4. I*iles of tinware on tlie pavement. 5. Cheeses of all slia|)es and sizes. /''. Peculiar customs. I. Removing shoes at the door before entering a house. [1381 THIRD GRADE WORK 139 2. Turning back curtains of top bed to show embroidery. 3. Using tin foot stoves in the churches. 4. Supplying the new baby's cradle with pack- ages of presents for little visitors. (They are called " baby's presents.") 5. Hanging balls on the door to announce the birth of a child. G. The Feast of St. Nicholas on December 5. 1. St. Nicholas' Eve. a. Visits to the gajdy decorated shops. Small presents are distributed from bags held by images of the Saint standing in the doorways of the shops. b. Entertainment of St. Nicholas in the homes. He appears (like our Santa Claus) with a sackful of oranges, apples, and candy, which he scatters on the floor. Ho is sometimes accompanied by a black slave. 2, The next morning. (I. An oarly visit to the cliimiicy j)Iace to see what the saint and his black slave have left ill the wooden shoos during \\\v night. /;. A hunt for the more ini|)ortant presents which havo boon hiddon ;ill ovor th(> house. c. C'akos, sweetmoats, .'ind giiigorbroad dolls made especially on this day. //. Dutch storios of heroes. 1. Lilllr I'clcr who stopped ;i leiik in the dike. y, -I D rj a ■A O 73 o O Q n H U D [140] THIRD GRADE WORK 141 2. Van Tramp who captured the EngUsh coat of arms which is now on the front of the State College at Hoorn. 3. Schouten who named Cape Horn. 4. Tasman who found the islands of New Zea- land and Tasmania. 7. Comparisons and contrasts between life in Hol- land and in America. 1. There are no forests in Holland. 2. There are no stone quarries. 3. Canals are used in Holland where we use roads and fences. 4. Boats are often used in Holland to convey both peoi:)le and commodities, where we use trolley cars, autom()l)iles, auto trucks, freight cars, passenger coaches, or delivery wagons. 5. Wind i)o\ver in Holland does many things that are done by steam, electric, or gaso- line engines in America. We use wind- mills for pumping water only to a limited extent. 6. On the farms ihrouglioul Holland are black and white llolstcin cows. IIow many differenl kinds have you seen in tliis local- ity? 7. Much scrubbing is absolutely necessary in Holland because the dampness always present there causes mold and rust to collect more readily than with us. S. Hog carts are a common si^ht in Holland. 142 SOCIALIZING THE CHILD 9. Primitive yokes are still used in carrying milk ill Holland. 10. Wealthy people in lir)lland live in houses furnished very much like those of wealthy people in other countries. 11. Contrasts in dress and in holiday celebra- tions are easily seen. REFERENCES FOR TEACHER'S USE AND FOR SUPPLEMENTARY READING Campbell, Helkn IjERt)Y, The Story of Little Jan, the Dutch Boy, in "The Children of the World Series." Contains illustrations and a wealth of usable material. Carroll, Clarence F., Around the World, Book One, pp. 102-124. Third grade children can read for themselves this description of the Dutch. There are numerous pictures of characteristic Dutch scenes. Dodge, Mary Mapes, Hana Brinker, or the Silver Skates. This will be of service to the teacher in helping her to enter into the spirit c)f Dutch life. See especi;dly the following chapters: " The Festival of St. Nicholas," pp. 47-5.') ; " On the Canal," pp. 110-116; "Friends in Need," pp. 103-110, which tells the story f)f the "Hen. of Harlem"; "The Silver Skates," pp. 14-19, containing suggestive material in regard to Dutch names as well as domestic industries and skating; "The Race," pp. 243-257, containing a good description of winter sports on the ice. Perki.n's, Lucy Fitch, The Dutch Tivins. Suggestive in helping to make Dutch life seem real to American children. Illustrated with drawings made by the author. See especialh- the following chapters: "The Day They Went Fish- ing," r)p. .5-27 ; "Market Day with Father," pp. 27-55; "The Day They Drove the Milk Cart," pp. 117-137. All the stories and descriptions should be told by the teacher, not read. P>ut she should designate books that the children may read for themselves, or have read to them at home. Much of the reading should be volunteer work. THIRD GRADE WORK 143 The teacher should consult library catalogues for other books for her own use, such as: "Little People Every^vhere," "The Little Cousins" series. "The Peeps at Many Lands" series, etc. PICTURES These should be supplied in part by the school; e.g. small pictures given to all to mount in scrapbooks, or large pictures for class instruction. Children should also be encouraged to bring pictures of wind- mills, tulip fields, Dutch shoes, etc. These may be found in supplementary readers or can often be obtained from advertise- ments or calendars. PROBLEMS 1. Arrange a Dutch market place with stalls. (Use packing cases.) 2. Act out what happens on a market day. (Pantomime.) a. Siiow how the children carry the cabbages. f). Show how they wash some of the vege- tables. r. Show how they load a boat. (L Show liow they unload a boat. f. Show how tlicy carry cheese. /. Show how they weigh th(^ cheese. .'). Have one child take his i)lace in a market stall and sell cabl)ages and onions and flowers to the customers (otlicr children). Make out I he lisl of prices. All should have small change ready, (l)raniatic action.) 4. (Jne child makes a trip around tlic market stalls and finds one that contains cookies and St. Nicholas dolls with cnrnints for 144 sociALizmr, the child eyes, another gets a basket of tulips, etc. (Dramatic action.) 5. Draw or cut out of paper a Holland yoke with which to carry pails of milk or baskets of vegetables. (). Get the churn ready for churning. (Pan- tomime.) a. Scald the churn. b. Scald the dasher. c. Scald the cover. d. Put in the cream. e. Adjust the cover. 7. Churn the way Hans and Katrina do, and sing at the same time, " Come, butter, come! Come, butter, come! Some for a honey-cake, and some for a bun." 8. Clean house in the way Katrina's mother cleans hers. (Pantomime.) a. Get out the scrubl)ing brushes, the mops, and the pails and the dusters. h. Show what is done with the best bed and with the other beds. c. Show what is done with the brass jugs. 0. Draw a picture of a Dutch family going to church. 10. Represent Dutch scenes on the sand table. (I. Show the windmills forcing the water back into the sea through the canals and rivers. b. Construct the dikes and be prepared to tell American travelers how the dikes, THIRD GRADE WORK 145 the canals, and the windmills serve Hol- land's needs. c. Represent the black and white cows grazing in the pasture, and Katrina and Hans going with their mother to the pasture to do the milking. d. Construct the farmhouse and show where the cow stays in winter. e. Model the canals used in Holland and represent the boats and barges on them in the summer season. /. Change the season of the year and place skaters and ice boats on the canals. 11. Make a Manila scrapbook and see who can get the most interesting groups of pic- tures to paste in the book to keep. Try to have every phase of Dutch life repre- sented, such as : a. Conveyances and means of transporta- tion. h. The costumes. c. Interior and exterior views of houses. d. Pictures of market scenes. e. Pictures of liilip fields. /. Pictures of Ilolhiiid cattle. 1 1. Life in Germany from a Child's Point of View. A. Location and general description of Cermany. 1. Describe lonte yon would take in order to reach (lerniany. 2. The Rhine. 14(3 SOCIALIZING THE CHILD a. Love which Germans have for this beauti- ful river. b. Its vineyards. c. Its castles. d. Legends connected udth the Rhine. Ut IJrtjduL'.'l -v ;.'!.'.'.'; i.-.iw.'; .. , ..- I' : t;.;. Children of the Black Forest, Germany. .'■J .i.,cum. 3. The Black Forest. a. Description of the country and climate. b. Homes of peasants. ( 1 ) First floor — stables for cows and horses. (2) Seconrl floor — rooms in which the family live. THIRD GRADE WORK 147 (3) Tliird floor — granaries for storing corn. (4) Outside stairway to the second floor. (5) Tiled or thatched roof. c. Costumes of the peasants. d. Folk tales and stories of elves, etc., con- nected with the Black Forest. 4. Toy-making. a. By peasants in the Black Forest. Each family confines itself to making just one kind of toy — a wooden Santa Claus or a wooden soldier, every member of the family, even the children, helping. b. In the cities — Nuremberg. (1) Noah's arks. (2) Toy towns and farms. (3) Doll's furniture. (4) Cuckoo clocks. B. Tlic city of BerUn, remarkable for its beauty and clcaiiliiiess. 1 . The streets. (I. They are broad and straight. I). UiiiforiiKMl men are constantly picking up ^ scraps of paper and other forms of waste. No dirt is allowcMl to accunuilate. r. Streets are washed l)y city cnrts rcgulnrly. (1. They are all well-liglited. e. Streets are lined with rows of trees, and the " flats " fjK'ing a street liave balcony competitions, \'ying with one another in their display of pretty flowers and 148 SOCIALIZING THE CHILD foliage — nasturtiums in many colors, bright scarlet geraniums, pink hanging geraniums, climl)ing roses. /. There are no unsightly advertisements. All public advertisements are placed on large hollow posts in the inside of which are the paste brush, short ladder, and paste pot used by the " bill stickers " long before daylight. On the posts we may see — (1) Theater announcements. (2) Notices of public meetings. (3) Advertisements of lost pets. (4) Pohce notices in deep crimson making offers of reward, etc. g. There are no offensive street cries or un- necessary noises. (1) No newsboys crying " Extra." (2) No hucksters crying their wares. h. There are no street beggars. 2. The squares and " open places." (I. They are beautifully decorated with flowers and shrubs. h. They are traversed by broad walks and are provided with plenty of benches where children may play and rest. c. Plants which are out of blossom are re- placed promptly by the care-takers, who also pick up untidy scraps of paper and deposit them in wire baskets. d. There are many beautiful fountains and monuments in marble and bronze. THIRD GRADE WORK 149 3. The parks and playgrounds. a. Their attractions. (1) Hills of sand for the smallest children. (2) Games of all kinds for the larger chil- dren. (3) Rowboats on the lake. h. The names of some of them. (1) The Tiergarten, one of the most beauti- ful parks of Berlin, easy of access. (2) The Grunewald, a popular summer resort, a large tract of pine and birch covering nearly 30 square miles. The fare from Berlin is 2 cents by train or 4 cents by trolley. In summer children go there for picnics and in winter for toboggan- ing. (3) Botanical Gardens. (4) Zoological Gardens, containing one of llic very best collections of animals. 4. Transportation in Hcilin. (I. Huge electrics cars (fare 2 cents for 10 miles). }>. Horse onuiibuses (fare 1 cent). c. Motor carriages. (1. Horse drosche. e. Dog carts (of the i)()or). .'). Tlic Berlin l''irc Brigade its excellent work, of wliicii the citizens rirc Vi'vy jiroud. (■>. 'i'lic j-)crlin shops or department stores, con- taining a large assortment of chilihcn's toys which are made in Gcimany. 150 SOCIALIZING THE CHILD C. School life in Berlin. 1. The school day. a. Long hours — from eight o'clock to one or two, oftentimes with afternoon les- sons besides. h. Recesses of ten or fifteen minutes every hour for fresh air and exercise. 2. Studies. a. Languages. Besides German, they begin early to study Latin, Greek, and French. h. Home work is often so heavy that it is necessary to engage the services of a special tutor. 3. Glass excursions. a. To the Zoo. 6. To the woods to play games, c. To the museums and art galleries in winter. 4. Vacations. a. 1\\ summer only five weeks. h. At Easter two weeks. c. At Christmas two weeks. d. At Michaelmas (a church feast occurring on the 29th of September) ten days. 5. Fete days on which there is no school. (t. Review Day in the spring and in the fall. h. The Emperor's Birthday. 6. Amusements and sports. n. Music. h. Dancing. c. Skating in winter (40 miles of ice on arti- ficial lakes and rivers). THIRD GRADE WORK 151 d. Cycling. e. Swimming (the swimming baths are owned by the municipality). D. Christmas in Berlin, the greatest festival of the whole year. 1. Preparation. a. (lirls and boys are busy making presents in secret for their parents and relatives. The boys usually work by themselves, but the girls prefer to meet in parties at the different homes. No boys or " grown-ups " are allowed at these parties (Kranzchen). 6. All incoming, mysterious bundles are placed at once in the " forbidden room." c. At school the small children learn poems to recite at home on ( 'hrist mas Eve. d. The streets take on a holi(hiy appearance. (1) Fascinating shop windows picture scenes in fairyland, big dolls repre- senting the characters. (2) Booths are erected in which cheap knick-knacks and toys are sold. (3) Fir trees ap|)ear in great loads about ten days before Christ mas ; Ww un- packing and placing of llicni ai'ouse great interest. (4) Sleighing parties iiro the fasiiion, and every sleigli has bright snow cloths. 2. The chief celebration, on the ex'ening l)efore Christmas. 152 SOCIALIZING THE CHILD a. The ceremonies connected with the open- ing of the " forbidden room." (1) Singing of Christmas carols l)y tlie children in some adjoining room, especially " Stille Nacht, heilige Nacht." (2) Ringing the bell. At first bell the singing ceases, at second bell the children prepare to rush, at third bell the door is opened. 6. The Christmas Tree in all its glory ap- pears ; also the separate tables for each member of the family and on them the '' Biinte Teller " (variegated plate) con- taining apples, nuts, cakes, etc. 3. The week between Christmas and New Year. a. Series of festivals at the theaters. b. Special play for children, at the close of which every one on the stage and in the audience joins in singing " Stille Nacht " in chorus. c. The celebration of New Year's Eve at home. (1) Playing of games. (2) The melting of lead, then dropping it into cold water to determine the events of the coming year. (3) Relighting the Christmas Tree near midnight. (4) Comparing watches to get exact time. (5) Listening for the bells. (6) Refreshments. THIRD GRADE WORK 153 (7) " Prosit Neujahi- " called out by every- one just at the first stroke of twelve. 4. Welcoming the New Year. a. At eight o'clock in the morning the grand reveille is sounded. h. The trumpeters in the cupola of the Im- perial Schloss play a beautiful chorale which echoes far and wide. c. Then the trumpeters and two bands march through the principal street, Unter den Linden, to the Brandenburg Gate and back again, playing stirring and im- pressive music all the way. d. At ten o'clock the state coaches bring the princes, ambassadors, distinguished officers, etc., to the Schloss for the " Court of Felicitations " which is pre- ceded by a service in the chapel. A \',\{\KV T)i:sf"IMl»'ri()X OF A DAY IN Hi;i{l.l\ (The teacher .should place pictures of the following sul)jec'ts within nuifTc of the pupils' vision two or thrc^e days before; this lesson is given : A liiulcn fre(>. The I>r;ind('nl)Mig riulc. A section of the piin(i|);U slrrct, I'lilcr den l-iiidt'n. ( )lir of I he l)(;iutiful open SCJIUIR^S. The Htreet cleaners. Till' Imperial ('astle, or Schloss. She should have on Iht desk also a co|)y of the vohnue " Merlin " in llif "Peeps at (Irriit (yities" series. This volinuf i-ontains 154 SOCIALIZING THE CHILD gooil colored plates. As the teachei- shows each picture she should describe what it represents, exi)lainiMg why it is of inter- est to us.] If we enter Berlin from the west and go through this gate, which the Germans call the Brandenburger Thor (show the picture), we shall find oui'selves in the chief street of the city. It is called Unter den Linden (show the picture). There are no holes in the pavement, not even a crack anywhere ; neither is there any rubbish in sight. The pavement is as clean as a well-kept kitchen floor. On either side of this main roadway (point out the roadway) on which we are driving, are these other roads for the people on horseback, and still other roads for people who choose to walk. (Point out and trace each.) Remember, all these roadways taken together form the street called Unter den Linden. There is plenty of room for everybody, for Unter den Linden is 196 feet, or ahnost 12 rods, wide. (How wide is this room measured in feet? In rods? Then Unter den Lin- den is how many times the width of this room?) This center roadway (trace again) on which we are driving is 70 feet wide. (Compare again with a known width.) There are seventy open squares in Beilin similar to this one. (Show picture of one of them.) Some people aie walking, some are driving, and others are sitting on the benches enjo^'ing tlie flowers and the fountains. Little children are playing in many of the squares. From these squares we can see beautiful streets, lined with trees, shrubs, and carefully trimmed grass, leading out in every direction. We may drive on these streets for twelve or fifteen miles into the su})urbs. The drive creeps around the edges of lakes and extends far into the forests. On our outward ti'ij), and on our i-eturn by another route, we can listen to delightful music and can see scores of statues of German heroes. Everybody in Germany understands music. Almost everybody can sing and play on some musical instrument. Some of the statues we pass are monuments to great composers THIRD GRADE WORK 155 of music. (Germany is the land of Bach, Beethoven, Brahms, Haydn, Handel, Mozart, Wagner, and scores of others too numerous to mention.) We are certain to hear good music while eating our luncheon, and we shall listen to it again at din- nei- in the evening. The Germans feel that ev(Tyl)ody, children as well as people who are grown up, has a right to hear good nuisic and to see good pictures. (Do you know anybody who has gone to Germany to study nuisic? Many Americans do go there for that purpose.) We pass the art galleries and museums on our drive. These are the buildings to which the school children make excursions in the winter (j-ou can find pictures of them in this portfolio). In this picture we see Ijoj-s and girls and men and women, on roller skates going to luncheon. (Use the copy of "Berlin" on the desk. Show pictures from this volume of "Peeps at Great Cities.") The homes, with a few exceptions, are not imposing. Most of the people in Berlin live in comfortable "flats." 'Vlw iiouse- keeping in tlu' homes is as excellent as the city housekeeping. It takes careful, constant work, and able leafiers to keep a city so dean. Painstaking care and skillful plaiitiing are neces- sary to make a city so beautiful. Th(> Geiiuans are willing to take the trouble to plan well, to work hard, and to spend the necessary money to make theii- cities clean, wholesome, beauti- ful, and attractive places in whicli to live. These arc the men who take such good caic of llie streets of Berlin (show i)ictures of strecit cleaners in uniform). Some of these men have served their country as soldiers. When a m:in is no longer neecjed in the ;itiriy he may helj) to t;tke c;ii'e of tlu^.se bciinfiful streets in Berlin, oi lie may si'.vvc: as a policeniaii, but he will have to pa.ss examinations first. Not every man who has once l>een a soldier- can lie ti listed in I he street-rih^aning flepartment, for the peo|)|e of Berlin are carefnl lo select, only the beat men for such work. Their piivileges and their duties 150 SOCIALIZINCJ THE CHILD are printed so thai, there can he no niisunderstandinK about whal is to 1)(> don(\ Th(> city will not allow them to smoke when on duly. If they serve the city a lonf>; time they receive an honorary gift. If they are sick the city takes care of them. They must wear uniforms. Sometimes boys may be p(M-mitted to assist the men in some of tlie work. The chief commissioner or supervisor of the street-cleaning department is a very able man. He must know the best way of caring for the streets. He is proud of his work and proud of the men who work under his leadership. H(^ knows that Ger- many has the best kept, the cleanest, and most orderly cities in the world, and he is enthusiastic about Berlin's share of that gIorj\ Befoi'e taking up these problems, the teacher should read to the class from "Berlin" in the series "Peeps at Great Cities" and should give each child a chance to look at the colored illustra- tions. They will be especially interested in t he beautiful parks with their lakes which in winter are turned into skating rinks on which people can skate foi- miles and miles. She should also read to them or have them read for themselves from such stoi-i(>s as "Fritz in (lermanv," "Louise" from "Seven Little Sisters who lived on the Round Ball that Floats in the Air" and "Louise" from "Each and All." PROBLEMS 1. Study of the street Unter den Linden. a. Notice the arranjj;ement of t he trees ; the shrubbery ; the flowers. Which road- way is the widest? h. Represent Unter den Linden on the sand table. c. Measure the width of the street in front of the school building. Find out how many THIRD GRADE WORK 157 such streets could be placed side by side in tlio street called Unter den Linden. Which is the widest street in this city? (Or in the nearest city if the children have seen it.) How many such streets could be placed side by side in Unter den Linden? Have you ever vseen the street called Fifth Avenue in New York City? How wide is it? Have you ever seen Pennsylvania Avenue in Washing- ton, D. G. ? How wide is it? (Teacher can easily procure pictures of these streets and show them.) Have you ever seen any city street that is as wide as Unter den Linden? Have you ever seen a city street planned with such care? Have you ever seen a city gate ? Picture vStudy. ' a. Find and paste in your scrapbook pictures that help to tell you how the city of Berlin looks. Write the name under each picture. I). Find pictures that show how Clerman boys and girls look \vh(Mi going to school. Select pictures that show liow the schoolrooms in ( l(>rmMny look. Paste tlu'in in your scrapbook. r. I''iiid pictures of the streets of Berlin nt ("hristrnas time :ind piisto tlirni in your scrnpbook. (I. Name a list of toys lliat y(»u have seen which were made in ( lermany. What 158 SOCIALIZING THE CHILD else do we get from Germany? Write both lists in your book. e. How could we go from here to Berlin? Name the various kinds of conveyances by land and water. Get pictures of these conveyances and paste them in your scrapbook to show how to take the trip. 3. Contrast the street-cleaning department in our city with the street-cleaning depart- ment in Berlin. a. In Berlin only able men specially trained for the work can help manage the clean-' ing of the streets, and the man who supervises them likes his work and is proud of his men. Who has charge of our streets? Have we a street com- missioner? Have you seen the men cleaning the streets? Are they trained for their work? Do street cleaners in our cities wear uniforms? (Show pic- tures of street cleaners of New York City, or of other places, in uniform.) h. In Berlin the men who clean the streets are divided into four groups. Each group has an inspector, and then there is a head inspector over all. Each section of the city has its street-cleaning depots with yards attached in which the brooms, shovels, uniforms, vehicles, and all tools and articles are kept when not in use. They also have a machine THIRD GRADE WORK 159 shop in which tools can be repaired, or from which new ones may be obtained. Do we have inspectors? Do they have to pass an examination to see if they are fit to do the work? Do the same men work in all parts of the city, or is one section assigned to one group of men, and another section to another group? Have you seen the men sweeping the streets? What did they do with the sweepings? Have you seen men col- lecting garbage? Where do they take it? What is done with it? Have you seen men collecting ashes? Where are the ashes taken and what is done with them? Have you ever seen people removing snow from the business section of the city? Why is it necessary to do so in some cities? Have you over seen waste i)ai)er, or banana or orange peel ill our streets? Have we baskets in which to i)lace the waste that collects? To what arc they fastened? Where are they located? Where are the brooms kept? Do tlicy look Hke the brooms used ill the house? Have you ever seen a street sprinkler? Wli> do we have them'.' Do the swee|)ers sprinkle a street bchirc they swecj) it'* Do we wash our streets? 'I'hey wash the streets in Hcrlin regularly. c. Ill P)crhii the boys who assist get 2 marks I GO SOCIALIZING THE CHILD (a mark is a p'wcv of money worth a little less than 25 cents), or about 50 cents, a day for the first two years. The third year they get 2j marks and the fifth year, 3 marks a day. The fore- man in Berlin receives 4f marks a day for the first three years. This is in- creased the fourth year to 5 marks a day, which is the highest pay he ever receiv^es. The men who work under the foremen get 3f marks a day for the first three years, and thereafter 4 marks a day. The entire force is paid every two weeks. When are our men paid? How much do they receive a day? What does our foreman get? How many hours a day do our men work? 4. Have you ever heard of people who sort street rubbish after it is disinfected, to get — Rags, Paper, Old shoes, etc. Have 3TJU ever heard of garbage incin- erators? What use do we make of them in our large cities? Have you ever seen dead animals removed from the streets? Where are they taken ? ^Vre they good for anything? 5. What can the people who live in a city do to lielp the street-cleaning department and to improve the appearance of the streets ? THIRD GRADE WORK 161 a. They can help to lessen the cost of collect- ing by putting each form of waste col- lected in the homes into the kind of receptacle recommended. What kinds of waste may be put with the ashes? Into which receptacle do we put waste paper? Potato parings? b. They can help to lessen the cost by putting waste paper, or peanut shells, or banana peel, or candy boxes in the street re- ceptacles prepared for them, instead of dropping them in the street. c. They can have competitions to see who can make the most beautiful balconies, backyards, and schoolyards. (3. What can the people who live in a city do to help those who try to keep the parks and playgrounds clean and beautiful? OTHER CITY PROBLEMS 1. I low are we kept well? (I. The health (l('|)artnient inspects the sani- tary conditions of — Schools. Factories. Streets. Mills. P.'irks. Piiw'ilc Houses, etc. f). Tlic lu'.'iltli (l('|);irt incut t lies to |)r('\'(Mil the sale of iinpiiic milk, or meal, or fruit, etc., .mikI inspects the water supply. c. Physicians nmst rf>por1 any conlagious disease to the licaltli oflifcrs. '^i'licn tlic health depart incnl tells tlio unfortunate 162 SOCIALIZING THE CHILD family what to do. The patient may remain at home, in which case a card is placed on the door as a warning to other citizens ; or he may be sent to a hospital for contagious diseases until he recovers. d. The health department disinfects the house when danger of contagion is over and removes the placard. It may furnish antitoxin free. 2. How can we help the health department? a. By keeping clothing and bodies clean. b. By staying out of doors long enough each day to get plenty of fresh air, and by retiring at the same time each night so as to get plenty of sleep. How much sleep do we need? c. By being careful not to eat decayed fruit or to drink out of cups that others have used. d. By being careful about the towels we use. By not handling books, pencils, or any- thing else that a person with a conta- gious disease has used. e. By refraining from visiting a person who has a contagious disease. /. By reporting unsanitary conditions. g. By refraining from spitting in the street or on the floor of a trolley car, or rail- way station. h. By helping to exterminate places in which flies breed. THIRD GRADE WORK 163 REFERENCES FOR TEACHER'S USE Andrews, Jane, Seven Little Sisters who Live on the Round Ball that Floats in the Air. (The story of Louise.) Andrews, Jane, Each and All. (The story of Louise.) Collier, Price, Germany and the Germans from an American Point of View. Dawson, \\'. H., German Life in Town and Country. McDonald, Mrs. Etta Austin (Blaisdell) and Dalrymple, Julia, Fritz in Germany. Marshall, H. E., History of Germany. SiDGwicK, Mrs. Alfred. Peeps at Many Lands — Germany. SiEPEN, Edith, Peeps at Great Cities — Berlin. Wade, M. H., Our Little German Cousin. WvLiE, Ida Alena Ross, The Germans. VoNGE, C. M., Aunt Charlotte's Stories of German History for the Little Ones. in. Life in Japan From a Child's Point of View. A. Location of the country with a brief description of the general characteristics. \. Write the name Japan on the blackl)oar(l. 2. Point out the ishuids on the globe. Trace on the jilobe a route to Japan and have the ciiiiih'cn name the conveyances used on 1h(* journey by land and water. 3. Describe physical features. a. Mountains and volcanoes. (Show |)icture of I'ujisan oi I'usiyania and tell whci'c it is.) h. I'rcciuency of carlJKiUMkes. r. Rivers and WMtcrfiills. 4. Show colored pictures of tiie country and its fX'oplc tnlscn from tlic Xali'intdl (i((Hir of ebony in- laid with gold. Floors may be of laic polished woods. The screens which separate the rooms may be painted beautifully. The wall piclinc or |);iiicl painted on silk is culled a kitkctnono. In the bett<'r homes gicat pains are always taken to have the kakemono in perfect keeping wit h its sin'ronndings. 166 SOCIALIZING THE CHILD 2. Surrouiidings. The house faces a court, and the best room overlooks a beautiful garden. The en- trance from the street is opposite the rear wall usually. 3. The *' honorable recess." An alcove in the best room of the house is the portion of the home in which the most beautiful thhigs are kept. In this " hon- orable recess " the treasures are changed from time to time. Those not in use, whether vases, or paintings, etc., are kept out in the garden in a fireproof building which is made of cement usually, and painted black, with the owner's crest in white on the top. It is called a " go- down." 4. The Kitchen. A small metal vessel like a brazier filled with charcoal is the usual form of stove. A large, rough jar nearly filled with water, into which the fragments of burning char- coal are dropped when the fire is no longer needed, saves the charcoal and is a pre- caution against fire. There is also a jar as large as a barrel to hold the drinking water and numerous jugs to hold sauce, vinegar, wine, etc. Stout bowls with rough bottoms are used for graters ; shallow earthen pans are used for parching corn and peas. Convenient cupboards with slid- ing doors contain the dishes. THIKD GRADE WORK 167 C. The new Japanese baby. 1. Visits of friends and relatives to welcome the newcomer and the gifts presented. a. The favorite gift is an inru hariko which is a papier mache dog, strangely propor- tioned and spotted black and white like a circus pony. This dog is supposed to give the baby strength. Other presents are toys, and pieces of cotton, silk, or crepe, for the baby's dress. Each present must be accompanied by fish or eggs for good luck. h. Each present must be carefully wrapped in delicate paper and tied with a red and white paper string, and the noshi, or bit of dried fish inserted for good luck, must be daintily folded in a piece of colored paper. The proper manner of sending a present and of accepting one is of great importance in Japan. 2. The naming of I he baby, before the seventh day. a. No middle names are given. h. No name of any Hving relative can be use( 1 . r. Date of l)irlh and name are ivgistcred (I. Household holid.'iy i-- Im-M in honor of Ihc event. e. l?f'd bo;ui rice, a festive dish, is served on such occasions. '.\. The Miija Maim, that is the c(>n^mony of taking the baby to the temple for its first 168 SOCIALIZING THE CHILD visit on the thirty-first day if a boy, or on the thirty-third day if a girl. a. Baby's dress. A kimono of finest silk or crepe made es- pecially for the occasion. (The crest of the family appears upon it in various places.) Tlw prevailing color of the back- ground is red for a girl and yellow for a boy. b. Admiring friends are there in great num- bers. c. An attendant carries the " spotted dogs." d. The purpose of the ceremony is to place the child under the protection of the guardian deity of the place or district in which it is born. e. OfTerings are made in the temple, and an amulet is obtained which the l)ahy wears thereafter in a bright -colored crepe bag fastened to its side. /. On the way home from the temple the baby calls on all the friends who sent " spotted dogs " and offers each a bag of candy purchased in the temple court as a return present. g. At home that same evening there is an entertainment to which only intimate friends and relatives are invited. h. On that same day all presents received during the first month of the child's Ufe must be acknowledged by a return gift sent by a special messenger, or, if the THIRD GRADE WORK 169 presents are numerous, more than one day may be devoted to this. Suitable return presents may or may not be accompanied by a note of thanks. The kinds of return presents are : (1) Red bean rice sent in a handsome lacquered box on a lacquered tray and the whole covered with a square of crei3e or silk, decorated with the family crest. (Both box and tray are returned by the messenger who delivered the gift.) (2) Cakes of mochi, or rice paste. 4. Carrying tlie baby. (Use pictures.) a. Only babies of the lower classes are tied on the back of a sister, or brother, or mother. b. ]^al)ies of the middle classes ride upon the back of a nurse until they arc able to walk, and arc kc|)t in the gardens, ratiicr tliaii in the streets, where the poor ciiiidi'cn play. c. |-iabics of the richest families, of the nobility, and of 1 he imperial family, are ne\'er carried about on the l)ack of any- one. I). Amusements, games, sports, and festivals of Japanese' childien. 1. P'lyiiig kites and kite f^tes. 2. Sf)inning tops :iiid light ing tops. ■\. Hunt ing M;rMsshoppets ;in(l (ircHicH. 170 SOCIALIZING THE CHILD 4. Drivinp; butterflies throu^li the air with fans. 5. Fishing. 6. Setting up toy water wheels to drive mills and machines which the boys have made. 7. Painting sand pictures by the roadside with colored sand. a. White sand is used first to represent a sheet of white paper. b. Black sand is used to outline some figure or animal. c. Red, yellow, and blue sand are all used in filling in the spaces. 8. Visits to fairs and participation in festivals. 9. Many games with cards ; usually these are tests of knowledge of literature or history. 10. Wearing masks to represent animals. 11. Rolling hoops. 12. Various games with balls and balloons, also battledore and shuttlecock. E. Holidays in Japan. 1. The Feast of Dolls for girls, which is held on th(^ third day of the third month and lasts three days. a. The \dsit to the fireproof storehouse in the garden to get the household dolls with which mother, grandmother, and perhaps her mother and grandmother played, and which were then put away for other little girls of the family. b. The arrangement of the dolls on long THIRD GRADE WORK 171 shelves covered with red and placed on the walls of the " honorable recess." c. The most prominent dolls are the effigies of the Emperor and Empress in antique court costume seated on a lacquered dias ; near them are the five court musicians, each dressed in his robe of office and holding his instrument. These imperial dolls are given the place of honor. An elegant table service is set out before them consisting of trays, bowls, cups, sake-pots, and rice buckets, and the little girls serve them with food three times a day while the festival lasts. d. Dozens of other dolls of less importance are in the collection. Each has the proper furnishings and conveniences of its own day such as kitchen utensils, fire boxes, tongs, charcoal baskets, toilet articles, tea sets, etc. e. New dolls are always ))urchased during the festival and favorite old ones are repaired. /. Little girls visit each other to see the display in the various households. They also visit ihc shops, which take on a festive a))|)('ar:iiic(' ;it such limes and arc suit.'il>l\' dccoi-.-ilcd. Thf Flag Festi\;il loi boys, celebrated on the lifth d;iy of the fil'lh moiilh. (I. I'or days before, the shops are gay with teinj)ting toys, b.iiiiicrs, ;iii(l flags. 172 SOCIALIZING THE CHILD Ri produced bu ptrmisulon of The Phlladd phia Museums. Lklkbkating the Flag Festival. Within the homes the same red-covered shelves used in the dolls' festival are placed on the walls of the " honorable recess " and a visit is made to the garden to get treasures from the storehouse. The flower used in decoration is the iris, or flag, with sword-shaped leaves. The objects placed on the shelves are helmets, bows and arrows, swords, spears, coats of mail, flags, and images of their heroes. Jingo, the warrior empress, is there ; Kintaro, who grew up in the mountains and fought with bears when he was a mere babe ; THIRD GRADE WORK 173 Yoshitsune, the marvelous fencer and general ; Takenouchi, the white-haired prime minister, and other brave heroes too numerous to mention ; soldiers, generals on horseback, bands, and army nurses. e. The food offered is mochi wrapped in oak leaves because the oak is the emblem of strength and endurance. /. The emblem used on the flagstaff is the carp, a fish that goes up the stream against the current, signifying perse- verance and courage under difficulties, and readiness to overcome obstacles to progress. The flag of Japan, flags of the navy, and carp banners in colored silk float from bamboo poles in each yard. g. On the streets there are sham battles, marching and counter-marching, and acrobatic performances. 3. The various flower festivals during which the childrfMi have picnics spending the day out of doors in a famous garden. 'I'liese festi- vals occur when any one of the following attain their greatest loveliness: a. The plum. h. The cherry. r. The chrysanthemum. (I. The iris. e. The azalea. /. The lotus. 174 ROrTATJZTNG TTTE CHTLD Ht produced bu liirmis.tion of The Phltaddphia M m.iums. The New Year's Feast. The Feast of the New Year lasting seven days is the greatest annual festival in Japan. a. Preparation for the New Year. (1) House cleaning. Every box and closet must be emptied and put in order again ; mats are taken out, beaten and brushed, and woodwork from ceiling to floor is carefully washed. Walls are flicked with a paper flapper which takes the place of our feather duster. All the clothing and the quilts must be sunned and aired. All the curios of the family must be unpacked, carefully dusted, and wrapped and put back into their boxes. THIRD GRADE WORK 175 All repairs in either house or garden must be completed, and lastly, every- thing in the house must be beaten with a fresh bamboo. (2) Preparing the food for the festival. (3) The presents to be sent out before the festival and during the day. (4) The sewing and the shopping. (5) The decorations for the festival. Gates are almost concealed by pine and bamboo on which oranges, lob- sters, straw rope, straw fringe, white paper, and images of good luck are hung as decorations. In the tokonortia, or place of honor in the best room, great cakes of mochi (rice dumplings) are set in a dish covered with fern leaves and sur- rounded by seaweed. Even the horses are decorated witli gay streamers. h. The celebration. (1) Chilch'cii \v(>ar their jirettiest clothes from early morning until bedtime, and go about in jinrtkLslias with their parents from house to liouse to make New Year's \isits. (2) Guests are coming and going in all directions to bring congratulations !ind gifts. (3j in the evening young and old join in the games. 176 SOCIALIZING THE CHILD F. How the children help in the daily occupations carried on in city and country. 1. The work done by Japanese boys who begin to earn their own living at the age of fiv^e if the family is poor. (Study pictures of workshops in the city.) a. Helping to bind books. h. Helping to make paper lanterns and to decorate them. c. Helping to make porcelain cups. d. Winding the grass rope used in decora- tions for festive occasions. e. Weaving mats for the floor, etc. 2. Help given by the girls. a. Taking care of the baby. h. Helping about the house in various ways. 3. Outdoor work in the country in which the boys and girls both help. (Study pictures of burden bearers in Japan, of the rice fields, of the tea plants.) G. A Japanese school. (Study pictures.) 1 . Peculiar customs. a. The children remove their shoes at the door. h. The socks worn indoors look like mittens. c. The children's pockets are in their sleeves. d. The children learn their lessons out loud. e. The master carries a fan. 2. Politeness. a. Ways of showing respect to the teacher. (>. Politeness of teacher toward pupils. THIRD GRADE WORK 177 3. Manner of reading and writing. a. In using the reader the child turns to the right-hand cover or end of the book for the first page. The hues do not run across the page, but up and down. h. The writing is done with a brush instead of a pen. c. The pupil paints words, one under the other, beginning at the top right-hand corner and finishing at the bottom left- hand corner. d. The Japanese learn to address an envelope thus : United States New York New York City Brown John Mr. //. Home instruct ion ot .l:ii);iii(',s{^ children. 1. Politeness and consideration for others. a. How to treat superiors, e([uals, and in- feriors; how many bows to make, and how to make them gracefully. h. How to offer a cup or a |)lat(\ r. How to carry a bowl or a tray at the proper Ie\-el in serving a guest. (1. I low to eiil er a room. e. How to laugh withoul being boisterous. Noisy laughter seems vulgar to a Ja[)aneso. /. The girls arc taught to listen t(t the con- 178 SOCIALIZING THE CHILD versalioii of others syiiii)athetically aiul to speak hut seldom. g. A girl is taught to look up to her brother as her master even if he is younger than herself, and must try at all times to make him happy. 2. Self-control. They are taught not to cry or to quarrel, but to control the emotions of grief or anger. The girls are ex- pected to be unselfish, the boys brave. 3. Cultivation of an appreciation of beauty. a. Both boys and girls are taught to appre- ciate the beauties of nature, especially flowers. h. They are taught how to place a picture, a vase, or a spray of blossoms in the " honorable recess " to produce the best artistic effect. /. Commendable characteristics of the Japanese. 1. They are an exceedingly polite people, noted for their courtesy, and they show remark- able self-control. 2. They are generous, high-spirited, patriotic, and courageous. 3. They are noted for their cleanliness and thrift, their simple living, and keen appreciation of the beauties of nature. 4. They are also noted for their tenderness toward and patience with children, and for their devotion to aged relatives. 5. They excel in artistic workmanship and in THIRD GRADE WORK 179 art. In the last 60 years they have made conspicuous progress in industrial, commer- cial, and military lines. 6. Japanese children, in the judgment of Euro- peans and Americans who have spent years in Japan, are the happiest, the most com-- teous, and the least self-conscious of any children in the world. They are punished less than other children, and seem to need reproof or rebuke less frequently than chil- dren in other lands. 7. The philologists tell us that there are no " swear words " in the Japanese language. Query: What can we learn from the Japanese? What can they learn from us ? PROBLEMS 1. Make a list of articles wliicli we use, and which you have seen, that are made in .lapaii. (If childnMi are near any of our largest cities or the Pacific Coast, the list will be long; but even in country districts the fan and the cup and saucer are known.) 2. Take tlic cliildrcn lo a museum, a Japanese store, or the Ja|)anese depart rnciit of any large store to see the Ix-atitifiil workniaiisliip of llic .lapanese. Collect sanifjles of Japanese silk, crepe, and j)ap('i\ ',^. Have you seen any Japanese men? ila\'e you seen any Japanese women? Are there many Jai)anese living in our country ? In wliidi portion of the count I'v do most of them live? 180 SOCIALIZING THE CHILD 4, Are we as courteous in our treatment of them as they are in their treatment of Americans who hve in their country ? 5. Do you know any Americans who have traveled in •^ Japan, or who have hved there for some time? Why do Americans go to Japan? Why do Japanese come here? (J. Show Japanese flags. 7. Contrast their hoHdays with ours. REFERENCES FOR TEACHER'S USE AND FOR SUPPLEMENTARY READING [References for teacher's use on Jupun are many and copiously illustrated. Those written by people who have made only a Ijrief stay in Japan should ])e avoided.] Bacon, Mrs. A. M., Jupauc.se (lirl.s (uid Women. Views the Japanese from the standpoint of home life and em- phasizes the feminine side. Illustrations by Keishu Takenouchi. Campbell, Helen L., The Story of Little Metsu, the Japanese Boy. A book of 93 pages, well illustrated, and full of significant facts on Japanese life. Carroll, Clarence F., Around the World, Book One, pages 139 to 159, contains an account which third grade cliildren can read easily ; also many illustrations bearing on the material suggested in this outline. Chance, L. M., Little Folk-.'; of Muiuj Landi<. The Story of Alatsu, pages 9o to 111, can be read by the chil- dren. Finnemore, John, Peeps at Many Lands — Japan. Needs adapta- tion. Hubbard, T'iardner Greene, The Japanese Nation — A Typical Product of Environment. This article is found in the Annual Report of the Smithsonian Institute for 1895 and is well worth reading. Lloyd, A., Every-day Japan. This gives the college professor's point of view on the daily life, lllu.slmted. THIRD GRADE WORK 181 Menpes, Mortimer, Japan, a Record in Color. (Transcribed by his daughter, Dorothy Menpes.) This looks at life in Japan from an artist's point of view. The daughter, Dorothy Menpes, lived in Japan when she was a child, and re- turned again later in life. The illustrations in color are by the father, jMortimer IVIenpes. Pkkkins, Lucy P'itch, The Japanese Twins. Here the author succeeds in getting a little child's jjoint of view and tells the significant facts of Japanese life in a charming manner. See especially her account of Take's birthday. Chapter V (the Feast of Dolls), and Taro's Birthday (the Feast of Flags). The courtesj^ of the people is well shown in the stories. Wade, M. H., Our Little Japanese Cousin. Contains good material which will need adaptation for third grade children. IV. Life in France From a Child's Point of View. A. Location and description of Paris, the repre- sentative city. (The French people liave made it tlie most beauliful city in the world. Everythinji; that feasts the eye or delights the ear can be found in i^aris, the " Paradise of Children," who are welcomed in all its pleasure fi;rounds.) 1. Ijocate on a glolx^ 2. The plan of the city. a. The city resem})les a wheel in its plan. h. The hul). tlie "Cradle of France," is a small island in the Seine, and the fa- mous ('athe(hnl of Noti'e Dame looks down upon it . c. The circumference or rim of IIk- wheel is the outer boundary of the ('ity. 182 SOCIALIZING THE CHILD 3. The city as we see it from the Seine. a. This river winds through the city for six and one half miles. By following it from east to west we can see some of the best portions of Paris. 6. On the right bank we may see — (1) The Place de la Concorde, the largest square of the city, with its obelisk, ^ its statues, its monuments, its whir of wheels by day, and its countless beautiful lamps at night. (2) The column of Victory. (3) The triumphal arch. (4) Magnificent pubhc buildings, palaces, shops, and art galleries. (5) Parks and boulevards filled with trav- elers and visitors from every land. (6) The Gardens of the Tuileries, which extend from the Louvre to the Place de la Concorde. (7) The Champs-Elys^es, an avenue 233 feet in width (wider than Unter den Linden), which leads from the Place de la Concorde to the Arc de Triomphe, Napoleon's arch, more than a mile away. c. On the left bank we may see — (1) The Hotel des Invalides (home for old soldiers). The tomb of Na- poleon is here. (2) The Sorbonne, the old University of Paris. 3J 1183) 184 SOCIALIZING THE CHILD (3) Tlie l^aiithcoii, in which are memorials to commemorate the heroic and beneficent deeds of French patriots. (4) In this section of the city most of the students hve. d. Sights on the Seine. (1) Penny steamers with garden seats and canvas tops, leaving every five minutes. (2) Tugs hauling barges. (3) A^essels draw^n by cables under water. (4) Laundry boats, pleasure boats, row boats, canoes. (5) The water pageant which takes place on the Seine in July each year. (6) The fifty-seven beautiful bridges which cross this stream. 4. The boulevards. a. The boulevards are arranged in rings inside the circumference or rim of the city. These are the city's recreation grounds. They are lined with caf^s and bordered with trees. At beautiful kiosks newspapers of every kind are sold, also flowers in abundance. Clean- liness, order, taste, and courtesy are in evidence every w^here. b. The people in each district or (quarter of the city have access to the boulevards and use them daily for two purposes. (1) As places in which to walk and enjoy the life of the street. THIRD GRADE WORK 185 (2) As social centers for exchanging the news of the day and enjoying a friendly chat with neighbors while they lunch together. Good things to eat, agreeable conversation, and interesting street scenes are found in all of them. Sometimes there is music or oratory. The "zoos" of Paris. a. The Jardin des Plant es, a large botanical and zoological garden free to all. b. The Jardin d'Acclimatation on the edge of the Bois de Boulogne. (The entrance fee is one franc.) Famous parks of Paris. (I. Tlu' open spaces of the Palais Royal. h. Tlie *Parc Monceau with its delightful walks, the favorite resort of people of wealth and fashion. c. The Clardens of the Tuileries. Tliese gardens, once the gardens of a royal palace, are situated on the right bank of the Seine. "^I'hey contain some famous sculptures and are favorite play- grounds of the ciiildreii. d. Tlie gardens of llie Liixciiihourg. They are sitiinted on llic Icl'l bimk of the Seine and are among I lie most famous and l)eautiful gardens in i*aris. in addi- tion to lieanlit'nl flowers, fountains, and sculpt ures, they contain two fine build- ings, the palace of the Luxeniboiu'g and 186 SOCIALIZING THE CHILD the Musee de Luxembourg. The latter is one of the most famous art galleries of Paris. e. The Bois de Boulogne, the great play- ground of Paris and the proudest posses- sion of the municipahty. (1) Natural attractions. The Bois contains over two thousand acres of hill and valley, dense woods through which are winding drive- wa3^s, bridle paths and footpaths, lakes, fountains, and ample open spaces where fetes are given. As Uttle of the natural character of the place has been changed as possible. The trees, mostly pines, grow so thickly that in places one feels one- self quite in the heart of the wood miles from any city. (2) Artificial attractions. There are race tracks, dance halls, res- taurants where one may take dinner or afternoon tea on verandas gay with flowers and palms, playgrounds for the children, and fireworks and Japanese lanterns in the evening. 7. Pleasures and entertainments paid for by the municipality and free to all the people, a. Excursions for school children. h. Flower shows. c. Automobile shows. THIRD GRADE WORK 187 d. Horse shows. e. Fetes. 8. Principal holidays. a. Thursday is the weekly holiday for school children. b. The New Year's celebration is a universal fete. Visits are made to exchange good wishes. Presents are given. c. On April first French children send pres- ents called " April Fish," dainty re- minders that spring is coming. d. At Easter time the shops are suitably decorated and many mysterious eggs are displayed, each filled with presents. e. The " Fourteenth of July " corresponds to our Fourth of July and is celebrated every year by fetes suited to the occa- sion. B. The cliilch-en of Paris and their pleasures. 1. Some of their playgrounds. n. The scores of small st^uares and open places, riio peaceful old churchyards, riic Luxciiiboiiig ( i.'icdens. riic ( lardens of llic Tuil(>ries. riic Cardcii of Planls. riic ( 'liani|)s-l^iys('('s. Sonic 55 a a n o h o [« o '/J Q O a H I 9 o O J H M z y 73 1190] THIRD GRADE WORK 191 c. The city pays all expenses. The railroad charges one quarter fare. The journey. a. They go out on slow trains leaving Paris at nine o'clock a.m. and reaching the village of Mandres at five o'clock p.m. h. They ride in long wagons in groups of twenty to the Holiday House. Life at the Holiday House. a. They are weighed when they arrive and when they leave. h. They stay out of doors except while eat- ing and sleeping. c. They write home once a week, make their own beds, collect wild flowers and insects for the local museum, and thoroughly enjoy the quiet of the country, the flowers, the birds and the beetles, and the long walks. d. They see the hay harvest and the corn harvest, the oxen hauling the winter's wood up steep hills, the sawing and the chopping of the wood, the feeding of chickens and calves, the milking, and flocks of geese in charge of a goose herd carrying a wand witli long red streamers. e. They enjoy tlic batliiiig oul of doors and indoors, llic nice ('oinfortablc beds, and the excellent menls of well-eooked nour- ishing food. /. A motor car stops once in a while with a supply of hoops, picture books, or toys [192] THIRD CJKADE WORK 193 given by some person of wealth who is spending his vacation at a summer resort in a neighboring village. D. Farm life in France in the mountains of Haute- Auvergne. 1. Description of the country. a. The farms are on the lower slopes and in the valleys. 6. On the hills are ancient castles, moun- tain manors, and small country houses occupied in summer by people who have left the city to enjoy the fresh air and cool breezes of the calm open spaces. 2. The farmhouse. a. It is a roomy, solid building of gray stone. The roof is steep and has tiers of win- dows in it. The floor is of stone, the windows small. b. The one large living room used by lli(> whole family is the kitchen. There is a fireplace large enough to burn long, heavy logs. A fire is l)urning in the winter and summer. Settles are ar- ranged on cadi side of it. From tlic ceiling lierl)s, sausage, and sides of bacon are hanging. Tlic fmnilmc con- sists of a large dresser, bright witli earthenware dishes anr's dock; a linen cujjboard of walnut or cherry; 194 SOCIALIZING THE CHILD a massive oak table with benches on two sides in the middle of the room ; one or two straw-bottomed chairs and a few stools. In a corner under the stairs is the best bed very high and curtained. All food is cooked in this room and all meals are served here ; the farmer pays the farm hands in this room ; visitors are received in it. 3. The harvests. a. The principal crop is hay. There are three crops of it in one year. The first hay harvest is in June, the second in Au- gust, the third at Michaelmas. b. In addition to the three hay harvests there are — (1) The nut harvest. (2) The feather harvest two times a year. (3) The harvest of gentian roots. (4) The apple harvest. (5) The cheeses brought home in October. (6) The berry harvests and the cherry harvest. 4. Dairying. a. A farmer has from sixty to one hundred cows during the summer months. Most of them are sent higher up on the mountain, where there is good pasture in May, and they return in October. 6. A responsible dairyman has charge of them. Two or three cowboys and small children assist in the work of taking THIRD GRADE WORK 195 care of the niilk, of making cheese, and of fattening pigs. c. The httle red huts on the cattle range where the cheese is made and the neat herds sleep are called hurons. The floor is of stone and each has a large fireplace, a rough table, and some benches. d. The cows have thick curly coats of deep red and large branching horns. They come to the fold at night to be milked. The milkmen wear grey hemp-linen blouses. They call the cows by pet names, and each comes as her name is called. They are milked again at dawn and sent out to pasture. e. The farmer makes a trip to the mountains once in two weeks to inspect the work there. (1) He brings supplies : black bread, rye bread, fresh cabbage, etc. (2) He brings letters and j)ai)ers and news. (3) He counts the cheeses and inspects the animals. T). r)tli('r activities of the farm. (I. Little children from five to nine years of age herd the cows tlinl rcinMin in the valley to fnniish the milk \\\n\ butter used in the farmhouse. Th(\y go out e.'irlN' ill the morning and come liome with them late in the evening. Some- times a child feels very lonely when it 1% SOCIALIZING THE CHILD is getting dark, for she is a little fear- ful of what might be in the woods. Then she sings a stanza of the " Marseil- laise " to keep up her courage. Some- times two or three children herd their cows together and when the herds do not need their attention roast new pota- toes in a bonfire, study the ways of beast and bird, read to each other, gather wild flowers, or play games. h. Sometimes an old woman herds the goats, and twirls the distaff set with coarse gray hemp, as she follows her flock. 6. Much coarse linen cloth is spun and much knitting is done by the farmers' wives. 7. The meals are prepared five times a day for the farm hands. They have cabbage soup, bacon, potatoes, black bread, buckwheat cakes, cheese, a cherry tart in July, inusli- rooms and sausages in September. E. The story of Joan of Arc, the little peasant girl reared under conditions such as we have described, who at seventeen years of age com- manded an army, defeated the English, and crowned the Dauphin Charles 'VII, King of France, is told to all French children. 1. Monuments are erected in her honor, and streets are named for her in every town of France. 2. The people of Orleans have processions in her honor in May each year. THIRD GRADE WORK 197 3. The scenes of her hfe are painted on the walls of the Pantheon in Paris. F. Americans tell their children stories of the great French men such as Champlain, Marquette, and La Salle, who explored our rivers and lived with the Indians ; and of LaFaj^ette, the friend of Washington. New York City- points with pride to the Statue of Liberty which was a gift to us from the French nation. REFERENCES FOR TEACHER'S USE Adams, George Burton, Growth of the French Nation. Bower, J(jh.\, .4 Child's History of France. Edwards, Matilda, Barbara Betham, Hotne Life in France. (Illustrated.) FiNNEMoRE, J. Franx'IS, Peeps at Many Lands. Hassall, Arthur, French People. (In "(Ireat Peoples Series.") Contains a good bibliography. JoHNKO.v, Clifton, Along French Byways. Lynch, Hannah Ti., French Life in Town and Country. Mac(;rE(K)R, MaI{V, T/ic Story of France Told to Buys and Girls. Contains twenty plates in color by Wm. Rainev. Pratz, Ci^iRE DE, France from Within. Chapter VII HOW TO INTRODUCE HEROES OF HISTORY TO CHIL- DREN IN THE THIRD GRADE The aim is to indicate ways and means of carrying out the ideas of the Committee of Eight ; to show how Aim of this "(Iroup A. — Heroes of Other Times" (see Section. Report of (vommittee of Eight, pages 9 and 10) may be made real to children. Naturally the teacher asks, "Why should I teach these stories? How can I adapt them to children of this grade? Where can I get additional material? What pictures will be helpful?" To help answer such questions the material below is given. THE STORY OF JOSEPH The story of Joseph has all the best elements of stories of adventure. It is one of the most beautiful stories in Reasons ^^^ literature. It has also an important place for Select- in history, because Joseph is a link between ing this the children of Israel and the Empire of Egypt. °^' In the background of the story we have glimpses of wandering shepherd life, trading caravans, and palace life in Egypt. The story emphasizes the beauty of hon- orable conduct and the ugliness of dishonorable acts. The center of interest is Joseph, who makes a vivid im- pression on all with whom he comes in contact. The dreams, five in all, bring in an element of mystery which 198 HOW TO INTRODUCE HEROES OF HISTORY 199 gradually becomes clear as the dreams are fulfilled. A climax is found when, among the very men who once united to enslave their brother Joseph, one is now found willing to be a slave in order to deliver their brother Benjamin. Beyond all other interests with which the story is replete is that of the providential over-ruling of human events. Through a series of misadventures which called out all that was manly and strong and tender in his nature, Joseph ripened into a most worthy and dignified character. He was a combination of grace and power. Combined in him were the highest qualities of his ancestors. He had Abraham's dignity and ca- pacity, Isaac's purity and self-devotion, Jacob's clever- ness and tenacity. From his mother's family he inherited cheerfulness and aptitude in management, as well as personal beauty. Every obstacle was placed in liis j):ith, yet every one was surmounted. When only a boy in his teens he was taken to a strange country whose language he could not speak and sold as a sjave. He had no knowledge of any trade that could make his services of great value. He was cast into prison because of an unjust accusation. i^>iit even in prison he was promoted, because of his per- sonal worth and finally, because of his power to interpret Pharaoh's dreams, lie was not only given his fn'edom but was made the ruler of I']gy|)t. (irejit |)ower did not spoil him. He rendered beatitiful service in every posi- tion and not only saved his father's family from starva- tion, but forgave his bretliren. The account as it is written in ( lenesis is too long to tell to children of the third grade. It can easily be divided into several units. 200 SOCIALIZING THE CHILD Divisions 1- -Joseph, tho Dreamer. of the 2. Joseph Sold by his Brethren. ^^""^y- 3. Joseph Ciist into Prison in Egypt. 4. Joseph, the Master of the Land of the Nile. 5. Joseph's Brethren in Elgypt. 6. The Silver Cup in the Sack, 7. The Journey of the Children of Israel into Egypt. 8. The Death of Israel. Pictures may be obtained from the following sources : George P. Brown, Beverly, Mass. — Small pictures suitable for mounting. Sugges- '^^^ Charles Foster Publishing Company, 716 tions for Sansom Street, Philadelphia, Pa. — A collection Securing of 400 engravings, size 8x10 inches, illustrating and Using Bible scenes and incidents. Short descriptions are printer! beside each jiicture. The Perry Company, Maiden, Mass. — Small pictures suit- able for mounting. Underwood and Underwood, New York City, N. Y. — Stereo- scopic views of places in Palestine, e.g. Joseph's Well, Dothan, Palestine ; Mosque of Macpelah, the burial place of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, Hebron, Palestine. "The Story of the Bible," by Foster, described below under the list of teachers' references. In the story of Joseph are the following : Joseph Sold })y his Brethren. Eastern Garments. Joseph Interprets the Dream of the Chief Butler and the Chief Baker. Joseph Interprets Pharaoh's Dream. Joseph Made Ruler Over Egypt. The Money Found in the Mouth of the Sack. Jo.seph Makes Hims(>lf Known to his Brethren. Joseph Meeting his Father, and Jacob's Burial. HOW TO [NTRODUCE HEROES OF HISTORY 201 In using these pictures make clear to the children the difference between photographs of real things, such as a palace in Egypt, or a caravan, and the pictures that show how different artists imagined the scenes. To drive home the latter truth it might be well to show different pictures of the same scene. Point out that no Bible picture is real. They are all imaginative. Pictures that show action are attractive to primary children. It is the vividness of action that appeals to children first. 1. Read carefully Chapters 37, 39-50 in Genesis. Get the whole story clearly in mind. Picture to yourself the environment of Joseph in Egypt during, the The successive changes in his fortunes. Refer to jeacher's Kent for the time of Joseph's life in Egypt. Prepara- Refer to Breast ed's "Egyptian History and tion for Art" to get an idea of the advanced civilization ^^^^^ there as contrasted with the seniibar})arous conditions of the shepherd life in Palestine out of which he had come. 2. Note the prevalent attitude of confidence in dreams and their fiiHilhnent in Palestine and Egyjit. In the elaborate civilization of l^gypt the interi)retati()n of dreams was a recognized profession. Official magicians and interpreters were connected with the court. 3. In ictiMni to tlic historical accuracy of the stories, it is well to keep \\\ mind that these stories were told and retold for cent urics before they were put into written form. ('onse others formed around it. Then each of the other sheaves bowed and fell down to the ground before it. When the brothers awoke, .Joseph told them what he had dn'amed. how his sheaf stood upright and their sheaves stood round about and bowcfl before it. This angered the brothers and they cried, "Shalt thou indeed reign over us?" And they hated him more t h;iii ever. Another day when Israel and his sons were sittiiifi in the shade of the tent, .Josej^h saifl, "Behold I h,iv(> dreamed that I w.'us a bright star in the sky and that the sun and the moon and eleven st;irs bowerl down ;iiid fell on their faces before m(v" Then his fiither reproved liini >;i\iii^;, "What mean these dreams that thou hast dreamed? Shall I and thy mother and thy brothers worshij) thee uj)on the earth?" After this the brothers hated .Joseph the morr .iiid tlie\- nick- named him "the Dreamer." But the father thought of these dreams niMny times and wondered if the old i)ro|)hecv that kings should eoiiu- out of his family would not really come true. 206 SOCIALIZING THE CHILD JOSEPH SOLI) HY HIS BRETHREN Joseph's brethren had gone to Shechem to feed their father's flocks. One day Israel said to Joseph: "Thy brethren feed the sheep in Shechem ; come, I will send thee to them." And when Joseph answered, "I am ready," his father said to him, "(to, and see if all things be well with thy brethren, and the cattle, and bring me word again." So Joseph was sent from the vale of Hebron and came to Shechem. And a certain man found him there wandering in the fields and asked him what he sought. Joseph answered, "I seek my brethren; tell me where they feed the flocks." And the man said to him, "They are departed from this place, for I heard them say, 'Let us go toDothan.'" So Joseph went after his brethren and found them in Dothan. When the brethren saw him afar off, before he came nigh them, they planned to kill him, and said one to another: "Behold the dreamer cometh. C'ome, let ijs kill him, and cast him into some pit, and we will say, 'Some evil beast hath devoured him' ; and then we shall see what will become of his dreams." And Reuben, hearing this, said, "Do not take his life nor shed his blood, but cast him into this pit that is m the wilderness, and lay no hand upon him." Reuben said this, being desirous to deliver him out of their hands and to restore him to his father. As soon as Joseph came to his brethren, they stript him of his outside coat, the coat that was of many colors, and cast him into an old pit, where there was no water. And sitting df)wn to cat bread, they saw some Ishmaelites coming from Gilead, with their camels, carrying spices and balm and myrrh to Egypt. And Judah said to his brethren, "What will it profit us to kill our brother and conceal his blood? It is better that he be sold to the Ishmaelites, and that our hands be not defiled, for he is our brother and our flesh." His brethren agreed to his words. And when the merchants passed by, HOW TO INTRODUCE HEROES OF HISTORY 207 the}^ drew Joseph out of the pit, and sold him to the Ishmaehtes for twenty pieces of silver ; and they led him into Egypt. And Reuben returning to the pit found not the boy, and rending his garments he went to his brethren, and said : "The boy is not in the pit. Whither shall I go?" And they took Joseph's coat, and, having dipped it in the blood of a kid which they had killed, they sent someone to carry it to their father, and to say: "This we found; see whether it be thy son's coat, or not." And the father acknowl- edging it said: "It is my son's coat, an evil wild beast hath devoured him." And tearing his garments he put on sackcloth, mourning for his son a long time. All his children gathered together to comfort their father in his sorrow. He would not be comforted, but continued weeping and said: "I will mourn until I see my son again." JOSEPH, A SLAVE IN EGYPT Joseph was brought into Egypt, and I'otipiiar, an Egyptian, an officer of Pharaoii's and chief captain of the army, thought him from the Ishmaehtes who had brought him thither. The Ixjrd was with Josepli, and he was a prosptM-ous man in ail things. lie ilwcll in tlic house of his master, the Egyptian, who knew very well that the Lord was witii him, and made all that he did to prosper in his hand. So .losepli foimd favor in the sight of his master and ministered to him, and, b(>ing set over all, he governed the house conunitted to him and all things that were j)laee(l nndc-r his care, 'i'he Lord l)l<'ssed the house of the I'lgyptian for .hiseph's sake, and multiplied all his substance both al home ami Iji the field, and Poti|>liar left all that he had in .lo.seph's hands. Now Potiphar's wife was a wicked woman, and she accused Josef)h of things of which he was not guilty and caused him to l)e thmwn into tin- pri-on where the king's prisoners were kept, lint the Lord was with .lo.-'eph and gave him fax'or in the sight 208 soriALiziNc; the child of the I'hief keeper of the prison. All tlie other i)risoners were placed under his care, and nothinj^ was done in the place excej)t as Joseph ordered it. Vet he was not allowed to set foot out- side of the pri.son doors. After this it came to pass that two officers, the butler and the baker of the king of Eg}'pt, offended the king, and he sent them to the prison of Potiphar where Joseph was. The keeper of the prison delivered them to Joseph. And it came to pass that both the butler and the baker dreamed a dream the same night. When Joseph saw them sad in the morning, he asked them saying, "Why is your countenance so sad to-day?" They answered him sajdng, "We have dreamed a dream, and there is no one to interpret it to us." And Joseph said to them, "Doth not interpretation belong to. God? Tell me what you have dreamed." (Read or tell the remainder of Chapter 40 to the children. Verses 9 to 23 inclusive, also Chapter 41 de- scribing Pharaoh's dreams, Verses 1 to 36 inclusive. Then condense the remainder of the shapter as below.) Then Pharaoh said to Joseph: "Thou shalt be over my house, and at the commandment of thy mouth all the people shall obey ; only in the kingly throne will I be above thee. I have appointed thee ruler over the whole land of Egypt." Then he took a signet ring from his own hand and put it upon Joseph's hand, put upon him a robe of silk and a chain of gold about his neck. And he made Joseph go up into his second chariot, the crier proclaiming that all should bow their knee before him, for he was now the master of the land of the Nile. Self-expression on the part of the children is as neces- sary in the third grade as in the two preceding grades. A third grade child must still learn through doing in order to understand. HOW TO INTRODUCE HEROES OF HISTORY 209 1. He can represent the stories by the use Sugges- of the sand table, by pictures, and by drawing. ^°"^ °^ 2. He can reproduce some of the scenes in Activities, simple dramatization. 3. He can make an ilkistrated story by chpping old Sunday School leaflets and mounting portions of the stories and the pictures to illustrate them, in a mounting book. The small pictures printed by the Perry Picture Company may also be utilized in this connection. 4. He can construct the houses and tents, the sheep-fold, the well, the water bottle, and the costumes of the East. 5. He can retell the stories for oral language work. REFERENCES FOR TEACHERS USE Baldwin, .James, Old Storiefs of the End. DoDS, Marcus, Geneai.s. Foster, ('hari-bs, The Stnrij of the Bible. (ievexis, ('li;ii)tors '.M to oO inclusive, oinittiiip; Chnptor ."iS. Kent, (.'haki.es I''ostek, TIk Hisloriral BihU. •MouLTON, Richard ('., The Modern Render' n Bible. Children's edition witli an intiodnction li\ R. ('. Moulton. Stewart, Mary, Tell me ii in connection with tlio stories of .Joseph c;in be utilized in leiiching the stoi'ies of Ulyss(>s. A discussion of the origin of the Homeric poems would l)e out of place here, prepara- bittle is known of either their authorsjiij) or tion for their origin. The dute is probably about the Teaching eighth century n.r. Tradition associates the ^ °^^' name of Homer with both the Iliad and the Odvssev. 210 SOCIALIZINCi THE CHILD The latter rolatos tho wanderings of Ulysses after the close of tho Trojan \\'ar. These tales are not true to tho literal history of the (Ireeks. They are probably based on legends of a still earlier age, and are idealized representations of (Iroek history. They are full of great heroic action antl vividly portray primitive ways of living in the early stages of civilization. They are sini}ilc in l)oth thought and expression and make a strong appeal to children in the third grade. The Odyssey should be read and reread and realized as far as possible by the teacher. She should be saturated with the heroic spirit with which the stories are filled before she attempts to retell them to the children. A good translation of the Odyssey for the teacher's use is "The Odyssey in English Prose" translated by Professor S. H. Butcher and Andrew Lang (abridged edition pub- lished by The Macmillan Company, 1914). The trans- lators are noted for literary skill and sound scholarship. They have omitted repetitions and some portions un- suited to the needs of children. A knowledge of the Iliad is necessary to appreciate some portions of the Odyssey. "The Story of Ulysses" by M. Clarke given in teachers' references by the Com- mittee of Eight presents good introductory sketches of the city of Troy, the "Judgment of Paris," the "Abduc- tion of Helen," the "Oath of the Suitors," and a brief description of (Ireek gods. It also contains a good map of Creece for teachers' use. The book is well illustrated. The teacher should kccj) as near as possible to the original form in retelling the story, for epic poetry belongs to the childhood of the race and the original form helps HOW TO INTRODUCE HEROES OF HISTORY 211 to transport the children into a past age. Some of the more cruel stories should be omitted. ''The King of the Winds," "In Circe's Isle," "A Voyage on a Raft," "The Faithful Dog Argus," and "The ( 'ontest of the Bow," are samples of stories Divisions suited to the needs of third grade children, of the They feed the child's healthy love of adventure, ^^°^^- and stimulate his imagination. Ulysses is the Greek manly ideal of shrewdness and wisdom. The stories are filled with reverence for the unseen powers, with deeds of charity, and nmtual helpfulness, love of honor, love of truth, and last but not least a steadfast love of country and family which draws the wanderer home through many perils. Ulysses is brave but cautious, fond of adventures but prudent, clever, and crafty. The character of the whole (J reek race is summed up in this heroic figure. The oldest ideals of the Greeks are found in these stories. THE STORY OF ALEXANDER THE GREAT Review carefully the long antagonism between the Greeks and the Orient. In iJicliistoiic times tlic feeling emerges in tlie form of mvth. The stories of ' Teacher's the .search for the "(Jolden I'Mcccr" and the prgpara- songs about Tioy i)()?'ti';iy it. The \;il()i' of iion for the Greeks idcali/ed in litci'.'it urc tended to Telling ■ . -f p- resented by Persia and the Occident represented by Hellas. 212 SOCIALIZING THE CHILD Although the Greek's idea of patriotism did not go much beyond his own city, he leaned toward democracy in government and gloried in the individual right of initiative. To his mind the gods were the chief citizens of the state. To be associated with them was a privilege. To show them respect, to entertain them with feasts and games was fitting and proper. To show them disrespect was treason. The (1 reek "lived face to face with nature and in his naturalness and freshness he was a child of nature. The Greek gods lived in nature and revealed themselves to men through its activities : e.g. winds, thunder, light- ning, changes of seasons. The^ Greek admired a well- developed body, personal beauty, triumphs of wit, of craft, and of strength. He was thoroughly worldly. The Oriental, on the other hand, knew no privilege except to bow in resignation before the unexplained man- dates of fate. His conception of the state was a vast despotism. He looked with disapproval amounting al- most to disdain upon the physical universe and all that belonged to it, including the human body. He dwelt more in the inner world than in the outer. Endurance and submission were characteristic of the spirit of the Orient. .Vlexander considered himself a second Achilles. His earliest ambition was to be the champion of Hellas against the Orient. He shared the Greek enthusiasms for current politics, marvelous stories of returned com- missioners and foreign ambassadors, reports of victorious generals, new plans for fleets and for docks. The policies of statesmen and the tricks of politicians were well known to him. HOW TO INTRODUCE HEROES OF HISTORY 213 Few personalities have done so much to change the trend of history. When Alexander's career began the culture of the world was fixed in two main types : one in the river valleys of Mesopotamia and Egypt ; the other in the Greek city communities. All that these cities had accomplished in art, in philosophy, in science, and in developing the democratic state before Alexander's day was known as ''Hellenism." He scattered or spread this Hellenism wherever he went. When his career closed, the barriers separating the two main types of culture had been broken down, never to be raised again. Alexander planted seventy cities of the Greek type on Oriental soil. Eighteen of them were named for him- self, and one for his famous horse Bucephalus. European civilization as we know it had its origin in a union of the Oriental and the Greek culture. The inner life of Christianity is of the Orient, but its pliilo- sophical organization is CJreek. Little by little the old local idea of citizenship held by the Greeks slowly de- veloped into a sense of citizenshij) of (he world. Then cosmopolitanism was born. Some great historians have seen nothing more in the career of Alcxaiidci" tliaii a brilliant disturber of tlie world's order. To their iiiinds he enthroned .. militarism, annihilated (Ireek libertx, nnd pi-ac- ander's tically destroyed .ill tli.it m;d \V(»rl catapult: I have l)een pelted with stones and pounded with clubs, while leading you to \ic1ory and to glory nnd to i)lenty, through all tlie land and the sea, across all the rivers and the mountains and the plains. ..." (See Wheeler's "Biography of Alexander the dreat," pages 1S2 to 485.) We can gain a reasonably clear impression of Alex- ander's personal a|)pearan('e because bysip])us por- trayed iiim in bronze, the painter Ajx'lles pg^gonaj painted his portrait in color, and the engi"a\'er Appear- Pyrgoteles portrayed him on gems. Through ance of 1 • •, . .1 i -i i I Alexander, copies and mutators the portrait type passed on to the later ages and can be seen to-day — ('.(/. the bust 216 SOCIALIZING THE CHILD of Alexander in the Louvre, the Alexander Rodanini of the Munich (Ih'ptothek, the Alexander in the Ponipeian mosaic representing the Battle of Issus, and the tetra- drachm coinage of Lysimachus. His figure was well propoitioned and muscular. Plutarch says his skin was clear and white with ruddy hue on cheek and breast. His eyes were blue and deep-set and his brows heavy. Massy golden locks rose up mane-like from above the center of his forehead. A strong, finely-shaped nose (almost aquiline) joined high to the forehead, sensitive, passionate lips, and a prominent chin complete the pic- ture of Alexander that pen and chisel have left us. All accounts agree that he was beautiful to look upon. He had a habit of carrying his head slightly inclined toward the left shoulder. At the age of twenty-two, when he had won the battle of Granicus, he possessed the full vigor of youth. He The Per- Combined in himself all that inspires men's en- sonaiity of thusiasm and commands their allegiance. His Alexander, character was frank and open ; indirection of every sort he abhorred. In business affairs, he was definite and orderly. He was an able organizer. He could plan well. He was loyal to friends, generous to a fault, and unconscious of self. Meanness and fear were unknown to him. Tii his respect for woman and his moral cleanliness, he was an exception to his times. He was swayed by ideals. He loved music and song, anrl the conversation and association of men. In his self-restraint, his noble ideas of life and duty, and in his higher ideal interests he far surpassed either parent. He was unfjuestionably a man of strong personality. Passions, impulses, ambitions, and will were all present HOW TO INTRODUCE HEROES OF HISTORY 217 in him at the highest tension. In his actions we see the philosophic, self-contained Alexander standing out in relief against the natural Alexander. Plutarch says, "Alexander taught the HjTcanians to live in wedlock, and the Arachosians to till the fields ; the Sogdianians he induced to support their fathers instead of killing them, the Persians to honor their mothers instead of wedding them . . ., the Scythians to bury their dead instead of eating them . . . Few read the laws of Plato ; thousands use those of Alexander." Granicus. In Asia Minor he overthrew the Persian troops stationed behind the river Granicus (May, 333 B.C.). This opened up Asia Minor to him. Famous /.S.SM.S. At Issus in the ravines of Cilicia, he Victories of routed King Darius and his army of 000,000 Alexander, men (November, 333 B.C.). This opened Syria and P^gypt to him. Arbela. At Arljela, near the Tigris, he annihilated a still more numerous army (331 B.C.). This opened up the rest of the Persian empire to him. The lule of Uarius ended in Persia, and the rule of Alexander began. In that battle, world issues were at stake and the West conriuered the East once more. Alexander marched into the great cities of P>abylon, Susa, Persepolis, and Kcbatana and took ])ossession of the treasures of tin- Persian king located there. ^ , . Famous Then he continued his pursuit of tiic fleeing Marches to King Djirius. For five years (330 h.c. to 32.") the East B.C.) the Macedonian army traversed the wide ^^^ ^^^ B C stretches of Ilyrcania, Partliia, Sogdiana, and Bactria — countries hitherto unknown to the (Jreeks — and then advanced to the IikIus river. 218 SOCIALIZING THE CHILD It is in this period between 330 and 325 B.C. that Alex- ander's purpose seems to change. He began his career as the chanijiion of Greece against the Orient, and con- sidered himself the leader of the Greeks against the Persians until the battle of Issus. Thereafter, some historians claim that he considered himself the successor of Darius upon the Persian throne. All agree that he wore Persian dress, adopted the ceremonies of the Per- sian court, and compelled his generals to prostrate them- selves before him according to Persian usage. In the years 330 b.c. to 325 B.C. his aim seems to have been to mingle the races of men under his power into one "true world empire." He married the beautiful Roxana, a princess of Bactria, whose father he had conquered. He also encouraged his Greek and Macedonian officers and soldiers to take Persian wives in order to promote good feeling among the two races. ^g When Alexander arrived in India, he met the Voyage forces of the Indian prince, Porus, at the down the H^^daspes river. After defeating Porus he de- ° "^ cided to leave him in possession of his kingdom. Alexander's return march began in 325 B.C. He built a fleet of boats and sent a portion of his troops on an The Return exploring voyage down the Indus River, around March. ^y the sea, and up the Persian (iulf to the mouth of the Euphrates River. These men were under Nearchus. Alexander led the rest of the troops through the Gedrosian desert, a march of sixty days, filled with the terrors of famine, thirst, and disease. An impression of Alexander's military genius can be gained from this sunmiarized view of his conquests. When he was only thirty years of age he had already faced the HOW TO INTRODUCE HEROES OF HISTORY 219 IlljTians and Thracians on their mountain sides, the Boeotian phalanx on the plains of Thebes, the Persian cavahy at the Granicus. He had scaled the ^j^^ walls of Tyre and humbled the impregnable ander's fortresses of Gaza. He had scattered the as- Military sembled hosts of Western Asia at Arbela (Gau- ^^'■^^'■• gamelaj. But this did not close his military career. He passed on to India and came into conflict with an utterly new, strange people, who combined in their re- sources not only wealth and courage but organization and an advanced acquaintance with the art of war. No other great general in the world's history was ever exposed to such a variety of tests, and yet he is the only one who never lost a battle. Military critics claim that in clever- ness of plan and brilliant execution the battle with Porus at the Hydaspes was Alexander's masterpiece. The army of Porus was almost annihilated. The chariots were shattered, their drivers killed. ]Mghty war ele- phants were captured, but more had been killed. Two sons of King Porus were among the slain. Historians and biographers dit'fci- in tlicir judgjnents of Aloxander's intentions. It is difliciilt lo know what his real f)uri)oses were. But his acts had great ^35^1^5 of results. Of the seventy cities founded by him, Alex- some were in Isgypt, soino in Tartary, and some ander's even as far distant as India. Il(> distributed Conquests, among his subjects vast treasures that, had been uselessly hoarded iti the eliests of the Persian king. lie stimu- lated Greek scholars to study the plants, tin- aniinals, and the ger)graphy of Asia. lie j)re|)are{i the ju'oples of the Orient to receive the language and customs of the Greeks. 220 SOClALIZlN(i THE CHILD Alexander united under one master all the ancient world from the Adriatic to the Indus, from Kgypt to the Caucasus. (Ireek became the common tongue in the Eastern Mediterranean countries. This fact greatly helped the spread of Christianity, for in the time of Christ a man could travel from Spain to Northern India and exchange ideas with other men. Greek philosophic teachings spread into Syria and Palestine. The minds of the Greeks were broadened. They ceased to feel that they were a select people, better than any foreign people. This new spirit of cosmopolitanism, or the common brotherhood of all, supplanted gradually the narrower provincialism. The time from Alexander's death to the conquest of the Greek kingdom by Rome is called the "Hellenistic Period" or the "Alexandrian Age." The addition of so much money to that already in circulation increased business activity in Greece and Asia Minor. Athens and C'onnth took advantage of Economic , , . ■ • rr ^ kt i Effects of the busmess opportunities orlered. JNew and Alex- costly buildings appeared. A new theater and ander s ^ j^^^^, stadium were erected in Athens. Private individuals spent greater sums in the decoration of their houses. The trade between the Greeks and the East increased. A new Greek colonization movement to Asia Minor took place. The East learned the modern business methods of the West and sent Oriental wares to the Western people. Many of the obstacles encountered by Alexander and Adaptation ^^"' difficulties experienced in each of his cam- of the paigns and in founding his empire, and the far- Matenal. reaching results of his conquests, are exceedingly difficult for even a mature person to realize. All that HOW TO INTRODUCE HEROES OF HISTORY 221 can be done in the third grade is to arouse a vital interest in the man Alexander so that a desire to read and learn more about him will be stimulated. The degree of the teacher's success will depend largely upon her famil- iarity with the hero in his setting. Some sample stories for children of the third grade follow. In telling the stories, report Alexander's actions. What did Alexander do? is the question that should be answered. Avoid telling what kind of man he was. What he did will show what he was, if well told. The great secret in story-telling is to be full of the subject. Unless the teacher has tried to climb the mountains, and bridge the rivers, and cross the deserts with Alexander, and has traced his routes, sympathized with his aims, and appreciated his difficulties as well as his ambitions, she will not have the rich background that will enable her to see the hero and to make others see him. Unless his achievements touch her she will not move others in de- scribing them. Each story told must be sufficiently Cf)ncrete and detailed to enable the child to gain an actual mental picture of flic events or actions described, ALEXANDER'S ROVTTOOD Thr first six years of his life Alexander was under llio care of his nurso, Lanicc. II •• l<»\(' tutor to the young prince, taught him how to develop his muscles, trained him to endure hardships and priva- tions, and to abhor luxury. Lysimachus, who was his personal attendant, remained with him even when he had grown to manhood. Once in his father's absence a l)ody of special ambassadors came from Persia to the capital. Little Alexander proceeded to entertain them. He showed them distinguished attentions and kindness quite unusual for a mere child. Then he began to question them about their country. "What sort of a man is your king? How does he treat his enemies? Why is Persia so strong? Has she much gold? How large is her army? What kind of roads have 3'ou ? How long are they? How do you travel in the inland parts of the country?" The Persians gazed at him in wonder and said to one another, "Philip is nothing compared to that boy." After his thirteenth year, his father felt that ordinary teach- ers would never do for so remarkable a boy, so he employed Aristotle, the most famous philosopher of the day, to instruct Alexander. Aristotle was in the habit of walking about with his pupils while he was teaching them ; so, for a schoolroom King Philip provided a large garden \v\ih seats of stone and cool, shafly paths. There Alexander read old plays and his- tories and Homer. He loved Achilles best of all the Homeric heroes. His mother often told him he was descended from Achilles the hero of the Iliad. When he was large enough to read the Iliad for himself, he used to call it the soldier's Bible. He knew most of it by heart and often, even when he was a man and a great general, he used to sleep with it under his pillow. HOW TO INTRODUCE HEROES OF HISTORY 223 THE TAMING OF BUCEPHALUS (As a boy, Alexander was restless, energetic, fearless, intelli- gent, inventive, and independent. The story of the taming of Bucephalus is considered authentic and shows these qualities in a form that children can appreciate. The boy was about twelve or thirteen years old when the incident occurred. The story follows as Plutarch tells it, with a few omissions.) "Philonicus of Thes.saly had offered to sell PhiUp his horse, Bucephalus, for thirteen talents. So they all went down to the plain to try the animal. He proved, however, to be balky and quite useless. He would let no one mount him, and vio- lently resisted every attempt of Philip's attendants who tried to make him obey. Philip, in his disgust, ordered the horse led away, as being utterly wild and untrained. . . . Alex- ander, who was present, said, 'That is too good a horse for those men to spoil that way, simply because the}'' haven't the skill or the grit to handle him right.' His father said, 'What do you mean by criticising ycjur elders, as if you were wiser than they, or knew so much more about handling a horse than they do?' "'Well, this horse, anyway, I would handle better than any- one else, if tliey would give me a chance.' '"In case you don't succeed,' said the father, 'what penalty are you willing to pay . . . ?' '"I'll pay the price of the horse!' " l^aiigiitf'i' greeted this answer. . . . Alcxaiulcr went st raiglil to the horse, took liim by the bridle, and turned him around toward the sun. This he did because he had noticed that the horse's fright was due to his own shadow dancing up and (li)\vn on the ground before him. Now he ran lieside the horse, pat- ting and coaxing him, until he oi).served that the horse was impatient to go. Then hr (luictly slipped olT his cloak, swung himself up, and sat securely astride the horse guiding him al)out for a while with the reins. He neither jerked at the bit nor 224 SOCIALIZING THE CHILD struck the animal l)ut lot liim ))ranoo and gallop as much as he would until his excitement wore itself out. Then he turned the horse almut and galloped up to the group of men with i)ride and joy in his face, for the horse was now under his control. The men had watched in silence at first, fearful of the outcome. Now they burst forth in loud cheers. His father, who had been anxious about him, shed tears of joy as he dismounted. Then, kissing him on the forehead, he said, 'My son, seek another kingdom suited to your powers. Macedonia is not worthy of you. ALEXANDER'S TREATMENT OF BUCEPHALUS Bucephalus became the inseparable companion of Alexander from that day. He went with him on all his campaigns, shar- ing many toils and dangers. Alexander nearly always rode him in battle. No one else was ever allowed to mount him. Bucephalus was a magnificent black horse of extraordinary size. He was marked with a white spot .on his forehead. Some say his name was given him because of this resemblance of his head to that of an ox. Others say he was branded with the mark of an ox head. Alexander's affection for the animal is illustrated by two stories, one told by Arrian, the other by botii Plutarch and Arrian. Arrian's story is this : "This horse once disappeared in the country of the Uxians fa tribe of robbers east of Mesopotamia) whereupon Alexander sent troimlUun .\Ju^ium tfj Art. I 227 1 228 SOCIALIZING THE CHILD the stars observed from various places. His proof had been accepted by nearly all the ancient philosophers. Seventeen hundred years before Columbus, Eratosthenes, a famous ^eoj^jrapher, declared that it would be possible to sail from Spain to India on the same parallel were it not for the vast extent of the Atlantic Ocean. Some later writers thouj2;ht that with a favoring wind the journey could be made in a few days. Learned men in the age of Columbus did not for a mo- ment question the rotundity of the earth. They had read Aristotle, Ptolemy, Mela, Strabo, and other geog- raphers ancient and modern. Nothing is more absurd than to accuse them of thinking the earth was flat. In the years between 1472 and 1492 six new editions of Ptolemy's geography were published. Some educated European merchants and missionaries had traveled to Asia and were familiar with Asiatic seaports, but they naturally supposed those seaports were on the Atlantic ocean. Roger Bacon in 1267 suggested that a ship might sail westward across the Atlantic to China and pro- ceeded to fortify his opinion by giving extracts from Aristotle and other ancient writers. Among the unedu- cated masses, however, the belief in the flatness of the earth was general. It was in 1492 that Martin Behaim made his famous globe which may still be seen in the old Town Hall of old Nuremberg. On this globe fully two thirds of Hindustan is omitted, and in place of it is a Ceylon magnified tenfold. Trade had been carried on b(3tween Asia and the Medi- terranean ports for at least two thousand years before C(jlumbijs, but it was carried on chiefly by land. There HOW TO INTRODUCE HEROES OF HISTORY 229 were three well-known routes: route (1) through the Black and Caspian Seas, a route associated with the greatness of both Genoa and Constantinople ; -pj^g oid route (2) through Syria and the Persian Gulf Trade passing through the illustrious cities of Bagdad, Routes. Damascus, and Antioch ; route (3) through Egypt and the Red Sea, especially associated with the glorious days of Alexandria and Venice. "The Indies" in those days was a term which was used vaguely to mean not India merely but China and Japan and all far Eastern countries. Western Europe had been getting many of its luxuries for centuries from this region. From these countries came aromatic spices, black pepper, i\'<)ry, cotton fabrics. Oriental rugs, flowered silks, gum.s, porcelains, damasks, dyes, drugs, perfumes, pearls, sapphires, diamonds, rich J*™™° shawls, precious woods. Brought After the Crusades the volume of trade be- from the tween East and West tended to increase steadily, J"*^'^^ *° ' Western and European curiosity concerning Oriental Europe countries and peoples was greatly stimulated. Fleets of Genoa and of Venice could l)e seen waiting at the ports of the Black Sea or on tlic Mediterranean for the Indian merchandise which they carried to Effect of the distributing centers of southern Europe, the From these centers the iiierchandise was sent Crusades, to fhe prospej'oiis towns of l''i-;ince, rjermany, I'Jigland, and the Netherlands. In ret inn the i'luropeans sent woolen cloth, linens, coial, black lead, glass vessels, wrought silver, tin, brass, Greek and Italian wines, and other Western |)rodMr'ts. 230 SOCIALIZING THE CHILD In the thirteenth century the Mongol conquests brought the whole vast territory from (-hina to Poland, Effect of ^I'om the Yellow Sea to the Euphrates under the Mongol the sway of a single monarch. The Mongol Conquests, poijey was liberal to foreigners. Consequently in the century between 1250 and 1350 many Europeans, chiefly merchants and Franciscan monks, visited China. They learned through personal experience that China was a maritime country. Marco Polo, a Venetian merchant, lived in the service of the Mongol emperor twenty-five years. In 1299, Marco after his return to Europe, he wrote down his Polo- experiences. By many people this is considered the greatest book of travel ever written. It introduced Europeans to Japan as well as to Chinese seaports. Marco Polo described .Japan as an islaiul kingdom out in the ocean east of China, and calhd it Cipango. Many of the things related by him were considered unbelievable by his contemporaries but we now know^ that most of them were really tiue. Pierre d'Ailly, archbishop of Cambrai, in 1410 wrote a book called "The Image of llic World" which was Books on widely circulated in manuscript and was printed Travel and jn 1483. He (juotes the views of Roger Bacon Geography, ^^j-^j ^^^^ those of Aristotle, but he pronounces the torrid zone uninhabitable because of the excessive heat. In 1477 .^neas Sylvius (later Pope Pius II), in his "General History and (leography," records that both the torrid and the frigid zones are uninhabitable. Columbus read all these books diligently and wrote commentaries in Latin in the margins. The Columbian Library at Seville contains the copy of "The Image of HOW TO INTRODUCE HEROES OF HISTORY 231 the World " which was read by Cokinibus. The marginal notes in Latin written by him show that he did not be- lieve all that he read. He criticizes the geo- i^flyg^j^g graphical traditions by the light of his own ex- of the perience and knowledge. One note says ''The Books on torrid zone is not uninhabitable, because the ° ""^ Portuguese sail through it ; in fact it is teeming with people, and near the equator is his Serene Highness the King of Portugal's castle of Mine, which we have seen." During the last half of the fourteenth century a new impetus was given to navigation due to the interruption of European trade with the East. In 1368 the i^terrup- Mongols were driven out of China and that tion of country was closed to foreign trade. As early European as 1365 the Turks had taken Adrianople ^^ ^' and from this time Turkish corsairs swarmed in the waters of the Levant to the peril of all Christian voyagers. The capture of Constant iiiojjlc, tlio grand old Christian city, in 1453 by robber bands liuniiliat(Ml the Christians and greatly discouraged the connnercial towns through- out JMirope. The aggressions of the Turks lasted for three generations and in the end practically closed up the old trade routes. ( icnoa was one of the first cities to feel keenly the loss of her trade. Soon all Europe was deeply concerned, and iiow to find another route to the Indices was the(|uestion th;it ahuost every nation was t lying to answer. Among the most enterprising of the enrly navigators were the Port ugucse. Prince lTenr\' of I'ortugnl, i^xpiora- (•alle(l Henry the Navig.'itor, foundeil ,i school tions of the of exj)lorers that inehided many ilhistiious Portu mjiriners. His was a many-sided personahty; ^®^^- in him were combined the spirit of the missionary, the 232 SOCIALIZING thp: child merchant, the statesman, and the scientific inciuirer. One of the problems of these disciples of Prince Henry of Portugal was to ascertain whether Africa could be cir- cumnavigated and a route thus found into the Indian Ocean. It was while suppressing Moorish piracy that the Portuguese captains made their first acquaintance with long stretches of the coast of Africa and heard of (kiinea and its mines of gold. But when Prince Henry died in 1460 the way to India around Africa had not yet been found, and it was destined to be many years before the Indies should be reached by this route. Prince Henry had lived, however, to see his voyagers sail waters that had been deemed inaccessible and to see the African coast explored to within fifteen degrees of the equator ; he had lived to give a great impulse to maritime enterprise. And now people began to ask the question, "Is there no other way to India?" Columbus answered that question by saying, "India can be reached by Westward saihng west on the Atlantic." How did Colum- Route to bus come to grasp the great design of going to the Indies, the F]ast by sailing west? Probably no other navigator of that age had made so protracted a study of all available sources of information in regard to any spe- cific problem of geographical exploration as had Columbus. He had read widely ; he had engaged in the business of making maps and globes ; and he had been a daring navi- gator. During his residence in Portugal he had sailed in Portuguese ships to Cluinea and north as far as the British Isles, and in 1477 had participated in an expedi- tion to Iceland. While in Portugal he married Phillipa Moniz who is said to have been the daughter of Bartho- lome Perestrello, one of Prince Henry's navigators. HOW TO INTRODUCE HEROES OF HISTORY 233 Two men, Las Casas and Ferdinand Columbus, claim that the idea of sailing- west to reach Asia was suggested to Columbus by the letters of a Florentine physician and astronomer, Paolo del Pozzo Toscanelli. The king of Portugal in 1474 had asked Toscanelli if he could suggest a new route to the East Indies. In his reply to this letter the famous astronomer suggested steering westward across the Atlantic, and sent the king a map which explained his views clearly. When Colum- bus asked Toscanelli the same question, the astronomer's reply was full of enthusiasm. He sent him a duplicate of the map which he had formerly sent the king of Portu- gal and urged ( '(jlumbus to undertake the voyage. Ad- mitting the genuineness of the Toscanelli letter, we know that Columbus had previously accumulated in the marked pas.sages (jf his own books a far more convincing body of facts than anything in Toscanelli's letter. No evi- dence or facts are supj)lic(l in the letter which were not already familiar to Columbus. However, the letter may have encouraged him and directed his attention to the soluti(jn of tlic problem. All students of tlie subject agreed that the earth was a sphere. T]\(' (iuesti(jn at issue was the probable length of the voyage necessary to reach China or Japan peasibjiity by sailing due west. Both Toscanelli and Co- of the Pro- lunibus were wrong in their estimates of the cir- P"sed cumference of the earth. Pecause Cohnnbus thought the earth much smaller than it is there was no doubt in his mind as to the coniniercial advantage of l)raving the unknown terrois of the \oyage across the Atlantic. T\\\s was the scheme that he urged upon his fellow-men for eighteen or twent}' years. lie hoped 234 SOCIALIZING THE CHILD to gain access to the wealth of the Indies by a new, short route across waters unknown to European ships, and with his share of the profits he would drive the Turk from Constantinople and set free the Holy Sepulcher. Columbus was born in an age of maritime enterprise. His discovery was only a part of a great outburst of mari- time activity which within a single century dis- Coiumbus covered not merely America but nearly all the by the Age hitherto unknown world. He was indebted to in which lY^Q jj^gg [yi which he lived for the material, means, and tools which he used so intelligently. The invention of printing had made books accessible. He was dependent upon the mariner's compass and the astrolabe which had been invented by others. The work of other map makers was useful to him. He was also indebted to the spirit of the age and the human belief in his cause sufficient to furnish his ships and man them. He was deeply indebted both to society of the past and to society of his own times for his means, and each succeeding age acknowledges its indebtedness to him. Little is known of Columbus's life prior to 1470. A dozen different towns claim the honor of his birthplace. Personal There is no proof that he ever studied at Pavia. History of He probably had some skill in map making. Columbus, jjg knew Latin, geometry, and as much astron- omy as the people of his age knew how to apply to naviga- tion. Historians differ as to his character. Biographers are still undecided as to the year of his birth. Some claim that he was born in Clenoa in 144G. Others state that he was born in 1451. All historians and biographers agree that Columbus had in a degree rarely equaled the power to consecrate HOW TO INTRODUCE HEROES OF HISTORY 235 himself to one groat achievement. No other navigator of his time showed such unflagging pertinacity coium- in piu'suit of a perilous enterprise. Because bus's Real Columbus had the imagination to plan and the ^®^^*- courage to carry out a voyage in search of land to the westward he became the most conspicuous hero of the fifteenth century. In 1492 he rendered the world the greatest service possible. He alone was willing to give up some of the best years of his life to test the theory held by learned men. His deed has made him immortal. In so far as a free sea sets the spirit free, he was the liberator of the human race. By trusting his ship to the open sea he carried mankind along in his wake. His first voyage opened the gates of the ocean and thus brought all parts of the world into communication. The invincible courage which made him persevere through years of scorn and insult in devotion to an. idea, calls forth our admiration. It is a poor service to the truth of history to attribute to Columbus virtues which he did not possess, as some writers have done. Nor is it just to blame him because he had not the virtues of Las Casas, nor the scientific knowledge of a Copernicus. No human being reaches the higliest excellence in all resf)ects. His wonderful achievement needs not the embellishment of fiction. "^I'lic m;m is grent when painted in his rcjil colors. \o otiicr iii;iii cNcr faced chances of fortune more extrenu; or left posterity under g?'eater obligations. He dcsorvos to be lionored for what he was and for what lie did. 'I'he following stories indicate the kind of subject matter in wliieli ehildren of the tliini giade will be interested. Before telling any of the stories the teacher must find out 236 SOCIALIZING THE CHILD what the childrfMi ah'eady know about C'oliimhus. The comforts and discomforts of a voyage upon the Atlantic to-day should be brought out. After the teacher has sunmiarized all the information offered by the class, and aroused their curiosity about the great navigator, the stories may be told in the order given. TEACHER'S REFERENCES Columbus, Fernando, The Discovery of America, from the Life of Columbus, by his son Ferdinand Columbus. Old South Leaflets, General Series, Vol. 2, No. 29, 1891. FisKE, John, The Discovery of America. 2 Vols. Irving, Washington, Columbus, His Life and Voyages (in "Heroes of the Nation Series")- Mackie, C. p.. With the Admiral of the Ocean Sea; A narrative of the first voyage to the Western World, drawn mainly from the Diary of Columbus. Seelye, Elizabeth (Eggleston), Mrs. E. Seelye, The Story of Coluuibus. With an Introduction by Edward Eggleston. Winsor, Justin, Christopher Columbus, and How He Received and Imparted the Spirit of Discovery. CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS, THE POOR ITALIAN BOY WHO BECAME FAMOUS When Christopher Columbus was a litth; boy he lived in the city of Genoa. His father was a weaver of wool, and his uncles and cousins were weavers also. They all lived in a section of the town which was calletl the weavers' quarter. All of their neighbors made their living by combing wool or making cloth. The narrow house in which Columbus spent his boyhood stood ju.st outside the gate of Saint Andrea. High buildings came up close to the house on each side, and there was no yard at all. The windows had no glass in them, but there were shut- h'riini till slnliii hy MntiUrirdi In tin Hiislon Art iStumiim. 'I'm. \U)\ ('(ILIIMHUM. 238 SOCIALIZING THE CHILD ters to keep out the cold with small openings which let in the light through oiled linen or paper. On the lower floor was the shop where the weaving was done with long counters in front on which the goods were displayed and sold to customers. The family lived over the shop. Genoa was a seaport and to its wharves came ships from China, and Japan and India, or the Indies, as people called these eastern countries. Like many other of the lads of Genoa, Columbus liked to pl-ay on the wharves and to watch the swarthy seamen unloading their precious cargoes of beautiful silks, fragrant spices, and rare gems. He learned how the great sails were pulled up and down, and how the ships were steered, and he listened to thrilling stories from the lips of adventurous seamen who had sailed into seas that ships had never entered before, and had discovered new lands. And stirring tales these mariners must have had to tell — of sea fights with pirate ships (for these W3re the days of pirates), of mutinies, of wrecks, of all kinds of hair-breadth escapes. As Columbus grew older he longed to sail with these seamen on their long voyages to distant countries. He read many books of travel, among them the book of Marco Polo, a book more thrilling than any fairy tale. This Marco Polo was a famous traveler who had journeyed to the very court of the Emperor of China and had brought home hidden in the seams and hems of his garments precious stones of great value. In his book, one reads of courtiers dressed in robes of silk studded with sapphires and rubies, and of palaces with panels of silver and gold and roofs of pure gold. At last, the day dreams of Columbus's boyhood turned into realities, and he became a sailor, seeing lands that until then had been to him only names, taking part in sea fights, and ex- periencing for himself the perils of life on the sea, of which he had heard so many tales. For several years he lived in Portu- gal, and while there he may have sailed with Portuguese mari- ners on their long voyages of discovery down the coast of Africa HOW TO INTRODUCE HEROES OF HISTORY 239 — always hoping to round the tip of this great continent and to open up a waterway to the Indies. This was the question that all Europe was asking, "How can we find a new way to the Indies?" The old route, part way by sea and part way overland bj^ caravans across Asia, could no longer be traveled in safety, since enemies had cap- tured one of the chief cities along the way. Columbus saw ship after ship come back to Portugal after their long voyages to Africa without having solved the mystery of how far that great unexplored continent stretched to the southward, and he began to ask himself, "Is there not some other waterway to the Indies that men have not yet thought of?" Now in the time in which Columbus lived, only a small part of the world as we know it had been discovered. The people of Europe had no more idea that away over here across the Atlantic were two great continents than had the savage tribes who lived here an idea of the existence of the land of the white men. Many ignorant people thought that the earth was flat and that if one journeyed too far in any direction one would fall off. There were all kinds of stories told of the frightful monsters that lived in the Atlantic Ocean waiting to devour those who ventured too far on its waters. But Columi>us believed, as did many other educated men, that the world was not flat but round. And since he thought the world to be iiiiuli smaller than it really' is, he decided that one could sail westward out across the Atlantic rigi)t around the world to China and .lapan. So sure was he that the riches of ttic Mast could be reached by sailing west that he was will- ing to brave tlie perils and uncertainties of a voyage into un- known waters whose length no nian could I'oictell. But ( "ttlunibus was too |)oor to pay the cost of such an expedi- tion, lie needed large ships, money to pay the sailors, and supplies of food to lant many weeks or perhaps many months. He wanted a powerful king to help him c.-irry out his plans. For years the Portuguese king had been helping great marinern 240 SOCIALIZING THE CHILD to undertake voyages of discovery. Surely he would be will- ing to help, thought (\)lunil)us. So he went to King John II of Portugal and said : "If the earth is round like a ball, there must be two ways of reaching the same place. If the way to India is so long b}' traveling east, may we not reach it sooner by sailing west? Perhaps we can go by water all the way if we sail tlirectly west across the Atlantic. Will you give me ships to try this route?" King John listened to the plans of Columbus and said : "What reward do you want for the discoveries you may make?" "I want to be viceroy of all lands discovered by me," Colum- bus replied; "I want the title of admiral and a tenth part of the profits." But King John was not in the habit of giving such higli rewards. Then, too, he preferred his own Portuguese sea- men who had })een carefully trained, for Columbus was a stranger to the King and might not be as able as he seemed. So Columbus left Portugal disappointed, and went to Spain to seek the help of King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella. But these were busy times for the King and Queen of Spain. A long- war was being, waged with the Moors, and the court was con- stantly being moved al)out from place to place. King Ferdi- nand was in the thick of the fighting as city after city of the Moors was l)esieged, and Queen Isabella was busy sending supplies to the armies, relieving the sufferings of the people and even riding into the camp sometimes on horseback to encourage the soldiers. No wonder they found little time to listen to this stranger with his plan for sailing west in order to reach the East. And so from month to month and then from year to year they put him off, never actually refusing to help him, but never reallj' taking time to think about the matter. For seven weary years ('olumbus wandered, following the Spanish court from place to place, far away from his home and family in a strange country. Sometimes great men were HOW TO INTRODUCE HEROES OF HISTORY 241 kind to him and took him into their homes. But often, he must have looked very shabby and had little to eat. At la.st C'oluml)Us lost hope of ever gaining the attention of the king and queen amidst all this tumult of war and bustle of eourt affairs. Did he intend to give up this great plan of his? No, indeed, Columbus was a man who never gave up. He decided to go to France or England and see if he could not get help from one of these countries. But first he must find a home for his little motherless boy, Diego. What a pathetic picture the father and son must have made as they left the Spanish court together, the father grown old before his time, gray and bent and poorly dressed ; the little boy shabby, too, pinched and hungry-looking, very likely, big-eyed with wonder over the new people and places he was seeing. After walking until they were weary, the travelers stopped at the gate of a monastery and asked the porter for some bread and water. Some kindly fate must have guided Columbus to this monastery, for here he found the best friend he had met in all these years, lie was Juan Perez, a monk who heard Columl)Us asking for bread and knew that he must be a foreigner by the way he spoke Spanish. Perhaps, something in this shabby, tired-looking stranger's face interested the monk, or perha|)s he was only sorry for him. He inviteij him into the monastery to rest and asked him whence he came and where he was going. And Columbus told him of his daring plan for finding a shorter way to the Indies and of the years he had spent at the court of Ferdinand ;md Isabella with no success. He said that .as sof)n as he could place little Diego in the home of his aimt and tuulc, he would go to France or l^ngland and try to find help there. .\s Columbus talked of this great idea that li.id filii'd his mind for so many years, .Juan Perez became more and nmre interested. lie deejded that llie plan W!is reason.able. So he wrote a letter to (^ue<'n Is.abella begging her not to let Colum- bus leave Spain, and .sent it by a trusty messenger. In the [242] HOW TO INTRODUCE HEROES OF HISTORY 243 meantime, the stranger and his httle son were to stay comfort- ably at the monasterj'. Now it happened that this good monk liad once been Queen Isabella's confessor and that the Queen had great respect for his opinions. In him Columbus had found a friend who would be worth more to him than the friendshi]) of all the great court- iers combined. Antl so it came a])out that in fourteen days a messenger came from the Queen l^ringing money for Colum- bus and a request that he should come with Juan Perez to see her. F'orthwith Columbus bought some new clothes to wear at court and a mule on which to travel and he and Juan Perez journeyed with light hearts to see Queen Isabella. Many changes had taken place at the Spanish court in this short time. Granada, the stronghold of the Moors, had fallen. Columbus saw the last of the Moorish kings kiss the hands of Ferdinand and Queen Isabella and of young Prince Juan, who was heir to the throne. Ferdinand and Ts;ib(>lla were now the greatest rulers in Christendom. A council (jf wise men was ap))ointed to consider the ])lan, and these men came to the decision that it was worth trying. Hut everything was not to run smoothly for ( 'olumbus even now. He asked great rewards, too great. Queen Isabella tli(Higl)t. And so, once again, Columbus turned away dis- couraged to go to France, liul the (^uccn changed her mind and sent a messenger aftei" liini to sny that lie sliould li;i\-e tlie rewards he asked fe made viceroy over all I he lands that In- shniild dis- cover. A tenth part of the gold, preciou- stoin", pearls, silver, spices, and other trea.sures fouiiil in these Lands sliould be his; and if he bore .an eighth part ol the exjx'nses, he was to have an eighth part of the profits of all the voyages made. More than this, the title of Don was to ))(• given to him and to his 244 SOCIALIZING THE CHILD family. Little Diego had a share in the honors, too. He was to be sent to school, and aiUn- two years he was to be page to Prince Juan, the son of the King and Queen. This was one of tlie greatest honors of all, for the court pages were usually chosen from the children of noble families. Now it seemed as if all Columbus's hopes and dreams were at last coming true. But still there were delays and discour- agements. The Queen had difficulty in raising enough money for the untlertaking. Then sailors were afraid to go on such an uncertain v(^yage. They were afraid that they might get to the edge of the sea and drop off ; that the sea might l)e l)oil- ing hot in some places ; that great dragons might eat them. Queen Isabella even offered to give prisoners their freedom if they would go. And finally enough men and money were gathered together to fit out and man three small ships. And this was the fleet that started with its dauntless admiral to sail around the world. THE VOYAGE Just an hour before sunrise one August morning in 1492, three little ships, scarcely larger than the fishing smacks that sail up and down our coast to-day, lifted anchor in the harbor of Palos. There was a great crowd of peo])le of all classes and all ages gathered to see them off. Some of them were cheering, some were silent, staring in eager curiosity, but many were weeping, for these little ships were the ships of Columbus's fleet and they were sailing away out across the " Sea of Darkness " — no one knew where — and few expected ever to see them sail back to Spain again. It must have seemed like a happy dream to Columbus to be really embarking on this voyage to the Indies for which he had planned and hoped and waited during all these long years. But his troubles were by no means over. Probably no one ever did a really big thing without a great deal of hard work HOW TO INTRODUCE HEROES OF HISTORY 245 and worry and a great many di.sfouragements. And tliis voyage of Columbus's, which was about the biggest thing that a man has ever done, was beset with cUfficulties from start to finish. Just as the ships were well under way, it was found that the Pinta had a broken rudder. So it was necessary to stop for about three weeks at the Canary Islands for repairs. But the thing that m;ulo this long and dangerous voyage the hardest for Columbus was the faint-heart edness of his sailors. Now most of these sail ors were ignorant, superstitious men who had been bribed to go by promi>es of gold or by being offered freedom from pri.son. They had no idea of the sound reasons on which Columbus based liii.- plan of sailing around tlic world. They thought lie was a i'ra/\' dreamer who was heading them on a foolhardy e.\])edili()n that c()uld end only in all losing their lives. As they saw the last strip of land ladr awa\' on tlic horizon behind them, many broke whiteness of their hands and faces, "^rhey thought Columbus and his men must have come down fi;om heaven and that their white sails were great white wings. Columbus gave them red caps and necklaces of glass beads and all .sorts of pretty trinkets. 'I'hey were delighted with these gifts and went away ami told others about these kind men who had come down from the skies. And when they came back they brf)Ughl prr-sents in return — bright-colorerl parrots, ornaments of gold, flowers, and fruits. 248 SOCIALIZING THE CHILD And what was this little island that Columbus had come so many miles to find? It was one of the many tiny coral islands that stretch from Florida to the island of Hayti — just which one we are not sure. Had Columbus sailed straight across from Spain he would have landed somewhere along the coast of our own country. But he had turned southward toward the end of the voyage because he had seen flocks of birds flying in that direction at sunset. But Columbus thought that his dream was fulfilled and that he had found a new way to the Indies. To be sure he was disappointed not to have sailed into the harbor of some rich city of the East. But he felt sure that this land he had found was some outlj-ing island along the coast of Asia and that not far away were China and Japan with all the riches and wonders of which he had dreamed ever since he could remember. EXPLORING IN THE WEST INDIES As soon as Columbus had taken possession of the new-found land, he set out with his men in the ships' boats to cruise along the coast and discover, if he could, what kind of land this was that seemed so fair and yet had never seen civilized men before. The natives he called Indians, for he thought he had reached "the Indies." He learned to talk by means of signs with these men whose language was so unlike any he had heard, and of all whom he met he asked the same question : " Where can we find gold?" They answered by telling him of a large island which they called Cuba — the very same island that we know by that name to-day. At this news, Columbus was greatly rejoiced for he was sure that this island was Japan. And so he began to cruise in and out among the tiny islands which one could see from San Salvador. And on every one he found the same beautiful trees and flowers and birds, the same naked, dark-skinned men, and the same scarcity of gold and precious stones. HOW TO INTRODUCE HEROES OF HISTORY 249 The friendship of the Indians could always be won by gifts of pretty trinkets. In exchange they would give Columbus food, fresh water from the coolest springs, and gold and silver ornaments. One day as the voj'agers were approaching a new island, an Indian padtUed out in a canoe and wanted to be taken aboard. But when he came near the ship he was fright- ened and .started to turn back. Then two of the sailors jumped overboard and captured him and brought him to their Admiral. The poor Indian was trembling ^^^th fear, and he held out as an offering a ball of bright-colored cotton yarn. Columbus greeted him kindly, put a red cap on his head, strings of green beads around his arms, and hung little bells on his ears. Then he gave back tiie ball of yarn and sent him on his way. Another day the ships overtook an huHan who had patldled far out from land and seemed to be too exhausted to paddle farther. Columbus had his men take him on board, canoe and all, and give him bread, honey, and wine. When night came they drew near an island. So they put the grateful Indian in his canoe and sent him ashore. During the night the natives came out to the sliij)s bringing fresli spring water, fruits, and roots that wer(» gcxjd to eat, for the grateful Indian had sj)read the news of the kindness of the white men. On one of tli<'ii- rxpior.ilions, the sailors saw the Indians cooking a queci' kiml of root. This root was nothing le.ss than the potato, and this was the fir>t time that a white man saw it. They also .saw Indians rolling up new land were to Im' worth more to lOurope than all the spices of the Ea.st for wliich they were looking. When the ships came to the shores of Cuba, Columl)Us said, "This must be the mainlaii messenger, came back after sev- eral days having found no city, no palaces, no gold — only villages of nak(Hl savages. And so the ships journeyed on from island to island, getting a little gold here and there and sometimes pearls and silver and all sorts of beautiful bird feathers and pretty trinkets. One day they came to the island of Hayti, and here a serious mishap occurred. For the Santa Maria struck a hid- den reef of coral and was wrecked. Columbus must have been almost in despair when he saw the waves breaking over the Uttle ship and reahzed that she had made her last voyage. What would all this long voyage across the sea profit if he could not get back in safety to Spain and bring word to the King and Queen of his discovery ! But his resourcefulness did not fail him in this emergency. He decided to build a fort on the island from the wreckage of the Santa Maria and leave part of the crew, while he went on to Spain with the rest to get more money and more ships and come back again. And this is how the first European fort came to be built in this new world. Over this little fort the flag of Spain was raised, and it floated as proudly as if it knew that this was the beginning of vast dominions for the King and Queen across the sea. COLUMBUS RETURNS TO SPAIN On the fourth of January, 1493, the two little ships that now made up the Admiral's fleet began the return voyage back across the many miles they had come. It is lucky that the voyagers had better courage now than when they started forth, for this voyage was to be a stormy and seasick one. The ships were not nearly so seaworthy as when they had left Palos the August before. Both were so leaky that the sailors had hard work to keep down the water. And as if they had HOW TO INTRODUCE HEROES OF HISTORY 251 not troubles a plenty, on the twelfth of February there came up a great storm that lasted for days. The two ships became separated, and the Nina, the smallest ship of the fleet, now strug- gled along by itself. Waves mountain high threatened to engulf the frail craft at any moment and to carry ^vith it to the bottom of the sea the wonderful piece of news that Colum- bus was bringing to Europe. But Columbus was determined that even though all on board should be lost, the news of his discover}' should be saved if possible. So he wrote out a full account of the long voyage and the islands and the people he had found, sealed it, and addressed it to the King and Queen of Spain, promising a re- ward of one thousand ducats to him who would deliver it. ■"i'heii he wrapped the letter in waxed cloth and put it in an empty barrel, which lie caused to be headed and thrown into the sea. T*)Ul lest this barrel never reach land, he prepared another copy in the same way and placed it in an empty cask on the higii poop of his deck, hof)ing that if the vessel sank the cask might float off and ])e picked u]). But as if by a miracle the little ship wc^athercd tlu' gale and came a few days later to the Azores. Pc()])l(' gathered on the shore in crowds to see the liltic Nina that h.id come safely through the storm, for many strong vessels iiad Ix-cii wrecked. Tolumbus wrote a letter to the King of Portugal asking for fxTtnission to enter the port of Lisbon, and a letter to th(> King and (^ueen of Spain teUing flic news of his fiiscovery, and sent them by couriers. 'I'his time, the Cenoesc ruatiiicr was given a very dilTcrcul reception from the one he had received years before when, pcior and unknown, he had c(»ine tot lie great King tor help. I le was invited to come to the royal palace at \'alparais(>, where lie was received with every honor as if he wcvc a royal personage. Oti the thirteenth of March Columbus saile(I for Spain, and two day-- later he entered the harbor of I'alos out of which he had sailed fnore tlian .seven niontlis before. J low glad the 252 SOCIALIZING THE CHILD people were to see him. They came down to the shore in a great procession. The bells rang and the cannons boomed. They listened open-mouthed to the tales the sailors had to tell, and every one pointed out Columbus and cheered him as he passed in the streets. The court of Ferdinand and Isabella was then at Barcelona, and thither Columbus set out. Rut he was obligcnl to travel very slowly, for crowds gathered all along the way to see the Indians and to question Columbus about his voyage. It was a fine day in April when he came to the court at Bar- celona. The King and Queen had arranged a splendid recep- tion for him. Courtiers went out to meet him, and there was a great procession through the city, while immense crowds filled the streets and even gathered on the housetops, so eager were they to see. And a great spectacle it was ! There were Indians, smeared with paint, decorated with feathers of tropical birds, and with golden ornaments. There were parrots and other bright-colored birds in cages. And there were all kinds of trinkets and curios such as had never been seen in Europe before. Ferdinand and Isabella received C'olumbus under a canopy of gold brocade, and as a mark of special honor they permitted him to remain seated while he told them the story of his long voyage and his discoveries. It was the proudest and happiest moment of the poor Genoese explorer's life. All the years of waiting and planning and persevering had not been in vain. Chapter VIII THE CELEBRATION OF HOLIDAYS The Value of Holiday Celebrations Summarized. 1. They make the children famihar with some of the best traditions of the past. 2. They help the children to secure concrete imagery and enable them to take the first steps toward a reverent appreciation of the past. 3. The contrasts and comparisons made between various ways of celebrating holidays serve to deepen the children's appreciation of historical changes that mark progress. 4. They help to develop the children's appreciation of the location of historic events in time and in place. o. They increase the children's admiration for heroes and awaken still further curiosity concerning local, state, and national achievements. f). They stimulate wholesome feeling and give the chil- dren an opportunity to ('xpress emotion bo;iutif',ilI>' in march and dance and song. 7. Tlu'N' devcilop (i(lr tu lOleusis. On the sixtli, thousands of peo|)le. di'essed in festal robes, decked with garlands, and carrying torches, chanted the praises of 262 SOCIALIZING THE CHILD Demeter. The last three days were spent in sports, sacrifices, and feasting. The symbols of the goddess were poppies, ears of corn, and a basket of fruit. The Romans worshipped Ceres as a harvest deity. The festival was called Cerelia and occurred on October Celebra- ^th. A fast among the connnon people was tions in the first feature of the celebration. Then an Rome. animal and the first cuttings of the harvest were offered to Ceres. There were processions in the fields and rustic sports and music. The ceremonies ended with a feast of Tlianksgiving. In England we can trace the feast celebrated under the name of " Harvest Home " back to Egbert's day. In a Ceie- ^^^^ places the old method of celebrating the day brations in still survives. It took place at the close of the England. reaping season, not the "Ingathering." Much ceremony was attached to escorting the last load to the barn or to cutting the last sheaf. Neighbors vied with each other in getting the harvest home as early as pos- sible. In Scotland the last sheaf gathered was called the "Kern." As soon as it was bound and set on end the reapers announced, we have "got the Kern." Then an image dressed in a white frock and colored ribbons, crowned with heads of wheat, was hoisted on a pole. This was called the "kern baby" or "harvest queen." They followed this in a procession to the barn where they sang and danced and partook of a harvest supper. Sometimes the last sheaf, instead of being carried on a pole, was placed in a wagon called the "hock-cart," Musicians preceded the cart. The reapers, both men and women, tripped after, hand in hand, singing and shouting. One of the old songs has come down to us : THE CELEBRATION OF HOLIDAYS 263 "Harvest home ! harvest home ! We've ploughed, we've sowed, We've reaped, we've mowed, We've brought home ever}- load. Hip, hip, hip, harvest home!" In more modern times it became customary to have a general harvest festival for a whole parish. (See (ieorge Eliot's "Adam Bede," Chapter 53, for a descrip- tion of a Harvest Home supper.) All the farmers con- tributed to the supper. All the laborers attended. The festival commenced with a special service in the parish church which was suitably decorated for the occasion with fruit and flowers. The religious service was fol- lowed by a dinner in a tent or a large building, after which there were harvest sports. In addition to the annual celebration of Harvest Home, special days of thanksgiving were often proclaimed (Ui exceptional occasions such as on the recovery of a monarch from a serious illness, or the discovery of the gunpowder plot, or the defeat of the Spanish Armada. The Dutch celebrated Thanksgiving on October 3d of each year in memory of their deliverance from the Span- iards. It was kept as both a religious and a celebra- social holiday. The Pilgrims observed the cele- tions in bration of this day in Holland each year for Holland, ten years before they came to America. Through the Pilgrims the custom of celebrating Thanksgiving was introduced as a " Harvest Home" in New lOngland. The celebration should grow out of the daily work in which the children are engaged. Tliis means that the teacher must decide early in the year the general 264 SOCIALIZING THE CHILD character of the celebration to be given by the children of a particular grade. A feeling of genuine gratitude for Prepara- certain definite blessings or privileges is the tion for the Q\^[Qf object to be striven for. Then out of the eivin niany possible forms of expressing that feeling Ceiebra- in a suitable way the pupils working together tion. suggest what should be done and how it should be done. The children in the three primary grades should not be expected to write plays. Their method of dramatic work is very difTerent from that used by adults. Primary children of the same age vary greatly as to their dramatic ability. The work of harvesting, or of making pumpkin pies can be acted out by them. Pantomime with or without music, or pantomime with some dialogue, is a suitable form of expression for the first grade. No one form of representation should be insisted upon in the primary grades. Nor should well-developed pantomime be expected. All of their representation will be crude. The chief aim is to have freedom in action and vivid portrayal. If the children are imaginative and free in bodily expression the pantomime will possess charm. Poor enunciation and weak tones, so common with children Jn the first grade, often mar the attempt at dialogue. Probably the most satisfactory expression for the Thanksgiving celebration of primary grades will / be secured by combining speech, pantomime, march, dance, poem, and song. As a rule, pantomime needs to be accompanied by music to hold the parts together if the scenes to be repre- sented are long or require elaborate gesture to tell the complete story. Short pantomimes, where the action is simple, need no music. The children have had prac- THE CELEBRATION OF HOLIDAYS 265 tiee in impromptu pantomime and gesture in the class- room. They can represent people at work, for instance, or at play. Primary children can act out husking corn, gathering nuts, picking apples, bringing home the grain, setting the Thanksgiving table, giving a party, going to grandmother's to dinner, and a host of other industrial and play activities connected with the celebration. How to lead children to put their natural expression into a form that the listeners can understand most readily is a difficult problem to solve. The teacher must dis- cern the merit in the various fragmentary suggestions of the children, select the most desirable spontaneous expressions, and bind all into a related whole. Skillful guidance and a definite aim will be necessary at each stage. The little children have not the experience neces- sary to enable them to imagine the final result. No matter how clever, imaginative, or dramatic a group of children may be, nmch suggestion, stinuilus, and direction on the part of the teacher will be necessary to produce a worthy and fitting appeal to the audience. Even when ;i teacher realizes that a particular idea is wholly within the range of childish emotion, and that a child ought to he abU; to express it in a fairly adequate way, it will often be necessary to (|uestion and present the situation in such a way that the child may realize what it demands in action. She should not dictate in words what he should eitluir say or do. Nor should she act it out for him to imitate. She nnist keep con- stantly before the childs mind that his action must tell the story to the peixin who does not, know it. As far as possil>le, (lach child should have a part in the final performance. Of (course the children best adapted 260 SOCIALIZING THE CHILD to the parts can render them best, but in the marches, and in arranging tlie decoration of the room ; in the making of scenery or the arrangement of it, or in dressing special characters for a part, a definite assignment can be given to even the least gifted pupil in the class. An individual assignment helps to make each child feel that he is indispensable to the success of the whole. Certain details which seem obvious to an experienced adult the , teacher will need to emphasize constantly with the primary children w^ho have not yet learned that a person speaking to an audience must face the audience, or that the attention of the audience must be prepared for a situation, or that the entrance of an important person must be emphasized, or that sufficient time must be given for an action, or that groupings should show balance. The celebration may assume many different forms. If the rejoicing over the harvest is to be the keynote of the celebration, many suggestions can be gained from the old Hebrew, Greek, Roman, and old English cele- brations. If it seems preferable to emphasize the close of the summer season and the approach of winter, the description of autumn by the poets will prove suggestive. If the chief aim is to conmiemorate the first Thanks- giving on the bleak New England coast, much material can be found in prose and verse describing that event. If the keynote of the celebration is to show the national rejoicing in America over certain features of our civiliza- tion, such as spiritual blessings, political blessings, the bountiful gifts of nature, the inventive genius of our men, the opportunity offered to labor and look forward, — the greater portion of the program will have to be assigned THE CELEBRATION OF HOLIDAYS 267 to students in the upper grades. Only minor parts could be gi\'en to children in the primary grades. But the music, if well selected, will enable the primary children to share in the celebration and to appreciate some of the beauty and value in what they see and hear. Their appreciation will be emotional rather than intellectual, and will be heightened by performing some minor part. Music can be used to stir emotion, to create the re- quired mood, and as a means through which the emotions when aroused can find a suitable form of expression. Great care should be taken in the selection of the music. A song can sometimes render a general idea in a concrete form easily grasped by the listeners. Lydia Maria Child's **Ov^er the River and through the Wood" gains in mean- ing when children "act it out." Wlion the school as a whole sing the selection, the song carries them all away in the sleigh to grandmother's. It serves to fix in the memory the local color. It locates the scene jis to time and place. Music adds impressiveness to ceremonies and processions. It makes joyousness or mirth contagious and is perhaps the best medium to stimulate the audience to enter into the festive mood of the day. The following celebration of Thanksgiving was planned by the children of grades one and two under the guidance of their teachers. The children of the first grade planned to show what \vc should be thankful for, and lo whom we should say "thank you." The children of the second grade endeavored to make clear lo the childnMi of the first grade what people were; thankful for in grandmother's day, and long, long before grandmother's grandmother came to earth, lioth grades were lo participate in a "thanksgiving feast" prepared by themselves. 268 SOCIALIZING THE CHILD The first grade children decorated the room with autumn leaves, bright red berries, and piles of nuts and fruit. On a large side table were placed the fruit and vegetables, and bread and other food products brought by the children of both grades to be given to poor people for their Thanksgiving dinner. While the children of the first grade and their teachers were in an adjoining room popping corn for the feast, the children of the second grade, assisted by their teacher, arranged the tables and set them. They had made the place cards and the paper dishes for the popcorn during the preceding days. They had also folded the napkins, and planned the menu, and the decorations for the tables, which were bright, pretty, and attractive. The feast came at the close of the exercises and some of the mothers came to share in the children's pleasure. The program follows : PROGRAM A Spirited March. Song — " The Apples have been Gathered." Thanksgiving Stories — Pupils of Grade One. First child holds an apple so that all can see it and tells its story, then tells to whom we should say "thank you" for the apple. Second child holds up a piece of coal, tells its story, and names the people to whom we should say "thank you" for the coal. Third child presents a picture of a wheat field, a small bottle of flour, and a piece of bread, and traces the bread back to the wheat field. At the close of the story she tells us to whom we should say "thank you" for our bread. THE CELEBRATION OF HOLIDAYS 269 Fourth child tolls the story of a, toy hammer. Fifth child tells the story of some building stones. Sixth child tells how the butter we will use in our sand- wiches to-day was made. March — Through the halls, about the room, and back to place. (Second grade children join in this march.) "Over the River and Through the Wood" (Acted out by children of the second grade.) A Dialogue Between Father Time and a Little Child. (Two children of second grade.) Father Time is very old. He totters when he walks. He wears a long cloak and leans on a staff. His long hair and long beard are white. In answer to the child's questions he tells her how people lived long, long ago when they had no homes, no farms, no stoves, no tame animals, and no tools except their own hands and teeth. Tree-dwellers Seated Around a Fire. Th<' flan mother is tending the firo. The others are eating nuts and dry roots and listening to stories of strug- gles with wild animals before they had any fire. Song — Bj' l)otli grades. March — One of the teachers plays the piano while the others RHsist the children in finding their places at the table by examining the place c.'irds. l']a('li cliilil continues niatcliing until he has found liis (••■ud. All t lie cliildrcn stnnd inilil the piano giv<> llic si{^n;il lo be sc'itcd. 'I'hc children of the third grade gain niaii\' ideas coii- cerning the rojohnitioii of holidays in other countries boforo the close of their yoar's work, but at the Thanks- giving season they are not suflicieiitly familiar with any 270 SOCIALIZING THE CHILD of them to act t.hein out in dance and song, in marches and processions, unless the teacher has planned in ad- vance to concentrate upon some particular way of cele- brating; Thanksgiving. However, in their second grade work last year they learned Indian corn songs and Indian dances after the Thanksgiving season had passed. Now is the time to review this material and utilize it in the third grade celebration. In ''Indian Boyhood" by Charles A. Eastnuin, we have true stories of Indian manners and customs written by an Indian. ''Hakadah's First Offering," pages 101 to 112 inclusive, gives a story that is full of interest and can be acted out by third grade children. The setting is an Indian camp with open front and fire in center. On one side of the fire is Uncheedah (the grandmother), on the other side is Wachewin, an old woman who has been asked to assist in the first personal offering of Ha- kadah (a boy of eight) to the Oreat Mystery. The boy Hakadah enters carrying in his hands a bow and arrows. The small birds and squirrels that he has killed with these weapons dangle from his belt. His dog Ohitika is there. Scene I. migiit be a dialogue between the boy and his grandmother which would disclose the character of the sacrifice to be made and its purpose. Sce?ie 11. might represent Uncheedah and Hakadah performing the ceremonies over the dead Ohitika by the use of the paints, the tobacco, and the peace pipe, and might close with the grandmother's prayer to the Great Mystery to make the child a great warrior and hunter. Scene III. might represent Indian braves returning from the hunt. The setting for the scene might be an s THE CELEBRATION OF HOLIDAYS 271 Indian camp in ^Yhich the squaws are braiding grass, making baskets, bead work, and moccasins. Some are singing lullabys to the papooses whose cradles are hung upon pegs. A few Indians are making bows and arrows. The Indian braves enter from a hunt carrying game. They are greeted with shouts of approbation. Then the men join in a hunting dance which is foUowed by the singing of a corn song. Finally the ceremony of return- ing thanks is begun. This includes throwing tobacco on the fire so that their prayers may rise with the smoke. To furnish a contrast and to utilize this year's new work, a Hebrew thanksgiving ceremony might be the closing scene of the day's celebration. The Hebrew thanksgiving might include a procession of pilgrims to attend the " Feast of Tabernacles." Each carries a palm branch. At each end of the stage might be a booth made of boughs to remind them of the days when they had no settled homes. An altar may be placed in the center of the back of the stage. On this the offerings of fruit, oil, and grain are laid. Psalms of praise and thanksgiving are sung. Miriam and her maidens, dressed in scarlet, yellow, and white, may render a thanksgiving dance, {('urtaiti.) Some song of praise and thanksgi\'ing should tlieu be sung by the whole school. There are many reference's for Indian musict and Indian ceremonies given at the close of the chapter dealing with work for second grade. Some metrical interpretations of Hebrew psalms are given below as suggestive of the Hebrew spirit of thanksgiving. Some of tli(>se xc^ses might be repeated by the |)ilgrims as they lay their offer- ings upon the altar. Some of tlie songs might be sung by the whole school. The whole -eene should be digni- 272 SOCIALIZING THE CHILD fied and reverent. Most children hear Old Testament stories at home and in Sunday School, and the story of Joseph told in the third grade will stinmlate the children to get the costumes and to try to learn more about the customs and ceremonies of his people. The above is one way of relating the daily work to the celebration of Thanksgi\'ing, which seems to be the most difficult celebration for inexperienced teachers. When the children enter the fourth grade they will have a knowl- edge of Dutch life as a background for the stories of the Pilgrims who came to America. They will enter into the New England celebration with zest because they have some basis for appreciating the trials of the Pilgrims and the causes for gratitude. In the author's judgment it is a serious mistake to repeat the same type of celebration in each grade. The charm of novelty is lost and the stimulus to effort is not so great. In the fourth grade, as in the third, there ought to be a contrast between the types of Thanksgiving. Because the children are fa- miliar with the Dutch manners and customs from their third grade work of the preceding year, they may under- take to represent a Dutch Thanksgiving as well as the first Thanksgiving in New England. In this way there will be a progressive series of celebrations, each a little more difficult than the preceding, and the children's experience will be enlarged in a natural way. THANKSGIVING DAY' (Sony for the Whok- School) Praise to God, immortal praise, For the love that crowns our days ; Bounteous source of every joy, THE CELEBRATION OF HOLIDAYS 273 Let thy praise our tongues employ ; All to Thee, our God, we owe, Source whence all o\u- blessings flow. All the blessings of the fields, All the stores the garden yields, Flocks that whiten all the plain. Yellow sheaves of ripened grain ; Lord, for these our souls shall raise Grateful vows and solemn praise. Clouds that drop their fattening dews, Suns that genial warmth diffuse, All the plenty sunnner pours. Autumn's rich o'erflowing stores ; Lord, for these our souls shall raise Grateful vows and solemn praise. Peace, prosperity, and health. Private bliss and public wealth, Knowledge, with its gladdening streams, Pure religion's holier beams; Lord, for these our souls siiall raise Grateful vows and solemn praise. ' Reprinted by permission of D. Appleton & Company. METUH'Ab riiANSLATlOX Ol" 'llii: XIAII PSALM OK DAVID' (To Sim,' in 'li'' M.'iri-li ur I'roccssioii ) () all ye jM'ople, ela|) \()Ui- hands \nil with triuMiphaiit voices sing ; No force the mighty p be shown, For Him who all the world commands ; Who sits upon His righteous throne, And spreads His sway o'er heathen lands. ' lie-printed by permission of D. A[)pl('toa & C'lnupariy. STANZAS TO BE RECITED BY CHILDREN First child. Let the trumpets at the festival Their joyful voices raise To celebrate th' appointed time, The solemn day of praise. For this a statute was of old Which Jacob's God decreed To be with pious care observed By Israel's chosen seed. Second child. ' Ye nations, to God Vow homage sincere, Devote to Him gifts. Love, worship and fear ; Before Him, ye mighty, Your spirits repress ; Ye high, and ye humble, His wonders confess ! THE CELEBRATION OF HOLIDAYS 275 Third child. Thy goodness does the cirehng year With fresh returns of plenty crown ; And where thy glorious paths aj^pear, The fruitful cloutls drop fatness down. Fourth child. Large flocks with fleecy wool adorn The cheerful hills ; the valleys bring A plenteous crop of full-ear'd corn, And seem, for joy, to shout and sing. Fifth child. Lord our God, for these, Th}' bounties, Hymns of gratitude'we laise ; To Thy name, for ever glorious, Ever we address our praise. The celebraticni of Washington's Birthday offers obsta- cles that seem at first almost insurmountable. The teacher of keen intelligence and wide reading is able to compare Washington with the greatest nuMi of other times and countries and to appreciate the ^. ^ . r I • 11 • ^^® Cele- um(iue (juality of his renown, nut the |)rnnary bration of children are still unaccpiainted willi liie gi'eat Washing heroes of romance and history and can secure ^o"''^ Birth- only a meager knowledge; of the conditions that produced them. To sa>' that lie was a nobler human type than an>' one of them, more complete in his nature, more happy in his cause or more foitimatc in the issues of his career, would be to say words a Iv, When Mother Lets (f.s Cut out Picture.^. Moffatt, Yard & ( 'o. Brinton, Daniel C, An EthnologisC s View of History. In " Proceed- ings of the New Jersey Historical Society," vol. I, 3d series. The LendpS and their Legends. The Author, Philadelphia. The Myths of the New World. McKay, Philadclpliia. ' BROf)KS, DuwYvn^ , Stories of the Red Children. Educational l^ibjish- ing ('o. Brooks, I'Ilhruxje S., The Tnu; Story of Christopher Columbus. Loth- rop, Lf;e & Shepam Co. The Truf- Story of George Wmhington. Lothrop, Lee «fe Shepard Co. The True Story of Ahrnhnm Lincoln. Lolhrop, Lee tt Sliepard Co. Brown, .\mhie Farwki,i,, Brothers (irui Sisters. Illustrated. Houghton .Mimin Co. A plea.satit little story for yoiuig cliildrcn. Bryant, Sara ('one, Horn to Tell Stories to Children. Houghton Mifflin Co. Bureau of ,\?ii(Ticiin lltiitioNigy. Sniil lisoni.m Institution, Wa.slung- ton, I). C. BuRNErr, Frances Hodohon, The One I Knew the Best of A II. I lougii- ton Mimin Co. Burton, .\i-.\ia Hoi-man, The Story of the Indians of New Knglaiul. Silver, Burdett & Company. 284 SOCIALIZING THE CHILD Butcher, SAMUEh H., and Lano, Andrew, The Odyssey of Homer. The IMacniillati Company. Buxton, (Ieo. F., and Curran, Fred L., Paper and Cardboard Con- struction for Primary Grades. Menominee Press. Campbell, Helen LeRoy, The Story of Little Jan, the Dutch Boy. The Story of Little Metsii, the Japanese Boy. (In " C/hildren of the World Series.") Illustrated. Educational Publishing Co. Carpenter, Frank G., How the World is Clothed. American Book Company. How the World is Fed. American Book Company. How the World is Housed. American Book Company. Carroll, Clarence F., Around the World. Book One. Silver, Burdett & Company. — Entertaining stories of Eskimos, Arabs, Indians, Dutch, Chinese, and Japanese. Chamberlain, James F., How We Are Sheltered. (In " Home and World Series.") Illustrated. The .Macmillan Company. Describes dwellings and customs of the Eskimos, Cliff dwellers, Indians, Japanese, Chinese, Filipinos, African dwarfs, etc. How We Travel. (In " Home and World Series.") Illustrated. The Mac- millan Company. Simple, well illustrated accounts of methods of travel in use all over the world from the "ship in the desert" to the flying machine. Ch^^mberlain, A. F., The Child. L.Scott. " Contemporary Science Series." Charles Scribner's Sons. A valuable summary of much of the literature of child study. A study in the evolution of man. Chance, Lulu Maude, Little Folks of Many Lands. Illustrated. Ginn & Company. Stories describing children of different races : Indian, Eskimo, Dutch, Filipino, and giving legends and folk-lore. For little chil- dren. Chase, Anna, and Clow, E., Stories of Industry. Educational Pub- lishing Co. Chase, Anna, Children of the Wigwam. Educational Publishing Co. Chubb, Percival, Festivals and Plays. Harpiir k Bros. Civic Reafler for New Americans. A collection of papers by various authors. American Book Company. Clarke, M. Homerus, The Story of Ulysses. American Book Com- pany. LIST OF REFERENCES 285 Clodd, Edward, The Childhood of the World. (Revised Edition, 1914.) The Macmillan Company. The Story of "Primitive" Man. Illus- trated. D. Appleton k Co. CoE, Fanny C, The Fir., Bertha (Compil(T). Three Years with the Poets. Houghton MilHiii Co. Well flio.scn selections for memorizing in the first three grades. Arranged by montlis. Hender.son, Anna Wilson, and Palen, II. ()., What and How: a Syslemized Course of flu lid Work. Milton Bradley Co. For primary grades, rural schools, and the home. IIif.L, Charles Thaxtkh, Fi(jhlin(j ' career, 219 ; other anec- dotes, 225 ; persrjnal ajjpearance, 215 216; personality, 210-217 ; place iu history, 213-215 ; preparation for tell- inK sU)ry of, 211 2i:i; references on, 226; results of conquests, 219 220 AmuHcmciits, .Japanese, 109 170 Aristotle demoiislrattMl splicricily of the earth. 22f>-228 ArrianuH, IHavius, "Analiasis of Alex- ander." 214; ii from, 211- 215 Artists. The l)Ost children's. 50 51 Audit/jry imaKinatinn, 29, 'M) Rarx>n. HoKcr. believeil earth round, 228 Mehaim, Martin, Glolx- made by, 228 Berlin. CJutline for study of. 147 \'>'.i; Christmas in. 151 1.5.'l ; description of a day in, 15ri-150; parks and playiirounds iu, 149 , school life in, 150-151 ; squares in, 148; streets in, 147 Books as interpreters of childhood, 10-11 Boutet de Monvel, French illustrator, 49, 50 Brooke, L. Leslie, Pictures for children by, 50 Butterworth, Hezekiah, "Crown our Washington," 280 Cause and effect. Sense of. 13 Child, the, How to understand, 5-8, 10-11 ; liow to widen horizon of, 2-4 ; interest of, iu construction work, 56-57 ; learns of progress through study (jf primitive life, 100-101 ; limited experience of, 1-2 ; results of first year's work of, 98-99 ; self-a(!tivity of. in connec- tion with sand table. 42, 44-47; stories for. 8 10; value of free play to. ; value of pictures U), 48. 52- 54 Child, city. Limitations of the. 21 Child, country, Opportunity of, for expression, 20 Child life in other lands, Construction work basi'd on. 71 72 Child of the professional classes, 21-22 Child. Lydia Maria, "Over the River and throimh the Wood," 2 Historic material that stimulates the imagination, 36 Historic sense, Elements of the, 13 History, Adult student of. contrasted with child, 14-15 ; child's limited understanding of, 15-16 ; how child obtains images necessary' for study of, 16-17; study of primitive life, a basis for, 101 ; value of imagina- tion in study of, 29 History and fiction distinguished, 35 History teaching, First step in, 1-3 Holidays, Celebration of, in primary grades, 253-281 ; in Japan, 170- 175 ; summary of value of, 253-255 HoUand, Children of, 136-137 f Feast of St. Nit^holas in, 139 ; home life in, 135-136 ; life in, contrasted with life in America, 141-142; location of, and description of, 132- 135 ; outline for study of life in, 132-145 ; peculiar customs of people of, 137-139; references on, 142- 143; Thanksgiving celebrations in, 263 Home instruction of Japanese children outlined, 177-178 Home life, as subject, for first grade, 79-83; in Holland, 13.5-136 Homes of Japanese, 164-166 Horizon, Gradual widening of the child's, 3 Humor, The, kind of, that appeals to children, 9 Illustration, Value of, pict^)ri;U. 37 lllustrat^^irs for children. 49 51 "Image of the Worlfl " (Pierre d',\illy). 230; notes by Columbus on. 231 Images. neecHsary for history study, 16-17; sper-ifir- .'lirii of construction work to secure definite, 57 Imagination, Value of, controlled, in history slurly. 99 ; fTiticism of. 3'1 - 35; fuiictioM of. 2H .37; historic 300 INDEX material that, stimulates, W 37 , importance of, in history study, 29 ; importance of, in play, 28 ; reproductive and creative, 34 ; sense types of, 29-32 ; verbal, 32-33 Impressions expressed through sand table, 41-42 Indian life. Construction work bused on, 69 Indians, Outline for study of, 121-126; references on, 127-128 Indies, the. Trade with, 229-230; westward route to, sought, 232-233 Instinct, Communicative, of the child, 18; dramatic, of the child, 18-19; natural, of the child should not be suppressed, 20-21 Instruction, concrete. Value of, 47 Interests of children, Aids to the dis- covery of, 23 ; tabulation of, 24-27 Japan, Outline for study of, 163- 180; amusements and festivals in, 169-170; commendable character- istics of people of, 178-179; holi- days in, 170-175; home instruction of children in, 177-178 ; homes of the people of, 164-166 ; location and description of, 163-164 ; references on, 180-181 ; schools in, 176-177 .Japanese, Characteristics of, outlined, 178-179 Japanese baby. The, 167-169 Japanese children. Occupations of, 176 Jemez Plateau, Antiquities of the, 126-129 Joan of Arc, Story of, 196-197 Joseph, .Story of, 198-209 : Divisions of, 200 ; Joseph a slave in Egypt, 207-208; ,Joseph sold by his brethren, 206-207; Joseph the Dreamer, 204—20.5 ; presentation of, 202-204 ; reasons for selecting, 198-199 ; references on, 209 ; sugges- tions for expressive activities on, 209 ; teacher's preparation for telling, 201 Koller, Helen, Type of imagination of, 30, 36 King, Irving, "The Psychology of Child Development," 24 Life in France, Germany, etc., see name of country Life, see ('hild life, Coniniuiiity life, Farm life. Home life Limitations of primary child's ex- perience, 14-16; of city child, 21 Marco Polo, Travels of, 230 Martin, George Madden, "Emmy Lou; her Book and Heart," 10-11 Materials for construction work, 59 Mixed type of imagination, 29, 31 Modern man's use and control of fire. Outline for study of, 109-114 Mongol conquests. Effect of, on Europe, 230 Motor activities clarify ideas, 44, 47 Motor images. Importance of, 94 Motor imagination, 29-30 Music for Thanksgiving celebration, 267, 272 New England Thanksgiving, 272 Newell, Peter, Pictures for children, 51 Occupations of individuals as study for grade one, 81 Occupations of Japanese children, 176 Oriental, The, contrasted with Greeks, 211-212 Outline of subject matter of book, 3-4 Pantomime, Use of, in celebrations, 264-265 Paris, Outline for study of, 181-189: As seen from the Seine, 182-184 ; boulevards, 184-185 ; children and their jjleasures, 187-189; free pleas- ures and entertainments, 186-187 ; INDEX 301 plan of. 181 ; zoos and parks, 185- 186 Percept, The basis for the image, 29 Personal service, Emphasis to be placed on, 78 Perspective confusing to child, 53 Picture books for children, 49-50; the making of, as construction work, 165 Pictures, for study of Germany, 153- 156; for study of Holland, 143; for study of life of .Joseph, 163, 200-201 ; how to get, 50-52 ; how to select, 49-50; how to use, 52 54 ; misuse of, 54—55 ; use of, in primar>- grades, 48-55 ; value of. to the child. 48-49 Play, Value of, to child, 6. 20, 28 Poems for Thanksgi\-ing, 274-275 Portuguese, Explorations of, 231- 232 Primarj- grades. Celebration of holi- days in, 256-281 ; legitimate history for, 17 Primitive life, as a basis for history and geography, 101 ; as a means to the conception of cooperation, 101-102; construction work based on, 69-70 ; study of, develops con- ception of progress, 100 Primitive man. <^)iifliru' for study of, 104-106; references on, 126-127 Problems for constructir)n work, .")7 62; for third grarjc work. 143-145, 156-1.57. 161 162, 179 1>S0 Procedure. General mode of, in first grade wf)rk, 76-77 ProfesHionai clnsses. Child of tlic, 21-22 Progress, Study of primitive life de- voioi)s cori'-cption f>f, UM) Psalm of David, Metriml tr.'inslafion of the XLVII. 27.3-274 References. Complete* list of. 282-294 Hpfereiiccs. for firf