UC-NRLF. 
 
 RECENT PRACTICE 
 
 SANITARY DRAINAGE 
 
 OF BUILDINGS, 
 
 MEMORANDA ON THE COST OF PLUMBING WORK 
 BY WM. PAUL GERHARD, C. E., 
 
 '.-nlting Engineer for Sanitary 'frorfrx. 
 (New York City.) 
 
 SECOND EDITION, REVISED AND ENLARGED, 
 
 NEW YOr- ; 
 
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RECENT PRACTICE 
 
 IN THE 
 
 S/NITARY DRAINAGE 
 
 OF BUILDINGS, 
 
 WITH 
 
 MEMORANDA ON THE COST OF PLUMBING WORK. 
 
 BY WM. PAUL GERHARD, C. E, 
 
 Consulting Engineer for Sanitary Works. 
 (New York City.) 
 
 SECOND EDITION, KEVISED AND ENLABGED. 
 
 NEW YORK: 
 
 D. VAN NOSTKAND CO., 
 No. 23 MURRAY AND 27 WARREN STREETS. 
 
 1890. 
 
Copyright, 1890, 
 D. VAN NOSTBAND COMPANY. 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 A great philosopher once said that " the 
 fault of most books is their being too long." 
 The author's aim has been to avoid this 
 fault, by stating in plain language, as 
 briefly as possible, what constitute the 
 leading requirements of sanitary drainage 
 as applied to buildings. The first and 
 third parts (the Second, third and sixth in 
 the new edition) of this little "book deal 
 with the general principles of house drain- 
 age, while the second part (the fourth in 
 the new edition) discusses in detail the re- 
 quirements as to material, workmanship 
 and arrangement of sanitary plumbing. 
 These, it is believed, will be found par- 
 ticularly useful by architects and engi- 
 neers in preparing complete plumbing 
 specifications for all classes of buiMings. 
 The fourth part, (the fifth part in the new 
 edition) giving memoranda on the cost of 
 plumbing work, will, it is hoped, be found 
 by many to be a welcome addition. 
 
 226181 
 
IV 
 
 It is suggested that those who desire to 
 obtain a complete knowledge of this im- 
 portant branch of interior house construc- 
 tion should read, in connection herewith, 
 the author's former works, which this vol- 
 ume is merely intended to supplement. 
 
 THE AUTHOR. 
 39 UNION SQUARE, WEST, 
 
 YORK CITY, May 1, 1887. 
 
 PREFACE TO SECOND EDITION. 
 
 The new edition of this book has been 
 thoroughly revised and enlarged by the ad- 
 dition of two essays, one on "Architecture 
 and Sanitation" the other on "The 
 Drainage of a House" 
 
 WM. PAUL GERHARD. 
 39 UNION SQUARE, WEST, 
 
 YORK CITY, Sept, 1st, 1890. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 Page. 
 I. ARCHITECTURE AND SANITATION 9 
 
 IL KECENT PROGRESS IN HOUSE DRAINAGE 
 
 AND PLUMBING 21 
 
 III. THE DRAINAGE OF A HOUSE 59 
 
 IV. MAXIMS OP PLUMBING AND HOUSE DRAIN- 
 
 AGE 89 
 
 A. Rules regarding the Placing and Lo- 
 cation of Plumbing Work in Dwel- 
 lings 94 
 
 B. Rules regarding the Proper Construc- 
 tion of the Work 98 
 
 1. General Conditions 99 
 
 2. Materials 102 
 
 3. Workmanship 115 
 
 4. General Arrangement of Plumb- 
 
 ing Work 127 
 
VI 
 
 Page. 
 
 5. Tests of the Work during Con- 
 struction and after Completion. ... 143 
 
 O. Rules regarding the Proper Care and 
 Management of Plumbing Apparatus . 145 
 
 V. MEMORANDA ON THE COST OF PLUMBING 
 
 WORK 153 
 
 VI. SUGGESTIONS FOR A SANITARY CODE 163 
 
 A. Kules as to Healthful Building 
 Construction... 163 
 
 B. Rules as to Connection between 
 House Drains and Street Sewers... 1(55 
 
 C. Plumbing Eegulations 1 69 
 
I. 
 
 ARCHITECTURE 
 
 AND 
 
 SANITATION. 
 
ARCHITECTURE AND SANITATION, 
 
 Every architectural structure, to be 
 worthy of the name, should fulfill the 
 following cardinal requirements : It should 
 be truthful in expression and style, 
 beautiful in design and form, and health- 
 ful, durable, convenient and practical in 
 construction and arrangement. 
 
 A building should be truthful in char- 
 acter, not merely as regards the fitness of 
 all interior arrangements for the purposes 
 to which it is to be devoted, but its ex- 
 terior should at once distinctly characterize 
 its object and purpose. True art, further, 
 demands truthfulness in construction and 
 in the relation between the interior and the 
 exterior of the building, as well as in the 
 choice and employment of such building 
 materials as are best adapted to the various 
 parts that make up the structure. 
 
 Next in importance to truthfulness is the 
 requirement of harmony and order, not al- 
 ways the mere symmetry of arrangement, 
 
10 > 
 
 *** ' 
 
 but a general beauty of design as expressed 
 by the peculiar characteristics of the build- 
 ing materials selected, by the architectural 
 order, by the harmony between the details, 
 between the parts and the whole ; in other 
 words, by the proportions chosen between 
 length, width and height of the structure, 
 between the solid walls and the openings 
 for doors and windows, and other details. 
 
 The foregoing are what we may term 
 ideal requirements in distinction to the 
 mere practical ones. According to the 
 character and purpose of a structure, either 
 the artistical or the practical requirements 
 will predominate, but an architect, to be 
 successful, must be familiar with both the 
 aesthetic and the constructive principles 
 which should guide in the conception, plan- 
 ning and designing of buildings ; he must 
 be not only an artist, but a constructor as 
 well. 
 
 To be skilful as a constructor he must 
 have a thorough knowledge of all building 
 materials, of the strength and stability of 
 structures, of the different methods and 
 systems of construction, and of the practi- 
 
11 
 
 cal work performed by the various building 
 trades. He must have a large and varied 
 experience derived from a personal super- 
 intendence of buildings of different charac- 
 ter, design and construction. Last, though 
 not least, he should be familiar with the 
 means available to protect a structure 
 against the hurtful influences of the ele- 
 ments, and with the best methods obtain- 
 able for rendering a building healthful, 
 for no building which is to be the abode 
 of human beings, or even animals, however 
 practical and convenient in arrangement, 
 and however beautiful in design and orna- 
 mentation it may be, can be considered per- 
 feet, unless it is entirely free from any 
 influence which may, directly or indirectly, 
 injuriously affect the health of its inmates. 
 It matters little whether or not the origin 
 or spread of certain diseases can be proven 
 to be due to unsanitary conditions or sur- 
 roundings. Of the exact mode in whioh 
 filth acts upon the human system we know 
 as yet very little. What we do know, 
 however, with a tolerable degree of cer- 
 tainty, is that much sickness, suffering and 
 
12 
 
 premature death may be prevented by the 
 removal of all influences injurious to health. 
 
 To find the above outlined requirements 
 of artistic genius, scientific knowledge and 
 practical skill and ability combined in the 
 person of one man is rare indeed, for in 
 architecture, as elsewhere, novel problems 
 constantly arise, increased civilization and 
 luxurious modes of living continue to 
 create new wants, and the whole subject is 
 growing to such a vast extent that it can 
 hardly be thoroughly mastered by a single . 
 person, even in a lifetime. It would, 
 therefore, seem possible, and, indeed, it has 
 been done in many cases, to effect a divi- 
 sion of labor. 
 
 Comparatively few in number are those 
 structures where the artistic requirements, 
 the ornamentation ( and decoration pre- 
 dominate. Much more numerous are 
 buildings where the practical requirements, 
 of the design sometimes, indeed, the ne- 
 cessity of the utmost economy in construc- 
 tion demand the entire ignoring of all 
 merely decorative features. It is not nec- 
 essary to quote examples, for instances of 
 
13 
 
 either class of buildings will easily recur 
 to the reader's mind. The majority, how- 
 ever, of all architectural structures, no 
 matter what the object may be to which 
 they are devoted, require the equally strict 
 observation of both ideal and practical re- 
 quirements, and we venture to say that the 
 best results will often be attained by a 
 combination of the highest talents both in 
 design and in construction. 
 
 Whether a building is intended as a 
 transient or permanent domicile for man- 
 kind, its perfect salubriousness is certainly 
 equal in importance to the requirement of 
 suitable design and arrangement, and of 
 durable and sound construction. The 
 protection of a structure against the in- 
 fluence of the climate and seasons, of heat 
 and cold, against wind and rain, against 
 fire and lightning, against dampness or 
 dangerous exhalations from the soil, right- 
 fully demands a profound regard and the 
 most careful consideration, and to this 
 should be added the necessity of provid- 
 ing suitable arrangements to supply build- 
 ings with light and air, water and heat, 
 
, 14 
 
 and to remove from them the many waste 
 products incident to human life. -All the 
 latter exigencies are eminently of a utili- 
 tarian character, and have not always, 
 hitherto, received the attention due them. 
 This may be partly explained by the fact 
 that researches and investigations relating 
 to practical sanitation have only recently 
 been undertaken. It is pre-eminently due, 
 however, to the almost universal indiffer- 
 ence toward the subject, and to the hereto- 
 fore existing demand of the public for 
 either handsome buildings or very cheap 
 houses. 
 
 We have, in the past few years, witnessed 
 a remarkable change in this respect, 
 and the once indifferent public, having 
 become aware of the danger to health 
 arising from, and the many diseases caused 
 by, living in unhealthy houses, begins to 
 appreciate the importance of the question, 
 and architects, in their turn are obliged 
 to pay more attention to the subject. 
 
 Owing, probably, to the purely practical 
 aspects of the question, the latter has be- 
 come the special province of the sanitary 
 
15 
 
 engineer, whose energy is devoted to the 
 contriving of the best means for preventing 
 a pollution of the soil, the air, or the water 
 about habitations, and who, wherever 
 habitations are closely grouped together, 
 as in villages, towns and large cities, de- 
 vises and carries out schemes of drainage, 
 water-supply and sewerage.- It is but nat- 
 ural that, having provided means for the 
 establishment of healthful conditions about 
 buildings, he should go a step further and 
 devote close study and attention to the 
 securing of healthful conditions inside of 
 habitations. These, indeed, are of even 
 greater moment to the individual, for of 
 the two evils, a healthy home amidst un- 
 healthy or an unsanitary home in health- 
 ful surroundings, the latter is obviously 
 the one capable of working more direct 
 harm. 
 
 We thus find that the essential, though 
 to many uninteresting, details of water- 
 supply, house drainage, plumbing, heating, 
 ventilation and lighting, and healthy 
 foundations, have of late become the par- 
 ticular sphere of the sanitary engineer. 
 
16 
 
 That this should be so is not, however 
 surprising, if we remember what was pre- 
 viously asserted about the magnitude of 
 the subject with which architects have to 
 deal. We do not wish to be understood 
 as meaning that an architect should not 
 devote attention to questions relating to 
 healthful house-construction. But, we hold 
 the opinion that, at least in the case of im- 
 portant structures, the architect should call 
 in the aid of the sanitary engineer, par- 
 ticularly so because the problems of ex- 
 ternal and internal water-supply and 
 sewerage are often so correlated and closely 
 allied to each other that they cannot well 
 be treated separately. In the construction 
 of large buildings, and particularly where- 
 ever healthfulness is a prime consideration, 
 it has become quite a common practice 
 with architects in Europe to associate with 
 themselves a sanitary engineer. The same 
 practice is spreading in this country, and the 
 writer has had the honor of having been as- 
 sociated in the past years with many of the 
 most prominent architectual firms in this 
 country, on large as well as small structures. 
 
17 
 
 By such a division of labor, or such a 
 combination of genius, talent and skill, it 
 would seem to be easy to secure to a struc- 
 ture at once the best artistic, constructive 
 and sanitary features. 
 
 Since the above paragraphs were penned 
 the author's views have been corroborated 
 by many architects of the highest stand- 
 ing. Quite recently Mr. Burnham, of the 
 eminent firm of Burnham & Root, Archi- 
 tects, in Chicago, made some remarks upon 
 the practice of architecture before the 
 Chicago Architectural Sketch Club, which 
 so fully endorse the views held by me 
 that I make no apology for quoting por- 
 tions from the June, 1890, issue of the 
 Chicago Inland Architect : 
 
 " Buildings are now supplied with complex 
 heating, plumbing, sewerage, ventilation, ele- 
 vators, pumps, tanks, engines, dynamos and 
 electric lighting. Many have costly plants of all 
 these kinds, none are without a part. The owners 
 have a right to expect the very best of everything 
 in every part, and perfect mechanical planning and 
 application in each case. Therefore, very expert 
 mechanical and sanitary engineering are required 
 to handle this part of the work. 
 
18 
 
 ' ' If many important works be on hand in an 
 office at once, the mere handling of t!ie business 
 they produce requires much experience, and is 
 enough to occupy the time of an able man. 
 
 "Passing over many other strong points that 
 might be instanced, I have shown enough i o prove 
 tha one man cannot himself attend to all the work 
 of a modern city practice in America, and as we 
 agree that attention to details is necessary to success, 
 it is plain that some method must be found to attain 
 it, other than through a wider practice by a single 
 person in the old way. 
 
 " It is manifest that the successful practitioner of 
 the future will be a specialist, or at the head of an 
 organization of specialists. * * * * 
 
 ' i To design and construct a great office building, 
 some stores and flats, some dwellings, some 
 factories, a church, etc., 'in a manner to elicit 
 praise from our critical building public, is beyond 
 the powers of one man's brain and energy, if he 
 attend to the details of all. If, therefore, a man 
 or a firm is ambitious to carry on a great general 
 practice, there must be in the organization 
 a very great designer, an exceptionally strong 
 chief engineer, a sanitary engineer, a mechanical 
 engineer, and a business man Each of these will 
 have his hands full if he is faithful, and only with 
 such an organization, I say again, can a large 
 general practice live and keep going." 
 
II. 
 
 RECENT PROGRESS 
 
 IN 
 
 H.OUSE DRAINAGE 
 
 AND 
 
 PLUMBING. 
 
RECENT PROGRESS 
 
 IN 
 
 HOUSE DRAINAGE AND PLUMBING, * 
 
 Among the many practical and utilita- 
 rian details of interior construction tend- 
 ing to increase the comfort and convenient 
 arrangement of houses, none occupy a 
 more important position than those relat- 
 ing to the fixtures, traps and pipes which 
 introduce and distribute into our buildings 
 a supply of pure water for household use, 
 and afterward remove from them the 
 liquid and semi-fluid foul wastes, desig- 
 nated by the general term house sewage. 
 
 Our modern homes present, in the vast 
 number of pipes of all sizes, kinds and 
 character which traverse them in all* direc- 
 tions, not only across the basement or 
 cellar, but also from cellar to garret, an 
 
 * This paper was originally prepared for, and appeared 
 in, the Chicago Inland Architect. 
 
22 
 
 appearance quite different from the houses 
 built by our ancestors a century or more 
 ago. A modern residence fairly abounds 
 with pipes for the conveyance and distri- 
 bution of illuminating gas into rooms and 
 halls; with hot and cold water pipes; with 
 pipes for heating purposes, carrying steam 
 from boilers, or returning to them con- 
 densed water; with channels or conduits 
 carrying fresh air into the cellar, to the 
 heating apparatus, or directly into living 
 or sleeping rooms ; with flues and registers 
 for the admission of pure, warm air, venti- 
 lating flues for the removal of vitiated air, 
 and chimneys for carrying off smoke from 
 the combustion of fuel ; with speaking 
 tubes, telephone wires, tubes enclosing 
 wires for electric bells and for electric 
 lighting; and finally with waste and vent, 
 soil and drain pipes for the removal of 
 household wastes through plumbing appli- 
 ances, which are more or less scattered in 
 all directions over the principal floors of 
 the house. 
 
 These are what the tempting language 
 of the advertisements of shrewd real estate 
 
23 
 
 agents or speculative builders comprise 
 under the term " modern improvements" 
 and the minds of American householders 
 have been accustomed to the latter to such 
 an extent that even small houses rarely 
 remain without some of the above named 
 comfort-promoting arrangements; and that 
 a much higher price is willingly paid for 
 the purchase or lease of a building well 
 provided with them. Of course, with light- 
 ing and heating apparatus of all sorts and 
 kinds in a house, requiring intelligent care 
 and frequent inspection, but generally left 
 to be manipulated by ordinary servants, 
 and with the still prevalent custom of 
 having much of the work concealed, partly 
 or wholly, in walls, partitions or between 
 floor-beams, repairs are apt to be numerous, 
 disagreeable and costly; and to avoid 
 them, even in the early days of the intro- 
 duction of such improvements, architects, 
 builders and owners rarely failed to specify 
 certain requirements, or neglected to make 
 use of certain tests, to assure themselves 
 that the pipes intended to convey water, 
 steam, hot air, fire and smoke, and illumin- 
 
24 
 
 ating gas, were tightly jointed, so as to 
 prevent the unwelcome or unwholesome es- 
 cape of any of their contents into the house. 
 
 But with sewer pipes, soil and vent 
 pipes, fixtures and traps, the usual practice 
 has been different. The requirements in 
 the majority of instances were less strin- 
 gent, the danger arising from defective 
 work was disregarded or overlooked 
 through ignorance, indifference and folly, 
 and the owner was usually less inclined to 
 spend a sufficient amount of money for such 
 work, except so far, perhaps, as the desire 
 went to make a handsome display of richly 
 decorated bowls, plated or gilt faucets, and 
 elaborate ornamental woodwork, corres- 
 ponding in style and elegance to the 
 artistic decoration and interior finish of 
 the rooms and richly adorned outside of 
 the building. It was idle, in those days, to 
 attempt to speak to the builders of a sani- 
 tary arrangement of plumbing work. 
 Architects, consequently, paid less atten- 
 tion to the subject than it rightfully de- 
 manded. 
 
 But the world moves, and, although 
 
25 
 
 progress in the art of properly draining 
 houses seems to have been rather slow, yet 
 in the past few years a decided change for 
 the better has been noticeable. A stir has 
 been made in the interest of healthy homes 
 and healthy living largely by the dissemi- 
 nation of useful knowledge on the subject 
 through newspapers, popular magazines, 
 sanitary journals, pamphlet and health re- 
 ports. The indifference of the public 
 gradually vanished, sanitary laws began 
 to be better understood, and the evil influ- 
 ence upon health of faulty plumbing work 
 became apparent. A loud demand for 
 healthful houses arose, sanitary surround- 
 ings were eagerly sought for, and the 
 consequence was that architects, to meet 
 the wishes of their clients, were obliged to 
 give the subject some thought and atten- 
 tion. Builders, in their turn, were not slow 
 to guard their pecuniary interest by, at 
 least a superficial endeavor to offer ^hat 
 the public demanded, and hereafter sani- 
 tary plumbing and sanitary heating be- 
 came the leading features of many adver- 
 tisements of speculative house builders. 
 
26 
 
 The greatest step forward, however, was 
 made when in our large cities plumbing 
 work became subject to board of health 
 rules and regulations. At first there was, 
 as might have been expected, considerable 
 ill-feeling against compulsory measures, 
 especially against the intrusion of the 
 ever-vigilant sanitary inspector into the 
 interior of private houses. The sacredness 
 of personal rights, as embraced in the old 
 saying IC My house is my castle," was ap- 
 parently violated. But a moment's con- 
 sideration of the vast multitude of houses 
 built as cheaply as possible, to sell or rent 
 as profitably as possible, will convince 
 any one how necessary such inspection 
 must be. By way of digression, we would 
 like to see a similar inspection enforced by 
 law regarding the fireproof construction of 
 buildings. Dwellings and apartment 
 houses, are frequently sold or rented as 
 "fireproof" when in reality they are little 
 better than tinder-boxes, falling a quick 
 and easy prey to the flames of a once- 
 started conflagration. 
 
 The beneficial effect of plumbing laws 
 
27 
 
 extends principally to the vast number of 
 householders and families in large cities, 
 who are compelled to live in hired dwell- 
 ings, apartments, or tenements, and who 
 cannot protect themselves against prevent- 
 able sickness due to unsanitary surround- 
 ings, in particular to defective drainage. 
 The standard of plumbing work in such 
 buildings, where all items of expense are 
 apt to be reduced to a minimum, became 
 appreciably improved and the condition of 
 healthfulness increased, by giving its con- 
 trol to a board of health. Even if no other 
 good results had followed the enforcement 
 of rules and the official inspection of all 
 work in new buildings, the single measure 
 compelling the owner of each new house 
 to file plans and specifications clearly 
 showing and describing the system of 
 plumbing to be introduced into the build- 
 ing, had a wholesome effect upon the man- 
 ner in which such work, henceforth, was 
 to be handled by architects as well as plum- 
 bers. Since no work could be commenced 
 in any building before the plans and spec- 
 ifications filed had been approved by the 
 
28 
 
 board of health, the subject of drainage 
 and plumbing received its share of proper 
 attention at an early stage of the construc- 
 tion of the building. 
 
 The benefits derived from these meas- 
 ures have, it is true, by no means remained 
 without some drawbacks, which, though 
 not necessarily fatal to the results, still, to 
 some extent, hinder as rapid a progress 
 as might have been expected. To these 
 I desire to make a brief allusion. So far 
 as owners are concerned, we now often 
 find too much reliance placed by them in 
 the supervision exercised by boards of 
 health. Even with a multitude of effi- 
 cient inspectors in their employ, this 
 supervision must, of necessity, be very 
 general only, and with the still universal 
 tendency of covering up and burying out 
 of sight those " unsightly pipes and fix- 
 tures" much defective work may escape 
 the eye of an Argus-eyed and faithful in- 
 spector. There is, moreover, in every 
 plumbing job a chance for much botched 
 work, not necessarily involving a violation 
 of any plumbing regulation. On the 
 
29 
 
 other hand, since some points relating to 
 house drainage are yet disputed, it can- 
 not be expected that plumbing regula- 
 tions will become perfect for some time 
 to come. Even the most complete regu- 
 lations which I have seen contain certain 
 rules and requirements which appear to 
 me to be of doubtful value. Considera- 
 tions towards manufacturers of plumb- 
 ing goods will generally prevent boards of 
 health from prohibiting the use of appli- 
 ances which all sanitarians have long ago 
 condemned. Again, it is obvious that such 
 general regulations must be quite inade- 
 quate and incomplete when applied to 
 work in very large and extensive structures. 
 They cannot include rules regarding all the 
 details of the work, for, as is natural, 
 board of health laws can only insist upon 
 and enforce a certain minimum of im- 
 provements. 
 
 As regards architects, judging from a 
 somewhat extensive personal experience 
 with a number of plumbing specifications 
 with which I came in contact during the 
 past few years through the practice of my 
 
30 
 
 profession, much improvement is notice- 
 able, together with a desire to keep well 
 informed about the progress in the prin- 
 ciples and the practice of house drainage. 
 Yet the majority of their specifications 
 continue to be written in a fashion-like 
 manner, without sufficient attention to 
 the details and to improved methods and 
 appliances, and failing to lay proper stress 
 upon the quality of the materials, upon 
 the workmanship required, and upon 
 proper and stringent tests regarding the 
 pipe system. Nor is the inspection of 
 such work a thorough one, and the test- 
 ing of the pipe system by pressure, if 
 specified, is rarely insisted upon by archi- 
 tects. In those cities where boards of 
 health require the filing of plans and 
 specifications, it became customary with 
 architects to use blank specifications, 
 printed and furnished by the health board, 
 which contain as a guide the essential re- 
 quirements, the blank spaces in them being 
 simply filled out by architects, who would 
 add a few additional requirements in 
 writing. I do not know whether or not 
 
31 
 
 the use of such blank specifications is 
 made compulsory, in which case no blame 
 could fall upon architects for using them. 
 What I do know is that such specifications, 
 as applied to a large building, must neces- 
 sarily be quite incomplete, insufficient 
 and imperfect, and often appear un- 
 systematic in the arrangement of the 
 subject matter. 
 
 The object of a house drainage system 
 has long been understood to be to remove 
 from dwellings at once, and as thoroughly 
 as possible, all liquid waste matters before 
 they undergo decomposition and emit 
 unwholesome gases of putrefaction. In 
 its widest meaning the term " house drain- 
 age " is made to include the removal of 
 surface water from roofs, areas and yards, 
 as well as of subsoil water from the ground 
 upon which a building is erected. Strict- 
 ly speaking, we should distinguish be- 
 tween drainage and sewerage of a building, 
 the former term referring to the removal 
 of all clear water (roof water, surface 
 water and subsoil water), the latter to 
 that of fouled waters from the house- 
 
hold (sewage proper). It is often of 
 very great importance to keep the one 
 separate from the other, as, for instance, 
 in the case of isolated country houses, 
 where sewage is conveyed by tightly- 
 jointed sewer pipes to a flush tank or 
 other tight receptacle, from which it is 
 disposed of by irrigation or sub-surface 
 irrigation upon or underneath lawns or 
 grass land, while subsoil water is removed 
 by open-jointed land drains to the nearest 
 watercourse, brook or open ditch. A 
 third system of pipes generally carries, 
 in the case of rural dwellings, the rain 
 falling upon the roof into a tight cistern 
 or storage tank for clean water. With 
 city houses it is sometimes, though not 
 often, feasible to carry out the same sep- 
 aration, at least as far as the subsoil water 
 is concerned, provided a special line of 
 subsoil drains has been laid in the street 
 in the same trench with the sewer. As a 
 rule, in the case of narrow city lots, one 
 outlet is common to the drain and the 
 house sewer, but it is one of the most im- 
 portant duties of those who advise in such 
 
33 
 
 matters to consider the best means for 
 safely disconnecting the open- jointed tiles 
 from the house or street sewer, to pre- 
 vent the back flow of sewage and still 
 more important of sewer air from 
 the house sewer into the tile drains, 
 from where it would easily diffuse into 
 the cellar and rise to the upper floors of 
 a house. 
 
 The removal of subsoil water, or at least 
 the permanent lowering of its water level 
 to secure dryness of the house, is equal in 
 importance, from a sanitary point of view, 
 to a proper system of house sewerage and 
 plumbing. It is best accomplished by 
 lines of small-sized common, porous land 
 drains, laid at least two feet below the cel- 
 lar floor, with open joints, protected by a 
 collar, wrapping paper or muslin, against 
 chokage from dirt, all delivering into a 
 main drain, sloping toward the outlet, 
 which may be either a gutter in the road, 
 an open ditch or watercourse, or else the 
 sewer in the street. In the former case no 
 further protection is needed at the outlet, 
 except a strong, fixed grating, to prevent 
 
34 
 
 the entrance of mice or rats. Where sub- 
 soil water is discharged into sewers an 
 efficient disconnection should be provided 
 by a deep-seal water trap, kept constantly 
 filled by some automatic device in con- 
 nection with the water supply of the 
 house. 
 
 In advising clients in regard to subsoil 
 drainage, I generally call their attention 
 to a few points regarding healthful house 
 construction, not strictly belonging to, but 
 intimately connected with, the ventilation 
 and drainage of dwellings, and which, in 
 most cases, remain unheeded by architects 
 and builders. I refer to the perfect isola- 
 tion of the house from the ground upon 
 which it stands, and from the water and 
 air contained in the pores of the soil. It 
 is not enough to provide for the subsoil 
 drainage under the house ; its walls are 
 frequently. exposed to moisture, or even to 
 water veins which are penetrated in dig- 
 ging trenches for foundations. Dampness 
 of walls is a frequent occurrence in cheaply 
 built houses as well as in the better class 
 of houses where no attention is paid to 
 
35 
 
 such apparently insignificant details. 
 Again, the damp vapor of ground air and 
 frequently unhealthy exhalations from 
 polluted soils would constantly rise into 
 the cellar, especially if assisted in their 
 upward passage by the so-called "suction" 
 of house chimneys, unless provision is 
 made for a thorough isolation of the cellar 
 from the ground below by a tight cellar 
 floor, which at the same time will prevent 
 the rise of subsoil water. Asphaitum has 
 proved a very valuable material for foun- 
 dation walls, damp-proof courses, as well 
 as for the cellar floor, and efficiently ac- 
 complishes this much to be desired com- 
 plete isolation. 
 
 A safe drainage of the subsoil being 
 arranged for, we must next provide for the 
 speedy and complete removal of the house 
 sewage, consisting of waste water from 
 flushing urinals and water closets, together 
 with human excrements and urine, of dirty 
 water from personal ablutions in wash- 
 bowls and all forms of bathing tubs, of 
 chamber slops, of foul laundry water and 
 water used for rinsing cooking vessels and 
 
36 
 
 cleaning dishes. The amount of sewage 
 will be largely increased at times if the 
 rain water falling upon the roof and upon 
 paved areas and court-yards is also admit- 
 ted into the house sewer. Whether or no 
 this should be done will depend upon the 
 system of sewerage existing in the place, 
 but even where the street sewers are de- 
 signed to carry and to ultimately receive 
 more or less rainfall, the question arises 
 whether it is better to have within the 
 house a single system or a double set of 
 pipes, one for sewage and another for rain 
 water. This question cannot be decided 
 in a general way. It becomes necessary to 
 take into consideration the special condi- 
 tions speaking for and against such separa- 
 tion, and thus each building becomes a 
 problem in itself. This much may, how- 
 ever, be stated, that it is preferable to 
 keep the vertical pipes leading the water 
 from the roof separate from vertical soil 
 or waste pipes. 
 
 In a brief article on the subject it is, of 
 course, impossible to refer to the many 
 details of plumbing work.* I must neces- 
 
37 
 
 sarily restrict myself to a statement of the 
 leading requirements and general princi- 
 ples governing the planning and arrange- 
 ment of such work. What, in the light of 
 present definite knowledge of the subject, 
 I consider as essential, and as applicable 
 without modification to all classes of build- 
 ings, to the drainage and sewerage of the 
 largest and most expensive mansion, the 
 smallest city house or suburban cottage,, 
 of schools, hotels, hospitals, factories and 
 tenement houses, may be summarized a& 
 follows : 
 
 I should use witfiin a building metal 
 pipes only, principally iron pipes, with the 
 exception of the short branch waste and 
 supply pipes, which may be of lead. I 
 should commence with the iron drain at 
 
 * The reader may find the subject thoroughly discussed 
 in the author's works : House Drainage and Sanitary 
 Plumbing, 2d Edition, 1884. 
 
 Hints on the Drainage and Sewerage of Dwellings, 
 2d Edition, 1884. 
 
 Guide to Sanitary House Inspection, 3d Edition, 1890. 
 
 Domestic Sanitary Appliances (in press). 
 See also the article " Maxims of Plumbing and House 
 Drainage," in this book. 
 
38 
 
 least five feet beyond the foundation walls, 
 so as to make sure against breakage by 
 settlement of walls, and to further guard 
 against the latter serious calamity I should 
 always advise to turn a relieving arch 
 across the wall where the pipe passes out. 
 In the case of country houses, with a water 
 supply derived from a well in the vicinity 
 of the house, I should advise carrying the 
 house stwer of iron to a point well beyond 
 the probable limits of the drainage area of 
 the well. I should recommend, even in 
 those houses where due regard to economy 
 must be had, the use of extra heavy pipes of 
 uniform thickness and tested under pres- 
 sure before use, and before applying a 
 protective coating of coal tar or a similar 
 substance, so as to avoid any imperfections 
 in the pipe which may be covered up by 
 the enameling or tarring process. I should 
 also insist, at a later stage of the work, 
 upon a proptT test of the pipe joints in or- 
 der to make sure that the whole system is 
 air-tight as well as water-tight beyond any 
 doubt. I should advise the use of a diam- 
 eter of only four inches for the main pipe 
 
39 
 
 of a single house of ordinary size, and 
 should restrict the size of the main drain of 
 larger buildings to five and six inches, pre- 
 ferring to arrange two or more systems of 
 six-inch main sewers for the largest insti- 
 tutions, in place of one eight or ten-inch 
 pipe. 
 
 I should, wherever possible, banish all 
 plumbing fixtures from the cellar fioor, in 
 order to carry the house drain in plain 
 sight either along one of the cellar walls, 
 or else suspended from the basement floor 
 beams. 
 
 I should give to the pipes in the cellar 
 all the fall possible, in order to secure a 
 good cleansing velocity of the flow in the 
 main pipe, and wherever the needed fall 
 could not be obtained I should advocate 
 the use of flushing tanks of some kind at 
 the head of the drains. I should suggest 
 strongly to support the main drain and its 
 branches by brick piers, placed at suitable 
 intervals, and especially at the junction of 
 all upright pipes. I should take care to 
 have all junctions made with Y branches 
 instead of T branches, and all changes from 
 
40 
 
 the direct line made with curves of an easy 
 sweep. I should recommend the use of 
 cleaning hand-holes, at intervals, along the 
 main line, at junctions, bends, and near 
 traps, but I should also strongly counsel 
 the thorough and tight closing of all such 
 inspection openings. 
 
 I should carry all upright soil pipes, and 
 all lines of waste pipes, in the straightest 
 practical course, and with as few elbows 
 as possible, up to and through the roof, 
 and should advise making this extension 
 in no case less than four, and preferably 
 six inches diameter, to provide a free 
 outlet above the roof. This outlet I 
 should carry well above the roof line, 
 and should keep it away as far as possible 
 from any chimney flues, ventilating shafts, 
 dormer windows, etc. I should firmly 
 insist upon a copious and constant circu- 
 lation of fresh air through all drain, soil, 
 waste and vent pipes, and with this end 
 in view, should provide a suitably large 
 inlet for air, at the lowest point of the 
 system, and extend all pipes at least full 
 size above the roof, doing away entirely 
 
41 
 
 with any obstructions in the shape of ven- 
 tilators, cowls, caps, or, worst of all, return 
 bends, covering the mouths of pipes. If 
 there is ground to fear an accidental or 
 malicious obstruction of the pipes, I should 
 urge the use of only a wire netting, or a 
 common leader guard inserted into the 
 pipe mouth, or, what is better, I would 
 extend the pipes sufficiently high to keep 
 their open mouth out of reach of mis- 
 chievous persons. 
 
 I should recommend locating all fixtures 
 as much as possible in vertical groups in 
 order to get a straight, simple, and direct 
 arrangement of soil and waste pipes, and to 
 reduce the length of branch waste pipes, 
 thereby securing a more thorough and 
 direct discharge of fixtures. I should not 
 use a soil pipe larger than four and five 
 inches inside diameter, even for the 
 greatest possible number of fixtures, and I 
 should limit the size of upright waste pipes 
 for sinks, basins or baths to two and three 
 inches. 
 
 Regarding plumbing appliances, my 
 advice would always, even in the case of 
 
42 
 
 the most costly residences, consist, for 
 obvious reasons, in reducing their num- 
 ber, and consequently the amount of 
 plumbing work, as much as practicable, 
 and to avoid placing fixtures in spare 
 rooms, where they would not be con- 
 stantly used. I should further recom- 
 mend to locate all fixtures in well-lighted 
 and well-ventilated rooms, thereby insur- 
 ing a proper use, and a better care of the 
 appliances. I should abolish all plumbing 
 from sleeping rooms, confining the same 
 to the bath room, the kitchen, the laundry, 
 the pantry, and to well-lighted closets. 
 
 Although the subject of warming and 
 ventilation cannot be here considered, yet 
 I will mention that I should insist upon a 
 proper and constant change of air in the 
 bath rooms and water closets. This in- 
 volves the introduction and thorough dif- 
 fusion of an ample supply of pure air from 
 outside, moderately warmed (in our climate 
 during at least seven months of the year), 
 not only to increase the comfort of the 
 bath room, but also to prevent the freezing 
 of supply pipes, or of the standing water 
 
43 
 
 in traps. It also requires the removal of 
 the foul air, which can be attained in a 
 simple, yet efficient manner by arranging 
 a gas-burner in an outlet flue of ample 
 size. These are matters which begin to be 
 better understood in the construction of 
 houses, but I desire to call attention to a 
 defect which I have frequently noticed in 
 otherwise well-ventilated houses, namely, 
 that where a strong suction exists from the 
 outlet-flues or chimney-places provided in 
 rooms, halls, or staircases, the supply of 
 air, and sometimes noisome odors, are fre- 
 quently drawn from a bath room or a slop 
 closet. Hence it should be borne in mind, 
 in arranging a general system of house 
 ventilation, that the ventilation of apart- 
 ments containing water closets, urinals, 
 slop hoppers, or other fixtures, requires 
 special attention, and that to be effective 
 and reliable there should, preferably, be^a 
 constant movement of air from the other 
 parts of a house toward and into the bath 
 room; in other words, it is of prime im- 
 portance to arrange a well-drawing outlet 
 flure in a bath room water closet apart- 
 
44 
 
 merit, which would tend to create a slight 
 vacuum in said room. Sufficient air being 
 thus constantly removed, fresh air will 
 easily come in to take its place, provided it 
 is admitted in ample quantity into the 
 other parts of a house. Where a building 
 is ventilated by plenum ventilation, it is 
 better not to include bath-rooms or water 
 closet apartments in such a system. 
 
 It should be the aim to have the whole 
 plumbing work arranged as simply as 
 possible. Supply pipes must always be so 
 located that they will not freeze in cold 
 weather, and it is preferable to keep them 
 away from the outside walls, unless special 
 protection is given them. Householders, 
 having lived during a winter in an ex- 
 posed country house, are always ready to 
 appreciate measures tending to the protec- 
 tion of water pipes against frost. 
 
 Whenever I am left untrammeled by 
 prejudice I always arrange all plumbing 
 work in an open manner, leaving all appli- 
 ances, traps, supply and waste pipes fully 
 exposed to view. The advantages gained 
 hereby are two-fold. In the first place, I 
 
45 
 
 secure a better and more thorough work- 
 manship of those parts of the work, which, 
 being usually tightly boxed up, are very 
 apt to be less carefully finished, and this is 
 true not only of the plumber's work, but 
 also of that of the carpenter and plasterer. 
 From a sanitary point of view, and like- 
 wise for other reasons, it is quite import- 
 ant to have all those unsightly holes where 
 pipes pass through floors and ceilings 
 tightly and permanently closed, to prevent 
 diffusion of air from one story to another. 
 I recently examined a bath room in an 
 apartment house, where at each cold spell 
 such a violent draft was rising through a 
 pipe channel leading from the cold base- 
 ment to the upper floors, along the soil and 
 supply pipes, as to completely chill, and 
 cause the freezing up of the water in the 
 pipes, much to the annoyance of the house- 
 owner, who could hardly get along with- 
 out the plumber as soon as the thermom- 
 eter would reach the freezing point, yet the 
 plumbing in this building was done "in ac- 
 cordance with all the board of health rules " 
 and had successfully passed inspection. 
 
46 
 
 A second advantage obtained by leav- 
 ing plumbing work fully exposed to view 
 is that there is a better circulation of all- 
 around the fixtures, that the cleaning and 
 scouring operations of servants are much 
 facilitated, that all parts of the work are 
 easily accessible and readily inspected, 
 and that repairs are less frequent, and if 
 they become necessary that there is little 
 or no tearing up of wood work, floors, and 
 base boards. An open arrangement also 
 aids in enlightening the anxious minds of 
 some householders concerning the "hidden 
 mysteries of plumbing work." What is 
 true of plumbing fixtures is, of course, 
 equally applicable to the system of pipes 
 in a dwelling. I strongly advise keeping 
 all pipes outside of walls or partitions, lo- 
 cating them, where possible, in closets, or 
 in inferior rooms. This enables one to in- 
 spect at any time any pipe joints or to 
 readily reach any stop-cock or valve, should 
 it be necessary to shut off the water from 
 any pipe. I generally dispense with un- 
 sightly lead safes under fixtures, believing 
 that with the open arrangement a leakage 
 
47 
 
 cannot remain unnoticed for a sufficient 
 length of time to work serious harm, es- 
 pecially where walls (to the usual height 
 of wainscoting) in kitchens and bathrooms 
 are made water tight, and finished in tiles, 
 plain or ornamental, or enameled brick, 
 and where floors are finished with marble, 
 tiles, slabs of slate, cement, or in simple 
 terrazzo work. If required I arrange a 
 drip pipe to remove any water from leak- 
 age, which pipe must always be kept en- 
 tirely disconnected from any soil or waste 
 pipe. 
 
 As to the fixtures proper, I should select 
 for an inexpensive cottage, as well as fora 
 luxuriously furnished city residence, those 
 of a simple character, with a smooth, and 
 non-absorbent surface. The exact material 
 of the fixtures is often mainly a question 
 of cost. For water closets, slop hoppers 
 and urinals, which latter, however, I avo>id 
 in private houses, I should give preference 
 to those with a small fouling surface, 
 made in annealed glass or in earthenware. 
 I recommend, of course, using water closets 
 without any mechanism or moving parts 
 
48 
 
 liable to get out of order. I would, where- 
 ever I could, avoid the use of fixtures re- 
 quiring a hidden overflow pipe. Bath tubs 
 of all kinds, wash bowls, pantry sinks, 
 water closets and urinals may now be had 
 of such a form and construction as to do 
 away entirely with concealed overflow 
 channels, which are often the cause of an- 
 noying odors.* 
 
 I should locate fixtures as near as 
 practicable along a soil or waste pipe, to 
 avoid the always objectionable branch 
 wastes under floors. I should endeavor to 
 place the fixtures of different floors in 
 groups arranged as nearly as may be verti- 
 cally above each other, to reduce the num- 
 ber of pipe stacks. I should also aim to 
 give to each fixture an independent and 
 direct discharge into the vertical pipe. I 
 should insist upon the separate, safe and 
 secure trapping of every fixture, and should 
 prefer, if they were obtainable, as they no 
 doubt will be at a future day, self-cleans- 
 
 * For a discussion of plumbing appliances see the author's 
 books in a foot note on page 37, particularly his "Domestic 
 Sanitary Appliances." 
 
49 
 
 ing and seal-retaining traps, placed as close 
 to the outlet of fixtures as possible, and 
 made partly or entirely of glass, with the 
 water seal fully exposed. 
 
 I should make arrangements to secure to 
 each fixture in a building an ample and 
 never-failing supply of water. In the case 
 of water closets, slop hoppers and urinals, 
 I should always use a separate flushing 
 cistern for each fixture or group of fixtures, 
 while as regards the other fixtures I should 
 give preference to those arranged and 
 constructed in a manner so as to constitute 
 in themselves a small flush tank, thus se- 
 curing, by their quick discharge, (through 
 outlets larger than commonly in use) a 
 thorough cleansing and scouring of the 
 waste pipe serving them.* 
 
 I should, finally, never have a direct 
 connection between any water cistern, a 
 refrigerator or ice chest in a house and 
 the drains or soil pipes, and I should gi;ard 
 with particular care the purity of the 
 supply for drinking purposes. 
 
 * Fixtures having this important advantage are described 
 in the author's work on "Domestic Sanitary Appliances." 
 
50 
 
 I have, as far as the space at my disposal 
 permits, outlined the leading requirements 
 of a proper system of house drainage, and 
 I confidently assert, from practical know- 
 ledge and experience, that, wherever they 
 are conscientiously followed, satisfactory 
 results cannot fail to be secured. 
 
 A few points, however, have not been 
 referred to. There is, for instance, the 
 " trap on the .main drain " question, which 
 is still agitating the minds of many. I 
 do not feel inclined to be dogmatic about 
 it, for in my own practice I have never 
 followed an iron rule, but have, on the 
 contrary, in each special case, carefully 
 considered and weighed the circumstances 
 and conditions affecting the question. I 
 always use a trap on the line of the drain, 
 if the latter discharges into a cesspool or 
 any form of tank in which sewage is 
 stored for some length of time. I generally 
 advise the use of a trap where the house 
 drain connects with a foul sewer, as in the 
 majority of cases in our large cities. If I 
 use a trap, I should insist upon having it 
 easy of access (but not so as to be exposed 
 
51 
 
 to freezing), and provided with proper 
 cleaning hand-holes. Where a house 
 drains into a street sewer, forming part of 
 a well-planned general system of well- 
 flushed sewers, ventilated by open soil 
 pipes in the houses, constructed under 
 supervision of a competent engineer, I 
 should not object to the omission of the 
 trap, always provided the work in the 
 house is thoroughly well done. Where the 
 owner would not mind the additional ex- 
 pense, I should probably prefer to arrange 
 for the ventilation of the sewer by having 
 a pipe carried up to the roof, along the 
 outside of the house, thus preserving a 
 complete disconnection of the house in- 
 terior from the sewer. Whenever I use a 
 trap, I should also arrange a fresh air inlet, 
 to induce a current through the soil pipe 
 system. I should, however, strongly ad- 
 vise my clients not to terminate the inlet 
 in a box on the sidewalk, covered witji a 
 grating, as is now so often done, for such 
 a grating frequently becomes obstructed 
 and closed in winter time. Nor should I 
 carry the fresh air pipe up to the roof. 
 
52 
 
 Where to arrange the inlet is a matter 
 which can be determined only in each 
 special case, and which ought never to 
 be restricted by a hard and fast rule, 
 often entirely defeating the purpose for 
 which the inlet was established. 
 
 The question of material most suitable 
 for drains, soil pipes, waste and supply 
 pipes, has not been alluded to, nor have I, 
 in my above recommendations, referred to 
 the many kinds of water seal and mechanical 
 traps advocated to exclude sewer air from 
 the fixtures. I do not feel disposed to en- 
 ter into a discussion of the merits and disad- 
 vantages of the " venting " of traps, the 
 object of which is largely to prevent si- 
 phonage. Experiments have established 
 with a sufficient degree of certainty, the 
 fact that self-cleansing S-, P-, or running 
 traps, cannot be depended upon always 
 to retain their water seal against si- 
 phonage, unless air is admitted at the 
 crown and sewer side of the trap, either 
 by some anti-siphoning trap attachment, 
 or by a so-called " back-air " pipe, of ample 
 size. Consequently, I should not use such 
 
53 
 
 traps without providing such protection 
 as the remedies mentioned afford. Later 
 experiments have shown that an air pipe 
 is not a reliable protection against siphon- 
 age in all cases, especially where the 
 course of the air pipe is long and tor- 
 tuous, and that where fixtures are not in 
 constant use, it furthers the evaporation 
 of the water in traps, and hence endangers 
 the safety of plumbing work. That it in- 
 creases the cost of plumbing, and hinders 
 simplicity of arrangement, must be con- 
 ceded by all. Thus, while it offers cer- 
 tain advantages in some instances, there 
 are other cases where the disadvantages 
 predominate. It remains then to be de- 
 cided, only after a thorough and intelli- 
 gent consideration of all conditions, 
 whether a seal retaining water seal trap, 
 safe against back pressure, siphonage or 
 other influence, or an anti-siphoning trap 
 attachment of some kind, may not be pyef- 
 erable. The question cannot, in my judg- 
 ment, be decided in an off-hand way. Be- 
 ing of grave moment for the safety of the 
 inmates of a house, the question of trap- 
 
54 
 
 ping should receive an earnest, thoughtful 
 and unprejudiced consideration. Unfortu- 
 nately, discussions on this point, in sani- 
 tary and architectural journals, have not 
 always been divested of useless and much 
 to be deprecated personalities. 
 
 As with traps, I also prefer to omit 
 lengthy descriptions of any special 
 plumbing fixtures. There are now a 
 number of each kind in the market, pos- 
 sessing merits and giving satisfaction, 
 which a judicious house owner may select, 
 guided by the above hints. 
 
 In conclusion, it must always be borne 
 in mind, that no system of plumbing or 
 drainage will work forever, without 
 proper care, attention and periodical in- 
 spection; that stagnation of water or air 
 must be avoided in drain, soil and vent 
 pipes, as well as in traps ; that the water 
 in the latter should be frequently changed; 
 and that, in the tight jointing, safe trap- 
 ping and constant ventilation of pipes, 
 together with the frequent flushing and 
 thorough cleansing of fixtures, consist the 
 principal safeguards of a proper system of 
 
55 
 
 house drainage and plumbing against 
 entrance and diffusion of noxious sewer 
 
III. 
 THE DRAINAGE 
 
 OF A 
 
 HOUSE. 
 
THE DRAINAGE OF A HOUSE, 
 
 In the " Homes of To-day " no feature is, 
 to my mind deserving of more attention 
 from architects and house-builders than 
 the sanitary arrangements, yet this very 
 feature, which conduces so much to the 
 well-being, comfort, and happiness of the 
 occupants of a dwelling, is the one to 
 which, until quite recently, far too little 
 importance was attached. I believe I am 
 not mistaken when I assert that the drain- 
 age of a house is, probably, to most archi- 
 tects, still the least attractive part of the 
 numerous details of house construction. 
 This fact is not surprising if we remember 
 that a true architect should, above all, be 
 an artist. Men who combine depth of 
 artistic feeling with a profound knowledge 
 of methods of construction and the princi- 
 ples of sanitation, as applied to house- 
 
 * This paper appeared originally in the " Homes of To- 
 day," published by Frank L. Smith, Boston, Mass. 
 
60 
 
 building, are rare indeed. Hence a new 
 profession has sprung into existence, the 
 members of which began to devote their 
 attention to the hitherto neglected branches 
 of architecture, not merely to the drainage 
 and sewerage, but also to the ventilation, 
 heating, lighting, water-supply, and much 
 else involved in dwelling-house sanitation. 
 
 o 
 
 Mr. Robert Rawlinson, C. E., has well said 
 that "sanitary engineering is a new science, 
 and as its main purpose is to make health, 
 comfort and a prolongation of life practica- 
 ble, its study to a useful purpose must be 
 important." 
 
 A large part of the writer's professional 
 work consists in the 'proper arrangement 
 of the sanitary drainage of buildings, 
 hence it is assumed that the following 
 brief statement of some of the more im- 
 portant facts concerning house drainage 
 will be of general interest. 
 
 During the last decade much progress 
 has been made in sanitary knowledge, and 
 in particular in the art of draining houses, 
 and not the least useful result accomplished 
 has been the better education of the ^en- 
 
61 
 
 eral public in the details of domestic sani- 
 tary matters. Twenty or more years ago 
 householders cared little or nothing about 
 the final disposal of the foul wastes from 
 houses. They were content if the plumbing 
 work was arranged so that a free flow and 
 discl^arge of water could be obtained at 
 each sink, tub, or basin in the house, and 
 appliances of improper construction, from 
 a sanitary point of view, were retained, 
 from ignorance or from reasons of false 
 economy. Noisome and disagreeable odors 
 about a water-closet were often tolerated 
 as being necessary accompaniments of such 
 fixtures. The danger of exposure, night 
 and day, year in and year out, in bed- 
 rooms, living-rooms, or offices, to an 
 atmosphere polluted by gases resulting 
 from the decomposition of stagnant sew- 
 age matters, was wholly ignored, and fhe 
 warnings of early reformers generally dis- 
 regarded. In city dwellings the ample 
 supply of water, which in turn serves as a 
 vehicle for transporting refuse matter, and 
 the more general introduction of the con- 
 venient plumbing fixtures, led, owing to 
 
62 
 
 the leaky condition of brick or earthen- 
 ware drains under houses, to a sewage- 
 sodden condition of the soil under base- 
 ments. This is true not only of the vast 
 number of buildings erected by shrewd 
 speculators, but it applies alike to the 
 palatial mansions of the rich. 
 
 Indeed, the death-rate from zymotic 
 diseases increased, not only in houses with 
 damp cellars, basement, and foundation- 
 walls, but principally in those elaborately 
 planned and richly furnished residences of 
 the better class, where innumerable station- 
 ary wash-bowls, defective in arrangement, 
 and tightly enclosed by decorative cabinet 
 work, were scattered in bed-rooms all over 
 the house. As the chief faults of the 
 plumbing work in such dwellings, the fol- 
 lowing may be enumerated, viz.: the 
 unnecessary multiplication of fixtures, with 
 its accompanying complication of the work ; 
 the leaky joints of soil and waste pipes; 
 the broken and leaky drains; the coating 
 of soapy or greasy slime attaching to the 
 walls of waste-pipes ; the partial or utter 
 absence of ventilation; furthermore, the 
 
63 
 
 defective methods of trapping; the un- 
 trapped openings for the drainage of cellar 
 floors leading to the house-sewer; the ac- 
 cumulation of grease in traps under kitchen 
 and pantry sinks ; the lack of flushing in 
 all parts of the pipe system, resulting in an 
 accumulation of putrefying slime ; the con- 
 cealment of all work, and the bad work- 
 manship of hidden parts of the plumbing; 
 the untidiness of the spaces under fixtures ; 
 the injudicious location of water-closets 
 and bath-rooms, and in particular the 
 faulty position of the closet for servants' 
 use, in out-of-the-way corners, without 
 light and air; lastly, the befouled condition 
 of servants' closets and housemaids' sinks, 
 the offensiveness of the hidden interior 
 of objectionable pan-closets, the deficient 
 water-supply at fixtures on upper floors of 
 city houses, the inefficient flush of valye- 
 closets, the insufficient strength and unreli- 
 able support of lead pipes, and the careless 
 exposure of plumbing work to injury by 
 frost. 
 
 To say that all this has been changed in 
 the past years would hardly be true, but it 
 
64 
 
 is safe to assert that radical improvements 
 have been carried out. In some cities the 
 most urgent reforms are now enforced by 
 law, at least in the case of new houses. 
 Yet, notwithstanding all this, it must be 
 said that the character of the plumbing 
 work in most modern houses is susceptible 
 of much improvement, as I hope to be able 
 to demonstrate. In my own practice, my 
 chief aim has always been to awaken an 
 interest in simplicity of construction, and, 
 in this respect, my practice may differ 
 from that of other reformers. I have, from 
 time to time, made statements, describing 
 what, in my opinion, are the cardinal re- 
 quirements of good house drainage,* and 
 I claim for them merely that they are, 
 first, the outgrowth of a large and varied 
 practical experience in the supervision of 
 drainage works in new houses, and in the 
 remodelling of defective work; and, sec- 
 ondly, that they are the result of a careful 
 study and comparison of all the sound 
 methods proposed for the improvement of 
 the sanitary condition of our homes. 
 
 * See the various works of the author. 
 
65 
 
 Before alluding to the cardinal princi- 
 ples and fundamental requirements of 
 good drainage, let me give a few words of 
 general advice to people who intend to 
 build. To begin with, if you build a house, 
 keep the plumbing and drainage as a sep- 
 arate matter from your house contract. It 
 cannot be denied that, where the whole 
 work is given to one contractor, his chief 
 interest often his only interest lies in 
 the prospect of pecuniary gain. Thus, as a 
 rule, the plumbing work is sub-let by him 
 as cheaply as possible. There are, of course, 
 among builders good men; but the result 
 is, in at least nine cases out of ten,that the 
 owner pays more to get an inferior job, and 
 what is more serious in a house built 
 for his own occupancy endangers the health 
 of the members of his family by exposing 
 them to the minor, disorders of the system, 
 to the graver ailments, and to the some- 
 times fatal diseases associated with bad 
 drainage. To get even tolerably good 
 work under the circumstances, is certainly 
 the exception rather than the rule. 
 
06 
 
 Supposing then, that the owner follows 
 this part of my advice by keeping the 
 plumbing separate, the next question is, 
 whether plumbing work should be contract- 
 ed for at a stated sum, or whether it should 
 be done by day's work. I have, some years 
 ago, pronounced emphatically against drain- 
 age work done by contract, and I see 
 no reason now for changing my opinion. 
 I still believe that the fairest way is to 
 have such work done on a fixed percentage 
 of profit to the contractor on all labor and 
 material. At the same time I cannot deny, 
 and have frequently demonstrated in my 
 own practice, that an entirely {satisfactory 
 plumbing job may be obtained by con- 
 tract work. In this case, however, it is 
 absolutely necessary that the fixtures be 
 properly located, the work carefully 
 planned and arranged on scientific princi- 
 ples, that the contract be based upon a 
 strict and detailed specification, and that 
 the work be placed under intelligent super- 
 vision. Even then it is a wise precaution 
 to hesitate to award the contract to 4< the 
 
lowest bidder," universal as the habit may 
 be. It is an axiom of all good sanitarians, 
 which the general public has been slow in 
 accepting, that no house should be occu- 
 pied as a human habitation until its sani- 
 tary condition, as regards drainage, sewer- 
 age, ventilation, and kindred matters, has 
 been thoroughly tested. Therefore, it is 
 evident, that, in building a new house, 
 much subsequent trouble and annoyance, 
 not to mention serious illness, may be 
 avoided if the above details of sanitary 
 construction are put at once into the hands 
 of an expert. 
 
 A few progressive architectural firms 
 now follow the radical departure of em- 
 ploying regularly a sanitary engineer or 
 plumbing expert to look after the sanitary 
 details of houses. A number of others 
 have the moral courage to tell their clients 
 that they much prefer to have a specialist 
 control the plumbing work in houses built 
 under their supervision. I venture to pre- 
 dict that it will not be many years before 
 attention to sanitation will be universally 
 practised, and sanitary construction be rep- 
 
68 
 
 resented by specialists in the leading arch- 
 itectural offices. There would certainly 
 seem to be ample work on hand, and the 
 results, so far obtained where this practice 
 is followed, would seem to justify its more 
 general adoption. 
 
 At present the prevailing custom is to 
 leave too much of the detail of the work to 
 the discretion of the plumbing contractor. 
 It is quite evident, that, as the plumber's 
 chief interest is that of a business man, he 
 will not make particular efforts to simplify 
 the work submitted to him, by adopting 
 safer and less complicated methods than 
 those called for by the average specifica- 
 tion, and by cutting out and dispensing 
 with unnecessary fixtures. Of course 
 there are exceptions, but they are deci- 
 dedly in the minority. As a rule, phimb- 
 ers are too apt to sneer at any attempt of a 
 radical departure from the methods of work 
 handed down to them by tradition. 
 
 Owners, on the other hand, often nowa- 
 days, place too implicit confidence in the 
 supervision carried out by boards of health. 
 While the results accomplished in cities 
 
69 
 
 where plumbing work is subject to regula- 
 tions and official inspections have been 
 most gratifying, it can not and should not 
 be expected that, even with an increased 
 force of inspectors, every individual house 
 will receive sufficient attention. To illus- 
 trate: I have in mind a newly built house 
 on the West side of the upper part of the 
 city of New York, which I was recently 
 asked to ftispect by a client who had pur- 
 chased it immediately upon its completion. 
 The work was done under board-of-health 
 supervision, but evidently by a rascally con- 
 tractor, with the result that the new owner 
 had to spend about seven hundred and fifty 
 dollars to put the plumbing into a merely 
 tolerably good condition, by recaulking 
 fraudulent joints in iron pipe, by re-fitting 
 water-closets left with broken earthen trap 
 connection, by remodelling sinks left ina- 
 perfectly trapped, and by putting in a 
 proper system of tank- water supply, the 
 house being fitted with plumbing appar- 
 atus on the upper floors, where in daytime 
 the city water supply failed. In order not 
 to be misunderstood, I desire to state ex- 
 
70 
 
 pressly that this is not cited as illustrating 
 the imperfect supervision of boards of 
 health, for their inspectors accomplish 
 as much good as would seem possible under 
 the circumstances, considering the vast ex- 
 tent of the building districts assigned to 
 each of them, but only to warn the pub- 
 lic against putting too much weight upon 
 the statement, now so frequently encoun- 
 tered in announcements of real estate 
 agents and building speculators, that " the 
 plumbing work was done under supervision 
 of the board of health" 
 
 Again, neither architects nor owners 
 should allow themselves to be guided as 
 is unfortunately too often the case by 
 the advice of dealers in plumbers' supplies 
 or manufacturers of sanitary specialties. 
 No matter how intelligent and ingenious 
 they may be, their judgment cannot be 
 unbiassed. This is so obvious as hardly to 
 require any further explanation. 
 
 In matters of drainage, perfect safety 
 lies in absolutely faithful and faultless 
 work. This can only be attained by em- 
 ploying first-class, honest, and thoroughly 
 
71 
 
 competent workmen, and by using first- 
 class materials, fittings, and apparatus, by 
 which I do not mean gilt-edged, embossed 
 or decorated bowls, costly cabinet-work, 
 fancy marble-work or tiling, and nickel 
 or silver plated pipes. All such features 
 are only "for show," and a perfect job, 
 from a sanitary point of view, may be se- 
 cured without them. 
 
 To give to housebuilders specific advice, 
 I should counsel them to avoid all compli- 
 cation, and to aim at simplicity; to avoid 
 having plumbing fixtures not in daily or 
 constant use; to have what fixtures are 
 needed conveniently located, without scat- 
 tering them injudiciously over the house. 
 Too much convenience in the shape of a 
 profusion of fixtures increases the risk; 
 while by reducing the number of openings 
 into the waste pipe system, the amount of 
 piping, and hence chances of leakage, are 
 reduced correspondingly. Plumbing work 
 should be confined mainly to the bath- 
 room, the kitchen, pantry, and laundry. 
 Some well-meaning friends have repeated- 
 ly expressed surprise at the stand-point 
 
72 
 
 taken by me in advising the banishment of 
 all fixtures, washbowls or others, from 
 sleeping and living rooms. I desire to 
 state distinctly that I consider it entirely 
 feasible and practicable, in the present ad- 
 vanced state of the art of draining houses, 
 to have in each bedroom of a house the 
 luxury of a stationary washstand, with an 
 abundant flow of hot and cold water, and 
 made perfectly secure against entrance of 
 sewer air. Convenient as such " set " 
 basins may be, I, as a rule, advise dispens- 
 ing with them in sleeping apartments, and 
 unventilated closets adjoining them, in 
 view of the possibility of imperfect work, 
 particularly where plumbing inspection is 
 not insisted upon. Moreover, it should not 
 be overlooked, that, however safe plumb- 
 ing fixtures may be originally constructed, 
 the possibility remains of their becoming 
 unsafe under careless use and management. 
 In advising the employment of compe- 
 tent sanitary experts, I have, to some ex- 
 tent, a personal interest in view. This I 
 cannot deny; but the force of the advice 
 is not weakened by this admission, and it 
 
73 
 
 should not be overlooked that the public is 
 ultimately the gainer. In support of my 
 argument in favor of expert superintend- 
 ence as regards sanitary construction, I 
 may be permitted to quote what others 
 have well said before me: " Sensible peo- 
 ple, wheta they are ill, consult a physician, 
 and not an apothecary. When they wish 
 to plan a house they take the advice of an 
 architect, and not a builder. Both apoth- 
 icary and builder are of course necessary." 
 So it is also with sanitary experts. The 
 sanitary engineer and the plumber are both 
 necessary; but, while the execution of the 
 drainage works of a house should be in- 
 trusted to a plumber, the design of the 
 drainage system should be in the hands of 
 a disinterested engineer. That so many 
 householders, although considering the 
 plumber "the pillager of their purses,' 2 
 still should persist in relying in the major- 
 ity of cases solely upon his advice, is a mat- 
 ter beyond comprehension to me. 
 
 Whole volumes may be, and have been, 
 written describing and explaining the gen- 
 eral principles of sanitary plumbing. The 
 
74 
 
 essential points may be summed up in the 
 following brief rules, viz. : 
 
 Avoidance of any retention of filth on 
 the premises, by complete, automatic, and 
 instant removal of all waste matter before 
 decomposition takes place. 
 
 Thorough ventilation of the whole drain- 
 age system. 
 
 Abundant and frequent flushing of all 
 fixtures, traps, and waste pipes. 
 
 Secure trapping of all vessels having 
 openings in communication with the waste 
 pipe system. 
 
 Avoidance of all manner of mechanical 
 obstruction to the flow of waste water. 
 
 Durability of the work, soundness of 
 materials, and tightness of joints. 
 
 Perfect accessibility to all parts of the 
 work. 
 
 Noiselessness in operation of all fixtures. 
 
 Prevention of unnecessary water waste 
 by. leakage, by freezing, or during flush- 
 ing. 
 
 The cardinal rule in planning should be 
 to observe the greatest possible simplicity 
 of arrangement consistent with conven- 
 
75 
 
 ience and comfort. A fundamental re- 
 quirement is the reduction of the number 
 of fixtures, and another the concentration 
 of waste discharges through as few well- 
 ventilated pipe channels as possible. As 
 an instance from my own practice I may 
 mention that in re-arranging the plumb- 
 ing work for the main building of a large 
 insane asylum in this State, I have grouped 
 not less than ten water-closets, thirteen 
 basins, three slop-hoppers, seven bath-tubs, 
 one urinal, and one sink, on four floors, 
 around a single line of soil pipe, kept* free- 
 ly open at the top and at its lower end; 
 thus gaining not only the advantage of 
 greatly reduced cost, but the benefit of an 
 abundant flushing of the only soil-pipe, 
 together with compactness of arrangement. 
 A multiplication of soil pipe stacks and 
 long lateral waste pipes must both be 
 avoided. Each fixture should have a di- 
 rect and short connection to the soil pipe, 
 if possible by a separate Y-branch. Each 
 fixture should be separately and securely 
 trapped. Where long branch waste pipes 
 are unavoidable they should have separate 
 
independent vent pipes through the roof. 
 Lateral branches to the soil pipe, if not 
 more than a few feet long, do not need 
 this ventilation, provided the fixtures are 
 quick emptying and in frequent use ; for at 
 each discharge of the fixture- a movement 
 of air takes place sufficient to avoid stag- 
 nation. All soil pipes should have ample 
 ventilation at top and bottom, and their 
 mouths above the roof should be enlarged, 
 and kept unrestricted by any form of cov- 
 er. All basins, tubs, and sinks should have 
 large waste outlets, to empty quickly and 
 to fill the waste pipes, thereby securing a 
 thorough scouring of the sides. I am in 
 favor of using large supply 'pipes and 
 valves and faucets with free waterway; 
 but I also recommend using small waste 
 pipes and small traps, as having a greater 
 tendency to keep clean. Outlets of water- 
 closets, on the contrary, should in my 
 judgment be restricted as much as is con- 
 sistent with their safe use. Every dis- 
 charge vessel in a house should act as a 
 flush tank. All fixtures should be of a 
 strong, durable, non-absorbent, and non- 
 
77 
 
 corrosive material, with smooth surface, 
 and free from corners favoring accumula- 
 tion of foulness. The question of over- 
 flow pipes has been solved in a simple man- 
 ner by the introduction of a number of 
 excellent appliances, doing away entirely 
 with concealed overflow passages of any 
 kind. 
 
 I favor the entire exposure of all spaces 
 under plumbing fixtures and about pipes, 
 for it should be constantly borne in mind 
 that even the best workmanship and ma- 
 terial cannot be expected to last forever, 
 and leaks or other defects are more read- 
 ily detected if the above advice is followed. 
 Any one who has had occasion to carry 
 out sanitary inspections will bear me out 
 in the statement that all inspections are 
 greatly facilitated where work is kept ex- 
 posed. It should, therefore, be laid down 
 as a rule in new work, to keep every thing 
 in sight, to leave pipes and fixtures ex- 
 posed to view, and traps and stop cocks 
 accessible. This also promotes cleanliness, 
 and greatly facilitates the carrying out of 
 needed repairs or alterations. 
 
78 
 
 I advise closing all free communication, 
 by the pipe channels, betweeen the various 
 floors of a building, in order to avoid the 
 carrying about of local odors from one 
 part of a house to another. 
 
 Without making any attempt to be ex- 
 haustive, I will mention at least a few mat- 
 ters of construction. All soil and waste 
 pipes should be of heavy iron pipe, and 
 restricted in diameter, so as to increase the 
 flushing effect of a stream passing through 
 them, thus avoiding deposits and subse- 
 quent stoppages. All piping should be 
 made both air and water tight, drains 
 should be laid with proper fall and true 
 alignment, junctions should be made with 
 Y-branches, and cleaning hand-holes 
 should be provided in places where needed. 
 
 Traps for fixtures should have no enlarge- 
 ments or corners favoring accumulations 
 of slime or sediment, and no mechanical 
 obstructions should be countenanced. 
 Traps should be self-scouring, made readily 
 accessible by tight-fitting yet easily re- 
 movable clean-out caps, and should have a 
 water seal of sufficient depth, and per- 
 
79 
 
 fectly secure against self-siphonage, back- 
 pressure, capillary attraction, siphonage > 
 and evaporation. From my best knowledge 
 and belief, I cannot accept as universally 
 necessary the requirement of " back venti- 
 lation" of traps. I conform to it, as a 
 matter of course, wherever local board- of - 
 health regulations require it; as I have also- 
 been compelled always under protest 
 to run fresh-air inlet-pipes to grated 
 openings in sidewalks, which choke with 
 ice and snow in winter-time, and to cover 
 soil pipes with the objectionable return 
 bends and vent caps. I do not fail ta 
 explain to my clients that the back airing 
 of traps is done at the expense of sim- 
 plicity ; that, in a properly laid-out system,, 
 trap vent pipes are not necessary to prevent- 
 dead ends in short lateral waste pipes; and 
 that prevention of siphonage can be ao- 
 complished, and the extra cost incurred by 
 back-air pipes be saved, in all but rare 
 instances, by adopting simpler and well- 
 known devices. Where I am compelled to- 
 run back-air pipes, complicating the pipe 
 system, it is always my endeavor to modify 
 
80 
 
 the arrangement, so as not to expose the 
 water in the trap too much to the air 
 current; for there can be no question that 
 the thereby increased free circulation of 
 air in the vicinity of the sealing water of 
 traps hastens the unsealing, by evapor- 
 ation, of traps under fixtures which remain 
 unused for some days in succession, and 
 endangers the security of all traps during 
 any period when a house is left unoccupied. 
 Water-closets have now come into almost 
 universal use, even in cottages of moderate 
 cost, and their advantages and comforts 
 over more primitive devices are undeniable. 
 A water-closet is the most important 
 plumbing fixture in the house, and hence 
 should be selected and put up with par- 
 ticular care. A good apparatus should 
 fulfill the following requirements, viz. : it 
 should be simple, neat, and compact in 
 design and construction; durable, strong, 
 and not liable to breakage by careless use ; 
 of a smooth material, with ample standing 
 water in the bowl; all parts exposed to 
 fouling should be thoroughly scoured; the 
 flush of the closet should be powerful, 
 
SI 
 
 quick, copious yet noiseless; the water- 
 closet should be securely trapped, and the 
 trap kept, if possible, accessible and its 
 water-seal visible ; it should be free from 
 all machinery liable to get out of order, 
 and should be economical in the use of 
 flushing water required to keep it in a 
 clean condition. There are a number of 
 excellent waiter-closet appliances now in 
 the market, which practically fulfill nearly 
 all of these requirements. 
 
 Properly arranged water-closets will also 
 serve the purpose of a good urinal, and 
 thus do away with a former abomination 
 in houses. A clean slop-hopper or house- 
 maid's sink on the bedroom floor of a house 
 is an undeniable convenience to servants, 
 yet, rather than put it in a dark and un- 
 ventilated closet, and leave it without 
 means for flushing, I should advise using 
 the water-closet in its stead. 
 
 As regards lavatories of all kinds, the 
 first requirement is that the inlet and 
 outlet openings should not be one and the 
 same; for, if so, in filling the vessel, some 
 of the dirty water comes back with the 
 
82 
 
 clean. This same objection applies to a 
 number of waste-valves for bath-tubs and 
 basins designed to take the place of the 
 ordinary chain and plug arrangement. 
 The latter device has also radical defects, 
 which are beginning to be more universally 
 recognized and admitted. The outlets of 
 the ordinary chain and plug fixtures are 
 altogether too small in proportion to the 
 diameter of their trap and waste pipe, with 
 the inevitable result that both remain im- 
 perfectly flushed, and accumulate to some 
 degree foulness. The chain and plug in 
 the bottom of fixtures is inconvenient in 
 use, and foul slime attaches to the num- 
 erous links of the chain, which are difficult 
 to clean. Finally it becomes necessary 
 with such fixtures to use hidden overflow 
 channels, the inside walls of which receive 
 no constant flow of water, hence become 
 readily fouled; and, being arranged so 
 that they cannot be reached, they offer no 
 chance for cleaning. The decaying soap 
 slime coating the overflow passages remains 
 in open communication with the apart- 
 ment, and forms a serious objection, a 
 
83 
 
 standing nuisance, and a menace to health. 
 Numerous patent contrivances have been 
 invented, in which the aim has been to do 
 away with the use of chain and plug, but 
 which retain other objectionable features. 
 Fortunately, wash-basins, bath-tubs, and 
 sinks may now be obtained with standpipe 
 overflow, which answer all the require- 
 ments which can be made to such ap- 
 paratus. They have large outlets, causing 
 a rapid discharge, and securing the in- 
 cidental advantage of a thorough flushing 
 of the trap and waste pipe. The inside of 
 these fixtures presents a smooth and 
 unbroken surface, the lift devices for the 
 standpipe are convenient in use, and the 
 standpipe itself can be readily disconnected 
 for cleaning purposes. There is less labor 
 for the plumber in fitting up such basins 
 or baths; the number of joints to be made 
 is reduced to a minimum; and every 
 essential part of the fixture, including its 
 discharge and overflow arrangement, is 
 visible and completely accessible. 
 
 Concerning tests, as applied to plumbing 
 work during construction and after com- 
 
84 
 
 pletion, there cannot any more at this date 
 be the slightest doubt that security for 
 work properly done lies in the clause of 
 the contract specifying that all work will 
 be submitted to rigid tests before being 
 finally accepted. Experience deduced from 
 my own practice is that a better class of 
 work is turned out where these conditions 
 are insisted upon, and I find that mechanics 
 doing first-class work have no objection to 
 any reasonable test applied to their work. 
 
 The fundamental rules and requirements 
 hastily sketched above are applicable to all 
 classes of buildings, to dwellings of mod- 
 erate cost, as well as to mansions and 
 palatial residences. While writing this 
 article I have, among other work, charge 
 of the drainage of a hospital, a school - 
 house, a club-house, a mission-house^ a 
 large fire-proof hotel, a row of apartment- 
 houses, and a number of city and country 
 residences, some elaborate and expensive, 
 others of moderate cost and plain design. 
 In all these buildings, without exception, 
 the above leading requirements are being 
 carried out. 
 
85 
 
 There are, of course, numerous other 
 points in the plumbing work of a building 
 requiring attention, such as the arrange- 
 ment of the supply pipes, the hot-water 
 service, questions of tank supply, pumps 
 and pumping engines, fitting up of hot- 
 water boilers, etc. ; but these cannot be dis- 
 cussed without stepping outside of the sub- 
 ject indicated in the title of this essay. 
 
 In arranging the drainage of a house, 
 the ultimate disposal of the sewage a 
 matter usually outside the province of the 
 architect should not be lost sight of. 
 The sanitary expert must consider the 
 various methods of accomplishing this dis- 
 posal of the household waste without of- 
 fence. Where a discharge into sewers or 
 open water courses is inadmissible or un- 
 available, the disposal of the sewage on 
 the premises is the only alternative. 
 Where sufficient ground cannot be had, a 
 perfectly tight and well-ventilated cess- 
 pool, situated at a safe distance from the 
 dwelling, and widely apart from any well 
 furnishing drinking water, is the only de- 
 vice to be tolerated, although it is at best 
 
a makeshift involving the temporary stor- 
 age of noxious and decomposing organic 
 matter. 
 
 In the case of suburban and country 
 residences having ample grounds about 
 them, a perfectly safe solution of the dif- 
 ficulty may be found in the adoption of 
 the sub-surface irrigation system, with 
 automatic flush tank, in which the sewage 
 is intermittently distributed under the 
 soil by a net- work of drain tiles laid close 
 under the surface.* 
 
 * See the author's book in the Science Series entitled, 
 " The Disposal of Hoiisehold Wastes," published by the 
 D.Van Nostrand Co., 23 Murray Street, New York City. 1890. 
 
IV. 
 
 XI MS 
 
 PLUMBING 
 
 AND 
 
 HOUSE DRAINAGE. 
 
The following notes on plumbing will 
 show more particularly what requirements 
 should be made in regard to materials, 
 workmanship and arrangement of the 
 plumbing work in houses. They should be 
 looked upon and used merely as a frame- 
 work upon which a specification, suited to 
 each special case, is to be constructed. 
 They are intended primarily to suggest 
 points that require careful consideration, 
 but they also constitute instructions for 
 the guidance of the mechanics engaged in 
 such work. 
 
MAXIMS 
 
 OF 
 
 PLUMBING AND HOUSE DRAINAGE. 
 
 To obtain a safe and secure system of 
 drainage and plumbing in a building, to 
 secure to a house 1 immunity at all times 
 from sewer air, and to prevent any subse- 
 quent annoyances incident to bad arrange- 
 ment and careless workmanship in water 
 pipes and plumbing appliances, it is nec- 
 essary to observe the following points : 
 
 First, to have the system of fixtures, 
 traps, supply and waste pipes well planned 
 and arranged in accordance with the best 
 rules. 
 
 tiecond, to have the work itself con- 
 structed in a thoroughly able and efficient 
 manner by competent mechanics and under 
 proper superintendence. 
 
90 
 
 Finally ', after the work is all completed 
 and put to use, to have it managed with 
 intelligence, properly taken care of, and 
 examined from time to time, as to its con- 
 tinued soundness and freedom from de- 
 fects, as is done with all other mechan- 
 ical apparatus and machinery. 
 
 Hence, the subject naturally divides 
 itself into the following sections, viz. : 
 
 A.* Principles which should govern the plan- 
 ning and location of plumbing 
 work in dwellings. 
 
 23. Rules regarding the proper construc- 
 tion of the work, in particular as to 
 
 (1) Materials. 
 
 (2) Workmanship. 
 
 (3) General Arrangement. 
 
 (4) Tests. ' 
 
 C. Suggestions as to the management and 
 proper care of plumbing apparatus. 
 
 It is well known that much of the suc- 
 cess of a system of house drainage and 
 
91 
 
 plumbing, to say nothing of the conven- 
 ient and compact grouping of fixtures and 
 the thereby reduced cost of the work, de- 
 pends upon a judicious planning and ar- 
 rangement by the architect or person de- 
 signing the plans of the building. 
 
 The rules regarding the proper con- 
 struction of the work will contain the 
 principal requirements which, in whole or 
 in part, should be embodied in plumbing 
 specifications for all kinds of buildings. 
 It is, however, absolutely necessary, in 
 order to make such a specification com- 
 plete and adapted to any particular build- 
 ing or dwelling house, that in addition to 
 general requirements the specification 
 should contain a detailed enumeration of 
 all plumbing appliances (fixtures, traps, 
 supply and waste pipes, tanks, boilers, 
 flushing cisterns, stop-cocks, faucets, et*c.) 
 required in the building; a detailed and 
 accurate description of the location of the 
 plumbing fixtures, and of the special ap- 
 paratus wanted, and a minute description 
 of the course of all hot and cold water 
 service pipes, soil, drain, waste, vent, over- 
 
92 
 
 flow and drip pipes. In every case floor 
 plans and all needed sections of the build- 
 ing should be added, showing clearly the 
 proposed system of drainage and water 
 supply. 
 
 From a long practical experience with 
 such details of interior finish in newly 
 erected buildings, I am convinced that it 
 is quite important, in order to secure good 
 results, to prepare a plumbing specifica- 
 tion with scrupulous regard to details and 
 with much thoroughness and exactness. 
 It is a great mistake on the part of archi- 
 tects or owners to suppose that such rules 
 and regulations, or printed blank specifi- 
 cations, as the boards of health in our large 
 cities now require to be filed, are suffici- 
 ently detailed to provent gross carelessness 
 or deception on the part of unscrupulous 
 plumbing contractors. Plumbing regula- 
 tions, as framed by boards of health, are 
 good in their way, although undoubtedly 
 susceptible of much improvement. They 
 are altogether too complicated, too detailed 
 in many respects, while not strict enough 
 in others. All those which have come to 
 
98 
 
 my knowledge permit certain things which 
 every sanitary engineer worthy of the name 
 absolutely condemns, and, on the other 
 hand, they specify or require tilings, some 
 of doubtful utility, and others absolutely 
 objectionable, and which no one who has 
 impartially investigated the subject can 
 conscientiously approve. 
 
 The suggestions named under (C) refer 
 especially to householders and servants. 
 It has become a recognized fact that a 
 properly constructed drainage system of a 
 house must be intelligently used, and needs 
 constant care and attention on the part of 
 the householder to maintain it in good or- 
 der. Especially is this true of the vast 
 number of houses occupied only during 
 a part of the year, such as summer resi- 
 dences, summer hotels, seaside and moun- 
 tain cottages, etc. It also refers to city 
 houses, many of which are closed and va- 
 cated during the hot summer months. 
 How to leave plumbing work in such 
 houses during winter and during summer, 
 without incurring the risk of finding, on 
 returning, that the pipes and traps have 
 
94 
 
 been frozen and burst, or that the rooms, 
 walls, carpets and furniture are saturated 
 with sewer air, is a question to which a 
 certain amount of attention might with 
 advantage be paid by every householder. 
 
 A. Rules regarding the planning and 
 location of plumbing work in dwel- 
 lings. 
 
 Avoid a useless multiplication of plumb- 
 ing fixtures. Let the amount of plumbing 
 work in a house be reduced as much as 
 possible. Above all, avoid locating fix- 
 tures in unoccupied or spare rooms. 
 
 Do not place plumbing fixtures of any 
 kind in sleeping rooms, nor even in unven- 
 tilated closets adjoining them. 
 
 Plumbing fixtures, especially water clos- 
 ets, urinals and slop hoppers, must always 
 be located in well-lighted and well-venti- 
 lated apartments. 
 
 Always arrange fixtures so as to be con- 
 centrated, as much as is consistent with 
 convenience- in use, in compact groups. 
 Have as few vertical lines of pipe as possi- 
 
95 
 
 ble. Avoid long horizontal runs of pipe. 
 
 Arrange all plumbing work in a simple 
 manner, with as little complication as is 
 attainable. 
 
 In small cottages place the bath room as 
 nearly as possible over the kitchen, in 
 order to reduce the amount of piping, and 
 to simplifiy the whole work. 
 
 In small houses it is preferable to sepa- 
 rate the water closet from the bath room 
 and to give to eaclj of them a well-lighted 
 and ventilated apartment. 
 
 In houses with several toilet and dress- 
 ing rooms adjoining the bed rooms, the 
 water closet, lavatory and bath-tub may, 
 however, be arranged together. 
 
 Avoid locating any fixtures, such as 
 laundry tubs or servants' water closets, in 
 the cellar. 
 
 Servants' water closets, slophoppers and 
 housemaids' sinks should never be located 
 in dark, out-of-the-way corners. 
 
 Avoid locating any supply pipes on out- 
 side walls, especially if the house stands 
 detached and exposed. 
 
 In country houses occupied during the 
 
96 
 
 winter, do not locate the bath room and 
 the water tank in that corner of the build- 
 ing which is most exposed to the weather 
 and the direction of the coldest wind (gen- 
 erally the northwest corner). 
 
 Place all. soil, waste and supply pipes 
 outside of walls or partitions. Let pipes 
 pass in sight through closets, and leave 
 them fully exposed in bath rooms. 
 
 Avoid dead ends in all except short 
 branch waste pipes. 
 
 In larger houses arrange means for draw- 
 ing hot and cold water on every floor. 
 Provide a flushing-rim slop-hopper on bed- 
 room floors for the convenience of the ser- 
 vants. 
 
 Avoid having plumbing apparatus on 
 floors where you are not sure of a constant, 
 abundant and never-failing supply of 
 water. 
 
 Openings in the cellar floor, connecting 
 to a house sewer, should be avoided as un- 
 safe, even if properly trapped. 
 
 Common overflow pipes and waste pipes 
 of fixtures which are not in daily use are 
 objectionable. 
 
97 
 
 Arrange all fixtures, wherever possible, 
 so as to have distinctly independent out- 
 lets into the main soil pipe system. 
 
 Quick-emptying fixtures, constituting a 
 small flush tank for the waste pipe at- 
 tached to them, and arranged without con- 
 cealed overflow channels, are preferable to 
 other kinds. 
 
 Select plumbing fixtures of a strong, 
 durable, smooth, non-absorbent and non- 
 corrosive material, of a simple construc- 
 tion, and with as little movable mechan- 
 ism as possible. 
 
 Arrange all fixtures in an open manner. 
 Avoid carpentry of any kind, enclosing 
 plumbing apparatus, as much as possible. 
 
 Avoid lead " safes." Floors and walls 
 about plumbing fixtures should preferably 
 be made water-tight, and covered with 
 slate, marble or encaustic tiles. 
 
 Wherever much grease is wasted, pro- 
 vide a suitable grease trap. 
 
 Keep, as a guide in case of future exam- 
 inations, plans showing the location of all 
 drain pipes, traps, access holes, stop-cocks, 
 etc. 
 
98 
 
 B. Rules regarding the proper construc- 
 tion of the work. 
 
 In the following are given the princi- 
 pal requirements, which, in whole or in 
 part, should be embodied in plumbing 
 specifications for all kinds of buildings. 
 The subject is subdivided under the head- 
 ings; (1) General conditions; (2) Mater- 
 ials; (3) Workmanship; (4) General Ar- 
 rangement of the Work; (5) Tests of the 
 Work during Construction and after Com- 
 pletion. 
 
 I desire, however, to have it distinctly 
 understood that the following is in no 
 sense intended to be, or to be used as, a 
 general plumbing specification, which can 
 be copied verbatim, or which, by filling in 
 lines usually left blank for the conven- 
 ience of architects, may be readily adapted 
 to any kind of work. The following notes 
 should only be considered a help in pre- 
 paring a plumbing specification. If intel- 
 ligently used, I have no doubt they will 
 prove useful to those who are anxious to 
 write a good and complete specification. 
 
99 
 1 . General Conditions. 
 
 All the work contemplated, shown on 
 the floor plans and in the sections of the 
 building, and described in the specifica- 
 tion, shall be done in the best and most 
 workmanlike manner, to the satisfaction of 
 the superintendent and of the owner. 
 
 The plumber must furnish all material 
 and perform all labor required to finish 
 the work contemplated in the specification 
 in a substantial manner. 
 
 He must do all his work promptly as the 
 building progresses, and must in particular 
 not delay other contractors nor interfere 
 with their work. 
 
 The contractor is not to sub-let the 
 whole or a part of his work without the 
 written approval of the owner or his rep- 
 resentative. 
 
 The plumber must lay out his own work 
 correctly according to the floor plans, and 
 is to give his personal superintendence to 
 the work. 
 
 The superintendent shall have access to 
 the work at all times, and shall be sole 
 
100 
 
 judge of the quality and fitness of the ma- 
 terials used, and of the character of the 
 workmanship. 
 
 No pipe, fitting, or work of any kind to 
 be closed up or hidden from view before it 
 has been examined and approved by the 
 superintendent. Any unfaithful or im- 
 perfect work, or defective material that he 
 or the owner may discover before the work 
 is finally accepted, shall be immediately 
 corrected, and any pipe, fitting, trap, fix- 
 ture or material of any kind which in the 
 superintendent's judgment does not con- 
 form with the requirements of the specifi- 
 cation, shall be at once removed and re- 
 placed at the contractor's expense by satis- 
 factory work and material. 
 
 The plumber shall be guided in his work 
 by both drawings and specifications. Pref- 
 erence must in all cases be given to figures 
 or memoranda, and only where these are 
 not given, scale measurements may be 
 taken. Wherever the specification varies 
 or conflicts with the drawings, the plumb- 
 er is to be governed by the specification. 
 
 The plumber is to obtain all official 
 
101 
 
 permits required, pay the fees for the 
 same, and is to give to the proper author- 
 ities all notices required by law relating to 
 his work. 
 
 All work must conform with the local 
 building and health regulations, and the 
 latter are to be considered a part of the 
 specification. 
 
 The plumber must see to it that no dam- 
 age is done to any part of his own or other 
 contractors' work on the building. He 
 will be held responsible for all soiling of 
 walls, wainscots, finger marks or other de- 
 facements by his workmen. He will see 
 that proper care is taken in kindling fires 
 in the plumber's furnace, and in handling 
 the latter anywhere in the building.* 
 
 The plumber must see to it that all 
 building rubbish caused by his operations 
 be removed from time to time from th? 
 building as may be required. At the com- 
 pletion of the work he is to deliver every- 
 thing in a clean condition and in good 
 working order, and perfect in all respects. 
 
 * A good clause to insert is the following : " No smoking or 
 spitting allowed in building after the plastering is done, 
 the trim set and floors laid." 
 
102 
 
 The contractor will be paid only on cer- 
 tificates properly signed by the superin- 
 tendent. 
 
 [Here should follow a schedule of the 
 fixtures required in the building.] 
 
 2. Materials. 
 
 All the materials used in the work to be 
 of the best quality obtainable in the mar- 
 ket. 
 
 Earthenware Drain Pipes. 
 
 Outside drains (beginning at a distance 
 of at least five feet from the house) to be 
 of strong, salt-glazed earthen pipes, either 
 pipes provided with hubs at one end, or 
 else plain cylindrical pipes with loose 
 rings or collars of unglazed earthenware. 
 
 All vitrified pipes to be perfectly 
 straight, circular and true in section, of 
 a uniform thickness of not less than three- 
 quarter inch for four and six-inch pipes, to 
 be free from cracks, flaws, or other de- 
 fects, to be hard-burnt, not brittle, smooth 
 
103 
 
 and impervious on the inside and highly 
 glazed, except at the pipe ends. Hubs of 
 vitrified socket pipes to be not less than 
 three inches deep. 
 
 Earthenware special fittings, such as T 
 and Y branches, bends, offsets, traps, etc., 
 to be of the same quality and character as 
 specified for pipes.* 
 
 Cast-iron Drain., Soil, Waste, Vent, and 
 Leader Pipes and Fittings. 
 
 Cast-iron drain, soft, waste, 'vent and 
 leader pipes to be of a homogeneous tex- 
 ture, free from flaws, cracks, sand-holes or 
 similar defects, perfectly straight, truly 
 cylindrical, perfectly smooth on the inside 
 and of a uniform thickness of not less than 
 one-quarter inch. Pipes to be the ordinary 
 bell and spigot joints, with hubs of grea k t 
 depth and strength of metal. 
 
 Pipes to be tested and inspected at 
 foundry, and to be afterwards coated and 
 
 * See also " Specification for Laying House Drains and 
 Pipe Sewrs in the author's book, " The Disposal of House- 
 hold Wastes *' No. 97 of Van Nostrand's Science Series, 
 Published by D. Van Nostrand Co. , New York, 1890. 
 
104 
 
 protected inside and outside with coal tar 
 pitch or other equivalent substance. Or 
 else, pipes to be dipped in metallic paint, 
 or to be enameled with black enamel, or to 
 be porcelain-lined (white enamel), as the 
 detailed specifications may require. The 
 superintendent may, instead, require that 
 the pipes and fittings be tested in his pres- 
 ence by the oil of kerosene test. 
 
 All fittings for cast-iron soil and waste 
 pipes to be of best quality cast iron; all 
 castings to be sound, clean, smooth, true, 
 free from flaws, cracks, sand-holes, air 
 bubbles or other imperfections or impurities 
 in the metal. Thickness of shell to be not 
 less than one-quarter inch. Fittings for 
 bell and spigot pipes to have hubs which 
 must be very deep and extra strong. All 
 fittings to be tar coated or enameled, to 
 correspond with the kind of pipe required 
 by the detailed specifications. 
 
 Cast-iron soil pipes to be four inches 
 inside diameter, and iron waste pipes to 
 be two inches diameter, unless other sizes 
 are specifically called for. Drain pipes to 
 
105 
 
 be from two to six inches diameter, as 
 called for in detailed specifications, and as 
 indicated on the plans. 
 
 Lead Pipes. 
 
 All lead pipes to be drawn pipes of soft 
 pure lead, of the best make. Pipes to be 
 either plain or tin-lined, as may be di- 
 rected in detailed specification. 
 
 Weight of lead pipe to be as follows : 
 
 a. Supply Pipes. 
 
 Inside Diameter, f" J" f" }" 1" lj" !" 
 
 For street or tank 
 pressure not ex- 
 ceeding 20 Ibs. per Lbs. per running ft. 
 square inch 1 If 2J 3 4 5 (U 
 
 For street or tank 
 pressure exceed- ^ 
 ing 20 Ibs. per sq. 
 in., and not ex- 
 ceeding 35 Ibs. per 
 square inch 1J 2 3 4 4f 6 8 
 
 For pressures ex- 
 ceeding 35 Ibs. per 
 square inch 2 3 4 5 6 7 9 
 
106 
 
 b. Waste, vent, overflow and drip pipes, 
 also supply pipes from w. cl. cis- 
 terns to 10. cl. bowls. 
 
 J incli lead pipe to weigh 1 Ib. per running ft. 
 
 
 
 
 2 <* u u 5 
 
 3 " " " " . 6 
 
 " 
 
 Block Tin Pipes. 
 
 Suction pipes in wells or cisterns to be 
 of pure block tin, to weigh as follows: 
 
 Lbs. per running foot. 
 } inch block tin pipe to weigh J 
 1 1 
 
 Brass Pipes. 
 
 All brass piping to be made of seamless 
 drawn brass tubing, with all the necessary 
 brass fittings required. Pipes to be either 
 plain (for hot water) or lined inside with 
 
107 
 
 tin (for cold water). Outside of pipes to 
 be nickel plated and polished, or else, if 
 brass finished, pipes to be varnished with 
 a good coat of shellac, as may be required 
 in detailed specifications. 
 
 Wrought-iron Pipes. 
 
 a. Supply Pipes to be either plain, 
 galvanized, enameled, linedp- inside with 
 block tin, or rubber lined, or made rustless 
 by the Bower-Barff process, as may be 
 directed in the detailed specifications. 
 Pipes to be uniform and true in section 
 and pipes in sizes up to H inches to be 
 butt-welded and warranted to be tested by 
 hydraulic pressure of 300 pounds per square 
 inch. All necessary fittings used to have 
 the same protecting treatment as the pipes. 
 All fittings to be malleable iron fittings. * 
 
 b. /Soil, Waste and Vent Pipes to be 
 of standard wrought-iron pipe, having a 
 uniform thickness of not less than one- 
 quarter inch ; pipes to be lap- welded and 
 proved at the iron mills to 500 pounds per 
 square inch by hydraulic pressure ; to be 
 
108 
 
 coated after being heated, with a prepara- 
 tion of coal tar and asphalt (or to be treated 
 with the Bower-Barff or other rustless pro- 
 cess.) Fittings for soil and waste pipes to 
 be protected against rust by the same pro- 
 cess as applied to the pipes ; to be tapped 
 truly straight and to have a strong shoulder. 
 
 Traps. 
 
 Traps to be of lead, brass, copper or 
 glass, for sinks, basins and tubs, and to be 
 be of iron, lead, stoneware or earthenware 
 under water closets (as may be specified in 
 describing the water closet apparatus.) 
 
 Traps of lead not to be lighter in weight 
 and thickness of lead than the waste pipes 
 to which they are attached. Drawn lead 
 traps to be preferred to cast lead traps; 
 the latter, if used, to be proved free from 
 sand-holes, flaws or other imperfections. 
 Traps for water closets to have at least one 
 inch, and except in the case of certain 
 special water closet constructions not 
 more than two inches water seal. All 
 other traps for fixtures to have at least one 
 and one-half inch effective seal. 
 
109 
 
 All traps to be self-cleansing and free 
 from corners or spaces favoring accumula- 
 tion of filth, and to be of such shape as to 
 hold as little volume of water as is con- 
 sistent with a proper water seal. 
 
 Traps under fixtures so be provided with 
 cleansing trap screws, placed below the 
 water level in the traps, and arranged so 
 as to be accessible. 
 
 No bell or D-trap, or cesspool trap, to be 
 used anywhere (special kind of trap re- 
 quired to be stated in the detailed specifi- 
 tion). 
 
 Traps for house drains, leaders, yard and 
 area drains to be of heavy cast-iron pro- 
 vided with proper tightly closed cleaning 
 hand-holes and to have a proper depth of 
 seal of not less than two inches. 
 
 Stop-cocks, Valves and Faucets. 
 
 Roundway stop-cocks to be used on 
 main lines of service pipes, and to be of the 
 same inner diameter as their respective 
 pipes. If supply pipes are of wrought 
 iron, brass full way gate valves, instead of 
 
110 
 
 stop-cocks, to be used. All valves, faucets 
 and stop-cocks to be of superior gun metal 
 of the heaviest existing patterns. No 
 globe valves to be used. 
 
 Plated Ware. 
 
 Wherever brass is to be plated the nickel 
 or silver plating (as specified in detailed 
 specification) to be of the best kind, and 
 warranted for at least five years. 
 
 Solder. 
 
 All solder used on the work to be pure, 
 soft, and free from impurities, such as zinc 
 or other admixture. 
 
 Pig Lead. 
 
 Lead for caulking purposes to be soft 
 and purfe'pig lead, to be free from any ad- 
 mixture of antimony, zinc or other metal. 
 No lead used for caulking soil pipes to be 
 brittle or hard ; no scrap lead to be used. 
 
 Sheet Lead. 
 
 To be of soft and pure pig lead, rolled 
 
Ill 
 
 in sheets, and to be free from any admixture 
 of alloys or old scrap lead. Weight to be 
 not less than four pounds per square foot. 
 
 Sheet Copper. 
 
 All sheet copper to weigh sixteen ounces 
 per square foot, unless greater weight is 
 called for in detailed specifications, and to 
 be well planished and 
 
 Patty. 
 
 The use of putty is to be avoided, but, 
 wherever needed, putty to be made up 
 with pure linseed oil, and to be mixed 
 with some red lead, to avoid its being 
 eaten by rats. 
 
 Marble. 
 
 All marble is to be of best Italian qual- 
 ity, blue veined and highly polished, un- 
 less light pink Tennessee or other marble 
 is especially called for t in the description 
 of the plumbing fixtures. All slabs are to 
 be properly molded and countersunk. All 
 
112 
 
 marble work to be sharply molded and 
 well fitted and set, and, where necessary, 
 to be secured with round-head brass 
 screws and washers, the latter sunk in 
 flush. 
 
 Fixtures. 
 
 All fixtures and apparatus to be strictly 
 of the kind and character and special make 
 as called for in the following detailed de- 
 scription, and every fixture to be free from 
 any defects, perfect throughout, and put in 
 complete working order. 
 
 [Here should follow a complete descrip- 
 tion of the special appliances wanted under 
 the head of 
 
 Hydrant ; sillcock ; furnace or steam boiler 
 supply. 
 
 Temporary cock in cellar to furnish water 
 for building purposes. 
 
 Double-acting force pump; pumping en- 
 gine. 
 
 Water tank. 
 
 Kitchen range; kitchen boiler; kitchen 
 sink. 
 
113 
 
 Cistern pump. 
 
 Wash trays; laundry sink; laundry range ; 
 
 clothes boiler. 
 Refrigerator; ice sink. 
 Water closets. 
 Wash-basins. 
 Bath-tubs, foot-baths, sitz-bath, bidets, 
 
 shower-baths, needle-baths. 
 Slop hopper; housemaid's sink. 
 
 Urinal and ladies' urinette.] 
 
 
 
 Cement. 
 
 Hydraulic cement to be any good, pure, 
 quick-setting brand, to be fine and freshly 
 ground; cement to be subject to inspec- 
 tion and testing by the superintendent, 
 who may reject all cement of improper 
 quality. 
 
 Sand. 
 
 To be clean, sharp, silicious sand, free 
 from all dirt, dust loam^or other foreign 
 matter. 
 
114 
 Mortar. 
 
 Sand and cement to be mixed dry and 
 to be wetted up only in small quantities as 
 used, and with just enough water to make 
 a paste of proper consistency. Mortar to 
 consist of one part hydraulic cement and 
 two parts of sand measured quantities. 
 No lime to be used in the mixture, nor 
 should any mortar be used that has begun 
 to set. 
 
 Concrete. 
 
 Concrete for foundations and trench 
 bottoms to be composed of one part mortar 
 and five parts broken stone. The mortar 
 to be made up as directed above, with 
 sufficient water only to constitute a fair 
 paste. The broken stone shall then be 
 wetted up and mixed with the paste in a 
 thorough manner by several turnings with 
 a shovel. The concrete, after being thrown 
 in place, to be tamped with wooden ram- 
 mers. No concrete left over at the close of 
 a day to be used afterwards on the work. 
 
115 
 
 3. WORKMANSHIP. 
 ^Earthenware Drain Pipes. 
 
 If plain cylindrical pipes are specified, 
 joints to be made by means of loose collars 
 or rings set in mortar. Drain pipes to be 
 laid at a depth of generally not less than 
 three feet, in a carefully excavated trench. 
 Trench to be opened only as wide as nec- 
 essary and to be suitably braed wherever 
 required, to prevent any caving in of the 
 sides. Trench to have the bottom trimmed 
 perfectly to the exact grade, and to have 
 at each pipe joint a depression, in order to 
 have each length of pipe evenly and per- 
 fectly supported. Pipes should be laid 
 with ends butting close together. Cement 
 mortar, mixed as per directions given, to 
 be applied to the unglazed ends of the pipes/ 
 and also to the inside of collars. Pipes to 
 be joined in such a manner that the flow 
 line will be true and even, in order to pre- 
 vent stoppages. The inside of each length 
 of pipe to be well cleaned before laying 
 down the next length. Drains to be laid 
 
116 
 
 in perfectly straight lines, and deviations 
 from alignment to be made with special 
 curves of large radius. Each length of 
 pipe to be covered in the center with a few 
 inches of earth, in order to steady it and 
 to prevent any pipes from moving. After 
 testing pipe joints with water, the back 
 filling to be done with great care, in order 
 not to disturb the pipes. Earth to be 
 thrown in layers of not more than twelve 
 inches in depth, and the filling to be well 
 rammed or puddled, to prevent the slightest 
 settling. All outside branch drains to join 
 the main by Y, not T branches. Bends in 
 the lines of the drains should never be made 
 with straight pipes. Pipes of different sizes 
 to be joined by proper reducing fittings. 
 Long lines of house drains to have man- 
 holes or inspection holes placed at suitable 
 intervals. 
 
 If earthen socket pipes are specified, 
 sockets to be examined with special care 
 for cracks or flaws, before lowering pipes 
 into the trench. Trench to be excavated 
 as described heretofore. Special grooves 
 to be cut in the bottom of the trench for 
 
117 
 
 the sockets, in order to give to the pipes a 
 iirm bearing throughout their entire length. 
 Pipes to be laid with the socket pointing up 
 grade. The space between spigot and hub, 
 if the hub is deep, to be filled first with a 
 small gasket of oakum, to prevent any 
 cement mortar from entering at the joints. 
 The remaining space to be filled with 
 hydraulic mortar, which must be applied 
 with particular care at the Bottom of the 
 joint. Water accumulating in the hollow 
 grooves must be removed before applying 
 mortar to the joint. Some cement to be 
 wiped at the face of each joint, and as soon 
 as the joint is finished, the grooves to be 
 filled with earth, in order to support the 
 cement at the joint until the cement has 
 had time to harden. The utmost care to be 
 observed after a joint is made, to prevent 
 any disturbance of the pipes by stepping 
 on them, or otherwise. The inside of each 
 pipe joint to be thoroughly cleaned from 
 any projecting oakum or cement. Back 
 filling to be done as described heretofore. 
 Earthen pipe must always be laid on a 
 firm bed, which should be provided in case 
 
118 
 
 of loose soils. A bed of gravel or sand, or 
 a concrete foundation, should be prepared 
 in such cases, to properly support the pipes. 
 Joints between earthen pipes and iron 
 house drains to be made perfectly tight by 
 means of pure hydraulic cement.* 
 
 Cast-iron Pipes. 
 
 All joints in cast-iron socket pipe and 
 fittings to be made by inserting a gasket 
 of picked oakum into the space between 
 spigot and hub, so as to fill about orte-half 
 of the depth of hub, and pouring molten 
 soft lead from a large ladle into the re- 
 maining space. After cooling and shrink- 
 ing, the lead to be thoroughly caulked with 
 caulking tools to insure air and water-tight 
 joints. The face of the caulking lead to 
 remain without paint, putty or cement, so 
 as to leave the marks of the caulking tool 
 exposed to view. All joints made before 
 soil pipe and fittings are put in place must 
 
 * For a more detailed specification, the reader is referred 
 to the author's book, " The Disposal of Household Wastes,' 
 in the Van Nostrand Science Series. 
 
119 
 
 be re-caulked when the soil or waste pipe 
 stack is up, as they may otherwise become 
 loose from jars. 
 
 Iron pipe lengths in a vertical position 
 to be firmly held in place by strong, 
 wrought iron staples of round iron, or to 
 be supported by strong pipe rests or sup- 
 ports, well-fastened to the walls and 
 placed under each hub. Where hung 
 from the ceiling, pipes to be held in place 
 by improved iron pipe hangers, securely 
 fastened to joists, and drain pipes carried 
 above the floor, to be supported at suitable 
 intervals by brick piers. No ordinary 
 plumber's hooks to be used. 
 
 Suitable provision to be made, espec- 
 ially in very high buildings, for the free 
 contraction and expansion of each vertical 
 stack, by fastening the pipes in such a man- 
 ner that a slight movement parallel to th*e 
 pipe axis may take place, especially where 
 a waste pipe receives much hot water. 
 
 All changes in direction to be made 
 with bends of large radius, and all branches 
 to be Y or half Y branches, or curved Tees 
 (the latter only on upright lines). 
 
120 
 
 After all pipes are put in place they are 
 to be cleaned and painted, so as to look 
 neat at the completion of the work. 
 
 Lead Supply and Waste Pipes. 
 
 All joints between lead pipes, whether 
 for supply or waste pipes, to be wiped 
 solder joints; cup joints not to be made 
 anywhere. 
 
 Joints between lead pipes and brass fit- 
 tings, such as stop-cocks, ferrules, etc., to 
 be wiped solder joints; joints between 
 lead pipes and brass couplings may be cup 
 joints. 
 
 Joints between lead pipes and cast-iron 
 pipes or hub fittings, to be made by means 
 of a brass or copper ferrule, soldered to 
 the lead pipe and tightly caulked into the 
 iron hub. 
 
 Joints between lead pipes and wrought- 
 iron pipes, or tapped fittings, to be made by 
 means of brass male and female solder- 
 ing nipples, wiped to the lead pipe, and 
 tightly screwed with a wrench into or onto 
 the tapped fitting or threaded pipe. 
 
121 
 
 Connections between earthenware and 
 lead to be made, as much as possible, by 
 means of brass couplings. 
 
 All vertical lead pipes to be supported 
 by hard metal tacks, placed at short and 
 equal distances, and securely fastened by 
 screws to finished boards put up by the 
 carpenter. 
 
 Horizontal or graded lead pipes to be 
 firmly supported throughout their whole 
 length on boards, to prevent sagging and 
 trapping, and to be fastened and kept in 
 place by brass bands (strips of sheet brass 
 bent to conform to the shape of the pipe) 
 placed at frequent intervals and fastened 
 to the boards by screws. Hot-water pipes 
 to be fastened, preferably by brass bands 
 only, not by tacks, so as to allow for nec- 
 essary expansion and contraction. Hooks 
 should never be used in fastening led 
 pipes. 
 
 Joints in tin-lined lead pipes to be made 
 by means of the special tinned brass fer- 
 rules and fittings furnished with the pipe 
 by its manufacturers. If wiped solder 
 joints are made, unusual care is required, 
 
122 
 
 so that, in applying the heated solder, the 
 tin may not be melted and thus the pipe 
 lining be destroyed. 
 
 Wrought-iron Pipes. 
 
 Joints in wrought-iron pipes to be made 
 with screw threads cut on the ends of the 
 pipes and in the shoulder of fittings. All 
 threads to be of standard gauge. All cut 
 ends of pipe to have the burr removed. A 
 thick paste of red and white lead mixed, 
 or else linseed oil, to be used in the joints 
 to act as lubricant, and to make up for im- 
 perfections in the threads. Pipes to be 
 screwed together tightly with wrenches or 
 pipe tongs, care being taken that no lead 
 is squeezed out at the inside of pipes. In 
 putting together wrought-iron pipes and 
 fittings treated with black enamel, a liquid 
 black enamel should be used at the joints, 
 to protect the threads against rust. 
 
 Wrought-iron pipes, lined inside with 
 tin, should be joined by means of the 
 special ferrules sold for such purpose with 
 the pipe. 
 
123 
 
 Horizontal wrought-iron pipes to be sup- 
 ported by means of special pipe hangers. 
 All exposed vertical lines of iron supply 
 pipes are to be carried perfectly plumb and 
 straight at an even distance from the walls, 
 and secured with galvanized iron or brass 
 holdfasts arranged so that they can be 
 readily removed. 
 
 Brass Pipes. 
 
 All brass pipes and brass fittings to be 
 put together with screw joints, a paste of 
 red lead being put over the threads, and 
 the joints made perfectly tight by means 
 of screw wrenches. Brass pipes to be put 
 up on boards and fastened by brass bands, 
 holdfasts and escutcheons, or to be sup- 
 ported by neat brass hangers, varnished or 
 nickel-plated. No hooks to be used. 
 Long horizontal lines of brass service pipes 
 for hot water should not be confined 'at 
 ends, but should be arranged so as to allow 
 of free expansion and contraction. 
 
 Stop- Cocks and Faucets. 
 
 Joints between bibbs or stop-cocks and 
 lead pipes to be wiped solder joints; those 
 
124 
 
 between bibbs or stop-cocks and wrought - 
 iron or brass pipes to be screw joints. 
 
 Traps. 
 
 All joints between lead traps and lead 
 waste pipes to be wiped solder joints, 
 made perfectly tight. Joints between 
 lead traps and cast-iron soil pipes or fit- 
 tings to be made with brass ferrules, sol- 
 dered to the lead pipe and caulked into 
 iron hubs. Junctions between trap and 
 waste pipe to be made perfectly tight with 
 the greatest care. Junction between fix- 
 ture and trap may be made movable, to 
 facilitate repairs of the fixture. 
 
 Water-closets having traps located above 
 the floor must have joints at the floor with 
 the soil pipe made with particular care by 
 means of brass floor flanges, in the case of 
 earthen, and by means of caulked joints in 
 the case of iron traps, so as to be perfectly 
 tight. 
 
 Water closet traps of iron or lead below 
 the floor must have their weight well sup- 
 ported, to prevent the joint at the floor 
 from being torn loose and becoming leaky. 
 
125 
 
 Traps under fixtures, leader traps, and 
 the trap on the main drain must be set per- 
 fectly true as regards their water level. 
 All bending or tipping of lead traps set 
 between floor joists must be avoided. In 
 all cases traps are to be placed as close to 
 fixtures as possible. 
 
 Fixtures. 
 
 Workmanship in fixtures to be of neat 
 appearance throughout, whether work is 
 to remain exposed or not. All fixtures, 
 with the appliances belonging to them, 
 to be properly set in good and complete 
 working order. 
 
 In General. 
 
 All plumbing work, whether to be left 
 exposed to view or to be boxed up, to fee 
 done in a thorough manner. 
 
 Putty joints to be avoided wherever 
 feasible. 
 
 All openings into the pipe system, as 
 well as fixtures set in place, must be 'se- 
 curely covered up, to prevent obstruction 
 
126 
 
 of the pipes or breakage of fixtures by 
 carelessly or maliciously dropped mater- 
 ials. 
 
 The plumber must cut no beams, joists, 
 floors or studs; this will be done for him 
 by the carpenter. Plumber is to arrange 
 all pipes necessarily placed between joists 
 so as to run, wherever possible, parallel to 
 the direction of the beams. Pipes placed 
 between joists to be run with proper grade, 
 and to be continuously supported on sound 
 boards nailed over strips tacked to the 
 joists. 
 
 Where pipes pass through the roof, an 
 absolutely water-tight joint to be made 
 around pipes. If flashings are used for this 
 purpose they should be at least eighteen 
 inches square, of heavy sheet lead or cop- 
 per, with a funnel slipped over the pipe, 
 turned over and caulked into a hub, while 
 the ends of the flashing are tightly fastened 
 to the roof. 
 
 Wherever plumbers' pipes pass through 
 floors, ceilings* walls or partitions, the 
 plumber must see to it that the holes are 
 neatly and perfectly closed around the 
 
127 
 
 pipes in the floor, and that the holes in the 
 ceiling be closed up and well plastered. 
 If required, sleeves of galvanized iron pipe 
 are to be used in the case of supply pipes, 
 with neatly-fitted polished and lacquered 
 or nickel-plated brass escutcheons screwed 
 on at the floor and ceiling, or either side of 
 the walls, as the case may be. 
 
 4. GENERAL ARRANGEMENT OF PLUMBING 
 WORK. 
 
 The whole work to be arranged and 
 executed in strict conformance with the 
 specifications and the floor plans and sec- 
 tions, showing the plumbing work and in 
 particular the exact location of every plumb- 
 ing fixture in the building. Unless special 
 permission is obtained from the superjn- 
 tendent to deviate from the lines as laid 
 out in the drawings, these must be strictly 
 followed. 
 
 [Here insert a detailed description of 
 the course of all soil and waste pipes, vent 
 and supply pipes.] - 
 
128 
 Soil and Waste Pipes. 
 
 All main lines of drain, soil, waste and 
 air pipes inside of the building to be of 
 heavy iron ; short branch wastes and vents 
 from fixtures and traps, and branch supply 
 pipes to be of heavy lead pipe. 
 
 All soil and waste pipes and supply pipes 
 to be placed where shown on plans, and 
 their whole arrangement to be as compact 
 and direct as possible. 
 
 Each vertical stack of soil or waste pipe 
 to run as straight as possible, avoiding 
 offsets, up to the roof, and to be continued 
 to a point at least three feet above the 
 same, so as to have the mouth well exposed 
 to air currents. Extensions above the roof 
 to be at least full size in the case of all soil 
 pipes; it is preferable, however, to enlarge 
 soil pipes to six inches above the roof, and 
 waste pipes should be enlarged to four 
 inches before passing through the roof. 
 None of the pipes above the roof should be 
 smaller than four inches, because smaller 
 openings are liable to clog and freeze up in 
 winter time. 
 
129 
 
 Mouths of all soil, vent and waste pipes 
 to be kept at a safe distance from ventilat- 
 ing shafts, dormer windows, skylights or 
 chimney flues. Vertical pipes run along 
 chimney flues to terminate at least two 
 feet below the top of the flue. 
 
 Mouths of all pipes above the roof to be 
 kept wide open. No return bend, venti- 
 lating cap or patent ventilator to be used. 
 Where obstructions are anticipated, carry 
 the pipe at least six feet high, and where 
 this is impracticable, cover the mouth of 
 the pipe with wire gauze, or insert a mush- 
 room-shaped wire basket. 
 
 No soil or vent pipe to be run to and 
 to terminate in any hot or cold flue or 
 ventilating shaft. 
 
 Soil pipes receiving wastes from water 
 closets to be four inches in diameter, all 
 other waste pipes to be two inches. No 
 deviation to be made from these sizes 
 unless ordered or approved by the super- 
 intendent. Each soil and waste pipe stack 
 to have proper fittings to receive branch 
 wastes from fixtures. 
 
 No soil, waste or vent pipe to be con- 
 
130 
 
 nected with any chimney flue. No soil or 
 waste pipe to be used to carry rain water. 
 No trap to be placed at the foot of any 
 vertical stack cf soil or waste pipe. 
 
 Junction between Vertical Pipes and Main 
 Drain. 
 
 Junction between vertical stacks of soil 
 or waste pipe and main drain to be made 
 with Y branches and eighth bends, or, at the 
 upper end, with bends of easy sweep. 
 Junctions to be supported by strong brick 
 piers. 
 
 Main Drain. 
 
 Main drain in cellar to be kept above 
 the floor, in sight, unless otherwise di- 
 rected by the superintendent. Size of 
 main drain to be not less than four nor 
 more than six inches in diameter, unless 
 specially ordered by the superintendent. 
 
 Grade of pipes in cellar or basement to 
 be not less than one-quarter of an inch 
 nor more than one inch to the foot, unless 
 
131 
 
 by special approval of the superintendent. 
 All branches to join the main with Y- 
 branches pointing in the direction of the 
 flow. 
 
 Cleaning Hand-holes. 
 
 Cleaning hand-holes (closed tightly by 
 trap screws) to be provided near all junc- 
 tions between vertical and horizontal 
 pipes, and at junctions of horizontal 
 branch pipes with the main drain, also 
 near bends and traps. 
 
 Trap on Main Drain. 
 
 Main drain to be trapped (unless the 
 trap is to be omitted by special order of 
 the superintendent, in which case the fresh 
 air inlet can be dispensed with) where it 
 leaves the house walls by a running or by 
 a i S-trap of iron, with proper cleaning 
 hand-holes, arranged accessible, but not 
 exposed to freezing. Over the main trap 
 and all other cleaning hand-holes, if below 
 the cellar floor, arrange cast-iron frames, 
 set in masonry or cement, and having 
 chequered iron covers. 
 
132 
 Fresh-air Inlet. 
 
 From just inside the trap run a 4-inch 
 fresh-air inlet, terminating at a point above 
 the surface, well remote from windows, 
 and with opening protected against obstruc- 
 tions. (The superintendent will decide 
 exact location of the fresh-air inlet.) 
 
 Leader Pipes. 
 
 Vertical pipes for the removal of' rain 
 water from roofs, placed inside of the 
 building, must be of cast-iron or wrought- 
 iron with tight joints. No waste water 
 from any plumbing fixture to deliver into 
 any leader pipe. 
 
 Trapping of Leaders. 
 
 Outside leaders of metal (galvanized 
 iron, copper, tin), with slip or soldered 
 joints, and also leader pipes of whatever 
 material, whether located inside or outside 
 the building, must be trapped in case the 
 top opens below or near windows, or near 
 flues or ventilating shafts. Iron leaders 
 with tight joints, with tops remote from 
 windows, are to be left untrapped. 
 
133 
 
 Traps for leaders to have a seal of more 
 than ordinary depth, to provide against 
 evaporation. Traps for leaders and those 
 for yard and area drains not to be buried 
 out of sight or covered with concrete, but 
 to be in all cases placed where they are 
 protected against the action of frost, in 
 easily accessible positions, and to be pro- 
 vided with cleaning and inspection hand- 
 holes, with well-fitting and tight- closing 
 covers. 
 
 Drainage of Areas and Yards. 
 
 Areas, court yards and paved open 
 spaces to be properly drained by trapped 
 branch drains, the trap to be located pre- 
 ferably inside of the cellar walls, protected 
 against freezing. Openings in the yard or 
 area to be covered with well fastened brass 
 strainers or iron gratings, protected against 
 rust. No bell traps to be used. 
 
 Waste Pipes for Fixtures. 
 
 Each fixture to have a separate and in- 
 dependent connection to the main soil 
 
134 
 
 pipe (unless otherwise approved by the 
 superintendent). In no case shall basin or 
 bath tub wastes discharge into a water 
 closet trap below the floor. 
 
 Branch wastes from fixtures to be car- 
 ried as directly as possible to the soil or 
 waste pipe. Branch waste pipes carried 
 under floors to be as short as practicable, 
 and if of lead to have a continuous sup- 
 port, to prevent sagging. 
 
 Trapping of Fixtures. 
 
 Each fixture connected to the soil or 
 waste-pipe system to be provided, as near 
 as possible to its outlet, with a suitable 
 trap secure against siphonage, back pres- 
 sure, evaporation, etc. [The kind of trap 
 should be specified in the detailed des- 
 cription of each apparatus.] 
 
 No fixtures to be provided with more 
 than one trap. No trap under a fixture to 
 be of larger bore than the waste pipe to 
 which it is attached. 
 
 All traps under fixtures to be arranged 
 so as to be readily accessible, and to be 
 
135 
 
 provided with cleaning hand-holes or trap- 
 screws, located below the water-line of the 
 trap. 
 
 Round pipe traps of the S, half S, or 
 running shape, not to be used unless pro- 
 vided with a ventilating pipe, or some 
 other effective attachment, to prevent si- 
 phonage. 
 
 Trap Vent Pipes. 
 
 Wherever vent pipes are used, the branch 
 vent pipes for water-closet traps should be 
 not less than two inches in diameter. All 
 other traps to have vents of same area as 
 the trap. The size of the main vertical 
 lines of vent pipes will depend upon the 
 height of the building and should also in- 
 crease with the number of branches which 
 they receive. 
 
 Where back air pipes are carried through 
 the roof, they must be enlarged to four 
 inches, to prevent clogging in winter time 
 in cold climates. All horizontal air pipes 
 must be so graded as to discharge the water 
 from condensation into a trap or waste 
 pipe. T- branches on upright vent lines 
 
136 
 
 must always be set at such a height above 
 floor that the branch vent cannot act as an 
 overflow pipe in case the waste should be 
 stopped up. 
 
 Size of Waste Pipes. 
 
 Waste pipes for fixtures to be in size as 
 follows : 
 
 Inches inside diameter. 
 
 For wash bowls l?~^i 
 
 For bath tubs 1J-2 
 
 For pantry sinks l^-lj 
 
 For kitchen sinks 1J-2 
 
 For laundry tubs 1^-2 
 
 For slop sinks 2 -3 
 
 For urinals 1^-2 
 
 For a row of basins, tubs or urinals 2 -3 
 
 No deviation from these sizes permitted 
 unless specially ordered by the superin- 
 tendent. The weight of these pipes to be 
 such as called for under " Materials." 
 
 Overflow Pipes. 
 
 Overflow pipes from fixtures must con- 
 nect with waste pipes on the inlet side of 
 traps, or they must enter the trap below 
 the water line or, finally, they may be 
 arranged similar to safe waste pipes. They 
 should be entirely avoided wherever pos 
 
137. 
 
 sible, and hence fixtures without hidden 
 overflow pipes are much to be preferred. 
 
 Strainers. 
 
 Outlets of all set fixtures, except water 
 closets, to have fixed steam metal strainers, 
 to guard against obstructions. 
 
 Safes and Drip Pipes. 
 
 All safes, where required under fixtures, 
 to be of of 4-lb. sheet lead, with edges 
 turned up at least two inches all around ; 
 to have a convex brass strainer, well sol- 
 dered, and a 1-inch drip pipe of lead or 
 rustless wrought-iron pipe carried to a 
 point where a discharge from leakage or 
 otherwise is readily detected. If run to 
 cellar celling, arrangements to be provided 
 to exclude cellar air from the drip pipe. 
 The drip pipe may empty over a sink or 
 cistern, but always so that the discharge 
 may be in sight. In no case should drip 
 pipes be connected with a soil or waste 
 pipe. 
 
 In most cases safes and drip pipes may 
 safely be omitted if the work is well done, 
 and all fixtures set in an open manner. 
 
138 
 Flushing Cisterns. 
 
 Each water closet, urinal or slop hopper 
 should be supplied with water from a special 
 copper or lead lined flushing cistern. The 
 pipe, from the cistern to the fixture, must 
 never be less than H inches in diameter 
 and should be run from the cistern to the 
 bowl as directly and straight as possible. 
 All ballcocks in flushing cisterns must be 
 regulated so as to work noiselessly and 
 without spattering. 
 
 Refrigerator Wastes. 
 
 Waste pipes from refrigerators or ice- 
 chests to be trapped, and not to have a 
 direct connection with any drain, soil or 
 waste pipe. Arrangements for cleaning 
 and flushing these pipes must be provided. 
 
 Tank Overflow. 
 
 Overflow pipes from tanks must not dis- 
 charge into any soil, drain or waste pipe. 
 They must be run into the roof gutter, or 
 else discharge over a sink in the basement, 
 or be carried and emptied into the near- 
 est fixture where the discharge will be vis- 
 ible. 
 
139 
 Open Arrangement of Fixtures and Pipes. 
 
 All fixtures to be arranged in an open 
 manner, unless otherwise directed by the 
 superintendent. 
 
 All soil, waste, vent, supply or drip pipes 
 to be kept exposed to view, or to be cased 
 in woodwork, fastened with screws so that 
 the pipes may remain readily accessible. 
 All piping to be kept outside of partitions, 
 unless otherwise ordered by the superin- 
 tendent. No pipes to run between floors 
 and ceilings unless absolutely necessary. 
 
 All spaces about soil, waste or supply 
 pipes, where these pass through floors and 
 ceilings, to be closed absolutely tight in a 
 neat and substantial manner. 
 
 Arrangement of Supply Pipes. 
 
 The whole arrangement of supply pipes 
 to be as compact as possible. 
 
 [Here insert a detailed description of 
 the water supply for the proposed build- 
 ing.] 
 
 All supply pipes to be kept outside of 
 floors, walls and partitions, being left ex- 
 
140 
 
 posed and in full view, unless specially 
 otherwise directed by the superintendent. 
 All exposed iron pipes are to be neatly 
 bronzed, if required, with silver or gold 
 bronze, and varnished. 
 
 No water supply pipes to run on outside 
 walls, nor to be placed in any position 
 where they would be liable to freeze, unless 
 absolutely necessary, and in this case pipes 
 to be securely protected in exposed places 
 by some non-conducting material, as may 
 be required by the superintendent. 
 
 All horizontal lines of supply pipes to be 
 arranged neatly, and laid out so that they 
 will not cross each other or dip one under 
 the other. Supply pipes not to have any 
 depressions or sags, nor to be bent up in 
 their course to avoid their becoming air 
 bound, and causing an interruption in the 
 circulation in the case of hot water pipes. 
 
 All supply pipes to be so graded and 
 arranged that they may be easily and 
 completely emptied. 
 
 No check valves to be used on any 
 supply pipes unless specially called for 
 in the specifications. 
 
141 
 
 Hot and cold water pipes to be kept at 
 least one-half inch apart everywhere. 
 
 To prevent in jury to decorated walls and 
 ceilings from drippings arising from con- 
 densation in warm weather along cold 
 water pipes, especially if of iron, pipes 
 should be carried across floors in safes 
 made of zinc, and provided with a drip 
 pipe run to the cellar sink. 
 
 Size of Supply Pipes. 
 
 Branch supply pipes to fixtures to hare 
 the following sizes, unless otherwise di- 
 rected : 
 
 For wash bowls \ inch bore. 
 
 For bath tubs f " 
 
 For pantry sinks f " 
 
 For kitchen sinks f " 
 
 For laundry tubs f 
 
 For slop hoppers (to draw water)... f 
 
 For flushing cisterns J ' ' 
 
 For flushing pipes from cisterns to 
 
 water closets, urinals or slop 
 
 hoppers li-lj lk 
 
 For weight of pipes, see under "Material." 
 Where a branch pipe supplies more than one 
 
 fixture, it should be increased in sectional 
 
 area proportionately. 
 
142 
 
 Rising main to be at least f inch in size ; 
 direct branches from it to be of the same 
 size, and pipe from tank to boiler to be not 
 less than f inch. Connections between 
 water back in range and boiler to be made 
 with | inch (better 1-inch) brass or stout 
 brazed copper pipes. 
 
 Hot Water Supply. 
 
 Hot water boilers, wherever practicable, 
 to be supplied from a tank in the attic, not 
 from street pressure. Main hot water pipe 
 must always be extended from above the 
 highest fixture full size to the top of the 
 tank, where it should be turned over to 
 allow steam to escape ; also to prevent the 
 collapse of the boiler. 
 
 Stop- cocks. 
 
 Stop-cocks for both the hot and cold 
 water supply to be arranged near each 
 fixture (also near each flushing cistern), to 
 shut off the water separately from each 
 fixture if required. 
 
 All branch supply pipes to be arranged 
 
143 
 
 so as to be shut off separately by stop- 
 cocks or gate valves, and, if required, 
 to be arranged so that they may, each 
 separately, be completely drained. 
 
 All stop-cocks on supply pipes to be ar- 
 ranged easy of access. 
 
 Faucets, especially ground-key and self- 
 closing bibbs, not to be placed at the end 
 of a line of supply pipe, but to be taken 
 from the side of the pipe, and the pipe to 
 be continued so as to form a small air 
 chamber. 
 
 5. TESTS OF THE WORK DURING CONSTRUC- 
 TION AND AFTER COMPLETION. 
 
 Test of Earthen House Sewer. 
 
 Before refilling the trenches for outside 
 drains the earthen sewer pipe and its joints 
 to be tested by closing the main outlet and 
 filling the sewer with water so as $o have a 
 pressure corresponding to at least two feet 
 head of water at its upper end, and all 
 joints to be proven tight to the satisfaction 
 of the superintendent. 
 
144 
 Test of Pipe System inside the House. 
 
 After the completion of all the piping in 
 the house, and before any fixtures are con- 
 nected, the tightness of joints and sound- 
 ness of pipes to be tested. All openings 
 of waste, soil and vent pipes and the outer 
 end of house sewer to be securely closed, 
 and the whole system of piping to be filled 
 with water, which must remain at the same 
 level for at least 12 hours. In winter time 
 other tests smoke test, peppermint or 
 fumes of sulphur test, pressure test with 
 force pump and manometer to be substi- 
 tuted for the water pressure test. If any 
 of these tests reveal a leak the defect is to 
 to be made good, and pipes will again be 
 tested until the system is proved gas and 
 water-tight to the satisfaction of the super- 
 intendent. 
 
 Test of Supply Pipes. 
 
 All iron and brass supply pipes are to be 
 tested with pressure pump and mercury 
 gauge, and all defective pipes and fittings 
 removed and replaced by sound material, 
 and all leaky joints made tight. 
 
145 
 
 Final Test of the Completed Work. 
 
 The whole plumbing work is to be tested 
 after completion by turning the water into 
 the pipes, fixtures and traps every where, in 
 order to detect imperfect joints or bad 
 pipes, or holes caused by careless driving 
 of nails. 
 
 The whole system is, finally, to be tested 
 in the presence of the superintendent by 
 the oil of peppermint test, or fumes of 
 burning sulphur, introduced by means of 
 an " asphyxiator." Any defects found to 
 be at once repaired by the plumber, who is 
 to bear the whole expense, and all to be left 
 in perfect working order and warranted 
 for years.* 
 
 C. Rules regarding the proper Gare and 
 Management of Plumbing Appar- 
 atus. 
 
 Even the best sanitary appliances, dis- 
 charging quickly through self-cleansing 
 
 * Verj often the gas-fitting work is included in the 
 plumbing specification. For a description of gas fitting 
 work, the reader is referred to the author's book in D. Van 
 Nostrand's Science Series, entitled, Notes on Gas Lighting 
 and Gas Fitting, with a Specification for Gas Piping and 
 Some Hints to Gas Consumers. 
 
146 
 
 traps and well ventilated and abundantly 
 flushed waste pipes, need constant care and 
 frequent cleaning. 
 
 Plumbing fixtures, and all traps, soil, 
 drain and waste pipes, require periodical 
 inspection, same as a steam boiler or other 
 machinery. In order to be readily in- 
 spected they should be kept accessible. 
 Therefore avoid all enclosure of the plumb- 
 ing work. 
 
 The whole security of plumbing work 
 lies in thorough workmanship, good ma- 
 terials, safe trapping, abundant flushing, 
 constant ventilation and absolute purity. 
 
 The water in traps under any kind of 
 plumbing fixture must be frequently 
 changed. 
 
 Stagnation of water or air should be 
 avoided, not only in the drains and vent 
 pipes, but in traps as well. 
 
 A judicious use of the fixtures and prop- 
 er cleanliness are indispensable to keep 
 plumbing apparatus in a sweet and whole- 
 some condition. 
 
 Water closets and slop hoppers in par- 
 ticular, but other plumbing fixtures not 
 
147 
 
 to any less extent, should be thoroughly 
 cleaned and scrubbed with soap, hot water 
 and a scrubbing brush, at least once a 
 week, and as much oftener as possible. 
 
 The same care and treatment should be 
 applied to the floors and walls surround- 
 ing the closet, and to the woodwork of the 
 seat. Hence it is important, in order to 
 facilitate^ cleaning operations, to arrange 
 all plumbing work in an open manner. 
 
 Even where fixtures are cased up with 
 ornamental woodwork, let the parts be 
 readily removable ; avoid nailed carpen- 
 try, and never allow any accumulation of 
 rags or rubbish of any kind under the 
 water closets, basins or sinks. 
 
 After cleansing the sides of bath and 
 laundry tubs and wash basins, let clean 
 water from the faucets run for some time 
 into the fixtures, in order to change com- 
 pletely the water standing in the trap. 
 
 After pouring out slop jars or pails into 
 slop hoppers, always flush the fixture and 
 its trap by one or more discharges from 
 the flushing cistern. 
 
 If you have plumbing work in spare 
 
148 
 
 rooms, closets or guests' bedrooms, let 
 some one of the household make it a daily 
 practice to turn on the water, to make sure 
 that the traps are constantly filled. 
 
 If much grease is emptied through 
 kitchen or pantry sinks, it is advisable to 
 rinse occasionally the waste pipes and 
 traps by pouring through them a hot and 
 concentrated solution of potash. 
 
 In leaving a city house for the summer 
 months, when evaporation of water in 
 traps is most active, especially with vented 
 traps, all overflow holes in wash bowls, 
 pantry sinks and bath tubs should be 
 closed by corks, or by pasting paper over 
 the openings, then close the outlets with 
 plugs and fill basins and tubs with water 
 to near the overflow line. In the case of 
 kitchen sinks it is best to remove the open 
 strainer, substituting a plug strainer, clos- 
 ing the outlet with a plug and filling the 
 sink with water. Wash-tubs may be sim- 
 ilarly protected by closing the outlets and 
 filling the tubs with water. Fixtures 
 without overflow pipes (with stand pipe 
 outlets) are more easily protected than 
 
149 
 
 those in common use, and are preferable 
 on this as well as on many other accounts. 
 In case of slop hoppers and water closets, 
 it becomes necessary to dip out all water 
 from the trap and to fill the trap with 
 glycerine or oil, or a solution of chloride 
 of calcium. Water closets and slop hop- 
 pers flushed from automatic siphon or 
 tilting tanks may continue to receive the 
 flush at intervals, provided their branch 
 supply pipe is taken out in such a manner 
 that it will not interfere with the shutting 
 off of the water in the remaining parts of 
 the house. Trap attachments may also be 
 had which continue to keep the trap filled 
 with water up to the proper water level, if 
 evaporation or loss by siphonage or capil- 
 lary attraction should take place. 
 
 In leaving a country residence for the 
 winter, it is of the utmost importance Jto 
 remove completely all water from all sup- 
 ply and waste pipes, traps, fixtures and 
 cisterns, so that nothing can freeze. Hence 
 it is very necessary in the case of country 
 houses to run all pipes with such a con- 
 tinuous grade that they may be completely 
 
150 
 
 drained and emptied. The water supply 
 should be thoroughly shut off in the base- 
 ment or cellar, taking care to open all 
 faucets and ' stop-cocks at fixtures. The 
 kitchen boiler must be completely emptied 
 by means of the sediment cock, and also 
 the water tank in the attic. Next remove 
 the water from all water closet and slop 
 hopper cisterns. Traps under fixtures may 
 be emptied by means of the brass trap 
 screws usually provided, at the lowest point 
 of the trap, or by removing the cleanout 
 caps, or else by using a sponge. All over- 
 flows must be closed, the traps filled with 
 glycerine, and the outlets of fixtures closed 
 with plugs as previously described. Water 
 closet traps should be filled with a strong 
 salt solution, to which may be added some 
 calcium chloride. As an additional security 
 the trap may be boxed up, and the box 
 filled with sawdust. 
 
V. 
 
 MEMORANDA 
 
 ON THE 
 
 COST 
 
 OF 
 
 PLUMBING WORK. 
 
MEMORANDA 
 
 ON 
 
 THE COST OF PLUMBING WORK, 
 
 While this volume was going through 
 the press it occurred to me that a few 
 notes on the cost of work, of such a char- 
 acter as is described in the preceding 
 pages, and as is now required in the best 
 examples of drainage and plumbing of 
 buildings, would be of particular useful- 
 ness to architects, to their clients, and to all 
 people contemplating the remodeling of 
 their plumbing work. 
 
 What moves me particularly to publish 
 some memoranda regarding the appiwxi- 
 mate expense of such work is the fact that 
 there seem still to exist in many quarters 
 very vague ideas on this point. The ma- 
 jority of people who build houses w r ill in- 
 sist upon having numerous and elaborate 
 plumbing appliances. Generally, how- 
 
154 
 
 ever, on receiving bids for the work they 
 are disagreeably surprised about the " ex- 
 orbitant " figures asked for. Such people 
 should remember that plumbing and drain- 
 age work of the best character will cost 
 more than the flimsy, unsanitary work 
 put, until recently, into most houses, and 
 in particular into those erected by unscru- 
 pulous contractors, or by the cheap or 
 speculative builders. It is useless and 
 wrong to make careless statements, such 
 as the following, which I find in a recent 
 architectural publication : 
 
 " In an ordinary household, numbering 
 six or eight persons, occupying an average 
 dwelling, there will usually be a single 
 Ibath room, two water closets, one up 
 stairs, and one for the use of domestics, a 
 kitchen sink and hot water boiler, wash 
 trays, butler's pantry sink, and from one 
 to five stationary wash basins, while if the 
 water pressure is deficient in the city, or 
 if in the country the roof water is stored 
 ror family consumption, a tank or cistern 
 will be required. In such a dwelling a 
 four-inch soil pipe will be ample for .the 
 
155 
 
 drainage from the principal fixtures, and 
 a two-inch cast-iron waste pipe from the 
 basins, if any are located at a distance 
 from the main lines. There will also be 
 need for a two-inch waste from the kitch- 
 en fixtures, together with a five-inch rain 
 leader, and connections from surface cess- 
 pools in the front and back yards. All 
 these pipes will discharge into a five-inch 
 main drain leading to the sewer or cess- 
 pool. To plumb a house of this grade will 
 cost in the neighborhood of three hundred 
 dollars" (The italics are mine.) 
 
 Such statements are apt to do a great 
 deal of injustice and even harm to respect- 
 able plumbing contractors who strive to do 
 work of a high character, and do not ex- 
 pect to make more than a legitimate profit 
 on their contracts. It is absurd to expect 
 the work enumerated in the particular 'ex- 
 ample quoted to be done in a proper man- 
 ner at such a low figure. Twice the sum, 
 named would, from my judgment and ex- 
 perience, be a moderate and tolerably 
 correct estimate of cost, and even this 
 would suppose the work to be of a plain 
 
156 
 
 character, although satisfactory from a 
 sanitary point of view. 
 
 The figures given below apply to fix- 
 tures, completely put up, with their sup- 
 ply and waste pipes, traps, vents, water 
 fittings, such as faucets and stop-cocks, 
 including all labor on same : 
 
 Drain and Soil Pipes (fittings included) : 
 
 4" pipe, extra heavy $1.00 per ft. 
 
 5" " " 1.25 ' 
 
 6" " " 1.50 " 
 
 Vent and Waste Pipes : 
 
 2" pipe, extra heavy 50 * 
 
 3" " " 75 " 
 
 Main Trap with Manhole and Cover $10.00 
 
 Leader Traps, 4" 3.00 
 
 5" 4.00 
 
 Cesspools in Areas 2.00 
 
 Double-acting Force and Lift Pump... . 35.00 
 
 Hand or Cistern Pump 10.00 
 
 Ericsson Caloric Pumping Engine, 6-inch, 
 
 about 250.00 
 
 Rider Pumping Engine, 6-inch, about... 450. 00 
 
 Gallons. 
 
 Tank, of wood, 100 200 300 00 500 GOO 
 
 copper lined, $15 $30 $40 $50 $60 $70 
 
 Wrought iron, painted, $50 $65 $75 $85 $95 
 
157 
 
 Fittings for water tank complete, includ- 
 ing ball-cock, stop-cock, overflow, 
 blow-off, cistern valve $20.00 
 
 Kitchen Boiler, with water back connections, 
 all necessary couplings, stop-cocks and boiler 
 stand complete 
 
 Gallons. 
 30 40 50 60 70 80 100 
 
 Of galv. iron.... $30 $35 $45 $50 $55 $60 $70 
 Of copper 40 50 75 90 120 
 
 Kitchen Sink, of cast-iron, completely 
 fitted up, according to length and 
 
 pattern, from $15 to $25 
 
 Add for galv. and enameling sink.... 10 to 15 
 
 Of soapstone, from 20 to 35 
 
 Of slate, from 18 to 30 
 
 Of earthenware, from 25 to 40 
 
 Butler's Pantry Sink, 
 
 Of copper (24 oz.), from $20 to 30 
 
 Of enameled iron, from 20to 30 
 
 Of steel, painted 15 to 25 
 
 enameled 25 to 35 
 
 Of porcelain, from 30 to 40 
 
 Of German silver 30 to 35 
 
 Add for waste valves or stand pipe 
 
 overflow 10 to 15 
 
158 
 
 Laundry Tubs, each tub fitted up completely. 
 
 Of wood $12 
 
 Of slate 20 
 
 Of cement 25 
 
 Of artificial stone 15 
 
 Of soapstone 30 
 
 Of cast iron (rustless) 18 
 
 Of porcelain, American 38 
 
 Of earthenware, imported 45 
 
 For a set of two deduct 5 per cent, from twice 
 above sum. 
 
 For a set of three deduct 10 per cent, from three 
 times above sum. 
 Water Closets. 
 
 Flushing-rim short hoppers, completely 
 fitted up, excluding wood-work and 
 
 tiling , $50 
 
 Improved washout closets 60 
 
 Improved hopper and siphon closets 75 
 
 Tiling for water closet walls and floors per 
 
 square foot, complete, about 1. 50 
 
 Slate or marble floor slabs, per square foot, 
 
 about 2.00 
 
 Water closet seats (without covers) $5 to $10 
 
 Bidet attachment 5 to 10 
 
 Gas jet ventilator attachment 10 to 15 
 
 Bathtubs, of copper, 16 oz $30 
 
 18 oz 35 
 
 20 oz 40 
 
 if fitted with chain and plug. 
 
159 
 
 Add for waste valve or stand pipe overflow $15 
 
 Enameled iron bath tub 75 
 
 Porcelain tub $180 to $200 
 
 Slop Hopper, Improved earthenware, 
 flushing rim slop hopper, with cis- 
 tern, marble back, etc $75 to $100 
 
 Urinals. Lipped Bedfordshire urinals, 
 
 each fitted with flushing cistern $30 to $40 
 
 Urinal stalls, of slate, for each stall 45 
 
 of marble, 55 
 
 Ladietf Urinette. All porcelain, with 
 
 flushing cistern, complete, $75 to $90 
 
 Ladies' Bidet. Complete 60 to 80 
 
 Wash Basins. Ordinary wash bowls, 
 
 chain and plug, round $30 to $35 
 
 oval 33 to 38 
 
 Improved waste valve or stand pipe 
 
 basin, round 40 to 45 
 
 oval 45 to 50 
 
 Water Supply Pipes (main lines). 
 
 For these a suitable sum should be added in the 
 estimate. The amount will depend on sizes^ and 
 material of supply pipes, size and number of sto- 
 ries of house, etc. 
 
 For general and preliminary estimates a rough 
 idea of the cost of the work may be obtained by 
 the following rule : Count number of fixtures or 
 set of fixtures (counting the boiler and tank in) and 
 multiply same 
 
160 
 
 with 50 for ordinary, plain plumbing, iron supply 
 
 pipes, plain but sanitary fixtures ; 
 with 60 for very good, but plain plumbing, i. e. , 
 
 best workmanship but plain fixtures ; 
 with 75 for best quality plumbing materials, lead 
 
 supply pipes, very best workmanship ; 
 with 100 for very extensive and elaborate plumb- 
 ing, including brass hot water pipes, nickel- 
 plated holdfasts, including marble slabs 
 and backs, but excluding all marble slate or 
 tile work for floors and walls and parti- 
 tions : 
 
 with 125 to 150 for most complete work, fitted 
 up with nickel-plated brass piping through- 
 out, and fixtures of the most expensive 
 kind, including marble floor slabs and cab- 
 inet-finished, brass-trimmed, or marble - 
 encased cisterns. 
 The product represents in dollars the approximate 
 
 cost of the work. 
 
 The cost of hot-air pumping engines is, of course, 
 not included, and while the above figure covers 
 cost of all connections between water back and 
 boiler, it does not include the range nor any cab- 
 inet work in bath rooms, etc. 
 
 Where anti-siphon traps are used under fixtures, 
 and vent pipes are accordingly omitted every- 
 where, the main system being very amply vented, 
 the cost is reduced from 7 to 10 per cent, from 
 above figures. 
 
VI. 
 SUGGESTIONS 
 
 FOE A 
 
 SANITARY CODE 
 
SUGGESTIONS FOR A SANITARY CODE. 
 
 A. Joules as to Healthful Building Con- 
 struction. 
 
 1. It shall be considered unlawful here- 
 after to erect or cause to be erected a new 
 building upon any site which has been 
 filled up with house refuse or any kind of 
 animal or vegetable matter, unless such 
 matter shall have been properly removed 
 from such site. 
 
 2. It shall be considered unlawful here- 
 after to erect or cause to be erected any 
 new buildings or structures of any kind 
 upon any damp or wet site, unless such 
 site shall have been effectually drained by 
 means of suitable properly laid earthen- 
 ware tile pipes. 
 
 3. It shall be considered unlawful to lay 
 such drain pipes in such a manner as to 
 communicate directly with any drain 
 carrying foul sewage, or with a sewer or 
 cesspool. 
 
164 
 
 4. The drainage of the subsoil of build- 
 ings shall conform to the following regu- 
 lations and requirements : 
 
 a. The subsoil drains shall be laid, if pos- 
 
 sible, at a depth of not less than two 
 feet below the cellar floor. 
 
 b. They shall be laid with open joints, 
 
 protected against entrance of dirt or 
 vermin by paper or muslin wrapping 
 or collars. 
 
 c. They shall be laid on a true grade, with 
 
 perfect alignment and with a contin- 
 uous fall towards the outfall. 
 
 d. The outfall shall be either directly into 
 
 the open air, or into a ditch or road 
 gutter. 
 
 NOTE. If connection must necessarily be made with a 
 sewer, arrangements shall be made for perfect disconn ec- 
 tion, and the water seal of the trap must be maintained, 
 even in the driest seasons, by suitable arrangements, ap- 
 proved by the inspector. 
 
 5. Wherever the building site is damp, 
 the cellar floor shall be constructed with 
 at least six inches of concrete. It is rec- 
 ommended to put on top of this a thin 
 coating of coal tar pitch or asphalt, and to 
 
165 
 
 finish it on top with a layer of Portland 
 cement. 
 
 It is recommended that every wall of 
 new buildings be provided with a damp- 
 proof course of proper material, placed 
 above the level of the ground, and also 
 that the outside and inside of the founda- 
 tion wall, to the height of the damp-proof 
 course, be coated with coal tar pitch or 
 asphaltum. 
 
 It is recommended to whitewash the 
 cellar walls of all buildings at least twice 
 a year. 
 
 6. Buildings without basement or cel- 
 lar shall be placed on brick or stone piers 
 or posts, and the floor of the first story 
 shall be raised so as to be at least two 
 feet above the surface of the ground. 
 There shall be a free circulation of air 
 underneath the floor, and between it and* 
 the surface of the ground. 
 
 B. Rules as to Connection between House 
 Drains and Street Sewers. 
 
 1. It shall be considered unlawful to 
 connect or cause to be connected, any 
 
16(5 
 
 private drain with a street sewer, without 
 first obtaining a permit from the proper 
 authorities. 
 
 2. It shall be considered unlawful here- 
 after to construct any drain for any build- 
 ing and to connect the same to a street 
 sewer, unless the drain shall in its plan 
 and construction conform to the following 
 requirements : 
 
 a. Each building shall have a separate 
 
 connection with the street sewer. 
 
 b. Wherever junction pieces have been 
 
 built into the sewer they must be 
 used for making said connection, un- 
 less special permission is obtained to 
 cut the sewer. 
 
 c. No pipe or other materials for drains 
 
 shall be used until they have been ex- 
 amined and approved by the authori- 
 ties, or their duly appointed superin- 
 tendent or inspector. No house drain 
 to be larger than five inches inside 
 diameter, except by special permis- 
 sion. 
 
 d. No street shall be opened until the 
 
167 
 
 junction piece in the sewer has been 
 located by the superintendent. 
 
 e. If no junction pieces are built into the 
 sewer, a connection shall be made by 
 inserting into a brick sewer a junction 
 pipe of proper size, and cut slant to 
 an angle of forty-five degrees by the 
 manufacturer. Great care must be 
 taken not to injure the sewer, and all 
 rubbish shall be carefully removed 
 from its inside. 
 
 /. In connecting a house drain with a pipe 
 sewer, a Y junction must be inserted 
 in the line of the sewer, and the main 
 sewer left in a good condition. 
 
 g t In all cases the trench must be opened 
 to the point of connection without 
 tunneling, so as to allow of an easy 
 inspection. 
 
 h. In opening any street or public way all* 
 materials shall be placed where they 
 will cause the least inconvenience to 
 the public, and the whole inclosed 
 with sufficient barriers, and properly 
 lighted at night from the beginning 
 to the end of the work. 
 
168 
 
 L The least inclination of the house drain 
 shall be 1 in 60, unless a written per- 
 mit is obtained to lay the house drain 
 to a lesser grade. 
 
 k. When the course of the house drain is 
 not the same as that of the junction 
 piece, it must be connected therewith 
 by a curve of not less than ten feet 
 radius. All changes of direction to 
 be made with curved pipe, and in 
 no case must a pipe be clipped. 
 
 I. Every joint shall be laid with gasket 
 and cement, and bedded in hydraulic 
 concrete at least four inches in depth. 
 
 m. The ends of all pipes not to be imme- 
 diately connected shall be securely 
 closed, water-tight, and guarded 
 against entrance of earth with im- 
 perishable materials. The inside of 
 every drain, after it is laid, must be 
 left smooth and perfectly clean 
 throughout its entire length, and true 
 in line and grade. 
 
 n. The back-filling over drains, after they 
 are laid, shall be puddled or rammed, 
 all water and gas pipes protected from 
 
169 
 
 injury or settling, and the surface of 
 the street made good within forty- 
 eight hours after the completion of 
 that part of the drain lying within 
 the public way. 
 
 o. No privy vault or cesspool shall be 
 connected with the house drain or 
 sewer. 
 
 C. Plumbing ^Regulations. 
 
 1. No plumbing work of any kind shall 
 hereafter be constructed in any building,, 
 nor connection made between a house 
 drain and a street sewer, unless said work 
 shall be made to conform strictly to the 
 following requirements : 
 a. The house drain may be of glazed vit 
 rified pipe with cemented joints to 
 within five feet of the outer line of 
 the house foundation walls. From 
 this point to the inside it shall be of 
 cast-iron pipe, at least one-fourth inch 
 thick, and with joints well caulked 
 with lead, and made air and water- 
 tight, 
 
170 
 
 #.*A11 lines of soil or waste pipes in a 
 building shall be of heavy iron. 
 
 c. The house drain shall be trapped, near 
 
 the point where it leaves the building, 
 by a running or half S-trap, which 
 shall not be larger in diameter than 
 the house drain. This trap shall be 
 placed in an accessible position, pro- 
 tected against freezing, and must be 
 provided with an inspection hole, and 
 a tight closing cover.* 
 
 d. The house drain shall not be laid be- 
 
 neath the cellar floor unless absolute- 
 ly necessary, and in this case it shall 
 be laid in a trench and shall be sur- 
 rounded with concrete. The trench 
 shall be. filled and closed after the 
 
 * This refers to connections with old and improperly con- 
 structed, or foul street sewers, and to cases where house 
 drains discharge into a cesspool or flush tank. For well- 
 constructed, self-cleansing sewers, provided with flushing 
 arrangements and ample ventilation, the trap should be 
 omitted. In the latter instance it should be made a law 
 that in every house connected with the street sewer there 
 shall be an uninterrupted flow of air passing from the 
 sewer up the house drain and soil pipe, and out at the roof, 
 or vice versa. 
 
171 
 
 drain is thoroughly inspected and 
 pronounced perfectly tight. 
 
 e. All connections in horizontal pipes to 
 be made with Y branches. 
 
 /. There shall be a fresh-air inlet pipe, 
 entering the house drain just inside 
 of the main trap, of a diameter of not 
 less than four inches, and opening at 
 any convenient place out of doors, 
 approved by the superintendent or 
 inspector.* 
 
 g. All soil and waste pipes shall be run in 
 as straight a manner as possible up to, 
 and at least five feet above, the main 
 house roof. Soil pipes to be enlarged 
 to six inches and waste pipes to four 
 inches above the roof. The upper 
 terminus shall not be located too 
 near a window, ventilating shaft, or 
 chimney flue; the outlet above the 
 roof shall not be capped by either a 
 return bend, ventilating cap, or mova- 
 ble ventilator. 
 
 * When the trap is not required the fresh-air inlet should 
 be omitted. 
 
172 
 
 h. Extensions of soil or waste pipes shall 
 not be constructed of sheet metal or 
 earthenware, and no soil, waste or 
 vent pipe shall stop in any brick or 
 earthen chimney flue, serving as a 
 ventilator. 
 
 L No soil pipe shall be larger than four 
 inches^ and no waste pipe larger than 
 two inches inside diameter (their ex- 
 tensions above the roof excepted.) 
 
 k. Before the fixtures are placed in con- 
 nection with the pipe system, and be- 
 fore the soil pipe and iron house drain 
 are connected with the outside drain, 
 the outlet of the house drain and of 
 all its branches shall be closed tight 
 and the pipe filled with water to its 
 top, and every joint shall be carefully 
 examined for leakage, and all leaks 
 shall be securely closed before connec- 
 tions are made with said pipe system. 
 
 L All soil and waste pipes shall be kept 
 outside of walls or partitions, and the 
 system arranged in such a manner 
 that it may at all times be readily ex- 
 amined and repaired. 
 
173 
 
 m. Every fixture in the house shall be 
 separately and effectually trapped by 
 a seal-retaining trap placed close to 
 the fixture, and arranged so as to be 
 safe against back-pressure, self-siph- 
 onage, loss of seal by evaporation or 
 siphonage. 
 
 n. No branch waste pipe for tubs, sinks, 
 basins, to be larger than one and one- 
 half inch diameter. 
 
 o. Connections of lead pipes with iron hub 
 pipes shall in all cases be made with 
 heavy brass ferrules, properly soldered 
 to the lead, and well caulked to the 
 iron pipe. 
 
 p. Every water closet shall be adequately 
 flushed with water from a special 
 flushing cistern arranged directly 
 above it, except that where a cistern 
 is liable to freeze other methods may 
 be permitted, provided that thorough 
 and sufficient flushing is secured. 
 Every water closet apartment shall 
 have direct means of ventilation into 
 the open air. Pan closets shall not 
 
174 
 
 be used in any building. The outlets 
 of water closets shall not be larger 
 than three inches in diameter. 
 
 q. No opening shall be provided in the 
 house drain for the purpose of re- 
 ceiving the surface drainage of the 
 cellar, unless special permission is 
 previously obtained. 
 
 r. All rain water conductors which are 
 carried up within the walls of a build- 
 ing shall be of iron pipe. Connec- 
 tions with such rain water pipes along 
 their vertical course for the discharge 
 of sewage or waste water therein will 
 not be permitted. Rain water con- 
 ductors shall be trapped if they open 
 at the top near windows, ventilating 
 shafts or flues. 
 
 s. It shall be unlawful to throw or deposit, 
 or cause or permit to be thrown or 
 deposited, in any vessel or receptacle 
 connected with a public sewer, any 
 garbage, hair, ashes, fruit or veget- 
 ables, peelings, or kitchen refuse of 
 any kind, rags, cotton, cinders, or any 
 
175 
 
 other matter or thing whatsoever, ex- 
 cept faeces, urine, the necessary closet 
 paper, and liquid house slops. 
 
 t. Waste pipes from refrigerators or other 
 receptacles in which provisions are 
 stored, shall not be directly con- 
 nected with a drain, soil pipe, or 
 other waste or sewer pipes, but shall 
 be made to discharge over an open 
 tray, provided with a waste-pipe and 
 seal-retaining trap. 
 
 u. Drip pipes from safes, under any kind 
 of plumbing fixtures, must not have 
 any connection with any soil, waste, 
 or drain pipe. 
 
 v. Overflow pipes from water tanks shall 
 not be connected to any soil, waste, 
 or drain pipe. 
 
 w. No steam exhaust shall be directly con- 
 nected with any soil or waste pipe, or 
 drain communicating with a street? 
 sewer. 
 
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THE VAN NOSTRAND SCIENCE SERIES. 
 
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THS VAN NOSTRAND SCIENCE SERIES. 
 
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YAJ\ JSVi$TRAJ\l} fSUllffNUJS 
 
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