J\fachael Ernest Sadler "Unwersitu College-' Oxford THE LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LOS ANGELES Ex Libris SIR MICHAEL SADLER ACQUIRED 1948 WITH THE HELP OF ALUMNI OF THE SCHOOL OF EDUCATION , THE USUAL INSTRUCTION COMMITTEE E THE COLONIAL OEEICE. v> and the cultivation of the Nilgiris is chiefly tea and cinchona, from the latter of which crops quinine is prepared. Amid the great 38 > forests of the slopes large game is The Same. numerous, such as sambur, or Indian elk, Q_ and tiger. Here also tribes of savage Hill Tribe peoples have survived through all the Hills. centuries of history practically untouched by the civilization of the plains. One of Toda People, these tribes, the smallest but the most neap Ootacamund. '._* .1 -T, j , interesting, are the lodas, who number less than a thousand, but have their own strange, unwritten language. Northward of the group of temple cities, and eastward of the Nilgiris and of the plateau country of Mysore, on the Repeat Map No. 3. low COastal P lain is the reat cit >' of Madras, four hundred miles from our landing place at Tuticorin. Like the other seaports of . modern India, Madras has grown from : Madras from the the smallest beginning within the Euro- Sea - pean period. Its nucleus was Fort St. ( '5 ) George, built to shelter the office and warehouse of the East India Company, in the time when Charles I. was king of England. To-day Madras has half a million people, and magnificent buildings in the European style. We have here a view looking north- 42. eastward over a corner of Fort St. The Madras! >Urt ' George, and across the public grounds, to the High Court of Justice, whose lofty tower serves the purpose of a lighthouse for ships approach- ing the port. To the right of the High Court in the distance are the buildings round the 43. harbour. Next we have St. Mary's Church, St. MaiVs Church, stan di ng within Fort St. George, the oldest British church in India, though the present structure was erected to replace an earlierchurch. _ _ And here we have the Law College, which The Law College, stands beside the Hi h C Urt > and close Madras. ' to it the building of the Young Men's Christian Association. There are many Christians in southern India among Y.M.C.A. Building, , Madras. the natives, indeed more than in any other part of the Indian Empire, although even here they are but a small minority. One Christian community on the Malabar coast is of the Nestorian sect, who came to India many centuries before the sea route was opened round the Cape. Madras has a Corporation much after the European _ R plan, and is a clean, well drained Madras u'ank. dt >' with man >' P ublic amenities - Here > for instance, is the electric tramway in front of the Madras Bank. Here we have The People's Park, . . , ,, , , , . , . , Madras. a view in the Peoples Park, with a group of sambur within an enclosure. One of the 48. most remarkable and typical of ornamental >ee * trees in India is the banyan, with drooping -Q branches, whose suckers take root when The Same tne } reacn ^e ground, giving the effect of a grove, though in fact but a single tree. 16 50. Banyan Avenue. 51. Grain Sellers, Madras. 52. Men ploughing, Madras. 53. Covered Bullock Cart, Madras. Here is a banyan tree seen from without and from within, and here a banyan avenue at Madras. Before leaving Madras, let us look at three scenes of native life. Here are grain sellers, and here, outside the city, are men ploughing. Here we see the typical covered bullock cart. 54. Map of India, distinguishing Madras, Mysore, Cochin, and Travancore. 55. Lastly, let us consider the map, and learn what part of India is ruled from Madras and Ootacamund. We have in the first place, coloured red, the territory of the Presi- dency of Madras, which is ruled directly by the Governor and his Council. In pur- ple are shown the important native state of Mysore, separated from both coasts by British territory, and the two little native states of Travancore and Cochin along the Malabar Coast southward to Ca P e Comorin. Mysore is directly under the general supervision of the Government of India, but Travancore and Cochin are under that of the Government of Madras. Beside Mysore is the diminutive territory of Coorg, no larger than the County of Essex, in England. But Coorg has a certain importance for the growth of coffee. Here we have a group of native coffee planters. Then we look again at the map in which the lowlands were shown green and the uplands brown. We see the plain from Tuticorin to Madras city. We see the southern end of the Deccan plateau, with the state of Mysore upon it, and the Nilgiri hills at its extremity. We have the lowland passage of Coimbatore, to which we referred in describing Ootacamund, and south of this afresh the hills extending to Cape Comorin. The native stales of Cochin and Travancore are on the westward descent from Repeat Map No. 3. ( 17 ) these southernmost hills. Note again how the railways take advantage of the lowland passages, especially the line from Madras leading westward to the Malabar Coast. The Cauvery flowing eastward over the plateau is the most considerable river of Southern India. As it descends the Eastern Ghats it makes great falls, and these have been harnessed, as the phrase is, and made to supply power which is carried electrically for nearly a hundred miles to the Kolar goldfield, within the Mysore boundary. The engineer who superintended the construction of this work was a French Canadian officer of the Royal Engineers interesting evidence of the increasing solidarity of the British Empire. Bangalore is the chief military station of southern India. It is connected by rail with Madras, but is situated on the plateau within Mysore. From Bangalore the line runs on to Seringapatam on the Cauvery, and to Mysore city beyond. These were the seats" of the Muhammadan Sultans, Hyder AH and Tippu, father and son, who, a generation later than the time when Give fought at Arcot, held Madras in terror from their highland fastness. The threat to the British position in India was a real one. Hyder Ali leagued himself with the French, with whom we were then at war, but he was defeated under the great Governor-General, Warren Hastings. Tippu, Hyder's son; was also an ally of the French. He lived into the time of Napoleon, and made his chief attack on British power when the French were in Egypt, but he was defeated and killed. Colonel Wellesley, afterwards Duke of Wellington, first rose to notice in this campaign. He was appointed to command " the troops above the Ghats." After the death of Tippu, the civil administration of Mysore was also assigned to Wellesley, and splendid work he did as civil administrator. A third map shows you the rain- 56. fall which is brought by the west winds Southern India, of the summer time to the Malabar showing rainfall of _,, . , ., , ... s.w. Monsoon. Coast. 1 hese winds strike the Western Pykara Falls, Nilgiri Hills. season 58. Gairsoppa Falls. Ghats and the Nilgiri hills and drench them with superabundant moisture, so that they are thickly forested. At this magnificent waterfalls leap down the westward ravines and feed torrents which rush in short valleys to the ocean. One of the grandest falls in the world is at Gairsoppa, in the northwestern corner of the state of Mysore. 59. Southern India, showing rainfall of N.E. Monsoon. 60. Southern India, showing density of Population. A fourth map indicates the rain- fall on the east coast brought by the Northeast Monsoon of the winter season. Finally, a fifth map shows that the population is densest down on the lowlands precisely in those regions, on the east coast and on the west, which are best supplied with moisture. Throughout India the supply of water for agricultural purposes is the key to the prosperity of the country, for everywhere there is heat enough for luxuriant vegetation. It is only drought which is in places the cause of sterility. With all its vast population there are none the less great spaces in India very sparsely peopled. Once more let us remember that India is rather a continent than merely a country. LECTURE II. BURMA. THE BUDDHIST RELIGION. In the last lecture we visited Madras, the southernmost and oldest province of the Indian Empire. In this lecture we will cross the Bay of Bengal from Madras to Burma, the easternmost and newest of the provinces, if we except a recent sub-division of an older unit. Politically, Burma is a part of India, for it is ruled by the * Viceroy, and commercially it is coming every day into closer relation with the Burma. remainder of India. In most other respects, however, Burma is rather the first land of the Far East than the last of India, the Middle East. In race and language probably, in religion and social customs certainly, it is nearer to China than to India. Geographically, however, though placed in the Indo-Chinese peninsula beyond the Bay of Bengal, Burma is in relation with the Indian World, for it has a great navigable river which drains into the Indian Ocean, and not into the Pacific as do the rivers of Siam and Annam, the remaining countries of the southeastward promontory of Asia. 2. We embark from Madras on the The Shore, steamer which is to carry us to Rangoon. Madras. Formerly it was necessary to go out to the vessel through the surf in specially constructed boats, for all the Coromandel Coast is shoal, and there is not a single natural harbour. Often the surf is very rough. Now, however, a harbour has been made at Madras. Two piers have been built out into the sea at right angles ( 20 ) to the shore. They may be seen in the distance in this view. At their extremities they bend inward towards one another, so as to enclose a quadrangular space within which the steamers lie. None the less there are times when the o mighty waves sweep through the open in Madras mouth, rendering the harbour unsafe, so Harbour. that the shipping must stand out to sea. There have been many terrible disasters in the cyclones which from time to time strike the east coast of India. When the Madras harbour was half completed the works were overwhelmed by a storm and the undertaking had to be recommenced. Our vessel carries nearly two thousand coolies, natives of Madras, going to Burma to work in the rice mills or on the wharves, for Burma is a thinly peopled land. It has x great natural resources, which are being Coolies rapidly developed by British capital. The on Steamer. coolies take passage as deck passengers for a few rupees, and each on landing at Rangoon has to undergo a searching medical examination, because the Plague is often carried from Madras to Burma. The disease manifests itself first by swollen glands, especially under the arms. The contagion, caused by a minute organism, is conveyed by rats. This terrible sickness is one of the worst scourges of modern India. It first broke out in Bombay in August, 1896. Since that date there have been three years in each of which a million deaths were due to it. As time goes on the mortality will probably decrease, for the first onslaught of a new disease is generally deadly. We must beware, however, of exaggerating its significance. There are three hundred million people in the Indian Empire, and the death rate by plague, even at its maximum, is therefore not very high. It is, indeed, low as compared with the death rate by malarial fever. ; After a probably rough passage, we approach the low- lying shore of the great delta of the Irawaddy river, and enter that branch of it which is known as the Rangoon river. ( 21 ) - A stray Chinese junk reminds us of the fact that we are entering Indo-China, and Chinese Junk in the Rangoon River, of the trade relations of Burma with Singapore and the regions of the Far East. Burmese rice is sent to China, the Malay States, India, East Africa, and Europe. Rangoon depends for her commerce mainly on the rice harvest. In recent years, famines in India have been mitigated by rice exported from Rangoon. As we steam up the river for some miles inland, let us consider, with the help of a map, the main features of the geography of the land which Map of Burma. T . . we are about to visit. In this map is shown nearly the whole of the great southeastward penin- sula of Asia. The areas which are coloured green are lowland, those which are yellow are upland, and the brown signifies highland and mountain. A ridge of highland, broken only at two or three points, runs southward through the centre of the map, separating Burma and the river basins of the Indian Ocean from Siam and the river basins of the Pacific Ocean. This great divide of the drainage is continued beyond the southern edge of the map through the Malay Peninsula for some distance. It ends near Singapore in the southernmost point of Asia, only one degree north of the Equator. In Burma, parallel with the dividing range, are three other ridges, striking southward side by side. These separate three valleys, through which flow severally the Salween, Sittang, and Irawaddy rivers. The valley of the Salween, as the yellow and brown colours upon the map indicate, is less deeply trenched between its bounding ranges than are the other two valleys. As we should there- fore expect, the Salween river has a steeply descending course broken by rapids, and is of small value for navigation. At its mouth is the port of Moulmein. The valley of the Sittang, which is .a short river, prolongs the upper valley of ( 22 ) the Irawaddy, which latter river makes a great westward bend at Mandalay, and passes by a transverse passage right through one of the parallel mountain ridges. Beyond this passage it bends southward again, accepting the direction of its tributary, the Chindwin river. The great port of Rangoon is placed on a tidal channel at the eastern edge of the Irawaddy delta. The railway from Rangoon to Mandalay runs through the Sittang valley and does not follow the Irawaddy. There is navigation, how- ever, by the Irawaddy past Pagan and Mandalay northward to Bhamo, which is close to the Chinese frontier. The coastal plain of Burma is known as Arakan where it runs northward from the Irawaddy delta, and as Tenasserim where it runs southward from that delta along a coast beset with an archipelago of beautiful islands. The delta itself bears the name of Pegu, or Lower Burma; while the region round Mandalay is Upper Burma. We are in the Rangoon river. A tall, pointed pagoda appears on a hill to the right, and presently, as the channel bends to the west, we Plan of Rangoon. approach the busy commercial front of Rangoon city, surmounted by the golden spire of the great Shwe Dagon Pagoda. Rangoon, apart from its chief Pagoda, is a modern city. Fifty years ago it was a village. To-day it has a quarter of a million people. A wharf-fronted road, the Strand, follows the shore of the main river for several miles. Up the Pegu tributary to the east for several other miles are many rice mills with tall chimneys throwing out black smoke. The harbour is busy with shipping. There are great timber yards, and there are oil mills, for the products of Burma are, first and foremost, rice, and then timber, especially great logs of teak harder than oak, and then petroleum. Back from the Strand is a well kept town, with broad streets at right angles, though as yet there are few really impressive buildings to compare with the public buildings of Madras. There is a beautiful group of lakes, the Royal Lakes, set in wooded public grounds, and 8. across these is the finest view of the Shwe Dagon Shwe Dagon Pagoda, like a great hand- Pagoda, from bgii placed on a low hill. This pagoda is across the Royal Lakes. said to be the most frequented in the Buddhist world, for it has as relics eight hairs of Gautama, the founder of the Buddhist religion. It began some two thousand years ago as a small village fane. In successive ages the original structure has been encased afresh and afresh, until as the result of work done in the days of Queen Elizabeth, the great pagoda was completed which is now the glory of Rangoon. It rises to a height of nearly 400 feet, and is solid, there being no chamber within. The brickwork of which it is built makes a series of steps or ledges, so that it would be possible to climb for some distance up the spire. The whole is plated with gold-leaf, and the gilding is constantly renewed by pious devotees, who thus earn merit. The word " Shwe " in the name of this pagoda signifies golden. On the summit is a "hti," or umbrella, of exquisite workmanship and material. It is said to have cost sixty thousand pounds. In the vane are 5,000 gems diamonds, rubies, and emeralds. The base of the pagoda is surrounded first by shrines of varying sizes, and then by a flagged courtyard, which again is fringed with canopies and halls opening towards the pagoda, with many carved screens and arches, and innumerable shrines and altars, and images of Gautama. Flights of steps roofed over with teak descend from the courtyard, and 9. one of the lower entries is guarded by great The Shwe Dagon grotesque figures, partly lion and partly Pagoda, Rangoon, griffi,-,, ma d e of plastered bricks. We see one of them in this view. Then we have 10. two very interesting pictures : the one . Images of the represents three images of the Sitting Sitting Buddha. Buddha from one of the shrines on the * . flagged courtyard at the foot of the Shwe Dagon Pagoda, and the other shows a ; Earning Merit at ., ,, ., , ... ,, the Shwe Dagon P"gnm earning merit by putting gold Pagoda. leaf on to the pagoda itself. 3 12 There is another considerable pagoda The Suie Pagoda, in the cit >'' the Sule Pagoda. We have Rangoon. it here, with a corner of a building adjacent of European architecture, the Municipal Offices. Observe the watering of the streets by hand labour. The Burmese are a short, sturdy people, merry and happy, and akin rather to the Japanese in temperament than to the people of the Indian Peninsula. The features of their faces are obviously Mongolian. They have the oblique 4 o eves f tne Chinaman. Here is a typical Burman with a rose coloured wrap round A Typical Burman. ^ head The Burmese women> whose praises have been sung through the world, are dainty and, according to a more or less Chinese standard, not infre- quently beautiful. They love to clothe themselves in silks of brilliant and delicate hue. Excessive industry is certainly not a failing of the race, yet there are no poor. We have AX here a group of Burmese gamblers at Rangoon. The theatres play all night Burmese Gambling, Rangoon. and the spectators go home by daylight. The " pwe," or show, consists invariably of three parts a prince, a princess, and a clown ; it may be compared with our traditional harlequinade. Both Indians and Chinese .are migrating to Burma in great numbers, but agricultural work is still chiefly in native hands. 15. One of the most curious and typical Elephants lifting sights of Rangoon is that of elephants Teak. manipulating the great logs of teak wood in the timber yards. The logs are cut in the forests of the north of Burma, and are floated for hundreds of miles down the Irawaddy in large rafts, until they are stranded at a creek near Rangoon, called Pazundaung. Elephants are then employed for the purpose of moving and piling up the logs. The male elephant is very powerful and has strong tusks, on which he carries the logs, preventing them from falling with his trunk, but the female elephants are not so strong, and do not as a rule lift the logs off the ground, but merely drag them, or push them with the head. We have here two 16. cow elephants, the one forty years old and Elephants Pushing the other seventy. We have them here TBH,k again, one of them at the command of If. her rider pushing the logs forward with Tusker Elephant, her head. In the next scene is a ^Q^ male elephant with tusks. He is fifty Tusker Elephant y ears ld, and we realise his power in the lifting Teak. next two v i ews> w here we see him poising A Q on his tusks a great tree trunk. These huge animals are fed entirely on a grass which grows along the banks of the Irawaddy not far from Rangoon. Machinery is now taking the place of elephants in the timber yards, and Rangoon is, therefore, likely to lose one of its most interesting sights. 20. While we are on the river front let us A Rice Mill, glance also at a rice mill, where a process equivalent to thrashing is carried out, the 21. grain being separated from the husk. The Same. The black smoke is from the paddy husks used to supply the motive power of the mill. Paddy, or unthrashed rice, is mostly brought to Rangoon by water, though more than a million and a half tons now come annually by rail. After the milling process is complete, the rice is packed into bags for shipment all over the world. We will take train and run by the 22. Burmese Sittang Railway over the broad A Burmese levels of the delta, passing through fields Railway Train. frQm which thg paddy hag recently been cut. Only the ears are lopped off, and the straw is burnt as it stands. The Burmans are mostly yeomen, each owning his cattle and doing his own work in the field. Beyond Pegu we follow the Sittang River, with hill ranges low on the eastern and western horizons, until we come to Mandalay, once capital of the independent king- dom of Upper Burma. This kingdom was annexed to ( 26 ) India in 1885 at the conclusion of the third Burmese war, Mandalay is the last of three capitals a few miles apart, which at different times in the past century have been the seat of the Burmese kings. Amarapura, a few miles tO' the south, was the earliest, and Ava, a few miles to the west, was the capital from 1822 to 1837. At Mandalay we are again on the banks of the Irawaddy. There is a hill in the northern suburbs several hundred feet in height, from which we may look over the city. The houses are so buried in foliage that, seen from the height, the place appears almost like a wood of green trees. The square Dufferin Fort, with walled and moated boundary, and sides more than a mile in length, is distinguishable in the centre, but for the rest there is none of the ordinary panorama of a European city. One * striking feature, however, lies at our feet, The4 f?o^ g daS a little to one side. It is a square Mandalay Hill. grQup of ^ wh ; te pagodaSj with a more . considerable gilded pagoda in the centre. Beside each of these pagodas there stands a large stone, and on these stones are inscribed quotations from the sacred books of the Buddhists. In the distance to the southeast are the hills inhabited by the Shan tribes. The Dufferin Fort was built around the Palace of King Thebaw, the last of the Burmese dynasty. It is enclosed by a square of red walls pierced by three gates on each side, each gate bearing a pointed pagoda-like super- 24. structure. Without there is a broad moat, The Moat, Fort a hundred yards wide, with lotus plants,. Dufferin. floating in it like water lilies. This moat is crossed by five wooden bridges. Inside ** the walls is the King's Palace, of which we King Thebaw's , . L t j u i 7 two hundred feet high, . g. which we saw just now from the Hooghly. Eastern Ga'teway, Next is the eastern gateway to the Governmen^ House, grounds Qf Govemment House) and here is Government House itself, with the 4 . _ Union Jack flying above it, and Indian * sentries on guard. It was built a little Government House, . , , j j j , more than a hundred years ago, and con- Calcutta. tains the throne of Tippu Sultan, the tyrant of Mysore, of whom we heard in the first lecture. Opposite . _ Government House, on the Maidan, is * the Jubilee Statue of Victoria, the Queen- Empress of India, which was unveiled in the year 1902. Here we have a more distant view of Government House, as seen from the Maidan, with a statue of one 18. f tne Viceroys in the foreground. Next, Imperial Museum, in Chowringhee road, is the Imperial Calcutta. Museum, a fine building with a valuable Gallery of Antiquities. Let us walk round the Maidan, and 1 Q note the curiously mingled life upon it. pJSl S the Here ' for instance > are Musulmans at Maidan. prayer, an impressive sight that may be witnessed every evening. Here we are at 2O. the f oo t o f the Ochterlony monument, a Monument, column erected in honour of Sir David Calcutta. Ochterlony, a successful general in ihe o^ wars with Nepal. From the top of it Calcutta from the we have a fine view over the cit y- Monument* Notice Government House and the High Court. At the other end of 22. the Maidan is the racecourse and R 1;aicutta! e> Pl g roun d, to which we have already referred, and here amid the trees in 23. the southeastern corner, beside the tank, St. Paul's Cathedral, i s the spire of the English Cathedral. Calcutta. Here, in contrast, is a view in the native nx city. The streets are with a few excep- Tiretta Bazaar tions ver y narrow > as in most southern Street, Calcutta. c ities where the sunshine is dreaded and where shade is essential to comfort. 25. Now we cross to Howrah, to the great Jute Mills, jute mills, where the jute fibre grown up Howrah. country is spun and woven in competi- tion with the jute manufacture of Dundee. In these mills you will find that the machinery bears the names of Dundee and Leeds makers, for the industry is relatively new in India, and has not yet reached the stage of manufac- turing its own machinery. Next we pass into the engi- 26. neering works of Messrs. Burn and Co., A Workshop in where some five thousand natives and lP n H^wrah. y at some sixt y Europeans are employed in nrr the stee ^ industry. Here are plate girders made in these works for rail- The same, Plate Girders. way bridge building, and here in this 28. same industrial town of Howrah are Workpeople people bathing after work in the jute at Howrah. mills. Let us recount the essence of what we have seen the Hooghly channel from the ocean, bearing in ward the European ships ; the Shrine of the Goddess Kali ; the Fort which protected the factory of the East India Company; the Monument of the Black Hole ; Government House and the Secretariat, whence the vast empire is ruled ; the Cathedral and the Racecourse of the white rulers ; the Courts of Justice, which, more than any military power, betoken the essence of British rule in India ; the Native City with its narrow ways and crowded life drawn from the surrounding agricultural plain ; the Howrah Bridge with the steel and jute mills beyond, which imply a vast incoming change in the economic life of this eastern land ; and the Botanic Gardens with their wealth of vegetation typifying the ultimate resources of India the tropical sunshine and the torrential rains. Now let us run northward by the East Bengal Railway for some three hundred miles to Darjeeling, the hill station of Calcutta, as Ootacamund is the hill station of Madras. We traverse the dead level of the plain with its thickly set ( 42 ) villages and tropical vegetation. There are some seven hundred and fifty thousand villages in India, and these village communities are the real India, for only about ten per cent, of the total population is contained in the cities. Yet Bengal in its present limits, which Repeat Map No. i. exclude Eastern Bengal, has a popu- lation of more than fifty millions, on an area slightly smaller than that of the United Kingdom. Now the total population of the United Kingdom is only some forty-four millions, and of these forty-four millions fully one-third inhabit some forty large cities. Britain is therefore mainly industrial, whereas India is mainly agricultural, nine-tenths of all the people in India being supported by occupations connected with agriculture. From such statistics some idea may be gained of the density of the agricultural population of Bengal, a Province with one great city only, as greatness of cities is measured in our British Islands. The rule of these village-dotted plains is the main daily business of the Indian Government. A great Province like Bengal is divided into Districts, each of them about as large as the English county of Lincolnshire or a little larger. On the average each of them contains from half a million to a million and a half of population. There are some 250 of such Districts in British India, that is to say in that greater part of India which is administered directly by British officials. In each District there is a chief executive officer, styled the Collector or Deputy Commissioner. He is the head of the District administration, and he is also the principal Magistrate in the District. Under the Collector there is a staff of Executive Officers, British and Indian, of whom the chief are the Assistant Collector, the Deputy Collector, the Superintendent of Police, the Engineer, and the Civil Surgeon. The Collector is so called because in the days of the old East India Company his main function was to collect revenue. In his other capacity of Magistrate, he is the head of the Magisterial Courts of the District. The laws which he and his assistants administer are made ( 43 ) by the Viceroy in Council, and in a subordinate way by the Lieutenant-Governors and their Councils in the various Provinces. The Collector does not decide civil suits. These, as well as all serious criminal cases, come before Civil Judges of different grades, who are independent of the Collector. Therefore we find in India that essential division of the Legislature, Judicature, and Executive which is the chief security of freedom in all British communities. Subject to the law and to the instructions of the superior Provincial Officers, the District Collector is, however, supreme, except in the Civil Courts of his District. He it is who alone for the vast majority of the Indian population represents the Raj or Rule of the King-Emperor. Between the Collectors and the Lieutenant-Governors are intermediate controlling officers known as Commissioners, who superintend Divisions or groups of several Districts. The Higher Civil Service of India, recruited by com- petitive examination in England, consists of some twelve hundred officials the Commissioners, the Collectors of the Districts, and some of the Assistant Collectors. The seniors of the Civil Service man the Provincial and Supreme Governments of India. Only the Governor- General and the Governors of Madras and Bombay are selected from outside the Indian Civil Service and sent out from Britain. The Collector is constantly touring his District, in order that he may know it from personal investigation. A good Collector may become very popular, and may do much to make his District prosperous. It is a great position which may thus be held by young Englishmen of, say, thirty years of age. They are rulers of a million people at an age when their brothers of the professional classes at home are struggling to establish themselves as young barristers or doctors or clergymen. It must not be thought, however, that the Government of India, either in its Legislative, Judicial, or Executive capacities, ( 44 ) is wholly British, and alien from the subject population. The Legislative Councils of the Governor-General and also of the Lieutenant-Governors in the Provinces contain elected Indian representatives, both Hindu and Musulman. The provincial Councils have, in fact, non-official majorities. Only in the Council of the Governor-General is there an official majority. Many of the Judges even of the High Courts are Indian, either Hindu or Musulman. In the Executive some of the Collectors of Districts are Indian, and also the great majority of the assistant officials, who in the aggregate are an immense number. As we think over these things we are continuing our journey northward. We must change from train to steamer as we cross the Ganges. The passage of the river occupies about twenty minutes from one low-lying bank to the other. Then, as we traverse the endless rice fields with their clumps of graceful bamboo, the hills become visible across OQ the northern horizon. We run into a belt of jungle, and change to the Darjeeling Railway, .. , . , , Chinbatti Loop, mountain railway, which carries us up the steep hill front with many a turn and 30. twist. There is tall forest on the lower Darjeeling Railway, slopes, of teak and other great trees, oop o. . hung thickly with creepers. Presently the wood becomes smaller, and we enter the tea plantations with their trim rows of green bushes. Far below us, at the foot of the steep forest, spreads to the southern horizon the vast cultivated plain. Trees of the fir tribe now take the place of leafy trees, and we rise to the ridge top on which is placed Darjeeling, ae ' a settlement of detached villas in com- pounds or enclosures, hanging on the steep hill slopes. Darjeeling is about seven thousand feet above sea level, on a ridge overlooking northward the gorge of the Rungeet River. In the early morning, if we are fortunate in the weather and rise before the sun, we may see from Darjeeling, over the valley to north of the hill ridge on which we stand, and ( 45 ) over successive ridge tops beyond, the mighty snow range of the Himalayas, fifty from C Da^eeHng. miles away, with the peak of Kinchinjunga, more than five miles high, dominating the 33. landscape. Behind it, a little to the west, The Himalaya, and visible from Tiger Hill near Darjeeling, though not from Darjeeling itself, is Mount Everest, the highest mountain in the Mount Everest. ^^ fiye and ^ m}leg Wgh The glittering wall of white mountains, visible across the vast chasm and bare granite summits in the foreground, seems to hang in the sky as though belonging to another world. The broad distance, and the sudden leap to supreme height, give to this scene a mysterious and almost visionary grandeur. It is, however, only occasionally that the cul- minating peaks can be seen, for they are often veiled in cloud. The people of Sikkim in the hills beyond Darjeeling are Highlanders of Mongolian stock and not Indian. They are of Buddhist religion like the Burmans, and not Hindu or Musulman like the inhabitants of India. They are small, sturdy folk, with oblique cut eyes, and a Chinese expression, and they have the easy-going humorous character of the Burmans, though not the delicacy and civilization of those inhabitants of the sunny lowland. They and the kindred and neighbour Tibetans Tibetan Woman. rardy ^^ and the WQmen anoint thdr faces with a mixture of pigs' blood, which _ _ gives them a dark and mottled appearance. Here we have in colour a portrait of a Nepali Ladies. Tibetan woman, and then a group of Nepali ladies, with various head ornaments. It is an interesting fact that these hill people should belong to the race which spreads over the vast Chinese Empire. That race here advances to the last hill brinks; which overlook the Indian lowland. The political ( 46 ) 3T. map of this portion of India illustrates a Political Map of parallel fact. While the plains are admini- india,distinguishing stered d i rec tly by British officials, the Bengal, Eastern J * Bengal and Assam, mountain slopes descending to them are Nepal, and Bhutan. ruled by native princes, whose territories form a strip along the northern boundary of India. North of Assam and Bengal we have in succession from east to west, in the belt of hill country, the lands of Bhutan, Sikkim, and Nepal. From Nepal are recruited the Gurkha Regiments of the Indian army, the Gurkhas being a race of these same hill men, of small stature and sturdy agility, of Hindu religion, but of more or less Mongolian stock, and therefore intermediate between the Tibetans and the Hindus. 33 e Here we have a typical market scene The Bazaar, in Darjeeling. Notice the women doing Darjeehng. coo ii e work. Next are vegetable sellers 3Q. in the Darjeeling Bazaar, and here is a man carrvm g fodder. The man with his back turned is a Lepcha of Sikkim. Man carrying Then we have a group of Sikkim peasants Fodder, Darjeehng. ^ drinking the native beer, made from Sikkim Peasants, marwa, a kind of millet. They draw ^2. it U p through straws from cups made Native Loom, ; Darjeeling. of bamboo. Next we see a native work- ing a hand loom, and then a village in Village in Sikkim. . . . ... Sikkim. Here in the same village we The same. see a woman carrying baggage. _ _ Near Darjeeling there is a small Budd- * hist monastery, a two-storey building of Llama Monastery, ... , . . , near Darjeeling. which we have here a view. Notice the semi-circle of tall poles, with linen flags, on which prayers are inscribed. By the entrance are a number of prayer-wheels fastened to the wall. Out- side the monastery are men wearing the costumes ( 47 ) of devil dancers, such as are used 46. in Buddhist religious ceremonies of The same-Devil tnese parts. There are Ions; trumpets Dancers. placed against the door post. Let us glance for a moment within this xrj 1 monastery, and see the hideous wooden The same - i nterior. . . , masks, and the silk dresses of 3. the priestly dancers. Two scenes The Amban Dance, follow, from Darjeeling itself, of an hne ' elaborate dance by Tibetan peasants AQ called the Amban dance. The lions The same -another and dragons are each made of two view. men, whose bodies are hung with white yak hair and tails. They have grotesque heads, with enormous eyes and gaping mouths, from which hang large scarlet tongues. So we obtain some idea of the stage of barbarism in which the hill tribes remain. In contrast with these scenes are now 50. two slides illustrating the volunteer service North Bengal o f the white tea planters. Of these the Mounted Rifles, Lebong. second shows tent-pegging on the Lebong CA parade ground, above the Rungeet river. - The same-Sword This form of tent-pegging is with a sword, Pegging. anc [ no t w it n t ne more usual lance. Here 52. is a scene showing Darjeeling coolies returned from work in the tea ardens. 53. The Rungeet Finally we have two views in the gorge of the Rungeet river, between Darjeeling * and Sikkim, with precipitous sides, and The same. then a glimpse of the Rungeet bridge. OO. 'j^g Rungget d ra i ns f rom the hills of The Rungeet Bridge, ,, . ,. Sikkim. Darjeeling, and from the snow mountains beyond, into a tributary of the Ganges. ( 48 ) Several hundred such torrents burst in long succession through deep portals in 56. the Himalayan foot hills and feed the A Gleier yan reat " vers ^ tne pl am > tne Brahmaputra and the Ganges. They are perennial ** rivers, for they originate in the melting of Glacier-fed Torrent , ' 3 ~ . . , in the Himalaya, the glaciers, and the Himalayan glaciers cover a vast area, being fed by the monsoon snows. Nearly all the agri- the e Hiinaniya! cultural wealth of Northern India owes its origin to the summer monsoon. 59. To understand the fundamental con- Map of the ditions governing the Indian climate let Himalayan River . ,. . System. us examine the two concluding maps or this lecture. On the first of them all the country with an elevation of more than fifteen hundred feet is coloured with a dark brown, and that with a lower elevation is coloured a light brown. A great angle of the Indian lowland is seen to project northward into the Asiatic upland. For fifteen hundred miles the Himalaya limits the lowland with a gracefully curving mountain edge, and from this edge there flow the series of tributaries which gather to the rivers Indus, Ganges, and Brahmaputra. Beyond, to the south, are seen in dark brown the higher portions of the Deccan plateau. Now compare with this the succeeding map, which shows the winds of the summer time and the average rainfall. gQ The winds sweep in from the southwest, Map of South- West but as the y cross Bengal they bend so Monsoon. as to blow from the south and then from the southeast. The dark arrow with the broken shaft striking northwestward through the heart of India represents the usual track of the storms which prevail in the Central Provinces during the summer season, producing the havoc along the Madras coast and northward, of which we spoke in the second lecture. The maximum rainfall, it will be seen, occurs in three regions first on the west face of ( 49 ) the Western Ghats, and on the west face of the mountains of Ceylon ; secondly in the east of the Indian Peninsula near the track of the storm centres ; and thirdly along the south face of the Garo hills and of the Himalayas north of Bengal, and on the west face of the various mountain ranges of Burma. In other words, in the first and third cases the rain is due to the winds striking the mountain ranges, and is great only on the windward faces of those ranges. In the second case the rainfall is mainly the result of the storms. On the other hand, there is drought at this season under the lee of the mountains of Ceylon and of the Western Ghats, and again in a comparatively small belt, near Pagan, along the Irawaddy river, between the western and the: eastern ridges of Burma. Tibet, which is under the lee of the Himalayas, and northwestern India, which is out of the track of the southwest winds, are wide deserts. This map explains the exceptional fertility and density of population of the Province of Bengal. India is so vast a country, and so varied, that no traveller can hope to visit all parts of it. On our journey from Calcutta to Darjeeling, we have left the province of Assam away to the east of us. Assam is a through road nowhither, for high and difficult mountains close the eastern end of its great valley. Moreover, though it has vast natural resources, Assam is a country which throughout history has lain for the most part outside Indian civilisation, and, even to-day, has but a sparse population and a relatively small commercial development. Let us, then, just remember in passing Repeat Map No. i. that this remote province of India has a geography which, though simple, is built on a very grand scale. The San-po river rises high on the plateau of Tibet northward of Lucknow. For more than 700 miles it flows eastward over the plateau in rear of the Himalayan peaks ; then it turns sharply southward and descends steeply through a deep gorge little known, for it is tenanted by hos- tile tribes. Where it emerges from the mountains the river ( 50 ) has a level not a thousand feet above the sea, and here, turning westward, it forms the Brahmaputra that is to say, the Son of Brahma, the Creator. The Brahmaputra flows for 450 miles westward through the valley of Assam, deeply trenched between the snowy wall of the Himalayas on the one hand and the forested mountains of the Burmese border and the Khasia and Garo hills on the other hand. The river " rolls down the valley in a vast sheet of water," depositing banks of silt at the smallest obstruction, " so that islands form and re-form in constant succession. Broad channels break away and rejoin the main river after wide divergences, which are subjected to no control. The swamps on either hand are flooded in the rainy season, till the lower reaches of the valley are one vast shining sea, from which the hills slope up on either side." The traffic on the river is maintained chiefly by exports of tea and timber, with imports of rice for the labourers on the tea estates. Some day, when great sums of money are available for capital expenditure, the Brahmaputra will be controlled, and Assam will become the seat of teeming production and a dense population. The Indian Empire contains some 300 million people ; but, as we learn, it also contains some of the chief virgin resources of the world. LECTURE IV. THE UNITED PROVINCES. THE MUTINY. 1. Northwestward from Bengal, over the Map of India, great plain of the Ganges, we enter the distinguishing the next region of India. The United Pro- United Provinces. . c vmces of Agra and Oudn have an area almost equal to that of Great Britain, and a population as dense. When we go from Bengal to the United Provinces, it is as though we were crossing from one to another of the great continental States of Europe, say from Germany into France. The Himalayan mountains lie to the ^ north ; the hills of Central India to the Map of the south. The plain between them, raised United Provinces. only a little above the sea, is two hundred miles across, measured from the foot hills of the Himalayas to the first rise of the Central Indian hills. Two great rivers, the Ganges and the Jumna, emerge from Himalayan valleys, and traverse the plain southward, and presently southeastward, leaving between them a tongue of land, known in Hindustani as the Doab, or two waters. Mesopotamia, between the rivers Euphrates and Tigris in the Nearer East, signifies the same in the Greek language. The Jumna joins the Ganges near the southern limit of the plain, and in the angle of the confluence is the large city of Allahabad, the capital and seat of the Lieutenant-Governor of the United Provinces. Other great tributaries flow to the Ganges from more eastern parts of the Himalayas, and bending southeastward join the main river one after another. ( 52 ) Five considerable cities focus the great population of the United Provinces Allahabad, already mentioned, Cawn- pore, Lucknow, Agra, and Benares. A hundred miles above Allahabad, on the right or south bank of the Ganges, is the city of Cawnpore, and on the opposite or northern bank extends the old Kingdom of Oudh, with Lucknow for its capital, situated some forty miles northeast of Cawnpore. Agra, which gives its name to all that part of the United Provinces which did not formerly belong to Oudh, is situated on the right or south bank of the Jumna, a hundred and fifty miles west of Lucknow. Eighty miles below Allahabad, on the north bank of the Ganges, is Benares, the most sacred city of the Hindus. All these distances between the cities of Agra, Cawnpore, Lucknow, Allahabad, and Benares, lie over the dead level of trie plain, dusty, and like a desert in the dry season, but green and fertile after the rains. Scattered over the plain are innumerable villages, in which dwell nineteen out of twenty of the inhabitants of the joint Provinces. Lucknow is the largest of the cities, yet it has only a quarter of a million inhabitants. The United Provinces are the heart of India, the typical Indian land, safe from invasion from the north by reason of the Himalayan barrier and the desert plateau of Tibet ; relatively inaccessible from the ocean, and not conquered by Britain until long after Bengal had become a Province of the East India Company; relatively safe also from northwestern invasion. Its people remain dominantly Hindu in their religion and customs, whereas the great province of the Punjab further northwestward has a majority of Musulmans. Southward is the plateau of Central India, comparatively thinly peopled. The language of the United Provinces, and of consider- able districts to west, south, and east of them, is Hindi, the most direct derivative of the ancient Sanskrit tongue, whose use was contemporary with that of Latin and Greek. All three of these ancient tongues, as well as Old Persian, ( 53 ) belong to the family of the Indo-European languages. Sanskrit was brought into India by a conquering people from the northwest. Hindi is now spoken by a hundred million people in all the northern centre of India, It is the language not only of the United Provinces but also of the western part of Bengal which is known as Behar, of that part of the Punjab which surrounds Delhi, and of a wide district in Central India ruled by the great Maratha chiefs, Sindhia and Holkar. Other tongues of similar origin are spoken in the regions around Bengali in Bengal, Marathi and Gujrati in the lands which lie east and north of Bombay, and Punjabi in the Punjab. We must think of these various Indian languages as differing from one another much as French and Spanish and Italian differ, which are all derived from a common Latin source. The Hindi language was picked up by the Musulman conquerors of India, and by adding to it words of their own Persian speech they formed Urdu, the language of the camp. This is the language of educated Musulmans all over India to this day. Under the name of Hindustani it has become a sort of lingua franca throughout India, and is used by Europeans when talking to their servants. Away to the south, beyond the limit of the Sanskrit tongues, in the province of Madras and neighbouring areas, are talked languages wholly alien from Sanskrit, and differing from Hindi, Bengali, Marathi, Gujrati, and Punjabi, much as the Turkish and Hungarian languages differ from the group of allied Indo-European tongues spoken in Western Europe. These southern Indian tongues are known as Dravidian. The most important of them are Telugu, spoken by twenty millions, and Tamil, spoken by some fifteen millions. The Hindu religion, however, is held by the great majority both of the Dravidian south and of the Indo-European north and centre. If there be one part of India which we may think of as the shrine of shrines in a land where religion rules all life, ( 54 ) it is to be found in a triangle of cities just contained within the map before us. There on the Ganges we see Benares and Patna, and some fifty miles south of Patna the smaller town of Gaya. Benares from prehistoric times has been the focus of Hinduism. Patna was the capital of the chief Gangetic kingdom more than two thousand years ago, when the Greek ambassador Megasthenes, first of the Westerns, travelled thus far into the East. Gaya was the spot where Buddha, seeking to reform Hinduism some six hundred years before Christ, obtained enlightenment, and then migrated to teach at Benares, or rather at Sarnath, now in ruin, some three or four miles north of the present Benares. The peoples of all the vast Indian and Chinese world, from Karachi to Pekin and Tokyo, look to this little group of cities as the centre of holiness, whether they be followers of Brahma or of Buddha. o Old Benares, whose ruins are now known o jju- * . > as Sarnath, was a few miles north of the Buddhist Tope at Sarnath. existing city. We have here one of the Buddhist topes of Sarnath, which was ^* the spot to which Buddha removed after Sculptures at he had rece ived enlightenment at Gaya. Sarnath. Here he and his disciples began to teach. 5^ We have another view at Sarnath, Lion-capital at showing some of the ancient sculptures, Sarnath. and a gigantic lion-capital recently ex- cavated. Its size can be appreciated by noticing the man behind. Benares extends for four miles along the northern bank of the Ganges. This bank is here higher than the southern, and descends to the river edge with a steep brink. Down this brink are many flights of steps, known as Q t "ghats," which we may translate by the Plan of Benares, word " approaches." We have already heard the word " ghat " applied to the steep mountain-high brinks of the southern plateau of India, where the upper ground breaks away to the shore of the Arabian Sea on ( 55 ) the one hand, and to the low-lying plain of the Carnatic on the other. The city of Benares is situated on the plateau top above the ghats, and for four miles * the river front is crowned with palaces cTn|es P to S the e and temples, built of a yellow sand- Southern Shore. stone The opposite; the south e r n, shore " lies low and without buildings. Here is ^ & ' a view looking southward across the river Q from the brink edge ; it shows the low The Same and non-sacred southern shore. Here are another view. twQ yiews Qf ^ ^.^ ^^ facgd crowned with buildings of yellow sand- Palace of the ,, c .. . f , Raja of Bhinga, stone. 1 here follow two views of the palace of the Raja of Bhinga, and in 11 *~ " _ both we see the ghat steps descending to another view. the water's edge. The population of Benares numbers some two hundred thousand, of whom the great majority are of the Hindu faith, and no fewer than thirty thousand are Brahmans, the priestly caste. It is said that more than a million pilgrims visit the city every year. In the early morning they descend the ghats to bathe in the river and to drink An the sacred water. Here we have the Dasashwamedh scene at one of these hats > with the Ghat, Benares, conical towers of a temple, and the great ^o sun umbrellas. Another scene of a Manikarnika Ghat, similar character follows at another ghat, Benares. ., j n the most sacred in Benares. Some of the ghats are used for the burning of dead bodies. Wrapped in a white shroud, the corpse is dipped into the river, then laid on a pile of faggots, and other faggots are built around, and a light is set to the pile. The ashes are thrown into the river. These rites are performed 1 by the nearest relatives. We have here Burning Ghat, the body of a woman of the poorer classes nearly consumed, and the few relatives lO. looking on. Here preparations are in Another Burning r . Ghat, Benares, progress for another cremation. The 5 ( 56 ) corpse may be seen, with its feet in the water, resting aslant at the foot of the ghat. The bodies of the higher castes are burnt at the Raja Ghat on costly fires of sandal-wood. At night, from the water, the city, with its thousands of lights and the tall flames at the Burning Ghats, is deeply impressive. >g^ Perhaps the most interesting of all the The Observatory, buildings at Benares is the Observatory, Benares. a lofty structure placed on the river brink and commanding a wide view. Within are instruments of stone on a great scale for the observation ^Y. of the movements of the heavenly bodies. The Samrat Yantra This is the Samrat Yantra, used for in the Observatory, observing the declination and right ascen- sion of the stars. Astronomy plays no inconsiderable part ^Q in the rites of Benares. The pilgrimages Eclipse Festival, are thf onged at the time of eclipse of Benares. the sun, and there are certain ghats of special resort during the occurrence of eclipses. Set a little back from the river front in a small square is the chief temple of the Hindus. Europeans are not permitted to go within, but only to peep through a hole in the wall, and also from an upper balcony of a lQ f neighbouring house to look down upon Roof of Golden the S ilded roof ' Beside this tem P Ie Temple, Benares, there is another, half of which is in ruin, and the remainder has been converted to the purpose of a Musulman mosque. The old part is of yellow-grey sandstone, tawny with age, but the mosque has been white- 2O. washed and shines brightly in the sunlight. Vishnagi Temple, We have here a view of this temple- Benares. mosque, and then there follow two views, "* showing the tall minarets of Aurangzeb's Aurangzeb s Mosque, built on the site of another Mosque, Benares. . ^ Hindu temple which he destroyed. For two centuries until the advent of British The Same . another view. power the rulers of this Hindu land were of the Musulman faith, conquerors from the northwest. ( 57 ) The Musulmans destroyed many of the ancient Hindu temples of Benares, so that most of the buildings of the city are comparatively modern. As in a Christian country, such a resort of pilgrims brings together men from far distant and different lands, and we have at Benares an epitome of all Hindu India. In the narrow deep-shaded streets, and the sordid and tawdry purlieus of the temples may be seen many a typical scene of Eastern life. Here, for instance, close to Aurangzeb's Mosque, is a Fakir or A Fakir, Benares. .. . ., , ,, , r religious enthusiast, to whom the alms or the faithful are due. He rests on this bed of spikes day and night. Such Fakirs get much alms, which they are Oi supposed by the envious to bury under- Snake Charmers, ground. We have another character- Benares, istic scene here, two snake charmers on one of the ghats, with a fine assortment of reptiles cobra, python, and other snakes, as well as scorpions. There is always a ready crowd for them, as for jugglers of curious skill. oc The traffic in the streets is of the most various kind. Here is an ox waggon, Bullock Cart, Benares. with cumbrous wooden wheels, laden with rough stone for road making, and 2g here a tall camel bringing in tobacco from A Camel some outlying village. This is a bride- Benares, groom of the highest, the Brahman caste, mounted on a white horse, and clothed in 2T. a golden dress shot with pink. He A Bridegroom, }S probably on his way to pay a Benares. ceremonial call. Further inland, near the railway station, is grouped the European quarter, with a Christian church, the post office, the regimental barracks of the cantonment, missionary colleges, villas of officials, and a few fine public buildings of 28. recent date. H|re for instance, with a Prince of Wales bullock cart passing it, and another Hospital, Benares, vehicle behind with a sun-hood, is the ( 53 ) Prince of Wales Hospital. Here is Queen's College, where og a modern education is given to some Queen's College, ^ ve hundred students, and here finally is Benares. the Central Hindu College, opened in 1899, "for the education of Hindu youth 30. in their ancestral faith and in true loyalty Central Hindu and patriotism." This college contains College, Benares. about twQ hundred and fifty stu dents. We now leave Benares, noticing the great railway bridge over the Ganges, and travel by rail over the grey monotony of the plains, varied by patches of cultivation, herds of long-eared goats, long-legged pigs, large black vultures, and here and there a string of camels. So we come to Cawnpore, the Manchester of India. Cawnpore is the chief inland manufacturing city of India, a great contrast in all its ways with Benares. Western capital, Western ideas, and Western organisation are at work on a large scale. There are mills and factories for the spinning and weaving of wool, mostly Indian wool, but some Australian brought by way of Calcutta. One of these mills seen by our artist had on hand at the time of his visit an order for eleven thousand coats, and had just finished thirty-three thousand for the police of the great native state of Hyderabad. This is the mill in question. The cutters are shearing coats from _ . a great piece of khaki, on which the patterns to be cut have been chalked. Both the s P innin g o f the yarn and the Native Cutters weaving of khaki cloth have been at work. accomplished by native labour and British machinery at Cawnpore. Khaki signifies the colour of khak, or dust. Here is a leather factory for making go Government boots and army equipment. This view shows the raw hides, mostly The Same the Raw Hide buffalo, gathered by rail from all parts of Shed. India. The hides on the weighing machine have been dried. This is ( 59 ) 33. bark being unloaded from the train for The Same use in the tannery. Then we see unloading Bark. the boot shop itself, thronged with work- r men. These workmen are mostly The Same the Boot Shop. Musulmans. As will be seen, the boots are hand-sewn. One large firm, employing daily some 35. three thousand five hundred hands, has Well in built a model village, of which we have te* here the well, the central feature of every Village, Cawnpore. Indian village, whether of the new and garden type, or of the old and traditional. What a contrast must all this be to the inhabitants of the country districts, where village tradesmen still follow their 36. traditional crafts ! Here, for example, Native Potters, are two views in a pottery near Benares. __ The potters turn the wheel with their feet. Most Hindu workmen use their feet a good deal, and of course the typical squatting attitude makes it easier for them to do so. Consider the revolution in all the social life of India, which is involved in the steady displacement of these village-made wares by the cheaper machine-made products of Cawnpore and other factory centres. There is a change beginning throughout the length and breadth of this vast land, not wholly unlike that which took place in Britain under the name of the Industrial Revolution a century and a half ago. As higher and more skilled industries are introduced, it seems likely ultimately to result in a migration of workers from the villages to the cities, in the growth of the size of the cities, and in the greater monotony of life in the rustic villages. No doubt there will be some inevitable suffering, especially on the part of those workers who cannot adapt themselves to the ne\v conditions. In the main, however, the factory operatives have thus far been peasant proprietors who forsake their villages only for a time. Lucknow is a city of modern temples and palaces, many ( 60 ) of them stucco buildings of debased architecture, which appear beautiful only by moonlight and when artificially 38. illuminated. We have here the Rumi Th Lucknow? te ' Gateway, and here the same gateway from 39. within. Then we have the Imambara, from within. built under Asaf-ud-daulah, who also built the Residency, as a relief work in a The Imambara, Lucknow. great famine in 1784. The most striking feature is the successful construction of an enormous roof of coarse concrete without ribs, beams, pillars, or visible support of any kind, except that from the four surrounding walls. Here is the great hall, beneath this roof. It is XA about a hundred and sixty feet long, The Same- ^3* l " eet w ^ e an( ^ some fifty feet high. the Great Hall. On the floor is the tomb of Asaf-ud-daulah, a slab of plain masonry surrounded by silver, and covered with a canopy. The tomb is not in line with the sides of the hall, but is a little askew in order that it be oriented in accordance with the direction of Mecca. Near by can be seen a huge tazia, which is carried through the streets on the Musulman anniversary of the Moharam. 42. Next we have two views in the Bazaar in the Chauk of Lucknow, which forms one of the Bazaar, Lucknow. s i x wa rds of the city. In the bazaar are 43 to ^ e found jewellers and silversmiths, together with brassworkers and wood- The Same. carvers. Then we come to a very 44. characteristic Indian scene, a Musulman A Musulman woman wearing a burka, that is to say, Woman in a a ve {\ w i tri eye-slits. All Musulman women of a higher class are veiled when they leave the privacy of their houses, in accordance with the general feeling of Islam, alike in Europe, Africa, and Asia. Here we see the Jama Masjid, a three-domed mosque, with decorations The Jama Masjid, painted in blue and purple upon its Lucknow. walls within it is a cur ious ledge ( 6i ) used by the Shiahs, one of the two great sects of the Musulmans, for resting their foreheads at prayer time. From the platform of this mosque, we have a view of one of the largest Muhammadan buildings of the city, 46. the Husainahad Imambara, built in 1837, The Husainabad b y Muhammad Ali Shah, as a burial place Imambara, Lucknow. for himself and his mother. It is almost entirely of painted stucco. Beyond its tallest minaret can be seen in the distance the red brick Clock Tower of the city. Here we see the Karbala or 4 i burying place of Uiana-ud-doula, of red Karbala of Diana-ud-douia, sandstone, with a gilded cupola, and close Lucknow. by is the Kasmam, whose architecture is copied from that of a sacred place The Kasmain, . Lucknow. in Bagdad. ^g Next we see the Chhattar Manzil, The Chhattar once the Palace of . the Kin S s f Manzil, Lucknow. Oudh, now transformed into the United Service Club. Finally, in contrast, is a scene near the Residency, showing women planting out young tobacco plants, Women planting \\-jth an irrigation well in the background. Tobacco Plants, , T .. .. ' ,, ^ it v, Lucknow. Notice the oxen pulling at the rope with a skin attached, which draws up the water. Already the busy hive of industry at Cawnpore plays no mean part in the economy of the Indian Empire, but for British ears Cawnpore and Lucknow have a historical and deeper interest. These two cities were the focus of those events in the tragic year 1857, which we speak of as the Indian Mutiny. At that time British India was still ruled by the East India Company, an Association founded at the close of Queen Elizabeth's reign. The British East India Company had at first purely mercantile aims, but, as we have already heard in these lectures, was soon involved in native intrigues and wars owing to the rivalry of the competing French Company. Robert Give went out to ( 62 ) India as a writer or clerk in the employ of " John Company," as it was called, but he exchanged the pen for the sword, and by his defence of Arcot brought about the defeat of the French party in the Carnatic, and the supremacy of the British Company in that state. So he established the Madras Province around Fort Saint George on the south- eastern coast. The great Colonel Clive, who re-captured Calcutta and won the Province of Bengal by the decisive victory at Plassey, was the same soldier grown a little older in the service of the same great Company. By successive stages in the next two or three generations the East India Company was deprived of its trading monopolies. At the time of the Mutiny it was in fact merely the Government of India, and was controlled even in this function by the British Government. The Company maintained a large army of sepoys or native soldiers, officered by Europeans, and also a small force that was wholly British. In the years immediately preceding the Mutiny, great changes had been made in India. In one way or another several native governments had been overthrown, and among these was the Kingdom of Oudh, whose capital was at Lucknow, which was annexed because of its misrule. There was hence much unrest among some of the Indian peoples, and the spirit of discontent spread to the native army of Bengal, mostly recruited from Oudh. Then an unfortunate incident occurred. A new form of cartridge was supplied to the troops, the end of which had to be bitten off before the old fashioned gun of those times could be loaded. Rumour got about that beef grease or pigs' fat had been employed in the manufacture of these cartridges. Now the Hindus regard oxen as sacred, and the Musulmans look on the pig as unclean. The Hindus use oxen as draught animals for their ploughs and their carts, but to kill them or to eat their flesh is sinful. So it was that the agitators were able to play on the superstitions and prejudices of the ignorant soldiers. The mutinous troops murdered many of their white officers, and gradually gathered into three armies, which ( 63 ) attacked the small loyal native forces and the white men and women who had collected at Delhi, Cawnpore, and Lucknow. Of the fall of Delhi and its re-capture by the British we will speak later when we come to describe in the seventh lecture the northern part of India. Assistance came to that place, not from Calcutta and the sea, but from the great newly acquired Province of the Punjab, which remained loyal. Cawnpore and Lucknow lay, however, far to the southeast of Delhi, and were inaccessible from that direction. Sir Henry Lawrence was in command at Lucknow, and General Wheeler at Cawnpore. In each case the native city was abandoned, and the small loyal native force and white refugees were gathered into an area more possible of defence. General Havelock led the first army of relief from Calcutta and Allahabad towards Cawnpore, but before he arrived, the little garrison, trusting to treacherous promises, had surrendered. They marched down to the river to take boat for Allahabad, and there most of them were slain men, women, and children. A few were imprisoned at Cawnpore and were massacred a fortnight later. 51. We have here the ghat, now known as Massacre Ghat, Massacre Ghat, by which the English Cawnpore. went down to the fatal shore, and here 52. another and wider view of the same The Same scene. The road that leads down another View. to tne gnat is shaded by some fine trees, behind which were hidden on the 2yth June, 1857, the mutineers who carried out the massacre. In the distance can be seen the red brick piers of the Oudh and Rohilkund Railway bridge, built of course since the Mutiny. Retribution soon came to the mutineers. General Havelock marched from Allahabad with some two thousand men, and in a fierce battle defeated the rebels under Nana Sahib, and entered Cawnpore. He then tried to carry relief across the forty miles of plain northeastward to Lucknow. Twice he failed, and was forced back, but at last he effected his entry to that city, with a force so weak, ( 64 ) however, that it was impossible to keep open his communi- cations, and the reinforced garrison at Lucknow was subjected to a renewal of the siege. At last Sir Colin Campbell, afterwards Lord Clyde, arrived with an army sent out from Britain. We must remember that in those days there was no Suez Csnal, and communication with India was round the Cape of Good Hope. Fortunately an expedition was on its way to China when the Mutiny broke out, and this force was diverted to Calcutta, and supplied the first relief, which was led, as we have seen, by General Havelock. 53. The defence at Lucknow centered in The Residency, the Residency, the official home that is to Lucknow. sav O f the British Resident at the court of 54. the recently dethroned King of Oudh. The Tower of the The Residency is now in ruins, as we see Residency. j n the three slides which follow Here j s 55. a view taken from the direction of the The Baiilie Gate, Baillie Gate, and here is the Tower. Here is the Baillie Gate itself, the scene of the most furious attacks on the British position. The old man whom we note with his hat off and a medal on his breast is the guardian of the place, a veteran of the Mutiny, who as a boy took part in the defence of Lucknow. These Mutiny veterans have now become but a very small band. 5g Here in the Residency is another ruin, The Ammunition the mosque in which the ammunition Mosque in the was j, ep t during the siege, and here Residency. is the Monument to the loyal native ** soldiers. It bears the following in- The Monument . . outside the scnption : "lo the memory of the Residency. native officers and sepoys who died near this spot nobly performing their duty." This monument was erected in 1875 by Lord Northbrook, Viceroy and Governor-General of India, and serves to remind us that the Indians who fell in defence of our flag outnumbered the British. The Tower of the Residency can be seen in the background. ( 65 ) At Cawnpore, also, there are sad memorials of massacre and defeat, not of ultimate victory as at Lucknow. We have here All Souls cZrc h!cawnpore! Memorial church, containing monuments to those who fell near by. The low evergreen hedge seen in the picture marks the line of General Wheeler's unfortunately chosen entrenchments. Here, at the east end of the city, in the beautiful Memorial Gardens, over CQ the well into which the dead bodies were The Well Memorial, cast after the second massacre, is a figure Cawnpore. of the Angel of the Resurrection, sculptured by Marochetti in white marble. In each hand is a palm, the emblem of peace. Around the circle of the well is the following inscription : '' Sacred to the perpetual memory of the great company of Christian people, chiefly women and children, who near this spot were cruelly murdered by the followers of the rebel Nana Dhundu Pant of Bithur, and cast, the dying with the dead, into the well below, on the i5th day of July, 1857."' gQ Finally, we look at the bronze monu- The Queen's ment of the Queen-Empress Victoria, Statue, Cawnpore. whose direct government displaced that of the East India Company after the quelling of the Mutiny in 1858. Hindu gardeners are at work in the foreground. No Briton can visit Lucknow and Cawnpore without being moved. We may well be proud of the heroic deeds of those of our race who in 1857 suffered and fought and died to save the British Raj in India. LECTURE V. BOMBAY. THE MARATHAS. Two new facts have of recent years altered all the relations of India with the outer world, and have vitally changed the conditions of internal government as compared with those prevailing at the time of the Mutiny. The first of these facts was the opening of the Suez * Canal, and the second was the construc- Map of Indian t j on an< ^ as re g;ards main lines the virtual Railway System. completion of the Indian Railway System. Formerly shipping came round the Cape of Good Hope, and it was as easy to steer a course for Calcutta as for Bombay. To-day only bulky cargo is taken from Suez and Aden round the southern point of India through the Bay of Bengal to Calcutta. The fast mail boats run to Bombay, and thence the railways diverge northward, northeastward, and southeastward to all the frontiers of the Empire. Only the Burmese railways remain for the present a detached system. But in regard to tonnage of traffic Calcutta is still the first port of India, for the country which lies in rear of it in Bengal and the United Provinces contains a very large population. From Bombay inland runs the Great Indian Peninsula Railway, or as it is known everywhere in India, the G.I. P. This line branches a short distance from the coast, striking on the one hand southeastward in the direction of Madras, and on the other hand northeastward in the direction of Allahabad. A second great railway system, the East Indian, begins at Howrah on the shore of the Hooghly opposite to Calcutta, and thence crossing the low Rajrnahal spur of the ( 67 ) central hills descends to the bank of the Ganges at Patna, from which point it follows the river to Allahabad, and there branches, one line continuing northwestward to Delhi and beyond, the other striking southwestward through the hills to Jubbulpore, where it meets the north- eastward branch of the G.I. P. Each week, four hours after the arrival of the mail steamer at Bombay, three express trains leave the Victoria Station of that city. One of them is bound southeastward for Madras. The second runs northeastward over the G.I. P. and East Indian lines, by way of Jubbulpore and Allahabad, to the Howrah Station at Calcutta. The third also runs northeastward by the G.I. P. line, but diverges northward from the Calcutta route to Agra and Delhi. When the Government of India is at Simla, the last mentioned train continues northward beyond Delhi to the foot of the mountains. The time taken to Madras is 26 hours, to Calcutta 36 hours, and to Delhi 27 hours. Access to the great plains at the foot of the Himalayas was formerly by the navigation of the Ganges and of its tributaries. Then the Grand Trunk road was constructed from Calcutta northwestward through the Gangetic plain to the northwest of India. It was by this road that relief was brought during the Mutiny to the besieged garrisons of Cawnpore and Lucknow. Finally, the East Indian Railway was built from Bengal to the Punjab through the whole length of the densely peopled belt which is enriched by the monsoon rains of the Himalayas. Recently a more direct line from Bombay to Calcutta, which does not pass through Allahabad, has been con- structed through Nagpur, the capital of the Central Provinces of India. This runs, however, through a hilly country, much forested and relatively thinly peopled. There are now two daily mails between Calcutta and Bombay, the one running via Nagpur and the other via Allahabad. We have here an Indian train standing ^* at a platform. Note the screens con- Indian Railway st ructed to give shade in the heat of the Station. day. ( 68 ) The two branches of the Great Indian Peninsula Railway approach one another at an angle from Allahabad and the northeast and from Madras and the southeast. They descend the steep mountain face which edges the Deccan plateau by two passes, the Bhor Ghat and the Thai Ghat. The lines are constructed downward, with remarkable skill of engineering, by loops, and in places by blind ends on which the trains are reversed. Here are two views of the Bhor Ghat Reversing Station, the first taken from below, and the second from above " The J unction of the two lines is in the narrow coastal plain at the foot si of the descent. Thence the rails are Tie ' carried by a bridge over a sea strait into Sashti Island, and by a second bridge over a second strait into Bombay Island, and so to the great Victoria Terminus in the midst of the city. The island of Bombay is about twelve miles long from north to south. The harbour, set with hilly islets, lies between Bombay and the mainland, the ** entry being from the south round the long Map of Bombay Colaba Point. Westward of Colaba is District. T. I -n r 11 i A;T i i T Back Bay, formed by the Malabar Point, on whose end, extended as it were to meet Europe, is the residence of the Governor of the great Province of Bombay. The most conspicuous feature of the now magnificent city is a range of public buildings, running " north and south about mid-way between Plan of Bombay the harbour and Back Bay. East of City. these buildings is the oldest quarter of the city, known as the Fort. Westward, on the shore of Back Bay, is a broad expanse of garden. The native town lies to the north, and beyond it is Byculla, where are the mills and factories, and to the east of Byculla on the harbour front is the dockyard of the Peninsular and Oriental Steam Navigation Company. How fine a city is Bombay may ( 69 ) be realised from the top of the great tower of the University, some two hundred and fifty feet high, the most conspicuous building in the place. It is the cen- tral feature of the range of public buildings just referred to. We have here in succession from south and south- east to northeast and northwest, four views from the top of this tower. The first is to the 7. south, and shows the Union Jack flying Bombay, from top f rom the Secretariat of the Government "' of Bombay, and the entry to the harbour beyond. The edge of the garden belt ** towards Back Bay is seen along the right The Same, looking ^and edge of the view. In the southeast- Southeast. . , , . , , ward view we have the shipping and the islands of the harbour, and the Government Dockyard with its long jetty. Notice the island fort guarding the channel. In the northeastward view we 9 look towards the native city, and see the The Same, looking factories smoking in the distance. It Northeast. ... , , , . ,, will be seen that there are practically no chimneys on the nearer buildings, and no smoke in the air. Finally from our tower top we turn north- westward, and look across the head of The Same, looking Back Bay towards Malabar Point. The Northwest. ,.,,. ,. , T , - , building on the shore of the Bay is the office of the Bombay and Baroda Railway, which runs north- ward along the coast into a densely peopled lowland round the head of the Gulf of Cambay. Away Repeat Map No. 1. in the distance on that Malabar Pro- montory, but not visible in this view, are the Towers of Silence, where the Parsis dispose of their dead. The Parsis (i.e. Persians) are a community, chiefly of . . merchants, who came to Bombay in the Middle Ages, flying from Persia when Group of Parsis. tfae Musulmans con quered that land. They hold the ancient faith of Persia, and are commonly described as Fire Worshippers. They regard the elements ( TO ) fire, water, and earth as sacred, and therefore refuse to pollute them with the decay of dead 12. bodies. They build round towers, known Parsi Tower of as Towers of Silence, and these they Silence. place in large grounds equivalent to our cemeteries. Each tower is hollow and exposed to the sky within. There on stone ledges the dead bodies are laid, and the vultures pick the flesh from the bones. The ash of the bones is washed by the rain into a central pit at the bottom of the hollow tower, where it slowly accumulates, so that, in accordance with one of the tenets of their faith, the Parsis, rich and poor, meet in death. The Parsis of Bombay are a wealthy and enterprising community, who do no small part of the commerce of the city. One of their number recently sat in the House of Commons at Westminster as the representative of a London constituency. They have no caste prejudices like the Hindus, and no seclusion of women like the Musulmans, so that their ways of life are nearer to those of Europeans. Now let us walk through the city, and realise its grandeur. Here we are down by the western facade !** of the University. The great tower rises T T wer la B aba ba above us from which we just now obtained University. our views. That tower is called the l^c Rajabaie Tower, in memory of the mother The Same, more o f the founder of the building. This is distant view. , , . . f , a rather more distant picture of the same 15. building. We have next the offices of the P. & 0. Offices, p. and O. Company, and then a wharf- side with steamers about to start for Goa, 16 the old Portuguese capital midway along the Carmac Bund, west coast of India southward of Bombay. Here we have the great Victoria Terminus 17. of the G.I. P. Railway, with a central dome Victoria Terminus, and an elaborately carved facade. G.I. P., Bombay. Bombay claims that it is the finest railway ( 7' ) A Q station in the world. This is another view of the same building, with bullocks passing The Same : another view. in front of it. Here are the Municipal A Q Buildings with another fine dome. They are a combination of gothic with oriental Municipal Buildings, Bombay. architecture, and were opened about p/% fifteen years ago. Notice the electric tramway wires above. Then we see Esplanade Road, Bombay. another fine street, the Esplanade Road. o-f The National Bank is to the left, and Fountain in further along is the Bombay Club. Here Esplanade Road, is a fountain in the Esplanade Road, with Bombay. a bullock passing in front of it, and here is 22. the Statue of the Queen-Empress Victoria, Statue of unveiled in 1872. On the canopy are the Queen Victoria. rQse Qf England and the lotus of India Bombay has a population only a little smaller than that of Calcutta, and, like Calcutta and Madras, it is a new city, as time goes in the Immemorial East. The island on which it stands was presented to King Charles II. as part of the dower of his Portuguese Queen, and in order to enable the British the better to co-operate with the Portu- guese in resisting the aggressions and encroachments of the Dutch. When handed over by the Portuguese, there was but a small settlement on the island. In 1668, how- ever, Bombay was ceded to the East India Company, and the Company transferred thither the centre of its trade on the west coast of India, which had up to that time been at Surat, a hundred miles north of Bombay. Gradually the commerce of the port increased, although for a long time it was far outdistanced by Calcutta, whose great riverway extends, as we have seen, through densely peopled plains for a thousand miles inland. East- ward of Bombay, on the other hand, is the mountain face of the Western Ghats, barring easy access to the interior. The greatness of Bombay came only with the opening of the Sue/. Canal and of the railway lines up the Bhor and Thai Ghats, northeastward and southeastward into India. 6 ( 72 ) In Bombay Harbour there is a small island, about six 03 miles from the city, which is called , _ Elephanta. It contains carved rock Exterior of Caves of Elephanta. temples whose antiquity contrasts strangely nx with the modern city close by. We have Caves of Elephanta. here the entry to these temple caves, and here a view within. This is another picture, showing a three-faced image. The Same, showing the A he carving is some twenty feet high, and Trimurti. represents Brahma the Creator, Siva the Destroyer, and Vishnu the Preserver. The nature of these gods was described in the first of these lectures. Here we have a little group of the villagers of 26. Elephanta. The village has some seven Villagers of hundred inhabitants. It is known as Elephanta. Elephanta because there was formerly conspicuous among the rock carvings of the temple a great elephant, which, however, decayed and fell some fifty years ago. The native name of the island means " the town of excavations." Now let us journey inland, up the Ghats, through their thick forests, and if it be the rainy season, past rushing waterfalls, until surmounting the brink top we come out on to the plain of the tableland, and into the relative drought of the upper climate. This is the ^ ' * Maratha country, and here we have a PrSency!Nizara'sfyP ical view of the P en landscape which Territory, and it presents. The hills in the distance Maratha Country. afe the gatara h ^ extending west 28. and east through the heart of India. The Satara Hills, Here is another view in this same Maratha country. Maratha COU ntry. It shows a native 29. plough at work, and in the background Native Plough, one of the table topped mountains, which Maratha Country. are studded Qver the surface of the gener . ally level plateau, not unlike the kopjes of South Africa. These steep-sided isolated mountain blocks have often served as strongholds in warfare, and many of them are ( 73 ) noted in connection with the Maratha wars, waged in this part of India a little more than a century ago under the lead of Sir Arthur Wellesley, afterwards the great Duke of Wellington. At the foot of the mountain may just be seen one of the Towers of Silence of the Parsis. The Marathas are a people of Hindu religion and Marathi language, which is akin, as 3O. we learned in the last lecture, to the Maratha Soldier. Hindi of the United Provinces. Some four generations ago they raided most of India from their home on this high plateau of the Western Deccan, and the troops of the East India Company had to wage three successive wars with them. Had it not been for the British victory, there can be little doubt that the Marathas would have established an Empire in India. Their homeland round the city of Poona now forms the main portion of the Province of Bombay, but Maratha princes still rule large conquered 04 countries as feudatories of the King- Map of the Maratha Emperor. This map shows us the Dominions at their dominion of the Marathas at its greatest greatest extent. ,, , c ., ,. ., extent, near the end of the eighteenth century, when they were the dominant war-like race of India. Their original home was not far from Poona. As they spread, five principal officers of court and state took the place of the dynasty of the Rajas, which became decrepit. These were the Peshwa, the Gaikwar, Sindhia, Holkar, and the Bhonsla. These five great chiefs conquered far and wide through all the heart of India. Sindhia's dominions extended northward to Delhi, and Bhonsla's eastward to Orissa on the east coast. The Peshwa was on the plateau round Poona. Holkar was seated at Indore between the Peshwa and Sindhia, and the Gaikwar at Baroda, in the fertile lowland round the head of the gulf of Cambay. At times there was rivalry and war between them, but with the exception of the Peshwa they were united by French intrigue in the time of Napoleon, with the result that we had to fight between the years 1803 and 1805 the most widespread war which we have ever fought ( 74 ) in India. Our generals were Lake and Wellesley. The most brilliant victory was that of Assaye, in the plateau country just north of Poona. There, with three thousand troops, Wellesley defeated Sindhia's army of twenty thousand men, organised by French officers, and captured an artillery of a hundred guns. Peace was made with the conquered Marathas about the time when Trafalgar was fought, and it was stipulated that they were for the future to allow no European influence in their States except the British. There was a subsequent Maratha war, but the great war just referred to was the most serious crisis through which the British rule in India has had to pass, perhaps not even excepting the Mutiny of 1857. The Marathas are of Hindu religion, but the caste system is not with them carried to the extreme that prevails among other Hindus. They present, in fact, the nearest approach to a national caste. As we shall learn presently, Sindhia, Holkar, and the Gaikwar still rule great territories as Feudatory Princes, but Nagpur, the Bhonsla's capital, is now the chief town of the Central Provinces of British India, and Poona, the capital of the Peshwa, is the seat of the Bombay Government during part of the year. In contrast with the last map, showing the extent of the former Maratha Dominions, we have here a map of the QO central parts of India as they are to-day,. P liti 1 Ma f w i tn the Province of Bombay ruled directly Bombay Province by the British Government marked in redr and Central India. an( j a ] SQ the Central Provinces under direct British rule from Nagpur, but in addition it will be seen that in blue colour there are two patches of territory northeast- ward of Bombay, which bear the inscription Central India r a term to be carefully distinguished from the Central Provinces. Central India consists of Native Feudatory States,, which acknowledge the British suzerainty, but are imme- diately ruled by their own Maharajas, of whom the two most important are the Maratha princes Holkar at Indore, and ( 75 ) Sindhia at Gwalior. There is another larger patch of blue, southeastward of Bombay. This is the Stale of Hyderabad, ruled under British suzerainty by the Nizam. This great prince is however no Maratha, but a Musul- man. His people for the most part speak the Dravidian language Telugu, and are Hindu by religion. Thus we see that none of these large states, each as important as one of the smaller European kingdoms, has for its ruler a man of the same race as the people. Sindhia and Holkar are Marathas ruling Hindi populations ; the Nizam is a Musul- Scene near .. ~ , . . u . , Hyderabad. man rulin g Telugu - speaking Hindus. The Gaikwar of Baroda, it may be added, who governs a small but very Street Scene, In . , -. .1 Hyderabad ncn anc * populous territory, is a Maratha ruling a Gujrati population. We have 35. here a typical landscape in the Nizam's The Nizam's Palace, territory, and see that it is not very- Hyderabad. ,. - . , T . . , different from the Maratha landscapes. It is on the same open Deccan plateau. This is a scene in Hyderabad itself, showing a procession of elephants, and then we see the Nizam's Palace. Next we have a view of Golkonda Fort, placed on one of the usual flat-topped hills, and defended "* on one side by a large sheet of water. Golkonda Fort. f , ,, , ., , , u j r Golkonda is in the neighbourhood of Hyderabad, the capital of the Nizam's dominions. Its name has become proverbial as indicative of immense wealth. Formerly it was the great Indian centre of diamond cutting and polishing, or in other words the Amsterdam of India. The diamonds were not found in the immediate neigh- bourhood, but in the extreme southeastern corner of the Nizam's territory. Here is a nearer view of Golkonda Fort, and here a orr view over the plain, from the bastion at the The Same, nearer to P of the Fort > from which can be seen view. t he Tombs of the Kings about half a ( 76 ) 38. mile away. These kings belonged to a a*the" S td n of g reat Musulman dynasty which ruled Goikonda Fort, here during the sixteenth and seventeenth 3Q. centuries, until it was overthrown by View from Goikonda Aurangzeb. Next we have, near the Fort, looking ' TT . . Northeast. summit of the Fort, the ruins of a Hindu Q temple, and close by, shown in the follow- Hindu Temple, i n slide, the remains of a Muhammadan Goikonda Fort'. mosque . The Fort> therefore, in its 41. ruins, records the essential history of the Musulman country, first the Hindu civilization, and Mosque. Goikonda Fort, then two successive Musulman conquests. Some of these Feudatory Native States do not lag far behind the territories directly ruled by British officials. Western civilization is permeating all India under the British suzerainty. At Secunderabad and Aurangabad, places in the Nizam's Dominions, are, for instance, Agricultural and Industrial Schools. Here is a group of students at the Mahbub College, Secunderabad, and here a view taken at the A g ricultural Sch001 at Aurangabad, which shows some of the students o ploughing. One of the gentlemen in the foreground is the Director of Public Ploughing at , Agricultural School Instruction in the Nizam s State, and at Aurangabad. by his side is the Superintendent of the School. Then we see an orphan 44. student, a " Queen's boy." He will A Queen's Boy at probably settle down in a year or two's the same School. , vi i r ^L time, very likely marrying one of the " Queen's girls." With a portion of his scholarship saved up for him, he will purchase the necessary bullocks and plough. He came to the college from the Victoria Memorial Orphanage, where each child is trained in his own religion. In the midst, however, of this rapid advance we still find the older methods. Here at Secunderabad ( 77 ) is a Kinkob loom of the old pattern. Kinkob Loom, Kinkob work is made of gold and silver Secunderabad. thread< The boy sitting above j s con . trolling the threads, and helps to make the pattern by raising or lowering them in the warp. The boy sitting below in the well is working the shuttles. This is a street scene in Aurangabad Carpenters at showing natives of the carpenter caste Aurangabad. . . . sawing timber. Another aspect of life in the Deccan of India is shown in the next slide, where round the tomb 47. of a saint at a place called Roza is The Tomb of the gathered the camp of a fair. A saint of Saint, Roza. great renown among the Musulmans was buried here in the fourteenth century, and deposited with- in the shrine are some hairs alleged to be from Muhammad's _ Q beard. There follow two slides showing the usual amusements of the fair, in the oza air. latter of which we see a merry-go-round 49. not at a ^ unlike those typical of the The Same. country fairs of England. Next we have a view taken on the road from Roza, and in the distance can be seen the hill fort Dauiatabad, from of Dauiatabad, built in the thirteenth the Road to Roza. century on a great isolated mass of granite about five hundred feet high. In this fort was imprisoned and died the last King of Golkonda, and it became the favourite summer resort of his Mogul conqueror,. Aurangzeb. The upland which fills most of the centre of India and bears in its midst the Nizam's Dominions is in most parts of no great fertility. Over large areas it is fitted rather for the pasture of horses and cattle than for the plough. Agriculture is naturally best in the river valleys, but there is one large district lying on the plateau top east of Bombay, and on the hill tops about the Narbada valley east of Baroda,. ( 78 ) which is of a most singular fertility. The usually granitic and schistose rocks of the Repeat Map No. 27. , . , , , , , plateau have here been overlaid by great sheets of basaltic lava. Detached por- tions of these lava beds form the table tops of the hills in the country rendered famous by Wellesley's Maratha campaigns. The lava disintegrates into a tenacious black soil, which does not fall into dust during the dry season, but cracks into great blocks, which remain moist. As the dry season advances these blocks shrink, and the cracks grow broader, so that finally it is dangerous for a horse to gallop over the plain lest its hoof should be caught in one of these openings of the ground. This remarkable earth is known as the Black Cotton Soil. The cotton seeds are sown after the rains, and as the young plant grows a clod of earth forms round its roots, which is separated from the next similar clod by cracks. Wheat is grown on this soil in the same manner, being sown after the rainy season and reaped in the beginning of the hot season, so that from beginning to end the crop is produced without exposure to rain, being drawn up by the brilliant sunshine and fed at the root by the moisture preserved in the heavy soil. Thus in the part of India which lies immediately east, northeast, and north of Bombay the lowlands and the uplands are alike fertile the lowlands round Ahmadabad and Baroda and in the valleys of the Narbada and Tapti Rivers because of their alluvial soil, and the uplands round Poona and Indore because they are clothed with the volcanic cotton soil. Just within the northwestern corner of the Nizam's territory are the famous rock temples of Ellora, perhaps the most magnificent of their kind in the world. The sculpture is of Brahman, Buddhist, and Jain dates, the monuments of various religions being thus as it were imposed upon one another. ( 79 ) This is the entry to the Jain part of the Ellora caves, and this is the Entry to Jain . r r ^, T . Caves, Ellora. interior of one of the Jam caves, story co above story. The niches are full of Jain Caves/Ellora. Statues ' man y f them in P erfect CO1V __ dition. Here we have two views of the " magnificent Juggernath Temple. Next, in The Juggernath ., ,. ,. ,. ,. . . , ., Temple, Jain Caves, the dim light, we realize something of the internal structure of the Brahman section 54. of the caves. Notice the two men whose The Same. height enables you to judge of the scale. 55. These are among the finest of all the The Kaiias Caves, monuments of antiquity in India. Here __ is a view taken on the floor of the Buddhist Temple, with large figures of Buddha seated on a throne, and there 5 . follows a view in another cave showing BU El15ra t Ca^! e> the beautifully carved roof. It will be seen ^en that in these Ellora caves co several religions have contributed, the The Carpenter Cave, Ellora. J a in no less than the Buddhist and the Hindu. The Jains rose in the time of Buddha, five hundred years before Christ. That was a time of religious stir in India, which resulted in various revolts against the Brahmanical system. The Jain tenets are not unlike those of the Buddhists. They believe in the universal soul, and in the transmigration of souls, so that a man's soul may pass into an animal. Their regard for animal life, for this reason so general in India, is carried to an extreme. The Jains were strongest in Western India, and they are still present there, although now in a very small minority. They probably total to-day not more than a million and a half, and are perhaps most numerous at Ahmadabad. Of their great temples at Mount Abu we shall hear presently. In order to complete the range of the architectures of India, there follow two specimens of the Muhammadan ( So ) buildings of the state of Hyderabad. First we see the Mecca Gate at Aurangabad, with the 59. Mecca Bridge underneath it, and then The Mecca Gate, we have the Mausoleum of Rubia-ud- Aurangabad. Daurani, the wife of Aurangzeb. The door of the gateway is of brass and all the domes are of marble. The building b >' the Government of the Nizam, and is now probably second only to the Taj Mahal at Agra among the Muhammadan buildings of India. Finally, we must note that a portion of the Bombay Presidency lies far away to the northwest, detached from the remainder. This is the province of Sind, for the most part a desert area, but containing the delta of the river Indus, which is a second Egypt in fer- tility, for there the alluvium brought down Repeat Map No. 32. . , by the great river from the distant Himalaya mountains is deposited, and water is available by irrigation from the same distant source. Curiously, Sind resembles Egypt in its human settlements. At the head of the delta where the dis- tributaries divide, and therefore at the lowest convenient crossing place of the river, is situated the city of Hyderabad, corresponding to Cairo, and on the sea front westward of the deltaic mouths is Karachi, corresponding to Alexandria. Sind was conquered by Sir Charles Napier in 184^. The Sindi population is Repeat Map No. 27. \ 1 vr i for the most part Musulman, and engaged in agriculture, but the significance of Sind has altered since it was first added to the directly ruled Brit- ish territories. At first communication with the Punjab was relatively difficult, for the Indus is not navigated with the same ease as is the Ganges. In the days before railways it was therefore natural that the new province should be administered from Bombay by means of sea communica- tions. Today, however, with the construction of the North Western Railway from Karachi up the river Indus, the commercial relations of Sind have come to be with the Punjab, of which Karachi is now the great port, although it is still subordinate to Bombay for purposes of govern- ment. It is interesting and significant to observe that the coast- line of all India is now under direct British rule, except for the little States of Cochin and Travancore, in the far south, near Cape Comorin, and the peninsula of Kathiawar and the island of Cutch, which are divided among a multitude of petty chieftains subordinate to the Government of Bombay* Thus the larger Native States, being isolated from the sea, there is little fear of foreign intrigue in India such as we had to contend with during the French wars. There are a few diminutive scraps of territory belonging to the French and Portuguese Governments, but these are too insignificant to break the general rule, and moreover they are engirt landward by directly ruled British territory. The largest of them is at Goa, on the west coast, south of Bombay, the last remnant of the great Portuguese dominion in the Indies. LECTURE VI. RAJPUTANA. THE FEUDATORY STATES. In the centre of northwestern India * is a group of large native States known Map of India, Rajputana, of the greatest historical Distinguishing 3V Rajputana. interest. These States are inhabited by ancient Hindu Aryan tribes, collectively known as Rajputs, which literally means "of princely descent." They represent the purest and most ancient Indian stock, and here, almost alone of the larger native States, the Chiefs belong to the same race as their people. Rajputana suffered much from the Musulmans, but was never completely conquered by them, a fact in part due to the physical character of the country. Through the centre of Rajputana, & diagonally from the southwest north- Map of eastward, there runs the range of the Northwestern India. Aravalli hills for a distance of fully three hundred miles, its northern extremity being the Ridge at Delhi on the Jumna River. At the southern end of the Aravallis, but separated from the main range by a hollow, is the isolated Mount Abu, the highest point in Rajputana, standing up conspicuously above the surrounding plains to a height of some five thousand feet. The top is a rugged plateau measuring fourteen miles by four. On this little upland, are the signs both of the antiquity and modernity of Rajputana on the one hand, the world- famed ruins of Tain temples, and on the other, round the beautiful Gem Lake, the residences of the Agent of the Governor-General and his staff, who maintain the suzerainty of the King-Emperor in Rajputana. East of the Aravalli hills, in the basin of the Chambal tributary of the Jumna- Ganges, is the more fertile part of Rajputana, with the cities- of Jaipur, Ajmer, Udaipur, and the old fortress of Chitor, Beyond the Chambal River itself, but within its basin, may be seen on the map the positions of Indore and Gwalior, the seats of the Maratha princes Holkar and Sindhia, Indore and Gwalior, however, belong to the Central Indian Agency and not to Rajputana. West of the Aravalli hills is the great Indian Desert, prolonged seaward by the salt and partly tidal marsh known as the Rann of Cutch. In oases of this desert are some of the smaller Rajput capitals r notably Bikaner. Beyond the desert flows the great Indus river, through a dry although not wholly desert land, in the midst of which, from Hyderabad to the sea, is the delta of Sind, as was said in the last lecture, a second Egypt, fertile and thickly peopled. South of Mount Abu, where the rivers descend from the end of the Aravalli hills to the Gulf of Cambay is another fertile lowland, with the beauti- ful city of Ahmadabad in the centre of it, but this city is in British territory, being in the Province of Bombay,, and therefore outside the Tributary States of Rajputana. Ajmer, beside the Aravalli hills, is in an island of directly ruled British territory completely surrounded by Feudatory Rajputana. It would be difficult to exaggerate the importance to' India of the existence of the great Indian Desert of Raj- putana. The ocean to the southeast and the southwest of the Peninsula was an ample protection against overseas invasion- until the Europeans rounded the Cape of Good Hope. The vast length of the Himalaya, backed by the desert plateau of Tibet, was an equal defence on a third side. Only to the northwest does India lie relatively open to the incursions of the war-like peoples of Western and Central Asia. It is precisely in that direction, as a great barrier extending northeastward from the Rann of Cutch, that we find the Indian Desert, and in rear of the Desert the minor bulwark constituted by the Aravalli range. Only between the northeastern extremity of the desert and the foot of the Himalayas below Simla is there an easy gateway into India. No river traverses this gateway, which is on the divide between the systems of the Indus and the Jumna-Ganges. Delhi stands on the west bank of the Jumna at the northern extremity of the Aravallis, just where the invad- ing forces from the northwest came through to the navigable waters of the Jumna, which flow southeastward through Hindustan to Bengal. Aided by such powerful natural conditions, the Rajputs have ever been the defenders of India. Unable to prevent the entry of invaders by the direct way to Delhi, they have maintained themselves on the southern flank of the advance, and to-day their princely families proudly trace their lineage back in unbroken descent from ancestors before the Christian era. In the gateway itself, between the desert and the Himalayas, beyond the limits of Rajputana, dwell another people of warlike disposition, the famous Sikhs. Here are still preserved as Feudatory States the Sikh Principalities of Patiala, Nabha, and Jhind. Let us first visit Ahmadabad, in the midst of the fertile lowland at the head of the Gulf of Cambay. The territories of this part of the Bombay Presidency are much mixed with those of the Gaikwar of Baroda, so that the map of the plains round the two cities of Ahmadabad and Baroda almost resembles that part of Scotland which is labelled Ross and Cromarty. Ahmadabad was once the most important Mohammedan city of Western India, and contains many fine architectural monuments, surpassed only by those of the great Mogul capitals, Delhi and Agra. It is reached from Bombay by 3. the Bombay and Baroda Railway along Jama Masjid, the coast northward. We have here the Ahmadabad. T .-., -., / , Jama Masjid or Great Mosque of the < 8 5 ) 5. city, still one of the most beautiful in Rani Sipri's Tomb, India, though it was damaged by an Ahmadabad. earthquake about a century ago. Then c we have another fine building, Rani Sipri's Tomb. There follows a view of Mohafiz Khan's / Mosque, Mohafiz Khan s Mosque, whose fine Ahmadabad. minarets remind one of the Citadel at Cairo. Finally, just outside Ahmadabad, is the comparatively modern Temple of temple* Hathi Singh, built of white marble in the Ahmadabad. Jain style, with many domes. From Ahmadabad the Baroda Railway is continued north- ward and westward across the southern end of the Rajput Desert to Hyderabad, in Sind, but we will go on our jour- ney by the narrow gauge railway through Rajputana to Mount Abu, which rises The Lake, like an island of granite from amid the Mount Abu. , , TT . _ sandy desert. Here is the Gem Lake on the summit of the mountain, a most beautiful sheet of water, set with rocky islets and overhung with great masses of rock, with the Residency or house of the representative of the British Government on its shore, for Mount Abu is the centre from which Rajputana is controlled, as far as is necessary, by the advice of the Viceroy. It is, as we have already said, about 5,000 feet or a mile above the sea level, and the climate is therefore suitable for a hill station. It is used as a sanatorium for British troops and as a hot season resort. g Mount Abu is famous for its Dilwarra temples, probably the most ancient The Dilwarra ' Temples, of the Jam temples of India. We Mount Abu. heard of the Jains at the close of the last lecture. This is a distant view Q. of the Dilwarra temples among the palm The Same, trees. We see that the surface of the nearer view, , , , T , plateau is very rugged. Here is a nearer lO. view of the temples, and here a doorway Door of the Adinat, of the most ancient of them, built probably Mount Abu. , . , ,. . . XT .-, about the time of the Norman Conquest A A of England. Next we have two views of another temple, erected some two hundred Sava Nunda, r Mount Abu. years later. The carving of the small domes and vaults is most delicate, and 12. stands almost unrivalled even in India, a The Same, land essentially of painstaking labour in another view. ,, , , ., . . - small details, finally, we have a view of ^ o yet another temple, said to have been built by the workmen in their spare time during Paras Wanath ' Temple, Mount Abu. the erection of the greater temples we have just seen. In spite of the dilapida- tion of many centuries, and of unskilled restoration in places, these ruins are still extremely beautiful amid the rugged scenery of the Mount. The British Station on Mount Abu was attacked during the Mutiny, but the attack was beaten off. One of the most progressive of the Sir Pratab Singh. Rajput States, and the oldest, is Jodhpur, 15. whose Prime Minister was, until lately, Dolat Singh. the distinguished officer Sir Pratab Singh, A g now Maharaja of his own little State of Himat Singh. Idar, in the plain at the foot of Mount Abu. We have his portrait here, and those of his son and grandson. Udaipur is the capital of another of the greater Rajput A rj States, Mewar, which was founded in the Roman times of European chronology. H.H. The Maharana . hj of Udaipur. This is a portrait of the Maharana 18. f Udaipur, who is the highest in The Palace, esteem of all the Rajput princes. Udaipur. .Q Udaipur is one of the most beautiful The Same cities in India, with its palaces and 0/1 ghats reflected in the clear waters of Udaipur. from the a lake - Here are two vievvs of the JagMandar. palace of the Maharana, built of granite 21. and marble, rising to a hundred feet above the surface of the lake. Here we ( 87 ) no have the city seen across the lake, and Jag Newas, tn en there follow two views showing the Udaipur. temples and terraces by the water's edge. East of Udaipur city, but in the same State, is the rock fortress of Chitor, anciently the capital, a most conspicuous object, standing high and isolated above the surrounding country. The slopes of the hill are covered with a thick jungle, and the summit is crowned with ruins of palaces and temples. The road which leads up to the top is about a mile in length, and on it at intervals are seven gateways. 23. ^ e have here a view of one of them, the The Ganesh Gate, Ganesh Gate. This roadway was the Chitor. scene of a terrible struggle in the middle of the 1 6th century, when the invading Musulmans under Akbar attacked the Rajput stronghold. The citadel was at length taken, but the Rajputs sold their freedom dearly, nearly ten thousand of them falling in the battle. The old city of Chitor is now decayed and reduced to a mere village, but it still contains interesting ruins, notably the two Jain Towers of Victory and Fame. The Tower of Fame is the older, built in the time of our King Alfred. 25. This is a view of the Tower of Victory, The Tower of built in the earl y X 5 th century. It Victory, Chitor. has nine stories. A stairway in the centre leads to the top. The dome has recently been restored, having been wrecked by lightning. Ajmer, now under direct British rule, is another ancient and beautiful spot, set in a hollow among low hills, and surrounded by a wall. It was the scene of many struggles between the Musulmans and the Rajputs, and was finally taken by Akbar in the middle of the i6th century. One of the principal buildings is the Durga, venerated both by Hindus and by The Durga, Musulmans. We have here a view of the courtyard of the Durga. Notice to the right hand the huge metal cauldron set in stone. It is used for the cooking of rice given in charity, which is divided between poor pilgrims and the attendants at the ( .88 ) 26. shrine. Here is the Tomb of Chisti in The Same, The Tomb the Durga. Next is a Muhammadan of Chisti. Mosque, called the Arhai-Din-Ka-Jhompra, 2 Y which, tradition says, was built with divine The Arhai-Din-Ka- assistance in two and a half days. Then Jhompra, Ajmer. W e have a view of the lake at Ajmer. On OQ the bank are a number of marble pavilions. This is one of them. Close by, on The Lake, A j me P. * a small hill overlooking the lake, is 29. the house of the Chief Commissioner The DurgajSazaap, o f Ajmer, and Agent to the Governor- General for Rajputana. Here we have 30. a street in Ajmer. And here is the Mayo College, Mayo College, for the education of the Ajmep. sons o f t h e R a jp U t chiefs, an institution of the greatest importance, as it were the loyal Eton of India, for the Rajput Maharajas have the deepest instinct of personal loyalty to the Suzerain Lord, a result at once of their feudal pride, their religion, and their intelligence as rulers. The College was opened in 1875, and contains about a hundred students. The main building, seen in this view, is of white marble. Next we visit Jaipur, a walled city surrounded by rocky hills crowned with forts, the capital and residence of the Maharaja of Jaipur State, the best governed 31. of all the Rajput States. This is one Chand Pol Gate, o f tne entrance gates, and through the Jaipur. archway may be seen the crenellated wall nn of the city, with thatched huts built against it. Here is a street within the A Street in Jaipur. | . city, with a fort-crowned jock visible at 33. the end of it, and here is the Bazaar. Chand Pol Bazaar, Jaipur has a modern aspect, for it is a Jaipur. ' ' . busy and prosperous commercial centre. Here is a wool cart in the city. The AWooiCapt, streets are broad perhaps the broadest aipur. - n t k e wor j ( j an( j cross one another at right angles, and at night are well lighted with gas. One of the most interesting of the old Indian observatories, with great stone instruments, even larger than those of Benares, is in this city. It was constructed at the beginning of the i8th century, and has recently been restored by the progressive Maharaja. OO. This is the great Samrat Yantra, or TheSamratYantra, sundial th } j h w The Jaipur Observatory. _ gnomon is 75 feet in height. Notice how small in comparison is the keeper of the observatory, who may be seen standing just outside the line of the shadow on the circumference of the dial. In the distance, above some dwelling houses, is visible the clock-tower of the Maharaja's palace, the time of which is regulated by this sundial. 36. The palace stands amid beautiful gardens. The Palace Gardens, We have here a tank in these gardens Jaipur-Crocodiles. , . , ,, , . , ... showing the Maharaja s crocodiles, and here is the tomb among the trees of one of The Same, Tomb of .1 i . -HT u > ^j /^,-j^i a pet dog. the late Maharaja s pet dogs. Outside the OQ c * tv wa ^ s are fi ne public gardens, covering Flamingoes at some fort y acres ' containin g an aviary and Jaipur. menagerie. Here is a group of flamingoes, <~Q caught in the neighbourhood. Finally, Sita Ranji Temple, we have one of the temples in the city, Jaipur. built of red sandstone and finely carved. A few miles from Jaipur is Amber, the The Lake and ancient capital of Jaipur State, but now Palace, Amber, abandoned and in ruins. Here we have $.1. a view of the old Palace and the Lake, Shish Mahal, Amber, and here one of the many fine buildings, 42. the Shish Mahal. Next we see the Palace The Palace, at Alwar, a comparatively modern city, Alwar the present capital of the State of Alwar, 43. and then we have a view over the palace The Same from , , , r il , . , , , above. looking down from the hill above. 44. Now we visit Bikaner, in an oasis of City Gate, Bikaner. the northwestern desert. This is the city gate, with a level railway crossing in front. Notice the camel waiting for the passing of the ( 90 ) train, and the water-carriers. Here of course water is a valuable commodity. The district of which Bikaner is the centre suffers frequently from famine owing to drought. Then 45. we have a Jain temple crowning a rocky Bhandk"halikkner mound and from the terrace of this temple we obtain a view over the city, Bikaner from the with its flat roofs and desert spaces. There Jain Temple. . xn follows a view in one of the narrow streets, Street in Bikaner. showing the carved front of a house 48. belonging to one of the richer Jains of Gp ain Sellers, the city. Finally we have a typical group AQ of grain sellers in front of the Customs Bikaner Fort. House, and a view of the Fort. On our way northeastward we will next visit the city of Nabha, though it is the centre of a Sikh and not of a 50. Rajput State. Here is the Raja of ?w H v,u heR ^- Nabha surrounded by his Council of or Nabha and his ministers. Ministers, and here his portrait. Then c^ we have in the distance the palace of the H.H. The Raja Crown Prince of Nabha, seen from the roof of Elgin House, the home of the 52. British Resident. Next there follow a CrownPrfneVJf 6 series of portraits. The first is of a young Nabha. princeling. The second is of a group of 53. Sikhs; in front is a priest, and to the Sirdar Patch Singh. r igh t) i n black, an Akali, or warrior-monk. 54. There follows another slide showing one Sikhs at Nabha. o f these Akalis in ancient fighting costume. 55. Then we have, by way of contrast, the An Akali at Nabha. very up to date Chief Justice of Nabha, 56. but notice in the background sentry duty The Chief Justice economically performed by a pasteboard soldier ! Here is a typical Sikh face, 57. that of the Vakil to the Political Agent Sird !inih. ham at the British Residency. Finally, we will cross the Chambal Repeat Map No. 2. river and, leaving Rajputana, will enter Central India, and visit the two cities of Gwalior and Indore, the capitals of the Maratha Princes Sindhia and Holkar. Gwalior lies a little south of Delhi and Agra. The city is dominated by an isolated rock fort, flat-topped and steep-sided, more than three hundred feet in height. There is but a single road up, and along this road are six successive gates, arranged as at the fort of Chitor in Rajputana. Sindhia captured Gwalior rather more than a hundred years ago. When the Indian Mutiny broke out his people, being of Hindi race, of the same kin therefore as the people of Agra and Oudh, revolted and joined the mutineers, but Sindhia and his Maratha officers remained loyal and escaped to British protection. Gwalior was the scene of the last episodes in the Indian Mutiny. Driven from Delhi and from around Cawnpore and Lucknow, the mutineers marched in 1858 against Sindhia, who met them in battle, but was defeated. Then General Sir Hugh Rose followed them up in what is known as the Central Indian campaign, and _ ' _ ' defeated them at Gwalior. The fort of The Fort, Gwalior. Gwalior itself was taken by a remarkable feat of daring. Two British subalterns with a blacksmith and an outpost force picked the locks of the first five gateways up the road entry before they were discovered. They stormed the last gate, one of them being killed. So Gwalior Fort was taken, and for a generation was garrisoned by British troops, but about twenty years ago it was restored to the Maharaja Sindhia. _ Q Indore lies in the land of Malwa, a , T," , considerable distance south of Gwalior Holkar s Palace, Indore. and on high ground about the sources of the Chambal river. The Governor- General's Agent for Central India has his residence here by treaty, and close at hand is now the army cantonment of Mhow. At the time of the Mutiny some of Holkar's infantry attacked the Residency, and as the Resident, Sir Henry Durand, had only twenty men to defend it, he ( 92 ) was compelled to retreat with some women and children. But it was soon recovered and nothing very serious ensued in this part of India. The Rajputana Agency is as large as the whole British Isles, but it contains only about ten million people, since a great part of it is desert. The Central Indian Agency is about as large as England and Scotland without Wales. It has a population only a little smaller than that of Rajputana. We may measure the significance of the more important chiefs in these two Agencies by the fact that Sindhia rules a country little less, either in area or population, than the Kingdom of Scotland. The Native States of India, of which we have seen a series of examples, occupy about a third of the area of the whole country, and contain about one-fifth of the population. They represent in their present secure position a new phase of Anglo-Indian policy. The Indian Mutiny closed a period characterised by successive great annexations to the territory directly ruled by Britain. Since the Mutiny there has been no acquisition of directly ruled provinces, except in Burma. Therein the policy of the Empire differs markedly from that of the old East India Company. The King- Emperor now guarantees the privileges and separate modes of rule in the Feudatory States. As a result, there are no more loyal supporters of the British Raj than these great native chiefs, who in recent years have raised an army of Imperial Service Troops, to reinforce the Indian and British armies for the defence of the Empire and the maintenance of internal order. Let us cast our eye over the map and enumerate the principal divisions of India - Under direct British rule are in the south Madras and in the east Burma. Then in succession through the plain at the foot of the Himalayas are Eastern Bengal and Assam ; Bengal ; the United Provinces of Agra and Oudh ; and the Punjab. In the east centre round Nagpur are the Central Provinces, ( 93 ) and in the west is the Presidency of Bombay, with the detached territory of Sind on the lower Indus. On the Northwestern Frontier are British Baluchistan and the Northwest Frontier Province, while in the midst of Rajputana is the little district of Ajmer, and away in the south amid the forests of the Western Ghats the little dislrict of Coorg. Ceylon, as was said in the first lecture, though British, is not a part of India, but a separate Crown Colony. All these Provinces are directly administered by the British Civil Service. Now consider the Feudatory States. In the far south, from Cape Comorin along the west coast, we have the two little countries of Travancore and Cochin, ruled by Hindu Maharajas. They are far removed from all the greater problems of Indian Government, remote homes of the caste system in its most stringent form, and also, curiously, of a most ancient form of Christianity introduced long centuries ago from Nestorian sources in Western Asia. Then, north of the Nilgiri hills and the hill station of Ootacamund, is the State of Mysore, high on the plateau, completely surrounded by British territory of the Provinces of Madras, Bombay, and Coorg. The Maharaja here is a Hindu in religion, and the people are chiefly Hindu. Northward again, and still on the Deccan plateau, is the largest and most important native State of India, ruled from Hyderabad by the Nizam, a Musulman, who administers a country largely of Hindu religion. Then we have the two great groups of States, whose relations with the Empire are conducted by the Agencies of Central India and Rajputana. The most important of the Central Indian chiefs are Holkar and Sindhia, Marathas in a Hindi-speaking country, though in faith Hindus like their subjects. In Rajputana are the Rajput States of which we have spoken in this lecture. It will be observed that, with the small exceptions of Travancore and Cochin, all the States thus far enumerated lie inland and are surrounded by British territory directly administered. The remaining native ( 94 ) states form a fringe along the northern and northwestern borders. To the northeast amid the foot-hills of the Himalayas are in succession, from east to west, Bhutan, Sikkim, and Nepal. Of these, Nepal stands outside the Indian Protectorate in a special relation of independent alliance with the British Government. In the far north is the state of Kashmir, whose centre is a beautiful valley, with a lake in its midst, deeply sunk amid the Himalayan ranges proper. A part of the foot-hills on the one hand and a length of the Tibetan Indus on the other hand are also included within the territory ruled by the Maharaja of Kashmir. To the northwest are the Pathan and Baluchi hill tribes in relation with the North-West Frontier Province and British Baluchistan. Such a survey as that which we have thus rapidly made gives perhaps the best idea of'the complexity and vastness of the Indian Political System. The Indian Empire is in fact not a country but, as the inhabitants of the United States say of their own land, a sub-continent, and as regards everything but mere area the expression is far more true of India than of the United States, for in the United States a single race and a single religion are dominant, but in India a long history lives to this day in the most striking social contrasts, presenting all manner of problems which it will take generations to solve. LECTURE VII. DELHI. THE MUHAMMADAN RELIGION. LIST OF THE MOGUL EMPERORS FROM HUMAYUN TO AURANGZEB. HUMAYUN 1530-1540 1555-1556 AKBAR 1556-1605 JEHANGIR 1605-1627 SHAH JAHAN 1627-1658 AURANGZEB 1658-1707 Once more we look at the map of * Northern India. We realise the great Map of mountain wall of the Himalayas, four Northern India. j c -i i L ,1 i and five miles high, curving through fifteen hundred miles along the northeast frontier of the Indian lowland. Behind the Himalayas is the Tibetan plateau, three miles in average elevation. Northwestward of India there is another plateau, but a lower one than Tibet, and the mountain ranges which divide it from the Indian plain are lower than the Himalayas. Observe the great series of streams which emerge from the Himalayas, and gather on the one hand into the Indus River, flowing southwestward, and on the other hand into the Ganges, flowing southeastward. See the position of the Indian desert and the Aravalli Hills, and note the exact spot where stands the city of Delhi. We turn now to a map on a larger 2. scale of the region round Delhi. We see Map of the the Himalaya mountains, the Aravalli neighbourhood of h i 11Sj and t h e Indian Desert. We see the streams of the Indus and Ganges systems turning away from one another, and we see Simla, the summer capital of India, high on a spur of the Himalayas, above the divide between the Indus and the Ganges tributaries. Just north of Simla is the valley of the Sutlej, tributary to the Indus, and where the Sutlej issues from the ( 96 ) mountains we note the off-take of a great system of irrigation canals. It is true that the lowland northwestward of Delhi is not quite desert. Nevertheless it has but a sparse rainfall, and the result of the construction of the irrigation canals derived from the Himalayan waters is that great colonies have been established in this region, and wheat is grown on thousands of square miles that were formerly waste. India has a great population, but with modern methods of water supply, and more advanced methods of cultivation, there is still ample room for settlement within its boundaries. We see on the map that there are other irrigation canals derived from the Ganges where it emerges from the mountains at Hardwar, and from the Jumna. Delhi is the Musulman capital of India. What Benares and Patna and Gaya were and are to the Brahman and Buddhist civilisations native to India, what Calcutta and Madras and Bombay and Karachi are to the English from over the seas, that are Delhi and Agra to the Musulmans entering India from the northwest. The Musulmans were not the first to come this way into India. The oldest of the sacred books of the Hindus tell of a people who came from the northwest and apparently founded the Hindu religion, accepting no doubt some of the religious beliefs of the earlier, the Dravidian, population. From these Aryan invaders, speaking Sanscrit, have been derived the languages of the peoples of Northern India. Southeastward, southward, and south westward from Delhi as far as the centre of India, there spread the Hindi, Bengali, and Marathi languages, as evidence of the effective conquest made by those remote invaders entering through the Delhi passage between the desert and the mountains. So far, however, as their language was concerned, they failed to establish themselves in the Dravidian south. Long afterwards, but still some three hundred years before the Christian era, the Greeks under Alexander the Great traversed Persia and Turkestan and came over the Hindu Kush, the mountain backbone of what is now Afghanistan, down into the plains of the Punjab. Alexander advanced across the rivers of the ( 97 ) Punjab, tributary to the Indus, apparently as far as the Sutlej, and then turned southward and followed the Indus to its mouth. Part of his troops returned through the Persian Gulf on board the fleet, and part he led back with great loss along the barren northern shore of the Arabian Sea. Alexander and the Greeks came therefore to the very threshold of India, and then turned aside towards the sea, leaving the desert of Rajputana between them and the great prize of the conqueror. In the seventh century of the Christian era there arose in Arabia the prophet Muhammad, who in his youth had been influenced both by Christian and Hebrew teaching. He preached to the Arabs that there was but one God, and that Muhammad was his prophet. Muhammad, " The Praised," was born in Mecca, about the year 570. He belonged to one of the ruling families of the tribe of Arabs who held Mecca and the surrounding country, but his father died before he was born, and his mother when he was only six months old. From his earliest youth Muhammad was addicted to solitude and musing. In his wanderings he visited Syria, and in a Nestorian convent there learned many of the Hebrew and Christian ideas which he subsequently incorporated into his teaching. In his twenty-fifth year he married Khadija, a widow of noble birth and considerable wealth. This marriage placed him in a position of independence, for he had previously been very poor. When Muhammad was forty years old there came to him a Divine Call, bidding him teach his people to abandon their idols, to worship God, and to accept him as God's Prophet. At first Muhammad met with the most bitter opposition, and in the year 622 A.D. he had to flee from Mecca to a city called Yathreb, which received him and made him its chief magistrate. Ever since that event this city has been called Medinat-un-Nabi, the City of the Prophet ; or, shortly, Medina. The flight of Muhammad from Mecca is called the Hegira, and it is ( 98 ) from this event that the Muhammadan calendar dates. In the year 630 A.D. Mecca was conquered, and shortly after this all Arabia submitted to the claims of the prophet. After Muhammad's death the Arabs set forth to conquer the world and to convert it to Islam. They subdued Egypt and Syria and the plain of the Euphrates. They marched to the gates of Constantinople, and through Northern Africa to the Strait of Gibraltar, and beyond Gibraltar through Spain into France, there to suffer a great defeat at the hands of the Christian Franks, which saved the remainder of Christendom. All this was accomplished in little more than a hundred years from the Hegira. But the Musulmans did not wage war only against Christendom. Their armies advanced from the Euphrates up on to the Persian plateau and down into the lowlands of Turkestan in the heart of Asia, and over the Hindu Kush into Afghanistan, and then down into the plain of the River Indus. Already in the seventh century there had been Musulman incursions into India overseas, by way of Sind. In the eleventh century after Christ the Musulmans entered Gangetic India, and took Delhi. They founded there a Muhammadan realm, which presently extended through most of Northern India. Five hundred years later a second Musulman invasion, more effective than the first, came into India by way of Delhi. The Moguls or Mongols of Central Asia had been converted to Islam, and in the time of our King Henry the Eighth they refounded the Musulman power at Delhi. For a hundred and fifty years, from the time of our Queen Elizabeth to that of our Queen Anne, the series of Mogul Emperors, from Humayun to Aurangzeb, ruled in splendid state 3. practically the whole of India. This map The Mogul Empire shows the greatest spread of the Mogul at its greatest Empire. Agra, a hundred miles down the Jumna from Delhi, became a sub- sidiary capital to Delhi, and in these two cities we have ( 99 ) to-day the supreme examples of Muhammadan architectural art. The Musulman, it must be remembered, came as an alien to India. He is no polytheist or pantheist, but a believer in the one God, and that a spiritual God, so that he holds it wrong to make any graven image, whether of man or of animal. Islam is the name which the followers of the prophet gave to their religion : it means primarily submission, and so peace, greeting, safety, and salvation, and in its ethical sense it signifies striving after righteous- ness. Islam is in its essence pure Theism coupled with some definite rules of conduct. Belief in a future life and accountability for human action in another existence are two of the principal doctrines of the Islamic creed. Every Musulman is his own priest, and, in theory at any rate, no divisions of race or colour are recognised among the followers of the Prophet. Musulmans are forbidden to take alcohol. The gospel of Islam is the Koran The Book in which are embodied the teachings and precepts of the Arabian Prophet. The Koran incorporates, as we have already seen, much that was drawn both from Hebrew and Christian teaching. More than sixty millions of the Indian population hold the faith of Islam. They are scattered all over the land, usually in a minority, although that minority, as we have already learned, is frequently powerful, for it gives ruling chiefs to many districts which are dominantly Hindu. In two parts only of India are the Musulmans in a majority, namely, in the far east, beyond the mouths of the Ganges in the newly formed Province of Eastern Bengal and Assam, and in the Indus Basin from the neighbourhood of Delhi through the Punjab into Sind. For this reason, and also because of its physical character lying low beneath the uplands of Afghanistan, and separated from the greater part of India by the breadth of the desert we may think of the Indus Valley as being an ante-chamber to India proper. In this ante-chamber, and in the Delhi passage, between the desert and the mountains, for more than nine hundred years the Musulmans have predominated. When the decay of the Mogul Empire began in the time of our Queen Anne, the chief local representatives of the Imperial Rule, such as the Nizam of Hyderabad, and the Nawabs of Bengal and Oudh, assumed an independent position. It was with these new dynasties that the East India Company came into conflict in the days of General Clive, and thus we may regard the British Empire in India as having been built up from the fragments into which the Mogul Empire broke. In one region, however, the Western Deccan, the Hindus re-asserted themselves, and there was a rival bid for Empire, as we have already learned, on the part of the Marathas. It was the work of General Wellesley, afterwards Duke of Wellington, to defeat the Marathas. In the north also, in the Punjab, there was a recrudescence of the Hindu race, due to the new sect of the Sikhs, who set up a power with which at a later time the British Raj came into conflict. But this was not until after Delhi, the very seat of the Mogul throne, had been taken. We are now prepared for the fact shown in this map, that the tract northwestward Repeat Map No. 2. ri ^. ,, ,, , . ., , of Delhi, in the gateway between the desert and the mountains, is sown over with battle fields ancient battlefields near Delhi, where the incoming Musulmans overthrew the Indian resistance, and modern battlefields near the Sutlej, where advancing British power inflicted defeat upon the Sikhs after severe , ," contests. It is by no accident that Simla, * Viceregal Lodge Simla, the residence during more than distant view. half the year of the British Viceroy, is 5 placed on the Himalayan heights above Bazaar and'lown this natural seat of Empire and of struggle for Empire. In the Mutiny of 1857 the Sikhs of the Punjab, and of the still continuing Tributary States of Nabha and Patiala, mentioned in the last lecture, remained loyal to the British rule, although they had been conquered in the terrible battles on the Sutlej less than ten years before. In no small measure this was due to the extraordinary influence wielded over them by Sir John Lawrence, after- wards Lord Lawrence, the brother of that Sir Henry Lawrence who defended the Residency of Lucknow. As a result of the Sikh loyalty some of the British forces in the Punjab were free to march to the re-capture of Delhi. Thus the Indian Mutiny was overcome from two bases, on the one hand at Lucknow and Cawnpore by an army from the sea and Calcutta, and on the other hand at Delhi by an army advancing from the Punjab over the track beaten by so many conquerors in previous ages. Let us visit Delhi and see its defences, its mosques, the palaces of its Emperors, and the memorials of the Mutiny. Then we will go to Agra to see other splendid monuments of the Musulman dynasty. After that we will turn to Hardwar, at the point where the sacred Ganges bursts from its Himalayan valley on to the plain. Hardwar is a pilgrimage centre of the Hindus, second in sanctity only to Benares itself. East of Delhi, running almost due southward, is the river Jumna, crossed by the great bridge of the East Indian Railway, which carries the main line from Delhi through the United Provinces and Bengal to Calcutta. West of the city is the last spur of the Aravalli hills, the famous Ridge of Delhi, striking northeastward. The city lies between the Ridge and the Jumna. It may be divided into three parts. To the north is the ** European quarter. In the centre is The Kashmir Gate, Shahjahanabad, or modern Delhi, entered from the north by the Kashmir Gate. Between Shahjahanabad and the river is the Fort. The Jama Masjid (Great Mosque) stands in the centre of Shahjahanabad, and the Kalan Masjid (Black Mosque) is about half a mile further south. Passing out of the modern city southward by the Delhi Gate we enter Firozabad, or ancient Delhi, the capital of the earlier Mogul rulers. Further still to the south are even more ancient ruins. ( 102 ) Let us begin our sight-seeing in the centre of the modern city, at the Jama Masjid, a great building of marble and sandstone. Its principal treasures are a hair of Muhammad, and some of his Jama Masjid, handwriting . Here is a view of the Delhi. 4.u u i r u mosque from the balcony of a neigh- bouring house. Let us go up one of the minarets and look over the city. This is a view taken from a little g gallery half way up. To the left is seen part of the large central dome View from halfway up a Minaret, of the mosque, and to the right the top Jama Masjid. o f one o f fa e co l um ns which rise on either side of the main archway. Beyond, far below, can be seen part of the city. * Next we have a view, due southward, View from top of f rom t h e top o f t h e minaret. The Kalan Minaret, looking ,,..,.. ,, ., r , south. Masjid is just visible in the foreground, but a smoke haze obscures the more distant part of the town. We turn 1O. round and look northeastward over the The Same, looking F O rt. Notice on the ground the shadow of the other minaret of the mosque. In the distance can be seen the Jumna, and crossing it the great bridge of the East Indian Railway. Here we have a closer view of the Kalan Masjid, or Black Mosque, built in the original style of the mosques of Arabia H. w ith many small solid domes, unadorned Kalan Masjid, by ca rving. It has a sombre appearance. We see in front one of these domes, and behind it the tops of two others. The chief glory of Delhi is, however, the 12. Fort, and the group of palace buildings The Lahore Gate, within its precincts. It is approached Delhi Fort. through the Lahore Gate, of which we have here a view. This gate is in the middle of 13. the west side of the Fort. Along the east The Delhi Gate, side flows the River Jumna. In the southern Delhi Fort. ace fa ere [ s another great gateway, the Delhi Gate, with a grey stone elephant on 1. either side of the entry. Within the The Pearl Mosque, Fort, is the Moti Masjid, or Pearl Delhi Fort. Mosque, built by Aurangzeb, of white and grey marble. The finest of the *** buildings of the Fort is, however, the w, he ?*!!, f great Hall of Public Audience, the Public Audience, * Delhi Fort. Diwan-i-Am. There is a raised recess, in the wall of this hall, where formerly stood the famous Peacock Throne of Aurangzeb, made of solid gold inlaid with diamonds, rubies, and emeralds, and backed by two peacocks set thick with gems. This throne was carried off when the Persians under Nadir Shah sacked the city in 1739, and massacred most of its inhabitants. Above the entry to the recess of the Peacock Throne are a number of panels about nine inches high and six inches broad, made of inlaid stones. *** Here is a photograph of one of them. The Orpheus Some of these panels were injured, Panel. but, thanks to Lord Curzon, an expert artist from Florence has recently restored them and made new ones in the spirit of the earlier to fill the vacant spaces. . We pass next to the innermost court of the Fort-palace, the Hall of Private The Hall of . ,. ' . _., . . Private Audience, Audience, the Diwan-i-Khas, ninety feet Delhi Fort. long and seventy feet broad, built of white marble with many inlaid flowers of jewels. Beneath the cornice runs the famous inscription : " If there is a Paradise upon earth it is this, it is this." Here we see one of the graceful arches, and beyond in the distance the towers of the Pearl Mosque, already described. To see old Delhi we must drive from the modern city either by the Delhi Gate in the south wall of the Fort or by the Ajmer Gate in the southeast corner of the city wall, past great dome-topped temples, most of them in ruins, until a few miles out, not far from the trunk road leading from Delhi ' 8 ( 104 ) AQ to Agra, we come to the Mausoleum of Humayun, of which we have here Mausoleum of J . Humayun, Delhi, a view. The design, as will be realised presently, is very similar to that of the Taj Mahal at Agra, but the Mausoleum is the older building. Notice the terraced platform on which it stands. It is built of red sandstone and marble. Beneath the platform, and approached by a long dark passage, is the vault where Humayun is buried. Around the Mausoleum are a number of old ruins, and the debris and cactus remind one of Pagan in Burma, which we saw in the second lecture. We resume our drive, past ruined tombs and walls, and at last, about eleven miles south of Delhi, we come to the buildings of the Kutab Minar, where are some of the few remains of the Hindu period now visible in the neighbour- hood, though the mass of the work is of Muhammadan date. The Kutab was begun at the end of the i2th century, on the site of an ancient Hindu temple destroyed by the Musulmans. The famous Iron Pillar stands in front of the mosque. It is one of the most remarkable of all the antiquities of India, for it consists of a solid mass of wrought iron, weighing probably more than six tons, and measuring some 24 feet in height, with an average diameter of a little over a f ot - ^ t ' le ^ ase * s an 4 Q in Sanscrit, from which it appears that its The Kutab Minar . , and iron Pillar, probable date is the fourth century, A.D. Delhi. This inscription runs thus : ''As long as I stand so long shall the Hindu kingdom endure." The Kutab mosque is the Moslem reply to this. The wrought iron of the Pillar has an almost bluish colour when seen against the warm sunlit red sandstone of the great Kutab Tower. In this photograph a man has climbed to the top of the Pillar, and stands there as though a statue, giving us the scale of the monument. Now let us visit the district to north of the modern city, of deep interest in connection with the Mutiny. On the Ridge top, between the Flagstaff Tower towards its north- eastern end and the Mutiny Memorial further south, is another curious pillar, this one of stone, called the Lat of Asoka. At its base is the following modern inscription : " This pillar was originally erected at Meerut in the third century B.C. by King Asoka. It was removed 20. thence, and set up in the Koshuk Shikar The Lat of Asoka, Palace by the Emperor Firuz Shah the Ridge, Delhi. j n A.D. 1356, but was thrown down and broken into five pieces by the explosion of a powder magazine A.D. 1713-1719. It was restored and set up in this place by the British Government A.D. 1867." We will walk past the various memorials of the Mutiny o^ struggle. Here is the Flag-staff Tower, in which were gathered at the outbreak The Flagstaff Tower, the Ridge, of danger the women and children Delhi. o f t ne British garrison anxiously looking for relief from Meerut. But the relief did not come, and Delhi was stormed and captured by the mutineers. The refugees in the Flagstaff Tower were compelled to fly for their lives to Karnal, on the road to the Punjab, where gradually British troops and loyal natives were assembled. The British returned to the Ridge, and for two months the siege of the city was pressed, but unsuccessfully. A brigade and a siege train then arrived from the Punjab, com- manded by General Nicholson. The struggle continued for yet another month. Our troops were not in sufficient force to surround and starve the city, and it was therefore necessary to bombard and storm the defences. Slowly the British won their way into the town, though with terrible loss. General Nicholson was himself wounded in one of the assaults, and died a week later. At last, on the aoth September, the Fort was taken, and next day the rebel King of Delhi was captured at Humayun's Tomb, and was exiled to Rangoon. Two of his sons were shot in front of the Delhi Gate. The terrible nature of this siege may be realised from the fact that of the ten thousand British and loyal native troops who took part in it nearly four thousand ( 106 ) were killed and wounded. Here is the oo statue of General Nicholson in the park Gen sutue iC De ihi! n * named after him >J ust south of the cemetery, _ outside the Kashmir Gate, where he is buried. On the Ridge itself is the Mutiny he Ridge, Memorial, unfortunately not a very beauti- Delhi. ful building. 24 Finally, we have two scenes of native Horse Fair, Delhi. life at Delhi. The first is a horse fair 25. outside the Kashmir Gate, and the Dari D |ihi. reet ' second a street view. Let us travel to Agra, w r hich stands on the right bank of the Jumna, about a hundred miles southeast of Delhi. The Jumna flows from north to south until beside Agra Fort, and then turns sharply eastward. About a mile and a half further on, on the same right bank, now the south side of the river, there stands the Taj Mahal, the most celebrated of all Muhammadan tombs. The building of Agra Fort was commenced by the Emperor Akbar in the middle of the i6th century, and was completed by Shah Jahan, the father of Aurangzeb, in the iyth century. It was this Shah Jahan who built the Palace within the Fort and also the Taj. The Fort and the buildings which it 2o. contains rise by the side of the river The Pearl Mosque, an( j dominate the plain beyond it. Here Agra Fort. within the Fort we have a view of the marble interior of the Moti Masjid, or Pearl Mosque, built by Shah Jahan in the middle of the i yth century. The floor is divided by inlaid lines of black and yellow marble into some six hundred separate divisions, called Masalas, used by the Musulmans for prayer. In the centre is a large marble tank. The effect produced on entering this mosque is profound. Outside, the city may be quivering in a haze of heat, but here the cool and soft light, and an entire absence of any discordant features in the architecture, combine to give a sense of rest and peace. Many Europeans have remarked that this mosque is a rendering in stone of the text " My house shall be called the house of prayer." Let us go out on to the open space by the wall, and look over the moat which divides the main buildings of the Fort from the outer rampart by the river. Across the water the Taj Mahal can just be 2 T seen beyond the bend of the river. In Jehangir's Throne, f ront o f us j s Jehangir's throne, set Agra. Fort. up in the time of Akbar. It consists 28. of a single great slab of black marble. The Jessamine Close by, is the Jessamine Tower. Tower, Agra Fort. Here we have another view in which we see the Throne from the back and a 29. corner of the Jessamine Tower. Notice The Seat of the the lower slab opposite, which is called Jester, Agra Fort. the Seat of the j ester< The effect of its presence is by contrast to enhance the beauty of Jehangir's Throne itself. Between the wall in the foreground and the outer ramparts by the river there is a drop of some sixty feet, and in this ditch fights between lions and elephants used to be held in the days of the Mogul Emperors. Just outside the Fort, facing the west or Delhi Gate, is the Jama Masjid, of Jama Masjid, which we have here a view. We see the A CTPR courtyard and one of the entries. The peculiarity of this mosque lies in the structure of the three great domes. They are without necks. We can just see the tops of two of them. They are built of red sandstone, and the encircling bands are of white marble. We will now visit the Taj Mahal. It was built, chiefly of marble inlaid with pre- Taj Mahal, cious stones, by Shah Jahan as a tomb for Agra. his queen. Here we have a view of the Taj taken from without the entrance gateway. Then we pass through the gateway and enter the Taj Gardens. The watercourse in the centre The Taj j s o f marble, and alone each side is a Gardens. . . row of cypresses. I he original cypresses had grown to such a height that the view of the Taj was becoming obstructed. They were therefore removed, and those which we see in the picture were planted by Lord Curxon, when he was Viceroy. The Taj is perhaps most beautiful in the light of the setting sun, or by moonlight. We have here a The Same, by photograph made from a painting of the moonlight. Taj by moonlight. We will drive back through the native city. This is a typical scene in the Ba/aar. Notice the Kotwal, or Chief of the The Bazaar, Police, in the centre of the crowd. He is an Afghan, standing well over six feet in height and finely proportioned. On the awning over one of the shops an advertisement obtrudes, showing that even the native quarters of the cities of India are being 35. permeated with European methods. Here Agra College. [ s Agra College, endowed about a century 36. a by the then Maharaja of Gwalior. , Agra Jail- There are about a thousand students. Wool spinning. __ Close by is the Jail. In this picture we A Jail see some f t ^ ie prisoners spinning wool, Carpet making. a nd in the next they are making carpets. The next series of pictures relates to the great Muham- madan anniversary of the Moharam, and in order to understand them it is necessary to say a few words regarding the history of Islam and the contending sects which have emerged from that history. Muhammad died in the year 632. He left no son ; but one of his daughters, Fatima, was married to a cousin whose name was Ali. Abu Bakr, who had been a great friend and supporter of Muhammad, was elected Caliph or Vice-Regent of the Prophet. Abu Bakr died in 634, I0 9 and was succeeded by Omar, who conquered Persia and Syria. To him Jerusalem capitulated. Omar was murdered in the same year, and was succeeded by Osman, who was killed in 656. Then Ali, the cousin and son-in-law of Muhammad, was elected to the Caliphate. Ali was murdered in 66 1, and Hasan, his son, was elected Caliph in his place, but was induced to resign in favour of a Caliph of another family. Husain, the second son of Ali, never acknowledged the title of the Caliph who had superseded his brother Hasan, and when the Musulmans of Mesopotamia invited him to overthrow the usurping Caliph he felt it his duty to respond to their appeal. Accompanied by his family and a few retainers he left for Mesopotamia. On the way, at a place called Karbala, on the west bank of the Euphrates, they were overtaken by the Caliph's army, and after a heroic struggle lasting several days were all slaughtered, save the women and a sickly child called Ali, who died soon after- wards. Thus ended the Republic of Islam. Up to this time the office of Caliph had been elective and the government essentially democratic. The seat of government was now moved from Medina to Damascus. In the middle of the eighth century of the Christian era a great revolution took place in Western Asia. The revolt was headed by a descendant of Abbas, an uncle of the Prophet, and the outcome of it was that the Abbassides, or members of the family of Abbas, established themselves as Caliphs, and ruled at Bagdad from the year 756 to the year 1258. When Bagdad was destroyed by the Mongols a member of the Abbassides family escaped to Cairo, where he was recognised as Caliph by the Sultan of Egypt. The eighth Caliph in succession from this man renounced the Caliphate in favour of Sultan Salim, the great Ottoman conqueror, and it is on this renunciation that the title of the Sultan of Turkey to the spiritual headship of Islam is based. It will be seen from this short statement of the history that a great change took place in Islam when Husain, the descendant of the Caliph Ali and of Fatima, the Prophet's daughter, was slain at Karbala, on the Euphrates. From that tragedy dates the chief division of Islam. The Shiah sect traces its foundation to the Caliph Ali and the immediate descendants of the Prophet, who are regarded as the rightful exponents of his teaching. Some twenty millions of the Indian Musulmans are Shiahs, and Shiahism is also the State religion of Persia. There are a large number of Shiahs also in other parts of the Muhammadan world, but nowhere, except in Persia, a majority. The Shiahs are advocates of Apostolic descent and lineal succession to the Caliphate. The other of the two great divisions of the Musulmans are the Sunnis, who advocate the principle of election to the Caliphate. Almost all the Sunnis acknowledge the spiritual headship of the Sultan of Turkey, who is, of course, repudiated by the Shiahs. At the present time nearly 50 millions of the Musulmans of India are Sunnis, and there are Sunni Musulmans in China, Tartary, Afghanistan, Asiatic and European Turkey, Arabia, Egypt, Northern and Central Africa, Bosnia, Herzegovina, Russia, Ceylon, and the Malay Archipelago. We are now in a position to understand the significance of the anniversary of the Karbala. Annually there is held in the Muhammadan month Moharam a festival in memory of the death of Husain. The scenes of the battle are reproduced, and the tazia or tomb of Husain is carried in procession amidst cries of " Hasan, Husain ! " Properly, this is a Shiah festival only, but in India both the Sunnis and Shiahs take part in it. Here are photographs representing the festival. The tazias are pagoda-like structures, made of a variety of materials. They are carried in long pro- cession through the town, and finally the Moharam Time ,. , , . . r ., , . at Agra. "*" e biers representative of the biers Q of Hasan and Husain contained inside the tazias are buried at the Karbala, The Same. outside the city. We have first a street view in Agra showing the crowd The Same. at Mo h aram t j mei j n t h e distance 41. The Same. 42. The Same. 43. Shiahs burying Tazias. is Agra Fort. Next we have three views of the procession of the tazias, and then a view of the Karbala beyond the city, where the biers from the tazias are buried. The Shiahs, however, do not bury their tazias in the Karbala, but on the banks of the Jumna. Here we see them in the early morning conducting the ceremony with most solemn ritual. 44. Fields of Wheat and Barley. Let us drive out from Agra southwestward on the road to Fatehpur Sikri, the city erected by the Emperor Akbar, but abandoned by his successors in favour of Agra. On the way, we note fields of wheat and barley, separated by an irrigation channel. We pass villages amid mango trees, and occasional ruins, and arrive at Fatehpur Sikri. There we enter the great quadrangle arc and the Public Audience Hall of the Palace, built of red sandstone. It was The Public Audience Hall, in this hall that Akbar used to sit on Fatehpur Sikri. certain days to see personally anyone who had grievances to lay before him. Notice in the quadrangle the stone pierced with a hole which is fixed in the ground. Criminals were put to death by being trampled upon by an elephant, and to that ring the elephant was tied. We pass on to the Private Audience Hall of Akbar, the Diwan-i- Khas. Note the huge capital of the column in the centre. Tradition says that Akbar used to sit on the top of this capital. Finally, here is the magnificent Gate of Victory. 46. The Great Capital, Fatehpur Sikri. 47. Gate of Victory, Fatehpur Sikri. 48. Mausoleum of Akbar, Slkandra. We leave Fatehpur Sikri, and drive back, past many other tombs, in the direc- tion of the Cantonment at Agra until we come to the burial place of Akbar at Sikandra. This is the gateway of the great Mausoleum. Notice the cut marble The Same inscriptions down the sides of the arch, a Marble They are quotations from the Koran. Inscription. Rere js a dearer photograph of a part of these inscriptions, and here we have the marble court above the tomb 5O. of Akbar. Round the Cloisters are The Same verses celebrating his greatness. "Think the Cloisters. ., , ., , 1-1 not that the sky will be so kind as Akbar was," is the tenor of one of them. Finally we will travel away to Hardwar, some two hundred miles due north of Agra. It is on the Ganges, at die point where the river leaves the last foot hills of the Himalayas and enters the plain. Hardwar is a great centre of Hindu pilgrimage for the purpose of ablution in the sacred waters. At the annual fair are gathered hundreds of thousands of worshippers. So great has been the crush of people endeavouring to bathe that on occasion many have been trampled upon and drowned. The great day at Hardwar is towards the end of March, when the Hindu year begins, and when, according to tradition, the Ganges river first appeared from its source in the moun- 51. tains. There was a town of Hardwar Hariki Piri, more than a thousand years ago, but ar war. -^ anc j ent buildings have disappeared. Here we have a view of the famous Bathing Ghat, a comparatively small flight of steps, where the river is considered to be specially sacred. The water is purer 52. than at Benares in the plain. It Sarwan Nath flows swiftly and is as clear as crystal. Temple, Hardwar. Near by we haye a temp i e> the Sarwan 53. Nath, with great stone elephants, and The Same, from h ere is a second view of the same above. . f. j. temple seen from a neighbouring roof. Notice the Trisul, or bronze trident, the Camels at . Hardwar typical weapon of Siva, the Destroyer. 55. Sacred Cow at Hard war. 56. The Road to Mussoorie. 57. The Same, Coolies carrying Baggage. 58. The Same, a Tree across the Road. 59. Mussoorie. 60. The Himalayas from Mussoorie. Here is a string of camels at Harchvar, and then a sacred cow especially sacred because deformed, for a freak of nature is miraculous. Not far northward of Hardwar, among the foot hills of the Himalayas, is Mus- soorie, a hill station supplementary to Simla. Mussoorie is about a mile above sea level. We have two views taken on the steep mountain road up to it ; the second shows coolies carrying baggage. In the next view we realise something of the difficulties of travel in these hill districts of much rainfall, for the road is blocked by the fall of a great tree. Here we have a view of Mus- soorie itself, and then the landscape from Mussoorie looking towards the Himalayan ranges to the north. Close by, but lower down, is Dehra Dun, the headquarters of the Gurkha Rifles, enlisted from Nepal, and also of the Imperial Cadet Corps, a small training force consisting wholly of the sons of ruling chiefs. We shall hear of the Gurkhas again in connection with the defences of India, which will be the subject of the next and concluding lecture of this Course. LECTURE VIII. THE NORTHWEST FRONTIER. THE SIKHS. In the British Empire there is but one land frontier on which warlike preparation must ever be ready. It is the Northwest Frontier of India. True that there is another boundary, even longer, drawn across the American Con- tinent, but there, fortunately, only customs houses are necessary and an occasional police guard. The Northwest Frontier of India, on the other hand, lies through a region whose inhabitants have been recruited throughout the ages by invading warlike races. Except for the Gurkha mountaineers of Nepal, the best soldiers of the Indian Army are derived from the northwest, from the Rajputs, the Sikhs, the Punjabi Musulmans, the Dogra mountaineers north of the Punjab, and the Pathan mountaineers west of the Punjab. The provinces along the frontier, and the Afghan land immediately beyond it, are the one region in all India from which, under some ambitious lead, the attempt might be made to establish a fresh imperial rule by the overthrow of the British Raj. It would not be the freedom of India which would ensue, but an oriental despotism and race domination from the northwest. Such is the teaching of history, and such the obvious fate of the less warlike peoples of India, should the power of Britain be broken either by warfare on the spot, or by the defeat of our navy. Beyond the northwest frontier, moreover, at a greater or less distance are the continental Powers of Europe. The Indian army and the Indian strategical railways are therefore organized with special reference to the belt of territory, extending from northeast to southwest, which lies beyond the Indian desert and is traversed from end to end by the Indus River. This frontier belt divides naturally into two parts. Inland we have the A Punjab, where the rivers, emerging from , their mountain valleys, gradually close Political Map of Northwest India, together through the plain to form the single stream of the lower Indus ; seaward we have Sind, where the Indus divides into distributaries forming a delta. Sind, as already stated, is a part of the Bombay Province, with which it is connected by sea from the Port of Karachi. Of late a railway has been constructed from Ahmadabad in the main territory of Bombay, across the southern end of the Desert, to Hyderabad at the head of the Indus delta. The Punjab is a separate Province with its own Lieutenant-Governor resident at Lahore. It was conquered from the Sikhs by a British army based on Delhi, and therefore ultimately on Calcutta. To understand the significance of the 2. Northwest Frontier of India we must look far beyond the immediate boundaries Map of Lower Asia. f , ^ . , , f or the Empire. We have here a map of Lower Asia. Upon it we see a broad tract of upland which, commencing in Asia Minor, extends through Armenia and Persia to include Baluchistan and Afghanistan. There is thus one continuous belt of plateau stretching from Europe to the boundary of India. The eastern end of this belt, that is to say, Persia, Afghanistan, and Baluchistan, is known as Iran. On all sides save the northwest and the northeast, the Iranian plateau descends abruptly to lowlands or to the sea. Southward and southwestward lie the Arabian Sea and the Persian Gulf, and the long lowland which is traversed by the rivers Euphrates and Tigris. Northward, to the east of the Caspian Sea, is the broad lowland of Turkestan, tra- versed by the Rivers Oxus and Jaxartes, draining into the Sea of Aral. Eastward is the plain of the Indus. The ( "6 ) defence of India from invasion depends in the first place on the maintenance of British sea power in the Persian Gulf and along the south coast of Baluchistan, and in the second place on our refusal to allow the establishment of alien bases of power on the Iranian plateau, especially on those parts of it which lie towards the south and east. In the next map we have on a larger 3. scale the detail of that part of Iran which Map of the lies nearest to India. Here we see, west Frontier 81 of the Pun J aD a g reat triangular mass of mountain ridges which splay out westward and southward from the northeast. These ridges and the intervening valleys constitute Afghanistan. Flowing from the Afghan valleys we have on the one hand the Kabul river, which descends eastward to the Indus, and, on the other hand, the greater river Helmund, which flows southvvestward into the depressed basin of Seistan, where it divides into many channels, forming as it were an inland delta from which the waters are evaporated by the hot air, for there is no opening to the sea. The valley of the Kabul river on the one hand, and the oasis of Seistan on the other, might in the hands of an enemy become bases wherein to prepare the invasion of India. Therefore, without annexing this intricate and difficult upland, we have declared it to be the policy of Britain to exclude from Afghanistan and from Seistan all foreign power. Further examination of the map will show that there are two lines, and only two, along which an invasion of India might be conducted. On the one hand, the mountains become very narrow just north of the head of the Kabul River. There in fact a single though lofty ridge, the Hindu Kush, is all that separates the basin of the Oxus from that of the Indus. As we see from the map, low ground is very near on the two sides of the Hindu Kush. The way into India over the passes of the Hindu Kush is known as the Khyber route, from the name of the last defile by which the track descends into the Indian Plain. If we now look some five hundred miles to the south- west of Kabul, we see that the Afghan mountains come suddenly to an end, and that a pathway leads round their fringe from Herat to the Indus Basin, passing along the border of Seistan. From Herat to beyond Kandahar, this way lies over an upland plain and is easy, but the last part of the journey is through a mountainous district down to the lowland of the Indus. This is the Bolan route, so called from the last gorge towards India. It will be noticed that the Bolan route debouches upon the Indus opposite to the great Indian Desert. Therefore it is that the Khyber route has been the more frequented. It leads directly between the desert and the mountain foot, upon the inner gateway of India at Delhi. We conquered the Punjab from the Sikhs, but for many centuries it had been ruled by the Musulmans. In the break up of the Mogul Empire invaders had come, during the eighteenth century, from Persia and from Afghanistan, who carried devastation even as far as Delhi. Thus it was that with relative ease the Sikhs as contemporaries of the Marathas established a dominion in the helpless Punjab. They extended their rule also into the mountains of Kashmir, north of Lahore. Let us commence our survey of the northwest at Dehra Dun, which is placed in a mountain valley among the foot hills of the Himalayas, not far from the hill station of Mussoorie, of which we heard in the last lecture. Then from Dehra Dun we will travel two hundred miles north- westward, crossing the Beas, one of the five rivers of the Punjab, to Amritsar, the holy city of the Sikhs. Fifty miles west of Amritsar, on the Ravi, another of the Indus tributaries, is Lahore, the traditional capital of the Punjab. From Lahore onward we traverse irrigated strips of feriile ground, with sandy plains intervening, with a scanty herbage for a lew camels. Then follows a broken and more desolate country in the north of the Punjab. So we come to the Indus itself, and beyond this, nearly three hundred miles from Lahore, to the military station of Peshawar, the last Indian city on the great track leading northwestward from Calcutta, through Allahabad and Delhi. Not far from Peshawar is the Khyber Pass. The Khyber is protected by its own hill tribes. We have enlisted them on the side of law and order by enrolling them into military forces, just as the Scottish Highlanders were enrolled in the British army in the i8th century. Then leaving Peshawar we will visit Quetta, some five hundred miles southwestward, and see there the second great centre of British force on the Frontier. It has been established to command the Bolan route to Kandahar and Herat. The whole army in India is organised with reference to these two points, Peshawar and Quetta, or in other words, the Khyber and the Bolan. There are many other passes in the frontier mountains, but they offer merely loopways from the two main routes. The Indian forces are now grouped into a Northern and a Southern army. The Northern army is distributed southeastward from Peshawar past Delhi x and Allahabad to Calcutta, so that all the forces along that long line may be regarded 12th Bengal Infantry. as supporting the brigades on the Khyber front. The Southern army is similarly posted for the reinforcement of Quetta. - It is distributed in the Bombay Presidency and immediately around. The conditions Mountain f tne defence of India have of course Battery. Deen vitally changed by the construction of the Northwestern Railway from the port of Karachi through the Indus basin, with its two branches towards the Bolan and the Khyber. To-day that defence could be conducted over the seas g directly from Britain through Karachi, so Heavy Battery ^ at * Re desert of Rajputana would lie in Elephant between the defending forces and the Draught. . e T ,. .... mam community of India within. rj As we start for Dehra Dun let us stop for a moment on the ridge at Delhi to 18th P. W. Tiwana Horse. see a squadron of the i8th Prince or Q Wales's Tiwana Horse, recruited partly from among the Sikhs and partly from the Musulmans. Then at Dehra Dun we have the Gurkha Rifles. We see 9 them at physical drill and then at bayonet The Same practice. At the same place we visit a Bayonet Practice. , ,. , , ^ . . .,, f T ^ , battery of Mountain Artillery, for Dehra 10. ^ U11 is in the Terai, at the foot of the 32nd Mountain Himalayas. Mountain batteries are much Battery, Advancing utilised in operations over the broken Down Hill. , ... XT and hilly country towards the North- 11. west Frontier. . The men are Punjabis ; The Same and it will be noticed that the guns are Retiring Up Hill. carr j e( j by mules. Here we see the . _ battery advancing down hill, and here we Battery in Action. See Jt retirin g U ? hilL Then WC have a mountain gun in action. From Dehra Dun we proceed to Amritsar, the chief centre of the Sikh religion, which resulted from a reforma- tion of Hinduism in the middle of the fifteenth century. It is therefore modern indeed as compared with the parent religion itself. The Sikhs abandoned idolatry, and also distinctions of caste. The word Sikh means "disciple." In their origin a religious sect, the Sikhs developed into a powerful military commonwealth, which rose to great position in the Punjab and surrounding lands as the Mogul strength decayed at Delhi. The Sikhs only succumbed to the British after two wars, fought in 1846 and 1849, which were among the severest in the whole history of British India. Yet they remained loyal during the Mutiny. The Emperor Akbar granted to the Sikhs a site for their capital by the shore of a sacred tank, and this capital, Amritsar, has now grown to be a city of over 1 50,000 inhabitants, the third most wealthy and populous of the Punjab. It is 9 surpassed only by Delhi and Lahore, and Delhi has been included in the Punjab only in recent times, and for convenience of administration. In this view we see the famous Golden Temple, built in the 13. centre of the sacred tank. The bridge across the water leading to the The Causeway and . the Golden Temple, entr y 1S of marble ' The doors f Amritsar. the gateway are of silver without, and on the inner side of wood inlaid with ivory. The lower part of the walls of the temple itself are of white marble inlaid with jaspar and mother-of-pearl, but the upper part is plated with gilded copper. In the middle of the temple, under a canopy, is the Grant Sahib, the sacred book of the Sikhs, covered with a cloth 1^* of gold. Here we have another view The Golden Temple, o f tne Golden Temple seen across Am*its3.i* the tank, and behind it is the Clock Tower. Opposite the chief entry to the temple is a square surrounded by public buildings, of which the most 15. important is the Akal Bungah, wherein The Akal Bungah, are performed the ceremonies of initiation Amritsar. and investiture of the Sikhs. A few scenes follow showing phases of life at Amritsar. Here we see a part of the tesselated 16. pavement which surrounds the sacred School of Sikh and tank, and a school of Hindu and Sikh Hindu Children. ch i ldren . Next is a street scene showing ^ fj the gateway leading to another sacred tank, Street Scene aild here * s a con j urer with a cobra Amritsar. entwined about his neck. Amritsar has ^ Q to-day become an important manufactur- ing city. From raw materials brought Street Conjurer, J . Amritsar. by the Khyber route, from the central Asian markets, are here manufactured shawls of the famous Kashmir design, and also fine silks, embroideries, carpets, carvings, and metal work of various kinds. Let us now go on to Lahore, the ancient and the modern capital of the Punjab. Here is a view taken 19 f rom the roof of the Shish Mahal, or Palace Lahore, from roof of O f Mirrors, in the Fort of Lahore, Shish Mahal. looking towards the southwest, over the Jama Masjid, towards the River Ravi, on whose left bank the city stands. Next is seen the fine west 2O. gate of the Jama Masjid, a mosque built West Gate, Jama Dy t he Emperor Aurangzeb. which contains Masjid, Lahore. J \. relics of Muhammad. Do you remember " Kim " in Rudyard 21. Kipling's book ? \Ve have in this view Zamzamah, t h e Zamzamah, the old gun under the Lahore. . ' tree on which Kim sat in the first chapter. Astride on its muzzle is an urchin, just like what Kim must have been. Here is the Sarai, a ^^ quadrangle about sixty yards square, with Sarai, Lahore, round arched verandahs on all sides. 23 Note the well in the centre. Next is the The Same, actual house where Wazir Khan, Kipling's showing Wazir Mahbub AH, used to sleep. Beyond Khan's House. may be seen horses brought for sale> The Sarai belongs to-day to the Maharaja of Kashmir, who obtains a revenue from the fees paid by the horsedealers OA using it. Near by we have a busy street scene, showing old houses belong- Old Houses, Lahore. ing to Hindu merchants. 25. At Lahore there are a number of really The Court of handsome modern buildings. We have in Justice, Lahore. ^ yiew the Court Qf j ustic6j situated in 26. the chief street, the Mall. Next is the Mayo School of Art, f me building of the Lahore School of Lahore. _ c Art, showing students sketching out of doors, and then a number of Punjabis in the wood-working room of the school. ( 122 ) Here is the metal-working department. At the back of the room some senior The Same students are finishing a large lamp in Metal-working. hammered brass-work, which was after- wards exhibited in London. The Lahore Museum, a corner of which we saw just now in the view of the " Kim " gun, is another fine building, containing among other curiosities a statuette of Buddha after his forty-nine 29. days' fast, excavated at Sikri near Pesh- statuette of awar. This statuette, some three feet high and two feet broad, is one of the finest examples of ancient sculpture found in India. It is carved with extreme delicacy and refinement, and is supposed to date back to about the first century of the Christian era. We will drive out from Lahore to the west of the city on the high road to Peshawar. We pass the Musulman cemetery and the Hindu burning ground, and then reach OQ the banks of the Ravi. A bridge of boats crosses the river a little below the railway Bridge of Boats over the Ravi, near bridge. Here we turn aside from the Lahore. Peshawar road and reach Shahdara, where is the tomb of the Emperor Jehangir. In this picture we have a close view of part Jehangir's tomb. o f j t) showing the inlaid marble. Near by is the ruined tomb of Jehangir's wife, Nur Tehan. It was probably never finished, and has been neglected. From Lahore we travel by the Northwestern Rail- way to Peshawar, a distance of nearly three hundred miles. Peshawar, as we have already learned, is the most important garrison city on the Northwest Frontier, and the capital of the recently created Northwest Frontier Province. It has about a 32. hundred thousand inhabitants, chiefly Edwardes Gate, Musulmans. Here we see the Edwardes Gate, with its fine pointed arch, and ( 123 ) passing through it we enter the Kissa Kahani, the Lombard Street of Pesha- K peshawar ni ' war - The Edwardes Gate may be seen from within at the end of the street. Here is the Kotwali, or Police 34. Station, and just within the gateway of Police Station, the Kotwali is the Silk Market. Peshawar Peshawar. . . . , is a most important commercial centre oc on the great road from Samarkand and Silk Market Bokhara in Central Asia, through Kabul Peshawar. and the Khyber, to Lahore and Delhi. In the bazaar we find representatives of many Asiatic races. Here we see In the Silk Market, skeins of Chinese silk, red and white Peshawar. and yellow, hung out in the sun to dry after being dyed. Near by are the stalls of bankers and money-changers, which are sometimes raided by the wild tribesmen visiting Peshawar from the neighbourhood of the Khyber Pass. In the northeastern corner of Peshawar ^ is the famous Ghor Khatri, which stands GhorKhatri, on a p} ece o f rising ground commanding Peshawar. . a fine view over the whole city. Here is a part of the building, with a bullock cart in front. The Ghor Khatri was successively a Buddhist Monastery and a Hindu temple, and is now used as municipal offices and as the official Peshawar from the GhorKhatri, residence of the agents of the Ameer looking north. o f Afghanistan when they visit Peshawar. 39. We climb to the roof and look upon The Same, looking the city beneath. A second view is in west. tne direction of Jamrud and the Khyber. Here in Peshawar, on the very border of British rule, it is interesting to see the progress of western education. This is the Government High School. A class is in the playground under gymnastic instruction. The boys are school, Peshawar. most ly Musulmans, though a few Hindus 10 ( 124 ) may be distinguished by their caps in the place of turbans. This is the Lowest Class, same lowest class of the school, and is being 00 ' taught reading and writing by a native master. Notice that the boys' shoes have been taken off. Jamrud, at the immediate entrance to the Khyber, lies some nine miles west of ud< Peshawar. Here is a distant view of it o from the Peshawar road. To the right can just be seen the Fort, and to the Khyber Rifles * ' drilling. left Jamrud Village. Next we see a company of the Khyber Rifles, photo- 44. graphed at Jamrud, and here the same Khyber Rifles company marching. By way of striking marching. contrastj are a g^p of the Zakka Khel c Afridis in their native dress. They are the raw material from which the Khyber Zakka Khel Afridis. _,. _ . , .,, ' Riflemen are made, lypical wild tribes- men of the hills, they have been enlisted in the British Army to keep them out of mischief, and also to assist in repelling raids by their fellow-tribesmen, who continue to dwell amid the hill fastnesses of the region. The Afridis, of whom the Zakka Khel is a clan, seem perfectly well content, provided that there is fighting, which they love for its own sake. Here we see the Sarai at Jamrud, where all 46. caravans going into India or returning to The Sarai, Jamrud. Central Asia halt for the night. The men in this picture are mostly Kabulis, with long-haired Bactrian camels from Central Asia, stronger and finer than the Indian species. These camels xrr a fe laden with tea, sugar, and general supplies. Outside Jamrud we see a Caravan, near Jamrud. caravan of Indian camels taking stores back to Peshawar after operations in the Khyber against the hill tribes. Beyond Jamrud the road 48. enters the Khyber, with the sweeping AH Masjid. curve seen in this view. The Fort of Ali Masjid, nearly three thousand feet above ( "5 ) sea level, crowns a steeply sloping hill on " the crest of the path between Jamrud AH Mas ^ nearer and Landi Kotal, where begins the descent into Afghanistan. Here is a nearer view, with the tents of an expeditionary force at the foot of the Fort. It shows the continuation of the way in the direction of Landi Kotal. Notice how steep are the cliffs and how narrow the Pass at this point. Beneath the Fort, in the face of the hill, are seen caves **" in which dwell during the winter months A S c u , b ^ d of; 59th the wild clan known as the Kuchi Khel. Sind Rifles. Finally, we have a portrait, painted in the camp at AH Masjid, of Nasar Khan, a Subadar, or native officer, of the 59th Sind Rifles. We now leave the Khyber region and, following the Indus for some six hundred miles, we travel southward through a land which was not very long ago a desert. To-day, as the result of a great investment of British capital, irrigation works have changed the whole aspect of the country. The provinces of the Punjab and Sind have hitherto been regarded as significant chiefly in relation to the defence of the Northwest Frontier of India. They have now no less importance when considered in their economic development. The plain of the Indus has become one of the chief wheatfields of the British Empire, for wheat is the principal crop in the Punjab, in parts of Sind, and outside the basin of the Indus itself, in the districts of the United Provinces which lie about Agra. The wheat production of India on an average of years is five times as great as that of the United Kingdom, and about half as great as that of the United States. In one recent year at least, the export of wheat from India to the United Kingdom has exceeded that from the United States to the United Kingdom. The brown waste of the plains of the Punjab becomes after the winter rains a waving sea of green wheat extending over thousands of square miles. Cultivation now spreads far beyond the area within which the rainfall alone suffices. The lower Punjab and the central strip of Sind have been converted into a second Egypt. Though the navigation of the Indus is naturally inferior to that of the Ganges, yet communication has been maintained by boat from the Punjab to the sea from Greek times downward. The Indus flotilla of steamboats has, however, suffered fatally from the competition of the Northwestern Railway, and the wheat exported from Karachi is now almost wholly rail-borne. Running southward through the fertile strip, not very far from the left or western bank of the river, the railway leaves the Punjab and enters Sind. At Rohri, one of the hottest places in all India in the summer time, a line branches northwestward to Quetta and Chaman, on the frontier of Afghanistan. Sukkur stands opposite to Rohri on the right bank of the river, and the Lansdowne Railway Bridge between these two towns is perhaps the most remarkable bridge in India. It was built between 1887 and 1889, and about three thousand tons of steel and iron were employed in its construction. It is eight hundred and forty feet in length, with two magnificent *** spans. We see in this slide a view of the The Brfd n g S e d Wne Rohri end of il ' taken from Suttian, an old nunnery founded for women who preferred seclusion rather than the funeral pyre. The Hindu custom was to burn the wife or wives with the husband's body, until the British Government intervened to prevent the practice. One end of the town of Rohri, with its tall grey wattle and daub buildings, can be seen under the bridge. A train is upon the bridge, and in front are some Pala fishers, sailing on metal chatties into which they put the fish as they catch them. This is another view of the bridge seen from Rohri itself. We are here in the very heart of Tie> the rainless region. During twelve years there have only been six showers at Rohri ! A great engineering scheme is now under consideration for damming the Indus near this point so as to raise the level of the water in the upper reaches of the river. In this manner the irrigation canals would be fed not only in time of flood, as at present, but in the dry season as well. Near Rohri, in the middle of the Indus channel, is Khwaja Khizir Island, on which stands KhW isiand hiZir an anc ^ ent Hindu temple. In the fore- ground of the picture near the water's edge are Sindi boatmen mending their sails. From Sukkur, passing through Shikarpur and Jacob- abad, the railway traverses the desert to the foot of the hills, and then ascends to Quetta either by the Mashkaf the actual line of the Bolan having been abandoned or by a longer loop line, the Harnai, which runs to the Peshin valley. The latter is the usual way. By the Mashkaf route the line is carried over a boulder-strewn plain about half a mile broad in the bottom of a gorge with steeply rising heights on either side. Here and there the strip of lower ground is trenched and split by deep canyons. At first the line follows the Mashkaf river, and the gradients are not very severe, but once Hirok, at the source of the Bolan river is passed, a gradient of one in twenty-five begins, and two powerful engines are required to drag the train up. The steep bounding ridges now close in on either side with cliffs rising almost perpendicularly to several hundred feet. Occasional block-houses high up amid the crags defend the Pass. The gradients of the Harnai route are not quite so steep as those of the Mashkaf. Should either way be blocked or carried away by landslips or floods the other would be e available. The Harnai line passes through The Chappar Rift. the Chappar Rift, a precipitous gorge in a great mass of limestone. In this view we _ are approaching the Rift from Mangi, and then we have a view looking back from The Same. the middle of the Rift> As wiu be seen, the railway runs across high bridges and through tunnels in the mountain masses. Quetta occupies a very important strategical position, about a mile above sea level, in the midst of a small plain surrounded by great mountain ridges rising to a height of two miles and more. Irrigation works have been constructed in the Quetta plain, which is now an oasis among desert mountains, and has a population of some thirty thousand, including many Afghans. The Agent General for British Baluchistan resides there. The town, with its outposts, is of course very strongly fortified, commanding as it does the railways leading southeastward to the Indus, and the Khojak Pass leading northwestward to Chaman and eg Kandahar. Here we have a scene in Native Bazaar, the native bazaar, with Hindus performing Quetta. a festival dance. From Quetta the railway is carried northwestward, through the Khojak tunnel, for another hundred and twenty miles to Chaman on the frontier, where is a British outpost. Here is a street in 57. Chaman, with two old Pathans. Chaman Street in Chaman. is at present the terminus of the railway. The material is, however, kept ready for its continuation, in case of need, to Kandahar, in Afghan- istan, seventy miles further. From Kandahar through Herat to the rail-head of the Russian Trans-Caspian Railway is some four hundred miles. By this route, did circumstances allow, a connection might be made, giving through railway communication between Europe and India. At this last outpost of British Power we complete our journey through the great Indian Empire. It was with no intention of Empire that a few London merchants formed themselves into an East . India Company in the days of Queen Elizabeth. It was with no great force of white soldiers that the conquest was in after centuries effected, I2 9 but by the organisation of Indian strength in a time of disorder, due to the downfall of the Mogul Empire at Delhi. Province was added to province under the British Raj of no set design and ambition, but for defensive reasons under the threat of French or Maratha or Sikh rivalry. In the great Mutiny the system of power and administration, thus upbuilt almost casually, was tested, and it survived the test, but with a fundamental change. The East India Company was dissolved, and the British Government made itself directly responsible for peace and order in the Indian Continent. 58. Th g proclamation by which Queen Victoria The Proclamation assumed the rule of India solemnly Em press auiTe promised that in the administration of Delhi Durbar, ., , j i_ u u -j 1st Jan., 1877. the country due regard should be paid to the ancient rights, usages, and customs of India. The change which was made in 1858, after the Mutiny, was completed in 1877, when at a great durbar of the princes of India, held at Delhi, Queen Victoria was proclaimed Empress of India. The British Raj in India is an organ- 59. isation unparalleled in history, for the The Same. Roman Empire consisted of provinces grouped round the Imperial City, but 60. Britain is a quarter of the globe removed The Same. from India. Our power ultimately rests on our command of the seas and on the justice of our administration. When either of these fail, the British position in India will crumble. Within our duty of justice is included the generous but firmly-directed readjust- ment of the methods of Indian government, so as to adapt them to the now changing conditions of oriental society. The responsibility for India is, indeed, a great one. It is idle to ask whether our forefathers should have assumed it. We could not withdraw now without throwing India ( '3 ) into disorder, and causing untold suffering among three hundred million of our fellow human beings. Yet the administration of such an Empire calls for virtues in our race certainly not less than those needed for our own self- government. Above all, we require knowledge of India, and sympathy with the points of view begotten of oriental history. LIST OF VICEROYS OF INDIA SINCE THE TRANSFER OF THE ADMINISTRATION FROM THE EAST INDIA COMPANY TO THE CROWN IN 1858. VISCOUNT CANNING, to March, 1862 EARL OK ELGIN, 1862-3 SIR JOHN LAWRENCE, 1864-9 EARL OF MAYO, 1869-72 LORD NORTHBROOK, 1872-6 LORD LYTTON, 1876-80 MARQUESS OF RIPON, 1880-84 EARL OF DUFFERIN, 1884-88 MAROUESS OF LANSDOWXE, 1888-94 EARL OF ELGIN, 1894-99 LORD CURZON OF KEDLESTON, 1899-1905 EARL OF MINTO, 1905-1910 LORD HARDINGE, 1910 NOTE (i.). Many of the artistic and other objects mentioned in the preceding pages can be better appreciated after a visit to the Indian Museum at South Kensington. NOTE (n.). The thanks of the Committee are due for a few of ihe slides to Colonel Frederick Firebrace, R.E., Managing Director of the Great Indian Peninsula Railway Company, and to Mr. A. L. Hether- ington, of the Board of Education. UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY Los Angeles This book is DUE on the last date stamped below. 8 1954 iD MAY 2 9 69 SEC'D LD-URU AY 2 3 1973 JM Form L9-100m-9,'52(A3105)444 000 883 925