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CIVILIZATION CONSIDERED AS 
 A SCIENCE, 
 
 IN REI.ATIOX TO 
 
 ITS ESSENCE, ITS ELEMENTS, AND ITS END. 
 
 A NEW EDITION, 
 
 REVISED AND CORRECTED, WITH CONSIDERABLE ADDITIONS. 
 
 BY 
 
 GEORGE HARRIS, F.S.A., 
 
 OF THE MIDDLE TEMPLE, BARRISTER-AT-LATV, 
 
 iUTlIOR OF ' THE THEORY OF THE ARTS,' ' THE LIFE OF LORD CHANCELLOR HAKDWICKE, 
 
 ' THE TRUE THEORY OF REPRESENTATION IN A STATE,' ETC. 
 
 ;UKI7BllSIT7l 
 
 LONDON: 
 BELL AND DALDY. YORK STREET, COVENT GARDEN, 
 
 1872. 
 

 ^ ^^^/y/s 
 
 LOSDOK : PRIKTED BY WILLIAM Cr.OWl.:S AND SONS, STAMKOUD STREET 
 AND CHARING CROSS. 
 
TO 
 
 THE RIGHT HONOUEABLE 
 
 HENRY LORD BROUGHAM AO VAUX, 
 
 ETC. ETC. ETC., 
 
 KEXOWXED ALIKE AS 
 
 AN OBATOK, A JURIST, A STATESMAN, AND A PHILOSOPHER; 
 
 THE TNTIRESTG ENERGIES OF WHOSE GIGANTIC 3IIND HAVE 
 
 FOR MORE THAN HALF A CENTURY 
 
 BEEN STRENUOUSLY AND SUCCESSFULLY DEVOTED 
 
 TO PROMOTE THE PROGRESS OF CIVILIZATION : 
 
 ^biB uIqxIx, 
 
 HUMBLY DESIGNED TO AID IN THAT 
 
 GREAT INTELLECTUAL CAUSE, 
 
 IS, 
 
 WITH HIS lordship's KIND PERMISSIO:^, 
 
 BY HIS OBLIGED SERVANT AND ARDENT ADMIRER, 
 
 THE AUTHOR. 
 
'I. 
 
PEEFACE TO THE FIEST EDITION. 
 
 The principal object aimed at in tlie following pages is to 
 exhibit a comprehensive though concise view of the nature 
 of civilization, to demonstrate its capacity for scientific 
 treatment, as also for practical application, and to evince 
 the necessity for cultivating every branch of it alike, in 
 order to ensure the establishment of it as an entire 
 system or condition. An attempt is thus made to 
 effect a complete, definite, and systematic exposition of 
 the true principles upon which the general Educational 
 and Moral Policy of each country ought to be conducted. 
 
 As regards the plan ujion which I have proceeded in 
 the elucidation of my subject, I have, in the first part of 
 this work, endeavoured to define and point out, clearly and 
 correctly, the real and essential Nature of Civilization. 
 After this, I have specified and set forth the various 
 Elements which seemed to me to contribute to its consti- 
 tution and progress ; and I have concluded by demon- 
 strating the principal Ends at which Civilization aims, 
 and which may be attained by its complete establishment 
 in any country. 
 
 The axioms here laid down, and the Elements of 
 Civilization here enunciated, are applicable alike to every 
 nation, whatever be its general condition, or the form of 
 its constitution. 
 
 An effort is also made to trace out each of the Elements 
 
vi Preface to the First Edition. 
 
 of Civilization, and to analyze their first principles; to 
 j)oiut out their essential qualities and constituents, to 
 define clearly what active agents may claim to be ranked 
 as such Elements, and to demonstrate the distinctive use 
 and application of each. Even should these Elements be 
 denied accurately and fully to comprehend the efficient 
 causes of Civilization ; yet it cannot be doubted that in 
 their consideration is included every principle that 
 extensively conduces to its promotion and j)erfect estab- 
 lishment. 
 
 It is not, however, either expected or intended that 
 every rule which is prescribed for the regulation of the 
 science proposed for consideration, should be always 
 rigidly adhered to, or literally carried out. The object is 
 merely to enunciate the leading j)rinciples generally 
 applicable, which although varying as regards their suit- 
 ableness to each special exigency, retain the same main 
 features and characteristics, in whatever case, or under 
 whatever circumstances they are availed of. 
 
 It appears, moreover, to be uniformly desirable, so far as 
 circumstances may admit of its being adopted, — as I have 
 indeed remarked in the following pages, — both in laying 
 down and in establishing a system for the regulation of 
 a State, that we should not only work by natural means, 
 and as little as possible go contrary to Nature ; but that 
 we should endeavour, in all our plans and operations, to 
 imitate and carry out the system of Nature. 
 
 On my first entering on the present subject, and endea- 
 vouring to treat upon it, it appeared to me that Civiliza- 
 tion was mainly to be promoted by legislative measures 
 expressly adapted for the purpose, and which I have here 
 classed under the term "Moral J urisj)rudence," and have 
 considered it, as upon reflection I became convinced was the 
 case, to be merely one single Element of Civilization out 
 of several. Education next struck me as constituting the 
 real, efficient cause, if not the actual Essence of Civiliza- 
 
Preface to the First Edition. vii 
 
 tion. But upon taking a comj)reliensive view of the wliole 
 matter, in all its different bearings, and with regard to all 
 its varied requirements ; the ultimate conclusion which I 
 arrived at was, that that which is not only really needed, 
 but what is in fact in many cases actually intended in the 
 demands for the intellectual and moral improvement and 
 advancement of the nation, is not Education merely, but 
 Civilization generally. This principle, which has not been 
 adopted without the fullest deliberation and the sincerest 
 conviction of its truth, is the basis of the doctrine pro- 
 pounded in the following pages, and its recognition is 
 deemed of the utmost consequence to the well-being of 
 society. 
 
 Education is, in fact, so to speak, one only out of 
 several of the chains by which the car of Civilization is 
 drawn onwards. By applying to this one alone, not only 
 is the machine moved very feebly and very slowly, but 
 there is considerable danger incurred of snapping the 
 single chain. On the other hand, by applying to them all 
 together, it is impelled rapidly and easily, and the strain 
 on the one chain is relieved, all the rest contributing 
 alike their proper share in the labour. 
 
 A very moderate degree of observation and reflection 
 will, moreover, suffice to convince us that even Education 
 itself, — although now considered by many as the sole 
 Element of Civilization, and consequently allowed to 
 engross the whole attention both of the State, and of indi- 
 viduals anxious for its extension, — suifers in reality very 
 largely from our neglect to resort to, and to promote the 
 application of the other Elements of Civilization, which 
 are essentially auxiliary to Education itself, as well as to 
 Civilization generally. 
 
 The general correctness of the theory here maintained, 
 receives, indeed, an important confirmation from the views 
 on this subject expressed by that comprehensive and pene- 
 trating statesman, the Emperor Napoleon I., who, when 
 
viii Preface to the First Edition. 
 
 referring to what lie bad done for the cultivation of his 
 people, remarked that he had " caused every institution to 
 be formed upon a plan which offered instruction to the 
 public. The Museums were thrown open to the canaille. 
 All my exertions were directed to illuminate the mass of 
 the nation."* In addition to this, w^e know the corres- 
 ponding efforts which he made as regards certain of what 
 I have here termed the other Elements of Civilization, in 
 the maintenance of Religion, the promotion of Art, the 
 establishment of a soimd Jurisprudential code, and the 
 construction of roads and other jDublic works. 
 
 As in the allotment and determination of the studies to 
 be followed in a university, all the different elements of 
 knowledge are cultivated together and each aids the 
 pursuit of the other ; so in the general Civilization of 
 a nation, the various Elements for this purpose should 
 be adopted contemporaneously, each assisting and 
 co-operating with, and conducing to the efficiency of the 
 other, and contributing to promote the general object 
 in view. Analogously, indeed, to what we see attained by 
 certain chemical compounds of great power and efficacy, 
 the merit of which consists in or results from the admix- 
 ture, in theii* proper measure, of the several ingredients of 
 which they are constituted ; Civilization is completely 
 effected, and fully established in any country, not by 
 carrying to the utmost extreme the introduction of any 
 one of its Elements singly, — be it Education, or Religious 
 Influence, or Art, — but by the harmonious blending of 
 them all together, and the adoi:)tion of each, though in 
 due proportion. 
 
 It is in trutli as unreasonable to expect a nation to 
 advance in enlightenment and in Civilization by supplying 
 to it only the means of Education, without affording any 
 opportunities, through the requisite National Institutions 
 and other Elements of Civilization, of gratifying the intel- 
 
 * Voice from St. Helena, vol. ii. p, 3S5, Gth edition. 
 
Prefaee to the First Editio7i. ix 
 
 lectual craving so produced and excited ; as it is to invite 
 a number of hungry men to a feast, and to suppose that 
 they will be perfectly satisfied with having several empty 
 dishes set before them. We readily supply mental dishes, 
 but resolutely deny mental food. 
 
 To a certain extent, 'nevertheless, all Civilization, and 
 every Element of it which is here enumerated, might be 
 said to constitute, and to bo comprehended in. Education ; 
 so that in one respect Education may be contended to be 
 the only Element of Civilization. But this is true only in 
 a particular and very limited, and by no means in a strict 
 or general sense, and in the same way only that all nutri- 
 ment, in which we might include water, and even air, may 
 be said to be meat. Thus, every Element of Civilization 
 conduces, more or less, to the Education of a man, as 
 tending in some degree to influence and develope his 
 mental and moral being. This, however, may be remarked 
 of every single occurrence of his life, but which no one 
 would think of classing among the Elements of his Educa- 
 tion. So Education, as regards its application in the 
 Civilization of a nation, has its proper and strict limits, 
 and is distinct from the other Elements of Civilization, 
 each of which, however, contributes to aid its progress. 
 They are, nevertheless, in reality, no more a part of our 
 Education, than air is a portion of our food ; however 
 necessary it may be to our preservation, and even in order 
 to render food itself nutritious. 
 
 It may also be correctly laid down, that the only really 
 true and legitimate mode of rendering Education com- 
 pulsory, is not by legislative enactment, but by Civilization ; 
 by creating such a strong necessity for it from the general 
 Civilization of the people through the application of its 
 other Elements, that all, in self-defence, in order to enable 
 them to avail themselves of these Elements, and of the 
 sources of enjoyment thereby opened to them, will be at 
 once voluntarily induced of themselves to seek Education, 
 
X Preface to the First Edition. 
 
 instead of having it, as now proposed, involuntarily forced 
 upon them. 
 
 On the other hand, the error pursued by many, — which 
 is doubtless both very great, and very deleterious in 
 its consequences, — in urging the excessive extension 
 of Education of every kind upon all classes indis- 
 criminately, has arisen from considering Education alone, 
 and not Civilization generally, as the real requirement of 
 the nation ; in fact, from mistaking Education for Civili- 
 zation. It is, indeed, possible that even Education itself, — 
 as where it is the means of jpromoting a too exclusive atten- 
 tion to one pui'suit, either in an individual or a nation, to the 
 neglect of the other branches or Elements of Civilization ; 
 or where it tends too largely to foster luxury or refinement, 
 as in the case of the extensive cultivation of certain mere 
 accomplishments, — may be directly and essentially in- 
 jurious to the promotion of Civilization. 
 
 Two important circumstances seemed peculiarly to 
 point out the present period as a fit time for the pub- 
 lication of the following pages, which have been for some 
 years lying by since their original composition, have 
 occasionally received additions as new ideas presented 
 themselves to the author's mind, and have obtained a 
 revision as opportunity offered, or as events appeared to 
 render this expedient : — 
 
 1. The extensive feeling now abroad in this country in 
 favour of the Education of the people generally, and on 
 the most comprehensive principles. 2. The great desira- 
 bleness which has long been felt, and is now generally 
 perceived and acknowledged, of some grand, and leading, 
 and distinct elementary principles being laid down which 
 should serve to guide the framing of any measm-es for 
 this purpose. 
 
 To encourage and stimulate still further the one, and to 
 suj)ply in some measure the want of the other, is the 
 reason for the appearance of the present work, and must 
 
Preface to the First Edition. 
 
 XI 
 
 form the apology for its publication. Should it only have 
 the effect of causing a yet deeper attention to the very 
 important and interesting subject treated on, the author 
 will not conclude that his labours have been entirely in 
 vain. If his views are deemed by any erroneous or deficient, 
 he trusts that this consideration will induce others to 
 discuss the matter with more discretion and more discern- 
 ment. 
 
 19 Queen Square, St. George the Martyr; 
 Sth October, 1861. 
 
 V 
 
 
PEEFACE TO THE PKESENT EDITION, 
 
 Since tlie first edition of this work appeared before the 
 public, although considerable activity has prevailed among 
 those who are anxious to promote the extension of Educa- 
 tion and Civilization, no progress whatever has been made 
 in reducing the system to a regular plan, or in deducing 
 any fixed and certain principles for its regulation. On 
 the contrary, the more energetic the movement that has 
 taken place, the more confused and chaotic have been the 
 notions which have been put forward, and which have 
 met with ready approval, if they have not been actually 
 adopted. The Government and the Legislature alike, 
 however expert on all matters of detail, appear determined 
 utterly to repudiate or to 'neglect the consideration of 
 leading principles, which ought to constitute the founda- 
 tion of every solid system, and without the laying down of 
 which it is imj^ossible that the structure itself should 
 stand on any firm basis. The correctness of wliat is here 
 asserted is exemplified alike in matters directly relating 
 to Education, and in those which arc connected with 
 Civilization generally, embraced in this work, such as 
 our policy towards our Colonial connections, the want 
 of any fixed and definite principles to regulate which 
 has lately been acknowledged, and in consequence of 
 which measures directly at variance with each other, 
 and of course very disastrous, have been adoj^ted by 
 
Preface to the Present Edition. xiii 
 
 successive governments, one reversing and overturning 
 what its predecessor had done; — the natural and almost 
 necessary consequence of attempting to act without rule, 
 analogous to trying to navigate some strange sea without 
 either chart or compass. 
 
 Neyertheless, although nothing has been done towards 
 the adoption of fixed systematic and leading principles 
 in the promotion of Civilization, but rather the contrary 
 course is more rigidly followed, and, in consequence, the 
 extensive and systematic general spread of Civilization 
 is more hopeless than ever, certain j)articular branches 
 of it have fructified with extraordinary vigour. Indeed, 
 the characteristic feature, perhaps the leading defect of 
 the Civilization of the present day, is its unequal dis- 
 tribution. While in some of its branches the stream is 
 overflowing, in others the channel is left nearly dry. 
 The object of the j)resent work is to promote an equal 
 dissemination of it throughout each avenue. Our aim 
 should nevertheless be not to lessen the measure of Civili- 
 zation in any particular department, but to increase the 
 amount of all those that are deficient to the level of that 
 which is the most abundantly sujDplied. As a skilful 
 physician while endeavouring to cure a malady, aims not 
 only at eradicating that particular disease, but at restoring 
 the health of the entire frame ; so a statesman of wise 
 and comprehensive policy will adopt and carry out not 
 one Element only of Civilization, but will consider the 
 whole system together, and avail of each Element in con- 
 junction with the others, and apply all of them to their 
 ajDpointed ends. 
 
 It is, however, satisfactory to the Author to be able 
 to record that while so little has been accomplished as 
 regards the recognition of systematic princij^les in the 
 promotion of Civilization, a great number of the proposals 
 made by him with regard to particular measures which 
 he deemed calculated to be advantao;eous for the further- 
 
xiv Preface to the Present Edition. 
 
 ance of Civilization, but which had not before been 
 mooted, have since been adopted by the Legislature ; 
 while others also suggested in this work are now recom- 
 mended for adoption by individuals of extensive influence. 
 This is the more remarkable from the book being mainly 
 devoted to the elucidation of princii)les, rather than the 
 development of any particular practical measures 
 
 The fact in question, the author flatters himself that he 
 is entitled without presumption to appeal to as some 
 proof of the soundness of his views and the practical 
 nature of his recommendations ; and this whether the 
 measures in question owed their origin to suggestions 
 thrown out by him, or were sj^ontaneously adopted from 
 a perception of their value, which of course evinces that 
 the work itself was somewhat in advance of the period of 
 its produclion. 
 
 Of one portion of this book, relating to popular amuse- 
 ments, an edition of three thousand copies was reprinted 
 for gratuitous distribution by an anonymous friend to the 
 cause of Civilization. 
 
 IscLipps Mange, Northolt, 
 bih June, 1872. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 THE KEAL NATURE AND ESSENCE OF 
 CIVILIZATION. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Capacity of Man for Improvetiient 1 
 
 Natural Analogy between Men and States 3 
 
 Civilization of different kinds 3 
 
 . Threefold consideration of Man 3 
 
 1. As an Individual . . . , ' . , 3 
 
 2. As tlie Constituent of a State 4 
 
 3. As the TyiiC of a State 5 
 
 Rival and Conflicting Influences ....... \ . 8 
 
 Moral Influences and Causes 10 
 
 Origin of Civilization 11 
 
 Influence of External Intercourse . .- ] 2 
 
 Stimulus to Civilization 13 
 
 Civilization the Natural and Proper Condition of Man . . 14 
 
 Essence of Civilization 14 
 
 Requisites to Civilization 15 __ 
 
 Elements of Civilization 18 
 
 Geographical Position 19 
 
 Situation and Circumstances of Great Britain 20 
 
 Mixture of National Races 22 
 
 Influence of Climate 24 
 
 National Character \ 28 
 
 Influence of Prejudice 31 
 
 Letters and Language reflective of National Character . . 34 
 
 Ancient and Modern Civilization 37 
 
 Influence of Scientific Inventions 40 
 
 Vast Achievements of the Ancients .... ... 40 
 
 Application of Discoveries 41 
 
 Progress 42 
 
 Christianity and Civilization 42 
 
xvi Contents. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Chivalry and Civilization .... 43 
 
 Decline of Civilization 44 
 
 Effect of Luxury 44 
 
 National AVealth 47 
 
 National Poverty 49 
 
 National Debt 50 
 
 Civilization reducible to a Science 51 
 
 Duty of the State in regard to its Promotion 53 
 
 Constituents and Elements of Civilization 54 
 
 THE ELEMENTS WHICH CONTEIBUTE TO THE PRO- 
 IMOTION AND PROGRESS OF CIVILIZATION. 
 
 I. National Education of the People. 
 
 Education the Keystone of Civilization 57 
 
 Its Threefold Nature 59 
 
 Different Kinds of Education 59 
 
 Classical Studies 62 
 
 Principles and Objects of Education 63 
 
 Necessity for Systematic Principles 64 
 
 Education and Crime 65 
 
 Want of a suitable Literature for the Lower Classes ... 67 
 
 Political Knowledge for the People 69 
 
 Popular Ignorance 70 
 
 Educational Fallacies ^ 71 
 
 Extension of Intercourse between Classes 73 
 
 National Education a National Duty 73 
 
 State Provision and Regulations for this Purpose .... 74 
 
 Competitive Examinations for Civil Offices 75 
 
 Period and End of Education 78 
 
 Artificial Stimulus to Education 80 
 
 Religious Education 82 
 
 Threefold Results of Education 83 
 
 II. National Religious Influence. 
 
 Reciprocal Influence of Religion and Education .... 84 
 
 Univer.-ality of Religious Iniiueuco 84 
 
 Civilizing Influence of Christianity 85 
 
 Fundamental Principles of Religion 86 
 
Contents. xvii 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Different Kinds of Eeligious Influence 86 
 
 Different Modes of its Operation 87 
 
 Civilizing Effect of Christianity upon Mankind .... 88 
 
 Its Aid to the Operation of the other Elements of Civilization 90 
 
 Immensity of its Influence .... 91 
 
 Eelative Influence of Christianity and Paganism .... 92 
 
 Personality and Materiality in Keligion 93 
 
 Priest Worship and Fabric AVorship 93 
 
 Popular Instruction in the Evidences of Religion .... 94 
 
 Ceremonials in the Celebration of Rtligious Services ... 95 
 
 Constituents of a Religious Service 96 
 
 Character of Religious Edifices 97 
 
 Morality and Religion 98 
 
 Civilized Countries and Individuals Destitute of Religion . 98 
 
 Duty of the State in the Promotion of Religious Influence . 99 
 
 Reverence and Regard to be rendered to Religion .... 99 
 
 State Protection of Religion 100 
 
 Avoidance of Repulsiveness in Religious Celebrations . . . 102 
 
 The Style of the Scriptures a Model for Sacred Services . . 102 
 
 III. National Instructory Institutions. 
 
 Nature, Object, and Regulation of Institutions of this Descrip- 
 tion 103 
 
 Institutions entitled to be deemed National 103 
 
 Adaptation of National Institutions to National Wants . . 104 
 Counteracting Effects, and Changes in the Condition of these 
 
 Institutions 105 
 
 Threefold Correspondence of Institutions of this Class, with 
 
 Education 106 
 
 Different Kinds of Instructory Institutions 106 
 
 I. A Church Establishment 107 
 
 Its Advantages Direct and Indirect 107 
 
 Tendency to Corruption, necessitating certain Safeguards . 109 
 Expediency of Extending the Basis of the Church Establish- 
 ment 110 
 
 Futility of Tests ill 
 
 Rival Religious Bodies 112 
 
 Proposals for Pacification 1J8 
 
 Religious Reunion , . 114 
 
 h 
 
xviii Contents. 
 
 VAOV. 
 
 Eequisite division of Clerical Duties 117 
 
 Educational and Eeligious lustitutions and Charities . . . 119 
 
 II. Universities and Scholastic Institutions 121 
 
 Ends they ought to Serve 121 
 
 Necessity for a Systematic Plan of Instrucfon 123 
 
 Lectures and Readings 126 
 
 Examinations, to what purpo.se to be Directed 127 
 
 Requirements of Instructory Institutions generally . . . 127 
 
 Intercourse between Itarned Institutions 128 
 
 Suitable Local Position for Universities 129 
 
 Public Libraries 130 
 
 III. Museums and Galleries of Works of Art 132 
 
 IV. Spectacular Institutions 133 
 
 A National Theatre 134 
 
 The Stage a National Moral Censor 135 
 
 Unjust Aspersions on its Character 138 
 
 Civilizing tendency of the Stage 140 
 
 IV. National Cultivation of Akt and Science. 
 
 Reciprocal Influence between Civilization and Art and Science 141 
 
 Classification and Apportionment of Pursuits of this kind. . 142 
 
 Aid of Science to Civilization 143 
 
 Influence of Ai t on Civilization 144 
 
 Effect and Power of Music 146 
 
 Poetry, National and Devotional 147 
 
 Nutionol Monuments • 151 
 
 Pai'tiality evinced in their Erection 152 
 
 Civilizing Etfect of Monumental Tributes 153 
 
 IMemorials not Monumental 156 
 
 National Buildings 157 
 
 Domestic Application of Art and Science 158 
 
 National Disfigurements 159 
 
 Ornamental Ganlening 159 
 
 State Provision for the Promotion of Art and Literature . . 160 
 
 Popular Art ]G1 
 
 Blending and Co-operation of Art and Science 161 
 
 State Patronage for the Promotion of Science . ... 162 
 
Contents. xix 
 V. Liberty of the Press, and Toleratiox, 
 
 PACE 
 
 Restraints on Liberty ] 64 
 
 Principles of Civil Liberty 165 
 
 Liberty, Physical and Intellectual 165 
 
 Civil Influence of Slavery 166 
 
 Relative Influence of Liberty and Slavery on Civilization. . 167 
 
 Different Kinds of Intellectual Liberty ,168 
 
 -freedom directly conducive to Civilization 168 
 
 I. A Free Press 168 
 
 Its Independence and Influence, whence derived .... 169 
 
 Censorship by the Stage and by the Press 170 
 
 The Parliament, the Church, and the Press 171 
 
 Basis of the Power of the Press 171 
 
 Legitimate Restraints on the Liberty of the Press .... 172 
 
 Licentiousness not Liberty 174 
 
 Present Character of the British Pre.-s 174 
 
 II. Religious Liberty 175 
 
 True Principles of Toleration 176 
 
 Basis of Toleration 177 
 
 Toleration in relation to Civilization 178 
 
 Inefficacy of Coercion 178 
 
 Essence of Toleration 179 
 
 Legitimate Limits to Toleration ......... 181 
 
 Rationale of Intolerai;ion 131 
 
 Intoleration no Test of a True Church 184 
 
 Rival Religious Bodies 1S6 
 
 Toleration degenerating into lutoleration 187 
 
 Religious Superstitions 187 
 
 Basis of Intoleration 188 
 
 Right and Exercise of Private Judgment 189 
 
 Change of National Religion 189 
 
 State Benefits resulting from Toleration . 189 
 
 Instruction should supersede Intoler.ttiou 190 
 
 Summary of the True Principle of Toleration 191 
 
 VI. National Commemorations and Festivals. 
 
 Threefold Advantages of Days of Recreation 192 
 
 National Relaxation 193 
 
 The Christian Sabbath 193 
 
 Eight Rule for its Observance 194 
 
XX 
 
 Contents 
 
 PAOE 
 
 True Principle in Sabbatarian Legislation 195 
 
 Present necessity for National Recreations 196 
 
 State Precedents for National Holidays 197 
 
 Holy-Days and Holidays 198 
 
 Commemorative Anniversaries 199 
 
 Specific Days proposed .... 200 
 
 Utility of these Commemorations 201 
 
 National Amusements, their Regulation, Adaptation, and Aim 202 
 
 Corrective Influence of certain Recreative Pursuits .... 202 
 
 Convivial Celebrations 202 
 
 Improving Recreations 204 
 
 Excitements to Emulation 205 
 
 Demoralizing and Depraving Recreations and Spectacles . . 206 
 
 Gambling, and Games of Chance 208 
 
 Vicious and Idle Pursuits 209 
 
 State Provision for National Recreations 210 
 
 Plan for accomplishing these Proposals 210 
 
 YII. Dignities and Honorary Rewards. 
 
 Civil Distinctions originate with Nature 211 
 
 Differences, Artificial and Natural 211 
 
 Rewards for the Masses 213 
 
 Civilizing Influence, and Moral Effect of National Dignities . 213 
 
 State Honours representative of Real Renown 214 
 
 Civilizing Influence of an Aristocracy 216 
 
 Suggestions for preventing the Impoverishment of the Peerage 217 
 
 Gentility 218 
 
 Honours suited to a Civilized Age 219 
 
 Dignities and Rewards for Achievements in Civilization . . 220 
 
 Minor State Dignities .223 
 
 New Order of Dignities for Men of Letters 223 
 
 Revival of Extinct Orders of Nobility 224 
 
 Hereditary Honours 224 
 
 Peerages for Life 225 
 
 The End and Aim of Honorary Distinction 226 
 
 State Pensions to Meritorious Persons 227 
 
 State Rewards correspondent with their Object . . . 228 
 
 Professional Pecuniary Recompense 22.*^ 
 
 Pensions to Men of Letters and Science 229 
 
Contents. 
 
 XXI 
 
 Dispensation of State Preferment 231 
 
 Eewards to Men of Middle Eank 232 
 
 Special Qualities requiring National Encouragement . . . 233 
 
 VIII. Moral Jurisprudence, 
 
 Nature, Scope, and Aim of Moral Jurisprudence .... 233 
 
 Leading Principles of Jurisprudence generally 234 
 
 Legislation and Civilization 285 
 
 Proper Sphere of Moral Jurisprudence 237 
 
 Leading Principles of Moral Jurisprudence 240 
 
 I. Systems of Civil Government 240 
 
 Essential Principles of Liberty 241 
 
 Sovereign Authority . . • 242 
 
 Moral Influence of Sovereigns in Monarchical States . . . 243 
 
 Moral Influence of Rulers 245 
 
 Popular Tyranny 246 
 
 Representative Governments 247 
 
 True Principles of Representation 247 
 
 Mixed Constitutions 249 
 
 Rival Legislative Bodies 250 
 
 II, Objects and Systems of Laws 250 
 
 Specific Adaptation of particular Codes 251 
 
 Laws repugnant to Nature or Religion 252 
 
 Accordance with National Character of National Laws . . 254 
 
 -Marriage Laws, and Influence and Position of "Women . . 255 
 
 Conferring the Franchise on Females 257 
 
 Criminal Moral Codes 259 
 
 Courts of Chivalry to arbitrate on Cases of Honom-. . . . 260 
 
 Leading Principle on which Punishments proceed .... 260 
 
 Preventative Punishments 261 
 
 Varieties and Objects of Punishments 262 
 
 Punishments corresponding with the Crimea to be repressed . 262 
 
 Origin of Civil Punishments 262 
 
 Neglect to calculate Moral Efi"ects 264 
 
 -Moral Efiect of Punishments 264 
 
 Degrading Punishments 268 
 
 Reformatories 269 
 
 Whence Punishments fail in their End 270 
 
 State Rewards for Good Conduct 271 
 
 Di&couraorinpr Punishments 272 
 
xxii Contents, 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Oaths 272 
 
 Mode of Administering Justice 273 
 
 Necessity of a Public Prosecutor 274 
 
 Civil Disabilities 275 
 
 Eeveuue and other Kestrictive Laws 276 
 
 Copyright and Patent Laws 277 
 
 Principle of the Poor Laws 277 
 
 Jurisprudential Changes 278 
 
 Laws repugnant to tlie National Sentiment 279 
 
 Moral Causes and Operations, and Moral Jurisprudence . . 280 
 
 IX. Internal Communication. 
 
 Civilizing Influence of Mutual Intercourse 280 
 
 This Element should be combined with the others enumerated 281 
 
 Amalgamation of Societies in a Nation 282 
 
 Analogy between Individual and Internal Communication . 282 
 
 Intercourse between Ranks and Classes 285 
 
 Varieties of Internal Communication 286 
 
 Specific Modes of Intercommunication 286 
 
 National Intercommunication a National Object .... 288 
 
 Establishment of Railway Communication in this Country . 288 
 
 Postal and Telegraphic Communication 289 
 
 Different Points of Internal Communication 290 
 
 Capital Cities 291 
 
 Rival Rural and Urban Interests 294 
 
 Preservation of Balance between Contending Interests . . 296 
 
 Colonial Communication 297 
 
 Principles of Colonial Relationship 298 
 
 Steam Navigation and the Electric Telegraph 300 
 
 Co;nmunication of each kind essential 301 
 
 Importance and Civilizing Influence of this Element . . . 301 
 
 Its due Regulation and proper Application 302 
 
 X. InTEKNATIONAL iNTEKCOrESE. 
 
 Mutual Influence of Civilization and Intercourse .... 303 
 
 Foreign Intercourse the Forerunner of Civilization . . . 304 
 
 Intercourse the primary Stimulus to Civilization .... 304 
 
 Influence of International Intercourse on National Character 306 
 
 Foreign Alliance and Interference 307 
 
Contents. xxiii 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Civilization subversive of National Barriers 309 
 
 Influence of Eeligiou in relation to this Element .... 310 
 
 International Commerce 311 
 
 International Interests 311 
 
 Early Civilization of this Country by International Inter- 
 course 312 
 
 Foreign Policy regulated by Geographical Position . . . 314 
 
 Insular Situation 314: 
 
 Marine Intercourse 315 
 
 Civilization contributes to Promote Nationality .... 315 
 
 Various Modes of International Intercourse 316 
 
 Definition of War 317 
 
 . Influence of War upon Civilization 319 
 
 International Interventions 321 
 
 War superseded by Congress 322 
 
 "Influence of Civilization upon War 323 
 
 Provocations to War, and Preservatives of Peace .... 325 
 
 Punishment of Criminal States 326 
 
 Civilization increases Martial Skill 327 
 
 Maintenance of National Boundaries 329 
 
 Protection of National Frontiers 330 
 
 Preservation of Balance of Power between Nations .... 331 
 
 International Alliances . ' 332 
 
 International Independence 333 
 
 Intercourse through Ambassadors 335 
 
 Precautions respecting Foreign Influence 336 
 
 International Honour 336 
 
 International Enterprise 337 
 
 International Laws 338 
 
 International Language 339 
 
 Civilizing results of International Intercourse 340 
 
 Civilization of the World 341 
 
 THE END RESULTING FROM THE COMPLETE 
 ESTABLISHMENT OF CIVILIZATION. 
 
 Correct Enumeration of the Elements of Civilization . . . 341 
 
 Incomplete Accomplishment of Civilization 342 
 
 Conjunction of each of the Elements of Civilization . . . 343 
 
 Definition of the End of Civilization 343 
 
xxiv Contents. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Threefold Objects of Civilization 345 
 
 Happiness and Civilization 347 
 
 Changes, Material and Moral, occasioned by Civilization . . 349 
 
 Contemporaneous Co-operation of the Elements of Civilization 349 
 
 Mutual Aid to each other of different Elements . . . . 350 
 
 Proper Application of Elements 351 
 
 Threefold Kesults of Civilization 353 
 
 National Diseases in relation to Civilization 353 
 
 Ideal of a completely Civilized State 354 
 
 Influence of Civilization upon Manners and Morals . . . 356 
 
 Moral Causes, and their Influence upon Civilization . . . 357 
 
 Civilization the Safeguard of Civil Liberty 358 
 
 Symbols of Civilization 360 
 
 Physical Advantages resulting from Civilization .... 361 
 
 Stimulus to Progression 361 
 
 Results of Civilization, Individual and National .... 362 
 
 Social Evils attendant on Civilization 363 
 
 No instance as yet of a completely Civilized State .... 364 
 
 Civilization, Past, Present, and Prospective . . a . . • • 365 . 
 
 Recapitulation and Conclusion ... 366 
 
THE REAL MTTIEE AND ESSENCE 
 
 OP 
 
 CIVILIZATION. 
 
 Man is directly and peculiarly distinguished from every 
 other created being in the world, alike by the superiority 
 of his intelligent powers, as also by the capacity of those 
 powers to be constantly advancing forward in the career 
 towards perfection. Not only, indeed, is the mind of 
 man thus susceptible of improvement, but the full growth 
 and even the very development of its faculties are 
 dependent on the cultivation bestowed upon the former. 
 Instinctive intelligence, on the other hand, is created 
 perfect, and neither admits of nor requires cultivation for 
 its advancement. The capacity of the human mind to be 
 ever progressing onward towards a perfect condition, 
 both as respects its acquirements and its powers, has been 
 regarded as one of the most sure and satisfactory proofs 
 of the soul's immortality. This adaptation for improve- 
 ment and advancement is moreover alike true with regard 
 to each individual mind, and as respects men in the 
 aggregate when united together into a civil society or 
 state. There is also not only a growth observable in a 
 national as well as a natural body, but in a national mind 
 too the progress of growth and development is as plain, 
 and as perceptible at each stage, as it is in the mind of a 
 man : and the changes and peculiarities observable at 
 
2 Essence of Civilization . 
 
 the different stages in each are corresponding and very 
 similar. Both individuals and nations differ, however, 
 one from another in many important respects, according 
 to the various and conflicting circumstances by which 
 they are surrounded. In the case, moreover, both of men 
 and states, however disposed to exert themselves to 
 further their own progression and civilization, there are 
 certain counteracting causes ever in of)eration by which 
 the course of nature is wont to be diverted or impeded. 
 These require to be attended to, not for the purpose of 
 constructing a new channel, but in order to restore the 
 current to that in which it originally flowed. It is also 
 of high importance to all who are interested in the 
 promotion of civilization, that those great principles by 
 which its growth is regulated, whose foundations lie deep 
 in the knowledge of human nature, and which are as fixed, 
 and sure, and definable as those of any other science, 
 should be fully developed and understood. 
 
 The cause of civilization is not that of any one country, 
 but of all mankind. It is confined to no one age, but it 
 is eternal. Its princij)les are applicable to no particular 
 race alone, as it is the birthright and the blessing of all 
 people alike. Civilization, indeed, should extend as far 
 as mankind have sj^read, and should bind all the nations 
 of the world into one common and friendly society. 
 
 Nevertheless, although ultimately the whole world may 
 attain civilization, yet the civilization of one country 
 will be very different to that of another, and the civiliza- 
 tion of each will necessarily vary according to the cha- 
 racter and circumstances of the people, and the influences 
 of different kinds by which they are surrounded. 
 Different races may, moreover, no doubt, vary extensively 
 as regards their general capacity for civilization, and the 
 particular kind of civilization best suited for them, as do 
 also the people of the same nation at various periods of 
 their growth and history. But to assert that any people 
 
Threefold consideration of Man. 3 
 
 are absolutely unfitted and incapacitated for civilization, is 
 alike unphilosophical and at variance with the principles 
 of human nature. Great Britain, and even Rome and 
 Greece, appeared at one time as little adapted for 
 civilization as do the savages of Africa and of the remote 
 Indian islands at the present day, to whom, of course, a 
 very different code of civilization should be applied, to 
 what would be suitable for, and would be availed of by 
 Europeans. It is, in fact, with regard to civilization, as 
 it is with regard to education. All persons, of whatever 
 age and of whatever capacity or previous discipline, are 
 not fitted for precisely the same kind of teaching, 
 although all are alike caj)able of being taught. So persons 
 of all classes and all countries, although not all fitted for 
 civilization of the same kind, are all fitted for civilization, 
 the negro as well as the white man, the African equally 
 with the European. Nevertheless, the cause and nature 
 of civilization adapted for, and efficient for the one, must 
 vary widely from that which is proper for the other. 
 They will probably also differ a good deal as regards 
 the extent of civilization which each will ultimately 
 attain. 
 
 In entering upon the subject before us, it will be proper, 
 in order to obtain a comprehensive and adequate view of 
 the nature and essence of civilization, that we should fii'st 
 inquire into the capacities and adaptation of man to be 
 influenced by it, more especially under the following con- 
 ditions : — 1. Man considered as an individual. 2. Man 
 considered in the aggregate, or as collected into a society 
 or state. 3. Man considered as the type of a state* 
 
 1. The influences produced by civilization on the 
 individual man need not here to be pointed out. Man 
 indeed owes everything to civilization. He is dependent 
 on this not only for his intellectual acquirements and 
 enjoyments, but to enable him to construct a habitation to 
 dwell in, and even to furnish clothes to protect him 
 
4 Essence of Civilization. 
 
 against the weather. Nay, more than this, his very cor 
 poreal frame calls for the aid of civilization, and oi 
 constant artificial appliances, in order to ensure his com 
 fort. Animals, on the other hand, have most of these 
 wants supplied by Nature, while man's destitution seems 
 providentially ordered to stimulate him to those artificial 
 resources of invention, and application, and exertion, which 
 he, unlike the rest of the creation, is capable of putting 
 forth. Aristotle observes in his Politics — a work alike 
 philosophical, practical, and profound, and which forms 
 probably the most complete and most comprehensive com- 
 pendium of state-wisdom which has ever yet emanated 
 from the mind of man: — "Perfected by the offices and 
 duties of social life, man is the best, but rude and 
 undisciplined, he is the very worst of animals."* In a 
 civilized condition, moreover, every power and capacity of 
 the mind is developed and brought into activity ; while in 
 a state of barbarism, many of these lie dead, and the most 
 exalted may never be called upon to exert themselves. 
 This is indeed of itself surely enough to prove that 
 civilization is not merely the highest, but the natural con- 
 dition of man ; that alone in which all his endowments, 
 and more especially the most important of them, can be 
 exercised and perfected. In a state of barbarism, on the 
 other hand, the animal propensities and lower impulses 
 only of his nature, — which ought ever to be restrained 
 and subdued. — are those which will be fully developed 
 and brought into use. 
 
 2. As regards the influences produced by civilization 
 upon man in the aggregate, or upon a body of individuals 
 collected together into a society or state, we must consider 
 on the one hand that these persons, though united into a 
 community, are each individuals still, and retain all their 
 particular intellectual endowments and dispositions ; 
 while, on the other hand, by being thus united they 
 
 * Book I. 
 
Man as the Ty])e of a State 5 
 
 are in many respects extensively affected througli the 
 influence produced by the operation of these different 
 minds on each other, whereby various faculties, and 
 powers, and dispositions, are developed, which, while 
 each remained alone, or acted by himself independently, 
 would have lain dormant. Hence the same man when 
 in society and when in solitude, though really and 
 essentially unchanged, conducts himself very differently. 
 
 Men join together in societies from a sense of their 
 own individual incompleteness and insufficiency, and from 
 a consciousness that they are but units or elements of the 
 whole civil body. If each man was able of himself to do 
 all that he required, he would not resort to the aid of 
 others. Indeed we only do so now from necessity, and in 
 thosis cases where we cannot effect what we wish by our- 
 selves alone. This want it is which induces, or rather 
 drives men into society, societies into nations, and 
 nations into confederations ; until the whole world is, to 
 some extent at least, knit together into one grand social 
 community. And the further that civilization advances, 
 the more extensive in all respects will be this union ; and 
 the more extensive is this union and co-operation, the 
 more complete is the confederation thus formed. Society 
 is, indeed, the very soul of civilization. Without this, 
 civilization cannot exist. And it is in a great degree, 
 because, on account of the inferiority of their powers of 
 intelligence, they can only enter into society to a very 
 limited extent, that animals do not advance in civilization 
 beyond their original condition, and are not adapted for 
 ever attaining it in any large measure. 
 
 3. In considering man as the type of a nation or state 
 composed of a body of individuals miited together for 
 mutual society and aid, and governed by laws conducive 
 both to their individual and general welfare, we shall find 
 that the resemblance extends to various and striking 
 particulars. Both men and states have their periods of 
 
6 Essence of Civilization. 
 
 childliood, youth, maturity, and decay; both in their 
 early condition are comparatively powerless, gradually 
 acquire strength, and increase by degrees in wealth, 
 importance, and civilization ; both in their progress from 
 infancy to maturity pass through many stages and 
 changes; both are subject to certain disorders at par- 
 ticular times, and at different periods of their growth are 
 peculiarly liable to be affected by specific influences and 
 circumstances. Demosthenes, in the second Olynthiac, 
 philosophically compares the condition of men and states 
 as more especially illustrated when any defect befalls 
 either. " As in our bodies, when one is in good health, 
 the peculiar flaws in the system do not show themselves ; 
 but if any malady comes on them, then they are all 
 stirred up, — fractures, sjDrains, and whatever else is 
 faulty ; so it is with states and sovereigns." As different 
 diseases affect or are more peculiarly prejudicial to 
 mankind at particular stages of their career ; so among 
 states different diseases affect them, and are more pecu- 
 liarly prejudicial at one time than they are at another. 
 And young states are as little liable to many of the 
 diseases of those at an advanced career, as young children 
 are to gout and other infirmities of old age. Moreover, 
 both nations and individuals during their youth are 
 regulated by the simplest rules of conduct, as both their 
 concerns and j)roperty are of the simplest kind, gradually 
 becoming more complex and important as those who are 
 interested about them advance in age. The petty quarrels 
 of youthful states are also similar to those of children, 
 occurring frequently, resulting in but little, and being 
 soon forgotten. Both a kingdom and a man arrive at 
 maturity very gradually, and both have their respective 
 eras of rise and prosperity, and highest power, and 
 )erfection, and decline ; both, — and from somewhat 
 similar causes, from that tendency towards dissolution 
 which is a part of the constitution of all things terrestrial, 
 
State Diseases. 7 
 
 whether physical or political, — after arriving at their 
 point of perfection, begin to fall into decay, and gradually 
 at length become enfeebled and die. States too, like 
 men, have not only their j)eriods of growth and decline, 
 but their fatal catastrophes also ; and corresponding causes 
 conduce to the destruction of each. Nations, moreover, 
 as in the case of men, wear out by age. And old age is as 
 inevitable and as fatal to states as it is to men. There 
 are also in the life of every nation, as in that of an 
 individual, seasons of sickness and of health, of prosj^erity 
 and adversity, of summer and winter, and even of day 
 and night. 
 
 Each nation, moreover, like each man, is distinguished 
 by some particular character or disposition and talents ; 
 and the national character of a people is as marked 
 as that of the various individuals composing it, while 
 both are of essential importance to be studied by those 
 who would legislate for them. The actions of states 
 correspond also with those of individuals, and cor- 
 responding influences tend to direct the operations and 
 the aims of each alike. In a nation, as well as in an 
 individual, various powers and interests will be found co- 
 existent, each of which will be striving to obtain the 
 ascendancy over the others, and to acquire the supremacy 
 and rule over the whole. If we desired strictly, and to 
 its full length, to carry out the comparison here com- 
 menced, of an individual man to a collective state, we 
 might refer to the intellectual faculties of the former as 
 resembling the ruling and judicial powers in the latter, 
 among which the reason should bear the supreme autho- 
 rity, like the administrator of justice in a nation. The 
 moral feelings and dispositions might be compared to the 
 middle class and well ordered portion of society, which 
 possess neither the authority of the highest, nor the turbu- 
 lence and licentiousness of those that are depraved and 
 disaffected, which must always form a considerable portion 
 
8 Essence of Civilization, 
 
 of every population, and which may be represented by the 
 animal passions and propensities. In imitation of some 
 philosophers, both in ancient and modern times, the 
 metaphor might be yet further followed out, by comparing 
 the brain to the capital of the nation, the nerves to the 
 organs of intelligence and means of communication 
 between different parts, the limbs and natural weapons of 
 defence to the military and naval powers, and the alimen- 
 tary and other material organs to the commercial bodies 
 of the kingdom. The muscles, and veins, and arteries, 
 may represent the roads, and rivers, and canals, and the 
 senses and their organs, the ports of the empire. 
 
 In a nation as in an individual, a constant rivalry and 
 contention exist between the different powers and in- 
 terests, although those of the higher order, and of superior 
 intelligence and virtue ought to bear sway, but which are 
 controlled in the exercise of their rule by the lower 
 endowments, while the influence of the middle rank 
 moderates both, and keeps each in its position. In times 
 of anarchy, however, these several influences change 
 place, the lower ruling in the stead of the higher, and 
 the middle either joining with the victorious party or 
 becoming altogether annihilated. In man the various 
 powers, and feelings, and passions, and propensities, each 
 contend together for the supremacy ; but although in the 
 exercise of his mental faculties he may be much biased 
 by his animal passions and feelings, yet the former bear 
 sway, and reason presides as the ruling power, supported 
 by the moral endowments of the soul. When however 
 intemperance or passion takes possession of the man, 
 reason is driven from her throne, the animal influences 
 usurp the authority of the intellectual endowments, and 
 conscience and the moral influences are disregarded. In 
 the case therefore both of men and of states, the 
 higher influences ought to be upheld and bear rule ; 
 those of the most cultivated minds and the purest morals 
 
Rival and Conflicting! Influences. 9 
 
 should possess the supreme command ; while those of 
 depraved habits and ignorant minds, ought not to be 
 allowed to exercise their baneful sway. The restricted 
 influence, however, even of the lower animal impulses, 
 if properly availed of, may be beneficial. The mind, 
 if exerted without any consideration for the requirements 
 of the material frame, would conduce to the disorgan- 
 ization of the whole system, as well as to the injury of 
 each particular part ; and in states each legitimate interest 
 may be advantageously applied in its proper sphere. Great 
 minds exercise an influence over those which are inferior, 
 and over the mass of mankind, corresponding with that 
 which man exercises over animals. But it is an influence 
 only ; the mass remains the same. We tame animals, 
 but they are animals still, and retain all their habits and 
 dispositions as before. What taming is to an animal, 
 civilization is to a nation. Taming, however, blunts 
 and weakens many of the natural forces of the animal, 
 while civilization quickens and extends those of the 
 nation. A body of men in a state, are therefore acted 
 on by the authority of the leading minds who address 
 themselves to it. But they are biased only, not changed : 
 the course is not stopped, but merely diverted. As 
 therefore it is not always desirable that even the highest 
 faculties of the mind should bear undisputed sway 
 uninfluenced altogether by the animal impulses ; so it 
 is not always expedient in a state, that those of the 
 highest rank, whatever be their attainments or their 
 virtues, should rule without control. Aristotle observes 
 with characteristic penetration, that " the best common- 
 wealth is that in which middling men most abound "* 
 And again, " Governments are good and nations happy 
 in proportion to the preponderancy of the middle 
 ranks, and their ability to defy the pride and oppression 
 of the great, as well as to resist the rapacity and 
 * Politics, book vi. 
 
10 Essence of Givilhjation. 
 
 malignity of the vulgar."* So an individual who would 
 regulate his conduct most discreetly, must be ruled not 
 exclusively by the direction of his highest faculties only, 
 but by the aid of his secondary endowments and moral 
 powers. On the other hand, as no body can be sound 
 when the head or any vital member is violently affected 
 or subject to disease ; so no state can be in a healthy 
 condition when its rulers or governing bodies are 
 depraved, or weak, or disordered. The people, too, are 
 very apt to copy the vices and even the failings of their 
 superiors, or at any rate to palliate their own by reference 
 to those of the great. 
 
 The changes in condition both of ^ men and of states 
 form another striking coincidence between them ; and 
 on this point Aristotle, in the work already quoted from, 
 observes, "In moral and intellectual endowments, one 
 man is scarcely ever more different from another, than the 
 same man is different from himself at different periods of 
 his life."t 
 
 A nation, like an individual, may also possess property 
 and territories of its own ; may have both other states 
 and individuals subservient to and dependent upon it, 
 and may form treaties with or wage war against them. 
 In each of these instances we may see how much more 
 important is progress in civilization than mere physical 
 strength ; and what real power it confers alike on men 
 and on states, over those who are inferior to them in 
 this respect ; how great a difference also is produced in 
 both by intellectual and moral culture. 
 
 Thus, from the study of human nature do we learn an 
 important lesson both in politics and in civilization, and 
 have afforded to iis an illustration how intimately con- 
 nected together those important studies are, and ever 
 ought to be. Nations and men are, therefore, influenced 
 and ruled by the same means, and according to the same 
 
 * Politics, book vii. t Ibid., book iv. 
 
Origin of Civilization. 11 
 
 grand principles, — a consideration wliicli it is ever of 
 consequence to bear fully in mind. But neither men nor 
 nations are primarily ruled by laws. There are doubt- 
 less moral causes in their operation far more influential 
 than any laws can be, and of these civilization, in its 
 true and comprehensive sense, embraces all that is most 
 important, most extensive, and most valuable. By these 
 influences, both men and states are not only affected but 
 changed ; not merely moved but carried along. 
 
 As regards the actual origin of civilization alike 
 among states and individuals, different opinions have been 
 formed by those who have devoted themselves to this 
 inquiry. Archbishop Whately has maintained that civil- 
 ization among mankind would never have arisen had not 
 the earlier inhabitants of the earth been taught this by a 
 Divine instructor. But unfortunately for this theory, 
 tEe~early inhabitants supposed to have been so taught 
 were but very partially civilized, which we can hardly 
 suppose would have been the case, and that the Divine 
 purpose for this end, if it existed, would have been 
 allowed to be so very imperfectly accomplished. On the 
 other hand, a very high degree of civilization was ulti- 
 mately reached by mankind when no such Divine influence 
 is supposed to have been exerted, which renders the 
 Archbishop's theory still more improbable. Nor is it any 
 proof of uncivilized nations not being capacitated to 
 advance in civilization, that we find that in certain arts 
 or pursuits they have not for a long period made any pro- 
 gress, as this may arise from peculiar circumstances 
 quite independent of the general advancement of civili- 
 zation, such as those particular arts having been brought 
 to the highest perfection which the materials for them 
 admitted, or which the occasions for which they were 
 used were required. Their want of intercourse with 
 other nations, is what is here necessary to promote their 
 civilization. In our own country, although civilization 
 
12 Esserice of Civilization. 
 
 generally is rapidly advancing, certain arts and pursuits 
 have nevertheless ceased to progress to a higher state of 
 perfection. 
 
 From the circumstance that in some peculiar cases the 
 advancement of a particular art, or of civilization in 
 general, has been produced by intercourse with other 
 nations, some persons have supposed that it must have 
 been so in all cases ; and they have been led to deny 
 that, without any exception, either art or civilization 
 could ever have originated in any people spontaneously 
 or by their own invention. Because art in Greece was 
 advanced by the example of art in Egypt, they have 
 concluded that in all nations where art has advanced, 
 its progress must have been owing to the example 
 of some other nations. As in an individual so in a 
 nation, any particular art or science, or other pursuit 
 connected with civilization, may either have been in- 
 vented by that peoj)le, or they may have learnt it from 
 some other people. In most cases, however, probably 
 part is original in the man or in the nation, and part is 
 borrowed from others. The proportion in which either 
 invention or imitation prevails, will be mainly regulated 
 by the character of the particular person or people. 
 
 The main requisites for originating civilization in any 
 nation are, in the first placC; that there should be a con- 
 stant and close intercourse between the j)eople in such a 
 state, whether arising from the extent of the population, 
 the proximity to each other of its cities, or whatever 
 cause, so that different minds may be both stimulated by 
 competition, and obtain a continual interchange of ideas. 
 Intercourse with foreign nations also conduces to civil- 
 ization in a corresj)onding mode. But in addition to 
 all this, it is requisite that the people in a particular 
 nation be in a condition of such security and prosperity 
 as to have leisure from providing for the necessities of 
 the body, to bestow a care on the requisites of the mind. 
 
Stimulus to Civilization. 13 
 
 And this intercourse of the people in a state both with 
 one another and mth those of foreign nations, forms, as I 
 shall hereafter point out, two of the essential Elements of 
 civilization, though but two of them only out of several 
 others. 
 
 If it be urged that savages are not only behind other 
 nations in civilization, but that their mental faculties are 
 so feeble in comparison with those of cultivated people, 
 that they are intellectually incapacitated from rising out 
 of their rude state ; I. would reply, that as their culti- 
 vation advances their powers become improved, and as 
 their powers become improved, civilization itself pro- 
 gresses. That which is mainly wanting in their case to 
 advance them in civilization is, however, not power, but 
 stimulus. They have the capacity to move, but they lack 
 the motive to urge them to do so. Their condition 
 furnishes them with all that they require ; and until 
 they require more, they will rest content with that 
 condition. 
 
 Many find it easier to make than to maintain a fortune. 
 Nations which have achieved mighty victories, not 
 unfrequently fail to hold what they have gained. The 
 reason of this is that in each case the stimulus that 
 urged them on to the conquest is wanting to render that 
 secure. 
 
 (Whatever produces want, or occasions the perception of 
 it. has a tendency to promote civilization, whether in the 
 man or in the state, inasmuch as a feeling of the want 
 originates at once a stimulus to supply it, and stimulus 
 leads to exertion, exertion to progress, and progress to 
 civilization. A person who is without wants, remains in 
 a state of passive inaction, from which he is stimulated 
 only by the occurrence of a want, the effort to supj)ly 
 which engages him in undertakings that promote his 
 civilization. So is it also in a corresponding manner in 
 the case of a state. \ 
 
14 Essence of Civilization. 
 
 Not impossibly, indeed, almost every evil that befals 
 society in its early condition, may indirectly tend to 
 forward its civilization, by creating a stimulus, or an 
 effort to escape from the evil, which in turn leads on to 
 or produces progress, as progress does civilization. In 
 this respect many national curses prove eventually national 
 blessings, and temporary suffering becomes the cause of 
 permanent amelioration. 
 
 I have already observed that civilization, although it 
 may not be the original condition of mankind, is in 
 reality far more their natural condition than is one of 
 barbarism. Many of the habits and customs, indeed, of 
 men in an uncivilized state, will, if duly inquired into, be 
 found much more contrary to, and even more at violence 
 with nature, than what are either ordinarily or often 
 followed in civilized society, even where the most 
 artificial habits have been pursued. While civilization 
 necessarily introduces many usages which are unnatural, 
 it also ever seeks to restore and to turn into the course 
 of nature those which are shown to be contrary to it, and 
 to be perversions and corruptions of what originally were 
 attempts to follow the dictates and guidance of nature. 
 Reason, moreover, in a state of civilized society, ever 
 exercises her full sway, while in a condition of barbarism 
 she is silent or unheeded. 
 
 We have next to consider in what civilization really 
 consists; to define its actual essence, and to point 
 out the true tests by which its existence may be 
 ascertained. 
 
 Civilization does not consist in the "jDcrfecting of 
 civil life ;" * as this may be effected, at any rate to a very 
 large extent, especially as regards the social condition of 
 a people, when civilization has made but little progress 
 among them. Nor does it consist in " progress ;"f as both 
 nations and individuals, although in a progressive state, 
 * Guizot : History of CiviHzation. f Ibid. 
 
may be either in a very advanced or a very low condition as 
 reo"ards their civilization, according to other circum- 
 stances. Progress, indeed, may exist among a people in 
 a very barbarous state, while it may not be observable 
 among those in a high condition of civilization. Nay, it 
 is necessarily wanting in those who have attained the 
 highest point. Civilization does not, moreover, consist 
 in luxury, as this, so far from being its consummation, is 
 but the forerunner of its decay. Nor is it even an 
 artificial state, as it is in reality the true, and legitimate, 
 and natural condition of intelligent beings. 
 
 Civilization is also said to consist in part in the re- 
 linquishment of barbarous pursuits, such as war, hunting, 
 and migrating from place to plac6. I must, however, 
 contend that it is not the relinquishment of these habits 
 that constitutes, or even contributes to civilization ; nor 
 are those habits actually and necessarily inconsistent 
 with it. Civilization, nevertheless, causes a change in 
 these habits, and renders what before was barbarous both 
 in its nature and tendency, far less so, and to a certain 
 extent even refining and elevating. 
 
 War indeed, so far from being a proof of defect in 
 civilization, is probably the best test on the whole of the 
 actual and essential power of a nation, as in contests of 
 this kind all its energies are called forth by being pitted 
 against a rival ; and vital interests being at stake, its 
 very utmost efforts for success are exerted. Moreover, 
 scientific skill as well as mere physical force is here 
 called into requisition. The great nations of old, Greece 
 and Eome, so renowned for their intellectual achievements, 
 were also equally famous for their martial enterprises. 
 
 By what therefore is civilization constituted '? 
 
 Civilization in the individual, immediately results from 
 and is directly caused by the due cultivation, develop- 
 ment, and exaltation of his intellectual and moral 
 faculties and powers, so as not only to bring them fully 
 
16 Essence of Civilization. 
 
 to maturity and into complete action, but also to enable 
 them to acquire a proper and efficient control over the 
 animal feelings and influences. And in a state, civiliza- 
 tion results from, and is caused in a corresponding 
 manner, by the due exaltation of those higher influences, 
 such as talent and virtue, which ought ever to be pre- 
 dominant in it, and to be the characteristic qualities both 
 of the individuals and the institutions which bear sway, 
 so as not only to render these noble principles the most 
 important in the state, but also to enable them to acquire 
 a due and entire ascendancy over the influences of vice, 
 and ignorance, and corruption, as well as over such 
 portion of the people as are liable to be swayed by any of 
 these pernicious influences. 
 
 The first ingredient, therefore, which is essential to 
 constitute civilization, whether in an individual or in a 
 nation, is the possession of kiigwledge, both as regards 
 general information and the acquaintance with particular 
 practical pursuits, and sciences, and arts. Without this, 
 civilization cannot subsist. Knowledge, nevertheless, 
 does not of itself constitute civilization, but is only an 
 incipient step in that direction. The next essential in- 
 gredient in civilization, either in a man or in a state, 
 after the possession of knowledge, appears to be the 
 possession of a certain degree of moral and social refi£e;;J| 
 ment, by which the mind of each person in the nation 
 becomes softened and elevated, and the whole community 
 are united together in one bond of mutual alliance and 
 friendship, the rupture of which is directly inimical to 
 civilization. Various other causes and agencies spring 
 out of tlicse, the operation of which together contribute to 
 constitute a complete condition of civilization ; the ul- 
 timate result of the whole, both in the man and in the 
 state, being that the higher endowments and influences 
 obtain the ascendancy, while those of a lower grade and 
 class become subjugated to them. 
 
General diffusion of Civilization. 17 
 
 In order to render civilization perfect, a refinement 
 and purification should also be effected, not only in the 
 general manners and habits, but also in the tastes and 
 intellectual pursuits in which the people both indi- 
 vidually and collectively are wont to indulge, and for 
 promoting which, as will be seen, a separate Element is 
 here provided.* 
 
 It is essential, moreover, that civilization should be 
 generally diffused throughout the nation, and not confined 
 to some particular districts or individuals. In most 
 nations there are certain persons who are more or less 
 civilized, even while the mass remains rude and uncul- 
 tivated. When we speak of the comparative condition of 
 the civilization of any particular nation or age, this refers 
 of course only to the state as regards civilization of the 
 body of the people, and does not mean to imply that 
 there are no exceptions to the condition described, or that 
 certain persons may not be in a much more advanced and 
 enlightened state than are the generality, while others 
 may be in condition even below the average. Some of 
 the greatest lights have been produced, and have shone 
 brightly in a dark age, and periods of comparative bar- 
 barity have given birth to men of the highest genius. It 
 is, however, the wide spread of civilization in a state, 
 that alone constitutes a condition of this kind. Not only, 
 indeed, should civilization be diffused through all the 
 different districts of the nation, but among all classes also 
 must its influence be extended, and with as great an 
 equality as can be effected. 
 
 Nevertheless, one great and essential influence in the 
 promotion of civilization, although not to be regarded as 
 an Element of itself, is the concentration in one place, as 
 a city or small district, of a great number of people into 
 one community, by means of which their minds are 
 brought into contact, rivalry is excited, and progress of 
 
 * Element 4. 
 
 C 
 
18 Essence of Civilization. 
 
 various kinds is the result. In the case of matter, com- 
 pressing it into a compact mass, gives to it that solidity 
 and force of which it was wholly destitute while in a 
 loose or liquid state. 
 
 It is not, however, absolutely essential for the estab- 
 lishment of a high degree of civilization either in an 
 individual or in a nation, that a condition of perfect 
 morality or freedom from crime in general should exist ; 
 and, indeed, it cannot be denied that civilization is some- 
 times found both in men and states coexistent with a 
 considerable amount of crime. There are, however, cer- 
 tain ci'imes, more especially those of violence and dis- 
 order, wholly inconsistent with a complete condition of 
 civilization ; and the natural and legitimate tendency of 
 civilization is to extinguish crime, and to lessen the 
 influences which tend to its production. 
 
 It is not correct to divide civilization as regards its 
 essence into that which is material and that which is im- 
 material, as in many cases while its essence is absolutely 
 material, its medium may be as entirely immaterial, and 
 vice versa. So, in the case of sculpture, while the medium 
 of this art is in all respects material, the essence of the 
 art, in which consist its intellectual excellence and taste- 
 ful merit, is as completely immaterial. 
 
 The elementary principles of civilization, by which 
 both its promotion and its progress are regulated, may be 
 comprehended in the four following classes : — 1. Mental. 
 2. Moral. 3. Legal. 4. Local. 
 
 1, Under the first of these classes, are comjirehended 
 those of the Elements of civilization contained in Num- 
 bers I., III., IV., v., VL, and VII. of the following 
 sections, which relate to the cultivation of the national 
 mind, the affording opportunities for intellectual im- 
 provement and refinement tliroughout the nation, allowing 
 full liberty for exercising these high privileges, and the 
 offering encouragement to those who use them aright ; 
 
Elements of Civilization. 19 
 
 eacli of which will be fully discussed under the sections 
 appropriated to them. 
 
 2. The second of the above classes includes Numbers 
 I., II., III., v., and VIII. of the following sections, 
 which relate to the moral and religious education of the 
 national mind, the means to be adopted for effecting this 
 freely, and with proper regulations, as is there pointed 
 out. 
 
 3. Under the head of Legal Elements, are compre- 
 hended those cases where legislative interference appears 
 requisite to aid in carrying out the principles to be es- 
 tablished, and which are discussed under Sections V. and 
 VIII. 
 
 4. The topics embraced under the head of Local Ele- 
 ments, though treated on in Sections IX. and X. require 
 some consideration while discussing the general subject 
 of civilization, more especially as many of the causes 
 there adverted to are such as do not admit, like the other 
 influences here commented on, of being altered or modified 
 according to the circumstances of the particular case, or 
 the desire of those who have to deal with them. 
 
 A person taking up a map of the world who was 
 ignorant of its history, would be almost spontaneously 
 led to infer that Asia is that portion where population 
 would at first be most abundant, and where civilization 
 would primarily dawn ; and which he might conclude 
 from its central situation and accessibility from other 
 countries. Europe, he might suppose, would be from its 
 climate naturally very favourable to civilization, and 
 Greece peculiarly so from its situation, being accessible 
 both by sea and land from so many points, and of so 
 salubrious a climate. Italy, also, from the same causes, 
 would naturally be expected early to reach a high point 
 in civilization, and to which, moreover, the moderate 
 dimensions of these countries would much conduce. 
 Britain, from its insular position, and owing to its being 
 
20 Essence of Civilization, ' 
 
 so distant from the latter countries, would not be likely 
 to be visited by or populated from them for a considerable 
 time, and might, therefore, be expected to remain for a 
 long period in a state of barbarism. It might, however, 
 be inferred that when once civilization was planted there, 
 it would probably soon take root, and flourish with 
 vigour. 
 
 To her local or geographical position, Great Britain 
 indeed owes much as regards her progress in civilization, 
 especially in relation to the four following points : — 
 
 I. Being an island it is accessible, and yet defensible 
 on all sides, having thus the advantage of both facility of 
 communication with foreign j)arts, and at the same time 
 of security against foreign attack. From the insular 
 position of this country, we are not only more free from 
 invasion than are countries which form a part of the 
 Continent, but from this circumstance the limits of our 
 inland territory are distinctly and finally settled, and we 
 are consequently exempt from aggressions by and disputes 
 with foreign countries respecting such matters, which 
 with many nations is the source of so much and such 
 constant contention. Another result of our insular posi- 
 tion, which may not however influence civilization, is that 
 from our having much less general intercourse with the 
 surrounding nations than is carried on by continental 
 countries, the identity of the race is preserved for a much 
 longer j^eriod. The British nation do not intermix and 
 intermarry with foreigners as do the people of France, 
 and German}'", and Hungary. It has also been remarked,* 
 that a further great advantage arising out of our insular 
 position and character, is that our social institutions have 
 formed themselves out of our real wants and interests. 
 Peninsulas, such as Greece and Italy, are, next to islands, 
 most favourable for civilization from the above causes. 
 Large continents, like Africa, especially if not intersected 
 * Coleridore : Constitution of Church and State. 
 
Geograjpliical Position. 21 
 
 by rivers or seas, are the least favourable for civilization. 
 Insular position may, indeed, in some cases be unfavour- 
 able to civilization, as impeding tbat freedom of inter- 
 course with other countries which is highly conducive to 
 it. In the case of Great Britain this has, however, been 
 counteracted by the following circumstances : — 1. Our 
 extensive commerce leads to much foreign intercoiirse, 
 and occasions oui' both constantly visiting foreign coun- 
 tries and receiving visits from the inhabitants of those 
 parts. By this means we are also to some extent in- 
 fluenced by their customs and laws, and become ac- 
 quainted with their opinions and mode of life, instead of 
 living entirely to ourselves. 2. Our great naval force 
 promotes this intercourse yet further, and obtains for us 
 a communication with nations both far and near, and 
 of every variety. 3. Our extensive colonial possessions 
 occasion also a constant and a close intercourse with 
 several foreign countries, and exercise, in a variety 
 of ways, an extensive influence on the mother- 
 country. 
 
 II. The size of this country is another point from 
 which it derives essential advantages, being extensive 
 enough to constitute a kingdom able to maintain itself, 
 both as regards its forces for protection and its natural 
 resources ; while, on the other hand, it is not so large as 
 to be incapable of being ruled or superintended by one 
 government ; nor are any of its parts so distant from the 
 centre, or metropolitan district, as to be difficult of 
 access ; nor is the sea so remote from any portion of the 
 British isles as not to be in some way available to the in- 
 habitants of that district ; while the greater part of the 
 country is near the coast. The large extent of coast, for 
 which Greece was so peculiarly distinguished, conduces 
 to the promotion of navigation, which in its turn encou- 
 rages many other pursuits tending to civilization. Op- 
 portunities for navigation to different parts of it are also 
 
22 Essence of Civilization. 
 
 afforded by the numerous rivers which flow through our 
 island. 
 
 III. The situation of Great Britain as regards its 
 proximity to tlie continent of Europe, and to the most 
 civilized nations there, is another matter of considerable im- 
 portance. Its position in this respect is peculiarly advan- 
 tageous ; for while it is distant enough from the Continent 
 to be secure from any unexpected annoyance from that 
 quarter, it is near enough for all the purposes of com- 
 munication ; and at one point, indeed, which admits of 
 being effectually guarded, from the nature of the spot, 
 a direct and easy access to the Continent is opened. The 
 geographical position of the territory of the Jews was 
 immediately conducive to their civilization, being such as 
 to afford intercourse with all those nations of the world, 
 who, from their locality, might be expected to be the most 
 civilized. 
 
 There is also another point of essential importance 
 connected with our local position, which deserves here to 
 be noted. It is that of the union into one kingdom of 
 three nations, consisting of distinct and very different races 
 of people, though their natural territories near adjoin. 
 Varying as these people do in character, and pursuits, 
 and turn of mind, an important influence is produced 
 as regards the promotion of civilization, by each calling 
 forth the energies of the other, and by which the natural 
 defects of each may be in some measure counteracted. 
 Their very differences in race, temperament, habits, and 
 religion, are thus rendered beneficial in serving to 
 develope the minds and feelings of various persons. New 
 opinions are moreover originated by each, while they are 
 modified by all. This conjunction of different elements is 
 essentially characteristic of the British mind ; and we see 
 it still further carried out in the constitution of the 
 British government, where three different estates co-exist 
 together, rivalling and occasionally competing with each 
 
Mixture of Baces. 23 
 
 other, but always tending to call forth the energies of their 
 opponents. To this also rival jDarties and sects no less 
 essentially contribute, while rival professions, and even 
 individuals, promote the same end ; and thus opposition 
 becomes the parent of progression. This circumstance 
 has probably an important influence in securing that 
 freedom of opinion and discussion, which to so large an 
 extent is established in this kingdom. 
 
 It has indeed been contended* that all the grand efforts 
 in the accomjjlishment of civilization have been effected 
 by mixed races, and that all the pure races have become 
 degenerate. This theory receives considerable support 
 from the practice we pursue in the breeding of domestic 
 animals, where we find the mixed races very superior 
 to those that are pure. In the case of animals, we 
 endeavour to unite for rej^roduction those qualities which 
 appear to be most valuable. So in the breeding of the 
 human race ought the same end to be pursued ; although 
 in this case, not having the same control in the regulation 
 of the breeding, we cannot expect that so precise a result 
 will be produced. Possibly, however, the very mixture of 
 races itself is beneficial even when done at hazard ; and 
 new qualities and powers, it may be, are engrafted and 
 developed by blending races hitherto uncultivated, with 
 those which for generations have been under the influence 
 of civilization. Thus, as rude races derive from those 
 that are civilized, in the course of their mingling 
 together, a share of their mental vigour ; so do they in 
 turn communicate to them, in equal proportion, at least, 
 their superior material constitution. A union of the 
 two races is calculated moreover both to vary and to 
 reproduce, and probably to invigorate also, many of the 
 qualities belonging to both, — material, moral, and mental. 
 Hence, by the mixture of races, and the consequent 
 compound of the various qualities belonging to each 
 
 * Prof. De Quatrefages. Anthropologie. 
 
24 Essence of Civilization. 
 
 it may not. impossibly happen that fresli and important 
 elements may he originated, endowments of a new order 
 spring up, and fresh qualities be developed, which are 
 produced by the combination so occasioned. There may, 
 moreover, be innate intellectual qualities of great value in 
 the minds of many among the uncultivated races, which 
 have never been displayed, from the want of opportunity 
 to call them into action, and from their not having 
 received any cultivation. By blending these untilled 
 races with those of civilized people, qualities are com- 
 municated from the one to the other, which have not 
 before been sown in that soil, and which may be expected 
 to produce something beyond what has hitherto been 
 brought forth. In the case of the people of this country, 
 although with the exception of the admixture of those of 
 the three different kingdoms united into one, very little 
 mingling of races now takes place, yet from the frequent 
 invasions of our island in ages gone by, the British race 
 contains in its blood a mixture probably as great as could 
 possibly be produced. 
 
 IV. The mild and salubrious climate of this country, is 
 another point of great importance as conducive to its 
 progress in civilization. It is at all times moderate, and 
 yet not the same in different parts ; favourable for both 
 animal productions and those of the soil, and for these in 
 great variety. Added to this the weather is temperate, 
 the soil fertile, and the ground, without being mountainous, 
 is sufficiently undulated for all purposes of commerce and 
 cultivation, and v/hich also ensm-es its being well watered. 
 The natural productions of the soil are moreover of great 
 practical utility. 
 
 Climate, indeed, in numerous ways, and both directly 
 and indirectly, exercises a vast influence over the animal, 
 moial, and intellectual condition of a people. The 
 influence of climate upon national character varies, of 
 course, greatly according to its quality, some climates 
 
Influence of Climate. 25 
 
 being invigorating, others relaxing, and producing ac- 
 cordingly corresponding dispositions, and also certain 
 mental and moral qualities and endowments. As regards 
 climate, moreover, both the condition of the temperature, 
 and the extent of the variations of it, have an important 
 effect upon the growth, vigour, energy, and general health, 
 as also on the physical, intellectual, moral, and social 
 condition of the inhabitants, which is the case too with 
 the food that such climate yields. Texture and temperament 
 in the human frame, are what are mainly affected by both 
 these causes. Climate also variously affects the sensibility 
 of the frame, and the strength of the passions. As air is 
 so essential to life, so the qualities of the air, especially as 
 regards its purity and its temperature, must have an 
 important influence on our physical state, and through that 
 on our intellectual and moral condition also. And it is 
 from this circumstance that the influence of climate is so 
 extensive and so powerful. Temperate climates are the 
 most favom'able to civilization, as developing the higher 
 qual ities, and not invigorating the baser feelings. Varieties 
 of climate in the same country are also in many respects 
 favourable to civilization. The varieties experienced in 
 this country as regards climate, and temperature, and 
 weather, have probably a beneficial effect upon the people 
 in enabling them to undergo changes of this kind better 
 than those of the Continent do generally. Hence it is 
 that the English are less affected by change of country 
 than most people, and bear more easily changes from heat 
 to cold, and from moisture to dry atmosphere, and are 
 consequently so peculiarly adapted for colonization. The 
 health, manners, pursuits, morals, and several occupations 
 and enterprises of the inhabitants of a country, are all 
 more or less affected by climate. And to each race a 
 particular climate seems specially adapted.* Both men 
 
 ' * The clear air of Attica, refreshed and purified hy constant 
 breezes, is celebrat-.d as one of the chief advantages of its climate, 
 
26 Essence of Civilization, 
 
 and animals are wont to degenerate when transplanted to 
 a foreign soil, whose climate and nature differ from that 
 which gave them birth. Climate, indeed, constitutes 
 in many respects a more efficient boundary between different 
 countries, and more entirely prevents them from intruding 
 and encroaching on each other, than do even seas and 
 mountains. The difibrences in climates constitute the 
 real difficulty of colonization, and the variety and changes 
 of our own climate are what enable us to do so much more 
 than other countries can effect in the way of colonization. 
 Indeed, although strangers may sojourn in a country with 
 a climate which is unsuitable to them, they will not often 
 fructify there. They may visit it as guests, but they 
 cannot settle down as natives. Even certain of the laws 
 for the regulation of a state may originate in the con- 
 dition of its climate, as those for repressing luxury, 
 which is more apt to affect nations of a relaxing and warm 
 climate, than those where the air is cold and invigorating. 
 Many of the diseases, moreovei", to which a people are 
 liable, and the constitutional diseases to which states are 
 subject, are more or less traceable to climate. Health is 
 indeed as essential not only to the pros2)erity, but to the 
 happiness of nations as it is to those of individuals. And 
 in the case of each it is preserved by the maintenance and 
 the exercise of their proper functions, and by guarding 
 against the abuse or misuse of either. The form and 
 manner of constructing the common habitations of the 
 people, and their mode of dress, both which so largely 
 influence their manners and customs, must also greatly 
 depend on the climate of their country. On this also 
 mainly depends the natural food which any country 
 produces, whether animal or vegetable ; and which in its 
 turn, both as regards the manner of procuring it, as by 
 
 and is described by Euripides as lending a charm to the productions 
 of the Athenian intellect. — Milller's Literature of Ancient Greece^ 
 227. 
 
Influence oj Race, 27 
 
 liimting, fisliing, or cultivating the soil, and the physical 
 effect of it as food, extensively influences the character of 
 the inhabitants of any nation, and that whether such food 
 be solid or liquid. On the other hand, where a country 
 which has but a scanty supply of natural food, is so 
 placed that a constant supply of foreign food may be 
 obtained ; influences of different kinds will be produced 
 through til is circumstance, both by the food itself and by 
 the intercourse thus opened with foreigners. 
 
 In regard to climate, not only is it necessary that the 
 climate in question should be suitable to the constitution, 
 and health, and mode of life of the people who are to 
 reside in it, but that it should also suit the several 
 particular animal and vegetable productions by which such 
 people are to be nourished. Nevertheless, the influence of 
 climate, and even that of race, must not be allowed to be 
 so overpowering as might be supposed ; but correspond- 
 ingly with the several Elements of civilization, ought each 
 to be regarded as merely one out of many that pro- 
 portionally contribute to produce a particular result. 
 This is at once obvious from the circumstance that the 
 races who continue for ages to inhabit particular localities, 
 widely vary during different periods of their history, 
 in nearly every characteristic quality and pursuit that 
 serves to distinguish a particular people, and one race 
 from another. Indeed, through the influence of civiliza- 
 tion, national character is much changed, and even that of 
 races is considerably affected. Nay, even the very growth 
 and development of each nation, and the causes which 
 operate to produce these, are the occasion of great changes 
 independent of any other circumstances ; analogously to 
 the mode in which the character of an adult varies from 
 that of the boy, and is aftected by several events attendant 
 upon his growth, and education, and career. Thus, how 
 extensively and in all respects different are the people of 
 Greece and Home in our day from what they were dui'ing 
 
28 Essence of Civilization. 
 
 the era of their greatness and their glory ! And the 
 Britons and Gauls of this age are equally dissimilar to the 
 rude races which existed when Greece and Eome were at 
 the height of their renown and power. 
 
 Each separate nation appears to possess, as already 
 observed, a character as marked and independent as that 
 which belongs to particular individuals. And as in the 
 case of individuals so in that of states, the course of 
 conduct that is generally pursued by them will be for the 
 most part in strict accordance with that character. The 
 most forcible illustrations of this fact are afforded in those 
 instances where the same object has occupied the attention 
 of each, such as learning or religion, which seems fully to 
 develope the peculiar genius or disposition of a particular 
 people. A striking example of what is here asserted, is 
 supplied by the histories of Germany, Italy, France, Spain, 
 Holland, and Great Britain; and not least by that of 
 individual districts in this country. Individuality of 
 character is, moreover, observable as much in the decline 
 as in the prosperity both of states and of men ; and in the 
 case of both, the particular language or idiom used is 
 highly characteristic. Nevertheless it will in each 
 instance be apt to develope itself in a very different 
 manner according to circumstances. 
 
 Men of different nations differ, moreover, one from 
 another as much morally and physically as they do 
 mentally. And on each of these individuals, the different 
 causes that influence national character more or less 
 operate, in conjunction with the original natural con- 
 stitution by which these different people were charac- 
 terized. Nations too vary one from another as extensively 
 in character as they do in language, and the difference 
 in the latter reflects that of the former. Like men they 
 have also their peculiar qualities, moral, material, and 
 mental, their virtues and their vices, their fortes and their 
 failings. 
 
National Character : on vjhat dejjendent. 29 
 
 It is, nevertheless, a point of some difficulty to 
 determine on what the character of nations mainly 
 depends. It is not only owing to climate, as, while this 
 remains unchanged, the character of the people may 
 become entirely altered from particular circumstances. 
 Nor is it altogether owing to the races of the people who 
 constitute it, as these are often so commingled, that no 
 distinct feature in them can be traced. Eacos, indeed, 
 have an individual character, but this they owe to climate, 
 the nature of the country from which they sprang, 
 education, habits, and a variety of circumstances ; and if 
 these are changed, the particular character of the races 
 in a few generations becomes also changed, independently 
 even of their intermixture with one another ; besides 
 which, the character of a people often appears to alter from 
 circumstances which are not ascertained. Indeed, people 
 of different races differ not more from one another in all 
 essential particulars, than do people of the same race, and 
 even those of different families in the same town, or, it 
 may be, those of the same family. Variety in capacity, 
 turn of mind, disposition, habits, and feelings, is what 
 constitutes the main distinction between different persons ; 
 and in these respects the difference is as great between 
 people of the same race, as between those of different races 
 and countries. 
 
 As regards two subjects more especially, it is peculiarly 
 interesting to trace out the development of the national 
 character, which is often displayed at a very early period 
 of a nation's history, but which does not generally become 
 fully manifested until civilization has attained a high 
 degree of perfection. The bud is seen as soon as the 
 shoot rears its head above the soil ; but the flower does 
 not bloom until the plant has reached a considerable 
 height. I allude to the early characteristic traits which 
 each nation exhibits in the infancy of its history, and to 
 the development of the formation and growth of the 
 
30 Essence of Civilization. 
 
 di£ferent civil institutions which serve no less than the 
 former to mark its particular genius. As regards the 
 manifestations of national character, the courage, the 
 generosity, the independence, the energy, the ingenuity, 
 and, I must add, the superstition, too, which were displayed 
 by our rude forefathers, may have constituted the germ of 
 the nobler, or, rather, more perfect qualities of the same 
 kind which at this day characterize the inhabitants of this 
 country. The same spirit of commercial enterprise which 
 animates us now, was also a marked feature in the ancient 
 Britons ; and the habit of travelling about, and of wander- 
 ing abroad to explore new countries, for which Englishmen 
 are so remarkable, we may have derived from the predatory 
 Saxons and Danes, whose blood was mingled with that of 
 the primitive people of this country. In many nations in 
 whose character there are very marked features, it is 
 curious and interesting to trace to how large an extent the 
 history of their country accords with the early exhibition 
 of that character. 
 
 With respect to the civil institutions of this kingdom, 
 many of those which are not only now in use, but the most 
 highly prized among us, had not merely their type at an 
 early epoch in our history, but the germ of these insti- 
 tutions was then fully developed. I may especially refer 
 to that boasted institution, so conducive to the liberty of 
 this country, and which sprang from that ardent love of 
 freedom so peculiarly characteristic of the people of this 
 land at every period of their career, the trial by jury. 
 The holding of free Parliaments was also an institution 
 of our Saxon ancestors ; and even the mode of conveying 
 property, and the principles for its regulation, were very 
 similar to those now recognized, and formed, indeed, 
 their foundation. It is interesting moreover to observe 
 the care taken in the judicial proceedings carried on in 
 those rude times, to promote the investigation of truth, 
 the anxiety with which it was sought out, and the skill 
 
Influence of Prejudice, 31 
 
 with wbich they directed the measuves devised for its 
 discovery. On the whole, we may, I think, not un- 
 reasonably infer that the ultimate effect of the mixture 
 of different races in our own nation has probably been, 
 in many important respects, to correct the characteristic 
 defects, and to develope the characteristic virtues peculiar 
 to each; and that the rivalry of different institutions 
 borrowed originally from various nations, has, in a 
 corresponding manner, tended to improve and perfect each 
 other. 
 
 Considering all these circumstances one with another, 
 the character of a nation appears to me to depend in 
 part on the climate of the country where it is situate, 
 in part on the geograj^hical structure and position of its 
 territory, in part on the natural productions of the latter, 
 and in part on the character of the surrounding nations. 
 According as any of these change, the character of the 
 people changes with it, and it is affected by each modifi- 
 cation of any of these causes. In addition to this, there is 
 probably some peculiar original characteristic belonging 
 to each race of people, corresponding with what each 
 individual exhibits, which is independent of those causes 
 for its origination, but is nevertheless liable to be 
 extensively modified by their influence. The most 
 striking original natural qualities of a people, as serving 
 to mark their national character, are intelligence, activity, 
 energy, and the peculiar proneness to certain habits and 
 pursuits. These are the primary elements of national 
 character, but they admit of variety in every possible 
 mode of combination. 
 
 Long established habits and customs have also an 
 influence in a nation corresponding with what they have 
 in an individual, and however apparently trivial in them- 
 selves, produce many actions and many results, which are 
 ultimately of the greatest importance. In each case, 
 moreover, those habits and customs are of all things most 
 
32 Essence of Civilization. 
 
 difficult to eradicate. Nevertheless, so long as tliey 
 do remain, their influence operates, and that widely and 
 incessantly. 
 
 Two very strong concurrent opposite influences appear, 
 however, to be ever in operation, and each to be very 
 forcible and very extensive. The one is the proneness 
 to abide by whatever posterity has determined, and to 
 adhere to whatever is ancient and long established. The 
 other is the inclination to alter every thing which we find 
 has been long constituted. We continue the laws and 
 customs of ages long past, entirely different to our own, 
 and with exigencies entirely different. We seek to alter 
 every thing that we find established by our ancestors, 
 however useful and efficient, and sometimes it would 
 seem from the mere love of change. Possibly different 
 orders of mind are influenced by each of these pro- 
 pensities, and not unfrequently the same individuals are 
 affected by both, and by both contemporaneously. Some 
 consider whatever is old as necessarily valuable. Others 
 deem all that is old to be necessarily worn out. These are 
 two ojiposite errors, perhaps equally prejudicial, and both 
 calculated to retard the progress of civilization. Every 
 institution and custom, whether young or old, ought to be 
 weighed and valued entirely and solely by its own merits, 
 and its ai^plicability and utility to the age in which it 
 exists, and should be abolished or continued accordingly. 
 
 Events in their career affect the character of a nation, 
 in a manner corresponding with that in which they do 
 the character of an individual. They do not so much 
 alter as influence, not so much divert as develope certain 
 talents or proj)ensities in each, though their result may 
 be both as extensive and as lasting as the endowment 
 with original traits. These causes of different kinds 
 have, irioreover, a reciprocal influence on each other. 
 Thus, original individual character has its influence on 
 each of those changes, and each of these changes influences 
 
Changes in National Character. 33 
 
 original cliaracter. They affect, too, the mode in which 
 the change operates, and give a bias to each diversion 
 that it i^nrsues in its course. But while changes in the 
 circumstances of a country produced by civilization 
 occasion a corresponding change in the character of the 
 peoj)le ; yet the original characteristics of each nation 
 are not affected by this fact, and remain ever unaltered, 
 as we see strikingly exemplified in the case of the Jews. 
 Moreover, the changes which take place in the character 
 of nations at different periods of their growth, nearly cor- 
 respond with those which occur in the case of individuals. "\ 
 Thus, England was, in every respect, as regards external 
 character and manners, very different at the Conquest, at 
 the time of Hemy Y., Henry VIII., Queen Elizabeth, 
 Queen Mary, Queen Anne, and Queen Victoria. Her 
 internal original character was nevertheless precisely the 
 same at each of these periods. As in the case of an 
 individual, so in that of a nation, the leading natural 
 traits wdll ever remain the same ; but events in the 
 career and the progress of civilization will so affect her 
 whole 'feharacter as completely to change her external and 
 perceptible, if not her internal and essential nature. 
 Perhaps, indeed, the best exemplification of the mode and 
 of the extent to which the characters of nations change 
 dm-ing the course of their career, is afforded by the 
 animal creation, in which we see different kinds of animals 
 much affected by change of climate, and habit, and food, 
 but at the same time retaining all the distinctive charac- 
 teristics and marks of their original nature and species. 
 So both nations and persons, however affected and even 
 changed by climate and custom, still exhibit the charac- 
 teristic traits which first distinguished them. 
 
 To how remarkable an extent nations may retain the 
 leading features which distinguish their character through 
 all the changes which circumstances cause in them, is 
 exemplified in the case of the Jews, who have probably 
 
 D 
 
34 Essence of Civilization. 
 
 been more powerfully operated upon by events than has 
 been the lot of any other nation, more especially in the 
 fact that although possessing a peculiar attachment to 
 their own country, they have, from necessity, been 
 constantly obliged to be denizens in foreign states. This 
 people has also served to illustrate how very soon the 
 individual character belonging to a nation, which 
 adheres to it throughout its career, is displayed, corre- 
 spondingly with the case of an individual, and the 
 extensive result in the case of both produced by early 
 influences. Thus, the germ of their national avarice was 
 evinced by the children of Israel selling their brother 
 Joseph into Egypt ; and their wanderings in the 
 wilderness, seem to have had an influence in producing 
 that restless disposition for which they are still distin- 
 guished. The people, too, of the United States of 
 America, still retain much of the original character for 
 which their ancestors, the first settlers there, were re- 
 markable. Civilization effects a greater change than is 
 ever caused by any variety of races. In each particular 
 country of Europe, the original races are, moreover, now 
 too much intermixed to admit of any individual charac- 
 ter being very discernible. The distinction which is 
 attributed to race, often, in reality, arises from education, 
 or habit, or local position. Where however the race is 
 kept pure, and does not mingle with others, as in the case 
 of the Jews, all its distinct features and peculiarities are 
 at once perceptible. Probably language, and also accent, 
 serve as long as any other circumstances to perpetuate 
 the distinction between original races. 
 
 The use of letters, or rather the manner of using 
 them, is what mainly distinguishes civilized from bar- 
 barous people ; the variety of tongues spoken exhibits the 
 distinction as regards the degree and quality of their 
 civilization, and their intellectual character also, between 
 those of different races ; and the various idioms and terms 
 
Influence of Letters and Language, 35 
 
 made use of in tlie same language, distinguish people of 
 different characters among the same race. Letters 
 indeed form a kind of intellectual coinage for the inter- 
 change of thoughts between different minds, and from 
 the nature of the currency in use we may judge some- 
 what as to the traffic carried on. The language spoken 
 by any nation, has a vast influence upon its advancement 
 in civilization, esj)ecially as regards the facility of it for 
 holding intercourse with other countries around it, and 
 also with respect to its capacity for conveying ideas of 
 terms in science or art, or for being the vehicle of those 
 great works in literature which contribute alike to the 
 improvement of the people, and the glory of the nation 
 in which they sj)rang. The language of this country, 
 from its being derived so extensively from that of nations 
 who were peculiarly celebrated for the purity, grace, and 
 power of their mode of speech, from its very mixed 
 character, and from its extensive adaptation to modern 
 requirements, in many respects jDossesses important advan- 
 tages. It is moreover to a singular extent representa- 
 tive, or rather reflective, of the character of the people ; 
 particularly as regards the great varieties of races which 
 are intermixed and blended into one, the opposite qualities 
 which are by this means brought together, and the new 
 productions of each kind which are the ultimate result of 
 this amalgamation. 
 
 Langnage, as is also the case with each of the arts, ap- 
 pears to reflect, as it were, the feeling, -and tone of 
 thought, and manners of a people ; and in its turn 
 influences each of these to a certain extent. Indeed, 
 there is a mutual reciprocal influence between the two. 
 Not only, moreover, is language indicative and reflective of 
 the character of a people, but the very mode and tone of 
 speaking the same language, the degree of emphasis 
 which is resorted to, and the comparative stress laid on 
 particular expressions and parts of speech, are so also. 
 
36 Essence of Civilization. 
 
 In this respect language may become indicative as well of 
 the character of an individual. Language must always 
 more or less necessarily direct, and may either extend 
 or limit the expression of ideas ; while the expression of 
 ideas in its turn, on the other hand, in a corresponding 
 manner influences language. Language may therefore be 
 regarded as not only the vehicle, but the reflection of 
 thought. And it is the sole medium of communication 
 both of thought and feeling from one man to another, 
 and also between bodies of persons. Hence is derived the 
 influence of language not merely on individuals but on 
 nations. Nevertheless, language cannot be regarded as 
 constituting a certain proof of the particularity and identity 
 of any individual race, inasmuch as it is evident from 
 history both that race changes more or less, if not entirely, 
 while the language remains the same ; and that the lan- 
 guage sometimes changes while the race remains the same. 
 
 Closely connected with, and indeed a branch of the 
 subject of language, is the application and use of epithets, 
 by which certain actions have a particular and indelible 
 moral character of one sort or other affixed to them, and 
 never cease to be so regarded. This is a matter which 
 may exercise extensive influence over the feeling, and 
 even over the conduct of a nation, and as such is 
 calculated to produce an important result in regard 
 to its civilization. An epithet is, indeed, sometimes 
 so pregnant with ideas that, directly it is uttered, like 
 a bomb thrown into a besieged town, those ideas fly 
 out with the greatest force, and enter the mind of the 
 person to whom it is addressed. To select these words 
 properly, and to use them in the right place, is the pro- 
 vince of eloquence, which constitutes as it were the 
 artillery of the soul, of which words are the martial 
 implements. 
 
 Language has moreover a great efiect in binding 
 people together, not only socially but intellectually ; and 
 
Civilization, Ancient and Modern. 37 
 
 to a large extent it has an influence in causing the 
 same sentiments and feelings to arise and to be diifused 
 throughout the nation wherever it is spoken. 
 
 In considering the subject of civilization, especially 
 with reference to the nations of old who have been dis- 
 tinguished in this respect, and comparing them with those 
 of our own times, it is essential to bear in mind the vast 
 changes that have been effected in our whole social con- 
 dition, more particularly as regards their influence on the 
 state of civilization. The grand causes of this revolu- 
 tion are the four magnificent inventions of (1) printing, 
 (2) gunpowder, (3) steam, (4) the compass. Other causes 
 and inventions have also aided collaterally in producing 
 the changes that have been wrought. The first of these 
 inventions afiects us principally as regards oui* intellectual 
 and moral condition. The second mainly as regards our 
 relation with other countries, and in totally changing the 
 art of war. The third and fourth have produced an 
 eftect both as regards our intercourse with other countries 
 and with different parts of our own, whereby our social 
 condition is changed. The first has tended to equalize 
 the distribution of knowledge ; the second the power of 
 arms ; the third and fourth the advantages of local posi- 
 tion. Out of these have sprung innumerable other 
 changes, which must necessarily be produced by such a 
 revolution and disorganization as would be thus oc-^ 
 casioned ; and yet we still go on framing laws and rules 
 of conduct exactly in accordance with the circumstances 
 existent and the principles adopted ages ago, as though 
 none of these mighty changes had been wrought ; and in 
 many important respects we are even now acting as 
 though neither printing, nor gunpowder, nor steam, nor 
 the comjDass had ever been discovered. 
 
 The following appear to be the principal alterations 
 and revolutions effected by these inventions, and compriso 
 the operations resulting from them : — 
 
38 Essence of Civilization. 
 
 1. By tlie discovery of printing, books became generally 
 diffused, instead of being confined to a few, and deposited 
 only in colleges or cities. Newspapers are circulated 
 among all classes, and almost take the place of lectures 
 and orations. All ranks liave nearly equal opportunities 
 for acquiring knowledge and cultivation ; and laws and 
 political measures are discussed by all, instead of being 
 tacitly obeyed, or their consideration limited to a very 
 small class. 
 
 2. By the invention of gunpowder, all nations are 
 rendered more nearly equal as regards their martial 
 power and resom-ces than they were before. Advantages 
 of position, and castles, and fortifications, are of but little 
 value. The whole art of war has by this means been 
 changed, and many of the institutions and social relations 
 originally connected with it, have been rendered alto- 
 gether obsolete. 
 
 3. By the invention of steam, distance between different 
 countries, and between different parts of the same country, 
 has been, for all practical purposes, immensely lessened, 
 and each country, for all the essential ends of government, 
 greatly reduced in dimensions. Man is no longer 
 dej)endent on the condition of the elements as regards his 
 locomotion; and, by the same means, mechanical power 
 of a much greater force is substituted for animal and 
 manual labour, which both increases the extent of our 
 operations, and renders the manufacturer less dependent 
 on the assistance of other hands. 
 
 4. By the discovery of the compass, an infallible guide 
 is afforded for the traverse of the whole world throughout, 
 independent of natural observances, so that in all seasons 
 and weathers alike the work of navigation may proceed ; 
 and thus a social compact is established, which includes 
 in its mighty bonds every nation on the face of the 
 earth. 
 
 Another grand invention, which in its consequences — 
 
Influence of Scientific Inventions. 39 
 
 indirect, at any rate, if not direct — may be regarded as 
 almost equally important with those already enumerated, 
 is that of the telescope. In peace and in war, and to 
 science also, the aids conferred by this discovery can 
 hardly be over-estimated. The microscope, which is 
 indeed but a branch of the same invention, has also con- 
 tributed extensively to the advancement of science. 
 
 Yet with all these grand discoveries, and the undoubted 
 vastness of their results, a great many things remain. the 
 same as before, and have made but trifling, perhaps, no 
 progress, for centuries, or indeed since the time of the 
 ancients. It may be questioned whether even in the 
 science of medicine, any substantial and radical improve- 
 ment has been effected ; while the metaphysical sciences, 
 and those of morals and pure mathematics, have scarcely, 
 if at all, advanced. The fine arts of each kind have 
 receded rather than progressed. Travelling and naviga- 
 tion have not been invented, but have only been improved 
 and extended since the discovery of steam and of the 
 compass. As regards war, the method of carrying it on 
 is that only which has been changed ; it still exists the 
 same in all its most important features and events. With 
 respect to the diffusion of knowledge by the means of 
 printing, perhaps Aristotle had as much real information 
 as any one of the moderns, and he was here but a sample 
 of his contemporaries. From ail these grand discoveries, 
 indeed, there appear to emanate no absolutely new Ele- 
 ments of civilization ; modifications only and recombina- 
 tions of old Elements are effected. Railways have not so 
 far exceeded the rapidity of coaches as to produce any 
 material change from their establishment, nor steamboats 
 that of sailing vessels. Nor were the galley-boats with 
 which CiJesar invaded Britain, more at the mercy of the 
 waves than are modern steamboats of the j)resent day. 
 In many cases, indeed, the main result of any new dis- 
 covery, or the development of a new element or principle 
 
40 Essence of Civilization. 
 
 in any science, is to counteract that of some other ; and 
 this is essentially so in the science of civilization. Thus, 
 the compass and steam, by bringing distant nations 
 nearer together, as they practically do, counteract the 
 effects of redundancy of population, and prevent any 
 particular country from concentrating itself into one 
 great city, by diffusing its population, whenever they 
 become too dense, over the face of the earth. 
 
 The effect produced on the world by these discoveries, 
 is probably analogous in the main to what would be 
 wrought in an individual by the attempt to supj)ly the 
 loss of, or a defect in some natural organ by artificial 
 means, which may in some cases more than compensate 
 for the loss sustained, while new independent powers are 
 conferred and effects produced which were not calculated 
 on. Many of these grand inventions have but corrected 
 existing wants, or little more than adequately supplied 
 the place of acquirements which they superseded. Thus, 
 railways supplied the place of coaches; gunpowder that 
 of archery ; printing that of copyists ; the compass that 
 of the observation of the planets as nautical guides. 
 
 But, perhaps, we somewhat overrate both the greatness 
 and the importance of the discoveries made, while we at 
 the same time underrate the powers possessed by the 
 ancients in comparison with those of the moderns. Vast, 
 indeed, and astonisliing, if we fairly examine them., were 
 the operations effected in days of old ere steam had 
 displayed its stupendous powers, or the thunders of gun- 
 powder had roared over the plains. By the ancients, deep 
 mines were sunk, the pyramids were upraised, exceeding 
 in the greatness of their operations our longest railways ; 
 castles, and cathedrals, which excite our astonishment, 
 were erected ; grand inventions in science of amazing 
 variety were effected ; and wc seldom discover a new 
 country, or penetrate further into the recesses of old ones, 
 but we are startled by finding that the ancients have been 
 
Scientific Discoveries, Ancient and Modern. 41. 
 
 there before us, and were not only familiar with what we 
 so pride ourselves on having first explored, but have left 
 monuments there of their skill and their power. And all 
 this was accomplished by them without the aids of science 
 which we receive. 
 
 Not only, however, the extent as regards their result, 
 but also the very effect of modern discoveries, may be 
 overrated. So far, as we are sometimes told, from gun- 
 powder having decreased war, the most sanguinary and 
 the most keqnly-contested battles have occurred since its 
 discovery. And it was, indeed, long posterior to the 
 invention of printing, that the representative system in 
 government, which, some assure us, it has rendered prac- 
 tically obsolete, was reconstructed and perfected in dif- 
 ferent countries. So far, moreover, from printing having 
 rendered unnecessary the delivery of lectures, and ser- 
 mons, and orations ; this is peculiarly the age in which 
 they appear to flourish. Before steam was applied, the 
 remotest shores of the globe were familiar to oiu' sails ; 
 intercourse had been established with each nation under 
 heaven ; and distant colonies planted in every part of the 
 world : and much of this was done even before the com- 
 pass was invented. 
 
 It is not, indeed, the knowledge, but the mode of 
 applying discoveries of this grand nature, that promotes 
 the advancement of any nation in civilization. The 
 principles of all or most of the foregoing inventions were 
 more or less known to other nations long before we 
 became acquainted with them ; and the Chinese are said 
 to have possessed a knowledge of printing, of gunpowder, 
 and of the magnetic needle, centuries before we did. 
 They failed, however, to cultivate these advantages, which 
 thus became comparatively lost to them. 
 
 As there are certain periods in the life of a man which 
 are peculiarly favourable for great efforts, although the 
 achievement, and even the attempting of these, must 
 
 
 , ^'■'OP THE 
 
42 ijssence of Civilization. 
 
 necessarily a good deal depend on circumstances ; so in the 
 life of a nation, particular periods during its advancement 
 are esi)ecially favourable for grand enterprise, although 
 here, of course, circumstances, both internal and external, 
 must contribute much to determine the precise period at 
 which these exertions shall be put forth. 
 
 Almost every thing in the way of action which is 
 effected in society, contributes more or less, and either 
 directly or indirectly to its progress. Thus, even the 
 outrages of its members one against another, whether by 
 war or robbery, aid in this progress, and incite them to 
 the invention of arts of defence, and the formation of a 
 code of laws, by which a mighty stimulus to civilization 
 is created. Stagnation is that which is most inimical to 
 civilization, and which tends to the corrujition of the 
 social state, especially in its early stages. Progress of 
 any sort does not, moreover, rest wit]i itself, but occasions 
 many acts and operations, independent of its own mere 
 motion, which, both directly and indirectly, and in several 
 respects, very powerfully tend to civilization. For 
 instance, improvement, invention, intercommunication, 
 experience, and many other circumstances invariably ac- 
 company, and are the necessary consequences of progress, 
 all of them highly favourable to civilization. So the 
 course of a stream tends not only to increase its bulk, but 
 purifies and fertilizes the land through which it flows, and 
 becomes a medium of communication also for traf&c and 
 for travel. 
 
 Probably the most important event in modern times 
 tending to the progress and to the perfection of civiliza- 
 tion, is the establishment of Christianity. Religion, in 
 general, has ever been favourable to, and, as I shall here- 
 after show, its influence is an imj)ortant Element in civili- 
 zation, being the friend of order and good government, 
 and tending to ennoble and refine those who are regulated 
 by it. But the Christian religion is in a variety of ways 
 
Christianity and Civilization. 4 
 
 Q 
 
 eminently conducive to civilization from the purity of its 
 precepts, the intellectual nature of its instructions, the 
 high tone of its morals, and the noble and sublime nature 
 of its scheme as a whole. Eminently, indeed, as has been 
 observed by distinguished writers on this subject,* was 
 Christianity adapted to complete what the enlightened 
 influence of Greece and Borne had commenced in the 
 career of civilization. Many of its institutions are also 
 highly conducive to civilization, and exhibit the extent to 
 which the essential Elements of civilization are blended 
 in its theory. 
 
 Throughout the sacred volume, exhortations applicable 
 both to individuals and to nations, in favour of intellectual 
 and moral culture, are to be found ; and the attainment of 
 knowledge, the punishment of error, and the exaltation 
 of the higher influences, both in men and states, over the 
 lower, are repeatedly enjoined ; while the right exercise 
 of reason with candour and care is made a positive 
 duty. 
 
 Nor less by its precepts does Christianity exert itself 
 to oppose the corruptions of civilization, through the 
 warnings that it repeatedly gives against those vices, and 
 those indulgences, which both in men and states conduce 
 to its decline. And it may in truth be said that as with 
 regard to individuals, "reason is the glory of human 
 nature,"! so with regard to nations, Christianity is the 
 perfection of civilization. 
 
 During the Middle Ages, chivalry no doubt contributed 
 largely to the progress and the establishment of civiliza- 
 tion. Nevertheless, chivalry can have no claim to be 
 considered as either essential to, or as a distinct Element 
 of civilization ; but, on the other hand, in the constitution 
 of chivalry, many of the Elements of civilization will be 
 found united, more especially so far as chivalry promoted 
 
 * Dr. Arnold, M. Guizot, Bishop Temple. f Watts. 
 
44 Essence of Civilization. 
 
 art, and to some extent education, and moral jurispru- 
 dence, as also intercourse both foreign and domestic, each 
 of which I have considered as Elements of civilization. 
 The age of chivalry, which was a very imperfect one of 
 civilization, has, however, now, and for ever passed away • 
 and the age of civilization, when the latter has attained 
 a very high point, has arrived. Those Elements of civiliza- 
 tion which chivalry contained, remain, although chivalry 
 itself has become obsolete, except so far as it may in some 
 respects be considered to continue to exist in those 
 Elements. 
 
 Civilization does not, however, always necessarily ad- 
 vance with the age and growth of a nation. It may 
 decline in two ways, either by direct retrogression, or by 
 becoming corrupted. An instance of the first is afforded 
 in the history of several once civilized nations. An 
 illustration of the second is suj)plied whenever luxury 
 extensively prevails among any people. And civilization 
 is more or less subject to partial disease, it may be to 
 corruption also, which is but the ultimate stage of disease 
 of every kind, wherever luxury exists, which will be 
 generally discovered to be lurking in the frame of each 
 civilized state. 
 
 Indeed, every terrestrial institution, as soon as it has 
 reached its highest condition or climax, begins at 
 once to decline. A stationary position seems not to 
 belong to establishments of this class. Consequently, an 
 inquiry into the more immediate causes of the decline 
 and decay of civilization is not inappropriate here, and is 
 indeed necessary for a complete consideration of the whole 
 system. Among the foremost and most predominant of 
 these causes, luxury must be ranked. As civilization 
 consists essentially in effecting the supremacy of the higher 
 and intellectual and moral powers over the lower and 
 animal impulses ; so luxury consists in rendering these 
 nobler endowments of man's being subservient to tho 
 
Essence and Influence of Luxunj. 45 
 
 cravings and desires of tlie baser part of it, by inducing 
 the former to minister to their wants. This, indeed, only 
 arises at an advanced stage of society, as during barbarous 
 periods the soft refinements of luxury have hardly been 
 brought to such a degree of excellence as to enable them 
 to exercise any important influence ; nor is the intellect 
 of the nation then sufficiently cultivated to apply itself to 
 obtain more than the rude necessaries of life. Both in 
 man and in states, at an advanced period of their career, 
 their intellect and their energies are but too often per- 
 verted to devise means for pampering the appetites, and 
 are employed not to resist but to encourage and aid them, 
 by heightening the pleasures and temptations in which 
 they are wont to revel, and thus in the end become sub- 
 servient to them. Luxury is indeed a disease which 
 affects and debilitates each member of the state alike : 
 the sovereign influence, the nobility, the commercial in- 
 terests, and the martial power of the state are each 
 degenerated and enfeebled by it. Its effects, moreover, 
 on a nation and on an individual are in a striking manner 
 correspondingly similar. Luxury is to civilization what 
 superstition is to real knowledge. Both have a tendency 
 to lead us away from the pursuit of what is pure and solid, 
 to that which is worthless and perishable. 
 
 Luxury consists in the deliberate and determined feeling 
 of preference for ease and pleasure above what is sound, 
 and useful, and profitable, whether in the acquirement of 
 knowledge or the occupations of life ; and is the conse- 
 quence, alike in the individual and the nation, of a certain 
 debility and degeneracy, mental, moral, and material, 
 which induces to pursuits of this character, and tends to the 
 neglect of those which are invigorating and of real value. 
 It is remarkable, moreover, how in an age in which luxury 
 obtains the main influence in the direction of the national 
 mind and the national conduct, such a condition is 
 manifested in a variety of ways, and seems to exhibit 
 
46 Essence of Civilization. 
 
 itself in tlie same manner consistently and uniformly in 
 all the different operations which have any relation to it. 
 Thus, in theology it is exhibited by minute attention to 
 trivial matters of detail, in regard to forms, and ceremonies, 
 and costume, diverting thereby from the consideration of 
 grand and leading topics of vital importance, which should 
 chiefly engage the thoughts and abilities of men occupied 
 in such a pursuit. In jurisprudence grand and leading 
 principles are neglected, and the attention of its followers 
 is called only to forms and precedents. In legislation also 
 great and important principles and comprehensive measui'es 
 are disregarded, while minute attention to trifling matters of 
 detail will engage the main attention of the senate. The 
 result of this proceeding as regards legislation, has been 
 fully dwelt upon in the course of these pages. But in art 
 too precisely the same course is adopted. We neglect 
 great subjects and great principles, and are occupied with 
 trifling matters, and about tints and petty effects, instead 
 of the grand and leading characteristics which have exalted 
 art, and rendered it worthy of representing human nature. 
 In philosophy too, especially as regards the highest de- 
 partment of it, the science of man, a corresponding and 
 consistent course has been followed. We devote ourselves 
 to trivial matters of detail, to the neglect of those exalted 
 topics which are alone worthy to engage the noblest 
 capacities and the severest study of the most gifted of 
 mankind. In general literature, also, an exactly similar 
 line is followed. Great works on great subjects are 
 neglected, while trivial productions on trivial topics 
 engage all the attention. As a sagacious statesman* 
 observed, men in these days do not read books, but the 
 newspaper. Luxury has emasculated the national mind, 
 which shrinks from grappling with deep questions requiring 
 toil and thought, and is engaged with those which are 
 
 * Mr. Cobden. 
 
National Wealth. 47 
 
 pursued without trouble, and yield only pleasure, not 
 profit, in return. 
 
 Probably, both in men and in states, luxury is of all 
 vices tbe most difficult to restrain or repress, altliough. 
 the manner in which this is indulged must necessarily 
 vary much in different ages of the world, and among 
 different nations, according as the materials for supplying 
 it are afforded. 
 
 The further society advances in its progress, the greater 
 is the inequality in the distribution of wealth, one portion 
 of the people having barely enough for subsistence, while 
 the other portion are surfeited to excess, and indulge in 
 every kind of luxury. In a primitive state of society 
 there is enough for the wants of all, but for their wants 
 only. Luxury and indigence are alike strangers here. 
 As the world progresses, wealth seems, moreover, to 
 undergo a change both as regards its own nature and its 
 tendency to promote civilization. Thus, in earlier times, 
 land and vassals, or villeins, formed the chief possession 
 of a man of substance : now money and securities are as 
 complete a property as is land; and even knowledge 
 itself is deemed a capital ; as, for instance, the acquisition 
 of skill in a profession or art. 
 
 The distribution of wealth among the people of a nation 
 is so far conducive to civilization, as it tends to excite to 
 exertion and to enterprise, without which there can be no 
 great progress in civilization, although at the same time 
 it must be acknowledged that these do not by any means 
 necessarily produce the latter. It must, consequently, 
 follow that the more free and general is this distribution 
 of wealth, and the more accessible it becomes to those of 
 all classes, the greater and more extensive is its influence 
 in favour of civilization. No state, indeed, ever became 
 highly civilized that did not resort to the use of money ; 
 and the further it advances in civilization, the greater are 
 the varieties of money in use, which reflect as it were the 
 
48 Essence of Civilization. 
 
 different exigencies of the nation with regard to wealth. 
 Nevertheless, neither in nations nor among individuals is 
 the mere possession of wealth any proof of intellectual 
 riches or of advancement in civilization ; nor, on the other 
 hand, is the want of it any test of deficiency in this 
 respect. That both individuals and nations may be 
 possessed of enormous wealth, and yet be in a condition 
 of very imperfect civilization, might be exemplified at 
 once by the instances of several Indian native princes, 
 whose treasures are of almost inestimable value, but whose 
 minds are quite rude and untutored, and whose subjects 
 are almost in a state of barbarism. 
 
 Power and wealth, moreover, are not necessarily co- 
 existent in the same nation or in the same individual, 
 although they frequently aid one another. Nevertheless, 
 many poor states and many poor persons are very 
 powerful, while those of aifluence are comparatively 
 impotent. 
 
 Doubtless, however, the possession of wealth does afford 
 alike to nations and to individuals great advantages in the 
 acquisition of knowledge, and all the arts of civilization ; 
 and the want of it must ever, more or less, retard their 
 progress in both these respects. Athens was, nevertheless, 
 comparatively poor when at the highest point of civiliza- 
 tion, and as far below many states in riches as she was 
 superior to them in intellectual wealth. Aristotle, in his 
 Politics, observes that "excessive wealth and excessive 
 poverty are equally productive of that restless temper 
 which subverts laws and ruins states."* While the en- 
 joyment of excessive wealth may induce both states and 
 individuals to indulge too much in luxuries ; the pressure 
 of poverty will constrain both a j^erson and a state to 
 confine themselves to the mere necessaries of life, and will 
 exclude them from participation in many of those refine- 
 
 * Book vi. 
 
National Poverty and Debt. 49 
 
 ments and intellectual pleasures which most conduce to 
 civilization. 
 
 Although amassing wealth for its own sake, both in 
 men and in states, is inimical to civilization, and is cal- 
 culated to induce sordid feelings, and to lead to the 
 exaltation of the lower influences over the higher ; the 
 acquisition of it and dispensing it in the promotion and 
 patronage of art, and science, and learning, is of course 
 extensively conducive to the improvement of the people. 
 Hence wealth, if regarded as an end, is debasing and in- 
 jurious to civilization ; but if regarded only, as it ever 
 ought to be, as merely the means for attaining great and 
 noble objects, it is directly advantageous to it. Indeed, 
 the sordid desire of wealth, for its own sake, is as de- 
 praving and demoralizing in a nation as it is in an indi- 
 vidual, and as many crimes are committed through avarice 
 as through want, both by men and states. Most true indeed 
 was, and most abundant are the illustrations in support of 
 St. Paul's declaration, that " the love of money is the root of 
 all evil."* While wealth fosters luxury, civilization, by 
 strengthening the mind, induces man to practise self-denial, 
 through which the enervating effects of luxury'- are 
 counteracted. 
 
 As wealth does not of itself produce civilization, so 
 poverty does not necessarily prevent it. Nevertheless, 
 wealth tends, as already pointed out, though indirectly, to 
 the promotion of civilization by the means that it provides 
 for this purpose ; while poverty, for the same reason, 
 tends to barbarism. Nor is this circumstance altered by 
 the fact that not only among individuals, but among 
 communities, and even nations, the richest have sometimes 
 been the rudest, and the poorest the most learned and 
 polite. Probably, indeed, civilization conduces as much 
 to prevent poverty, as poverty does to prevent civilization. 
 
 In a republican government, the main distinction between 
 * 1 Tim. vi. 10. 
 
 E 
 
50 Essence of Givilizaiion. 
 
 individuals arises from the amount of wealth that they 
 possess, which operates in a most unfavourable manner 
 as regards the intellectual and moral tone and civilization 
 of the nation, inasmuch as to the acquisition of riches, the 
 mind and energies of the most able will be in such a state 
 mainly directed. To correct this evil, tlie distribution of 
 rank and honours, especially when they are instituted as the 
 rewards for talent and virtue, is most efficient and beneficial. 
 But an opposite evil, both in nations and individuals, 
 to that of covetousness may sometimes prevail, and is as 
 inimical to civilization as the other. This is a heedless 
 disregard of wealth altogether, by which not only poverty 
 but debt, and all its attendant ill consequences, are occa- 
 sioned. Frugality and economy are, nevertheless, not 
 unfrequently not only not the same, but the very opposite 
 to each other. Bad economists sow chaff instead of corn. 
 The chaff is doubtless the cheapest to buy ; but it never 
 comes up like the corn, or makes any return to the buyer. 
 The immense national debt incurred by this country is 
 productive of a vast variety of evils both direct and in- 
 direct, with regard to which the position of the nation 
 bears a near resemblance to that of an individual thus un- 
 haj)pily circumstanced. The limited means of the man 
 prevent him from the enjoyment of many of those intel- 
 lectual pleasures and recreations in which it is desirable 
 for him to participate, his physical necessities requiring 
 that all he has to spend be devoted to them. Just so is it 
 in the case of a nation whose resources are crij)j)led and 
 encumbered ; the intellectual and moral wants of the 
 people are disregarded amidst the pressure for supj)lying 
 the physical exigencies of the state ; besides which, all 
 articles of refinement are severely taxed, so as to debar 
 any but the wealthier classes from their use. In addition 
 to this, great moral evil is produced by the national 
 example afforded to individuals by the state. Individual 
 profligacy finds an apology in national extravagance. 
 
Civilization reducible to a Science. 51 
 
 Althougli men readily follow the example of the state by 
 running into debt, they do not always follow it as regards 
 paying what they owe. The disaffection, moreover, thai 
 is occasioned by the taxes necessary to support these 
 burdens, is no slight moral evil. The pernicious effects 
 of war are thus made to extend over the jDcriods of peace 
 Our needful repose is disturbed by the consequences oi 
 what, during our martial turmoil, we engaged in. In 
 Athens, the weight of the public burdens depressed all 
 private fortunes, and reduced many^ to indigence. Both 
 example and experience loudly warn us of the evil of this 
 condition. 
 
 There is still, however, one very important consideration 
 which requires to be dwelt upon before bringing the 
 present section to a close, and that is the inquiry how 
 far the subject of civilization is entitled to be regarded in 
 the light of a science. What Aristotle observes of legis- 
 lation may equally well be applied to "civilization : — " II 
 legislation be a science or an art, must it not partake oi 
 the same nature and follow the same progress with all 
 other arts and sciences, which, being founded on observa- 
 tion, have been reared, extended, and perfected by experi- 
 ment and reflection ? That it does partake of the same pro- 
 gress, civil history affords the most convincing proofs." * 
 
 What, indeed, are the elementary principles essential 
 for the constitution of a science ? These may be defined 
 to be as follows: — 1. That oui* knowledge of its nature 
 and essence be certain and absolute. 2. That that know- 
 ledge be capable of being practically apj)lied. 3. That 
 the principles to be applied be certain and practical. 
 4. That, as a whole, it be a matter of practical applica- 
 tion as regards its operation. In all these respects, 
 civilization appears entitled to the rank of a science. 
 Our information on the subject is at least as extensive 
 as that on most of the other sciences. And that that 
 * Politics, book ii. 
 
52 Essence of Civilization. 
 
 information admits of practical application, is attested not 
 only by general history, but by every day's experience. 
 How far tbe principles for the regulation of tbe science 
 are capable of being reduced to a certainty and of exact 
 application, it is tbe main object of tbe following pages to 
 evince. If in tbis I prove successful, and demonstrate, 
 moreover, tbe practical use and pursuit of civilization as 
 a wbole ; tben, comparing civilization witb tbe otber 
 sciences, and bearing in mind tbe real essence and prin- 
 ciples of each, we cannot hesitate to class civilization 
 among tbe sciences, to a rank in which it is moreover 
 pre-eminently entitled, on account of its vast importance 
 and its extensive utility. 
 
 Nearly every other practical subject of human pursuit, 
 whether physical or moral as regards the nature of its 
 operation, — Theology, Jurisprudence, Medicine, — has 
 been reduced to a science. Why should not civilization, 
 which is equally* practical in its application, equally 
 certain as regards its principles, and, doubtless, fully 
 as important in its nature as either of the above, with 
 them also take rank as a science ? 
 
 If however, civilization is capable of being practically 
 applied, the mode of this application must necessarily vary 
 according to the person who applies it. And if the mode 
 of its application varies from the above cause, it follows 
 that the efficiency of it must in some cases be more, and 
 in others less perfect. And if the efficiency of the appli- 
 cation varies as regards its degree of perfection, it must 
 vary according as it is followed ; and consequently there 
 must necessarily be some systematic plan, founded upon 
 and regulated by specific principles, for directing its due 
 and regular application. And if it is so capable of being 
 carried out on a systematic plan, it inevitably follows that 
 it is fully and completely capable of being reduced to, and 
 considered as a science. 
 
 Nor is it any proof that a particular system is not 
 
Duty of (lie State. 53 
 
 reducible to a science, because it has been for a lonof 
 time, and even among civilized nations, and by dis- 
 tinguished statesmen, followed without this axiom being 
 adoj)ted, or even recognized, and as though it were 
 incapable of being formed into a practical or scien- 
 tific system. No one in these days would question the 
 capability of Law to be reduced to and dealt with as a 
 science. And yet for ages, and among many nations, it 
 was followed as though it neither recognized nor was 
 controlled by any definite rules, and was regulated by no 
 fixed principles ; and as though the wisdom or will or 
 caprice of the ruler formed its spirit and essence. Under 
 King Nebuchadnezzar, Law possessed as little of a scientific 
 character as regarded the monarch's mode of dealing with 
 it, as civilization does under Queen Victoria. But neither 
 in one case nor the other does this circumstance con- 
 clusively prove that they are both, or either of them, 
 incapable of scientific reduction or treatment. 
 
 If, however, civilization be, as is here contended, 
 strictly reducible to a science, and be also capable of 
 practical application, it remains to determine the precise 
 duty of the state as regards the promotion of the civiliza- 
 tion of the nation. This duty corresponds pretty nearly 
 with that of the wise head of a family, in the superintend- 
 ence of the intellectual and moral, as well as the physical 
 development and welfare of each of his childi-en. Such a 
 course he should endeavour to direct or to supply, accord- 
 ing to the exigencies of each, the variety of their characters, 
 and the defects which require to be counteracted, A ques- 
 tion may, nevertheless, arise, how far the duty of the state 
 extends in the active promotion of civilization, and in 
 what cases it ought to exert itself, whether to originate or 
 to aid different undertakings and institutions connected 
 with civilization, or whether it should be merely their 
 director and superintendent. It seems to me, however, 
 that all that can be legitimately in such cases demanded 
 
5i Essence of Civilization. 
 
 of the stato is, that it assume the general control of the 
 institutions and other Elements and means of promoting 
 civilization, but without interfering with their ordinary, 
 proper, and natural operation, which should be left to the 
 guidance of those who are their members and supporters, 
 affording them, however, such legitimate and necessary 
 aid as they may fairly ask for, and as may be required of 
 the state for their maintenance. The duty of the govern- 
 ment here, is, in fact, closely analogous to that of the 
 driver of a steam-engine which draws a railway train, and 
 whose business is not to construct or to propel the engine, 
 but only to guide it aright, and to see that it is supplied 
 witli proper fuel, and with the elements requisite for its 
 due operation. So the duty of the state is not arbitrarily 
 to force on or to compel the progress of civilization, but to 
 supply all the necessary means and elements within its 
 power for encouraging its promotion, and for affording it 
 the opportunity for advancement. The basis of our policy 
 as regards all matters of civilization, should moreover be, 
 as far as possible, to follow nature as our pattern, both with 
 respect to the measures we adopt, and the mode of carrying 
 out our undertakings. We should both work and progress 
 after the manner of nature, while our aim should be not to 
 counteract or even force nature, but to aid her in her efforts 
 and her operations, and to remove those obstacles to her 
 endeavours which an unnatural state of society has imposed. 
 Nature should in all cases be alike our model and our 
 guide. 
 
 Having thus far considered the nature of civilization, 
 and the adaptation of man both as an individual and in his 
 political capacity to be affected by it ; we have next to 
 inquire into those leading principles or essential Elements, 
 by which its operation and progress are regulated, to which 
 I have already adverted in the foregoing pages, and which 
 may be comprehended under the several divisions contained 
 in the sections which follow. 
 
ConsHtuents and Etements of Civilization. 55 
 
 It is here, however, important to note that certain of 
 the actual constituents of civilization, which are essential 
 for its very existence, are also, on the other hand, no less 
 essential as Elements to support and promote its stability 
 and progress. Thus, knowledge is essential to the exist- 
 ence of civilization, and education is no less necessary as 
 an Element. So also with regard to religious influence, 
 moral jurisprudence, and intercoui'se of different kinds, 
 which are equally essential as constituents to form, and as 
 Elements to uphold and promote civilization. Nevertheless 
 there are certain Elements which are very efficient to 
 promote civilization, and to render it permanent, which 
 are, however, not at all of themselves necessary to con- 
 stitute it, and without which it may exist as completely 
 and as efficiently as though they had never been supplied. 
 Thus, for instance, a nation may be highly civilized in 
 which there are neither national institutions, nor honorary 
 distinctions ; and indeed, owing to peculiar circumstances, 
 it may be able entirely to dispense with such aids to 
 civilization. But this militates nothing against the effi- 
 ciency or the necessity of these Elements to secure and 
 promote civilization in certain other cases where by 
 circumstances they are required. 
 
 It may be contended, however, that certain or all of the 
 Elements here enumerated, are not in reality the causes of 
 civilization, but merely its effects.* To some extent they 
 may be said to be both the causes and the effects. They 
 spring out of the civilization of a country in the first 
 instance ; while, on the other hand, they contribute to, and 
 are essential to complete that civilization. 
 
 Independent, indeed, of the Elements of civilization, 
 and as the agents through which they operate and produce 
 the results they are calculated to effect, are certain 
 important moral causes which are ever in operation, the 
 influence of which will be pointed out in the following 
 * Buckle's History of Civilization, Tntrod. p. 232. 
 
56 Essence of Civilization. 
 
 pages, and the full benefit, and force, and efficiency of 
 which, the establishment and mutual co-operation of these 
 several Elements of civilization alone can secure. In 
 addition to all this, the efforts of those minds of great 
 power, which have been duly cultivated, and which are, 
 moreover, devoted to the intellectual and moral improve- 
 ment of their fellow-creatures, are the real engines by 
 which the progress of civilization is accelerated, and by 
 which its several Elements are acted upon for this purpose. 
 Like the influence of the planets rolling through their 
 orbits iu the celestial spheres, by which certain mighty 
 changes in the terrestrial world are, though silently and 
 unseen, ever ordered and controlled ; so the sway that is 
 exercised by those sublime souls, directs and urges onward 
 the flowing tide of civilization, which both from them 
 receives the guidance that regulates its course, and reflects 
 on its glowing surface some faint shadow at least of those 
 glorious beings by whom its career is animated. 
 
57 
 
 THE ELEMENTS WHICH CONTRIBUTE TO 
 THE PROMOTION AND PROGRESS OF CIVI- 
 LIZATION. 
 
 I.— NATIONAL EDUCATION OF THE PEOPLE. 
 
 If, as has already been observed, states, which are 
 composed or made up of individuals, are benefited bj 
 civilization, it must be of great consequence to secure this 
 advantage to each individual member of a state, whatever 
 be his condition or pursuit ; and it must also be one of the 
 first and most important duties of a state to provide such 
 a requisite, considering that the mental and moral 
 exigencies of its members, as intellectual beings, demand 
 equal care with their physical wants. 
 
 What civilization effects for the state, education should 
 do for the individual. The cultivation and exaltation of 
 his intellectual, and moral, and higher powers, and their 
 complete development, so as to give them the entire 
 ascendency over the gross animal feelings and jDropensities, 
 should be the result of education. As knowledge is the 
 first Element in the imparting of education, so education, 
 by which knowledge is attained, is the first Element of 
 civilization. But as knowledge does not of itself constitute 
 education, neither is education the only Element of civili- 
 zation. Education, although not of itself constituting 
 civilization, as many appear erroneously to regard it, 
 forms, nevertheless, as it were, its keystone. It lends its 
 
58 National Education. 
 
 support, .and gives stability to all the other Elements. 
 While education is the main trunk which nourishes the 
 whole tree, the several other Elements of civilization 
 represent the branches, without which neither leaves, nor 
 flowers, nor fruit can be produced; although, on the other 
 hand, the branches could not be put forth without the 
 trunk. So education is necessary to originate the other 
 Elements, and they are essential to perfect education ; 
 while the due j^romotion and operation of the whole 
 together, result in the complete establishment of civiliza- 
 tion. 
 
 That education and civilization are very different even 
 in the case of an individual, is proved by the fact that a 
 man may be very learned and yet at the same time very 
 barbarous, alike as regards his manners, his tastes, and 
 his tone of feeling. Even gentility does not necessarily 
 imply civilization, though probably it does so more than 
 education alone. But education and gentility combined 
 do not either effect or constitute civilization ; and a man 
 influenced by both, may be very deficient as regards his 
 general character in this respect. 
 
 While the object of education is to qualify the individual 
 to exert his j)owers to the utmost advantage, the object of 
 civilization is to obtain the accomplishment of the very 
 purpose for which the other adapts us. While education 
 is the preparation for, civilization is the actual consumma- 
 tion of the work of refining and extending the intellectual 
 powers. Education teaches us how to learn ; civilization 
 is the result of having learnt. 
 
 The first of the several Elements which contribute to 
 the civilization of a nation, both as regards the direct 
 nature of its influence, and the importance of its results, 
 must consequently be the education of the people of such 
 a nation; education being indeed the first step towards 
 the civilization both of a nation and of an individual. 
 Ignorance and barbarism arc as opj)osite to civilization 
 
Threefold Nature of Education. 59 
 
 as darkness is to daylight. Tlie education of tlie people, 
 and the national provision for this by the state, is there- 
 fore not a mere measure of expediency, but it is one of 
 real and actually national necessity, if the establishment 
 of civilization in such a country is made a matter of 
 concern. 
 
 As states, like men, have their periods of infancy, youth, 
 maturity, and age ; so in states as well as men, the period 
 of youth is that which is peculiarly fitted for instruction 
 and civilization, when the national mind is most capacitated 
 to receive it, and after which it is difficult successfully and 
 extensively to implant it. 
 
 Education is of three several distinct and independent 
 kinds, which may be severally classed as mental, moral, 
 and manual ; or, of the head, of the heart, and of the hand, 
 1. ]\Iental education, or what is commonly comprehended 
 under the term instruction, consists in imparting know- 
 ledge, storing the mind \vith ideas, and disciplining and 
 cultivating it so as to adapt it for engaging in intellectual 
 studies and pursuits. 2. Moral education, or that which 
 is comprised in teaching men their duty, consists in the 
 inculcation of correct principles of action, and training 
 the disposition and moral habits. 3. Manual education, 
 is that which consists in teaching the occupation, pro- 
 fessional employment, or trade which each person is 
 to follow as his calling in life. 
 
 This division of education into different kinds, holds 
 good with regard to persons of each class alike, although 
 the actual quality of the education adaj)ted for differ- 
 ent classes is necessarily very different, corresponding of 
 course, both as respects the knowledge to be conveyed, 
 and the discipline to be instilled, with the duties which 
 each have to discharge. In the case of all, however, the 
 legitimate leading object of education is not €0 much to 
 store the mind with knowledge, as to cultivate and dis- 
 cipline it, and fit it for the task of imbibing knowledge in 
 
60 JSahonal Education. 
 
 future, as also for api)lying that knowledge advan- 
 tageously. It is rather tlie tilling than the sowing of the 
 soil that education effects. 
 
 As regards the precise nature of the education which 
 should be imparted, general elementary instruction and 
 discipline and cultivation appear, in the first place, essen- 
 tial, as they are what all persons alike, of whatever class 
 or calling, require, in order to develope their mental 
 powers, to raise them to the rank of intelligent beings, 
 and to prepare them for whatever walk in life they may 
 hereafter seek to engage in. In the next place, such 
 instruction should be given to each individual, as is espe- 
 cially suitable to the particular occupation which he is 
 intending to follow. 
 
 Both the quality and the extent of the mental education 
 that each person should receive, must of course mainly 
 depend upon the nature of his pursuits in after-life ; and 
 the quality of the manual calling in which he engages, is 
 that by which his mental education must be mainly 
 regulated. For instance, with those whose manual occu- 
 pation is principally of a laborious or servile kind, not 
 much opportunity for mental cultivation can be afforded. 
 Those, on the other hand, whose manual or professional 
 calling is of a learned nature, may and indeed must 
 necessarily devote a considerable portion of their time to 
 mental education, which with them is in fact the same as 
 that which is manual. Those, however, whose manual 
 pursuits prevent them from obtaining a complete mental 
 education, should aim especially to cultivate those mental 
 jjursuits and studies which will be at once both most 
 mentally improving and most practically manually useful. 
 The excessive cultivation of certain branches of mental 
 education which are not of this description, especially of 
 the kind which are rather ornamental than useful, and 
 which are ordinarily termed accomplishments, to the 
 neglect of those that are solid and valuable, often proves 
 
Education of different Kinds. 61 
 
 (as already stated)*' a serious bar to the progress both of 
 education and of civilization. To all alike, moral educa- 
 tion is, however, equally essential ; and it varies little 
 either as to the quality or the extent of it adapted for 
 those of each class. The proper moral education of each, 
 and the due cultivation and training of his dispositions 
 and affections and qualities, is, indeed, of the highest 
 importance both to his happiness and his welfare, and to 
 the comfort and convenience of all those with whom he is 
 connected or associated, who, like himself, are members of 
 a civil society. Incident to this, are also the cultivation 
 and regulation of the manners and habits and tastes of the 
 persons instructed, and which are, indeed, both indicative 
 of, and are ever regarded as serving to develope their 
 particular character and disposition. In order, however, 
 to a complete moral education, in addition to the mere 
 inculcation of moral principles, moral discipline, moral 
 training, and moral trial and experience also should, if 
 possible, be introduced ; so that the future pilgrim through 
 the world, who will be beset at every stage by so many 
 moral dangers, may be not only told what weapons to use, 
 but taught the proper use of them, and qualified and 
 drilled for encounters of this kind. For this end, the 
 ordinary daily habits of practical school social life may 
 to a large extent be made to serve. 
 
 So soon as, and provided that each of the before-men- 
 tioned essential educational objects are secured, and these 
 initiatory stages are passed, such departments of know- 
 ledge may be pursued by each, according as his peculiar 
 taste and capacity, and the extent of his leisure will 
 allow. 
 
 With respect to the pursuit of particular branches of 
 knowledge, certain of the Elements of civilization here 
 specified, provide for and promote this requirement ; as, 
 
 * Vide ante, Preface. . 
 
62 National Education. 
 
 for instcance, Element II., Eeligious Knowledge; Ele- 
 ment IV., the Study of Art and Science ; Element X., the 
 knowledge of Foreign Languages. Other Elements pro- 
 mote and encourage study generally; as Elements III. 
 and VI., by affording leisure for intellectual occupations; 
 Element V. secures freedom for thought and discussion ; 
 and Element VII. supplies patrons for the encouragement 
 of art and learning generally. Each Element should, 
 moreover, contribute to the aid and support of the other, 
 to extend its influence, and invigorate its operations. 
 
 One most important and essential part of, or perhaps, 
 rather adjunct to education, is that which consists in 
 securing for the bodily frame and limbs such an amount 
 of regular and healthy exercise and recreation, as will 
 prevent them from suffering any injury from the too 
 great attention to mental education ; and in the acquire- 
 ment of such a habit of physical discipline as will through 
 life be most serviceable and efficient for this purpose. 
 
 Education, even that which is intellectual and moral, may 
 be imparted by many other means besides books. Pictures, 
 maps, and lectures, especially the latter when accom- 
 panied by experiments, are equally available for this 
 j)urpose, and for some ends are far more efficient. This 
 however must of course depend upon the particular des- 
 cription of teaching to be inculcated. Variety of mode as 
 well as subject, often adds to the agreeableness of instruc- 
 tion, and its agreeableness to its efficiency. 
 
 No doubt can be entertained as regards the desirable- 
 ness of classical learning forming an essential part of 
 education, not only to store, but to cultivate, and enlarge, 
 and refine the mind. It appears to me, however, that 
 there is also as little doubt that this most important 
 branch of education would be far more efficient than it 
 now is, if followed in a more enlarged and complete 
 manner, attention being directed to the qualities and 
 excellences of an intellectual nature and of the highest 
 
Classical Studies. 63 
 
 order, to the feeling, and beauty, and pathos, and imagina- 
 tion, contained in the writings of the ancient classics, and 
 which would be alike interesting and improving to juvenile 
 minds, and tend more than anything to their cultivation 
 and development, especially of their highest faculties ; 
 instead of confining their attention so much, and indeed 
 so exclusively, to the dry and unattractive topics of the 
 grammatical structure of the sentences, and the technical 
 rules of prosody and syntax, the main result of which is in 
 most cases entirely to repel the student from recui'ring to 
 these pursuits, which have been rendered so dreary and 
 so repulsive, after he has passed through the period of 
 pupilage. 
 
 Nevertheless, however desirable it may be to render 
 learning attractive, it does not follow that it is advisable 
 to make it too easy, or to attempt to abridge as much as 
 possible every effort of the mind, which may be in itself 
 as serviceable as the very knowledge that is imbibed. 
 Even the newsjDaper, which in many respects so essen- 
 tially and so extensively contributes to the promotion and 
 the advancement of civilization, on the other hand in 
 certain respects tends to its corruption and decline, by 
 the easy and alluring manner in which it communicates 
 information, thus deterring persons from severer and more 
 abstruse studies, which invigorate as well as store the 
 mind. In a luxurious age, as everything is attained with 
 ease, whether as regards learning or travelling, so no pains 
 are incurred, but which, however disagreeable at the 
 time, greatly invigorate both mind and body, and fit them 
 for any enterprise they may be called uj)on to fulfil. 
 
 The leading principle to be observed in education, 
 considered independently as an Element of civilization, is 
 that it should be so adapted as both to improve and exalt 
 the minds of the individuals to whom it is applied, and 
 also at the same time to qualify those receiving it for 
 being advantageously influenced by each of the other 
 
64 National Education, 
 
 Elements of civilization, or such of them as in the 
 peculiar circumstances of the case may be resorted to ; 
 and that it should enable every person properly to perform 
 the duties allotted to him. 
 
 Education, in order to be efficient, should not only be 
 conducted according to the principles, adaptation, and 
 exigencies of human nature as regards our various facul- 
 ties, and qualities, and requirements, intellectual, moral, 
 and physical ; but its leading aim should ever be to 
 develope and to bring to perfection the endowments of 
 the person who is being educated; and both by cul- 
 tivating excellences and correcting defects, to raise him 
 to the noblest condition at which he is capable of arriving. 
 Education, moreover, with reference to the particular 
 country in which it is carried on, should be so especially 
 framed and adapted as to counteract the errors and remedy 
 the defects, whether intellectual, moral, or social, existent 
 among any people, arising from any peculiarity in the 
 national character, the situation of the country, its climate, 
 the pursuits mainly followed, or those belonging to its 
 system of government. Thus, in a commercial country, 
 an avaricious spirit should as far as possible be counter- 
 acted or softened by liberal educational influences. In an 
 inland country, the people should be made acquainted 
 with the geography and history of other countries, which 
 they have but little opportunity of learning by intercourse 
 with them. Where art is followed with avidity, science 
 should be cultivated, as its accompaniment and corrective ; 
 and where science engrosses the chief attention, its pursuit 
 should be mollified and refiined by the study of art.* 
 
 In whatever country or situation any one may be placed, 
 education ought, however, to be conducted on a sys- 
 tematic principle, so as to qualify the man for the highest 
 
 * The Theory of the Arts ; or Art in relation to Nature, Civiliza- 
 tion, and Man. By George Harris, F.S.A. Vol. I., Chap. i. 
 
Princiioles and Objeds of Education. 65 
 
 efiforts and duties in life wliicli lie may be called upon to 
 fulfil. The education of each person must, moreover, Lave 
 regard to others as well as himself ; must not merely fit 
 him for mental cultivation as an individual, but must also 
 adapt him for being a useful member of society. As an 
 independent person by himself, and having relation to no 
 other being, it might be sufficient ^ a man to cultivate 
 only hi^ intellect, or to j)ursue that branch of education 
 alone which I have classed under the head of mental. As 
 owing allegiance to a superior Being, and also as a member 
 of a social community, and therefore connected with and 
 necessarily more or less dependent upon others, it is how- 
 ever essential that moral education as well should receive a 
 due share of his attention. 
 
 Two important, and indeed fundamental rules with 
 regard to education, ought ever to be kept in view, but 
 which it is to be feared are entirely neglected in many 
 systems. The first of these is the inculcation, together 
 and in conjunction with mental instruction, of correct and 
 definite principles of conduct in the different courses of 
 life in which the persons educated are likely to be called 
 upon to act. The other is the supplying proper and 
 wholesome food for the intellectual craving which educa- 
 tion has called forth, such as suitable libraries for the 
 people would afford. To the neglect of these two deside- 
 rata, most of the evil results of which education has in 
 any case been accused, may be clearly traced. 
 
 "With regard to the first of these rules, although a doubt 
 may be expressed as to how far among those of the humbler 
 ranks and necessarily laborious occupations, pursuits of 
 the highest mental order can be followed extensively; 
 there can be none as to the great extent to which, and the 
 immense benefit with which moral education and discip- 
 line may be there carried out. Indeed, mental cultivation 
 has a tendency to raise the moral character so far that 
 thereby low and sensual gratifications lose their attrac- 
 
66 National Education. 
 
 tion. From tlieir being early habituated to the pursuit 
 or virtue and to shun vice, it is alone, however, that the 
 people can be efficiently trained in this course, and sound 
 principles of conduct instilled into their minds. More- 
 over, by being taught to reason correctly, they are fortified 
 against the fallacies of insidious writers. As an actual 
 preventive to crime, Qj^ucation,if rightly directed, operates 
 very powerfully, and is indeed the only sure protector ; 
 and there can be no doubt that it is from not having 
 received a proper and sound moral and religious education, 
 that crime is so prevalent among the poorer classes. In- 
 deed, as regards the difference in this resj)ect between 
 them and persons of the higher and middle ranks, it is 
 not by the absence of want, or the difficulties of escaping 
 detection, that the latter are deterred from the commission 
 of crime. On the contrary, their exigencies are frequently 
 equal to, if not greater in comparison, and more urgent 
 than those of the poor ; and they have more constant and 
 better opportunities of suj)plying them criminally, without 
 being found out. From the education, however, which 
 they have received, right principles have been instilled 
 into their minds, and they would suffer as much from the 
 consciousness of committing crime of a base and dishonour- 
 able nature, as from the fear of discovery. And even in 
 those cases where education may indirectly facilitate the 
 commission of certain crimes, by the skill that it supplies, 
 and may also aid the perpetrator in escaping detection ; it 
 has, on the other hand, supplied the means of detecting 
 offences in a variety of ways. It is, moreover, only from 
 the defective nature of the educati(m of any individual, tbat 
 it becomes in the least degree conducive to crime. If it be 
 urged that although the higher classes are not addicted to 
 thieving, there are other crimes to which they are as 
 prcne as the ]30or are to pilfering, but which are not 
 opposed to the feelings instilled by education ; this may 
 be regarded as an additional proof of what education may 
 
Education and Crime. 67 
 
 effect, accompanied by a regret that its moral results are 
 not uniformly successful in the restraint of crime of every 
 variety. 
 
 With regard to the second of the fundamental axioms 
 which I have laid down as necessary to be observed in 
 framing a complete system of national education,— that a 
 supply should be furnished to those educated of intel- 
 lectual and moral food to satisfy the craving which has 
 been called forth ; — it is a great misfortune, and proves a 
 great neglect, that in the present day the poorer ' classes, 
 when their education is finished, are left entirely to their 
 own discretion, or rather, want of discretion, as to the 
 books they will read ; the art of reading correctly com- 
 prises nearly the whole of the education that has been 
 imparted to them ; no effort is made to point out the path 
 which they may follow mth the greatest advantage and 
 improvement ; no direction whatever to their future 
 studies is afforded ; but they are lamiched out into the 
 world without chart or pilot to direct them in their 
 course. As the almost necessary consequence of such a 
 system, they are carried away by the first current into 
 which they float ; they become the easy dupe of the first 
 designing essay fraught with pernicious princijiles that 
 falls in their way. Many of these works, not only from 
 their nature and the subjects on which they treat, form 
 alluring baits for the inexperienced in such matters ; but 
 from the specious style and the captivating manner in 
 which they are composed, they are especially calculated 
 to arrest the attention and please the fancy of readers of 
 this description, to whose taste and comprehension they 
 are adroitly adapted, contrasting in this respect very 
 favourably with the dry and laborious moral treatises 
 which well-intentioned persons may have placed in their 
 way, and which are apt to be regarded as the only fit 
 works for the humbler classes to be entrusted with. 
 
 It cannot, therefore, be doubted, that people in the 
 
Q8 National Education. 
 
 position described, are exposed to an evil of a most serious 
 nature, and one whicli it is all-important to remedy. 
 Two modes only exist of effecting this end. We must 
 either suppress altogether the dissemination of pernicious 
 publications, or supplant them by supplying those of a 
 better tendency. To accomplish the former is impossible, 
 and it would not be a legitimate, even if it were a practi- 
 cal course. The other plan is not only quite legitimate, 
 but may be carried out to the full ; and not merely with 
 entire success, but the most benefical consequences may 
 be anticipated from its adojJtion. 
 
 It is hardly possible, indeed, to over-estimate the 
 importance of supplying to the poorer classes a literature 
 at once attractive in its nature, and combining intellectual 
 instruction with moral improvement. This is a measure 
 worthy of the attention of the greatest philanthropists ; 
 and it is a desideratum so extensive, that it surely ought 
 to be made a national object. Whether it could not at 
 once be attained by issuing, at the expense of the state, a 
 cheap reprint of works particularly adapted for the pur- 
 pose, and which might be furnished gratis, or at a very 
 low cost, to all parochial libraries, I would here beg to 
 suggest. 
 
 Many of the poor, especially during the long winter 
 evenings, have abundance of leisure at their disposal, 
 which, if it is not well spent, is either wasted in idleness, 
 or passed in profligacy. By acquiring a habit of study, 
 and following the pursuit of useful and entertaining 
 knowledge, both the advantage and the happiness of 
 themselves and their families would be extensively pro- 
 moted. Moreover, from not being able to enter into the 
 expensive amusements of the rich, they j^eculiarly stand 
 in need of some recreation of this kind. A sound maxim 
 for the regulation of life was laid down by Locke, — that 
 persons of sedentary occupations ought to adopt active 
 amusements, and those who follow active laborious oc- 
 
Mental and Moral Aliment. 69 
 
 cupations, amusements of a sedentary nature. In this 
 respect, study suits well with tLe occupations of the poor, 
 most of whose employments are of an active character. 
 
 Equally absurd and noxious is it, to consider the more 
 engaging and attractive branches of literature, such as 
 poetry and the other arts, general history, and romance, 
 as unfitted for and improper for the perusal of the poorer 
 classes ; and that those works only which are dull and 
 dry are adapted for their pursuit. From hence it is, that 
 the poor find so little pleasure in the cultivation of their 
 minds. Their only experience of this is in the slavish 
 drudgery of learning to read, and in the dreary, un- 
 attractive books which they have had placed before them. 
 They have no conception whatever of the intense delights 
 which the capacity of reading they have already acquired 
 is capable of conferring upon them, and this is a secret 
 which a large portion of them never discover. 
 
 There is, however, another very ui'gent reason for 
 advocating the general education of the people, quite 
 independent of the essential advantages which it confers 
 on themselves. I allude to the benefits that are thereby 
 derived to the nation itself. The people of this free 
 country, forming an essential branch of the Constitution, 
 and being by law invested with important political 
 privileges, it becomes not only expedient, but essential, 
 that they should be instructed aright in the use of those 
 privileges. By depriving them of the knowledge that 
 would serve them for this purpose, while you thereby 
 abridge not in the least their actual power, you deprive 
 them of the means to exercise it rightly ; you surrender 
 them to the influence of those whose only desire is to lead 
 them astray. By placing proper treatises before them, 
 you enable them to teach themselves. And self-instruc- 
 tion, as it is ever received without suspicion, so is it the 
 most influential on the mind of the recipient. It is 
 surely of the very highest importance, in a political point, 
 
70 National Education. 
 
 that tlie people at large should he early imbued with 
 correct notions respecting the rights and duties of pro- 
 j)erty ; and should be taught not only to reverence and 
 obey the Constitution and the laws of their country, but 
 the reasons also why they are entitled to this homage and 
 tbis submission. 
 
 It may, nevertheless, again be urged, as it formerly 
 used to be, although of late this argument has become 
 much out of fashion, that by educating the lower classes 
 you afford them the readiest means of being led astray. 
 Could we, however, be persuaded that those only who are 
 instructed in the common rudiments of education are 
 rendered liable to be assailed and misled ; even this 
 would not be sufficient to justify the withholding from 
 them all the advantages which result from education ; 
 and which would be, indeed, detaining them in a state of 
 almost animal imbecility, for the sake of guarding against 
 certain evils for which the inculcation of sound and 
 correct principles is the only sure remedy, and for which 
 the other false and unnatural antidote would prove 
 wholly inefficient. Constituted as our nature is, it is 
 easier to imbibe wrong tenets than those which are right. 
 Most men have, therefore, enough cultivation to enable 
 them to be led astray. The only difficulty is to afford 
 them sufficient teaching to fortify them against fallacy. 
 By the instillation of sound j^i'incij^lcs, and the storing 
 their minds with knowledge, they would be less liable to 
 be misguided by erroneous doctrines, and would detect 
 the sophistries by which they were sought to be seduced. 
 
 Perhaps, indeed, the most i)erilous condition of all in 
 which a human being can be placed, is when he has 
 been taught to read and write, and is turned out upon the 
 world without any direction how to use his acquirements 
 properly. This is somewhat like starting an exj^ress 
 train in full speed upon a railway, but without sup2)lying 
 an engine-driver to direct it. What is the remedy for 
 
Political Knowledge for the Peojple. 71 
 
 this emergency? If you stop tlie train suddenly, you 
 overturn it, and produce at once all the worst con- 
 sequences that can be caused by the careless act in 
 question. If, however, you can by any means supply an 
 efficient engine-driver to the train, all danger is at once 
 removed. So in the case of education, it is impossible to 
 quench the little knowledge that has been imparted, or to 
 paralyse the powers that have been called into exercise. 
 The only resort left is to give that knowledge a right 
 direction, and to apj)ly those powers to their proper 
 purpose. 
 
 Nor does popular ignorance supply any safeguard what- 
 ever against political disaffection or tumults, or serve 
 to prevent the people from uniting in seditious societies, 
 or lawless combinations. On the other hand, it only 
 subjects them the more easily and the more completely to 
 be led av/ay and controlled by some designing demagogues. 
 Does history, indeed, record any single example of the 
 barbarity of a people being adduced as a proof of their 
 loyalty ? And I would appeal with confidence to the 
 experience of all those who have studied the history 
 of the tumultuous times of this or any other country, 
 whether the danger of popular outbreak is really more to 
 be apprehended among a people who are truly enlightened, 
 possess a correct knowledge of the nature and extent of 
 their rights and duties as citizens, who are fully acquainted 
 with the privileges they enjoy, who have been taught to 
 respect the laws under which they live, and who must, 
 from their superior education, be little liable to be imposed 
 upon, if not from the soundness of their principles in- 
 disposed to be so ; — than among a body of people who 
 neither value nor even know the privileges which they 
 own, who are unable to reason aright on any great 
 questions, who misunderstand their position in society, 
 and are under delusions of every variety with respect to 
 their claims and civil duties, possessing, as they do, only 
 
72 National Education. 
 
 so much information as is sufficient to render tliem liable 
 to be led astray, and whose brutality when excited is 
 restrained neither by reason nor right moral feeling. 
 Are not j)opular tumults, in the great majority of cases, to 
 be traced to popular ignorance, and to the multitude 
 having been misguided? Has the superior enlightenment 
 of the people ever been suspected to be the cause ? 
 
 The most plausible argument which has been urged 
 against the extensive education of the lower classes is, 
 that it raises them above their station, and unfits them for 
 manual labour ; that it, in fact, destroys the proper 
 balance in the state, as regards the influence from superior 
 intelligence which ought to preponderate in the case of 
 the higher classes over the lower. To all this, however, 
 it may be satisfactorily replied, that many of those 
 among the higher classes whose minds are extensively 
 cultivated, engage in arduous manual labour, which affords, 
 indeed, a recreation to their minds ; and that if the mass 
 in general are well educated, those among the poor who 
 are of superior endowments will be but on a level with 
 them, and will be less inclined unduly to over-appreciate 
 their own acquirements, and so less likely to despise their 
 ordinary and necessary avocations. Indeed, the only 
 legitimate mode to prevent an undue preponderance on the 
 part of the lower classes from their extensive intellectual 
 acquirements, is to increase those of the rich, for which 
 this mental progress of their inferiors would form a very 
 wholesome stimulus ; and who, from their superior 
 advantages and much greater leisure, ought ever to be far 
 in advance in respect of mental cultivation and acquire- 
 ments. Thus, the education of the poor is not only 
 beneficial to themselves, but contributes also essentially to 
 the intellectual progress of the rich. 
 
 So far, however, from any among the poorer classes 
 being led, on account of their improved education, to 
 endeavour to exalt themselves unduly above their superiors. 
 
Political Ignorance no sa.feguard. 73 
 
 and to obtain situations and positions to whicli they have 
 no legitimate claim ; they would then be taught that 
 such high and important offices can be filled only by per- 
 sons of extensive endowments and qualifications, and 
 they would no longer envy the holders of them as they 
 now do. 
 
 One great bar to the civilization of the populace in 
 many nations, is the difficulty which exists of a free and 
 full intercourse and interchange of ideas and feelings 
 between them and the rich, which is to a large extent 
 owing to the difference in the dialect and even language 
 by which the two classes carry on communication. Hence 
 a gulf between them is fixed, which the education of the 
 poor alone can fill up, by familiarizing the latter with the 
 language of the former. The civilizing influence of those 
 of superior acquirements, would then first be experienced 
 by the people at large, who would also be able to enter 
 into the thoughts and feelings of the former, and to 
 understand works produced in their purer and classical 
 style of composition, which to many of them are at present 
 incomprehensible. 
 
 Not only, therefore, is it essential that education of 
 each of the foregoing kinds should be supplied to every 
 member of the state ; but no well-regulated state will 
 omit to provide for this necessary end. In neglecting to 
 do so, the nation is guilty of a crime corresponding with 
 that committed by the father of a family who fails to 
 educate his own offspring. Nevertheless, the state, in 
 aiming to produce moral effects, should never attempt to 
 interfere with the natural inclinations of the people, 
 or act in a compulsory manner ; but its clear duty appears 
 to be to exert itself so far as to prevent the natural 
 disposition of its members from being counteracted or 
 impeded by obstacles which arise out of the artificial state 
 of society in which they are placed. To the extent 
 already specified, education is essential, and therefore 
 
74 National Education. 
 
 thus fur it is the duty of the state to supply it, or to 
 provide for its being supplied. 
 
 Nor, in a case of this national necessity, ought the 
 state to trust to the charity or bounty of individuals to 
 carry out such a measure, any more than it relies on the 
 chance generosity of the public, or a portion of it, for 
 supplying the resources to carry on a war. Moreover, by 
 rendering a system of education national, it becomes 
 engrafted on the constitution, and forms an essential part 
 of it, and is prevented from decaying when the fashion or 
 feeling of liberality which originally supported it may 
 have died away. The inconsistency is doubtless great of 
 those who uj^hold and argue in favour of a system of 
 national education, and who talk loudly of the duty of 
 the state to provide for the intellectual and moral as well 
 as the physical wants of its members, and yet deny the 
 necessity of an established church. But the inconsistency 
 is even greater of those who profess to value this church, 
 and are yet opposed to the establishment of a national 
 system of education, whereby the benefits of the former 
 would be much extended, both alike largely and essentially 
 contributing to the civilization of the nation. 
 
 As regards the particular mode in which the state 
 should exert itself to promote the education of the people, 
 this may be effected by the three following measm-es : — 
 In the first place, the state should provide by a grant of 
 money ample means for the general intellectual and 
 moral instruction of the poorer classes, so that all persons, 
 of whatever degree, may be able to obtain a suitable 
 education, according to their station and requirements. 
 The state should take care that facilities for this object 
 are afforded, which it is bound to supply not merely for 
 the sake of the individuals so to be benefited, but for the 
 sake of the nation itself, and on account of the advantages 
 that it derives from the proper education of its members, 
 and the disadvantages which it must experience from their 
 
National Education a National Duty. 75 
 
 education being defective. The general mode in which 
 national education is conducted, should also be placed 
 under the control, inspection, and regulation of the 
 government. 
 
 In the second place, the state should issue such regula- 
 tions as to the proper qualifications, both moral and 
 intellectual, to be possessed by all those who desire to 
 become professional instructors of youth, as appear to be 
 expedient for obtaining efficient officers, a.nd those only, 
 to be appointed for this purpose. Teaching ought equally 
 with preaching to be confined to persons who are licensed 
 as duly qualified for so important a duty. 
 
 In the third place, the state should hold out such 
 inducements to those of all classes to obtain an efficient 
 education, as will operate as due and reasonable stimulants 
 to that end, on account of the advantages accruing there- 
 from. For instance, the public offices in the state should 
 be confined to those who can adduce proof that by 
 intellectual endowments they are duly qualified for filling 
 advantageously such employments. Public oral examina- 
 tion ought not, however, to be the only test here aftorded; 
 nor is it by any means in every case a fair mode of 
 ascertaining the real merits of a candidate. On the 
 contrary, in some cases, from his peculiar constitution, or, 
 from other causes, it may be a very unfair mode. Were 
 the ministers of the crown, and bishops, and judges, 
 selected according to their qualifications displayed on a 
 vkd voce examination, conducted before the lords of the 
 privy council, what a singularly unsatisfactory mode of 
 choosing them would this prove ! In point of mere 
 mental acuteness and readiness, they would doubtless 
 prove all that was desired. But in regard to tlieir physical, 
 moral, and even general mental qualifications, no satis- 
 factory test would be afforded. Probably, in certain 
 instances, and with certain persons, one mode is the most 
 efficient, and in others another mode. An examination is, 
 
78 National Education. 
 
 imperatively than do others, to be placed under govern- 
 ment control, according to their relative importance and 
 quality. Such, in particular, are those professions by 
 which may be placed in jeopardy either the life, the 
 property, or the liberty of the public. The state may 
 fairly and advantageously interfere to frame such precau- 
 tions with respect to these professions, as in its wisdom it 
 sees most fit. 
 
 Education which is of a merely ornamental kind, such 
 as refined accomplishments, may be left to the taste or 
 particular requirements of each individual, who will 
 obtain this according to his necessities or his means, with- 
 out any state provision being made for its establishment. 
 Such an education should, however, be placed within the 
 reach of every one, as will supply him with the elements 
 of knowledge and learning, and capacitate him for further 
 progress in this respect ; as will train him in correct 
 moral and religious habits, and fit him to be a useful 
 member of society, and to employ himself in some advan- 
 tageous office, profession, or calling. 
 
 In the case of each individual, moreover, his education 
 ought not to cease with his school career, but should be 
 continued and carried on alike by means of the national 
 institutions which every state is bound to provide for the 
 intellectual and moral education of the people, and by the 
 developm.ent of various kinds which intercourse with 
 society tends powerfully to jn'omote. And, on the other 
 hand, education ought to qualify the youth both for avail- 
 ing himself of the institutions of the nation provided for 
 adult instruction, and for conducting himself with pro- 
 priety and advantage during his intercourse with the 
 world in after-life. Thus considered, indeed, education 
 continues through life itself, and ceases only with the 
 entrance upon eternity, which is the period of harvest 
 when its fruits will be gathered in. 
 
 In general education, it is advantageous that the ele- 
 
Inculcation of Civil Duties. 79 
 
 ments of eacli branch of knowledge slioulcl be taught, in 
 order to show how vast is the expanse of knowledge which 
 may be traversed ; and also to prevent the relative impor- 
 tance of those special departments of it which the indivi- 
 dual is mainly following, from being overvalued. We 
 can only judge adequately and accurately of the advantages 
 of a particular locality which we think of choosing, by 
 taking a survey of the country adjacent from an elevated 
 spot, and viewing all the features of the surrounding 
 district. 
 
 The Spartan system of education consisted not so much 
 in communicating the knowledge of a great variety of 
 subjects, as in forming the passions, sentiments, and ideas 
 to that tone which might best assimilate with the constitu- 
 tion of the state. The object of education, indeed, should 
 ever be twofold: — 1.- To make good men. 2. To make 
 good citizens. It ought to lead individuals to consider 
 themselves not merely as such, but as members of a state ; 
 should inculcate not only private but public virtue. 
 
 As regards the mode of instruction in each case to be 
 pursued, this owes its value not to the quantity of know- 
 ledge that may be imparted, or to the strictness of the 
 discipline followed, but to the development and cultiva- 
 tion of the faculties effected, and the result produced 
 on the moral habits and disposition by the principles 
 taught. 
 
 Indeed, one very essential matter, and which relates to 
 domestic education, is the maintenance of, and the inculca- 
 tion of the duty of respect to rule among the different 
 members of a family, which is the first and most important 
 lesson on the subject of obedience to constituted authority, 
 the very basis of society and civil government. Discipline 
 in education is as needful as instruction, with which it 
 should be made to go hand in hand. Parents and masters, 
 as the recognized rulers, and as the oracles of wisdom and 
 virtue, should have a due influence alike as regards them- 
 
80 National Education. 
 
 selves and tlie doctrines tliey instil ; and good sons are 
 the most likely to make good subjects. 
 
 Our policy should moreover be not to compel, but to 
 encourage education : not to force people to learn, but 
 to induce them to do so by persuading them of its advan- 
 tages, and by affording every means through the other 
 Elements of civilization for pursuing a course which will 
 prove advantageous alike to themselves individually, and 
 to the state of which they are members. 
 
 A very important question here arises, to what extent, 
 and in what respects, it is desirable to further the progress 
 of education by resort to artificial stimulus. For this 
 purpose, the readiest means' seem to be the examination of 
 students either verbally or by writing, and the institution 
 of certificates or classes of comparative merit, by which 
 an emulation between them is created, and they are urged 
 forward to exertions which they would not otherwise 
 undertake. The defect, however, of the stimulus in all 
 these cases is, that it is not the desire of study, or of 
 obtaining knowledge, which is the ultimate or real object 
 aimed at, but the desire of acquiring superiority over 
 those with whom they compete ; and that immediately the 
 stimulus to exertion called forth by this emulation is with- 
 drawn, the zeal for study at once also ceases. The appli- 
 cation of this stimulus is somewhat like the process of 
 placing seeds in a hotbed, by which their early growth is 
 much accelerated, but the eventual vigour of the plant is 
 correspondingly decreased. So with regard to the emula- 
 tion produced by examinations and class lists, the desire to 
 excel in competition urges young men forward to succeed 
 here, but damps their ardour in study beyond and in- 
 dependent of this incitement ; and they are too frequently 
 led to regard success in the class list as the ultimate object 
 of study, instead of as a mere inducement to enter heartily 
 upon its career. So far, however, but so far only, as the latter 
 purpose is attained, the stimulus is efficient and expedient. 
 
Artificial stimulus to EduGcUio7i. 81 
 
 The principle upon wliicli prizes of dilBferent kinds are 
 given, and tlie theory of their beneficial operation, I take in- 
 deed to be this : — That it is desirable to create a stimulus 
 to follow a certain jDursuit, which nothing in the pursuit 
 itself is likely to excite, at least in the case of the par- 
 ticular individual engaged in it, and which is as it were 
 transferred from the prize to the pursuit itself, so that the 
 latter is followed with zeal and energy, although not for 
 its own sake, yet for that of the prize, and by means of 
 which all the advantages are secured in regard to the 
 artificial stimulus so created, which the ardent pursuit of 
 the object itself for its own sake, or for the solid advan- 
 tages it will ultimately bring, and not for the sake of the 
 prize, would secure. 
 
 Aristotle says that " until the age of seven complete, 
 the school for children ought to be the father's house." * 
 The tone of mind and cast of thought which are formed 
 at this early period, depend much on the precepts and 
 example enforced by those whose influence must naturally 
 be the greatest ; and although no new faculties or disposi- 
 tions can be conferred by this means, the due development 
 and cultivation of those existent at such a juncture is of 
 paramount importance. More especially as regards the 
 inculcation of sound moral principles, fortifying the mind 
 against error, and preparing the child to enter upon the 
 world, it is that the education conferred by the mother is 
 most valuable, and most essential. By this means, more- 
 over, he is fitted for the more enlarged and extensive 
 education which he acquires at school, in which 
 mental training and moral discipline are alike to be im- 
 parted, and which, as a little world in itself, prepares him 
 for the duties and the dangers of that great and real 
 world through which he will hereafter have to direct his 
 course. 
 
 In order, however, to urge forward tlie people as a mass 
 
 * Politics, book iv. 
 
 G 
 
82 National Education. 
 
 to take a very decided interest in the education of their 
 children, you must convince them of the great advantages 
 that would result from obtaining that education. These 
 results being in their effects unseen, require very 
 clearly to be demonstrated. The more extensively these 
 advantages are pointed out, the more active will be the 
 efforts made to secure them. 
 
 Of all moral education, religion is the most important, 
 the most comprehensive, and the most efficient. The 
 most important, because duty to God as well as to man is 
 enjoined by it ; the most comprehensive, because actions 
 of every kind are the subjects of its control ; and the most 
 efficient, because by its influence the heart is not only 
 regulated, but changed. This alone is able to control the 
 actions of the body, by influencing the impulses of the 
 mind. It directs the working of the machine by acting 
 on the mainspring. It is essential, moreover, that not 
 only both education and religion should be inculcated, 
 but that they should be inculcated together. Education 
 should unite with it the teaching of religion ; and with 
 the teaching of religion the inculcation of knowledge and 
 of education generally should be followed. Enlighten- 
 ment and religion should ever proceed hand in hand 
 together. Religion as regards its general influence over 
 the mind of a nation, apart from and independent of 
 religious education, forms a separate and very important 
 Element in the promotion of civilization. The Christian 
 religion, as has already been remarked, is in its nature 
 extremely favourable to the civilization alike of individuals 
 and of states, and both intellectually and morally. The 
 knowledge that it teaches is the highest and most ele- 
 vating ; and the principles that it enforces are the purest 
 and most comprehensive. 
 
 The beneficial effects resulting from the general educa- 
 tion of the people, are threefold, corresponding with the 
 nature of education itself; — raising the national mind; 
 
Beciprocity hetween Pieligion and Education. 83 
 
 imj)roviiig the national character ; providing means of 
 general subsistence to each and to the whole by instruct- 
 ing every individual in an occupation. By education, 
 moreover, the people are rendered independent of unprin- 
 cipled demagogues and seditious teachers, and thus the 
 higher influences in the state are raised above those which 
 are demoralizing and base ; just as in the individual man, 
 education renders him less subject to the control of his 
 animal passions and propensities. For the sake, there- 
 fore, of the state as well as of the several individuals who 
 compose it, it is essential that a due system of education 
 be established in every nation. The histories of nations, 
 and the histories of individuals, alike bear testimony to 
 the imjDortance of this principle, in each case. 
 
 But Education, although an important and essential 
 Element in the civilization of a nation, is but one Element 
 only. It is not the consummation, but merely the com- 
 mencement of civilization. It is not the reaping, or even 
 the sowing, but merely the tillage of the field. By it the 
 hard .gTound is broken up, and rendered fit for the recep- 
 tion of seed. On the other hand, unless this preparatory 
 step is adopted, and efficiently carried out, the other Ele- 
 ments of civilization about to be discussed can hardly be 
 brought into action, or be availed of with success. Ac- 
 cording as the national mind is prepared by Education for 
 their application, may we anticipate in proportion that 
 they will contribute to the complete civilization of that 
 particular nation. 
 
 II.— NATIONAL EELIGIOUS INFLUENCE. 
 
 While inquiring into the Essence of civilization, I 
 referred to tlie effect produced by Christianity upon its 
 progress. We have now to consider the general influence 
 that religion exercises over a nation, and upon mankind 
 at large, and which, as I shall show, constitutes one of the 
 
84 National Religious Influence. 
 
 most important and essential Elements of civilization. At 
 the same time, it is necessary to be borne in mind that 
 Religious Influence, although so leading and powerful an 
 Element in the constitution of civilization, is not and does 
 not of itself amount to civilization, nor does civilization 
 consist of Eeligious Influence. The two may be much 
 alike, and are often mistaken for each other ; but they 
 are, nevertheless, wholly independent and totally different. 
 Both are, however, important mutual aids to each other ; 
 and without each other's assistance, neither can attain 
 a high degree of perfection, or produce very extensive 
 results. 
 
 But, notwithstanding the importance to civilization of 
 the Element of Religious Influence, I have placed Educa- 
 tion as the first Element, inasmuch as Education must 
 necessarily precede and lay the foundation for Religious 
 Influence ; for it is difficult, if not impossible, to suppose 
 the existence of Religious Influence without the inculca- 
 tion to some extent of Education, although there may be 
 Education to a considerable extent, however defective, and 
 civilization also, without Religious Influence. Ignorance 
 is equally opposed to the teaching of religion, and to the 
 progress of civilization. 
 
 There is, moreover, a mutual reciprocal effect uj)on 
 each other produced both by religion and Education. 
 And, probably, Education, according to its quality and 
 tendency in any particular case, produces quite as great 
 an influence upon religion, as religion, according also to 
 its quality and tendency, does upon Education. 
 
 Religious Influence is not only one of th5 most impor- 
 tant of the Elements of civilization, but it is one of the 
 most powerful, and exercises its sway in the most direct 
 manner, by raising man from the condition of a mere 
 animal and terrestrial, to that of an intelligent and im- 
 mortal being. It conduces, moreover, to the regulation 
 of. every part of his conduct, and forms the rule and 
 
Civilizing Influence of Christianity. 85 
 
 supplies tlie ultimate object by whicb all his actions are 
 controlled, and to which his highest aims are du^ected. I 
 may further observe tbat there is no nation whatsoever 
 either in ancient or modern times, that has reached a 
 high degree of civilization, which has not been to a large 
 extent influenced by religion also. On the other hand, all 
 those nations which have been the most barbarous, have 
 been in a corresponding manner signally wanting in the 
 exercise over them of religious influence. But if religion, 
 so falsified and corrupted and distorted as was that which 
 prevailed in Greece and Eome, — although it may not 
 unreasonably be surmised that even here the Almighty 
 deigned to permit some faint shadow of his attributes, 
 and of the duties which religion enjoins, to be cast among 
 these people, who had no dii-ect revelation made to them 
 of the true religion, — could work such wondrous effects, 
 and be regarded by their rulers as so important an element 
 for the regulation of the state ; how much more important 
 and influential must be the true religion itself, whose 
 principles are so pure, and whose teaching is so ennobling ! 
 If the mere rude semblance is so sublime, what must be 
 the glory of the real substance. 
 
 As the influence of each kind of religion is powerful 
 and civilizing according to its truth, so the influence of 
 the Christian religion, which alone is that which is wholly 
 true, is the best adapted to the exigencies of human nature, 
 and the most calculated to promote civilization. Even 
 among barbarians, the influence of religion, so far as it 
 has extended, has been all-potent ; and both among them 
 and civilized people, its indirect and unseen influence is 
 probably greater than that which is direct and open. 
 This of itself has been able to tame the fierce spirit of 
 savage tribes, to subdue the lawless passions of the most 
 untutored races, and to restrain the excesses of the 
 most rapacious. Among civilized people, religion has 
 ever commanded the regard and the veneration of the 
 
Sij National Ueligious Influence. 
 
 wisest. In the government of a nation, moreover, whether 
 rude or refined, the influence of religion has always been 
 found most powerful, and in this respect it has been ex- 
 tensively conducive to the promotion of civilization. It 
 alone has been able to control the actions of the body, by 
 ruling the impulses of the mind. It is able to still the 
 raging of the storm, by its power over the elements which 
 contributed to its excitement. 
 
 The two fundamental principles of religion are the 
 acknowledgment of the existence of a Supreme Being, 
 and the doing Him homage in the way deemed most 
 suitable. Where no revelation exists, reason alone must 
 di]'ect man, both as to the nature of the Supreme Being, 
 and the form best fitted for His worship. Where reve- 
 lation is afibrded, it may be presumed that it will instruct 
 man both as to the nature of the Being to be adored, 
 and the mode of worshipping Him most proper to be 
 followed. In all cases, reason should both test the 
 authority and the truth, and should also aid the inter- 
 pretation of revelation, which, without this process, de- 
 generates into superstition. 
 
 Eeligion, as regards its influence, might be distri- 
 buted into three different kinds or classes, corresponding 
 with the three different classes into which education 
 has been divided. As, for instance, intellectual religious 
 influence, or that which consists in the understanding 
 and the reason being thoroughly informed and convinced 
 in regard to its principles, which is, indeed, necessary 
 as a stable foundation for all real religious influence. 
 In the next place, moral religious influence is that 
 which is required, constituting indeed the influence of 
 religion over all questions of duty and action. And, in 
 the third place, this influence should not only regulate 
 our notions of social duty, bat it must be practically 
 applied and carried into the habits and occupations 
 of everyday life, corresponding with the mode in 
 
Different Kinds of Religious Influence. 87 
 
 which education should be made useful in our profes- 
 sional or other ordinary employments, as well as being 
 desii'able as an intellectual or mere ornamental acquire- 
 ment. Religious influence should control the actions and 
 the hearts of its votaries, and sway powerfully the current 
 of desire and determination. 
 
 In three distinct and independent modes, moreover 
 Religious Influence contributes to the civilization of a 
 nation, both as regards men individually and men in the 
 aggregate. The first of these is by raising the minds of 
 the people to a sense of their own natural dignity and 
 importance as immortal beings, and as allied to the great 
 Creator of all things. The effect of this influence is very 
 different from, and, indeed, directly opposite to pride and 
 vanity, which spring from tTie supposed individual supe- 
 riority of one man to another, and not from any opinion 
 as to the dignity of the whole race. The second of the 
 modes by which Religious Influence contributes to the 
 civilization of a people, is by instilling into their minds 
 the consciousness of a constant observer of all their 
 actions, to whom they are accountable for every deed. 
 And the third of those modes, is by the establishment of a 
 strict and unerring rule of the highest authority for the 
 direction of their conduct on all occasions, both as to 
 principle and practice. 
 
 As all law derives its authority from God, so is each 
 law dependent for its force and efficiency on the su23port 
 that it derives from the same source. Hence religion has 
 ever been seen to be most powerful and influential in 
 disposing men to submit to rule ; and, indeed, without the 
 aid of religion, it has been found imiDOSsible to govern 
 them. So far, indeed, has this been the case, that for 
 lack of a true religion, men have even invented false ones, 
 which inculcated belief in a superior over-ruling power, 
 and by which mankind have been controlled and kept in 
 order. 
 
88 JSahonal Uetigious Injiuence. 
 
 Another grand civilizing influence of religion, arises 
 from the tendency which it has to create an impression on 
 men's minds that virtue is desirable to be followed, and 
 will be productive of reward ; while vice is undesirable, 
 and will be productive of punishment. 
 
 Religion both elevates and inspires the soul. The 
 most magnificent works of art have been instigated by the 
 influence of religious fervour, and the noblest and sub- 
 limest ideas have been afforded by religious subjects. 
 Religion has, moreover, ever been the soul of poetry, 
 and of productions in each of the sister arts. The use 
 and influence of art in its turn to aid religion, as well as 
 to promote civilization, I shall advert to when treating of 
 the promotion of art as one of the Elements of the latter.* 
 The Christian religion is, indeed, and in many and 
 various ways, through the influence that it exerts, directly 
 conducive to civilization. The injunctions contained in 
 the Bible for the improvement of the mind by obtain- 
 ing knowledge, and for subjecting the lower and baser 
 influences of our nature to those which are higher and 
 purer, — the body to the soul, the passions and desires to 
 the intellectual and moral endowments, — directly each 
 contribute to the promotion of civilization. 
 
 As containing the purest and most perfect system of 
 ethics which has ever yet been framed, and which is, 
 moreover, fully adapted for practical guidance and con- 
 duct,, the moral influence of Christianity must necessarily 
 be very powerful and very extensive. If these precepts 
 fail in any respect, this is not from being at all defective 
 in themselves, but from their being too exalted and too 
 refined for human nature. Many human and even Heathen 
 systems appear in several respects practically more 
 efficient, because they were more implicitly followed ; 
 
 * See also on this subject The Theory of the Arts; or Art in rela- 
 tion to Nature, Civilization, and Man. By George Harris, F.S.A, 
 Vol. I., p. 110. Vol. II., p. 225. 
 
Civilizing Effect on Mankind. 89 
 
 whicli was froLi their being less refined and exalted, and 
 from the less sublime and extensive nature of their aim. Not 
 only the morals, but the manners and customs of every civil- 
 ized nation, are more or less influenced by the religion 
 embraced by that people. And not the general tone merely 
 but the dii-ection of each particular act is thus swayed. 
 
 Christianity has also a direct tendency to promote 
 civilization, from the manner in which it enjoins amicable 
 unity, and social communion, and good fellow'ship among 
 different people. It strives to join together, in one vast 
 community, or rather fraternity, the whole family of the 
 human race, and impels us to endeavour to disseminate 
 through the remotest regions of the world the blessings of 
 true religion. This principle, from which, indeed, springs 
 the very foundation of civilized society, Christianity 
 carries out further than does any moral or constitutional 
 code that has been established in any nation. While 
 science and intellect induce us to extend the pale of our 
 sympathies to all those of our race who are capable of 
 partaking of, or of aj)preciating our efforts in the cause of 
 learning or art ; Christianity leads us to extend it to all 
 who belong to the common race of mankind. And while 
 the former urge us from a feeling of connection, Christi- 
 anity constrains us from a principle of duty. In the pro- 
 motivjn of general benevolence among mankind, Christi- 
 anity has done much for civilization ; as also, in conjunction 
 with it, by the numerous charitable, educational, and 
 religious institutions which it has been the means of found- 
 ing. In this respect, the indirect influence of our religion, 
 independent of its direct effects, in promoting mutual 
 goodwill among the several members of society, both in 
 our own country and in foreign nations, by the exertions 
 which it calls forth to alleviate their wants, and to mi- 
 nister to their necessities and comforts of each kind, of 
 itself causes Christianity to have a powerful civilizing 
 influence over the whole world. No other religion has 
 
90 National Religious Influence. 
 
 produced this great efifect ; it alone has accomplislied it 
 perfectly. 
 
 So far as Eeligious Influence contributes to unite 
 together in amicable union the different members of a 
 state, it may be considered as aiding the efficiency of 
 Element IX. of civilization, that of Internal Communica- 
 tion. To some extent, it so far aids Element X. also, 
 which is that of International Intercoui'se. More espe- 
 cially in the case of colonies belonging to any state, how 
 important is it that the same principle of religion should 
 unite the two, which is the strongest bond of union that 
 they can possess, and the want of which must necessarily 
 occasion a tendency to separation. This has been pecu- 
 liarly evinced in the case of India, the conversion of 
 which to Christianity, we must now be convinced, alone 
 can closely connect it with this country, and the accom- 
 plishment of which is consequently most important, not 
 only as a matter of duty, but as a principle of state 
 policy. 
 
 It cannot, indeed, be doubted that the greatest conquests 
 over human nature which have ever been effected, and the 
 completeness of which is most fully evinced, as in the 
 case of other conquests, by the entire change in heart, and 
 habits, and customs, and conduct, which is produced, are 
 those which have been accomplished by the influence of 
 Christianity. Nations and individuals alike attest the 
 truth of this proposition. In fact, the world at large may 
 be appealed to for this purpose, in which the most extensive 
 moral revolutions that have ever been wrought, have been 
 effected through this medium alone. And the direct and 
 powerful tendency of religious influence to promote 
 civilization, is conclusively proved by the circumstance 
 that wherever, throughout the world, Christianity has 
 taken root, there civilization, imperfect indeed it may be, 
 has been at once established. Christianity is, indeed, as 
 it were, the moral sun by which alone the darkness of 
 
Immensity of Religious Influence. 91 
 
 ignorance and superstition has been effectually dispelled, 
 and from which the bright and genial beams of civilization 
 have been generally diffused. 
 
 One immense, and indeed incalculable advantage which 
 Christianity possesses as regards its influence, over all the 
 Pagan and Heathen systems, is, that those who are its 
 teachers, and who take the lead in its propagation and 
 ministration, sincerely believe in all that they teach and 
 inculcate, and are not imposing a belief upon others with 
 which they themselves are not impressed. Sincerity in 
 the advocates of religion is essential for its support. 
 Where this is wanting, neither energy nor vitality can be 
 found. According, therefore, in each sect, as the teachers 
 of religion are imbued with and evince sincerity, will be 
 the power with which their followers will be impressed. 
 If, however, Heathenism and Paganism have in some 
 instances appeared to exercise a more striking and more 
 extensive influence over the minds of their votaries than 
 Christianity has done ; this is not because Christianity is 
 in reality less influential than those systems, but because 
 the people of the present day possess less of Cliristianity, 
 than the people of past ages did of Paganism or Heathen- 
 ism. The laxity of Christians is not from any defect in 
 Christianity itself, but from their own defect as regards 
 the limited extent to which they are really endowed with 
 it. 
 
 The Pagan system of mythology had a civilizing effect, 
 especially as regards the intellectual and moral stimulus 
 which it excited, by raising up and placing ever before the 
 eyes of the people as models by which to regulate their 
 conduct, and as examples for imitation, their various 
 deities, who were the incorporations, as it were, of great 
 and noble qualities ; and also their various heroes exalted 
 into deities, who were regarded as so much god as to 
 command the general veneration of mankind, and as so 
 much man as to inspire each with tlie hope, as well as 
 
92 National Ueligious Influence. 
 
 the desire, of imitation. With resj^ect to the moral effect 
 produced by such a system, Christianity supplies us with 
 examples for imitation in the lives recorded in Holy Writ 
 of those good men whose actions are there set forth, and 
 whose humanity places them on a level with ourselves, 
 while principles of the loftiest and purest nature are pro- 
 mulgated with regard to our conduct : and the Deity 
 whom we ars taught to adore, is not only in His nature 
 far more sublime, and in His attributes far more perfect 
 than any of those of Pagan invention ; but to His loftier 
 and diviner qualities of omnipotence and omniscience, they 
 never even pretended to aspire. 
 
 In two important points, Paganism doubtless possessed 
 a great advantage over Christianity, as regards the direct 
 influence upon its votaries which it v/as capable of exer- 
 cising. In the first place, the personality which attached 
 to the objects of its adoration, stimulated the interest of 
 its worshippers. And in the next place, the material nature 
 of its associations gave vigour to theii* feelings with regard 
 to it. From the first of these circumstances, by investing all 
 its deities with personal human characters, the people were 
 induced to enter fully into its principles. From the other 
 of them, this religion was rendered comprehensible to every 
 understanding, and became the subject of sensation as well 
 as intellect. In the early ages of the world, the principle of 
 personality in the religion of the Almighty was supplied 
 by the frequent personal manifestations of Himself which 
 He was pleased to make, as when He appeared to and 
 held personal intercourse with Adam, and with Abraham, 
 and Moses, and many other of the ancient patriarchs and 
 prophets. This was also especially effected by the per- 
 sonal appearance among us upon earth of the Saviour of 
 mankind. In later ages, when these personal manifesta- 
 tions have altogether ceased, and the record of them only 
 remains to be referred to, and as the education of the 
 world, both religious and intellectual, has advanced and 
 
Personality and Materiality in Religion. 93 
 
 has grown more refined and elevated, religion itself be- 
 came more exalted and more spiritual. We are taught to 
 adore the Deity as an invisible being, and as a spirit ; and 
 the influence of the Holy 8j)irit is that by which we are 
 immediately aflected, and who is the Being with whom 
 alone we now hold dii-ect personal communication. Oi 
 either of the persons in the Trinity, w'e have no sensual 
 perception whatever. 
 
 The partiality of mankind towards materiality, even in 
 religion, and the innate proneness to materialize every 
 subject of whatever nature, which is, indeed, an inclina- 
 tion that developes itself in many other pursuits besides 
 religion, is exhibited by the people of every age and 
 country alike. It is this which has mainly conduced to 
 lead mankind to invest different deities with material 
 frames, who stand as the representatives of particular 
 qualities ; and which is also evinced in the tendency to 
 idolatry in their religious services which, from the earliest 
 ages of the world, all nations alike have uniformly dis- 
 played. Not only was a material character in early 
 times given to the Deity, whatever form of religion was in 
 vogue, as also to religion generally ; but His actions were 
 considered to be more of a material than a moral nature, 
 and with regard to the former character w^as their im- 
 portance discussed. And the disposition to introduce 
 personality into religion, was no less plainly exhibited by 
 the proneness alike to deify those renowned persons 
 whose qualities they admired, and also to personalize 
 the very deities whom they regarded as objects of adora- 
 tion. 
 
 In one particular mode it may, perhaps, be said that, in 
 later days, we are peculiarly prone both to personalize, 
 and also to materialize religion. And that is, that in 
 many cases we are disposed to pay to tbe ministers of 
 religion too much of that homage w^hich is due to the 
 Deity alone; and that we regard too much the edifice 
 
94 National Religious Infiuence. 
 
 erected for its celebration, instead of the celebration it- 
 self. To some extent, indeed, both the personality and 
 the materiality which have been arbitrarily by man 
 attached to religion, may appear to be sanctioned, or 
 rather, permitted by God, in compassion to the infirmity 
 of our nature. Thus, in the reverence enjoined to the 
 priests and proj)hets under the Jewish dispensation, a 
 certain degree of personality was introduced and allowed ; 
 while in the importance attached to the material structure 
 of the Temple at Jerusalem, and the figures and orna- 
 ments carved upon it, and the adoration enjoined to the 
 Brazen Serpent, which was a material type of the only 
 true object of adoration, materiality in religious service 
 and its objects was also sanctioned. On the other hand, 
 the carrying to too great an extent, and the abuse of both 
 these principles, was especially guarded against, and 
 balanced and counteracted, by the promulgation of the 
 first and second commandment in the Law given by 
 Moses on Mount Sinai. 
 
 In proportion as religion is less personal, and is defi- 
 cient as regards its hold on the popular mind by not 
 affecting the senses, should the evidences afforded of its 
 truth, and which the people should be taught during its 
 inculcation, be more striking and convincing, and which 
 may serve to counterbalance its want of influence in other 
 respects. Thus, while the evidence obtained through the 
 senses, such as that of miracles, and the personal appear- 
 ance of the Deity and of angels, is less strong than what 
 was formerly supplied to mankind ; that afforded by the 
 reason, from reflecting on these miracles and appearances, 
 is more influential, inasmuch and in proportion as the 
 reason is a far more exalted endowment than are the 
 senses. 
 
 It may perhaps, however, be urged against the popular 
 teaching of the evidences of religion, that it is best not to 
 disturb the absolute and unhesitating acquiescence which 
 
Instruction in Evidences of Religion. 95 
 
 persons in general naturally possess in the truth of reli- 
 gion through their education, and without even a suspicion 
 that it may not be unimpeachable. Bat in this case, 
 their religion is based rather upon prejudice than upon 
 conviction; on ignorance more than on knowledge. Al- 
 though the foundation may serve very well so long as fine 
 weather lasts ; yet, directly that a storm arises, of which 
 many are hovering around, it must inevitably give way. 
 It is surely, therefore, expedient to blend with the teach- 
 ing of the principles of religion, the evidence of its truth. 
 And while inculcating its doctrines, we ought, doubtless, 
 to fortify the mind against the attacks of infidelity. 
 Moreover, pretty exactly in proportion to the strength of 
 our conviction of the truth of religion, will be the extent 
 of its influence over the mind. 
 
 Religion and philosophy should, moreover, not merely 
 both be cultivated, but should be cultivated together, and 
 should confirm, and invigorate, and improve each other. 
 Religion should correct and soften philosophy, and philo- 
 sophy should regulate and strengthen religion. Thus 
 religion should be rendered rational, conformably with* 
 reason ; and philosophy should be made humane, conform- 
 ably with religion. 
 
 Not only does it appear expedient for aiding the in- 
 fluence of religion, but also reasonable in itself, that 
 religion should be celebrated with a due degree of cere- 
 mony and even pomp. It is this which affects the multi- 
 tude; and though it may be through their frailty that 
 they are thus moved instead of by more important matters, 
 yet it is owing to their natural constitution that this is 
 the case. And further than this, in the ceremonial for the 
 administration of religious rites framed by God himself, 
 and ordained for His chosen people, — whose religious 
 influence and civilization were immediately superintended 
 by the Almighty, — a large measure of this pomp was not 
 only permitted, but expressly commanded: a concession, 
 
96 National Religious Influence. 
 
 it may have been, to human infirmity. Even in heaven 
 also, according to the description contained in the Apo- 
 calypse, great pomp attends each exercise of worship. 
 Nevertheless, it is an important point to be kept in view 
 in the ordering of religious ceremonies, that they do not 
 detract from more essential matters, but, on the contrary, 
 aid their observance, and add effect to their celebration. 
 
 Indeed, the danger to be apprehended in a religious 
 service which is conducted with an extensive degree of 
 gorgeous ceremony, is that the attention and feeling of the 
 congregation will be drawn off from the service itself to 
 the ceremony with which it is celebrated, — from that 
 which constitutes the worship of God, to that which is 
 intended for the stimulation of man. And this is the 
 case alike, whether the service be scenic, or the sermon 
 sensational. 
 
 Public worship appears to consist of the four following 
 principal essentials or acts. 1. Piecognition and adora- 
 tion of the Supreme Being. 2. Prayer to Him for bene- 
 fits desired. 3. Thanksgiving for benefits received. 4. 
 .Penitence for pardon of sins committed. Every liturgy 
 or religious service, for whatever body of Christians or 
 religionists intended, should embrace these requisites. 
 As regards the principles on which the conduct of church 
 services, and the composition of a liturgy ought to be 
 framed, such services should be at once sober and interest- 
 ing, calculated alike to stimulate devotion, and to be in 
 themselves agreeable. They should be sufficiently ample 
 to afford full opportunity for expressing all that is need- 
 ful on such an occasion, and yet not so long as to pro- 
 duce weariness, or detract from the vigour with which 
 they ought to be carried on. While nothing of value 
 should be omitted, repetition, where unnecessary, should 
 be carefully avoided, and the whole should be regular 
 without being constrained. The liturgy which is used 
 should combine all that is req^uired alike of prayer, 
 
Requirements of Religious Services. 97 
 
 humiliation, and praise. Instruction should be also 
 blended with these services, particularly from the inspired 
 volume on which our faith rests. The sermons, or other 
 instructorial addresses accompanying the services, should 
 serve to aid rather than to incumber them. And in their 
 nature they should be fervent and striking, but not theatri- 
 cal or sensational; interesting and instructive, but not 
 merely entertaining. 
 
 Nevertheless, although our worship is Divine, our mode 
 of conducting it is human. Our aim should ever be to 
 render our adoration suitable to, if not worthy of the 
 Being to whom it is paid. Our utmost efforts here will 
 necessarily fall far short of rendering it becoming for such 
 a purpose. All due dignity and decorum should surely 
 be resorted to on occasions so sublime and so solemn. 
 
 Moreover, according to the magnificence with which we 
 erect temples devoted to the worship of the Almighty, 
 will the importance of this worship be judged of by the 
 multitude ; and the cost bestowed upon our religious cele- 
 brations, will afford them a sui-e proof of the value we 
 attach to the faith which we profess. If we ourselves seem 
 to sacrifice nothing to religion, we cannot expect others to 
 give up much to follow our precepts. 
 
 The character of the structure devoted to public wor- 
 ship, may also produce an important moral effect upon the 
 worshippers within its walls. A church should not only 
 be of a different nature to ordinary buildings, but should 
 exceed them both in its extent and its dignity, as the 
 piu-poses for which it is used are superior to those of com- 
 mon dwellings. The antiquity of the pile may contribute 
 to remind us of the lasting nature of the religion to 
 which it is consecrated, and of the veneration paid to it by 
 the people of past ages as well as by those of the present. 
 Its solidity may lead us to reflect on the eternity of that 
 religion, and its splendour upon its importance. So also 
 may the grandeur and beauty of the edifice itself serve to 
 
98 National Beligious Influence. 
 
 typify tlie solemnity and purity of the religion to which it 
 is devoted. 
 
 As in this place we have to consider rather the influence 
 upon mankind of religion than its actual essence, the due 
 and legitimate pomp and ceremony attendant upon its 
 celebration must necessarily be taken into full account. 
 It is by this mainly that the multitude are affected. 
 
 In conjunction with religion, it is essential that morality 
 also should be inculcated ; for although morality may be 
 unstable which is not built upon religion, yet that religion 
 can possess but little influence or genuineness which is 
 not supported by morality. 
 
 But it may be said that some of the most highly 
 civilized men, and bodies of men, are wholly, or at any 
 rate to a large extent, destitute of religion ; and that if 
 this is the case, its influence cannot be essential or even 
 very important in the civilization of a nation. In these 
 cases, however, although the practice of religion may have 
 been abandoned, the influence of many of its most striking 
 precepts, and of its moral obligations, is still retained and 
 acted upon : and civilization is here existent, not, indeed, 
 because Religious Influence is not an Element in its consti- 
 tution ; but civilization exists in such a case only imper- 
 fectly, because it is wanting in this Element, except so far 
 as any of it remains as one of its ingredients. On the 
 other hand, no instance is on record of a highly civilized 
 nation or individual who has never adopted any religion 
 at all. Where they have once embraced, but have after- 
 wards wholly or partially renounced or neglected it, of 
 which instances are not infrequent, much of the influence 
 that religion is calculated to produce would continue to 
 operate long after its abandonment. 
 
 Having now examined generally the nature of Religious 
 Influence as it affects a nation at large, more especially in 
 the promotion of civilization, and the extent to which it is 
 exercised ; the next question is, how ought this influence 
 
Ueligious duty of the State. 99 
 
 to be extended and secured, and what is tlie duty here of 
 the state? How is Religious Influence, which is by all 
 persons of intelligence, and by all the most civilized 
 nations, acknowledged to be so important, so essential, 
 nay, so paramount an Element in the civilization of a state, 
 to be duly availed of so as to render it of the utmost value, 
 and to turn it to the fullest account ? 
 
 The state is bound alike by duty and by interest to pro- 
 vide for the dissemination of this influence throughout the 
 nation, which can only be effectually secured by the aid of 
 appointed teachers for the purpose, who, as in the case 
 of the instructors in education, should be so far placed 
 under the regulation of the state as to ensure duly quali- 
 fied persons only attaining to this office. In most civilized 
 states, Institutions have been established for the supply 
 and support of teachers of this description ; and to the 
 consideration of Institutions of this class, which form a 
 separate Element of themselves, our attention will pre- 
 sently be directed, when their necessity will be pointed 
 out. As regards such Institutions, I need here only 
 observe, that it is the duty of the state to protect and 
 maintain them, on all occasions, in all their integrity, and 
 also to adopt such measures for their regulation as may 
 appear to be desirable for rendering them as efficient as 
 possible. It is not, nevertheless, by any means, the duty 
 of the state to interpose as regards the particular mode in 
 which Religious Influence shall be disseminated through 
 such an institution, which often suffers essentially, and i\\e 
 operation of *its machinery is disordered, by such inter- 
 ference. 
 
 In the first place, however, it is the duty cf the state 
 and is, indeed, a necessary initiatory and preparatory 
 ■step to what has already been considered, to render to 
 religion on all suitable occasions its due share of honour 
 and reverence, and to acknowledge its importance both in 
 public and private transactions. Religion may also fairly 
 
100 National Beligious Influence. 
 
 claim to be protected by the government, so far as re- 
 gards securing it against common obloquy. A re- 
 verential respect to religion by the state, is but the just 
 rendering to it of the tribute which is its due by right. 
 It is surely fitting that the Governor of all things should 
 receive proper homage from the government that He 
 supports ; that the fountain of all authority should be 
 acknowledged by the authorities of a state ; and that the 
 only source of all power should be honoured by the' 
 powers which are but the delegates of His sway. More- 
 over, as all rule and all authority originate in obedience 
 to God, so to the promotion of this duty ought all rule and 
 all authority in every state alike to contribute its efforts, 
 and to consider it as among its paramount requirements. 
 
 By two modes, more especially, may the state legiti- 
 mately and constitutionally interfere with respect to the 
 support of religion, and the extension of its influence. 
 1. By publicly maintaining and enforcing the regard and 
 veneration which are due to religion. 2. By endeavouring 
 to promote generally an attachment towards it. For the 
 furtherance of each of these ends, measures, both positive 
 and negative, may be resorted to. The proper conduct for 
 rulers with regard to the first of the modes referred to, 
 is plain and obvious, and on them it depends mainly 
 whether this principle shall be observed ; and here the 
 duty is directly positive. The second of these modes is 
 perhaps chiefly to be effected, so far as the interference of 
 the state can avail, by negative means ; by rei:)ressing and 
 punishing every attempt to throw odinm or ridicule 
 upon religion, or upon the institutions or officers con- 
 nected with it. 
 
 The duty of the state as regards the protection of 
 religion from undeserved censure and obloquy, the degree 
 of licence to be allowed in tlie controverting any of its 
 tenets, and the propriety of i^unisliing direct attacks and 
 aspersions upon religion, will be more particularly con- 
 
State protection of Religiono 101 
 
 sidered while discussing the Element which embraces the 
 subject of Toleration.* As regards the principle on 
 which this duty rests, the aim of the state should be to 
 maintain the jDroper dignity of religion, and also to 
 secure it from undue aspersion. A deep reverence 
 towards it is all-essential for the very existence ol 
 religion ; and a due respect and regard for it are necessary 
 to ensure both its observance and its possession of any 
 influence whatever over its votaries. Whatever, therefore, 
 is calculated to detract from its position in this respect, is 
 fatal to the character, and consequently to the influence 
 of religion, although in reference to a private individual 
 such an attack upon his character may fall quite harmless. 
 Nevertheless, in the case of religion, an essential dis- 
 tinction should ever be made between the ridicule oi 
 religion itself, and the ridicule of its corruptions, or ol 
 false pretences or pretenders to it, which, though 
 avowedly and apparently a part of it, are in reality its 
 most inimical parasites. A great difficulty frequently 
 here arises, both in legislation and in the administration 
 of justice. Thus, many superstitious customs appertain- 
 ing to religious ordinances might be satirized with advan- 
 tage to religion, provided that in doing so you could 
 avoid satirizing religion also. But unless this can be 
 effected, you will often be obliged to spare the parasitical 
 plant, for the sake of the tree to which it clings. Noth- 
 ing is so injurious to religious influence, and, indeed, to 
 religion generally, as a discordance and opposition of 
 sentiment between its different teachers. This cieates 
 suspicion, and shakes all confidence, as regards the truth 
 of its principles. The remedy for this evil will be con- 
 sidered when treating on the National Institutions for 
 the support of religion and education, which contribute to 
 form Element III. It is, moreover, of the very highest 
 importance for the influence and interest of religion, that 
 
 * Element V. 
 
102 National Beligious Influence, 
 
 its professors slioiild not only evince sincerity in their 
 minds, but should be also correct and consistent in the 
 conduct of their lives. 
 
 In order to promote and advance the due and legiti- 
 mate influence which religion ought to possess in every 
 state, — and in doing which the authority of the state may 
 doubtless be constitutionally employed, — care should be 
 taken that, on the one hand, religion be rendered as little 
 repulsive, and that on the other hand it be rendered as 
 attractive, as possible ; and this both as regards the ex- 
 planation of its general principles, and the celebration 
 of its outward ordinances. Thus, all unnecessary austerity 
 and severity in its doctrines, and all needless prolixity 
 and repulsiveness in its services, ought alike to be 
 avoided. On the contrary, these should be made as im- 
 l^ressive and as agreeable as can be contrived, without, 
 on the one hand, sacrificing anything to truth, or on the 
 other hand, doing anything that may tend to lower its 
 dignity and importance, so as to lessen its influence upon 
 the national mind. In the public services of religion, 
 whatever is needlessly irksome should be carefully ex- 
 cluded, inasmuch as this tends to weaken its influence, 
 both by deterring people from attending them, and by 
 exciting a feeling of aversion or apathy in the minds of 
 those who do attend. On the other hand, by rendering 
 them attractive, you both increase the attendance, and 
 render that attendance a matter of delight ; and whatever 
 is pleasing is necessarily, and indeed naturally, influential. 
 Sermons, tedious and commonplace, are, especially on this 
 account, to be avoided ; while music, conducted with due 
 dignity and devotion, is peculiarly suitable as an aid and 
 accompaniment. The style of the sacred Scriptures 
 affords, indeed, the most perfect model for the regulation 
 of sacred services. Here the loftiest strains of poetry 
 and the finest passages of eloquence are interspersed with 
 examples of the noblest nature, and accompanied by 
 
Bepulsiveness in Religious Services. 103 
 
 precepts of the purest kind. Information of the highest 
 interest is contained in its pages, and the sublimest 
 notions are instilled into the mind concerning both 
 religion itself and its Divine Author. Hence arises the 
 impression produced upon those who duly study its 
 Divine revelations, with which the National Influence of 
 Religion, resulting conjointly from its appointed services 
 and its efficient teaching, should closely correspond. 
 
 III.— NATIONAL INSTRUCTORY INSTITUTIONS. 
 
 The important Elements in the promotion of Civiliza- 
 tion, which fall under the denomination of Education, 
 and Religious Influence, having now been examined, 
 it will be proper, next in order, to consider as the third 
 Element of Civilization, those peculiar Institutions 
 belonging to a nation, which are requisite for the support 
 and furtherance, more especially, of the foregoing Ele- 
 ments, as also of. civilization generally, and which con- 
 stitute of themselves quite a distinct Element of civiliza- 
 tion, wholly independent of the two already considered, 
 with which they are connected. Both Education and 
 Religious Influence may, indeed, be inculcated, and be 
 to a certain extent existent in any country, in the absence 
 of the Institutions most efficient to promote them ; be- 
 sides which, these Institutions serve ix> promote Civiliza- 
 tion in many other ways beyond those in which they are 
 directly intended to effect it. 
 
 It is very desirable, but, at the same, very difficult to 
 decide, precisely and satisfactorily, what Institutions of 
 this class ought to be considered as national, and which 
 of them should be left to private patronage. Some of 
 them are, doubtless, best adapted for, and thrive the most 
 under public, and some under private patronage ; while 
 certain of them may require a share of this support of 
 
104 National Instrudory Institutions, 
 
 both kinds. As regards the general principle which 
 ouglit mainly to determine whether an Institution for the 
 purposes here mentioned should be maintained by the 
 state, or left to private patronage, it may be laid down as 
 a rule that, when an Institution is of public national im- 
 portance, affecting the whole body of the community, and 
 where its proper regulation is of that general consequence 
 to the country that it calls for state interference, such an 
 Institution ought to be placed under the control of the 
 state, and ought to be supported by the nation. When, 
 however. Institutions, although directly conducive to 
 civilization, have for their immediate object some end 
 of mere partial interest, they have no claim to such 
 benefit, nor is there any occasion for placing them under 
 such restraint. 
 
 National Institutions should, moreover, be so far 
 national as that the nation at large is benefited by their 
 existence, although each individual in the state may not' 
 directly participate in that benefit. He may profit never- 
 theless, indirectly, by the advantage derived therefrom by 
 the state of which he is a member. Conferring a national 
 benefit entitles an Institution of right to national protec- 
 tion and national support. And receiving national pro- 
 tection and support, subjects an Institution to the control 
 and regulation of the state. 
 
 A perfect state sliould by its Institutions aim rightly 
 to influence the miiAl, and disposition, and conduct of its 
 membei^ ; and here the concerns of eternity are surely 
 entitled to an equal consideration with those of time. 
 But it may be said that the concerns of eternity affect not ■ 
 the state, which is merely a temporal establishment for 
 temporal purposes. This, is, however, an erroneous view, 
 inasmuch as those who are the best men make the best 
 citizens ; and the best men are those whose actions are 
 guided by religion. Not only, indeed, are men in the 
 aggregate, as well as man individually, influenced by 
 
Adaj)tation of National Institutions. 105 
 
 religion ; but, as regards its external effect and operation, 
 religion is probably even more influential upon men than 
 it is upon man. 
 
 Two grand principles ougbt to be kept constantly in 
 view with regard both to the constitution and the 
 operation of National Institutions of the class here 
 described. The one is, to render them as efficient as 
 possible for the promotion of civilization. The other is, 
 to render them also as generally available, and as 
 extensively useful as possible, to the community at large. 
 In the management of Institutions of this character, we 
 must, moreover, be careful so to direct their adaptation, 
 lest, as in the case of some medicines administered for 
 the cure of certain bodily ailments, while they cure one 
 malady, they create another in its place. So with regard 
 to National Institutions of different kinds, certain of these, 
 while they promote learning, they also produce pedantry ; 
 while they preserve the correct rules of art, they also 
 prevent original effort ; while they encourage talent to a 
 considerable extent, they also damp real genius. The 
 provision of an efficient counteracting remedy in these 
 cases, is sometimes as important as the carrying out of 
 the original design of the Institution ; and without the 
 former, the operation of the latter will fail to be 
 satisfactory. In addition to this, the change in the 
 character of the times necessarily caused by the growth of 
 a nation, and more especially its advancement in civiliza- 
 tion, must render necessary many changes both in the 
 constitution and management of its Instructorial Insti- 
 tutions. As well might we consider the regulations 
 adopted for the government of a child proper to guide the 
 conduct of a grown-up man, as the laws and regulations of 
 a barbarous age fitted for one of an advanced period in 
 civilization. At the same time, in reforming these 
 Institutions, the object should be, not to alter their 
 original constitution, but in reality to prevent its being 
 
 i' 
 
 
106 National Instructor y Institutions. 
 
 altered through circumstances, by adapting it as perfectly 
 to the new state of things as it was to the old. 
 
 The most important element, therefore, in the civiliza- 
 tion of a state, next to the education of its members, and 
 the promotion of religious influence among them, is the 
 establishment of National Institutions of the class here 
 described, the object of which is to inculcate instruction 
 of different kinds. These Institutions, correspondingly 
 with education itself, are in their nature and objects, either 
 mental, moral, or manual. Mental, are those whose 
 object is to promote the intellectual cultivation and 
 advancement of the persons who are connected with them. 
 Moral, those whose object is to further the moral and 
 religious instruction of their members. Manual, such as 
 are adapted to afford manual or professional employment 
 to those belonging to them. Of the different National 
 Institutions which conduce directly either to produce or 
 to promote civilization, some may, accordingly, be classed 
 as entirely and solely mental, or which contribute to 
 promote learning and intellectual pursuits among the 
 people, such as Museums, and Royal Academies of Art. 
 Others may be classed as entirely and solely moral, such 
 as Church Establishments, and Religious Societies. Many 
 institutions are, however, partly mental and partly moral, 
 and some of them partly manual also, such as Universities, 
 Libraries, and Schools. All these Institutions conduce 
 more or less, either directly or indirectly, in some way or 
 other, to the production or promotion of civilization ; and 
 although those which may be termed mental contribute 
 most directly to this end, yet those also which are moral 
 have an important effect here, and operate largely upon 
 the national feeling and the national mind. 
 
 The National Institutions of a country connected with 
 civilization, may be comprised under the four following 
 heads : — 1. A Church Establishment, which is entirely 
 moral in its direct object. 2. Universities, Libraries, and 
 
A Church Establishment, 107 
 
 Scholastic Institutions, wliicli are partly mental, partly 
 moral, and to some extent manual also. 3. Galleries of 
 Art, and Museums, wliicli are entirely mental. 4. National 
 Spectacular and Theatrical Institutions, which are both 
 mental and moral. 
 
 I. If education, especially of a moral kind, is entitled 
 to be considered a matter of national importance ; an 
 Institution, such as the Church, which is j)eculiarly 
 adapted to promote it, and to inculcate that branch of 
 moral education which is the most efficient, must surely be 
 deemed to be of the highest benefit, independent of the 
 divine origin of such an institution, the consideration 
 of which is necessarily without the province of the present 
 work. Its most direct and important object, however, is 
 to aid and support the furtherance of religious influence, 
 which has already been considered as a separate Element 
 of civilization. The end of Church Establishments in 
 any nation, and whatever religion is professed, is to 
 instruct mankind in the knowledge of the Supreme Being, 
 and to point out the mode of worshipping Him most 
 proper to be followed, to regulate this mode, and to 
 provide an order of men expressly for this purpose. 
 Viewed, nevertheless, merely as a National Institution for 
 the advancement of civilization, the Church is one of the 
 most efficient that could have been devised for this end. 
 Its influence is not only extended throughout the laiid, 
 but in every parish it is jilanted ; and in its ministers, 
 men of learning, virtue, and energy are stationed in each 
 district, whose lives are devoted to promote its ends, and 
 who, both b}' their education and their example, exercise 
 an influence alike powerful and beneficent, in favour of 
 civilization. On the other hand, as each member or 
 officer of this Institution is under the control of some 
 superior, and the wdiole body under one head, it acts with 
 vigour and unanimity. Being established and recognized 
 as a National Institution, it acquires a due importance as 
 
108 National Instruct ory Institutions. 
 
 such, and testifies tlie national respect paid to religion by 
 the state. 
 
 Nor are the indirect influences exercised by the esta- 
 blishment of this Institution less beneficial or extensive 
 than those which are direct. The important moral effects 
 which are produced by the inhabitants of each place 
 assembling weekly together for the purpose of public 
 worship, independent of the religious duty of such an 
 observance, ought not to be lost sight of. The public and 
 national recognition of a Supreme Being, a moral Governor 
 of the universe, to whom everything is owing, and who 
 rules over all, is moreover most influential in its moral 
 results. The solemn nature of the services which are 
 celebrated in these temples to the Creator ; the example 
 afforded to join in those services, and the lessons inculcated 
 on such occasions, are all highly adapted to produce 
 effects of the utmost importance as regards the moral 
 improvement and civilization of a nation. 
 
 Indeed, the very congregating together for sacred 
 purposes, on solemn days set apart, of the whole inhabi- 
 tants of a district, whereby opportunities are afforded of 
 reminding them not only of their immortality but of their 
 mortality, by observing the increasing decay of nature, 
 and the sure progress of death among their contemporaries ; 
 where each successive assembly presents to us the grey 
 hairs and gradually enfeebling form of the aged, until laid 
 within the precincts of the edifice, rendered yet more 
 sacred as containing the remains of those who for successive 
 generations preceded us in assembling here, whose me- 
 mentoes surround us, and whom we soon must follow to 
 their last home ; the exhibition on these occasions of the 
 constant changes in nature from youth to age, from health 
 to sickness, from old-age and from youth alike to death ; 
 the religious services connected with those changes ; and 
 the associations recalled by each of these events; are 
 calculated to produce effects on the minds of each, and 
 
Corrective Elements. 109 
 
 on the people at large, which are at once highly moral 
 and extensively civilizing. 
 
 But however desirable it may be that our youth should 
 be instructed in the j)rinciples of the Church, and 
 although it is essential that they should be taught the 
 doctrines of religion ; yet the Elements of Education, of 
 Religious Influence, and of National Institutions, ought 
 to be kept distinct and independent, each of these Ele- 
 ments being allowed to exercise its proper influence, but 
 being at the same time restrained to exerting itself 
 within its legitimate sphere. Each of these Elements 
 should also be corrective of, but without creating any 
 confusion with regard to the other. And it is more 
 especially as a corrective authority that the efforts of the 
 Church are most valuable in repressing error, and in 
 conflicting heretical opinions. 
 
 All institutions are, however, alike liable to become 
 corrupt and to decay, or to be perverted as to their end 
 and object, the origin of which may be traced to the 
 constitution of human nature, rather than to any particular 
 defect or bias in the institutions themselves. Thus, 
 fanaticism, intolerance, and superstition are clearly not 
 confined to either Papists or Protestants ; nor are bigotry, 
 corruption, or tyranny the exclusive vices of one poli- 
 tical party beyond another. But as each religious or 
 political party supplants the other, and obtains the 
 opportunity for displaying its inherent failings in this 
 manner, it hesitates not to do so, however loudly it had 
 inveighed against that which it has overcome, for so 
 acting, and by exposing whose misdoings in this respect 
 its triumph over it may have been mainly accomplished. 
 
 Hence has arisen the necessity for, and the introduc- 
 tion of certain strict rules and specific forms and obser- 
 vances in the Church, by which its ministers and members 
 are alike required to be bound, and by which alone abuses 
 and corruptions of the nature referred to, can be avoided ; 
 
110 National Instructor y Institutions. 
 
 and its officers are tlius not only prevented from being 
 affected by tlie changing spirit of the day, but all belong- 
 ing to the establishment are also secured against this 
 evil. 
 
 Regulations of this description are essential to preserve 
 such an institution from fanaticism and superstition on 
 the one hand, and from formalism and rationalism on the 
 other ; as our constitutional code is in like manner effi- 
 cient to protect the subject on the one hand against 
 tyranny and arbitrary power, and on the other hand to 
 protect the state when in danger of lawless attack or 
 restless innovation. 
 
 It would be very erroneous, and wholly contrary to 
 experience, to assert that the benefits of such an institution 
 as the National Church, so far as regards the promotion 
 of civilization, have been confined solely to those indi- 
 viduals who are actual members of the establishment. 
 Although the latter alone may appear to be directly 
 benefited, yet all persons in the state, more or less, 
 indirectly, reap advantage, and that to an extensive degree, 
 both by the benefits which it confers on the state in the 
 promotion of civilization, and from the manner in which, 
 also, many individuals with whom they are closely con- 
 nected and who are members of it, are immediately bene- 
 fited, and by whose advancement in civilization the 
 former gain. How different, indeed, would be the general 
 condition of civilization in this country, supposing that 
 no such institution as the Church existed ! 
 
 Considering, however, the Church as a grand National 
 Institution, the object of which is to benefit all classes 
 and parties alike, it does appear most desirable in every 
 way to extend to the utmost its sphere of utility and 
 operations, by enlarging the basis upon which it is 
 founded, and thereby, instead of endangering its existence, 
 securing its permanence. However necessary may be 
 the introduction of certain specific forms and articles 
 
Extension ofhasis of Church. Ill 
 
 of belief and doctrine in an institution of this kind, yet 
 the inutility, nay, absolute futility of strict tests, em- 
 bracing a wide range of minute and abstruse doctrinal 
 points, and of matters of credence and opinion, has long 
 been evinced by the conduct of many who subscribe to 
 them, but who hesitate not to break through these tram- 
 mels, whenever they possess a predilection for any par- 
 ticular tenets to which these tests are opposed. Tests 
 are mainly efficient to serve as scarecrows to men of 
 conscience. The bold and unscrupulous soon learn to 
 pass them unheeded, and to treat them with familiarity 
 and derision. Tests are like fetters made of flowers, 
 which, though quite strong enough to bind the willing 
 captive, are wholly unavailing to chain those who desire 
 liberty. Thus, while the virtuous are kept out of 
 office by them, the bad obtain a ready admission. Tests 
 and restrictive laws conduce moreover, beyond anything, 
 to perpetuate and keep up party distinctions, and often 
 serve for this purpose long after the principle which 
 afforded vitality to the latter has been abandoned or 
 forgotten. And exactly in j)roportion as any particular 
 theological system is precise and complicated as regards 
 the principles which it enjoins ; in an inverse ratio ought 
 the declaratory stipulations which its members make for 
 their observance, to be comprehensive and liberal. It 
 may possibly be impractical in any Ecclesiastical Estab- 
 lishment to dispense v/ith all rule as to the conduct of 
 religious services, and with all tests as to the opinions 
 of its members. But the less of these impositions and 
 restraints there are, not only the greater is the liberty 
 of their members, but their divisions are less, and their 
 principle of comprehension is more extensive. The 
 general conduct of mankind, which is the most important 
 of all matters, is regulated by no specific laws at all, 
 beyond their own conscience and good sense. 
 
 As among political and commercial bodies, a certain 
 
112 National Instructor y InstLutions. 
 
 degree of rivalry, when amicably conducted, is good in 
 itself, and conduces to a wholesome stimulus to activity 
 in each ; so is it also among religious bodies, each of 
 which is alike intent on the same ultimate object, the 
 worship of God in the mode which, to that particular 
 party, appears the most appropriate. This rivaby 
 however becomes pernicious when it degenerates into 
 actual hostility. But there is in reality no more 
 necessity for such a result, than that rival nations should 
 be always at war, or that rival men in the same profession 
 should be ever in hostility. Moreover, religion, one of 
 the leading principles of which is the inculcation of good 
 will between man and man, ought least of all to set the 
 example of ill-feeling and animosity. Nevertheless, as 
 among states, civil war is always that which is the most 
 pernicious, so among Christians the evil that is done to 
 the common cause of Christianity, the welfare of which. 
 each Christian professes to be desirous of promoting, 
 by the contention of Christian sects, and the aspersions 
 which they cast one on the other, is in reality far greater 
 than all the combined efforts against Christianity of 
 infidelity and heathenism. 
 
 If among states a universal peace is hailed as a cause of 
 general rejoicing, and is indeed one of the sublimest ends 
 which Christianity shall eventually accomplish ; how much 
 more desirable and how much more noble will be the 
 attainment of a universal peace among Christian com- 
 munities tliemselves. 
 
 The extraordinary mode in which various bodies of 
 Dissenters are now in the habit of systematically assimi- 
 lating both the structures of their sacred edifices, and the 
 form of their worship to those of the established church, 
 may be regarded as indicative of an instinctive desire for 
 union ; which is also furtlier evinced by the proneness of 
 many clergy of the establishment to coi)y both Eoman 
 Catholics and Dissenters (according to their respective 
 
Rival religious Bodies. 113 
 
 tendencies) in tlieir ordinances and manner of celebrating 
 religious services. Indeed the main and leading differences 
 at the present time are not those of doctrine, which how- 
 ever alone are essential, but those merely of ceremony 
 and form of government, which are unessential, and admit 
 of easy compromise. 
 
 More especially is it remarkable to observe how 
 eagerly certain bodies of dissenters are following 
 the members of the church, and of that party in it 
 the furthest removed from dissent, not only in the 
 structure and the architectural decorations bestowed 
 on their buildings, but in the introduction of choral 
 services and other devices to make their worship at- 
 tractive, as also in the desire to have a liturgical form 
 of worship. On the other hand, certain members of the 
 church make every attempt to render their buildings 
 as much as possible like dissenting chapels, and to have 
 the service as plain as possible, in the style ordinarily 
 adopted by dissenters, with the introduction of extem- 
 porary prayer and extemporary preaching. If the indi- 
 viduals belonging to these opposite and long contending 
 interests thus desire to conjoin and to amalgamate ; surely 
 the state should evince a corresponding spirit of concilia- 
 tion, and second the proffers of union thus voluntarily and 
 decidedly held out. 
 
 Where different bodies agree in fundamental j^rinciples, 
 disagreement on minor and immaterial points ought not 
 to operate as an insuperable bond of union. Moreover, 
 if rival states, instead of waging war one with another, 
 can consent to settle their differences by arbitrations and 
 congresses ; doubtless rival bodies in religion, who ought 
 to be rivals in reality only as regards the desire of each 
 to follow the course most ef6.cient for the spread of Christ- 
 ianity, should be at least correspondingly willing to refer 
 their nonessential points of disagreement to a congress 
 representing fairly the opinions of each section, and to 
 
 I 
 
114 National Instrudory Institutions. 
 
 be united in one common bond of fraternity by the arbi- 
 tration to be by this means effected. On this ground, 
 a general union of Christians generally, ought surely to be 
 no difficult task to accomplish ; and the value of it in 
 enabling those who thus enter into fellowship, to resist 
 the attacks of infidelity, which their disunion and mutual 
 aggressions do more than anything to favour, ought 
 far to outweigh the petty obstacles, arising from the 
 selfish desire of some to follow a different discipline to 
 what others prefer. As in every society, and indeed in every 
 family, freedom and diversity of opinion on minor matters 
 must be allowed to each member, but which need not at 
 all interfere with the friendliness and desire for co-opera- 
 tion which characterize the whole body ; so in a union 
 into one church of a body of Christians of different denomi- 
 nations, liberty must necessarily be allowed as to minor 
 matters of opinion, and practice, and discipline, while 
 the fundamental principles on which their faith is 
 established, are acknowledged and followed by all 
 alike. 
 
 When the preliminaries of peace are signed, there is 
 great hope that peace itself will shortly be established, 
 inasmuch as all the main points deemed essential for 
 its consummation are agreed upon. So among chui-ches, 
 if the leading points of doctrine form no obstacle to 
 union, we ought not to be debarred from a peaceful con- 
 junction by the consideration of points that are non- 
 essential, and of but secondary importance. 
 
 Unity in the case of a church, or of the several 
 churches of a nation, will however be promoted and ensured, 
 not so much by a precise unity of belief, — much less 
 by a strictness of discipline which enforces the semblance 
 of, while it cannot procure the essence and reality of this 
 unity — as by a unity of feeling, which can only be attained 
 through the doctrines of such a church being so obviously 
 based at once on the principles of human nature and 
 
Proposals for Pacification. 115 
 
 Divine Revelation, that all will agree in their truth, and 
 consent to act in accordance with them. 
 
 If it be objected, however, that dissent has spread into 
 so many ramifications, and assumed so many forms, that 
 it would be impossible to comprise it in one establishment ; 
 it may be replied that the differences of opinion among 
 the members of the established church are really almost 
 as numerous and quite as essential as are those among the 
 dissenters. In neither case is a complete and undeviating 
 uniformity of opinion to be sought for, or even desired, 
 but a liberal and enlightened toleration of differences on 
 nonessential points, which might easily be attained by 
 requiring, as j)roposed, only one general comprehensive 
 test as to principles deemed essential to be subscribed to 
 by all. 
 
 The most comprehensive and complete, and indeed 
 the only real and essential classification of religionists of 
 every description, and which would extend to the people 
 of every nation and of every age, would be that of Atheists, 
 Deists, and Eevelationists. The first comprises all those 
 who altogether deny or disbelieve in the existence of a God, 
 and which is the smallest body of all, and is chiefly com- 
 posed of those whose very limited intelligence has but 
 inadequately qualified them to receive ideas of this 
 sublime order. The second is the most numerous, and 
 comprises all these who believe in the existence of God 
 and adore Him as such, but without believing in or ac- 
 cepting any revelation from Him. Such were the Pagans 
 of old, as are also the heathen nations, in general, of oui' 
 own day, and all those of each country (an immense 
 body it is to be feared), who habitually omit all attention 
 to religions worship of any Mnd. The third comprises 
 those who believe not only in God, but in the revelation 
 which He has made to us of Himself, and habitually 
 profess and endeavour to follow the injimctions which 
 such revelation contains. 
 
116 National Instructory Institutions. 
 
 The churcli visible and established, in this and every 
 civilized country, ought to be co-extensive with the 
 church universal, embracing, in the truly catholic lan- 
 guage of the English church, " all who profess and call 
 themselves Christians ;" — all who receive and believe fully 
 the inspired Sci-iptures. Our efforts and oui- ingenuity 
 should be directed not to narrow to the utmost, but to 
 extend as widely as possible, the limits of our church ; 
 and we should ever seek not to discover differences of 
 opinion and causes of separation, but points of agreement 
 and bonds of union. The church, indeed, ought to bear 
 the same relation to the state, and to the country gene- 
 rally as well as to the government, that a j^astor does 
 to his flock ; should be its counsellor and teacher in 
 cases of difficulty, to which appeal may be had in questions 
 of doubt and intricacy, which the common order of 
 men have not either the learning, the leisure, or the 
 ability to unravel. It is a sort of theological supreme 
 court of justice, by whose decrees important matters of 
 doubt are to be determined. 
 
 Singular, indeed, it is that, not only Christianity, 
 which ought to be the bond of union among all Christians, 
 and whose principles so exhort and so conduce to union, 
 should peculiarly provoke discord ; but that the church 
 of Christ, which was ordained as a focus for union, should | 
 be regarded as a main barrier of separation : that the ! 
 fold which was made to hold all, should be converted into 
 an exclusive privileged circle, which but few are per- 
 mitted to enter. 
 
 Another great advantage wliich would bo obtained by 
 a general fusion of all the different religious commimions 
 into one, is that by this means each would in time lose 
 its asperity and peculiarity, which are extensively invi- 
 gorated and developed by its conflict with other sects. 
 And in addition to this, the energy and activity which are 
 expended in these encounters, and against each other, would 
 
Bequidte division of Ministerial Labour. 117 
 
 the a be spent in the service of religion generally, and in 
 opposing error and infidelity. 
 
 From whatever cause, sermons seem certainly to fail in 
 producing their desired effect. Nor is this to be wondered 
 at when we consider the course that is pursued with 
 regard to them. In the first place the faculty of preaching 
 is as much a peculiar gift as is that of producing poetry ; 
 and consequently, those only who possess it should be 
 aj)pointed to this department of ministration, which is, 
 nevertheless, now discharged by all alike, whether capa- 
 cited for it or not ; and to which laymen, who are duly 
 qualified, might, on certain occasions, be advantageously 
 admitted. On the other hand, many who are well 
 qualified to preach, are not well adapted for other equally 
 important ministrations in the church. In the profession 
 of the Bar, where success is dependent on the capacity 
 of the individual for the avocation which he pursues, a 
 division has been made into different departments, by 
 means of w^hich each person may adopt the particular 
 line for which he is qualified, and need not necessarily 
 engage in undertakings for which he is not naturally 
 fitted. Thus, one gifted with high oratorical powers 
 takes the lead in a case, and addresses the court. Another, 
 who is not so qualified, examines the witnesses. And 
 those who are not calculated to excel in public efforts of 
 this kind, confine themselves to advising upon evidence, 
 getting up the case ready for trial, or drawing legal 
 instruments. How desirable it appears that a corre- 
 sponding division of labour, in accordance with their 
 individual capacities, should be made by the clergy, 
 instead of each person alike undertaking duties of every 
 kind, whether adapted for them or not. 
 
 Probably, however, one great contributing cause to the 
 commonplacedness of sermons, so generally complained 
 of, is the custom of making them all of nearly the same 
 length, so that whether the preacher has much or little 
 
118 National Instrudory Institutions. 
 
 to say, and wliatever be the subject on wliicb lie treats, 
 lie must extend or limit bis discourse to a certain period, 
 in either case necessarily much to its detriment ; while 
 an extemporary speaker, or the writer of a letter or essay, 
 takes the space requisite for his purpose, and ends at 
 once when he has said all that he thought essential or 
 proper. 
 
 A concise and simple explanatory and applicatory 
 comment preceding each of the portions of Scripture 
 appointed to be read, and varying in duration, as the 
 occasion required, from five to ten minutes, would pro- 
 bably be far more useful than a regular sermon, would 
 command more attention, and would be more deeply 
 impressed upon the minds of the hearers. 
 
 Connected with this part of the subject is the import- 
 ance of a good delivery, clear, impressive, and emphatic, 
 by those who are ap]3ointed to minister in the church, 
 either in the reading of the services, especially of the 
 Holy Scriptures, or the composition and delivery of 
 sermons. Bishops would do well to make an infrangible 
 rule to refuse ordination to all except those who are able 
 to read and write. 
 
 It is essential also to provide for the due regulation 
 and government of all national institutions of this class. 
 The governing body of every church or ecclesiastical 
 establishment should be of a three-fold nature, doctrinal, 
 representative, and judicial. The doctrinal branch should 
 consist of its ecclesiastics or clergy alone, whose sole, 
 exclusive, and entire province and duty it is to interpret 
 the Sacred Scriptures, and to lay down the tenets to be 
 deduced from them which are to be taught to the members 
 of such churches. Its representative body should be elected 
 from all those who are regular and complete members of 
 the church whether clergy or laity, whose interests alike 
 claim to be represented in the legislative assembly. The 
 judicial body should consist of such men, members of the 
 
Governing Ecclesiastical Bodies. 119 
 
 church, who alone by their learning and jurisprudential 
 ability, are able to interpret the laws governing the 
 church, and to pronounce with authority their meaning 
 and intent. 
 
 Closely connected with, and to a certain extent, indeed, 
 originating in the church establishment of a nation, are 
 the different subordinate and voluntary institutions and 
 societies in relation to education and religion which are 
 maintained in a country. These bodies have an important 
 influence in furthering the promotion and progress of 
 civilization, both as regards their direct operation, and the 
 extensive moral effect produced by their existence and 
 action. Charitable institutions for the aid of the sick and 
 poor, although not directly of the class here comprised, 
 have also a humanizing social influence. Societies for 
 the support of religion and education, whether at home 
 or in foreign countries, have a civilizing effect in three 
 ways : — 1. They have a direct influence in civilizing those 
 towards whom their energies are directed. 2. They have 
 an indirect influence of no mean importance, as regards 
 the civilizing effect which they produce on the minds 
 of those who support them, who become necessarily 
 interested in the subjects for which they are formed. 3. 
 They promote civilization, generally, by uniting different 
 bodies of people, and also different nations together 
 by the mighty bond of Christianity and social community. 
 This, indeed, is a catholicity which no difference of 
 opinion ought ever to disturb. By this means, moreover, 
 aid is afforded to the operation of Elements IX. and X. 
 In these cases, however we may doubt as to the efficiency 
 in some instances of the religious conversions effected, 
 there can be none as to the benefits conferred by the 
 spread of civilization, and the dispersion of barbarism 
 which is thus achieved. The contributions, raoreover, 
 for charitable ends which are collected by benevolent 
 societies, are as morally beneficial to the donors, as 
 
120 National Instrudory Institutions. 
 
 they are physically advantageous to the recipients of 
 them. 
 
 On the other hand, the moral effect of public charitable 
 institutions, which are supported by voluntary subscrip- 
 tions, is undoubtedly injurious so far as they lead different 
 persons to contribute to them, for the purpose of osten- 
 tation, what they ought to bestow in a private manner ; 
 and as inducing them to give what they can spare for the 
 support of these public institutions, to the neglect of 
 domestic demands upon them, which must be allowed to 
 possess a prior claim. This is, perhaps, a defect insepa- 
 rable from these societies, and is a necessary part of 
 their constitution. Indeed few if any terrestrial institu- 
 tions, however good, are without some alloy of evil in 
 their nature. 
 
 Whatever, moreover, tends to generate a spirit or a 
 feeling of dependence in any one class towards another, 
 is necessarily vitiating to that society in which it is inti'O- 
 duced, even though, as in the case of the rich helping the 
 poor, it is actually based on the duty of the former towards 
 the latter. But in helping them we should aim to 
 benefit without injuring them. And as the best help of 
 all is that which enables them to do for themselves ; so 
 the worst of all is that which contributes to establish, 
 or to confirm them in their own helplessness. Charities 
 and institutions to aid the poor should, therefore, be so 
 constituted as that while they render to the j)oor that 
 assistance which without them they could not obtain, and 
 which it is the duty of the rich, or of such institutions to 
 afford ; they also stimulate them to exert themselves in 
 the way in which it is both their duty and for their 
 benefit to do. They should thus serve to develope, 
 instead of tending to paralyse their powers. Bestowing 
 charity on the poor should be somewhat analogous to 
 watering a plant, which we do not do to enable it to thrive 
 without soil and air, but by this means it is revived and 
 
Universities and Scholastic Institutions. 121 
 
 invigorated so as to be qualified to avail itself of its own 
 resources and energies. 
 
 II. Tlie National Institutions of a country which rank 
 next in importance to the Church, as regards its civiliza- 
 tion, are the Universities and scholastic establishments or 
 seminaries for education which it contains. These com- 
 prise alike the institutions for the instruction of the 
 people generally, and those also for each profession in 
 particular, in which a full knowledge of it may be acquired. 
 In every country, Universities have a double use and 
 aim as National Institutions of the nature now under 
 consideration, both of which are of high importance in 
 the promotion of civilization, and both of w^hich it behoves 
 the state to see fully and fairly carried out. 
 
 1. The first of these objects is to serve as institutions 
 for the education of those who from their station are 
 likely to fill places and positions of trust, and authority, 
 and influence in the state, and of those too who intend 
 to become instructors of the people generally of each 
 class, as also to such other persons as desire to receive an 
 education of this high and complete order ; and who 
 should be able to obtain at the national universities the 
 most perfect elementary education that the times can 
 afford, so as to qualify them for the pm-suit of those im- 
 portant avocations in life, and their high position in 
 society, for which their mental culture and moral training 
 adapt them. 
 
 2. The second use of universities, is to afford to the 
 nation a constant supply of, and to secure the maintenance 
 of men of learning, ability, and high acquirements, -^ho 
 are thus brought together, and both reap important advan- 
 tages from each other's society, and are best able to 
 instruct those who are students at such an institution. It 
 is the peculiar result of universities, not only that a num- 
 ber of such men are brought together, but that a number 
 of them are placed upon an equality, whereby the utmost 
 
122 National Instrudonj Institutions. 
 
 freedom as regards social, moral, and intellectual in- 
 tercourse is obtained, and the largest amount of 
 influence from such society is accordingly produced. In 
 a metropolis, the assemblage of distinguished men is pro- 
 bably ordinarily greater than it is in a university : but the 
 union between them, and consequently the influence 
 exerted, is not the same. 
 
 Those who are placed at the head of universities should 
 be men of that eminence as not only to be qualified to 
 instruct others and to command their reverence ; but, from 
 their acquirements and their success, they ought to serve 
 as examples and as stimulants to those whom they teach, 
 to follow in their course. They should not themselves 
 be aspirants to distinction, but persons who have already 
 attained it to the full. 
 
 The professors of the different arts and sciences, and 
 branches of learning, in our universities, should of course 
 consist of the men who are most eminent in those par- 
 ticular departments, and who will be regarded as the lead- 
 ing authorities on the subjects which they teach. But, in 
 order to ensure this object, university professors, both 
 as regards their rank and their emolument, should be 
 raised to a position equal to that of any of the judicial or 
 political state dignitaries in the nation. Unless this is 
 the case, we cannot expect that these professorships will 
 be always worthily held, although in some instances, it 
 may so happen that individuals will be found to occupy 
 them who, from their peculiar circumstances, are inde- 
 pendent of such inducements. That the professorial 
 chairs should in every case be filled by persons duly quali- 
 fied for such important offices, and by such persons alone, 
 is of the utmost consequence, not only to the universities 
 which they adorn, but to the whole nation, whose instruc- 
 tors they are, or ought to be regarded. 
 
 A university should also be a receptacle for all the 
 most learned and valuable works of the age, to which 
 
JtJnds Institutions should serve. 123 
 
 those who belong to this institution may at once have 
 ready access, and be at all times able to refer. 
 
 The necessity, therefore, of establishing, maintaining, 
 and duly regulating such institutions as these is obvious. 
 They are essential not only that education may be dif- 
 fused, but that it may be inculcated correctly and on regu- 
 lar systematic principles, instead of being left to the 
 caprice of individuals, or the fashion of the times. Nor 
 ought we to express disappointment that these institutions 
 do not of themselves invariably produce men of genius. 
 Their object is not to originate, but to nurture talent. 
 They are to a nation what a garden is to a mansion, where 
 the choicest fruit and flowers are cultivated, and with 
 great care brought to perfection, but it is not expected 
 that they should grow there spontaneously. We look to 
 various foreign climes or distant districts for their dis- 
 covery, and only expect to bring them to perfection by 
 trans j)lanting them to a congenial soil. As plants young 
 and tender are trained, and pruned, and watered, and 
 nourished, and protected in a nursery garden ; so young 
 minds are cultivated, and disciplined, and stored, and 
 strengthened, and fortified in a university. Like young 
 trees too, our youth by this means are fitted for planting 
 out, and to be ornaments to the neighbourhood where they 
 are placed. Many men of genius have developed their 
 powers to the full without having recoui'se to an institu- 
 tion of this kind, as many fruits and flowers in a wild 
 state have reached perfection ; but this does not prove, 
 either in the one case or the other, that the artificial 
 means resorted to are not generally advantageous. These 
 institutions are also valuable as the store houses of learn- 
 ing ; and, especially, to effect the preservation and culti- 
 vation of many departments of knowledge which, although 
 of great importance, are not of sufficient practical utility 
 to promote their study. They serve to keep alive, as it 
 were, each branch of education which mi^jrht otherwise in 
 
{ 24 National Instructor^ Institutions. 
 
 time be forgotten or neglected as it grew out of fashion. 
 And tliey ouglit also to ensure a proportionate deference 
 and due share of attention, according to their relative real 
 value, being given to each pursuit. 
 
 Scholastic institutions, of whatever kind, should be cal- 
 culated to afford both discipline and instruction to all the 
 youthful members of the state. The discipline should 
 be such as effectually to restrain and deter not only from 
 all violations of morality, but from all breaches of rule ; 
 while it must not be so severe as to create an aversion to 
 the system itself. The teaching should both impart useful 
 knowledge, and also serve to lay the foundation for future 
 acquirements, which the student may either follow up and 
 complete at the university to which he is removed after the 
 period when his schooling terminates ; and should aid in 
 the study for the peculiar calling or profession to the ac- 
 quirement of skill in which his mind will be especially 
 devoted. The end of both scholastic discipline and tuition 
 is to qualify the person receiving it for the duties of after 
 life, and to fill his position as a member of civil society. 
 
 It appears, however, to be a great desideratum in educa- 
 tional institutions of this nature, that they should define 
 and establish a mode of education which would compre- 
 hend a complete system of knowledge and teaching, so as 
 to bring each faculty of the mind properly into cultiva- 
 tion, and efficiently to train the dispositions and the feel- 
 ings.* And though the object of these institutions ought 
 to be rather the preparation of the mind for study, than 
 the storing it with learning ; yet surely a proper chart 
 should be afforded as to the road most desirable to be fol- 
 lowed, so that chance or prejudice may not be left to point 
 out the way. Foundations by private munificence for the 
 promotion of particular studies, will, in some institutions, 
 
 * See on this subject ANATOMH AIANOHTIKH. A Philosophical 
 Treatise on the Nature and Constitution of Man. By George Harris, 
 F.S.A. B. 3. c. 7. (Preparing for publication. } 
 
Systematic Flan of Education. 125 
 
 more or less interfere with this design, and perhaps give 
 an undue preponderance to pursuits of a particular kind, 
 and thus lead to the disregard of certain others, or to the 
 neglect of a due distribution of the whole. This to some 
 extent undoubtedly detracts from the great benefits which 
 they otherwise confer. 
 
 The different schools existent in a nation should, of 
 course, correspond both with the different kinds of educa- 
 tion that are to be inculcated, and with the several classes 
 of persons to be instructed, more especiallj'- as regards 
 their respective stations in society, and their various 
 general occupations. 
 
 The studies pursued at the several universities and 
 scholastic institutions in the same country, need not neces- 
 sarily be identical ; but, on the contrary, it is desirable 
 that they should so far vary one from another as that 
 the peculiar turn and adaj^tation of different minds may 
 meet with their suitable encouragement and cultivation. 
 Between these different bodies, as regards their mode of 
 instruction, a generous rivalry may exist, each not only 
 emulating, but learning something from the other. 
 
 The invention of printing, already referred to,* has, in 
 many respects, affected the character of some of our edu- 
 cational institutions, especially as regards certain of their 
 foundations. Our universities are no loncjer the onlv 
 receptacles for libraries, as books are now generally circu- 
 lated ; nor is verbal communication the chief means of 
 diffusing knowledge. This may also occasion a change 
 as regards the residence necessary at these institutions, 
 during the period of pupilage, to acquire actual instruc- 
 tion ; although, on the other hand, there are many col- 
 lateral advantages resulting from such a residence, in the 
 discipline enforced, the strict moral training pursued, the 
 influence exerted by contemporaries, access to libraries, 
 
 * Vide ante, pp. 37, 38. 
 
126 National Instructor y Institutions. 
 
 the presence of and reference to tutors and experienced 
 authorities, and also attendance on lectures. 
 
 Lectures, indeed, seem now mainly useful where experi- 
 ments in illustration of them have to be exhibited, or jjlans 
 or pictures shown, which could not be obtained for each 
 reader of a bock ; but where these are not required, the 
 latter mode of study appears the most efficient. Lectures 
 are also very serviceable in affording a general compre- 
 hensive view of certain branches of knowledge, the details 
 of which maybe afterwards pursued as opportunities oifer. 
 They are of advantage, too, in showing the relative im- 
 portance of different subjects, and in preventing us from 
 setting too high a value on any one department alone. 
 Instruction by lecture is, moreover, so far more influential 
 than that by books, as it is more lively, and is also more 
 personal. You are brought into immediate contact with 
 the mind of the author ; and the effect of his voice and 
 gesture, and appearance, serves to enforce the sentiments 
 that he utters. On the other hand, instruction by books 
 affords more freedom of thought concerning, and more 
 opportunity of research into the subject before us. In the 
 one case the feelings are enlisted in the cause of the 
 teacher. In the other, the reason, being freed from all 
 exterior influence, pursues more directly and energetically 
 its proper functions. 
 
 Public lectui'cs, as well as public libraries, on subjects 
 of information generally useful, might advantageously be 
 supplied by the state. They are, or ought to be, in fact, 
 mental- and also manual-educational sermons, as those 
 from the pulpit are moral-educational. 
 
 Near akin to the plan of instructing the people by 
 public lectures, is the one recently set on foot by some 
 friends to the cause of education, of giving " Public Read- 
 ings " from popular authors, for the benefit of the working 
 classes, by which a large number at once are enabled to 
 obtain an extensive amount of information and entertain- 
 
Lectures, Eeadings, and Examinations. 127 
 
 ment, at little trouble, and in an interesting manner. By 
 this means, moreover, the essence of the best works extant 
 may be brought within the reach of all. 
 
 Although the same studies and pursuits may not be 
 suitable for all, yet discipline, both mental and moral, is 
 essential in each case to be maintained, and is of equal 
 advantage with the knowledge given. The examinations 
 required of the students at these institutions, serve as 
 important and efficient stimulants to exertion ; but it is 
 on many accoimts desirable that they should in general 
 be adapted to prove rather the industry and acquire- 
 ments, than the natural talents of those who are subjected 
 to them. Examinations at all educational institutions 
 might in addition be advantageously established, of such 
 a nature as would serve as a test of the real and natural 
 ability of the examinant, and thus ascertain his capacity 
 for any particular pursuit or object in life. For this 
 purpose, each faculty of the mind should be acted upon 
 and proved. Not only memory, for strength of which 
 success in general examinations now mainly depends, but 
 reason, and taste, and originality, should also be put to 
 the test. Nevertheless, as already observed in a previous 
 part of this work,* examinations are by no means in every 
 case either the sole or the best proof of proficiency that 
 can be resorted to. A mixed mode of testing the acquire- 
 ments of the person to be examined, appears the most 
 efficient, and the most fair. 
 
 The whole, however, that can actually be demanded of 
 a university or other instructory institution, so far as 
 regards the fulfilment of the object expected from it as 
 such, is that, on the one hand, it should require from 
 every member who passes through it, that he should pos- 
 sess at least a certain amount of intellectual acquirement 
 as the minimum of his qualifications ; and, on the other 
 hand, that it should afford to all, and to every one disposed 
 * Vide ante. Element I., p. 75. 
 
128 National Insfructory Institutions. 
 
 to avail himself of it, the highest amount of instruction 
 that can be obtained, through the ablest teachers and the 
 best treatises, on the most imj^ortant educational subjects. 
 If such an institution supplies these two requisites, it has 
 fulfilled its own part. What more is required, the mem- 
 bers themselves must supply. 
 
 Lord Bacon remarks, in his ' Advancement of Learning,' 
 that the proficiency of learning would be more advanced 
 " if there were more mutual intelligence between the 
 universities of Europe than now there is." Intercourse 
 and interchange of thought and ideas between bodies, 
 especially learned institutions, correspond with inter- 
 course and interchange of the same nature between indi- 
 viduals ; and in both cases is not only useful, but essential 
 to the cultivation, and advancement, and improvement of 
 both the corresponding parties. Each not only derives 
 wisdom from the other, but obtains warning also. With 
 great advantage a system might be established of sending 
 ambassadors constantly from one of these learned bodies 
 to another, in order to report the progress in learning and 
 scientific discovery which each has made, and to compare 
 the researches and efforts of each with those of the others. 
 The press to some extent, though only collaterally, effects 
 this end ; but it can no more enable universities to dis- 
 pense with special officers for the purpose, than it can 
 enable states to do without envoys. Probably, indeed, 
 universities and other public learned bodies gain as much, 
 and in various ways, by intercommunion one with another, 
 and by exchange of sentiment, as do the individuals of 
 which they are composed. There is, however, of course, 
 much greater facility for intercourse now, and in various 
 ways, between these learned bodies, than there was in Lord 
 Bacon's time, while the necessity for intercourse has in 
 several respects much increased. Indeed, so great are the 
 facilities now, that the whole learned world might without 
 difficulty be fused into one university. 
 
Local Position of Universities. 129 
 
 A question may also be raised as to the most 
 desirable local position for universities in any kingdom, 
 whether in the metropolis, in the principal com- 
 mercial towns, ,or in some retired rural districts 
 remote from turmoil and excitement. Each of these 
 situations, it must be admitted, possesses its peculiar 
 advantages and disadvantages. If retired districts are 
 most favourable to study, and, perhaps, to abstract 
 speculation also ; metropolitan and commercial dis- 
 tricts are best calculated to develope energy, and to 
 convert into active practical results the acquirements 
 that have been conferred. The civilizing effect of 
 such institutions upon metropolitan, commercial, and 
 other large towTis, must not, moreover, be lost sight of. 
 Like art, they directly and extensively counteract the 
 sordid effects of commerce and gain, and tend to refine 
 and even ennoble pursuits of this kind. At all events, 
 the metropolis of every kingdom should possess its uni- 
 versity, not only for the reasons already mentioned, but 
 also on account of its accessibility to a large number, when 
 so placed. The most desirable plan is, no doubt, to esta- 
 blish several universities, so as to have them in each of 
 these positions, by which not merely will the combined 
 advantages alluded to be in some way, to some extent, at 
 all events, secured ; but from the different character and 
 turn of mind possessed by these different institutions, so 
 variously located and acted upon, a wholesome rivalry 
 will be created between them, as well as a beneficial 
 intercommunion, very important and very efficient for the 
 general furtherance of civilization. 
 
 As in the case of the National Church, so in the case of 
 National Universities, those not actually belonging to them 
 are extensively though but indirectly benefited by them, 
 through the advantage which they confer on the nation 
 generally, and also on particular members of society with 
 whom they are connected. Considering, moreover, that 
 
 K 
 
130 National Instructor y Institutions. 
 
 universities are not only the springs but the wells of 
 knowledge in every civilized country, it is the duty of 
 the state to provide alike for their adequate maintenance, 
 and for their efficient regulation. 
 
 The establishment of public libraries in different dis- 
 tricts throughout the kingdom, and to which ready access 
 should be afforded for the people at large, would be a 
 measure of essential importance for the promotion of 
 civilization. The collection contained in a public library 
 should be of such a nature that it is capable of supplying 
 amj)le information on all general matters of importance, 
 such as history and biography, to all who desire to refer 
 to it ; and also full instruction on such particular useful 
 and practical subjects as are most likely to engage the 
 attention of, and to be serviceable to the class of persons for 
 whom the library is directly intended, and who may be 
 expected to resort to it. Public libraries, to which the 
 poorer classes of both sexes can be admitted, either at a 
 very low rate or absolutely free, should be set on foot not 
 only in every town, but in every parish, and to which 
 books ought to be supplied at the expense of the nation 
 by the reprint of a selection of our most valuable standard 
 works in each department of literature, including philo- 
 sophy, theology, history, biography, zoology, poetry, and 
 romance, excluding, of course, all works of an immoral or 
 objectionable tendency. The series in question might be 
 entitled the " Parochial Library Edition," and should be 
 presented gratuitously to those institutions only, and not 
 allowed to be sold, so as to interfere with the regular cir- 
 culation and sale of these wt)rks. Such an effort as this 
 would do much to promote and stimulate the progress of 
 education throughout the country, while its cost would 
 form but a small item in the sums annually but ineffec- 
 tually disijensed out of the state coffers for the furtherance 
 of this good cause. Books should be allowed to be taken 
 out of these institutions for reading at home ; and tliey 
 
Public Libraries and Museums. 131 
 
 oiif^lit to be of sucli a character as not only to be really 
 useful, but so as to excite an actual interest in those for 
 whose perusal they are intended. Allusion has already 
 been made to the necessity of furnishing intellectual food 
 of this nature to those who have received the rudiments 
 of education, and to the duty of the government to supply 
 works to libraries of this class. Such institutions, being 
 in reality for the general benefit of the state, should, as 
 regards the establishment of them, be supported at the 
 national expense, without relying on the chance liberality 
 of particular districts ; although, when they are once set 
 on foot, it may fairly be left to those dii-ectly interested 
 in them to further their progress. 
 
 Institutions of this kind are required, not, indeed, as a 
 means of education, but in order to supply mental and 
 moral food to those minds whose powers have been deve- 
 loped and brought into play, and by which they may be 
 taught how to use the faculties they possess. The vine 
 may be set in good soil, and may be watered with abundant 
 care ; but unless it be also properly trained and pruned 
 after it has sprung up, it will run wild and produce but 
 few grapes. So is it also with respect to the mind of man, 
 both as an individual and as regards men in the aggregate. 
 You must not only excite a wholesome appetite, but pro- 
 vide wholesome food. If proper study and diversion are not 
 afforded to the awakened understanding, it will waste itself 
 in vain and desultory pursuits, following not what is best 
 adapted for it, but whatever may be accomplished with 
 the least trouble; or it will be led to engage itself in 
 vicious and deteriorating employments. The establish- 
 ment, however, of institutions capable of supplying suitable 
 mental food, and by which that only of a healthful and 
 advantageous nature will be presented, affords at once 
 ample and nutritious ailment to the developing intellect, 
 and an encouragement to progress forward in the course 
 of improvement. 
 
132 National Insiructory InstUidions. 
 
 III. Museums, containing specimens of productions 
 botli natural and artificial of different kinds, are very 
 valuable, not only as sources of instruction, but more 
 especially as aids to libraries in communicating knowledge, 
 and as contributing to illustrate and to explain mucb that 
 books without them can but very imperfectly and tediously 
 serve to teach. To some extent they sujDply the want of 
 pictorial designs in books ; and they also stimulate men 
 to the use of libraries, as both libraries and museums 
 stimulate persons to resort to education. 
 
 A museum should comprise specimens of all such objects 
 in natural history, whether animal, vegetable, or mineral, 
 as will serve the general student for examples to illustrate 
 the subject he may be studying ; and will also supply, 
 through objects of historical and scientific interest, infor- 
 mation as to the nature of the topics which are of lead- 
 ing importance for persons of ordinary education to be 
 acquainted with. A museum should be in fact to a 
 library what pictorial illustrations are to a book. It both 
 renders the subject more completely intelligible, as well 
 as perfects the information sought to be obtained, and also 
 implants the memory of the thing firmly in the mind. 
 A museum has, moreover, a secondary use in collecting 
 together, and securing from loss or decay, such objects of 
 real interest of the foregoing descrij)tion as it is desirable 
 to i^reserve. 
 
 Galleries of works of art, containing choice and judi- 
 ciously selected specimens in painting and sculpture, both 
 ancient and modern, being models of their kind, should 
 also be established, to which the public may have gratui- 
 tous access at all times, and which may both form and 
 correct the national taste, and serve as studies for those 
 whose genius leads them to the pursuit of these arts. 
 But this is a subject which falls properly within the pro- 
 vince of the next Element appointed for our consideration, 
 and which relates especially to art and science. Never- 
 
Galleries of WorlxS of Art. 133 
 
 theless, institutions for affording practical instruction in 
 art and in science of different kinds, can hardly claim to 
 be regarded as national establishments, so far as to entitle 
 them to the supiDort of the state, as, however beneficial 
 they may be to those who resort to them, but compara- 
 tively few do so, and those for the purpose of learning a 
 professional or practical calling, instruction in which each 
 individual ought to provide for himself; although to a 
 certain extent, so far as is necessary for the general in- 
 struction of the people, this will be supplied by the ordi- 
 nary institutions for education. The National Academy, 
 which is the art university of the nation, must, however, to 
 some extent, form an exception to this rule, as serving to 
 guide and correct the national taste in matters of this kind. 
 
 IV. Both on a nation and on an individual, the amuse- 
 ments in W'hich they are wont to indulge as recreations, 
 exercise nearly as much influence, both mentally and 
 morally, as the studies or pursuits in which they are 
 regularly engaged ; more especially as tlie former, from 
 their pleasurable nature, are ever ready to seize upon and 
 occupy the mind. National Institutions, therefore, for 
 their promotion and regulation, are essential to every civi- 
 lized state. The consideration of the civilizing effect of 
 these amusements themselves, belongs more especially to 
 another Element of civilization, where their nature is par- 
 ticularly inquired into.* We have here only to deal with 
 the National Institutions established for their promotion. 
 
 These recreative occupations, indeed, both influence 
 the rcjTular pursuits of life, and are influenced by them. 
 Public spectacles, more especially, which in every nation 
 contribute more or less to the relaxation of the people, 
 are always calculated to exercise a particular sway either 
 for good or for bad. Even the assemblies for the purpose 
 of business of great public bodies, produce a pow^erful 
 effect in this respect. Of the various institutions, which 
 
 * Element VI. 
 
134 National Instructor y Institutions. 
 
 both in ancient and modern times have been invented for 
 the recreative entertainment of the people, those termed 
 spectacular and theatrical exhibitions form the most com- 
 prehensive class, and are in their nature the most impor- 
 tant. Under the head of the theatre may, however, be 
 ranked the various kinds of public performances in which 
 art of each branch is availed of, to produce a spectacle 
 for the instruction and amusement of the people. The 
 theatre itself, indeed, if properly conducted, is one of the 
 most influential and useful engines for public instruction, 
 both intellectual and moral, and for promoting the civili- 
 zation of a nation, that has ever been devised. Each of 
 the arts is here not only availed of, but each in harmony 
 together. Ehetoric, poetry, and music, lend their aid to 
 give effect to one another ; and sculpture and architecture 
 also find place, and contribute to the entertainment. 
 Eefinement, history, morality, are all taught at once, and 
 in a manner the most agreeable and the most forcible. 
 Indeed, I know of no institution which under proper 
 regulations might be made so extensively influential and 
 beneficial as the theatre. Surely, therefore, so powerful a 
 moral engine as this, ought to be availed of as a National 
 Institution ; and should be adopted by the state, and 
 supported and controlled by the government of the 
 country. The nature of its exhibitions might then be 
 strictly regulated, and adapted to promote great moral 
 ends, and the utmost rigour exercised in purging it of all 
 obscene representations. Thus only can the "national 
 drama " be fully and efficiently restored and supported. 
 
 A national theatre should of course be proportioned as 
 regards its size, to the extensiveness of the objects it aims 
 to promote. The Greek and Roman theatres were caj)a- 
 cious enough to accommodate the entire population of a 
 city at each performance. Now, although it is on many 
 accounts impossible for modern theatres to vie in this 
 respect with those of old, — nor could any modern play be 
 
A National Theatre. 135 
 
 efficiently acted, either as regards seeing or hearing, in so 
 large a building ; — yet if a deep impression on the mind 
 of the people is to be created by theatrical performances, 
 accommodation must necessarily be afforded for the gene- 
 rality of the people to witness them. And the greater is 
 the concoui'se assembled on those occasions, the greater 
 is the effect produced. The admission to the national 
 theatre, if not actually gratuitous, should be so low as to 
 enable all to visit it who feel any real interest in such 
 exhibitions, and who may be thus drawn away from enter- 
 tainments of this nature where performances of a base and 
 demoralizing tendency take place. The building itself 
 appropriated for a national theatre, should of course be 
 situate in the metropolis of the emj)ire, and its size must 
 to a certain extent correspond with the j)opulation of that 
 city ; forming a grand amj)hitheatre for the exhibition of 
 dramatic art, and where musical festivals and public meet- 
 ings might also be held. 
 
 The stage serves to reflect pretty generally and 
 accurately, the character not only of the nation, but 
 of the age of that nation from time to time, as whether 
 frivolous or grave, romantic or dull, licentious or virtuous. 
 The stage ought, however, instead of merely reflecting, to 
 be corrective of the national character, and should lead 
 and exalt, instead of following and often debasing the 
 taste of the people. And this should be the grand purpose 
 and aim, and the principle to be observed in the constitu- 
 tion of a national theatre. 
 
 The effect, indeed, that theatrical exhibitions will 
 ■produce on the public mind, must, of course, necessarily 
 depend on the nature and tendency of the particular 
 performances exhibited, as whether improving or elevating 
 in their effect, or the reverse. Tragedy, and even comedy 
 also, may be made extensively influential and beneficial. 
 By them vice and crime have been exposed and neld up to 
 odium in the most forcible manner ; and doubtless, the most 
 
136 National Instriidory Institutions. 
 
 effective moral sermons emanate not from tlie pulpit, but 
 from the stage. Popular absurdities and extravagancies 
 are thus repressed, and abuses in the government pointedly- 
 attacked. The stage is, moreover, alike efficient in exalt- 
 ing virtue and in exposing vice ; in pointing out the 
 qualities to be imitated, and those to be shunned. It is 
 really as useful in the former case as in the latter, although 
 its operation there may not be so immediate or so 
 apparent. 
 
 A great moral tragedy, such as are, indeed, the 
 generality, if not the whole of Shakspeare's, and many 
 others besides, is a sort of living sermon, which inculcates 
 principles by example rather than by argument, and deters 
 us from the commission of evil by portraying in the most 
 forcible manner the consequences of crime. And if we 
 admit that persons are much more apt to be influenced by 
 pursuits which are agreeable to them, than by the dull 
 career of business or duty ; and that precepts are far more 
 readily imbibed from our own inferences, than from the 
 stern and suspicious teaching of books of morality, — 
 which is a truth of which every accurate and calm observer 
 of human nature must be convinced ; — we shall at once 
 allow the immense, and, indeed, unbounded influence of 
 theatrical representations upon the national mind and 
 morals. 
 
 Of all the institutions which conduce to the civilization 
 of a nation, the theatre the most completely combines 
 instruction with amusement, and cultivation with relaxa- 
 tion. To men of business, and to those harassed by 
 abstruse or laborious pursuits, and who are little disj)osed 
 or adapted for study, it affords a light, and agreeable, and 
 exhilarating diversion, in a high degree tending to their 
 refinement, and at the same time rendering them informa- 
 tion. Of all the paths that lead to knowledge, this is the 
 most alluring. The tree of knowledge is here seen to 
 blossom and to bear fruit simultaneously. To some 
 
Moral Censorsliijp hij the Stage. 137 
 
 extent, indeed, although not for the purposes here alluded 
 to, the theatre, as a public moral censor, has in modern 
 times been almost superseded by the press. This, how- 
 ever, is as much owing to the retrogression of the theatre 
 as to the advancement of the press. On the other hand, 
 all representations of a cruel and debasing kind, whether 
 on the stage or in other exhibitions, and of obscene 
 characters and transactions, are in every way demoralizing 
 and pernicious, and ought to be discouraged. They give a 
 dignity to crime, and render the perpetrators of it objects 
 rather of admiration than of execration. 
 
 Theatrical exhibitions, therefore, exercise a far more 
 powerful influence on the mind and morals, and civiliza- 
 tion of a nation, than would at first be imagined. The 
 feelings of the people are actively excited while witnessing 
 these spectacles, and the remembrance of them is long and 
 vividly retained, and becomes the subject of constant 
 reflection and conversation, by which their influence is 
 disseminated yet further. 
 
 The genius of the English nation in particular, is 
 essentially, and to a large extent, of a theatrical tendency. 
 The greatest tragical writer who ever lived, was a native 
 of this country ; and although the theatre, from certain 
 causes, does not now flourish among us as might be 
 desired, yet we see tiie theatrical taste and turn of the 
 national mind constantly displaying itself in the popular 
 theatrical style of its oratory, not only in its public 
 assemblies but in the pulpit, as also in the senate, and at 
 the bar. This romantic theatrical bias of the national 
 mind is yet further evinced in the literature of the day, of 
 which novels and imaginative stories form so large a 
 proportion. The real spirit and taste of a people are 
 indeed exhibited much more correctly by the spontaneous 
 development of character in this form, than even by the 
 zealous support of the proper and aj)pointed exhibitions 
 for theatrical display. Nevertheless, it is most desirable 
 
138 JSlaiioncd Instrudory Institutions. 
 
 on every account that a legitimate channel should be 
 afiforded in which the strong current of national genius 
 may run freely. If theatrical taste and talent are not 
 permitted to develope themselves in their proper sphere, 
 on the stage, they will exhibit their powers in places where 
 their very appearance is not only out of place, but 
 pernicious. Natural and national genius, although you 
 may repress, you cannot extinguish them. If inflammation 
 in the human body be subdued in the limbs, it will fly to 
 the vitals ; and in the latter it will prove fatal, where in 
 the former it might have been harmless, if not even 
 ultimately beneficial. 
 
 Unfortunately, indeed, for the character of the theatre, 
 and its popularity as a national institution, it is placed as 
 it were between three several fires or opposing interests. 
 Certain religiously disposed persons censure it un- 
 sparingly, on account of the immoral practices with which 
 it has been associated, and which are very unfairly looked 
 upon not as the abuse of, but as necessarily connected 
 with the institution itself. The violators of morality and 
 decorum, on the other hand, abhor it because in its 
 exhibitions it exposes and denounces the vices which they 
 pursue. Those great enemies to true religion and morality, 
 the fanatics and hypocrites, are ever forward in condemning 
 it, and are its natural persecutors, because their absurdities 
 and inconsistencies afford abundant and legitimate matter 
 for choice satire in its exhibitions. Each of these three 
 parties, although differing on almost every other subject, 
 coalesce here for the purpose of destroying an institution 
 whose legitimate object is to uphold religion and to protect 
 morality. 
 
 If, indeed, hypocrisy and false pretence are the offences 
 which most directly tend to the subversion of true religion, 
 it cannot be denied that one of the most valuable results 
 of the theatre has been the exposing, in an efficient and 
 forcible manner, these detestable vices. But, as the 
 
Unjust as^persions on the Stage. 139 
 
 participators in these delinquencies are apt to be both 
 more numerous, and also more noisj, than the sincere 
 followers of religion, who are ordinarily unostentatious 
 and unobtrusive ; so, from the former, have the principal 
 invectives against the stage j)roceeded, to whom it is, 
 doubtless, a natural, an implacable, and, perhaps, the only 
 efficient foe. But these are a moral vermin, infesting 
 religion, which it is essential to exterminate, both for the 
 sake of religion itself, and for that of the nation in which 
 it is professed. 
 
 Nothing can be more unfair or more unreasonable, than 
 to condemn either the theatre, or any other institution, on 
 account of abuses which have crept into its management, 
 but which have no necessary connection whatever with 
 its constitution. If licentious performances, or licentious 
 performers, have been tolerated, the sooner that these 
 are expelled, the better; but do not on this account 
 destroy the institution itself, which may have been to 
 some extent, though only temporarily, polluted by their 
 presence. Persons of loose character, or from improper 
 motives, may be attracted to a theatre, as to any other 
 place of amusement, or of business, or even of public 
 worship. Their appearance, however, does not, necessarily, 
 destroy, or even affect the general character of the 
 assembly. The absolute and extreme injustice, moreover, 
 of stigmatizing the theatre as that institution which alone 
 is liable to promote an improper intercourse between the 
 sexes, from the circumstance of its entertainments taking 
 place after sunset, and those of both sexes being there 
 brought together in a large concourse ; has of late years 
 been very strikingly exposed by showing that in churches 
 and chapels where divine service is celebrated in an 
 evening, exactly the same evil consequences are found 
 to ensue. If, therefore, the theatre is to be condemned on 
 this account, public worship must also, necessarily, be 
 condemned along with it. But if, on the other hand, the 
 
140 National Instruct or y Institutions. 
 
 celebration of public worship suffers nothing from tliis 
 circumstance, it is surely unjust and unreasonable to 
 censure tlie theatre on the same account. 
 
 It sometimes hapj)ens, especially with regard to 
 institutions aud subjects of a high moral order, that the 
 greater is the value of the proper use of any object, in an 
 equal proportion is the extent of the evil produced by its 
 abuse. Thus has it been with many religious establish- 
 ments, and thus has it been also with the theatre. The hitter, 
 indeed, was in its origin a religious institution, and was 
 devoted to religious purposes, although now regarded by 
 some as that peculiarly from whence religion is especially 
 excluded, and which mainly contributes to minister to 
 vice. How great are the mutations occasioned in civil as 
 well as physical bodies by their corruption ! The most 
 useful aud salutary become the most pernicious and 
 offensive. But surely the abuse of any institution can 
 afford no substantial argument for its disuse ; more 
 especially when a remedy is at hand for restoring it to its 
 originally beneficent and pure condition. Indeed, one 
 very bad consequence which must necessarily ensue from 
 people of high moral feeling and intellectual cultivation 
 abandoning the theatre, and leaving it to the support and 
 patronage of those who are of an opposite character in 
 both respects, is that the tone of the theatre itself will 
 become lowered to suit the taste of its patrons of the 
 latter class ; and thus, instead of being one of the main 
 elements which conduce to the cultivation and moral 
 advancement and civilization of the nation, it will be 
 made the engine so far, by being perverted, for its debase- 
 ment. What would be the result, if, because some books 
 are of an evil tendency, those of enlightened minds and 
 pure morals were to refuse to purchase all books 
 whatsoever. Our literature must, in such a case, be- 
 come speedily depraved, and would adopt eventually the 
 degenerate tone and taste of that class of persons who 
 
Civilizing tendency of the Stage. 141 
 
 alone remain its patrons. The capacity of tlie theatre, on 
 the one hand, to promote those great and beneficent ends 
 which have already been alluded to, and its present low 
 condition so unworthy of it, on the other, alike conduce to 
 prove the expediency of restoring and reforming it, which 
 can only be done fully and effectually by adopting, 
 and recognizing, and controlling it as a National Institu- 
 tion. How extensively and how beneficially this may be 
 effected, the efforts in this direction which during the last 
 few years have been made by some noble-minded indi- 
 viduals connected with certain of our theatres, sufficiently 
 attest. 
 
 IV.— NATIONAL CULTIVATION OF ART AND 
 SCIENCE. 
 
 The Element of Civilization most nearly connected with 
 those which have already been discussed, and which 
 seems to follow in natural order after that of Instructory 
 Institutions, is the National Cultivation of Art and 
 Science in any country, to which therefore our con- 
 sideration must now be directed. 
 
 The arts of each kind exercise a direct and an extensive 
 influence both on individuals and on nations ; and are 
 essential to each for the perfect attainment of civilization, 
 and the elevation and refinement of the mind. Science is 
 not less important for the advancement of civilization, 
 although the operation and effect of the two in this 
 respect are very different. Art is mainly mental and 
 moral, as regards the influence which it exerts. Science, 
 on the other hand, is in its nature principally manual, 
 inasmuch as it supplies professional or manual employ- 
 ment both to those who cultivate it, and to those engaged 
 in various undertakings, who are aided by its operations, 
 which is more or less, either directly or indirectly, the 
 case with the followers of nearly every trade and pro- 
 
142 National Cultivation of Art and Science. 
 
 fession carried on in a civilized country. Science is, never- 
 theless, also mental as well as manual, so far as regards 
 the important exercise and aid that it affords to the 
 intellectual faculties of all those by whom it is studied. 
 
 The influence of both art and science in relation to 
 their effect on the mind of the nation, is reciprocated by 
 the effect of the mind of the nation upon them. They 
 influence in an important manner the tastes, and feelings, 
 and opinions of the people ; and the tastes, and feelings, 
 and opinions of the people in turn influence and modulate 
 the former. In most instances, indeed, the condition of 
 art and science is largely affected, if not mainly produced, 
 by the condition of the public mind, and S23rings princi- 
 l^ally from this soui'ce ; though in its turn it correspond- 
 ingly influences the public mind. Thus is it also with 
 regard to legislation, which is more frequently directed by 
 the state of public feeling and the character of a nation, 
 than it is able to direct them. The bias of the public 
 mind is, moreover, reflected by the pursuits that engross 
 the attention of the people, which appear to be striving 
 here to take the lead, while in reality they only follow. 
 
 A difficulty may occasionally be experienced in the 
 correct and distinct classification of particular pursuits ; 
 and it may be doubtful whether some studies belong to art 
 or to science, and whether certain others can be properly 
 considered as appertaining to either class. In many 
 branches of manufacture, both art and science are em- 
 ployed. Language belongs as much to art as to science, 
 and is equally regulated by, and applicable to both 
 alike. 
 
 It might perhaps be contended that language forms a 
 distinct and indciiendent Element of civilization, and that 
 it ought to be so considered. Language, however, is not 
 of itself an Element of civilization, but only a constituent 
 in one of its Elements. It can do nothing alone, to 
 promote civilization ; but as a vehicle in the exercise of 
 
Becijrrociiy of Influences. 143 
 
 art, both as regards poetry and eloquence, and as aiding 
 the means of intercourse both between those of the same 
 country, and between different nations, it is most important. 
 
 Under the term Art, is here comprehended not only the 
 fine arts of painting, poetry, sculptui-e, eloquence, music, 
 and architecture, but whatever else contributes to the 
 refinement and convenience of life, and is ornamental, as 
 distinguished from what is actually necessary. 
 
 By the term science, is here meant not only experi- 
 mental philosophy, but all knowledge whereby we are 
 enabled to deal with physical subjects, and to render them 
 applicable to the uses of life. Considered in this light, 
 medicine, and the pursuits which are adjunctive and 
 auxiliary to it, must, among the sciences which are neces- 
 sary to the well-being of society, and also to the civiliza- 
 tion of a nation, be ranked very high. Science is, more- 
 over, in a great measure the foundation of commerce. By 
 science we are enabled to avail oui'selves to the utmost of 
 the resources of a country ; and according to our extent 
 in the possession of this knowledge, we are in reality 
 nationally richer. Science also unites with art in adding 
 to the conveniences as well as to the necessaries of life, as 
 in the case of dress, which is indebted as much to the one 
 as to the other for ornament. In this respect, the costume 
 of a country is to a large extent a test of its condition in 
 civilization ; although on the other hand this may exist in 
 considerable splendour, as in Persia and China, where 
 civilization is at a low ebb ; because, although art and 
 science are essential to the civilization of a country, they 
 are not the only Elements for this purpose. Nevertheless, 
 of all the arts, that of dress or costume, if not the most 
 influential in itself, is probably that whose influence 
 is the most felt, and which operates directly ujjon the 
 people at large, who all more or less pay attention to it, 
 however they neglect or may be indiflerent to the higher 
 and nobler branches of art. On dress or costume, too, 
 
144 National Cultivation of Art and Science. 
 
 the other arts exercise an important influence, and it, in its 
 turn, extensively influences them. 
 
 Science further indirectly aids the cause of civilization, 
 by supplying mechanical power for use in manufactures, 
 in the case of machinery and other eflorts requiring great 
 force for setting them in operation. In two distinct and 
 independent modes, this conduces to civilization. It aids 
 the production of various articles of commerce, and in 
 many cases it also adds to the superiority of their quality. 
 On the other hand, in all the varieties of manufacture, art 
 should not only minister to their adornment and imj)rove- 
 ment, but should serve to carry refinement, taste, and 
 elegance into each department of practical life. Science 
 also aids the cause of civilization by preventing the 
 necessity for employing human power in the most servile 
 works. The ancients used their slaves for the latter 
 purpose, who su23j)lied the want of mechanical power. 
 The moral effect of employing human labour, whether free 
 or slave, is necessarily debasing. To some extent even 
 compelling animals to perform it, where this is attended 
 with pain or great labour, is brutalizing to the mind from 
 its barbarity. Science happily has extensively relieved 
 us from the necessity of resorting to such means. 
 
 Both art and science, therefore, being so important and 
 so influential, are worthy of national jiatronage and sup- 
 port, not so much to preserve them from neglect, as to 
 secure the cultivation and application of them being carried 
 on in the most efficient and advantageous manner. This 
 is a matter of too much consequence to be trusted to 
 mere chance or individual caprice ; while the state, being 
 mainly interested in its due performance, is the legiti- 
 mate patron of art and science. 
 
 The arts, more especially those of music, poetry, and 
 painting, as regards their effect and power in the refine- 
 ment and elevation of the mind, seem to impart a kind of 
 natural inspiration. They are adapted essentially to aid 
 
Aid of Art and Science to Civilization. 145 
 
 the operation of religion, and, in conjunction with it, to 
 exalt the intellectual powers over the sensual and animal 
 feelings and propensities, and to afford to the soul the 
 most pure and ecstatic enjoyments. Nor are their effects 
 less extensive or important on a nation than on an in- 
 dividual, as regards its cultivation and civilization. In 
 one respect more particularly, the arts of painting and 
 poetry especially, are capable of exercising a deep-felt 
 influence in the opportunities which they offer of duly 
 representing, celebrating, and commemorating those cha- 
 racters and events which are of the greatest worth and 
 dignity, and which have contributed most to the glory of 
 the nation. The general condition, and also the peculiar 
 character of the arts pursued in any country, affords, 
 moreover, the surest indication of those of the state, espe- 
 cially as regards its mental and moral advancement. The 
 arts both reflect with the utmost precision and clearness the 
 intellectual condition, and tastes, and feelings, and habits, 
 and tone of thought of the nation, and these qualities are 
 in turn reflected by and influence the arts. The most 
 barbarous tribes have hardly ever, if in any case, been 
 found entirely destitute of all knowledge of art, especially 
 of the rudiments of poetry, music, jDainting, and sculpture, 
 and also of costume and architecture. Many of these arts 
 have indeed been to a certain extent connected with, and 
 have both influenced and been influenced by religion. To 
 the study of the arts of painting and sculpture, so 
 attractive in itself, the attention of the people will be 
 naturally turned ; and the establishment of public galleries 
 containing choice specimens of works of this nature, 
 affords them an opportunity of cultivating their taste in 
 this respect, and both promotes a love of art, and refines 
 and improves the national mind and taste. 
 
 An acquaintance with the rudiments of pictorial art is, 
 moreover, generally advantageous. A knowledge of 
 drawing, especially, is useful to every one. One veiy 
 
116 National Cultivation of Art afid Soieitce. 
 
 powerful, although perhaps indirect, mode, in which this 
 art contributes to the refinement of each individual, as 
 also to the general civilization of mankind, is by the 
 effect that it produces in leading those who are imbued 
 with its principles to the observation and admiration of 
 nature, to love whatever is pure, and beautiful, and enno- 
 bling in hei", and to engage and delight in the pleasures of 
 taste, which draw off the mind from all sensual pursuits, 
 and exalt it to the sublimest contemplations. An occupa- 
 tion of this kind not only creates a new som-ce of enjoy- 
 ment and recreation in the capacity for admiring nature 
 that it affords, but is practically useful also, as already 
 jiointed out, in many manual operations and commercial 
 (enterprises. The value of the art of design in pictorial 
 illustration is, moreover, every day exhibited.* 
 
 Aristotle, in the fifth book of his Politics, refers to the 
 efficacy of music in moral discipline, and its important 
 use to " promote moral improvement, refine the sentiments, 
 and exalt the character." This is an art, moreover, which 
 may be cultivated by all classes alike, and by which all 
 alike are influenced. 
 
 The general effect of music, both upon an individual 
 and upon a nation, is to raise and refine the mind and 
 taste, and to purify the pursuits, in all these respects 
 directly and powerfully contributing to civilization. 
 Nevertheless, the character of the influence which music 
 ill any case exercises, whether upon a people or upon a 
 person, must, necessarily, to a large extent correspond 
 with that of the music itself. Such music should, there- 
 fore, be provided for the general entertainment of the 
 public as will most tend at once to refine and elevate 
 their minds, and as is best adapted to suit both their 
 tastes and their capacities. Of all music, sacred music 
 'is doubtless by far the most ennobling and the most 
 influential. 
 
 * Ihi Theory of the Arts, vol. I., chap. 1,, p. 9. 
 
Musie. 147 
 
 Whetlier, on Sunday eveniDgs, concerts of sacred music, 
 to wliich tlie public of all classes sliould be admitted 
 gratuitously, migbt not with great advantage be opened, 
 and wbicli could be held in some of our large public 
 buildings, may reasonably be demanded ? By tliis means 
 many would not only be drawn away from places of 
 licentious amusement, but religious impressions could not 
 fail to be inculcated, independent of tlie elevating, and 
 refining, and civilizing effect of such performances. 
 
 Exhibitions of paintings from scriptural subjects might 
 also, with considerable benefit, both as regards religion and 
 civilization, be opened to the public on Sundays, after the 
 hours of Divine service, by means of which teaching of a 
 very effective kind might be imparted which can be given 
 in no other way, and through which many might be led to 
 meditate on subjects of the- nature represented, who could 
 not be induced to hear a sermon, or be persuaded to read 
 a book. 
 
 The national poetry of a country is ever of the greatest 
 importance as regards its civilization. The influence of 
 this branch of art is exercised in two distinct modes, 
 quite independent of each other : — 1. With regard to the 
 sentiments and principles which it serves to inculcate, as 
 in the case of the noble spirit of nationality induced by 
 the Jewish poetry, and that of some other countries. 
 2. As leading to the popular cultivation of one of the 
 most important branches of the arts. If, however, poetry 
 in general is influential in this respect, most especially so 
 is religious poetry, which has the strongest hold on the 
 feelings, aspires so high, and in every country forms the 
 most stimulating and most sublime branch of this art. But 
 of all religious poetry, that which is of most extensive 
 consequence as regards its popular diffusion and influence, 
 and which is calculated to produce the greatest effects in 
 relation to the civilization of a people, is the devotional 
 poetry which is adapted for congregational melody, and 
 
1 48 National Cultivation of Art and Science. 
 
 v.'liicli will be in the mouths, and animate the feelings of 
 all. The Common Prayer-Book of the Church of England, 
 exhibits an extraordinary union of the most eloquent prose, 
 with the most prosaic verse, — the most elegant of unrhymed 
 compositions, wdth the most unpoetical rhymes. Thus, 
 while the prayers are composed in language of the highest 
 and purest rhetorical, as well as devotional excellence; 
 and the Psalms and a23j)ointed portions of Scripture which 
 are translated into prose seem to show how little real 
 poetry is dependent for its beauty on measured rhyme ; — 
 the authorised version of the same Psalms appear as 
 though almost designed to prove incontestably how pos- 
 sible it is for rhyme of every variety, and on the loftiest 
 topics, to be composed without possessing any other 
 element of poetry than its form, and the noble themes 
 to which it is devoted; — an, inert body without life; 
 the shape of the intellectual man, but devoid of the 
 soul which mainly distinguishes him. The extreme 
 poverty of our authorised devotional poetry, cannot but 
 be regarded as a great bar to the refinement and civiliza- 
 tion, as well as the spiritual elevation of the lower 
 classes, whose notions of what poetry is and ought to be, 
 are principally derived from the productions of Tate and 
 Brady, and Sternhold and Hopkins. This, moreover, has 
 given a low and degenerate tone to congregational melody 
 in general. Sternhold and Hopkins might, in the minds 
 of reasonable and moderate men, be supposed to Lave 
 reached the lowest point attainable in the degradation vf 
 the sacred muse. But unliappy and later experience has 
 proved that there was yet a profoundcr depth in the abyss 
 which modern rhymers have successfully attempted to 
 reach. In the older versions alluded to, there are, indeed, 
 choice passages here and there of real poeiry and genius, 
 which serve to redeem the mass from absolute imbecility. 
 In the modem eifusions, however, one monotonous style 
 of insijudity and poverty pervades the whole performance. 
 
Poetry : National and Devotional. 149 
 
 It would almost se*7Ti, indeed, as though in the composi- 
 tion of these unattractive rhymes, a minute calculation 
 had first heen made as to what are the essential elements 
 and characteristics of the sublime productions of the sweet 
 psalmist of Israel, and of other corresponding poetic 
 devotional pieces in Holy Scripture ; and that when this 
 was effected, a deliberate and strenuous effort had been 
 made to compose something as opposite to them as pos- 
 sible, particular care being taken to exclude every merit 
 and beauty in the way of either feeling or poetry, by which 
 they are distinguished. It appears, in fact, to be an 
 established canon with some people, the orthodoxy of 
 which it is heresy to dispute, that poetry, in order to be 
 truly devotional, must be thoroughly doggrel ! 
 
 Most unfortunate it is that the only samples of religious 
 poetry possessed by the bulk of the people of this country, 
 should be of this low and mean character, which are not 
 calculated to produce any of the grand, and powerful, and 
 ennobling results for which poetry of a genuine order is 
 peculiarly capacitated. It is alone from the existence of 
 these authorized barbarities, that the apparent confusion 
 in the minds of many rational people of education can be 
 accounted for, as to there being no distinction between 
 mere versification and poetry. On the other hand, the 
 hymns and versions of some of the psalms by Addison, 
 Pope, Heber, Keble, Moultrie, Cowper, Burns, and certain 
 other of oiu" genuine poets, afford full proof hov/ capable 
 sacred poetry in our language is of attaining the sweetest 
 and the sublimest strains. How desirable does it appear 
 that an authorized version of the Psalms, selected from 
 these and other productions of sterling merit, should be 
 prepared, and should be adopted for uniform use. 
 
 Nor has any improvement of late been exhibited as 
 regards the tone and style of our sacred poetry, but in 
 many cases the tunes adopted are as barbarous and un- 
 musical as the hymns themselves, so that there is at all 
 
150 National Cultivation of Art and Science. 
 
 events the redeeming merit of uniformity and consistency 
 between the two. In no nation of the world, however — • 
 not even among the savage ishmders of the South Seas — is 
 there so little attention paid to the very important subject 
 of sacred melody as an aid to public worship, as in our 
 own. Possibly, indeed, the dull, spiritless, prosaic style 
 and tone of our religious hymnal poetry, has been chosen 
 to adapt it especially to the character of the sermons, to 
 many of which it must be admitted that it forms in all 
 respects a most suitable accompaniment, as the eloquent 
 and forcible language of the liturgy does to the reading of 
 the Scriptures. Great and successful efforts have been 
 made to improve church music, but none to improve 
 church poetry, which has indeed declined correspondingly 
 as the other has advanced. 
 
 The advice which Dr. Johnson is said to have given to 
 an aspiring author, — that he should strike out from his com- 
 position every sentiment that appeared to him peculiarly 
 fine, seems to have been adopted literally by the editors 
 of certain of our congregational hymnal collections, who 
 have either carefully and rigidly expunged all passages 
 remarkable for their force, feeling, or beauty, or have so 
 mutilated them that all their point and excellence have 
 been completely obliterated, whereby the grateful task 
 of emasculation has been successfully accomplished. 
 
 It was the fashion, not many years ago, to neglect all 
 attention to architectural decorum, and tasteful observance 
 in the structure of ecclesiastical edifices ; but which has 
 now happily given place to a proper regard to their 
 erection. What formerly prevailed with respect to reli- 
 gious edifices, now prevails concerning one of the most 
 important parts of religious services. Let us hope that a 
 corresponding correction of the barbarous spirit and feel- 
 ing of the time may ere long be effected, and that 
 suitable compositions for devotional melody may be 
 supplied. 
 
National 3Ioniiments. 151 
 
 Tlie erection of national raonnmeuts to the memory of 
 individiials, who by their works or their virtues have con- 
 ferred benefit or honour on their country, or on mankind, 
 or in order to commemorate imjDortant pubUc events, are 
 means by which the arts of sculpture and architecture 
 produce the most influential moral effects. The great 
 men who adorn a nation, are its noblest property, and the 
 chief promoters of its prosperity. It behoves their country 
 to perpetuate their name and form, as they have so largely 
 contributed to establish its greatness and glory, and duly 
 to honour those who have conferred so much honour on 
 the state. These mementoes excite a laudable admiration 
 for the good deeds which they celebrate, and testify the 
 national respect entertained for the performers. Public 
 monuments, moreover, give a character to a nation, and 
 record the existence of what are in reality its noblest boast. 
 They much influence the genius of a people, and in their 
 turn exhibit the national feeling and genius. Indeed, the 
 moral effect of these erections, both in ancient and modern 
 times, has been made obvious ; nor is this the less certain 
 because, in our day, the shallow, utilitarian, and unphilo- 
 sophical spirit of some, has led them to despise this mode 
 of honouring the names of the illustrious great ; and 
 instead of raising a statue to perpetuate at once the 
 remembrance both of the person and the performances 
 of the individual who has entitled himself to our gra- 
 titude, his actions are sought to be commemorated by the 
 establishment of an institution which may be wholly un- 
 connected with the subject of his labours, and the influence 
 of which is not national, but confined only to a limited 
 number ; and whose advantages, if real, — instead of ima- 
 ginary, as is but too often the case, — are applicable to the 
 physical wants of a few, instead of influencing the mental 
 and moral condition of all. A monument, on the other 
 hand, when efficiently executed, not only best perpetuates 
 the memory of the person represented, and publicly records 
 
152 National Cultivation of Art and Science. 
 
 his good deeds, but appeals continually to the national 
 mind, and animates all posterity to walk in his steps. In 
 this country, indeed, it must be acknowledged that national 
 monuments have not been raised with any regard to the 
 merits or eminence of the persons so honoured ; and that 
 while some have been duly thus celebrated, others of equal 
 or less renown have been wholly neglected. Thus, to 
 neither Bacon, Newton, Locke, nor Milton, four of our 
 greatest names, have any national monuments been erected. 
 Burghley, Walpole, and Burke,* so eminent among states- 
 men ; Somers and Hardwicke, so great among lawyers ; 
 Chaucer, Spenser, Pope, and Wordsworth, such distin- 
 guished poets ; Harvey and Hunter, who did so much to 
 advance medical science ; are all similarly neglected. Nor 
 is it any excuse to say that these great men by their deeds 
 have raised monuments more imperishable than those of 
 brass or marble ; for if the moral effects of national 
 monuments are to be acknowledged at all, the neglect to 
 erect them in such cases as these must be correspondingly 
 felt. On the other hand, the number and profusion of 
 public monuments, the large proportion of them to indivi- 
 duals of little note or merit, greatly destroy the effect, 
 and mar the object of these tokens. Not to chance, nor 
 to individual favour or caprice, but to the declared opinion 
 ef the nation, it should be left to decide when and to whom 
 these trophies should be rendered : and the design and aim 
 of which should be, not to raise out of their natural and 
 appropriate insignificance those who were obscure while 
 living ; but to maintain among us in all their fame and 
 glory, the memory of those of genius and worth when they 
 are departed. 
 
 * Since these pages were originally written, a partial atonement 
 has, indeed, been made for this negk ct by placing the statues of 
 some of these great men in the vestibule leading to the He uses of 
 Parliament. This is, however, but a very small instalment of the 
 heavy national debt of justice due to our departed worthies of each 
 class. 
 
Civilizing effect of Monumental Tributes. 153 
 
 Monuments are, as it were, the shadows of the great 
 men whom they are intended to commemorate. By their 
 means we retain the remembrance, although we have lost 
 the presence, of the departed ; and we preserve some- 
 thing of their influence, though they themselves have long 
 since left us. 
 
 The essential advantage in regard to civilization, arising 
 from the national veneration paid to heroes and great men, 
 results from the stimulus which it excites to emulate their 
 virtues, and to shun all those vices which are the counter- 
 part of these qualities, by which lustre like theirs would be 
 tarnished. The use of monuments in this respect is two- 
 fold. : — 1. To preserve the memory of those great men to 
 whom they are erected, and of their virtues also. 2. To 
 testify the regard of the nation for those great men, and 
 for the virtues which they displayed. In both these 
 respects, they are extensively and directly conducive to 
 civilization ; and are calculated to carry it to the highest 
 point. 
 
 Our great poet Wordsworth, in two of his letters,* 
 expresses his opinion that eminent poets, less than any 
 other persons, stand in need of such marks of distinction, 
 inasmuch as their works serve to raise more imperishable 
 monuments to their memories than could be effected by 
 any statues of brass or marble. He also objects to tributes 
 to genius of this nature, as calculated to draw off atten- 
 tion from its claims of a more solid kind. Poets who 
 have been cut off in early youth, before they had the 
 opportunity of achieving for themselves lasting fame, 
 ought, however, he considers, to be commemorated by a 
 monument. And heroes who perished in battle should be 
 honoured with these mementoes, because " their noble 
 actions cannot speak for themselves as the writings of 
 men of genius are able to do." Gratitude towards them, 
 
 * Life of William Wordsworth, by the Eev. Dr. Wordsworth. 
 Vol. XL, pp. 88, 91. 
 
154 NaUoyial Cultivation of Art and Science. 
 
 lie tliinlvs, ought to be publicly manifested. For states- 
 men, lawyers, and divines, and those who have devoted 
 themselves to abstruse science, he deems monuments to 
 be apt tributes, but not for men of genius, especially 
 poets. 
 
 Here, however, it appears to me that our excellent poet 
 has fallen into a double error ; in the first place, as re- 
 garding monuments to be of a memorial nature only, as 
 calculated merely to keep alive the memory of the de- 
 parted : whereas their real object is not so much to per- 
 petuate his memory, which he himself has already rendered 
 imperishable, as to perpetuate the remembrance of the 
 homage paid to him by his contemporaries. And, in*the 
 next place, the object of the monument is not so much to 
 benefit, or even to add to the glory of him to whom it is 
 raised, as it is to benefit the public at large, through the 
 moral effect which it may produce upon them, by evincing 
 the national homage which is paid to virtue, to genius, and 
 to enterprise. At all events, in each case, the keeping alive 
 the memory of the departed, is but one object only out of 
 several, in raising a monument; and of these several 
 objects, it is that which is the least valuable, and the 
 least important. In addition to this, it may be observed, 
 that it wdll generally happen that the more "deserving any 
 particular person is of having a monument erected to his 
 memory, if the perpetuation of his remembrance and fame 
 only are aimed at, by so much the less will he stand in 
 need of it. On the other hand, just in proportion as the 
 erection of a monument is but little needed by himself for 
 securing this object, the more desirable is its erection on 
 account of the moral efl'ects, already alluded to, which 
 such a tribute is capable of producing. 
 
 That renowned emperor, and really great man, Napo- 
 leon I., who was the highest authority on such a subject 
 observed with regard to monuments, that " it should bo 
 left to after ages to construct them, when the good opinion 
 
Najpoleon on National MonumcnU. 155 
 
 conceived of the heroes is confirmed."* But here I must 
 be permitted to remark, that those whose fame is so great 
 and so extensive in after-ages as to secure a monument 
 being raised to them by posterity, least of all, as already 
 remarked, stand in need of a monument, their own good 
 deeds alone sufficing to secure their honourable remem- 
 brance. There are, however, many persons of considerable 
 worth and merit, for whom posterity may care but little, 
 who well deserve a monument to their memory, and whose 
 achievements are especially of that nature as to require 
 to be so recorded, and to render it desirable that they 
 should be thus kej)t in remembrance. A monument 
 should moreover serve, not only as a memorial of the 
 dead, but as a record of the respect entertained for him 
 while living, by those who were contemporary with him, 
 and which posterity is unable to afford. The opinion of 
 posterity, as being the most impartial, is the most valuable 
 respecting the merits of a great man, concerning whom 
 his contemporaries may, and generally do, entertain pre- 
 judices in one direction or another. But it is rather as a 
 tribunal of appeal than as an original court of judicature, 
 that the sentence of posterity is mainly to be regarded. 
 Posterity, moreover, are seldom sufficiently connected 
 with, or interested about a man, to care to raise a monu- 
 ment to his memory. 
 
 Some persons have even gone so far as to contend that 
 a national monument ought not to be capable of practical 
 utility in any way, on the ground that it should be a 
 sacrifice of so much in value as it costs, by the public, as 
 a tribute to the individual so honoured. But without 
 either adopting or repudiating the principle referred to, I 
 would observe that, even here, what the public loses in 
 money it gains in moral effect. The results produced 
 by a striking monument, suitably placed, are far more 
 
 * An Conseil de la Seine. 
 
156 National Civilization of Art and Scie7ice. 
 
 efficient than any v^'liicli could be caused by the most 
 serviceable substitute for it of a practical nature that 
 raio-ht be finmd. 
 
 The erection of national monuments has, however, no 
 necessary connection with or dependence upon art, inas- 
 much as memorials of this description, in all respects 
 perfectly efficient, may be raised, which are quite devoid 
 of all pretensions to artistical merit, and of all claims to 
 belong to works of that class ; as in the case of a plain 
 pillar or column, which may have been put up to com- 
 memorate either a particular event or a particular person. 
 Indeed, many monuments of this kind, instead of being 
 ornaments, are gross disfigurements to the neighbourhood 
 in which they stand, and of which it would not be difficult 
 to cite some striking examples. It ought, however, to be 
 so arranged that the merit of the monument as a work of 
 art shall add lustre to the object for which it was raised ; 
 while, on the other hand, the dignity of its object adds to 
 its importance as an artistical performance. 
 
 Memorials to perpetuate the remembrance of great men 
 may also be obtained, as already observed, by the establish- 
 ment of a particular institution, or charitable, or literary 
 fund, to which the name of the departed may be attached. 
 But this, for the reasons already assigned, aj)pears to be a 
 less legitimate and less efficient mode of recording their 
 memory than the erection of suitable statues. 
 
 One very ready, economical, and impressive mode of 
 honouring the memories of great men, is by calling streets 
 and different parts of a town after their names, by which 
 an importance is given to them, and their remembrance 
 is resp(!cted and cherished. Jn choosing names for new 
 streets, it does, indeed, seem to be an omission, and is a 
 loss of opportunity, not always to give them designations 
 which are either commcmor:itive of some contemporary 
 event, or memorial of some of the distinguished characters 
 of the time. 
 
National Buildings. 157 
 
 The public national edifices in every country, not only 
 admit of being, but should be properly, in each case, raised 
 and decorated according to the principles of art. Indeed, 
 they should not merely be erected with becoming dignity 
 and grandeur, but should have a distinct individual and 
 appropriate form and character of their own, according to 
 the purposes they are intended to serve ; and they should 
 be adapted duly to influence and to be prized by the 
 people whose property they are. 
 
 Public buildings may and ought, moreover, to be not 
 only peculiarly adapted as regards their general form and 
 requirements for the objects they are intended to serve, 
 but they may, and ought to be, emblematical also of these 
 purposes.* Thus, a church is in various' ways emblem- 
 atical of our holy religion, a castle of martial strength 
 and firmness, a gaol of penitential seclusion and gloom, a 
 college of scholastic retirement and study, a theatre of the 
 tragic and comic events to be represented within its walls. 
 
 Many of our buildings erected at the national cost are, 
 nevertheless, a disgrace to the national taste, even in those 
 cases where persons of education directed their construc- 
 tion. Our county prisons, — some of them occupying pic- 
 turesque positions which they disfigure and degrade, — 
 from tlieir hideousness appear as though intended to be 
 thus additionally deterring from crime ; while our lunatic 
 asylums suggest the idea that the lunatics themselves must 
 have been their architects. 
 
 In the proper disposition of public buildings, placing 
 them to the best advantage, the laying out and arrange- 
 ment of the streets, the artistical ornamentation to be 
 applied to each of these structures, and the proper adorn- 
 ment and tasteful erection and preservation of the whole 
 city and its buildings, the rulers of a state may legitimately 
 interfere, and with benefit to the public ; and their in- 
 terference alone is capable of being efficient, and is there- 
 * The Theory of the Arts, vol. II., chap. IX., p. 114. 
 
158 National Cultivation of Art and Science. 
 
 fore requisite. The cost of carrying all this out should also 
 be defrayed by the state, as the state reaps the advantage 
 which accrues therefrom. 
 
 Both art and science are, however, applicable not only 
 to public but to private buildings ; and when generally 
 cultivated, and blended together, as they ever ought to 
 be, they are calculated to promote the improvement of the 
 dwellings of all classes, both as regards ornament and j 
 convenience. Art, indeed, is capable of contributing 
 directly and extensively to the promotion of civilization, 
 through the opportunity which it affords to the people for 
 erecting and decorating their habitations, both externally 
 and internally, with due regard to taste and beauty, so as 
 to combine comfort with convenience, and refinement 
 with utility. Hence the whole design of the building is 
 so formed as to render it an object of pleasure as well as 
 of use, and the furniture and domestic articles are con- 
 structed upon the same principle. From the mind being 
 constantly accustomed to the contemplation of beauty, and 
 order, and regularity in each object around it, even in 
 those for the commonest domestic j)urj)oses, — which is 
 but strictly according to the economy that nature has 
 arranged, where beauty in each case is combined with 
 utility — it becomes habituated not only to delight in such 
 objects, but it learns to abhor and shun whatever is rude, 
 and barbarous, and distasteful. Art and science may 
 here mutually aid the efforts of each other, and may also 
 mutually correct the deficiencies which are discernible in 
 either. 
 
 Even in the construction of edifices intended only for 
 commercial purposes, due attention should be paid to their 
 being erected with the taste, and with the regard to archi- 
 tectural proj)riety, that the nature of the building allows. 
 The sordid spirit which is apt to be generated here, ought 
 not to be harmonized with — as appears to be the object 
 in om' day of mercantile edifices — but to be corrected and 
 
National disfigurements. 159 
 
 counteracted. Napoleon, whose great mind well under- 
 stood the requirements of a nation, magnanimously 
 declared, — " The market-place is the Louvre of the com- 
 mon people." They should enjoy in such a place, not 
 only the conveniences of commerce, but the social refine- 
 ments of civilization. 
 
 It seems also to be both just and politic to require of 
 all persons who erect buildings in conspicuous situations, 
 especially those of a national or public description, as for 
 instance, bridges, viaducts, and public offices of any kind, 
 that they should be of such form and ax^pearauce as not to 
 disfigure the country, or prove unsightly and displeasing 
 to those who pass by them. The nation ought, surely, to 
 be fully protected in its enjoyment of the gifts of Nature, 
 among which the beauties of scenery are the most delight- 
 ful, elevating, and refining. And if we rigidly enact laws 
 against any oifence of the organs of smelling, or hearing, 
 or feeling ; why should we not equally guard against the 
 annoyance of the far higher sense of sight, the disagreeable 
 alBfection of which is as injurious to our intellectual and 
 moral, as that of the others is to our material being ? 
 
 Of all the arts for popular cultivation in a nation, espe- 
 cially in its rural districts, that of ornamental gardening 
 is one which is particularly adapted for the working 
 classes, and which, as an occupation, is at once physically 
 healthful, and mentally and even morally refining. The 
 contemplation of nature has ever a civilizing effect ; and 
 the study of flowers, where her beauties and tasteful 
 charms are peculiarly exhibited, is at once purifying to 
 the feelings and improving to the mind. To those em- 
 ployed in artistical manufactures, such delightful studies 
 are directly manually useful. Public walks and gardens 
 to which the people may have free resort, and which are 
 tastefully laid out according to the j)rinciples of this art, 
 have also a powerfully civilizing influence upon the people 
 of every nation, and that in a variety of ways. 
 
160 National Cultivation of Art and Science, 
 
 It is essential, tlierefore, as already observed, tliat some 
 l)rovision should be made by the state for the due en- 
 couragement and support of the arts of each kind, as also 
 of literature in general. The extensive cultivation and 
 high perfection of art is, moreover, not only no contri- 
 butor to, much less a proof of luxury, or of the decline of 
 civilization in any country ; but, on the contrary, luxury 
 is as inimical to art in its highest state, as it is to civili- 
 zation ; and the decline of art is invariably contemj)orary 
 with, if not in every instance the cause of the decline of 
 the latter.* But the object of state patronage should not 
 be to suj)ply the place of private munificence, or of public 
 encouragement of the arts, on which they must mainly 
 rely, and by which alone is the influence of the arts shown 
 to be felt and valued by the nation ; but the patronage, 
 and, indeed, the interference in any case of the state, is 
 chiefly required here for two purposes : — 1. To correct 
 the public taste, and to direct it in that channel which is 
 nationally most improving and valuable. 2. To afford 
 encouragement to those works, both in art and literature, 
 which are of real importance to the public, but which pri- 
 vate patronage may be insufficient to secure. Such per- 
 formances deserve, therefore, to be nationally encouraged. 
 Not only, however, should the state render its support 
 here, but its rulers individually ought to exert themselves 
 to promote, and patronize, and encourage men of genius 
 and of learning, which they should do, not merely as 
 private j)ersons, but as j^ublic men. This system ought, 
 moreover, not only to be followed in the dispensation of 
 patronage, but to be incorporated with it. 
 
 The state should, however, not merely promote the 
 cultivation of art as regards the higher branches of this 
 pursuit, but should make exertions to induce the people 
 generally to pay attention to it, by which alone can civili- 
 
 * The Theory of the Arts, vol. I., chap. VI., p. 211 ; vol. II., 
 chap. XIII., p. 229. 
 
Recijprocal Influence of Art and Science* 161 
 
 zation through this means be extensively advanced among 
 them. If the government would undertake the expense, 
 which would be but trifling, of issuing engravings, either 
 plain or coloured, suitably executed, of works of art of 
 high merit, illustrative both of scriptural and of profane 
 history, which might serve for distribution by the clergy, 
 or other persons, among the people generally, or be sup- 
 plied to them at a very cheap rate, and which they could 
 hang up in their houses ; a vast deal would be at once 
 effected, not only towards the popular cultivation of art, 
 but in the promotion also of popular Education, and the 
 extension of Religious Influence. 
 
 Considering also the importance, and the extensively 
 beneficial and civilizing influence of music, upon the 
 inhabitants of any nation ; it is equally the duty of the 
 state to supply this, on certain occasions, for the general 
 benefit of the people, as also to furnish them with other 
 sources of desirable and improving recreation. This, too, 
 may be done at a very small expense in comparison with 
 the good resulting from it. On festive days, more espe- 
 cially, should musical performances be introduced. There 
 is this great advantage, moreover, in the state thus aiding 
 in the dissemination of art of different kinds ; that thereby 
 not only is the civilization of the nation promoted through 
 the influence of ^rt, but it is still further advanced by 
 the aid and patronage which the art in question thus 
 receives. 
 
 Nevertheless, the arts, like the various Elements of 
 civilization, and like civilization itself, are liable to 
 degenerate and decay. They require to be united with 
 other pursuits,* and especially with the different Elements 
 of civilization. They are too refining and enervating 
 when followed alone, not only on their devotees, but on 
 themselves. It is therefore desirable that they should be 
 blended with other occupations, both for the sake of them- 
 * Tlie Theory of the Arts, vol. I., chap. I., p. 35. 
 
162 National Cultivation of Art and Science. 
 
 selves and for tlie sake of civilization, in the promotion 
 and perfection of which they form so important an Element. 
 Followed exclusively, they are calculated too much not 
 only to render effeminate a nation, but to call off attention 
 from more invigorating pursuits. 
 
 That pursuit with v/hich the arts are best adapted to be 
 blended, is science. In every nation, genius of each kind 
 has displayed itself about the same time, in arts, in science, 
 and in arms.* Art is corrective of science, refines its 
 followers, and renders tasteful its operations ; and so far 
 from being superseded by, it is at the present period more 
 than ever essential for these ends.f Science, on the other 
 hand, improves art, and renders it applicable for all the 
 purposes of life. 
 
 Science being in most cases manually practical, is less 
 dependent on state patronage than is art. Yet this is 
 requisite, especially for two objects : — 1. To aid the ori- 
 ginators of new inventions in science, which may be of 
 great ultimate value to the public, but which the dis- 
 coverers may not be able to afford, or which it may not be 
 worth their while to perfect. 2. To encourage exj^eri- 
 ments in science, which those practically engaged in 
 them may not have the means, or ability, or leisure to 
 carry out ; but which it may be of the highest and most 
 essential importance to the state to complete. 
 
 Indeed, every state that aspires to reaching a high 
 condition of civilization, ought to provide an institution 
 especially adapted to aid the effecting of ex23eriments 
 for the discovery of new inventions, and for testing their 
 worth and genuineness, the expense of properly carrying 
 on and bringing which to maturity should be borne by the 
 nation, which should also afford every encouragement to 
 men of genius to devote their energies to undertakings of 
 such sterling and national value. In many res23ects, and 
 
 * Gibbon's Decline and Fall of the .Homan Empire. 
 t The Theory of the Arts, vol. II., cliap. XIV., p. 257. 
 
Princi])les of Civil Liherty. 163 
 
 on several accounts, institutes of tliis kind may very advan- 
 tageously be grafted on our universities, which contain 
 an assemblage of learned and eminent men qualified for 
 such efforts, and which would further attract to our 
 universities men of the highest attainments and the greatest 
 renown. 
 
 V.-LIBERTY OF THE PRESS, AND TOLERATION. 
 
 That Element of civilization which I have designated 
 by the general name of Liberty of the Press, and Tole- 
 ration, in which is included the right of free thought 
 and speech upon all questions, whether political, moral, 
 or religious ; demands next to be considered, both on 
 account of its connection alike with the preceding Elements 
 of Religious Influence and Tnstructorial Icstitutions, as 
 also because the principles which regulate it have refer- 
 ence to a portion of the subject-matter in those Elements 
 which are to follow, and requii'e, consequently, to be laid 
 down and determined before entering upon the discussion 
 of the latter. 
 
 The Element now under consideration, is as essential 
 for the complete civilization of a state as, and in a manner 
 corresponding with that in which, the free exercise of his 
 judgment is essential for the perfect education of the 
 man. 
 
 There is, however, this important difference observable 
 in the nature of the Element now before us, as distin- 
 guished from those which have already been considered, 
 and those which follow ; that it is entirely of a negative 
 kind, consisting not in the provision of certain aids or 
 institutions necessary to civilization, but in the pro- 
 hibition of certain acts or proceedings to which the 
 people in each country, of whatever party or opinion, are 
 naturally prone, and from which they require to be 
 prevented, in order that that entire freedom of thought, 
 
164 Liberty of the Press, and Toleration. 
 
 and of intellectual and moral action, may be preserved, 
 which is so essentially conducive to a perfect, and, indeed, 
 to a high condition of civilization. Restraint of liberty 
 of one kind, is here resorted to, only in order to ensure 
 the possession and exercise of liberty of another kind, in 
 a manner the most complete. 
 
 Every one is primarily and naturally entirely free 
 alike as regards thought, speech, and action, of every 
 description, provided that his proceedings do not interfere 
 with the well-being of the state, or of bis fellow-subjects ; 
 and to this extent, and to this only, ought his liberty of 
 each kind to be limited. Absolute liberty consists in the 
 unrestrained and complete power of the individual to do 
 whatever his inclination prompts him to, free from every 
 obstacle, fettered by no law, and wholly independent of 
 every consideration of right, or duty, or motive. This is 
 an extent, it may be termed an excess of liberty, to which 
 no created being ever attained, and which the Deity alone 
 could be endowed with, but which even He, it may be 
 presumed, would not deign to its full extent to exercise. 
 In reality, probably the only being in the universe who 
 is absolutely free, so far as freedom from all moral 
 restraint is essential to this condition, is the Devil. 
 
 Submission to authority does not necessarily imply 
 a restraint on liberty, or even a partial abridgment 
 of it. By authority is strictly and properly meant the 
 influence in regard to conduct of a man whose opinions 
 are believed to be founded on sound reason, on which 
 account, in forming our own, we desire to ascertain the 
 nature of his, and to adopt them if, and so far as, we agree 
 in the conclusions at which he has arrived. But examina- 
 tion of the opinions of another, of itself imjilies liberty to 
 approve or disapprove of them, and by no means leads to 
 the supposition that they are implicitly to be adopted 
 without free choice. 
 
 The complete coexistence and contemporaneous action 
 
lAberiy, Physical and Intellectual. 165 
 
 together of law and liberty, is the ultimate aim of juris- 
 prudence, and the highest object that it can attain. To 
 enjoy both these together is the noblest condition which 
 civil society can ensure. On the other hand, the excess 
 of liberty is not freedom but anarchy. The passions are 
 let loose, neither reason nor fear hold them in check, and 
 confusion and ruin are the inevitable residt. 
 
 Liberty and restraint are, indeed, hardly ever found in 
 an entirely pure condition, the one, although it is its exact 
 converse, being generally more or less mixed with the 
 other, and in many cases the admixture greatly con- 
 tributing, if not actually essential to its complete vigour. 
 Liberty unchecked by any restraint, often ends in tyra.nny. 
 Restraints on liberty are somewhat like rudders to ships : 
 they may in certain instances impede the rapidity of their 
 progress, but in all cases they promote the safety of the 
 passage. Those restraints only which are in no respect 
 either directly or indirectly conducive to liberty, are 
 absolutely intolerable, and ought ever to be resisted as 
 entirely opposed to freedom. 
 
 Civil liberty, which is the right that every individual 
 possesses of acting as he thinks proper, except so far only 
 as by so doing ho may inflict an injury or wrong on some 
 other member of the society to which he belongs, is of two 
 kinds: — 1. Physical liberty, or the right of j^erforming 
 such corporeal actions as the individual wills, subject to 
 the foregoing restraint, which is imposed by the state for 
 the benefit and protection of all the members of the com- 
 munity. 2. Intellectual liberty, or the right of exercising 
 his mental powers, and of aj)plying them in such manner 
 and for such purposes as be chooses, subject also to the 
 restraint already described. 
 
 It is not often either in the case of individuals or of 
 nations, that subjugation can be beneficial to them, 
 either mentally or morally. When, however, an individual 
 or a nation is sunk into imbecility, whether from luxury, 
 
166 Liberty of the Press, and Toleration. 
 
 degeneracy, or whatever cause, it may be for its advantage 
 that some other individual or some other state, who is 
 more highly endowed, should exercise control over it, and 
 suj)ply to its conduct that discretion and energy which in 
 its own natural and unaided action is wholly wanting. 
 Both in the case of states and persons, as a general rule, 
 independence is preferable to dejDendence. But if a par- 
 ticular state or a particular person is too weak and im- 
 becile to govern itself, it is better to exchange that 
 condition by becoming dependent on another by which 
 its affairs will be directed with vigour, and its efforts 
 or institutions carried on with spirit. In every case, 
 indeed, both government and liberty itself must be 
 tested, and must be valued, not by their abstract theoreti- 
 cal merits, but by the results they really produce. A 
 form of government which is perfect for one set of people 
 may be quite unfitted for another, and the freedom which 
 is so precious a boon to a sane man, to a maniac may prove 
 his greatest bane. 
 
 Although slavery is generally inimical to civilization 
 as regards its deteriorating and debasing effects on those 
 who are the subjects of it ; yet on the other hand, so far 
 as regards its tendency to promote the cultivation of many 
 arts, and compelling a people to active and industrious 
 habits, it may prove, although indirectly, extremely 
 advantageous in the promotion of civilization. 
 
 Physical slavery consequently produces results of two 
 opposite natures, both as regards those who exercise it 
 towards others, and those who suffer from it themselves. 
 Thus, while the domination over inferiors is of itself 
 directly debasing to the mind, the compelling them to do 
 the drudgery of life both relieves those who are thus 
 freed from it from all occupations of this kind, and allows 
 them full leisure for refining and civilizing pursuits ; so 
 that some j)ersons have even supposed that the existence 
 of slavery in a state is actually essential to its citizens 
 
 I 
 
Becijyrocal influence of Liberty and Slavery. 1 67 
 
 attaining any very liigli or perfect condition, either of 
 liberty or of civilization. On the other hand, those who 
 endure slavery, are debased in mind by this degradation, 
 and by the servile services which they have to undergo ; 
 though, at the same time, this very hardship itself tends to 
 soften and moderate many of those passions and feelings 
 which are most opposed to civilization ; and the condition 
 itself is often one of less barbarity and ignorance than 
 that in which the subjects of it were before their captivity. 
 On the whole, however, it cannot be doubted that physical, 
 as well as intellectual and moral liberty, in every nation, 
 is highly conducive to civilization. Intellectual and 
 moral slavery, when the mind is subjected to arbitrary 
 rule, and is no longer free to exercise itself at its will, is 
 the most grievous of all states ; and to guard against this 
 is the main object of the Element of civilization before us. 
 It is consequently with intellectual and moral liberty, 
 which is the oj)posite, and the antidote to this condition, 
 that we have alone here to do, as immediately connected 
 with the subject of civilization. This is, indeed, the most 
 valuable kind of liberty, and it is principally of two 
 kinds : — 1. Liberty of thinking, speaking, and writing 
 concerning matters of state, and of discussing freely the 
 laws and institutions of the country. 2. Liberty of 
 thinking, speaking, and writing concerning matters of 
 religion, and of discussing freely its doctrines and tenets. 
 The two grand civil regulations which in every free and 
 civilized state mainly conduce to establish these high 
 privileges, are those that come under the general terms of 
 Liberty of the Press, and Toleration. 
 
 There can be no doubt, indeed, that liberty, even in 
 the abstract, considered by itself independently, oj^erates 
 as a great stimulus to education and to civilization 
 generally ; as a state of servility is, od the other hand, 
 a severe check upon their advancement. Nor can it be 
 denied that liberty is more extensive, and certainly more 
 
 W fc* M fcS I' 
 
1 Q8 Liberty of the Press, and Toleration. 
 
 varied, in a condition of civilization than in one of 
 barbarism. For althongb in the former state many 
 restraints are imposed, yet these are imposed only for the 
 sake of securing still greater liberty as the price of them, 
 and as the final result. Restraint is thus made the parent 
 of liberty, and out of every curtailment of our freedom, 
 fresh freedom springs. Moreover, unless a people possess 
 liberty of action, they will not properly qualify themselves 
 to act. Of all the different kinds of freedom, freedom of 
 thought and speech are not only the most precious, but 
 they both lay the foundation for, and promote the security 
 of every other sort of freedom. Consequently, when this 
 liberty is restricted, education is dejDrived of half the 
 incentives to its progress. If, indeed, there is any right 
 which may be strictly termed a natural one, it is surely 
 that of Liberty of Conscience, which was given us by God, 
 and the exercise of which is a positive and a required 
 duty. And, doubtless, if any right is inalienable, it is 
 this. A free government, moreover, induces the people to 
 study the laws and institutions under which they live, 
 inasmuch as they feel that they have both an interest 
 in their maintenance, and an influence in their promotion. 
 
 Some of our ancient statutes appear to aspire not only 
 at checking the expression of sentiments, but the very 
 thought of them. And in truth, perhaps, difficult and 
 even imj)ossible as this may seem, it is of little use 
 restraining the former if we cannot also repress the 
 latter. 
 
 I. The establishment of a free and popular organ or 
 representative of opinion in a state, is of the utmost 
 importance and benefit to afford vent to the public feeling, 
 and to guard against abuses and unconstitutional acts 
 of the government. The free press of a nation corres- 
 ponds with the organ and power of speech in an individual. 
 Being allowed through this vehicle to give full expression 
 to its sentiments, all danger of resorting to physical force, 
 
A Free Press. 169 
 
 in order to remedy eacli grievance, is removed, or at any 
 rate much lessened. 
 
 Corresponding, therefore, with th-e general freedom of 
 discussion which is allowed upon all matters, both of 
 principle and of practice, should be the freedom alike of 
 inquiry and of animadversion which is permitted to the 
 press, especially upon political topics. Here, moreover, 
 while all direct attacks upon the authority of the govein- 
 ment, and all question as to the right to put in force 
 actually existing laws, must be strictly prohibited ; the 
 fullest discussion should be granted as to the expediency 
 of continuing or altering the laws, admitting at the same 
 time the undeniable duty of obeying them so long as they 
 continue to be the laws. 
 
 Although a free press tends more than anything to 
 provoke contentions, and that among people who are of 
 the same country, and are brought into close contact one 
 with another ; yet, on the other hand, it converts contests 
 of arms into contests of arguments, substitutes the pen for 
 the sword, and consumes ink instead of blood. The 
 feeling of animosity may be as great, and the contest may 
 be carried on as warmly as in martial encounters, but the 
 results are vastly different. The wounds inflicted are 
 moral instead of material, and principles, not persons, 
 are what fall in the battle. Thus the press has ofttimes 
 proved more powerful than artillery. While the latter 
 attacks the bodies, the former applies itself to the minds 
 of men. 
 
 There are two especial advantages possessed by the 
 press as the protector of the public against oppression, 
 and which the voice of the people declared in their 
 assemblies would fail to obtain. The first of them is that, 
 from the sentiments which are put forth being uttered 
 anonymously, the utmost boldness and independence are 
 exhibited in their expression.' And, in the next place, the 
 services of the greatest talent of which the nation can 
 
170 Libert j/ of the Press, and Toleration. 
 
 boast among those who are skilled in literary composition, 
 are secured to the public. The sentiments so expressed 
 are, in reality, to be considered not those of the writer 
 who pens them, but as those of the nation which are here 
 reflected, and by whom they are re-echoed. And it is this 
 consideration alone which gives them their force. 
 
 Although the press, invested as it is with so much 
 i:)ower as a public censor, has no means of directly 
 punishing those whom it condemns; yet it may prove 
 very efficient in the j)revention of misdemeanours, espe- 
 cially those of a moral and political nature, by deterring 
 people from them, through the fear of detection and 
 exposure which it creates. Punishment, indeed, indirectly, 
 it may and does inflict, though of a moral kind only, by 
 holding up to obloquy the objects of its just censure, and 
 thus also lessening their influence and power. 
 
 As already observed in a previous Element, the Press 
 has to a great extent superseded the Theatre, as it was 
 availed of at Athens as a moral censor. And it is, doubt- 
 less, far better adapted for this purpose, as apj^ealing 
 rather to deliberate reason than to passion, and to the 
 information of the people, instead of aiming merely at 
 satirical effect. Although less striking and exciting than 
 a theatrical representation to ridicule a foible, its efforts 
 produce a more permanent result. To expose an abuse, or 
 to point out an inconsistency, satire may not only be 
 resorted to with fairness, but such an application of it is 
 in reality its legitimate aim and object. 
 
 The Parliament and the Press together, through which 
 is afforded the amplest vent for the ebullition of the 
 national feeling, and by means of which it is expressed 
 with the utmost freedom, fully supply the place both of 
 the orators and the comic satirists of the days of Greece. 
 The main difference as regards the weapons employed is, 
 that in ancient times, eloquence and satire were principally 
 resorted to : in the present day, reason is that which is 
 
The Parliament and the Press. 171 
 
 most used, and which is better adapted for the service of 
 a state in a high condition of civilization ; as, though all 
 persons can be more or less moved by declamation and 
 ridicule, those only who have received at least a moderate 
 share of cultivation, can be acted upon by the appeals 
 of reason. Moreover, what the orator and actor gain in 
 force and momentary effect, the press more than makes up 
 for by the vast number to whom it at once addresses 
 itself, and by the permanence of the impressions which it 
 creates. 
 
 The press, especially through the newspaper, which is 
 one of the most extraordinary and striking features in 
 modern civilization, and which forms a new Element of it 
 wholly wanting in- that of any ancient times and states, is 
 also of immense use as a public instructor, both in 
 diffusing knowledge, and in inculcating correct princij^les ; 
 although perhaps it is more efficient to expose those which 
 are wrong, than to teach those which are right. In the 
 latter respect, if not in the former, it is like a church 
 establishment, and ought to aid the operations of that 
 institution by pointing out error and denouncing vice. 
 Following too in the track of the church, it assists in 
 extending information through every part of the nation. 
 
 As regards the use of the j)ress in aiding the communi- 
 cation of knowledge, and of intercourse, both between 
 communities in different parts of the same country, and 
 between different states, it is here extensively auxiliary to 
 Elements IX. and X. 
 
 The real power of the press is founded on truth and on 
 public opinion. Armed with the former and supported by 
 the latter, its strength is immense, if not irresistible. 
 Possessing the former, it ought also to obtain the latter. 
 But unless it is endowed with the former, its power is 
 more specious than solid, and in- the end it must give way, 
 however zealously the latter influence may for a time 
 uphold it. It is, however, highly favourable to the 
 
172 Liberty of the Press, and Toleration. 
 
 expression of trutli, and advantageous, too, for tlie 
 development of public opinion, that tlie different organs 
 of the press should espouse different principles on the 
 various political questions that are advocated, by which 
 each topic obtains the fairest and freest discussion, and truth 
 is most completely maintained ; and by which also the most 
 ample opportunity is afforded to the public of judging fully 
 and deliberately on the various measures put before them. 
 By this means also, a proper balance is preserved between 
 the different parties and opinions in the state, and con- 
 sequently no interest or institution is in danger of being 
 overwhelmed by the press. 
 
 Such an institution, so important to the interests of 
 each branch and party in the state, ought to be wholly 
 free. The public are entitled to the possession of such 
 an organ as this, for the declaration of their opinion. It 
 is only by expressing their exigencies and requirements 
 with freedom, that they can be well and adequately 
 governed, and which they have a right as far as possible 
 to secure as the very end of civil society itself. 
 
 But although the free and unrestrained discussion of 
 state questions and general topics in this manner is most 
 desirable, and is highly beneficial to the public ; the 
 conversion of that noble moral eugine the jiress into 
 a vehicle of slander, not for the public good, but for 
 private gain, or employing it for the propagation of 
 immorality or profaueness, ought ever to be prohibited by 
 the strictest laws. Even liberty in the discussion of 
 public questions must have its bounds. The firm 
 foundations of an established government ought not to be 
 constantly disturbed without some adequate cause ; or the 
 fundamental j)i'iiiciples of religion, which form the hope 
 of the nation, exposed to doubt and contumely, merely to 
 gratify individual vanity or caprice. These topics are 
 too sacred, and too much bound up with the private 
 interests and feelings of each individual, to allow of their 
 
Legitimate restraints on the Press. 173 
 
 being unsettled in tliis manner. A vast distinction, 
 indeed, is to be drawn between discussion as to fundamental 
 points, either in politics or religion, and minor considera- 
 tions of practice or theory arising out of them. The 
 former must be, to a certain extent, held inviolable, so 
 long as a large majority of the people not only acquiesce 
 in them, but rely on their being upheld, and on which the 
 safety and peace of the nation depend. To be ever 
 questioning their propriety or soundness, would so much 
 bring them into disrepute and contempt, and would 
 occasion such general perplexity and distrust, as to be a 
 worse evil than even the prohibition of discussion about 
 them altogether. And it is ever to be borne in mind that 
 it is fully as important, and indeed essential, to maintain 
 truth that is already established, as to establish truth 
 which has yet to prove its reality. The real and correct 
 principle to be adopted in this case, appears, however, to 
 be, not to prohibit such discussion, even as to the leading 
 principles of religion or government, altogether ; but to 
 require this, when practised, so to be conducted as not to 
 obtrude on the j)ublic mind, and to be pursued by its 
 follow^ers in private. Hence, even the questioning of 
 fundamental principles need not be forbidden beyond the 
 requisite bounds, when the reasons for restraining it no 
 longer exist. All abridgment of liberty is justified only 
 by necessity. Liberty exercised by one, ought not, 
 moreover, to be allowed to infringe on that of another. 
 It is essjnt!al, indeed, to obviate as far as possible the 
 occasion for discussions of this kind ; which can only 
 be done by maintaining in their integrity the true 
 principles of the government, and the purity of the 
 religion established. Even if then attacked, the people, 
 instead of joining in, will be led to repel the assault. 
 But in all cases, minor matters of practice and detail 
 connected with laws and religion, such as contemplated 
 changes in legislation, or the points in diiference between 
 
174 Liberty of the Press, and Toleration, 
 
 sects, cannot be too freely investigated. A man in 
 business discusses unreservedly with his friends in 
 private, as to the particular course he shall pursue, 
 according to special circumstances, and is glad of their 
 advice in each case ; but to be every day openly debating 
 whether he should renounce his business altogether, or 
 change his profession, would be unsettling to his habits, 
 and ruinous to his prospects. 
 
 The licentiousness of the press is altogether distinct 
 from its liberty. An individual may have entire physical 
 liberty, although he is not allowed to molest his neigh- 
 bours; or ample intellectual liberty, though he is pro- 
 hibited from throwing off all moral restraint. These 
 rational impediments do not, indeed, at all affect or 
 diminish the real perfection of his liberty. The liberty 
 of the press is not like that of a madman or a drunkard, 
 but resembles the freedom of a reasonable being. Its 
 liberty is not even promoted by its licentiousness, which 
 is only its perversion, and is a kind of disease to which it 
 is liable. The public, indeed, who are its patrons and 
 protectors, will never submit to be the victims individually 
 of its slanders ; nor will they tamely allow their legitimate 
 organ for the national good to be made a vehicle for 
 private malice, or corrupt purposes. This, indeed, must 
 eventually lead, not to the extension, but to the extinguish- 
 ment of its liberty. 
 
 It is due, however, to the press, especially to that por- 
 tion of it which is established in our o^\ti country, to 
 observe that the influence of the newspaper is on the whole 
 unquestionably and extensively beneficial, and in support 
 of civilization, and this in several ways. It not only 
 diffuses knowledge of various kinds, but the standard of 
 its style, and perhaps of its morality too, is, at the least, 
 on an average with, and probably much above that of the 
 generality of its readers, and therefore advantageous both 
 to their mental and moral progress. The precepts which 
 
Beligious Liheriy. 175 
 
 it enforces are for tlie most part favourable to both religion 
 and virtue, as no public instructor, whatever he might 
 think or feel, would venture to avow sentiments in opposi- 
 tion to established fundamental truths, and thus expose 
 himself at once both to the criticism and the censure of 
 rival journals, and of discerning readers. Heterodoxy is 
 mainly taught, not in public assemblies, but in private 
 conferences. With very few and perhaps unimportant 
 exceptions, the newspaper is also on the side of order and 
 good government ; although an extensive latitude must be, 
 and ought to be, allowed to it in the discussion of different 
 questions, and as the organ of various parties, who all 
 alike profess to be animated only by a desire for the 
 public weal. 
 
 II. The free discussion of questions relating to 
 different points in religious doctrine and practice, not 
 affecting the actual truth of religion itself, is of the 
 utmost importance for securing the establishment of reli- 
 gion in a pure form. Man has his reason given to him 
 by his Maker, both to guide him correctly in the choice 
 of a religion, and to guard him against errors in religion 
 in general. And it is only by the full and unfettered exer- 
 cise of that reason, that he can be expected to decide right 
 in the one case, or to be directed right in the other. To 
 this unrestrained and due exercise of reason, we owe it 
 that Christianity has supplanted paganism in this land ; 
 and by stifling it it is that error, and idolatry, and super- 
 stition seek to retain their dominion over the minds of 
 their votaries. In order also to preserve the purity and 
 the credit of the best of all religions, it is essential that a 
 full and free right of discussion should be allowed to all 
 parties, and which the erroneous and bigoted of all 
 parties alike will be found to be desirous of stifling. 
 Toleration, which permits, and indeed leads to inquiry 
 and reformation, constantly acts as a purifier of religion ; 
 while on the other hand, nothing so much tends to its 
 
176 Liberty of the Press, and Toleration. 
 
 deterioration as tlie forbidding its tenets to be canvassed, 
 and subjected to tbe test of reason, which operates like 
 fire in purging away the dross, and in correcting abuses. 
 
 Toleration, nevertheless, sj)rings as much, or indeed 
 more, from the largeness and real liberality of the mind of 
 the person exercising it, than from the particular creed 
 which he professes, or the code of laws under which he 
 may be living. Certain noble-minded Roman Catholics 
 are full of the spirit of toleration, while some Protestants 
 are as intolerant and persecuting as the Inquisition in Spain. 
 Moreover, as a general, if not invariable rule, those will 
 be found the most intolerant towards others, who are them- 
 selves the least entitled to be treated with toleration. 
 
 The two grand principles on which toleration is 
 founded, and the soundness of which few of well-discij)- 
 lined reason and extensive cultivation will be disposed to 
 doubt, are that every man has a right to the full and free 
 exercise of his reason in the investigation of truth ; and 
 that there are hardly any subjects of a practical nature so 
 certain as regards their rules and application, as not to 
 admit of controversy. The ground on which the support 
 of toleration rests, is that it is desirable to arrive at and 
 to preserve truth, and that this is best promoted and en- 
 sured by free discussion. Where positive trutli has been 
 attained, as in the case of the received veracity of the 
 Holy Scriptures, it is consequently not essential or ex- 
 pedient to extend toleration to its open and poj)ular inves- 
 tigation« But any point short of this, even to the free 
 questioning of the best form of religion, and, indeed, every 
 tojiic of this kind which is open to doubt aud debate, 
 should be within the scope of toleration, and be allowed 
 to be argued freely. Correspondingly, indeed, with the 
 preservation of the balance of power among states, the 
 rivalry and oj)position to each other, and the competition 
 without restraint or interruption, of different contending 
 political and religious sects, has the beneficial oflect of 
 
Basis of Toleration. 177 
 
 securing each party and doctrine from being put down or 
 overwhelmed by a powerful and persecuting opponent; 
 and prevents the suppression of truth, and of whatever 
 opinions may be advantageously promulgated for the well- 
 being of mankind. 
 
 Eeligious liberty must be based on the same foundation, 
 and regulated by the same principles, as liberty of every 
 other kind. The ultimate end and aim in this, as in 
 political and moral liberty, must be to relieve the agent 
 from alj undue restraints, and to retain such only upon 
 his conduct as will prevent him from doing injury either 
 to himself or others. From restrictions of this kind, no 
 good, no reasonable, no sane man will desire to be free. 
 Eeason should be allowed to have full sway, and the con- 
 duct to be guided by its dictates ; but even then it must 
 be subject to the restraints referred to. 
 
 The real basis of toleration consequently resolves itself 
 into the following axiom : — that as every man is answer- 
 able to God and his own conscience alone for all his acts, 
 and as the aid or intervention of no other man can exonerate 
 him or even relieve him from this obligation ; so ought 
 each individual to be allowed, to the fullest extent, and 
 in the freest manner, to perform his duty as his conscience 
 dictates to him, and without the interference of any other 
 person. While, however, on the one hand, the greatest 
 amount of toleration and political liberty to which any 
 one can reasonably desire to attain, is to be entirely free 
 to act according to the dictates of his conscience ; yet, on 
 the other hand, the severest restraint under which all 
 alike are placed, results from the allegiance which they 
 owe to that most absolute of despots, who of all rulers is 
 the most arbitrary, and whose decrees far exceed in severity 
 and rigour those of any state, either ecclesiastical or civil. 
 Conscience, indeed, is like a demagogue tyrant, who re- 
 pudiates all authority except his own, while he uses 
 his power with a despotic sway, far exceeding that of the 
 
 N 
 
178 Liherty of the Press, and Toleration. 
 
 tyrannies against wliicli he declaims. Ought we then, it 
 may be asked, in the regulation of the discipline of a state, 
 to be more tolerant towards each other, than is our own 
 conscience towards ourselves? 
 
 Here, however, I would observe that it must necessarily 
 follow that the more strictly are we bound, and the more 
 extensively are we influenced by the laws of conscience ; 
 in an equal ratio do we the less stand in need of legislative 
 or other civil enactments to bind us. According as each 
 individual is guided by conscience, may he be aljowed a 
 larger amount of civil toleration, and of religious liberty. 
 Thus, toleration not only conduces to civilization, but the 
 greater is the amount of civilization enjoyed by any people, 
 (more especially as regards the moral discipline and cul- 
 tivation which they have received), the greater is the 
 amount of toleration which they are fitted to j)ossess. 
 Hence, that which toleration should not only allow but 
 absolutely secure to us, is liberty of conscience, especially 
 in matters of religion. If its limits do not extend to and 
 fully embrace this object, such toleration is incomplete. 
 If they exceed this bound, they are superfluous, and tend 
 rather to licentiousness than to real liberty. 
 
 The resort to coercive measures, and to penal enact- 
 ments of any kind, in order to change or enforce religious 
 oj^inions, must in almost every case be not only absolutely 
 unjust, but wholly inefficacious ; as if any eftect is pro- 
 duced, this is the result not of the persuasion of the 
 reason by such means, but of the dread of persecution which 
 prevails over the mind of the person so oppressed. ^\ hat- 
 ever his external conduct may exhibit, no internal convic- 
 tion will have been wrought, but which alone is the aim 
 of those who coerce him. And so far from intolerance 
 being a test of the truth of any particular tenet, it will 
 ever be found that those who are in the wrong are the 
 most likely to resort to such a mode of enforcing their 
 doctrines, which recourse to fair argument has failed to 
 
Ineffocacy of Coercion. 179 
 
 effect. Besides wliich, oppression and cruelty are always 
 more eagerly availed of by the bad than by the good, and 
 are the legitimate weapons only of the former. 
 
 Toleration, as has already been observed, is rather 
 negative than positive as regards its essential nature. It 
 consists, in reality, more in the absence of intoleration 
 than in the presence of any actual system or code of laws ; 
 just as liberty itself consists, not in the presence of any 
 particular privilege, but in the mere absence of restraint. 
 In its active efforts, too, as well as in its actual essence, 
 toleration is rather negative than positive. Thus, though 
 the existence of toleration may not j)roduce good feeling 
 among rival religious bodies, the existence of intoleration 
 is quite certain to excite animosity and ill-feeling. In 
 many cases, and as regards several of the Elements of 
 civilization, all that we can reasonably hope to attain is 
 achieved, if we do but entirely banish deleterious in- 
 fluences, and leave a free course open to those that are 
 beneficial. As regards the management of our own 
 physical frames, although we are unable to render them 
 vigorous and healthy, we may nevertheless do much to 
 protect them against infection, and cold, and laceration. 
 
 The leading principles of toleration may, therefore, be 
 determined to be as follows : — Every one ought to be 
 allowed freely to hold and to profess whatever religious 
 opinions he pleases, and thinks right ; and no one should 
 be allowed to interfere with or annoy another on account 
 of, or in regard to his religious opinions and observances. 
 Each individual should be permitted to worship God as he 
 deems best, although no person should be suffered openly 
 to disseminate doctrines actually revolting to the religious 
 feelings and oj^inions of others. Consequently, to a cer- 
 tain extent, even toleration itself is restrictive, as well as 
 affording protection from restraint. 
 
 It is, moreover, of the essence of toleration not only 
 that every one shall be permitted to hold what religious 
 
180 Liberty of the Press, and Toleratior.: 
 
 oinnions lie pleases, and to serve God in the mode which 
 he deems best ; but that no one shall be liable to any 
 civil injury or disqualification, on account of his religious 
 opinions or form of worship, jDrovided of coui'se that he be 
 a real believer in the truth of Christianity, which is essen- 
 tial in order to constitute a member of a civil Christian 
 community. Here, however, it is of great importance to 
 keep in view the wide and essential distinction between 
 any opinion or doctrine being actually and diametrically 
 contrary to Scripture, and its being merely contrary to the 
 strained and false interpretation which ignorant, or fana- 
 tical, or superstitious zealots may have presumed to put 
 upon it. Although public teaching contrary to the former 
 may fairly be prohibited by the state, teaching contrary 
 to the latter not only ought not to be prohibited, but is 
 deserving of direct encouragement. 
 
 There is^ nevertheless, in certain cases, considerable 
 difficulty in defining and determining what particular 
 theological works or sentiments are fairly controversial, 
 and what are actually blasphemous, or unfit for general 
 discussion. If it be laid down that direct attacks on the 
 Divine authority of Scripture come within the latter class, 
 it is still difiicult to specify exactly what constitute attacks 
 of this kind. For instance, the crime of Galileo in assert- 
 ing that the world moved round the sun, was considered 
 and punished as a direct attack upon Scripture, although 
 in reality it was only putting a different construction upon 
 certain passages to that which had been poj^ularly adopted. 
 And yet if we allow full and free latitude of construction, 
 imless we cautiously guard the line of discussion by the 
 strictest limits, in what mode can we prevent even distinct 
 denials of the authority of the Bible itself, however they 
 may be construed ? Probably, therefore, the only correct 
 and certain principle to establish in these cases is that, 
 wliile all direct attacks ujion religion itself, or upon the 
 truth of the Bible, ought to be strictly and absolutely pro- 
 
Rationale of Infoleration. 181 
 
 hiblted ; all controversy respecting, or arising out of the 
 construction of the Bible, and which does not either 
 directly or indirectly deny or call in question the truth 
 or inspiration of the Bible itself, ought to be permitted to 
 the full. This is necessary for free discussion, and it is 
 all that is really necessary. The 'test of, and the free 
 resort to and exercise of reason, form the only sure safe- 
 guard for the security of religion. 
 
 Toleration, however, like every other principle both in 
 government and in morals, must have its defined and 
 reasonable limits, beyond which it is neither necessary nor 
 expedient that it should be carried, and by extending it 
 beyond which its olijects are not really promoted, but are 
 abridged, and even defeated. 
 
 Toleration, as regards its limits, commences at tliat 
 point where any question liable to dispute can arise upon 
 any theological tenet or doctrine, open to doubt or dif- 
 ference of opinion, and of which it should allow and 
 secure full and free and unrestricted discussion and con- 
 troversy to the utmost. But it terminates at that point 
 where the discussion extends to question the truth and 
 reality of religion itself, or of the Bible as its foundation, 
 to the permission of which it ought not to reach, and 
 which forms no part of the liberty essential for discover- 
 ing and arriving at truth, which should be the sole aim 
 and object of all controversy, and towards the attainment 
 of which no impediments should be offered. Any system 
 of toleration that falls short of this, is imperfect, and 
 is insuificient for securing the end desired. Any system 
 that goes beyond this, tends to promote licentiousness 
 and scepticism, and will defeat the main object that ought 
 to be kept in view. 
 
 If, however, sti'ict logical reason is to be our guide, 
 there can be no doubt that unrestricted unlimited Intolera- 
 tion is in theory the real and correct and true principle 
 to bo adopted. For, in the first place, religion is of 
 
i.82 Liberty of the Press, and TGleraiion, 
 
 •nil things to be followed according to its o^ti stricfc 
 rules. And in the next place if we entirely believe anj 
 particular line to be absolutely right, we ought to follow 
 it at all hazards, and without any deviation whatever. 
 And that which is entirely right for us to follow, must be 
 entirely right for those also in whose welfare we are 
 concerned, and for which we are responsible. And if the 
 ordering of their conduct is entrusted to us, we are bound 
 to direct and enforce it as we think right. Indeed, in 
 the teaching and education of our children, w^e practise 
 Intoleration in this way to the fullest extent. But 
 as regards the world at large, and the state, it is not 
 because Intoleration itself is erroneous that we neglect 
 to follow and to enforce it, but because there are certain 
 practical considerations inseparably connected with it 
 that render it inexpedient that it shall be so pursued, and 
 which generate results from its pursuit, in practice more 
 prejudicial than its abandonment or extensive modifica- 
 tion. And what is more, all religious sects and parties 
 alike, acknowledge the truth of Intoleration, and practise 
 it as far as they can. Every strictly conscientious man, 
 too, is completely intolerant as regards his own conduct 
 in respect to himself, following those religious observances, 
 and those only, which are entirely in accordance with his 
 creed, and absolutely repudiating and refusing to follow 
 or to tolerate any other. 
 
 To such a length, however, have the presumption, 
 arrogance, and dogmatism of some professed teachers 
 of religion extended, that in certain instances they have 
 actually had the insolence to set iip their forced and 
 unnatural interpretation of Scripture as the only correct 
 one, and as that alone which it is lawful to follow, and 
 have denounced as false teachers and heretics those who 
 dare to construe the Bible according to its natural and 
 obvious meaning. 
 
 In two especial instances, indeed, may limits be fairly 
 
ReasonaMe Limits to Toleration. 1^3 
 
 and equitably placed to the bounds of toleration. And 
 that is "where any form of religion inculcates doctrines 
 inimical to the due regulation of the state, or to the 
 general or moral well-being of the community. Thus, 
 to maintain that the authority of the sovereign is not 
 legitimate and binding on the subjects of the realm, or 
 that morality is no part of the duty of a Christian people, 
 may be regarded as doctrines of this kind. But even in 
 this case, the particular tenets only that are complained 
 of ought to be proliibited, and not the whole code of that 
 form of religious teaching, except where the former con- 
 stitute an essential j)art of the latter, and are inseparable 
 from it, in which case it of course becomes necessary to 
 prohibit entirely the opinions in question. 
 
 But it may be contended that toleration nurtures dis- 
 affection and heresy, which in time grow more vigorous, 
 until at length they are strong enough to subvert not only 
 religion, but every other principle of truth as well. It is 
 surely, however, incorrect to say that toleration itself aids 
 the growth of any opinion, which must spring up quite 
 independent of it, and rely entirely on its ovm merits ; 
 although, on the other hand, intoleration may serve to 
 check not its growth but its manifestation, which latter is 
 really all that the civil j)ower can effect. Eight reason and 
 truth are the only reliable weapons by which to resist the 
 progress of wrong opinions ; and by these it is doubtless 
 better to combat them than to sujDpress, not their growth, 
 (which we cannot effect,) but their publication, by intole- 
 rant laws; and which, by forbidding discussion, forbid 
 also their refutation and exposure, wliich is not merely 
 the only legitimate, but is also the only sure way to extir- 
 pate them. 
 
 If it be urged that as we properly punish children for 
 imbibing erroneous ojjinions, and by this means gradually 
 lead them to the correct course ; so ought the state to act 
 with regard to its ignorant and deluded members, who are 
 
184 Liberty of the Press, and Toleration. 
 
 as it were its civil children : it may be replied, that the 
 state does right to instruct, but has no right to coerce its 
 citizens ; that they are free and intelligent agents, which 
 is not the case with children, who are uninformed, and of 
 immature minds ; and that, even in the case of children, 
 we do not punish erroneous opinions, but only erroneous 
 and immoral conduct. 
 
 But it may, perhaps, be said that if punishment is 
 inefficacious to prevent the spread of opinions which we 
 ought to allow to be advanced, will it not be inefficacious 
 also to repress those which, according to the principles 
 here maintained, must be deemed to be dangerous, and 
 detrimental to the state ? To this I reply, that the pro- 
 mulgation of opinions that are actually dangerous, may 
 be prohibited as a crime against the state, and rightly 
 punished as such, which cannot reasonably be done in the 
 case of the others. Here also, we may fairly expect that 
 the voice and feeling of the nation will second the efforts 
 of the government, on which the efficiency of those efforts 
 must mainly depend. Added to which, the general free- 
 dom of opinion, allowed as far as practical, prevents any 
 violent repugnance to that restraint which is actually 
 necessary. 
 
 Nor can intoleration ever be regarded as the mark, or 
 taken as the test of a true church, inasmuch as it has not 
 only been most fully practised in the most corrupt ages 
 of the church, but it has also been the chief characteristic 
 in the conduct of Heathens, and Pagans, and Mahometans 
 towards Christians. On the other hand, it may fairly be 
 deemed to be a sure indication of error, which only resorts 
 to and requires force to proj) it up, from reason failing to 
 serve for such a purpose. 
 
 The most j)lausible excuse for intoleration and coercion 
 in religious matters, would be that they were resorted to 
 for the actual benefit of the coerced ; and that they were 
 necessary in order to lead them from error to truth. But, 
 
Intoleration no Test of Truth. • 185 
 
 in the first place, no one has authority in doubtful points 
 on religious topics, to decide with absolute certainty which 
 is the right, and which is the wrong path to pursue. And 
 in the next place, those points about which toleration is 
 mainly exercised, are seldom matters on which salvation 
 is supposed to depend, but are rather forms and cere- 
 monies which are deemed only indirectly conducive to its 
 attainment, so far as regards the open exercise of our 
 religious duties. Persecution, moreover, very seldom 
 convinces men of erj-or, although it frequently hardens 
 them against the truth. On the other hand, all that 
 intoleration fruitlessly aims to achieve, in preserving men 
 from error and bringing them to a knowledge of the truth. 
 Education and proper National Institutions ought to be 
 able amply to effect. At any rate, that which they fail in 
 accomplishing, intoleration is utterly inefficient to supply. 
 The national religion of a country, or that which is 
 recognized both by the state and its institutions, must neces- 
 sarily be that which is adopted and followed by the people 
 at large; and for them, as already shown in a previous 
 Element, a national church establishment, for the main- 
 tenance and conduct with adequacy and decorum of that 
 religion, is essential. It should, however, be a leading 
 principle in the formation of such an institution, to allow 
 the greatest latitude of opinion and discussion to its 
 officers and members, that is consistent Avith the con- 
 tinuance of union in the body, and the j)reservation of 
 order and regularity in its operations. To those who 
 refuse to join such an institution from conscientious 
 motives, it is due to the religion which they in common 
 with its mepabers profess, that they should be permitted, 
 to the very utmost compatible with the safety and efficient 
 working of the established institution, not only full liberty 
 of opinion and discussion, but also to exercise their own 
 form of religious worship and observances as they desire. 
 An institution for ages securely established not only by 
 
18G Liberty of the Press, and Toleration. 
 
 law but in the hearts of the people, and possessing pro- 
 perty of its own for its maintenance, such as the English 
 church, and whose laws were framed for the general well- 
 being of the state, and at a period long prior to the 
 existence of the various polemical parties now in vogue ; 
 is much more likely to be tolerant towards those who 
 dissent from it, than is a sectarian body which has but 
 lately sprung up, which is in a constant state of mutation 
 both as regards its principles and its position in relation 
 to other bodies, and whose laws and regulations will be 
 framed and varied according to circumstances, or adapted 
 to suit individual cases. The existence, indeed, of rival 
 religious communities, is in many respects beneficial to 
 the church, in creating that spirit of competition so gene- 
 rally advantageous in a free country, but especially so 
 as regards its institutions. 
 
 Different religious bodies and sects require, however, 
 occasionally to be restrained, not only from persecuting 
 and oppressing those who are opposed to them, but from 
 persecuting and oppressing those of their own body who 
 differ from them in opinion. In the Church of England, 
 which is very tolerant towards all other bodies, many of 
 its members are extremely intolerant as regards the senti- 
 ments of one another. 
 
 If merely considered as a matter of policy, the religious 
 princii^les of a people are of the highest importance to 
 the well-being of the nation, and as such demand the 
 attention and care of the state. As already mentioned, 
 it is mainly by this means that their moral improvement 
 is effected, and that the higher influences are raised above 
 those whicli arc lower, and the latter subjugated to them. 
 In the consideration of the differences in religion between 
 different parties in a state, wise rulers ought in minor 
 points at least to search rather for coincidences than for 
 variations ; especially among those whose religion is all 
 based on the same fundamental doctriues, who all follow 
 
Toleration degenerahng into Intoleration. 187 
 
 the same practice in the main, and who all profess to be 
 seeking the same object. 
 
 It is, however, essential that care should be taken in 
 the framing of a system which is intended to ensure full 
 toleration to the minority among several religious parties, 
 that this is not so far done as in turn to degenerate into 
 intoleration tow^ards the majority, who are thereby sub- 
 jected to the petty annoyances and captious aggressions 
 of the minority. There is probably, indeed, no subject, 
 esj)ecially a practical one, respecting which there is so 
 much inconsistency and contrariety as there is concerning 
 this of toleration. Thus, men tolerant of one tenet or 
 party, are most intolerant cf all others ; and to secure 
 toleration itself, there is no flagrancy in the w\ay of in- 
 toleration that will not eagerly be perpetrated. Few, 
 indeed, if any persons, of any age, nation, or sect, are 
 uniformly and consistently tolerant to those of all creeds 
 and parties alike. 
 
 But even the superstitions which religion engenders, 
 may be sometimes turned to good account by the rulers of a 
 state. Among a rude and barbarous people, superstition 
 has to some extent stood in the j^lace of real religion ; so 
 far at least as it has restrained the passions, checked the 
 lawless outrages, and tamed the fury of the multitude. 
 Superstition is, indeed, a kind of wild religion, jDossess- 
 ing but few of its fruits, and those for the most part 
 rank and poisonous. Here and there, however, on con- 
 genial soils, a certain resemblance to the legitimate pro- 
 duction has been discovered. Nevertheless, even where 
 superstition has sprung out of genuine religion, as is 
 sometimes the case, it is but the corruption of it, 
 and that occasionally of the worst and most dan- 
 gerous kind. Superstition, whatever comparatively good 
 results may be obtained therefrom, is therefore never to 
 be encouraged ; but where it is impossible to extirpate, it 
 may be allowable to divert it. If the current cannot 
 
188 Liberty of the Press, and Toleration. 
 
 bo stopped, it should be turned into a more desirable 
 course. 
 
 Not improbably those systems of religion, and those 
 religions individuals who possess the firmest belief that 
 their principles are right, and the strongest feeling and 
 the deepest concern on the subject, are the most liable to 
 become intolerant towards others. Many, doubtless, are 
 tolerant from mere indifference about religion. On the 
 other hand, several of those rih'gious persons, who have 
 been tlie most convinced of the truth of what they followed, 
 and the most anxious to fulfil its duties, have been the most 
 tolerant. The mental and moral condition chiefly conducive 
 to toleration, consists in the possession of rational opinions, 
 deliberately embraced, and warmly cherished on the one 
 hand; and the desire for strict justice, and an enlarged 
 and comprehensive consideration of what those w4io differ 
 from them, may entertain and feel on the same subject, 
 which generates due allowance for them, on the other. 
 This is, indeed, as genuine a mark of true mental and 
 moral greatness in a nation as it is in a man. 
 
 Every individual being solely accountable for his own 
 opinions and acts, has a right, and is indeed bound to 
 exercise and be guided by his own judgment. But this is 
 not inconsistent with his being directed by other persons on 
 topics on which they are better informed than he is, and on 
 which he may not have the same leisure or ability to qualify 
 himself as they possess. In many matters of the highest 
 importance, such as the care of our health and the manage- 
 ment of our property, we voluntarily and unreservedly place 
 implicit reliance upon those whom we believe to be more 
 skilled and instructed than we are ourselves. In other 
 instances, where we are not so assisted, and act only of our 
 own accord, not reason but fashion and prejudice order our 
 course, and lead us wrong. Indeed, the examples are but 
 rare where reason alone is our rule and guide. In the 
 case therefore of religion, which so few consider that they 
 
Exercise of Private Judgment. 189 
 
 tave leisure to study amply, which is a matter of so much 
 complexity and difficulty, and one moreover which it is 
 all-important to follow aright ; why should we not rely 
 on the direction of men expressly trained for and devoted 
 to this purpose, and whose only interest it is to guide us 
 properly? 
 
 The true line to be followed as to the exercise of our 
 own judgment, or the resigning our ojjinion to that of 
 others, apj^ears, therefore, simply to be this : that we 
 should rely upon ourselves, where our information on the 
 subject is adequate, and we have exercised our reason 
 sufficiently to enable us to act aright. Where this has 
 not been done, we may advantageously resort to those who 
 have thus peculiarly qualified themselves to be our guides. 
 
 It should further be borne in mind, in reference to free 
 discussion on religious topics, that a change made in the 
 religious opinions or tenets of a people, may be ruinous 
 to the influence of religion generally, independent of the 
 character of the two religions, as they may be led by this 
 means to follow the doctrines of a new faith diametrically 
 at variance with the institutions, and feelings, and manners 
 of such a people, and which consequently may never be 
 able to obtain am'- firm hold upon them. This principle 
 is, however, to be maintained, not for the purpose of 
 opposing all changes in religion whatsoever, but to evince 
 the inexpediency of change as a general rule, and where 
 this is not necessary from the nature of the case, or so 
 bonelicial as to counteract the weight of all these 
 considerations together. 
 
 On the whole, it must be concluded that the benefits to 
 a state, of toleration, are very extensive, exclusive indeed 
 of its direct religious advantages, in promoting, by means 
 of free inquiry and discussion being allowed, activity of 
 mind and independence of thought, and liberty of expres- 
 sion on all subjects, through vvhich truth at last comes out 
 triumphant, and error is exterminated. As God has made 
 
190 Liberty of the Press, and Toleration. 
 
 men so to differ in their nature, and disj)ositions, and 
 capacities, from each other ; so it is by no means impossible 
 or improbable that He may have purposely originated 
 dijGferent forms of religion peculiarly adapted to their 
 several exigencies and endowments, instead of intending 
 that all should worship) Him precisely in the same mode. 
 Or it may even be a part of His express economy, that a 
 certain degree of emulation and rivalry should exist be- 
 tween various religious bodies, sufficient to produce activity 
 and inquiry, as has been expressly instituted as regards 
 the diiierent races and nations of the earth. 
 
 If it be urged that the multitude at large are too 
 ignorant and too simple to be allowed to choose their own 
 faith, and that as it is for their own good as well as for that 
 of the state that they should determine correctly, the state 
 has a right so to influence, and even to coerce them ; it may 
 be rej^lied, that it is the duty of the state to relieve them from 
 a condition of ignorance which places them in so humilia- 
 ting a position, but no part of. its duty to take advantage of 
 the latter, (which must have been more or less occasioned by 
 the neglect of the state), in order to compel them to adopt 
 any particular line of conduct. If they are not capacitated 
 to discern right from wrong, they ought even then to bo 
 allowed to follow such of the authorized teachers as they 
 may prefer, who, as remarked in a previous Element, should 
 all be under strict state regulation as to the sufficiency of 
 the endowments they possess ; and when instructed by 
 them, their own reason and conscience must decide on 
 their ultimate course. 
 
 Although it is no part of the duty of the state to inter- 
 fere with the opinions and actions of any persons as 
 regards their religious observances ; yet, on the other 
 hand, it is the undoubted and j)ositive duty of the state 
 to provide institutions, and officers, and means for the 
 instruction of the peoj^le, and for the due celebration of 
 religion, though without coercing any individuals to con- 
 
True Principle of Toleration. 191 
 
 form to this or that creed. Indeed, the greater is the 
 toleration in this respect allowed, the greater is the 
 necessity for such institutions and means of instruction. 
 
 Intoleration, if it is not a proof of weakness in a party 
 or a church, is at any rate a token of fear. As the body 
 natural assumes a defensive or constrained attitude only 
 when disorder or danger is present, so bodies ecclesiastic 
 and politic are only induced to oppression when excited 
 by the apprehension of some attack. 
 
 The true principle of toleration appears, therefore, to 
 be this : that every person in the state should be allowed 
 to the full to adopt such religious opinions, and to exercise 
 such form of religious worship as his conscience dictates 
 to him to be most correct, and that no one should be 
 allowed to oppress or molest him on this account. At 
 the same time, the latitude of toleration so granted must 
 on no pretence be suffered to enable individuals of one 
 creed or persuasion to give offence to those of different 
 tenets, more especially in cases where this can be avoided 
 without any abridgment of the essential forms in the 
 celebration of such religion. The greater the measure 
 of toleration that is allowed to each body, the more 
 tolerant should that body be towards every other. It is 
 essential, moreover, that toleration should be exercised 
 in each direction, not only by the authoritative povv'ers to- 
 wards the subordinate, but by the subordinate towards the 
 authoritative. And that different sects and parties should 
 be as tolerant towards each other, as the predominant 
 party is towards them. 
 
 Independent of the principle of toleration, the due 
 definition and establishment of the principle on which 
 religious bodies differing from, or rivals of, or opposed to 
 the national established church, exist, the relation in which 
 they stand, and the mode in which they ought to be dealt 
 with, is of nearly as much importance, as is the attain- 
 ment of a correct principle as regards the established 
 
Iy2 National Commemorations and Festivals. 
 
 churcli itself. Tliese rival bodies, tliougli tolerated to the 
 full, are not therefore, as a consequence, to be encouraged. 
 Tliej should be allowed every liberty necessary for carry- 
 ing out their own system, so that their liberty be not 
 permitted to interfere with the liberty and proper ordering 
 of the church. Although rival, they are by no means 
 necessarily inimical to each other. 
 
 As toleration was observed at the commencement of the 
 present Element to be negative in its nature, so probably the 
 most conclusive argument against intoleration is negative 
 also, being that of its entire inefficiency. So far from its 
 result being to make people think alike, it tends only to 
 confirm them in their differences. Opinions originating 
 merely in prejudice, obtain through the sufferings endured 
 on their account, the support of passion. Tenets which 
 w^ere once objected to only from their being misunderstood, 
 are now zealously denounced as being associated with the 
 infliction of persecution. 
 
 VI.— NATIONAL COMMEMOEATIONS AND FESTIVALS. 
 
 The Element of civilization which next in order demands 
 our consideration, is that which I liave designated by the 
 term of National Commemorations and Festivals. The 
 establishment of certain appointed days for general 
 national relaxation and recreation, has a direct tendency 
 to promote civilization, and to improve and advance the 
 intellectual and moral condition of the jDeople, in three 
 distinct and independent modes. Such institutions are 
 mentally improving, as affording opportunity for study 
 and intellectual culture by cessation from the ordinary 
 occupations of life. They are morally beneficial from the 
 social feelings which they have the effect of engenderinf^. 
 And they are extensively serviceable in a physical sense, as 
 regards both the rest from manual labour, and also the 
 mental relaxations wdiich they are the means of securing 
 
The Christian Sahhath. 198 
 
 to all classes of the people. Consequently, the institution 
 of National Commemorations and Festivals for the celebra- 
 tion of particular events of general importance and interest, 
 and by which recreation is offered to the people of what- 
 ever rank or occupation, is an Element of essential 
 influence and advantage in the civilization of a nation. 
 The relaxation thus allowed, if j)roper opportunities for 
 applying it are afforded, which should be done contempo- 
 raneously with the institution of these days of leisure, and 
 as a necessary adjunct to their establishment, is alike im- 
 portant and beneficial to those of each class. In this 
 respect, the Element now under consideration contributes 
 extensively to aid the operation and efficiency of sevei'al 
 which have already been discussed, more especially those 
 of National Education of the People, National Instruc- 
 tory Institutions, and National Cultivation of Art and 
 Science ; while each of these Elements in their turn also 
 contributes more or less to aid the operation of that 
 immediately before us. 
 
 The direct and extensive tendency of the Christian 
 religion, and of its various institutions, to promote civili- 
 zation, has been already remarked. Among the customs 
 that have sprung up with the adoption of the religion of 
 the Bible, the observance of a Sabbath, by which one day 
 in seven is set apart, and when ordinary unnecessary 
 manual occupation is suspended, is highly conducive to 
 civilization, independent altogether of the religious advan- 
 tages that it possesses. Mental and moral improvement 
 among all classes is eminently furthered by this institution. 
 The poorest person has once a week secured to him a day 
 of leisure to devote to the cultivation of his mind and his 
 morals, as well as to his religious duties, which directly 
 tends to the improvement of the former. Such an insti- 
 tution is also greatly refining in its results. Each poor 
 man with his family for that day moves in the rank of 
 gentility, appears in his best clothes, and enjoys a period 
 
 
 
194 National Commemorations and Festivals. 
 
 of leisure. Not only should the Sabbath be a day of 
 freedom from toil, but of freedom also from worldly care 
 and anxiety. And it should supj)ly a foretaste of Heaven, 
 not merely as regards the religious exercises which are 
 followed upon it, but as regards the high mental j)ursuits 
 for which it affords the opportunity, the benevolent social 
 feelings which it calls forth, and the good deeds which are 
 done on that day. To each person, whether rich or poor, 
 the Sabbath should be, moreover, not only the holiest but 
 the happiest day throughout the week. 
 
 The direct object of the Sabbath is, however, not mental 
 or even moral improvement, but religious duty. The 
 direct object in the institution of National Commemorations 
 and Festivals, is to promote the two first of these desirable 
 ends. Both objects are of essential importance, and both 
 deserve the attention of the state. It is obvious, therefore, 
 tliat while the Sabbath ought still to be observed as a day 
 of religious duty, other days also ought to be provided 
 for the purposes specified. By omitting to keep the 
 two distinct, and attempting to make one day serve for 
 both, as is at present done with regard to Sundays in 
 France, and in other countries on the Continent, you 
 entirely fail to obtain the observance of the day either as 
 one of solemn worship, or of improving recreation ; but 
 l)oth these objects are alike neglected, and it degenerates 
 into simply a day of idleness. Hence, instead of being 
 morally or f>hysically beneficial, it is directly prejudicial 
 in each of these respects. 
 
 Many good and conscientious people, moreover, in this 
 country, in their eagerness to avoid making Sunday a day of 
 work, make it a day of idleness. In order to escape the guilt 
 of turning the precious hours, for the proper use of which 
 they are specially accountable to tlie Almighty, to any 
 purpose in the way of occupation, however harmless or im- 
 proving, they resolutely insist on wasting them altogether. 
 
 As regards the question as to the propriety or ex- 
 
Principles of Sa hlataria n Legisla Ho n. 195 
 
 pediencj of making a legislative provision for the due 
 national observance of the Sabbath, it is here necessary to 
 appeal to the principle of toleration and religions liberty, 
 in order to determine to what extent this observance may 
 reasonably and rightly be enforced. That it is desirable 
 that the Sabbath be nationally observed, may at once be 
 admitted. But, unless the nation generally consent there- 
 to, it cannot be efficiently carried out. And yet, even 
 where the majority of the nation agree to this, it is un- 
 reasonable to coerce those to observe it who object to do 
 so. On the other hand, their non-obscrvarce of it should 
 not be permitted to interfere with the observance of it 
 by those who desii'e to keep it strictly, especially when 
 the former constitute a decided majority of the nation. 
 The true and correct principle in this case appears, there- 
 fore, to be that every one should have the full opportunity 
 of observing and keeping the Sabbath in the way that he 
 th'nks best. And that although no one should be com- 
 pelled to join with him in this observance of it, or to the 
 same extent, or in the same mode ; yet that no one should 
 be permitted to interfere with this observance, by either 
 doing himself, or requiring to be done by others, ads 
 which are inconsistent with it. Every person should be 
 fi-ee to neglect the observance of the Sabbath if he 
 determines to do so, but so that his liberty in this respect 
 does not tend to abridge the liberty of others in an opposite 
 direction. The aim of state interference, here, should, 
 in fact, be, not to coerce any, but to allow and to secure 
 the greatest amount of liberty to all. The same jH'iuciple 
 appears equally applicable with regard to the national 
 observance of days of general relaxation and festival. 
 
 It might not perhaps unreasonably be provided in 
 regard to travelling on Sundays, that on the one hand 
 this should not be altogether prohibited, and on the 
 other hand that it should not be allowed to interfere 
 with the discharge of their religious duties by others. 
 The Jewish code of Theocratic legislation may afford us 
 
196 National Commemorations and Festivals. 
 
 a hint here, and the limit of " a sabbath day's journey " 
 might fairly be instituted, fixing in this case with regard 
 to the time rather than the distance. For instance, 
 travelling by railway or otherwise on Sundays might be 
 restricted to the hours of between six and ten in the 
 morning, and those after seven in the evening, so that 
 persons only who are necessitated to travel would do so, 
 and their journeys would not interfere with the rest or 
 religious requirements of others. 
 
 Those who work hard during six days of the week, 
 should, least of all, by pharisaical Puritans, be prohibited 
 from the innocent relaxation and enjoyment, whether 
 physical or intellectual, on the remaining seventh day, 
 which it was the express object of the institution of a 
 sabbath to procure and secure. Those who are most 
 ibrward to prohibit so reasonable and so necessary a 
 relaxation, are not unfrequently those who habitually 
 violate the context of the command, which not merely 
 directs us to rest one day in seven, but directs us also to 
 earn the right to do so by working on the remaining six. 
 
 The progress in building in all large towns, which has 
 been effected during the last few years, especially in the 
 Metropolis, renders it absolutely necessary that some 
 means should be adopted for the recreation and amuse- 
 ment of the working classes. And the advancement in 
 education v/hich has been made, renders it both desirable 
 and practicable that such holidays as are proposed should 
 be availed of for their mental and moral cultivation. They 
 are at present, moreover, deprived of many recreations and 
 amusements which their ancestors enjoyed; while from 
 the increase in their numbers, and the arduous nature of 
 their duties, there is the greater necessity both for train- 
 ing them aright, and for affording them relaxation. In 
 addition to this, they are now more than ever in danger 
 of being led astray, from the many haunts of dissipation 
 which have sprung up, to allure tliose who have no proper 
 legitimate source of recreative employment and enjoyment, 
 
Necessity for National Becreations. 197 
 
 such as it is imperative on those who rule in the state, and 
 who desire to promote the civilization and best interests 
 of the people, to provide. It is, moreover, from the want 
 of suitable games and soiu'ces of amusement for the 
 people generally, that so many of them are driven during 
 their hours of leisure to resort to those of a demoralizing 
 or degenerating tendency, such as betting and gambling. 
 The moral effects of games are very extensive, perhaps 
 equally so with the more important avocations of life, 
 corresponding of course with the character of such games. 
 
 The establishment of national holidays is not even a 
 new principle in our constitution. It is only the revival 
 of an old custom, which the mercenary spirit of modern 
 days has endeavoured to exterminate, but w^hich the 
 exigencies of the present times more than ever require to 
 be restored. Before the era of the Commonwealth, these 
 holidays were regularly established and observed. The 
 Puritans, in 1G47, after abolishing them, directed the 
 second Tuesday in every month to be kept in their place. 
 The rebellion which swept away the throne, swallowed up 
 also the rights of the poor. Both in Greece and in Rome, 
 and in their best days, holidays were duly commemorated, 
 and made national institutions ; and amusements were 
 provided for the people on those occasions. The principle 
 of securing recreation from labour, and of celebrating 
 certain days by the observance of holidays, has moreover 
 long been established in our public schools, as also in the 
 public offices, where regularity and strict economy in the 
 management of time are duly regarded. If such a system 
 is correct and expedient, and has been found to work well 
 there, why should it not be adopted also in the state, the 
 active members of which need it as much, and to whom 
 it would be quite as beneficial, both mentally and morally, 
 and also as respects their physical well-being ? 
 
 The appointment of some special days for recreation of 
 this nature appears, therefore, not only reasonable, but 
 essential ; and is supported not merely by the example of 
 
198 National Commemorations and Festivals. 
 
 otlier great civilized nations, but ample precedents for it 
 are afforded by the institutions of our own country. It is 
 necessary tliat these days should be generally observed, in 
 order that the fnll effect of them may be obtained. It is 
 also advisable that particular days of note should be fixed 
 upon for the purpose, instead of some being merely taken 
 at specific intervals, so as to make them not only recreative 
 but commemorative. Amusements should moreover be 
 provided on these occasions, such as will be both improv- 
 ing and aOTceable to all. These festivals should also be 
 made national, so as to be uniformly kept throughout the 
 nation, and sanctioned by the state as national institutions. 
 
 The most direct and efficient mode in which the autho- 
 rity of the state may be exercised to promote the general 
 observance of national holidays, is by rendering them 
 inoperative, as is already done in the case of Sunday, 
 Christmas Day, and Good Friday, for the transaction of 
 professi(mal and commercial business, and by declaring 
 invalid all negotiations effected on those days. 
 
 On the whole, however, it appears desirable to leave to 
 the chm'ch the celebration of holy-days, set apart for the 
 commemoration of great events in the history of religion ; 
 and to have these continued as days, not of recreation, but 
 of religious observance. And, indeed, it is in every way \ 
 expedient to keep distinct the two kinds of festivals ; to 
 observe them differently, as they are appointed for different 
 reasons, and with different objects in view. Thus, both 
 the recreative and the religious interests of the nation 
 will be promoted. The establishment of periods for the 
 due observance of holy-days, will enable the people to 
 devote their days of festivity more entirely to the mental 
 and moral and recreative pursuits appointed for them. 
 The establishment of holidays, or days of recreation, will 
 leave the people to devote holy-days, as they ought, mainly 
 to religious observance. 
 
 But some may contend that the observance and object 
 of these festivals of different kinds should be blended to- 
 
 ^ 
 
Hohj-days and Holidays. 199 
 
 getlier, and religion and relaxation, and mental and moral 
 improvement, ever united and followed in conjunction. 
 However this may be to a certain extent expedient, yet 
 still a leading character should be given to each festival, 
 whether devoted to commemorate some religious event, or 
 one in our national history. Thus also Sunday, which it 
 is most desirable to observe as a holy-day, is now kept by 
 many as a holiday merely, owing to its being their only 
 day of recreation. This, indeed, serves to evince how 
 much holidays are needed in this country, and in others 
 no less, both on their own account, and to insure the due 
 observance of holy-days as well. 
 
 It is, however, not only important that in every nation 
 a number of holidays should be appointed as days of 
 recreation and relaxation from toil, and to afford oppor- 
 tunities for mental and moral improvement ; but, as 
 already observed, they should be so selected as that they 
 may also produce their due effect as commemorative of the 
 anniversaries of great occurrences in our national history, 
 and which, like national monumental tributes, may be the 
 means of recalling to the attention and the remembrance 
 of the people at large, the achievements or persons so 
 celebrated ; or correspondingly with the pictorial illustra- 
 tions to a book, serve to impress particular events more 
 forcibly on the national mind. The dajs for commemora- 
 tion thus chosen, should be of a mixed character. They 
 should consist, in part, of days famous from the occurrence 
 of leading transactions in our national career ; in part, of 
 those renowned as being the anniversaries of some remark- 
 able productions in art, science, or literature ; and the 
 natal days of those who have proved the chief ornaments 
 of our country, may be well observed in this manner. On 
 the other hand, all commemorations and fetes that tend 
 to keep alive animosities and jealousies either between 
 different sects and parties in a nation, or between different 
 nations, ought to be abolished and prohibited as inimical 
 
200 National Commemorations and Festivals. 
 
 to civilization. The observance of victories and revolu- 
 tions should on this account be discouraged ; and the 
 celebratioQ of the discovery of the Gunpowder Plot on the 
 5th of November, might with propriety be changed into 
 a commemoration of the discovery of gunpowder, and 
 honoured by a display of fireworks and other exhibitions 
 of this class, in which gunpowder mainly aids. So also the 
 victory at Waterloo might be merged into the celebration 
 of the concession of Magna Charta, the anniversary of 
 which is on the day after. 
 
 As regards the selection of appointed periods for com- 
 memoration, it is of importance, on many accounts, that 
 these days should recur at stated intervals during the year, 
 and that the number of them should be moderate. The 
 following catalogue of renowned events, with the dates of 
 their occurrence annexed, (some of which are of course 
 only imaginary, as all traces of the real date have been 
 long since obliterated), may serve to show what might be 
 done with respect to the choice of daj^s for national com- 
 memoration in the manner proposed : — 
 
 Birthday of Bacon 22n(I January. 
 
 Great I Birthday of Shakspeare .... 2ord April. 
 Men. \ Birthday of Newton ; (date of the pub- 
 lication of liis ' Principia') . . 8th May. 
 
 Birthday of IMilton (Jth DccLinber. 
 
 Establishment of the English Kingdom 
 and Monarchy ; (death of Alfred the 
 
 Great J Great) 27th Q^ber. 
 
 Events, i Concession of Magna Charta . . . litth ^fte. 
 
 1 Union ^vith Scotland tith IMarcli. 
 
 I Union with Ireland 2nd August. 
 
 Invention of the Compass ; (death of 
 
 Captain Cook) 14th February. 
 
 Great Invention of Printing Gth July.. 
 
 Disco- > Invention of Steam; (open ng of the 
 veries. j London and liirmingham Bailway) 17th September. 
 Invention of Gunpowder ; (Gunpowder 
 [ Plot) 5th November. 
 
 In addition to these, -the birthday of tlie sovereign and 
 
Commemorative Anniversaries. 201 
 
 of the leading members of the royal family, will, in every 
 Dati(m where a monarchy is existent, be commemorated as 
 state holidays, and kept accordingly. When any of these 
 holidays falls upon a Sunday, the Saturday'' previous or 
 the Monday following might be substituted for its ob- 
 servance. 
 
 Thus, twelve events of the greatest consequence in our 
 national history, or in that of the world, would be duly 
 celebrated, and the importance and nature of each event 
 explained and enforced. "Were there no other use for 
 them, these holidays would be of considerable value as 
 national acknowledgments that the acquisition of wealth 
 is not the sole end of man's existence, and that something 
 is due to his intellectual being, as well as to his material 
 benefit. Different classes are also by this means brought 
 together, and for a time placed more on an equality. Nor 
 do the bodies less than the minds of the people need such 
 a relaxation, which, especially in large and crowded towns, 
 is essential for their physical growth and development. 
 
 But, as already stated, these festivals cannot be expected 
 to be completely effective, unless they are not only made 
 recreative, but proper amusements are provided for the 
 entertainment of those who are to enjoy them. On days 
 set apart for the commemoration of particular events, it 
 appears also fitting that the amusements appointed for 
 those days should in their nature more or less correspond 
 with the character of the events commemorated. 
 
 During the discussion of a former Element of civiliza- 
 tion, was considered the establishment of certain National 
 Institutions for the promotion of popular recreation and 
 instruction. We have in this place to consider the nature 
 of those amusements themselves, and of the leading 
 principles by which they should be severally regulated, 
 and how far they are available in conjunction with these 
 Institutions. 
 
 The amusements of every country, especially those of a 
 
202 National Commemorations and Festivals. 
 
 national order, sliould be, as already stated, improving and 
 rL'fining. They sliould also be adapted to the genius and 
 the character of the people ; should be corrective of its 
 peculiar national errors, and should vary according to its 
 condition in civilization, and the particular influences 
 which especially require to be promoted. Thus, in a 
 warlike nation and age, while these amusements ought on 
 the one hand to encourage the inhabitants in the pursuit 
 of a science upon which they are dependent for their 
 preservation and security ; they ought, on the other hand, 
 to refine and humanize them, and to correct the savage 
 propensities in which, from the temper of the times, they 
 may be too apt to indulge. In an age of civilization, on 
 the other hand, when art and science are flourishing, while 
 the recreations of the people should lead them to under- 
 stand and to cultivate those pursuits, they should also 
 serve to protect them from becoming too effeminate and 
 refined. The amusements of a country have ever been 
 found to exercise a great and perceptible influence on the 
 national mind. As a corrective or counteracting agent, 
 they may be made of the highest national importance ; 
 and it is perhaps more essentially for this purpose rather 
 than for effecting any immediate or direct results, that 
 they are mainly serviceable. Indeed, even the common 
 domestic employments and enjoyme^s of the people of all 
 ranks, are in this respect very influeafcial. 
 
 It might, however, be made a reproach against civilized 
 nations in general, and particularly against our own, that 
 so large a portion of their public and most attractive 
 entertainments consists in feasting, which directly minis- 
 ters to the animal appetites, and treats the latter as objects 
 of paramount importance. These entertainments, never- 
 theless, must be allowed, although open to this cliarge, to 
 be of a highly civilizing nature so far as they conduce to 
 intellectual intercourse, and to the promotion of friendly 
 social feeling ; and according as the latter or the former 
 
Festive Recreations. 203 
 
 is made the predominant feature in these proceedings, 
 ought thoy generally to be characterized. 
 
 Both in ancient and modern times, it has been ever the 
 custom, especially in entertainments of a public and 
 national character, to combine sensual gratification with 
 intellectual excitement and instruction; and the wine 
 must be considered as contributing not so much to the 
 palliation of the thirst, as to the stimulation of the wit and 
 hilarity of those assembled. Among the Greeks, music 
 and the song, followed occasionally by certain other 
 amusements, enlivened their feasts ; and among us har- 
 mony is thus resorted to, while interchange of ideas in 
 conversation, and both instruction and the highest intel- 
 lectual gratification from the oratory that is poured forth, 
 cause us almost to forget the sensual pleasures offered, in 
 the delights afforded to the mind. 
 
 The social benefits resulting from the assembling 
 together, for the purpose of festive enjoyment, of people 
 of the same community, cannot be doubted. And even the 
 highest of Christian commemorations, and one which 
 directly enjoins the promotion of mutual benevolence and 
 good feeling among mankind, is celebrated, by Divine 
 command, in the form of a feast. The turning water into 
 wine to increase the supjoly for a convivial entertainment, 
 was the first miracle wrought by our Lord. The multi- 
 plication of food to furnish a repast, was one of the few 
 miracles which he ever rej^eated. Admitting, however, 
 that feasting cannot of itself be considered to be in any 
 way directly conducive to civilization, although indirectly 
 it undoubtedly is, so far as it contributes to the promotion 
 of intellectual and social intercourse ; yet there is nothing 
 which is so surely and so strikingly indicative of the con- 
 dition of civilization in any country, as the mode in 
 which its feasts are conducted. In nothing, moreover, do 
 civilized people differ from barbarians more essentially 
 than in the regulation of their meals. The distinction 
 
204 National CommemGrations and Festivals. 
 
 here is far greater than that which exists either in their 
 dress, their habitations, or their language. 
 
 As regards, however, the general order and course, and 
 the class of rational amusements to be provided for j)er- 
 sons of different pursuits ; it should, as far as possible, be 
 contrived that each of those engaged, whether in mental 
 or in manual occupations, be on such occasions supplied 
 with those peculiar recreations which are best suited at 
 once to afford them both the particular information or 
 cultivation, and the particular physical or intellectual 
 relaxation of which, from the nature and tendency of their 
 general occupations, they may especially stand, in need. 
 Amusements for the people may have the effect of not 
 only improving their material condition, but their intel- 
 lectual and moral state also. For instance, many mental 
 recreations, such as music and viewing galleries of works 
 of art, may conduce to the health of the body as well as to 
 that of the mind. The general character of these amuse- 
 ments should, consequently, as already observed, be regu- 
 lated both by the character of the people and that of the 
 times, and by the nature of the influences which require 
 more especially to be counteracted. In cold climates like 
 ours, convivial entertainments may be advantageous, as 
 corrective of that moroseness and want of sociabi^yij^ which 
 the condition of the climate has a tendency to fo'er ; and 
 may serve to develoj)e and stimulate the better feelings and 
 dispositions of our nature, especially when we are in 
 society, and may thus prove an important auxiliary agent 
 in the progress of civilization. 
 
 The sports and games pursued by any particular people 
 serve very efficiently to reflect alike their peculiar charac- 
 ter, and also their comparative condition and progress in 
 civilization, inasmuch as these are mainly regulated by 
 the temper and feeling of the people, and are ever subject 
 to modification and change, in order to suit and adapt 
 themselves to those different states. 
 
Improving Recreations. 205 
 
 To tlie popular recreations, education, and every other 
 Element of civilization should also have reference. Plato 
 says that " even the measures of music are never altered 
 without affecting the most important laws of the state."* 
 And as in the state, so in the man, it is very essential that 
 intellectual and physical pursuits should proceed contem- 
 poraneously, and should co-oj)erate together. The Grecian 
 games consisted mainly in trials and exhibitions of 
 physical skill. In the present advanced age of society 
 and of civilization, the triumphs of art and science, and 
 exhibitions of intellectual skill, appear both more be- 
 coming to our character, and better adapted for national 
 recreation. Games of skill are preferable to games of 
 chance, and are in themselves directly conducive to 
 civilization, as immediately tending to develope the powers 
 and energies of the people, and are capable, if properly 
 managed, of combining pleasure with instruction. Emu- 
 lation in these cases, without occasioning jealousy or ill- 
 will, excites a wholesome stimulus to exertion, in the 
 absence of which excellence in any effort cannot be 
 attained. 
 
 But it may perhaps be contended that there is a danger 
 in the excitement of emulation, even in play and among 
 friends, that it may in time, especially if keenly called 
 forth, (when alone it is of any real value), or by chance, 
 create discord, and so prove inimical to, instead of con- 
 ducive to civilization. In reply to this I may, however, 
 remark that rival efforts in play among amicable social 
 neighbours, if properly regulated, will tend to cement, 
 not to break friendship ; and that it is both the end and 
 the duty of civilization so far to subdue the passions 
 and lower endowments of our nature, as to prevent their 
 being excited and provoked by causes such as those 
 alluded to. Friendly contests of this kind are, therefore, 
 in reality, very useful as tests whether civilization has 
 * Republic, book iv., c. 4. 
 
206 National Commemorations and Festivals. 
 
 completed Ler work here, and very serviceable to complete 
 it, if not already done. 
 
 Wliat, however, are the legitimate objects of recreations 
 in general, and the leading results, at which they aim ? 
 The first object of a recreation, appears to me to be 'j 
 relaxation from severe labour, cither mental or manual. 
 The second object I should consider to be the supply of 
 entertainment and agreeable occupation to the mind. Of 
 course, the more useful in itself, and the less noxious in its 
 consequences, any recreation can be rendered, the more 
 desirable appears its adoption. Among the Romans, the 
 contests of their amphitheatres were productive of a 
 brutalizing effect, not only from their cruelty, but also as 
 leading to the admiration of mere physical brute force ; 
 and a worse tendendy still is produced through the bull- 
 fights of Spain, by inuring the public mind to the use of 
 the dagger, and to stabbing and bloodshed, and to which 
 in some measure is no doubt to be traced the common 
 occurrence of assassinations in that country. In this 
 nation too, the exhibition of bull-baiting, and bear-baiting, 
 and other cruel sports once so common, were found to 
 have a barbarizing effect upon the popular mind. Indeed, 
 many things which seem at first sight very remote from 
 civilization, may nevertheless have an indirect influence 
 upon it of great importance. Sir Thomas More, in his 
 'Utopia,' does not allow the citizens to be slaughterers 
 of their cattle, on account of the brutalizing tendency of 
 such an occu2:)ation ; nor is any filth sutfered to collect in 
 their streets, the consequences of which are no doubt 
 morally as well as physically noxious. Although in this 
 country there arc few if any public spectacles of a national 
 character, the direct tendency of which is degenerating 
 and inimical to civilization ; yet there may be exhibitions 
 which, tliough not of the class alluded to, are essentially 
 injurious in their efibcts, however intended they may be to 
 produce quite a contrary result. Such appears to be 
 
Puhlic Executions. 207 
 
 especially the case with regard to the public executions of 
 criminals,* which, although not meant to be spectacles to 
 gratify the curiosity, or to call forth the morbid feelings 
 of the public, have nevertheless a strong tendency in that 
 direction, and are very baneful from their liability to 
 harden and debase them. Hero the agonies and death of 
 a man, which should never be even comtemplated without 
 the most solemn feelings, are exhibited to the gaze of 
 a rude mob, and are made the subject of indecent levity. 
 Indeed, all spectacles which accustom the mind to view 
 with indifference deeds of violence and horror, are bar- 
 barizing in their tendency, even when the exhibition is, 
 and is felt to be, only fictitious. But where the deed 
 itself is witnessed, the effect is more deleterious in pro- 
 portion as it is more powerful, and as the impress of the 
 reality necessarily far exceeds that of the representation. 
 On this account, the public execution of criminals is 
 in every way most injiuious and brutalizing to the public 
 mind. Moreover, the general effect of public executions, 
 instead of creating in the spectators an abhorrence of 
 crime, is to familiarize them with it ; and in the place 
 of detestation of the criminal and horror at his offence, 
 arises too frequently a morbid sympathy with the former, 
 and a half-admiration of the latter. What ought to be 
 considered as a painful, awful, and humiliating solemnity, 
 is converted into an exciting tragedy ; and the wretched 
 subject of it is attempted to be raised from a malefactor to 
 a martyr. Religious spectacles, on the other hand, what- 
 ever be the occasion for their celebration, when conducted 
 with due dignity and solemnity, have a refining and enno- 
 bling tendency ; are civilizing in themselves, and add exten- 
 sively to the power of Religious Influence in this respect. 
 Field sports and shooting matches, of which live animals 
 are the victims, may be regarded as, and doubtless are, 
 
 * Tliese have been happily abolished in this country, since the 
 first edition of this work apj)eared. 
 
208 National Commemorations and Festivals. 
 
 brutalizing, so far as they accustom the mind to receive 
 pleasure from the pain and death of an animal. This, 
 however, is by no means their direct and essential object, 
 but is only an incidental circumstance connected with 
 them ; the main end being the physical exercise they 
 produce, which, is healthful and exhilarating, if not actually 
 directly civilizing in its tendency, and the cultivation of 
 that scientific skill calculated to be serviceable for higher 
 and more important ends, which is required for their 
 successful pursuit. Nor are the feelings that such sports 
 excite those of anger and revenge, which ordinarily ac- 
 company deeds of violence and bloodshed among mankind, 
 and which directly tend to debase the mind. 
 
 It has already been observed* that luxury tends as 
 directly and as surely to the corruption and degeneration, 
 as civilization does to the refinement and invigoration of a 
 people. Whatever pursuits or amusements are calculated 
 to produce idleness, to amuse simply without instructing 
 or improving, are luxurious in their nature. Indeed, all 
 pleasures have a tendency in one direction or other, either 
 to enlarge and invigorate, or to weaken and degenerate 
 the mind. Those games especially which do not con- 
 tribute either to promote wholesome bodily exercise and 
 recreation, or mental or moral improvement, are almost 
 always luxurious and i")ernicious. Of this class especially 
 are those particular diversions which come under the 
 general denomination of gambling, to which a morbid 
 excitement is ordinarily attached, as though it were sought 
 thereby to compensate for the wholesome stimulus which 
 improving pursuits produce, in a manner analogous to the 
 excitement through certain alcoholic liquors, by which they 
 appear to at(me for the want of the invigorating efifects of 
 those of a wholesome kind. Gambling, indeed, so far as 
 it is to be considered as strictly such, consists in following 
 games of chance, on the determination of which money is 
 * Essence of Civilization, ante, p. 45. 
 
state Provision for National Eecreations. 209 
 
 staked, and in conducting wliich there is no exercise of 
 skill whatever ; or where the happening of an uncertain 
 event, and not the skill of the person engaged, is what 
 mainly decides the issue. Where fraud is introduced, 
 this cannot of course be considered as a part of the game, 
 but is quite independent of it, and its only object is 
 to defeat the proper aim of the latter, and to divert it from 
 its legitimate purpose. Eecreations generally which are 
 of the gambling class, tend alike to debase and enervate 
 both individuals and nations. In many cases, however, 
 where gambling is followed, not for its own sake, but 
 in the hope of bringing gain, it perhaps resolves itself 
 rather into a degenerate commercial occupation than into 
 an actual recreation. 
 
 As regards the general character of popular amusements, 
 it is unnecessary, as being indeed superfluous, to state 
 here that whatever recreations contribute immediately 
 to promote vice, ought to be discouraged as much as 
 possible, if not strictly prohibited, as alike inimical to 
 civilization, and corruptive of good morals. And if their 
 tendency is in this direction, sucb is sufficient to warrant 
 the condemnation of the pursuit, as the tendency alone, 
 where that is clearly shown, is that by which we are able 
 to determine. Nor are recreations which induce to idle- 
 ness any more to be encouraged than those which lead 
 to vice. Amusements of themselves, when exercised in 
 moderation and conducted fairly, cannot be reasonably 
 deemed to be of this character. On the contrary, they 
 are not only necessary where severe labour is follow^ed, 
 but it is alone by taking occasional recreation that under- 
 takings of great ardour can be accomplished, or a life 
 of constant hard work endured. In addition to this, 
 previous toil, whether mental or bodily, is as essential to 
 the real enjoyment of recreation, as hunger is to that of 
 appetite. 
 
 It is the unquestionable and imperative duty of the 
 
210 National Commemorations and Festivals. 
 
 state, to provide for, and to a certain extent to regulate 
 also the recreation of its members, both as regards their 
 everyday diversions, and their amusements at appointed 
 festivals. Unless this want is adequately supplied, its 
 place will be filled by allurements of a pernicious and 
 profligate tendency. 
 
 On the days selected for festivals and commemorations, 
 museums and picture galleries, and places of recreation, 
 ought to be thrown open to the public. The theatres too 
 might be made free to all at the cost of the state, those 
 plays only of a strictly moral and imj)roviiig character 
 being allowed to be performed. Thus, both the drama 
 would be encouraged, and its character raised. Music 
 should also be provided in all public resorts ; and convey- 
 ance by steamboats and railways at a reasonable rate, 
 at the national expense, supplied on those occasions. 
 Indeed, another mode, which is very agreeable and very 
 improving, both to mind and body, of passing holidays and 
 enjoying general recreation, is that of travelling or making 
 excursions to places of interest, and for which the present 
 accommodation offered by railways, especially by cheap 
 excursion trains, affords full opportunity. By fixing upon 
 holidays and days of commemoration for such exj)editions, 
 not only would the public be enabled, by being at liberty, 
 to avail themselves of such means ; but these holidays, on 
 the other hand, would serve to ensure to the railways a 
 sufficient number of passengers on such occasions, so 
 as to induce and enable them to supply excursion trains. 
 In large and crowded cities, both the recreation and 
 improvement of the people are best and most directly 
 effected by expeditions into the rural districts, where they 
 may enjoy the beauties of nature ; as, on the other hand, 
 those who live in the country may most advantageously 
 spend their holidays in visiting the large towns, and ex- 
 ploring the various monuments of art. Thus might health, 
 and enjoyment, and improvement, physical, social, and 
 
Civil Distinctions originate ivith Nature. 211 
 
 intellectual, be simultaneously provided for all classes 
 alike ; and the state become at once the dispenser of these 
 good gifts to its members, and reap in return the fullest 
 benefit from the results of their increased civilization. 
 
 VII.— DIGNITIES AND HONORAKY REWARDS. 
 
 The national acknowledgment and requital of the 
 services of those individuals who by their achievements 
 or their virtues have rendered extensive benefit to, or have 
 commanded the admiration of their fellow-countrymen, or 
 of mankind in general, which is effected by conferring 
 upon them certain state Dignities, or public Honorary 
 Eewards, of the nature here considered ; is another very 
 important and very efficient Element in the promotion of 
 civilization. 
 
 All men are, indeed, by nature, as much upon an 
 equality as are the different days in the year. But tliis is 
 no reason why some particular individuals, like some 
 particular days, should not be distinguished and marked out 
 as of more importance than the generality ; and in the case 
 of both, the promotion of civilization may be effected by the 
 maintenance of such distinctions in the manner already 
 described. The institution of different orders and degrees 
 of honour in a state, is, moreover, in reality, but carrying 
 out the dictate of nature, expressed in the very earliest 
 stage of society, which, whenever men are assembled 
 together, induces them by mutual and voluntary consent 
 to exalt some persons above others, according to their 
 particular qualities conferring claim to such elevation. 
 Indeed, almost every natural attribute and endowment 
 common to man, contributes more or less by the various 
 proportions in which it is possessed by different persons, 
 to promote this inequality of station and influence among 
 the several members of the same society, and to raise 
 certain individuals above the rest. According as these 
 
212 Dignities and Honorary Beivards. 
 
 particular qualities are valued, will the possessor of them 
 be exalted in rank corresponding with the degree in 
 which he is endowed with them. And the relative 
 estimation in which they are respectively held, will 
 depend on the state of society at the time, and its peculiar 
 tastes and exigencies. In the establishment, therefore, of 
 civil Dignities, civilization in this, as in many other 
 instances, merely directs the impulses of Nature in the 
 right course, and demands that these Dignities and 
 Rewards shall be obtained only by real merit, and be in 
 their quality substantial and certain, instead of trivial 
 and arbitrary. 
 
 Even by the law of nature, he who has achieved great 
 undertakings for the good of society, is entitled to claim 
 from society a fair recompense for those efforts. What- 
 ever return exceeds such fair recompense, amounts to a 
 reward. If it is a simple recompense, it is a return only, 
 not a reward. We adopt the principle of giving rewards 
 for virtue, in the case of peerages and pensions, although 
 we omit to carry it out where it is perhaps most needed, 
 in the establishment of encouragement to good conduct 
 among the masses, and for whom discouragements from bad 
 conduct, in the shape of punishment, without any civil 
 incentives to good, are held out. Eewards may also 
 fairly be given for those meritorious actions which render 
 the performer of them liable to loss or injury, or which 
 have entailed pain, or labour, or other sacrifices in the 
 performance. There is a special need of rewards in the 
 case of the masses, in order to counteract those direct 
 incentives to vice and dishonesty, which necessarily exist 
 in every civilized state of society. 
 
 Nevertheless, a reward, as a reward, by no means de- 
 pends for its desirableness on its intrinsic value. A 
 wreath of laurel at the 01ymj)ic Games, has been prized 
 more than many a crown of gold, inasmuch as in these 
 cases it is the credit attached to the gift, not the gift 
 
Rewards for the Masses. ' 213 
 
 itself, whicli constitutes its worth. Eewards sliould, 
 however, be adapted alike to the circumstances of the 
 individual, and the character of the act to be rewarded. 
 Rank for the wealthy, and emolument for the needy, 
 appear the most suitable in their nature. And the 
 rewards for martial exploits should of course be very dif- 
 ferent from those for triumphs in literature or art. Care 
 should, moreover, be taken in the institution of rewards, 
 so to frame them that they may stimulate not only success 
 but merit. They should not merely create rivalry, 
 but excite to worthy actions. The people will also do 
 well to guard vvdth a jealous eye, against the state rewards 
 given by the government being bestowed, not in reality 
 for services rendered to the country, but for services 
 rendered to the members of the government individually, 
 which possibly to the state itself may be baneful rather 
 than beneficial. 
 
 It will generally, if not universally, be found in all 
 ages of the world, and in all countries, that those par- 
 ticular qualities and virtues, whether allied to wisdom or 
 valour, which are most requisite at those particular times, 
 will be those which are most in request, and will be also 
 those which are the best requited. Mere virtue in itself 
 can hardly, however, be considered as entitled to reward, 
 as mere vice cannot be made the subject of punishment. 
 But all such virtue as directly contributes to the well-being 
 of the state, or of society, and all such vice as directly 
 contributes to their injury, may, and ought to be the sub- 
 jects of reward and punishment. 
 
 Rewards which are intended as encouragements for acts 
 tending to civilization, should in their own nature also, 
 independent of and in addition to the acts which they 
 stimulate, directly tend to promote civilization, and 
 should never, even indirectly, tend to retard it. 
 
 It is, nevertheless, as impossible actually to add to o 
 man's mental or moral, as it is to his material stature, hy 
 
214 Dignities and Honorary Itewards. 
 
 any artificial contrivance or institution. The differences 
 formed by Nature are still the only essential varieties 
 between tlicm. The minutest natural distinction, whether 
 of mind or body, either in educational resources, power of 
 speech, physical strength, size, or agility, makes more 
 real difierence between men, than the widest variation in 
 point of dignity or wealth. As riches can annex nothing 
 to the person, so a title can add nothing to the mind. 
 The only solid claim to superiority arises from talent and 
 w^orth. Dignities do not, moreover, of themselves create 
 distinctions, but they serve merely to mark those already 
 existent, and are symbolical of their acknowledgment by 
 the state which confers the rank, and of the homage ren- 
 dered to the achievements which occasioned its creation. 
 A title changes not the nature or character, but only the 
 civil position of the person to whom it is given. When, 
 therefore, national honours of this kind are bestowed upon 
 an individual, it is not the man, but his virtues or talents, 
 to which the homage of the state is oifered. And he is 
 rewarded not for the worth which he possesses in himself, 
 but for the benefits w^hich he has conferred upon the 
 nation. 
 
 The civilizing influence possessed by the present 
 Element of civilization, consists in the admiration w^hich 
 it contributes to excite among all classes for those men 
 who are eminent for their talents or their virtues. And 
 admiration here leads at once to imitation. Hence, each 
 person is induced to place before his view^ a model of this 
 class as his guide. Even if he does not emulate, or copy 
 as a whole, the object of his homage, he does so with 
 respect to some of his great qualities, and endeavours 
 here to follow, if not to equal him. And an admiration 
 of virtue necessarily induces a corresponding hatred of 
 vice. 
 
 There is also a great moral effect produced by the 
 institution of state dignities, in the establishment and 
 
Moral effect of National Dignities. 215 
 
 inculcation of the principle, as a national axiom, that 
 wisdom and worth, and not mere wealth, are w^hat entitle 
 a man to precedence, and really raise him to social and 
 civil rank among his fellows. Wealth of itself can, 
 indeed, no more make a man noble, than nobility can 
 make him wealthy. Both, however, tend to make him 
 influential ; and when he possesses the two, his power is 
 necessarily considerable. And as merit, and not money 
 constitutes the claim to state dignity, so actual desert 
 alone should command the respect of the nation. If, there- 
 fore, it be objected to the principle of conferring national 
 honours by titles as a rew^ard for merit, that such an 
 institution is fitted only for a barbarous age, when symbols 
 alone are intelligible to the multitude, and the reality is 
 not understood ; I would reply that every age, however 
 civilized, is sufficiently barbarous to render what is obvious 
 and discernible of more influence and effect on the public 
 mind, than what is discoverable only after severe scrutiny, 
 and is uncertain and disputable. Public honours are, 
 consequently, of equal influence in all ages. That which 
 mainly savours of barbarism relative to these dignities is, 
 that in a refined age they should be restricted to the 
 achievements appreciated in a rude age, and denied al- 
 together to the far higher triumphs of civilization. 
 
 In our instructorial institutions for the education of 
 youth, where the greatest care is taken to frame a proper 
 and efficient system of mental and moral discipline, and 
 to stimulate by wholesome emulation ; the principle of 
 dispensing honours and rewards for good conduct, as also 
 of inflicting punishment and degradation for the neglect 
 of duty, has been long established, and with the desired 
 effect. If, however, the system is recognized, and is suc- 
 cessful in the latter case, why should it not be so also in 
 the economy of a state, which is only an assembly of 
 persons of maturer age and experience, but where the 
 influences are the same, although of greater importance ? 
 
216 Dignities and Honorary Bewards. 
 
 The true object of all honorary distinctions and nobility, 
 and the legitimate end of civilization, are alike the ex- 
 altation of the higher, and ennobling, and refining 
 influences of ability and virtue, over the lower impulses 
 of our nature. And the only legitimate foundation of 
 civil titles, is the superiority, either intellectual or moral, 
 of those who bear them, to the common herd of mankind. 
 These artificial distinctions serve as representations or 
 imitations of those real titles to admiration and respect 
 which the superior talents, and achievements, or worth, 
 of certain great men have won for themselves. Thus, 
 some have acquired by their works, claims to immortality 
 and to fame more lasting and more extensive than any 
 civil honours that could be bestowed upon them. Arti- 
 ficial dignities are, however, of great use and influence both 
 as public testimonies to the merits and virtues w^hich they 
 reward, and as establishing in the men so ennobled, and 
 in their descendants who succeed them in their titles, 
 living monuments of those performances, which are by 
 this means ever kept in remembrance in the national mind. 
 The favours thus shown, and the encouragement thus 
 afforded to those who have conferred honour on their 
 country, or on mankind, testify the national approval of 
 these good deeds. 
 
 A nobility is, moreover, of considerable importance, as an 
 established body or order, to the civilization of a country. 
 By its institution, patrons are supplied to learning, and 
 art, and science, in men of superior rank, wealth, and 
 education, who are diffused throughout the nation, and 
 who take a lead in all its concerns. As in a barbarous 
 age, the aristocracy are ever foremost in the field as the 
 leaders and directors of martial exploits, and the pro- 
 tectors of the land ; so in time of peace are they equally 
 useful and influential in promoting tlie arts of j)eace, and 
 the extension of civilization. And in addition to the 
 directly civilizing influence exercised by a nobility in the 
 
Civilizing Influence of an Aristocracy. 217 
 
 encouragement of learning and tlie patronage of genius ; 
 their mansions in different parts of the country, are re- 
 ceptacles for treasures in science and literature, and 
 exhibit productions of taste and refinement by which the 
 popular mind is affected. Although these possessions are 
 the material property of but a few, they are open to the 
 public at large, and intellectually benefit and civilize the 
 whole nation. 
 
 In the same way, the rich and valuable collections of 
 books and manuscripts, and other materials for history, in 
 the possession of many of our old and noble families, are 
 in reality so many treasures possessed by the nation itself; 
 inasmuch as the nation at large, equally with the actual 
 possessors, reaps the rich fruits which are gathered from 
 them when they are made available for historical or other 
 literary purjDoses. 
 
 As, however, a considerable portion of the civilizing 
 influence of an aristocracy in a nation is derived from 
 their wealth, which enables them to become patrons of 
 art and learning, and to have ample leisure to devote to 
 their own cultivation and improvement ; and as it is, 
 moreover, most desirable that such a body should possess 
 a stake in the interests of the country ; it appears essential 
 tliat means should be adopted by the state to prevent so 
 influential and important an institution belonging to it 
 from becoming impoverished, and thus liable to corrupt 
 influence, or to the suspicion of any such failing, in itself 
 degrading and detrimental. This could bo effected by 
 annexing lauded estates of a specified extent to each title 
 conferred, so as to descend with it in perpetuity, and be 
 unalienable altogether. Upon the grant of any new peer- 
 age, it might be made a condition that the recipient should 
 permanently settle upon it a certain quantum of property, 
 either in land or money, for its due maintenance. In 
 favour of peerages insufficiently provided for, or where 
 the estate annexed to them has become dilapidated, and 
 
2 1 8 Dignities and Honorary Rewards, 
 
 indeed in favour of peerages generally, the law against 
 perpetuities might also reasonably and advantageously be 
 repealed, so far as to enable them to accumulate and to 
 retain property to a certain fixed amount.* 
 
 Eignities and honorary titles are not, however, by any 
 means exclusively confined to peerages and other hereditary 
 honours. Indeed, the grand division of the people in a 
 civilized nation is into two main classes, consisting of the 
 order of Gentility, and the vulgar order. And this 
 division, which is established by custom and general con- 
 sent, is far more arbitrary, and more strictly observed, than 
 any artificial arrangement as to civil rank in society. 
 Thus, the humblest gentleman and the sovereign may 
 meet on terms of comparative equality ; while the 
 humblest gentleman and the highest below that station 
 could not do so without a violation of what is considered 
 as propriety and decorum. And yet this term Gentility, 
 which is deemed so essential to determine the boundary 
 between these different ranks, is of itself most difficult to 
 define with certainty and accuracy. Nevertheless, that 
 which, on the whole, really in any individual constitutes 
 his essential claim to gentility, is his civilization, con- 
 sidering this not merely as education, much less as wealth, 
 but in the largest and most comprehensive sense in which 
 the word can be understood ; implying his refinement in 
 mind, and manners, and feeling, as well as mental cultiva- 
 tion. 
 
 Gentility is in fact the polish, the finishing touch of 
 education. It adds refinement to intelligence, and to 
 feeling as well, which directs and corrects the conduct of 
 those who are thus endowed. It is the completion, the 
 head-stone as it were, of civilization. Nevertheless, 
 Gentility is by no means the consequence of, or confined 
 to birth, wealth, or position. Princes may be found 
 
 * See this question more fully discussed in ' The True Theory 
 of Representation in a State,' pp. 71-73. 
 
Geniility. 219 
 
 as vulgar as the lowest paupers, and paupers possessed 
 of the refinement of mind and feeling which would adorn 
 any peer. 
 
 Gentility, moreover, exercises a very extensive moral 
 and civilizing influence throughout the nation. Honorary 
 titles, too, are of many different degrees and orders ; and 
 consist not only of dignities, but the various ranks in the 
 several professions have their titles annexed to them. 
 These honours, which are open to every one, are of 
 immense use and influence in promoting a laudable 
 emulation among all classes, and should be distributed so 
 as directly and efficiently to stimulate talent, and exertion, 
 and virtue, in each department. Provided the actions of a 
 public man are beneficial to the state, it matters not to the 
 state from what motives they proceed. Many of the best 
 deeds have been done from the worst motives, as some of the 
 most valuable medicines are extracted from poisonous herbs. 
 
 If all men were independent, virtue might safely be left 
 to be its own reward. It is so indeed very often, but not 
 always, in the case of the great and the affluent ; although 
 even here there are incentives to vice which require to be 
 counteracted. In the case of the poor, the dependent, the 
 masses, the rewards which virtue itself brings are but 
 trivial in comparison with the repulses that it has to 
 encounter, which if not direct incentives to vice, are, at any 
 rate, direct discouragements to virtue, and which ought, at 
 least in every perfect condition of society and of civiliza- 
 tion, to be counterbalanced, however impossible or im- 
 practical it may be to do away with them altogether. 
 Honorary titles of various kinds, which have no political 
 or direct social duties attached to them as in the case of 
 a peerage, may well be conferred as the rewards of literary 
 or scientific merit, especially in those pursuits where from 
 time to time such distinctions appear most requisite. A 
 title is a sort of coimterfeit to a nickname. A nickname 
 is an opprobrious appellation, on account of some defect, 
 
220 Dignities and Honorary Rewards. 
 
 attaclied by a society to an individual. A title is an 
 honourable appellation on account of merit, attached by 
 a nation. In an advanced age of civilization like our 
 own, eminence in various important undertakings deserves 
 as much to be encouraged as does skill in martial enterprise 
 during a warlike era. 
 
 Care should however be taken that the duties of 
 patriotism towards their country, do not lead men to 
 neglect their private, but prior duties as citizens ; and 
 above all that their duties as citizens do not lead to the 
 neglect of those which are paramount of all, those which 
 they owe as parents, and heads and members of families. 
 Bad children seldom if ever make good citizens. And bad 
 members of the social community, can never be expected to 
 sLine as the directors of public affairs. 
 
 Dignities, indeed, even of the highest kind, were originally 
 sometimes conferred as rewards for efforts in the cause of 
 civilization. So far back as the comparatively barbarous 
 Saxon era, peerages were given on account of skill in 
 navigation, and for exertion in making discoveries. How 
 much greater, therefore, is the obligation upon us, in the 
 present age, when dexterity in martial exploits is happily 
 so much less demanded, to render these honours conducive 
 to the mental and moral improvement and civilization of 
 the nation. Of such imj)ortance, indeed, did Aristotle 
 deem the due distribution of honours in a state, that he con- 
 sidered the stability of the government to depend mainly 
 on the three following circumstances : — 1. The respect 
 due to age and experience. 2. The distribution of honours 
 and offices according to evident and approved method. 
 3. An education accurately adapted to the pattern of the 
 commonwealth. In his Politics, this great philosopher 
 and politician observes, — " In tlie contest therefore for 
 civil pre-eminence, education and virtue seem fairly 
 entitled to the first honours, because of all things educa- 
 tion and virtue most contribute to the perfection of civil 
 
Honours suited to a Civilized Age. 221 
 
 society."* If, tlierefore, the due distribution of these 
 honours is so important ; surely it must be of correspond- 
 ingly great importance that the objects to be encouraged 
 by them should be rightly selected, and with a proper 
 regard to the condition, and ctate of civilization, and 
 mental and moral exigencies of the nation. If, in a martial 
 age, titles, and estates, and pensions, are conferred on 
 those who have successfully led the forces of the country 
 against the enemy; surely, in an age of peace and 
 civilization, those who exert themselves for the extirpation 
 of barbarism and ignorance, and effect mighty and splendid 
 triumphs in works of genius and science, ought not to be 
 neglected. 
 
 A hero, in the strict sense of the terra, is an individual 
 who, possessing both talents and endowments above the 
 common order, has devoted them to the service of his 
 fellow-creatures instead of for the benefit of himself, and 
 who on this account deserves to be held up to general 
 admiration, and to be pointed to as an examjDle for imita- 
 tion. Surely, therefore, a man who has achieved important 
 conquests, or effected great discoveries, in art or science, 
 where, although the perils to life are not so immediate as 
 on the ocean or en the field of battle, the danger to bodily 
 health is quite as imminent ; is as fully entitled as one 
 who adventures in the latter, to have his services ac- 
 knowledged by the nation, and to be honoured by those 
 dignities which are bestowed as the peculiar marks 
 of approval by the state. Nor does there seem to be any 
 cause why the names of dignities and titles of honour 
 should not as well be chosen from grand achievements in 
 science, as from certain spots on the earth's service ; or 
 why an original invention should not as fairly be honoured 
 in this manner, as the name of a city or a plain where a 
 victory was won. More especially, if peerages were 
 conferred as rewards for scientific or artistical distinction, 
 
 * Book iii. 
 
222 Dignities and Honorary Rewards, 
 
 instead of for success in pliysical enterprise, would such a 
 mode of deriving tlieir designation appear in every way 
 reasonable. The most appropriate and honourable way of 
 selecting a title for men eminent for their efforts or their 
 attainments, would in that case be to take it from the name 
 of the work which they have achieved, or from the branch 
 of art or science in which they have effected any great 
 enterprise, and which would at once denote the claim to 
 the honour, as well as indicate the precise nature of the 
 dignity. Indeed, in many cases even now, it seems 
 palpably absurd in the bestowal of a peerage to assume a 
 title from a place over which the ennobled person has not 
 only no dominion, nor acquires any by his dignity, but 
 with which it frequently happens that he has no connec- 
 tion of any kind. We ridicule the Emperor of China for 
 styling himself the Brother of the Sun, and yet some of 
 the titles of nobility conferred by our own Sovereign are 
 as emj)ty and as unmeaning. 
 
 Nevertheless, although the system upon which nobility 
 is conferred may be to a certain extent exhausted and 
 out of date, and even many of the direct objects of the 
 institution itself no longer attainable; yet the results of 
 the establishment of such an order, and the indirect 
 advantages derived from it, which are in many cases far 
 more important and more influential than those which are 
 direct, are of immense, and indeed incalculable value. 
 The main question, however, at issue here is, whether by 
 certain modifications in the system of creating peerages, 
 the institution itself might not be made more entirely, 
 more essentially, and more extensively serviceable to the 
 requirements of society and of civilization in this country. 
 And more especially whether an order which in a 
 martial age was originated and intended mainly as the 
 reward of martial exploits ; in a civilized age ought not 
 to be adapted and applied to the advancement of civiliza- 
 tion. 
 
Bevival of Extinct Orders. 223 
 
 The distribution of minor honours, sucli as kniglithood, 
 among persons of middle rank in the state, as was for- 
 merly the custom, is of great influence as regards the 
 binding together the different orders of society, and 
 strengthening the nobility by the buttresses thus planted 
 around it. On this account it is to be regretted that they 
 are not more generously dealt out, especially to those in 
 civic offices, and in the provincial cities and towns in 
 various parts of the country ; and that in a commercial 
 kingdom like ours, there is not a class of dignities expressly 
 adapted and intended to be conferred on men engaged in 
 commercial pursuits, and who are filling responsible 
 corporate and other inferior civil posts. Knighthood, 
 which was once the honour ordinarily bestowed upon 
 persons of this class, is now^ generally reserved for more 
 special occasions. And yet it is in many respects of 
 great consequence that people in the position and station 
 alluded to should share in, and should be thus directly 
 influenced by the honorary dignities which the state lias 
 to award. 
 
 Whether a new order of dignities especially reserved for 
 those who are distinguished in art, science, or letters, 
 might not very advantageously be constituted, aj^pears 
 deserving of grave consideration ; and thus an institution 
 of " able "-men as well as " noble "-men, would be existent 
 in the nation : a body, moreover, that might well be 
 entrusted with the disposal of many important social, 
 commercial, intellectual, and moral questions, which 
 although not strictly of a legislative character, it is of 
 great consequence to the state to have fairly discussed and 
 determined. 
 
 In an age so different as is the present, in all its leading 
 characteristics, from that in which peerages were originated, 
 it appears on many accounts extremely desirable to 
 institute some new degrees more expressly adapted to 
 serve as rewards for achievements in the arts of peace. 
 
224 Dignities and Honorary Rewards. 
 
 Now, more than ever, siicli distinctioiisare influential, and 
 now, more than ever are they requisite. 
 
 For the purpose of conferring dignities on those who 
 have eminently distinguished themselves either in art or 
 science, by great literary efforts, or by original inventions, 
 and which honours they may be proud to hand down to 
 posterity; might not the ancient titles of Thane and 
 of Vavasour be advantageously revived, which living now 
 only in the romance and literature of our country, and 
 being so associated with the poetry of its history, would 
 aptly be availed of to honour, in an age of civilization, its 
 intellectual heroes, as in a rude and martial age they 
 ennobled its warriors ? These dignities might give a seat 
 in the Upper House of the Legislature to the holders of 
 them, when such was desired ; or in other cases, like 
 baronetcies, they might confer no exclusive privileges on 
 the possessors, but would be marks of distinction only to 
 them and their descendants ; the title of Thane serving as 
 the honorary dignity for distinction in poetry and 
 literature, aud that of Vavasour for eminence in philo- 
 sophy and science. 
 
 If objections be raised to rendering honorary titles for 
 intellectual merit hereditary, on the ground that the talents 
 and acquirements of the first possessors of them do not 
 descend to their posterity with their rank ; I would reply 
 that, by rendering these dignities hereditary, you keep 
 alive the remembrance of the men thus distinguished, and 
 preserve their representatives to remote ages, which con- 
 tributes more than anything to excite a laudable stimulus 
 in the public mind to emulate their good deeds. And 
 even in cases where the memory of tLeir fame does not 
 require to be thus perpetuated, it is at any rate advan- 
 tageous, and conducive to civilization, to perpetuate th.e 
 remembrance of the national homage which was rendered 
 to it. In those instances, moreover, where a particular 
 title of nobility has acquired great distinction on account 
 
Hereditary Honours. 225 
 
 of the splendid qualities of the bearer, but such title 
 has afterwards become extinct ; it seems very desirable 
 that it should be revived by being selected as a title of 
 some newly created peer of less renown personally, by 
 means of which a representative of the individual so 
 distinguished would always be preserved, and the 
 remembrance of these great deeds kept continually alive. 
 
 It is considered desirable that with the descent of a 
 peerage should be ensured to the inheritor the wealth 
 also of the first possessor. How much more essential is it 
 that those far more valuable qualities of talent and virtue, 
 as a reward for which the peerage was conferred, should 
 be rendered heritable. To some extent this is sought to 
 be effected by the careful education which is bestowed on 
 the expectant inheritor of these honours. 
 
 It is, however, well worthy of consideration whether, 
 in addition to the dignities already proposed, some new 
 order of nobility, such as that of peerages for life, might 
 not in some cases very advantageously be granted to men 
 eminent for their intellectual acquirements, or for their 
 achievements, and whose presence in the Upper House of 
 the Legislature would both grace that assembly, and add 
 much to the value of its deliberations, besides furnishing 
 a suitable mode of encouraging and honouring such at- 
 tainments ; the possessors of which might not, however, 
 be endowed with hereditary wealth, which is quite inde- 
 pendent of their personal qualification for the title in 
 question. This might be effected either by limiting the 
 peerage to the life of the person ennobled, or by annexing 
 peerages to certain state offices, as in the case of 
 Bishoprics, which the holders of them for the time might 
 enjoy.* 
 
 It is no argument against the extensive mental and moral 
 influences which may be produced by the institution of 
 
 * See also on this subject, ' The True Theory of Representation 
 in a State,' pp. 73-76. 
 
 Q 
 
226 Dignities and Honorary Rewards. 
 
 titles and honorary degrees, whether by nobility or vy 
 minor distinctions, that the greatest names in each de- 
 partment of art and science, in martial enterprise and in 
 the history of the nation, have acquired the highest fame, 
 and have gained immortal honour, without any such rank, 
 and far beyond what the latter could have procured. We 
 may admit, indeed, that the peerage granted to the author 
 of the ' Novum Organum,' added nothing to his reputation, 
 and that the name of Francis Bacon is nobler in our ears, 
 and will endure longer than that of Viscount St. Alban's. 
 Shakespeare, too, would have obtained no renown by the 
 highest title that could have been bestowed upon him ; 
 and no coronet on the brow of Newton or of Milton could 
 have added to the lustre of their glory. But all this is 
 not because nobility and civil distinctions do not confer 
 honour on those so exalted, but because there are some so 
 dignified by nature as to be incapable of civil exaltation. 
 The ornaments not only of their country but of their 
 kind, the distinguishing lights not merely of the century 
 in which they shone, but who will be the beacons of all 
 successive ages ; they require no aid from the institutions 
 of man to make prominent and permanent illustrious 
 names, which are as luminous as the planets in the 
 heavens, and as durable as the elements of Natui'e. 
 Talents such as theirs it is vain to emulate, and their 
 wisdom it is hopeless to teach others to equal. Their 
 virtue nevertheless may excite admiration, and by the 
 praise of their good deeds, we may aspire to move others 
 not only to applaud, but to follow. And it is in humble 
 imitation of the great and noble dignities which they 
 have thus earned, originated and conferred by Nature 
 herself, and whose influence is so important and so bene- 
 ficial, that the various civil dignities and honorary dis- 
 tinctions of the kind already alluded to, have been 
 founded among states, by the sagacity of their rulers, for 
 the civilization of the people. 
 
State Pensions to Meritorious Persons. 227 
 
 Not only, however, ought the nation to take under its 
 patronage, and to bestow honours on those who have suc- 
 cessfully distinguished themselves either in art, science, 
 or literature, or have otherwise conferred real benefit 
 upon mankind ; but even those also who have unsuc- 
 cessfully pursued the same course may occasionally and 
 even equally deserve state bounty and reward, provided 
 that their productions are possessed of actual merit, and 
 that their failure was owing not to deficiency in the latter, 
 but to circumstances wholly independent of any such 
 considerations. As already remarked, the discoverers of 
 new inventions of the utmost value frequently fail to reap 
 the reward of their talents. And many whose genius was 
 neglected and unacknowledged while they were alive, and 
 who were consequently left to linger in obscurity, when 
 the grave has closed over them have been duly honoured 
 by posterity. It is also to be here borne in mind, that 
 the highest efforts in art, and the most meritorious and 
 useful discoveries in science, by no means necessarily 
 ensure any adequate pecuniary recompense, or even pro- 
 tect the achievers of them from the cravings of poverty. 
 As Milton's immortal ' Paradise Lost' decreases nothing 
 in value as a product of genius, from the insignificance of 
 the sum which was paid for the copyright ; so poverty in 
 purse is no proof of paucity in intellect of any person. 
 Hence, those men of distinguished merit and acquire- 
 ments, and whose talents have been devoted to the good 
 of mankind, but who are wanting in the wealth of others 
 engaged in the same honourable career, may be aptly and 
 advantageously rewarded with pensions, or other pecuniary 
 provision, by the state. They are, indeed, peculiarly fit 
 objects for such endowments, as, without directly bene- 
 fiting themselves, they have directly benefited their 
 country, and have sacrificed personal gain to enrich 
 mankind at large. Indeed, intellectual exertion, es- 
 pecially of the highest kind, but seldom leads to riches 
 
228 Dignities and Honor ary Rewards. 
 
 and men of tlie noblest genius are least of all aaaj^ted 
 to obtain them. The sordid acquirements produced by 
 everj-day occuj^ations, they leave to others, for whom 
 they j)i'Ovide treasures which no wealth can purchase. 
 Not seldom, however, are they the means of ensuring to 
 the rest of mankind, by the discoveries which they unfold, 
 pecuniary as well as mental gain. Intellectual enter- 
 prises, moreover, although the pursuit of them may ensure 
 the utmost satisfaction to their followers, as regards their 
 enjoyments of that class, produce, frequently, also a large 
 amount of misery, both from the injmy to health which 
 they occasion, and the neglect of worldly affairs to which 
 they oftentimes lead. 
 
 A book is the fruit of the mind of the author, which he 
 gives to the world, but which, as in the case of that 
 springing from a tree, while it contains the essence of 
 what is good in the latter, impoverishes its own being, 
 although it enriches him who gathers it. An author's 
 works constitute as it were the cream of his mind. In 
 them are concentrated the choicest of his ideas ; but they 
 deteriorate the remainder of his stock of thoughts. 
 Hence, great authors in ordinary society, are often ob- 
 served to be very commonj^lace men. Works, whether 
 literary or scientific, which are of national imjDortance, 
 may reasonably not only be rewarded and patronised, but 
 in certain cases should be undertaken at the national 
 expense ; and that not merely on account of their value 
 to the country, but because they are too vast for indi- 
 vidual enterprise. For the accomplishment of these efforts, 
 state pensions might not only fairly but advantageously 
 be granted, and an annual sum out of the jiublic revenues 
 very properly devoted to so desirable a purpose. 
 
 In a nation where a perfect system for the extension of 
 civilization is pursued, the rewards by tlie state which 
 are conferred for intellectual efforts, should be the 
 highest, and should far exceed those for mere manual 
 
state Rewards corresjjondent ivith Objects. 229 
 
 labour, or where results of a physical kind only are 
 attained. But it should at the same time be borne in 
 mind that pecuniary rewards are neither so high nor so 
 honourable as those of a titular class ; and that where 
 circumstances admit of it, intellectual enterj)rises should 
 ever be rer[uited by some donation more correspondent 
 with their own quality than money, such as dignities 
 adapted for the pm-pose. There is no reason, indeed, 
 why, in cases deserving of and requiring them, both 
 pension and dignity should not be granted to the same 
 individual ; the one being given to him as a recompense 
 for the toil he has undergone for the good of the nation, 
 the other as a mark of the respect and honour with which 
 the nation regards him. Professional services, which are 
 ordinarily of a laborious nature, though more or less 
 demanding intellectual effort of a certain amount, are 
 very properly requited by money, as that forms the 
 standard of all material recompense, although it would 
 ill reward high intellectual exertion. Money serves very 
 well to pay for the bestowal of medical or legal skill, 
 which should strictly, as in ordinary services, be paid in 
 kind, by rendering again services of the same natm-e. 
 But as this would be always inconvenient, and often im- 
 possible, money is given, which in its value represents 
 the return of services. Money, too, indirectly, to some 
 extent, serves as a reward for intellectual labour, as it 
 supplies the wants and necessities to which every man, 
 however intellectual, is more or less subject. Beyond 
 this, however, it is wholly unadapted for intellectual 
 recompense ; much less is " it to be considered as the 
 ultimate aim of intellectual efforts. Professional men are 
 properly paid by money, as that, or what money re- 
 presents or will procure, is their ultimate object in 
 following their profession. But money is not the proper 
 reward of philosophers and poets, as neither money, nor 
 that which money represents, is their ultimate object. 
 
230 Dignities and Honorary Eevjards. 
 
 Tliey prefer wliat they gain in honour and reputation to 
 any pecuniary reward. 
 
 Nevertheless, as x)rofossional men more or less desire 
 to derive some fame and reputation, as well as pecuniary 
 recompense, from the skill which they exert; so ought 
 men engaged in intellectual efforts to obtain, along with 
 the reputation which they acquire, some substantial pe- 
 cuniary recompense, especially as this is essential for 
 their ordinary comfort, and consequently for the due 
 carrying on of their enterprises. But with them this 
 pecuniary recompense ought ever to be considered not as 
 their main, but only as a collateral object. Professional 
 men seek to benefit individuals only. Men of intellectual 
 effort aim to benefit all mankind. The state is therefore 
 the proper re warder and patron of the latter, as their 
 clients and patients are of the former. 
 
 Care should, however, be taken in the dispensation 
 of rewards for literary efforts, lest, as has occasionally 
 happened, the bestowal of the reward, which was intended 
 for encouragement to future exertion, as well as a requital 
 for past achievements, by satisfying the desire of the 
 individual so remunerated, operates as a means of pre- 
 venting all further endeavours, now that the coveted dis- 
 tinction is attained, or the pressure of want is withdrawn ; 
 so that, what was here meant as a stimulus to new enter- 
 })rise, has the contrary effect of extinguishing it altogether. 
 Pecuniary rewards are of course more open to this ob- 
 jection than are those of a purely honorary kind. But 
 where real genius instigated the exertions of the indi- 
 vidual in question, it is hardly to be apprehended that his 
 ambition would be so easily quenched, or that his highest 
 ulterior aim would be merely the procurement of a means 
 of comfortable subsistence. Where his efforts are carried 
 on solely for the latter object, it is probable that the 
 suspension of them would occasion but a trifling loss to 
 the community. 
 
Dispensation of State Preferment. 231 
 
 It is miicli to bo regretted, not only that literary pen- 
 sions have not been established upon a more liberal scale 
 than is at present the case, but that they have not been 
 dispensed upon a more systematic and equitable plan. 
 To some extent perhaps the insignificance of the sums 
 appropriated for this purj)ose, occasions a corresponding 
 neglect as to the correct mode of their being apportioned. 
 Nevertheless, the claims of literary and scientific men 
 are, in reality, generally far more certain and defined, and 
 more clearly distinguishable, than are those of rival can- 
 didates for advancement in the same profession, but whose 
 deserts are, in ordinary cases, even as regards their pro- 
 motion, much more equitably rewarded. To most of the 
 professions, indeed, there are offices of dignity and emolu- 
 ment attached, to which eminent and successful prac- 
 titioners in them may hope eventually to be raised. 
 Literature and science, as such, having no preferment of 
 this nature annexed to their pursuit, the state is bound to 
 supply the omission, and to reward by pecuniary pension 
 those whose wants and whose merits render them worthy 
 of such a recompense. 
 
 In the distribution, moreover, of the professional pre- 
 ferment and other civil appointments belonging to the 
 state, its rulers should be ever careful to select the most 
 deserving objects, as regards their ability and their 
 eminence in their respective departments. As in each 
 country there will be men of every variety in talent, and 
 character, and age ; so it should be the especial aim of 
 the government not only to enlist in its service the ablest 
 and the best, but to employ each in the particular offices 
 which they are peculiarly and best qualified to fill. This 
 is, indeed, the real secret of securing success, not merely 
 in any great undertaking, but in the general and ordinary 
 conduct of affairs ; although perhaps, especially in the 
 affairs of states where it is most needed, there is no prin- 
 cijile more neglected. Men of each character and land 
 
232 Dignities and Honorary Rewards. 
 
 of talent may be made useful in tlieir several ways if 
 engaged in tlieir proper departments, and the deficiencies 
 of one may be corrected by the acquirements or virtues 
 of others. And men of whatever talent may prove useless 
 if employed in those departments for which they are the 
 least qualified. By a strict attention to its duties as 
 regards the distribution of its patronage, the state may 
 accomplish much in the promotion of civilization, which 
 is of course as essentially dependent on the skill and 
 learning with which the various professions carried on in 
 the nation are conducted ; as their skill and learning, if 
 not actually dependent upon, are at any rate affected by 
 the manner in which the higher qualities of its professors 
 receive encouragement from the state. 
 
 In addition, however, to the dignities conferred upon, 
 and the pecuniary rewards given to men of distinguished 
 literary and scientific merit, or who have rendered eminent 
 services to their country ; there ought to be established 
 in every civilized state an order if not of dignities, at any 
 rate of rewards, corresponding with and ap2)licable to 
 people of the lower ranks, and which might be offered to, 
 and would hold out a constant stimulus to persons of that 
 class, as the return for signal acts, either of heroism or of 
 virtue, or for extraordinary merit of any kind, either 
 mental or moral. Sometimes even inferior virtues and 
 qualities, especially among the humbler orders, deserve 
 and require peculiar encouragement by the state. Thus, 
 physical courage, which is after all but an animal quality, 
 and has no intellectual endowment about it, demands to 
 be patronized, and developed, and rewarded ; and indeed 
 is so by all nations Avho engage much in war. This 
 characteristic, it is most important for the army to possess 
 as a body, which in the state represents the brutum fulmen 
 of the man; depending for its head, and scientific direc- 
 tion, and energy, upon its generals, with whom wisdom 
 and discretion, rather than valour, is mainly essential. 
 
Beivards to Men of Htimhle BanJc. 233 
 
 altliongh with them the latter as well is doubtless indis- 
 pensable. Integrity, too, especially in a commercial 
 country, it is expedient thus publicly to encourage. 
 Indeed, in each nation, that peculiar virtue or quality 
 which, from whatever cause, most needs to be cultivated, 
 should be countenanced and niu'tured by the government. 
 Such stimulants to good conduct as those referred to, are 
 surely equally as necessary for people in the lower, as 
 for those in the higher ranks of society ; and probably a 
 great deal more so, as extraordinary incitements to efforts of 
 the class here mentioned, will be far less frequent among 
 the former than among the latter. They are, indeed, 
 generally and mainly requisite, not so much to excite to 
 good deeds those who perform them, and who would be 
 disposed thus to act wholly independent of such con- 
 siderations ; as to j)roclaim to the common herd of man- 
 kind, who require to be influenced in this mode, the merit 
 of such achievements, and the respect paid to them by the 
 nation. 
 
 VIII.— MOEAL JURISPRUDENCE. 
 
 Another very essential and very influential Element in 
 the promotion of civilization, the consideration of some 
 branches of which has been already embraced in certain 
 of the preceding Elements,* is that which may most aptly 
 be included under the term Moral Jurisprudence, by 
 which I mean the general regulation, framing, and ad- 
 ministration of such laws and legislative acts as directly 
 affect and influence the civilization and moral condition 
 of the nation. All law, indeed, tends indirectly more or 
 less to the promotion of civilization, as contributing to 
 terminate anarchy, which is essentially inimical thereto ; 
 but Moral Jurisprudence alone directly promotes civili- 
 
 * Vide ante. Elements V. and VI. 
 
234 Moral Jurisprudence. 
 
 zation. Moreover, tlie more advanced is the condition of 
 civilization in any country, the more exalted will be the 
 aim of its jurisprudential code. And the more exalted is 
 the aim of its jurisprudential code, the more extensive 
 will be the care which is devoted to that department of 
 legislation which seeks to secure a high tone of morals, 
 and of which Moral Jurisprudence forms the* leading 
 portion . 
 
 In legislating for people of different nations and dif- 
 ferent classes, we ought to consider at once both the co- 
 incidences and the contrarieties which exist between them. 
 While human nature is everywhere the same, no two men 
 either are alike, or act alike. In each case it is man that 
 has to be regulated; but although the feelings, and 
 passions, and dispositions of man are everywhere alike ; 
 yet the different modes in which these, and each of them, 
 are operated upon by circumstances, according to the 
 country, position, and character of the individual, must 
 each be estimated in the calculation. In the framing of the 
 laws, and in the general regulation of a state, consequently 
 not only the intellectual capacities, but the moral endow- 
 ments, and also the j)assions and emotions of the people 
 ought to be taken into consideration ; and certain of these 
 are not only to be guarded against and counteracted, but 
 to be availed of and turned to account in the regulation of 
 this very complicated engine. Indeed, a system of govern- 
 ment is like a well-constructed machine, in which some 
 of the wheels are intended to accelerate motion ; others 
 to regulate it, and for that purpose occasionally even to 
 retard it. So some departments of government are to set 
 the laws in motion ; others to direct their operation. 
 
 Every state, however, must be governed by two ruling 
 powers, whether these powers be vested in one, or in two 
 or more persons. The first of these is the legislative 
 power, or the power to make laws to regulate the state, 
 whether this resides in the sovereign, the people at large, 
 
Legislation and Civilization. 235 
 
 or a body delegated by them. The second of these is the 
 executive power, by which the observance of the laws is 
 enforced, whether vested personally in the sovereign, or in 
 persons delegated by him for that purpose. In each state 
 there will be several distinct and independent derivative 
 and secondary legislative and executive powers, adapted 
 for the several purposes they are designed to serve ; some 
 national, others local; some general, others limited. Two 
 things are, however, alike, and equally essential to the 
 perfection of every legal constitution : 1. That the 
 authority of the state be maintained inviolable. 2. That 
 the protection of the meanest subject be rendered equally 
 secure with that of the most exalted. The maintenance 
 of the laws is indeed as essential to the poor as it is to 
 the rich, and is as conducive to the safety, the liberty, 
 and the due enjoyment of the property of the one, as it is 
 to those of the other. It is, moreover, requisite for the 
 stability of a government, that the interest of the rulers 
 and that of the ruled be identical. Whenever the ruled 
 are no longer benefited by the law, its vitality departs, 
 decomposition commences, and destruction soon follows. 
 
 It is not, however, a paradox to assert that the more 
 perfect is the jurispiaidential system, and the general 
 civilization of auy country, the less are the laws needed, 
 inasmuch as it is then, and then only, that the people are 
 completely fitted to govern themselves. Good laws may, 
 no doubt, do much to produce a wholesome moral con- 
 dition in a country ; but it far more frequently happens 
 that this w^holesome moral condition is that which is 
 productive of good laAVS. Each, no doubt, reciprocally 
 influences and acts upon, though neither of itself alone 
 produces the other. 
 
 What Solon said of his laws, is more or less applicable 
 to legislation generally, not only in our day, but in all 
 ages, and in all countries. " They are not the best that 
 might have been framed, but they are the best the Athe- 
 
236 Moral Jurisjjrudence. 
 
 nians are capable of bearing/' Few legislative measures 
 are perfect ; but their imperfections are frequently, if not 
 generally, owing to tbe fact that more perfect measures 
 would not have been adopter! ; or, if adopted, could not 
 have been enforced, or would not have been strictly 
 obeyed. 
 
 The degrees are very various, both as to the nature and 
 the extent to which man is able to possess dominion and 
 property over objects and matters terrestial. The imme- 
 diate subject of man's dominion and property, is his own 
 corporeal person. But even here he is unable to control 
 many of its motions, and ia its substance and organs he 
 can effect no change. His property over the land, and 
 over the goods which are termed his own, consists merely 
 in determining who shall enjoy them, by exercising a 
 certain control over them for a time, in common with 
 himself, and in the power to forbid certain persons their 
 use. The changes that he can effect in their essential 
 character and quality, are very limited indeed. Sovereign 
 dominion is still less extensive, and cannot even deprive 
 others of the territory over which the prince rules. In 
 the case of the Deity alone. His property and Plis dominion 
 are alike complete. He can command the disposition 
 and the actions of every subject, and can change their 
 substance and very nature at His will. 
 
 As civilization is essential to the prosperity of a state, 
 so civilization should be a leading object wdth every 
 government, the main end of which is the prosperity of 
 the people governed. This principle, although obvious 
 as a truism, is generally disregarded ; so that, like many 
 other truisms, however perfectly undisputed, it is at the 
 same time practically denied. Indeed, governments, 
 while they often indirectly retard, but seldom directly 
 promote civilization. 
 
 Although in every state the laws are necessarily con- 
 stantly changing, their principle is unvarying and im- 
 
Subjects of Moral Jurisprudence. 237 
 
 mutable. They are, like the planets, ever in course of 
 revolution round their centre, which remains fixed and 
 changeless. Their very change is, nevertheless, a. proof, 
 and a consequence, more or less essential, of the absolute 
 fixity of their centre, and in order to preserve unchanged, 
 as far as possible, their relation to it. 
 
 Laws of every kind, but more especially moral laws, 
 must not only be adapted to the precise purposes they are 
 intended to serve, but should aim only at ends which are 
 within their legitimate scope. While some objects cannot 
 be effected without the aid of law, others are entirely 
 beyond its aid, and which moral influences alone can 
 reach. Thus, the mere intentions of the mind, not carried 
 into actual operation, which, however bad in themselves, 
 have never become matured, are not within the scope of 
 the law. It is, nevertheless, the intention of the mind, 
 and not the act of the body, which in reality constitutes 
 the essence of crime. The former is the soul, the latter 
 the mere material frame of the transaction. The design 
 of the intellect is that which alone is intentional and 
 willing. The carrying out and completion of that design 
 are the result of chance and of circumstances which are 
 beyond his control. So those acts which do not either 
 affect society, nor are contrary to the laws of God, nor 
 are known to others besides the doer of them, or which 
 are committed by persons out of the jurisdiction of the 
 realm, are beyond the pale of jurisprudence. The state 
 has nevertheless a right to declare certain acts to be 
 unlawful and punishable as such, which although not 
 contrary to the principles of morality, or the laws of 
 Nature, are, or are deemed to be, injurious to society, 
 or at variance with the established economy of the nation. 
 Nothing, however, tends so much to destroy the general 
 influence of the law, as its proved inefficiency in any 
 particular case. It should never aim but where it has 
 the power to strike. Threats which cannot be enforced. 
 
238 Moral Jurisprudence. 
 
 expose us to mockery, not only when we use tLem as bug- 
 bears, but also when we are in earnest. The state should, 
 moreover, be both lenient and liberal as regards the 
 framing of its laws ; but, when once enacted, their ob- 
 servance ought to be rigidly enforced. Their material 
 should be such that though it will bend before the gentlest 
 breeze, it will never break beneath the most violent storm. 
 
 Justice and right are principles which not only belong 
 to a state of natural as well as to one of artificial society, 
 but they form the foundation of all society. It is not the 
 province of civilization to abolish or repudiate these 
 principles, but only to render their application more 
 perfect. And although the means for attaining this object 
 may be more complicated in a civilized than in a rude 
 condition of society ; in the former the end ought ever to 
 be effected with more certainty, and more satisfactorily. 
 If justice and right are in some special cases more perilled 
 in a state of civilization than during barbarigm, they at 
 least have the opportunity, in the former case, of being 
 practically carried out to afar higher degree of perfection. 
 Nevertheless, as there are some topics quite beyond the 
 reach of our knowledge, so there are some matters wholly 
 beyond the sphere of legislation. These it may be diffi- 
 cult to define, or to point out the precise principle cf 
 demarcation by which they are limited. Matters of 
 practice, and those which immediately concern the public 
 weal, are ordinarily within the strict pale of the law ; 
 while those of opinion and speculation, or whose conduct 
 does not affect society, are not adapted to be dealt with in 
 this manner. 
 
 Moreover, if on any topic precision and certainty ol 
 language are required, they are unquestionably essential 
 in the framing of laws, where doubt or ambiguity may not 
 only be of consequences the most pernicious, but even 
 defeat the very aim and purpose of the law itself.* Yet 
 
 * The Paiiiameut of this nation having, in its august wisdom 
 
Princi])les of Moral Jurisjyrudence. 289 
 
 on no subject have these defects been suffered to prevail 
 to so great an extent as in our legislative enactments; 
 and, as might have been expected, all the evils to.be cal- 
 culated upon as the result, have ensued. In some 
 instances, our laws havv3 failed to attain the very objects 
 which were specially intended to be brought within their 
 scope. In others, they have been determined to apply to 
 topics with which their framers liad no intention of deal' 
 ing. lu nearly every case, doubt and uncertainty have 
 marred the efficiency of our legal code, upon whatever 
 subject, owing to their having been so loosely and un- 
 scientifically constructed. 
 
 There are certain distinct and independent branches of 
 jurisprudence which may be with propriety especially 
 comprehended under the term Moral Jurisprudence, as 
 having reference more particularly to those matters which 
 concern the mental and moral condition and civilization 
 of a state. Such are the laws relating to and regulating 
 all topics connected with education, religion, and the 
 liberty of the press, which have already been considered 
 here. In addition to these, the laws which determine the 
 form of government and political institutions of a state, 
 those relating to marriage and other social relations, those 
 respecting crimes and their punishment, the administra- 
 tion of oaths, and the institution of disabilities from moral 
 causes, together with other laws which are either directly 
 or indirectly of a moral nature in themselves, or as 
 regards their influence on civilization, may be here 
 included. 
 
 But the real and true essence of Moral Jurisprudence 
 consists not so much in the enunciation or design of any 
 
 from time immemorial up to the present period, adopted an exactly 
 opposite principle to the one here laid down ; it is perhaps somewhat 
 presumptuous, if not actually incurring a high breach of privilege, 
 for me to question its soundness. 
 
240 Moral Jurisprudence. 
 
 particular code of laws, as in the quality of the leading 
 principle by which all laws, of whatever nature, should be 
 more or less directly or indirectly pervaled, and which 
 should serve to give a high moral tone and spirit to legis- 
 lation in general. 
 
 The grand j)riiiciple to be kept in view as regards Moral 
 Jui"isprudence, is consequently as follows : — That the moral 
 as well as the material wants of a people ought to com- 
 mand the care, and to form the subject of legislation. That 
 these moral wants are of superior importance to those which 
 are material. That in every legislative measure, there is 
 involved a moral as well as a material consideration. And 
 that, important in its results and influencec as is legislation, 
 there are, nevertheless, moral causes ever in ojDeration 
 which are far more powerful, and which during the 
 process of legislation ought always to be taken into 
 calculation. 
 
 With respect to the particular principles of legislation 
 to which I have already referred as more especially con- 
 nected with Moral Jurisj)rudence, the subject may be 
 considered in a two-fold manner : — I. As regards the form 
 of government established in any particular country, and 
 its peculiar adaj)tation for the promotion of civilization. 
 II. As regards the particular laws which may be enacted 
 in any country, bearing either directly or indirectly on 
 civilization. 
 
 I. The object of a constitutional free form of govern- 
 ment, is to ensure the establishment of such a code of laws 
 as will secure the greatest amount of freedom to the gene- 
 rality, without encroaching on the liberty, safety, or 
 enjoyment of individuals. Where the liberty of indi- 
 viduals is abridged for the former purpose, the gain to the 
 state ought to be so great as fully to compensate for the 
 loss thus sustained ; and for this measure of freedom so 
 subtracted from particular persons, should be returned to 
 the members of the community, generally and individually, 
 
Essential Princijples of Liberty. 241 
 
 a portion at any rate as large as that of wliich the persons 
 who suffer abridgment of their liberty for this end are de- 
 prived. The utmost extent of personal liberty which any 
 man has a right to enjoy, amounts to this : that he be 
 allowed to follow the dictates of his own will, so far as 
 his doing so does not encroach upon, abridge, or interfere 
 wdth the liberty or well-being of others. 
 
 Liberty consists, indeed, not in securing to each indi- 
 vidual what is best for him, but what he wills and deter- 
 mines to be best for himself. A man is not free who is 
 compelled against his will to do what is most conducive 
 to his own interest. But a man is free who is allowed to 
 do that which is injurious to himself; although in this 
 case, from inability to use that freedom aright, it may 
 prove a bane instead of a blessing. It is nevertheless, 
 and not a whit the less so, freedom still. So also a man 
 who is forcibly restrained from committing suicide, has 
 really and essentially as much violence done to his will, as 
 the man who is compelled by force to undergo execution 
 as a criminal. 
 
 Moreover, liberty is not only tlie most perfect, but the 
 most natural condition of man. It is not merely that state 
 which affords the fullest opportunity for the complete dis- 
 play of all his powers and energies ; but it is that in whi(;h 
 he was originally placed, and in which he will always 
 remain unless deprived of it by some external cause or 
 agent. To maintaining itself in this position, and to a 
 restoration to it when deprived of it, the mind will also 
 ever spontaneously tend. And this is the only condition 
 in which the genius, and taste, and caj)acities of each 
 individual in the nation can obtain ample development. 
 Tyranny, on the other hand, consists in the exercise of 
 authority by the stronger over the weaker, so as to j^revent 
 the latter from acting according to the impulse of his will 
 or determination, or so as to cause him to act ccjutiaiy to 
 them. . ''"' 
 
 ^ V 
 
242 Moral Jurisprudence. 
 
 There is, indeed, a great and essential difference between 
 subjection to rule, and subjection to slavery. In the one 
 case, a man obeys a fixed and reasonable law in common 
 with his fellow-men, and in order to secure the common 
 good, and the common liberty of all. In the other case, 
 he obeys an uncertain and arbitrary rule, which exists 
 only for the good of the ruler, and to the injury and injus- 
 tice of the person obliged to submit to it. Obedience to 
 law is voluntary ; to slavery it is compulsive. Every man 
 subjects himself to legitimate rule in the discipline which 
 he imposes on his own conduct, and over his own jmssions 
 and aj)petites. Every one resists and abhors slavery, and 
 recoils from it as injurious alike to society and to his own 
 individual interests. In the one sense, therefore, every 
 man is free. In the other, every man is in bonds. 
 
 Thus, too, there may be anarchy in an individual as 
 well as in a nation, which results whenever a person throws 
 off all rule, and all due moral discipline and restraint, and 
 not only contends for entire liberty of action, but con- 
 ducts himself without regard to order or decorum. This, 
 however, is the condition and the course of action, not of a 
 civilized or of a free man, or even of a man in a state of 
 nature, but of a maniac. 
 
 Civil governments of every description may be divided 
 into two classes : — Those where the supreme authority and 
 influence in the state are vested in one person, as in the 
 case of monarchical governments ; and those where they 
 are vested in several persons, as in the case of representative 
 and republican governments. 
 
 A country which is ruled over, and whose affairs are 
 directed by an absolute monarch, who follows exactly the 
 bent of his own genius in whatever he j)rcscribes ; has the 
 most complete opportunity of reaping all the advantages 
 which the wisdom and the goodness of such a person can 
 confer, and which he has the amplest means of carrying 
 out without being in any way thwarted or interfered with. 
 
Sovereign Autlioriiij. 243 
 
 Indeed, there can be no doubt that, in theory, an absolute 
 monarch is the best and most perfect ruler that a state can 
 possess, provided, of course, that the wisdom and patriotism 
 of such a king are as complete as his authority. This is, 
 moreover, the form of government which every man adopts 
 in his own household and his own professional or com- 
 mercial establishment, of which he constitutes himself the 
 absolute ruler, allowing no one to share or dispute his 
 authority, however anti-monarchial or democratic he may 
 be as regards state affairs. A king ought therefore, accord- 
 ing to this principle, to be in intellect, as well as station, 
 the first among his subjects. This, however, is seldom to 
 be attained, and probably would not in most cases be for 
 the real good of the state. Consequently, as the great 
 majority of men, and even of monarchs, are not endowed 
 either with capacities or with inclinations to adapt them 
 to be rulers of this order, and as states suffer correspond- 
 ingly as their rulers are wanting in perfection in this 
 respect, and fall below this high standard ; so, in a limited 
 monarchy, an attem|)t is made to afford the opportunity 
 for the exercise of such beneficial influence on the part of 
 the soveriegn. as regards his desire to benefit his subjects ; 
 and also to aid the monarch as regards liis capacity so to 
 act, by sujDplying apt statesmen and counsellors who may 
 devise such measures and proceedings as the ability of 
 the monarch may fail to originate. To a certain extent 
 therefore this intellectual superiority is secured to the 
 sovereign by the superiority of the advisers whom he calls 
 to his councils, and who are, or ought to be selected out 
 of the wisest and best men who adorn the country. What 
 is consequently mainly essential in a sovereign, is the 
 discretion to make choice of such men, and the good sense 
 to be guided by the advice which they tender. These 
 may be but moderate, but they are truly sterling and 
 invaluable royal qualities for a monarch to possess, 
 and they are moreover precisely those for which 
 
244 Moral Jurisjprudenee. 
 
 education and training for bis duties are calculated to 
 confer. 
 
 One immense advantage possessed by a sovereign, and 
 of wbicb tbe nation reaj)s tbe full benefit, is tbat, from bis 
 bigb and commanding position, be is able to secure for 
 tbe service of the state all tbe ablest and sagest men in 
 tbe land, and of wbose counsel be is made tbe recejitacle ; 
 so tbat if be be but a person of only ordinary capacity 
 and judgment, be bas tbe best possible means of arriving 
 at a right conclusion on these very important matters. 
 From the probability of bis succeeding to the throne, the 
 amplest opportunities are also afforded for qualifying 
 by education, in the most advantageous manner possible 
 for those onerous duties, the heir who is next to fill that 
 exalted post. 
 
 On the sovereign the eyes of tbe whole nation are fixed, 
 he is their polar star or pilot, to whom they ever look for 
 guidance, and by wbose actions those of the state 
 are to be directed and' regulated. How important tbei-e- 
 fore it is that the character of the sovereign should be 
 commensurate with such important duties ! 
 
 Nevertheless, the only government, of which we have 
 any exj)erience, that is at once perfectly absolute and per- 
 fectly good, is that of the Deity, as He alone can do all 
 that He wills, and all that He wills and does is the best. 
 His sway, moreover, exhibits and reflects everywhere, and 
 in numerous ways. His complete and infinite perfection. 
 All other absolute governments bear the impress and 
 • variously exhibit the manifold imperfections of their 
 rulers. 
 
 The moral influence, and power to promote civilization 
 in a state, possessed by the sovereign, is in every case very 
 extensive, and much may be efiected by his individual 
 exertions in this respect. Our Alfred the Great is a noble 
 instance of what a monarch may do here ; and sovereigns 
 of the present age have been found to follow his illus- 
 
Moral Influence of Sovereigns. 24f 
 
 trious example. The personal inclination of the sovereigr 
 directly animates the court ; and is, as it were, reflectecl 
 from him on the nobility, who in like manner govern the 
 circle within their sphere. From them it is communicated 
 to the different ranks throughout the realm, each member 
 of which, as the head of his little community or family, 
 exercises in the same way, although in a less degree, a sway 
 corresponding with that of his superiors. Probably, in 
 modern times at least, the real essence of a sovereign's power 
 consists in this moral influence which he is enabled so 
 extensively to exert, and which gives him more authority 
 than the most absolute command over the persons of his 
 subjects could confer. By this means, indeed, he controls 
 not their bodies but their minds, and thus extends his rule 
 over their very wills and desires. 
 
 What is vulgarly called fashion, is in reality but a 
 species of the moral control which is effected by the 
 example and personal influence of some individuals of 
 high authority, such as that which the sovereign exercises 
 in certain matters, on all ranks throughout his dominions. 
 This is immediately experienced in trifling concerns, such 
 as manners, and taste in dress, because these are the 
 easiest to be effected, as a straw flung up into the air shows 
 at once in what direction the wind is blowing. But the 
 same influence is extended insensibly also to matters of 
 far higher import ; and ultimately topics of the gravest 
 nature, subjects of deep importance in literature, science, 
 morals, and religion, are brought under its control. Just 
 as the same wind which agitates the dust at our feet, will 
 in its course, and in those regions where the current has 
 its full sway, lay prostrate the trees of the forest, animate 
 the sails of stately men-of-war, and raise the ocean into a 
 foam. 
 
 A depraved court will have a tendency to make a de- 
 praved people. But it is more common that a depraved 
 court is the consequence, instead of the cause, of the 
 
246 Moral Jurisprudence. 
 
 people being depraved. Sometimes tte body is diseased 
 because the head is out of order ; but far more frequently 
 the disorder of the head is produced by some disease in 
 the body. 
 
 Each of the rulers in the kingdom, as well as its supreme 
 governor, ought to be men of superior talent, education, 
 and virtue ; and, as already observed, it is the j)i"edomi- 
 nance of persons of this class, that is essential to the 
 civilization and the right constitution of a state. As in a 
 nation the more highly cultivated portion of it should rule 
 the lower ; so in those who are themselves appointed to 
 rule, the higher endowments and powers should prevail 
 over the animal propensities and feelings. 
 
 The moral influence which the different rulers of a 
 people possess over the nation, must necessarily be very 
 extensive, both as regards the public measures they origi- 
 nate, and the example they afford ; inasmuch as the eyes 
 of the multitude will be ever attentively directed to their 
 movements, and their conduct will actuate many. And 
 although those in authority may not themselves be able to 
 make laws, yet they may neglect the observance of them, 
 and may neglect to punish such a breach in others. For 
 good or for evil, therefore, their influence is most impor- 
 tant. But after all, those of the middle class, as Ai-istotle 
 observes,* constitute the mainstay of a nation, as the 
 ordinary powers and faculties of the mind are of the most 
 general practical use, and best serve the common purposes 
 of life. 
 
 When the authority of the state becomes vested in a 
 person or a body without the consent of the nation, and 
 without being responsible to it, a tyranny, and not a 
 government, is that which is established. A tyranny may 
 be constituted by a single person, a small body of men, or 
 by several persons. The tyranny of a despot is no doubt 
 galling, but that of a multitude is far more apj^alling. A 
 
 * Ante, p. 9. 
 
Popular Tyranny. 247 
 
 ruling power of the latter kind, is restrained by no fear, 
 and held in elieck by no moral feeling, sucb as curbs the 
 exercise of authority in the case of an individual. And 
 the most tyrannical and arbitrary proceedings, are those 
 which are enacted by popular decree, as the severest 
 injuries are those which we inflict on ourselves. Against 
 the tyranny of despots there is a remedy, as also against 
 that of foreign oppressors. But as regards the oppressions 
 which arise from the act of the peoj)le themselves, the 
 tyranny is at once the most severe, the most hoj)eless, and 
 the most unendurable. 
 
 It is in republican and representative governments that 
 the rulers of a state possess the most extensive moral 
 influence, as the whole power of the nation is vested in 
 this body ; and springing from the people, they are ac- 
 countable to them, and their actions are very closely 
 watched as matters in which the people have a direct 
 interest. 
 
 A government of whatever kind, in which representation 
 forms a leading part, is necessarily extensively favourable 
 to civilization, as each person having a voice in public 
 affairs, is induced to study and make himself acquainted 
 with them, and to exercise his mind in the principles and 
 practice of government, which is a branch of education 
 that is both very improving to each, and for which each 
 is more or less well adapted. Eepresentative governments 
 are consequently best fitted for enlightened and advanced 
 ages in the world, and for those in the career of each par- 
 ticular nation, and can only be efficiently carried out by a 
 people in a comparatively high state of civilization. Dark 
 and uncivilized times, vvhen the peoj)le are blinded by 
 ignorance or superstition, require a despotic ruler, not 
 only to be their director, but to compel them to follow 
 the right path. 
 
 In framing a representative government or body, especial 
 care should be taken that the great and leading interests 
 
248 Moral Jurisprudence. 
 
 of the nation, its worth, and intelligence and property, 
 and not the mere predominance of numbers, be the basis 
 on which it is formed.* And as in a representative 
 assembly, each member when elected, although returned 
 by one particular district only, represents each district in 
 the country, and the whole nation ; so, by whatever 
 interest he is delegated, he should consider himself the 
 representative and protector of each of the great national 
 interests alike. In every state moreover which is pos- 
 sessed of a representative assembly, the electoral body 
 should comprise the essence or choicest part of the whole 
 nation, the representative the essence of the electoral, and 
 the ministerial the essence of the representative."!" This 
 essence should consist in, or be constituted by the selection 
 of the choicest men as reg"i,rds their virtue, their ability, 
 and their wealth. It is movst important that this grand 
 principle be kept in view in the formation of a representa- 
 tive system, whatever kind of government exists in the 
 state ; and in proportion as this principle is regarded and 
 pursued, will that system be more or less perfect. 
 
 Nevertheless, important as it is to establish a correct 
 princij)le of representation, yet, on the other hand, so 
 vigorous is the quasi instinctive desire in every nation to 
 work out for itself an efficient representative system, that 
 be the plan of it what it may, so long as a representative 
 body, however framed, exists, men who are generally 
 aptly representative of the nation, will be found there. 
 And singular as the fact may appear, nearly the same 
 set of men will be found in the representative body, 
 whatever form the elective machinery may assume. How- 
 ever that may change, the class of persons eligible for, and 
 who aspire to be the representative body, will be nearly 
 the same. 
 
 * See tins principle more fully explained and advocated in ' The 
 True Theory of Eepresentation in a State.' 
 t ' True Theory of Representation in a State.' 
 
Representative Assemhlies. 249 
 
 But however a representative assembly is constituted, 
 no one can doubt the importance of the great and leading 
 interests of virtue and intelligence and property possessing 
 their due influence there. And the more democratic, and 
 less representative of any one of these interests, the 
 House of Commons becomes, the more essential to the 
 state are the existence, and the free independent action of 
 the House of Lords, which is directly representative of 
 these great and important national interests. 
 
 Governments wdiich are either wholly or partially 
 representative, so far as to possess an independent 
 legislative body of their own, have this great advantage 
 as regards the moral influence of their laws in general ; 
 that the people consider that these laws are made by 
 themselves, and that they are not only therefore the more 
 strictly bound to obey them and to assent to all their 
 provisions, but that it may reasonably be inferred they are 
 expressly adapted to their particular exigencies. 
 
 Governments of a mixed form, like the British constitu- 
 tion, possess many of the advantages, as regards the 
 extension and encouragement of civilization, both of a 
 monarchy and of a representative state. The influence in 
 favour of civilization of the aristocratic branch in the 
 British constitution, has already been adverted to in the 
 preceding Element. It may here be remarked in addition, 
 that an important civilizing eflect is produced by the 
 co-existence in the nation of two independent legislative 
 bodies, which are not only rival to each other, but are so 
 differently constituted that by their joint operation every 
 legislative question becomes thoroughly sifted, and is 
 viewed in all its bearings according to the various points 
 of observation from which it is surveyed. These two 
 bodies being differently constituted, and composed of men 
 of different orders and qualities, become moreover mutually 
 corrective of each other, although they are not necessarily 
 antagonistic, the one being wholly representative, and, as a 
 
250 Moral Jurisprudence. 
 
 consequence, but imperfecUy deliberative ; the other wholly 
 deliberative, but only partially representative, merely of 
 particular, though perhaps the highest interests, the in- 
 telligence and virtue of the state. In a mixed form of 
 government, therefore, tlie different constitutional powers 
 and bodies in the state, when they duly work together, at 
 once rival and stimulate, and also aid the operation of each 
 other. The sovereign and the two branches of the legis- 
 lature emulate one another in the promotion of those ends 
 which conduce to civilization ; and they at the same time 
 enable one another to discharge their legitimate duties 
 with more efficiency, 'by relieving them from attention to 
 those which do not fall strictly within their province. 
 Each branch also checks the other, and restrains it from 
 any improjper or undue exercise of its functions. And 
 even further than this, it may be observed that one of the 
 characteristics of a mixed form of government, — highly 
 favourable alike to civilization and to freedom, — is the 
 extensive party feeling that it engenders ; different interests 
 springing up in opposition to each other, the real root of 
 which is the rivalry existing between the various branches 
 of the state. Thus, in our own country, the popular party 
 originates in or takes root from the representative branch 
 in the government. The aristocratic party springs from 
 the influence of the House of Lords. That which is most 
 favourable to prerogative, may be traced to the influence 
 of the Crown. These parties, however, in the progress of 
 their growth intermingle one with the other, and vary in 
 their principles according to circumstances. Each party, 
 indeed, like an individual and like a state, has its different 
 ages ; its youth, its manhood, and its decline. Certain 
 diseases, too. are incident to each, and to each at particular 
 periods. In the history of parties, both in politics and 
 religion, this is observable. 
 
 II. The primary object of all laws may be said to be 
 threefold. 1. The maintenance of order, 2. The main- 
 
Objects and Svstems of Laws. 251 
 
 tenance of property. 3. The maintenance of liberty. The 
 primary effect of moral laws should be, in conjunction 
 with those already specified, to exalt the higher over the 
 baser influences in a state ; and to encourage and reward 
 ability and virtue, and to discourage and punish licen- 
 tiousness and vice. Under moral laws are comprehended, 
 — 1. Eewards. 2. Eestrictions. 3. Punishments. Moral 
 laws mainly concern, — 1. Eeligion and morals. 2. Man- 
 ners and customs. Laws of this kind, in common with 
 others, fail mainly from three causes : — 1. From being 
 impracticable, as unfitted for the objects aimed at. 2. From 
 being inefficient, as, however well adapted for the objects 
 in view, not reaching the end to be attained. 3. From 
 being inoperative, as contrary to the spirit and feeling of 
 the people. 
 
 In every nation, and in the same nation at different 
 periods of its history, some main leading principle, ac- 
 cording to circumstances, will, nevertheless, be referred to 
 to direct its general legislative economy. In certain rude 
 nations, the love of liberty bas been adopted as this prin- 
 ciple. In such a country, the same principle may con- 
 tinue to predominate through the later ages of its history, 
 but it will then be blended with other principles, such as 
 the maintenance of order, and of justice, the promotion of 
 commerce and science. Besides, liberty in itself is very 
 different in one stage and condition of society to what it 
 is in another ; and becomes much more complex and 
 extended as the wants and desires of society spring up. 
 As a general rule, however, the freedom of the govern- 
 ment, and the share of liberty which it allows to the 
 people, especially as regards matters of opinion, and 
 religion, and politics, at whatever period of its progress, 
 have a considerable influence on the civilization of the 
 nation. Some laws must be, moreover, adapted for some 
 particular countries only, and have reference to their 
 peculiar situation and condition. Those relating to a 
 
252 Moral Jurisiorudence, 
 
 naval force, for instance, or to harbours, could not easily 
 be made applicable to a country entirely inland, and 
 destitute of either. Thus also was it with many of the 
 laws prescribed to the Jews. 
 
 The aid of legislation to effect moral objects, is chiefly 
 sought for in those instances where certain express moral 
 duties have to be prescribed, or the commission of certain 
 immoral acts is sought to be prohibited. Laws relating 
 to religion and morality, which punish open breaches of 
 them, are of this nature. Like medicine in the case of 
 physical disease, they should nevertheless be resorted to 
 only to correct the evils and disorders arising out of an 
 artificial state of society, and merely to aid reason and 
 nature in resuming their legitimate sway. Thus, they 
 should protect the weak against the strong, and the peace 
 or liberty of the many from being encroached upon by the 
 powerful or turbulent few. Such laws ought, however, 
 never to aim at changing by compulsion or constraint, the 
 natural and legitimate habits or pursuits in which the 
 people of any country have been accustomed to engage. 
 
 The jurisprudential system of a state should work in 
 silence, and be unseen and unfelt, like the mechanism of 
 our own bodily frame when in a healthy condition. The 
 true secret of our sovereign's power is its unobserved 
 operation in this manner, its vast strength being founded 
 on the feeling of the nation in its favour. While it 
 appears so fragile, it is in reality of very great force. 
 Laws should, moreover, entrench as little as possible on 
 the natural rights of the people, and should never tend 
 to the deprivation of what is necessary either for their 
 enjoyment or their use. 
 
 It has been laid down by some writers on Jurispru- 
 dence, that no civil enactment which is directly contrary 
 to the law of God, is binding on the members of a state. 
 It may be presumed, however, that no Christian state 
 would make such a law ; or, at any rate, a law which it 
 
Laws repugnant to Beligion. 253 
 
 deemed and interpreted to be of tliis character. And as 
 the interpretation, and the determination of the character 
 of a law, rest entirely with the state ; it is difficult to say 
 how it is to be decided to be of this nefarious nature so as 
 to absolve the people from its subjection. If any private 
 individual might claim exemption from a law by merely 
 expressing his own opinion of its contrariety to religion, 
 there are few laws but what might stand in peril of 
 becoming inoperative, and that probably as regards those 
 who most need to be bound by them. 
 
 The most perfect jurisprudential system, alike in theory 
 and practice, is doubtless that where civil and natural law 
 not only coincide, but each contributes to confirm and en- 
 force the enactments of the other. Such laws will be 
 ratified and supported alike by nature and the state, will 
 have the cordial assent and assistance of both, and will 
 be acquiesced in by the people with whose opinion and 
 feelings they entirely accord. Where Nature does not 
 originate laws, its assent to them should nevertheless in 
 each case be presumable. Against laws which are contrary 
 to Nature, Nature will ever be found rebelling. 
 
 As regards the law of Nature therefore, no law directly 
 contrary to this ought to be sanctioned. But here also 
 the state, which makes the law, must determine as well 
 the question of this contrariety or consistency. Some- 
 times, however, while the law apparently annuls what the 
 higher laws alluded to have i^rescribed, it re-enacts them 
 in another and more practical form. Thus, every man 
 has a right by the law of Nature to support his existence 
 by the food which the earth produces. By entering into 
 society, although he gives up his claim to select his por- 
 tion where he will, yet at the same time he acquires in 
 return a right to support from the state ; and to which 
 he has also an additional claim from his contributions 
 towards its maintenance, Avhich every one either directly 
 or indirectly renders to some extent, in the taxes which he 
 
254 Moral Jurisjyrudence. 
 
 pays in the consiimj)tion even of the most ordinary article. 
 On this principle, therefore, every member of the com- 
 munity has constitutionally an inherent, indisputable, and 
 unalienable right to support from the nation, so far at 
 least as extends to the providing him with the necessaries 
 of life, both as regards food and clothing, and to which he 
 is absolutely entitled as a citizen of that state, and in 
 return for the obedience which he renders to it, the aid he 
 is ready to give, and the portion of taxation which, how- 
 ever humble, every individual, indirectly at least, daily 
 pays. 
 
 The ultimate end of lav/ in general should be not to 
 deprive men of their natural rights, but to extend and to 
 maintain them. Whatever man gives up to society of this, 
 the most precious of all his inheritances, he does so to 
 obtain something in retm-n of equal or greater value. 
 These concessions to society are but the tax on insurance 
 which we pay for rendering the rest of our rights entirely 
 secure. 
 
 As is the case with each of the other Elements of 
 civilization, the Moral Jurisprudence of a state should 
 have immediate reference to the character of the people, as 
 also to its condition in civilization, and the various causes 
 by which it is affected. As each peoj^le is adapted only 
 for the sj)ecies of civilization suitable to its nature ; so 
 in like manner should the legislative and general govern- 
 ment of every countrj'^ be specially in each respect adapted 
 alike to the wants, the disposition, and the general 
 character of the nation. 
 
 The genius and character of a nation are, on the other 
 hand, never more fully exhibited than in its laws. These 
 show at once the turn of the national mind, its pursuits, 
 its virtues, and its failings. The ability and the wisdom 
 of its greatest men are also here exercised, and are tested 
 by the results which they achieve. In one sense, indeed, 
 the whole civilized world is cemented into one vast, 
 
National Cha>^'acfer and National Laivs. 255 
 
 legislative nation, all, alike, owning and being regulated 
 by tbe law of Nature, the same grand principles of liberty 
 and justice, and order, being acknowledged by each, and 
 the general frame of society and the interest of mankind 
 at large, being knit together by the mighty influences 
 of civilization. 
 
 In every nation, and in every department of juris- 
 prudence, it is also of the utmost importance that the law 
 should be in strict accordance with reason, and that it 
 should appear and be felt to be so. Nevertheless, it must 
 necessarily sometimes happen that the general j^rinciple 
 of the law may be in strict accordance with reason, w^hile 
 the apj)lication of the principle to particular cases may 
 fail to be so ; or, at any rate, (of itself an evil, however 
 unavoidable,) may fail so to appear. 
 
 The laws relating to marriage are of the highest im- 
 portance to the social and moral well-being of every state. 
 Such laws embrace mainly three objects : — 1. Declaring 
 what marriages shall be valid as regards the contracting 
 parties. 2. Declaring the ceremonies that shall be re- 
 quired to constitute a marriage. 3. Determining what 
 acts shall operate to terminate this connection. The 
 main principle to be kept in view in these cases is, to 
 afford a due and adequate security for the proper observ- 
 ance and fulfilment of the rite, with the least possible 
 restraint on the parties concerned, together with the 
 proper maintenance of the relation thus constituted. 
 
 In addition, however, to the express legislative enact- 
 ments regulating the forms, and restricting the celebration 
 of marriage ; we must also here take into account the 
 mode in which the usages of society operate as powerfully, 
 or even more so than does the law, in the restraint of 
 marriage according to the dictates of Nature, and the 
 social and moral consequences which ensue from such 
 unnatural restraint. Civilization here, as in other cases, 
 should correct the evil in question, and should aim to 
 
256 Moral Jurisprudence. 
 
 restore to Nature that prerogative of whicli the barbarous 
 innovations of society, at variance alike with Nature and 
 with civilization, have contrived to rob her. 
 
 Connected with the laws relating to aud regulating 
 marriage, are those which are intended to discourage and 
 punish breaches of chastity, and all other crimes of this 
 class, which should at once be effectual to check the vice 
 in the mode most desirable, and yet not too severe to deter 
 the public from putting them in force. 
 
 The influence of women in a state, is favourable to 
 civilization in the earlier periods of it, but to a limited 
 extent only. It has a tendency to polish the manners of 
 a rude and warlike people, as the occupations and habits 
 of the softer sex are more refined and civilizing than are 
 those of the men. In a more advanced age of society, 
 however, and for carrying civilization to its highest point, 
 the influence of women will be found less beneficial. But 
 little has been done by them for the advancement of learn- 
 ing and science ; while on the other hand, they have done 
 much to encourage and to foster luxury. Their influence 
 on the whole, has been more important in correcting and 
 counteracting barbarism, than in directly aiding or 
 extending civilization. 
 
 As regards the education of women, it is laid do\Mi by 
 Aristotle, " nothing proves more ruinous to a state than 
 the defective education of the woman,"* and the same great 
 writer observes with respect to the treatment of women in 
 different nations, " If women are by barbarians reduced to 
 the level of slaves, it is because barbarians themselves 
 have never yet risen to the rank of men, — that is, of men 
 fit to govern."! As it is the characteristic of a barbarous 
 age for the women to be the slaves of the men, and to be 
 treated with brutality ; so is it the characteristic of an age 
 of luxury and voluptuousness for the men to be the slaves 
 of the women, and for the sujicrior wisdom and sagacity 
 * Politics, book ii. f Jhl^l-, book i. 
 
Female Franchise. 257 
 
 of the former to give way to the whims and frivolities of 
 the feebler sex. In a rude state of society, the women are 
 considered as mere cattle. In a luxurious age, the men 
 degenerate into women. In a civilized age, each assume 
 their jDroper place and sphere. And probably this affords 
 one of the surest tests as to the real civilization of any 
 particular country. Aristotle justly remarks, "Nothing 
 proves more ruinous to a state than the defective education 
 of the women."* To the women, indeed, is committed the 
 early education of the men ; and their influence here is 
 most beneficial, corresponding with that which they exer- 
 cise in the early career of a state. 
 
 In the framing of regulations, whether jurisprudential 
 or social, which have reference to one only of the sexes, 
 the relative position, and character, and the peculiai 
 temptations, and particular duties of the party ought to be 
 taken into strict account. Each of the sexes has, indeed, 
 its duty to perform, however different those duties may be. 
 The proper influence of each sex is moreover extensive and 
 beneficial, alike on itself, on the oj^posite sex, and on the 
 nation generally. And it may happen that when in civil 
 society, one sex neglects its duty in some particular point, 
 that duty may be performed by another, and the state may 
 be saved by such interference. Extraordinary emer- 
 gencies call for extraordinary exertions, which are however 
 not to be resorted to except on occasions really extra- 
 ordinary ; and however beneficial in these extreme cases, 
 they become pernicious if adopted as ordinary precedents. 
 
 The effect of conceding the suffrage to females, must be 
 the infusion into the constituency of the special charac- 
 teristics belonging to the female mind bearing upon the 
 principles of legislation and representation. The qualities 
 of this nature, which mainly predominate, are those of 
 caution, refinement, and tenderness, which both the elec- 
 toral and the representative body will be more largely 
 
 * Politics, book ii. 
 
 8 
 
258 Moral Jurisj)rudenee. 
 
 endowed with, and tlie results of wliich must be necessarily 
 more or less apparent both in the character of our elec- 
 toral representative bodies, and in that of the measures 
 which the latter produces, influenced by the former. If 
 we allow to women the same intellect in amount, although 
 diifering in quality with men, and if they have the same 
 interest in the making of our laws, whether as regards 
 property or personal liberty ; there can be no doubt thac 
 they have, if they demand it, a corresponding right to tht. 
 possession of the franchise equally with men. 
 
 A very high state of civilization is, nevertheless, not 
 always found favourable to female pnrity, as the luxuries 
 v/hich frequently accompany it often lead to immorality. 
 Luxuries, however, belong not to the perfection, but to the 
 corruption of civilization. 
 
 Laws for the repression of luxury are very conducive to 
 the growth, and still more so to the preservation of civili- 
 zation, but are extremely difficult to enforce; and they 
 seldom carry with them public opinion. Indeed, moral 
 influences alone can both control this vice, and also 
 regulate and restore the condition of society out of which 
 it springs. 
 
 Considerable influence uj^on the jnorals of a country is 
 also produced by the laws relating to debtors and creditors, 
 by which honesty and dishonesty are either encouraged 
 and protected, or discouraged and punished, according to 
 the scope, and spirit, and operation of these laws. 
 
 In certain respects civilization has a tendency both to 
 increase and to diminish crime. It afii^rds facility for 
 the commission of crime where skill is required in the 
 jDerpetration, as in the cases of forgery and poisoning ; 
 and it also induces and calls into existence particular 
 crimes, which in a condition of barbarism can hardly exist. 
 On the other hand, civilization is directly preventive of 
 crime by diffusing correct moral principles among all 
 classes, as also through tlic sound rules of legislation, 
 
Moral Criminal Codes. 259 
 
 esj)ecially in regard to crime, which it inculcates ; in 
 addition to which it affords the fullest opportunity for the 
 detection of crime of each kind. 
 
 In a perfectly civilized state, as we see in the case of a 
 perfectly regulated family, which is but a state in miniature, 
 neither want nor crime will exist. One of these is generally 
 the cause of the other. The result of civilization is to 
 abolish want, while the abolition of want is the surest mode 
 of abolishing crime. The main strength of crime, however, 
 is the weakness of the law. Where the law cannot extend, 
 crime roams fearless and unmolested. Where the dominion 
 of law is established, crime exists only as an outlaw, and 
 keeps out of sight and out of contact. Crimes that the law 
 cannot reach ought not, however, to be included in a 
 criminal code. By doing so we needlessly exjpose the law 
 to hopeless defeat and continual insult. 
 
 The consideration of the laws relating to crimes, and 
 providing for their punishment, forms an important branch 
 of moral jurisprudence. This subject admits of a twofold 
 division into the questions, — 1. What crimes ought to be 
 punished. 2. How they ought to be punished. Those 
 crimes, however, and the result of punishments, so far 
 only as they regard civilization, can be discussed here. 
 The maintenance of good order and security is essential 
 to civilization. Crimes in direct violation of religion and 
 morality, nevertheless, are what mainly affect civilization 
 in the way in which I have here considered it, as capaci- 
 tated to exalt the higher over the lower influences in a 
 state. But this is a topic which is at once too comprehen- 
 sive to admit of being fully examined in this place, and 
 too important not to have been amply treated of in the 
 various dissertations on criminal law. 
 
 The moral effect of particular crimes also deserves 
 attention here, as many offences, comj)aratively trivial in 
 themselves, may be of extensive injury to the morals and 
 civilization of a state. 
 
260 Moral Jurisprudence, 
 
 Crimes which are of the class most directly contrary and 
 inimical to the civilization of any country, although, 
 perhaj)s, not possessing the baneful moral influence of 
 many others, are those of brutal violence, which at once 
 set the law at defiance, and tend to outrage every institu- 
 tion of civilization. But of all vices of this kind, such as 
 are in any way either sanctioned by the authority of 
 persons in high position, or are calculated to excite any 
 undue admiration on their behalf, are the most pernicious 
 in this respect, alike from their demoralizing and their 
 anti-civilizing tendency. On this account, duels and 
 combats between difierent j)ersons ought strictly to be 
 prohibited and punished. At the present period, when 
 proposals are made for submitting even the disputes of 
 nations to arbitration, so as to put an end to war and 
 bloodshed throughout the world; it seems especially 
 imperative upon us to endeavour to devise some means to 
 prevent questions of social and domestic relation being 
 the subject of brute force. If chivalry, — whose particular 
 province it was to take cognizance of all such toj)ics, above 
 all of those where the honour of the parties is involved, or 
 called in question, — has fallen into disuse, surely some 
 arrangement should be made for establishing a tribunal 
 for the adjudication of these important matters. And for 
 this, peculiarly, ought Moral Jurisprudence to provide. 
 Courts of chivalry expressly constituted to arbitrate on 
 points of honour, so as to supersede entirely all occasion 
 to resort to duelling as a means of satisfaction, are the 
 more to be recommended, as it is the grand effect and aim 
 of civilization to submit to the authority of rule and order, 
 whatever in a natural state of society was decided by brute 
 force, and to subject to reason what before was determined 
 only by passion. 
 
 The general governing principle on which punishment 
 for crime is based, is the opinion that repentance for the 
 wrongful act done is effected and ensured through annexing 
 
Prmcij^le of Punishment. 261 
 
 a penalty to the commission of the crime as a certain con- 
 sequence of such commission ; and, indeed, thus making it 
 an essential part of the crime itself. The penalty should 
 be so far painful as to outweigh every advantage that 
 might result from the crime ; and thus the sorrow fo: 
 incurring the penalty becomes, in effect, transformed into 
 sorrow for the commission of the crime. Many, indeed, 
 will judge of the quality of a crime, not by the crime itself, 
 but by the punishment attached to it. Annex a degrading 
 punishment to a crime, and you at once thereby render the 
 offence itself degrading. 
 
 Repentance is rightly, according to reason, held to 
 amount to an atonement for transgression, inasmuch as, in 
 the first place, it constitutes a direct and determined revo- 
 cation of the decision of the will from which the offence 
 itself originally sprang, and through which it was perpe- 
 trated ; and in the next place, the sorrow thus occasioned 
 for the sinful act, which forms an essential part of 
 repentance, may be accepted as a sort of set-off against the 
 pleasure which was caused by the commission of the crime. 
 Wherever practical, and in order to complete the repent- 
 ance, a return or compensation ought also to be made to 
 the party injured, to the full extent of the wrong, both 
 direct and indirect, which he has sustained from the act 
 in question. 
 
 Insanity altogether exonerates the person afflicted with 
 it from every crime of which its existence may be supposed 
 to be the immediate and the producing cause, and relieves 
 him from the jurisdiction of the law so far as he would be 
 otherwise amenable to punishment, except only as regards 
 the protection from his acts, of society in general, by 
 subjecting him to strict corporeal restraint so long as his 
 infirmity continues. Their deficiency in self-control, and 
 their inability to fulfil the ordinary duties of life, exempt 
 lunatics entirely from ordinary punishment. 
 
 As regards punishments in general, and those adapted 
 
262 Moral Jurisinudence, 
 
 for ordinary individuals, tliey may be classed under two 
 kinds, being either physical or moral : physical, where 
 corporeal punishment is inflicted on the offender ; moral, 
 where correction of a moral nature only is imposed. The 
 object of punishment is threefold, — 1. To prevent crime, 
 by deterring others from following the example of the 
 criminal. 2. To effect a moral reformation of him. 3. To 
 degrade the culprit from a j)osition of influence to one of 
 a lower rank. 
 
 The punishments inflicted by law are of seven several 
 kinds, — 1. Death, or capital punishment. 2. Corporeal 
 pain, such as flogging. 3. Corporeal restraint by depriva- 
 tion of liberty, as imprisonment. 4. Penal servitude, or 
 service in bondage to the state for a certain period. 
 5. Corporeal banishment, such as transportation. 6. De- 
 privation of property, as fine and forfeiture of each class. 
 7. Moral degradation, which is a consequence of punish- 
 ment of every sort, but which may be, and sometimes is 
 inflicted alone, as when a man of rank forfeits his honours, 
 or a professional man is expelled from his profession. 
 Each of these kinds of punishment may also be varied 
 both as regards its nature and the mode of its application. 
 
 The origin of civil punishments generally as retribu- 
 tions for crime, may be traced to two soui'ces — 1. The 
 desire to adapt the nature of the punishment as nearly 
 as possible to that of the crime itself. 2. The means 
 at hand most ready for the infliction of punishment. 
 
 1. In each case, as we may observe in the economy 
 of the human frame, where transgression against the law 
 of nature is followed by some particular corresponding 
 disease, the character of the punishment should bear 
 direct relation to that of the crime to be repressed. Thus, 
 violence ought strictly to be requited by corporeal chas- 
 tisement ; robbery by fine, or by loss of liberty where no 
 property belongs to the criminal so as to enable him to 
 undergo deprivation of property ; and idleness should be 
 
Punishment corresponding icitli Crime. 268 
 
 corrected by compelling the culprit to engage in active 
 labour. Indeed, as idleness is one of the chief causes 
 of crime, so excessive toil may be very appropriately 
 selected as the mode of punishment for offenders whose 
 transgressions may be traced to the former. Moreover, 
 in the Divine system of rewards and punishments, even in 
 this life, we may remark that crime of different kinds is 
 generally followed by punishment of a character closely 
 corresponding with it, as in the case of loss of health 
 from dissipation, loss of substance from dishonesty, loss of 
 credit from unfair dealing ; and this which is the per- 
 fection of all systems, should human systems ever attempt 
 to imitate, and in proportion as they succeed in doing so, 
 will be their comparative excellence. It is also desirable 
 that degrading vices be visited with punishments of a 
 degrading and humiliating character. In all these 
 instances, indeed, the system of Nature, and that adopted 
 in the jurisprudential code revealed by the Deity, should 
 as far as possible be followed, and be made the guiding 
 principle. Not only, indeed, by the law of Nature are 
 particular classes of offences requited by their particular 
 classes of punishments, but it not unfrequently happens, 
 as in the case of over-indulgence of the appetites, that 
 the very organs themselves through which these pro- 
 pensities were gratified, are the menabers of the body 
 which suffer disease and pain as the punishment of the sin 
 which they were made instrumental in committing. 
 
 2. That particular punishments were often adopted, in 
 the earlier ages of society, on account of the means ready 
 at hand for inflicting them, will be obvious to every reader 
 of history. The Asiatic punishment of throwing criminals 
 to wild beasts, originated in the abundance of those 
 animals in that part of the world. The Tarpeian rock 
 afforded to the Eomans a ready means of capital punish- 
 ment by hurling criminals from that height. The prox- 
 imity of seas and large rivers induced particular people 
 
264 Moral Jurisprudence. 
 
 to have recourse to drowning as a capital punishment. 
 And it was during their sojourn in the stony desert that 
 the Children of Israel first resorted to stoning as the 
 means of putting malefactors to death, and which they 
 continued long after they had left the wilderness. It is 
 indeed remarkable to observe in the Jewish law,* which 
 was framed by Divine wisdom, how fully both these 
 principles were carried out. 
 
 Nevertheless, in a highly civilized state of society, 
 where crimes as well as the transactions of communities 
 are very complicated, it will be found difficult, if not im- 
 j)ossible, to continue the strict application of these 
 T)rinciples, however desirable the recurrence to them may 
 be in any attempt philosophically to trace the origin, 
 and to define the true doctrine of punishments in general. 
 In such a state of society it will probably be more 
 prudent and more practical to adopt as nearly as possible 
 one general system of punishment for all offences that 
 are not capital, in the mode I shall presently propose. 
 
 The moral effect upon the community of particular 
 punishments, and their influence upon civilization, seem 
 to have been very little, if at all, taken into calculation. 
 On the other hand, the various refinements of punishments, 
 and the modes of inflicting torture, resorted to, appear 
 mainly to prove that the ingenuity of man has been far 
 more strenuously, and more successfully exerted to 
 produce than to prevent pain ; and that one of the fruits 
 of civilization has been the invention of new modes of 
 adding to the misery, and barbarizing the minds and the 
 feelings of mankind. 
 
 Civil punishments should be so contrived that they are 
 at once sufficiently severe to deter from crime, while at 
 the same time they are of such a nature as not to oi^erate 
 injuriously on the public mind by violating or brutalizing 
 the feelings of the people. It occasionally hajipens, 
 * Exodus, chs. 21, 22 ; Levit. ch. 24. 
 
Moral Effect of Punishments. 265 
 
 indeed, that punisliments are in themselves more directly 
 injurious to civilization than are even the very crimes 
 they are intended to repress, although they may be at the 
 same time very effectual to deter from crime. Such was 
 the case with many of those cruel punishments practised 
 by the ancients, and during the middle ages. Such, too, 
 were public executions in our own country. Nevertheless, 
 hanging and other capital punishments are not directly 
 or necessarily barbarizing in themselves, but they are 
 only barbarizing when they are made a public and 
 popular spectacle. There appears, however, to be no 
 more reason why hanging than why flogging should be 
 in public ; and there seems to be no solid argument 
 against having it within the walls of the prison, before 
 jjroper officers appointed to witness it. Originally, and in 
 old times, executions were thus conducted. And there is 
 this greater reason now why they should be private than 
 there was formerly ; that the trials are now always con- 
 ducted publicly and openly, which was not generally the 
 case during the periods alluded to. If the trial and con- 
 demnation are in public, there can be no objection to the 
 execution, which is a necessary consequence of the con- 
 demnation, being private. The only objects of public 
 executions are to produce a wholesome effect on the public 
 mind, and to satisfy the public that the culprit has not 
 been unfairly consigned to his doom. In the former 
 respect they have entirely failed. And as regards the 
 latter, all that the public have a right to know is that the 
 condemned criminal has been put to death in the mode in 
 which the sentence publicly passed upon him prescribed. 
 
 That capital punishment should be inflicted in cases of 
 murder, appears to be in accordance both with reason and 
 nature. It seems, also, to be obvious that in all other 
 cases, penal servitude, proportioned and adapted in its 
 extent, nature, and severity, as precisely as is practical, 
 to the particular offence, w^ould be the most efficient 
 
266 Moral Jurisprudence. 
 
 pimisliment, as being at once the most effectual to deter 
 others from crime, the best calcuhited to reform the 
 offender, and the least likely to barbarize tlie public 
 mind. 
 
 In certain cases, indeed, death may not be tho punish- 
 ment which is most dreaded, or which would most deter 
 from crime ; but it alone removes the offender from 
 society which he has outraged, and of which he is no 
 longer fit to be a member, and effectually prevents a 
 repetition of his offence. Other punishments might be 
 resorted to which would be more felt, and which might 
 act more effectually by terror to prevent crime ; but from 
 being repugnant to the general feeling of the nation, 
 they would lose their moral effect. Such are mutilation 
 of different kinds, putting out the eyes, cutting off the 
 hands or feet, as has been practised in some countries 
 and ages. Even capital punishments may be varied 
 according to the magnitude of the offence, being in some 
 cases simple death ; in others death accompanied by ex- 
 treme torture, as crucifixion ; and in others by ceremonies 
 degrading to the criminal, as burning or dissecting 
 the body. When, however, the punishment savours of 
 cruelty, and occasions unnecessary or excessive agony, it 
 is calculated to create a revulsion of feeling, which might 
 ultimately operate in favour of the criminal, and so loses 
 its effect. 
 
 Punishments in their application may be directed, as 
 counteracting influences, either to the causes of crime, 
 or to their commission, that is, to the crime itself, or to 
 the character and position of the criminal. Certain 
 punishments which would be light to one man, are 
 grievous to another ; and what to one are overwhelmning, 
 to another are trifles. Hence the punishments for in- 
 fringements of the law inflicted upon the rich and on the 
 poor should in many cases be different : not that both 
 ouglit not equally to be punished, but it should be borne 
 
True Theory of Punishment. 2G7 
 
 m mmd that what is efficient in the one instance may 
 fail entirely in the other. For example, a pecuniary fine 
 may be no punishment to the rich, but ruinous to a poor 
 man. Imprisonment, on the other hand, may be an 
 advantage rather than a punishment to destitute persons ; 
 while to a rich man of rank it may be an infliction of 
 the severest kind. Where, however, the object of the 
 punishment is limited to causing injury to the criminal 
 without his reformation being also aimed at, as in the 
 case of capital punishments, it is strictly perhaps rather 
 vengeance than punishment that is dealt out. Vengeance 
 is, in fact, the severest and ultimate penal proceeding to 
 which the law resorts. Capital punishment nevertheless, 
 in reality and strictness, consists not so much in the 
 infliction of death, which must arrive sooner or later to 
 every one ; as in abridging the period of life which would 
 intervene between the present time and that appointed 
 for the death of the criminal in the ordinary course of 
 nature. 
 
 The true theory of punishment as a preventive to crime, 
 as already observed, is carried out by the artificial 
 annexation to the pursuit from which we seek to deter, of 
 some pain or discomfiture, that will in all likelihood be 
 produced by the perpetration of the offence in question. 
 In the case of children, for instance, we annex the fear of 
 corporeal punishment, causing physical pain, to a breach 
 of discipline. In the case of adults, we annex the fear of 
 loss of liberty or property. In all cases, however, punish- 
 ment should as far as possible be contrived not only to 
 follow crime, but to be blended with it. It should also 
 serve to strike the mind of the culprit, not merely as a 
 consequence of his crime, but as an essential part of the 
 act. The two should be looked upon as one and the same 
 operation. In nature, indeed, we see this system very 
 perfectly carried out ; as in ,the instance of voluntary 
 drowning, or taking poison, when the pain and death 
 
268 Moral Jurisj)rudence. 
 
 which ensue are not considered as an independent con- 
 sequence of the act of the party, but the whole transaction 
 is regarded, and spoken of, and comprehended in the one 
 act of suicide. 
 
 As the moral effect of dignities and honorary rewards, 
 is to exalt the person receiving them, and to endow with 
 dignity the acts which he has done, or rather, to mark the 
 sense of their worth and dignity entertained by his fellow- 
 men : so the moral effect of punishments is to degrade the 
 person who undergoes them, and to debase and render 
 ignoble the acts of which he has been guilty ; or rather, to 
 mark the opinion of mankind as to their baseness and 
 degradation. 
 
 The general moral effect of j)unishments, more especially 
 as regards civilization, is very extensive. In this, as in 
 other cases connected with civilization, should not only be 
 considered their influence on the mind to deter from the 
 particular crime, but also their result on the dispositions 
 and feelings as a preventive of crime in general. The 
 moral effect of punishments in preventing crime, is also 
 to be viewed as respects their entire influence on the 
 sentiment and habits, and on the civilization of a nation. 
 Crimes may in many cases be prevented by rendering them 
 odious and revolting through the punishments annexed to 
 them ; but this, on the other hand, has a degrading and 
 brutalizing effect on the national mind, as in the case of 
 public executions* and public floggings, however ser- 
 viceable they may be as regards the attainment of the 
 direct end at which we aim. Some degradation of the 
 criminal is, nevertheless, a very wholesome accompaniment 
 to his direct punishment, and nothing is so efficient to 
 deter others from following in his course. On this ac- 
 count the village stocks, now unwisely almost fallen into 
 disuse, had really a more powerful moral influence than 
 the county gallows. The main point to be avoided in the 
 * Vide ante, Element VI., p. 207. 
 
Degrading Punishments. 269 
 
 infliction of degrading punishments, is affording a spec- 
 tacle for the gratification of brutal excitement or curiosity, 
 instead of raising a feeling of abhorrence for the crime 
 which is being punished. 
 
 Nor is it reasonable to object to the adoption of any 
 particular form or species of punishment, on the ground 
 that it is degrading to the person suffering it, inasmuch as 
 this is essential to the constitution and to the efficiency 
 of any infliction of a penal nature, and without which it 
 fails absolutely in its object. Absence from our native 
 country, or excessive toil in a particular pursuit, which are 
 forms of degradation resorted to in certain cases, may in 
 others be by choice adopted as an honourable and bene- 
 ficial recreation. So also many give as a voluntary dona- 
 tion, a sum much exceeding what is imposed on otliers as a 
 severe pecuniary fine. It is the penal nature of the act, 
 which really renders it degrading, and not the act itself 
 that is so. 
 
 As the reformation of the criminal is one of the chief 
 objects at which his punishment aims, so for the purpose 
 of carrying out this reformation, no efforts should be spared 
 in the legislative code of every civilized country. A gaol, 
 indeed, should be st sort of moral hospital, where diseases 
 of this kind are watched and eradicated, and a healthy 
 constitution is restored to the patient. Care should, 
 however, be taken in our correction and treatment of 
 criminals, lest in our humane attempts to ameliorate their 
 condition, we bestow upon them more favour than is shown 
 to those who have never gone astray ; besides which, it will 
 be considered that they owe all the comforts they are 
 enjoying entirely to the circumstance of their having 
 transgressed. While, therefore, we ought to be far from 
 discouraging every endeavour to reform criminals, yet in 
 so doing they should ever be treated as criminals still; 
 and the humanity and Idndness shown to them, render ad- 
 ditionally necessary this coui'se. In another part of this 
 
270 Moral Jurisprudence. 
 
 work,* has been advocated the expediency of snpj)lying 
 state rewards for the encouragement of the good, as well as 
 means for reforming the bad. The rewards to the good 
 should, for the reasons here adverted to, be of so sub- 
 stantial a nature as considerably to exceed those which 
 are bestowed on persons who are reclaimants from 
 crime. 
 
 Crime is, on the whole, one of the greatest enemies 
 to civilization, as civilization is to crime. Legislative 
 measures relating to this subject are, however, rather 
 negative than positive, as regards their influence on 
 civilization ; aiming more to remove obstacles against, than 
 to afford aids in favour of its progress. 
 
 The main defects of j)unishments generally, are, that 
 they are, — 1. Uncertain, both as respects the want of 
 certainty that the offender will be reached, and also the 
 absence of certainty that the punishment, if inflicted, will 
 really be regarded as an evil either by the offender himself, 
 or by those whom it is intended to deter. 2. That they 
 are inefficient, as being contrary to the opinions and 
 feelings of the people, either as resj)ects their nature 
 or extent, by which the moral effect of them is entii'ely 
 destroyed. Both transportation and* imprisonment fail 
 from the first of these defects ; and it is from the latter 
 that capital punishments for ordinary ci'imes cease to 
 operate, and to have a due influence on the public mind. 
 Indeed, justice should never be called uj)on to act in 
 its severest form, unless an adequate occasion exists to 
 demand such an exertion. The law is in danger, when 
 this rule is not observed, of being regarded as either 
 tyrannical or unjust. 
 
 Aristotle well observes, that the greatest crimes are 
 
 committed not from want, but for obtaining the objects of 
 
 ill-regulated desires, and senseless insatiable passions ; and 
 
 that tyrants do not cover themselves with blood to avoid 
 
 * Vide ante, Element VIT., p. 232. 
 
Rewards in conjunction with Pimishments. 271 
 
 cold or hunger.* This consideration appears especially 
 desirable to keep in view in framing laws to deter men 
 from crime. 
 
 The jurisprudential system of a perfectly civilized 
 country should imitate religion in its economy as well as 
 its justice, in working by rewards as well as by punish- 
 ments. This is to some extent attained as regards the 
 effect already adverted to,| which is produced among the 
 higher classes by the distribution of honours and dignities 
 as encoui-agements to merit. But the state ought, 
 as also observed, :|: to be the re warder as well as the 
 punisher, alike of the poor and of the rich. In a highly 
 civilized nation, indeed, virtue is to some extent its 
 own reward, in the approbation that it ensures to its 
 possessor ; and on the other hand, only great and defined 
 virtues and crimes can be taken cognizance of by the law. 
 How far encouragements to and rewards for good con- 
 duct among people of the lower class might be ad van 
 tageously bestowed by the state, either in the way oi 
 honorary certificates or pecuniary donations, or by both 
 these modes, is, nevertheless, deserving of consideration. 
 Indeed, in the preceding Element | reference was made to 
 the desirableness of instituting a scale of rewards appli- 
 cable to persons of the middle and lower ranks in society. 
 And in every country where civilization is perfectly 
 established, the rewards for virtue should be as abundant 
 and as efficient as are the punishments for crime. Hand- 
 in-hand v.'ith the warnings not to commit evil, should be 
 the incentives to do good. As degradation of some kind, 
 should ever follow vice, so exaltation as regards the respect 
 entertained for the individual, should ever be the fruit of 
 virtue. 
 
 Eeference was, moreover, made in the preceding Element, 
 to the state policy of encouraging in each nation those 
 peculiar qualities and virtues which, from various causes, 
 
 * Politics. t Vide ante, Ekment VII. J Ante, p. 232. 
 
272 Moral Jurisprudence, 
 
 are most valuable to it, and most conducive to its interests. 
 A corresponding rule should also be adopted as regards tbe 
 discouragement and punisbment of those peculiar vices 
 which are either most frequent, to which there exist the 
 greatest temptations, or which are most pernicious to the 
 well-being of the nation. For instance, a breach of dis- 
 cipline or an act of cowardice, which in a domestic servant 
 may be productive only of inconvenience, and should be 
 j)unished merely as a misdemeanour ; in a soldier may be 
 attended with the most disastrous and even fatal results, 
 and may therefore require to be punished capitally. So, 
 on the other hand, dishonesty, which in a confidential 
 servant is a most serious crime, and wholly destructive of 
 his value as such ; in a soldier may not be of vital conse- 
 quence, or even actually lessen the value of his services. 
 Drunkenness, whenever it leads to acts of open violence or 
 indecorum, ought to be criminally punished in every well- 
 regulated civilized state. 
 
 Very nearly allied to, and directly bearing on the subject 
 of criminal moral jurisprudence, is that of oaths in courts 
 of justice, a branch of law which has an important and 
 extensive influence on the moral condition of a peoj)le, and 
 which in its turn is greatly dependent for its efficiency 
 upon the moral condition of that particular nation. As 
 regards oaths in general, it may be concluded that that 
 form of oath, in whatever country, or under whatever code 
 of laws, must necessarily be most efficient, most satisfactory, 
 and most proper, which in the opinion of the person taking 
 it, be its wording or manner of administration what it may, 
 is the most binding upon his conscience, however this form 
 may vary among different people, in different nations, and 
 even in the same nation among persons of different opinions. 
 An appeal to honour can never be so efficient as an oath, 
 although in certain cases it may be binding enough to 
 S3cure the veracity of the deponent, and which is all that 
 the most solemn oath can ensure. But while the one is 
 
State Dignitij in Courts of Justice. 273 
 
 an appeal merely to tlie uncertain verity of man, the latter 
 is an appeal to the infallible truth of God. 
 
 Immediately connected with this subject, it may be 
 remai'ked that perjury is a crime which, although it inflicts 
 no bodily injury on any individual, and may not affect his 
 worldly possessions ; yet it is, nevertheless, so utterly 
 destructive to the well-being of society, and to its highest 
 interests, by annihilating all mutual moral confidence 
 between its members, which is the very basis alike of 
 society and of civilization, as also being a positive vio- 
 lation of the laws of God, that it demands to be repressed 
 by the laws of every civilized state, and deserves to be 
 visited by the severest and most degrading punishment. 
 
 As a state as well as an individual, may perform great 
 and good actions, or be guilty of great crimes ; so a state, 
 like a man, may have a conscience, and in both cases alike 
 certain causes will contribute to improve, to weaken, or to 
 stimulate that conscience. The tribunals of justice con- 
 stitute the conscience of a state, and questions of justice 
 are referred to the former, as in the case of an individual, 
 all moral questions are referred to his conscience. States. 
 too, like men, are liable to be arraigned for their crimes 
 before other states, and to suffer punishment for their mis- 
 deeds. 
 
 In addition, however, to the express enactments contained 
 in a criminal code, a due and proper degree of dignity 
 attendant upon the administration of justice produced upon 
 the mind of the nation quite as much moral effect, and 
 exercises as extensive an influence, as do the laws them- 
 selves. Indeed, while the precise nature and provisions 
 of the latter are known to and practically experienced by 
 but very few, the former more or less affects and acts upon 
 all ; and by this, moreover, the power and dignity of the 
 laws themselves, are, as it were, reflected. It is in reality, 
 not the law, but the ceremony, which is its shadow, that 
 the multitude revere. 
 
274 Moral Jurisprudence. 
 
 A difference in costume may be but a trifle in itself, 
 but if it serves to mark out, and to impress upon the 
 multitude the difference in rank and functions, from the 
 generality, possessed by particular individuals, it surely 
 cannot be unimportant. In the animal creation through- 
 out, the difference in their properties and endowments is 
 manifested by their difference in size, and shape, and attire. 
 In borrowing from them in this respect, although we are 
 descending to copy beings below man, yet it is at the same 
 time from the universal law of nature that we learn, and 
 the lesson is taught by the Author and Governor of the 
 universe Himself. 
 
 Too great a regard for, and a total disregard of forms, 
 and ceremonies, and the trappings of office, are alike 
 erroneous and unphilosophical. Those who make the 
 efficiency of a rational being to depend on his dress, set 
 up a machine instead of a man to keep their fellow- 
 creatures in awe, and make embroidery instead of brains 
 the test of fitness for office. On the other hand, those 
 who contend that all distinctions of dress in cases of this 
 sort are utterly futile, and that the plainer the attire, the 
 more impressive the appearance of the functionary, can 
 only have their argument satisfied to the full by the officer 
 presiding in public without any habiliments whatever ! 
 
 Not only, however, is it essential that good and equit- 
 able laws of different kinds should be made, but that those 
 laws, when made, be brought fully into operation, and on 
 all requisite occasions, be applied. For this purpose, a 
 public officer, as prosecutor, or director of the machinery 
 so constituted, is absolutely necessary, without which many 
 laws, especially those of a penal nature, and which con- 
 cern the public welfare rather than the private rights of 
 individuals, may never be enforced for want of such 
 functionary, whose business and duty it is to set them in 
 motion, and on account of the odium which acting in such 
 matters is apt to oxcito against private persons. 
 
Civil Disahilities. 275 
 
 Tlie institution of civil disabilities among any class of 
 people in a nation, owing to some moral disqualification, 
 and in order to prevent some moral evil accruing to the 
 state, may be comprehended under Moral Jui'isprudence. 
 These disabilities are imposed, — 1. From want of religion 
 altogether, which degrades the individual, and unfits him 
 for being an influential member of a civil society. 2. From 
 a difference in religion to the generality in the state, 
 which incapacitates him from acting harmoniously witli 
 them. 3. From want of morality, as in the case of a 
 person convicted of crime, which also degrades the indi- 
 vidual, and unfits him to have civil authority in a state. 
 The foundation of each of these disabilities consists in the 
 desire to promote the exaltation of the higher and nobler 
 over the baser influences in the nation. On the other 
 hand, the existence of laws in a state which allow of the 
 causeless degradation and oppression of any portion of the 
 community, such as the maintenance of slavery, has a 
 demoralizing and degenerating effect on the whole nation, 
 both on the slaves themselves and on those who enslave 
 them. The moral tone and feeling of the entire com- 
 munity is corrupted by this means. In the cases, however, 
 alluded to above, no restraint is imposed upon the liberty 
 or privileges of any individual, except so far as it pro- 
 hibits him from interfering with or injuring the general 
 interests of the nation, or that portion of them to which 
 he is opposed. 
 
 There are also some sj^ecific regulations which, to a 
 certain extent, come within the scope of Moral Jurispru- 
 dence, although apparently remote from the subject of 
 morals and civilization. Such are particular laws relating 
 to the disposal of property and of money, as those of 
 mortmain and usury ; fiscal rules, which bear directly, in 
 many instances, both on morals and education ; and the 
 laws referring to the maintenance of the poor. Each of 
 these topics, although not strictly within the sphere of 
 
276 Moral Jurisprudence. 
 
 Moral Jurisprudence, is more or less adapted for tbe 
 application to it of tlie spirit and principles belonging to 
 this branch, already defined. 
 
 An injurious moral tendency is often produced by the 
 laws relating to the Excise, not, however, from anything 
 contained in those laws themselves, but from the great 
 difficulty of regularly and duly enforcing them ; the temp- 
 tations to persons of all classes fraudulently to evade them, 
 \v'hich are constantly being excited ; and the bad moral 
 eifect resulting from their frequent and systematic viola- 
 tion. Having been habitually guilty of dishonesty of tliis 
 kind, people eventually feel less scruple in the committal 
 of dishonesty of a more general character. 
 
 The laws which regulate the raising of the public 
 revenue, in many instances exercise an important and 
 injurious moral influence on a nation, although this is 
 perhaps rather of a negative than of a positive kind, by 
 the restrictions which they place on certain pursuits and 
 undertakings, especially in matters of art and science, 
 through the obstacles that they impose upon their cultiva- 
 tion. Of all the taxes which operate most perniciously as 
 regards the advancement of civilization, those which affect 
 directly the dissemination of learning, such as the duties 
 on paper and on foreign books, are the most prominent. 
 Laws which impede the circulation of ideas and the spread 
 of information, hinder their progress in the same way that 
 a logger does the motions of an animal, or as turnpikes do 
 that of a traveller. They are not absolutely preventive, but 
 obstructive. They render every step irksome, and curtail 
 every expedition that is not necessary. The extension of 
 knowledge should be like that of thought, free and im- 
 restrained. Taxes of this description are shackles on the 
 mind for the benefit of our material wants. Intelligence 
 ought to be rendered as cheap and as accessible as the most 
 ardent pursuers after it can desire. Food for the soul is 
 really as much its right by nature, as is food for tlie body 
 
Miscellaneous Moral Legislation. 277 
 
 tlie right of the latter. Both are alike essential, although 
 the necessity for both is not equally acknowledged. 
 
 The framing and regulation of the laws, relating to 
 copyright and patents, and other products of the mind, 
 come also strictly within the scope of Moral Jurisprudence. 
 Although these laws are in their nature necessarily re- 
 strictive, prohibiting the appropriation by mankind at 
 large of what belongs of right to a few only ; yet their 
 ultimate result is not only to improve and preserve the 
 quality of the article to be availed of, but to secure its 
 general use to the public, and that in the most advan- 
 tageous manner ; so that in the end the nation, equally 
 with the proprietor of the invention, are benefited by the 
 exclusive privilege which he is allowed to j)ossess. 
 
 The leading moral j^rinciple which should regulate 
 legislation on the subject of the poor laws, is this : — To 
 provide adequately for all those who are really necessitous, 
 and for those only ; and at the same time to protect from 
 imposition those who are called upon to make this pro- 
 vision. And also to prevent the fact of affording this 
 relief from producing any moral degradation in the 
 recipients, who, as already observed, partake of it not as 
 a charity but as a right. 
 
 It may perhaps appear to some persons that under the 
 head of Moral Jurisprudence ought to be included sanitary 
 laws, which affect so extensively, although perhaps only 
 indirectly, the moral well-being of a people. But as 
 cleanliness is no part of, and is not actually essential to 
 civilization, though doubtless collaterally conducive to it — 
 certain highly civilized people have been observed to be 
 very uncleanly, while some very cleanly people are ex- 
 tremely uncivilized ; — so the laws whicli contribute to and 
 regulate the promotion and preservation of health and 
 cleanliness, cannot strictly be comprehended in a code of 
 Moral Jurisprudence. Indeed this is a subject which 
 concerns directly not our intellectual or moral, but only 
 
278 Moral Jurisprudence. 
 
 our physical well-being, however indirectly, as in the case 
 of nearly every other matter of a physical nature, it may 
 influence the former. 
 
 Changes in the laws and jurisprudential system of a 
 country are also to be considered as regards their moral 
 effects. These are always bad, without sufficient reason, 
 both in themselves directly, and in their consequences. 
 The more civilized is any particular age, the less favour- 
 able is it to organic alterations in the laws, or in the 
 principles on which they are founded. There are, in all 
 such cases, many institutions and interests, whose roots 
 have entwined themselves one with another too deeply to 
 admit of either being destroyed without affecting the whole. 
 In some instances, however, the benefit resulting from the 
 change may so far counterbalance the bad effects incident 
 to it as to render it at all events desirable. Another 
 point of great importance to be considered, besides the 
 change itself, is the m.ode of making it. Many changes 
 in themselves beneficial become injurious simply from the 
 manner in which they are carried out, as being too sudden, 
 or done at an unfit time, or in an unskilful way. An 
 operation may be very requisite in a human body ; but if 
 done clumsily, or at an improper period as regards the 
 condition of the patient, or with too much haste, instead 
 of proving ameliorating, it may become fatal. So also is 
 it in all respects as regards changes in the laws and con- 
 stitution of a state. It is, moreover, very much, both 
 with forms of government and with systems of religion, as 
 with the professions in life which different men select. 
 When a man has once adopted a profession and settled 
 do^\^l in its pursuit, he will probably lose more by fol- 
 lowing a new one apparently better adapted to his capa- 
 cities and taste, than by adhering to the old one, irksome 
 and often difficult as a due devotion to it may be. So in 
 the case of nations, when a form of religion or of govern- 
 ment has become once thoroughly established, and the 
 
Laws rej^ugnant to National Sentiment. 279 
 
 institutions of tlie country liave been moulded and accom- 
 modated to it; thej will ordinarily lose more by an 
 alteration as to either, although, a decided improvement in 
 itself, than by adhering fii-mly to the old and accustomed 
 mode.* This observation does not, of course, apply to 
 those cases where the system to be changed is so radically 
 bad, as to be of itself an evil far beyond any alteration 
 that could be made. 
 
 In the carrying out of all laws, much depends on the 
 opinion and the habits of the people ; and it is most diffi- 
 cult, and most impolitic also, to give active enforcement 
 to a law that is directly repulsive to the general disposi- 
 tion and inclination, especially to the moral sentiment of 
 the nation. Indeed, laws which fail or cease to be in 
 accordance and harmony with the spirit, and feeling, and 
 exigencies of the time, very soon cease to command respect, 
 and to ensure observance. They are little more than the 
 shadow, or rather, lifeless frame of what once lived and 
 acted ; and the sooner they are obliterated from the na- 
 tional code, the better both for the rulers and the ruled. 
 
 Laws may, however, be repugnant to the public feeling, 
 not because bad in themselves, but, as already observed, 
 from the punishment annexed to a breach of them being 
 considered as disproportionate to the offence ; on account 
 of which there is a general disinclination to put them in 
 force, and they consequently fail in their object. This 
 was the case with regard to the laws in this country 
 which formerly inflicted caj)ital punishment for forgery, 
 and for other offences of a much less serious nature. In- 
 deed, laws, the spirit of which is opposed to the feeling 
 of the people, are not only simply inoperative and power- 
 less ; but they often serve to create a prejudice in favour 
 of the very acts which it is their direct aim to discourage 
 and punish, and in this respect become positively per- 
 nicious as regards their moral effect. 
 
 * See also on this subject, ante, Element V., p. 1S9. 
 
280 Internal Communication. 
 
 The operation and scope of laws in general are after 
 all, however, but limited, both as regards the objects 
 which they embrace, and their power of attaining even the 
 very ends at wliich they immediately aim. They are, 
 moreover, almost always of the prohibitory kind ; or are, 
 at any rate, for the most part, inefficient to enforce any 
 prescriptions that are of a positive nature. Moral causes 
 are consequently far more powerful in their operation, and 
 are calculated to supply fully the defects of jurispru- 
 dential enactments in both these respects. The ultimate 
 object, indeed, of Moral Jurisprudence is to accomplish by 
 certain specific regulations those results which no ordinary 
 law, or code of laws can directly effect. In this respect, 
 and so far only, it not merely assists but supersedes all 
 other law, by creating those influences which operate in 
 its stead, and which are far more potent. 
 
 IX.— INTEKNAL COMMUNICATION. 
 
 As the civilization of mankind is directly promoted by, 
 and is largely dependent upon the intercourse which is 
 carried on by the different members of each society with 
 those about them ; so what I have here designated by the 
 term Internal Communication, — in order to distinguish it 
 from that more extensive communication which is com- 
 prehended under the head of International Intercourse, 
 and which forms a distinct Element of civilization, — must 
 be allowed to be one of the essential Elements for its 
 advancement. The interchange of sentiment that almost 
 necessarily results from personal communication between 
 people of the same nation, is in most cases directly calcu- 
 lated to conduce to their progress in civilization, cor- 
 responding, indeed, with the progress of knowledge in the 
 mind of each individual which results from the com- 
 parison of ideas. Nevertheless, it must be acknowledged 
 that mutual intercourse l)etween people of the same nation 
 
Civilizing hifluence of Mutual Intercourse. 281 
 
 can effect but little if indeed anytliing, towards civilizing 
 them, unless accompanied and aided by Education, and by 
 certain at least of tlie other Elements of civilization 
 already considered. Indeed, unless these Elements are 
 some of them combined with that now proposed for dis- 
 cussion, the result of the application of the present 
 Element may, in j)articular cases, be the entire reverse of 
 civilizing. For instance, although, as I observed when 
 inquiring into the Essence of Civilization, that some phi- 
 losophers have supposed and contended that mutual com- 
 munication was absolutely necessary for the progress of 
 civilization, and certain of them even appear to deem it 
 the one essential Element; yet, on the other hand, unless 
 those individuals with whom this intercourse is held, have 
 been educated and refined, — which i^ effected by the ajjpli- 
 cation of the Elements of civilization already considered, 
 and which are appropriate for this purpose, — but little 
 benefit as regards civilization can be derived from this 
 intercourse. Hence, Internal Communication, although, 
 like Education, it is a nqyj valuable Element in the pro- 
 motion of civilization, yet it is also, like Education, 
 valuable and really efficient only when it is combined 
 with the other Elements which are necessary to its pro- 
 motion and ultimate perfection. 
 
 Intercourse between different persons is, however, so far 
 of itself favourable to civilization as advancing know- 
 ledge, which is necessarily communicated by such inter- 
 course. Although knowledge is at once derived from 
 intercourse with the informed, ignorance is happily incom- 
 municable ; so that a man of information loses nothing 
 by his intercourse with an ignorant man, though he gains 
 nothing, as the latter does from him. Ignorance is simply 
 negative and inactive ; knowledge is both positive and 
 active. But on the other hand, although ignorance is 
 incommunicable, barbarism is communicable, and that to a 
 large extent ; and it is consequently possible that, in certain 
 
282 Internal Coinmiinication. 
 
 cases, a civilized community may suffer and be deteriorated 
 from its intercom^se with one that is uncivilized. 
 
 By joining in society, people are not only brought 
 together as regards their physically associating in one 
 body, but they are also mentally and morally united into 
 one being. A mutual intercourse as regards ideas, and an 
 interchange of feeling, takes place between all the different 
 members ; and the results thus produced on the character 
 of the whole, are preserved and transmitted from one 
 generation to another, so that the society itself never dies, 
 but is one perpetually existing intelligent body or com- 
 munity. This is not the case with animals, except to a 
 very limited extent, so far as regards their corporeally 
 herding together and sharing in common any feeling of 
 alarm which may excite them. But they are wholly 
 destitute of the power of interchanging ideas, or of trans- 
 mitting the record of any events to those who come after 
 them, which is the prerogative alone of intelligent beings. 
 Nor is anything effected towards the civilization of ani- 
 mals by their congregating ; except so far as this tends 
 to quicken their instinctive powers, and to increase their 
 activity and watchfulness. The establishment of mutual 
 intercourse between human beings of the same country, 
 is not only, therefore, directly calculated, in all ordinary 
 cases, to contribute of itself towards their civilization ; 
 but it also leads them to resort to, and to avail them- 
 selves of, those other Elements of civilization which I 
 have here considered as essential to its promotion and 
 completion, more especially those of National Education, 
 Religious Influence, and the Cultivation of Art and Science. 
 It may consequently be concluded that however man may 
 be naturally disposed and innately urged on to improve 
 his powers, as an independent being, and which is essen- 
 tial for the attainment of individual civilization, the 
 necessary precursor and producer of that which is na- 
 tional ; the stimulus to do this is much increased by his 
 
Amalgamation of Societies. 283 
 
 entering into society, and becoming a member of a social 
 community. He is thenceforth led to do so both by the 
 example of others, as also from a feeling of emulation not 
 to be excelled by them, as well as by his own natural 
 desire of improvement. Society, moreover, induces each 
 person in it to develope his higher endowments, which 
 alone directly contribute towards the attainment of civili- 
 zation ; and to subjugate to them the lower influences. 
 
 In order to ensure the excitement of a wholesome 
 emulation conducive to civilization, it is, however, not 
 only necessary that societies be formed, but that social 
 communication and intellectual intercourse between the 
 different members of them be carried on. And the greater 
 the means for free communication throughout the nation 
 that are afforded, the greater will be the progress of civili- 
 zation among the people. By this means, indeed, the 
 whole nation will be knit, as it were, into one society ; 
 the metropolis of the empire, which is the headquarter of 
 civilization, communicating with each part of it, and each 
 part of the nation both with the other districts and also 
 with the metropolis. 
 
 Indeed, one of the peculiar features observable during 
 an uncivilized condition of society, is that each separate 
 herd, or clan, or department in a country, is not only 
 independent of, but at constant enmity with, and wages 
 war against the other. Civilization binds them all into 
 one community, and converts rivalry into friendship, and 
 acts of hostility into offices of mutual aid. Probably also, 
 the more free and the more constant is the communication 
 which is carried on between the different departments in 
 the state, the less liable will they be to attempt, or even 
 to desire to establish themselves into distinct rival com- 
 munities. 
 
 This intercourse between the various communities in a 
 nation, is analogous to that which is carried on between 
 various individuals in the same community. In each 
 
284 Internal Communication. 
 
 case, different minds are brought togetlier, ideas are com- 
 municated from one to another, varieties of character are 
 exhibited to eacli, knowledge of several kinds is diffused, 
 and a full acquaintance Avith the nature and resources of 
 the country is acquired by all. In nothing, moreover, is 
 the analogy between a man and a state, which has been 
 already adverted to,* better or more fully exemj^lified than 
 by the constant, rapid, and unreserved communication 
 which ought to be maintained between the various mem- 
 bers of both of them, and between every part of each. A 
 state, indeed, resembles a man the more in proportion as 
 by its advancement in civilization it is perfect in this 
 respect. In the man, the different nerves impart intelli- 
 gence with the utmost rapidity to the brain from the 
 senses and other organs, as also from the brain to them. 
 And in the state, — whose noblest model is the man, as 
 Nature most accurately regulates the economy of the latter, 
 — civilization, which is its highest, and indeed its most 
 natural condition, is perfect only when free intercourse 
 between each of its members is completely established. 
 The communication between the various points in the 
 nation, as also between the remotest of them equally 
 with those which are contiguous, should, moreover, cor- 
 respond with that in the human frame, both as to the 
 information and the impulses to immediate action which 
 are conveyed, each member communicating with and 
 acting uj^on the other with the utmost celerity, ease, and 
 freedom. And, as in the human frame an entire facility 
 of intercourse is established not only between the brain, 
 which is the seat of intelligence, and those organs of the 
 body which are immediately exerted in our intellectual 
 operations, but with tliose organs also which are employed 
 in merely common physical efforts ; so also the intercourse 
 in a nation should be carried on not only between those 
 of the same attainments and rank, but also between persons 
 * Vide ante, Essence of Civilization, pp. 3, 5. 
 
Intercourse hehveen Banks and Classes. 285 
 
 "vvlio differ one from another tlie most widely in this 
 respect. Not alone between the rulers and the ruled, and 
 the learned and unlearned, but between the rich and the 
 poor should this communication be fully and freely main- 
 tained. Indeed, as regards intercourse in general, that 
 which most directly tends to the complete civilization of 
 a nation, is the establishment of free and friendly relation 
 between the rich and the poor, by which the knowledge and 
 refinement of the former are communicated to the latter, 
 and the latter are bound by feelings of gratitude and 
 respect to the former. In many respects the effect of this 
 intercourse is beneficial and civilizing to both parties, as 
 not merely do the rich learn many lessons of practical 
 wisdom from the lips of the poor ; but the exercise of acts 
 of charity and benevolence has a high moral, humanizing, 
 civilizing influence, and brings to those who thus act, its 
 own precious reward. 
 
 Not only, indeed, is the intercoui'se between those of 
 different ranks favourable to civilization, but intercourse 
 also between persons of different professions and pursuits 
 is in this respect advantageous to each other, all parties 
 alike deriving benefit from tlie experience and information 
 thus mutually communicated. 
 
 The establishment of a free and expeditious intercourse 
 between the different parts of a country, is, moreover, of 
 the same vital importance to its interests and to its proper 
 regulation, as is the promotioa of circulation and com- 
 munication between the different limbs and organs of an 
 animated body, of the motion of its fluids, and of its 
 nervous and other impulses. T'Vapoleon the First, who of 
 all modern rulers and statesmen best understood the real 
 exigencies of a nation, ^ms pre-eminently distinguished 
 for the care which he displayed in the construction of 
 roads necessary to establish a complete connection between 
 the various departments of his kingdom. And the noble 
 efforts of the Romans in this respect, are among the 
 
286 Internal Communication. 
 
 most remarkable and enduring records of their wise and 
 comprehensive policy. 
 
 The means of communication which are established 
 between different parts of the same country, must, however, 
 be necessarily very various both in their actual nature, 
 and as regards the ends they are intended to accomplish ; 
 and must, more or less, each of them depend upon the 
 character of the people among whom they are followed, 
 the condition of the country in which they are to be 
 carried on, and the comparative degree to which civili- 
 zation has attained perfection in that particular state. 
 These modes of internal communication may be defined to 
 be mainly of the six following kinds, which comprise all 
 those that are at present in use. They are, — 1. By Koads. 
 2. By Railv/ays. 3. By Rivers. 4. By Canals. 5. By 
 the Sea. 6. By the Air. The subjects of communication 
 are threefold : — 1. Persons. 2. Intelligence. 3. Goods. 
 
 1. Boads are availed of to connect different parts of the 
 country together, but especially the metropolis with the 
 several districts, and the various towns one with another. 
 By their means, communication of each of the above sub- 
 jects is maintained. 2. Railways are also established on 
 the same principle as common roads, and as the medium 
 of communication for the same subjects. For the purpose 
 of establishing intercourse between far-distant j)oints, they 
 have almost superseded the other. 3. Rivers are the 
 earliest and the natural modes afforded for communication ; 
 and, unlike artificial contrivances for this object, beautify 
 and invigorate, instead of disfiguring and deteriorating the 
 country through which they flow. 4. Canals are the 
 artificial imitation and extension of rivers as a means of 
 intercourse, but are mainly used for goods, and they 
 penetrate districts where rivers do not run. 5. The sea 
 affords another natural means of communication for the 
 subjects of each kind, both with the different sea- 
 2;)orts of the island, and with its colonial possessions ; and 
 
Varieties of Internal Communication. 287 
 
 travelling by sea is one of the earliest modes in use. By 
 these different means together, communication of each 
 I kind is rendered complete throughout the kingdom ; and 
 j for that of intelligence, especially, the establishment of a 
 post, (which is a branch of the communication by roads 
 and railways,) makes this intercourse between commu- 
 nities analogous to that by language between individuals. 
 6. Communication by air, (except as regards the ancient 
 mode of conveying intelligence by carrier pigeons,) is yet 
 in its infancy ; and the effort to establish it by means of 
 atrial machines or balloons may either degenerate only 
 into a speculative experiment, or supersede the other 
 modes of communication for the subjects of each kind, 
 according as the science of future times may be found 
 inapplicable to, or may be brought to bear upon this 
 invention. 
 
 From the very slow progress, if progress there has 
 been, which has of late years been made in aerial naviga- 
 tion, it is almost to be apprehended that instead of the 
 science being merely in its infancy, it is in reality but a 
 confirmed dwarf, never destined to advance in growth 
 beyond its present dimensions. And yet, like other 
 sciences, it is founded on nature, and there are types in 
 nature which it might follow. All that is required is to 
 imitate the machinery which we see exhibited in certain 
 living animals, and so to modify it, as we have done in 
 several parallel cases, as to adapt it for practical applica- 
 tion by man. 
 
 Indeed, the use of balloons as a means of communi- 
 cation both of persons and intelligence during the late 
 siege of Paris, has not only proved them capable of prac- 
 tical application, but of very great value in an extreme 
 emergency, and when no other means could be availed of. 
 Surely this decided proof of their importance demands an 
 an apt return that the attention of men of science should 
 be turned to the accomplishment of those improvements in 
 
288 Internal Communication. 
 
 these maclilnes, and iu tlieir means of conveyance, of 
 wliich they doubtless are capable, and which they may be 
 destined ultimately to attain. 
 
 All great undertakings in a nation that are for the 
 national benefit, such especially as the artificial means of 
 intercourse between its different parts, should be effected 
 by the nation, and with due regard to those which are 
 naturally formed or already subsisting. The national debt 
 of this country has in no way been more pernicious to 
 its interests, than in debarring it from entering into 
 necessary national works of this kind, which have thus 
 baen left to chance or private speculation to accomplish, 
 and have been therefore carried on without due regard to 
 the national exigencies, or have been determined by mere 
 local considerations ; while the speculation engendered by 
 these enterj)rises, which are too gigantic for any but states 
 to engage in, has tended to generate a spirit of gambling, as 
 injurious to the moral, as the incompleteness of the scheme 
 was to the material interests of the nation. This has been 
 peculiarly seen in this kingdom, not only in the formation 
 of railways, but also in that of roads, canals, and other 
 public works. If the rulers of Great Britain in the nine- 
 teenth century had only been imbued with the same 
 comprehensive genius and spirit of enterprise for carrying 
 on national undertakings in the heart of the emj^ire, which 
 the Romans ]>ossessed for effecting them even in a remote 
 colony, how different would be the condition of this coun- 
 try now as regards its various means of communication! 
 Among the Romans, national roads were constructed with 
 due regard to the requirements of the kingdom as a whole, 
 and to serve as a means of intercourse throughout each part 
 of the land. An opportunity for following their example 
 in applying the noblest invention of the age to supply one 
 of the first wants of a great commercial and highly 
 civilized nation, we have seen lost, and abandoned to 
 private speculation ; and the cnricliment of the speculators 
 
Bailway a^id Postal Communication. 289 
 
 made the leading consideration, in the place of the real 
 interests, intellectual and moral, of the state. 
 
 But, although railways extensively contribute to pro- 
 mote intercourse between the distant points of a nation, 
 they frequently have the effect of checking that between 
 adjacent districts, by destroying all communication of an 
 ordinary kind. And perhaps, indeed, the kind of com- 
 munication which they destroy, is exactly that which is 
 most important in a social and moral point, and as regards 
 the extension of civilization, being that which takes j)lace 
 between the people of neighbouring towns who are familiar 
 with one another. The passengers brought by a railway 
 are most of them strangers, and pass rapidly through a 
 district, without either effecting or receiving any impres- 
 sions of a social and moral nature. The facility and 
 constancy of intercourse between different parts of a 
 nation, in order to advance its civilization, should how- 
 ever not merely afford means for the travelling of 
 passengers, or the forwarding of goods for commercial 
 purjjoses ; but should supply opportunities for transmit- 
 ting information, and furthering the spread of knowledge 
 from one place to another, either verbally, by letters, or 
 by newspapers and books. Of all the various kinds of 
 intercourse tending most directly to civilize a nation, 
 that which is of a social nature, as by familiar conversa- 
 tion and private letters, has the most powerful result in 
 this respect ; and the greater and more easy are the means 
 for this communication, the more eflScient will they be for 
 the promotion of civilization. Of these modes of inter- 
 course, probably, that which is carried on by epistolary 
 correspondence is the most influential, contributing as it 
 directly does to the development alike of the intellectual 
 and moral powers and feelings of the writers, and to the pro- 
 duction of amicable relations on both sides. Consequently, 
 the cheaper a.nd more expeditious is the national postage of 
 any country, the more conducive it is to its civilization. 
 
 u 
 
290 Internal .Communication. 
 
 Of a very different class to the one last named, is the 
 communication of intelligence through the country by 
 means of newsjmpers, already alluded to in a former 
 Element * by which information of the greatest variety 
 is si^read through every department, effecting thereby a 
 general intercourse as regards the interchange of ideas 
 between all the districts of the empire. 
 
 Nor must we here omit to refer to another mode of 
 communicating information, although resorted to only on 
 extraordinary occasions, and the invention of which is 
 one of the wonders, as it is doubtless also among the 
 most important scientific achievements of the age. I 
 allude to the conveyance of intelligence by the electric 
 telegraph, through which it may be sent to the most 
 distant parts of the country, and even from one country to 
 another, with the utmost facility arid celerity. 
 
 This manner of expediting dispatches between different 
 parts of a nation, seems directly analogous to the means of 
 conveying impulses from one part to another in an animal 
 frame. As a general medium of intercourse, it is of 
 course from its nature but little resorted to ; while from 
 its immense value in the special cases where it is availed 
 of, it is of great service, and in many ways, to the cause 
 of civilization. 
 
 The internal communication that is required to be kept 
 up in a civilized nation, is of a fourfold kind : — 1. Be- 
 tween the metropolis and the other towns. 2. Between 
 the metropolis and the different parts of the kingdom. 
 3. Between the different towns and the different parts of 
 the kingdom. 4. Between the mother-country and the 
 colonies of the empire. 
 
 Every civilized country is divided into a certain 
 
 number of separate independent districts, all of which 
 
 are distinct as regards themselves, but all alike have 
 
 relation to the common country to which they each belonf^, 
 
 * Vide ante, Ekuuiit V., p. 1G8. 
 
National District Divisions. 291 
 
 and all have equally relation to one another, as portions 
 of that common country ; just as the several members of 
 a community are at once distinct and independent of, 
 and yet connected one with another. 
 
 The origin and object of these divisions in the case of a 
 state, are of six several different principal kinds, and are 
 — 1. Natural, such as nature herself effects, as in the case 
 of islands and portions of a country divided by rivers and 
 mountains. 2. Civil, or those which are ordained for the 
 purpose of government, as counties, hundreds, and parishes. 
 3. Commercial, such as those made for the pui-pose of 
 trade, as boroughs, manors, tithings. 4. Intellectual, such 
 as are made for educational purposes, as those relating 
 to universities, colleges, and schools. 6. Moral, such as 
 are instituted for moral and religious purposes, such as 
 dioceses and parishes. 6. Economical, or such as are 
 resorted to for the purpose of raising money by rating, 
 such as counties, hundreds, cities, boroughs, parishes, and 
 other divisions for objects of this kind. 
 
 Cities originated in the same causes as castles and 
 fortified houses, — protection against attack by either 
 enemies, robbers, or wild beasts. And this object in 
 originating cities, influenced their situation, which was 
 either on a rock, or an island, or on the banks of a sea or 
 river. In course of time the pursuit of commerce, as 
 well as protection, formed an object both in establishing 
 and resorting to cities ; and occasionally both these ends 
 combined, influenced their situation. Eivers, especially 
 the mouths of them, and the coasts of the sea where 
 natural harbours existed, were selected on this account, 
 which afforded at once both shelter for ships, and a ready 
 means of communication through them to different places. 
 
 Capital cities are not only the most important towns in 
 a nation from their size and population, but they are pre- 
 eminently distinguished as being the most important spots 
 in the countries in which they are placed, and to which 
 
292 Internal Communication. 
 
 people resort from otTier towns and districts. Mere extent 
 of population does not of itself constitute a capital city of 
 any country, nor does even the greatness of its commerce, 
 nor the wealth of its inhabitants. With all these advan- 
 tages it may as regards its mental and moral influence on 
 the rest of the empire, be still unimportant. What gives a 
 capital its influence and consequence is corresj)ondent with 
 that which confers influence and power on the individual 
 man. This he derives not from his bodily strength, his 
 corporeal size, or his pecuniary wealth ; but from his 
 intelligence and enlightenment, and his moral character. 
 So what gives rank and influence to a capital is the con- 
 centration within its limits of the talent, and learning, 
 and intelligence of the nation, which is mainly occasioned 
 by making it the seat of the government, the legislature, 
 and the judicial functions of the empire. These con- 
 stitute as it were the soul of the kingdom ; and in this 
 respect it necessarily has the pre-eminence above all other 
 cities in the nation. 
 
 The metropolis of every country should consequently be 
 not only its chief city, but should combine in itself the 
 essence of the empire. From hence should emanate its lead- 
 ins civilizing influences, of which it is the source. Such 
 is London to England, and, indeed, in some degree to the 
 world ; as is Paris to France, and to the Continent. Such, 
 also, were Athens to Greece : and Rome not merely to 
 Italy, but to Europe. Such, moreover, although to a 
 less perfect extent, ought to be to every province its 
 chief town. The principal city of a state should, also, 
 not only contain the largest mass of the population, 
 but should be its head and source of action; and also 
 its capital as regards intellect, and art, and science, 
 as well as in wealth and commerce. The metro- 
 polis of a nation being the occasional resort of a vast 
 portion of the people belonging to the latter, more 
 especially of its leading and most important members, and 
 
Cajoital Cities. 293 
 
 its condition influencing more or less tliat of the wliols 
 nation ; its institutions and public buildings, which belong- 
 rather to the kingdom than to this particular city, may 
 claim to be supported at the national cost. Its libraries 
 are the resort of all the learned of the land. Its works 
 of art and models of genius, instruct not merely the 
 inhabitants of the metropolis, but the national mind. 
 Consequently, the capital of each state forms its centre 
 of civilization. From hence the rays are diffused to each 
 part. It is at once the seat of government, of law, of reli- 
 gion, of art, science, learning, and commerce. From this 
 jjoint therefore, proceeds the influence which each of 
 these exercises on the nation. 
 
 But although the capital forms the focus of civilization 
 in a nation, the provinces may be more favourable for 
 developing individual talent. In the capital a single 
 intellect is in danger of being lost in the constellation 
 which there blazes. In the provinces he shines out like 
 a lone star. IMen of intellect are consequently in general 
 produced, or rather discovered, not in the capital but in 
 the country. In the capital, however, they are brought to 
 maturity, which like a sun attracts and ultimately absorbs 
 all the lesser and wandering planets. 
 
 If it be objected that the complete establishment of the 
 means of communication between the metropolis of a 
 country and its different parts may, and often does, have 
 the effect of spreading the vices of the capital to the 
 hitherto comparatively immaculate rural districts ; it may 
 be replied that it is solely owing to the imjDerfect con- 
 dition of our civilization that this can ever be the case. 
 The intelligence of the people in cities is no doubt much 
 gi'eater than what is possessed by the inhabitants of the 
 country ; and so the former ought, considered indepen- 
 dently, if intelligence conduces to virtue, to be the most 
 virtuous. But then, on the other hand, the temptations to 
 vice are far more numerous and more powerful in cities 
 
294 Internal Communication. 
 
 tlian in the country, so that although the people possess 
 greater power to resist crime, they are assailed by stronger 
 incitements to commit it. "When civilization has accom- 
 plisliecl her entire work, Education and Eeligious In- 
 fluence having produced their proper result, the cities 
 will no longer be the hotbeds of vice as they now are, but 
 the receptacles of knowledge and virtue, and the purest and 
 most powerful springs of civilization. Even at present, 
 the real fact is that although there is more vice in the 
 cities than in the country, there is also more virtue ; con- 
 sequently, it is not that the rural districts are more 
 virtuous, but that they are less vicious than the towns. 
 In a highly civilized and duly regulated state, the 
 communication between its different parts will serve 
 alike to correct the errors, and to supply the deficiencies 
 of each. 
 
 The different towns in the nation, correspondingly with 
 the metropolis, although less powerfully, each contribute 
 to promote the civilization of the districts around them, 
 and as the satellites of the caj)ital, serve to reflect its 
 light. Towns are, indeed, essential to civilization ; and 
 it is here not only that learning and art are preserved, 
 but it is here chiefly that the sciences both originate and 
 advance ; and according to the natural position, advan- 
 tages, or productions of many of tliese localities, different 
 inventions will be pursued, and the benefit of them both 
 diffused through the nation, and a beneficial emulation 
 excited between these various communities. 
 
 The occupation and condition of the people in the rural 
 districts of the empire, are ordinarily very different from 
 those of the town population. Civilization, in general, is 
 at a much lower ebb in the former ; but by the establish 
 raent of intercourse between them, each becomes improved. 
 The rustics acquire the arts of civilization from the towns, 
 while most, if not all of the natural resources of a country, 
 are drawn from its rural districts. 
 
Rival, Bural, and Urban Interests. 295 
 
 But if tlie difference in pursuits and in productions is 
 so extensive in tlie rural and urban districts of a nation, 
 will not only a variety, but an opposition of interests 
 betsveen them, be necessarily created, which the establish- 
 ment of free communication will tend to foster ? Although 
 differing in interest, these various parts of the same 
 country ought, however, never to be opposed to the 
 welfare of one another. In certain cases, indeed, a dif- 
 ference of pursuit may enable them the more efficiently to 
 aid the interests of one another. Thus, what the rural 
 districts produce, the towns consume in manufacture ; 
 and while the country supplies food to the cities, the 
 cities disperse their wealth through the country in return. 
 The more free is the communication established between 
 the two, the more perfectly will this interchange be 
 accomplished. In all cases, however, although the various 
 interests in the state may fairly compete with, they should 
 never aim, or be permitted to oppose or injure each 
 other. Wholesome rivalry between them, producing 
 emulation, conduces to the welfare of each ; and it is 
 one of the advantages of free communication to promote 
 this feeling. Hostility, on the other hand, is injurious to 
 all alike, and only retards their progress. Tlie common 
 interest of the state, which every patriotic citizen must 
 regard above all other considerations, should serve in 
 these cases to cement a community of interests among all 
 rival bodies. And, indeed, as belonging alike to the 
 nation, each of these interests is concerned indirectly and 
 ultimately in the success of each other. The different 
 members of the same family, between whom the utmost 
 desire exists for each other's welfare, may be to a certain 
 extent competing, but ought never to be hostile aspirants 
 in the same pursuit. While the friendly competitor seeks 
 only to outstrip, and thereby increases the speed of him 
 against whom he runs ; the envious rival endeavours 
 not merely to overtake, but to overthrow, his opponent. 
 
296 Internal Communication. 
 
 Different cities and communities in the state, possessing 
 different interests, should, as in the case of the national 
 rei^resentatives elected by different districts, consider 
 themselves bound to promote the general welfare of the 
 country, and of all its interests alike. The neglect of 
 this principle has proved fatal to the prosperity of many 
 great states. 
 
 Some communities and interests appear, nevertheless, to 
 be quite as intent on the injury of one another, as on 
 promoting the welfare of themselves. This, however, is 
 a most dangerous, and, indeed, destructive policy. As 
 impossible is it to do good to one part of the body by 
 deteriorating another part, as to advance one interest in 
 the nation by ruining another. The real foundation of 
 the strength and vitality of the state is the mutual union 
 and co-operation of all its varied interests. 
 
 A balance between its contending interests should, 
 moreover, be maintained as far as possible in every state, 
 and is as essential to secure peace among them, as is 
 the maintenance of the balance of power among rival 
 nations. And, in each case, the strict preservation of this 
 balance is the surest means of promoting harmony, and of 
 preventing suspicion and jealousy, which mainly operate 
 to hinder those rivals from becoming benefactors to each 
 other. 
 
 It is impossible, however, wholly to repress the rival 
 energy of the contemporaneous interests in a state. Even 
 the very existence of industry in any community or nation, 
 which in ordinary cases is a most valuable quality, may, 
 under peculiar circumstances, be converted into a bane. 
 Over activity, whether in a mind, in a body, or in a people, 
 may be the cause of direr evils than the utmost want of 
 activity can occasion. Insanity in the first, fever in the 
 second, and rebellion in the third, will be its consequences. 
 Much must, nevertheless, depend on the quality of the 
 activity in question, and still more upon its application. 
 
Colonial Communication. 297 
 
 Activity in one mind may induce great results, in another 
 only great ravings. One man's activity may be that of a 
 man of business. The activity of another may be that of 
 a thief or an assassin. The activity of a people may turn 
 either to commerce or war, or to sedition and rapine. So 
 the activity of the various interests in the nation require 
 control and direction, equally with that of the activity of 
 the population. 
 
 The impetus to civilization afforded by a great nation 
 whose career is in a considerably advanced stage, extends, 
 however, far beyond its o^vn natural territories, and must, 
 necessarily, more or less influence all connected with it by 
 the mere ties of intercourse. This is, indeed, especially 
 the case with those countries which are annexed to it as 
 its colonial offshoots or dependencies. And it is of essen- 
 tial consequence that the communication between the 
 mother-country and the colony should be as free and as 
 constant as possible. The colony receives from the 
 mother-country an important influence favourable to civili- 
 zation, and derives from it mainly its arts, and learning, 
 and laws, and science, as do the different districts in a 
 nation from the metropolis. On the other hand, the 
 mother-country may derive proportionally as much from 
 the colony in resources and natural productions, as the 
 towns do from the rural districts. 
 
 Owing to the insular position and the limited dimensions 
 of this country, arises the necessity for establishing colonies 
 in different parts of the world, in order to accommodate and 
 to find occupation and territory for her increasing popula- 
 tion. And indeed, one of the immediate effects of civili- 
 zation and of the increased facility of travelling, is to 
 extend the boundaries of any nation. In early barbarous 
 times, several independent states existed in England. As 
 civilization advanced, the whole country became united 
 under one sovereignty. With the further progress of 
 civilization, Scotland and Ireland became included in the 
 
298 Internal Communication. 
 
 empire. And colonies of vast extent have been annexed 
 to this kingdom as its civilization has continued to grow. 
 So also was it with the states of old. But nations which 
 form part of a great continent, are able either to expand 
 their territory by encroaching on their neighbours, as we 
 have seen in the case of Russia, and some other countries ; 
 or their population becomes mixed with and absorbed by 
 that of the adjacent countries, through which the surplus 
 portion of it is gradually relieved. 
 
 By the establishment of colonies in different parts of the 
 world, the natural limits of our island kingdom, are for all 
 practical purposes vastly extended, and its ramifications 
 are made to spread to the remotest corners of the globe, 
 whence they at once draw nourishment from the parent 
 trunk, and it still continues to afford vitality and stability 
 to them. 
 
 Colonies form a sort of medium between the different 
 departments of a nation, and the foreign states with which 
 it holds amicable intercourse. They lie locally beyond the 
 shores of the country, and yet they are substantially united 
 and attached to it, by living under the same goverimient. 
 To a certain extent only they have a community of interest, 
 which lasts as long as the dependence on the mother-state 
 continues ; but when this is shaken off, of which there is 
 always a prospect, at any rate a possibility, they become 
 then merely friendly foreign states as regards the nation 
 from which they originated. 
 
 The occurrence of the late outbreak in India, affords a 
 proof of the necessity of not only civilizing our colonies 
 but of binding them to, and incorporating them with the 
 mother-country, by a union of interests, of institutions, of 
 feelings, of religion, and of affection. The more com- 
 pletely this end is accomplished, the greater is the aid 
 which this nation will derive from its colonies, as the 
 greater also is the benefit v/hich its colonies will derive 
 from this nation. Indeed, a union of the nature alluded 
 
Princij)les of Colonial Belaiionsliip. 299 
 
 to, is the only sound and real cementing principle between 
 parent countries and their colonies. 
 
 Being exposed to aggression by foreign powers, colonies, 
 as regards their influence in preserving peace among 
 states, have a corresponding result with the possession of 
 property and children by individuals, which operate as 
 hostages to prevent them from molesting or interfering 
 with one another, from fear of the consequences, either to 
 themselves or to those so closely connected with them, 
 which might ensue. Nevertheless, perhaps in each case, 
 it is something relating to these close connections which 
 constitutes the most frequent occasion of outbreaks be- 
 tween them. And in addition to this, the circumstance of 
 any country possessing colonies or remote dependencies, 
 tends to destroy that independence as regards its rela- 
 tion with foreign nations, by whom these colonies may be 
 attacked. 
 
 No fixed and definite principle appears ever to have been 
 determined as to the proper relation between the parent- 
 country and her colonies, and the degree and nature of the 
 allegiance, and support, and dependence, and connection 
 which ought to subsist between them. Here, it seems to 
 me, as in many analogous cases, that nature supplies the 
 best and most perfect example, and that from her system a 
 correct and satisfactory principle may be deduced, through 
 following that which subsists between parents and children, 
 and that not only in the human, but in the animal creation, 
 where duty, justice, and interest are blended together, and 
 aid each other. Thus the parent aids the child so long as 
 this is needed, training it nevertheless gradually to a state 
 of self-control and self-support, rendering it assistance 
 where this is necessary ; and in time, when it has attained 
 maturity, leaving it to shift for itself, but still maintaining 
 the connection and allegiance which should ever continue, 
 both from gratitude and interest. The two eventually 
 become independent, but they should, nevertheless, ever 
 
300 Internal Communication. 
 
 be united by those strongest of ties, interest and parental 
 affection. Thus should it be with the colonies, following 
 here the perfect pattern of nature. The mother-country 
 should nurture and aid the infant colony, so far as to 
 enable it to mature itself, and develope its resources, — 
 but not beyond this. And the colony should own friendly 
 allegiance to the mother-country, in return for the benefits 
 thus rendered, — but not beyond this. The ultimate relation 
 between the two, should be that of a full-grown and inde- 
 pendent son established in business, to the parent who 
 nurtured, educated, and set him up in the world. 
 
 Moreover, in the government of our colonies, their good, 
 as well as that of the mother-country, ought ever to be 
 kej)t in view ; and on that account they should be fully 
 and directly represented in the legislative body of the 
 mother-country. When we act for our children, we 
 act for their welfare as well as for our own. We draw 
 produce from our colonies, and in return ought to 
 award them protection when they require it ; and this on 
 the reciprocal principle, which forms the basis of all com- 
 mercial and indeed all other transactions in civil society, 
 of each rendering to the other in exchange what each most 
 requires. 
 
 The result of steam navigation and the electric tele- 
 graph, in not merely uniting different parts of the same 
 country, but the distant colonies and the parent state, and 
 in effect bringing them together, as regards their inter- 
 course of every kind, as though actually located near to 
 one another ; amalgamating, as it were, the various scat- 
 tered portions of the emjDire, spread through so many 
 regions and climes, into one compact and accessible 
 country ; must doubtless be very imjjortant as regards the 
 civilization of each. And, indeed, if the different great 
 nations of the earth go on increasing, as they are now 
 doing, both by the annexation of new territories, and the 
 acquisition of fresh colonies, it appears not improbable 
 
Steam Navigation and Electric Telegraph. 301 
 
 that the world will eventually be clivicled, not into four 
 quarters, but into four nations only. 
 
 As regards the civilization of colonies, the maintenance 
 of free and constant communication between them and the 
 parent state, must obviously be a matter of the highest 
 importance ; as by this means they participate in the su- 
 perior advancement and enlightenment of the latter, and 
 derive directly from it many of the most essential Elements 
 of civilization. On the other hand, intercourse with the 
 colonies contributes also in its turn to advance the civili- 
 zation of the mother-country, not only from the produc- 
 tions of various kinds which it affords, but also from the 
 information of great variety that it yields, the strength 
 and wealth that it is the means of ensuring, and the stimulus 
 to enterprise and exertion of each kind which it supplies. 
 Indeed, the maintenance of this intercoui'se between the 
 mother-country and her various colonies, as also between 
 the colonies themselves, and the complete carrying it out, 
 are quite as essential for the advancement of civilization, 
 as is the securing the means of Internal Communication 
 between different parts of the same country, and tend more 
 than anything else to cement the union between the 
 colonies and the mother-country, and the colonies one 
 with another. The discovery and application of steam 
 navigation, and of the electric telegraph, are consequently 
 an immense boon to England, so rich in her colonies ; and 
 in this respect probably she profits by them beyond any 
 other nation in the world. 
 
 It appears necessary, therefore, for the due dissemination 
 of the influence of civilization throughout a nation, both 
 that the before-mentioned means of communication, of each 
 of the five first kinds at least, should be fully established, 
 and also that the subjects of each nature should be freely 
 transmitted thereby. Thus alone can the influence of 
 civilization be largely exercised ; the superior enlighten- 
 ment and cultivation of the metropolis be extended to the 
 
302 Internal Communication. 
 
 promotion of a corresponding civilization in the other 
 parts of the empire ; and the resources of the rural and 
 colonial districts be completely developed through the 
 superior knowledge and advancement of the metropolis. 
 
 As mutual intercourse between different persons hasjbeen 
 supposed by some writers to be the original mainspring of 
 civilization in each country, and the sole Element requisite 
 for its promotion, — although the latter notion, as I have 
 endeavoured to show, is without foundation in reason, — so 
 it is in reality that which is necessary to the perfection of 
 civilization throughout the whole population of any par- 
 ticular nation. It is the medium by which its diffusion is 
 extended to all parts of the empire. And as the esta- 
 blishment of this communication is, on the one hand, 
 essential to civilization ; so, on the other hand, is civiliza- 
 tion essential to the perfect establishment of Internal 
 Communication. x\nd as this Element is extensively de- 
 pendent on certain of the other Elements for its efficiency 
 in promoting civilization ; so there is no Element which 
 so extensively contributes to aid the operation of those 
 Elements which aid its own operation. This is more 
 especially to be traced in the case of the Elements of 
 National Education, National Religious Influence, National 
 Instructory Institutions, and the National Cultivation of 
 Art and Science. 
 
 The freedom of intercourse and intercommunication here 
 contended for, however, like civil freedom, requires to be 
 properly controlled, and to be exercised in moderation only, 
 otherwise it mil be in its effects pernicious instead 
 of beneficial to the state as regards its influence on 
 civilization. Thus, while a reasonable degree of activity 
 among the people, and the free and constant transit and 
 communication from one part of a country to another, are 
 desirable to be kept up, and constitute one great feature in 
 the economy of a civilized nation ; yet, on the other hand, 
 a habit of restless activity, which induces persons to be ever 
 
Foreign Intercourse the Forerunner of Civilization. 303 
 
 wandering about from place to place so as hardly to have 
 a settled home, is directly inimical instead of conducive to 
 civilization ; and is in reality a condition which belongs 
 rather to a state of barbarism, than to the economy of a 
 well-ordered, highly civilized community. So also as 
 regards the intercourse one with another which men in 
 general carry on, this should not of course be so incessant 
 as to preclude all other and more improving occupations, 
 but should take place at proper intervals only, and under 
 due regulation. 
 
 X.— INTERNATIONAL INTEECOURSE. 
 
 While inquiring into the nature of the preceding 
 Element, we considered the influence and effects of com- 
 munication of different kinds between persons of the same 
 nation, as regards the advancement of civilization. In 
 examining the Element now proposed for discussion, I 
 intend to inquire into tl^e result and efficiency, for the 
 same ends, of the intercourse between the people of one 
 nation and those of another, which is in reality an Element 
 in its essential characteristics very similar to that which 
 precedes it, and has by some persons, indeed, been included 
 with it, as though a part of the same Element. Never- 
 theless, there are important distinctions betv/een the two, 
 both as regards their quality and their tendency ; and the 
 present Element is so much more extensive and more 
 comprehensive in the range of its operation and the scope 
 of its results than the other, as almost of itself to create 
 a difference from it as regards its very nature. 
 
 It was observed during the consideration of the pre- 
 ceding Element, that, while in a state of barbarism, the 
 various districts of a nation are not only separated from 
 one another as regards their mutual intercourse, but are 
 in the habit of waging war against each other ; and that 
 civilization draws them together and renders them friendly. 
 
304 International Intercourse, 
 
 This principle is applicable not merely to different com 
 munities in the same country, but also, and perhaps equally 
 so, to different countries lying adjacent to, and capable 
 of holding intercourse with one another. Civilization, and 
 civilization alone, unites them ; and the result of civiliza- 
 tion is to convert feelings of rivalry and hatred into 
 amicable relations and offices of friendship. 
 
 Foreign or International Intercourse, although I have 
 j)laced it the last among the Elements of Civilization, as 
 it appears in our present state of society the least directly 
 to conduce to that condition ; is probably the earliest 
 Element which contributes to its production in many rude 
 nations, who not only imbibe the first notions of various 
 kinds which lead them to cultivate different civilized 
 pursuits, from their intercourse with the inhabitants of 
 foreign countries ; but, what is even of greater importance, 
 from this intercourse proceeds the first stimulus to their 
 advancement. Accordingly, as already remarked, the 
 original spring of civilization among individuals is mutual 
 intercourse. The next stage in their progress, and which 
 further conduces to their advancement in civilization, is 
 the intercourse between different tribes and bodies in the 
 same country. And the third and last incipient producer 
 of and stimulus to civilization, is the intercourse which 
 they acquire with foreign nations. 
 
 Not only, indeed, upon civilization, but also upon art 
 and science, the influence of International Intercourse has 
 been supposed by some writers to be productive of the most 
 extensive benefit ; and it appears to have been believed by 
 them that to this and this alone have their origination and 
 their rise been owing. Here, however, as in the case 
 of civilization, it was not the intercourse itself which 
 generated or promoted the pursuits in question, but the 
 knowledge, or experience, or education, which was ob- 
 tained through this intercourse. 
 
 The immediate and direct civilizing effect of Inter- 
 
The Primary Stimulus to Civilization. S05 
 
 national Intercourse upon any particular country, is, 
 moreover, here to be considered quite independent of the 
 assistance which such intercourse always indirectly affords 
 to civilization, by aiding the operation of its other 
 Elements ; as where Education is stimulated by the 
 su2)erior accomplishments of the foreigners who visit it ; 
 where Art or Science are promoted by imitating the j)ro- 
 ductions, or copying the inventions of another nation ; or 
 where customs conducive to civilization are introduced by 
 the new country to which the inhabitants of the other had 
 until then been strangers. We have here only to regard 
 the influence on the progress of civilization which foreign 
 intercourse itself independently exercises, more especially 
 as respects the mental stimulus and general awakening and 
 excitement to emulation and exertion which it j)roduces 
 among a people ; the sharpening of their faculties, and the 
 development of their energies by this means. 
 
 Indeed, the grand, immediate, and most important effect 
 of communication and intercourse, whether as regards that 
 between different individuals, different communities, or 
 different nations, is this excitement of stimulus of some 
 kind or other, by which the powers and resources of each 
 are at once fully developed. The truth of this proposition 
 is particularly illustrated in the case of those children 
 who are brought much into communication with others, 
 by which their faculties are greatly sharpened, and their 
 energies are extensively excited, in comparison with those 
 who have been educated with but few companions. So 
 also is it with respect to communities and nations, inter- 
 course between which calls forth the resources and energies 
 of each, and stimulates them to develope their various 
 powers and capacities. Influence of this kind is, moreover, 
 not only extensive but durable, and is of each order, intel- 
 lectual, moral and social. Thus, the influence which the 
 Egyptians exercised upon the Jews during their sojourn 
 in Egypt, mental, and more especially religious, has eon- 
 
 X 
 
306 International Intercourse. 
 
 tributed to exert an authority, and to communicate an 
 impulse to the mind of that j^eople even to the present 
 time. 
 
 Nations, moreover, like individuals, are not only greatly 
 improved, as regards their advancement in civilization, by 
 the establishment of mutual intercourse ; but they are also 
 extensively benefited in a variety of ways, corresponding 
 also with the case of individuals, by the maintenance of 
 union and friendship one with another : and perhaps most 
 of the social evils among men, and the political evils 
 among states, are to be traced to the neglect of this sim- 
 ple and almost obvious principle. In the case,- too, both 
 of men and states, certain important advantages can be 
 conferred only by foreign aid, being beyond the power of 
 the individuals themselves to secure. By this union 
 together in the league of friendship, of different foreign 
 nations, alone can ultimately be attained not merely the 
 civilization of a particular country, but that also of the 
 whole world. 
 
 Civilization increases the wants of a people, but it in- 
 creases the means of supplying those wants in an equal, and 
 l^robably a greater proportion. This is particularly the 
 case as regards International Intercourse. Possibly each 
 country produces enough of every thing that is actually 
 required to supply its own natural necessities. But as 
 those necessities are extended and increased by Civiliza- 
 tion, we resort to other countries to supply them ; and 
 from them obtain, and to them give in return, all that 
 each requires. 
 
 An important influence on national character is, more- 
 over, produced by International Intercourse, and that in 
 several respects, physical, moral, and intellectual, cor- 
 responding with the change occasioned in individual 
 character by individual intercourse. This result never- 
 theless, in the case both of individuals and nations, is 
 mere extensive and more important as regards the develop- 
 
Foreign Alliance and Interference. 307 
 
 ment and course of conduct tliereby occasioned, than with 
 respect to any actual alteration that takes place. Indeed, 
 the establishment of intercourse with others, and especially 
 the particular nature of the communication carried on, 
 materially affects the policy and the action alike of men 
 and of states. This we may observe in the different per- 
 sons around us, and also in the several nations of the 
 earth, who, according to their social or geographical 
 position, and the consequent opportunity which they 
 possess for holding intercourse with other individuals 
 or countries, vary both in their character and their 
 career. 
 
 If it is our duty to regard our colonies as the children 
 of the mother country, and to treat them accordingly, we 
 ought to consider foreign nations with whom we hold 
 intercourse, as our neighbours and friends, with whom it 
 is desirable to maintain an amicable relationship), but at the 
 same time expedient not to be too familiar or too closely 
 connected : we should do our best to continue our alliances 
 with them, but should on no account render ourselves in 
 any respect their dependents : we should be ever willing 
 to exchange good offices with them, but should never 
 consent to put ourselves in such a position that we are 
 necessitated to look to them for aid, either martial, com- 
 mercial, or civil. We should neither be too eager to 
 intermeddle in their affairs, nor to allow them to inter- 
 meddle in ours. We should be ever ready to render our 
 assistance where it is needed, and to avail ourselves of that 
 of others when we really require it. 
 
 A question nevertheless of some difficulty arises as to 
 the cases in which, and the extent to which foreign inter- 
 ference by one state in the affairs of another, when fully 
 justified, may be exercised. Nations are not only warranted 
 in interfering, but are bound to interfere in quarrels between 
 nations in all these cases where their interposition is likely 
 to have the result of putting an end to the disagreement, and 
 
308 International Intercourse. 
 
 restoring the blessings of peace, where such a result can- 
 not be looked for without such interference. Although 
 each nation is independent of the other, as each man is of 
 every other man ; yet as each man is a member of society, 
 so each nation is a member of the great society of nations, 
 and as such is interested in the welfare of each member of 
 that society, and is more or less, directly or indirectly, 
 affected, by it, and as such is bound alike by duty and by 
 interest to interfere, when it can do so with a reasonable 
 j)rospect of beneficial results. Such interference should 
 be conducted in the most conciliatory and equitable 
 manner towards both the contending parties ; and a re- 
 ference to arbitration of matters in dispute, appears the 
 fairest mode of terminating the quarrel. 
 
 We should, nevertheless, be ever careful about inter- 
 fering in the quarrels of our neighbours, both individual 
 and national, unless we have the most urgent reasons 
 for such intervention. For our own credit we should 
 never do any tiling to provoke them. For our own interest 
 it is seldom desirable that we should interfere even to end 
 them. Whoever meddles in a quarrel, at once makes 
 himself a party to it. And it very often happens that 
 the only reward of him who benevolently stcj^s forward 
 to prevent two infuriate foes from tearing each other to 
 pieces, is that they both fix their fangs in him instead, 
 and he thus reaps a double portion of what he vainly strove 
 to avert the infliction of by one ujion the other. 
 
 The only circumstance, indeed, which can confer on one 
 nation an absolute right to interfere either in tlie disputes 
 or the internal constitution of another, is the case of their 
 being in some way or other directly injurious to, or other- 
 wise affecting the condition of the country so interfering ; 
 in a manner analogous to the case which in society confers 
 on one man a right to interfere in the domestic concerns 
 of another, as when he so conducts his afiairs as to become 
 noxious or injurious to his neighbours. As in society, so 
 
Civilization subversive of National Barriers, 309 
 
 among governments, each individual is to consider not 
 only bis own interest, but the interest of all connected 
 witb bim, so far at least tbat bis conduct, respecting wbicb 
 full liberty is otberwise allowed bim, do not prove inju- 
 rious to otber members of the same community. 
 
 Tbe principal, natural, and original causes of the 
 separation one from anotber of different nations, are tbe 
 partitions effected by seas and rivers, tbose made by cbains 
 of mountains and forests, tbe distinctions arising from tbe 
 difference in climate and natural productions, and tbose 
 occasioned by a dissimilarity in language. Nature no 
 doubt very wisely instituted tbis division of various coun- 
 tries, wbicb in an earlier state of society and of civilization 
 was in many respects desirable. But as civilization, by 
 softening tbe manners and regulating tbe babits of man- 
 kind, fits tbem for more extensive intercourse, and tbereby 
 renders tbis severance no longer necessary ; so is it also 
 tbe first to break down tbese barriers, and its tendency is 
 to unite tbose wbo bave bitberto been separated, from 
 whatever cause. Tbe sciences introduced by civilization 
 contribute, moreover, to enable us to overcome tbose 
 obstacles to mutual intercourse between nations wbicb 
 Nature bad imposed ; and in some instances tbey even 
 make tbem available, as in tbe case of seas and rivers 
 rendered navigable, for means of communication. So also 
 a variety in natural productions, wbicb at first ojDerated to 
 deter tbe people of a different nation from settling in 
 any new country, may eventually, wben civilization has 
 advanced, be tbe main inducement to visit its shores. In 
 like manner, mountains and forests, by tbe supplies wbicb 
 tbey afford for tbe uses of civilized life, instead of sepa- 
 rating people one from anotber, actually draw tbose of 
 various nations together wbo are each bent on procuring 
 tbe same commodity. A difference in language, wbicb 
 constitutes an intellectual, as tbe others formed physical 
 boundaries between adjacent nations, as intellectual pro- 
 
310 International Intercourse. 
 
 gress advances, ceases to be an obstacle to mutual inter- 
 course, and those of each nation learn the language of the 
 other ; and this very variety of tongue may ultimately in 
 many cases be of itself a motive for visiting the foreign 
 country 'with a desire to acquire its language. Thus it 
 will be seen that, as civilization fits men for International 
 Intercourse, so it chiefly contributes to annihilate the 
 ])arriers against carrying on this communication ; and that 
 International Intercourse owes as much to civilization, as 
 civilization does to International Intercourse. 
 
 Aristotle remarks that " to the external action of a state, 
 a wide field lies open in the diversity of genius and 
 character of the surrounding nations."* Countries in 
 different stages of civilization are naturally drawn together, 
 the more advanced being as eager to receive from the other 
 its natural resources, as the other is to share in the wealth 
 and arts of the more refined. 
 
 Eeligion, which, when it is duly cultivated and genuinely 
 carried out, contributes more than anything to unite 
 mankind, whether members of the same community or of 
 various nations, as all alike joined together in the common 
 fraternity of fellow-creatures, the offspring of the same 
 Creator, and the subjects of the same Almighty Sovereign ; 
 by the numerous differences of ojDinion to which it gives 
 rise, seems to bo one of the leading intellectual and moral 
 causes for separation, and for preventing free intercourse 
 between them. As Eeligious Influence is an important 
 Element in civilization, so when civilization itself has 
 become perfected, then and then only will religion, — 
 w^hich has hitherto been not merely one of the main and 
 strongest occasions of division, but which has preserved 
 its power while the mighty barriers of separation occa- 
 sioned by seas, and rivers, and other natural causes, have 
 been surmounted, — become the surest and only absolute 
 bond of union. 
 
 * Politics, book iv. 
 
International Commerce. oil 
 
 At an early stage in the career of the civilization of 
 most nations, tlie pursuit of commerce and of general 
 products of this kind contributes to draw them closer 
 together; although many of these undertakings frequently 
 prove, on the other hand, the occasion of suspicions and 
 differences between them, and afford topics for disagree- 
 ment. Civilization, however, has a powerful effect in 
 uniting both individuals and nations, by rendering them 
 more dependent one on another for mutual aid and com- 
 modities, and also by refining their social habits. Variety 
 of climate has occasioned variety of productions, and 
 variety of productions has originated commerce, and com- 
 merce has caused general communication between different 
 nations. If all the various nations of the earth were of 
 the same climate, their productions would all be the same, 
 and the necessity for international commercial commu- 
 nication would not exist. By the interchange of natural 
 productions, various communities are also bound together, 
 esj)ecially in the earlier stages of civilization ; although 
 this may also lead to jealousies and disputes. The esta- 
 blishment of free and friendly communication between 
 different nations, especially for purposes of trade, adds in 
 effect essentially to the riches of each, as thereby every 
 state which is in this position is enabled to derive some- 
 thing from the resources of the other, as well as to disj)ose 
 of its own superfluous produce. This consideration should 
 operate as an additional inducement to the maintenance of 
 amicable intercourse. 
 
 It is further to be observed that, as it is mth regard to 
 different rival bodies in a state, so is it with respect to 
 different foreign nations ; there are certain benefits to one 
 which are benefits to the whole, and certain injuries to one 
 which are injuries to the whole. Such are great dis- 
 coveries in science, grand achievements in art, the scarcity 
 or abundance of provisions, and the like. Each nation 
 should therefore endeavour, as far as j)ossible, to assist 
 
312 Iniernational Intercourse. 
 
 every other nation in relation to these matters, which in 
 reality are the property not of 2)articular states, but of all 
 people and countries alike ; and are ihe gifts not of one 
 man to another, but the common gifts of God to all man- 
 kind. Indeed, as each individual lives, or should live, not 
 for himself alone but for others as well, and should be 
 ever striving to benefit them as well as himself; so each 
 nation should, in a corresponding manner, carry on its 
 affairs, not for its own advantage only, but for that of 
 the whole of the nations by which it is surrounded, and by 
 whose condition it is ever itself necessarily more or less 
 affected. 
 
 Commerce, therefore, contributes extensively to promote 
 intercourse with foreign nations, as well as to unite them 
 together. Commerce and International Intercourse, — 
 indeed, commerce and Internal social Communication — 
 appear naturally to spring up almost contemporaneously, 
 commerce being the immediate result of intercourse, while 
 both tend to support each other, whether the intercourse 
 be international or only internal. In ages long past, 
 commerce was the means of inducing foreigners to visit 
 our shores from far distant lands, and it still continues to 
 operate in the same manner. Commerce seems to make 
 some atonement for the sordid influence which it directly 
 exercises, by the civilizing tendency that its intercourse 
 produces, and by its effect in binding together in one vast 
 chain of fellowship so many different nations of the world. 
 The interchange one with another, according to the wants 
 and natural or artificial productions of each, leads to a 
 corresponding interchange of ideas and sentiments. A 
 moral bond of union thus becomes formed, whose strength 
 no wars can entirely sever ; whose length extends through 
 the wide territory of the civilized world ; and by which 
 alike the most polished nations, and those of the fiercest 
 and rudest nature, have been drawn together. 
 
 Our own country is indebted for its earliest civilization. 
 
Early Civilization of this Country. 313 
 
 to its intercourse with the nations around it ; and, as already 
 observed,* it owes much to its geographical position, and 
 its proximity to tlie continent of Europe, and to surroucd- 
 iug nations, who have furthered its progress in civilization. 
 To this fact also have been greatly owing its commercial 
 advantages, and its skill in navigation. Every country is 
 no doubt largely influenced in its pursuits and character, 
 (;orres23ondingly with the case of an individual, by its 
 particular adaptation, and the circumstances by which it 
 is surrounded. Its geographical position may often do 
 much to determine the policy of a country, and that policy 
 should ever be in strict accordance with what Nature so 
 dictates. Thus, France, from her situation, is eminently 
 qualified to exercise an important influence over the various 
 great countries with which she is so closely connected by 
 geographical affinity ; and it is her true policy to pursue 
 a political course accordingly. England, on the other 
 hand, from her insular position, is no less adapted to 
 stand independent ; and independence of other nations 
 should be therefore the basis, and leading and prominent 
 characteristic of her policy as regards foreign states. 
 Particular localities in a country will also be characteris- 
 tically distinguished according to their situation. Thus, 
 Dover is naturally fitted as a port to the continent for 
 travellers ; Hull for commercial continental traffic ; Lon- 
 don, from its accessibility by water, and inland position as 
 well, to be the metropolis of the empire. 
 
 Britain was fii-st civilized by its continental neighbours, 
 and as a colony of Eome its further progress in this respect 
 was extensively promoted. In later periods also, its con- 
 nection with that seat of arts and learning did much to 
 accelerate its career. It has subsequently advanced inde- 
 j)endently in the march of civilization, influenced never- 
 theless at each step more or less by the nations with which 
 it has held intercourse, until at length it has reached its 
 * Essence of Civilization, ante, p. 20. 
 
314 International Intercourse. 
 
 present position among the states of Europe, although 
 much doubtless remains to be done to render its civili- 
 zation complete. It is also engaged in extending the 
 influences and the blessings of civilization to the various 
 nations of the earth with whom it carries on communication, 
 who are less favoured in this respect ; a debt of gratitude 
 that it owes to the great cause of civilization, for the large 
 benefits which in its earlier history it derived from its 
 intercourse mth other countries. 
 
 Those nations which, as in the case of the people of 
 England, live upon an island, in many respects lie under 
 great disadvantages as regards the constancy and the 
 intimacy of their intercourse with their foreign neighbours, 
 compared with countries that are placed on a vast conti- 
 nent, with which the neighbouring nations maintain unre- 
 served communicatioii, and between whom a continual 
 interchange of ideas takes place ; so that all the improve- 
 ments effected in one kingdom are at once made known to 
 the other, as though the aggregate of these nations formed 
 but one great social community. On the other hand, 
 although people residing upon islands are deprived of this 
 constant and intimate intercourse with the lands lying 
 near; yet they possess a much greater facility of inter- 
 course with those countries which are distant, and enjoy a 
 far wider range of intercommunication than do continental 
 inland nations, whose communications are almost entirely 
 confined to their immediate neighbours. The sea, although 
 it doubtless much restrains free and unbroken intercourse 
 between nearly adjacent countries, yet it affords the utmost 
 facility for communication between nations which lie far 
 apart from each other, and brings a much greater variety 
 of people into communion than without its aid would ever 
 have been enabled to hold any intercourse at all. This, 
 therefore, which in the earlier ages of the world formed the 
 principal barrier between different countries, and mainly 
 impeded all travelling between different provinces, is what 
 
Various Modes of Intercourse. 315 
 
 no\T mainly promotes and facilitates tliis communication ; 
 and by the power of steam, results alike wonderful and 
 influential in the moral advancement and civilization of 
 the world, have been achieved, reducing the ocean to one 
 vast traversable plain, annihilating the obstacles of space, 
 and invading even the mighty barriers of time. 
 
 Indeed, if tlie world, instead of being intersected by 
 seas, had been constituted of one mighty continent, not 
 only would not the natural separation of countries one 
 from another, and the division of mankind into different 
 races and species, which is for numerous reasons so essen- 
 tially desirable, ever have been effected ; but, on the other 
 hand, intercourse between nations which lie far distant one 
 from another, would have been physically impossible. 
 Vast oceans are, however, traversed without inconvenience, 
 and traffic is conveyed over them which could never have 
 been transported by land. Such, moreover, is the difficulty 
 of travelling by land beyond that of transit by water, that, 
 with all the aid of science, the interior of some of the 
 largest continents is as yet unexplored. 
 
 But, although the means of travelling over the globe are 
 so much extended beyond what they were in the earlier 
 ages of society ; yet, as civilization advances, nations have 
 become far more established in their own territories. 
 They no longer consist of homeless tribes ; yet they mix 
 more than ever one with another. And, although facility 
 both as regards Internal Communication and International 
 Intercourse greatly contributes, if, indeed, it is not essential 
 to the civilization of a nation ; yet if this facility in either 
 case tends to induce people to acquire a desultory, ue- 
 settled habit of life, so as to have no fixed abode or home, 
 it retards, instead of advancing, civilization. Wandering 
 tribes are even more uncivilized than lone islanders. 
 Perpetual friction, equally with rust, is the cause of 
 waste. 
 
 Allusion was, indeed, made at the conclusion of the 
 
316 International Intercourse, 
 
 preceding Element, to the necessity for its due regulation ; 
 and it was observed that, although occasional communica- 
 tion and intercourse with other places and persons are 
 desirable, yet that constant communication and intercourse 
 are unsettling and unciviiizing. This principle is yet 
 more applicable to the Element of International Inter- 
 course than to that of Internal Communication. As we 
 prefer our own homes to all other places, so should we 
 prefer our own country to all other nations. And although 
 occasional communication with foreigners is desirable, 
 both for the sake of deriving information from them of 
 different kinds, and for dispelling homebred prejudices; 
 yet to be always going among them, deprives us too much 
 of our cherished national feelings and habits, and instead 
 of merely rooting up undue predilections, is too apt to 
 leave us without any fixed j)rinciples at all. 
 
 The means of communication and of intercourse which 
 are established between the j^eople of different states, must 
 necessarily vary extensively from those between the people 
 of the same country, both as to the particular mode re- 
 sorted to for this purpose, and the end which is sought to 
 be attained. In the case of each nation, moreover, they 
 will vary according to the character of the people them- 
 selves, and the nature of the countries with which they 
 desire to hold communication. Both as regards Internal 
 Communication and International Intercourse, the inven- 
 tion of steam navigation, of railroads, and of the electric 
 telegraph, has done much for the cause of civilization ; 
 and in each nation, more or less, although not, perhaps, 
 an equal amount, has been effected. Not only are the 
 23eople of different departments and states thus drawn 
 closer together, but the barriers against free intercourse 
 are effectually broken down. The general improvement 
 as regards the travelling accommodation in almost every 
 country, and the establishment of international laws for 
 different purposes, but which all alike contribute to bind 
 
Definition of War. 317 
 
 together tliose of various nations who are subject to them, 
 whether their object be the prevention of crime, the pro- 
 motion of trade, or the protection of efforts of genius : 
 directly tend both to encourage and extend International 
 Intercourse, and to advance civilization. 
 
 War is the physical offensive action of one nation 
 against another, being the attempt to repel by force the 
 aggressions of a hostile state. It is the last remedy to be 
 resorted to, and should be availed of not merely when all 
 others have been tried, but when all others have failed. 
 This is a remedy which, although it may remove the 
 particular evil complained of, does so only by substituting 
 a worse. And it is one of those transactions from which 
 both parties are sure to be sufferers. War is a state not 
 only inimical to civilization, but it is the condition most 
 opposite to it. Nations the most uncivilized, are also the 
 most warlike. In some barbarous nations, almost continual 
 warfare prevails. On the other hand, certain highly 
 civilized nations are often at war one with another. 
 Among mankind quarrels occur between the educated as 
 well as the ignorant ; but it is not often among the former 
 that resort is had to brute force, which is analogous to 
 war between nations. A condition of complete civiliza- 
 tion, will, it is hoped, be one also of permanent and solid 
 peace. 
 
 Occasional war, like an occasional quarrel, is neverthe- 
 less an evil almost inevitable. But perpetual war, like 
 perpetual quarrelling, is a sure proof of brutality, and 
 productive of certain ruin. The existence of others around 
 us, necessitates some differences of opinion. But it should 
 induce also mutual forbearance and amity as conducive to 
 the interest of each. Animals of different species wage 
 war with, and prey one upon another. But man is bent 
 mainly on the destruction of man. And in the case of each 
 individual it often happens that his direst foe is himself. 
 
 The outbreak of war between different nations, is there- 
 
318 International Intercourse. 
 
 fore analogous to the occuiTence of quarrels among men. 
 In the case of both, moreover, the disagreement tends to 
 develope the energies of the contending parties ; but it 
 puts a stop to all social and intellectual intercourse between 
 them. The j)owers of each are exerted to the utmost, but 
 the progress of civilization is at the same time impeded. 
 In the place of endeavouring to benefit, their only object 
 is now to injure one another. While in the former case 
 they imitate the conduct of angels, in the latter they follow 
 only the course of demons. Nevertheless, as in the civil 
 punishment of an individual we aim not at his injury but 
 his improvement — or at any rate the latter is the ultimate, 
 although the former may appear to be the direct object 
 in view — and we hoj)e at once to correct his future conduct, 
 and . to aiford warning to others not to transgress in a 
 corresponding manner ; so in going to war with a state, 
 we should aim not at its destruction or deterioration ; — 
 except incidentally, and in the same way that we endeavour 
 to give pain in order effectually to inflict punishment on 
 an individual, — but merely to bring' it to a sense of right, 
 to compel it to act with justice for the future, and also to 
 deter other countries from following its bad example. 
 Indeed, as is the case between different rival bodies in a 
 state, so different foreign nations have no legitimate right 
 to attemjDt, even in war, the injury of one another, further 
 than what is necessary to promote the general benefit of 
 the whole family or confederacy of nations, in preventing 
 or repelling aggression through the unjust ambition of 
 one state, by restraining the undue assumptions of such a 
 state. The only admissible excuse for going to war, is 
 the restoration of the balance of power among rival nations, 
 and which of itself affords the surest guarantee for the 
 permanence of peace. 
 
 If civilization were generally established in every 
 country, and its spirit animated all their rulers, not only 
 would each of the nations of Europe, indeed of the world, 
 
Infiuence of War on Civilization. 319 
 
 be as forward to assist and improve, as tliey now are to 
 injure and attack one another ; but in the maintenance of 
 their mutual relations, the welfare of each and of the whole 
 body of them would be considered, and but few occasions 
 for ruptures between them would be afforded. By con- 
 ventional treaties and fair discussion, instead of by resort 
 to arms — by the heads of the wise, instead of by the hands 
 of the strong — would all matters in dispute then be decided ; 
 and, it might fairly be hoped, far more equitably than by 
 the result of brute force. Not only, indeed, in an advanced 
 state of general civilization, ought conventions to take the 
 place of, and in fact entirely to supersede, contests by 
 arms ; but the only sound pretext for resorting to contests 
 by arms, is the desire to enforce conventions, and to compel 
 their due observance and complete carrying out ; and this 
 is the point towards which all martial efforts should 
 be directed, and to attain which they should be concen- 
 trated. 
 
 War is either directly or indirectly inimical to nearly 
 every Element of civilization. Education is much im- 
 peded by it. To Eeligious Influence it is extensively 
 injurious ; as also to the prosperity of the different 
 National Institutions, to the progress of Art and Science, 
 and the celebration of peaceful fetes. Dignities it diverts 
 from being the encoui'agement and the rewards of civili- 
 zation, but they are resorted to only to incite to feats of 
 arms. Laws are on many accounts, then, more stringent, 
 and are less devoted to moral ends ; while liberty of 
 speech and communication are restrained. Friendly 
 foreign Intercourse is in such case, of course, necessarily 
 much abridged. Nor are the indirect injuries inflicted 
 u^Don civilization by war much less numerous than those 
 which are direct. Of this class are the ravages which it 
 creates, causing the destruction of many noble works of 
 art, and the hindrance that it occasions to all progress in 
 improvements of this nature. Vast sums are then re- 
 
320 International Intercourse. 
 
 quired to carry on war, which would otherwise be applied 
 in great national undertakings, or in efforts of social 
 progress. In addition to this, the minds of the most able 
 and active are then diverted from the civilizing arts of 
 peace to the exigencies of war. 
 
 In civilization, however, as in many other matters, the 
 most oi3posite results will sometimes be produced by the 
 same cause. Thus, war, which is so extensively de- 
 structive, as regards its direct effect, to many of the 
 pursuits of peace ; in the erection of castles and forts, has 
 raised the finest of architectural structures. And the 
 events of war, while they spread ruin on art and literature, 
 have supplied the noblest themes to the poet and the histo- 
 rian. In two respects, moreover, in the earlier period of 
 the world's career, war indirectly tended towards, if it 
 did not directly promote, civilization. 1. By causing the 
 greatest activity, both mental and bodily, among different 
 and distinct people, which had a powerful effect in 
 advancing civilization, and to a certain extent developed 
 some of its Elements ; as also by creating a si^irit of 
 rivalry between various people and nations, the stimulus 
 produced by which was highly favourable to civilization. 
 2. By war different people were brought together, and by 
 war they became acquainted with the skill and science, 
 and the contrivances of the nations with which they 
 contended. Nothing, moreover, tends so directly or so 
 powerfully as does war, to develope the energies and 
 resources of any nation.* The only true and correct 
 principle applicable to war and its effect upon the civili- 
 zation of any country, appears, therefore, to be this, — that 
 it either furthers or retards civilization according to 
 circumstances. In the early ages of society, it is favour- 
 able to it, while in more advanced times it is inimical to 
 its progress. Thus, in the former periods, it encourages 
 civilization to a certain extent, by inducing people to visit 
 * Vide ante, " Essence of Civilization," p. 15. 
 
Opi^osite Results produced hy War. 321 
 
 foreign countries, and to acquire intercourse with tliem. 
 It also acts as a stimulus to science, and to many inven- 
 tions applicable to martial exploits. On the other hand, it 
 retards the advance of civilization by destroying domestic 
 security, hindering foreign commerce and travel, and 
 calling off attention from the arts of peace. In each 
 nation, however civilized, w^ar is always a period of com- 
 parative barbarism. Nevertheless, as war ordinarily 
 originates in civil contention, so civil intervention should 
 be resorted to, and should be efficient to terminate it. At 
 such periods, when hostilities have once broken out, too 
 much excitement prevails to allow people to reason 
 calmly on the points in disj)ute. Arms alone are then 
 resorted to, to the neglect of those pursuits which con- 
 tribute mainly to the glory of civilized nations. 
 
 As in a rude state of society, men resort to physical 
 force, and to that only, in order to repel individual attack, 
 even when that is not of a physical kind; and when 
 society has become more civilized, not only moral but phy- 
 sical aggression is sometimes withstood by moral force : 
 so, in a corresponding manner, as a nation progresses in 
 civilization, it may reasonably be inquired whether national 
 as well as individual violence, such as a state inflicts on 
 another, might not in all cases be repulsed by moral 
 instead of physical force. With respect to this question it 
 may, however, be remarked that, in the first place, it would 
 be required for all nations alike to be in a very perfect 
 condition of civilization in order to carry out the pro- 
 posal. Even among men in the present state of society, 
 the attacks of the rude and lawless are ordinarily repelled 
 by physical power, and are generally punished by physical 
 inflictions. So must it also be among nations, until civi- 
 lization is fully established. And even then occasions 
 will arise when physical force must be the ultimate resort, 
 as may sometimes be the case among highly civilized 
 individuals. One essential distinction between men and 
 
322 International Intercourse. 
 
 animals is, that the former contend and decide their 
 animosities by moral, the latter by physical efforts. 
 
 In the early history of the civilization of the ^Torld, 
 each petty state, and indeed each society within that 
 state, was regulated or represented by the congress of its 
 members deputed for that purpose. As civilization in- 
 creased, and the Element of Internal Communication was 
 more cultivated, these congresses became national instead 
 of provincial, and one served for the whole nation, instead 
 of there being one for each district in the country. As 
 civilization yet farther progresses, and the Element of 
 International Intercourse as well as of Internal Communi- 
 cation is cultivated, congresses become not only national 
 but international ; and tlieir aim is to regulate not merely 
 the affairs of individual cities and of individual nations, 
 but of nations generally, and of the world at large, which 
 is thus united by its representative into one grand 
 assembly or conclave. Care should, however, be taken 
 in these cases that in providing for the due representation, 
 and the interests, of the whole body of nations, individual 
 nations are not neglected or overwhelmed in the con- 
 sideration of the constitution of such representative as- 
 sembly. And that in the place of settling controversies 
 and preventing contests, they do not originate and provoke 
 the very evils they aimed or professed to guard against. 
 
 Where men are really desirous of union and agree- 
 ment, the difficulties at arriving at this are seldom 
 insuperable ; while, on the other hand, the most trifling 
 pretext may serve as the excuse for an outbreak of 
 hostilities, where either party is actually determined to go 
 to war. Moreover, if rival states, instead of waging war 
 one with another, could consent to settle their differences 
 one with another by arbitration and congress, a far more 
 equitable basis for a firm and permanent peace would be 
 established through their deliberations, where truth and 
 equity prevail, than by the chances of war, where might, 
 
War Suj^erseded hy Congress. 323 
 
 not right, decide who is to obtain his claims. War indeed, 
 as already observed, ought to be resorted to only to compel 
 refractory states to acquiesce in the decisions of national 
 congresses, and to enforce obedience to their just and 
 equitable decrees ; just as in states the aid of the su'ord is 
 called in where necessary, to carry into effect the judg- 
 ment of the courts of justice. 
 
 In the case of national punishment by war, as in the 
 case of individual punishments, some definite limit ought 
 nevertheless to be fixed by the laws of nations and of 
 civilization, as to how far the punishment should be 
 allowed to be carried ; and at what point independent 
 nations should be called upon to interfere in order to 
 prevent war being resorted to, not as a reformatory 
 punishment, but as an instrument of revenge, or a pretext 
 for spoliation, by a conquering country. As societies 
 never allow civil punishments to be carried to these 
 excesses, so ought nations to prohibit national pun- 
 ishments by war exceeding these bounds. In the just 
 maintenance of these limits, all nations alike are in- 
 terested. 
 
 The promotion of civilization among, and the establish- 
 ment of intercourse between different countries, has a 
 powerful tendency extensively to humanize them as 
 regards their conduct in war, and to effect a restraint on 
 such occasions of those brutal excesses which are in- 
 dulged in by barbarous peojDle. Among civilized nations, 
 the temples and monuments of art, and receptacles of 
 learning, will be respected in whatever country and under 
 whatever circumstances they may be seized, not only on 
 account of their own nature, but for the common benefit 
 v,hich they may confer on those of all nations alike. 
 Probably, indeed, the practical result of civilization is 
 never more strikingly and more powerfully shown than in 
 the mode of carrying on war, more especially as regards 
 the manner in which we now avail ourselves of a victory, 
 
324 International Intercourse. 
 
 wliicli is an occasion when the greatest and freest oppor- 
 tunity of following out our own inclinations, and evincing 
 our actual disposition, is afforded. Civilization most 
 completely proves its power and efficiency by softening 
 the rigours of war, and by repressing its barbarities. 
 Generosity towards the vanquished, it causes to be ex- 
 hibited in the place of reckless ferocity. Civilization 
 indeed enables the most valiant nations not only to 
 overcome their enemies, but to conquer themselves. 
 
 Nevertheless, with all the boasted civilization of the 
 present century, and with that of two great conti- 
 nental nations whose civilization is considered to be very 
 highly advanced, the late savage and sanguinary war 
 between France and Prussia stands an appalling proof 
 how little civilization has really after all effected in 
 lessening the horrors, or restraining the barbarities of 
 war, and that as regards its worst and most revolting 
 features ; and as a sad proof how much more vigorously 
 the ingenuity of man has been directed to devise means to 
 promote the injury and misery, than to procure the happi- 
 ness of mankind. 
 
 Albeit, though war is the condition most directly inimi- 
 cal to civilization, yet on nothing more than on war has 
 civilization effected greater changes, and that both in the 
 mode of carrying it on, and in the manner in which our 
 conduct in relation to it is regulated. Although wars are 
 now far more devastating than they formerly were, from 
 the aid of science being extensively brought into the 
 contest, yet the issue is more speedily determined. And 
 the way in which prisoners of war are now treated, 
 contrasted with what was formerly their fate, affords 
 a striking illustration of the progress of the world in 
 civilization. 
 
 According to the mode, moreover, in which war is 
 carried on by one nation against another, both as regards 
 the power and ability evinced, and the honour and 
 
Preservatives of Peace. S'2d 
 
 clemency displayed, great effect is produced on the 
 mind of the opposing nation, which may eventually be od' 
 important influence, alike in restoring and in preserving 
 peace between them. It was a wary maxim of Machiavelli, 
 always to treat your friend as though he would some day 
 be your enemy. It would be a maxim more consistent 
 with honour and humanity, and more conducive to civili- 
 zation, and is one as applicable to dealings between 
 states as to those between individuals, always to treat 
 your enemy as though he would some day be your 
 friend. 
 
 In carrying on warfare and other contentions, botli 
 between men and states, it should ever be borne in mind 
 that acts essentially bad in themselves can never lose or 
 change their character by the circumstances under which 
 they were perpetrated, however these circumstances may 
 operate for the moment to divert attention from them, to 
 screen them from obloquy, or to avert the punishment 
 which they deserve. Ultimately, nevertheless, the na- 
 tural consequences of such deeds will certainly follow, 
 and the offender will surely suffer in one way or other for 
 the atrocities he has committed. 
 
 It is frequently remarked in our courts of justice, that 
 the most ordinary incentive to commit theft arises from 
 the fact of goods being unwarily exposed. As it is in the 
 affairs of individuals, so is it also in those of nations ; and 
 no provocation to war is so ready or so common as that of 
 a country, from its unguarded condition, offering a temp- 
 tation to some other state which is well prepared to take 
 advantage of its improvidence, to endeavour to invade it, 
 and to subjugate it to its own power. The cause and the 
 consequence are in each case the same, and both men and 
 states do well to take warning from so constant and so 
 natural an occurrence. While success in the art of 
 directing attacks is that which is most serviceable for the 
 promotion of, and in the carrying on oi w ^^^^skm MJed^e 
 
 ^■^^ Of THE 
 
326 International Intercourse. 
 
 of the no less important, and certainly not less exalted 
 science of defence, is that which is mainly requisite for 
 the promotion and preservation of peace. The former is, 
 for the most part, an active, the latter a passive, employ- 
 ment. But the latter requires quite as much skill as the 
 former ; and its end, as here considered, is surely far 
 nobler. Both the character of the inhabitants, and the 
 insular position of this country, seem to have coincided 
 as regards the main method of warfare to be adojjted by 
 this nation, which is of the defensive rather than of the 
 offensive kind ; and is effected partly by its strong coast 
 fortifications, partly by its navy, and partly by its army, 
 more particularly as regards its protective operations by 
 its rifle corps, to exercise in both which undertakings the 
 natural genius of the people prompts them to practise and 
 to excel. 
 
 An aggressive war, solely for the sake, and avowedly 
 with the object of adding to the territory of the Power 
 which commenced the war, is no more justifiable by a 
 state than is an unprovoked assault by one individual on 
 the person of another for the purpose of depriving him of 
 his property. In both instances alike, the crime is that 
 of robbery, although the degree of ignominy attached to 
 it in the case of the state may not be so great as in the 
 case of the individual, or the means of punishing ih.Q 
 aggressor so readily available. 
 
 Morality is, indeed, as applicable to, and as binding 
 upon societies as it is upon individuals, and u])on states 
 as fully as upon societies. Murder, robber}'-, dishonesty, 
 and duplicity, may be perpetrated by nations as well 
 as by man, and the crime is essentially in all respects as 
 heinous in the one as it is in the other, although possibly 
 not punishable with the same iacility. A perfect code of 
 international law should, however, provide for these 
 exigencies ; and the criminal state should be arraigned 
 at the bar of the nations of the world, jast as a criminal 
 
Punishment of Criminal States. 327 
 
 man is arraigned at the bar of a criminal court in his own 
 country. As already remarked, war is not only justifiable 
 in a case of this sort to punish an offending nation, and 
 should be resorted to for this purpose by the arbitrating 
 states by which such nation has been condemned ; but in 
 a condition of com2)lete civilization it is the only case in 
 which its resort is at once expedient and just. 
 
 Although the people, not the sovereign of a state, have 
 to bear the principal part of the calamity which war en- 
 tails, yet how few wars are either desired or originated by 
 the people themselves, or, conduce to their interest ; but 
 they have both originated with, and been carried on for the 
 benefit of the sovereign, or to gratify his personal ambition 
 or caprice, wholly independent of the national v/elfare or 
 honour. And yet, on the other hand, some of the most 
 unjustifiable as well as sanguinary wars have been 
 originated by, and waged between republican states. 
 
 In political and personal, as well as in martial and 
 national contests, the influence of civilization is ex- 
 tensively experienced in subduing and controlling those 
 violent and virulent feelings of animosity and anti2)athy 
 that, at one period, generally existed between rival com- 
 petitors and heads of factions, as well as rulers of nations ; 
 which led them to regard each other as each alike intent 
 upon, and equally desirous of one another's destruction, 
 although really only differing in opinion as to the best 
 means of promoting the actual welfare of their country, 
 or of mankind at large. 
 
 Civilization, which in some respects contributes to 
 weaken the mere physical power both of men and nations, 
 yet confers on them a vast superiority over bodies 
 endowed with brute force alone, by the dexterity which 
 they acquire. Hence it is that civilized nations so far 
 exceed barbarians in martial skill and efficiency. There 
 is in tl\,is respect the same corres23onding difference be- 
 tween a civilized and an uncivilized people, as there is 
 
828 International Intercourse. 
 
 between a man and an animal. Although the animal may 
 be of four times the size and physical strength of the man, 
 it is speedily vanqnished by the intellectual resources and 
 scientific appliances of the latter. In the case of nations, 
 as in the case of animals, is it not both possible and 
 expedient, in certain extreme instances, to reduce the 
 surplus of turbulent energy and irritability, v/hich proves 
 periodically detrimental to contingent states, by a process 
 analogous to that of castration in the case of animal 
 frames, through either dividing or diminishing the terri- 
 tory of such a nation, to an extent which will prevent it 
 from being any longer formidable to its neighbours ? 
 
 Not only, however, do science and civilization aid the 
 carrying on of war, but the promotion and the maintenance 
 of peace are also extensively furthered by their means. 
 Thus, gunpowder and steam navigation, by placing 
 different countries more on an equality both as regards 
 their position and means of defence, have more com- 
 pletely reduced war to a scier-ce, and rendered its issue 
 less uncertain than formerly ; all which has contributed 
 to discourage a resort to arms, and has opened oppor- 
 tunities for civil interventions. 
 
 The desirableness and duty of preserving peace, as far 
 as possible, between different nations, appears strictly 
 analogous to its maintenance between j)rivate persons. 
 Peace is always of itself to be preferred, but should never 
 be sought after at the sacrifice of right or duty, which is 
 a worse evil than that which we aimed at preventing. So 
 among individuals, friendshij)s should be maintained, even 
 at a considerable cost ; although to effect this we are by 
 no means bound to submit to injustice or oppression. In 
 both cases, however, the surest and most efficient way 
 permanently to preserve peace, is to be always fully pre- 
 pared for war. Nothing so powerfully provokes attack 
 both among individuals and nations, as the apparent des- 
 titution of all means to repel it. 
 
Natural and National Boundaries. 329 
 
 It is also " of great importance for the preservation of 
 peace among different nations, that they should be each 
 made to maintain the natural boundaries assigned to them 
 as their proper territories, such as chains of mountains 
 and great rivers afford, and by which Nature herself 
 seems to have chalked out the limitations for each to 
 observe, so as to prevent all causes for mutual aggression 
 on this account. Equal or fair distribution of territory, 
 according to the allotment made by Nature, is perhaps in 
 each case the firmest foundation on which to proceed in 
 fixing or restraining the limits of any country. Here, 
 however, the increase of population in such a state, and 
 the decrease of that of the adjacent nations, and many 
 other causes, must, of course, occasion a deviation from 
 these principles, which can be considered applicable 
 only as general, leading, fundamental rules. Indeed, 
 the true principle to pursue, alike to preserve peace and 
 to follow in the paths of justice, is not to attempt to 
 restrain the natural growth of any state, which it is alike 
 unjust to attempt and impossible to effect ; but to compel 
 each state to restrain itself as regards its territory, within 
 those certain and proper bounds which Nature has assigned 
 to it, and the limits of which are unerringly defined and 
 marked out by those natural fences, such as seas, and 
 rivers, and chains of mountains, which God Himself has 
 placed to separate countries one from the other. In fact, 
 if acquisition and increase of territory by any particular 
 nation are to be directly repressed as tending to disturb 
 the equilibrium of power, it may be contended that the 
 acquisition and increase of colonies also should be for- 
 bidden and prevented. And if the acquisition and 
 increase of colonies may be prohibited or interfered with 
 on this ground, may we not feel ourselves justified in 
 interfering with also and prohibiting the growth of popu- 
 lation as well ? There is this essential difference, how- 
 ever, between the increase of a nation by population and 
 
330 International Intercourse. 
 
 colonies, and by extending its boundaries, tbat in the tu'O 
 former cases this increase is effected without encroaching 
 upon or diminishing the teri-itory of other states, which 
 alone could give them the right to interfere. 
 
 Although a state may to a great extent increase its 
 territory, as in the case of Russia and Prussia, by absorb- 
 ing and appropriating as part of itself other states 
 adjacent or contiguous, yet unless such countries 
 harmoniously amalgamate with it by affinity of interest 
 and feeling, the union will prove but ill-assorted, and 
 rather forced and feigned than friendly and real. Dif- 
 ference in religion, and language, and pursuits, on the 
 part of the people thus united to a foreign nation, may 
 prevent this union from ever being completely cemented. 
 Certain elements, like oil and water, however closely 
 brought into contact, will never really amalgamate, 
 while others at once do so on being united. Com2:)ulsory 
 unions are the greatest cause of dissension that can be 
 effected. 
 
 Occasionally, indeed, nations, as it were, change their 
 local position, and move from the spot where they were 
 originally placed to an entirely new sphere ; as where 
 they invade and conquer an adjoining country, and settle 
 in its provinces, and by which all their original relations 
 to surrounding countries become at once entirely revolu- 
 tionized. Thus, Prussia, if she were to invade and annex 
 Belgium to her territory, would be entirely changed as 
 regards her relation to Europe generally, and to England 
 in particular. She would thereupon become a maritime 
 instead of an inland country, and our next neighbour in- 
 stead of one distant from us. 
 
 Of importance equal with, if not greater than that of 
 the preservation of the natural boundaries of different 
 states, is the preservation also of those frontiers and 
 entrances from one country to another, which may be 
 regarded as their natural citadels; and which serve to 
 
Preserving Balance of Power. 331 
 
 resist the inroads of aggression, and are, in fact, the for- 
 tifications which maintain j)eace itself, as well as promote 
 the security of the nation. 
 
 As in the case of the rival interests existing in the same 
 state, so also among different rival foreign nations, it is 
 desirable to maintain the due balance of power, by which 
 suspicions and jealousies of one another become banished, 
 and they are converted into mutual friends, and the pro- 
 moters of the general welfare. It is, nevertheless, re- 
 marked by Mr. Wheaton,* that one of the main and most 
 just reasons for the interference of one state with another, 
 is the desire to preserve the balance of power between 
 different states. And no doubt, indeed, the overthrow or 
 disturbance, and even the danger of this, whether apparent 
 or real, is the surest cause of the destruction of that 
 harmony which ought ever to subsist between those states 
 which hold intercourse one with another. It may not 
 unreasonably, however, be doubted whether the efforts, 
 real or pretended, to preserve the balance of power, do 
 not tend more to provoke hostilities than the direst 
 destruction of that balance that could ensue. Consider- 
 ing, moreover, how very seldom one nation either acts or 
 wages war by itself independently, but has always some 
 firm allies on whom it relies for mutual co-operation and 
 assistance, and which it would be neither possible nor 
 desirable to prohibit ; the practical importance of preserv- 
 ing the balance of power between different states is in 
 reality far less than it appears. The proportionate 
 relative power of a particular nation as regards the other 
 nations around it, depends, moreover, not only upon its 
 individual strength and resources, but upon its position in 
 regard to those nations, and which may serve to confer 
 opportunities and advantages as regards both attack and 
 defence, equal to those obtained by actual resources or 
 martial power. The greater the advantages of any nation 
 * Hidory of the Progress of the Bights of Nations. 
 
332 International Intercourse. 
 
 in this respect, tlie greater is the necessity for limiting 
 its power. Capacity of aggression, which is most per- 
 nicious in a neighbouring nation, may be harmless in 
 one w^hich is a long distance from us. In regard to the 
 preservation of the balance of power among states, it 
 should also be borne in mind that there are interests as 
 well as forces which con be set off and balanced one 
 against the other, and which may operate both to unite 
 various nations together, and also contribute to the pacific 
 and harmonious carrying on of the government in each 
 particular country. As much as possible, too, correspond- 
 ing also with the case of the various rival interests in a 
 state, the several interests existing in separate nations 
 should be made to contribute to the mutual welfare of one 
 another. Civilization will thus serve to fuse into one 
 great family not only the different people of the same land, 
 but the various nations of the whole world. 
 
 As in the intercourse between individuals, so in that 
 between nations, both pacific and hostile, especial regard 
 should be had to the character and disposition of each, 
 quite as carefully as, in forming an alliance with them, 
 we consider the commercial products which each can 
 supply advantageously to the other. As it is with indi- 
 viduals, so is it with nations, that some are naturally 
 agreeable and friendly, and others are naturally dis- 
 agreeable and hostile to one another. The true mode of 
 politic dealing, both with men and states, is to know 
 alike how both to take advantage of their merits and 
 their defects; as also how to correct ourselves, and to 
 su23i)ly our own exigencies by their deficiencies and their 
 example. 
 
 Moreover, as in the case of individuals, so also in that 
 of nations, there are certain among them which, owing to 
 their peculiar character, intellectual, moral, or physical, 
 their position, or some other cause, can never agree to- 
 gether, or feel mutual esteem or regard one for another. 
 
FrinGii:>Ies of Foreign Alliance. 
 
 JO 
 
 But as in tlie case of the former, it may occasionally 
 happen that circumstances occur which change their 
 whole relation with each other, and induce them to agree 
 with and regard one another ; so in the case of nations 
 also, whose character and position vary equally with those 
 of individuals, events may take place which will alter 
 their mutual disposition and feeling, and produce concord 
 and amity where before there \\Qvq only rivalry and 
 hostility. Nevertheless, although nations do well to be 
 united one with another, a dependence one upon the other 
 is very far from desirable, whether for food, for protec- 
 tion, or for wealth. Independence is, indeed, in every 
 respect, as great a virtue, and is of as much consequence 
 to be maintained among nations as among individuals ; 
 and is absolutely essential for the extensive prosperity 
 and advancement of each. The want of it is, moreover, 
 experienced in every department of the state, and in every 
 act both of individual and of civil life. 
 
 But, although mutual dependence between states is not 
 desirable, yet the maintenance of alliances between them 
 is on several accounts very expedient, and even essential. 
 The princij)les which should guide and regulate the 
 formation of national friendships and alliances, are ^ome- 
 Vvhat akin to those which direct us in the formation of 
 individual and private connections. In each case some 
 similarity, or rather accordance of character appears 
 necessary to unite the different parties, and the mutual 
 advantage to each of the particular friendship, is a firm 
 cement as to its duration. The local position of the 
 parties must also have a material influence in the 
 selection of an alliance, as will also a general corres- 
 pondence in intellectual and moral character, in religion, 
 and in habits and pursuits. On these accounts Great 
 Britain, Holland, and Prussia appear to be the countries in 
 Europe between whom an alliance is most feasible, alike 
 from their similarity in character, religion, and pursuits, 
 
334 International Intercourse. 
 
 the mutual advantages to be derived by each from such 
 connection, and their several local positions. Prussia, a 
 powerful nation, is not so near to Britain as to provoke 
 jealousies, as in the case of France, and is yet sufficiently 
 near to be accessible both for communication and for 
 commerce. The products of Prussia are serviceable both 
 to Britain and to Holland, as is the trade of Britain and 
 Holland to Prussia ; and the navies of Britain and Holland 
 render these countries serviceable allies to Prussia, which 
 can never be a naval country from its want of sea-coast. 
 The Ehine flowing through both countries constitutes a 
 natural union between Prussia and Holland, aflbrdine a 
 direct means of communication. Alliances between other 
 great European nations are based on the same principles, 
 as between France and Belgium ; Spain, Austria, Italy, 
 and Belgium ; Denmark and Sweden. America, although 
 separated from England by a wide expanse of sea, is 
 naturally and firmly united to it by a similarity of 
 language, as also by commercial pursuits. 
 
 Treaties between different foreign nations, whatever be 
 the nature of the relation or connection of such nations, 
 ought, doubtless, to be as faithfully kept and as literally 
 observed as are the ties of friendship and the conditions of 
 intercourse between individuals, which it is equally the 
 interest of all parties to respect. Thus regarded, a 
 correct perception of the sj)irit of these agreements should 
 in all instances be sufficient to enforce them, even when 
 the strictness of the letter is found to fail. This, and 
 and this alone, can preserve us against deceit either in 
 social or in state Intercourse. Yet jDcrhaps here, as in 
 other cases already adverted to, that which was designed 
 solely to prevent the possibility of dispute, proves in 
 reality to be its most frequent cause. 
 
 Treaties, like all other comi:)acts, are irrevocable, are 
 binding on all the parties to them alike, and can, on no 
 account or pretext, be violated or departed from, or even 
 
Precautions respecting Foreign Influences. 335 
 
 modified, without the consent of all the parties to them. 
 The utmost that can be allowed as regards their relaxa- 
 tion is the submission of a proposal for their revision by 
 those who entered into them ; the only pretext for which 
 can be such an alteration of circumstances as entirely 
 changes the state of things under which they were made. 
 But even this affords no excuse for their violation without 
 the consent of all who entered into them. The due 
 observance of treaties is as essential for the maintenance 
 of confidence and friendship among the society of states, as 
 is that of i)romises for the continuance of respect and amity 
 among men. 
 
 It must ever, moreover, be a matter of supreme impor- 
 tance for preserving that absolute freedom of intercourse 
 between civilized states and the rulers of them, which 
 ought ever to subsist, that the fullest protection be afforded 
 to those who are sent as ambassadors by one state to 
 another, and by which the utmost liberality of sentiment 
 may be expressed by those officers to the sovereigns to 
 whose courts they are deputed. Ambassadors are, as it 
 were, the tongue of the nation they represent ; and it is 
 consequently most essential that they should speak with 
 boldness, with freedom, and vv^ithout reserve, and thus 
 give vent to sentiments which, if concealed or pent up, 
 may breed disorder of the most serious kinds between 
 those different countries, but which will be harmless and 
 even beneficial if divulged and explained. This liberty to 
 the ambassador as the representative of his nation, must 
 never, however, be permitted to be extended to him per- 
 sonally, so as to allow him to do acts in his own indivi- 
 dual private capacity, which are offensive or insulting, 
 under colour and j)rotection of his ambassadorship. 
 
 The rapid progress of civilization during periods of 
 peace, as contrasted with its advancement in time of war, 
 is at once proved by reference to history, more especially 
 that of the career of this country in the last forty years. 
 
336 International Intercourse. 
 
 As Cliristianltj is the most perfect condition of civiliza- 
 tion, so universal peace will be one of the most precious 
 moral fruits of Christianity. Among the main causes of 
 the progress of civilization in time of peace, it cannot be 
 doubted that the existence of mutual Intercourse between 
 nations is one of the most powerful. 
 
 Nevertheless, as regards our Intercourse with foreign 
 nations, it is a leading princij)le to be observed that, while 
 that Intercourse should be as unrestricted as possible ; at 
 the same time every requisite precaution must be adopted 
 in order to render it as free as we can from injury or 
 danger to the state so communicating. As no great 
 benefit is without its accompanying bane, so with our 
 refinement we export to less civilized nations our vices 
 also ; and wdth their valuable products we obtain addi- 
 tional means of increasing our debasing luxuries. On 
 matters, too, relating to religion, morality, legislation, 
 education, and even taste ; the correct princij)les of one 
 nation may be vitiated or degenerated by the depraved or 
 lax notions of the country with which it holds Intercourse. 
 The best security, indeed the only safe guarantee against 
 the corruptions of a people by this means, is the instilla- 
 tion of sound and correct principles on those subjects con- 
 cerning w^hich there is the most danger of their being 
 unsettled. And the more completely this is effected, the 
 more perfect will be the condition of their civilization. 
 
 It is fully as important to preserve a high standard of 
 national morality and honour in a state, as it is to main- 
 tain personal honour and morality in the case of a man. 
 As regards the different jDarties, too, in each particular 
 nation, this principle should be observed. Neither states, 
 nor individuals, nor parties, can deal freely and satis- 
 factorily one with another, unless entire reliance subsists 
 on each other's honour. A want of confidence as regards 
 this, is consequently fatal to one branch of International 
 Intercourse which is of a most important nature, being 
 
International Laws. 337 
 
 tliat which is carried on by the dififerent governments of 
 different countries one with another, as the organs of com- 
 munication of the people of those states. As the crimes 
 of individuals against the code of society, in any par- 
 ticular nation, are punished through the mutual co opera- 
 tion of the other members of society against the person 
 proved guilty ; so the crimes of a state against the society 
 of states must be in a corresponding manner punished by 
 means of a confederation of states against the guilty 
 nation. War for this purpose is always justifiable ; and 
 its lawfulness is founded on the soundest of all reasons 
 for war, the ultimate hope of securing a permanent peace, 
 by terminating those excitements which provoke war. 
 International laws serve as a kind of chain to bind to- 
 gether the peoj)le and the governors of different nations, 
 who all acknowledge one common rule of right. They 
 tend to prevent disruptions, just as the recognition of the 
 same laws binds together the various subjects of the same 
 country, and the acknowledgment of the same Supreme 
 Being unites all Christians into one common brotherhood. 
 Moreover, although the general result of Intercourse, 
 both Internal and International, is to promote civilization 
 by stimulating the people to enterprise, and showing them 
 what has been done by others, whose inventions they are 
 induced to follow, as also to improve by these examples 
 their own efforts ; yet, on the other hand, one effect of this 
 Intercourse of either kind will be to prevent men from 
 relying on their own resources as regards the particular 
 pursuits for which they are especially adapted, and for 
 which they have manifested a peculiar genius. These 
 pursuits wdll no longer engage that exclusive devotion 
 which they did before, but other foreign inventions and 
 woi'ks of skill will command attention in common with 
 them ; and in the endeavour to emulate what is new, and 
 which on that account commands admiration, that for which 
 they were especially qaalified, and which sprang up indi- 
 
 z 
 
838 International Intercourse. 
 
 genous in their minds, incurs neglect. Just so it is in the 
 case of individuals, that when a man comes to mix with 
 society at large, he disregards those particular pursuits or 
 studies to which his own. natural genius impelled him, in 
 order that he may obtain proficiency in undertakings in 
 which he sees the world around him to be occupied and to 
 have acquired dexterity, and with whom he desires to place 
 himself on a level. 
 
 There is an important branch of jurisprudence con- 
 nected with the subject of International Intercourse, 
 which demands here a passing notice, exercising as it 
 does an extensive influence on the civilization of each 
 country ; and that is the regulation of the laws of 
 different kinds affecting foreigners who may be either 
 resident in a nation, or merely travellers through it, and 
 whether as regards their personal freedom, or their com- 
 mercial dealings. However desirous we may be to treat 
 foreigners as friends, we must not at the same time forget 
 that they are aliens. However pleased we are with oui* 
 visitors, we ought not to consider them as a part of our 
 own family. The distinctions proj)er in the treatment of 
 each ought ever to be kept up, not only in order to 
 secure our independence, but to preserve our friendshij). 
 As in the regulation of property, so in that of ceremony, 
 nothing so soon leads to dis23ute as the neglect to observe 
 the due distinctions essential to be maintained. 
 
 Alike various and important, therefore, are the results 
 which are obtained by the establishment of a free and 
 general Intercourse between nations, as regards their 
 advancement in civilization. Education, art and science, 
 literature and learning, jurisprudence and morals, com- 
 merce and discovery, are all extended, and all improved 
 by this means. And in the pursuit of each, not only are 
 many new suggestions gained, but many prejudices on 
 several subjects become dissipated. As this communica- 
 tion between different nations is more firmly established, 
 
A Universal Language. 339 
 
 the variety of language not only ceases to be a barrier 
 between tbem, but by each learning the language of the 
 other, many original ideas are conveyed to one another in 
 the fresh turns of thought thereby disclosed. A new and 
 most extensive mine of knowledge is thus opened, whose 
 wealth, especially as regards that most precious of all 
 knowledge, the knowledge of human nature, is almost if 
 not wholly illimitable. Even if it were possible to 
 establish a universal language wliich should serve as a 
 means of communication between the people of every 
 nation, the imperfection and constant liability to error of 
 such a medium must be necessarily extensive in projDor- 
 tion to its comprehensiveness. Language in general is 
 perhaps availed of nearly as much to confuse as to com- 
 municate ideas, and the more general and less specific are 
 its terms, the more is it liable to this defect. As a 
 medium of diplomatic communication, where the greatest 
 precision and certainty are essential, and the want of 
 which would be a constant source of contention, a uni- 
 versal language would be therefore most objectionable ; 
 while from the perfect acquaintance possessed by those who 
 carry on such communications, of the language of foreign 
 countries, it is not required. 
 
 The production in any country of great and sterling lite- 
 rary works is also of much value in the promotion of Inter- 
 national Intercoui'se, as leading foreigners to the study of 
 its language ; just as the production of splendid works of art 
 contribute also to this Intercourse by attracting the j)eople 
 of foreign countries to visit them. As speaking different lan- 
 guages is one of the strongest and most formidable barriers 
 which was raised by Nature herself against the Intercourse 
 between different nations, so the acquirement of a knowledge 
 of the language of a country forms of itself a strong bond 
 of Intercourse. Nevertheless, however desirable it may be 
 to read in the original tongue the master-works of genius 
 produced by each country, the advantage to the literature 
 
340 International Intercourse. 
 
 of every land of possessing translations from the best 
 foreign authors, and the benefit derived to the mind of 
 the nation from their circulation, and its tendency to pro- 
 mote civilization, cannot be denied. By this means, mental 
 communication with other countries is opened for those to 
 whom ignorance of the language remains a barrier. In 
 either case, indeed, an acquaintance with the literature of 
 a nation constitutes intellectual Intercourse with its people. 
 The increase of Intercourse between different nations 
 which has of late years taken place, has done much for 
 the general advancement of civilization, although the 
 results of this communication may in certain cases vary. 
 While we extend to less civilized countries our arts and 
 our refinement, we derive from them in return many pro- 
 ducts and commodities. Vast changes are by this means 
 effected. Nevertheless, in our Intercourse with less polished 
 nations, it should ever be our aim to communicate to them 
 our civilization, without imbibing any portion of their 
 barbarism in return ; just as knowledge dispels ignorance, 
 although ignorance cannot obliterate knowledge. Know- 
 ledge is, as we all know, happily communicable. 
 Ignorance is happily incommunicable, although bar- 
 barism unhappily is not so. Of all moral, social, and 
 national diseases there is none which is more infectious 
 than is luxury, and which spreads from city to city, and 
 from rank to rank, like plague or small-pox. Much, 
 moreover, is to be gathered from each nation, as from 
 each individual, either in the way of example, or wisdom, 
 or warning ; and the result here is as great among states 
 as among persons. One great advantage, indeed, of 
 Foreign Intercourse, corresj^onding with that of indivi- 
 dual intercourse in society, is that each state may learn 
 from the other something in the way of imj)rovement in its 
 arts, and institutions, and manners, and manufactures. 
 Montesquieu* attributes in a great degree the power and 
 * Beflections on Rise and Fall of Boman Empire. 
 
Civilizing Effect of International Intercourse. 3-11 
 
 prosperity of Eome to the readiness of its peoj)le to adopt 
 the customs of other nations whenever they found them 
 better than their own. To rulers of nations, especially, 
 this information is most important and valuable. By 
 blending together these different influences, our aim 
 should be to profit alike by our researches, our experience, 
 and our new spheres of operation. 
 
 Now indeed the territory of civilization almost forms 
 of itself one vast and mighty empire, the feelings, and 
 habits, and desires of every individual being moulded 
 alike, the same knowledge and pursuits animating each 
 person ; and through the whole civilized world are 
 acknowledged the same grand principles of truth, and 
 justice, and moral conduct. As it is when civilization is 
 most perfectly established, that International Intercourse 
 is most free and most general ; so when International 
 Intercourse is completely carried out, does it serve to 
 communicate along with itself to the nations to which it is 
 extended, each of the other Elements of Civilization, until 
 at length, by degrees, all the earth becomes subjected to the 
 influence of the latter. International Intercourse, more- 
 over, contributes to aid civilization, wherever it reaches, 
 correspondingly as civilization in its turn aids Inter- 
 national Intercourse. 
 
 THE END EESULTING FROM THE COMPLETE 
 ESTABLISHMENT OF CIVILIZATION. 
 
 Having considered in succession, one by one, the various 
 Elements deemed essential to complete the civilization of 
 a nation, we now proceed to inquire into the general result 
 of their operation, in the aggregate. 
 
 That the Elements which I have set forth and described, 
 are those, those only, and all of them those that are essen- 
 tial to effect civilization ; is, indeed, obvious not merely 
 from their operation in the civilization of states, but even 
 
342 The End of Civilization. 
 
 in that of individuals, among wliom precisely the same, or 
 exactly corresj)onding causes, are what produce or result in 
 their civilization. And not only are all these Elements 
 essential to perfect civilization in any nation, but their 
 deficiency in it will be peculiarly characterized according 
 to their want of any one of these Elements. Thus in 
 Greece and Eome, the absence of the Element of a correct 
 Religious Influence, was the cardinal defect in their 
 civilization, as it must also be in the present day in that 
 of Turkey. 
 
 In considering the End of Civilization, we ought, more- 
 over, essentially to distinguish between civilization, and 
 those partial and incomplete attainments of it which some 
 mistake for general civilization, but which are in reality 
 only the achievement of particular branches of it ; and 
 consequently, because the results which follow the entire 
 accomplishment of civilization are not produced by the 
 latter, we are led to deny to civilization itself due credit 
 for the results which it can effect, and which it never fails, 
 w^hen properly carried out, to secure. Thus, certain com- 
 munities have reached a high degree of perfection in art 
 and literature ; but from the other Elements of civilization 
 being neglected, they have continued in a state of com- 
 parative barbarism as regards their general condition. 
 
 That Civilization, to a certain extent, and in a certain 
 mode, has made great progress of late years, it is impos- 
 sible to deny. As regards scientific research and discovery, 
 its advances have been, and may probably continue to be, 
 prodigious. But in art of each kind, and perhaps in 
 literature generally, we have rather retrograded than 
 advanced. Our actual growth in Civilization has been like 
 that of a tree which sends out vigorous shoots on one side 
 and in one direction, while its branches on the other side 
 are withered and decayed, and cease to expand or show 
 signs of life. To correct this deformity, and to regulate 
 the due, aud proper, and natural growth of Civilization, 
 
Civilization Incomplete and Unsystematic. 343 
 
 sliould be the end of the science itself, and is the main 
 object of the present work. Indeed, one of the principal, 
 if not the chief of the obstacles to the real progress of 
 Civilization, is the unequal manner in which its different 
 elements are wont to be developed, and which produces an 
 irregularity or deformity in the whole system, correspond- 
 ing with the undue development or cultivation of one 
 particular faculty of the mind, or of one single mental 
 pursuit, to the 23roportionate neglect and deterioration of 
 all the rest. Thus, particular branches of science are 
 followed with such avidity, as to lead to the neglect of 
 others, and of art generally. The reduction of Civilization 
 to a science, and following it upon systematic and settled 
 principles, may do much to correct the evil complained of, 
 and IB indeed the only efficient cure to be applied. 
 
 As in the case of an individual, a little knowledge serves 
 only to puff him up, and renders him superficial, while 
 depth in knowledge alone confers power ; so in the case 
 of a nation, while j)artial or limited civilization tends to 
 develoj)e but a few of its energies, its complete civilization 
 alone can suffice to perfect alike its material and intel- 
 lectual, as well as moral condition. And as in the educa- 
 tion of the individual, it is essential to cultivate and to 
 train eacli separate faculty and endowment, to store the 
 memory, exercise the judgment, cultivate the taste, and 
 subdue the appetites and passions, and for the attainment 
 of which very different and even opposite appliances are 
 resorted to ; so in the civilization of a state, it is no less 
 necessary that all the different ranks and societies of men 
 within its territory should alike be brought under the 
 influence of Civilization, however varying one from another ; 
 and which can be effected only by the application of each 
 and all of the several Elements of Civilization here set 
 forth. 
 
 It is in this place, however, important to define with 
 clearness and certainty what is intended by the t nd of 
 
344 The End of Civilization. 
 
 Civilization, more especially as distinguished botli from its 
 Essence and its Elements, with the former of which, at 
 least, it is apt by some persons to be confounded. Thus, 
 they consider what civilization is, and what is its real 
 nature, which constitute its Essence ; and not what it 
 actually accomplishes, which alone constitutes its End. 
 The one is the agent employed, the other the act itself 
 performed. As well, indeed, might we confound the 
 vigour of our frames acquired by food with the food itself, 
 as the End with the Essence of civilization. By the End 
 of Civilization, is here therefore meant those active, 
 powerful, and substantial effects which civilization produces 
 in the condition of a people, alike material, mental, and 
 moral, being the ultimate object, moreover, which was" 
 sought to be attained by the application of the priiiciple ; 
 just in the same way as the production of a picture is the 
 end of painting, the erection of an edifice the end of build- 
 ing, or the cure of a diseased person the end of giving him 
 medicine. In each of these cases, the application and the 
 means used, are clearly distinguishable from the end at 
 which we aim. 
 
 As civilization is in many respects to a nation precisely 
 what education is to a man, so the main End of Civiliza- 
 tion is the entire development of the energies and resources 
 of the nation, and the advancing it to that state ^^here all 
 those energies and resources will be fully matured, and 
 which must, doubtless, bo its most perfect, if not, indeed, 
 its most natural condition also, being that which it was 
 both adapted and intended ultimately to attain. The End 
 of Civilization is therefore, in reality, no less than the 
 perfection of the state, considering this in its largest, most 
 extensive, and most complete sense, as that wherein all its 
 most valuable qualities and projierties will attain their 
 amplest development. To this consummation, moreover, 
 each of the Elements of civilization alike directly tend. 
 And as civilization consists as regards its Essence, in ren- 
 
Definition of End of Civilization. 345 
 
 dering tlie liiglier endowments predominant over those 
 which are lower ; so, as regards its End, this is fully- 
 attained only when all the most valuable resources and 
 powers of the nation are completely matured and brought 
 to perfection. 
 
 The End of Civilization, and the final object which it 
 aims at effecting, may therefore be concluded to be as 
 follows : — In the case of the individual, its result is to 
 perfect and to develope to the full all his higher faculties 
 and powers, and to subject to them the lower propensities 
 and endowments. In the case of the state, its result is to 
 exalt those influences in the community which are the 
 highest and purest over those which are inferior and 
 debasing; to develope to the full the resources of the 
 nation, both natural and artificial ; and to adapt the people 
 in all respects for advantageously and completely availing 
 themselves cf these resources. Two distinct and inde- 
 pendent Ends should, indeed, ever be aimed at both by 
 Civilization and Legislation ; and unless they are both 
 attained, however in certain respects aj^parently opposed to 
 each other, that Civilization and that Legislation is doubt- 
 less to such an extent and so far imperfect, and fails in its 
 main object. These are the welfare, intellectual, moral, and 
 social, of each individual in the state, independently and 
 by himself ; and the welfare, intellectual, moral, and social, 
 of the whole body of individuals in the aggregate who 
 compose the state. Both these objects should not only be 
 aimed at, but both should be secured. Thus every individual 
 member of the state should feel satisfied, not only that the 
 state itself, but that he himself individually, is benefited, 
 so far as is attainable, by his condition as a member of 
 such state, and by the measures adopted in regard both to 
 Legislation and Civilization. On the other hand, every 
 care should be taken to avoid the introduction and enerva- 
 ting effects of luxury ; which, instead of being as some 
 appear to suppose, the perfection of civilization, constitutes 
 
346 The End of Civilization. 
 
 in reality its corruption and decay, being in fact the 
 consequence of the subjugation of the higher influences 
 to those which are inferior. 
 
 The End of Civilization is, in fact, analogous to the aim 
 and object of Art in relation to Nature ; the result of the 
 application of which should not be to thwart the due pro- 
 gress, or divert the legitimate course of Nature, but to 
 restore it to its proper channel, and to clear away those 
 obstructions which prevent the regular flow of the current.* 
 By the influence of civilization, Nature, so far from being 
 checked or restrained, is only aided and invigorated, and 
 enabled to attain its most perfect condition. Consequently 
 we may conclude that the End of Civilization, and that 
 state of it which is most mature, consists in and results 
 from having all the different Elements of it completely 
 developed, and completely blended together. When this 
 is efficiently accomplished, then, and then only, will 
 civilization in its perfect form ensue. 
 
 If, however, the promotion of civilization, which is to be 
 effected mainly by the extension and application of the 
 several Elements of it already examined, be a matter of 
 such importance and benefit to the nation, as from a con- 
 sideration of its End appears to be the case ; it is surely 
 deserving of being made an object of national support. 
 Instead of now waging war, as in ruder times, against our 
 Continental neighbours, we should unite with them to 
 wage war against ignorance and crime ; and our national 
 expenditure, and our national energies, should be devoted 
 to the arts of peace, and the progress of civilization. 
 Indeed, another great End of Civilization, is the union 
 which it directly and powerfully tends to effect among all 
 the tribes of the human race, — a union of intelligence, a 
 union of interest, and a union of moral sentiment. As 
 sujDcrstition vanishes, truth and virtue must necessarily 
 triumph, and must then each aim at the same purposes ; 
 * Theory of the Arts, vol. i., p. 249. 
 
Threefold Objects of Civilization. 347 
 
 and as barbarism is exterminated, every member of the 
 human race is led to desire and to promote the happiness 
 of the other, and of the whole community. 
 
 The three main practical objects that are ever aimed at, 
 which are fully capable of being attained by civilization, 
 and which may be resolved into the ultimate design or 
 End of it already specified, are the promotion of the virtue, 
 the promotion of the happiness, and the promotion of the 
 security of a nation. Virtue is promoted by the incul- 
 cation of correct principles, and the discouragement of 
 vice. Hapj)iness, by raising and improving the general 
 condition of the people, and enlarging their capacities for 
 exertion, and their means of enjoyment. Their security 
 is increased by civilization, because they are thereby freed 
 from the dangers of superstition and error which mislead 
 an ignorant people, and are rendered as a body more 
 vigorous, capable of greater undertakings, and of cordially 
 and efficiently co-oj)erating together. 
 
 The happiness of societies and of nations closely cor- 
 responds with, and is produced by causes nearly analogous 
 to those which occasion the happiness of individuals. In 
 the case of each, it is their natural condition ; and health 
 is consequently essential to its extensive possession. And 
 as civilization is the highest natural condition of society 
 and of nations, so civilization must necessarily be con- 
 ducive to their happiness. 
 
 It appears, nevertheless, to be incorrect to assert that 
 " the happiness of individuals is the great end of civil 
 society."* This end is not the happiness, but the welfare 
 of the members of such a society ; although, doubtless, 
 the promotion of their welfare does more than anything 
 else to secure their happiness also. And both the welfare 
 and the happiness of nations are extensively advanced by 
 their civilization. Moreover, forms of government do not 
 of themselves produce the happiness of nations, though 
 * rero;uson's History of Civil Societij, p. 95. 
 
3 18 The End of Civilization. 
 
 doubtless they may be largely conducive thereto, accord- 
 ing as they are suitable and conformable to the character, 
 and circumstances, and condition of such nations ; just as 
 a particular occupation may, according to the same prin- 
 ciples, contribute to the happiness of an individual. 
 Civilization in the one, and intellectual endowments and 
 cultivation in the other, will be found far more powerful 
 than any form of government for this end. 
 
 It seems to me to be also erroneous to assert that hap- 
 piness is the main, or the ultimate end of either Society, 
 Civilization, or Legislation. Their real end is their 
 complete well-being; and well-being and happiness are 
 not only not synonimous, but totally different, and may be 
 occasionally diametrically opposed. Some persons are 
 never happy but when they are under the influence of 
 intoxication. But surely such a condition is not one of 
 welfare. A spendthrift is probably never quite happy 
 except when his wealth is being fully and raj)idly ex- 
 hausted ; but in this case his prosperity diminishes pro- 
 portionally as his happiness, or the cause of it, extends. 
 
 There may doubtless be much happiness with welfare, 
 although, on the other hand, it is very possible to be in a 
 state of great welfare, and yet very unhappy, or to be 
 very happy and yet very unprosperous. Happiness is 
 indeed the result, not of our actual condition, but of our 
 opinion upon, and our feeling with regard to that con- 
 dition, which is fickle and uncertain, and entitled to but 
 little regard. That which should therefore be the end 
 alike of Society, Civilization, and Legislation, is not the 
 haj)piness, but the welfare, real, substantial, and per- 
 manent, of the person or peoj^le with whom we have to deal. 
 
 One particular negative result of civilization deserves 
 here to be especially noticed, and which may appear to be 
 quite different to what might have been calculated upon ; 
 and that is that the attainment of civilization, however 
 refining and purifying it is to the mind, does not tend in 
 
Conjunction arid Co-ojyeration of Elements. 349 
 
 its turn to enervate or weaken the powers of the body. 
 On the contrary, as was observed indeed in Element X.,* 
 by increasing the resources of the mind, it adds greatly also 
 to the physical power at our disposal. Moreover, by sub- 
 jecting the body to the mind, it enables us to resist 
 groundless fear. Hence civilized soldiers are far less 
 liable to terror than are savage troops. Luxury, indeed, 
 enervates ; but this, as has been already sho'wn, is but the 
 decay of civilization, and enervation is ever a proof, not 
 of civilization but of luxury. 
 
 Moreover, with the progress of society, of that of dis- 
 covery, of science, and of civilization generally, many 
 material changes in our social and general condition have 
 been effected, which must in their turn occasion moral 
 changes equally great ; while great moral changes have 
 been made, which are calculated to produce material 
 results quite as extensive. The two, indeed, must ever 
 reciprocally act upon each other ; and it is seldom or 
 never that either can operate quite indej^endent and alone. 
 
 It is important, however, for the full and complete 
 development of civilization, not only that each of the 
 foregoing Elements should be availed of, but that they 
 should be all of them brought into operation together. 
 Like the senses in an individual, they severally afd the 
 other in their course of action ; and the loss or incajjacity 
 of any one of them deranges the entire system. As in a 
 university, or in a school, the different teachers and classes 
 in their several departments, although inculcating distinct 
 and even oj)posite pursuits and studies, nevertheless each 
 together contribute to the general progress of education ; 
 so in a state should the different institutions and other 
 Elements of Civilization here adverted to, alike and 
 altogether contribute to the general civilization of the 
 nation. The loss or want of either, causes a defect in 
 the system ; and there is not one but what conduces 
 * Vide ante, p. 327. 
 
350 The End of Civilization. 
 
 essentially to the efficiency of the other, and to the perfect 
 operation of the whole. 
 
 The complete accomplishment of civilization is con- 
 sequently mainly dependent upon, and princijDally effected 
 by this union and co-operation of its different Elements, 
 each one of them regulating and correcting the action of 
 the others. Not only, moreover, should they each be 
 availed of in the same country, but the same individuals 
 should also be induced to cultivate them all. By this 
 means, not merely is civilization j)romoted and completed, 
 but luxury, which is the decay of civilization, is prevented 
 and averted. Hence, therefore, it is alone by this con- 
 junction of the several Elements of civilization, that its 
 real End can be efficiently attained. 
 
 And as the civilization of each particular nation is 
 completely effected only through the aj)plication and joint 
 co-operation of all these different Elements of it together ; 
 so in a corresjDonding manner, the entire civilization of 
 the world will be effected only by the co-operation of a 
 number of civilized nations, each, it may be, differing 
 widely in cLaracter, and condition, and pm-suits, but 
 which circumstance is of itself of extensive importance 
 when they are united. The Civilization of the one will be 
 reflected and will act upon that of the other, and upon 
 the whole, so that in time the entire mass will become 
 completely cemented and civilized. 
 
 Another point of great imj)ortance, is the precise man- 
 ner in, and the actual extent to which the different 
 Elements of civilization ojDcrate upon and influence one 
 another, and that in various modes. This is observable 
 at once as regards Education and Religious Influence. 
 Education of each kind should, moreover, be followed by 
 every individual, as well as adopted in every system. 
 Art, too, both acts upon and influences alike Education 
 and Religion, as it is also acted upon and influenced by 
 them. Upon religion the effect of Art is as powerful, as 
 
Each Element aids the other. 351 
 
 is that of Religion upon Art. Art, moreover, aids com- 
 merce in various ways. Upon Education the influence of 
 Art is necessarily very extensive as regards its effect in 
 refining and ennobling the mind, and with respect to the 
 facilities that it affords for supplying ideas of many sub- 
 jects which could not without its aid be clearly communi- 
 cated by books. Art also in many cases aids Science, as 
 Science, in its turn does in a variety of instances the 
 carrying on of Art. Nor is the reciprocal mutual effect 
 upon each other of the different Elements of civilization 
 less real and powerful, although it may be less obvious. 
 Thus, the Press corrects the regulation of our National 
 Institutions. Moral Jurisprudence supplies principles 
 for the governance of both. And the influence of Internal 
 Communication and of International Intercourse, alike 
 contributes to enlighten our views, and to enlarge our 
 notions with regard to these matters. Civilization, in- 
 deed, binds both nations and mankind together, especially 
 the great men of various nations, by facilitating the 
 means of Intercourse, and by increasing thoso objects for 
 securing which Intercourse is maintained, and which 
 render it most desirable and indeed essential. 
 
 Contemporaneously with the introduction of a system 
 of Education into any country, it is essential that the various 
 National Institutions necessary to provide for its practical 
 application, and for the cultivation of the power that it un- 
 folds, be established. Art and Science must also be duly 
 diffused, in order to furnish the expanding mind, and to 
 direct its resources to useful purposes. It is one End, 
 and an important result of civilization, not only to per- 
 fect Art, but to promote the cultivation, contemporaneously 
 therewith, of other pursuits of a more invigorating nature, 
 which prevent it from becoming in its influence too 
 refining and effeminating, which it is apt to be when 
 followed by itself alone ; while, on the other hand, it is 
 really more advantageous for itself as well as for the nation 
 
352 The End of Civilization, 
 
 in which it is established, and is more beneficial for both, 
 that other studies, even though they be of an opposite 
 nature, be adopted in conjunction with it. Liberty of free 
 discussion being allowed to all, abuses would be prevented, 
 and knowledge spread through every portion of the em- 
 pire. Religious Influence is, moreover, much extended by 
 the security of liberty of conscience and complete Tolera- 
 tion. Op23ortunities at once for needful recreation and mental 
 cultivation should be afforded by the Commemorations and 
 Festivals which occur at stated intervals. Merit and talent 
 in each department should be encouraged by the Honours 
 and Rewards conferred by the state ; and the highest moral 
 ends made the first object of law. Communication should be 
 rendered accessible throughout the kingdom, and to every 
 I)ortionof the nation intelligence should be rapidly diffused. 
 Foreign nations, no less than our own, may be made to 
 contribute to our general advancement in civilization. 
 
 If, on the other hand, we proceed to regard each of 
 these different Elements of civilization as independent of 
 the other, and to treat them accordingly ; we should be 
 acting like a person who, for different diseases of the body, 
 applied various remedies to each limb, which counteracted 
 the effect of one another, instead of considering the good 
 of the whole frame, and adopting a method by which the 
 disease might be eradicated altogether. As in the system 
 of the human body, so is it also in the system of a nation, 
 that the sympathy is so strong between the several parts, 
 that whatever affects one member of it, affects every por- 
 tion. The development of each faculty and disposition 
 in an individual, and of each Element of Civilization in 
 a nation, depends greatly on their being properly and 
 efficiently and simultaneously called forth. It is the duty 
 alike of the parent in the case of the individual, and of 
 the government in that of the nation, to provide duly for 
 this development, and not to leave so important a measure 
 to mere chance. 
 
Threefold Results of Civilization. 353 
 
 From the due application, however, of each of the 
 various Elements of civilization here enumerated, the 
 most extensive and important results may not only be 
 anticipated, but securely relied upon. We have, more- 
 over, the example of nations of old to illustrate the effects 
 of civilization generally ; and to evince also those pro- 
 duced by their decline in civilization. 
 
 The principal and leading practical results of civili- 
 zation, may be said to be threefold, corresponding with 
 the nature of its general effects, being mental, moral, and 
 manual. It improves the character of the national 
 mind ; it raises the tone of tlie national morals ; and it 
 contributes to the development of the national resources 
 and materials. Upon individuals in the nation, it pro- 
 duces also effects corresponding with those produced on 
 the nation at large. Its results may be also considered 
 in a twofold view: — 1. As regards the remedies to be 
 effected. 2. As regards the imj)rovements to be made. 
 
 I. The mental results, as regards the remedies to be 
 effected by the extension of civilization, are the banish- 
 ment of ignorance and error, which lead to many moral 
 delinquencies, to crimes and misdemeanours of several 
 kinds, both national and individual. Most of the mistakes 
 committed, both in the common practice of life, and in 
 the conduct of states, by which extensive evils are entailed 
 on each, will be corrected by this means. Nor less in the 
 due application of the national resources, or in the private 
 economical arrangement of individuals, will this conduce 
 to the removal of abuses and mismanagement of various 
 descriptions. 
 
 Nations, like individuals, are, as has already been 
 observed, subject to many diseases ; and in both, moral as 
 well physical diseases are the cause of great misery and 
 evil. Diseases in states of a moral kind, are such as 
 concern especially its advancement in civilization. Both 
 in men and in states, diseases originate in some disorgani- 
 
 2 A 
 
354 The End of Civilization. 
 
 zation or derangement of tlie system, and are occasioned 
 as much by omissions as by positive acts. Moreover, 
 both in men and in states, diseases change at different 
 periods, assuming new forms and varieties, one disease 
 disappearing, and its place being supplied by another ; 
 such changes originating, however, not in the diseases 
 themselves, but in a certain transformation in the con- 
 dition of the being who is subject to them, and not 
 unfrequently the cure of one disease operating as the 
 producing cause of another. 
 
 The diseases which affect states as regards their civili- 
 zation, arise mainly from some defect in connection with 
 the foregoing Elements, either with respect to their exist- 
 ence, their development, or their imperfect operation ; and 
 which fully, in each case, admit of the application of their 
 appropriate remedy. 
 
 II. The mental improvements that would be effected 
 by the extension of civilization throughout the nation, are 
 as follows : — Each individual in the state becomes a more 
 able and exalted, because a more cultivated being ; and 
 that state, which is constituted of individuals, becomes, in 
 a corresjionding degree, more vigorous and enlightened, and 
 advances equally in refinement and intelligence. The 
 moral improvements that would result, are no less exten- 
 sive : and as in the individual, the lower impulses are 
 subdued by cultivation, and those which are higher are 
 rendered paramount ; so in a nation, by civilization its 
 lower influences are decreased and subjugated to those of 
 a more exalted nature, which then gain the ascendency. 
 And as in an individual, his manual dexterity and pro- 
 fessional resources, and means of benefiting himself, are 
 largely increased by cultivation ; so in a state, its national 
 resources, and powers, and real strength, are alone fully 
 developed by civilization. 
 
 The ideal of a perfect state, as regards its attainment of 
 a condition of complete civilization, can only be arrived 
 
Ideal of a Comijleiely Civilized State. 355 
 
 at from the consideration of what a state would be when, 
 according to the theory already enunciated, these threefold 
 prand results ensu»e : its highest interests entirely pre- 
 dijminate, its lower influences are efficiently subdued, 
 and its whole resources are fully developed. Here, 
 however, it is to be observed, as has indeed- already been 
 pointed out, that, although these highest interests ought 
 to predominate, they ought not to rule uncontrolled ; and 
 though the lower impulses are to be subdued, they are to 
 be by no means extinguished; but their legitimate ex- 
 ercise is still essential in a state, in a manner corresponding 
 with that in which the influence of the animal appetites 
 and passions, duly regulated and subdued, is available in 
 the economy of the human frame. The resources, too, 
 of the nation, do not necessarily demand to be ever in 
 operation, but need only to be developed so as to be ready 
 for action when required. 
 
 In the case probably both of individuals and of nations, 
 the grand point to be aimed at is the complete develop- 
 ment of their energies, so that the resources of each may 
 at any time when required be brought into full play, and 
 availed of to their utmost legitimate extent. Until this is 
 effected, neither the individual nor the nation has attained 
 its zenith, and its real power is as yet unascertained. 
 When this is accomplished, the fullest advantage should 
 be taken of the opportunity for action which occurs, and 
 which in such case may prove that " There is a tide in 
 the aifairs " of states as well as of men which " taken at 
 the flood " is calculated to carry them on at once to great- 
 ness and to glory, but which if neglected, and allowed to 
 ebb, may never return. Ascertain first what your re- 
 sources really are. Ascertain next how^ they may best 
 and most completely and advantageously be turned to 
 account. 
 
 In a completely civilized state, each of the foregoing 
 Elements of Civilization will not only be duly developed 
 
356 The End of Civilization. 
 
 but eacli contemporaneously, and each will co-operate with 
 the other. Thus, the people will be generally and 
 systematically Educated, not only as r^igards storing their 
 minds with knowledge, but by the inculcation of right 
 principles, the extirpation of error, aind the adapting them 
 for the respoctive callings they are required to pursue. 
 Not only is Education itself improved and stimulated by 
 having certain of the other Elements of Civilization blended 
 and followed in conjunction with it, by which the essen- 
 tial Education as well as the general and real Civilization 
 of the man is perfected ; but Civilization is complete only 
 when these Elements are all blended together, which 
 mutually alike aid, and correct, and enlarge, and stimulate 
 the operation and effect of each other. Each of the dif- 
 ferent National Institutions in the country, will be then 
 properly availed of, and highly prized by its citizens of 
 all ranks. The Arts and Sciences will be generally 
 understood, and not only cultivated by, but in their tm-n 
 will cultivate and influence those of every class. As the 
 Arts and the diiferent Institutions for their encourage- 
 ment, and for the promotion of learning, become better 
 appreciated by the people at large ; will they not only 
 be more liberally supported by them, but their influence 
 on the national mind will be also correspondingly more 
 extensive. Their neglect is in ordinary cases owing to 
 their real nature not being perceived, or to their value not 
 being duly estimated. The influence of the Press is of 
 great utility to correct this defect, and to instruct the 
 people in the use and application of their various public 
 Institutions. 
 
 Another important result of civilization, arises from its 
 influence upon the general habits and manners of apeoj^le. 
 It might perhaps be m-ged that manners of themselves 
 constitute an independent Element of Civilization. On 
 the whole, however, it appears that, in reality, they do not 
 of themselves conduce to it, but merely spring from it. 
 
Civilization, and Manners and Morals. 357 
 
 They are rather an evidence than a cause of civilization, 
 serving more to reflect what is already existent, than to 
 produce anything new. Manners, indeed, are a con- 
 sequence of refinement of mind, which results from 
 civilization generally ; though at the same time extensive 
 refinement of manners is quite consistent with a very low 
 condition of civilization ; and a very low condition of 
 civilization is quite consistent with extensive refinement 
 of manners. The extension of Education, and the main- 
 tenance of Degrees of Honour and Eank in a state, are 
 both conducive to refinement of manners, although they 
 no more necessarily produce it, than refinement of 
 manners tends directly to extend Education, or to the 
 establishment of Degrees of Honour and Eank. Eefine- 
 ment of manners in any people must, however, on the 
 whole, be regarded both as a decided proof of, and as the 
 direct result of civilization. 
 
 Not only, however, a refinement of manners, which is 
 an external proof and result of civilization, but a higher 
 tone of morals, which is in its nature internal, is at once 
 produced by the general advancement of civilization, and 
 to which each of its Elements will more or less either 
 directly or indirectly contribute. This will also extend 
 itself to, and be exhibited alike in the tone and spirit of 
 our laws and customs, in tlie various usages of society, 
 and in the sentiment of our literature. 
 
 That " nations are not primarily ruled by laws,"* is a 
 maxim of the highest importance, to be ever kept in view. 
 There are, indeed, as already observed,! moral causes, 
 especially those connected with and springing out of the 
 civilization of a country, which are in their effect and 
 result far more extensive and more powerful than any laws 
 can ever be. Not only, indeed, are the influence of those 
 about us, and moral causes generally, far more powerful 
 and more ef&cient in the direction of human conduct, than 
 * Burke. t ^nte, Element VIII., p. 280. 
 
358 Tlie End cf Civilization. 
 
 any laws can ever be ; but in most cases it will be found 
 tiiat laws owe their main efficiency, and tbeir principal 
 support to these causes. Moreover, laws are in general 
 rather prohibitory and restrictive, than calculated to 
 induce people to any particular course of action ; to which 
 however they are urged on by moral cau^ies. And in 
 order to insure the enactment of wise and salutary laws, a 
 corresponding spirit must animate not only the rulers of 
 the nation who propound these laws, but the body of the 
 people whom they are to direct. Tt may also be observed 
 that a vast proportion of the actual laws which are esta- 
 blished in any state, both with regard to the general 
 government of a country and the regulation of the conduct 
 of the people, are really unknown to the great bulk of the 
 population, who have neither the ability nor the oppor- 
 tunity to make them the subject of study. They are 
 consequently guideil in the main by their own sense of 
 proj)riety, rather than by any arbitrary legislative rule. 
 Hence, not lav/s, but some more immediate and powerful 
 influence, is what controls and urges on the conduct of the 
 nation in general. Civilization must, therefore, be far more 
 important to any country than legislation, however fully 
 the latter may be adapted for its jDurpose ; and the more 
 complete and extensive is the former, the better calculated 
 it is to supersede the latter. 
 
 Civilization, moreover, not only to a large extent super- 
 sedes the action of law, but it qualifies men for self- 
 guidance, so as not to require to be so strictly bound by 
 legislative provisions as those whose conduct is not regu- 
 lated by higher principles. Hence, another great boon 
 which the complete establishment of civilization would 
 serve to confer, is that thereby men are not merely fitted 
 for the possession and the enjoyment of perfect civil 
 liberty, but that alone by this means are they fully 
 adapted to use it aright. Having from their youth been 
 trained up under proper restraint, the exercise of obedience 
 
Civilization the Safeguard of Liberty. 359 
 
 and self-control becomes engrafted on their very nature, 
 and they are thus enabled thoroughly to appreciate the 
 value of such a course of conduct. 
 
 Not only, however, by civilization are the people led to 
 revere the laws, but they are induced also to render their 
 assistance to the government on all occasions of emergency, 
 from possessing a due perception of the principles on 
 which it is carried on, and from being persuaded of the 
 projDriety and necessity of affording it their support. 
 Confidence in one another is then established among all 
 classes, they duly estimate each other's position, and from 
 motives both of duty and interest are ever ready to aid 
 one another. Those of different ranks are thus drawn 
 nearer together, and b.jth the claims and the grievances of 
 all are fully understood. Hence are they not merely each 
 indiAjidually superior in point of wisdom and capacity, but 
 they will each be disposed to co-operate together when 
 occasion requires it, either for the good of themselves or 
 of their common country. Both in peace and in war, a 
 nation so circumstanced has in itself the sui*est elements 
 of prosperity and of real greatness. And indeed, the 
 grand and very extensive advantages that a state derives 
 from civilization, are obvious in the history of the rise 
 and progress of every important nation, whose real power 
 and glory, and wealth, and happiness,' and well-being, 
 have not only been contemporaneous with, but closely 
 connected with, and absolutely dependent upon its civili- 
 zation. 
 
 It was the dying injunction of Henry the Fourth of 
 England to his son Prince Henry, afterwards Henry the 
 Fifth, not to allow the people to remain long in peace, 
 which was apt to breed intestine commotions ; but to 
 engage them in war, by which all the restless spirits 
 might find occupation and diversion. In a civilized state 
 of society, and in the present enlightened age, the energies 
 of the i^eople should be devoted not to war and blood 
 
360 The End of Civilization. 
 
 shed, but to habits of industiy, and to peaceful though 
 not less active pursuits. The conquests of science should 
 take the place cf those of arms. Against ignorance and 
 error should our forces be wielded. And our grand design, 
 both as a nation and as individuals, should be to effect, 
 not the destruction, but the general welfare of all mankind. 
 Not only, however, will the accomj)lishment of civili- 
 zation be followed by grand results such as are here 
 described ; but its advancement will be also marked by 
 certain outward symbols or manifestations, which serve to 
 testify to the reality of its establishment. As it is im- 
 possible that there should be much fire existent without 
 the exhibition of some flame ; so if civilization in any 
 country has made considerable progress, its results will 
 doubtless be openly shown, and which are in most cases 
 quite as obvious as they are important. The most pro- 
 minent of the signs of civilization, are necessarily those 
 which are in their nature material, such as taste in 
 erecting the cities and buildings of a nation, the costume 
 of the inhabitants, and their mode of travelling. Next to 
 these, the general intellectual capacity and cultivation 
 displayed by the people will strike the observer, which 
 though not so immediately perceptible, are not less surely 
 indicated than the other. A corresponding refinement 
 will also be exhibited in the habits, and manners, and 
 customs, and feelings of the poj)ulation generally. 
 Superior skill will, moreover, be shown in all their active 
 efforts, whether domestic, industrial, or martial. Civili- 
 zation, indeed, while in some respects it softens and 
 enervates the material frame, confers power on the whole 
 being, by invigorating and developing the faculties of the 
 mind. While it refines the man, it also gives him reso- 
 lution. With wisdom he acquires strength. And although 
 his muscular power may be less, his martial appliances 
 are considerably increased. Thus, although the physical 
 frame of a civilized person is much more easily fatigued 
 
Stimulus to Progression. 361 
 
 than is the frame of a barbarian ; yet the former, through 
 the aid of his mental resources, is able to effect far more 
 with the same amount of exertion than he could otherwise 
 accomplish. And while the one can deal with matter 
 more vigorously, the other is able to subject matter to his 
 control. 
 
 Nor are the direct material and physical advantages 
 derived by each country from civilization, less extensive, 
 less obvious, or less important in their way than those 
 which are mental and moral. Not only are the people 
 then better fitted to avail themselves of the natural 
 resources of the country, but these resources themselves 
 are very extensively increased by the appliances of 
 civilization. By the additional facilities for locomotion, 
 persons are enabled to travel about with less labour and 
 loss of time ; and it is through the means which civili- 
 zation sujjplies, that mankind are adapted to endure all 
 the varieties of climate and temperature which different 
 portions of the globe present, but which animals, who 
 have no such aid from civilization, are frequently unable 
 to withstand. As regards also food, civilization enables 
 man both to improve its general quality, and to render 
 much of it good and wholesome which without such resorts 
 would be noxious and unpalatable. 
 
 There is, nevertheless, this important attendant cii'cum- 
 stance connected with the progress of civilization, that 
 although civilization supplies either directly or indirectly 
 nearly every want which a state can experience ; yet, on 
 the other hand, as already remarked, numerous new and 
 urgent wants are ceaselessly created by civilization, and 
 which, moreover, imperatively demand to be supplied. If 
 a condition of barbarism can boast of but few of the con- 
 veniences of life, it is but justice to it to say that it not 
 only requires but few, but that it could not very well avail 
 itself of more than it actually possesses. The exact op- 
 posite, however, is the case with civilization; and the 
 
3G2 Tlie End of Civilization. 
 
 exigency so occasioned by it has an extensive and very 
 valuable result in the strong stimulus which it excites and 
 keejDS u]) constantly, to further progress in civilization, in 
 order to meet the necessity thus created, whereby alter- 
 nately the want and the supply sustain each other, and 
 each alike contribute to urge on the course of civilization. 
 A comparison was made while discussing the Nature 
 and Essence of Civilization, between man as an individual, 
 and nations which are but made up of men. Nations like 
 men, as already pointed out, have their different periods 
 of age, and consequently of growth and advancement. 
 Tliere is nevertheless one important and essential differ- 
 ence between national and individual growth, that while 
 the man can never go back by growing younger, the nation 
 may retrograde, at least as regards the condition of its 
 civilization, and gradually sink into barbarism, a sort of 
 national second childhood. But the man may also in this 
 respect go backwards, and his second childhood, as in the 
 case also of national second childhood, is accompanied 
 with all the infirmity of infancy, without its healthful 
 vigour ; and what is most important of all, it possesses not, 
 like primitive childhood, the principles of growth and 
 progression, but only the opposite tendencies to retro- 
 gression and decay. In nothing, however, is the resem- 
 blance between the state and the man more striking, than 
 in the results which are produced by civilization upon 
 each, developing their powers, calling forth their energies, 
 and directing aright their exertions. How different is the 
 condition of any particular individual, whether on the 
 one hand he lives and dies an uncultivated hind or a rude 
 savage, all his mental faculties dull and imperfect through 
 ne<;lect and want of training ; or whether he receives a 
 regular and correct education, by which his capacities are 
 duly cultivated and sharpened, and his habits properly 
 trained. But great as is the difference produced by this 
 variety of their treatment alone, in the savage and the 
 
Evils attendant on Civilization. 863 
 
 educated man, the difference between a rude and an un- 
 civilized nation is not less extensive ; and, indeed, in tlieir 
 relative position they closely resemble each other. To a 
 certain extent, although Education is essentially different 
 from civilization, and far less influential ; civilization is to 
 a nation what Education is to an individual. Nor can it be 
 doubted that the individual who obtains a high degree of 
 Education, is sure to obtain civilization therewith, by 
 resorting to the other Elements of civilization, provided 
 that they are placed within his reach, (the procuring which 
 is the main object aimed at in this Treatise,) and to which 
 he is at once instinctively stimulated by the desire for self- 
 improvement which his Education generates. And the 
 civilization of a nati( >n necessarily includes the Education 
 of the people, which is rather an essential part of it, than 
 something that is occasioned or promoted by it, although 
 in reality the one both fui'thers and aids the other. 
 
 But it may be said that civilization, together with the 
 many benefits whi(;h it undoubtedly confers both on men 
 and nations, brings also in its career a long train of evils 
 of a very serious kind ; and that in reality a large pro- 
 portion of the vices, and diseases, and distresses which 
 oppress mankind, are not only the products of civilization, 
 but never would have existed in an uncivilized state of 
 society : that savages are as much strangers to many dis- 
 eases and crimes, as also to pecuniary embarrassment, as 
 they are to philosophical research, literary occupation, or 
 artistical employment. 
 
 Admitting it to be the truth that the evils alluded to 
 exist alone, and to the full, in a state of civilization ; yet, 
 on the other hand, it cannot be denied that they are not 
 only no necessary part of its perfection, but are radical 
 defects in the system ; that they are in reality signs not of 
 its completion, but of its corruption, springing in many 
 cases out of that luxury which has been already observed 
 to be the surest cause of the decay of civilization, althoufTh 
 
364 Tlie End of Civilization. 
 
 many persons have very erroneously regarded it as one of 
 the certain proofs of civilization having reached its climax. 
 True it is that these vices and diseases can thrive only in 
 a comparatively civilized condition ; but the main reason 
 of this is, not that a barbarous state of society is more 
 inherently virtuous than the latter, but because in Such a 
 case the soil is too barren to produce any vegetation at 
 all. Weeds are ever more apt to spring up in rich than 
 in sterile ground. But this is surely no solid reason why 
 the earth should not be cultivated. It is a reason however, 
 why that cultivation should be carried out to the full, by 
 means of which the weeds will be exterminated, and the 
 genuine plant only fostered. So also as regards the pro- 
 gress of civilization, although vices as well as virtues will 
 be necessarily nurtured during its progress, and will re- 
 ceive that encouragement which in a barbarous state of 
 society they could never have obtained ; yet, when civili- 
 zation is perfectly established, these vices, like weeds, 
 will be thoroughly rooted out, and its legitimate products 
 only obtain encouragement and patronage. 
 
 If among all the mighty empires of the world, concern- 
 ing whose rise, and splendour, and decay, history records, 
 no one example has ever yet been found of a nation in 
 which civilization may be said to have reached absolute 
 perfection, so as practically to illustrate the End which 
 civilization should effect ; this is surely no proof that 
 such a condition is incapable of attainment. If the 
 principles here maintained as to the Elements necessary 
 to ensure the completion of civilization, be correct, the 
 proper means for ensuring its acomplishment have been 
 as yet unresorted to. But probably even among mankind, 
 no one absolute model of excellence has ever yet been 
 seen, either as regards his natural endowments, mental or 
 moral, or the degree of cultivation to which these have 
 been brought. By how much less, therefore, is this 
 perfection to bo looked for in the state, where so many 
 
Civilization, Fast, Present, and ProsjJective. 365 
 
 counteracting influences must always exist, in the various 
 feelings and dispositions of its members. The truth of a 
 principle is not impugned by the fact that it has never 
 been carried out to the full. Nay more than this, the 
 omission so to carry it out, may be mainly owing to the 
 difficulty occasioned by the high and sublime standard of 
 excellence at which it aims. 
 
 Indeed, the highest and most perfect condition of 
 civilization, and that both as regards communities and 
 individuals, will be attained only in eternity, when the 
 soul will be disengaged from the debasing influence of the 
 carnal body, and united to one of a spiritual and intellectual 
 nature : and the state of society will be such that all the 
 various obstacles which now militate against civilization, 
 will be removed, and those influences only which conduce 
 to its advancement and completion will be extended and 
 invigorated. 
 
 So little has as yet really been attemjDted towards the 
 accomplishment of a complete system of civilization in 
 any one country, and there is So much which is capable of 
 being practically carried out here ; that the highest hopes 
 may be entertained for the result when the experiment 
 shall have received a full and fair trial, corresponding 
 with the importance of the subject. Indeed, the effects 
 that have been produced, both in our own country and in 
 other nations, from the partial efforts to diffuse civilization, 
 afford of themselves ample and practical proof of what 
 may be done by w^ell-directed measures in this great 
 cause ; and serve to evince that the anticipations here put 
 forth are not founded merely on conjecture, but, on the 
 contrary, well-tried experience assures us fully of their 
 truth. 
 
 Singular it is, nevertheless, that in those Elements of 
 civilization in which certain of the ancients mainly 
 excelled, we have been especially deficient ; while in 
 turn we have far surpassed them in others. They were 
 
366 The End of Civilization. 
 
 as superior to us in Art and some brandies of literature, 
 as we are superior to tliem in Science, in Jurisprudence, 
 and in all tlie means of carrying on Intercourse, both 
 International and Internal. If the Elements of civiliza- 
 tion availed of in both periods could be combined in ono 
 nation, civilization might at once be perfectly accom- 
 l^lished. And, surely, if these Elements have been 
 proved, either singly or united, to be actually capable of 
 practical application, and of such extensive influence, 
 they may be so availed of again. It must, therefore, be 
 admitted that those great nations in several respects 
 considerably exceeded us in their approaches to that land 
 of promise, although, on the whole, we may have far 
 distanced them in our advancement in the same direction. 
 As a land of promise, however, only, it still remains, 
 whose shores have never yet been reached by the most 
 skilful or adventurous navigator on that vast and illimit- 
 able ocean ; and on whose coasts may not only mighty 
 discoveries be unfolded, but the most delicious and 
 precious fruits may eventually be gathered. 
 
 Those blissful shores which they in vain attempted to 
 gai^, we are now in full prospect of attaining, although 
 hitherto we have been hindered through the want of 
 proper charts and pilots from arriving there. But the 
 majestic peaks and most prominent heights of that 
 glorious land are at length discernible, of which the eye 
 can trace the grand outline ; and from thence to us have 
 been borne some of the rich fruits which it so abundantly 
 yields. We have full assurance, of seeing ere long, the 
 stately trees and luxuriant vegetation which those fruits 
 adorned, reared in this country, and made the natural 
 products of British soil. 
 
 THE END. 
 
 rKINTED BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, STAMFORD STREFT 
 AND CHARING CROSS. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 " Able-men," proposed order of, 
 223. 
 
 Absolute government, (see Govern- 
 ments, and Monarchies.) 
 
 Absolute monarchy, 242. 
 
 Abuse, no argument for disuse, 140. 
 
 Accent, 35. 
 
 Accomplishments, Pref. x. 
 
 Achievements of the ancients, 40. 
 
 Activity, over, dangers from, 296, 
 302.. 
 
 •Acts of Parliament, (see Parlia- 
 ment.) 
 
 Addison, sacred poetry of, 149. 
 
 ' Advancement of Learning,' the, 
 128. 
 
 Africa, unfavourably situated for 
 civilization, 20. 
 
 Air, the communication by, 286, 
 287. 
 
 Alfred the Great, 200, 244. 
 
 Aliment, mental and moral, (see 
 Food.) 
 
 Alliances, international, 332. 
 
 Ambassadors, intercourse through, 
 335. 
 
 America, people of, 34. 
 
 Amusements for the people, 68, 
 133, 192, 196, 197 ; necessity for, 
 196, 197, 201 ; adaptation and 
 regulation of, 201, 204, 206, 209 ; 
 pernicious, 204, 208 ; duty of 
 the state in regard to, 209 ; by 
 excursions, 210. 
 Analo2:y, between men and states, 3, 
 
 5, 284. 
 Anarchy, 242. 
 Anarchy, periods of, 8. 
 Ancients, vast achievements of the, 
 40. 
 
 Anglo-Saxon era, dignities durius: 
 the, 220. 
 
 Animals, changes in character of. 
 illustrative of changes in national 
 character, 33. 
 
 Animals, independent and incapable 
 of civilization, 4, 282, 361. 
 
 Animosities, national, discourage- 
 ment of, 199 ; between sects and 
 parties, 199. 
 
 Anniversaries, (see Commemora- 
 tions.) 
 
 Appointments, ecclesiastical, 118. 
 
 Architecture, 143. 
 
 Aristocracy, influence of an, 216, 
 249, 250. 
 
 Aristotle, 39. 
 
 Aristotle, ' Politics' of. 4, 9, 48, 51, 
 81, 146, 220, 246, 257, 271, 310. 
 
 Arms should be superseded by con- 
 ventions, 319. 
 
 Arnold, Rev. Dr., 143. 
 
 Art, influence of in civilization, 88, 
 141, 142, 143. 
 
 Art in Greece, 12 ; in Egypt, 12. 
 
 Art, pictorial, advantages of an ac- 
 quaintance v."ith, 145, 146. 
 
 Art, popular, 161. 
 
 Art, progress of, 39. 
 
 Art and science, national cultiva- 
 tion of, 141, 323 ; their influence, 
 national and individual, 141, 350 ; 
 classification of pursuits, 143 ; re- 
 fining influence of, 146 ; aid of, to 
 religion, 146 ; pictorial art, 147 ; 
 music, 147 ; poetry, national and 
 devotional, 147 ; monuments, 
 151; national edifices, 157; na- 
 tional disfigurements, 159 ; or- 
 namental gardening, 159; provi- 
 
368 
 
 Index. 
 
 sion for support of the arts, 160; 
 popular cultivation of art, 161; 
 music, 161 ; decay of the arts, 
 161 ; reciprocal influence of art 
 and science, 162; encouragement 
 for achievements in, 220, 221 ; 
 influence of intercourse upon, 
 304-. 
 
 Articles of the church, efficiency of 
 the, 111. 
 
 Artificial dignities, (see Dignities, 
 civil.) 
 
 ' Arts, Theory of the,' reference to, 
 64, 88, 146, 157, 160, 161, 162. 
 
 Asia, early civilization of, 19. 
 
 Aspersions on the stage, unjust, 
 138. 
 
 Assemblies, ]"epresentatiA'e, framing 
 of, 247, 248. 
 
 Athenian intellect, the, 25. 
 
 Athens, 292 ; poverty of, 48, 51 ; 
 theatre of, 134. 
 
 Atonement for crime, what consti- 
 tutes, 260. 
 
 Attack, martial, the science of, 325. 
 
 Attica, climate of, 25. 
 
 Authors, claim of, to state patron- 
 age, 228. 
 
 Avarice, 49. 
 
 Bacon, Lord, 128, 152, 200, 226. 
 
 Balance of interests, 295, 296, 297. 
 
 Balance of parties, 172. 
 
 Balance of power, preservation of, 
 318, 331. 
 
 Balloons, communication by, 287. 
 
 Barbarism, communicability of, 281, 
 340. 
 
 Barbarous age, honours suited to a, 
 215, 220 ; treatment of women in 
 a, 255. 
 
 Barbarous times, advantages of, 
 363. 
 
 Barriers, national, 309 ; mainte- 
 nance of, 330. 
 
 Benefits, international and uni- 
 versal, what are, 311. 
 
 F/<inevolence, Christiauitv promotes, 
 85. 
 
 Bible, (see Scripture,) favourable to 
 civilization, 43, 85. 
 
 Birthdays, royal, commenaoration 
 of, 200. 
 
 Bishops, regulations respecting ordi- 
 nations by, 118. 
 
 Boundaries, national, 309 ; mainte- 
 nance of, 330. 
 
 Britain, geographical position of, 20, 
 21, 22. 
 
 Britons, the ancient, 22, 26. 
 
 Buckle's 'History of Civilization,' 
 55. 
 
 Buildings, (see Edifices.) 
 
 Burghley, Lord, 152. 
 
 Burke, Edmund, 152, 357. 
 
 Burns, sacred poetry of, 149. 
 
 Canals, communication by, 286. 
 Causes, moral, (see Moral causes,) 
 
 357. 
 Capacity for civilization, national, 
 
 Ceremony in religious services, value 
 of, 95. 
 
 Changes, in men and states, 10. 
 
 Changes in national character, (see 
 Character, national.) 
 
 Change in national religion, effect 
 of, 189, 278. 
 
 Changes, jurisprudential, 278 ; mode 
 of effecting, 278. 
 
 Changes, resulting from civilization, 
 349. 
 
 Character, influence of education 
 on, 65. 
 
 Character, national, 28, 29, 30 ; and 
 national laws, 254 ; on what de- 
 pendent, 31 ; changes in, 32, 333, 
 353 ; influence of intercourse 
 upon, 333 ; regard to, in forming 
 alliances, 333 ; improved by ci- 
 vilization, 354. 
 
 Character of the press, 174. 
 
 Chaucer, Geoffrey, 152. 
 
 Childhood, in men and states, 6, 7. 
 
 Children, education of, 81. 
 
 Chinese, the, 41, 143. 
 
 Chivalry, 260 ; influence of, 44 
 
Index. 
 
 369 
 
 Chivalry, courts of, 260. 
 
 Christianity, its influence on civili- 
 zation, 42, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 91, 
 193. 
 
 Christianity owes much to freedom 
 of discussion, 175. 
 
 Christianity, universal peacft, the 
 fruit of, 336. 
 
 Church, the 42, 73, 107, 108, 110, 
 116, 171. 
 
 Church of England, tolerant spirit 
 of the, 186, 187 ; intolerance of 
 some of its members, 186, 187. 
 
 Church, a true, intolerance no test 
 of, 185. 
 
 Church establishments, 106, lOV. 
 
 Church celebrations, 198. 
 
 Church government, 118. 
 
 Citadels, national and natural, 330. 
 
 Civic offices, honours suited for, 
 223. 
 
 Cities, great, recreations for people 
 in, 210. 
 
 Civil duties, inculcation of, 65. 
 
 Civilization, the influence produced 
 by, 2, 3 ; different kinds of, 2 ; 
 origin of, 11, 14; the natural 
 condition of man, 4, 14, 15 ; 
 stimulus to, 13 ; essence of, 15, 
 17; requisites to, 16; diffusion 
 of, 17 ; division as regards the 
 several kinds of, 18; elementary 
 principles of, 18 ; ancient and 
 modern, 37 ; decay of, 44, 353 ; 
 to be ranked as a science, 51 ; 
 duty of the state in promoting, 53 ; 
 constituents of, 55 ; elements of, 
 55 ; education and, 57, 58, 59, 60, 
 344, 362, 363 ; knowledge the key- 
 stone of, 57 ; Christianity, highly 
 favourable to, 85 ; religious influ- 
 ence different from civilization, 
 89 ; effects of Christianity upon, 
 88, 89, 90 ; promoted by certain 
 institutions, 103, 106, 107, 119 ; 
 amusements greatly influence, 
 133 ; effect of art and science 
 upon, 141, 144, 146, 147; of 
 monuments, 151, 153 ; of music, 
 
 144, 146; of liberty of the press, 
 and toleration, 163 ; of commemo- 
 rations and festivals, 192, 193, 
 203 ; of dignities and honorary 
 rewards, 211, 213, 214; influ- 
 ence of moral jurisprudence upon, 
 233 ; of liberty upon, 233 ; its in- 
 fluence upon crime, 241, 242 ; 
 crimes, directly affecting, 268 ; 
 moral effect of punishments in 
 regard to, 264; crime directly 
 inimical to, 270 ; promoted by in- 
 tercourse, general, internal, and 
 international, 280, 281, 304, 338, 
 339 ; and promotes this mter- 
 course, 280, 281, 282, 303 ; its 
 influence on societies, 282 , in- 
 fluence of postal communication 
 upon, 289 ; intercourse a great 
 stimulant to, 280 ; severance of 
 natural barriers, 309 ; influence 
 of commei'ce upon, 310, 312 ; 
 early, of this country, 312, 313 ; 
 influence of war upon, 319, 320, 
 321 ; its influence upon war, 
 324 ; in subduing animosities, 
 324, 327 ; confers strength, 325 ; 
 promotes peace, 325 ; peace pro- 
 motes, 328; of the world, 341, 
 350. 
 
 Civilization, the end of, 341 ; defini- 
 tion of, 343, 344, 345 ; incom- 
 plete and unsystematic, 342 ; 
 threefold objects of civilization, 
 345 ; threefold results of, 353 ; 
 remedies, 353 ; improvements re- 
 sulting from, 353 ; ideal of a 
 completely civilized state, 354, 
 355 ; manners and habits of the 
 people, 356 ; morals, 357 ; law 
 superseded by, 358 : men quali- 
 fied for civil liberty by, 358 ; 
 national greatness, 359 ; symbols 
 of civilization, 360 ; stimulus to 
 progression, 361 ; no example of 
 a completely civilized state, 364; 
 in eternity alone will exist, 365 ; 
 anticipations for the future, 365. 
 
 Civilization, evils attendant on, 422. 
 2 B 
 
370 
 
 Index. 
 
 Civilization, incomplete conditions 
 of, 396. 
 
 Civilization, symbols of, 360. 
 
 Classical studies, 62. 
 
 Classification of pursuits, 143. 
 
 Clergy, guidance by, 188. 
 
 Clergy and ecclesiastical bodies, 118. 
 
 Clerical labour, division of, recom- 
 mended, 117. 
 
 Climate, influence of, 24, 26, 27. 
 
 Climate, varieties of, man able to 
 endure. 361. 
 
 Coast, extent of, as influencing civi- 
 lization. 21. 
 
 Codes, criminal moral, 259. 
 
 Coercion, inefficacy of, 178, 179. 
 
 Coleridge, ' Constitution of Church 
 and State,' bv, 20. 
 
 Colonies, 90, 297, 298, 313; prin- 
 ciple of relationship to, 299 ; 
 establishment of, 297 ; use of, 
 298 ; communication with, 297, 
 298, 299, 300, 301 ; protection of, 
 299. 
 
 Colonial possessions, influence of on 
 civilization, 22. 
 
 Commemorations, national, 192, 
 199 ; influence and effect of, 192 ; 
 by the church, 198 ; commemora- 
 tive anniversaries, 199; days to 
 be appointed, 200 ; amusements 
 to be provided on days of, 209, 
 210. 
 
 Commerce, its influence on civiliza- 
 tion, 21, 143, 311, 312 ; interna- 
 tional, 311. 
 
 Commercial ranks, honours adapted 
 for the, 223. 
 
 Commonwealth, the, 197. 
 
 Communication, internal, (see In- 
 ternal communication.) 
 
 Compass, influence of the invention 
 of, 37, 38, 200. 
 
 Concentration of population, eftect 
 of, on civilization, 17. 
 
 Concerts, popular, bacred, recom- 
 mended, 147. 
 
 Conduct, regulation of, 16. 
 
 Conflicting influences, 8, 9. 
 
 Congregating for religious worship, 
 
 moral efteo^- of, 108. 
 Conscience, liberty of, 168, 177, 178, 
 
 179, 188, 191. 
 Continent, our proximity to the, 
 
 22, 314, 315. 
 Continents, why unfavourable to 
 
 civilization, 22, 314, 315. 
 Conventions, should supersede arnr.s, 
 
 321, 322. 
 Conviviality, how far to be en- 
 couraged, 202, 203. 
 Cook, Captain, 200. 
 Co-operation of Elements, (see Ele- 
 ments.) 
 Copyright, laws relating to, 277. 
 Corrective effects, 64, 202, 205, 
 
 302. 
 Corrective Elements, 109, 171, 302. 
 Corruption, precaution against, 336. 
 Costume, influence of, 143. 
 Counteractive effects, 64, 105, 202, 
 
 204. 
 Courage, encouragement of, 232. 
 Covetousness, influence of, 49. 
 Cowardice, punishment of, 272. 
 Cowper, sacred poetry of, 149. 
 Crime, 64. 
 Crimes, freedom from, 18 ; those 
 
 most inimical to civilization, 18. 
 Crime, influence of civilization upon, 
 
 259, 260 ; influence of, upon 
 
 civilization, 260, 268. 
 Crimes, causes of, 270. 
 Crimes, laws relating to, 239, 259, 
 
 270. 
 Crimes, moral effect of particular, 
 
 259. 
 Crimes, national, 337. 
 Crimes, punishment corresponding 
 
 with, 262. 
 Criminal states, 325, 326. 
 
 Danes, 30, 
 
 Death, infliction of, 262, 265. 
 Debt, national, influence of, 50, 288. 
 Decay of states, 6, 7. 
 Declamation, use of, 170. 
 Decline of art, 161, 162. 
 
Index. 
 
 Oil 
 
 Decline of civilization, 43, 44, 208, 
 258, 346. 
 
 Defence, martial, the science of, 
 325, 326. 
 
 Degradation, infliction of, 262, 265, 
 267, 268, 269. 
 
 Deity, perfection of the Government 
 ofi 244. 
 
 Demosthenes, quotation from, 6. 
 
 Design, art of, 145. 
 
 Development, tendency of civiliza- 
 tion to promote, 344. 
 
 Diffusion of civilization, necessity of, 
 17. 
 
 Dignities and honorary rewards, 
 211, 319; moral effect of, 214, 
 215 ; object of, 216 ; at an early- 
 period of our history, 220 ; con- 
 ferred as rewards for achieve- 
 ments in civilization, 220 ; suited 
 to a civilized age, 221 ; mode of 
 selecting and designation for, 222 ; 
 distribution of minor honours, 
 223 ; proposal for new order of, 
 223 ; revival of extinct orders, 
 223, 224 ; desirableness of ren- 
 dering hereditary, 225 ; li^e peer- 
 ages, 225 ; moral influence of 
 dignities, 226 ; accompanied with 
 pensions, 227 ; to men of middle 
 rank, 232. 
 
 Disabilities, civil, 239, 275. 
 
 Discipline, breach of, punishment 
 for, 272. 
 
 Discoveries, aid of new, 162, 227. 
 
 Discoveries, influence of, on civiliza- 
 tion, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42. 
 
 Discussion, free, purifying effect of, 
 175. 
 
 Discussion, liberty of, 168, 169, 170, 
 171, 172, 173, 175, 176. 
 
 Diseases, national, 6, 7, 26, 353. 
 
 Disfigurements, national, 158. 
 
 Dishonesty, punishment of, 272. 
 
 Distinctions, civil, origin of, 211. 
 
 Divines, monuments to, 154. 
 
 Divisions, national district, 290. 
 
 Dress, 26, 143. 
 
 Drunkenness, punishment of, 272. 
 
 Duelling, prevention of, 260. 
 Duty of the state, in promoting 
 
 civilization, 53, 73, 74. 
 Duties, civil, inculcation of, 65, 70. 
 Duties, clerical, division of, 117. 
 
 Edifices, religious, 97 ; national, 157 ; 
 private, 158 ; art and science 
 applicable to, 158; style of, 
 general, 360. 
 
 Education, 57, 219, 240, 280, 281, 
 294, 319, 350; compulsory, 
 Fref. ix. ; not the sole re- 
 quirement of the age, ib. vii., 
 viii. ; only one of several aids to 
 civilization, ih. vii. ; what it com- 
 prehends, ib. ix. ; of the people 
 generally, 57 ; as compared with 
 civilization, 57, 343 ; education 
 and civilization, 57, 363 ; the 
 keystone of civilization, 57 ; 
 knowledge and education, 58 ; 
 different kinds of, 59; mental, 
 59 ; moral, 59 ; manual, 59 ; ob- 
 ject of, 58, 59, 62, 63 ; quality 
 of, 64 ; principles of, 65 ; correc- 
 tive effects of, 64 ; necessity of 
 systematic principles in, 64, 343 ; 
 crime and education, 65 ; educa- 
 tion in after-life, 67, 78; does not 
 tend to lead the poor astray, 67 ; 
 protects them against pernicious 
 principles, 68 ; does not unfit 
 them for their station, 72 ; brings 
 different classes together, 73 ; na- 
 tional education a national duty, 
 73 ; state provisions and regula- 
 tions for this purpose, 74 ; exami- 
 nations, 77 ; ornamental, 78 ; edu- 
 cation should continue through 
 life, 78 ; Spartan system of, 79 ; 
 stimulus to education, 80 ; educa- 
 tion of children, 81 ; religious 
 education, 82; threefold results 
 of education, 82 ; only one Ele- 
 ment in civilization, 83 ; what it 
 ought to effect, 83 ; of women, 
 256 ; necessity for a systematic 
 plan of, 64. 
 
372 
 
 Index. 
 
 Electric telegraph, (see Telegraph.) 
 
 Elementary principles of civiliza- 
 tion, 18. 
 
 Elements of civilization, co-operation 
 of, Pref. vii., ix., 63, 171, 192, 
 202, 280, 282, 303, 305, 340, 341, 
 349, 350, 351, 352, 363, 365; 
 classification of, 18 ; each should 
 aid the other, 62 ; correct enume- 
 ration of, Pref. vii., ix., 18 ; ex- 
 perience of application of, 352. 
 
 Emulation, excitement of, 80, 205. 
 
 Encouragement of inventions and 
 experiments, 151, 162. 
 
 Encouragement, national, to litera- 
 ture and art, 162. 
 
 Energies, national, development of, 
 354. 
 
 Enervation, civilization does not tend 
 to, 15, 25, 44, 45, 208, 258, 353, 
 360. 
 
 England, proper foreign policy of, 
 313. 
 
 English monarchy, establishment of 
 the, 200. 
 
 Engravings, popular issue of, pro- 
 posed, 161. 
 
 Epithets, use of, 36. 
 
 Equality, natural and artificial, 211. 
 
 Error, banishment of, 175, 353. 
 
 Errors, education corrective of, 64. 
 
 Essence of a state, a representative 
 assembly should contain, 247. 
 
 Essence of civilization, 14, 15. 
 
 Euripides, 26. 
 
 Europe, situation of, favourable to 
 civilization, 19. 
 
 Evils attendant on civilization, 363. 
 
 Examinations, public, efficiency and 
 expediency of, 75, 127. 
 
 Excise, laws relating to the, 276. 
 
 Executions, public, demoralizing 
 effects of, 207, 265. 
 
 Exercise, bodily, necessity for, 62. 
 
 Exhibitions, theatrical, (see Theatre.) 
 
 Experience of the effects of civiliza- 
 tion, 364. 
 
 Experiments, national encourage- 
 ment of, 162. 
 
 External intercourse, (see Inter- 
 course.) 
 
 Extinct orders of nobility, proposal 
 for revival of, 224. 
 
 Fabric-worship, 93. 
 
 Faculties of the mind, each should 
 be cultivated, 124. 
 
 Fallacies, educational, 71. 
 
 Fanaticism, 109. 
 
 Fashion, definition of, 245. 
 
 Feasting, entertainments consisting 
 of, 202, 203. 
 
 Female franchise, 257. 
 
 Ferguson's ' History of Civil Society,' 
 347. 
 
 Festivals, national, 192, 193, 197, 
 199, 210 ; object and influence of, 
 193, 196, 197, 203, 209. 
 
 Field sports, moral effect of, 207. 
 
 Flowei's, civilizing effect of studv of, 
 159. 
 
 Food, influence of, 26, 27. 
 
 Food, intellectual, necessity of, Pref. 
 ix., 64, 130, 276. 
 
 Force moral, 323. 
 
 Force physical, 323. 
 
 Foreign influences, precautions re- 
 specting, 336. 
 
 Foreign intercourse, (see Inter- 
 course, international.) 
 
 Foreigners, laws respecting, 338. 
 
 France, foreign policy of, 313. 
 
 Franchise, female, 257. 
 
 Frontiers, national, preservation of, 
 330. 
 
 Galileo, 180. 
 
 Galleries of art, 107, 132, 210. 
 
 Gallows, the, punishment by, 268. 
 
 Gambling, tendency of, 208. 
 
 Games, 196, 206 ; Grecian, 205, 286. 
 
 Gardening, ornamental, 159. 
 
 Gauls, the, 28. 
 
 Generosity to enemies, civilization 
 
 productive of, 324, 325. 
 Genius, the English, theatrical turn 
 
 of, 137. 
 Gentility, 58, 218 
 
Index. 
 
 373 
 
 Geographical position, influence of, 
 21, •22, 314, 315. 
 
 Germs of national chai'acter, 33, 34. 
 
 Gibbon's ' Decline and Fall of the 
 Roman Empire,' 162. 
 
 God, enactments contrary to law of, 
 252. 
 
 Goods, transmission of, 286. 
 
 Government, civil, 240. 
 
 Goverumeut, object of a free, 240. 
 
 Government, restraint on discus- 
 sion of principles of, 172. 
 
 Governments, absolute, 242, 244. 
 
 Governments, representative, 247 ; 
 principles in framing, 247 ; moral 
 influence of, 248. 
 
 Governments, republican, 247. 
 
 Grants, educational, 74. 
 
 Greatness, national, 359. 
 
 Greece, 290 ; religion of, 85. 
 
 Greece, art in, 12; situation of, 21, 
 24, 25; Muller's Literature of 
 Ancient, 25 ; orators of, 170 ; fes- 
 tivals of, 203 ; civilization in, 342. 
 
 Guizot, M., ' History of Civilization,' 
 by, 14, 15, 43. 
 
 Gunpowder, influence of the inven- 
 tion of, 37, 38, 40, 200, 328. 
 
 Gunpowder Plot, commemoration of 
 the, 200. 
 
 Habits and manners, 356. 
 Happiness, national, 347 ; promoted 
 
 by civilization, 347 ; not the end 
 
 of civil society, 347. 
 Hardwicke, Lord Chancellor, 152. 
 Harvey, W., 152. 
 
 Heber, Bishop, sacred poetry of, 149. 
 Henry IV,, dying injunction of, 359. 
 Heresv, not nurtured by toleration, 
 
 183. 
 Hero, definition of a, 221. 
 Heroes, monuments to, 151. 
 Heroism, encouragement of, 232. 
 Holidays and Holy-days, 198. 
 Holidays, national, 197, 198 ; means 
 
 to secure the observance of, 198. 
 Honour, appeals to, 272. 
 Honour, national, 336, 
 
 Honorary rewards, (see Rewards.) 
 Human nature, study of, 10. 
 Humanity, civilization conduces to, 
 
 323, 324. 
 Hunter, John, 152. 
 Hypocrisy, 138. 
 
 Ideal of a perfect state, 354. 
 
 Idleness, amusements tending to en- 
 courage, 208, 209. 
 
 Idleness conducive to crime, 262, 
 263. 
 
 Ignorance, incommunicabilitv of, 
 281. 
 
 Ignorance, popular, no safeguard, 
 71 ; no plea for intolerance, 190. 
 
 Impoverishment of the nobility, pro- 
 posed provision against, 217. 
 
 Imprisonment, punishment by, 262. 
 
 Improvement, intellectual capacity 
 of man for, 1. 
 
 Independence, national, desirableness 
 of maintaining, 333. 
 
 India, 90 ; civilization of, 298. 
 
 Indifterence, religious, productive of 
 toleration, 188. 
 
 Influence, religious, national, 83, 
 294, 319, 342, 350 ; mutual effect 
 between that and education, 84 ; 
 extent of this influence, 85 ; dif- 
 ferent kinds of, 86 ; different modes 
 of promoting civilization, 87 ; 
 its civilizing effect, 88 ; aids the 
 other Elements, 90 ; immensity 
 of its influence, 91 ; pagan and 
 heathen systems of religion, 91, 
 92 ; personality and materiality 
 in religion, 92 ; priest-worship 
 and fabric-worship, 92, 93 ; in- 
 struction in evidences of religion, 
 94, 95 ; ceremony in religious 
 services, 98 ; character of re- 
 ligious edifices, 97 ; atheistical 
 men and nations, 98 ; duty of the 
 state in promoting religious in- 
 fluence, 99 ; state honour to re- 
 ligion, 100 ; the protection of 
 religion, 100 ; repulsiveness in 
 religious services, 102 ; style o-* 
 
374 
 
 Index. 
 
 Scriptures a model for the latter, 
 102. 
 
 Influences, conflicting, 8, 9. 
 
 Influences, foreign, precautions re- 
 specting, 336. 
 
 Influences, reciprocity of, 143, 171 ; 
 rival and conflicting, 9 ; moral, 
 11. 
 
 Insane, punishment of the, 261. 
 
 Instinctive intelligence, 1. 
 
 Institutions, charitable, 119. 
 
 Institutions, instructory, 103, 163, 
 215, 319 ; what ought to be 
 deemed national, 103 ; require- 
 ments of, 104 ; exclusive privi- 
 leges of, 104; principles regard- 
 ing, 105 ; different kinds of, cor- 
 responding with education, 106 ; 
 liability to corruption, 109 ; re- 
 ligious and charitable institu- 
 tions, 119; end they ought to 
 serve, 120, 121; systematic plan 
 of instruction required in them, 
 123; requisites in them, 127; 
 what they ought to effect, 131 ; 
 duty of state to provide, 133, 
 189 ; use of, in connection with 
 ather Elements, 201. 
 
 Institutions, learned, intercourse 
 between, 128. 
 
 Institutions, national, for promoting 
 civilization, 103, 
 
 Instructors, qualifications of, 74. 
 
 Instructory institutions, (see Insti- 
 tutions.) 
 
 Insular position, influence of, 20, 
 297, 314. 
 
 Integrity, encouragement of, 232, 
 
 Intelligence, communication of, 286. 
 
 Intelligence, influence of, in a repre- 
 sentative assembly, 248. 
 
 Intelligence, laws restricting the 
 spread of, 276. 
 
 Intentions, mere, not within the 
 scope of the law, 237. 
 
 Intercourse between learned societies, 
 128. 
 
 Intercourse between rich and poor, 
 12, 13, 201, 285. 
 
 Intercourse, general, influence of, 
 12, 13; external, 13, 20, 21. 
 
 Intercourse, international, 20, 21, 
 303, 350 ; to be considered in- 
 dependent of other Elements, 305 ; 
 stimulus created by, 305 ; natural 
 barriers against, 309 ; influence 
 of religion upon, 310 ; of com- 
 merce, 311; early civilization of 
 this country by, 313; the sea, as 
 a medium of, 314, 315 ; .regia- 
 lation of, 315; various modes of, 
 315; influence of war upon, 319, 
 323 ; consideration of character 
 in establishing, 332 ; precautions 
 respecting, 336 ; leads to neglect 
 of national pursuits, 337. 
 
 Intercourse, marine, influence -of, 
 314, 
 
 Intercourse, promotion of, 171, 
 
 Interference, foreign, principle of, 
 308. 
 
 Interests, leading, ought to predo- 
 minate in a representative assem- 
 bly, 248. 
 
 Interests, rival, balance of, 295, 
 296. 
 
 Interests, rural, 295. 
 
 Intermixing with foreigners, influ- 
 ence of, 22, 
 
 Internal communication, 280, 351 ; 
 effects resulting from, 281 ; 
 creates a stimulus to civilization, 
 282 ; intercourse between ranks 
 and classes, 284 ; internal com- 
 munication, analogous to animal 
 circulation, 284; A'arieties of in- 
 ternal communication, 286 ; a 
 national object, 288 ; points of, 
 290; with colonies, 297; com- 
 munication of each kind should 
 be maintained, 301 ; proper appli- 
 cation and regulation of this 
 Element, 302. 
 
 International intercourse, (see Inter- 
 course, international.) 
 
 Interventions, civil, superseding 
 war, 321, 322, 323, 
 
 Inventions, aid of new, 162, 228. 
 
Index. 
 
 375 
 
 Inventions, influence of certain, 37, 
 
 38. 
 Intoleration (and see Toleration), 
 
 109. 
 Ireland, union with, 200. 
 Italy, situation of, 19, 20. 
 
 Jews, civilization of, 22, 33, 34; 
 
 national character exhibited in, 
 
 34 ; laws of, 252. 
 Judicial proceedings, early, 30. 
 Jurisprudence, leading principles of, 
 
 240. 
 Jurisprudence, moral, (see Moral 
 
 jurisprudence.) 
 Jury, trial by, 30. 
 Justice, mode of administration of, 
 
 273.' 
 
 Keble, Rev. J., sacred poetry of, 149. 
 
 Knighthood, rank of, 223. 
 
 Knowledge, communicated by in- 
 tercourse, 281. 
 
 Knowledge, its necessity in civiliza- 
 tion, 16, 57 ; the keystone of edu- 
 cation, 57. 
 
 Knowledge, political, for the people, 
 70, 71. 
 
 Knowledge, religious, 62, 65. 
 
 Labour, human, employment of, 
 144. 
 
 Language, 35, 36, 142 ; influence, 
 of, 36, 309 ; national, reflective 
 of national character, 35 ; uni- 
 versal, 392 ; knowledge of foreign, 
 340 ; requisite precision of, in 
 legal enactments, 238, 239. 
 
 Law, its influence upon civilization, 
 233 ; province of, 233, 234, 237 ; 
 duty of state in framing, 234, 
 235 ; language of, 238 ; threefold 
 object of, 237 ; maintenance of, 
 251 ; moral, under what compre- 
 hended, 252 ; causes of failure of, 
 252 ; leading principle of, 252 ; 
 proper operation of, 252 ; repug- 
 nant to religion, 252 ; to nature, 
 253 ; accordance of with reason, 
 
 254 ; of marriage, 255 : relating 
 to crime, 259, 260; relating to 
 oaths, 272 ; relating to the poor, 
 277 ; relating to the revenue, 276 ; 
 of copyright, 277 ; sanitary, 277 ; 
 repugnancy of national sentiment 
 to a, 279 ; limitation to operation 
 and scope of, 280, 357 ; whence 
 its authority derived, 87. 
 
 Laws, nations not ruled by, 357. 
 
 Laws, respecting foreigners, 338. 
 
 Laws, international, 338. 
 
 Laws, national, and national cha- 
 racter, 254. 
 
 Lawvers, monuments to, 152, 154. 
 
 Lectures, 41, 62, 125, 126. 
 
 Legislation, in reference to civiliza- 
 tion, Fref. vi., 142, 233. 
 
 Legislation, Sabbatarian, principles 
 of, 195. 
 
 Legislative bodies, rival, 250. 
 
 Lessons, in church services, proposal 
 respecting, 118. 
 
 Letters, use of, 34. 
 
 Liberty, restraint of, 164, 165, 241 ; 
 liberty, physical and intellectual, 
 165; civil, 165, 241; its in- 
 fluence on civilization, 166; and 
 education, 166; liberty of con- 
 science, 167; of discussion, 168 ; 
 security of, 169; definition and 
 essence of, 241 ; the natural con- 
 dition of man, 241 ; love of, 251 
 varies in different societies, 251 
 civilization qualifies men for, 358 
 civilization the safeguard of, 358. 
 
 Liberty of the press, (see Press.) 
 
 Liberty of thought and speech, 164, 
 168,' 169. 
 
 Liberty, religious, 167, 170; poli- 
 tical, 167,^70. 
 
 Libraries, 106, 130, 131. 
 
 Licentiousness not liberty, 174. 
 
 Life-peerages, 225. 
 
 Literature and art, encouragement 
 of, 160. 
 
 Literature for the lower classes, 
 want of a, Fref. viii., 66, 74, 
 130. 
 
376 
 
 Index. 
 
 Literature, pensions to men en- 
 gaged in, 227. 
 
 Locke, John, 68, 152. 
 
 London, 290, 313. 
 
 Lower classes, want of a suitable 
 literature for the, Pref. x\n., 66, 
 74, 130. 
 
 Luxury, 15, 26, 44, 45, 208, 259, 
 345,' 349, 360. 
 
 Mao-na Charta, commemoration of, 
 
 200. 
 Man, as an individual, 1, 2, 3 ; in 
 
 the aggregate, 3, 4 ; as the type 
 
 of a state, 3, 5, 362 ; capacity of 
 
 for intellectual improvement, 1 ; 
 
 threefold consideration of, 3. 
 Manners, 61. 
 
 Manners and habits, 356, 357, 360. 
 Mansions of the aristocracy, 217. 
 Manual education, 59, 77. 
 Manual institutions, 106. 
 Maps, as aids to education, 62. 
 Marine intercourse, influence of, 
 
 314. 
 Marriage, laws relating to, 240, 
 
 255. 
 Martial exploits, dignities for skill 
 
 in, 220. 
 Masses, rewards for the, 213. 
 Materiality in religion, 92, 93, 94. 
 Mechanical power, supply of, 144. 
 Medicine, progress of the science of, 
 
 39. 
 Melody, sacred, defective state of, 
 
 147. 
 Memorials not monumental, 156. 
 Men and states, analogy between, 3, 
 
 5, 284, 362. 
 Mental education, 59. 
 Mental institutions, 106. 
 Merit, the only foundation of rank, 
 
 211, 212, 2i3. 
 Merit, rewards to men of, 227, 232. 
 Metropolis, civilizing etfects of a, 
 
 290, 292, 293 : communication 
 
 with, 290, 293 ; position of a, 
 
 313 ; progress of building in the, 
 
 196. 
 
 Microscope, use of, 39. 
 
 Middle Ages, the, 43. 
 
 Middle rank, honours 'to men of, 
 223 ; rewards to, 232, 271. 
 
 Middle ranks, influence of the, 8, 9, 
 246. 
 
 Milton, John, 152, 200, 226, 227. 
 
 Mind, national, 1. 
 
 Minds, great influence of in civili- 
 zation, 9, 56. 
 
 Mixed governments, advantages of, 
 249. 
 
 Models for imitation, importance of, 
 91. 
 
 Monarchies, absolute, 242. 
 
 Monarchy, English, establishment 
 of the,' 200. 
 
 Money, state grants of, 74. 
 
 Monuments in the Houses of Parlia- 
 ment, 152. 
 
 Monuments, nationnl, 151 ; influ- 
 ence of, 151 ; neglect to erect, 
 152; Wordsworth on, 153; Na- 
 poleon on, 154 ; not dependent 
 on art, 156 ; their influence on 
 civilization, 153. 
 
 Moral causes, 357. 
 
 Moral causes, the influence of, 11, 
 280. 
 
 Moral education, 59. 
 
 Moral effect of state dignities, 213. 
 
 Morals, effect of civilization upon, 
 357. 
 
 Moral influence of sovereigns, 244, 
 245, 246, 249 ; of a nobility, ih. ; 
 of rulers, 246, 249. 
 
 Moral institutions, 106. 
 
 Moral jurisprudence, Pref. vi., 233, 
 351 ; definition of, 233, 239 ; pro- 
 per sphere of, 237, 275 ; principles 
 of, 240 ; regarding forms of 
 government, 240 ; in relation to 
 crime, 259 ; ultimate end of, 
 280. 
 
 Moral objects, aid of legislation to 
 effect, 250. 
 
 Morality, 18, 98, 275. 
 
 Morality, disability from want of, 
 275." 
 
Index. 
 
 377 
 
 Aloi-ality and religion, 98. 
 
 Morality, national, 336. 
 
 More, Sir Thomas, ' Utopia ' of, 206. 
 
 Mountains, chains of, separating dif- 
 ferent countries, 309, 329. 
 
 Museums, 106, 107, 132. 
 
 Music, popular, the state should 
 supply, 161, 210. 
 
 Music, influence of, 102, 143, 144, 
 145, 146, 147, 161, 203, 210. 
 
 Napoleon I. on civilization, Pref, 
 A'ii., 159 ; on national monuments, 
 154; promoted internal commu- 
 nication, 285. 
 
 National character, (see Charactei'.) 
 
 National commemorations, (see Com- 
 memorations.) 
 
 National digrnities, (see Dignities.) 
 
 National edifices, (see Edifices.) 
 
 National education, (see Education.) 
 
 National religion, effect of change 
 of, 189. 
 
 National religious influence, (see In- 
 fluence, religious.) 
 
 National theatre, (see Theatre.) 
 
 Nature, (see Hv;man nature,) the 
 system of, to be followed, Pref. 
 vi., 54, 226, 262, 346 ; dictates 
 of, 211 ; operation of, in relation 
 to rewards and punishments, 263 ; 
 influence of contemplation of, 
 159. 
 
 Naval force, 21, 22 ; British, 328. 
 
 Navigation, the position of this 
 country promotes skill in, 312. 
 
 Navigation, dignities conferred for 
 skill in, 20. 
 
 Newspaper, the, 171 ; as a public 
 institution, 171, 290; general 
 character of, at the present day, 
 174. 
 
 Newton, Sir Isaac, 152, 200, 226. 
 
 Nobility, (see Dignities.) 
 
 Nobility, moral influence of, 245. 
 
 Nobility, proposed provision against 
 the impoverishment of, 217. 
 
 Nobilitv, svstem of, not superan- 
 nuated, 222. 
 
 Numbers, influence of, in a state, 
 
 248. 
 
 Oaths, laws relating to, 262, 272. 
 
 Offices, civil, appointment to, 75. 
 
 Opinion, freedom of (and see Li- 
 berty of the press, and Tolera- 
 tion), 179, 180. 
 
 Opinion, public, 171. 
 
 Opposite results from the same 
 cause, 320. 
 
 Orators, Grecian, 170. 
 
 Order, maintenance of, 250. 
 
 Organs of public opinion, 168, 171. 
 
 Origin of civilization, 11, 12. 
 
 Origin of civil punishments, 262. 
 
 Ornamental education, Pref. x., 78. 
 
 Pacification, religious prospects for, 
 113, 114, 115. 
 
 Painting, 143. 
 
 Papists, vices of, 109 ; tolerance of 
 some, 176. 
 
 Parliaments, the holding of, 30. 
 
 Parliament, the, and the press, 171. 
 
 Parliament, acts of, loose phrase- 
 ology of, 238. 
 
 Party-feeling, whence favourable to 
 civilization, 249. 
 
 Patents, laws relating to, 277. 
 
 Patrons of art and science, 216, 
 
 Patronage, necessity for, 144, 160; 
 objects of, 160, 162. 
 
 Paul, St., on avarice, 49. 
 
 Peace, civilization promoted bv, 
 333, 360 ; universal, one of the 
 fruits of Christianity, 336 ; main- 
 tenance of, 319, 323, 325, 328, 
 329. 
 
 Peerages, (see Dignities.) 
 
 Peerages, early, 220. 
 
 Peerages for life, 225. 
 
 Pensions, state, 227. 
 
 Perfect state, ideal of a, 354. 
 
 Performances, popular musical, 146, 
 147, 161. 
 
 Perjury, punishment of, 272, 273. 
 
 Pernicious amusements, (see Amuse- 
 ments.) 
 
378 
 
 Index. 
 
 Pernicious publications, (see Publi- 
 cations.) 
 
 Persecution, inefficacy of, 191. 
 
 Personality in religion, 93. 
 
 Persons, communication of, 286. 
 
 Physical force, 321, 349. 
 
 Pictures, as aids to education, 62. 
 
 Plato, RepuUic of, 205. 
 V Poetry, 144 ; national, 147 ; religi- 
 ous and devotional, 147 ; doggrel. 
 149. 
 
 Poetry, Je\yish, 147, 148. 
 
 Poetry and rhyme, distinction be- 
 tween, 147. 
 
 Poets, monuments to, 153. 
 
 Points of communication, different, 
 290. 
 ' Political knowledge, (see Know- 
 ledge.) 
 
 Pomp in religious services, effect of, 
 95. 
 
 Poor-laws, principle of the, 277. 
 
 Pope, Alexander, 151. 
 
 Popular tyranny, 246. 
 
 Position, geographical, 19 ; of this 
 country, 20, 21, 22. 
 
 Position, insular, influence of, 20, 
 297, 314. 
 
 Postal communication, influence of, 
 289. 
 
 Poverty no proof of want of genius, 
 227. 
 
 Poverty, national, 49. 
 
 Power, civilization increases, 327, 
 345, 349, 360. 
 
 Power, balance of, preserving the, 
 318, 331. 
 
 Prayer-book of the Church of Eng- 
 land, 148. 
 
 Preaching, qualifications for, 117. 
 
 Precautions, respecting foreign in- 
 fluences, 336. 
 
 Precision, necessity and neglect of 
 in legal enactments, 238. 
 
 Preferment, state, dispensation of, 
 231. 
 
 Prejudice, influence of, 31. 
 
 Press, liberty of the, 164, 240; value 
 of a free press, 168 ; especial ad- 
 
 vantages possessed by the press, 
 169 ; inefficiency to punish, 170; 
 has superseded the theatre as a 
 censor, 170 ; the Parliament and 
 the press, 170 ; as a public in- 
 structor, 171; aiding the other 
 Elements, 171 ; basis of the power 
 of the press, 171 ; legitimate re- 
 straints on the ])ress, 172 ; licen- 
 tiousness not liberty, 174 ; pre- 
 sent character of the British 
 press, 174. 
 
 Priest-worship, 93. 
 
 Principles of education, (see Edu- 
 cation.) 
 
 Principles, systematic, necessity of, 
 64. 
 
 Printing, influence of the invention 
 of, 38, 39, 125, 200. 
 
 Profaneness, restriction of, 172. 
 
 Professional, services, requital of, 
 229. 
 
 Professorships, suitable endowment 
 of, 122. 
 
 Progress, 14 ; periods of, 42. 
 
 Progression, stimulus to, 361. 
 
 Property, maintenance of, 250. 
 
 Property, national and individual, 
 10. 
 
 Prosecutor, public, necessity for a, 
 274. 
 
 Protestants, vices of, 109 ; intole- 
 rance of some, 176. 
 
 Provisions, state, for the promotion 
 of civilization, Pief. xii., xiii., 67, 
 73. 
 
 Psalms, the, 147, 148 ; authorized 
 version of, 148 ; desirableness of 
 a new authorized version of, 149. 
 
 Punishment, power of the press to 
 infiict, 170. 
 
 Punishment of criminal states, 326. 
 
 Punishments, 251 ; principle of, 
 260 ; preventative, 262 ; origin 
 of, 263 ; application of, 264; true 
 theory of, 267 ; moral effect of, 
 268, 269 ; main defects and fiiilure 
 of, 270 ; capital. 263, 265, 266, 
 267 ; corresponding with crimes. 
 
Index. 
 
 379 
 
 263 ; cruel, 264 ; degrading. 265, 
 
 268,269; varieties of, 262,' 266 ; 
 
 objects of, 264 ; corporeal, 264. 
 Public prosecutor, (see Prosecutor, 
 
 public.) 
 Publications, pernicious, how to 
 
 avert the effects of, 67. 
 Puritans, the, 196, 197. 
 Pursuits, classification of, 142. 
 
 Qualities, requiring state encourage- 
 ment, 233. 
 
 Qualities, physical as well as moral 
 deserving of consideration, 75. 
 
 Qualities, natural, 211, 212. 
 
 Qualities, original natural, of a peo- 
 ple, 29. 
 
 Quatrefages, Professor De, 23. 
 
 Races, mixture of, 22, 23, 25, 28. 
 
 Railways, influence of, 41, 288, 
 289 ; excursion trains by, 302. 
 
 Railways, as a means of communi- 
 cation, 286, 288, 289, 290. 
 
 Rank, natui'al and artificial, 211, 
 213, 214. 
 
 Rank and honours, civilizing effect 
 of, 48, 357. 
 ' Ranks and classes, intercoui'se be- 
 tween, 73, 201, 285, 359. 
 
 Reading for the people, recreative, 
 the want of, Pref. viii., 65, 67, 
 68, 130. 
 
 Readings, public, 126. 
 
 Reason, right exercise of, 177, 188, 
 189. 
 
 Rebellion, the Great, 197. 
 
 Recreations for the people, (see 
 Amusements.) 
 
 Recreative reading, (see Reading.) 
 ^ Refinement, 16. 
 
 Reformation, criminal, 269, 270. 
 
 Reformatories, 269 ; treatment of 
 criminals in, 269. 
 
 Regulations, educational, 74. 
 
 Relaxation, national, (see Amuse- 
 ments.) 
 
 Relaxation, bodily, necessity of, 62, 
 201, 209, 210. 
 
 Religion, aided by art, 144, 145. 
 Religion, its influence in relation to 
 
 international intercourse, 310. 
 Religion, influence of vipon civiliza- 
 tion, 42, 82, 294. 
 Religion, fundamental principles of, 
 
 86. 
 Religion, heathen systems of, 85, 
 
 91, 92. 
 Religion, free discussion respecting, 
 
 177, 239 ; instruction in evidences 
 
 of, 94 ; reverence to, 99. 
 Religion, laws repugnant to, 252. 
 Religion, restraint on discussion of 
 
 principles of, 172, 173. 
 Religion, disabilities from want of, 
 
 275 ; from difference in, 275. 
 Religious bodies, rival, 112. 
 Religious education, (see Educa- 
 tion.) 
 Religious influence, (see Influence, 
 
 religious.) 
 Religious knowledge, (see Know- 
 ledge.) 
 Religious societies, (see Societies.) 
 Repentance, 260. 
 ' Representation, the True Theory 
 
 of,' reference to, 218, 225, 248. 
 Representative assemblies, (see 
 
 Assemblies, and Representative 
 
 governments.) 
 Repugnancy of national sentiment 
 
 to certain laws, 279. 
 Repulsiveness in religious services, 
 
 avoidance of, 102. 
 Requisites to civilization, 16, 17, 
 
 18. 
 Resources, national development of 
 
 by civilization^ 345, 353, 355, 
 
 356, 360, 361. 
 Restraints on libertv, legitimate, 
 
 164, 165, 166, 172, 173, 176, 
 
 177, 178, 241, 242, 275. 
 Restrictions, 251, 276. 
 Results, opposite, from the same 
 
 cause, 320. 
 Retrogression, national, 362. 
 Revenue, laws relating to the jniblic, 
 
 276. 
 
380 
 
 Index. 
 
 Reverence to religion, 100. 
 
 Rewards, working by, in legislation, 
 271. 
 
 Rewards, honorary and pecuniary, 
 211 ; to unsuccessful men, 227 ; 
 correspondent with objects, 229 ; 
 for intellectual efforts should be 
 the highest, 229 ; pecuniary, 229, 
 230 ; care to be taken in dis- 
 pensing, 230 ; to men of letters, 
 230 ; to men of middle rank, 
 223, 272 ; government should 
 work by, 271. 
 
 Rewards and punishments, the Di- 
 vine system of, 271. 
 
 Rhyme, distinction of from poetry, 
 148. 
 
 Rich and poor, different punish- 
 ments for, 266. 
 
 Ridicule, use of, 170. 
 
 Ridicule of religion, 100. 
 
 Rifle corps, the English, 326. 
 
 Rival legislative bodies, 250. 
 
 Rival parties and opinions, 172, 249, 
 250. 
 
 Rival powers, in men and states, 7, 
 8, 22, 249, 295, 296. 
 
 Rival religious bodies, 112, 186; 
 toleration towards, 186. 
 
 Rivalry, religious, may have been 
 ordained by God, 190. 
 
 Rivers, as a means of communica- 
 tion, 286 ; as barriers of separa- 
 tion, 309, 329, 330. 
 
 Roads as a means of communica- 
 tion, 286, 289. 
 
 Robbery, national, 326. 
 
 Rome, 27, 85, 292, 313 ; holidays 
 in, 197 ; civilization in, 342. 
 
 Romans, roads made by the, 286, 
 289. 
 
 Rulers, moral influence of, 245. 
 
 Russia, encroachments of, 298. 
 
 Sabbath, establishment of the, 193; 
 
 its influence on civilization, 193; 
 
 principles of legislation for, 195, 
 
 196. 
 Sanitary laws, 277. 
 
 Satire, legitimate use of, 170. 
 
 Savages, low condition in civilization 
 of, 13. 
 
 Saxons, the, 30. 
 
 Saxon era, dignities during, 220. 
 
 Scenery, protection of from disfi- 
 gurement, 159. 
 
 Scholastic establishments, 103, 121. 
 
 Scholastic institutions, requirements 
 of, 127. 
 
 Schools, 121 ; principle of holidays 
 adopted in public, 197. 
 
 Science, claim of civilization to be 
 ranked as a, 51. 
 
 Science, elementary principles of a, 
 51. 
 
 Science, influence of in civilization, 
 141, 142, 144. 
 
 Science and art, (see Art.) y 
 
 Scotland, union with, 200. 
 
 Scriptures, belief in the, 111, 115, 
 116; style of the, 102; discus- 
 sion of the veracity of, 176, 179, 
 180,181. 
 
 Sea, the, communication by, 286, 
 315. 
 
 Seas, aids to international inter- 
 course of, 314, 315 ; separate 
 different nations, 309. 
 
 Security, national, promoted by ' 
 civilization, 345. 
 
 Sentiment, the national, repugnancy ^ 
 of to certain laws, 279. 
 
 Separation, causes of geographical, 
 national, 309. 
 
 Sermons, 41, 102, 117, 118, com- 
 monplacedness, cause of, 117 ; pro- 
 posed substitutes for, 118. 
 
 Services, religious, 102 ; consti- 
 tuents of, 96. 
 
 Shakespeare, 136, 200, 226. 
 
 Sight, protection of enjoyment of, 
 159. 
 
 Sincerity in religious instructors, 
 importance of, 91. 
 
 Slander, prohibition of, 172. 
 
 Slavery, 166, 167 ; moral effect of, 
 144, 275; physical, 166; moral 
 and intellectual, 165, 166, 167. 
 
Index. 
 
 881 
 
 Societies, whence men join in, 3, 4, 
 282 ; amalgamation of, 283 ; reli- 
 gious, 106, 119. 
 
 Societies, educational, 119. 
 
 Societies, learned, intercourse be- 
 tween, 128. 
 
 Society, influence of upon its mem- 
 bers, 282, 283. 
 
 Solon, 235. 
 
 Somers, Lord, 152. 
 
 Sovereigns, moral influence of, 243 ; 
 advantages possessed by, 242. 
 
 Spain, bull-fights of, 206. 
 
 Spartan system of education, 79. 
 
 Spectacular institutions, 133. 
 
 Spenser, Edmund, 152. 
 
 Stage, (see Theatre.) 
 
 State, authority of in making pro- 
 hibitory laws, 237. 
 
 State, duty of, (see Duty.) 
 
 State, duty of the, in promoting 
 civilization, 53. 
 
 State, ideal of a completely civilized, 
 354. 
 
 Statesmen, monuments to, 151, 154. 
 
 Steam, invention of, 38, 200. 
 
 Steam-engine, influence of the in- 
 vention of, 38, 39, 328. 
 
 Sternhold and Hopkins, poetry of, 
 147. 
 
 Stimulants to good conduct, 233. 
 
 Stimulus, influence of in civilization, 
 13, 74, 304, 361 ; to civilization, 
 13. 
 
 Stocks, the village, utility of, 268. 
 
 Streets, names given to, 156. 
 
 Studies, classical, 62. 
 
 Style of the Scriptures, 102. 
 
 Substitute for sei'mons, proposed, 
 118. 
 
 Success, secret of securing, 231. 
 
 Sunday, 193 ; mode of observing on 
 the Continent, 194 ; travelling 
 on, 195 ; proper mode of keeping, 
 196, 198, 199. 
 
 Sunday concerts, recommendation 
 of, 147 ; of pictorial, scriptural 
 exhibitions, 147. 
 
 Superstitions, 101 ; religious, 187, 
 
 Support, right of every memoer of 
 
 the state to, 253. 
 Symbols of civilization, 360. 
 
 Talent, proper employment of men 
 of, 231. 
 
 Taste, duty of the state to coi'rect 
 the public, 161. 
 
 Taste, national, 360. 
 
 Tate and Brady, poetry of, 147. 
 
 Taxation, 50. 
 
 Telegraph, the electric, 289, 300. 
 
 Telescope, the invention of, 39. 
 
 Temple, Rev. Dr., 43. 
 
 Territory, national, 330. 
 
 Tests, strict, inutility of. 111. 
 
 Thane, proposal for revival of title 
 of, 224. 
 
 Theatre, the, 106, 133, 134; censor- 
 ship of, superseded by the press, 
 170. 
 
 Theatre, proposal for a national, 134. 
 
 Theatres, the Greek and Roman, 
 134. 
 
 Theatrical entertainments, tendency 
 of, 135. 
 
 ' Theory of the Arts,' reference to, 
 64, 88, 146, 157, 160, 161, 162. 
 
 ' Theory of Representation, the 
 True,' reference to, 218, 225, 248. 
 
 Thought, freedom of, 163, 168. 
 
 Threefold nature of education, 59. 
 
 Titles, honorary, effect of, 214, 215. 
 
 Toleration, 100, 101, 164; basis of, 
 177; principles of, 176; in re- 
 lation to civilization, 178; nega- 
 tive rather than positive, 178 ; 
 essence of, 179 ; reasonable limits 
 to, 181 ; does not aid error, 183; 
 inefficacy of intoleration, 184 ; 
 intoleration no test of ti-uth, 184 ; 
 toleration towards rival religious 
 bodies, 187 ; degenerating into 
 intoleration, 187 ; state benefits 
 resulting from, 189; true prin- 
 ciple of, 189 ; in regard to Sab- 
 batarian legislation, 195. 
 
 Towns, communication with, 290, 
 294. 
 
382 
 
 Index. 
 
 Translations, utility of, 3.39, 340. 
 Transportation, punishment by, 262, 
 
 268, 269. 
 Travelling, progress of, 40, 361. 
 Travelling, Sunday, suggestion of, 
 
 regulation respecting, 195. 
 Treaties, construction of, 332, 334 ; 
 
 inviolability of, 334, 335. 
 Truth, triumph of, 169 ; intolerance 
 
 no test of, 183, 184. 
 Turkey, civilization in, 342. 
 Tyranny, definition of, 241 ; popular, 
 
 246. 
 
 Union, civilization tends to pro- 
 mote, 346. 
 
 Union, international, civilization of 
 the \yorld through, 350. 
 
 Union with Ireland, 200. 
 
 Union with Scotland, 200. 
 
 Universities, 106, 121, 122 ; pro- 
 fessors in, 122, 123; require- 
 ments of universities, 123, 124 ; 
 intercourse between, 128 ; local 
 position of, 129. 
 
 Unsuccessful men, wlien deserving 
 of state patronage, 227. 
 
 Vavasour, proposal for revival of 
 title of, 224. 
 
 Vices, danger of spreading by ex- 
 tending communication, 293. 
 
 Vices, particular, to be discouraged 
 by the state, 272. 
 
 Violence, crimes of, 260, 262. 
 
 Virtue, homage due to, by the 
 state, 211, 212. 
 
 Virtue, promoted by civilization, 
 346. 
 
 Virtue, reward of, 211, 215, 216. 
 
 Virtues, requiring state encourage- 
 ment, 233, 272. 
 
 Walks, public, 159. 
 
 Walpole, Sir Robert, 200. 
 1 Wandering tribes, uncivilized cha- 
 i racter of, 315. 
 
 I War, 15, 37, 39, 50 ; definition of, 
 317 ; when justifiable, 318, 326; 
 ! provocatives to, 299, 325 ; its in- 
 I fluence upon civilization, 317, 
 i 319; opposite results produced 
 by, 320 ; interventions should 
 supersede, 318, 321 ; influence of 
 civilization upon, 326 ; aggres- 
 sive, 326 ; principles on which 
 war should be conducted, 318, 
 323. 
 
 Warfare, modes of conducting, 323, 
 325 ; national, of this country, 
 326. 
 
 Waterloo, commemoration of the 
 victory of, 200. 
 
 Watts, Dr., 43. 
 
 Wealth, infliience of, 214, 215. 
 
 Wealth, national, 47, 48. 
 
 Welfare, individual and national, 
 the end of civilization, 345. 
 
 Whately, Archbishop, on civiliza- 
 tion, 11. 
 
 Will, freedom of the, the criterion of 
 liberty, 241. 
 
 Will, restraint of the, 241. 
 
 Women, influence of, 255 ; educa- 
 tion of, 256 ; treatment of, 256. 
 
 Wordsworth, W., 153 ; on national 
 monuments, 153. 
 
 Works, literary, deserving of state 
 support, 229. 
 
 World, civilization of the, 341, 350. 
 
 Worship, freedom of religious (and 
 see Toleration), 176, 177, 178. 
 
 Zeal, religious, productive of into- 
 lerance, 182, 188. 
 
 THE END. 
 
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 AND ClIAIUNG CK^S-s. 
 
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 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA IvIBRARY