GIFT OF 
 
 SEELEY W. MUDD 
 
 and 
 
 GEORGE I. COCHRAN MEYER ELSASSER 
 
 DR.JOHNR. HAYNES WILLIAM L. HONNOLD 
 
 JAMES R. MARTIN MRS. JOSEPH F. SARTORI 
 
 to the 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA 
 
 SOUTHERN BRANCH 

 
 ■ H I : 
 
 modi: I, Ri:iH']u,ic 
 
 A } I I S T O R \' 
 
 OF THK 
 
 RISE AND PROGRICSS OF THE SWISS PEOPLE 
 
 F. (;RE\FELL I5AKRR 
 
 1,( )\1 M )\ 
 
 1 i . ^ . \ I ( ! I ( ' 1 . -- .\ t ( ' . 
 >, SulU ) M )l \KI. wn ' /'• l'l«'(' \i '1 \.\.\ \\
 
 rriutcd and Published hy 
 
 H. S, NICHOLS A\l) CO , 
 J,, SOHO SQUARK, LONDON, \V
 
 I.OVIXC. \X|i CInIATKI- IL MKMOKV 
 
 KiciiAHi) iKAXcis lu'irrox 
 
 K.f.M.i,.. i-.K.i;.s. 
 
 To wliox .iihici' ■■ The Model Kt-piihlir " owes its ori,i,an. 
 and h_\- uho-c lu-lp and cncciirauciucnl duriiii; thrcr year- 
 ot r]u-c coiniianionship it \\a> conipU'teil. the antlior 
 dedicates this M)luine. 
 
 When Riehai<l ISiifton. hy rii;ht ot' liis Ht'e's record, 
 entered t!ie X'alhaUa ol' the tier.iie (U'acL tlie a^^e lo>t one 
 ul' it> lorrnio-t -eholar-. Hn'^m-t--. e.\ploi\T.-. -eicnti>t>. and 
 poet--; it l'i~i ,■( hii:h-nnn(ii(| -cntlcni.in. an hononrahli- and 
 'gallant man. 'I'he Tniird Kinudon: \'. a> hononi'ed lix'heinL.- 
 tiis liii'thdand: the i)t-i and hiM'-''-t ot'.-ill dnntrio- claimed 
 inni a~ a coiiiimI riot .
 
 CO N r 1-: x Ts 
 
 1 'KKin.^roKIC I'l-Kldl' . , I 
 
 IIakI.V ] MIAI'.ITAN r> 'II lli:lAl.llA AM' KlLlllA I/i 
 
 Mt-;iAi;TiA CMM.i; tiii-: Ivi)\ia\> _■;<> 
 
 'I'm; A l,l,!-,M ANN! AM) i ! U Ki . L' N I 1 1 A N > -\ ^ 
 
 Swn zi.isi.Axn rxin-K i ii i-: )''i;ank^ 3-' 
 
 'I'm. I XCI iKlM ilvAIInN III- S\\'IIV.I:KI.AM) IMii rm- (il.KMAX 
 
 l-!Mi'ii<i-; 72 
 
 Swrr/i-;]<i.Axii a I'aki' dk tiii: (ii-MvMAx i'lMriki-. s.) 
 
 i'oL XDATiox 111" Till Swiss ( 'oxi-i-Di.KATH >x !Im 
 
 CrKowTii OI-- Tin; (.'()Xfki)i;kati()X axd Waks with Austkia 14s 
 
 ('i\'ii Wars axi) I'dLiTiCAi, Ciiaxi .i',.-^ dk Tm. ('"nki-jjioka 
 
 tiox (ii-- Tin: I'^i'.irr Statks 17^ 
 
 The JiuKGUXDi ax, (;i-;u'Max axd I''k);xch Waks iiyd 
 
 Causes ov thI': REl■•f)l^■MATIl)X jjj 
 
 The Kekokmatihx axp ns Li-,ai)i;i-:- .'^.s 
 
 The Kefokmatiox ix the I-'kexch-si'i-^akixi. 1ii\-is1iix> uk 
 
 SwixziCKLAxn 200 
 
 The Catholic Keactiox axu 'ihj-. ( )\-ektiiko\\' ue the 
 
 Old Cox federation .2Si"> 
 
 Till-: rjKAL"HL"Xl)i:x OK GkISOXs Ztj^j 
 
 CniL AND Relkhous Waks "320 
 
 Switzerland's Gi:nekal Coxditiox hi:k(ike the 1-'rench 
 
 In\'asiox, hi:t\vi:i:x 1713 axd i7ijS 333 
 
 The Swiss Revolution 3S3 
 
 Tm: I1el\'i:tic JvEruiiLic 421 
 
 Switzerland uxder the Act of Mediation 443 
 
 Kestokatiox of the I'ederai. Pact a 4D2 
 
 Democratic Reaction 474 
 
 Switzerland of To-DA^ 513
 
 HISTORY 
 
 OF 
 
 THE SWISS PEOPLE 
 
 CIIAPTI':R I 
 
 i' R E II 1 s ro K I c; V v. r i (^ n 
 
 Ai.Tiiorcii no historical records exist earlier than 
 about a century before the Christian era re,<j^arclin,t( the 
 people of Switzerland, yet the \'ast stores of lonj;'-hidden 
 material brou<,dit to lii^dit in recent years throuj^ii the 
 patient researches ot natixa; and it)rei,i;'n archa'olo^ists, 
 aiford ample ex'idence that at \ery remote periods the 
 country contained numerous inhabitants. So complete, 
 indeed, are the sources of information, that \ve are nt)\v 
 able to determine the social and d(jmestic habits of the 
 ancient Swiss, and to form a lcUrl\- accurate idea of ihi' 
 proj^ress of ci\ilisation made by them lon,^■ before 
 classical Avriters brou,t{ht them on the pa.s^^'S of au- 
 thentic history. 
 
 'I'o I'^erdinand Keller, of Zurich, belongs the ^'fcat 
 honour of beiuL,'' the fn"st to in\'esli,<4"ate thoroughly, and 
 arrange systematically the materials bearing;' on this 
 important and intei'estiuL;' subject. Mis attention was
 
 2 HlSTOR^■ OF Tin- SWISS PKOPLl'; 
 
 directed to the possibility of the existence, at some 
 remote epoch of the world's being, of a large population 
 occupying the Swiss valleys, by finding scattered in 
 great quantities over the country what were evidently 
 man-made implements of domestic toil, and manu- 
 factured weapons of war and the chase, none of which 
 were known to be in use during historic times. Many 
 of these possessed the peculiarity of being fashioned 
 out of stone instead of metal, and were evidently primi- 
 tive prototypes of articles used within historic periods. 
 
 Lake- During the exceptional dry seasons of 1853-4 ^^^^ 
 
 Dwellings. ^ ^ . ^, . . , , 
 
 water 01 Lake Ziinch receded to a very unusual extent. 
 
 It was then noticed, at a spot close to the town of Ober- 
 meilen, that a number of half-decayed wooden posts 
 studded the Lake bottom. On removing several of 
 these they were found to be roughly sharpened at their 
 buried ends, as if by scraping or burning, and to be 
 supported by masses of clay, stone and bundles of 
 wood. Amidst the latter were discovered a quantity 
 of stone implements like those already found inland. 
 Shortly afterwards similar collections were met with at 
 many places in the other Swiss lakes, and a sufficient 
 number of relics were brought to light to demonstrate 
 conclusively the previous existence of large villages, 
 built entirely of wood and supported on piles, at short 
 distances from the shore. Thousands of examples of 
 the actual articles used by the dwellers in these primi- 
 ti\"C artificially-constructed villages, as well as portions 
 of almost every part of their houses, Iiave been re- 
 covered by Keller, and the many investigators who 
 followed in his steps. From the results of tlieir 
 labours, it is probable that the following represents 
 the chief general appearance and condition of one of
 
 these l;ike-ci\ve!IinL;s ;is it existed inanv hundreds, if not 
 thousands, of years at^o. 
 
 A spot beiiiL,'' chosen in some lake where tlie water 
 was fairly shallow at a short distance from the shore. 
 a numl)er of straiq'ht tree-trunks were cut or burned 
 down from the nei.i^hhourinL,'- forest, which, after beim^'' 
 sharpened at one extremity, were then lirmly dri\'en 
 into the lake-floor, lea\'inLf the projecting ends several 
 feet abo\-e the water. Where the bed was soft and 
 muddy greater support was afforded to the piles b\- 
 placing masses ot wood, stone and clav around and 
 between them. The materials were carried in canoes 
 fashioned from the trunks (jf thick trees, similar to 
 those employed by sa^•ages at the present d'dv, that 
 are known as j;ioi:ocvU's or d'.ii^-ruls, and m;-asuriii;4' 
 in some instances as much as 40 feet in Lngth by 
 II feet in breadth, of which se\-eral specimens n:\- 
 still preser\'ed in the warious Swiss museums. On 
 the tops (ji the projecting supports a platlorm was 
 next built of stout trans\"erse beams, either do\e- 
 tailed into the substructure, (jr pinned on to it b\' 
 wooden pegs, though in some le'W cases the wliole 
 platform-support was made up ot ta>cines, >t')nes and 
 clay, with occasional stakes to attoi'd greater security. 
 Upon the platform thus made the luit^ were c:on>ti'ueied, 
 being built ot rough planks or stems. h.>i\ing the inter- 
 stices tilled with branches and cla\-, the latter bring also 
 spread in a thick la\'er o\'er the lloiii". These huts wei"e 
 mostlv quadrilateral in shape, divickvl into two r-Minis. 
 and clustered closely together, a\ei"agiiv_:' ab^ui Jj :eei b\' 
 17 feet in size : (jlhers were ciriailar. ;ind it is uneertam 
 whether thev had windows or whether the d'«.'r was 
 the onlv aperture for atlmitting light. A trap in llu-
 
 4 HISTORY OF THE SWISS PHOPI.E 
 
 floor communicated with the lake, and through this 
 the general refuse of the abode was cast. The roofs 
 consisted of thatch composed of rushes, leaves and 
 straw. Communication with the shore in the great 
 majority of the villages was maintained by means of a 
 long, narrow bridge, supported in the same manner as 
 the platforms, and in some instances sheds were erected 
 close to the huts for the cattle and sheep, though these 
 were usually left on the shore. 
 
 From the nature of the relics found amid the debris 
 on the sites of these ancient lacustrine settlements, it 
 would seem that the huts contained all the necessary 
 accommodation for a family, with the needful cooking 
 and other domestic utensils for lessening labour, and 
 subjugating and utilising nature's products. Every 
 village had its mill to grind the corn and other cereals 
 that were largely grown on the neighbouring land, where 
 also the sheep and cattle were pastured. \\'eavers' 
 looms and spinning-wheels were largely used, and skins, 
 linen and woollen fabrics prepared for clothing by the 
 women ; whilst the men fished, hunted, or hoed their 
 fields. The lake-dwellers lived an isolated existence, 
 having little or no communication with the outside 
 world till a much later period, when we see bronze and 
 iron introduced amongst them. The finding of relics 
 made of these latter metals marks distinctly a great 
 advance in general culture, as also in time ; they must 
 have been brought from countries other than Switzer- 
 land, she herself being singularly barren in iron, copper 
 and tin. 
 
 Many of the settlements were en-idently of great 
 extent, occupying sites equal in area to h\e or six 
 T'^nglish acres, and re(|uiring as many as roo,ooo piles
 
 tor their support. That on the Lake of ISienne cnver> a 
 space eijual to more than six ICiiL^hsh acres; that at 
 Rohcnhauscn is of equal size, and is calculated to con- 
 tain loo.ooo piles: wliilst opposite the little town of 
 Morg^es, on Lake Lenian, one existed measurin',,^ i,2(M) 
 feet by 150 teet. Other large settlements were erected in 
 \'arious parts of Lake Lcman (where the remains of 
 twenty-four distinct \illages are seen), and in the lake> 
 of Xeuchatel, Zurich and C'onstanz. as well as in the 
 smaller sheets of water. In Lake Constanz thirty-two. 
 and spread o\'er that of Xeuchatel more than fifty. ha\-e 
 been found. 
 
 The reason for building these water habitatiiuis ha.-^ 
 been much disputed, but there can be little doubt that 
 it was in order to afford the inhabitants greater protec- 
 tion ag^ainst the wast numbers oi sawage animals that 
 tenanted the forests which, in those early times, co\'eretl 
 the greater part of the country, ;is well as a detencc 
 against incursions of neighbouring hostile tribes. It is 
 impossible from existing e\'iden(~e to sjieak with an\' 
 degree of certaint}- as to the anti(iuity (^i the earlier 
 stations : but. from the difference in (jualilv of the 
 materials used in the manufactui'e of the relics, and the 
 impr()\-ed and more artistic fashion of those e\itlently 
 belonging to a later tlate. we arriw at a dix'ision into 
 three successi\-e epochs. These correspond with the 
 ages when stone, bronze, or iron tormed the chirt 
 material in use. This di\ision is practicall}- useful, 
 and gi\'es, m(jreo\er, a general idea of the Irn^lh of 
 time that must ha\e elapsetl siiu'e that far distant date 
 when prima-\'al man was little, if at all, rcmo\ ed in 
 intellectual development from the higher forms of bi ute 
 beasts. "When man wandered in the dark turests, he
 
 6 HisroKY OF TH1-: SWISS p]-:opL}-: 
 
 was nature's serf ; he offered tribute and prayer to the 
 winds, and the hghtning and the rain, to the cave-hon, 
 which seized his burrow for its lair, to the mammoth, 
 which devoured his scanty crops. l>ut as time passed 
 on he ventured to rebel ; he made stone his servant ; 
 he discovered fire and vegetal)le poison ; he domesticated 
 iron ; he slew the wild beasts, or subdued them ; he made 
 them feed him and give him clothes.^ The trees of the 
 forest were his flock, he slaughtered them at his con- 
 venience, the earth brought forth at his command." — 
 (" Martyrdom of iSIan.") 
 
 In some of the village debris all the relics found are 
 fashioned entirely of stone, bone, or horn ; in others, in 
 
 I This division into Stone, Bronze and Iron Ages is, of course, 
 purely arbitrary (eacli age must liave merged bv slow degrees into 
 the succeeding one) ; but from our present knowledge it is impcis- 
 sible to be more scientifically exact, though manv authorities ha\e 
 attempted to be so. Before the introduction of the general use of 
 stone, there certainly existed a period when priniccval man did not 
 possess the slight knowledge the fashioning of this material in- 
 \'()lved, and when his only weapons were sticks, and half-fashioned 
 pieces of wood and horn. In some countries, where stone is scarce 
 oi" hard to procure, as in the more remote regions of (Greenland, the 
 natives still employ wood and bone to make their weapons and 
 domestic utensils, sharpening and fashioning them b}- burning or 
 boiling, and the great manual dexterity the\' possess. Numerous 
 fragments ol nets used by prehistoric man ha\-e been lomtd in the 
 remains in the Swiss lakes, nianv being made with \er\- large meshes, 
 olten two inches or more sipuire. l''rom this circiunstance it has 
 been conjectured that they were manufactiu'cd at a time when the 
 tish in the various lakes were abnormally large, .Vs, liowt:\'er, the 
 Swiss lakes contain (juantities of large fish, as tlie ferras, this In 
 pothesis lalls to the ground. A tlieor\' accoimting for the long 
 pn.:ser\ ation of these nets in the water has been jiropoinuled, 
 whifh, if not ti'ue, is at all ('x-ents ingenious. As most of tlie 
 la( ustrine \ illages were buiU of j)ine wood, and nearly all pirrished 
 b\- fire, it is tb.ought that the heat of the se\eral conflagrations 
 catised the pine resin to exude, and this, fading into the water, 
 co\eretl portions of nets, and so preser\-ed them.
 
 Hisr(>K\ oi- iHi: SWISS I'l.oi'i.i: 7 
 
 addition to those materials, bronze is present : whilst in 
 a third set iron appears to have ahnost entirely super- 
 seded both stone and bronze. In the latter period the 
 nature and form of many of the articles show their 
 manufacture to be contemporaneous with that ot the 
 Roman era, but doubtless iron was used by the primi- 
 ti\'e Swiss many centuries before Rome extended her 
 influence beyt)nd the Alps. Though the materials at 
 diflerent periods are thus found to be diiferent, no ditler- 
 ence is apparent in the constructiiMi of the dwellings 
 themsehes, which ha\e been built practically in the 
 same manner throuqh countless a^'es. 
 
 This early period, which is sub-di\ided into the 5/../;. Al:c. 
 paleolithic, or roui^h ston^', and the neolithic, or polished 
 stone, ages, is well seen in the remains of the water 
 settlement that once existed in the Lake oi .Mooseedori, 
 in Canton Rern. The x'illage, which measured some 
 70 feet by 50 feet, appears, trom the charred condition 
 of the wood that comp(jsed it. to ha\e sharetl the late 
 that so often befel these sti'ucturfS. antl been burnt to 
 the water's edge. Xumbers ot the upright wooden 
 stakes still remain, amoni;"st which were disco\ered 
 many large stone axe-heads, tixed m stag's hoin and 
 wood halts, sharpcnetl tlint arrow-hrads, spears oi horn, 
 and a Imely serrated flint saw, together with tl^h-hook^. 
 awls, and ):iiercing instrunu'nt> made from bone. A 
 curious, and probablx' uni(pie, i"elic iound here was a 
 skate faslfloued out of one oi the long bones oi a lior>e's 
 leg; coarsely-made pottery cups, ami cooking \essels, 
 showing a \'ery primitixe mode ot manufaciure iscwral 
 still bearing the impress ot the tmgers ot tho>e who 
 made them) also came to light. The ainmal remains 
 were bones of the ox. swine, shc-ep, ,L,'oat, bear, horse.
 
 O HISTORY OF THE SWISS PEOPLE 
 
 bison and elk. Many similar lake - dwellings have 
 elsewhere been found where the early Swiss were 
 unacquainted with the use of metals, and a still larger 
 number in which bronze also makes its appearance ; yet 
 the materials of the earlier epoch greatly preponderate, 
 showing a transitional condition when the old order was 
 changing. Of the many stone implements dating from 
 this epoch the minerals most frequently used were flint, 
 sandstone, mica schist, diorite, and porphyry. 
 
 Biviizc Age. The ancient lake village, situated near where 
 
 Auvernier now stands, on the shore of the Lake of 
 Neuchatel, furnishes many specimens of the bronze age, 
 as do several other sites in different localities. Many 
 of the specimens show a high degree of artistic skill in 
 their manufacture, and indicate a great advance in 
 mental culture on the part of those that made them. 
 Bronze spear-heads and swords, an anvil, chisels, knives, 
 plain and ornamental rings for personal adornment, gold 
 studded brooches, and a large quantity of pottery, beauti- 
 fully shaped and finely made, are some among the many 
 articles that have been recovered. 
 
 Iron Age. On this same Lake of Neuchatel, at a settlement 
 
 near Marin, iron takes the place of bronze and stone 
 in most of the articles brought to light ; and, from the 
 still greater beauty and perfection shown in their pro- 
 duction, this ^■illage must have been of a much later 
 date than those in which bronze or stone alone were 
 in use. 
 
 Many iron swords, contained in iron scabbards, 
 here came to light ; and these, from their form, greatly 
 resembled, and were probably identical with, early 
 Gallic weapons. Whilst the excavations were in pro- 
 gress, the bones belonging to eight human skeletons
 
 lll>l<>K\ (II- 1111. swi; 
 
 9 
 
 were discoxered. This is interesting, as bein,;^' one ui 
 the \ ery tew instances where the actual remains ot the 
 ancient lake-ciwellers ha\ c been found. J;<;th (ialhc 
 and Roman coins were mixed with the iron swords, 
 speardieads, ornaments, anil other th'htis forinin<^f the 
 remnants c;f this village, whicii thus brings the record 
 of lake-dwellings up to historic times. 
 
 At Kobenhausen. the curious disco\ery has \)ucn Mixtd Ax;cs. 
 made, in the peaty bed that was once occupied b\' the 
 Lake ol I'iaftikcjn, (jf the remains (jf three distinct 
 \illages, superimposed (ju one another, and clearly 
 dixided by layers of sedimentary deposits, marking 
 three separate ep;jchs. The lu'st, or lowest, was e\"i- 
 dently destrijyed by lire, and amidst its carlxjnised piles 
 implements ot bone and st<;ne only were disco\ered. 
 ()\er this stratum lay a deposit of sediment nearly 
 j teet in thickness, and here a series of partially- 
 burned piles were buried, together with [jottery ami 
 articles of stone, horn and bone, more artisticall\ Imished 
 than those lielow. Al)o\'e came ancjther la}'er of sedi- 
 ment, through which were dri\'eii a number of split 
 oak trunks. 'Idiese show that the workmen possessed 
 better tools than those ot their pretlecessors, who were 
 able to use onh' [)ine or other soft wood for the stakes 
 su[)i)orting their abodes, and were capable only of 
 scraping or partially cutting e\'en these with their 
 primiiixe flint kni\es. .Man_\- highly-finished articles 
 were also found in this u[)per layer, including well- 
 made plates, tubs, spooiis. clubs, bows. tishing-ta(d<le, 
 a thrashing tkul, and many \arieties of cloth, both 
 plaited and wox'en. 1 Sesidc-s these, a dug-out canoe, 
 12 feet long, came to light, together with many 
 axes and arrow-heads of stone. Although no articles
 
 lO HISTORY OF Till-; SWISS PKOPLIC 
 
 made of bronze were here discovered, several crucibles 
 containing traces of that amalgam attest its presence, 
 and show, moreo\-er, that it was made in the settlement 
 and not wholly imported in its finished state. 
 
 Land It is now pretty generally conceded that the people 
 
 ijc ers. \^{\\o occupied the Swiss valleys in prehistoric times were 
 
 essentially identical with those living on the lakes. 
 Both the design and material of the weapons and 
 domestic implements foimd belonging to the former 
 precisely correspond with those possessed by the latter. 
 Little is known for certain of the religion, language, 
 or race of the early Swiss people, though a great 
 probability exists that they were made up of Kelts who 
 migrated into the land. There seems no real reason to 
 doubt that the lake-dwellers were of the same ethnic 
 descent as the Helvetians who first appear in history, 
 and that in spite of the prevalent view that is now held. 
 As with other ancient races, the Swiss were pagans, and 
 amidst their hosts of deities probably placed the moon 
 in a very exalted position. Many lunar-shaped relics 
 ha\'e been imearthed at Ebenberg and at Brienne. 
 
 Rdigiuii. " In the period of Thing-worship every brook, tree, 
 
 hill and star is itself a li\-ing creature, benevolent or 
 malignant, asleep or awake. In the next stage, e\-ery 
 object and phenomenon is inhabited or presided over by 
 a genius or a spirit. 
 
 " As the reasoning powers of men expand, their gods 
 diminish in number and rule o\"er larger areas, till finally 
 it is perceived there is unity in nature — that everything 
 that exists is part of one harmonious whole. When the 
 poet in\-okes in his splendid frenzy the shining spheres 
 of liea\'en, the murmuring fountain, and the rushing 
 stream; when lie calls upon the earth to hearken, and
 
 iii^iOKV oi- 1111. h\\i>> i'i;(ii'i.i. II 
 
 l)ids the wild sea listen to his song; when he coninuines 
 with the sweet seckuleci \':illeys and the hau,L;'hty hills, as 
 if those inanimate objects were ali\'e, as if the masses of 
 brute matter were endcjwed with sense and thoiii,dit, we 
 do not smile, we do not sneer, we do not reason, but we 
 feel. A secret chord is touched within us; a slumberint; 
 sympathy is awakened into life. Who has not felt an 
 impulse of hatred, and perhaps expressed it in a senseless 
 curse, against a lier\- stroke of sunlight or a sudden gust 
 of wind ? Who has not felt a pang of pity for a tlower 
 torn and trampled in the dust, a shell dashed to frag- 
 ments by the waves ? Such emotions and ideas last 
 only for a moment ; they do not belong t(j us ; they are 
 the fossil fancies of a bygone age; they are a heritage of 
 thought from the childhood of our race. T'or there was 
 a time when they possessed the human mind. There 
 was a time when the phrases of modern poetry were the 
 facts of ordinary life. There was a time when man li\ed 
 in fellowship with nature, belie\ing that all things \\hich 
 ino\-ed or changed had minds and bodies kindred to his 
 own. To those prima 'wa! people the sun was a great 
 being who brightened them in his pleasure and who 
 scorched them in his wrath. The earth was a sleejMng 
 monster: scjiuetimes it rose a liltk' ami turned itselt in 
 bed. 'bhey walked upon its bat k when li\ing: lluy 
 were put iiVuj its belly when they died. b'lre wa^ a 
 sa\a,L;e animal, which bit when it ua^ loucheil. I he 
 birds and beasts were l(jrc-igners, possessing l;uiguage> 
 and cust(jms of their (jwn. TIk; jilants wcie dumb 
 creatures, with characters ^ootl and bad, sometimes 
 gloomy in aspect, malignant in their Iruit. sometimes 
 dispensing wholesome food and pleasant shatle." This 
 ([notation from the late Win ward Keed's great work is
 
 12 HISTORY Ul- THi-; SVSISS PJiOlM.E 
 
 inserted, as it embodies within the compass of a few 
 
 paragraphs more suggestions of the truth concerning the 
 
 mental development of primaival man than is to be 
 
 found in all the many treatises that learned specialists 
 
 have written on the subject.' No date can be assigned 
 
 to the period of the lake-dwellers, though of necessity 
 
 it must l)e a very remote one. 
 
 Historical IJefore closing this short outline of the prehistoric 
 
 Lake- . . . . . 
 
 DurUiii"s. times m Switzerland, it may be interesting to glance at 
 
 our knowledge of lake - dwellings in other countries. 
 Although Helvetia affords the greatest number of 
 examples of these settlements, similar collections have 
 been in existence for \'ast ages scattered over the world 
 dowm to the present time, though it would appear not to 
 any great extent. The earliest historical references to 
 this subject are found in the writings of Hippocrates 
 and Herodotus, some 400 years before the Christian era. 
 The former describes the people of Phasis, in Asia 
 Minor, as li\ing in wooden homes built upon piles 
 dri\en into the marshy ground of the country, and as 
 using boats made from a single tree. Herodotus, speak- 
 ing of the people of Lake Prasias, tells us they built 
 homes on platforms, supported by upright stakes driven 
 into the bottom of the lake, and communicated with the 
 shore by means of a long bridge ; and that in the interior 
 of the huts was a trap-door leading down to the water. 
 
 I It is also inserted as a tribute to the memory of one, who 
 combined in his character the greatest instincts of the greatest 
 poets, who possessed a knowledge of ancient and modern learning 
 perfectly phenomenal, and whose originality of thought was onl)- 
 exceeded by the tones (jf the vividly beautiful word-pictures in 
 which he embodied his ideas. Death cut short the promise his 
 brilliant, though short, career conveyed of a life destined to mark 
 an C'ra in ICnglisli thought, knowledge and culture.
 
 HisroKV iM- Tiii-. SWISS i'i;niM.i: ij 
 
 When this door was open the chikhen were pre\'ented 
 from falhng- out by means of a lanyard tied to one Itt^. 
 The fishermen of the district, accordin;^^ to the account 
 i,dven by Sir John Lubbock, still continue to Ii\-e in 
 similar structures o\-er the water. 
 
 Coming to much later times, we hnd Abulfeda, the 
 celebrated Mohammedan geographer and historian of 
 the 13th century, describing a conimunity of Christian 
 hsherman who formed a settlement on Lake Apama/a, 
 in Syria, living on pile-supported houses o\'er the water. 
 
 During the Irish wars of the i6th century many of 
 the chieftains built their strongh(dds in the midst ot the 
 lakes on artilicially-constructed islands of stones and 
 wood, called owhuk'-^- Similar lake-forts were built by 
 the Kelts after the Roman era, and up to medi;e\-al 
 times. In most of the many lakes scattered through 
 Austria, Italy, and Sa\'oy. and other iCuropean countries, 
 there is abundant ex'idence to show that at some remote 
 period they were occupied b\- lacustrine dwellers. 
 
 In many of the more unci\ilisetl portions of the -''^ ''"■' Lak:'- 
 world the nati\es are found in the present day to be 
 partially in the age of stone, many in that of iri)n. u>ing 
 stone implements for domestic purposes, war and the 
 f:liase ; and in cjther ways li\ing identically the same life 
 as that pursued by the earl\- ancestors oi the Swiss and 
 other nations. l:^\en in (ireat liritain. in some ot the 
 more remote parts of Scotland and the Shetland isles, 
 stone spindle -wheels, ironing, smoothim;'. ami heating 
 stones, stone sinkers lor fishing nets, as well as rude 
 pottery \essels, and many other articles not to be dis- 
 tinguished from those of prehistoric man, can still be 
 seen in actual daily use. Moie th.ui this: lacustrine 
 villages, apparently precisel}' similar in tlu'ir mode of
 
 Ijj. HISTORY Ol- THI'. SWISS IMlOPLi: 
 
 construction to those that were once tenanted in the 
 Swiss lakes, are yet found in many locaHties. In 
 his highly interesting and instructive work, " Across 
 x\frica," Commander Lovett Cameron describes the 
 appearance of such a village that he discovered in the 
 heart of the Dark Continent on Lake Mohrya. Speaking 
 of this settlement, he says, " The huts were built on 
 platforms raised about six feet above the surface of the 
 water, supported on stout piles driven into the bed of 
 the lake. Some were oblong and others round, the 
 former usually having a projecting roof over the door. 
 Underneath the platform canoes (dug-outs, some 25 feet 
 long) were moored, and nets hung to dry."' 
 
 Many similar lake-dwellings also exist in the Gulf 
 of Maracaibo and the estuaries of the Amazon and 
 Orinoco. Venezuela owes its name — little Venice — to its 
 resemblance in construction to the most famous of all 
 water-dwellings, the Queen of the Adriatic. D'Urville 
 has gi\-en an account of four villages he found in the 
 Bay of Dorci, and others have been met with in Borneo, 
 Siam, the Straits Settlements, the Celebes and the 
 Caroline Islands. Sir Richard Burton, whilst engaged 
 in his important mission to the King of Dahomey 
 in 1864, discovered a large settlement on the West 
 Coast of Africa of natives of Dahcjmey, who, fleeing 
 from the cruelty of the native rulers, had erected a 
 number of wooden huts, hrmly supported on piles and 
 platforms, within the extensive lagoons that occur 
 between W'liydah and Lagos.
 
 chapti<:r II 
 
 KARLY IXHAHriAXTS OI- HI:LVHTIA AND KH.KTIA 
 
 To Roman historians we are indebted for onr ilrst 
 authentic knowled.^e of the early inhabitants of Switzer- 
 land. According to these, about a century before the 
 Christian era the country was thicklv populated with 
 numerous semi-sa\a,i(e Keltic tril)es. chief of which 
 were the HeK'etii and the Rha-ti. 
 
 The lifhetii inhabited the plains lyiny' between Tiu- Hilittii. 
 Lake Leman, the Alps, and the Jura, and the southern 
 borders of the Boden Sea (Lake ot Constanz), this tract 
 being then known as Helvetia, and distinct from the 
 districts that make up UK^dern Switzerlaml. The name 
 Helvetia, or Lh'etia, has been deri\-L'd from the Keltic, 
 signifying a high mountainous region.^ The countr\" was 
 divided into four principal /;/:,'■/, or cantons ; two are 
 cited by Ca;sar as Ti:^'nriii:is and IT;''a'';,v".7>, or Uyiii^aius : 
 Strato refers to a third under the name of Toyi'iuus : 
 whilst frcjm the trcjuent references to the .■I;;.''"'re;;!>, in 
 connection with the IIel\-etii, it is possible they fn'med 
 the people of the f(jurth /'ir,:,^7<-— (Watchaner). 
 
 Lssentially agricultural and pastoral, llie 1 leKc^tii 
 were a wild and warlike race, consta.nlK" engaged in 
 
 I Ilel'.-cfii, of which the oM form was IClwnii, "r Ileh-ii, 
 probabU' come- irom thr Kchic i/, .'/, hi^Ii, ;.-.; laiiil, '.,■,■ man : that is, 
 hi_;hlaii;ler. l't')lcm_\- writ'js the wir^l li.'ii.: :\ Str.it'i /:'.';;. .'.'.■ ■/;, an^l 
 b\- th(? i'lomaiis the u became convene, 1 int'i
 
 iT) HISTORY Ol-' Tfll-: SWISS PIJOPLK 
 
 feuds amon_t(st themselves, or plunderinf^ expeditions 
 against their neighbours, more especially against the 
 Germans across the Rhine. Caesar greatly extols their 
 bravery, and remarks on the rapid progress they made 
 in population. According to his computation, in his own 
 times, they numbered 300,000 souls, and lived in 400 
 villages and 12 towns. The latter were somewhat larger 
 than the other settlements, and were fortified by stock- 
 ades and trenches. The people of the four pagi, like the 
 Gauls, formed a Federal Republic, over which annually- 
 elected magistrates, called Vevgobrcts, chosen by universal 
 vote, presided and administered whatever laws were 
 authorised. Their power was, however, more nominal 
 than real, as the several tribal chiefs and heads of 
 powerful families frequently set their authority at 
 defiance, and ruled supreme and absolute within their 
 own districts. Though acquainted with the use of iron 
 and bronze, the J-Ielvetii knew not the art of tempering 
 steel, and were consequently placed at a great dis- 
 advantage when fighting the Romans, 'i'hey aftected 
 personal adornment, and, according to their condition, 
 wore ornaments, many being beautifully worked, of gold, 
 silver, bronze, etc. Of the many coins found, other 
 than (ireek, Roman, or Gallic, the greater quantity has 
 been discovered at Aventicum (Avenches), and these 
 coins usually show the head of a goddess or chief, and 
 on the reverse a cock, a wolf, or a bear. Of their 
 language little or nothing is known, except a lew names 
 they ga\'c to their towns and mountains, as Alps {Alb, 
 white). What little ci\'ilisation they possessed they 
 probably learnt, as they did tlie Greek alphabet, from 
 tin; occasional \ isits of merchant pirates from Marseilles. 
 In religion they were pagans, like all early races,
 
 iiisroKN' ov riii: swiss i'i.oim.i 17 
 
 worshippiiiij;- the sun, moon, and stars, and the number- 
 less forces of nature that so hixishly exhiinted thi'ir 
 presence in the country. Imleetl the topoj^raphical 
 pecuharities (.)f Helvetia — the surroundin,i( lofty and 
 snow-covered rani,'^es of mountains, the impenetrable 
 .t,doom of the seeminuiy endless forests, the sudden and 
 weird roar of the fallin,L,^ a\-alanche, and the many other 
 inexplicable phenomena — were specially likely to create 
 or perpetuate a l)arbarous and unreasoninj^' wtirship so 
 apparently evidenced by e\ery surrounding object, to a 
 nation in but the early youth, if not the childhootl, ot its 
 career. \\ hether reli.gious rites similar to those practisi'd 
 by the ancient Druids of ISrittany and An,L,desey existed, 
 as so many Swiss historians aifnin. tliere is no exidence 
 to show. Of nati\"e deities only three are now known: 
 A\entia, the protecting' goddess ot Axenticum ; SvK'a 
 ISelini, the deity of the forests (both probabK- tak'cn from 
 Roman Mythology); and, in the neighbourhood ot 
 Lausonnium (Lausanne), iSelinus (the Apollo of tlu' 
 (jreeks). After the death of a great ( hiettain the llel- 
 \etii deified his s}:iirit. antl ollered prayers tor his aid 
 in their undertakings. llis botly was usually deposited, 
 together with his clothes, armoui', weapons, and orna- 
 men.ts, beneath great masses ot eaith and stones. M.any 
 of these tumuli still I'xist, one ot c-s[iecial si/e ha\ing 
 been discoxered in the I'orest ot llirmensdort, bi'twt'eii 
 \\ indisch and 1 !aden. 
 
 In immediate contact with llehctia were ll;e 
 ("icrmans to the north, the ISoii to the north-east, in the 
 districts now kncnvn as l'>a\aria and liohemia (both 
 deri\'ing tlieir modern names trom the ancient l'>oiil. the 
 W iener-\\ aid. and the districts along the noitliein side 
 of the Hoden-See. the Khati to the I'ast. tlu' Komans on
 
 l8 HISTORY OV THE SWISS Pi;OPLI'; 
 
 the south, with the NantuaH, Veragri and the Seduni, 
 and, separated by the Jura, to the west, the Sequani and 
 the Gauls. The territory now known as the Franche- 
 Comte was occupied by the Sequani, and Savoy and 
 Geneva by the Allobroges. 
 
 The modern Canton of Ticino at this period was 
 occupied by a Ligurian tribe, the Lepontines. 
 Rhuiia. The portion of modern Switzerland known as the 
 
 Graubiinden, or the Grisons, was named Rha;tia in its 
 early historical period, and was then inhabited by a 
 distinct race to that which peopled Helvetia. The 
 Rha^ti were apparently largely, if not entirely, com- 
 posed of Etruscan settlers, belonging to the northern 
 Etruscan Confederacy, who, led by a chief named 
 Rha^tius, were driven north on the advance of the 
 Roman power in Italy. Livy, Pliny the elder, and 
 Justin, all refer to the belief, old in their days, that the 
 Rha^ti were formerly Etruscans, who originally came 
 from the north. The name is, however, also derived 
 from the Keltic Rliath, a mountain, and ia, land, a 
 mountainous land, but may have been a purely Etrus- 
 can word, the signification of which is now, like most 
 words of that ancient language, entirely lost. The 
 RlKcti extended into Italy as far as \'erona and Coomo, 
 and were divided into numerous tribes, se\-eral being 
 evidently either wholly or in part of the Keltic race. 
 Reyond the occurrence of frecjuent wars with the Roii, 
 Germans, and Heh'etii, little is known of the carlv 
 history of this people, who, through the natural advan- 
 tages for delence their country possessed, and their own 
 sa\-age and warlike habits, maintained their indepen- 
 dence and tlieir isolated position longer than aiiy of the 
 other inhabitants of Switzerland.
 
 iiisTom' oi- rin: swiss iM'.oim.i; ii; 
 
 The restless spirit of warlike; enterprise, so lon;^- ^■'"■'' ■//'-'■'''■'" 
 
 M ^i,'} J'! .'>l 
 
 a predominating; characteristic of the Ilelvctii, onlv 
 required a littinj; occasion to spur the nation into 
 tmdertakint,'' L.-'reater deeds than thev had vet dnnv. 
 According to JMiny, such incentive was furnished by 
 a workman named Helicon, who, returning' from Iumuc. 
 where he had been employed, <(a\'e such a \i\iil descrip- 
 tion of the beaiitv, richness, antl extent of the lan.ds 
 beyond the Alps, that the whole nati(in determined, 
 with one accord, to lea\-e their own barren and inhospit- 
 able country and seek new homes. Morco\er. elsewhere 
 e\'cnts were occurrin,!,'' that appeared to show the hand 
 of destiny, urgin.L,'' them to follow this impulse. In or 
 about the year iio i;.c.. hordes ot Teutons and Kimbri none. 
 descended like an immense })ack of hungry wolves upon 
 Gaul, conquerinj:; all before them and tlewastatiuL,^ the 
 lands o\'er which they passed. On the news ot this 
 inw'ision rcachint;" the Heh'etii, thev at once resoba-d 
 to join and share the fortunes ot the new-comers. 
 Led bv the fd^us 7 ■•';'i7;'/«.v5, antl under the supreme 
 command of ;i youthful warrior chief named 1 )iviko, ^j,. j,;^. 
 who possessed all the qualities likely to form a liold 
 and successful ^'cncral. the lleKetii set out on their 
 march, and soon succeetled in iiulucin;; the northerners 
 to allow them to join their lorces. The lerritied people 
 of Gaul, seeinj^r e\ery prospect ot beiii.L;' speedily con- 
 quered, if not annihilated, sent uri,''ent messages to the 
 Romans tor assistance in their extremil\'. 'I'he apjxal 
 was (juicklv responded to. and the ('onsul Lunus 
 Cassius was despatched with a larL:e arm\- tn iletend the 
 countrv. Ah'anwhile thi' allied barbarians made tlu-ii' 
 way across ('laul, iilmiu;' the banks oi the (lainnne, 
 destrovini;' all who o[)])osed theii' pro'_;ress. and lea\-m^"
 
 20 HISTORY OI" THE SWISS PEOPLE 
 
 the land bare in every direction. At Agen the Romans 
 first encountered their savage opponents, and here, after 
 a fearful onslaught, they were completely defeated, 
 Cassius himself, together with his lieutenant, Lucius 
 Piso, being amongst the slain. Of the hitherto in- 
 vincible legions of Rome, nearly all those who formed 
 the army of Cassius perished, and the few who sur- 
 vived the general carnage were made prisoners and 
 compelled to pass under the yoke, a ceremony equiva- 
 lent to enslaving them. After this victory, Diviko and 
 his allies continued their march, and succeeded in 
 defeating three more Roman armies sent to oppose 
 them. But fortune, thus far so favourable, at last 
 deserted the barbarian hosts. Having overrun the 
 greater part of Gaul, they determined to make a descent 
 upon the fertile plains of Northern Italy, and for this 
 purpose divided their forces into two armies. One, 
 containing the Helvetian pagiis of the Toygcni, marching 
 to enter Italy through its north-west frontier by Nicrra, 
 and round the coast of the Sinus Ligusticus (Gulf of 
 Genoa), and the other following the course of the Rhine, 
 and debouching on Italy through the Tyrol. Whilst 
 passing through the Roman province of the Allohroges, 
 the first division encountered a Roman army under the 
 command of the Consul Marius, who not only totally 
 /?a»/t' o//ig».T defeated them near Aquoc Sextia; (Aix, in Provence) 
 ' " ■ ■ on the l)anks of the Rhine, but also annihilated the 
 pagns Toygcnns (102 B.C.). The second di\ision was no 
 less unfortunate, meeting a similar fate at the hands 
 Battle of of Marius, who had mustered his legions at \'crcella^ 
 
 ^^[^\,_ ^' (X'ercelli, westward of ^lilan), and who, after a 
 
 desperate resistance, succeeded in cutting the whole 
 force to pieces (roi n.c). The only portion of the
 
 in\-aders' army ihat. was saved out. of ihe ,^'ciieral 
 carnage was that coiiiprisin,<( the liehetian ftii^ns 
 'I i^iiyimis, that had prudently remained in the moun- 
 tains awaitint; the result of the hattle. The real honour 
 of this \-ictory undoubtedly lay with the ivoman general, 
 Catulus, ^\■ho had already l)een defeated near the source 
 of the Adige, and who, collecting his scattered soldiers. 
 joined Marius and l^ore the chief brunt of the battle, 
 Marius's troops taking c^rdy an unimportant part in the 
 day's tightingd On recei\-ing news of the extermination 
 of their allies the Tigurini at once retreated, and 
 eventually succeeded in re-entering the land of their 
 birth, which they had left with such high hopes but a 
 few years before. It is impossible to estimate the 
 number slaughtered in these two Ivoman \-ictories, but 
 as the Tigurini appear as the sole sur\i\ors, it must 
 ha\'e been encjrmous. Amongst those who returned to 
 Helvetia was the conunander, iJixiko, who, in spite of 
 the disastrous termination of his expedition, doubtless 
 remained a prominent leader amongst his people during 
 the ensuing half ceniurw as in 5^ i;.c. he aL;ain appears 
 in history as the representalix e of his nation. Such a 
 national and crushing disaster as the Ivomans indictctl 
 on the Ileh'etii would probably haw permannuK- cooled 
 the ardour of a less warlike people for ioreign conquests : 
 
 I A few years back tin- 1;l--.i ^f ;i c 'Imhn- i.f ( )M-( iernian 
 speaking' ]iei)ple died at Ivecoans, \\b.ere. arcor.HiiL; to all leral 
 reCDrds, they had existed --ince the battle of \'ercell,e, and may 
 very well luwe (n-i,L;iiiati-d in a settl>':i;e;it fi^rnied bv -oine ol the 
 remnants of the Kimbrians who succeeded ii; escaidn',; the Romans, 
 in a count;-.- covered with dense forests. Thev retaine:! the trad,i- 
 tion, and the an-.-,ver to a f"rei,_;ner enquirin..; concei-iiin- their 
 ori,:;in was " Ik pin Kimper," 1 am a Kimbrian (Sir Richard 
 Burton )
 
 22 nisrOKV OF ruK swiss pkoplk 
 
 but far from tliis, after devoting some iifty years to 
 repairing the effects of their defeats, the nation once 
 more began extensi\-e preparations for a second migra- 
 tion. 
 
 SccothI For more than two years before the date fixed for 
 
 Helvetian , . , „ 
 
 Migration departure, ex'erythmg was done to ensure success. Corn 
 
 was grown in great (quantity to provide food on the way ; 
 arms in abundance were manufactured ; and herds of 
 oxen were collected to draw the thousands of carts and 
 war-chariots built to convey the pro\-isions and act as 
 transports. 
 Orgetonx. Learning at length the great advantage derived 
 
 from unity and being under a smgle capal)le com- 
 mander, the Helvetii, after much discussion and no 
 little intrigue, elected the most powerful and wealthy of 
 their chiefs, Orgetorix, to this important post. His 
 personal position seems quite phenomenal, judging from 
 the recorded poverty of the people and the country, as, 
 beyond the possession of immense landed estates, he 
 owned many thousands of vassals, besides inmmierable 
 slaves and other followers. Mis \'ery name signified 
 power, as in the Keltic tongue it meant " chief of a 
 hundred valleys,"" and, written Orcitirix, it has come to 
 light on coins of that period, faced by the image of a 
 bear, a symbol dcslined in later times to play such an 
 important pari in Swiss affairs. To this chief was 
 further entrusted the task of forming friendships with 
 the surrounding tribes whose hostility might interfere 
 with the Helvetii successfully leaving their country. 
 I 'nfortunately for Orgetorix, who, with all his wealth, 
 was dominated by extreme ambition, it became known 
 tlial he was intriguing with certain chiefs of the Se^iiaiu 
 and Aediiii. llis object was to induce them to seize the
 
 Rlisolute coininanci of their respective tribes rincl assist 
 him ill makiiiL^ himself kin^- over the Hehelii. It was 
 further intended to conquer and divide (laul amongst 
 the conspirators. This act of treason, for it was a 
 criminal (jiTence, punishable with death bv burnin.L;-. lor 
 anyone to aspire to make himself kinj;' in Ilehetia, led 
 to Orgetorix, in s]:iite of his i;reat wealth, power and 
 popularity, beinLX summoned to answer and defend his 
 conduct before a tribtmal of the people. C)rj:^etorix 
 accordin_i,dy made his appearance before his judges, but 
 so did some lo.ouo ot his followers, fully armed, and 
 no trial conseipiently took place. Shorth' afterwards, 
 however, the ditticidt problem of how to deal with 
 the dishonoured chief was sohed bv his sudden death, 
 whether bv suicide or mtualer seems doubtful. In 
 spite of this ominous commencement thi' 1 IcKetii con- 
 tinued their preparations with artlour. In less than 
 three months the whole nation was on the march, ami 
 literally the whole people went forth., men. women, and 
 children, to seek and con(iucr the lands and homes ot 
 their radiant dreams, and. the bettci' to foitii}- them- 
 selves ai^'ainst anv wish to rituiii, the}- burnt tluir 
 towns, \'illages, and houses, and .dl tliry were unable to 
 t.ake with them. To the lleKeiian lanks were also 
 added large numbers of the WoW trom across the Khine. 
 as well as many from the nei^hbourim;- tribes. The 
 total number as gi\-en by Casai" is y\^,(u\\ ol whom ^s n 
 ()2,()oo were fighting men. 
 
 This time the l\oman Senate determined to ]n"e\a'm 
 a second inxasion of (laul and ellt'clualK' deslio\- all 
 chanc-es of future troubles with the llehelii. |ulius 
 Caesar was seiecti-d as ('onunander-in-("hiet oi the 
 Roman legions, ami entrusted with extensi\e powers
 
 24 HISTORY OF THE SWISS PEOPLE 
 
 lo carry through his task. The late barbarian leader 
 resembled in many respects the celebrated Roman 
 soldier. Both harboured ambitious designs of personal 
 aggrandisement, both were unscrupulous and ostenta- 
 tious, and both came to an inglorious death as a result 
 of private and personal greed. Whether Orgetorix fur- 
 ther resembled Caesar in the magnitude and depravity 
 of the latter's debaucheries is not known. With cha- 
 racteristic promptitude Ca-sar on receiving his command 
 journeyed to (xeneva, and at once began his work. 
 According to the account he himself gives, only two 
 roads were possible for the Heh'etii to take on lea\'ing 
 their country : one, of extreme difficulty and danger, 
 through the Jura, and the other across the Rhone, near 
 (iene^•a. If this account be accurate, it necessarily 
 implies that either the Helvetii had predetermined to 
 pass by one or other of these two roads, or that some 
 insuperable obstacle hindered their passage by the north 
 or the south. However this may have been, the Geneva 
 route was e\'entually preferred. On his arrival, Caesar's 
 first act was the destruction of the bridge connecting 
 the town with the mainland, Cjene\a being then an 
 island belonging to the Allobvogcs. lie next levied a 
 number of soldiers from the neighbouring Roman 
 province, and strongly fortified his position. On their 
 part, the lielvetii sent ambassadors to request Casar's 
 permission to pass peaceably. His preparations being 
 not yet completed, Ca.'sar delayed giving a definite 
 answer, and temporised for three weeks, during which 
 time he entrenched his position and built a rampart, 
 iS miles long and 12 feet high, with towers at interwals, 
 to the Jura. This wall extended along the southern bank 
 as far as the spot where the Jura opens for the passage
 
 HISTUKV Ol- 'I 111; SWISS I'l.Ol'Ll, 2 J 
 
 of the ri\er, diul opposite the nicjclern Fort r]:lckise. 
 where the Rhone ceases to be fordable. It probably 
 consisted chieliy of earth (the removal of which would 
 form the trtnich) with whatex'er li,L;'ht stones were 
 found. As an explanation of the rapidity of the work, 
 it must be remembered that where military operations 
 such as this had to be executed, not only were the 
 Redman soldiers employed, but the whole population 
 of the innuediate nei^dibourhocxJ were compelled to 
 assist, and that, too, ^ratuitouslv. Ilavinj,'' finished this 
 ^d.i(antic task in the short time at his disposal, collected 
 a further contingent of soldiers, and (otherwise greatly 
 strengthened himself, C'asar sent a definite refusal to 
 allow the Ileh'etii to pass. Nothing daunted, the 
 emigrant army made se\eral vigorous attempts to force 
 a way ; but, failing in this, they at last ga\e up the 
 route, and obtained permission from the Seguani to 
 enter (iaid through their territories, by trax'ersing the 
 |ura passes. Casar, ha\ing sliown already how (piickly 
 he could construct fortifications, now exhibited marxel- 
 lous rapiditv as a general in the fiekl. Leaxing his 
 legate Labrinus with the forces already at (iene\a, 
 he hurried into Ital}'. where he musteretl two legions, 
 and took thrt^' more fr(;m winter ([uarters at Aguileia, 
 and with these fne (30. oo.) men; he quickly marched b_\' 
 the shortest route to come up with the enem\', whose 
 main arm\' he e\entualh" oxertook, after se\'eral minor 
 engagements with detached bodies, as they were 
 crossing the ri\er Arar (Saone) : and, lastly, falling 
 upon a large number who had not yet crossed, he 
 completely destroyed thnn. Those who first fell were 
 the Tigurini, member^ of the {^articular /i/,:,'7/5 that some 
 fifty years before had l)een chietly the cause of the defeat
 
 25 HISTORY OF THJ-: SWISS PliOl'Li: 
 
 and slaughter of Cassius's army, and thus those who were 
 the foremost in bringing disgrace to the Roman army 
 were the first to pay the penalty of Rome's vengeance. 
 Immediately after his victory, Caesar built a bridge 
 (doing the whole work in one day) and led his troops 
 across the Arar. This reverse, coupled with the extra- 
 ordinary rapidity of Caesar's movements, greatly alarmed 
 the Heh'etii, and induced them to send ambassadors, 
 headed by the aged though still fiery and energetic 
 J)i\'iko, begging him to retire and allow them peaceably 
 to take possession of some portion of Gaul t(; be 
 mutually agreed upon. As, however, Ca;sar insisted 
 as a preliminary to terms on the lielvetii returning to 
 their country, furnishing hostages for their future good 
 conduct, and giving substantial compensation for the 
 damage already done, the interview led to no results. 
 At the demand for hostages, Di\-iko's old fiery spirit 
 blazed out when he haughtily told Caesar that " The 
 lielvetii Iiad been so trained by their ancestors that 
 they were accustomed to receive, not to gi\'e, hostages, 
 as the Ivoman peo}:)lc knew to their cost." Then l)egan 
 a remarkable march between the two hosts, the Hebctii 
 hastening forwards and the Romans following, and by 
 constantly harassing their rear trying to*bring about a 
 general engagement. After pursuing these tactics for 
 fifteen days, ("a'sar found his pro\'isions running shoil, 
 and therefore dixerted his route and marched ([uickly 
 upon the town of IHbracte. At this time liibracte 
 (afterwards known as Augustodunum, the modern 
 Autunj \\as an important town of the (luluii, on the 
 Ai'oux, in lUu'ginuly, and a great centre for tralfic in 
 corn. 'i"he change of front led the enemy to beliexe 
 the Romans were at last seized with fear, and were
 
 iiisr()K\ oi- iiii. SWISS i'i:()ri.i: 27 
 
 retrealiiif,^; and, actin-- upon this lit'lief, the\- also lurncxl- 
 and conmienccd a furious (jnslauj^dil a,i;ainst Ca'sar's 
 troops, who occupied a slij^luly risin^^ s^round in the 
 nei'dibourhood of tlu- town, and were drawn un, as {'''/''" '-'' 
 was their custom, in three hues. Lon,i;- and dcnihtful 5S is.c. 
 reniained the issue of tlie battle, tiU at last the sujuador 
 tactical skill of the i^reat Konian <;'eneral, combined with 
 the sturdy brax'cry and discij^iline of his men, pro\ed too 
 stronf^ for e\"en the enormous odds and sawas^^' heroism 
 of the barbarous toes. K'epulsed 1)\- the tij^htinj^' of the 
 legions and the showers ot Roman /'//j, thrown with 
 unerring aim and teirible eflect Irom the heights abo\e 
 them,' they first broke and then fell bacd-; on their lines 
 of wagons, wdiere were their wixcs and (diildren. No 
 sooner tlid the backward mo\-ement of the now 
 thoroughly disorganised ranks of the Ifeh'etii begin 
 than the Ivomans, leaxing the gromul ihey had so long 
 and so bra\el\- hcdtl. rushed down upon the enemy, and 
 a fearful slaughter ensued. After the battle a bod)' of 
 I leKetii, numbering some 1 30,000. eilectetl their escape 
 and reached the countr\- of the Lingones. where they 
 were followed three da}s later and comptdled, as the 
 price of their li\es, to delucr up then' arms and retuin 
 to their countr\-, and to gixc Imstages for their huure 
 good (-onduct. While the negoti;uions wei'e in progress, 
 some (),oo() of the tribe ol the \'n'l'i;^niii managed to 
 escape under co\cr of the night, but were soon captured 
 and, pour oiccuvai^i'v Ics milrcs. were all put to the sworii. 
 'bhis instance of what was not looked upon as exception- 
 
 I The piliiiii, or j;i\('lin, tNso ot wliiih were c.iriicii 1)\- each 
 Koni.in soldier to throw or u^c as a spear, was ahout o tcct n inches 
 in len,t,'th. Tlie iron head alone was .\^ i'eet in len,L;th, and barbed 
 'I'o the ])ossession oi this iorinidable weapon many cii the Ivonian 
 victories wert; chieiU' dne
 
 28 HISTORY OF THE SWISS PEOPLK 
 
 able cruelty in Caesar's time is interesting as compared 
 with modern ideas concerning the value of life. After 
 the massacre the remnants of the Helvetian hosts 
 sorrowfully returned to their country under strict 
 commands from C;esar to rebuild their towns and 
 \'illages, and never again to venture beyond their 
 mountain frontiers. Being entirely without provisions, 
 the Allobroges were ordered by Cctsar to provide them 
 with the necessary corn for their support. This latter 
 act of clemency was due less to feelings of humanity 
 towards Ca>sar's fallen foe, than to a wish to prevent the 
 Germans from occupying Helvetia and entering Italy, 
 as they doubtless would soon have done were the 
 country left unoccupied or only with a few weak and 
 starving inhabitants. Among the spoils captured in 
 the camp of the Hehetii was found a list, drawn up in 
 Greek, of the names of all the members forming the 
 expedition, from which it appears that out of the total 
 of 368,000 men, women, and children, 263,000 were 
 llcivctii, and of the rest 32,000 were Boii, 23,000 Rauvaci, 
 14,000 Latobri;^i, and 36,000 Tulin^i. 
 
 In the following year Ca:sar, wishing to make his 
 victory complete, entrusted to his Lieutenant, Sergius 
 Cialba, the task oi subduing the tribes of the V'eragri 
 and Seduni, inhabitants of districts in the present 
 Canton X'alais. This was accomplished after an 
 obstinate resistance, and a severe defeat of the tribes 
 at Octodurum (Alarligny), and after se\eral important 
 towns had been destroyed. A road was then buill to 
 connect the \'alais districts with Rome, and all lleKetia 
 was formally converted into a Roman province, though 
 in many parts the right of being gox'crned by nati\e 
 ma'Mstrates was conceded.
 
 HISTOR^■ oi^ Tui; SWISS i'i:oi'i.i; iq 
 
 The renKiinin,^,^ porlion of Switzerland, Rha-tia, was Rlutia 
 not conquered till some forty years later, and then only 
 in conse(juence of the turbulence of its people and the 
 darin,<( character of their niaraudin,;^^ excursions into 
 northern Italy. In one of these expeditions thev burnt 
 Como and penetrated as far as Milan, the news of which 
 reachin,!; Rome the then ICmperor, ()cta\-ianus Aui,aistus, 
 at once despatched two armies, under Drusus and 
 Tiberius Xero, to punish the inwaders and conquer their 
 country. Drusus crossed the Alps and descended the 
 valley of the Inn, whilst Tiberius made an attack in 
 the nei,!:;hbourhood of the Lacus 1 !rii;'antinus (Lake of 
 Constanz). After a desperate and heroic defence, in 
 which e\'en the women and children joined, and \aliantlv 
 ,<(ave their lives for the independence of their c'»untr\-, 
 the whole of Rhatia was subdued, antl henceforth 
 occupied the positi(jn of a Roman military State, 
 <:^overned by a pra-tor resident at C.uria Rhatcjrom 
 (Chur). 
 
 Thus both Heh'etia and Rhatia lost their inde- 
 pendence, and for the succeediuL: four centuries remained 
 subject to the Roman b^mpire, contributini;' to her 
 armies, if not to her re\enues, and beiuLT C(nistantly 
 oblii^ed to submit to the pre>ence of Roman soldieis, 
 who sternly enforced the decrees of Rome, and exacted 
 the most humiliatinL;; submission.
 
 CHAPTER III 
 
 HELVETIA UNDER THE ROMANS 
 
 In the period (58-51 B.C.) durinj:^ which he held 
 supreme command in Gaul, Ccesar succeeded in 
 bringing the whole country under the rule of Rome. 
 The new territories thus acquired were for purposes 
 of taxation, military service, and government, di\-ided 
 into three provinces, each under the control of a Roman 
 governor. In this division Helvetia became included in 
 the province of Bclij^ica, a district extending from the 
 Seine and the mouth of the Rhine to Lake Constanz. 
 Rha'tia, on the other hand, remained separate, and, 
 together with the districts round the Lake of W'allen- 
 statt up to Lake Constanz, as w(;ll as Southern ISaxaria, 
 the Tyrol, and other neighbouring lands, formed a 
 separate province. One of the most important objects 
 Rome never lost sight of was the formation of powerful 
 nati\e defences against the e\'er-present ilanger ol the 
 inroads of the Northern and ['Eastern nations. Vor this 
 purj-jose it was that C'a-sar hoped by re-establishing 
 the ile]\-ctii in their deserted counti'v to (jbtain their 
 support against the (/crmans. So also the Rha'ti were 
 compelled to guard the Ivastern frontiers ot the ICmpire 
 against the \ast hordes of barbarians always ready to 
 sweep through the Tyrol ;md passes of that moun- 
 tainous district. As one of the three men who occupy
 
 HisTdKN' o! iHi; SWISS iM'.oi'r.i: 31 
 
 the front r;ink of uiililary ,i,'(jnius. ("a\sar's practical 
 method of slmwiiiL,^ his opiiiinn of the vahie of '■ Imffer 
 states "' is intereslinj^" aiul inslruclix'e. In order t(; con- 
 ciHate the Heh'etii towardis their new niasters they 
 were at first treated as alhes (fa-derati) ralher than as 
 conquered subjects, and were allowed to retain a large 
 measure of their former liberty, their ancient laws 
 (when these did not clash with those of Rome), theii' 
 reli,^don. language, customs, antl their mode of go\c-rn- 
 ment bv fci^::!. This forced trientlship did not, how- 
 ever, pre\'ent many ot th(,' llehetii joining the Kelts of 
 (jaul in the attempts the latter made to regain their 
 lost position. Gradually Rome's superior militar\- and 
 civil institutions took the place ol those of nati\-e 
 origin, lleh'etia became a Roman ])ro\ince. in fact as 
 well as in name, and with this change opens a new 
 epoch in the history ot the peoi)le. Ju twchange foi" 
 their ancient independence ;!nd peisoiial liberlv, the 
 Swiss during four centuries receixcd the ci\ ilisation, 
 religion, language and glory of Rome: the\- also 
 recei\"ed and too readih' learned her \ices and her 
 crimes. Roman setllemenls beuan to make llieii' 
 appearance in many parts of the c ountr_\-. condMimig 
 all the (diaracteristics of the uondeiiul militaiw en- 
 gineering, and artistic skill ol Roman enterpi'ise. l-"i"om h' 
 these settlcP.U'nts the new inlluence rapidl\- sj)i-ead ox'er ' ' 
 the more fertile \alle\'s ol 1 lehetia, lea\ iul; the hiLjher 
 mountain districts alone untoU( lud. l)ut"iiig the leign 
 of Augustus C^a'sar two important cities weie built, one 
 on the ruins of the oKl iveltic settlemeiU oi .\(j\iodunum 
 (Xvon), and the otlua" the (_'i':";::>! .l:ii;:!>!j Iui;ii\h',T:i;i! 
 (Augst). One of the chief militarv stations on the 
 North was VuiJoai^S:! 1 W'imlisch 1, llii' main centre oi
 
 32 HISTORY OF THE SWISS PEOPLE 
 
 defence against the Germans. At a later date Aventicum 
 (Avenches) became a city of great importance, reaching 
 its greatest prosperity under Vespasian and Titus, and 
 was constituted the capital of Helvetia. Other Roman 
 settlements were Laiisoiiniuin (Lausanne), Solodiiruni 
 (Solothurn), Aquae (Baden, in Aargau), Ehrodunum 
 (Yverdon), Vitodnrum (Winterthur), Orba (Orbe), 
 Tnvicum (Zurich), Vibiscus (Vevey), and many others. 
 
 Religion. With their general advance in civilisation the 
 
 Helvetii discarded the primitive sombre religion of their 
 forefathers in most localities for the more attracti\e 
 form of Roman worship, with its magnificent ritual, its 
 splendid processions, its gorgeous temples, its imposing 
 ceremonies, and its awe-inspiring array of new deities. 
 Deprived in great measure of the excitement of war 
 (the chief stimulus of all savage races)", the Plelvetii 
 gladly embraced the religion of their conquerors, and 
 soon each tribe took to itself, or created, a special 
 protecting god from the ample stores of Roman 
 mythology. Only in the wild and more desolate 
 retreats did the ancient forms of worship persist, and 
 here they lingered on for many years undisturbed by 
 outside influences. The precise period when Christianity 
 was first introduced into Helvetia is unknown, though 
 legend in this, as in other events, is far from silent. 
 Its beginnings were probably small, and its progress at 
 first slow, and it doubtless owes its introduction across 
 the Alps to the large numbers of foreign soldiers of all 
 
 A.u. 300. nationalities, some of whom must liave embraced the 
 new faith, who formed the arnfics of the I'ihine and the 
 Danube. Towards the close of the second century large 
 and flourishing Christian communities were established 
 in many centres of the land, chief of which were those
 
 ut Avt^uicuiii, (iciiL'xa, \ imlonissci, Octodiiruin, unci 
 Augusta Kauracoruin. I'he lirst knuwn bishops ol the 
 Helvetian Churcli were i'aracelsus and Diogenes, of 
 deneva: Justinian, of Augusta (a.i.). 34')); and Theodore, 
 of Octoduruni (a.d. jt^o). Of the many early inartyr> 
 to their faith, the massacre of the Thebian Legion in 
 \ alais f(;r refusing to saerilice to the heathen gods, 
 towards the end ot the third ecnturw lurnishctl a goodlv 
 number. Of those wlio sur\i\a-Ll this slaughter, two, 
 ( rsus and N'lctor. are said to ha\'e been afterwarils 
 put to death at Sidothurn. whilst l-"eli.\ and his sister 
 Ivegula became the patron saints ot Zurich, where, at 
 the order of 1 )ecius, they are said to ha\e been 
 beheaded. The claims to canonisation ot these latter 
 appear to rest chiellv on. their \arv exceptionable 
 l)eha\'iour immediately alier their execution, when they 
 are stated to have picked up their heads and to ha\e 
 walked otf to a conxx-nient spot, where they buried 
 themsel\-e>. (ireat indeetl was the change wrought on 
 the character and de\-elo[)nient of the 1 lehetii by the un- 
 recorded pioneers of the new faith. In the nndst ot a 
 semid)arbarous and wholly hostile p.'ople. exhibiting 
 in their dailv actions the worst features ot a b;istard 
 Roman mythidogy, and the licentiou- excesses ot a 
 degraded and decax'ing Koinan ci\-ili>.ition, those 
 courageous and pious men introduced, and themsel\-es 
 pracli>ed. the humanising tenets ol the C liristian creed 
 in mtich of Us prinmi\e beauty and siiniihcU}-. 1 hey 
 f )r the first time in history raised charity to a practical 
 \-irtue from its old reproach of ( owardice and \ ice. lo 
 the oppressed, ttie tortured, and tiv e:isla\-cd an at:er 
 ha\-en of rest and liai)paiies> w.is i)ro:iii>ed. 1 nlike 
 their successors in mote- modern times laiul wry unlilxa'
 
 34 iiisroKN' oi- THi-: swiss i'eopi.i; 
 
 the present bench of bishops and college of cardinals), 
 these early Christian guides believed it possible and 
 right to lead the life their Founder had led, and to 
 follow the precepts He enunciated in all their literal 
 meaning. To them expediency was a doctrine unknown, 
 and rather than deny or in any way moderate the faith 
 they belie\-ed to be true to suit their surroundings, they 
 gladly welcomed every species of persecution, and faced 
 the most horrible forms of death with firmness. This 
 was an age when friendly discussions on religion and 
 eternal damnation did not form a portion of the accepted 
 social customs of life; it was also an age before the 
 erection of innumerable and hostile churches (and 
 deities), having nothing in common save their mutual 
 hatred and irreligious departure from original Chris- 
 tianity. In spite, or in consequence, of their many 
 persecutions (and there seems little doubt they h'ci'e 
 persecuted most frightfully), the Christians increased 
 rapidly in numbers and in importance, and by their 
 teachings and example did much to lighten the hea\-y 
 and joyless lives of the people, and to give them 
 courage to pass through the many trials that surrounded 
 and awaited them. 
 
 National With the Roman occupation a great development m 
 
 Progress. ,• • r i ,■ ^ i i 
 
 the knowledge and application ot the uselul and decora- 
 tive arts was felt all o\er the country. At A\-enticuin 
 an academy for general educational purposes was insti- 
 tuted, and schools, gymnasia, and amphitheatres soon 
 sprang to life in almost e\'ery town. Ijut specially were 
 the people benefited l)y the iinprox'ements (iflcctcd in 
 agriculture and industrial mechanics, by the substitu- 
 tion of more modern methods for those of natixe origin, 
 tlu' onlv merit cT which was often merelv their aye.
 
 insrom- oi riii; swiss i'i;ru'i.i: ;^ 
 
 A,i(rirullure in llcKeti.'i waslhen in a \ erv priiniti\e statre. 
 but soon improxccl greatly by adoption of new processes, 
 the planting of imported \-ines, the change froni the 
 wooden to the iron plough, and the many other practical 
 novelties brought in by the conquerors. The breeding 
 of cattle and the manufacture of cheese were also 
 impro\-ed, and it was not long before the latter ]iroduce 
 was in great recjuest abroad. Another industry that 
 attracted much attention was the felling and transport- 
 ing of the fir trees that grew in such wast quantities on 
 the mountain slopes, for purposes of shipdniilding. down 
 the Rhine and the Aar. The cxtensi\'e and well-made 
 roads that always marked Roman adwance, passing 
 through the chief districts, tended much to open up 
 the country and facilitate trade and general i)rogress. 
 Refore this period regularly C(jnstructed routes through 
 the land were practically unknown.' The towns were 
 naturally the chief centres of ci\ilisation. llere, antl in 
 their neighbourhood, great numbers ot \'illas belonging 
 to wealthy Romans made their apj)earance, the (nvners 
 of which introduced much ot the business known in 
 Rome, as well as armies of sla\es t(j till the lieKls and 
 perform the more menial domestic work. 
 
 Though the reconstruction ol the llel\-elian lace as j^^.,,,.-; />,;;, 
 effected by C^u'sar had for its [)rimary object the erect- 
 ing (jf a linn and permanent baiiicr against the inllow 
 of the ("lermans from across the Rhine, il soon became 
 
 I The chief [\i)m.-ui i-orids iiKiiU; in Ihjhctia were: ( )\ cr ihc 
 Jura frcim ()il>a to ArioL'i, from ()rl)a thrmi^li 1 .aiiSMimiuin lo 
 Genf\-a, from X'ihiscus to A\fiiti( iim. h-'Mii Avciuirimi thr'HiL^h 
 Solochirun to Ati-ti^ta Kaiii-aronim, li-oin tin- hitter town to A.l 
 hint's (l'f\ni, anil to I'h-ii^antia. an.l ironi ltal\- alon,L; tlic Khinc and 
 hake Leman to \'ihis;;iis, pas^in^ throii;^!! hrnnihiu-us ( \'inrncii\ij, 
 tlien iH\iilini,' into two, ^oiim north an.l wc-^t
 
 36 insTOi<\- oi' -i-ii]; SWISS Pi-.oi'i.!; 
 
 apparent that Roman le^dons were better able to defend 
 the frontiers than the undisciplined native forces. A 
 different policy was consequently inaugurated and 
 steadily pursued. The patriotism and barbaric bravery 
 of the people were slowly but very surely undermined 
 and extinguished by carefully creating local jealousies, 
 by granting special privileges to special localities, by 
 encouraging prominent men in the different tribes to 
 take office under the I'2mpire, and by doing whatever 
 was likely to destroy nationality and union. The intro- 
 duction of Roman sports, gladiatorial and other public 
 institutions, soon destroyed or changed native customs 
 and pastimes, and added factors to alter national 
 characteristics. The results of this policy of '■^divide ct 
 impeva" were apparent in the frequent quarrels, distrust, 
 and local jealousies that became universal, and effectually 
 prevented any serious combination likely to prove harm- 
 ful to Roman influence. Gross and luxurious tastes also 
 took the place of the former simple living of the Heh-etii, 
 who aped the more indolent and vicious habits of their 
 masters. Habits and customs which were already pre- 
 paring the downfall of the mighty I^oman b^mpire could 
 not do otherwise than ^•ery injuriously affect the moral and 
 physical life of the people of Helvetia, whose proximity 
 to, and dependence on Rome made their country a 
 microscopic reproduction of that empire. Moreover, 
 disuse rusted the courage as well as tlie arms of the 
 people, and the sa\"agc bra\'cry, so long a natural 
 characteristic, became replaced by a degrading and 
 cringing servility to those from whom benefits might be 
 had, (jr injuries expected. " The history of the deeds of 
 their ancestors became the sole remaining glory of the 
 Helvetii."
 
 \\ hilsl the Swiss were thus ,i,a';ulually emerL,^- 
 in,i;" from their coiulition of liarbaiisiii, one of those 
 outbursts ot sa\ aij;e crueltv that periodically put back 
 the progress of Koniau, as of later ci\ilisati(nis, Cu.iit.i'^ 
 suddenly swept over the land. On the news of the ' ''~~''''' 
 
 ^ ' A.D. O9. 
 
 assassination of the Ivniperor (ialba (.\.i>. 6w) at Ronic 
 becoming known to the large bodv of troops then 
 stationed at N'indonissa. they at once proclaimed, in 
 the name oi the German army. N'itellius as ICmperor, 
 and forwarded letters to their comrades in I'annonia,' 
 asking them to join in placing him on the throne. Being 
 joined by the Thracian Legion and others, the soldiers 
 then broke discipline and commenced p)lundering all 
 they could lay their hands on. In this the Tweiitv- 
 lirst, the notorious •• Rapacious Legion," particularK' 
 distinguished itself. Amongst other acts (jt lawlessness 
 the money then being conveyed to pay the lIcKetian 
 troops at Tenedo was seized. The conduct of the 
 Roman soldiery at last became so outrageous that exen 
 the spiritless lieKetii were rouseil to attempt a stand 
 against tmlher plunder and insult. i icing still unaware 
 ol the murder oi ( jalba, ami wishing to show their lo\alt\- 
 to him, the\- intercepted the letteis ^)\ the troops, anil 
 arrested and imprisoned the centurion antl hi.s guaici who 
 were carr\ing them. Nothing could well ha\e been 
 fraught with greater peril than .such an act ; but doubtless 
 the lieKetii beliexed a re\'olution was being fomented, 
 and trusted to the l*2mperor tor i)rote( tion. At this time 
 
 I I'annonia constitutfil one ot' the nio-^t important of thr 
 several Roman i)ro\inrcs. It was bouniled on the no;-th hy the 
 Paniihe. on the south 1)\- Ill\-iium and Moesia, and on the x'.esl 
 by the Juhan Alps. It inidmied the districts alon,L; the Panube 
 from \'ienna. the Rastei-n pnvtii'iis ol Austria, ("arriola and 
 I'arinthia. part ol' lluii.,'ar\, Shui'nia. ('roatia an(l interna
 
 38 HISTORY oy I HE SWISS PEOPLL 
 
 Aulus CfEcina, one of the legates of Vitellius, had jusl 
 entered Helvetia, on his way to Italy, with an army of 
 30,000 men. On learning that a Roman centurion had 
 been arrested by the Helvetii he at once marched to his 
 rescue. Caxina is described by Tacitus as a blood- 
 thirsty, ferocious commander, delighting in slaughter, 
 who simply made the act of the Helvetii a pretext for 
 gratifying his taste for war. And right w^ell he sustained 
 his reputation. On his progress he laid waste the whole 
 country, pillaging and destroying every town and village 
 he passed, and slaughtering thousands of the unfortunate, 
 unresisting inhabitants. Amongst other places he burned 
 was the important town of Aquae (Jr5aden), then, as now, 
 renowned for its thermal springs. The helpless peasants, 
 driven to desperation, tried to face the Romans ; but, 
 being without arms, discipline, or cohesion, w^ere easily 
 defeated and slaughtered wholesale. Some few escaped 
 to the mountains, but, being pursued by Ccecina's Ger- 
 man and Thracian auxiliaries, strengthened by Rha>tian 
 cohorts, were nearly all massacred. Ca;cina, incensed 
 at this show of resistance, marched against the capital, 
 Aventicum, whence tine terrified citizens sent a deputa- 
 Uon offering an unconditional surrender and begging the 
 general to spare their lives. This i'e(|uest Oa'cina 
 granted, after ordering the execution of Julius Alpinus, 
 one of the principal Helvetian chiefs, a man uuic.h 
 respected and honoured by everyone. Having some- 
 what slaked his thirst for blood, Oa^cina rested awhile 
 from further slaughter. 'I'his was apparently nujre 
 from fatigue than mercy, as he next sent messengers 
 to the new lunperor, then in Oaul, asking permissicjn 
 to destroy the whole (jf the people of Helvetia. 'J'he 
 news spread last and roused the remnant of the
 
 llIhroK\' lU- 111!'. S\\Ir>> ri-.ol'l.l-. 31J 
 
 miserable ilehetii to make a final el'f'ort to sa\e their 
 li\"es. A deputation was accordini^ly i^ot toj^a'ther and 
 sent after Carina's messeni^a-rs to neutralise, if [)OSsible, 
 their presence. Admitted before X'itellius the ]IeI\-etian 
 representati\es tound the ICmperor surrounded b\- in- 
 fluential soldiers, who, brandishing;' their swords, loudly 
 demanded the complete extermination of the helpless 
 people. With ditliculty were they pre\ ented from begin- 
 nin<^'' the slauj^diter by killmi;' the llehi-'tii present, whom 
 X'itellius himself threatened and abused. After repeated 
 and ineffectual efforts to soften their enemies, one of 
 the lleh'etian deputies, Claudius C'orius, a remarkably 
 eloquent man, concealimf his rhetorical pcnvers by a 
 well-acted trepidation, which made his utterances the 
 more elfectixe. melted the hearts of the soldiery, liable 
 as the hearts of soldiers always are to be inlluenced by 
 the occurrences of the moment, and dixerted them from 
 their cruel purpose. After torrents of tears, and by 
 repeatedly be-.^^^'in'^^ milder treatment, he obtained im- 
 numity, and saved the people from destructicjn (Tacitu^l. 
 "Thus," exclaims the ,L;'reat Swiss histt)rian. Miillei', 
 '• throu.i^'h the instrmnentality of a sin^'le man a whole 
 nation was preserxed." Meanwhile C'acina continued 
 his march to Italy, sa\in,L; that the iCmperor himself 
 would deal with the fate of the people. Throu-h the 
 forced clemency of X'itelhus those left by his IcL^aleV 
 butcheries were enabled to reccner from their calamiiirs 
 and attain attempt to improxe them^el\l■s and tiuMi' 
 cuuntr}'. 
 
 Durinj^^ their much-needed rot, the |)eo[)le made./,- 
 '^vciii and rapid pro.^res^ in ci\ ilisatioii, in whic li they 
 were largely assisted by the fa\(nir c;f the succeeding 
 i-_Lmper(M", X'espasiaii, who took the lleixetii umler his
 
 4© 
 
 msiOKv OF 'nu-: swiss im;oi'i,k 
 
 special protection. Through him many towns rose to 
 considerable importance. Especially was this the case 
 with Aventicum, which was particularly singled out 
 by the Emperor to honour the memory of his father, 
 Sabinus, who for many years had lived there as a 
 merchant, as had also Vespasian himself when a youth. 
 In Aventicum he built magnificent temples, palaces, 
 baths, and other public institutions, and presented the 
 town with many beautiful works of art collected from 
 abroad. He re-erected the portions of the town des- 
 troyed by C^Ecina, and re-peopled it in part by estab- 
 lishing within its walls a colony of Roman veterans, 
 distinguished as much for good conduct as for valour. 
 Erom the nmnl)er of coins found among the ruins of 
 Aventicum, it is inferred that the mint of the country 
 was there situated. At the period of its greatest glory, 
 it is not improbable Aventicum was close to the Eake of 
 Alorat, which afterwards receded or was partly filled up. 
 In acknowledgment of the many favours bestowed on 
 Helvetia, a triumphal arch was erected to \'espasian 
 after his death (a.d. Si) in the capital, and he was 
 further honoured with the title of " Eather of the 
 Nation."" Titus, the son and successor of this Emperor, 
 protected, e(jually with his father, the Helvetii, and did 
 liis utmost to foster their industries and promote their 
 national prosperity, as did also the J*]mperors Trajan 
 (98-117), Hadrian (i 17-138), and Marcus Aurelius {i(m- 
 180). But I^oman rule and Roman society, all-powerful 
 and brilliant as they appeared, were permeated beneath 
 the surface by the rottenness of decay, and now, towards 
 the close of the third century, the end of Roman 
 supremacy was approaching, and although Rome for 
 sc\eral decades maintained her position, in,dicalions of
 
 4' 
 
 ihe coining collapse ot Ikt worUl-wiclc intUieme writ^ 
 already bccoinii;;,;' apparent. To seliish egoism a f^n'oss 
 sensuality, eniliracini;' e\erv form of the most hideous 
 licentiousness, opendy practised, and a marked decline 
 in national pritle autl spirit, was now added the lonj;- 
 threatened dan^'er (^f a ^rcat inrush of \va\-es of nortliern 
 barbarians. The policv be^un by Ca'sar had so far 
 succeeded, though often with onlv the j^reatest exertions, 
 in keepin,L( the northern and eastern hontiers safe from 
 the assaults ot sa\at;'e hordes. In \.\k 2()o a lar.u'e bodv ''' 
 ot Ciermans (AllemaTini) broke throui^di the Ivoman ,\ 
 defences, and dewastated many distric~ts of llehetia, 
 besides pilla<(in,L,f and partiallv destroyini;- the capital, 
 Axenticum. Ixome pro\ed too we,d< to repulse or expel 
 the invaders, who settled in numbers in North-eastern 
 Melvetia, taking' possession of the lantls and t^oods of 
 the nati\'es, whom they reduced to the coiulition of 
 slaxes. b'rom this time the Ilebetii liatl to prepare It) 
 recei\e new masters and a!^^am to lose many of their 
 newl\' -acquired national cdiaracteristu's. 
 
 In A.i). ^7(^ another aini\' of Northerner^, the /> 
 1'Uu'f.^undians from the shores of tlie lialtic. s\\e))t down ,^ 
 upon Ilebetia. and settled in the wistein jtoition on 
 both sides of the |ura. and between this ram;e and the 
 Ivixer Aai and Lake Leman. i'Iimul;!! m maiiv \\a\.s 
 still sa\aj;es. the iUirnunthans had already endnact'd 
 Cdiristianity, and conscMiueiuK' treated the rouipieicd 
 people with men- leniL'UCN than did the Alk-mamu. 
 dixadin^*" with tlu' ori,L;inal owners the landh of which 
 they took possession. 
 
 In 4'/^ the (loths, alread\- master^ ot Italv. mo\ed ' 
 northwards, and conquered and took the Kha tian terri- 
 tories. ThouL;h (dnistians, like tlu' 1 UirLi'unthans, the\' 
 
 nnian 
 
 II, 2')0. 
 
 
 1- 4 1.1
 
 42 HISTORY Ol- TJIK SWISS FKOl'Li: 
 
 were less advanced in civilisation, and treated the 
 natives much in the same way as did the (jermans. 
 Except in occasional instances, the power of Rome 
 was too thoroughly crushed to allow her to olFer any 
 real resistance to the ever-coming masses of Northern 
 savages that deluged her empire in blood, and Helvetia 
 and Rha^tia in the general overthrow^ found themselves 
 free from their old masters, but under the rule of new 
 and very different ones in e\ery particular. The history 
 of the people accordingly enters another epoch.
 
 CHAI'TICR I\ 
 
 Al.I.KMANXI AMI T, T l-M , I ' M il A N : 
 
 Tiii, AUenianni. or (icnuan iiuatleis, ot the third 
 century were cjt uncertain I'ace : but prohablw as the 
 name iniphes. a mixed people ot difterent tribes [Alic. 
 all, I'lKiiiiui', men). Theories, as ntuuercjus a> the\- are 
 opposed, ha\"e ttjr many year^ been propcnmded as to 
 their orii^in ; but, thouj^h man}- ot these are bcjth in- 
 terestinj^- and inp;'eni(jus. they are the<jries and ncjthint;- 
 more. I'^rom the centre ot Germany the Allemanni 
 extended north and scjuth tor an unkiKnvn but cer- 
 tainly considerable distance between the Khme and 
 the I)anul)e, and then, crossinj^'' the mountains, spread 
 over ltal\- as tar as ]va\enna. In the tilth century 
 they were tirmly seltletl in ICastern and Nin'thern 
 Hehetia, and in Alsatia as tar a,s the \ os^es. 
 
 On their tirst inxa^iuii (d Suilzc'iland tlu' Alle- 
 manni tlid not penetrate tar into the MUith. settling;" 
 chietl}' in the m^rth-easli'i n district--, their prmci[)al 
 object bein.L," to wrest (laul Iroiii the lujinan^. As a 
 people they \\-ere deNotetl Id war. huiitm^ and agricul- 
 ture, and despjised ail lixcd habitation^ and the luxinie.^ 
 of town liie. TheN' were e>>tiiti.dly \\"arrior-tarmer.->. 
 and li\ed tor the mu^t iiail in lar-e and ^e[)arateil 
 homesteads [ l:i)i.diii>tn. At one time mure than three 
 thcnisand of such home>tead>, with cuhi\ated tieids and 
 farm-buildin.Lrs attached, occupied the districts of the 
 modern ('anion el Ziirioh, ln^ulo iwa-Kc \illaL;es and
 
 44 msroKV oi' thi; swiss i'i-;()i'].i-; 
 
 a hundred hamlets. The conquered lands were divided 
 into districts {Gaiieii) and sub-districts, each with its 
 own form of government, under the rule of an officer 
 chosen by the people from among the nobles {Edclin>^c). 
 In times of war or national emergency all united under 
 an elected chief (Fld'zo'j;). The lands were divided 
 between the nol)les and the freedmen according to the 
 size of each family and the numl:)er of cattle each 
 possessed, whilst the original owners were reduced to 
 slavery and compelled to do the hardest and most 
 menial work. In their settlements a large tract of 
 land was usually set apart to supply wood and grazing 
 ground for the comnumity {Alluicnd). From the first, 
 society was sharply and clearly divided into the "free" 
 and the " unfree." In religion the ne\v-comers were 
 pagans, worshipping their god Odin, to whom it was 
 their custoni to sacrifice with offerings of beer and 
 horses on the shores of the lakes. They resisted the 
 influence of Christianity and civilisation longer than 
 any of the other l)arl~)arian nations that concpiered 
 Helvetia, and li\cd and ruled by the right of might 
 alone. ^ l\)pLdar assemblies of the (reedmen met at 
 inter\-als to discuss and decide upon all matters of 
 national concern, as well as tor religious, judicial, 
 and otiier j)urposes. These assemblies, destroyed by 
 later feudalism, re-appeared in Switzerlantl in the 
 long-existing Laiids<j:cnuindi'n. I'nlike many other con- 
 
 I In Scandinavian traditions mention is made of an all- 
 powerful chief, named ()din, who ori,L;inall\- came from Asia, 
 con(]nered Scandina\ia, and built a cit_\ he called Si^duna, \shere 
 he erected a tiMiiple, and established a worshi]). I le is rej^'arded as 
 the ^M'eal ci\iliser and le.^islator ol the north, and is belie\'ed by 
 mam authorities to ha\e arrived h'om the h^ast about 60 i'..c.
 
 iiisroKN- oi 1II1-; SWISS rioi'i.K _| 5 
 
 (luerors seltliiiL;' in ;i new land, thf AUrmanni were 
 neither absorbed b\', nor did the\- develop many of. the 
 characteristics of the natives. With the advent of the 
 invaders came new manners, customs, lan<,aiage and 
 reli^non that almost completely destroyed those of the 
 Roman- 1 leK'etia people. 
 
 Thou<:(h the b^mpiri' was fast totterin,<( to its linal 
 fall, se\"eral re\'i\als of l\ome's lormer militarv .i^n'eat- 
 !iess took place. Ot these the most important were 
 between the years a. p. 27S and 301. when she was ;it 
 constant war with the (lermans. 1 Jurinj^r the rei,i;n of a. p. jm 
 the l-^mperor Constantius Chlorus ( 2c)i -30'^) the invaders 
 were frequently defeated and obliged to retire some- 
 what further north. The most decisi\e ot these defeats 
 occurred near X'indonissa, where immense nuiid)(;rs of 
 the barbarians were slain. Alter this \ictor\-, the 
 better to ^'uard against further acK'ances, the luujieror 
 tortified the City of (ianodurum (near C'onstanz), which 
 he rt;-name(l ("onstantia. 
 
 I'urthei" defeats were inflicted at the hands of ^^ ,, ^5-. 
 Constantine the (ireat (3*>''-337K after which peace 
 was maintained till the h'.mperor's death, when tlie 
 AlleuKumi again succeetled in extcndini;^ their territories. 
 I'^'om ^5') to 3')i the\' \\ere often routed witli ,i,M eat ^ 1, jOi. 
 slaughter by Julian, as also by \ aleiuiuian (3'\5-37S)- 
 All this long' period was little better than a record of 
 liattles and general bloodshed, iu which between the 
 contending forces immense muid)(.'rs of the unfortunate 
 llehetii ])erished, either 1)\' the swoid or bom fcuniue 
 and tlisease. In the middle of the 3tli century the 
 dermans liad so far got the u|)[ier hand that the_\- were 
 able to spread (j\-er the western portions of llelxeliaas 
 far as ( jene\ a.
 
 4''' iiisi'om- oi' THE SWISS i'i;oi'i.i-; 
 
 Here, however, they came in contact with the 
 Franks, by whom they were defeated in a great battle 
 with immense loss in a.d. 496. The most important 
 result of the contest was that the Allemanni were 
 compelled to embrace Christianity and submit to the 
 Prankish king, Clodewig (hence Clovis and Louis). This 
 introduction of a new faith appears to have been a 
 matter of pure chance to both contending sides, as 
 before the battle Clodewig himself vowed to become a 
 Christian in the event of his gaining the victory. Many 
 of the Allemanni, refusing to accept their conqueror as 
 sovereign, made good their escape, and sought refuge in 
 the mountainous regions of Helvetia and RhtCtia. 
 
 The Buygiin- Nothing is known for certain as to the origin of the 
 
 hkirgundians, though the weight of evidence points to 
 the probability of their being Kelts who passed into 
 Germany from the shores of the Baltic. Many authori- 
 ties consider thenr to have been Sclaves or W^endes, or 
 Vandals from the Vistula. lie this as it may, in or 
 
 A.n, 406. about the year a.d. 406 they crossed the Rhine and 
 
 penetrated far into Gaul. There they founded a kingdom 
 in the territories occupied by the Aedui, Sequani, and 
 other tribes forming the Roman province of Ciallia 
 Longdunensis, thus taking in the whole of South-eastern 
 France as far as the Ivhone .and the Loire, and the 
 plains at the base of the Alps, formerly inhabited by the 
 Allol)roges, including the town and neighbourhood of 
 Gene\a, and modern Savoy. After se\-eral encounters 
 with the Romans a semi-peace was made, whereby the 
 i'kirgundians engaged to defend the Empire ngainsi 
 the attacks of other invaders. According to Orosius, 
 Gunlhalan, their chief, together with most of his 
 followers, became a convert to (iiristianity in 417.
 
 insi-nm Of riii: swi: 
 
 I'll >1M,1 
 
 47 
 
 throut^h the ini^sioiiarv hilxnirs of ;ui -A'^cd Koinaii 
 l-!ishop. In 430. Auila. kiny- nf the Huns. " the scourc^e 
 of God," swept on his con(]uerinf,'' and destrovinc: career 
 throu,e:h Western Ivurope, across the IkirLTundian lands, 
 slau^'hterinf,^ the people \vh(.)lesale. 'rh()u<:,di offerin','' a 
 heroic opposition, the I iur^-undians were entirely unable 
 to withstand the fanatical sawa'^'^es, and, besides losinLT 
 their leader, suffered defeat whene\-er thev <j;:i\e battle. 
 The Iluns. howe^■er. a people of hunters, passed on, 
 destroyini^ all human habitations, and carrying awav the 
 people into captivity, leavin.^' behind a lon,tr and dismal 
 track of dewastation until JCtius. assistctl by the Franks 
 and other (ierman settlers in (jaul. utterlv routed them 
 in a memorable battle in the Catal.uini dui'.f-i. or plains of 
 Chalons ( X'ieusseux 1. In this encounter joo.noo men 
 are believed to have been slain. To the Ikir.^-undians 
 the Romans assi,i(ned the district nf Sabaudia (Sa\-o\i. 
 on the condition that thev should ])rotect both (laul anil 
 Italy from the attacks of the Allemanni. As time went 
 on the l)ur,i(undians pushed forward into modern \'alais. 
 I^revburif, and other districts in MeK'etia. They l>lended 
 with the people, and readily assimilated the existiuL; 
 Roman ci\'ilisati<jn, language and laws. 
 
 A succession of kin,L;s. ot whom ( iundicai'm was 
 the iirst, reij^ned tn-er the 1 !urL;un(lian>. and kepi up a 
 constant war with the .MK-manni, b'ranks, and other 
 neii^hbcjurini,'- nations. Later kinirs were ( luntlenchus. 
 his four sons, (iundobald, ( iodeu;'isiIus. ("hilperic and 
 ( lodemar. The latter two, according;' to ( ircL^orv of 
 Tours, were killed by their brother (iundobald, who 
 then di\id('d the kinmlom with ( "iodeL;i>i!us, and Sfttk-tl 
 at ('iene\'a, ( iundobald himself rulm'^' at Lyons. In yui, 
 (do\is. kiii!4 of the I'lMuk---. attacked and defeated (iun- 
 
 AttiLt, 
 A n 450. 
 
 A I> 451. 
 
 I' 'If F).ui.f
 
 A.n. siC' 
 
 4'^ nis'i"OR\' oi- riii: swiss im;oi'[.i: 
 
 dobakl, o\vin<^^ to the treachery of the latter's brother, 
 who deserted him during the battle. Peace followed, 
 and Gundobald, who was now an expert fratricide, 
 found an excuse in his brother's conduct to put him also 
 to death, and take possession of the whole kingdom. 
 This resolute and ambitious assassin was in religion an 
 Arian Christian, and played an important part in the 
 stirring and acrimonious theological disputes of his time. 
 He died in 516, and was succeeded by his son Sigismund, 
 who, unlike his father, became a pronounced orthodox 
 Catholic. In character he was weak, and allowed 
 himself to be greatly influenced by those around him ; 
 but, nevertheless, he did one notable thing in his reign 
 by publishing a book of laws. This embodiment of a 
 collection he made of the laws and customs of the 
 nation, though naturally crude and imperfect, is probably 
 the first legal system in a codified form amongst the 
 forefathers of the Swiss, and doubtless pro^'ed beneficial 
 to the people. As an instance of the weak and \icious 
 side of his character, Sigismund allowed himself to l)e 
 instigated by his second wife to put his son by his former 
 wife to death. I'^illed with remorse, he then retired into 
 the monastery of St. ]\Iaurice, which he endowed and 
 otherwise greatly benefited. Whilst in seclusion the 
 kfi-anks, under the command of King ('lodonfir, attacked 
 524, his kingdom, captured Cenewi in 524, and then, seizmg 
 
 the penitent monarcli, his murderous wile: and liis 
 children, beheaded them all at (iene\'a. Clodonfir 
 himself was killed shortly alterwards in battle by 
 (j-odemar, Sigisnumd's brother and succ(>ssor, who 
 maintained the war for ten years, when, at the battle 
 of 1 )igon in 5^4, he was defeated and kiik>d by the 
 svu'\i\ing brotlun" of Clodomir. I iy the death of 
 
 5J4
 
 HIS |-(ii;\' ()|- I'M!; sw iss pi-i U'l i; (<) 
 
 (jotleinar. this royal vencU-lta raiiu' to an t-ncl. and the 
 kinf^fdoni ot ISur^uunly lost its iiulfpenik'nce, hcin^; con- 
 verted into a subject proxince of tlie I'ranks. lailed bv 
 numerous se[:)arate ,i,M)\ern()rs. 
 
 After these e\ents the soutiiiTn \allevs of 1 iehetia /- "v 'V.'k/ 
 were inwadeil by the Lont^obards troin the plains of' ' ""'" 
 Northern Italy (570). These Lon^()l)ards (from the 
 Teutonic hiiii:, lon^^ Imii. beard) a{)pear to ha\e li\-ed 
 ori<^dnally east of the h^lbe. towards the Haltic, and. 
 durin,i^ the jrd and 4lh centuries, to have followed the 
 general southern nio\einent of the Xorthern nations. 
 In A.D. 368, under the command of Albon. tlie\- crossed 
 the Julian Alps near b\)rum Julii, and conquered tlu' 
 fertile plains of I.ombardy. In 375, being without a 
 leader, the nation split up into sections, ('ach ruled bv 
 a Duke, who goxerned a sejiarate ili>trict. as ba\ ia. 
 Treto, Uergamo, etc. I'nder these Pukes the Longo- 
 bards conquered I'mbria, Tuscan v and Liguria. 
 
 I'rom this ])eriod may be dated the disa;ipearance /um/.'.'v 
 ot the old IIelveti;in languages and the introduction i>{ 
 (lerman o\-er the greater portion of the countr\-. In the 
 neighlxnirhood of Xeuchatt.'! and (iene\a ih.e ('lallo- 
 Koman dialects held their giound ; Irom these arost> bv 
 slow degrees modern b'reiK h. The burgundians, on 
 the other hand, so amalgamated with the coiKpiered 
 race that they became Romanised, both in speech and 
 customs. I'rom the time of these settlements in llel- 
 \etia niav also be traced f>r the fust time something 
 like a regulai' svstem of orgam'si'd --ocictw 
 
 The diiferent social gradrs. at hrst indi^tinci , 
 became giaduallx- pi'oiiounce.l, auil o| these the nobles 
 ranked next to the King, whibt beneath them weie the 
 common freedmen, oi' ficedmen who could bi- tenants 
 
 4
 
 50 msroKv oi- ihi: swiss it.oim.i: 
 
 but not freeholders, and, lowest of all, territorial serfs. 
 After the death of a Burf^undian his property was 
 equally divided amongst his children, as at the present 
 time. The only occupations not derogatory to a 
 freedman were fighting in time of war, and agriculture 
 in time of peace, all other work being performed by the 
 serfs. Most of the useful arts made progress vmder 
 Burgundian rule, especially agriculture and the culti- 
 vation of the vine, which during the troublous times of 
 the in\asions had been necessarily much neglected. 
 With the spread of Christianity monasteries sprang up 
 in many parts of the country, forming centres for piety, 
 learning and work. Indeed, work and piety came to 
 be looked upon as inseparable. It is impossible to 
 over-estimate . the importance of tlie introduction of 
 Christianity upon the natural character of these 
 ancestors of the modern Swiss. It found the vast 
 mass of the people steeped in the deepest depths of 
 wretchedness, without hope of amelioration of tlieir lot 
 in this world, and with nothing to look forward to 
 after death, which was usually their only friend. The 
 doctrines of the monks appealed forcibly to the 
 imagination of the poorest and most abused classes. 
 These were the very classes singled out for iiistruclion 
 in the new gospel, whilst the tyrannical and proud 
 nobility were fearlessly attacked with menaces of 
 Divine wrath. To the thousands of miserable serfs 
 the doctrine of the equality of all men before the 
 all-powerful Judge of all the world must indeed have 
 brought a marx'ellous change. \^ui~ centuries they had 
 been taught to belie\'e they were essentially inferior to 
 those that birth or fortune had set o\'er them. Though 
 Christianitv did not succeed in doin"" awav witli serfs
 
 iiisrom" ()!■ i-iii: swiss i'i;oi'i,i. 51 
 
 they were even held in hirj^a^ numbers by the monastic 
 authorities — their condition was <,^reatly improxed, and 
 their masters no longer tortured and put them to death 
 for trivial offences, and even severe punishment was 
 seldom unjustly iniiicted. Feudalism also, as seen in 
 Switzerland, dates from the settlement in the countrv 
 of the Northern races, and owes its origin to the new 
 and distinct class-cleavages they established, and the 
 necessities of the times created. 
 
 4—-
 
 CHAPTER \' 
 
 S^VITZKRLA^■D UXDKK TH1-; 1-RAXKS 
 
 A.n. 530-02O. ThI' Franks (or free-men) were a confederation of 
 
 a number of Teutonic tribes, each retainin<( its inde- 
 pendence and having its special king, and all claiming 
 a common ancestor, ATeroveus [Mecr u'lg, sea warrior) 
 from whom they carried the title of Merovingians. 
 The fourth century found them already settled on the 
 right bank of the I^hine from its junction with the 
 Main as far as the sea. They afterwards extended 
 their territories, and in the fifth century were spread 
 o\'er the greater part of Oaul. During the reign of 
 Clo\'is, king of the Salian section of the LTanks, a 
 
 A.D. 480. settlement was made in 4H0, at Tournay. I'^rom this 
 
 town he subdued a large portion of Gaul, embr;icing 
 the country lying between the Rhine, the Rhone, the 
 
 A.D. 5ir. Loire, and the sea. Clovis died in 511. 
 
 Mivoi-ini^ian On Switzerland passing under the rule of the 
 
 Merovingian kings, the country was parcelled out into 
 a number of sections, o\'er each of whicli a l'>aid<:ish 
 noble reigned as Duke or (ioN-ernor.' The portion 
 
 I These several Ciovernors l)()re diflerent names in dinereiit 
 pr()\-inces. A Diihc j^'ov'enied lower J)Ur,L;iiml\ , a I \iti ii'i.in admin- 
 istered the districts in the mountains, toijether \\ith the X'alais, 
 the Pays de \'enice, the rchtlaiid, and part of the Aar^'au ; another 
 Duke presided o\er the Allemanni, and a i'i'c>idiiii o\er ivhatia 
 (i'lanta). 
 
 dynuity.
 
 formerly lielonj^nii^ to lUiri^amdy became Transjurane 
 J!urgund_\, thai belon^'iii';- to the Allemanni between 
 the Aar and the Rhine, Ahemannia ; l^hatia retained 
 her old name. This di\isi(jn is still apparent in the 
 racial characteristics of the people, in their lanLTua^e 
 and in their customs : ntodern hVench Switzerland 
 corresponding to the JJurgimdian pcjrtion, while the 
 (/erman States occu[iy the country of the Allemanni. 
 
 The people of the Canton of d'icino, then as now. 
 were essentialK' Italian, while the geographical condi- 
 tions ot Ivha'tia ha\e allowed her inhabitants to retain, 
 in a .s^reater deL;'ree than elsewhere, the purity of their 
 ethnic characteristics and toni,aie. That the Kelto- 
 Koman nati\'es ot ancient Switzerland were either 
 ccjmpletel}- exterminated or their racial peculiarities 
 absorbed and lost in those of their conquerors, as is 
 now so ifenerallv stated, is an opinion certainlv un- 
 warranted 1)}' the mcjde of actions oi the laws that 
 ,i,''o\"ern hereditv. and the .Lrrowth and life of nations. 
 I he Keltic st(jck \\as. doubtless, modified and con- 
 siderably impro\"etl in strenirth b\' the main- raci.d 
 baptisms it recei\ed from its more muscular correlates, 
 at a period ot impmdinu' national collapse irom ener- 
 vation. After the reiin i,L,^)ration the mtusion ot new 
 blood created, the ner\"ous and lefiiiin.^^ iiitlueiices 
 characteristic oi the Keltic race bei^an to show throuL;ii 
 the more animal features of the resultin,i,'' nation, and 
 ha\-e steadily pro.irressed in lorce and promineiv e d,- iw n 
 t(j the present time, when, in Swilzerlaiul, as else- 
 where thr(ni<^diout Western lAirope, the re-enier^enc e 
 of the [)rrtloniinatin,L;' conditions that lorm the mental 
 and physical peculiarities of the Kelt> is imw fully 
 established, that make them the bi"a\(>t, the mo^t
 
 54 HisroRv OF THE SWISS picoi'i.i': 
 
 intellectual, energetic, active and sensitixe of the 
 children of men. 
 
 Whilst the AUenianni were treated as a conquered 
 race, the Burgundians succeeded in maintaining their 
 national distinctions by obtaining from the Franks at 
 the time of their submission, a treaty whereby it was 
 stipulated that they (the PVanks) should always bear 
 the title of Kings of Burgundy, and as such should 
 receive the services formerly rendered to the ancient 
 dynasty. The people nevertheless retained all their 
 individual rights and their national laws, and were 
 not held liable to serve in the wars except as distinct 
 bodies of troops. In many of the more inaccessible 
 mountain districts the people boldly refused to submit 
 to the new order of things, and left the country in 
 large numbers to act as local mercenary troops in 
 other lands. Ten thousand Burgundians assisted the 
 
 A.D. 538. Ostrogoths in 538 in besieging Milan, and played a pro- 
 
 minent part in its subsequent sacking, when every male 
 inhabitant, including the childien, was slaughtered, the 
 clergy even being put to the sword before the church 
 altars, and the women being carried away prisoners. 
 This terrible wholesale massacre was due, in great 
 measure, to the fanatical and blood-thirsty rivalries oi 
 the Catholic and Arian factions that were then bringing 
 Christianity into discredit. 
 
 A.J). 35:5. In or about 555, a mixed horde (j1 70,000 
 
 Allemanni and other tribes devastated the greater 
 part of Italy. On their return they were met by 
 Justinian's Cieneral, Narses, on the Campanian plains, 
 and by him were totally defeated, losing nearly their 
 whole number. (J)ther bands (jf liurgundians and 
 Allemanni sought service in neighbouring countries.
 
 Hl,sT()K^■ ()i- ]iii. ,'-\\i>> I'l.Mpi.i, S5 
 
 or inacie predatory excursiuns on their (jwn account, 
 in (jrder to avoid Prankish rule, or to tuid a vent for 
 their natural love of li,^ditin,<( and plunder. 
 
 l'\;r nearly four hundred years HeK'etia remained 
 under her new conquerors. Uurin,i( this period, with 
 few and brief interwils of repcxse, the foreit^ai and 
 domestic wars, the cruelties of her local governors, antl 
 her own Ireriuent revolts, cause her history to be little 
 else than one long story of bloody tragedies and general 
 misery. 
 
 The possession of landed [)roperty constituted the 
 chief, it not the onl\" basis of power and wealth, and 
 this by theft and threats soon came into a \ery limited 
 number (jf hands. JCach of the pro\-inces o\"er which a 
 Duke or (/o\ernor ruled was di\'ided int(j a series ot 
 hiDidvcds (cciiiniu), constituted of a like number of iarms 
 or mancjrs, or families of freedmen. The heads of these 
 were held responsible for the maintenance of law antl 
 order, and were supervised by a constable or i'tiift-!idn!i>. 
 who periodicall}- held a court t(jr the trial of ottences 
 and ci\il disputes within his district. \ er\- analogous to 
 the old hundred courts of hLngland. ()\er collections ot 
 these districts (^(junts ruled, and o\ er these again \\a> 
 the l'ro\incial ( io\ernor. Doubttul cases were otti'U 
 referred to the "(M'deal by hre or water," or to condiats 
 between the interested parties. The kingly power in 
 time of peace \\'as little, if at all, ab(n"e that of his 
 nobles; but in war his authority became absolute, in- 
 (dudmg the supreme connnand o\er the army, which was 
 made up practically of the whole flighting force of the 
 country. As the system of paying troops did not then 
 exist, the soldiers, or rather tho>e who were freedmen, 
 relied entirely upon the sfioils of victory tor their com-
 
 jO msroRV oi- i-iii; swiss picofle 
 
 pensation, which usueilly took the form of a land grant 
 (allodiuiji) from the conquered country. Another form of 
 land grant was that known as hencficium, for special 
 service, which carried with it the duties of a vassal l)y 
 the grantee of "suit and service." These latter grants 
 were at first only held at the pleasure of the grantor, 
 but in 387 the Burgundian nobles succeeded in com- 
 pelling the King to make them for life. Shortly before 
 this change they had obtained a concession '.naking 
 thirty years' possession e(jui\'alent to a title ; later 
 on, these prixileges became extended to make them 
 hereditary. 
 
 " The laws partook of the rudeness of the period, 
 and were few in number; these, however, were tolerably 
 intelligible, and consisted less in commands than in 
 prohibitions. The main object was protection of pro- 
 perty, for in those ages theft was viewed with more 
 abhorrence than murder, since e\en a coward can make 
 himself master of things unarmed and inanimate. This 
 abhorrence of the cowardly crime of theft went so far 
 tliat, according to the Saxon law, a horse-stealer was 
 punished with death ; while a money line would expiate 
 e\en the murder of a nobleman. The judge who let a 
 robber escape was proceeded against as guiltv of a 
 capital crime. W'hoexer accepted a secret compositicni 
 loi' theft was punished efjually with the thief. W'hoexer 
 was charged l)y {\\c impartial witnesses with thefl 
 LiUvs. must die. Hardly any other crime besides theft was 
 
 punished with death, but treason and breach of trust. 
 Ab)st crimes had their money price; by which a double 
 acKantage was given to the rich o\er the poor, as the 
 penalty was proportioned to the rank of the person 
 against whom acts (jf \-iolence (then the most frequent
 
 crimesj v/ere coininilted. aiul was c-alcuialrd thus in an 
 inverse ratio to the pecuniarx" abilities oi the payer, 
 while non-payment entailed the los^ of personal freedom, 
 and degradation to the state (A fendal bondage. The 
 rudiments of trial by jury existed at this period. Appre- 
 hension of the abuse (jf e\idence. or rather ignorance 
 of its use, introduced appeals to the judgment of dod 
 through the medium oi the ordeal. . . . Deceptions, 
 which were onlv too easw threw d(.)ubts at length on the 
 aptitude of this instrument o{ justice : but, when once 
 the path of reason has been >\\er\(Ml from, men onlv 
 glide from one absurd abi^rralion into another. Single 
 combat now superseded the ordeid. a> a method of i^roof 
 less easily eluded : a method of wIulIi the \ o^ue is not 
 surprising at a jK-riod when irregular x'lndications ot 
 right by voics tit' fait were so freipu-nt. Women, and 
 others unable to bear arms, were, in general, permitted 
 to procure capable substitutes. These and similar modes 
 ot trial were, at least, not worse than the t(jrture. and 
 those othei' inhumanities which in later tiiiies were 
 inti'oduced in the nations of (lermaii ^ iri,L,Mn tioin the 
 laws of other lands, and through the soiiitual tribunals" 
 (Lardner). 
 
 Most of the monarehs who tilled the M t ro\ in-i.iu 
 throne were cruel and tyramiif al despots, or wt-ak and 
 coloui'less symbols of kindly auttiority. ,l;o\ erned b\- the 
 stronger or more brutal minds (jI tho^e around them. 
 Anion.LTst these latter the [)erson holdiiiL;- the otliee of 
 ALayor of the I'alace i.l/j/c/' l):-iiiH>) was the most im- l/,,i 
 portant, and as time went on he otleii appeals as the 
 jKjssessor oi considerabh' luoi-e iM'aetieal power than 
 the King. (^\ercisin,L:' all tlv autlioi-uy of the Monarch 
 and actine- as leader of the annw Thi- intri-ues and
 
 (jontran. 
 
 58 IIISTOKY ()!■■ THi; SWISS IM.OPLK 
 
 influence of a major donius eventually caused the dis- 
 solution of the ]\Iero\-ingian dynasty and brought about 
 the appearance of Charlemagne on the throne as the 
 so\-ereign of the greater part of Western Europe. 
 
 One of the few exceptions in the long list of 
 tyrannical or feeble kings who proved himself both 
 strong and just in his go\ernment, was Gontran, son of 
 Clotarius I., who ruled the whole Frankish empire as 
 sole sovereign. Ciontran on liis father's death suc- 
 ceeded to the territories of Orleans and i^urguntly, his 
 brothers, Clarebert, Sigebert and Chilperic, goxerning 
 the other portions of the dominions. He greatly 
 encouraged the little learning that then existed, and by 
 building asylums for the poor and hostelries for tra- 
 vellers, as well as by reconstructing the old Roman 
 roads, did much to promote conuiierce and to infuse a 
 more humanising spirit into the lives of his subjects. 
 In order the better to restrain the growing power 
 and turbulence of his nobles, he divided Orleans and 
 iUirgundy into two districts, and forcibly insisted upon 
 the maintenance of his authority. I'nder his rule the 
 frecjuent incursions ol the I^ongobards in the \icinity of 
 Lake Leman were checked by the military precautions 
 he (lexised. and in 374 he succeeded in foiupletel}- 
 routing theiu at 1 Sex, with the loss ot many thousands. 
 I lis reign was further signalised 1)\' the appearruice in 
 lieKctia of sex'eral nu-n of great ability and sterling 
 goodness. Amongst them was Marius, ISishop of 
 Lausanne, whosc^ ]iious and brilliant cai'eer sliowed 
 him a woilhy successor, il not an actual descendant, 
 of the; early Apostles. When not engaged in liis eccle- 
 siastical functions, he spent his time in nnnistering to 
 the poor and the sick, in trying to impro\e the
 
 5'J 
 
 material condition of those most reiimrin^ assistance, 
 and in writinL: tlu- chromcles of b.is times. 
 
 An^nher Mero\inL;ian kin.i;' v.ho left his mark on 
 the ai;'e was C'lotariiis II. 'l"hoti,i;i'i ,i:reatlv imder the 
 intliience (jf his mini>ter. the Ma}-(jr of the Pahice. 
 he possessed iindoubtediy a hrm and iipri,i(ht disposi- 
 tion. and sincere wish to benefit his people. Amon.u'st 
 his other proua'essix'e acts he conxokcd in 015 a .i^ener.d 
 assemblv (ji the chiet lay and clerical personai,''es ot the 
 kin,L:dom at Paris, in order t(j reform the many ,L,darin,L;' 
 abuses that had crept into both the ChurcdT and the 
 Administration. At this meetin,i;\ which combined the 
 functions ot a parliament and a synrxl. and was stvled 
 the '•Fifth C,ouncil u\ I'aris," anti which amon,<;st it^ 
 prominent men ntimbered seventy-nine bishops, sex'eral 
 salutary laws were enacted, i'e,L:ulatin,Lr the election and 
 consecration ot bishops and relatiiiLT to Cdiurch discipline 
 .t^'enerallv. No exemption was in tuture allowed to 
 offenders a^^dnst the law> on accoiuit ot their holding 
 (diurch otiices. and tor their trial a special coml was 
 instittited. compcjsed ot la\' and ck-ncal ind'_;"es, l)eath 
 was decreed as the [)uni^hment toi' setlu<tion : no nuv 
 was to be condemned, not e\'en a sla\i;. without tii'st 
 bein.i: heard in hi^ defeiK/e. and no on.e. no matter how 
 hii^'h his po-ition. was t<J exceed the himL> hud down b\- 
 the law in Ids luil^nient on others, or himselt to be 
 exempt trom the laws. The xows ot nuns were 
 decdared irre\"ocab!e ; no |<-w could liruii;' an action 
 a.Li'ainst a Christian, and no (diristian was permitted 
 to carry on usurious transactions. All ii'eedmen were 
 entitled to be judoed 1)\' their peer>, and no jud^e. 
 other tlian a iiatu'e ot the jilace \\Iiere the cause arose, 
 was competent to tr\' a case. 
 
 
 //'
 
 6o iiisT(jK\' (M- riii: swiss i'i;oi'i.i: 
 
 After the death of Clotarius, a short period of peace 
 
 and prosperity followed during the reign of his successor 
 
 f)a,i^'obcrt Dagobert, Ic ban roi, under whose fostering encourage- 
 
 A.i). C28-63S. 
 
 nient trade and conunerce greatly impro\"ed. Owing t(j 
 
 this and the more settled state of the laws, the general 
 wealth and liappiness of the people immensely increased. 
 After the close of Dagobert's reign the country had 
 for kings a succession of weak and luxurydoving rois 
 faineants, whose actions W'cre ruled, and whose policy 
 was directed, by the all-powerful Mayors of the I'alace. 
 Some of these degenerate kings were murdered, others 
 were deposed or imj)risoned in convents, whilst others 
 passed their indolent li\"es in obscurity and vice, un- 
 known and (^uite unconnected with the office they were 
 supposed to direct. 
 
 Within a period of forty years no less than six 
 monarchs died by poison or the sword. In or about the 
 Culdee Monk>. year hoo a great impetus was given to the spread of 
 A.n. 600. Christianity by the arrixal in Helvetia of a party of 
 
 Irish monks, heatled by C'olumbanus and (jallus, belong- 
 ing to the large body cjf early Christians called Culdees, 
 who then, and ior a century or so before, were living in 
 Ireland, Wales, and the West and Xoith of Scotland and 
 tlie nei<'hl)ourin<'" isles.' After lea\ insj' their natix'e lands 
 
 I 'I'lic. ('uldecs (Ctiltrics Dei, worshipptn-s of (loii) were (|iiite 
 iiulepcndciU of Koine, ha\iiiLj their own ijovcrinnciU, hicrarcliN-, rinff 
 discipline, and their own pecuhar forms of doctrine and ritnal. In 
 Ireland their chief settlement was at .\rm,aL;li, which remained till 
 the Reformat ion. Thc'x- introduced tlu-ir s])eci,-d lorm oi ( dn■istianit\■ 
 into IcelaiKl (I'lrse, CiHi dc, serwant of (iod) and, under the n.ame of 
 I'upiiy. ("iildeeism flourished lor man\- C(_:nturies in the ( )i-kne\s, 
 Shetland and l'"aroes. Wdth the exception of tin; creed of the 
 W'aldenses, this ancient cult was the onl\- one that stood apart from 
 Kome froui the ear]\' da\s of the Christian ei'.atill tin- Kelormation.
 
 1IIS■I■()K^■ <M' I'm: 
 
 61 
 
 m 590, the litlK' 1);uk1 waiuk'rfcl through I'^rancc aiul 
 I Uu'^undy teachinL; rclii^aon and agriculture to the people, 
 and undcrgoinL,'' many persecutions from the nobility. 
 They e\'entiialh', in oin. obtained permission from 
 Theodebert, Kin^ of Austrasia. to enter llehetia and a u, 61. 
 preach the i,''ospel to the Allemanni. TraNersiuL;' the 
 whole cotmtry, C'olumbanus. 'lallus. and their pious 
 followers fearlessly preatdied their iaith. often with 
 i^reat peril to their li\es amoiiL^st the senii-sa\a,t;;e 
 mountaineers, many of whom slill retained the pau'an 
 forms of worship. l^speciallv was this the case amon,<;'st 
 the scattered inhabitants in tlu- iK'iL.dibourhood of Lake 
 W'allenstadt, where (dirislianity had made little or no 
 prof^ax'ss. I lere the Culdee missii maries boldlv desiroved 
 the idols of Otlin. and burned dowii a larL;'e temple 
 erected in his honour. At first the ])eople, lilled with 
 indi,t,niation and righteous zeal for iheir ancient relii^'ion, 
 complained to the Cioxernor ami threatened death to the 
 missionaries: but soon a reaction set m. and the furthei' 
 pro<,Mess of the monk's was attended with tin- i^realrst 
 enthusiasm, and wist numbers of the people, as well as 
 many influeiitial leaders, were baptised and ji lined tlu' 
 (diurch. To the elforls o! these monks was due the 
 buildinj;' of se\eral imj^ioi'tant monasterii'S m dilfei\'nt 
 parts of the countr\\ nolabh' St. (lallen,' 1 )iseiuis in 
 
 "ritima I'huk'," nott- 1)\- I 'i- ( "harw. uh ; " |aniii'-~(m\ I Iistur\- i if 
 ( 'ul(U'L-^." etc A J .atiii I'liri'iiii K- I ii' ilir mIi r.'ia iir\-. w rittcii li\- a 
 nidiik of St (lallfii, anil c'lnillc'l " \'ita Saiuii (lalli." dc-n-ibr-, th<' 
 work ar.ii \vani!i-rin_L;s nt the \v\>]i iiii^-ii 'iiarir^ in Allrinannia 
 
 i That this ii.'lcl irate. i AMo-v nwc;] it> origin te the ('iiKlfe 
 ini----ii inarics seems niii-,t pidhaMe. th.onuh aniiin.;st hi^inrieal 
 ailtliorities ^reat ili\"ersit\ el (ipimiMi e\i'-t-^ I'li ih.e -^nhjeet Se\ ei^al 
 MSS. iiiai'keil S.!:.. >.; .■,'.■;. Iiuinii ain'MiL; the aneient ari'hives til 
 the hhraiA , are liehe\eil to ha\i' heen wfitten 'n\- the earh ('iiMee
 
 62 iiiSTom' oi' riii': swiss imcopi.i-: 
 
 Rh;rtia, and Sechinger in the Frickthal, besides in- 
 numerable churches and shrines. To them also belongs 
 the honour of finally stamping out the worship of Odin, 
 and of converting the Germans, who had for so long 
 withstood Christianity. 
 
 Columbanus. In 613 Columbanus left Gallus in charge of the 
 
 mission, and travelled to Lombardy in order to extend 
 his labours. Here he died in 615, after doing much 
 good work, and founding several monasteries, (jallus 
 continued to persevere with his task in Allemannia 
 with the utmost zeal, confining himself principally to 
 the wildest and poorest amongst the mountaineers in the 
 neighbourhood of Lake Constanz. He died in 646, and, 
 like his brother missionary, Columbanus, received the 
 honour of posthumous canonisation. 
 
 Close of the The Merovingian dynasty was at length brought 
 
 K^'o'^nA'z ^^^ ^^ '^^^ ^y ^'^^ machinations of a powerful Court 
 
 favourite, Pepin-le-bref, who long exercised complete 
 control over the feeble occupant of the throne, Childeric 
 
 CharksMaytel. HI. (742). Pepin was the son of Charles Martel, Mayor 
 of the Palace, and succeeded through his father's in- 
 fluence and his own intriguing abilities in gaining first 
 
 monks, the monastery being supposed to have been built some forty 
 years after the death of Galhis, tinder the auspices of Pepin of 
 {leerstal. Swiss historians usually state that Gallus himself founded 
 the building, though according to the account of his life given in 
 Butler's classical work, the edifice was in existence when the Saint 
 settled in Helvetia about 600; \'ulliemin gives the credit of its foun- 
 dation to (Jthinar in 730; Dauget cites the cell in which Gallus 
 li\-ed as its origin. According to other authorities the building 
 actuallv commenced in 700, and was paid for by the liberal offer- 
 ings given by the faithful in their pilgrimages to the shrine erected 
 o\er the cell occupied by ("/alius. It is also generally believed that 
 St. Gallen was raised to the position of an Abbey in 720. when it 
 adopted the rules of the Benedictines.
 
 HIS r()I-;\- i)|- 1111. S\\ ls> I'l I M'M 6:> 
 
 the support (;t the chief cler,L,^v aiul luibles. aiul Imally 
 
 in liethronin,!^ ("hilcieric, and ha\'inj^^ hiinseli proclaimed 
 
 Kin,i_;'. lie received the royal crown from the hands of 
 
 Pope Stephen 11., at St. Denis, in 752. 
 
 I'he new line of Prankish kin,i,^s is kn(nvn as the Cai!ui:!i^!:ijn 
 
 Carlo\-inidan dvnast\'. from the brilliant career of l\arl, ,■,',' --.\,j 
 ^ J - A.n. /3.-S4J, 
 
 the second monarch and son of Pe])in, who excelled /',/-;;; U->yct. 
 innneasnrably all his successors in intellectual attain- '' "' '^-'''^ ■ 
 inents, and completely dwarfed tlie memory ot the 
 \ ast majority of the Mero\in<^ian monarcdis. Pepin 
 siynalisetl his short reign by addini^' ,i,a"eatly to the 
 number ot the monasteries, and suppressing many ot 
 the powerful local rulers, who, through their extortions 
 and mismanagement, constantly kept the people in a 
 state of open or suppressed revolt. In their places he 
 installed I'rankish C'ounts who were attached to his 
 interests, and whose conduct he was better able to 
 control. Un I'epin's tleath in 7()>S the kingdom passed to 
 his two sons, Karl, known in history as Charlemagne, 
 and Karlomann. The death of the lattei' (l)elie\ed b\- 
 many U) have been caused 1)\- poison gi\en at the 
 instigation of his brother) left the whole realm imder the 
 sole rule oi Charlemagne. 
 
 (Compared with the reign oi his son and successor, Ciuuhmdcni', 
 Charlemagne's ri.de exhibits an iiistriicti\ e lesson how. ' ■ ' " -^ 
 with practically the same resources, b}' means ol a 
 linn and just adminislratiou, and in spite ot many 
 errors, it not crimes, a bold ami ca))ablc i)!"iiice can 
 raise both himself and his jieoplc to the lust placi' ol 
 importance and prosperit}': whilst a wrak and incapable 
 ruler, swayed more b}' his pcrsiuial \irii)u> st•l(l^lnK■ss 
 than by a wish to benefit hi> Mibjecls. can >ink InuiM-lt 
 and them to a ctjiuiition ot ci iiuemptiblc di>L!i'ace.
 
 64 HISTORY OF THE SWISS PEOPLI-; 
 
 As Charlemagne's many conquests abroad greatly 
 influenced Switzerland's after history, some account of 
 his victorious career is necessary, though amidst the 
 vast interests at stake Switzerland, from her small size, 
 had, of course, little to do, comparatively, with the 
 immediate events of the reign. 
 
 AD. 742. Born in 742 in the Castle of Satzburg, in Bavaria, 
 
 the future monarch of half Europe succeeded, on 
 ascending the throne, to the Prankish realm, composed 
 of the whole of France, half of Germany, and the 
 
 AD. 772, whole of modern Switzerland. bVom 772 to (S03 he 
 
 carried on a vigorous campaign against the pagan 
 Saxons, whom he slew in thousands. In 775 he 
 crossed the Alps by the Jura Pass to aid Pope 
 Adrian 1., then threatened by the Longobards under 
 Desiderius ; the latter he defeated and took prisoner at 
 Pavia, and himself assumed the crown of Lombardy ; 
 shortly after he was acknowledged Suzerain of Italy by 
 the Pope. Three years later he went to Spain, Vv'here 
 he w'aged war against the Saracens, and after several 
 important conquests in Catalonia and other districts 
 was defeated on his way back over the Pyrenees. In 
 
 A.u. 780, J^o he again entered Germany, and, after routing the 
 
 Saxons on several occasions, succeeded, by offering 
 them the alternative of the sword or Christianity, in 
 compelling many thousands to accept the latter and be 
 baptised. He finally was successful in subduing the 
 whole Saxon race, ;ind, in order the more thoroughly 
 to prevent them from again engaging in hostilities, 
 imported a large number of Italians and Franks into 
 
 A.i). 800. their country. In Soo ("harlemagne, ha\'ing conquered 
 
 the best part of luirope, was solemnly crowned 
 ICmperor of the West by Fope Leo ill. at Pome—"
 
 HisTOR',- di Tin; swis'A i'i:oi'i.i: 65 
 
 "a soleiniiily which enhanced the outwarti (h.^aiity of 
 his throne, but phiced his feeble successcjrs in a 
 dangerous state of dependence on the spiritual 
 authority, and fortified the prejudice which for a-es 
 afterwards shook the independen<,-e of thrones no le>s 
 than the internal repose of nature." (diarleniagne 
 was thus master of France, ("iernian\-, the great(>r 
 part of Spain, the Netherlands, Italy. C^orsica, Sardiiua. 
 etc. He was on good terms with the Saxon kings of 
 Britain and with the l-^niperor of Constantinople, and 
 recei\-ed embassies bearing waluable presents from the 
 powerful Caliphs of b!.igdad. In ><)- he f(jund it 
 necessary to construct formidable fortitications a'_r;uiist 
 the attacks of the X(irmans and Danes along the coasts 
 of I'^rance, and coiu'erted 1 'xjulognt; into his chief na\al 
 station. Having already lost two of his sons, he named, 
 in Si 3, his third son joint-ruler with himself of the 
 ICmpire, and in the following year he exi)u'ed at a.d Si^ 
 Aixda-Chapelle. Xot only was C'harlemagne the lust 
 great regenerator of Western luirope since the iall of 
 the Roman l->inpire, he was al^(J the greatest induence 
 for the spread of Christianity. Though an extremely 
 ambitious monarch, his [)ersonal siiccesses m a^grau- 
 disement led t(j useful ends for the people o\-er whom 
 he ruled, as he shone as much as a wise and liberal- 
 minded statesman, lar in ad\'ance of his times, as a 
 Ixjld and able soldier. He ga\-e ju>t aiid humani>ing 
 laws to those he comjuered, anil brought order antl 
 tranquility where none betore existeil. ihou-h to do 
 this he sacrificed untold number.-, b}' the ^-word. He 
 founded the (ierman lbni>:re b\- suliduing ami con- 
 S(jlidating the wiiious harliaious tribo oi that country 
 under one h'.-ad. and checked the turther ad\ance ot
 
 66 HISTORY oi- rui-; swiss i'i:oi>i.i; 
 
 the Saracens and Longobards. Through his influence 
 a much-needed impetus was given to reHgion, education, 
 and industry in Helvetia, where he founded many 
 schools and religious houses, and re-introduced the 
 cultivation of the vine in districts where it had ceased 
 to grow through the devastating effects of the frequent 
 wars.' Amid the many and gigantic enterprises of his 
 busy life, Charlemagne yet found time personally to 
 visit the schools and monasteries of Helvetia, in order 
 to see that the instruction was such as he deemed 
 right. 13y the laws he enacted he made a great forward 
 move, and proved himself a bold and liberal reformer. 
 He formulated a code of land laws that gave nuich 
 greater protection to the small peasant proprietors 
 against the rapacity and cruelty of the powerful nobles 
 than had before existed, and conferred special privileges 
 on those engaged in occupations that conduced to the 
 general welfare of the country, such as the reclamation 
 and cultivation of barren or neglected ground. \'ery 
 necessary enactments against the wholesale felling ol 
 trees, that had began during the l^oman epoch, were 
 also introduced, as it was found the climate of many 
 places was thereb,y already seriously modified, and 
 large tracts rendered useless for cultivation. 
 
 I lianta, referrinj,' to the: scarcits' of wine, and the preference 
 given to beer and mead at this time, relates that the monks ot St. 
 Gallen, having received the gift of a cask, were terribl}- grieved on 
 hearing it had faUen into a pit on its way to the monasters'. Aftei- 
 much anxious deliberation, all human means appearing inaiUMjuate, 
 they sallied fortli in soU;mn i)rocession, marched round the pit, 
 and sang dexoutl} , "(lood Lord (]eh\erus!" I'ull ot confuience, 
 the)' now made a grand and successful etlort, an'.i ha\ing safely 
 lodged the cask in their cellars, the}' chanted a jovful 7V Dniiii . 
 with more reason, no doubt, adds the learned autlior, than we are 
 a|)t to do after a bloods' \'ictory.
 
 Misi'dK'i' (M I'm SWISS i'i;oi>i i: h- 
 
 In his wars, Charleina,L,aie was greatly assisted by 
 the prowess of his Heh'etian subjects, especially by 
 the men of Luzern. Thurgau, and the W'aldstatten, ir, 
 whom he ga\'e as a mark of his approbation of their 
 bravery special privileges, and further bestowed on them 
 those armorial bearings that in after times were destined 
 to play so important a part in Swiss histcny, under the 
 names of th.e IJulls of I'ri, the Cows of I'nderwald, etc. 
 
 On the death of Charlemagne, his son Louis, ^' "-^ ''■' 
 surnamed Le iJebonnaire, succeeded to his father's ^ j, 8i4-S4'cj 
 vast dominions. ]-\jr the lirst fe^v years of h.is reign, 
 he managed to rule in tranquility : luit later on 
 aroused the enmity of his nobles by introducing 
 reforms tending to diminish their power. Excn his 
 sons rebelled again^^t him, and e\'enlually in ">4u he was 
 deposed, and died a prisoner. 11 is death led to ci\'il 
 war, which, after plunging the whole country into a sea 
 of blood, ended by the contending factions c(jnnng to 
 
 an agreement, and forming a treaty at \ erdum ("^4JJ. 1 )':.t!\ '•; 
 
 I , , r 1 ■ -1 • Vn .i:i»t. 
 
 l>y the terms ot this compromise, the wist em[)ire ,^ j, ^ 
 
 Charlemagne had raised fell to pieces, and was divided 
 
 into three separate kingdoms — Cermany, l-"raiice and 
 
 Italy — under the rule of the three sur\-i\iiig sons oi the 
 
 late ICmperor. Ijurgundian llehelia tell to the share 
 
 ot Lcjtharius. King of Italv : the (lermaii districts canK> 
 
 under the rule of Louis of Laxaria. who thus became L. u:, .f 
 
 the first bhnperor of (lermany, whilst the Western .Ji, 'sV^.s-r, 
 
 I'Vankish territories were gi\'en to Charles the llaKi. 
 
 Louis's dominions were di\'ided trom hrance bv the 
 
 Rhine, having onlv Mainz, Worms, and S[)ire> on u^ 
 
 left bank', though he afterw.irds obtained jios-ession o\ 
 
 Strasburg, Metz, bSasel, Cologne, and othei' important 
 
 centres. Louis is ( hietU' remembered in Swiss histor\
 
 68 HISTORY OF 'i"in-: SWISS pi'.opLi-; 
 
 from having founded, at Zurich, a large convent (the 
 present Fraumiinster), of which his two sisters became 
 abbesses, as well as rulers of the surrounding territories. 
 These consisted of the major part of the Reuss valley 
 between Luzern and the spot where, till lately, the 
 
 A.D. S53. Devil's Bridge stood, as also of a portion of Uri (^^53). 
 
 Over the greater part of Switzerland, however, anarchy 
 prevailed, and the nobles, fortified in their castles, 
 kept the country in a chronic turmoil from, their 
 struggles among themselves, and openly defied the 
 central authority. This condition lasted nearly fifty 
 years, and led once more to a change in the government 
 of the country. 
 
 During the reign of the later IMcrovingian kings 
 and those of the Carlovingian dynasty, feudalism was 
 thoroughly established over Switzerland, and though 
 the introduction of Christianity at first did much to 
 better the lot of the poor, yet the \'ast mass of the 
 people soon fell once more into a condition scarcely 
 removed from slavery, as the nobles were usually able 
 to rule those around their castle-forts with the greed 
 and cruelty that signalised the age. ^lany districts 
 became completely depopulated, and large tracts of 
 land conscfpiently were little more than deserts. In 
 
 Chunk those centres where the Church was sufficiently power- 
 
 ful, the threat of excommunication and refusal to bury 
 acted as wholesome checks on the sa\'agery of the 
 nobles, and to the Church, therefore, the jieople looked 
 for protection. Many ol the monasteries possessed 
 large estates, and under their rule the condition of 
 the people was considerably better than elsewhere. 
 The greater security, indeed, enjoyed under the pro- 
 tection of the (Church induced many freedmcni to give 
 
 Injliwnce .
 
 iiisroir. (>i nil. .-,\\-i>> I'lj'TLi, (H, 
 
 up their property to the Holy \'iri,qn. or other patmn 
 saint ot an abbey. After doing so they recei\-ecl it back 
 a.s a iiet, paying a (jiiit-rent, and becoming tenanl.i 
 under the Chtirch"s protection. So greatly, howexci". 
 was e\'ery grade ot society in tliose times permeated 
 with the spirit of greed and ambition, that man\- in- 
 stances are not wanting when the monks stretched out 
 their holy hands and seized, either bv torce or cunning;, 
 tlie property ot their neighbours, andi othc-rwise acted 
 much in the same way as did the secular lords. 
 
 ICducatio!!, though mereh' in its infancy, was 
 entirely in the hands (jf the Church, as were aUo all 
 learning and literature. the latter consisted chie!l\- of 
 chronicles ot ecclesiastical history and the records ot 
 saints and ntiracles.' 
 
 The lower clergy, thotigh in many tlistricts little 
 better in morals and mode of life than the licentious 
 nol)les, were the sole source of comfort to the people, 
 harassed as the latter were liy ccjnstant toiei:;n and 
 domestic strife, by plagues unexampled in modern tune>, 
 and l)y extreme po\-erty. 
 
 Western llehetia at this perioil was under the l::^'i 
 spiritual care ol three hSishojis. The diocese ot (.lenewi 
 extended to the Aubomie, that o( Sion a> lar a> tlie 
 \'e\eyse, autl that of Lausanne o\ er IJurguniliau 
 
 I \ -real ilr.al of oiir knowlei'i-c el tlu- hi-^terv et tl:r <Mriv 
 M<Tii\iii;^i;ui n-i-iis is diu; to the cliroiiii I'O ..1 (.re^^rv "1 r.'iir-; 
 (5ll\^''J)- '!i '!'<' y<''^r 3''.> ;ice. ir.iiii^ tn tlii-- eiin .!.;> le. .o :i'0' i 
 aceordin,:,' to Marius, a I,-u-,u<' portion o{ ilie sumniit ot Mount 
 P,Ianehar>l on the southern -ioe oi Lake l.rnian trU. 1 'urv i:'., ;hi' 
 town of 'r.-uirehimmi aii'l ot ea:.i. .nin^ an inmuMie waxeon tl-.o 
 lake that (ie-troyed se\eral t. 'wr.s ar.d xilhue^, e\lr:-.cl:;i_; n- eia-. t. 
 as lar as Cenex a The suhn;er-;e>i ro. k-; can stiU he >een elo-e to 
 St ( '.in-^olph. nearly (ippo-ite \'e\e}'.
 
 70 HISTOKV C)l- -I'lIK SWISS l'j:(,)I'I.l-: 
 
 Helvetia, embracing all the country between the Aar 
 and the Jura. The Jiishopric of Lausanne was at an 
 earlier time sitviated at Aventicum, but towards 581 
 Marius, the then J^ishop, transferred the See to 
 Lausanne. The Bishop of Geneva was under the 
 jurisdiction of the Archbishop of Vienne, he of Sion 
 under the Archbishop of Tarentaise, whilst the Bishop 
 of Lausanne was the chief suffragan of the Archbishop 
 of Besan^on. (jerman Switzerland also had three 
 bishoprics : at J^asel, \'indinossa (removed later to 
 Gonstanz), and ('hur. This latter prelate had 
 spiritual charge of ]vha:tia. Amongst the monas- 
 teries that now began t(^ acquire power and wealth, 
 those of St. (jallen, Linsiedeln, St. Maurice and 
 Dissentis became most conspicuous. In vSt. (jallen 
 the chief learning of the country was centred, and 
 here the monks preserved and industriously copied 
 jnany ancient manuscripts of works relating to the 
 fathers of the Church and ancient history, and but for 
 their labours many a Latin work now well known 
 would probably have been lost. On the other hand, 
 several of these religious centres occupied themselves 
 quite as much with the accjuisition of temporal power 
 as of religious or intellectual treasures. The l^ishop 
 of Sion acquired the governorship of the \ alais, where 
 also the convent of St. Maurice possessed great power 
 and extensive possessions. Indeed, under the ("arlo- 
 vingian monarchs the clergy exercised \'ery considerable 
 influence in temporal matters, sanctioning or rejecting 
 the laws and in many rc;spects standing on an e(iualit\- 
 with the reigning King, whom they freciuently jjublicl}- 
 censured and ])rivately governed. New laws were first 
 submitted bv tlic King to his council for discussion, alter
 
 :i> ri>k\ "\ 1111. 
 
 which his Chancellor laid ihein before the Archbishops 
 and nobles, and, these haxint;" accepted or modilied 
 them, they were discussed by the IHshops and others of 
 the higher clergy with the cnitmii <:;y(!i(-s, or judges of the 
 hundreds" courts : these preliminaries o\'er. the King's 
 sanction was atlixed : Itw iojis.nsu fo/uli tit ct coiistitutiriiL
 
 CHAPTER VI 
 
 T}n; INCORPORATION OF SWITZERLAND INTO THE 
 A.n. S76-1020. GERMAN EMIMRl' 
 
 Amid the anarchical confusion that followed the 
 death of the last Frankish king, three men, more 
 powerful or more fortunate than the other contending 
 nobles, succeeded in raising themselves from compara- 
 ti\-e obscurity to supreme power. 
 
 In that portion of 13urgundy now known as 
 Provence and Dauphine, with part of the Lyonnois 
 and Viennois, nothing approaching a central form of 
 government existed ; every noble contended with his 
 neighbour, and general political and social demoralisa- 
 tion in consequence pre\'ailed. Wearied at last by this 
 useless and bloody strife, the nobles and chief clergy 
 met at A'ienne to arrange, if possible, some method of 
 adjusting their difliculties and determining upon a 
 supreme chief. Many and fruitless were the discus- 
 sions, till at length it was decided to elect Poson, Count 
 of X'icnne, and son-in-law of the Emperor Eouis II., 
 A.n. Syo. King of Aries and Cisjurane Purgundy (876J. Eouis 
 
 and Karlomann (sons of the lunperor) thereupc^n made 
 war against Poson as a usurper, but the latter success- 
 fully maintained his position till the death of his 
 opponents, wlicn Charles le Cros, the remaining son 
 of Eouis, who reunited the kingdoms of k>ance and 
 Clermany, acknowledged his claim, and himself in\-csted
 
 111.-^ riiR\ 1 .1 Nil. s\\ is^ I'l.oiM.i. 73 
 
 him witli the; crown (.^^41. Aftei' liosons ik^ith ^ !>. 
 Burgundy once more hec;uiie (li\-icled. 
 
 Whilst ihcsc c\cnts were in progress. CouniA'"/ 
 Rudolph, of the House of (iuelf. son of Conrad <A ' ' 
 Paris, succeeded in liaxing himself proclaimed l\ing ot 
 Transjurane 1 kirgund}- at a meeting of the Ihshops and 
 principal nobles coiuokL-d at St. Maurice (^~^S). IK- was 
 shortly afterwards acknowledged in Western Hcdxftia, 
 as also in the territories west t)f the [uia. as far as the 
 Saone, and was successful in obtaining a formal ascent 
 to the crown at a general Diet held at ivegenburg 
 (Ratisbonne) in Stjo.' As an immediate consequence of 
 Rudolph's elexation, he was attacked as an usurper 
 by the Ciermair Ihnperor, who, alter destroying many 
 x'illages in \'aud. and slaying large numbers ot those 
 wdio opposed him (and the JleKelians appear to ha\'e 
 fought waliantly for their iiew so\'ereigni. obliged 
 Rudolph to do homage as a wassal to his su/erain. 
 
 h I. 
 
 I EinptTiirs of (Icrinaiu-. Lmii^K- I '•'■!'< 'niiuirf, ->i in 01 (",!i,irle- 
 iii;i;:;ne (Si.j-S.jo). Loni^ ihr ('.criiKU!. L:i-,-in i-.' ■!! nl ( 'tiarli-niri'^iic. 
 ereatc'cl by the TreaU' oi N'rrdiin lumpen t ol ( '.(M-in.-\n\- 1 -^.j -i-S^' .| 
 His thref suns (livick^l hi^ l-lniiiirc Karh iniann. I..'uistlii' \'i)un-;cr, 
 anil (.'harlus 11], (Ic (li-i.si. In ^-^ ; ( uTnian\- and I'ranic were 
 united uniltT Charles III. int" nm- rnuiirc In ss- ih,' ( ierniaiis 
 re\-()lte(l, ami Arnulph, (<i C"arinthi:i, r.atural -on ^t K;irloniann, wa-. 
 made ICmptn-or (S^j'j-S'C)). -nct'ecde 1 l>\- his ^nn l.'ini> l\', (Sin, .,i-,i, 
 This reiL;n end,cd the ( "atdi i\dni:!an d;\ na-t\- in ( '.rrinan'.". atUT \-,hich 
 the cruwn became elect i\t' ( '.-ni-ad, 1 Mike ..|' I'ranrnnia i-ms- iI S', 
 Henry I , hnke of Saxony Cii^-eV'. < 'th^ 1 CiV'-C-i). iHlv II- 
 (973-(^Sj), ( )tho III, (,yS^-i,,oj,i, ilcnrv II 1 1 o. !.■- 1 o.: 1 1, Ci 'iirad 1 1 
 (in.;4-loji|). The latt(,T or.uani-ci 1 the leuiial s\>it in and attempted 
 to suppress the civil strifes of the lime bv thi- e-tabli-^hnient of the 
 "Peace of (".od," or I'reUL;a I'ei, incorporate! Mur-nn.dv in h.i- 
 empire, ami inau.u'urated ihi- Salic, or Id-anki-h dsnasty, llenry III, 
 (ioj.)-56), ilenrv I\'- (1050-1 looi, ilcnrv \', (iioo ^-j 
 
 The title of l-hnpcror of Konir v.a- hr-i as-,umed bv ( itlio I , 
 who was crowne ; at i\onio in •!'■-
 
 74 HISTOK\- OI' I'HJ; SWISS I'HOVl.E 
 
 Meantime Burgundy was undergoing a sub-division, 
 which not only entirely did away with its ancient nation- 
 ality, causing each portion to be swayed by distinct 
 interests and developing separate characteristics, but led 
 to this split-up becoming permanent. Whilst Rudolph I. 
 governed in Upper J-5urgundy, Richard, brother of b!oson 
 and Count of Lower Burgundy beyond the Saone, threw 
 off the sovereignty of the kingdom of Aries and assumed 
 the title of Duke. Louis, son of bJoson, continued his 
 father's reign as King of Aries. 
 
 Neither was Lastern or (jerman Hehetia free from 
 snnilar changes. This portion of the country was under 
 the rule of connnissioners [iiiissi canicrcc), whose ex- 
 tortions, conspiracies, and general lack of uprightness 
 and honesty kept the land in a perpetual state of unrest. 
 Burhhani I. At length, after several abortive revolts, Burkhard, 
 
 Count of Thurgau, with the consent of the chief nobles, 
 was created Duke of Allemannia, or Swabia, which in- 
 cluded the (ierman Hchetian territories, by the then 
 I'^mperor Conrad, and the office ot conunissionei' was 
 abolished. One of Lurkhard's lirst acts on assuming his 
 new dignity was to declare war against Rudolph, con- 
 cerning the frontier limits of the 'Idiurgau. Alter 
 A.D. gig. some further fighting, peace was brought about and 
 
 cemented by the marriage ot JSurkhard's dauglUer 
 (Queen liertha) with Rudolph. Henceforth the two 
 sovereigns remained fast friends, and assisted each other 
 in the iriany petty wars that each became embrtjilcd in. 
 
 The ])osition (jf suzerain claimed and enf(jrced i)y 
 tlu' ( ierman i-hnperors pro\ed ot the utmost importanc:i,' 
 to Switzerland, as in this capacity ileniy 1. initialed a 
 system of laws from wliich the till then unknown boui- 
 (re(jis or middle class took its origin -a class destined to
 
 MI,^I()K\ III Mil. ^\\i^;> ri.'M'l.l. ^-5 
 
 play such a leaclin,-;- rule m the iTht^noiis, S(jcial, inlcllcr- 
 Uial, and political lite of the country. About this period l\isc of the 
 trequent attacks wei'e made on the r,astern portions 01 
 Switzerland by lari^e bands of Saracens' and Hun- 
 garians, who, like their sa\a,t(e predecessors, the Huns, 
 swept down on the country, destro\in,g and plunderin,i;' 
 all before them. In these niaraudini,^ incursions the 
 towns suffered j^'reatly (amoni^'-st others, Jiern and St. 
 (iallen were partially burnt in (jiy), bein,L;- hardly, if at 
 all, fortified, and containing;' lar,t;'e numbers of inhabitants 
 unused to war. As nearly all the in\ aders wei'e mounted, 
 the ICmperor Henry judL^ed the\- would be powerless 
 af:(ainst fortified cities, carrying, as the\- did, no arms or 
 other weapons that could operate' airainst walled defences. 
 He accordiiiL^ly ordered all towns o\-er a certain size to 
 be enclosed by stronj^^ walls, and in ortler the better to 
 do this, and to induce the rural inhabitants to take up 
 fheir abode in those cities (J:>i'ii\i;cii) he ,i,n\anted all suc'h as 
 should so do special pri\ile^^es and a .greater measure ol 
 personal liberty. This soon de\eloped the power of the 
 citizens to an e(iuality with that oi the nobles, bv whom, 
 ni conse(pience, they were regarded with much dislike 
 and jealous}-. 'bhe new-comers ( /)«/A'i:7') lormed ihem- 
 
 1 The ■ ' SaracL-ns " ihal li^ijiirc su pi (imiiU'iul\- (liii-iiiL; ihc 'jtli 
 and loth rt-ntiirics in Swiss chr' iniclo were, in .'ill pi'oli.iliilit \\ nul 
 Saracens at all, hut Scla\fs ni lli^nia an.l I i(TZfL;M\ ina Tlic 
 Turks (lid not hfconic cstablisluMl in luiropc till the i^ih ('i'nuii'\ . 
 in fact, not till after the taking of ( 'onstaniinople in i,|-,.: Thf 
 word Sar.accn is derived Irom the Arabic Si:.nk e.ast, >-',', n/;.' a man 
 ol ilu' east : sinL;iilar noniinativc ,N'/'/i(; A'/un;. A Moor, .is oppose. 1 ;. - 
 ;i Saraecn, \\ould he from .f/.!;,'/;; ,"'' west, ;;;,i^v''; ;''/ a man ot the 
 wttst, sin_L;nla'' nominative M liX'H ii'!\ m: The l.;itin,-- lieiiiL; iniahle t(' 
 prononncc the " ^'Z; " tnrnt'd it into .l/,;;/; .0, prononnein_: ■' 1/,/,','; ," ■. ' 
 Mill ill -ii Mow. A Moor \\as understood as a we-.tern in contra 
 distinction to an ea.Uei-n African (Su- Kicliai'd 1' ihii-toni
 
 76 iiisTOKV oi- rin: svviss i'kopi.i-: 
 
 selves into military and political guilds, under the orders 
 oi a leader (h'uygcnjicistcr) and a directing and governing 
 Council, elected by themsehes. The power these guilds 
 soon acquired rendered them practically independent. 
 Some towns, however, placed themseh'es under the pro- 
 tection of a powerful noble, and were then known as sub- 
 jcd-toiviis, whilst the rest were responsible to the l.Mnperor 
 alone, and from this circumstance were called iree-tow ns 
 {freic Reichst(idtc). Thus arose a totally new class — the 
 citizens or burghers — a class standing between the nobles 
 and clergy, and acting as a buffer or check upon the 
 advance of either. As a body the new power supported 
 with the utmost loyalty the authority of the Emperors, 
 especially when the ambitious nobles or equally ambi- 
 tious clergy attempted to assert by arms their own 
 pretensions. 
 
 The greater security to life and property, as well as 
 the greater degree of liberty allowed in the towns, 
 hastened to bring people in large numbers from the 
 insecure country districts within their sheltering walls. 
 Amongst these, many serfs sought and found a sale 
 asylum, where, if not claimed within a year by their lord 
 (whose testimony had to be supported by that of seven 
 reliable witnesses), they obtained their freedom. 
 
 'Jdie wisdom of flenry's policy soon became ap- 
 parent for its original object in defending the country 
 from attack, but still more in the foundation it laid of 
 popular lil)erty and material prosperity, if not of all 
 modern civilisaticm. 
 
 Chief amongst the fortified cities that at this time 
 commenced careers that in later centuries very ma- 
 terially influenced the progress of Switzerland as a 
 nation, were thc> rebuilt and strongly-walled JSern, 
 Zurich, St. (lallen, Solotluun and Jhenne.
 
 'I'owartis the closr ot his ri-ii^n, Kiulolph cxtL-ndLHi 
 his possessions In- aciiuiriiiL;" a laru^c porlioii ot ihr 
 present Canton of Aar^au. and after his death his son, 
 Rtidolph II., wai^^etl war, as already narrated, with iJurk- 
 hard, by wlioni he was defeated at W'intertiiiir in oI'm 
 and whose dauLi'hter. ISertha. he subseijaently niarrieiL 
 FriMn this niarria,L;'r twi.) children were born. Conrad, 
 the future kin,l,^ and Adelaide, who afterwards became 
 binipress ot ( jerinan}'. 1 ielore he: died, the I Jiu'L^unidian 
 territories comprised by the modern l'ranche-(_]omte, 
 Pro\-ence and iJauphine, as also I'rench Switzer- 
 land, became incorporated with Kudnlph's possessions. 
 Kudoli)h's death occurrini^ whilst his son was still a 
 bov, his wid(jw undertook tlu- adiiiiinistratioii oi the 
 realm, the educalicjii oi the princL- beini;" entrusted to 
 the Cierman ICmperor. (Jtho I. Aroundi the name of 
 "good Queen liertha" th.e Swis-- ha\e never wearied 
 to wea\'e a \'eil of aMectionate i'emeiid)rance. I idor- 
 tunately, it is only to the man\- traditional tales oi 
 saintly piety and l)ene\olence ot which she has .-e) olteu 
 been made the heroine that we are iiidebt'd fir neailv 
 all the knowledge we {)osses> of (hieen ISertha. She 
 certainly forms a striking contrast to the geueralitv of 
 rulers of her time, ii we are to judge hei' act> and 
 character by the innumerable lege-nds still related b\' the 
 Swiss oi lier goodne>s. According to tlu'>e. she was ot 
 a simple and upright disposition, po-se><ing in a hi,L;h 
 degree the sym})athetic nature e)t a really i;oeid w>iman 
 towards the weak and suliering. In-rtlia dexotid herself 
 during her regency to belter tlie social and moral con- 
 dition of ht r poorer subjects by e\(.'ry means in her 
 power. She exhibiletl a stroii.L: persi iiial interest m 
 their indi\"idua! welfare, and a general mi-eliishness and 
 disregartl of her n\\\\ uersoiial ease and lu\urv. tiai!< .is 
 
 /i';..r 
 
 
 lir,i
 
 7^ IIISIORV OI' THi; SWISS PKOPI.K 
 
 rare as they were beautiful in those cruel and selhsh 
 days. She made it a practice to traverse her kingdom 
 on horseback, often incognito, the better to find out for 
 herself the actual and most pressing needs of the people. 
 She greatly assisted the cause of religion and education 
 by endowing monasteries and founding schools. She 
 encouraged the people to cultivate the vine and use 
 improved methods of agriculture, and thus aided 
 materially the general prosperity. INIany common lands 
 were divided, and districts rendered barren by war and 
 neglect were brought into culti\'ation. iispecially in 
 the neighbourhood of Zurich and in the N'alais was the 
 \'ine grown and studied with a view to better its con- 
 dition and production. Bertha took the serfs especially 
 under her protection, and made their miserable lot less 
 wretched in consequence. During her reign Helvetia 
 enjoyed the unwonted happiness of iifteen years' rest 
 from war, and, as a result, made marked progress in 
 civilisation and prosperity. She married a second time, 
 espousing Hughes, King of Italy, but was shortly after- 
 wards again left a widow. The date of her death, 
 curiously enough, is unknown. In private life Bertha 
 practised, unlike many public benefactors, all the virtues 
 she exhibited before the world, and for centuries after 
 her death her memory was revived by the Swiss 
 huidatorcs tcniporis adi repeating the ancient saying, "' Cc 
 ii'cst plus Ic li'ins oil Ikrthc jiloit." 
 Conrad /., In ^)^2 ("onrad was restored to his lather's posses- 
 
 A.u. 952-993. ^j(jj.|^^ |)y ^\^^, Cierman ICinperor, and during a peaceful 
 and une\'entful reign of over forty years devoted himself 
 chieliy to religious works, and by his lavish endowments 
 and gifts to tht; Church, to monasteries, and to schools, 
 greath' iinpox'ciished himself. Though knowii as the
 
 " Feacehil," he ji;infd his forces in i,4'> with ihuse ot 
 (Jtho {i,)ra short perioti. in th,L- l'"rcnch wars the lOiiipcror 
 was then en,i(aj;-ecl in. Later, whilst at tlie head ot' an 
 army, hastily ,i;athered to repel two foriraiiable hosts of 
 Ihm^'-arians and Saracens that had entered the [m-a 
 walleys. he exhibited his talents with ec;nspicnous success 
 as a crafty leader, it not as an honoiu'ahle man. 1 Sy 
 enterin.ic separately into ]ui\ate nei^otiations with the 
 leaders oi the oppu>inij,' armies, Ccjnrad pei'suaded l^Jth. 
 that he wotild rendei" aid {)ro\-ided that one would 
 prexent the ad\ ance ot the other. Actinia' u})on this 
 impression the co!itendini^' torces lell ti[)on each other 
 with sax'a.u'e tiir\', and soon both liosts were nearly 
 annihilated, when ('(;m'ad led his troojis into tlu- lielti 
 and slaii.uhtered the remaintier. Alter this exploit 
 Conrad rei.Lrned in ])eace, and the ,i;"eneral condition ot 
 the ccnuitr}" ,i,Teatlv improxa-d. l-^s[)eciall\- was this seen 
 in the better iornss ot auricultnre introduc-ed. and the 
 j^reater nund)er ot persons who became town dwellers, 
 and de\"oted themsehe> to trade. At this lime liasel /v.ih/. 
 be,i;"an to acquire wealth tiom tin- ^'itts ol exlen>i\e lamls 
 at the tool of the Jura botoweil 0:1 thr I'.ishopric b\- 
 the ('(umls ot \\'ecklin^\-n, whn pos>e>sed the ca>iie of 
 Xo\'ocasliaun (Xeuchatel). The same See al>o reoLiNCvl 
 from the- ICmperor ^-ih'ci' niimn^' ri^iiis situated in 
 I'-ris^au. a^ well a^ hunlini;' laiuls alone the K'hine. the 
 castle of ] 'te-lfm.i^'en, and other im[)orl.uil .uills. l>urin<_;" 
 the riai^n ot llenrv 11. the cathedral chui'di, j)! e\ !■ iu>l\- 
 de>lro\a;d b\- the 1 lunL;arian>, was rebuilt b\ the 
 bnuR-roi. 
 
 In the latter yi'ars of ("niirad's m^n his IkiIlI o\ er 
 the nobles became mir li Wiakmrd. and a cwuditi^.n 1 .t 
 much lawlessness once more i)re\ailed in the rural dis--
 
 8o HisioRV oi- I'lii'; SWISS i'i;oi'i,i', 
 
 tricts. lie died in 993 at Vienne, and was succeeded 
 Rudolph III., by his son, Rudolph 111., who proved himself little more 
 A.D- 993- 01 ■ tlij^n a king in name. He was constantly at war with 
 his nobles, and, finding himself quite unable to hold his 
 position, besides being without money, sold all th.e rights 
 he possessed to the clergy and the great lords of Helvetia. 
 A.i). ioif>. These included titles, property, and whole territories, 
 which went to the highest bidder, till finally he finished 
 his ignoble and disastrous career by selling what 
 remained of his kingdom to the Emperor of Germany, 
 Henry II., sending him the spear and the ring of St. 
 Maurice, the insignia of investiture, and himself took 
 Conflict with refuge in Strasburg. This disposal of the crown and 
 Germany. country to the German b^mperor m^t being acquiesced 
 
 in by the Swiss nobles, preparations were actively com- 
 menced to prevent Henry from taking possession. The 
 Emperor accordingly marched an army into Helvetia, 
 under the command of Werner, Ihshop of Strasburg, 
 and Kadbod, of Habsburg, and succeeded in inilicting 
 a severe defeat on the bJurgundians, under the Count of 
 Poitiers, at Coppct. So decisive indeed was this x'ictoi'y, 
 that the nobles w'ere compelled to acknowledge their 
 new sovereign, to wlioni they then swore fidelity. L'nder 
 Henry's successor, C'onrad II., the jjurgundian nobles 
 again revolted, but were completely routed at Morat in 
 1032, and the (merman iMuperor formally recei\-ed the 
 crown of l-Jurgundy at Payerne. Thus Helvetia, as 
 part of the Kingdom of Pmrgundy, once more changed 
 her rulers, and for the next four and a half centuries fell 
 under the direct dominion of the German I'^mpire. 'J'his 
 condition of things was due in great measure to the 
 perpetual rpiarrels of the Swiss nobles, that made any- 
 thing like national union impossible. I)uring the period
 
 iiisiokv »)!■■ nil sw 
 
 bketrhed .'tl)()\(' Sw ilzciiaiul acijuircii .ureal rc|uUarHin 
 tor the coura.i^e and li^htiiiL; ([ualilifs oi her people, wlin 
 were ea^'fi'ly sou,L,du as si)kiicrs bv ihc' I '>ur,L;uiulian and 
 Swabian kin.qs. 
 
 The Abbey of St. (iallen eontinueil the chie[ cenli'e 
 ot learning and practical pielv ot the land. I luler the 
 ride of the Abbots Waldo, (lozbert and llarmuth, its 
 lil)raries were enriched with many \aluable works ot the 
 (ire(d< and Latin (dassics. as well as others relating;' to 
 ^•e(;L;ra})hv. history and sidenc e generallv. Manv Scols, 
 Anglo-Saxons, and other foreigners fiom far countries 
 treqiiently \isited the monks, and through them niiudi 
 learning relating to other lands was introduced 
 Neither was the Abbey simplv the honu- ol book slud\ 
 it gradually assumed the appearance oi a l(n\n : st honls 
 baths, hospitals lor the si(d< and aged, a botanical gard.eii 
 and institutes lor tea<diing theolog\-. arts and -cienci - 
 all made their aj^pearance. and ga\c a hie and xii^'our to 
 the \asl institution that permeated main oi the neiu;h- 
 boiuing counliies. ddie arts of caligraph\' and (olouiiii!.: 
 were specially practised, and man\- parchments then 
 preset \ed are still in existence as beautiiull\- w rilUn and 
 painted manuscripts. Astronomx' and medicuie IkiiIi 
 made pi'ogress under the lostering care ot St. (iallen. 
 and emplovment was gi\en to lai\m' niunbi'is b_\' the 
 exlensi\e sculpturing, woikings in precious sIoim.--. 
 ii'on and wood, as also in agricultui'e aiul bi'eedin',; .)| 
 cattle, there carried on. I he Abbe_\- moid^s. moi(.o\ei. 
 obtained the repulalioii of wiiliiiL;" ihe be>l i.alm ot 
 the aii'e. and were held in hi'_;h e--leem m consei pici'.ee 
 bv the leaiiied all o\ cr the ilvn kcown work!.' 
 
 I The \vi>lc rcputi- (•nji)\c,i i.\ St ( .alici; i-lunl;<-i 
 h\- AthcKt.'ui, Kill,.; I'! l-'.iv,'la;ui. c^ 'n. li:- ! iiiu; .ui .iliia. 
 thri iir_;li I V]~.\\: iji l\i-i mi\\ ;i!' 1
 
 ins!OK\- oi •nil; swiss vv.ovi.v. 
 
 Chin I h 
 
 Amonf(st the intellectual li^dits of the period were 
 sexeral men bearin^^ the name of Notker and Eckhardt, 
 names that since have often recurred in the annals of 
 Swiss literature. Besides St. Gallen, the Abbeys of 
 Pfeffers, of Zurich, of Rheinau, the biishoprics of Chur, 
 Constanz, and ]3asel, and other church centres, formed 
 important neuclei of learnin<:( and study of the useful 
 arts of the period, and greatly benefited the poor around 
 them. The celebrated Abbey of Einsiedeln, founded 
 u})on the spot made sacred by the murder of the noble 
 Anchorite Meinrad von Hohenzollern, close to the l.ake 
 of Zurich, by a band of robbers in S63, also rose to 
 eminence durin.q' this epoch. 
 Si^fp The spirit of personal independence, so charac- 
 
 teristic oi the Swiss of later times, bej^'an in se^■eral 
 centres durintj this period to manifest itself amon<^' the 
 lowest and most helpless section of society, that oi the 
 serfs. Union and af:(itation, coupled with the efforts 
 of some few amon<<st the more enli<;htened and com- 
 passionate of the clerical dignitaries, raised and bettered 
 considerably their condition. During the rule of Solomon, 
 Abbot of St. (iallen, the serfs obtained many privileges 
 before unknown, and for the lirst time were permitted 
 to grow beards after the fashion oi freedmen. Later 
 they re\-ohed against their menial position, and suc- 
 ceeded in obtaining more rights, such as the carrying 
 of arms and shields, as well as more personal liberty, 
 biefore this, no defensive or offensive weapons other 
 than a knife were allowed them. In some mountainous 
 districts they connnenced to form r(\gulaiiy armed 
 bands, under the command of a leader or 'ret;!, tor 
 purposes of nuUual protection and benefit. lUu jjrolxibly 
 tlu; most important stej) towards emancipation tocjk place
 
 MIS l()l<^■ o\ nil, SWISS i-ioim i: 
 
 iiiult-r ihf i"c'i,L;n ol lleniN' II. wlu'ii mam' bodit^s ot 
 serfs, notably those of St. (iallen and llohenwiel, 
 obtained for the lu'st time ri^dits (jt iOimiibia, beinj^^ 
 allowed to marry and li\'e tog'ether in families. IJefore 
 this, these unfortunate and degraded people were com- 
 pelled to herd promiscuously like the beasts of the 
 (ield, for such indeed thev were considered. 
 
 In ()c^2, risings took place against the cruelties and 
 extortion of the nobles of Aargau and Thurgau. In the 
 latter pro\"inc(; the people under the command ot llenr}' 
 ot Stein, and assisted b\- some ot the inferior nobles, 
 attacked the powerful lords of the district : but in both 
 instances the conunons were defeated and the risings 
 suppressed after innnense numbers of the peasants had 
 been massacred. Se\"eral religious houses, ICinsiedeIn 
 among the number, took part with the nobles in these 
 encounters, and, far from practising the doctrines ot 
 mercy and charit\- tluiy prcjfessed, used e\ery species 
 of cruelty towards the defeated. The blows thus strucd< 
 for liberty, though fruitless in their immediate results 
 were, hajwexei . but the precursors ot many similar 
 attempts, and defeat, far from disheartening the Swiss 
 peasants, onl\- ser\ed to stinnilate them to turther 
 efforts. Switzerland's after history \indicateil the early 
 efforts of the weak and wretched against the tyranny 
 that then oppressed them.
 
 CHAPTER VII 
 
 A.n.1024-1201 SWITZERLAXD A PART OF THE GERMAN EMl'IKE 
 
 Up to the close of the loth century the centraHs- 
 ing authority of emperors, kings and aspiring nobles 
 had steadily increased ; more and more power thus 
 came into the hands of the few, who used it, either 
 for the benefit of their subjects, or, as was more fre- 
 quently the case, solely to serve their own personal 
 
 Crohih of ambition. Side by side with this, a new force had 
 Papal Pii'nry. , , , 11 11.11 r 
 
 slowly but surely advanced, under the banners 01 a 
 
 sacred institution, and by the help of invisible arms, 
 coupled with those of a more material nature. It now 
 stood prominently before the world, a rival to the 
 most formidable monarchs, boldly demanding homage 
 and servile obedience from all, and claiming e.\clusi\-e 
 temporal powers in right of its spiritual nature. When 
 the iith century opened, Christianity had already 
 long ceased to remember her humble birth, or the 
 humility that characterised the life and teachings of 
 her first b^ounder ; the dignity of the Church and the 
 position of the ecclesiastics had usurped the place of 
 practical religion ; Rome, imitating tlu; examj-jk; so 
 brilliantly set by the heathen Romans of former times, 
 entered upon a second con(]uest ol the world, a con- 
 quest not entirely concei\-ed or continued in the spirit 
 ot the ('hiistianity of Christ. " Imariabl}- fixed on 
 one purpose; apparently (juiet as long as n(j occasion
 
 HISTORY <)i- I1I1-; SWISS I'lioi'i.i: 
 
 ^^D 
 
 offered for actin,!; ; pliant and tlexihlc under the pres- 
 sure of fear for its own safety, and e\er prompt and 
 tlexterous in the tise of opportunities : it had iornietl 
 and matured a rei^uhir ottcnsi\e svstem, with formid- 
 able resoiu'ces and auxiliaries, and only recjuired a 
 dariuL,'' leader, a suitable field, and careless opp(jnents, 
 t(j ^h(nv itself in its whole extent and lurder its true 
 coloiu's." 
 
 The incorporation of Switzerland into the (lerman 
 l:^mpire naturallv led to the toinier cotmtry participating;" 
 in the lon^'-continued and bloody stru.^'.i^le the latter 
 entered into with the I'ope.> ot ivonie. A succession 
 fit strong;, if unscrupulous, princes, dtu'in,Lj a century 
 and a half, had raised (jermanv t(j a position that 
 promised in the near futiu'e io increa>e her empire to 
 the linuts (jf that C'harlema,i,nie's ,14'enius had built up, 
 it not e\en to become .i^reater. On the other hand. 
 Rome's subiect^ and [)rinces were to be iound in c\ery 
 land, her temporal authority o\cr Western l-]uro[)e w"a> 
 enormous, and her >piritual po>uion lent her a force that 
 m that blind and um'easonin^' a,i;"e meant the ^u;)[)ort ol 
 tens <ji tlKjusand.N am(jn,L;st all classes in all nation.-.. 
 
 The chief ambition ot Koine was to bccijuie intk:- 
 pentlent of tlie authority of the (icrman li^mperors. who 
 till this time had decided the elections of the Popo, and 
 in all matters of importance reinitiated their acts ami 
 pi;licy. 
 
 DuriuL;" the reii^Mi of lleniw 11.. "whose attach- llr. 
 mt-nt to tile priesthood may probablv ha\'e j.;one fuither 
 towards procuriiiL;' the honour of saintship f(jr him than 
 e\en the strict piet\- of hi> life," the first decisi\e 
 forward stcj) was taken by the l'o[)e in the comin^^ 
 struggle by ignoring the necessity ot obtainmg the
 
 bb insroin- of th]'; swiss J'Eoi'I.i-. 
 
 AD. 1039. J^mperor's confirmation of his election. Jjotli Henry 
 
 and his successor, Conrad II. {i024-i03()), found theni- 
 
 sel\-es too fully occupied in keeping their \mruly nobles 
 
 in order to turn their attention to the revolt aj.(ainst 
 
 Henry III. their authority goin<^f on in Rome. But with the 
 AD. 1039-56. . rn ^ ..1 • • 1 *u 
 
 accession ot Henry HI. to the imperial throne ^•ery 
 
 energetic measures were taken to suppress the Papal 
 pretensions. Henry combined in his person most of 
 the characteristics that go to make a great monarch, 
 and left a name second only to that of Charlemagne 
 in (ierman annals. He established his rule hrmly 
 over the whole of W estern Helvetia, and, alter many a 
 fierce encounter with the native nobility, was tormally 
 crowned King of the Hurgundians in 1045 at Solo- 
 thurn, when he recei\"ed the submission and oaths of 
 lidelity of most of the nobles. Assuming also the 
 crown of I^ombardy, he thus included the whole ol 
 Switzerland Avithin his dominions, Rha'tia being at 
 that time regarded as but a dependency of the Italian 
 k-ingdom. The northern duisions of Heh'etia and 
 Allemannia already belonged to (iermany. Haxing 
 c-ompleted his designs of coiK^uest, he next turned his 
 hand to Ivoiiie. where three I^Jpes were contending 
 witli one anothcn' lor supremac}'. Henr\' settled the 
 disputes of the sexeral claimants b\' deposing all three, 
 and installing in their stead a ( ierman as Pontill: tluring 
 his lifetime allowmg none but Popes of his own nation- 
 ality to be elected. Henry's domestic rule was no less 
 remarkable than his brilliant successes abroad. He 
 maintained, and himself personally enforced, justice to 
 all classes of his many subjects, and by wise laws and 
 secure government increased the general prosperitv. 
 ,\,D.insi)-i mi. Hn his de( ease his son, IIenr\' 1\., obtained the crown.
 
 )n.-ii()K\' "1- Tin: swiss r)."i'i i, "^7 
 
 thou,<:,fh al the time of his father's death he was only 
 a child of six. Darin,;; Henry IX'.'s rei^n the luni;- 
 sni(ndderin;_c di>pates for su[)reniacy with Rome burst 
 into tlame, and brcjut^dit about one ui the most san- 
 r,'-uinarv and destructive wars the Ivmpire ever saw, 
 during which whole districts ot Switzerland were 
 conx'erted into deserts antl thousands of Swiss were 
 slain. llenrv's ;;reat opponent in this lon<; and sa\"aL;'e 
 contest was the celebrated llildebrand (chamred by 
 his enemies into 1 [dl-livaiid). Pope (jreL;or\- \dl. ./'",'' 
 thr(ni;4'h his stron.i,' and just ,i:o\ ernment. his .L;reat ^ ,, ,0;^ -^n, 
 and sweeping retorms, his liery attemjits at aui;inentm,<," 
 the I'apal power, and the terrible, though hit^hly im- 
 portant. e\ents that (jccurred in hi> lon.i-;' reit^n. takes 
 probablv the foreuKJSt place in the lonu ranlcs of the 
 (Kxupants of St. l\-ter's (hair. d"hou^"h but the howi 
 ot an uneducated blacksmith at Sienna, where he was 
 b()rn. he earh' exinced ^''reat talents, and when quite 
 \()un,L;' be^an his ecclesiastical career as a monk in the 
 (oiixeiit ol ( luny. His enert;}-. his learning;, his piei\, 
 antl his ureat (;r,L;anisin,i( (|ualities early drew the atten- 
 tion of his >uperi(M's to the ad\anta,L(e ot placin,i^' him in 
 a iiKM'e widel\- usetul sphere, and he wa,-- accordin^K 
 I ailed to the Court at Ivoiiie, where he rapidh' obtaiiud 
 L^'ieat mtlueiice. So prominent, indeed, did he become 
 that in 073 he, with the consent ot the baiiperor. \\a> 
 electetl l'o})e. trom which time he >et himsell to 
 accomi)lish the .^'reat work he had de\oted his li!e 
 to, ot cleansing' the (dnirch trom her manv stains, ot 
 increasiiiL;' tier p(jwer and inlluence, and, abi)\e all. ol 
 makini,'' her superior to all earthly jnances. and indei)en- 
 deiit (jf all la\' rule or interference. He commenced the .\ 1. 1075. 
 battle lor what he considered ri'du bv la\'in<'" the axe to
 
 b<5 iiisroKV oi- ■iiii-: swiss i'i:()i>i.i; 
 
 the root of the ecclesiastical abuses of his Church, and 
 issued a solemn prohibition to his clergy on the subjects 
 of simony, celibacy and investiture. A])art from the 
 ordinary forms of gross licentiousness in which the 
 clergy of many localities indulged equally with the laity, 
 simony at this time had become the almost unixersal 
 practice o\'er the German li^mpire. Needy monarchs 
 lound in it a fruitful means of replenishing their coHers, 
 aiul nearly e\'ery office connected with the Church of 
 siiflicient importance to make it worth while to pay 
 large sums for, was accordingly sold by the bjujieror, 
 without scruple, to the highest bidder. Such a practice 
 was necessarily calculated to lower considerably the 
 Church in the eyes of the people and to make bishops, 
 al)bots, and other high dignitaries little better than 
 speculators in the monetary \'alue of their ofhces. The 
 ordinance against the marriage of priests was distinctly 
 an inno\ation. and as such found many bitter oppo- 
 nents among the clerg\' themselves, man\' ol whom 
 were already mairied. Though designed to make the 
 priesthood a distinct caste, dexoted heart and soul to 
 the lo\'e ot their Church and to that alone— and doubt- 
 less in this in many cases succeeding thoroughlv — it 
 opened the door to the conuriission of nuich immoialit\', 
 and certainly proved in many ways an extremely weak 
 spot in the otherwise powerful organisation of l\oman 
 (Catholicism. Cregory's stand against the contmued 
 custom of imperial investiture of bishops touched the 
 \'(!ry foundation of the disputed supremacy ol the 
 ("hurch. Cp to the loth century it had always been 
 the custom for both clergy and laity of a district to elect 
 their ilisho]:). This election had then to be conlirmed 
 bv the bmueior b\' the bestowal of the v'wms and crozier
 
 ( in\ eslilurc"). he rc'C(_M\'in<^' in retain the oath ot fealt}'. 
 ("u^toM), h()\ve\cr, ^laclually made the popular election 
 little more than a foiinalit}'. the ICmperor himself 
 appointinj^- whom he thoim'ht lit. drej^'ory not only 
 tlcnounced this practice, hut solennily asserted as a 
 do<;'ina his superior authorit\' in all matters, both 
 temporal and s})iritual, o\-er all so\-ei"ei^ns and princi- 
 palities, and forbade in future any interference in 
 Church matters i>\- an\' la\' prince. The blow thus 
 struck soon lit uji all (lermanv wuh an acti\e con- 
 t1a,L;ration. XominalK' the contlict was between the 
 secular and clerical parties, but in reality maiiv 
 hi,L,di (diurch di^'iiitaries joined llenr\. and man\- 
 ( lerman nobles declared lor the I 'ope. I'roxinces, 
 archbishoprics, monasteries, towns, and local districts 
 were dix'ided into two camps ; the bonds of social and 
 family affection and obedience were sex'ered : social 
 dissolution seemed immediate and ceitain. Neither 
 was Menr\' \\. the man either to submit to dictation 
 or to allow the least interference with his prero,L;ali\ i-s.' 
 1 hsre.^'artlini;' the l'a])al bulls, he continued to nominate 
 and iiu'est with the ssinbols oi their office the newK- 
 made bishoiis and abbots, and at once prefiared to 
 uphold liis ri,L;"ht b\' force ol arms. 1 lenr\-"s contention 
 was that as the bishops and others whose election he 
 
 I t'p to this )ieri().'l the s()\-t'i'ei;-;ns ot ( 'icrinrinN- t(U)l% nitTcl\- the 
 utlc ot " l\i[i,i;s" till ilu'N' had loi-inalK rfeci\t:(l thr iiiipcrial crown 
 iVoni the hands of the i'opc, alter \i.hich eerenioiu" the\ heeaine 
 ■' hanperors," Moi-eo\-er, this latter title was not eontcrred upon 
 those wlio lhroii,L;h an\- eans(> were niiable to make the jonrne\- I'l 
 l\oni(' ( Kiimer/ii^;) Some smerei^i^ns ( diarlemat^ne, tor example 
 in order to show iiiihhcly their aiithoidt\- o\ cr the ( 'hin-eli, dnrin^; 
 the eerenionv' took the' crown troni the hands (if the i'ontilt and 
 pla<;ed it thiniscKes on their own hea<N
 
 90 )nsi'oKV oi- riiiv swiss piioit.k 
 
 confirmed possessed temporal powers within liis realm, 
 
 they were necessarily liis vassals. To this the Pope 
 
 answered that the Church was as superior to the State 
 
 as the soul was to the body. Henry"s first step was to 
 
 summon a ])iet of German and other bishops faithful 
 
 to his interests, in order to procure from it a decree of 
 
 deposition against (iregory. In his turn the Po])e 
 
 summoned llenry to appear before him, and on his 
 
 refusing, launched against him a bull ot excomnumica- 
 
 tion, thus releasing his subjects from their allegiance 
 
 to him. 
 
 Hatty' f Then, as now, the mass of the uneducated viewed 
 
 Subtnission. r i i ■ 
 
 ^ p to--. t^his sentence with great awe, and soon flenry found Ins 
 
 position so precarious, owing to the defection oi his 
 
 subjects, that he was obliged to submit. Me accordingly, 
 
 alter many a bitter struggle against his haughty spirit, 
 
 crossed the Alps, almost unattended, and without money 
 
 or the nujst ordinary comforts, enduring manv hardships 
 
 and perils, it being then in the midst of a sex'ere wintei', 
 
 and being surrounded bv fanatical enemies, lie at 
 
 length arri\ed at the ('astle of Carossa, where (jregoiy 
 
 was awaiting him. b.\en this humiliation was insulfi- 
 
 cieiit to satisfy the Pope, and the untortunate monarch 
 
 was accordingly ordered to remain exposed in an open 
 
 courtyard ol the castle, dressed only in a coarse woollen 
 
 garment, for three days, when at last he was admitted 
 
 to an audience. After cu)nfessing his hiults, and jiro- 
 
 nnsing l(^ amend his future conduct, he was absoKed 
 
 irom the terms oi exccjnnnunication and dismissed. On 
 
 returning to (jermany, llenry set about re-establishing 
 
 his authority, and after indicting se\'eral defeats on his 
 
 lebel nobles, sc^curetl a position e\en stronger than he 
 
 I'ltKinfi; f)rmei]y occui)ied. 'f hough llenry liad public]}' made
 
 HISI'dRV (11 1111. SWl; 
 
 91 
 
 submission to the I'opf, he never ceased to niechtate a 
 
 speedy and ample re\'en,i:e lor his humihalion, and he 
 
 soon lo'vind himself prepared to pav his debts in full. 
 
 (Jnee more calling; toi^elher a Diet, he obtained a second 
 
 decree deposin.i,^ (ire<;()r\' : and in loSo marched an ad. 1080. 
 
 army into Italy, ra\ a.ym,','' the countr\' up to the \erv 
 
 ^'ates of Rome. He then carried the city by assault. 
 
 and expelled his ri\al, setting,'" up (jilbert in his place. 
 
 After these sif^nial successes I leiu'y returned to ( lermany, 
 
 where, thou,i,di his star appeared so fullv in the ascendant, 
 
 f^reat discontent pre\ ailed, and many formidable enemies 
 
 openlv denounced him. At last e'\en his own son rose 
 
 in arms against him, and in iioo he was banished the //,•„, 1; 
 
 k-infrdom. and sh(jrtlv after\sards ended his tempestuous '''t''-^'^'''''' 
 ■ ' .\ p. I inf. 
 
 career as a beggar in the streets of Liege. HenrvV 
 ri\-al, (jreg<jry. also expired in exile and po\'erty ( 10-^5). 
 
 Henry \'.. on his accession, atteiupted to ccjntinue //f;;;i v., 
 hostilities against Ivcjme; but. owing to the detection of '''''■ ""'"--'' 
 iiKJSt of his subjects, was obliged to make p:)eace. and 
 bv signing the Treaty of Worms, torteited nearly all his 
 [)redecessors had sacrificed so manv li\es to gain 11122'. ^ i' 11-- 
 With the death of llenr\- \. the House of b'ranconia 
 came to an end.' 
 
 The share taken b\' Switzerland in this sanguinaiA' .S.. /,-- yv-.-/:.'," 
 drama was tar from unimportant, nor wer(> her losses 
 small. .\.mong the principal Church dignitaries whii 
 tcjok an acti\e part with Henr\- against their sjiiritual 
 chief, were the ISishops and Abbots of St. (lallen. 
 Constanz. Sion, liasel. and Lausanne, whilst the onl\' 
 
 I l'ranc()iii;i ctJinprisc-d that portion ol ( itTinaiu" liouiuied 0:1 
 tilt/ north liy ]Ic<^(.-, on the ca-^t hv lioln-niia an-l tin- Ijiper 
 Palatinate, on the --outh Uv Ss'.ahia an'l l'>a\aria. aivl i .11 tin- \'.c--t 
 h\ the KhmL.
 
 g2 HIs■|"OK^■ OF Till-; swiss i'kopi.k 
 
 one of any prominence who supported the sacerdotal 
 party was the JJishop ot Chur. Doubtless niany of 
 these prelates were actuated in their choice of sides bv 
 personal motives, as in the case of J^urkhard, JSishoj) 
 of Lausanne, who, beini,'' married, naturally resented the 
 Pope's decree ol celibacy: many also owed their posi- 
 tion to Henry's favour, haxdng purchased their appoint- 
 ments from the Emperor. \\'liate\-er cause may ha\-e 
 operated to induce the Swiss bishops as a botly to throw- 
 in their lot with the i'^mperor, they nearly all carric'd 
 their allej^daiice to the len^^th of sacriiicing their i^oods, 
 and se\eral (^\en their li\'es, on his behalf, and <^a'eatly 
 assisted him by their personal efforts to maintain his 
 position. After sellin*,^ a large portion of his possessions 
 to procure funds, the Bishop of J^ausanne armed his 
 serfs and so raised a large force which he himself led in 
 the field, and in the midst of whicli he e\'entually fell, 
 
 A I). lo.Sy. lance in hand, at the battle of (ileichen (io!>(.).) W'lien 
 Henry's ISurgundian subjects in loastern HeKetia 
 re\()lted under Rudolph, the iCmperor bestowed their 
 liels as a reward for his lidelity upon the ISishop of 
 C'onstanz. 1 le, howe\ er, did not li\ e long to enjo}' them, 
 as he also was killed shortly atterwartls in battle. The 
 
 I'lriiii i<f conduct ol I'lrich, Abbot ol St. ("lallen, was heroic in 
 
 the extreme. Attacked by overwhelming numbers untler 
 the command of the Duke of ]]a\'aria antl of I'erthold of 
 ('arinthia, the latter fresh from ravaging the lands 
 belonging to the liishopric of liasel, I'lrich held his 
 territories unaidc;d for a considerable time, selling even 
 his church ornaments t(j raise money. i'"inding himself 
 at last unable longer to sustain the unecpial contest, he 
 c(jl]ectt:d his monks and many ol his dependents, and 
 lelreated to the mountains, where he remained and
 
 HIS ! CJK\ OI- I HI. 
 
 'V3 
 
 worked ior two veais, till the l^mperor's successes 
 
 enaliled him once more to return and resume his rule at 
 
 St. (j alien. lie never once sued for peace, and, unlike 
 
 many of his contemporaries, he appears never to have 
 
 attempted to enrich himself or his Abbe}- at the expense 
 
 of others. He ruled, e\'er faithful to his so\-erei<:jn and 
 
 beloved by his followers, and that. too. in spite of bein^,'' 
 
 excommunicated by the I'ope. for fortv-six \-ears. and 
 
 died respected by all (iiijj. 'i'he name of the present 
 
 dual Canton ot Appenzell is taken from the e\-ents 
 
 connected with b'lrich's \\h---Aijtai Zdl (the Abbot's 
 
 Cell). IJut the chief e\"ent of interest to Switzerland 
 
 irom the war that followed the I'ojx^'s excommunication 
 
 ot Henry I\'.. with the freeing" from their alle.t^dance this 
 
 mandate broivt,dit to the imperial wassals. was the rise to 
 
 power ot two local princes, Rudolph of Rheinfelden, UuJ.,':ph ct 
 
 Duke of Allemannia and Gox'ernor ot IJuri^undv. and *''''''"='" 
 
 b)erthold of Zarin^t^'en. a powerful Swabian noble. The i;r.:!h'id.-r 
 
 latter headed the sacerdotal part\'. which included most "''''■'-•'' 
 
 ot the S\\'abian noliles. as well as the Counts ot Kvburi; 
 
 and To^-'i^enbur^'. and after bein,q' \"ery successful in 
 
 the German di\isions of Switzerland, boldlv proclaimed ad 1077 
 
 Ku(lol[di b^mperor in place of llenr\- 1\'.. whom the 
 
 I'ope had deposed (1077). After many \'ears ot war, 
 
 durini,'' which Henry's principal xictcn'ies were .i^'ained m 
 
 Western or I iur,<,''undian ileh'etia, l^^udolph lost his 
 
 chances ot the crown with his lite at the decisi\-e battle 
 
 (;i Mersbur.Lf. on the IClster. in i()^o.' 
 
 I It i-^ iX'iutcil with iiKin- or k'>s pr()l)al)ilit\- ot triitli concY'rnin^ 
 this i)atth-, that Kin'.iilph had h.is ri^h.t htutd ->('\crf(l from thf arm 
 1)\- a h word -cut dealt 1>\- the redoubtable (loddetroi de JSouilloii, ironi 
 the etlects ot \\hieh he t'xjiired next daw ISetore his death, apostro- 
 phi>iiii;" his lo-^t hand, he e\( laimed, " .\nd with this hand 1 swore 
 tealt\- to llear\-.' Storie-- ot" this ■'enu-^, all beariiiL: a sirouL; taniiK-
 
 Iloht'iiftduft'ni, 
 
 AD. IO()7 
 
 94 ni.sroK\ oi- I'ln: swiss i'i:opi.i; 
 
 After a lengthened contest, in which se\eral san- 
 guinary l)attles were fought over the succession to 
 Rudolph's estates, ]^erthold of Zaringen, his nearest 
 living relation, succeeded in establishing his right as 
 superior to that of the other claimants, with the consent 
 of most of the Swabian nobles, as also of Guelf, the 
 powerful Duke of Bavaria. In the meantime the 
 Emperor had himself disposed of the disputed territories 
 I'vedcric of by bestowing them on his son-in-law, b'rederic of 
 Hohenstauften, and rather than commence a fresh 
 struggle, Berthold voluntarily sacriiiced his claim (1097). 
 I'^or this generous act he received the title of kastvogt, or 
 warden, of Zurich from Henry, as well as the Dukedom 
 of the territory of Helvetia that formerly formed part of 
 that of Swabia (the name of AUemannia thus becoming 
 extinct), whilst Frederic ruled in Swabia proper. J^y 
 this submission of Berthold he terminated a hostility 
 that for twenty-four years his house had actively carried 
 on against Henry. In 1127 C.onrad, the then Duke, 
 received, in addition to his (lerman possessions in 
 Helvetia, the Duchy of P>urgundy. Thus most of the 
 territories comprising modern Switzerland became united 
 under the rule of the House of Zaringen, by whom they 
 were wisely and benevolently governed during the 
 ensuing century.' 
 
 resemblance, are plentifully scattered through the li\es of all nations, 
 Cranmer's conduct at the stake beinf; perhaps the most tamiliar 
 instance in l^nfjlish annals. The Pope appears to ha.vc felt full 
 confidence in Rudolph's ultimate success, as he forwarded fiiin a 
 consecrated crown, bearinj.; the arrogant inscription, " I'etra dedit 
 I'etro, I'etrus diadema Kudolpho." 
 
 I liriisi (1/ Z«/7»,;'(';/.- --Berthold of Ziirin.LjcMi (d. 107S), l-Scrthold 
 11. (loyS-riii), P>erthold III. (riii-1122), Conrad (1122-1152), 
 1-Serthold 1\'. (1152-1180). Herthold \'. ( i iSd- 12 [8). Tlie ruins of 
 the ancestral hf)me of thi^; once powerful family may still l>c seen 
 in the nei,L,dil)ourhood of r'reyburf.;, in Baden.
 
 II IS i('K\ or rii I sw is^ I'l-.oiM i 
 
 ^'3 
 
 I'his pniod is fiirlhi-r iiiipiii tani as t)rinq'in,t; ilu- //km 
 House of Sa\<)V into the political arena, a house that 
 intiuencetl in many ways Switzerland's future history, 
 and tliat seldom acted otherwise than as a baleful 
 factor upon the pro,t(ress of the Swiss people. The 
 first Sa\()V Prince to come prominently forward was 
 Humbert, (".(umt of Maurienne. one of Conrad Il.'s 
 "generals, who l)ecame sovereij^ai ruler ot Sa\'oy.' In 
 his immediate nei,L;'hl)ourhood the Counts ot (iene\a, 
 and. to the north (;f these, thcjse of Neuchatel. also I'ose 
 to power and l)ei.;'an to (\\ercise j^reat inHuen(~e on the 
 e\ents of the time. 
 
 nurini,'' her lon.^' record ot misery, Switzerland 
 has prohahh' seldom sutfered more than in the iith 
 centurw when the disputes between the Mmperoi 
 anil the 1 'ope c:on\erted the whole coimt\ into one 
 \ ast tield of battle and delu^'ed the soil with oceans 
 t)f blood. l-Vjr many weary years battles were alnu)st 
 constanth- ra.^in.i^, battles fouu;ht with all the sa\a.i,''e 
 brutality onl\- political and reli,L,dous hatred could create. 
 They led to the ruthless slati.i^diter ot untold hecatondis 
 ol \ictims and brcju.u'ht about e\-er\- torm ot misery, 
 immorality, and disorder. A.uricultui'e. commerce, and, 
 indeed, e\er\ form of industrial work except the popular 
 work of war, were completeK' stopped. Whole tlistricts 
 were con\erted into barren wastes, and the proi^ress (jt 
 ci\ilisation completely arrested. So i,''reat .[^n'ew the war- 
 like f.maticism of the people that there scarcely existed a 
 
 I The hunls recei\-e(l 1)\' IlumhiTt, die founder oi the il\-naNt\', 
 incUnled that known as (.'halilais on the southern shore ot Lake 
 l,tjnian, together with the Lower \'alais, and tlie territ''r\- aloni^ the 
 nnrthern ~ide a-- tar as \'e\e\, witii the jiarts between (;eiie\a and 
 Kolle on the western --ide
 
 q6 HISTORY oi' riii", swiss pkopi,]: 
 
 noble, a monastery, a town, or even a \-illage or a family 
 but took an active part in the butcheries of one or other 
 of the rival parties. More than a thousand castles were 
 built during this era within which dwelt the so-called 
 nobles (noble but in name, and more appropriately 
 termed Raubritter), who, when not fighting for Emperor 
 or Pope, waged war with one another, or lay in wait to 
 seize, plunder and murder any passing traveller who 
 might be unlucky enough to come within the sphere of 
 their robber-rule. Amid all the horrors of the loth and 
 iith centuries, one ray of light alone stands out in 
 brilliant contrast to the dark and terrible misery that in 
 the name of religion o\'ershadowed Switzerland. This 
 Truce of God. was the institution known as the "Truce of (jod," 
 founded by some ot those few amongst the Church 
 dignitaries who still believed in the practice of the 
 teaching of their Foimder. JSy this institution all 
 hostilities were forbidden under pain of excommunication 
 during certain specified periods. The rest from strife 
 was naturally hailed with joy by all classes, and certainly 
 as long as its terms were adhered to (this unfortimately 
 was far from always being the case), it did nuich to 
 alleviate the sufferings of the people, whose cup of 
 bitterness was well-nigh filled to o\erflowing.' Though 
 
 I The Swiss claim the honour of l)ein,t( the lirsl amonj^'st the 
 nations of luirope to institute this beneficent pause in war. 
 l'nllo\vin<.; their historians, the " Truce of (lod," or l-i\ui:d l)ii, was 
 initiated l)_\- lluf^hes, l^ishop of Lausanne, who in lojO con\()ked a 
 s\nod of the J-Sishops of the tw'o Burgundies to consider the best 
 means of impro\inL; the terrible condition that evi-n then existed 
 o\er TIehetia and the; nei<;hbourin,<i; countries. The result was the 
 promul,t;ation of an edict forbidding, under penalt\- ot excommuni- 
 cation, all carrying on of war, or the arrest ol [feasants, monks, or 
 other inoffensi\'e jiersons, in each \ ear between .\dvent and eight 
 da\s alter ICpiph;in\ . from Septuagesima till eight da\s alter
 
 All, logu 
 
 l^s•I'^K^^ nr riii swiss I'I-oim.i wj 
 
 lIu- Churtb undoublf.'dlv cxt-rcisL-cl u'lt-al inlliu/iui- in 
 
 lessening' the horrors of \v;u' in the early part ol this 
 
 period and checking' •• nian"s inhuiiianitx' to man." as 
 
 time went on she too often fell under the control of those 
 
 who used her simplv as a means of iurthcrint,'' political 
 
 aims or promotini^ personal ambition. Alnises ot e\er_\- 
 
 kind became rife, and the scandalous condu(~t ot many 
 
 of the monks and the hi^t^dTei' ecclesiastics led the people 
 
 to look upon thi' ("hurcdi with neither res])ect nor lo\e. 
 
 Man\- neglected their church attendances and religious 
 
 obser\ances or fell into total unl)elief. Wdiilst irreli,f;'ion 
 
 and licentiousness made dail\- proy'ress, there w(M'e not 
 
 wantin;,'' many earnest and trul\- pious men m the rank-s 
 
 of the Church whr) bv their preaching:, lixint,'', and/"/'-/ Ciu^.l 
 
 })rayers, lieroicallv tried to stem the ebbing'' tide of faith 
 
 I'^a^ter, and between e\'er\- \\'e(lnes(la\- mcnin^ and the tollowinn 
 Mondav mornint;'. 
 
 A,L;ai!ist the Swiss claim to prinrit\-, lo'ench authorities state 
 ■■ La Trexe de J )ieu " was Ih^^t inauuairateil at Rous^illon, in Isere. 
 in the \ear 1027, \^liilst (iermans attrilmte its ori,L,'in to an ethct ol 
 tl;e lunperor ("(;nrafi 11.. aliout the same ]ierio(l I'rom time 
 iinmemorial lour months I'Maharram Hajati. (ju'I, (.Ui'dah, and 
 /u' 1 Hijjah) ha\-e been set apart from the I'est of the \ ear b_\- the 
 .\rab^ as periods when war is stricth" forbidden . and it ma\ \'er_\ 
 well ha\ e been that the custom ol l-'r-.u^.i I hi was learnt from thi-> 
 --ource. eithci' through Spain. \\her(.- the Arabs had exclusi\-td\- 
 settled ari con(iuerors b\" the hth ceritur\-, or from Sicil}', wdiere 
 they also had la:-,i^e settlements at the same e{)och. In l-'n-land tlie 
 custom seems to ha\-e ori,L;inate(l in the mi:!dle of the nth 
 century, b\- tlu' tde-rj.,')- forbidding;' all men durin,u: certain ;u-riods to 
 \\:vj,L' war or >trile. The command and malediction were dail\' I'cad 
 Irom the pulpit after the ;,'ospel in the followini,- terms " Ma\ 
 they wh.o reluse- to obe\- be accursed, and ha\"(; their p'>rti'. iU \'. ith 
 ('.ain. the lir^t munlerer, w'nh Judas, th.e arcdi-traitor, and \\\v\\ 
 l)athan and .Xbaram, who went down alive into the |)it, Ma\' t!'.e\- 
 be acciu'-;ed ni the life.' tiiat now is, and in that which is to coni^- ; 
 may tlu-ir lii^ht b-- put (,ut a^ ;i c.andd.c," I mine I;attl\- tli;- li^lu-. 
 were all e.\tin;_;ui--lied and th(_' con'^r(;,-atr lU lett ihr ciiuich a-- be-t 
 thc\- t ouK! in the -^ loo in or tot;Ll daid.ne^-, ! I '.rower
 
 q8 HISTORY oi- iTii: swiss p}:op[,i; 
 
 and morals. How low I lehetia, together with neigh- 
 bouring countries, Avould have fallen, had not the wa\e 
 of revivalism, created by the conduct of the so-called 
 Turks in maltreating pilgrims to Palestine, swept over 
 Western Europe and been kept alive by the victorious 
 career of the soldiers forming the F'irst Crusades, it is 
 impossible to determine. Under the liberal rule of the 
 Arabs Christian pilgrims to the Holy Shrine at Jerusa- 
 lem were permitted to come and go without molestation. 
 F)Ut on the conquests of the Saracens making them 
 masters of the city, every form of cruelty was practised 
 on the " infidels." Helvetia took little, if any, part in 
 the I'irst Crusade, which was composed almost wholly of 
 warriors from b^rance, l)ut during the reign of Conrad III. 
 Second (1138-52), when the Second Crusade was organised, 
 
 many Swiss played a prominent part in that ill-planned 
 and disastrous expedition, and upheld their country's 
 reputation by the courage they displayed in the actual 
 hghting and in the far more terrible trials entailed b}- 
 defeat, disease, and retreat, h^ew, indeed, returned to 
 their native land when the reumants of the Inilliant arnn 
 that set out so full of confidence but a short time before 
 struggled back to luirope (1149). The number of 
 nobles killed and families ruined by the Crusades led at 
 least to one good result for Heh'etia at large. It 
 brought about many divisions ot large estates, and a 
 consequent redistribution of landed jiroperty amongst a 
 greater number of people, when each man, ha\ing a 
 a direct interest in the result of his labour, worked his 
 best and hardest, and thus a spur was gi\ en to national 
 industry. Moreo\-er, many new methods oi agriculture 
 were introduced, and vines, grain, and cattle of foreign 
 origin were iiiiporled. 
 
 AD. T 140
 
 iiisroio,' (M iiii: SWISS I'l.oi'i.i; 
 
 .\l this cpinli iDols phui- the- incc-plioii ul' iht- lust /■/;-.'/'■.!>./' 
 o!' thost' alliaiKL-s hL'tweL'U cHttcrt'iu groups (^1 peasants. 
 tor piup(jses ot imitiial support and protection, that b\' a 
 process of social and pohtical exohition, e\'entuated in 
 national independence ami the founding' ot the present 
 Swiss ("onfedi'ration. j-'or many years before much 
 irritation existed amongst the peasants ot the mountains 
 of the W'aldstatten ( l-"orest Statesi. caused \^\■ the chums 
 of the moid<> ot hlinsiedeln to certain i^ia/inL; lands upon 
 the L;'round that ihev had obtained a ri,i;'ht to these pas- a u 1114, 
 tures through a ,L;rant made in their ta\ (HU' b\- lienry II., 
 in 101^. it seems (deal" that the l-!mperor liiJ ^Lrrant 
 the monks ,u"ra/.inf;' rights o\ i-r all tlie moimtains in their 
 nei^"hbom"hood. but it is eciuall}- clear that at the time 
 of so doin,!,'' he was tcjtallv unawaie ot the existence ot 
 the peasants, the original owners. These acts iorm :in 
 interestin,^,^ connnentary on the justice of monarchs at 
 that period, and on the mcjralit}- ot tlie cler^q'y in praxini;' 
 for a formal j^rant ot the propertx' of others. ( )n the 
 monks alteinptiiVL;' to enforce their cdaims, the peasants 
 st(jut!\- resisted. especialK' .^aiardini;" the passes leachn,^;' 
 to the mountains ot Sihl-Al]) and Ivothentliurm. In 
 their ettorts to preser\ e their property they receix'ed the 
 assistance of the Coimts of Lenzburt;' and the ISaillies 
 (d the W'aldstatten. imder the Duke; ol Zarin,L;en. For 
 nearh' a liimdred \-ears thesi- hard\' mountaineers suc- 
 ceeded in maintaining' ex(hisi\'e riL,dits to their natne 
 lane's. In 11 14, matters haxiny' assumed a threatenini;' -^i' I'M- 
 aspect on both sides, tlie ipiestion was reterreil to the 
 then hlmperor, Ilenry \ .. who ^a\'e )ud,L;'ment in fa\'our 
 of the Tuoid^s. and turther coiuiemned tlie peasants to 
 a liea\\' tiPie. Katlu-r than submit to a seiUence the\' 
 deemed unjust, the mountaineers set about making
 
 KX) iii.SToi-;v oi' 'riir. swiss pfopi.i; 
 
 preparations to offer an active resistance, and in order 
 the better to secure their position, entered into an 
 alliance with their neighbours of Uri and Unterwalden 
 for a period of three years. They also formed relations 
 of semi-alliance with Luzern, then subject to the Abbot 
 of Murbach, in Alsace, to whom Pepin had bestowed 
 this valual)le benefice in 760. Uri was under the Abbot 
 of Zurich, who obtained it in 853, though many serfs 
 within the cantonal limits, with the lands they occupied, 
 were the property of the neighbouring nobles of I^enz- 
 burg, Ilabsburg and Schwemsburg. Some of these 
 serfs possessed what was then considered a large 
 measure of personal liberty, being allowed to li\e in 
 companies, or " communes," vuider the presidency of a 
 leader called an Amman (amt, an office; maun, man — a 
 bailiff) nominated by the over-lord. In Schwyx also 
 dwelt many half-free serfs possessing similar privileges; 
 and in this canton the land was, moreo\'er, extensively 
 subdivided, belonging to numbers of separate })etty 
 lords, none possessing any great extent of property, 
 'i'his condition thus tended greatly to increase the 
 democratic character of the district, a character Sclnvyx 
 has never lost. In Unterwalden also very similar con- 
 (liti(jns obtained, and here the most powerful local noble 
 was the C'ount of Ilabsburg. In these three small 
 sections of Switzerland the sentiment of liberty and 
 patriotism made more progress than elsewhere, due to 
 the causes slated, to the milder form of goxernment, and 
 slill more to the topograjihical conditions of the country, 
 that enabled large numbers of peasants to li\e in high 
 mountain regions, partially inaccessible to the outer 
 world- -a }X)silion strongly calculated to foster a spirit 
 of independence and self-reliance. When Conrad 111.
 
 nisi')K\ (i| liii; SWISS i'i-.< ii'i.i; lOi 
 
 becairic iMnpcror, the monks of l-^insiedeln pelilioned 
 him to cntorce llic award his predecessor had j,d\en. and 
 bring the refractory peasants to snbmissicjn. ("onrad 
 accordinL,d\- re-imposed the former sentence, and then, 
 hnding the moimlaineers paid no attention to his orders, 
 placed them ur.der the -'Juin of the b^mpire."" This 
 mucli ch'eaded and nsiiallv hi,L,dil\' ethc;iciotis inetliod of 
 extortinL,'' obedience to the imperial will was a primitixe 
 and extremeK- \i,i;orons lorm ot the modern ■• boycott." 
 L'nder it. the persons implicated were held cut (jff from 
 the world : no one was allowed to hold anv torm of 
 cfjn.nnunication with them, except to kill or ruin them, 
 Thex- were ti'eatecl as wild beasts, and as sued: were 
 hvmteci to death without fear cjr faxour. Such, however, 
 was the lovaltx' of the nei.i^hbourin.i;' lleh'etians to one 
 another, that the '"JSan" soon became a dead -letter, 
 and the condenmed mountaineers were pernntted t<j 
 ci;ntinue with impunit}' xisitini,^ the markets of Lu/.ern 
 and Zurich to sell and l)u\-: and still the tines remained 
 unpaid. I )urin,L;' the succeedin.L;' i"ei,i,''n of Idederick 1. 
 i I I 52- 1 1 'r- '). as a la.-t rooui'ce. the \\ aldstatten \\ ere 
 placed under an •■Interdict" b_\' the liishopot Constanz. 
 'Idiis extreme measui'e iwlucdi seldom, it e\ei\ was em- 
 {)loyed before the time nf (jre,^or}- \ ll.i w a> shortly 
 afterwards withdi-awn at the urgent reiiue>t ot I Iric oi 
 i^enzburif, a humane and jiowertul noble, one oi the 
 foremost men of his country, and a descendant ot the 
 J.enzburi^' who in i 1 14 behiendetl the helpless ^erls: and 
 a,i4'ain the peasants remained masters ot the situation. 
 
 I)urin<^f nearly a century and a halt that the 1 )uke> 
 of Zarin.qx-n ruled (ner the .greater part oi Switzerland. 
 the people enjoyed the benetits of a wise and just ^;'o\ em- 
 inent, acf;ordin<,^ to the ideas of that period, and thou-h
 
 I02 IllSTOKV OF THl-; SWISS FKOPLH 
 
 civil war often broke out through the restless aral)ition 
 of indi\'idual nol)les leading to revolt, still, on the whole, 
 peace prevailed. A continuous policy was steadily 
 pursued by the different members of the dynasty of 
 encouraging the rise to power and semi-independence 
 of th(> towns in order to counterbalance the authority 
 of the nobles. B\' this means bkn'gdorf, l^ern, Moudon, 
 Schaffhausen, Morges, "\'\erdon, and other insignificant 
 \"illages rose to the position of wealthy and powerful 
 towns, self-go\erned, and subject only to the imperial 
 authority or t(j tliat oi some important prince. Strong 
 fortihcations were built around these new centres, and 
 the increased freedom and privileges thus offered 
 induced many of the rural peasantry t(j settle within 
 them, b'reyburg [frcctown) was built during the reign 
 of bk'rthold IV., in 1178, as a protection for freedmen, 
 and also as a refuge for serfs who had tied from the 
 tyranny of tlieir masters. 
 Bcithold IV ., Whilst l.)erthold I\ . ruled o\er IdeKetia, he was 
 
 A.i). 1152-8O. (^-onstantl}- at feud with the Bishops of I^ausanne, 
 (iene\a and Sion, o\-er whom he had been appointed 
 imperial r(M'/ ox rector by the iCmperor f'^rederick 1. 
 At last, in 1 1 7S, aftei' a prolonged contest, and after 
 the l^ishop of l^ausanne had appealed to the Tope, 
 iSeilhold succeeded in obtaining the submission ol the 
 icbellious j:)relate. LatcM'. the 1 )uk'c- transler'red his 
 Geneva, aiUhoi'il\' ox'ei' (iene\a to Axiiion. ("ouiit ot (ieiu;\'ois, 
 
 ■"^ " """' a noble who possessed a large part ol the ttTritories 
 
 bordering the two sides of the town. This transference, 
 ho\\c\er, not suiting the \ lews oi the local bishop, an 
 apjx'al was cariicd to the iimperor, wlu) acknowledged 
 the bishop as Lord of (iene\a, subject oidy to his 
 superioi" authoril\-, and created him a prince ol the
 
 iiisioKN (>i- i"ni-; SWISS i'i;(>i'i.}: lo^ 
 
 Holy Roiiiaii I'^mpiri.'. Thus Cienc\;i hecc-unu an iiii- 
 [)crial town (i 154) ; a similar position was also obtained 
 for the See ot Sion (iiStj). ISefore, howexer, these 
 chan.^^es were efleetetl, many seri(jus encounters took 
 place between ISertholcbs forces and those of his sacer- 
 dotal subjects, in which the latter were decisix'el}- 
 defeated in three important battles (ii')3, ii.Si, 1 1S3). a.d. 1 1S5. 
 in these troubles, the ivmperor bein;^^ a (iuelph,' his 
 sympathies and assistance were j^'i\en to the bishops, 
 but in spite of this the Duke's position was sufiiciently 
 stronj^' to enable him to maintain his authority. Durinj;' 
 the rei.ijn ot JSerthold's son and successor, Switzerland 
 was many times distracted by the risinj^^s tomented bv 
 the nobles, wdiose ^i^rowinij jealousy of the increasing' 
 power of the Ziiringen Duke caused sexeral of their 
 nund)er to form a lea<,''ue, with the object of dethroning;" 
 ]")erthold. Their designs were soon frustrated b\- a 
 decisi\'e defeat ot the conspirators at .\.\enchesin ikjo. 
 when the sur\"i\in^' rel)els were forced to make tln'ii' 
 
 I (iuelph ;uh1 " ( '.liilx'Iiiu- " a-- partx cries were first hoard ai 
 the battle ol \\'insl)er,_;, in S\sal)ia. where [\\n I'ixal elaimaiUs La- 
 the imperial crow 11 were ediiteiulin.L; (.'onrad, i)iike()l Id'anconia. 
 and llenry. Duke of Saxony, of the lloiiseof W()U\ TIk^ latter's 
 followers took \V(')lf a-- their hattle-crv", whilst Conrad's rallied 
 !o shouts of XWdhliir^en. a town ot W'lii'teniherL;, and the pati"i- 
 monial seat of the Mouse ol I lohensiautter, ol which Conrad was a 
 member. I .aler on the "('■iielphs" became the i5art\' in fiNour of 
 the i'opc. and " ( 'diibidine " (chan,i;ed troni Weiblin;_;en ) those who 
 supported the imperial power. 'the names in process of time 
 became j^eiieralK- adojned in the Italian cities in the i^thceiuur\, 
 during; and alter the rcii_;n of i'redi'rick 11. Later, when the 
 ( '.ermau i-anperor ceased to takt; much interest in Italian politics, 
 the " ( ihibeliiK.' " became the aristocratic, and the "Cueljih ' the 
 popular i)art\'. 'the 1 louse of ISiainsw ick beins,' dlesct.'nded trom 
 both that of i'",ste and of Wolf, took the name of " Mste-( iuelph.'' 
 In iSi() the I'rince lve;.^ent, afttu'wards C.eor,L;e 1\'., instituted the 
 Cueli)hic order ol Kniuhlhuod for the kiii'-idom ol Ilano\ei.
 
 I04 HIS^()K^ ov iiu; swiss pi,oim,k 
 
 submission. Other troubles, due to the discontent of 
 the ambitious petty nobles, broke out later in the Ober- 
 land and in A'alais, where the people were induced to 
 take up arms in rebellion. After several hardly-con- 
 tested battles, in which l^erthold was usually victorious, 
 thout;h he sustained a somewhat severe defeat close to 
 Utrichen. in 1212, peace was restored, l:)erthold"s 
 reputation for strength, uprightness, and wisdom indeed 
 became so great that, on the death of the Emperor, 
 he was offered the Imperial Crown of Germany. This 
 dangerous gift he wisely declined, preferring to remain 
 a powerful Duke rather tlian become a weak luuperor. 
 He continued his illustrious rule over his nati\'e land, 
 and, till the day of his death, remained a much-belo\"ed 
 and respected prince, formidalile to the great, whom he 
 kept in subjection : cherished by the towns, whose 
 freedom and power he had promoted ; and \'enerated 
 by the poor, whom he protected from the cruelty and 
 extortions of the rich, lie died childless in 12 iS, b}- 
 which e\'ent the House ot Ziiringen came to an entl, 
 as did the oftice of Warden ol Hurgundy, and Heh'etia 
 once more re\ erted to the imperial crown. 
 
 IhniSi ri Side bv side with the growth of the power of llie 
 
 ' ' Zaringen, the neighboui'ing territories (jI Sa\'oy made 
 
 I'apid [)r()gress under tlu.; lule ol a succession of am- 
 bitious and valiant Counts, whose proximity to Switzer- 
 land now began to threaten her safety, ("hief amongst 
 
 I'unc dc them stands Pierre de Sa\'oie — the Charlemagne, on a 
 
 diminutixe scale, of his country. i'ierre was alread}' 
 sixty years of age when lie succeeded his nephew 
 JJoniface, who died in i2')3 without issue. lie was 
 uncle oi Henry HI. of lingland, throngh this nionarch 
 liaNinu' married ICleanor ol I'roxcnce, daui/hter ol 
 
 -S,(;v./V, 
 
 A 11 l2i>yt)S
 
 HI> K iK\' (II 1111. 
 
 I Beatrice of Saxoy, Pifrre's sister. I'or many vears, 
 before obtaining' the supreiue power, he succeeded in 
 making- himself practically master cjf the ,L,^o\-ernment. 
 as his warlike qualities enabled him to take ctjmmand 
 of the army, and put down with a stroni^ hand se\eral 
 serious re\'olts of the lesser nobles of \'aud and N'alais, 
 a.s of the J bishop ot Lausanne, ami also the attacks of 
 manv minor nei.^hbourint; principalities. These victories 
 (1240-44) led to the expansion of Saxoy by her incor- 
 poratin^f \'aud and other tei'ritories ot smaller size 
 within her rule. Like ("harlema^'ne. b'ierre followed 
 up his conquests b\" introducing wise laws and hrm 
 .^■o\'ernment amoni;>t his ne'W subjects. He added 
 (greatly to his territories bv marrying the heiress of 
 Faticigny. antl. after rebuilding the Castle nf ("hillon, 
 he ftirther strenj^ahened his possessicnis bv erecting' the 
 castle-forts of ^Larti,L^ny, IC\ian, and the Tour de 
 i^ierre, or Peil/, at \'e\ey. Me attacked the powerful 
 cit_\- of 'I'urin, and. after a protracted siei^^e. ol)li^■ed it 
 to ca[)itulate. In 1 24 1 Pierre \'isited ICn.i^iand. where a. e 
 he was recei\ed with L.a'eat h(jnour. and was created 
 I'larl of Ivichmond. and recei\ed the [)alace kncjwn .is 
 Sa\"o\' 1 louse as a I'csitlence. whilst his brother lloniface 
 was ap[)ointe(l Archbishoj) of C':uiterbur\-. After his 
 conquest e)f Turin lie a^L;'aiii repaired to ICm^iand, wdiere 
 Richard of (Cornwall, who had been elected so\erei,i;n 
 of (jermany, but did not rei,i;'n, bestowed upon him the 
 extensi\e estates of Ilartmann, ("ount of Ivybur^". lie 
 further became ruler ui Ivomont, in the present Canton 
 of J -'rev bur,!,';, and the surrounding; territories, and was 
 acknowledged suzerain of i]ern (1255), }\Iorat, JJasel, 
 and (jene\'a (1204). Pern ser\"ed Pierre well and Ae 
 taithfullv in his wars, aiul then obtained his pel niis.-^ii m 
 
 1 2.1 1 . 
 
 12'..,.
 
 I06 HISTORY OF THE SWISS Pi:oiuj-: 
 
 A.]). 1267. to dispense with his suzerainty. In 1267 he defeated 
 an army of 15,000 men with <(reat slaughter at I.,oewen- 
 berg that Rudolph of llabsburg had sent against him. 
 This signal rex'erse decided the latter to conclude peace, 
 and a treaty was accordingly signed that allowed each 
 oi these men to pursue his own path of ambition 
 unmolested by the other. Me died in Chillon (or in 
 I'ierre Chalet, in JUigey, according to some authorities) 
 in i2()8, and was buried at fLautecombe. Pierre's 
 chixalrous gallantry, his great administrati\e abilities, 
 his justness and liberal \iews, caused him to be as nmch 
 respected and beloxed b)- his original subjects as by his 
 new Swiss ones, by whom his memory is still revered 
 as one who shed lustre on the country. Abiny of the 
 liberties Pierre saw spring up in luigland he gave to 
 his own people, especially initiating a iorm of popular 
 parliament by calling together the chief men amongst 
 the nobles and the bourgeois to consult upon public 
 affairs. At the time of his death, Pierre's rule extended 
 from the Jura and Mont Jjlanc (then called Moudit), to 
 the Aar. it included Saxoy, Chablais, h'aucigny, \'aud, 
 Ivomont, I'ayerne, Aubonne, l;>sta\'ayer, Moudon, \'\er- 
 don. C'erlier. (inminer and Mutiger in the Siebenthal, 
 besidc's being superior to the Counts and Pishops of 
 (ienexa, Neuchatel, JSasel, Xidau, Ciru}'erc. etc. I'ierre 
 was succeeded by his brother Philippe, a man of weak 
 and unambitious temperament, and Irom his time the 
 Mouse of Savoy gradually lost place and power where 
 formerly it had enjoyed so much prestige. With the 
 exception of Savoy Palace, which was gi\'en as an 
 endowment to the Ilospice oi the (ireat St. liernard, 
 the iMiglish property was left to Queen I'deanor. 
 
 About the middle of the i2lh ccnturv another oi
 
 iiisroK\ (M nil: s\\ iss I'l.oi-i.i. 
 
 those sp;isiiK)(lic ii'liL^ious rcxiwils that so trcqucntlv 
 occur anioHL;' scini-ci\ ilisccl people swept o\-er S\\ it/Ai"- 
 land, th(,)uj4h without a])])areutlv leax'ini,'" anv material 
 ,^a)od results. Mam instances ot incli\iclual enthusiasm 
 took plac~e, but all were eclipsed by the marx'ellous career 
 of a forei,i;"ner, who. alter settlin.i; in the countr\-, suddenly 
 raised a storm the memor\- ol which has nex'er ceased to 
 cause wonder. Amon.^st all the extraordinary instances 
 ol successtul lanaticism that mark relis^dous histor\', few 
 efjual the stor\ ot Arnold ol lirescia. .Vrnold, himself 
 an Itnlian priest anil a pu|)il ol the famous Abelard, was 
 a man endowed with the ,^ilt of .^reat eloijuence, and 
 possessed abilities ol a \er\- hij^h ortler. ICarh' in his 
 life he was moved to indi^aiation by the man)- ,i;iarin,L:' 
 instances that then so undermined the inlhience tor good 
 of his Church. ICspeciallv the shameless licentiousness 
 and corruption that idled the highest places aroused his 
 indignation. After creating a rising in his nati\-e town 
 by his preaching he was expelled trom Italv, and 
 obliged to take refuge in b' ranee. Here his restless and 
 enthusiastic spirit soon end)roi!ed him with the ("hurch 
 authorities, and once mori' he was forced to seek salet\' 
 in tliglit. Atter wandering through man\- hostile land> 
 he at last found an as\luni in Zurich, where he remained 
 (i\e years. I le boldly atta(d<ed the abuses ol the Church, 
 the celibacy nt the ]:)riesthoo(l. and the l'ope'> claims 
 concerning ti'inporal power. (AjmjK'lled to leaxe Zmicli 
 through a decree ot thi' Ihshop ot ("onstanz. ArnoKl 
 cf)llected a band of S(;me two thousand enthusiastic 
 admir(,-rs, < hielly tiom the neiglibouring Alpine regions, 
 and at once marched with this diiiiinutue arm\- against 
 lujme itselt, where a re\ olutionaiA" moxement was then 
 taking [ilace. Arri\ed at Rome he i)lacetl liiiii>eli at the 
 
 Arnold of 
 Brescia.'
 
 0;-(/n-< 
 
 108 msroKV 01 IHI-; swiss vhovli: 
 
 head of the rebels, and succeeded in expeUinj^^ the Pope 
 and estabhshing a Repubhc. After being ahnost wor- 
 shipped for several years, the fickle Italians tired of 
 Arnold's rigid rule and delivered him over to the (ier- 
 nian b^niperor, Frederick I., by whose orders he was 
 strangled, his body l)urnt, and his ashes cast into the 
 Tiber (i 155). This result was probably in great measure 
 due to the bold course taken by Pope Adrian I\'., in 
 placing the Holy City under a ban of excommunication, 
 an act without precedent, and one that struck the 
 superstitious Romans with the greatest awe. though the}' 
 had so shortly before not scrupled to set the temporal 
 authority of the l^ontiff at defiance, and even forcibly 
 compel him to quit the city. 
 Rcli^uvc- Second oidy in importance to the rexdval efiects of 
 
 the religious life in Switzerland is the place (occupied by 
 the labours of the pious and energetic men forming the 
 confraternities of St. Francis of Assisi and St. Dominic. 
 The progress of these orders was most rapid and their 
 influence immense. The example of their great and 
 saintl}- founders I'emained the dominating foice that 
 animated the iuend)ers, though in later \-ears these 
 examples ha\e been much lost sight of in the introduc- 
 tion of political aims. It would be difficult tcj point to 
 an\- tw(j bodies of men that ha\e done so nuich lasting 
 good for the people of Switzerland as the original little 
 band, and their descendants, of bTanciscan monks who 
 in i2t)(j, and that of the Dominicans who in 1213, crossed 
 the mountain frontiers of Switzerland, to labour annjng 
 the neglected and ignorant peasants ot that country, 
 without any other reward than the pri\-ilege of carrying 
 forward the work of Christ. It was not long before 
 llourishimj' establishments of the two orders made their
 
 Hisi^oin (M rnr swi: 
 
 IlH/ 
 
 appe.'irance in Sfxeial ot the chivl ceiurt-s. the principal 
 ont's. belon^'in.i,'' to the h^anciscans. bein,i;' situated in 
 Freyber^r. Liizern and Solothurn. ISasel, Ziirich, l!ern. 
 (iene\'a and I^aiisanne. I'he Doininicans also had Iar<j;e 
 iields of work in the fi\e last-named towns.' Ijesides 
 these two reh^"ious bodies the Templars had settlements 
 at (Iene^■a and at Choux. near Constanz, and the Idospi- 
 talers in Freyber^^. 
 
 Durin.i^' tlie latter years of the rei^L^n of Fierre de 
 Sa\oie. as has been already stated, his nei,L(hboiu- Count 
 Ivudolph of FLabsbur.L:; attacked him, but was decisi\"elv 
 lepulsed. This and several other re\erses did not. 
 however. pre\ent l^udolph from e\-entuallv becomin,^' 
 
 
 1 The founder of the Order of l-"ranciscaiis. St. I'rancis of 
 Assi.-i in I'nibria, was born in 11S2 After lead.in^' a \dcioiiis hfe. 
 he stiddenly became con\-erted, and de\'oted the remainder of lii> 
 da}'s to preachini; in pr)\-ert\-, as enjoine-ii b\- the Script nri'.-^. Mis 
 eloquence, his enthu-iasm, and tlie purit\- i<i liis later life and con- 
 duct soon, attracted man\- followers of a like dii-po^ition, and in 
 I joS he tountled his order and oljtaineLl the clnu'idi of 1 'ortituicula, 
 belon,L;in;,' to the lienedictine irifjnk-, of Subiaco. wlio ^a\e it that 
 name because it \va> built on a small portion ot land belon-m-.,; to 
 them. Here he held a chajner in 1210, at which 5,00,) > i\ ]]']-. friar-. 
 \>. ere preS'^nt, lla\dn;.: thorou;.,;lil\- ori^anisi'd hi-; order he repaired 
 to i-i,:,;\pt, and trie'! in wain t-i con\-ert the ruler, the p iwerful Soblan 
 1-il Melfk (d Kfirnel luij-iij'o, lie died at .\.ssi-,i in 122". and foui' 
 \ ears later was canonisetl. llis f llower^, the I'ranci-^cans, or (.re\ 
 j-'riars, wore a loo^e i;re\- habit, with a co\\l or mozetta, and. when 
 abroad, a cloak in adilition, walkin.t,;" barefooted, Tluw c-ame to 
 l-in,:,dand in ij^io, and t'ornied thcrir iirst settlement at Cantt^rbin-N- 
 It woidd be ditticidt to find a more perfectU' saintb,- life than that of 
 St, I'ran.cis The Mominicans, or lUack I'riars, iiirmed the mendi- 
 cant order tounded b\- St, l)(iminic, a Spaniard, who \\as born in 
 ("atauueraua in 1170, He died in uzi, and was canoni->e(l in u^^; 
 The order wore black ,L;arments and li\ed in po\ert\' d'heir thief 
 aim was to coin-ert Jews and hen-tics, and preaeh the -o-pel t'>all 
 men ddie I I. inhnicans came to l-'.m;land earb' in the 1 •;tii centuiw, 
 and fwundol at Uxionl their llr^t settlennTit m ijji.
 
 no insi'om- oi- tiii: swiss pi'.oit.i; 
 
 ihc most powerful of luiropean s(j\-erei<^ns, and founding' 
 n dynasty destined to last through many centuries, the 
 ruler of a large portion of the civilised world. The 
 growth of the Ilabsburgs is in every way extremely 
 striking, but no member of that remarkable famil}' 
 bears such a halo of romance and success around his 
 name as Coimt Rudolph. He owed his rise to his good 
 f]ualities and his good fortune rdone, without the aid of 
 those scandalous crimes or daring intrigues which ha\-e 
 but too frequently been the means adopted by the gre;U 
 heroes of history to pave the path to thrones and high 
 honours. 
 
 Gontiam. The first founder of the house of which history 
 
 takes any prominent note was an obscure Alsatian noble 
 named Radbot, grandson of that (jontram, Count of 
 Elsass, who, owing to his opposition to the ICmperor, 
 was deprived of his estates, and settled on a small 
 
 A,i). Q-jri, property at W'ohlen, on the Reuss. ISoth (lontram 
 
 and his son Lanzalin, who li\ed at the ("astle ol 
 
 i.an;:alin, died Alteuberg, near the Aar, succeeded l)y acts of cruell}-, 
 '^^ cunning and robbery in gradually extending their 
 
 territories, and in exacting feudal rights over the h^ee 
 peasants in several important villages in their neigh- 
 bourhood, as also of those of Muri. CJn Ranzalin's 
 
 Radhud. death in (jcjo, his son R;idbod continued the pcjlic}- of 
 
 his j)redccessors, and so still further increased his 
 possessions. lie exercised the greatest cruelt\' in his 
 wholesale thefts, and often for the slightest orience 
 seized the goods of the uniortunatc^ jX'asants and con- 
 lisc.'ited theii' lands, lie built a castl(> at Mun and 
 married Ida, daughter of the Duke of Lolharingia 
 ( I .oi'raine) and niece to ('a]H't, the founder of the thiril 
 l''renrh dynast}'. lla\ing by this alliance rehabilitated
 
 )20 AH 
 
 II is'i'ORv ()|- i-iii: s\\ iss I'Koi'i.i; i i i 
 
 his character, which was strikinni\- bati e\'cn in those 
 savaije clays, when the hi<(hest and often only right 
 was the Fan>treclii, or right of the strongest, Radbod 
 appears to ha\-e settled down to a life of iith 
 century respectability and ceased from further theft 
 and murder. His wife aided these good intenti(jns h\ 
 building a UK^nastery at Muri, as reparation lor the 
 many crimes of her husband and his relations, a form 
 of conscience- (luieting common at that time. This 
 same monastery rapidly grew in wealth, learning and 
 tame, and soon took high rank amongst the man\' 
 similar instUutions scattered o\'er the country, in lo: 
 l^adbod. the better to protect himself from his numerous 
 enemies, built a iortified castle on the wooded heights of 
 the W'ulpelsberg, and named it liabsburg.' lM"om this 
 period the heads of the family took the titles of (founts 
 of Habsburg, having previously iigured as C'ounts of Il^-d'sbm^ 
 Altenberg. The period of rest from plundering seems 
 to have lasted but a brief time, as shortly afterwards 
 the llabsburgs. ha\ing collected a number of well- 
 armed and unscrupul(.>us followers succeeded in acr^uiring 
 possession ot se\-eral xaluable ])roperlies situated in the 
 present (Cantons of Luzern and I'nterwalden, besides 
 the Countships of Zlirichgau,- a territory extending 
 from the Rhine to Schwyx. 
 
 I The ori.Liiiial ineLiniii,<; ot this name has ,t(i\-cn rise to much 
 r()ntro\'ers\-. ()f the man\- durix-ations put toi"\\ar(l h\- dilierent 
 authorities, one of the three foliowin,;,' apjiears thc> most prohabh 
 correct, 1 1 a''i:ht' .-. the hawk's, Z;/;^', castle; the Kehic r;.'/./'.';^, a 
 valley, and /'i/r;,', a castle : referrin- to the '.alley that skineil the 
 ll'iilpihlt'i'i: : 1)\- a ch;ui;_;e of r into h. from 7",;;j . I .';,;.•;. .(, in 
 reference lo the castle heim; built on an estate hereiHtar\- in the 
 famil\-, \\'ul|").'kl)er_L; is dcriv-ed from the K'ehic ;.■/-';, a rock, /m.', a 
 momitain th(; rock\ mountain 
 
 ^ /urichgau, i.e., the district of Zurich; ^mk is a di\-ision oi'
 
 112 iiisrom' oi" THi: swiss I'i.chm.k 
 
 h'lulnlpJi rr IviuIoIi^It, the future CieniKin l-^mpcror, was horn 
 
 A.I). 1218-01. in r2iS. Mis parents were Allrecht. Coun.t ot liabs- 
 hnrg, who died a Crusader in 1240, and IIed\ve<j;'e of 
 Kyburg, a descendant of tlie Zarin<:(ens. At his baptism 
 I'^rederick II., lunperor of (lermany, acted as godfather 
 to him. I'tudolph early showed the qualities that in after 
 life stood him in such good stead. Warm-hearted, im- 
 pulsi\e, bra\'e though not foolhardy, possessing grace 
 and dignity of manner, generous in the hour of triumph, 
 sympathetic to the weak, a true friend and a bitter 
 enemy, he nexer lost sight of his own advancement or neg- 
 lected an opportunity of mounting higher ambition's steps 
 towards power and wealth. Most of his early manhood 
 was passed amidst tempestuous scenes of war brought 
 about by the chronic troubles between the nobles them- 
 selves, and between the nobles and the free towns. 
 During the troublous times of the interregnum that 
 followed the death of Conrad I\'., he took an active part 
 in manv of the more important battles that occurred in 
 his neighbourhood. 
 A.u 1 -:5-i l>efore attaining the age of forty, Ivudolph's impul- 
 
 sive and ambiticjus nature brought down the wrath of all 
 the members of his own family upon him, as well as 
 made him numerous enemies among thc^ surrounding 
 nobles. II is maternal uncle, the Count ol Kyburg, dis- 
 inherited him, and for biu'ning a conxc^U whilst attacking 
 
 district, whilst i(i! is a nu:acl<)\v containiii,!;' trees, usualh' appiii'd to 
 such situated alon^' the banks of ri\-ers. 
 
 luiif-iii'i-s r! C.Dihuiy. l\ud()lph of 1 lalishurL; ( I 272-()i ) ; .\dolphiis, 
 1 )ukc' ot Nassau (t^iji-oS); Albert 1. ol Austria, son ol Rudolph 
 (1 -;cji.S-i .joS) ; l[eni-\- \'1I. of laixenburs; (i joS-i.p) ; Louis ol r>a\aria 
 ^ ' ,5 '("IT) ' Cdi.arlcs 1\'. of 1 aixcnburL,', l\in,L; of liohcmia (1317-78): 
 Wenceslaus, son ot (."harlcs ( 1 378- 1 .| 10) ; Si,i;isniund, bi"otlu;r to 
 Wi^nceslaus (i.(ii-j7) : Albert J I, ot Austria ( 14.57- joj.
 
 HISTORY ni" -nil- SWISS i'i:oiM.i': i i ^^ 
 
 tlic JHsliop of IkiscI, lie \v;is placed under a ban of c.\- 
 coinniunication. He then look service under Ottocarus, 
 Kiul;' of ISoheniia, and fous^ht walianlK' ai^^ainsl the hordes 
 of infidels that were then threatening^ that S(n-erei,!_;"n. 
 He next joined Zurich in a \'ictorious attack on L'lric, 
 the powerful IJaron of Rej^'ensber,!,^, Avho had succeeded 
 in ruiniii'j;' the trade of the town between Italy and ad. 12^1'') 
 Cjerinany. Alter many other minor wars, in m(jst ot 
 which Rudolph lent his aid U) one or other of the towns 
 against their natural enemies the nobles, he attacked, in 
 1273, ^'"'C Bishop of ]]asel, as the citizens of that town a.d, 1273. 
 had killed some of Ivudolph's friends for grossly insulting 
 their wi\es and daughters during the carnival. Whilst 
 besieging the town, news was brought by the (lerman 
 Imperial ^Marshal that at a general assembly o! the 
 prince-electors recently held at I'^rankfort, Rudolph had 
 been chosen ICmperor. This unexpected decision was 
 arrived at owing to the general wish that the fearful 
 anarchy that then prevailed throughout the l']mpire 
 should be brought t(j a close, and amongst the many 
 rivals to the throne none could command suflicient sup- 
 port to make his reign sufficiently strong to put down 
 the general turbulence. Rudolph's success in arms, his 
 personal charm of manner, and his protection of the 
 towns procured him the support of tlie latter, wliilst the 
 powerful nobles and the Church hoped to use him as a 
 tool to further their own interc:sts. On the besieged 
 citizens (jf 1 iasel learning the news of Rudolph's ek;\a- 
 tit)n, they at once threw open their g.ites ami made their 
 submission. They then, together with llu; chiitf men 
 from most of the centrc;s of Swilzci laud, formed a depu^ 
 tation to acc(;mi)any their highly-honoured countr\inan 
 to .\ix-la-(^hapelle, v.heie he was lormally installed in 
 
 S
 
 114 HISTORY OI- rnv. SWISS I'I-OI'I.F. 
 
 his new position. How false were the hopes of those 
 who favoured Rudolph's election from motives of using 
 him to further their personal interests, was soon seen by 
 the new Emperor's conduct of public affairs. He at 
 once set about creating order out of anarchy, by bringing 
 the turbulent nobility to subjection with a strong hand. 
 This task he steadily pursued till his object was accom- 
 plished, and his authority felt and acknowledged by all. 
 
 On his accession to the imperial throne Rudolph's 
 possessions included the chief portions of the united 
 patrimonies of the Houses of Zaringen, Len7d:)erg and 
 Kyburg, which meant the greater part of the present 
 Cantons of Aargau, Zug, Thurgau, Bern and Luzern, 
 the towns of Sursee, Sempach and W'interthur, the 
 wardenship of the Waldstiitten, of the con^'ent of 
 Sechingen, and other places, besides of Burgundy from 
 Thun to Aarwangen. In 1277 he further acquired the 
 town of Freyburg, thus possessing a very large ]X)rtion 
 of Helvetia. Most of these estates came by inheritance 
 through Rudolph's mother. In addition, as Emperor, 
 his rule extended over Germany, the Netherlands, 
 Lorraine, Upper Jlurgundy, Savoy, Northern Italy, and 
 Swabia. The greater nvunber of these territories were 
 then in a condition little, if at all, remo\'ed from 
 anarchy, and Rudolph's task in establishing his supreme 
 authority was therefore difficult in the extreme. His 
 first step was to put himself on good terms with the 
 Church by renoimcing all jurisdiction over Rome and 
 in ecclesiastical matters generally, reser\-ing only to 
 himself the right of "imperial investiture" of newly- 
 elected bishops. In 1275, on tlie occasion of the 
 consecration of the recently comi)k;ted ('alhedi'al of 
 Lausamie, which ceremony obtained special importance
 
 iii^'i'OK',- (M- rm: swiss I'rniM.i: 115 
 
 iroiii bt'iiiL; pfitorniccl 1)\- I'opc ("ire^orv X. in person, 
 Rudolph, attended by all the chief princes antl nobles 
 of the I'hnpire, solenmly took the oath as ICmperor. 
 lie further undertook to repair to i\onie i lujunrciii: j 
 in the following;' year to be there ci'owned by the 
 Pontiff. IIa\-in,!4- thus staved the strifc> that for so lonj;' 
 had racked between the 1-hnpire and l\oine, Kudolpli |)ut 
 down se\'eral re\"olts ot his warlike antl restless nol)les, 
 and then declared war aj^ainst his powerful nei^s^hbour 
 Ottocarus. Kini,^ of ISoheniia. who refused to acknow- 
 led^^e him. As Ottocarus" kinL(dorn extended from the 
 IJaltic to the Adriatic, he possessed ample opportunities 
 of greatly mjurmt( the (lerman ICmpire. Alter a 
 brilliant and rapid campaiL(n, in which the 1 iohemian 
 King was completeK' defeated at e\ery point, Kudolpli 
 annexed the whole country, \vith the exception ot 
 IJohemia proper and r\b)ra\ia, and out ot these 
 extensixe territories founded the luture l*hnpire ot 
 Austria (12^2). At this period JSohemia consisted. \ p. ijS. 
 besides the country ot that name, oi Styria, C'arinthia, 
 Ahiravia and Austria.' After tlie termination ot this 
 \ictorious campaign, Rudolph once more set about the 
 
 I Austria, ()iSlii:l! (I'^ast(;rn kinijcloiril, was in ancient times 
 knf)\vn as Xuriciini, hein^; a portion ol the important Roman 
 i'i"(;\-ince (;f I'annonia. In tlii! 3lh and oth centuries it was 
 overrun 1>\- the Ihms and Avars. In 70I ( diarlemauiie took 
 possession ol it, and establish(.'d M ji ^ij:\s as its local ruk-rs 
 Tliese developed in 114.J into l>ukL>, ol whom llenrv II. was the 
 first, :ind in i-\'t.', hito .-I ;v/;,/(/,Vi s, Maximilian hi-in^ the first, t )t 
 the lom^-endurir.;.; and j)o\verlul d\nast\- that (jwes its oriL^in to the 
 rise ot Rudolph, i 'lanta, writin.i.;' in iSo;),sums up the characteristics 
 as follows; "few xdrtues, and a still smaller sh.are ot ma_;nani- 
 mitv, but a h;ipp\" c'lincidi-nce ot circumstances, ar.d., ,ilio\c all. :ui 
 iullexiMe adh(n"ence to a -^vstcMii of a-;;_;f andi.-^ement . h:i\e r.aise 1 this 
 house ti") tile hiyhe-t rank in the (diristian world."
 
 Il6 HISTORY OF THE SWISS PI-OPLP: 
 
 seemingly impossible feat of establishing law and order 
 amongst his unruly nobles. After many and sanguinary 
 conflicts, m which the Emperor was greatly assisted by 
 the steady support he received from the Swiss municipal 
 centres, he at length succeeded in effectually establisliing 
 the supremacy of his power, and compelling the nobles 
 to swear before successive Diets to maintain peace, to 
 consent to the destruction of many of their fortresses, 
 and to submit all future disputes amongst themselves 
 to arbitration, instead of at once rushing into hostilities 
 and plunging the country into the miseries of war. 
 Continuing his policy of strengthening the position of 
 the towns in order to counteract the power of the 
 nobles, Rudolph bestowed many benefits on several of 
 the most important of the cities of Switzerland. He 
 especially singled out Solothurn, Zurich and Schaff- 
 hausen as the recipients of his favours, by bestowing 
 on them special privileges that practically made them 
 independent. He, moreover, granted extended privileges 
 to Aarau, Bienne, Luzern, Winterthur, Laupen and 
 other towns, that greatly increased their freedom. He 
 even forgave the city of IJern (that almost alone among 
 the Swiss towns showed him no particular affection), 
 after defeating her troops when they had sided with 
 A.I), 1291. one of the risings fomented by the nobles. On this 
 occasion Ijcrn managed for a considerable time to hold 
 her own, but was linally forced to surrender, when, on 
 Rudolph promising to confu'm her liberties and existing 
 rights, she made a full submission, and agreed to pay 
 her share of the imperial taxes. 
 
 Rudolph's wish to revive the old liurgundian 
 kingdom as a gift to his la\'ourile son, Hartmann, led 
 to a collision with Sa\oy, as the latter's territories
 
 HISTORY (M- I'lU'. SWISS Pi;()Pi.i-: 117 
 
 were thereby eiulan;^'ered. Open hostilities fcjllowed, 
 in which the iMuperor made two successful campaigns 
 ai;'ainst the country that had formerly defeated him, 
 but the untimely death of Hartmann, who was drowned 
 whilst crossing the Rhine, brought the war to a close. 
 
 In I2(ji the b^mperor added to his blebetian pos- ad. 1291. 
 sessions by purchasing the town of Luzern from the 
 Abbey of Murbach, together with its rights in Unter- 
 walden. He further acfjuired territories in the chief 
 portions of the present Cantons of St. Ciallen and 
 Glarus. Rudolph's relations with Helvetia appear to 
 ha\"e remained of the most cordial kind till his death, 
 antl e\'en at the height of his power, and when most 
 occupied with matters invob'ing \-ast and important 
 interests, he never omitted an opportunity of listening 
 to and, if possible, adjusting difficulties in his nati\e 
 land. The towns, for their part, and the people of 
 Switzerland generally, seldom failed to supply him 
 generously with men and money to maintain his posi- 
 tion, and remained loyal and affectionate to him all 
 through his brilliant career. He raisetl the ISishop ot 
 Lausanne and the Abbot of 1-^insiedeln to the rank of 
 princes of the empire, and extended his protection to 
 Lausanne and Freyburg against the encroachments ot 
 Savoy. 
 
 Rudolph li\'ed, active tt) the last for the weltare a.u. 1291 
 of his country, till the age of seventy-three, and died 
 in 1291. He was regretted, in spite of his personal 
 ambition and his wars, by the \'ast majority of his 
 subjects, for the firm attitude he alwavs maintained 
 against the aggressicjn oi the nobles, tor the benelits 
 he conferred on the towns, tor his justness and benexo- 
 lence to the poor, and for the wisdom he disi)layed in
 
 Il8 illSrORV Ol' TlIK SWISS I'KOPLK 
 
 the conduct of his government. His uprightness and 
 Avisdoni, indeed, liecame proverbial, and his religious 
 fervour is undoubted. He may truly be called the 
 second restorer of the Empire ; none of his prede- 
 cessors, excepting ('harlemagne, ever procured such 
 benefits for it. He owed much to good fortune ; he 
 was still more indebted to his own merit — (Durham). 
 He raised himself from "the huts of his ancestors to 
 an imperial throne," and from the position of a petty 
 Swiss Count, who could view his possessions from his 
 hall door, to that of the most powerful ruler of Western 
 bvurope.' 
 
 Switzerland was now but a small dependence of ihe 
 vast and powerful Cierman empire, under the govern- 
 ment of a number of sub-rulers; but the time was 
 rapidly approaching when, by the heroism of her 
 people, she would cast off the foreign yoke and secure 
 her national independence and freedom. 
 
 I Kudolph is described as tall in siatiire and ol a f^'raceful 
 fi^'ure ; he early laccame bald; his complexion was pale, his nose 
 xsas acjuiline ; his countenance, thou<,di unusually ,L^ra\"e, was sub 
 ject to li,t;ht up with f,'enialit\' on (jccasion : his manners were eas\ , 
 thou.yh diLjnified, without reserve or hau<^htin(-ss : and his per- 
 sonalitx was such that lew con\ersed with him without loi-mini; 
 a strong;- attachment lor him or feelings of respect lor his character'. 
 Amid \icious surronndin,Lrs, and lixiuL;' in a p(n'iod when licentious- 
 ness was not considered a crime, Rudolph earned a re})Utation toi' 
 strict moralit}- in his private lite. I lis personal aml)iti(n, wliicli 
 was f^reat, seems seldom, if e\er, to ha\e led him to talic an 
 un.n'cnerons ad\antaL;e of a loe, or to use means other iliaii 
 honourable to attain his ends. He lost most ol the jiassiouate 
 impulsi\-enes-i ihat dislij.^ured his south with tlu> accession to 
 years and rt:sp(>nsil)ilit\'. and his later lile showed man\- instances 
 wlu'U calm reasonin;^ carried him throu<.,di serious daus^ers auti 
 tlifliculties.
 
 CHAPTER \'III 
 
 i-oi;m)ai"I(.)X oi' riu-: swiss coxii;i)Kra riox ad, 1291- 
 
 1344- 
 
 'ruE perioel einhraced 1)\- the 14111 and the closing 
 years of the 13th centuries is certainly the nujst 
 inip(n'tanl in the social and political history of the 
 people ol Switzerland. During that epoch the fu'st 
 marked eilort at union amongst the inhabitants oi 
 dilterent tlistricts took place, out cjf which |)ersoncd 
 libert}- anel national independence were gradually 
 e\"olved, culminating e\'entually in the Swiss Con- 
 federation of to-day. 
 
 Shortly after the death of Rudolph, a powerful Adr:f::u; 0/ 
 noble, Adolphus. (!ount of Nassau, was elected to iill'^',, ;j'^i.r,g 
 the imperial throne to the exclusion ot Albrecht, Duke 
 ot Austria, the late l-.mperor's sole sur\'i\ing son. This 
 refusal on the part ot the prince-electors to ccjnler the 
 management ot Rudolph's empire on his son was due to 
 the tatter's misc(jnduct ot the attairs ot his Duch\- ol 
 Austiia, anil io the hosts ed enemies his selfish ambition, 
 cruelt)' and haught\' repellent bearing, had alreadv raisfdi 
 arouiul him. 1 Uit th(nigh Albrecht thus lost loi" a whde 
 the lhr(;ne lie had long impatienth' waited lor through 
 the hatred his perscjnal characteristics inspireii, he wasted 
 no time m ! utile regrets, but at once set about preparing 
 to take 1)}' tcjrce what he was unal)le to obtcUn by 
 ta\'our. lie [)ossessed in a marked degree the i[ualities 
 tiiat make a hold and successful soldier, and probabl\-
 
 120 HISTORY OF THE SWISS PEOPLE 
 
 never showed to better advantage than when grappling 
 with the obstacles in his path to power. By the exercise 
 of the utmost energy and resource he brought together 
 a large and highly efficient force, well armed for every 
 emergency, especially for what in those days was rare, 
 for the capturing of fortified towns. His personal 
 courage and military administrative abilities made up 
 in great measure for his lack of those other qualities 
 that attract the multitude, and it was not long before 
 he found many influential nobles and free-towns on his 
 side who before were his opponents. Soon the struggle 
 commenced in earnest, and the numerous battles and 
 devastations that followed threw the empire once more 
 into all the horrors of a sanguinary civil war, in which 
 Helvetia, as usual, suffered greatly. liere Albrecht's 
 principal opponents were those who formerly were the 
 strongest and most constant supporters of his father, 
 and Zurich, Basel, Uri, Schwyx, Rapperswyl, and 
 other important cities, besides the Bishops of St. Gallen 
 and Constanz, all threw in their lot with the reigning 
 Emperor. Adolphus sustained his position, though each 
 succeeding year found him more feeble both in mind 
 A.i). i^.jS. and in body and su})ported by fewer follow^ers, till 1298, 
 when his main army wiis defeated at the battle of 
 Gu:theim and he himself slain. Not long afterwards 
 his \'ictor mounted the vacant throne of Cicrmauy. 
 
 During the many serious encounters that took place 
 in Switzerland whilst this seven years' contest was in 
 progress for the imperial crown, great damage and 
 much loss of life specially took place within the terri- 
 tories of the J5ishop of Constanz and the Abbot of 
 St. (lallen. Jjoth these militant clerics, although tliey 
 olleretl a long and stubborn resistance, were often
 
 fiisrom' oi'' Tin-; swiss im-oi'f.I': 121 
 
 delcaled by Alhrecht, and had tlicir possessicjns dcwas- 
 taled. Many towns, W'yl amongst the number, as well 
 as castles and xillag'es, were completely destroyed by 
 fire and sword, and thousands of peasants were ruthlessly 
 slain, or perished by disease and famine. An interestin,i( 
 example of wliat was at this time looked upon as 
 le,<;itimate strategy is afforded by the following account, 
 taken from an old author, of the signal defeat of the 
 Zurich troops by the supporters of Albrecht. The 
 Burghers of Zurich, headed by b'rederick, Coimt of 
 Toggenburg, their captain, attacked and defeated the 
 Burghers of W'interthur, commanded by their avoyei', 
 Hopler. 1-vlated with their iirst success, they adwanced 
 towards the town, which, with the help of a reinforce- 
 ment they expected from the Bishop of ('(nistanz, they 
 were confident of reducing; but Hugo, Count oi 
 W'eidenberg, the Duke's commander in these parts, 
 resolved to try the fortune of the day, before the 
 arrival of the auxiliaries. It chanced that a messenger 
 despatched by the men of Zurich tt; the Bishop fell 
 into the hands of Hugo, who thereupon instantly sent 
 a trusty person with a suppositious answer, as coining 
 from the llishop, to this effect. "We rejoice at the 
 news of your xictory, ;uk1 will be with you to-moiTow 
 at noon. 'I'his letter will be delix'ered to you by one 
 who is better acquainted witli the b\'-roads than your 
 messenger : acquaint us, through him, which way we 
 shall advance to meet you."" Hugo affixed to this 
 scrcjll a seal from a letter lit; had formerly himself 
 received from the liishop. In the course of the night he 
 caused an episcopal fkig to be manufactured. Another 
 messenger was also despatched wuli instructions to the 
 avKVCv, Hopler, and the garrison was meanwhile rein-
 
 122 iiisioRV oi' riii-: swiss I'i:oI'[j: 
 
 forced by a detachment from Schaffhausen. On the 
 morrow, while the unguarded troops of Zurich were 
 viewing with joy the approach of the bishop's banner, 
 they found themselves on a sudden furiously assailed 
 by Coimt W'ledenberg nnd Hopler, and sustained a 
 signal ox'crthrow, to the indelible disgrace of their 
 banner and disparagement of their military fame. Few 
 were suflered to escape, and by this well-conducted 
 strategem Zurich was ultimately compelled to accept a 
 separate peace with Albrecht, and to agree to light 
 A.D. i2(j2. under his conunand (1292). 
 
 ft is now necessary to trace the origin and progress 
 oi the early efforts made by a handful of heroic peasants, 
 h\ing in the mountains of an isolated and almost 
 unknown portion of Switzerland, to bring about agree- 
 ment and union for mutual protection and support, as 
 
 their efforts were destined, at no very distant time, to 
 Hirth and 
 Groiith of cause changes in the whole country of the first im- 
 
 Siviishvccdom. portance, and to lead eventually to national unity, the 
 
 absence of which kept Switzerland for many centuries 
 
 little better tlian (jne huge battle-ground, and pre\"ented 
 
 ci\'ilisation from making anv material acbance. 
 
 At the lime of lvudo]})li's death, in 1291, tlie wiiole 
 
 of llehelia formed l)ut a small portion (jf the \ast 
 
 Cjcrman l-^iiipire, and as such was di\ided int(j \arious 
 
 districts, under tlie nUe of feudal nobles, monasteries, or 
 
 free-towns, whicli hitler, ha\ing self-go\ei'nmenl, were 
 
 subject to tlie nuich-co\'eted privilege of being answei"- 
 
 al)]c only lo llie hhnperor himself. 'bhough the 
 
 inliabuanls of many of the larger hui\ij;s possessed all 
 
 tile adwuitages of personal liberty and power, the great 
 
 mass of iIk; Swiss j^easants was still, to all intents and 
 
 purpcjscb, in a c(;ndition of serfdcjm. b_^.\cepL in some
 
 nis'i'()K\ oi rill-; SWISS riioiMi. 
 
 fa\<)urfd clislricls. where ihe miltler rule of the iiK)n;is- 
 tcrics had Ix-ltcred their condition, or where t'he 
 exceptionable hunianil\- or weakness of inchx'idual 
 nobles allowed a ,<4-reater measure of freedom, their lot 
 was most wretched. Dixided by lan_i;ua<^a'. race, local 
 interests, and often shut off by their geo,<,a'a|)hical posi- 
 tion : constantly harassed by war and treatment the 
 most brutal, with the burden of chronic abject poxert}'. 
 the rural populations (jf Switzerland had scj far been 
 unable to assert their ri,L;'hts b\- combination -a method 
 that, sooner or later, at all times, in all countries, has 
 pro\-ed the surest saie,i,''uard of the poor antl defenceless 
 a,L,''ainst the oj^pression of the; rich and the powerful. 
 To the men (jf Schwv.x, I'ri and I 'nterwalclen. those 
 m(nintain(jus districts borderinj^' the I^ake ot Lu/x-rn, 
 behjnu's the honour oi bein,i^ the lirst pioneers in the 
 stru,^"gle t(j tree their country from torei.i^n rule, and to 
 lay tlie toundation of personal liberty and a fiee and 
 united nationalit}'.' 
 
 A thorou,L;'h undeistandin,u of the position occupied 
 !>}• tile heroic and patriotic inhabitants of Schwvx, I li 
 and I 'nterw alden is necessar}', in (jrder t<j tollow the 
 ))ro^re>s (jf exeiUs tliat ori,L(inaled in these districts, autl 
 that so soon chanu'ed the wlude political asi)ect of 
 
 
 I The S\\i>> ,ii"c iif ■,(■!■ we.'ii'ictl (it sin;;inL; ilie ])r;iises ol the^e 
 carK li(:''n(.:> (it lihcru , aiul ii i.-, ihc Miiall and iik iiiiUaiiimis (livasioii-. 
 ()! th<j W alil>l:at.L'ii thai ar<; aK\a\s ri"_;ai-ilc(i a-, the hdnie ami hirth- 
 pl.-icc ot ilu'ir cminirx 's I rc(.'(|()in. The tccliiiL; i> characici'i^ticalh' 
 CNpres-ed li\- the C()iii)lt:t in-ominciUK- (li--]ila\f(l on t_h(.' chajiel ot 
 Imi-^siuilIu, a> (i\iT otlicrs, in Switzerland . 
 
 " Wo I )(annth weiiU und llorhnuah lacht, 
 I 'a ward dei' Scdiwcizcrhund L;eniacht " 
 W liich inav be U'anslated 1)\- 
 
 " Wdicre hnniilii\- w^'c-])^ and pride lan_;hs with scofii, 
 Js the syiol where Switzerland's luiion \sa.^ born
 
 124 HISTORY OF THE SWISS PEOPLE 
 
 Switzerland. The followin<,^ resume of what is now 
 known concerning' the early inhabitants of these 
 mountains, taken from the scholarly and concise 
 writings of the Rev. W. A. Coolidge, probably the 
 greatest English authority on the subject, will elucidate 
 and carry on their history, and embodies all the main 
 facts. " The legal and political conditions of all 
 (Schwyx, Uri and Unterwalden) differed, [a) In 853, 
 Louis the German granted {intev alia) all his lands (and 
 the rights annexed to them), situated in the ' Pagellus 
 UronicC' (Canton Uri) to the convent of Saints Felix 
 and Regula, in Zurich .... and gave to this district 
 the privilege of exemption from all jurisdiction, save 
 that of the King [Rcichsfveiheii). The abbey thus became 
 possessed of the greater part of the valley of the l^euss, 
 between the Devil's Bridge and the Lake of Luzern, for 
 the upper valley of Urseren belonged at that time to the 
 Abbey of Dissentis, in the Rhine Valley, and did not 
 become permanently allied wdth Uri till 1410. . . . The 
 important post of ' Protector' [Advocalus or vogt) of the 
 abbey was given to one family after another by the 
 Emperor as a sign of trust ; but when, on the extinction 
 of the House of Zaringen in 1218, the office was granted 
 to the llabsburgs, the protests of the abbey tenants . . . 
 led to the recall of the grant in 1231, the valley being 
 thus restored to its original privileged position, and 
 depending immediately on the Emperor. (/>) In Schwyx 
 we must distinguish between the valleys west and east 
 of Steinen. In the former the land was in the hands of 
 many nobles, amongst whom were the Jlabsburgs; in 
 the latter there was, at the foot of the Alythen, a free 
 community c^i men go\crning themselves and cuhi\ ating 
 their lands in common; both, however, were politically
 
 HISTORY oi' TiiK SWISS ri'.opi.K 125 
 
 subject to the l^mpcror's (lclt\L;'atcs, the C^ouiits of the 
 Zurichf;\'ui, wlio, after 1173, were the ever-;ulvan( ini^ 
 1 Iahsl)ur,i;s. lUit, in 1.241), the free coininunilv of 
 Schwyx f)btaine(l from the lunperor TVeclerick 11. a 
 charter which reino\e(l them from the juristhction of the 
 counts, placin.i^' them in immediate dependence on the 
 lunperor, Hke the abbey men of Uri. In a few years, 
 howe\'er, the Ilabsburt^'s contrived to dispense with this 
 charter in practice, (c) In L'nterwalden things were 
 \-ery different. The upper valley (Obwald or Sarnen, so 
 called because of its position with regard to the Kern- 
 wald), formed part of the Aargau, the lower (Xidwald or 
 Stanzj part of the Ziirichgau, while in both the soil was 
 owned by many ecclesiastical and lay bjrds, among them 
 being the liabsburgs and the Alsatian Abbey of Mur- 
 bach. Hence in this district there were no prixileged 
 tenants, no free community, no centre of unity, and this 
 explains why Obwald and Xidwald won their way up- 
 ward so much more slowly than their neighbours in 
 Uri and Schwyx. . . . 
 
 " In 1273 ^'""^ head of the cadet line {of the Ilabshiir^s) 
 sold all his lands and rights in the I-\:)rest districts to 
 the head of the elder or Alsatian line. Rudolph, a few 
 months later, was elected to the imperial throne, in \irtue 
 oi which he acquired for his tamily, in r2S3, ijie Duchy 
 ot Austria, which now for the first time became con- 
 nected with the liabsburgs. . . . Rudolph recognised 
 the pri\"ileges of I'ri, but not those of Schwyx; and as 
 he now united in his f)wn ]:)erson the characters ot 
 hLm])ei'or, C'ount ot the Zurich^au and o! the Aar^^au, 
 and lancknvner in the b'orest districts (a name occurring 
 hrst in I2~<w), such an union of othces mi^ht be ex[X.Tled 
 to result in a contusion (jf rights. On April loth, iJi/i,
 
 126 Hisi'ORv oi' 'rni: swiss tkopi.f. 
 
 Rudolph bought from the Abbey of Alurbach in l^Llsass 
 (of which he was 'advocate'), all its rights over the 
 town of Luzern and the Abbey estates in Unterwalden. 
 It thus seemed probable that the other Forest districts 
 would be shut off from their natural means of communi- 
 cation with the outer world by way of the Lake. 
 Rudolph's death, on July 15th of the same year, cleared 
 the way, and a fortnight later (August ist), the e\'er- 
 lasting I^eague was made between the men of I'ri, 
 Schwyx and Nidwald (the words ' et vallis superioris,' 
 i.e., Obwald, were inserted later on the original seal of 
 Nidwald), for the purpose of self-defence against a 
 common foe. The common seal — that great outward 
 sign of the right of a corporate body to act in its own 
 name, without needing to ask the permission of any 
 external authority — appears first in Uri in 1243, in 
 Schwyx in 1281, in Nidwald not till this very docu- 
 ment of 1 291, yet despite the great differences in their 
 political status, they all joined in concluding this League, 
 and confirmed it by their separate seals, thereby laying 
 claim on behalf of their union to an independent 
 existence, liesides promises of aid and assistance in 
 the case of attack, they agreed to punish great criminals 
 by their own authority, but advise that in minor cases, 
 and in all civil cases, each man should recognise the 
 'judex ' to whom he owes suit, engaging that the con- 
 federates will, m case of need, enforce the decisions of 
 the -judex.' At the sanie time they unanimously reluse 
 to recognise any 'judex' who has bought his charge, or 
 is a stranger to the valleys. All disputes between the 
 ])arties to the treaty are, as far as possible, to be settled 
 by a reference io arbiters, a ]:)rinciple that remained in 
 lorce lor <j\er live hundred years, 'judex' is a general
 
 insTOKV oi- TIM', SWISS iTdi'i.i-: 127 
 
 term for any local official, especially the chief of the 
 comnuinitv, whether named by the lord or by the com- 
 munity, and. as earlier in the same year Rudolph had 
 promised the men of Schw}x not to force upon them 
 a 'judex" belon,i(in,c^ to the class of serls. we may 
 conjecture from this \-ery decided protest that the 
 chief s(jurce of disagreement was in the matter of the 
 jurisdictions of the lord of the Iree community, and 
 that some recent evejit in Schwvx led it to insist on 
 the insertion ot this pro\'ision. It is stipulated also 
 that every man shall be bound to obey his own lord 
 ' convenienter." or so far ;is is tittini,'' and ri,i4;ht. 
 
 '• Like many other 'principles," that so prominently 
 mentioned in this League of settlini,'' all disputes between 
 members of the C'onfederation by reference; to arbitra- 
 tion, \-ery soon became little more than an expression, 
 as the long and melancholy history of Swiss civil wars, 
 culminating in the terrible fratricidal encounters ot the 
 Sonderbund in i'"^47. but too plainly shows. it is well 
 to remember that this League was ccjmposed ot men 
 from (n'r'Diuu districts only, and that (jermans alone 
 joined it in its further growth till as late as the 
 beginning of the present century. The d(3cument 
 emb(xlying the terms of the original agreement was 
 written in Latin, while that of the renewal in 1313 
 appears m (jerman "' -(■' l".nc\ c. Lrit..'" \ Ol. 22). 
 
 Such was the condition ot the [leople oi the 
 mountainous districts known as the Waldstatti'U or 
 I'orest Cantons \vlu'n Albiccht. 1 )uk-e ot Austri;i. .1,7.,.; 
 ascended tiu; imperial throne ot ( iei'iiianx'. Anione' ' ' ',, ' 
 the Swiss jieasants Albrecht was regaicled as a cruel. 
 ambitious, and unjust ruler, one who had alieadv 
 signalised his administration in Austria b\- inan\- arts
 
 128 HISTORY OF THE SWISS PEOPLE 
 
 of tyranny and by curtailing considerably the privileges 
 enjoyed by many free towns. The loyalty they had 
 displayed towards his predecessor and rival, and the 
 resistance they had already offered to his pretensions to 
 the crown, were not, they felt, likely to pass without 
 punishment, now that Albrecht possessed the reins of 
 power. Not long after Albrecht's election the hrst 
 threatening of the coming storm appeared in the form 
 of an urgent and haughty message from the Emperor 
 urging the Waldstiitten to renounce their " imperial 
 lil)erties." This much-prized safeguard against local 
 oppression they were in no humour to cede voluntarily. 
 In order the better to induce the peasants to submit to 
 his wishes, or in order to stir them up to revolt, and 
 thus give an excuse for attacking them, Albrecht 
 Austrian despatched certain baillies or landvogten (instead of as 
 
 Baillics. . ■ , rr N 1 1 1 • • 
 
 tonnerly sending imperial omcers) loyal to his interests, 
 to act as Local Ciovernors in the different districts of the 
 Waldstiitten (Forest States). Contrary to all usage, he 
 chose most of these, not from the men of repute among 
 the people themselves, but from his own immediate 
 followers. The fair promises of the baillies at first 
 induced the peasants to submit to their rule, but their 
 conduct soon became so unjust and tyrannical that a 
 general rising took place, in which their castles were 
 ExpuUion of destroyed and they thcmsch'cs cither killed or obliged 
 to seek safety in lliglit (130S). 
 
 'blierc can be little doubt that most of the many 
 stories related by the Swiss ot the cruelty ;iik1 extortion 
 of the Austrian baillies are wholly or in great fiart 
 devcnd of an historical basis ol truth, as are tlie dates 
 given for their o(-currcnce. They doubtless sprang from 
 the \ery natural feelings of hatred the mountaineers of 
 
 lilt lilies 
 
 A.I). 1308
 
 iiisiom oi- rni: swiss im:oi'1.i; iji; 
 
 the Forest State te!t a<;ainst a toreii^n master, who was 
 probably only too readv to punish theni for the part 
 they took against him in the struggle for the imperial 
 throne. Indeed, it was not till about two centuries 
 after this period that any reference to the alleged 
 cruelties of the Austrians can be found in the local 
 records, though legends about them ha\-e been plentiful. 
 Many and various are the stories that have come down 
 to our times of the oppression and licentiousness of the 
 baillies, most of which ha\-e probably gained much 
 colour by constant repetition, e\-en if they were not 
 wholly created by imaginati(;n and hatred of the Austrian 
 rule. According to these accounts, the local despots im- 
 posed exorbitant lines for tri\ial (offences, and frecpientlv 
 sent prisoners to Zug and Luzern to be tried b\' Austrian 
 judges; they le\'ied enormously increased taxes aiid im- 
 ports on every C(;mmodity, and exacted payment in the 
 most merciless manner; they openlv \iolated the liberties 
 of the people, and chose every occasion t(j insult and 
 degrade them. An oft-qu(jt(xl instance of their cruelly 
 is recorded of a baillie named Landenberg, who pvd)licly 
 reproved a peasant lor lixdng in a house abox'e his 
 station. On another occasion, haxin,^;' tmed an old and 
 much respected labourer named lienr\' of Melchi a 
 yoke of oxen for an imaginarv oltence, the Cio\-ern(jr's 
 messenger jeeringly tokl the old man, who was 
 lam.enting that if he lost his cattle he could no longer 
 earn his bread, that if he wanted to use a plough he 
 had better draw it himself, being onlv a vile peasant. 
 To this insult I leiu'y's son Arnold responded by 
 attacking the messenger and breaking liis fiiiL^ers, and 
 then, fearing lesL his act shoahl bring down some 
 serious punishment, lied to the mountains, and lelt his 
 
 9
 
 130 HISTORY OF THK SWISS PEOPLE 
 
 aged father to Landenberg's vengeance. The bailHe 
 confiscated his Httle property, imposed a heavy fine, and 
 finally burned out both his eyes. Tlie hot irons used in 
 this barbarous punishment, the Swiss are fond of saying, 
 went deeper than the tyrant intended, and penetrated to 
 the hearts and aroused the sympathies of their ancestors 
 to perform such acts of heroism that tyranny fled in fear 
 from the land. The conduct of Arnold, however, can 
 hardly at this period of his life warrant the eulogies 
 bestowed upon his memory, though he subsequently 
 figures as one of the " Men of Riitli."' Landenberg 
 lived in a castle near Sarnen, in Unterwalden, where 
 his imperious temper, his exactions, his cruelties, and 
 his debaucheries aroused a universal feeling of hatred 
 amongst the peasants that culminated in his expulsion 
 and the destruction of his stronghold. The latter is 
 popularly believed to have occurred on the ist of 
 January, 1308. As the baillie left his castle to attend 
 mass, some forty determined peasants, who had already 
 bound themselves by oath to free their country at a 
 solemn meeting on the steep promontory over the Lake 
 of Luzern known as the Riitli, appeared before him 
 carrying sheep, fowls, and other customary presents, 
 and thus gained admission to the castle. Xo sooner 
 were they past the gates, when, drawing the weapons 
 they had till then concealed beneath their clothes, they 
 disarmed the guard and took possession of the fortress. 
 Other conspirators were admitted, and the people at 
 once rose in revolt. Landenberg, hearing while still at 
 cliurch of wliat had occurred, managed to effect his 
 escape, and lied to Luzern. Of the other baillies, 
 Gessler and W'olfenschiess are believed to have excitcnl 
 e\en more hatred than tlieir colleasjue Landenbert/, and
 
 HISTORY f)F THK S^V1SS I'KOI'I.K 
 
 131 
 
 to have exceetlctl him in acts of saxa.L^e cruelty and 
 vicifuis H\'inj:(. One example out of nuany similar ones 
 will show the spirit in which the Swiss traditions ha\"e 
 treated the n^aMUory of W'olfenschiess. On a certain 
 dav, rmdin,^ that a peasant named Conrad, of jlauiii- 
 garten, whose wife he had lre(^uently tried in wain to 
 seduce, was absent from home, W'olfenschiess entered 
 Conrad's house a.nd (ordered his wife to prepare him a 
 bath, at the same time renewinti; with ardour his former 
 proposals. With the cunning of her sex, the wife 
 feigned to be willing to accede to his wishes, and on 
 the pretence of retiring to another room to undress 
 sped to her husband, who quickdy returned and slew 
 W'olfenschiess whilst he was still in the Ixath. After 
 this exploit an entrance was eltected into the baillie's 
 castle of Rotzberg by one of the conspirators, who was 
 in the habit of paying nightly \-isits to a serwuit li\-ing 
 in the castle, b\- means of a rope attached to her 
 window, and who then admitted his companioiis, who 
 were lying concealed in the moat. Ihu, j^robabh- in 
 consecjuence of his supposed connecticjn with the legL-nd 
 of William 'i\-ll, the baillie to whom the name of Oessler 
 has lieen gixen stands out more prominentlv in Swiss 
 history than any other. 
 
 Oessler's residence, according to tradition, was a 
 strcmgK' lortitinl castle built in the \alle\' of I'ri. near 
 Altdorf. and this he named Z^'iiii: I'r: (Ci'i's reslrain.ti. 
 lie u^ed e\cry means that (aaielty or axaricc coulvl 
 suul:c>1 in l;i^ c( nduct as Cioxcrnor. and uicurrL-d adtii- 
 tioual hatred irom the methods lie adopted to disoi i\r:" 
 the members ot a secret conspiracN- h/ l)elif\a.-d existed 
 against him in the district. With this object in \ iew. 
 (ies>ler I'lused a pole suriianuUed with the dural i ap
 
 William Tell. 
 
 132 HISTOin' OV Till-: SWISS I'ICOIT.K 
 
 of Austria to be set up in the market-place at .Mtdorf, 
 before which emblem of authority he ordered every man 
 to uncover and do reverence as he passed. The refusal 
 of a peasant to obey this command, his arrest, trial, and 
 condemnation to pierce with an arrow an apple placed 
 on his own child's head, his dexterity in performing' this 
 feat, his escape from his enemies, his murder of the 
 tyrant Gessler, the solemn compact sworn at Riitli, and 
 the revolutionary events that followed, form the motive 
 Lci^i'itd of of the much-celebrated legend of William Tell. The 
 mythical hero of this shadowy romance has long c:m- 
 bodied in his person the virtues of the typical avenger of 
 the wrongs of the poor and the oppressed against the 
 tyranny of the rich and the powerful ; his name has 
 been honoured and his manly deeds have been lauded 
 in prose and verse by thousands in many lands for many 
 centuries, exciting doubtless many a noble deed of self- 
 denial, and spurring to the forefront many a popular act 
 of patriotic daring. In Switzerland certainly this pic- 
 turesque representative of Liberty has done much to 
 mould the political life, if not also to write luany pages 
 of the history of the people, and that in spite of the 
 questionable morality of the recei\'ed narrative of his 
 career, and its un(}uestionable untrutli. The emergence 
 of the Swiss from slavery to freedom, as in the case of 
 all other nations, was undoubtedly a gradual process, 
 and there is now e\-ery reason for believing that the 
 narratives relating to William 'fell and tlic other heroes 
 who are said to have been the prime instruments in 
 the exjxdsion (jf the Austrian baillics from the districts 
 of the Waldstattcn are purely apocr}'phal, with a 
 possible substratum of actual fact. It is sad for an. 
 indi\ idual, and still more so for a nation, t(j lose the
 
 nls•!'(M<^■ oi I'm: swiss im.oi'I.i 1^3 
 
 illusions of vouth, il not of innocence, and t(j awake to 
 the knowledge ot an unbeautitiil reality, berett of all 
 iic:itioi!s ati')rnnient. When, ho\ve\'er, the naked truth 
 can he discovered (and that is seldom the case) it must 
 be faced ; if the national or indi\'idual mind cannot 
 receive it, the iault lies with the immaturity or morbid 
 condition of the former, not with the material of the 
 latter. 
 
 As the lei^^end of \\illiam Tell is more devoid of 
 actual historical foundation, and is n:ore widely known 
 and beliexed than are the many others related as the 
 records of events happenin,^■ at the period from which 
 the Swiss date their independence, it may be as \vell to 
 dev(jte some little space to its consideration, ihoug'h the 
 Jegends and ballads of Switzerland f(jrm no part of the 
 scope of this work. All the local records that mi^ht 
 pijssibly throw some light on the existence and career of 
 d'ell ha\e now been thoroughly searched by many 
 impartial and competent scholars, as well as by en- 
 thusiastic partisans, with the in\'ariable result that till 
 a con^^iderable lapse (;f year^ alter the presumed date ol 
 their deaths, not one particle oi exidence has been dis- 
 coxeretl tending to prox'e the identit}- (jf either William 
 Tell, ox (jf the tyrant (}essler. On the other hand, 
 many local authorities, as early as the beginning ot 
 the 15th and loth centuries, when the story x\asfull\" 
 established, ha\e gone (nit o[ their way to deny its 
 truth and pro\'e its entire lalsity Irom their own re- 
 searches. Materials, indeed, are many relating to the 
 e\ents that befel tlu; Waldstatteii during tlieir c(jnt]icts 
 with the baillies. whom the\- succeeded in expelling irom 
 their c(juntry, and it seems in the highe>t degree im- 
 probable that had Tell and his friends li\etl and taken
 
 134 
 
 HISTORY OF THE SWISS PEOPLE 
 
 SO prominent a part in effecting their country's freedom 
 that is popularly assigned to them, that they should 
 ha\-e been entirely ignored by all contemporary writers, 
 as well as by subsequent ones, for a hundred and lifty 
 or two hundred years — yet such is the case. 
 
 William Tell is supposed to ha\-e performed his 
 heroic deeds in or about the year 1291, and not till 
 between 1467 and 1474 are his acts recorded, when in a 
 collection of the traditions of the Canton of Unterwalden, 
 transcribed by a notary at Sarnen, an account is given 
 of the apple episode and the subsetjuent escape of the 
 famous archer, and his murder of (lessler, though 
 nothing is said of his hax'ing taken part in a league to 
 free his country, or of his being the founder of the 
 Confederation. A little earlier to the compilation of the 
 " White Book of Sarnen,"' as this collection is called, 
 an anonymous poet composed a " Song of the Origin of 
 the Confederation," in which, although no reference is 
 made to Gessler, the other details are related concerning 
 William Tell shooting at the apple, the rex'olt of the 
 peasants, the expulsion of the Ixullies, and the formation 
 of a patriotic league. It is, of course, (juite pc^ssible 
 that a Ciessler uuis killed by the peasants, as the name 
 was common enough at the time, but no member of that 
 family (the records of wliich have now been most care- 
 fully traced) held any office under the Austrians at that 
 ))eriod in any of the Waldstatten, nor is it at all probable 
 that Austrian baillies go\'erned the districts later than 
 1 23 1. Neither is it possible for a baillie named (iessler 
 to have occupied the castle at the date assigned, the 
 ruins of which have so long l)een pointetl out as l)eing 
 those of his former abode. So, also, the celebrated 
 Tell's chapel on the \'ier Waldstatten See, at Ivilsnach,
 
 msioKV oi- rm-: swisb 1'i:oi'L)^ 133 
 
 was certaiiily not built to commemorate the exploits of 
 Schiller's and Rossini's Swiss hero. 
 
 •' The tact is, that in Gessler we are ccjnfronted 
 by a curious case of confusion in identity. At least 
 three totally dillereut men seem to ha\'e been L)lended 
 into one in the course oi an attempt to reconcile the 
 diiierent \'ersions ot the three cantons. Felix Mem- 
 merlin, of Ziiricli, in 1430, tells of a llabsburg goxernor 
 being on the little island of Schwanan, in the Lake ot 
 Lowerz, who seduced a maid of Schwyx, and was killed 
 by her brothers. Then there was another person, 
 strictly historical, Ixnight Kppo, of Klisinach (Kiisnacht ), 
 who, while acting as bailitt for the Uuke of Austria, put 
 down two rexolts of the inhabitants in his district, one 
 in i2'S4 and another in 1302. h'inally, there was the 
 tyrant bailitt mentioned in the ballad of Tell, whom, by 
 the way, a chronicler writing in 13 10 calls, not Gessler, 
 l:)ut the Count of Seedorf. These three persons were 
 coml)ined, and the result was named Gessler " — (''The 
 Rise of the Swiss Ivepublic"). 
 
 Moreover, it is extremely doubtful whether the green 
 plateati of the Riitli below Seelisberg, and some O30 feet 
 al)0\e the lake, with its miraculous springs, e\'er wit- 
 nessed the patriotic gathering of the thirty-three peasants 
 whom tradition asserts there tormed the league against 
 Austrian rule, or heard the solenui oath they and their 
 leaders, Stauttacher, Fiirst and Arnold mutually swore. 
 
 In all probability the legend of Tell and the apple 
 originated in Scandina\da, and was brought by the 
 Allemanni into Switzerland, as int(.) other lands. Saxo 
 (jrammaticus, in the W'ithina Saga, places the scene 
 of a very similar story in that country, some 300 years 
 before the appearance ot the Swiss version, and tells ot
 
 136 HISTORY OF THE SWISS PEOPLE 
 
 a certain Danish king named Harold, the counterpart 
 of Gessler, and one Toki, who played the same role 
 enacted by Tell. Like legends are also related of 
 Olaf, Eindridi, and an almost identical one to that of 
 William Tell of Egil, who, being ordered by King 
 Nidimg to shoot an apple off the head of the son of 
 the former, took two arrows from his quiver and pre- 
 pared to obey. On the King asking why he had selected 
 two arrows, Egil replied, "To shoot thee, tyrant, with 
 the second, should the first fail." ^Neither are similar 
 narratives absent from the legends of other countries. 
 Thus Reginald Scott says, "Puncher shot a pennie on 
 his son"s head, and made ready another arrow to ha\'e 
 slain the Duke of Rengrave who commanded it" (584). 
 So also similar incidents occur in the tales of Adam 
 Hell, " Clym of the Clough," and William of Claudeslie 
 in the " Percy Ballads," and in the legends of many 
 places in Northern Europe. On this subject Sir PTancis 
 Adams mentions, in a note to his valuable book on the 
 Swiss Confederation, that a well-known citizen of Pern, 
 in answer to his enquiry as to whether Tell ever existed, 
 replied, " Not in Switzerland. If you travel in the 
 Hash districts (Aleyringen, etc.) you will find a distinct 
 race of men, who are of Scandinavian origin, and 1 
 believe that tlieir ancestors brought the legend with 
 them." 'J'o this it may be added that philologists have 
 long since traced the rude dialect of Ober Hash to its 
 Scandina\ian sources, and the physical characteristics of 
 the people mark them as of different racial origin to 
 those around them. 
 
 At the period these events were in progress, or, 
 rather, about the time that the Austrian baillies were 
 {-'xpelled, towards the close of the 13th century, the
 
 m.sTOKV OF riii: swiss I'i:oi'Li-; 137 
 
 l-~mperor's j'ttention v;is too fully occupied in conduct- 
 ing a war a.i^^ainst the Jiishopof J^asel to allcnv him to 
 enforce his authority among the revolted Waldstiitten. 
 He did not, however, callow the peasants for long to A li-;;\-iif> 
 
 1 r • r 1 • • 1 r 1 ■ .'LiiiriSt 
 
 enjoy the iruits 01 then" energetic and successiul action, a'^uin^t the 
 
 as some six months later he headed a large armv, with '^ dl.htuttcn, 
 
 _ •' ^ A.D. 130b. 
 
 which he intended to enforce obedience. The expedi- 
 tion thus began led to Albrecht's tragic death, and 
 reared another step leading to the final independence 
 of the Swiss. On reaching 15aden, in the Aargau, a halt 
 was made in order to deliberate on the best mode oi 
 punishing the rebels. Here a general ctnincil of nobles 
 decided, after careful deliberation, on the route to be 
 taken, and the nature of the measures best calculated to 
 enforce Albrecht's authority. On i\Iay ist, 1308, the ad. 130S. 
 Emperor, with a few followers, returned to Rheinfelden, 
 in order to \isit the I^mpress b^dizabeth preparatory to 
 marching against the \\'aldstatten. Shortly belore this 
 time Albrecht had had a \iolent quarrel with his nephew 
 John, son of J)uke Rudolph of Swabia, touching the 
 youth's paternal inheritance, which he persistentl}' de- 
 clined to allow [ohn to take possession ui, and whom he 
 had, moreoxer, publicly insulted by oliering him a coronet 
 of twigs as the only recompense lor his just claims. 
 In spite of this (quarrel Albrecht alUjwed John and four 
 of his fastest friends to occupy a place in his suite when 
 
 he left iJaden to \isit his consort. Albrecht's disregard Miiidcyrf 
 
 Alhrccht, 
 (d his nephew's resentment was further shown when the y,;. j^ i^oS. 
 
 party arri\-ed on the bank of the Reuss, as he allowed 
 
 him, with his friends, to accompany him in the boat in 
 
 which he crossed the ri\'er. The passage was made in 
 
 safety, but just as the b^mperor was stepping on shore 
 
 (near the town of W'indischj John and three ot his com-
 
 I3<^ IlISTOKV OK TIM'; SWISS PiCOFLE 
 
 panions struck him down with their swords, and after 
 inflicting a number of se\'cre wounds left him for dead. 
 The unhappy monarch expired a few minutes after in the 
 arms of a passing peasant woman. All this bloody scene 
 took place in full view of the Emperor's train on the 
 opposite side of the ri^•er, though no one apparently w;is 
 able to render him assistance, probably from the absence 
 of boats and the suddenness of the tragedy. The mur- 
 derers succeeded in making good their escape, though 
 two of them were afterwards captured and executed, as 
 were also a number of innocent people believed to be 
 participators in the conspiracy. John himself was more 
 fortunate, for, disguised as a monk, he managed for 
 many years to hide his identity, and after wandering 
 in Tuscany unsuspected, eventually died in a monastery 
 at l^isa. Albrecht's daughter Agnes, Queen of Hun- 
 gary, "a woman unacquainted with the milder feelings 
 of piety, but addicted to a certain sort of devotional 
 habits and practices by no means inconsistent with 
 implacable \indicti\-eness," fearfully avenged his mur- 
 der. This woman appears to have been seized with 
 a perfectly demoniacal mania for blood and revenge. 
 Aided by those in authority, who feared lest a wide- 
 spread c'onspiracy had been formed, she seized, on the 
 slightest suspicion, hundreds of innocent \ictims and 
 put them to death with all the ferocity of a famished 
 beast. Members of nearly a hundred noble families, 
 ;ind at least a thousand persons of kjwer rank, of 
 every age and of both sexes, fell beneath her savage 
 \engeance. She is said to have further whetted her 
 appetite for horrors by wading, at I'^ilirwangen, in the 
 blo(xl of sixty-three innocent knights, exclaiming the 
 wliile, •• This da\- we bathe in May dew." l!ut at last,
 
 oi rm; s\\i>^, i');<)i'i.i.. 
 
 '3<J 
 
 after sex'cral months, e\ en the implacable Moodthirstiness 
 of the Hungarian Oueen was satisiied, and the massacres 
 ceased. ()\er the spot where Albrecht met his death 
 A,i;nes built a mfjnastery ; she named it K6ni,L,^sfel(lcn 
 and enriched it with the spoils of her \-ictims. Here she 
 took u\i her abode lor the remainder ot her life, and lr)r 
 nearly fifty years practised the most rij^id asceticism, 
 and here, by the side of her parents, she ^vas e\entnally 
 bmied. l\onij:(sfelden stood on the road from J5asel to 
 leaden and Zurich, and within sight of the Castle of 
 llabsburg, the cradle of the House of Austria. 
 
 Strenuous efforts were made by Albrecht's widow 
 to obtain the succession to the imperial throne ior her 
 son, Frederick, Duke of Austria, but the choice of the 
 prince-electors, headed by the Archbishop of Mentz, //;;.■ 
 fell on Count Henry ol Luxenburg, a liberal-minded 
 and generous noble, who wa.s accordingly crowned, 
 under the title of Henry \'H. Diu'ing the short 
 reign of this monarch he pro\-ed himself a wise and 
 upright ruler of his \"ast dominions, as well as a 
 generous friend to the Swiss, whose prixileges he 
 coniirmed. lie made no eftort to re-impose locale';:/ 
 (joxernors (ju the people of the Waldstatten, but. on 
 the contrary, confirmed the charters of Sclnvyx and 
 Iri, granted one to I'nterwalden. and ackn(.)wledgi'd 
 their claim to contintie tmder the direct imperial 
 jurisdiction. After Henry"s death, in 131 j, ci\'il war 
 once m )re di\-ided the empire through the ri\al con- 
 tentions of l^udwig ot 1 !a\aria and Albrecht's son, 
 b'rederick of .Vustria. In this contest the p(n\eri'ul 
 monastery of Kinsiedeln sided with the Austrian can- 
 didate, and throuL:'h its influence inducetl the ]'.isho[) 
 oi Coustanz to place the large [)ortit)n ol Swilzeiland 
 
 M VII . 
 ijo.S-ij,
 
 140 HISTORY OF THI-: SWISS PKOPLE 
 
 supporting the l);ivarian cause under a sentence of 
 excommunication, pjetween Einsiedeln and the Wald- 
 stiitten there had long existed a feeling of bitter 
 hostility, the canons resenting the independent spirit 
 displayed by the peasants, and the latter remembering 
 the many acts of arbitrary oppression they and their 
 ancestors had suffered at the instance of the abbey. 
 Indeed, actual hostilities were only prevented by the 
 friendly, though interested, mediation of the citizens 
 of Zurich, who were most anxious to preser\-e tran- 
 quility in the territories of both, in order to allow 
 their trade wdth Italy over the St. Gothard being 
 carried on. They also favoured peace, because since 
 the Habsburgs had refused permission to the peasants 
 to enter Luzern, these had been in the habit of 
 bringing their cattle and dairy produce through Ein- 
 siedeln to the monks of Ziirich. The action of the 
 
 A.n. IJ14. monks, however, in bringing about the serious sen- 
 tence of excommunication so roused the spirit of 
 the mountaineers that, headed by their Landammann, 
 Werner Stauffacher, they attacked and captured the 
 abbey, ransacked the whole building from cellar to 
 altar, and carried off the monks captive to the town 
 of Schwyx. This daring and sacriligious act led 
 Frederick — the hereditary avoycr of the al)l)ey — to 
 place the Waldstatten under the further punishment 
 of the " ban of the empire." Both these sentences 
 were alike fruitless in bringing the peasants to sub- 
 mission to the House of Austria. Shortly after, on 
 
 f.u,l;;ii: f<f Ludwig ascending the throne, the " ban "' was re- 
 mox'ed by llie new monarch, and, with the aid of 
 tlu; Archbishop of Mentz, the Metropolitan of Con- 
 stanz, the excoimnunication was also re\'oked (13 15). 
 
 AD. 1,^14-47
 
 iiisToKN' (■>]' I'm; SWISS im-oimj; kj i 
 
 The triumph ol Ludwij^'s chiinis o\-er those of 
 I*"rederick bc^^'an that lon,i;; series of deadly conflicts 
 between the Swiss and the House of Austria that led 
 the two nations for so many years to rej^'^ard each 
 other as natural and iniplacable enemies. At this 
 time Austria was t;-o\erned by Duke Leopold, a man 
 of arro^i^ant, passionate temper, of unscrupulous am- 
 bition, and brutal cruelty, accordinj^' to the Swiss 
 chronicles, but who. from other accounts, does not 
 appear specially to have deserx'ed this character. His 
 hatred of the Swiss was .^'reatly increased by their 
 action in opposin,!,'' his brother, Frederick, in the late 
 contest. Xo sooner, indeed, were the troubles (jf that 
 conflict over than he prepared to wr(;ak his \en^"eance, L,;f,-id'.< 
 and once for all crush the power and independence of ''h'^'_''''''"^ 
 the I'orest States, and, as he declaied. '' trample the a " 1315 
 audacious rustics under his ieet.'' 
 
 Rapidlv collectin,i( his forces, Leopold soon found 
 himself at the head ol 15,000 or 2o,cjoo well-armed men, 
 includin<( a larj^'e body of heavily e(]uipped ca\'alry. 
 I'hcse latter were; then looked upon as th(; main strength 
 of an armv. Most of the ancient nobility of Ilabsbur^', 
 Kyinn't;' and Lenzbmi;" rallied to his banners, besides 
 man\' of the lesser nobles and a conting'ent from Zurich, 
 thc^ citizens cf which, deserlini;' their natural allies, had 
 formed a treaty ^^■ith Austria. Against this formidable 
 array the; men of Schwyx, Lri and LnterwaldiMi were 
 onl)' able to nuister some 1,400 men, who, howe\'er, 
 made up foi" tlunr want ol wc;a])ons and discipline bv 
 the ,L;(;o.^ra])liical a(l\anta,i;'{>s of the countr\-, b\' their 
 patriotism, unit\' and determined braxcry. 
 
 Xothini;' now si'cmed to mteiAcne between tlu- 
 Swiss and unmiiu'nt destruction, when, \ iewini; with a
 
 142 HISTORY OF THE SWISS Pi;OPLK 
 
 compassion, most rare in those days, the impending 
 fate of the heroic mountaineers, the powerful Count of 
 Toggenburg tried to negotiate a peace with the Duke. 
 Leopold's terms, however, were so humiliating, and 
 e\-idently so insincere, that nothing came of these 
 proposals. 
 
 On November 3rd, 13 15, Leopold's army reached 
 Baden, where a council was held to determine upon the 
 details of the campaign, a campaign having for its 
 object, as the Duke openly declared, " The extirpation of 
 the whole race of the people of Waldstatten."' The diffi- 
 culties of the enterprise now began to show themselves, 
 as several of Leopold's followers, being well acquainted 
 with the nature of the country and the characters of the 
 inhabitants, pointed out that both would offer a deter- 
 mined resistance. Finally, relying upon their numbers 
 and superior arms, it was settled to march on Schwyx, 
 through the Sattel Pass by Morgarten, making Zug the 
 base of operations ; and while a false attack should be 
 threatened on the side of Arth, Unterwalden should be 
 attacked from Luzern, as well as by a large force under 
 the Count of Strasburg by way of the Briinig. Leopold 
 himself was to lead the main army and enter Schwyx 
 through the Pass. Had these operations remained 
 secret, or been carried out successfully, the course of 
 Swiss history would probably have been x'cry different 
 from what it was, but fortunately for the cause of I'Vee- 
 d(Mn, the Austrian plans became known in time, and 
 failed signally when put to the tesl. According to 
 ancient chronicles, as the Confederates were hurrying to 
 repel the feint from Arth, a friendly Austrian baron, 
 named Henry of ]Iunenl)erg, shot an arrow into their 
 
 Mi'v^aitcn. midst bearing the message, " (niard Morgarten on the 
 All. 1315.
 
 HISTORY OF Tin-: SWISS pi:opi.p. 
 
 143 
 
 eve of St. OthiiKir."" ]\c this as it maw tlie Swiss 
 collected their little baiul on the Sattel, between which 
 mountain and the eastern shore of the Lake of l^u'eri is 
 situated the e\'er-memoral)le 1 'ass of Mor^arten. Here 
 on the ni,u;ht of Xo\-ember 14th. they collected a number 
 o{ loose boulders riiul tree-trunks, and then, ha\anL;' offered 
 up prayers for the preser\-ation of their country, they 
 awaited with resolution the coming struggle. 
 
 With the first dawn of morning the Austrian army 
 (the first that e\'er entered the country) made its appear- 
 ance in the l-'ass, headed by Duke Leopold and his 
 formidable ca^■alry. Suddenly, when the whole narrow 
 defile was blocked with horse and foot, thousands of 
 hea\y stones and trees were hurled into their midst 
 from the neighbouring heights, where the peasant band 
 forming the Swiss force lay concealed. The suddenness 
 and \-igour of this unexpected attack quickly threw the 
 first ranks of the inwaders into confusion, and caused a 
 panic to seize the horses, many of which in their fright 
 turned and trampled down the men behind. Rapidly 
 the panic increased as the sho-wers of missiles came 
 tearing down, and soon the whole army was in a state 
 of wild terror and confusion — a condition greatly assisted 
 by the slippery nature of the grinind. Then, with wild 
 shouts, and brandishing their iron - studded clubs and 
 their formidable halberts and scythes, down the moun- 
 tain hidi.- rushed, with the force aiul furv of their nati\'e 
 axalaiiche. the heroic ( "onlederates : and falling on their 
 ji^es literal!}" sK;w thein by thousands. Man\' hundreds 
 f)t the Austrians perished in the lake, the men of Ziirich 
 alcjne making a stand, and falling each where he fouglit. 
 j-'ew succeeded in etiecting their escape h'om wliat was 
 little less than a geiieial butcheiv. ( )u that memorable
 
 144 HISTORY OI' THK SWISS pi:opi.i: 
 
 day all the flower of Austria's nobility lay dead within 
 
 the country they had hoped so easily to conquer. The 
 
 Duke, with a handful of followers, alone survived, and 
 
 even these were forced to undergo many perils before 
 
 they eventually arrived in safety at A\'interthur. Neither 
 
 were the other attacks, under the Count of Strasburg, 
 
 and the forces from Luzern, more successful for the 
 
 invaders. Both armies were repulsed with enormous 
 
 loss by the men of Unterwalden, who gave no quarter, 
 
 many of their opponents being their own countrymen 
 
 from the estates of the Abbey of Interlaken. After these 
 
 signal victories the Swiss, according to ancient custom, 
 
 offered up a solemn thanksgi\-ing to Almighty God for 
 
 their success and the overthrow of their enemies ; and 
 
 then, having laden then:iselves with the spoils of the 
 
 dead, they returned to their humble occupations, whence 
 
 the defence of their country and their lives had called 
 
 them away. Amongst the Sw'iss, ATorgarten has always 
 
 taken the first place in the long record of heroic victories 
 
 that since 1315 has made the fame of Swiss arms second 
 
 to none in luirope. This victory at once brought the 
 
 Waldstiitten out of their long obscurity, and placed 
 
 thc'm in the front rank as powerful and respected states 
 
 in Switzerland. 
 
 Leopold, on his return to Austria, was so satisfied 
 
 with the ability of the " audacious rustics '" to defend 
 
 themselves, that he made no further attempt to enter 
 
 their country. 
 
 Uencxi-al of \ month afler the victory of Morgarten a Q'encral 
 
 AlliAucc, ■' ^, '^ . . 
 
 assembly (jf delegates from the sc\eral \\ aldstatten (li\i- 
 
 sions t(;(jk place at iJrumien, where, witli soIcmuii oatlis, 
 
 a mutual agreement was made to renew and strengthen 
 
 their former leai/ue. A new form of alliance was 
 
 MI5-
 
 msi'OR'v oi' iin-: swiss i'i'oiM.i-; 145 
 
 now drawn up upon the lines of tlie League of lacji, 
 enibodyin,^' the ancient principle of '' all tor each, antl 
 each for all,'" with the addition of clauses pled^i^dnf^ the 
 Confederates not to accept the appointment of fresh 
 o\'er-lords, or to bind themseh'es bv oath to a forei.s^mer, 
 exce})t by mutual consent amon,<;' themseh'es : to yield 
 complete obedience to their rii^ditful over-lords, when 
 the latter acted in a just manner, but if otherwise, to 
 be free of all obli<(ati(m to serve them. In the compact 
 the German word Eid^i^^mossr (Confederates) appears for 
 the first time. 
 
 In the followin,!:^ year (i3iri) the new leaj:(ue obtained 
 the sanction of the ICmperor, who further declared the 
 ptjlitical ri,i;hts possessed in the W'aldstatten by the 
 House of Austria (as Counts and tii'ovcrs) forfeited to 
 the I'hupire. 
 
 In 131'"^ the Austrian Duke formally made peace /Vj.v v,'//-'; 
 with his late con(]uerors, treatint,'' theiu for the hrst time \ ,, j ,Js 
 as honourable ecpials. In this treaty the ri.^'hts of 
 llabsbur,i(s as landowners were fully recoi^nised, as it 
 was merely the rejecting of their rule as foreigners that 
 the Swiss insisted on, as being contrary to the principles 
 of freedom. This truce was afterwards further renewed 
 and ])rolonged till T32S. 
 
 In I 31S Leopold, in the course of the; fierce struij'gle ^/.^.v of 
 he still mainlained with Ludwig. laid siege to tht^ f''''"^' a.p ' r ;is' 
 town of Solothurn, a Io\al supporter oi the; lCm|)eror. 
 then in alliance with l!ei"n. liiemie, lM-e\-l)urg. and 
 Morat. Alter six weeks" in\estment, Solotiuuii was 
 retluced to sucdi extrcnnities that it was on the point of 
 capitulating, when, according to tratlition, a curious e\ cut 
 sa\'etl it from that fate. In front of tlie bcdeagut>rc>d 
 city was a large bridge spanning the Aar, and tliis 
 
 10
 
 1^6 niST()RV OF THK SWISS PEOPLE 
 
 suddenly gave way, being at the moment covered with 
 Austrians, a number of the soldiers being precipitated 
 into tlie river. The besieged, instead of leaving the 
 unfortunate n"ien to their fate (which would have been 
 (]uite in accordance with the spirit in which war was 
 then carried on), at once threw open their gates, and, 
 by their timely assistance, succeeded in rescuing many. 
 It is said this act of generosity so touched Leopold, 
 that he requested permission peaceably to enter the 
 town, attended only by a few followers, in order to 
 present the citizens with a handsomely emblazoned 
 banner as a mark of his respect for their courage and 
 their virtue, after which he withdrew his army without 
 further molesting Solothurn. 
 
 A. I). 1-526. The premature death of Leopold in 1326, and the 
 
 decisive defeat in 1322 and death, ten years later, of 
 his brother Frederick, acted as effectual checks to the 
 ambitious designs of the Habsburgs. They did not, 
 indeed, again wear the Imperial Crown tiU more than 
 a century later, when tlie Confederates had greatly 
 increased their power by the addition to their League 
 of fresh states. 
 
 Liizcni'f l'\)llowing in the footsteps of the W'aldstatten, the 
 
 '"^ people of Luzern attempted to gain their independence. 
 
 Their preliminary course was the same as that pursued 
 
 by tlieir successlul neighl)ours, but the residt was \"ery 
 
 A u. ij28. different. In 1328 the anti-Austrian party in the town 
 succeeded in expelling the foreign local rulers without 
 bloodshed, and in electing as avoycr one ol their own 
 countrymen. The Austrians, having their hands full}' 
 occupied at the time, were unable to restore their lost 
 authority, and in 1332 the men ot Luzern added to the 
 iinporlancc of their re\'(jlt by concluding an oilensi\e
 
 nisrom- (^v rm: swiss pi:()i>i,i". 147 
 
 and (lefcnsi\'e alliance with the W'aUlstatlen, thus 
 forinin,!,^ the fourth slate of the Swiss Lea,i;'ue (Nov. 7). I'o"rtli Stutc 
 I'pon this Austria tlcclarecl war, but, after sexeral C.'iinj:;.i!l.-ii. 
 encounters, in which both sides suffered sex'erely, the ■^■"- '■^■^-• 
 (luestion in dispute was submitted to arbitration. 
 The arbitrators were taken by mutual consent from 
 amonj^^st the chief men of liasel, llcrn and Zurich. 
 The result was both curious and imexpected. Luzern 
 was ordered to renounce her newly-formed alliance, and 
 submit to her Austrian masters (ij3<)). After obeyin,!,^ 
 this sentence lor ei,i,dit years the popular party in the 
 town once more revolted, expelled the Austrians, and 
 renewed their alliance \vith the Waldstatten (1344). 
 Luzern next set about formin,t^' a municipal ,t(o\'ermiienl 
 for herself, by choosint^' an aroyi'i' ;ind a council of a 
 hundri'd members. Jieing the tirst town to join tlu^ 
 Confederation she became the dire(.:tin,i( state, or i'oivii, 
 and thus further increased her power and influence, as 
 well as the streni/th of the Confederation.
 
 CHAPTER IX 
 
 GKOW'I'H OF THK CONFICDKRATIOX A\D WARS WITH 
 AUSTRIA 
 
 The progress made towards independence by the 
 people living in the states bordering the Lake of Lnzern 
 sketched in the preceding chapter, that led in so short 
 a time to the formation of the alliance between the 
 first four di\"isions of the Confederation o( to-day, was 
 not without corresponding popular movements in other 
 parts of Switzerland. This was especially apparent in 
 the case of many of the cities that were rapidly 
 increasing in wealth, strength and political autonomy, 
 and which threatened seriously the power and prestige 
 of the nobles who, till then, had overawed or protected 
 them. In those troublous times, when wars were con- 
 stantly being waged by Pope, Ivmperor, or Austrian 
 Duke, or by the local nobles, or the Swiss themseh'es, 
 large numbers of the much-harassed peasants sought 
 and found security within the sheltering walls of the 
 "burgs," ;uk1 by so doing greatly increased the fighting 
 as well as the commercial strengtli of tlieir adopted 
 homes. Of these now prosperous and powerful centres, 
 tlici chief were I'reyburg, Solothurn, Constanz, ISern 
 and Zurich, the two latter taking by far the most 
 ])r()minent i)lace, though in their political and social 
 lilc (lifl(;riiig \c;ry much the one from the other.
 
 HisioKV oi' riii; 
 
 5\\iss i'i:()i'i.i-; 
 
 ^VJ 
 
 Of all the towns in the western portif)ns of /;, 
 Switzerland, none could at all compete with ] iern tor 
 the freedom enjoved by her citizens, in the ma.^mitude of 
 hur military resources, in the extent of her possessions, 
 and in the inlluence she exercisetl in all matters afiectini,'' 
 the nation as a whcde. To a ,<4:reat extent she had come 
 to he regarded as the arbiter of the fate of all the other 
 weaker dixisions of Switzerland. 
 
 In theory, the go\ernment of ISern was a democratic 
 republic ; in realitv, it was an oli'_;'archical one. Seh- 
 rulin-^', and subject only to the authority of the ICmpercjr 
 as she was, yet all power antl rule were ri^ddly con- 
 hned to a few families. She concluded alliances with 
 other states, ruled lar,t^'e districts 1)\' her local cadniinis- 
 tration : she possessed the ^t^'uardianship owr the monas- 
 teries ot Interlaken and lvu,L;'i^'erber,y; ; she coined her 
 own monev, and 1)\" her exclusi\'e markets sustained a 
 great and widely extended trade. In 1243 she formed a. 
 an alliance with b'reyburg ami wiih Morat, in 1250 
 with Luzern, m 1252 with the l'>isho[) of Sion, in 1273 
 with bJienne and the IJasli districts, and in 121^5 with 
 Scjlothurn. 
 
 Afier the death of kudol[)h of liabsburu'. IJern 
 renewed her alliance with Sa\-o\-, that through his 
 intluence had been broken (jff; ;uid then, siding with 
 Adolphus in his strug,L,de with Albrecht, obtained niauN- 
 signal fa\-ours Irom the former monarch. Amongst 
 these she was granted the pri\-ilege that heiua'foilh 
 none of her people sh(nild be tried by a tribunal othfi- 
 than (;ne composed of IJernese citizens. In i2(/4. ISei 11 a 
 xnluntarijy re\-ised her constitution, and ga\-e lu-i' 
 artisan class both \-oice and \-ote in tlu' ( io\-ernmrnl. 
 AK-mbers (d the Cireal ("ouncil, howewr. gi-adual]\- 
 
 1-^4-V
 
 150 HISTORY OF THE SWISS PEOPLE 
 
 caine to be elected from the ranks of the rich and 
 influential famihes, and thus the town by degrees lost 
 her democratic character, and for many centuries the 
 most aristocratic form of government to be found in 
 Switzerland ruled her affairs. The executive was com- 
 posed of a Senate, elected by the Great Council from 
 amongst its own numbers, and was presided over by a 
 Schiiltliciss or Avoycr. All the citizens were classed 
 into four guilds, each headed by a hanneyhevv or banneret, 
 an official who had charge of the guild banner, and 
 who exercised great influence and authority. Gradually, 
 with the increase of centralised power in the hands of 
 the most important families, the elective principle ga\'c 
 way, and most of the town offices came to be filled 
 only by members of certain families, who retained 
 their positions for life, and even made many of them 
 hereditary. 
 
 In spite of these dangerous innovations, the 
 CJo\'ernment of J3ern, with few exceptions, was carried 
 on with wisdom, economy and strength, through the 
 clear-headed and patriotic de\'otion of her chief citizens, 
 who seem to ha\-e been content to accumulate wealth in 
 the legitimate paths of trade, without using dishonestly 
 their pcjlitical positions to enrich themselves. 
 
 Way bd;uiii Though in alliance with I'reyburg since 1243, the 
 
 linn and ■ ■ r i > 11 1 ^ 1 r \ . ■ 
 
 /■•,-^yl,,i,;, nsmg power of i)crn and lier open hatred of Austria 
 
 A.i>. 1298. caused great distrust and jealousy on the part of the 
 foi iiicr, who was a staunch supporter of the Duke. 
 These feelings led to constant disputes and misunder- 
 standings for many years, till at last, in 1298, matters 
 became so strained between the two towns that actual 
 hostilities broke out. 
 
 In this contest I'Teyburg was supported by the
 
 nis'r(>K\' oi' nno swiss I'lioi-'i.i-; 151 
 
 jjishop of Lausanne, ihc Counts of Gruycre and Xiclau. 
 and many other powerful nobles, who hoped by crushin'^'' 
 i-Sern to re-assert their own fast-wanini^ influence. The 
 war was short but sharp, and was practically decided ni 
 one battle, fou,i;ht on the Dornbuhl, not far froni the 
 walls of Bern. The issue for loni; remained doubtful, 
 till at len.i^^th the steady discipline and other soldierdike 
 qualities of the J Jernese pro\'e(l sujxn'ior to those of their 
 antagonists, and the men of b'reybury- were in the end 
 completely routed, with innnense slaughter and the loss 
 of large nvmibers of prisoners. 
 
 'I"he struggle oxer, ISern's ambition grew apace. /-Vi\v7 
 In order to strengthen her position and guard herself 
 against Austria's encroachments, she iirst set ;dK)ut 
 forming fresh alliances. After admitting the Count of 
 Xeuchatel to citizenship (130-^), she made her treaty ■■^•''- ^i"^ 
 with Solothurn perpetual and allied herself with Laupen. 
 She thus found herself with •• little to defend and with 
 many defenders, with little territory to lose and with 
 much territcjry to gain." 
 
 In 1323 the fear ot war with Au^tria induced iJern .liiLni:: 
 to form a formal alliance with the l'\)rest Cantons, and i\- ,:j<tat::i!. 
 to purchase the o\-erdordship of Tlmn from the Count ot ■"^■"' ^-^--^ 
 l'd)erai"d. This town, howexer, the Count managed to 
 reco\er a few years later, when the b^mperor Ludwig, 
 l>y mak'ing peace with Austria, left l!ern to delend 
 h(;rseif against the Duke, who was then threatening 
 her. 
 
 Alter another short and serious struggU> with 
 bTe\d>nrg, which resulted in the latter's deleat and 
 the loss of her subject-town of Ciumminen (1332). IUm'u a d. ij-s^. 
 declared war against the Counts of Cruyere and La 
 Tour, and took and destroyed W'immis. She then
 
 152 HISTORY Ol' THE SWISS PEOPLE 
 
 entered on the conquest of the Oberland, which, thou<^^h 
 
 long defended in the most heroic manner, slie eventually 
 
 A.D. 13J5. succeeded in subduing (1335). 
 
 Meanwhile Ijern's constantly increasing power was 
 
 viewed with growing apprehension by the many nobles in 
 
 Leai;iii her vicinity. Freyburg also, untaught by her two severe 
 
 iiquinst Bern. . . 
 
 deieats and her territorial losses, was actively engaged 
 
 in ])reparing once more to try conclusions with her 
 successtul ri\'al. To these causes of impending troubles 
 was now further added liern's unwillingness, from reli- 
 gious scruples, to continue loyal to the Emperor, whom 
 A.D. J jjS. the Pope had excommunicated (1338). On Rome launch- 
 ing the much-dreaded sentence against the Emperor, 
 with the division that rent the German lunpire in con- 
 se(]uence, bJern was called upon definitely to declare on 
 which side she would take her stand. Disregarding her 
 long connection with the Emperor and the many favours 
 she had received, she threw in her lot with Rome, and 
 C(jnse(]iiently had to prepare for Ludwig's hostility, 
 jjut her greatest danger lay in the combination of 
 the Swiss nobles, most ot whom hoped to benefit by 
 her humiliation. After many and long negotiatifjns 
 between these nobles a league was at last formed, 
 consisting of the Counts ot Ivyburg, Oruyere, Xidau, 
 Aarberg and Neuchatel, as well as the town of b'rey- 
 biu'g, th(_'n subject to Austria, 'bhesc met in a general 
 council at Nidau, at which also representatix'es of the 
 Junperor were present, and plans were there agreed 
 upon for the total destruction of the haughty and am- 
 biti(nis cily. Nothing now was wanting but an excuse 
 lo commence hostilities, for which l;5ern behexed herself 
 hilly pre{)ared. The desired excuse was tound in I33(i, 
 when the IvepubHc refused to acknowledge the authority
 
 msioKv ()i- rill-; swiss I'lioi'i.i. 133 
 
 of the ICiiipcrot' on his ()r(lcriii<,' a lari;'(' money g'rant 
 to Count \(»n AarhcTi; -N'alfni^rin to be le\"iecl on in 111. 
 
 Wat" was tlien ioiinally declared by the I'^mperor, with H'in- :iitli 
 
 1 r \ • 1 1 1 r 1 Austria, 
 
 the concurrence 01 Austria and the nieinl)er.s 01 the . ,, ,,,,, 
 
 Leag'ue. In this apparently hopeless stru,f(,i,de Hern's 
 onlv supporters were the men of the Hash and \\';dd- 
 statten districts, who jiatriotically at once oifered their 
 aid, the citizens of Sc^lothurn, and the powerful JJaron 
 of Weissenburg". Jkit ]!ern,in her hour of greatest need, 
 showed to e\'en more ach'antage than when at the height 
 of her prosperity. She first placed a garrison of (>oo 
 men, consisting of one member out of every family in 
 the city, in her subject-town of Laupen. I'his important 
 place formed an outpost of great strategical \alue, situ- 
 ated as it was on the road io Freyburg, and it was here 
 that the first attack was expected. The holding of this 
 position was necessary moreo\'er to enable JSern to 
 muster her forces. Scarcely had the garrison taken 
 possession of Laupen than the enem\- made their 
 appearance l)etore it, after ha\"ing de\-astated all the 
 surrounding territories. 
 
 The army ot the allies consisted of scjine 15,000 .S'/c;,'i .'/' 
 loot and 1,000 horse, the latter includinij' 700 knights. "'"/'"■ 
 
 ^ ' r^ ■ June. IJJtJ, 
 
 members (jf noble families, 'ihese troops were drawn 
 from the followers of the ('.<nmts of K^■burg, Xidau and 
 (jru\ere, the Jhshops ot Lausanne and iiasel, and from 
 most (_)t the nobles oi Xorthern and Western Switzei'- 
 land. Hern hersc;lf was meanwhile actively gathering 
 her tr(jo[)s under the command of ivudol])h \on l^iiach, 
 and strenglhemng her fortifications. brlacli soon col- 
 lected his little army, which, including (^oo men bom 
 the \\ aldstatten and ()oo from the Hash districts, with 
 smaller contini/ents from S(jlothurn and from the liaion
 
 Laupen. 
 
 154 HISTORY OF Tllli SWISS I'I-;OPLE 
 
 of W'eissenburg, only numbered 7,000 fighting soldiers. 
 With tlie ISernese army marched a priest carrying the 
 host and proclaiming the religious nature of the war. 
 Battle of On June 2:st, Erlach's force appeared on the heights 
 
 above Laupen, where he was at once attacked by the 
 leaguers. J^efore the battle commenced, the men from 
 the Forest Cantons, at their urgent demand, were 
 assigned the duty of meeting the enemy's ca\alry and 
 the Freyburgers, whom they were burning to punish for 
 making war against their fellow-countrymen. " These 
 (the W'aldstatten volunteers) rolled down before them a 
 line of cars armed with scythes, so constructed that they 
 could not be wheeled backwards ; and when they came 
 within reach of the enemy's lines they threw from their 
 slings, in the use of which they w^ere very expert, a 
 shower of stones, which created confusion among the 
 horses. The Swiss then feigned to retire towards the 
 hill in tlieir rear, and the princes pushed forward their 
 cavalry, but the cars t)pposing their passage broke their 
 ranks, and the Swiss, rushing forward, fought man to 
 man against them. Meantime, ICrlach, with the main 
 body of liis troops, charged the infantry, which, unable 
 to withstand the shock, fell back in disorder, ]ea\-ing the 
 JSernese free to turn to the assistance of their allies, who 
 were hard pressed by the enemy's ca\'alr\'. d'he latter, 
 ]iowe\'er, perceiving the retreat of their infantry, wheeled 
 rcnmd, without waiting lor a fresh encountei', ior the 
 slaughter among them had been alrt;acly \'ery great. The 
 combat lasted only an hour and a hall " — (X'ieusseux). 
 In this battle the leaguers lost some two thousand of 
 their followers, including the Schultheiss ot h'reyburg, 
 the Counts of Xidau, Aarberg-X'alcngrin, and Louis of 
 V'aud, besides twehe other nobles and eighty knights.
 
 liIsr()R^■ (u- TMv: swiss ri:oiM,i; 135 
 
 The soldiers of I'rcvluirL,'' were killed almost to a man. 
 A lar^'e quantity of \alual)le arms was captiu-ed, and 
 these, toi^-ether with twentv-se\"en banners, wire taken 
 in triumph hack to IScrn. This brilliant \'ictory. \\hich 
 in j^-reat measure was due to the tactical skill and 
 coura,i;-e of hhlach' brouL,dit the war to a close and, 
 moreover, prewnted any further attempts of either 
 Freybur^' or the nobles a.t^^lin opening;" hostilities. It 
 did not. howe\'er. prexa^n both fi"om secretly plottini^' 
 a^^ainst Hern ami attempting to isolate her completely 
 by detaching' her allies irom her interests. 
 
 S(j successtul were these tactics that in 1 \Ik) .Solo- H 
 thurn xvas induced to renounce her alliance. I'pon 
 this r>ern marched ayainst hei". and captured the 
 town ot ibiutw\l. surprised and massacred a band of 
 400 soldiers, and destroyed se\-er,al \"illa,t4'es. Alter six 
 months' desultory strife, in which a lari^e portion of 
 the surrcjundini;' countr\- was de\astated and i^reat 
 nundiers ol the peasants slain, peace was formally I'' 
 made throui^ii the mediation of A^mes. daughter of 
 the murdered Albrecht (i ^o), who a}ipears to ha\'e had 
 
 cir ■,: itn 
 I'.'thuni. 
 
 I). ij40. 
 
 ! Kuiiolph \ Mil I-2i-l;ich, ^'in of t'lricli. who ha i in i-'>,^ 
 c Miimaihicil with such i-()n--[)icui)u> ,'iliilit\ liis ci minrvnifn, i-ctirn ! 
 alter ihe l.aupeii c;uripa;,L;n to his lieine, witl;(>iit askiiiu aii\- rex'.ard 
 f If hi- ili^tiiiL^iiish.eii ser\ice-. 1 h-re he hxed in peace till an. >>\'\ 
 aue, aii'l was lookeil ujion ns tb.e greatest general anti statesman 
 liern had lUTxluce'l diirinj,' the cph eepainas llis death \wi- a> 
 sad and tra'_;ic as his life liad been n^Mc and iinsellish. ( )ne dav 
 his woulddie snndn.-law, ]()l)st IxudiiMi/, et I diterw aJiUai, \dsited the 
 eld man in tender t^ uet hint te lie-t.iw a lar;_;er dewrx \;p'>n hi- 
 daiiuditer than l-adach had inteiideil. Ili-h words fc illew ed, and in 
 the midst nl the (jiiarrel Iviidenz, iDsin;.; all Cnmniand nf his temper. 
 snatche(l till.' swnrd the nld wander ti-ed at l.aajn-n U'em its place 
 on the wall, and phinned it into I-'adach'- heart. Then, seized with 
 terror for his tnul crime, the murderer rushed from the hon-r, an.d, 
 althoti,i;h pursued li\- the watchdoL;s, was never sl'l'U more < ij,i'o].
 
 156 HISTORY oi' Tin-: swiss Piiopi.H 
 
 the greatest horror of all bloodshed which was caused 
 by other hands than her own. Shortly afterwards 
 most of the allied nobles made separate treaties of 
 peace with JJern, as did also Freyburg and Solothurn 
 
 .^ ,) J. ,2^ (1342). Austria also, being once more at war with 
 the Kmperor Ludwig, found it politic to conclude a 
 treaty with the now formidable and successful city. 
 Indeed, J-Jern's wonderful success both in arms and 
 material progress gave rise to the saying that " God 
 had become a citizen of liern." It was not long 
 before a similar proveri) appeared of another Swiss 
 town, in the saying that " God gave the man he lo\-ed 
 a house in Ziirich." 
 
 While Bern was thus steadily and rapidly ad- 
 vancing to the head of the powers of Switzerland, the 
 
 Ziiyich. important free-city of Ziirich was undergoing political 
 
 changes that did much to retard lier progress, and 
 eventually brought her to the verge of ruin. 
 
 Zurich takes rank with the oldest cities of Switzer- 
 land, dating its origin, as in all pr()bal)ility it does, to 
 the remote period immediately succeeding the lake- 
 dwellings, the remains of which are plentifully scat- 
 tered in the neighbourhood of its present site. During 
 the Koman occupation it iigures, under the name of 
 Turicun, as a small customs outpost, regulating the 
 trade between (iaul and Rha'tia. Like many other 
 settlements, it was swept away, or, ;it any rate, disap- 
 peared from history, diu'ing the inrush of the Allemanni, 
 to rise again into note in the (jth century, since when 
 it steadily progressed in size and importance, occu- 
 pying both banks of the Limmat. At iirst di\ided 
 into four separate and differently go\erned di\-isions, 
 tlicse graduallv merged into a single bailiwick, under
 
 insi-()k-i- oi-- i-fii-: SWISS iMcoi-rj-; 157 
 
 ihe administration of an imperial baillie, thus pos- 
 sessing,'' the prix'ik'f^e of dependence on the Emperor 
 (ReicJisfi'cihcit). The office of baillie, from being here- 
 ditary in the families of Lenzburt; and Zoringen, was 
 made e!ecti\'e bv the citizens from the aristocratic 
 classes by Frederick 11., a concession towards entire 
 self-government that was further increased during the 
 struggle between the Pope and the hhuperor, by the 
 citizens taking into their own hands the appointment of 
 their ScJiulthciss, an official who regulated the customs 
 and coinage and exercised judicial and other impor- 
 tant municipal functions, and who, up till then, had 
 been chosen by the abbess of the local Fraunuinster 
 
 (1304). 
 
 r\jr manv years before the re\'ision of the consti- Zi'irich, 
 
 . ' ' . . . . ^ . AD I'^3<'i. 
 
 tution, that ga\"e the city practical freedom to manage 
 its own affairs, the political and social life (jf Ziirich 
 tended graduallv more and more to become aristo- 
 cratic. The chief power e\'entually became centralised 
 in the hands of a council, comprised oi four nobles and 
 eight wealthy burghers, who, at the expiration of f(mr 
 mcjnths, chose their successors. Thuse few families 
 then grew more autocratic, and refused either to rentier 
 accounts oi the expenditure of the pubdic funds, or to 
 admit their responsibilitv m go\'ernment to any sa\'e 
 members of their own immediate class— the mass of 
 the people, the artisan class, being ineligible for ollice 
 and p(;ssessiiig no \'ote. (ireat discontent naturallv 
 arose; but no concerted action to assert the public 
 rights of tb.e burghers was takani for many \'ears, till 
 at last Rudolph Frun, a man of indomitable will, con- A';/./.. ''//.■ /i;,7;; 
 s])icuous honeslv, and himself one of the wealthy and 
 [)>)wrrful city rulers, put himselt at the head oi the
 
 158 HISTORY OF TIIK SWISS PKOPI.K 
 
 popular party. Negotiations were first carried on in 
 a spirit of peace to persuade the Government to fur- 
 nish detailed and public accounts of their actions and 
 expenditure ; but these means proving inoperative, 
 Brun at last roused the citizens to open re\'olt. The 
 city-hall was surrounded by a threatening mob, who 
 took possession of the building, and forced the ob- 
 noxious members of the Council to submit. All those 
 who showed any disposition to thwart the popular 
 party were then expelled, and only succeeded in saving 
 their lives by hasty flight. A new (jovernment was 
 formed upon democratic principles, and Brun invested 
 with the chief power (July, 1336). He was next ap- 
 pointed burgomaster for life, and voted still further 
 authority. iVU the trades and artisans were grouped 
 into thirteen guilds, according to the nature of the 
 work done; the nobles and tlie gentry into classes. A 
 governing council was chosen, half of which was com- 
 posed of the chiefs of the trade guilds, and the other 
 of members of noble families, and each section was 
 to be renewed half-yearly. 'I'he republic, as a whole, 
 continued to own allegiance to the Lunperor. 
 
 Ha\'ing thus completely changed her form of 
 government, Zurich began her new life. 1 )ut like many 
 later plans of the theoretically perfect government, that 
 ol Zurich was found in practice to be little, it at all, 
 better than the old discredited one. I'2ach trade-guild 
 representati\ e on the Council devested himselt chielly 
 to further tlie interests of his particular class ; rigitl 
 protecti\'e measures to prevent foreign competition were 
 introduced ; the nobles indulged their jealousy of one 
 anotlier to the injury of the town ; the biirgenneister 
 was in the position of an irrespcmsible director; selfish-
 
 HisioKv OF Tin; SWISS I'lcopi. 
 
 1 50 
 
 ness ousted p;ilriotisni. The chief bond of union, how- 
 e\'er, that kept the new (nn'ernnient troin breakint,^ up 
 shortly after its formation, was the fear lest the c-itizens 
 exileil (.luring: the late trouble should succeed in return- 
 in;:^ to their old positions by means ot forei,^m aid. ^b3st 
 of these exiles fouml a ready friend in the powerful 
 Count of Rapperschw}], whose possessions made him 
 a formidable toe to Zurich. Se\"eral encounters to(jk 
 place between this nobleman and the men ot Zlirich, 
 the latter being usually supported by the Count of 
 Toggenburg, a hereditary opponent ot the former. At 
 last, atter many years had passed and the bygone 
 troubles were partially forgotten, it not forgi\-en, se\eral 
 of the exiles ol)tained permission to return to their 
 natix'e city. Here thev formed a formidable consjiiracy C 
 to re-(jbtain their forieited positions and to do away with 
 ISrun, whose inlluence and personal power were now 
 greater than e\"er. this cons})iracy was only disco\'ered 
 on the day fixed for its executit)n. liruii hastily arnjed 
 his followers, and then, meeting the main body of his 
 enemies in the market-place, promi)tly attacked them. 
 l!(jth sides tought obstinateh'. but the Cioxernment 
 e\-entually succeeded in capturing or slaughtering the 
 wlujle of its opponents. ()t the prisoners tak'en, all 
 were either broken on the wheel or at oiice beheaded 
 (I35(j). After this ab(jrli\'e etfijrt to displace him. l!run ■'' 
 marclied in force against kaiiix-rsc:hwwd. took the castle 
 b\- stc;rm, burnt the t(jwn to the grouiid, and slew 
 the Count, together with many ot h\> iollower^. This 
 energetic action at once roused the determined rnnulx' 
 of the Austrian 1 )uke, many ot whose possessions 
 bordered on the territories of Zurich, and whose relatixe 
 tile Count ot K'apperscli w \ 1 wa<. hTarinij, lr>t her 

 
 rAo iiisroRv oi- the swiss peopli: 
 
 Zuyich forms position, if not her very existence, should now be lost, 
 
 Jufth State of Zurich applied for and obtained permission to enter the 
 Confederation, ^^ ^ 
 
 A.I). 1351. Swiss League (1351), thus forming the fifth state. In 
 
 consideration of her wealth and power, she was not 
 
 only received as an ally by the Confederates, but 
 
 honoured by being named the chief state or Vorort. 
 
 Zii,g and In the following year the .League was still further 
 
 Glarus enter . . 
 
 Confederation, strengthened by the admission of Zug and Glarus. 
 
 .■\.n. 1352. These districts were, to a large extent, the property of 
 the monastery of Sachingen, and had the Habsburgs 
 for civoyevs, who also claimed many other rights over 
 the country. These the people refused to acknowledge, 
 and in their refusal received such powerful aid from the 
 Confederation, that the Habsburgs were obliged to retire 
 from the contest. 
 
 War ioith The action of Zurich, in throwing in her lot with 
 
 '"'"''' the Confederates, greatly added to the anger Austria 
 
 A I). 1352. 
 
 felt at her destruction of Rapperschwyl. So great, 
 indeed, was the wrath of the Duke that he threatened 
 war unless Zurich at once deserted her new allies and 
 also rebuilt the destroyed town, which conditions being 
 promptly refused, an army of 16,000 was sent to enforce 
 them. In the war Zurich received very material sup- 
 port from her Swiss allies. l-Jesides other important 
 services, the men of Schwyx occupied (ilarus, and thus 
 prevented the Austrians from interfering with the ('011- 
 ft:derates sending supplies to Ziiricli. In most of the 
 encounters that took place — there was no large battle — 
 the Austrians were repulsed with great loss, and were 
 e\entually forced to retire. In the sruue year (1352), 
 howe\er, a greatly augmented Austrian army marched 
 against Zurich and laid siege to the city. After holding 
 their [position with the utmost bra\-ery for sexeral months
 
 ii!S'i-oK\' Hi' riii: >\\is> i'i;'>i'i.i-; 
 
 i')i 
 
 in which lli^-y wltc 'jrc;illy ;i.--sisuii 1)_\- ihc presence ot 
 2.()i)() Conlecler.'ites. the hur.t^hers, on ihe inedic'ition of 
 the M;ir,L:"ra\'e ot I h'andenliur;^', consented to makepeace. 
 Ont; of the conditions ot the treat\' was that Zul;' and 
 (ilarus slioidd retnrn to the protection ol Anstria. 
 
 In 1333 Hern, owini;" .^reatlv to the aid she li ad /';'■'''/';'■''•'' ''■'•■;' 
 hel'ore recei\"L'd from the W'aldstatten, tormall}' entered ^- 7,,; ,■,,,/, ,., 
 the Swiss ("onle(]eration. tt/rmin,^' the ei,L;iuh member of ■^•"- '■■53J- 
 th;it leau'ue, which recei\-ed no tresh additions tor more 
 than a centnrw The {position ot IJern considerahlv 
 addeil to the stren,i;'tli and stabihty of the Ccjnfederation. 
 'l"hrou<,di her it l)e,u'an, tor the t'lrst time, to cf)me in 
 contact with tlie bda-nch -speaking' inhabitants of Sa\'(A\ 
 and extend its iniliience towards the West. She furtlur 
 bront^in about what, till then, the allies had ne\-er had : 
 a settled s\'stem ot policy <amon!_;' the Swiss, which, 
 while keepnii,^ carefully ,L(uardetl the intlependence ol' 
 c-ach indi\'idual state, yet de\"ised means ot acting' in 
 consort a.L^ainst a common foe. and ado])ted means tor 
 the settlement ot man\' cases where di\a-rL,a-nt interests 
 im^lit endanu'ei' the unity of the ("(jniedei'ation. 'ldioui;'h 
 each of the l!\e new members ot the C'ontederalion was 
 united to the ori^'inal lea,L;aie ( fri. S'hwwx and ("ntei"- 
 walden). none were directlv in alhancf with the othei\ 
 an anomalv that ,i(a\'e rise later t(j much serious tr mblr. 
 l.uzern wa> allied with Zul,'" and Zurich; (daru>. widi 
 Ziirieh : Zuu'. with l.u/.ern and Ziiri'h : Zurieh, witii 
 Zm:'. l.u/.i-rn and < daru> : whil>t I !ern was allied o:ii\- 
 with the \\'ald.-.tatten. Zu-' I'emainrd undrr Austii.ni 
 rule till 1 V 'A '■vheii the lU'/ii ol S<hw\\ surp:i-'-d and 
 di"(Aa' the iorei;^"nei^ liom the ^L.tle. 'ilaru.s wa> 
 similarh- freed in 13"''^. 
 
 The truce c:)n(luded between Austria and Ziirieh 
 
 I 1
 
 l62 HISTORY OI- THE SWISS PKOPLK 
 
 was of short duration, and after that treaty Austria 
 steadily pursued a pohcy calculated to break up the 
 Swiss Confederation. Failing in this, she next appealed 
 to the (lerman Emperor, who declared the alliance con- 
 trary to the laws of the Empire, and further ordered 
 Zurich to withdraw from it. This the citizens refused 
 Sie,::c of Zi'iiiih to do, when Austria declared war. Once more the 
 " "^ Duke despatched a formidable force to besiege and cap- 
 
 ture the town. This army was shortly after joined by 
 the l^mperor's troops, as well as by contingents from 
 Solothurn and Schaffhausen, making in all a force of 
 5o,o(.)o men, that closely invested Zurich. The siege 
 proved, however, of no long duration, as shortly after 
 its commencement the Ziirichois declared their con- 
 tinued loyalty to the Emperor, and as rivalries between 
 the invaders had already showed themselves, the with- 
 drawal of the imperial troops was ordered. Finding 
 himself thus left to fight unaided the Austrian Duke also 
 withdrew his forces, and after maintaining a desultory 
 warfare for some months, signed, at Katisbonne (1355), 
 a treaty of peace. 
 
 In the times of which we now treat, when an actual 
 wcu' broke out it was pretty certain to be but the fore- 
 runner of a speedy anuistice, which in its turn was 
 usually followed at no distant date by a renewal of 
 hostilities. The wanton destruction of life and propertv, 
 the brief breathing interval, and the renewed war went 
 on in one weary monotonous circle. Thus, not long 
 ]Var lutuccn after the 'I'lX'aty of I^atisbonne, hostilities recommenced, 
 l\' ii l^tdtl' ■! ^ time between Austria anci the \\ aldstattc:i. i lie 
 A.i). i.jo8. ^\;q- lasted many montlis, with varying fortunes, til! in 
 13^)8, at the intervention of Ijern and Zurich, peace was 
 restored : and then followed the very unusual spectacle
 
 HisToirv di' riir: 
 
 wiss I'l-.di'i i; 
 
 163 
 
 in Swiss and Austrian histories ot an inlcrwil irf):n 
 '■(.■^■aliscd bloodshed of nearly twenty years. 
 
 In this pause nuu-h proifress was made in the usetui 
 and intelk-ctual arts, especially in the cities, in most of 
 ^vhich. moreo\'er. many changes of a democratic cha- 
 racter were inauy'urated. 
 
 l!ut thoui,di no threat war was in proi^'ress between 
 I ^'v^-^o, man\- minor stru,LrL;ies and j^opular disturbances 
 took place in warious parts of Switzerlaml, In the 
 winter ol I3''7 the town ot Ihenne. then undei' the I'- 
 wardenship of the See ol llasel. refused to obev the /^^ 
 Ihshoj) when ortlered to renounce the cod)urL;'hership ^''' 
 she had formed with the cities (jt ISern. Frevburi;' antl 
 Solothurn. She not onlv refused, but made her alliance 
 with Jiern perpetual. These acts of insubordination led 
 the Jiishop to threaten war. and the per)]")le ol 1 hemic to 
 appeal in the Confederates fcjr aitl. ]5efore the latter 
 could arri\-e the JJishop .i;'a\"e orders to pilla^'e aiid burn 
 llien.ne. which work was actualK' partiallv done under 
 the Count of Xidau. On the arri\-al of the troojis oi 
 liern a dire wni^a'ance was taken on the liishop tor his 
 inhuman conduct, the episco{ial palace was attacked 
 ;ind de'^troved. and e\'ei-\- [portion of the IHshop's 
 property dewaslated. The war was continued in i V'"'- 
 and at last terminated bv the total defeat of tile 
 llishop's forces at the Pass of I'ierre I'ertnis. bv t!ie 
 cop.il)ined troops oi 1 k-rn and Soiothurn. 
 
 Amoni^-st the vvrv few i^'ootl deeds Swi>s chronit i-s 
 e\'er admit were done bv an Austrian s^ i\'ereii:'n. is li'.e 
 conduct of Albrecht II. in 133''. In. that \-ear ih.e l>;:iN- ' 
 was jireriai'inLr to attack l!ascl. when. ju>t as he \\:i>'^' 
 readv to besieu'e the town, a lai'L;'(.' portion was dr>ir^ )\'Cii 
 b\' an L'arth(piake. in c-emsequeiux' ot th.i> xasitati! -ii 
 
 i 1 .; 
 
 ■: lUsJirp 
 If:! and 
 :i I!, 
 1). 1^1'
 
 164 HISTORY OI-- TH1-: SWISS PKOPI.K 
 
 Albrecht not only refused to continue the war, but sent 
 
 400 expert workmen to assist in rebuilding the town, 
 
 with the message, "God cannot wish me to kill those 
 
 whom God has wounded." 
 
 Invasion of In 1 375, all Switzerland and Austria were thrown 
 
 De Coiicv, . , 111 1 1 • • , 
 
 ,^ I, j.-^-. iiito the greatest alarm by the sudden mvasion, bv way 
 
 of I>ase], of a horde of irregular soldiers under the 
 command of b^nguerrand de Coucy. De Coucv Avas 
 son-in-law of I'^dward III. of England, and through his 
 mother, a daughter of Leopold I., claimed several towns 
 and castles in Aargau as his right. These possessions 
 the Austrian Duke refused to gi\"e up, and De Coucy 
 accordingly, after raising some 50,000 followers in 
 balance, swept dow-n on Switzerland, like the barbarians 
 of old, to enforce his claims by the sword. After ravag- 
 ing Elsass and carrying fire and wholesale slaughter 
 along the Zimmat, he arrived at Wellingen. At hrst 
 the suddenness and fury of the invasion caused a panic 
 to seize the country, and little was done to offer any 
 resistance. Numbers of Swiss fell l)efore the advancing 
 horde, when at last in various centres, especially in Hern 
 and the b2ntlibuch mountains, the old spirit of braverv 
 again showed itself. The first repulse was effected by a 
 band of some 600 Entlibuch mountaineers, who fell on 
 a detached party of the invaders, some 3,000 strong, 
 near W'illisau, and after a long fight killed nearly everv 
 one. The principal part of De Coucy's army had mean- 
 while arrived at Fraubrunnen wliere it halted, before 
 attacking Dcrn. ISern, howevcu', was now fully alive to 
 lier danger, and boldly sallied forth to meet her savage 
 foe. After a rapid march, the b5ernese troops managed 
 to surprise tlie iinaders in their camp during the night 
 of I)('ceml)er jTitli, and after immense slau'diter. com-
 
 H1-: SWISS I'Lciij. 
 
 plelcly routed llu'in. Other lari^e bands were, however, 
 scattered in (htferent parts ot the conntrx', and wheie\ er 
 they appeared they s[)ared neither aL;'e. sex, nor projjertx', 
 but shiu,L;dUered antl destroN'ed all before them. Man\- 
 serious encounters to(d< place with the now thorou^lilv 
 aroused Swiss, till at last the whole of tb.e once forniiil- 
 able host was either killed or chased out of the countr\-. 
 and peace was restored. This war is known in Sw!s> 
 chronicles as the G!i,i:lii-kru\i[. from the pointed spikes on 
 the helmets of the scddiers, or as is also said, trom the 
 cowls man\' of them \\()re. It is also referred to as the 
 •• j-^n^lish war," though there seems to be ncj evidence 
 tiiat nrany of J )e ('oucv's soldiers were i-liiL^dishmen. . 
 They were lar.t^eh' reinforced by some of the Welsh 
 who were at the time dri\en out ot their country bv 
 the l'^n,i(lish Kin^. as well as b\- mercenaries of oiht/i' 
 naticjn.alities emplo\'ed in the late war l)etween lTi,^dand 
 and brance. .Vmon.i;' the leaders of this e.\;)edition, 
 Ie\an Ap (iriftith. and le\an LlewelK'ii Injure as nn- 
 {)orlant chiefs. J )e ("oucv himself w<is captui'ed bv tiic 
 Turks at the battle of Nicopolis, and died in prison at 
 ('on>tantinople. According" t(j other authoritie>. 1 )e 
 ("oucy, as well as se\-eral ot the more prominent Welsh 
 leaders, was assassinated in kdance b\' secret (;rdlers ol 
 the Kin,L( oi ITi<^land. 
 
 Austria's conduct soon bei^an once more to distmb 
 the Swiss, and to threaten a renewal ot hostilities. iter 
 lirst act ot im[)ortance was the con(|uest ot the Tyrol, 
 alter whi(di, under pretence ot l)eneliting the pilgrims 
 to f-2in>iedeln, but in reality to separate Cilarus trom 
 Zurich, she built a brid.^e across the lake at Kapp^-r- 
 schwyl. The possession ot this bridge b_\- Austria 
 acted as a perpetual liindrance to Zmdch's trade \v!t:i
 
 1 06 HISTORY Oi- THE SWISS PEOPLE 
 
 the South, and was accordingly greatly resented by 
 the city. Austria's position as ruler in so many 
 burghs, that from their situation and the nationality 
 of tlieir inliabitants were essentially Swiss, also acted 
 as a ne\"er-ending source of trouble. Her rule was 
 both harsh and unjust, and, as a result, her local 
 governors were extremely unpopular. In 1386 the 
 anti-Austrian feeling in Switzerland had grown to such 
 a pitch, that ])opular outbreaks against her authority 
 "were, in many centres, ot frequent occurrence, and war 
 appeared inevitable. 
 11';;;- w///; hTom Luzcm came the hnal troubles that precipi- 
 
 An'i-S6 fated the country again into a conflict with Austria. 
 Previous to the actual declaration of war, constant 
 collisions in the neighbourhood of Luzern had for some 
 time past taken place, with all the horrors and savagery 
 of war. In 1385 a body of men from Luzern attacked 
 and demolished the castle-town of Rothenlmrg, the 
 residence of an Austrian baillie. Next, both Entlibuch 
 and Sempach, at the instigation of l^uzern, re\'olted 
 against their Austrian rulers, expelled the baillies, and 
 entered into alliances with the city. Luzern herself 
 commenced extending her territories by the purchase 
 of W'iggis, and (contrary to her treaty stipulations) 
 admitted a number of Austrian subjects into the pri\i- 
 leges ol citizenship. Austria retaliated by attacking 
 J\ichensee, a small l^uzern town containing a garrison 
 ot some 200 sc:ildiers. This she carried by assault and 
 (iistroNed, massacring the inhabitants, of all ages, and 
 oi boih sexes. Other reprisals on both sides followed 
 in (juick succession, in which uumense numbers of 
 \ ictims perished. Soon both the Duke and the Con- 
 lederates were fulh' prepared, and the former took the
 
 Hisr(>K\ oi- riu-: swi: 
 
 field with a lari^e army. After inenacin,t( Zurich, 
 Leopold II., accompanied hv many nobles from (jer- 
 manv, I'rance, and Xorth Italy, headed some '),()vJo 
 pi(d\ed men. and marched upon Lu/.ern. On his \va\' 
 he burnt W'illisau and se\'eral smaller towns, where his 
 troops committtHl e\'ery foru] oi excess. On the (/th of 
 [idy, a j-iortion of his forces appeared before the walls 
 ot Semjxich. whilst ancjther dixision menaced Zurich. 
 At Sempach the Ccjntederates mustered to the help ot 
 Lu/ern, btit were onlv able to brini;' about i.ooo men. 
 taken chief] v from the I'orest States. In spite of their 
 disparity in ntnnbers. the (x)nfederates determined to 
 risk an encounter, 'idle decisixe and brilliant battle ot H.u:. 
 Sempach, the second of the lon,i;' roll of \-ictories that %'.,■[' 
 mark the prowess ot the Swiss, is thus described by an 
 old writer : — '• The Swiss order ot battle was angular, 
 one soldier followed by two, these by four and so on. 
 The Swiss were all on foot, badlv armed, ha\'in.g' only 
 their bjn.L,'' swords and their halberdis. and boards on 
 their left arms with which to parr\' the blows of their 
 ad\'ersarie>. and they coidd at ln"st make no impression 
 on the clo.-e ranks cd the Austrian>, all bristlin,!,^ with 
 spears. Hut Anthinu' Zer I'ot, of I'ri, cried to his men 
 to strike with their halberds on the shafts ot the spear>, 
 which he knew were made hollow to render them lightei'. 
 and. at the same time. Arnokl \\'iid<elried.' a kni<dit trt)m 
 
 
 I With the (.■xcfjTti'in of tht- fe:it of William Tell. n'i inci^ivin 
 connectt'ii \sitli tb.t.-ir hi^tor\- is more \'.iiicl\' known ar.d l)cl;e\-e(l b\- 
 the S\vi--s th.an that of Wnikclriod at the battle of Sempach, an.l. 
 unlike tlie forniL-r, it certainK' appears to be true. T'or a masterh 
 >i-:i>i:,' ot the hi-^te>rical evilence bearing on this heroic act. see 
 (.."'jolid.ue's article, '■ WinkelrieJ," in tb.c " I-hicx'clopa dia Hritan- 
 nica."
 
 l68 HISTORY OF THE SWISS PEOPLE 
 
 Unterwalden, devoting himself for his country, cried 
 out, ' I'll open a way for you, Confederates,' and, seizing 
 as many spears as he could grasp in his arms, dragged 
 them down with his whole weight and strength upon his 
 own l)osom, and thus made an opening for his country- 
 men to penetrate the Austrian ranks. This act of 
 heroism decided the victory. The Swiss rushed into 
 the gap made by W'inkelried, and having now come 
 lo close quarters with their enemies, their bodily 
 strength and the lightness of their efjuipment ga\e 
 them a great advantage over the heavily-armed Austrians, 
 who were already fainting under the heat of a July sun. 
 The very closeness of the array of the Austrian men-at- 
 arms rendered them incapable either of advancing or 
 falling back, and the grooms who held their horses 
 having taken flight, panic seized them, they broke their 
 ranks, and were hewed down by the Swiss halberds in 
 Irightiul numbers. Duke Leopold was urged by those 
 around him to save his life, but he scorned the advice, 
 and, seeing the banner of Austria in danger, rushed to 
 sa\e it, and was killed in the attempt. The rout then 
 became general, but the Swiss had the humanity, or the 
 policy, not to pursue their enemies, oi which otherwise 
 not one, perhaps, would have escaped. The loss of the 
 Austrians amounted to 2,000 men, including 67O noble- 
 men, 350 oi whom wore coroneted helmets. ]\lost of 
 them were buried at Konigsfelden, with their leader 
 Leopold. The Swiss lost 200 men in this memorable 
 baltle, the second in which they had defeated a Duke of 
 Austria at the head of his chivalry." 
 (j/aiii'. Alter Sempach the men of Glarus set about making 
 
 lliemsel\-es a free people. One of their iirst acts was 
 ihe capture oi W'esen and the expulsion ot its Austrian
 
 iiisroKv oi riii; swiss I'lioiM.i. j'u; 
 
 soldiers. 'I'his was iollowccl by a truce, which lastinl 
 tin I ]">S, when Leopold's sons ret~oninien<-(,-d ihe war 
 with fresh lurw Wrseii was recaptured 1)\- the 
 admission ol a nuinher ot soldiers in disguise, who 
 o[)ened the i^'ates to their comrades without and 
 massacred all the cddei Swiss leacK'rs. Some months 
 later the men ol ("darns inllictetl a se\ere defeat on the 
 Austrians at the little town ol Xaiels, within their state. Hdttl: 
 In this important combat, ^50 men ol (ilarus, toi;'ether '^ ^'^ i iss 
 with 30 from Schwyx, postetl themsehes on the hei,L;hts 
 al)c)\e the town, and as the Austrians achanced, sud- 
 (.lenly hiuded down masses of stones that soon caused a 
 panic. Then, followin<^^ the successful tactics emploved 
 at Mor<(arten; the Swiss rushed down on the disorck;red 
 mass (said to consist of 15,000 soldiers, but probably 
 about half that nundierj antl dealt death on e\ery side. 
 A precipitate flight of the in\aders followed, but they 
 were met near W'esen by a iresh l)od\' of 700 dlarus 
 peasants, who completed the \ictor\-. Though liern 
 took no part in the battle (_)1 Sempach, after that \ ictory 
 she entered actixely into the wai'. and o\ erran the 
 Austrian dependencies in b'reyburg and \ alengrin. 
 She dro\e the Duke's toUowers out ot lvap[X;rs(diw\l. 
 annexetl Nitlau and ISuren, and ccjnqueretl llu' uppei" 
 Simmenthal. 
 
 At length, both sitles being weary of war antl car- 
 nage, a peace was signed l(;r se\en \ears in j ^S(), with /'-'iv, 
 the (ujudition that Hern should restore Nidauand lUiren. 
 This peace was in ij'yf luilher prolonged lor twent\ 
 years, 'bhese treaties brought great benelits to Swit- 
 zerland in many ways, (ilarus and Zug obtained their 
 tormal ireedom from Austrian ruk' m paxinent ot a 
 moderate sum ol nione\- ; Schwx x receu ed the ttjwii
 
 I/O HISTORY OF THE SWISS PEOPLE 
 
 and Abbey of Einsiedeln (1397) ; Luzern purchased 
 Sempach and Entlibuch from the Duke, as also other 
 towns ; but chief of aU, the political power of the 
 Habsburgs came to an end in Switzerland. 
 Fall of Among the features of interest during the 14th 
 
 tlic Hou^e century was the downfall and final disappearance of 
 
 of Kybiirg, ■' ^^ 
 
 A.D. 1382. the once powerful House of Kyburg. In 1382 the then 
 head of the family, Count Rudolph, a young and am- 
 bitious noble, made a bold effort to recruit the fallen 
 fortunes of his house by forming a conspiracy to seize 
 the imperial town of Solothurn, as well as Thun and 
 Aarburg, the two latter being then subject to Jiern. 
 Taking into his confidence a Neuchatel noble, he 
 managed to muster 200 well-armed followers. With 
 these the conspirators appeared before Solothurn on 
 the night of November loth, where arrangements had 
 previously been made with a few accomplices to gain 
 admittance. Everything passed off satisfactorily till a 
 little before the appointed time lor effecting an entry, 
 when a passing peasant happened by accident to dis- 
 co\er the plot. lie at once alarmed the burghers, who 
 promptly fell upon the conspirators, and compelled them 
 to seek safety in iiight. On the news of this attempt 
 bec(jming known, liern and Solothurn at once laid siege 
 to Rudolph's chief town, 13erthoud, which, though also 
 attacked by the Waldstiitten and Ziirich, held out for 
 nearly two years, when it yielded to arbitration, and 
 passed by purchase into the possession of 13ern. iVfter 
 Rudolph's death, his successors were compelled to cede 
 almost all their remaining estates to the Confederates 
 rmd accept citizenship in iiern (1384). From this period 
 the Kyburgs disappear as iniluential factors in Swiss 
 history.
 
 HISroRV (11 THK SWISS I'lJU'LlC 
 
 Another iinportaiU fciiture tluriiiL,'' this period was 
 the lessened inlluence oi tlie i:Linperor ot dennanv in 
 Swiss afiairs, and t!ie irradual withdrawal of the Swiss 
 frijni the position they so loni; oceupied as subjcct- 
 \'assals of the Ihnpire. This was especiall}' seen 
 towards the close oi the century, when the ICniperor, 
 beini,'' pressed for inone}-, si;ld his rii^hts over se\eral 
 important Swiss districts to their inhabitants, and thus 
 forfeited all auth(jrity o\"er them. 
 
 In 1 j'/j. a meetim,'' was heUl at Sempach ot rejne- 
 sentatixes ot the dilierent ("ontederate States to agree, 
 if possible, upon some means oi mitigating the hi.irrors 
 oi war. The restdt ot this congress was the drawing 
 up ot the celebrated Stiapwliir Jlriri. a measure that 
 though tre(]uently disregarded, undoubtedly did much 
 to allexdate human sorr(jw and draw the se\eral 
 members of the Swiss League nearer together. It 
 lil^o showed that the S\\dss had alread\- made a great 
 adxance in humanitv, and \vere at last emerging (jul 
 of their early barbarism. iJy the terms of the agree- 
 ment it was enacted that each oi the eight state.-- 
 engaged not to undertake an\- war imless it were 
 appro\ed 1)\- all the ref>t ; that all the states should 
 conti'ibute to the (^ontederate armv against a connnon 
 toe : that all si)oils should be di\idetl according to the 
 a^,si>tance eacii state had ,L;i\ rn : that e\ery Swis^ 
 would sacrilice his life and his property, if reijuired. (or 
 tiie defence oi his ctnuitr}' : that churches should be 
 cunsitleretl in\"i(jlate, unless the enemy retired into them; 
 tiiat womt'ii and children shoulil be held safe from all 
 injmv durmg war-time ; and that no Swiss should 
 abandon his post, e\en when woiuided. 
 
 iJut chief cjI all the memorcd)le exents of this 

 
 172 HISTORY OK Tin-: SWISS PKOPLli 
 
 century was the close it brought to the long and 
 bloody struggle between Austria and Switzerland. At 
 length the heroism and persevering patriotism of the 
 Swiss effected the liberation of their country from 
 Austrian rule, and henceforth the Dukes ceased to 
 attempt to enforce their claims, and tacitly acknow- 
 ledged their defeat. The Swiss States from this period, 
 moreo\er, began to be known, not as an unimportant 
 portion of the German b^mpire, but as a separate 
 country, Uie Schweiz (from the prominent part taken 
 by Schwyx in initiating the freedom of the land), 
 whilst amongst themselves the Swiss referred to their 
 Confederation as Die Eidgciiosseiisclinff. 
 
 Despite its long record of bloodstains, the 14th 
 century marks a very memorable epoch in Swiss history. 
 The power of the nobles was effectually broken, the 
 rule of the Kyburgs and Austrians brought to a close, 
 and the influence of the Emperor much lessened. 
 National unity and independence assumed for the hrst 
 time tangible shapes, and the love ot (iod, country, 
 and freedcjm inspired the people to many acts of 
 heroism. Humanity towards the suliering began to be 
 looked upon as a virtue and not as a weakness. J-'or 
 the tirst time general Diets of representati\es of the 
 se\eral allied states met at some central and important 
 place, Vovoi't, generally at Zurich, Luzern or IJern, 
 where matters of national interest were discussed, and 
 dis|)utes, if possible, arranged. 
 
 On the other hand, the mass oi the people were 
 steeped in ignorance and brutalised by the ever-recurring 
 wars and disputes. The general insanitary condition 
 of the towns ga\'e rise to repeated epidemics ot the 
 plague and other fearful scourges, fre<|uenL lircs laid
 
 lUsi'oKN oi' riii: SWISS i'i:ori.i; 
 
 waste larj^^e districts, causing' the deaths of thousands, 
 and stoppin;^^ the progress o( civihsation, trade and 
 general prosperity. The spasmodic but oft-repeated 
 outbreaks of relij^'ious fanaticism, leadin,i,'' to persecu- 
 ti(in for heresy and terrible punishments, as well as 
 the attacks ot " Jew-baitin,L,f " that periodically seized 
 the people, added to their l(jad of misery, and caused 
 the sacrifice ot many innocent lix'es.
 
 CHAPTER IX 
 
 CIVIL WARS AND POLITICAL CHANGES OI" THl- CON- 
 FEDERATION OF THE EIGHT STATES 
 
 A.n. 1404-68. One of the most important results of the victory 
 
 of Sempach was seen, shortly after that event, in the 
 great and widespread spirit of liberty that roused the 
 people of Switzerland to obtain their complete indepen- 
 dence. Neither was this feeling harboured only against 
 the Austrians and Germans. In numerous centres the 
 Swiss "ruled'" rose in revolt against the Swiss "rulers," 
 and many and terrible were the struggles in consequence. 
 
 J^cvolts, In 1404, at \\'interthur, an unsuccessful attempt to 
 
 o\'erthrow the Austrian government of the town was 
 attended with much bloodshed and cruelty on both 
 sides. In 1407 the people of Ottingen revolted, and 
 after killing their over-lord, placed themselves und(:r the 
 protection of the burghers of ISern, as did also the 
 peasants of Chateau d'Aex, and this in spite of the 
 acti\c intervention of Savoy. Many other re\-olts in 
 w'lrious centres occurred, and kept up the hatred of the 
 poorer classes against their masters, who were usually 
 also their oppressors. 
 
 Civil Tvoulilcs Of the many civil troubles that disturbed Switzer- 
 
 land at the beginning of the 15th century, otic of the 
 most serious took place in Zug, in 1404. When this 
 state entered the Swiss Confederation, in 1353, it con- 
 SLsted of the town of Zuef and the three Communes of 
 
 A.I). T404. 
 
 A.n. 140; 
 
 A.i). 1404.
 
 iiisroRN' oi- Tin: swiss im'.oi'i.i: 175 
 
 ICs^'^eri, ]]aar and !\Icn;<in,q-t^.n. ]!et\veen the town and 
 the communes a ^^ood deal of bad feehni,^ had .i^Town 
 up, consequent on the former ha\-in<4' usurped all the 
 chief functions of the cantonal [^''ox ernment, includini,^ 
 the pri\-ile,i;'e of j^'^uardint,'- the banner, seal, and state 
 archives. In 1404 matters reached such a point that. 
 after meetint,'' in Lands,i;'emeinde. the rural populations 
 determined no lon,i,a'r to submit to the authority claimed 
 bv the town, as by the act of admission into the Con- 
 federation all the inhabitrmts of the state were entitled 
 to equal ri,L,dits. On their part, the bur,i,dTers consented 
 to submit the dispute to the arbitration of the Con- 
 federates, but this the peasants reiused, and appealed to 
 Schwvx to assist them. Since i :;''i4 Schwyx had exercised 
 a kind ot unauthorised protection o\er Zu,l;', and she now 
 readily ^a\"e the required assistance. Thou^t^'h man\- of 
 the chief men of Schwyx stroni^dy fax'oured the claims 
 of the '/-\\\1, buri,diers. the wist proportion ol her people 
 would listen to n(3 other method oi settling- the diflicully 
 than an instant appeal to arms. This feelini;" indeed 
 seemed to attack the mountaineers with a sort of mad- 
 ness, as. disrei;'ardin,^' all adyice towards moderation trom 
 th(;ir ma;,dstrates. a number (juickK' armed, marched into 
 the nei,i,dibourinq; state, iorcibly took possession of the 
 town, and com]X;lled the bur.^iiers to promise they 
 would submit the claims of tlu' c~omnumes to the arbi- 
 iratic.m oi Schwyx. News of tlii> hi^'h-handed contlurt 
 rcachiiit: the Conlederales. a Diet was instaiulv con- 
 \'ok'ed. c'lnd a iorci; of i^j.ooo men trom Luzei'ii. \ ri, 
 Zurich and I nlerwalden, marched into tlie tlisturbecl 
 distrirts. 'A\.vX^ unwelcome \"isilors were pi"omi)ll)' 
 compelled to ipiil the town, and then a con<_;'i"ess ot 
 (lepulii-s ti'om wii'ious states assembled at I u-e'Li'enned
 
 Ijfl HISTORY OI- THl-. SWISS Pi'lOPI.K 
 
 to restore peace. Schwyx was ordered to pay a heavy 
 indemnity to Zng and another to the Confederation, and 
 the ori,<;inal matters in dispute were decided in favour 
 of the bur<(hers. Several important concessions were 
 at the same time given to the comiuunes, including the 
 right of electing the " banneret "' (the second state 
 official), and all were ordered to obey the Landammann 
 and Council of Zug, and never to appeal in future to 
 Schwyx alone in any disputes that might arise. This 
 decision brought to a close the first serious (]uarrel that 
 di\'ided members of the vSwiss Confederation ; unfortu- 
 nately for the peace and prosperity of Switzerland, the 
 many quarrels that arose afterwards, many upon equally 
 slight causes as those that occurred in Zug, were not so 
 satisfactorily terminated.^ 
 AppenzeJl Of the many troubles that harassed Switzerland 
 
 during this period by far the most important, from its 
 duration, by the amount of bloodshed it invoh'ed, and 
 its ultimate resvdts, w as the rising of the communes of 
 Appenzell and the town of St. Callen against the 
 authority of the powerful Abbey ot St. (iallen. Before 
 the commencement of the 15th century many pi"i\i- 
 leges and much increased liberty were granted the 
 subjects of the Abbey, but with the accession of Abbot 
 Kunon von Stoffeln as ruler (1401) a new reign tending 
 to curtail these liberal gifts had commenced. Se\-erity 
 
 I ( 'onctTiiinj,' the xicilent action of lluj peasant warriors ol 
 Scluvvx in tlieir attempt to coerce Zn.i;" lorcihl)-, Johann Miiller, 
 wi'itinL;' in the middle of tlie la-.t cenlnr\-, in his account of the 
 matter exclaims, " X'iolenci; ne\'er niakt^s ri^ht." 'J'his s(mtim(>nt 
 thus anticipated the; oft ([uottul " l-'orce is no reined\- " ol a modern 
 I'hmlish jtolitician, out ot which so much capital has recenth' been 
 made. The ol)\ ions lallac\' oi the dictum is pro\cd 1)\' the histories 
 ol all ( oiMUries, and most estahlished L;reat movements. 
 
 Risings 
 A.i). 1400
 
 HisioRv (M-' riiK SWISS iMiori.i: 
 
 and cruel exactions were now bei^un, fresh and lu'axy 
 taxes were imposed, and petty annoyances from the 
 Al)hot"s agents soon wtjrked the people up to despera- 
 tion. 
 
 In 1377 the peasants of Appenzell and the citizens 
 of St. ( I alien jcjined the LeaL;aie recently formed of the 
 Swahian towns' around the Lake ot Constanz against 
 the power of the nobles, called the Sidd/ehiuni inii dcii See 
 (hence the modern (ierman name lor the Lake of 
 " 15oden See"). In or about the year 1400 the Swabian 
 League repudiated the Appenzell peasants, beliexdng 
 they legally owed allegiance to the Abbey, but allowed 
 the citizens of St. Gallen to remain. Thus the communes 
 found themselves alone when the time came in which 
 assistance was most needed. This assistance they iound 
 at lu'st in the burghers of St. (lallen, who, e(]uallv with 
 them, were determined to seek freedom from the rule of 
 the now obnoxicnis Abbey. In 1401 the town and the 
 communes entered into negotiations that resulted in an 
 alliance for mutual protection. In the toUowing year 
 the endeaxour of the Abbot to a.ssert his authority 
 forcibly led to a general rising, which was greatly 
 encouraged and aided by a contingent of the bellicose 
 men of Schwvx. On this the Abbot appealetl to the 
 Stadtebund for help. The League decided that the 
 alliance between St. (jallen and the peasants nuist be 
 dissol\-ed, and that the Abbot must in future ai)p(jinl 
 their baillies trtnn the ranks ot the people oi Api)enzell, 
 and be carelul in so dcjing that the\' did not exceed 
 their duty. This action once more isolated the 
 
 A I). 1. 1 00 
 
 I 'I'hcsc towns wtTi' CiMistanz, I 'fhfrlin^eii. I ioiirlilii irii 
 l'ric:lfrichsh;itcMi I, Liiuhui. K;i\"cnl)iir_;, \\'an'^t_'ii aiiil St, ( ialli-n
 
 ij-^ HIS^OK^• ()]■ Tin-; swiss im:oi'i,i-: 
 
 communes, as the l)ur<^rhers of St. Gallen amiuiled 
 their alHance with them. Undismayed, the peasants, 
 supported by a few hundred vohmteers from Schwyx 
 and Glarus (wlio alone answered their call for aid 
 addressed to the whole of the Swiss Confederates), pre- 
 pared to encounter the full strenj^^th of the Abbot's 
 forces. The latter was further assisted by 5,000 fully- 
 armed foot soldiers, and a large body of mounted troops 
 sent to his assistance by the Swabian League. Now 
 fully determined at all risks to obtain their freedom, the 
 peasants of Appenzell assembled in their several vliodcs 
 (I'oitr, a band, commune, or hundred) and swore to 
 support one another to the death in the coming struggle. 
 Battle' of The first important encounter took place on Alay 
 
 ifavis'fjo' ^5^h, 140J, in the Speicher Pass, at the foot of the 
 \ oglinseck. Here a handful of half-armed peasants 
 succeeded in repeating the victory of Morgarten by 
 using the tactics there so successfully adopted. Learning 
 from their scouts that the Abbot's forces were to pass 
 the narrow defiles of the Speicher, a few hundred 
 peasants stationed themselves on the neighbouring 
 height, and collected a quantity of boulders to hurl 
 down on their opponents. When the enemy's cavalry 
 (most of which were very heavily armed) were well in 
 the pass they were suddenly assailed with a shower of 
 huge stones and trees that (juickly caused first a panic 
 and then a stampede, in which the frightened horses 
 turned and trampled to death many of the infantry who 
 were close in their rear. In the midst of this confusion 
 the little band of Appenzell and Swiss mountaineers 
 poured down the slopes on either side and fell on their 
 enemies with wild shouts of dehance. In their im- 
 pduosity they carried all l)efore them, and completed
 
 ihe <4'eneral I'out ol ilic inwiclrrs. who fell on ;ill sides in 
 ,;;re;it nnnibers. Nearly a thousand corpses remained of 
 the brilliant army that sliortly before i^ode so i^'ailv into 
 the fatal pass. Those that escaped the <;'eneral slauj^diter 
 nian:i^'ed with difficulty to reach St. (lallen, whence 
 they fled to their homes. 
 
 After this \ictory the Swabian towns withdrew their 
 support from the Abbe}-, and an attem]~)t was made bv 
 the Swiss Confederates to brinj^' about peace. 'I'he 
 ne^-otiations, howe\er. fell through, and the war recom- 
 men(-ed. Thouq^h depri\-ed (if thc> support of the League, 
 the Abbot obtained the help of the Austrian I )uke 
 r^rederic, who assembletl his troops and entered Appen- 
 zell. On their side Rudolph, Count of \\'erdenbei',i;\ 
 whom the Austrians had cU>pri\ (>d of his estates, threw 
 in his lot with the communes, and was chosen their 
 leader. After sex'eral minor en^'aL;ements. an im])ortant 
 battle with the Duke's main armv took jdace in tlie 
 mountains of the Ivlieinthal in )une. ip'^. 
 
 Stationed on a spur of the mountain over whicli the llitth- of 
 Austrians were; to a(l\"ance. the A])pen/;;llers i"ecei\"ed llie A^'A j'l''' 
 eniMUv with a storm of stones and tre(,>-truid<s. that. ' 1"5- 
 added to the slipper\- nature of the wet L;'rassv sloj^ies 
 (the rain fell liea\ily on the day of the battle), soon 
 threw the inwiders' I'ank's into confusinii. ix'udolph then 
 ^,'-a\-e the sis^'nal to his followers, who rushed on their 
 foes, and a desiieratt; hand-to-hand enrounlei" took place. 
 |ust when tlie battle was at its fiei^iit. and tin- issue was 
 hanudn^ in the fialance, a fi-esh comim;"ent mI Appen/ellrrs 
 was seen I'apidh' ap))roa( hini;' fruui the nei'^^hbouiini;' 
 liei^-hls. The si^T t i if t his i-einf iiccnirm created a panic 
 amouj^'sl the Austrians, who reli'eated, and the jH'asants 
 fallin-" I HI 1 hcii' now disor.L;\anised ranks, slew tliein whole- 
 
 1 _' 2
 
 l8o HISTORY OF THE SWISS PEOPLE 
 
 sale. After the fight and subsequent pursuit, which 
 lasted six hours, the peasants returned to the field of 
 battle, and there on their knees returned thanks to God 
 for their victory. The force that so opportunely 
 appeared, and turned the tide of battle, was composed 
 entirely of the wives and daughtcvs of the peasant-soldiers, 
 who, wrapped in their shepherd's frocks, had determined 
 to share the perils their husbands and brothers were 
 enduring for their freedom. 
 
 Shortly after this victory the Austrian Duke un- 
 successfully tried to capture the town of St. Gallen, l)ut 
 attempting to invade Appenzell was repulsed with loss, 
 and obliged to retire into the Tyrol. The peasants then 
 formed an alliance with the town, and the Abbot, who 
 had taken refuge in W'yl, returned to his abbey, and the 
 Count of Werdenberg was reinstated in his estates. 
 The war, how'ever, continued for several years longer. 
 The peasants conquered the Rheinthal, entered the 
 Tyrol, destroyed or captured nearly a hundred cattle, 
 burnt many villages, and ravaged many of the territories 
 bordering the Boden See. After these successes, they 
 A.I). i.foS. ]aid siege to IJregenz (1408). Here the tide of victory, 
 so long favourable to the Appenzellers, changed, as 
 being surprised by a large body of Swabians, they 
 sustained a severe reverse, which considerably cooled 
 the enthusiasm of the self-appointed liberators. Shortly 
 after the defeat of liregenz, the German I-^mperor called 
 upon the peasants to lay down their arms and make sub- 
 mission to the Abbey. This order they rt^fused to obey, 
 and were accordingly placed under the "ban of the 
 empire,"" as also under that of the C'hurch. Neither 
 sentence affected the peasants, whose ardour in the 
 cause of Hbert\' was on the contrary again awakened.
 
 ni>"roKv oi THi:: swi.'-h I'hci'i.i. i^i 
 
 Whilst the strui:<(lc- continuetl, circur,istaiires (jncc more 
 fa\-ourcd the fulfihnent of tlieir aspirations. I-'irst. the 
 death of the Abbot oi St. (jallen reinox'ed their chief 
 eneinv. tlien botli tlie bbnpires of ("lerinany and Rome 
 were thrown inUj the throes of ci\ il war by the ri\'al 
 claimants for the wacant thrones. I'nder these circum- 
 stances peace was at last brou,<,dit about (1411!, In' iha I\jcc .nd 
 
 ,-,.,, , , , . . . , . , allLuicc u'itL 
 
 terms 01 which the Abl)ey ,i,''a\'e up Us sei^monal r!L:"hts ^^^^ S'^i<^ 
 
 over the commune^, and en^^au'cd not to punish th(jbe -"^ "• ^t" 
 who had taken part in the re\'olt. 
 
 (.)n their side tiie peasants agreed to continue the 
 payment ot certain taxes to the Abbey, and to restore 
 the Kheinthal to Austria. In the same year the 
 Appenzeliers were admitted into co-burghership with 
 the (Confederates, on condition that they undertook in 
 future to ab.stain from all wars unless began with the 
 consent of the Swiss League. In 141 2, a similar treaty a.u. 141J. 
 of alliance was drawn up bet\\'een the Confederates and 
 the town of St. (jallen for a peri(jd ot ten years. In 
 these treaties the name of liern ivS conspicuously ab- 
 sent, that city " taking n(j interest in bCastern affair.-. " 
 (Segesser). In 1412 also, the Austrians concluded a 
 peace tor fifty years \vith the ("ontederates. to which 
 Appenzell was likewise admittetl and referred to as a 
 free territory. 
 
 This long and bloodthirsty contest not only brought 
 out the heroism of the shepherds of Appenzell, and 
 ended in their emancipation trom practical sla\er\-, but 
 made their names, till then unknown, celebratetl o\er 
 many lands. The treaty they had fought and suilered 
 so nmch to obtain brought them freedom and far greater 
 prosperity than had e\er before existed in their c untrw 
 ••This treaty was the price of the courage and steach'
 
 l82 HISTORY OF THE SWISS PEOPLE 
 
 perseverance shown by the people of AppenzeH. Un- 
 fortunately to these (]ualilies were added a sava<;ery and 
 cruelty that often threw a sinister ^^'looin o\er their 
 heroism, and which in later times caused the Con- 
 federates to repent their f(enerosity in admitting them to 
 their friendship" — (Daguet). 
 
 Council of Th(d celebrated Council of Constanz, called to^rether 
 
 ConstiUiz, . , ,. . . 
 
 A.D. 1^15. in 1415 by the Emperor Sigismund, ostensibly to reform 
 
 the many scandals that then threatened the existence of 
 
 the Church, brouglit fresh troid)les to Switzerland. 
 
 The assembly consisted of 2,500 Patriarchs, Cardinals, 
 
 Ihshops and l^riests, besides learned representative men 
 
 from England, h^rance, Germany, Italy, Spain and other 
 
 countries. At the time of its meeting, three rival I'opes 
 
 were contending for the Pontificial chair, John XXIII., 
 
 Gregory, and Ijenedict. As it \vas felt that whatever 
 
 I'ope was chosen might at once exercise his spiritual 
 
 authority to dissolve the council, and thus prevent the 
 
 Church reforms so much needed, every Cardinal present 
 
 took an oath that should he be elected he would not 
 
 close the congress till the work of reformation was 
 
 accomplished. The \alue ot this oath was soon seen. 
 
 After much deliberation, the three rix'al Popes were 
 
 deposed, and Otho Colonna, ol Rome, elected, under 
 
 the title of Martin \'. Xo sooner had this eccU^siastic 
 
 received tlie tiara than, rising before his astonished 
 
 brethren, he impressix'ely uttered the aulhoritatixe words, 
 
 '•The Council is at an end." A great cry ot indignation 
 
 went up fr(jm the asseml)led relormers, but went up in 
 
 wain. iVmcjngst the other acts accomplished by the 
 
 Council were the excommunication ol Duke I'h"ederic 
 
 of Austria, who su]'>ported one of the ri\al Popes and 
 
 rfhrsed to ackno\sdedge the suzerainty of the Emperor,
 
 HISIMKV OI- I Hi; 
 
 iwi>s ri.oi'i.i: 
 
 and the jiulicial iiun\!er ol [ohaiiii IIuss. n[ I'ra^uc, i')r 
 h'^rov. 
 
 The murder of the ,L;reat Hungarian reformer stands / ■''.'..'';'; //;(- 
 promineiitK- out of the loiii;' list (jf fi ad tleeds done in the 
 name ot ren^don. llaxiuL;' ah'eadiv roused a ,i:'reat part 
 of IJim^fary at^'ainst the abuses oi the Church, he came 
 to C'onstanz to answer tor his preacliini;' inider a sate 
 conduct t^a'anted 1)\' the ldn})eror. In spite ol tliis. 
 lluss was condemned by the ICmperor and the Coimcil 
 f(jr heresv, and actuahy burnt aU\'e at (lottheben. the 
 perjured monarcii excusing liimselt on the plea tliat his 
 l)led,i;"ed word cHd not bind him wlien deahn^' witli a 
 lieretic' Thus ended tlds celebrated Coimcil oi all the 
 ^^a'eat lights ot (diristendom. trom who>e deliberations 
 the wdiole Cdiristian W(;rld expected such \'ast and 
 tar-reaching' results. It deposetl three l'o[)cS. it com- 
 mitted a dastaialh' a>>as.-^ination, it exconnnunicated an 
 Austrian 1 )uke. and it elected a man as supreme earthh' 
 heatl (jt the (duirch wdio si^aialisecl his accession to his 
 holv ollice b\- breaking;' his solemnh' }di,L;'htetl oatii. 
 
 I'rederic s excommunication was ipuckK' i(dlowed H'.'* ..■.'■'.• 
 b\' tiie I'duperor placing" him under tiie •■ban of the "^ ',, ''j'! j _ 
 (.■mpire," ami in\dtin,u' hi,> .subjects to nialxe war U[)on 
 him. 'Idiis in\ itation Si,L;ismund also addressetl to the 
 Swiss Cantons, who at tir>t refused, mindtul ot their 
 irealN' obligations to the l)uke. ISern and Zurich, how- 
 e\'er. so( III tor,i;'(A their scrupK-s, and were t<ill<)Wedi b\' 
 
 I The I )(imiiiic,-ui ('mucnt where ilic ('(Uiiicil of ("Mii-^iaii/ 
 held its siuini;^, and wht.Tc, in a (hin_;r()n S \)\ i> \iv ~ Icel in si/c. 
 [ohann lluss was kept chained prev inus tn liis r\t\i;nMn, \sa^ 
 secularised towards the cli>-.e nt' the isth Ce:ui;r\', It \%as 
 afterwards converted into a linen nianufact< >r\-. a eairions late tor 
 a place that ha-i lieard the deliberations dt" the ,i;reat Coun.cil o\er 
 x'.irii.di the jierjiired Si^isniiir.d prcsidlcii iC.'i'xei.
 
 184 iiisroKV OF 'J'HE SWISS i']:oi'i.]-: 
 
 the rest of the Confederates, with the exceptions of 
 Uri and the men of Appenzell. 
 
 Large Swiss armies quickly took the iield, and 
 many important Austrian towns and districts were 
 captured, amongst others JJaden, JSremgarten, Aarau, 
 Lenzburg. l>rugg and Zoftingen. In a few weeks 
 J-5ern alone had conquered the greater portion of the 
 Aargau, whilst I.uzern took possession of Sursee, 
 Meyenberg, and other places. The Castle; oi Habs- 
 burg, the ancient cradle of the rulers of iVustria, fell, 
 with many other places, into the hands of liern. 
 Uri's I'ri's abstention from joining the gen.eral plundering of 
 
 -Imliition, > , • ■ • 1 1 , 1 /■ 1- 1 
 
 j^ ,, J ,0 , Austria s possessions, appears less due to her leeimg the 
 
 obligations of the recently concluded peace, than to 
 her being fully occupied in extending her own posses- 
 sions south of the Alps. In 1403 she occupied the 
 \'al Tellina, and seven years later obtained command 
 o\ex the St. Gothard Pass, by annexing the Urseren 
 
 AD. 1411J. \'alley. In iqiy she bought IJellinzona from the o\"er- 
 lord of that town, and, after acquiring other territories, 
 began actix'e hostilities against the Duke of Milan, 
 who e\entually succeeded in recapturing most oi his 
 
 •'^ "• ^4'J- lost possessions. The \'al Tellina was in 1443 again 
 taken by Cri, with the help of a number of the people 
 of the Graubimden. 
 
 Common On a reconciliation being ellected between Ger- 
 
 """"'' ''^ many and Austria, the I^nperor tried to persuade the 
 Swiss to restore their newly-acciuired districts, but this 
 they resolutely refused to do, and that in spite of man}- 
 threats to coerce them. ?>l(jst of the con([uered places 
 that had been taken by the united forces of the Con- 
 tcderates were governed as Common ISailiwicks, under 
 the rule of local (i()\ernors appointed by them, whilst
 
 iii^'ioRV 1)1 rm-; SWISS i'Icoim.i; i.^3 
 
 those districts iiulivicliKil states had takttn remained as 
 subject lands ot those states. In their rule of these 
 subject possessions the Swiss democrats entirely i'ori,^ot 
 the .threat principles oi freedom and justice they them- 
 seh'es had fou<^dn so hard U) ol)tain, as in \-ery man\- 
 instances their rule was most intolerant, cruel, and 
 shamelessl}- unjust. The i(o\ernment of the (-onnnon 
 ISailiwicks e\entuall\' b-i"oui;'ht about ci\il war and the 
 break-up oi the old Swiss C'onfederation. 
 
 In 141S a treat\' was concluded between Germany ah. 1418 
 and Austria, b}- which the latter renounced all rights 
 over Aar,L;au, Ikulen. l.enzburg-. and the other places 
 lormin,<( the con(|uered IJailiwicks, a result possibly due 
 to a present made by the Swiss to the limperor of 
 ic:),ooo llorins, in answer to his injunction to restore 
 the con(|uered districts. 
 
 The war that I'ri with the assistance of \'alais was i/ii. 
 carrying on with the Duke of Milan began to attract the 
 attention of the other Swiss States from its duraticjn, 
 its extent, and its sa\age barbarity. In 141S, Jiern a.d. 141S 
 brought the matter l)etore the ('onfederaticjn, when it was 
 decided that I'ri and N'alais should submit to the J )uke"s 
 authorit\'. This the\' refused to do, and iJern despatched 
 13,001)0! her men to enforce the Puke's decree. After 
 tw(j sanguiiiar\- battles, in both of whicdi the 1 Sernese 
 were defeated with great loss, peace was made, and the 
 districts nt X'alais obtained the privilege of local self- 
 g<j\ernment in alliance with the Confederation (1420). 
 
 The Swiss had now commenced a new phase of 
 their existence. Already hard rulers of subject districts 
 ac(piired by engaging in an aggressi\e war without pro- 
 \ocation, and against their treaty agreements, they were 
 now to tmii tlu'ir arms against one another.
 
 i86 HISTORY OF riii-: swiss people 
 
 Togi^cnhurf:. In 1436, the last of the Counts of the powerful House 
 
 '^■^ '■ o[ Toggenburg, Frederic IV., expired, leaving his exten- 
 sixx; territories witliout a successor. These territories 
 included the districts of Toggenburg (or the upper walley 
 oi the Thur), Uznach, Gasler, Rheinthal, Sargans, the 
 Upper ^Marshes, and the " Ten Jurisdictions." Before 
 his death Frederic became a burgher of Ziirich (1402) 
 and, later, a burgher of Schwyx (1417). lloth Zurich 
 and Schwyx upon these grounds claimed the Toggenburg 
 as their lawful right, and Schwyx moreover succeeded in 
 taking possession of several large estates. On their part 
 the communes of the coveted districts were divided in 
 their ideas as to whom they owed allegiance, and whilst 
 some sided with one party, some with another, others 
 declared themselves independent, and others again sought 
 the protection of Austria. War was only prevented from 
 at once breaking out between Zurich and Schwyx by the 
 intervention of the other Confederates. A Diet sitting at 
 Luzern in 1437 decided in fa\-our of Schwyx. At this 
 time the destinies of the rival states were swayed by two 
 men, Ital Reding in Schwyx, and Rudolph Stl'issi in 
 Zurich, whose names ha\e long been remembered in 
 local chromcles as heroes. Iveding was a cool-headed, 
 calculating and tenacious jxjlitician, whilst Stiissi was 
 a man ot innnense stature, who carried all before him 
 by his presence and the impetuosity of his character. 
 
 The decision of the Confederate Diet caused great 
 morthicalion to Ziuich and her burghers (tlespite the 
 penalty oi the League for refusing to obey the man- 
 dates ol the majority) at once prepared to enforce their 
 c;laims by the sword. This acticm brought down the wrath 
 ol the Confederates upon Ziirich, who \\as threatened 
 w ith immediate attack unless she submitted.
 
 HI> l'()l<\' (i| 1 Hi, SWISS I'l.OI'I.l. 
 
 I )isrei;;u\lini;" this menace Ziiricli al (;nce l)e,L;'an a n 
 hostilities h\' iinadin^' Seliwyx. Ihe ehahen^e was 
 ■,[iiii1nI\' 1 e^>l)( mdeii t.> l'\' IveJ.iiiL;'. and i , v '( > men hieed 
 one antither with deadix' hati'. \\ lien the war ojieiied 
 in earnest man\' ot the stales sent larije contingents 
 to aid Schwyx. W ith these Reding' \vas enabled to 
 intlict se\eral defeats on the Zhrich burghers, the 
 most important taking;' place at Pfadiikon (December 
 1st, i44<>j- This decided re\'erse compelled Zindch to 
 accept terms ot peace and e\en t(j restore the portions 
 of the To,u",i,^enburi;' estates she had already occnpied, 
 wliilst Schwyx was permitted to retain what she had 
 taken. 
 
 b^or a while Zurich ajipeared t(j bow to the snjierior 
 streni,ah ol the League, but she (dosed hca' markt'ts to 
 her successful ri\'a! and her allies, and refused t(j hold 
 an\- conmnmication with her. Constant collisions be- 
 tween the peasaiits ol the two states ted the ikime of 
 bad feeling, and at last in 144-, in spite ot the eiiorts 
 ot the otlier Contederates to maintain ])eace, thc> men ot 
 Zurii h toolv up arms and prepared t(.) imade Sthwyx. , 
 In order the lu/ttei' to do this Zmach entered mlo a a i- 
 ti'eatv of pet4)etual alliance with tlie Austrian 1 )uke 
 J'rederic. who had been electeil bhnj)eror ot (iermanw 
 i'd'ederic slioilK' after I'epaired to Zurich, where he was 
 reccix'ed with ,i;"reat honours, and here the bur^luM's, 
 toiLictlinL;' th( ii' patriotism in their hate against then 
 fi.'l!ow-counti'\auen, swore fulelilx' to the I'dujiirL-. and, 
 tearing" from their slee\es the white cross that dis- 
 tinguished the Swiss in their wars, assumed the red 
 cross of Austria. 
 
 this action was a ])racticrd withdrawal of Zi'irich 
 from the C'cjutederation. 'Idiouijh dinibtless she acted 
 
 1440.
 
 l88 HISTORY OF THE SWISS PKOPI.K 
 
 within her rights, according to the terms by which she 
 entered the League, her conduct iilled Switzerhmd with 
 indignation, and presently an army of 15,000 men from 
 all the states was formed and placed under the 
 command of the redoubtable Schwyx leader to punish 
 her, Zurich meanwhile being strongly garrisoned by 
 the Austrians, and receiving promises of support from 
 W'interthur, Rapperschwyl, and other important places, 
 looked forward to becoming the chief centre of a new 
 Confederation. The struggle that now followed was 
 carried on with all the barbarity and savage vindictixe- 
 ness that characterises wars between those of one blood 
 and one country. After several encounters, with 
 varying fortune, in which many villages and towns 
 were captured and destroyed, and much damage done 
 to the surrounding country, the Confederates marched 
 on Zurich. Close to that city, at the little village of 
 W'eidikon on the Sihl, the two armies met, and a terrible 
 A.D. 1443. battle was fought (July, 1443). The engagment lasted 
 long, and was attended with great slaughter. Though 
 the Confederates were superior in numbers, the Zurich 
 troops, hghting as they were at the portals of their city, 
 were animated with the courage of desperation. At 
 length, when the battle was at its height, a band ot 
 Confederates succeeded in approaching their enemies' 
 hank, by displaying the Austrian cross belorc them, 
 and thus appearing to be friends. When within a short 
 distance, they suddenly made a furious charge, killing 
 all befcjre them, and causing a panic to seize the foe, 
 the remnant of whose now diminished forces made a 
 precipitate ilight into Zurich. The Zurich leader, 
 Stiissi, clad in armour, and brandishing a formidable 
 battle-axe, storxl on the diaw - bridge, and x'ainly
 
 HlSI-Oin' Ol-' THK SWISS I'l-.OPI.I': 
 
 endeavoured lo reanimate his men, one of whom is 
 beh!e\-ed to ha\e shiin him by dri\-in,L: his spear into 
 his body as he rushed into the city panic-stricken. 
 The night was spent by the victors in drinl-;in_L,^ and 
 carousing amid the l)odies of the dead and dying on 
 the lield of battle. I'aihng to capture the city, the 
 Confederates later behaved with the greatest sa\agery, 
 laying waste with hre and sword the whole neighbour- 
 ing country, and slaughtering e\'ery man, woman and 
 child where\-er they met with the least resistance. The 
 little town of Cireiftensee, that surrendered at discretion, 
 was burnt to the ground after the whole of its garrison 
 had been butchered by order ot Reding. An incident 
 that occurred after the battle of Zurich will show the 
 spirit th;it animated the Swiss •' in the brave davs of 
 old "' when engaged in slaughtering one another. 
 Amongst the slain, a party of Glarus soldiers dis- 
 C(j\cred the body of Stiissi (who himself, though the 
 leader of the Zurich burghers, was by birth a (ilarus- 
 man). Looking upon him as the instigator of the war, 
 and as a traitor to his state, they stripped olY his clothes 
 and placed his naked body against a tree, and then 
 attacking him like wild beasts, they tort; cnit his heart 
 with their teeth. After this act of inhuman brutalitv, 
 they greased their boots with his fat, and then cast his 
 mutilated remains into the Sihl — (Daguet). 
 
 Meanwhile a small nund)er of the most influential 
 amcjng the more moderate partv at Zurich, without 
 consultin.g their fellow-citizens, went to liadm, and 
 there concluded a treaty of peace with the Confederates 
 (ALarch, 1444), by the terms ot which Zurich was to ■^'' '444 
 renounce her alliance with Austria, antl return to the 
 sldtus (jiic :;iifi\ ( )n bringing this back to Zutich, the
 
 iqo iMSTORV oi- Tin-: swiss pi:op[,i-; 
 
 Austrians and the war party were so furious that at last 
 their threatening aspect induced the municipal authorities 
 to repudiate the treaty, and arrest its frarners. These 
 unfortunate men were then tried, condemned to death, 
 tortured and executed (April). Ten other citizens were 
 next put to death, and many others were fined and im- 
 prisoned for publicly declaring for peace and re-alliance 
 with the Confederation. 
 
 Sie,c:e of The next scene in the bloody drama was the siege 
 
 of Zurich by 20,000 Confederates. During this siege 
 the constitution was suspended, and the whole city 
 placed under the autocratic rule of a council of twelve 
 burghers, with an Austrian officer as military leader. 
 The heroism of her defenders and the strength of her 
 fortifications enal)led Zurich to offer a long-sustained 
 defence till succour arrived. This help came in the 
 form of 30,000 irregular troops known as Arma^)iacs, 
 from their being composed largely of the remnants of 
 that faction in h^ance, and also called Filii ]!ielial, or 
 
 Invasion of Ecorclicurs (from their cruelty), sent by Charles \MI. of 
 France, to whom the Austrians had appealed. This 
 vast army, under the personal command of the Daupliin, 
 after devastating the lands over which it passed, and 
 slaughtering thousands of unresisting pe()]ile, appeared 
 before the gates of 15asel. News of the formidable 
 invasion being carried quickly to the Confederates, the 
 latter (not knowing the strength of the h^rench) detached 
 1,200 of their forces from before I'arnsburg (which town 
 they were tlicn besieging) and from Zurich to repel 
 them. " On the 26th of August tliis little band met the 
 advanced guard of the Armagnacs at ISrattelen and 
 drove them back beyond the river liirs. The main 
 body of the enemy was posted on the left bank" of the 
 
 French.
 
 iiis'r'M<\ 'i|- riii; s\\is.-> I'l.oi'i.i. ii)i 
 
 ri\-L'r. The Swi^s. secin^^ the l^ridi^e ot St. ]<'ic()b well >:. /,;;..'; 
 <;uarded. threw themselves into the stream and furded it, ' '^'^'^' 
 notwithstanding,^ the tire of the I'rench artillery. I Ia\'- 
 int,'' r(\iched the opposite bank, they cut their way 
 through tlie numerous ranks of the ArmaLjnacs with the 
 intention of reaching; iJasel. The inhabitants of that 
 city, seeinf( from the summit of their towers the elf )rts 
 of this band (T heroes, made a sortie to join them ; but 
 a body of S.ooo horse, which the Dauphin liad placed 
 on that side, dro\'e them back into the city. The Swiss 
 were di\"itled : a body of them, surrounded in the plain by 
 forces ten times their number, were all slain, after makinc,'' 
 dreadful ha\oc among' th.eir enemies : they fell in their 
 ranks close to each other. Another partv of 500 threw 
 themseh'es into the hospital and cha]:)el of St. Jacob. 
 The gardens of the hospital were surrounded by high 
 walls : there this handful of Swiss, hemmed in b\- a whcjle 
 army, stootl, determined to sell their lixcs dearlv. 'I'hree 
 times they repelled the attack, twice they sallied out 
 like lions against the close ranks ot their enemies: at 
 last the walls were battered down by cannon, and the 
 I'rench ca\'aliers, ha\'ing dismounted, entered the lireach, 
 vet the S\vi>s still opposed a desperate resistance. The 
 hospital and chapel took tire, and the surviving Con- 
 federates were smothered among tht; ruins. Out of 
 i.joo Swiss, who fought on that dav, ten alone escaped 
 by ilight, and the>(; were shunned aiul dri\"en awav with 
 scorn in e\'er\" [")ai't ot Switzerland tor not haxiuL;' shared 
 the tate ot tlu'ir comrades. 'I'he ti^ht lasted ten houi's. 
 Thousands ot men and horses ol the Ai'inagna<-s strewed 
 the tield of battle. The l)aupliin was tlismaved at the' 
 sight ot hir. own loss; and. hearing that the wiiole 
 ( ontedei'ate army was mo\ing agamst him li'om the
 
 ig2 HISTORY OI' THE SWISS PEOPLE 
 
 camp before Zurich, he thought it prudent not to attempt 
 to proceed any further, after such a specimen as he had 
 witnessed of Swiss intrepidity. l£neas Piccolomini, 
 afterwards Pope Pius II., wlio happened to he at Basel 
 at the time, mentions in his epistles se\'eral circum- 
 stances of that memorable combat.^ He says the Swiss, 
 having emptied their quivers, snatched out of their 
 wounds the arrows of their enemies, and shot them 
 back. . . . Two days after the battle, the Dauphin 
 granted a safe conduct to the citizens of Basel to bury 
 the dead and carry away the wounded — 1,158 Swiss 
 were found dead, and 32 wounded. The Dauphin with- 
 drew his army, and signed a peace with the cantons and 
 with Basel in the following October. Struck with 
 admiration at the bra\'ery of the Swiss, he even sought 
 their alliance, and this was the origin of the long friend- 
 ship and connection between the French kings and the 
 IleK'etian body " — (Vieusseux). In spite of this treaty, 
 which was signed at Einisheim, an end w^as not made to 
 the excesses of the French soldiers, who devastated the 
 country on their line of march, killing over 20,000 men 
 wdiile some 10,000 of their own ranks fell by the hands 
 of the enraged peasants — (Ochs). 
 
 b\ailing to reduce Ziirich, the Confederates raised 
 the siege, and continued the struggle for some six years 
 longer witli every kind of sawige brutalitv, large num- 
 bers falhng \'ictims to the passions of the contending 
 states. Battles of minor importance took place on the 
 Ivln'ne, tli(; Kcuss, on the borders of ihv Lakes of Zurich 
 
 1 This battle, disastrous as it was in its losses to I'rance, was 
 boasted of b\- ("harles \'l]. on a medal he had struck, re]iresenling 
 two prisoni-rs fastened back to back, with the inscnjition, " 1 b-Ke- 
 tiorum conturnacia et temeritas lerro Irenata, M(T '("( ' Xbl \'."
 
 iiis"ioi<\- >ii- I'm. SWISS i'i;i)iM,}: 193 
 
 and Constan/, at l-'reyhur^'', liaclen. Rappcrsch\v\ 1, 
 IJreingarten, and many other places. 
 
 On December ihili. 1445, tlie men ol Zurich f(nii;hl ad. 1.(45. 
 a na\'al battle on their lake with the ships ot Sch\v\-.\, in 
 which the latter were entirely destroyed. In March of 
 the same year, Ital Kedini; the \'(juni,'er, with a force of 
 1.300 men, tous^ht ami defeated an Austrian contingent 
 ot '-ijOoo at lval,^atz. The celebrated Schwy.x leader, 
 Kedin,f( the IClder, died two years atter this \'ictory of 
 his son. 
 
 The endless and always bloody battles of the two 
 sides at last bei^an to make peace a necessity, as the 
 nund)ers shun left \ery tew who could carry on the war. 
 ]')0th sides were wearied out, and it not an\' betttM' 
 friends, were too exhausted to continue killiuL;' oiu' 
 another. At this moment Louis ot l-~rance and l!ern 
 ottered their mediation, and succeedetl in brin^iuL;' about 
 a C(jn,i,a'ess at Constanz to settle the terms ot peace. 
 
 The terms e'centuallv ai^reed to. included the /V.i.-:-, 
 necessity ot Zurich renouncing her alliance with Austria " "*'^^ 
 and returninc( to the Swiss League. JJoth Zurich and 
 Schwvx were ordered to restore the districts they had 
 conquered, with the exceptions ot Pta'fiikon and W'ohan, 
 which Schwvx was allowed to retain. The possession 
 of the Toi,^<(enburu; estates, the original cause ol the 
 war, was bv mutual ccjnsent ^i^ixen to the ISaron ot 
 RaroLTne, a relati\"e of the deceased Count. 
 
 '• Xo war was e\'er carrietl on with L;'reater turv antl 
 marked b\- ,L;'reat(.-r excesses of all kinds than that which 
 terminated in the I'eace of C'onstanz. To murder, 
 rape, incendiarism ami pilhiL;'!.', the Swiss, led away b\' 
 hatred, atlded terrible acts of profanation. More th.ui 
 thirty churches were deslro\-ed, their tombs \aoIated.
 
 194 insT(^KV oi' Tine swiss i>i:oi'r,K 
 
 their sacred vessels broken up or stolen, the holy 
 elements profaned, and images and crucifixes treated 
 in the most impious manner. These acts of hideous 
 vandalism were accompanied by the most frightful 
 blasphemies against God, the \'irgin, and the Saints of 
 Zurich, as if the faith of the latter was not also that 
 of the Confederates of the other states '" — (Daguet). 
 Saroy, Whilst these troubles were agitating the cantons, 
 
 ' ' the Duke of Savoy, Amadeus \'III., succeeded in es- 
 
 tablishing his sovereign rights over Geneva and a large 
 portion of \'aud. Later he defeated the burghers of 
 Freylmrg and obliged this city to acknowledge him 
 after she had appealed in \ain to l>ern for protection 
 (1448). 
 
 Strengthened as the Confederation now was, it 
 soon began to increase its power by forming alliances 
 with various towns and districts of importance. Of 
 these new allies, known as Zngi'u'andtc Orte, some, such 
 as St. Gallen and Bienne, were admitted into close 
 relations, ha\dng seats and votes in the Diets. Others, 
 as Schaffhausen, Muhlhausen, and Rothwell, were 
 admitted to alliance without the privilege of sharing 
 the councils of the Confederation. These alliances, 
 however, soon brought Switzerland once more in 
 collision with Austria, who \iewed with apprehension 
 the rapid growth of the intluence and strength of the 
 Confederation. In I45<S the Swiss formed an alliance 
 Way 'iith with Rapperschwyl, and this was made a casus hdli by 
 
 ''""'"'''0 the then Duke Sigismund, who claimed feudal ri'dits 
 o\-er bdsass, Thurgau and the Tyrol. Fortune again 
 fa\-oured the Confederates, who o\-erran Thurgau, and 
 occupied Sargans, carrying all before them. So great 
 A 11. i.(Gi. indeed were the Austrian re\c;rses, that in 14')!; the
 
 iiis'i"(')K\' ()[' i"Hi', SWISS I'l.oi'i r, i()5 
 
 Duke not only luacU' peace, hut ren<nmcecl his chiinis. 
 Thurt^Mu then hecaine a '' suhject territory " chx'ided 
 into districts under the rule of the Confederation. In 
 i-\.f^J, Ztirich purchased from Sigismund all his rights ad. UiCtj. 
 over W'interthur, hv which act the Ilabsbur^'s lost, 
 with the sin,i(le exception of the l'>ickthal (retained 
 till I '"^02), all their possessions within the Confederation. 
 In 146S. a lari^^e Swiss arnu' marched against certain a. n. ri^iS. 
 ot the lesser teudal nobles, who for some time past had 
 been harassing Miihlhausen and Schaffhausen. The 
 nobles were (piickly defeated, and siege was laid to 
 W'aldshut, which tcnvn was only saved from capture 
 by Sigismund purchasing peace at the price of 50,000 a.d. \^hq 
 guldens. In order to raise this sum the Duke hypothe- 
 cated the IHack I-'orest districts on the Rhine, IClsass, 
 and other places to Charles the Kash, ot Durgundy, 
 who further undertook to support Sigisnnnid in the 
 e\'ent of the Swiss attacking him again. 
 
 This treaty was fated to bring fresh troubles upon Buy^undw 
 Switzerland, to deluge her s(jil once more with blood, 
 and to lead to some ot her most heroic deeds.
 
 CHAPTER X 
 
 A.D. 1460- Tm-; BURGUXDIAN, GERMAN, AND FRENCH WARS 
 
 1516. 
 
 The long and sanguinary civil and foreign tur- 
 moils throvigh which Switzerland had just passed 
 greatly developed the national taste of her people for 
 war and conquest. The simple habits and customs 
 of the Swiss were now exchanged for more luxurious 
 modes of living ; their primiti\'e piety in religion was 
 changed into an ostentatious and intolerant bearing 
 against those who differed from them ; success in war 
 filled the nation with the conviction that Swiss soldiers 
 must be invincible. " Wherever there was room for 
 martial enterprise, the youth of Switzerland asked not 
 what was the cause at stake, but where was the seat 
 of warfare." 
 
 An opportunity to test their fighting qualities was 
 now to present itself such as had never happened all 
 through their tumultuous past. 
 Charles the ]£ver since Louis XI. and Charles the Rash 
 
 A.I). i4fi'--"G. (usually, but erroneously, called the l^old) respectively 
 occupied the thrones of France and Ijurgundy, the 
 mutual distrust and hatred of these monarchs made 
 a great contest merely a (}uestion of time and oppor- 
 tunity. Through their enmity Switzerland e\'entually 
 became engulfed in her greatest war, oat of which she 
 emerged the con(]ueror of Burgundy and the willing 
 sla\e ol I'rance.
 
 HisroKv oi- Till-: SWISS I'I.oim.i-. 
 
 IW7 
 
 On his ucccssion to his father I'hihp's eslates in 
 hUirifuiuly, Charles, ihouirh noininaUy a wissal (jf the 
 l-'rench kin,^'. found himself one of the most pf)\verful 
 so\erei,i(ns in luu'ope. His rule extended from the 
 North Sea to the Jura and the Rhine, and before 
 his death he ruled o\'er ISur.i^undy, Klsass, Lorraine, 
 Picardy, Idanders and the I'^ranche-Comte. The t)l)ject 
 of his life Avas. hy increasin,^' antl strens^'thenini,'' his 
 possessions, to found a ^reat central kin.ydom between 
 France and (lermany, an object, however, he was not 
 destined to see realised. Oi a frank and ,i;'enerous dis- 
 positi(jn, a warm and impulsix'c friend, and a bitter and 
 ferocious eneniv, his dominating' characteristic was an 
 unbounded ambition to increase the power and area of 
 his domindons, and to make a name that wcndd rank 
 him with (^harlema,t,aie. Jjefore attainin,^' the reins of 
 power Charles had carefully trained himself for his 
 future vi'lc by excludin-,^ from his daily life e\ery form 
 (jf pleasure other than piu'suits of a military and field 
 nature, then regarded as the hi,i_;'hest functions of a 
 threat king. When his father died he at once com- 
 menced to put in practice his and)itious designs. 
 b^\'erything, moreo\'er, faxoured his plans at the com- 
 mencement of his career. His name was already 
 feared abroad, his territories were rich and extensi\e. 
 his people prosperous antl loyal, and his ti'oops well 
 disciplined, well armed, and man}". Till his c-ontlict 
 with the Swiss, in 14''5, he carried on extensi\e wars 
 with his powerful neighbours, in which he was uni- 
 f(jrmly xictorious. A large part cd his career, both 
 bef(jre he reigned and after his father's death, was 
 (jccupietl in intrigues and conspiracies against the 
 French King.
 
 19^ HISTORY OF THE SWISS PEOPLE 
 
 Louis XL, Louis, King- of France, Charles' bitter ri\a] and 
 
 A.n. i46i-,Sj. 
 
 constant foe, possessed all the qualities, in an exag- 
 gerated degree, that go to form a successful politician 
 and a dishonourable man. " To the attainment of 
 an object he proceeded without scruple, by direct or 
 indirect paths. He employed mildness and vigour 
 by turns, Divine and human authority, flattery and 
 bribery, constantly fraud, rarely force. Fidelity to 
 his word he only practised when it served his pur- 
 poses. So soon as profit appeared on the other side 
 he never scrupled to violate his most positive engage- 
 ments. It was said of him ' that he only slept with 
 one eye in war time, but kept both his eyes open day 
 and night in time of peace ' " — (Lardner). Such was the 
 character of the man through whose policy Jiurgundy 
 was ruined, and through whom for many years Swit- 
 zerland was converted into little better than a \assal 
 of France. Whilst the French and Burgundian rivals 
 were striving for the mastery on one side of her 
 countr}', Switzerland had her hereditary foe, Austria, 
 now under the mild and feeble rule of Sigismund, on 
 the other, and h^rederick 1\'. governed the destinies of 
 (iermany on her Northern h'ontier. 
 
 There is \ery good reason to believe thai the action 
 of Austria in pawning her estates of h.lsass, etc., to 
 J-jurgundy for money with which to sta\'e olf the Swiss 
 attack on Waldshut, was done on the adxice of Louis, 
 and formed one of the most successful coups of that 
 crafty and far - seeing monarch. The blench king, 
 k'nowing thoroughly the characteristics of both the 
 Swiss and of Charles, was very well able to see that the 
 ]5urgundian's ambition would certainly prevent him from 
 relinquishing the hxpothecated lands when once he had
 
 IllSIOR^ (i| 1111, S\\I>S I'l.lU'M, Hjij 
 
 (jl)tained a lOotinL,^ i^ them. He also knew that the 
 excitable and bellicose Swiss, finding' thenisehes with 
 such an e(}iially excitable and warlike nei,^hbuur as 
 Charles, wonld \-ery soon commence hostilities. Such 
 hostilities when once commenced wcnild, moreox'er, mean 
 a war to the death. And so the e\ent proved. 
 
 Ha\in,u taken the mort,L;a^'e irom Si.irismtmd, and l\-tii- Vi-n 
 furnislied the sum in exchans^a' the Austrian Duke re- ''i"-'-'''^ '• 
 (luired, Charles at once entered into possession ot the 
 estates, and appointed a l'r,i:l to ,i,^o\ern in his name. 
 This I'i'L^t was a cruel and tyrannical knij^ht, named 
 I'eter von I Iai,''enbach, who rose trom a hund)le position 
 bv his craftv abilities in Charles" serxdce. His o\erbear- 
 im,*" manner and the many arts of brutality he showed, 
 soon earned him an e\dl reputation, and brought the 
 people tmcler his rule into a condition little remo\'ed 
 from open revolt. Neither did Ila^enbach onl\- conhire 
 his deeds to the pawned pro\inces. His brutalities 
 had already drawn torth remonstrances irom the neigh- 
 bouring Swiss Contederate^, but these Charles con- 
 temptuoiislv disregarded. Alter threatening to [jumsh 
 the citizens (jt Miihlhausen tor being in alliance with the 
 Swiss, Hagenbach had the temerit}' to arrest some ol 
 the inhabitant.-- ot Schenkenberg and to displa\- the 
 ] iuru'undian ilag on his 1 Sernese p(Jssession. This con- 
 duct, supptjrted as it was by Charles, at once letl to an 
 outburst ot indignation in the Confederation, a leeling 
 greatl}- tostered by Lcniis' agents. .Vn alliance between a. p. 1470 
 Louis and the Cc.nfederates followed, and war w.is now 
 onl\- pre\ented by the moderation and tact disphua'd by 
 liern, that managed for a time to smooth matters down. 
 l!ut Louis" intrigues and la\"isli bribes amongst the 
 Swiss leaders, ami llagenbach's continued oppression
 
 200 HISTORY oi' Tin-: swiss fkopij-: 
 
 and insults, and last, but not least, Charles' contemp- 
 tuous reception of a Swiss deputation that sought to 
 obtain the Vogfs removal, soon brought the crisis to an 
 acute stage. 
 
 li'catics uith lUr the unanimous consent of the Confederates, 
 
 Fnvuc and 
 
 Austria, Bern was chosen to take the direction of Swdss affairs 
 
 ^'^^' "^47 • ^^^ regards France. Through her, in 1476, a formal 
 offensive and defensive alliance was drawn up, by which 
 the Swiss agreed to supply Louis with a contingent of 
 6,000 men whenever he might need them. On his part, 
 in the e\'ent of war, Louis was to be called upon only in 
 case of great necessity, and in all wars with bkirgundy 
 he might substitute a money payment for assistance in 
 men. This alliance naturally was greatly in favour of 
 France, as, while it called the Swiss to arms against 
 Louis' rival, it prevented the French king from drawing 
 upon his own subjects for troops. The Swiss were 
 thus cajoled into iighting Louis' battles for that astute 
 monarch, and a powerful French party was soon estab- 
 lished within the Confederation.^ 
 
 Another \-ery important alliance was now also 
 formed. After many negotiations Austria at last suc- 
 ceeded in healing the feud that for so long had pre\ented 
 her meeting the Swiss except on the field of battle. 
 Under the guarantee of I'Tance a perpetual treaty of 
 
 1 The treaty of alliance with I'Yance bears tlie date of Oct. 26, 
 1476. Anytliin^' Init unanimity appears to ha\-e existed amongst the 
 C'oiifederates with regard to making it, but Louis' bribery carried 
 liis point. Louis further greatly flattered the S\\iss by addressing 
 them oflicially as the " magnifujues seigneurs des huit J^igues de la 
 Haiite-Allemagne. " The treat}- also engaged Louis to pay 20,000 
 francs in advance, anti to promise an annual pension ot 2,000 llorins 
 to each of the states of the league in the e\ ent of war, and 50,000 
 Ikndns if he substituted money for a militar}- contingent for their 
 assistance. 
 
 -Insiiian 
 Alliance, 
 A.n. i47f
 
 iiisroKv oi riii: swiss ri.oi'u: 201 
 
 peace and alliance was sii;'ned between the Conteclerales 
 and Sigisinund, which pledi^'^ed each to supfxjrt the other 
 when attacketl. The Duke also renounced his claims 
 on Switzerland and guaranteed free intercouse and trade 
 Ixjtween the Swiss and his cnvn subjects. In order to 
 show his ,<;ood faith and to seal the compact he further 
 uiade a state \'isit to Switzerland, where he was receixed 
 exerywhere with the greatest demonstrations of friend- 
 ship and respect, b'ew treaties hax'e e\'er so (}uickly 
 closed a mutual hatred between two people that had 
 caused st) many sani^uinarv battles, and the loss ot so 
 many thousands of li\es, as did this Austrian Alliance 
 ot 1476. Its object was purely selfish on the part ol 
 the Duke, but its ultimate good effects on Switzerland 
 cannot be oxer-estimatetl. 
 
 l'2ver\thing was now prepared for a war with 
 ISurgundy, in which the Swiss were to be used by 
 1'" ranee, (lermany and Austria, to curb or destroy the 
 tornndable [)uke, \vhose increasing power threatened 
 t(j endanger the safety (jf one or all of his three 
 neighboiu's. 
 
 -Meanwhile the excesses of Ilagenbach had aroused //.r^';';".u/;' 
 the people under his rule to re\c)lt. iiis immediate .^ ,',' j.-c, 
 followers were (Quickly o\"erpowered and the I'lig/ him- 
 self thrown into prison, when a month later he was 
 executed at the orders of a council comprised of local 
 nobles, Austrian councilhjrs, rep/resentati\es from the 
 Swiss, and others. It is said that no less than eight 
 candidates disputed for the honour of being the t\-rantV 
 executioner (May, 147'^j. Charles' anger on receixing 
 the news of the CJox'ernor's death was unbounded, but 
 though he threatened to take dire xengeance, he was 
 UTiable at (jnce to do so, being engaged in besieging the
 
 202 HISTORY OF THE SWISS PEOPLE 
 
 imperial town of Neuss on the Rhine. This siege 
 
 detained Charles for eleven months and cost him 15,000 
 
 men. 
 
 Already the Austrian Duke had tried in ^'ain to 
 
 recover the territories he had placed in pawn, by 
 
 offering to repay the borrowed money. Charles declared 
 
 himself the actual owner of the land, and as quite 
 
 prepared to maintain his claims by the sword. Sigis- 
 
 mund then appealed to the Emperor, who ordered the 
 
 restitution of the land, and Charles still maintaining his 
 
 refusal, the Emperor next called upon the Confederates 
 
 to attack IJurgundy (Oct. y). Switzerland and Austria 
 
 thereupon formally declared war upon Charles (Oct. 25), 
 
 and two days later opened hostilities in earnest. 
 
 War 'ivith This declaration of war by the Swiss, undertaken so 
 
 o'ctobey promptly in the interests of others, was certainly a serious 
 
 A.D. 1474. matter for the Confederates. Though allied to France 
 
 and Austria, the former did not furnish them with men, 
 
 and the latter only sent an insignificant number. They 
 
 were thus left to fight single-handed the powerful liur- 
 
 gundian ruler. The war also cut off from the Swiss a 
 
 great many of their necessary pro\'isions, as most of 
 
 their salt, corn and wine came from l^urgvmdy. The 
 
 little town of Cerlier, on the Lake of Ifienne, a feudal 
 
 possession of Charles, was the first point attacked. Mere 
 
 Battle of an army of 18,000 Confederates managed to effect an 
 
 IL'ricoiirt. . , , , . t r ' ■ • i 
 
 easy victory, and then marched upon Hencourt ni the 
 
 Franche-Comte, where they were met by the Jiur- 
 
 gundians 20,000 strong. Alter a prolonged battle the 
 
 enemy retreated with a loss of nearly 5,000 killed and 
 
 prisoners, and the town was captured. 
 
 The victory gained, the Swiss ga\e up Hericourt to 
 
 the Austrians, from whom tlicy reccix'cd a large money
 
 nihr(iK\ oi 1111. s\\is> i']:()i'i,i; 203 
 
 p)avmL'nt for their brilli.inl scr\-ices, and then rL-turnecl to 
 their country, the sr\erity oi the winter bein^; so intense 
 that turther niilitarv nuneinents were rendered \'ery 
 ditlicult tor the present. The pause did not. however, 
 last lon;,^ In April ot the follo\vin,ir year the Ccjnfederates 
 tools and partiallv deslroyetl Pontarlier, be 
 
 sides many 
 
 tools and p: . ,...,. 
 
 tcnvns in the \'atid districts, then under the rule ot 
 Sax'oy. 
 
 In ( )ctober the Swiss were ftirther strenj^thened by 
 an alliance between \ alais and liern. \\hen the people 
 ,.+ tu.. f,^.-,,w.r- ,i;..t,-;,.t ,.,-.., -..„,^i_,(l ,-]-,^> Milanese troops of 
 
 A.U. 147,5. 
 
 ' ///.( 
 
 ot the tornier district pri.-xen 
 
 Sa\'(n- trom passing' through their territorv to reintorce 
 
 f this cainpait^Mi JSern 
 
 '':'^. t'; 
 
 ')! Jit')!! 
 
 .inJ I 
 
 \Lji-, 
 
 0.7,'/,, 
 
 '■. 147,5 
 
 assin,^' through 
 )tirin,L,^ the hrst pari o 
 took bv far the most imp 
 
 ine si.xty towns. \'illau'e 
 
 Charles. Du....^ .... , ,. ..^ 
 
 jortant share in the tiq'htin 
 
 and m N'autl alone captured s( 
 and castles. In these \'ictories the ISernese soldiers not 
 onl\' distinj^uished themseh'es b\' their \\-onderlul da^h 
 and heroism, but also bv their ntnnberless acts of savage 
 cruelty. In manv places the inhabitants ot the con- 
 iju.ered dl^lricts \vere masacrcd wh(de>ale. the soldiers 
 thrown trom the battlements, the leading;' men behead'-d. 
 and the women and children either hacketl to [lieces oi" 
 compelled to leap into the laki'. 'I'hese enormitie.--. 
 indeed, at !a>t became so .u'reat thai the authorities al 
 J!ern t'liwarded ihe tro{j{)s a remonslrance and recalled 
 the words ot the coxenant oi Sempacdi lest, as lhr\' 
 said, ■•their tri;^'hllul cruellies should call down upon 
 th(.'m the wrath ot (loil and the Saints." 
 
 Lausanne was (occupied b\' ihe \'ictorious Contedc- 
 r.ites and ti impelled to [Ki\' a hea\y ransom, as was also 
 (lenexa, lh(.)U,L.,fh the latler town had ali"ead\' retused to 
 take any actix'e [)articipation in the war. 
 
 'Idle-' and man\- other \aclories were etfectrd bv the
 
 204 HISTORY OF THE SWISS PliOPLH 
 
 Swiss in cjuick succession, till at last Charles, having 
 completed his conquest of Lorraine and made an alliance 
 with iidward IV. of England, collected his forces at 
 Nancy, and prepared to punish his Swiss adversaries, 
 especially the Bernese. On reaching pjesan^on he was 
 joined by his corps of artillery, and here his army 
 numbered close upon 40,000 which, though including a 
 body of English archers, was composed chiefly of un- 
 trained and hastily levied recruits. Although attended 
 by the greater part of his Court and some 40,000 ser- 
 \ants and camp-followers, Charles made a rapid march, 
 
 Siege of and crossing the Jura laid siege to Grandson (February). 
 
 Feb 'jA% This little town, having already been captured by the 
 I3ernese and containing a garrison of only 412 soldiers, 
 yet managed to repulse two attacks of the Burgundians, 
 and hold out till, reduced to extremities, it was forced 
 to surrender, when Charles immediately had the whole 
 of the gallant defenders hanged or drowned before 
 his eyes. 
 
 In the following month the Swiss army, to the 
 number of 20,000, marched on Grandson, burning to 
 a\'enge the atrocious murder of their countrymen. On 
 
 nuttle of March 2nd, the great battle of Grandson was fought, 
 
 .l/cn/; 2, 147G. when the heroic valour and disciplme 01 tne Swiss 
 proved more than a match for the superior numbers 
 and better arms of their Ikirgundian foes. " The 
 vanguard of the Swiss, the men of Schwyx and Thun, 
 accompanied by numerous \-olunteers, ad\anced from 
 Neuchatel. It was early on a dull and misty morning. 
 Having ascended the heights in the neighbourhood of 
 tlie Castle, they saw to their astonishment, when the 
 \-apours cleared from the low grountl, the whole force 
 of the enemy drawn out in the \'alley before them. The
 
 iiisTom- ov riii: swiss i'i:oi'i.i-: 205 
 
 1 !ur,<,''undians adwmcccl. The Swiss sent back to hasten 
 the niarch of their slowly ach'ancin.L,'' main bodv, and 
 then fell on their knees to pray, accordin,L( to the custom 
 of their fathers. The en.emy, imacqnainted with this 
 pious usa,<(e, and ima,i,dnin,L: that the whole Confederate 
 Army was before them, and had fallen (jn its knees to 
 implore mercy, raised a simultaneous shout of derision. 
 A troop of cuirassiers clashetl forward to trample down 
 the supplicants, but was indifferently recei\'ed by the 
 long spears of the Confederates, and effectually repulsed 
 by their advance in close order. After a discharge from 
 the lUirgundian artillery, which was pointed too high to 
 take much ettect. (diaries endea\ oured, with his best 
 troops, to break the line of the Swiss in front, while 
 Count Louis, o{ Chateau (luyon, a personal foe of the 
 Confederates, charged them in llank, at the head of 
 TijOoo horse. Now was the hottest rage of battle. The 
 Swiss were hard pressed. Twice had Chateau (juyon 
 seized, with his ow?i hand, the banner ot Schwyx, wdien 
 he was struck down. His tr(jops wa\"ered, dismayed 
 by the fall of their leader. At this moment, a new- 
 ant! fearfid s(nmd arose from the heights in the rear 
 of the Confederates, and drew thither the eyes of the 
 IkirLTundians. A fresh array of combatants coxered 
 the ridge, the horn of I ri blew the note of death, 
 which was caught up and re-ech(jed by that of I'mcr- 
 walden. And when th(; whole bcxlv of the Swiss, after 
 dis(diarging their pieces wi;h deadly ))recision, came 
 down, man u]:ion man, while new bantls issuetl con- 
 tinualK" troiii the h(dlow wa\'s and thici<els, that in- 
 explicable panic came on the J Uu'gundians, which 
 occasionaliv seizes the most resolute. 'i'hev ua\e up 
 the battle for lost. A feint of their own ca\alr\, who
 
 2o6 iHSTom' oi' Tin-: swiss PKom.i-: 
 
 attempted, by a retrogade movement, to draw the 
 Swiss into a disadvantageous position, was taken by 
 the infantry as a signal for flight. Vainly did Charles, 
 at the head of his horsemen, throw himself across the 
 swarm of fugitives. The whole host fell asunder, and, 
 instead of retreating to the fortified camp, where they 
 might have rallied, took to flight, some towards 
 Grandson, some into the woods and fields, some over 
 the Arnon or the mountains, and others again in boats 
 across the Lake. The imfortunate Prince, with only 
 five companions, directed his flight through the nearest 
 Pass of the Jura"' — (Lardner). 
 
 After the victory Grandson was quickly captured, 
 and many of the fr^urgundian garrison hanged with the 
 same cords that Charles had used to execute the Swiss, 
 some of whom were found hanging, "still fresh, from 
 the trees." 
 
 ]\Iore than i,ooo tents, 600 flags, 10,000 pack- 
 horses, many guns, and a great quantity of powder, 
 Charles" throne, his richly-furnished chapel, his private 
 lielongings, including great (juantities of valuable 
 diamonds, and a million ilorins, fell into the hands of 
 the victors,^ besides all the other belongings of his 
 immense camp. The spoils were di\-ided amongst the 
 Confederates, but this di\'ision was neither fair nor in 
 
 I Several of these objects still exist in the various museums, 
 sacristies and arsenals of Switzerland. J 5asel possesses the concjuered 
 monarch's coat of mail and part of his liorse's armour, l)esides some 
 machines for throwing boiling oil and water. Luzern has pre- 
 served the ducrd seal of gold, and other ol)jects, l?c;rn pewscsses 
 ten historical pictures, two being about thirty feet in length, repre- 
 seiiting scenes irfmi the Court life of (diaries' father. In Solothurn 
 and I'reyburg are also to be seen many interesting relics of this 
 memorable battle.
 
 i!isroK\- (11 I'lii. SWISS i'i;oiM.]: 207 
 
 accordance with ihc Scinparh rules, and ^^a\•e rise in 
 consequence to much bad blood and no little trouble 
 later. After restini,^ three days on the liekl of their late 
 triumphs, the Confederates made a triumphal entry into 
 I'lern, the citizens of which all lhrou^"h the ]5ur,i^undian 
 campaigns tO(ik the principal part in the fighting and 
 the directicm of the policv and militar\- moxements 
 of the Swiss. Charles, meanwhile, had retired to 
 Lausanne, where he at once set about preparing 
 another army with whicli to attack his Swiss con- 
 (juerors. Within an incredibly short time he again had 
 a kjrmidable force under his command. This he raised 
 by making a kwy throughout his dominions of one in 
 every six of his ]x;ople, and by enlisting in his ser\ic(.> a 
 large number of foreigners, amongst whom were many 
 ICnglish and a still greater contingent of Italians. 
 
 In May Charles began his march, and on [une (jth Battle i[f 
 appeared before Moral, then held by 1,500 ISernese. f,,„,. j.^f, 
 The little garrison, knowing their countr)'men would 
 soon atttMiij^it to relie\'e them, h(dd out gallantly till 
 June 2C)th, when 30,000 Swiss and Austrians reached 
 th(> neighbourhood of the besieged town. 
 
 Directly tlie Confederates arri\-ed they nicade a 
 furious onslauglit on their foes, wlio were .also attacdced ,/"'■''<■ 20, 1476 
 by a sortie frcjm the town. Totall\- unable to withstaiul 
 the impetuosity of the Swiss. th(^ liurgundian ranks 
 were soon in complete disoider. and in spite ol the 
 heroic defence said to ha\(" been made by the haiglish 
 contingent, under one I)ickheed. anothei" brilliant \ ic- 
 tory resulted to Swiss jii'owcss. h^rom s.oiio to lojuio 
 of the k)e were killed outright or ])erished in the Lake 
 and surrounding marshes, whilst the Swiss slain 
 nnmbere<l onl)' about 300. The chief cause ol this
 
 2o8 HISTORY OF Tlir, SWISS I'KOPLK 
 
 second Burgundian disaster was due to Charles having 
 kept his troops under arms for several days previous to 
 the battle during an almost continual downpour of 
 rain, which so exhausted them that when the actual 
 attack was made, the tired and depressed soldiers were 
 quite unable to offer an effectual resistance.' The 
 attack, moreover, of the Swiss took the Burgundians 
 by surprise, as they did not expect it till the next day. 
 
 l]ern and Freyburg now again occupied Vaud, as 
 during Charles' march on Morat, Savoy had recaptured 
 her old possessions. But at this second occupation 
 Louis intervened and called together a congress of those 
 interested in the holding of Vaud, fearing lest Switzer- 
 land should become too powerful. In the result it was 
 settled that the territory should be restored to Sa\-oy 
 peaceably in return for a large money payment. 
 Morat, Grandson, Orbe and lichallens, were, how- 
 ever, excepted, and handed over to Bern and Vrey- 
 burg, while to Bern alone passed the towns of Aigle, 
 Cerlier, Bex, Ormonts and OUon. This new arrange- 
 ment for the first time brought a number of French- 
 speaking districts under the rule of the Swiss ; it also 
 created much jealousy among the rest of the Confede- 
 rates at the increased power and importance of bJern. 
 
 In the closing months of 1476, Charles sought to 
 make peace, but as the Swiss insisted upon his restoring 
 the territories he had confjucrcd from the Duke of 
 Lorraine (who fought as an ally with the Confederates), 
 the war once more began. 
 
 1 " (_~ruel as at Morat" lont;" reMiiaiiK^l a sa\'in,L( anidii^'st the 
 Swiss. It is (liOiciilt to h('lie\-(' the numbers ot the Swiss slain 
 tjiven l)v conteniporaiw and later rhronit'les as really representing,' 
 the a< lual facts.
 
 Kisi'ORN CI- riii; SWISS I'l.ni'i.i-; 20() 
 
 Charles a^'"ain inana^'cd to raise troops to attack 
 the Swiss, and to carry on his restless and ani- 
 liitious (lesi,<:(ns. His first important inoxe was now 
 ai^ainst the tcnvn of Xancv, that remained faith hd to 
 Ivene, Duke of Lorraine. The dispossessed Duke 
 thereupon di-manded and obtained assistance from the 
 Swiss, and with a force ot S,ooo Lorrainers and S.ooo 
 Confederates set out for Xancv. I'nder the walls o{ B.itth- rf 
 this town on January 5th. 1477, tlie two armies met and V,,',,' ''-' j,- 
 f()u<;'ht a most san<(uinary battle, in which the ISur.^am- 
 dians were entirely routetl. and Charles himself slain. 
 This crowninL,^ \'ictory ended the short but terrible war, 
 and closed the third and final act of the blood\- drama 
 that has been named the .S/.'/s.^ Trilo^'w in \\hich the 
 Confederates played such important and heroic roles. 
 After Charles" death, liurt^anuly was di\'ided between 
 France and Austria, and Rene re-entered Lorraine. 
 thou,i;h Hern tried hard to ha\"e Charles' territories 
 made ;i separate state and admitted into the Lea,t2^ue. 
 
 " The history of Charles is a history of the highest 
 and most varied interest. The tak;, as a mere tale, as a 
 narrati\'e of personal ad\'enture and a display of ])ersonal 
 character, is one of the most attracti\'e in b^uropean 
 history " — (Freeman). 
 
 The Swiss thus fougdit the battles of Austria and 
 bTance and destroyed the menaciuL;' power of bku'gundy. 
 Thev recei\'ed large sums from both tor their ser\ices 
 besides immense treasures captured after each ('U- 
 gagement. 
 
 The extraordinary heroism and fighting qualities of 
 the Swiss rose: abo\'e those of any tjlhei' contcmp irar\' 
 people, and were eagerly sought \vhere\er war was pre- 
 sent or e.\[)ected. Swiss \ alour became a mark-etablc 
 
 '4
 
 2IO HISTORY OF THK SWISS PEOPLE 
 
 commodity and was henceforth sold to the highest 
 bidder. The demoraHsing effect of this upon the 
 national character, as seen in the rapid decline of old 
 republican virtues, soon led to the most serious results, 
 and even threatened to break up the Confederation. 
 
 The honour of being known as the greatest soldiers 
 of the age was too dearly bought. Quarrels over the 
 equitable division of the spoils of victory soon broke 
 out between the Confederates. To these were added 
 the bitter jealousies of the rural states (lander) against 
 the fast growing influence and power of Bern, Zurich 
 and Luzern. These fresh troubles arose through the 
 demands of Freyburg and Solothurn to be admitted 
 members of the Confederation, as a reward for the 
 great services they had rendered during the late war. 
 Bern strongly supported their demands, which were as 
 strongly opposed by the Forest Cantons on account of 
 the equality in the Diets between the towns and the 
 lander their admission would make. At last, when 
 popular disturbances began to assume a very serious 
 aspect, and the general feeling of distrust appeared to 
 leave nothing open but civil war, the exertions of a 
 few patriotic men brought about peace. A general 
 congress was called of representatives of all parties 
 to try, if possible, to arrange a settlement of the 
 difficulties that were rapidly ruining the country. 
 Covenant of The several deputies met at Stanz in iJecember, 
 
 '^"^' o 1 48 1, and here the iealousies and local disputes became 
 
 focussed, and quickly grew more and more serious; 
 when at last mutual recriminations waxed so great 
 that the meeting was about to break up and hos- 
 tilities seemed inevitable, a mediator appeared and 
 calmed the sea of savage passion.
 
 HISTOID- oi- vuf. SWISS pi'.ori.i-; 211 
 
 r^or many years before the Stanz nieetin,!^, there 
 Hved in a rough tjrotto near Sachsehi a pious and 
 patriotic hermit, named Xicohis I'lue, or ISrother 
 Klaus. To this \-eneral)le man, whose saintly life 
 and good deeds had gi\'en him great intluence in the 
 W'aldstiitten, news (jf the xdolent scenes enacted at 
 the Diet was brought. Lea\"ing his cell he at once 
 repaired to Stanz, where, through his persuasive 
 and authoritati\'e eloquence, and in the character he 
 (daimed as a messenger from (jocI. he con\-erted the 
 Swiss deputies from bitter enemies into firm friends. 
 Klaus's words and appearance so acted on his hearers, 
 that within a very short space of time a formal com- 
 pact between the Confederates was agreed to — the 
 •• StdJ!~ir Vii'koijnjun'ss" — whereby the Sempach cove- 
 nant was renewed, the separate alliances of the cities 
 were dissoh'ed, and Solothurn and Freyburg were 
 admitted into the League. It was further settled 
 that no state should interfere with the internal affairs 
 oi another canton, except in cases ot re\'olt and 
 disturbance calculated to affect the interests of the 
 nation, when the Confederation itself should exercise 
 the necessarv repressi\'e measures. This compact 
 restoretl peace to Switzerland and ga\'e the h'ederal 
 authority more power, ami thus strengthened the 
 League, besides uniting the people in the bonds of 
 brotherly love and patriotic de\'otion.' 
 
 I Nicolas \-on dcr Mi'ic, or l-'luh, was horn in 1417, at Sachseln 
 in Oliwalil, ol' a noble tamilw After li\in,L,' the life snccessi\-t>l\- 
 of a simpk; peasant labour(M-, a magistrate, and a hrilliant soMier, 
 he retired, in 140-, to a roi;_;h L,'rotto near his n.ati\-e place fijr 
 prayer an'l meditation. Here his asceticism and h.is nian\- _;oo.i 
 Works earned him a sainth' reputation, and people jo'.irne\-e 1 from 
 all parts of the country to his abode tor pra\er or ad\ice. Jle 
 
 14 .!
 
 A.D. 1499. 
 
 212 HISTORY OF THI- SWISS Pl'.OI'I.E 
 
 War with For many years the sovereignty of (Germany over 
 
 ad"'i"qq ^^^ Swiss gradually became less and less a reality, 
 till after the Burgundian war, when it practically 
 ceased altogether. In 1499, the then Emperor, 
 Maximilian I., attempted to re-establish the power 
 and increase the extent of his Empire, and to re- 
 assert his authority over Switzerland. liver since 
 the Confederates' alliance with France, the Emperor 
 had only waited a favourable opportunity to do this. 
 Constant friction naturally followed, and at last, 
 declaring the people of Rha^tia were guilty of 
 treason in forming an alliance with the Swiss, 
 Maximilian invaded the Miinsterthal with an army 
 of 10,000 men, and took possession of Meyerfeld 
 (January, 1499). 
 
 The Swiss, nothing loth to renew their warlike 
 career, at once rallied to the support of their allies, 
 and in February a combined force of Swiss and 
 Rhaitians met and defeated the Germans at Triesen, 
 and then recaptured Meyerfeld. Many sanguinary 
 battles followed in quick succession in Swabia,^ in 
 
 was even said to have lived for many j-ears without other food 
 than what he tasted when partaking of the Communion monthly. 
 " If ever there was a Saint, Nicolas von der Fliie was one ; though 
 Obwald was not rich enough, nor Rome sufficiently generous to 
 canonise him, yet his altar exists for all time in the hearts of his 
 countrymen " — (Miiller). The dramatic account given in most 
 histories of Switzerland of Bruder Klaus' entry into the Diet 
 appears to be entirely apocryphal, as all the e\'idence on the 
 subject distinctly points to his never ha\'ing appeared before 
 the assembled deputies at all. He seems to have talked to them 
 separatel)' outside the meeting, and gained his point bv his 
 earnest speech. 
 
 I Swabia at this time was a pro\ince of Southern German}-, 
 and included the Wiirtemberg, Baden and Bdack I'orest districts. 
 It was conquered by the I'ranks in a.d. 495. The limperor
 
 iii^ioKN oi riu. 
 
 ^\\lSb I't-.Ol'L 
 
 most ot which the iinperiahsls were cleteateih The 
 iiiosL iinpurtant en.LTaj^'enient was tou^'"ht near Fussach, 
 when ic~>,oot) oi the Swiss alhes cleteated an equal 
 number ut the enemy, kilhng nearly a iuurth of 
 their number. 
 
 The Seat oi. war next chanifecl to that portion oi 
 Swabia bordering on the Rhine. There an army mainl}^ 
 composed of the troops of J!ern. Frevburg, Solothurn 
 and Schaithausen carried e\erything betore them, and 
 destroyed scjme twenty towns and castles. Later, the 
 upper part ot Alsace was oxerrun, and many minor 
 engagements were l(jught. The war, gradually slacken- 
 ing in \iolence, thotigh not in wanton acts ot cruelty, 
 dragged on till September 2 2rid, i4'^j, when, on the 
 mediation of the Duke of Milan, peace was agreed to 
 at i!asel, and although the Swiss were not express!)" 
 declared independent. Irom this time the}' formed a 
 distinct State. 
 
 b]y this war Switzerland gained her practical tree- 
 dom from the (lerman l-2m[nre, and iiioreox'er became 
 allied to her former achersary and master. It was not, 
 howe\er, till ibj^.^ that her independence was formalK' 
 acknowledged. d'hough actual hostilities coxered but 
 a short tune, this war was terrible in the amount ot 
 suifering it caused. More than 20,000 men were killed, 
 2,iKKj towns and castles were destro}ed, and \cist dis- 
 tricts were de\astated and entirely de[)opulated. The 
 numbers that perished by famine and di>easc it is 
 im[)ossible ever to know, but lookim:' back on that 
 
 C'niirad i , toniiL-d it into a l)uch\-(it the (Iltiikui I'.mjiir;-. in >iii, 
 and in loSo, it bccaniu luTLnlitarx- to the iloii^c ut Hnhci^tanlcn 
 In 1 152, its hukc, l-'rci!erick 111., became Mniperor oi C'.ernian\\ 
 timler tiic title ot I'redenck 1., or liarbarossa.
 
 214 HISTORY OF THK SWISS I'KOPIJ-: 
 
 f,^hastly page of history little else is seen hut torrents 
 
 of blood, smouldering ruins, wholesale slaughter, and 
 
 death, misery and desolation in every form. 
 
 Admission to In 1501 tlie Swiss Confederation was further 
 
 Lsci^uc of 
 
 Basel and Strengthened by the admission of Basel and Schaff- 
 
 Schapiauscn, hausen as the eleventh and twelfth states, upon the 
 A.D. 1501. ^ 
 
 same terms as Freyburg and Solothurn, as a means of 
 
 increasing the League's influence and power in the 
 North. 
 Foreign Scarcely were the troubles of the German war over 
 
 than numbers of the disbanded Swass troops, stimulated 
 by the high offers of pay, enlisted under the banners of 
 h^rance or of Milan, then at war with each other. The 
 demoralising practice of foreign mercenary service, initi- 
 ated by the treaty of 1474 with Louis XL, now received 
 a further stimulus from the renewal of the alliance, in 
 1499, by Louis XIL, and soon the dishonourable 
 spectacle of Swiss fighting against Swiss was seen. In 
 1500 a still more dishonourable result of the system 
 occurred, when the I'rench were enabled to win Xovara 
 through the treason of tlie Swiss garrison of that town 
 in the pay of the Duke of Milan, who preferred to 
 surrender rather than resist their fellow-countrymen in 
 the blench ranks. Scandals such as these rapidly 
 became so frequent that in 1503 a determined attempt 
 was made by the Confederate authorities to restrain 
 mercenary service by making it a capital offence for any 
 Swiss to serve in a foreign army. The tempting offers 
 of Louis, however, made this law a dead letter, and 
 hirge numbers continued to light under the French flag, 
 and to the Swiss chiefly Louis owed his successes in 
 Lombardy. 
 
 Neither were the substantial rewards the Swiss
 
 rxpccted alwiiys turthcomini,''. as the French I\iii,L; \\ a^ 
 far ;ii()re prodii,^! of his promises than of their tuUil- 
 nient. Haxini,'' in \'ain tried to .t^et the money due to 
 them, a .i^reat many of Louis' auxiharies went o\'er to 
 his enemy, the Pope, at the insti,L,''ation of Schinner, 
 Ijishop of Sion. This enerq^etic bishop also succeeded 
 in makini;' an alHance with the Confederates, and 
 marched an army of S.oiX) Swiss troops into Lombardy 
 to attempt the expulsion of the I'rench. As, however, 
 most of these mercenary soldiers deserted, no results 
 were obtained. 
 
 The complete expulsion of the bVench from Exfulsion . ;' 
 Northern Italy was due in great measure to the l)ra\-ery ^y'^^, 'jf^^'y 
 of the Swiss. In the leat^aie formed in 1512 against a"- 151J 
 bTance by Spam, (Germany, \'enice, and Rome, the 
 Confederation, throwing oli its long allegiance, sent 
 20,000 of its subjects into Lombardy, where they 
 carried all beiore them, defeated their opponents in 
 several important battles, and re-established ^Maximilian 
 on the ducal throne. Lor these serxices the Luke 
 ceded all his rights o\er Lellinzona, Lugano, and the 
 bailiwicks that torm the modern Canton of Ticino to 
 Switzerland, and ga\"e to the Kha-tians his rights over 
 Chia\enna and the \'al Tellina. 
 
 Though the Swiss were e\'erywhere \ictorious in 
 Lombardy, Louis continued, by bribes, and still more 
 l)y handsome promises, to raise le\'ies in Switzerland, 
 liy these means he succeeded in obtaining numerous 
 bands ot recruits, whose conduct in ser\"ing him created 
 manv displays ot poptdar indignatiijn throughout the 
 C'ontederacy, that restdted in the execution or other 
 punishment of the chief I'rench sympathisers. 
 
 A pkui was n(jw formed for the simultaneous in\asion
 
 2l6 HIS'JOKY OF THE SWISS PEOPLE 
 
 of 1'' ranee by the armies of Ii^ngland, Germany, Spain and 
 AiJ- 1513- Switzerland (August, 1513). This scheme was received 
 with the greatest enthusiasm by the Swiss generally, 
 and agreed to by the Diet then sitting at Zurich. How- 
 ever, after the Confederates had formulated their plans 
 of attack, and despatched an army of 16,000 men, with 
 orders to march on Dijon, the whole matter fell through, 
 as far as they were concerned. After their many recent 
 \ictories ^dien attacked by French soldiers, the Swiss 
 army of in\asion fell before the attack of French agents 
 loaded with gold and promises. The chiefs were bought 
 off for a large sum, and then withdrew their forces 
 without striking a single blow. Beaucoup d'argcnt point 
 dc Suisse might, in this instance at any rate, be sub- 
 stituted for the well-known sarcasm against Swiss 
 cupidity. 
 Admission </ Meanwhile the strength, if not the honour, of the 
 
 AtpCnZClI. r' r 1 ■ ■ 1 • T-, • 1 r • 
 
 ^ u I -13, Contederation contmued to increase. Jiesides iornung 
 alliances with several important towns, it admitted into 
 its J^eague the Appenzell districts as a separate state, 
 and took possession of Neuchatel (1513). 
 
 In 1514 a second invasion of France by Swiss 
 troops was projected, and the better to arrive at an 
 understanding with lilngland for united action, twcj 
 ambassadors, Stolz of Ikisel, and Hums of Ziirich, 
 were despatched to the Court of Henry \'HL They 
 were received with much honour, and returned with a 
 delinite plan of an alliance, one of the conditions of 
 which was that Henry should pay the Confederates a 
 large sum as long as the campaign lasted. An l'2nglish 
 embassy also arri\ed, headed by Sir Richard Pace,^ 
 
 I 'I'his well-known statesman was private seci"etar\' to 
 Ilenr\' \'lil, betorc that erratic monarch clismissetl liini anti
 
 iiisi'oKN oi Till. SWISS ri.di'i.i: 
 
 which thus, lor tlic first lime, hroui^hl abcnit official 
 (iiplonialic relations lictwccn Mnj^laiul and Switzerland. 
 'rhou,L;h the negotiations were carried on with perfec-t 
 harmony and apparent promise of success, they lasted 
 too long lor the patience of the ICnglish Kin^c, who con- 
 cluded a treaty of peace with I'rance (Au,t;ust 2, 1514). 
 In this treaty Jlenry included, as contractin^^,^ {xirties, 
 the thirteen Swiss Cantons. 
 
 With the accession of l^'rancis 1. to the throne oi 
 I'^rance a tresh league to defend Lombardy was formed 
 between Ciermany, Spain, the I'ope and Switzerland 
 (September, 1513)- I'rance had already cjccupied l'a\'i-a, 
 Xovara and other important centrtis, wdien, after se\eral 
 
 Way liith 
 France. 
 
 took (iardiiier in a similar capacit\'. lie is referred to b\- 
 Shakesueare in his plav of llenr\- \'1II. (Act 1. Scene ii.) l"oi" 
 the relations between I'n.uLand and Switzerland, from 1515-17, 
 see a paper in thi: Archi\es of the Swiss 1 listorical Societ}-, X\', 
 Also "Letters and I'apers of the rei,L;n of llenr\^ \"1II,," Brewer. 
 London, iSr>^-f)4. Man_\- instances are ([noted 1)\- Daijuet of 
 relations helv^een ICn,L;land and Sw itzcndand. The liritish .Monks 
 of St. (lallen and I'Linsiedeln. the i-oniinL;ent ot lCn,i,dish archers 
 that ser\ed uniler I'ierre of Sax'ow and the Litters \isit, with man\ 
 N'audois families, to London, The W'l-Lli soldiers of he Coucx, 
 the I'hi,L,dish soldiers of Charles the Ka-;h, tin- numerous L.n-li^h 
 reli;^'ioiis refuL,'(.'es who found an as\luni at /uricdi anil (;ene\a. 
 and who buUt a church in the latter cit\ : ilu' political retu,L;ees of 
 the 17th C(!ntur\- ; the freiiueiit relations bciween ("i-oniw-tdl and 
 the Swi-^s l'rot<.-slants, throu,L;h hisen\ii\- I'eel.and his ^ecretarx 
 .Milt(jn. After the re,t,dcides Lmllow, Lisle, I ;rou,L;hton, l'hel}is. 
 ( iawler and Lo\'(- sought refui;'e in Switzerland, liL^ure the en\"o\s 
 Coxe, llerwart and Staiuan; the I'relender f'dwaril Stuart, and 
 the h'ni,dish tounders of the Masonic ful^e of (ienewa and l.au 
 sanni' (I7J7-JS) ; (.ibbonat ihecdo-^eol the :Mh century, and ijie 
 Methodists and l)arb\i,-its in the iwth, ('.ene\-a, with its |.unese^, 
 |ohns and Williams a^ comnion Chri-^tian names, m.irks tlie 
 influence of Ln,L;hsh inhabitants, < )n theii' side, amongst otlu'r.s. 
 the Swiss ha\e ,L;i\en Lnnland man\ illustrious sons llolbein and 
 Lussli, the ,L;reat uainters. and I'lanta. of the K'oval .\cadem\-, the 
 author of the well-known " ILstorvof the llelwtic Confederacv "
 
 2l8 HISTORY OF THE SWISS FKOTLE 
 
 attempts to negotiate peace, which fell through owing to 
 the Frencli king insisting upon his right to ^Milan, the 
 great battle of ]\Iarignano was fought. Before this 
 mighty " battle of the giants " a treaty had actually 
 been partially ratified by the plenipotentiaries of each 
 party at Galera, on the 8th of September, and 12,000 
 of the Confederates prepared to return home. They 
 replied to the remonstrances of their countrymen that 
 they were weary of the treachery of the Italians ; that 
 the Viceroy of Naples, who connnanded an army of 
 allies on the Po, might long since have joined them, 
 but had e\idently kept at a distance that the whole 
 burden of the war might fall upon them, and that like 
 a vulture he hovered around them, not to assist in, 
 but to profit by, the slaughter. Many Swiss troops, 
 however, refused to abide by the treaty, and remained 
 undecided. Deserted by their allies who sought to 
 throw the whole of the fighting upon the Confederates, 
 the latter now found themselves in a critical state. 
 Many had already gone back to their homes, and of 
 those that remained the majority were anxious to close 
 the campaign and come to terms with Francis. Their 
 fate was decided by the ever energetic Cardinal Schinner, 
 who so stirred up their worst feelings that they at last 
 determined to continue the war. 
 
 There now remained only an army of 20,000 Con- 
 federates to defend Lombardy. Some nine miles from 
 Milan the hTench Monarch, with 50,000 of the best 
 troops of his kingdom, lay strongly entrenched at 
 Marignano. His cavalry was well mounted and armed, 
 his artillery had never yet been ecj^ualled in Italy, and 
 the whole army was animated by the presence of the 
 youthful and much esteemed warrior-sovereign, besides 
 that of many of the first generals of the day.
 
 UISI'OKN" ()]■ •|HI. SWISS 1M.OPI.I-, 2iy 
 
 l^ver impatient and ea.y'er to commence battle when Banic of 
 (jnce their course was decided, the Swiss now ^^"1<^11'^' s,r/"r i j/;/ 
 salHed iorth and furiously attacked the strong,'' lines (jt M. i.5i,5 
 the I'rench fortifications. These they quickK' carried, 
 repulsed a caxalrv change headed by bVancis in person, 
 and captured a portion of the artillery and twi'h'e 
 banners. The battle, which had bc^un late in the 
 afternoon, continued with fearful slau,<.,diter till darkness 
 set in. The approach of ni,i;'ht. S(j far from procurinic 
 a respite, rather increased the ha\()C. which amidst the 
 din of arms, exultin,ir shouts, and the cries and j^a'oans 
 of the wounded and expirint^, rayed without intermission 
 till the fourth hour after sunset. Lassitude at len^'th 
 compelled a cessation, both parties, as if by mutual 
 consent, suspendin.i,'' their blows, and seekint,^ to rejoin 
 their standards. They were, howe\-er, all intermixed, 
 and many who beinL,^ challenged covdd not repeat the 
 countersi;^ai still met their doom — (L'lanta), b^ach man 
 lav down on the battle-held, and yot what rest his 
 <{hastly surrcnmdini^'^s would allow. The king himself 
 foimd a restinj,''-place on a ,<4'un-carria,L,''e. but his courtiers 
 shuddered next mornini,'', when ihe\' found that he had 
 slept within iifty yards of a Swiss battalion. 
 
 With the first dawii the ti,i(ht recommenced, and, 
 still gaining grotuid at e\ery })oinl, in spite of the now 
 well-directed lire of the artillerv and the furious charges 
 ol the ca\alry, the Swiss appeared certain ot gaining 
 another great \'ict(jry. At this critic-al moment ITancis' 
 auxiliary forces from \'enice. under 1 )'Al\iano. arrixa'd 
 and attacked the C.'ontederates in the rear. In spite of 
 this the little band maintained the unequal struggle iov 
 some hours longer with undiminished heroism, till at 
 last, ON'ercome by numbers and exhausted by fighting, 
 retreat or annihilation became imperatne. Towards
 
 220 HISTORY OF THi; SWISS PEOPL1-: 
 
 noon the order to retire was given. They gathered in 
 a close cohimn, placed their wounded in its centre, and, 
 having loaded the cannon on their shoulders, marched 
 off the field with slow and steady pace, and with such 
 defiance in their countenances, that none of the sur- 
 rounding enemy dared to pursue them — (Planta). Pass- 
 ing over the Alps they made their way back to their 
 several cantons. 
 
 After this engagement the whole Milanese was 
 taken by Francis, who, in the following year, con- 
 cluded a treaty of perpetual peace at Freyburg with 
 the Confederation. In this alliance the neutrality of 
 France and Switzerland, in case either should engage 
 in a war, was guaranteed. The Italian bailiwicks ceded 
 by the Duke of Milan to the Swiss and Rhaetians w^ere 
 to continue under their rule, and each of the cantons 
 was to receive a pension of 2,000 francs from the French 
 King, who further agreed to pay 700,000 crowns for the 
 expenses of the late war. 
 
 Though still sought as mercenary soldiers by other 
 nations, especially by the French, from the time of the 
 battle of Marignano the great reputation of the Swiss 
 as fighting and invincible soldiers began to wane. 
 Neither was this solely due to their defeat on that 
 memorable day. The general introduction ot lire- 
 arms now l)egan to lessen the ad\-antages that personal 
 courage and indi\idual strength and endurance gave. 
 The use of gunpowder, defined by a great Frenchman 
 as " the gra\e of honour," pro\ed for the Swiss the 
 grave of dishonour, in a certain sense. 
 
 Ikit with the close of the 15th century begins 
 another, and a very different, era in Swiss history, an 
 era none the less bloodstained and Idled with every
 
 insi'dKN' ov riiE SWISS itoi'li: 221 
 
 form of cruelty and misery. Keli<(ion became the force 
 that dominated the course of future e\ents. 
 
 The 15th century saw Switzerland rise to the acme 
 of her military fame, and steadily increase in power 
 and freedom. It saw the national character debased 
 and brutalised by the inlluence of foreif^ners, in whose 
 (juarrels many thousands of her people were embroiled. 
 Lust of martial s'lory, political power, and dishonourable 
 wealth were the main iniUiences that ruled the ctjurse of 
 Swiss alfairs durin,<^ this period, and that brou<(ht om 
 some of the greatest deeds in war the world has ever 
 known, as well as some of the basest. These influences 
 were now to be displaced by a great religious revi\-alism 
 that was destined to change the whole after social and 
 political history of the people, and make its efiects felt 
 in many countries far remote from Switzerland.
 
 CHAPTER XI 
 
 CAi'si-:s oi- Tin-: reformation 
 
 The important and enduring changes brought 
 about by the Reformation in the social, religious, and 
 political life of the Swiss people, inaugurate a new and 
 distinct epoch in their history. This epoch, moreover, 
 bears a very direct relation with modern times, and 
 brings us into touch with the thoughts, the wants and 
 the difficulties of the period now to be considered. 
 
 In tracing the progress of the great religious move- 
 ments of the i6th century, as they affected the people 
 of Switzerland, and the causes that brought them on, 
 it will be necessary to go somewhat more fully into 
 details than was done in dealing with previous periods. 
 This is necessary from the grave importance of tlie 
 subject, and because we are better furnished with data 
 and reliable information to go upon. On the other 
 hand, though our materials are abundant, they are 
 nearly all grossly tainted with party and sectarian bias. 
 Almost without exception, contemporary chroniclers, 
 either purposely or unintentionally, allow their indi- 
 vidual or religious opinions to affect their statements 
 in a manner highly prejudicial to the cause of truth. 
 Very great care is therefore necessary in selecting 
 ex'idence, and a thoroughly judicial and impartial mind
 
 HiSTOKN- <M Tin; SWISS PEDi'i.i: 223 
 
 is still more important in forming \'ie\vs on that 
 evidence. These difliculties are further enhanced by 
 the almost constant connection of party passion and 
 untruth with most discussions on reli,<(ious (Questions. 
 I'ortunately, in the present age time and education 
 have greatlv smoothed the obstacles that obstructed 
 the rational examination of the causes and methods of 
 the iveformation, which can now be approached by 
 many in an impartial and passionless frame of mind, 
 witli the object, not of furthering the \-iews of any 
 particular Church, but simply and solely to arri\-e at 
 the truth. 
 
 The Reformation was not suddenly created, and 
 launched on the world in the i')th centurv. 'Ihi^ 
 movement was simply the natural result of a long 
 procession of events and changes in men's minds, in 
 religious and politic;d matters, that already f(jr many 
 centuries had been in progress. 
 
 Switzerland, from her geographical position, was 
 peculiarly iitted to receive impressions from the re- 
 ligious and intellectual centres ot (lermany, ITance. 
 and Italv. The causes that were at work in these 
 coimtries to bring about the great rexolt against Rome 
 were also actively present within her own frontiers. 
 She thus became both an independent and an auxiliarv 
 force in th.e wast army of the Reiorm. As at all critical 
 periods of impending great changes in the hist(;r\' oi 
 mankind, the religious world of Western h^urope was 
 at this time in a condition well fitted for the transitiim. 
 The time was ripe and the leaders were ready. Had 
 neither Luther, Zwingli, CaKdn, nor any of the other 
 chieis been born, there can be little tloubt but that the- 
 mo\emcnt would ha\'e gone on just as steatlilv. and
 
 224 nisroK\- oi- Tin: swiss ]m-:opi.k 
 
 much in the same way. The characteristics, of course, 
 of those who directed it would have somewhat affected 
 the manner in which it progressed, and the form it 
 eventually assumed. 
 Causes. Chief amongst the immediate causes of the Re- 
 
 formation was the degraded state into which religion 
 and religious officers had fallen. In the i6th century 
 the Church's condition was one of moral decay and 
 degeneracy, with relaxed discipline and a venal adminis- 
 tration, that augured badly for her continued life unless 
 drastic measures were taken to renew her vigour, to 
 restore her influence, and to rid her of her many innate 
 sources of weakness. The holy functions were used 
 chiefly to procure money and personal aggrandisement ; 
 bribery and general corruption were, through their 
 frequency, looked upon as legitimate methods; indul- 
 gences were bought and sold contrary to ancient law ; 
 the grossest immorality and the most vicious living 
 permeated the whole ecclesiastical fal)ric, and completely 
 discredited the Church's doctrines, and undermined the 
 Church's influence for good among the people, as well 
 as her power to withstand the attacks of her enemies. 
 A large number, if not the vast majority of the clergy, 
 were themselves men of the lowest type, the licentious- 
 ness of whose lives was only equalled by their debased 
 ignorance, and lack of the qualities that inspired their 
 early predecessors to accomplisli so many triumphs by 
 means of Christianity. Immorality amongst the priest- 
 hood bore a character and uni\-ersality unknown at any 
 subsequent period. IJut, al)o\-e all, it stood in the most 
 holy places, which it has not been permitted to do since 
 the Reformation. Many of those seasons appointed by 
 the Church as commemorati\e of special exenls, such
 
 iiisroRv oi- Tin-: swiss im:opi.i". 225 
 
 as the feast of the resurrection, were, by many of the 
 clergy, converted into times of bufloonery and pr(jfana- 
 tion, altogetlier heathenish. The \"ery churches were 
 turned into theatres and the priests into mountebanks, 
 who by acts and alhisions did their best to prox'oke 
 laughter and ribaldry. One would iiuitate a cuckoo, 
 another hissed like a goose, a third dragged to the altar 
 a layman dressed in a monk's garb, a fourth related the 
 grossest indecencies, etc. — (I )"Aubigne). The lower 
 orders of the clergy imitated the example of their 
 superiors, and did not scruple frecpiently to turn theiu 
 pul)licly into ridicule. The homes of the priests often 
 harboured women of evil repute, and became the centre 
 of every form of debauchery. In Switzerland the 
 outrageous conduct of the clergy was specially seen at 
 Lausanne, whc're at last a formal address was sent to 
 the ISishop bv the citizens, setting forth their scandalous 
 and open \-iolation of the moral and scjcial laws (1477). 
 In the early part of the i6th century these complaints 
 were again brought forward, coupled with accusations 
 against the ISishop himself, "whose ser\-ants beat and 
 killed the citizens in affrays, and the lUshops protected 
 them openly and by force from tha; hands of justice. 
 And the Canons, who then wore swords by their side 
 like laymen, assaulted the citizens c\cn in their houses 
 and in church, seduced mairied women and kept them in 
 deiiance of the law, \-iolat(;d poor girls whom thev enticed 
 to their houses, and had a mmdn'r ot natiu'al children 
 whom they sent out begging" (Kuchat). Sexei'al 
 attempts were made in isolated instances to sup]M'(>ss 
 these clerical scandals, but bore liltU' or no good 
 results, l)eyond drawing public attention to them. 1 '>y a 
 decree ol the Council of Schad iiausen, the (-lergy weie 
 
 '5
 
 226 HISTORY Ol" Till'; SWISS Pl'.OPI.K 
 
 forbidden from dancing in public, except at weddings ; 
 from carrying two kinds of weapons, and priests found 
 in a house of iH-fame were ordered to be disfrocked — 
 (Miiller). In some pkices it was the custom for a priest 
 to pay a regular tax to his Bishop for the privilege of 
 living with a woman, and according to Erasmus, a 
 German prelate publicly stated that in one year he had 
 received ii,ooo applications for this licence. There can 
 be little doubt that most of these evils resulted from 
 the short-sighted innovation in Church discipline that 
 Gregory VII. introduced in forcing celibacy amongst the 
 priests. " This has been the source of most of the 
 calamities, the individual misery and public scandal that 
 have darkened the annals of the Western Church'' — 
 (Vieusseux). 
 
 Neither was the conduct of the higher ecclesiastics 
 less corrupt than that of their subordinates. ?^L'iny 
 made their office subservient only to their own temporal 
 aggrandisement, and themselves led their troops in the 
 many wars they carried on against their neighbours to 
 increase their possessions. Passing to the very throne of 
 Rome itself, the successive pontificates of Sixtus I\'., 
 Innocent VUL, Alexander VI., Julius II., Leo X., and 
 Clement VH., from 1471 to 1534, form a record of 
 \-illainy and crime not to be exceeded by any six lay 
 monarchs. A picture of more degraded saA'agery and 
 practical irreligion than that depicted in the life of the 
 Pope who filled St. Peter's chair a generation before the 
 Reformation can hardl}' be imagined. If but a tilhe of 
 the enormities placed to the account of Alexander \'I. 
 (Rodrigo, the hither of the notorious Ca'sar and l^ucretia 
 Borgia) be true, it can scarce be Avondered at that the 
 mass of professing Christians throughout Western
 
 iiis'i'dRN' ov I'm-: SWISS i>i;oi-i.i; 227 
 
 Europe in the i6th century had lost all respect and 
 faith in the spiritual heads of their Church.' 
 
 In Switzerland, even more than in other countries, 
 general corruption permeated the Church. Many in- 
 stances are recorded of the lengths to which clerical 
 scandals were allowed to go, as of the astounding cre- 
 dulity or indifference of the mass of the inhabitants. 
 In Switzerland the people of all ranks were still mtich 
 behind their neighbours in education and general ci\-ili- 
 sation, in fact, outside the towns the peasants were still 
 in many localities in a semi-barbarous condition. One 
 instance that occurred in the City of liern will serve as 
 an example of what the religious leaders of the people 
 would attempt, to further their indixddual power. 
 
 A bitter rivalry had long existed between the orders Jct~d 
 of the Franciscans and the Dominicans touching the ' ' ^^' 
 doctrines of the former on the Immaculate (Conception. 
 In 1506 the Prior of the Dominican Monastery, at Bern, 
 determined by a bold stroke to re\i\'e the waning pres- 
 tige of his order, and establish beyond dispute the truth 
 of the dogmas liis fraternity pr(ji'essed. A po(;r and 
 credulous peasant, named Johann Jelzel, having been 
 admitted cas a lay-brother, the plot conmienced. Sh(jrtly 
 
 I The niemnrv of this successor of the Apostles, this \'icar of 
 Christ on earth, and that of his ihe,L,'itiniate family, has for f )ur 
 centuries been kept ali\'e chielh' throu-;h tlie Ion-.;' record of murder, 
 incest, adulter)-, sa\-a,L(e wars, and other horrm's, that ha\-e nia^Ie 
 the name 01 l-').;r,L;ia a s\-mbol lor all that is 1110s: brutal, debauclinl, 
 and base. ()ii the other hand, anions" modern scholars of eminence 
 it ha-1 been claimed that .\le.\ander \'l ,and hi-; dau^luer, lau-reiia 
 P)«rgia, owe nearl\- the whole of their blatl< notoriet\- to tin- poli- 
 tical and reliL;ious rancour of their opjionents, and that both \\ere, 
 tor the times in which the\- li\-ed, cei"tainl\- much abo\-e the a\fra_;e 
 ot their contemporaries in honour, humanit\- and wisdom. \o one 
 has yet atlenipted to rehaliililate the ch,ara( ter of tdi-^ar Hor'.;ia 
 
 1 ^ -2
 
 228 HISTORY or Tin- SWISS PEOPLF. 
 
 after this man had taken up his abode in the monastery, 
 he was brought to beUeve, by repeated and mysterious 
 nightly noises, that he was the chosen object of the 
 Virgin's especial grace. When the mind of Jetzel had 
 by these means been sufficiently excited, he was visited 
 by friars personating lost souls from purgatory and dif- 
 ferent saints, and finally the prior himself, dressed in 
 imitation of the Mother of God, appeared in the cell of 
 the now frantic tailor, and presented him with three of 
 Christ's tears, a crucifix, and a letter to the Pope com- 
 manding him to abolish the Festival of the Immacu- 
 late Conception. A powerful sleeping-draught was then 
 administered, and with the aid of corrosives the five 
 wounds of the Saviour were made, similar to those 
 believed to be peculiar to the body of St. Francis. 
 Jetzel was then exhibited in strong convulsions to the 
 wondering crowds who flocked to the monastery to see 
 the favourite of Heaven, whilst the friars increased the 
 excitement by descanting on the marvellous miracle 
 that had been vouchsafed to their order. Unfortunately, 
 however, for the success of this scheme, Jetzel so far 
 recovered his reason as to confess all that had oc- 
 curred and to throw doubts on the genuineness of the 
 visions. An enquiry was opened by the Pope's legate, 
 and the fjishops of Sion and Lausanne. The unfortu- 
 nate Jetzel was put to the torture, but refused to alter 
 his statement ; and finally a confession was wrung from 
 the monks themselves of all they had done. The four 
 principal actors in this scandalous drama wcve then 
 handed over to the secular power and publicly burned 
 alive, and the story spreading rapidl}' rdl o\-er Jun'ope, 
 brought the order of Dominicans into still greater dis- 
 grace and contempt.
 
 l!I.Sl-()I-;\- III- TUl-, .-iWl^iS I'l.MI'l.l. 
 
 The iiK-rcenary scrxice so often undertaken by the 
 Swiss in Northern Italv, antl at the I'apal ('(jurt, had 
 l)rou,L,du them into intimate rehitions with those who 
 directed the poHcy. and controlled the action of the 
 Chiu'ch in the \-ery centre of its stron,t(hold. They 
 there witnessed the intri,t,'-ues and the scandals that 
 e\erywhere ahoundetl: they saw the most solemn 
 pled,i;'es unblushinL^ly broken,, and the most sacred 
 oflices con\-erted into posts alto^'ether \ ile and i,^nioble. 
 On their return to their own land these Swiss mer- 
 cenaries were, onl\- too often, themseh'es thoroui^hly 
 demoralised ;ind debased, and the accounts they were 
 enabled to ,l;'i\'e of wh;it they had themseKes seen and 
 done were hardly calculated to raise the respect or 
 increase the religious lervotu' of their countrymen for 
 Rome and her dogmas. 
 
 Another important cause of the Reformation was 
 the growing s|)irit ot eniiuiry into the original sources 
 of inlormation in religious matters amiMig scholars. 
 Learning generally also receixed a great impulse from 
 the re\i\"ed interest now taken in the classics and in 
 Oriental litei'ature. Ah;n began to seek for themsehes 
 the truth, not in taking the word ol the C'hurch. but 
 in ••searching the Scriptures."' 
 
 I I'lanta ,L;i\L-s the li)ll(j\s iiiL; anion;-; uthcr cxaiiipk',-, ot the 
 state (;t It-arninu' amoni; the S'.'.i-^s cl(.'r_;\". ' >n one lunasinn the 
 ('ar;nns ol Ziirich. ha\-in'_: to nntit\- an clt-ction to thr r.i-h-'p of 
 Schait haiiseii, coniesscil that stnera! ol thcin^cKc^ \vi:vv iinalilr 
 to write. In tlie (;\aminatioii for hol\- orilers it ^^•a^ ilet-nie;! aiiipK' 
 siiilieient that the- candiiiate could reail. anil tole!-abl\- eoniprehcni 1 
 \\h:n h(; read. The report ot the e.\ani:natii ■:■! • t Leonard! lirnn for 
 priests ririlt.-rs. not Ion,:; lietore the Retorniation, was, " I '.(.'nc le_;;t. 
 competenter expcjnit et sententiat, conipiitiim ii^norat, male cantat 
 l-'ial adniissio," (He reads widl, he expounds and deliver-- jud;-- 
 nieiU competen.th', he is iL;norant ol arithmetic, lie sin^s hadiK 
 Let liini ti. ad.mitted )
 
 230 HISTORY OI' THE SWISS PEOPLE 
 
 Many Church hvings in Switzerland were given l)y 
 the Pope to foreign ad\'enturers, who pubhcly bouglit 
 them at Rome, or received them for some special service. 
 Swarms of these men, known as Courtesans, came down 
 upon the country, and by their openly licentious mode 
 of life, created hatred against the Church Avherever 
 they were appointed. At Geneva, in 1527, of all the 
 numerous canons of that city, only one was native born. 
 
 Already, l)efore its introduction into Hehetia, 
 Christianity had begun to change from that simple and 
 noble creed Christ founded and propagated in Palestine, 
 for the benefit of man in this world, and for his hope in 
 the next. Taking the four gospels as the only direct 
 evidence of the actual teachings of Christ, we find 
 Christianity demanded the complete fulfilment of the 
 Mosaic law. It called upon all men for practical re- 
 pentance, and offered them the salvation of their souls 
 through the mercy of one all-powerful and all-beneficial 
 Creator. It threatened obstinate sinners, the rich, and 
 the worldly, with punishment after death. It enjoined 
 the continual practice of charity in all man"s dealings 
 with man. It raised poverty and humility to the rank 
 of cardinal \irtues. It insisted on the obser\-ance of the 
 great principles invoked in Christian Communism, 
 whereby all men were to be on an etjual footing, having 
 all things (save their wi\'es) in common. The Sermon 
 on the Mount (which, by the way, St. Luke says was 
 preached (jn a //<?///), sets forth in the clearest language 
 what C'hrist considered as the right mode of li\'ing, and 
 what he deemed essential to sahation. This celebrated 
 discourse bears the additional weight of anti(|uity, 
 having l)een in existence long prior to Christ's nativity, 
 e^"ery sentence of it being contained in the Jewish
 
 llI^,l()K^ oi riii; swiss I'I-oi'Li: 
 
 T;iliiuul. Iin])licit f;iilh in the one (jcxI, with repenl- 
 ance, liuniility, pox'erly, Christian Conimunisni, the 
 \'A\\ and the prt)phets, but al)o\'e all charity — these are 
 the principles of Christianity as delixered hy its <^a'eat 
 i'ounder. lIo\v, from the time of His death, men 
 altered or Un'<i(>t them, let the lon<; and blood-stained 
 annals of unchristianity in Switzerland alone, during 
 sixteen centuries, bear witness I 
 
 In Switzerland, as in other lands, many pious and 
 enthusiastic men arose, s\-nd)olising in their lives all 
 that was noble and best in religion, and \ainl}' tr\ing to 
 re\i\'e the primiti\e docti'ines of Christ. ISut these 
 scattered lights ol religious purit\- were too feeble and 
 too tew to dispel the irreligious darkness that lay (j\"er 
 the land. As time went on Christianity lost more and 
 more of its original nature, and iormed itself more and 
 more after the likeness oi its en\dronment and the 
 characters of its chieis. The introduction of stringent 
 class distinctions; the institution of liishops, ("(juncils. 
 and high ecclesiastical dignitai'ies, who usui'ped powei' 
 and auth.ority, both spiiitual and tem[M)ral : the creation 
 by the ("hurch ot new Cods and a new llea\en (which 
 she peopled with new saints and intercessors), and a 
 new llell (which she hlled with her ciu'mies); the order- 
 ing of new dogmas and new doctrines ; the open \ices 
 and disgusting licentiousness, profanity and ignorance 
 of the priesthood, their extortions, their sins and theii' 
 crimes; thi; open tralli(~ in ("lunch prelermenl, and in 
 the rewards and punishments ot Ilea\-en and llell 
 these were some ol the chief causes within the Church 
 hersell which led men to seek alter a liigher and a 
 nobler form ot worship, andbr!)uglu to a focus the man}' 
 series o| e\ents that culminated in the Retormation.
 
 232 HISTORY OF THE SWISS PEOPLE 
 
 "The sufferings and merits of Clirist were looked 
 upon as an empty tale. . . , Christ was regarded as a 
 stern judge, prepared to condemn all who should not 
 ha\'e resource to the intercession of the Saints, or to the 
 l'ope"s indulgences. Other intercessors were substi- 
 tuted in his stead, first the Virgin T\Iary, like the 
 heathen Diana; then the Saints, whose number was 
 continually augmented by the Popes. . . . There v/ere 
 as many pilgrimages as there were mountains, forests 
 and valleys. The people therefore brought to the con- 
 vents and to the priests money and everything they 
 possessed of value. . . . The Bishops no longer appeared 
 in the pulpits, but they consecrated priests, monks, 
 churches, chapels, images, books and burial-places, and 
 all these brought a large revenue. Bones, arms and 
 feet were preserved in boxes of silver or gold ; these 
 were given to the faithful to kiss during mass and this 
 increased the gains. All maintained that the l^ope, 
 being in the place of God, could not err, and there 
 were none to contradict them" — (Myconius).' 
 Indulgences. The ilagrant scandals arising from the open traffic 
 
 in Church preferment, and in indulgences for past and 
 
 I Most of the newly manufactured "ancient relics" were 
 either exposed in the Churches as sources ot re\euue, or farmed 
 out to ecclesiastical middlemen, who made a goodly profit by the 
 business. Amongst these "sacred" objects that a credulous age 
 flocked to pray before (if not to), were tlie following: — A fragment 
 of Noah's Ark; s(Mne soot from tlie furnace into which Shadrach, 
 Meshech and Abednego were cast; a portion of the cril) that 
 held the infant Jesus; some hair of the beard of the great St. 
 Christopher. At Schaff hausen was shown the ])reath of St. Joseph 
 that Nicodemus recci\-ed on his glo\e. In \\ iirtembiirg might be 
 s(;en a seller of indulgences, with his head adorned with a feather 
 from the wing (.)f the .Vrchangel Michael —(" History of the Great 
 Keformation "').
 
 iUSTOKV Ol- THi: SWISS PKorLK 
 
 233 
 
 future sins, acted as one of the most potent of the 
 excitin.L,'' causes of the Reformation. 
 
 In tlie primiii\e davs of the Church, repentant 
 sinners underwent se\ere penances before they were 
 cleansed of their misdeeds. Later on, these penalties, 
 in exceptional cases, were miti,L,Mted by the •• indul- 
 ^'"ence "' of the IHshops, ha\'in<,r re,f,Mrd to the bodily 
 weakness, or temporal necessities, of the penitent, some- 
 times money payments, ov works of charity, or devo- 
 tional exercises bein^ substitmed. This custom was 
 sanctioned by the Councils of Nice. Ancyra. and the 
 l-'ourth (A Cartha<,''e. Soon. howe\er, abuses crept 
 in, from cupidity, partiality, or the facility with 
 which " indulgences " could be procured. During 
 the iith and 12th centuries the Popes began to 
 grant " plenary indulgences," or indulgences which 
 remitted not only the tcniporal penrdtv for sin, but 
 also the punishments of purgatory, which, according 
 to the Romish doctrine, repentant sinners must suffer 
 after death, as a satisfaction to Dixine justice. This, 
 in spite of the opinion of Thomas Aijuilias, and other 
 learned men, was certainlv an inni)\"ation in the can-ms 
 ot the Church. At lirst granted onl\- to those who 
 took part in the Crusades. th(.' practice gradually ex- 
 tended, till at la.--t '-indulgences" were regularly suld 
 in most luiropean counliies. 
 
 'J'hc internal slreni,^th <it tin- Church was Lfone, and 
 its lifeless and exhausted trame lav stretched o\er the 
 Roman world. 'i"he infancv of ihe nations of b^urope 
 was past, and manhood had comi' : to a credulous 
 simplieity, disposed to belie\e e\er\lhinL;", had suc- 
 ceeded a spirit of curiosilv. and an intelliL^enrc 
 impatient to discox'er the ioundation ot thinij's. And
 
 234 HISTORY or THE SWISS I'EOl'LE 
 
 whilst the laity was thus ascending in the scale of 
 knowledge, the priesthood was absorbed in earthly pur- 
 suits, and often steeped in the most degrading ignorance, 
 learning being looked upon as the root of heresy. AVhen 
 the sower should appear, the ground, indeed, would l)e 
 ripe for the seed. Religion had become mechanical in 
 this age of faith, which has also been aptly called the 
 " Age of the Rosary." Although, among both clerics 
 and laymen, outward forms and observances were prac- 
 tised to an extent never before or since known, yet it is 
 impossible to speak too strongly of the universality of 
 practical impiety. 
 
 Whilst Germany is the fundamental home of the 
 Reformation, the centre wdience other nations deri\'ed 
 their instruction,^ Switzerland occupies the exceptional 
 position of having herself originated and carried through 
 her own Reformation. This she did at the same period, 
 though quite independently of her powerful Northern 
 neighbours. When the movement was well advanced, 
 but not before, doubtless the influence and writings of 
 Luther helped to assist it. Many interesting points 
 of contrast are apparent between the German and 
 Swiss Reformation. In the one country, it had to 
 contend against the authority of an b^mperor and 
 powerful princes, and w'as led and moulded by one 
 man — Martin Luther — and took many years before 
 it was accomplished. In Switzerland, the home of 
 democratic principles, the opposition came from as- 
 
 I This must be understood only in a certain sense as repre- 
 sentinj,' that (".ermany was the liomc of tht; " fashionin;^' and 
 finishiiif,' " of the Reformation. 'J'hroii,i;h ^\'icldiff, and (ithers, 
 ]--n<4land certainly i>ri>^i)iatcd the movement, and ,t^a\e it to (Jermany 
 " in the rou<,di," as it were, as she alscj gave her her music, her 
 literature, her learning and her poetry.
 
 Hi^roKV oy Tin: 
 
 seiiihlies of the people : the ino\eiiient l)e,L:an in se\'eral 
 clitferent centres, as at iJasel, (ilarus, Zurich, ISern, 
 Cienew'i, Sehwyx. It was led bv a '• confederatirtn 
 of reformers," Zwini^di, I'arel. Capito. Heller, C"al\-in, 
 etc.. thcHij^di. clouhtless, Z\vin,^'li, I'arel and C'aKin 
 were the chief. And the \-ictory was gained in but 
 a few months, thuti.uh inan\' ^i^a-nerations were born 
 and died before its after-train ot war and strife ceased. 
 In (iennanv the mo\x-nient. like the face ot the land, 
 presents (;ne tmiionn le\'el of character : •• but in 
 Switzerland the Kefonnation appears broken, like the 
 countr\' itseli. lAery \alley has its own hour ot 
 awakenin:;, and e\er\- iiiountain.-top its <jwn radiance." 
 
 The Swiss had already thrown oil" the yoke of 
 de[:iendence on Austria and on (lerinany, and had 
 obtained political ireedoni. A lar,i;'e portion of them 
 now entered on a strui^-i^de fen" religious freedom against 
 the spirittial supremacy (jf Kome. In this contest, 
 many of the hard\- inhabitants of the mcnmtain dis- 
 tric'ts, where .i.aeat simplicity still exi-tetl, and where 
 the priests were less .affected hv the j^'eneral moral 
 deterioration ot their order, remained the staunchest 
 detenders of the- P(jpe. and the .--toutest foes (;f the 
 kefV)rmer>. In the \\'ald>tatten. the birthj'^lace ot 
 Swiss libert\ and Swiss \alour, the people disdained 
 t(j learn new thiiiL^^s frcjm the youri,L;'er states ot the 
 Confederation, antl preferred to remain in the faith 
 in which thev had obtained their cnvn independence, 
 and in which lhe\- had freed their country from her 
 many {^owi-rful in\-aders. 
 
 The record of the li\-es of the Swis> Kc-formers 
 constitutes the history of Switzerland during' the greater 
 I'lart of the i' th centurw but. before conniK'nciuL;'
 
 236 HISTORY OF THli SWISS PEOPLE 
 
 this, it may not be amiss to contemplate for a moment 
 another, and a brighter, chapter in the career of that 
 Rome, against which war to the death was now to be 
 waged. 
 
 " In this Rome, a man clad in the purple of the 
 Ca.'sars, and crowned with the tiara of the Pontificate, 
 sent fortli his soldiers armed with the crucifix, and they 
 brought nations capti\'e to his feet. Rome became a 
 city of Ood ; she put on a spiritual crown. She cried 
 to the kings, ' Gi\e ! ' and gold was poured into her 
 exchefiuers ; she condemned a man who had delied 
 her, and he had no longer a place among mankind ; 
 she proclaimed a truce of God, and the swords of 
 robber knights were sheathed ; she preached a crusade, 
 and luirope was hurled into Asia. She lowered the 
 pride of the haughty, and she exalted the heart of 
 the poor ; she softened the rage of the mighty, she 
 consoled the despair of the oppressed. She fed the 
 hungry, and she clothed the naked ; she took children 
 to her arms, and signed them with the cross ; she 
 administered the sacrament to dying lips, and laid the 
 cold body in the peaceful grave. Her first word was 
 to welcome, and her last word to forgi\'e. In the Dark- 
 Ages, the l'2uropean states were almost entirely se\'cred 
 from one another ; it was the Roman Church alone 
 which gave them one sentiment in conunon, and which 
 united them within her fold. In those days of violence 
 and confusion, in those days of desolation and despair, 
 when a stranger was a thing which, like a leper or a 
 madman, anyone might kill ; when e\ery gentleman 
 was a highway robber, when the only kind of lawsuit 
 was a duel, hundreds of men, dressed in gowns of 
 coarse, tlark stuff, with cords around their waists,
 
 HIs^^K^• oi- liii: swiss i'i;oi'i.i-: 
 
 -J/ 
 
 and with "hare fet-t, traxcllrcl with impunity from 
 casth; to castle, prearhin^^ a doctrine ot peace and 
 ,t,n»)tl\vill, hoIdin.L,^ up an emblem of humility and sorrow, 
 recei\in,i; confessions, pronouncing'' penance or absolu- 
 tion, S(X)thin.i( the a,q'onies of a wounded conscienc-e, 
 awakeninf^f terror in the hai'dened mind. l^u'ish 
 churches were built, the baron and his \assals chanted 
 together the ' Kyrie I'lleison," and bowed their heads 
 to,i,''ether when the bell sounded and the Host was 
 raised. Here and there m the sombre forest, a band 
 of those holy men encamped, and cut down trees and 
 erected a buildinj^^ which was not only a house of 
 prayer, but also a kind of model farm. . . . Ih'ight 
 indeed, yet scanty, are these g'leams. In the loni( night 
 of the Dark Ages we look upon the earth, and only 
 the con\-ent and the castle appear to be ali\-e. . . . 'Jdie 
 castle is the home of music, ;ind chiwalry, and fannly 
 affection. The con\-ent is the home <;f religion and of 
 art. . . . The convent prays, and the castle sings; the 
 cottage hungers, and groans, and dies. Such is the 
 dark night — here and there a star in the hea\en ; here 
 and there a torch upon the earth ; all else is c loud and 
 bitter wind." Such is the \-i\ id picture of what Rome, 
 in the cause of religion, has done in the past to better 
 and beautify humanity, drawn by the great author of 
 the " Martyrdom cjf ^Lan," himself one oi the noblest 
 of mtjdern I'reethinkers, and one ot Kome's bitterest 
 opponents. flow difierent this })icture had become in 
 the beginning of the lOth century we ha\e already 
 seen, when religion was too often little else than a 
 cloak for ex'ery form of sin and crime, when the con\-ent 
 was often but a social sewer, and the castle a sirongliold 
 for lawU'SS robbers.
 
 CHAPTER XII 
 
 THE REFORMATION AND ITS LEADERS 
 
 It has already been pointed out that the revolt 
 against the supremacy of the Church of Rome had 
 been long maturing, and that the final victories ob- 
 tained in the i6th century were merely the crowning 
 result of changes before that period. The progress 
 of the Swiss Reformation can best be understood by 
 following the careers of its leaders, amongst whom 
 Ulric Zwingli stands pre-eminent. 
 Uh-ic Z'uingJi, Descended from a long line of hardy and patriotic 
 
 A.i). 1484-1531 pg^g,^j^^ farmers living in the Toggenburg mountains, 
 Zwingli was born in the little hamlet of Wildhausen, 
 high above the Lake of Zurich, on January ist, 1484, 
 just seven weeks later than the great German re- 
 former. Plis early years were passed under the care 
 of his uncle, the Dean of Wesen, and at the age of 
 ten he was sent to IJasel, which city was then one of 
 the first seats of European learning. Here he assidu- 
 ously devoted himself to study, and, moreover, began 
 to develop those musical talents that pro\-e(l a solace 
 A.i). 1497. to him all through liis remarkal)le career. In 1497, 
 he was transferred to llern, where, under the care of 
 the distinguished scholar and poet, Lupulus, he was 
 introduced to the then hidden treasures of classical 
 learning. Through these his mind was expanded, 
 and his style formed, and his poetical taste developed
 
 HISTORY OI' THl-; SWISS IM-.OPI.i; 2y) 
 
 — (Myconiu^). I-Vom ]5ern, Zwm<^\i journeyed to 
 \'ienna to study philosophy at the I'ni\-ersity. Re- 
 turnin,^- to his nati\-e vilhitxe in 1502 for a short rest, 
 he once more settled at iJasel, where he supported .\.d. 1502. 
 himself by teachinf,'", thou<^di continuini,^ his own 
 studies at the Uni\-ersity. Here he obtained his 
 def(ree of M.A., and here he formed a clf)se friend- 
 ship with two Alsatians — Lec^ J^i'''i '^ii^l Capito. l)oth 
 of whom took" prominent parts in the work Zwini^di 
 de\-oted his later life to. These three friends here 
 recei\ed their first impulse in the ]C\-an,ifelical cause 
 throui4"h attendin;::; the eloquent lectures of Thomas 
 W'yttembach, of iSienne. \\'vtteml)ach occupied the 
 l'ni\"ersity chair of Theol(),i;'y, and was then establish- 
 ing' a .g'reat reputation for lerirnini^', but still more for 
 the liberal spirit with which he disentam^ded himself 
 from the orthodcjx teachin,L(s of the Church. The 
 bent of W'yttembach's mind may be gathered fri)m 
 a (]uotation trom (jne of his discourses :--•' The time 
 is not far distant,'" he exclaimed, •• when scholastic 
 theology will be abolished, and the primitive teach- 
 ings of the Church restored. The death of Christ 
 is the only ransom of our souls." 
 
 The preaching of such doctrines as these openly 
 from the chair of Theology, and the tintlini;' of eager 
 listeners, were important signs of the times. 
 
 In 131;'! Zwingli was ordained at Constanz, and z-.\- ;';;,■.'.■■ j/ 
 
 shortlv afterwards he was chosen b\' a iDopular \"ote '"''■'"• 
 
 ' ' A A). 1506. 
 
 as the parish prit_-st of (ilaru>. in o|)p()siti(jn to a 
 nominee despatched from Kome. This sti'angrr. one 
 of the numerous class f)f Co!irliJ>iUis already I'eierretl 
 to. whom th(_; j")eople rehised to receixc in spite ot the 
 I'ope's licence, alreruh" possessed several beiietices.
 
 240 HISTORY OP THE SWISS PEOPI.K 
 
 and had further fitted himself for his holy calling 
 by occupying the position at Rome of groom of the 
 Pope's palfrey. 
 
 In Glarus, Zwingli developed very decided opinions 
 on the subject of Swiss mercenary service, and these 
 views he strongly enunciated all through his lite. 
 Many of his parishioners were the descendants of the 
 great martial heroes of Switzerland, and only too 
 eagerly seized every opportunity to emulate the deeds 
 of their ancestors, for high pay under the banner of 
 foreign princes, in quarrels that in no way affected 
 their country. This too often led to Swiss fighting 
 against Swiss, and Zwingli saw with sorrow the 
 frequent spectacle of the mountaineers returning to 
 their homes no longer simple-minded and honest 
 peasants, but hardened desperadoes and worthless 
 rascals, learned in all the vices of their employers. 
 Believing the system would lead to the ruin of the 
 manhood of his country, he addressed forcible appeals 
 to the Confederates to prohibit foreign enlistment. 
 Ihit the authorities were powerless against the evil, 
 and many of them were themseh'es in foreign pay. 
 Later, he embodied his views in a poem he called 
 the " Labyrinth," which forcibly depicted the results 
 Zii'ingli ill of the system, and obtained great celebrity. In 1512 
 Zwingli obtained still further and more personal know- 
 ledge of this subject when, as military chaplain, his 
 duty compelled him to accompany the Crlarus con- 
 tingent raised by the f^ope to expel the h^rench from 
 North Italy, h'or their brilliant services in this cam- 
 paign the Pope conferred the title (;f " The Defenders 
 of the Liberty of the Church "' upon the Swiss, a title 
 many of them were destined tcj earn in a way \ery 
 different from that intended by the I'ontiff. 
 
 Italy, 
 
 A.I)
 
 HISTORY Ol' TH1-; SWISS Pl-Ol'Li: 
 
 •241 
 
 Tliree xx-ars later, Zwin^^li aLfain went in the 
 same capacity to Ital\-. He there enerL^'eticallv tried 
 to dissuade his countrymen from pursuini^' the course 
 that eventually ended in the terrible disaster of Marii^- 
 nano, where thousands of the Swiss were sL-dn by the 
 French and their X'eiietian allies. Zwini,di showed so 
 much zeal in the ser\ice of the I'ope during' his Italian 
 campaigns, and took S(J pr(;minent a part trving to 
 beneht the spiritual condition of his countrymen, that 
 the Pontiff signalised his regard for him by appointing 
 him a Court chaplain, the sid^stantial a.nnual stipend 
 attached to which otlice doubtless being much appre- 
 ciated by the future leader ot the Iveti^rmation, whose 
 income was both small and precarious. On his relurn 
 with the survi\"ors of this battle, Zwini^li c-oinmenced 
 the seri(jus study (jf (ireek, ••in order." as he said, 
 "to draw from the true source the true doctrines of 
 Christ." That these studies bore abundant fruit is 
 shown when he was asked at a later period whether 
 he was a disciple of the (jerman Ketormer. " I am 
 no Lutheran," he replied, "tor 1 understood Cireek 
 bef(jre 1 had heard the name ot Luther." l-"rom the 
 time he obtained a mastery ot this lan^'na^'e, he 
 appeared to have based his religious beliefs solely on 
 the authority (ji the Ciospels, to the exclusion of the 
 traditions and dogmas of the Church. 
 
 An important e\-ent for the cause of the Reforma- 
 tion occurred in 151'^ when, in conseipience of his 
 reputati(jn for elo(iuence, Zwini_;'li was app;iinted 
 preacher to the Abbey <jf b^insieileln. At thi^ lime 
 ICinsietlcln had acijuired great ceK-bi'it}- in conseiiueiice 
 of the peculiar sanctitx' it was brliex'ed to possess. 
 It was ( redited with ha\ing receixcnl \-isits from b;iih 
 
 16 
 
 A n, 151'
 
 242 HISTORY OF TIIT' SWISS PEOPLE 
 
 Christ and the Virgin ]Mary, which visits were en- 
 dorsed by a special Bull of Pope Leo VIII. Crowds 
 of pilgrims from all countries flocked to the Abbey, 
 and soon the fame of Einsiedeln equalled that enjoyed 
 at other times by Delphi, Ephesus and Loretto. 
 
 Here, in the very home and centre of the super- 
 stitious life of Switzerland, Zwingli began his career as 
 a Reformer. Taking the beliefs that brought fame and 
 riches to the Abbey in which he preached, he boldly 
 commenced a crusade against the abuse of voti\-e 
 offerings, pilgrimages, the sale of indulgences, and the 
 other outward signs of religion. He even attacked the 
 sanctity of Einsiedeln and other churches. " Think 
 not," he said to the multitude that crowded round his 
 pulpit, "that God is in the temple more than in any 
 other place in creation. Wherever He has fixed your 
 dwelling He is with you, and hears you as much as 
 at Our Lady of Einsiedeln. \\'hat power can there be 
 in unprofitable works, weary pilgrimages, offerings, 
 prayers to the Virgin and the Saints, to secure you 
 the favour of God? What efficacy in the cowl or shaven 
 head, or priestly garments falling and adorned with gold ? 
 God looks upon the heart, and our hearts are far from 
 God." Taking the Bible as his sole guide, he proceeded 
 as time went on to preach against the errors and super- 
 stitions of the Church, and that with such eloquence and 
 fervour that thousands gathered from all parts to hear 
 him. These discourses, of course, aroused the Alibcy 
 authorities, but being chosen already by ihem they were 
 unable to dismiss him. 
 
 Soon Zwingli's doctrines, disseminated by those 
 who heard him, began to attract attention in many 
 districts far remote from Einsiedeln, and the old Swiss
 
 HISTORY oi" Tin: SWISS i'r.r)!'[,i; 
 
 -43 
 
 spirit of independence hei:;an to assert itself a,t;ainst the 
 fetters of the old faith. Like Luther's \-isit to Ivoine. it 
 was within the citadel of error that Zwin^lis education 
 was completed. And now the lon,i,f- threatened revolt 
 a,L:ainst the I'apacv was to be focussed and brought 
 al)(jut by one of Rome's many llaLrrantlv scandalous 
 methods of extortin.i;' money. 
 
 Whilst Zwinq"li was still at ICinsiedeln, the notorious 
 sale ot indul,i;ences that had already exercised such an 
 intltience a,<(ainst the orthodox (diurch. spread in an 
 ai^f^rawited form int(j Switzerland. 
 
 The occupant c;t the Papal throne at this period 
 was Leo X.. who res(jrted to the expedient of raisin.i,^ 
 sutiicient money to enable him to complete the buildin,^;' 
 ot St. l^eter's at Rome, by sendini^ his emissaries ;imon,i;' 
 the faithful to sell indul,^'■ences. 
 
 Ion' this work, IJernadin Samson, a friar of the FrLir S.n:!<. 
 order of the I'ranciscans at Milan, was selected to ' '' ^ ''^' 
 \isit the districts of Switzerland. Armeil with his red 
 cross, his banners, and with lar,L;'e (juantilies ot '• p;u'ch- 
 ment pardons," Samson crossed the St. (jothard. and 
 be,u"an his traffic in Lri. Here, from the povert}' cd the 
 pc()\)\c, he made little prolit, and accordmirh' went to 
 the wealthier Cant(jn of Schwyx. In his eagerness to 
 collect mcmey, Samson ,L(reatl\' exa,i{,^erated the \-ii'tues 
 (jf his wares ; and did not scruple to tell the simple, but 
 b\' ut) means sinless, Swiss peasants that his indulgences 
 would remit the ,t,Hiilt as well as the penalty oi sins, ami, 
 mc^recwer, not onl\' a})i)lied to sins /:r>7. but also to those 
 that mi^ht at S(jme future time be CfjmnuLtctl. 1 ')\- tlit.>e 
 means tile iraJiC weiit l)r;>kl\- (m in 'Au-. L:iterw:dden, 
 i!rrn and Luzern. In Sciiw\-\ Sam^i'ii was imaiilu to 
 do much business, as, tlirouL;h Zwin^'h's preaehiiiL;', he 
 
 lO J
 
 244 HISTORY OF THK SWISS PEOPLE 
 
 was obliged to quit the state shortly after he entered it. 
 A like fate befel him at Bremgarten, where an enthusi- 
 astic advocate for reform, Bullinger, had already arisen 
 and excited public opinion against the scandal. Samson 
 also received a hostile reception at Baden and Lenzburg, 
 and so extravagant did his pretensions become, that he 
 was forbidden to trade within the diocese of Constanz 
 by the ]:)ishop, himself an ardent supporter of the Pope. 
 Z'd'ingU in Meanwhile Zwingli had been persuaded to relin- 
 
 Zi'irich, .... . . ,,..,,,, . 
 
 A.D. 1519. quish his position at r^msiedem (where he remained 
 two years, and where he was succeeded by his friend 
 and fellow- worker Leo Juda), to accept the still more 
 important post of preacher at the Grossmi'mster at 
 Zurich. At this time Zurich was the chief political 
 centre of Switzerland, and here Zwingli boldly attacked 
 the indulgences and other scandals of the Church, and 
 advocated his religious and political ideas. Chief among 
 these latter were his efforts to wean the Confederates 
 from their foreign alliances, which led to the enlistment 
 and slaughter of so many thousands of the Swiss in 
 foreign wars. 
 
 The only canton that supported Zwingli's policy, 
 and that only for a brief time, was that of Schwyx, 
 which issued an order against foreign service. In 
 Zurich itself, though his impassioned eloquence aroused 
 the people, it was unable to induce the Government to 
 give him more than a half-hearted support. In spite, 
 moreover, of the support of Schwyx, it was this very 
 state that all through the troubles of the post Refor- 
 mation period remained the most persistent in its 
 attachment to Rome, and showed the strongest hostility 
 against the New h'aith. 
 
 The (question of enforced celibacy of the priesthood
 
 Hisi'iiKv ()!■ Tin: SWISS I'l.oii.i-; 245 
 
 had lon,i,'' di\ided opinion in the Church, even ailer it. 
 liad been made a dogma. The e\'ils of this system 
 ha\e ah"eady been ghinced at. The leaders of the 
 Reform were nearly all agreed against it, and either in 
 1523 or 1524, Zwingli practically demonstrated his own 
 views by marrying Anne Reinhardt, the widow of a 
 former ISurgomaster of Zurich. He further emphasised 
 his views and declared his independence by resigning 
 the office the Pope had bestowed on him. 
 
 After making a very lucrative tour of the other FiIji- Suuison 
 Swiss districts. Friar Samson came to offer his goods 
 for sale in Zurich. Here he found his old enemy 
 Zwingli, who had previously proved so sharp a thorn 
 in his flesh at Einsiedeln. The Iveformer"s inllucnce 
 with the citizens was now paramount, and in spite of 
 bribes and threats, Samson was forced to depart with- 
 out increasing his business prolits. Shortly after he 
 returned to Rome, taking with him, according to the 
 chronicles of Stettler, no less than 800,000 crowns 
 collected from the credulous Swiss. 
 
 An instance of the methods this ecclesiastical pedlar 
 resorted to to stir up the purchasing ardour of his 
 customers occurred at Rern. Towards the close of his 
 \isit to this city Samson addressed a great multitude 
 of the faithful in the Cathedral Church, and concluded 
 his harangue by exclaiming, '' I deli\-er from the 
 torments ot purgatory and hell the souls of all the 
 people of Rern who ha\e departed this life. whate\er 
 may lia\e been the manner or the place of their death." 
 Contemporary history is filled with similar examples 
 oi the methods, of a far more monstrous nature, 
 of this lanatical friar, but does not show one brit^hl 
 spot or honest act in his whole career whilst in
 
 S'd'ingli's 
 Teacliinc's. 
 
 246 insi'ORV Ol' TH}^ SWISS PHOFLK 
 
 Switzerland. Like many a modern character, religious 
 and lay, he owed his temporary success solely to the 
 strength of his lungs, the audacious impudence of his 
 statements, and the gross credulity of his hearers. 
 Scarcely, however, had Samson (and his money) left 
 the Confederation than the people realised the fraud 
 he had so profitably perpetrated at their expense. In 
 almost every centre indignant meetings were held, 
 and earnest and eloquent Reform leaders springing up 
 everywhere, the movement was fairly launched. 
 
 Zwingli's whole conception of Christianity now 
 rested upon the authority of the Bible alone. He 
 accordingly rejected the spiritual and temporal power 
 of the Pope and the Church in matters of dogma and 
 doctrine, the in\ocation of Saints and the A'irgin, fasts, 
 penance and pilgrimages, compulsory celibacy of the 
 clergy, the performance of the services of the Church 
 in a strange tongue, the mass, perpetual vows and 
 purgatory. This, indeed, was a change for one brought 
 up strictly according to the doctrines and discipline of 
 the Roman Catholic preparation and practice of the 
 priesthood. 
 
 These views were also those of the other Swiss 
 reformers. Amongst the most important workers in 
 other centres were Hallcr at liern, Mycoiiiiis ((jeishausen) 
 at Luzern, IhilUn^ci' at I'remgarten, Wvitcuilxicli at 
 Rasel, Glarcaniis (Lo\il) at (ilarus, and (Ecohviipadus 
 (which Greek e([uivalent J'^rasnms had best(jwed in lieu 
 of his original name of Ilauschein). 
 
 The general attack against Rome carried on from 
 so many ICuropean centres, but especially from the 
 Iveformed Tarty headed by Luther in Germany, had 
 prexented the Pope till now from giving much attention
 
 Hlh'IoKN" Ol- Till-: SWIi^S 1']:<)1'1,1-. 
 
 247 
 
 to the smaller theatre of the ino\'einent in Switzerland. 
 When, ho\ve\er, he was forced by its rapid pro,L(ress io 
 take measures for its suppression, he hrotight threats of 
 excommunication and (jther coerci\'e weapons t(j bear 
 a',''ainst the Ref'.)rmers. A,<,Minst Zwinj^^Ii himself he 
 lon,^ adopted the op[)osite expedients of flattery and 
 offers of preferment to brintc him back to the fold, and 
 only when he fou.nd these were certain to fail did his 
 attitude change, and thenceforth there was open and 
 declared war on both sides. 
 
 Tr,ou,L,di the new doctrines were rapidly spreadin<( all . 
 o\'er Switzerland, the great majority (jt the Confederate 
 deputies and authorities still remained faithful to the 
 old. In 1522 these determined to att(,'mpt to check 
 forcibly the further llow of the new ideas. Accordin^iy 
 a resolution was introduced at the Diet, then sittin.^" at 
 Luzern, forbiddini;; the clergy to preach imauthorised 
 doctrines. Alter mtich discussion, the tone (jf which 
 clearly foret(dd the terrible struggle to come, this was 
 passed, as was also a decree condemiimg the ideas oi 
 the Reformers as irreligious and harmtid to the peace 
 of the coimtry. 'J'his was e\"identlv the first note of war, 
 and required the cfjndemned part\' to make preparations 
 for defence. In order the better to do so, Zwmgli and a 
 company ot piiests holding his \-iews ix'tired to the (juiet 
 of l-Linsiedeln, to tleliberate u[)Oii tlieii" plan of action. 
 Here the\' lormulated an a[)]")eal to the ("onlederation 
 to re\'oke the edict of i^tizern, and also to permit 
 the marriage of priests. Their petition was not (jnly 
 promptlv rejected, but an cnaler was issued to arre>t its 
 authors, an order that wtis not carried out. 
 
 In the same year Zwingli publi>hrd his famous 
 detence, '• Apologeticus Architeles," in answer to the
 
 248 HISTORY &F THE SWISS PEOPLE 
 
 accusations the l:)ishop of Constanz (in whose diocese 
 he was) and others were hurling against him. Copies 
 of the pamphlet circulated all over Switzerland, and 
 greatly helped to recruit the ranks of the Evangelicals, 
 as the Reformed Party now began to be called. '^ 
 Ai^- 1523- In January of the following year a very important 
 
 congress met at Zurich. At this meeting the chief 
 magistrates of the city, the leading Evangelicals, and 
 some 600 clerical and lay preachers were present. 
 After fully, and on the whole, harmoniously, discussing 
 the situation, and chiefly through the eloquence, 
 moderation, and persuasion of Zwingli, the Govern- 
 ment of Ziirich issued an order, permitting the 
 marriage of priests within its territories, and forbidding 
 the clergy to preach any doctrine that could not be 
 supported by the authority of the Scriptures. 
 
 ]-jy this official act Zurich formally went over to 
 the side of the Reformation, which w\as now for the 
 first time fairly launched, and of which she continued 
 to remain the chief and most powerful champion. 
 
 Towards the close of the year a spirit of fanatical 
 Puritanism — the natural rebound after the long period 
 of licence and irreligion — began to show itself in Zurich. 
 Zwingli had said that graven images were contrary to 
 the law gi\-en by God himself, and quoted the Second 
 
 I liefore adopting the name Evangelicals, the Reformed Party 
 was known as Zwinghans. The members were also called Sacra- 
 mentarians. The name I'rotestant is applied to the Reformed 
 ( German Churches, l)ut the same can also, in a historical sense, he 
 given tf) the Swiss ones, as although tlie latter did not take part in 
 the "protest" to the Diet of Spires in Ajiril, 1529, \et se\eral of the 
 C.erman towns, as alscj the handgrave of Hesse, holding tlie views 
 of Zwingli, were amongst the members who joined the Lutherans 
 in that celebrated "protest "
 
 HISTORY OF THE SWISS PKOFLli 249 
 
 Coininandment in proof of his statement. Actin,i^ upon 
 this the more impetuous of his adherents commenced 
 a crusade ac^ainst ah sacred images, and committed 
 many wanton acts of \-andahsm in the churches, 
 destroying all they could lay their hands upon, which 
 soon led to the total destruction or remo\-al of every 
 image, organ, or work of art from all the Zurich 
 churches. 
 
 These summary acts aroused a feeling of intense 
 indignation in those cantons where Roman Catholicism 
 commanded the majority, and as they still ruled the 
 Councils of the Diets, se\'ere measures of reprisal 
 were determined upon. Evangelical preaching was 
 accordingly once more formally condemned, a general 
 confiscation of all Zwingli's and Luther's writmgs 
 ordered, the leaders of the Iveformation were denounced 
 as promoters of anarchy, and a warrant issued for the 
 arrest of Zwingli himself. Indeed, so great was this 
 outburst of orthodoxy all over Switzerland, that Zurich 
 and Schaffhausen appeared the only states supporting 
 the Reformation, all the others ha\ing declared against 
 it in the General Diet. 
 
 Undaunted by the now threatening state of the 
 countrv, Zurich took another, and a still more impor- 
 tant step forwards in the direction of religious reform. 
 This was done bv the complete secularisation of all 
 con\'ents, monasteries and Church property within her 
 jurisdiction, conx'erting them into schools and hospitals 
 for the citizens. This daring act was eftected with the 
 consent, and axcn support, of the clerg\- and nuns in- 
 terested, to whom pensions were granted, and all gitts 
 of money, ornaments, and other piinis oflerings were 
 allowed t(< return to the original donors or their heirs.
 
 250 HISTORY OF THli SWISS PKOPLK 
 
 The large funds the Government acquired by these 
 means appear to have been wisely and economically 
 managed. The Catholic doctrines and forms of wor- 
 ship were then proscribed (May), and in the following 
 year Zwingli, by order of the authorities, reformed the 
 educational system of the state, appointed professors 
 of classical languages at the University, and founded 
 an academy of theology. 
 
 Assailed as it was by the bitterest hostility on 
 every side, the Reformation had now to grapple with 
 the assaults of one of the many irregular bands that 
 Anabaptists. composed her own army. Driven from Germany, the 
 fanatical sect of the Anabaptists settled in several of 
 the Swiss towns, notably in Ziirich and St. Gallen, 
 where they made hosts of converts. Their anarchical 
 and impracticable ideas at first spread among the poorest 
 classes with the rapidity of a social plague, causing the 
 greatest terror and disorder throughout the territories 
 they invaded. Soon, however, the common-sense of 
 the Swiss majority was aroused, and, after many en- 
 deavours on the part of Ziirich and others to bring 
 about peace, stringent measures were adopted to stamp 
 out the disease, and imprisonment, fines and executions 
 iollowed. Attacked on the one side by tlie Reformers, 
 and on the other by the Catholics (who classed all Dis- 
 senters as etpially heretical), the sect was reduced to 
 order and submission. This result was not accom- 
 plished till an almost national state of anarchy had 
 arisen, and till a large amount of property had been 
 destroyed and much blood shed.^ 
 
 I The Anabaptists niatle tlicir first appearance in Ciermany 
 soon after tiie Keformation, of which mo\'ement tlieir sect was an 
 outcome. Tlieir first leaders, or apostles, were Munzer, Stubner
 
 Hisr()K\' Of Till-: ^wiss ri:oi-i.L 251 
 
 Al this period l-Sasul, Iroin its wealth and learnini^ J^.isd. 
 and the lustre it deri\-ed from bein^; the residence of 
 l-^rasnuis, the foreinost scholar of his day, was rapidly 
 becoming,'- tlie most important city in Switzerland. 
 Mere the majority was opposed to the Evan^'^elicals, 
 thouL(h the eloijuent preaching of Q-xolanipachis and 
 others had done much to draw the people from the 
 Catholic commtmion. In iiasel, moreo\-er, the writin<^''s 
 of l-"rasmus, who li\'ed long in the city, did niuch to aid 
 the cause of religious reform, though latterly the coarse 
 methods and fanaticism of the Protestants disgusted 
 the liner instincts of JCrasmus, and made him, if not an 
 enemy, at any rate, a neutral in the contest. Of the 
 rural cantons, Schwvx took the lead as a centre ot 
 
 and Storck, all of whom were disciples of J.uthcr before thcv com- 
 menced their career of taniastic fanaticism. Ik'sdnniiii; to preach 
 their pecidiar d(.)Ctrines in NWatemlier^ in 1^21, the\- soon attracted 
 im.mense numbers of followers, who, tour \-ears later, rose in re- 
 hellion a,i,^ainst the authorities in Saxon_\-, Swahia and other 
 diistricts. The risinj,' was suppressed, and T^Iunzer executed. In 
 i^ji the mtnement, supported exclusi\'eh' 1)\' the poorest secti<'ns 
 of societ}-, Ijroke out a;;ain, and an immense mob of .\nabaptists, 
 under the leadership lA a baker, r.ameti Matthias, attacked and 
 actually captiu'ed Minister. Mattliias was iiroclaimed Kin.L; of the 
 cit\-, which he re-named Moiuit Zion, anil e\"er\- furm of excess 
 follfjwed. l[a\'in_;", however, niadh" undeiiaken, with onl\' ihirt\" 
 followers, to repid an attack made hv some troops, \\ho attempted 
 to re-ca}iture the cit\", Matthias and all with him \sere slain, .\ 
 tailor ot he\'den, named Johaiin i JijCLokit, \>.as next elected to the 
 ro\'al di:-:nit\', and under Ids ride the; anarchical excesses tif his sub- 
 ject-- became e\en more outrage' lus, Tlie new monarch enforced 
 a lilieral pol\,i^am\-, and himselt >et an example b\- takinj; lourteen 
 \\i\-es. In i=iJ5 the cit\- was captured b\ the l')ishoj)'s soldiers, 
 and most of the .\nabaptists executed \\ith the most fiendish tor- 
 tures. The (kictrines, it such tluw ma\- be termed, held b\" this 
 sect embraced a species tA primiti\-e ( diri--tianit\ , with adult 
 baptism, communit\- of ;^'ocids, special inspirations Irom Clod, 
 and complete treedc. >m from man-made laws
 
 252 HISTORY OF THE SWISS PEOPLE 
 
 militant Romanism, and here, moreover, the general 
 body of the priests showed in their mode of living, a 
 marked absence of those demoralising propensities that 
 in other districts characterised their fellows. In Glarus, 
 Thurgau and the Graubiinden the Reformation made 
 marked and rapid progress. 
 
 Actual hostilities between the two divisions into 
 which Switzerland was now split up appeared inevitable. 
 But before the storm broke another effort was made to 
 preserve peace. For this purpose a general congress 
 was called of representatives of all the cantons to meet 
 A.D. 1526. at liaden in Aargau during this year (1526) to discuss 
 publicly the Evangelical doctrines. Though a safe- 
 conduct had been offered to Zwingli with an invitation 
 to attend, the Ziirich Council forbade his going, possibly 
 remembering the fate of another Reformer, Johann lluss. 
 who lost his life from relying on the value of a similar 
 document. In his place Qicolampadus and Haller 
 championed the Reformers" cause. ^ After many days of 
 wordy warfare, a vote was taken on the matters under 
 discussion, when the Catholics, being greatly in the 
 majority, carried all before them. Zwingli and his 
 co-religionists were condemned to excommunication as 
 heretics, and their doctrines were pronounced false and 
 harmful to the country. Against this verdict the repre- 
 sentatives of iiern. Rase), Clarus, Schaffhausen and 
 Zuricli entered an unavailing protest. Many arrests, 
 
 I The nt)t()riou.s Dr. ICck and l-'aher ol C'onstan/. were the chiel 
 exponents of the Catholic \ie\vs at this Con.nress. lack's manner ol 
 argiiinL; is thus depictecl in a contemporary pc^em : 
 
 " l'".ck stamps his ieet, and claps his hands, 
 
 1 le ra\es, he swears, he scolds ; 
 ' i do,' cries he, ' witat Rome commands, 
 And teach whate'er she holds.' "
 
 HISTORY OF THE SWISS PEOPLI-: 253 
 
 much persecution, and several executions followed as a 
 result of this meeting,''. 
 
 Meanwhile the powerful state of r5ern was rapidly Br,'>t. 
 becoming lea\-ened with the new views on religious 
 matters. Two years after the Congress of hjaden, the 
 Bern Council assembled another congress, to which they 
 invited the Bishops (none of whom attended), the chief 
 exponents of the old and of the new doctrines, Zwingli, 
 and the representati\ es of the cantons. b>efore the 
 discussion commenced, the Council laid down as a pre- 
 liminary rule, "that no argument should be admitted 
 which was not based on a text of Scriptures." This 
 rule, of course, greatly handicapped the champions of 
 Roman Catholicism. After sitting for nineteen davs, 
 the Congress published the result of its labours in a 
 series of ten propositions. These propositions declared 
 that all true religion is grounded exclusively upon the 
 doctrines contained in the Bible ; Christ is the sole 
 Saviour and only Mediator with God ; no Scriptural 
 authority exists for the dogma of the real presence in 
 the Eucharist nor for those concerning the mass, pur- 
 gatory, images, or enforced celibacy of priests. They 
 further set forth the perniciousness of immorality, 
 especially in the clergy. The ]5ernese authorities then 
 issued an edict abrogating the jurisdiction of the four 
 Diocesan J]ishops (Constanz, Lausanne, Basel and 
 Sion) over their territories and establishing the secular 
 authority above that of the Church. As a result, the 
 clergy were re(]uircd in future to take an oath of 
 allegiance to the Council. This change in the public 
 religious belief of Bern was second only in impcjrtance 
 to that of Zurich. A similar change shortlv after 
 took place in A[)penzell, Basel, Constanz, Soluthurn,
 
 Marburg 
 A.D. 1529 
 
 254 HISTORY Ol' THE SWISS PF.OPI.I-: 
 
 St. Gallen and Miihlhausen, which towns then formed a 
 union with Zurich in favour of rehgious hberty {Christ- 
 lichcs Biti'gyccht). Whilst the movement was thus ex- 
 tending in the (jerman portion of the Confederation, 
 a similar change was steadily going on in the French 
 divisions, but as this was distinct, as well as of itself 
 highly important, its consideration will be reser\-ed for 
 the next chapter. 
 Conference of As many minor points of difference had long 
 
 existed between the German and the S\\iss Reformers 
 which acted detrimentally to both movements, a 
 Conference was called in 1529 at AIarl)urg, to try if 
 possible to arrive at an agreement. iVt this meeting, 
 Luther, Zwingli, Melanchon, (Ecolampadus, and seve- 
 ral other well known leaders were present. Fourteen 
 articles of their common faith were drawn up, but 
 over the subject of the Eucharist it was found im- 
 possible to come to a mutual belief, a subject that has 
 ever remained the great dixiding fjuestion between 
 Lutheran and Swiss l^rotestants. 
 Catholic '-'-"o counteract the alliance formed between Zurich 
 
 Union, j^nd the other Evangelical states, the Catholic Cant()ns 
 
 A.D. 1529. 
 
 of Uri, Schwyx, Unterwalden, Luzern and Zug, formed 
 an union amongst themseh'es [CJivistliclie Vcrciniguiig), 
 and further made an offensive and defensive alliance 
 with Austria. Every effort was used to induce the 
 Swiss Catholics to relinc^uish their .Vustrian alliance, 
 but without result, and nothing but war now appeared 
 capable of ending the religious and political dilferences 
 of the Confederates. 
 Impcndiuf^ l^cligious fury dulled all sense of justice or mode- 
 
 , , .,„ ' ' ration on Wa\\ sides, and l^"otestanls and C^atholics 
 
 A.I). I334. 
 
 alike eagerly demanded the arbitrament of the sword.
 
 HISTORY OF Tin: swiss I'Kopi.F. 255 
 
 W ithout coiisullini,'- her allies, Zurich suddenly declared 
 war and inarched a force to Kappel. IMoodshed was, 
 ho\ve\-cr, happily averted by the prompt intervention 
 of the neutral states, and peace patched up. ]!y the 
 terms of this peace the Austrian alliance was annulled, 
 and relii^dous freedom i^aanted to every separate state 
 (June 2r)th, 1534). 
 
 During the next two years, the intemperate zeal Zuri.Ii. 
 and overbearing spirit of Ztirich led her to proscribe 
 the Catholic faith in St. ("jallen, an act she (juicklv 
 followed by the suppression of the monastery. JJoth 
 these arbitrary measures were done against the advice 
 of Bern, and in open violation of the rights of Luzern, 
 Glarus and Schwyx. the co-protectors with her of the 
 monastery. 
 
 The Catholics on their part made many arrests in 
 the neutral territories of the Common IJaili wicks, and 
 throughout the Confederation relisiicjus bigotry and 
 hatred caused persecution and risings to threaten a 
 general state of anarchy.^ 
 
 The first step towards war was taken l^y Zurich. 
 At a general Diet held at IJaden in 1531, the (io\-ern- ,\,i). 1531. 
 ment assumed a high tone, and demanded that the 
 Cathcjlics should permit the reading of the Scriptures 
 in the tongue of the people in their districts. At 
 this Diet the Protestant Cantons created further dis- 
 c(;rd l)y objecting to the majority of xotes taken o\-er 
 
 I Two special ir.stances r)f the barliarous tanaticism of tlit.' 
 times neaii\- broULjht on war soii;i(!r than it real!)' occurred. A 
 Catholic ol!icial from tlie Thiir,L;au was found in the streets (jf 
 Zurich. lie was at ojice seized, thrown intd jiri-on, and slmrtly 
 afti'rward.-. executed. (Mav /.th, tsj^i .\ few week-, later, the 
 ("athdlics, in re\"en:.;e, arretted a I 'n ite-^tant pastor in Schwyx, and 
 burnt him ali\-e.
 
 256 HISTORY OF THE SWISS PEOPLE 
 
 religious matters in the Diets being a conclusive test, 
 " for the CathoHc Cantons, being many and small, 
 were always sure of a majority against the Evangeli- 
 cal ones, which, though few, were large." 
 
 Zurich, after this meeting, in order to coerce the 
 Catholic Cantons, refused to hold any commercial re- 
 lations with them — even refusing to supply them with 
 necessary articles such as salt, which the Waldstiitten 
 were accustomed to buy from her merchants. 
 Civil Way, At last, in October, 1531, the chiefs of Zug, Uri, 
 
 AD- 1531- Unterwalden and Schwyx assembled at Brunnen and 
 declared war against Zurich and Bern. 
 
 This declaration found Ziirich totally unpre- 
 pared. Only a few hundreds of the local militia 
 could be brought together ; but in spite of this, and 
 of J:>ern leaving her ally to defend herself unaided, 
 she pluckily determined to fight as best she could. 
 On their side the Catholics, supported by help from 
 Italy and Savoy, were able to gather an army of some 
 8,000 men. Zwingli, in order to inspire confidence, 
 accompanied the little band of Zurich troops, against 
 the remonstrances of his friends and the advice of 
 the authorities. Once more the two sides met at 
 Battle of Kappel, and this time fought the issue to the end. 
 
 Kappel, Before the battle, the Protestants were joined by a 
 
 Oct. II, 1531. -^ 
 
 hurriedly collected band of 1,200 men from the neigh- 
 bouring districts, but even with these they could only 
 muster about 1,800 soldiers. The battle opened at 
 mid-day on October nth with a heavy cannonade, 
 which was kept up for three hours, when a reinforce- 
 ment of 2,000 men arrived from Ziiricli. Before these 
 could recover from the fatigues and disorder of their 
 hurried march, a general attack was made by the
 
 !IIS1MK\ OI- rill, SWISS I'l.Ol'I.i. 2=,~ 
 
 Catholics. For a IfJii^^ time the Zurirhcrs held their 
 own, and t'lghtint^' with all the heroism of the ancient 
 times of their iightin,i( fame, kept their opponents 
 back. J hit at last inferiority of numbers and fatigue 
 decided the issue. 'Jdie Catholics made another and 
 a more furious charj^e, carried all befcjre them, and 
 a f^ameral rout followed. Little rjuarter was <,d\en, 
 and none to the wounded who refused to abjure 
 their faith. The losses of Zurich on that fatal dav 
 amounted to about 1.300, amony'st whom were hfteen 
 clergymen and twenty-six councillors, but most im- 
 portant of all, the great leader of the Reform himself. 
 The wounded Zwingli was found after the battle D,\<t/! cf 
 among a heap of dead and dying by some Catholics " ' '' 
 who, not recognising him, asked if they should ietch 
 him a priest to recei\-e his confession and perform the 
 last rites of the Church. On Zwingli refusing, one 
 of the soldiers ran him through the body with his 
 spear and killed him outright. Next day a court- 
 martial was held on the ccH'pse, which was ordert'd 
 t(j be (juartered by the connnon execution.er, to be 
 afterwards publicly burnt, and the ashes, mixed with 
 refuse, to be thrown to th(.' winds. At Kappel, 
 Zwingli's wife lost her husband, her son, and her 
 breather, her brother-in-law, and her son-in-law. 
 Thus perished in his forty-eighth year the great ive- 
 former of Switzerkuid, a man who, m spite ot the 
 position his talents had raised him to, and the bitter 
 jealousies and angry passions arcnmd him, maintained 
 his single-hearted piety, his di>intere^tediK'SS, his 
 honesty, and his hcjnour, unharmed and unchanged 
 till the moment he met his death in tht: lli^charge 
 of his duty. 
 
 17
 
 258 HISTORY OF TllV: SWISS PEOPLE 
 
 A few days after this decisive defeat, another 
 force from Zurich, aided by a contingent from J3ern, 
 met with a similar reverse in the neighbourhood of 
 Zug, a result in great measure due to the desertion 
 of the Ijernese troops at the critical moment of the 
 battle. Their disasters, coupled with the conduct of 
 J^ern and the loss of Zwingli, so depressed the people 
 of Zurich that they were only too willing to sign 
 Peace, terms of peace in the following month (November 
 
 fi^- 30. 1531- ^Q^-]-^^ 1531). This second treaty not only conferred 
 religious liberty upon every state, but also upon every 
 district. Coupled with these terms was added a stipu- 
 lation forbidding any canton from forcing its religion 
 upon any other part of the country. 
 
 The main result of this treaty was the separation of 
 Switzerland into two great religious divisions, Protest- 
 ant and Catholic. The former, which included Zurich, 
 Bern, Schaffhausen, J]asel, half of Appenzell, and a 
 portion of the Graubiinden, selected Aarau as its chief 
 centre. The Catholics, who numbered Zug, Luzern, 
 Schwyx, Uri, Unterwaldcn, Freyburg, Solothurn, half of 
 Appenzell, a part of the C^raubiinden, and St. Callen, 
 took I.Aizern as their capital. This di\ision gave the 
 Catholic party 17 out of the total of 27 votes comprising 
 the general Confederate Diet. 
 Heniy After Zwingli's death, Henry ihiUinger, a young, 
 
 " '"■""■ but able and eloquent divine, a man possessing great 
 tact and moderation, was appointed in his place, and 
 soon restored the I^^vangelicals to confidence and calm. 
 His chief efforts were directed to bring about union in 
 the l'2vangelical camp, now split up into numerous fac- 
 tions. In (jrder the better to do tliis lie called together 
 a synod of the chief I'rotestant leaders. This important
 
 HISTORY or Tin-: swiss I'i:(^i'i.e 259 
 
 meeting took place at Basel, in 1334, '^'^'-^ resulted in the 
 formal drawini; up of a series of resolutions enil)()d\-ini( 
 the chief tenets held by the Swiss Protestants. It was 
 called the "Ileh'ctic Confession of I'aith," and was //:/::',v 
 essentially the same as the belief held by the Kirks of y.-,,',;," 
 Scotland, the I'rench I-iefDrmed Church, and the .greater -^ "• ^53\- 
 number of the Churches ot Holland. 
 
 " b^\-ery confession of faith partakes of the character 
 of the age in which it is written, but that of bUillinger 
 may be said to be better than its age. It was neither 
 the olfspring of polemical disputation nor the cold calcu- 
 lating work ol an assembly of theologians ; it was the 
 effusion of a pious mind, animated by a wish for peace. 
 It was the work of a man who, wdien he wrote it, 
 thought himself on the brink of the gra\'e, and it partook 
 of the solemnity of that last period of existence. There 
 was no mention of anathema in it " — (N'ullieminj.
 
 CHAPTER XIII 
 
 THE RKFORMATIOX IX TinC F REXCH-SPKAKIXG DIVISIOXS 
 OF S\VITZF:RI.AXr) 
 
 A.I). 1524- Tfif: birth and progress of the I'iefonnation in the 
 
 "*■ German districts of Switzerland having been traced, 
 
 its growth in the French cantons must now be con- 
 sidered. In these, as in the districts where Italian 
 was the language of the people, the spread of the new 
 theological ideas was marked by much less enthu- 
 siasm, and occurred more slowly than in the German 
 portion. 
 
 Fairl, The birthplace of the French Protestant Church 
 
 '^' ' in Switzerland is the little town of Aigle at the end 
 of the Rhone Valley in \'aud. Here, in 1534, 
 Guillaume Farel, an enthusiastic Reformer, who had 
 been expelled from France, setlled under the name 
 of Ursinus, and supported himself by teaching in 
 the local schools. He was born in 14^9, in the 
 Dauphine mountains, and brought up in strict con- 
 formity with the doctrines of the Church of Rome. 
 He early exhibited a character marked by a passion- 
 ate longing after religion, and an eager rcadmess to 
 accept tlie legends and teachings of the (Church as 
 true. Being thus by nature well-litted for the priest- 
 hood he was educated lor that calling, and having 
 c(jmpleted his studies was ordained.
 
 iii^'i'()i<\" <)i- 'I'iii-: hwiss I'lj )i'i.i-: 
 
 261 
 
 In 1510. he was sent to the I'nixersity of l\'iris, . 
 where he led a lite ot almost monastic asceticism, 
 passinj^' all the time he could spare from study in 
 fasts, prayers antl penances. in Paris he became 
 acquainted \vith the celebrated Doctor Leievre of 
 Etales, wh(3se broad opinions ami iCxangelical preach- 
 int;, rank him as the first Reformer of ncjte in b^rance. 
 This acijuaintanc(; soon ripened into iriendship. and 
 through the elder scholar's teaching' and influence, 
 the mind ot the voun<,''er underwent a .i^'reat and 
 lastin,<^f chan^^^e. 'I'his cdian,L;'e e\entually led the 
 ter\-ent and pitnis ('atholic student to become one 
 ot the foremost fanatical Iveforniers of his dav. 
 Takint,^ up the new doctrines with all the ardour of 
 his enthusiastic nature, b'arel soon distim^aiished him- 
 self by his elofjuence and his boldness in l^aris, as 
 in sexeral other I'rench towns. In this he was 
 greatly helped by the encouraL^ement and protecticjn 
 of Lefe\'re, ISricomiel. as ol Mar<(aret of X'alois. the 
 beautitvd, learned and pious sister of King' hVancis I. 
 In spite of this protection, h^u-el's boldness in exposing' 
 the abuses (;t the (diurch chew down the united 
 attacks oi the whole clericcd i)arty upon him, as well 
 as incurred the emnily of the all - powerful ( hieen 
 Mother, Louisa oi Saxoy.' These attacks obli,L;'ed 
 
 ! I.ijui^a of S:u'()\-, so not'jrious tnr Iut ,L;;ill;uurics ami the 
 open licunlioiisiKjss of her " laiiics ot honour," loiinil a rea 1\" 
 assistant in her \iolL'nt persecution of the earl\- i-'rench Keforiners 
 in her ta\-oiirite, the vicious aivl a\'ariciou.^ Itiiprat, \slio throu-h 
 her inlluence held the important ])osition ol Chancellor of the 
 Kin,L,'iloni. 1 )uprat is clescrilu'd \)v the contemporar\- histm-ian 
 Helcarius, as "the most \icioiis ot bipeds" In order to add to 
 his wealth, he freipienth' made justice c_lependent upon bribes 
 tcD himself, and that he miL,du possess sonie of the richest (dnirch 
 benefices, himself tu(jk hoh' orders
 
 262 niSTORV Ol' THE SWISS PKOFIJi 
 
 I'^arel to lea\'e every town he entered, and culminated 
 in his finally being expelled the country. 
 
 A.D. 1524. In 1524, he entered Switzerland and took up his 
 
 residence in Basel. Here, with other exiled com- 
 patriots, he founded a French Church, and diligently 
 laboured, both by his preaching and writings, to further 
 the Evangelical cause. In this town Farel met and 
 formed a close friendship with CBcolampadus, the in- 
 fluence of whose mild and conciliatory character did 
 much to modify his own fiery impetuosity. He also 
 
 Erasmus. came in contact with Erasmus, but repelled by his 
 
 vacillating conduct towards the Reformers, refused to 
 join in the homage all Christendom was then paying 
 that great literary arbiter, and, between the two, 
 henceforth there ever existed open and bitter emnity. 
 li^rasmus seems never weary of using the most relent- 
 ness invective when referring to Earel. He speaks of 
 him as the most seditious spirit and the greatest 
 liar he ever met, having a heart charged with vanity, 
 and a tongue filled with malice. In place of Farcins, 
 Erasmus was accustomed to write Fallicus, a char- 
 latan — a word he coined from Falla, a trick. 
 
 In order the better to spread Evangelical doctrines, 
 Farel visited Schaffhausen, Constanz and Zurich, where 
 he was warmly welcomed by Zwingli, ]\Iyconius, and 
 the other leading Swiss Reformers. liut he was not 
 fated for long to labour in this portion of the Con- 
 federation, as the machinations of h^rasmus and the 
 Catholic party succeeded in inducing the authorities 
 to issue an order for his expulsion from Basel. Forced 
 a second time to become an exile, the future looked dark 
 indeed, when at this juncture his reputation procured 
 him the pastorship of Montheliad. But even in this
 
 HisioKV oi i-iU': SWISS i'i;()i'i.i: 263 
 
 secluded spot his enemies pursued liini. and after 
 
 ha\-in,i:;' been able only to commence work in liis new 
 
 field, he was once more expelled (1525). He then ad. 13^5. 
 
 returned secretly to ISasel for a while, and afterwards 
 
 settled in Altaic, when he set about the real work of his 
 
 life, the Reforiuation ot the I'^'ench-speakini; districts of 
 
 Switzerland. Of this work b'arel was both the pioneer 
 
 and the leading spirit, thouj^di he was <(reatly assisted 
 
 by the help of a youthful friend, named Pierre X'iret, a 
 
 nati\'e (jf Orbe. 
 
 IMakini;' Aigde the centre of their labours, the Re- 
 formers for t\\() years scoured the surrounding country, 
 preaching and lecttiring under difficulties of e\ery kind, 
 being opposed by the clergy, the monks, and the \-ast 
 mass of the people. Neither did imprisonments, fines, 
 and other punishments abate their ardour, but rather 
 tended to increase their efforts. 
 
 In considering the career of l-^irel as a Protestant 
 missiotiary, it must be remembered that the \'aud dis- 
 tricts at this time were under the rtile of sex'cral stales, 
 holding very dixerse \iews on religious matters, and 
 having political interests (piite apart from one anc.nher. 
 ]\Iany of the towns and villages were unck'r the jt)int 
 rule of I'Veybtirg (Catholic) and J!ern (Protestant), 
 whilst each of these cities also ])ossessed separate dis- 
 tricts of their own. Sa\ oy and Cieneva again were also 
 masters in many localities. Moreo\er, the situation 
 was rendered still more difficult from the fact that, while 
 the Catholic authorities ot Saxoy and breyburg ener- 
 getically supportetl their co-religionists, the Protestant 
 ones of liern maintained the half-hearted polic-y they 
 had pursued at Kappel - -(jene\-a, where both religions 
 were nearly ecjual in number of their adherents, was too
 
 i-'an-l at 
 
 NciuiuUcI, 
 
 AD. 1530. 
 
 264 HISTORY OF Tin: SWISS l'i;OI'LK 
 
 much occupied with political troubles to attend to 
 others outside her walls. 
 
 Some of the most rancorous opposition displayed 
 against Farel was seen at Orbe. Here his greatest 
 opponents were the women, who were stirred up to a 
 pitch of fanaticism by the preaching of a handsome 
 young I'ranciscan friar named Juliani. Soon the whole 
 town was in an uproar, and many serious crimes were 
 committed. This condition at last became so serious 
 that Bern for once roused herself, and enforced a decree 
 that both Farel and Juliani should be allowed free 
 speech, but should abstain from personal invectives. 
 Similar outbursts of religious feeling occurred in many 
 of the other towns over which Bern and I'^reyburg held 
 divided authority. 
 
 In 1530 Farel succeeded in firmly establishing the 
 Reform at Morat and Vully, and that in spite of the now 
 active opposition of the citizens of Freyburg, who, not 
 content with casting the Reformer into prison, used the 
 whole strength of their powerful forces to stamp out the 
 effects of his teachings. I'^rom this time the new faith 
 spread rapidly throughout Western Switzerland and to- 
 wards the close of the year a great Reform victory was 
 won by the renunciation of Catholicism by the important 
 town of Neuchatel, when Farel was installed chief of the 
 local Church. As a result a printing-press was set up for 
 the first time in this city, whence issued numerous livan- 
 gelical works to all parts of the country. Farel's new 
 position and increased local duties in no way interfered 
 with his active efforts to extend his faith among the mass 
 of the people, though he made but little progress among 
 the Vaudois peasants, then, as now, staunch adherents 
 of the Roman creed. Mis crowning and most important
 
 iiisioRV oi- riii; SWISS I'lioi'i.i: 2ti^ 
 
 xiclory, lio\ve\'er, \Vcisolit;iined by his con(}uesl oi Cienexa. 
 a city cleslinctl for many years to be the centre ot the 
 Retorniation in h2urope. Already he and his followers 
 had made several enerj^'etic eiforts to win o\-er Geneva, 
 and in so doini,^ had narrowly escaped death at the hands 
 of the turbulent inhabitants, urged on bv the priests. 
 Though at iirst beaten in the contest they had succeeded 
 in making their doctrines known, and soon a compact and 
 energetic Protestant party arose in open opposition to the 
 Catholics. ISoth bodies paraded the streets armed, and 
 frecjuent sanguinary encounters resulted. Then JJern 
 and Freyburg joined the iray, the former supporting the 
 Protestants and the latter the Catholics. After a long 
 series (jf struggles the Pishop was expelled and I'\u"el 
 placed at the head ot the new Church (ALarch, 1534). 
 
 Jjcfore further sunnnarising the political and re- Cnii'r.!. 
 ligious e\-ents that so rapidly changed the whole future ■■^■"' ^^^"^" 
 of (jene\-a and brought her from local to i'AU-opean 
 importance, it will l)e as well brietl}- to trace her history 
 during the time immediately anterior to these changes. 
 
 bSefore the ihth century the Counts and Pishops of 
 (ieneva and the districts belonging thereto exercised the 
 chief go\'erning functions over thci city, and administered 
 the courts ot law. The J^ishop, who was cx-oijicio a 
 Prmce of the b^mpire, was elected by the Chapter and 
 the burghers. Petween the rule of these two authorities, 
 the citizens gradually increased their })ower, and at last 
 were able to choose the City 'treasurer and the four 
 syndics from amongst their own number, and befori- 
 fresh taxes were impcxsed or any measure of importanci' 
 decided upcni, their opinion was taken by a consultation 
 with their C^ieneral Assembly. Already in i ^■y^'J the 'Vn i ^S;. 
 liberties of the people were embodied in a charier, antl
 
 266 HISTORY OF THi: SWISS PKOFLK 
 
 on his election these were sworn to by tlie Bishop. 
 This, howe\-er, was often merely a formality, and till a 
 much later date the 15ishop seldom allowed the charter 
 to interfere with the exercise of his own will. 
 
 Meanwhile the neighbouring House of Savoy was 
 gradually increasing in pow'er. Among the many 
 ambitious projects constantly aimed at by this House 
 was the establishment of its supremacy over Geneva. 
 In 1285 an alliance was formed between Sa\-oy and the 
 
 A.D. 1417. citizens. In 1417 the then Count Amadeus VIII. (after- 
 wards I'ope Felix Y.) purchased from the collateral heirs 
 of the last Count of Geneva all their rights, and obtained 
 the Emperor's sanction to this arrangement, as well as 
 the title of Duke. He then made a proposal to the 
 Bishop to buy his temporal rights also. So far the 
 burghers had submitted, but this fresh move roused 
 such a burst of indignation that the Bishop (who was 
 willing enough to agree to the Duke's terms), thought 
 
 A.D. 1420. it prudent to break off the negotiations (1420). In the 
 same year the Emperor formally recognised Cjenewa as 
 an imperial city, subject only to the jurisdiction of the 
 limpire, but having many and more weighty concerns 
 to occupy his attention, neither he nor his successors 
 took any steps to enforce this decree. Every year the 
 influence of Savoy became more pronounced in Gene\'a, 
 a condition of affairs greatly due to the Duke succeeding 
 in effecting the election of l^ishops for a long lime who 
 were members of the Sa\oy family. 
 
 A. IX 1519. In 1519, Duke Charles HI. made a bold bid to 
 
 obtain complete control over the city by imitating the 
 example of his ancestors a century before, and taking 
 to himself tlie rights exercised by the I)ishop. Once 
 more a popular and energetic protest was made, and an
 
 HisTOKv oi- THi: SWISS iMCoi'Li; 267 
 
 appeal was seni to I'^reyburg tor support. At this lime 
 Freybur,i,% already in 147S allied with (jene\-a, showed 
 great friendship for the burghers, due in great measure 
 to the jealousy with which she \-iewed Savoy's increasing 
 power. She accordingly gladly extended her protection 
 and renewed her alliance. 
 
 At this period anything but unanimity existed 
 among the burghers themsel\"es, who were divided into 
 two great parties, those who favoured Sa\'oy. and those 
 who preferred independence. This latter di\"ision, which 
 was by far the more numerous, ex'entually became 
 identitied with the Reformers, and took as their name 
 Eiili^aiosscii (bound by oath, referring either to them- 
 sel\"es or to their connection with the Confederates), a 
 name that through French distortion in pronunciation 
 was con\-erted into Jiidgitciwis or Huguenots.^ and as 
 such was applied to the K\'angelicals ot France. 
 The sympathisers with Sa\'oy were known as the 
 MdJiicloulis. 
 
 Despite this treaty the unfortunate C^ienexese were 
 
 I Thou.u'h this is the usuahv accepted (leri\-ation, much dispute 
 has occurred as to the orii;in of the word. The followin^L,'' are 
 some of the manv in,L,'enious, thouijh apparently im.a,i;inar\-, deri\'a- 
 tioits that ha\x' had champions. I'rom Ihti^ n>. one of the uates of 
 Tours, supposed to be haunted, at which the Refornters of that town 
 held their first meetinj^s, usualh' at nii;ht. I'rom //;.'.' ;;<.<, with 
 v.-hich words a I'rotest of the Protestants commencetl (Dr. Hook). 
 Ilu^uairt appears as a siu'nami.', in I'rance as earl\- as the i.)th 
 centur\', and possibly a heretic of that name or one called Uu-^ius, 
 llw:- n or //»!,•", may ha\-e been the ori,u'inaior (if the term. The first 
 documentarv e\ddence oi the name beini; applied to the C.'ahdnists 
 occurs in a letter written b\- the Cajuiu ot \'illars, Ideutenant- 
 i;overn(;r of J.an,L;uedoc, bearini; the date Xox-ember iith, i5'>o. 
 Ilui^uci. moreover, \s-as the name of one ot the three leaders ot the 
 democratic party, the two others being bSerthelier and the tamous 
 I'ranijOis Boni\ard.
 
 268 HISTORY OF TIH; SWISS PICOPLK 
 
 subjected to many acts of persecution by the Duke. 
 Frcfiuent revolts followed, but these were promptly 
 suppressed with the greatest severity, and an increased 
 rigour of government resulted. 
 A.D. 1525. This condition lasted till 1525, when, in conse- 
 
 quence of the absence of the greater part of the Savoy 
 forces in the Milanese wars, the burghers made a more 
 determined attempt than before to shake off their foreign 
 yoke. Unfortunately for the success of the enterprise 
 the Duke suddenly returned and (juickly restored his 
 authority by executing the chief leaders of the move- 
 ment. 
 
 The following year saw the dawn of a brighter 
 prospect for Geneva's freedom, which was none the 
 less promising because it opened with increased 
 'I'n'aty 'd'lth miseries and further bloodshed. An effort had long 
 /''V'"'^ been made to obtain a real and binding treaty with 
 
 A.I). 1520. the powerful States of Dern and bTeyburg. This 
 was now accomplished, but only upon the costly 
 terms the Swiss were able to dictate, and Oenewa was 
 obliged to accept. In return for the promise of the 
 two cantons " to defend Geneva against all attacks 
 on her persons, properties, privileges, liberties, juris- 
 diction and ancient usages,"' the city undertook a 
 similar engagement towards Bern and I'^-cyburg (1526). 
 Ijut in addition to this, Cieneva agrcuul tliat while 
 she would furnish whatever aid was necessary to 
 her allies at her own expense, she would pay for all 
 assistance they gave her. The treaty, coupled with 
 the threatening aspect of Hern towards the Sa\'oy 
 districts of \'aud, caused the J^uke to withdraw for a 
 time his garrison from Cieneva. Xo sooner did the 
 last soldier leax'c th.'in the iCidgenossen party took
 
 )nsi'nK\- ni Tin; swiss im:opi.k 269 
 
 control of the city, and emphasised thtnr position by 
 expelhn,i( their opponents, the Manielouks, and confis- 
 cating their property. Fear of liern prevented the Duke 
 from taking open \-engcance by war for even this 
 arbitrary treatment of his followers. He contented 
 himself with assisting the exiles and prohibiting all 
 trade between his subjects and those of (jeneva. 
 
 Less cautious than their nominal lord, the warlike La^uc < / 
 Savoyard nobles formed with the Mamelouks a league y''/'/.;' 
 against (jene\'a. and at once commenced active 
 hostilities. They destroyed all the estates in the 
 suburban districts, killed everyone v.-ho fell into their 
 hands, and then regularly blockaded the city. Within 
 Genewa, during this disastrous period, the citizens 
 bra\-ely maintained their position, and resisting all 
 offers from the Duke and his supporter, the Dishop, 
 waited patiently and with hope ior the succour of 
 their Swiss allies. 
 
 The seeds of the Reform b\arel and his followers 
 had already sown in (ieneva were beginning to bring 
 forth abundant fruit in the numbers of citizens who 
 now openly professed lv\'angelical dc~ictrines. The Iveiorm 
 MoN'ement was also greatly aided by 15oni\'ard, Prior 
 ot St. X'ictor, who enthusiasticallv espoused and elo- 
 quently preached its principles. Here, as elsewhe're, 
 the Reformation owed much of its success to the fla- 
 grant innn(;rality of the clergy. Neither can this be 
 wondered at when, according to the account (;f Ruchat, 
 the Rishoj) himself had the audacity, during the Lent 
 of 1527, t(j abduct a yomig woman tjf respectable 
 family, and was only forced to restore her to her pai'enls 
 bv the threatening aspect of the peoi)k.' who gathered 
 in great numbers round tin.' e]~>iscopal palace.
 
 270 HISTORY OI' THK SWISS Pl'OPI.r, 
 
 The growth of the Reformation added new troubles 
 to the hardly - pressed Genevese. Freyburg wrote 
 threatening to renounce her alliance shcnild the city not 
 remain faithful to her old creed, and the magistrates 
 accordingly carefully avoided giving any encouragement 
 to the movement. This negative policy so far soothed 
 A. IX 1530. the religious susceptibilities of Freyburg, that in 1530 
 she joined her forces to those of Bern, under Johann von 
 Erlach, who was accompanied also by contingents from 
 other Swiss states, and marched to the relief of her 
 ally. In the ensuing encounters the nobles were every- 
 where decisively defeated, many of them killed, and 
 several of their most formidable strongholds destroyed. 
 The city was relieved on October loth, and on the 
 mediation of deputies from the Confederation not en- 
 gaged in the war, another peace — that of St. Julien — 
 was negotiated. The Duke engaged to liberate 13oni- 
 vard, whom he had captured, from Chillon, and in the 
 event of his attacking Geneva, he promised to forfeit 
 his Vaudois possessions to Freyburg and Fern. He 
 was further to defray the cost of the war, and be 
 allowed to retain certain rights over the city, such as 
 appointing an officer of his own to administer justice. 
 This latter stipulation was recei\'ed by the (lenevese 
 with the greatest indignation, but being ]:)owerless to do 
 more than protest, they had eventually to submit, and 
 tliemseh'cs pay their liberators the expenses agreed to 
 by their alliance. The Swiss then left the city, and the 
 Duke, in spite of liis jjledged word, neglected to fulfil 
 his engagements under the stipulation ot the Treaty of 
 St. julien beyond tr)'ing to enfcjrce the rights that treaty 
 gave him. 
 
 I )uring the next four years the Relormation rapidly
 
 HISTORY OI' TI[]'. SWISS I'lCOI'I.I-: 
 
 displacctl the old f;iitli, and when, in 1534. I-"arel was V7 
 installed as head of the new Church, the mass of the '^' 
 pe<)ple were professing,' Protestants. This led to one 
 serious result tijr (leiiewa, as l-"re_\diur,L,'' formally with- 
 drew trom her alliance, and left the city with only the 
 uncertain support of IJern. All altars, images, and 
 other outward marks of Konian Catholicism were ncnv 
 destroyed by the fanatical followers of I-\irel. and the 
 Mass was oflicially tcjrhidtlen by the municipal council, 
 who further forbade any act of Romish wcn'ship to be 
 performed. 
 
 Mo>t of the Catholics left the city, and the Hishop 
 launched a siaitence of excomnuinication from (iex, 
 whither he had retired after his expulsion, ai^^ainst 
 Geneva. 
 
 Thus matters remained for a year, when, as the 
 bur.ifher^ resolutely refused to acknowleifi;'e his soxareii^n 
 rights, the Duke collected a large army, and, judging 
 iJern would remain inactixe, prepared to eniorce them. 
 In her distress (ienewa appealed to her ally for help, but 
 Jjern relapsed into her old policy and would not fullil 
 her treaty obligations. lUit aid came from another 
 (juarter. The mountaineers around Xeuchatel and the 
 men of Seeland \'olunteered to assist their co-religionists. 
 The offer was eagerly accejned, and in (}cl(jber a ji 
 force of 700 of these bra\e peasants, under the com- ^'. 
 mand of their banneret and a gallant glazier naiUL-d 
 Wdldermuth, luarched against the Sa\"oyards, and 
 defeated a portion of the 1 )uke"s army, munbering 
 4,000, with great loss, at Cingins. 'I'lu'ii, c"ontimiing 
 their \dct(jri(jus career, they enteied ( iene\"esc: territory. 
 At this juncti(jn 1 lern ^ho\ve^l a sudden actnity, but in 
 a manner \'erv unexnected bv her harassed allw She 
 
 Criiu va, 
 ■•■ I5J4- 
 
 ,; .(;.-./
 
 272 HISTORV OF Till', SWISS P}-01M.H 
 
 forwarded a stron<:]^ly-worded command to the Seeland 
 peasants to return to their homes, which command they 
 were perforce obhged to obey. 
 
 Ikit the aid Bern refused to bestow voluntarily, she 
 felt herself now compelled to give out of regard for 
 her own interests. Poinding herself completely deserted, 
 and at the mercy of Savoy, Geneva as a last resource 
 turned to the chivalrous Francis I., and implored him 
 to furnish the city with a French garrison. Had this 
 request been granted, Bern naturally felt the proximity 
 of French troops would seriously jeopardise her own 
 position, and interfere with her schemes of territorial 
 aggrandisement. 
 A.D. 1536. iVs Geneva was now closely invested by the Duke, 
 
 who still neglected to perform his part of the Treaty 
 of St. Julien, and having received assurances of the 
 sympathy of the other Confederates, Bern at last 
 despatched an army of 7,000 men to help her ally, 
 bantering \'aud by ]\Iorat, the Bernese had little 
 trouble in effecting the submission of the whole 
 country, except Yverdun, and without the loss of a 
 single soldier the army triumphantly entered Gene\a — 
 (b'ebruary 2nd). The extraordinary rapidity and suc- 
 cess of this march excited the liveliest interest, not 
 unmixed with jealousy, amongst the rest of the Con- 
 federates, a feeling that was grently increased by the 
 action oi licvn in annexing (jcx and a large portion 
 of Chablais :ind \'aud. Whilst these e\-ents were 
 taking place the French attacked the Duke, and 
 rapidly con([uered all Sa\"oy and a large portion of 
 I'ledmont, and thus within the space of a few weeks 
 he was stripped of most of his territorial possc;ssions. 
 
 Bern's ambition, not being satished with e\en her
 
 HISTORY or i-iu: suiss pkoi'm: 
 
 /.Vr;r, 
 
 recent successes, now led her to propose to tlie l)ur,L,diers 
 that (iene\';i should become incorporated within her 
 territories. 
 
 This dishonourable suq'gestion roused an intense 
 teelini,^ of indii^aiation anionjj^ the citizens, who at once 
 sent deputies to I!ern to represent all they had suftered 
 in the cause of freedom, and offerin,".'; to pay all th.e 
 expenses their deli\'erers h;ul incurred in comini:^ to 
 their aid. After many months of net;"otiation IScrn's 
 pretensions were withdrawn and her troops \-acated 
 the city. 
 
 A treaty of alliance and co-bur,i;hership was enteretl 'I'u-jtv :iith 
 into lor a period of t\vent\--r!ve vears, and later made 
 perpetual. 
 
 ISern's next step was the annexation of Lausanne, 
 where she established the Reform and expelled the 
 Ihshoj). The enormous ctdleclion of treasures found 
 in the cathedral, the accumulation of three centuries, 
 was forwarded to Ijern, and the ("hurch property 
 divided between the Communes and the State. 1 iefore 
 its capture Lausanne was a separate dixision luuler 
 the so\-erei,i:,aT[ty of a l^ishop, and end»raced the districts 
 of Avenches, Luzern and I'ullv. 
 
 The .i^a'aspin^;' rapacity and extei^' of liern's pos- 
 sessions excited the fear and passions of the Catholics 
 of Freyburg, who tlreaded lest untler her powerful 
 rix'al's protection the Ivefoi'iri should extt-nd owr the 
 whole ccjuntry. The\' accordin;_;lv look ui) arms and 
 obtained possession of Komonl. ("halet. Sutpierre and 
 i'^sta\'ayer, but werc^ toiled in their attempts to seize 
 \'e\'ey, their ad\"ersaries arri\ini;' iheic b.'joir them. 
 
 I nder the Sa\()\ard conunaiulcr llraulord ,L;ar- c.i 
 risoned witli a strong' fori'L' of tlu' 1 >uk-e's follower:- 
 
 1 s 
 
 .f'.'.'i;.' .'■' 
 
 "ir.:: 'u.
 
 274 HISTORY OF THE SWISS PEOPLE 
 
 Chillon long held out, but was at last taken by a 
 combined attack of Bernese by land and Genevese by 
 water. The first act of the victors was to liberate the 
 Geneva Reformer, l^onivard, who, for six years, had 
 been kept a close prisoner within the vaults beneath 
 the castle, and to escort him in triumph back to his 
 native city.^ 
 
 The total annexation of Vaud to liern, excepting 
 the few places occupied by Freyburg, was not effected 
 till 1555, when the overthrow and ruin of the powerful 
 Counts of Gruyere completed the subjugation of the 
 country. In those towns that submitted without re- 
 sistance the people were allowed to retain their ancient 
 privileges and much of their freedom, and exercise 
 whichever religion they chose. 
 
 In the case of towns that, like Yverdvm, made a 
 stand against their conquerors, their rights and charters 
 were forfeited, and the Protestant form of faith was 
 made obligatory. The whole of Vaud was divided 
 into eight bailiwicks, over each of v.'hich a Governor 
 from JSern ruled, with twelve judges, who acted as a 
 Court of Appeal from the decisions of the lesser local 
 tribunals. Bern's general rule was just and popular 
 in Vaud, except among the nobles, whose power was 
 broken and whose privileges were abolished. 
 
 I This famous hero of every Swiss <,mi(lc-hools-, wliom J^}ron 
 unwittin.^ly did so much to immortahse, appears l)y tlie hf^dit of 
 more modern and calmer criticism to have l>e<;n a \-ery poor t\pe of 
 li(.:ro in I'eahty, a kind of ir>tli centur\- Kocliefort. Natural]}- intel- 
 lectual and relined in his tastes, he was often mo\'ed to acts of folly 
 1)\' his passinnatc:, ambitious and wain teniperainent. 'J'lie part he 
 pla\-ed of an ardent democratic leader seems to have been t-he out- 
 ccjine more ol pi-rsontil pique: a.'-jainst the Duke of Sa\-oy than of 
 ;inv honest re-aiil for the welftire of the people of (leneva.
 
 iiiS'i'ORV oi- rm-: swiss i'i;oim,i: 275 
 
 W'liilst the Ketormation was thus makini;' steady /•'.'''•■■('; 
 pro,f;Tess in the f,a'eat (lerinan and hVench divisions of .^ ,, j-^s. 
 the counti'}', it was also tryini,^ to force its way in the 
 Italian JJailiwicks subject to the Swiss on the other 
 side of the Alps. Mere, chielly throui^di the preachin<? 
 of a Carmelite monk named I-\)ntana, who was in 
 correspondence with Zwinifli, many con\'erts soon ap- 
 peared, and as early as i52>; ICvangelical doctrines 
 found followers at Locarno. \'ery little permanent 
 progress, howe\er, was etYected. as, in 1555, at the ad 1553. 
 intervention of the Catholic Cantons, the fjuestion of 
 religion was put to the \-ote, and as the Protestants 
 were in these districts considerablv in the minoritv. 
 they were fcjrbidilen to exercise their faith. This 
 decree was soon followed by another, expelling all the; 
 chief ]-2vangelicals. ^b)st of these founil a shelter in 
 the Ciraubunden and in Ziirich, and in the latter intro- 
 duced their trade oi silk wea\'ing and dyeing, and thus 
 initiated an industry that added greatly to the v/ealth 
 of the city. 
 
 When, in 1534. I'arel took up his residence in/-.,;,;,,.' 
 Geneva, he set about \-igorouslv indoctrinating the ■"'■''" ''' 
 people with his religious Adews, and also energeticalh' 
 did his utmost to reform their \-ery lax notions on the 
 subject (jf morality. I'inding, atter manv ettorts, simple 
 preacddng and his (jwn example \\ere insuliicient to 
 make tlie desired change's, he at last liad rrsnurce to 
 the ci\'il authorities t(; enforce his tloctrines. and these, 
 lieing miiStly liis ardent lollowers, L:"la(ll\- responded to 
 his tlenumds. Dancing, games, antl testi\dlies ol all 
 kiinli. were accordingly declared unlawful, subn'Cting 
 tlmse who indulgfd in tlu-ju to se\'ere {umislmients. 
 (dun"'-h attendance and tak'iuL;' the Communion were
 
 A.D. 1509. 
 
 276 HISTORY OI' 'ITIK SWISS PEOPLE 
 
 made obligatory upon all, and a Confession of Faith 
 was drawn up, to which every citizen was compelled 
 July, 1537. to subscribe his assent on oath. These vigorous 
 measures placed the Reformed Church upon a firm 
 basis, and compelled those who differed from its tenets 
 to declare themselves openly. 
 
 A year ]:iefore this system was enforced, I'\'irel 
 took as his lieutenant one whose name was destined 
 to become more celebrated than any of the other 
 Swiss Reformers — John Calvin. This remarkable 
 man was some twenty years younger than his chief, 
 but from the time he took up his residence in 
 Geneva he showed qualities that strongly entitled him 
 to the foremost place. 
 John Calvin, Calvin was born in 1509 at Noyon, in Picardy. 
 
 His father, though only a cooper, gave his son a good 
 education, and destined him for the priesthood, and in 
 order to complete his studies, sent him to the Uni- 
 versity of Paris. He had abundant opportunities of 
 personally studying the abuses in his Church, as before 
 he was ten years of age he was appointed canon of the 
 cathedral in his native town, in addition to which he 
 presently received two parochial curacies. He seems 
 early to have read thoughtfully the Jjible, and this 
 shortly led to a great change in his religious ideas. 
 After travelling to Orleans and I5ruges, where he 
 studied (jreek under W'olmar, he commenced to preach 
 earnestly the Pvangelical doctrines. 
 j-^->. Ii^ ^53" Cabin published in l*aris his commentaries 
 
 on Seneca's " Ue Clementia." He; then resigned his 
 beneiices, and de\'oted himselt eiuirely to the classics 
 and duiuity. He traxelled thrcjugh varicjus I'Vench 
 towns b(jl(ll\' preacliing his views, and soon raised such
 
 HISTOKV OI- 
 
 uv. .s\\iss i'i:oi'i.r. 
 
 a storm \vliere\er he wciU that he was cumpeUed lo 
 
 leave the countr\-. hi his exile he soui^'-ht satety in 
 
 r!asc>l, where he publi>hed the most celebrated of all his 
 
 w<5rks. the •• Institiitio lveli'_;'ioiiis (_"hristiana' " (I53'''i. 
 
 This hook, which fully set forth the doctrines of the 
 
 Reformers and exposed the alnises of the Church. 
 
 made a ^reat stir: it was read every wiiere, and rapidly 
 
 passed throui^di se\-er;d editi(3ns. Its eflect, intleed, was 
 
 so ,i;reat an.d so lastini^' that it is locjked upon as markin_i;' 
 
 a distinct era in niodern reli:_;'ious ex'olution. Lca\'ini;' 
 
 Jxisel. CaK'in \'isited Italv, whence he was dri\"en bv the 
 
 Inquisition, and (jnce niore enteretl hd'ance. Here hi> 
 
 enemies aL:;iin attaclved him and drii\-e him into exile. 
 
 In i5j'> Cal\-in joined Farel in ("iene\"a. bein^;' then on a.u- 1336, 
 
 his way to seek a new restim^'-place in (lermany. 
 
 In bodily and mental attributes the two chief 
 bd'ench Relormers i^reatK' resembletl each other. I'>oth 
 pijssessed brilliant oratorical, or^anisin,^' and literary 
 abilities, and .ifreat force ot character and personalitv. 
 I!i3th suffered from infirm health. thoU'_,di tlieir stre!ii;'th 
 of \vill ami faith in tiie absolute riL;'hine>s ot their 
 i^elii^dijus beliefs eiiabled them to accomplish a mass of 
 work that woidd ha\e (luickh" broken ilown most nii-n 
 of far greater ])h\"sical power. Thouu'li a fervent and 
 fearless teacher cd' (diri>tianil\- like b'arel. C'ahdn. mdike 
 his collea,t,aie. was capable of showiuL;' the L,''reatest irril- 
 ability and imperiousness of temj^cr when tletermined 
 op)'>osition thwarted his plans. lie moreo\er on se\'eral 
 occasions exhibitetl a narrow-mindedness, a biL;"otry and 
 a re\'enL,''efnl cruelty that leaxe manv a foul and black 
 mark u[)on the memory of one who in the main usedi 
 his brilliant .Lrifts disintere,--tedlv for tlie bjnelit of his 
 fellovv-creattu'cs.
 
 Farel and 
 Calvin from 
 Geneva, 
 
 A.D. 1538. 
 
 278 HISTORY OF THE SWISS PEOPLE 
 
 The new policy introduced by Farel and Calvin to 
 coerce the Genevese into religion and morality raised 
 up a party which, though thoroughly at one with them 
 as regards doctrine, was bitterly opposed to the manner 
 in which they proposed to enforce it. Soon the Council 
 and the whole city divided into two factions. On 
 Easter Day, 1538, a crisis came. Farel refused the 
 Communion to those of his opponents wdio would not 
 Expulsion of submit to his ruling, and a tumult followed. Indeed 
 so serious did the trouble become, that in order to quiet 
 the people the Council at last issued an order to the 
 two Reformers to quit the city (April 23rd). 
 
 Calvin retired to Strasburg, where he married, and 
 being appointed professor of theology at the University, 
 rapidly rose to great local eminence. Farel took up his 
 residence at Bern, whence he afterwards moved to 
 Neuchatel. 
 
 During their absence from Geneva the Roman 
 Catholic clergy made great but fruitless efforts to regain 
 their lost ascendancy. The members of the Municipal 
 Council, who now exercised the powers before wielded 
 by the Reform leaders, proved themsel\-es yet more 
 intolerant to the followers of the old creed; and this, 
 coupled with the renewed designs of Bern upon Gene- 
 vese territory, gave rise to so great a public feeling of 
 unrest and insecurity, that a reaction set in in favour 
 of the expelled ministers.^ More and more the absolute 
 necessity of having a strong hand at the head of affairs 
 
 I Three members of the C'.o\ernment, who had been foremost 
 in ilieir efftjrts to excite the people against the ReforPiiers, were at 
 this time discovered to have si.sjned a treaty with l^iern agreeing to 
 her wishes. The pcjpular indignation excited by their act became 
 so great, that they were arrested, tried as traitors, and executed.
 
 jiisroRV oi- THE SWISS i'i:oiM.i-: 279 
 
 became apparent, if t^eneral anarchy and cix'il war were 
 
 to he a\-(Hded. In 1541 ihe authorities decided lo RiWiH rf 
 
 refjuest the IveiorriK.'rs to return, and sent a depu- ^^. ^ ^y; ; 
 
 tation io Xeiichatel and Strasbiu'g' to convey their ■•^^- ^5-\^- 
 
 wishes to I-\arel and (';d\-in. The latter alone consented 
 
 to return, and on September loth re-entered the town 
 
 and assumed supreme command in religious matters, a 
 
 connnand that soon took in all the affairs of the city, 
 
 and ended only with his death. 
 
 Cabin's theocratic ,u;o\ernment was in accordance Cjliln'i Rule. 
 with his austere and forcible character, and his narrow 
 \'iews on religion. With the apprcnal of the Cieneral 
 Asseml)ly he established a permanent (Consistory, com- 
 posed half of la\- and half of clerical mendjers. The 
 chiet functions (jf this bcjdy, o\-er which Calvin always 
 presided at its weekly meetings, was to act as a censor 
 morum, and watch over the conserxation of "sound" 
 doctrine. i'>v its intjuisitorial powers it placed the whole 
 city under a system oi the strictest esjMcjinage, by which 
 the smallest (jitences against religion antl morals were at 
 once reported and promptK' punished. And now com- 
 menced a \eritable reign cjf terroi\ not onl\- for the 
 e\il-doers, but for all lho^e who in the slightest detail 
 de\'iated from the strict letter of the prescribed laws. 
 In manners, speech, dress and all outward ilemeanour. 
 one rigid and I'uritanical f)rnuila was enforced with 
 pitdess rigour on e\erv citizen. The slightest displa} 
 of le\dty or healthy enjoyment was suppressed with a 
 strong hand, and soon line^, wh.ippings, imprisoiunents, 
 exiles and executions reduced Cjeue\a to a dreary and 
 uniform le\el of respectable dulness that was only 
 relieved by her incu'eased conunercial relations antl con- 
 sequent increased wealth. (jeneva became, as was
 
 28o HISTORY OF THE SWISS PEOPLE 
 
 afterwards aptly said, the Protestant Rome, of which 
 Calvin was the all-powerful Pope. In that Rome the 
 inhabitants voluntarily submitted to forego every form 
 of rational pleasure " in hope to merit Heaven by 
 making- life a Hell."' Were it not for the extraordinary 
 impulse that at this period was given to the trade of 
 Geneva, and the great influx of refugees that sought 
 shelter in the city, it is impossible that the state of 
 abnormal suppression Calvin enforced could have lasted 
 long, or ended otherwise than in a violent reacti )n, 
 similar to that which followed the death of Cromv\ ill 
 in England.^ 
 
 Neither did Calvin's influence and power extend 
 only over religious matters. He presently became the 
 despotic arbiter in all civil affairs, disobedience to whose 
 mandates was punished with the crudest severity. In 
 this capacity he collected and revised the old city laws, 
 A.u. 1543. and compiled a code which in 1543 was, by the vote of 
 the General Assembly, made binding on all citizens • 
 the republic. 
 
 Calvin and In 1 553, Calvin performed an act that has stamped 
 
 Scyvctus, 
 
 A.D. 
 
 1553 
 
 I The effects of C'alvin's stringent system of Church espionage 
 are siill visible, but in a much milder and less open manner. Though 
 greatl)- disliked by the majority of the people, the system has taken 
 such firm root in both the clerical and lay mind, that three and a 
 half centuries of progress have been unable entire!}' t(j destro}- it. 
 Offences against doctrine and morals are still reported to th(j heads 
 of the Church, and although the drastic measures Calvin instituted 
 f(jr their punishment are now no longer possible, the more refined 
 methods of social ostracism and the weight of clerical and public 
 opinion, act as efficaciously in restraining the backslider and restor- 
 ing the straying sheep to the fold of orthodoxy and moral living. 
 'I'hose, however, who have seen much of the inner life of the people 
 ol Ceneva are usually more impressed by their intimate acquaint- 
 ance with the lile\enth Commandment than by their practical 
 observance of the Decalogue.
 
 lUS'IOKV OV THL SWISS l'i:olM,l, 2>I 
 
 his ineinory whh an intlelible stain of infamy, thai all his 
 many noble antl beneficent deeds ha\e tailed to oblite- 
 rate. iJlintled bv reli.q:i(jtis zeal ami perscjnal hatred, he 
 tried to prot~ure the execution of Michael Ser\"ettis, the 
 celebrated anti-'J"rinitarian Sfxinish physician, then on 
 his trial for heres\- at N'ienne, for denyinL,ahat more than 
 one God existed. Serxetus had (jbtained much notoriety 
 by ptd)lishing his book, " Ue Trinitatis Erroribiis," in 
 which he ailhered to th(,' doctrines ot Arius and other 
 earlv C'hristians. In his yo'an,i;'er days he had alread)" 
 ar,i4'iied the subject wuh ("alxin. when the latter was still 
 a btudent at l'ari>. iHuim^- his trial b_\- the In(|uisition 
 at N'ienne, Cabin secretly iorwarded to the jud^ch 
 documentary exidence of the prisoner's opininns, and by 
 this e\idence he was ccmdemned to death. Serxetus, 
 hoxx'exer, succeeded in escapin.i;, and, xxdth fatuous 
 imxx'isdom (xxell-knowin^- the bitter enmity Calxin bore 
 him), he took refuse secretlv in (lenexa. Here Calx'in's 
 scjcial police ijuickdy unearthed him. anal delix'ered him 
 up to the Coimcil tor trial. Calxin now used ex'cry 
 eifort to influence the tribunal a^iainst the unhappx' 
 heretic, who was in the end c-undciuned for his x iex\ ;> 
 l(juchin,L,'^ the 'I'rmitx', and on October 27th he xxa^ 
 burnetl alixe at the stake b)- a ^lox\ tire. In this 
 tra,i,''edy Calxin acted troni both reli,L;'ioUh and personal 
 motixes, and himself filled the offices of informer, 
 detectix'e, pr(jsecutcr and jud,i;'e, thou,i,d-i it is but fan" 
 t(j sax" that xxdien the final decree t(jr the execution xxa.-^ 
 ^dxen, he endeax'oured to stdistitiUe some nnkler form 
 (jf pinnshment.' 
 
 I The arrcsi and trial nf tlii> c:eK-l)rat(.-il tlu'ol. i_;iap.. pliysician, 
 anatomist, yeo^i^rapher and matliematician, \'.crc due to tlie intoi'- 
 niation that he was the autlior of the niucli talked-ot lieretical
 
 282 HISTORY OF THE SWISS PEOPLE 
 
 An- 1554- In the following year, Calvin published a work in 
 
 defence of the doctrine of the Trinity against the \"iews 
 of Servetus, and to prove the right of the civil authority 
 to punish heresy. 
 
 Under Calvin's rule Geneva gracjually became a 
 city of refuge for persecuted Protestants of other lands. 
 To many of these the rights of citizenship were granted, 
 and many of their descendants can still be found among 
 the burghers. By this immigration some 10,000 mem- 
 bers of different nationalities were added to the Gene\'a 
 Church. Great encouragement Avas also held out to 
 foreign scholars to settle in the city, which thus became 
 a literary, as well as the chief Protestant religious 
 centre of Europe. 
 
 Calvin's activity and power of work, in spite of 
 his feeble health, were incredible. He preached twice 
 daily for two weeks e\'ery month ; he delivered three 
 divinity lectures weekly ; he attended the Consistory 
 and civil courts, and super\-ised the government of the 
 city; he visited the sick; he wrote numerous controxer- 
 sial religious works and kept up a voluminous corres- 
 
 work, " Christianismi Restitutio," that Calvin secretly furnished 
 to ("ardinal Archbishop Tournon, whose diocese extended close to 
 Oeneva. In spite of this the prisoner would probably ha\'e been 
 ac(]uitted for want of suflicient evidence;, had not CaK'iii further 
 sent several private letters he had received ironi Servetus and a 
 portion of the manuscript to the Incjuisitor. In the final condem- 
 nation these " letters and xsritini^s addressed to ^Ir. f. Cabin," are 
 speciall}- alluded to. These acts of treacher}-, as well as the 
 luanner in which Cabin subsetiuently hounded the unfortunate 
 man to his death in (jene\-a, throw a \ivid li,L,dit on one side of the 
 Kreat Reformer's character, which shows that in nnplacable hatred 
 and unscrupulous and brutal biL;otr\-, Cabin was, on occasion, quite 
 the equal of man\' of the worst among his opponents in religion.
 
 HISTORY OI- 'IIIK SWISS l']:OiT.K 
 
 ponclence. both friendly and polemical, with e\"ery centre 
 of the Keforinecl Church in luirope. He founded an 
 academv for the training; ot pastors and the study oi 
 the arts and sciences, in which he himself lectured on 
 theoloj^'y, and he further reformed and i,a'eatly improved 
 the whole s^•stem of education in Gene\'a. l'hii;lish, 
 German, Italian and Spanish chapels were built, and 
 twenty-four printin,!,'' ]iresses worked night and da\', from 
 which issued religious works in foreign languages to be 
 sent aln'oad. ( "jene\a thus in a great measure became 
 the Centre and life of the whole Keformed Church in 
 10uroi)e. a jiosition that, had it n(jt been tor ('ahdn's 
 recall, would pr(jbablv haxe been occupied bv Strasburg. 
 bSut the high pressure ot work without interruption 
 maintained for so long by Cabin, thrcnigh the extra- 
 ordinary force of his will cjver his enteebled body, could 
 not C(;ntinue. His health at last completely broke down 
 under the perpetual strain, and his strength rapidly 
 declined. On I'^ebruary 27th, feeling his end draw near, 
 he bade fare\vell to the cit\- chiefs, and on the tollowing 
 day to the ministers, and shortly afterwards was \isited 
 bv ]-'arel, who came specia.lly h'om Xeuchatel to be with 
 his old friend at the last. Still his ner\ous force kept 
 ali\e the feeble tiame of life, and it was not till .\biy 27th Ci'iiu'- 
 that he died, aged 54. lie left his tortmn; bv will to l^e 1/ ,''','- 
 di\ided amongst his relations, the city, and the poor. A 
 year later b'arel. aged 7'', followed his great colleague. 
 Like iiKJSt of the early Ketormers, John Cabin e\er 
 showed in his priwate life the purest moralitv: he was 
 sincere, de\'out and disinterested in his relii^'^ious work, 
 his nK-mory was extraordinary, his intellect clear, his 
 reasoning ptnvcrs great ; his writings are marked by 
 logic, learning and subtlety, second to none of h\^ 
 
 i.V'4-
 
 284 HISTORY OF TIIK SWISS PEOPLE 
 
 contemporaries — they are often also stamped by an 
 acrimoniousness and contemptuous tone that enhanced 
 their powers of wounding, though did not add to their 
 Christian spirit. Calvin's chief victories were won by 
 the strength of his will and the determined perseverance 
 of his character. His most prominent faults were due 
 to his imperiousness and his ungovernable temper, his 
 impatience of opposition, and his illiberal and cramped 
 mind, that prevented him from taking any but the most 
 unlo\-al)le and least human \-iews on religion. " He had 
 all the o\-erbearing violence of Luther, without the 
 cheering warmth and straightforward frankness of the 
 great Cerman Reformer; he had neither the modest 
 simplicity and self-control of Zwingli, nor the kind con- 
 ciliatory feeling of Melancthon." By the harsh and 
 narrow views he formed of the teachings of the Gospels, 
 Calvin brought the terrors of Hell forcibly and at all 
 times to sinners, but seldom the joys of Heaven to 
 the repentant. As Ulric Zwingh was the apostle of 
 Salvation, so John Calvin was pre-eminently the apostle 
 of Danmalion. 
 
 Jhit the practical and permanent benefits conferred 
 by Calvin in the social and moral life of Ciene\-a were 
 great and undoubted. He found society disorderly, 
 ignorant, licentious, and on the verge ot ci\il war ; 
 he left it orderly, religious, well-instructed, moral and 
 patriotic. 
 
 The chief doctrines embraced by Cahinism (which 
 name dcjes not appear to be used till after the " Con- 
 ference of Poissy"" in i5')4, at which Cabin himself 
 was unable, through illness, to be present) are — Original 
 Sin, Predestination, Particular Redemption, Persever- 
 ance of the Saints, and the spirilual presence of (Christ
 
 HisTDRv oi- Tin: SWISS picopij: 2>5 
 
 in the ICucharisl.' Cahinisni reduces the sacraments 
 to the Lord's Supper and IJaptism, and suppresses all 
 ceremonies and all doctrines, traditions and atithorities 
 other than those he beliexed were authorised by the 
 Ciospels. 
 
 After Calvin's death, one of his chief lieutenants, The.Hiore Bl 
 Theodore 15eze. was elected to his vacant throne. Of ' '' ' ■-'' 
 a more tactful and less harsh disposition than his pre- 
 decessor, ISeze exercised, till his death in 1605, a 
 wonderful influence over the l^eformed Church of 
 Geneva, as of ICurope j^'enerally, and j^a'eatly softened 
 and huiiianised relij^ion, makini^ men's li\'es l)oth better 
 and brif^hter. Of him it was said, " that it were better 
 to dwell with iJeze in Hell, than to live in llea\en with 
 Calvin." In 15^)6 a general and uniform Confession of 
 b'aith was a,i,^reed to by (jeneva, the Protestant Cantons 
 of Jjcrn, Ziirich, JJasel and Schaft hausen, as also by 
 the allied towns of St. (i alien, Aluhlhausen and JSienne. 
 This course was rendered necessary in order to brini^' all 
 the Swiss centres oi the Iveformation into one common 
 Church. 
 
 I The doctrine of the ICiicharist was one of the most important 
 of thc^ clilfercnces between C'ath.oHcs and ] 'ri >testaius, as between 
 dil'terent sects o( the latter themseUes. 'Vhv. Cduireh of Kome 
 held that at the moment of consecratifin the br^'ad and wine were 
 chan.Ljed \\\U) the lUiiu! bod}' and blood of Christ (Transubstantia- 
 tiiHi). 'I'he Lutherans maiiitruned that, after con>eci'atinn, th.e bod\- 
 and blood ot Cdirist were present ;\ ;//'/ the materials oi the bread 
 antl wine (( ^on^ubstantiationj. !!( jth the-~e di ictrines were rejeett-d 
 by Zwin^di, and, in his later lite, b\- Cahdn, wlio interpretCLl the 
 sacrament li'_;urativeh'.
 
 CHAPTER XIV 
 
 THE CATHOLIC REACTION AND THE OVERTHROW OF 
 THE OLD C0XF1':DERATI0N 
 
 •■^•''- 1545- Up to the middle of the i6th century, the unsettled 
 
 condition of European politics, and the <(eneral longing- 
 to escape from the thraldom of a debased religion, 
 greatly fa^'Oured the spread of the Reformation. I^ut, 
 after that period, many powerful influences arose to 
 check its further progress, and to cause a reaction in 
 favour of the old faith. As in the history of all great 
 changes, conservative instincts made men pause, and 
 now that the excitement of the first battle was over, 
 made the timid fearful of the future, if not wistful of 
 the past. 
 
 Philip II. One of the chief hindrances to the advance of 
 
 Protestantism was the accession to the throne of 
 Spain, Holland and Italy, of Philip II. (1556-96), who 
 showed the most violent hostility towards the Reforma- 
 tion, and backed his opinions by drastic measures of 
 suppression. The character of this powerful monarch, 
 as drawn by both Catholic and Protestant historians, 
 is remarkable in its blackness, though English accounts 
 are probably highly-coloured through Philip's " invin- 
 cible Armada"" enterprise. He has l)een accused of 
 every crime in or out of the Decalogue. He is repre- 
 sented as a bloodthirsty bigot, who delighted in whole- 
 sale butrlieries of heretics by auto-da-fc , and other 
 torturing modes of death ; as a man of ungov'ernable 
 
 (if Spain 
 A.D. 1556-90
 
 HISTORY OF Tin: SWISS PHOPI.i: 2^7 
 
 and diabolical temper, \vhose fiendish fondness for 
 slau,t,diter was only equalled by his fanaticism, his 
 tyranny, his insatiable ambition, and his unbridled 
 indul.^'ence in e\-ery form of .yross sensuality. 
 
 I'Vance and Savoy also comltined to root out the 
 new relii^don, now depri\'ed of its chief leaders by the 
 deaths of Luther. Zwin,i,di, Farel and Cabin. 
 
 lUit pr(.)bal)lv the appearance of the very pov/erful /;-»;7; in;./ 
 new Catholic orders of monks, the Jesuits and the ' ■' 
 C^apuchines, did more to arrest the Reformation than 
 anv of its other forcible opponents. These orders were 
 created specially to combat and stamp out the many 
 heresies of the time, and their ranks were (]uickh- 
 tilled with numbers of enthusiastic, learned, and con- 
 scientiously pious men, who, abandoning; all other 
 objects, threw their whole energies into the work of 
 their li\'es. 
 
 The influence of the great .bvcumenical Council o[ C'uuci! ^'f 
 Trent, that sat from 1545 tcj 15'''^. also d(,)ubtless did ,^','l"/^,-''' 
 much in the same direction, though only indirectly, bv 
 authoritati\-ely confirming the doctrines, and by lessening 
 the scandals of the ("hurch. " With regard to dogmas, 
 that solemn assembly did little else than assert or con- 
 firm the ancient doctrines acknowled.L^a-d by the W'estei'n 
 Church, but with rL-L;'ard to the correction of abuses and 
 thu reform oi morals, it effected much more than anv 
 fjrmer Council. It may be justly affirmed that if the 
 Council could not make the brotestants return to 
 (Catholicism, it prex'entcd at least the (_"atholics becjin- 
 ing I'ri.testants ■' ' "(ISolta). What the combinetl efli.nls 
 
 I I:; the wor N <A th- flr^t 1 'rcMilMU, ihr I 'ajxil Xmu:;.., the 
 (■inmcil " ;i-.N( -nil lied for thr :,'l('r\- of ( '.ml. tb.c cxi ii'p.-uiMii ,<[ Iwrc^v, 
 the rrformatiiiii oi tli(,> (•Ici--y and pcopk-. and the duwntall ni' the
 
 2(55 HISTORY OF THE SWISS PEOPLE 
 
 of these several agencies might have failed to do was 
 soon accomplished by the desertions and jealousies 
 everywhere rife among the different sects of the 
 Protestants themselves, by the intemperate zeal of the 
 latter, and the many examples they showed of savage 
 bigotry and fanaticism. 
 
 The Catholic reaction, as seen in the Swiss Italian 
 Bailiwicks, has already been noticed. Similar revulsions 
 of religious feeling occurred in other centres, and at last 
 gave rise to important political changes. 
 Bern, Bern's great power and extensive territory, and her 
 
 AD. 15 (4. position as the leading Protestant State in Switzerland, 
 led the Catholics to concentrate their strength against 
 her. This brought about in 1564 a treaty between Bern 
 and Savoy, whereby the former restored many of her 
 conquests to the Duke, Emmanuel Philibert, on con- 
 dition that the inhabitants might be allowed to contmue 
 the Protestant faith in peace. Bern retained, however, 
 possession of the chief towns she had won, including 
 Vevey, Lausanne, Yverdun, Chillon and Nyon. Dis- 
 Savoy. regarding his pledged word, it was not long before the 
 
 Duke commenced an active crusade against the Protes- 
 tants in his newly restored territories. For this purpose 
 he introduced the Jesuits and Capuchines, and backed 
 their efforts by the weight of the secular power, though 
 
 enemies of the Christian name." This celebrated Assembly, which 
 with varyinj^ intervals, sat for eighteen 3^ears, dogmatised on various 
 doctrines already accepted, and issued salutary regulations restrict- 
 ing or abolishing many of the most glaring abuses in the Church. 
 Its final decrees were signed by six Cardinals, three Patriarchs, 
 twent} -five Archbishops, one hundred and sixty-eight Bishops, 
 seven Cenerals of monastic orders, and seven Abbots, besides many 
 other lesser Church dignitaries, and were accepted bv all the 
 Roman C'atholic States of Western Europe, with the one exception 
 of l-'rance.
 
 HISTOKV 01-- TU\: SWISS I'KOPI.i: 2i'q 
 
 he docs not appear to ha\-e used actual persecuiion t(; 
 any great extent to force the people to re-enter the 
 Koniish Church. His son and successor, Charles 
 Emmanuel, son-in-law of Philip II. of Spain, was less 
 scrupulous. In i j^j'i he expelled the Reformed cler^s^^y a.i>, 15 jS. 
 from Chablais, and made the old faith ol)li,g'atory on all. 
 I'\jllowin,i,' the traditions of his House he had already 
 aimed at territorial agga'andisement, Gene\'a and Lau- 
 sanne being the special objects of his ambition. 
 
 Failing to win over Gene\"a by dijdomacy and S.r-.y and 
 la\-ish bribes, Charles collected a large army, com- 
 posed in part of men from the W'aldslatten, and pre- 
 pared to take it by force. His lirst operations consisted 
 in destroying se\-eral villages, and (jverrunning the 
 Cjene\'ese rural districts. At this juncture IJern f.jr 
 once acted with promptitude, and b}' the despatch of 
 a strong contingent enabled her ally to dri\'e back her 
 Sa\"oyard assailants. 
 
 bdnding himself unable to capture ("iene\'a, the Duke 
 turned his forces against Lausanne, where he already 
 numbered many adherents among the nobility and city 
 chiels. With one of the latter, the then I]urg(jmaster, 
 Charles concocted a conspiracy by which a number oi S.ir^x .r:.l 
 his iollowers were to be secretly atlmitted within the ^'[,'''1^^'^' 
 walls. Ha\-ing done this, a general massacre ot all the 
 leading men opposed t(j his interests was to tollow and 
 the cit\- was then to be handed o\"er to him. Though 
 carefull}- ])lanned, and secretl\' managed, the scheme 
 became known and prompt punishment ti illmvL'd. 
 .\uml)er^ (jl those implicated \\\-re at once ti'ied and 
 beheaded or expelled, whilst man\' more made their 
 escape. 
 
 Sliorth' after this fruitle.-is attempt, Lei'n, urged on
 
 290 HISTORY OI' TIIK SWISS PKOPI.K 
 
 by France and Geneva, declared war against Savoy, 
 and placed an army of 10,000 men in the lield, under 
 the command of a French officer of distinction, llarlay 
 de Saucy. The campaign opened by the capture of 
 several towns of minor importance from Savoy. 
 Scarcely, however, had hostilities fairly commenced 
 when the war collapsed by the defection of the French 
 leader, who abruptly entered France with the majority 
 of his troops and joined Henry IIL and Henry of 
 Navarre, who were then fighting against the Catholic 
 League. Another army was quickly collected by ]3ern 
 and Cieneva, but the appearance of Charles at the head 
 of 15,000 soldiers of different nationalities considerably 
 abated the fighting ardour of the Swiss. The declara- 
 tion of war had always been unpopular with a large 
 minority of the Bernese burghers, and these now 
 coming to power concluded a dishonourable peace in 
 A.D. 1589. October, 1589, at Nyon. In this treaty the shifty 
 sense of honour so often displayed by Bern once 
 more came to the fore, as she included a secret clause 
 by which she abandoned Geneva to the Duke's mercy 
 and even bound herself to assist him in reducing her 
 ally to obedience. On this occasion the not too scru- 
 pulous people of Bern, when they learned what had 
 been done in their name, were shocked with the dis- 
 honour thrown on tlicir city. (ir(\at indignation was 
 expressed on all sides, and in the rural districts a 
 rising acluall}' took place that compelled tlie Council 
 to cancel the obnoxious clause. Then, happily for the 
 independence; of (jeneva, Hem-y 1\'. ascended the 
 tlnone of b'rance, as in him she lound what she h.ad 
 for so Icjiig sought in wain, a powc-riul and a honourable 
 protector. ilcr cause was also ;irdently espoused by
 
 ins'i'OR'i' oi- Tin' SWISS i>i:niM.r, 2r)i 
 
 IClizal'Cth of I'^n^'lancl and the Prince of OranLfe, and 
 
 in 151;"'^ Her indepciidL'nce was .i^maranteed bv the Duke ajv 15. ,s 
 
 bv the terms of the Treatv of \'er\-ins, which conchidetl 
 
 t'ne war between hVance and Savoy. 
 
 lUit not for lonL,'' cHd the restless an"il)ition of Charles ^":'.'::.' 
 * allow him to obser\'e the terms of this compact. The 
 temptation to attempt the capture of (icnewa prox'ed too 
 strong" to be resisted. l!v a combination of force and 
 cunnin,L( he hoped to make the attempt certain of suc- 
 cess. Accordin_L,d\'. in December. 1602, ^,0^10 men were ///:-■.■.(:.( /;. 
 
 , r • -1 1 r f i >■■■ 1 -. I''OJ. 
 
 sent to the irontier. ostensil)!y to lorm an army or 
 obserxation to watch the I'rench mo\eiuents, under the 
 comjp.and of D'Aubi,i,''ne, one of tlie most experienced ot 
 the (ii-nerals of Sa\'oy. On the nii^dit of the 12th. a 
 lorce ol jiicivcd men marched to surprise (ien(,'\-a anil 
 admit the main army. l-'urnished with scalini:" ladders 
 and well armed, this corps arri\x'd before the cit\- with- 
 out b'.'in,L( discow-red at about one o'clock in the morning;'. 
 and silentl}- scaled the walls. Already many had crossed 
 the ramparts when they were percei\'ed by a sentry who, 
 Indn,!,;' his weapon, arousetl the ,t^''uai'd, and S:)on the whole 
 citv was alarmed. The piirtcullis was ha>til\' lowered, 
 and the lirini;' of a cannon that enliladi'd the trmch 
 swejit down the ladders, and pi"e\'rnt<.-d anv more nl the 
 enfUiv L^ainiiii,;' adnnitt.uice. Within a irw minult-s tiie 
 streets wi-rc liUrd with hundrrtls of hrdl-naketl bur^iurs 
 who rushcl h'om tludr beds to deleiid tlu-ir citw A 
 fraidul sli"u,L;'.;ie then ensued which endied in the t '.al 
 (Aer'ihriAv ot the' in\"aders. ( )ut ot S''me y'y> v. h'l 
 eii'eixd (ient\a, onl\- 77 escaped imaiediate' tle.ith b\- 
 beinu made |)ris..ners. Thev LTaiuedi liitle, hu\ve\ I'l. 1 a' 
 this respi'e'. i'lr the s tme {\.i\ lhe\' were al! ha:!'^ed as 
 comiiiwii as.-a^.^in>. theii" he, ids were then expiised on llie
 
 292 HISTORY OF THE SWISS PEOPLE 
 
 ramparts, and their bodies thrown into the Rhone. 
 One of the syndics of Geneva, beUeved to have been in 
 collusion with Savoy, was at once seized and publicly 
 broken on the wheel. This memorable episode closed 
 with a general thanksgiving service in the Cathedral of 
 St. Peter, a thanksgiving that has ever been held on the 
 anniversary of the attack — known in Geneva's history 
 as L' Escalade ^ 
 
 The Duke's treacherous conduct raised a storm of 
 indignation about him from every Reformed centre of 
 Europe, and offers of help rapidly came to Geneva. 
 Greater and greater grew the feeling of resentment 
 which threatened to light up a general war between 
 the Protestant and Catholic States. To prevent this 
 the Pope, France, and Spain for once united to enforce 
 'I'lraiv of peace, and a new treaty of St. Jidien was drawn up in 
 
 "\i) 100-' J'-^b'' 1^^035 by ^vhich the Duke engaged not to assemble 
 any troops, or build any fortress within sixteen miles of 
 Geneva. This treaty at last brought tranquility and 
 security to the little republic, which, moreover, formed 
 a perpetual alliance with Zurich, and henceforth steadily 
 progressed in civilisation, in learning and in inlluencc. 
 
 Of the many men who played impcjrtant roles at 
 this time in restoring and propagating the doctrines 
 Caylo of Rome in Northern Italy and Switzerland, Carkj 
 
 Porromeo is one of the most conspicuous. A nephew 
 of Pope Pius I\'., he rapidly rose to the rank of 
 
 I W'itli the Sa\n\- force that attempted to capture Genewa 
 were se\('ral Jt;siiit jiriests. One of thi'se, a Seotchinau named 
 Alexander llrum, hrac(.'d the coiira.i^e of th(> soldiers by repeatedly 
 telling them that e\ery round the\- mounted on the scaling ladder 
 was a step towards heaven. As ext-ry man who entered the city 
 peiish('d, this prophec\- may possijjly have been promptly verifiecL 
 
 lioiroiuco 
 
 A.\). T5IO-S4
 
 iiis'i'okN' ui- Tin: SWISS i']:()i'i.L 
 
 -''3 
 
 Cardinal, and was made JSishop of Milan whilsl still 
 a N'ouni;' man. His diocese included the S\vi>s Italian 
 j;aili\vi(d-;s, and m tliem, as in manv other tlistrirts 
 ot the Conied.eratii.in, he energetically ftirthered the 
 ad\'ance of his religions doctrines. He was one ot 
 the chief agents in spreading and enforcing the decrees 
 of the ("otmcil of Trent, and in this duty, as well as 
 in his general wijrk, his fearless, tipright and piu"e- 
 minded character makes him a striking contrast to 
 most cf his contemporaries. His character, howe\'er, 
 was not entirely free from the cruel traits that nearl}- 
 all showetl during the times in which he li\"ed. Per- 
 suasion was the chief, and usually the only mearis he 
 empli)\-etl in his mis>ionary lahotirs, vet on se\'eral 
 occasions he ditl not hesitate to resort to more extreme 
 inea>ures when milder mean^, tailed, as is shown 1>\' 
 the martyr.N t(j their laith who perished at the stcd^e. 
 or were tortured, or other\vi>e killed throtigh hi;, orders. 
 His etlorts to introduce the Inquisilion were o^)po^ed 
 1)V e\en the Catholic^ them>el\a-s, and Switzerland 
 renicdned the on!\- countrv in W e>tern l:m'ope con- 
 tainmg a lari^e niunlier ol meml)er> ot tile ivoman 
 ccjimmmion where this tribimal ne\a'r held a meetinL;'. 
 The Swiss Catholics ttulher showed the characteristic 
 independence of their race by retusiiiL;- to adoyit tlie 
 decisions of the Trent Council in m;itters of discipline 
 and ('hurch and State connection, though the}' readulv 
 receivetl its decrees touchint,'" laith and dogma. 
 
 In 1,574 '■'^^ energetic Cardinal Horromeo estab- a ,d. 157). 
 lished the jesihts at Lu/.ern, anil SvAcU \'ears later tlie 
 Capuchme> at HuLTaiio. The Jesuits wa^re es-^eiuiallv 
 the schobu^ of Cath.dici^m ; the\- worked and >tudiod in 
 then' collrgo, tdk'd the pulpit>i)i the jirincipal chui'cius.
 
 294 HISTORY OF THE SWISS PEOPLE 
 
 superintended the education of the young, and generally 
 occupied themselves with affairs specially belonging to 
 Church matters. To the Capuchines were entrusted the 
 work of preaching, and, by missionary efforts, of con- 
 verting the mass of the people. In Luzern the Cardinal 
 was greatly aided by the enthusiastic co-operation of 
 Ludwig Phyffer, the leader of the Swiss mercenaries in 
 the French religious wars from 1562 to 1570. The in- 
 fluence, wealth and personal popularity Phyffer acquired 
 amongst his Swiss Catholic compatriots earned him the 
 title of the " Swiss Iving," though with the exception 
 of his \\alual)le co-oi:)eration with the Cardinal in re- 
 establishing the old faith, he did little to cause his name 
 to be remembered. Carlo jjorromeo further showed his 
 interest in the Confederation by establishing a free 
 college for Swiss students at Milan — the Collegium 
 Helveticum — and by inducing the l^ope to keep a 
 Nuncio permanently in Switzerland.^ The first of these 
 
 A.ij, 157'j. Nuncios was the Bishop of Vercelli, appointed in 1579, 
 by whose efforts an alliance was effected between the 
 Catholic Cantons and the Bishop of llascl. 
 
 Mcvccnarv The national love of fighting, and still more of 
 
 Scrricc, 
 
 ■ ■ ■ -^^ ■ I Durin<4 the leartul })kii;uc thai broke out in Milan in i57'>, 
 
 and in wliich 17,000 \'ictiiiis ]ierishe(l, tlic Cardinal ea.rned an un- 
 (Uin,.; reputation for conra,L(e and (le\'otion b\' tcarlessh- workin"; 
 (la\- and ni^^dit among the sick, relie\in,L;' their temporal .sufTer;n,t,'s, and 
 administering to their spiritual needs. During his lifetime he not 
 only greatl}' beiudited his felk)\v-creatni-es, but did immense ser\ ice 
 to his Church. Neither has the latter allowed his rleath to end his 
 career of usefulness, as a large income is annuall}' made l)y exhibit- 
 ing th(' Saint's corpse, dressed in full episcojial \'estments, and 
 (IK loser! in a crxstal casket, beneath the Cathedral of Milan. The 
 scandalous traflic in this ghastl\- picture ol splendour and deca\' 
 appears too lncrati\e for the authorities to prohibit it, though, like 
 man\- other sources of revenue, it cannot tail to injure the Church 
 herself.
 
 lUSTOKV OI- Tin: SWISS I'EOl'LK 
 
 ^95 
 
 money, showed itself proniinenlly in 1370, when ihe 
 Swiss C;ithuhc Cantons si^i^necl a treaty at Luzern with 
 Pope Pius I\'.. by which they a^qreed, in return for largi.; 
 payments, to supply him with an auxiliary f(jrce in case 
 of war. This treaty was further renewed in 1573 by 
 G re,uory XIII. 
 
 A curious instance of Protestant ignorance or 
 bi.^otry occurred at this period, when the Reiormed 
 districts refused to accept the revised calentlar of 
 ('ire,L;\.ir\' XIII. {if)j2-ij>^j), wlio, in order in correct 
 the errors that had crept into the Jtdian Calentlar, 
 siruidv out ten days from the year I3>^2. The I'ro- 
 le>i;ints made the (juestion one of religion, and \ery 
 Serious disputes and po])ular disturbances followed, 
 especially in the districts of Thtu'gau. The Catliolics, 
 on the other hand, not only adopted the Gregorian 
 method (new style), but imposed its comptdsory use 
 upon the free Pailiwicks. The two parties then 
 tixed separate da\'s for their festi\als, markets, etc.. 
 and great contusion natiu'ally aro.^e. The ([uestion 
 was e\entuall}' settled b}' a general decision that each 
 canton should be at libert}' to use whiche\'er method 
 t)t computation it thouglit lit. 
 
 In ( )(.-tol)er, 13^'', a serious and xerv important step 
 was taken h\ the Catholic members of the Contediera- 
 tion, I))- the formation ol an alliance amongst themseK'es 
 (the /Arri'w/f-;?;/, or Golden League). \'>y this, each and 
 all of the sewn Catlnjlic Cantons (Cri, Schwyx, Cnter- 
 waldcn, Pu/.ern, Zug, b'reyburg and Solothurn) took 
 a SI ileum oath to support one another if attackeil, to 
 uphold the old laith by ex'ery means in their power, and 
 to con\ert or punish all Protestants dwelling within 
 their districts. This reactionary act was a distiui.t 
 
 C.il. 
 
 A.D. 

 
 296 in STORY OF IT IK SWISS PJiOPLE 
 
 challenge to the Reformed Cantons, but a still more 
 dangerous clause for the continuance of national unity 
 was added, whereby it was declared that this league 
 was above all preceding leagues or treaties, that of the 
 
 A.i). 15S7. Confederation not even excepted. Pursuing the same 
 unpatriotic policy, the Catholics in the following year 
 allied themselves with Spain. The immediate result was 
 the complete break-up of the old Swiss Confederation, 
 which for a considerable time ceased to exist. Out of 
 this ruin two new Confederations now arose, each Avith 
 distinct interests, and ha\Tng no feelings in common 
 sa\e those of the bitterest hate. Luzern was chosen 
 as the Catholic capital, and Aarau, in Aargau, as the 
 Protestant one. 
 
 Appcii-dl, Later on, in 1597, similar religious disputes broke 
 
 •"''-^^ up the unity of Appenzell, and two separate and hostile 
 
 divisions took the place of the former state. These were 
 called the Inner, or Catholic Rhode, and the Outer, or 
 Protestant Rliode,^ each sending a separate representati\-e 
 to the Diet. The loss of stability and pcnver, due to 
 the dissolution of national unity, soon showed its effects 
 on the prosperity of the whole of Switzerland, and 
 during the long struggle that followed, all civilisation 
 and material progress came to a standstill, if they did 
 not actually recede. Nominally, the deputies of the 
 thirteen cantons continued to meet in general Diet, but 
 all concerted action on Swiss national affairs was at 
 an end. 
 
 Viildis. Up to this period Protestantism had made great 
 
 I Tliis curious Swiss word, \\hich is still used, is deri\-cd from 
 the Cicrman rc/Zi', a hand or troop, rt'fcrrinfj; to the communes, or 
 hundreds of tlie people. The Keltic is icidii, or i;h//i, meaninj.; a ficdd 
 or district (Obermiiller).
 
 i)\ rill-, swisj, i'1-,()1'1 iv 
 
 297 
 
 headway in \'aud, aiul in the territories aruund Gene\a. 
 as also ill Catb.oHc X'alais. Indeed so many of the 
 people ot the latter districts proiessed the Relornied 
 doctrines, that in 1531, the Cantonal Diet proclaimed -^ ''^35' 
 religious toleration to both parties. I5ut the ad\ent oi 
 the Jesuits and C^ipuchine monks, about the }ear lOoo, •■^■''- i'^"<-'' 
 brought about a strong reaction to the ("athcjlic b'aith. 
 and now \ alais also became dixided into two hostile 
 sections — the one, formed by the lour upper di\isions 
 which sup{)ortetl and professed Catholicism, and the 
 other, by the three lower ones that held to the Kelorma- 
 tion. The nuitual hatred and lanaticism ol the two 
 made hostilities appear ine\"ital)le. especially as the 
 i'rotestants appealed to Henry IW tor help, and only 
 the acti\e mediation of the neutral Powers, indeed, 
 pre\ented cixil war. The religious struggle.^ now 
 changed into political (jnes, and a powerful part}-, 
 styling itsell the I-'i'dHLsfatriotts, arose, xvhich opposed a i' 1O04 
 the temporal authorit}- of the clergy, and at last 
 succeeded in ellecting the expulsion ot the missicjnarv 
 monks, and the establisliment ot I'rotestant pastors in 
 their stead (i')i^), a result greatly tlue to the mtluencc a p pm,. 
 and ^upport llenr\- 1\ . ga\e the Ivetormers, but shortK 
 after the death ot that monarch, in lOU), another 
 reaction set in in fa\-our of the old taith, chielly 
 throUL,di the help of the Catholic Cantons, sujiportetl b}' 
 Spain and the I'ope, and after man}- years ot struggle. 
 the Roman Catholic tcjrm of x\orshij) was once more 
 made obligatory (i'-'35).^ a p, 1655 
 
 I Ai-iioiiL,' thr pc.'oplc of the \'al;ii^. :i curidU^ i.'U'-iDin is 
 ru'scrihc! 1)\- \'ifu>sfux (it rousing [mblic Djiinioii ,-ii;a:i-i>i iiii- 
 p'lpiil:,!- !• ical mnunaics. When thf\- \s:u^!i-.l to obtain h'oin their 
 Iot'lI^ redress ot tiieir :;rie\ances, the\" hoisted in tlie niarket-plai e
 
 298 HISTORY OF THE SWISS PEOPLE 
 
 The close of the i6th century ends the heroic period 
 of Switzerland's history, and opens that of her shame 
 and degradation. The era immediately before the 
 Reformation was far from being very honourable to 
 the country, yet it was an age of unexhausted national 
 vigour. The Reformation emancipated many thousands 
 of the Swiss from the ensla\"ing superstitions of a 
 debased religion, but it created hatreds and e\ery form 
 of misery between those who should have li\"ed in 
 brotherly affection, and it shattered the fabric of Swiss 
 unity. The history of the Swiss, from the beginning 
 of their freedom to the o\erthrow of their ancient 
 Eternal League, may be said to resemble their moun- 
 tain heights, the base of which shows smiling and fertile 
 fields and \alleys, the middle region wild but majestic 
 ridges, thence to the summit lifelessness and ruin — 
 (\'ogelin). During the next two centuries the picture 
 of Switzerland's career affords neither pleasure nor 
 interest, as hardly anything is seen save senseless local 
 strifes, ci\il and religious wars, misery in every sh.ape, 
 and individual and national decay and death. 
 
 an enormous club, one end of which was ruciel}- car\ed into sorae- 
 thinjj; resemblin<^ a human face, l)earin',^ an expression of woe, and 
 crowned with thorns; this was cahed l,a .Mazze, and was meant to 
 represent oppressed justice. A man sttxjd behind it, and the people 
 came one after the other to ask of the Mazze what made it so sad '. 
 Was it such or such a lord, mentionini;" se\eral, that had ,L;rie\ed 
 it ? When the particular noble or other person who caused the 
 l(;cal ;4ric\ances was named, the Mazze made an imdination ot the 
 head, and the attendant lifted it \\\) and carried it from \'illage to 
 village, followed liv the people. It was then proclaimed at every 
 halting-place, that the Mazze was ,i;oing to tlemand satislaction ot 
 the gri(.:\-ances complained of, and thus the whole cotmtry was 
 roused to a threateninL' attitude.
 
 chapt1':k XV 
 
 Till;: c;raui!lX1)i;x ok gkisoxs 
 
 Willi the exception of the brief account of the early 
 conchtion oi Rhatia ,<^iven in Chapter II. httle has so far 
 been said of the history of the eastern part (.)! tlic: modern 
 C"t)nlederation. This is o\\in,i( to that portion remaining 
 to a i^reat extent chstinct from the rt;st ol Switzerland, 
 and takin,!;' no jxirt in the events that occurred else- 
 where. It is now proposed to take up the history of the 
 (iraubunden, or the CJrisons as this section is called in 
 b'rench, as in tlie 15th century the districts comprising 
 it for the first time emerged from their long obscurity 
 and began to be important factors in Swiss affairs. 
 
 The topographical peculiarities ol tlie ( jraubi'inden 
 must ne\ er be lost sight ui in all (juestions allecting 
 their history, as these are \ er}' largel}' responsible' 
 lor the social and political conditions ol the people. 
 Writing i\ft\ yt^ars ago an anonymous critic ol Swis^ 
 history made the iollowing suggestixe remark on this 
 subject. '• The scenery ot Switzerland proper, with the 
 exception ol tiie lakes, does not bear awa\- the prize lor 
 \-aried beauty from the \ales ol the drisons, where 
 nature has been la\ish ol her loltiest st}'le ol ornament. 
 Ivocky battlements Irown upon the narrow ixith ol the 
 traveller, or indent the distant horizon with their fainter 
 lines and outlines. Life or li\ing ihing haunts not their 
 summits : sinind aiul motion there are none but ol tlu'
 
 300 HISTORV OF THE SWISS PEOPLE 
 
 glacier-Stream from its icy reservoir, or the avalanche 
 rolling in thunder over fissures and abysses, or the 
 clouds that fleet or lower upon the breasts of the 
 mountains, whose summits glitter high above their 
 region in the sunlight. Lower down the .'Vlpine 
 meadows, spotted with flocks and shepherds' huts, 
 repose in primitive stillness and simplicity. No 
 suspicion penetrates these pastoral solitudes of the 
 progress of human intellect, or the arts of modern 
 luxury. Lower still lie smiling villages, half enveloped 
 in thickets, cheerful country houses, with their pleasure 
 grounds and vineyards, and scattered hamlets, seeming 
 to mock the vicinage of the knightly towers whose ruins 
 have frowned from their rocky sites for centuries. The 
 modes of thought and degrees of civilisation in these 
 highlands are as various as the features of their scenery. 
 There are few countries of h^urope in which circuir^ 
 stances have coincided to produce such a motley nnx- 
 ture of manners and of usages. The very form of the 
 valleys, by which one set of inhabitants is divided from 
 the rest as though in separate apartments, conduces n(jL 
 a little to the same eftect. l^ocal and communal rights 
 oppose impediments to the setttlement of strangers, 
 and the natives themsel\-es are counted strangers in 
 e\ ery valley but their own. Marriages are rare between 
 inhabitants of distant valleys; and a certain set of habits 
 and ideas, with their accompanying propensities and 
 prejudices, are faithfully transmitted from one century 
 to another." 
 
 So great, indeed, was the isolation of the people of 
 the Ciraubiinden from the neighbouring nations that, 
 thcnigh geographically a portion of Switzerland, and 
 l)olitically uniled to her in 14(^7 by a treaty of alliance
 
 HisrnR-v oi' THE SWISS iM;n]>i.i; 301 
 
 between Chur rinil Zurich, it \\'as not til! the jifesent 
 century that they became formally incorporated into 
 the Confederation. Xeitlier was tliis isolation ord\' 
 confined to their relations with the outside world. In 
 the 13th and 14th centuries the whole countrv was 
 dix'ided into separate and innumeral)le feudal districts, 
 with separate interests, n;itural barriers, and different 
 langua,i;'es, and having'' no connectin,!^;' link sa\'e the 
 iron bonil of sava^^e oppression that united the mass 
 of the people in a common fellowship of po\'erty and 
 wretchedness. i\Iore than a century had elapsetl since 
 the Swiss ;ichie\"ed their freedom, yet the Rha'tian 
 peasants still i^roanetl under the despotic rule ot the 
 numerous pett}' independent nobles, who treated them 
 in a manner iar harsher than had e\-er the .Vuslrian 
 masters <^^o\-erned the Helvetians. Like the latter, the 
 people of Rha'tia at last learnt the ad\anta,<4'es and the 
 absolute necessity of combination, and b\- so doin.^,^ the)' 
 also obtained tlieir freedom and indepentlence. 
 
 After the Ivoman and Allemanni wars Ivhatia a i) 
 became incorporated in the Swabian dukedom b\' 
 tht; b^ranks (S~^j)- In (J51 the Rmperor, Otto I., a,i> 
 •granted a certain measure of local indej^iendence b}' 
 bestcjwin^ feudal ri.L^iits on the liislu)}) of Chur o\'er 
 the town oi that name and the nei,'j,iibourin,L;' districts. 
 I'Y'udal nobles then took possession oi lar^e or small 
 tracts ot territory, overran the wliole country, and 
 built stron,L;iy fortified castles to protect their claims. 
 So numcr<jus were their strcjni^'holds, that, according;" 
 to (iuler, no region ot equal size throu,L;iiout bur(^pe 
 contained so many. '• I'erchetl up in their casiles, 
 built on lotty clifis, thc\- sallietl thence, like birdis of 
 prey, scarinj^' tlie })Oor shepherdls and cuki\atois bidow.
 
 302 HISTORY OF TUP. SWISS PEOPI.l-; 
 
 and extorting from them the produce of the soil, in- 
 sulting the chastity of their daughters, and disposing 
 of the liberty and lives of their sons.'' During the 
 1 2th century the Rhretians (or, rather, the so-called 
 nobles) received many important privileges from the 
 Emperors, whose rule over them became less and 
 A.n. 1300. less, till, in the commencement of the 14th century, it 
 practically ceased. At this period the whole country 
 is seen under the government of a number of lay and 
 clerical feudal lords, the records of whose atrocious 
 cruelties towards the unfortunate peasantry make up 
 the larger part of the history of the country till the 
 time when the people shook off their bondage for 
 ever. Revolts against the nobles were frequent, but 
 sporadic, and these, owing to want of combination, 
 almost invarial)ly failed. 
 
 According to local chronicles, the peasants of 
 Rha^tia during many generations endured the most 
 fearful oppression at the hands of their over-lords, by 
 whom they were regarded pretty mucli in the light of 
 the lower animals. Like the stories of the exploits of 
 the early Waldstiitten lieroes, the names of many 
 Graubunden peasants have been immort.'ilised in }:)rose 
 and verse, and probably with as solid a i(junclation 
 of truth. We read of a certain 1 kiron of \'atz, 
 who used to star\-e his prisoners in his castle dun- 
 geon and listen with satisfaction to their moans 
 whilst sitting in the ban(]ueting halK and who, to 
 try an experiment on the pi'ocess ol digestion, had 
 tliree of his stewards rippcxl open some hours after 
 their dinner — (Miiller). Similar casi.-s ol fiendish 
 callousness to the sullerings ol others lill the early 
 Khalian records, but it will be suhicieiil to nar-
 
 iiismRV nv 'I'ln: swiss i'i;n]'i.i; 
 
 rate the two most celebrated only, from hcint,^ those 
 which are l)elie\"ed to lia\"e orii^inated the freedom of 
 the couiitrw In these, t\V(j peasants, nan^ed Adam 
 CarnoL;'ask and Johann C'aldar, li^an'e as the heroes. 
 Of the former it is said that bein^' ordered by his o\-er- 
 lord to brinn" his voun^' and beautitul dau,<4'hter to the 
 castle of (iardo\'al. Carnoi^Msk had her dressed as a 
 bride and himself accompanied her to the presence of 
 the ncjble. W hen the wouldd)e seducer appeared and 
 adxanced to the ii'nl, her enrai,^ed parent rushetl upon 
 liim and l)uried his swi)rd in his breast. In the con- 
 fusion that resulted the intrepid peasants made ,<,^ood 
 their escape, and so stirred the indi^aiation of their 
 nL-iL^dibours that they rose in open re\-olt and burnt the 
 tN'rant's castle to the i^^'ound. This is belie\-eil to ha\'e 
 been the com;nencement ot the risim;' that brnuLj'ht 
 about the emancipation of the lCnL;"atline. (Jf [uliann 
 Caklar it is chromcled that he was thrtjwn, loatled with 
 chains, into a s'abterranean dungeon b\- the l^ord of 
 b^ardun for darini^ to dri\-e out of his little field the 
 noble's horses, wdiich were eating the ripening croj^s. 
 (Jn the payment of a hea\'\' fme ("ahlar was at last 
 liberated, and one day, as he was silting with his taiiulv 
 at dinner, the noble entered hi> luurd)le c-olla^e. All 
 ruse and greeted him res})ectlul]y, but the only r^'Siionse 
 was a haughty stare oi contem[)t, which was furilu't 
 e:ni)liasisfd by his spitting iii the s.nij) and tellin.g the 
 p')' a- ])ci iple to begin their meal. I'illed with rightrous 
 rai:'e C.'alda!" sprang u[)on his in-nlcnt master, and 
 seizing liim by the throat, loi-ccd his luad im.i the 
 boiliu',: cauldron of souj), in which he hi-ld him till he 
 cxjiirt'd. 'Idiis .'ict rmisrd the surrounding pL-asauts to 
 desti"oy the feudal castle and ail lhe\- t:oidd lay their
 
 304 HISTORY OI' THF. SWISS PEOPLE 
 
 hands on l)elon<(inf( to the hated tyrant. Thenceforth 
 the valley of Schams and the Rheinwald became free. 
 
 These, or other similar acts, brought the people 
 to a knowledge of their own strength and the injustice 
 under which they had so long remained passive victims, 
 Early Unions, and in or about the year 1396, the inhabitants of 
 many districts, following the example of the W'ald- 
 statten, banded themselves into little communities for 
 mutual protection and support. Finding the increased 
 power and personal liberty this step at once brought 
 them, the peasants next formed alliances between 
 different Communes, and later still between these and 
 powerful nobles. Jkit the n:iost important forward 
 move was made when the three Leagues came into 
 existence known as the Gottislians (House of God), the 
 Zchif^^crichicn (Ten Jurisdictions), and the Gyaucrhund 
 (Grey League). 
 Cottcahanshund During the latter half of the 14th century a wide- 
 
 ^■^■'^^''T- spread feeling of apprehension pre\'ailed throughout 
 Rh.'ctia lest the country should fall under foreign rule, 
 as had happened with the Tyrol, already annexed by 
 Austria in 1366. The action of Austria was in great 
 part due to the arbitrary interference with the domestic 
 and political affairs of the Tyrolese by the Bishop of 
 Chur. In order to escape a similar fate it was felt 
 that means of concerted action on the part of a 
 number of the different districts must be de\ised, and 
 at the same time the liishop's power of interference 
 in ci\'il matters limited. Accordingly, the peasant 
 depeiuknUs of the Hishop of C^hur li\ing in the Ober- 
 halstein ami the Lngadine, together with the lay and 
 ecclesiastical inhabitants ol Chur itself, formed them- 
 sebes into a League, and soleiinily swore to uphold
 
 lIISl'Ol^^• oi i-ni; swiss im-.oim.i-: 303 
 
 and (U'tend theiiiseh'es and their C'hurch from rdl out- 
 side attack. At the same time, they determined not 
 to reco.i^nise or carry out any order emanatin,^' from 
 tlie J bishop without prex'ious mutual consultation in 
 .all matters of importance to themselves or their 
 country. 1 5y these resolutions, thoui^h fully concedin,^' 
 to the Ijishop the position of their spiritual and tem- 
 poral lord, they insisted upon obtainin.L;' a share in 
 the <:(overnment. The compact constituted the earliest 
 of the three (iraubiinden Leai^ues, and is known as 
 the Goltfsluutdiiind (League of (lod's House), or Caddca 
 (C.asa Dei), from the circumstance of those formini; 
 it being inhabitants of the numerous scattered domains 
 in the Lower Rha>tian \'alleys of the ICpiscopal See. 
 This League was further strengthened in 1404 In- 
 forming an alliance with (ilarus, and in 1411^ one 
 with Zurich. 
 
 In 14.^4 the peasants of the northern \alleys and C,)\i!in-''un.l, 
 many nobles of the N'order Ivhein districts and l.'p[ier ' 
 Rha-tia, as well as the Abbot of Dissentis, met to- 
 gether at 'brons, and agreed to form a League amongst 
 themseK'es. The place chosen fc^r this important 
 gathering was an opc>n held outside the \illage, and 
 there, standing in a circle round a gigantic maple tree, 
 they one and all swore in the name cjf the Holy Trinity 
 to form a perpetual alliance tcj support one another in 
 all their indixidual rights and possessions. 
 
 This was the Cirey League, or Graucvbuud, from 
 the formation of which the wh(jle country took its 
 name and ceased henceforth to be known as Rha'tia. 
 
 The historical maple-tree that saw the birth of 
 the GraiiLrhitiid was in existence up to the close of the 
 last century, wIk'U it was destroyed tluring the l-'ieiich 
 
 20
 
 3o6 HISTORY Ol' 'ITIE SWISS PEOPLE 
 
 invasion. The Grey League has given rise to many 
 and conflicting theories as to the origin of its name. 
 The most usually received explanation is, that the 
 peasants who took part in the meeting wore grey 
 woollen clothes. Others maintain that the Grey 
 Leaguers were the ancient inhabitants of the country, 
 hence the name as a mark of antiquity [grey -beards, as 
 we say). I'he learned writer of the article " Switzer- 
 land '' in the "Encyclopaedia Jjritannica," contends that 
 the word is derived from granien or grafen, as so many 
 Counts took part in the formation of the Grey League, 
 and that the name has nothing to do therefore with 
 grey. According to Coxe all the people of Rhsetia 
 were called the grey people, and therefore when the 
 important League of 1424 was formed, it was but 
 natural it should receive a national designation. The 
 application of the term long prior to 1424 is evidenced 
 by its use by classical Roman writers. Tacitus refers 
 to the people of Rhactia as Rlurlos griseos id est canos, 
 and Ainmianus iMarcellinus calls the districts around 
 Chur, canos cainpos, or the Grey Fields — (Coxe). 
 Zfhui^criclitcn- I'^oUowing the example of the Northern and 
 
 /;;(,7(/, A.I). 1471 01 11 1 1 r 1 I- T ■ 
 
 Southern valleys, the people 01 the r.astern districts 
 bordering the Tyrol, on the death of the last Count 
 of Toggenburg, also formed themsehcs into a League. 
 This course was made necessary by the troul)les that 
 now arose touching the succession to the rights exer- 
 cised by the deceased noble over the districts of Davos, 
 Klostcrs, Shicrs, Seewis, Abayenfeld, i5eIfort, Chur- 
 waldcn, Scliaufigg and I'rattigau. 'J'lie representatives 
 of these ten districts (hence the name ZehngericJdcn, or 
 League of the Ten Jurisdictions) assembled and swore 
 to obserx'e an alliance, similar in its conditions to that
 
 iiis'r()RV oi I'Hi: SWISS i'i;ni'i.i; 
 
 (irif,Mn;i.t(Hl in tht; other ("irauhundeii (li\isi()ns. This 
 Lea<4'ue in spite of st.-\'cr:il of its constituent (^)niinuries 
 falhn^t; into the hanJs of Austria and indixidual nobles, 
 ,<;a\e nuudi ,i;feater freedom and prosperity to thcjse 
 composing' it than they liad before expcriencech 
 
 The tliree Leai^ues, thou.^di they embraced the v.;.'/ « j/.'/v 
 whole peasant population of the countr_\-, were yet -^ " ^t"' 
 distinct and without any connection. So thev re- 
 mained till 1471, when the tirst effort towards national 
 unity was maile. In this year, each Lea^aie sent 
 dejnities to the \dllai;'e ot \'azerol (jr I'alzerol, wdiere 
 an alliance ot mutual support was agreed t(j, andi 
 all three Leac^ues amaliramated into one Republic. 
 In this chan,L(e, e\'cry dixdsion retained its existin,^^ 
 ri^'hls, customs, and m(jde of self-,^'o\-ermnent. All 
 matters of national importance were agreed to be 
 submitted to the \'otc of the \\hole nation by deputies 
 in a ,t(eneral assemlilv, and between the times of 
 meetini,^ of these assemblies, national .i^'ow-rnment was 
 entrusted to a Committee composed of the Presitlents 
 of each Lea,i;ue. 
 
 Thus arose the federal system of the (iraubiinden, 
 wdiich, within a wonderiully short space oi time, by 
 means of its respectixe Leai^uies, brou,L(ht freedom and 
 prosperity to the cotmtry. ISefore these Leagues were 
 tormed, the mass of the people was little remo\ed Irom 
 sla\'er\-, a state of society in wdiicdi the semidiarbarcnis 
 nobles ruled thousands of unfortunate men antl women 
 as despotic and cruel masters, \vho regarded them in 
 the li,u;ht of beasts of burde'u, of hewers of wooil, ar.d 
 drawers of water, whose bodies beloiiL^ed to them bv 
 ri'^ht in this world, antl wdiose souls the\' could tlamn 
 to all eternity in the next. l-'rom this state ol abject
 
 tion 
 
 308 HISTORY OI' TinC SWISS PF.OPLF. 
 
 misery the peasants were raised to the condition of a 
 powerful, united and free people, self-ruled by laws 
 they themselves framed, and treated with respect and 
 as equals by neighbouring states, possessing a far 
 greater measure of civilisation and power. 
 Deccntralisa- In the GraubiJnden Republic, the principle of 
 
 decentralisation formed the basis of the whole system. 
 Every individual stood on an equal footing, with an 
 equal voice and vote in all matters affecting his district 
 or his country. Every little collection of families 
 formed a hamlet, which in itself constituted a miniature 
 republic, with its particular rights, laws, and privileges, 
 and possessed of complete local self-government, under 
 the presidency of an elected magistrate, called a Ciing. 
 A collection of several of these hamlets formed a 
 Commune, w^here local self-government, without pre- 
 judice to the separate rights and laws of the han^ilets, 
 existed. Each Commune had its council and courts, 
 and its leader, or Amman, who represented the district 
 in the Diets, and was the e\ecuti\'e ofticer of the laws 
 the people prepared and passed. It was by the amal- 
 gamation of these Communes that each of the three 
 Leagues was formed, which again had its special laws, 
 its special banner, and its special chief. 
 
 Nowhere, through the whole range of history, is 
 it possible to find a country where the democratic 
 principle was more thoroughly applied than in the 
 case of the little Graubiinden Republic, or where the 
 good and bad results of that principle have been more 
 thoroughly demonstrated. Its good effects we have 
 already seen, in the emancipation it ga\-e the people 
 from the bondage of the nobles, in the unity it l)rought 
 about between men indifferent, if not liostile, to one
 
 iiis'r()K\- oi- riii; swiss I'Icopij, 
 
 jn'J 
 
 another, and in the great impulse it <^ii\'c to national 
 and indix'idual prcjsperity. 
 
 W'e niiist now ttirn from the bright side of the 
 picture, and glance at its other aspect, to trace the evil 
 elfects the system eventuated. 
 
 The absence of a common foe, whose presence 
 created the necessity of imity, lett the people free to 
 submit to the promptings of their \-erv imperfectly 
 educated hiunan nature. Soon atter the establishment 
 of independence, jealousies, dixerging local interests, 
 and the ditference of race, religion and language, made 
 the newly-iormed nationality lose its cohesion, and, at 
 last, split up into innumerable petty di\'isions. In con- 
 sidering this lamentable breakdov/n of a system thai 
 certainly cf)mmends itself theoretically a^ the ideal form 
 of go\ernment, it nuist be remembered that nothing (if 
 the nature of true homogeneity really existed among 
 the people. Racial and local differences, coupled with 
 the workings of an intolerant religious fanaticism among 
 men still in their uifancy as regards intellectual deNelo])- 
 ment, were factors that must effectually ha\e pre\ented 
 any feeling of national cohesion becoming permaneni. 
 in the absence (jf an apparent common danger or \ital 
 bond of uni(m. 
 
 Three princi[)al tongues were spoken in the country. L.hi'^ujl. 
 (jerman and Italian, and the Romansh and Ladin 
 dialects, (ierman pre\ailed througliout nearly e\ cry 
 part (jf the Zclnif^cyichtcn districts, in those of the 
 Cyaitcrbund at Splugen, Cepina and other parts of the 
 Rheinwald, at Tusis, Rheichenau, X'alts, etc., and in the 
 GottcsliauibiDid at A\"ers, C"hm", and in some tew small 
 villages. Italian, resembling very closely the dialect of 
 the Milanese, was sjinken by the people ol 1 'iisrhia\'>)
 
 3IO nis'roRY oi- the swiss people 
 
 and Pregalio, as by those of the valleys of IVlasox and 
 Calanca. Romansh or Arumanunsh (a dialect derived 
 from the Latin through the Lingua Roniana) was the 
 vernacular among the greater part of the Graubi'mden 
 people. It consists of two chief dialects, that spoken 
 in the Graiiei'bmid districts, and that in the Engadine 
 known as Ladin.^ 
 Religion. After the introduction of the Reformation, religion 
 
 here, as elsewhere, brought disunion and strife in lieu 
 of peace and concord, and soon divided the whole 
 country into two hostile and persecuting factions. 
 
 I " Ckissical scholars who travel among the Orisons, will, from 
 the frequent occurrence of Latin appellations, believe that they 
 are journeying through Latrium, Etruria, and Campania. They 
 will trace the ancient names oi Anicatcs, \'ittontS,Scntinates, Saiiinilcs. 
 in Ardcts, Vcttau, Sent, and Sainniiii. They will encounter mount 
 Uiiibriii, the river AlbnLi, the towns of Aiiiiuiii, Siisa, Lavinium, 
 riitiinu, Sci/'lia, Silium, Ccinctia, and many others : derivations so 
 obvious and so often occurring evidently tell their origin" — (Aporta). 
 
 The celebrated Ciraubiinden scholar, statesman, soldier and 
 linguist, John Tra\ers (14SJ-1560), was the first to write on 
 Komansh. This eminent man receised his education at Munich, 
 and after travelling over h'-urope for fifteen \ears returned to his 
 nati\e town, Zutz, in the f^ngadine. lie wrote many sermons and 
 dramas in \erse, and composed a p(.iem descriljing tlu: war ol 
 Murson, which war his ability was chielh instrumental in bringing 
 to an end. He much assisted the cause of the Keformation, and 
 was the recipient of the greatest esteem and the highest offices his 
 grateful country could bestow. In 15J4, Philip Salutz, one of the 
 earliest reformers, translated the Lord's Prayer, the Apostles' 
 Creed, and the Decalogue into Latin. The celebrated Tutsch was, 
 in i5'^)o, the lirst to print in Romansh, all the preceding boolis 
 having circulated in MS. He published a work containing the 
 alphabet, the Lord's Prayer, Apostles' Creed, etc. This was 
 followed by a translation of the New Testament, 'fhe first version 
 of the whole IJible in Ladin was printed in \()-() at Schol, and 
 that in the Romansh of the (b'ey Leaguers in 171S at Chur. This 
 latter l^ible was dedicated to the Prince of Wales, afterwards 
 Ceorge II. (Co.\cj,
 
 HI^T()K\' Ol- illl-; ^iW'I: 
 
 311 
 
 IC\-;in,i,^elic;il tiocirines were lirst preached and recei\ed 
 about 1524, at Idd'sh in the ZcJui'^criditin districts, thence 
 spreading' to ^Layertield. Malans and the whtde i'ratii^'au 
 valley, and betore the close ot the centur\- were em- 
 braced by nearly all the Ziluf^cyichtoi, the greater 
 number ot the Gottcslianshimd, and a few Communes of 
 the Grancvhiuid. The great diflerences and the mutual 
 hatred and persecution that at once sprang up between 
 the adherents of the cdd and the new form of taith led to 
 many serious contlicts, and much general misery, but 
 these troubles were e\'entually ^omewhat abated b\' an 
 agreement that e\"ery Conunune should be at liberty to 
 choose, by a majority \-ote, its own religion. 
 
 The religious tactions in tin:ie gradually merged mto 
 three principal political ])arties, led lor se\'eral genera- 
 tion^ by members ni three jjrominent families, from 
 wdiom each tocjk its name. The rise of these pohtical 
 parties was principally due to the interest the j^a'eat 
 Powers began t<j take in the (iraubtmden. 
 
 The result ol the battle of l'a\ia ga\e Spain 
 |:>ossession ot the Northern (li>tricts ot Itah'. As her 
 interests were ick-ntical with those" ot Austria, it became 
 necessar}' ior her to conunand the tree pa->age of the 
 (jraubiinden territory ot the \';d Tellina, it she were to 
 keep up her connecti(jns with Austria. Hence e\ er)- 
 eitort, chiefly by bribes and laxish pronhses, was made 
 by the Spanish en\"oys to torm a party fa\ourable to 
 their designs. This became known as the IHar.i.i, in 
 consequence of ha\'ing usuall}- a member of the family 
 ot that name as its head. A,i;-ainst this the Siilis arose 
 representing tlie mteresis of the i'rench, the bitter 
 enenhes of Spain, Austria, and intolerant Koman 
 Caiholicism. A third kiction, the Tiwics, uplield t!u> 
 
 Pchticdl
 
 312 HISTORY OF THE SWISS PEOPLE 
 
 political designs of Venice, whilst a fourth, the Neutral 
 or National, rejecting all foreign complications, professed 
 to rely on the people of the Graubiinden alone, holding 
 that an alliance betwxen a powerful and a weak nation 
 meant little else than slavery for the latter. 
 
 Val Tdlin.i. The Val Tellina, the important district connecting 
 
 Austria and r^Iilan, possession of which Spain, Austria 
 and France used every means to obtain, is a fertile 
 valley some 50 miles in length, enclosed between two 
 high mountain ranges, to the South of the Rha^tian 
 Alps. It is watered throughout its whole length by 
 the Adda, and embraces the large towns and districts of 
 IJormio and Chiavenna at either extremity. In 1336 it 
 came under the rule of the Dukes of Milan, and in the 
 commencement of the 15th century was ceded to the 
 liishop of Chur. The people, however, were strongly 
 opposed to their new lord, and carried their opposition 
 sufliciently far to remain for long in a condition of 
 semi -independence. 
 
 A.ij. 1512, In 1512 the \'al Tellina, together with the whole 
 
 Milanese, was captured by Louis XII. ; but the 
 ['Tench were soon after expelled by the CJraubunden 
 peasants, who entered the valley and were everywhere 
 \ictt)rious. Coining as liberators, the mountaineers re- 
 mained as masters, and took the country for themselves 
 and the Ilishop of Chur. Two years later this change 
 was f(jrmally acquiesced in by the Duke of Milan, as 
 also by the I'Tench king, in his treaty with the Swiss 
 
 All. i.Tifi. and their allies (1516). 
 
 A.i). 15J0. In 1530 the Graubiinden Leagues compelled the 
 
 I>ishop to sell them his share of the \'al Tellina dis- 
 tricts, and henceforth the former alone ruled the valley. 
 Ill ihcii g()\c;rninein the newly emancii)ated peasants
 
 HISTOKV OI- THE SWISS I'lCOl'Li; 313 
 
 showed themselves cruel and tyrannical masters, with 
 little reJ^^artl for their sid)jects" welfare, or ior those 
 principles of liberty they themselves had done so much 
 to obtain. The province was placed tmder Cjo\ernors, 
 whose harshness, exactions, and unscrupulous conduct 
 gave rise to great discontent and misery, and frefjuent, 
 but unsuccesstul, revolts. 
 
 In spite (jf the feeling of their subject -territory 
 against them, the (iraidninden n:iaintained their rule 
 without hindrance, until the fanatical bigotry of both 
 religious sections, the arbitrary exactions of the local 
 governors, and the clashing interests of France, Spain, 
 and the Pope, brought about an insurrection, inaugurated 
 by a general massacre of the Protestants, that lasted 
 for a series ot years with savage fury. 
 
 Such, in general (jutline, was the condition of the 
 (iraubtinden up to the middle; of the ibth century, 
 when, divided by political and religious schisms, their 
 appearance pomted to the speedy collapse of their 
 republic, and the downfall ot their national unity. 
 
 The recriminations and collisions ot the two chief c'/r// IWu . 
 jjolitical parties, the Plniita and the Salis, rapidly as- ■^'" '•"'"■'^ 
 sumed a threatening as[)ect ior the peace of the country, 
 and at length, in \S^)^, actual ci\il war broke out, and 
 was maintained, with \ar}-ing tortunt', lor a considerable 
 time. In order to gi\'e an air ot judicial authority to 
 their nefarious proceedings, each party established a 
 criminal tribunal that, with monotonous regularity, 
 condenmed those who tell into its power to imprison- 
 ment, tine, exile, or death. Among the Planta party 
 religious hatred and persecution were kept alive by a 
 band of Jesuit and Capuchine missionaries, who roused 
 the adherents of Romanism and of Spain against their
 
 314 HISTORY OF THE SWISS PEOPLE 
 
 opponents,- especially directing their labours to the 
 people of the Val Tellina. In the latter territory, 
 where a Jesuit college was already established, the 
 Italian and Catholic element greatly preponderated, 
 and here very widespread hatred of the Graubiinden 
 rule existed. On the other hand, the Evangelical 
 ministers were equally energetic in supporting the 
 Salts faction, and in denouncing the Spanish and 
 Catholic intrigues, and openly accused their opponents 
 of preparing a second St. Bartholomew for the whole- 
 sale massacre of the Protestants, an accusation that 
 was too fatally verified. 
 
 A.D. 1574. This suicidal policy continued till 1574, when 
 
 matters became so serious that the Swiss Confederates 
 thought it time to interfere. By their efforts, a rest 
 for the unhappy country was procured, a rest that 
 in those troublous times must be looked upon as of 
 very exceptional length (1574-1602). The unity ol 
 the Leagues was once more established, and the 
 authority of the united Diet became again recognised, 
 in 1553 the power and influence of Carlo Borromeo to 
 a great extent succeeded in re-establishing the Catholic 
 form of faith, though the Cardinal himself was prevented 
 from visiting the country. 
 
 '^■iJ- i*Joj- After this short interval of suppressed strife, if 
 
 not of absolute repose, fresh troubles broke out in 1603. 
 These arose from the formation of an alliance betw'een 
 a number of the dissatisfied peasants and Venice, and 
 the intrigues of Spain nearly succeeded in bringing 
 about an alliance with that country also. In revenge 
 for this failure, and in order to impress the (iraubiinden 
 wath the power of his nation, the Spanish Cjo\-ernor of 
 Milan, Count J'^uentcs, built a formidable fortress at
 
 iii^^rom oi 1111. hwibs I'Koi'Li, 313 
 
 -Montccchio, and named it after hiinseli. l-'roin this 
 fortress the Spaniards woukl be able to pcnir intt; tlie 
 \'al 'I'elhna on an einer,L,'"enc\- : it also formed a central 
 point whence Spanish emissaries coukl enter the 
 country to a,L;itate amonj^^ the people.' Cjreat indii,aia- 
 tion at the erection oi the stronj^diold broke out thrinij^h- 
 out the ( jraubtindeii, and brought on a general risin;^' 
 against the Spaniards and their supporters. Abmy 
 scenes of saxage brutality quickly tolknved, not the least 
 of which were done under the guise of legal acts 
 against persons accused of treasonable practice. 
 
 And nuw ci\ il \var, long imminent, once iiHjre 
 broke (ju.t, and soon undid the little good the pre\'ious 
 half-peace altorded the country. After many encounters 
 between the ri\al Plaiita and Salis factions the latter 
 obtained the ascendency. Through the efkjris of a 
 numlier of Protestant pastors, led by an ambitious, 
 dissolute, but withal l)ra\e and patriotic minister named 
 Jenatsch. a judicial tribunal was established at Tusi:^, 
 which issued man\- and se\ere sentences against the 
 leaders of the (opposite party, and condemned man\-, 
 often upon the slightest e\'idence, to exile, imprison- 
 ment and death. Among cjther arbitrary acts oi 
 cruelty inspired by bigotry and revenge, this tribunal 
 (hstinguished itself by the seizure, torture and im- 
 prisonment of the \enerable chief priest (jt Sondrio, 
 
 A.U. IO16. 
 
 1 RcfL-rrin,i( to the buiMiiiL,' ot this tori, 1 lcnr\- I\' ol I'raiicc 
 i.i reportC'l to lia\"e saiil, "11 \L-!it (hi iiir:nc no(.'n'l scrrcr la ,u'.'U;^e 
 del' Italie el les pieiis aii.x Orisons." The lori stool on a roi.-k\' 
 prcjininence about a mile from the Lake ot ("onio, hein^ surrounded 
 bv marsh\- and pestilential iields. In eojise* pience ot' its position 
 the Spaniariis were accustonied to reter to it as the }'■ ;V; of the 
 (jrisijus, whilst the latter, in allusion to its malarial surruundin.;s, 
 ternie.i il the Gi.i.c (jt the Sjianiards
 
 3l6 HISTORY OF THE SWISS PEOPLE 
 
 Nicholas Rusca, together with the Amman of Bregell 
 and many others, and condemned the two brothers 
 Planta to forfeiture of all their possessions, and to 
 perpetual banishment.^ 
 
 Civil strife also raged all through the several 
 districts of the Engadine, and only after many victims 
 were sacrificed and immense damage done to property 
 was peace restored. This took place through the inter- 
 vention of the Neiitvals, who established a tribunal for 
 the trial of civil and criminal offences that soon 
 superseded that of the Protestant parties at Tusis. A 
 further attempt to make peace was tried by the recall of 
 the exiled Plantas and other Catholic leaders. 
 A i> ifjnj. Moderation, however, was not appreciated in an 
 
 age when extreme measures involving strife and blood- 
 shed were regarded as the only practical methods of 
 settling important (juestions. The people of Davos and 
 the Engadine generally rose against the authority of 
 the tribunal of the Ncuiyals, and established in its stead 
 another at Da^■os, which, not content with upholding 
 the acts of the Protestant Court at Tusis, issued still 
 more severe sentences against the Catholics. The 
 
 I This tribunal, which was known as StraJgericJit, was held 
 nominally for the trial of persons holding,' correspondence with 
 Spanish a<{cnts, or acting in such a way as to subvert the Reformed 
 Faith. In the case of Rusca, the old man had already been tried 
 and acquitted in his absence for alleged participation in an attempt 
 to assassinate the Protestant pastor of Sondrio in the Val Tellina, 
 but was afterwards secretly seized by a troop of soldiers, and taken 
 to Tusis, where he died under the torments of the torture. The 
 usual mode of torture consisted in drawing the victim up a number 
 of times by a pulley attached to his arms. Each suspension lasted 
 about half-an-hour, and, as the wrists were tied behind the back, 
 dislocation of both shoulders usually resulted, with consequent 
 intense sufleriug.
 
 n!S'inK\' (Ji- Tin-; swiss I'l'.oi'i.i. 
 
 exiles \ver(> a serond time proscribed, and e\-erv 
 Spaniard or Catholic adherent that could be found was 
 dealt with in the harshest manner, e\-en the friendlv 
 Fr(!nch Anibassador bL-inj,'' compelled to rjuit the country. 
 Meanwhile the enerL^etic brothers, Rudolph and 
 Pompey Planta. maddened by the treatment they 
 recei\ed from their countrymen, were en.i^a^ed in enrol - 
 linfj can army of their co-reliicionists from the (irau- 
 blinden. as well as in Austria and Italy. With this 
 motley horde they descended upon the \'al Tellina 
 where the peasants ,L,dadly welcomed them, hoping; with 
 their aid in shake oil the yoke of their cruel niasters. 
 This, howe\'er, was not the intention of the Idantas. 
 whose sole object was to re\'en,t,''e themseh'es upon 
 their Protestant compatriots fcjr the many indi.i^aiities 
 and losses they had suffered at their hands. 'rakin,f:( 
 Tirano as the iirst point of attack they surrounded it, 
 and after fourteen days' sie,ne, carried it by assault. 
 Then followed the most sawaye scenes of l)ut(dier\- and 
 brutality that e\er dis.^-raced this e\er-miseral)l(.- \alley. 
 Poth in the town and in the nei'^'hbourim,^ \-illa,L:"es, the 
 Protestants were destroyed whcjlesale, neither sex nor 
 a,L;'e stavin,L( the hideous work oi the pitiless im^adcrs. 
 The heatl of one pastor was l)roU'_;iit into his own 
 church, stuck on the pulpit, and mocked at with the 
 same words as those used towards the crucified Chiist. 
 At Tet^dio, the Protestants ha\ini; taken refui^e in their 
 chapel, their assailants climbed up to the windows and 
 shot down m.any within, and then., forcin^i;' the doors, 
 killed the remainder with e\ cry de\ice that fanatical 
 sa\ aL^ery could su^^L;'cst. The whole ol the huitful 
 walley was now literally drenched with the blood oi 
 slau'ditered thousands. '• Some were thrown out of
 
 3l8 HISTORY OF THE SWISS PEOPI.I-; 
 
 windows, shot, strangled or burnt, many were flayed 
 alive, others had their eyes put out, others ag-ain were 
 beaten to death with sticks, torn to pieces, beheaded, or 
 mutilated in various ways." These and similar scenes 
 were enacted in many other centres of the Val Tellina 
 in which it is estimated that 5,000 victims were sacri- 
 ficed at the bloody orgies of this second St. IJartholo- 
 mew. When no more Protestants were left to slay, the 
 victors seized the government and declared the valley an 
 independent territory. 
 
 At the news of these terrible events the whole 
 (Traubiinden, as well as other l^rotestant countries, was 
 filled with righteous indignation that soon threatened 
 to lead to serious and widespread troubles by war 
 against the perpetrators of the massacre, as also against 
 those who had helped or encouraged them. 
 
 The Zcliii,i{criclifeii and the Goiicslianshiiud at once 
 despatched a force of 2,000 men to the \'al Tellina. 
 In this they were not only not assisted, but actually 
 opposed by the people of the Graucrhiind, whose strong 
 Catholic sympathies pre\'ented them from attacking 
 their co - religionists. Arrived in the blood-drenched 
 valley, the revenging army found themseh'es opposed 
 by large masses of Austrian and Italian soldiers, who 
 promptly mustered from the north and south to the 
 help of the re\'olted prox'inces. Cx)nsidering themsehes 
 ([uite unable to engage this formidable array, the (jrau- 
 blinden troops retired to await the help of their Swiss 
 confederates, to whom they had sent urgent messages 
 fcjr aid at the first news of the massacre. In Switzer- 
 land also, religious feeling pre\'ented united action, as, 
 although I'-ein and Zurich seni 3.()()() men, the ('athcilic 
 ('antons refused all co-operation in the campaign, and
 
 iiisroRV (»i rui'; swiss 1'H(M'I.i; 
 
 ,1Q 
 
 enclea\'ourctl to impede the mnrch of the l^rotestants 
 t(nv;irds the frontit-rs. After iiKd^int; se\-eral tedious 
 detours, the Swiss (;o:itini(ent joined that of the: Lii,aies, 
 and reached Tirano. Here a Iou^l,'' and stubhondy-fou,u;ht 
 battle took place, that restdted at last in the almost total 
 anniliilation c^f tlie allietl f(jrces (September iith, lO^oj. 
 This serious disaster to the Protestant arms emboldened 
 the Grautyhiiv.d (where I'ompev I'lanta ^vas now installed 
 as chief I to separate itself completely frc^m the other two 
 leae;ues. and to declare openly its lon,i(-projected scheme 
 of persuadinif the Catholic majority of the Swiss Diet 
 to admit it as a separate state of the Confederation. 
 li\- this it hoped to become the sole possessor of the 
 much C(Acted \ al Tellina districts, and with this object 
 an alliance with Spain was shortly after made. 
 
 I Jut the formal attempt U) break up national unity 
 at once caused a ."'eneral reaction in iavour of the 
 status (jiio. 'J"he feelin.e; spread with extraordinary 
 rapidity, and appeared as stron.i^lv in the Craiwy^'iiiiJ 
 districts as in the mtjre Protestant parts of the c-ountry. 
 Porne on this popular wa\'e ot nati(jnality. an urgent 
 appeal for help was carried to the bVench kini:', wliose 
 ambassador was be.u'i^'ed t(j re-entc:r Cdnu". Such an 
 appeal exactlv suited b^'ench policy, as it afforded an 
 r)pportunity of preventing' the Austrians from perma- 
 nently establishin.L;' an open wa}- of communication with 
 North Ital}'. i^ait tor the moment events elsewhere 
 interier(;d with France actixely eni^aeiuL,'' in the slru^^le. 
 
 I)urin,L( this sctIcjUS crisis in the atfairs of the (irau- 
 biinden a new ])arty spran,L( to life, witli the object ( 'f 
 sa\int_,'' the unhapj^iy country [\o\n ruin and dismember- 
 ment. This ]->art\- was headed b)' the redoubtable 
 pastor, Jenatsch, \vho since his fust a])pearance at 

 
 320 HISTORY OI- Till': SWISS I'EOPLF, 
 
 Tusis had never ceased to play a prominent role in the 
 stormy affairs of his time. Jenatsch inaugurated the 
 reign of peace and prosperity he and his followers 
 proposed to establish, by secretly surprising with a few 
 comrades Pompey Planta, in the castle of Rietberg, 
 
 A.i). 1621. and himself killing the chief of the Catholic faction 
 (February 25th). After committing his deliberate 
 murder, Jenatsch collected a large force and attacked 
 the Catholics near Vallenda. Here a long and terribly 
 sanguinary battle ended in the Catholics being com- 
 pletely routed and compelled to retreat over the 
 mountains and enter Swdss territory. One important 
 result of this victory was the withdrawal of the Graiier- 
 hund from the Spanish Alliance. Still the VaJ Tellina 
 remained under the protection, if not the rule of Austria, 
 and in order to put an end to this foreign aggression, 
 Jenatsch, now the leader of a large army, led his forces 
 into the disputed territory at the same time that an 
 Austrian force was entering the (iraubiinden through 
 the Tyrol, and an Italian one was marching into the 
 Val 'i'ellina. ]£\-erywhere fortune declared in favour 
 
 ^ , , of the invaders, who carried all before them. After 
 
 conquering the districts of the Zchiigcrichtai, and taking 
 possession of the Prattigau, over which they possessed 
 certain feudal rights,' the Austrians compelled the people 
 to take an oath of fealty to them, and established an 
 absolute rule over them that for cruelty and reckless 
 
 I Tliesi; ritjhts were not acquired h\- tin: (Iraubiinden till 
 i(>4(j-5j, and only tlien In- purcliase. This aflords a strikiiiL; 
 instance of the hold tliat feudal ri^^hts inaintaine 1 in men's minds 
 in former davs, even o\'er the (irauluinden ])easants, who liad 
 alreadv sacriiiced so many thousands ot their li\es a,L;ainst the 
 svslem.
 
 <-w •I'ln-; SWISS iM'.ni'i.i-: 
 
 brutality it wckiIcI be difticult to find a paiallel. In the 
 \'al Tellina success also followed the Calh-4ic arniiv-s, 
 and Jenatsch was decisi\'elv defeated. The Catholic 
 reli.t^don was now established and rii^orously enforced by 
 the ci\dl and clerical ;iuth(jrities, aided b}' the Inrjuisi- 
 tion, and soon the condition of the hapless remnant 
 of the peas;intry that war and famine had spared was 
 wretched in the extreme. 
 
 But not for lon^r was the f,aindin,L( rule of the 
 Austrians alhjwed to continue undisturbed. The accu- 
 mulated and daily increasint; miseries of the tmhappy 
 peasants induced such a teeliny'of re\"enLre that. depri\'ed 
 thou.^h thev were (jt all defensi\'e weapons, they 
 determined to risk c\-erythin<,^ in (jne duspairinu^ effort 
 to reu'ain their libertw 1 landing' themseh'cs into com- 
 panies, the people met lor drill and C(jnsultati(Mi in the 
 depths of the f(jrests. whither numbers had been dri\-en 
 frrjm their homes and where they were,- forced to li\'e lik'e 
 animals. At last the time was det-meil ripe tiir action. ^ " 
 Out of the forests rushed the bands ol half-star\-ed and 
 reckless peasants, armed only with kni\-es and clubs, und 
 attacked their Atistrian masters with all the fur\- of 
 famished wolves. So great \\"as the coura.L^e of these 
 herf)ic men, and so ime.\[)ected the assaidl, that manv 
 himdreds of their cruel o]")[)ressi u's wrrf at once l<ilied 
 and the rest put to complete rout. Aitri' their \-irt(irv 
 the conquerors marched on C'luu', then garrisoiied by 
 the tbjwer of the in\'aders' armv. 'I'his brilliant suc'-css 
 roused the mass of the pe;isants. es{)ei-ially tho^e of 
 the Zcnni:n-:c]itcn districts, from the torpor of dt-spair 
 into which they had sunk. All oxa-r the counlr\- liuhl- 
 ing bands were formeil to fxpel the toreigncrs, with 
 the acti\"e sympath}' and help ot man\- of the Swi<s
 
 322 HISTORY OF TUB SWISS PEOPLF. 
 
 Protestants. Everywhere the Austrians were attacked, 
 and everywhere they were defeated. An irresistible 
 storm of patriotism and unity swept over the Grau- 
 biinden. Chur was captured and the country was free 
 (May). 
 
 But with an energy worthy of a better cause, within 
 a few months after their expulsion the Austrians col- 
 lected an army of 10,000 well-armed men and, invading 
 the country, once more commenced a struggle for 
 supremacy. Many and sanguinary were the battles 
 fought, fortune favouring with cynical impartiality, first 
 one side and then the other. By both invaders and 
 defenders the contest was carried on with the most 
 terrible ferocity, and when quarter was given on the 
 battle-field, it was only in order to submit the miserable 
 prisoners to every species of frightful torture a perverted 
 and blood-thirsty ingenuity could devise. The whole 
 land writhed and shrieked in the throes of a man-created 
 hell, iilled with blood, famine, pestilence and death. 
 
 Reduced to the last extremity, deserted by the 
 Swiss Protestants, the hopes of the Ciraubiinden 
 appeared absolutely lost, when, just as they had made 
 their iinal unsuccessful and dying effort, the longed-for 
 succour from France came to sa\e the remnants of 
 the people from total destruction. A formidable French 
 army now entered tlie Graubiinden, under the command 
 of the Due de Rohan, and numbering in its ranks many 
 exiles who earlier had led the people, amongst others, 
 Jenatsch and Rudolph Salis. 'J'his action of Louis XIL, 
 (^r rather of his all-powerful minister. Cardinal Richelieu, 
 was dictated entirely by motives of self-interest and 
 AD iC,2^. aggrandisement, and not from (;ilher rcHgious syin})athy 
 or compassion lor the woes ol the (iraubundeii people.
 
 nisTOR\' oi- ruE SWISS P!:ni'i.i; jj 5 
 
 The I'rench occupation was effected without :iiiv serious 
 check, the Austrians and Spaniards were expeUcd ho:n 
 e\ery (juarler, and once more the country was Ireeil. 
 ]:'>ut this freedom simply meant a chanu'c of masters, as a.d I'.j-y 
 tlie I'rench were n(jt in.cHned t(j lea\-e hi^'htly the fooiinj^ 
 they had obtained, ily a secret treaty, concluded be- 
 tween France and Spain, tlie interests of the Graubiinden 
 were so little considered that no oblii^'ation was imposed 
 on the \'al Tellina districts to render them subject to the 
 the Leairues, beyond the payment of an annual tribute 
 (^Larch, i')2'ij. b\u"ther, the Catholic reli,^ion was a.p. i^'i^r,. 
 airain established and the -^Guardianship of the proxince 
 entrusted to soldiers of the Pope. 
 
 'I'hree years later, on a side issue of succession, a i>. i''^2'). 
 war a.f^ain broke out between I'rance and Austria, ai"ni 
 the Duke's troops occupied a portion cjf the (irau- 
 biinden, which they only evacuated after the decisi\-e 
 success of the French in Italy. At last, in ih3i,Aii i-'^^i, 
 peace was restored by the Treaty of Chevases. 
 
 bdnding themsel\-es once more masters of their 
 country, the Leaj^aies threw themselves with ener,L;\' 
 into the task of re-conrpierin,!,^ the \"al Tellina. In 
 this enterprise they chose as their leaders th.e Hue de 
 kohan, the then French Amliassador, and the e\"ei' 
 acti\e jenatsch. The conquest was onl}- effected altei" 
 man\' san,t(uinary battles and the destruction of manv 
 towns and villat^es. ])estiny appeared to ha\e speciallv 
 determined to destroy the many ,L;ifts Nature had so 
 la\'ishl\- bestowed on this di>iriri. b\- making;' it the 
 constant battle-field of C(3ntendinL;' nations, wlio deluded 
 it-- fniitfid fields with the lilood of thousands of the 
 siau'_:htered \actims of ambitinn. pas>ion and rcli<_;"i(jus 
 bi^^otiw No soonei" was the (iiaubimden rub- ic-
 
 324 HISTORY OP THE SWISS PEOPLE 
 
 established than the Due de Rohan received an order 
 from his King to seize the Val TeHina for France. 
 But rather than obey this treacherous mandate the 
 late Graubiinden leader resigned his position. Others, 
 with less sensitive consciences, succeeded the Duke, 
 and w\ar again broke out. 
 
 Under the command of Jenatsch the Leagues 
 mustered in force, attacked the French, who greatly 
 outnumliered them, and eventually drove their late 
 A.i->. 1637. allies from every district in the disputed territory. 
 This brilliant feat was due almost entirely to the 
 marvellous personal influence, prowess and ability of 
 the soldier, pastor, and patriot-leader, Jenatsch. The 
 wonderful and romantic career of this extraordinary 
 man was brought to a close two years later in a 
 manner well in accord with his tempestuous life. One 
 e\'ening, being at a ball, a member of the company, 
 a relation of the murdered Planta, recognised him and 
 stabbed him whilst in the act of dancing. Planta's 
 revenger was himself killed in a popular riot in the 
 following year. 
 
 ]3y the expulsion of the French the independence 
 of the Graubiinden revived on a solid foundation as 
 regards immunity from foreign aggression. This in- 
 dependence was formally acknowledged by both the 
 Austrians and the Spaniards, as was also the Leaguers' 
 claims to the possession of the \'al Tellina, through 
 which district the right of passing troops was conceded 
 to the Austrians and Spaniards in re\-engc for the 
 treaclicrous conduct of the I'rench. l'\)r many years, 
 after all foreign foes had ceased to trouble the Grau- 
 biinden the country continued to be the scene of con- 
 slant political, religious and family feuds, resulting in
 
 iUSTOKV OF THE SWISS PEOPLE 325 
 
 much bloodshed and destruction of property. During' 
 these trcjubles men bearmg the name ot Planta often 
 crop up on either side, and not seldoni a i'lanta is 
 found opposetl to a i^lanta as leader in opposite ip.- 
 terests.
 
 CHAPTER XVI 
 
 CIVIL AND Rlil.IGIOUS WARS 
 
 AiJ if'i'^- Whilst the people of the Graubiinden were en- 
 
 gaged in their suicidal struggles the Swiss Confederates 
 were carrying on a similar policy, though with not 
 such immediately fatal results. The general condition 
 of Switzerland during this period was most deplorable. 
 Around her frontiers a sanguinary war was raging 
 between the great European Powers, whilst within the 
 cantons almost all civil progress was at a standstill 
 from the religious and political feuds that everywhere 
 crippled the national and domestic life of the people, and 
 prcxenting all unity and concerted action. Indeed, so 
 great was the universal strife that a total break-up of 
 the Confederation appeared every year more imminent. 
 To their own troubles the active intrigues of foreign 
 envoys added an ever-present source of contention. As 
 a body, the Swiss Catholics sided with Spain and 
 Austria, from whom they received subsidies, and to 
 whose armies they furnished large contingents of 
 trcxjps, whilst between the Protestants, France, and 
 N'enice similar bonds of sympathy existed. 
 
 During tins period it has been computed that no 
 less than 25,000 Swiss mercenaries ser\-ed under the 
 banners of the contending Powers.
 
 jiibioR\' oi' rill-: SWISS im;()1'I.i 
 
 The contrni aiul nianai,''enient of the so-called l'"ree- 
 l-5aili\vicks. under tlu- conjoint rule ot separate and 
 anta<:,^onistic stales, pro\-ed another \'ery truittul source 
 of discord. XoiuinalK' possessing,'' reli,L,dous freedoju, 
 acti\'e persecution, resulting; in disturbances, always 
 broke out when any particular (lovernor was of a 
 different religious belief to that of the majority under 
 his rule. These disturbances were .t^reatly tostered, 
 and often createil. by the interference (jf the Catholic 
 and Protestant ecclesiastics and leaders of the neigh- 
 bouring'' cantons, who acti\'ely espcnised the cause ot 
 their (-(j-reli.u'ionisls. At last, in looj, an attempt was 
 made to bring about a miuiit.'i :-::r;!(f: in the 1 Sailiwicd^s 
 liy the establishment at J !aden of a Court ot Arbitra^ 
 lion, the tleci>ions of which were guaranteed b\' all ihi; 
 cantons. Tliis Court. th(jUL;'h at first partialh" success- 
 ful in its object, soon lost its influence, and itb authority 
 became practically useless. 
 
 I/)uring the terrible period of the 'Idurlv dears' 
 War ( I ()i>-io^,s|. when the great buropean Cowers 
 did their best to con\ert the counti'ies around Switzer- 
 land intc; blood-drenched deserts.^ e\ery effort was made 
 by the belligerents to induce the Conledt.'rates to assist 
 openly one or other of them. Though loudb' professing 
 
 
 n :\ Yiji ■ 
 n . 
 
 I 'I'liu >lauL;liier amf (k'M)lali'in caii>c:l 1)\- ilu' tlcnii iiiiacal 
 sa\a;^cr\- ui the 'l'hirt\- \'ears' War arc diniiiift in rcali-^t.' in all 
 ilu-ir nia:;nitiult_-, in tlic jirc-eiu prridd ni pMrt'T.ti 'lis prnjtlicsir-. 
 concrrnini; ilv siupcndous l)ulclier\- lliai will lake plarr wlu-n ihi- 
 nt:\l ,L,'rfat Murcfv-an >tni;,'L;K: CMni's, wiih ni<iilrrn \\r:ijiiin-, of 
 j)rfci,sion ami iiKKlcrn L-\[ili)>i\cs. In iHijuilaiion and inalcrial 
 \vcll-l)cin,L; that pitiless war threw fiack C'i(.'rman\- tor at Ii_-asi 
 two Centuries, and cost her iourditihs ot her people il'earsoni 
 ■■ Wurteniherj;-, whicli before had a pnpnlation ot hall-a-niillion, 
 was reduced, after the battle of N'ordlir.L;en, to 40,000" — 
 (Nii-luihn
 
 32S HISTORY OF Tin-: SWISS PEOPLE 
 
 their determination to maintain the neutrality of their 
 country, both the Catliohcs and Protestants of Switzer- 
 land on several occasions assisted or connived at its 
 \"iolation. At the (Commencement of hostilities the fear 
 of invasion brou<;ht about a semblance of national 
 unity, but as the war proj^ressed this unity soon dis- 
 sob-ed, as was well seen when the Swiss-allied towns 
 of Mulhausen and Kottweil were threatened by the 
 Swedes and Austrians. Solothurn, in this emergency, 
 not only refused the passage of her districts to the 
 troops of Zurich and b]ern, who were hastening to the 
 assistance of ?vlulhausen, but attacked and killed a 
 A.n. 1634, nundK'r of her fellow-countrymen. In if)}j\- a Zurich 
 iorce on guard in Thurgau allowed a Swedish army 
 to pass through Stein in order to surprise the Austrian 
 gariison of C'onstanz. The Catholics at once seized on 
 this act to hurl ilenunciations of treachery against the 
 I'rolestants, whom they charged with sacrificing the 
 national interests in order to faxour their foreign co- 
 religionists. The force of the disinterestedness ol this 
 patriotic outburst was, ho\\e\er, considerably lessened 
 by the Catholics themsehes in the following year 
 entering into a secret treaty with Spain antl Austria to 
 gi\"e the troops of those JV)wers the rigiu ot marching 
 through Swiss territorv. In the vicinity of Schaffhausen 
 the Imperialists crossed the frcMitier, and in spite ot 
 the half-hearted resistance of Ztirich, the villages of 
 Altdorf, ISargen, Schleitheim, and others were pillaged 
 or destroyed. In the l>asel distri(-ts the Austrians com- 
 |)letel}- set at naught Swiss authority, and crossed the 
 hontier as often as they tliought hi. The town ot 
 I 'oncntruy was captured and retaken bv the different 
 [larties no less than four times between the years i("'34
 
 HISTORY Ol THK SWISS PfiOPLE 329 
 
 and U\]j, and here some of the most terrible horrors of a i> i"37 
 the war were perpeiiaied. .\nothi r of the many c\il 
 results {(.) Switzerland Ironi the protracted struggle^, was 
 the decoding ut the coiuurv with >warnis oi adx'enturou.s 
 scoimdrels and deserters h'oni one or other oi the con- 
 tencHng armies. Many were criminals, all were bei^i^^ars, 
 whcjse interests lay in iosterini;' disturbances and lessen- 
 iu','' local atithority. So ,i.,a"eat became the nuisance that 
 at last th.e cantons were compelled to reS(jrt to \ery 
 ener^-'etic measures for its suppres>i on. At 1 h'em^arten 
 alone in a single \ear nearly .350 of these unwelcome 
 in\-aders were ccjndemned to death. 
 
 \\ hen, in I'^-f"^, the hlootlv contest was ended by the /V.kv v' 
 'i'reaty ot \\'e>tphalia, Switzerland obt.uned a formal ^ n I'^i-^ 
 re(,-(JL;iiition ot her inde])endence. This, howe\cr, was 
 oi but sliu'ht political impinaance, as >he tor man\' 
 vears past ceasetl to own an\' firactical allegiance to 
 Germany, and only in the pre\iou> year the bhnperor 
 himself publich' acknowdedi^ed her national ireed(jm. 
 Thus, tlnjuu'li Switzerland succee(.led b\" her own heroic 
 efforts in \'iriuall\' treeing,' her^ell h'oiu the yoke oi the 
 Cierman bdnpire and becoming .ui iiur peiuieiit luiropcan 
 State, she vet "otiers, perhaps, the >inL;le exanifde 1 if 
 a country, the political self-existence ot which had ne\"er 
 been acknowdedued till the eiKr^elic e[)ochs ot tliat exist- 
 ence had been loii'^,^ p^ii^t, and till it no lon^aa' po>se^sed 
 stren,L:'th to detend, without the aul oi itireii^'iiers, 
 its tardily ai know declined imie[XiuUnce "- (Lardner). 
 Political em.inci[)ation. iar Iroiii conterring .i;'reat 
 benefits im the country, meiel\' aildcd tresh matters 
 lor I'enewed dissensiems to the already (_)\erllowin,i; 
 cup ot Switzerland's domestic misiorlunes. 
 
 1 lujUi^h theoretically L;t)\'erned bv Republican prin-
 
 330 HISTORY OF THE SWISS PKOFLK 
 
 ciples, the rulers in many centres soon began to exercise 
 despotic powers. Assuming to themselves the increased 
 digviity conferred on their country by the Treaty oi 
 Westphriha, tliey showed an intolerant arrogance and 
 autocratic tone towards their less fortunate fellows 
 totally at \'ariance with ancient rights and customs, a 
 state of things that boded ill for the cause of prosperity 
 and peace. J^y a gradual process of centralisation many 
 governing bodies succeeded in getting great power into 
 the hands of a few wealthy and influential families, who 
 strove to make their functions hereditary, and to reduce 
 the people to a state similar to that which existed in the 
 days of dominant feudalism. l]y the imposition of heavy 
 and new taxes, the creating of Government monopolies, 
 numerous irritating and often exceedingly imjust laws, 
 and the harsh and unscrupulous conduct of corrupt local 
 authorities, great discontent w-as created, and threaten- 
 ings of rex'olt appeared in many parts of the country. 
 In striking contrast to the lamentable condition of the 
 greater part of Switzerland was the state of the smaller 
 cantons, especially of Uri, Schwyx and L'nterwalden. 
 Here great personal liberty had always existed, and the 
 people themselves, througli their general assemblies — 
 Laii(is<^cinc!iidcii —cxercistd sovereign power. Without 
 the sanction of their popular meetings no new laws 
 could be made, no new taxes imposed. The parent 
 cantons of the Confederation retained, amidst the 
 tvu'moil that harassed the land, tlieir primitive and 
 demcjcratic pri\-ileges, even as they retained in its purest 
 form the ancient faith of their fathers, and refused to 
 atlopt the Reformed doctrines. 
 
 The great influx of moneyed refugees who sought 
 shelter in Switzerland during the troubles oi the Thirty
 
 iiisioK^- OH rill-, SWISS Pi-.oi'i.i. 331 
 
 dears' War ,i,q'eatlv altered the social and economical 
 conditions (;f the country. With their adxent. a period 
 of inflation set in, land considerably rose in \alue, as 
 did house pr(.)pert\- and the necessaries and luxuries ot 
 lite. After the peace, these temporary residents re- 
 turned to their own homes takin<^^ with them theii' 
 goods and their money, and thus suddenl}- left a good 
 deal of land and other property to rexx-rt tcj the original 
 owners. Prices accordingl\- fell, and all classes ot 
 societ}' suttered. 
 
 At last, the e\ er-increasing po\"ert\', the constantK' 
 newh'-imposed taxes, and the harsh and supercilious 
 conduct ot the authorities, led to local risings that 
 \\{ up the flame of insurrection o\er a \ er\- large 
 portion ot Switzerland. ddie fu'st serious re\'olt A'/>;/u' ;.•; 
 took place in i''5J. in the ranks of the freedomdo\ing ^' ,'" j,,'. , 
 people of the hhitlibuch, a \-alley subject t(j Luzern. 
 Here the people collected in large nundiers, under 
 the leadership of the Communal I-Hiiiucrhcvr, |ohann 
 hhumenegger, antl set ab()ut dexising measures for the 
 bettering oi their ]K)sitions. At first, peaceable means 
 were tried b\- sending a ileputation to the cajMlal to 
 represent the grie\ances that picssed mo>l hea\ il\ 
 up(jn them. Tcj the peasant deputies the Lu/.ern 
 cauthorities onh' \-ouchsafed a ^llort interxdcw, and 
 after refusing all compronuse, ordered them to return 
 and at onre submit to the laws. Irritated by tlii> 
 treatment, the Conummes proceeded to retaliator)' 
 actions, and forcdbly exiX'lled all the J.u/.ern officials 
 from their \illages. A mass meeting of the inhabitants 
 ot the neighbouring C'omnumes was then held under 
 the {Residency of lumuL'negger, at the mountain \illage 
 of lleiliger-Kreu/, when those pre^ent took an oath
 
 332 HISTORY OF THE SWISS PEOPLE 
 
 to resist all unjust laws and orders imposed upon 
 them by the capital, and to support one another in their 
 efforts to obtain justice. This meeting roused Luzern 
 to the gravity of the situation, and as a measure 
 of expediency she despatched the city Avojer, Ulric 
 Dulliker, with several influential magistrates and Church 
 dignitaries, to the disaffected districts to attempt to calm 
 the people, now in a state of open revolt (January). 
 On F^ebruary 15th, a conference took place in the church 
 of Schiipfheim, where 1,400 armed peasants assembled 
 under the command of three leading men, Hintervoli, 
 Unternaher and Stadelmann, dressed in the traditional 
 costumes of the heroes of I^iitli, and surnamed the 
 •' Three Tells." In spite of an eloquent appeal to 
 submit, in which Dulliker quoted the words of St. Paul 
 on the duty of obedience to the powders that be, the 
 Peasants' iVar, conierence closed without the desired result, as the 
 ■^ ' Luzern authorities absolutely refused all concessions 
 or compromise. Shortly afterwards, ten out of the 
 fourteen Bailiwicks in Canton Luzern formally took 
 an oath at Willisau to support one another in the 
 coming struggle. From Luzern the movement spread 
 rapidly to the Emmenthal, Oberland and Aargau, 
 where the arbitrary rule of liern had long made the 
 people ready to revolt. Encouraged by the presence 
 of some iifteen hundred sympathisers from Bern and 
 Solothurn, the hardy peasants of the Luzern Com- 
 munes prepared to attack the capital itself, but an addi- 
 tion of four hundred men from the Waldstatten to its 
 garrison, and the peremptory command of the Confede- 
 rate Diet (then sitting at Baden) to submit, suddenly 
 checked the progress of the revolt, by inducing the 
 peasants of Aargau, Solothurn, Emmenthal, and the
 
 HISTORY or THE SWISS I'F.OPI.K 333 
 
 Communes in the immediate vicinity of Luzern, to 
 desert the cause of their comrades, and make terms 
 with the authorities, who, with more wisdom than 
 tliey had f(jrmerlv shown. .L,a'anted several important 
 concessions. just. howe\-er. when the whole movement 
 appeared on the point of C(dlapsin,l,^ another and sudden 
 but much more formidable wa\'e ot rebellion spread 
 throui^di the disaffected districts, and in nearly every 
 \"illaf<e a perfect storm f)f enthusiasm for the cause of 
 freedom carried awav the waxerers. and united the 
 whole mass of the peasants in a common bond. This 
 boml was then solemnlv sworn to at Sumiswald. in the 
 Ivmmenthal (April 23rd). and a countryman named 
 Leuenl)er<,''er, a man possessing; .Lrreat military talents 
 and much personal influence, was appointed to the 
 chief command. With him were alsi) associated as 
 chiefs, ICmmeneu'u'er and a popular leader named 
 Schybi. The rebellion now assumed formidable pro- 
 portions, and fre'juent dnllimr^ were (jrL:anised and 
 arms collected. But thou<_di tormidable in numbers, 
 the peasants were badly supplied with weapons and 
 possessed little real cohesion and disci[)line. Many of 
 their first acts, which were characterised by ,f,a"eat 
 cruelty^ and the wanton destruction ot the property of 
 those who would not actixclv juin them, estranged the 
 
 I In one oi tfie Ini-^t-l ili-^tricts it i^ ri-coriled that a man was 
 furcecl to holii his car after that appeiviaL^e lia^l heen cut off" hv 
 the reljels, who tciM hint he was now an " ear-l)earer " la tale- 
 Ijcarer, in reference to the' beliff th.at tb.e \-ictini lia'l L;i\-en iii- 
 torination to the (iox-erninenti, ()thers had their heanls a:;! ears 
 chopjied otf, or were otherxsisi.' nintilate 1, -Aliile a ia\'otir;te form 
 of torttu'e consisted in rul)l)in- oif the liair of the lu\ad an i por- 
 tions of the' scalp 1)\- hoIdin,_; the victim^' heaiis auainst rapidK' 
 re\(d\dnL; L;rind-stones, in order to "harden tliem "
 
 334 HISTORY OF THE SWISS PEOPI.K 
 
 support of many sympathisers, and their attempt to 
 enUst the aid of the French raised hosts of indignant 
 protests. ^Meanwhile, the threatened authorities were 
 far from idle. Luzern, 13ern, J5asel and Zurich com- 
 bined their forces, amounting to nearly 20,000 men, 
 and these were presently joined by a strong contingent 
 of the freedorndoving but conservative Waldstatten. 
 The beginning of hostilities proved favourable to the 
 peasants, who under the leadership of Leuenberger, 
 succeeded in appearing suddenly in great force before 
 Bern, where the Council, fearing lest the town should 
 be taken, came to terms and negotiated a truce 
 (May 5th). This pause, however, owing to mutual 
 distrust, lasted but a few days, and then for some 
 unknown reason, Leuenberger marched his forces into 
 Aargau, where at Wohlenschwyl he was met and 
 badly beaten by the troops of Zurich under W'erdmuller 
 (June 3rd). So crushing indeed was this victory, that 
 the remnant (^f the peasant army became completely 
 demoralised, and the greater number laid down their 
 arms and returned to their homes — (Daguet). Another 
 and still more decisive reverse for the peasants' cause 
 took place at Herzogenbuchsee, where the liSernese, 
 under Sigisnumd \-on Erlach, totally defeated the rebels 
 and took most of their leaders, including Leuenberger, 
 prisoners. A succession of similar victories for the 
 authorities rapidly followed, and finally, when the 
 Luzern peasants, who held out longest, were no longer 
 able to continue the struggle, the " Peasants" War "" 
 came to .an end (Julyj. 
 
 (ienerosity towards defeated foes seldom figures as 
 a characteristic of the Swiss people, and still more 
 seldom when the van(iuished are themselves Swiss. On
 
 HISTORY' OF Tine SWISS PKOPi.i: 335 
 
 tliis occasion, as so often before, when the ("onlederates 
 had, by their tactical skill and courat^'e, thoroui^ddy re- 
 established th.eir authority o\-er their re\olted subjects, 
 tliey proceeded to wreak their vengance on the ini- 
 fortunate survi\'ors, and everywhere perpetrated the 
 most fiendish cruelties, often first torturing or executing 
 the local leaders. Leuenberger was beheaded at liern 
 after he had been made to suffer on the rack. At 
 Zofn:gen a series ot Courts- Martial sat to try the chiefs 
 of the movement, and here Schybi and others were 
 brought to the block. I'A-ery day liatchcs of \ictims 
 were led to execution in different districts, whilst hea\v 
 fines and long terms of imprisonment were awarded to 
 the less implicated. The free jjailiwicks, Solothurn, and 
 other important centres ^\■ere condenmed to pay large 
 sums, and, to complete their work of \engeance, the 
 Swiss authorities induced the l:^mpcror I'Y-rdinand to 
 launch the "ban of the empire" against the fugitives 
 who sought an asylum in his territories. Ivnllibuch, the 
 cradle of the rebellion, was occupied by a strong military 
 force, which inflicted many acts of barbarous cruelty on 
 the inhabitants, who were soon reduced to the direst 
 depths of poverty and wretchedness. So great was this 
 oppression that the peo}de were at length driven to des- 
 perati(jn, and once more rose against their cruel masters. 
 The effort had no other result than the infliction of iresh 
 bl(X)dshed, and was ([uickly supi)ressed. The leaders, 
 who were the redoul)tal)le •• 'I'hree I'ells,'" together with 
 a n.umber of (jther peasants, were sunnnarily executed 
 alter being tortured. 
 
 At last the policy ot \indi(Hi\e persecution ga\e 
 way befori' a reaction in fa\dur of more nierciiul 
 measures, and peace and partial ficedom were again
 
 33*^ HISTORY OF THE SWISS PEOPI,E 
 
 restored to the Communes, together with certain minor 
 concessions that eventually brought about a semblaiice~ 
 of content and prosperity to the much-harassed peasant 
 classes. 
 
 One result of this contest w^as the separation of 
 Solothurn from the rest of the Confederates in conse- 
 quence of the heavy fine inflicted on her. She further 
 formed a close alliance with the French King, and 
 refused to acknowledge her victorious countrymen. 
 " In Switzerland,"" says the Swiss author, Aloys Voch, 
 •'it is always the custom of the conquered to seek the 
 protection of Turks or Pagans, rather than to become 
 reconciled with their ruling fellow-countrymen," an 
 opinion which, allowing for exaggeration, certainly is 
 supported by many episodes in the history of the land. 
 
 Though the "Peasants' War'" had for the time 
 
 caused Catholics and Protestants to unite for their 
 
 common and immediate interest, when that contest 
 
 was over they quickly fell asunder, leaving an even 
 
 wider breach than before existed. ]5oth also set about 
 
 projects that were strongly calculated to militate against 
 
 a return to that old Confederate unity which had made 
 
 and upheld the nation prior to the introduction of 
 
 religious discord. 
 
 The luther from sympathy or self-interest the Protest- 
 
 It 'i(/(/t-;;s('fs. , , , , -,1 ,1 1 , 
 
 ants developed great concern with the cruel treatment 
 
 of the W'alclensees, and succeeded, with the help of 
 
 luigland and Holland, after threatening armed inler- 
 
 \'enti()n, in obtaining a treaty of toleration, at Pignerol, 
 
 for the sect. What, however, was more important was 
 
 that they also succeeded in persuading the powerful 
 
 I'Vench minister, Alazarin (the originator of the ]:)ersecu- 
 
 ti(ju) to withhold his country"s support from Sa\oy.
 
 nlSTnK\' oi- line swiss iM:ni'i,i; jjj 
 
 Another result ot this inter\ ention ot tlie Swiss Protest- 
 ants was the brin,£;ing about of a tirni frienclslii^) and 
 thorough unclerstanclin.g' between them and the man who 
 at that time i^merned the destinies of I'^ngland, Uli\'er 
 Cromwell. Neither were the Catholics inactive. In Cathdic 
 165(3 a renewal of their alliances with the Ihshop ot ^ ,, j,,-,', 
 Jiasel took place, by the terms of which bioth sides 
 agreed to give mutual support in religious and political 
 concerns and to share equally all conquests made in 
 concert. This was followed by a formal renewal of the 
 iJorromean League and the entering into close relations 
 with Spain and Sa\-oy. As it is hardly concei\able that 
 the contracting parties to these treaties contemplated 
 embarking in war with any ot tlie powerful nations out- 
 side the Swiss frontier, it appears as it it were intended 
 to attack openly the Protestants (jt Switzerland. And 
 this was the leeling that spread throughout the cantons, 
 and naturally ga\e rise to great uneasiness and dread in 
 the minds of all true lovers ot their ccnmtry. And many 
 such appear to hax'e then existed. 'Idiat these fears 
 were only too well grounded, the pages ot Switzerland's 
 dishonourable and blood-stained annals tor the next 
 half-century but too clearly show. 
 
 Within two years after the cessation of the r/;-/ I'.'V/- 
 " 1-^easants War, religious dillerences again L>rought 
 about hostilities between Catholics and Protestants. 
 The little town of Arth, in the intensely Catholic 
 Canton ot Schwyx, numbered amongst its inhabitants a 
 few families that, ha\ing imbibed the Kelormed doctrines, 
 secretly carried on the practice ot the i)roscribed religion. 
 In this they were aided by irequent \ isits trom se\eral 
 Zurich pastors, who, in ord.er to esra])i' detection, 
 assumeil \arious disuuises when within the cantonal
 
 338 HISTORY Ol- THI' SWISS PEOPLE 
 
 districts. Soon, however, in spite of all precautions, 
 the existence of the heretics was discovered, and an 
 active persecution was organised, that obliged the 
 leaders to escape from the town in order to save their 
 A.n. ir.55. lives. The fugitives sought and obtained an asylum 
 in Zurich, where they laid their troubles before the 
 Council, and begged for protection and assistance in 
 removing their goods from Arth (September). IkAli 
 requests were granted freely, and Zurich made applica- 
 tion to Schwyx to grant the necessary permit. To 
 this Schwyx responded by demanding the immediate 
 extradition of her heretical subjects and refusing all 
 concessions, and did not soften her message by adding 
 that she knew no authority outside her own territories, 
 and owed an account of her actions only to her God 
 and to her own people. As a further practical demon- 
 stration of her views, Schwyx at once occupied Arth 
 with a military force, arrested some twenty of the 
 relations of the escaped I^rotestants, and conveyed 
 them to the capital, where they were all either im- 
 prisoned, tortured, or executed, and the whole of their 
 property confiscated. This high-handed and cruel con- 
 duct roused such indignation in Zurich and the other 
 Protestant centres that open hostilities were begun, 
 and that in spite of the intervention of the I'^rench 
 Ambassador and the neutral cantons. In the struggle, 
 Schwyx, with Luzern and other Catholic States of 
 the Confederation, was opposed to Zurich and Bern 
 aided by 15asel, Schaffhausen and Muhlhausen. In 
 December, 10,000 of the Zurich r^Iilitia, under Rudolph 
 Werdmiiller, entered Thurgau, where they expelled the 
 Catholic authorities and carried all before them. They 
 next invested Kapperschwyl (which, together with
 
 lUSToKv ()|- I'm: SWISS rr.oi'i.i-: ^yj 
 
 l'>rem,L;;irtcn, Mellin^'cii ;uul Ikulrn. h;ul been occupied 
 h}' the (Catholics), 1-iU alter an obstinate resistance and 
 the loss of 2,ooi) men, they were compelled to raise 
 the siege. \\ hilst these e\"enls were in progress, a 
 ]]ernese army c^f 12,000 men, tnidisciplined, and with- 
 out etticient leaders, had been engaged in the congenial 
 task ot sacking, burning, and otherwise destroying 
 the churches, monasteries and \illages of the Aargau 
 districts. 
 
 In January of the following year the b!ernese a. p. i^'3''i 
 encamped at X'ilhnergcn. and here their utter disregard 
 ot the most elementary military precautions and their 
 arrogant reliance upon their numbers and personal 
 prowess led to their being surprised and completeK' 
 defeated by a buly of 4.o:)o Catholics conmianded b\- 
 the intrepid Cdiristopher I'fyffer. of Lu/.ern. It is re- 
 lated, and it seems with truth, that at the moment of 
 going into action Plytfer recei\'ed a despatch Irom his 
 Government ordering him to act only on the defensive, 
 and not to risk a battle with his formidable oppcjnents. 
 Having, however, a strong suspicion of its contents, he 
 placed the document unopened in his pocket, and did 
 not learn its mandate till after the battle was fcxight 
 and won. bJy their defeat the Hernese lost o\-er 1,000 
 in killed, besides many wounded antl prisoners, ele\'en 
 pieces of artillery, and se\"eral banners. After a k'W 
 davs" rest the \'ictorious Catholii's returnetl with their 
 spoils to Luzern. The war dragged on (or a short time 
 longer without any decisive ach'antage to either side, 
 till the fear of foreign inter\-ention. tlu- enormous dail\- 
 increasing cost of maintaining so many troops undei' 
 arms, and the general uncertainty ot retaining the sup- 
 port of the peasant ]e\'ii,'S, nuhu'ed the ( io\'(>rnments oi
 
 340 HISTORY OF THE SWISS PEOPLE 
 
 Peace of both sides to come to terms. A peace was finally 
 
 N(n'"'i6-6 concluded at Baden in November through the good 
 offices of the neutral cantons and the French repre- 
 sentative. By the terms of this treaty each state was 
 guaranteed the right of self-government in its internal 
 and special affairs, with freedom to conform to which- 
 ever form of religion it chose to adopt. The question 
 of the fate of the Arth refugees — the original cause of 
 the war — seems to have been entirely forgotten. This 
 peace, which was more of the nature of a truce than a 
 final settlement of the differences between the two great 
 religious parties, left things pretty much in the condition 
 they were before the war. General exhaustion for the 
 moment prostrated both sides in all matters except 
 religious hatred and bigotry. These latter were actively 
 alive, and required but an opportunity and a little 
 breathing space once more to light up the lurid and 
 ghastly torch of the fratricidal struggle that now 
 assumed the position of a chronic national Swiss 
 malady. In the Common Bailiwicks the rival sects 
 maintained their bitter enmity, much blood was shed, 
 and great misery prevailed, this being especially the 
 state in Thurgau and in several other important 
 localities. During this period personal liberty amongst 
 the vast mass of the people lessened more and more, 
 and the wealthy and ruling classes assumed to them- 
 selves, especially in the large towns, greatly increased 
 power. The distinctions between patrician and plebeian 
 became absolute. In many places, as in Basel, Intern 
 and (iene\a, all power came to belong to a few wealthy 
 families, and laws were even passed to regulate the 
 make and material of the dress of the different social 
 grades. l'"(jllo\ving the example of the Grand Monartjue,
 
 HISrOK\' 01-- i-lll:; bWIhS I'l-.Ul'Li. 
 
 Ui 
 
 many ot the Swiss niai^qstrates aped the manners and 
 cc;slume ol that S'Aerc-inn's ('oiirt. and, when possessing" 
 the necessary ahihty, interlarded then" speech ^\ith 
 classical (^uotatiuns. Iveptiblican simplicity amongst 
 the rulers practically ceased to exist, and class-clea\"age 
 e\'ery day became more pron(jnnced This was seen 
 even in the courts of law. where po\"ertv or social in- 
 feriority stood little chance oi obtaining justice when 
 pitted against wealth or ]xjwer- -( Daguet j. Many 
 risings tocjk place against the arbitrar\' rulers, but as 
 the ditiereiit State ( "io\ ernments were tisually willing to 
 condnne agaiir.^t the ]:ieople, the>e popular mo\'ements 
 only ended in increased burdens being imposed by the 
 masters upon their subjects. The mass of the people 
 had fijrgotten the ancient methods ot c(.)mbination that 
 brought them irresistible strength, and had not yet 
 learnt the modern ones. 
 
 The great ^er\ ices rendered to L(an> XI\'. by his/.-; 
 numerous Swiss auxiliaries made the b'rench kmg 
 anxious t(j retain them in his ser\ice. and to obtain 
 still further interests in their country. Chietly through 
 the agenc}' (jt la\ish L)rn>es, lu_' succeeded in unp »>ing 
 his so\ereign intluence o\"er Solothurn, bd'evburg audi 
 Luzern. and later o\'er tht; grealc^r part oi Switzerland. 
 In a Diet held at Solothtun in i')')j, which city since a. n 
 1054 had practically tormed a })ortion of the l-'rench 
 dominions, a lormal treaty was signed, in which, among 
 other clauses extremely acKantageous to Lotus, it was 
 sti(ndated that at least 'i.ood Swiss should ser\e in the 
 l-Teuch army, in retiun toi' certain payments and com- 
 mercial ad\antages. Two months later, thirty-six 
 Confederate deputies went to Paris, where the}' were 
 feted and loadied with \aluable pre^ent>. Mail}' wl ih.- 
 
 .\71
 
 342 HISTORY OF THE SWISS PEOPLE 
 
 presents took the form of massive gold chains, suffi- 
 ciently long to encircle the chest of the wearer se\ eral 
 times. It was not long, however, before the generous 
 donor demanded his money"s value, and caused Switzer- 
 land to repent bitterly her new alliance and subserx iency 
 to France. 
 
 AD. i66S. In 1668 Louis occupied the neutral and Swiss- 
 
 protected Franche-Comte with a force of his Swiss 
 mercenaries. In \-ain the Confederates protested 
 against the violation of their rights. After this na- 
 tional affront, the authorities were so far aroused to 
 the decadence of their former military strength, that, 
 after considerable difficulties, joint action was taken 
 by the Diet, and a law, known as the Defcnsionalc, was 
 passed for the reorganisation of the Confederate forces. 
 The number of men each canton should supply to the 
 national army was also agreed to,^ as was the appoint- 
 ment of a Council of War, at which two deputies from 
 the general Diet, \'ested with full political powers, were 
 to sit. This is the solitary instance where patriotic 
 unity among the Confederates took the place of religious 
 divisions and party conflict when the honour and safety 
 of the country were at stake throughout this period of 
 Swiss history. 
 
 l-'ruiiclu- Though the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle ceded the 
 
 A ]>. 16-4. Franche-Comte to Spain, Louis again in\aded it in 
 1674, and garrisoned it witli Swiss soldiers. Jught 
 
 Stra^hiii';. years after this forcible theft, Strasburg met a similar 
 
 A.I). 1681. 
 
 I The army contemplated to be raised b\' the agreement was 
 noininalh' jnit at 15,000 mihtia, though the tuiniber could be 
 increased if necessarw J'",ach of the thirteen cantons was to 
 siiii])ly to this foi'cc i)/)Oo, the Common Bailiwicks 2,400, and the 
 allied towns 1,400 men.
 
 HIS"r(>K\' Ol' 'nil. SW'l; 
 
 343 
 
 fate, a talc brou^^'ht about in ,<(reat measure b\- the 
 treason ot her l!ishop and se\L-ral of the chief local 
 magnates. Still later a French fortress was built in 
 the neighbourhood (;f biasel (itnj2\, which town had 
 already, in ihj^, been threatened by a formidable 
 French force, and was only sa\ed by the timely 
 action of the ("onfederates in garrisoning it — (Ochs). 
 Gradually, by means of wholesale bribery. la\ish 
 promises, and no less huish threats, Louis acquired 
 supreme autliority o\"cr the Swiss, and initiated and 
 directed their polic\' in such a manner as his own 
 interests re<}uired. From this time onwards, through- 
 out the 17th and oth centuries, Switzerland remained 
 little more than a dependency of the French (_!rown. 
 
 Ha\"ing thus firmly estaldished his temporal as- A'; 
 cendencv o\'<jr the cantons (as well as cn'er a great jr. 
 part ot \\"estern Ivurope), Louis Xl\'. next attempted -"^ ' 
 to arrogate to himself the chief control ot things 
 spiritual, and, accordingly, issued a decree to the 
 Protestants ot b'rance connnanding them to rencjunce 
 the errors ot the Reiormatiou and return to the 
 ("atholic I'aith. This thc\- retu>ed to do. and a icar- 
 tul persecution toili iwed --men. wonicii and children 
 beiuL;' im}-.ris(;ned. turtured. executed, or sent in the 
 galle\-s by hundreds. Manv sought satety in tiight. and /' 
 to Switzerland alone some r-,(_)oo emigrated, tb.e greater 
 number settling in \'aud, (jene\a and Lern, ^vhere. 
 in spite of the menaces of Louis. the\" were pi'otected 
 and cared tor by the Icjcal authorities. lioth b^ngiand 
 and Holland strongly supported the Swiss I'rolestanl^ 
 in their action, and, the better to keep in touch with 
 the L\'angelical partv, the tormer countr\- maintauiedi 
 a representati\-e in Switzerland. The la\■i^h geueroi-iiv 
 
 '!:t-n^ Fry 
 
 1:1 Us VI
 
 344 HISTORY Ol' THE SWISS PEOPLE 
 
 of the Swiss Protestants is very remarkable w^hen it 
 is remembered how poor they really were. In 16^6 
 a fresh influx of religious outcasts came to Switzer- 
 U'dldcnsccs. land w^ien the renewed persecution of the Waldensees 
 drove so many out of their own lands, and in 1694 
 another persecution threw several thousands more on 
 the mercy of the Swiss. Five years later a lar<^e 
 number of both French and Piedmont immigrants, 
 assisted by the Confederates, retired to Germany and 
 Holland, where they formed colonies distinct in 
 language, relig on and customs from their neigh- 
 bours. The anti- French party in the Reformed 
 Cantons, long insignificant in numbers and power, at 
 last, towards the close of the century, began to in- 
 crease rapidly and extend its influence throughout 
 the Confederacy. The many continued arbitrary acts 
 of the French King led to this national change of 
 feeling, which further received a strong impetus when, 
 in 1690, Louis marched a large army towards the 
 frontiers, between Geneva and Neuchatel, and occupied 
 the neighbouring territories, an act that roused others 
 besides the Swiss, and led to the drawing up of a 
 treaty for concerted action between the; Swiss national- 
 ists, represented t^y Joern and Ziirich, and the X'audois 
 general, St. Saphorin, representing l^^ngland and 
 the other Powers hostile to France. (3ne immediate 
 result of this coalition was that both Venice and 
 Geneva, then menaced by Fouis' troops, were sa\ed, 
 Xtichiitil. 'ind Neuchatel passed from the rule of l''rench pre- 
 ■^ " ''""'' lenders into the position of a llohenzollern principality, 
 allied to the Confederation and under the protection of 
 Prussia (1707). On the death of the last representative 
 of the Longue\ille rulers of Neuchatel, some fifteen
 
 HISTORY OI- THE SWISS I'KOl'LK 343 
 
 claimants to the vacant estates arose, but of these, 
 Frederick 1. of l^russia, the I'Vench Prince Conti, and 
 the Canton of L'ri alone possessed any real claim.' 
 Louis stron^dy supported Conti, and e\'en marched .an 
 army to the frontiers to enforce his \vishes, but the 
 enerj(etic action of bVussia and Switzerland, as well 
 as the \'0tes of the Xeuchatel Councillors, in the end 
 carried the da)-. Switzerland's action in this matter 
 arose in part from her anti-b'rench feeling', but was 
 due als(j in ,t;'reat measure to tlu: \ er\- considerable 
 bribes L'rederick 1. distributed amongst some of the 
 leading men of Hern and other important towns. The 
 attitude assumed b}' a large portion of Switzerland in 
 this contest did not prevent some 30,000 Swiss from Mnccuan 
 enrolling themsehes under the banners of France, 
 whilst at least 20,000 ser\'ed in the other [-.European 
 armies during the wars of this peri(Kl. Many of these 
 luercenaries greatly distinguished themsehes and rose 
 to high c(jnnnand. 
 
 One of these, a native of the Craubunden, named 
 Stouppa, a man possessing all the qualities fitted in the 
 times in which he li\ed to bring their possessor to 
 the, lore - -audacdty, ambition, crait, cleardieadedness 
 and thorough unscrupulousness — rose to the rank ot 
 
 I Xcuchaicl \v:is ;i ficf ui the 1 Un;L;uiuli;ui l\iu,L;d()ni till 
 12SJ., \vlii_:n it passed to the IJouse oi C'hali iii^, and later to 
 that ol I.onj,'uc\-ilk', Mary, 1 )i!(.dicss ot Nrinotirs, who <]ie(i in 
 1707, was the last oi" this line. In iSoo Napoleon eoiiiiielled tin; 
 Prussian monarch to surrender the I'rincipalil}', and bestowed it 
 on ( K'lieral H('rthi(;r. In iSi.j Neiichatel a.^ain jKissed to the' 
 House ol Hrandenhuru, when it was ineorporatt-d into the Swiss 
 Confederation as a separate Canton. |)urin,L; the cNcnts ol 1707 
 Xeuchatel seems lor a short time to ha\ e been actualK' in the 
 l)(jssessi(.)n oi (Ireat Britain, who held it as it wer(; in trust till 
 the I'ru.-isian claims were de(initel\- .--ettle'd
 
 346 HISTORY OF THE SWISS PEOPLE 
 
 field-marshal, in France. Of him it is recorded that 
 once being in the presence of Louis XIV., one of the 
 king's ministers said, " Sire, with all the gold your 
 Majesty has given to the Swiss, one could make a 
 road paved with crown-pieces all the way from Paris 
 to Jjasel." To this Stouppa rejoined, " W ith all the 
 blood shed by the Swiss for your Majesty, one could 
 fill a canal all the WTiy from Basel to Paris." This 
 praiseworthy speech did not, howe\'er, prex'ent the 
 Graubtinden exile from changing his religion and 
 sacrificing his country's interests, in order to obtain 
 the king's fa\'our. It is calculated that between 1474 
 and 1 7 15- the Swiss lost 700,000 men in the service 
 of France, and received 2,675 i^illions of livres in pay- 
 ment for their services — (Daguet).^ 
 
 J^"gi'sh The friendship that for so many years connected 
 
 Refugees. '11 ■ • -1 
 
 England and the Protestants of Switzerland received 
 
 a violent check when the Swiss extended their protec- 
 tion to the political exiles condenmed to death at the 
 instance ot Charles II., for the part they took in causing 
 the execution of his father. Of these, nine succeeded 
 in escaping and took refuge on iJernese territory. Here, 
 in spite of diplomatic pressure and coerci\e threats, 
 they were sheltered and cared for, and their extradition 
 .\.\). 1002. stoutly refused (1662). The English Court, foiled by 
 the firm attitude of the Government of k>ern, next 
 resorted to the cowardly expedient of employing secret 
 agents to work its vengeance, and was so far successful 
 that one of the little band, John Lisle, was shot dead 
 
 I During this period the Swiss first began to use the ba}-onel 
 instead of the jiike, and to wear red uniforms. Both innovations 
 were inipiirted from the armies of the foreign Powers under whose 
 Hags so man}- Swiss ser\ed.
 
 111S10K\' Ol riU, S\\ISr> 1'1:(j1'[,1, 
 
 34; 
 
 al LausannL' by a hired assassin. l-^\traordinarv pre- 
 cautions to i^'uard their guests Ironi siniiliir outrages 
 were thereupon taken bv the authorities with charac- 
 teristic generosity and the true Swiss lo\e oi liberty. 
 A fortified hcni>e close to the western gate of \ e\ey 
 was ass]gned tor the use of li\'e ot the ''regicides" who 
 had taken up their residence in that t(jwn. Assistance 
 in case ol open attack was prox'ided by means of 
 a speciall)- louil-sounding alarm bell, and on se\eral 
 occasions a stringenth" worded order to all citizens 
 to attord inmiediate hel[), whene\ er it was reciuired. 
 was athxed to the doors ot the churches and publicly 
 read in the market-place. That these precautions were 
 urgently necessarv became apparent from the daring 
 etiorts niade by the hired bra\os ot Sa\"oy to earn the 
 wages promised them by •' the ?^Ierry (and most tm- 
 chivalrous) Monarch." On one occasion as denerrd 
 Ludlow was returning h<jme atter attending church, 
 he was waylaid and lired at, anil though the hue and 
 crv was at once raisetl. his would-be murtlerer suc- 
 ceeded in reaching a boat and making g(jod his e>cape 
 to Sa\'o\- (jn the iurther side ol the lake. Ludlow 
 \'entured to \'isit bhigland m 1 '>>.;, ;ind atter risking;" 
 his life tor nearly two vears in his nati\e land. reLurned 
 io \'e\'ey, \vhere he tlied in H'oJ. The town that had 
 sheltered and protected the e.\ile> in their time of peril 
 ga\'e th(-m an honoured restm^-[)lace atler thi'ir deatli>. 
 Within the ancient Church ot Si. Martin repose the 
 bodies ot the men who did so much to make and turn 
 the current of bhigland's histor\-- .\ndre\\ 1 ')i"oughtun. 
 John bMielps, Gawler, Lo\ e and Ludlow.' 
 
 I 'I'lu- site I'f :li'- prc^ciu H"ivl >;u 1 .;u- h:i- al\\a\-- IntMi 
 pointed nut as that upon which the ■■ re,L;icide>' hsui-^L-" lurmcrly
 
 348 HISTORY OF THE SWISS PEOPLE 
 
 Toggcnburg. Occupied in the congenial task of making money, 
 
 even at the expense of national honour, and under 
 French influences, the Swiss had now for several years 
 succeeded in preserving a certain appearance of unity, 
 and had refrained from actually murdering one another 
 by civil war. Troubles, however, soon broke out that 
 once more led to open hostilities, the cause this time 
 being the differences between Leodegar, Abbot of 
 St. (rallen, and his subjects of the Toggenburg villages. 
 This district, situated between the territories of Zurich, 
 Glarus, Appenzell, and the lands of the Abbey, had m 
 1468 been sold by l^etermann, Jiaron of Raron (the 
 successor of the ancient Counts of Toggenburg) to 
 Ulrich, Abbot of St. Ciallen. During the early reigns 
 of the new over-lords the ancient rights and privileges 
 
 stood. A reference to Ludlow's own memoirs (" Les Memoires de 
 Ludlow," J vols, in 12, Amsterdam, 1707), will prcne that this is 
 clearly an error and that the house was situated not at the cast 
 end, but to the west, and outside the town walls --(.Vlbert de 
 Alontet). On the wall of the Hotel du Lac is a tablet, with the 
 following;' inscription; " Ici habitait lidmund Ludlow, Lieut- 
 General, Membre du I'arlemeut Aii,i,dais, Dcfenseur des Libertes 
 de son Lays. L'illustre I'roscrit a\ait fait placer cette inscription 
 sur la porte de sa .1 )emeure. Ouiiu' Srluiii forti (■atyia quLi pdtyis - 
 (L\ery country is a brave man's home). Energiquement protege 
 par les Autoritcs et accueilli avec ssmpathie par les habitants de 
 Ve\ey Edmund Ludlow a vecu dans cette ville de 1662 a 1693, 
 annee de sa mort." I'ossibly this inscription may refer to the site 
 of the house Ludlow occupied after his return from England, but 
 his former residence was certainly at the opposite end of the town, 
 and most probably at 49, Eue de Lac. .Ipn^po^ of this, Sir Richard 
 IJurton writes, " There is a local legend known to all, even to the 
 guide-books, that early in the present centur}' an English couple 
 introduct;d themselves as .Mr. and Mrs. Ludlow to M. Orenier, who 
 had b(.)Ught tlu; house from M. Collier, the successor of M. Dubois. 
 While the lady remainetl pleasantly chatting with the ancient 
 pro])rietor, the gen.tleman slipped out of the room and carried off 
 the \\()(.)den tablet bearing the epigrajih, 'Omne Solum,' etc'
 
 HISTORY oi" Tin: SWISS Fi-.opi.i; 340 
 
 of the peasants were scrupulously respected, as well as 
 their rel!.i,aous belief tolerated (a majority l)eing of the 
 Reformed Church). Practical self-government was 
 allowed, and the people had the control of their own 
 militia, Church re\'enues, and other matters of local 
 importance. They were, moreover, allied to Schwyx 
 and Glarus, while a similar bond connected these two 
 cantons with the Abbot. As time passed, gradual 
 encroachments upon the peasants' rights were made 
 by successi\-e Abbots, who imposed taxes, and finally, 
 in the beginning of the i^th century, Leodegar. the 
 then ruler of St. (lallen, openly claimed and exercised 
 supreme authority. Among his other unjust and 
 harsh acts he ordered the people to make a road 
 through llummehvald at their own cost (though on 
 more than one occasion they had already exempted 
 themseK'es by large payments from the burden ot the 
 cor\ee). The Abbot further emphasised his position 
 by expelling all b'rotestanls ^^■h() held oilicial posts in 
 the district. The people at once rose in re\olt, and 
 both sides appealed to Schwyx and (ilarus for assist- 
 ance. After some delay the allied cantons, together 
 with Zurich, declared in fa\"Our of the oppressed 
 peasants (1702). 0\'erjoyed at this decision the a.p 170^. 
 \-illagers assembled in a \"ast LaaJsj^ruuiiuhii when, 
 after formally \-oting their disse\"erance hum St. (lallen, 
 they declared their territory a separate state, and drew 
 up a code of laws for its tuture go\'ernment. Nothing 
 daunted by his failure to procure aid from his Swiss 
 neighbours, Leodegar appealed to the Confederates to 
 sujiport his authority, and for several years the matter 
 was discussed in numerous Diets, no detnnte decision 
 being arrived at. At length patriotism and politics
 
 AH. 170' 
 
 350 HISTORY OF THE SWISS PHOTLE 
 
 havin,i^ failed to bring about a modus vivcndi, religious 
 jealousy, hatred and local feeling stepped in and cut 
 the knot in the orthodox manner with the sword. 
 
 Though doubtless at first Schwyx, in the action 
 she took, was purely actuated by feelings of sympathy 
 for the oppressed Toggenburgers, she soon perceived 
 that Zurich lent her powerful aid from motives that 
 were greatly influenced by the fact that the peasants 
 were her co-religionists. The knowledge of this 
 was sufficient to obscure her sense of justice and 
 liberty. A reaction set in, Schwyx went over to the 
 Abbey (1707), and both Catholics and Protestants set 
 about preparing for war in earnest. In Toggenburg 
 itself, Leodegar garrisoned a number of castles with 
 troops from Schwyx, whilst Zurich despatched a large 
 force under Heinrich T3odmer to the frontier, and liern 
 and the other Reformed Cantons energetically prepared 
 Civil Way. to attack their opponents in religion. In 17 10 the 
 Toggenburgers, being then sure of efficient support, 
 attacked and expelled the foreign garrisons, and soon 
 brought the country into a condition of complete 
 anarchy. On their side the Catholic vStates of 
 Sclnvyx, Uri, Unterwalden, Luzern, Valais and Zug, 
 roused to a pitch of religious fury by the preacliing of 
 their priests, collected an army of 20,000 men. They 
 were lurtlier strengthened by the direct encourage- 
 ment of Rome (where prayers were offered up pul)licly 
 for their victory o\'er the heretics) in the shape of 
 20,000 thalers from the papal treasury, and amulets 
 and consecrated bullets were lavishly dealt out by the 
 priests. The united forces of I5ern and Zurich 
 amounted to ho, 000, and to these must be added the 
 many [)rac'tiral sympathisers in the other Protestant 
 
 A.n 1710.
 
 HISTORY oi' Tin: s\\TSS p]:oi'ij; 331 
 
 and so-calk'd neutral cantons, besides the peasants of 
 ToL^i^enluirf,^ thenisehes. Ot'ticially l-'revbur,':, (ilarus 
 and Solothurn remained inactix'c on either side, hut 
 many enthusiastic \'ohmteers from their territories 
 joined the Protestant ranks. 
 
 In 1712 tlie bloody drama commenced by the ah. 1712. 
 Zurich troops attacking' and- taking' several places of 
 minor importance, followed by the capture and pilla,<(e 
 ot W'vl. Alter marching,'' \'ictoriouslv through Thur.e^au 
 the Abbev of St. (fallen was taken, and the abbot him- 
 self onlv escaped bein^' made a prisoner hv a hastv 
 flight. Most of the \'aluable works contained in the 
 celebrated abbey passed into the hands of the \'ictors. 
 and these, together with (jther local treastires. were 
 sent to Zurich. 
 
 The first really serious engagement between the 
 oppo-^ing parties, where the sides were at all balanced, 
 took place in Aargau, where the C;itholics hat! already 
 captured and garrisoned 15aden. Dremgarten and other 
 important posts. At ISremgarten two tormiclable forces. 
 composed respectively of troops from I^u/atti and 
 JSern, met and fought. Though the Catholics were 
 at lirst successful, the Protestants e\"entually, alter 
 great slaughter on both sides, routed their opponents, 
 and took possession of the tnwn (Mayi. Alter the 
 capture of l!remgarten. Pern and ZCirich mustered an 
 armv (T 10,000 men, and laid siege to Paden. The 
 garri>on, numbering S.ooo, chiellv trom the Schwvx 
 militia, and under the cummand of Reding and Cri- 
 velli of Pri, maile an obstinate resistance, but bniu'ht 
 in vain, as, after a heavy bombardment, that practi- 
 callv rediuced the tr)wn to ruins and destroyed its 
 formidable tortitications, it was torceel to ^^urrender
 
 352 HISTORY OF THE SWISS PEOPLK 
 
 (June). Strenuous efforts were now made to bring 
 about peace, l)ut the exacting terms demanded by 
 Bern and Zurich precluded the Cathchcs from ac- 
 cepting them, and all Switzerland fell into a greater 
 frenzy with the fever of war than had ever before 
 been the case, even in that much-harassed country. 
 Nearly 150,000 armed men were now in the field. So 
 great, indeed, appeared the probability of religious 
 hatred on the one side, and lust of power and con- 
 quest on the other, leading to a war of extermination 
 within the Confederate frontiers, that, had it not been 
 for the determined attitude taken by h^ngland, Prussia 
 and Holland, Austria and France would certainly have 
 interfered, and settled the Swiss difficulties by dividing 
 the country between themselves. All hopes of a 
 peaceful solution being gone, the combatants again 
 rushed at one another's throats. Several battles took 
 place, but no decisive result followed till the two sides 
 Second Battle niet in force, and, for the second time, butchered one 
 "/uh^^\'-"f"' 'i^other at \'illmergen (July). Leading an army of 
 12,000 men up the Valley of the Reuss, Ackermann 
 of Unterwalden arrived at Mllmergen, where he en- 
 countered the Bernese troops, to the number of about 
 9,000, under Davel and Saconay. blighting began with 
 fearful ardour, and after lasting eight hours, resulted in 
 the total defeat of the Catholics, who left over 2,000 
 dead, including many officers and priests, on the field, 
 besides many cannon and banners. Later in the day 
 many hundreds of the fugitive survivors perished in the 
 neighbouring river iUinz, where they were driven by 
 the victors. The J5ernese loss was also considerable, 
 as nearly i .0(X) I'rotestants were killed. After this 
 decisive \ictory the soldiers of iiern marched into 
 
 July, 171;
 
 insTOR\- or Till-: swiss iT.'ii'i i; 33;, 
 
 Canton Luzcrn. whilst the forces of Ziiriih passed 
 into Canton Zul;' and also took ])ossession of Kappet- 
 schwvl. These re\-erses pro\-ed sulticiently important 
 to depress thorouu'hlv the enthusiasm of the (Catholic 
 states, that now expressed their willin.t^niess to come 
 to terms. After many ne,i:otiations peace was tinally Ticitv 
 brou^c^ht about bv the si^mini,^ of a treaty at Aarau '|'/," ' [ 
 (Aus^aist iith). The terms of this compact were ,i,a'eatly 
 to the ad\'anta^e of the victorious Protestants, as the 
 Catholic ("antons were compelled to cede their so\'e- 
 rei,<^m riL,dns o\-er the IJailiwicks of I ireiu.q'arten, IJaden, 
 ]\IellinL;en, and other ])laces, whilst the I'rotestants were 
 admitted into the co-overlordshi;:) of Thur^^lu, Sar<4-ans 
 and Rheinthal. The Catholics were further torced lor- 
 mally to renounce all interference with the atlairs ot the 
 To'^'i^enburg. The chief features oi this treat}' \\ ere the 
 assurance it i^^a\'e to the Common iSadiwicks ot religious 
 lil)ertv. and by i^'raiitinq' the 1 'rcjtestants the possession 
 of Jiaelen. the openin.i; ot tree conununicaticju between 
 IJaden and Zurich. The unfortunate To,i4"L;'enbur,L;" 
 peasants, for wdiose freedom the war was ostensibK- 
 bei^^un, shared the tate of so many ot those tor whoui 
 the Swiss ha\"e tou^ht. Thou,i;h ^i^aanted a few sli^'lu 
 pri\-ile,L;es. they were a.^ain rele,L;ated to the so\C'reiL;iUv 
 of the Abbot ot St. Callen, and retused all realisation 
 ot their hopes of l(x:al autonomy, "nern," said one 
 ot her leading" men, '• was not accustomed to make 
 lords out of peasants; at prestMit you are not lit to 
 i^oyern yoursc:l\"es."" Leode^^ar, ol)>tiuateIv refusing: to 
 acknowled,L(e the Treaty of Aarau (whitdi tlie 1 'ope dic- 
 (dared null and \'oid), did not recowr his lornirr 
 ]V)sition, and died an exile. lie was succei'ded at the 
 Abbe\" by Joseph, a man with fcwei' scruplos. who. in
 
 354 
 
 HISTORY OF THR SWISS I'EOPLE 
 
 1718, received back the Toggenburg estates on formally 
 accepting the treaty. 
 AD. 1713. In 1713 Bern formed an alliance with England and 
 
 Holland, and two years later a secret treaty was entered 
 into between Louis XIV. and the Swiss Catholic 
 Cantons, by which the French agreed to help the 
 latter to recover their lost possessions. This scheme 
 was, however, frustrated by the death, in the following 
 year (1715), of the French monarch. 
 
 For the next eighty years Switzerland remained 
 free from actual war, though the seething mass of 
 religious and political hatred that permeated almost 
 every part of the country, and the general poverty 
 and discontent that arose from the past dissensions, 
 greatly retarded that civilisation and national unity 
 that were so much needed by the people. The 17th 
 century shows, probably, the most deplorable period 
 in the history of the land. The nation seemed seized 
 with an insatiable thirst for blood, while party prejudice, 
 reckless religious fanaticism, and other passions of the 
 most ignoble nature swayed the councils of the cantons, 
 and rapidly brought the country to the verge of ruin, 
 and the Confederation to practical dissolution. It had 
 taken thousands of lives and hundreds of years to build 
 up the Unity of Switzerland ; it required thousands of 
 lives and a \-erv few years to destroy it.
 
 CHAPTER X\'II 
 
 SV.IT/F.KI.A\n"s r,K\I-:KAI. COXniTIOX I^,);FnRF. Tin; 
 
 i-KHNcii ix\"\SKix. p,i/rwi;i-. X 171 3 Axn 170'S 
 
 FoLiTicALLN'. and in materia! proL,M'ess, the annals 
 ot Switzerland durinir the cii:htv years that preceded 
 her in\-asion by the l-'rench, show little of no\'eltv or 
 interest, and nothini,'' of importance. hVeed ham the 
 contentions of her restless nei,<(hl)ours, she dra,irt,^ed on 
 her decrepit existence, disturhetl onlv at short intervals 
 from her lethar-^'y by tri\-ial re\-olts, reli.i^'ious disputes, 
 and lucal jealousies. The -sun of Switzerland's iirst 
 heroic and prosperous perKjd had now lon,^' set. Hefore 
 the rejuvenated Confederation shouKl arise, and v^row 
 to power and prosperity upon the lirm i)asis of national 
 unity and mutual contidencc, the unhajipv land was 
 destined to encounter m;iny a dreary antl de\a^tatin^ 
 winter. This decepti\"e inter\al of repose will, there- 
 fore, be taken ad\'antaL;'e of t(j '/nc some account of the 
 existin,!^^ pulitical instiiutions and .i^'eneral condition (jf 
 the country, as a knowled^q'e of these is necessary to 
 appreciate the importance of the many ratlical changes 
 brou,i,dit about by the events of Xinety-ui^ht. Thoui^di 
 the thirteen cantons were still nominallv united, the 
 bond was of the \-ery slij^ditest. Neither did the I'ederal 
 Alliance aflect the union of indi\'idual states to oiu- 
 anothfT. l'\ir L-.\ample, th^' L-i,L(ht ancient cant(jns h.id 
 a separate compact amom;' ihemseha-s tor (Mimiion 
 
 2y- 2
 
 35^ HISTORY OF THF. SWISS PEOPLE 
 
 defence, and even of these Schwyx, Zurich, Uri, 
 Liizern and Unterwalden, were bound not to form 
 alHances without the consent of all, while the tliree 
 others, Bern, Zug and Glarus, were free to make 
 alliances with other cantons or foreig-n powers, pro- 
 vided, by so doing, nothing harmful to the l-'ederal 
 bond was contemplated. To these causes of disunion 
 must also be added the many great and small parties, 
 created by religious, political, or local causes, that made 
 the Confederation little more than a collection of hetero- 
 geneous molecules, ready at any moment to fly asunder. 
 The confusion was further accentuated by the absence 
 of any permanent central authority vested with supreme 
 control over the affairs of the nation. An attempt to 
 form such an authority was made by the cantons, 
 Dii'ts. when general Diets were appointed ; but these as- 
 
 semblies were latterly little more than formal, as they 
 possessed no power to settle any important issue, unless 
 it had first been decided on by each of the states. 
 The deputies had no individual right to vote on any 
 new question that might arise during a debate till they 
 had received their instructions from their respecti\e 
 (jovernmenls. ^loretn-er, what ought to ha\e been 
 grave and earnest deliberations too often degenerated 
 into party struggles, where self-interest and personal 
 abuse ended in scenes of tumultuous \ iolencc;. Ordin- 
 ary general Diets met annually, at i'^aucnfeld, where 
 the duputy from Zurich acted as president, and at 
 tJK; end of each session drew up a report oi the busi- 
 ness transacted, and forwarded a copy to each canton. 
 The meetings were held with closed doors, each inem- 
 b(;r possess(;d one \'()te, and decisions were come to 
 by a sim[)le majority. l'2xtraorclinary Diets could
 
 uisi()K\ oi 1111:; hWibS M.(.)i'i.i. J37 
 
 be asseniMcd by the president, on ihc clein;ind oi 
 u torei^'ii minister, or wlit.-n some pressing' (Question of 
 national importance neetled immediate attention. In 
 the former ease, the minister concerned was held re- 
 sponsible for all expenses incurred by the deputies in 
 lea\in<^' suddenl\- their l)usinesses. 
 
 ICach ot the cantons had its special torm ot t^overn- L.cal 
 ment. as had the JJailiwicks, the subject-towns and the 
 Communo. Many were totalh- distinct from the rest, 
 e;i.ch had some peculiarit\' oi its own. It wcnild be 
 neither profitable nor practical to describe in detail, or 
 ex'eii to enumerate, all the diilerently constituted political 
 bf)dies that more or less ruled the people of Switzerland. 
 Were such a task j^ossible. a lor.^' series of \olumes 
 W(nild be the result, a i)ros[:iect that lew writers, and 
 still iewer readers. wouKl contemplate with pleaMirc. 
 Instead, a briei sket(d"i ot th(jse that more especiallv 
 iniluenced the current of S\\iss e\em^. will alone be 
 attempted, i'or purpose.^ ot classilication, the ('anlonal 
 ( iox'erninents ma\' be tli\ided into three classes 
 Democratic, Munici[)al, and Aristocratic or ( )linarchical. 
 
 (jtn'ernmeiit "oi the })eople b\- the })eople " existed iai li.m.jcra 
 in its purest iorm in the three pa.i'eiit States oi the ■' 
 ( onft'drration - Schwwx, i ri and I ntei'waKlen and m 
 Zuy. (jlarus and Ap[)enzell. In tliise cantons it wa> the 
 custom to hold a o^neral nieetini^ oi the people [Liir.ds- 
 ;:iiiuiiiii() at which e\ery adult male was allowed tr 
 speak and \"ote, to settle all matters oi ]:)ublic concern. 
 The assembly usually took place once a Near, unless 
 ur.i,''ent ailairs called it to,L;"ether oiteiier. The chiei 
 local olficer. the LanddiiiuhuiH, and the other neces>ar\- 
 executi\"e ollicials were here elected; Jaws, rulr>, ;tnd 
 taxes \oted or aniuilletl : the e\[)enditure for the ensuing;
 
 35b HISTOR\' Ol- Tin-: SWISS PEOPLI.: 
 
 year fixed, and all other questions of local or national 
 interest — as peace, war, or alliances — discussed and 
 decided. 
 Livn/si^tiii- LcDids^i^L'iiic'iiidcn were abolished in 1848 in Schywx 
 
 and Zug, but are still held in the other democratic can- 
 tons. Sir Francis Adam's description of one of these 
 interesting meetings in Uri, at which he was an honoured 
 guest, well shows the chiet features of these assemblies 
 as they ha\'e existed for many centuries. Conser\'atism 
 of the most pronounced form has always characterised 
 the Swiss Democratic communities. 
 
 " Uri may be taken as an example. There, on the 
 ftrst Sunday in ^lay, the people assemble in a meadow 
 at 13()zlingen-an-der-Gand, not far from Altdorf. The 
 Landannnann, after ha\-ing duly attended ^lass in the 
 village chvu'ch, proceeds in procession to the place of 
 meeting, lie is accompanied by ushers in ariti(}ue cos- 
 tumes of black and yellow, the colours of the canton. 
 There is an ancient banner with the arms of I'ri fa 
 bulls" head, on a yellow ground), and there are old wild 
 bull's horns, wdiich year after year are borne upon poles 
 by men in front. The Landammann seats himself at a 
 table in the centre of the meadow with another official 
 { LandscJii'cibcr), and the people, standing or sitting, range 
 themseKes around him as in an amphitheatre. The 
 Landammann makes his opening speech, and reviews the 
 events, domestic and foreign, of the previous year. Then 
 thore is silence over the whole assembly, every one 
 ofTering up a prayer, and after that the real business 
 'ommences. Ivach man speaks his mind when and for 
 as long as he pleases, every subject is discussed with 
 decorum, and final!}-, wlien all other matters have been 
 settled, the officials for the following year are chosen.
 
 Ills iOK\ Ol 1 111. 
 
 35U 
 
 Th'j oul,i;dinL'' L;uul;iininann (who may he, ami ^cnerallv 
 is, rc-clectcd tor aiiollKT Near) clL-lix'crs up liis charge 
 with an ailiniialion ih.at he has injured no (;ne \olun- 
 larily, and he asl<h pardon oi any citizen wlio nia\' tliinl< 
 hiniselt a,L;'L;'rie\eth The new Landannnann takes the 
 prescrilied oath, antl tlie wdiole people swear to obe}' 
 him, to ser\e their eountr\ , and to respect the laws. 
 Other oftieials are then elected h\ show (d hands, and 
 the meetinu' is oxer. . . . Idiis (the show ot hands) wa> 
 peculiar. hlach \oter not onl\- held u}) his hand, but he 
 nujNed the lin.L^'ers (juickly u[) antl down, accompanyin.i^' 
 the motion with a low moamuL;' sountl, which was, in 
 tact, a kind ot subdued cheer. ddie ettect to us was 
 \"ery startling." 
 
 It would be tlitticult to ile\ise a more etlicient 
 method ol carrying on the atlairs ot a people when 
 those allairs were piu'ely local, than that exeicised bv 
 the democratic cantons. All xvere placed upoii an 
 C'ljual footing of political right.--, all were eijuallv con- 
 cerned about the general pr(..)>perit\-, and the artual 
 e.\ecuti\e was composed ot those best ([uahlied tor tiuar 
 posts. A majorit}' of the whole piopK.', and not a 
 particular section or a small class, was responsible tor 
 good an.d econonncal go\ tManne'iil. \\ hi-n the execati\'e 
 priAcil worthy ot conlidenci' it was reudnetl ni [)owei', 
 wdien it p.ro\-ed itself unworth}- it couKl be easily and 
 ([uickly remo\-ed, and replacetl by another, and that with 
 little expense, or hindrance to the carrying on ot public 
 business. On the other hand, this s\stem had lUcUiy 
 practical drawbacks when (Questions arose tor decision 
 of the LcuiJ>.j;iii!tii!Ji' that reijuired a wider range ot 
 vision, greater knowledge of external athdrs. and a more 
 thorough appreciation ot national intere^ts., than the
 
 3bO IIISTOKV OF THE SWISS PEOPLE 
 
 mass of the peasant politicans possessed, buried as they 
 were in their ^•alleys from the outside world and its 
 concerns. 
 
 (i;) Municipal. In the municipally-governed centres of Switzerland 
 
 the so\'ercign power rested with all the citizens of the 
 chief towns in each canton. These elected the mem- 
 bers of both the Council and the Senate, in Avhich 
 assemblies every voter was eligible to sit. In this class 
 
 ^uricii. stand Zurich, l]asel and Schaffhausen. 
 
 In general importance and military strength Zurich 
 ranked next after Bern. She maintained a powerful and 
 well-trained militia, she carried on a nourishing trade 
 irom her extensive manufactures, she was one of the 
 chief centres of Protestantism, and in her arts, sciences 
 and letters found more encouragement than in any other 
 Swiss city. Her magistrates were famed for their 
 learning and integrity, and her deputy presided at the 
 meetings of the Federal Diets. The burghers, num- 
 bering about 2,000, were divided into thirteen guilds, 
 accordmg to the nature of the trade they exercised, 
 excei)t one called the '• noble,'" the members of which 
 li\"ed on their income, without engaging in any par- 
 ticul.ar business. From the ranks of the guiltis the 
 members of the Legislati\ e Council and Senate ^\ere 
 recruited in cipaal numbers from each class, excepting 
 that t)t the '• nobles,"' which elected twice as many 
 representati\'es as any other. The Senators remained 
 for life, subject to an annual conlirmation of the trust 
 reposed in them by their respecti\e constituents. They 
 administered the revenues, controlled the army and 
 police, appointed ;dl state olticials, and constituted the 
 supreme court of appeal in all criminal, and most ci\"il 
 cases. The subjecls of Zurich, outside the burgher
 
 111> 1 (iKV Dl" 1111. >'A 1^> I'lAtVl.L 
 
 class, nuiiilKTfd cIiim- nn ly <.'<'">. .niil lhoU'_;ii iIk-.'-l- 
 puSSL-sscd partial >rll-L;' i\ rriinimt. llu-y were ^;L;'|)I">lU^ly 
 e\cllulLcl IruMi all parlicipalii t:i in the s'i\Trei_:n -•n\a-in- 
 nient ol the caiiloii. and troiu all ei\il ami ecele>;asl;cal 
 ulfice:- and preteniients. An uld S\\i>> \\rilt--r deMrilu-s 
 the characteri>tii;s of the people of Ziirieh, who did >o 
 iiuudi to >upjn,rl lier totteriiiL:' Iranie in her darke>t ila\>. 
 in the following" word.--: ■• A ^reat ajilifade tor l)Usine>>. 
 an acti\-it\' i .irried at tiine> to re>tlessne>>. a lo\r ol 
 ind.ejiendenee. a mercantile .--pii it Mimewh»it ^ra^pinu;. 
 and l>ra\erv oiteii ra>h. a Io\e ot iimtructioii. wuh a lua> 
 tor I oiuention ami I'a'.il. liheraluN" without protu.--ion ; 
 thc.'M' lia\e lieen the \iiines aiul \ ice> mo>t con>[)icuous 
 ani' iIIl;' the Zm it her.--, d'here wa-- a ::"re,iter >pirit « 't trank 
 indej "-ndi-ia e in Znra h. aiui i^reatcr hi ten \' ot .--entnrient.-^. 
 th.in m an\" other o! tiie lari^e t'-v.am ot .""^w it/ialand." 
 
 In iioiitN'ot the (. \.)ntei.lerat;oii w,i> p 'iitical e.jnahtv /.. 
 and doinocratu treedoin more i o:!>pit uoim iii.ui m r.a>ei. 
 ThoiiLlh learninu'. wealth, and lui.--nu^^ h.eie llouri>lHd, 
 no cKis> po>>e>>ed e.\clusi\e pn\iieL;e>. ,tnd th< me, mot 
 mti/.en wa> ehuilde loi- election to the ('.umd. >tn.ite 
 aiul hiL:lie--t ritate oila us. ( )nA f a \iar the ma_;:>trate.-~ 
 piiMaly took an o.ith. t' mamt.iin a::il lesiieit the law-- 
 airl riuiit.- ot the I It;.'' n-. \\\: >. m tii'.n^ tmm r-woie 
 allm;iance to the i;"o\einmL;' j > 'W oi ,--. I hat liu .--e w n e 
 Hot empt\' tormahties wa-- >h.ov.n l'\ tlie promjt manner 
 m w hu h. oil >e\ ei a! Ol ca-;. ■;,-. the i c;: ..^la: > i:;;p; i-~ nod 
 or d.efiosed tlleir otiicial,-- lor ahuse ol power. idle 
 mend>ers ot the LeL;i>lati\ e aiai li.\ecnti\a- i h.imher.- 
 weie cho>en trom amom; the e'.uhti'en ■_;mid> into which 
 the liiiri,dier> were (.li\ id.edi. Notw it :mtand:m:^ their 
 >to'n^ democratic tendrnva^. tiie i it;.a n> i:e\ci ,d! wad 
 .sti aiii,el.-^ or [)eople i.)Ut>lde llleir wwr. CUIS> to take .i
 
 362 HISTORY Ol' THE SWISS PICOPLE 
 
 share in the supreme government, antl this in spite of 
 the burghers only constituting one-third of the cantonal 
 populati(jn. The country districts, as in the case of 
 other states, possessed a certain amount of local self- 
 rule, l)ut were supervised and controlled by the cantonal 
 officials called bailies, who collected tlie taxes and 
 customs, enforced the laws, and otherwise represented 
 the city's authority. The post of bailie was looked 
 upon as the chief prize in the gift of the state ; its pay 
 was good, but its per(]uisites were better. 
 
 Nothing of special importance distinguished Schaif- 
 Sdtajfhaitscii. hausen in its political or domestic life from the two 
 cantons already considered. Several patrician families 
 for a time ha\ing monopolised seats in the Senate, the 
 burghers passed a law in i()89 wdiich restored the rights 
 of the people. The burgomaster, treasurers, and other 
 officials, were appointed by the Council, the members 
 of which were elected by the citizens. 
 
 The Aristocratic Oligarchies were four : liern, 
 Luzern, Solothurn and bVeyburg. In all these, f(jr 
 many years past, it had become more and more the 
 custom to narrow down the number of burghers, from 
 whose ranks the rulers were chosen, till at last all 
 (jthc'cs ol power or emohuiient tell into the hands of a 
 lew la\-oured iamilies, whose assumption and exercise 
 of hereditary privileges did away with the last x'cstige 
 of popular rights. Fresh burghers were not admitted, 
 and political freedom was arbitrarily refused to those 
 who, by long residence or public service, were entitled 
 to it. As iJern stood pre-eminently the first and most 
 important of the Swiss Aristocracies, and was, more- 
 over, the most powerful city in the Confederacy, she 
 will be taken as an example of the others. 
 
 (c) .-in<i,) 
 uvatic.
 
 Ori,u'in:ill\' touiulctl in the liih ccnuu'\- on ihv site j^':;;; 
 dt an ob>cure \'ilhiL;"c <•! ilu- ^:unL' naiiiu 1)\' the Dukt-s 
 of Zahrt-nu'eii. as a rcfui^'t.- l(jr llie Icssci" lords and the 
 peasants (it the neiu'hlxjiu'iuL;' districts Ironi the opprcs- 
 sion ot the hii^'her nohilitN', Hern steadily })ro,i:ressetl in 
 size and p:Aver till, in the i >th centnr\', the territories 
 that owned her rnle constitvileti a thirtl part of all 
 Switzerland. 'I'lie .s.j\-ereiL:'n power of the canton was 
 exercised In" the •■('oinicil of Two Iltuidred," so called 
 from the original number ot its members. l-^ach cotm- 
 cilhir. though elected ior liie, wtis subject to summtirx' 
 disnn>>al tor pro\'ed ctuise. None bin biu'ghers could 
 claim a seat at the (,"oimcil, and a^ the burgher chiss 
 was coin[)osed exclubi\'el\- ot descendants <;f certcain old 
 families, it e\'ery }'ear decretised in niuiiliers. In 177'", 
 less than 300 of these tamilies remained, the i)opulation 
 of ]'>cvn being tibout 11,000. Idle great majority of the 
 people re^idiuL;' in the city, as well as the inhabitants of 
 tl^ C'juirtry districts, were thus excluded troni all share 
 in the gr)\-ernment . h^x'en the burghers theinseKes, as 
 ;i body, were luwer tisSombled, such assembh' not being 
 acknowled'_''ed as ;i \)nn ui the State constitution, ddie 
 lamilies who stipjjlie'd members to tlii- Council, or 
 aspired to do so, lix'ed on their i)ri\ale incomes wdth- 
 (Kit t'jilowing ;uu' brtmch oi iiu!iislr\x Miiitar\' ser\ice 
 ■abroad supplied the young i")atricians witii their onl\" 
 resource against idleness und straitened means, wdiile 
 waiting;' their turn to ser\"e (and li\e (;n) their counlr\-. 
 
 All laws, taxes, ci\'il tippeals. and (jther important 
 cantontd tittairs, as well .as ijuestions ot war and petice. 
 or the making of alliances, were under the control ot 
 the Council, frcjui which body the Senate, as tin execu- 
 tive, wtis chosen. ddie senators were elected for liie,
 
 364 HISTORY OF THE SWISS PEOPLE 
 
 and were twenty-seven in number ; they filled all the 
 chief state offices, and appointed pastors to the differ- 
 ent li\-ings. Over the head of all other officials stood 
 the two Avoyci's or ScJiidtlieisscn. These magistrates 
 took office on alternate years, and were appointed for 
 life. The reigning SchuHhciss acted as chief of the 
 Bernese nominal republic and presided over the meet- 
 ings of the Senate. I'>esides the ScJiulthcisscn were two 
 treasurers who managed the revenues of the German 
 and r^rench subject territories, and furnished their re- 
 ports to the Council. Next in order came the four 
 liannerets who superintended the four guild - districts 
 into which the city was divided. Bern's large posses- 
 sions were partitioned into Bailiwdcks, over each of 
 which a bailie representing the city's authority ruled, 
 though many of the more important provincial towns 
 enjoyed a large measure of municipal self-government. 
 Bern's military establishment was much l)elow what 
 her wealth and population could ha\-e furnished, \)V 
 her importance recpiired. In place of a well-trained 
 and ])ropcrly et^uipped army, she relied on an undis- 
 ciplined and badly -armed militia. Into this e\'ery 
 man between the ages ol 1^) and (hj. was enrolled for 
 serx'ice when re(]uire(l, and compelled to supply liim 
 self with arms, uniform, and other military necessa- 
 ries. I'Vom these a body of 40,000 men was selected, 
 and iormed into twenty - one regiments of infantry, 
 twenty scpiadrons of cavalry, and four companies of 
 artillery. As only the artillery and the city guard re- 
 ceived any adetpiate training or attention, the result 
 of fjern's military system was fir from satisfactory, 
 indeed, only the figliting instinct, that e\"en then was 
 not wholly lost to the Swiss nature, and the experi-
 
 insTom' ni. Tin; swiss iM;f)i>i.i: 
 
 3'^5 
 
 ence so many of the militia recei\-cd under i^^ruxl 
 generals when in foreign employ, enabled Jk-rn to 
 hold her own so long as she did when the days ot 
 her misfortune came. I'or ecclesiastical purposes the 
 whole canton, which numbered some 400,000 inhabit- 
 ants, v,-as divided into 41'') parishes. The li\ings were 
 poorly [Xiid, the annual stipend attached to the great 
 majority being much under wh.at was really neces- 
 sary. In the (jerman districts preferment to the 
 more lucrati\e li\'ings was ustiallv made according 
 to seniority, a practice that led to many incompetent 
 men occupying more important posts than those held 
 by more earnest and able pastors. A supreme ('on- 
 sistorN' at Ijern, composed of a Senator, the Dean ot 
 the I'nixersity, one pastor and six members ot the 
 Council, managed all Church matters oi any import- 
 ance. In order to pre\'ent the clergy from interfering 
 in pcjlitical afiairs it was found necessary to pass a 
 law that abMjlutelv f<jrbade anv man who had been 
 admitted int(j orders from being eligible for any seat 
 in the Council, Senate, or other ci\il department. 
 
 IJefore closing the al)o\"e very brief outline ol the 
 chief features f)f the ( jijx'ernment of IJern, mention nuist 
 be made of an unique institution that there exi-ted. 
 This is thus described by I'lanta: -'"A singular and. at 
 first sight, no dotd)t, rather ludicrous establishment, ot 
 which no instance is to be met with in an_\- other 
 go\'ernment, was the mimic legislature, which, under 
 the name of the li.xtin'iv S/ii/V, wa,-^ a ])ertect model oi 
 the real one, with all it> oltices, tuncnions, ceremonit s, 
 and subordinate depai'tments. It consisted ot those 
 burghers ot distinguished families who had not \a-t 
 altauu'd the age ri'quisite tor real promotion ; it
 
 366 HISTORY OF THE SWISS PROPLK 
 
 appointed to sixty -six Bailiwicks, wliich tool\ their 
 names from ruined castles dispersed throuf^hout the 
 country, amont( which Habsburg was the principal ; 
 it had an exchequer, and, differing in this from its 
 archetype, some debts ; great honours were paid to it 
 in all public ceremonies, in which it greatly surpassed 
 the sovereign Council in stateliness and splendour. 
 These distinctions it doubtless owed to the considera- 
 tion of its being, in fact, a political seminary for the 
 youths, who were likely one day to arrive at the highest 
 offices in the state. Its avoyci' seldom failed of promotion 
 into the great Council. Its badge, or coat of arms — an 
 ape sitting on a lobster, and viewing itself in a mirror — 
 was no bad emblem of its mock consequence.'' 
 
 b^or many centuries a prominent feature in the 
 policy of Bern's government was the acquiring and 
 hoarding of money for futiu'e needs. So successfully 
 was this policy carried out, that in 1770, when the rest 
 of Switzerland was miserably poor, Bern possessed a 
 reserve fund of nearly fifty millions of livres. Of this 
 large sum, nineteen millions were prudently invested 
 in b^nglish securities, whilst the rest was deposited in 
 the city coffers. Item's reputation for wealth became 
 European, and in great measure led to the invasion of 
 Switzerland by the French, who hoped (and realised 
 their expectation) to recruit their exhausted iinances by 
 dipping their hands into I>ern"s well-stocked treasury. 
 Though outwardly pursuing her course with the tran- 
 quility lier strength and influence seemed to assure, 
 ]>ern"s internal condition was far from quiet. Attempts 
 were frequently made by hei' subjects to shake off her 
 aulhorit}', and pcjjnflar re\-ohs on the part of the dis- 
 iranchised people within her walls took place to recover
 
 insTOK\- n\- i-H}- 
 
 from the rulinu' patrician class thi' liberty and riL^dits 
 they had so loni;- usurped. I'rDinpt and \i_i;'orous action 
 on the part of the assailed authorities succeedetl in 
 su;~)pressin<4' these democratic outbreaks. In 1742 a 
 more than usually well-planned conspiracy was formed 
 liy a returned political exile, named Henzi, a man who 
 addetl to ^q^reat natural talents and democratic aspira- 
 tions a personal hatred of the (^lovernment that had 
 already punished him tor a former plot. Collecting" a 
 little band ot lanatics and criminals. Menzi hoped to 
 effect a jjeneral rising-, and a reilistribution of political 
 power upon a popular basis. At the I'mal moment. 
 howcN'er, he was betrayed by a comrade and, together 
 with some of his chief supporters, was arrested. Little 
 time was lost by the Ciovernment in vindicating its 
 authority. Henzi and two rjther leaders were tortured, 
 and then beheaded, se\ era! more were exiled or im- 
 prisoned, and the mo\'ement eftectuallv crushetl. 
 
 Nothing is more dilficult than to gather from Swiss 
 historians an accurate conception of the true merits and 
 faults of the general go\-ernment and policy of Hern. 
 She has received more fulsome tlatlery and acrimonious 
 abuse trom her countrymen than any other city of the 
 Confederation. Idie position she had attained b}' means 
 not always characterised b\- a hue sense ot honour. 
 honesty, or patriotism, furnished the less iortunate 
 cantons with a standing occasion for the la\dsh di-;])la\- 
 of en\"v, hatred and malice towards her. i'he chiet ^ins 
 laid to her account bv her own jieople wiM'e those that 
 everywhere naturally follow when a small class of the 
 community usurps sole and exelusi\'e s\\a\' o\'er the 
 great majority ot the people, whose riL;"hts aie ignored 
 and whii>e person^ are ilespised. The 1 '.ernese la\\<.
 
 368 HISTORY OF THK SWISS PEOPLE 
 
 thoui^h theoretically fairly just, were too obviously made 
 for the benefit of the patrician minority, and in practice 
 were enforced with unnecessary harshness, and often 
 with the most open partiality. In her relations with 
 the rest of Switzerland Bern followed a steady policy of 
 self-aggrandisement and selfish isolation, coupled with a 
 complete disregard of the rights of other cantons. Of 
 the many writers who, taking a contrary view of the 
 liernese system, have extolled her Government and her 
 public conduct, the historian Mliller, and a Bernese 
 magnate, alone need be quoted. Von Bonstetten, him- 
 self a patrician and a member of the Government, thus 
 writes : — " The Government, from its very nature, was 
 a stationary one, but it benefited all those who remained 
 stationary with it ; and thus we might have remained in 
 a perpetual and contented mediocrity, if nothing had 
 happened around us to tell us we were not happy 
 enough. The Government had all the vices but it also 
 had all the ^•irtues of an aristocracy. Such was the dis- 
 interestedness of the patricians that, while they were 
 accountable only to themselves for the management of 
 the State finances, they lived in a state of bare com- 
 petence l)y the side of forty or fifty million of livrcs of 
 accumulated savings, which were finally phmdered by 
 our friends and allies from France. The Bernese 
 Government existed for ages unarmed in the midst of 
 its armed subjects. . . . A great characteristic of the 
 Bernese ( lovernment was its scrupulous honesty ; I have 
 sat in its councils and tribunals, and I can a\er that I 
 never, in any one instance, saw an act which even 
 seemed to \iolate the strictness of this principle." After 
 gi\'ing the foregoing opinions, the wortliy ijcrnese 
 patrician carries the war into the enemies" camp,
 
 animach-ertin<; in strong- lan^-iu-iq-e on the \-enality and 
 <,^eneral ciirruption that existed in the Cicnerninenl 
 tribunals of fjtht-r Swiss Cantons. '• It were no easy 
 matter to iind, in the v/orld's history," says Jcdiann 
 MiiUer, the great Swiss historian, •• a c(jmnnmity which 
 has been so wisely administered, and for so long a 
 period, as that of iSern. In other aristocracies the 
 people were kept in darkness, po\"erty and barbarism : 
 factions were encouraged among them, while justice 
 winked at crimes; and this was the case in the terri- 
 tories of X'enice. I'-ut the people oi iJern stood, with 
 regard to their patricians, rather in the relati(jn ol 
 clients towards their patrons than in that of subjects 
 t(.)wards their so\'ereign." 
 
 Xoth.mg calls t(jr more than a passing reference in Fi. 
 the other Swiss oligarchies. In all, go\'ernment and .,'"; 
 power were usurped bv a small and hereditary class, 
 popular rights were ignoretl, and S(jcical distinctions were 
 rigidly enforced. Lu/.ern's (io\-ernment, unlike that of 
 bJern, was tinctured by the opinions of the heads of 
 her Church. The canton ranked first among the 
 Catholic States of the Confetleracy, and was the chr)Sen 
 residence of the I'apal Xuncio. In Luzern also, though 
 the ])atrician and plebeian classes were clearlv divided 
 from one another, the burghers as a IxjiK- possessed 
 many privileges and were consultetl on imp.irtant occa- 
 sions. With regard to the si)irit of go\-ermnent, ami 
 the mental condition of the pet)ple, l-"i'e\"bur'^' and S'jf)- 
 tluuai stood lowest among the four arista icratic cantons. 
 
 I'"or the vears inmiediatelv following the' establi>h- o'.i 
 mcnt (;f (lenewi's inde])endence. learning, trade, and 
 genei"al uv.lustr}- rerei\'ed an innMen>e imj)u]>e. and bid 
 fair to bring her into the fir>t rank ot luiropcan cities. 
 
 -4
 
 370 HISTORY OF THE SWISS PKOPLF. 
 
 Her old inherent spirit of unrest was, however, merely 
 sleeping, not dead. With the accession of wealth came 
 the accentuation of class cleavage and personal ambition 
 that soon drowned all republican theories, and raised 
 a succession of serious political commotions. Towards 
 the middle of the i8th century, Geneva had so far 
 changed her domestic mode of life that she earned for 
 herself the unenviable reputation of being the most 
 turbulent republic of the time. With the exception 
 of her alliances with the cantons, she had little in 
 common with the rest of Switzerland. Her people 
 had fought long and hard to secure their independence, 
 and the tardy assistance rendered them by their Swiss 
 neighbours when on the point of succumbing to a foreign 
 master, was only given from motives of self-interest, 
 and brought with it little gratitude and no affection. 
 In Geneva, as elsewhere, a small coterie of VN^ealthy and 
 ambitious families had gradually been forcing itself to 
 the fore, and here the rise of the patrician class, though 
 necessarily slow, was much quicker than in the Con- 
 federate cities. At the commencement of the iSth 
 century, this class was firmly established as the 
 supreme and dominant party in Geneva. Its members 
 occupied a special quarter in the city, close to the 
 Council blouse, assumed distinctive manners, dress and 
 speech, exercised special prerogatives, and filled all 
 the important posts in the government, including the 
 Council and the Senate ; even the name of patrician 
 came into use in official acts of the .authorities. The 
 burglicrs, numbering about 1,500, were at first too 
 fully occu]Mcd with their newly revived learning, 
 religion and business, to pay much attention to politics. 
 In 1707, howc\-er, they had so lar awoke to the
 
 His'rnir,- oi- -iin: swiss i>i:.'mm i, 371 
 
 injustice ot what was ,t,^oinL,^ nn, that reform a'^ntated 
 the pubhc mind, and led to freijuent disturbances. 
 which at last became so serious tliat peace was only 
 restored, and the ,i,''o\-ernment retained. In- the authori- 
 ties of liern .and Zurich occupyinL,^ (iene\a with a 
 strong' and well-armed ,crarrison. On the Confederate 
 troops e\-acuatinn' the city, fresh troubles broke out. 
 and continued ^vith wiryint; results till, in 1714. the\' 
 a,L,'ain .assumed serious proportions. Little had been 
 ,<,^ained by the buri;hers til! this time. thou,<,di much 
 .t^^encral harm resulted to both tratle and intellectual 
 pro.i^aess. The head of the new re\-olt was t.aken by a 
 burgher named Micheli Ducrest. an oflicer of the local 
 militia, and a member of the Council, who possessed 
 <,aeat scientific talents, and, thouy'h himself a patrician, 
 terx'ent denrocratic opinions. The principal exciting 
 cause of popular discontent was the imposition of a 
 hea\-y tax to defray the expenses of the erection of a 
 strong line of fortifications in place of the old ones 
 around the city. After several serious encounters with 
 the excited populace, the authorities issued a decree 
 of perpetual banishment against Ducrest. ordered his 
 writings to be ])ublicly destroyed by tlie otticial execu- 
 tioner, and himself t(.) be han.ged in ellig\-. Se\ere 
 repressive measures against other popular k-aders. and 
 the bu'ish en])loyment of minor ])unishments aifiong the 
 discontented people, at length put down the rexoll. 
 though not before much bicxxl had been sheil on both 
 sides. \\ hile in exile, Ducrest mixed himseli up \\ith 
 one of the many distiu'banccs that were tlu-n occurring 
 in liern. for which he v/as arrested on liernese territory 
 and imprisoned in the castle ui A^irbui'u'. \\here he 
 remained till his death, beguiling the tedium of con- 
 
 -4 -
 
 372 HISTORY OF THE SWISS PEOPLE 
 
 finement by the study of natural philosophy, and the 
 construction of the thermometers and barometers that 
 afterwards went by his name. 
 
 Disturbances of a more or less serious nature 
 continued to agitate the political life of (jeneva, till, 
 in 1738, the patricians were at last partially conquered, 
 and, at the instance of France, Bern and Zurich, a new 
 Constitution was agreed to. This result came about 
 under the direct influence of the latter two Confederate 
 Cantons, whose troops once more occupied the city, 
 and maintained a forced peace between the rival poli- 
 ticians. Ijy the terms of the new Constitution, the 
 practical sovereignty of the General Assembly of the 
 burghers was re-established, and to this body was 
 entrusted the right of confirming or removing the 
 chief state officials, and of discussing all important 
 matters. Other points, based upon democratic prin- 
 ciples, were also conceded. For over twenty years 
 after this event (icneva remained quiet, and set about 
 repairing the losses she had sustained during her long 
 period of political waste, though the revolutionary ideas 
 that then permeated France began to make them- 
 selves felt also in the little republic. The writings of 
 Voltaire (who, from 1755, lived at I'^erney, close to 
 Geneva), Ivousseau, and others, were printed and cir- 
 culated freely in the city, and these did not a little 
 to make men discontented with their lives. From 
 vague discontent with things as they existed, men 
 began to formulate remedies. But, as the remedies 
 for social disorders were numerous, and often opposed 
 to one another, nothing like a united popular party 
 against the Ciovernment was possible. In 1762, 
 Rousseau, the great Genevese literary light of the
 
 HIS'!(>R\' ol- rill. SWlJiS I'l.ol'M. 
 
 i6th centui'}-. pul)li>hccl his two works, the •• ('ontract 
 Social," and •• h^inilo." The appearance nt these 
 books made tlie .L;"reate>t iinpi'essicjn throu,i;hout Kurojie, 
 hut especially in h'rance, wliere the\' were ordered bv 
 the ]^irliainent to be burnt publicly, li^r ad\ocating 
 what were deemed atheistical and socialistic views. 
 Followini;' the slii.rt-si^hted poiic\' of their pcjwertvd 
 neighbotir. the authorities of (iene\a also ordered the 
 books to be burned. ;md lorbade their sale. Xothini^', 
 of course, coudd haxe m(jre conduced t(j their circula- 
 tion, or made men nii.ire anxious to know their contents. 
 So(jn the \vhole citv was in an ujjroar, and read}' to 
 rise in open re\olt ai^'ainst all conslituteil authijritx', 
 stu'red bv passion and i)rejudice to the wiklest pitch 
 e<f political trenzy. Kdusseau's \-iews were seized with 
 aN'iditv bv the leaders of the popidar part\-, and 
 R<»usseau himself came to be re.^'arded as the political 
 sa\'iour ot all oppressed or unhapjn- people. Imme- 
 diate anarchy ^^■as, for the time, staxed oil b\- a disi)lav 
 oi alternate repre>-ion and slij^'ht conce>>i()n> to tlie 
 most ur.Lj'eut [)(jpular demands, and a semblance ci 
 .L^a-neral tramjuilit}' was e\a-n established. 'Idle riL;"ht 
 to petition the autli(jritie> on aiu" subjecl was mxl 
 secured t(j e\'er\' citizen, as well as the more imporlant 
 pri\ile,i(e that the (ieneral .Vssembl}' should in future 
 elect hcdf tlie menibei"s to all wtcancies in the ("ouncil, 
 and displace annually, it it cdiose, lour members ol 
 the Senate. It is tlitticull, in the calmer atmosphere 
 of to-day, to realise the wild excitiMiu-nt Ivous^eau's 
 bcjoks cau-ed in the mitldle ot the last century. The 
 ideas they contained on social and religious subjects, 
 though '."lothed in seducti\e lant^'uaye, were neither 
 iiovlI nor practicaT Rousseau ]io>si->sed th(- art that
 
 374 HISTORY OF THE SWISS PEOPLE 
 
 enabled him to focus the vague thoughts and yearnings 
 of others that then permeated the intehectual and 
 political strata of society. He expressed them elo- 
 quently and " elegantly," but he was no more their 
 originator, as his friends imagined, than he was the 
 atheist and anarchist his enemies called him. One is 
 only surprised that so many obviously impractical and 
 ancient theories, and so many transparent untruths, 
 should have excited so much attention. 
 
 The burghers of Geneva seem for a time to have 
 recovered completely from the temporary excitement 
 caused by Rousseau's writings, and once more to ha\e 
 settled down to the improvement of their material and 
 political condition. By 1780 they so far succeeded in 
 the latter that they gained for their General Assembly 
 greatly increased power. The Senate still acted as the 
 Executive, and proposed all fresh laws in the hrst 
 instance for the consideration of the Council. After 
 passing this body they were next brought before the 
 General Assembly, when their fate was linally settled, 
 without debate, by a simple majority. Besides thih 
 concession, the citizens' assembly also determined fjues- 
 tions of peace, war, or foreign alliances, and in other 
 minor matters exercised greatly increased authority. 
 
 Whilst the burghers were thus gradually regaining 
 their political status from their patrician opponents, 
 another class was slowly, but surely, making its in- 
 fluence felt, and every year clamouring more loudly for 
 political freedom. This was composed of a large section 
 of tlie city inhabitants, who, though ot foreign parentage, 
 were born in Gene\a. They were known as Naiivi's, 
 and, having tailed to purchase the burgherslhp, were 
 denied ail municipal privileges and excluded irom all
 
 iiib"i(iK\ oi- 1111:; r^wLir^ i'i:()i'i.i. 
 
 (jitici.'il positions. The inlerests ot both palriciuns and 
 citizens inv(jl\etl o[)i)usiti(jn to their chiiins. Already, 
 in 1770, the Xjl:ii.<, having' failed to obtain any reco^;- A.n. 1770. 
 nition of their demands by aj^dtation, rose in re\oh, but 
 after some street li,i;htinL;', and tlie loss ot sexeral li\es, 
 the moxement was eUectually for the time repressed. 
 Elexen years later they seizetl the opportunity, when ad, 17M. 
 political disturbances on the subject of the publicati(jn 
 of a code ot laws broke out and disunited their op- 
 ponents, a_L;'ain to ur^"e their claims by joinint,'' in the 
 tray. Matters in deiiexa now came to a crisis, by a 
 j^eneral insurrection of all classes brin^ini;' on a con- 
 dition ot anarchy, and paralysing' all ^"overnment and 
 business. .Many ot the Senators and chiet oltlcials were 
 arrested by the dominant party, others escaped, and 
 new ma,L;'isirates were appointed. In this emer_L;'ency 
 brance, JSern and Scudinia inter\ened, and occupieil 
 the city with a torce ol i 1 ,ouo men. I'nder the 
 autlKn'it)- ol the toreii^n ,i,^arrison the recently trium- 
 j)hant parly wa> sup[)re.-^^ed, the (leneral As>embly 
 was reduced to halt its number by the exclusion ol 
 those citizens who had taken a [)romiiU'nt part m the 
 disturbances, and nearly cdl power and autliority were 
 \ edited in the ("ouiicil and Senate. 'ldii_- local militia 
 wa> abolished, ami a toreiL;'!! L;arriMin, paid by the 
 state, substituted. dduis almo^t in a da\- iieail}- all 
 the pri\ile,i^^es ,L;'ained by tlie burghers were \n>[. and 
 both they and the Xalircs sultered t'onsiderabl}'. This 
 re\olt and the .general unsettled state oi ('iene\a caused 
 numbers tcj seek a home elsewhere. Many settled in 
 baris, wdiere the}' became associated with the (liroiuiins, 
 and to(;k a part in the e.irK' staL;'es of the I'rer.ch 
 lve\olulion. ()their, eml)arked in trade in bn,L;iai)d,
 
 37t) HISTOKV Ol' THE SWISS PEOPLE 
 
 Holland, or Italy. " A certain number proposed to 
 settle in Ireland. A memorial, signed by over i,ooo 
 individuals, "was presented to the Lord-Lieutenant, Earl 
 Temple, praying that a spot might be assigned to them 
 to form their colony. This petition was well received, 
 A.I). 17S2. and in September, 1782, being submitted to the Privy 
 Council at Dublin, it was acceded to, and afterwards 
 received the assent of George III. The Irish Parlia- 
 ment \oted ^/"5o,ooo for defraying the preliminary 
 expenses and building a town for the colonists. The 
 site chosen for this purpose, consisting oi twenty-seven 
 acres of Crown land, was near the mouth of the river 
 Suir, about eight miles from W'aterford, and nearly oppo- 
 site Duncannon. A deputation of the emigrants proceeded 
 to W'aterford in July, 1783, to superintend the building 
 of the new town, which was called New Gene\"a. The 
 buildings soon began to rise and assume the appearance 
 of a city ; ^"30,000 had already been expended on the 
 spot, when the Avhole scheme was suddenly abandoned, 
 from causes which ha\e ne\'er been entirely cleared up. 
 It was said that the Gene\'ese emigrants demanded too 
 many pri\'ileges in the articles ol their charter, and 
 that the Corporation of W'aterford became jealous, and 
 wanted t(J extend its jurisdiction o\ er the new c(jlony. 
 At the same time the recall of Larl Temple Irom Ire- 
 land contributed greatly to the failure oi the scheme, of 
 which he had been the principal patron. The emigrants, 
 by an address presented to his successor, the Duke oi 
 Rutland, signified their intention of reliniiuishing the 
 project. The buildings of New Geneva rem;iined un- 
 occupied for years, until they were used as barracks in 
 tlie beginning of the war. The demesne was afterwards 
 sold, tlie hcKises ))ulled down, and few traces ot the 
 })r()ject iire now (i84()) to be seen" — (\ ieusseux).
 
 iiisroKV oi 1111. SWISS im:()1'i.i; 
 
 Th()u,i;ii thr cilizcns, 1)\- ihuir own folly, lost, ihc ah. 17S.J. 
 iruits oi their iKird-won \icloty oxer their jxitriciaii 
 masters, another popular oiUl)reak in i J'^ij compelled 
 the latter a,L;"ain to sueeumb, and once more the 
 hin\i;hers were conceded the ioriner pri\ile,L;es oi their 
 (leneral Assemhly. ami the decrees a.^'ainst the political 
 e.xiles were otlicialK' rescinded. In this new tyrant tcj 
 popular liberty the Xatirts also shared, as the rights 
 ot burghershi]) \\(.;i"e allowed to all the inhabitants 
 whose ttmnheh had tor four generations resided in 
 Gene\;i. Tiuis tiling.-^ remained till the ad\eiit of the 
 I'rench Rexolution ai^ain threw ("leiiexa into new 
 troubles ;uid iresh political changes. 
 
 Nothing ol miportance had changed the condition ot (JiduimitdLii. 
 the (iraubunden since the}' established their inde[)en- 
 dence in the middle ol the iijth centnr)'. .Vllied to the 
 Confederates, without taking an_\ actixe part in the 
 hitter's aftairs, the people of thi>, the wildest and most 
 shut-off portion (d modern Sw it/.(,-iiaiid, li\ed a life; of 
 isolation in their valleys, distmbcd onl\' bv local dis- 
 putes and religious difficidties. 1 he}' toruie'd a little 
 democratic republic, sub-divided into about si.\ty smaller 
 republics, each ilistmct in itself, where the democratic 
 principle ol go\L:rnmeiit llouiished m its [Mire.--l lorm. 
 'Idle [)()pidation numbered about 130,000, and the 
 counlr\' some 2,300 sijtiare n.ile^. 
 
 'Idiough the isth centinw was that of vSwitzerland's .i';/s j«./ 
 natitinal decadence, it was also her golden era ot ' ' " 
 Literatuie and Science. I'ossibly the national cha- 
 racteristics ot the Swiss may point a connection 
 between the two e\ents. In nearly exery dfejjartment 
 ot learmng, men of genius ap[)eared in numbers out 
 of all proportion io the size or the past historx' of the 
 country. Man\' attained xxorld-lame renown, and haxe
 
 37<^ HISTORY OF THE SWISS PEOPLE 
 
 nol had their lustre duUed by time or later competition. 
 To Geneva, Bern, Zurich and Lausanne, belongs the 
 chief honour of being the special birthplaces of Swiss 
 mtellect. The scope of this work admits but of the 
 barest enumeration of a few of the names of the men 
 whose genius, like a " golden halo hovering round 
 decay,'' lit up the dark night that ushered in the 
 death of the Confederation. For England the birth 
 of native learning in Switzerland has a special interest. 
 Before this epoch, France was looked upon as the 
 great home of all tliought and culture by the people 
 of the cantons, and French literature and French 
 ideas were accordingly their only sources of interest 
 or instruction. Against these influences a strong re- 
 action now commenced in favour of the ideas and 
 literature of Great Britain. This reaction was greatly 
 aided, if not created, in the German-speaking districts, 
 by the writings of the Ziirich literary critics, Bodmer 
 and Breitinger, whose publications of the poems ot 
 the Minnesingers and fragments of the Xiebehmgen 
 alone earned them renown. They hrst popularised in 
 Switzerland Milton, Shakespeare, and the better-known 
 Fnglish writers amongst their countrymen. A similar 
 change in public taste arose in the French division, 
 chieily through the energetic efforts of the brothers 
 Charles and Marc l^ictet who, in ly-jfi, founded at 
 Geneva, La Bibliotheque bvitanniquc, still surviving under 
 the name of Bibliotheque univcvsdlc. 
 
 Amongst many others of more than local celebrity 
 that now so suddenly came to the fore are johann 
 Sulzer (1720-1779), of W'interthur, the author of the 
 Dictionaivc des Beaux-Avis, justly regarded as the creator 
 (jl a national artistic taste, and who was chosen as a
 
 HISTUKV Ol- TllL SWIbb I'LUl'LL 379 
 
 Professor al Jjcrlin, and elected a member of the French 
 Academy: Joliann La\ater ( i 741 -i "^ui j, the elrjquent 
 and persnasi\e poHtician, poet, and learned scientist, 
 whose celebrated work on htiman physiognomy has 
 been translated into e\ery modern language, and still 
 holds its own as a standard classic ; Johann Bernoulli, 
 who at I '~^ years of age j^osse^setl such a thorough 
 acquaintance with the exact sciences that lew among 
 his manv famous cuntemporaries excelled him in know- 
 ledge : Albert \ on llaller. the tamed patrician, poli- 
 tician, physician, poet and master ui many sciences, ot 
 ^vho!ll Jiern and his country are justly proud ; liir/.el, 
 cjf Zurich, the patriot, })hilanthropist and originator ot 
 the S\s'iss no\'el dealing with peasant life ; Diderot and 
 d'AIembert published their famcjus eiicyclopa-dia at 
 \'\"erdun ; (jessner. the puet and n(j\ elist ; Henri 
 I'eslaluzzi ( 1 74'i-i ^27 1. to whom we are intiebted tor 
 the first practical s}'stem ot primarv mstruction. 
 J'estalo/./i revolutionised popular educaticm, and his 
 methods were adopted, by nearly all Furopjean c(juntries 
 with marked success, while he hiuiselt died [)uor and 
 almost f<jrg(jtten : Zmmiermaim, the plnsician, writer 
 and original thinker, whose tame caused him to be 
 sdught by both (jeorge 11. and b'rederick the Great 
 as tlieir special attciid.uit ; and aiuoii^ historians and 
 n.eii ot letters, Isaac Iselin i 1 72^-1 7>j,i, and Johann 
 Muller, the author ot tiie tamous hist(jry ol the 
 Ojiifederation, will always stand in the lu'st rank ; 
 .Mesiner, the introducer ol mesmerism : Jionnet. 
 the naturalist and philosopher: 1 )e Saussure und 
 Tissot, both scieiitilic physicians (jt umisual merit, the 
 tormei' being also the tirst geoloLfist to make the ascent 
 of M(jnt Ijlanc ; Jean de Loime, tiie Swiss writer and
 
 380 HISTORY OF THE SWISS PEOPLE 
 
 critic of English Parliamentary institutions ; Necker 
 (the father of Madame de Stael), the celebrated 
 financial minister of Louis XVI. ; Claviere, the suc- 
 cessor of Necker ; and lastly, Jean Jacques Rousseau, 
 who has already been referred to. Through the efforts 
 of many of the above, several important societies for 
 mutual instruction or the furthering of national educa- 
 tion now for the first time were formed. Of these by 
 far the chief was established by Iselin and Hirzel in 
 1 761, and called the Societc helvetiqnc. The meetings 
 were held at Schinznach, and here most of the men of 
 mark in the Swiss literary and scientific world met 
 and discussed their special l)ranches of learning. The 
 Society's first great practical result was the publication 
 of jNIiiller's History of the Swiss Confederation. In 
 spite of the good and non-political work done at 
 Schinznach, the different Cantonal Governments viewed 
 the meetings with great suspicion, judging, from past 
 experience, that it was impossible for a body of men of 
 different creeds and districts to meet together for other 
 than political motives. In consequence of this oppo- 
 sition, e\en Miiller's great work could only be pub- 
 lished under an assumed name, and as if it had been 
 printed in America. Many and important works fol- 
 lowed that considerably advanced the cause of learning, 
 and did much to make many Swiss forget their ancient 
 jealousies, and come closer together as brothers of a 
 common h\atherland. Finally, the further meetings of 
 the Heh'ctic Society were forbidden, and many of its 
 publications ordered to be burnt (17S0). 
 
 The condition of public education at the com- 
 mencement of the 1 8th century was deplorable. The 
 great mass of the people were without even the
 
 insi"OK\- oi' THK SWISS i'i;op[.i'; 
 
 rudiments ot iiistriulion. and without the inenns of ar- 
 fjuiiing then). Soon, howexer, tlie ener^elie wiitiuLTs 
 and practical example ot Pestalozzi and cjthcr puhlic- 
 spirited men brought about a ,i^a'eat chani^^^, and many 
 t^^ood schools and collei^es were established in those 
 cantons where thev were most uricently required, hi 
 manv localities also a marked increase in trade and 
 industry showed itself, antl clearly indicated the de- 
 cidedl}' altered characteristics of the people. So .<,^reat 
 indeed was the chan^q'e from tlie lo\e of fightinj^^-- 
 always till then so marked a national trait in the 
 Swiss — that the I'rench Kini; made frequent repre- 
 sentations to thiC Confederates that he was unable to 
 obtain recruits tor his army from the cantons as 
 fijrmerlv. In CJene\'a the manufacture of \vatches .V;;.- 
 l)ecame a sr)urce of ,<:(reat wealth to the city, the in- ''""'"' 
 duslr\- taking rapid root and grcjwlh from the time 
 when, in I'ljo, Daniel Richard first made a perfected 
 watch there. At and around St. Ciallen, tlie work 
 done in manufacturing muslins, cloth and embroidery 
 was considerable, as was also the making of cotton 
 and silk gofjds in Schwyx, (jlarus, Ziirich and llasel. 
 The manufacture and general use ot tobacco aiul 
 snuff came prominently forwanl in this period, and 
 did much to change the habits of the jieople. .Another 
 feature to be noted was the (.'Xtraordinary impulse gix'eii 
 to emigration. To America many thousands of Swiss 
 journeyed, while in 17''^. at the instance of Hon 
 Carlos III., great numbers ol both I'rotustaiUs and 
 Calholics left their country antl settled in the South 
 of S;)ain, where they fijrmed towns and \'ill;igc-s that 
 rapi'il}' grew in size and pri i>peiily. in s[Mte of tln-se 
 tlrains up(.)n the population of Switzerland, the people
 
 382 HISTORY OF THE SWISS PEOPLE 
 
 of the cantons, together with their subjects, when 
 this period closed, numbered close upon a million 
 and a half. 
 
 Such is a short glance at the condition of Switzer- 
 land during the period that preceded her invasion by 
 the PVench. We must now enter on the narrative of 
 the humiliation and terrible sufferings through which 
 the Swiss were doomed to pass before they again 
 became a free, united and prosperous nation.
 
 CHAI'TICR Will 
 
 SWISS K i; vo I. rri () \ 
 
 In Switzerland, as in the ,i,Tcater part ot Western 
 ICurope, irnp(3rtant political chan<:(es took place shortlv 
 after the ,L;'reat Ke\-olution in I'aris. These chanq'es 
 were not etlected till a lons^^ series of misfortunes 
 brouf^ht the country to the deepest depths ot misery, 
 and till the ancient C'onfederation was broken up, and 
 Switzerland practically annexed to ]'^rance. l-'or a 
 time, while the f;reat powers were co\"erinj_^ ICurope 
 with battle-lields, the Swiss maintained their neutrality 
 and their partial independence ; hut only at the cost 
 of national honour. Humbly the}- submitted to e\'ery 
 affront forced on them, in thi- name of liberty, by 
 each of the many bands of unscrupulous or ianatical 
 n:en, whom the wild whirlpool of that mad a,i;e brought, 
 for a brief period, to the helm of French politics. IJut 
 soon neither abject ser^■ility nor conciliatory compro- 
 mise could save the cantons from l)L-ing Hooded by 
 the terrible sea of blood that beat against her rocky 
 frontiers. Attacked from without, lacerated in e\-ei'y 
 limb by the stabs of cnntending religious or political 
 factions, and wounded in her most \ital centres bv the 
 open ri' volts of her own peo])le, the Swiss Confederation 
 at last succumbed, and finished the work of her foreign 
 foe< bv seli-destructi(jn. lletore entering on a considera- 
 tion of the disasters that now fell thick and fast upoTi
 
 384 HISTORY OF 'nil, SWISS Pl'.OPI,]; 
 
 Switzerland, a glance must be cast over the social 
 and political state of France, to which nation the Swiss 
 were bound for a long period l)y many alliances and 
 by close ties of friendship, self-interest and mercenary 
 greed. It is impossible to understand the course of 
 events in the cantons without tracing their progress 
 also in France, as the two people were in many im- 
 portant particulars practically one nation. A large 
 portion of the Swiss lived in close proximity to, and 
 spoke the language of, the French, to whom they 
 looked for assistance to better their social condition 
 and from whom they derived many of their political 
 ideas. Over 13,000 Swiss troops were actually 
 serving as mercenaries in the French army, and 
 many thousands more were living in France either 
 from choice or as exiles for political offences in their 
 own land. A not unimportant part was taken by the 
 vSwiss residents in Paris in bringing about the Re\-olu- 
 tion, and when that great social upheaval became an ac- 
 complished fact, some of the most popular leaders were 
 natives of the Confederation. Not only were many of 
 the people of Switzerland in intimate touch with those 
 of France, sharing their miseries and dreaming tlieir 
 dreams of coming emancipation, but the I'rencli Govern- 
 ment itself had for a long time kept on close terms of 
 friendship with the cantonal authorities, over whom it 
 exercised a powerful influence. 
 
 C'uditi^'u of Three great divisions separated the people of 
 
 I'rance into distinct sections between which the bar- 
 riers were iixed and impassable. These were the 
 \'ol)Ies, the ("lergy, and the Commons, or TiLi's clai. 
 
 Till- .V()/i/t'.<:. 'bhe first numbered the members of the anciiiinc 
 
 nohlcssc, and was freely recruited by new creations. As
 
 Hisrokv oi- Tin-: swiss 1'i;oi'Li; 
 
 the nobles stood to the rest of the people in the pro- 
 portion of I to 2jO, tliey formed nuinei'ie;dl v .'i \'ery 
 important body. Their i\'ud< enlilKxl tliem in many 
 pri\"ile,i;'es whieh c\'ery vear beeame more fantastic and 
 intolerant. Thc\- were exempted from most of the 
 taxes, from the fd)lii;ation of the hated corvee, and 
 from compulsory military service, while thev claimetl 
 bv riq'ht most of the hi(-rali\'e olfices at Court, anil in 
 the s^overnment and army, and c>xercised many of the 
 rit^dits of the feudal ai^'c. Indited pers;'.nal ser\-itude 
 was only tmallv abolished a few vc'ars before the 
 Re\'ohition. 
 
 The clert:,''y were numerous, rich and powerful, and 77;:' Ci 
 usuallv (juite unlitted by their i^i^norance and licen- 
 tiousness to act as spiritual i^uides to their still more 
 ignorant Hocks. According' to Xecker. their annual 
 income amounted to i ^o millions ot li\res, cand their 
 possessions in real property to a fifth oi the whole soil 
 ot I'rance. They were ^'eneralK' haled by the peopde 
 for their intolerance and arro^an.ce. and inr the lives 
 they led of open and ,i;"ross sensuality, thouu;h e\a'n in 
 that superstitious and ccjarse aL;e there were niany pious 
 priests, whose noble example and unseltish de\'oti()n did 
 much to brighten and lii;'hten the li\es of the wretched. 
 
 The Jio's ctat, the third social cdass, consisted of /''';:■ c". 
 the \-ast majority of the bha-nch people. It bore almost 
 e\clusi\'ely the whole burden oi the taxation and lab :)ur 
 ot the countr}-; it was forced to do much arduous work', 
 wuhout payinent. undiM" thc> ini'piilous svstiMn ol the 
 cor\'ee : and from its raid^s wei'e amnially taken 60.000 
 recruits for the army. The condition ot the people 
 was made miserable by extreme jiox'ertv, by the un]ust 
 incidence of the taxes, by the partiality and se\-eritv of
 
 386 HISTORY ni- THK SWISS PEOPLE 
 
 the judicial tribunals, by the Government restrictions 
 on freedom in trade and agriculture, by the heavy 
 custom dues, by the cruelty and arrogance of the 
 upper classes, and by the extortions of the farmers- 
 general, who paid a fixed price for various revenues, 
 and made their profit by illegal exactions from the 
 unfortunate peasants. Many articles of daily necessity, 
 as for example salt, were terribly dear in consequence 
 of (iovernment monopolies antl high duties. Among 
 the wrongs that most tried the working classes, was 
 their obligation to supply all troops quartered in their 
 neighbourhood with free lodging, fire, candles, salt and 
 W'ashing, as well as forage for the cavalry horses. With 
 difficulty many managed to drag out their miserable 
 existence, whilst numbers died of starvation or from 
 the lorutal treatment they received at the hands of theii 
 feudal masters. Many perished amid the horrors of 
 the galleys, to which thousands were sent for tri\-ial 
 ofiences. ?\Iany more were butchered on the numerous 
 battle-fields, or died in foreign prisons, that resulted 
 from the ircquent and foolish wars of the period. 
 Without education or religious instruction, personal 
 rights, political power, or any of the humanising results 
 ot civilisation, the French peasant led a life of the 
 deepest moral and physical degradation, removed but 
 a little above the beasts he so often herded with. His 
 chief function was to furnish the Court and upper 
 classes with men to fight their battles, and with money 
 to minister to their brutal pleasures. 
 77.-1 Ci'uii. Not to go further back tlian the time of Louis XI \'. 
 
 (^i()43- 1 715J, the Courts of the Monarchs of h'rance pre- 
 sent but exaggerated pictures of the worst features that 
 ( haracterised their \icious subiects. Neither honour
 
 i[isrnK\' or rni" 
 
 3"^: 
 
 nor hont'stv. !n;iiil\- \-iriuc nor tru'Ji. c^ulii li\'f \n tlu'ir 
 tu-iitl aiinosphcrc. 'I'Ikto so\"crci,L,^n and nobUs \'itil 
 with one anotlu'r in i.!u- uri^ss'^-^t iornis ot innnoralitv. 
 and lii^iilv lrin'>nrcd the iiu'entor of cwrv noN'el cPior^ 
 rnity that a corrn]it iv^c too reaihlv brnii^ht iorth. 
 Courtesans, tlrawn t'roni the \-ilest so;n"Ces, associated 
 on terms of c'lnaHtv witli queens .and the ,<^'reat ladies 
 ot tlie did n!)l)iHl\-. ruled the kiuL: and ins ministers, 
 appe^inted or tlismissed. the highest state otticers, squan- 
 dered enormous sums of monev on their personal 
 pleasurc-s. and M:ie-n ahs ilutelv i;o\"eri"ied the destinies 
 i)t the natiuu. 'IMk^ i^'reatest men of the time ol^se- 
 (juiijusly flattered and bowavl heiore the ignorant aiitl 
 deLTradetl women, whose ta\om' A\'as the surest pass[)(,irt 
 to ^ucces.■^, and \vh(jse displeasina- meant certain ruin. 
 In an a,L;'e wlien a Tompad -ur or a Pul'erri exercised 
 .!4;reater power than a Monarch i>\ I'h'ance. niithin^;" was 
 impossible to the xdcious or [K).->iblc to the lirtuous. 
 And vet neither ot tiiese hisiniical and noi-iriiius w.imen 
 could be rcL^ariled as eitlier immoral or unscrupuhjus 
 by compari<)ii with the swai'iiis of the tai' more unscru- 
 pulous and licentious iuen and women that surrountled 
 them. 
 
 W tien the Ke\"olution of hii^iuv-nine at last broke 
 out. and the he)rrors ot the Terror ci-^an-ed ]'"rance . )f 
 some of till: loule^-l ot her man\- .social ^ores. the pi'' iple 
 were well j)repai'ed bv their jia,--! ti'eatment to work a 
 terrible \'eni;'eancL'. Immi'ili^iteh- bet^ -re th.a rjioeh tlie 
 cliiei and most pi'e.--in'_;' reforms demapalcd wore tho,se 
 connected with the cor\-ee. tiie une }u i! pres-ure ot the 
 taxes. libertN' o{ conscience, unii^aan laws audi impanial 
 adnim'>tration ot ju>tice. >"i)ar.i'o i!i ol ii\d j'owaa' Iroui 
 cleiacal m'.erlerc.-ni e. e>:abii--hmeiu o.i ))iibho L'daicata;n.
 
 388 HISTORY OF TH1-; SWISS PEOPLE 
 
 Church discipHne, curtaihnent of the monarchical power, 
 and economy and abihty, with impartial administration, 
 in the Government. 
 
 To credit France with originating the events that 
 rapidly altered the political aspect of Switzerland, after 
 the great Paris Revolution, is a grave error. That 
 not only Switzerland, but the greater part of Western 
 Ivurope, did undergo very great changes shortly after 
 the rising of the French is a matter of history, but 
 that they stand in relation of cause and effect is f]uite 
 untrue. In many of the chief centres of industrial and 
 political activity of the Confederation, the great majority 
 of the people had long been fully prepared to seize the 
 first opportunity to rebel against their cruel masters, 
 and indeed in Geneva, ]3ern, and other places had often 
 done so. Want of union always made such attempts 
 fruitless. In France the greater brilliancy of the politi- 
 cal agitators, writers and speakers, the vivid blaze of 
 the actual rising in Paris, and the extent and brilliancy 
 of the initial successes of the Republican armies, obscure 
 the less glaring but not the less potent causes that were 
 at work to effect very radical changes among the people 
 of the cantons, as in other countries outside b^rancc. 
 Moreover, the gradual growth of these changes from 
 ])re-existing evolutionary conditions is also lost sight ol. 
 '["he people of bhigland were, in 1649, already a(lva.nccd 
 sufiicienlly to signalise their emancij^atifjn from the 
 thraldom of despotism, by setting up a repubHc in j^lace 
 ()! a ni()iiar(-hy. lIa^■ing re-admitled a king, they were 
 coiiipcllcd in 1688 again to change their rulers, and 
 establish a uKjre constitutional form of go\ernment, as in 
 spile of their pre\ ious salutary lesson to despotism, their 
 soxereiun was unable or unwilling to govern in accord-
 
 IIIS7^(iK\" Ol- lilK 
 
 ^■^w 
 
 anct' witii popular rii^'hls. The Aineri(-an> were tlif lu.-M 
 l>L'opK' Id aiKanrc, ami hv llu-ir KcX'ohun )n in 1774 
 lluy t.-sial)li>hcil llii-ir ualioiial and imlix'idual trt'cdoni. 
 The proiiiinriu pari takrn li\' I'raiirc in lluj war l-L'twct-n 
 l'ai,y;land and Anirrica brou^dit; the iwo nations into 
 close touch, antl lea\'ened the people ot inonarcdncil 
 I'dance aiul their Swiss n.ei<_rhbours with the new 
 republican sentinieni> and enerL;'etic methodic oi the 
 I'nited States. 
 
 'Iduis we lind the i^qx-at scheme of sc;cial e\(dution 
 tlcjuiL;' Its work tor the ele\ation of man with ditlerent 
 tlcu'tees ot speed amoni;- dilferent races, in diiterent lands. 
 Aiuoni: the practical AnLi'lo-Saxons of lupuland its pro 
 i;re^s was ijuicker than amoni;' the more seiitimental 
 and thiecjretical races of l'"rance and Switzerland. An 
 a\'ersion to noise has alway.-^ been a charactc'ri>tic ot 
 the lCn,L;'lish in their puldic or pri\-ate acts. In America, 
 the infusion ot loreiL^n blocjcl and the nature ot the new 
 en\-ironnient account for the intermediate po>ition she 
 holds in point ui time, lietweeii the l"re:u'h antl tlie 
 ])eople (d the ^b )theiiand, in cixalisation. Nature's 
 work, tar tr(jm bein.i;" cfjne onl\- >[)a--modically. as at the 
 L^a'eat Re\'(dulionar\' epoch> ot hi>tor\". is aiwav.-> in 
 proL;re>^. antl thou,L;ii accentuated at tunL'>. when >he 
 hands in the report ot wIkiI ^-he ha-- alreaih' accom- 
 idislied or pr(J^^ i>e> to ilo, >h.e is in i'ealit\" leisureK 
 jun'suinL!,' her path with \-er\" little increa>e ot pace. 
 'Id'e mi^siu'^'" links in the sequence oi e\a'nts ma\- be 
 lo>t, or only mislaid, but the\' >till e\i--t. The pkHbhm^' 
 paiieuce ol Ioul;" \"eai"^ ot toil ii,L>,-e> uniioliced in llie 
 imj)oi-i.ance placetl on some exentlul peiuod, Naturr'^ 
 lue-thods are seldom lo\a-ly, noi' do the liiue^ she cho( ^~,^■s 
 Id >1iow her account> >eem piartii ularlv happ'ily .■-electeil.
 
 yp HISTORV Ol-' TH1-: SWISS FliOPLE 
 
 according to human judgment. Ijut hunianit}' judges 
 only with a portion of nature's brain. ^ 
 
 Already, in the middle of the i6th century, the 
 condition of France showed the people were nearly ripe 
 to assert their right to live, and something more. But 
 during the long reign of Louis XI\'. the brilliant 
 successes of the French arms abroad, the territorial con- 
 (juests, and the splendid vices of the Cjrand ]\Ionarque, 
 so iniiamed the national \anity (a (juality inseparable 
 Iron] the character of almost every Frenchman), that 
 tlie poor often forgot their sufferings, or rather forgot that 
 they supplied both men and money others reaped so 
 nuich credit from. So great, indeed, was the effect of 
 the dazzling superhcial brilliance of France during 
 Louis XIV. "s reign in stifling popular aspirations, that 
 it required all the " \dle degenerate, meanly bad" vices 
 of liis ignoble successor, and the humiliations b'rance 
 underwent abroad in the latter }'ears of that despicable 
 so\ereign"s reign, as well as the example of the American 
 Ivexolution, to bring the I'rench to a real appreciation 
 ol tlie miseries of their condition, and the necessity of 
 laldng steps to bring about a c:hange. The TiUirderous, 
 expensi\e, and disastrous conflicts of the Austrian suc- 
 cession, the Se\'en Years' Way, the loss of (-anada, No\'a 
 Sccjtia and tlie other North American colonies, besides 
 dranada, J)ominica and Tobaga.), the abortix'e attempt 
 
 r To tlie a\era,L(e mind it would seem more in accordance witli 
 justice had tlie people of I-ln,yland \\aitc;d a little ionL;er before 
 they rebelled, and executed the debauched and thorough!}- bad 
 (diaries II., instead of his colourless, but on the whole harmless 
 predece-sor. So als(j with the l-'rench, instead ol executing the 
 licentious Louis XIW, or the still more brutal and \ile Louis X\'., 
 the \dctim scdected to sacriiice btdore tlu; altar of an outraged 
 public ;M'ntiinent was the \irluous and feebleHuinded Louis X\'L
 
 U- I 111-. .-^W I.-,.-^ I'HJl'I.l. 
 
 .91 
 
 [o inw'icie ICn^lantl. tlic iicitioiial tinancial exhausliun. 
 ihc ,L,'"l■^)^s licenliousiiL-ss nt ihu ('or.rl. ihc ext.ra\"aL,^ance 
 01 UiL- n.n'al inisircsscs, ihc \ast siuiis S([uandcrL\l on 
 ihe royal harem uf ihc I'.irc aux Curls, and the 
 complete UKlilieri-nce shown by kin^^ antl nobles to tlie 
 needs ot the nation, caused e\'en the >lu,i,^ii;ish mind ot 
 the l'h\-nch ;)ea>ant to de\i^e projects ot release irom 
 his wretched condition. The time was now tullv ripe, 
 the lire wa> pre'pared. and only a littin^ opportunity 
 and an eas\- \ictim were wanted to enable the pe^iple to 
 obtain a ^axa-e re\"en^'e. and, by destroying the whole 
 rotten and loathsome etlifu:e (jf the old -'-c :,'.'';;/(■, once 
 more try to find the lost road that led to cixdlisation 
 and material pro>perit\-. 
 
 Xo mure ap{)allinj^^ picture ol .gross inmi(jralitv and 
 ,^'eneral depra\'it}', than cxisti'd in the i^lh c-enturv 
 throughout all ida-^es of >. -ciet\" in l"rance, can be 
 lound in any I'baropean c(juntrv >iuce ( diri>tianitv tirst 
 opened a new era in the world's lii^tory. h'rom the 
 Court, where prote'S>i(jnal harlots and great ladies 
 ri\-alled tlie Kim;', nobles, and Clrurch tli^nitarier^ in 
 the enormit\- oi their \aces, elown to the most brutalized 
 ol the peas<int classes, l-'ranci' was one .-.eethmg ma>s 
 o! moral and phy>ical curruplion. It would be ditticaili 
 to chooze Irom amongst th(.' wor>t ot the Roman 
 I'^mpertjrs (allowing lor the ilillereiice in ci\iIi>ation 1, 
 tour iiKn'e degraded and N'iciou^ men than Loui> X\ ., 
 the Kegeiit 1 'iiili})pe d'Orleans. J )ubo:s ^C'ardinal aiu! 
 I'rime Mini>terj. and l\itz (Archbishop ot l'ari>). ^'el 
 these' were tUiring their time ot i")ower regarded a> men 
 to be hoiiijured and obexa-d. \'ici;s that would ha\e 
 ^candalIsed the traLlitioual Cities ot the I'lain, llourished 
 oprui)- among the bexle:>s [ji'olligates ot bariziaii Sociiiy.
 
 392 IlISTORV Ol- THi-: SWISS FKOPLK 
 
 In vain did l^ouis XI\'. attempt to stem the flood ol 
 mire, by ordering' two oi his sons to be flogged pubHcly 
 before tlie Court for offences even that past master of 
 prolHgacy was unable to condone. When an Arch- 
 bishop of Paris could maintain openly four mistresses 
 and carry off by violence a woman wdio took his fancy, 
 without exciting public censure, it is little wonder that 
 morality among the clergy generally was at the lowest. 
 
 Though the century may be looked upon as the 
 golden age of literature and learning in France, most of 
 the great literary lights that then scj suddenly appeared, 
 prostituted their genius by pandering to fashionable 
 vices, by elaborating sensual and materialistic philoso- 
 phies, or by fantastic schemes for the regeneration of 
 humanity. In France, more than elsewhere, the litera- 
 ture of any period is a laithful reflex of the popular 
 taste. Judging the latter by this standard, it was a 
 confused mass ol nauseous sensuality and religious 
 indillerence, thinly co\'ered by epigrannnatic witticisms 
 and shallow ])aradoxes. A'oltaire was the type ol the 
 one, Ivousseau ol the other. The J 8th century was an 
 age ol universal irreligion, but an age ol rigid ortluj- 
 doxy, when the greatest miscreants flrmly beliexed tlie 
 dogmas of their Church, regularly attended h.er services, 
 and obeyed her outward obserxances. I'Aery witty 
 sarcasm launched against religion or her ministers was 
 peruutled and applauded, so long as the scoffer did not 
 assail the accc'ptctl doctrines of Rome. \'>y the Cliuich 
 and society the "unsound"' were treated as criminals, 
 the practically pious tolerated as harnfless eccentrics. 
 The iM-ench Abbe became the type oi all that was at 
 
 ,. , once \ ixacious, prolligate, worldly and religious. 
 
 SuiLuiun,/- 'i'he condition ol Switzerland in manv respects
 
 Misrokv ()'■■ ini; swiss 1'1:.oim,l 
 
 393 
 
 closely resciiihlecl thai of her i'"rench m-ighhours. Es- 
 pecially \va> this the case as reL;ar(.ls her strict social 
 di\isi(jns, the arro;_,'"ance of her upper classes, and the 
 pcA'erty, ignorance and superstition of her peasants. 
 ].)iit in one important point she always showed a 
 distinct indixidnality. Thoni^di anioni;' the lahourinc;' 
 classes niiniorality was prohaMv as common as m 
 hVance, the wealthier and learned ne\er approached 
 in the tone of their li\in,:^ the licentiousness that 
 characterisetl that of the neiirhhoiu'int;' nation. This 
 residtcd in ,i(reat measure from the fuan and permanent 
 hold reli,i;'ion exercised o\er the educated rulers of 
 S\\ Uzerland, and the system of espit^naye that i^'rew up 
 in all the towns inuler the guidance of the Cdrurch. 
 The period ot the Ivetormatie)!! was t(jo recent, and the 
 lessons then tau,i,dit too thorough, tu be lorirotten 
 easily. So amcnig the [)eople ot the Catholic Cantons 
 the tone ot relii^don was much higher, and the li\es 
 of its ministers much ptu'er, than in I'rance. 
 
 In a lar^e portion (jf the Confederation, espicially 
 m \'aud, X'alais, l'"reybur,i4' ami i!asel. \\hen the i>th 
 century drew tcjwartis its clo>e, the people were at 
 last thoroughly aroused, as were those of h'rance, and 
 eaL;erly awaited the dawn of a new epoch. The sn- 
 ealled encyclopa'dists and tlu- ditterent taxier^. ot 
 [)oliiical mmmtebanks hatl con\inced their readers and 
 hearers that ,L;'reat (dian,L;'e^ were about to take jdace. 
 ivetorm was in the air. A social nnllennuun was 
 ap[)roachin,:^, when all ,sorrow^ would be forgotten, all 
 wronL;s righted. \\ hile some dreaded and others 
 hoped t(jr the coiuuil;' changes, all grades ot society 
 behex'etl in their ai)proaching ad\ent. 
 
 At last the blow descendeel on the long-threatenedl
 
 394 HISTORY Ol- THE SWISS PEOPLE 
 
 rulers, the pent-up storm of human passions burst its 
 bonds, and the New Order commenced. The millen- 
 nium was at last come. Liberty, Equality and 
 Fraternity began their reign by plunging Paris, 
 Switzerland and Europe generally into a sea of blood, 
 by filling the I'rench Capital with contending factions, 
 by slaughtering 800 Swiss guards before the Tuileries, 
 and by the legalised murder of the King and Queen 
 of PVancc and 1,386 men, women and children. ^vJany 
 of the most prominent actors in the great revolutionary 
 drama, including Marat, the arch-fiend of the Terror, 
 were Swiss, and it was greatly due to their nifluence 
 that their country was invaded and the ancient Con- 
 federation destroyed. 
 
 C/"^' /"-^i'-- After the taking of the liastille by the mob in 
 
 tiquc, . . . 
 
 A.n. 17S9. Jwly, 1789, many of the more violent of the Swtss, 
 then resident in Paris, set themselves to follow the 
 example of the hVench and overthrow the govern- 
 ments of their own country. In order the better to 
 do this, they formed an association — the notorious 
 Club Jiclveiiquc, which exercised great power in the 
 revolutionary movement. The club was formally 
 
 A.]). 1791. opened in June, 1791,. and shortly numbered more 
 than 300 members, and obtamed the patronage and 
 active support of se\ eral of the most adxanced depu- 
 ties in the National Assembly, as Mirabeau, iirisson, 
 Desmoulins and Sillery. Through the influence of 
 their allies, the club obtained a vote of the Assembly, 
 liberating two of their countrymen from the galleys 
 at Prest where they had been sent for participation 
 in a rising against bTeyburg. lioth men were brought 
 to Paris, where a " Te Deum"' was celebrated in their 
 hfjiiour, a special performance oi Llioiuicte Cnmiiu'l was
 
 iii^H)K\ i.)i- rm; swiss I'l.oi'i.i. 
 
 2>95 
 
 <;i\cn l)y the ('o'liLtlif l'"r;im;;usc. and i1k'\- were feted 
 and taken throui;h the streets with bands and pro- 
 cessions carrying' the conxicts" chains antl (Hsphtyini;" 
 Swiss tla,i;s, amid tlie enthusiastic slu)Uts of the people 
 of •• Viiiiit lies U'lis iimi:, h'S Siii>:^iS." A (hiTerent spec- 
 tacle was destined to he seen at no tlistant date, when 
 this same Parisian mob tori' to [)ieces .^oo of llieu" 
 i'Oiis iiJiiis before tlie palace of the Tuileries. Not con- 
 tent with aL;'it;itim;' in l'"rance. man\ (d the most able 
 (jf tile idub meud)ers boldl\- re-entered their own 
 cotmtrx', and b\- preachini;' the doctrines of Lil)ert\\ 
 l'".(jualit\- and b'raternitw diil their best to arouse their 
 bretliren from their torpor. The}- e\"en succeeded in 
 infeetin^' the Swiss mercenarv troop>, and brought 
 about a ,14'eneral condition of undisciplinc anions;" them 
 that cadminated in a xery serious loss of lite. Tcd^ui^' 
 part with the people in a rising' ai^ainst the authori- 
 ties, the Swiss stationed at XaiKW broke tjut of their 
 ([uarters, plundered their militarx' tdie>t. and fought 
 the goN'eiamieut troops sent [<> suppress the re\"olt. 
 After se\eral hour.--' obstinate tighting. the rebels were 
 beaten, but not till nearly y''^> ollicers aiul nK:n were 
 slain. Meanwdiile, all the riforts of tlie I'antonal 
 ( loxernineiils to protect the Swiss regiments from 
 further trtnible, and to counteract the action of the 
 (dub, were una\ailing. 'idieii" deinaiui^ for it^ sum- 
 marv suppression ami the extradition of its membi.'rs, 
 though supported by Louis X\ 1., were refu>ed by 
 the Assembly, and at last l-"re\burg publiidv offered 
 large sums tor the li\'es o\ the (diief agitators. 'Idii^ 
 premium on assassination i)ro\-ed cipialK' inetficacious, 
 and the club became more acti\e liian e\'er, es{)eciallv 
 diir'aiiig its attention to creating discontent and rexolts 
 
 Mu::;n -i 
 S.;o> .1/0-
 
 396 HISTORY OF THE SWISS PEOPLE 
 
 within the Confederation itself. The first result in 
 
 Switzerland of any importance from this agitation 
 
 Rnoits in took place in the Lower Valais, where the people 
 Lower Valais. rr i ^ r ^ ■ 1 r 1 • ^ 
 
 suilered much trom the unjust rule 01 their German 
 
 masters of the Upper Districts. A serious general 
 revolt broke out, Trees of Liberty were planted, and 
 green cockades and other symbols of freedom dis- 
 played. Inferiority in arms and numbers, want of 
 discipline and cohesion, and the absence of any 
 central supreme authority brought, however, the move- 
 ment to an inglorious end, and only led to the 
 exercise of greater severity and the imposition of 
 further l)urdens. 
 
 Massacre 0/ T^g frustrated flight of Louis XVL, the threaten- 
 
 Swiss Guards, _ _ 
 
 Aug. 10, 1792 ing manifesto of the Powers, and the invasion of the 
 
 Prussians, gave the final signal to l:)ring on the real 
 action of the Revolution. Marat, Danton and I'iolies- 
 pierre had settled the details of the rising that was 
 to overthrow the Jjourbon monarchy, and even fixed 
 the date. On the morning of the memorable loth of 
 August every approach to the Tuileries was packed 
 with a raging mob, numbering close on 100,000, 
 gathered from every section of society, though princi- 
 pally made up of the lowest refuse from the slums oi 
 Paris and Marseilles. As defenders of the Palace and 
 its royal inmates, were stationed Soo <jf the Swiss 
 CJuards, supported by the handful of National Guards 
 who still remained faithful to the King. And now, 
 when the old vSwiss Cc^niedcration was rapidly totter- 
 ing to its grax'e, this little band of Swiss in a foreign 
 lantl, surrounded by hosts of bloodthirsty enemies, ably 
 proxc'd themsehes wc^rlhy descendants of thi; men of 
 Moigaitt'ii, Sempach, and the many other fields ol
 
 !!Is^nR^• of thi: swiss feopli-: 
 
 397 
 
 heroir daring lliat had mack' and upheld the Swiss 
 nation. 
 
 I'carlessly they faced and repched the furious at- 
 taclss oi the tli^iusaivls of desperate men who. armetl 
 with e\-ei-y kind rif weapon, again and again attempted 
 to force a way into the Palace to slaughter the Koval 
 I'"amih-. And not onlv did the Swiss hold their ground. 
 the\' acturdlv dro\-e bade their opponents, who at last 
 seemed on the point of gi\-ing up the enterprise cand dis- 
 persing. At this critical moment the \acillating charac- 
 tei' ot Lf)ths. who had determined to throw himself on 
 the ]:)rotection ot the Assentbly, induced him to g!\"e the 
 ordL'r to cease fu'ing. The order cost the King and his 
 hen lie di'feiiders dear. The Swiss had already shown 
 their brax'erv. thev now showed still more heroicallv 
 tlieir sense oi duty and discipline. I'dndin.g themseh'es 
 no longer (;ppo>ed, the inurdierous mob. driud< with 
 their bloodv debatieh, rush{Hl in and hacked the rem- 
 nants of the (iuardiS to death. hd^ht alone, bv being 
 taken prisoners. sur\i\ed the kital dav. and o! these 
 nearly all perishetl amid the horrors ot the f)llMwinL;" 
 month, when Abirat's butcheiies brotight so man\' 
 victims to the bloixl-dreuched jaws oi the msatiable 
 guillotine. 'Idie courage, the discipline and the sense 
 (jf duty shown by the Swi>s (niards, ha\e been sang 
 in e\'er\- tungue and will ne\'er be fii'gotten as Inm,'' 
 as true heroism is ranked first anujng the N'irtues. 
 ddie filliiwing eulogy r,l theii' comluct. in tlie ru-^geil 
 eloquence of Cai"lvle. expresses the thuughts ot many 
 in words few know how to utter: -''Honour to \'ou, 
 bra\-e men : honourable pity, throUL;h long times ! 
 X>c. martxr.^ were ye: ;uul yet nune. lie w:is no 
 KiuL!' of \Murs. this Louis: and he torso;)k vuu h,ke a
 
 3gb HISTORY OF THE SWISS PEOPLE 
 
 King of shreds and patches ; ye were but sold to him 
 for some poor sixpence a day ; yet would ye work for 
 your wages, keep your plighted word. The work now 
 was to die ; and ye did it. Honour to you, O Kins- 
 men ; and may the old Deutsch Biedevheit and Tapfcr- 
 keit, and valour which is Worth and Truth, be they 
 Swiss, be they Saxon, fail in no age ! . . . Let the 
 traveller, as he passes through Luzern, turn aside to 
 look a little at their monumental Lion ; not for Thor- 
 waldsen's sake alone. Hewn out of living rock, the 
 figure rests there, by the still lake waters, in lullaby 
 of distant-tinkling rance-des-vaches, the granite moun- 
 tains dumbly keeping watch around ; and, though in- 
 animate, speaks." 
 
 The conduct of the Swiss Guards stands in strik- 
 ing contrast to that of their countrymen when news 
 of the massacre became known to the cantons. In 
 the old days of Swiss valour every Swiss valley would 
 Diet of Aarau,'^i^yQ produced its band of avengers, and every Swiss 
 ..cp ., 1792. niountain would have echoed the cries of vengeance of 
 suddenly created peasant warriors. Now, however, all 
 was changed. In Septeml)er a Diet assembled at 
 Aarau, and after much discussion, ordered the recall 
 of the remaining Swiss regiments. Bern, indeed, ap- 
 pealed for a general arming throughout the Confede- 
 racy, and called for the instant dismissal of the French 
 Minister, but her proposals met with no response in 
 the cantons, and no action was tal':en. 
 S;ri<< At the commencement of her warlike career the 
 
 ' ■ policy of the I'Tench Republic was directed to coerce 
 the Swiss authorities by threats of in\-asion to main- 
 tain the neutrality of the cantons against her enemies, 
 but es[)ecial]y against the Austrians. On their side
 
 in?TOR\' or Tin: 
 
 399 
 
 the C"onfc(lerc'ite> were onlv too anxious to conciliate.' 
 their powerful nei'4hhf)urs and pre\-ent their own un- 
 ruly subjects froiri seizin;,'' the opportunity of the pre- 
 sence of toreiLi'ners to rebel and throw off the rule of 
 the wealthy classes. The tactics of the French were 
 so tar sttccesstul that the ("onfederate Diet formally 
 declared the neutralit\' of Switzerland, a neutrality 
 that the Austrian j-^n.ipcror macfnanimoush' declared 
 he wotild scrupidously respect. Shortly after the de- 
 c:laration was i-~sued the bh'ench showed their .<,aati- 
 tudc by summarily dismissing' all the Swiss troops 
 still remainini,'' in France. These, numberini^- some 
 lo.ooo. Were allowed to reach their nati\'e country as 
 best they could, without help : their arrears of pay 
 were withheld, and their pensions due under the 
 terms ot their endistment cancelled. 1-A"en this act 
 cjf arbitrary injustice, which appealed to the national 
 honotu" and (what was more to the purpose) to the 
 national purse, I. died te) roitse the Swiss to the ,u'ra\-it\' 
 of the dianu'er that threatened their c'iuntr\'. The\- 
 continued their ]iolicy of temporisinir, and that in spite 
 of the daily increase of discontent anr 'U^- tlie people 
 con'^equent on the mnnbers oi b'rench agitators that 
 (j\"erran the cantons. In Paris the in\a>ion oi Switzer- 
 land became a matter of open discussion by the 
 Swiss Cdub and by mend)ei"s ot the (iirondin part\' 
 who then held ])ower. 'Idle latter is i^'enerally credlited 
 with ha\'inL;' defmitely plannetl the inwision for the 
 wiiitei' ()\ i-j'i^-]. Fetore that time arri\'ed the kalei- 
 desco])c ot I'reiich politics di>missed the (liroudins 
 arid brou'^dn Kobesjiierre to the tront. a man whij. 
 with all hi^ Climes, acted honourably and humanely to 
 thi- Swi,-s, tor whom he always protessed the ,L,'reatest
 
 400 HISTORY OF THE SWISS PEOPLE 
 
 esteem. " Robespierre seems to have abandoned 
 the plan of revolutionary proselytism adopted by his 
 predecessors, his attention being chiefly turned to the 
 interior of France. Another reason may have contri- 
 buted to the moderation shown by the terrorist govern- 
 ment towards the Swiss. Lyons and Marseilles were 
 in insurrection against the convention, Toulon was 
 occupied by the allies. Had the Swiss marched 20,000 
 men to the assistance of Lyons, while the Sardinian 
 troops were advancing in the same direction through 
 Savoy, they might have turned the scale, have saved 
 Lyons, and overthrown the power of Robespierre in 
 September, 1793. And it seems that some proposals 
 to that effect were made to the cantons by Austria 
 and Sardinia, which, however, led to no result. All 
 the measures of the allies in that eventful period were 
 ill-combined or ill-fated" — (Vieusseux). 
 Basel, In Switzerland many serious events were clearly 
 
 pointing to her coming ruin. In Basel, the people 
 had long been restless under the rule of the J5ishop, 
 who refused all demands for popular rights, and 
 especially for the re-establishment of the people's 
 Assembly. At last, in 1791, a general rising took 
 place. In this emergency the Prelate appealed to 
 his allies, the Confederates, to support his authority, 
 but the Swiss Go\'ernment had sufficient to do to 
 support their own. He next turned, as a Prince of 
 the li^mpire, to the Austrian ruler, who promptly sent 
 a force of cavalry and infantry to occupy Porreiitruy. 
 In the following year, when war broke out between 
 the Republic and Austria, the I'rench dro\-e the 
 Imperial garrison out, and bv f)ccupying Porr(,'ntru\' 
 themselves, obtained command of the Jura l^'isses 
 
 A.D. 1 79 1.
 
 i'isii)K\ o\ iiii; SWISS i'];oi'i.K 
 
 401 
 
 and came into close contact with the cantons (jf 
 i'5ern and Sidot'nurn. Still Switzerland made n.o a 
 sign. Neither did she intertere when the l-'rcnch 
 forcibly c(jn\-erted their allies' territory into the 
 Rauracian Ivepublic. To ,ui\'e a proof of the ,i(enuine- 
 ness of their claim to be regarded as the apostles 
 ot liberty, the b'rench allowed their new Republic a 
 lease ot three months" independence, and then took 
 possession of the whole territory for themsehes, in- 
 corporating it into l-'rance untler the fantastic title ot 
 the depiartment of Mont Terrible iij-j^i. Thus it a 
 remained till 1800, when it once nujre underwent 
 a change by becoming a simple sous-preiecture of 
 the l'{:){)er Rhine. 
 
 In the saute year that witnessed the loss of a G 
 portion of Rasel, Genex'a nearlv suhered the same 
 tate. During the period ot war between b'rance and 
 Sa\-oy, the position ot Genewa, her wealth, and her 
 weakness from constant political troubles, excited the 
 wish oi the I'Tench to capime her. This desire 
 f(jund an artlent sup[)orter in the then ^liuister of 
 I'dnances, Claxdcre, himsell a natiw ot ('irue\'a. 
 Through hi> ad\dce a despatch was forwarded to the 
 (jeneral conunandmg the forces cjperatiug agaiu^.t 
 Sa\"i)y, m which he was (ordered to occuj)\- (jene\a, 
 either b\- lorce or stratagem, to proclaim the [)rinciples 
 ot the great Rc;pul)lic, and •' t(j send the jo,()(io good 
 muskets it trontainetl to bd'anci', where they were 
 mucli wanted.' The designs ot the b'reuch beLonnng 
 known, iiern made one (-f her rare ehorts at decided 
 acti'.n, and by promptly marchin-- a larg\' f. irce to 
 the rescu' ol the threatened cit}', sa\ed it io)r the 
 time. 1 )uriug the next few \ear> (iene\a managed 
 
 2b 
 
 1) i-uS
 
 A.n. 1793. 
 
 402 HISTORY OI' 'ITI]-; SWISS PEOFI.l'; 
 
 to keep her independence, but the turbulence of her 
 people and the active agitation within iier walls of 
 the French agents, soon brought about her fall. 
 Shortly after the evacuation of the city by the Swiss 
 garrison revolts began, which, becoming more and 
 more serious, culminated in 1793 in a veritable reign 
 of terror. The Councils were deposed and replaced 
 by a convention and a ("ommittee of Public Safety 
 upon the Paris model ; all trade came to an end, 
 
 AD, 1794. and general anarchy followed. In July, 1794, the 
 dominant revolutionary party seized the fortifications, 
 turned the cannon against the town, and arrested 
 se\eral hundred citizens, many of whom were at once 
 murdered. Property was confiscated, the wealthy 
 executed, exiled, or imprisoned, and heavy contribu- 
 tions were levied on all those who possessed any 
 
 A L). 1795. l^ind of property. In 1795, wearied with continued 
 atrocities, a reaction set in among the people, and 
 the old Constitution was re-established. In this con- 
 dition Cieneva remained, with inter\-als of fresh 
 disturbances, till it was finally taken by the I'^rench 
 in April, 1798, in a manner to be related later, and 
 became the chief town of the department of Leman. 
 
 With the advent to power of the Directory, in 
 [795, e\ery excuse was seized to take possession of 
 Switzerland. Peremptory messages continually arrived 
 from Paris ordering the cantonal authorities to expel 
 the refugee clergy of Savoy and the bVcnch emigrants 
 from tlieir territories. All maimer of false charges 
 were laid ttj the account of the Swiss, auKjng (jthers, 
 of fa\-ouring nations hostile t(; b'rance by permitting 
 their troops to cross the (Confederate frontiers, of cir- 
 culating f(jrged assignats, and of conspiring with the
 
 iiisioKN (ii- i!n: SWISS Pi.oi'i.i; 4113 
 
 ICnj^lish niiiiistcr Hi;;iiiist the l\(>])ul)lic. Nolhini;' seems 
 to h.'U'c been proxwl eoiiir.irv lo tiie supulalci.! neulraliU' 
 ot Swil/.erlaiui, or ;e_;Minsl the law ot nations. Xo insult, 
 ho\\a;\'er, that could lu' ollei'etl to the Swiss was capable 
 of rousing' them trom their cowardly attitude: thev con- 
 tintied to hope against hoju' that passi\'e neutrality and 
 obedience to l*"rance would enable them to weather the 
 storm that was shipwreclsim;' so manv others around 
 them. Idle l\epublic had introducetl new princijdes 
 into wartari'. AccordiiiL,'' to her interjiretation of the 
 doctiine ol Liberty, bquality and b^raternity. no treaties 
 were bindint,'", and no t(jrmer pledi^'es lasting', that 
 existed between nations whose repreSL'ntatixcs were 
 n:)t rlt cted by the whole body of the people. Alreadw 
 in 170-, the (Jon\'ention passed a decret.' to be addiessed 
 to I'bu'ope. wherebx' it was declared •• that the peo[de of 
 e\ar\- cinmtry which was entered l)y I'rench troops 
 were iiuated to torm themsehes in a democracy, under 
 pain ot beini; treated as enemies should thev prefer lo 
 ri'lm'u to their ancient iorm ot L;"o\a'rnment." Amoni;' 
 the many who were unable to understand the acban- 
 tages or moralit\' ot the latter ])art oi this wonderlul 
 cb'ci'ee waa'e the people ol the demociMtic states of 
 Switzerlaml, and, as the sequel will show, thev paid 
 terribly for their ij^noiance. 
 
 With the (all oi l.\-()ns, the hda-nch arms i\'Co\'eretl 
 the ascendenc\- the\' had temp u'ariK' lost, and now the 
 K'opublic beL;aii that series of biilliant succose^; that 
 tor a lime made her the mastor ot buro[)e. In 170^. 
 she had come lo teiius with I'russia, Spain, and the 
 powerful iirincipalitv ol 1 1 e>se-( 'as^el. lu i^o'-, she 
 aL;.on enteicd into a camji.uioi wilh Austria, the oid\- 
 remaiuiiiL;' Continental I 'owei' able to otter hei' serious
 
 404 
 
 HISTORY OF THK SWISS PEOPLF, 
 
 opposition. After the first Austrian successes, Napoleon, 
 with his wonderful dash, forced his way into the heart 
 of the enemy's country, spreading panic to the very 
 gates of Vienna (1797). P>y the peace of Campo 
 Formio (October 17th, 1797), England alone remained 
 to check the further devastating career of the h'rench 
 Republic. One of the results of this treaty v/ith 
 Austria Avas the creation of the Cisalpine Republic, 
 composed of the Milanese and ?^Iantuan States. 
 The Grail- The treaty of Campo h^ormio brings us to the 
 
 bnnden. Graubiinden portions of Switzerland. Though un- 
 
 affected by the French agitators, the people here 
 were much on a par in their social and political 
 conditions with those of the Confederacy generally. 
 Everywhere the rigour and injustice of the ruling 
 classes caused great discontent, that showed itself in 
 Italian frequent popular revolts. Especially was this apparent 
 
 in the subject Bailiwicks of the Val Tellina wilh the 
 districts of Bormio and Chiavenna. When Napoleon 
 crowned his Italian triumphs with the subjugation of 
 the Austrians, the peasant subjects of the Graubiinden 
 seized on his appearance to appeal for protection 
 against their masters. The position was at once ac- 
 cepted, and Napoleon sent the Leagues the alternative 
 of granting equal rights and liberties with themselves 
 to their subjects, or losing their allegiance altogether. 
 Divided councils and local jealousies prevented the 
 authorities from arriving at a decision before the ex- 
 A.ij. i7<)7. i^iralion of the time given them, whereupon Napoleon 
 put his threat into execution, and incorporattxl the 
 Italian IKiiliwicks into the newly-formed Cisalpine 
 Republic. By this act a territory of nearly a thou- 
 sand sfuiare miles, (-ontainiuij' a hundred thousand
 
 H1.ST()K\' '.Jl- niK 
 
 inhabitants, was at one stroku torn from Switzerland 
 fOctoljcr ^'^th. ijoj). In ^■i\ in^," his decision. Napoleon 
 laid down thie principle, that '-a pe< >p]e cannot l>c the 
 subjects of another nation without \-iolatin'_'' all the 
 natural ri^iits of man." a declaration that reads some- 
 what cyrii'.-allv when ccjnipared with the manner in 
 which the I'rench treated the difierent races they 
 themsehes subdueel. •• At this period the l-"rench 
 Republic had acquired a colosssal stren^^th. . . . J!ut 
 the I'rench rulers were not c(jntent with plantin,^ the 
 tricoloured lla.LC ''■>i' the suminit ot ^b)nt lilanc. on the 
 left bank oi the Rhine, and at the UKuuh ui the 
 Scheldt, and with establishiuL;' the linnts (A their 
 empire by the natiu'a! boundaries (jf the Pyrenees, 
 the Alps, the Mediterranean, and the ocean. With 
 a \■ie^v to secure their territories ai^'ainst the future 
 a,^'■,L(ressions oi the Continental I'owers. they purposed 
 to f(jrm a series ot dependent republics al^UL:' the line 
 of their Irontiers, as a kintl of outwork, to remo\'e the 
 point <jt attack'. At the extremities ot this ]ini_' the\- 
 had alread\' establi>he(.l the Li.i;"urian and Halaxdan 
 Republics: the ('isalpine >'>nn followed. A connectin:^ 
 link oi this i:hain wa^ Switzerland, which tinercd the 
 mrist \-ulnerab!e parts ol ih.' I'd'emdi trrritor\' : and. 
 fr(jm its natural streni,ah ami oentral [)o>ition. tormetl 
 the citadel ot 1 Europe " (Coxe). 
 
 l-'rance now set about in earne>t the wurk of -V 
 capturing- thi; •• Chtadel ot l^uropc" bfa\ini^' ltal\'. " 
 atter the con(du>ii)n ot the treat\' o! C'ampo b'drmio. 
 Napoleon passed through Switzerland on his wav to 
 take i")arl, as minister jilemp )tenliai"\'. m liu- ('onL;ic>> 
 ot Ivasiadt. At Lau>amie he met with an ent lui>iar-; !■ 
 recejition at the hautb ot the people, who \\e;e ihen 
 
 . ;:::>. .I'lJ
 
 40b HISTORY Ol- TH):; SWISS PEOPLE 
 
 eager to throw off the yoke of their liernese masters. 
 At Bern, though received with the utmost respect, he 
 refused ah the attentions offered him, and treated the 
 authorities with the utmost contempt. At Solothurn, 
 the unpolished and morose magistrates could so Httle 
 accommodate themselves to the honour due to the hero 
 of the day, that they inflicted a long term of imprison- 
 ment on their commander of artillery for saluting 
 Napoleon on his passage through the city. This 
 punishment was, howe\-er, promptly cancelled on the 
 peremptory demand of the French JMinister. On 
 arriving at Basel, Napoleon is reported to ha\e ex- 
 pressed the feelings he harboured against the Swiss 
 by exclaiming that he was at last in a free land, and 
 in a true republic. 
 
 Bent. The only Swiss State at this time really able to 
 
 oppose the coming storm was Bern, and even she was 
 threatened by her own subjects, and herself divided into 
 two factions, one in favour of the French and one in 
 fa\-our of their own country. The gravity of the crisis, 
 consequent upon France's open menaces, now became 
 so great that a spasmodic and feverish life was suddenly 
 gi\-en to the expiring patriotism of the Swiss. On 
 
 A II. 179s. January 25th, 179'S, the deputies of the several cantons 
 assembled at Aarau and there solemnly renewed their 
 federal oaths and swore to maintain theii" alliance and 
 togetlier defend their b'atherland. Bui the time was 
 long past wlien bra\e words could call forth bra\-e 
 deeds. iSasel had already rex'ohed, and now recalled 
 lur (le]nities from the Diet, which separated shortly 
 afterwards without agreeing upon any defmite and com- 
 bined acticjn. No sooner had the members left than a 
 rr\(;luti()n broke out in the town, and its iiulependence
 
 iiibroKv (11- nil. .^wiss I'l.uPLi. 
 
 4'^7 
 
 was pul)licl\- (Ifclarcd. Sc'\ci'al rc.i;iincnis in the rici.^'h- 
 hoiriiiooi.1 were also iniecteJ wilh the same sj)irit, aiul 
 at once mutinied, and retuseil to ohe}' their ollicers or 
 support the utithorities. In this emergency ]]ern acted 
 with a show ol her former \'i,L:'oiir, and. by marcliini;' 
 fresli troops on .Varan, repressed the lisin^', ])unishcd 
 the leaders, and reasserted her aiitliority. Less ior- 
 tunate with her X'atidois subjects, slie was soon calletl 
 tipon to withstand the whole wei^dn of the b'rench arms 
 and deiend. unaided, the moribimd honour and inde- 
 pendence ot the countr\-. 
 
 A nmnber ot re\(.ihuionar\ nuAements now broke ^' 
 out in diUerent centre> ot Switzerlantl which, 1)\- their 
 success, completely chan^'ed the political aspect of the 
 coimtry. l;"or a lon,<^ time tlie peasants of !!asel had 
 been on the point ot re\-oltin,i4' a.^'ainst the citizen autho- 
 rities, and had their tliscontent kept ali\e by the 'presence 
 of I'rench emissaries, who in.dustriousK' worked to brm,i;' 
 about a re\'olt. In the beu'innin,^^ ot ijo'^ i-be re\"olution- .\.i 
 ar\' part\' madie such proi^'ress tliat the .supporters of 
 the old order were in a \-er\- small majority, ddiou^ii 
 the hd'ench ai^eiits acti\e!y tollowed out the in^truclionh 
 oi their ( lox'ermnent, thic jiroi^'ress they made did ni)t 
 satist}' the I )irector\'. .\ccordini.;iy, em 1 )e(a'mber i^th. 
 17^7. without an\' prox'ocatii )n, Muuiier and lhL;"ue!. 
 subjects ol the 1 'rince-bisho[) ot l!a>e!. were occupied 
 b\- j-'rench troop.s. LdnalK", a ••Tree ol Liliert}'" wa.^ 
 ]valilicl\' [planted, a declaration til ii-hts di"a\\n up at a 
 (iL'iU'ral .Xsscrnbly u{ the peopK'. LMid)' idxaii'^^ the y>nn- 
 ciplcs ol li(iuality and Lil)tit\- f >!" all, a i'e[)re^emati\r 
 I 'ro\ isii >nal ( io\'ermuent e^tabh.s'l(■d, and the superi'^r 
 pri\ ile.L;e.s nt the citizen^ ()\"er the rural udiabitanl.s 
 abolishetl. Nd blo..d>hedi toi ik place o\er the^e radicaW'. 
 
 I T'j^
 
 40h HISTORY Ol- THIC SWISS PKOFLE 
 
 changes, as the authorities, finding themsel\-es without 
 sufiicient support, quietly resigned. One of the first 
 acts of the new Cjovernment was the recall of the Basel 
 deputy from the Confederate Diet then sitting (as 
 already stated) at Aarau. " Thus was Basel the first 
 branch which dropped off from the \-eneral)le tree of 
 the Helvetic Confederacy, and gave an example which 
 others soon followed with as much levity as infatuation "' 
 — (Planta). 
 
 Muhlhausen. The Swiss allied town of Miihlhausen was com- 
 
 pletely surrounded by P^rench troops. Unlike many- 
 other centres, the re\'olutionary spirit made xery little 
 headway here. Every effort had been made by the 
 French to induce the people to demand their protec- 
 tion and seek incorporation into the Republic. In 
 spite of this, they preferred their own form of govern- 
 ment, and during two years held out against the 
 blockade the French established around the city. .Vll 
 trade came to an end, and only v.hen actual famine 
 threatened them, were they forced to gi\e in, and 
 make the long-delayed declaration "to IvAxe the honour 
 
 A.D. 1798. of joining the b^rench Republic " (January). With 
 the peculiar views held by the Directory in explaining 
 every e\"ent as favourable to the principles ot I'rance, 
 the submission oi Muhlhausen was declared officially 
 in Paris to be a purely \-oluntary act on the part of 
 its down-trodden people. 
 
 Xiiri.li, The great power Zurich long shared with Bern 
 
 gradually ebbed since the introduction of revolu- 
 tionary ideas had divided her ])eople. Se\eral important 
 risings, both in the city and in the rural districts, 
 soon showed the authorities the extent of the dissalis- 
 faclion. 'fliese risings were at first [)romptly met, and 
 
 I 7<J^
 
 iii^ToKV oi rm, SWISS I'icoi'i.i; .[Oi) 
 
 suppressed with unneeessarv hrirshness. A few con- 
 cessions to populai" demands next followed. PiUt 
 meantime a number of intluential leaders who had 
 been exiled for political otfcnces, returned, and hring- 
 inj^' hopes of h^rench protection, an active and formidable 
 a,[,ntation soon led to ojien rebellion. .\ <^fo\'ernment 
 order for a general disarming,' met with a storm of 
 opposition, that, .L^rowin,!,^ e\er\' day more serious, at 
 last compelled the authorities to succumb. An as- 
 sembly of the people drew up a new Constitution, ya;;. 17. 
 similar to that ot llasel, and a i^''o\ernmcnt in accordance 
 with pojndar ideas replaced the old one. Alter these 
 chan,u;es a fceliuL;' ol alaiin spread thrinii^'li the canton 
 concernin,<4^ the intentions of the i-"rench, but notwith- 
 standing'' this, the efforts of the new i^'ox'ernment to 
 enrol troops for the national defence ]n'o\-cd futile. 
 The people still beliewd that, as thev had fcdlowed 
 the advice and example of the Republic in reforming' 
 thrir <^r(jx-crnmcnt on a democratic model, their territory 
 w(;uld not oid\' be spared, but protectinl. Thev were 
 \ iolentl}- awakened from their simjde dream.s when the 
 [•'rench, shorth" alter the fall oi lu-i'n, made' Zurich 
 
 their headquarters, b'rom liasel and Zurich the re \x)- ■''>'''■'''' '"' 
 
 I • -11 11111 1 ^^'■'■' •'•''''''•■'"1 
 
 lution rapullv spread tlu'ou.^diout the lar^'ei" cantons anti /,/,•.;<. 
 
 Luzern ( |ar.uar\- 31st), Schatfhausi'U ( l'"ebruar\- Mh), 
 Solothurn ( l-'ebruar}- iithj, and other imjjortant states 
 o\erthrew the (dd onle'i", and rc-formeil then" t'onslitu- 
 lions up(.)n the principles oi the hd'ench Ivepublic. In 
 lre\burL; the (io\ernment IkTI its own, and main- 
 tained its aiuhorily till the city tell ludore the |-'rench 
 ui\;iders (Marcdi Jiuii. In the smaller lural cantons 
 where democracv in its purest and most pronounced 
 form had ior S(j manv ( eiUuries been the sole mode of
 
 410 HISTORY OF THE SWISS PEOPLE 
 
 go\ernnient, the inhabitants not only absohitely refused 
 to hsten to the new ideas, but were the most obstinate, 
 when the time came to hght, in upholding their ancient 
 system. They made, however, one concession to the 
 prevailing opinions throughout the rest of Switzerland, 
 in consenting to the enfranchisement equally with 
 themseh'es of the people of the subject Bailiwicks of 
 Thurgau, Sargans, etc. 
 
 The ancient Confederation was now practically 
 dissoh'ed, and in its place remained nothing but a 
 number of states, unsettled and impotent, without 
 cohesion and without any national sentiment. The 
 long-talked-of millennium was an accomplished fact, 
 and the popular preachers of that paradise were now 
 in a position of authority to give the people the bless- 
 ings they had so often promised. Nature lost very 
 little time in demonstrating to the deluded Swiss 
 peasants who were to be the gainers, who the victims, 
 of the changes their simplicity and cowardice had 
 brought about. 
 
 Among the many reasons that ha\'e at different 
 times, by different writers, been gi\en for b^rance 
 violating all her previous pledges and promises by 
 invading Switzerland after she had rendered the people 
 helpless by inciting them, under prtjmise of her pro- 
 tection, to rebellion and disunion, only two appear to 
 be really \alid. The possession ot Switzerland was, 
 doubtless, thought by her to aftord both a safeguard 
 to her eastern frcjntier and an ad\-antageous point 
 whence she might attack se\'eral of her numerous 
 enemies, and where she might raise recruits for her 
 duiiinishing armies. lUit an(jther reason made l-"rance 
 anxious to occupy the country in the position (jf a
 
 ol "I'm. hWl: 
 
 4'! 
 
 colli )uenii,L; uki^Ut. 'I'hc expedition Napc^leoii had 
 planned ay'ain>l i'^L^N'pl required more ni(niey tor its 
 carrviiiL,'' out than the Kepuhlic's lreasur\' could aflord. 
 J Jem's reputation for stored-up wealth had tor niaiiy 
 years hjst iiolliinu' throui^h puhlicitv. iCxa^u'^^erated 
 reports were circulated concerniuL;' the enormous 
 treasures she held in her city \aidts, and as most of 
 the lOuropean rounti'ies were iiearlv drained of their 
 resotirces. the i')osses>ion cM iSern was re,L;"arded as the 
 onl\-, and certcdnK' the i-asiest, manner oi recruitin,^' 
 the Keinil)lii;'> exhausted tinances. 
 
 l:i l'>ern, as in the (ither Swiss Cantons, a number^''""- 
 ot the inhahitants l)elie\ed in the disinterestedness of 
 the I'rench in thrii' crusade at^'ain-t monarchical and 
 (;ther arbitrary illrm^ ot Lrox'ernnient. iUit in Hern 
 these did iiwt con>titute a majorit\-, or e\"en an import- 
 ant minority, numerically. l-l\en in X'aiul. where the 
 people were m open rebellion, it seems certain that 
 (jnlv a small jjortion ui all the inhabitants really 
 desired to beC(;me indepeiuleiit ot the so\erei'_;"n city, 
 and that in s{)ite of the harsh and utten unjust rule of 
 th.e local (_io\'ernors. Hern's position was diitKailt in 
 the extreme. Deserted b\- her allies and hei" c~o-states, 
 with a ])Owertul b'rench toi'cr on a lar^C' ])ortion ot lur 
 ti'(jntiers. with a nuiid)L-r ol her o\sn peoi)le loudh' de- 
 manding;' the most s\\ t.-epiuL;' ehanoes m lier admmistra- 
 lion, she iouiid iK-rselt called upon eithei" to subnut 
 \-olLintai"il\- to be iuNaded and plumU'reii. oi- to li^ht 
 sinul'.'dianded the uixinuble armies ot J-'raiu e that had 
 already crushed some ot the most powerhu l:uroj)ean 
 so\"erei_L;ns. ThoUL^h a sII'ohl;' parl\ m lU-in. trusted 
 in the jir'^mises and prim iples ot the l'"rench Kepubhc, 
 no such dielusion- tilledi the miiuls ^t the majo.rit\-.
 
 412 HISTORY OF THE SWISS PEOPLE 
 
 When at length I'rance threw off all disguise, 
 and openly spoke of the invasion of Switzerland, the 
 Government of Bern, with a sudden revival of the 
 energy that had raised her to such power, issued an 
 appeal to the Confederates for a general arming and 
 united resistance. From her own subjects, especially 
 from those of the Oberiand, she at once received an 
 enthusiastic response, and many thousands of peasants 
 eagerly proffered their ser\-ices to defend their country, 
 iiut this outburst of patriotism ceased at the cantonal 
 limits, and from elsewhere in the Confederacy little or 
 no encouragement came. Bern"s firmness, moreo\er, 
 was soon weakened by the clamours of the French 
 partisans among her Councillors. 
 
 A.D. 1797. On December i8th the Directory, by a formal 
 
 decree, declared the Goxernments of hJern and I'Yey- 
 burg responsible for the lives, liberty and property of 
 the people of Vaud, who, the decree continued, placed 
 themseh'es under the protection of France in order to 
 obtain their rights and freedom. A division at once 
 marched toward the frontier to uphold this arbitrary 
 act. 13ern, meanwhile, appointed a Commission I0 
 investigate the complaints of her X'audois subjects. 
 The Commission was hastily appointed, and, after a 
 most superficial examination, drew up a report highly 
 favourable of the condition and loyalty of the people. 
 1,'pon this report a general oath of allegiance was 
 ordered to be taken. In consetiuence of this order, 
 and the promised protection of b^rance, those in fa\'our 
 
 A.I), 179S, q{ rebellion now rose in earnest. Committees were 
 organised to further re\()lutionary principles ;dl over 
 the territory, and at Lausanne a central heacb^uarters 
 was established. A party ol insurgents issued from
 
 HISTOKV OV TUV. SWISS PI'.nPI.K 4I3 
 
 \'evey ant! captured Chillon, where se\eral intUieiUial 
 local leaders were fouiitl and lil)erated (January mth). 
 This seizure oi the famous prison was enthusiastically 
 hailed as the counterpart of the taking' of the JSastille, 
 and as the practical dawn of Swiss liberty. I'-ern now 
 mustered her forces, ainountin^^ to some 2?,ooo militia, 
 and -with extreme foolishness placed Colonel Weiss, a Crl. H' 
 prominent so-called Liberal politician, in command. 
 The connnand had pre\iously been offered to (leneral 
 \'on ICrlach, ot Spiez, a tried soldier, who had already 
 distinguished himself in the hVench ser\ice. ICrlach 
 was also one (jf the lirst men among the aristocratic 
 party, and his acceptance of the post of Commander-in- 
 Chief would have been rerei\ed with enthusiasm by 
 most o{ the people. Political reasons, howe\'er, in- 
 duced him to gi\'e way to the Opposition leader, who, 
 though a tluent speaker and able writer, was (piite 
 unfit for the important part assigned him. Xapoleon, 
 wdien at St. Helena, described Weiss as '•(';/ lu-i::ii:c' 
 d'i\<fi-if (j'.ii III ■vriilitit /iis faivi la i^tiiiiw" 
 
 Weiss left liern with some 20,000 men, with orders 
 from the Council to sui)press the re\"olt in Xaiul. ami to 
 re-establish the city";, authority, es[)ecialh- at Lausanne, 
 where the cant(;nal colours had been remo\ed. and the 
 h'l/nhliijiif li-iiiai:i<]ue proclaimed (January 2.|th). On 
 their side the hVench troops, to the number ot [.[,oc)o, 
 under Cicneral Menard, marched towards Cex and 
 the western sh(n"es of the Lake of Cjeneva. Wfiss 
 wasted his time in wrilinu" conciliatorv pamphlets, in 
 issuing proclamations that threatened and p^romised in 
 turn, and in inter\-iews with the insurgents, whom he 
 hoped bv his ]iersonal influence to induce to lav down 
 their arms. ( hilloii was t.aptiirrd b\' surj)! i>e, but
 
 414 HISTORY OF THK S\\'ISS PEOPI.K 
 
 little more was done, beyond making Yverdun the 
 headquarters of the iJernese troops. Acting now on 
 a plea for protection from some of the insurgents at 
 Lausanne, Alenard threatened to attack Weiss should 
 the latter persist in attempts at coercing the Vaudois. 
 As an aide-de-camp, escorted by four mounted soldiers, 
 was conveying this message to the 1 lernese head<piarters, 
 an encounter took place with a patrol, in which two of 
 the French soldiers lost their lives. Seizing this in- 
 cident as a pretext for commencing hostilities, Menard 
 crossed the frontier and entered Vaud (January 28th). 
 The following day he entered Lausanne. The news 
 of these bloodless successes spread rapidly, and caused 
 the people of several of the neiglibouring towns to 
 throw off all allegiance to 15ern and I'^reyburg. The 
 effect on the latter city was so great that a new 
 Constitution upon democratic principles was voted. 
 Several important places, however, reiuained faitliful, 
 Chateau d'Oex, especially, and here the oath of alle- 
 giance was renewed and volunteers eagerly came 
 forward to be enrolled for inunediate service. 
 
 Meanwhile fjern herself was torn by factions, and 
 henceforth vacillation became chronic. Yielding to the 
 Liberals, the (jovernment conxened an assembly of 
 deputies from various centres oi the (jcrman terri- 
 tories, to decide upon immediate measures of defence. 
 The hrst result of this was the forwarding of a message 
 to tlie 1 )irectory, announcing IJern's intention to gix'e 
 up her rights over her revolted A'audois subjects, and 
 to remodel her own (lovernment. and requesting the 
 withdrawal of the French troops. A similar request 
 was sent to (leneral iJrune, wlio had superseded 
 Menard. I'or re])ly ISrune demanded the immediate
 
 lilSTOK',- OF Tin; 
 
 ;\\1>S I'iniMl 
 
 415 
 
 dismissal of tht; twistini: (kn'crninent, and the sub- 
 stitution of a 1 'ro\isional ("ominittc-e, from winch all 
 former ("oimcill .'rs should hf I'ii^'i irously excluded. 
 
 The I'reiKdi Minister, Men^and. who had been 
 opcniv enL:a_icetl in lomentin,;,'' rex'olts anion,L( the people, 
 distributed a number of copies of a document urgim,'' 
 instant re\-olulion throui^diout the canton, and sketchin,;^^ 
 the outline of a new democratic ("onstitutioTi. A fresh 
 wa\"c ot patrioti(" c-nthusiasm now swept over the 
 canton ; the Liberals were, tor the moment, silenced : 
 .:5,(_)ui) men appeared under the riernese banners, and 
 the supreme command was conferred on (leneral \-on 
 ICrlach. with dictatorial powers in \'aud. ])i\idin<^' 
 his tro'.ps int(j tliree dixdsions, brlach occupied the 
 whole liiH' fn iin Solothurn, alon,L( the Aar, the Lakes 
 (jf ]\b:)rat and Xeuchatel. as far as bh"eyburu-. a di^tance 
 of nearly one hundred miles. .\ 'Simultaneous attack 
 was to be made upon the I~rench. while a detachment, 
 stationed in the Ormont \'allew was to fall upon Ai^ie, 
 ruid then, marthin^: on \"e\e\-, attack the rear ol the 
 enemy. 
 
 At this tin;ic, the awailable tiLihtim;' forces of the 
 b'rench did not number mort' than those of the Swiss, 
 and had h^rlach's plan been at onee carried out, tliere 
 can be little doubt that anothi„-r \'ict(ory wouKl ha\"c 
 b<."en aildcd to the valour-roll ot Switzerland, as 
 important as that which look place at Morat in i.fj'*, 
 whu.-n the ! Uir^amtlians were so decisi\"ely deteated. 
 bi'une, howe\'er. was expecting con^idLrable i"einh/rec- 
 rmTi;s tro:ii the armv ot the Rhine, and did not wi>h to 
 Commence hostilities till I lie\' ai"ri\'ed. 1 le accordim^ly 
 sent coiM iliatorv me>>a'-ie> to berii. whudi. uuIoi-'lu- 
 natelv, lirou,i,dit the peace part\' aL:ain to [)owrr. ()iclei"s
 
 4l6 HISTORY OF THK SWISS PEOFLK 
 
 were sent to Erlach to withhold his hand, as negotia- 
 tions were pending. An armistice, to last fifteen days, 
 was even agreed to, March ist being the date on 
 which it was to expire. In vain Erlach and his most 
 influential officers hurried to Bern and tried to convince 
 the Council of the folly of hesitation in making the 
 first niove of attack. During the armistice, French 
 agents industriously laboured among the ]3ernese 
 troops, to persuade them to return to their homes, 
 by promises of future benefits to be conferred by the 
 Republican armies of liberty. Reports were also 
 spread of the treachery of the Bernese leaders, which 
 soon gained strength by the vacillating conduct of 
 the (jovernment. Proposals to and from the French 
 for a renewal of the armistice came and went ; all 
 authority and strength, both in the capital and the 
 army, appeared gone ; and Erlach was actually deposed 
 by the Council, and then re-instated at this most critical 
 time. The French reinforcements, numbering 16,000 
 men, under Schauenburg, now arrived at Bienne, and, 
 there being no further object to cause delay, the in- 
 vaders began their long-contemplated work. 
 
 The following account of the lighting, and the 
 disasters that now fell upon the Swiss, is taken chieily 
 from Planta's narrative, as it seems to accord best with 
 the truth of what actually occurred. 
 
 On the 1st of March, before the armistice had 
 actually expired. General Schauenburg attacked the 
 Castle of Bornach, at the northern end of Canton 
 Solothurn, repulsed a i]ernese corps at Lengnan with- 
 great loss, and at once pushed on to Solothurn. Here 
 a ]:)eremptoi"y message was sent to the ccjmmandant to 
 surrender within half-an-hour, with the threat that,
 
 iiis'fORV oi' Tin. SWISS i'i:iiiT.i' 417 
 
 should anv resistance be oflered. the city would he 
 burnt, and the ^'arrison put in the sword. The 
 autho.rities at once capitulatt-d, witli the prnniise that 
 the Ii\'es and ]iri\-[X'rtv of the inhabitants sh(juld rLinain 
 in\-i()late. This ditl not prc\'ent t\ventv-ii)ur nei^h- 
 bourin,i( villai-^es from bemL;' udx'en up tn plunder, and 
 the killinu" of rdl who attempted to defi'ud thc:ir 
 property, or the honour of their wi\'es. Meanwhile, 
 aiKither column, under CJeneral I'ijon, surprised and 
 captured bd'eyburi:, after an obstinate resistance, from 
 the liernese troops stationed there. These, ^vhen 
 further resistance was olndously useless, marched out 
 of the citv with thirty cannon aiul about 4,000 
 peasants, unmolested b\' the eneim-, and took u.p a 
 posili'jn at Sain^ines, about nine miles from ]!ern. 
 A pro\'isio)nary ("ommittee oi CioN-ernmeiit was estab- 
 lished at J'reybm'L;'. when all the arms and ammunition 
 were taken possession ol l-)v th(/ I'rench. as well as 
 whatex'er else they wantetl. ddiese disaslei"s L^reMllv 
 demoralised tlie ]5ernese troojis. and led manv ot them 
 to retiu'n to their homes, whilst, in se\"ercd corps, all 
 discipline came to an end. A lari^'e- fierce, howewr, 
 took- up a strong position a.t Xeueneck, LaujX'U and 
 (juimninen., while the othm' di\-ision oj^posed to 
 Schauenbur^i; occupied J-"rauenbrunnen. to the north 
 (jf J!ern. In the capital all was (-ontusion ami irresolu- 
 tion, as the (io\"ernment, either h'om panic or n(.-cessit\", 
 hail resi,t;'ned, and a body (jf inexperiencx'd pojmlar 
 representati^'es c(;nstitutetl themsel\-es into a I'ro- 
 \i<ional Kei.jency, antl exercised, or I'ather rejiresented, 
 the chief authority ('March -^rd). On the same da\- 
 that the (del liL-rnese ( lovi'iiiment ("eased, the I'lL-ncli 
 demolished the ()ssuar\- ot the 1 uir^'uiuiians ; •■audi the
 
 4I<S HISTORY Ol' THE SWISS Pi;OPLK 
 
 Directory, in reporting the occurrence to the Council 
 of Five Hundred, mentioned, as a singular, and, no 
 doubt, ominous coincidence, that it was destroyed by 
 the battalions of the Cote d'or (the descendants of 
 the Burgundians) on the very day on which the battle 
 of Morat had been fought. It happens, however, 
 unfortunately for the contrast, that this battle was 
 fought on the 22nd of June."" 
 March 5. On March 5th the French, commanded by General 
 
 Rampon, began a brisk cannonade against Laupen and 
 Neueneck, and then ordered an assault. The Bernese, 
 though far inferior in numbers, not only held their own, 
 but repulsed their opponents with great slaughter, com- 
 pelling them to retreat some ten miles, with the loss of 
 2,000 men and the whole of their artillery. Eight 
 hundred vSwiss were killed, among whom were several 
 women. On the same day, before dawn, Schauenburg 
 surprised Frauenbrunnen, attacking it in both front and 
 flank. In the attacking force were some 2,000 cavalry 
 and a well-appointed battery of horse artillery, the first 
 that ever appeared in Switzerland, In spite of the 
 surprise and the superiority both in numbers and arms 
 of the I'^ench, the Ijernese fought with all the fury 
 that formerly distinguished the nation. " Women, en- 
 dea\'Ouring to obstruct the effect of the artillery, are 
 knov»n to lia\'e placed themselves before the mouths 
 of the cannons, and to have hung on the wheels, in 
 order to impede their progress."' K'esistance, vxen 
 that shown by this heroic band, was useless against 
 the traincid soldiers of b^rance, and after leaving 
 miinbrrs of their men on the field, tlie Swiss fell 
 back on I'rteren, where a second battle was fought, 
 [■'rom I'rteren the\' were also dislod</ed. and. still
 
 HIS'I'(1l-l^ ni- rni: swiss im:iii'm-: 
 
 4K,) 
 
 ti^htin^', though rctrcc'ilinir, the reiiinanl made anntlier 
 stand at (irauhoilz. a stront,'' pass .about four iiul; s from 
 Jk-rn. l-'roiu this position they were compelled by the 
 I-"rench artillery a^ain to retreat. lC\ery vard between 
 liere and J !ern was now disputed with dauntless 
 ,<{allantry : men. women and children emulatin,L( one 
 another to defend their capital. On this memorable 
 day no less than i >o women fell, with scvthes or 
 other weaptjus in their liands. on the field of battle. 
 One was t(jund surrnunded bv her two daughters a'ld 
 her three ^rand(.lau,<4'hters — ( I)a.i,met). At last the few 
 sin"\i\"ors t;a\-e up the struL:,t,d(> an.d lltjd. Amon<4' those 
 ICrlarh. with a party rjf tlispirited and wounded soldiers, 
 made lor the ()berlard, hop'inL:' there to or,i;'anise a Iresh 
 re'^i>tance. His men, howexa^r. Iilled with moriirication 
 and suspicion, becan\e frantic in their elturts to wr^alv 
 their \-en,t,feance. rurniuL;' on tiieir own olticcrs the\' 
 slew the two a(,Ijutant-,L;'enerals. and throuuhout the 
 ni^'ht an t-paulette was CDiisiclL-red as a death-warr;uu. 
 Of the sur\-i\an,L;' leaders, Stei.^er, the late tn-asurer nf 
 IJern. matle his escape m (li>,L;'ui^^e and rcatdied I'hun. 
 and, after haxdni,'' nian\- narrow escapes, e\eiUuall\- 
 lound shelter on Austrian territor}'. The bra\e hirlach 
 was les^ lortunate. He wa.s amom^st the hrst tn lall, 
 stablii'tl to death bv his own men, wlinm he had so 
 ,L:allantly led and. abb' commanded. 
 
 At one o'cliick the tirst [-"rem h >oldiers of luam's '' ''■'.■'. 
 armv entered the almost doertedl >treets ot the cajiilal i/.'; ''; 
 ••with a dei^a'ee of order and siK-nce that apj-earcd like 
 a Lt>t tribute to the grandeur ot hern and the heroism 
 of her di'leuders " - ( Haeuel I. I'houeh no tcjiaual ii iins 
 were ei'anted bv tile \ictors. a L^'eueral pi'ouu>" was 
 j4"i\a-n to respect the li\e^ and propcru' ot the ( ui/oiis.
 
 420 HISTORY OF THE SWISS PEOPLE 
 
 The same day that saw the downfall of h>ern witnessed 
 the planting of the inevitable " Tree of Liberty " in the 
 city. The ceremony was performed with military 
 honours in the presence of the French officers, and 
 the members of the Government who still remained. 
 At its conclusion, Frisching, the President of the 
 Provisional Conunittee, turning to the French general, 
 exclaimed, "There is your 'Tree of Liberty,' may it 
 luring forth good fruit." 
 
 The principal object of the war was the seizure 
 of treasure and arms, and this was done without stint. 
 The exact amount of money actually taken from the 
 city treasury was never made known, but it probably 
 consisted of from twenty to thirty million livres in 
 gold and sih'cr. J3esides this some 300 cannon, arms 
 and accoutrements sufficient for 40,000 men, were 
 taken from the arsenal, and the public stores were 
 thoroughly emptied of their corn, wine, salt and other 
 contents. 
 
 Most of this plunder from liern was at once for- 
 warded to Toulon, for the furnishing of the expedition 
 then preparing for the 1 Egyptian campaign. 
 
 With the fall ol Pern the curtain descended on 
 the second act of the drama of the o\-ert]iro\v of the 
 aiK-iiMit Swiss Confcxleration, a drama partly adopted 
 from the J'^rench, and in which through all its phases 
 hTench actors played the chief roles.
 
 (:iiAr'ri:R xix 
 
 I'm: m;i.\);i'u: ri;i'1'IU.1(,- 
 
 Tui: l-'rench crossed ihc Swiss trDiuit-is in ihe 
 characUT ol a\'cn,L;'in,L;' Liberators of a clow ii-lix)ckien 
 people, as ihe chaiupions ot the poor and weak a,i(ainsl 
 the ricb. and powerhil, and as the re:prcsentati\'es ot 
 the heroic: \ irtues. l)irertl\' the ojifiosition ol ISern 
 wari c~rushecl they ap[)eai\'d m their true colours, as 
 hai'sb and a\aricious niastei's. whose unjust rule wa^- 
 enlorced with lar greater cruelt\- than the nuich-tried 
 Swiss h;id before experienced. 
 
 The b'rench lost little time in niakdnt;' the peojile 
 of Switzerland unclei">tand (dearly that the\ \\\ I'e 
 e.\pc:clecl to sup{")oi"t theii' liberatoi's so Ioul;' and in >ucii 
 a manner a> the latter chose. Though kerii. SoKithurn 
 and b"rc-\bur^ were the onlv cantons that acli\el\ 
 opposed the I'd'ciuh. all the states weie laid under 
 hea\w contribution--, in mone\'. arm-- and pro\ ision-,. 
 Ihe woi'd •• rei pn>ition " was now lor the lir>t time 
 introduced into the Swis-s \()cabularw 
 
 In order the bc^tter to insure the prompt pa\-mem 
 ot the exoiiiitanl sums le\ied to ••maintam the i;"ciu-rous 
 deli\ el n -," a immber ot the mi i>i le^prclcd nii n m 
 I '.nil and Soloihuin w.a-i'c seizcil and ^ciit a> ho^la^e-. 
 ti) Slr.i.-burt;". l',\rn \ and, where the eiitianee ol the 
 I'leiich had been recei\'ed witli the nio^t enthu>ia>m, 
 was torced to contribute 700,000 li\res. llie iler^w
 
 422 HISTORY OF THE SWISS PliOPI.E 
 
 of Einsiecleln and of Canton Luzern were taxed with 
 a sum of one million. But the chief plunder was 
 
 Uiipiiidf. collected under the orders of the notorious Rapinat, 
 
 the commissary of the Republic attached to the ariiicc 
 d'Hclvetic, whose name came to be synonymous with 
 the worst forms of merciless official robbery.' He 
 began by causing seals to be affixed to all the public 
 treasuries in Bern, Zurich and Luzern, even those 
 that contained the money used for the care of the sick, 
 the poor, and for other charitable purposes. He then 
 publicly declared that the property of these cities 
 belonged to the I'^rench Repul)lic. 
 
 He ordered further requisitions, chiefiy to be le\-ied 
 on the patrician families, forcibly stole many \-alual)le 
 objects of art from the churches, or from public or 
 private buildings, and in many other ways showed 
 himself an expert pupil of the most able and successful 
 robber of modern times. 
 
 .V,;\' 'i'he Swiss Confederation was now officially de- 
 
 dared l)y the Du'ectory to exist no longer. In its 
 place was decreed first a (li\-ision of the whole countr}-, 
 with the exception of the (jraubiinden, into three 
 Republics. These were La Rliodaniquc, made up of tlie 
 territories of I'reyburg, N'alais, Ticino, Leinan, 
 (jessenay, and the Oberland : L' Helvetic, of iSasel, 
 Aargau, Haden, Schaffhausen, Zurich, St. Gallen, 
 I'hurgau, Appen/.ell, Sargans, l^uzern, Bern and 
 Solothurn ; La TcUiaiic, of the primitive b'orest States, 
 
 I 'I'hf. following,' satirical \crst' i)} i'liillippc I'lride! expressed 
 ihc ()])ii)i()n the contemporai'v Swiss lormed ot Rapinat : 
 " i ,a Suisse (lu'on pill(' et i|u\,)n ruiiie 
 
 \'()U(]rail hieii que I'oii dt-ridnt, 
 Si Rapinat \ ient (Je rapine, 
 (.)u rapine C[v. Rapinat."
 
 illSl'ruri' dl- THI, SWISS IM'.OPI.I, 
 
 423 
 
 Ohwald Ix-inL;- rxchuk'tl. This tlixisiim, ihc crfHtion 
 of (icncral lirune. assisted l)y tlic l-'rench rt-siilcnts 
 and suw-ral pfoininmt Swiss, was found practically su 
 impossible that after endurin,L[ tor se\'en days, it was 
 annulled., and a cut-and-dried Constitution f(>r a •• lid- Hclicti: 
 vt'tic Republic, one and indixasihli'." was forwarded ^,,,7 ,„,•/; 
 from Paris, for the i^oxernment of the whole of •^'^'''' -'-"*■ 
 Switzerland. in(dudintj; the (iraulumden. In this ne\v 
 departure the ^jeneral plan was based upon the model ot 
 the l-'re!U'h Ivepid)lic, and the so\'ereiL,m cantons disap- 
 peared in becoming;' departments or simple preiectures. 
 
 Tht; (;o\ernment consisted of a Senate, a (jrand a, e !-■;,■ 
 ('(juncil. and a 1 )irect()r\-. Mach of the new twenty- 
 two departments returned toiu' Senators and eii^h.t 
 ("oimcillor^. 'Idle two Assemblies discussed and passed 
 the laws, and these were then cairied out b\' the 
 1 )irectt)ry. ccjnsislim^ ot li\'e mendiers (elected b\' the 
 Senators and ('ouncillors), one presiding' o\er each of 
 the chiet departments of the state, as the Interioi". 
 l-'inance, l'"oreiL,''n Atfairs, etc. h^ach department was 
 .L^cA'erned in its ^>};ecial affaii's b\- a fi'iftt ii.'j.irnjl and 
 a lej4'islati\'e clunnber. Moreo\er. a hii^ii couil ior 
 capital cdiar^es and tor appeal in ci\al matters was 
 constituted, composed ot one mendxa' from each de- 
 paitment. l'ro\asion for a standim,;' arm\- and ior a 
 national militia \\ a.s made, and Aarau was tixed on a> 
 the seat ot (loxernment. the re))i"esentati\"es ot ten 
 dep;irtments met at Aarau, imder h'rrueh protection, and 
 on the 12th of .\pril accrpted and proclaimed this . i.-):.' u 
 ( 'onstitulion. whilst tweke tlepaitments tho.'-e in the 
 eastei!: dix'isions -either lie>Uati'd oi' pi)>iti\elv re]ec'n-d 
 It. \'>y thi> scheme the >o\La\'ii;nl \- ot the lar,L;er can- 
 tons was broken, ;uul all the states placed on ,in e'|u,il 

 
 424 HISTORY OF THE SWISS PEOPLK 
 
 footing. Etiual rights and liberty for all were now for 
 
 the first time guaranteed. Still, though theoretically 
 
 the new Constitution presented many features more 
 
 in accordance with the spirit of the times, and promised 
 
 greater benelits for the people at large than the system 
 
 it displaced, it was in reality too sudden a change, and 
 
 far too uniform to be a success amongst such \ery 
 
 conservative and differently constituted people as were 
 
 A.u. ijijS. those of Switzerland. It had, moreover, the sentimental 
 
 objection of being created by foreign agents, and the 
 
 very practical one of being enforced by foreign bayonets. 
 
 Neither did the manner in which in many cases the 
 
 newly appointed and inexperienced officials performed 
 
 their duties add to the chances of the Constitution 
 
 working either smoothly or permanently. 
 
 1 he Smaller Throughout the country much dissatisfaction 
 
 States. . ^ . -^ . 
 
 showed itself, more especially in the ancient states 
 
 of the defunct Ccmfederation, that had their prestige 
 
 and their traditions violated by the new Constitution. 
 
 Uri, Schywx and Unterwalden, in spite of threats 
 
 from the b'rench, and entreaties from the Swiss 
 
 authorities, absolutel}^ refused to acknowledge or to 
 
 take part in the Helvetic Ivepublic. This bold attitude 
 
 was quickly followed by a similar determination by 
 
 Glarus, Zug, Uznack, Toggenburg, and other small 
 
 districts, while a similar sentiment was shown markedlv 
 
 by the peasants of the Ciraubiinden raid of Appenzell. 
 
 To the people of tlie W'aldstattten it seemed an 
 
 act of tlie worst tyranny to interfere with their ancient 
 
 forms of g<)\-ernment. Among theui for centuries, 
 
 democracy of the most thorough kind had flourished 
 
 and become intimately associated with tlieir daily life. 
 
 iiy comparison with this democracy, the complicated
 
 HISTORY" Of- IHK SWISS rEOI'I.l-; 
 
 4^5 
 
 system of burc;iucr;icv ol ihc l-'rciich Republic rip[:)e;u\-(l 
 as .i^alliiiL;' as the rule of ihe Swiss arislocraeius. The 
 I'"rfneh had already tlcstroyeil the latter, and were now 
 as determined to abolish the former. As Sir [ames 
 Mackintosh said in his defence of Peltifr, in reierrini^' 
 to the {j\erthrow of the JSourbon monarchy, ■•the 
 French l\e\'oluti(Mi has spared many monarchie>, but 
 it has spared no Republic within the sphere ot its 
 destructn c enL-r^y." 
 
 At this time Schauenbur^ was (.'ommander-in-chiei 
 ot the b^rench armv ot occupation. His rule was 
 characterised bv '■ thc)rouL,dTness '" in its widest sen^e. 
 ili> lu->t measure against the ••obstinate rebels," as 
 lie called the Swiss peasants who refused t(j acknow- 
 ledge the new .i^aAernment. was to i^^ue a proclamation .1 
 torbiddim;" all iirtercfjurse with the re\"olted di^lrict>. and 
 he >o ,surr(jiuKled them that they were unable to recei\'e 
 supplies irom the neii^dibouriui; statc-s. As cattle, milk 
 anal cheese were the onl\- protluce ol the W'aUFtatten 
 \ alleys, man\- articles ot daily nece>sity wouKl ha\-e 
 become entirely unattainable had this mea>ure ot 
 coercion been (juietlv submittetl to. JUit tar trom thi> 
 bein,u; the case, 10,0(10 jieasants i]uickl\- armed them- 
 sid\'es with whate\er weapons thev could liiul at han>l. 
 and a>sumiii,o then' old national colour^ ot a while 
 croj-^, (jn a red u'round (instead ol the \a'lIow. oreen and 
 red ot till- ilehetic Re[niblic), ])rt-[)ai"ed to maintain 
 their ti"eedom at all co>ts. l)i\idinL;' their toi'ce^ iiuo A' 
 three di\isioiis, (jne portion, under Alois K'eduiL;' ol 
 S( hwyx, marched rapidlv a^ain>t Luzein, deteated the 
 eiienu, and (jccujiietl the cil\'. Here their tnsl act wa-- 
 to cut down the local ••'Tree ol Libertv." Arm> were 
 procured by the i)illa^'e of the ar>enal, and food and 
 
 '•• ij
 
 426 HISTORY OF THE SWISS PEOPLE 
 
 Jiioney by the partial sackin<,f of the public and private 
 buildings. In these latter acts they were led by a 
 fanatical Capuchine friar, Paul Styger, who, mounted on 
 horse-back, armed with pistols in his belt, a crucifix in 
 one hand and a sword in the other, encouraged his 
 followers to steal whate\'er they wanted. In his 
 harangues, Styger preached that fighting the J'"rench 
 was a holy duty, that all property belonged to the 
 people by right of conriuest, and that the crucifix was 
 
 A.D. 179S. the only true "Tree of Liberty." While these events 
 were in progress, the second division of the Waldstiitten 
 broke through the hostile cordon and occupied the Hash, 
 districts, wliilst the third took Kapperschwyl, intending 
 
 Apytl 2<j. to march on Aargau and Zurich and raise these terri- 
 
 tories against the Government. But, though by their 
 daring and the (juickness of their movements the 
 peasant-soldiers at first carried everything before them, 
 the di\'ision of their forces enabled the French to attack, 
 with overwhelming numbers, each little army separately^ 
 and eventually to defeat them all completely. Schauen- 
 burg, with over 20,000 men, now actively took the 
 offensive. After several encounters with contingents from 
 (ilarus and Sargans, in which the gallantry of the Swiss 
 enabled them to repulse their foes on se\'eral occasions 
 with great loss, the bYench regained possession of 
 Kapperschwyl and compelled tlie Swiss to retreat. 
 
 April >,o. Speaking of this part of the campaign, the French 
 
 commander bore striking evidence to the bravery of his 
 peasant opponents. " Tons Ics Sunscs bailns coiiiuic dcs 
 lions. C'l'ldit Id liittc la plus acJiai'iict' a Uujucllc /"aif assisii' 
 ct la Vendee elle-nicnie ii'a pas pvodnit des scenes de descspow 
 liei'r/i/ne pareilles ii eellc dont j'ai ele leinoin." Two days 
 after the deleat (j1 the men ot C ilarus, the; French
 
 n 'I'm; >i\\i: 
 
 4-7 
 
 utlacki'ii I^;L■iliI1,Lr'^ Srhwy.\i;i> al ihi,; Pass of Schimk-l- .V.r, j- 
 legi. bill were repulsed wilh lo,-.>. They ihen lurned 
 that pdsiliwn bv the Pass of Mount lu/.el which was 
 abandoned hv the curate ot I'dnsii-ckan, whn had 
 \-oKinteered to tiefcnd it. Reding' now tell back on 
 Rotlienibairn wilh i.yy-> men. The b'rcncli were ch'awn 
 up (;n the plain below. On recei\in,i;' the order lo 
 char,i,''e, the Swiss, undaunted 1)\- a niurderou.N lire, 
 rushed at tlieir opponents, antl. after halt - an - hour's 
 hand-todiand ii^ditinu;'. compelled them lo retreat with 
 ,i:reat loss. ( )n the same dav another bcxlv of l-'rentdi 
 was rt-jMiPedi at Mor^arten on its way Irom b^geri. On 
 Mav ^rtl. Schauenburj; ad\anced his main torce in two Ma\ ^. 
 cohnnn> a^'ainsl Arth. but was re;)ulsed with a loss (jt 
 r.earb' 4.000 men. the liuwi: Lr.ra^i:, which had earned a 
 terrible notoriety Irom its excesses in Switzerland, being 
 almcjst annihilated, d'his defeat showed so torcil)ly the 
 Commander-in-chief the dilticulties that lay beiore hnn, 
 that he concluded a con\ention with Reding, and with- 
 drew hi> tro(;ps. \\\ vh\> arrangement no iorc-ign 
 soldier> were to enter the .Schwvx tei'ritorics. ami no 
 contributions were to be lex'ied on the Schwvx j^e'iple. 
 who were pernnttetl to I'etain their arms, and who in 
 return were to send deputies to the llcKctic Republic' 
 Me.'inwdiile Zug (April Ji/ihi .tud Lu/ern (April \'Ah\ 
 Were rec(A'ereil by the b'rench. and W ollerau and 
 Ptatidson liax'inL'' also been Ldseii and L;"i\a'n o\a.'i' to 
 
 1 1 )i!rin:: till' i:ncr\if\'. hi'iNwc!! tin- t\o • chirt^ i >ii \\\t- terms oi 
 
 t're cijiitllhuii !!1 iif Seh\v\\, Seli;iiie!;l)iir_; i-- I'rp.'nei to luue ^.-lid tM 
 l\i-:li:iL;. ■■ It is \i-f\- i()rtin;;ae !'■ -r y^u tb.at n^h (i;ii n,it tall itue iii\- 
 haiii'S, a^ 1 uiiitM certaini\' ha\-e sli<it \.)ii " lla^i I takt.ai \-(iti 
 
 pri>'':!t,T I sh'tiM l;a\''' ti'eat'-i! \"eii it! a --iinila:' \'.a\-,' \\a.-> the re^il\- 
 et the iiea--aiit Ljctiefal
 
 428 HISTORY OF THE SWISS PEOPLE 
 
 pillage, and the Glarus contingents being on several 
 
 occasions defeated, the latter also concluded peace by 
 
 acknowledging the Helvetic Republic. 
 
 With the submission of Schwyx and Glarus the 
 
 other small territories that had risen in arms ga.\e up 
 
 the unequal struggle. Just, however, as there seemed 
 
 a hope that the Swiss would at last settle down to 
 
 improve themselves and their country, a rising took 
 
 Risiiif^^ in place among the mountaineers of the Upper Valais 
 
 Valais, t ■ 
 
 May 7. districts. 
 
 Alone, and without even the moral support of their 
 countrymen, 4,000 peasants, armed with every form of 
 rude weapon, rose against the French. ]\I arching upon 
 Sion, with little difficulty they captured the city. Here 
 they were attacked by the French, who were then sta- 
 tioned in force at Martigny, aided by some volunteers 
 from Vaud, and from the Lower \"alais. After with- 
 standing a general assault for six hours, the peasants 
 gave way, and a fearful vengeance was at once taken 
 by the French. Nearly 800 persons were massacred, 
 sex'enty among the local leaders were imprisoned, the 
 -i;,„, 20 town gi\-en over to pillage, w"omen and girls were dis- 
 
 honoured wholesale, every form ot brutality was openly 
 perpetrated, and the districts condenmed to pay a tax of 
 more than a million livres. This instance of following 
 Napoleon's method of "striking terror,"" was carried out 
 under the orders of General Forges, and the I'^rench 
 ci\il r(4)re.senlati\'e, Mangourit. 
 
 Ill spite of the ccjllapsc ot the insurrectionary 
 moxcments in the smaller districts, the slal)ility oi the 
 licl\i:lic Kepublic was tar trom assured. All owr 
 Swil/crland disUke of the new (iovernment, and haired 
 ot the b'rench became every day more marked, and
 
 HisTom" nv Tin-; swiss I'foim.i; 
 
 429 
 
 another ^Tcat. rliaii^-c was only a iiueslioii <it time. The 
 I'~ia-nch rcpri'scmau\ r. Ivapinal, to a ,L;ia'at extent exer- 
 cised supi'enie aiitliority in all important matters, aiul 
 became more ami m(jre arhitrarv and unscrupnKais in 
 his acts ot oilicial extortiijn and hii^iidianded inuislice. 
 .\monL;st the numerons instances of the latter, he 
 answeret! an ajvpral from the Swiss 1 Mrectorv he^'nini;' 
 him respecliulh' to moderate his le\des of monew hx 
 sunnnarilv tlismissint^' two ot its members and installiiiL;' 
 in their ^tead (3(dis and La Harpe. who. bv their athace 
 and assistance, had been amon^- the chief agents in 
 brin^ini,'' about the bh'ench intluence and establishing' 
 the new ("(institution. 
 
 I)e^pite the opposition it e\'ervwht.'re encountered,*^-" 
 the S'.'.i^-^ ( 'io\a'rnment did much to promote the 
 national unitw andi to im;)i'o\a' tlie ,i;'eneral condition 
 of the people. 1 Sy law tlie punishment ol torture 
 was abolished ; the special tax upon Jews ^WlS 
 repealed; the po>ts came untler ("io\ernmeni manai^'e- 
 ment ; the law cfunas were thrown open to the public; a 
 bettei" svstein ot education was est:d)lished; rates and 
 taxes tor \>'c:i\ needs were placedl under nioie ci ]uit;d)le 
 conditions, and olhei' me;i.--ure> were either cairied out or 
 pi'omoU'd tor the public weltare. Xo;hmL: that llu' 
 ( "io\'ernment could do, hi i\\'(-\--r. eould nrd\a' u moi'e 
 p' 'pular. oi" le>sen the fet-iim;' a_,,tin-t it and its i'renidi 
 supi^orirrs. li \\;is miireo\cr '^uiltv ot many acts iil 
 .slupidilw if not iniU:-tiee; it alfiwedi wliat the smiple 
 S\\i>s ]iea<ants thouL^ht extra\aL;"ant sal.iries to ils 
 (jfticials. dinau',;' a pi-iiod ot general i:io\"i-rl\' ; it paMioi- 
 ])ati'd iu the hatred rou^-ed ai^ain^t the lM\'nch toi' thru- 
 le\ies in >uppiirt of iheir lai'ue arm\- iit ( )ccupati. m. audi 
 it enrolletl a iorce of Swiss to aet as .aixili;iries to the 
 
 ;.' A':
 
 430 HISTORY OF THE SWISS PEOPLE 
 
 invaders. Neither did the theatrical costumes and 
 manners assumed by the officials, in imitation of those 
 of h'rance, tend to create respect or affection in the 
 minds of their fellow-countrymen. 
 
 Wahlstatten, Fresh troubles broke out in the ever vi<^orous 
 
 ^ ' ' Waldstatten districts not many months after they were 
 apparently quieted. On July nth the Government 
 foolishly issued a decree calling upon all the Swiss to 
 take an oath of allegiance to the Republic. Religion 
 was then a powerful factor in all individual concerns 
 of the peasants, and the sanctity of an oath was deemed 
 inviolate. In many places the oath was taken, and in 
 many it was evaded; but in Schwyx and in IJnter- 
 walden, especially in Nidwald, the attempt to administer 
 
 Ficih Ridnqs. it aroused a determined refusal. In vain the Swiss 
 Government pleaded and the French general sent 
 threatening messages. Every day the excitement and 
 indignation became more furious, and within a month 
 the people once more rose in armed re\'olt. The 
 authorities were expelled, and preparations were made 
 for active resistance. At this crisis the local priests 
 and leaders, including Alois Reding, exerted themsehes 
 so strenuously in Schwyx for the cause of p/cace that, in 
 spite of all they had said and done, the Schwyxois once 
 more submitted to the Gox'ernment. Xot so the people 
 
 Nid:vahi. of Xidwald. Here the l)rave peasants determined, in 
 
 spite of the fearful odds against them, to win their lost 
 liberty, or to perish in the effort. The result showed 
 one of the most terrible and cruel oi the many brutal 
 acts of unscrupulovis butchery that so (Tten mark the 
 blo(jdy page of the history ol the b^rench Republic's 
 wars in the cause of Liberty, F(]uality and I'^'aternity. 
 In Xidwald the local clergy, unlike thosci of Schwyx,
 
 )i I'lii; SWISS I'l-oi'i.i: 
 
 431 
 
 did all they could to encourage the people to tij^'ht 
 to the death. The redoubtable S;vL;'er, who already 
 li_L,aired at the pilla^a; of Luzern, tra\-ersed the moun- 
 tains exhortinu' his hearers to resist the bh'ench as they 
 wouUl the De\'il. and usinj^' t'le words of Christ and 
 the example of \\ illiani Tell with equal authority and 
 ft)rce. One last chance was cjffered by Schauenburj;'. 
 \\h() threatened that unless instant submission was 
 made b\- the rebels he would exterminate the whcde 
 people. On Au,L,''ust Joth a L;eneral Li;iiJiL!c)!:i!!Lh- was .i; 
 held of the two tli\isions of I'nterwalden, when the 
 people ol Obwald decided to submit and those of 
 Xidwald to li,L;ht to the death. Sex'eral of the 
 Obwalder.-- pushed their chani^e of front so far as to 
 olter their ser\-ices as <;uides to the now approachin_i( 
 [■'rench army. 
 
 ( )n Se})tend)er (yth, (leneral Schauenburi;' put his ^V 
 threat into execution. 1 )i\"idini;' his force of lo^omj 
 men, besides Swi>s auxiliaries, into tlu'ee dix'isions, he 
 attacked the her<jic little district, whose defeuik'rs 
 numbered oidy 2,000 badlv-armed {)easants, aided by 
 some J40 x'olunteers from Schwwx and I'ri. The 
 (jtticial account of the I'rench ("ommander thus de- 
 scribe the encounter. lie hatl sent a column throu,t;h 
 Obwald to attacd-; the "rebels" in the real', wliilsi he 
 lumself landed near Stanzstadt frmn Luzern. •■ \'ou 
 will learn with pleasure, citizen J )u'ecloi's, that \ictor\- 
 conlmue> faithful to tiie Ivcimblicans. Alter a combat 
 that lasted fr-an li\e in the morp.ini;' to six in tlu; 
 e\-emni;' We took' j')osses>ion of Stanz>ladt. All that 
 aitiicts !i;e is that this tla\- ccj-ukl not be t'uded without 
 ail the consequences th.at must attend so ti-rrdiie a 
 ctjullict, tor it has cost tdiumlance of liloodshed. but
 
 432 HISTORY OF THE SWISS PEOPLE 
 
 they were rebels, whom it was necessary to subdue." 
 On the next day Schauenburg again wrote: — "As soon 
 as all was arranged for acting in concert, I directed on 
 September 9th, at daybreak. Generals Mainoni and 
 M tiller to fall upon the valley of Stanz and attack the 
 entrenchments. No sooner had these been carried by 
 the bayonet, than 1 ordered the infantry to embark on 
 the lake, and to invest Stanz in the rear, which place 
 was cannonaded accordingly on all sides with the 
 greatest vigour. At six in the evening we were masters 
 of this unhappy country, the greater part of which was 
 pillaged. The fury of the soldiers could not be re- 
 strained, for many of them had been taken by surprise 
 and killed. We have suffered greatly, considering the 
 incredible obstinacy of these men, wdiose audacity 
 bordered upon madness. Several priests and, unfor- 
 tunately, also many women, were cut to pieces. Tn a 
 word, all that bore arms were put to the sword. We 
 had aliout 350 wounded. This was the hottest conflict 
 J ever experienced. Our enemies fought with clubs and 
 fragments of rock; in short, all imaginable means were 
 used for attack. A great number of the inhabitants of 
 diOerent cantons were witnesses of this fierce action; 
 their coimtenances fell as we adx'anced. The whole 
 district of Unterwalden is now sul)dued. The pa}")ers 
 we have in hand prove that if we had not crushed these 
 infatuated men the insurrection would in a short time 
 have become general." Nearly all accounts of the 
 horrors ol tliis fearful conllict necessarily come from 
 I'rench sources, and are therefore not likely to be 
 exaggerated, '["lie Swiss themsehes. being nearly all 
 slauglUered, were not in a ])osition to gi\e t/icir \'ersion 
 of what loolv ])lace. I'lanta, who wr(jte shortly after
 
 IIIs^oK^' m- Tiir. swiss I'lripi.); 
 
 43,^ 
 
 the innssacTc, !^n\-es the tollowiiii^' additional details hr 
 i;athcv(jd troni contcinporai'v \\'rilini;'s in the LtvJ.iU 
 Giiu-'lr. published under the saufticjn ol the I'rcnch 
 GovernuKnt : — 
 
 " From the dav that I'nterwalden slio,d,v off Austrian 
 tyranny tf) the present, her people ha\a' al\va\-s enjoyed 
 perlect liberty and ei juality as the tundauKMital princi'ples 
 of their popular ,i,''o\-eriuuent and aneient constitution, in 
 de):ence ot which the jiresent L;'enei'ation has once more 
 abundantly blcul. It is then onlv in compliance with recent 
 usas^^e, whicdi ascribes the name of lu'publicans exclu- 
 si\-(dv to the I'rencdi armies, that (leneral Sc hauenbiu'L;' 
 savs, 'that \ictorv has continued faithful to th(,' Ive- 
 pndilicans.' . . . The number of those that fell is 
 estimated at about 1,300. Tlie town of Stan/, has 
 bt'en biuait. and the inhabitants whn ha\'e not perishtxl 
 in battle, or in the de\astation. are reduianl to the most 
 deplorable mise*ry. In Stanz only sixteen houses are 
 left standinL,^ It was a lar^'e. handsome, pleasant, well- 
 b.mlt btir,i;h, full of ])idilic and priwite edihci's well 
 worthy ot notice, all of whi(di are now conwrted into 
 'olaziuL,'' ruins, steeped in the ^'ore of theii" owners. The 
 few who sur\-i\'ed the (xu'na^^e tletl into the hiL^iiei' Alps. 
 Men of all ai^es, women. and'e\en children f )UL;'ht with- 
 ( )ut order, without abb.' or exi)ericncetl leaders, aL;ainst a 
 host of well-disci]:)lined troops, supported b\' a numerous 
 artillery, ddie action lasted thirteeu hour> without in- 
 termission, and with a raL;'e<if wliiidi there is scarcely 
 any example." The \'ictors seemed to lia\-e been seized 
 with a perfect frenz\- loi^ but( herw ( )ld and y(jtm,L;', 
 the si(d< and decrepid, women and ^irls. all ahke were 
 bayouetted. burnt, or otherwise slauL;htered. ( )ne 
 Imndretl and thirty wouien are kuiowu to ha\'e fallen.
 
 434 HISTORY OF the SWlSS PEOPLE 
 
 A chapel 'Was afterwards biiill; in the churchyard of 
 Stanz to the memory of four hundred and fourteen 
 inhabitants of the town, inchiding one hundred and two 
 women and seventy-five children, who were nnu'dered 
 on the (jth of September. On that day Alass was being 
 celebrated in the church when the French rushed in 
 and shot the aged priest before the altar. Outside the 
 chapel of St. Jacob eighteen women stationed themseh'es 
 against the wall and valiantly faced the French, armed 
 only with scythes and clubs, till they were all kilUnl. 
 Hundreds of children, destitute of care or food by 
 the death of their parents, wandered piteously about 
 the fields, and but for the sympathy of the philan- 
 thropic Pestalozzi and the peasants of the neighbouring 
 cantons, would have all perished from starvation and 
 exposure, h^ven Schauenburg himself is reported to 
 have been horrified with the extent and nature of the 
 calamity his soldiers had caused, but as he was chieify 
 instrumental in bringing it about, the genuineness of Iiis 
 grief admits of doubt. h^ollowing up their " \ictory " 
 Sept. 15. the French, on the 15th of September, entered ('antori 
 
 Schwyx, in total violation of the recently made agree- 
 ment, and disarmed the people. 
 
 The conduct of the Swiss Directory, during and 
 after the disaster in Unterwalden, would seem brutalK' 
 callous in the extreme were it not remcnd)ered the .Swiss; 
 Go\-ermuent was but the tool of the i'd'encli Republic, 
 and possessed no personal independence. Without 
 lifting a hand to stay the massacre, or to lielp the 
 unforUmate few sur\i\'ors, the; Swiss Directory issued 
 orders for the planting of a " Treci of Lil)erty"" in the 
 midst of the ashes and ruins of Xidwald, and ])asscd a 
 i"es(jlutif)n that Schauenburg, bv his action, had deserxcul
 
 Hisroi^^' oi- Tin: swiss I'r.ni'i.i. 
 
 well of thi; Republic ! Lat(.;r, ;i sj);irk"()f huinaiiiiv '".(")nu-- 
 \vh;it cftacL'J liic S'ji'\"ile cowai'ilicc ot tlu' ( /< jxcnuiicai, 
 and rm oi-phaii as\-luni was built in the ruined Slanz. 
 o\"lt whicli Pcstaloz/.i was aj^poinlrd director. 
 
 Meanwhile, the dislike felt b\- the inajoritv ot the 
 Swiss tcjwards the new torni of ,<;'o\-ernnient yraduaily 
 chani^'ed to hatred, as, under the sinister inlluence of 
 Rapinat, the authorities became dailv more; arbiti'arw 
 and the exactions of tlie hhench more outraL,'eous. liut 
 what most excited the wrath ot the peo[)le was the 
 saxaL^'e manner in which the hh'ench sokliers not (juK^ 
 obeved the orders (;f their sii])eriors. but. on their own 
 account, committed e\'erv f)rni ot licence. l'illa^L;'c, 
 murd.er. thefts, and assaults on women were oi Irc-- 
 (juent (jccauTence, and i)assed \vith httle ca" no punish- 
 ment. Ihe I'orest ot 1 Irem^arten, near Rcrn. was 
 filletl with the corpses ot xdolatetl women — ( 1 )a,L;uet !. 
 
 The seat of ,i(()\'ernment at the be^'imun_i( ot the 
 new Vi^siiiu was pro\isionally hxed at Aarau, on account 
 of the str<jn,u; adherence of that town to ihi- proposed 
 chan.^X'S. In. October, howe\'er, it was mo\cd to 
 Lu/.ern, as the capital of tlu; IleK'etic Republic. In 
 Mav of the loJlowiuL,'' year (1700) anoilKa' chan-e was 
 made b\' th.e tran^td'ence ot L;'o\a-rmiu'ni to Rem. 
 
 'Idn'ou^di the rt:cent changes, m ^p;;c oi r\t!\- 
 threat, the peasants ol tlu' ( iraubiuhlrn stoadiiK' ro- 
 fuscd to join or recoi^nisc the HcKctic RL-])ubhc. Tlu' 
 presence ot the Austi"iaiis in tlic 'i"\i"oi poibabl}' .L;'a\e 
 them additional courauo, as tlu.' l'"ronch. wcrr pisl tlum 
 anxiou> not to [iroNoJa; a tre>li contr>t wuh the 
 Ihupi.-ror. Alti.a- the ma^saorr in I ' mriw ,ddi n what- 
 (•\fi" doubts existed a^ to the nicdiods ot (a\ ilr-ation 
 l)Ui>UL-d b\- tile I'reiuli waaa- al once di>i)i_'llod. A 
 
 Thr
 
 436 HISTORY OF THE SWISS P?:OPLE 
 
 general arming to protect their frontiers, quickly 
 followed, the French representative left Chur, with 
 many threats, and on the 17th of October the Grau- 
 biinden Diet formally requested the Emperor to furnish 
 a force to occupy and protect the country. The request 
 A.n. 1799. was willingly acceded to, and an Austrian army win- 
 tered in the country. 
 
 Switzerland jj-, March, 1799, war once more broke out between 
 
 an European _^ . 
 
 Battlefielii, hVance and Austria, and soon resulted in plunging 
 
 A.n. 1799. Switzerland in all the horrors of a sanguinary contest. 
 The cantons became one of the chief theatres of the 
 war, and witnessed some of the hardest-fought battles. 
 Of the principal actors in the bloody drama, the Arch- 
 duke Charles, brother of the Emperor, I'^rancis IL, 
 commanded the Austrians ; Massena, with Soult, Ney 
 and Oudinot, led the French; while the Russians, who 
 invaded the country as allies of Austria, were under 
 the command of the famous Cjenerals Souworow and 
 Ivorsakow. Acting with his usual rapidity of mo\-e- 
 ment and judgment, TvLassena opened the campaign by 
 surprising 4,000 Austrians at the Pass of Luciensteig 
 (^larch Gth), inflicting on them a sex'cre defeat, and 
 taking possession of the greater part of the country, 
 lender great pressure of the Frencli, the Helvetic 
 Directory had ordered a levy of 20,000 Swiss to assist 
 the Republicans. ALany volunteers, however, ser\-ed 
 in the Imperialist ranks, and distinguished themseh'es 
 greatly by their valour and the knowledge they possessed 
 of the nature of the country. Though fa\'oured by fortune 
 in the commencement of the war, the French, in their 
 turn, suflercd defeat, l)y the Archduke, at Stockach and 
 l'\'ldkirch (March 25th), and were com})clled to retreat. 
 Se\ere engagements ne.xt followed at Diessenhofen, 
 
 March .
 
 in;,r()K\' ui- Till, ^wish I'l.oFi.i: 
 
 43: 
 
 W'intLTthur, anci i-"r:iucnfclcl in iIil' >.inic iiKjnth, whrrc. 
 t.h(ju,L(li ihc iM'L-nch !iuiii:i,l,''c(1. with 'j^vciii lo>s, Im hoKl 
 their position, the Austrians spread (uer a lar,L;e pari 
 of l'2a>lcrn Switzerland. (Jn March joth tlie Archduke 
 issued a prochmiation, telHng the i:)eopie he came a> 
 their hherator triKii the thrakloni ol tlie I'd'eiich. and 
 not as a conqueror ot the ccnintry. The ellect of thi.> 
 was at once marked. lA'ervwhere the peaScUUs were 
 a,^;ain^t their toreii^ai masters : LT'ench and k'rench svm- 
 patliiser> were as>a^sinated : a re^adar wndetta set 
 in. I he >mall (hstricts ikjw seized the o[)portunit\' 
 attorded 1)\- the presence ot their ancient eneinio to 
 assert their independence. Sticce.-si\ t: revolts took 
 place in St. (ialleii, (ilarus 1 March oth). the (Jl)er- 
 land, Seelaiid, k"re\l)ur,L:', Solothurn. I'l'i (April J'ahi. 
 Zui^, Luzern. Schwyx (April i^thi, Lugano. I ntc-r- 
 wakleii. and in X'alais ( Mav i_).thi. Shorth' alter the 
 rising in Schwyx the l-damch attain eiiteredi tlu- dis- 
 tricts, re-asserted their siij)remac\\ and disarmed il;e 
 inhabitants. All o\'er 1-kistern S\\ itzeriaiul er.counters 
 took place, and soon these centres were' covered with 
 ruins and partially depopuiate'd. In s(jme districts, as 
 m ddiurL;'au and portions ot Zurich, the penjile ftKiL;iu 
 tor the hreiich, owIiil;' tw th;- impruva'd slandiiiL;' 
 these loealities had obtained bv ihe K'-voluti( 'U. The 
 j-'reii' h beiiiL;' driven trom Zurich, it was then ociuipied 
 bv the .\iistrians and Ivussiaiis, and became the allii-s /:r, 
 headquarters (June). lAacuatiiiL;" S( hwyx earlv 111 
 |une, the Republicans toiik up a iHjsitrm near Artli. 
 oil tile trtjiitiers 1)1 Zul;", and weic lure siu. ci-edt-d by 
 tile Au.CiiiiUis, who were at I'nce ]iiined bv lai'_;e 
 numbiT. ('t the peasaiUs. ( )n |ulv •;iai a ^'iir. ral /v, 
 a'll.ick 'A the kieiiih .iii ihr Austinn lines wa-
 
 43'^ HISTORY OF THE SWISS PEOPLE 
 
 repulsed al Alorg"arten, and the former fell back upon 
 Egeri. liy the drawing oft~ of his army into Swabia, 
 the Archduke left his allies greatly weakened, and in 
 September the Russians sustained a series of defeats 
 near Zurich, and, being compelled to retreat, the city 
 was again occupied by Massena. During the entry of 
 the French, after the last battle, the celebrated La\-ater 
 w'as killed by a stray shot as he was leaving his house 
 to succour the wounded. Whilst the Russian general, 
 Korsakow, was being repulsed at Zurich, his com- 
 patriot, Suwarrow", was crossing the St. Gothard to 
 his assistance with a large force. Though too late, he 
 fought the French at Altdorf, and dro\e thern back into 
 Schwyx. Learning, after this victory, of the re\'erses that 
 had befallen Korsakow, the great Russian commander 
 connnenced his retreat. Passing by a most difficult 
 route over the liragel and through the Klouthal, he 
 entered Glarus, but was forced, by the presence there 
 of a large French arm}-, to fall back again. Traxersing 
 the Kranchenthal during the night, guided b)' torches 
 past the perils of the passage, he at length led his men 
 into the Sargans districts, on the Graubiinden frcjntiers, 
 and shortly afterwards e\acuated Switzerland. These 
 forced marches of foreigners o\er the rugged Swiss 
 mountains by paths only known to chamois hunters, 
 the battles fought in the Swiss \ alleys, lakes, and 
 passes, and on the terrible Alpine heights, surroimded 
 by snow and ice, with hundreds ot soldiers dying of 
 exposure and want of food, or perishing by tailing o\-er 
 the sides of the narrow tracks, are full o( dramatic as 
 well as of strategic interest. The luckless ijihabitants 
 ol the districts traxersed were ruined b}- ha\'ing to 
 su[)j)(n't any ;ind all oi the in\aders, who followed so
 
 llI^T()kV OI- THE ^Wl^h I'i;( )i' LI:. 
 
 439 
 
 (luickly tuu' atUT llu- olhcr. " Al ihe end of ilu' cam- 
 paign, ()nc;-tout"lh ot ihc sur\i\inj^ pojjp.lalicni ot Schwvx 
 was cle[x-nclin,L;' on public charily. In ihc \'allcy ol 
 MuoUa alone between ooo and 700 persons were 
 retiuced lo a stale <jt utter destitution. In the still 
 poorer (Canton ol I'ri the same ilistress prevailed, in 
 addition to which, a tire broke; out at Altdorf. which 
 destro\ed the i;reater pari of that, the chiel town of 
 the district. 'l"he ("anton oi I nterw alden had been 
 de\astated the year before. In the \allc\s of the 
 (ii'aubunden similar scenes took place; in that ot the 
 X'ortk 1' Khein the inliabitants rose ai;'ainst the h'rench 
 on the 1st od Ma)', killed a .great nund)er of them, 
 and di'o\e the rest as lar as C'hui". 1 ait the h'rench 
 st)on recei\ed reinforcements, and o\ eri)()wered the 
 mount<iineers, u[)on whom the}' broke their xengeance, 
 killing al)(j\-e j.uoo oi them, and setting on lire the 
 \enerable Abbey of Hissentis. Idle inhabitants ol 
 the remoti; N'alley of Taxetsch, at the foot of the 
 great Al[)s, were all butcheied : the women were 
 hunted tl(;\\n 1)\' the soldiers; iour of them, being oxer- 
 taken, threw themsehes into the halt-irozeii Lake ol 
 Toma, with their inlants in their arms, and were shot 
 al in that situation.' 
 
 1 A- ( )( tober the whole ol the allied armies were 
 iliiNcn bexond the Swis> tronlier;-, and o'lice more the 
 I'heiich be'came sole ma^tcrs ol the countrx'. lly a 
 decree (if the 1 b-lxalic niieclory. M a>sena w as decLaa'tl 
 the •■ Sax I ail' of Swil/erlaiid." lli> lir-t rt^i)on>e IdiIu^- 
 eulogx- xx'a^ lo lexy ct iiilribulion^ ol oxer txxo millions ol 
 ham s iii)on the iiiipoxeri>hed S\\i>s. 
 
 Till i>o^, political and >ocial troubles, local rtwolts, 
 and much general misery, make up the hi^tory oi the
 
 44° HISTORY OF THE SWISS I'EOPLIi 
 
 unhappy Swiss. Factions of every kind sprang to life 
 in nearly every centre ; changes in the Government 
 followed one another rapidly ; all was confusion, mis- 
 trust, and wretchedness. During this miserable period 
 the French w^ere themselves so engrossed with their 
 own affairs that they bestowed little attention on the 
 Helvetic Republic. Of the many insurrections that 
 Kisiiigi in the occurred, the most formidable broke out in 1802, which 
 A D. 1S02 rapidly infected a large portion of the country. In July 
 
 a sudden call Irom I'rance led to the withdrawal of 
 the French troops, and the consequent depri\-ation of 
 the Helvetic Government of its chief support. The 
 news instantly roused all Switzerland ; Valais declared 
 itself independent; Uri, Schwyx and Unterwalden, 
 armed against the authorities ; Zurich, Schaffhausen, 
 Basel, Argau, and other important centres followed suit. 
 To avoid the coming storm, the Government, escorted 
 by what troops it could induce to remain faithful, fled 
 to Lausanne. ]\I arching upon the latter city the insur- 
 gents met and defeated the Go\'ernment"s guard, and 
 were about to sweep everything before them, when a 
 peremptory message arrived from Bonaparte, connnand- 
 ing the insurgents to lay down their arms. On their 
 refusing to do so, the Mrst Consul promptly despatched 
 Ney, with a large French force, to compel obedience. 
 On Ney's arri\al, the Gox'ernment was reinstated at 
 Bern, and the re\olutionary upheaval gradually sub- 
 sided. At this instant. Napoleon, assuming a rah' to 
 which he was little used, came lorward in the interests 
 of peace as a mediatoi' U) bring about a inndns rhriidi, 
 and (juiet tlie turbulent spirit that threatened at an}' 
 Octi'hcr. moment to de])o()ulate the country b\- ci\il striie. 
 
 In a proclamation t(j the Swiss people, Napoleon
 
 1II^T()K^■ oi- TH1-: swiSh i'i,(.)i'i.i-: 
 
 44 
 
 rcxiewcd ihc-ir comlilion, and oflereci his services t(j 
 create a satisiaclin}- >ululion ol ihcii" iroubies, in the 
 followin.L,'' terms ;- 
 
 •■ Inliabitants ot Switzerland : l-'(;r two vears \:)u 
 have presented a mehmcholv spectacle. Supreme power 
 has been seized alterjialely by opptjsite facticms, whose 
 transitory and partial rule has ser\ed onlv to illu>trate 
 their own incapacit\-. If yuii are left lo }oursel\es any 
 lon.^er, vou will cut c>ne another to pieces lor years, 
 without an_v pr(j>pecl ot comin,L,'' to a rational under- 
 standinl,^ "\'our intestine disctjrd ne\er could be ended 
 without the interposition ot b'rance. 1 had rcsoKed 
 not to mix in your aliairs : bul 1 cannot, and will ncjt, 
 \iew with inditterence the calamities to which 1 now see 
 vou expo.-cd. 1 retract \ny former rooluiion. 1 (dier 
 iiu'selt as \-our mediattjr, and will exert my mediatic^n 
 with tliat ener^N' which becomes the [)o\\erlul naticjn in 
 wh(jse name 1 speak. l-d\e da\'s alter recei\in;_; this 
 present declai'ation. the Senate will assemble at iJern, 
 to nominate thrc-e deputies to \isit I'aris. and each 
 canton will al>o be permitted to sent! representatix'es 
 thither. All citizens who ha\'e held public employments 
 durin,!,'' tin- past three years may also appear at I'aris 
 to tleliberate b}' what means tlu' I'e^toialion ot concord 
 and rec<aiciliation ot all pailies ma\' best be ellected. 
 iC\"erv rational man must })er(a'i\e that m\' purposed 
 mediation i> a blessin.^,^ conlerred on Switzei'land b\- that 
 I'riA idence. which, amitl so manv concan'rini;' causes ot 
 Micia! dissolution, has alwa}.^ pi'e>er\'ed youi' national 
 life and independence. It would be ]taintu] lo think- 
 that dc\.lm\- lia> singled out ihi^ i'])o(h. which h,i> c aiieii 
 mto lite so man\' new republics, as the honr ot destru<- 
 tion of one oi the oldest ci^mmon wealths m luirope." 
 
 A.t rf 
 Midi.t!!.'!!, 
 A,l). iSo^
 
 442 HISTORY OF THE SWISS PEOPLE 
 
 This generous act, for in the absence of obvious ulterior 
 motixcs, Napoleon must be credited with acting solely 
 in the interests of peace and humanity, received an 
 immediate response by the centres indicated promptly 
 electing their representati\'es and sending them to Paris. 
 There, under Napoleon's guidance, a new Swiss Con- 
 stitution was framed (the fourth that had been tried in 
 less than six years), and once more the country entered 
 upon a new teriri of life, under fresh political conditions.
 
 ciiAr''ri:K x.\ 
 
 SW ITZl-.lvI,.\Mi rXl'l-.K 1111-, \k: I <U MI.MI A'I^ION 
 
 In respDiise to Napoleon's pioclaination. tht; Swiss ad. 1^03-1; 
 rcpiesenlatiw'S iiiel ai I'aris 10 ck'libei-ale on ihc Icrnis 
 of the New Constilution. 'I'he interest taken bx'the iMist 
 Constil in his no\el task was ajiparently sineere. and his 
 hilio'ars eertain!}- iinieinittin,!^'. W'hik' ,i;i\ in^ an attentixt- 
 car to e\ery opinion (and the \ie\vs hekl bv the Swiss 
 Oeputie^ were as dixerj^ent as the\ were nianv). he 
 expressed his (wvn ideas m ck\ir and si^nilieant 
 kingiiat;'e at the ntimerous inter\ie\\'> that took phiee 
 before llie C"on,i;'ress fnially eonchak'd its work. 
 Napok:on's plan, which formed the basis ot tin; New 
 ("on^titution, i> well smnniari^ed 1)\' Thibatulean. in 
 his •' .\jL';iit^ii't'> >!ii' Ic Considal." ■■ 'I'he I( ipoL;'rai)h\'." 
 said Napoleon. ■• the \ arieties ni lani;'uaL;"e. religion, 
 manners and caistoms, make Switzerlantl unhke anv 
 other eountr\-. NatiU'e has intendetl her tor a federal 
 ^tate. ami it i^ tniwise to t)p])o>e nature. Se\ eral ol 
 ihe ( antons ha\-e ]:ii'esei'\cd toi' rrntuiies a sxstem 
 ot the pm'f^t demorrae\-, whde in otlu-is the cummnn- 
 \sealth has become du'uled between S( i\ i-rei^ns and 
 si.d)iects, ironi the exclnsix'c rxeicise ot powei" bv 
 certain t.imdio. 'Idle ;;'ro\vth ot new cii'cumstances 
 and tin L;re<iter )u>lioc ,uul reason ot the ^piiit of 
 tile a,L;e, ha\ e made a complete remmcialioii ol all 
 exchisi\e pri\ileees tin; wish antl the interest of the
 
 444 HISTORY OF THE SWISS PEOPLE 
 
 people at large. The most important matter to be 
 first settled, is the imernal organisation of each 
 separate canton, after which their respective relations 
 with one another must be determined. There can be 
 no uniformity of administration. Placed among the 
 mountains which separate France, Germany and Italy, 
 Switzerland partakes of the character of each of these 
 countries. Her neutrality and her commerce, with a 
 domestic and family-like government, are the things 
 most suitable to her people. Neither France nor the 
 Italian Republic can allow a system to pre\ail which 
 would be in opposition to theirs. The politics of 
 Switzerland are necessarily allied to those of France. 
 The re-establishment of pure democracy in the smaller 
 cantons is best for them. These little democracies 
 have been the cradle of liberty ; it is they that dis- 
 tinguish Switzerland from the rest of the world, 
 and render her so interesting in the eyes of Furope. 
 Without them she would be like the rest of the Con- 
 tinent, and bear no characteristic feature ; mark well 
 the importance of this. These mountain democracies 
 constitute real Switzerland, to which the other cantons 
 have been added at a later period. The institutions 
 of the cantons may be unreasonable, but they are 
 established by ancient and still popular custom. When 
 custom and reason are in opposition, the former usually 
 carries the day. Those who wish to abolish the local 
 Laiidsf^cincinden must talk no longer oi democracies or 
 republics. A free people does not like to be depri\-ed 
 of its direct exercise of sovereign power, it does not 
 kn(nv or relish those modern inventions oi a representa- 
 tive system. Moreover, why should their shepherds be 
 deprived ol the only excitement their otherwise mono-
 
 HISTORY oi- IHI-; SWISS I '1:0 1' 1. 1-: 
 
 445 
 
 tonous li\-es affortls. With rc,<4;ird to the town cantons, 
 or former aristocracies, e\'erv exclusiw jirivile^'e beini; 
 now abolishcil, the members of the legislature should 
 be appointed for life, subject to a]-)}M'oval of their con- 
 duct e\-ery two years. 'J"he ([ualilications of an elector 
 should consist in his bein^'- a citizen of the canton, 
 and his beiny- possessed of at least 500 francs" worth 
 of property. In the new cantons, formerly subject 
 to others, the social principle bein,L,^ more plutocratic, 
 the members o! the lef,nslature should not be chosen 
 for life. With re.yrird to other details, these ou_<;ht 
 to be left t<^ the let^dslature : the Constitution is to 
 determine only the mode in which the laws are made. 
 If it enters into too many details, sooner or later it 
 becomes liable ti) be \-iolated. Kt:spectin,i;" trial by 
 jurw this institution mi^'ht pro\"e dai\L;\M"ous in times 
 ot politi(\'d excitement, lor then juries are apt to jud,i;'e 
 throu<:(h passion. We, at least in I'hance, tind it so." 
 In lurther meetini^fs Napoleon went on to sav he was 
 in laxour ot makini;' \ aud into a separate canton, and 
 that the interests ot I'rance re'[uired Switzerland, whic-Ii 
 j^rotected a line ot her frontiers, to 1h' her alK' : and 
 concluded bv declaring', " newi" did 1 intend lo inak'e 
 a revolution in vour counti'y. I ue\'er thought of 
 aimexiuL;' you lo I'rance, fir you could not bear the 
 c-harq'e wlii(-h the l-'reiich ha\'e to sustain. 'I'his 
 mediation in \-our affairs has ^i\-en me much H'ouble. 
 and I hesitateii Ioul;' beiore 1 cMubarketl in it. It is a 
 difliiailt tas]< fir me to ,L;'i\e (-oiistilulions to countries 
 wuh which I am im])ertecll\' acipiainted. Should m\' 
 apiH'arance on \'oui^ sta^e prox'e unsuccessful, I she)uld 
 be hissed a tiling I ilo mn like. All luu'ope expects 
 brance to settle the aftairs of Switzerland, f>r it is
 
 446 HISTORY OF THE SWISS PEOPLE 
 
 acknowledged by Europe that Switzerland, as well 
 as Italy and Holland, are at the disposal of France." 
 It is worthy of note that in these negotiations 
 " Switzerland " is, for the first time, the official 
 name used for the Confederation. Such was the 
 basis upon which the Act of Mediation was framed. 
 After many difficulties caused by the opposing opinions 
 of the Swiss deputies (who, besides minor parties, were 
 divided chiefly into those advocating a federal, and 
 those supporting a single republican form of govern- 
 ment), Anally all opposition was surmounted, and on 
 ^^05- February igth Napoleon publicly gave the new Con- 
 stitution to the Swiss. 
 
 I'nder the terms of the i\ct of Mediation the 
 ancient title of Confederation displaced that of the 
 Helvetic Repul)lic. The country was divided into 
 nineteen cantons, each possessing its separate form of 
 go\'ernment for its special and domestic affairs. The 
 Diet, as of old, formed the supreme court and authority 
 in national matters, or in those arising out of differences 
 between the cantons, b^very canton having a hundred 
 thousand inhabitants returned two representatives to 
 the Diet, whilst those with fewer sent only one. The 
 States of Zurich, J5ern, Freyburg, Luzern, IJasel and 
 Solothurn were regarded as Cantons Dirairurs, and one 
 of them was by turn taken as the place of meeting for 
 the Diet, and its chief official l)ecame for the year the 
 head of the Republic, under the title ol Landannvuiun of 
 S'hnl-cyliVid. The latter functionary possessed great 
 power, being the chief executive officer in many 
 important h.ome matters, as well as the cliannel for 
 coiiuiuinlcaling with foreign states. In the interwds 
 of the sittings (jf the Dier, the supreme authority
 
 HISTORY Ol' THi: SWISS Pi;opi.i: 
 
 44: 
 
 rested with the chief officials of the Canton Diyidntr 
 of the vear. presided o\er liy tlie Landainniaiin of 
 Switzerland, 'flie first to fill this lattt-r pust was Louis L-'u: 
 D'Aflry. so:: of the l'rc>:irh Ambassador to Holland, ^'• 
 one of the Swiss dojnities to I'aris. He w:is lujini- 
 nated in the fii'>t instance by Napoleon, and afterwards 
 continued in his position by the .general \'ote of the 
 cantons. And it woudd ha\e been dit'ticult to ha\'e 
 chosen one in e\erv way more iitted to fill the 
 diflicult and responsilde ollice. D'Atfry's mental 
 characteristics and physical ,i,dfts luarked hiiu as a 
 born leader of men. Durini;' two terms of office, in a 
 ]:ieriod of exceptir)nal unrest and ^i^'eneral chani^'e, he 
 _i,''uid.ed the Swiss throu,L;1i manv difliculties, and brou,L;h.t 
 them nearer toi^x-ther. and thouj^di possess! n.t,'' Xapoleun's 
 protection he ne\'er substituted the interests of brance 
 foa' those of his adopted country, llis foreign origin 
 pre\'ented him frcjm e\'er attainin,L( an\' ,L;'reat amount of 
 perstmal p(;]:iulant\-, but his (;tficial conduct, his ,L;reat 
 abilities, and, still more, his >crupulous honest\' and 
 im[)artialit\-, earned him the respect and confidence 
 of all. 
 
 In the new arran^'enient . (leiiewi, and the territorios 
 taken by the 1 )irectory from the i;i>hopiic ot iJass-l. 
 remained in the possession of braiiir. N'alais was 
 separated and afterwards also incorjiorated into thr 
 I'daaich dominions. The future neutrality of tiu' ("on- 
 fetloration was iormalK' recoL^nised, and to the end of 
 his career Napoleon faithfully re>[)eeted the under- 
 takiuL,'" he had entered into. 
 
 One: of the first acts (d the Conft'deration uiuler /-'i 
 ihe- new system was the C(jnclusion of an oif'eiisi\e ^''r 
 and detensi\e alliaiua.' with i'd'ance for fifty years, the
 
 Revolt in 
 Zi'tiicJi, 
 
 A.I). I0S4. 
 
 448 HISTORY OF THE SWISS PEOPLE 
 
 chief feature of which was a renewal of former treaties 
 granting 16,000 Swiss auxiHaries to the French army. 
 No recruits to other Powers were to be permitted. 
 The vSwiss were allowed to send annually twenty 
 youths to the celebrated l^^cole Polytechnique at 
 Paris, in return for which privilege it was stipu- 
 lated that Switzerland should purchase annually 
 200,000 (quintals of salt from France. This curious 
 arrangement gave rise to the popular saying, " C'est 
 un traite sale que celui que nous avons conclu avec 
 la I'Vance."' 
 
 During the period extending over the next twelve 
 years, the Confederation enjoyed a greater amount of 
 repose and prosperity than had been the case for a 
 long time. The firmness of those in authority, the 
 better feeling between the different cantons, and the 
 growing sentiment of nationality, produced a marked 
 change. The only domestic trouble of any importance 
 (resulting from the natural turbulence of the race) 
 broke out among the Zurich peasants. l^eliexing 
 themselves oppressed by the (iovernment's refusal to 
 abolish certain tithes, a number of the people li\ing 
 about the shores of the Lake of Zurich refused to take 
 the oath of allegiance, and rose in arms. The revolt 
 spread rapidly to the neighbouring districts, and was 
 only suppressed after a good deal of pillage and blood- 
 shed. That this rising (known as the ]>ochcnhrci<:^) did 
 not become more serious, is due to the jH'ompt manncM' 
 in which the se\-eral cantons responded to the demands 
 of the Landammann of Switzerland for the year, for 
 troo])s to act in concert. b\)r the first time for many 
 years it was ioimd possible to obtain and iisi^ a 
 Conlederale lorce for the common j/ood.
 
 HIsr^M<^■ III- I'm: >\vis> i'i:n;';,i: 44^ 
 
 [n April of the srune vcar. p.ti inriilmt orcurrecl i 
 
 i/;, 
 
 that iniL;"ht ha\'f r-'?iilteil in \'erv scri.ms consequcnci. s y.-,_,,.^ 
 for the ("onU'deralion. Tliis was the prcsentati- 'ii of 
 a petition to Xafiok-on bv a nnniber of S\vi>s , ■;;.•.•':,';•,'.■; 
 resilient in Paris, be.cTi^ini,'' him to ann.ex Switzerlantl 
 to h'rance. Thou^'h ener^eticalK' supporlrd l>v I'rinre 
 Mtirat and sexeral otliei' eminent men of tlie timo. 
 Xapjleon lefnsed to ccninti-nance the idea. 
 
 \'>\ tlie terms ot the Act ot Mediation th(^ national /Vr 
 militia wa- tixrd at i3,i):)i): this ai"mv remained eliicilv ;.-;V,'; 
 on paper. Soon aitt-r Us turmation. the nr\v ("lOxaa'n- 
 ment felt the need oi a thoron^hh' wa-ll or.i^anised 
 standini,'' force to maintain order within the can.tons. 
 and to L^tiard the frontiers irom an\- stiddeii \-iol;uio!i. 
 Tho risin^:' in tlic Zurich distrii-ts iurtlii.-r aceeiUnated 
 thir. want. AccijrdinL;"l\', a srhenu' wa-- die\isrdi to 
 e-taltli>h a regular scirud lur n;iiitar\' irainim;'. to 
 raise a land tor mihtar\- pau'po'-i'-^, and to (ii-;:,inise an 
 elfoctive n.iti'Uial militia. ddi-iUL^h the ui'u;"ent neee-<iiv 
 of these plans was apj.varent, tlie opposition ol a lar^e 
 section ot the people, and the decdd.ed refusal oi 
 Xapoleor. to sanction them, hustrated the intentions 
 oi the ( lOX'crnment. and matiers reuiaiui-d miehaui^ed. 
 Important e\'ents e\'en ai"ose to dem ou.-ti'ate the wi>doMi 
 of the contemplated military measuri.'S. Swi>s neu'.ralitw 
 it is true, was .guaranteed 1)\' the hdrst Consul ol l-"rance. 
 but many recent experiences had iKJt impressed the 
 mhabitants of other countiies with tiie laith (if Ideiich 
 ju'onnses. The turmoil in whieh all luii'ope was a;_:'ain 
 jdunged b\- the ambitious d.e>iL;n> oi X.ipoK- 'U. made 
 it ap])eai hiohl\- ])robabl'e that that resiles^ qenitis 
 mioht consider exi)ediencv as more important than 
 the necessitv of maintainini,^ his pliohteil woi^l. 
 
 -O
 
 450 HISTORY or THE SWISS PKOPI.E 
 
 A.I). 1S05. On December 2nd, 1805, Napoleon ceased to be 
 
 First Consul, and became Emperor of the French. 
 The coalition of Austria, Russia and Great Britain 
 against his arbitrary extensions of power that followed 
 that event, once more lighted up the flame of war. 
 Finding themselves surrounded by formidable armies, 
 the Swiss used every effort to obtain assurance from 
 the belligerents that their frontiers would not be 
 crossed. From the Austrians a ready promise was 
 given to respect the Confederates' territories, providing 
 a similar undertaking was given by the French. 
 Napoleon, however, in spite of many requests, refused 
 to give the required guarantee. In this emergency, 
 the patriotism of the people so far revived that the 
 Ciovcrnment was able to raise a considerable force, 
 Nciichdtel, which was ordered to guard the frontier passes. After 
 the defeat of the allies at Austcrlitz, another cause of 
 apprehension arose among the Swiss from the cession 
 by the King of Prussia of Neuchatel, and its bestowal 
 by Napoleon on Alexandre Berthicr, one of his numer- 
 ous generals (March 30th, 1806). On this transference 
 being eflected, a number of Swiss merchants, more 
 avaricious than patriotic, forwarded a large (quantity 
 of English goods into the Principality with a view 
 to passing them into hh'ance, in contra\'enlion of the 
 French Emperor's stringent prolhbition against luiglish 
 manufactures getting into li^urope. 'I'his action called 
 down the wrath of Napoleon on Switzerland, and he 
 was only rq^ipeased by the Confederate Diet passing a 
 decree forbidding goods from hmgland entering any 
 of the cantons, much to the detriment of the latter. 
 All eflurls on the part of the Swiss again to obtain 
 Neuchatel as a part of their country ])ro\'ed fruitless.
 
 HISTOiri" or TH!' SWISS IM-.OiM.l-: 
 
 43' 
 
 as intlecd was to he t-xprctcd. The vcar i"^oh is further 
 ineiiiorabK- in Swiss chronicles Iroin the tciTihle chsaster 
 that toik place at (loldau. where on Sei:>teinl)er 2nii. 
 in conse']uence ot an earthfiiiake, tour villai^'es were 
 destroyed, and where in a tew minutes 457 persons 
 perished. 
 
 Anion!,:; the manv rapidly-created principles iip.m 
 which Napoleon based sonie ot his most iniprinciplcd 
 deeds, was his dictum that all countries where the 
 inhahitaiits spc)ke I'rench belonged, of necessity, to 
 Ih'ance. lie had already demonstrated this in the 
 case ot Xeuchatel. and nriw further empha'^ised it hv 
 annexing: the whoU: of X'alais. To the Swiss it 
 appeared as if a thirtl examjde would he ,L,d\"en bv the 
 inci ;rporation fit \'aud. 
 
 iA'erv vear tlie fearful lo>sos sustadned by the 
 I'rench armies madt' the enrolliuL;' oi the Swis-- con- 
 tinLi'ont ai^reed upon a matter of .i^^-eater ditfuadtv. 
 Atter trvinu' many mt^thods of excitin-' thc> tlaLi'^ini^' 
 enthusiasm of the Swiss ir) die on torei'_;'n battle-tiehls. 
 resource t'j conscrii)ti(jn wa> oid\- avi<idic:tl b\' idling" 
 the ranks of the stipidated le\d^'S with the ncrupants 
 of the Swiss jails and the worst and m )st objection- 
 abl(_t characters, whose absence would pi^oxa- a national 
 ble>>in'_:, if not a cr(;dit, to their C'iunli"y. 
 
 I ntU;r the ( i(A'eriimL-nt of the Act (jI Mediation, 
 the authorities for tin; lirst time tr^'ated th*' peo[)ie as 
 c'juak ami as rational beinL;'s. 'IdiDuudi stdl in manv 
 I"'. sjH-et.-. tar remo\'ed trom a mh\ei'sall\' cultured and 
 ad-.'anced raoe, the majoril\- ot the Swiss had in the 
 pa-t tew years made L;r(;at striilcs in ci\disation. 
 A Li'jod iCiCthod of p'ublic instruction was iiurod.uced 
 into ni<jSt of the cantons, and trum thi> pt-riod 
 
 l:nn
 
 452 HISTORY or THI-: SWISS PEOPLE 
 
 may be dated the bijth of that high educational 
 standard which to-day marks the people of Switzerland. 
 In many districts, as in the valleys of St. Gallen, 
 Appenzell and Glarus, manufacturing industries 
 sprang to life and soon rose to great importance. 
 Literary and scientific societies made their appear- 
 ance in many centres where before little learning 
 existed, and the formation of agricultural associations 
 greatly helped to improve the natural resources of 
 the peasant classes by introducing better methods 
 in the cultivation of the soil and the breeding of cattle. 
 A very important engineering work accomplished at 
 this time showed the improved condition of the people 
 as well as their patriotic generosity. This w^as the 
 making of the great canal of the Linth, between Lakes 
 Wallenstadt and Zurich, at a cost of 1,500,000 francs, 
 raised by public subscriptions, whereby a large tract 
 'of marsh land was reclaimed. 
 
 Very little of importance breaks the calm of Swiss 
 history, till the time when fortune, wearying of her 
 prodigal bestowal of favours on Napoleon, began at 
 length to neglect him. Her methods were swift and 
 emphatic. 
 
 In the disastrous Russian campaign, during the 
 winter of 1812, Napoleon's losses amounted to 125,000 
 slain; 132,000 died of hunger, disease and exhaustion, 
 while 193,000 were taken prisoners, including 3,000 
 officers and 4.8 generals — (Boutourlin). In the army 
 tliat suffered this awful calamity were some 14,000 
 Swiss Auxiliaries, whose heroic conduct under their 
 fearful trials won the admiration of both French and 
 Ivussians. 'Idie tide of war was now rapidly approach- 
 ing the Swiss frontiers. Napoleon's second reverse at
 
 Hisr'JKv oi- rill. SWISS I'l.cn'i.i. 
 
 453 
 
 Leipsic. in i^^i-;. lu'oLii^iil the Allirs ni si,L;'hl ni ilu' ah, 
 Khinc. This drtral was (j1 iinpoilancc lo Switzcrhuul, 
 as It was followed hy the cession ot 'I'icino bv Italy 
 and its rctmion with the Contetleratitjn. The satistac- 
 tiijn caiiseil bv this e\"eiu was, hcnvewr, considerabi}' 
 lessened by the ne'ws that the Allies intemled ti) cicss 
 a portion ot Swi>s territory in order to enter b^astern 
 b'rance. Thcjii^h contrary to the L;iiarantees already 
 ;_;i\'en, the expediencN' ot attacking b'rance on her most 
 vulnerable frontier w;i.s e\'ident. bhe Allies on their 
 [lart, while achnitting the Swiss were not callei-1 upon 
 to take arms again>t Napoleon, who had treated them 
 with excejitional consideration, tirged that the natiu'e 
 ot the war --a war to free luu'ojK' from the intolerable 
 thraklom <.)! one ambitious man — justitied them in 
 their \-ioiation of neutral territor\-. They were, more- 
 oxer, urged to cross the Swiss trontier bv a consider- 
 able number (jt the Swiss themseh'es, who were anxious 
 to see their ctjuntry treed ir^jin i'rench influence and 
 restoretl to her tormer independence. 
 
 On Decendier 21st the Au^trians entered Ikisek-V.;; 
 and marched into Alsat'e. whilst others ot the Allies /;"'■' 
 passed through l!ern, S;)lothurn and \'aud to (/ene\a 
 and Lvons. All through their march the htiactest dhs- 
 cijjline was maintaino'tl, and e\er\' regard paid to the 
 [)ers.)ns and proi)erty of the Swiss, who had little to 
 complain oi trom the presence ot theii" \"isitoi's. Owe. 
 happy result of the \ictoriou> mai> h ot tlu; Allies 
 was tin; deli\-erance of (ienewi, Neu.hatel and X'alai^, 
 from theii' l-"reiich ma.-^tei's, and tiieir admi^^^ion mto 
 the ( ', )niederati' m 1 1 -^ i ,) ). 
 
 And now tile da\"^ ol the C io\er imieiit uiuier the 
 system imp o.-ed by the Act ol Mediation were ra[)idlv 
 
 1M3 
 
 : I , I - I ^
 
 4.54 JIISTOKV OF THE SWISS PEOPLE 
 
 drawing to a close. It had done its work, and done 
 it well, Init it was already out of keeping with the 
 political ideas of many of the Swiss themselves, and 
 was regarded with disfavour by the sovereigns of 
 Europe. Already in Bern, Solothurn, and other im- 
 portant centres, a practical return to the former system 
 of patrician rule had occurred. Shortly before the 
 entry of the Allies, two envoys from Austria and 
 France arrived at Zurich, where the General Diet was 
 then sitting. They were the bearers of a note to the 
 Swiss representatives, stating that " the Act of Media- 
 1 tion, being the work of a foreign influence inimical 
 
 to the rest of Europe, was incompatible with the 
 principles of the great European Alliance, and the 
 Powers, whilst disclaiming any wish to interfere in 
 the internal affairs of Switzerland, could not allow that 
 country to remain any longer under the tutelage of 
 the French.'' 
 
 Answering the signilicant hint contained in this 
 message, the majority of the Diet wisely determined to 
 elfect the changes demanded, rather than gi\e an 
 opportunity for fresh foreign inter\-ention. A meeting 
 oi deputies representing the cantons was accordingly 
 
 All. 1813. called at Zurich, and on December 2yth the Act oi 
 Mediation was formally dissolved, the complete inde- 
 pendence of all the Swiss States acknowledged, and 
 the urgent need of arranging the terms ol a tresh 
 Constitution publicly impressed on the country. 
 
 I\\f,.ini> in tin in the meetings that followed, J]ern, f'"re}burg and 
 
 Cf'iistiliilifir .-1,1 I r 1,1 . 1 r r j1 
 
 riolotnurn alone retused the suggested reicnms. in these 
 towns the re-establishment of the former aristocratic; 
 rule; li'd ti) their wish lo re\ert to tin; knnier system of 
 the Thirteen Cantons, and their subject territories.
 
 msiDRN oi- nil-. 
 
 455 
 
 ik-rn op^-iii\- l^^ue(l ;i prorhiiiKition lo \',i;ul and 
 Aar;^'au, ur.i^'ini;" t.he people lo return to tlieir aUei^ianet: 
 lo her rule; a [jruposal ihal met with an einphalic 
 retusal. Ju iheir attempt to re^'ain their lust po.-ilion, 
 the ambitiuus aristocraeies e\-en appealeii to t'ne Alhed 
 Soxereign^ then assembled at N'ienna. but receivim; an 
 answer upholdin.i;' the \ae\vs ot tin; majoritv ot the Diet, 
 they at length ,L;'a\ l' \\a\" and accepted the ine\itable. 
 
 '1 o Stratiord C'annm^i:' (atterwards \ iscount Strat- >:; 
 tord de Ive'.lcliiie), is due m ^'reat mea>uri' the ^ati^- 
 tactor\- manner m which the new Constitution wa^, 
 tormulated and a'^reed to. llis labours in the cau^e ot 
 Swis,-- unit\' were unremitting;', and h\> t;icl and gre;it 
 ;ibiluies were used with the ha{)i)iest etlect ;il ;i critical 
 time. In llis pul)li>lied memi.)ir>' he lhr(jw> much 
 liL,du on Swiss aiiairs :it this period. ;uid incidentally 
 ,L:'i\"e.-- m:in\' pictures ot the Swi>s in their domestic 
 and political relations. hd'cjiu hi> work much ot the 
 iollowini^' is taken. 
 
 i)n June 2^th. i~^i-)-. ( 'iinniuL;' w.is ;ipi)oinled Ih'itish/;; 
 i'hi\"o\' l-i\tr;i(jrdinary and Minister bie'iii;.)- iieiitiai \' to 
 Switzerland (which [)>)St he occup'ied till AuL^ust. i^^np. 
 and in the iollowiuL;' month took uj) his residence m 
 Zurich. in ;i letter date-d |ul\' 3th. lu; tlui> reter> lo 
 his tir^t public iuiictiou. in what lie call> "the laiui oi 
 liberty and coiked h;lt^." •• 1 lie meat e\i.'nt ot io-d;a\' 
 i> mv \ i^it to lli^ l-b\cel!e!;c\ the 1 'resident ol ijie 
 |-b\tr;iordiin:u"\" I 'it.'l. a \er\ lesp-'^uibie L;'entlemaii. 
 \'er,i:"inu; uijoii ti!t\', readiiiL;' l'Uii;"li>li. and \^ i_-arin,i;' ,i 
 black ( oat and a pi^-tail. We e\ch;in,L;ed >i)eecheh m 
 
 1^1) 
 
 11! >'.!■. a |e: 
 
 an-, (jia-ei 
 
 ;'!e\ l.:ine 1'
 
 456 HISTOR" OF THE SWISS PEOPLE 
 
 presence of sundry Deputies and a General. Guards 
 presented arms, and my procession, consisting of a 
 coach and pair, seemed to produce no small sensation." 
 Referring to social society, he says, " The social re- 
 sources of Zurich are limited. Men of talent and 
 information belonging to the place were not entirely 
 wanting, but the state of the country ga\e a local and 
 serious colouring to their conversation, and wi\es and 
 daughters were more remarkable for their domestic 
 \'irtues than for the claims and accomplishments of 
 polished society. The hours were primitive, 'early to 
 bed and early to rise,' family dinners at twelve, or soon 
 after, diplomatic bancjuets by fa\our at two. 
 
 "The people are exceedingly good, not the more 
 poetical for being in the midst of rocks and waterfalls, 
 rather given to matters of fact and prosing — but with 
 a goodness of heart, and, in general, a straightforward- 
 ness, which would reconcile one to more determined 
 faults than these. I wish I could say as much as 
 this in favour of their politics. Without any ^■iolent 
 absurdity or wickedness on then' ])arl, one may readily 
 concei\-e it to be no easy matter for nineteen indepen- 
 dent states to liit upon a joint Constitution, unobjection- 
 able to each. \\ hen one considers tlie materials (.)f 
 which the Confederacy has been gradually formed, as 
 well as the circumstances under which confederation 
 was made, one may rather wonder that it should lia\e 
 found a principle of coherence, than that its re-estab- 
 lishment, after the late changes, should occasion any 
 dillicully. ]'l\'ery possible cause of dissension exists in 
 some j:)art or other of the fabric, and nothing but the 
 pressure fr(jm without would bring it together tor a 
 moment : but once arranged, and s(]ueezed and glued
 
 HISTORY OI- 'JHh SWISS I'l.OI'LK 
 
 457 
 
 into sh;ipc. thci'e is rcasun lo h(j;^e that ii ina\' still 
 resist the stc,rin> (it ICuropc. and \)v iiiainK' contluci\"e 
 to the '-Ct-nLral iep(jse. The so\"ereign ot the ('f)n- 
 federac\- r'_-tufn("l my first \isit on foot, with a 
 c(jcked hat and sword inv his reL^alia . and the de- 
 puties haw such an axcrsion to tinerv that thev mal<e 
 their ser\ant:, wear their distincti\-L- robes oi cerctnony, 
 while th<j\' tht;!ns'.-l\ es [)roceed to the Diet in suits (jf 
 indiscriminate hlack. 
 
 " Tlie IIcKctic Confederac}- was at this time in 
 a \-crv di>JMinted conditiiju. S(j loni,'' as iJonaparte's 
 A< I ot Metiiation was in iorce, the old antl the new 
 cantons were sen>il)le ot a compression which, more 
 or less, held them toi^cther in spite of themscdx'es. It 
 is hut ju>tice to say that the Act in ([uestion deri\ed 
 stren.^th. not onl\' trc^m the power ot its author, hut 
 in S(jme measure ti"' -m it> intrinsic merit. The Allies 
 deemed it a part oi sound jiolicv in the (diani^'e ot 
 circumstance.^ to untie a cord \shich attatdied the 
 Alpine Kef)ul)lic> to h'rance. Hv ,i:i\iiiL;" the Swiss a 
 new p(ditical (.-xistence, datin,i( from their ti'ium[)h in 
 the cause ot national indepeiuK-nce. the\' hoped to 
 er^tahlish a barrier ta\"om'able to then' \■iew^ in the 
 <entre oi biurojie. The\' imaLrined that the nenti'alu\' 
 <ji a ne\\l\- constituted Swil/eiJaiul nu.;ht be brou'_;"ht 
 t(j o]K'rate as a (dieck uptiU the normal tendencx' ot 
 [•dance to extend, its powei" beyonel the Alji^. and to 
 create a,i{L;re>si\a; cU-peiideix ie^ in ItaK' and (lermaiu', 
 on i!ie 1 'o, and on the Paiiube. The bhiiperor ol 
 l\u>sia. in pai'tieular. auued at su( ceediu'^' lo ih.u 
 uuhieui >_■ which Na[)oleon'> alulication had lelt o[>en 
 to the UKjst persuasi\e. or the nujst connuandiuL; 
 suitor. l-'or tiub {)urpoM- he had iound an able and
 
 458 HISTORY OF THE SWISS I'liOPI.E 
 
 zealous agent in Count Capodistrias, who, in concert 
 with Lebzeltern, an Austrian diplomatist, had already 
 sounded the respecti\e cantons, and prepared them for 
 a reconstruction of the I'ederal Act, intended to be the 
 result of their free consent, though fashioned under 
 the impress of foreign influence. . . . IMy colleagues, 
 in addition to Capodistrias, were Ikiron Schrant the 
 Austrian, and Count Chambrier the I'russian repre- 
 sentative of Neuchatel, both very respectable members 
 of the old school. [France not being, of course, one 
 of the Allied Powers, had no plenipotentiary, but 
 Count Auguste de Talleyrand was French Minister 
 in Switzerland in 1814 and i>Si5.] Capodistrias took 
 the lead of them in our debates, lie was superior in 
 talent and knowledge, with the additional advantages 
 ot natural elocution, Greek dexterity, and a fixed 
 object, commended to him alike by his instructions, 
 and by his personal opinions. fie sided generally 
 with the new cantons, whereas the old ones expected 
 sympathy and countenance from me. He hated 
 Aletternich, and entertained a strong prejudice against 
 the l-2nglish and their national policy. . . . Our duties 
 in common were of two kinds. We had to bring the 
 component parts ot the HeK'etic Diet into unison on 
 tiie subject of their I'Aderal Compact, and we had also 
 to assist the cantonal authorities in framing their 
 separate conditions in such manner as to make them 
 harmonise with that instrument, and gi\e satisfaction 
 to tlie contending parties in each independent legisla- 
 ture, iiie I'ederal Compact, alter being \oted by the 
 Diet, could not become law till ratified by tiic legislati\-e 
 bodies in each canton, and amongst the cant(jiis were 
 those composed se\'erally of two sovereign authorities.
 
 HISTORY (u- iTii-; SWISS riCDiM.i: 
 
 459 
 
 ll inusi bf contL'Ssed ihal there was plenty to do, nuich 
 to adjust, niiu h to amend, and. lor us lorei,i;'ners. much 
 to learn. [There was also much io lea\e alone. i>ord 
 Castlerea^h's despatches torm one lon,i;' panej^\ric oi 
 non-inter\"ention. I M\"ery torm oi repuMican consti- 
 tution, from the purest democracy to the hi<4"hest 
 aristocratic rule, came imder our inspection. At 
 Neuchatel there was e\en an intusicjn of ro\'altv." 
 
 On the adjournment ol the Diet, tor the purpose a, n. 1^14. 
 ot enablin,L,f the se\ eral cant(.)nal legislatures to appro\e 
 the proposed new ['"ederal Constitution, ("anninj;' made 
 a t(nu' through main' ol the most interesting" [portions 
 ot Switzerlantl. lie extols the beauties ol the countrx" 
 in poetical terms, and sin,L;'s the praises of the dead 
 heroes, whose deeds made tanujus the places he \'isited. 
 His Austrian collea,i;ue, 1 Jaron Schrant, in a lit of 
 asthma and choler. told the dt^puties that their fa\ourite 
 Tell was an as>assin. CanniuL:, troubled b\- no historical 
 doubts, held him to be a hero, and e\erv stej") in the 
 li,i;'ht aj^^ainst tyrann\ won his unbounded admiration. 
 The spirit mo\-ed him to pom out such teelinL;'s in 
 \erse, and halt-a-dozt'n stan/as, dediiated •• To the 
 Swiss, i>;]4," testilv to the enthusiasm with which he 
 re.\"ered the heroic tradition> of ilu'ii' past — (.S. Lane- 
 1 '(jole). 
 
 Lord C^astlcrea^ii. shuitly alter his .arrixal ai the 
 \ ienna ('oni;ress. onlered ("annuiL;' to lea\e Switzerland 
 tem[K)raril\ and jwin him (October i^tli). lleri' ("amuuL;" 
 was appointed the ]Mincipal l!n<4hsli rei)i"esentati\ f on 
 the Connnittee it was lountl nei essarv to nominate lor 
 the spei iai consideration ot Swiss affairs. In hi> 
 memoii"s, he .l;'^'-'-'" 'li^' <"our>e ol e\ent> that (cnlred 
 on Swilzerlaiul ironi this. Committee, in which the
 
 460 HISTORY OF THE SWISS PEOPLE 
 
 important duty devolved on him of drawing up the 
 protocols. " It was occasionally my business in the 
 intervals of the sittings of the Committee to propose 
 some question for deliberation, and the Swiss deputies 
 whether from the Diet or from the separate cantons, 
 honoured me with visits, which had not the angelic 
 quality of being ' few and far between.' There was 
 also the class of mediatised claimants who looked to 
 Congress for their reinstatement, and passed their time 
 in recommending their pretensions to e\'eryone who was 
 supposed to have the slightest influence. The Abbot 
 of St. Gall was one of the dispossessed princes, and I 
 cannot easily forget a dinner at which I enjoyed the 
 (}uestionable privilege of sitting next to him at table. 
 lie knew no modern language but his own, and that 
 was a sealed vessel to me. All that we had in common 
 was Latin, which I was not in the habit of talking, and 
 which he pronounced with an accent foreign to my ears. 
 The dinner lasted three mortal hours, and the Abbot 
 thought it an excellent opportunity for putting me in 
 lull possession of his grie\ances, his rights and his 
 hopes." 
 
 Meanwhile, though the business of the Conunittee 
 on Switzerland drew to a close, the C'ongr(;ss itself 
 mo\x;d \ery slowly. International jealousies clogged its 
 rate of progress; Vienna gaities were more congenial 
 to its members than their diplomatic deliberations ; " le 
 ('ongres danse, mais n'a\'ance pas." An important step 
 was, howe\'er, taken by iCngkind when the Duke o( 
 W'ellingtcjn arri\-ed at X'ienaa and superseded Lord 
 ("astlereagh. Shcjrlly after the Comn.iittee concluded 
 their lal)ours, which are thus summarised by Canning: 
 " Our ("()niinittt;e had got through their work with fair
 
 HIs•^^lR^ oi Tin: 
 
 ^^^■IS^ i'i:o!M,i- 
 
 4 
 
 A I 
 
 success. 'I'hcy ci nclr.clctl In' aclojniiiL;' an Act of ]-"cclcra- .Lt of 
 ti(jii, essciitiallv thv same as that presented bv the Piet, '',' j^j'. ' 
 but otleiini;' some su]iplenieiitarv decisions on points left 
 open at Zurich, and accompanied with a promise of 
 neutrahl}- and L;uarant}- as th.e price oi acceptance. 
 The henexolent leelin^s entertained by all the (ireat 
 Towers itir Switzerland were recorded in a pi-eliminary 
 exhortation to ])eace and mutual ,t;'ood-will, which 1 
 had the ha]ipiness to draw uj). Cajiodistrias had lon,ic 
 persisted in his endeax'ours to ,i;i\'e a different character 
 t(j the Act. and I was constrained to brini,'- the question 
 at issue under the Duke of Weilini^ton's consiileration. 
 [lis t-'irace in\ited us to a meetini^" at his house. I had 
 prexiouslv infcjrmed him that the 1 leKetian Diet, as a 
 whole, e.\]iected no essential chan^^e in the Act which 
 ihev had adopted, and that their expre'tations had been 
 confirmed b\' something; \a'r\" mucdi like a pK;di;'e on our 
 parts. He went at once to the point by enquirini;' of 
 Count Cajjodislrias whether such was the casu'. In my 
 presence the Count had but or,c; answer in 'j^iyc, ui)on 
 wdiich the l)uke i-x[M'essed his o[nnion that matter.-^ had 
 belter remain as the\- were, and so they did."" 
 
 Cn March ijth the ("cjmmittee sat fur the last time, -U.n./i. 
 and a lew da\s after Canniui^, at the request of the 
 l'2nii)eror of Russia and the l)ukeof \\"ellin,L;"lon, returned 
 to vSwit/eiiaiul, in order to ineiuce the inhabitants to 
 airree to the suLi'-'ested chanees.
 
 CHAPTER XXI 
 
 RKSTORATIOX OF THE FEDERAF, PACT 
 
 AD. 1815-30. The political oscillations that show in all periods 
 
 of great change were especially marked in the modi- 
 fications the Swiss Constitution underwent after the 
 time of the French Revolution. In several important 
 points the system introduced in 1815, under the auspices 
 of the Congress of Vienna, appeared to countenance 
 retrogressive rather than progressive ideas. Religious 
 liberty to all creeds was not guaranteed, and political 
 equality in many districts disappeared with the Act 
 of Napoleon that recognised both. In se\'eral of the 
 chief towns and cantons a form of aristocratic govern- 
 ment, very similar to that which formerly obtained, 
 was again established. In ISern, Zurich, h'reyburg 
 and other centres, this was specially the case, as here 
 certain patrician families secured the chief olficcs to 
 themselves and \'irtually rendered them hereditary, 
 and by allowing only a small number of representa- 
 tives in the local councils to the pc^asant classes of 
 the rural districts, they secured to the towns the chi(>f 
 authority over the canton. Liberty ol the press and 
 of expressing public opinion were stilled in most of 
 the States, and bc^th the [''ederal Diet and the local 
 councils fearing or disliking publicity, held their sit- 
 tings with closed doors. In short, the Swiss city
 
 iiiSTOKN' oi' Till" SWISS Pi:nri. 
 
 Vk\ 
 
 cantons, though protcssinj^' Republican principles, rc- 
 seniblcd much more in their ^'oxernmeiit those of 
 I'Luropean monarchies. In the W'aldstatten, the; (irau- 
 biinclen, and in Appi'uztdl, the Landsi^cuh-iiidcii were 
 re-established, and a return to the lormer pur(? 
 democracy obtained. In \'alais dcm(~)cratic ruU> also 
 prevailed, but her(> it was less thorouL,di, the in- 
 hal)itants of the l^ower distri(~ts not ha\in,i;' as many 
 \otes as those of the I'pper. In the new cantons, 
 formed since i "^oj (.\.iry'au. Thurq-au, \'aud. St. (lallen 
 and Ticino). the L:o\ermnent was popular, as instituted 
 bv the Act of Mediation. 
 
 ] '.}• the (Constitution of 1S15, a confederation nf The F:\In\i! 
 twentv-two states was established bv the accession of /,''', o,- 
 Genewa, Xeuch.atel and \"alais. Hern, Zurich, and 
 Luzern wtae constituted I'orc'iis or Directini; Cantons, 
 each beconn'nt^f so bv turn lor two years. lA'ery 
 canton possessed com]det(> control oNcr its own affairs, 
 and. over all, the b'ederal Diet exercnsed supreme 
 so\'ereiL;'nty in jiurely national concerns, :is well as in 
 disputes in or betwc^'U the se\'errd cantons them- 
 seh'cs. The otfice ot Landanunami of Switzerland 
 was abolished. In the b'ederal ] )iet each canton had 
 one \ote only. Hurmij; the jieriods when tlie Diet was 
 not in session, its hmctions in all matters of pressing' 
 inij^iortance were c;.\ercdsed bv the b'.xecutixe Council of 
 the then directim;' (~anton, piesitled o\-ei' b\' the cdiief 
 loca.l official. An important power \'ested in the Hii-f 
 was that ot sending' national troops to occu]n' :>u\ can- 
 ton or tlistrict when the public peace was thi'eatiMied. 
 'rhi'(iu,L;"h this latter and the hiw which t\jrbade one 
 stale to lake up arms ai^'ainst another, one oi the chief 
 weaknesses in the chain oi uiiitx' was iemo\-ed.
 
 464 HISTORY OF THE SWISS PEOPLE 
 
 Treaty viih The treaty that formerly obhged the Swiss to 
 
 France, . . . . 
 
 A D. 1816. lurnish iNapoleon Avith a large annual contmg-ent 01 
 
 soldiers, came to an end with the downfall of the 
 Emperor, but in its place another was signed with the 
 French King agreeing to furnish that monarch with a 
 force of 11,000 mercenaries (18 16). 
 
 During the fifteen years the new Constitution lasted, 
 great progress, intellectually and materially, was made, 
 and many useful reforms were effected, and that in 
 spite, perhaps in consequence, of the little political 
 power possessed by the mass of the people. The period 
 is one of profound tranc^uility, undisturbed by any 
 serious foreign or domestic troubles. 
 Stratford On his return from the Congress of Vienna to 
 
 A.D. 1815. resume his onicial duties m bwitzerland, btrattord 
 Canning at once set about his difficult task of recon- 
 ciling the Swiss to the Constitution he brought them. 
 In many parts of the Confederation there certainly 
 was a good deal of discontent at the recent proposals, 
 as was only natural when so many different interests 
 clashed. In the Graubiinden especially was much 
 heartburning, as Chiavenna, the \'al Tellina and 
 Bormio, formerly subject districts, were taken from 
 the defunct Cisalpine Republic and became the pos- 
 sessions of Austria. In the beginning of the war the 
 Auslrians formally repudiated any intenlion to annex 
 Swiss territories, and in this particular instance, 
 though the districts had for a short time ceased to 
 belong to the Graubunden, the excuse for taking 
 them, that they formed part of one of Napoleon's 
 creations, was certainly a form of political sliarp 
 practice. Dappenthal, annexed by the I'rench from 
 \"aud. was restcjrcd to that canton, parts of the
 
 tor:p.cii\- t;ikt'ii iroiu lh'> nishoprir ot l>:isc-l 
 hIlhI ()\"i_-r to Hlth c'ls coinpnis.itioii tnr luT 
 loss ot \ ;uul. and ollur trrritorial t'lian^fs ot a li'ss 
 iinpoflanl kiiul \vl-i\' iiKule to satisfy clillerciit clainis. 
 C'aniiin',;" m his iiuiiioirs dt-scrilics the results (jf his 
 labours. •■ My printuj-.al duties were centred in two 
 objects: tlie tonnal acceptance bv the Swiss Cantons 
 ot the Act ot (ontetleration reconnneraled to them bv 
 the (."onL;ress, and. s-inicwhat later, the concdusion ot 
 a treat\' en^a.^iny' tlie cantons to take an auxiliarv. 
 thouL;"h as tar ;is iKissible a detensi\-e, part in tlie 
 j_;'rand coalition aL^'ainst Napoleon. Neither the one 
 nor the odier of these jioints could be caiaded without 
 some \e\atiou> tli>putes audi mueh pei'--e\ eriuL;' exei'lion. 
 Amom^' tile child cantons wei'e ^ew-ral whudi woukl 
 hi\t- p.reierreil a more centralisiuL;" arranLi'emenI than 
 that whi( h was settled b\- ihi- Act approved at \ ieima. 
 'Jdie smaller caiUons, unch.-r a diflereiu bia>, were 
 attached to certain ideas ot their own. and their habits 
 ot thou,L;dit no le>s than tlK'ir mountaiu>. cwntnu'd them 
 to an hori/.on ot narrow exteiU. None \\ ei'e desirous 
 of iiKanaduL,'" the expenses ot war. and pro\okinL;' the 
 ill-will of iheir \indi(ti\e nei^hb iur>. Idie\- tell the 
 nece>sit\- of armin.u, but thou-ht in i^eiural tint tlie\- 
 touKl not be,L;in too soon to be laaUral. Idu-M' nauiral 
 moti\es for adherini;" to a di^jMiuled and i]me>ceiit 
 scheme ot })olicy ,L;'a\'e wa\' b\' di,-L;rees to ihe pi'e>>ure 
 of circumstances as apprecaaleti by the ;;'ood scn>e 
 of the nation, and sour- lime lu'luia- the batllc of 
 Waterloo had remo\ ed exaax' cause ol hisUaUnu. the 
 hid ai;!ied. to accept ihe i"ec. immeiidali' mis ot ils 
 j)^>\\erud Irieiids, and to |om llu' (ir.uul Alirmce wuh 
 a c. huuil;"! nt ot .p ',' >. '■ i men.
 
 466 HISTORY OF THE SWISS PEOPLE 
 
 " Such in a word were the substantia] results of 
 those diplomatic transactions in which, as Ikitish 
 Envoy, I was called to take a prominent share. . . . 
 " It was not without difficulty that the cantons 
 were persuaded to pro\ide the means of furnishing an 
 effective contingent to the allied armies. W^hile the 
 diplomatic batteries were Avorking to that end, the Diet, 
 for its own defence, collected a force of some 15,000 
 men, and stationed it in Vaud under the command of 
 General Kachmann, a most respectable veteran who 
 had been long in the 1^'rench service, and whose age 
 and character seemed to represent the neutral system 
 of his country rather than the warlike genius of its 
 people. In prospect of events requiring offensive 
 operations even from the Swiss, Lieutenant-Colonel 
 Leake, an artillery officer, was sent out to act with 
 their contingent, whene\-er it should be called to take 
 the field. Some time before the battle of W'aterloo, 
 a I'rench corps d'aiiiire passed through Geneva, and 
 taking the narrow road between the lake of that name 
 and the mountains of Savoy, went to oppose an 
 Austrian army marching up from the Simplon Pass. 
 'Inhere could be no question of neutrality after this, 
 and it struck me that the Swiss General might render 
 great service to the common cause, if he vv'ould follow 
 on the rear of the I'^rcnch, and, ha\'ing Geneva at his 
 back, place that portion of the enemy's forces between 
 the advancing jVusirians and himself. I consulted 
 with ('olonel Leake, and, as there was no time to lose, 
 \vc agreed to '\vait upon General liachmann at once 
 and submit the proposed plan to his consideration. It 
 was late when we arrixed at his hc;ad(]u,arters, so late 
 in(l('(Ml that the old man was alreadv in liis night-cap.
 
 nisroKN' di' iiii: SWISS ri;oi'i,i; 
 
 4" 7 
 
 His ,^'()()cl Iiuiiiour was 1)\- no means rutlled hv the 
 inlrusiuii, and he listcnud fhcL-rtully to our su<4'^fslion, 
 supportftt as il was hy such arL;'uinenls as the occasion 
 oilcretl. lie assured us, howe\er, that he had n(j 
 discretiijnarv power lor lak'in^' so decisi\'e a stej), and 
 he was hound in (hity not to stir without a positixe 
 instruction h'oin his (h)\ernnient. As there was no 
 room tor (hs[)utin,!:( this \ery reasonable objection, we 
 could onlv rei^ret the loss ol wliat appeared to us an 
 opportunity not likely to recur. liut lime mo\-ed on 
 (juicklw and i Sonaparte's linal disaster in ljc'],<j;ium 
 would ha\'e made amends t;)r a much <,a'eater disap- 
 {)ointment." 
 
 The period luider re\ iew is marl^ed 1)\- i^^realei' m,! 
 adxancc' in ])r(jspei"ity and more ,<4'enera] tranquilily '^^'' 
 than the (^(juk-deraticMi hat! ior centuries heiore en- 
 j(jyed, and n(jw, ior the tirst tinu.', a thoroui;'hly 
 elhcient natiijnal army was ioriued, ,and tlie tounda- 
 tions laid for liie nhlitary system that maizes tliat of 
 nuxlern Switzerland second to none in Ihu'ope. in 
 many im})ortiUit points it is, indeed, ,i;'reatl\- su[)c-rior, 
 in prop(jrtion to the size ot the country, to tliost: tliat 
 lia\-e produced the ,^iL;antic anmes tliat to-d,i\- are 
 rapidly crushiuL;' tlie pro'_;'i'essi\'e Ide out o[ the j^'reat 
 ICui'opi'an Slates. 'idle ellorls to or^aihse a national 
 mihtary torce matle b_y [)ri;\aous Swiss (io\ ei'nmeiits. 
 suiliciently stron^L;' to ,i;'uard tlie Irontiers ironi attack 
 ti"om without, aiul to i)reser\e peace and order within 
 the cantons, liad tiU now pro\ed al>orii\e, either troiii 
 foreign interiereiice or h"om the o[)position of tlie Swiss 
 th(,'niscl'. es. 
 
 As ^^tratiinal (';imiin,L;' plax'ed an important jiart in 
 this, as in --o luaiiv (HJier serious ipiestions atfecliii},'" 
 
 i'-' - 
 
 uiiidti.'ir
 
 46S HISTORY Ol' THE SWISS PEOPLE 
 
 the Swiss, it is necessary once more to refer to his 
 vakicible memoirs. " During the winter of 1815-16 
 and 1 816- 1 7 I resided at Bern. . . . The cantons, 
 though stih not happily assorted, were glad to partake 
 of the general tranquility consequent upon the restored 
 restoration in France and the confirmed ascendency of 
 the Allied Powers. Basel had no longer anything to 
 dread from the ramparts of Hiiningen, so laudably 
 demolished. Geneva saw no longer a slip of French 
 territory extending to its lake and interrupting its 
 communications wdth the Canton of Vaud. Bern had 
 obtained partial compensation for its previous losses 
 by a considerable acquisition from the Bishopric of 
 Basel. The neutrality of the whole Republic, or 
 system of b^ederal Republics, was formally guaranteed. 
 A share of the indemnity imposed upon France by the 
 Allies was allotted to the Swiss. In short, they had 
 only to keep out of hot water and to ground their 
 independence on some kind of military basis auxiliary 
 to its proper defences, in order to enjoy in peace that 
 unrestrained prosperity which had been so gloriously 
 won by their noble-hearted and simple-minded ances- 
 tors. It had been my happy fortune to assist in 
 reco\'ering these priceless advantages for them, and 
 it remained for me to render a further service, for 
 which, to say the truth, I was very ill-(pialilied. 
 
 " iVmong the leading statesmen were several who 
 felt the necessity of forming, if not a Federal army, at 
 least the nucleus of what might be drawn out into 
 the proportions of an .army in times of danger from 
 wilhout. Slrange t(j say, there was some feeling oi 
 jealousy or mistrust, which had the eflect of paralysing 
 iheir good intentions and obstructing the progress of
 
 iiisrc'KV oi- riii; 
 
 i\\i.--s ri-,()i!.i. 
 
 40.^ 
 
 tlieir \vorl<. The exisU'iice ot thi> ditlicultv was c(.)n.- 
 ficKxl to me, and, in spite ot iii\- protestations on the 
 score ol i^'noranee and inabiht}'. 1 was iinploiini to 
 sketch ^oine kind, ot })L'in, ho\ve\'er iniperiect, which 
 nh,L;ht rail}' the ch\"erL;-ent ()[:iini(jn> and help thein to 
 ^M'ax'itate toward> a connntjn centre. \\ itli a strong; 
 appreciation ot the ohiect in \iew, 1 could onl\' ])ro- 
 inote itr> acconipli>h!nent by puttmL;' to,L;'etiicr. with 
 some afipearance ot method, such elements ot nhhtarv 
 or,L;'anisali'jn as 1 could (d)tain separatelv trom mv 
 proie^-sional triends. Idhs 1 tlid, hit by bit. cautious!}' 
 and doubtm,L;']\'. and it now atfords me satistaction to 
 remeiubei" that the experiment was not entireh' Iruit- 
 le>s. A b'ederal slaft was estal)lished, unitornntv ot 
 drill. arm> and clothini,^ ^vere extended to all the 
 cantons, and annual re\'iews were instituted tor 
 securini;' a due obser\'ance ot the adopted re,i,''ulati()n^. 
 . . . Mo>t cordially do 1 h(j[)e that the modest but 
 eliicient s\-stem thus brou,L;ht into existence mav pro\e 
 ,a b;;tter sate,L;"uard. to the liberties ami inde])endence 
 of Switzerland than the treacherous passes aloni,'' its 
 trontier. or the slii;per\- eni^'a^'ement^ ot treatw" Alter 
 iiuuh discussion, and iKJt a little opposition, tht- Diet 
 hnally settletl the nu;an^ ot rai^in;_^ and the plan.s tor 
 or^anisiiiuS tin: b'ederal torces. An arniv ol ^o.ooti 
 men soon tidlmvecL well armetl and drilled, several 
 military schools were established. espL'ciallv one at 
 liuin t(jr traimnL,S places ot ^trate,^■ic importaiua' were a a 
 >ur\"eyetl, and tht; re>ponsible charL;t: ot militai}' 
 matler> eiUru^ted to a centi'al ('ounoil ot War (i^i>i. 
 
 I'i.e e\ents that so i<ipidl\- had aileied m,in\ AV.' 
 [)olitie:ii and Micial s\-^ti'ms and cu^-tom^ alleetrd \ er\ 
 >liL;iulv tlu;se (jt the Cduirch ot ivome m Swit/.eriaud.
 
 470 HISTORY OF THE SWISS PEOPLE 
 
 To the north of the Alps the Cathohc portion of the 
 country was ruled by five Bishops, while to the 
 south, Ticino owned allegiance to the See of Chur. 
 But one important change was effected at this period, 
 which in later years was followed by serious conse- 
 quences. This was the formal recall of the order of 
 Jesuits, a measure that met with great opposition 
 in e\'ery canton, but which obtained a majority in 
 the Catholic States (1814). The Valais districts were 
 the first to receive the members of the exiled Brother- 
 hood (181 5), who three years later took up their resi- 
 dence in Freyburg. Here they founded an impor- 
 tant college for young men, engaged extensively in 
 high-class education, and became rich and powerful. 
 Schwyx, though one of the most Catholic of the 
 Cantons, was one of the most conservative and inde- 
 pendent, and held out longest against admitting the 
 Jesviits. 
 
 Rdtgioiis and Amongst the Swiss generally, unharassed as they 
 
 luiucational ' . ' ^ . . 
 
 jici;li'ai. now were by domestic or loreign trouL)les. a distinct 
 
 re\'ival of religious feeling took place. The brutalising 
 effects of long continued wars, and the unsettling revo- 
 lutionary epochs through which they had passed, now 
 gave place to the more humanising influences of reason 
 or sentiment. The age of superstiticjn and bitter in- 
 tolerance gradually faded away, and left the Swiss, like 
 the other peoples of Western Europe, happier, better, 
 and physically and mentally impro\ed. Education no 
 longer remained the privilege of classes, and as men 
 lt;arnt to think more they learnt to hate one another 
 less. 'I'hough the educational system adopted by the 
 Swiss lefi much to be (U;sired, it yet opened its doors lo 
 many thousands oi the peoj)le, who befcjre were (]uite
 
 llK-5ruK\ (11 nil. bWlr.^ i'l.(Jl'L.l. 
 
 471 
 
 exciudfii Irwm iinpruxiiiL;' tht.-ir iiicnUil condition. The 
 restriction^ [placed on the cliairs in academics and 
 iini\-er>itie.-, whicli made them closed ctjrporations. andi 
 ^aeatly hampered their sphere ot tisetiUness, were now- 
 fur the tirst time remoxed, and loreiL,''ners or Swis.-^ Ironi 
 other State^, who possessed special qiialitications tor 
 teachini^. became eh^dhle as protessurs. 
 
 Alter the Conclusion oi the wars between Napoleon /','. 
 and the Allied Powers, in man\- countries — especiallx '■' 
 in (jernian\- -the re\'(jlutionar\- iiio\einents had been 
 too ,^reat, and at iirst too sticcessitd, to at once dis- 
 appear with the ccdlapse ot the ,i;'reat re\()liitionar\- 
 h^mpero]-. Neither were the ( jo\ernments oi the sexeral 
 hAiropean Stales, ihishetl with recent military success, 
 able to u^e other than torcible means to counteract 
 the re\'okitionary mo\ements in their (wvn terrilone>. 
 lAerywhere a ri^Xjrous sx'Stem ot >uppression set in. 
 and soon lunnbers ot pr»)scril)ed })ersons tr(jm ditterent 
 countries tlocked to Switzerland tor saiet\-. The wel- 
 come and protection they tlu-re met did not tail to rouse 
 a spirit oi hostilit\' ai^Minsi the Contederation on the 
 part ot torei^-n ,!^'o\L-rnmcnts. A characlciistic outbi.ir>t 
 ot enthusiasm .--prcad through Swit/erland when the 
 I'oles ami the (ireek.s attemi)ted to .Lfi'appb; with their 
 oppressors. W'ithoiU kncnvin^ the iiui-icatc bfarinL;s 
 ot the case (which, imleed. was then tor the Swiss 
 wi-ll-nii4;h imp(jssible). the [X'ojde oi the canle,ns looked 
 only at the sti'u,u',L;ie irom the standpioint oi two nation^ 
 tiuhtiuL;' tor libefiy against cruel and semi-barb;irous 
 ma>ter>. Wdien the turn ot fiirtmie went so deci^I^■el\• 
 against the I 'oles and the (ii"eeks, maiiv pati'iot^- ot" 
 both ci )unti'ies louiu! a ho>pitable welcome and asylum 
 in SwU/erland. AmoiiL;>t niaiu" otlu'rr. the iamous
 
 472 HISTORY OF THE SWISS PEOPLE 
 
 Polisli leader, Thaddeus Kosciusco, was supported in 
 the Confederacy, and ended his days at vSolothurn. 
 Committees to aid the (ireeks sprang up in many 
 centres, and not a few Swiss voluntarily laid down 
 their lives in battle side by side with the men whose 
 cause they espoused. One hundred and sixty Greelv 
 refugees were sheltered and supported in Switzerland. 
 One year earlier (iHog) a refugee of very different a 
 kind — Gusta\"ius W'asa, the dethroned king of Sweden — 
 also found a safe asylum in Switzerland. 
 
 ^leanwhile the remonstrances and demands of some 
 of the b^^uropean Courts on the subject of the refugees 
 were giving the Confederate Diet cause for great 
 anxiety. At length a decree was issued to the several 
 cantonal authorities exhorting them to adopt strong 
 measures to prevent local papers from publishing any- 
 thing inconsistent with the respect proper to friendly 
 Powers. They were further asked to take effecti\'e 
 measures for preventing foreigners who had left their 
 country on account of crime or political revolts, or such 
 as were unprovided with a passport from their respective 
 Governments, taking up their residence in Switzerland. 
 The response made by the cantonal authorities to these 
 rc([uests were far fron^i unanimous. In some the sug- 
 gestions of the Diet were not only readily agreed to, but 
 [)r()posals to make the law against foreigners ex'cn more 
 strict were adopted. In other localities the old spirit 
 i)\ liberty and the right of asylum prexailed. These 
 dillerences prevented any definite decision being arrix'ed 
 at. Xcntlier was such decision necessary, for as time 
 wt'uL on tlu; re\ (jlutionary mo\'emenls gradually sub- 
 sided, inclixiduals lost the impc^rtance iormerly ascribed 
 t(j them, ami the fears of the I'^uropean Cabinets
 
 iiisroKv o\- Till, SWISS I'l.opi.i: 
 
 473 
 
 disappe;ii't_\l. ("it-iuna was not the onlv place that 
 possessed the facultv (jt creatin^^ •• >lorn]s in a leatup." 
 
 iSut in spite of the proL^ress made bv Switzerland 
 durinL;- th(_' liUeen vears" rule of the h'ederal Pact, her 
 rate oi pr. ;L:'ression >atis!ied neither the L^reat nias> of 
 the peo[)!e nor the chief political thir.kars of the lime. 
 ?\Iany o! the lari^-est chstricts were L;o\-erni'd 1)\- .i 
 small cla.-->, who obiained their position by usur[xition. 
 and held it by iorce. It mattered little that no cryin<.( 
 act> of injustice or oppres>ion cinild be br(jii,i;'ht a_u"ainst 
 these S'/lt-constituted rulers. Learnin,i; irom the past, 
 and adopting' themsel\"es to th.e present, the Swiss re- 
 \"i\-ed aristocracies exercisetl their authority with I'ljuitv. 
 Urmness, and, on the whole, with moderation. Only 
 when attem;)ts \vere made to dis[)lace them did the\' 
 report t(j i'ii.:'or(jus measures. As time went on. thom^di 
 tiiere were no actual risin,<4"s. ihe>e atiem[)ts became 
 more treijuentand nu^re open, c(jerci\'e measures became 
 more >e\'ere, and once a^t^ain. ab.er th.e com[)arati\'e long 
 c:alm. pohtical troubles threatened the public weal.
 
 CHAPTER XXII 
 
 1) E M O C R A r I C R E A C T I O X 
 
 A.u. 1838-40. During the fifteen years that ended in 1830 
 
 Switzerland enjoyed profound peace. Taking advan- 
 tage of the natural longing for quiet that always lollows 
 on periods of social disturbance, the old aristocratic 
 party in many centres once more usurped place 
 and power. Over-estimating their own ini^uence, and 
 regarding the pause in the on-coming waves of de- 
 mocracy as permanent, they refused all concessions to 
 popular demands, and though their rule was neither 
 harsh nor conspicuously unjust, their position was too 
 anomalous to stand for long in an age when political 
 ideas were changing so quickly. Eor the lirst time 
 the {:)eople were becoming acquainted with their own 
 power, and, what was more important, they were able 
 to fornudate their political aspirations. In the early 
 days that preceded and followed the great Revolu- 
 tionary epoch all was confusion, and the absurdities 
 then dealt out to the people under the guise of political 
 panaceas were too numerous to lead to any practical 
 result beyond destroying the old order. Confusion still 
 existed in political ideals and methods (as perforce it 
 alwa_\-s iimsl), but it was nuich less general than 
 foriiKM'ly. Much that was worn out or harmful had 
 been i)ull('d down and battered out of all form by
 
 liiMOKN' ()\- rm, SWISS i'i;r)i'i,). 
 
 473 
 
 Iren/ietl or cnlluisiastic- (it'stn)\-ei>. whose work was 
 cjnly arreslcel by rxhauslioii, and followed \>\ torpor. 
 \\ itli ri'lurnini;' lite c;iinc more reason and less excile- 
 nienl. antl men sei abiiut in sober earnest to build up, 
 b.y their own unaided eltorts. on and troiii the ruins o( 
 the past, a politieal and scjcial structvu'e that wcjuld last, 
 and would bt:nefit the Ljreat mass of the people. The 
 task wa> delayed. b\- the \ a.i^aries oi" eharlatans and 
 the sudden rekindling;" of the tierce embers ol religious 
 bii4'olr\- and local hatreds. Man\' stirring" scenes and 
 not a little bloodshetl were \et to follow before common- 
 sense and enlii^htemnent enabled Switzerland to settle 
 dov'iii under a just and united (io\"ernment to become 
 a prohpei'ous and united ()eople. In the im})ortant 
 democratic changes eilected in the [Period that oi)ens 
 with i.sji) and closes with i^4>;. Switzerland lountl 
 herself once more contemporar\' with. re\()lutionar\" 
 mo\ements in ['"ranee. 'bhese doubtle>s helped and 
 encoura,i,a'd her. thoui^di the\ ceilainlv did not originate 
 the many reforms that soon came about in ih" ("on- 
 ietieration. li] \u]\, i ^ ^o, 1 'aris presented the siieclacle a n, 
 of blood\- encounters takim^' place iu hei" sU'eets between 
 armetl rcNolutionaries and ro\al troops assisted b\' Swiss 
 (luard^. ("harlen X., howcAt'i', with _L;"i"ealer j^irudcnce oi' 
 better fortune than the luckless Loui^ X\ 1., manaL;eil 
 to ^a\"e his lite, thouL;'h he lost hi> unen\iable tliroiU'. 
 
 'I'he tir^l state to K-ad the H'^l of the ('onieduration l),;i: 
 m the du'ection of ;_;eneral democi'atic reforms was 
 Ticino, a canton in which the mental and moral con- I'::: 
 dition of the inhabilants w,i> pinbabK' much lowei" th.ui 
 elscwh' re. Mere ;d>o, th" Ljicatesl coiiuption iire\,uled 
 amongst the mendu-is of the Local (NiunciL. wlio sold 
 the ollice;^ at then" disposal. luaile )uslice a nie.uis of 

 
 47* 
 
 HISTORY OF THE SWISS PEOPLE 
 
 increasing their incomes by taking bribes openly, and 
 ignored or \iolated the laws to suit their own ends. 
 Of these people the British Minister has left a not 
 Haltering description. Writing in 1815, he describes 
 the debased characteristics of the inhabitants, the lazy 
 worthlessness of the men, the hard and wretched lives 
 of the women, and the weakness of the Government, 
 of this the only Swiss canton exclusively Italian^ in 
 race and tongue. In spite of these uncongenial 
 surroundings, the spirit of practical reform suddenly 
 awoke. 
 ■^'"-'""''' At the annual meeting of the people of Lugano 
 
 A.D. IiSjO. 
 
 for the election of their ^lunicipal Officers, the cpiestion 
 of reform was brought forward, and, with little opposi- 
 tion, a new Constitution upon liberal lines was voted 
 (May, 1830). This example being quickly followed by 
 the other cantonal districts in their general assemblies, 
 a bloodless revolution was effected throughout the whole 
 ot Ticino. 
 
 The fundamental principles involved in these 
 poHtical changes were shortly afterwards adopted by 
 
 1 Alxjiit the time under review, a favourite practice with 
 l".ii<-;lisli I'rotestant preachers was to compare the intelhi^ence, 
 th(; (-(hiralioii, and the general prosperity of countries where 
 Roman Catholicism prevailed with those where the Reformed 
 reh;-;ion lormed tlie belief of a majority of tlie people. This alwa}-s 
 led lo the comfortable assurance that the I'rotestant countries 
 \\ere in a \er_\- superior coralition to their riwals. One of 
 the most laxomate metluxjs of impressing their hearers used 
 by these well-meaning, but not wc;ll-informed teachers, was to 
 instiinre the Catholic and I'rotestant divisions of Switzerland, 
 •'uid ill the |o)-mci' c:itci;()r\-, "I'icino was usuallv singled out as the 
 ■-I'fi i;d and "awiid example" of the degrading effects of po})ery 
 An impoitant point onntted from tlie^e discussions was the differ- 
 oiii r in o/.,, a-, well as the man\- other tai tors in operation besides
 
 HlSl■^R^■ ni- TH1-: sNvis^ i'i-ni>r.i" 
 
 477 
 
 al! the other Swiss States, lirieilv enumerated, tht"\- 
 emhracetl - (■'juaHty of jiohaical riifhts. dirrct L'lectiniis 
 of the iiK/inbt-rs of ihe Ir-i-laturc, and the (hn"atii>n 
 ot thrir tunctions liinilcd to a tixtnl term of xcars : 
 separation ot the three powers, L(L;i^lati\ l, Mxecutix'e 
 antl JucHeial : puliheity of dcd)ates. Hhertv of the prc'-s, 
 sanetity of indi\ithial hibertv and property liefore the 
 law, as wcW as the rii^lit of petition. 'Idiese seem all 
 to he essential to the \-erv nature of a repuMiean 
 ,q;o\-ernment. ahhouydi no hairopean republie, either 
 aneient or modern, e\'er before Hcknowled^ed them, 
 or praetised tliem to their lull extent. In all firmer 
 re'jniblies. in other lands :ind in other times, politic-al 
 riL^hts ha\e been praetiealK' eonfmed to one eia>s, or 
 to pri\dleL;'ed sections 'it the eomnumitv ; the mode 
 of election ha> been \dciiius in the extreme, anil 
 indi\idual liberty and >ecmdt\' ol property ha\c ne\er 
 been the lot ot the whole people. A republic sii^nitied 
 a name, not a realitw 
 
 ( )n the acces>ion of th<- 1 );ic d'( )rlc,ins to tlie s 
 throne ot l-"ianee i.\uL;'n>t 7th. i^v-"- under the title ol ■^'- 
 Lcniis-l 'hilip)H'. wdiat threatened to beii-me a >ei!our> a 
 international ipiestion between brance and Sw il/ei laiui 
 arose thr(ni,L;"h the former refusim;- to pa\- the man\- 
 Swiss A^lxdlarie^ then in. la-r emjil'iw accoidniL; t'' the 
 terms of the trcLtN' m i^i'-. Alter n;,ni\ ue-. 'ti.Lti' 'iis, 
 and tfie creation of nmch bad blood beiwitii the two 
 nations, tlie matter was fmalK' settled in faxour of 
 the S\\i>r> (laims. Alti/i' th;> de. i.-i-ai, b' au^- 1 'liihppe 
 thought it expcklieiit til cca^e cMipI- 1\ uc^' t^ireii^n iC'ip'^. 
 and All ■ rd.ineU' di-mi>-ed. hi^ un i ci n uae-. who 1 rtui a^di 
 to >w it/eiiand. Tlic Midden enttaiice ^ii a laiL^e iui.iv 
 of disbanded ^oldier> into the caiUou^ c-aild not but
 
 .[.^.S HISTORY 01- Tin: SWISS PEOPLE 
 
 act injuriously to tlie public peace, and, as will be 
 
 seen later, many of these were prominent figures in 
 
 the risings that now began to become serious in many 
 
 Pivi^n'ss of parts of the Confederation. Without entering on a 
 
 . \""Jq-.^ consideration of all and each of the many separate 
 
 A.I). 1030 -' ^ 
 
 victories of the reforming party, it will be only 
 necessary to refer to the more important. In many 
 districts, the people, in their (leneral Assemblies, met, 
 without violation of the laws, or damage to persons or 
 property, and voted, by large majorities, a new local 
 Constitution, on the democratic lines of that already 
 adopted by Ticino. Of these, one of the first was 
 Thurgau (October) ; Ziirich followed, after a severe 
 political struggle (March, 1831), and, having voted a 
 C(jnstitution, in which the sovereignty of the people 
 was acknowledged, passed under the rule of the Radicals 
 in the following year. Careat changes in the direction 
 of making education more thorough, and more within the 
 reach of all, were effected by the new rulers, of whom 
 Ludwig Keller, Hess, Hirzx'l and Niigueli (the restorer 
 of popular music), were the most conspicuous. Similar 
 changes took place in Aargau, Solothurn, Luzern, 
 St. (lallen, Freyburg, Schaffliausen and other important 
 centres, where, though no actual bloodshed resulted, 
 the })olitical alterations were not made till after much 
 local excitement and a great deal of agitation. In 
 many of these localities, the triumph of popular ideas 
 was signalised by the ceremony of planting " 'Jh'ees 
 (jt Liberty," as was dcjue after the French Re\'olution 
 of Xniely-eiglit. A somewhat important result of the 
 success and ra})i(l sprtvid of Liberal ideas, was the 
 establishment, at Luzern and other places, where the 
 Church ol Rome was [powerful, of Catholic societies.
 
 HISTORY (M- Tin. SWISS IT.Opi 1. 
 
 47^ 
 
 the a\-o\vecl fibjcct fA which was to chihIku Liberalisiii. 
 and briniT abuul, liv rcactioiiarv nuThous, a return t') 
 Consrrwitixa' 'princij^lL'S. In Siilwthurii. nne <<( ilic ip.',st 
 int]uL-!Uial ol llirsc Si )rirlics, fdiiiuU-il i)v ("arl \-(in 
 Ilaller, who hatl bc-cn thaxcn out of i'aiis bv the 
 Ke\'()hition. carrieil on its propaganda with L;'i"rat 
 eiH'rL;"v, and (bid imicli to accoinplisli its (^)lMt-'< t. 
 
 'Idle (diioi chanires cltt'Cted b\- the ad(i})ti()n of the 
 new cantonad Constitutions were the i:rantin!_;' of man- 
 hood suftrai^'e. the lessenin_<,'' of the power of inili\ idual>. 
 and the eijuahsinL,'' of the pri\dIe,L:es of the rural and 
 urban p^ .pulation-;. The pre\dous -tatus of tlie hiit<. r 
 liad e\"er p'roved a sfjuree of th<eontent. as throu.i^di 
 the greater wcaltli. L-tlucativiu andi influence of tlie 
 burirhers tlie towns exercised power aiul auth^nitN- out 
 of all proportion to the number ot tlieir inhal>itants 
 in the ari-tocratic cantcjns. Xt-nher were the m.ea-ures 
 of Reform so many of the canton> h.ad now ad' -pud, 
 carried aL^ainst the wishes oi the Iddii-ral Auin. 'i"it\-. 
 (Jn Peceud.er 27th. 1^30. fiu- 1 )iet t"ormall_\- d.cciared 
 it would not imerfere with any Reforms of canton, d 
 ainhorities. pro\'idled thev were in aoix-ement with the 
 b'ederal I'act ci i^i^- 
 
 Wdiile Radical ideas waTe thus ai^imtinL;' a lar_L;'e 
 portion of Swdt/erland anal (h.inuuiL: th.o political lif>' ..f 
 the ])eop!e in a \a_'ry j.rwuomiced wa\-. M\eral of the 
 otlu'r di\ision> reinainedi apart > a- ur,.i;lectrd, liv what 
 wa^re burnin.'^'- ijue-slions clsrwhoie. Am'.nL;s; the.-.- 
 wa-re Cieii'-wo \'alai>, the ( 'iiMub-.uaien .uid tlie I-'ore>; 
 States. In the latter the Co'csciwoo'v c in>ti:;(ts (d' the 
 peasair.s. who Ioul;' ere ttii> ja-riod b.aii >eiticd u.p-in 
 the mo>t adwoicedl r irm, ot da.-moeiaiy a- l'e>t --uited 
 lo thc-ii' ■-pe(a,d needi<. lo.oked with ^u-picion ^ 'ii a::\'
 
 480 HISTORY OF THE SWISS PEOPLE 
 
 further changes, as hkely to lead to a lessening of their 
 own independence. In Geneva the Government was 
 both good and popular, and the people generally were 
 too prosperous and contented to risk new political de- 
 partures. In the Valais, where the upper and lower 
 divisions were different in language and customs, the 
 former maintained its old supremacy by its greater 
 power. In Bern the democracy at first had been un- 
 able to make any headway against the aristocratic 
 and powerful Government, composed as it was of most 
 of the wealthy and influential families. After 1830, 
 however, things took a very different shape. In the 
 Oberland, in Porrentruy, and in other Bernese terri- 
 tories, murmurs became more open and soon led to 
 general risings against the rule of the city. Headed by 
 popular and able leaders the rural populations were 
 
 Ban. soon organised and able to assert their claims by force. 
 
 liern was not backward in preparing to hold her 
 own, or rather what she had unsurped, and ordered 
 a large le\'y of her militia. Before, however, serious 
 troul)les resulted, the good sense oi the leaders cai'ried 
 the day, and on January, 1831, at an extraordinary 
 meeting of the city notables, a re\ision of the ("onstitu- 
 tion upon the popular basis was voted. 
 
 So far most of the Reforms were brought about in 
 a comjiaratively pacific manner, though in some locali- 
 ties party feeling ran high and the opposing factions 
 canu; \ ery near open rupture. But in three cantons, 
 Ikisel, Xcuchatel and Scliwyx, local ])olitics brought 
 
 lid^il. on uioi'c serious conseijuences. Tlie authority t:xer- 
 
 ( ised 1)\- the burghers of Basel o\'cr the inhabitauls 
 oi the rest ol tJK; canton had for long pro\ed a source 
 ol luuch j(;al()uslv and discontent. 'bhe citv herseh'
 
 [^s"roR^■ di Tur. s\\is> i'if">p; i 
 
 4"J 
 
 was at u\c tiiiu; unc of tlu' wcalthicsi aiui u\n<i ad- 
 winced in Swit/.L-rlaml. The pcnpK- paid thrff-1'Miin.lis 
 ot the whok- ';anl(inal taxation, and on this aia-. ,unt. as 
 well as Iruin lu-r iin[)i)rtance as a ct-ntre of learnini; 
 antl indnstrw thev inanai^'ed to secure a majority of 
 representati\-es in the cantonal ley-islatin-e. thoULrh the 
 inhabitaiits of the rural districts ureatlv exceetled tht-in 
 in ninnhers. In i"^j'\ bowing- to tlte i^cneral political a ;- oj. 
 feeliuLT, ISasel auTeed to submit the popular (daims to 
 the tleci>ion ot a commission <'omposed of deputies 
 in equal numd)ers from the idtv and from tlii' 
 canton. The rep. 'rt of thi.-^ conuuission sui^':^'e>ted t.he 
 ado[:>tioin ot a Reformed Constitution on thr .^'eUL-rcd 
 basis (>\ th(jse ellreled in otht-r localities (jt the ('ou- 
 fecK/ratioin. To tins the citx' aL[rL-ed imd the siiL:'L;e>ted 
 cha.n^es were aliout to take ettrct. ^\dl^■u the ]K'>ii)le of 
 the l^iestal di-tricts r<dused tlu-ir absent and ro>e in 
 arms. Idle niinement spread rapidilv and as^umeil 
 serious ]n'oportion<. ddie in>iu'i;'eius, coii!id.rnt in their 
 mim!>ers. now boIdl\' adwancd tuwauals ISase!, and 
 sent the ("ouncil a messaL;c that indos a t. 'tally lU'W 
 C'jnstitution were au'reed i'<, uixaiiL;", ,i;n. '!ii;'>t (4h.er 
 concessions. li\"e-se\ eiit h^ ot the wii^-le repre>entati\'es 
 of the eaiUiin to the rural po])ulali'.n i!n>t'Md (d rather 
 niwre thati half, as the comnii--;. mi h.id >ettledi, they 
 \\'eiuM e:u"r\- theii" deuiandi^ by \"V^'.-. \u .ci^wer \v,is 
 to be retiH'iK'd williiu t \vent\'-l' lur hour-. A wry dit- 
 fereiil r'-i).a;se to tliat expeeledl \\,i- )a> iUil'tl)- uiveii. 
 ddie ( iiizeus arnacl the!!!-el\e< ; :; ;;; /■•;', att.nked tlie 
 iiwui'LieiUs with artilleiA- t!''.:i! the lanipait-. avaI in a 
 liual >!'-iie' compeiji d. them t') elli ' t a ha-t}' and dis- 
 oide'ilv letieat. l.:e>tal \\,i- next luiupied:. aia! altei- 
 some net i.\a'r sex'ere luini-hmem had. been dealt out 
 
 31
 
 ^82 HISTORY OF THl' SWISS PEOPLE 
 
 to the leaders of the revolt who were taken prisoners, 
 a general amnesty was proclaimed, and order restored. 
 The new Constitution was submitted to the vote of 
 the whole cantonal population, by whom it was agreed 
 A.D. iSij. to, and was accordingly adopted (February, 1813). But 
 not for long did peace and quiet reign. In the follow- 
 ing year a number of the leaders of the late rebellion 
 again began stirring up the people to make another 
 effort " to raze the walls of Basel, that rampart of 
 higher aristocracy." In these efforts they were only 
 too successful, and being joined by a number of the 
 disbanded Swiss Auxiliaries from France, as well as 
 by many volunteers from other cantons, a peasant 
 army of large size was presently in arms. Liestal 
 was chosen as the headquarters of the movement, 
 and a provisional go\'ernment installed. Again the 
 citizens rose to the occasion, and without waiting for the 
 approach of the insurgents attacked them. This time 
 the disparity in the numbers engaged was so great that 
 the citizens were compelled in several engagements to 
 retreat with some losses in killed and wounded, the 
 most severe being at Gelterkinden (April, 1822). ?iluch 
 damage was done to life and property by both sides, 
 and every day the mutual hate and violence became 
 more intensified. I'A'ery effort of the Federal Diet 
 to bring about peace proved fruitless, and fmally, as 
 a last res(jrt, il ordered an occupation by tlie national 
 forces of the distracted districts. On August nth, 
 I'.asel opencul her gates and submitted to the b^ederal 
 ti'Dops. Thcjugh further hostilities were thus prevented, 
 it was found impossible U> bring about peace, and at 
 last as tlic only solution of the difficulties the Diet 
 pronounced (;n ()ctol)er 5th, i8j2, a prtn'isional sepa-
 
 insTom' oi' rit}; swi; 
 
 4\^. 
 
 ration n[ ihc canton into •• Town and (^nuntrx'," a 
 separation that was made permanent ni the follwwin^ 
 year. In ihis new orck-r Hasel wmh its six adjoining- 
 communes tfjrmed one (h\-i>ion, whilst tlie (jther was 
 made up ot the fifty-tliree remainiuL^ cfjnununLS of the 
 former canton. 
 
 The peasants of Schwyx had li\-ed so Iimil,'' under 
 a systenn of the purest de\-L-lopment of ilcmocracy, tliat 
 they naturally re,i(arded anv cliange as necessarily a 
 chan,L:e lor tlie worse. Idieir experience of the appli- 
 cation ot the doctrines of l-'rench Kepahlicanism had 
 conlnaiied their own idea< in a \'erv )")ractical manner. 
 liut tlieir democratic \dews only apjiliud to th<- ancient 
 canton itself, or the .-llU- uuuisL/'uift as it was called, 
 and not t(j the districts il possessed, such as hiinsiedeln, 
 Kussnach. etc., (j\er whi'di it c];iimed supeiaeu' rii^lus. 
 The hall-canton formed by the outer ili>tricls of 
 Schwyx, set up f(;rmallv a sepai'atc; Cio\-ernment ior 
 it>elf at Lachen (May, i^^j-^i. and there h.eld its 
 elections. Th.is at once led to .^'reat local iii>turliances 
 as well as tre)ul)!e in the I'\:deral I)iet. where the 
 deputies of the new half-canton sat --idie li\" >ide with 
 the representati\"es of their former ma>iers. l-'inallw 
 in Au'_:ust ot the followin'_;' \'ear, the peasants ot ( )ld 
 Schwx'X, >ei/.inL( the; opjiorlumt}' when the c'C.iiUa- 
 ,L;"e-nerall\- was a^dtated o\a-r the suhjeei oi the re\i>i.in 
 of the h'ederal ("or.stilution, rose and altempt'di i i 
 reco\-er their lost po^SL'Ssieiis. Ku-snaeli was >ei/-ed 
 l)\-a boily of ^oo armed men. auledi li\a small balleiA- 
 of arlillerv. and the whole teriitorv w;is I liii'atened, 
 when IMe I )iet (tlieii >iltin,L; at /inach i imer\ ei;ed with 
 extra' a'dinarv proiiijititiule. Thir- inteiwentii 'U jir.TahU' 
 saved Swit/efjaiul the horrois ot anotlu-r ci\il w,ii'. 
 
 ^1— -2
 
 484 HISTORY OF THK SWISS PEOPLE 
 
 as had it been delayed but a few days longer, the 
 rest of the Forest Cantons would certainly have joined 
 Schwyx. Directly the news of the forcible entry into 
 the separated districts became known, the Diet called 
 out the first contingent of the national forces, and by 
 the following day 6,000 men were ready to march. 
 Three days later, 20,000 men from various cantons 
 assembled for service. Schwyx was ordered to be 
 occupied, and without firing a shot this order was 
 obeyed (August 4th). The promptness of the Diet's 
 action, and the discipline maintained by the Federal 
 troops, soon restored order, and the peasants, without 
 showing any disposition to continue their projects, 
 returned peaceably to their homes, and the local troubles 
 
 A u I8-5J, that shortly before threatened such serious conse- 
 quences were finally arranged amicably. In October, 
 1833, a new Constitution was agreed to by which the 
 natives, of eighteen years of age and upwards, of all 
 the districts, unless debarred by special reasons, were 
 granted political equality. In other matters also, 
 Schwyx so far forgot her ancient prejudices as to 
 conform in all essential details with the spirit of 
 reform seen in the rest of Switzerland. 
 
 .Xciicluitil. In Xeuchatel, party feelings ran high on local 
 
 issues, on the reforms elsewhere carried, and on the 
 important question of separation from Prussia. The 
 canton was still in the anomalous position of iorming 
 one ol the Republican States of Switzerland without 
 
 A,u. iSjj, ceasing to be a German l^rincipality. In 1833, during 
 the troubles of the attempts to re\-ise the National 
 Conslilution, Xeuchatel refused to send deputies to 
 the i'V'tieral Diet. As Scliwyx and ilasel were treated 
 when they to(jk the law into their own hands, so
 
 HISTORY Ol-' THI-; SWISS PHOPI.E 
 
 4S 
 
 was Xeuchatel now, and the cantor, was at once 
 
 orclerrd to be occupied by the national troops. The 
 
 fear ot this se\ere measure cooK-ii the courat^e of tlie 
 
 rehelHous state, and the deputies appeared at the 
 
 Diet. In July. 1^34, Xeuchatel a-ain became rest- ■'' " '"^.54 
 
 less. At that time a maiority ot the people were 
 
 certainly in ta\ our ot ceasing their connection with 
 
 the Swis^ Contederation. Suppurted b\- a declaration 
 
 \'oted. by the tlitterent Ccjnnnunes. the Council of 
 
 Xeuchatel petitioned the Kiwj; ot I'russia to obtain 
 
 a se\erance of th.e bond that connected them with 
 
 Switzerland in order that tliev mi^'ht return to their 
 
 old position as simplv allies of the S\\"iss---an action 
 
 tliat b'lederic William declinetl to countenance — and 
 
 a tormal demaiul was next made tor separation to the 
 
 !)iet. In aildi'essiuL^' tin- l-'etU-ral eleputies in support 
 
 of separation, the i'e[)ri'sentati\e oi Xeuchatel thus put 
 
 the case ot his constituents: 
 
 ••Xeuchatel i> a constitutional monarchy. As 
 such it entered the Swiss (."ontederation in i"^i4, 
 when, tlu-re was no ;-;'real collision ot [political prin- 
 ciples in the Contederation. W'c did oni' duty a-- a 
 canton, and our ron.^titulion \\a^ IrU undli>iurl led. 
 but >iiu o ; ^ V' '■' ehanu'e has taken pla. l'. The caii- 
 t'ius. whicli Were f;rnurl\' aii.^loiialio, ha\r no', oid_\ 
 beoonie do-niooratic. !>ut wish to force iheir pi-nici|)le^ 
 on the re>l of Switzerland. Th- \- oprnl\- axow they 
 want to niak-c Xeuchatel a Republic, but a maj^'rit}-ot 
 the iidiabi;anl> oj Xeuchatel do not \\-i>li it to becnie 
 a Republic. 'I'lic h'ederal lla,-. in>:ecul o! beiiiL;" to ur, 
 a >vn!liol of secuiiU' and jieai e, i> in.ii.iL- a syndoo! 
 of diM'ord .and ci\il strife. Thi-^ ( .amioi la.->t. I.lI 
 Xeuch.'itel be no louLtar .1 canton: let it return to its
 
 486 HISTORY OF THE SWISS FHOPLE 
 
 former position of an ally. Confederates ! accept the 
 
 hand of alliance we offer you. Be unto us what your 
 
 forefathers were to ours. As allies, we were ever 
 
 faithful to Switzerland, and fought and perished in 
 
 her battles." 
 
 To the prayers of this petition the other cantons 
 
 unanimously refused to accede, feeling the weakening 
 
 effect it would have on the Confederation were the 
 
 door of secession once opened. 
 
 Reform of T\\c democratic victories and advances now iirmly 
 
 he lie nil 
 
 Constitution, established in Switzerland made the reform of the 
 
 h'ederal Constitution itself a necessary sequel. In 
 this nearly all were agreed ; the difliculty lay in the 
 means and the manner. Apart from other minor 
 ])arties, two great divisions of opinion separated the 
 Swiss on this important issue. On one hand were 
 the ad\'ocates of greater centralisation in the P'ederal 
 (jovcrnment, on the other were those who maintained 
 llie soxereign independence of the individual cantons, 
 in the latter party, which numbered fewer adherents 
 than the lormer, the small mountain states were the 
 most determined opponents of all changes likely in 
 any way to lessen cantonal power and freedom o( 
 acli(jn, and iinally the (juestion came formally before 
 ■"'■"■ ^^i~- the Diet in 1832, then sitting at Luzern. In the dis- 
 cussions that took place the opponents ot reform, who 
 were n(jw joint;d by the deputies from the rural half 
 of bia^cl and those of Neuc halel, offered a strenuous 
 rcsislance to any change. This hostility brought 
 about the lormalion of two combinations, destined in 
 the near iulure to play x ery important roles in the 
 ualioiTs liistor}-. Willi the determination to carry 
 IrcK'ial rclorm, and at the same time to preserve
 
 iii^r()i;v oi- I'm: ^-wiss im.oi'I.i. 
 
 4V 
 
 their own i-anlijjial cc)n>tiliuion,s, scxt'ii slatL'> s IIliii, 
 l^uzcrn, Zurich, Sulolhurn, St. (iallL'ii, Aar,L(;ui and 
 rhin;^auj a^rccil to torni a League and support one 
 another in wliat ihreatenetl to become a serious con- 
 test. Tliis L(;a<4'ue, known <as the Siciiciicrhniid, was 5;./., 
 detinitely entered upon and iornially si^'ned at Luzern ''' " 
 jn March ijtli. It was clearly coiitrarv to the spirit, 
 it not the letter, ot the existin,^,^ Constitution, as it was 
 a Separate alliance ot se\'ercd cantons without reference 
 to the whole Confederation and withtjut the authority 
 ot the Diet. Sh(M'tly after, the questi(jn (jf re\ isi(_)n 
 was carried (]ulv 17th). and referred to a commission 
 of liiteen deputies under the presitlein}' ol lulward 
 I'hyller, of i^uzern. The celebrated I'rotessor Ivossi. 
 l)ei)uty of Ciene\a, was entrustc'd with the important 
 function of reportinj^^ on the decision of the com- 
 mission and drawing" up the actual results arrived at. 
 h'rom hiim the re\ised Constitution is named tlu' 
 
 Meanwhile the cantons hostile to reform m their 
 turn iijinied a secret lea,L;ua' to counteract, if [Possible, 
 the desi;;'ns of their (jppoiU'nt^. I'he creation of this 
 second leaL;'ue took pkne at Sarnen whence talK-d tiu- 
 SdrHiii'iii!.; ) on Non cnibci" ijlh. and was -ul)>o!ibrd \n S.;. 
 \>y the ri'pi'esentalix e> o| ilic I'orr^l ( anton>. and 
 tht)>c of Neuchatel, 1 lasel - cit_\ . and \ alais. Tlu- 
 Sttnuri'/niiil was the tu'st sU'ii in tin- tra'^rd\' of the 
 war of llu' S"t!.Iirl'!ntJ that m ,1 tew yeai.^ wa> to lia\e 
 such momentous and lastini;' eikn ts on the Swiss 
 l)eople. 
 
 Tne (halt of the new ('onsliuuion submitted to 
 the i)iet pio\ed a eoiiipri miise between the C( mfedeiate 
 >\->lem, established in i"^!^, and that adwjcated b\- the 
 
 ncynnuT , 
 1S32, 
 
 /C'^^r
 
 488 IIISTOKV Ol- THli SWISS PEOPLE 
 
 more advanced thinkers of the time. It's chief features 
 were a permanent P'ederal Council of five members, 
 sitting at Luzern, and presided over by a "Landammann 
 of Switzerland," to be elected by the direct vote of the 
 cantons ; publicity to be given to the meetings of the 
 Government; the finances, military forces, post and other 
 departments to be centralised ; freedom of industries 
 and manufactures (in many ways formerly restricted 
 or forbidden), and generally, without destroying the in- 
 dividual sovereignty of the cantons in matters purely local 
 to place all such as affected the safety and well-being 
 of the nation at large on a firmer and more permanent 
 basis. Tliough far more liberal than the Constitution 
 it proposed to supersede, and introduced under such 
 apparently favourable circumstances, the Pacta I'iossi 
 shared the late of most compromises. IJy a coalition 
 between those who deemed it went too far, and those 
 who thought it did not go far enough, the scheme was 
 ■^ " i^iS' rejected by a majority of the Diet (fuly, 1833). 
 
 hnmcdiately on the rejection of this measure of 
 reform the Diet took a very important step, and declared 
 the Sanicrbiuid an illegal combination, and accordingly 
 dissoKcd it (August, 1833). After acting tints decisively, 
 it showed great moderation in its further dealings with 
 the re!)clli(His districts, and resisted all eflljrts on the part 
 of the adxaiiced Liberals to punish se\erel}' the chiefs 
 (;l the; (lissoKed league. The majority omitted, howe\er, 
 one act that impartial justice demanded. It did iioi dis- 
 s(jl\t; the Sithciu'vliuud compcjsed of its own members. 
 
 With the formatioii of the Saniciinind, followed as 
 il was by the failure; of the Diet to bring about a reform 
 in ilif ietkial CoiislituliDii, a strong reactionary mo\e- 
 incnl set in in many p.uts of Switzerland, and religious 
 
 7;. ■»/-.',■.
 
 HISrOKV t)l THK SWISS FHOl'I.i; 
 
 J^^C) 
 
 troubles lhrc;Ucned once more to check the proL^Tcss 
 of the natinn. To tlie ott-repeatecl cHsputes between 
 Catholics antl Pi'Dtestants, and the \a,Lraries of fanatical 
 sects (jf tJK' latter creed, was now added one of those 
 rare rexolts in the rard-cs of the tcnaner that pc-riodicallv 
 loosen the rock oi Roman orthodoxy. To the Liberals 
 nianv subjects of a politico-religious nature hadi loni;" 
 seemed (>ut ot keeping" with the proi^ress of the times, 
 and while most Catholics still held faithfulh' to the 
 tioctrnies ot their Church. man\- ai,a"eed on the necessity 
 ot change in mattei's outside the lundamental principles 
 oi their taitli. The control exercised in state and do- 
 mestic matters by the See oi Kome was a source of 
 perjietual disccjntent to a people so charactei isticallv fond 
 of fi'eedom and intlepnidence as tfie Swiss. All elforts 
 to induce the l\>\)v himself to initiate the i)roposeil 
 reforms necessaril}- pro\ed al>oi'ti\c. and a.t last matters 
 were brouf^ht to a crisis by the mt'ctuiL;" ( il a I'hench C /^-jiv- -r' 
 Coni^u'ess at liaden, in Aar,i;'au. to cousuler the subject ^'p"is., 
 (January joth, i ^ ^4 ). 
 
 At this Li'athrrinL;' were rcpresrmati\ rs ol bu/eni, 
 llern. S(;l(jthurn. Zuu. St. (lalleii. Aar^^au. Thui;_;au 
 and I kasrbcouiU\ . Attei' much and! caii'lul dehbera.tioii. 
 ■ I series ot lourleeii ariii les \'.ere dr,i\\u uji [letitii "iuiil;" 
 ivMiie and the Swiss (loNeiimieuts and pc.'ple. to 
 ajipoim an Ai'chbishop tor the w 1^ ile land., ni lieu I't a 
 Nuncio, who (dteii lessened the authiiiit\" <>( the -iwrial 
 bishops: to establish meetinL;s~ ol s\'noiL: lo allow ii\d 
 and mixed marria'_;cs ; !o redaico the number ol the 
 tetes; to allow proper supeiw isioii M\ri rdiLii'Uis -idiools; 
 lu adma none to llie' luiesLlioed who weie n. a capable 
 and properb' edu<ated: to L;i\e the ji. al ( i^ >\i ; luw m 
 piiwer to apj)oint to theolo-ical protessoi ship-- wilhoa;
 
 490 HISTORY OF THE SWISS PEOPLE 
 
 the authority of the Church ; and in short, besides 
 other minor matters, to give to the Civil Government 
 authority and independence from Rome. The promul- 
 gation of these articles, as might be expected, gave rise 
 to a furious attack on those who drew them up l)y the 
 clergy, the Pope, and by many of the Catholic laity 
 themseh'es. The members of the Baden Congress were 
 declared heretics, who were attempting to bring about 
 a schism in the Church, and do away with Church and 
 State connection. In Aargau and Porrentruy especially, 
 great disturbances followed, and here the most striking 
 demonstrations against the proposals were made by 
 bands of enthusiastic women w^ho accentuated their 
 religious views by planting " Trees of Religion,'' and 
 placarding the streets with notices, calling upon the 
 people to remain true Catholics or perish in the effort. 
 A.D. 1834. Ominous cries were also raised of " Down with the 
 Huguenots ! " So great did the tempest become, that 
 in Rern and Aargau the authorities found it necessary 
 to call in military aid to maintain order. Several of the 
 Councils of the Cathtjlic ("antons, and of those where 
 tlie Protestants and Catholics were fairly balanced, 
 ne\ertheless adopted the IJaden articles, being led in 
 this revolt by St. (iallen (March, 1834), '^vherc a public 
 school was opened for the admission of children of both 
 c:reeds alike, and where a convent was suppressed. i\n 
 official stamp, indeed, seemed about to be conferred on 
 the new mo\einenl, when suddenly the Catholics of the 
 Juia districts called on the b'rench for aid and protec- 
 tion against the Heretics. This was readily promised, 
 and ;i threat was lainK Ik.'cI against the (io\'erninent that, 
 if tlu' iiioxenient continued, h'rance wcjuld occupy the 
 countr\-. On this. Rem, who was fully tjccupied with
 
 ni:^roRV oi- iHi; swiss ri;oi'[.i-: 
 
 4'Ji 
 
 her own local political troubles, thou.irht it prudent to 
 repudiate all responsibility for the Dadcn proposal>, 
 and a like policy was also pursued by the C'atholic 
 Cantons, with the exception of Luzern and AarLrau, 
 where a serious stru.i:i,de was in proi^aes.-. between the 
 ci\-il and ecclesiastical powers for supremacy. That 
 the moxeinent, in spite of the action of the local 
 councils, continued and bore fruit, the relii,dous inde- 
 pendence of the Catholics of Switzerland at the present 
 tune anipl\- pro\es. 
 
 Alread\- distracted bv reli'dous and political dis- ^''' 
 sensinns. the Swiss had now to enter into a sericnis 
 dispute with the ^"reat ICuropean ro\vers (jn the renewed 
 subject ci{ the {:iolitical refu,L(ees who .--ou^^dit an as\'luni 
 within tile Confederation. The majority (il these were 
 J 'ole>, who tied irom their countr\- alter the di>astrous 
 l)attle of 0>tr(jlenka (May j'-th. 1^31), thouL^h there 
 were also c; jusidcrable numbers of Italians and (jermans. 
 AbiisinL;' the hospiudity freely uiwn them in Switzer- 
 land, the refugees present!}' bei^'an plottini: a^-ainst their 
 respecli\-e States, and e\"en eULfa^^ed in acti\'e hnstditio. 
 I he chiet or,t,ranisei' in these consjiiracio wa-. the exiled 
 Italian patiiot, Massini, whose acti\il\- >in)U createil a 
 number oi secret association's, under the names (jI ) .;;;,■:,' 
 I'uumd, )\-uni: Cciuuiiiv. W'diu i^^t'-}, -ind e\'en the more 
 ambitious one of Yruy,'^ liniffi. The-e Micieta^^ acted 
 as ral]\-in'_;" centres fi a" patriots of dilfeieiit nationalities, 
 arul bet ame sources of ei'eat ilan'-:'er to Swil/eiland, by 
 then' at^ls ot liM^iiJiu- aL:ain>l the ;,'o\ ermiieiu.- oi iMTei-n 
 states. in |a!mar\', i^^,a more than u>ua|]\' dariiiL: a 
 elloi't Was made b\' the refu'_;ees. In the p;'c\ iou^ \'ear 
 a lai'!_;e number of I'ole.s c-nlered ('anion 1 lern troni 
 b'rance, where iIka' had taken retui^e alter leaxini^' 
 
 
 p i.N,;|,
 
 492 HISTORY OF THE SWISS PEOPLE 
 
 their own land. Passing from the Bernese territories, 
 some 400 gathered in small parties in \'aud, where 
 they were joined by 600 revolutionaries of other 
 nations, including a contingent of students from Zurich. 
 Through the open sympathy of the peasants, they met 
 with no hindrance (though the local authorities ordered 
 their disarmament), even when it was discovered what 
 Expedition to their design really was. This was nothing less than an 
 
 Savoy, 1 , - 1 • • 1 
 
 A. 0/1834. attack on Sa\-oy, where insurrections were expected to 
 break out. On the night of January ist the expedition, 
 under the command of the Italian General, Romarino, 
 crossed the lake and landed in Savoy, near Hermance, 
 at one extremity of Canton Geneva. Here the Geneva 
 authorities interfered, arrested a portion of the refugees, 
 and sent them back without their arms to \'aud. In 
 spite of this check the main body continued to advance, 
 and entered Annemasse and other villages. The alarm, 
 however, had now spread, and a Piedmontese force 
 appearing on his flanks, and receix'ing no support 
 from the peasants, Romarino fell back after a slight 
 engagement, and entered Canton Cieneva. Mere the 
 G()\erninent at once ordered the arrest of the leaders, 
 and the general disarmament of the rank' and iile, an 
 order tiiat was not executed till after great difliculty, in 
 <-c)nse(|uence ol the popular sympath}' with the relugees. 
 ['"inally they were marched back under a strong 
 escoM to \'aud, whence they were sent to JJern. 
 I'or hci" part ISern refused to receive her turbulent 
 xisitors, and did so at last, only after Zurich, the then 
 Vcyini, had been appealed to, and after \'aud and 
 (iciicxa liad agreed to pay part of tlie expenses the 
 (■x[)cdilioii li.ul cost, a sum amounting to <S(),oi)o li\-res. 
 This tlagranl \iolalion ol the right oi asvluin, and
 
 iiisroK'i' oi- Tin-: swiss !'Kr)i'i.i; 
 
 4'*j 
 
 the tardy manner in which the Swiss authoiities 
 acted to slop the nio\-enient. lu'on^'ht down upon 
 the Confederation remonstrances from the Saiahnian 
 (lowrninent, remonstrances which were joined in by 
 the Courts of Austria, Prussia, and tl^.^ other ,L,aeat 
 iuu'opean States, inchuhnt,'- ICnu"lan(h The tone u.-ed 
 1)\' tile a,i,''L,''rie\'ed Powers, at lirst mild, soon hecame 
 threateniuL,'' and peremptory. Thev ilemanded tlie im- 
 mechate dissolution of tlie secret associations founckHl 
 in Swit/erland, the expulsion of the exiles, and the 
 trial of all the Swiss who took part in the exjx'dition 
 aL,^ainst Sa\'ov. l-kdlim: to obtain satisfaction to thes(.' 
 demand-^, a ,L:eneral political ami cmumercial bovcot 
 of the ("onfederatirjn was threatened. After much 
 correspondence the more important tlemands of the 
 Powers wei'e acceded to. In [unc. afu-r asseriirj-' the 
 principle -'lliat e\"ery indej:)endi'nt state possessrs the 
 riL,dU (d atlmiltinL;' fu!_;'iti\'es ii'oin otluT comui'ies and 
 protectini^ thi^m so Ion,!,'' as the\' conduct thrm,-el\es 
 peaceably," Ziu'ich, as the dii'rctim;' canton., admitieil 
 that '-it is the duty oi e\'er\' state to prf\'ent i'cfuL;ees 
 from abusiuL;- the ri,L,dn of as\-ium b\- di^turbinL;' the 
 peace of other countries. Those who so abuse the 
 hospitality ,<;ranted them ouL;"iit to be tlf[)i'i\-ed of all 
 means of renewm'_( the atlcmp.t." In aoeordanoe with 
 this principle, the Swiss ( io\ (M"nnU'iU in-(jmised m 
 future to expel from their ieriatories all who sh.-uKl 
 atiem[)t lo tli^turb the peace of odier ■-ta!e>. This 
 de(d u'ation satisfied the a'^L;'iie\ed Po\\e!>. and for a 
 time peace was resteired. M in\- ol ihe exiles, uaiii 
 the a:~ -i.-^tance of the l-deMieh (, io\ ernmenl, passed 
 tlu"ouL,di l-'rance, and I'mbarked foi' lhiL;land and 
 America. iUit not for Ioul; did cpuel contimie. In
 
 494 HISTORY OF THE SWISS PEOPLE 
 
 many parts of Switzerland the ultra- Radicals ex- 
 pressed themselves dissatisfied w^ith the conduct of the 
 Voroi't in this matter, accusing it of sacrificing the 
 principles of Swiss liberty to its servile fear of foreign 
 despots, and many indignant public meetings protested, 
 in no measured tones, against the decision come to. 
 The voice of the nation, however, as expressed through 
 the votes of the deputies when the question came 
 before the meeting of the next Diet (July), exonerated 
 and supported the conduct of Zurich. The question, 
 far from being settled by this decision of the Diet, 
 soon again became a serious one for the Confedera- 
 tion, due in great measure to the partial way in which 
 the cantons carried out the decree of the National 
 Ciovernment and allowed the laws to be evaded. In 
 many places secret political societies were active, and 
 formed rallying points for refugees of different nation- 
 alities. Again the Powers, France especially, began to 
 remonstrate and to threaten. Nothing of importance 
 occurred to bring the question prominently forward in 
 i<S35, but in the succeeding year it again came to the 
 front. The activity and audacity of many of the exiles 
 were now sufficient to cause serious apprehension to 
 several of the states bordering on Switzerland. Already 
 A.n. iSjr,. in tlie beginning of the year the Powers were urging 
 the Swiss (government to enforce the decrees of 1834 
 with such impatience that JJern (the then directing 
 canton) was obliged to take action, and in a note sent 
 to the I'^i'ench Ambassador in June, the Voi'iTt explained 
 its ])ositi()n, and urged on all the Cantonal (lovern- 
 incnts, in the most pressing manner, the necessity of 
 arresting the political refugecis who took ])art in the 
 Savoy expedition, or who in any way endangered
 
 msroRV oi" 'inr. swiss I'i'.opr.c 
 
 4f^5 
 
 the interests of Swit/erlaiul by re\()Iution;iry nttempts 
 a,l,^'UIlst friendly Powers. l!ern funlier explained to 
 the l-~ren(di Ambassador that in order to ex]~)el the 
 revolutionaries it \vas necessary to obtain the etnisent 
 of some foreiL^n Power to reeeixe them, and recjuested 
 France to perform this office. Consent was readilv 
 ,t;iven. but u'ixen witli such a peremptory demand for 
 instant action that llern felt she could not comply 
 without humiliation, and accordin^dy lelt the matter 
 to the decision of th.e (ieneral Diet, which met in tJK- 
 followim,'' month. Here the (juestion was thorou,!:(hly 
 discussed, and e\'entuallv relerred to a special com- 
 mission. Meanwhile, hVance, supported b\- Austria. 
 Prussia and Paden, handedi in a connnunication. 
 statin,!,'' that unless the I )iet soon arrix'ed at a decisicm 
 satisfactory to the; foreit^m I'owers. a tlose blockade of 
 the Swiss frontiers wouUl be instituteil (AuL^ust 5th). 
 This enerj^^'tic action had the dcsiretl etiect, and on 
 Auj^'ust c^h the 1 )iet adopted a set of rt'solutions in 
 accordance with the forei^m demands. Shortly, they 
 included the immecUate expulsion ol all torriL;'ncrs 
 whose conduct endanLTcred the peace ot Swit/ci land 
 <jr anv other state, and laid the dut\' ot i-arr\inL;' this 
 out on the se\'eral cantonal aulhorilu-s, imdt_'r the 
 direction of the I'\'d;-ral ( "io\-erima'm. L;i\"inL;' the latter 
 power to enlorce the de(~rees in the e\'ent ot the local 
 aiuhorities retusim;' compliance. Whilst the Piet's de- 
 cision was under clisiussion b\- the lantons im man\- 
 ot which it was ene!"L;etieaIly emidemneil) an uici- 
 dmt occurred which, for the moment, ercattil uie.a 
 excileM'ent . 
 
 AmmiL;' the refugees was one AuL;'uste Ccmseil. I- 
 then i^issin.ij;' undei' .a false name. This man xwas .,^ 
 
 P. iSjr,
 
 49^ HISTORY OF THE SWISS PKOPI.K 
 
 thought specially dangerous to T^rance, and, accord- 
 ingly, his expulsion was formally demanded by the 
 Due de Alontebolro, the French Ambassador, at the 
 Instance of M. Thiers, the ^Minister of Foreign Affairs. 
 Conseil's arrest led to the discovery that he was a paid 
 agent of the French King, who, distrusting his own 
 ^Minister, had sent one of his secret police to Switzer- 
 land to win the confidence of the more prominent 
 refugees, and report their movements directly to his 
 royal master without communicating with the Ministry. 
 All Switzerland blazed up with indignation against this 
 underhand method of carrying on political warfare ; a 
 special commission of the Diet took the subject up, and 
 fully investigated it. This action of the Swiss was 
 taken by the French Government as an aggravated 
 insult, and M. Thiers accordingly put his threat into 
 execution, and broke off all relations with the Con- 
 federates (September 27th), which, together with the 
 fear that the other I'owers would follow suit, induced 
 a majority of the Diet to offer an apology to I'Tance 
 and submit to all her demands. The meeting in which 
 the humiliating decision was arrived at was a stormy 
 one, and the only one since 1834 held with closed 
 doors (October 31st). 
 /-'""'■■■ The year 1837 passed without any noteworthy 
 
 ,\ i,' i.s^s. incul(;nt, l)ut i(^3<S was productive 01 the most nnport- 
 ant of the many chapters of the harassing refugee 
 (juestioii, inasmuch as it nearly landed Switzerland in 
 a war with l'"rance, a conflict that in her then dis- 
 united (-oiulition, could ha\'C ended only in disaster 
 for ihr Confederation. After his abortive attempt to 
 create a rtA'cjlution at Strasburg in 1N36, young L^ouis 
 Napoleon, son of the ex-King of Holland, was arrested,
 
 HISTORY oi- Tin-; SWISS i'i;oi'i,!. 
 
 V>7 
 
 and throuL:h the clemency of the l'^"cnch (Mncrninenl 
 escapeil further punishnu-nt than e\puI^il)n fi'i);ri 
 Europe. Returning', he tonk up his residence with 
 his mother, Ilortensc;, in his Chateau of Arcneiiber^ 
 in Thur^au. where he had before h\-e(i. Here h.e 
 became a naturaHsed Swiss, was elected a member of 
 the local council, presitlent ot the cant(;nal shootint,'' 
 association, and. after stud\in<4' military sci(Mice under 
 Colonel Dutour ithe iutiu'e sa\ iour ot Switzerland) he 
 obtained a commission as captain in the nernese 
 artillery. lUit thou^di apparentl}' actini;' as a ij'ood 
 citizen ot his ati(;pted country, Louis Napoleon ne\er 
 ceased to lose an op'portunity to hu'th'-r his own 
 desii^ms to obtain the I'rench throne, and Arencnbur^" 
 became little more than an acti\e cmtrc tor intriLTUts 
 and plots ai;'ainst b'rance. IvcL^'ardini;' his {)osition ;uul 
 conduct as sources (A dan<_;"er to the establislu-d 
 Ciovernment, the b'rench Minister dem. aided lii^ exi)ul- 
 sion (Au,L,mst), and a renewal (jf tlie (jld threats o! i^j'> 
 took place. llis standinL,^ as a Swiss citizen madie the 
 Confederates char\' of concediiiL;' the Ideiu li demand>. 
 especially as these demands were ciuiched in laiiL;'uaL;e 
 that e\-ery day became more imperious. Switzeiland 
 was n(j loii,L,'er a })ro\"inre oi l-"raii''e, whose dictates 
 she was compelled to obey. I.oui-- NajwileDu's exiit' 
 was, however, telt by many t<i h.t\e dioU' i}"ed his 
 rij^dits as a Swiss citizen, and a tleei>i.iii m tins >ense 
 was carried by a small majority ol the Hiet. Still the 
 ,L,'eneral feelin,i( in the country was so i^reat. that the 
 cpiestion ot his ex})ulsion was deemed too serious to be 
 decided i)V tlu; Diet alone, and wa> ac CDrdim^ly referred 
 to the cantons. Impatient at the del,i_\- tliu-- eau^^ed, 
 the i'reiich Ambassador jKasoually \ isited se\eial <it
 
 4Q8 history of thk swiss people 
 
 the cantons with the object of inducing the local 
 governments to submit. Failing in this, the I'Vench 
 Ministry withdrew their representative from. Switzer- 
 land, and concentrated 25,000 men at Lyons with the 
 avowed object of invading the country (September). 
 In the presence of this threatened national danger, the 
 old patriotic and military instincts of the Swiss again 
 showed themselves. All over the Confederation, but 
 especially in the French-speaking districts, popular 
 feeling declared for resistance, and volunteers by thou- 
 sands took up arms. In Vaud and Geneva the people 
 armed en masse, and in most of the cantons the militia 
 was at once called out for service. From the country 
 the patriotic enthusiasm spread to the Diet, and an 
 energetic and final answer was returned to France by 
 the National Government. Not for many years past 
 had Switzerland been so near so important and so 
 serious an enterprise as that she now prepared to enter 
 on. Alone and unprepared, the Swiss proposed to 
 encounter the formidable risks of a trial of strength 
 with the whole weight of the French kingdom. 
 
 Fortunately at this critical moment, the horrors of 
 war were prevented by the generous action of Louis 
 Napoleon, who, rather than submit those who had so 
 well and gallantly sheltered him to certain slaughter, 
 and their country to certain ruin, voluntarily left 
 Switzerland. As his presence in the cantons was the 
 only cause of the trouble, the French withdrew their 
 troops, popular feeling gradually subsided, and the two 
 countries again entered into amicable relations. 
 Lrc.il iri'iiblL-i In 1838, civil troubles once more broke out in 
 
 A, I). i8jS, Schwyx, consequent on politics causing serious dissen- 
 sions o\'c!r the election of the Landammann. Indeed,
 
 nisrnm' ni- iiii: swi: 
 
 .\i)') 
 
 so i;reat: lu'cinic the clisturh.iiicc-, which wert." far 
 beyoinl ihc p>)\ver of the local authoriiit/s to (nu-ll, 
 that in oixU-r to ]")rc\-L'nt matters hrcii:nin'_; more serious 
 and sprtadinL; to other centres, tlie l-"ederal ( lox-erninent 
 a^rain interiered, and quiet was restored. In the nei^h- 
 boiirin.i,'' (omton of ("ilarus also polilit'al and reli^'ious 
 difleren.ces dii\itleil the peoj^ile and <^"a\e rise to much 
 trouble. In Zurich and Ticino difficulties from the 
 same causes brouL;'ht about riots and strin_L;ent repressixa- 
 measures, from which p.uudi damai^e to property re- 
 sulted, and even se\'eral deaths from \-iok-nce. In 
 'I'icino quiet was not restored till tlie Liberal party 
 liecanie sutticientjv stronu' to assume the responsibilities 
 ot ottice. In Zmdch a \"ery serious outbreak of popuLu' 
 reliLMous feelin;,'' shmved itselt in I'^^o, when, the ex- 
 treme Radical and I'rei'thinkin;,,'' partv beiuLf in powt-r. 
 Haxad Strauss was appointed to the I 'ni\ t_'r--!t \' (diau' 
 ot d'heoloLfv. As Strauss had re(~ently pubh-hed his 
 '• Life ot Jesus." in which he treated the (bispels as 
 le^^eiidarv m\lhs, the a]ipointment was re'-^ariled by 
 Protestants and Catholics alike a> an ojh'u insuk to 
 relif,don. Lnder iIk; influence ot popular jirc><ure the 
 r,o\a'rnment rex'oked tlu' noxious apiji^ lintmi nt, but a-. 
 thev j;"raiiled a j)ension to Strau>> indlii4natr>n aL;\tm 
 was arousod. All oN'er the caiUou (■:uhusia>tic nu'ctiiius 
 were hekk at which the action oi the ( io\a'rnmcnt was 
 ("ontlemned in the stron<_;'esl l:inL;'uai;"e. and re-okiti' 'U.-- 
 were parsed caliiuL;" upc,n the Ivadical authorities to 
 re;>i,L;'n. These mean-- failiiiL:' to prodinc the ck'siri'di 
 eitect, action took the place ot word>. tile people ariiu-d.. 
 ami lui'ler the lcad.er>lu[! ..! tlu-ir pa^toi- and other 
 inlluential men. an arm\- ot i.i,.>^ii p;a-am> maiclird 
 u])on Zurich to enforce the wi--hi< ot the mai-'iitv. 
 
 r;;.;;;/^
 
 500 HISTORY OF THE SWISS PEOPLE 
 
 J^efore reaching the city they were met by a strong 
 detachment of troops, and the order was given, " In 
 the name of God, fire!" In the encounter several were 
 killed on both sides, victory eventually remaining with 
 the peasants. Upon this reverse the Radicals resigned, 
 and were succeeded by their opponents, through whose 
 tact and firmness the revolt ended without further 
 bloodshed, and the religious enthusiasts returned to 
 their homes. 
 
 These events greatly shook the authority of the 
 National Government, occurring, as they did, under 
 the very eyes of the Federal Diet. A proposal, it is 
 true, was made in the Diet to occupy Zurich with 
 Federal troops, and to transfer the Diet (then sitting 
 at Zurich) to some other locality, but nothing came 
 of these suggestions. 
 i;,/,„\-^ The anomalous system of government that for so 
 
 long existed in \'alais, through the preponderating 
 political power exercised by the inhabitants of the 
 Upper Divisions over those of the Lower, in the 
 Cantonal Government, was, during this period, brought 
 into a condition more in conformity with the principles 
 of e(juality than elsewhere obtained. Since 1815, the 
 (jerman Upper Division returned twenty-four out of 
 the fifly-two representatives that made up the local 
 council, and that in spite of the number of the inhabi- 
 tants of the Lower Division being nearly double that 
 of the Upper. This disproportion was maintained all 
 through the recent years of democratic advance in 
 other parts of Switzerland. In August, 1839, a new 
 (!(jiistituti()ii was adopted for the canton upon demo- 
 cratic lines, under the auspices of the h'ederal Diet 
 (then sitting at Ziirich), but, after the fall of the 
 
 A.i). 1839,
 
 mSrcJKV OI' TI!K SWISS IMCOPLK 
 
 A. II. I "^4 I 
 
 Kaciical Ciovernment in that city, the Tppcr \'alais 
 Division rcfuscci to admit the clian^^e. Thereupon the 
 inhal)itants of the Lower districts rose as one man, 
 marched upon Sion, defeated their ad\'er>aries. and 
 forced them to i^rant the demands so hmn; withheld 
 (April, I "^40). A new Constitution was th.en framed, a. n, 1S40 
 and a (irantl Comicil for the canton formed of deputies 
 elected upon the basis of proportional population, and 
 other chanties followed, in accordance with the wishes 
 of the majority. AmonL,''st these, the Catholic h'aith 
 was proclaimed as the otticial reli,L,don of the cantnn, 
 and the IHshop was granted, ^".v ctjh'io, a seat in the 
 Coimcil. 
 
 In Gene\"a, also, that special home oi Swiss 
 revolutionary mtn'einents, the (iovernment was, alter 
 a sex'ere struL,'i;'le. and not a little bloodshed, forced to 
 succumb before the Radicals. These latter, letl b\' the 
 able, but not tcjo scrupulous, ]ames I'azy, t^'-ained 
 important victories in 1^41 ami i "^ 4 v '^'I'^l broui,dit 
 about considerabl(.' changes of a democratic naitua' in 
 the local goN'ernment. 
 
 In llu' midst of the political aUeralion> taking 
 place in ^^J man\' ceiurrs ot Swii/erland. Aai'L:au 
 attempted again to re\-i--e it> ( 'oii-lilulii ui. \-\n lorn: 
 the balance (;f paiaie> w,i> I^m rwn to jiermil litlu'! 
 side obtainim, an at!\ama'_;r, bul. m 1^4 \ llv l\adical> 
 were sulhcii-ntlv ^lidng in thrill the majoiity. ('11 thi> 
 the clerics so worked on the frclini^-^ ot ihcii' t.irio\\;-r>, 
 that a rc-\-olt resulted. 'I'he ri^iiiL;' um- piu down, but 
 >cr\cd as an excu-r fn" th-' ("1 i\ « ; iiairiii , -.app.ib 1 
 b\- ih.il of r.eiii, to p.s:- a df>irc -uppi. --^iir^; ihr 
 (iL:lu i'.in\cnt-, ,oid 11 h 'iia--ifi io-~ witiuu i;-. imr. i\. 
 At oni.e,i;ie.a and tumullLioiis meeluiL;> oi pi ou >l \\ii<- 
 
 .1.1: ^.i.:. 
 A 1'. I^4,
 
 Valais 
 Civil War 
 
 302 HISTORY OF THE SWISS PEOPLE 
 
 held all over the Confederiition, and serious trouble 
 seemed imminent. So great became the general feeling 
 against the measure, that it was found necessary to 
 call an Extraordinary Diet to consider the question. 
 This met at Bern, and, as the action of Aargau was 
 clearly opposed to the Constitution as framed in 1815, 
 it was decided the latter must be upheld. The powerful 
 support of liern and other important cantons, however, 
 enabled Aargau to obtain a compromise, and, in a final 
 decision, the Diet declared only four of the threatened 
 religious houses should be suppressed. 
 
 The iiame of religious strife lighted up in Aargau 
 A.I). 1S44.' over the (juestion of the suppression of the conx'ents, 
 blazed into a destroying fire in the recently-disturbed 
 districts of \'alais. .Here party hatred became 
 obscured by religious fanaticism. Though a new 
 local Constitution was in force in the canton, based 
 upon democratic principles, the clergy had succeeded 
 in exempting their own property from public charges. 
 In a ]:)eriod of hea\\' taxation and general poverty, 
 this exemption proxed a sovu-ce of much irritation to 
 the Liberals, who loudly expressed their indignation, 
 and publicly thanked the iSern and Aargau (}o\-ern- 
 mcnts l(jr their action in the matter of suppressing 
 the conxenls. Neither did the establishment of the 
 Jesuits at Salxan do otherwise than nourish the nuitual 
 haired thai now rapidly sjjread amongst tlie excitable 
 and ignorant masses of the people. vSoon the play of 
 party, (reed and private passions became so furious, 
 and the jiower of the (Government so feeble, that an 
 al)S(jluU' war of extermination — a veritable \endctta — 
 set in, and cnectually sto[)ped, for tlie time, all material 
 and politic al progress. The chief agents in fomenting
 
 H!:-,roKV ui- rm-; swiss im;()1'i.i; 
 
 5''^ 5 
 
 these troubles were the members oi two secret socielies 
 ■— kncjwn as W/Hiin; S,\'ii.:t-r/i!iiJ and ()lil .S:r.'7-:(;/f.';;./ 
 f(jrineel to promote, by fair or toul means, the objects 
 of the lival sections, lioth societies had local news- 
 papers, which \'ied with one another to excel in \-iolent 
 incenti\es to crime, rather than in literary excellence. 
 While the members of ^'olUl<^• Switzerland were 
 recriiitec'. irom Ltnver \'alais, and professed adxanced 
 Liberal opmions, th(jse (jt the opposite association 
 came chietly from the Ipper districts, and were ardent 
 clerical and C"onser\ ati\ e supporters. Open encountei's. 
 with much bloodshed, secret mm'ders and destructinu 
 ol pri\ate property, soon broiti^lu about a (ontlition nf 
 ;4eneral terrorism, and all anthorilx', sa\ e that ot thr 
 ri\al societies, came io an end. While the war was 
 at its heij^dit, the \iolence, bi;_;'otry and unscrupulous 
 means employed b\' both sides, lelt little to cho'ose 
 between them, th(ju,i4"h the Liberals were certaiidx' the 
 more a,uL;ressi\e at the coiumenceinent. In the nndst 
 (jf the N'alais troubles, the Coniederate (io\ernme:U 
 foimd itself too occupied with its own ])• ilitical dis- 
 sensions, to do m(jre than make a teeble etloit t^i alla\ 
 the strife, by sendin.i;' a conmiissioner to uu estimate the 
 causes of the disturbances. lie ettectc-d. ho\\e\er. no 
 ,i;-ood. ha\in,L;' the conliden( e di neithei' i)arty. Mattel's 
 finally came to a crisis 1)\ a mi)i"e than usuali\' ti\e.;ic 
 encounter. In Ma}', a lai<_;e conlinmnt of the ( )ld 
 Switzerland part}' occupied .sion, in order to p!'e\ent 
 a i)(d)lic j^MtherinL;' thei'e ot their luals. baulked b\ 
 this action, the Liberals, who were marcdun;^' i mi the 
 c it\', deterred their meetmu;, and be.L;.ui a leiieat. 
 Arri\in_L;' at the .^lonmy and dan^ernus dehl, s dt 
 d'rieut, the\' weie suddenh" altaidsL'd b\' a iar,i^e l-.dv
 
 504 HISTORY OF THE SWISS PEOPLE 
 
 of their opponents who lay concealed among the rocks. 
 Ijoth sides fought with the fury only religious and 
 political hate can create, but the superior numbers 
 and advantageous position of the clericals at length 
 gained the victory. In this butchery, for it was little 
 else, nearly a hundred were slain, many being hacked 
 to death in the most diabolical manner. The news 
 of the massacre of Trient roused the indignation of 
 the Liberals all over Switzerland, and, what was 
 more important, for a time obscured local quarrels 
 elsewhere sufficiently to bring about united pressure 
 on the Diet. Energetic action followed, and, after the 
 iniliction of severe punishments on the chief offenders 
 of both parties, order and quiet once more were restored 
 to Valais. 
 The Jesuits, The next burning question to arrest public attention 
 
 A.D. 1S44. 
 
 was that of the Jesuits. For many years the order had 
 proved a serious cause of division among politicians. 
 As a bf)dy, the Liberals, and especially the Radicals, 
 were strongly opposed to allowing the Jesuits to take 
 up their residence in the Cantons at all, and in this 
 opposition they were joined by many Conser\-ati\"es, 
 and not a few Catholic priests. Already excluded irom 
 Lu/.crn, they were recalled !)}■ a vote of the Council in 
 October, 1844, on the wave of reaction then changing 
 the pc^litical aspect of that city, and gix'en important 
 positions. As Luzern was at the time the Vorort, this 
 \c)le was signihcant of coming troubles, and it was not 
 long before it led to civil war and nmch bloodshed. 
 Vvi)\\\ 1S41-..14 the reaction against Liberalism which 
 set ill aher the aborti\e efforts to revise the Federal 
 ( onstit utioii tools a decided turn, and once more 
 K'.idif alisiii ,l;U'\v ai-'ace. Luzern became the centre of
 
 illSrOKV Ol' Till:, SU■1S^> l'i;(Jl'l.l. 
 
 5'>5 
 
 a general allac^k by the adv'anced parly throughout the 
 Confederation in ccjnseijuence of its action in recalUng 
 the Jesuits, and on two important occasions arinetl 
 forces did actiiallv th.reaten it. In many centres large 
 bodies collected untU'r I.iberal leaders and prepared to 
 enforce their politii-al ideas. The Diet meanwhile had 
 sunk into a condition (jt such ieebleness that its power 
 to maintr.in peace and (jrder was i^racticalh' gone. This 
 was well seen when in December some ')oo armed 
 Liberals made an o})en attempt to seize Luzern. but 
 Were prom;nl\- met and defeated b\- the local trcjops 
 alter an obstinate tiLiht. ldu>lied with their success, 
 the l^uzern aaithorities then began coercixc measures 
 against their political opponent-^, numbers (jf whom 
 were imprisoned or otherwise inmished, with \ cr\- little 
 reference to justice, and none to mercx'. A> many of 
 the members (jf the part}' that nrule the abortixe 
 attem}:)t were citizens of other cantons, iiotabK' of 
 Aargau, Sofithurn and <T i;a>vl. the conduct oi their 
 res[)ecti\"e Go\ernments, as w^-ll as that nt the I-"e>leral 
 auth(jrities. in allowing them to march opeiiK' in arms 
 against Luzei'n nalurallv led to much bad teeliiiL;". and 
 ad\erti^ed the disunited slate ot tlu' (^jiiiederaiion. 
 Dut aiKjlher and much more ^enou> attempt oi a 
 similar nalui'e in the fjjlowmg year .^lill more toicibK' 
 brought thih forward, and led up to the Lireat eriM> 
 that wa.-^ so(jn to put the nation on a belter and more 
 healthy tooting. In .March. . a well-oiL^anir-ed expe.luion, 
 luimbeiing 7.1""-, Liberals troui Dern. Siifiihuin. \'aud 
 ami other disincis. iuehulim,'" main- nl ilio>e exjielled 
 Mom Lu/ern ioi' tlieir politic-- or tlieii' ieliL;i''ii. made a 
 ileieiiiiiued eltoii to aeei)inpli^,h what m the pi.Aiow-- 
 \ear hael so >iL;iiall\' tailed. Lea\ me then le>i)ecti\e 
 
 L:<: 
 
 
 '■^•i;
 
 5o6 IIISTORV OF THE SWISS PEOPLE 
 
 cantons without any interference on the part of the 
 local authorities, the self-styled liberators of their 
 country marched with \'ery little opposition to Gutsch, 
 on the heights that commanded Luzern. Their num- 
 bers and formidable armaments struck terror into 
 the Government of the threatened city, the chiefs of 
 which were on the point of escaping when fortune un- 
 expectedly came to their assistance. Had a single shot 
 been tired the city would certainly have capitulated. 
 But want of proper provisions, the fatigues of a forced 
 march, and the circulation of a number of false reports, 
 brought about a panic in the ranks of the besiegers. 
 One of the commanders of the expedition, moreover, 
 Dr. Robert Steiger, of Luzern, would not consent to 
 the bombardment of his native city, and, though the 
 guns were in position, precious time was lost. All 
 became confusion and discipline ceased. Some re- 
 treated at once, whilst the rest opposed but a feeble 
 resistance to the Luzern troops who, when the true 
 state of things became known, attacked them. Two 
 thousand of the expedition were captured, o\'er a 
 hundred were killed outright, and the city hospitals 
 and churches were soon iilled to o\'erilo\ving with the 
 wounded and the prisoners. The magnitude of this 
 lawless outbreak at last roused l.he sleeping Federal 
 authorities to a sense ot their responsibilities and the 
 dangers that were rapidly ruining their country. A 
 le\-y (jf lb, GOO trocjps was ordered, all future illegal 
 gatherings were prohibiied, those who escaped from 
 the late battle were arrested, whilst a general anmesty 
 was asked (roin the Luzern Government for those im- 
 j^ilicated in the rising. To this latter Luzern consented, 
 but onlv on the conditi(jn that tlie canlcjns whence the
 
 IHSIOKV OV Till:: SWISS IMCO I'l.K 
 
 J'-V 
 
 invaders came shmilcl pay all the expenses the expedi- 
 tion had cost (April). 
 
 Since the formatiijn of the separate lea,i,''ue (.)f the /V;,- .S',7./(-;- 
 
 C'atholic Cantons, known as the Soiido'lutiiJ (in i^±^]/''"''' 
 
 A,P is.,5 
 
 the rclii^ious and political dilferences of the Swiss 
 rapidly became intensified, and it was now e\idcnt that 
 a serious collision between the ii\al sections wa> niereU' 
 a question of time and opportunity The collision came 
 sooner than either part\- ioresaw. On the sitle of the 
 Catholics were the Cantons of Luzern, l"ri. Schwxx, 
 Cnterwalden, Zu'j;. \ alais, antl tlic Inner Khotle of 
 Appenzell, all bandcil to:_,'"cther with the ostensible 
 object of defending;' the ri,L(hts and so\ erei,L;'nty oi their 
 indi\idual cantons according' to the terms ot the C'on- 
 stitution of 1S15. 'idle real object ot this separate 
 ("(jntederation was, howe\'er. unchjubtcdh' to turthrr an 
 ultramontane policy, under the protection of ioreii^n 
 Catholic })owcrs. and to stem, al all hazards, the 
 ^rowin,i( tendcncx' in Switzeiiand towartls ( entralisation 
 in the ,l;"o\ ernmeiu. Jealousy ot state ri,i;hts hatl c\a'r 
 l)een (and still is) a characteristic of the jicoplc of the 
 mountain cantwiis who dreadetl. ab>ne all thinL;'>. Ihiul;' 
 merqcd. as unim[)orlant factors, into one national svslem 
 of conlederacy. A strong' reliL;i'ins feelini; of resjiecl 
 and affection foi' the Catholic faitli. which appeared lo 
 iia\e fallen on e\"il dav>, added loi-ce and impulse to ihc 
 pohtical situation. The douiL;^ and inleiUion^ of the 
 Si'itJii-'inUii wei'e earefulK' kept secrel. and in eon.se- 
 (]uence of tln' m\^ter\' that eiueloped it. ,L;a\e ri^e to 
 maii\' exa^i^^erated rumoui> of u> >trenL;th and tiie 
 extent oi its influence. lanalh. the question whether 
 iMevbui'L," should ,d.-^o join the Lea'_;ue was biou,L;ht 
 f(.)r\\ard o})eid\- in the Cantonal ('ouncd, in 1^4'-. .\.fter
 
 5o8 HISTORY OF THE SWISS PEOPLE 
 
 much discussion and a good deal of angry remonstrance 
 from the minority, the question was settled in the 
 affirmative. The publicity thus given to the movement 
 naturally created much popular agitation in the other 
 
 AD. 1846, cantons, that finally led to a proposal in the Federal 
 Diet (then sitting at Zurich), for the dissolution of the 
 League (July). On the question being put to the 
 assembly, it was lost by a majority of one vote only 
 (September 4th). 
 
 Geneva. The struggle was next transferred to Geneva, 
 
 where, in the following month, the Council passed a 
 resolution to the effect that the Sondevhnnd was an illegal 
 combination, contrary to the Constitution, but, at the 
 same time, it was not prepared to use force for its 
 suppression. 
 
 The latter part of this resolution not satisfying the 
 Radicals of the town, a serious rising took place, in 
 which several lives were lost and much damage was 
 done. Upon this the Council resigned, and was suc- 
 ceeded by one of a more Radical complexion headed by 
 James Fazy, the leader of the advanced Liberal party. 
 The first important act of the new Council was to 
 vote a resolution urging extreme measures against the 
 Sundcyhiind States. These changes in Geneva made the 
 deputies representing the rival parties ec^aal in the 
 I'cdcral Diet, and a similar Radical victory at St. Gallen 
 
 A 1), 1S.17. in the following year, secured a majority adverse to 
 the J^eague, a result tliat was liailed with the loudest 
 demonstrations of joy among the Liberals all over 
 Switzcrlruid. 
 
 In July the l'\'deral Diet assembled at fJern, and 
 the Sdiidtr/iiind (hllicuhy was naturally the forctmosl 
 subject lor discussi(jn. Long and heated was the eu-
 
 HISTORY- OI' THE SWISS PICOI'I,!: 
 
 5og 
 
 suing debate, in which the Catholic deputies in xain 
 tried to justify the formation of the I^eague hv citing 
 the impotence or iinhlference of the I'ecK-ral (i()\ern- 
 ment in the matter of the attacks on Luzern and in 
 the ci\il war in Wahiis. In \'ain they protested 
 against the incHxidual rights and wishes of their 
 cantons being swamped by a hostile majcjrity in the 
 Diet. The majority had already made up its mind 
 on the burning questi(Mi, aiul though the discussion 
 lasted se\eral days, it was in no way influenced bv 
 its opponents' arguments, still less by their threats. 
 On Julv Joth the representatives ot Zurich, Dern, 
 Solothurn, St. (lallm, Schafl hausen. Aargau, Ticincx 
 Cienexa, \'aud, Thurgau, the Outer Rhode ot Appenzull, 
 1 )a>el-countv a!ul (ilarus, carried a resolution that the 
 SinJcihmuI was contrary to the Constitution, and 
 turlher, ordered ah aiinanients (which for some time 
 pa>t were going acti\elv on) to cease in the cantons 
 of the League. Shortl)' afterwards two sjiecial Com- 
 mittees were ajipointed, one to ad\ ise on the best 
 means to be taken to enforce the Oiet's diccrce, and 
 the other to re]->ort on the n)any schemes put forward 
 by different political parlies for the re\i>ioii of the 
 b'ederal Constitution. 
 
 One cjther important steii was tai<en by the 
 majority of the I 'iet before it separated. This was 
 the ]>assing of a decree making the expulsion of ihe 
 Jesuits obligatory on all the caiUous (Seiitember 3rd). 
 
 \\'hil>t exents in Swilzeiland were thus di-ifiiiig 
 the nation into ci\il wai", the repre>emali\-e of hhiL^land 
 did his best to modierate the ho>tile feelings of the 
 ri\-al parties, but with no result. .\cii\t' communi- 
 cations conslanth- passeil tiom the leaileis of the
 
 ^lO HISTORY OF THE SWISS PEOPLE 
 
 Sonderhund to the Courts of France, Austria and Prussia, 
 all of which Powders seem to have given encouragement 
 to the idea that, in the event of war, they would assist 
 their co-religionists. 
 
 Far from submitting to the decisions of the Diet, 
 the Sonderhund cantons continued raising, arming and 
 drilling troops, and absolutely refused to dissolve their 
 separate Confederacy. Under these circumstances, the 
 national representatives once more met in Diet at Bern 
 (October i8th). The wordy warfare here became even 
 more furious than before, and that in spite of the 
 earnest endeavours of the deputies of the Graubiinden, 
 Zug and Basel-town, to bring about peace. After 
 many passionate protests against the action of the 
 majority, the representatives of the League finally left 
 the Diet in a body (October 2gth), and returned to 
 their constituents. The remaining deputies still hesi- 
 tated to take the serious step of employing force to 
 compel obedience, fearing lest this act would bring 
 about foreign intervention. Their fears, however, were 
 finally shown to be groundless by the representative of 
 Great Britain, who, under orders from Lord Palmer- 
 ston, whilst counselling moderation to both parties, 
 remained a iirm and powerful friend of the Federal 
 Government. On November 4th the die was cast, 
 and the Diet formally decreed the Sonderhund should 
 be dissolved by force of arms. 
 
 The Federal Diet had long pursued a ^■acillating 
 and impotent policy in its relations with the individual 
 cantfjns and the many political and religious parties 
 that threatened to destroy completely tlie national life 
 ot the Swiss. lla\-ing at length awakened from its 
 letharijy, it henceforth entered on a new life, dis-
 
 msroKN' ni- TiiK SWISS I'loi'i.i: 
 
 (;■: •; H\(; 
 
 tinf(uished by resolution, tirnincss ami. on the whole, 
 impartiality aiul sonncl sense. .\fter the decree (>[ 
 Xo\-enilH-r 4th, little time was lost in earrvini,'' it into 
 eiiect. A le\'v of the h'etleral forces was orderi'cl, and 
 within a \-erv short periodi looa'Oo trof)ps were readv .^ ;;,/; 
 to take the field, to^^ether with an ett"ecti\'e contingent y , 
 of artillery. The suprenie connnand was conferred on '^4 
 Colonel I )ufour of ('iene\'a, with the rank of (icneral. 
 than whom no man was m(n'e respected 1)\' the armv 
 or commanded i^M'eater authoritw He helonued to no 
 part\' : by instinct he was a ("onser\ati\-e, but he wa> 
 no le.-< a man of progress. Me had known war practi- 
 cally, and had written much from his loni: and able 
 experience upon its science. No one was better 
 aciiuainted with tlie cantonal militias, haxdni:- pre-ided 
 for main' \'e,ars as Chief Instructor of the corjis of 
 l-hi'^ini-rrs at the camp of e\c-rci>e at Thun. 'l"o 
 the best iiualitics of a warrior he uniti'd those of a 
 peaceful citizen. He wa> enixai^'ed in constructini; tlie 
 ^s^^'eat map of Switzerland wdiich bear> his name when 
 call(/d to \-iew the field of h]> studies t ran^ji irmeil into 
 a theatre of battle. He un(.Ier>t' -od the dan-er that 
 threatened hi-- countrw ln' ;-aw Ins du;\" ideaih'. and 
 he determined to do it (Xulliemiiii. Such is the 
 (diaracter of the inan wh^se brilliant niiiitarv lalem.^ 
 sa\'ed the unit\- and pri:>perit\' of the Swi~-s at one 
 of the most eritical perioib nt their hi-torw TlriULih 
 the scope of j)ufiur's work- was int!nrii---imaliv smaller, 
 he mav not inaptl\- be >tvh\l the deneral (iranl of 
 Switzerlaiul. 
 
 ('om{iare(l to the h'ederal armv. the forces ol the 
 ^, ;:j'c I'l'uiul Were much interior in r.u;uber>, discipline 
 and arms. When war acluallv bcL^an, the exauc^ratii 'H
 
 512 HISTORY OF THE SWISS PEOPLE 
 
 of the League's power was manifest, as not more 
 than 30,000 regular soldiers were able to be raised. 
 These were placed under the command of Colonel 
 Johann Ulric, a Protestant from the Graubiinden. 
 In spite of the certain result of the coming struggle, 
 and actuated by the remembrance of their past 
 triumphs, the Leaguers, even before the Diet had 
 passed its decree, occupied the Passes of the St. 
 Gothard (November 3rd), and surprised and routed 
 a body of 3,000 Ticinois, at Airolo, whom they fol- 
 lowed to the bridge of the Moesa. Here they were 
 met by the militias of the Graubiinden and of Ticino, 
 whose numbers effectually prevented their further pro- 
 gress. ]\Ieanwhile General Dufour was calmly and 
 rapidly maturing his plan of campaign, and preparing 
 for all emergencies. Without going into the details 
 of these, or enumerating the minor incidents of the 
 short though sanguinary encounter, it vvdll be sufficient 
 to follow the chief events " that led to the vindica- 
 tion of the Federal (jovernment"s authority, and the 
 termination of the Civil War. Disposing his troops 
 in such a manner as to hem in the Sondcrhund cantons, 
 Dufour made the first important attack on Freyburg. 
 Here, marching from the north and the west, 20,000 men, 
 with fifty-four pieces of artillery, met and besieged the 
 cily (No\cmbcr loth). Garrisoned by only 5,000 militia 
 and some 7,000 irregulars, with little or no discipline, 
 and torn by political factions, Freyburg was able to 
 oiler but a feeble resistance, and on the 14th formally 
 capitulated, and was at once occupied by the Federals. 
 Aficr se\-eral lesser \iclories, Zug (November 21st) 
 shared the fate of h'reyburg, as did the b^ntlibuch 
 districts. Aftc;r these unchecked successes, the army
 
 HISTOKN' OI' riU" SWISS I'Kdl'Ii: 
 
 5'3 
 
 marched a^'ainst Luzern. At (lis'iikoii ilie opposiiit,'' 
 forces met. and iov six hours f(.)ui;ln ohsliiialelv. At 
 a critical iiK^ment in the battle a l)att(-r\- of llernc-e 
 artillery arri\ed at full ^'il'^P, 'it once took up posi- 
 tion, and, by pouriui;" a inurdL-rous lire into the ranks 
 of the Leaj^mers. turni'd the f)rtunes of the dav from 
 what appeared a comim;' defeat into a complete \'ictt )r\ 
 for tile l-'ederals'" — (I)ufour, na,i:,^uet). I.ea\inL,M-iumhei"s 
 of their ranks on the lield, the l.ea,L,aiers were soon 
 in full ritreat. and on the following;' dav (Xo\aMribi f 
 2.\{h) Lu/ern was entered withmit further resistance. 
 \\ ithin the nc'xt week the last hopes of the S^'udci-cu):^ 
 were shattei'ed bv tlie suri'ender of Scliw\x. I'ntta- 
 walden and ('i"i. 'Idiese little states, that in former 
 tunes made such a heroic defence a^'ainst the mi^ht 
 of brance. and tlefeated the armies of l'>urL:'umly and 
 of Austria, now fell at once Ixdori' tlu; aih'ance of 
 their own countrvmeu. 'bhe last stand was made bv 
 the \'alais districts, wluaa: holies of help from I'russia 
 and I'danta; kept ali\e i\\c chin^' cause, llere. lK)We\fr. 
 the b\'cU'rals carried all before them: and the wai was 
 over, and the S^'niliii'miJ had ceasc^l to exist (No\cm- 
 ber Jv'h). I'nlike man\' who have ser\'ed their country 
 lon<^^ ;uid well, (ieneral l)uf)ur recei\ed the hiehest 
 honours Switzetland was able to coniei'. both in sub- 
 stantial uifts, and in la\ish and eiulurinL;" res'peet and 
 affection. 
 
 Duriiie; this i^erioil of ci\'il condict, the most im- 
 portant event in the histiuy of ni o-dein ^wiizei find, 
 Stratf)rd C'annin.L,'' ae"ain pla\-cd a prouiinent !■''.'■. beiu;; 
 sent as a Sjiecial Aniba^r^adior by l.ei'd 1 'aliuei ston to 
 the Swiss, in order, if l)os^ibl(•, to le^t-'ie hai:noii\-, and 
 prevent tlu; imjjcndine war. Airixini,: too late 1 ir the
 
 514 HISTORY OF THE SWISS PEOPLE 
 
 latter purpose, he yet succeeded, by his influence, in 
 a very striking way, in lessening the rigour of the 
 fines, and other penalties, inflicted on the vanquished 
 by the victors, and in restoring the long-lost balance 
 of brotherly love and unity to the Swiss people. 
 
 On the termination of the Civil War (tiie whole 
 expenses of which were levied on the Sondcrhund can- 
 tons, Neuchatel, and the Inner Rhode of Appenzell, 
 Switzerland at last found rest, and began in earnest 
 the career of material prosperity that to-day dis- 
 tinguishes her amongst European nations. Her 
 many local, political and religious differences cul- 
 minated in a short, sharp, but happily decisive 
 struggle ; the remedy was drastic, but it proved 
 thorough and effecti\-e. In many centres important 
 changes took place, but throughout the Confederacy 
 a better feeling between the different centres, a more 
 tolerant spirit between the rival creeds, and a general 
 placing of national needs before local interests, became 
 apparent and grew apace. As in the great American 
 Civil War the vanquished secessionists bowed before 
 the verdict of fortune, so in Switzerland the states 
 which lost in their struggle to create a separate con- 
 federacy acknowledged the authority of the triumphal 
 Federal Government. Once more the universal and 
 cruel law that governs all human affairs was demon- 
 strated, that all progress is based on defeat, preceded 
 by suffering, and stimulated l)y past experience of 
 misery and the hope to escape future troubles.
 
 CTIAPTHK XXIII 
 
 s ■>'.■ I T/ 1-. K :, A \' n fi I" 
 
 Tui; pro^q-ess of (k'liiocratic- ideas thrnuL:hout the 
 greater portion ot the Contrcleration that •-iiice i "^ i 5 had 
 made st'adi ra])iil strides, showed itself in a \er\- practical 
 manner shortly alter the close of the .S". ;.':/:■/ /-.■.';.•./ troubles. 
 lojr sex'eral years lu-fire that date the nt-etl of a 
 reformation of tht- Constitution had l>ero;ne apparent (' 
 to most politiral thinkers, and wdn-n Pufmr's brilliant 
 success brouirht settled ci\il pe:ice to the cnuntrv the 
 subject was taken up with ener^v. \\"i;h fir 1. ^s partv- 
 friction and ill-will than be!i aa- had charat teriscd drbat'-s 
 on inipfjrtant political pr^ipo^al-. the 1 'a-t discussed the 
 se\eral methods brought t'.rwai'd of rr\i>io:i, and. on 
 b'ebruary i.jth, rrle^at-.-d the .subject to a special com- 
 mittee (j! fcnu'tet-n exjn-rts to diaw up a >ilu-:nt'. Tins 
 committee hadi loi' re[)ortt_'!> t\\' > of tin- bc>t inf'rm-d 
 and most impartialK'-mindrd p^ublii i-ts in SwilzcrLni' 1 
 Henri Hrueycd \"and and \'aru of 'Ihuri^au to wIi'^m' 
 learnin;^' autl tart is due iji -rtat moasui'e the \tTV 
 admiralde plan of 141 ixermnLnt e\fnlually ai'iued ,it. 
 i;v .\pril >lh the labours ot the < onncat'er wrre' 
 tu.i^hed, and the dratt st'heme of ri\ihi'in handa d t.> the 
 Diet, by whom it wa> .submitted t-i llu- \i^;- i;l the 
 cantons for ;q)[)ro\al. I iy a ;iia]' aity < ^t i^i sta;<s the 
 :neasure wa> acca'pted,, i,id\' tla- W a!d:--i;it t.-n. th- liuier
 
 5lfS HISTORY Ol- THK SWISS PEOPLE 
 
 Rhode of Appenzell, Valais, Zug and Ticino voting 
 against it, and on September 12th it was proclaimed 
 publicly. 
 
 As the Constitution of 1848, with some few sub- 
 sequent amendments, is that under which the Swiss of 
 to-day live, its chief features may here be enumerated, 
 though the political and social condition of modern 
 Switzerland forms no part of the scope of this work. 
 \iy the terms of the new^ Constitution the principle 
 of centralisation was considerably expanded, without, 
 however, materially interfering with the position of the 
 individual cantonal governments. As a result much 
 more authority and greater stability were conferred on 
 the national representatives in dealing with matters 
 of national interest. The Central Government now 
 consisted of three principal bodies — the Executive or 
 Federal Council [Bundcsvath), of whose members one pre- 
 sides over each department of State, one member being 
 chosen as chairman for the year and representing in 
 himself what in other republican countries would be 
 the President of the Republic, though possessing no 
 more personal power than any of his colleagues ; the 
 Council of the Cantons {Stlindc Rath) composed of forty- 
 four members, each state electing two deputies; and the 
 National C'ouncil {Naiional Rath) made up of representa- 
 li\es t:hosen directly by the people, in the proportion 
 of one for every 20,000 inhabitants. The two latter 
 bodies together constitute the Federal Assembly, and 
 are jointly responsible for all laws passed or business 
 done. To these were added a Supreme Court of Appeal, 
 and a ITderal Cniversity was also proposed. 
 
 The ITderal (icjvernment was composed of seven 
 members and was elected by the I'T'deral Assembly for
 
 iiisioi-'.v oi- 1I1I-: 
 
 .Wl^S [•l.iUM.l. 
 
 six years. Ttu' lU'riiianenl sral of llu' (i()\crninL'nl was 
 !i.\lh1 al ]!frn. that of the I'edcial Triluinal (sima' 1^^741 
 at Lausanne. 1 1 y the new Constitution nearly all 
 niatt(;rs .i^oin^" to make up a free Kepr.lilican peojile 
 were irua ran teed, as lih(.;rtv of the press and the riL^ht 
 ol ptihlic meeting-, eipaalit}' of all citizens hefwre the law, 
 freedom to all (dirislian (lenominatit)ns ( [ews were 
 thereby excluded and were not recoL^nised till I'^hh. and 
 Jesuits were expressly forhiilden to settle on Swiss soil). 
 the ric^hl ot petition, an elticient s}Steni of iree edu(-a- 
 tion, etc. Ihit the hartlest problem of all the inan\- 
 obstacles to Swiss imity and pi'o^ress was soKcd bv the 
 ni'W politic~al chan,L;'e> maku\L; the >ii\ereiL;ai power ol 
 the National Clmernmeut exist side bv side with thai 
 of the cantons. Since i^^-f^. the tendency of Libera! 
 ])oliticians ha^ always been towards further taailralisa- 
 tion and strt'iii^lheniuL;' the l'"ederal ( io\ei"mnent , whilst 
 the cantons, espeeialb' the mountain ones, ha\-e 
 strentiousl}' resisted all eiua'oachinents ai^'ainst their 
 rights. It i.-. impossible to o\fr-est imati' the beiietUh 
 conlerred on Switzeidand b\- the ca'cation ol a powertui 
 Central (io\ eminent sulhcienll)- stroiiL;' to dwaii the 
 pelt}' local mterests ol the se\cial eantou- whieh 
 throu_L;'h so nian\' taaituries ol umot had aria'^Un! the 
 L^rowth oi mate-rial, natinnal and inili\iklual pr^ iL;ia's>. 
 Cdiiefly through its ai;'encv Swit/.ei land stands loalay a X.i: 
 pi'ospercjus nation, united within hei>eli and well able 
 to hold hei' own a,L;'ainst enrn >achment nr attaik tiMm 
 without. The biiah of hei' nat ii iirdU}' nriieo-cei- was nut 
 m irked, as in the ca>e ol i eriain 1 iiIk r .--mall c. 'unl 1 le.s, 
 b\' an umaMsonm^ cUnbiliun lo at I a om ni kauopian 
 allaii's other than that maj^ped lail b\- hn >i/e, 
 i;eoL;ra[)hical po>ili(in anil the chaiai ler ol liei peiij)Ie.
 
 5l8 HISTORY OF THE SWISS PEOPLE 
 
 Surrounded on all sides by great and powerful nations, 
 without a single outlet except through the territories of 
 those nations, the common-sense of the Swiss enabled 
 them to perceive the direction in wdiich their resources 
 could best be utilised, and to set about with a good-will 
 to accomplish their obvious destiny. The times were 
 other than those when Swiss mercenary troops were 
 eagerly sought and highly paid to fight the battles of 
 foreigners. For many centuries thousands of the 
 mountaineers had lived by the sword, and by the sword 
 many thousands had perished ; the name of Swiss had 
 been made synonymous with deeds of heroic valour ; it 
 had also become synonymous with heroism that must 
 be paid for ; point d' argent, point de Suisse, was literally as 
 true as were the prowess, the military instinct and the 
 unswerving sense of duty that distinguished the hosts 
 of mercenary soldiers that for so long held a foremost 
 place in the armies of almost every European State. 
 Heroic ambitions and fratricidal struggles henceforth 
 were to give place to useful and practical legislative 
 measures and material progress. For a people to 
 change its characteristic features suddenly is impossible. 
 To the Swiss is due the honour of putting away with 
 their changed political conditions many of those features 
 oi their national life which were out of date and 
 detrimental to their future prosperity. This was the 
 more difficult owing to the conservatism which has 
 always formed a marked trait in the real character of 
 the })e()pl(i at large. With internal dissensions and 
 foreign wars no longer present to check their develop- 
 ment the nation steadily labovired at material and 
 iiUellectual improvement, de\-eloped the resources of 
 the country, revived ancient industries, created new
 
 :i^ i()U\ ()!■ 1 hi; h\\ i>> pi.i n'l.i. 
 
 3i<J 
 
 ones, ami rapiillv rose in iIk- scaU' ot cixilisation and 
 WL'll-bfin^. 'i'lial iticir liLiluini,'- insliiuts wnc lionnanl. 
 not dcatl. is fxiilrni liy ilu,- elticiL-nl inilitai'v organisa- 
 tion the Swiss s. ) soon ck'\ rlopctl. and ^lill mure by the 
 ni. inner in whieh the old wanior-tire that shed Mieh 
 l>rilliane\' oxer the naine> nl Mor^arten. ('ii'ans)n, 
 Xatels. and the inanv other fields of Swiss ilarin^;', 
 leapetl to lite when real or inia,<^inar\' dan^er^ threatened 
 the honour or inteL;'rit\' of the new h'atherlaiul. 
 
 The tirst l-"ederal AsseniMy elected under the new /) ,■;:.;.-:. 
 Conditions met at I'.ern on Xoveiuber oth. i^4>. and in '' 
 a l)usine>sdike wa\ tie^an Us new duties 1)\' enacting 
 the niost ui',L;entlv neialed nn'asui"e>. ( )f the>e the more 
 important wei'e, an unitorm swstrin of weii^hts. measure> 
 and conia'_;e lor the whole counti"\' : the e>laMishment 
 of a l-"edei\al tele;_;"i'aph depailment, thai snon t'o\ei"ed 
 Switzi^iiand with a network ot conuuunications. and 
 became tin- mo>t pertect in lunope ; a l^. lod and e\- 
 tensi\e ser\"ice ot railwaxs ; an im[iro\a'd nirthodot tree 
 public inslrucliou ; the al^'htion ot i apilai punishment 
 tor political otteina'S. and ol impri^- inaii-iit tor debt; a 
 thorouL;h and hiL;hl\- [icrtected s\s:>-m "I MaiilaiA oia^aii- 
 isation. The Octroi ilutie> le\ii-(l on L;o>)d> passing trom 
 one canton lo another remained in t' iree till i^^;. m 
 con^e(pience of the op]v>-.iliou . li-pl.i\ev! b\- th.e cmton d 
 authorities to their abolition, and the ...n^eipaen; io>> oi 
 re\enu( thi'ir remmal would ii!\'i;\e. 
 
 All throUL^i the tumuhueu> e\enl> thai ihirac- 
 teriseil the liisior}' of burojiean Stale-, ui !^p -'llie 
 vear ol" I e\( Tilions " Swil/eiland i'^niamed ^ci are and 
 [)raclicall\- unalfecied ; ihe w.o.e-. ei p ipalar npi!>nr,;> 
 ai^am^l real or taneied t\Taiinie> 1 .^i iheii r .i ee wiieu 
 thev leailual hm mounl.nn i^ aiiuiai a-- ; ..; , ie\>'iuli'n
 
 520 HISTORY OF THE SWISS PEOPLE 
 
 was o\er, her regeneration effected, and most of the 
 wrongs of her people were already righted. Whilst 
 discontent, misery and bloodshed were elsewhere uni- 
 versal, the Swiss nation had but to contend with 
 unimportant local difficulties, and steadily to complete 
 the process of welding her several elements into a 
 united chain of strength and endurance. 
 
 Though Switzerland thus stood outside the arena 
 of foreign strife, many of her sons were unable to 
 restrain their lo\'e of freedom, and volunteered in several 
 of the struggles then raging in Europe. This was 
 specially the case in the War of Independence of 1849 
 between Austria and Italy, and in the Italian troubles 
 of 1856-61. In both contests, though the Federal 
 (jovernment prevented Switzerland becoming involved, 
 it could not prevent many thousands of Swiss taking 
 an acti\e part either as volunteers or paid troops. 
 Xcuchdtd. J]ut the most striking instance of the sudden 
 
 rc\ival of ancient Swiss valour showed itself in connec- 
 tion with events that disturbed the peace of Neuchatel 
 in i(S56-7. Through the whole range of modern history 
 it would be difficult to hnd an example of greater 
 national pluck than those e\ents called forth on the 
 part of Switzerland, when alone, and in the teeth of 
 the 1 European Powers she promptly prepared to face the 
 u hcjle might of Prussia, and by her steadfast determina- 
 liitn to pcn'ish rather than to give up what she deemed 
 her own, saved her honour and preserved the integrity 
 ol her soil. The serious crisis in the fate of Neuchatel, 
 and still more in that of the Confederation, constituted 
 the last, or ratlier the latest, act of Swiss national 
 lici(jisni. 'I'he position oi Neuchatel for many years 
 had been most exceptionable, and as time went on
 
 iiisroKV oi- rm-: swiss i'i:(.)i'i.i: 
 
 l)ec;iine inure and more untenable. Alter her incor- 
 poration iincj the Swiss Confederation, in i~^is. liei' 
 political status was anonialoLis in the extreme. W ithin 
 her narrow limits a double rri^in'.c existetl, the m(jnarch\- 
 of rrub>ia claiming' princelv ri.L,dUs o\'er the republican 
 peojde ot a Swiss Canton, which ri^dits were ,L;iiaranteed 
 by the Com^re-s ot X'ienna. In i ^^47 Xeuchatel abstained 
 trom sharini;- the burdens of the SunJciouuJ contest, antl 
 m 1^4"^, tiiou;-:h she hatl, like the other cant^jns. her 
 own little rex'olution, i'rus^ia declined to recoi^nise the 
 chan;_;-es then inauuinated. and that in >pite of the 
 diplonuttic eitorts made b\' the l-'eileral (io\-ernment to 
 obtain a f(jrmal release ot Prus>ia's claims. I'nlike 
 the other mend>ers ot the Contetleration, where, \\ith 
 the establishment ot denioci'atic principles, part\' teelinL,^ 
 rapidly subsided, the lvoyali^t miiiority in NeiichatL-l 
 remaiiieil acti\'e, and retu^ed to submit to the opinion 
 ot the nuijorit}'. In i"^5i an inllueiuial de{)utation laid 
 the hopes and tears ot the Prussian >ympathisrrs before 
 b'rederick William, who promised tw iurther the aspira- 
 tions of his atlherent-. in the tollowin^' wai" the Kiii',; 
 brou^dit the subject luiore th<.' rL-i)rc>entati\ es ot the 
 ICuropean I'owers then assembled in Lmuf.n i Ma\- J^lii '. 
 iCmboldeiied b\' this action, s diie -;.o. < < lvi\,ili>ts .is- 
 sembled ;it \'alanL,Mn to dL-nionsiiMtr iiidiuih" ih.-ii 
 \iews. I'litortunateK' tor the succe>> ot thi> mri-tin,L;, the 
 Kepubli( ails or,L;"anised an ii[)position L;athei iu'^. three 
 limes Jari^i'r in number, fir the s.inic j-hne and duiv, 
 which coinjdetely eclipsed tiuir oppniu'iits' impnitanrr 
 (July ')th). The i)rv^poitional stren:;l!i <'i parties bciuu; 
 thus opeiiK' shown, matters lemaiiu-d t'ilerab!\- quua 
 till i>3'', thou'^h s(j\-cr.il ummporiant ci illisii iii> took 
 plact.', and inudi partv leeim.; exisicil. in Srptembe: 
 
 \ p. I "^tI.
 
 522 ■ nisroRv OF run swiss feoflh 
 
 of that year a very serious risin^^ broke out, consequent 
 on a conspiracy, headed by some influential Royalist 
 nobles and military leaders, to bring about complete 
 annexation to Prussia. The movement, though long 
 maturing, was so carefully and secretly planned, that 
 when it actually declared itself, the local Republican 
 and Federal authorities were in complete ignorance of 
 its importance. Assembling on the night of the 2nd of 
 September, large bodies of the rebels seized several 
 villages, and surprising the capital itself, captured the 
 castle and made prisoners of the members of the 
 Government. In every direction the alarm spread, 
 and with the greatest rapidity the Republicans rallied 
 to the defence of their canton and their institutions. 
 Attacked on all sides by overpowering numbers, the 
 Royalists were repulsed and defeated at every point, 
 the castle was recaptured, the authorities liberated, and 
 some 650 Royalists were made prisoners (September 4th). 
 On the following day a contingent of Federal troops 
 arrived, and the short but critical conflict was ended. 
 Of tlic prisoners only the chief instigators of the re\'olt 
 were detained for trial as insurgents, to the number of 
 twenty-eight, the rest being liberated on parole by order 
 of the b'ederal (io\ernment. Passing now from local 
 to national importance, the question of the future of 
 Xeuchatel became a matter of l^uropean concern. AVith 
 the approbation of several of the Powers, the l-*russian 
 Ambassador shortly afterwards protested against the 
 violation of the so\-ercign rights of I'^redcrick William IV. 
 in\-olvc'(i in the action of the b'ederal and Lcjcal Authori- 
 ties of Xeuchatel in repressing the revolt. He further 
 demanded the arrest of all further repressive measures 
 against the Royalists, and the instant liberation of the
 
 iiibioK'i oi 1111, SWISS I'l.dri.i, 
 
 prisoncis. As ct)inplianct' with tlu^r (k'lnaiuls would 
 in\'nl\'(' ,1 (.(jinplele rriumciation oi Swiss clainis owv 
 Xcauhatcl and ot the principlfs of ihf Swiss Confeck'ra- 
 lion. the I'\-deral ( io\ernnient reluscd rpspectfully, hut 
 most tiniily, to accede : and in its rehisal was supported 
 hy an unanimous xote ot thi- l'\-ileral Assembly. An 
 attempt on ihe part of I'russia to enlist the co-operation 
 of the Powers in her fa\()ur so far succeeded that h" ranee 
 stepped forward as a mediator, in his efforts t(j hrini;' 
 matters to a satiskictory termination. Xapoleon III. seems 
 to ha\e been actuated bv the most triendlv spirit to- 
 wards Switzerland; indeed, he assured the special en\'ov 
 sent to his (,'ourt by the J-\'deral (un eminent, that he 
 intended to act as if he himself were the representatix'e 
 of the Swiss. Nothing', howexci", came of Napoleon's 
 mediation, as, althou,i:"h his efforts were unremittiiii,'' to 
 settle the difficulty amicabl\-. JMcderick William would 
 ,t,aant no abatement from his original demands, antl 
 neither b^n^dand nor b'rance wouKl i,aiarantee the futiu'e 
 freedom of Xeucdiatel fiom I'russia in the e\fnt of the 
 Royalist prisoners bciiiL;' liberated. In spile of much 
 correspondence, and not a few threat-;, thai were none 
 the less menacing for beim; clothed in diidomatic Ian 
 ^iiaL^e. the Swiss stood lirml\- on the L;riHmd that before 
 they could exercise (lenieiuw towardis llu- im[)iisi aied 
 rcdiels, the complete indiependence of Neuchatel nui>t be 
 fully and finally acdx'iiow led^eii. 
 
 As a last resort Napoleon appealed, to (iriieral 
 I)ufour. his personal fiieiul and forme!' militaiw 
 in^truetor. to u.-e his .m'eat inlliieiice with hi> eountrv- 
 men. but this al>o tailiiiu, he withdrew liom what was 
 api>arentl\- a hoiides^ task. With the brt'akiiiL;" off of 
 the negotiations beijan one of the i'ra\'est (.aises the
 
 524 HISTORY OF THE SWISS PEOPLE 
 
 Swiss had ever been called upon to face ; it lasted less 
 than a month but during that time the sword of one 
 of the most powerful European sovereigns hung over 
 the land, the descent of which meant the almost certain 
 slaughter of thousands, and the probable loss of inde- 
 pendence of the whole or part of the Confederation. 
 Had war broken out, the "partition of Switzerland" 
 might have formed as black a chapter in the history 
 of the nineteenth century as that which records the 
 fate of Poland. 
 
 With a resolution worthy of a better cause (a 
 resolution conspicuously absent when Prussia had the 
 great Napoleon for an opponent) Frederick William 
 withdrew his ambassador from Bern, ordered the 
 mobilisation of his army, amounting to 300,000 men, 
 and threatened unless his demands were at once con- 
 ceded, to declare war. Face to face with death and 
 national extinction, the Swiss nation, with an unanimity 
 ne\'er before equalled in their history, chose to shed 
 the last drop of blood, to perish as one man, lighting 
 her powerful antagonist, rather than falsify the prin- 
 ciples of her newly-formed Constitution by submitting 
 to demands she deemed dishonourable and unjust. 
 And now beg;ui a strange, heroic, but none tlie less 
 pathetic sight. In an instant all Switzerland was 
 changed into a camp. Led by their Government, who 
 represented the nation in a manner governments seldom 
 do, the country commenced her preparations for the 
 c(jining strife, with a patriotic enthusiasm and disregard 
 tor indixidual interests as marked as it was rare. In 
 e\ery canton of the Confederacy men oi e\'ery class, 
 rich and pofjr, okl men and youths, men of ever}' creed, 
 politicians of e\ery party, those that had formed the
 
 HISTORY OI- THE SWISS PHOPM; 
 
 0-^0 
 
 So!idn-o:i}:J. and those by whose efforts the SniJerhniui 
 was (lestri^yed : (jcrnians, hVench, Itahans and Roinansch 
 rivalled one another in their zeal to defend their cduntrv 
 in the h,(nir of her peril. 
 
 Swi^s residents abroad h;istenctl to return to their 
 native land or sent lar,t,''e sums of money for the conniion 
 purse: "in the \-illaLres as in the towns, in the work- 
 shops, the schools and e\en the churches, the walls 
 re-echoed the national chant. Russt du ir.tin I'ateyhvid." 
 Headed bv r<ern. all the Cantonal Councils voted unani- 
 mously whatever sums should 1)C thought necessarv 
 for the expenses of the cumin,!: conllict. 
 
 ( )n Xo\-ember 27th. the bY'deral Assemblv \()ted. 
 without a simple dissentient \'oice, the war credits de- 
 manded bv the I>xecuti\-e. ( )n the same day, in the 
 prr>ence ot a \ast multitude. (General 1 )ufour, the 
 former savi(nir of his country, took the oath as 
 Connnandcr-ir.-chief ot the national forces. To the 
 assembled crowds, who ifaxe him a splendid oxation. 
 he replied in these memorable wiird.s: ••I rejoicr to 
 end mv life in the ser\'ice i>t my c(.iuntry. 1 .-im oKl 
 (he was then sex'enty) and m\- ta>k is lieaxy. [ex the 
 enemv is [lowerlul. but 1 trust 1 >hall c.arrv on m\- 
 missi(jn in the name of the (lod of our 1 auh. who 
 has never ceased to protci.t our J- athorland." I'ndrr 
 the Swiss ^'eneiai's exj)L'i"ien: ri,! ^uiduuua- tin' small 
 army of the Confeder.ition was rapidily orLTanised and 
 the })lan of campai_,Mi maj)}ifd out. With the opi-nim; 
 of the new vrar all tlie pirfparatio:i> v.Ti'e comj^lrted. a i> iS; 
 and a force of 3- 1,' 'oo welbarmLHl and enthusiastic 
 troops marched to ^uai'd the frontier ot the Khine 
 I January oth). 
 
 The resolute C(jurse ;)ursurd b\- the Swiss h.ad
 
 526 HISTORY OF THE SWISS PKOPI.I': 
 
 doubtless not been calculated upon by Prussia, who 
 hoped to coerce her small nei^^hbour without the em- 
 ployment of actual force. Neither was its effect lost 
 on the other Powers. The spectacle of the whole 
 Swiss nation readily and in earnest preparing to die 
 in defence of their country and for what they held to 
 be the right, awoke the sympathies of Europe and 
 effected what so far diplomacy and threats had failed 
 to accomplish. Once more Napoleon came forward 
 as a mediator and called a Congress at Paris of the 
 representatives of the great Powers to consider the 
 questions in dispute. On the advice of Napoleon, 
 and satisfied with the guarantees given, the I'ederal 
 Government ordered the liberation of the rebels it had 
 so long kept imprisoned. Stipulating that they should 
 not return to Neuchatel till its future had been definitely 
 settled, the prisoners were allowed to be taken to I'^rance 
 and there set at liberty, where they were kept till the 
 Congress had given its decision. At the meetings in 
 Paris the Swiss adhered to their original claims, and 
 backed as they now were by the sympathies of the 
 Powers, they carried the day and peace was established. 
 The decision of the Congress was naturally strongly 
 demurred to by Prussia, who insisted on a large money 
 indenniity in the e\"ent of foregoing her sovereign rights 
 o\er the disputed territory. I'inally, however, Frederick 
 William, after much hesitation, and many efforts to 
 ch;mge the disposition of the Powers, renounced without 
 indemnit}- all rights and claims over the canton 
 (May 2')tli). In return for this the Kings of l^russia 
 were accordt-d the barren prixilege of adding to their 
 titles that of "I'rince of Xcuchatel and X'alangin," a 
 privilege the succt'ssors of I'rederick William have
 
 HISTORY OI- Tin-; SWISS PIIOI'I.I-. 
 
 failed to awiil lh(Mnsel\'es of. Henceforth \eu(-h;'itel 
 ceased to present the curious sjiectacle of a RepubHcan 
 territory owniiiL;' alle^'iance to a mnnarchial State, and 
 became in e\'erv respect identical A\'ith the other cantons 
 of the Swiss Confederacy. 
 
 The next (juestion of importance to arouse public 
 attention was tlie cx'ssion of Saxov bv X'ictor ICmmanuel 
 to I'rance (iS3((-()()). as the price of the hitter's co- 
 operation with Italy in the war as^^ainst Austria. The 
 ac(iuisition of this territ(jr_\- had for three centuries been 
 eagerly souj^^ht b}' h'rance, ^■i\in.i;' as it did the command 
 of the passes ot the Alps, and there-fore tlie road to 
 Italy. 
 
 bTancis [.. Ib'nry 1\'.. and Louis .\1\'. had each 
 occupied Sa\<iy, but each at the conclusion of peace 
 had been forced to restore it. At the ('ont^Ti'Ss of 
 X'ienna j^cHtions of Sa\'o\' wei'c neuiralist-d, but that, 
 as in tlie ^iiaranlces Lfixa-n to 1 'rus>ia cdUccniinL;" 
 Xeuchatt'l, was not a matter of much importaiK e if 
 one of tlie lAirepeaii Pnwcrs were sullicK'iitK' slruiiL; to 
 i<;n(jre the undertai<inL;s it had eiitcictl into in the past. 
 Time went rapully. and (-\a-nts changed iiui-kl\-. 
 after the O/th century opeiu-d. In the (diabl.ns and 
 l'\auc;i,L;'nv tli>tricts the inhabitants W'-re (-a-er to unile 
 their lot with the Swi>^, who, on their side, re-aided 
 Sa\-oy as the •■bulwark- of theij- e,,untiy and the eraille 
 of their d\'nast\-," and were not prtpao-d to --I'e it 
 c-haneed into a perjieturd menace to ilii-ii' Slates, 
 e>])eeiallv to ( ieiiewi and \ and. b\- bein:;" occupied b\' 
 the idencli. In \ain the io-deral ( ionci nnieiu inotr-^'ieil. 
 api)eale(l to the 1 'o\\ei>, and e\-(-n contemplated 
 occu[)\inL;- Sa\o\- wiih troop>. The [leojilc, thoUL;h 
 stronL;b' o|)posed to the (Jioposcd eh,mL;es. were not 
 
 AD. lS''>0.
 
 528 HISTORY OF THT-, SWISS PEOPLE 
 
 prepared to make the question one of peace or war, 
 neither were they united amongst themselves on the 
 main issue, and without national union the Swiss were 
 always powerless. 
 
 A.D. 1859. Though unable to prevent the cession of Savoy, 
 
 Switzerland was able to prevent the violation of her 
 territory by any of the contending Powers, and during 
 the whole progress of the war maintained a strong force 
 along her frontiers. The necessity of this measure was 
 seen after the conquest of Lombardy, when the 
 Austrian garrison occupying Laveno were compelled to 
 evacuate the fortress and seek refuge on Swiss soil. 
 Here, after laying down their arms, they were cared 
 for and given employment. At the meetings of the 
 Austrian and French representatives at Ziirich to settle 
 the terms already agreed to by the Treaty of Villefrance 
 (July 12th, 1859), the Federal Government endeavoured 
 to prevent the cession of Savoy. At first Napoleon 
 appeared inclined to abandon his project of annexation, 
 and the matter remained apparently suspended, till on 
 
 AD i8f)o. March 24th, i860 a treaty was formally ratified at 
 Turin, handing the whole of the Savoy over to the 
 I'^ench Empire. Before finally the step was taken, 
 Napoleon announced through the Governors of Cham- 
 bery and of Annecy, that, in order to test the feelings of 
 the Savoyards themselves, the question of annexation 
 w(jiild be submitted to the popular vote. The result 
 was not difficult to foresee, when such an expert in the 
 art and science of plebiscites as Napoleon III. under- 
 took the managenumt of an appeal to universal suffrage, 
 in spite of the powerful opposition of Upper Savoy to 
 the ])rop(xscd change, a majority in fivour of it was ably 
 secured (April 22nd). In an official des[)<itch written by
 
 HISr()K\' OF THK SWISS I'l.Ol'I.l. 
 
 v:v><cd to 
 
 Lord j.ilin Russell a month afterwards, he exi^roseil t( 
 the Hritish A;nbassador at I'aris t!u- opini'in of ile 
 Majesty's (jo\'ernment that the manner in which thi 
 
 vo'.e w 
 
 iS taken entirely destroN'ed its walue. 
 
 ' "" " " naturally L:a\-e rise 
 
 The aimexation oi Sa\o\ 
 
 .i^reat apprehensions on the part of (lenewa, lest a 
 similar tate awaited that di^trict. In the emeri^ency 
 this hotdied ot political turbtuence fur nr^ce laid aside its 
 qiiarrtds, and with une acdual, irre>pecti\e ot party or 
 reliL:ion. the whole population took a solemn oath to 
 uphuKl. at all c:)Sts, the ri^dits and indi'jventlencc of the 
 
 uphuKl. at all c:)Sts, the ri^dits and indi'jvcuuL-ii^c u 
 cit\-. So ,1,'reat indeetl became the public alarm that 
 at the electiiiiis in the tollowiuL;' \-ear James I'azy, who -^ 
 
 or litteen year> had headed the Radical C loxa-rnment. 
 
 yas remox'ed Irojn jiower. Idioui^'h still the dominant 
 
 was remox'ed 
 
 jvarty. the Radicals were by this >]>\\l mto t\yo ^ectlon^ 
 the l-\az\d>ts and the anti- 1 'az\'ist-. Thoe tactr-ns, 
 when the tear of annexation had soimewhat lessL'Ued. s>'on 
 brouudu the pe^.ple back to their noi-;;ial !i'_:duini^' Cundi- 
 tion, and b\- their openly liostile attitud',' k'ept the cit\- in 
 a C()nstant state of turmiiil, till at l-'U^th matters became 
 so Serious that cd\il war was only pre\"ent(.d b\- the 
 interterence ot th;' I'ederal ( io\ern :i.ent . that orda-red 
 
 of thi' I'eilera 
 
 upiedi by nati'inal 'l!oiip> and iha 
 
 1 I ha' chlr 
 
 :ie arre-tei 
 way t' 1 c inuM' '\\ 
 ( iene\ e-e 'duio' 
 
 i^e a;id 
 
 to ( eleblMt-' ih- 
 
 'UaI the 
 
 interterence 
 
 ( ienewi to bi' oia/uj 
 
 leaders on either side to 
 
 did political pa>>ions '_;"i\' 
 
 patriotism, when thi 
 
 fete (jf thoir union with tlio (". .na deration. 
 
 tear> ot (iene\-a I'oiril up -ii a xa-ry --ubstaulial to-upala- 
 
 tion ot p(j->ib:lit\' ha- 1 
 
 M . de ia Ri\e. I iLit 
 
 Xapoh'un 111. S;'iiou>l\' cm:u, -aij aat'al iiaii}nanL^ l> 
 
 ("lenewi and R'.'lL;'ium. airl mtiaa-d iiilo --ccirt 'Oi 
 
 ■n --h' >wii 
 on 
 
 --U1 
 
 \' till' I ('^;'^lrclle^ 
 y hi- military adi\d-ei 
 lat'al ,i.a;ii}naii 
 
 th
 
 A.D. 
 
 '/^ 
 
 530 HISTORY Ol- THK SWISS Pl-OPI.E 
 
 spondence with Russell and Palmerston to arrive at an 
 understanding with this object, and only abandoned his 
 criminal designs on receiving the assurance that any 
 such attempt would be taken as a casus belli by Great 
 Britain. 
 Franco- In the terrible struggle that broke out between 
 
 Germanic ■ n ^ n- ■ 1 
 
 ]Yar, r ranee and Cjermany m ifSyo, the Swiss not only pre- 
 
 served the neutrality of the cantons, but did much to 
 lessen the miseries of the victims of the war. Fifty thou- 
 sand Federal troops were detailed to guard the northern 
 and western frontiers of the Confederation, under the able 
 command of Colonel Herzog, a colleague and pupil of 
 General Dufour, the latter being now too advanced in 
 years again to serve his country on active service. The 
 endurance of many hardships throughout the duration of 
 the war, and the tact and energy displayed by officers 
 and men alike deserve the highest praise. In dealing 
 with the army of the ill-fated Bourbaki, not only the 
 Swiss troops but the whole nation were called upon to 
 co-operate. After failing to relieve Belfort, Bourbaki's 
 army, numbering 85,000 men and g,c)oo horse, was forced, 
 in order to avoid certain defeat, to cross the Swiss fron- 
 tiers and lay down their arms. I^educed by an arduous 
 march, unprepared for the terribly severe winter, without 
 sufticient food or proper clothes, and depressed by defeat, 
 the condition of the i'^ench troops as they filed through 
 the snow on to the sheltering hospitality of Swiss 
 soil, was miserable in the extreme (b'ebruary ist, 1871). 
 'i'liroughout the C'onfederacy e\-ery man vied with his 
 neighbour in kindness tf) the foreigners, who were 
 r]uartcred throughout the land till the war ended, when 
 they returned to tlieir country recruited in body, and 
 Idud in their </ratitude to their hosts. To the Germans
 
 iii,-^r(>K\ oi riii: sv,is> \-\.nviA 
 
 whu wt-vc (jl'liL;cii to l«_-;i\c l-'ran.re ;U the outlu'cak of 
 hustilitio. the S\vi>s showed miniberlcss k;iui;icssL->. 
 rL-ric\'ip.i:' tht'ir iK-cc>sitifS, a:ui L;rantin'4 th.L-ni aiJ in 
 their ho:iK-\vard journey thr(jui4'h Switzerhmd. I'.ut the 
 nu St touchin.L,'- in>tance ut practical ,i:o'-d;u-ss during the 
 war ocvjurred at the sie.^'e of Strasl>ur,i^^ Here. thronL^-'i 
 th.e i.'\ert; ii> o! the Swi>s. pernn>^ion \\a> granted l>v 
 both hi/lliL:erent> t.' the non-coiUibalanl portion ^A tlie 
 i;arri>on to escape the h.orrors of the boudiardinent. 
 l-'oiirteen h.undreti old men and women, with th,e >ick 
 and the children. le!t the doomedi citw under tiie {pro- 
 tection ol the de>cendants oi tile ancient allie> ol then' 
 .incoLors. auul tt)Lmd home> in the c.imiin>. where the\' 
 Were -supported witii e\'er\- care duriri_;' then' tune ■. t 
 iroulile. The w.irk dune 1>\- niemhers r^i the Ived ("ro^^ 
 Societ\' I started h\' the (\cv.l-\a C'o;:\ en.ti' 'U. lu^idar the 
 pre.-idenc\' ' d' ('lenerai Pat lur. in '.■"■•4) on tive r.^-ld ot 
 battle tc) tile wouraled ot b'r.tnce andi ("lern-.anx' alike, i-- 
 
 an.otiier nolWe m>tance .'I tlie chan. 
 
 N ,0 
 
 ie . i\ er 
 
 the character ot the Swiss with then' new r.ational lile. 
 At the be^'innini^' i>t the war tiu- >\:np,tth!e> ot Swi:/er- 
 landi Were certainK' with the ( iern;a:-..-. but .itler Sedan, 
 and the d(/claration oi the Ivepui'l'ic. a ut nera! re\ ul>ion 
 loiik [)lace in la\ourot th.e I'h'encii. S\'. it/erl.uul. how- 
 ex er, did n a ail'iw her pi.;: -.inai teelniL^.- to Innii or 
 C'jntriil the aid :-he S'l L^t-ner' iu>:\' L:"a\ e tlu- \ut;m> o; 
 botli nati in>. i ly public and p;"i'c,ite beno\ olen^ e. audi 
 the foriuation. ol nunv'tou^ e )nnuutoe.-. >he ^]\^ ;iur I1 t^ ' 
 al!e\iite till- >u!t'.rm_;s ot th.e \\ oundedi ami their lanrdies. 
 an>I to a^^;^t th<- t}r)U>a:u!> wl^. i v. eie br< u^h.t {'> :u;n 
 and mi-.'r\' tin ' i;iL;h til it i'i'U''i a;rl u:iiu>f.Mabie '^'Utir ;.' 
 
 \: 
 
 M 'I 
 
 I"-''' 
 
 •A. II' 
 
 \'
 
 332 HISTORY OF THE SWISS PEOPLE 
 
 A lilt- ml in ill/ of With the estabhshmcnt of staple forms of national 
 
 Ci'llftittllitin of , , , 1 r-% T 1 • r^ •, 1 1 
 
 jy,;-^ • and local go\-ernment the Radical party m bwitzerland 
 
 made rapid progress in strength and prominence. To 
 advanced political thinkers it soon became apparent 
 that to create really effective and popular national 
 and cantonal legislatures, the Federal authority must 
 be still further strengthened, and a more direct con- 
 trol and interest in public affairs be confided to the 
 people themselves. Though theoretically the methods 
 adopted in 1848 approached perfection for the needs of 
 the nation, yet in practice it was too often seen that 
 the elected deputies made national interest subservient 
 to local or personal claims. r\Iinisters, moreover, were 
 apt to assume full responsibility in matters demand- 
 ing public approval and to increase the \"ery ample 
 powers already confided in them. Another revision of 
 the Constitution was, however, difficult to accomplish 
 in face of the opposition of the cantons to all mea- 
 sures likely further to curtail their rights by greater 
 centralisation. The mass of the people, too, always in 
 modern times opposed to sudden sweeping changes, 
 were difficult to educate in progressive political ideas. 
 On se\-eral occasions, notably in 1872, the question of 
 re\ision was brought to the popular \-ote, but failed 
 to receix'c sufficient support to enable the Federal 
 Assembly undertaking it. Undeterred by the popular 
 rej(-cti(jn of their views the Radical societies, especially 
 lh(; "Helvetic" and the " Grlitli -A'erein," continued 
 
 fr.'uics as part of the expciiscs the Swiss had Ix.'cn })Ut to by the 
 \\ar I'x'sides the lai'.u'e sums \()hintaril\' £,M\-en to the I'rench 
 iiliiccr-^ ami men (hirini; tlu- tiiin: tlie\- remained within tlie cantons, 
 the eost ol maintaiiiin,LC tlie troc>ps necessar\- for ^Miar(hn<:,' the 
 ii'-ntralit\ of the ( '(jnfetlerali'. frontiers, amounted to ei^ht milHon 
 irancs
 
 insroKv oi- iHK hwiss i>i:()i'i.): 
 
 JJO 
 
 their ai^'itations in fax'our of Rctorin, and hy i>^74 had 
 
 so far changed the current of pubHc thouL(ht. that on 
 
 the (juestion heni^,' aL,'"ain subinitteii to the \()te ot the ad. 1^74. 
 
 nation it obtained a substantial majority in its fa\'our 
 
 (April I'/th). The Assenibh' at once undertook the task 
 
 of re\'ision in accordance with ttie prexailini;' political 
 
 \iews, and on the 2^th of the fo!lo\vin.L( month the 
 
 new Constitution was otficially declared in force. 
 
 Thou:;h the Radicad ideal of " one people, one law , 
 one army," was not realised bv the amended Constitu- 
 tion (jf Se\ fnt\'-tcjur, a \'ery decidetl increase of the 
 central national authorit\- was eti'ected, and by the 
 f.(eneral introduction of the luiiViiidmn and Iiii'r.atiVi', 
 democratic ^•overnment reached the furthest limit it had 
 yet (jbtained. The fcjllcjuini^ aie the chief refornis and 
 adduifjns to the C'onstitution ot I'ortv-eiu'ht end)odied 
 in the new Act or introduced later, in military matters, 
 the instruction and or^^anisation, as well as the control 
 and command ot the army, were \ ested in the l-'ederal 
 ( io\ernment. while the duty ot rec^ruitiuL;' their con- 
 tin,L;ents (these bein^ prcjporlionate to the size and 
 [)opulati(.)n oi each state), the carryiiiL; lUU ot all h'ederal 
 military law>. and the nonnnation ol otiicers, weie 
 a>>i''"n(;d tM the caiitDiial authoi-itir^.' 'Vh\> dixi^ion 
 
 I 'I'liiin^h tin; iiia:!i l)oi!\- ..! li;.- ar::!\ \',:i-- n'riuiir'! in ihj-- 
 maiiiKT, llic l'!:ui::i''-r-, (.uidi-^, S,i'iitar\ a:i ! A'!i!i;i'.i-.trati\ c 
 Ire. ij)s, ami tli'' .\rm\- 'train, \\i-r<- v'-ivuni.-;] \)\ liic I'l'^liral ,ai::l;i) 
 latii's I ' U'liT till' ] ii"f-.fiu s\-ti';ii, till' S\\ i-^s -,i .] !i.-i- -^riA c-. i,il.u-> 
 as rccriiu in lii-^ ist \rar, an.l I'l ila\ ^ in h;> v'. ,)'l^ 7''' '''•'i '■ ''''' 
 \a'ar-,, bfinL; 1 1 1< i ilax-^ in all, 'I'lu' \>.h(ilr :n;litar\- (■>!". i--- a:c iln-n-U-'! 
 into till' t.litc I ir ai ti\i' arnn-, 11 imp' >m- I I't all ( rii/m, . lictwrt-n 
 the a-^c- ■'( Z'^ an! \i : llir I .an !\\ lu'hr, or lir^t n-'Txr, . .[ tlio^' 
 iViiu! \z 1(1 j-i . an'l ilv 1 „in.'!-tMi ni oi iho,.- tioai i , i-' -y\ n^i 
 >i-i-\inu; in i-iih'T t>\ u:>- < ''.hvY I'.ivi ion., 'V\\>- niniinirnn v\\f<\ 
 ni'-a-nrrnii'iit ot I'crnni - i^ Iim-iI at j i .A n-.riir-,, an-l the niinininni 
 hoi.;ht T f-jct I .^ in.chc-.
 
 534 HISTORY OF THE SWISS PEOPLE 
 
 of responsibility was further shown in tlie Central 
 Government supplying the arms and the Cantonal the 
 uniforms. For purposes of organisation, all Switzer- 
 land was divided into eight military divisions, and, as 
 far as feasible, all recruits were enrolled into corps of 
 that territorial division into which their own districts 
 were situated. With the exception of a small number of 
 officials, every Swiss citizen must serve an allotted period 
 in the army, those living abroad, or who from physical 
 unfitness, or other compulsory reason are unable so to 
 serve, being subjected to a money fine. To the Federal 
 power belongs the sole right of making war, concluding 
 peace, or entering into alliances with foreign states. 
 Through the military systems initiated in Forty-eight 
 and Seventy-four, and since elaborated, the organisation 
 of the Swiss forces has reached a \ery perfected con- 
 dition, and though the annual cost per man {£j) is the 
 lowest of all European armies, the Swiss soldier is 
 better armed, drilled, and prepared for the emergencies 
 (A warfare than that of any other nation. Idis military 
 training begins in the gymnastic exercises of the 
 communal schools, is continued at the many shooting 
 competiti(jns so frequently held, and is perfected by the 
 instruction he receix'es when ser\'ing in the ranks by the 
 \ ery etlicient ])ermanent stalf of instructors maintained 
 by the Conlederation. At the present day 200,000 
 trcjops, ready lor acti\e ser\ice in e\ery particular, can 
 be concentrated in any part of Switzerland, within a 
 week ol the order being issued for their mobilisation. 
 
 in many matters affecting the ex'eryday life of 
 the people, the changes wrought l)y the amendments 
 introduced into the old ('onstitution mark a considerable 
 forward move. Amongst these are — regulation of hours
 
 ll!STOR^■ oi 1 HI". SWISS I'l-.oiM.i: 533 
 
 of work and of cinplnyinciU of children in mann- 
 factories ; suppression ot ^t^ainhlini,'' hou^^es and lotteries: 
 introduction of habeas corjms ; abolition of capital 
 punishment in cases unatterted by the nhlitary code: 
 political oftences and constitutional (juestions to be tried 
 by the I'Y'deral Tribunal: establishment of new con\-ents 
 or relii;ious orders forbicklen : perma!ient exclusicjn of 
 Jesuits or their aftiliales from Swiss soil ; no bishoprics 
 to be established without the consent of the (jO\'ern- 
 ment : introduction of ci\il in place of ecclesiastical 
 marriaires : primary education to be tree, unsectarian, 
 compulsorw and under seculai' mana,L,fement. The 
 revenue passini,^ into the I'\;deral treasury for national 
 purposes is fixed to come from that deri\-ed from the 
 Customs, posts and telegraphs, the i^'oNa/rmnent mono- 
 poly of the manuiacture oi L,ampo\vder, and half the 
 sum p:ud to the cantons tor e\emi)lion from military 
 ser\-ice. 
 
 'I'wo ;,o"eat political chan^^es. acklctl to the earlier /vVfoc'!./;n;; 
 
 C.onstitutiuii. ^.tamped the I'eforms ol Se\entv-loui' with ' ' '■" 
 
 pecailiar imporianc-c. These were the introduction and 
 subsequent t^eiieral acccptaniL-, in both bedeial and 
 Cantonal affairs, of ihr s\-stems L;"i\an,u'' tli<-' people a 
 direct particijiat ion in ( "io\ ermiienl, known as the 
 lu-fiTiihlii;!! and I uiliatiVi : 1 !y the foiiner is nu';uU the 
 reference ot new laws oi' rei^'ulaliems to the et'ueral 
 \'ote ot the (-iti/en-^ f >i a]i})ro\al oi' rejectiiai before 
 they c:in be le^allv eid oieeik Tlu- Iniiiatixe, on the 
 (Jther hand, is the nietliod wherein- a certain nuiidn'i' 
 
 1 1 he lirii't ;ii-i'<ii!:it '_;i\fn I'l ;hc R. >.;.•: i:nr. an 1 tin- /■;'.' .(." ;. 
 n^ Wfll :i, I it" the lairr ]>■ J.it:. al III .tiliiti'iii-, ''t S-.'. ;• /.Tla:'. ;, i- taken 
 I hieiU ir. mi t;i.' \ -tv ahji' w > 'ik > it tl'.e late Sir 1 ra:u ; , A^lain,. ■ Tiu' 
 Swis-; ( 'iinlc iciMti( HI
 
 536 HISTORY OF THK SWISS PEOPLE 
 
 A.n. 1874. of votes can compel the legislative councils to introduce 
 and discuss proposals for a new law or the abolition 
 of an old one. By the Act of 1848 an appeal to the 
 country was made necessary before any alteration in 
 the Federal Constitution could be effected. To this 
 compulsory Referendum a clause was added in the new 
 Act, by which the Federal Government was obliged to 
 submit new laws to the general vote of the nation on 
 the demand of eight cantons or 30,000 citizens, and to 
 introduce proposals for a new law when 50,000 votes, 
 or eight cantons, called for it (Federal Initiative). So 
 also in local matters, either a compulsory or optional 
 Referendum was introduced and gradually obtained 
 general acceptance throughout the Confederation, except 
 in ultramontane bVeyburg, and in democratic Uri, 
 Glarus, Unterwalden and Appenzell, where the existing 
 LaiidsgcmciiideJi already gave the people complete and 
 direct participation in the regulation of their own local 
 affairs. I^ach canton has had the option to adopt the 
 system, and each doing so has settled for itself the 
 particular method of applying it and what questions, if 
 any, shall be settled by the authorities independently 
 of the popular control. In the Valais, for instance, only 
 financial acts arc submitted to the Referendum. As a 
 general rule the Cantonal Initiative requires from 1,500 
 lo 5,000 N'otes, while in Bern and in Valais it is 
 al)S(mt. A compulsory Referendum now obtains for 
 all legislative Acts in Bern, Zurich, Solothurn, the 
 (iraubiinden, Aargau, Thurgau and in Schwyx. 
 Though only ofiicially introduced for the whole Con- 
 federacy during the latter half of the present century, 
 the K'eferendum, under different forms, has long been 
 practical in Switzerland. Without including the demo-
 
 llISTf'R\ oi- 
 
 :!■: SWISS i-!;f)i'i. 
 
 cr;;tic inslilutions of the Ldn.h^i-;::,':;!.!:;:. lo v.hirli all 
 local acts wore re,i;ularl\- rc-lLTrcd. it \\..s i iitun ti:c 
 cusloni in \'cr\- early times lor lari^e tiwo caiUu-ji^. 
 sUch a> Zurich antl JJern, to submit imjiorlanl i--s;;es 
 to the p; pular \-ijte : this w;is ciiiiu'. in a i;:ea-uri_-. 1)\" 
 these twi) states on the subject ol accej'tiu::- ihr Ki^ 
 !(jrmation. ■• Alter I'^ju, se\'eraJ canl.j::.-. ii-tr^ iluc''>: a 
 popular \eto. which pa\-ed the wa,\- lor the lv:e;"( mlum. 
 'l"he ur>{ was Si. Ciallen. bv iis Consiitutiw:! < 'l i^m. 
 
 1 ms cuntamcLl an article declarm. 
 
 ie SiA i_re 
 
 the people, ami statin^' that ihe\- hatl tlierelurL- the I'i.^'ht 
 ot pas>in,u' ih.eir own laws, ami tliat m.eiA' law v,"as 
 subjeet to tl'e sanctic^n ot the peoj)!e. who coC;!.!, riiLLr 
 a tixeil [)eri'xl, reiu>e to acloiH it. TIua' couM therelore 
 exercise a ri.^ht (jl xcto" -(ALlamsi. In the same \ear a 
 Iveteremlum was made (jbli^'atorN" in the rural lii\;^ioncJt 
 i^asel. Th.e Referen.dum lum now iH-ci'me a V'-rv im- 
 portana factor in all domesti'- aluiirs in Switz rlano. a.nd 
 is tlie ^haracteri^tic political fea.ture cl tiu^ i- lun.tiN. I'o!" 
 torei^'n (juestions it has not vet bei-n appli' li. nii doe> 
 there seem an\- probabilit}- ■ l' it e\er l)Li!;^' >j u^eJ. 
 The Swiss ar(- quite content t' l-a'/i- thiir diploniati^ 
 relation.^ with other Power- in thi- cu-;iid\" i>l tlio 
 National (ifi\-ernment. ( )n tlv.- w holo, with '^'iine 
 notable excciuions, when thr U'^li iv .n-e. iiini i;< ii o: 
 the [jurposes ot iiropo>ed nc.'. biil'ial law- "i >:de 
 issues nece>sarv nie.tsuro- h-i\-o iii^-n re]' ' te;l by in-- 
 popular \-ote, ih'- Keleieiioun;. b th ! '] li I d ai;d !;al; na: 
 aiiairs, ha^ \\(jrked >m('^/;!d\- and v.i-W. ll ha- p'.;o o 
 the whole ( iinaanma n.l ol t:;'- ("-nu-diora; r n uj' :; :■, 
 more democratic lia-i- liian !■. Ci be r^und m any .':..*■: 
 oountrv, makmu •• -■■ a . rnni'ii; oi tin- ;o(:pic b\ t!a- 
 peoplp " -I thor^m;-!^ i-ealnv: u 'na.^ c''-a'i\- mor'-ascO tlv
 
 liSTriRV f) 
 
 !i. -v.'is- Fi:o;';. 
 
 educated interest taken in politics by tlie -voters ; it has 
 taken politics out of the control of wire-pullers and 
 part:es. and placed ail iniportant issues directly in th--- 
 h.ands of the electors, v/hose decision is at once clear 
 .and dehnite. and carries fa.r more v.-eij:rht than can that 
 ' f an.y S(-cond Chanib':-:'. In one -trikin;,'' feature the 
 Keferenduni h:i~ been t-unr; in practice to work \-er\- 
 dinerently from what it> ad\'ocates be]ie\'ed and i:^- 
 opponents dreaded. F^otered and nnaily introduced b}' 
 t::e Kad:ca:>. and \-iob:ntly opposed b}- the C>msor-.a- 
 ti'/e>. the Reterendu:o v.-a> behe'/ed [*y politicians of both 
 partio t') b-- a lioweriul v/eapon for Kadical :r:ea-ure~ 
 
 fot;nd t J act a- a \-ery potent Con-er-.-ati-,-e a^'ent. 
 
 or ■•ctrol.■re-^:".o- direction.
 
 \ 1)
 
 54° 
 
 Bernouilli, 379 
 
 Bertha, Queen, 74, 70, 78 
 
 Berthier, General, 345 
 
 Berthold IV., 102, 170 
 
 of Carinthia, 92 
 of Zriringen, 93, 94 
 
 Bex, 58, 208 
 
 Beze, Theodore, 285 
 
 BibHothcque hriianniciue, 378 
 
 Ijibracte, 20 
 
 Bienne, 
 
 76, 145, i(>s, 202. 4U 
 
 Birmensdorf, i 7 
 
 Birs, 190 
 
 Bishops, Hehetian, j,j,, 70, 79, 102, 
 
 Rhajtian, 70 
 Blanc, Mont, loO 
 Blanchard, Mount, 67 
 Boden Sec, 15, 17, 115 
 Bodmer, Ileinrich, 350 
 ISohemia, 17, 9:, 115 
 l^oii, 17, 18, 23, 28 
 Bolta, 287 
 
 Boniface, Archbishop oi Canter- 
 bury, 103 
 Bonivard, 274 
 I'jonsteltin, 308 
 f3orgia, 220, 227 
 Bormio, 312 
 Borneo, 14 
 
 Borromean League, 29^ 
 Borronieo, Carlo, 292, 294, 314 
 f^osnia, 37 
 Boson, 72, 73 
 Bourbaki, 530 
 Brattelen, 190 
 Bregell, 3i(> 
 Bregenz. 180 
 Breitingcr, 378 
 Bremgartcn, 184, \(\ji, 244, 246, 
 
 330, 35 i 
 Brewer, 97, 217 
 
 liriconnel, 201 
 
 l:5rigaiitia, _>,: 
 
 I 'ri'jantinu ■^, 1 .ncu--. 2u 
 
 1 Iri :;au, 79 
 
 l:lrii;:in\-, 17 
 
 1 irouzi; \2i\ "8 
 
 I '.ri ^\\]^■l■ l\l:nr,, 211, 212 
 
 I In lU'^hli 111, \n ir;;\\ 2 1 7, 347 
 
 !-)ni!i, 1 .eonari 1 , 2j.i) 
 
 Kudolph. 1 ,7, I ;)8 
 Brum-, ( '.cncrMl, 41.1, 4 14, 423 
 
 Briinig, 142 
 
 Brunnen, 144, 256 
 
 Brunswick, liouse of, 103 
 
 Bulhnger, 244, 246, 258 
 
 Bundesrath, 516 
 
 Burgdorf, 102 
 
 liiirgen, 75 
 
 Biirgei, 75 
 
 Biirgermeister, 76 
 
 Burgs, 122 
 
 Burgundians, 41, 43, 46, 47, 49, 54 
 
 Burgundy, 49. 52, 53, 58, 61, 74, 
 
 <8o, 114, 194, 197 
 Burkhardt I., 74 
 Burton, Sir Richard, 14, 21, 75, 
 
 i4« 
 
 Caddea, 303 
 Ca^cina, 37, 38, 39, 40 
 C"a:.sar, Augustus, 31 
 
 Julius, 16, 23, 24, 23, 20, 
 27, 28, 30, 31, 35, 4) 
 Calder, Johann, 303 
 Caliphs of Bagdad, 65 
 Calvin, John, 223, 235, 275-283 
 Cameron, Bo\-ett, 14 
 Campo Formio, 404 
 Canning, Stratford, 455-4''>i, 464, 
 
 513 
 Cantonal Governmcnits, 357 
 Cantons Directeurs, 441') 
 Capito, 235, 239 
 Capuchines, 287, 293, 297, 313 
 Carinthia, 37 
 
 Carlovingian Dynast}-, 03, 68 
 Carlyle, Thomas, 397 
 Carnagask, Adam, 303 
 Caroline Islands, i.; 
 Carossa, 90 
 Carriola, 37 
 
 Cassius, Lucius, 19, 20. 20 
 Castlereagh, Lord, 459 
 Catalonia, 1)4 
 
 Campi, 47 
 Catholic Alliance, 337 
 l-ieaction, 28^ i 
 Catulus, 21 
 Ceili L)e, Oo 
 Celebes, [4 
 (.^elibac}- ot Biiest-,, 88, 92. 226, 
 
 244
 
 54^ 
 
 Centum C.i\i\ 1 ., - : 
 i"-rlier, lu ., joj 
 CiKiblai-., ^;5. m-j 
 ("h'lo!!-. IIo;;-e of. 3.;-, 
 (!iiaiii'.H;r',-, tjS 
 I "ii.ir!L'm;i4n;-, ' ■ -;-''5, • ■-. 
 
 ^'u '^' 
 
 CiKu-i.', ;l- Gro-, 7 J 
 
 ,, iht; i;;ii ;, ■ -■ 
 
 the [va^h, I' J •;- jO'j 
 III , 2G6 
 
 VIL, M2 
 
 ,, X., i9> 
 
 < harwuch. iJr , i.'i 
 
 ' "haieau t!'i )cx, 17a, 41 1 
 
 I 'b.ia\-onna, .■.'>.) 
 
 ( ":i'i!on, r -3, ID'', J70. J7 ; , 1 
 
 Chilpcric, .17, -,>. '•_=, 
 
 ' 'iiloru-, Cun^itanti;;--. 43 
 
 ' "b.'UiA, 10 I 
 
 ( 'hri-itiaii t '' iiimuiiitirs, ., i 
 
 Cliri^;ian;t\-, .;■., 50 ' j, o. 
 
 ''^, .^ 1, 2 lo 
 l^hr;-,tl:i iic \'iriA'.rr^-\n^. 25 : 
 i:i::-i^tix!f-. I!ii-r.'c!u. z'y. 
 
 < 'iiuta'h l\cl!):'m , ^'.j. ^-^ 
 ( !hi.ir'.val im, _-;o'i 
 ('2ir.;d[iinc I\'cpa:)lic, 407 
 C'\il Wars. jy^. ^j-., ^su, 
 
 511 
 ' "larel'crt. 5^ 
 
 Clau.'.c-lic/Wilham oi. i ^ 
 ("lavicrr. .j'.i 
 ':!e:iv:u VI 1 . .-■■ 
 
 ClM-lcniir. ,:^ 
 riitarius I].. 7 , 
 
 •Mill) hrlvui-U- . ,; 
 
 (•!;;p.'., -- 
 
 Ch-iu -1 li:- ri..L;^ii, : ; 
 
 Coll.-j;:iii h, ■!■.■, tiriim, j.,.; 
 
 Cul )!;;a. An ^n-^.ta Ka'ifar. • ;, 
 
 C V.hiniiiai!!!-, '11, ' <\ . '2 
 
 Cf^in-v ■- -■. .;■< 
 
 ( "onfi' 'i'-.ati' 'II. I i 1. 1 J-', : .. ; 
 i.i''. !.■, ~. i.i -'. !■ ". I , : , 
 1 73. I -^ ;. ^' M . .'II, .: ; 1 . . 
 
 < 'or, fi'-sion ct 1 aiib, j - ) 
 
 Conniihia. 83 
 Coiira 1 1 . -^, 
 
 J 
 
 IV,. 102 
 
 I •! I iaain^artc:!. i •( 1 
 I ■'iiiscil L'.Vjiairr, ,) r, 
 l!<j:i -tant iiii 'ii''.-, 1 'S, ; ■ '5 
 C."oii-ta-iz, 7. 17. -' J. •;■■). i---,. '-'2 'JT. 
 
 I Ji 
 ( ■oii~iii)^tantiatinii, jS , 
 « 'on; i, Prii^iri' of, ]_^ s 
 C.Hj\\r.^r. \V A,, 'ij ;. 10- 
 ( !oriii-;, Claudius, yj 
 Cor.ua, "7 
 C' lurti-^au-;, 23.1, ^3 j 
 ( "cuiiu i; 01 .Ant;vra, 2 ^^^ 
 
 ( -on-iauz. I ^ •; i S 1 
 
 Nice, 2^3 
 
 [■ari^. ritih, 7y 
 ,. Sc;ia:l ii lu -I'-.i, j^;, 
 
 Ti-i'in. J ^7. J. /3 
 ' • r,-,- a;U nf Stauz, Jii> 
 (">iX'"\ o i, JI-, ;0'. :o7 
 Craiiin r. ,; 
 
 Mlia, ;7 
 < :->'nr,v -11, :\". ^ ;- 
 Cru-a 1<:^, ',^ 
 
 r. '.'.■■.■isni, I ' I 
 Cul.ic'.- M.>:iks, .'o 
 
 D 
 
 '.Mi'ni: "Tt. 'i~ I 
 Wivi rv>, Jio 
 Aul.ij:.- ..7 
 a-;. .'mTI, ' o 
 a^.i't. I ^■.:. I -- J !■) ; 
 .v.'.' ;n•■^■, l\ i;i^ 'i , i 
 
 a".Ii:'l. V,- 
 
 u; 
 
 ").i 
 
 ■ • I'riuua- . !■
 
 542 iNni:x 
 
 1 )o\-il's Jk-icl.u'e, 08 KngL'ind, 97, jof,, 106, 165, 21G, 
 
 Dickireed, 207 217, J54, 378, jSy, 493 
 
 l)i:'erot, 37') En,i;lisli, 207 
 
 Oift ofS[)ires, 248 Entlibuch, 164, 166, 331, 335 
 
 Dirts, 3 SI) lippo, 135 
 
 Di'^on, 48 linismui, 226, 2j0, 251, 2G2 
 
 J-iijon, 216 Erlach, j(;harin, 270 
 
 J)ii)5;cmcs, B;;d]r'p, -;3 ,, kiulolpli, 153-155 
 
 l)i.-s(nitis, 124, 305, 439 ,, Sigismiincl, 334 
 
 Di\iko, 19, 20, 21, 20 ,, von, Spiez, 413, 419 
 
 Domiiiicans, loS, 109, 227 Estavayer, 106 
 
 Don Carlos III., 381 Este-Giielph, 103 
 
 Dorci, J^>ay of, 14 Etruscans, 18 
 
 Dornach, C;isilf of, 416 Eucharist, Doctrine of, 2S3 
 
 Dornbiihl, 151 Evangelicals, 248, 275 
 
 Dnicy, Henri, 515 Evian, 105 
 
 Druids, 17 Exterior State, 365 
 
 DrusnH, 2.1) 
 
 Dubois, Cardinal, 391 _. 
 
 Ducrest, Aliclieli, 371 '" 
 
 Dufour, General, 4^7, 5T3, 531 Eaber of Constanz, 252 
 
 Dnlliker, Ldric, 332 I'lederali, 31 
 
 Duprat, 2G1 L'arel, Guillaume, 235, 2O0-2S5 
 
 D'L'rville, i() Earnsbnrg, 190 
 
 !'"aastrec]it, in 
 
 p l'"azy, James, 52') 
 
 I'ederal Pact. 4O3 
 
 Ebrodanum, 32 l-'elclkirch, 430 
 
 Ecliallens, 208 ]'\-;lix, vSt., 33 
 
 p:ck, Dr., 252 ,. v., 2()0 
 
 Eckhardt, 82 lernev, 372 
 
 l<^C()rcliein-s, imo l''eudalisin, 51, iiS 
 
 lidelin,L.;e, .^4 ImUIi Council of i'aris, 5'} 
 
 l-'.dward 111., i'k\ i'ilii ISelial, i()0 
 
 [\., 2S-, Idanders, Hj-/ 
 
 l-".idgenosse, ]Aj. 2(17, 2f)S Ida'sli, 311 
 
 {'".indridii, 13(1 Idiie, Nicolas, 211 
 
 JLirii^iedeln, 70, S2, s ;, ijo, loi, l'\)ntana, 275 
 
 117. 13',. i''5, 2|i l-'oresl Stales, ()i), 128, iji 
 
 iMrizcllude, .| 3 I'Viruni |nlii, 4' 1 
 
 i''g(.'ri, 1, 13, 173 bnurth Council of Carthage, 233 
 
 '■-•^d, 13*) l''rance, .jm, hr, (..|, 03, 07, 72, igr., 
 
 I'.L;vpt, KM T07, 200, 20M, ^2^. 3-^4-J'C. 
 
 '•'■""- •!') '147. 4"-b -I'l.-i' .i'.-; 
 
 h.lsas-., im, 1J3, i,||, pyj i-'ranche-C(>int<', 1^,77, ''17,312 
 
 I-d^tcr, 03 l-rancis I., 272 
 
 I'diietoi, i_-, l''ranciscans, lo.s, 22'/, 2.13 
 
 I'duettion, ]■, i''ranco-( ;erinanic War, 330 
 
 i'd'.ctii, 15 [''ranconia, 1 li mse of, i; i , ro3 
 
 EnHncrie'-;,2i-r, juiiaiin, 331 i-'ranc])atriolcs, ^n"; 
 
 I'annicntli.il, 352 l-i'anks, |ii, .17, .|,s, 4.). 3..', 3.1, f..| 
 
 i^niperiir , 1)1 Ccrmanv-, N'j, 112 hraubruiinrn, io,|,.jiS 
 
 Eivuadine, 5.1.1 i'raunuinster. (.,s
 
 I'TCLlcricl-, I , ii'i. -5.15 
 
 l\' . i.,S '■ 
 
 W iliiani of I'niisia, ~,^ i 
 I'rccnian, jo<j 
 I'rtTi'h 1 , ,\'a-ic in, .| i j- ; 20 
 
 \'l\ \-\in-2. IliJ, l:>. I, T K|, I.| -. T^n, 
 -lu, JI j. 2':^, J'N, ; |I, ,;( ., 
 
 l-ric':iha!. nj. i,,3 
 I'u'-nt^s, (■luiiu fil, 31-I 
 I" iir>t. I i", 
 Tus^li, J17 
 
 (.alba, _'^, ^7 
 
 C.alrra. Ji^ 
 
 Callia, !■', I ,, -!.', J ,;. J3. 3.1, 3,- 
 
 ( '.allia 1 J iii^i liincii--:-. ;' > 
 
 ( '.allii-^, Si , lifi, la, (,.: 
 
 ( '.ardi i\ <il. VI 5 
 
 C^ai'iuine, iw 
 
 r;au-ii, 4 I 
 
 Ca.iil, w. I- 
 
 ( iaiiii' i.'iUrian, i ^ 
 
 (.a-;l--r. 1-^- 
 
 (;ci!r\a, I •-■ Ji, J,. 33. -:-v-l^- 'K-' l.iiNon. JO-, 
 
 .raiiiSon, j.i.], ^hn 
 
 iraul lui'.i ii'ii, IS, 1 S I , j 5 j, 
 
 ■,rar,c;i)iniil, 3.1.,. jd^, 
 '.rauhdlt/, .) M 
 Ircat liriiaiii, 13 
 ".real Si. I ;o.-nanl, 10') 
 
 'ii"i'L;(iri.ui ( '.all-ill :ar, 2113 
 '■rc'jurv ot 'l\iin",--. .17, ( » 1 
 ., ' \'l 1 . ^7, ^S, S.|, .;r 
 iiii , J j(i 
 X . , 1 1 -■) 
 Xili , jm3 
 ( jri--i iii-^ ( -. ;■ ( irauljumu'ii ) 
 ( ininiivr, im. 
 ( ii'utli-W'i'i in, 332 
 ( '. rii\a' vc. 1 o' I, 1^1, ;.; 7 
 ( iii.ar. 1^, >\\ i^s, 3' ,1) 
 ( 'riU'liili, u;, 103 
 ( '. iiL^iorlsricL.;, i"T| 
 (Inha-. ^.1 
 ('.linil.au-hii-., 37 
 ( "r anJicarni, ;" 
 r;i;K,lnl,aKl. i;- 
 I .anilKilan, .]' > 
 ( ;iii-i-li, 30' 1 
 
 r.iMvia, ( ■.nil of. -IM 
 
 < ".iTmaii-. I I . 1^', 1 i, 13 
 ( "icrni.aiu', p - 1 ■-. .:>, ,;_■ 
 
 7 - , 1 "^ 1 , 1.7. - 1 .1 ■ - 
 '■,(■--1. I-, I VI- I i'i 
 (;r„nrr. 370 
 
 ( ;lnlH'!nii-, In; 
 ( '.ilili.m, .M7 
 ( '. ijitii-.. Ill 
 
 (ilarciiia.. .; ;' ■ 
 
 < il.an: ., i ■ ■. i ' ■ 1, ■ 1', ■, 
 CI. a, 1..M, .,.; 
 (io.M.-!i-i.i ,;,• 1; -aili,.'!, 
 
 (■,.Hl,-.;i-ill!s, ,- 
 
 ( iiH It mar, 17 ■ 7 1 
 
 ( ;.i]c!;u!, 1 -,1 
 
 f ■riiallM ,, ,^. I In 
 
 C.iith , ;i' 
 
 ( '.Mtii .haa-l'iaul, ;.. ; 
 
 Coulrl, 3i7 
 
 (■..'/Lnia, si 
 
 II, all 
 
 i-ni --, 1 i 
 ;liui-.;, 1. 
 
 I 
 
 .1, 10 
 
 ;, 1 
 
 
 Mi. 1 ; T , 
 
 ■:.ia , ,. ' 
 
 1 7. 1, 
 
 M--, 
 
 II, ill 
 1 l.i'- 
 i Lu- 
 ll,! 
 
 - , .Mil. ! 
 
 an ill, '■ 1 
 :iia;-a, i 
 i, 1 ;• , I 
 
 1 -, . 1; 
 
 1 1 ' 
 n , I - 
 
 
 1 Ir ' 
 
 II- U 
 
 . ■ K'. 
 
 
 ! 
 
 - 1 1. 
 
 
 ,s - 
 
 
 Ili-h 
 
 1 li.i, 1 .a 
 
 ■ ' - 
 
 
 -li.ia M'.jMii 
 
 t -air-M :■ ■ 
 Ki-liablica iJ 
 
 Si-c> ai 
 I I'aa
 
 54+ INDEX 
 
 Helvetii, 15-2S, 35-41 [etzcl, 227, 228 
 
 HeKii. 13 (ews, 517 
 
 Heimnerlin, I'^clix, 135 [uda, J -co, 231; 
 
 Henry 11., 71). So, S3, 85 |u(lex, 12O 
 
 III., 8'') liilian Alps, 32. 37 
 
 IV., S(), 8:), 290, 297 Jiiliani, 264 
 
 v., 91, 99 |nlius Alpiiius, 3S 
 
 VLIl., 13S, 21O jura, 15, 24, 35. 4 r, 64, 70, 197,400 
 
 ilerhcri:, 217 |nstinian, 34 
 
 Hcvicoiiri, 202 
 
 Meroclotiis, 12 [^ 
 
 Florzo--, 5, 30, 44 I- ' 
 
 Uerzoqeubuchsee. ^4 Kappci, 255, 2=,.' 
 
 Hiklebraml, 87 ' V""''™^';^""' ."^' V 
 
 Hippocrates, 12 ^"^^er, I'ordinand, i, 2 
 
 Hirzel, 379 ^^^''' '"■ '•'■ '5 
 
 Hohcnstaviftcn, n, ^^"Y'-'^.'^l' ^' 
 
 Holienwiel 
 
 Holbein, 2r 
 
 Ivimbri, kj 
 
 HohenzoHern",' S4 4 !'^'"^:^"''^.•?°' 
 
 Konigsfclden, 16S 
 
 H 'Hand', .;v'', Hi", 1>1. 44'' Korsakow, General, 436 
 
 Hoiy Ivo.nau ICmpire, 102 Koscmsco, Lhaddeus, 472 
 
 Ho-^nitalcrs ro(i Kunon von Stoffeln, 176 
 
 Huiihcs, Kin- ('.I" Italy, 78 Kr.ssnacht, 123, 134, 135, 4S3 
 
 Huo-nenots. 2(.7, 4.J0' Kybur-, 03, 105, 114, i..,t, 153, 170 
 
 Humbert of Murienne, 93 'V^''''^' ''-'•'■'^"n. '^37 
 Flunenber;,', Hcnrv of, 142 
 Fluiyc,'ariaus, 71; L 
 
 tl""^ -17 Labrnuis, 23 
 
 Hums of Zuncii, 21b Labvrinth, 2.|0 
 
 Hus.,, Johann. 183, 252 Lacustrian Villages, 6 
 
 l.adin, 309, 310 
 
 I Lagos, I.). 
 
 levan l.lcwcllvn, Tf.3 Landammann, 140, 176, 357, 359, 
 Hivrirum, 37 44^'. ■]^»' 4<>'' 
 
 Iii'ini"(Mices' ' ' ' l.ancleulicrg, 130 
 
 Iniiiafive, j\]^'^^=, Liinder, 210 
 
 ln.ii;i.ininV2.sr' Landschreil)er, 33S 
 
 "In-tituiin Keli-ioni, Cbris^ I .andsgememde, 41, 173.3.^0,3,57. 
 
 iian.e," 277 35^"^. 4 44 
 
 Intei-rli, t. loi l.ang!iedoc, 2O7 
 
 [nierl.iken i,). banzalm, no 
 
 Inve.^titiin-, 8S, 89, 11 , bardner, 57, i.)S, 2o!> 
 
 [ron \-e, 9 Latobngi, 28 
 
 Italv, ix'. 20. 23, 53. 5S. ii4, h-. l--iiipen, 133, 13. ^ 
 
 '^.-f,, ,,9 - - ■ ' L;uisanne, 17, 32, 38, (11.92, 114. 
 
 117. 133. 203, 273, 347, 414 
 i.aiisanne, liisliopric of, 70 
 I .aiisonniiiin, r 7, ^]2, ^3 
 
 |en,it',rli. .;i3, ^n,. 320, 322, 324 i.avater, [oliann, 37.) 
 
 b:'ru':aleiii. (}S Laveno, 328 
 
 Jesuit;, 287, 2')^, 2')7. 313, 40.). L( ak(3 I,ieut.-('ol., |f.i) 
 
 J 
 
 't. 3'7. t\5 I .'i'-eluse, I'orl, 
 
 ■:)
 
 INDi:X 
 
 343 
 
 l.cin:ui, l.al'.i' of, =,. is. 41, 5"^ Majjr I'miiu-, 5; 
 
 i .c:i;d>i]r-;, ("<">uiu of, <,•. 10c, 11 i, Maiiicii n;!;-,, _•(.;, 
 
 1 .e.j 111 . . i 
 
 |;: ;:i. J ,0 
 'i-^,ar, AM.,.-,, ^ ;- 
 ]i 'M 'II Vasn'ia, i)! ii|, !'>"■ Maria--, ('oa^al. ^o 
 
 I-, ' Mar--il 
 
 Ma:-al..v,|, j/., v'7 
 Maria,:-, ,3, 
 Mai-.i-vt Mt \-alas, j'a 
 Mariunaaa, ji -•, ^ m 
 Maria. S 
 \!arais Hi--:: .]., 5S 
 
 aiaac, J ,1 
 
 .;,ana, .y , 
 
 ,;,u;-i,ia Kijialuu:. ; 
 
 .ip.^ua lv>i;iaaa. -jp 
 .'naat, 1 ^m 
 aiah, ('arail of, .13.' 
 a-!.-, ji'lm, >,]'■ 
 .'.\ \ , !■> 
 
 .I'Imr. |,a:i li--. s"o 
 .'anli,a-i!\-. ;■ ., 1 
 .(niui 'liarii-, .■.' i, 
 .o!a;u--.;i;'a ^aj 
 .iirraia'', i i ^ a i 
 
 -1- -^''^ 
 
 aia 
 
 I ii 
 
 .M-hani;-^, - 7 
 .(uii-^. 1 i'a-i\-ali' ai 111 )" 
 K' lU!. aaiairia ' - 
 
 ,, Xai..!a^ai, .p'^ s-a 
 
 I'll ''.ax ari:i, • •- 
 ,. XI , I ,N Jl.l ' 
 
 X 11 ., J I I 
 
 xi\-.. 3;>. u- v^i 
 
 X\" , ; ,1 
 .. X\"l., v" 
 
 ■ni-a I a Sa\ 1 a , .■' 1 
 .-vc, .;|7 
 
 aa-i' n-;. ;.a I 'a> ■ • I. ; a 
 ai !i. a, .m;, uy. ,; r^ 
 
 aapaiii , j^n 
 aula aaa^. j '7 
 .\-i aiai li'-, ■, _' 
 
 M 
 
 Ma^ ;ia.--li, >a |,Mai 
 M,v:'. ■ 
 
 Man-l, Clairlc-, -j 
 Mari'.L^ina .'S, 105, .;^,S 
 Mania \'., r^z 
 ■ Maia\a-iii aa i>f Maa." o 
 Mart \ rs, ( 'liri-iiaa, ■; ^ 
 Ma,-..\. .;ii. 
 
 Ma-~:aara I'l' S.w--. ( inara,-, ^^ 
 .Maxiiai'aaa I ,, j u 
 Xhuiailrli. aij, ,^0'. 
 M;i\-. ii- III" 1 'aiai la 37, ':,■> 
 
 Ma/aiaa.3V' 
 
 ^ia/.^^ I. a, a,- 
 
 M-aa-al vaa I l-lian/Mller;!. S 
 
 \l.a na^!: -a -, •■ 
 
 M. \ ia, Ih-aa iM, u-i, 21J 
 
 \i(a!;iaaaa ^. ■;") 
 
 Mi-,,u-,!, ( ..-ajiai!, s i ; 
 
 M. a .aa.:, ;i ^ 
 
 Ml a la Kaila 1 a' 
 
 Ml aaaa.iaa 17 , 
 
 Ml ;->ri:,aa >aia a la j;-, j.ja, 
 
 Mi;-' viii^ian 1 ' > a,aa \ . ^. 
 
 Ml -aaaa,, .,; 
 
 Miali ■ ;:-! -, ji- 
 
 \ii':a.:;;ala Ciiaai. i 
 
 \!i aa ' - 
 
 M' \ laa^i a, : a 
 
 I - a .-1 a ^i"^. 
 
 Maaa:\ 1 
 \i ;!:aa \ ( 
 
 Ma; .a, ji 
 
 Ml iaaa 1 
 
 M a.i :. r: 
 
 M a •.•■, a 
 
 \1 .aa-. , 'y 
 \l..a:hi.':.i 
 
 ' t I aki- .a.
 
 54^1 
 
 Aloracaibo, Gulf of, 14 
 
 Alorat, 40, 105, 145, 149, 207, 208, 
 
 2r,.i 
 
 Arnra\ia, 1 15 
 
 Moi'garten, 142, 144 
 
 Alorges, 5. 102 
 
 Mondit, loij 
 
 Moiulon, 102, ro6 
 
 Alount ]->lanchard, 67 
 
 -Mount Terrible, 401 
 
 -Miihlhausen, 194, 40S 
 
 Mi'iUer, Johann, 39, 176, 226, 302 
 
 r^Iurbach, Abbot of, 100, 117, 125, 
 
 126 
 Muri, 1 10, III 
 Miinster, 251 
 Alunsterthal, 2:2 
 Mutiger, 106 
 
 -Myconius, 232, 239, 246, 262 
 Alythen, 124 
 
 N 
 
 Xancy, 209 
 Naples, 218 
 Xapoleon ]''>onaparte, 405, 440, 
 
 Xarses, 54 
 
 Xassau, [Kj 
 
 N'ationril Kath, 516 
 
 Xautiiali, 18 
 
 Nfc'kcr, 380 
 
 Xcinours, I )iich("ss of, 345 
 
 Xfro, 'i'ibcriiis, 29 
 
 Xeuchatcl, 5, 8, 411, 79, 95, 170, 
 
 2](., 21.4. 271, 344, 345. 430, 
 
 IS4, 320 
 Xciiirality, 327, 3^/8 
 ■■ Xcw ( '.cncva," 37 | 
 
 X(:\\ ( ',cll('I",-l!, 431 I 
 \ic:i;i, jn 
 Xlcnp,,!!,, 1113 
 
 \iilau, I -jO, I -,.!. I -^i, I (if) 
 N \i Iihil;, l\i;i,L;. 1 •'," 
 Nidual.i. 1 V'-4 i.T 
 Nicl iiilir, 327 
 \(iri lliu'^cn, ]j.y 
 N( ii'inaii--, ti-) 
 X.-lkcr. .S2 
 .\o\'i()(luiinin , 3 I 
 \o\( icastnini, 7' 1 
 
 .\\ oil, 31 , 2^8, JwD 
 
 (Jberlialstein, 304 
 
 Obcrland, 104, 152, 332 
 
 Obermuller, 296 
 
 Obwald, 125 
 
 Ochs, 192, 343 
 
 Oclodurum, 28, 33 
 
 CJdin, 44, ()i 
 
 CBcolampadus, 246, 252, 262 
 
 Olaf, 13O 
 
 Orba, 32, 35 
 
 Orbe, 32, 208, 2G4 
 
 Orcitirix, 22 
 
 Orgetorix, 22-24 
 
 Orinoco, 14 
 
 Orleans, 58 
 
 ( )rnionts, 20S 
 
 ( )rosius, 4f) 
 
 (Jstrogoths, 54 
 
 Othmar, 62 
 
 Otlio Colonna, 1S2 
 
 ,, I., 77. 301 
 Ottingen, 174 
 
 Ottocarus of Bohemia, 115 
 Oudinot, General, 436 
 
 I'acle J\osai, 487 
 I'agns, 15, i() 
 Palestine, 98 
 I'almerston. Lord, 513 
 I'aiitionia, 57 
 I 'apal 1 'ower, 8.|, 85 
 I'aractdsiis, ISishop, 33 
 Paris, 41 ), (>4, 473 
 l'a\ia, 217, 311 
 i 'a\'eriie, 80 
 l'a\s de \'enice. 52 
 IViace, of God, 73 
 I 'carsoii, Glia,rlc-, 327 
 Peasants' .Mliances, 9() 
 Wai-. 33-^-334 
 Peel, 217 
 Pciiiiilmcus, 33 
 I 'epin-lcdn'cf, O2, iij, 
 i'ercy i'.allads, 13(1 
 I 'estriloz/.i, 379-381 
 Peterniaun ot Karon, 348 
 Pfiiilikon, Pake of, 9, 187, 193 
 Pfeffers, Abbcv of, 82 
 Pfcfimcn, 7'*
 
 ,>t7 
 
 l'.:;l-l.. 
 
 1' . 1-. ;y. I i- 
 
 1 '■ j":'i: \t: >.iv I. 1' ' i-!o-j, IG ) 
 
 I'l'Li::, Lu'iicuii, 117 
 
 I' -,a. I ^- 
 
 l- ;:, II . I -J 
 
 Piar.:a. sj, ' -. ^17, jr 1, 311- 
 
 [':!.-.,.:: I. 1 '' 
 
 i'-O' t.rit, ji- 
 
 I • '• "■ ^ 
 
 I'm-, 
 
 K.- ;i;,,. Hal. i^■^ i^-, I (. 
 
 iv-uv ■ . ■;',-:, ^ ,1 
 
 Iv'i i'.-.r'j.;]-. i;. ij.;, 157 
 iv- ;;:,ar ;t. A;;:-, j.)5 
 K^-a.:: n, _,-:. j j i 
 
 !<:-■:' 1: li'i'iL- !■ ina!;i luo, 
 
 iviia li. IS. : -, I ^, 5". J 
 Kh.; Ka. "i^, i-. j ,; jj. 
 
 ' J, "^ . - I -i. _v" 
 l\:;aiii. o 
 
 K;i:!n;i;:iL 17,, i ni . 1 ^' 
 Kii: :n\'. ai ;, y i ; 
 ivhin..-, J,'. /;, ,,'. ^- 
 !<■;-> :a!:;.;u-', I. a. ij 
 
 ■i.")- 
 
 i\.^ l.ar>I. I la- a 1. ,m 
 Ivicia-a-i-. 1'.'. 
 Kii/, Aiaaii i,|...;., . 
 Kr.r, 1 ..• ia, u ,' 
 K-i :-. K' la ui, .. 
 lv...:a;haa..:;. .. ;, 
 
 iv.i;.aa-l i, A.:;: I V- 
 K'^ia n >.;;;. ■aaai-,, 
 l\' aaia.a L'a.^ua. ;i^ 
 K a:a,>. i . ;■ . .:■ ■ 
 
 K ^aMa-.; , ,. ,; ,a 
 1< -.a a '. ( ,■ a. laL 
 
 K.,_,aaa 1 , 
 
 F^a.caaa, ; ; 
 
 K. i (:-.... --'. .■ a, 
 
 Ke :a-, Ala- s^i 
 
 Ka.i-Iaii I
 
 34'^ INDEX 
 
 Rudolph 11., 77 Schams, 30.1 
 
 ll].,iSo Schauenburg, (jcneral, .[iG, 417, 
 
 of Guelf, '23 425-427,431 
 
 ol" J-iabsburg, ion, 11 1, Schauligg, 300 
 
 117, ricS Schenkenburg, kjij 
 
 ol ivhoiniekk'n, .13 Schiller, 135 
 
 Kiisca, "N'iciiola,;, ]i(j Schindellegi, 427 
 
 HiisscU, [.ord John, ^I'j Schinner, 218 
 
 R;i,-,>ia, 430, 438, 432 Schinznach, 360 
 
 RiUh', 130. 135 Schultheiss, 150, 157, 304 
 
 Sciiweinsburg, 100 
 
 Q Scliwyx, 100, HI, 124, I2> 1O9, 
 172, 173, 1S6, 204, 243, 255, 
 
 Sabaudia, 47 338, 483 
 
 Sachingen, 100 Sch\h, SJ,3. Ji5 
 
 Sacoua}', 352 Sclaves, 46 
 
 Saga, 133 Scot, Ivegiiiald, [30 
 
 St. Denis, (>3 Scotlansl, 13 
 
 ,, Dominic, 103, too Scot.s, So 
 
 ,, I'ehx, 124 Sechinger, bz 
 
 ,, I'rancis of Assisi, loS, loij, 228 Scduini, 18, 28 
 
 ,, (iallcn, Oi, 75, 70. 81, 82, 01, Scctlorl, 133 
 
 ()3, 120, 175, 177. 233 Secland, 27J 
 
 .. ( '.iu'.^oljdi, (n) Scelis!)erg. 133 
 
 ,, ('.othard. Mountain, 130, 1^4, Sccwis, 300 
 
 311, ]2:^ Sc'inc, 30 
 
 ., Jacob, Chapel of. .13,1 Snnpach, ii], 1(7 
 
 ., )ulieii, 270, 272 Senipacher JSrief, 171 
 
 ., Mailin, 3.17 SeijU-ani, i, 22, 41- 
 
 ,, -Maurice, .j8, 73 Servetus, 280, 281 
 
 ., Kegula, 12. 1 She'Llani-i isles, 13 
 
 ,, Sapliorin, 344 Sliicrs, 300 
 
 ,, IJrsiis, 33 Siani, 14 
 
 Salis, 311-323 Sicily, <j7 
 
 Saltzburg, 0.] Siebenerbund, 4S7 
 
 Sanis(jn, Jiernadin, 243. 243, 2.\G Siebentlial, 100 
 
 Saone, 23, 73, y.\ Sienna, 87 
 
 Sar;icens, 04, 00, 73. 7.,. . )8 Sigt'ljcri, 38 
 
 Sardinia, '1^ Si,L;isnioiid, j,s, igj 
 
 >ar :an -•, i '^ 1 Si.t;lun,i, 4._| 
 
 Sarin II, I ■;(), 1 ■', 1 Siid, 188, iSn 
 
 S;iriuriiiind. 1S7, j ^■■^ Sihh.Mp. iju 
 
 Satlcl l',•|-^-, i;2 Sioii.OM.oi, i(\,, !,j.), 213 
 
 Saiiiy, ll,u1;i,\ dc. .'. ,' : Si.xtiis, 1\,. 22O 
 
 Sa\(iv. 1 -, I''. 1;, (13. ii>), io(', Sla\(iiiia, 37 
 
 i''i, 230. 2i't\ 21.1, .;'-S. |.i2, Sociele lu:l\-eti(!iic;, 3811 
 
 ,27 Solodunnn, ^z 
 
 S;u('\ I'.ai.'iei-, i nf i Solomon ol St. Clallen, 8,) 
 
 S;i\o ( ,raniniatuii-.. i<, Solothurn, •;2, j,^. 70. i.i.-,, 133, 
 
 S.ixon, ;,.,, (4 IV', 21. |, 23,0, 328, ^u], j^tu, 
 
 Standiiia\ 1:1, li Sonderliiiiid, 127, ,187, 307, 513 
 Srl;;ill haa ir. i<>.'. ;.-, loj, i<,4, Sonlt , ( ier.cral, .j;') 
 
 '."^ .;0 
 
 Si unvi irow, I .jo
 
 549 
 
 -r. -ichrr, I 73 
 
 >• . ;teL>i:ii.i inn 'icn Sec, 177 
 
 ^■.,'.:l,iL• Kat'r.. 31 ' > 
 
 S::i::z 2!-, J:i, 4 ii-i7j 
 
 >t:iu:::ic:.r-;", is", i.jO 
 
 -fntlcr, j.:j 
 
 --: :■/. -I ila-:. j!o 
 M'.n" A.,c, ' - 
 
 S:r.i:.v;-:. hi. ■■!', 
 
 M:i!:i- ,-, au;, j_;;_< 
 >:;r.-'--^', : i : 
 
 -.:va 1 ■:■.:.-. '- 
 
 T 
 I 
 
 T'jll, W;;.i T.i. I ;i-i3'' 
 lc:::a::r, L.:i, -j 
 rumvJ:.!' , ;■ 1 
 ['u:; jur.-dic ::>.;^-, I5^ 
 
 l\:i'rci Airati'-a, 1 1 i 
 
 1 i:i;^:,i:; l,.-,i :i, ^ ■ 
 Tiic .iul rrt, '.I 
 
 liv!-., ., ,- 
 
 :"!:::-;■ '.'■■ r- \\ ar, ;.'-, ■: * ; 
 Ti T.u :.iv. ! -,;.-;-:, .- 
 Ti.rcr Tri!,. .;.:j. ■^, 
 
 OJ' 
 
 Tr.ano, ji < 
 
 T)ki. I / 
 
 •r-:i:- .'c Tci'z, luj 
 
 r'.'\-^c:ii, -lo, J^ 
 
 r:'a-;i:i, ]o 
 
 Trail- 111)-!, mtiatiuii -i-^^ 
 
 rra'.ij -■, -;, i i 
 
 "I'lV'j ..1" l.::,ert., 420. ^jj. .,34 
 
 Tn-i,. 4 , 
 
 r]-c\c ii- I );c!i, >_;,7 
 TrioM;:!, ^ij 
 
 Tracc'iji (/, I, .)■, 
 
 Tir-ic::;:!, ^2. rso 
 Ti:ri-, I .^ 
 Turk,, mV 
 ['v. ~ an\-, .; 1, I ^- 
 TL-i., iojiji- 
 
 1 \ 1'' '1, 20, ^o, I -O, lu.; 
 
 u 
 
 LMitkin:], 3^ 
 r'rio (j: I.c:i.d)cr^, 101 
 ., >:. (kJl;::. oj 
 run ria, -, 
 
 13 \ I 3;. I 4 I . 17-'. ^ t' > 
 
 ; "':;-) -r Mar- iir ■, i -■ 
 
 I 'ri. I 7, ',^. i.'-., 12.;, . j ;, 14. 
 
 V 
 
 \"al T.kiaa. 
 Vaki:., -, 
 
 i I I - ; Jt, .;0 : 
 
 1 :iwrr; 
 ruaa-., I- 
 
 a:"a:;n;a: 
 
 \'a-: :, i-v i 
 \'a.--r.j:. V'-
 
 \'enezuela, 14 
 
 X'enice, 14, 215, 210, 241, 512 
 
 \'erbigenus pa.yiis, 15, 27 
 
 X'ercella.', 20, 2 1 
 
 Vercelli, liisho]) of. 2i( | 
 
 \'erfliin, ('j 
 
 N'ergcbrets, id 
 
 Verona, i.S 
 
 \"ersailles, IVaccof, 5^1 
 
 X'espasian, 32, -id. 40 
 
 \'e\-ev, ,52, <);i 
 
 \'ihisciis, j2, 53 
 
 X'ictor, Si., 3-; 
 
 \'i(Min,'i, _j7 
 
 N'icnno;, 70, 72, 2^ i 
 
 \'i(;nn()is, 72 
 
 \'i('lIS^(MI\, 47, I(|2. 22(>-2.[i) 
 
 \'i!lars, 2(.7 
 
 X'illefranc. Treau- of. 52S 
 
 X'illciieiuf', Jt 
 
 N'illnuT-cn, 3-57, y^.> 
 
 \'ii'.(linossa, ;; i , ,53, 37, 43, 70 
 
 X'int't, I 'icrrc, 2f > 4 
 
 \'istula, 4(1 
 
 \'ilfllius, 47, 4() 
 
 \'och, .MoNs, 44' 1 
 
 \"(;<.;"elin, 2<)S 
 
 \'()i;]iiisc;ck, 17.S 
 
 \'«,i4t, S4, 124, i(j(j 
 
 \'(j!tairc, 472 
 
 X'orili')- Klunii, 405 
 
 X'orort, 172, .]!) I 
 
 Vos^cs, 44 
 
 \'ulli(_'min, i^^) 
 
 Vullv, 2h4 
 
 w 
 
 W'aldensees, 5 jo 
 
 Walflo, S, 
 
 W'aldshul. i(,S 
 
 \\'al(!st;ittcn, '4-. in, 1 1 |, 124, 14-. 
 
 ■1,5" 
 \\'allcii,-;tailt, 40, 4 -,2 
 Watcllirlli 14 1 , 
 \\'('(:kl:ii4C!i, 71/ 
 \\'(;ililifi4('n, 103 
 \\'cii|(>iil)cr4, 121, \ J.X 
 Wei'iikon, i.^S 
 
 Weiss, Colonel, 414 
 Weissenburg, 153, 154 
 Wellington, Duke of, 460, 4(11 
 W'elsh, 165, 217 
 Wenges, 4^1 
 Werdenberg. 179, 180 
 W'erclmiiller, RudolplT, 438 
 \\'('sen, i').S, iGg, 23S 
 Westphalia, Peace of, 329, 330 
 White J)Ook of Sarnen, 134 
 \\'h)'dafi, 14 
 W'ienej- Wald. 17 
 Wigi^'is, [()(. 
 Wildermutli, 271 
 W'imniis, r^i 
 \\'indisch, 17, 3r, 137 
 Winkelried, Arnold, 1(17, lOS 
 Winterthur, ]z, 77, i i.|, 121, 174, 
 
 \\'ilhiiia Saga, 135 
 Wolian, i(i3 
 W'ohlenschwvl, '^ -j j 
 Wolf. I[onse''of,'in3 
 \\ Olfenschiess, 130, \ >,\ 
 Wolmar, 27^) 
 Worms, f>7, 91 
 Wiirtemberg, 103, 327 
 Wyl, 121, 351 
 Wyttembach, ii,n 
 Wvttembcrg, 231 
 
 Y 
 
 Y\-er(lon, 32, 102, ro6, 272, 274 
 
 Ziiringen, i).\, 91;, lor. 104, iii, 
 
 112, I r4, r2.|, 157 
 Zehngerichlcn, 30.1, 301; 
 ZoUingen, 1S4, 335 
 Zug, ii.f, 129, 17. |. 175, 238 
 Zugt;\vanthe ( )rte, 194 
 Zurich, 5, 32, i,i, 43, (.8. 7(1, 78, 
 
 82, 8.(, q.\, 122, 13(.>, 137, 1(32, 
 
 1S6, i(;o, 255, 23G, ii>,i^, 360, 
 
 408, 448 
 Zwing Lri, 131 
 Zwingli, L.'lric, 233, 238-257 
 
 Ifi.r.-. wii
 
 University of California 
 
 SOUTHERN REGIONAL LIBRARY FACILITY 
 
 405 Hilgard Avenue, Los Angeles, CA 90024-1388 
 
 Return this material to the library 
 
 from which it was borrowed. 
 
 ->Sf 
 
 !971 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^f 
 
 
 I 
 
 -UWi 7WJ3 
 
 )8i 
 
 "A 
 
 iWP\
 
 UC SOUTHERN REGIONAL LIBRARY FACILITY 
 
 iiiiiii!ii'iiip!'|p i''iiiir'^'ir'iNi'ir'i''!iiiii 
 
 A A 000 130 030 o