THE ARRIVAL OF MAN IN BRITAIN IN THE PLEISTOCENE AGE. (THE HUXLEY LECTURE FOR 1910.) BY W. BOYD DAWKLNS, M.A., Hon. D.Sc, F.K.S. Hon. Professor of Geology in the Victoria University of Manchester. PUBLISHED BY THE CKogof (gnffjropofogieaf 3ncfifufc of <0rcaf (grifain anb Jrefonb. 50, GREAT RUSSELL STREET, LONDON, W.C. 1] 233 THE ARRIVAL OF MAX IX BRITAIN IX THE PLEISTOCENE AGE. The Huxley Memorial Lecture for 1910. By W. Boyd Dawkixs, M.A., Hox. D.Sc, F.RS., Hon. Professor of Geology in the Victoria University of Manchester. Introductoky. It was with very mixed feelings that I accepted the highest honour that the Royal Anthropological Institute has to offer, of giving one of the Huxley Memorial Lectures, and of following the eminent men who have preceded me as lecturers. In my youth, after leaving Oxford in the sixties, 1 fell under the influence of Huxley, sat at his feet as a junior colleague in Jermyn Street, and left the Geological Survey on his advice to take up my life work in Manchester. While doing pioneer work there in organising the museum, and the geological department in the Owens College, that ultimately grew into the first of the provincial universities, he was my guide, philosopher and friend, — a never-failing refuge in times of stress and difficulty. In a word, his influence has moulded my life and work. On these grounds, therefore, I feel peculiar pleasure iu giving this lecture. On the other hand, I fully recognise that the principal work of anthropology at the present time is in the direction of the accumulation of materials fur the use (if the future master builder. The foundations of the science are practically now as they were left at Huxley's death, and the building has not yet risen far above the ground. The materials piled up in the hope of being used, good, bad, and indifferent, are vast in extent and are rapidly receiving additions from workers all over the world. The time, however, has not yet arrived to build. The nondieroie task alone is left of classifying the observed facts and of testing the value of hypotheses. In this lecture I propose to discuss the antiquity of man as revealed in the geological record, and of the conditions under which palaeolithic man arrived in Britain. The Classification of the Tertiary Period based on the Evolution of the Higher Mammalia. Before we can discuss any of the above questions it is necessary to define the subdivisions of the Tertiary period, The classification which I proposed in 1880 A 234 W. Boyd Dawkins. — The Arrival of Man in Britain [2 still holds the field with but slight modifications. It is based on the appearance in orderly succession of the higher Eutherian (Placental) mammals, that were then, as Professor Gaudry happily puts it, en pleine evolution, and on the gradual approximation of the successive mammal-faunas to that now living in Europe. It applies equally to the Tertiary faunas of Africa, Asia, and the Americas, and in Australia the same principle may be applied to the lower groups of Prototheria and Metatheria. It is as follows : — Table of Divisions if Tertiary Period. VI. The Historic Period in which the events are Documents and events eon- recorded in history. nected with them. V. Prehistoric Period in which domestic animals Ages of Prehistoric Iron, and cultivated fruits appear and man has Bronze, Neolithic" Ages, multiplied exceedingly on the earth. IV. Pleistocene Period in which living species of Palaeolithic man, living species mammalia are more abundant than the of Eutherian mammals extinct. abundant. III. Pliocene Period in which living species of Living species of Eutherian mammalia first appear, and the extinct mammals appear, species are preponderant. II. Miocene Period in which all the species are Living genera appear, extinct. I. Eocene Period in which there are no living Living families and orders genera. The mammalia now on the earth appear. are represented by allied forms belonging to existing families and orders. I have omitted the Oligocene division of the continental paleontologists, because it groups together two distinct and consecutive phases of mammalian evolution — the Anoplotherian of the Upper Eocene, and the Deinotherian of the Lower Miocene. The specialisation of the mammalia implied in the above table is represented in the following diagram, in which it will be observed that orders, families, genera and species fall into the shape of a genealogical tree, with its trunk hidden in the Secondary period, and its branches and twigs passing upwards through all the stages to the present day — a tree of life, with the living Eutherian mammalia for its fruit and foliage. "Were the extinct species taken into account it would be seen that they fill in the intervals between the living forms and that they approximate to the living species in proportion as they approach nearer to the present day. 3] ia t/t<' Pleistocene Age 235 HISTORIC STACE PREHISTORIC PL EISTOCENE PLEIOCENE MEIOCENE EOCENE LIVING SPECIES NO EXTINCT SPECIES LIVING SPECIES ONE EXTINCT SPECIES LIVING SPECIES ABUNDANT SEVERAL EXTINCT SPECIES LIVING SPECIES RARE EXTINCT SPECIES ABUNDANT LIVING CENERA LIVING FAMILIES AND ORDERS SECONDARY PERIOD FIO. 1. — DIAGRAM SHOWING THE SPECIALISATION OF THF, EUTHERIAN MAMMALIA IN THB TERTIARY PERIOD. No Evidence of Man in Eocene, Miocene, or Pliocene Periods. If this diagram, based upon the evolution of the mammalia, he used in our search for the first traces of man on the earth, it is obvious that we cannot expect to find the most highly organised of the mammalia in any portion of the geological record, where there are no other living mammalian species, or, in other words, in the two earlier stages of the Tertiary period. In the Eocene there arc no living Eutherian genera, and in the Miocene no living Eutherian species. In the latter the Primates are only represented by the higher anthropoid apes — the Dryopithecus and others. We can only look for man in the Pliocene age, when the living forms come in, and only expect to find him in the Pleistocene, when the living Eutherian forms were dominant, and the face of nature as a whole was almost as it is to-day. The general evidence as to this, as was pointed out in 1S80, 1 is simply overwhelming and it still holds the field. The evidence that man was living in France in the Miocene age, based upon the Hints collected by Bourgeois at Thenay, has long ago Keen rejected as worthless, 2 because it is not certain that they really came from the Miocene strata of the district, and because some of them, now preserved in the museum at St. Germains, 1 Dawkins' Early Man in Britain, 1880, Macmillan, pp, G6-i>7. * Op. cit., pp. 66-68. A 2 23G W. Boyd "Hawkins.— The Arrival of Mn a in Britain [4 bear plough marks, and are obviously derived from the surface, and because others are probably the result of natural agents without the intervention of man. More recently it has been rejected both by MM. Boule and Be'chelette. 1 A second alleged case of the discovery of worked flints by M. Karnes in 1877 in the upper Miocene strata of Puy Oourny near Aurillac in Cantal is equally inconclusive. Here flakes, more or less chipped at the edges, and other battered and chipped specimens, have been taken by MM. G. and A. Mortillet, Quatrefages, Capitan, Chantre and others to be of human workmanship. Here, again, the two above quoted eminent authorities, MM. Boule and D^chelette 1 point out. that they do not present any proof of having been fabricated by man. When we consider that the mammalia found in the same deposit are Deinothere, and Hipparion, it is obvious that there is no place Eor man in this mamma] fauna. Had man been living on the earth in the Miocene age he would, like every one of the other living mammalia of the period, be represented by a form differing from man in the same manner as the Deinothere differs from the existing elephants and the three-toed Hipparion from the living horses. It is incredible that man alone of all the mammalia living al the time in Europe should not have either become extinct, or changed into some other form in the long lapse of ages separating the Miocene period from the present day, during which many of the Miocene genera, and all the species, have become extinct. Those who believe in the doctrine of evolution will see the full weight of this argument against the presence of man in the Miocene fauna, not only of Europe but of the whole world. If evolution be true, there is no place in nature for man until the Tliocene age when the living species first appear. All these considerations have, however, been ignored by the eminent Belgian geologist M. Rutot, 2 who holds that man is proved not only to be of Miocene but of the earlier ill-defined Oligocene age, on account of the presence of " eoliths " or broken and chipped flint in the deposit of Boncelles, in the valley of the Ourthe. In coming to this conclusion he has assumed, in common with many others in this country and on the Continent, that eoliths could not have been made without the intervention of man. We will therefore test the value of this assumption. The Value of the Evidence of " Eoliths." The name eolith, 8 covers chipped and broken flints assumed to be artificial, or, if natural, to have been used by man. Originally it covered only the collection of rude implements made by Professor Prestwich, 4 and Mr. Harrison from the high level clays, sands and gravels of Ightham in Kent, that are to a large extent derived from the clay with flints, forming a mantle of subaerial debris over a large 1 D6chelette, Manuel d'Archcblogie, i, Arche'ologie Prehistorique, 1908, p. "19 et seq. - Bull. Soc. Geol. Belg., xx, xxi, 1907. 3 1893, Proceed. Geol. Assoc, xiii, p. 162 ; 1898, Cunnington, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc, Lond. 4 Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc, xxi, 1891. 5] in tJu /'lei~i i Age. 237 part of southern England. In man] cases the clay has been washed away by the rain and streams, the sands ami gravelfl being lefi behind, in plateaux and terraces at various levels above the present stream. The plateau in question is some 600 feet above the sea, and from it numerous palaeolithic implements of the ordinary river-drift (Acheulian) type have been obtained, as well as the ruder eoliths figured by Prestwich, 1 in 1891. Since that time the range of the eoliths has been extended to other deposit-, mainly gravels, in various parts of Britain and Ireland — sometimes in association with the above well-known types, and of various ages, from the pliocene strata of Lenham, through the pleistocene and glacial deposits down to the shingle on the present shore line The chief exponent of the Eolithic cult, as it may he called, on the Continent, M. Rutot, has found eoliths over a large portion of Belgium, Luxemburg and Trance, in various deposits ranging in the Oligocene to the Neolithic stage of the Prehistoric period. It is undoubtedly true that eoliths do occur in all these strata, hut before they can lie used as evidence it is necessary to show that they have been made by man. ami could not have been made by any other agency in nature. ')n this question the evidence brought before the Anthropological Institute in L905, by Mr. Warren, 3 is absolutely conclusive. The eoliths may lie grouped as follows: — ( rectus, considered by Sir William Turner, Professor Cunningham, Dr. Topinard and other eminent anatomists to he the most ape-like of mankind, and by Sir William Flower, Drs. Marsh, Virchow, 1 Manouvrier and others equally eminent, the most man-like of the apes. Looking at the dimensions of the skull the brain appears to me too large to be classified with the apes, and the erect posture implied by the femur, 2 although it is obviously diseased, is an additional reason for considering its possessor on the human side of the line dividing man from the anthropoid apes. Whatever view be taken, there can be no doubt that Drs. Garsou and Keith are right in taking Pithecanthropus to lie "a missing link." With the attainment of the erect position, says Dr. Munro in his address to the British Association, and the consequent " specialisation of his limbs into bands and feet, man entered on a new phase of existence. With the advantage of manipulated organs and a progressive brain he became Homo sapiens, and gradually developed a capacity to understand and utilize the forces of Nature." The place of this singular precursor of men in the geological record is indicated by the remains of the associated animals. They consist of species now living in the oriental region, tapir, axis, Indian buffalo and rhinoceros and of extinct species, such as Elephas stegodon, hexaprotodont hippopotamus, and a gigantic manis. This association of living with extinct species proves the age to be pleistocene, and in my opinion formed after a study of the faunas of the Nerbudda and the Sevalik Hills, to an early stage in that period. Pithecanthropus appears not only at the point in the geological record where he ought to appear, but in the tropical region, considered by Dr. Falconer and Lord Avebury to have been the probable birthplace of the human race. Hi' marks the firs! great departure of man from the higher anthropoid apes, not only in brain but in hand. Tin Arrival <;/ Palceolithic Man in Europe and the Classification oj his Implements. We must now pass on to the consideration of the conditions under which man appears in Europe. The palaeolithic implements found during the last half century in the river deposits and caves, established the fact of the existence of a hunter in the Pleistocene period, ignorant of pottery and not aided in the pursuit of wild animals by the dog, " the first servant of man," and belonging to a mammalian fauna of living and extinct forms, ranging over the whole of Europe except the ice-covered region of Scandinavia. 1 Virchow, Verhandl. Bed. GetelUch. Anthrop. Ethnologisc/te, 1895, p. 4:j.j and p. 46S. Dr. Monro, in his address to the Anthropological Section of the British Association at Nottingham in 1893, shows what an enormous influence the erect posture has excited on the evolution of man, by setting free the hands from the necessity of being U6ed as feet. The intcr-actiou of hand on brain, and of brain on hand, that has done BO much to raise man from the level of the beasts, is worthy of the attention of those who deny the value of introducing handicrafts into the Elementary Schools. 240 W. Eoyd Dawkins. — The Arrival of Man in Britain [8 In France the discoveries of Bourgeois in the river deposits of Amiens and Ableville, and those of Lartet and Christy in the caves of Auvergne, have been followed up in Europe and Northern Africa by various observers, and have recently been crowned by the revelation of the marvellous frescoes in the caves of Auvergne, and of the Pyrenees by Cartailhac, Breuil, and others. To them we are indebted for the following classification : — ' 6. Magdalenien ~| 5. Solutreen > ... ... ... Epoque du Eenue. 4. Aurignacien J 3. Moustierien ... ... ... Epoque du Mammouth. 2. Acheulien ... ... ... Epoque du Mammouth et de l'Hippopotamus. 1. Chelleen ... ... ... ... Epoque de l'Hippopotamus. These divisions are based on the variation in the implements, and on the different groups of mammalia found along with them, and are taken to represent a chronological sequence. They are open to the criticism that it is not likely that the pakeolithic hunters in the same region at 'the same time used exactly the same implements. At the present time there is a considerable variation in the equipment of savage tribes belonging to the same group, as for example, in Africa, some being much better armed than others. Are the remains of the animals killed in the chase, and left behind in the refuse heaps, to be looked upon as throwing light on the relative numbers of the wild animals living in the district rather than as showing those which were more easily captured than the rest ? Also the difference in the habitat of the mammals has to be considered. It has been shown by Cartailhac and Breuil,- that while reindeer were abundant in Southern France and the region of the Pyrenees, stags, bison, and horses occupied the district of Santander in Spain, and are represented in the frescoes of the cave of Altamira, which they assign to the Solutreen and Magdalenien times. It is in my opinion safer to view the above classification as useful in marking local phases of culture rather than as a definite system of chronological sequence 3 of general application over the whole Continent. It does not apply to Great Britain, as I pointed out in. 1880 in my work on Early Man. Here the three earlier groups of implements representing stages 1, 2, 3 occur together in intimate association in both the river-deposits and the caverns, while the three later, 4, 5, 6, are so mingled together in the caverns that there can lie no reasonable doubt that they belong to the same period of occupation. The British palaeolithic implements also fall naturally into two groups, as Sir John Evans showed in 1S72, 1 those of the river-drift man and the 1 Deehelette, Manuel d'Archeologie, i, Archeologie Prehistorique, p. 43. The names are based on the finds made in the eaves of La Madelaiue, Aurignac, and Moustier, in the camping ground of Solutre, and in the river deposits of St. Achene and C'helles. - Cartailhac and Breuil, La C'averne Altamira, 4to, Monaco, 1906". J Deehelette {Archeologie Prehistorique, 8vo, Paris, 1908), may be taken to represent the current view of French archaeologists on this question. 1 Ancient Stone Implements of Great Britain, 8vo. 9] ni the Pleistocene Age. 241 cave man, the first being represented by the discoveries made in liuviatilc deposits and by the lower horizon in the caverns of Kent's Hole and of Creswell Crags, and the second by the upper palaeolithic strata in the above mentioned caves, and by Wookey Hole, near Wells, and others. The first of these is immeasurably older than the second, and presents a stage in culture far lower than that of the second. We shall deal with them separately. It will, however, be accessary to review the pleistocene fauna of Britain before we can discuss either one or the other. The Early Pleistocene Mammalia in Britain. The mammalia of the forest-bed of Norfolk and Suffolk 1 represent the earliest Pleistocene group in Britain. They consist of the following species: — Survivals from the Pliocene, Living > s '/' Hippopotamus, If. amphibia*, L. Survivals from th\ Pliocene, K tinet Species. (2) Sabre-toothed lion, Machairodi Deer of Polignac, Cervus polignacus, Rob. Deer of Etouaires, C. ctueriarum, Cr. et Job. Sedgwick's deer. Gervus Sedgwickii, Falc, Cervus dicranios, Nesti Etruscan rhinoceros, B. etrusci Falc. Big-nosed rhinoceros, R. megarhinus, Christol. Southern elephant, E ridionalis, Nesti. (2) Stenos horse, Eguus stenonis, Nesti. Nt wcomt rs, Living >Sj>< Musk shrew, Sorex moschatiis, Pallas. Sinew, Sorex vulgaris, L. Common shrew, S. vulgaris, L. (2) Continental held vole, Arvicula arvalis, Griffith. Siberian vole, A. gregalis, Desm. Water vole, Arvicula amphibius, Desm. Red field vole, A. glareolus, Schreber. Field mouse, Mus silvaticus. Hamster. Cricetus vulgaris, 1 team. 1 Dawkins, Quart. Journ, Geol. Soc. } l s 7i'. Loudon, p. 117. This list only represents the terrestrial mammalia. Mr. Clement Reid, item. Geol. Survey, Geology of th Country around Oromer, 1882, p. .. assigns the Forest-bed to "the newer Pliocene." This is, however, negatived by the continental evidence as to the Pliocene mammalia, and it cannot be maintained, if the living and extinct species in the list be duly weighed. There are no Pliocene strata on the Continent containing these mammalia. - On the authority of E. T. Newton, "Vertebrata of the Forest-bed Species of Norfolk and Suffolk," Memoir* of Geological Survey of En'jhih'l "mi H.>' -, s V(1 |s8l', I am also indilitrd o> -Mi. Newton for the additions to the li-t made since that time. 242 W. Boyd Dawkins. — The Arrival of Man in Britain [10 Mole, Talpa Europcea, L. Squirrel, Sciurus vulgaris, L. Beaver, Castor fiber, L. Grizzly Lear '. Ursusferox, Lew. et Clark. Wolf, Can /s lupus, L. Fox, 0. vulpis, L. (2) Spotted hyaena, II crocuta (var. Spelcpa, Gold.). ( rlutton, Culi' luscus, L. (2) Marten, Martes silvatica, Nilsson. (2) Otter, Lulra vulgaris, Erxl. Wild boar, Sus scrofa, L. Horse, Equus caballus, L. Stag, Cervus elapkus, L. Eoe deer, C. capreolus, L. UruSj Bos vrimigenius; Boj. Xt wcomers, Extinct Species. Cuvier's beaver, Trogontherium Cuvieri, Owen. Cave-bear, Ursus spt Iceus, Goldf. Thick-antlered deer, Cervus verticornis, Dawk. (= C. Belgrandi). Deer of the Carnutes, C. Carnulorum, Falc. Broad-fronted deer, C. latifrons, Dawk. (2) Newton's deer, C. rectus, Newt. Irish elk '. JLyaceros hibcrnicus, Owen. (2) Savins goat, Caproris Savinii, Newton. Mammoth, Elcphas prim igci ins, I Slum. Straight-tusked elephant, E. antiquus, bale. In the above list the most important features are the incoming of mammals hitherto unknown in Europe, both living and extinct, and their association with the well-known Pliocene species of France and Italy. They formed the advanced guard of the migration of the Pleistocene mammalia into Pliocene Europe, and I heir arrival in Britain marks the dawn of the Pleistocene age. We must also note that the great majority of the living species are those now living in the temperate climates of Europe and Asia, The strata, in which these animals occur, underlie the boulder clays of the Norfolk and Suffolk cliffs, and are therefore older than the glacial deposits of the district. The associated flora indicates a temperate climate gradually becoming colder. I am unable to accept the eolithic evidence of Mr. Abbott 1 that man was in Britain at this time because the chipped flints from the Cromer forest-bed may be due to accident and not to design. 1 Natural Science, x, IS'JT, p. 89. 11J in tin Pleistocene Age. Tin Mil/-/'/' istoa to' Mammalia. The next slap' in the invasion of Britain by the Pleistocene mammalia, is thai presented by the lower brick-earths of the Thames Valley in Kent and Essex. 1 Tlir\ are as follows : — Mid-Pleistocene Mammalia. Ilford. Grays Thurrock. Crayford, Erith. Sun ivals from Early Pleistocene — Living species = 11. Ilnr.se ... ... ...Equus cabaUus, L. X X X I "ins ... ... . . .Bos primigenius, Boj. ... X X X line ... ... ...Cervus capreolus, L X X — Stag ... ... ...C. elapkus, L. x X X Hippopotamus ... ...Hippopotamus major ... X x — Wild boar ... ...Sus scrofa, L. — x — Fox ... ... ...Cants vulpes, L. X X — \V T olf ... ... ...C. lupus, L. X X X Brown bear ... ...Vrsus arctos, L. ... X X X Beaver ... ... ...Castor fiber, T.. ... X X — Water-rat ... ...Arvicola amphibius, L.... X X X Survivals from Early 1'leistocene — Extinct species = 4. Straight-tusked elephant Elephas antiquus, Falc. X X X Mammoth ... ...E. primigenius, Blum. ... X X X Kig-nosed rhinoceros ...BAinocerosmegarkinus,i 'hi istol. X X X Irish elk Megaceros hibernkus, Off. X X X New comers — Living species = 9. Kiver drift Man ...Homo sapiens, Jj. — — X Musk sheep ... ...Ovibos moschatus,Destsi. — — X Bison ... ... ...Bison priscus X X X Grizzly bear TJrsus ferox, Lew. and Clark ... X X X Otter ... ... ...Lutra vulgaris, Erxl. ... — X — Spotted hyaena ... ...Hyasnacrocuta, Zimm. ... — X X Wildcat /'<■//.< catus,li — X — Liou F. Ico, L X X X Marmot ... ... ...Spermophilus erythro aenoides, Kale — — X Man — — X New comers Extinct species = -J. Woolly rhinoceros ...11. tic/torkinus, Cuv. X — X Small-nosed rhinoceros R. leptorhinus, (iw. ( -.R./iemi X X X toschus, Falc. = R. Merckii Kaup). 1 These fluviatile are considered, by Prestwich and others, to belong to a late stage "f the Pleistocene period, because they are at a low level. This, however, cannot be taken a> a lest of age, unless it is certain that the valley has been cut down by the river, no^i flowing at its botl leaving behind it, in the course of its excavation, terraces of gravels, to mark its work, the higher being the older. It is also accessary to assume that the land has remained stationary at one level above the sea. In this case the valley was probably like most of the other British valleys excavated before the Pleistocene age, and has since been subjected to great oscillations of level. The test absolutely fails when it is applied to the Forest-bed, and to the Pliocene ami Miocene deposits of Europe. Sic Early .!/"/< in Britain, p. I 12. 244 W. Bote Dawkins. — The Arrival of Man in Britain [12 In this fauna most of the pliocene survivals in the finest -lied deposit are absent, and the Etruscan rhinoceros is represented by the leptorhine or small- nosed rhinoceros, of Owen. The woolly rhinoceros, the companion of the mammoth, in its wanderings from Northern Siberia over Middle Europe, appears in Britain for the first time. It may also be remarked that the Valley of the Lower Thames is the only place upon record where the three above-named species of rhinoceros are found together. The southern elephant (Elephas meridionalis) had either become extinct or had retreated southwards, probably into Italy. The Arctic mammalia (are represented by the musk sheep, the most arctic of all, but they were few in number. There is clear proof of the presence of man at this time in the discovery, by Mr. Flaxman Spurrell, of a well-marked camping ground at Crayford, 1 in which there was a large accumulation of the splinters formed in the making of implements of the ordinary river-drift type. The presence of the river-drift man in the Valley of the Thames at this time, in association with the same group of Mammalia, has since been confirmed by the discovery of a very large series, representing nearly all the river-drift types of implements, by Mr. and Mrs. .Stupes, in Milton Street Pit, Swanscombe, in the district between Crayford and Gravesend. It must further be remarked that these ancient ttuviatile deposits are generally covered by a confused, and folded, stratum of old surface dibris (trail), which may- be, as I have suggested, the result of hard frosts and melting snows, that accelerated the creep of the soil downwards. It is probably the result of a severe climate, and it may be the equivalent of one or other of the complicated glacial deposits in the region north of the Thames. Professor Sollas, in his last address to the Geological Society, has given a section of similar order, 2 in which river-drift implements occur in association with mammoth, horse, stag, urns, and reindeer, at Wolvercote, in Oxfordshire, underneath a folded and contorted gravel, which he takes to be the equivalent of the nearest layer of boulder clay. In neither case, however, is the precise relation to the boulder clays clearly established. We shall deal later with the general question of the relation of man to the glacial period. The Late, Pleistocene Mammalia. The last phase in the invasion of Britain by the pleistocene mammalia is characterised by the arrival of the northern group, and more especially of the reindeer found in abundance in association with other groups in the river deposits and in the eaves. Man also is represented by the river-drift, and the cave-man. 1 One of these, broken in the making, was found and fitted into the block of flint from which it had been made, one-half having been found by Lord Avebury, and the other by myself at different times. This collection of flints is now in the British Museum, Natural History. - Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc, xatxvi, p. 544. 13] in the Pleistoa 245 Late-Pleistocene Mammalia in Britain. River strata. Osaifi caverns. Survivals f !■■ ■in Early and Mid Pleistocene — Living species = 24. i:i\ er di ifl man Cave man Hoi Be ... Brown's fallow-deer. Roe Stag Prus Bison ... Musk-sheep ... Hippopotamus Wild Soar Wild cat Lion ... Spotted hyaena Wolf ..." Fox Otter Brown bear ... (frizzly bear ... Glutton Water-vole ... Red field-vole Hare ... Beaver Mi. use... Shrew... Man ...Homo sapiens is i> ...Equus caballit t, f..... ...Cervus Brottmi, Dawk. ...C. capreolus, T ' ' • lap '■-, I.. ...Bos primigi nius, Boj. ...Bi a us, < !ni. ...Ovibos moschatus, Desm. ... ...Hippopotamus amphibius, I.. ...Sus serofa, L. ...Felis eatus, L ...F. leo, L. ... ...Hyaena crocuta, 7au\. ...Canis lupus, L. ...C. wipes, I..... ...L'lira vulgaris, Erxl. ... Ursus Arctos ...Ursus ferox, Lew. and CI. ... ...(liiln luseus, L. ...Arvicola amphibius, I I. glareolus, Schreb. ...Lepus timidus, 1 ...i 'astor fiber, L. \fus musculus, L. ... ...Sorex vulgaris, L. ... Survivals from Early and Mid-Fleisto iene — Extinct species = 7. Straight tusked elephant Mammoth Woolly rhinoceros ... Small-nosed rhinoceros Irish elk I i irodus ... Cave-bear ...Elephas aniiquus, Kale. ...E. primigenius, Blum. ...Rhinoceros tichorhinus, Cuv. ...//. leptorhinus, Ow. ...Megaecros hibernicus, Ow \lachairi dus latidens, < Iw. ...Crsus speleeu f, Go\df. New forms — Living species = 15. Antelope saiga Reindeer Arctic fox ... ... ,, Badger Stoat Weasel Marten < laffer cal Leopard Lynx ... Short-tailed field-vole < lontinental field-vole Russian vole ... Pouched marmot Arctic lemming Norwegian lemming ...A. saiga, Pal. ...Cervus taranduSfJj. ...Canis lagopus, L. ... ...Afeles taxus, L. Vustela erminea, L. V.putorius, L. ...J/, martes, L. ...Felis caffer, Desm. ... ...F. pari! 'us, L. .../'. lynx, Tern. ...Arvicola agrestis, L I . arvalis, L. ...A. ratticeps, Keys. u. BI. ... ...Spermopliihis en///irti tit a nit h .<, Kale. Vyodes torquatus, Desm. ... „ Noncegicus, Desm. x x x X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X — X — X — X X X — X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 246 W. Boyd Dawkins. — The Arrival of Man in Britain [14 The northern mammalia, as may be seen by the following table showing the range of the principal species in the river-deposits and caves, are so closely associated with those already in possession of the land, that they were beyond a doubt living in the same district, at approximately the same time, and formed part of tne same fauna. It is, however, not accepted by Professor James Geikie and other eminent geologists, who relegate the northern group to one or other of their glacial periods, and the warm and temperate groups to one of 1 heir inter-glacial ages, although the mixed character of the fauna was pointed out some thirty years ago. We will, therefore, reconsider the evidence in detail, so far as it relates to the species associated with palaeolithic man. Late Pleistocene Mammalia assot iated w 'tit Man iii I! iver Deposits and Caves. River Deposits. Caves. ° % £50 8 4 is 00 &< c > jO £0 "o • z .- 00 te:K Pont New- ydd, Cefn. 2 — £ EC to e» 6° River drift man ... Cave man ... Brown bear Grizzly bear Cave bear ... Glutton Badger Weasel Polecat Marten Otter Fox Arctic fox Wolf Spotted hviena Wild caffer cat Leopard Lynx Lion Sabre-toothed lion Irish elk Reindeer ... Roe Stag Musk sheep Urus Bison Hippopotamus Wild boar Horse Leptorhine rhinoceros Woolly rhinoceros Straight-tusked elephant Mammoth ... Lemming ... Hare Alpine hare Pouched marmot ... Castor fiber X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X? X? X X X X X X? X? X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X? X? X X X X X x X — X X X X? X? X? X '. X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X 16] i'm the Pleistocene Aye. 247 The Latt Pleistocene Mammals associated with Man in Britain. The mammalia are associated with human implements in the following localities, thai have been selected oul of a very large series. The remains of the mammalia in the above list arc so closely intermingled that there is no room for doubt that they were swepl down by the 3ame ll Is, and eaten by the wild beasts inhabiting the caves during the same series of seasons — spring, summer, autumn, winter. In the hyaena dens, for example, we find thai the hyaenas fed on the hippopotamus, the leptorhine rhinoceros, and the straight- tusked elephant, probably in the summer; and in the winter on the reindeer, and the horse and other animals of the temperate group. Man is represented in the river deposits by implements of the various types assigned in France to the groups found at Chelles, St. Acheul, and the cave of Moustier. In this country these are so closely associated together, as may he seen from Sir John Evans' great work on Ancient Stone Implements, that there can he no reasonahle doubt that they were used by the same tribes at the same time. This conclusion is confirmed by the discoveries made by Mr. Worthington Smith 1 in the Valley of the Lea and of the Thames, on camping grounds al Caddington, Stoke Xewington, and elsewhere. I turn now to the evidence of the caves. 3 In the above table the remains of river-drift man in the caves of Kent's Hole, near Torquay, Wbokey Hole, near Wells, of Pont Xewydd and Ty Xewydd, near St. Asaph, and of Cresswell, leave no room for doubt that the animals hunted by man in those regions belong to the same fauna as that of the river deposits. The implements from the cave of Kent's Hole fall into two distinct series, the upper containing the remains of cave men aloii" with the teeth and hones of the contemporary wild animals, and the lower, mainly ccia with the rough river-drift implements in association with bones and teeth of hear and other animals. Nearly all the species identified by myself and Mr. W. A. Sanford were obtained from the upper horizon. Unfortunately we were unable to catalogue the vast collection of remains, and therefore cannot <*ive the relative numbers of the animals captured by man and of the hysenas. This, however, [ have done in the group of caves explored by Mr. Mello and myself at Cresswell,'' which had hcen used as dens by hyaenas, and from time to time as shelters by the palaeolithic hunters. The numbers in the following table represi nt the distribution of the hones and 1 Mnn the Primeval Savage, Svo, 1894, London. 1 Kent's Bole and Wbokey Hole, Dawkins' Gave Hunting, Svo, 1874, c. \ ii. The Ponl Newydd cave explored by Professor Hughes, Quart. Journ, Q< •!. Soc, \wiii, p. 4 in. The Ty Newydd caves, Dr. Hicks and Mr. Davies, Quart. Journ. Qeol. Soc, xlii, p. 9, and xliii'; Professor Hughes, ib., xliv and xlv ; the Rev. C. H. Pullen, ,'!>.. liv. p. 121. The caves of (V Cwyn, Ffynnm Beuno and Ty Newydd form a network of caves, and are grouped together in the above table under the head of Ty Xewydd. 3 Mello, Quart. Journ. Qeol. Soc, 1875, p. 079 ; Mello and Hawkins, Quart, Journ. Soc, 1876, p. 240 ; 1877, p. 579; 1879, p. 724. 248 o o I— I W 3 ,0 O W, Boyd Dawkins, — The Arrival of Man in Britain [16 x-xx [ xxxxx | I X X X xx I x I I ta « c 5 S3 « o ►J . f.'w "8 ri * a o a 05 Tv *» a-: cd 53 * 5 c .3 x i I I ! I x I II I I I I II I 'I I I I I I I X | XX | | X | | X | | | | * X XX | | f| I x I xx I I x M x I I I I I x x I x I I x I I I I I I I I II x I I I I I x x I x I I x I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I 1 .5 I 2 3 I 0-1 o I I x x x x ecs I (N v I &i I r- 10 r-i I I 00 rH Oi- I CO I CO !-* CN O I i-i I I I I O -T 12 X iO i-h rt 50 CO 03 oa |Oi can I id ts -r CO I >§ g 5 -D- 2 rCJ: •a — ° "p _ t3 c3 ■ > o r2 o c N -^ ' "^ <*- -^ ^ • o +=■ a ^ o aw 17] in the Pleistocene Age. 249 teeth of the various animals in the stratified deposits. I would call attention to the preponderance of the reindeer and horse over the bisons and uri, and of the woolly rhinoceros over the mammoth — and mare particularly to the difference between the group of animals in the Pin Hole, Robin Eood, and Church Hole caves, as compared with that of Mother Grundy's Parlour. Here the Leptorhine rhinoceros and the hippopotamus occur in the lower strata, in association with the horse, bear, fox and hyaena. The absence of implements in this horizon may he explained by the fact that this hyaena den was qoI then used as a shelter by the river drift man, whoso tools occur in the upper stratum, while the absence of the mammoth, woolly rhinoceros and reindeer may imply that there was a group of mammals in this district earlier than that in which the above species were so conspicuous. It must, however, be noted that elsewhere, as for example in the Vale of Clwyd, the same two species — the hippopotamus and the leptorhine rhinoceros, were contem- porary both with the reindeer and with the river drifl man. They also occur in like association in the river deposits of Britain. In France they are taken by M. Boule and other eminent observers to be inter-glacial and to mark the earliest palaeolithic stage, both in the caverns and river deposits. In Britain they are associated with the implements of the river drift men in mid and late Pleistocene deposits, and do not occur along with the implements of cave men. The mixture of species seen in the Cresswell caves is presented by almost every Pleistocene cave and river drift deposit in middle ami northern Europe, and is the result of the Pleistocene immigrants coming in from 'different quarters, and ultimately occupying the same area at approximately the same time, as I pointed out in 1872, under climatical and geographical conditions totally different from those of the present day. The Migration of the Pleistocene Mammalia into Europe. At the beginning of the Pleistocene age Britain formed part of the continent of Europe, ami the Atlantic coastline, now sunk 100 fathoms below the sea level, i anged far to the west of Ireland, as shown on the accompanying map (Kg. -). Europe, too, was joined to northern Africa by the elevation of the Mediterranean area so as to make one bridge of land extending across the Straits of Gibraltar, another linking Italy with northern Africa by way of Sicily, and Malta, and converting the Greek Isles into ranges of hills standing out from the plain that then ranged southwards and eastwards to join the mountain plateau of Asia Minor, The Mediterranean sea was divided into two land-locked basins like the Iilack Sea. ami Africa, north of the Sahara, was practically continuous with southern Europe. Then- was then no barrier to migration from south to north, from northern Africa to the north of Scotland and the west of Ireland. Nor was there any harrier to the migration of animals into Europe from northern and eastern Asia. We shall deal with them group by group. 250 W. Boyd DawkIns. — The Arrived ol Man in Britain [18 L _b^:b?fc = 2j_.,Li?iMl__L.L_i_i ,, r ■— i — I 1 — i_p-|_i-^ 'kM-A j-j-v^ _^-l-A l5iA^.i,._l— I— l_l_t_U=^— 1-1 — l-Lc, ' V»;^ M- IX r £-2- -* » ^fej::fftM^Jt;j^ -a i^^m&s vJRJts-kfy RESIT] ! . L I . I I I < l ivfl _.JV< soo ,|A IF I R II p.jAj _/' I I /I ' I /I I l fl ! ! i (**„ FIG. 2. MAI" OF PLEISTOCENE EUROPE SHOWING THE RANGE OF NORTHERN AND SOUTHERN ANIMALS. The double line represents the probable outline of the Pleistocene land. The vertical broken lines show the range of the southern mammalia, and the horizontal ones that of the northern forms. Living Species now restrict J to the Temperate Zone. The incoming Pleistocene species, now found only in the Temperate zones of Europe, Asia, and America, consist of animals of widely different habits and range. The more important of them are as fellows: 1 — Musk shrew. Pika. Pouched marmot. Hare. Lynx. Wild cat. Wolf. Fox. Marten. Ermine. Stoat. Otter. Brown bear. Grizzly bear. Badger. Horse. Bison. Urus. Saiga antelope. Stag. Eoe. Fallow deer. Wild hoar. The musk sinew, now living in the region of the Don and Volga, haunted the rivers of Norfolk, and the pouched marmot hibernated in Wiltshire and Somerset. 1 For full list see Early Man in Britain, p. 98. 19] iTi the Pleistocene Age. 251 At the present time three species of pika, or tailless lure, inhabit Siberia. In the Pleistocene age the genus ranged as Ear to the wesl as Gibraltar, and is represented in Britain by the cave pika of Brixham and Kent's Hole. The Saiga antelope of the plains of the Volga and the Lrtisch, south of latitude 55°, now ranging as far in ilie wesi as Poland, occur in the river deposits of London and the eaves of the Dordogne. The fallow deer, now only indigenous in the warm temperate Mediterranean region, wandered as Ear north as EaTwich, and is represented bj a variety (Cervus Brovmi) found at Clacton. The bison, now living under the protection of the Tzar in Lithuania., and under feral conditions hi the Urals and Caucasus, ranged over the whole of Europe and as far to the north-west as North Wales. The bones and teeth found in northern Siberia, and Eschscholtz Lay, and other localities in the northern regions of America prove, that, in formei times, the herds were conterminous with those that are now very nearly destroyed hj the hunters in North America. The urus and the horse ranged over the whole of Pleistocene Europe. Among the incoming carnivores, the grizzly bear ranged from Britain and Ireland as far to the south-west as Gibraltar. At the present day both the brown and the grizzly hears inhabit the same regions in North America, and therefore there is no reason for surprise that they should be found together in Pleistocene Europe. The whole of this temperate group, in my opinion, invaded Europe from west-central Asia and Asia Minor. Living Species of Northern Habit. The second group of invading forms is presented by the following list of Arctic animals : — Russian vole. Musk sheep. Norwegian lemming. Reindeer. Arctic lemming. Arctic fox. Alpine (= Irish, Scotch, Arctic) hare. Glutton. At the present time the four last named in the above list live side by side in circumpolar America, and the Arctic fox, the glutton or wolverine, and the reindeer range over the far north of Asia and Europe. The musk sheep is traced by its fossil and subfossil remains from its present habitat on the American shores of the Arctic Sea through Siberia, into Europe, where it ranges as far to the south as the Alps and Pyrenees, and as far to the west as Lath in Somerset. The reindeer also ranged over middle Europe as far as the same southern limits, and as far to the west as Ireland. We may also note that four other animals, the snowy vole, the .Alpine marmot, the chamois, and the bouquetin, now only found in the colder regions of i be European mountains, then occupied the lower grounds in France, Spain, and Italy, the marmot ranging as far down the valley of the Rhine as Belgium. We may assume that the northern gi'oup of animals enumerated above could only have ranged as far south as the Alps and Pyrenees, in the Pleistocene age, b 2 252 W. Boyd Dawkins. — The Arrival of Man in Britain [20 under conditions of life similar to those under which they live at the present time in a cold climate. The Living Species now found in Warm Climates. This conclusion has, however, to he reconciled with the evidence of the incoming animals now only to be found in the warmer regions of the earth. Porcupine. Spotted hyaena. Lion. Striped hyaena. Leopard. African elephant. African lynx. Hippopotamus. Caffer cat. The porcupine of northern Africa and the Mediterranean region generally, lived in the Pleistocene age as far to the north as Belgium. The leopard, common to Africa and the warmer regions of Asia, ranged through Europe as far north as Somersetshire, and through the Iberian peninsula and France into Saxony. It was associated in its wanderings northwards with the caffer cat, now living throughout Africa, and with the lynx of the Mediterranean region. The lion, now living only in the warm climates of Africa and southern Asia, followed its prey as far north as Yorkshire (Kirkdale) and as far to the north-east as Poland. The spotted hyaena of Africa, south of the Sahara desert, then abounded in southern and middle Europe, and in Britain as far as the Vale of Pickering. It also inhabited the caves of Ireland, and ranged as far to the north-east as the Altai Mountains. The striped hyaena of Africa and the warmer regions of Asia ranged over Pleistocene Europe as far as Provence, and the African elephant, now no longer met with north of the Sahara, passed northwards as far as Sicily, and into Spain as far as Madrid. The range of the whole group is represented by the vertical dotted lines in Fig. 2. The Incoming Extinct Species. The extinct species found along with man in Britain may be divided into similar g] mips. The mammoth and the woolly rhinoceros, found together in the frozen tundras of Northern Siberia, and ranging over Europe, the former as far as the Mediterranean, and the latter as far as the Alps and Pyrenees, are northern Asiatic forms, while the leptorhine rhinoceros, the Irish elk and the cave bear probably belong to the Temperate group. The megarhine rhinoceros, the only Pliocene extinct species associated with man, in the mid-Pleistocene deposits of the Lower Thames is, like the rest of the Pliocene species, of warm or warm temperate habit, ranging from Italy through France to Norfolk and Suffolk. The Mixed Favma caused by Climatical Changes. If, with all these facts before us, we refer to the map, Fig. 2, it will lie seen that there are three zones clearly defined in Europe. (1) The northern, into 21] iii the Pleistocene Age. 253 which no southern forms penetrated ; (2) the middle, in which both aorthern i southern forms are intermingled, extending from the British [sles to the barriers of the Alps and Pyrenees . and (3) the southern, in which the aorthern forms are conspicuous by their absence. This distribution is obviouslj the result of climatieal changes l>y which the northern animals were driven to their furthest limits to the south, and the southern animals were allowed to find their way to the north over the whole of the area ranging from Yorkshire to the Alps and Pyrenees. On the r. James Geikie considers to lie interglacial, preyed upon the reindeer, taken to be glacial, in 28 out of 31 British caves that 1 have tabulated. In all these the teeth- marked bones and antlers leave no doubt that the kill was eaten at once, and uol after the lapse of some thousands of years. When we find a similar mixture of northern and southern forms not only over the whole of .Middle Europe but also of Siberia, the theory that their occupation of a given area took place at times separated from one another by long intervals, to say aothing of glacial periods, appears to me to be untenable. 3 1 Ice Ay; 2nd edit., p. 512. - Climate and Time, p. %rl. 3 Indeed, Dr. James Geikie (op. cit., p. 523) gives his case away when he writes that "the northern temperate and southern mammalia, whose relics occur in the English valley grai belong to oils and the same interglacial period :i period tl>;u could have lasted only a few thousand yeai 254 W. Boyd Dawkins.— The Arrival of Man in Britain [22 These groups invaded Europe and ultimately arrived in Britain from different areas, the southern first, and the northern afterwards, but they undoubtedly occupied the same districts in the same series of seasons, in a climate that was gradually passing from temperate to glacial, and from glacial to temperate, conditions. To my mind the winter and the summer in Pleistocene Europe was like that of Siberia and North America outside the Polar circle, and as there was no Arctic night, there was no summer and winter like that of the circumpolar regions. This is not the place to enter into the glacial controversy 1 as to the interpretation of the boulder clays, sand and gravels that occupy Northern Europe. It is sufficient for our purpose to accept the fact that they have been accumulated by melting ice, that at the period of maximum cold formed a great sheet over the British Isles north of a line passing through Bristol and London and extending due eastwards over the continent to the north of the continuation of that line through Germany into central Eussia. The southern margin of this ice-sheet was continually advancing or retreating during the whole of the Pleistocene period. It began in the Pliocene age in the Scandinavian mountains, and was represented in Scotland by glaciers, according to Dr. James Geikie, as late as the Neolithic division of the prehistoric period. In the Alps it is represented by four periods of glaciation named by Penck and Bruckner the gunz, mundel, riss and wurm, separated by three interglacial periods, and ranging from the Pliocene to the present day. Under these circumstances it is clear that the terms glacial and interglacial and post-glacial relate to climatical conditions in Europe 1 ii ith 1 iefi ire am I afl er the Pleistocene age. For my part, in classifying the Pleistocene mammalia in Britain some fifty years ago, considered up to that time by Professor Phillips and others pre-glacial, I used the term post-glacial in the sense that the animals in question, from their position in the river deposits, were later than the boulder clays of the districts in which they occur in south-eastern England. For the same group Dr. James Geikie uses the term interglacial, because at that time there were glaciers in Scotland, although it would follow that if this principle be of general application, we are now living in an interglacial period because the glaciers are still in be found on the mountains of Europe. Dr. Croll even goes so far as to assert that the carboniferous flora grew in an interglacial period. All the terms in hopeless confusion, and in my opinion should only be used to represent local conditions. The migration of the temperate and northern groups of animals into Pleistocene Europe was probably due to the lowering of the temperature in northern Siberia, by which they were driven from their feeding grounds in Asia, and compelled to move into Europe at the end of the Pliocene period, the temperate coming in first and 1 I share tin- views of Professor Bormey in his address to the British Association at Sheffield, in 1910, with regard to the British Isles having been submerged in part as outlined by Sir Charles Lyell, in 1S63, in his Antiquity of Man, and I am unable to accept the view of the extreme glacialists that the marine shells at high levels on the Pennine Chain, and on the hills of Wales, Ireland and Scotland have been pushed up by glaciers from the bottom of the sea to heights of more than 1,000 feet above sea-level. 23] in Ifo r I 255 the northern afterwards; the former spreading over the whole of Pleistocene Europe, and the latter as far smith as til'' Lip md Pyrenees. Both arrived hi Britain before the ice-sheet covered Ireland, and before the valleys of Lancashire and Yorkshire were filled with glacial gravels and boulder claj .' The mammoth, horse, reindeer, and hyaena occur a1 Hessle, 3 near Hull, in pre-glacial deposits, and at Bielsbeck, 3 some few miles farther to the north, the reindeer and mammoth are associated with the Irish elk, urns, horse, wolf, lion, the straight-tusked elephant and the leptorhine rhinoceros, under similar pre-glacial conditions. The southern group of mammals too, n orthwards Erom the warmer regions of the smith, ranged over Southern and Middle Europe, and the British Isles as far to the north as Kirkdale cave, Yorkshire, and as far to the west as Ireland in pre-glacial times, before the ice-sheet covered those regi In proof of this 1 would mention the pre-glacial forest-bed of the eastern counties, the pre-glacial marine gravels of Sewerby, 3 near Bridlington, yielding the remains FIG. :!. RANGE 0] TI1K RIVER-DKIFT MAN IN BRITAIN. 1 The boulder clays are the result of I og of Lee under conditions in which the materials in the ice ha\ been sorted by the action of currents of water, whih laminated .lays and nine-tentha <>f thi are formi ial materials sorted and rearranged bj marine and fluviatile currents. They are so intimately mingled i the glacial drift that in man; pie, in the docks at Safford, they wen prol formed at the la time, a bo md and gravel at another. -'I'll, e ari in I ims of York and I id in various pri . For the i ;, ,,!. Sd , i art 2. 1 For bibliography see Drak heppard, Proceeds. J ., xvii, pari 1. 1909, p. 7. 256 W. Boyd Dawkixs. — The Arrival of Man in Britain [24 of hyaena and hippopotamus along with mammoth, straight-tusked elephant, bison and urus, and the caves of Ireland with hyaena, mammoth, and others. The Place of (he River-Drift Man in these Migrations. With all these facts before us we are aide to consider the place of man in these migrations, and to deal with his range in the Pleistocene age in relation to the mammalian groups. We shall take the river-drift man first. The river-drift implements in Britain are found in the river deposits only of England, south and east of a line passing through Devonshire (see Fig. 3), the Bristol Channel, and along the western side of the lower valley of the Severn, and striking to the north-east from the Severn through the Midlands to the line of the Humber and Flamborough Head, in Yorkshire. To the south-east of this hue, as may be seen from the geographical data, in Sir John Evans' Ancient Stont Implements, they are abundant. I am indebted to Mr. Boynton for the most northern locality in which they have been found, at Huntow, near Bridlington, as well as for the figure (Fig. 4) of the implement that extends their range to the district north of the Humber. To the north and west of this line river-drift implements occur in the caves of Kent's Hole, A, of Fig. 3, and those of Cresswell, 1'. and C, those of the district of St. Asaph in North Wales. Throughout this area river-drift man followed the seasonal migrations of the wild animals, ranging northwards and southwards. This is proved by the distribution of the implements made of the greensand chert of Dorset, and the Blackdown Hills northwards over the plains of Somerset to the Severn, and into Oxfordshire and beyond. To the north and west of this hunting ground the ice, or it may be, the sea or glacial conditions generally formed a barrier, probably during the mid, and certainly in the late, divisions of the Pleistocene age (Fig. 3). On the Continent the river-drift man is proved by bis implements to have hunted over the whole of France, Spain, and Italy (Fig. 5). His range is extended to the south and the east by the discoveries made in 1875 in Algeria by Dr. Bleichei . and recently elsewhere by Mr. Boule, and by various implements found in Egypt and Asia Minor. River-drift man is also now proved by the officers of the Indian Survey to have ranged over nearly the whole of the Indian peninsula, and to have bunted the pleistocene animals of that region with the same implements ami weapons as in Europe. From Europe to India, from Bridlington to the valley of theNerbudda and to Madras is " a far cry." It must, however, be noted that the discovery of river-drift implements in Asia Minor and in Egypt, probably indicate the general direction of the migration, although they have not as yet been found in association with the remains of pleistocene animals, that would place their age beyond dispute. 1 1 Implements more or less of river-drift type occur over a very large portion of Africa south of the Sahara from the falls of the Zambesi to Cape Colony. They are found in the surface soil and the sub-soil gravels, etc., and have not yet been discovered in association with pleistocene animals. The so-called pahieoliths of North America are proved by their association 25] • Age. 257 The impression left on my mind by this southern n river-drift man is thai be belongs— just as the cave-hyaena and hippopotamus belong— to the southern group 1 of mammalia, and that he followed them from the south over Europe as far to the aorth as the British Isles (Fig. 5). He was probably represented l>\ various tribes in various places, differing from one another like those of North America al the time of the Spanish conquest. The low ty] f man found in a cave al Neanderthal between Elberfeld Dusseldorf is proved by the discoveries in 1886 in tl if Spy to have ranged d the Valley of the Rhine to the province of Namur, and by the further liscovei ies in 1907 in the cave of La Buffia de la Chap ille-aux-Saints, 3 in < lorreze, as far to the south-west as the Valley of the Do: and by the re-examination by Dr. Keith of a skull found man' or Busls to be represented in the caves of Gibraltar. It is defined by Air. Boule as poss pithecoid characters, enormous superciliary rid] sat prognathism, by the occipital foramen being farther back, and by the heigh index (6 - 25) being lower than in any existing race. There is no chin. The skull is long, the cephalic index being 7'"'. The tribes possessing these characters probably extended Ear beyond the area mentioned above, in the stage of the pleistocene defined by M. Boule as the Moustier stage of the mid-pleistocene. It is probable, in the absence of direcl evidence, thai the river-drift men in Britain belonged to the same primitive race. The human remains described by Mr. E. T. Newton 3 from the mid-pleistocene iosits of Galley Hill, near Northfleet, '1" uot in my opinion throw lighl on the estion. They maj be of later date, ami the deformation and condition generallj of the skull prevents such accurate measure uts 4 being taken, as are neces ore the find can be used as a documenl in anthropology. "The characters," writes Mr. Newton . . . "are not such as will p any very definite conclusions being drawn as to the precise race to which they may have belonged." 5 Both Sir John Evans and myself, in the debate on the paper, considered the age of remains to be uncertain, and under these circumstances il is the safer 'se to put the discovery to " a suspense account." I know t<( no human remains in Britain that throw any lighl on the physique of the river-drift man. It is oh\ ious thai a uniform state of culture, such as is pre ented by the river- drifl man, does not necessarily implj a unity of race, and it is very unlikely that trihes hunting in the tropical forests of India were the same as those that with implements of well-known Red Indian type to have beei made bj the ancestors of the Red I ndians. 1 1 1 i 1 1 1 . ■ 1 1 . . I have grouped river-drift man with the temperate group of invading forms. On reviewing the whole question the evidence appears to me very strong in favour "f lus classification along with the southern group. - UAnthroi 1906 p. 314. '•■ ol. Soc., li. p. 505, pi, 1G. 1 (>/>. i it. i i'it of six measurements taken of thie fragmi utarj and di ' arium five are noted by Mr. Newton as doubtful. The sixth "i circumferential is also i becau>. iln length and breadth on which its ; a< j depend ire doubtful. Op. it., p. "> 1 7. 258 W. Boyd Dawkixs. — The Arrival of Man in Britain [25 followed the chase in Europe. It is more probable that it is the outcome of a primitive stage of savage life, from which mankind has emerged, and which maj perhaps be represented by the implements of palaeolithic type found throughout Africa, south of the Sahara desert, and as yet not proved to be of palaeolithic age. FIG I. RIVER-DRIFT IMPLEMENT, III STOW, BRIDLINGTON (bOYXTON COLL.). The Cave-Man proba up. I pass qow to bhe consideration of the cave men. In 1880 I pointed out that i tves and i: of Britain and Europe proved I the linn: i ■ of culture presented by the cave i u d was not only higher, also I the river-drift man. Arc we to look upon this as the re of an evo com the ruder implements and culture generally of the river- man '. In my opinion this question must be answered in the affirmative. Ii is not,] proved that this evolution took place in Europ : where tl clear. In France, for example, the various group implements in. \ have been introduced by different tribe migrating at different times from other are i; - The range of the culture of the eavi men pre en i riking con:',; . bo tl of the rh men ( Fig. 5). It is < ;ion north of the Alps and the P I is not found over Southern Europe and North Africa, where the condition ■ were easier. The cave man, with this higher culture, led the 27] in the Pleistocene A --^ same life, using the Bame implements in hunting the same animals, reindeer, musk sheep, woolly rhinoceros, etc., over the whole of tin- pleistocene continent, from Yorkshire as far to the south-west as the 1' and over France. Germany, and Switzerland, as far to th Poland and Moravia. 1 En othei words, he occupied the region in Central Europe, which was that occupied bj northern group of animals. The only exception to this generalisation is presented he cave of Altamira, near Santander, in the western continuation of the Pyrenees, where the food of the makers of the i asisted uol of reindeer, bill of red deer and bisons. 8 All these considerations lead me to group the cave man with the northern mammalia, leaving the question of race to be settled by future discoveries. Unfortunately on this poinl the eaves of Britain throw no light. Nor are we helped much, in solving this problem, by tl tves of France. Even if we allow that the human remains in the cave of Cro Magnon belong to the " Aurignacean stage of the French archaeologists, and are not an intermen ter date, and thai consequently there was a tribe in Auvergne of tall men (5 Eeel 1 1 inches) with long head, well developed forehead, and a chin, i ; does nol follow thai the same tribe inhabited the caves of Britain or of Germany. We may, however, note thai this tribe is proved by Dr. Verneau and ethers to have ranged over Southern France as far as the caves of Mentone, 3 and whatever opinion may be held as to lie antiquity of their burials, there can be no doubt that the ty] E i !ro Magnon is immeasurably higher in the scale than that of Neanderthal. Th Relation of the Car,- Men to the Eskimo. If the implements-, weapons, and manner of life of the cave man are compared with those of living races, there is only one that can claim to be their representative, ind possibly their successor — the Eskimo, inhabiting at the presenl time a narrow strip of the Arctic littoral, from Greenland as far as Behring Straits. In ancient times they inhibited also the north-eastern anele of Asia, and extended in America Ear to the south of their present limits. They live by fishing, fowling, and hunting, and use the implements of stone, bone, antler, and ivory, thai are practically identical with those used by the cave man in the south of Fran This is true even to minute details. The stone lamp, for example, of the Eskimo, Dr. Martin Kit. BeitrSgt wr Eenntniss d '' 3vo, Steinitz, 1903. ■ M for putting tins discovery to a susper en in my work o, 1874, p. 249 et seq. The Palaeolithic age is, however, verj generally accepted by the leadei I (tropology on the Continent, and th< d upon as a typ :: The discoveries mud.- in 1901 by the Prince of Monaco in these caves of Grimaldi have thrown a t'...<.d of lighl | dwellers in the district of Mentone. They prove among ot things the existence of a negroid ra ind thai the earliest inhabitants of the dial hunted the hippopotamus, elepluu and the ptorhinua of Owen. They "■• i lurse of publication, and until this is completed they ci I l- torily dealt with. For outline sei ■ Int.cPAni ■ P"ehist. Monaco, 1906, pp. 111-161. 260 W. Boyd Dawkixs. — The Arrival, of Man in Britain [28 is represented by that found in the cave of Kostelik, 1 in Moravia, and by the smaller examples used to light up the frescoed caves of La Monthe iu Central Trance, and Altamira, near Santander, in Northern Spain. The figures of the animals, either outlined or carved, or painted, are also of the same order, and indicate that the art was the same. To the objection that savage tribes living under similar conditions might independently invent the same implements, and that therefore the identity of implements does not necessarily imply a connection between the users of them, the answer may be made that there are no peoples now on the earth that use the same set of tools without having been at some time in touch with one another. The ruder and simpler forms, such as flakes, borers, and scrapers probably arose out of the environment, but when a whole set agrees, intended for various uses, and some of them rising above the common wants of savage life, the argument as to connection is, to my mind, of considerable weight. FIG. 5. — RANGE OF FAL-EOLITHIC MAN. . E. = Eiver-drift man. C. = Caveman. E. = Eskimos. 1 Dr. Kriz, op. cit., p. 458. 29] in Mi' 1 ; "" -'.'/•• 261 The view that the culture of the Eskimo is derived from that of the cave meu is considerably strengthened by the ra he animals hunted by the latter in Europe over vast regions in Northern Asia thai separates them from the land of the Eskimo. The reindeer, the musk sheep, the marmots, the Arctic foxes, the grouse, and the snowy owls, used for food by the cave men in France LI so used by the Eskimo, and the group of extinct animals hunted by the former in Europe is represented by fossil remains found throughout the region that divides the cave man of the Upper Danube from the Eskimo of Behring Straits. The mammoth and the woolly rhinoceros have been met with in vast numbers in the river deposits and in the eaves in Central and Southern Russia in Europe, and throughout Siberia. In the caves of the Altai Mountains 1 the same two animals are associate i with the Irish elk, cave hyaena, brown bear, pouched marmot, beaver, Arctic hare, elk, stag, roe, bison, horse, and wild hoar, and we do not lose sight of this group of animals even at Behring Straits. It is true that the woolly rhinoceros is not found in North America, but the group is represented by the animals discovered by Captains Beechey and Kellett in the frozen gravels forming the cliffs of Eschscholtz Bay, the elk, reindeer, the bison, the horse, and the mammoth. Then, the western portion of Arctic America, now occupied by the Eskimo, belonged to the same zoological province as Northern and Central Asia and Europe, and there were no barriers to prevent migration from the one to the other. Nor are we without evidence that palaeolithic man hunted the above group of animals in Siberia. In 1892 M. Savenkov described 5 a collection of implements found in the brick-earth of Krasnoyarsk, in the Valley of the Yenisei, in n iation with the following animals: mammoth, woolly rhinoceros, horse, urus, bison, reindeer, and elk. They consist of stone implements of the type found at Moustier, made from fragments of the erratic blocks of the district, and of various articles made of bone, reindeer — antler, ami mammoth — ivory. M. Sa\ enkov assigns this ancient camping ground to the end of the Paleolithic period, or in other words to the age of the reindeer. h is also proved by its position to be postglacial, or after the ice bad retre >m that portion ^( the Valley of tin' Yenisei. In all these facts I see cumulative evidence in favour of the view that the cave men have handed down their culture to the Eskimo by means .if the post ial hunters in Northern Asia. I do not, however, think it proves an identity in race, as I thought in 1880. 3 It may have been brought about by the contact of tribes of different race. On reviewing the whole evidence, it seems to me, that the physical relation of the cave men to the Eskimo is an open question, which cannot be definitely answered till we have more evidence than we now possess 'if the palaeolithic hunters of Siberia, as well as mure evidence from the caves of 1 Brandt, .!/-'". ■■;■-■ flin!,i.i,',j,ie» tir&s du. Bull. A'-ail. /m/>. det 8c. de St. Petertburgh, vii, 1870. ■ Congr. Int cPArcMol Preh. et dtAnthrop. Moscow, 1692, t. 1, p. 121. 3 Early .1/" in Britain, c. vii. 262 W. Boyd Dawkins. — The Arrival of Man in Britain [30 Europe. As the case stands now the cave man belongs to the northern group of mammalia and probably came into Europe with them from Asia and returned with them into Asia at the close of the Pleistocene period. I would further suggest that the regions of Asia north and west of the great mountain barrier, now the meeting place of temperate and southern forms, may have been the area in which the culture of the cave man was evolved from that of the river-drift man. The Chamjrs at the Close of the Pleistocene Period. We must now pass to the consideration of the changes that took place at the close of the Pleistocene period. On the Continent generally there is no evidence of any great geographical change, and the retreat of the glaciers to the higher regions is the only evidence as to climate. The British area, up to that time part of the Continent, became depressed beneath the waters of the sea, and assumed almost its present insular shape, the North Sea and the Atlantic filling the lower grounds and ultimately joining at the Straits of Dover, and forming a barrier to the migration of the land animals from the Continent. The climate also became insular, and very much what it is to-day. Under these changed conditions of life it is no wonder that many of the pleistocene species became extinct, and that most of the northern and southern animals died out in Britain, leaving behind the present wild fauna, mainly of temperate species. At this time we lose sight of palaeolithic man, who disappears without leaving behind any traces of his culture or equipment to his neolithic successor in the Prehistoric period. This is probably due to the great length of the interval between the Pleistocene and Prehistoric periods implied by the great geographical climatal and zoological changes above mentioned. It certainly lias not been bridged over by any discoveries made in Britain. 1 On the Continent, the zoological break, although, as might be expected from the fact that there was no great geographical change, is not so strongly marked, is of the same general order, and in my belief only to be explained by changes in the fauna spread over a period sufficiently long to allow of the extinction, and disappearance from Europe, of the characteristic pleistocene species. It is something more than une simple lacune de nos reconnaissances, as Mr. Dechelette puts it, to be filled in by the " Azilien," a phase of transition from the Pleistocene to the Prehistoric period. This phase de transition appears to me to be based on very weak evidence and to represent only a sequence of deposits ranging from the latest stage of the Pleistocene to the Neolithic age. The fiat harpoons of stag's antler, considered by MM. Cartailhac and Boule to prove the transition in the caves of Beilhac 2 and Mas dAzil, are found in the neolithic Swiss pile dwellings, Wawyl, and elsewhere. The barley also and the stones of the cultivated plum of the cave of Mas dAzil are neolithic in 1 For evidence of this see Joarn. Anthrop. Inst., 1894, p. 248 et scq. - For further details and references as to these two caves see niy address to the antiquarian section of the Roy. Archteol. Institute : " The Present Phase of Prehistoric Archreology," The Archceol. Journ., December, 1897. 3 1 ] . ///'-. Switzerland, and can hardly I"' taken to prove that barley fields and plum orchards were in the south of France in pre-N times. In both these caves I onlj ■ -■ two distini aewer or Neolithic I bj presence of domestic animals and cultivated plants, and the older or that of the cave men, the hunter of the reindeer. I am unable to see anj signs of transition between the two, nor am I aware of any other discoveries thai throw lighl on the question in any pari of the world. The m oubtedly evolved from the pakeolithic civilisation in .-nine quarter of the world, bul no evidem this tools place in 1 that the ] European ]» the lineal descendants of those who rai the I H ample time in the vasl □ the Pleistocene and Prehistori for the appearance, and disap many successive races of mankind. In conclusion I would add a few words on the anl in — a burning question for the last sixty years, [t is to 1 quern eological events, the changes in animal life and the advance of man in culture. [1 ono be measured in yeai er so small a unil of time. We gel no help as 1 date ii is of i ulj a i E the -real length of time, from the study of the erosion of the land liment in lakes, in river beds, and in the sea, or from the advance or retreat of glaciers. Outside history there is a simple sequence of events following o her in due order and with \ . als, the length of which we do not know. These we are tempted to look upon very much in the same a a child on a lofty mountain peak views the scene below, range after rang river, and marsh succ ling one another, and apparently close together, although they are really wide apart. It is difficull to grasp the true pective. Speaking for myself , th i i linutely I examine the events that have ice man appeared on the earth, the more profoundly am I inipr< with the vastness of his antiquity, and with thi futility of any attempl to compute it in terms of years. of the Royal Anthropological Institute, To/. .VA, Julg-Di member, l'.MO.] on and lions, Printer! ■ > i , II London. ROYAL ANTHROPOLOGICAL INSTITUTE OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. This Institute was established in 1871 by the amalgamation of the oldei Anthropological Society and Ethnological Society. 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