<^->'5^-^ 
 
 P4 •• #■ 
 
GIFT OF 
 Miss E.T, w ..it. 
 
coxrvERSii.TXOxrs 
 
 X^7 
 
 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 
 
 /aia 
 
 EXPLAINING THE 
 
 PRINCIPL.es and RUI.es op TI|E IiANGUAGE ; 
 
 ILLUSTRATED 
 
 BY APPROPRIATE EXERCISES; 
 
 ADAPTED TO THE USE OF SCHOOLS. 
 
 BY CHARLES M. INGERSOLL. 
 
 * There is no other method of teaching that of which any one is ignorant, thaa 
 by means of soro^thi^j a?ready known. 'l->r-DR? JftHwsoN. 
 
 iEiniitli iStrttion. 
 
 PORTLAND : 
 
 BY BHIRLEY AND HYDE, EXCHANGE STREET. 
 
 1830. 
 
SOUTHERN DISTRICT OF NEW YORK, SS. 
 
 Be it remembered, That on the twenty-seventh d^y of April, in the forty- 
 fifth year of the Independence of the United States of America, Charles M. 
 I?»GERsoLL, of the said district, hath deposited in this office the title of a book, 
 the right whereof he claims as author and proprietor, in the words following, to 
 wit:— 
 
 « «._^_.^ctaons on English Grammar, explaining the Principles and Rules of 
 the Language ; illustrated by Appropriate Exercises ; adapted to the Use of Schools. 
 By Charles M. IngersoU. ' There is no other method of teaching that of which 
 any one is ignorant, than by means of something already known.' — Dr. Johnson.'* 
 
 In conformity to the act of the congress of the United States, entitled, "An 
 Act for the encouragement of learning, by securing the copies of maps, charts 
 and books to the authors and proprietors of such copies during the times therein 
 mentioned;" and also to an act, entitled, "An Act supplementary to an act, 
 entitled, ' An Act for the encouragement of learning, by securing the copies of 
 maps, charts and books to the authors and proprietors of such copies during 
 the times therein mentioned ;' and extending the benefits thereof to the arts 
 of designing, engraving, and etching historical and other prints." 
 
 G. L. THOMPSON, 
 eierk of the Sovtl^em District of Kevo York. 
 
 STEREOTYPED AT THE 
 BOSTOJi-;B¥PE AND STEREOTYPE FOUNDRY. 
 
 (OSTOJUB¥PE , 
 
 e \ 
 
CONTEIVTS. 
 
 coxrvzsRSATZoxr 
 
 Page. 
 
 I. Introduction. Of Letter? 5 
 
 II. Of Syllables and Words 10 
 
 III. Of Nouns and Verbs 16 
 
 IV. Cases of Nouns. Transitive Verbs 24 
 
 V. Of the Articles 33 
 
 VI. Of Adjectives 37 
 
 VII. Of the Participles 42 
 
 VIII. Of Adverbs , 46 
 
 IX. Of Pronouns. Personal and Adjective Pro- 
 nouns 51 
 
 X. Of Relative and Interrogative Pronouns . . 60 
 
 XI. Of Prepositions 65 
 
 XII. Of Conjunctions and Interjections 70 
 
 XIII. Of Nouns and Pronouns connected by Conjunctions, 
 
 and Nouns and Pronouns in Apposition 75 
 
 XIV. Of the Nominative Case Independent. Of Deriva- 
 
 tion 81 
 
 XV. Of the Moods and Tenses of Verbs 83 
 
 XVI. Of the ^Subjunctive Mood 96 
 
 XVII. Of the Potential, Infinitive, and Imperative Moods . .' 102 
 
 XVIII. Of Passive and Neuter Verbs 113 
 
 XIX. Of the Auxiliary Verbs, and of the Tenses 124 
 
 XX. Of Rules XXL, XXIL, XXIII 129 
 
 XXI. General l(emarks and Exercises in Parsing 145 
 
 ADDITIONAL REMARKS. 
 
 SECTION 
 
 I. Of Syntax. Of the Nominative and Verb 155 
 
 II. Of the Possessive Case 160 
 
 III. Of the Transitive Verbs 166 
 
 IV. Of the Articles 168 
 
 V. Of Adjectives 172 
 
 VI. Of the Present or Active Particiole 177 
 
 VII. Of Adverbs .....'... 192 
 
 VIII. Of Pronouns 186 
 
 IX. Of Adjective Pronouns 188 
 
 X. Of Relative Pronouns 192 
 
 XL Of Rule XII 196 
 
 XII. Of Prepositions 199 
 
 XIII. Of Rules XIV. and XIX .- 204 
 
 * See, also, Section XX. 
 
 248140 
 
iv DIRECTIONS TO TEACHERS. 
 
 XIV. OfRuleXV ^206 
 
 XV. Of Nouns and Pronouns in Apposition. Of the Infini- 
 tive Mood 210 
 
 XVI. Of the Infinitive Mood, or Part of a Sentence as a 
 
 Nominative. Of the Nominative Case Absolute ... 212 
 
 XVII. Of Nouns of Multitude 213 
 
 XVIII. When a Noun or Pronoun follows but, than, or as .. 216 
 XIX. Of the use of Words and Phrases, which, in point of 
 
 time, relate to each other 217 
 
 XX. Of the Subjunctive Mood 225 
 
 XXI. All the Parts of a Sentence should correspond to each 
 
 other 233 
 
 PUNCTUATION.— CHAPTER 
 
 1 or the Comma 238 
 
 II. Of the Semicolon 243 
 
 III. Of the Colon 244 
 
 IV. Of the Period 245 
 
 V. Of the Dash, Notes of Interrogation and Exclamation, 
 
 and the Parenthesis '. . 246 
 
 VI. Of the Apostrophe, Caret, &c 248 
 
 VII. Of the proper Use of Capitals 250 
 
 DIRECTIONS TO TEACHERS. 
 
 As one important object, proposed ia this work, is, by the peculiar arrangement 
 of the subject-matter, entirely to abolish, wherever it is used, the practice of stul- 
 tifying children by compelling them to recite, in endless repetition, ' words, words, 
 words,' toitkotU annexing ideas ; it may not be deemed either impertinent or im- 
 proper to present, on the face of the book, some directions to those who may happen 
 to use it. The Author believes it will be found most advantageous for learners in 
 general to begin at the third Conversation^ and return to the two preceding, on 
 Orthography, after those on Etymology and Syntax are well understood. 
 
 Begin, then, at the third Conversation, and explain to tlie class, or individual, 
 in a mmiliar lecture or conversation, the noun, with its two persons, its numbers, 
 its genders, and the nominative case as an actor, illustrating the remarks by fa- 
 miliar examples, and requiring the pupils also to give examples, illustrative of what 
 has been explained ; then explain the active verb, and its agreement with the actor, 
 or nominative, and give Rule I. j 'A verb must agree,' &c. The learners may 
 then be exercised, a few moments, in parsing such sentences as these j ' Boys play ; 
 Girls sing ; Men labor ; Man labors -, Rain falls,' Sec. ; the teacher calling their 
 attention to the distinctive form of the verb, as singular or plural. By spending 
 twenty or thirty minutes in this manner with a class of learners, the teacher may pre- 
 pare them to read the Conversation, which must be given for the next day's lesson, 
 with intelligence and with pleasure ; and they will find no difficulty in preparing 
 themselves to parse accurately the exercises in the C^versation, and answer correct- 
 ly the questions annexed. When the learners are called, the next day, their business 
 will not be to recite a page, without acquiring one idea, but to parse the exercises, 
 ' tifid answer the questions. The subject-matter of the fourth Conversation should be 
 explained in a similar manner, before the pupils l)egi;i to read it ; they will then pro- 
 ceed in this as in the other. After these two are well understood, the pupils will, 
 doubtless, be able to proceed with the other Conversations, and understand them with- 
 out previous verbal comment. 
 
 %* If any one should chooso to b«gin at the first Conversation, there can be no 
 great objection- 
 
CONVERSATIONS 
 
 ON 
 
 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
 
 CONVERSATZOK Z. 
 
 OF LETTERS. 
 
 Tutor, — George, — Caroline. 
 
 Tutor. I HAVE frequently told you, that as soon as you 
 could read fluently, and understand what you read, I 
 would instruct you in the principles of Grammar. I now 
 find that you read your books for the purpose of under- 
 standing them, and that you do not, as many children do, 
 merely pronounce the words, without any regard to the 
 sense. 
 
 Caroline. You have so often cautioned us against the 
 practice of reading without trying to comprehend the sense 
 of every sentence, that I now find no pleasure in read- 
 ing, unless I thoroughly understand the meaning of what 
 I read. 
 
 Tutor. I believe so, Caroline, and I have no doubt that 
 your brother George can say the same ; and therefore I shall 
 begin to instruct you in ^English Grammar this morning. 
 And now, George, what do you think that Grammar is 
 about., 
 
 George. I think it is about words, or language ; and that 
 it will teach us to speak and write what we mean, in such a 
 1 * 
 
••••••:.•:•. .:..:/.. ../ 
 
 manner, that others may clearly understand us ; and that it 
 will enable us to avoid putting words together so that a sen- 
 tence will convey two or three different meanings, when it 
 ought to convey but one. 
 
 Tutor. Very well, ^iy Grammar treats of language, and, 
 if you understand it well, it will teach you to write and 
 speak it correctly. / Grammar may be divided into two sorts, 
 Universal and Particular.. Universal Grammar explains 
 the principles which are common to all languages.! Par- 
 ticular Grammar applies those general principles to a 
 particular languago, modifying them according to the gen- 
 ius of that language, and the established practice of the 
 best speakers and writers by whom it is used.^ The prac- 
 tice of the best speakers and writers of any language, 
 then, is the standard of the grammar of that language. 
 But before I say more concerning language ^ I must know 
 whether you can give the definition of an idea. 
 
 George. iAn idea is whatever a person has in his mind 
 when he thinks.s 
 
 Tutor. Very well. And now, Caroline, do you re- 
 member the definition of language 1 
 
 Caroline. Language is the expression of our ideas and 
 their relations, by certain articulate sounds, which are used 
 as the signs of those ideas and relations. , 
 
 Tutor. That is right. We must observe now what we 
 have under consideration, viz. first, things; secondly, the 
 images of those things in the mind, when we think of 
 them, which are called ideas; and thirdly, language, or 
 articulate sounds, used to express, or to convey, to other 
 minds, those ideas which we have in our own. These 
 articulate sounds we call words, which are used, by com- 
 mon consent, as the signs^ of our ideas and their rela- 
 tion. So you will perceive, that unless these words are 
 used in such manner and order as will represent truly 
 the order and relation of the ideas in our own minds, 
 
ORTHOGRAPHY. 7 
 
 another person will not be able to comprehend our mean- 
 ing- 
 
 George. I perceive it very clearly. You say that words 
 
 are used by common consent. 
 
 Tutor, That means, that all the people who speak the 
 same language consent to call things by the same names, 
 or to express the same ideas by the same signs. 
 
 Caroline. I understand it, and perceive the necessity 
 of it ; for, if the fact were otherwise, we could not com- 
 prehend each other ; there would be as many different lan- 
 guages as there are persons. I wish you to say more, if 
 you please, respecting those words that are the signs of 
 the relations of ideas. I think I understand how a word 
 is the sign of an idea, for when I think about this book 
 which you gave me, the word hooh is the sign of what I 
 think of; but I do not precisely comprehend how words are 
 the signs of the relations of our ideas. 
 
 Tutor. When I say that you hold the book in your 
 hand, what word expresses the relation between the book 
 and your hand ? 
 
 Caroline. It is in. I see now, that the word in is not 
 the sign of a thing that I think of, but the sign of a rela- 
 tion existing between the book and the hand, which are two 
 things that I can think of; so, then, ^a word that denotes a 
 relation between things must be the sign of the relation 
 between the ideas of those things. 
 
 Tutor. Yes ; and you will, by a little reflection, per- 
 ceive the different uses of words ; that some are used to 
 express ideas, or images of things ; some to express ideas 
 of motion ; and others to express ideas of relations merely. 
 As, in the phrase, " The son of David studies" you may 
 readily perceive, that of shows the relationship existing 
 between the two persons ; for if we were to leave it out 
 of the sentence, and say, " The son, Davidy" &c., the 
 phrase would indicate, that the two words referred to one 
 
8 ORTHOGRAPHY. 
 
 and the same person; so you may as readily perceive, 
 that of is used to express the relation of the ideas in your 
 mind, and the signs of those ideas, when put on paper, 
 which are son and David* 
 
 George* I think we have a clear notion of what has 
 been said ; and that we perceive the importance of pre- 
 serving the purity and uniformity of each particular lan- 
 guage ; and that, in each, there should be a common set of 
 signs, which may be known, by all who speak that lan- 
 guage, as the representatives of particular ideas, and defi- 
 nite relations. 
 
 Caroline, And this, I suppose, is accomplished by 
 diffusing a knowledge of Grammar. 
 
 Tutor. Undoubtedly ; for Grammar treats. 
 
 First, of articulate sounds, which are the sounds of the 
 human voice, formed by the organs of speech, and of the 
 form and sound of letters, which are the representatives of 
 those articulate sounds ; of the combination of letters int6 
 syllables, and of syllables into words ; 
 
 Secondly, of the different sorts of words, their various 
 modifications, and their derivations ; 
 
 Thirdly, of the just arrangement of words in the for- 
 mation of a sentence ; and. 
 
 Fourthly, of the proper pronunciation and poetical con- 
 struction of sentences. These four parts of Grammar are 
 called, 
 
 1. ORTHOGRAPHY, 3. SYNTAX, and 
 
 2. ETYMOLOGY, 4. PROSODY. 
 I will now proceed with these in their order. 
 
 ORTHOGRAPHY. 
 
 OF THE LETTERS. 
 
 Orthography teaches the nature and powers of letters, 
 and the just method of spelling words. 
 
ORTHOGKAPHY. 9 
 
 A letter is the first principle, or least part, of a word. 
 
 The letters of the English language, called the English Al- 
 phabet, are twenty-six in number. 
 
 These letters are the representatives of certain articulate 
 sounds, the elements of the language. lAn articulate sound is 
 the sound of the human voice, formed by the organs of speech. 
 
 Letters are divided into Vowels and Consonants. 
 
 A Vowel is an articulate sound, that can be perfectly uttered 
 by itself; as, a, e, o; which are formed without the help of any 
 other sound. 
 
 A Consonant is an articulate sound, which cannot be per- 
 fectly uttered without the help of a vowel; as, 6, c?,/, I ; which 
 require vowels to express them fully. 
 
 Tlie vowels are, a, e, i, o, u, and sometimes z^ and y. 
 
 W and y are consonants when they^egin a word or syllable ; 
 but in every other situation they are fbwels. 
 
 Consonants are divided into mutes and semi- vowels. 
 
 The mutes cannot be sounded at all, without the aid of a 
 vowel. They are 6, p, t, d, k, and c and g hard. 
 
 The semi-vowels have an imperfect sound of themselves. 
 They are /*, Z, m, n, r, v, s, z, x, and c and g soft. 
 
 Four of the semi- vow els, namely, I, m, n, r, are also distin- 
 guished by the name of liquids, from their readily uniting with 
 other consonants, and flowing as it were into their sounds. 
 
 A diphthong is the union of two vowels pronounced by a sin- 
 gle impulse of the voice ; as, ea in beat, ou in sound. 
 
 A triphthong is the union of three vowels, pronounced m 
 like manner ; as, eau in beau, ieio in view. 
 
 A proper diphthong is that in which both the vowels are 
 sounded ; as, oi in voice, ou in ounce. 
 
 An improper diphthong has but one of the vowels sounded ; 
 as, ea in eagle, oa in boat, 
 
 QUESTIONS. 
 
 What do you understand by the word idea ? 
 
 What is an articulate sound ? 
 
 What is language ? 
 
 What is Grammar? 
 
 How may Grammar be divided ? 
 
 What does Universal Grammar explain ? 
 
 What does Particular Grammar teach ? 
 
 What does the English Grammar teach ? 
 
 What is the standard of English Grammar, by which we mU3t be governed ? 
 
 Into how many parts is English Grammar divided ? 
 
 What are they called ? 
 
 Of what does each treat? 
 
 What are letters ? 
 
 How many are there in the English language ? 
 
 How are letters divided ? 
 
 What is a vowel ? 
 
 What letters are vowels ? 
 
 What is a consonant ? 
 
 When are «j and y consonants ? 
 
10 ORTHOGRAPHY. 
 
 And when vowels? 
 
 How are consonants divided? 
 
 What is a mulo? 
 
 What is a semi-vowel? 
 
 Which four of the semi-vowels are called liquids ? 
 
 What is a diphthong ?: ./ 
 
 What is a triphthong? 
 
 What is a proper diphthong ? 
 
 What is ao improper diphthong ? 
 
 CONVERSATXOir ZX. 
 
 OF SYLLABLES AND WORDS. 
 
 Tutor. You answered the questions annexed to the 
 first conversation so readily, that I perceive you are very 
 attentive, and that you remember what I tell you. I shall, 
 by-and-by, be aWe to make the subject more interesting to 
 you. 
 
 Caroline. We begin already to be interested in it, for 
 we know how necessary it is, that we should understand it ; 
 and we believe that you will explain it to us in such a man- 
 ner, that it will not be very dry. 
 
 Tutor. You will probably find Orthography the least 
 interesting part of Grammar. In acquiring a knowledge 
 of this, you must be patient, and perform the labor your- 
 selves. But when you come to Etymology and Syntax, 
 more illustration will be necessary, and I shall be able to 
 render you more assistance than I can at present. 
 
 George. We know, that, in order to understand any art 
 or science well, its first principles must be clearly compre- 
 hended, and that it then becomes easy. 
 
 Caroline. You showed us, the other day, some remarks 
 on this subject, made by Quinctilian, which I remember. 
 " Let no person," says he, " despise, as inconsiderable, 
 the elements of grammar, because it may seem to them a 
 matter of small consequence to show the distinction be- 
 tween vowels and consonants, and to divide the latter into 
 
ORTHOGRAPHY. 11 
 
 liquids and mutes.* But they who penetrate into the 
 innermost parts of this temple of science, will there dis- 
 cover such refinement and subtilty of matter, as are not 
 only proper to sharpen the understandings of young per- 
 sons, but sufficient to give exercise for the most profound 
 knowledge and erudition/' 
 
 Tutor. I shall now proceed with syllables and words. 
 
 OF SYLLABLES. 
 
 I A syllable is a sound, either simple or compounded, pro- 
 nbunced by a single impulse' of the voice, and constituting a 
 word, or part of a word ; as, a, art, ant} 
 
 Spelhng is the art of rightly dividing words into their syl- 
 lables, or of expressing a word by its proper letters. : 
 
 The following are the general rules for the division of 
 words into syllables: — 
 
 1. A single consonant between two vowels must be joined 
 to the latter syllable ; as, de-light, hri-dal, re-source ; except 
 the letter x ; as, ex-ist, ex-amine ; and except, likewise, words 
 compounded ; as, up-on, un-even, dis-ease. 
 
 2. Two consonants proper to begin a word must not be 
 separated ; as, fa-hle, sti-Jle. But when they come between 
 two vowels, and are such as cannot begin a word, they must 
 be divided ; as, nt-most, un-der, insect, er-ror, cof-fln. 
 
 3. When three consonants meet in the middle of a word, 
 if they can begin a word, and the preceding vowel be pro- 
 nounced long, they are not to be separated ; as, de-throne, de- 
 stroy. But wlien the vowel of the preceding syllable is pro- 
 nounced short, one of the consonants always belongs to that 
 syllable ; as, dis-tract, dis-prove, dis-train. 
 
 4. When three or four consonants, which are not proper 
 to begin a syllable, meet between two vowels, such of them 
 as can begin a syllable belong to the latter, the rest to the 
 former syllable ; as, abstain, com-plete, em-broil, trans-gress, 
 dap-ple, constrain, handsome, parch-ment. 
 
 5. Two vowels, not being a diphthong, must be divided into 
 separate syllables ; as, cru-el, de-ni-al, so-ci-ety. 
 
 6. Compounded words must be traced into the simple 
 words of which they are composed ; as, ice-house, glotv-ivorm, 
 over-power, never-the-less* 
 
 7. Grammatical, and other particular terminations, are 
 generally separated ; as, teach-est, teach-cth, teach-ing, teach- 
 
 * For some general observations on the sounds of the letters, the learner is re- 
 ferred to " Conversations on English Grammar," of which this is an Abridgment, 
 p^ge 10 and onward. 
 
12 ORTHOGRAPHY. 
 
 er, contend-estf great-er, wretch-ed, good-ness, free-dom^ false- 
 hood, 
 
 OF WORDS. 
 
 Words are articulate sounds, used by common consent, as 
 signs of our ideas, 
 
 A word of one syllable is termed a monosyllable ; a word 
 of two syllables, a dissyllable ; a word of three syllables, a 
 trisyllable ; and a word of four or more syllables, a poly- 
 syllable. 
 
 All words are either primitive or derivative. 
 
 A primitive word is that which cannot be reduced to any 
 simpler word in the language ; as, 7nan, good, content. 
 
 A derivative word is that which may be reduced to another 
 word in English of greater simplicity ; as, manful^ goodness^ 
 contentment^ Yorkshire.^ ^ 
 
 QUESTIONS. 
 
 What is a syllable. ? 
 
 What is spelling 7 
 
 What are words? 
 
 What are words of one syllable called ? 
 
 What are words of two syllables called ? 
 
 What are words of three syllables called ? 
 
 What are words of four or more syllables called ? 
 
 How are words divided ? 
 
 What is a primitive word? 
 
 What is a derivative? 
 
 There are many English words which, though compounds 
 in other languages, are to us primitives ; thus circumspect^ 
 circumvent, circumstance, delude, concave, complicate, &c., which 
 are primitive words in Enghsh, will be found derivatives, 
 when traced in the Latin tongue. 
 
 The orthography of the Enghsh language is attended with 
 much uncertainty and perplexity. But a considerable part of 
 this inconvenience may be remedied by attending to the gen- 
 eral laws of formation ; and, for this end, you are presented 
 with a view of such general maxims, in spelling primitive and 
 derivative words, as have been almost universally received. 
 
 RULE I. 
 
 Monosyllables ending with /, I, or s, preceded by a single 
 vowel, double the final consonant ; as, staff, mill, pass, &c. 
 The only exceptions are, of, if, as, is, has, was, yes, his, this, 
 us, and thus. 
 
 *" A compound word is included under the head of derivative words ; as, pen- 
 ktdfe^ t<tt-cup, looking-glass t may l?e reduced to other words of greater eim- 
 plicitf. 
 
ORTHOGRAPHY. 13 
 
 It is no great merit to spel properly, but a great defect to do it incorrectly. 
 Jacob worshiped his Creator, leaning on the top of his staf. 
 We may place toe little, as well as too much stres upon dreams. 
 Oar manners should be neither gros, nor excessively refined. 
 
 RULE II. 
 
 Monosyllables ending with any consonant but f^ I, or 8, and 
 preceded by a single vowel, never double the final consonant ; 
 excepting only, add, ebb, butt, egg, odd, err, inn, bunn, purr, 
 and buzz, 
 
 A carr signifies a chariot of war, or a small carriage of burden. 
 
 In the names of druggs and plants, the mistake in a word may endanger life. 
 
 Nor undelightful is the ceaseless humm. 
 
 To him who muses through the woods at noon. 
 The finn of a fish is the limb by which he balances his body, and moves in the 
 water. 
 Many a trapp is laid to insnare the feet of youth. 
 Many thousandLfamilies are supported by the simple business of making matts. 
 
 --" RULE IIL 
 
 Words ending with y, preceded by a consonant, form the 
 plurals of nouns, the persons of verbs, verbal nouns, past par- 
 ticiples, comparatives, and superlatives, by changing y into i ; 
 as, spy, spies; I carry, thou cairiest ; he carrietk or carries; 
 carrier, carried ; happy, happier, happiest. 
 
 The present participle in ing retains the y, that i may not 
 be doubled ; as, carry, carrying ; bury, burying, &c. 
 
 But y, preceded by a vowel in such instances as the above, 
 is not changed ; as, boy, boys ; I cloy, he cloys, cloyed, &c. ; 
 except in lay, pay, and say ; from which are formed laid, paid, 
 and said ; and their compounds, unlaid, unpaid, unsaid, &c. 
 
 We should subject our fancys to the government of reason. 
 
 If thou art seeking for the living among the dead, thou wearyest thyself in 
 vaiu. 
 
 If we have denyed ourselves sinful pleasures, we shall be great gainers in tho 
 end. 
 
 We shall not be happyer for possessing talents and affluence, unless we make a 
 right use of them. 
 
 The truly good mind is not dismaied by poverty, afflictions, or death. 
 
 RULE IV. 
 
 Words ending with y, preceded by a consonant, upon as- 
 suming an additional syllable beginning with a consonant, com- 
 monly change y into i ; as, happy, happily, happiness. But 
 when y is preceded by a vowel, it is very rarely changed in the 
 additional syllable ; as, coy, coyly ; boy, boyish, boyhood ; an- 
 noy, annoyed, annoyance ; joy, joyless, joyful, &c. 
 
 It is a great blessing to have a sound mind, uninfluenced by fanbyful humors. 
 Common calamities, and common blessings, fall heavyly upon thQ envious. 
 The comelyness of youth are modesty and frankness 5 of age, condescensiou 40d 
 dignity. 
 When we act against conscience, we become the destcoiers of our own peace. 
 
 2 
 
14 ORTHOGRAPHir. 
 
 We may be plaiful, and yet innocent ; grave, and yet corrupt. It is only from 
 general conduct, that our true character can bo portraied. 
 
 RULE V. 
 
 Monosyllables, and words accented on the last syllable, end- 
 ing with a single consonant preceded by a single vowel, double 
 that consonant, when they take another syllable beginning with 
 a vowel ; as, tvit, witty ; thin, thinnish ; to abet, an abettor ; to 
 ^egin, a beginner. 
 
 But if a diphthong precedes, or the accent is on the prece- 
 'ding syllable, the consonant remains single ; as, to toil, toil- 
 ing ; to offer, an offering ; maid, maiden, &c. 
 
 When we bring the lawmaker into contempt, we have in effect annuled hi«* 
 laws. 
 
 By defering our repentance, we accumulate our sorrows. 
 
 The pupils of a certain ancient philosopher were not, during the first years of 
 study, permited to ask any questions. 
 
 We alJ have many faillinga and lapses to lament and recover. 
 
 There is no affliction with which we are visitted, that may not be improved to our 
 advantage. 
 
 The Christian Lawgiver has prohibitted many things, which the heathen philoso- 
 phers allowed. 
 
 RULE VL 
 
 Words ending with any double letter but /, and taking ness, 
 less, ly, or ful, after them, preserve the letter double ; as, 
 harmlessness, carelessness, carelessly, stiffly, successful, distress- 
 ful, &c. But those words which end with double I, and 
 take ness, less, ly, or ful, after them, generally omit one / ; as, 
 fulness, skilless, fully, skilful, &c. 
 
 Restlesness of mind disqualifies us both for the enjoyment of peace and the per- 
 formance of duty. 
 The arrows of calumny fall harmlesly at the feet of virtue. 
 Tlie road to the blisful regions is as open to the peasant as to the king. 
 A chillness, or shivering of the body, generally precedes a fever. 
 To recommend virtue to others, our lights must shine brightly, not dullly. 
 
 The silent stranger stood amazed to see 
 
 Contempt of wealth and willful poverty. 
 
 * RULE VIL 
 
 J^ess, less, ly, and ful, added to words ending with silent e, 
 do not cut it off; as, paleness, guileless, closely, peaceful j 
 except in a few words ; as, duly, truly, awful. 
 
 The warmth of disputation destroys that sedatness of mind which is necessary 
 tfi discover truth. 
 
 All these with ceasless praise his works behold, 
 Both day and night. 
 
 In all our reasonings, our mind should be sincerly employed in the pursuit of 
 truth. 
 
 Rude behavior and indecent language are peculiarly diagracful to youth of 
 education. 
 
 The true worship of God is an important and aweful service. 
 
 Wisdom alone is truely fair ; folly only appears so. 
 
ORTHOGRAPHY. 15 
 
 RULE VIII. 
 
 Mentf added to words ending with silent e, generally preserves 
 the e from eUsion ; as, abatement, chastisement, incitement, &c. 
 The words judgment, abridgment, acknowledgment, are devia- 
 tions from the rule. 
 
 Like other terminations, it changes y into i, when preceded 
 by a consonant ; as, accompany, accompaniment ; merry, merri- 
 ment 
 
 The study of the English language is making daily advancment. 
 
 A judicious arrangment of studies facilitates improvrnent. 
 To shun allurments is not hard 
 To minds resolved, forewarned, and well prepared. 
 
 RULE IX. 
 
 Ahle and ihle, when incorporated into words ending with 
 silent e, almost always cut it off; as, blame, blamable; cure, cura- 
 ble ; sense, sensible, &c. ; but if c or g- soft comes before e in the 
 original word, the e is then preserved in words compounded 
 with able ; as, change, changeable ; peace, peaceable, &c. 
 
 Every person and thing, connected with self, is apt to appear good and desireabi© 
 in our eyes. 
 
 Errors and misconduct are more excuseable in ignorant than in welMnatructed 
 persons. 
 
 The divine laws are not reverseable by those of men. 
 
 Gratitude is a forceible and active principle in good and generous minda. 
 
 Our natural and ihvoluntary defects of body are not chargable upon xxs. 
 
 We are made to be servicable to others, as well as to ourselves. 
 
 RULE X. 
 
 When ing or ish^s added to words ending with silent c, the 
 e is almost universally omitted ; as, place, placing ; lodge, lodg- 
 ing ; slave, slavish ; prude, prudish. 
 
 An obli^eing and humble disposition is totally unconnected with a servile and 
 cringeing humor. 
 
 By solaceing the sorrows of others, the heart is improved, at the same time that our 
 duty is performed. 
 
 Labor and expense are lost upon a droneish spirit. 
 
 The inadvertencies of youth may be excused, but knaveish tricks should meet with 
 sevQie reproof. 
 
 RULE XI. 
 
 Compounded words are generally spelled in the same man- 
 ner as the simple words of which they are formed ; as, glass- 
 house, skylight, thereby, hereafter. Many words ending with 
 double I are exceptions to this rule ; as, already, welfare, wilful, 
 fulfil ; and also the words wherever, Christmas, lammas, &c. 
 
 The pasover was a celebrated feast among the Jews. 
 
 A virtuous woman looketh well to the ways of her houshold. 
 
 These people salute one another by touching the top of their forheads. 
 
 That which is sometimes expedient is not allvvays so. 
 
 We may be hurtfull to others by our example, as well as by personal injuries. 
 
 In candid minds, truth finds an entrance, and a wellcome too. 
 
 Our passtimes should be innocent, and they should not occur too frequently. 
 
16 ETYMOLOGY 
 
 CONVERSATZOir ZXX. 
 
 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 
 
 ^ OF NOUNS AND VERBS. 
 
 Tutor, Do you remember the explanations, which I have 
 often given you, of the words analysis and synthesis 1 
 
 George. I remember them well. Analysis is the separa- 
 ting of any thing into parts ^ to find the elements of which it 
 is composed ; and synthesis is the joining of those parts to- 
 gether again, to make one whole. 
 
 Tutor. That is right ; and you may now perceive that 
 these terms may be applied to our present subject ; for 
 you have learned that articulate sounds are the elements 
 of language ; that letters are the representatives of these 
 sounds, and compose syllables ; that syllables compose 
 wordsN; that words compose sentences, and that sentences 
 compose an oration or discourse. This process, you per- 
 ceive, is synthetic. But when you take an oration^ or any 
 composition, and decompose it, or separate its different 
 parts, and find the elements of which it is composed, you 
 analyze it. 
 
 George. I suppose, then, when we begin upon Ety-, 
 mology and Syntax, our business will be to analyze sen- 
 tences. And, as you told us, that after we had finished 
 that part of Grammar which is called Orthography, you 
 would explain to us the two parts, which are called 
 Etymology and Syntax, I hope you will begin this 
 morning. 
 
 Tutor. Yes, I am quite at leisure ; and I will now 
 begin to explain to you these useful parts of Grammar ; 
 and I do it with more pleasure, because I perceive that 
 you desire to understand your own language. It is 
 
AND SYNTAX. 17 
 
 pleasant to instruct you, when you express a wish to be 
 informed ; but it is a very disagreeable task to teach chil- 
 dren, if they have no curiosity, or love of learning ; if they 
 discover no disposition to improve the min^s which God 
 has given them, and have no wish to become wiser and 
 better. 
 
 Caroline, I am anxious that you should begin your ex- 
 planations, for I think we shall understand them. There 
 is a great pleasure in learning, when we comprehend what 
 we are taught. 
 
 Tutor, Etymology treats of the different sorts of words, 
 of their derivation, and various modifications on account of 
 cases, moods, and tenses. Syntax treats of the arrange- 
 ment of words in a sentence, according to grammatical 
 rules. But you cannot, at present, perfectly comprehend 
 these definitions. I shall illustrate them more fully as we 
 advance, and as I find you are prepared to understand the 
 subject. 
 
 Caroline. You say etymology treats of the different 
 sorts of words ; I think there must be a great many 
 sorts. 
 
 Tutor. Not so many, perhaps, as you imagine. Al- 
 though there are nearly forty thousand words in the Eng- 
 lish language, yet there are only ten different sorts, viz. : 
 the NOUN, or substantive, verb, article, adjective, 
 
 PARTICIPLE, ADVERB, PRONOUN, CONJUNCTION, PREPOSITION, 
 
 and INTERJECTION. We call these different sorts of words 
 parts of speech. 
 
 A Substantive, or Noun, is the name of any thing, that 
 exists, or of which we have any notion. The word noun 
 means name. The name of any thing which we can see, 
 taste, smell, hear, feel, or conceive of, is a noun. Book, 
 apple, rose, song, pin, modesty, truth, bravery ^ are nouns. 
 Nouns have four different properties belonging to them, 
 "viz., person, numb^, gender, und case. 
 2* 
 
18 ETYMOLOGY 
 
 Nouns have two persons, the second and third. When 
 we speak of, or about, a thing, the word, which is the 
 name of that thing, is a noun of the third person ; when 
 we speak to a person or thing, it is of the second person ; 
 as, when addressing a person, I say, The hoolc is on the 
 table, George ; — the nouns booh and table are of the third 
 person, but George is of the second person, because 
 I speak of the book, and the table, but I speak to 
 George. Girls, study your lesson. In this example, girls 
 is a noun of the second person, and lesson of the third 
 person. 
 
 Nouns have two numbers, the singular number, and 
 the plural number. When a word is the name of one 
 person or thing, it is of the singular number ; when it 
 denotes more than one, it is of the plural number. Thus, 
 when I say, The man walks among the trees ; man is a 
 noun of the third person, singular number ; but trees is 
 a noun of the third person, plural number. But when I 
 say, Trees, I wish you would grow faster, trees is a 
 noun of the second person plural. Nouns have three 
 genders. Gender is the distinction of nouns with re« 
 gard to sex. When a noun denotes animals of the male 
 kind, it is of the mascidine gender ; when it denotes an- 
 imals of the female kind, it is of the feminine gender ; 
 and when it signifies objects that are neither males nor 
 females, it is of the neuter gender. Neuter means nei- 
 ther one nor the other. A noun of the neuter gender, 
 then, means a noun which is neither of the masculine 
 gender nor of the feminine gender. Thus, when I say, 
 The boys lent the boohs to the girl; boys is a noun of 
 the third person, plural number^ of masculine gender ; girl 
 is a noun of the third person, singular number, of femi- 
 nine gender ; and boohs is a noun of the third person, 
 plural number, of neuter gender. 
 
 Nouns have three cases ; the nominative case, the 
 
AND SYNTAX. 19 
 
 possessive case, and the objective case. Case is the con- 
 dition or situation of the noun in relation to other words 
 in the sentence. 
 
 At present I will explain to you only the nominative 
 case ; the others will be explained hereafter. A noun which 
 denotes an animal or thing that does an action is in the 
 nominative case.* Or, in other words, when a noun is 
 the actor or agents it is in the nominative case. And if a 
 noun signifies an actor, there must be some word in the 
 sentence expressing the action. 
 
 George. What are the words which express actions 
 called ? 
 
 Tutor. Verbs. I shall now give you only such a defi- 
 nition of a verb, as is suflicient for your present purpose ; 
 and, indeed, the only one which you can yet clearly com- 
 prehend ; but, as we advance, I shall give you a more 
 complete definition. And let me remark to you, once for 
 all, that I shall present to you only such parts of the sub- 
 ject as I know you are prepared to understand, and give 
 you such definitions as you can comprehend at the time 
 they are given. Each Conversation will prepare you for 
 the one that will follow. 
 
 George. That is the way in which you have instructed 
 us in other subjects ; and, if you can do so in this, I am 
 sure we shall be interested in it. 
 
 Tutor. I will proceed with the verb. A Verb is a 
 word that expresses an action of some creature or thing. 
 Thus, if I say. The boy runs— The ball rolls— The dog 
 barks— The bird flies — The children play — The rain 
 falls — you can be at no loss to know which words are 
 the verbs. They are those that express the actions, viz. 
 runs — rolls — harks— flies — -play-— falls. The nouns hoy^ 
 hall^ dog, hirdj children, rain, are actors, or persons and 
 
 * This definition is sufficient for the learner's present purpose. See Conversatioa 
 XVIII, the definition in Italic. 
 
30 ETYMOLOGY 
 
 things that act or move, and, therefore, in the noiii- 
 inative case to the verbs that express their several ac- 
 tions. 
 
 You may perceive, then, how intimate the connexion 
 is between the nominative case and the verb: one de- 
 notes the actor, and the other the action. And you will 
 readily see that, if only one animal or thing acts, there 
 can be only one action. Or, in other words, when the 
 word denoting the actor signifies only one things the 
 word denoting the action will signify only one action. 
 Thus, when I say. The box rolls — 60a; is the singular 
 number, because it denotes but one thing, and rolls de- 
 notes but one action, which the box does ; therefore the 
 verb rolls is of the singular number, just like the nom- 
 inative hox. If the nominative case, or the actor, is of 
 the singular numljer, the verb must also be of the singu- 
 lar number; and the verb must also be of the same 
 jperson that the nominative case is. If the nominative 
 case is of the second person, the verb must be of the same y 
 if the nominative is of the third person, then the verb must 
 be of the third person. On this account I will give you 
 a rule. 
 
 RULE L 
 
 A verb must agree with its nominative case in number and 
 person, 
 
 I shall now give you some sentences to parse. Parsing 
 a noun is telling of what person, number, gender, and case 
 it is ; and also telling all its grammatical relations in a 
 sentence with respect to other words. Parsing any part 
 of speech is telling all its properties and relations. These 
 relations, then, must be perfectly understood before the 
 scholar can parse. You cannot yet parse a verb com- 
 pletely, as you are not yet informed of all its distinctions 
 and properties ; but you can explain such as you have 
 already learned. 
 
AND SYNTAX. 21 
 
 When you parse verbs, you will only tell their persons and 
 numbers, ^lich are the same as those of their nominatives ; 
 and you will tell with what nominative the verb agrees, ac- 
 cording to the rule which I have just given you. You will 
 not give to the verb gender and case. I will parse for 
 you one sentence, containing a nominative case and a 
 verb ; the only sort of sentences which you are prepared to 
 parse. 
 
 EXAMPLE. 
 
 When you know the person and number of the nominative, 
 you know of what person and number the verb must be. 
 
 Smoke ascends. Smoke is a noun of the third person, sin^- 
 lar number, of neuter gender, in the nominative case to the verb 
 ascends. Ascends is a verb of the third person, singular num- 
 ber, and agrees with its nominative case, smoke, A verb must 
 agree, &c. 
 
 Now parse this sentence several times, till the manner of 
 parsing it is quite famihar to you, and then parse the following 
 sentences. 
 
 EXERCISES IN PARSING. 
 
 Snow falls. Fire burns. 
 
 Boys play. Cats mew. 
 
 Men labor. . Ladies dance. 
 
 David studies. Children study. 
 
 Emma writes. Girb write. 
 
 Man talks. Men talk. 
 
 Now try, in different parts of the conversation, to select these 
 two parts of speech from all the others, and parse the nomina- 
 tive and the verb correctly. — I will now make some additional 
 
 REMARKS ON NUMBER. 
 
 Number is the consideration of an object, as one or more. 
 
 Some nouns, from the nature of the things which they ex- 
 press, are used only in the singular form ; as, wheat, pitch, gold, 
 sloth, pride, &c. ; others, only in the plural form ; as, bellows, 
 scissors, ashes, riches, &c. 
 
 Some words are the same in both numbers ; as, deer, sheep, 
 swine, &c. 
 
 The plural number of nouns is generally formed by adding s 
 to the singular ; as, dove, doves ; face, faces ; thought, thoughts. 
 But when the substantive singular ends in x, ch soft, sh, ss, or 
 fi, we add es in the plural ; as, box, boxes ; church, churches ; lash, 
 lashes ; kiss, kisses ; rebus, rebuses. If the singular ends in ch 
 
22 ETYMOLOGY 
 
 hard, the plural is formed by adding the s ; as, monarchy 7n(m>' 
 archs ; distich, distichs. 
 
 Nouns which end in o have sometimes es added to form the 
 plural ; as, cargo, echo, hero, negro, manifesto, potato, volcano, 
 wo ; and sometimes only s ; as, folio, nuncio, punctilio, se- 
 raglio. When the o is immediately preceded by a vowel, we 
 add only s. 
 
 Nouns ending in/, or fe, are rendered plural by the change 
 of those terminations into ves ; as, loaf, loaves ; half, halves ; 
 vnfe, wives ; except grief, relief, reproof, and several others, 
 which form the plural by the addition of 5. Those which end 
 in ff have the regular plural ; as, ruff, ruffs ; except staff, 
 
 Nouns which have y in the singular, with no other vowel in 
 the same syllable, change it into ies in the plural ; as, beauty, 
 beauties ; fly, flies. But the y is not changed where there is 
 another vowel in the syllable ; as, key, keys ; delay, delays ; at- 
 torney, attorneys. 
 
 Some nouns become plural by changing the a of the singular 
 into e ; as, man, men ; woman, women ; alderman, aldermen. 
 The words ox and child form oxen and children ; brother makes 
 either brothers or brethren. Sometimes the diphthong oo is 
 changed into ee in the plural ; as, foot, feet ; ^oose, geese ; tooth, 
 teeth. Louse and mouse make lice and mice. Penny makes 
 pence ; or pennies, when the coin is meant ; die, dice (for play) ; 
 die, dies (foncoining)* 
 
 It is a general rule, that all names of things measured or 
 weighed have no plural ; for in th^m not nujrnber, but quan- 
 tity, is regarded ; as, wool, ivine, oil. When we speak, howev- 
 er, of different kinds, we use the plural ; as, the coarser ipoolsy 
 the richer wines, the finer oils. 
 
 It is agreeable to analogy, and the practice of the generality 
 of correct writers, to construe the following words as plural 
 nouns : pains, riches, alms ; and, also, mathematics, metaphysics, 
 politics, ethicSy optics, pneumatics, with other similar names of 
 sciences. 
 
 Dr. Johnson says that the adjective much is sometimes a term 
 of number, as well as of quantity. This may account for the 
 instances we meet with of its associating with pains as a plural 
 noun ; as, mu^ch pains. The connection, however, is not to be 
 recommended. 
 
 The word netvs is now almost universally considered as be- 
 longing to the singular number. 
 
 The noun means is used both in the singular and the plural 
 number. 
 
 As a general rule for the use of the word means, as, either 
 singular or plural, it would render the construction less vague, 
 and the expression, therefore, less ambiguous, were we to eui- 
 
AND SYNTAX. 
 
 23 
 
 ploy it as singular when the mediation or instrumentality of 
 one thing is imphed, and as phiral when two or more medi- 
 ating causes are referred to. ' He was careful to observe 
 what means were employed by his adversaries, to counteract 
 his schemes.' Here means is properly joined with a plural 
 verb, several methods of counteraction being signified. — * The 
 king consented ; and, by this means, all hope of success was 
 lost.' Here but one mediating circumstance is implied; and 
 the noun is, therefore, used as singular. 
 
 The following words, which have been adopted from th© 
 Hebrew, Greek, and Latin languages, are thus distinguished 
 with respect to number. 
 
 Singular. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 Cherub, 
 
 Cherubim. 
 
 Seraph, 
 
 Seraphim. 
 
 Antithesis, 
 
 Antitheses. 
 
 Automaton, 
 
 Automata. 
 
 Basis, 
 
 Bases. 
 
 Crisis, 
 
 Crises. 
 
 Criterion, 
 
 Criteria. 
 
 Diaeresis, 
 
 Diaereses. 
 
 Ellipsis, 
 
 Ellipses. 
 
 Emphasis, 
 
 Emphases. 
 
 Hypothesis, 
 
 Hypotheses. 
 
 Metamorphosis, 
 
 j Metamorphoses. 
 
 tJenus, 
 
 Genera. 
 
 Lamina, 
 
 Laminae. 
 
 
 Indices, or 
 
 Index, 
 
 Indexes.* 
 
 Medium, ~. 
 
 Media. 
 
 Magus, 
 
 Magi. 
 
 Singular. 
 
 Pliaenomcnon, 
 
 Appendix, 
 
 Arcanum, 
 
 Axis, 
 
 Calx, 
 
 Datum, 
 
 Effluvium, 
 
 Encomium, 
 
 Erratum, 
 
 Grenius, 
 
 Memorandum, 
 
 Stratum, 
 Radius, 
 Stamen, 
 Vortex, 
 
 Plural. 
 Phaenomena. 
 Appendices, or 
 Appendixes. 
 Arcana. 
 Axes. 
 Calces. 
 Data. 
 Effluvia. 
 Encomia, or 
 Encomiums. 
 Errata. 
 Genii. t 
 
 Memoranda, or 
 Memorandums. 
 Strata. 
 Radii. 
 Stamina. 
 Vortices. 
 
 Some words, derived from the learned languages, are con- 
 fined to the plural number ; as, antipodes, credenda, literati, 
 minutice. 
 
 The following nouns, bein^in Latin both singular and plu- 
 ral, are used in the same manner, when adopted into our 
 tongue ; hiatus, apparatus, series, species. 
 
 By studying this Conversation thoroughly, you will find the 
 next quite easy to be understood, and will be able, at another 
 time, to answer the following questions, which I shall ask you 
 before I give you further instruction. 
 
 QUESTIONS. 
 
 What is a noun? 
 
 How many persons has it.^ 
 
 How do you distinguish the persons ? 
 
 How many numbers have nouns .' 
 
 * Indexes^ when it signifies pointers, or tables of contents ; indices, when re- 
 ferring to algebraic quantities. 
 
 t Qeniiy when it signifies aerial spirits ; gerwuses, when signifying persons of 
 genius. 
 
24 ETYMOLOGY 
 
 What are they? - 
 
 How do you distinguish them? 
 
 How many genders have nouns ? 
 
 What are they ? 
 
 How do you know them ? 
 
 How many cases have nouns ? 
 
 When is a nouii in the nominative case r 
 
 What is a verb ? 
 
 What belongs to verbs ? 
 
 Have they gendera^and cases ? 
 
 How do you know the person and number of verbs ? 
 
 Are verbs of tlie singular and plural number spelled alike : 
 
 What rule do you give when you parse a verb ? 
 
 What is the use or necessity of this rule^ 
 
 What nouns are used only in the singular form ? 
 
 What are used only in the plural form? 
 
 What are the same in both numbers ? 
 
 How is the plural number of nouns generally formed ? 
 
 When the noun singular ends in 2, cfi soft, sk, ss, or s, how is the plural formed r 
 
 But if the singular ends in ch liard, how 19 the plural formed ? 
 
 How do nouns ending in form their plural ? 
 
 How those ending in /, orfe 7 what exceptions ? 
 
 How those ia y7 what exception ? 
 
 What is the general rule respecting the names of things weighed and measured ? 
 
 Is there any exception to this ? 
 
 What nouns change a into e, and bo into ee, to form the plural ? 
 
 What is the plural of brother 7 
 
 Of what number are painSf riches, alms, ethics, optics, &c. ? 
 
 Of what number is news 7 
 
 How is the noun means used ? 
 
 How are hiatus, ajyparatus, series, species, used ? Why ? 
 
 CONVERSATZOK IV. 
 
 OF NOUNS AND VERBS. CASES OF NOUNS. 
 
 Tutor. I find by the correctness with vvhich you have 
 answered the questions relating to our last Conversation, 
 that you will find no difficulty in understanding what I shall 
 say in this. You were yesterday informed, that nouns have 
 three cases, the nominative, possessive, and objective; 
 but I explained only the nominative^ which denotes an 
 actor. I shall now give you the possessive and objective 
 cases. 
 
 When the noun is in the possessive case, it denotes 
 the possessor of something, and is spelled differently 
 from the nominative case ; as, boi/*s hat : the boy is the 
 possessor of the hat, which is shown by an apostro- 
 
AND SfYNTAX. SK 
 
 phe and an s, after the word hoy. When a noun of the 
 plural number is in the possessive Case, and ends in s, 
 we only add an apostrophe to it ; as, hoys^ hats. If the 
 plural number is formed otherwise than by adding s to 
 the singular, the possessive case plural is formed by the 
 apostrophe and the s also, just as we form the posses- 
 sive case singular; as, mail's house, men's houses, 
 ivoman's bonnet, women's bonnets. In these exam- 
 ples, man's and woman'' s are in the possessive ^case, sin- 
 gular number ; and the nouns men's and women's are in 
 the possessive case, p/z^ra^ number. 
 
 Caroline. I understand the nominative and possessive 
 cases ; please to explain the objective. 
 
 Tutor. The objective case denotes the object of an 
 action, and is spelled just as the nominative is. The fol- 
 lowing examples illustrate the three cases of nouns. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 J^om. case. Verb. Poss. case. Obj. case* 
 
 The boy beats the man's horse. 
 
 The horse kicks the man's boy. 
 
 The man struck that man's man. 
 
 The servant lost those boys' ball. 
 
 Take notice, that the last noun boys' is in the plural 
 number, which is formed by adding s to the singular ; 
 therefore, being in the possessive case, an apostrophe only 
 is added, without another s. 
 
 You have now had nouns in their three cases, and see 
 that case means the different situation or relation of nouns 
 in sentences. Every noun must be either in the nomina- 
 tive, possessive, or objective case. 
 
 When we put a noun in the three cases without making 
 a sentence, but merely to show the termination of the noun 
 m different cases, we call it declining a noun. Termination^ 
 means ending. The possessive base, you have seen, has a 
 termination, or ending, different from that of the nominativa- 
 or objective case. 
 3 
 
26 ETYMOLOGY 
 
 The nouns man and another are thus declined : 
 
 Sing, mim. Sing. num. 
 
 JVom, Man, JVom. Mother, 
 
 Poss, Man's, Puss. Mother's, 
 
 Obj. Man j Obj. Mother j 
 
 PZm. num. Plu. num. 
 
 JVom. Men, JVom. Mothers, 
 
 Poss. Men's, Poss. Mothers', 
 
 Obj. Men. Obj. Mothers. 
 
 When nouns in the singular number end in ss^ we 
 sometimes write the possessive case with an apostrophe 
 only, without another s ; as, goodness' sake, righteousness' 
 ^ sake ; because it would cause too much of a hissing 
 sound to say goodnesses sake, &/C. But the apostrophic 
 s is not always omitted in words ending in double s. 
 We write the word witness, when in the. possessive case, 
 thus : witnesses testimony. When the word ends in ence, 
 the s should be omitted ; as, for conscience' sake ; but, ob- 
 serve, the apostrophe is used. 
 
 George. Yes, for conscience's sake would not only 
 be disagreeable to the ear, but somewhat difficult to be 
 pronounced with distinctness. But, although we have 
 nouns in all their cases, we know how to parse them only 
 in the nominative. 
 
 Tutor. I will give you two rules, which will inform you 
 how to parse the possessive and objective cases. 
 
 RULE n. 
 
 When two nouns come together, signifying different things, 
 the former, implying possession, must be in the possessive 
 case, and governed by the latter. 
 
 Sometimes the latter noun which governs the possessive 
 case is understood ; as, ' This is John's hat, but that is 
 Peter's.' The noun hat is understood after Peter's, and it 
 governs Peter's in the possessive case. 
 
 RULE in. 
 
 /'Transitive verbs govern the objective case. 
 Caroline. We do not know what a transitive verb is. 
 
' AND SNYTAX. 27 
 
 Tutor, A transitive verb is one that expresses an ac- 
 tion done to some object^ and governs that object in the ob- 
 jective case. 
 
 George. What does the word transitive mean 1 
 
 Tutor. It means passing — or having the power of pass- 
 ing from one thing to another. When applied to a verb, it 
 means that the verb expresses an action which the nomina- 
 tive case does to some object ; as, men build houses — horses 
 eat hay — fire consumes wood. In these sentences, huildy 
 eat, consumes^ are transitive verbs, and govern houses, hay, 
 and wood, in the objective case, according to the rule, Tran- 
 sitive verbs govern the objective case. 
 
 Caroline, You say, that transitive verbs govern the ob- 
 jective case. I do not exactly understand the word govern, 
 when used in grammar. 
 
 Tutor. You cannot now understand an explanation of 
 grammatical government so well as you will be able to 
 after I shall have given you more instruction; but, since 
 you have asked the question, I will give you such an 
 explanation as you can comprehend. Government, as it 
 respects nouns, is the influence that one word has over 
 another in causing it to be in any particular case, rather 
 than in another. When we say, Peter's hat, Peter is the 
 possessor, and hat is the thing possessed by Peter. The 
 relation between the possessor and thing possessed used 
 to be expressed by es added to the former noun, as Pe- 
 teres hat ; but now, by leaving out the e, and writing the 
 s with an apostrophe ( ' ) , to show that the e is wanting. 
 Now, then, when a thing or person is possessed by another 
 thing or person, this relation may be expressed by this 
 sign '5, or, as I have before told you, when the noun ends 
 in ss, it is sometimes expressed by this sign ' only, without 
 the 5. It is therefore plain that the latter noun, or thing 
 possessed, is what makes it necessary to add this sign *s, or 
 
28 ETYMOLOGY 
 
 this ' to the former noun or possessor ; and this is what is 
 meant by government. The latter noun, then, governs 
 the former in the possessive case, when the latter noun 
 denotes the thing possessed, and the former one, the 
 possessor. 
 
 So a transitive verb governs the objective case of the 
 noun, that denotes the object of an action; it does not 
 govern the possessive or the nominative case. When I 
 mean to say, that Peter is the object which I strike, I can- 
 not say, I strike Peter's; I must say, I strike Peter; because 
 the transitive verb does not govern the possessive, but the 
 objective case. 
 
 Caroline. I suppose if a transitive verb expresses an 
 action done to some object, an intransitive verb must 
 express an action which is not done to any object. 
 
 Tutor. You are right. Intransitive verbs express action 
 confined to the actor. Give me an example of an intransi- 
 tive verb. 
 
 Caroline. George runs. Runs is an intransitive verb, 
 because George's action is confined to himself, and does 
 not affect any object. 
 
 Tutor. Very well explained. Now, George, give me an 
 example of a transitive verb. 
 
 George. Caroline broke the glass. Broke is a transitive 
 verb, because it expresses an action done by the nomina- 
 tive case Caroline, to the object glass. Broke governs 
 glass in the objective case, according to Rule III, Transi- 
 tive verbs govern, &*c. 
 
 Caroline. Give us, if you please, a few such sentences 
 as we are prepared to parse, that we may practise upon 
 them. 
 
 Tutor. I will. 
 
 Horses draxv men's carriages. 
 
 I will parse thrs sentence for ^ you, and then you can 
 
AND SYNTAX. 29 
 
 parse the others which I shall give you yourselves. If 
 you find it difficult, reflect upon what has been told you, 
 and you will at length succeed. Horses is a noun of the 
 third person, plural number, masculine gender, in the 
 nominative case to the verb drmc. Draw is a transitive 
 verb of the third person, plural number, and agrees with 
 its nominative case horses, according to Rule I, w^hich 
 says, * The verb must agree,* &.c. Men^s is a noun of the 
 third person, plural number, masculine gender, in the 
 possessive case, and is governed by the following 
 noun carriages, agreeably to Rule II. Repeat the rule. 
 Cai^riages is a noun of the third person, plural number, 
 of neuter gender, in the objective case, and is governed by 
 the transitive verb draw, according to Rule III. Repeat 
 the rule. 
 
 Parse the following sentences, in the same manner ; 
 only take care to call the verb intransitive, when there is 
 no object acted upon. 
 
 EXERCISES IN PARSING. 
 
 Foxes kill people'^ geese. Women wash children's 
 clothes. Women walk. Mothers make daughters' 
 frocks. Daughters increase mothers' pleasures. John 
 whips Peter's dog. Peter's dog bites John's finger, 
 George's wife's sister loves Emma's brother. — In this 
 last sentence, George's is governed by wife's, and wife's by 
 sister. 
 
 David plays. Boys play. — Take notice in these, a» 
 well as in the other sentences, that the singular verb 
 ends in s ; but in writing the plural verb, the s is omitted. 
 Now practise upon such sentences, in different parts of the 
 Conversation. 
 
 I will now give you a few additional 
 
 REMARKS ON NOUNS. 
 Substantives, or nouns, are either common or proper* 
 3* 
 
30 ETY3IOL.OGY 
 
 Proper names or substantives are the names appropriated to 
 individuals ; as, George^ hondon, Thames. 
 
 Common names or substantives stand for kinds containing 
 many sorts, or for sorts containing many individuals under 
 them ; as, animal^ man, tree, &c. 
 
 When proper names have an article annexed to them, they 
 are used as common names ; as, * He is the Cicero of his age : 
 he is reading the lives o^the Twelve C(Bsars.^ 
 
 Common names may also be used to signify individuals, by 
 the addition of articles or pronouns ; as, * The boy is studious : 
 that girl is discreet.'* 
 
 To substantives belong gender, number, and case ; and they 
 are all of the third person, when spoken of, and of the second, 
 when spoken to ; as, ' Blessings attend us on every side ; be 
 grateful, children of men!' that is, ye children of men. 
 
 Some substantives, naturally neuter, are, by a figure of 
 speech, converted into the masculine or feminine gender ; as 
 when we say of the sun, he is setting^ ; and of a ship, she sails 
 Avell. 
 
 Figuratively, in the English tongue, we commonly give the 
 masculine gender to nouns which are conspicuous for the at- 
 tributes of imparting or communicating, and which are, by na- 
 ture, strong and efficacious. Those, again, are made feminine, 
 which are conspicuous for the attributes of containing, or 
 bringing forth, or which are peculiarly beautiful or amiable. 
 Upon these principles, the sun is said to be masculine ; and 
 the moon, being the receptacle of the sun's light, to be femi- 
 nine. The earth is generally feminine. A ship, a country, u 
 city, &c., are likewise made feminine, being receivers or con- 
 tainers. Time is always masculine, on account of its mighty 
 efficacy. Virtue is feminine from its beauty, and its being the 
 object of love. Fortune and the church are generally put in 
 the feminine gender. There appears to be a rational founda- 
 tion for these figurative distinctions, though they have not 
 been adopted in all countries. Many of the substances, which, 
 in one language, have masculine games, have, in others, names 
 that are feminine. 
 
 Greek and Latin, and many of the modern tongues, have 
 nouns, some masculine, some feminine, which denote substan- 
 ces in which sex never had existence. Nay y some languages 
 are so particularly defective, in this respect^ as to class every 
 object, inanimate as well as animate, under either the mascu- 
 line or the feminine gender, as they have no neuter gender for 
 
 * Nouns iriajr also be divided into the following classes : Collective nouns, or 
 nouns of multitude ; as, the -people^ the parliament^ the army .- Abstract nouns, 
 or the names of qualities abstracted from their substantives; as, knowledgCf 
 goodnesSy vitnesft .- Verbal or participial nouns ; as, beginnings readings 
 writing. 
 
AND SYNTAX. 
 
 31 
 
 thojie wliicli are of neither sex: This is the case with the 
 Hebrew, French, Itahan, and Spanish. But the English, 
 strictly following the order of nature, puts every noun which 
 denotes a male animal, and no other, in the maaculine gender ; 
 every name of a female animal, the feminine ; and every ani- 
 mal whose sex is not obvious, or known, as well as every in- 
 animate object whatever, in the neuter gender ; and this gives 
 our language a superior advantage to most others, in the po- 
 etical and rhetorical style ; for, when nouns naturally neuter 
 are converted into mascuhne and feminine, the personification 
 is more distinctly and more forcibly marked. 
 
 The English language has three methods of distinguishing 
 the sex : 
 
 1. BY DIFFERENT WORDS j AS, 
 
 JMale, 
 
 Bachelor 
 
 Boar 
 
 Boy 
 
 Brother 
 
 Buck 
 
 Bull 
 
 Bullock or ) 
 
 Steer ) 
 
 Cock 
 
 King 
 
 Lad 
 
 liord 
 
 Man 
 
 Master 
 
 Milter 
 
 Nenjiew 
 
 Rati! 
 
 Female. 
 
 Maid 
 
 Sow 
 
 Girl 
 
 Sister 
 
 Doe 
 
 Cow 
 
 Heifer 
 
 Hen 
 
 dueen 
 
 Lass 
 
 Lady 
 
 Woman 
 
 Mistress 
 
 Spawner 
 
 Niece 
 
 Ewe 
 
 Male. 
 
 Dog 
 
 Drake 
 
 Earl 
 
 Father 
 
 Friar 
 
 Gander 
 
 Hart 
 
 Horse 
 
 Husband 
 
 Singer 
 
 Sloven 
 Son 
 Stag 
 Uncle- 
 Wizard 
 
 Female. 
 
 Bitch 
 
 Duck 
 
 Countess 
 
 Mother 
 
 Nun 
 
 Goose 
 
 Roe 
 
 Marc 
 
 Wife 
 ( Songstress &>• 
 { Singer 
 
 Slut 
 
 Daughter 
 
 Hind 
 
 Aunt 
 
 Witch 
 
 2. BY A DIFFERENCE QF TERMINATION j AS, 
 
 Male. 
 
 Abbot 
 
 Actor 
 
 Administrator 
 
 Adulterer 
 
 Ambassador 
 
 Arbiter 
 
 Baron 
 
 Bridegroom 
 
 Benefactor 
 
 Caterer 
 
 Chanter 
 
 Conductor 
 
 Count 
 
 Deacon 
 
 Duke 
 
 Elector 
 
 Emperor 
 
 Enchanter 
 
 Executor 
 
 Governor 
 
 Heir 
 
 Hero 
 
 Hunter 
 
 Host 
 
 Female. 
 
 Abbess 
 
 Actress 
 
 Administratrix 
 
 Adulteress 
 
 Ambassadress 
 
 Arbitress 
 
 Baroness 
 
 Bride 
 
 Benefactress 
 
 Cateress 
 
 Chantress 
 
 Conductress 
 
 Countess 
 
 Deaconess 
 
 Dutchess 
 
 Electress 
 
 Empress 
 
 Enchantress 
 
 Executrix 
 
 Governess 
 
 Heiress 
 
 Heroine 
 
 Huntress 
 
 Hostess 
 
 Male. 
 
 Jew 
 
 Landgrave 
 
 Lion 
 
 Marquis 
 
 Mayor 
 
 Patron 
 
 Peer 
 
 Poet 
 
 Priest 
 
 Prince 
 
 Prior 
 
 Prophet 
 
 Protector 
 
 Shepherd 
 
 Songster 
 
 Sorcerer 
 
 Sultan 
 
 Tiger 
 
 Traitor 
 
 Tutor 
 
 Viscount 
 
 Votary 
 
 Widower 
 
 Female. 
 
 Jewess 
 
 Landgravine 
 
 Lioness 
 
 Marchioness 
 
 Mayoress 
 
 Patroness 
 
 Peeress 
 
 Poetess 
 
 Priestess 
 
 Princess 
 
 Prioress 
 
 Prophetess 
 
 Protectress 
 
 Shepherdess 
 
 Songstress 
 
 Sorceress 
 ( Sullaness or 
 I Sultana 
 
 Tigress 
 
 Traitress 
 
 Tutress 
 
 Viscounteas 
 
 Votaress 
 
 Widow 
 
32 ETYMOLOGY 
 
 3. BY A NOUN, PRONOUN, OR ADJECTIVE, BEING PREFIXED TO 
 THE SUBSTANTIVE J AS, 
 
 A cock-sparrow A hen-sparrow 
 
 A man-servant A maid-servant 
 
 A he-goat A she-goat 
 
 A he-bear A she-bear 
 
 A male child A female child 
 
 Mule descendants Female descendants. 
 
 It sometimes happens, that the same noun is either mascu- 
 line or feminine. The words parent, child^ cousin, friend, 
 neighbor, servant, and several others, are used indifferently 
 for males or females. These words cannot properly be said 
 to denote a distinct species of gender, as some writers on 
 English grammar have asserted, and who denominate them the 
 common gender. There is no such gender belonging to the 
 language. The business of parsing can be effectually per- 
 formed without having recourse to a common gender. — Thus 
 we may say ; parents is a noun of the masculine and feminine 
 gender ; parent, if doubtful, is of the masculine or feminine 
 gender ; parent, if the gender is known by the construction, is 
 of the gender so ascertained. 
 
 Nouns with variable terminations contribute to conciseness 
 and perspicuity of expression. We have only a sufficient 
 number of them to make us feel our want ; for when we say 
 of a woman, she is a philosopher, an astronomer, a builder, a 
 weaver, we perceive an impropriety in the termination, which 
 we cannot avoid ; but we can say, that she is a botanist, a stu- 
 dent, a witness, a scholar, an orphan, a companion, because 
 these terminations have not annexed to them the notion of sex» 
 
 If you have paid attention to what I have said, you will be 
 able to answer the following questions before I give you any 
 new information. I will write them for you, that you may find 
 out the answers, which I shall expect you to give, when we 
 meet again. 
 
 QUESTIONS. 
 
 What is a noun .' 
 
 How many persons have nouns ? 
 
 How many numbers ? 
 
 How many genders ? 
 
 How many cases ? 
 
 How do you distinguish the three cases ? 
 
 What rule do you give when you parse the posseasive case ? 
 
 When you parse an objective case, what rule ? 
 
 What is a verb ? 
 
 What distinction have I given respecting a verb ? ^ 
 
 What 19 the difference between a transitive and an intransitive rerb ? 
 
 Are verbs in the singular number written as they are in the plural ? 
 
 What is the distinction between a common and a proper noun ? 
 
 Of what person are all nouns ? 
 
 How are nouns, naturally neuter, made of masculine or feminine gend«r.'! 
 
 Can proper nouns be converted into common nouns ? How ? 
 
AND SYNTAX. 3^| 
 
 CONVERSATION V. 
 
 OF THE ARTICLES. 
 
 Tutor. In the two preceding Conversations, I endeav- 
 ored to . explain to you the two principal parts of speech in 
 6ur language, viz. the noun and the verb. Every thing that 
 you see about you is called by some name. The substance 
 on which I write is called paper; the thing with which 
 I write is called a pen ; the thing which you hold in your 
 hand is called a hook ; and the thing which Caroline wears 
 in her hair is called a comb. You perceive, then, that things 
 are called by names, as well as persons ; and a word that 
 is a name, you know, is a noun. The verb, you remem- 
 ber, is a word of a very different meaning from a noun : 
 the verb signifies an action that some person or thing 
 does. I will now introduce another part of speech — the 
 article. 
 
 An Article is a word prefixed to nouns ^ to limit their sig' 
 nification. , 
 
 In the English language, there are but two articles, a and 
 the: a becomes an when the following word begins with 
 a vowel or a silent h ; as, an acorn, cm hour. Here you see 
 that acorn begins with a vowel ; and h in hour is silent ; 
 therefore an is used ; for the first letter sounded in hour is 
 the vowel o. 
 
 George. Must we always use a before a word beginning 
 with h that is sounded. 
 
 Tutor » No: there is one exception, ^ti must be used 
 when the following word begins with an yi that is not silent, 
 if the accent is on the second syllable ; as, an heroic action, 
 an historical account. But when the h is sounded, and the 
 accent is not on the second syllable^ a is only to be used : 
 as, a hand, a husband, a heathen. 
 
34 ETYMOLOGY 
 
 Caroline. You said we must' use an, and not a, be- 
 fore a word beginning with a vowel : is there no exception 
 to that? 
 
 Tutor. Yes ; there are two. An must not be used before 
 the vowel w, when it is sounded long, but a ; as, a union, a 
 university, a useful book, &i,c. -4 must be used before the 
 word one ; as, many a one ; because, in pronouncing one, 
 we should sound it as if it were written with a w. 
 
 A or an is called the indefinite article, because it is used 
 to point out one single thing of a kind in an indefinite 
 manner ; as, * Give me a book ; Bring me an apple ;' not 
 meaning any particular book, or any particular apple. The 
 is called the definite article, because it points out what 
 particular thing or things are meant; as, * Give me the book ; 
 Bring me the apples ;' meaning some particular book, or 
 apples. — A noun used without an article to limit it is gen- 
 erally taken in the widest sense ; as, * Man is mortal.' You 
 xeadily see that this does not mean the same as a man is 
 mortal. The former phrase means the creature man, that 
 is, all mankind ; the latter restricts the meaning to an 
 individual. The rule we give, then, when we parse an 
 article, is 
 
 RULE IV. ^, 
 
 The article refers to a noun, expressed or understood, to 
 limit its signification. 
 
 George. Do both the articles limit the nouns they 
 refer to ? 
 
 Tutor. Yes ; but in different ways. / A or an requires 
 the following noun to be in the singular number, and there*- 
 fore limits it as to its number. 
 
 Caroline. Does a ox an always require the following 
 noun to be singular ? 
 
 Tutor. Not always; for when the words few, great, 
 many, dozen, hundred, thousand, come between the arti- 
 
AND SYNTAX. 35 
 
 cle and noun, the noun is plural ; as, a few men, a great 
 many men, a dozen men, a hundred houses, a thousand 
 houses. 
 
 George. I could not properly say, a houses ; but, if I 
 use few^ or any of the words you mentioned, I perceive 
 that the noun must be plural ; as, * a few houses,' &/C. 
 But the definite article, I see, may be used with nouns of 
 either number ; I ^an say, the house ^ or the houses, with 
 equal propriety : how then does the definite article limit 
 its noun ? 
 
 Tutor. By referring to some particular thing or things 
 known ; while a or an refers to things unknown, and, of 
 course, to no particular thing. 
 
 Caroline. When I say, * You saw a horse which my 
 father sold,' does not a refer to a jjarticular horse, which 
 is known 1 
 
 Tutor. You have put a very proper question, Caro- 
 line ; and I am glad to observe you examine closely 
 the principles I present to you ; it is the only way to 
 become a scholar. If you reflect on your question, how- 
 ever, you will find that it is not the article which ascer- 
 tains the horse spoken of to be a particular one, that is 
 known, but it is that part of the sentence that follows 
 the word horse. This will appear by stopping at the 
 word horse ; as, * You saw a horse.' — What horse is re- 
 ferred to ? I 
 
 George. None in particular. I now perceive that the 
 indefinite article has not the power of pointing out a thing 
 precisely ; but that other words render the thing definite, 
 which the article alone could not make so. 
 
 Caroline. I believe that we now entirely comprehend 
 the different uses of the articles. 
 
 Tutor. I think you do ; and I shall now write several 
 questions for you to answer, and then give you a parsing 
 lesson. 
 
36 ETYMOIiOGY 
 
 QUESTIONS. 
 
 How many articles are there in the English language : 
 
 What are they called ? 
 
 For what purpose are they used ? 
 
 How does the indefinite article limit the noun? 
 
 How does the definite article limit it ? 
 
 When must a become an 1 
 
 In what instances must a be used before a vowel ? 
 
 When must an be used before an h that is not silent r 
 
 When must a be followed by a plural noun ? 
 
 What rule do you give when you parse the articles ? 
 
 EXERCISES IN PARSING. 
 
 The men saw wood. A boy runs. A girl writes. The 
 husband governs the family. An owl hoots. The owls 
 hoot. An ostrich runs. A bird flies. The ladies teach 
 the children. The merchant sells the goods. The farmers 
 sell produce. 
 
 Practise, as before, in different parts of the Conversatioo. 
 
 To show you more particularly their use and importance, 
 I give you^the following 
 
 REMARKS ON THE ARTICLE. 
 
 The peculiar use and importance of the articles will be seen in the followino;^ 
 examples : ' The son of a kmg^ ; the son of the king j a son of the king.' Each 
 of these three phrases has an entirely different meeuiing, through tlie different 
 application of the articles a and the. 
 
 'Thou art a man/ is a very general and harmless position ; but ' Thou art 
 the man/ (as Nathan said to David,) is an assertion capable of striking terror 
 and remorse into the heart. 
 
 The article is omitted before nouns that imply the different virtues, vices, 
 passions, qualities, sciences, arts, metals, herbs, &c. 5 as,' Prudence is com- 
 mendable i falsehood is odious ; anger ought to be avoided,' &c. It is not 
 prefixed to a proper name, as, Alexander, (because that of itself denotes a de- 
 terminate individual or particular thing,) except for the sake of distinguishing 
 a particular family; as, ' He is a Howard, or of the family of the Howards;' 
 or by way of eminence ; as, ' Every man is not a Newton.' ' He has the 
 courage of «?« Achilles ; ' or when some noun is understood ; ' He sailed down 
 *he iTwev) Thames in the (ship) Britannia.' 
 
 When an adjective is used with a noun to which the article relates, it is 
 placed between the article and the noun ; as, '^A good man; an agreeable wo- 
 man; the best friend.' On some occasions, however, the adjective precedes a 
 or an ; as, ' Such a shame ; as great a man as Alexander ; too careless an 
 author.' 
 
 The indefinite article is sometimes placed between the adjective many Mid 
 a singular noun ; as, 
 
 • Full many a gem, of purest ray serene, 
 
 The dark, unfathomed caves of ocean bear \ 
 Full muny a flower ia born to blush unseen, 
 
 And waste its sweetness 011 the desert air.' 
 
AND SYNTAX. 37 
 
 In these lines, the phrases many a gem and many a fimver refer to jnam^ 
 gems and manyjlowers, separately, not collectively considered. 
 
 The definite article the is frequently applied to adverbs in the comparative 
 and superlative degree 5 and its etitect is to mark tlie degree the more strongly, 
 and to define it the more precisely j as, ' Tiie more I examine it, tlie better I 
 like it. I like this ^/k? least of any/ 
 
 ' Tiiat which is nearly connected with us, or with which, from its vicinity, 
 we have been long acquainted, becomes eminent or distinguishable in our eyes, 
 even though, in itsell, and compared with other things of the same kind, it is 
 of no particular importance.' A person who resides near a very Uttle town, 
 speaks of it by the name oHhe town. Every clergyman within his own parish 
 is called the tmnlsttr, or the parson ; and it, in a vilid^c, there is but one bar- 
 ber, or one smith, his neighbctf-s think they distinguish hini sufficiently by calling^ 
 him Vie smith, or the barber. A tree, a rock, a hill, a river, a meadow, may 
 be spoken of in the same manner, with the same emphasis. He is not returned 
 from the hill ; he is bathing in the river ; I sa>v him on the top of the rock; 
 shall we walk in the meadow 7 a branch is blown tlown from tlie tree. In these 
 examples, the definite article is used 5 because the thing spoken of, being in the 
 neighborhood, is well known, and a matter of some consequence to the people 
 who are acquainted with it. 
 
 Tliat we may perceive still more clearly the nature and significancy of the 
 articles, let us put one for the other, and mark the effect. When it is said 
 that * The ancestors of the present royal family were kings in England three 
 hundred years before the Conqueror,' the sense is clear, as every body knows 
 that the person here spoken of, by the name of the Conqueror, is William, duke 
 of Normandy, who suodued England about seven hundred and fifty years ago. 
 But, if we say, that ' The ancestors of the present royal family were kings in 
 England three hundred years before a conqueror,' we speak nonsense. — Again, 
 when it is said, that ' riealth is a most desirable thing/ there is no man who 
 will not acquiesce in the position j which only means, that health is otie of those 
 things that ar4 to be very much desired. But, if we take the other article, and 
 say, * Health is tfie most desirable thing,' we change the position from truth to 
 falsehood ; for this would imply that nothing is so desirable as health ; which 
 is very wide of the truth ; virtue and a good conscience being of infinitely 
 greater value. 
 
 You can now answer the following 
 QUESTIONS. 
 
 Is un article ever used with an adverb ? 
 
 For what purpose .' 
 
 Which article is so used ? 
 
 Is the indefinite article ever used with a phiral noun ? 
 
 Is an article ever used with a proper noun .'' 
 
 What is the effect when so used ? 
 
 I3 the article ever separated from the noun by intervening words? 
 
 CONV3SRSATXON VZ. 
 
 OF ADJECTIVES. 
 
 Tutor. An Adjective is a word added to a noun to 
 express some quality or circumstance of the person ot 
 thing of which the noun is tbe name,; as, a good apple ; 
 
38 ETYMOLOGY 
 
 a sweet apple ; a small apple. I wish you to be care- 
 ful to make the distinction here between the word that 
 denotes the thirig and the word that denotes the mere 
 quality or circumstance of the thing. I have known 
 many pupils to mistake the adjective for the wow/i, even 
 after studying grammar a long time. A little reflection 
 on the nature of these two parts of speech will prevent 
 mistakes of this sort. When I say that I wear a new 
 hat, you may readily perceive the difference between the 
 word denoting the things and the word denoting the 
 quality of it, or showing what sort of a thing it is. In 
 order to make yourselves familiar with the adjective, 
 write a few nouns, and then prefix as many adjectives to 
 them as you can. Thus you may write the nouns trees, 
 rooms, tables, street, &/C., and then prefix such adjectives 
 to them as will make sense ; as, dry, tall, green, shady, 
 trees, &/C. ; a warm, high, low, handsome, well-furnished, 
 room ; a short, wide, narroio, dirty, or cleanly, table or 
 street. You understand that each of these adjectives ex- 
 presses some quality of the things of which the nouns 
 are the names. You must practise in this way frequent- 
 ly, till you completely comprehend the nature of the 
 adjective. 
 
 George. Adjectives, then, being words to express qual- 
 ities, and not things, cannot, I think, have person, number, 
 gender, and case. 
 
 Tutor. Why not? 
 
 George. Because if I say, the long, the short, the 
 rmnd, I must tell what it is that is long, short, or round, 
 before I express any sense ; and these words do not show 
 whether I mean to speak of one person or thing, or more 
 than one ; therefore they have no number ; nor do they 
 denote actors, possessors, or objects; therefore they have 
 ^ case. 
 
AND SYNTAX. 39 
 
 Tutor. You are right, /in our language, adjectives 
 have no person, number, gender, or case; and the only 
 variation v^^hich they admit is that of the degrees of com- 
 parison. 
 
 There are commonly reckoned three degrees of com- 
 parison; the Positive, the Comparative, and the Super- 
 lative. 
 
 The positive state expresses the quality of an object, 
 without increase or diminution ; as, good boys, wise boys, 
 great boys. 
 
 The comparative degree increases or lessens the posi- 
 tive in signification ; as, wiser boys — greater — less wise 
 boys — or boys less wise. The adjective may be plac- 
 ed after the noun as well as before it, as in the last 
 example. 
 
 The superlative degree increases or lessens the positive 
 to the highest or lowest degree ; as, greatest, wisest , least 
 wise boys, or men, or people. 
 
 The simple word, or positive, becomes the comparative 
 by adding r or er, and the superlative by adding st or est^ to 
 the end of it ; as. 
 
 Positive. Comparative. Superlative. 
 
 wise, wiser, wisest. 
 
 great, greater, greatest. 
 
 The words more and most, less and least, have the same 
 effect; as, 
 
 Positifve. Comparative. Superlative. 
 
 wise, more wise, most wise, 
 
 wise, less wise, least wise. 
 
 You must perceive that the adjective is a very simple 
 part of speech ; and when you parse it, you will merely tell 
 of what degree of comparison it is, and to what noun it be- 
 longs, and then give this rule : 
 
 RULE V. 
 
 Every adjective belongs to some noun, expressed or under- 
 stood. 
 
40 ETYMOI.OGY 
 
 Caroline, I suppose we are now prepared to parse sen- 
 tences composed of nouns, verbs, articles, and adjec- 
 tives. 
 
 Tutor. Yes. I will first parse one for you, and then 
 give you several more, which you must practise upon. 
 * The little girls write a long letter.' 
 
 The is the definite article, and refers to the noun girls. 
 Repeat Rule IV. Little is an adjective of the positive 
 state, and belongs to the noun girls. Repeat Rule V. 
 Girls is a noun of the third person, plural number, of 
 the feminine gender, and nominative case to the verb 
 write. Write is a transitive verb, of the third person, 
 plural number, and agrees with its nominative case girls. 
 Repeat Rule I. A is the indefinite article, and refers 
 to the noun letter. Repeat Rule IV. Long is an adjec- 
 tive of the positive state, and belongs to the noun letter. 
 Repeat Rule V. Letter is a noun of the third person, sin- 
 gular number, of neuter gender, and in the objective case, 
 governed by the transitive verb write. Repeat Rule III. 
 
 Parse this sentence several times ; and when you caa 
 do it accurately, practise upon the following in the same 
 manner. 
 
 EXERCISES IN PARSING. 
 
 The great ships carry large burdens ; the smaller ships 
 bear less burdens. Generous persons relieve the poor 
 old men. Wealthy ladies help indigent females. The 
 little children cry. The old birds fly. Wise mothers 
 teach little girls. The man's discourse caused much 
 excitement. The girl's friends abuse the children's 
 parents. The parents* servants brush the boy's new 
 clothes. 
 
 Note. An adjective, used without a substantive, having the 
 definite article before it, has the force and meaning of a ^b- 
 stantive of the plural number^ and must be parsed thus: The 
 rich help the poor. 
 
AND SYNTAX. 41 
 
 "Rich is an adjective used substantively, third person 
 i plural^ in the nominative case to the verb help. 
 
 Poor is an adjective used substantively, of the third 
 person, plural number, and in the objective case, governed 
 by the transitive verb help. Repeat Rule III. 
 
 Private virtues adorn a man. 
 
 The gray horses prance. 
 
 Note. One, two, three, &c., are called numerol adjectives. 
 
 The two armies conquered the enemies. 
 
 Thirty men killed twenty wolves. 
 
 Note. The words first, second, third, &c., are called nu- 
 mtral adjectives of order. 
 
 The third man killed the fourth wolf 
 
 I shall now give you a number of questions, which you 
 will be able to answer, if you recollect what I have said in 
 this Conversation. 
 
 QUESTIONS. 
 
 What is an adjective .? 
 
 Do adjectives vary, as nouns do, on account of number, gender, or case ? 
 
 Do they ever vary } 
 
 What variation have they .' 
 
 How many degrees of comparison have they ? 
 
 How is the (Comparative formed? 
 
 How the Superlative .'' 
 
 Is the noun to which the adjective belongs always expressed ? 
 
 What rule do you give, when you parse adjectives ? 
 
 Is an adjective ever used in the nature of a noun ? 
 
 Of what number is the adjective when used substantively? 
 
 Now I will give you some 
 
 REMARKS ON THE ADJECTIVE. 
 
 Grammarians have generally enumerated three degrees of comparison} 
 but the first of them has been thought by some writers to be improperly 
 termed a degree of comparison; as it seems to be nothing more than the 
 simple form of the adjective, and not to imply either comparison or degi-ee. 
 This opinion may be well founded, unless the adjective be supposed to 
 imply comparison or degree, by containing a secret or general reference to 
 other things ; as, when we say, ' He is a tall man,' ' This is a fair day/ we 
 make some reference to the ordinary size of men and to different weather. 
 
 The termination ish may be accounted in some sort a degree of compar- 
 ison, by which the signification is diminished below the positive ; as, black, 
 blackish, or tending to blackness; salt, saltish, or having a little taste of 
 salt. 
 
 The word rather is very properly used to express a small degree or excess 
 of quality j as, ' she is rcUl^ profuse in her expenses.' 
 
 4* 
 
42 ETYMOI.OGY 
 
 Monosyllables, for the most part, are compared by tr and est ; and cfissj-i- 
 lables by more and most ; as, mild, viitder, mildest ; Jrugal, more frugal, most 
 frugal. Dissyllables ending in y as, ha}ypy, larely ; and in le after a mute, 
 as, able, ample ; or accented on the last syllable, as, discreet, polite ; easily 
 adbiit of er and est; as, happier, happiest; abler, ablest; politer, politest. 
 Words of more th£ui two syllables hardly ever admit of tliose terminations. 
 
 In some words, the superlative is formed by adding- the adverb /nos^ to the 
 end of ihem j as, nethermost, vitermost or vlmost ; widerTROSt, uppermost, 
 foremost. 
 
 In English, as in most languages, there are some words of very common 
 use, (in which the caprice of custom is apt to get the better of analogy,) that 
 are irregular in this respect} as, 'good. Better, best; bad, tcorse, worst; 
 little, less, least; much or many,viore, most; near, nearer, nearest or next; 
 late, later, latest or last; old, older or elder, oldest or eldest; and a few- 
 others. 
 
 An adjective put without a substantive, with the definite article before it, 
 becomes a substantive in sense and meaning, and is written as a substan- 
 tive 3 as, ' Providence rewards the good, and punishes the bad.' 
 
 Various nouns placed before other nouns assumt^ the nature of adjec- 
 tives } as, sea fish, wine vessel, com f eld, meadow gromid, &.c. 
 
 Numeral adjectives are either cardinal or ordinal ; cardinal, as, one, tico. 
 three, &c. 5 ordinal, as, jirst, second, tliird, &c. 
 
 QUESTIONS. ■S«*N'.*o. i-.. 
 
 Iff pi>t ■#■!>■ «#-4i/^ 
 
 How are adjectives of one syllable compared ? 
 How do you compare those of two syllables .' 
 
 How do you compare dissyllg,ble9, ending in y, in le after a mnte, and those 
 accented on the last syllable ? 
 Do adjectives of more than two syllables admit of the terminations er and est 7 
 What adjectives are compared irregularly ? 
 
 What words form the superlative by adding most to the end of them? 
 What is the effect of the termination isli ? 
 Do adjectives ever become nouns ? 
 Do/iiouns ever become adjectives .'' 
 How are nitmeral adjectives divideti .' 
 Which are ordinal.' 
 Which are cardinal .-' 
 What sort of adjectives cannot be compared ? 
 
 CONVEZISATXOK VH. 
 
 OF THE PARTICIPLES. 
 
 George. We now understand the Nouns, Verbs, Ar- 
 ticles, and Adjectives very well, and we can parse them 
 without difficulty. 
 
 Caroline, We have found gieat advantage in studying 
 the questions, which you have written after each Conversa- 
 tion ; for, in order to answer aH these questions, we are 
 obliged to recollect all your explanations ; and then we find 
 it easy to parse the examples. 
 
AND SYNTAX. 43 
 
 Tutor, I shall now explain to you the part of speech 
 called participle, and then introduce it into your exer- 
 cises in parsing. A Participle is a word which is deriv- 
 ed from a verb, and participates of the nature of a verb, 
 and also of an adjective. It participates of the nature of a 
 verb, because it expresses action as a verb does, and it par- 
 takes of the nature of an adjective, beceiuse it frequently 
 belongs to some noun, and is used as an adjective. There 
 are three kinds of pdiiiici^^les : prescJit, perfect, -dnd compound 
 perfect participles. 
 
 A present participle, which is the only one I shall now 
 explain to you, denotes an action continuing, or still going 
 on, and ends in ing; as, I see a boy beating a dog; I see 
 the dog running, walking, fighting, eating, drinking, &c. 
 These are present participles, derived from the verbs beat, 
 run, walk, fight, eat, drink, &c. The rule you will give 
 when you parse this participle is 
 
 RULE VI. 
 
 The participle ending in ing, when not connected with 
 the auxiliary verb to be, refers to some noun or pronoun de^ 
 noting the subject or actor. 
 
 George. I suppose, then, according to the rule, that the 
 first participle, which you mentioned, beating, refers to the 
 noun bot/ ; and runnings walking, eatings drinking, fighting, 
 all refer to the noun dog. 
 
 Tutor. You are right. 
 
 Caroline, You say that a participle refers to the noun 
 denoting the actor ; but you said that the verb agrees with 
 its nominative,^ which is the word denoting the actor; and 
 why cannot a participle agree in the same manner 1 
 
 Tutor. I shall be able to explain this to you better, a 
 few days hence, than I can now. But I will try to make 
 you comprehend the reason. — When I say. The boy beats 
 
44 ETYMOLOGY 
 
 the dog, you perceive that tlie verb ends in s, and is of 
 the third person singular, to agree with its nominative 
 feoy. If I make the nominative of the plural number, and 
 say, the ho^s^ I must write the verb without the s ; thus, the 
 boys beat, &/C., because beat is the plural verb, and beats is 
 singular ; and the verb, you know, must agree with its nom- 
 inative in number* and person. 
 
 The participle never varies its termination; it is spell- 
 ed in the same manner whether the word denoting the 
 actor be singular or plural, as you may see by the following 
 examples : I see the boi/s running, or the boi/ running. 
 
 Caroline. I understand that the participle does not 
 agree with a noun, but simply refers to it; and I know 
 it must of necessity refer to some word that denotes the 
 actor, because the participle expresses an action as the 
 verb does, and there can be no action without an actor; 
 and, as the real action is always connected with the per* 
 son or thing that does it, so the words denoting the ac- 
 tor and action must have some sort of relation to each other. 
 
 Tutor. You begin to understand, I perceive, the rela- 
 tion that words have to one another. 
 
 George. You said that the participle partakes of the na- 
 ture of an adjective, and sometimes belongs to a noun, like 
 an adjective ; will you give us some examples ? 
 
 Tutor. Yes : I see a running stream, and flying 
 clouds. Here you see that the participles running and 
 flying are used as adjectives; and when participles are 
 so used, you may call them adjectives. Some gramma- 
 rians call them participial adjectives. But I have another 
 relation to explain respecting the participle. When I say, 
 * The master sees the great boy teaching the little child,* 
 what case do you think the noun child is in ? 
 
 George. Child is the object of the action, expressed 
 by the participle teaching; therefore I should take it to 
 
AND SYNTAX. 45 
 
 be in the objective case ; but we have no rule yet, which 
 tells us that an objective case is governed by a participle. 
 
 Tutor. You are right; and, as you understand the 
 principle and the relation of the words, you might make a 
 rule yourself. I will, however, give you one. 
 
 RULE VII. 
 
 Participles of transitive verbs govern the objective case. 
 
 Now parse all the words in the sentence I gave you a 
 few minutes since — The master^ &c. — and then parse the 
 following examples, containing the five parts of speech with 
 which you are acquainted : viz. nouns, verbs, articles, 
 adjectives, and participles. 
 
 EXERCISES IN PARSING. 
 The hunters shoot the deer running. 
 The flying clouds obscure the sun. 
 The rattling hail pehs the windows. 
 The laboring men cultivate the earth. 
 The child sees the hawk killing the chickens. 
 The servant watches the horse eating oats. 
 
 Caroline^ We can parse these sentences very easily, 
 because we before knew how to parse all the words except 
 the participle. 
 
 Tutor. When we meet again, you must answer the 
 following 
 
 QUESTIONS. 
 
 What is a participle ? 
 
 W^hy is it called participle 7 
 
 How does it differ from the verb ? 
 
 How many participles are there? 
 
 What are they called ? 
 
 Which have 1 explained ? 
 
 What rule do you give when you parse the participle ? 
 
 W^hat rule when you parse the objective case which is governed by it ? 
 
46 ETYMOLOGY 
 
 CONVERSATION VXH. 
 
 OF ADVERBS. 
 
 Caroline, The Adverb, I believe, is the next part of 
 speech in order ; so I suppose vv^e are to have that in this 
 Conversation. 
 
 Tutor. Yes ; an ^Adverb is a word which has its gram- 
 matical connexions always with a verb, participle y ad- 
 jectivCf or another adverb ; so that you are now prepared 
 to receive the explanations concerning this part of speech^ 
 and understand its relations in a sentence. It has no 
 connexion with a noun or any other part of speech ex- 
 cept the four, which I have just mentioned. It is called 
 adverb, because it is more frequently added to the verb 
 than to any other part of speech; and when added to a 
 verb, or a participle, it usually expresses the feme, the 
 manner, or the place, in which an action is done; as, 
 the boy walks slowly, leisurely, quickly, hastily, or badly, 
 &/C. ; or with a participle ; as, I see the boy walking 
 slowly, leisurely, quickly, &/C. : these adverbs qualify the 
 participle ; and you see that all these express the man' 
 ner in which the actions are done, that are denoted by 
 the verb or the participle. 
 
 There are many sorts of adverbs. 
 
 Adverbs of time present are such as these : Now, to- 
 day, &c. 
 
 Of time past : Already, heretofore, before, lately, yes- 
 terday, hitherto, long since, long ago, &lc. 
 
 Of time to come : To-morrow, not yet, hereafter, hence- 
 forth, by and by, &lc. 
 
 Of time indefinite: Oft, often, oft-times, then, when, 
 ever, ne-'^er, again, 6lc. 
 
 Of place: There, where, elsewhere, anywhere, no- 
 where, hither, whither, thither, whence, hence, thence, 
 
AND SYNTAX. 47 
 
 Upwards, downwards, forwards, backwards, whithersoever, 
 
 &rC. 
 
 When an adverb is joined to an adjective or to another 
 adverb, it generally expresses the degree of the adjective or 
 adverb ; for some adverbs have degrees of comparison like 
 adjectives; as the adverbs sooriy often, mucky well; and 
 these are compared thus : 
 
 Positive. 
 
 Comparative. 
 
 Stiperlative. 
 
 soon, 
 
 sooner, 
 
 soonest. 
 
 often, 
 
 ofteuer, 
 
 oftenest. 
 
 much, 
 
 more, 
 
 most. 
 
 well, 
 
 better, 
 
 best. 
 
 Adverbs ending in Ij/ are compared by more and most : 
 
 Positive. Comparative. Superlative. 
 
 wisely, more wisely, most wisely, 
 
 ably, more ably, most ably. 
 
 And adverbs express the degrees of adjectives ; as, 
 
 Positive. Comparative. Superlative. 
 
 wise, more wise, most wise, 
 
 wise, less wise, least wise, 
 
 prudent, more prudent, i most prudent. 
 
 When such phrases as the following, none at all, a great 
 deal, many times, a few days ago, are used to express the 
 manner, or time, and are joined to verbs or participles, you 
 will call them adverbial phrases. 
 
 George, I suppose we can now parse sentences contain- 
 ing six parts of speech; nouns, verbs, articles, adjectives, 
 participles, and adverbs. 
 
 Tutor. Yes ; and you must be careful to remember how 
 each is parsed. 
 
 In parsing a noun, tell its person, number, gender, and 
 case. 
 
 In parsing the verb, tell whether it is transitive or zn- 
 transitive ; also tell its person, number, and with what nom- 
 inative it agrees, and give Rule I. 
 
 In parsing the article, tell what kind, and what it refers 
 to, and give Rule IV. 
 
 In parsing the adjective, tell the degree of comparison, 
 and what noun it belongs to, and give Rule V. 
 
48 ETYMOLOGY 
 
 In parsing the participle^ tell what it refers to, and give 
 Rule VI. 
 
 In parsing the adverb, tell of what kind it is, whether of 
 time, place, or quality, &/C., and what particular word it 
 qualifies, and give 
 
 RULE VIII. 
 
 Adverbs qualify verbs, participles, adjectives, and otJier 
 adverbs. 
 
 By observing these directions, you can parse these sen- 
 tences, which I have written for you to practise upon. 
 
 EXERCISES IN PARSING. 
 Good boys study well. Very industrious children study 
 a great deal. Very idle girls learn none at all. 
 
 Note. You perceive, in these sentences, that the word very 
 does not belong to the nouns childreft and boys ; for the sense 
 is not very children, very boys ; but it belongs to the adjectives 
 industrious and idle, and it is therefore an adverb, and quali- 
 fies an adjective. A word is always an adverb when it quali- 
 fies a verb, an adjective, a participle, or another adverb, as I 
 have before explained to you. 
 
 Now parse the following examples : 
 
 Old houses soon fall. The new ships sail fast. Good 
 people love young children learning well. Large cities con- 
 tain many poor inhabitants. Persons seeing little girls 
 learning grammar thoroughly, feel much pleasure. Behav- 
 ing carelessly, boys do mischief Running swiftly, horses 
 break carriages. Servants driving horses very carelessly 
 often break people's limbs. 
 
 The dejimte article is frequently prefixed to adverbs of 
 the comparative and superlative degrees, to mark the degree 
 more strongly ; as, 
 
 The more the wind blows, ihe faster the ship sails. 
 
 The more the boy studies the lesson, the better the boy 
 understands the lesson. 
 
AND SYNTAX. 49 
 
 You must now try to remember the following 
 
 REMARKS ON ADVERBS. 
 
 Adverbs seem originally to have been contrived to express compendious- 
 ly in one word what must otherwise have required two or more j as, ^ He 
 acted wisely,' for he acted with wisdom; prudently, for with prudence; 
 * He did it here,^ for he did it in this place ; exceedingly, for to a great de- 
 gree; often and seldom, for many, and for a few tim^s ; very, for in an emi- 
 nent degree, &c. — Phrases which do the oifice of adverbs may properly be 
 termed adverbial phrases ; ' He acted in the best manner possible.' Here 
 the words iti the best manner possible, as they qualify the verb acted, may be 
 called an adverbial phrase. 
 
 There are many words in the English language that are sometimes 
 used as adjectives, and sometimes as adverbs j as, ' More men than wo- 
 men were there ;' or, ' I am more diligent than he.' Li the former sen- 
 tence, more is evidently an adjective, and in the latter an adverb. There 
 are others that are sometimes used as substantives, and sometimes as ad- 
 verbs; * To-day's lesson is longer than yesterday's;' here, to-day and yester- 
 day are substantives, because they are words that make sense of them- 
 selves, and admit besides of a possessive case ; but in the phrase, ' He came 
 home yesterday, and sets out again to-day,' they are adverbs of time 5 be- 
 cause they answer to the question when. The adverb much is used as all 
 three; as, 'Where much is gl^^en, much is required 5' 'Much money has 
 been expended 3' ' It is much better to go than to stay.' In the first of 
 these sentences, much is a substantive ; in the second, it is an adjective ; and 
 in the third, an adverb. In short, nothing but the sense can determine what 
 thev are. 
 
 Adverbs, though very numerous, may be reduced to certain clcisses, the 
 chief of which are those of Number, Order, Place, Time, Quantity, Man- 
 ner or Qualify, Doubt, Affirmation, Negation, Interrogation, and Com- 
 parison. 
 
 1. Of NUMBER ; as, once, twice, thrice, &c. 
 
 2. Of ORDER 5 as, Jij-st, secondly, thirdly, fourthly, fifthly, lastly, finally , 
 &c. 
 
 3. Of PLACE ; as, here, there, where, elsewhere, anywhere, somewhere, no- 
 where, herein, whither, hither, thither, upwards, downwards, forwards, back^ 
 wards, whence, hence, thence, whithersoever, &,c. 
 
 4. Of TIME. 
 
 Of TIME PRESENT J as, now, to-dau, &c. 
 
 Of TIME PAST ; as, already, before, lately, yesterday, heretofore, hitherto, long 
 since, hng ago, &c. 
 
 Of TIME TO COME J as, to-morrow, not yet, hereafter, henceforth, hencefor- 
 ward, by and by, instantly, presently, immediately, straiglitways, &c. 
 
 Of TIME INDEFINITE ; as, ofi, often, ofl-tim^, oftentimes, sometimes, soon, 
 seldom, daily, weekly, nwnthly, yearly, always, wlien, then, ever, never, 
 again, &c. 
 
 5. Of Q,UANTiTY ; as, much, little, sufficiently, Juno much, liow great, enough, 
 abundantly, &c. 
 
 6. Of MANNER or QUALITY ', as, wisely , foolishly , j'ustly, UTtfustlv , quickly , 
 slowly, &c. Adverbs of quality are the most numerous kind ; ana they are 
 generally formed by adding the termination ly to an adjective or participle, 
 or changing le into ly ; as, bad, badly ; cheerful, cJieer/uUy ; able, ably / ad- 
 mirable, admirably. 
 
 7. Of DOUBT ; as, perhaps, peradventure, possibly, perchance. 
 
 8. Of AFFIRMATION J as, verity, tndy, undoubtedly, doubtless, certainly, yea, 
 yes, surely, indeed, really, &c. 
 
 9. Of NEGATION ; as, nay, no, not, by no means, not at all, in no wise, 
 &,c. 
 
 5 
 
50 ETY3IOL.OGY 
 
 10. Of INTERROGATION j as, how, why, xoherefore, whither, &c. 
 
 11. Of COMPARISON 3 as, more, most, better, best, worse, worst, less,leasl, 
 very, almost, Little, alike, &c. 
 
 Besides the adverbs already mentioned, there are many which are form- 
 ed by a combination of several of the prepositions with the adverbs of 
 place, here, there, and where; as, hereof, thereof, whereof: hereto, thereto, 
 whereto; hereby, thereby, whereby; herewith, therewith, wherewith; herein, 
 therein, wherein; therefore, (i. e., there-for,) wherefore, (i. e., where-forj^ liere- 
 upon or hereon, thereupon or thereon, whereupon or whereon, &c. Except 
 therefore, these are seldom used. 
 
 In some. instances, tlie preposition suffers no change, but becomes an adverb 
 merely by its application ; as when we say, ' He rides about ;' ' he was near 
 felling}' * but do not after lay the blame on me.' 
 
 Th€re are also some adverbs, which are composed of nouns, and the letter 
 a used instead of at, on, &c. ; as, aside, athirst, afoot, asleep, aboard, ashore, 
 abed, aground, afloat, &c. 
 
 The words when and where, and all others of the same nature, such as 
 whence, whither, whenever, wlierever, &lc., may be properly called adverbial 
 conjunctions, because they participate of the nature both of adverbs and con- 
 junctions 5 of conjunctions, as they conioin sentences j of adverbs, as they de- 
 note the attributes either oitime or of place. 
 
 It may be particularly observed, with respect to the word tJierefore, that 
 it is an adverb, when, without joining sentences, it only gives the sense of 
 ^or thai reason.. When it gives that sense, and also connects, it is a con- 
 junction J ' He is good, therefore he is happy.' The same observation 
 may be extended to the words consequently, accordingly, and the like. 
 When these are subjoined to and, or joined to if, since, &c., they are ad- 
 verbs, the connexion being made witnout their helpj when they appear 
 single, and unsupported by any other connective, they may be cedled con- 
 junctions. 
 
 The inquisitive scholar may naturally ask, what necessity there is for 
 adverbs of time, when verbs are provided with tenses, to show that circum- 
 stance. The answer is, though tenses may be sufficient to denote the great- 
 er distinctions of time, yet to denote them all by the tenses would be a per- 
 plexity without end. What a variety of forms must be ^ven to the verb^ 
 to denote yesterday, to-day, to-7norrow, formerly, lately, just now, now, imme- 
 diately, presently, soon, hereafter, &c. It was this consideration that made the 
 adverbs of time necessary, over and above the tenses. 
 
 QUESTIONS. 
 
 What 19 an adverb ? 
 
 To what does the adverb belong ? 
 
 To >vhat does the adj&ctioe belong ? 
 
 When a word qualifies a verb, participle, adjective, or other adverb, what part of 
 speech is it?, / 
 
 Are adverbs compared ? 
 
 How are adverbs ending in ly compared ? 
 
 What is the rule when you parse an adverb ? 
 
 Does an article ever refer to an adverb ? 
 
 For what purpose does the article refer to it ? 
 
 For what purpose do adverbs seem to have been originally contrived ? 
 
 What is an adverbial phrase ? 
 
 What woids^are used sometimes as adverbs, sometimes as adjectives, and some- 
 times as nouns .^ Can you give examples? j i_ j 
 
 When are the words to-day, yesterday, and to-iwnroip, noons, and when ad- 
 verbs ? f ?• 
 
 How many classes of adverbs ffre there ? 
 
 What are they ? *J . 
 
 What are the adverbs of number ? 
 
 What are the adverbs of order 7 
 
 What are the adverbs otplace ? 
 
AND SYNTAX. 51 
 
 What are the adverbs of time present ? 
 What are the adverbs of time past ? 
 What are the adverbs of time to come ? 
 What are the adverbs of time indefinite 7 
 What are the adverbs of quantity ? 
 What are the adverbs of quality or manner 1 
 What are the adverbs of doubt 1 
 What are the adverbs of affirmation 7 
 
 What are the adverbs of negation 7 ' 
 
 What are the adverbs of interrogation 7 
 What are the adverbs of cowpamon 7 
 What adverbs are composed of nouns, and the letter a 7 
 What words are called adverbial conjunctions 7 
 
 Why may they be so called ? ... 
 
 When are the words therefore, consequently, and accordingly, adverbial conjunc- 
 tions, and when adverbs ? ^ 
 
 CONVERSATION ZX. 
 
 OF PRONOUNS. 
 
 OF THE PERSONAL AND ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. 
 
 Tutor. I shall this morning make you acquainted with 
 the Pronoun, 
 
 George. What is meant by pro 7 — A noun, we know, is 
 a name. 
 
 Tutor. Pro means /or, or instead of, 
 
 Caroline. Now, I think I understand what a pronoun 
 is. It means instead of a noun, or it is a word used instead 
 of a noun. 
 
 Tutor. I It is a word used instead of a noun, to prevent 
 the too frequent repetition of the same word., Thus, if we 
 had no pronouns in the language, I should say, * Caroline 
 is a good girl, because Caroline studies Caroline's lessons 
 well, and Caroline will soon understand Caroline's gram- 
 mar.' But we have pronouns which are used to prevent 
 this disagreeable repetition. 
 
 George. And, therefore, instead of repeating the word 
 Caroline so many times as you did just now, I should say, 
 'Caroline is a good girl, because she studies her les- 
 sons well, and she will soon understand lier grammar.' — 
 It is plainly to be seen, that she and AiS* are pronouns , used 
 instead of the noun Caroline. 
 
62 ETYMOJLOGY 
 
 Caroline. And if the same could be said of George, I 
 should say, ' He studies Ids lessons well,' &/C. 
 
 Tutor. Yes ; and you must readily perceive that gen- 
 der belongs to pronouns ; for when you speak of George, 
 you say he and his ; but when you speak of Caroline, you 
 say she djid her; but when you speak of a thing that is 
 neither masculine nor feminine, it is used ; as, * I hold a 
 book ; it belongs to you, and you must use it carefully/ 
 Now you see that pronouns must be of the same gender as 
 the nouns are for which they stand. 
 
 George, I should think that they must agree in number 
 too, for when I speak of two or more books, I do not say it, 
 but I say they or them. 
 
 Tutor. I will give you a rule concerning pronouns. 
 
 RULE IX. 
 
 Pronouns must agree with the nouns for which they stand 
 in number and gender. 
 
 Caroline. Do not pronouns agree with their nouns in 
 person too ? 
 
 Tutor. They may agree in person or they may not. 
 Pronouns are frequently used in such a manner, that they 
 cannot agree in person with the nouns for which they 
 stand. When I say, ' Go and say to those children, you 
 must come in,' you perceive that the noun children is of the 
 third person, but the pronoun you is oi i\iQ second ; yet you 
 stands for children. 
 
 Caroline, I understand it. The pronouns may agree 
 in person with their noun, but they do not always ; but 
 they must always agree in number and gender ; therefore 
 we may {)ut that fact into the form of a rule. 
 
 Tutor. You are right, Caroline. — There are four kinds 
 of pronouns, viz. the Personal, the Adjective, the Rel- 
 ative, and the Interrogative Pronouns. 
 
 At this time, I shall only notice those called personal, 
 
AND SYNTAX. 53 
 
 and those called adjective pronouns. I'There are five 
 personal pronouns, viz. /, thou, he, she, it, and their 
 pluralsj^ 
 
 / is the first person 1 
 
 Thou is the second person ? Singular. 
 
 He, she, or it, is the third person ) 
 
 We is the first person ^ 
 
 Ye or you is tho second person S Plural. 
 
 They ia the third person J 
 
 The noun, you know, has but two persons, viz. the 
 second, when it denotes the person or thing spoken to; 
 and the third when it denotes the person or thing spo- 
 ken of. But you must perceive that the pronoun is also 
 used to denote the person speaking ; for when / or we is 
 used, it denotes the person or persons speaking. Pro- 
 nouns, thereforeu have three persons, viz. the first, second, 
 and third, ^ 
 
 George. What is meant by person 7 
 
 Tutor. Suppose that Caroline should go out of the 
 room, and leave you and me together, and I should talk 
 to you about Caroline ; you perceive that / should be 
 the person speaking, you would be the person spoken to, 
 and she would be the person spoken of. When people 
 are talking together, all this is very plain ; for they can 
 easily perceive who it is that speaks, who it is that is 
 spoken to, and who it is that is spoken of; but when 
 we wish to represent this on paper, we must have par- 
 ticular wotds or signs to represent each person, and 
 they must be such signs as will distinguish the person 
 who speaks from the one that is spoken to, and distin- 
 guish the one that is spoken to from the one that is 
 spoken of, and the one that is spoken of from both the 
 others. In all conversations, or in composition, there 
 may be these three persons ; and as we frequently speak 
 to things as well as to persons, and of things, as well as 
 of persons, we are obliged to consider things, in gram- 
 mar, as we do persons, and we use such words as will 
 5 * 
 
54 ETYMOLOGY 
 
 denote when the thing is spoken to, and when it is spo- 
 ken of. Person, then, in grammar, is the property of a 
 noun, or a pronoun, which shows us whether the noun or 
 pronoun denotes the person speaking, the person spoken 
 to, or the one that is spoken of/ This property of the 
 noun or pronoun also causes the verb to vary in the 
 second and third persons singular ^ as. 
 
 First person singular, I walk. 
 
 Second person singvlar, Thou waHrc5<. 
 
 Third person singular, He walks, or w&lketh. 
 
 In these examples, you see that walk is the first person 
 to agree with its nominative /; but when the verb is joined 
 with thou for its nominative, it ends in est, and when it 
 agrees with he^ it ends in s, or eth; and so in other 
 verbs ; as, 
 
 I go, I gpeak, I eat, 
 
 Thou goesty Thou speakest, Thou eatesf, 
 
 He goes, or goeth. He speaks, or speakctft. He eats, or eatetSv. 
 
 Whenever you see a verb ending in est, you know it to 
 be of the second person singular, and it must agree with a 
 nominative of the second person singular ; and when you 
 see a verb ending in s or eth, you know it to be of the 
 third person singular ; and it must agree with a nomina- 
 tive of the third person singular. So, then, if the nomi- 
 native of the second or third person should not be written, 
 as it frequently happens, you will know of what person the 
 verb is by its spelling; thus zcalkest, gO€st,huildest, &lc>,, 
 are all of the second person singular ; and walks or walk- 
 eth, eats or eateth, drinks or drinketh, hu&ds or huildeth, dtc, 
 are all of the third person singular ; and they must agree 
 with their nominatives according to Rule I., viz. 'A 
 verb must agree with its nominative case in number and 
 person/ 
 
 Caroline. I now see more clearly the use of this rule ; 
 for it would not be grammatical to say, / reads or read- 
 eth, I goes or / goeth ; because the verbs reads, readeth. 
 
AND SYNTAX. 55 
 
 goes, goethj are of the third person singular, and / is a 
 nominative of the Jirst person. Nor would it be correct to 
 say, thou go, or thou goes ; because neither of these verbs is 
 of the second person, as it should be to agree with the 
 nominative thou ; therefore the verb should be goest ; then 
 the verb would agree with its nominative agreeably to the 
 ' rule. 
 
 Tutor. You are right, Car61ine. Now, George, can 
 you give me an example of bad English, which this rtde 
 enables you to correct 1 
 
 George. I think I can. ^ The hoys lohispers' — ' The 
 children plays* — * The people saith^ are ungrammatical, 
 because the verbs whispers, plays, saith, are all of the 
 third person singular, and their nominatives are third per- 
 son plural ; so they do not agree with their nominatives. 
 They should be whisper, play, say. 
 
 Tutor. Very well. I shall i^w give you the personal 
 pronouns in their different cases. The personal pronouns 
 are declined in the following manner : 
 
 Singular Number. 
 
 Person.. 
 
 First. 
 
 Sd. 
 
 3d. Mas. 
 
 3d. Fern. 
 
 3d. J\reu. 
 
 J^Tom. 
 
 P0S8. 
 
 Obj. 
 
 I. 
 
 Mine. 
 Me. 
 
 Thou. 
 Thine. 
 Thee. 
 
 Plural 
 
 lie. 
 His. 
 Him. 
 
 Number. 
 
 She. 
 Hers. 
 Her. 
 
 It. 
 Its. 
 It. 
 
 A-om. 
 Pass. 
 Obj. 
 
 We. 
 
 Ours. 
 
 Us. 
 
 Ye or you. 
 
 Yours. 
 
 You. 
 
 Thev. 
 Theirs. 
 Them. 
 
 They. 
 Theirs. 
 Tliem. 
 
 They. 
 
 Theirs. 
 
 Them. 
 
 \ Adjective Pronouns are a kind of pronouns that belong 
 to nouns like adjectives, and are, on that account, called 
 pronouns adjective^ or adjective pfonouns,' They are there- 
 fore of a mixed nature, participating of the properties both 
 of pronouns and adjectives. They may be divided into four 
 sorts. Those which imply possession are called possessive 
 adjective pronouns, viz. 
 
 My, thy, his, her, our, your, their. 
 Those that denote the persons or things that make up 
 5* 
 
56 ETYMOLOGY 
 
 a number, each taken separately and singly, are called 
 distributive ac^ective pronouns^ viz. 
 
 Each, every, either. 
 
 These, you will perceive, must be used with nouns of the 
 singular number only. 
 
 George, I see clearly it would be improper to say, 
 every boxes, each houses, either persons, &/C. I should say, 
 every box, each house, either person. But what are the other 
 two kinds of adjective pronouns ? 
 
 Tutor, The demonstrative and indefinite. The demon- 
 strative are those which precisely point out the subject to 
 which they relate; they are, 
 
 This and that, and their plurals these and those, and the 
 words former and latter. The last two are declinable. 
 
 The indefinite are those which express their subjects in 
 an indefinite or generalipaanner. Of this kind are the 
 following : 
 
 Some, one, any, other, all, such, &c. 
 
 George, let me hear you repeat the adjective pronouns. 
 
 George. The adjective pronouns are, 
 
 Possessive. My, thy, his, her, our, your, their^ 
 
 Distributive. Each, every, either. 
 
 Demonstrative, This and that, these and those, former 
 and latter. 
 
 Indefinite. Some, one, any, other, all, such, &c. 
 
 Tutor. You have repeated them very accurately. Several 
 of these words are sometimes used apart from any nouns : 
 or, in other words, they do not always belong to a noun, like 
 an adjective. 
 
 Caroline, When they are not used with a noun, like an 
 adjective, either expressed or understood, then I suppose 
 they are not to be called a^ective pronouns, but pronouns 
 only. 
 
AND SYNTAX. 57 
 
 Tutor. You are right ; for the meaning of the word 
 adjective is added; therefore, when a word is not added 
 to a noun, it is not an adjective. For example, when his 
 and her are not added to a noun, they are personal pro- 
 nouns, and, by declining he and she, you will find what 
 case they are in. So each, every, and either, when used 
 without a noun, are distributive pronouns. So, also, with 
 the demonstratives. You will call them demonstrative pro- 
 nouns when they are not prefixed to any nouns nece^ 
 sarily expressed or understood. And some, one, any, 
 other, all, and such, you will call indefinite pronouns, 
 when they are not prefixed to nouns expressed or under- 
 stood. 
 
 George. Will you give us some examples of these 
 words, when used as pronouns merely, and some examples 
 in which they are used as adjective pronouns 7 
 
 Tutor. I shall, in a few minutes, give you some pars- 
 ing lessons to practise upon ; and in them 1 will give you 
 such examples as will illustrate the use of these words as 
 pronouns merely,, and also as adjective pronouns. But I 
 have to remark to you, that none of these pronouns are 
 declinable except his and her, which, you know, are the 
 possessive anc^ objective cases of he and she ; and the words 
 one and other, ^md former and latter. 
 
 One is declined in the following manner : 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 JV*o?/i. One, Ones, 
 
 Poss. One's, Ones', 
 
 Obj. One, Ones. 
 
 And other is declined thus : 
 
 singular. . Plurah 
 
 J^Tom. Other, Others, 
 
 Poss. Other's, Others', 
 
 Obj. Other, Others. 
 
 One and other, when declinable, or used apart from 
 any noun, you will call indefinite pronouns, as well as 
 the others mentioned with them. Thie word another is 
 composed of the indefinite article and the word other; 
 
58 ETYMOLOGY 
 
 and it may be declined and used as a pronoun merely, 
 like other, or as an adjective pronoun. The word none is 
 composed of not and one ; and it seems originally to have 
 signified only a single person or thing ; but there is good 
 authority for using it in both numbers. None, then, is an 
 indefinite pronoun, either of the singular or plural number, 
 as the sense may require. 
 
 When none is used as an adjective pronoun, it follows 
 the noun to which it belongs ; as, * Terms of peace were 
 none vouchsafed.' Self is added to possessive adjective 
 pronouns ; as, myself, yourselves ; and sometimes to per- 
 sonal-pronouns ; as, himself, themselves, 6lc. ; and these 
 you will call compound personal pronouns ; and myself and 
 ymirself &lc., the same in the singular number. Himself 
 and themselves are now used in the nominative case, in- 
 stead of hisself and theirselves. I will now give you a 
 number of questions, and, when you can answer them all, 
 you will be prepared to parse the sentences which I shall 
 give you to practise upon. 
 
 QUESTIONS. 
 
 What is a pronoun ? 
 
 How many personal pronouns are there ? 
 
 How many persons have pronouns ? 
 
 How many cases have tkey ? 
 
 What is the first person ? 
 
 How do you decline it ? 
 
 What is the personal pronoun of the second person : 
 
 How in it declined ? 
 
 How do you decline the personal pronoun of the third person, masculine gender? 
 
 How the third person of feminine gender ? 
 
 How the third person of neuter gender ? 
 
 When you decline the pronoun of the second person, you find that you is used in 
 the nominative case, as well as in the objective. When you see the word you written 
 in a sentence, then, how will you know whether it is a nominative or an objective 
 cape .•' 
 
 How will you know when the pronoun it is a nominative or an objective case r 
 
 When you say a word is of the first, second, or third person, what do you under- 
 stand by the word person 7 
 
 What are adjective pronouns 1 
 
 How many kinds are there .' 
 
 What are the possessive 7 
 
 What are the distributive 7 
 
 What are the demonstrative ? 
 
 What are the indefinite ? 
 
 Which of the possessive arc declinable ? 
 
 Are these two called adjective pronouns when they are declinable and htr« 
 cases.' 
 
AND SYNTAX. 59 
 
 What are they called ? 
 Which of the indefinite are daclinable t 
 Decline one. 
 Decline other. 
 
 Are any of the distributive or demonstrative declinable? 
 Decline former and latter. 
 
 When are all these considered a3 adjective pronouns, and when as pronouns merely? 
 What do you understand by the word adjective 7 
 What rule have you for pronouns ? 
 
 What is the personal terminatien of the verb of the second person singular? or, in 
 other words, how does the verb of the second person singular end ? 
 What is the personal termination of the verb of the third person singular ? 
 
 Now parse the following sentences, in which you will 
 find the personal and adjective pronouns combined with 
 those parts of speech which you had before ; and, when 
 parsing the adjective pronoun, you will give 
 
 RULE X. 
 
 Every adjective pronoun belongs to some noun or pro* 
 noun expressed or understood. 
 
 EXERCISES IN PARSING. 
 I see that man teaching his child. Your father loves 
 his children very much. My friends visit me very often. 
 People many times complain unreasonably. I run. Thou 
 runnest. He runs. He runneth. We run. You run. 
 They run. Thou teachest me. I teach thee. He teaches 
 us. She loves him. He pities her. Her they instruct. 
 Them we command. You they feed. Them you carry. 
 Every man helps a little. Some persons labor, others do 
 not ; the* former increase, the latter decrease. Those 
 . horses draw the new coach very easily. Each pupil daily re- 
 cites his own^ lesson twice. You have not any other books. 
 
 Note. A pronoun in the possessive case, like a noun, is 
 governed by the following noun expressed or understood. 
 
 One loves one's self • Our neighbors invite their friends. 
 Her boys play a great deal. Her son loves her. Thy 
 daughter pleases her teacher. Your dog hurts mine. My 
 servant assists yours. 
 
 * The article refers to a pronoun as well as to a noun. 
 
 t The word own may be parsed as si possessive adjective pronoun. 
 
60 ETYMOLOGY 
 
 Note. Adjectives and adjective pronouns belong to pronouns 
 as well as to nouns. 
 
 The old bird feeds the young ones. 
 
 Every one learns his task well. 
 
 Great boys teach the small ones. 
 
 COKVERSATIOK X. 
 
 OP RELATIVE AND INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 
 
 In our last Conversation, I told you that there were four 
 kinds of pronouns, viz., personal, adjective, relative, and 
 interrogative pronouns. The first two I have explained to 
 you ; the last two I will endeavor to make you acquainted 
 with this morning. 
 
 ( Relative pronouns are such as, in general, relate to some 
 preceding noun or pronoun^ The preceding noun or pro- 
 noun is called the antecedent. Antecedent means going 
 before. The noun or pronoun, therefore, that goes before 
 the relative, which the relative stands for, or relates to, is 
 its antecedent ; and the relative must be made to agree 
 with its antecedent in person, number, and gender ; be- 
 cause the relative is a pronoun used to save the repetition 
 of its antecedent. The relative pronouns are who, which, 
 and that. Thus, instead of saying, ' The boy learns well, 
 the boy studies,' we say, * The boy learns well tvho studies.' 
 Who, in this sentence, is a relative pronoun, third person, 
 singular number, masculine gender, agreeing with its ante- 
 cedent noun hoy, and in the nominative case to studies. 
 And when you parse a relative, always give this rule : 
 
 RULE XI. 
 
 Relative pronouns agree with their antecedents in person, 
 number, and gender. 
 
 I have said that loho, which, and that, are relatives. 
 
AND SYNTAX, 61 
 
 That is a relative only when it has the sense of who or 
 which ; that is, when you can use who or which in its place. 
 Thus, when I say, * Here is a box that I bought,' it is the 
 same sense as if I were to say, * Here is a box which I 
 bought.' *The mvin that came,' &c. is the same sense as 
 * The man who came.' 
 
 George. But I remember the word that was among 
 the demonstrative adjective pronouns. How shall I know 
 when it is a demonstrative ^ and when it is a relative pro- 
 noun ? 
 
 Tvtor: When that is a demonstrative, it points out 
 something precisely, and it cannot be changed into who or 
 trhich, as it can when it is a relative. For example, * Give 
 me that box. See that box.' In these phrases, that is a 
 demonstrative, and you perceive that you cannot supply 
 its place by who or which, as you can in these : * The 
 boy that studies will improve. The wood that I bought 
 is good.' 
 
 Caroline. Are the relatives declined as the personal pro- 
 nouns are ? 
 
 Tutor. The relative whx) is thus declined : Singular, 
 /'nominative tvho, possessive whose, objective whorfi.. The 
 plural is the same., This relative does not vary on account 
 of its person, number, or gender. 
 
 George. How then shall we know its person, number, 
 and gender ? 
 
 Tutor. By its antecedent. 
 
 Caroline. I could have answered that question, for I 
 remember the tenth rule. * Relative pronouns agree with 
 their antecedents in person, number, and gender.^ But is 
 it proper to say. The master which teaches me, teaches 
 George ? 
 
 Tutor. No :/ when the antecedent denotes persons or 
 intelligent beings, you must use who, whose, and whomj; 
 therefore you should say, the master who teaches, &c. But 
 6 
 
m ETYMOLOGY 
 
 when the antecedent denotes animals or things, you must 
 use tphkh Or that. 
 
 George, Are which and that declinable ? 
 
 Tutm'. (tNo : these relatives are indeclinable./ They 
 are aaod m the nominative and objective cases, and are 
 spelled in the same manner in both ; but they have no pos- 
 sessive oase. 
 
 VtiraUne. Is that never used as a relative, when the an- 
 teced^Hit denotes persons, or intelligent beings ? 
 
 Tutor. Yes, in several instances; as, first, vi^hen who 
 has b^sea used in the same member of the sentence, to 
 prevent the too frequent recurrence of the same word, we 
 use thoL Secondly, when persons make but part of the 
 antecedent ; as, * The man and the horses that were drown- 
 ed have been found.' In this sentence, neither z^^o nor 
 which would be proper. Thirdly, when we ask a ques- 
 tit» witli 7cho ; as, * Who that is honest would behave 
 thus?' Fourthly, that is more eiegantly used as a rela- 
 tive than who or which afler «idjectives of the superlative 
 degree ; as, * Moses was the meekest man that ever lived* 
 Sdlomoii was the tvisesit man that we read of. Thif^ 
 is the best pen that I ever had.' Fifthly, that is used 
 after the adjective same in preferwice to who or which ; 
 ts, ' He is the same man that you saw.' The word a.% 
 when it follows such^ is used as a relative, in preference 
 to who, which, or that ; as, * I like such people as are 
 agreeable, I am pleased with such pupils as improve,' 
 4c.c. 
 
 Gam-gc, What are the interrogative pronouns ? 
 
 T^Lior. Who, which, and what, when used in asking 
 qu^sticma, are interrogative pronouns. Wlw and which, 
 when they relate to antecedents, are relatives; when 
 ijsed ID asking questions, interrogatives. Who is declin- 
 ed in the same manner when an interrogative, as it is, 
 when a rdative. ^Vhat is indeclinable. This word 
 
And syntax. §S 
 
 should not be used as a relative. * The book whU you 
 gave me/ &.C., is bad English, It should be, * The book 
 which, or that, you gave me,' &/C. 
 
 Which and what are sometimes joined to nouns like 
 adjectives, and then they become interrogative affective 
 pronouns ; as, * What man is th^ ?' ' Which pen will 
 you have V 
 
 Caroline. We now know, that tvho, which, and that, are 
 called relative pronouns, because they relate to some ante- 
 cedent ; and that adjective pronouns are so called, because 
 they belong to some noun, like an adjective ; and that 
 interrogative pronouns are so called, because they are used 
 in asking questions ; for a question means an interroga- 
 tion ; but we do not know why personal pronouns are so 
 called. 
 
 Tutor. They are so called because they denote what 
 person they are of by their spelling. They do not de- 
 pend on any other word for their person. Thus, if I write 
 the word /, or thou, or he, or she, or it, without any con^ 
 nexion with another word, you know what person each of 
 them is : but if I write the word who, or which, or that, 
 you cannot tell what person it is. But if I write he zs an 
 antecedent before the relative, then we know the person 
 of the relative, as well as its number and gender ; because 
 the relative depends on the antecedent for its person, 
 number, and gender, and agrees with it according to the 
 tenth rule. Thus, when I say, * I who — Thou who — 
 He who — We who — You who — They who'— in all these 
 instances, you perceive that who does not vary, and you 
 can know its person, &/C., only by its antecedents, /, 
 thou, he, &/C. But it is not so with respect to its ante- 
 cedents, /, thou, he, &LC., which are personal pronouns. 
 They have person of themselves, and denote their person 
 by their spelling. 
 
 Caroline. I think we now understand why the differ- 
 
64 ETYMOLOGY 
 
 ent kinds of pronouns are distinguished by particular 
 names or terms. These distinctions of the pronouns 
 show us, in some degree, their different natures and con- 
 nexions. 
 
 Tutor, I shall now ask you -a number of questions, 
 which, I presume, you can answer. 
 
 QUESTIONS 
 
 What are relative pronouns ? 
 
 How do you decline who 7 
 
 Are which and that declinable ? 
 
 When must who be used ? 
 
 In what instances is that more elegantly applied to persons than who 7 
 
 In what instances must that be used as a relative, where neither who nor which 
 
 would be proper ? 
 When must as be used as a relative ? 
 
 How do you know the person, number, and gender of a relative pronoun ? 
 How do you know when that is a relative, and when a demonstrative ? 
 fVhich and that being indeclinable, liow will you know their case ? See the rule 
 
 below. 
 What are the interrogative pronouns ? 
 When which and that are added to nouns, what are they ? 
 
 I will now give you some exercises which you are pre- 
 pared to parse. 
 
 EXERCISES IN PARSING. 
 Who does that work ? Who recites this lesson ? 
 Whom see I ? Whom seest thou now ? Whom sees he ? 
 Whom see ye sometimes ? Whom lovest thou most ? 
 What dost thou to-day ? What person seest thou teach- 
 ing that boy ? Which girl instruct they ? I have an ex- 
 cellent house. Thou hast a handsome little sister. He 
 has an honest friend. He hath two new knives. We have 
 most worthy friends. You have a most agreeable temper. 
 They have an easy task. What has he ? What book 
 has he ? Which road takest thou ? What child teaches 
 he ? Us they teach. Them we teach. Her I instruct. 
 Thee he often praises. 
 
 RULE XII. 
 
 When no nominative comes between the relative and the 
 verb, the relative is the nominative to the verb ; but when a 
 nominative does come between the relative and the verb, the 
 
AND SYNTAX. 
 
 65 
 
 relative must be in the possessive case, and governed by the 
 following noun, or in the objective, and governed by thefoU 
 lomng verb, participle or preposition, in its own member of 
 the sentence. 
 
 EXERCISES IN PARSING. 
 The man who teaches you, pleases your father. The 
 person whom I teach, loves his friends. The woman 
 whose house they hire, owns many houses. Thee, whom 
 thy friends admire, we also love. Them, whom thou pleas- 
 est, some others displease. Whom ye ignorantly worship, 
 him declare I. Him, whom you see, I love still. The 
 house which he occupies, our neighbor owns. The ele- 
 gant books, which the little boys read, the old man sells. 
 I, whom you call, hear your voice. Thou, who makest my 
 shoes, sellest many more. I have good books, you have 
 better, he has the best. 
 
 COmrSRSATION xz. 
 
 OF PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 Tutor. We commence this morning with the Preposi- 
 tion, which is a part cf speech very easily understood. 
 ^ Prepositions serve to connect words with one another, and 
 to show the relations between them. Prepositions, being 
 words used to express connexions, have no person, number, 
 gender or case. They agree with nothing ; but they gov- 
 ern nouns and pronouns that follow them in the objective 
 case. 
 
 The principal prepositions are the following : 
 
 of 
 
 out of 
 to 
 for 
 
 with 
 within 
 without 
 around 
 
 into 
 
 over 
 
 under 
 
 through 
 
 about 
 
 amidtt 
 
 below 
 
 between 
 
 6* 
 
 betwixt 
 
 near 
 
 beneath 
 
 up 
 
 from 
 
 down 
 
 beyond 
 
 befbre 
 
 at 
 
 behind 
 
 instead of 
 
 off 
 
 notwithstanding 
 
 on 
 
 concerning 
 
 upon 
 
 touching 
 
 aihengst 
 
 over against 
 acrodd 
 except 
 athwart 
 towards . 
 beside 
 
 according t6 
 tbrottghoTit 
 
66 ETY3IOL.OGY 
 
 There are others which need not be mentioned, because, 
 by examining and parsing these, you will easily under- 
 stand the nature and character of this part of speech, 
 and be able to distinguish it from others whenever you 
 see it. 
 
 George. You say that prepositions govern the objective 
 case. They do not express any action done to an object, 
 as a verb or a participle does. 
 
 Tutor. That is true. The objective case, that is gov- 
 erned by a preposition, is not the object of an action^ but 
 the object merely of a relation. They require the noun or 
 pronoun following to be in the objective case, and not the 
 nominative or possessive case. This you will perceive by 
 putting pronouns after the prepositions which I have writ- 
 ten. You will see that the pronouns must be me, thee, him, 
 her, us, iheni, and not J, thou, he, she, they. To say, Of /, 
 to thou, with thej/, &>c., you immediately perceive to be con- 
 trary to usage, and that it is nonsense. 
 
 When nouns are placed after prepositions, then they 
 must be in the same case that a pronoun would, if placed 
 where the noun is, for nouns and pronouns have the same 
 construction. 
 
 When you parse an objective case, governed by a prepo- 
 sition, you will give this rule : 
 
 RULE XIII. 
 
 Prepositions govern the objective case,* 
 
 Caroline. 1 do not perceive very clearly how preposi- 
 tions connect words together; nor do I well understand 
 how they show the relation between them. 
 
 Tutor. I will illustrate the nature and office of a prep- 
 osition by a few examples. 
 
 * The adverb like, and the adjectives toorth and like, when they belong to preceding 
 nouM or pronouns, also govern the objective case : * She dances like him i she is like 
 hin i flhe ii loorf A him, and all his family.* 
 
AND SYNTAX. 67 
 
 * The boy writes a pen. The man walks the riv- 
 er. My horse is the stable. You live St, Paul's. 
 
 The man fell the water. The theatre is situated 
 
 the park.' 
 
 In each of these expressions you perceive either a total 
 want of connexion or such a connexion as produces either 
 falsehood or nonsense. Fill up each vacancy, in its order, 
 by the following prepositions, with, towards, in, opposite 
 to, or over against, into, opposite to, and you will see 
 that the connexion will be perfect, and the sense com- 
 plete. 
 
 George. I now see the necessity and use of prepositions 
 as connectives, but I should like to hear one word, if you 
 please, on the subject of relation. 
 '■'^^ Tutor. When I say, * This box lies on the table,' you may 
 perceive that on shows the existing relation between the box 
 and the table, or the relative position each has in respect to 
 the other. And so when I say, * I throw the box under the 
 table, up the chimney, through the window, down stairs, into 
 the fire,' &/C.,the several prepositions show the different 
 relations between the box and the other things mentioned. 
 Prepositions, then, being words that show the relation be- 
 tween persons, places, and things, necessarily show the re- 
 lation also between the words that denote the person, places, 
 and things. 
 
 Caroline. I think the office of the preposition is quite 
 distinct from that of any other part of speech we have been 
 made acquainted with, and that we now clearly comprehend 
 its use, and know how to parse it.^ 
 
 Tutor. I think you do ; but I shall here make a few re- 
 marks concerning the verbs, which you were not before pre- 
 pared to comprehend. There are three sorts of verbs, viz. 
 the active, the passive, and the neuter verbs. The passive 
 and neuter verbs I shall reserve for some future Conversa- 
 tion. The one which I have explained to you, and which 
 
OS ETYMOLOGY 
 
 you have been parsing, is called the active verb, because it 
 expresses an action, that is performed by its nominative; 
 and the nominative case to such a verb may therefore be 
 defined to be the actor , as it is the word that denotes the per- 
 son or thing that acts. This active verb, then, is either tt'cm- 
 sitive or intransitive. In a former Conversation, I explain- 
 ed the distinction between transitive and intransitive verbs. 
 But I can now, perhaps, make you see the distinction more 
 clearly. The transitive verb does not always, in reality, ex- 
 press an action done to the object, expressed by the objec- 
 tive case which it governs. This you will perceive in the 
 use of the verbs resemble, understandj believe, and many 
 others ; as, * James resembles him.' * You understand her,' 
 * We believe you' — The transitive verb, however, has a di^ 
 rect reference to the object, and does not permit a preposi-? 
 tion to be between it and its object. But the object which 
 follows an intransitive verb must be governed by a prepo- 
 sition, either expressed or understood, and the idiom of our 
 language generally requires the preposition to be expressed ; 
 as you may remember from the examples I gave, to show 
 you that prepositions connect words. Thus when I say, * I 
 walk the window,' you perceive that some preposition 
 must be placed before the word window ; as, * I walk to, or 
 hy, or towards, the window.' But the transitive verb requires 
 no preposition to follow ; as, * I strike the window,' * I break 
 the window,' &c. I will now give you a few more exam- 
 ples ; first of transitive verbs, and next of intransitive 
 verbs. 
 
 Transitive Verbs, 
 
 Men build ships. We love thee. 
 
 He instructs me. Thoy carry her. 
 
 She teaches him. Men build hooses. 
 
 Intransitive Verbs, 
 
 He looks me. They play her. 
 
 She dances him. Men labor houses. 
 
 The man goes Boston. We complain thee. 
 
AND SYNTAX. 69 
 
 - Supply such prepositions, in these sentences, as will 
 make sense. Reflect upon these examples until you have 
 a clear notion of the transitive and intransitive verb. 
 
 Verbs are frequently compounded of verbs and preposi- 
 tions ; as, to uphold J to invest, to overlook -and this com- 
 position gives a new sense to the verb ; as, to tt?2fi?cr|tand, 
 to mitkdrd.w, to forgive. But the preposition is more fre- 
 quently placed after the verb, and separately from it, like an 
 adverb : in this situation, it does not less affect the sense of 
 the verb, and give it a new meaning, and may be consider- 
 ed a part of the verb, as it is when placed before it. When 
 you parse such verbs, you may call themycompound verbs. 
 And remember, if the preposition gives a new meaning to 
 your verb, which it would not have without it, it becomes a 
 part of the verb, whether placed before or after it. Thas, 
 to cast means to throw ; but in the phrase to cast up an 
 account, to cast up means to compute. So, to fall on^ to 
 hear outj to give over, &/C., have very different meanings 
 from what they would if the prepositions or adverbs after 
 them were not used. You now know that three parts of 
 speech govern the objective case, viz., transitive verbs, 
 participles, and prepositions. An objective case is always 
 governed by one of these three. 1 will now see if you re- 
 member what I have said, by asking you a few 
 
 QUESTIONS. 
 
 What is a preposition ? 
 
 W hat case does it govern ? inw'ilii. ■BiiiiitMife'i^tei - 
 
 Is it ever compounded with a verb? Wf^ lUHJI!' "^i** 
 
 What kind of verbs are these called ? ..yf'T^ ^^-.''i^ 
 
 Explain the difference between a transitiveana intransitive verb. 
 What parts of speech govern the objective case? 
 
 I shall now give you a parsing lesson to practise upon. 
 EXERCISES IN PARSING. 
 
 An honest advocate pleads the cause of his client with 
 much zeal. Good children tell no lies ; they speak the 
 truth ; they love their parents ; they respect their supe- 
 
^d ETYMOLOGY 
 
 riors. Envy nourishes many bad passions. Behave ye 
 kindly to your friends ; treat them with candor. Love 
 not idleness ; it destroys many. Persons who have in- 
 genuous minds suspect not others of disingenuousness. 
 The man, whom my friend supports, treats him ill. The 
 army, which encamps on the banks of the river, marches 
 thence to-day. The pen, with which I write, makes too 
 large a mark. My neighbor's little girls, going to school, 
 the other day, lost their books. My workmen, ploughing 
 the ground, broke the plough. She is like him. She 
 writes like him. She is worth him and all his connexions. 
 
 OOmrBXiSATZON zxz. 
 
 OF CONJUNCTIONS AND INTERJECTIONS. 
 
 Tutor. I will now give you the two last parts of speech, 
 viz., the conjunction and interjection. 
 
 A Conjunction is a part of speech chiefly used to con- 
 nect sentences, so as, out of two or more sentences, to 
 malce but one. It sometimes connects only words/ Con- 
 junctions are divided into two sorts ; the Copulative and 
 the Disjunctive. 
 
 The conjunction copulative serves to connect or con- 
 tinue a sentence, by expressing a condition, a supposition, 
 a cause, ^^c. ; as, * He and his sister study ; I will go, 
 if he will permit me ; The man is happy, because he is 
 good.* 
 
 The conjunction disjunctive serves not only to connect 
 and continue the sentence, but also to express opposition 
 of meaning in different degrees ; as, * He or his sister 
 studies; I would go, hut he will not permit me ; Though 
 she is rich, yet she is not amiable.' 
 
 George. I see clearly a difference between the copu- 
 
AND SYNTAX. 71 
 
 lative and the disjunctive conjunction ; for when I say, 
 * Peter and John study,' the expression implies that they 
 both study ; but when I say, * Peter or John studies/ the 
 expression shows that only one studies, and therefore I 
 use the verb studies, in the third person singular, not 
 study, in the plural. 
 
 Tutor. Very well. I will now mention the principal 
 conjunctions, and you must make them familiar to you ; 
 but you must study the character of the two sorts of con- 
 junctions, so that you may know to which class any one 
 belongs, wherever you may see it. The nature and office 
 of each part of speech must be carefully studied — not par* 
 ticular words ; for the same word may, in different senses, 
 be used as several parts of speech. Of this I shall, by and 
 by, give you examples. 
 
 The principal conjunctions are the following : — 
 
 The Copulative : — and, if, that, then, both, since, for, 
 because, therefore, wherefore, besides, further : — 
 
 The Disjunctive : — but, or, nor, either, neither, as, than, 
 lest, unless, yet, notwithstanding, though, whether, except, 
 as well as. 
 
 Caroline. The conjunctions are so different from the 
 other parts of speech, that I think we should have known 
 them, even if you had not written them. 
 
 Tutor. I shall now say something to you about simple 
 and compound sentences, that you may more clearly per- 
 ceive the use and importance of conjunctions. 
 
 A simple sentence contains only one nominative, and 
 one verb that agrees with that nominative. There may 
 be other words in it ; indeed, a simple sentence may 
 contain several parts of speech, and be longer than many 
 compound sentences ; yet, if it contains but one nom- 
 inative, and one verb, which agrees with that nomina- 
 tive, it is ' but a simple sentence. Thus, ^ Grass grows* 
 is a simple sentence ; and ' Excellent grass grows in 
 
72 ETYMOLOGY 
 
 great abundance, in all the northern regions of our country/, 
 particularly in the New England States,' is but a simple 
 sentence, for it contains but one nominatire, grass, and 
 one verb, grows. 
 
 A compound of any thing, you know, is made up of 
 simples. Sa a compound sentence is compounded of two 
 or more simple ones, connected together by conjunctions, 
 expressed or understood ; thus, * Grass grows, and ivater 
 runs,^ is a compound sentence. I will now give you sev- 
 eral simple members, which, you will perceive, have no 
 relation to each other, till conjunctions are used to con- 
 nect theih. 
 
 ^He is older — I am. She can improve — she pleases. 
 He has talents — opportunities to cultivate them — friends 
 desirous — he should make a figure. 
 
 Here you see the want of conjunctions. Fill up the 
 blanks by the following conjunctions in their order, than,' 
 if, and, and, that, and you will better understand the im- 
 portance of this part of speech. 
 
 George. This illustrates the use of the conjunction very 
 clearly. When these conjunctions can be placed between 
 the simple members, they connect them, and make one 
 compound sentence. 
 
 Tutor. Some conjunctions can be used to connect sen- 
 tences only ; that is, after one complete sentence is finish- 
 ed, the next may be commenced with one of these conjunc- 
 tions, to show that it has some connexion with the former, 
 or to express something in addition to what has been said. 
 , The conjunctions besides, further, again, 6lc\, are of this 
 sort. These are never used to join the simple members of 
 a compound sentence. 
 
 If, then, lest, though, unless, yet, noticithstanding , he- 
 cause, and the compound conjunctions so that and as 
 well as, are used only to connect simple members of a 
 compound sentence. And some may be used either to 
 
AND SYNTAX. 73 
 
 connect sentences, or simple members of compound senten- 
 ces : such are and, hut, for, therefore, &/C/;: some may be used 
 also to connect words. These are and, or, nor, as, ^c. 
 And when conjunctions connect nouns and pronouns, the 
 following rule must be observed. 
 
 RULE XIV. 
 
 The nouns and pronouns connected hy conjunctions must 
 he in the same case, 
 
 George. Are the words which are used as conjunctions 
 ever used as other parts of speech ? 
 
 Tutor, Yes; it frequently happens that the same word 
 is used as two or three different parts of speech in one 
 sentence ; thus, * He labored for a dollar a day, for he 
 could get no more.' In this sentence, you perceive that the 
 first ybr is ^l preposition, and governs dollar in the objective 
 case ; and that the second is a conjunction, connecting the 
 two members of the compound sentence. 
 
 For is a conjunction whenever it has the meaning of 
 hecause. So the word after may be used as a conjunction, 
 or a preposition, or an adverb ; as, ^ I went after him, cfter 
 I had seen his friend, and not long cfter, I found him.' 
 But I can place the noun time after the last cfter, and then 
 it will become a preposition ; as, * not long cfter that time,' 
 &/C. The word hefore may also be used as a preposition, 
 or a conjunction, or an adverb. 
 
 When before shows the relation between some two words, 
 and governs an object, it is a preposition ; when it connects 
 two members of a sentence, a conjunction ; and when it 
 has a reference to time merely, it is an adverb. The same 
 remark applies to since and cfter. 
 
 Whenever the words since, after, hefore, when, whilst, 
 while, whenever, and wherever, are used to connect simple 
 members of sentences, they may be called adverbial con- 
 7 
 
^4 ETYMOLOGY 
 
 junctions; because, although they connect as conjunctions, 
 they have a reference to time as adverbs. 
 
 Caroline, I think we now understand the conjunction. 
 Will you explain the interjection^ which is the last of the ten 
 parts of speech ? and we shall then be able to parse senten- 
 ces containing all the parts of speech. 
 
 Tutor. Interjections are words thrown in between the 
 parts of a sentence to express the sudden passions or emo- 
 tions of the speaker. The interjections of earnestness and 
 grief are oh ! ah ! alas ! &>c. There are many other inter- 
 jections, expressive of wonder, pity, contempt, disgust, admi- 
 ration, and salutation. Sometimes a whole phrase is used 
 as an interjection, and we call such intcTJectional phrases; 
 as. Out upon him ! Away with him ! Alas, what loonder I &c. 
 In parsing an interjection, you merely tell what part of 
 speech it is. I shall now ask you some questions, and 
 then give you a parsing lesson containing all the parts of 
 speech. 
 
 QUESTIONS. 
 
 What are conjunctions ? 
 
 How many kinds are there ? 
 
 What are the principal copulative conjunctions ? 
 
 What are the disjunctive ? 
 
 What conjunctions connect 5C7itcnc«* only ? 
 
 What conjunctions may connect either sentences or members of sentences ? 
 
 Wiiich are they that may also connect single words ? 
 
 When nouns and pronouns are connected by conjunctions, what rule must be 
 observed ? , r i. ? 
 
 Are the words used as conjunctions ever employed as other parts «t speech r 
 
 Give examples. 
 
 What is a simple sentence ? 
 
 What is a compound sentence ? 
 
 What is an interjection ? 
 
 When is the word that a rftlative pronoun .' 
 
 When a demonstrative adjective pronoun ? 
 •t When a demonstrative pronoua merely ? 
 iJknd when a conjunction ? 
 
 EXERCISES IN PARSING. 
 
 The boy improves very fast, because he applies well to 
 
 his studies. Your son behaves so well that he pleases 
 
 every body that sees him. The snow, falling from the 
 
 houses, hurt that child very much. You employ all your 
 
AND SYNTAX. 75 
 
 time in study and exercise ; that strengthens the mind, and 
 
 this the body. 
 
 Note. The prepositions to and for are frequently under- 
 stood ; but that they govern the objective case then, as well as 
 when expressed, you will perceive by the following sentences : — 
 
 He gives^a book to me. He gives me a book. We lend 
 them assistance. You give me many presents. 
 
 Modesty makes large amends for the pain it gives the 
 persons who labor under it, by the prejudice it affords every 
 worthy person in their favor. 
 
 Note. In this last sentence, you will observe that the rel- 
 ative ivhich is understood twice ; the first time after ^ain, and 
 is governed hy gives ^ the 5econc? after prejudice^ and is governed 
 by affords^ according to the latter part of Rule XI. 
 
 The friends, whom you treat politely, often call at your 
 house ; and they sometimes visit me, and my brothers and 
 sisters. I often see good people bestowing charity on the 
 poor. The rich, giving employment to the needy, aiford 
 to the latter the means of support, and keep them from idle- 
 ness and dissipation. 
 
 CONVERSATZOH XHZ. 
 
 Tutor. I have now noticed all the different parts of 
 speech, and have shown you some of their relations in 
 sentences ; and I have also furnished you with informa- 
 tion sufficient to enable you to parse them in those rela- 
 tions. But there are several other relations which you do 
 not understand. 
 
 George. If those which remain are not more difficult 
 than those we have had, I think we shall easily comprehend 
 them. 
 
 Tutor. Be patient, and make yourself completely 
 
76 ETYMOLOGY 
 
 acquainted with whatever I tell you, as we advance, and all 
 difficulties will give way before you. 
 
 When I spoke of the conjunctions in the last Conver- 
 sation, I told you that some connect single words. When 
 the copulative conjunction and connects two or more ac- 
 tors, you may perceive that the verb, which is used to 
 declare the action, expresses the action of both or all the 
 actors, and is therefore 2i plural verb; as, *The boy and 
 his sister study ;' not * studies ;' * The man and horse walk ;' 
 not * walks ;' because the verb {study and walk), in each 
 example, expresses the action of both the nominatives, and 
 it must therefore be plural. But if I say, * The boy or his 
 sister,' I must use the verb studies, in the singular number ; 
 * The man or horse walks. ^ 
 
 Caroline. I see the difference very clearly ; for when the 
 disjunctive conjunction or is used, the expression does not 
 mean that both nominatives act together, but that only one 
 acts ; it means that the boy studies, or his sister studies ; 
 but that they do not both study. And in the other sentence, 
 the meaning is, that either the man walks, or the horse 
 walks; but not both. 
 
 George. And it is quite plain, that when the verb ex- 
 presses a single action of an individual person or thing, it 
 must be of the singular number, as well as the noun, when 
 that denotes a single person or thing. But when the cop- 
 ulative conjunction is used, the sense is quite different ; 
 the verb then expresses the action of all the actors. 
 
 Tutor. Very well. I perceive that you begin to under- 
 stand something of your subject. I will give you a rule 
 concerning this matter. 
 
 RULE XV. 
 
 ( Wlien two or more nouns, or nouns and pronouns, of the 
 singular number, are connected by a Copulative conjunc" 
 tion, expressed or understood, they must have verbs, noims and 
 
AND SYNTAX. 77 
 
 pronouns in the Plural number to agree with them); put 
 when they are connected by a Disjunctive conjunction, they 
 must have verbs, nouns, and pronouns , in the Singular num- 
 ber to agree with them. 
 
 Caroline. Will you please to illustrate this rule by a few 
 examples, showing us why the nouns and pronouns must be 
 plural, when other nouns or pronouns are connected by a 
 copulative conjunction; and why they must be singular, 
 when such other nouns or pronouns are ^connected by a 
 conjunction disjunctive 1 
 
 Tutor, I will. 'George and William, who obey their 
 father, are dutiful sons/ In this sentence, the relative 
 who is third person plural, because its two antecedents, 
 George and William, are connected by the copulative con- 
 junction and; therefore the verb obey must be plural, to 
 agree with who ; and the adjective pronoun their is plural 
 for the same reason that who is ; are is plural, to agree with 
 its two nominatives George and William ; and sons is plu- 
 ral, because it means both George and William. But let 
 us use the disjunctive or. ' George or William, tcho obeys 
 his father, is a dutiful son.' Here you perceive, that the 
 verbs, nouns, and pronouns, must be singular. 
 
 George. These examples sufficiently illustrate the rule,' 
 and I now perfectly comprehend it. 
 
 Tutor. J will now give an exception to the first part of 
 this rule. When a distributive adjective pronoun belongs 
 to each of the nominatives, the verbs, nouns, and pronouns, 
 must be in the singular number ; as, * Every man and every 
 boy exerts himself.^ Sometimes an adjective pronoun is 
 used with the first noun, and is understood with those that 
 follow ; as, * Every leaf, and twig, and drop of water, teems 
 with life.* 
 
 George. I see the propriety of this exception to the 
 general rule, because, although several things are referred 
 to, yet each is taken separately, and the verb agrees with 
 7* 
 
78 ETYMOLOGY 
 
 each nominative separately. The sense is, that, 'Every 
 leaf teems, every twig teems, every drop of water teems/ 
 &c. 
 
 Tutor, That is right. And when you parse such sen- 
 tences, supply a verb for each nominative, as you have 
 now. 
 
 I will now give you another rule. 
 
 RULE XVL 
 
 Nouns and pronouns in apposition must he in the some 
 
 case. 
 
 Caroline. What is meant by apposition ? 
 
 Tutor, Apposition^ in grammar, means the addition of 
 another name for the same person or thing ; as, ' Watts, 
 the merchant,^ sells goods/ 
 
 In this sentence,^ you understand that Watts is the name 
 of the man, and merchant is another name for the same 
 person : therefore merchant is in apposition to Watts ^ or 
 another noun in addition to Watts, and must be in the same 
 case. Sometimes several nouns or pronouns are used in 
 addition to the firsts and then they are all in apposition to 
 the first. 
 
 The propriety of the two nouns being in the same case 
 you must readily perceive ; because, if Watts sells goods, 
 the merchant sells goods ; for both nouns mean the same 
 person, and therefore both are in the nominative case to the 
 verb sells. 
 
 Again : ' I saw Phelps, the tailor/ Now it is plain, 
 that when I saw Phelps, I saw the tailor ; for Phelps was 
 the tailor; therefore the noun tailor is in the objective 
 case, and is in apposition to Phelps, and is governed 
 by the transitive verb saw, according to Rule XVI. 
 
 George. This rule will be easily remembered, because 
 the reason of it is plain* 
 
AND SfYNTAX. 79 
 
 Tutor, It is so ; and you will find it of use to ycu in 
 your writing and conversation, as it will guard you against 
 such errors as the following : — * Love your Maker, he that 
 made you.' * You should honor your parents, they that 
 nourish and protect you.* * Give the book to my brother, 
 he whom you saw here to-day.' 
 
 In the first of these sentences, lie is wrong, because it 
 stands for Maker, which is in the objective case, and gov- 
 erned by love ; therefore he must he changed into him, in 
 apposition to Maker, 
 
 In the second example, they must be changed into them, 
 in apposition to parents, and governed by honor. In the 
 third example, he must be changed into him, in apposition 
 to brother, and governed by the preposition to. 
 
 Caroline. I think we shall find no difficulty in remem- 
 bering the application of this rule ; but I hope you will give 
 us some examples of its application in our next parsing 
 lesson, for I find that it is parsing that illustrates the 
 proper connexions of the words, and makes us remember 
 them. 
 
 Tutor. I will now ask you a few questions, and then I 
 will give you some exercises in parsing. 
 
 QUESTIONS. 
 
 When nouns and pronouns of the singular number are connected by a copulative 
 conjunction, of what number must verbs, nouns, and pronouns be to agree with 
 them ? 
 
 Is there any exception to this ? 
 
 What is the rule when nouns and pronouns of the singular number are disjunctively 
 connected ? 
 
 How do you parse nouns and pronouns in apposition 1 
 
 What is meant by apposition ? 
 
 How do you parse nouns and pronouns coming together, and signifying different 
 things ? See Rule II. 
 
 Vvhen is an adjective used substantively ? 
 
 Of what number is it when so used ? 
 
 How many cases have nouns and pronouns ? 
 
 What are they ? 
 
 How do you distinguish them ? 
 
 In which case does the noun vary } 
 
 How does it vary i 
 
 How many persons have nouns .' 
 
 How many have pronouns ? 
 
 Decline the three persons of the personal pronoun*. 
 
 How many kinds of adjective pronouns are there I 
 
 What are they ? Repeat them. 
 
80 ETYMOLOGY 
 
 Which of them arc declinable ? 
 Decline the relative who. 
 Are wlmk and that declinable? 
 How many parts of speech may that be used for ? 
 When is it a relative ? 
 
 W^hen is it a demonstrative adjective pronoun ? 
 -When is it a demonstrative pronoun merely? 
 When is it a conjunction ? 
 
 EXERCISES IN PARSING. 
 
 The generous never recount their deeds of charity, nor 
 the brave their feats of valor. That man whom you see 
 bestows more benefits on the poor than any other whom I 
 know. My neighbor has two sons, William and John. 
 Phelps, the tailor, works for me. You honor your parents, 
 them who protect and educate you. John Stiles, the attor- 
 ney, pleads my cause against Tom Nokes, who pleads for 
 my adversary, the broker. A contented mind and a good 
 conscience make a man happy in all conditions. Prudence 
 and perseverance overcome obstacles. What thin parti- 
 tions sense from thought divide ! The sun that rolls over 
 our heads, the food that we receive, and the rest that we 
 enjoy, daily admonish us of a superior and superintending 
 Power. Idleness and ignorance produce many vices. Ei- 
 ther his pride or his folly disgusts us. Every twig, every 
 leaf, and every drop of water, teems with life. None more 
 impatiently suffer injuries than those that most frequently 
 commit them. 
 
 Note. When nouns and pronouns of different persons are 
 connected by a copulative conjunction, the verb must agree 
 in person with the second in preference to the third, and with 
 the^r*^ in preference to either. 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 He and thou study well. He and thou and I labor 
 mueh. 
 
 In the first sentence, study is in the second person 
 
AND SYNTAX. 8| 
 
 plural. It is plural agreeably to Rule XV, because its two 
 nominatives are connected by «?!€?; and the secowc? person, 
 agreeably to this note. In the second sentence, labor is of 
 the first person plural, according to the same rule and 
 note. 
 
 CONVSRSATZON XZV. 
 
 Tutor. I shall commence this Conversation by explain- 
 ing to you what is called the nominative case indepen- 
 dent. All the nouns and pronouns, which you have yet 
 parsed, in the nominative case, have had a verb, you know, 
 to agree with them ; therefore, in parsing such, you have 
 said they were in the nominative case to the verb. But 
 a noun or pronoun may be so used, that it can have 
 no verb to agree with it, and still be in the nominative 
 case. This frequently happens, when we make a direct 
 address to a person or thing ; as, ' George, I wish you 
 would study more ;' * Caroline, will you give me your 
 bookf 
 
 In these sentences, you perceive that the two nouns 
 George and Caroline have no verb to agree with them ; 
 therefore they cannot be nominative to any verb ; and you 
 also perceive that they are not in the possessive or objective 
 case ; but they must be in one of the three cases. The rule, 
 then, for such a construction is, 
 
 RULE XVII. 
 
 When a direct address is madcy the noun or pronoun is in 
 the nominative case independent. 
 
 George, The nominative case independent,, then, must 
 always be of the second person; because the rule says, 
 * When a direct address is made,' &/C. ; and when we make 
 a direct address, the person or thing we speak to is of the 
 second person. 
 
82 ETYMOL.OGY 
 
 Tutor. Right. The nominative independent is always 
 in the second person ; but you must observe that a nomina- 
 tive of the second person is not always independent ; it is 
 independent only when it has no verb to agree with it ; and 
 what is meant by its being independent is, that it is indepen- 
 dent of any verb. All your other nominatives have had 
 verbs to agree with them, and therefore they were not inde- 
 pendent. 
 
 Caroline. Will you give us a few examples to parse un- 
 der this rule ? 
 
 Tutor, Yes ; you may parse these : 
 
 * George, Caroline studies better than you.' 
 
 * Caroline, ^ou understand this rule quite well.' 
 
 * Boy, I love you for your good conduct.' 
 
 I shall give you more examples under this rule in the 
 next exercises for parsing. There are now remaining four 
 or five rules more, which you must understand before you 
 can parse all the different constructions of the English lan- 
 guage ; but I shall defer the explanation of these till I shall 
 have given you the moods and tenses of the verbs, and made 
 you acquainted with the passive and neuter verbs ; because 
 the remaining rules cannot be so explained that you can 
 understand them before. 
 
 Before I say more, however, I will give you some 
 
 EXERCISES IN PARSING. 
 
 You, and I, and my cousin, meetflfcre daily. 
 
 I saw you yesterday writing a letter. 
 
 You see me now teaching you. 
 
 Caroline hears George reciting his lesson. 
 
 Some persons behave well, others ill. 
 
 Two and three make five. 
 
 One and one make two. 
 
 Two persons perform more work than one. 
 
 One likes not ill treatment. 
 
AND SYNTAX. 83 
 
 Boys, you do your work very well. 
 
 Those who labor with diligence succeed in business ; 
 
 but the idle and vicious come to poverty. 
 
 Note. The word what frequently has the sense of that 
 which and those tvhichj and then it must be parsed as a com- 
 pound pronoun, including both the antecedent and the relative. 
 In this construction, that is a demonstrative pronoun. I will 
 illustr-ate this by a few 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 I like 7vhat you dislike ; that is, I like that which you 
 dislike. 
 
 What pleases me displeases you. What we have we 
 prize not to the worth while we enjoy it. 
 
 You will find that the prepositions to and for are fre- 
 quently understood ; as in these 
 
 EXAMPLES. 
 
 He gave me a book; He bought me a present; that 
 is, He bought for me a present ; He gave to me a book. 
 Her father bought her a present, which she gave her 
 friend. 
 
 Modesty makes large amends for the pain it gives the 
 persons who labor under it, by the prejudice it affords every 
 worthy person in their favor. 
 
 CON'I^RSATXON ZV. 
 
 ■ OF THE MOODS AND TENSES OF VERBS. ^ 
 
 Tutor. I will now commence the explanation of the 
 moods and tenses of the verbs. ..' ^ 
 
 Mood, or Mode, is a particular form of the verb, 
 showing the manner in which the action is represented. It 
 consists in the change which the verb undergoes, to sig- 
 nify various intentions of the mind, and various modi- 
 fications and circumstances of action. Thus the ex- 
 
84 ETYMOLOGY 
 
 pressions, / walk — If I walk — I may or can walk — To 
 walk — Walk thou — are all different moods or modes of ex- 
 pressing the same action. 
 
 George. I perceive the difference between these five 
 forms of expression. I walk expresses positively what I 
 do. If I walk does not declare positively, but expresses 
 doubt. / may or can walk does not declare that I do 
 walk, nor does it express a doubt, but it shows that I 
 am at liberty to walk, or that I am able to walk. And 
 the fourth expression, To walk, is different from the other 
 three : this simply expresses an action, without a nomina- 
 tive. And the fifth, Walk thou, is different from all the 
 others ; it simply commands a second person to do the 
 action. 
 
 Tutor, Very well; your distinctions are quite cor- 
 rect. 
 
 Caroline. Are there no more than five forms or 
 moods? 
 
 Tutor. No ; English verbs have but five moods. 
 
 George. What are the names of these different 
 moods? 
 
 Tutor. Indicative, Subjunctive, Potential, Infini- 
 tive, and Imperative. 
 
 I will now explain the indicative mood to you ; and you 
 will perceive, that nearly all the verbs that you have hither- 
 to parsed have been in this mood. 
 
 When a verb makes a direct affirmative or asks a ques- 
 tion, it is in the Indicative Mood ; as, * He walks, he 
 walked, he will walk;' or, 'Does he walk? did he walk? 
 will he walk r 
 
 This mood is called indicative, because generally this 
 form of the verb simply indicates, or declares the action. 
 
 I shall, in the next Conversation, explain to you the 
 other moods, and show you how they differ from the in- 
 dicative. With this, therefore, you must make your- 
 
AND SYNTAX. ^ 
 
 selves very familiar, that you may the more clearly see how 
 the others differ from this, and from one another. 
 
 Tense means timey or the distinction of time. Every 
 action must be done in some time, either in past, present, 
 or future time. You perceive, then, there are three grand 
 divisions of time, viz. past, present and future. 
 
 When I say, I walk, walk is a verb in the indicative 
 mood, present tense or time; but when I say, I walked — 
 / had ^calked — the verbs are in the indicative mood, past 
 tense ; and the expressions, / shall or will walk, or / shall 
 have ivalked, put the verb in the future tense, because 
 these expressions indicate actions to be done hereafter, in 
 some future time. 
 
 You will observe, that the three expressions in past time 
 are all different, viz. walked — have walked — had walked; 
 so that there are three distinct tenses, or distinctions of the 
 past time. These are called imperfect, perfect, and plu- 
 perfect. 
 
 And now observe those that indicate future time, and 
 you will .perceive two distinctions of the future time, viz. 
 shall or will walk, and shall have walked. These are called 
 first future and second future tenses. 
 
 The Indicative Mood, then, has six tenses, or dis- 
 tinctions of time, viz. present, imperfect, perfect, pluperfect, 
 and first and second future. 
 
 The Subjunctive has also the same six tenses. 
 
 The Potential has four, viz. the ^rcscM^, the imperfect, 
 the perfect and pluperfect. 
 
 The Infinitive has two, the present and perfect. 
 
 The Imperative has one, the present. 
 
 I will directly explain to you how all the tenses of the 
 indicative mood are formed and distinguished ; but before 
 I do that, I must inform you, that verbs are either regu- 
 lar or irregular, and explain to you the difference be- 
 8 
 
86' ETYMOLOGY 
 
 tween those which are called regular, and those called 
 irregular. 
 
 The verbs which form their imperfect tense, and per- 
 fect or passive participles, by adding either d or ed to the 
 present tense, are regular; and those which form their 
 imperfect tense and perfect or passive participles other- 
 wise are irregular. Take the regular verb love, for ex- 
 ample; as, 
 
 Present Tense. Imperfect. Perfect^ or Pass. Part. 
 
 I love, I loved, Loved. 
 
 Here you perceive that the imperfect tense and the per- 
 fect participle are formed by adding dto the present tense, 
 love ; but when the present tense does not end in e, ed 
 must be added to form the imperfect tense and perfect 
 participle of regular verbs ; as, 
 
 Present Tense. 
 
 Imperfect. 
 
 Perfect^ or Pass. Part. 
 
 . I walk, 
 
 I walked, 
 
 Walked, 
 
 I labor, 
 
 I labored. 
 
 Labored. 
 
 But observe how the following form their imperfect tense 
 and perfect participle : 
 
 Present. Imperfect. Perfect, or Pass. Part. 
 
 I write, I wrote, Written. 
 
 I beat, I beat. Beaten. 
 
 I teach, I taught, Taught. 
 
 These are irregular verbs. 
 
 When I first explained the participle to you, in a 
 former Conversation, I told you there were three parti- 
 ciples, viz. the present, the perfect, and the compound 
 perfect. The present, or active participle, I explained 
 then : you now have the perfect ; and the compound per- 
 fect is formed by placing having before the perfect par- 
 ticiple. 
 
 The three participles, then, of the verb love, labor, 
 teach, are, 
 
 Present. Perfect. Compound Perfect. 
 Lovinc, Loved, Having loved. 
 
 Teaching, Taught, Having taught. 
 
 Laboring, Labored, Having labored. 
 
Imperfect. 
 
 Perfect and Participle. 
 
 I taught, 
 
 Taught. 
 
 I wrote, 
 
 Written. 
 
 AND SYNTAX. 87 
 
 You will perceive, that the imperfect tense and perfect 
 participle of all regular verbs, and of many irregular verbs, 
 are spelled alike. 
 
 George. I have observed, that the verbs love and teach 
 make loved aud taught, in the imperfect and participle : 
 loved and taught , then, are sometimes verbs in the imper- 
 fect tense, and sometimes perfect or passive participles. 
 How shall we know when these words are verbs, and v/hen 
 participles ? 
 
 Tutor. If you observe the conjugation of the verbs, you 
 will perceive, that the imperfect tense of the verb has a nom- 
 inative, but the participle has none; as. 
 
 Present. 
 I teach, 
 I write. 
 
 Whenever you have a verb to parse, the first thing you 
 must do is, to find whether it is regular, or irregular, by 
 conjugating it in the present and the imperfect tenses, and 
 naming the perfect participle j as, 
 
 Present. Imperfect. Perfect Participle. 
 
 I speak, I spoke, Spoken. 
 
 Present. Imperfect. Perfect Participle. 
 
 I leave, I left. Left. 
 
 Here you perceive that the imperfect tense and the parti- 
 ciple of the verb leave are spelled alike ; but the verb has a 
 nominative, the participle has not. 
 
 The conjugation of a verb is the regular combination 
 and arrangement of its several numbers, persons, moods, 
 and tenses ; or it is coupling the verb with its nominative 
 of the different numbers and persons, and making it 
 agree with that nominative, through all the moods and 
 tenses. 
 
 I will now present to you the conjugation of the regular 
 verb ipalk, in the indicative mood. 
 
68 ETYMOLOGY 
 
 ' INDICATIVE MOOD. 
 
 PRESENT TENSE. IMPERFECT TENSE. PERFECT OR PASSIVE 
 
 Angular. Singular. ^ PARTICIPLE. 
 
 I walk. I walked. 
 
 Thou walkest. Thou walkedst. 
 
 He, she, or it walketh He, she, or it walked. 
 or walks. J. Walked. 
 
 Plural. Plural. 
 
 We walk. We walked. 
 
 Ye or you walk. Ye or you walked. 
 
 They walk. They walked. 
 
 To form the Perfect Tense, prefix have to the perfect 
 participle ; as, 
 
 PERFECT TENSE. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 I have walked. We have walked. 
 
 Thou ha3t walked. Ye or you have walked. 
 
 He, she, or it hath or has walked. They have walked. 
 
 To form the Pluperfect Tense, prefix had to the perfect 
 participle,- as, 
 
 PLUPERFECT TENSE. 
 
 Angular. Plural. 
 
 I hadAvalked. We had walked. 
 
 " Thou hadst walked. Ye or you had walked. 
 
 He, she, or it had walked. They had walked. 
 
 To form the First Future Tense, prefix shall or will to 
 the present tense ; as, 
 
 FIRST FUTURE TENSE. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 I shall or will walk. We shall or will w»ik. 
 
 Thou shalt or wilt walk. Ye or you shall or will walk. 
 
 He shall or will walk. They shall or will walk. 
 
 % 
 
 To form the Second Future Tense, prefix shall have or 
 vnll Jiave to the perfect participle ; as, 
 
 SECOND FUTURE TENSE. 
 Sngular. Plural. 
 
 r shall have walked. We shall have walked. 
 
 Thou wilt have walked. Ye or you will have walked. 
 
 He will have walked. They will have walked. 
 
 Now observe the present and imperfect tenses. These 
 are denoted by the simple verbs, * I walk, thou walk- 
 est,' &/C., in the present tense ; and ' I walked, thou walk- 
 edst^* &/C., in the imperfect. These, therefore, are called 
 simple tenses, Bufr the four other tenses, you perceive. 
 
AND SYNTAX. 
 
 89 
 
 are formed by the help of other words, called auxiliary 
 verbSy or helping verbs. 
 
 All the tenses which are formed by auxiliary verbs are 
 called compound tenses. 
 
 I will now give you a list, which contains nearly all the 
 irregular verbs in our language : the others are, of course, 
 regular, and are to be conjugated like walk. 
 
 Many verbs become irregular by contraction ; as, feed, 
 fed; leave, left; others, by the termination e/i ; vls, fall, fell, 
 fallen ; others, by the termination ght ; as, buy, bought ; 
 teach, taught, &/C. 
 
 Now you can conjugate these verbs, in the indicative 
 mood, through all the six tenses, with the personal pronouns 
 in the different persons and numbers, as walk was con- 
 jugated ; as, 
 
 Perf. or Pass. Participle, 
 
 abode. 
 
 been. 
 
 arisen. 
 
 awaked. 
 
 born. 
 
 borne. 
 
 beaten, beat. 
 
 begun. 
 
 bent. 
 
 bereft. 
 
 besought. 
 
 bidden, bid. 
 
 bound. 
 
 bitten, bit. 
 
 bled. 
 
 blown. 
 
 broken. 
 
 bred. 
 
 brought. 
 
 built. 
 
 burst. 
 
 bought. 
 
 cast, 
 
 caught, r. 
 
 chidden, chid. 
 
 chosen. 
 
 cleft, cloven. 
 
 clung. 
 
 clad, r. 
 
 come. 
 
 cost. 
 
 crowed. 
 
 crept. 
 
 cut. 
 
 dared. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 
 Imperfect Tense. 
 
 Abide, 
 
 abode. 
 
 Am, 
 
 was, 
 
 Arise, 
 
 arose. 
 
 Awake, 
 
 awoke, r. 
 
 Bear, to bring forth. 
 
 bare. 
 
 Bear, to carry. 
 
 bore. 
 
 Beat, 
 
 beat, 
 
 Begin, 
 
 began. 
 
 Bend, 
 
 bent. 
 
 Bereave, 
 
 bereft, r. 
 
 Beseech, 
 
 besought. 
 
 Bid, 
 
 bid, bade, 
 
 Bind, 
 
 bound. 
 
 Bite, 
 
 bit. 
 
 Bleed, 
 
 bled. 
 
 Blow, 
 
 blew. 
 
 Break, 
 
 broke. 
 
 Breed, 
 
 bred. 
 
 Bring, 
 
 brought. 
 
 Build, 
 
 built. 
 
 Burst, 
 
 burst. 
 
 guy, 
 
 bought. 
 
 Cast, 
 
 cast. 
 
 Catch, 
 
 caught, r, 
 chid, 
 
 Chfae, 
 
 Choose, 
 
 chose. 
 
 Cleave, to stick or adhere— re^ar. 
 
 Cleave, to split, 
 
 clove, or cleft, 
 
 Cling, 
 
 clung. 
 
 Clothe, 
 
 e'thed. 
 
 Come, 
 
 came. 
 
 Cost, 
 
 cost. 
 
 Crow, 
 
 crew, r. 
 
 Creep, 
 
 crept, 
 
 Cut, 
 
 cut. 
 
 Dare, to venture, 
 
 durst, 
 
 Dare, r. to challenge. 
 
 
 8* 
 
 
90 
 
 ETYMOliOGT 
 
 Ptesmt. 
 Deal, 
 
 fmp^eet. 
 dealt, r. 
 
 Pct/. or Pa^. PaHiciplf^r 
 dealt, r. 
 
 Dig, 
 
 dug, r. 
 
 dug, r. 
 
 Do, 
 
 did, 
 
 done. 
 
 Draw, 
 
 drew. 
 
 drawn. 
 
 Drive, 
 
 drove. 
 
 driven. 
 
 Drink, 
 
 drank, 
 
 drunk. 
 
 Dwell, 
 
 dwelt, r. 
 
 dwelt, r* 
 
 5^'» 
 
 eat, orate. 
 
 eaten. 
 
 Fall, 
 Feed, 
 
 fell, 
 fed 
 
 fallen, 
 fed. 
 
 Feel, 
 
 felt. 
 
 felt. 
 
 E?S5^' 
 
 fought,. 
 
 fought. 
 
 Fmd, 
 
 found, 
 
 found. 
 
 Flee, 
 
 fled. 
 
 fled. 
 
 S^"^' 
 
 flung. 
 
 flung. 
 
 Fly, 
 
 flew. 
 
 flown. 
 
 Forget, 
 
 forgot. 
 
 forgotten, forgot. 
 
 Forsake, 
 
 forsook. 
 
 forsaken.* 
 
 Freeze, 
 
 froze, 
 
 frozen. 
 
 Get, 
 Gild, 
 
 got, 
 gilt, r. 
 
 got.t 
 gUt, r. 
 
 Gird, 
 
 girt, r. 
 
 girt, r. 
 
 Give, 
 
 gave. 
 
 given. 
 
 Go, 
 
 went, 
 
 gone. 
 
 Grave, 
 
 gmved. 
 
 graven, r. 
 
 Grind, 
 
 ground. 
 
 ground. 
 
 Grow, 
 
 grew, 
 
 grown. 
 
 Have, 
 
 had. 
 
 had. 
 
 Hang, 
 
 hung. r. 
 
 heard, 
 
 hewed. 
 
 hung, r. 
 heard. 
 
 Hear, 
 
 Hew, 
 
 hewn, r. 
 
 Hide, 
 
 hid. 
 
 bid, hidden. 
 
 Hit, 
 
 hit. 
 
 hit.' 
 
 Hold, 
 
 held. 
 
 held. 
 
 Hurt, 
 
 hurt. 
 
 hurt. 
 
 Keep, 
 
 kept, 
 
 kept. 
 
 Knit, 
 
 knit, n. 
 
 knit, r. 
 
 Know, 
 
 knew. 
 
 known. 
 
 Lade, 
 
 laded. 
 
 laden. 
 
 Lay, 
 
 laid. 
 
 laid. 
 
 Lead, 
 
 led. 
 
 led. 
 
 Leave, 
 
 left. 
 
 left. 
 
 Lend, 
 
 lent. 
 
 lent. 
 
 Let, 
 
 let,' 
 
 let. 
 
 Lie, to lie down. 
 
 lay, 
 
 laid. 
 
 Load, 
 
 loaded. 
 
 laden, r. 
 
 Lose, 
 
 lost. 
 
 lost. 
 
 Make, 
 
 made, 
 
 made. 
 
 Meet, 
 
 met, 
 
 met. j^^H^ 
 
 Mow, 
 
 mowed,. 
 
 mown, r. \^^^Ki 
 
 Pay,' 
 
 paid. 
 
 paid. WKm 
 
 Put, 
 
 put, 
 
 put. '-^B 
 
 Read, 
 
 read, 
 
 read. 7 
 
 Rend, 
 
 rent. 
 
 rent. , 
 
 Rid, 
 
 rid,' 
 
 fid. 
 
 Ride, 
 
 rode. 
 
 rode, Tidden.t 
 
 Ring, 
 
 rung, rang. 
 
 rung.. 
 
 Rise, 
 
 rose, 
 
 risen: 
 
 * Walker observes, that Milton has availed himself of the license of hid art 
 (an art as apt to corrupt grammar as it is to raise and adorn language) to use the 
 preterit of this verb for the participle : 
 
 " Th' immortal mind, that \idX\k forsook 
 Hermansion." 
 t Oottcn is nearly obsolete. Its compound forgoUen is stii) in good use. 
 X Ridden is nearly obsolete. 
 
AND SYNTAX. 
 
 91 
 
 Pruent* 
 
 Imperfect. 
 
 Pcrf. or Pass, PartidpU. 
 
 Rive, 
 
 rived, 
 
 riven. 
 
 Run, 
 
 ran. 
 
 run. 
 
 Saw, 
 
 sawed. 
 
 sawn, r. 
 
 Say, 
 
 said. 
 
 said. 
 
 See, 
 
 saw. 
 
 seen. 
 
 Seek, 
 
 sought, 
 
 sought. 
 
 Sell, 
 
 sold, 
 
 sold. 
 
 Send, 
 
 sent, 
 
 sent. 
 
 Set, 
 
 •>' set. 
 
 set. 
 
 Shake, 
 
 shook. 
 
 shaken. 
 
 Shape, 
 
 shaped, 
 
 shaped, shapen. 
 
 Shave, 
 
 shaved, 
 sheared. 
 
 shaven, r. 
 
 Shear, 
 
 shorn. 
 
 Shed, 
 
 shed, 
 
 slied. 
 
 Shine, 
 
 shone, r. 
 
 shone, r. 
 
 Show, 
 
 showed. 
 
 shown. 
 
 Shoe, 
 
 ahod,, 
 
 shod. 
 
 Shoot, 
 
 shot, 
 
 shot. 
 
 Shrink, 
 
 shrunk, 
 
 shrunk. 
 
 Shred, 
 
 slired. 
 
 shred. 
 
 Shut, 
 
 shut, 
 
 shut. 
 
 Sing, 
 
 sung, sang, 
 
 sung. 
 
 Sink, 
 
 sunk, sank, 
 
 sunk. 
 
 Sit, 
 
 sat. 
 
 sat. 
 
 Slay, 
 
 slew, 
 
 ^ain. 
 
 Sleep, 
 
 slept, 
 slid. 
 
 slept. 
 
 Slide, 
 
 sliddeik 
 
 Sling, 
 
 slunff, 
 
 slung. 
 
 Slink, 
 
 slunk. 
 
 ^unk. 
 
 Slit, 
 Smite, 
 
 slit, r. 
 
 slit, or slitteu 
 
 smote, 
 sowed," 
 
 smitten. 
 
 Sow, 
 
 sown, r. 
 
 Speak, 
 
 spoke. 
 
 spoken. 
 
 Speed, 
 
 sped. 
 
 sped. 
 
 Spend, 
 
 spent, 
 
 spent. 
 
 Spill, 
 
 spilt, r. 
 
 spilt, r. 
 
 Spin, 
 
 spun, * 
 
 span. 
 
 Spit, 
 
 spit, spat, 
 
 spit, spitten.* 
 
 Split, 
 
 split. 
 
 split. 
 
 Spread, 
 
 spread, 
 
 spread. 
 
 Spring, 
 
 sprung, sprang, 
 
 sprung.^' ^ 
 
 Stand, 
 
 stood, 
 
 stood. 
 
 Steal, 
 
 stole, 
 
 stolen. 
 
 Stick, 
 
 stuck, 
 
 stuck. 
 
 Sting, 
 
 stung, 
 
 stung. 
 
 Stink, 
 
 stunk, 
 
 stunk. 
 
 Stride, 
 
 strode, or stride, 
 
 stridden. 
 
 Strike, 
 
 struck. 
 
 struck, or stricken. 
 
 String, 
 
 strung, 
 
 strung. 
 
 Strive, 
 
 strove. 
 
 striven. 
 
 Strow, or strew, 
 
 strowed, or strewed, 
 
 strown, strowed, strewed. 
 
 Swear, 
 
 swore. 
 
 sworn. 
 
 Sweat, 
 
 swet, r. 
 
 swet, r. 
 
 Swell, 
 
 swelled, 
 
 swollen, r 
 
 Swim, 
 
 swum, swam, 
 
 swum. 
 
 Swing, 
 
 swung. 
 
 swung. 
 
 Take, 
 
 took, 
 taught. 
 
 t'dken. 
 
 Teach, 
 
 taught. 
 
 Tear, 
 
 tore. 
 
 torn. 
 
 Tell, 
 
 told. 
 
 told. 
 
 Think, 
 
 thought, 
 
 thought. 
 
 Thrive, 
 
 throve, n 
 
 thriven. 
 
 Throw, 
 
 threw, 
 
 thrown. 
 
 * Spitten is nearly obs^dete. 
 
92 
 
 ETYMOL 
 
 OdY 
 
 Present, 
 
 Imperfect. 
 
 Per/, or Pass. Participle. 
 
 Thrust, 
 
 thrust. 
 
 thrust. 
 
 Tread, 
 
 trod, 
 
 trodden. 
 
 Wax, 
 
 waxed, 
 
 waxen, r. 
 
 Wear, 
 
 wore. 
 
 worn. 
 
 Weave, 
 
 wove. 
 
 woven. 
 
 Weep, 
 
 wept. 
 
 wept. 
 
 Win, 
 
 won. 
 
 won. 
 
 Wind, 
 
 wound. 
 
 wound. 
 
 Work, 
 
 wrought. 
 
 wrought, or worked. 
 
 Wring, 
 
 wrung. 
 
 wrung. 
 
 Write, 
 
 wrote. 
 
 written. 
 
 In the preceding list, some of the verbs will be found 
 to be conjugated regularly, as well as irregularly ; and 
 those which admit of the regular form are marked with 
 an r. There is a preference to be given to some of these, 
 which custom and judgment must determine. Those 
 preterits and participles, which are first mentioned in 
 the list, seem to be the most eligible. I have not insert- 
 ed such verbs as are irregular only in familiar writing 
 or discourse, and which are improperly terminated by 
 t, instead of ed; as, learnt, spelt, slipt, &/C. These 
 should be avoided in every sort of composition. It is, 
 however, proper to observe, that some contractions of 
 ed into t are unexceptionable ; and others, the only es- 
 tablished forms of expression ; as, crept, dwelt, gilt, &c., 
 and lost, felt, slept, &c. These allowable and necessa- 
 ry contractions must therefore be carefully distinguished 
 from those that are exceptionable. The words which 
 are obsolete have also been omitted, that you might not 
 be induced to mistake them for words in present use. 
 Such are wreathen, drunken, holpen, molten, gotten, holden, 
 boiinden, &c. ; and swang, wrong, slank, strawed, gat^ 
 brake, tare, ware, d^c. 
 
 I will now question you, to see if you remember what 
 I have been saying. 
 
 QUESTIONS* 
 
 What is the conjugation of a verb ? 
 What is the mood of a verb ? 
 How many moods are there ? 
 
AND SYNT \X. 9^ 
 
 What are thoy called? 
 
 Which have 1 explained ? 
 
 Why is this called iiidicatwe ? 
 
 What is the meaning of tCT^se ? 
 
 How many tenses has the indicative mood ? 
 
 What are they called ? 
 
 Which of these arc past tenses? 
 
 Which are called simple tenses? 
 
 Which are called compound! 
 
 iVky are they called so ? 
 
 Which tenses are formed on the perfe^ct participle ? 
 
 Which tense is formed on the present ? 
 
 How is the imperfect formed ? 
 
 How is the perfect formed ? 
 
 How the pluperfect ? , 
 
 How the first future ? 
 
 How the second future ? 
 
 What is the difference between a regular and an irregular verb? 
 
 Can you now conjugate the verb speak, in the indicative mood, through all its 
 tenses, persons and numbers ? 
 
 What is a participle ? 
 
 How many kinds of participles are there ? 
 
 What are they ? 
 
 Can you give me the present participles of the verbs speakynin, go., ride ? 
 
 Can you give the perfect and compound perfect of these verbs? 
 
 How do you distinguish the perfect participle from the verb in the imperfect tenae, 
 when they are both spoiled alike ? 
 
 I will now give you a long lesson in parsing, that you 
 may become very familiar with the indicative mood, and all 
 its tenses, before I give you the other moods. 
 
 EXERCISES IN PARSING. 
 
 In these exercises, you will find the verb in the indica- 
 tive mood, in all its tenses, and the present, perfect, and 
 compound perfect participles. 
 
 In parsing the verb, now, first tell whether it is regular 
 or irregular; secondly, whether transitive or intransitive; 
 thirdly, the mood and tense ; fourthly, its person and num- 
 ber, and what it agrees with for its nominative ; and then 
 give the rule. 
 
 I learn my lesson well. Thou [earnest thy lesson badly. 
 He learns his lessor! soon. We learn our lesson to-day. 
 Ye or you learn your lesson hastily. They learn their les- 
 son easily. Learn I my lesson ? Learnest thou thy lesson ? 
 Learns he his lesson ? Learn my lesson ? Learnest thy 
 lesson ? Learns his lesson 1 Learn our lesson ? Learn 
 your lesson ? Learn their lesson ? I learned grammar. 
 Thou learnedst thy task well. He learned his task 
 
94 ETYMOLOGY 
 
 thoroughly. Learned we the subject sufficiently ? Learn- 
 ed you your exercises yesterday ? Learned they their 
 pieces perfectly ? 
 
 RULE XVIIL 
 
 The passive participle, unconnected with an auxiliary , 
 belongs, like an ac^ective, to some noun or pronoun, expressed 
 or understood. 
 
 I see a child well taught. I saw a boy badly beaten. 
 Thou seest me sorely afflicted. Thou sawest a letter 
 slovenly written. He sees a child wilfully abused. He 
 saw you ill treated. Some pieces of wood, curiously 
 carved, floated ashore. We, teaching the class, talk a 
 great deal. The men, having finished their work, went 
 abroad. The boys, having learned their lesson, played. 
 The workmen, ploughing the ground, broke the plough. 
 The men, having ploughed the field, left it. My neighbor 
 bought a field well ploughed. John Stiles purchased a 
 farm well cultivated. He cultivates one well purchased. 
 
 Who does that work ? Who did this mischief? Who 
 saw that mischief done ? Whom see I ? Whom seest 
 thou now 1 Whom sees he ? Whom see ye sometimes ? 
 Whom saw ye yesterday ? Which lovest thou most ? 
 What dost thou to-day 1 I have a book. Thou hast a pen. 
 He has money. We have gold. Ye or you have houses. 
 They have property. 
 
 What has he? What book has he? Which book 
 has he ? Which road takest thou here ? Whose house 
 hirest thou ? Whose child teaches he ? Us they teach. 
 Them we teach. Her I instruct. Thee he cheats. 
 I, who teach you, love them. Thou, who teachest me, 
 lovest her. He, who teaches us, loves them. We, 
 who teach the boys, love them. You, who teach tho 
 girl, love her. They, who teach the daughter, love her 
 mother. 
 
AND SYNTAX. 95 
 
 I, whom you commanded, loved your father once. 
 Thou, whom he taught, dost well. Him, whom you see, 
 I love stili. Whom thou seest, him love I. Them whom 
 he whips, I pity. The book which I lost, you found. 
 The book I lost, you found. The money I lost, he spent. 
 The house you built, I bought. I saw to-day the horse 
 you sold. I taught the boy you sent. They caught 
 the thief you suspected. The boys the boy injures. 
 The boy the boys injure. The boy the boys car- 
 ries. The boys the boy carry. Thee, whom they betray, 
 we love. 
 
 I have learned my task. Thou hast learned thy lesson. 
 He has learned his exercises. He hath learned them. 
 We have learned very slowly. The man has seen his son 
 daily. The men have seen their sons thrice. The pa- 
 rents have clad their children warmly. I had seen him. 
 Thou hast seen them often. I shall see you to-morrow. 
 Thou wilt see me some days hence. He will see thee 
 twenty times. I shall have seen you ten times to- 
 morrow. Thou wilt have seen her abused twice, per- 
 haps thrice, by and by. He will have finished his work 
 to-morrow. 
 
 You gave a book to me. You have given me a book. 
 He lent me some money. He has lent you a book. Her 
 father bought her a present, which she gave her friend. 
 That man's brother and sister left him a fortune, which 
 he soon wasted. Whom ye ignorantly worship, him de- 
 clare I unto you. Modesty makes large amends for the 
 pain it gives the persons who labor under it, by 
 the prejudice it affords every worthy person in their 
 favor. 
 
 I invited his brother and him to my house. Him and 
 his friend I had seen before. Him, whom the master 
 taught; your brother had taught before. I shall see him 
 before you arrive. He will finish his studies first, because 
 
96 ETYMOL.OGY 
 
 he commenced them before you. I saw her and her 
 sister long since. I have seen you since I saw her. I 
 walked before you, and your friend rode before me. Some 
 people have seen much more of the world than others. 
 He has seen more years than I. You labor more than 
 he. He came down stairs slowly, but he went briskly up 
 again. 
 
 CONVSnSATION XVZ. 
 
 OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
 
 Tutor. You now understand the indicative mood, with 
 all its tenses, so well, that you will find the other moods 
 and their tenses very easily acquired. 
 
 Caroline. We expected to find the moods and tenses of 
 the verbs somewhat difficult to learn ; but we now begin 
 to think, that they are very easily understood and remem- 
 bered. 
 
 Tutor. If you listen attentively to what I say, and re- 
 flect well upon it, I think you will readily comprehend 
 every part of the subject. 
 
 I will now proceed to explain the subjunctive mood. 
 
 When a verb is preceded by a word or by words, which 
 express a condition, doubt, motive, wish, or supposition, it 
 is in the Subjunctive Mood ; as, 
 
 He will injure his health, if\ve walk in the rain; I will 
 respect him, though he Chide me ; on condition that he 
 come, I will consent to stay. 
 
 George. I perceive, by your examples, that the third per- 
 son singular of the verb, in the subjunctive mo-^, present 
 tense, has not the same termination that it has in the indic- 
 ative. In the indicative, the verbs which you have given, 
 viz. walk, chide, come, would be walks, chides, comes. 
 
 Tutor. That is true. The subjunctive mood does 
 
AND SYNTAX. 97 
 
 not vary the verb in the present tense. All the persons 
 are like the first person singular, as you may see by these 
 examples : 
 
 Angular. Plural. 
 
 If I come. If we come. 
 
 If thou come . If ye or you come. 
 
 If he come. If they come. 
 
 You will conjugate all verbs, in the subjunctive pres- 
 ent, in the same manner. But in the subjunctive im- 
 perfect, perfect, pluperfect, first future and second fu- 
 ture, the verb is conjugated just as it is in those tenses 
 in the indicative mood ; except that will and wilt are not 
 used in the subjunctive second future, and that a conjunc- 
 tion, expressing a cohdition, doubt, &/C., is used before 
 it, as you have seen in the examples I have given you. 
 The subjunctive second future of the verb come is conju- 
 gated thus : -, 
 
 Singular JVumber. Plural JVkmber. 
 
 If I shall have come. If we shall have come. 
 
 ■ If thou shalt have come. If ye or you shall have come. 
 
 If he shall have come. If they shall have come. 
 
 And all others in the same manner. 
 
 George. I now see that the difference between the con- 
 jugation of the verb in the indicative mood, and in the 
 subjunctive, is only in the present tense, and the sec- 
 ond future. In the present , it does not vary on account 
 of the person of its nominative, as it does in the indicative ; 
 and in the second future, will and wilt are not used, but 
 shall and shalt. I 
 
 Tutor. That is right. 
 
 Caroline. I suppose ani/ conjunction, that expresses a 
 condition, doubt, motive, &c., may be used in conjugating 
 a verb in the subjunctive mood, as well as if 
 
 Tutor. Certainly. You may use though, whether, unless, 
 lest, &c. ; but these, being longer words, are not so conveni- 
 ent in conjugating the verb as if. 
 
 George, I believe we now know how to form all the 
 9 
 
98 ETYMOLOGY 
 
 tenses of this mood, and we know how it differs from 
 the indicative ; but we do not yet know why it is called 
 subjunctive. 
 
 Tutor. To subjoin means to add at the end, or to add 
 afterwards. Subjunctive means subjoined to something 
 else. Now observe the. manner in which the verb 
 is used when in the subjunctive mood. * He will per- 
 form, if he promise ;' * I shall be satisfied, though he 
 fail, if he tri/ to perform;' Here you see that the verbs 
 in the subjunctive mood are preceded by conjunctions 
 expressing condition or doubt, and are subjoined to 
 other verbs ; that is, they are used in the latter member of 
 a compound sentence ; and the conjunctions connect 
 the two members of the compound sentence together. 
 But sometimes such sentences are inverted, and the 
 member in which the subjunctive mood is used is plac- 
 ed Jirst ; as, 'If he promise, he will perform ;' ' Though 
 he faily if he fry to perform, I shall be satisfied.* The 
 conjunction, however, connects the two members of the 
 sentence with equal force in both constructions; for, as 
 I told you before, this is an inverted order of the sense, 
 and, by reading the sentence in its proper order, you 
 will perceive, that the conjunction performs its proper 
 office. 
 
 Caroline. I suppose, then, from the examples which 
 you have given, that the subjunctive mood cannot be 
 properly used, except in a compound sentence ; for a 
 simple sentence contains but one .nominative and one verb; 
 a|id the conjunctions if though, unless, &/C., are such as 
 connect only members of compound sentences. 
 
 Tutor. That is right, Caroline. But we shall see 
 this more clearly, perhaps, if we make an experiment. If 
 I say, then, ' If George study ' — * If he spend his time 
 idly' — you perceive the sense is not complete; and, to 
 make it so, I must add another member of a senVwHe 
 
AND SYNTAX. 99 
 
 Let us fill it up. * If George study, he will improve;^ * If 
 he spend his time idly, he icill not improved Now you see 
 the sense is complete. But these sentences are inverted. 
 Let us read them in the order of the sense. * George will 
 improve, if he study ;' * He will not improve, if he spend his 
 time idly.' 
 
 But now, to make the distinction more plain, if possible, 
 observe the indicative mood; or form : ' George studies ;' 
 * He spends his time idly.' These are simple sentences, 
 but the sense is complete. 
 
 George. Are the conjunctions which express condition, 
 doubt, motive, &c., always written before the verb in the 
 subjunctive ? 
 
 Tutor, No : sometimes they are understood, and the 
 form of the expression will show you when they are under- 
 stood ; as, * Had he come sooner, I should have seen him ;' 
 ' Were he rich, he would be liberal ;' that is, * If he had 
 come,' &c. ; ' if he were rich,' &c. 
 
 Caroline. I believe we comprehend the character and 
 use of the subjunctive mood. 
 
 Tutoi\ I believe you comprehend what I have said ; 
 but I have a few words more to say on this subject. There 
 are two forms of the present tense of the subjunctive mood 
 which I denominate the First Form and the Second Form 
 of the subjunctive present ; the secorid form is that which 
 I have explained. The first form is that in which the 
 verb retains the personal termination in the second and 
 third persons singular, as it does in the indicative pres- 
 ent; as, 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
 
 PRESENT TENSE. 
 
 First Form. Second Form. 
 
 If I study. If! study. 
 
 If thou stud iest. If thou study. 
 
 If he studies. Vi#E*^ ' If he study. 
 
IM ETYMOLOGY 
 
 Plural. Plural. ih,^,^, . i 
 
 If we study. If we study. 
 
 If ye or you study. If ye or you study. 
 
 If they study. If they study. 
 
 George. The distinction of these two forms of the pres- 
 ent tense of the subjunctive is very easily remembered, 
 because the frst is like that of the indicative present, ex- 
 cept the conjunction must be prefixed ; and the second you 
 explained before. 
 
 Caroline. But I perceive one difficulty ; which is, that 
 I do not know when I must use the Jirst form, or when I 
 must use the second; and if I know how to conjugate and 
 parse verbs in these two forms of the subjunctive pres- 
 ent, but do not know when to use the first form, or 
 when the second, I do not know enough of grammar, 
 with respect to this mood^ to make it of much benefit 
 to me; for grammar teaches us to speak and write cor^ 
 redly. 
 
 Tutor, Very well, Caroline : that is true. I will try to 
 inform you on this point, so that you may be able to use 
 the subjunctive mood correctly. 
 
 The second form of the subjunctive present, as I have 
 given it to you, always has a future signification, or a ref- 
 erence to future time, as you will perceive by reflecting 
 on the example which I have used to illustrate it. 
 
 The first form has no reference to future time. Both 
 are preceded by a conjunction, expressed or understood, or 
 by some words which express a condition, doubt, motive, 
 &c. ; so that, when you take the whole compound sentence 
 together, in which the subjunctive present is used, and find 
 that the expression has a reference io future time, you must 
 use the second form ; otherwise, the first. See, also, sec. 
 XX, in a succeeding page. 
 
 The truth is, that the second form, having a reference 
 to future time, always has some auxiliary verb under- 
 stood before it ; such as may, can, or should. Now you 
 
AND SYiVTA-X. lot 
 
 will perceive, that, if we conjugate the verb, and use one 
 of these auxiliaries, the pnncipal verb cannot vary, in the 
 second and third persons singular ; as, 
 
 If I should go. If I can come. 
 
 If thou shouldst go. If thou canst come. 
 
 If he should go, &c. If he cau come, &c. 
 
 And when I say, * George will improve if he study,' 
 the phrase means, that * George will improve, if he should 
 study.' 
 
 George. I perceive that that is the meaning, and that 
 the verb must be study y and not studies ; for we cannot say, 
 *If he should studies ;' and the principal verb must be 
 written in the same manner,^ when the auxihary is un- 
 derstood, as it is when expressed. The reason, therefore, 
 why the verb, m the second form, does not vary, is quite 
 plain. I think I now know how to use the two forms of the 
 subjunctive present. 
 
 Caroline. I think I understand too, very clearly, how to 
 use them. For example, if I say, * George will recite his 
 lesion better than I, if he studies while I am talking ;' the 
 phrase does not mean, * If he should study,' but * If he now 
 studies,' or * If he is now studying ;' therefore, I properly use 
 the ^rs^ form. 
 
 Tutor. That is right ; and I think now that you both 
 understand the subjunctive mood ; and wheft you parse a 
 verb in the present tense of this mood, always tell whether it 
 is in \he first or second form. 
 
 I will now question you concerning the subject ^f this 
 Conversation. 
 
 QUESTIONS. 
 
 When is a verb in the subjunctive mood ? 
 
 Why is this mood called subjunctive 7 
 
 Is this mood ever used in simple sentences ? 
 
 What is the difference between the first and the second form of the Bubjuoctive 
 present .•• 
 
 How many tenses has this mood ? 
 
 In what tenses of the subjunctive mood is the verb conjugated, aa it is in the cor- 
 respondent tenses of the indicative ? 
 
 In which is it conjugated differently ? 
 
 In what instances must the first form of the subjunctive presen^t be used ? 
 
^ ' ' ' ' ETYMOLOGY 
 
 In what must the second be used ? 
 
 Can you conjugate the verb speak, through all the tenses of the subjunctive moodv 
 giving both forms of the present tense ? 
 
 EXERCISES IN PARSING. 
 
 I shall walk in the fields to-morrow, unless it rain. 
 If George studies well, he does his duty in that respect. 
 If that man thinks as he speaks, he will hereafter find him- 
 self in error. My estate has considerably increased during 
 this year, unless my accountant deceives me. If he ac- 
 quire riches, and make not a good use of them, they will 
 corrupt his mind. 
 
 It is here necessary to give you another rule, to assist you 
 in the proper use of the verbs in the construction of com- 
 pound sentences. 
 
 RULE XIX. 
 
 The verbs connected by conjunctions must be in the same 
 mood and tense, and when in the subjunctive mood, they must 
 be in the same form. 
 
 You remember, doubtless, the I4th rule, which says, 
 'Nouns and pronouns connected by conjunctions must be 
 in the same case.' 
 
 This rule, and the 19th, which I have just given you, are 
 of great importance in the construction of compound se»- 
 tences ; and you must, therefore, pay particular attention ux 
 them. 
 
 CONVERSATXOir XVXX. 
 
 OF THE POTENTIAL, INFINITIVE, AND IMPERATIVE MOODff. 
 
 Tutor. In this Conversation, I will give you the remain- 
 ing moods, and their tenses. I shall first explain to you the 
 
 POTENTIAL MOOD. 
 
 This mood implies possibility or liberty, will or obliga- 
 tion ; as, * It may rain ; he may go ; I can walk ; he would 
 ride j they should study.' 
 
AND SYNTAX. 
 
 lOG 
 
 This mood, you may remember, has four tenses, viz. 
 the present, the imperfect, the perfect, and the pluper- 
 fect. 
 
 I have told you, that those tenses which are formed by 
 auxiliary verbs, are called compound tenses. The present 
 and imperfect tenses of Ae indicative and subjunctive 
 moods, you know, are simple tenses, and the others are 
 compound ; but all the tenses of the potential mood are 
 compound. 
 
 > The auxiliaries, which form the tenses of the potential 
 mood, are may, can, must, will, shall, might, could, would, 
 and should. 
 
 I will first showjou how these auxiliaries are conjugated^ 
 and will then give you the potential mood. 
 
 MAY. 
 
 Present Tense. 
 
 
 Imperfect Tense. 
 
 Singular. 
 I may. 
 Thou mayst. 
 He may. 
 
 Plural. 
 We may. 
 Ye or you may. 
 They may. 
 
 CAN. 
 
 Singular. 
 I might. 
 Thou mightst.^ 
 He might. 
 
 Plwal. 
 We might. 
 Ye or you might. 
 They might. 
 
 Angular. 
 I can. 
 
 Thou canst. 
 He can. 
 
 
 Sinpilar. 
 I couFd. 
 Thou couldst. 
 He could. 
 
 Plural. 
 We can. 
 Ye or you can. 
 They can. 
 
 MUST. 
 
 Plural. 
 We could. 
 Ye or you could.^ 
 They could.- 
 
 Angular. 
 I must. 
 Thou must. 
 He must. 
 
 
 Singular. 
 I must. 
 Thou must. 
 He must. 
 
 Plural. Plural. 
 We must. We must. 
 Ye or you must. Ye or you must. 
 They must. They must. 
 
 You will here observe, that must has no variation on ac- 
 
 count of person^ number ^ 
 
 or tense. 
 
 
104 
 
 
 ETYMOLOGY 
 
 
 WILL. 
 
 
 RESEXT Tense 
 
 , 
 
 Imperfect Teni 
 
 Singular. 
 I wiin 
 Thou wilt. 
 He will. 
 
 
 Singular. 
 I would. 
 Thou wouldst. 
 He would. 
 
 Plural. 
 We will. 
 Ye or you will. 
 They wiU. 
 
 
 Plural. 
 We would. 
 Ye or you would. 
 They would. 
 
 Angular. 
 I shafi. 
 Thou Shalt. 
 He Bhall. 
 
 SHALL. 
 
 &ngular. 
 1 should. 
 Thou shouldat. 
 He shouldat. 
 
 Plural. 
 We shall. 
 Ye or you shall. 
 They shall. 
 
 
 Plural. 
 We should. 
 Ye or you should. 
 They should. 
 
 George. I observe that you have given no perfect or 
 passive participle to these verbs. 
 
 Tutor. These verbs have no participles ; and they are 
 therefore called defective verbs, 
 
 Caroline. You say, that all these are used in forming 
 the tenses of the potential mood ; but I recollect, that 
 shall and will were used as auxiliaries, in forming the 
 first and second future tenses of the indicative and subjunc^ 
 tive moods^ 
 
 Tutor. They were ; and, when they denote futuritt/, as 
 in these expressions, * I shall see you to-morrow,' or * I 
 will meet you,' meaning at some future time, they put 
 the verbs in the indicative first future. So in these phras- 
 es, * I shall have seen him,' or * If I shall have seen him,' 
 &/C., the verbs are in the indicative and subjunctive second 
 future. 
 
 But when these auxiliaries denote inclinution or willing- 
 ness, resolution or promise, they put the verbs in the poten- 
 tial present ; as, ' Will you give me that book, George V 
 that is, *;Are you. willing to give me that book.' Again; 
 * Some pei&ons will never assist the poor ;' that is, * Some 
 persons are unwilling to assist the poor.' 
 
 Once more ; * Shall I hear you recite now V * You 
 
AND SYNTAX. 105 
 
 shall recite now.' ' He shall obey me at all times/ &c. 
 But will and shall are not so often used in this sense as 
 they are in that which denotes futurity. 
 
 May, can, must, and their imperfect tenses, and the iwt- 
 perfect tenses of will and shall, viz. would and should, are 
 the auxiliaries which are almost always used to form the 
 potential mood. 
 
 I will now give you the irregular verb Beat, in the four 
 tenses of the potential mood. 
 
 POTENTIAL MOOD. 
 To form the present tense, prefix the preseiit tense of any 
 of the auxiliaries, which I have just explained, to the 
 verb ; as, 
 
 PRESENT TENSE. 
 Singular. 
 I may or can, &c. beat. 
 Thou mayst or canst, &c. beat. 
 Ha may t»- can, &c. beat. 
 
 Plural. 
 We may or can, &c. beat. 
 Ye or you may or can, &« beat. 
 They may or can, &;c. beat. 
 
 To form the imperfect tense, prefix the imperfect of any 
 of these auxiliaries to the verb ; as, 
 
 IMPERFECT TENSE. 
 
 Singular. 
 I might, could, would, or should, &c. beat. 
 Thou mightst, &c. beat. 
 He might, &c. beat. 
 Plural. 
 We might, &c. beat. 
 Ye or you might, &c. beat. 
 They might. Ice. beat. 
 
 To form the perfect tense, combine the present tense of 
 any of these auxiliaries with have, and prefix them both to 
 the perfect participle ; as, 
 
 PERFECT TENSE. 
 
 Angular. 
 I may or can, &c. have beaten. 
 Thou mayst, &c. have beaten. 
 He may, &c. have beaten. 
 
 Plural. 
 We may, &c. have beaten. 
 Ye or you may, &c. have beaten. 
 They may, &c. have beaten. 
 
106 ETYMOLOGY 
 
 To form the pluperfect tense, combine the imperfect of 
 any of these auxiliaries with have^ and prefix them both to 
 the perfect participle ; as, 
 
 PLUPERFECT TENSE. 
 
 Singular. 
 I might or could, &c. have beaten. 
 Thou mightst, &c. have beaten. 
 He might, &c. have beaten. 
 
 Plural. 
 We might, &c. have beaten. 
 Ye or you might, &c. have beaten. 
 They might, &c. have beaten. 
 
 I have now presented to you the potential mood with its 
 four tenses, and have explained the manner in which they 
 are formed. 
 
 George. I now see that all the tenses of this mood are 
 compound tenses, because they are all formed by auxilia- 
 ries. I think, with a little reflection, that it will not be dif- 
 ficult to remember the particular form of each. 
 
 Caroline. If you please, I will endeavor to tell how 
 each is formed. 
 
 Tutor, Let me hear. 
 
 Caroline. The potential present is formed by prefixing 
 may, can, must, will, or shall, to any verb ; the imperfect 
 is formed by prefixing the imperfect tense of these, viz. 
 might, could, must, would, or should, to any verb ; the 
 perfect is formed by prefixing may have, tan have, or must 
 have, &/C., to the perfect participle of any verb ; and 
 the pluperfect is formed by prefixing might have, could 
 have, would have, &/C., to the perfect participle of any verb. 
 
 Tutor. You have given them correctly, Caroline ; and to 
 aid you in arranging them distinctly in your mind, I will 
 merely remark, that these auxiliaries, with the exceptions 
 which I made in the first part of this Conversation, respect- 
 ing will and shall, may be considered as sigjis of the poten- 
 tial mood. 
 
 When you reflect, then, that these signs, in the pres- 
 ent tense, placed before the indicative present, give you 
 
AND SYNTAX. 107 
 
 the potential present ; and that these signs, in the imper' 
 feet, placed before the indicative present also, give you the 
 potential imperfect ; and that have, used with the present 
 tense of these signs, and placed before the perfect partici- 
 ple, will give you the potential perfect; and that have, 
 combined with the imperfect tense of them, and placed be- 
 fore the perfect participle, will give you the potential phi-' 
 perfect ; you cannot find much difficulty in rendering the 
 tenses of this mood exceedingly familiar. 
 
 George. You have said so much about them, that I 
 believe we shall never forget them. We can easily remem- 
 ber this ; that the present and imperfect are formed on the 
 indicative present, and the perfect and pluperfect on the 
 •perfect participle. But you have not yet told us why this 
 mood is called potential. 
 
 Tutor. The word potential means powerful, or existing 
 in possibility . When used as a term in grammar, it de- 
 notes the possibility of doing an action. Although this 
 mood does not always represent the power or possibility of 
 doing an action, yet it frequently does, and we therefore 
 call this form of the verb the potential mood. 
 
 I will here remark to you, that as the indicative mood is 
 converted into the subjunctive, by the expression of a 
 condition, motive, wish, supposition, &/C. being super- 
 added to it, so the potential mood may, in like manner, 
 be turned into the subjunctive ; as will be seen by the 
 following examples ; * If I could deceive him, I should 
 abhor it ;' * Though he should increase in wealth, he 
 would not be charitable ;' * Even in prosperity, he would 
 gain no esteem, unless he should conduct himself 
 better.* 
 
 When the verb is changed from the potential into the 
 subjunctive mood, the tense is not changed. For exam- 
 ple ; * I may go,' is potential present ;' ' If I may go,* 
 is subjunctive present ; and * He would go,' potential 
 
108 ETYMOLOGY 
 
 imperfect ; and * If he would go/ subjunctive imperfect, 
 &c. 
 
 Caroline. Now I should like to hear some explanation 
 of the infinitive mood. 
 
 Tutor. The Infinitive Mood is that form of the verb 
 which simply expresses the action, without a nominative ; 
 as, to walk, to eat, to speak, &c. Every verb must have a 
 nominative case, if it is not in the infinitive mood; but 
 in this mood, you may easily perceive that it cannot have 
 a nominative ; for this form of the verb, as I have shown 
 you, is to walk, to go, &c., and we cannot say, * I to go,' 
 * I to walk,' * He to run,' &/C. A verb in any mood except 
 the infinitive is called 2i finite verb ; because it is finite, or- 
 limited, in respect to its number and person ; for a verb, 
 when it has a nominative, must agree with it in number and 
 person. Thus, when I say, * I run,' run, you know, is of 
 the first person singular, to agree with /; and when I 
 say, * TJiey run,' run is of the third person plural, to agree 
 with thei/. It is the nominative, then, you perceive, that 
 gives number and person to the verb. When I say, 
 ' To run,' run has no nominative, and of course it has 
 neither number nor person, and is, therefore, not a 
 finite verb, but a verb in the infinite form, or infinitive 
 mood. 
 
 When, in a former Conversation, I explained to you 
 simple and compound sentences, I told you that a simple 
 sentence has but one nominative and one verb. You did 
 not, then, know the difference between a finite verb and 
 a verb in the infinitive mood ; or I should have told 
 you, that a simple sentence is one which contains but one 
 nominative and one finite verb. It may contain other 
 verbs in the infinitive mood, and still it will be a simple 
 sentence. 
 
 Caroline. I think you have said, that this mood has but 
 two tenses. 
 
AND SYNTAX. 109 
 
 Tutor. Yes ; the present and perfect. The present is 
 formed by prefixing to, which is called the sign of the 
 infinitive mood, before any verb; as, to go, to walk, to 
 eat, &c. The perfect is formed by prefixing to have 
 before the perfect participle of any verb; as, to have 
 gone, to have walked, to have eaten, &;C. 
 
 But vi^hen a verb is in the infinitive mood, and is 
 placed after make, need, see, bid, dare, feel, hear, let, in 
 any of their i.ioods and tenses, or afi;er their participles, 
 the to must be omitted; as, * I make him study,* *I hear 
 her sing ;' * I see him run,* ' I will let him go ;* * I dare 
 not speak/ &c. In these examples, you perceive that it 
 would be inelegant to express the to, and say, * I heard 
 her to sing* &c. 
 
 George. All this is very plain, and easily understood ; 
 but how must w^ parse a verb in the infinitive mood? 
 for we cannot apply the first rule, as we do when we 
 parse verbs in other moods, because a verb in this mood 
 has no nominative case. 
 
 Tutor. You will tell whether it is regular pr irregular, 
 transitive or intransitive, as you do of verbs in other moods; 
 hen the mood and tense ; and give this 
 
 RULE XX. 
 
 The infinitive mood may he governed hy a verb, noun, 
 adjective, or participle. 
 
 Government is the influence which one verb has over 
 another, in directing its case or mood. A verb in the 
 infinitive mood has no nominative. When a verb, noun, 
 adjective, or participle, then, prevents the following verb 
 irom having a nominative, it prevents it from being a 
 finite verb, and, consequently, causes it to* be in the in- 
 finitive mood. 
 
 Caroline. Will you illustrate this rule by a few ex- 
 amples ? 
 
 10 
 
110 ETYMOLOGY 
 
 Tutor, I will. When I say, * She sings,' you know 
 that she is the nominative to the verb sings* But now I 
 write ^ IwillleV before that phrase, and you perceive that 
 the pronoun she can no longer remain as the nominative 
 to sings, but must be changed into her, in the objective 
 case, because let is a transitive verb, and governs that case ; 
 and the 5, which is the personal termination of the third 
 person singular, of the indicative mood, must be taken off: 
 then the phrase will stand thus ; * I will let her sing ;' and 
 sing is now in the infinitive mood, and governed by the 
 verb toill let. 
 
 George, I see very clearly, that will let governs sing, or 
 causes sing to be in the infinitive mood ; for we cannot say, 
 
 * I will let she sings/ 
 
 Tutor, This mood is generally governed by the pre- 
 ceding verb, but son\etimes by a noun, adjective, or a 
 participle; and when these govern it, they, in some way 
 or other, prevent the verb from having a nominative. Thus, 
 if I say, * I go/ ' They work,* go and work are finite verbs ; 
 but insert the verbs intend and expect; * I intend to go^ 
 
 * They expect to work ;' now, intend and expect take / and 
 they for their own nominatives, and put the other verbs into 
 the infinitive mood. 
 
 So when I say, ' Endeavoring to persuade them,* &c.; 
 ' He is eager to learn ;' ' They have a desire to improve ;' 
 you see that a nominative could not be inserted after jhe 
 participle endeavoring, the adjective eager, or the noun 
 desire ; but that they govern the verbs that follow them, in 
 the infinitive mood. 
 
 I will just remark to you, that the verbs in the infinitive 
 mood, that follow make, need, see, hid, dare, feel, hear, let, 
 and their participles, are always governed by them. ^ 
 
 And 1 will also observe, that there are a few verbs besides 
 these, which sometimes require the infinitive, that follows 
 them, to be used without the sign to. 
 
AND SYNTAX. HI 
 
 Caroline. I hope you have now finished your remarks 
 on the infinitive mood ; for I wish to hear something about 
 the imperative, which is the last of the moods. 
 
 Tutor, The Imperative Mood may be very soon dis- 
 , pjosed of 
 
 It simply expresses a command to a second person ; and 
 the person commanded is its nominative. It is, there- 
 fore, always of the second person ; and, as we cannot com- 
 mand in past or future time, it is always of the present 
 tense. The nominative to a verb in this mood is generally 
 understood ; as, * Go,' that is, * Go thou,' or * Go ye ;* 
 ' Come to me, and recite,' that is, * Come thou,' or * Come 
 ye or you,' &c. 
 
 The verb in the imperative mood, then, is always in 
 the present tense, and always of the second person, either 
 singular or plural. When one person is commanded, it 
 is of the singular number, and agrees with thou^ express- 
 ed or understood ; when more than one are command- 
 ed, it is of the plural number, and agrees with i/e or i/ou, 
 expressed or understood. Do is sometimes used as an 
 auxiliary, in this mood, as well as in the indicative and 
 subjunctive ; as, « Do study ;' * Do thou study,' ox ' Do 
 you study;' ^ Do do the vfork better,* &.c. * Do let that 
 alone.' 
 
 When I gave you the potential mood, I made you ac- 
 quainted with some of the defective verbs. 
 
 Defective Verbs are those which are used only in 
 some of the moods and tenses, and have no participles. 
 
 The principal of them are these : 
 
 Perfect or Passive Participles wanting . 
 
 Pxesent. 
 
 Imperfect. 
 
 Mayj 
 
 might. 
 
 Can, 
 
 could. 
 
 VTill, 
 
 would. 
 
 Shall, 
 
 should. 
 
 Must, 
 
 must. 
 
 Ought, 
 
 ought. 
 
 J 
 
 quoth. 
 
 All these are used as auxiliaries^ except ought and 
 
112 ETYMOLOGY 
 
 quoth; these two are never used as such. You will ob- 
 serve, that ought is the same in both tenses ; you will be 
 able to determine its tense, then, only by the following in- 
 finitive ; for it is always followed by a verb in the infinitive 
 mood. When the following infinitive is in the present 
 tense, dught is in the present tense ; as, ' He ought to go ;' 
 and when followed by the infinitive perfect, ought is in the 
 imperfect ; as, ' He ought to have gone.' 
 
 I will ask you a few questions concerning the subjects of 
 this Conversation. 
 
 QUESTIONS. 
 
 What are the auxiliaries which form the -potential mood? 
 How many tenses has this* mood? 
 How is the present formed ? 
 How is the imperfect formed ? 
 How is the perfect formed ? 
 How is the pluperfect formed ? 
 What is the meaning ofteiise 7 
 When is a tense called compound ? 
 What is a simple tense ? 
 Dou^^?^^ Senses of the indicative and subjunctive moods are simple, and which corn- 
 How many tenses has the infinitive mood ? 
 How are they formed ? 
 How does this mood differ from the others ? 
 Why is it called iw/nitiwe? 
 Why is the imperative so called ? 
 , Of what person must a verb in the imperative mood always be ? 
 How do you know the tense of the defective verb ought ? 
 
 ^____, EXERCISES IN PARSING. • 
 
 Study^ if you wish to improve. Behave well, if thoi 
 lovest virtue or a good name. Strive to imitate the virtues, 
 which thou seest exhibited by the good ,•- then thou wilt 
 give evidence of thy own. He may improve himself, if his 
 industry should increase. He ought to study more. He 
 ought to have studied his lesson better. He cap go, if he 
 chooses. The boy must not treat his superiors ill. My 
 neighbor may have sold his house, for aught that I. know. 
 I told him that he might go yesterday, but he would not. 
 He might have acquired great wealth, if he had desired it. 
 The man should have returned, when he found his enter- 
 prise unsuccessful. We would not serve him then^ but we 
 will hereafter^ 
 
AND SYNTAX. 113 
 
 COKVERSATZON XVIXZ. 
 
 OF PASSIVE AND NEUTER VERBS. 
 
 When, in the third Conversation, I explained the verb to 
 you, I gave you this definition of it : ^A verb is a toord that 
 expresses an action of some creature or thing' This defi- 
 nition, although it has been sufficient for our purpose 
 thus far, is, nevertheless, very incomplete, as you will soon 
 perceive. 
 
 Verbs are divided into three sorts — the Active ^ the Pas- 
 sive, and the Neuter verbs. 
 
 The definition of a verb, which has been given by the 
 most respectable grammarians, is this : " A verb is a word 
 which signifies to be, to do, or to suffer ; as, ' I am,' ' \ 
 rule,' ' I am ruled.' " 
 
 In this example, am is a verb neuter, rule is a verb ac- 
 tive, and am ruled is a verb passive. According to this 
 definition, then, a verb neuter signifies to be, or to exist 
 merely ; a verb active signifies to do, or to act ; and a verb 
 passive signifies to suffer. 
 
 This definition of the active verb you understand ; but 
 perhaps you would hardly know a passive verb, from the 
 definition here given. 
 
 George, To suffer means to undergo pain, or inconve- 
 nience. Then, when I say, ' I suffer pain ;' ' I suffer in- 
 convenience ;' ' I endure pain,' are not suffer and endure 
 passive verbs ? 
 
 Tiitor. No : these govern objective cases ; and any 
 verb that governs an objective case is a transitive verb. 
 You must reflect on what I said about the transitive and 
 intransitive verbs in Conversation XI. You may re- 
 member, that I called your attention to this subject im- 
 mediately afi:er giving you an explanation of the prepo- 
 sition. 
 
 10* 
 
114 ETYMOLOGY 
 
 Caroline* To suffer sometimes means to allow, or to 
 permit. If I say, ' I allow,' ' I permit,' without using an 
 objective case ; as, 'I allow that he is right,' 6lc. ; are not 
 these passive verbs ? 
 
 Tutor. No: allow, m the sentence you have just given, 
 governs the whole phrase that follows it, as an object. 
 These vV^rbs require an object, without which they make 
 no sense. 
 
 Caroline. Then I do not understand the definition that 
 is given of the passive verb. 
 
 Tutor. I will endeavor to explain the different kinds of 
 verbs, so that you will be able to distinguish the active 
 verb from the passive, and the neuter from either, without 
 hesitation. 
 
 To nominate means to name, or to designate, or to point 
 out by name ; and nominative is derived firom the verb to 
 nominate, and, when used in grammar, means the creature 
 or thing named, or pointed out ; so that all nouns, when 
 they are merely named, and not connected in sentences, are 
 in the nominative case ; that is, they denote things that ex- 
 ist, named merely ; as, houses, trees, men, paper, &/C. These 
 words, used in this manner, simply denote things nained ; 
 or in a state, condition, or case, named merely, without hav- 
 ing any relation with any other things. But when we frame 
 a sentence, and make a complete sense, which we can never 
 do without a verb, the term nominative is used to des- 
 ignate, or point out, the subject,, concerning which the verb 
 makes some affirmation or declaration, or some supposed 
 afiirmation or declaration, in contradistinction to the 06- 
 ject of an action or of a relation. 
 
 Every sentence must have in it at least one verb and 
 one nominative, expressed or understood. We cannot 
 form a sentence of any kind, which will make a com- 
 plete sense, without a nominative and a verb. This 
 you will easily perceive by a few examples. If I say^ 
 
AND SYNTAX. 11$ 
 
 ' The man in the house ;* * The horse in the stable ;' ' The 
 books on the table;* *The laborers in the field/ &c., 
 you cannot ascertain what is meant, because there is no 
 affirmation in any of these expressions. But insert the 
 verbs eats, drinks, sleeps, is, walks, remains, in the first 
 two, and are seen, are found, are beheld, will he observed, in 
 the next two, and you will see that a complete sense will be 
 formed in each simple sentence ; for you will have a nomi-- 
 native and verb in each. . * 
 
 A nominative to a verb, then, is the word which denotes 
 the person or thing, concerning lohich the verb makes an 
 affirmation. 
 
 The nominatives to verbs may be divided into three 
 classes, viz. those which produce the action expressed by 
 the verb ; those which receive the action expressed by the 
 verb ; and those which neither produce any action, nor re- 
 ceive any, but are the subjects of the verbs, which simply 
 express the existence of these subjects, or their state of ex- 
 istence. 
 
 The first class, then, are active nominatives ; the second 
 are passive nominatives, because passive is in direct oppo- 
 sition to active : it means unresisting, or receiving an ac- 
 tion, or an impression, without resistance ; and the third 
 are neuter nominatives ; that is, nominatives which neither 
 produce nor receive an action, because these are connected 
 with verbs which do not express any action, but a mere ex- 
 istence, or state of existence. 
 
 To illustrate what I have said, take the following ex- 
 amples : 
 
 First, of ACTIVE NOMINATIVES ; as, * The box rolls ;* 
 * The horse runs / * The men labor / * The man writes a 
 letter.' 
 
 Secondly, of passive nominatives ^, as, * The box is 
 held ;' ' The horse is seen j* ' The meR are punished f 
 *The man is carried.' 
 
116 ETYMOLiOGY 
 
 Thirdly f of neuter nominatives ; as, ' The box lies on 
 the table ;' ' The horse remains in the field ;' ' The men 
 stay in the house ;' ' The man abides in the city.' 
 
 Caroline. I think I now understand the diiference be- 
 tween the active, passive, and neuter verbs. When a verb 
 expresses the action of its nominative, it is an active verb \ 
 when it expresses the action received by its nominative, 
 or done to its nominative, it is a passive verb ; and when 
 it expresses no action at aE, but the mere existence 
 of its nominative, or its state of existence, it is a 
 verb neither active nor passive, and is therefore called 
 neuter. 
 
 George. So the verb takes its character from its 
 nominative. If the verb has an active nominative, it 
 is an active verb ; if a passive nominative, it is a pas-^ 
 sive verb ; and if a neuter nominative, it is a neuter 
 verb. 
 
 Tutor. That is right. But I will now give you the 
 conjugation of the neuter verb Be, through all its moods 
 and tenses. When you understand this verb, so that you 
 know it instantly, in all its moods and tenses, you will pos- 
 sess additional means for distinguishing the passive verb \ 
 because this neuter verb Be is frequently used as an aux-' 
 iliary, as well as a principal verb, and no passive verb can 
 be formed without it. You will therefore find it of great 
 importance to make this verb, which is the most irreg- 
 ular one in the English language, exceedingly familiar to 
 you. 
 
 The AUXILIARY and neuter verb TO BE is conjugated as 
 follows : 
 
 INDICATIVE MOOD. 
 
 PRESENT TENSE. 
 
 
 Singvlar. 
 
 Plural. 
 
 lam. 
 
 We are. 
 
 Thou art. 
 
 Ye or you are. 
 
 He, she or it is- 
 
 They are. 
 
AND SYNTAX. 
 
 iri 
 
 Angular. 
 I was. 
 Thou wast. 
 He was. 
 
 Singular. 
 I have been. 
 Thou hast been. 
 He hath or has been. 
 
 Singular. 
 I had been. 
 Thou hadst been. 
 He had been. 
 
 IMPERFECT TENSE. 
 
 Plural. 
 We were. 
 Ye or you were. 
 They were. 
 
 PERFECT TENSE. 
 
 Plural. 
 We have been. 
 Ye or you have beei 
 They have been. 
 
 PLUPERFECT TENSE. 
 
 Plural. 
 We had been. 
 Ye 01' you had beer 
 They had been. 
 
 FIRST FUTURE TENSE. 
 Angular. Plural. 
 
 1 shaU or will be. We shall or will be. 
 
 Thou shalt or wilt be. Ye or you shall or will b> 
 
 He shall or will be. They shall or will be. 
 
 SECOND FUTURE TENSE. 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 I shall have been. We shall have been. 
 
 Thou wilt have been. Ye or you will have beei 
 
 Ho will have been. They will have been. 
 
 This neuter verb Be, in the subjunctive mood, has two 
 forms of the imperfect, as well as of the present tense. 
 All other verbs, in the subjunctive mood^ have two forms of 
 the present tense onli/. 
 
 The two forms of the subjunctive present and imperfect 
 tenses of the neuter verb Be are these :* 
 
 jfCrst JFornt 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD 
 
 PRESENT TENSE. 
 
 Singular. Plura. 
 
 If I am. If we are. 
 
 If thou art. If ye or you ar 
 
 If he is. If they are. 
 
 IMPERFECT TENSE. 
 
 Angular. Plura 
 
 If I was. If we were. 
 
 If thou wast. If ye or you were 
 
 If he was. If they were. 
 
 * To understand the proper use of these, see Sec. XX. 
 
118 ETYMOLOGY 
 
 .Scconti iform, 
 
 PRESENT TENSE. 
 &ngtUar. Plural, 
 
 If I be. If we be. 
 
 If thou be. If ye or you be. 
 
 If he be. If they bo. 
 
 IMPERFECT TENSE. 
 Singular, Plural. 
 
 If I were. If we were. 
 
 If thou wert. If ye or you were. 
 
 If he were. If they were. 
 
 The remaining tenses of this mood ate similar to the 
 corresponding tenses of the indicative mood, with the ex- 
 ception which I have before given you, viz. that will and 
 wilt are not used in the second future. 
 
 POTENTIAL MOOD. 
 
 PRESENT TENSE. 
 Singular. Plural, 
 
 I may or can be. We may or can be. 
 
 Thou mayst or canst be. Ye or you may or can be. 
 
 He may or can be. They may or can be. 
 
 IMPERFECT TENSE. 
 Singultw. Plural, 
 
 I might, could, would, or should b^. We might, could, would, or should be. 
 
 Thou raightst, couidst, wouldst, or Ye or you might, could would, or 
 
 shouldft be. should be. 
 
 He might, could, would, or should be. They might, could, would, or should be. 
 
 PERFECT TENSE. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 I may or can have been. We may or can have been. 
 
 Thou mayst or canst have been. Ye or you may or can have been. 
 
 He may or can have been. They may or can have been. 
 
 PLUPERFECT TENSE. 
 Angular. \ Plural. 
 
 1 might, could, would, or should have We might, could, would, or should have 
 
 l^n. been. 
 
 Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, or Ye or you might, could, would, or should 
 
 shouldst have been. have been. 
 
 He might, could, would, or should have They might, could, would, or should 
 iK^n. have been. 
 
 INFINITIVE MOOD. 
 
 Present Tense. To be. Perfect. To have beeus ' 
 
 IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
 
 Singular, Plural. 
 
 Be thou, or do thou be. Be ye or you, or do ye cv 
 
 PARTICIPLES. 
 
 Present, Being. Perfect. Beei, 
 
 Compwnd Perfect, Having been. 
 
AND SYNTAX. 119 
 
 I remarked to you, before I gave you the conjugation of 
 this verb, that no passive verb can ever be formed without 
 it. I vi^ill now tell you how the passive verb is formed : 
 Add the perfect or passive participle, of any verb that can 
 be made transitive, when used in the active sense, to this 
 neuter verb Be, and you will have a passive verb, in the 
 same mood and tense that the neuter verb would be in, if 
 the participle were not added. You cannot form a passive 
 verb in any other way. 
 
 Caroline. I think I understand it. If I take the word 
 forsaken, which is the perfect or passive participle of the 
 active verb to forsake, (for this verb can be made transit 
 live ; as, * I forsake Jiim ;* ' He forsakes me,* 6lc.,) and 
 place it after the neuter verb be ; as, 'I am forsaken ; 
 thou art forsaken ; he is forsaken ; I was forsaken, &»c. ; I 
 have been forsaken, &/C. ; I had been forsaken, &c. ; I 
 shall be forsaken, &.c. ; I shall have been forsaken,' dtc, 
 I shall have a passive verb, from the active verb to forsake, 
 in all the six tenses of the indicative mood. And I per- 
 ceive, that the pronoun I, when connected with a passive 
 verb, is not an active, but a passive nominative. 
 
 Tutor. I believe, Caroline, that you understand how to 
 form the passive verbs. 
 
 George. But there are many active verbs that are in- 
 transitive ; such as go, fly, arrive, &.c. Suppose that I 
 should put the perfect participle of an active intransitive 
 verb after the neuter verb he, and say, * He is gone ;' * He 
 is arrived;' * The bird is flown,* &.c., what kind of a verb 
 shall I have then ? 
 
 Tutor. A neuier verb in a passive form. 
 
 Caroline. Is this neuter verb be ever used as an auxilia- 
 ry connected with the present participle ? 
 
 Tutor. Yes, very often. What is the rule which you 
 *4jive, when you parse the present participle? 
 
 Caroline* The active participle ending in ing, when not 
 
120 ETYMOLOGY 
 
 connected with a verb, refers to some noun or pronoun, efg- 
 noting the actor. 
 
 Tutor, That is right ; but when it is added to the neu- 
 ter verb be, be becomes an auxiliary, and marks the mood 
 and tense of the verb, and the participle becomes Xheprinr 
 cipal part of the verb, just as the passive participle does 
 when you form a passive verb. 
 
 George, And what sort of a verb have we when the ' 
 present participle is added to the neuter verb be ? 
 
 Tutor. Either an active transitive or intransitive verb, 
 or a verb neuter. If the participle is derived from a tran- 
 sitive verb, you have an active transitive verb ; if the parti- 
 ciple is derived from an intransitive verb, then you have an 
 intransitive verb ; but if it is derived from a verb neuter, 
 you have a neuter verb ; as, * I am writing a letter ;' here 
 you see that am writing is a transitive verb from the verb to 
 write, and governs letter in the objective case ; * I am run- 
 ning ;' here you see the verb is active, but intransitive, from, 
 the verb to run ; and ' I am sitting ; I am standing ; I am 
 lying on the bed ;' you now perceive that the verbs are neu- 
 ter, from the neuter verbs to sit, to stand, to lie ; and I will 
 remark to you, that this neuter verb be is never used as an 
 auxiliary, except with the present or passive participles of 
 other verbs, 
 
 I will now give you the conjugation of the regular verb 
 TO LOVE, in the passive form. 
 
 A passive verb is conjugated by adding the perfect parti- 
 ciple to the auxiliary to be, through all its changes of num- 
 ber, person, mood, and tense, in the following manner : 
 
 TO BE LOVED, 
 
 ^ INDICATIVE MOOD. 
 
 PRESEPiT TENSE. ^, , 
 SingulaT. Plural. 
 
 I am loved. VVe are loved. 
 
 Thou art Iov«d. Ye or you are loved. 
 
 He is loved. They are loved. 
 
AND SYNTAX, 121 
 
 IMPERFECT TENSE. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 I was loved. We were loved. 
 
 Thou wast loved. Ye or you were loved.. 
 
 He was loved. They were loved. 
 
 PERFECT TENSE. Hfifc 
 
 Singular. Plural. fH^ 
 
 I have been loved. We have been loved, TT^ft^ 
 
 Thou hast been loved. Ye or you have been loved. 
 
 He hath or has been loved. They have been loved. 
 
 PLUPERFECT TENSE. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 I had been loved. We had been loved. 
 
 Thou hadst been loved. Ye or you had been loved. 
 
 He had been loved. They had been loved. 
 
 FIRST FUTURE TENSE. 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 I shall or will be loved. We shall or will be loved. 
 
 Thou shalt or wilt be loved. Ye or you shall or will be loved. 
 
 He shall or will be loved. They shall or will be loved. 
 
 SECOND FUTURE TENSE. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 I shall have been loved. Wo shall have been loved. 
 
 Thou wilt have been loved. Ye or you will have been loved. 
 
 He will have been loved. They will have been loved. 
 
 The passive verb, necessarily, has the same two forms of 
 the subjunctive present and imperfect tenses, that the neu- 
 ter verb Be has. 
 
 iftrst jform. 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
 
 PRESENT TENSE. 
 
 Sinmtlar. Plural. 
 
 If I am loved. If we are loved. 
 
 If thou art loved If ye or you are loved. 
 
 Ifbe is loved. If they are loved. 
 
 IMPERFECT TENSE. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 If I was loved. If we were loved. 
 
 If thou wast loved. If ye or you were loved. 
 
 If he was loved. If they were loved. 
 
 ' 5&ccontr Jform. 
 
 PRESENT TENSE. 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 If I be loved. If we be loved. 
 
 If thou be loved. If ye <w you be loved. 
 
 If he be loved . If they be loved. 
 
 11 
 
182 ETYMOLOGY 
 
 IMPERFECT TENSE. 
 
 Angular. Plural. 
 
 If I were loved. If we were loved. 
 
 If thou wert loved. If ye or you were loved. 
 
 If he were loved. If they were loved. 
 
 The remaining tenses of this mood are similar to the 
 correspondent tenses of the indicative mood, except mil 
 and wilt are not used in the second future. 
 
 POTENTIAL MOOD. 
 
 PRESENT TENSE. 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 I may or can be loved. We may or can be loved. 
 
 Thou mayst or canst be loved. Ye or you may or can be loved. 
 
 He may or can be loved. They may or can be loved. 
 
 IMPERFECT TENSE.] 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 I might, could, would, or should be loved. We might, could, would, or should be 
 
 loved. 
 Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, or Ye or you might, could, would, or should 
 
 shouldat be loved. be loved. 
 
 He might, could, would, or should be They might, could, would, or should be 
 loved. loved. 
 
 PERFECT TENSE. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 I may or can have been loved. We may or can have been loved. 
 
 Thou mayst or canst have been loved. Ye or you may or can halve been loved. 
 
 He may or can have been loved. ' They may or can have been loved. 
 
 PLUPERFECT TENSE. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 I might, could, would, or should have We might, could, would, or should have 
 
 been loved. been loved. 
 
 Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, or Ye or you might, could, would or should 
 
 shouldst have been loved. have been loved. 
 
 He might, could, would, or should have They might, could, would, or should have 
 
 been loved. been loved. 
 
 INFINITIVE MOOD. 
 
 Present Tense. Perfect. 
 
 To be loved. To have been loved. 
 
 IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
 
 Singular. Plural. 
 
 Be thou loved, or do thou be loved. Be ye or you loved, or do ye be loved. 
 
 PARTICIPLES. 
 
 Present. Being loved. 
 
 Perfect or Passive. Loved. 
 
 Compound Perfect. Having been loved. 
 
 Now you can take the passive participles of other verbs, 
 and conjugate them in the same manner. Take beat- 
 en, carried, seen, forgotten, and many others, and use 
 
AND SYNTAX. 123 
 
 them instead of loved, as an exercise to make you familiar 
 with the conjugation of a passive verb. 
 
 You will now observe, that, when an auxiliary is joined 
 to the participle of the principal verb, the auxiliary goes 
 through all the variations of person and number, and the 
 participle itself continues invariably the same. When there 
 are two or more auxiliaries joined to the participle, the first 
 of them only is varied according to person and number. 
 The auxiliary must admits of no variation. 
 
 I will now give you some 
 
 EXERCISES IN PARSING. 
 
 The man beats the boy. The boy is beaten by the man. 
 The horses draw the coach. The coach is drawn by the 
 horses. The master teaches the children. The children 
 are taught by the master. The carpenter built the houses. 
 The houses were built by the carpenter. Commerce intro- 
 duces luxury.' Luxury is introduced by commerce. That 
 farmer cultivates his farm well. The farm is well cultiva- 
 ted. The goods were purchased. The house was sold. 
 The ship has been lost. The money will be found. ' The 
 boy will have completed his task before you see him. The 
 task will have been completed an hour, in ten minutes 
 more. The lady remains at home. The book lies on the 
 table. The desk stands in the corner of the room. The 
 coach and horses are in the stable. I am here. Thou art 
 there. He is in town. We are honest. You are proud. 
 They are sober. I was sleepy. Thou wast angry with 
 him. He was not eager to learn. They were guilty. We 
 were reasonable in our demands. Ye were found guilty. 
 I have been on the water frequently. I have been seen on 
 the water frequently. I have seen the man. I have been 
 seen by the man. The boy had seen it. The boy had 
 been seen. The letter will be here. The letter will be 
 
124 ETYMOLOGY 
 
 brought hither. Be honest. Be not idle. Be instructed. 
 Be carried. You like to be carried. You may be carried. 
 You ought to be carried. He ought to have been carried. 
 Ho should have been carried, had I known his situation. 
 The house can be enlarged. He might be convinced. He 
 might have been convinced. Being ridiculed and despised, 
 he still maintained his principles. Having been ridiculed, 
 he could not endure his chagrin. Ridiculed, despised, in- 
 sulted, he became discouraged. If I be beaten by him, he 
 will be punished. If he has been seen, he has not been 
 caught. Whether he is at home or not, I have no means 
 of knowing. If I were beaten as badly as he, I should 
 complain. If he was beaten, it is not known. 
 
 CONVERSATION XXX. 
 
 OF THE AUXILIARY VERBS, AND OF THE TENSES. 
 
 Tutor. You must, by this time, have observed the great 
 importance of auxiliary verbs in the English language ; 
 for you have seen that, without them, the verbs would be 
 limited, in their moods and tenses, to the indicative and 
 subjunctive moods, in the present and imperfect tenses ; 
 the infinitive mood, present tense ; and the imperative 
 mood. 
 
 George. I perceive that they are of great importance 
 in giving variety as well as precision to the language. 
 For with these we form the perfect, pluperfect, and two 
 future tenses of the indicative and subjunctive moods ; all 
 the tenses of the potential mood ; and the perfect of the 
 infinitive. 
 
 Tutor. Some of these auxiliaries I have already par- 
 ticularly noticed, viz. : may, can, must, will, and shall. 
 None of these, except will, is ever used as a principal 
 
AND SYNTAX. 125 
 
 verb, but as an auxiliary to some principal, either express- 
 ed or understood. Will is sometimes a principal verb, as 
 I will by and by show you. There are four verbs which 
 are sometimes used as auxiliaries and sometimes as princi- 
 pals. These are do, he, have, and will. 
 
 Do is used as an auxiliary, in the imperative mood, in 
 the present and imperfect tenses of the indicative and sub- 
 junctive. 
 
 Be is used as an auxiliary, in all the moods and tenses, 
 to form the passive verbs, and neuter verbs in a passive 
 form, by being connected with the passive participles of 
 other verbs ; and in forming active and neuter verbs, by 
 being connected with the present participles of other verbs ; 
 and, in both instances, serves to mark the mood and the 
 tense of the verb. 
 
 Have is used in forming the perfect, pluperfect, and sec- 
 ond future tenses of the indicative and subjunctive moods, 
 the perfect and pluperfect of the potential mood, and the 
 perfect of the infinitive mood. 
 
 Will is used in forming the first and second future tenses 
 of the indicative and subjunctive moods ; and, sometimes, in 
 forming the present ien^e of the potential mood. 
 
 Caroline. And when these are used as principal verbs, 
 their moods and tenses are formed just as those of other 
 verbs are, are they not ? 
 
 Tutor. They are. And you perceive that have may be 
 an auxiliary to its own participle ; as, in the indicative and 
 subjunctive perfect and pluperfect, ' I have had ; I had had, 
 and If I have had ; If I had had,' &c. : and in the infini- 
 tive perfect ; as, ^ To have had.' And do may be used as 
 an auxiliary to itself; as, ' I do do it,' in the present ; and 
 * I did do it,' in the imperfect ; and will, as, ' He will will 
 it ; he will have willed it,' &c. 
 
 George. I believe we understand the use of the auxiliary 
 verbs now very well, and know which are used as auxiliaries 
 II* 
 
126 ETYMOLOGY 
 
 always, and which are used sometimes as suchj and sometimes 
 as principals. 
 
 THE TENSES. 
 
 Tense^ being the distinction of time, might seem to admit 
 only of the present, past, and future ; but, to mark it more ac- 
 curately, it is made to consist of six variations, viz. : 
 
 THE PRESENT, THE PERFECT, 
 
 THE IMPERFECT, THE PLUPERFECT, and 
 
 THE FIRST AND SECOND FUTURE TENSES. 
 
 The Present Tense represents an action or event as pass- 
 ing at the time in which it is mentioned ; as, * I rule ;' ' I am 
 ruled;' * I think;' 'I fear.' 
 
 The Imperfect Tense represents the action or event either 
 as past and finished, or as remaining unfinished at a certain 
 time past ; as, * I loved her for her modesty and \drtue ;' * They 
 were travelhng post when he met them.' 
 
 The Perfect Tense not only refers to what is past, but also 
 conveys an allusion to the present time ; as, * I have finished 
 my letter ;' * I have seen the person that was recommended to 
 me.* 
 
 The Pluperfect Tense represents a thing not only as past, 
 but also prior to some other point of time specified in the sen- 
 tence ; as, ' I had finished my letter before he arrived.' 
 
 The First Future Tense represents the action as yet to 
 come, either with or without respect to the precise time ; as, 
 ' The sun will rise to-morrow ;' * I shall see them again.' 
 
 The Second Future intimates that the action will be fully 
 
 accomplished at or before the time of another future action 
 
 " or event ; as, * I shall have dined at one o'clock ;' * The two 
 
 houses will have finished their business when the king comes 
 
 to prorogue them.' 
 
 The diflferent tenses also represent an action as com^plete or 
 perfect, or as incomplete or imperfect. In the phrases, ' I am 
 writing,' * I w^as writing,' * I shall be writing,' imperfect, unfin- 
 ished actions are signified. But the following examples, 'I 
 wrote,' * I have written,' ' I had written,' * I shall have written,' 
 all denote complete, perfect action. 
 
AND SYNTAX. 127 
 
 The distinction of the tenses into definite and indefinite may 
 be more intelligible to you by the following explanation and 
 arrangement : — 
 
 PRESENT TENSE. 
 
 Indefinite. This form of the present tense denotes action or 
 being, in present time, without limiting it with exactness to 
 a given point. It expresses also facts which exist generally 
 at all times, general truths, attributes which are permanent, 
 habits, customary actions, and the hke, without the reference 
 to a specific time ; as, ' Hope springs eternal in the human 
 breast ;' ' Virtue promotes happiness ;' * Man is imperfect and 
 dependent;' 'The wicked fiee Avhen no man pursueth;' 
 
 * Plants me from the earth ;' * Sometimes he works, but he 
 often plays ;' * Birds fiy ;' * Fishes swim.'' 
 
 Definite. This form expresses the present time with precis- 
 ion ; and it usually denotes action or being, which corre- 
 sponds in time with another action ; as, * He is meditating ,•' 
 
 * I am ivntirig, while you are waiting.^ 
 
 IMPERFECT TENSE. 
 
 Indefinite. This form of the imperfect tense represents ac- 
 tion past and finished, and often with the precise time un- 
 defined; as, * Alexander conquered the Persians;' *Scipio 
 was as virtuous as brave.' 
 
 Definite. This form represents an action as taking place and 
 unfinished in some specified period of past time; as, *I 
 was standing at the door, when the procession passed.' 
 
 PERFECT TENSE. 
 
 Indefinite. This form of the perfect tense represents an ac- 
 tion completely past, and often at no great distance, but not 
 specified ; as, ' I have accomplished^my design ;' * I have read^ 
 the History of England.' 
 
 Definite. This form represents an action as just finished ; as, 
 
 * i have been reading a History of the revolution ;' * I have 
 been studying hard to-day.' 
 
 PLUPERFECT TENSE. 
 
 Indefinite. This form of the pluperfect tense expresses an 
 action which was past at or before some otj|^r past time 
 specified ; as, * He had received the news belore the mes- 
 senger arrived.' 
 
 Definite. This form denotes an action to be just past, at or 
 before another past time specified ; as, * I had be€n waiting 
 an hour when the messenger arrived.' 
 
 FIRST FUTURE TENSE. 
 
 Indefinite. This form of the first future simply gives notice of 
 
128 ETYMOLOGY 
 
 an event to happen hereafter ; as, * Charles ivill go to Lon- 
 don ;' * I think we shall have a fine season.' 
 Definite. This form expresses an action, which is to take 
 place and be unfinished at a specified future time ; as, * He 
 ivill be preparing for a visit at the time you arrive.' 
 
 SECOND FUTURE TENSE. 
 
 Indefinite. This form of the second future denotes ah action 
 which will be past at a future time specified ; as, * They iviU 
 have accomplished their purpose at the time they proposed.' 
 
 Definite. This form represents an action, which will be just 
 past at a future specified time ; as, * The scholars ivill have 
 been studying an hour, ■^hen the tutor conies to examine 
 them.' 
 
 You will observe, that, in this scheme, all the definite tenses 
 are formed by the participle of the present tense, and the sub- 
 stantive verb to he. 
 
 There are other modes of expressing future time ; a^, v* I 
 am going to write ;' ^ I am about to write.' These have been 
 called the Inceptive future, as they note the commencement of 
 an action, or an intention to commence an action without delay. 
 
 The substantive verb, followed by a verb in the infinitive 
 mood, forms another method of indicating future time; as, 
 ' Ferdinand is to command the army ;' * On the subject of style, 
 I am afterwards to discourse ;' ' ifeneas went in search of the 
 seat of an empire, which tvas, one day, to govern the world.' 
 The latter expression has been called a future past; that is, 
 past as to the narrator ; hui future as to the event, at the time 
 specified. 
 
 I will now question you concerning the subjects of this and 
 the preceding Conversation. 
 
 QUESTIONS. 
 
 When is a verb in the subjunctive mood ? 
 
 How does a verb differ in this mood from one in the indicative r 
 
 Which tenses have two forms ? 
 
 What is the difference between the first form and the second of the subjunctive 
 mood, present tense ? 
 
 Wlien must the second form be used ? 
 
 When is a verb called regular 7 
 
 When must thttfirst form of the subjunctive present be used ? 
 
 How are the foBr tenses of the potential mood formed ? 
 
 How does the infinitive mood differ from other moods ? 
 
 Why is it called infinitive ? 
 
 Why does not the second form of the subjunctive present vary the verb in the 
 second and third persons singular, as the indicative does? 
 
 How do you know the imperfect tense of verbs from the perfect or passive parti- 
 ciple, when they are both spelled alike ? 
 
 When must to be omitted before the infinitive mood ? 
 
 How are all the passive verbs formed ? 
 
 Why are passive verbs so called ? 
 
 What is the meaning of neuter 1 
 
 When is a verb neuter ? 
 
AND SYNTAX. 129 
 
 How many classes of nominatives are there ? 
 
 Can you explain them ? 
 
 What verbs are sometimes auxiliaries and sometimes principals ? 
 
 What auxiliaries are never used as principals ? 
 
 In what moods and tenses is do used as an auxiliary ? 
 
 In what tenses is have used as an auxiliary ? and how ? 
 
 W'hat is it always prefixed to, when an auxiliary ? 
 
 Can you give a definition of tcnsc^ and of the six tensct! ' 
 
 CONVERSATION XX. 
 
 Tutor. You are now quite familiar with nearly all the 
 regular constructions of the language ; but there are a few, 
 which I have not yet presented to you. These I will 
 endeavor to explain in this Conversation. A few more 
 rules, properly explained, will enable you to parse any word, 
 in a regularly constructed sentence, in the English lan- 
 guage. The first which I shall give you this morning 
 is this : 
 
 RULE XXL 
 
 Any INTRANSITIVE, PASSIVE, or NEUTER vcrh, must have 
 the same case after it as before it, when both words refer to 
 and signify the same thing. , 
 
 George. I think that I already understand this rule, 
 for no verbs except transitive govern the objective case. 
 When nouns or pronouns, then, follow intransitive, pas- 
 sivc, or neuter verbs, they cannot be governed by them. 
 And when both words refer to and signify the same thing, 
 the latter is in apposition to the former, and must be in the 
 same case, according to the sixteenth rule, in Conversation 
 XXIIL 
 
 Tutor, That is true. 
 
 Caroline. Then what is the use of this twenty-first rule, 
 if the sixteenth would enable us to parse all the words to 
 which this applies ? 
 
 Tutor. This rule will serve as a further illustration of 
 that, and bring under your consideration many erroneous 
 constructions, with which you have not yet been made 
 
130 ETYMOLOGY 
 
 sufficiently familiar, and which might escape your notice, 
 if they were not more particularly considered. 
 
 I will first direct your attention to the neuter verb to 
 he, and give you many examples and illustrations, which 
 you must parse, and then you will remember them. The 
 nouns and pronouns before and after the verbs, and which 
 you will perceive to be in apposition, I will mark in 
 Italics. 
 
 * I am Ac whom they invited.' * /jf may be (or might have 
 been) he, but it cannot be (or could not have been) V 
 
 * It is impossible to be they.'' * It seems to have been he, 
 who conducted himself so wisely.' * It appears to be she, 
 who transacted the business.' * I understood it to be him,^ 
 
 * I believe it to have been them,^ * We at first took it to 
 be her; but were afterwards convinced that it was not 
 sAe.' * He is really the person who he appeared to be.' 
 
 * She is not now the woman whom they represented her 
 to have been.' * Whom do you fancy him to be V * He 
 desired to be their king.^ * They desired him to be their 
 king,^ 
 
 By these examples, it appears that this substantive 
 verb has no government of case, but serves, in all its 
 forms, as a conductor to the cases ; so that the two ca- 
 ses, which, in the construction of the sentence, or mem- 
 ber of the sentence, are the next before and after it, must 
 always be alike. In the sentence, * I understood it to 
 be him,' the words it and him are in apposition ; that is, 
 
 * they refer to the same thing, and are in the same case.' 
 If this rule be considered as applying to simple senten- 
 ces, or to the simple members of compound sentences, 
 the difficulties respecting it will be still further dimin- 
 ished. 
 
 The following sentences contain deviations fit)m the 
 rule, and exhibit the pronoun in a wrong case : * It might 
 have been him, but there is no proof of it.' ' Though I 
 
AND SYNTAX. 131 
 
 was blamed, it could not have been me.^ ' I saw one whom 
 I took to be she,' ' She is the person who I understood it to 
 have been.' * Who do you think me to be V * Whom 
 do men say that I am ?' * And whom think ye that I 
 am?' 
 
 In the last example, the natural arrangement is, * Ye 
 think that I am whom V where, contrary to the rule, the 
 nominative I precedes, and the objective case whom fol- 
 lows the verb. The best method of discovering the prop- 
 er xase of the pronoun, in such phrases as the preced- 
 ing, is, to turn them into declarative expressions, and to 
 substitute the personal pronoun for the interrogative or 
 relative pronouns ; as the interrogative or relative pronoun 
 must be in the same case as the personal pronoun would 
 be in, if substituted for it. Thus the question, * Whom 
 do men say that I am V if turned into a declarative sen- 
 tence, with the personal pronoun, would be, ' Men do 
 say that I am he :' consequently the interrogative must 
 be in the same case as he ; that is, the nominative whOy 
 and not whom. In the same manner, in the phrase ' Who 
 should I see but my old friend V if we turn it into a de- 
 clarative one, as, * I should see him, my old friend,' we 
 shall perceive that the interrogative is governed by the 
 verb, as him and my friend are in the objective case, and 
 that it ought to be in the same case ; that is, whom, and 
 not who. 
 
 When the verb to he is understood, it has the same case 
 before and after it as when it is expressed ; as, * He seems 
 the leader of the party;' ^ He shall con\mne steward ;* 
 ' They appointed me executor ;' ' I supposed him a man of 
 learning ;' that is, * He seems to he the leader of the 
 party,' &c. 
 
 Passive verbs which signify naming, and others of a sim- 
 ilar nature, have the same case before and after them ; as, 
 ^ He was called CcBsar ;' ' She was named Penelope ,*' 
 
132 ETYMOLOGY 
 
 * Homer is styled the prince of poets ;' * James was created 
 a duke ;' * The general was saluted emperor;' * Thepro/e55- 
 or was appointed tutor to the prince ;' * He caused himself 
 to be proclaimed king ;' ' The senate adjudged him to be 
 declared a traitor,^ 
 
 From the observations and examples which have been 
 produced, under this rule, it is evident that certain other 
 neuter verbs, besides the verb to he, require the same 
 case, whether it be the nominative or the objective, before 
 and after them. The verbs to become, to wander, to go, 
 to return, to expire, to appear, to die, to live, to look, to 
 grow, to seem, to roam, and several others, are of this 
 nature. ' After this event, he became physician to the 
 king.' * She wanders an outcast.* * He forced her to wan- 
 der an outcasts * He went out mate, but he returned 
 captain' ' And Swift expires a drivUer and a show.' 
 ' This conduct made him appear an encourager of every 
 virtue.' * Hortensivs died a martyr' * The gentle Sid- 
 ney lived the shepherd's friend.' All the examples under 
 this rule, and all others of a similar construction, may 
 be explained on the principle, that nouns and pronouns 
 are in the same case when they signify the same 
 thing, the one merely describing or elucidating the 
 other. 
 
 So also in the following : * The Author of my being 
 formed me man, and made me accountable to him.' * They 
 desired me to call them brethren.' ' He seems to have 
 made him what he was.' 
 
 We sometimes meet with such expressions as these, 
 ' They were asked a question ;' ' They were offered a 
 pardon ;' ' He had been left a great estate by his fa- 
 ther.' In these phrases, verbs passive are improperly made 
 to govern the objective case. This license is not 
 to 'be approved. The expressions should be, * A ques- 
 
AND SYNTAX, 133 
 
 tion was put to them ;' * A pardon was offered to them ;* 
 ^ His father left him a great estate.' 
 
 CaroHne. I think that we shall find these remarks 
 and examples of service to us, and that we shall not, 
 after this, say, * It was him; it was her; it wb.3 them; who 
 do you think him to be V nor 'whom does he think that I 
 am V &/C. 
 
 RULE XXIL 
 
 The infinitive mood, or part of a sentence^ is sometimes 
 the subject of a verb, and is, therefore, its nominative. 
 
 Every nominative to a verb, which you have hitherto 
 parsed, has been either a noun or pronoun. But you will 
 now find, that a verb in the infinitive mood may be used 
 substantively, and form the nominative to a verb. A few 
 examples, which you nmst parse, will be sufficient to illus- 
 trate this rule. I will give you the following : 
 
 To err b human. To be contents his natural desire. 
 To play is pleasant. Promising without due consider- 
 ation, often produces a breach of promise, To mourn 
 without measure, is folly ; not to mourn at all, insensibility. 
 Reading books improved his mind, Letting him escape 
 was a fault. 
 
 When a nominative is composed of a verb in the infini- 
 tive mood only, as, to err, to be, &c., in parsing it, you will 
 say, * It is a verb in the infinitive mood, used substantively, 
 of the third person singular, and forms the nominative 
 to the verb,' whatever it may be. Then repeat Rule 
 XXII, 
 
 When a part of the sentence is the nominative, you 
 will call it a substantive phrase, third person singular, 
 &c. 
 
 As a verb in the infinitive mood, or a substantive 
 phrase, composed of part of a sentence, may be the nom- 
 inative to a verb, so each of them may be used substan- 
 12 
 
134 ETYMOLOGir 
 
 lively as the object of a verb ; as, * They love to play ;* 
 
 * They begin to see ;' ' Learn of the mole to plough, the 
 worm to weave /' * I endeavored to prevent letting Mm es- 
 cape ;* * I love to read good books/ 
 
 In these sentences, hi??i is governed by the participle 
 letting, and books by to read. But the two phrases 
 
 * letting him escape' and * to read good booJcs^ are govern- 
 ed by the preceding verbs, to prevent and love. So a 
 substantive phrase is frequently governed by a preposition ; 
 as, * A breach of promise is often produced by promis- 
 ing without due consideration J * The atrocious crime of 
 being a young man, I shall neither attempt to palliate nor 
 deny.' 
 
 When you analyze such phrases as these last two, 
 you will find that you cannot parse the participle as 
 referring to any subject or actor, according to the sixth 
 rule, because there is no subject or actor known in the 
 sentence ; but you will merely say it is a present participle, 
 from such a verb, and composes a part of the substantive 
 phrase. Take, for instance, the phrase * Promising without 
 due consideration,' &/C., and you will find, that the participle 
 has no reference to any actor in the sentence, but expresses 
 the action generally. 
 
 The next and last rule that I shall give you for pars- 
 ing, is, 
 
 RULE XXIII. 
 
 When a noun or pronoun has no verb to agree with it, but 
 is placed before a participle, independently on the rest of the 
 sentence, it must be in the nominative case absolute. 
 
 This rule presents to you another instance, in which a 
 noun or pronoun must be in the nominative case without 
 having a verb to agree with it. 
 
 If you now observe the nominative case independent, 
 according to the seventeenth rule, and the nominative 
 case absolute, which we have now under consideration, 
 
AND SYNTAX. 135 
 
 you will see that the two constructions are very differ- 
 ent. The nominative case independent always denotes 
 the person spoken to, and is of the second person; the 
 nominative case absolute may be of any of the three per- 
 sons, and is always connected with a participle, express- 
 ed or understood ; as, ' 7 being badly loounded, they 
 sent for a surgeon ;' ' He being badly wounded, they 
 sent,' &c. In these sentences, you perceive that the 
 pronouns / and he have no verbs to agree with them ; 
 that they are placed before the participle being wounded ; 
 and stand independently on the rest of the sentence : they 
 are, therefore, in the nominative absolute, according to the 
 rule. 
 
 But * /, being badly wounded, was carried home ;' 
 He, being badly wounded, soon died ;' are constructions 
 very different from the others. In these sentences, you 
 see that the pronoun I has the verb was carried to agree 
 with it; and that he has the verb died to agree with it. 
 But the rule begins by saying, * When a noun or pronoun 
 has no verb to agree with it,' &lc. 
 
 Sometimes the noun, or pronoun, and the participle are 
 both understood ; as, * Conscious of his own weight and 
 importance, the aid of others was not solicited.' Here the 
 words he being are understood ; that is, * He, being con- 
 scious of his own weight,' &.c. 
 
 I will here say a word respecting a particular con- 
 struction of the infinitive mood. You know that it is 
 generally governed by a verb, noun, adjective, or parti- 
 ciple ; and that it is sometimes used substantively , and 
 forms the nominative to, a verb. I will now show you, 
 that it is sometimes used- in neither of these construc- 
 tions ; as, ^ To confess the truth, I was in fault;' ' To 
 enjoy present pleasure, he sacrificed his future reputa- 
 tion.' These are called the infinitive mood absolute; be- 
 cause, in such constructions-, the verb in the infinitive 
 
136 ETYMOLOGY 
 
 mood has no regular dependence on any gonrernin^ 
 word. ^ 
 
 The nominative case independent^ the nominative ab- 
 solute, and the infinitive mood absolute, must always be 
 separated from the body of the sentence by a com-^ 
 ma. ' 
 ^ I have now given you all the rules necessary for the pars-^ 
 ing of any regularly constructed sentence in the English 
 language. 
 
 You may now practise on the following: 
 
 EXERCISES liN PARSING, 
 That it is our duty to promote the purity of our minds 
 and bodies, admits not of any doubt in a rational and 
 well-informed mind. To mourn without measure, is fol- 
 ly. To err, is human; to forgive, divine. Continue, 
 my dear children, to make virtue your principal study. 
 To you, my worthy benefactors, I am greatly indebt- 
 ed, under Providence, for all that I enjoy. Come then, 
 companions of my toils, let us take fresh courage, per- 
 severe and hope to the end. The rain having ceased, 
 the men pursued their journey. The goods being consid- 
 erably damaged, the merchant sold them very low. 
 The sun being risen, the day became fine. Shame be- 
 ing lost, all virtue is lost. That having been discussed 
 long ago, there is no occasion to resume, it. I wish that 
 he would lend me that book that you sold him. I think 
 that that man that you saw is the wisest one that ever 
 lived. If he do but go, I shall be satisfied. If he did 
 go, I care not. Let him take heed that he violate not 
 the laws. Admonish thy friend that he speak not rash- 
 ly. The ship rolls. I see the ship roll. She sings. I 
 hear her sing. He comes. I bade him come. They 
 study. The master makes them study. I like him, both' 
 on his own account, and on that of his parents. Young 
 
AND SYNTAX. 137 
 
 men are subtle arguers ; the cloak of honor covers all their 
 faults, as that of passion all their follies. What is the 
 reason that our language is less refined than that of France ? 
 What you do, do well. What you like, I dislike. He 
 praises that which you praise. He praises what you praise. 
 He extols that which he sees. He extols what he sees. 
 That, which reason weaves, is undone by passion. What 
 reason weaves by passion is undone. What they cannot 
 but purpose, they postpone. I went myself. I hurt myself 
 They did it themselves. They went themselves. He 
 esteems himself too highly. He understood the matter in 
 the same manner himseff The man, being dismissed from 
 office, had no means of support. The man being dismissed 
 from office, his family suffered. The man^s being dismissed 
 from office was a misfortune to his family. You sit next to 
 your sister. My house is opposite to yours. Pursuant to 
 orders, the company met this morning. Agreeably to my 
 request, he came this evening. He will be remunerated 
 according to his disbursement. Notwithstanding his disap« 
 pointments, he finally succeeded. 
 
 Tutor. I will now give you some remarks on a figure of 
 rhetoric called ellipsis, which will assist you very much 
 in understanding the grammatical connexion of words in 
 a sentence. 
 
 When a sentence is written out in full^ you now find no 
 difficulty in parsing it ;; but frequently there are words, 
 and sometimes a whole clause of a sentence, omitted in 
 speaking or writings which are understood in the mind, 
 as necessary ta express the complete sense. In such in- 
 stances, yon will find it necessary to supply the words that 
 are omitted^ remembering, at the same time,^ that the words 
 which are written have the same grammatical connexion 
 with those that are understood,, that they would have if 
 12* 
 
138 ETYMOLOGY 
 
 they were all on the paper. You will soon begin the cor- 
 recting of false syntax, and then you will find the remarks 
 I am about to make of considerable advantage, because 
 there are many errors which you will not discover till you 
 fill up the ellipsis, but which you will then immediately 
 perceive ; and you will, by the same means, see the pro- 
 priety of the corrections. 
 
 To avoid disagreeable repetitions, and to express our 
 ideas in few words, an ellipsis, or om\ssion of some words,^ 
 is frequently admitted. Instead of saying, * He was a 
 learned man, he was a wise man, and he was a good man,' 
 we make use of the ellipsis, and say, ' He was a learned, 
 wise, and good man.' 
 
 When the omission of words would obscure the sentence, 
 weaken its force, or be attended with an impropriety, they 
 must be expressed. In the sentence, ' We are apt to love 
 who love us,' the word them should be supplied. * A beau- 
 tiful field and trees,' is not proper language ; because, 
 when we fill up the ellipsis, it would be, \ A beautiful field 
 and a beautiful trees ;' for, when conjunctions connect two 
 or more nouns, the same words that are applied to the 
 first belong also to the others, unless such a connexion 
 is broken by expressing different words. It should be, 
 * Beautiful fields and trees,' or, ' A beautifiU field and fine 
 trees.' 
 
 Almost all compounded sentences are more or less ellip- 
 tical; some examples of which may be seen under the 
 different parts of speech. 
 
 1. The noun is frequently omitted in the following 
 manner. * The laws of God and man ;' that is, * the laws 
 of God and the laws of man.' In some very emphatical 
 expressfons, the ellipsis should not be used ; as, ' Christ, 
 the power of God, and the wisdom of God;' which is 
 more emphatical than, * Christ, the power and wisdom of 
 God.' 
 
AND SYNTAX. 139 
 
 2. The ellipsis of the verb is used in the following in- 
 stances : * The man was old and crafty ;' that is, * The 
 man was old, and the man was crafty.' * She was 
 young, and beautiful, and good ;' that is, * She was 
 young, she % was beautiful, and she was good.' * Thou 
 art poor, and wretched, and miserable, and blind, and 
 naked.' If we would fill up the ellipsis in the last sen- 
 tence, thou art ought to be repeated before each of the ad- 
 jectives. 
 
 If, in such an enumeration, we choose to point out one 
 property above the rest, that property must be placed last, 
 and the ellipsis supplied ; as, * She is young and beautiful, 
 and she is good.' 
 
 * I went to see and hear him ;' that is, * I went to 
 see him, and. I went to hear him.' In this instance, 
 there is not only an ellipsis of the governing verb icent, but 
 likewise of the sign of the infinitive mood, which is govern- 
 ed by it. 
 
 Do, did, have, had, shall, will, may, might, and the rest 
 of the auxiliaries of the compound tenses, are frequently 
 used alone, to spare the repetition of the verb ; as, * He re- 
 gards his word, but thou dost not ;' i. e. * dost not regard 
 it.' * We succeeded, but they did not ;' * did not succeed.' 
 ' I have learned my task, but you have not ;' * have not 
 learned.' ' They must and they shall be punished ;' that is, 
 * they must be punished.* 
 
 The auxiliary verbs are often very properly omitted 
 before the principal verb ; as, * I have seen and heard him 
 frequently,' not * I have heard ;' 'He will lose his estate, and 
 incur reproach,' not * he will incur.' But when any thing 
 is emphatically expressed, or when opposition is denoted, 
 this ellipsis should be avoided ; as, * I have seen, and I 
 have heard him too ;' ' He was admired, but he was not be- 
 loved.' 
 
 3. The ellipsis of the article is thus used : * A man,. 
 
140 ETYMOLOGY 
 
 woman, and child ;' that is, ' a man, a woman, and a 
 child.' ' A house and garden ;' that is, * a house and 
 a garden.' * The sun and moon ;' that is, * the sun and 
 the moon.' 'The day and hour;' that is, 'the day and • 
 the hour.' In all these instances, the article being once 
 expressed, the repetition of it becomes unnecessary. 
 There is, however, an exception to this observation, 
 when some peculiar emphasis requires a repetition; as 
 in the following sentence ; ' Not only the year, but the 
 day and the hour.' In this case, the ellipsis of the last 
 article would be improper. When a different form of 
 the article is- requisite, the article is also properly repeated ; 
 as, ^A house, and an orchard,' instead of ' a house and 
 orchard.' 
 
 4. The ellipsis of the adjective is used in the followingr 
 manner : ' A delightful garden and orchard ;' that i^^ 
 
 * a delightful garden and a delightful orchard.' *^ A 
 little man and woman ;' that is, * a little man and a 
 little woman.' In such elliptical expressions as these, 
 the adjective ought to have exactly the same sfgnifica- 
 tion, and to be quite as proper when joined to the latter 
 substantive as the former ; otherwise the ellipsis should not 
 be admitted. 
 
 Sometimes the ellipsis is improperly applied to nouns 
 of different numbers ; as, * A magnificent house and gar- 
 dens.' In this case, it is better to use another adjective ; as, 
 
 * A magnificent house and fine gardens.' 
 
 5. Ill the following example, the pronoun and par* 
 ticiple are omitted: * Conscious of his own weight and 
 importance, the aid of others was not solicited.' Here 
 the words he being are understood ; that is, * He, being 
 conscious of his own weigM and importance.' This 
 clause constitutes tHe case absolute, or the nominative 
 absolute ; which is not so obvious before as afler the ellip- 
 sis is supplied. 
 
AND SYNTAX. 141 
 
 6. The ellipsis of the adverb is used in the following 
 manner. * He spoke and acted wisely ;' that is, * He spoke 
 wisely, and he acted wisely.' * Thrice I went and offered 
 my service ;' that is, * Thrice I went, and thrice I offered 
 my service.' 
 
 7. The following is the ellipsis of the pronoun : * I love 
 and fear him ;' that is, ' I love him, and I fear him.' *My 
 house and lands ;' that is, * My house and my lands.' In 
 these instances, the ellipsis may take place with propriety ; 
 but if we would be more express and emphatical, it must 
 not be used ; as, * His friends and his foes ;' * My sons and 
 my daughters.' 
 
 In some of the common forms of speech, the relative 
 pronoun is usually omitted ; as, * This is the man they 
 love,' instead of ' This is the man whom they love ;' ' These 
 are the goods they bought,' for * These are the goods which 
 they bought.' 
 
 In complex sentences, it is much better to have the rela- 
 tive pronoun expressed ; as, it is more proper to say, * The 
 posture in which I lay,' than * In the posture I lay ;' * The 
 horse on which I rode fell down,' than * The horse I rode 
 fell down.' 
 
 The antecedent and the relative connect the parts of a^ 
 sentence together ; and, to prevent obscurity and confusion, 
 they should answer to each other with great exactness. 
 * We speak that we do know, and testify that we have seen.' 
 Here the ellipsis is manifestly improper, and ought to, be 
 supplied ; as, ' We speak that which we do know, and tes- 
 tify that ivhich we have seen.' 
 
 8. The ellipsis of the preposition, as well as of the verb, 
 is seen in the following instances : * He went into the ab^ 
 beys, halls, and public buildings' ;' that is, ' He went into 
 the abbeys, lie went into the halls, and he went into the 
 public buildings.' ' He also went through all the streets- 
 and lanes of the city ^ that is, * Through all the streets, 
 
14*1 ETYMOLOGY 
 
 and through all the lanes,' 6lc. * He spoke to every man 
 and woman there ;' that is, ' to every man and to every 
 woman.' * This day, next month, last year ;' that is, * on 
 this day, in the next month, in the last year.' * The Lord 
 do that which seemeth him good ;' that is, ' which seemeth 
 to him.' 
 
 9. The ellipsis of the conjunction is as follows : ' They 
 confess the power, wisdom, goodness, and love of their 
 Creator ;' i. e., ' the power, and wisdom, and goodness, 
 and love of,' &c. * Though I love him, I do not flatter 
 him,' that is, * Though I love him, yd I do not flatter 
 him.' 
 
 There is a very common ellipsis of the conjunction that ; 
 as, ' He told me he would proceed immediately ;-' * I de- 
 sired he would not be too hasty ;' 'I fear it comes too 
 much from the heart ;' instead of * He told me that he 
 would proceed immediately ;' * I desired that he would 
 not be too hasty ;' ' I fear that it comes too much from 
 the heart.' This ellipsis is tolerable in conversation, and 
 in epistolary writing ; but it should be sparingly indulged 
 in every other species of composition. The French do not 
 use this mode of expression : they avoid the ellipsis on 
 such occasions. 
 
 10. The ellipsis of the interjection is not very common ; 
 it, however, is sometimes used ; as, * Oh ! pity and shame !' 
 that is, * Oh pity ! Oh shame !' 
 
 As the ellipsis occurs in almost every sentence in the 
 English language, numerous examples of it might be given ; 
 but only a few more can be admitted here. 
 
 In the following instance, there is a very considerable 
 one : * He will often argue, that if this part of our trade 
 were well cultivated, we should gain from one nation, and 
 if another, from another ;' that is, ' He will often ar- 
 gue, that if this part of our trade were well cultivated, 
 we should gain from one nation, and if another part -of 
 
AND SYNTAX. 143 
 
 our trade were well cultivated, we should gain fFom another 
 nation/ 
 
 Sometimes a considerable part of a sentence is properly 
 omitted, when we presume that the nominative case and its 
 whole regimen may be readily understood ; as, * Nature has 
 given to animals one time to act, and another to rest ;' in- 
 stead of saying, * Nature has given to animals one time 
 to act, and nature has given to animals another time to 
 rest.' 
 
 The following instances, though short, contain much of 
 the ellipsis : * Wo is me ;' i. e. ' wo is to me.' * To let 
 blood ;' i. e. ' to let out blood.' * To let down ;' i. e. ' to let 
 it fall or slide down.' * To walk a mile ;' i. e. * to walk 
 through the space of a mile.' * To sleep all night ;' i. e. 
 
 * to sleep through all the night.' ' To go a fishing ;' * To 
 go a hunting ;' i. e. * to go on a fishing voyage or business ;' 
 
 * to go on a hunting party.' * I dine at two o'clock ;' i. e. 
 
 * at two of the clock.' ' By sea, by land, on shore ;' i. e. 
 
 * by the sea^ by the land, on the shore.' 
 
 After the word notwithstanding^ when used as a con- 
 junction disjunctive, or a preposition, we frequently omit 
 the whole succeeding member of the sentence ; and in 
 this use of notwithstanding, we have a striking proof of 
 the value of abbreviations in language. For example : 
 ' Moses said, Let no man leave of it till the morning : 
 notwithstanding, they hearkened not unto him.' Here 
 notwithstanding appears without the clause to which it 
 belongs ; and, to complete the sense in words, it would 
 be necessary to repeat the whole preceding clause, or 
 the substance of it : ^ Moses said. Let no man leave of 
 it until the morning. Notwithstanding this command of 
 Moses, or notwithstanding Moses said that which has 
 been recited, they hearkened not unto Moses.' * Folly 
 meets with success in this world ; but it is true, nottoith' 
 standing, that it labors under disadvantages.' This pas- 
 
144 ETYMOLOGY 
 
 sage, at length, would read thus : ' Folly meets with suc- 
 cess in this world ; but it is true, notwithstanding folly 
 meets unth success in this world, that it labors under dis- 
 advantages.' 
 
 It is not unusual to apply a pronoun, this, that, which, 
 or what, to represent nearly the whole of a sentence ; as, 
 ' Bodies which have no taste, and no power of affecting the 
 skin, may, notwithstanding this, act upon organs which are 
 more delicate.' Here this stands for * they have no taste, 
 and no power to affect the skin,' and is governed by the 
 preposition notwithstanding, 
 
 11. The examples that follow are produced to show the 
 impropriety of ellipsis in some particular cases. * The land 
 was always possessed during pleasure, by those intrusted 
 with the command ;' it should be, * those persons intrusted,* 
 or ^ those who were intrusted.' * If he had read farther, he 
 would have found several of his objections might have been 
 spared ;' that is, * he would have found that several of his 
 objections,' &c. ' There is nothing men are more deficient 
 in, than knowing their own characters ;' it ought to be, 
 
 * nothing in which men,' and * than in knowing.' ' I scarce- 
 ly know any part of natural philosophy would yield more 
 variety and use ;' it should be, * which would yield,' &/C. 
 
 * In the temper of mind he then was,' i. e. * in which he 
 then was.' ' The little satisfaction and consistency to be 
 found in most of the systems of divinity I have met with, 
 made me betake myself to the sole reading of the Scrip- 
 tures ;' it ought to be, * which are to be found,' and * which 
 I have met with.' * He desired they mJght go to the altar 
 together, and jointly return their thanks to him to whom 
 only they were due ;' i. e. * He desired that they might go 
 to the altar together, and jointly return their thanks to him 
 to whom only they were due.' 
 
AND SYNTAX. 145 
 
 CONVSRSATION XXI. 
 
 Tutor, In most languages, there are some verbs which 
 are defective with respect to persons. These are denom- 
 inated impersonal verbs. They are used only in the third 
 person, because they refer to a subject pecuHarly appropri- 
 ated to that person; as, * It rains, it snows, it hails, it 
 lightens, it thunders.' But as the word impersonal implies 
 a total absence of person, it is improperly applied to those 
 verbs which have a- person ; and hence it is manifest, that 
 there is no such thing in the English, nor, indeed, in any 
 language, as a sort of verbs really impersonal. 
 
 The plea urged to prove the existence of impersonal 
 verbs is, in substance, as follows ; and you will perceive 
 that it is not wholly destitute of plausibility. There are 
 certain verbs which do not admit for their subject any thing 
 that has life, or any thing that is strictly definable ; such 
 as, ' It snows, it hails, it freezes, it rains, it lightens, it 
 thunders.' In this point of view, and with this explanation, 
 it is supposed, by some grammarians, that our language con- 
 tains a few impersonal verbs ; that is, verbs which de- 
 clare the existence of some action or state, but which do 
 not refer it to any animate being, or any determinate partic- 
 ular subject. 
 
 The whole number of verbs in the English language, 
 regular and irregular, simple and compounded, taken to- 
 gether, is about 4300. The number of irregular verbs, the 
 defective included, is about 177. 
 
 The whole number of words, after deducting proper 
 names, and the inflections of our verbs and nouns, does not 
 exceed 40,000. 
 
 George. What you have just said of impersonal verbs, 
 reminds me of a sentence which I saw the other day. It 
 was this : ' There needs no ghost come from the grave to 
 tell us this.' I could not parse needs. 
 13 
 
146 ETYMOLOGY 
 
 Tutor. Needs is frequently used in this manner; as, 
 ' There needs more assistance ;' * There needs one more to 
 make up the number ;' and Pope says, ' There needs but 
 thinking right and lAeaning well.' 
 
 It is, doubtless, a contraction of need is, the nominative 
 and the verb ; as, ' There need is of no ghost,' &/C., or 
 * There is need of,' &.c. ' There need is of more assist- 
 ance.' Needs is sometimes used as an adverb; as, * Of- 
 fences must needs come,' &.c. ; * He needs would show his 
 master what his art could do,' that is, ^ necessarily.' 
 
 Before you commence the correcting of false syntax, it is 
 proper that you should be exercised more in parsing. I 
 will give you a few lessons, in which you will find some con- 
 structions more difficult than any which yt>u have yet had ; 
 but comprehend the sense of the author, supply the ellipsis, 
 and you will not find much difficulty. 
 
 EXERCISES IN PARSING. 
 
 A few Instances of the same Word^s constituting several 
 of the Parts of Speech. 
 
 Calm was the day, and the scene delightful. 
 
 We may expect a calm after a storm. 
 
 To prevent passion is easier than to calm it. 
 
 Better is a little with content, than a great deal with. 
 anxiety. 
 
 The gay and dissolute think little of the miseries which 
 are stealing softly afler them. 
 
 A little attention will rectify some errors. 
 
 Though he is out of danger, he is still afraid. 
 
 He labored to still the tumult. 
 
 Fair and soflly go far. 
 
 The fair was numerously attended. 
 
 His character is fair and honorable. 
 
 Damp air is unwholesome. 
 
AND SYNTAX, 147 
 
 Guilt often casts a damp over our sprightliest hours. 
 
 Soft bodies damp the sound much more than hard ones. 
 
 Though she is rich and fair, yet she is not amiable. 
 
 They are yet young, and must suspend their judgment 
 yet a while. 
 
 Many persons are better than we suppose them to be. 
 
 The few and the many have their prepossessions. 
 
 Few days pass without some clouds. 
 
 The hail was very destructive. 
 
 Hail, virtue ! source of every good. 
 
 We hail you as friends. 
 
 Much money is corrupting. 
 
 Think much, and speak little. 
 
 He has seen much of the world, and has been much ca- 
 ressed. 
 
 His years are more than hers, but he has not more 
 knowledge. 
 
 The more we are blessed, the more grateful we should 
 be. 
 
 The desire of getting more is rarely satisfied. 
 
 He has equal knowledge, but inferior judgment. 
 
 She is his inferior in sense, but his equal in prudence. 
 
 Every being loves its like. 
 
 We must make a like space between the lines. 
 
 Behave yourselves like men. 
 
 We are too apt to like pernicious company. 
 
 He may go or stay, as he likes. 
 
 They strive to learn. 
 
 He goes to and fro. 
 
 To his wisdom we owe our privilege. 
 
 The proportion is ten to one. 
 
 He has served them with his utmost ability. 
 
 When we do our utmost, no more is required. 
 
 I will submit, for I know submission brings peace. 
 
 It is for our health to be temperate. 
 
us ETYMOLOGY 
 
 ;0 for better times ! 
 I have a regard for him. 
 
 He is esteemed, both on his own account, and on that of 
 liis parents. 
 
 Both of them deserve praise. 
 
 Yesterday was a fine day. 
 
 I rode out yesterday. 
 
 I shall write to-morrow. 
 
 To-morrow may be brighter than to-day. 
 
 Promiscuous Exercises in Parsing. 
 
 PROSE. 
 
 Dissimulation in youth is the forerunner of perfidy in 
 old age. Its first appearance is the fatal omen of growing 
 depravity and future shame. 
 
 If we possess not the power of self-government, we shall 
 be the prey of every loose inclination that chances to arise. 
 Pampered by continual indulgence, all our passions will 
 become mutinous and headstrong. Desire, not reason, will 
 be the ruling principle of our conduct. 
 
 Absurdly we spend our time in contending about the 
 trifles of a day, while we ought to be preparing for a higher 
 existence. 
 
 How little do they know of the true happiness of life, 
 who are strangers to that intercourse of good offices and 
 kind affections, which, by a pleasing charm, attaches men 
 to one another, and circulates rational enjoyment from 
 heart to heart ! 
 
 If we view ourselves, with all our imperfections anr' fail- 
 ings, in a just light, we shall rather be surprised at our 
 enjoying so many good things, than discontented because 
 there are any wliich we want. 
 
 True cheerfulness makes a man happy in himself, and 
 promotes the happiness of all around him. It is the 
 
AND SYNTAX. 149 
 
 clear and calm sunshine of a mind illuminated by piety and 
 virtue. 
 
 Wherever views of interest, and prospects of return, min- 
 gle with the feelings of affection, sensibility acts an im- 
 perfect part, and entitles us to a small share of commen- 
 dation. 
 
 Let not your expectations from the years that are to ccme 
 rise too high, and your disappointments will be fewer and 
 more easily supported. 
 
 To live long, ought not to be your favorite wish, so much 
 as to live well. By continuing too long on earth, we might 
 only live to witness a greater number of melancholy scenes, 
 and to expose ourselves to a wider compass of human 
 wo. 
 
 How many pass away some of the most valuable years of 
 tlieir lives, tossed in a whirlpool of what cannot be called 
 pleasure so much as mere giddiness and folly ! 
 
 Look around you with an attentive eye, and weigh char- 
 acters well, before you connect yourselves too closely with 
 any who court your society. 
 
 The true honor of man consists not in the multitude of 
 riches, or the elevation of rank ; for experience shows that 
 these may be possessed by the worthless a*s well as the de- 
 serving. 
 
 Beauty of form has often betrayed its possessor. The 
 flower is easily blasted. It is short-lived at the best, and 
 trifling, at any rate, in comparison with the higher and more 
 lasting beauties of the mind. 
 
 A contented temper opens a clear sky, and brightens 
 every object around us. It is in the sullen and dark shade 
 of discontent, that noxious passions, like venomous animals, 
 breed and prey upon the heart. 
 
 Thousands, whom indolence has sunk into contemptible 
 obscurity, might have come forward to usefulness and hon- 
 13* 
 
150 ETYMOLOGY 
 
 or, if idleness had not frustrated the effects of all their 
 powers. 
 
 Sloth is hke the slowly-flowing, putrid stream, which 
 stagnates in the marsh, breeds venomous animals, and poi- 
 sonous plants, and infects with pestilential vapor the whole 
 country round it. 
 
 Disappointments derange and overcome vulgar minds. 
 The patient and the wise, by a proper improvement, 
 frequently make them contribute to their high advan- 
 tage. 
 
 Whatever fortune may rob us of, it cannot take away 
 what is the most valuable, the peace of a good conscience, 
 and the cheering prospect of a happy conclusion to all the 
 trials of life in a better world. 
 
 Be not overcome by the injuries you meet with, so as* 
 to pursue revenge ; by the disasters of life, so as to sink 
 into despair ; by the evil examples of the world, so as 
 to follow them into sin. Overcome injuries by forgive- 
 ness ; disasters, by fortitude ; evil examples, by firmness of 
 principle. 
 
 Sobriety of mind is one of those virtues, which the pres- 
 ent condition ot human life strongly inculcates. The un- 
 certainty of its enjoyments checks presumption ; the multi- 
 plicity of its dangers demands perpetual caution. Modera- 
 tion, vigilance, and self-government, are duties incumbent 
 on all, but especially on such as are beginning the journey 
 of life. 
 
 The charms and comforts of virtue are inexpressible, 
 and can only be justly conceived by those who possess her. 
 The consciousness of divine approbation and support, and 
 the steady hope of future happiness, communicate a peace 
 and joy, to which all the delights of the world bear no re« 
 semblance. 
 
 * As^ following sOy BomctimeB goVerna the infinitive moOd. See Sec. XV, Rul© 
 XX. Read all that is written under this rule. 
 
AND SYNTAX. 151 
 
 If we knew how much the pleasures of this life deceive 
 and betray their unhappy votaries, and reflected on the 
 disappointments in pursuit, the dissatisfaction in enjoy- 
 ment, or the uncertainty of possession, which every where 
 attend them, we should cease to be enamored with these 
 brittle and transient joys, and should wisely fix our hearts 
 on those virtuous attainments which the world can neither 
 give nor take away. 
 
 POETRY. 
 
 Order is Heaven's first law ; and, this confess'd, 
 Some are, and must be, greater than tlie rest ; 
 ■^ More rich, more wise ; but who infers from hence. 
 
 That such are happier, shocks all common sense. 
 
 Needful austerities our wills restrain, 
 
 As thorns fence in the tender plant from harm. 
 
 Reason's whole pleasure, all the joys of sense. 
 
 Lie in three words — health, peace, and comjMJtence j 
 
 But health consists with temperance alone j 
 
 And peace, O virtue, peace is all thy own. 
 
 On earth nought precious is obtain'd. 
 
 But what is painful too ; 
 By travel and to travel born, 
 
 Our sabbaths are but few. 
 
 Who noble ends by noble means obtains. 
 Or, failing, smiles in exile or in chains, 
 Like good Aureliys let him reign, or bleed 
 Like S<x;rates, that man is great indeed. 
 
 Our hearts are fasten 'd to this world 
 
 By strong and endless ties 5 
 But every sorrow cuts a string. 
 
 And urges us to rise. 
 
 Oil pining cares in rich brocades are dress'd, 
 And diamonds glitter on an anxious breast. 
 
 Teach me to feel another's wo, 
 
 To hide the fault I see j 
 That mercy I to others show. 
 
 That mercy show to me. 
 This day be bread and peace my lot 5 
 
 All else beneath the sun 
 Thou know'st if best bestowed or not ; 
 
 And let thy will be done. 
 
 Vice is a monster of so frightful mien. 
 As, to be hated, needs but to be seen •, 
 Yet, seen too oft, familiar with her face, 
 We first endure, then pity, then embrace. 
 
 If nothing more than purpose in thy power, 
 Thy purpose firm is equal to the deed ; 
 Who does the best his circumstance allows. 
 Does well, acta nobly •, angels can no more. 
 
 In faith and hope the world will disagree, 
 But all mankind's concern is charity. 
 
152 ETYMOLOGY 
 
 To be resigned wlien ills betide, 
 Patient when favors are denied, 
 
 And pleas'd with favors given ; 
 Most surely this is Wisdom's part j 
 This is that incense of the heart, 
 
 Whose fragrance smells to Heaven. 
 
 All fame is foreio;n, but of true desert ; 
 
 Plays round the head, but comes not to the heart ; 
 
 One self-approving hour whole years outweighs 
 
 Of stupid starers and of loud huzzas ; 
 
 And more true joy Marcellus exil'd feels, 
 
 Than Ctesar with a senate at his heek. 
 
 Far from the madding crowd's ignoble strife, 
 
 Their sober wishes nev^r learn'd to stray ; 
 Along the cool, sequester'd vale of life 
 
 They kept the noiseless tenor of their way. 
 
 What nothing earthly gives, or can destroy. 
 The soul's calm sunshine and the heartfelt joy, 
 Is virtue's prize. 
 
 Pity the sorrows of a poor old man, 
 Whose trembling limbs have borne him to your door, 
 
 Whose days are dwindled to the shortest span 5 
 O ! give relief, and Heaven will bless your store. 
 
 Who lives to nature rarely can be poor ; 
 Who lives to fancy never can be rich. 
 
 When young, life's journey I began ; 
 
 The glitt'ring prospect charm'd my eyes : 
 I saw, along th' extended plain, 
 
 Joy after joy successive rise. 
 But soon I found 'twas all a dream, 
 
 And learn'd the fond pursuit to shun, 
 W^here few can reach the purpos'd aim. 
 
 And thousands daily are undone. 
 
 'Tis greatly wise to talk with our past hours. 
 And ask them what report they bore to Heav'n. 
 
 All nature is but art imknown to thee ; 
 
 All chance, direction which thou can'st not see j 
 
 All discord, harmony not understood j 
 
 All partial evil, universal good. 
 
 Heaven's choice is safer than our own j 
 
 Of ages past inquire. 
 What the most formidable fate j 
 
 " To have our own desire." 
 
 Two principles in human nature reign ; 
 Self love to urge, and reason to restrain : 
 Nor this a good, nor that a bad we call. 
 Each works its end to move or govern all j 
 And to their proi)er operation still 
 Ascribe all Good, to their improper, 111. 
 
 Self-love, the spring of motion, acts the soul. 
 Reason's comparing balance rules the whole. 
 Man, but for* that, no action could attend 
 And but for this, were active to no end : 
 Fix'd like a plant on his peculiar spot. 
 To draw nutrition, propagate, and rot : ^ 
 
 ♦ But for must here be taken together as a compound preposition, equivalent 
 to tDithout. We cannot parse them separately, without perverting the Hense of th« 
 author. 
 
AND SYNTAX. 153 
 
 Or, meteor-like, flame lawless through the void, 
 Destroying others, by himself destroyed. 
 
 Most strength the moving principle requires ; 
 Aetive its task, it prompts, impels, inspires j 
 Sedate and quiet the comparing lies. 
 Formed but to check, deliberate, and advise. 
 Self-love still stronger as its object's nigh ; 
 Reason's at distance, and in prospect lie ; 
 That sees immediate good by present sense ; 
 Reason, the future and the consequence. 
 Thicker than arguments, temptations throng. 
 At best more watchful this, but that more strong. 
 The action of the stronger to suspend, 
 Reason still use, to reason still attend. 
 Attention, habit and experience gains, 
 Each strengthens reason, and self-love restrains. 
 
 Let subtle schoolmen tench these friends to fight. 
 More studious to divide than to unite ; 
 And grace and virtue, sense and reason split, 
 With all the rash dexterity of wit. 
 Wits, just like fools, at war about a name, 
 Have full as oft no meaning, or the same. 
 Self-love and reason to one end aspire. 
 Pain their aversion, pleasure their desire: 
 But greedy that, its object would devour, 
 This taste the honey, and not wound the flower : 
 Pleasure, or wrong or rightly understood, 
 Our greatest evil, or our greatest good. 
 
 Whate'er the passion, knowledge, fame, or pelf, 
 Not one will change his neighbor with himself. 
 The learned is happy nature to explore, 
 The fool is happy that he knows no more ; 
 The rich is happy in the plenty given. 
 The poor contents him with the care of Heaven. 
 See the blind beggar dance, the cripple sing, 
 Tiie sot a hero, lunatic a king ; 
 The starving chemist in his golden views 
 Supremely blest, the poet in his muse. 
 
 See some strange comfort every state attend, 
 And pride bestowed on all, a common friend ; 
 See some tit passion every age supply ; 
 Hope travels through, nor quits us when we die. 
 
 Behold tlie child, by nature's kindly law, 
 Pleased with a rattle, tickled with a straw; 
 Some livelier plaything gives his youth delight, 
 A little louder, but as empty quite : 
 ^arft, garters, gold, amuse his riper stage, 
 And beads and .prayer-books are the toys of age ; 
 Pleased with this bauble still, as that before, 
 Till, tired, he sleeps, and life's poor play is o'er. 
 Meanwhile opinion gilds, with varying rays. 
 Those painted clouds that beautify our days : 
 Each want of happiness by hope supplied, 
 And each vacuity of sense by pride : 
 These build as fast as knowledge can destroy j 
 In folly's cup still laughs the bubble joy ; 
 One prospect lost, another still we gain, 
 And not a vanity is given in vain ; 
 Even mean self-love becomes, by force divine. 
 The scale to measure others' wants by thine. 
 See, and confess, one comfort still must rise j 
 'Tis this, though man's a fool, yet GOD is WISE. 
 
 Whether with reason or with instinct blest, 
 Know, all enjoy that power which suits them host j 
 To bliss alike by that direction tend. 
 And find the means proportioned to their end. 
 
154 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 
 
 Say, where full instinct is th* unerring guide, 
 What pope or council can they need Inside? 
 "Reason, however able, cool at best, 
 Cares not for service, or but serves when prest ; 
 Stays till we call, and then not often near ; 
 But honest instinct conies a volunteer, 
 Sure never to o'ershoot, but just to hit ; 
 While still too wide or short is human wit j 
 Sure by quick nature happiness to gain, 
 Which heavier reason labors at in vain. 
 This, too, serves always •, reason never long : 
 One must go right, the other may go wrong. 
 See, then, the acting and comparing powers, 
 One in their nature, which are two in ours. 
 And reason raise o'er instinct as you can, 
 In this, 'tis God directs, in that, 'tis man. 
 
 Who taught the nations of the field and flood 
 To shun their poison, and to choose their food? 
 Prescient, the tides or tempests to withstand, 
 Build on the wave, or arch beneath the sand ? 
 Who made the spider parallels design, 
 Sure as De Moivre, without rule or line ? 
 Who bid the stork, Columbus-like, explore 
 Heavens not his own, and worlds unknown before ? 
 Who calls the council, states the certain day : 
 Who forms the phalanx, and who points the way ? 
 
ADDITIONAL REMARKS. 
 
 OP SYNTAX. 
 
 SECTION Z. 
 
 The third part of Grammar is Syntax, which treats of the 
 agreement and construction of words in a sentence. 
 
 A sentence is an assemblage of words, forming a complete 
 sense. 
 
 Sentences are of two kinds, simple and compound. . 
 
 A shnple sentence has in it but one subject, and one finite 
 verb ; as, * Life is short.' 
 
 A compound sentence consists of two or more simple sen- 
 tences, connected together ; as, * Life is short, and art is long.' 
 * Idleness produces want, vice, and misery.' 
 
 x\s sentences themselves are divided into simple and com- 
 pound, so the members of sentences may be divided likewise 
 into simple and compound members ; for whole sentences, 
 whether simple or compound, may become members of other 
 sentences, by means of some additional connexion ; as in the 
 following example. ' The ox knoweth his owner, and the ass 
 his master's crib : but Israel doth not know, my people do not 
 consider.' This sentence consists of two compound mem- 
 bers, each of which is subdivided into two simple members, 
 which are properly called clauses. 
 
 There are three sorts of simple sentences ; the explicative^ 
 or explaining ; the interrogative, or asking ; the imperative, or 
 commanding. 
 
 An explicative sentence is, when a thing is said to be or not 
 to be, to do or not to do, to suffer or not to suffer, in a direct 
 manner ; as, * I am ; thou writest ; Thomas is loved.' If the 
 sentence be negative, the adverb not is placed after the aux- 
 iliary, or after the verb itself when it has no auxiliary ; as, * I 
 did not touch him ;' or, ' I touched him not.' 
 
 In an interrogative sentence, or when a question is asked, 
 the nominative case follows the principal verb, or the auxiliary ; 
 as, ' Was it he ?' ' Did Alexander conquer the Persians.^' 
 
 In an inoperative sentence, when a thing is commanded to be, 
 to do, to suffer, or not, the nominative case likewise follows the 
 
156 SYNTAX. 
 
 verb or the auxiliary ; as, ' Go, thou traitor !' ' Do thou go ;' 
 * Haste ye away ;' unless the verb let be used ; as, 'Let us be 
 gone.' 
 
 A phrase is two or more words rightly put together, making 
 sometimes part of a sentence, and sometimes a whole sentence. 
 
 The principal parts of a sentence are, the subject, the attri- 
 bute, and the object. 
 
 The subject is the thing chiefly spoken of, the attribute is the 
 thing or action affirmed or denied of it ; and the object is the 
 thing afffected by such action. 
 
 The nominative denotes the subject, and usually goes before 
 the verb or attribute ; and the word or phrase, denoting the ob- 
 ject, follows the verb ; as, ' A wise man governs his passions.' 
 Here, a ivise man is the subject ; governs, the attribute, or thing 
 affirmed; and his passions, the object. 
 
 Sj'ntax principally consists of two parts, Concord and Gov- 
 emment. 
 
 Concord is the agreement wliich one word has with another, 
 in gender, number, case, or person. 
 
 (xovernment is that power which one part of speech has over 
 another, in directing its mood, tense, or case. 
 
 I shall now proceed to recapitulate all the rules, and give 
 some illustrations, and notes under each, and then add exer- 
 cises in false syntax, for you to correct and parse. 
 
 If you attend well to the illustrations, and the notes, you will 
 be able to make the proper corrections, in ail similar construc- 
 tions. 
 
 RULE I. 
 
 Jl verb must agree iviih its nominative case in number and 
 person. 
 
 The following are a few instances of the violation of this rule. 
 * What signifies good opinions, when our practice is bad ?' 
 
 * what signify.'^ ' There's two or three of us, who have seen 
 the work :' • there are."* ' We may suppose there was more 
 impostors than one :' * there loere more.' * I have considered 
 what have been said on both sides in this controversy :' ' what 
 Ka^ been said.' ' If thou would be healthy, live temperately :' 
 ' if thou wouldst.'* * Thou sees how little has been done ;' * thou 
 seest."* * Though thou cannot do much for the cause, thou may 
 and should do something :' * canst not, niayst, and shouldst.^ 
 
 * Full many a flower are born to blush unseen :' ' is born.' * A 
 conformity of incHnations and qualities prepare us for friend- 
 ship :' '^ prepares us.' 'A variety of blessings Jiave been confer- 
 red upon us :' * has been.' * In piety and virtue consist the hap- 
 piness of man :' ' consists.^ * To these precepts are subjoined 
 a copious selection of rules and maxims :' *i5 subjoined.' 
 
SYNTAX. 157 
 
 1. Every verb, except in the infinitive mood, or the partici- 
 ple, ought to have a nominative case, either expressed or im- 
 pHed ; as, Awake ; arise ;' that is, * Awake j^e ; arise ye.' 
 
 I shall here add some examples of inaccuracy, in the use of 
 the verb without its nominative case. *As it hath pleased 
 him of liis goodness to give you safe deliverance, and hath 
 preserved you in the great danger,' &c. The verb * hath pre- 
 served^ has here no nominative case ; for it cannot be proper- 
 ly supplied by the preceding word, ^ him,'' which is in the ob- 
 jective case. It ought to be, ' and as he hath jrreserved you ;' 
 or, rather, ' and to preserve you.' * ir the calm in which he 
 was born and lasted so long, had continued:' *and which 
 lasted,' &c. * These we have extracted from an historian of 
 undoubted credit, and are the same that were practised,' &c. : 
 *and they are the same.' * A man whose inclinations led him 
 to be corrupt, and had great abilities to manage the business :' 
 
 * and who had,' &c. * A cloud gathering in the north, which 
 we have helped to raise, and may quickly break in a storm up- 
 on our heads :' ' and ivhich may quickly.' 
 
 2. Every nominative case, except the case absolute, and 
 when an address is made to a person, should belong to some 
 verb, either expressed or implied ; as, * Who wrote this book?' 
 
 * James;' that is, * James wrote it.' ' To whom thus Adam,' 
 that is, * spoke.' Who invented the telescope ?' * Galileo ;' that 
 is, * Galileo invented the telescope.' 
 
 One or two instances of the improper use of the nominative 
 case, without any verb, expressed or implied, to answer it, may 
 be sufficient to illustrate the usefulness of the preceding obser- 
 vation. 
 
 * Which rule, if it had been observed, a neighboring prince 
 would have wanted a great deal of that incense, which hath 
 been offered up to him.' The pronoun it is here the nomina- 
 tive case to the verb * observed;' and which rule is left by 
 itself, a nominative case without any verb following it. This 
 form of expression, though improper, is very common. It 
 ought to be, ^ If this rule had been observed,' &c. * Man, 
 though he has a great variety of thoughts, and such from which 
 others as well as himself might receive profit and delight, yet 
 they are all within his own breast.' In this sentence, the nom- 
 inative man stands alone and unconnected with any verb, either 
 expressed or imphed. It should be, ' Though man has great 
 variety,' &c. 
 
 3. When a verb comes between two nouns, either of which 
 may be understood cs the subject of the affirmation, it may 
 agree with either of them ; but some regard must be hau to 
 that which is more naturally the subject of it, as also to that 
 which stands next to the verb ; as, ^ His meat was locusts and 
 
 14 
 
158 SYNTAX. 
 
 wild honey ;' 'A great cause of the low state of industry wen 
 the restraints put upon it ;' * The wages of sin is death.' 
 
 In such instances as those which follow, either of the claus- 
 es may be considered as the nominative to the verb. ' To 
 show how the understanding proceeds herein, is the design of 
 the following discourse.' This sentence may be inverted 
 without changing a single word : ' The design of the following 
 discourse is, to show how the understanding proceeds herein.' 
 * To fear no eye, and to suspect no tongue, is the great pre- 
 rogative of innocence.' This sentence may be inverted ; but, 
 according to the EngUsh idiom, the pronoun it would, in that 
 case, precede the verb ; as, * It is the prerogative of innocence 
 to fear no eye, and to suspect no tongue.' 
 
 The nominative case is commonly placed before tlie verb ; 
 but sometimes it is put after the verb, if it is a simple tense ; 
 and between the auxiUary and the verb or participle, if a com- 
 pound tense ; as, 
 
 1st, When a question is asked, a command given, or a wish 
 expressed; as, ' Confidest thou in me?'* Read thou;' 'Mayst 
 thou be happy !' ' Long hve the king !' 
 
 2d, When a supposition is made without the conjunction if; 
 as, * Were it not for this ;' ' Had I been there.' 
 
 3d, When a verb neuter is used ; as, ' On a sudden appear- 
 ed the king ;' ' Above it stood the seraphim.' 
 
 4th, When the verb is preceded by the adverbs here, therey 
 then, thence, thus, &c.; as, ' Here am I ;' * There was he slain ;* 
 'Then cometh the end;' 'Thence arise th his grief;' 'Hence 
 proceeds his anger ;' ' Thus was the affair settled.' 
 
 5th, When a sentence depends on neither or nor, so as to 
 be coupled with another sentence ; as, ' Ye shall not eat of it, 
 neither shall ye touch it, lest ye die.' 
 
 6th, When an emphatical adjective introduces a sentence ; 
 as, 'Happy is the man, whose heart does not reproach him.* 
 
 You can now correct the following 
 
 EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX. 
 
 Disappointments sinks the heart of man ; but the renewal 
 of hope give consolation. 
 
 The smiles that encourage severity of judgment, hides mal- 
 ice and insincerity. 
 
 He dare not act contrary to his instructions. 
 
 Fifty pounds of wheat contains forty pounds of flour. 
 
 The mechanism of clocks and watches were totally un- 
 known a few centuries ago. 
 
 The number of inhabitants in Great Britain and Ireland do 
 not exceed sixteen millions. 
 
 Nothing but vain and foolish pursuits delight some persons. 
 
 A variety of pleasing objects charm the eye. 
 
SYNTAX. lg& 
 
 So much both of ability and merit are selaom found. 
 
 In the conduct of Parmenio, a mixture of wisdom and folly 
 were very conspicuous. 
 
 He is an author of more credit than Plutarch, or any other, 
 that write lives too hastily. 
 
 The inquisitive and curious is generally talkative. 
 
 Great pains has been taken to reconcile the parties. 
 
 I am sorry to say it, but there was more equivocators than 
 one. 
 
 The sincere is always esteemed. 
 
 Haa the goods been sold to advantage ? and did thou em- 
 brace the proper season ? 
 
 There is many occasions in hfe, in which silence and sim- 
 plicity is true wisdom. 
 
 The generous never recounts minutely the actions they have 
 done ; nor the prudent those they will do. 
 
 He need not proceed in such haste. 
 
 The business that related to ecclesiastical meetings, matters 
 and persons, were to be ordered according to the king's di- 
 rection. 
 
 In him were happily blended true dignity with softness of 
 manners* 
 
 The support of so many of his relations were a heavy tax 
 upon his industry ; but thou knows he paid it cheerfully. 
 
 What avails the best sentiments, if persons do not live suita- 
 bly to them ? 
 
 Reconcihation was offered, on conditions as moderate as was 
 consistent with a permanent union. 
 
 Not one of them whom thou sees clothed in purple are com- 
 pletely happy. 
 
 And the fame of this person, and of his wonderful actions, 
 were diffused throughout the country. 
 
 The variety of the productions of genius, Uke that of the op- 
 erations of nature, are without limit. 
 
 In vain our flocks and fields increase our store, 
 When our abundance makes us wish for more. 
 
 Thou, should love thy neighbor as sincerely as thou loves 
 thyself. 
 
 Has thou no better reason for censuring thy friend and 
 companion ? 
 
 Thou who art the Author and Bestower of life, can doubtless 
 restore it also : but whether thou will please to restore it, or 
 not, that thou only knows. 
 
 O thou my voice inspire, 
 
 Who touched Isaiah's hallowed lips with fire. 
 
160 SYNTAX. 
 
 Accept these grateful tears : for thee they flow ; 
 For thee, that ever felt another's wo. 
 
 Just to thy word, in every thought sincere ; 
 
 Who knew no wish but what the world might hear. 
 
 The following examples are adapted to the notes under 
 
 RULE I. 
 
 1. If the privileges to which he has an undoubted right, and 
 he has long enjoyed, should now be wrested from him, would 
 be flagrant injustice. 
 
 These curiosities we have imported from China, and are 
 similar to those which were some time ago brought from Africa. 
 
 Will martial flames for ever fire thy mind. 
 And never, never be to Heaven resigned ? 
 
 2. Two substantives, when they come together, and do^ not 
 signify the same thing, the former must be in the genitive 
 case. 
 
 Virtue, however it may be neglected for a time, men are so 
 constituted as ultimately to acknowledge and respect genuine 
 merit. 
 
 SECTION XZ. 
 
 RULE IL 
 
 When two nouns come together^ signifying different things y 
 the former^ implying possession^ must he in the possessive case, and 
 governed by the lattei'. 
 
 The preposition o/J joined to a substantive, is frequently 
 equivalent to the possessive case ; as, 'A Christian's hope,' 
 
 * The hope of a Christian.' But it is only so when the ex- 
 pression can be converted into the regular form of the posses- 
 sive case. We can say, ' The reward of virtue,' and ' Vir- 
 tue's reward :/ but though it is proper to say, * A crown of 
 gold,' we cannot convert the expression into the possessive 
 case, and say, ' Gold's crown.' 
 
 Substantives govern pix)nouns, as well as nouns, in the pos- 
 sessive case ; as, * Every tree is known by its fruit ;' * Good- 
 ness brings its reward ;' * That desk is mine.^ 
 
 The genitive its is often improperly used for His, or it is ; as, 
 
 * Its my book ;' instead of, * It is my book,' 
 
 The pronoun hisy when detached from the noun to which it 
 relates, is to be considered, not as a possessive adjective pro* 
 
SYNTAX. 161 
 
 ijoun, but as the genttive case of the personal pronoun ; as, 
 *This composition is his,'^ * Whose book is that? His.'' 
 If we use the noun itself, we should say, *This composition is 
 John's.' * Whose book is that? Eliza's.' The position 
 will be still more evident, when we consider that both the pro- 
 nouns, in the following sentence, must have a similar construc- 
 tion : ' Is it her or his honor that is tarnished ? It is not hers, 
 but hisJ* 
 
 Sometimes a substantive in the genitive or possessive case 
 stands alone, the latter one, by which it is governed, being un- 
 derstood ; as, ' I called at the bookseller's,' that is, * at the book- 
 seller's shop J' 
 
 1. If several nouns come togetheon the possessive case, the 
 apostrophe with s is annexed to til last, and understood in 
 the rest; as, *John and EHza's books;' 'This was my fa- 
 ther, mother, and uncle's advice.' But when any words in* 
 tervene, perhaps on account of the increased pause, the sign of 
 the possessive should be annexed to each ; as, * They are 
 John's as well as Eliza's books ;' ' I had the physician's, the 
 surgeon's, and the apothecary's assistance.' The following 
 distinction, on this point, appears to be worthy of attention. 
 When any subject or subjects are considered as the common 
 property of two or more persons, the sign of the possessive 
 case is affixed only to the name of the last person ; as, ' This 
 is Henry, Wilham, and Joseph's estate.' But when several 
 subjects are considered as belonging separately to distinct in- 
 dividuals, the names of the individuals have the sign of the pos- 
 sessive case annexed to each of them ; as, ' These are Hen- 
 ry's, William's, and Joseph's estates.' It is, however, better 
 to say, * It was the advice of my father, mother, and uncle ;' ' I 
 had the assistance of the physician, the surgeon, and the apoth- 
 ecary ;' ' This estate belongs in common to Henry, William, 
 and Joseph.' 
 
 % In poetry, the additional s is frequently omitted, but the 
 apostrophe retained, in the same manner as in substantives of 
 the plural number ending in s ; as, * The wrath of Peleus' son.' 
 This seems not so allowable in prose ; which the following 
 erroneous examples will demonstrate : ' Moses' minister ;' 
 *Phinehas' vtdfe ;' 'Festus came into Felix' room.' * These 
 answers were made to the witness' questions.' But in cases 
 which would give too much of the hissing sound, or increase 
 the difficulty of pronunciation, the omission takes place even 
 in prose ; as, ' For righteousness' salce ;' ' For conscience' 
 sake.' 
 
 3. Little explanatory circumstances are particularly awk- 
 ward between a genitive case and the word which usually fol- 
 lows it ; as, * She began to extol the farmer's, as she called 
 14* 
 
162 SYNTAX. 
 
 him, excellent understanding.' It ought to be, * the excellent 
 understanding of the farmer, as she called him.' — The word in 
 the genitive case is frequently placed improperly; as, *This 
 fact appears from Dr. Pearson of Birmingham's experiments.' 
 It should be, * from the experunents of Dr. Pearson of Bir- 
 mingham.' 
 
 4. When a sentence consists of terms signifying a name 
 and an office, or of any expressions by which one part is de- 
 scriptive or explanatory of the other, it may occasion some 
 doubt to which of them the sign of the genitive case should be 
 annexed; or whether it should be subjoined to them both. 
 Thus some would say, ' I left the parcel at Smith's the book- 
 seller;' others, 'at Smith the bookseller's;' and perhaps 
 others, * at Smith's the bft:seller's.' The first of these forms 
 is most agreeable to the English idiom ; and if the addition 
 consists in two or more words, the case seems to be less du- 
 bious ; as, * I lefl the parcel at Smith's, the bookseller and sta- 
 tioner.' The point will be still clearer, if we supply the ellip- 
 sis in these sentences, and give the equivalent phrases at large ; 
 thus, *^r lefl the parcel at the house of Smith the bookseller ;' 
 'I lefl it at Smith the house of the bookseller;^ * I left it at 
 the house of Smith the house of the bookseller.' By this pro- 
 cess, it is evident, that only the first mode of expression is cor-^ 
 rect and proper. But as this subject requires a little further 
 explanation, to make it intelligible to the learners, I shall add 
 a few observations, calculated to unfold its principles. 
 
 A phrase in which the words are so connected and depea-^ 
 dent, as to admit of no pause before the conclusion, necessari- 
 ly requires the genitive sign at or near the end of the phrase ; 
 as, * Whose prerogative is it ? It is the king of Great Britahi's ;' 
 'That is the duke of Bridge water's canal ;' ' The bishop of 
 LandafTs excellent book;' 'The lord mayor of London's au- 
 thority ;' 'The captain of the guard's house.' 
 
 When ^ords in apposition follow each other in quick suc- 
 cepsion, it seems also most agreeable to our idiom to give the 
 sigvi of the genitive a similar situation ; especially if the noun 
 which governs the genitive be expressed ; as, ' The emperor 
 Leopold's:' 'Dionysius the tyrant's ;' 'For David my ser- 
 vanVs sake;' 'Give me John the Baptises head;' 'Paul 
 the apostle^s advice.' But when a pause is proper, and the 
 governing noun not expressed, and when the latter part of a 
 sentence is extended, it appears to be requisite that the sign 
 should be applied to the first genitive,. and understood to the 
 other ; as, ' I reside at Lord Stormont's, my old patron and 
 benefactor;' 'Whose glory did he emulate? He emulated 
 Caesar's, the greatest general of antiquity.' In the following 
 sentences, it would be veiy awkwqrd-to place the sign, either 
 
at the end of each of the clauses, or at the end of the latter one 
 alone ; as, * These psalms are David's, the king, priest, and 
 prophet of the Jewish people ;' * We staid a month at Lord Lyt- 
 tleton's, the ornament of his country, and the friend of every 
 virtue.' The sign of the genitive case may very properly be 
 understood at the end of these members, an ellipsis at the lat- 
 ter part of these sentences being a common construction in our 
 language, as the learner will see by one or two examples ; 
 ' They wished to submit, but he did not ;' that is, ' he did not 
 xvish to submit f * He said it was their concern, but not his;' 
 that is, ' not his concern.^ 
 
 If we annex the sign of the genitive to the end of the last 
 clause only, we shall perceive that a resting place is wanted, 
 and that the connecting circumstance is placed too remotely 
 to be either perspicuous or agreeable ; as, * Whose glory did 
 he emulate ? He emulated Caesar, the greatest general of an- 
 tiquity^s ;' * These psalms are David, the king, priest, and pro ph- 
 ot of the Jewish people^sJ It is much better to say, ' This 
 is PauVs advice, the Christian hero, and great apostle of the 
 Gentiles,' than * This is Paul, the Christian hero, and great 
 apostle of the Gentiles^ advice.' On the other hand, the ap- 
 plication of the genitive sign to both or all of the nouns in 
 apposition would be generally harsh and displeasing, and per- 
 haps, in some cases, incorrect ; as, 'The emperor's Leopold's ; 
 King's George's ; Charles's the Second's ;' 'The parcel was left 
 at Smith's, the bookseller's and stationer's.' The rules which 
 I have endeavored to elucidate will prevent the inconvenien- 
 ces of both these modes of expression ; and they appear to 
 be simple, perspicuous, and consistent with the idiom of the 
 language. 
 
 5. The English genitive has often an unpleasant sound ; so 
 that we daily make more use of the participle of to express 
 the same relation. There is something awkward in the fol- 
 lowing sentences, in which this method has not been taken. 
 ' The general, in the army's name, published a declaration ;' 
 ' The common's vote ; the lords' house ; unless he is very ig- 
 norant of the kingdom's condition.' It were certainly better 
 to say, ' In the name of the army ; the votes of the commons ; 
 the house of lords ; the condition of the kingdom.' It is also 
 rather hard to use two English genitives with the same sub- 
 stantive ; as, ' Whom he acquainted with the pope's and the 
 king's pleasure.' ' The pleasure of the pope and the king,' 
 would have been better. 
 
 We sometimes meet with three substantives dependent on 
 one another, and connected by the preposition of apphed to 
 each of them ; as, 'The severity of the distress of the son of 
 the king touched the nation ;' but this mode of express^ion la 
 
164 SYNTAX. 
 
 not to be recommended. It would be better to say, «The se- 
 vere distress of the king's son touched the nation.' We have 
 a striking instance of this laborious mode of expression in the 
 following sentence ; * Of some of the books of each of these 
 classes o/* literature, a catalogue will be given at the end of the 
 work.' 
 
 e. In some cases, we use both the genitive termination and 
 the preposition of; as, * It is a discovery of Sir Isaac New- 
 ton's.' Sometimes, indeed, unless we throw the sentence into 
 another form, this method is absolutely necessary, in order to 
 distinguish the sense, and to give the idea of property, strictly 
 so called, which is the most important of the relations express- 
 ed by the genitive case ; for the expressions, * This picture of 
 my friend,' and * This picture of my friend's,' suggest very dif- 
 ferent ideas. The latter only is that of property in the strictest 
 sense. The idea would, doubtless-, be conveyed in a better 
 manner by saying, * This picture belongs to my friend.' 
 
 When this double genitive, as some grammarians term it, is 
 not necessary to distinguish the sense, and especially in a grave 
 style, it is generally omitted. Except to prevent ambiguity, it 
 seems allowable only in cases which suppose the existence of 
 a plurality of subjects of the same kind. In the expressions, 
 
 * A subject of the emperor's-; a sentiment of my brother's ;' 
 more than one subject and one sentiment are supposed to be- 
 long to the possessor. But when this plurality is neither inti- 
 mated nor necessarily supposed, the double genitive, except as 
 before mentioned, should not be used ; as, ' This house of the 
 governor is very commodious ;' * The crown of the king was 
 stolen ;' * That privilege of the scholar was never abused.' But 
 after all that can be said for this double genitive, as it is term- 
 ed, some grammarians think that it would be better to avoid 
 the use of it altogether, and to give the sentiment another form 
 of expression- 
 
 7. When an entire clause of a sentence, beginning with a- 
 participle of the present tense, is used as one name, or to ex- 
 press one idea oi* circumstance, the noun on whiclf it depends 
 may be put in the genitive case ; thus, instead of saying, * What 
 is the reason of this person dismissing his servant so hastily P*^ 
 that is, * What is the reason of this person in dismissing his- 
 servant so hastily ?' we may say, and perhaps ought to say, 
 "What is the reason of this person's dismissing of his servant 
 so hastily ?' Just as we say, * What is the reason of this per- 
 son's hasty dismission of his servant ?' So, also, we say, * I re- 
 member it being reckoned a great exploit ;' or, more properly, 
 
 * I remember iVs being reckoned,' &c. The following sentence 
 is correct and proper ; * Much will depend on the pupiVs com- 
 posing, but more on his reading frequently.' It would not be 
 
SYNTAX. 165 
 
 accurate to say, * Much will depend on the pupil composing,^ 
 &c. We also properly say, ^This will be the effect of the pu- 
 piTs composing frequently,' instead of ' of the pupil composing 
 frequently.' The participle, in such constructions, does the 
 office of a substiantive ; and it should therefore have a corre- 
 spondent regimen. 
 
 Now correct and parse the following 
 
 EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX. 
 
 My ancestors virtue is not mine. 
 
 His brothers offence will not condemn him. 
 
 I will not destroy the city for ten sake. 
 
 Nevertheless, Asa his heart was perfect with the Lord. 
 
 A mothers tenderness and a fathers care are natures gift, for mans advantage. 
 
 A mans manner's frequently influence his fortune. 
 
 Wisdoms precepts' form the good mans interest and happiness. 
 
 The following examples are adapted to the notes and observations 
 under Rule If. 
 
 l.**It was the men's, women's, and children's lot to suffer great calamities. 
 
 Peter's, John's and Andrew's occupation was that of fishermen. 
 
 This measure gained the king, as well as the people's approbation. 
 
 Not only the counsel's and attorney's but the judge's opinion, also, favored his cause. 
 
 2. And he cast himself down at Jesus feet. 
 Moses rod was turned into a serpent. 
 
 For Herodias sake, his brother Philips wife. 
 
 If ye suffer for righteousness 's sake, happy are ye. 
 
 Ye should be subject for conscience's sake. 
 
 3. They very justly condemned the prodigal's, as he was called, senseless and ex- 
 travagant conduct. 
 
 They implicitly obeyed the protector's, as they called him, imperious mandates. 
 
 4. I bought the knives at Johnson's, the cutler's. 
 
 The silk was purchased at Brown's, the mercer's and haberdasher's. 
 
 Lord Feversham the general's tent. 
 
 This palace had been the grand sultan's Mahomet's. 
 
 I will not for David's thy father's sake. 
 
 He took refuge at the governor, the king's representative's. 
 
 Whose works are these ?: They are Cicero, the most eloquent of men's. 
 
 5. The world's government is not left to chance. 
 She married my son's wife's brother. 
 
 This is my wife's brother's partner's house. 
 
 It was necessary to have both tlie }>hysician's and the surgeon's advice. 
 
 The extent of the prerogative of the king of England is sufficiently ascertained. 
 
 6. This picture of the king^s does not much resemble him. 
 These pictures of the king were sent to him from Italy. 
 This estate of the corporation's is much encumbered. 
 This is the eldest son of the king of England's. 
 
 • p*" 7. What can be the cause of the parliament neglecting so important a business ? 
 
 Much depends on this rule being observed. 
 
 The time of William making the experiment at length arrived. 
 
 It is very probable that this assembly was called to clear some doubt which the 
 king had about the lawfulness of the Hollanders their throwing off the monarchy of 
 Spain, and their withdrawing entirely their allegiance to that crown. 
 
 If we alter the situation of any of the words, we shall presently be sensible of tha 
 melody suffering. 
 
 Such will ever be the effect of youth associating with vicious companions. 
 
166 SYNTAX. 
 
 sBcrriON in. 
 
 RULE III. 
 
 Transitive verbs govern the objective case. 
 
 In English, the nominative case, denoting the subject, usu- 
 ally goes before the verb ; and the objective case, denoting the 
 object, follows the verb transitive ; and it is the order that de- 
 termines the case in nomis ; as, * Alexander conquered the 
 Persians.' But the pronoun, having a proper form for each 
 of those cases, is sometimes, w^hen it is in the objective case, 
 placed before the verb ; and, vi^hen it is in the nominative case, 
 follows the object and verb ; as, ''Whom ye ignorantly worship, 
 him declare I unto you.' 
 
 This position of the pronoun sometimes occasions its proper 
 case and government to be neglected ; as in the following in- 
 stances : * Who should I esteem more than the wise and good?* 
 
 * By the character of those who you choose for your Mends, 
 your own is likely to be formed.' * Those are the persons who 
 he thought true to his interest.' * Who should I see the other 
 day but my old friend !' * Whosoever the court favors.' In 
 all these places, it ought to be whom, the relative being govern- 
 ed in the objective case by the verbs esteem, choose, thought^ 
 &c. * He who, under all proper circumstances, has the bold- 
 ness to speak truth, choose for thy friend.' It should be, * him 
 who,' &c. 
 
 Verbs neuter do not act upon, or govern, nouns and pro- 
 nouns. * He sleeps, they muse,^ &c., are not transitive. They 
 are therefore not followed by an objective case, specifying the 
 object of an action. But when this case, or an object of ac- 
 tion, comes after such verbs, though it may carry the appear- 
 ance of being governed by them, it is generally affected by a 
 preposition or some other word understood ; as, ' He resided 
 many years [that is, for or during many years] in the street ;' 
 *He rode several miles [that is, /or or through the space of sev- 
 eral miles] on that day ;' * He lay an hour [that is, during an 
 hour] in great torture.' In the phrases, ' To dream a dream,' 
 
 * To live a virtuous life,' ' To run a race,' ' To walk the horse,' 
 
 * To dance the child,' the verbs certainly assume a transitive 
 form, and may not, in these cases, be improperly denominated 
 transitive verbs. 
 
 Part of a sentence, as well as a noun or pronoun, may be 
 said to be in the objective case, or to be put objectively, gov- 
 erned by the active verb ; as, ' We sometimes see virtue in dis-^ 
 tress; but we should consider how great unU be her ultimate 
 reward? Sentences or phrases under these circumstances may 
 be termed objective sentences or phrases. 
 
SYNTAX. 167 
 
 1. Some writers, however, use certain neuter and intransi- 
 tive verbs as if they were transitive, putting after them the ob- 
 jective case, agreeably to the French construction of recipro- 
 cal verbs ; but this custom is so foreign to the idiom of the 
 Enghsh tongue, that it ought not to be adopted or imitated. 
 The following are some instances of this practice : ' Repent- 
 ing him of his design.' ' The king soon found reason to re# 
 pent him of his provoking such dangerous enemies.' * The 
 popular lords did not fail to enlarge themselves on the sub- 
 ject.' ' The nearer his successes approached him to the throne.* 
 ' Go, Jiee thee away into the land of Judah.' * I think it by no 
 means a fit and decent thing to vie charities,' &c. ' They have 
 spent their whole time and pains to agree the sacred with the 
 profane chronology.' 
 
 2. Transitive verbs are sometimes as improperly made in- 
 transitive ; as, 'I must premise with three circumstances ;' 
 ' Those that think to ingratiate ivith him by calumniating me.' 
 They should be, * premise three circumstances ;' ' ingratiate 
 themselves ^vith him.' 
 
 3. The neuter and intransitive verb is varied like the transi- 
 tive ; but, having in some degree the nature of the passive, it 
 admits, in many instances, of the passive form, retaining still 
 the neuter signification, chiefly in such verbs as signify some 
 sort of motion, or change of place or condition ; as, * I am 
 come ;' * I was gone ;' * I am grown ;' ' I was fallen.' The 
 following examples, however, appear to be erroneous, in giving 
 the intransitive verbs a passive form, instead of a transitive 
 one : * The rule of our holy religion, from which we are infi- 
 nitely swerved.'' ' The whole obligation of that law and cove- 
 nant wa^ also ceased,^ ' Whose number was now amounted to 
 three hundred.' 'This marshal, upon some discontent, was 
 entered into a conspiracy agains^ his master.' * At the end of 
 a campaign, when half the men are deserted or killed.' They 
 should be, ' have swerved,' * had ceased,' &c. 
 
 4. Let governs the objective case. * Let him beware.' ' Let 
 us judge candidly.' 'Let them not presume.' 'Let George 
 study his lesson.' 
 
 Now correct and parse the following 
 
 EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX. 
 
 They who opulence has made proud, and who luxury has corrupted, cannot relish 
 the simple pleasures of nature. 
 You have reason to dread his wrath, which one day will destroy ye both. 
 Who have I reason to love so much as this friend of my youth ? 
 Ye, who were dead, hath he quickened. 
 Who did they entertain so freely ? 
 The man, who he raised from obscurity, is dead. 
 Ye only have I known, of all the families of the earth. 
 He an«i they we know, but who are you ? 
 She that is idle and mischievous, reprove sharply. 
 Who did they send to him on so important an errand ? 
 
168 SYNTAX. 
 
 That is the friend who you must receive cordially, and who you cannot esteem too 
 highly. 
 
 He invited my brother and I to see and examine his library. 
 
 He who committed the offence you should correct, not I, who am innocent. 
 
 We should fear and obey the Author of our being, even He who has power to re- 
 ward or punish us for ever. 
 
 They who he had most injured, he had the greatest reason to love. 
 
 23Ac examples which follow are suited to the notes and observations 
 under Rule III. 
 
 1. Though he now takes pleasure in them, he will one day repent him of indulgen- 
 ces so unwarrantable. 
 
 The nearer his virtues approached him to the great example before him, the hum- 
 bler he grew. 
 It will be very difficult to agree his con4uct with the principles he professes. 
 
 2. To ingratiate with some, by traducing others, marks a base and despicable 
 mind. 
 
 I shall premise with two or three general observations. 
 
 3. If such maxims and such practices prevail, what lias become of decency and 
 virtue ? 
 
 I have come according to the time proposed ; but I have fallen upon an evil hour. 
 The mighty rivals are now at length agreed. 
 
 The influence of his corrupt example was then entirely ceased. He was entered 
 into the connexion before the consequences were considered. 
 
 4. Whatever others do, let thou and I act wisely. 
 Let them and we unite to oppose this growing evil. 
 
 SECTION ZV. 
 
 RULE IV. 
 
 The article refers to a noun or pronoun, expressed or under- 
 stood, to limit its signification. 
 
 It is the nature of both the articles to determine or limit the 
 thing spoken of. A determines it to be one single thing of the 
 kind, leaving it still uncertain which : the determines which it 
 is, or, of many, which they are. 
 
 The following passage will serve as an exaniple of the differ- 
 ent uses of a and the, and of the force of the substantive with- 
 out s.ny article : * Man was made for society, and ought to ex- 
 tend his good will to all men : but a man will naturally enter- 
 tain a more particular kindness for the men with whom he has 
 the most frequent intercourse, and enters into a still closer 
 union with the man whose temper and disposition suit best 
 with his own.' 
 
 There is, in some instances, a peculiar dehcacy in the appli- 
 cation or omission of the indefinite article. This will be seen 
 in the following instances. We commonly say, ' I do not in- 
 tend to turn critic on this occasion ;' not * turn a critic' On 
 the other hand, we properly add the article in this phrase : * I 
 do not intend to become a critic in this business ;' not * to 
 become critic' It is correct to say, with the article, * He is in 
 
SYNTAX. 169 
 
 a great hurry ;' but not 'in great hurry.' And yet, in this ex- 
 pression, ' He is in great haste,' the article should be omitted : 
 it would be improper to say, ' He is in a great haste.' A nice 
 discernment, and accurate attention to the best usage, are ne- 
 cessary to direct us on these occasions. 
 
 As the articles are sometimes misapplied, it may be of some 
 use to exhibit a few instances: 'And I persecuted this way 
 unto the death.' The apostle does not mean any particular 
 sort of death, but death in general : the definite article there- 
 fore is improperly used : it ought to be ' unto death,' without 
 any article. 
 
 ' When he, the Spirit of Truth, is come, he will guide you 
 into all truth ;' that is, according to this translation,^' into all 
 truth whatsoever, into truth of all kinds ;' very different from 
 the meaning of the evangelist, and from the original, ' into all 
 the truth ;' that is, ' into all evangelical truth, all truth neces- 
 sary for you to know.' 
 
 ' Who breaks a butterfly upon a wheel ?' it ought to be ' the 
 wheel,' used as an instrument for the particular purpose of 
 torturing animals. ' The Almighty hath given reason to a 
 man to be a light unto him:' it should rather be 'to man\ in 
 general. ' This day is salvation come to this house, forasmuch 
 as he is also the son of Abraham:' it ought to be 'a son of 
 Abraham.' 
 
 These remarks may serve to show the great importance of 
 the proper use of the article, and the excellence of the English 
 language in this respect ; which, by means of its two articles, 
 does most precisely determine the extent of signification of 
 common names. 
 
 1. A nice distinction of the sense is sometimes made by the 
 use or omission of the article a. If I say, ' He behaved with 
 a Httle rererence,' my meaning is positive. If I say, ' He be- 
 haved with little reverence,' my meaning is negative. And 
 these two are by no means the same, or to be used in the 
 same cases. By the former, I rather praise a person ; by the 
 latter, I dispraise him. For the sake of this distinction, which 
 is a very usefiil one, we may better bear the seeming impro- 
 priety of the article a before nouns of number. When I say, 
 'There were few men with him,' I speak diminutively, and 
 mean to represent them as inconsiderable ; whereas, when I 
 say, ' There were a few men with him,' I evidently intend to 
 make the most of them. 
 
 2. In general, it may be sufiicient to prefix the article to 
 the former of two words in the same construction ; though 
 the French never fail to repeat it in this case. ' There were 
 many hours, both of the night and day, which he could spend, 
 without suspicion, in soHtary thought.' It might have been 
 
 15 
 
170 SYNTAX. 
 
 *of the night and of the day.' And, for the sake of emphasis, 
 we often repeat the article in a series of epithets. * He hoped 
 that this title would secure hhn an ample and an independent 
 authority.' 
 
 3. In common conversation, and in familiar style, we fre- 
 quently omit the articles, which might be inserted with j^ro- 
 priety in writing, especially in a grave style. * At worst, time 
 might be gained by this expedient.' *At the worst,' would 
 have been better in this place. ' Give me here John Baptist's 
 head.' There would have been more dignity in saying, ' John 
 the Baptist's head,' or, ^the head of John the Baptist.' 
 
 The article the has sometimes a different effect in distin- 
 guishing a person by an epithet. ' In the history of Henry 
 the Foufth, by Father Daniel, we are surprised at not finding 
 him the great man.' ' I own I am often surprised that he 
 should have treated so coldly a man so much the gentleman.' 
 
 This article is often elegantly put, after the manner of the 
 French, for the possessive adjective pronoun ; as, ' He looks 
 him full in the face ;' that is, 'in his face.' ' In his presence, 
 they were to strike the forehead on the ground;' that is, 
 * their foreheads,^ 
 
 We sometimes, according to the French manner, repeat the 
 same article, when the adjective, on account of any clause 
 depending upon it, is put after the substantive. ' Of all the 
 considerable governments among the Alps, a commonwealth 
 is a constitution the most adapted of any to the poverty of those 
 countries.' 
 
 ' With such a specious title as that of blood, which with the 
 multitude is always a claim the strongest and the most easily 
 comprehended.' 
 
 ' They are not the men in the nation the most difficult to be 
 replaced.' 
 
 The definite article is likewise used to distinguish between 
 things which are individually different, but have one generic 
 name, and things which are, in truth, one and the same, but 
 are characterized by several qualities. If we say, ' The ec- 
 clesiastical and secular powers concurred in this measure,' the 
 expression is ambiguous, as far as language can render it such. 
 The reader's knowledge, as Dr. Campbell observes, may pre- 
 vent his mistaking it ; but if such modes of expression be ad- 
 mitted where the sense is clear, they may inadvertently be 
 imitated in cases where the meaning would be obscure, if not 
 entirely misunderstood. The error might have been avoided, 
 either by repeating the substantive, or by subjoining the sub- 
 stantive to the first adjective, and prefixing the article to both 
 adjectives -, or by placing the substantive after both adjectives, 
 the article being prefixed in Ihe same manner; as, *The ec- 
 
SYNTAX. 171 
 
 clesiastical powers and the secular powers ;' or, better, * The 
 ecclesiastical powers, and the secular;' or ' The ecclesiastical 
 and the secular powers.' The repetition of the article shows, 
 that the second adjective is not an additional epithet to the 
 same subject, but belongs to a subject totally different, though 
 expressed by the same generic name. ' The lords spiritual and 
 temporal,' is a phraseology objectionable on the same principle, 
 though now so long sanctioned by usage, that we scarcely 
 dare question its propriety. The subjects are different, though 
 they have but one generic name. The phrase should, there- 
 fore, have been, * The spiritual and the temporal lords.' On 
 the contrary, when two or more adjectives belong, as epithets, 
 to one and the same thing, the other arrangement is to be pre- 
 ferred ; as, 'The high and mighty States.' Here both epithets 
 belong to one subject. ' The States high and mighty,' would 
 convey the same idea. 
 
 The indefinite article has sometimes the meaning of every 
 or each ; as, * They cost five shilUngs a dozen •,' that is, ' every 
 dozen.' 
 
 ' A man he was to all the country dear, 
 
 * And passing rich with forty pounds a year.' 
 
 Goldsmith. 
 
 That is, ' every year.' 
 
 There is a particular use of the indefinite article, which de- 
 serves attention, as ambiguity may, by this means, be in some 
 cases avoided. Thus, if we say, ' He is a better soldier than 
 scholar,' the article is suppressed before the second term, and 
 the expression is equivalent to, ' He is more warlike than learn- 
 ed ;' or, ' He possesses the qualities whicl) form the soldier in 
 a greater degree than those which constitute the scholar.' 
 If we say, ' He would make a better soldier than a scholar,' 
 the article is prefixed to the second term, and the meaning is, 
 *He w^ould make a better soldier than a scholar would make :' 
 tliat is, * He has more of the constituent qual'fties of a soldier 
 than are to be found in any literary man.' These two phrase- 
 ologies are frequently confounded, which seldom fails to pro- 
 duce uncertainty of meaning. In the former case, the sub- 
 ject, as possessing different qualities in various degrees, is 
 compared with itself; in the latter, it is compared with some- 
 thing else. 
 
 You are now prepareclfe correct and parse the following 
 
 EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX. 
 
 The fire, the air, the earth, and the water, are four elements of the philosophers. 
 
 Reason was given to a man to control his passions. 
 
 We have within us an intelligent principle, distinct from body and from matter. 
 
 A man is the noblest work of creation. 
 
 Wisest and best men sometimes commit errors. 
 
 Beware of drunkenness } it impairs understanding; wastes an estate; destroys a 
 
172 SYNTAX. 
 
 reputation ; consumes the body ; and renders the man of the brightest parts the 
 common jest of the meanest clown. 
 
 He is a much better writer tlian a reader. 
 
 The king has conferred on him the title of a duke. 
 
 There are some evils of life, which equally affect prince and people. 
 
 We must act our part with a constancy, though reward of our constancy be distant. 
 
 We are placed here under a trial of our virtue. 
 
 The virtues like his are not easily acquired. Such qualities honor the nature of 
 a man. 
 
 Purity has its seat in the heart, but extends its influence over so much of outward 
 conduct, as to form the great and materiul part of a character. 
 
 The profligate man is seldom or never found to be the good husband, the good 
 father, or the beneficent neighbor. 
 
 True charity is not the meteor which occasionally glares, but the luminary which, 
 in its orderly and regular course, dispenses benignant influence. 
 
 The foUoiving sentences exemplify the notes and observations 
 under Rule IV. 
 
 1. He has been much censured for conducting himself with a little attention to his 
 business. 
 
 So bold a breach of order called for little severity in punishing the offender. 
 
 His error was accompanied with so little contrition and candid acknowledgment, 
 that he found a few persons to intercede for him. 
 
 There were so many mitigating circumstances attending his misconduct, particu- 
 larly that of his opeii confession, that he found few friends who were disposed to 
 interest themselves in his favor. 
 
 As his misfortunes were the fruit of his own obstinacy, a few persons pitied him. 
 
 2. The fear of shame, and desire of approbation, prevent many bad actions. 
 In this business, he was influenced by a just and generous principle. 
 
 He was fired with a desire of doing something, though he knew not yet, with 
 distinctness, either end or means. 
 
 3. At worst, I could but incur a gentle reprimand. 
 
 At best, his gift was a poor offering, when we consider his estate. 
 
 SECTION V. 
 
 RULE V. 
 
 Every adjective belongs to some noun or pronoun, expressed or 
 understood, 
 
 1. Adjectives are sometimes improperly applied as adverbs; 
 as 'indifferent honest, excellent well, miserable poor;' in- 
 stead of 'indifferently honest, excellently well, miserably 
 poor.' ' He behaved himself conformable to that great ex- 
 ample ;' ' conformably.^ * Endeavor to live hereafter suitable to 
 persons in your station ;' ' suitably,^ ' I can never think so 
 very mean of him ;' ' meanly.'' ' He (fmcribes this river agreeable 
 to the common reading ;' ' agreeably.^ ' Agreeable to my prom- 
 ise, I now write ;' ' agreeably.'' ' Thy exceeding great reward.' 
 Wlien united to an adjective, or adverb not ending in ly, the 
 word exceeding has ly added to it ; as, ' exceedingly dreadful, 
 exceedingly great ;' ' exceedingly well, exceedingly more ac- 
 tive ;' but when it is joined to an adverb or adjective having 
 that termination, the ly is omitted ; as, * Some men think ex- 
 
SYNTAX. 173 
 
 ceeding clearly, and reason exceeding forcibly ;' * She appear- 
 ed, on this occasion, exceeding lovely ;' ' He acted in this busi- 
 ness holder than was expected ;' * They behaved the noblest, be- 
 cause they were disinterested.' They should have been, * more 
 boldly; most nobly. ^ — The adjective pronoun such is often mis- 
 applied ; as, * He was such an extravagant young man, that he 
 spent his whole patrimony in a few years/ It should be, 'so 
 extravagant a young man.'' *I never before saw such large 
 trees ;' ' saw trees so large.'' When we refer to the species or 
 nature of a thing, the word such is properly applied ; as, ' Such 
 a temper is seldom found ;' but when degree is signified, we 
 use the word so ; as, ' So bad a temper is seldom found.' 
 
 Adverbs are likewise improperly used as adjectives ; as, 
 * The tutor addressed him in terms rather warm, but suitably 
 to his offence ;' ' suitable.^ 'They were seen wandering about 
 solitarily and distressed ;' ' solitary.^ * He lived in a manner 
 agreeably to the dictates of reason and religion ;' 'agreeable.'' 
 'The study of syntax should be pi^eviously to that of punctua- 
 tion ;' 'previous.''^ 
 
 2. Double comparatives and superlatives should be avoid- 
 
 * Young persons who study grammar find it difficult to decide, in particular con- 
 structions, whetlier an adjective or an adverb ought to be used. A few observations 
 on this point may serve to inform their judgment, and direct their determination. 
 They should carefully attend to the definitions of the adjective and the adverb, and 
 consider whether, in the case in question, quality or manner is indicated. In the 
 former case, an adjective is proper ; in the latter, an adverb. A number of example^ 
 will illustrate this direction, and prove useful on other occasions. 
 
 She looks cold — She looks coldly on him. 
 
 He feels warm — He feels warmly the insult oiTered to him. 
 
 He became sincere and virtuous — He became sincerely virtuous. 
 
 She lives free from care — He lives freely at another's expense. 
 
 Harriet always appears neat — She dresses neatly. 
 
 Charles has grown great by his wisdom — He has grown greatly in reputation. 
 
 They now appear happy — They now appear happily in earnest. 
 
 The statement seems exact — The statement seems exactly in point. 
 
 The verb to he^ in all its moods and tenses, generally requires the word immediately 
 connected wi^h it to be an adjective, not an adverb ; and consequently, when this verb 
 can be substituted for any otlier, without varying the sense or the construction, that 
 other verb must also be connected with an adjective. The following sentences eluci- 
 date these observations : ' This is agreeable to our interest.' ' That behavior was 
 not suitable to his station.' 
 
 is 
 'Rules should be conformable to sense.' 'The rose smells sweet.' 'How sweet 
 
 is is 
 
 the hay smells !' ' How delightful the country appears !' ' How pleasant the fields 
 are are was is 
 
 look !' ' The clouds look dark.' * How black the sky locked !' ' The apple tastes 
 
 were is 
 
 sour.' 'How bitter the plums tasted!' * He feels happy.' In all these sentences, 
 we can, with perfect propriety, substitute some tenses of the verb to be for the other 
 verbs. But in the following sentences we cannot do this : ' The dog smells disagree- 
 ably.' 'George feels exquisitely.' ' How pleasantly she looks at us !' 
 
 The directions contained in this note are offered as useful, not as complete and nn- 
 exceptionable. Anomalies in language every where encounter us } but we must not 
 reject rules because they are attended with exceptions. 
 
 15* 
 
174 SYNTAX. 
 
 ed ; such as, * a worser conduct ;' * on lesser hopes f ' a more 
 serener temper ;' ' the most straitest sect ;* ' a more superior 
 work/ They should be, * worse conduct ;' ' less hopes ;' ' a 
 more serene temper ;' ' the straitest sect ;' ' a superior work/ 
 
 3. Adjectives that have in themselves a superlative significa- 
 tion, do not properly admit of the superlative or comparative 
 form superadded ; such as chiefs extreine, perfect, right, univer- 
 sal, supreme, &lc. ; which are sometimes improperly written 
 chief est, extremest, perfectest, rightest, most universal, most su- 
 preme, &c. The following expressions are therefore improper : 
 ' He sometimes claims admission to the chiefest offices.' ^ The 
 quarrel became so universal and national.' ' A method of at- 
 taining the rightest and greatest happiness.' The phrases so 
 perfect, so right, so extreme, so universal, &c., are incorrect ; be- 
 cause they imply that one thing is less perfect, less extreme, 
 &c., than another, which is not possible. 
 
 4. Inaccuracies are often found in the way in which the de- 
 grees of comparison are applied and construed. The follow- 
 ing are examples of wrong construction in this respect : *Thi9 
 noble nation hath, of all others, admitted fewer corruptions.' 
 The word fewer is here construed precisely as if it were the 
 superlative. It should be, * This noble nation hath admitted 
 fewer corruptions than any other.' We commonly say, ^ This 
 is the weaker of the two,' or ' the weakest of the two ;' but the 
 former is the regular mode of expression, because there are 
 only two things compared. *The vice of covetousness is what 
 enters deepest into the soul of any other.' * He celebrates the 
 church of England as the most perfect of all others.' Both 
 these modes of expression are faulty. We should not say, * the 
 best of any man,' or *the best of any other man,' for Uhe best 
 of men.' The sentences may be corrected by substituting the 
 comparative in the room of the superlative. * The vice, &c., 
 is what enters deeper into the soul than any other.' 'He cele- 
 brates, &c., as more perfect, or less imperfect, than any other.' 
 It is also possible to retain the superlative, and render the ex- 
 pression grammatical. ' Covetousness, of all vices, enters the 
 deepest into the soul.' * He celebrates, &c., as the most per- 
 fect of all churches.' These sentences contain other errors, 
 against which it is proper to caution the learner. The words 
 deeper and deepest, being intended for adverbs, should have 
 been more deeply, most deeply. The phrases more perfect, and 
 most perfect, are improper ; because perfection admits of no 
 degrees of comparison. We may say nearer or nearest to per- 
 fection, or more or less imperfect. 
 
 5. In some cases, adjectives should not be separated from 
 their substantives, even by words which modify their meaning, 
 and make but one sense with them ; as, ' a large enough num- 
 ber surely.' It should be, * a number large enough.' * The low- 
 
SYNTAX. 175 
 
 er sort of people are good enough judges of one not very dis- 
 tant from them.' 
 The adjective is usually placed before its substantive ; as, 
 
 * A generous man f ' How amiable a woman !' The instances 
 in which it comes after the substantive are the following : 
 
 1st, When something depends upon the adjective ; and when 
 it gives a better sound, especially in poetry ; as, * A man gener- 
 ous to his enemies ;' * Feed me with food convenient for me f 
 
 * A tree three feet thick ;' * A body of troops fifty thousand 
 strong f * The torrent tumbling through rocks abrupt.'' 
 
 2d, When the adjective is emphatical ; as, * Alexander the 
 Great ;' ' Lewis the Bold ;' * Goodness infinite ;' * Wisdom un- 
 searchable.'' 
 
 3d, When several adjectives belong to one substantive ; as, 
 
 * A man just, wise, and charitable ;' * A woman modest, sensi- 
 ble, and virtuous.' 
 
 4th, When the adjective is preceded by an adverb ; as, * A 
 boy regularly studious ;' ' A girl unaffectedly modest.' 
 
 5th, When the verb to 6e, in any of its variations, comes 
 between a substantive and an adjective, the adjective may fre- 
 quently either precede or follow it ; as, * The man is happy ;' or, 
 
 * Happy is the man who makes virtue his choice :' * The inter- 
 view was delightful f or, ^Delightful was the interview.' 
 
 6th, When the adjective expresses some circumstance of a 
 substantive placed after an active verb ; as, * Vanity often ren- 
 ders its possessor despicable.'' In an explanatory sentence, 
 the adjective generally precedes the substantive ; as, ' How 
 despicable does vanity often render its possessor !' 
 
 There is sometimes great beauty, as well as force, in placing 
 the adjective before the verb, and the substantive immediately 
 after it ; as, ' Great is the Lord ! just and true are thy ways^ 
 thou King of saints !' 
 
 Sometimes the word all is emphatically put after a number 
 of particulars comprehended under it. * Ambition, interest, 
 honor, all concurred.' Sometimes a substantive, which like- 
 wise comprehends the preceding particulars, is used in con- 
 junction with the adjective pronoun; as, ' Royalists, republi- 
 cans, churchmen, sectaries, courtiers, patriots, all parties, con- 
 cur in the illusion.' 
 
 An adjective pronoun in the plural number will sometimes 
 properly associate with a singular noun ; as, ' Our desire, your 
 intention, their resignation.' This association applies rather 
 to things of an intellectual nature, than to those which are cor- 
 poreal. It forms an exception to the general rule. 
 
 A substantive with its adjective is reckoned as one com- 
 pound word ; whence they often take another adjective, and 
 
176 SYNTAX. 
 
 sometimes a third, and so on ; as, * An old man^^ 
 man ; a very learned, judicious, good old man.' 
 
 Though tiie adjective always relates to a substantive, it is, 
 in many instances, put as if it were absolute ; especially where 
 the noun has been mentioned before, or is easily understood, 
 though not expressed : ' I often survey the green fields, as I 
 am very fond of green. "^ ' The wise, the virtuous, the honored, 
 famed, and great,' that is, 'persons.' *The twelve,' that is, 
 
 * apostles.' * Have compassion on the poor : be feet to the 
 lame, and eyes to the blind.^ 
 
 Substantives are often used as adjectives. In this case, the 
 word so used is sometimes unconnected with the substantive 
 to w^hich it relates ; sometimes connected with it by a hyphen ; 
 and sometimes joined to it, so as to make the two words co- 
 alesce. The total separation is proper, when either of the 
 two words is long, or when they cannot be fluently pronoun- 
 ced as one word ; as, * an adjective pronoun, a silver watch, a 
 stone cistern :' the hyphen is used when both the words are 
 short, and are readily pronounced as a single word ; as, coal- 
 mine,jcorn-mill, fruit-tree ; the words coalesce when they are 
 readily pronounced together, have a long estabhshed asso- 
 ciation, and are in frequent use ; as, honeycomb, gingerbread, 
 inkhorn, Yorkshire. 
 
 Sometimes the adjective becomes a substantive, and has 
 another adjective joined to it ; as, *The chief good ;' 'The vast 
 immense of space.' 
 
 Some adjectives of number are more easily converted into 
 substantives than others. Thus we more readily say, * A mil- 
 lion of men,' than ' a thousand of men.' On the other hand, 
 it will hardly be allowable to say, * A million men,' whereas, 
 
 * thousand men,' is quite famihar. Yet in the plural number, 
 a diflferent construction seems to be required. We say, * some 
 hundreds or thousands,' as well as 'millions of men.' Per- 
 haps, on this account, the words millions, hundreds, and thou- 
 sands, will be said to be substantives. 
 
 When an adjective has a preposition before it, and the sub- 
 stantive is understood, the words assume the nature of an ad- 
 verb, and may be considered as an adverbial phrase ; as, in 
 general, in particular, in commmt, &c. ; thatris, generally, par- 
 ticularly, commonly. 
 
 Enow was formerly used as the plural of enough, but it is 
 now obsolete. 
 
 Now correct and parse the following 
 
 EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX. 
 
 1. She reads proper, writes very neat, and composes accurate. 
 
 He was extreme prodigal, and his property is now near exhausted. 
 
 They generally succeeded ; for they lived conformable to the rules of prudence. 
 
SYNTAX. 177 
 
 We may reason very clear, and exceeding strong, without knowing that there is 
 such a thing as a syllogism. 
 
 He had many virtues, and was exceeding beloved. 
 
 The amputation was exceeding well performed, and saved the patient's life. 
 
 He came agreeable to his promise, and conducted himself suitable to the oc- 
 casion. 
 
 He speaks very fluent, read.s excellent, but doe^ not think very coherent. 
 
 He behaved himself submissive, and was exceeding careful not to give offence. 
 
 They rejected the advice, and conducted themselves exceedingly indiscreetly. 
 
 He is a j^)er3on of great abilities, and exceeding upright, and is like to tie a very 
 useful member of the community. 
 
 The conspiracy was the easier discovered, from its being known to many. 
 
 Not being fully acquainted with the subject, he could affirm no stronger thait 
 he did. 
 
 He was so deeply impressed with the subject, that few could speak nobler upon it. 
 
 We may credit his testimony, for he says express, that he saw the transaction. 
 
 Use a little wine, for thy stomach's sake, ap-* thine often infirmities. 
 
 From these favorable beginnings, we >"'' ..ope for a soon and prosperous is- 
 sue. 
 
 He addressed several exhortations to them suitably to their circumstances. 
 
 Ck)nformably to their vehemence of thouglit, was their vehemence of gesture. 
 
 We should implant in the minds of youth such seeds and principles of piety and 
 virtue, as are likely to take the soonest and deepest root. 
 
 Such an amiable disposition will secure universal regard. 
 
 Such distinguished virtues seldom occur. 
 
 2. 'Tis more easier to build two chimneys than to maintain one. 
 
 The tongue is like a race-horse, which runs the faster the lessor weight it car- 
 ries. 
 
 The pleasures of the understanding are more preferable than those of the imagina- 
 tion or of sense. 
 
 Tlie nightingale sings ; hers is the most sweetest voice in the grove. 
 
 The Most Highest hath created us for his glory and our own happiness. 
 
 The Supreme Being is the most wisest, and most powerfullest, and the most best of 
 beings. 
 
 3. Virtue confers the supremest dignity on man, and should be his chiefest 
 desire. 
 
 His assertion was more true than that of his opponent; nay, the words of the 
 latter were most untrue. 
 
 His work is perfect, his brother's more perfect, and his father's the most perfect 
 ofall. 
 
 He gave the fullest and the most sincere proof of the truest friendship. 
 
 4. A talent of this kind would, perhaps, prove the likeliest of any other to suc- 
 ceed. 
 
 He is the strongest of the two, but not the wisest. 
 
 He spoke with so much propriety, that I understood him the best ofall others who 
 spoke on the subject. 
 
 Eve was the fairest ofall her daughters. 
 
 5. He spoke in a distinct enough manner to be heard by the whole assembly. 
 Thomas is equipped with a new pair of shoes, and a new pair of gloves ; he is the 
 
 servant of an old rich man. 
 The two first in the row are cherry-trees, the two others are pear-trees. 
 
 SECTIO»r VI. 
 
 RULE VI. 
 
 The participle ending in ing, tvhen not connected with the aux- 
 iliary verb TO BE, refers to some noun or pronoun^ denoting the 
 subject or actor. 
 
 In Conversation VIL, I made all the remarks on this rule, 
 
178 SYNTAX. 
 
 that can be of any benefit to you in parsing or writing the par- 
 ticiple in this connexion. 
 
 RULE VII. 
 
 Participles o/* transitive verbs govern the objective case. 
 
 1. The present participle, with the definite article the before 
 it, becomes a substantive, and must have the preposition q/* af- 
 ter it; as,* These are the rules of grammar, by the observing 
 of which, you may avoid mistakes.' It would not be proper to 
 say, ^bj'^ the observing which;' nor *by observing of which;' 
 but the phrase, without either article or preposition, would be 
 right ; as, ' by observing which.' The article a or an has the 
 same effect ; as, * This was a betraying of the trust reposed in 
 him.' 
 
 This rule arises from the nature and idiom of our language, 
 and from as plain a principle as any on which it is founded ; 
 namely, that a word which has the article before it, and the 
 possessive preposition of after it, must be a noun ; and, if a 
 noun, it ought to follow the construction of a noun, and not to 
 have the regimen of a verb. It is the participial termination 
 of this sort of words that is apt to deceive us, and make us 
 treat them as if they were of an amphibious species, partly 
 nouns and partly verbs. 
 
 The following are a few examples of the violation of this 
 rule. * He was sent to prepare the way by preaching of re- 
 l>entance ;' it ought to be, * by the preaching of repentance,' or 
 ' by preaching repentance.' * By the continual mortifying our 
 corrupt aflfections;' it should be, 'by the continual mortifying 
 o/J' or * by continually mortifying our corrupt affections.' ' They 
 laid out themselves towards the advancing and promoting 
 the good of it ;' * towards advancing and promoting the good.' 
 * It is an overvaluing ourselves to reduce every thing to the 
 narrow measure of our capacities ;' * it is overvaluing ourselves,' 
 or 'an overvaluing q/* ourselves.' 'Keeping of one day in sev- 
 en,' &c. ; it ought to be, ' the keeping of one day,' or ' keeping 
 one day.' 
 
 A [)hrase in which the article precedes the present partici- 
 ple, and the possessive preposition follows it, will not, in eve- 
 ry instance, convey the same meaning, as would be conveyed 
 by tlie participle without the article and preposition. * He ex- 
 pressed the pleasure he had in the hearing of the philosopher,' 
 is capable of a different sense from, ' He expressed the pleas- 
 ure he had in hearing the philosopher.' When, therefore, we 
 wish, for the sake of harmony or variety, to substitute one of 
 these phraseologies for the other, we should previously consid- 
 er, whether they are perfectly similar in the sentiments they 
 convey. 
 
SYNTAX. 179 
 
 2. The same observations, which have been made respect- 
 ing the effect of the article and participle, appear to be appli- 
 cable to the pronoun and participle, when they are similarly 
 associated ; as, * Much depends on their observing of the rule, 
 and error will be the consequence of their neglecting of it,' in- 
 stead of, ' tJieir ohseimng the rule, and their neglecting it.' We 
 shall perceive this more clearly, if we substitute a noun for the 
 pronoun ; as, * Much depends upon Tyro^s observing of the 
 rule,' &c. ; which is the same as ' Much depends on Tyro's ob- 
 servance of the rule.' But, as this construction sounds rather 
 harshly, it would, in general, be better to express the senti- 
 ment in the following, or some other form : ' Much depends 
 on the rule'*s being observed ; and error will be the consequence 
 of its being neglected ,*' of — * on observing the rule ;' and — ' of - 
 neglecting it.' This remark may be applied to several other 
 modes of expression, which, though they are contended for as 
 strictly correct, are not always eligible, on account of their 
 unpleasant sound. 
 
 We sometimes meet with expressions like the following : 
 '/n forming of his sentences, he was very exact ;' '•From call- 
 ing of names, he proceeded to blows.' But this is incorrect 
 language ; for prepositions do not, hke articles and pronouns, 
 convert the participle itself into the nature of a substantive, as 
 we have shown above in the phrase 'by observing which.' 
 And yet the participle with its adjuncts may be considered as 
 a substantive phrase in the objective case, governed by the 
 preposition or verb, expressed or understood ; as, * By promis- 
 ing much, and performing but little, we become despicable ;' 
 'He studied to avoid expressing himself too severely.^ 
 
 3. As the perfect participle, and the imperfect tense, are 
 sometimes different in their form, care must be taken that 
 they be not indiscriminately used. It is frequently said, ' He 
 begun,' for * he began ;' ' He run,' for ' he ran ;' ' He drunk,' 
 for 'he drank ;' the participle being here used instead of the 
 imperfect tense ; and much more frequently the imperfect 
 tense instead of the participle ; as, 'I had Avrote,' for ' I had 
 written ;' ' I was chose,' for 'I was chosen ;' ' I have eat,' for 
 * I have eaten.' ' His words were interwove with sighs ;' ' were 
 interwoven.^ ' He would have spoke ;' ' spoken.^ ' He hath 
 bore witness to his faithful servant ;' ' borne.* ' By this means 
 he over-run his guide ;' ' over-ran.'' ' The sun has rose ,*' ^risen.^ 
 ' His constitution has been greatly shook, but his mind is too 
 strong to be shook by such causes ;' ^shaken,'' in both places. 
 ' They were verses wrote on glass ;' ' written.^ ' Philosophers 
 have often mistook the source of true happiness ;' it ought to 
 be ' mistaken.* 
 
 The participle ending in ed is often improperly contracted, 
 by changing ed into t ; as, ' In good behavior, he is not sur- 
 
180 SYNTAX. 
 
 past by any pupil of the school ;' * She was much distrest.' 
 They ought to be ' surpassed,'' * distressed.^ 
 
 4. When a substantive is put absolutely, and is not the sub- 
 ject of any following verb, it remains connected with the par- 
 ticiple, and is called the case absolute, or the nominative abso- 
 lute ; as, ^ The painter being entirely confined to that part of 
 time he has chosen, the picture comprises but very few inci- 
 dents.' Here the painter is the subject of no verb, as the verb 
 comprises, which follows, agrees with picture. But when the 
 substantive preceding the participle is the subject of the sub- 
 sequent verb, it loses its absoluteness, and is hke every other 
 nominative ;. as, * The painter, being entirely confined to that 
 part of time which he has chosen, cannot exhibit various stages 
 of the same action.' In this sentence, we see that the painter 
 is the nominative to the verb can exhibit. In the following 
 sentence, a still different construction takes place ; * The 
 painter's being entirely confined to that part of time ivhich he 
 has chosen, deprives him of the power of exhibiting various 
 stages of the same action.' In this sentence, if we inquire for 
 the nominative case by asking what deprives the painter of 
 the i^ower of exhibiting various stages of the same action, 
 we shall find it to be the words marked in italics ; and this 
 state of things belonging to the painter governs it in the pos- 
 sessive case, and forms the compound nominative to the verb 
 deprives. 
 
 In the sentence, * What do you think of my horse's running 
 to-day ?' it is implied that the horse did actually run. If it is 
 said, * What think you of my horse running to-day ?' it is in- 
 tended to ask, whether it be proper for my horse to run to- 
 day. This distinction, though frequently disregarded, deserves 
 attention ; for it is obvious that ambiguity may arise from 
 using the latter only of these phraseologies, to express both 
 meanings. 
 
 The active participle is frequently introduced without an 
 obvious reference to any noun or pronoun ; as, ' Generally 
 speaking, his conduct was very honorable ;' ^Granting this to 
 be true, what is to be inferred from it ?' ' It is scarcely possi- 
 ble to act otherwise, considering the frailty of human nature.' 
 In these sentences, there is no noun, expressed or implied, to 
 which speaking, granting, and considering, can be referred. 
 The most natural construction seems to be, that a pronoun is 
 to be understood ; as, * fVe considering the frailty of human 
 nature,' &c. ; * / granting this to be true,' &c. 
 
 The word the, before the active participle, in the following 
 sentences, and in all others of a similar construction, is im- 
 proper, and should be omitted : * This style may be more 
 properly called the talking upon paper than writing.' * The 
 advising, or the attempting, to excite such disturbances, is un- 
 
SYNTAX. 181 
 
 lawful.' ' The taking from another what is his, without his 
 knowledge or allowance, is called steaUng.' They should be, 
 * may be called talking upon paper ;' * Advising or attempt- 
 ing to excite disturbances ;' * Taking from another what is 
 his,' &c. 
 
 In some of these sentences, the infinitive mood might very 
 properly be adopted ; as, ^ To advise or attempt ;' * To take 
 from another,' &c. 
 
 You can now proceed to correct and parse the following 
 
 EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX. 
 
 Plsteeming tbeirselves wise, they became fools. 
 
 Suspecting not only ye, but they also, I was studious to avoid all intercourse. 
 
 I cuuld not avoid considering, in some degree, they as enemies to me, and be as a 
 suspicious friend. 
 
 From having exposed hisself too freely in different climates, he entirely lost his 
 health. 
 
 The examples which folloio are suited to the notes and observa- 
 tions under Rule VII. 
 
 1. By observing of truth, you will command esteem, as well as secure peace. 
 
 He prepared them for this event by the sending to them proper information. 
 
 A person may be great or rich by chance, but cannot be wise or good, without the 
 taking pains for it. 
 
 Nothing could have made her so unhappy, as the marrying a man who possessed 
 such principles. 
 
 The changing of times and seasons, the removing and setting up of kings, belong 
 to Providence alone. 
 
 The middle station of life seems to be the most advantageously situated for gain- 
 ing of wisdom. Poverty turns our thoughts too much upon the supplying our wants, 
 and riches upon the enjoying our superfluities. 
 
 Pliny, speaking of Cato the Censor's disapproving the Grecian orators, expressed 
 himself thus. 
 
 Propriety of pronunciation is the giving to every word that sound, which the most 
 polite usage of the language appropriates to it. 
 
 The not attending to this rule, is the catise of a very common error. 
 
 This was in fact a converting the deposite to his own use. 
 
 9. There will be no danger of their spoiling their faces, or of their gaining con- 
 verts. 
 
 For his avoiding that precipice, he is indebted to his friend's care. 
 
 It was from our misunderstanding the directions, that we lost our way. 
 
 In tracing of his history, we discover little that is worthy of imitation. 
 
 By reading of books written by the beet authors, his mind became highly im- 
 proved. 
 
 3. By too eager pursuit, he run a great risk of being disappointed. 
 
 He had not long enjoyed repose, before he begun to be weary of having nothing 
 to do. 
 
 He was greatly heated, and drunk with avidity. 
 
 Though his conduct was, in some respects, exceptionable, vet he dared not to 
 commit so great an offence, as that which we proposed to him. 
 A second deluge learning thus o'er-run; 
 And the monks finish'd what the Goths begun. 
 
 If seme events had not fell out very unexpectedly, I should have been present. 
 
 He would have went with us, had he been invited. 
 
 He returned the goods which he had stole, and made all the reparation in his 
 power. 
 
 They have chose the part of honor and virtue. 
 
 His vic^s have weakened his mind, and broke his health. 
 
 He had mistook his true interest, and found himself forsook by his former ad- 
 herents. 
 
 The bread that has been eat is soon forgot. 
 
 16 
 
182 SYNTAX. 
 
 No contontions have aro30 amongst them since their reconciliation. 
 The cloth had no seam, but was wove tlirou^iiout. 
 Thu French language is spoke in every state in Europe. 
 His resolution was too strong to be shook by slight opposition. 
 He was not much restrained atlerwards, having took improper liberties at first. 
 He has not yet wore oft' the rough manners which he brought with him. 
 iou, who have forsook your friends, are entitled to no contidence. 
 They, who have borne a part in the labor, shall share the rewards. 
 When the rules have been wantonly broke, there can be no plea for favor. 
 Ho writes as the best of authors would liave wrote, had they writ on the same 
 Bubiect. 
 
 He heapt up great riches, but past his time miserably. 
 
 He talkt and staajpt witii such vehemence, that he was suspected to be insane. 
 
 SX2CTIOH VIZ. 
 
 RULE VIII. 
 
 Adverbs qualify verbSy adjectives^ participles, and other ad- 
 verbs. 
 
 Adverbs, though they have no government of case, tense, 
 &c., requhe an appropriate situation in the sentence, viz., for 
 the most part, before adjectives, after verbs active or neuter, 
 and frequently between the auxihary and the verb ; as, ' He 
 made a very sensible discourse ; he spoke unaffectedly and for- 
 cibly ; and was attentively heard by the w^hole assembly.' 
 
 A few instances of erroneous position of adverbs may serve 
 to illustrate the rule. ' He must not expect to find study 
 agreeable always ;' ' always agreeable.' * We always find them 
 ready when we \vant them ;' ' we find them alivays ready', &c. 
 
 * Dissertations on the pro})hecies which have ren)arkably been 
 fulfilled ;' ^ which have been remarkably.'' ' Instead of looldng 
 contemptuously down on the crooked in mind or body, we 
 should look up thankfully to God, who hath made us better ;' 
 
 * Instead of looking down contemptuously ^^ &c., ' we should 
 thankfully look up,' &c. * If thou art blessed naturally with a 
 good memory, continually exercise it ;' * naturally blessed,' &c., 
 
 * exercise it continually.^ 
 
 Sometimes the adverb is placed with propriety before the 
 verb, or at some distance afler it ; sometimes between the two 
 auxiliaries ; and sometimes after them both ; as in the fol- 
 lowing examples; 'Vice always creeps by degrees, and in- 
 sensibly twines around us those concealed fetters, by which we 
 are at last completely bound.' ' He encouraged the English bar- 
 ons to carry their opposition farther.* * They compelled liim 
 to declare that he would abjure the realm for ever ;' instead 
 of, *to carry farther their opposition ;' and ' to abjure for ever 
 the realm.' ' He has generally been reckwiod an honest 
 man ;' * The book may always be had at such a place ;' in 
 preference to * has been generally ;' and ' may be always.' 
 
iSYNTAX. 183 
 
 * These rules wiU be clearly understood after they have been 
 diligently studied,' is preferable to, * These rules will clearly be 
 understood after they have diligently been studied.' 
 
 When adverbs are eniphatical, they may introduce a sen- 
 tence, and be separated ft*otn the word to which they belong ; 
 as, '•How completely this most amiable of human virtues had 
 taken possession of his soul !' This position of the adverb is 
 most frequent in interrogative and exclamatory phrases. 
 
 From the preceding remarks and examples, it appears that 
 no exact and determinate rule can be given for the placing of 
 adverbs on all occasions. The general rule may be of con- 
 siderable use ; but the easy flow and perspicuity of the phrase 
 are the things which ought to be chiefly regarded. 
 
 The adverb there is often used as an expletive, or as a word 
 that adds nothing to the sense ; in which case it precedes the 
 verb and nominative noun ; as, ' There is a person at the door ;' 
 
 * There are some thieves in the house ;' which would be as 
 well or better expressed by saying, * A person is at the door ;' 
 
 * Some thieves are in the house.' Sometimes, it is made use of 
 to give a small degree of emphasis to the sentence ; as, * There 
 was a man sent from God, whose name was John.' When it 
 is applied in its strict sense, it principally follows the verb and 
 the nominative case ; as, *The man stands (here.^ 
 
 1. The adverb never generally precedes the verb ; as, * I 
 never was there ;' * He never comes at a proper time.' When 
 ail auxiliary is used, it is placed indiflerently either before or 
 after the adverb; as, *He was never seen (or never was seen) 
 to laugh from that time.' JWver seems to be improperly used 
 in the following passages : ' Ask me never so nmch dowry and 
 gift.' / If I make my hands never so clean.' * Charm he never 
 so wisely.' The word 'ever'AVould be more suitable to the 
 sense. — Ever is sometimes improperly used for never; as, * I 
 seldom or ever see him now.' It should be, ' I seldom or 
 never f the speaker intending to say,' that rarely, or rather at 
 no tinte, does he see him now ;' not 'rarely,' or 'at any time.' 
 
 2. In imitation of the French idiom, the adverb of place 
 where is often used instead of the pronoun relative and a prep- 
 osition. 'They framed a protestation, ivhere they i^t^peated 
 all their former claims,' i. e. 'in i^j/jic/i they repeated.' 'The 
 king was still determined to run forward in the same course 
 where he was already, by his precipitate career, too fatally ad- 
 vanced;' i.e. 'in %ohich he was.' But it Avould be better to 
 avoid this mode of expression. 
 
 The adverbs hence^ thence, and whence^ imply a preposition ; 
 for they signify ' from this place,' ' from that place,' ' from what 
 place.' It seems, therefore, strictly speaking, to be improper 
 to join a prei)osition with them, because it is superfluous ; as, 
 ' This is the leviathan, from whence the wits of our age are 
 
184 SYNTAX. 
 
 said to borrow their weapons ;' *Aii ancient author prophesies 
 from hence.' But the origin of these words is little attended 
 to, and the preposition from is so often used in construction 
 with them, that the omission of it, in many cases, would seem 
 stiff, and be disagreeable. 
 
 The adverbs here, there, where, are often improperly applied 
 to verbs signifying motion, instead of the adverbs hither, thither, 
 whither ; as, ' He came here hastily ;' * They rode there with 
 speed.' They should be, * He came hither ;' * They rode thither,^ 
 &c. 
 
 3. We have some examples of adverbs being used for sub- 
 stantives : * In 1687, he erected it into a community of regu- 
 lars, since when, it has begun to increase in those countries as 
 a rehgious order;' i. e. * since ivhich time.'' *A little while 
 and I shall not see you ;' i. e. ' a short time.^ ' It is worth 
 their while ;' i. e. Mt deserves their time and pains.' Bur this 
 mode of expression rather suits familiar than grave style. 
 The same may be said of the phrase ^ to do a thing anyhow ;' 
 i. e. * in any manner ;' or * somehow ;' i. e. * in some manner.' 
 ' Somehow, worthy as these people are, they are under the in- 
 fluence of prejudice.' 
 
 Such expressions as the following, though not destitute of 
 authority, are very inelegant, and do not suit the idiom of our' 
 language ; *The then ministry,' for ' the ministers of that time ;' 
 ' The above discourse,' for * the preceding discourse.' 
 
 4. Two negatives in English, destroy one another, or ape 
 equivalent to an affirmative ; as, * M)r did they 7iot perceive 
 him ;' that is, ' they did perceive him.' * His language, though 
 inelegant, is not ungrammatical,^ that is, * it is grammatical.' 
 
 It is better to express an affirmation by a regular affirmative- 
 than by two separate negatives, as in the former sentence ; but 
 when one of the negatives is joined to another word, as in the 
 latter sentence, the two negatives form a pleasing and delicate 
 variety of expression. 
 
 Some writers have improperly employed two negatives in- 
 stead of one ; as in the following instances : * I never did re- 
 pent of doing good nor shall not now ;' * nor shall I now.^* 
 
 * Never no imitator grew up to this author ;' ' never did any,^ &c. 
 
 * I cannot by no means allow him what his argument must 
 prove ;' * I cannot by any means,' &c., or * I can by no means."* 
 
 * Nor let no comforter approach me ;' ' Nor let any comforter,' 
 &c. * Nor is danger ever apprehended in such a government, 
 no more than we commonly apprehend danger from thunder 
 or earthquakes ;' it should be, * any more.'' * Ariosto, Tasso, 
 Galileo, no more than Raphael, were not born in republics.' 
 It would be better thiis, * Neither Ariosto, Tasso, nor Galileo, 
 any more than Raphael, was born in a republic' 
 
 Now correct and parse the following 
 
SYNTAX. 1^ 
 
 EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX. 
 
 He was pleasing not often, because he was vain. 
 
 WiJliaiu nobly acted, though, be was unsuccessful. 
 
 We may happily live, thougk our possessions are small. 
 
 From whence we may date likewise the period of this event. 
 
 It cannot be impertinent or ridiculous therefore to remonstrate. 
 
 He offered an apology, which being not adznitted, he became ?jibii-i^sive. 
 
 These things should be never separated. 
 
 Unless he have more government of himself, lie will l>e always discontented. 
 
 A'ever sovereign was so much iMjloved by tiie people. 
 
 He was determined to invite back the king, and to call together his friends. 
 
 So well educated a boy gives great hoj>es to his friends. 
 
 Not only he found her employed, but pleased and tranquil also. 
 
 We always should prefer our duty to our pleasure. 
 
 It is imp»)ssible continually to be at work. 
 
 The heavenly bodies are in motion perpetually. 
 
 Having not known, or having not considered, the measures proposed, he failed of 
 success. • 
 
 My opinion was given on rather a cursory j>erusal of the Iwok. 
 
 It is too counnon with mankind to be engrossed, and overcome totally, by present 
 events. 
 
 When the Romans were pressed with a foreign enemy, the women contributed all 
 their rings and jewels, voluntarily, to assist the government. 
 
 2^he following sentences exemplify the notes and observations un- 
 der Rvi,e VIII. 
 
 /-. 1. They could not persuade him, though they were never so eloquent. 
 ''j< If some' persons' opportunities were never so favorable, they would be too indolent 
 to improve them. 
 
 * 2. He drew up a petition, where he too freely represented his own merits. 
 ; -His follies had reduced him to a situation where he had much to fear and nothing 
 .^1^ hojie. 
 ' It is reported that the prince will come here to-morrow. ^ 
 
 George is active ; he walked there in less than an hour. 
 
 Where are you all going in such haste? 
 
 Whither have they been since they left the city ? 
 
 3. Charles left the seminary too early, since when he has made very little improve- 
 ment. 
 
 Nothing is better worth the while of young persons than the acquisition of knowl- 
 edge and virtue. 
 
 4. Neither riches nor honors, nor no such perishing goods, can satisfy the desires 
 of an immortal spirit. 
 
 Be honest, nor take no shape nor semblance of disguise. 
 
 We need not, nor do not confine his oi)erutions to narrow limits. 
 
 I am resolved not to comply with the proposal, neither at present, nor at any other 
 time. 
 
 There cannot be nothing more insignificant than vanity. 
 
 Nothing never affected her so much as this misconduct of her child. 
 
 Do not interrupt me yourselves, nor let no one disturb my retirement. 
 ■' These people do not judge wisely, nor take no proper measures to effect their pur- 
 
 , The measure is so exceptionable, that we cannot by no means permit it. 
 
 'I have received no information on the subjeet, neither from him nor from his 
 
 friend. 
 
 Precept nor discipline is not so forcible as example. 
 
 The king nor the queen was not at all deceived in the business. 
 
 16' 
 
 •JO 
 
186; SYNTAX, 
 
 SECTION VZZZ. 
 
 RULE IX. 
 
 Pronouns must agree with the nouns for which they stand 
 in number and gender ; as, - 
 
 ' The kin^ aj|d the queen had put on their robes ;' * The 
 moon appears, and she shhies, but the hght is not /ler own.' 
 
 Of this rule there are many violations to be met with ; a few 
 of which may be sufficient to put the learner on his guard. 
 
 * Each of the sexes should keep within its particular bounds, 
 and content themselves with the advantages of th^ir particular 
 districts :' better thus; 'The sexes should keep within their 
 particular bounds,' &c. ' Can any one, on their entrance into 
 the world, be fully secure that they shall not be deceived ?' *on 
 his entrance,' and * that he shall.' * One should not think too 
 favorably o{ ourselves ;' *of one'5 seW 
 
 1. Personal pronouns, being used to supply the place of the 
 nouns, are not employed in the same part of a sentence as the 
 noun which tkey represent ; for it would be improper to say, 
 
 * The king he is just ;' ' I saw her the queen ;' * The men theij 
 were there ;' * Many words they darken speech ;' * My banks 
 they are furnished with bees.' These personals are superflu- 
 ous, as there is very seldom any occasion for a substitute in 
 the same part where the principal word is present. The nom- 
 inative case they, in the following sentence, is also superfluous : 
 ' Who, instead of going about doing good, they are perpetually 
 intent upon doing mischief 
 
 This rule is often infringed, by the case absolute's not being 
 properly distinguished from certain forms of expression ap- 
 parently similar to it. In this sentence, ' The candidate being 
 chosen, the people carried him in triumph,' the word candidate 
 is in the absolute case. But in the following sentence, *The 
 candidate, being chosen, was carried in triumph by the people,' 
 candidate is the nominative to the verh ivas carried ; Siud there- 
 fore it is not in the case absolute. Many writers, however, ap- 
 prehending the nominative in this latter sentence, as well as in 
 the former, to be put absolutely, often insert another nomina- 
 tive to the verbj and say, * The candidate being chosen, he was 
 carried in triumph by the people ;' * The general approving the 
 plan, he put it in execution.' The error in each of these two 
 sentences is, that there are two nominatives used, w^here one 
 would have been sufficient, and consequently that he is redun- 
 dant. 
 
 2. It is and it was are often, after the manner of the French^ 
 used in a plural construction, and by some of our best writers ; 
 as, ^R w either a few great men who decide for the whole, or 
 it is the rabble that follow a seditious ringleader ;' * It is they 
 
SYNTAX. 187 
 
 that are the real authors, though the soldiers are the actors of 
 the revolutions;' ^It was the heretics that first began to rail,' 
 &c. ; * ^Tis these that early taint the female mind.' This hcense 
 in the construction of t7w (if it be proper to admit it at all) has,, 
 however, been certainly abused in the following sentence, which 
 is thereby made a very awkward one. ' /i5 i^ wonderful the very 
 few accidents, which, in several years, happen from this prac- 
 tice.' The word accidents is not in apposition to it, following 
 the neuter verb be ; it is a nominative without a verb, without 
 being the nominative independent, or absolute. The sentence 
 should be, ' It is wonderful that so few accidents happen,' &c. 
 
 3. The interjections 01 Oh! and Ah ! require the objective 
 case of a pronoun in the first person after them ; as, ' O me ! 
 Oh me ! Ah me !' but tlie nominative case iii tlie second per- 
 son ; as, ' O thou persecutor !' ' Oh ye hypocrites !' * O thou, 
 who dwellest,' &c. ; because the first person is governed by a 
 preposition understood ; as, ' Ah for me V or, * O what will be- 
 come o/*me !' &c. ; and the second person is in the nominative 
 independent, there being a direct address. 
 
 The neuter pronoun, by an idiom })ecuHar to the English 
 language, is frequently joined, in explanatory sentences, with a 
 noun or pronoun of the masculine or feminine gender ; as, *It 
 was I ;' * It was tlie man or woman that did it.' 
 
 The neuter pronoun if is sometimes omitted and understood; 
 thus we say, * As appears,' * As follows f for * As it appears,' 
 * As it follows ;' and ' May be,' for ' It may be.' 
 
 The neuter pronoun it is sometimes employed to express, 
 
 1st. The subject of any discourse or inquiry ; as, 'It happen- 
 ed on a summer's day ;' ^ Who is it that calls on me ?' 
 
 2d. The state or condition of any person or thing ; as, ' How 
 is it with you ?' 
 
 3d. The thing, whatever it be, that is the cause of any eflfect 
 or event, or any person considered merely as a cause ; as, ' We 
 heard her say it was not he ;' *The truth is,ii was I that help- 
 ed her.' 
 ' You may now correct and parse the following 
 
 EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX 
 
 The male amongst birds seems to discover no beauty, but in the color of its spe- 
 cies. 
 
 Take handfuls of ashes of the fornacej and let Moses sprinkle it towards heaven in 
 the sight of Pharaoh ; and it shall become small dust. 
 
 Refekah took goodly raiment, which were with her in the house, and put them 
 upon Jacob, 
 
 The fair sex, whose task is not to mingle in the labors of public life, has its own 
 part assigned it to act. 
 
 The Hercules man-of-war foundered at sea : she overset, and lost most of her 
 men.. 
 
 The mind of man cannot be long without some food to nourish the activity of his 
 thoughts. 
 
188 SYNTAX. 
 
 I do not thiuk any one should incur censure for being tender of their reputa- 
 tion. 
 
 The/oUotdng examples are adapted to the notes and observations 
 under Rule IX. 
 
 1. Whoever entertains such an opinion, he judges erroneously. 
 The cares of this world, they often choke the growth of virtue. 
 Disappointments and afflictions, however disagreeable, they often improve us. 
 
 2. It is remarkable his continual endeavors to serve us, notwithstanding our iugrat> ' 
 itude. 
 
 It is indisputably true his assertion, though it is a paradox. 
 
 3. Ah ! unhappy thee, who art deaf to the calls of duty, and of honor. 
 Oh ! happy we, surrounded with so many blessings. 
 
 SECTION IX. 
 
 RULE X. 
 
 Every adjective pronoun belongs to some noun or pronoun ex- 
 pressed or understood. 
 
 The adjective pronouns this and that, and their plurals these 
 and THOSB, and other and another, and the numeral adjec- 
 tives must agree in number ivith the nouns to which they belong. 
 
 A few instances of tPie breach of the latter part of this rule 
 are here exhibited. * I have not travelled this twenty years ;' 
 ' these twenty.' ' I am not recommending these kind of suffer- 
 ings ;' * thi^ kind.' * Those set of books was a valuable pres- 
 ent ;' ' that set.' 
 
 1. The word means, in the singular number, and the phrase* 
 by this means, by that means, are used by our best and 
 most correct writers ; namely, Bacon, Tillotson, Atterbury, 
 Addison, Steele, Pope, &c.* They are, indeed, in so general 
 
 * " By thi£ means he had them the more at vantage, being tired and harassed with 
 a long march." — Bacon. 
 
 ^^ By this means one great restraint from doing evil would he taken away."— 
 " And this is an admirable means to improve men in virtue." — " By that means 
 they have rendered their duty more difficult." — Tillotson. 
 
 "It renders us careless of approving ourselves to God, and by that means securing 
 the continuance of his goodness." — " A good character, when established, should 
 not be rested in as an end, but employed as a means of doing still further good."-^ 
 Atterbury. 
 
 *^ By this means they a.TG hippy in each other." — "He by that means praises his 
 superiority." — Addison. 
 
 *' Your vanity by this means will warrt its food." — Steele. 
 
 " By this means alone, their greatest obstacles will vanish." — Pope. 
 
 " Which ctLstom has proved the most effectual means to ruin the nobles." — Dean 
 Swift. 
 
 " There is no means of escaping the persecution." — " Faith is not only a mean* of 
 obeying, but a principal act of obedience." — Dr. Young: 
 
 "He looked on money as a necessary means of maintaining and increasing power." 
 —~L<n'd Littleton^s Henry IT. 
 
 " John was too much intimidated not to embrace every means afforded for his safe- 
 ty." — Qoldsmith. 
 
 " Lest this means should fail."—" By means of ship-money^ the late king," «fcc. — 
 " Th»f only means of securing a durable peace." — Hume. 
 
SYNTAX. 189 
 
 and approved use, that it would appear awkward, if not af- 
 fected, to apply the old singular form, and say, 'By this mean;'* 
 
 * By that viean ;' * It was by a mean ;' althougli it is more agree- 
 able to the general analogy of the language. "The word 
 means (says Priestley) belongs to the class of words which 
 do not change their termination on account of number ; for it 
 is used alike in both numbers." 
 
 The word amends is used in this manner in the following 
 sentences : ' Though he did not succeed, he gained the appro- 
 bation of his country ; and with this amends he was content.' 
 
 * Peace of mind is an honorable amends for the sacrifices of 
 interest.' *In return, he received the thanks of his employers, 
 and the present of a large estate : these were ample amends 
 for his labors.' 'We have described the rewards of vice : the 
 good man's amends are of a different nature.' 
 
 It can scarcely be doubted that this word amends (like the 
 word means) had formerly its correspondent form in the sin- 
 gular number, (as it is derived from the French amende,) though 
 now it is exclusively estabUshed in the plural form. If, there- 
 fore, it is alleged that mean should be applied in the singular, 
 because it is derived from the French moyen, the same kind of 
 argument may be advanced in favor of the singular amende ; 
 and the general analogy of the language may also be pleaded 
 in support of it. 
 
 Campbell, in his 'Philosophy of Rhetoric,' has the following 
 remark on the subject before us ; " No persons of taste will, I 
 presume, venture so far to violate the present usages, and^ con- 
 sequently, to shock the ears of the generality of readers, as to 
 say, ' By this mean, by that mean."* " 
 
 Lowth and Johnson seem to be against the use of means in 
 the singular number. They do not, however, speak decisively 
 on the point, but rather dubiously, as if they knew that they 
 were questioning eminent authorities, as well as general prac- 
 tice. That they were not decidedly against the application of 
 this word to the singular number, appears from their own lan- 
 guage : ' Whole sentences, whether simple or compound, may 
 become members of other sentences, by means of some ad- 
 ditional connexion.^ 
 
 'There is no other method of teaching that of which any 
 one is ignorant, but by means of something already known.' 
 ' Neither grace of person nor vigor of understanding is to be 
 regarded otherwise than as a means of happiness.' 
 
 " By this means there was nothing left to the parliament of Ireland," See. -rrB lack*, 
 atone. 
 
 " By this means so many slaves escaped out of the hands of their^njasters. "^Z>r. 
 Robertson. 
 
 " By this means they bear witness to each other. "-r-J5u7'A;e. 
 
 "By this means the wrath of man was made to turn a^gainst itself." — Dr. Blair. 
 
 " A magazine, which has, by thU mcaTt^, contained," &c. — " Birds, in general, pro«, 
 cure their food by means of their beak.^^-rVv'. Foley. 
 
190 SYNTAX. 
 
 The practice of the best and most correct writers, or a great 
 majority of them, corroborated by general usage, forms, during 
 its continuance, the standard of language, especially if, in par- 
 ticular instances, this practice continue after objcv^tion and due 
 consideration. Every connexion and application of words and 
 phrases, thus supported, nmst therefore be proper, and entitled 
 to respect, if not exceptionable in a moral point of view. 
 
 'Sermo constat ratione, vctustate, auctoritafe, consuetudine, 
 ' Cousuetudo vero certissinii loijueiidi irmgistra.* 
 
 ClUlNCTILIAN 
 
 'Si volet USU3 
 
 * duem penes arbitrium est, et jus, et norma loquondi.' 
 
 Horace 
 
 On this principle many forms of expression, not less devia- 
 ting from the general analogy of the language than those be- 
 fore mentioned, are to be considered as strictly proper and 
 justifiable. Of this kind are the following: 'A'bne of them 
 are varied to express the gender :' and yet none originally sig- 
 nified no one. * He himself shall do the work :' here, what was 
 first appropriated to the objective is now properly used as the 
 nominative case. ' You have behaved yourselves w^ll :' in this 
 example, the word you is put in the nominative case plural, 
 with strict propriety ; though fornierly it was confined to the 
 objective case, and ye exclusively used for the nominative. 
 
 With reg^pect to anomahes and variations of language thus 
 established, it is the grammarian's busiiiess to submit, not to 
 remonstrate. In pertinaciously opposing the decision'of prop- 
 er authority, and contending for obsolete modes of expres- 
 sion, he may, indeed, display learning and critical sagacity, 
 and, in some degree, obscure points that are sufliciently clear 
 and decided ; but he cannot reasonably hope either to succeed 
 in his aims, or to assist the learner in discovering and respect- 
 ing the true standard and principles of language. 
 
 Cases which custom has left dubious are certainly within 
 the grammarian's province. Here lie may reason and remon- 
 strate on the ground of derivation, analogy, and propriety ; 
 and his reasonings may refine and improve the language ; but 
 when authority speaks' out, and decides the point, it were per- 
 petually to unsettle the language to admit of cavil and debate. 
 Anomahes, then, under the limitation mentioned, become the 
 law, as clearly as the plainest analogies. 
 
 You will perceive that, in the following sentences, the use 
 of the word mean, in the old form, has a very uncouth appear- 
 ance : *By the mean of adversity, we are often instructed.' 
 * He preserved his health by mean of exercise.' * Frugality is 
 one mean of acquiring a competency.' They should be, *by 
 means of adversity ;' *by means of exercise,' &c. ; * Frugality 
 is one means, ^ &c. 
 
 Good writers do indeed make use of the substantive mean in 
 
SYNTAX. 191 
 
 the singular number, and in that number only, to signify medi- 
 ocrity, middle state, &c. ; as, ' This is a mean between the two 
 
 ■ extremes.' But in the sense of instrumentality, it has been 
 
 i-long disused by the best authors, and by almost every writer. 
 This means and that means should be used only when they 
 
 '"refer to what is singular ; these means and those means, when 
 they respect plural; as, 'He lived temperately, and by this 
 
 ~ m^ans preserved his health ;' ' The scholars were attentive, 
 /^Industrious, and obedient to their tutors, and by these means 
 acquired knowledge.' 
 
 2. When two persons or things are spoken of in a sen- 
 tence, and there is occasion to mention them again for the 
 sake of distinction, that is used in reference to the former, and 
 this in reference to the latter ; as, ' Self-love, which is the 
 spring of action in the soul, is ruled by reason ; but for that, 
 
 . man would be inactive ; and but for this, he would be active to 
 n no end.' 
 
 3. The distributive adjective pronouns each, every, either, 
 agree with nouns, pronouns and verbs of the singular number 
 only ; as, 'The king of Israel, and Jehoshaphat the king of Ju- 
 dah, sat each on his throne ;' ^ Every tree is known by its fruit ;' 
 unless the plural noun convey a collective idea ; as, ' Every 
 six months ;' ' Every hundred years.' — The following phrases 
 are exceptionable : 'Let each esteem others better than them- 
 selves :' it ought to be 'himself.'' 'It is requisite that the lan- 
 guage should be both perspicuous and correct : in proportion 
 as either of these two qualities are wanting, the language is 
 imperfect :' it should be, 'i5 wanting.' ''Every one of the let- 
 ters bear regular dates, and contain proofs of attachment :' 
 
 ,,*6ear5 a regular rfa^e, and con toin5.' '' Every town and village 
 "''were burned; every grove and every tree were cut down :' ^was 
 burned, and was cut down.' ' Every freeman, and every citizen, 
 have a right to give their votes :' '/la^ a right to give his vote,"* 
 Either is often used improperly, instead of each ; as, ' The 
 king of Israel, and Jehoshaphat the king of Judah, sat either of 
 them on his throne ;' ' Nadab and Abihu, the sons of Aaron, took 
 either of them his censer.' Each signifies both of them taken 
 distinctly or separately ; either properly signifies only the one 
 or the other of them, taken disjunctively. 
 
 4. Many persons are apt, in conversation, to use the personal 
 pronoun thein, instead of the adjective pronouns these and those ; 
 as, ' Give me them books,' instead of ' those books.'' We also 
 frequently meet with those instead of they, at the beginning of 
 a sentence, in which there is no particular referencetoany pre- 
 
 . -Qeding word ; as, ' Those that sow in tears sometimes reap in 
 f.'. joy.' ' They that, or they who sow,' &c., is better. 
 
 I will now give you to parse and correct the following 
 
192 SYNTAX. 
 
 EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX. 
 
 These kind of indulgences soften and injure the mind. 
 
 Instead of improving yourselves, you have been playing this two hours. 
 
 Those sort of favors did real injury, under the appearance of kindness. 
 
 The chasm made by the earthquake was twenty foot broad and one hundred fathom 
 in depth. 
 
 How many a Borrow should we avoid, if we were not industrious enough to make 
 them. 
 
 He saw one or more persons enter the garden. 
 
 The examples which follow are suited to the notes and observations 
 under Rule X. 
 
 1. Charles was extravagant, and by this mean became poor and despicable. 
 It was by that ungenerous mean that he obtained his end. 
 
 Industry is the mean of obtaining competency. 
 
 Though a promising measure, it is a mean which I cannot adopt. 
 
 This person embraced every opportunity to display his talents j and by these means 
 rendered himself ridiculous. 
 
 Joseph was industrious, frugal and discreet ; and by this means obtained property 
 and reputation. 
 
 2. Religion raises men above themselves *, irreligion sinks them beneath the brutes : 
 that binds them down to a poor, pitiable speck of perishable earth ; this opens for 
 them a prospect to the skies. ■ 
 
 More rain falls in the first two summer months than in the first two winter ones ; 
 but it makes a much greater show upon the earth in those than in these, because 
 there is a much slower evaporation. 
 
 Rex and Tyrannus are of very different characters. The one rules his people by 
 laws to which they consent ; the other, by his absolute will and power ; this is called 
 freedom, that tyranny. 
 
 3. Each of them, in their turn, receive the benefits to which they are entitled. 
 
 My counsel to each of you is, that you should make it your endeavor to come to a 
 friendly agreement. 
 
 By discussing what relates to each particular, in their order, we shall better under- 
 stand the subject. 
 
 Every person, whatever be their station, are bound by the duties of morality and 
 religion. 
 
 Every leaf, every twig, every drop of water, teem with life. 
 
 Every man's heart and temper is productive of much inward joy or bitterness. 
 
 Whatever he undertakes, either his pride or his folly disgust us. 
 
 Everyinan and every woman were numbered. 
 
 Neither of those men seem to have any idea, that their opinions may be ill- 
 founded. 1 • . J 
 
 When benignity and gentleness reign within, we are always least m hazard 
 from without : every person and every occurrence are beheld in the most favorable 
 light. 
 
 On either side of the river was there the tree of life. 
 
 4. Which of them two persons has most distinguished himself.' 
 
 None more impatiently suffer injuries than those that are moat forward in doing 
 them. 
 
 SECTION X. 
 
 RULE XL 
 
 Relative pronmins agree with their antecedents in person, num- 
 her, and gender. 
 
 The relative, being of the same person that the antecedent is, 
 requires the verb, which agrees with it, to be of the same per- 
 son that it would be to agree with the antecedent ; as, * Thou 
 
SYNTAX. 193 
 
 who lovest wisdom, walkest ui)riglTtly ;' * He who loves wisdom 
 walks uprightly ;' ' I, who love,'' &c. 
 
 Every relative must have an antecedent, to which it refers, 
 either expressed or imphed; ai?, 'Who is fatal to others, is so 
 to himself;' that is, ' the man who is fatal to others.' 
 
 }fho, which, ivhat, and tiie relative that, though in the ob- 
 jective case, are always placed before the verb ; as are also 
 their Qom\wui\(\^, luhoever, ivhosoever, &lq,. ", as, 'He whom ye 
 seek;' 'This is what you want;' i. e. Hhat which you want, or 
 the thing whicli, or that which you want ;' ' Whomsoever you 
 please to appoint.' 
 
 ^/la^ is sometimes apphed in -a manner which appears to 
 be exceptionable ; as, ' AH fevers, except what are called ner- 
 vous,' &c. It would at least be better to say, ' except those 
 which are called nervous,' 
 
 What is very frequently used as the representative of two 
 cases.; one the objective after a verb or preposition, and the 
 other the nominative to a subsequent verb ; as, ' I heard tvhat 
 was said ;' ' He related what was seen ;' ' According to what 
 was proposed ;' ' We do not constantly love whai has done us 
 good.' This pecuhar construction may be explained by re- 
 solving what into that which ; as, ' I heard that which was 
 said,' &c. 
 
 In a few instances, the relative is introduced as the nomi- 
 native to a verb, hefort the sentence or clause which it repre- 
 sents ; as, ' There was therefore, which is all that we assert, a 
 course of life pursued by them, different from that which they 
 before led.' Here, the relative which is the representative of 
 the whole of the last part of the sentence ; and its natural po- 
 sition is after that clause. 
 
 Whatever relative is used, in one of a series of clauses re- 
 lating to the same antecedent, the same relative ought general- 
 ly to be used in them all. In the following sentence, this rule 
 is violated : ' It is remarkable, that Holland, against which the 
 war was undertaken, and thai, in the very beginning, was re- 
 duced to the brink of destruction, lost nothing.' The clause 
 ouglit to have been, ' and which, in the very beginning.' 
 
 Tlie relative frequently refers to a whole clause in the sen- 
 tence, instea<i of a particidar word in it ; as, ' The resolution 
 was adopted hastily, and without due consideration, which pro- 
 duced great dissatisfaction ;' that is, ' which thing,' namely, the 
 hasty adoption of the resolution. 
 
 1. The pronoun that is frequently apphed to persons as 
 well as to things ; but after an adjective in the superlative de- 
 ' gree, and after the pronominal adjective same, it is generally 
 used in preference to loho or which ; as, ' Charles XII., king 
 of Sweden, was one of the greatest madmen thai the world 
 ever saw ;' ' Catiline's followers were the most profligate that 
 
194 SYNTAX. 
 
 could be found in any city ;' * He is the same man that we 
 saw before.' But if, after the word same, a preposition should 
 precede the relative, one of the other two pronouns must be 
 employed, the pronoun that not admitting a preposition pre- 
 fixed to it ; as, ' He is the same man, with ichom you are ac- 
 quainted.' It is remarkable, however, that when the arrange- 
 ment is a httle varied, the word that admits the preposition; 
 as, ' He is the same man, that you are acquainted ivith.'' 
 
 There are cases wherein we cannot conveniently dispense 
 with the relative thai^ as applied to persons ; as, first, after who 
 the interrogative ; 'Who, that has any sense of religion, would 
 have argued thus ?' secondly, when* persons make but a part 
 of the antecedent.; ' The woman, and the estate, that became 
 his portion, were rewards far beyond his desert.' In neither of 
 tiiese examples could any other relative have been used. 
 
 2. The pronouns whichsoeter, whosoever, and the like, are 
 elegantly divided by the interposition of the corresponding 
 substantives: thus, 'On whichsoever side the king cast his 
 eyes,' would have sounded better if written, ' On which side 
 soever,' &c. 
 
 3. In some dialects, the word what is improperly used for 
 that, and sometimes we find it in this sense in writing : ' They 
 will never believe but what I have been entirely to blame ;' ' I 
 am not satisfied but what,' &c., instead of ' but that.^ The 
 word somewhat, in the following sentence, seems to be used 
 improperly : ' These punishments seem to have been exercis- 
 ed in somewhat an arbitrary manner.' Sometimes we read, 
 ' in somewhat of The meaning is, ' in a manner which is, in 
 some respects, arbitrary.' 
 
 4. The pronoun relative ivho is so much appropriated to 
 persons, that there is generally harshness in the application of 
 It except to the proper names of persons, or the general terms 
 man, woman, &c. A term which only implies the idea of per- 
 sons, and expresses them by some circumstance or epithet, will 
 hardly authorize the use of it ; as, ' That faction in England, 
 icho most powerfully opposed bis arbitrary pretensions.' ' That 
 faction which' would have been better ; and the same remark 
 will serve for the following: examples : ' France, who was in al- 
 liance with Sweden.' ' The court, who,^ &c. ' The cavalry, 
 who,' &c. * The cities tvho aspired at liberty.' ' That party 
 among us who,'' &c. 'The family whom they consider as 
 usurpers.' 
 
 In some cases, it may be doubtful whether this pronoun is 
 properly applied or not : ' The number of substantial inhabit- 
 ants with whom some cities abound.' For when a term di- 
 rectly and necessarily implies persons, it may in many cases 
 claim the personal relative. ' None of the company wtwmhe 
 niDst affected, could cure him of the melancholy under which 
 
SYATAX. 195 
 
 he labored.' The word acquaintance may have the flame con- 
 struction. 
 
 5. We hardly consider little children as persons, because 
 that term gives us the idea of reason and reflection ; and there- 
 fore the application of the personal relative ivho, in this case, 
 seems to be harsh : * A child whoJ' It, though neuter, is gen- 
 erally applied, when we speak of an infant or child ; as, ' i^ 
 is a lovely infant ;' ^ It is o. healthy child.' The personal pro- 
 noun is still more improperly applied to animals : * A lake fre- 
 quented by that fowl, whom nature has taught to dip the wing 
 in water.' 
 
 6. When the name of a person is used merely as a name, 
 and it does not refer to the person, the pronoun who ought 
 not to be applied. * It is no wonder if such a man did not 
 shine at the court of Queen Ehzabeth, who was but another 
 name for prudence and economy.' Better thus : * Whose 
 name was but another word for prudence,' &c. The word 
 whose begins likewise to be restricted to persons ; yet it is not 
 done so generally, but that good writers, even in prose, use it 
 when speaking of things. The construction is not, however, 
 always pleasing, as we may see in the following instances ; 
 ' Pleasure, i/jJ'iose nature,' &c. *Call every production, ivhose 
 parts and tchose nature,' &c. 
 
 In one case, however, custom authorizes us to use which 
 with respect to persons ; and that is when we want to distin- 
 guish one person of two, or a particular person among a num- 
 ber of others. We should then say, * Which of the two,' or 
 
 * Which of them, is he or she ?' 
 
 7. As the pronoun relative has no distinction of number, we 
 sometimes find an ambiguity in the use of it ; as when we say, 
 
 * The disciples of Christ, whom we imitate,' we may mean the 
 imitation either of Christ or of his disciples. The accuracy 
 and clearness of the sentence depend very much upon the 
 proper and determinate use of the relative, so that it may read- 
 ily present its antecedent to the mind of the hearer or reader, 
 without any obscurity or ambiguity. 
 
 Now parse and correct the following 
 
 EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX. 
 
 The exercise of reason appears ae little in these sportsmen as in the beasts whom 
 thev sometimes hunt, and by whom they are sometimes hunted. 
 
 They which seek wisdom will certainly find her. 
 
 The wheel killed another man, which is the sixth which have lost their lives by 
 this means. 
 
 What is the reason that our language is lees refined than those of Italy, Spain, or 
 France ? 
 
 Thou, who has been a witness to the fact, can give an account of it. 
 
 In religious concerns, or what is conceived to be such, every man must stand or fall 
 by the decision of the Gieat Judge. 
 
 Something like what have been here premised are the conjectures of Dryden. 
 
ISIg SYNTAX. 
 
 Thou great First Cause, least understood ! 
 
 Who all my sense confiiir'd 
 To know but this, that thou art good, 
 
 And that myself am blind : 
 Yet give me in this dark estate, &c. 
 
 What art thou, speak, that, on designs unknown, 
 While others sleep, thus range the camp alone ? 
 
 The following examples are adapted to the notes and observations 
 under Rule XI. 
 
 1. Moses was the meekertt man whom we read of in the Old Testament. 
 Humility is one of the most amiable virtues which we can possess. 
 They are the same persons who assisted us yesterday. 
 The men and things which he has studied have not improved his morals. 
 •2. Howsoever beautiful they appear, they have no real merit. 
 Ill whatsoever light wo view him, his conduct will bear inspection. 
 On whichsoever side they are contemplated, they appear to advantage. 
 However much he might despise the maxims of the king's administration, he kept a 
 total silence on that subject. 
 
 3. He would not be persuaded but what I was greatly in fault. 
 
 Those commendations of his children appear to have been made in somewhat an 
 injudicious manner. 
 
 4. He instructed and fed the crowds who surrounded him. 
 
 Sidney was one of the wisest and most active governors which Ireland have enjoy- 
 ed for several years. 
 
 He was the ablest minister which James ever possessed. 
 
 Tlie court, who gives currency to manners, ought to be exemplary. 
 
 I am happy in the friend which I have long proved. 
 
 5. The child whom we have just seen is wholesomely fed, and not injured by ban- 
 dages or clothing. 
 
 He is like a beast of prey, who destroys without pity. 
 
 6. Having once disgusted him, he could never regain the favor of Nero, who was, 
 indeed, aWher name for cruelty. 
 
 Flattery, whose nature is to deceive and betray, should be avoided as the poisonous 
 adder. 
 
 Who of these men came to his assistance .'' 
 
 7. The king dismissed his minister without any inquiry; who had never before 
 committed so unjust an action. 
 
 There are millions of people, in the empire of China, whose support is derived almost 
 entirely from rice. 
 
 SECTION XX 
 
 RULE XII. 
 
 When no nominative comes between the relative and the verb, 
 the relative is the nominative to the verb ; but ivhen a nominative 
 DOES come betiveen the relative and the verb, the relative must be 
 in the possessive case, and governed by the following noun, or in 
 the objective, and governed by the following verb, or by some par- 
 ticiple or preposition, in its own member of the sentence ; as, 'He 
 wlio preserves me, to whom 1 owe my being, whose I am, and 
 whom I serve, is eternal.' 
 
 In the several members of the last sentence, the relative per- 
 forms a different office. In the first member, it marks the 
 agent ; in the second, it submits to the government of the prep- 
 osition ; in the third, it represents the possessor ; and iu the 
 
SYNTAX. 197 
 
 fourth, the object of an action ; and, therefore, it must be in 
 the three different cases, correspondent to those offices. 
 
 When both the antecedent and the relative become nomina- 
 tives, each to different verbs, the relative is the nominative to 
 the foi'mer, and the antecedent to the latter verb ; aj^, ^ True 
 philosophy, which is the ornament of our nature, consists more 
 in the love of our duty, and the practice of virtue, than in great 
 talents and extensive knowledge.' 
 
 A few instances of erroneous construction will illustrate both 
 the branches of the rule. The three following refer to the first 
 part. ' How can we avoid being grateful to those whom, by 
 repeated kind offices, have proved themselves our real friends ?' 
 ' These are the men whom you might suppose were the au- 
 thors of the work.' * If you were here, you would find three or 
 four, whom you would say passed their time agreeably.' In 
 all these places, it should be who instead of whom. The two 
 latter sentences contain a nominative between the relative and 
 the verb, and therefore seem to contravene the rule ; but you 
 will reflect that it is not the nominative of the verb with which 
 the relative is connected. The remaining examples refer to 
 the second part of the rule. * Men of fine talents are not al- 
 ways the persons who we should esteem.' 'The persons who 
 you dispute with, are precisely of your opinion.' * Our tutors 
 are our benefactors, who we owe obedience to, and who we 
 ought to love.' In these sentences, whom should be used in- 
 stead ofivho. 
 
 1. When the pronoun is of the interrogative kind, the noun 
 or pronoun containing the answer must be in the same case as 
 that which contains the question ; as, * Whose books are these ? 
 They are John^s^ * Who gave them to him? ffe.' ' Of whom 
 did you buy them ? Of a bookseller ; him who lives at the Bi- 
 ble and Crown.' ' Whom did you see there ? Both him and tlie 
 shopman.' You will readily comprehend this rule, by supply- 
 ing the words which are understood in the answers. Thus, to 
 express the answers at large, we should say, ' They are John's 
 books ;' ' We gave them to him ;' * We bought them of him 
 who lives,' &c. ; * We saw both him and the shopman.' 
 
 Pronouns are sometimes made to precede the things which 
 they represent ; as, * If a man declares in autumn, when he is 
 eating them, or in spring, when there are ?ione, that he loves 
 grapes,^ &c. But this is a construction which is very seldom 
 allowable. 
 
 2. When the relative is preceded by two nominatives of dif- 
 ferent persons, the relative and verb may agree with either, ac- 
 cording to the sense ; as, * / am the man who command you ;' 
 or * I am the man who commands you.' 
 
 The form of the first of the two preceding sentences expres- 
 ses the r|[ieaning rather obscurely. It would be more perspicu- 
 17 * 
 
19S SYNTAX.' 
 
 ous to say, * I, who command you, am the man.' Pei-fiaps the 
 difference of meanmg, produced l>y referring the relative to 
 different antecedents, will be more evident to you in the fol- 
 lowing sentences: * I am the general who gives the orders to- 
 day ;' ' I am the general who give the orders to-day ;' that is, 
 * I, who give the orders to-day, am the general.' 
 
 When the relative and the verb have been determined to 
 agree with either of the preceding nominatives, that agreement 
 must be preserved throughout the sentence ; as in the following 
 instance : ' I am the Lord, that maketh all things, and stretch- 
 eth forth the heavens alone.' Isaiah xhv. 24. Thus far is con- 
 sistent : the Lord, in the third person, is the antecedent, and 
 the verbs agree with the relative in the third person : 'I am the 
 Lord, which Lord, or he that maketh all things.' If / were 
 made the antecedent, the relative and the verb should agree 
 with it in the first person ; as, * / am the Lord that make all 
 things, that stretch forth the heavens alone.' But should it fol- 
 low, Hhat spreadeth abroad the earth by myself,' there would 
 arise a confusion of persons, and a manifest solecism. 
 
 Now correct and parse the following 
 
 EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX. 
 
 We are dependent upon each other's assistance. Whom is there that can subsist 
 by himself? 
 
 If he will not hear his best friend, whom shall be sent to admonish him. 
 
 They who much is given to, will have much to answer for. 
 
 It is not to be expected that they, whom, in early life, have been dark and deceitful, 
 should afterwards become fair and ingenuous. 
 
 They who have labored to make us wise and good are the persons who we ought 
 to love and respect, and who we ought to be grateful to. 
 
 The persons who conscience and virtue support, may smile at the caprices of for- 
 tune. 
 
 From the character of those who you associate with, your own will he esti- 
 mated. ^ J J J 
 
 This is the student who I gave the book to, and whom, i am persuaded, de- 
 serves it. ,.'.,. 
 
 1. Of whom were the articles bought ? Of a mercer ; he who resides near the man- 
 sion-house. ,.11, 
 
 Was any person besides the mercer present ? Yes j both Inm and the clerk. 
 Who was the money paid to ? To the mercer and his clerk. v>-s^*^ 
 
 Who counted it ? Both the clerk and him. 
 
 2. I acknowledge that I am the teacher, who adopt that sentiment, and maintain* 
 the propriety of such measures. 
 
 Thou art a friend that hast often relieved me, and that has not deserted me now in 
 the time of petjuliar need. j , -. . 
 
 lam the man who approves of wholesome discipline, and who recommended it to 
 others ; but I am not a person who promotes useless severity, or who object to mild 
 and generous treatment. .. 
 
 I perceive that thou art a pupil who possesses bright parts, but who has cultiva- 
 ted them but little. . , . l l ^ • j u^ n^..^,. 
 
 Thou art he who breathest on the earth with the breath of spring, and who co\er- 
 eth it with verdure and beauty. ^ , . , i *l u., *i,-> ,-„„ 
 
 - I am the Lord thy God, who teacheth thee to profit, and who lead thee by the way 
 
 ' I'houart^hrLord, who did chooge Abraham, and broughtcst him forth out of Ur 
 oftheChaldees. 
 
SYNTAX. 199 
 
 sscTioK xn. 
 
 RULE XIII. 
 
 Prepositions govern the objective case. 
 
 The following are examples of the nominative case being 
 used instead of the objective : ' Who servest thou under ?' 
 
 * Who do you speak to ?' 'We are still much at a loss who 
 civil power belongs to.' * Who do you ask for ?' 'Associate 
 not with those who none can speak well of.' In all these 
 places, it ought to be ' whom? 
 
 The prepositions to and /or are often understood, chiefly be- 
 fore the pronouns; as, 'Give me the book;' 'Get me some 
 paper ;' that is, ' to me ;' ^for me.' ' Wo is me ;' i. e. ' to me.' 
 
 * He was banished England ;' i. e. ^from England.' 
 
 1. The preposition is often separated from the relative which 
 it governs ; as, ' Whom will you give it to ?' instead of, ' To 
 whom will you give it?' 'He is an author whom I am much 
 delighted with.' ' The world is too polite to shock their authors 
 with a truth, which generally their booksellers are the first that 
 inform them of This is an idiom to which our language is 
 strongly inclined : it prevails in common conversation, and 
 tsuits very well with the familiar style in writing ; but the plac- 
 ing of the preposition before the relative is more graceful, as 
 well as more perspicuous, and agrees much better with the 
 solemn and elevated style. 
 
 2. Some writers separate the preposition from the noun or 
 pronoun which it governs, in order to connect different prepo- 
 sitions with the same word ; as, ' To suppose the zodiac and 
 planets to be efficient of, and antecedent to themselves.' This 
 construction, whether in the familiar or the solemn style, is al- 
 ways inelegant, and should generally be avoided. In forms of 
 law, and the like, where fulness and exactness of expression 
 must take place of ev^ry other consideration, it njay be admitted. 
 
 3. Different relations and different senses must be expressed 
 by different prepositions, though in conjunction with the same 
 verb or adjective. Thus we say, ' To converse with a person, 
 upon a subject, in a house,' &c. We also say, ' We are disap- 
 pointed q/* a thing,' when we cannot get it, and ' disappointed in 
 it,' when we have it, and find it does not answer our expecta- 
 tions. But two different prepositions must be improper in the 
 same construction, and in the same sentence ; as, ' The combat 
 between thirty French, against twenty English.' 
 
 In some cases, it is difficult to say, to which of two preposi- 
 tions the preference is to be given, as both are used promis- 
 cuously, and custom has not decided in favor of either of them. 
 
200 SYNTAX. 
 
 We say, * Expert af,' and * expert in a thing ;' * Expert in find- 
 ing a remedy for his mistakes ;' * Expert in deception.' 
 
 When prepositions are subjoined to nouns, they are gener- 
 ally the same that are subjoined to the verbs from which the 
 nouns are derived ; as, * A compliance with,^ * to comply with ,*' 
 
 * A disposition to tyranny,' * disposed to tyrannise.' 
 
 Dr. Priestley observes, that many writers affect to subjoin to 
 any word the preposition with which it is compounded, or the 
 idea of which it implies, in order to point out the relation of 
 the words in a more distinct and definite manner, and to avoid 
 the more indeterminate prepositions of and to ; but general 
 practice, and the idiom of the English tongue, seem to oppose 
 the innovation. Thus many writers say, ' Averse yrom a thing ;' 
 ' The abhorrence against all other sects.' But other writers 
 say, * Averse to it ;' which seems more truly English : * Averse 
 to any advice.' Stvift. An attention to latent metaphor may 
 be pleaded in favor of the former example ; and this is a rule of 
 general use, in directing what preposition to subjoin to a word. 
 Thus we say, * Devolve upon a thing ;' * Founded on natural re- 
 semblance.' But this rule would sometimes mislead us, partic- 
 ularly where the figure has become nearly evanescent. 
 
 *The words averse and aversion (says Dr. Campbell) are 
 more properly constructed with to than with ^row.' 
 
 4. As an accurate and appropriate use of the proposition is 
 of great importance, we shall select a considerable number of 
 examples of impropriety in the application of this part of 
 sj>eech. 
 
 First — With respect to the preposition of. 
 
 ' He is resolved of going to the Persian court f * on going,*^ 
 &c. 
 
 *He was totally dependent of the papal crown;' ^on the 
 papal,' &c. 
 
 * To call of a person,' and * to wait of him ;' ' on a person,' 
 &c. 
 
 * He was eager of recommending it to his fellow citizens ;' 
 
 * in recommending,' &c. 
 
 Of is sometimes omitted, and sometimes inserted, afler 
 tDorthy ; as, ' It is worthy observation,' or * of observation.' 
 
 But it would have been better omitted in the following sen- 
 tences : * The emulation, who should serve their country best, 
 no longer subsists among them, but of who should obtain the 
 most lucrative command.' 
 
 * The rain hath been falling of a long time ;' * falling a long 
 time.' 
 
 * It is situation chiefly, which decides of the fortune and 
 characters of men ;' * decides the fortune,' or ' concerning the 
 fortune.' . . , 
 
 * He found the greatest difficulty of writing ;' < tn writing.' 
 
SYNTAX. 201 
 
 * It might have given me a greater taste of its antiquities.' 
 A taste of a thing implies actual enjoyment of it ; but a taste 
 for it implies only a capacity of enjoyment. 
 
 ^This had a much greater share of inciting him, than any 
 regard after his father's commands ;' ' share in inciting,' and 
 ' regard to his father's,' &c. 
 
 Second — With respect to the prepositions to and for. 
 
 'You have bestowed your favors to the most deserving per- 
 sons ;' ^upon the most deserving,' '&c. 
 
 *He accused the ministers for betraying the Dutch;' * of 
 having betrayed.' 
 
 ' His abhorrence to that superstitious figure ;' ' of that,' &c. 
 
 ' A great change to the better ;' 'for the better,' &c. 
 
 ' Your prejudice to my cause ;' * against.^ 
 
 ' The English were very different people then to what they 
 are at present ;' 'from what,' &c. 
 
 * In compliance to the declaration ;' * with,'' &c. 
 
 * It is more than they thought for ;' * thought q/".' 
 ' There is no need for it ;' 'of it.' 
 
 For is superfluous in the phrase ^ More than he knows for,^ 
 
 'No discouragement for the authors to proceed;' 'to the 
 authors,' &c. 
 
 ' It was perfectly in compliance to some persons ;' * tmth 
 some persons.' 
 
 ' The wisest princes need not think it any diminution to their 
 greatness, or derogation to their sufficiency, to rely upon coun- 
 sel ;' ' diminution o/,' and * derogation from,'' 
 
 Third — With respect to the prepositions with and upon. 
 
 * Reconciling himself with the king.' 
 
 • * Those things, which have the greatest resemblance with 
 each other, frequently differ the most.' 
 
 * That such rejection should be consonant with our common 
 nature ;' ' conformable with,' &c. 
 
 ' The history of Peter is agreeable with the sacred texts.' 
 In all the above instances, it should be ' io', instead of'icith.'' 
 
 * It is a use that perhaps I should not have thought on ;' 
 
 * thought o/.' 
 
 ' A greater quantity may be taken from the heap, without 
 making any sensible alteration upon it ;' ' in it.' 
 
 ' Intrusted to persons on whom the parliament could con- 
 fide ;' * in whom.' 
 
 ' He was made much on at Argos ;' * much o/I' 
 
 * If policy can prevail upon force ;' * over force.' 
 
 * I do likewise dissent with the examiner ;' 'fromJ 
 
 Fourth — With respect to the prepositions in, from, &c. 
 
202 SYNTAX. 
 
 * They should be informed in some parts of his character ;* 
 ^ahout,^ or ^ concerning.^ 
 
 * Upon such occasions as fell into their cognizance ;' * underJ* 
 *That variety of factions into which we are still engaged;' 
 
 * in which.' 
 
 * To restore myself into the favor ;' * to the favor.' 
 
 * Could he have profited from repeated experiences;' *6y.' 
 IVom seems to be superfluous after /ortear; as, 'He could 
 
 not forbear from appointing the pope.' 
 
 ' A strict observance after times and fashions ;' ' of times.' 
 
 * The character which we may now value ourselves by draw- 
 ing;' ^upon drawing.' 
 
 ' Neither of them shall make me swerve out of the path ;' 
 ^from the path.' 
 
 'Te blind guides, which strain at a gnat, and swallow a 
 camel ;' it ought to be, ' which strain out a gnat, or, take a 
 gnat out of the liquor by straining it.' The impropriety of 
 the preposition has wholly destroyed the meaning of the 
 phrase. 
 
 The verb to found, when used hterally.is more properly fol- 
 loAved by the preposition vn ; as, ' The house was founded on 
 a rock.' But in the metaphorical application, it is often better 
 with ill ; as in this sentence, ' They maintained that dominion 
 is founded in grace.' Both the sentences would be badly ex- 
 pressed, if these prepositions were transposed ; though there 
 are, perhaps, cases in which either of them would be good. 
 
 The preposition among generally imphes a number of things. 
 It cannot be properly used in conjunction with the word every, 
 which is in the singular number ; as, * Which is found among 
 every species of liberty ;' * The opinion seems to gain ground 
 among every body ;' * tvithJ* 
 
 5. The preposition to is made use of before nouns of place,' 
 when they follow verbs and participles of motion ; as, ' I went 
 to London ;' ' I am going to town.' But the preposition at is 
 generally used after the neuter verb to be ; as, * I have been at 
 London ;' ' I was at the place appointed ;' ' I shall be at Paris.' 
 We hkewise say, * He touched, arrived at, any place.' 
 
 The preposition in is set before countries, cities, and large 
 towns : ' He lives in France, in London, or in Birmingham.' 
 But before villages, single houses, and cities which are in dis- 
 tant countries, a< is used ; as, *He lives at Hackney;' *He re- 
 sides at Montpelier.' 
 
 It is a matter of indifference, with respect to the pronoun 
 one another, whether the preposition of be placed between the 
 two parts of it, or before them both. We may say, * They 
 were jealous of one another,' or * They were jealous one of 
 another ;' but perhaps the former is better. 
 
 Participles are frequently used as prepositions ; as, excepting, 
 
SYNTAX. 203 
 
 respecting, touching, concerning* * They were all in fault ex- 
 cept or excepting him.' 
 
 6. The adverb like, and the adjectives worth and like, when 
 they belong to preceding nouns or pronouns, govern the oljec- 
 iive case. 
 
 Now correct and parse the following 
 
 EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX. 
 
 Wo are all accountable creatures, each for hisself. 
 
 They willingly, and of theirselves, endeavored to make up the difference. 
 
 He laid the suspicion upon somebody, I know not who, in the company. 
 
 I hope it is not I who he is displeased with. 
 
 To poor we there is not much hope remaining. 
 
 Does that boy know who he speaks to ? Who doea he offer such language to? 
 
 It was not he that they were so angry with. 
 
 What concord can subsist between those who commit crimes and those who ab- 
 hor them ? 
 
 The person who I travelled with, has sold the horse which he rode on during our 
 journey. 
 
 It is not I he is engaged with. 
 
 Who did he receive that intelligence from ? 
 
 The foUotuiiig examples are adapted to the notes and observations 
 under Rule XIII. 
 
 1. To have no one who we heartily wish well to, and who we are warmly concern- 
 ed for, is a deplorable state. 
 
 Ho is a friend who I am highly indebted to. 
 
 2. On these occasions, the pronoun is governed by, and consequently agrees with, 
 the preceding word. 
 
 They were refused entrance into, and forcibly driven from, the house. 
 
 3. We are often disappointed of things, which, before possession, promised much 
 enjoyment. 
 
 I have frequently desired their company, hut havealwayw hitherto been disappoint- 
 ed in that pleasure. 
 
 4. She finds a difficulty of fixing her mind. 
 
 Her sobriety is no derogation to her understanding. 
 
 There was no water, and he died for thirst. 
 
 We can fully confide on none but the truly good. 
 
 I have no occasion of his services. 
 
 Many have profited from good advice. 
 
 Many ridiculous practices have been brought in vogue. 
 
 The error was occasioned by compliance to earnest entreaty. 
 
 This is a principle in unison to our nature. 
 
 We should entertain no prejudices to simple and rustic persons. 
 
 They are at present resolved of doing their duty 
 
 That boy is known under tFfe name of the Idler. 
 
 Though conformable with custom, it is not warrantable. 
 
 This remark is founded in trufti. 
 
 His parents think on him, and his improvement, with pleasure and hope. 
 
 His excuse was admitted of by his master. 
 
 What went ye out for to see ? 
 
 There appears to have been a million men brought into the field. 
 
 His present was accepted of by his friends. 
 
 More than a thousand of men were destroyed. 
 
 It ia my request that he will be particular in speaking to the following points. 
 
 The Saxons reduced the greater part of Britain to their own power. 
 
 He lives opposite the Royal Exchange. 
 
 Their house is situated to the north-east side of the road. 
 
 The performance was approved of by all who understood it. 
 
 He was accused with having acted unfairly. 
 
 She has an abhorrence to all deceitful conduct. 
 
 They were some distance from home, when the accident happened. 
 
204 SYNTAX. 
 
 His deportment was adapted for conciliating regard. 
 
 My father writes me very frequently. 
 
 Their conduct was agreeable with their profession. 
 
 We went leisurely above stairs, and came hastily below. 
 
 We shall write up stairs this forenoon, and down stairs in the afternoon. 
 
 The politeness of the world has the same resemblance with benevolence, that the 
 shadow has with the substance. 
 
 He had a taste of such studies, and pursued them earnestly. 
 
 When we have had a true taste for the pleasures of virtue, we can have no 
 relish of those of vice. 
 
 How happy is it to know how to live at times by one's self j to leave one's self in 
 regret, to find one's self again with pleasure ! The world is then less necessary 
 for us. 
 
 Civility makes its way among every kind of persons. 
 
 5. I have been to London, after having resided a year at France 5 and I now H%e 
 in Islington. 
 
 They have just landed in Hull, and are going for Liverpool. They intend to reside 
 some time at Ireland. 
 
 He writes like she does. She walks like he does. You behave like they do. You 
 do tha,t just like I do. 
 
 SECTzoK xzn. 
 
 RULE xiy. 
 
 JSTouns and pronouns, connected by conjunctions, must be in 
 the same cases, 
 
 RULE XIX. 
 
 Verbs connected by conjunctions must be in the same mood 
 and tense, and when in the subjunctive, they must be in the 
 
 SAME FORM.* 
 
 I find it convenient to consider these two rules together ; 
 and the exercises, which are to be corrected, I shall also give 
 together. 
 
 * If thou sincerely desire, and earnestly pursue virtue, she 
 wUl assuredly be found by thee, and prove a rich reward.' *The 
 master taught her and me to write.' * He and she were school- 
 fellows.' 
 
 A few examples of inaccuracy respecting these two rules, 
 may further display their utility. * If he^'prefer a virtuous life, 
 and is sincere in his professions, he will succeed ;' ' if he pre- 
 fers,^ * To deride the miseries of the unhappy, is inhuman ; 
 and wanting compassion towards them, is unchristian ;' * and 
 to wa7it compassion.' * The parliament addressed the king, 
 and has been prorogued the same day ;' * and was prorogued.' 
 * His wealth and him bid adieu to each other ;' * and ^e. * He 
 entreated us, my comrade and I, to live harmoniously;' * com- 
 rade and w€.' * My sister and her were on good terms ;' * and 
 
 ♦ As the neuter verb BE, and passive verbs, have two forms of the subjunctive 
 imperfutj as well as of the present, this rule applies to the imperfect tense of such 
 verbs, as well as to the present. 
 
SYNTAX. 205 
 
 sheJ* * We often overlook the blessings which are in our pos- 
 session, and are searching after those which are out of our 
 reach :' it ought to be, * and search after.' 
 
 1. When the sense requires the verbs to be of different moods 
 or tenses, the nominative must be repeated : the conjunctions 
 will then connect two members of a compound sentence ; as, 
 
 * He cheerfully supports his distressed friend, and he ivill cer- 
 tainly be commended for it ;' *They have rewarded him liber- 
 ally, and they could not do otherwise ;' * She was proud, though 
 she is now humble.' 
 
 When, in the progress of a sentence, we pass from the affirm- 
 ative to the negative form, or from the negative to the affirma- 
 tive, the subject or nominative is mostly, if not invariably, re- 
 sumed ; as, ' He may return, but he will not continue here ;' 
 
 * He is rich, but he is not respectable ;' * He is not rich, but he 
 is respectable ;' ' Though she is high-born, beautiful, and ac- 
 complished, yet she is mortal, and, occasionally, she ought to be 
 admonished of her condition.' There appears to be, in gener- 
 al, equal reason for repeating the nominative, and resuming 
 the subject, when the course^of the sentence is diverted by a 
 change of the mood or tense. The following sentences may 
 therefore be improved : 'Anger glances into the breast of a 
 wise man, but will rest only in the bosom of fools ;' * but re^ts 
 only ;' or, 'but it will rest only.' 'Virtue is praised by many, 
 and would be desired also, if her worth were really known ;' 
 ' and she would.' ' The world begins to recede, and will soon 
 disappear ;' ' and it will.' 
 
 Now correct and parse the following 
 
 EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX. 
 
 Professing regard, and to act differently, discover a base mind. 
 
 Did he not tell me his fault, and entreated me to forgive him? 
 
 My brother and him are tolerable grammarians. 
 
 If he understand the subject, and attends to it industriously, he cau scarcely fail of 
 success. 
 
 You and us enjoy many privileges. 
 
 If a man have a hundred sheep, and one of them is gone astray, doth he not leave 
 the ninety and nine, and goeth into the mountains, and eeeketh that which is gone 
 astray? 
 
 Sho and him are very unhappily connected. 
 
 To be moderate in our views, and proceeding temperately in the pursuit of them, is 
 tlie best way to ensure success. 
 
 Between him and I there is some disparity of years ; but none between him and she. 
 
 By forming themselves on fantastic models, and ready to vie with one another in the 
 reigning follies, the young begin with being ridiculous, and end with being vicious and 
 immoral. 
 
 The following sentences exemplify the notes and ohservaiions wuier 
 Rules XIV. and XIX. 
 
 1. We have met with many disappointments ; and, if life coatinue, shall probably 
 meet with many more. 
 
 18 
 
20(5 SYNTAX. 
 
 Rank may confer influence, but will not necessarily produce virtue. 
 He does not want courage, but is defective in sensibility. 
 These people have indeed acquired groat riches, but do not command esteem. 
 Our season of improvement is short ; and, whether used or not, will soon pass away. 
 He might have been happy, and is now fully convinced of it. 
 
 Learning strengthens the mind ; and, if properly applied, will improve our mor- 
 als too. 
 
 SECTXOK XZV. 
 
 RULE XV. 
 
 }Vhen ttvo or more nouns, or nouns and pronouns, of the sin- 
 gular number, are connected by a copulative conjunction, ex- 
 pressed or understood, they must have verbs, nouns and pronouns, 
 in the plural number, to agree urith them ; but when they are 
 connected by a disjunctive conjunction, they mtist have verbs, 
 nouns and pronouns, of the singular number, to agree loith 
 them. 
 
 This rule is often violated ; some instances of which are an- 
 nexed. ' And so w^as also James and John, the sons of Zebe- 
 dee, who were partners with Simon ;' * and so were also.' 'All 
 joy, tranquillity, and peace, even for ever and ever, doth dwell ;' 
 ' dioell for ever.' ' By whose power all good and evil is distrib- 
 uted ;' * are distributed.' * Their love, and their hatred, and 
 their envy, is now perished;' ''are perished.' 'The thought- 
 less and intemperate enjoyment of pleasure, the criminal abuse 
 of it, and the forgetfulness of our being accountable creatures, 
 obliterates every serious thought of the proper business of life, 
 and effaces the sense of rehgion and of God :' it ought to be 
 ' obliterate,^ and ' efface,"* 
 
 I. When the nouns are nearly related, or scarcely distin- 
 guishable in sense, and sometimes even when they are very 
 different, some authors have thought it allowable to put the 
 verbs, nouns, and pronouns, in the singular number ; as, ' Tran- 
 quillit)^ and peace dwells there ;' * Ignorance and negligence 
 has produced the effect;' 'The discomfiture and slaughter 
 was very great.' But it is evidently contrary to the first prin- 
 ciples of grammar, to consider two distinct ideas as one, how- 
 ever nice may be their shades of difference ; and if there is no 
 difference, one of them must be superfluous, and ought to be 
 rejected. 
 
 To support the above construction, it is said that the yerb 
 maybe understood as applied to each of the preceding terms ; 
 as in the following example ; * Sand, and salt, and a mass of 
 iron, is easier to bear than a man without understanding.' But 
 besides the confusion, and the latitude of application, which 
 
Sl^NTAX. 207 
 
 guch a construction would introduce, it appears to be more 
 proper and analogical, in cases where the verb is intended to 
 be applied to any one of the terms, to make use of the disjunc- 
 tive conjunction, which grammatically refers the verb to one or 
 other of the preceding terms in a separate view. To preserve 
 the distinctive uses of the copulative and disjunctive conjunc- 
 tions, would render the rules precise, consistent and inteUigi- 
 ble. Dr. Blair observes that " two or more substantives, joined 
 by a copulative, nmst always require the verb or pronoun, to 
 which they refer, to be placed in the plural number ;" and this 
 is the general sentiment of English grammarians. 
 
 2. In many complex sentences, it is difficult for learners to 
 determine whether one or more of the clauses are to be con- 
 sidered as the nominative case, and, consequently, whether the 
 verb should be in the singular ^pr the plural number. I will 
 therefore set down a numberof varied examples of this nature, 
 which may serve as some government to you, with respect to 
 sentences of a similar construction. ' Prosperity, with humil- 
 ity, renders its possessor truly amiable.' * The ship, with all her 
 furniture, ivas destroyed.' ' Not only his estates, his reputa- 
 tion, too, ha^ suffered by his misconduct.' ' The general also, 
 in conjunction with the officei*s, has applied for redress.' ' He 
 cannot be justified ; for it is true, that the prince, as well as the 
 people, was blame- worthy.' 'The king, with his hfe-guard, ^a« 
 just passed through the village.' ' In the mutual influence of 
 body and soul, there is a wisdom, a wonderful wisdom, which 
 we cannot fathom.' * Virtue, honor, nay, even self-interest, 
 conspire to recommend the measure.' ' Patriotism, morality, 
 every public and private consideration, demand our submission 
 to just and lawful government.' * Nothing delights me so much 
 as the works of nature.' 
 
 In support of such forms of expression as the following, we 
 see the authority of Hume, Priestley, and other writers ; and I 
 annex them for your consideration. ' A long course of time, 
 with a variety of accidents and circumstances, are requisite to 
 produce those revolutions.' * The king, with the lords and 
 commons, form an excellent frame of government.' * The side 
 A, with the sides B and C, compose the triangle.' ' The fire com- 
 municated itself to the bed, which, with the furniture of the 
 room, and a valuable library, z^^ere all entirely consumed.' It is, 
 however, proper to observe, tluit these modes of expression do 
 not appear to be warranted by the just principles of construc- 
 tion. The words * A long course of time,' * The king,' ' The 
 side A,' and ' which,' are the true nominatives to the respective 
 verbs. In the last example, the word all should be expunged. 
 As the preposition ivith governs the objective case, in English, 
 and, if translated into Latin, would govern the ablative case, it 
 is manifest, that the clauses following with, in the preceding 
 
208 SYNTAX. 
 
 sentences, cannot form any part of the nominative case. They 
 cannot be at the same time in the objective and the nominative 
 cases. The following sentence is grammatically formed, and 
 may serve to explain the others. * The lords and commons are 
 essential branches of the British constitution ; the king, with 
 them, ybrww an excellent frame of government.'* 
 
 The following sentences are variations from the latter part 
 of the rule. * A man may see a metaphor or an allegory in a? 
 picture, as well as read them in a description ;' * read iU 
 * Neither character nor dialogue were yet understood ;' * was 
 yet.' * It must indeed be confessed, that a lampoon or a satire 
 do not carry in them robbery or murder ;' * does not carry in 
 iV * Death, or some worse misfortune, soon divide them.' It 
 ought to be * divides."^ 
 
 3. When singular pronouns, or a noun and pronoun, of dif- 
 ferent persons, are disjunctively connected, the verb must agree 
 with that person which is placed nearest to it ; as, ' I or thou 
 art to blame ;' ' Thou or I am in fault ;' * I, or thou, or he, is 
 the author of it ;' ' George or I am the person.' But it would 
 be better to say, * Either I am to blame, or thou art,' &c. 
 
 4. When a disjunctive occurs between a singular noun, or 
 pronoun, and a plural one, the verb is made to agree with the 
 plural noun and pronoun ; as, * Neither poverty nor riches 
 ivere injurious to him.' * I or they were offended by it.' But in 
 this case, the plural noun or pronoun, when it can conveniently 
 be done, should be placed next to the verb. 
 
 You will now correct and parse the following 
 
 EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX. 
 
 Idleness and ignorance is the parent of many vices. 
 
 Wisdom, virtue, happiness dwells with the golden mediocrity. 
 
 In unity consists the welfare and security of every society. 
 
 Time and tide waits for no man. 
 
 His politeness and good disposition was, on failure of their effect, entirely 
 changed. 
 
 Patience and diligence, like faith, removes mountains. 
 
 Humility and knowledge, with poor apparel, excels pride and ignorance under 
 costly attire. 
 
 The planetary system, boundless space, and the immense ocean, affects the mind 
 with sensations of astonishment. 
 
 Humility and love, whatever obscurities may involve religious tenets, constitutes 
 the essence of true religion. 
 
 Religion and virtue, our best supports and highest honor, confers on the mind 
 principles of noble independence. 
 
 What signifies the council and care of preceptors, when youth think they have no 
 need of assistance .' 
 
 Man's happiness, or misery, are, in a great measure, put into his own hands. 
 
 Man is not such a machine as a clock or a watch, which move merely as they are 
 moved. 
 
 Despise no infirpaity of mind or body, nor any condition of life ; for they are, per- 
 haps, to be your own lot, 
 
 * Though the construction will not admit of a plural verb, the sentence would cer- 
 tainly stand better thus : ' The king, the lords^ and the commons, /orm an excellent 
 constitution.' 
 
SYNTAX. 209 
 
 Speaking impatiently to servants, or any thing that betrays unkindness or ill-humor, 
 are certainly criminal. 
 
 There are many faults in spelling, which neither analogy nor pronunciation 
 justify. 
 
 When sickness, infirmity, or reverse of fortune, affect ue, the sincerity of friend- 
 ship is proved. 
 
 Let it be remembered, that it ia not the uttering, or the hearing of certain wordi, 
 that constitute the worship of the Almighty. 
 
 A tart reply, a pronenesa to rebuke, or a captious and contradictious spirit, are ca- 
 pable of imbittering domestic life, and of setting friends at variance. 
 
 The examples which follow are suited to the notes and observations 
 under Rule XV. 
 
 1. Much does human pride and self-complacency require correction. 
 
 Luxurious living, and high pleasures, begets a languor aud satiety that destroys all 
 enjoyment. 
 
 Pride and self-sufficiency stifles sentiments of dependence on our Creator : levity 
 and attachment to worldly pleasures destroys the sense of gratitude to him. 
 
 2. Every man and woman were numbered.* 
 
 Good order in our affairs, not mean savings, produce great profits. 
 
 The following treatise, together with those that accompany it, were written, many 
 years ago, for my own private satisfaction. 
 
 The great senator, in concert witii several other eminent persons, were the projec- 
 tors of the revolution. 
 
 The religion of these people, as well as their customs and manners, wore strangely 
 misrepresented. 
 
 Virtue, joined to knowledge and wealth, confer great influence and respectability. 
 But knoVvledge, with wealth united, if virtue is wanting, have a very limited influ- 
 ence, and are often despised. 
 
 That superficial scholar and critic, like some renowned critics of our own, have 
 furnished most decisive proofs,, that they knew not the characters of the Hebrew lan- 
 guage. 
 
 The buildings of the institution have been enlarged •, the expense of which, added 
 to the increased price of provisions, render it necessary to advance the terms of ad- 
 mission. 
 
 One, added to nineteen, make twenty. 
 
 What black despair, what horror, fills the mind ! 
 
 Thou, and the gardener, and the huntsman, must share the blame of this business 
 amongst them. 
 
 My sister and I, as well as my brother, are daily employed in their respective occu- 
 pations. 
 
 3. Either thou or I art greatly mistaken in our judgment on this subject. 
 I or thou am the person who must undertake the business proposed. 
 
 * The copulative conjunction, in this instance, makes no difference with regard to 
 the verb. AH the men and women are referred to separately and individually. The 
 verb must therefore have the same construction as it has in the sentence, ' Every one 
 of the men and women was numbered.' Whatever number of nouns may t>e connected 
 by a conjunction with the pronoun every, this pronoun is as applicable to the whole 
 mass of them, as to any one of the nouns •, and therefore the verb is correctly put in 
 the singular number, and refers to the whole separately and individually considered. 
 In short, this pronoun so entirely coalesces with the nouns, however numerous and 
 united, that it imparts its peculiar nature to them, and makes the whole number cor- 
 respond together, and require a similar construction. 
 
 The subject may be further illustrated and confirmed by the following examples : 
 * Every man, woman, and child, was preserved from the devouring element j' ' Every 
 gootl gift, and every perfect gift, i^ from above, and cometh down from the Father of 
 lights.' James'i. 17. — ' It is the original cause of every reproach and distress which has 
 attended the government.' Junius.— ^To those that have lived long together, every 
 thing heard, and every thing seen, recalls some pleasure communicated, or some ben- 
 efit conferred ; some potty quarrel, or some sliglit endearment.' Dr. Johnson. — This 
 construction forms an exception to the fifteenth rule of syntax ; which was also illus- 
 trated in Conversation XIIL- Another exception to this rule is when a copulative 
 conjunction cotmects two or more nouns, &c., which refer to the same person or 
 thing 5 as, 'That able scholar and critic Aas been eminently useful to the cause of 
 religion.' 
 
 18* 
 
210 SYNTAX. 
 
 4. Both of the scholars, or one of them at least, was present at the trunsactiorf. 
 
 Some parts of the ship and cargo were recovered j but neither the sailors nor tho- 
 captain was iaved. 
 
 Whether one person or more was concerned in the business, does not yet appear. 
 
 The cares of this life, or the deceitfulness of riches, has choked the seeds of virtue 
 in many a promising mind. 
 
 SECTION XV. 
 
 RULE XVL 
 
 Nouns mid pronouns in apposition must be in the same case. 
 
 The following are instances of the violation of this ride ; 
 which you must correct and parse : — 
 
 They slew Varus, he that was mentioned before. 
 
 I saw John and his sister, they who came to your house. 
 
 We must respect the good and the wise, they who endeavor 
 to enlighten us, and make us better. 
 
 I sent the book to my brother's house, him whom you saw 
 here. 
 
 My two friends gave me this present, them that we visited 
 yesterday. 
 
 RULE XVIL 
 
 When a direct address is made, the noun or pronoun is in ike 
 nominative case independent. 
 
 In Conversation XIV., I made all the remarks, respecting 
 this rule, that are necessary. 
 
 RULE XVIII. 
 
 The passive participle^ unconnected with an auxiliary, belongs, 
 like an adjective, to some noun or pronoun, expressed or tinder- 
 stood. 
 
 This rule, so far as it respects the syntax of the English lan- 
 guage, needs* no remark. 
 
 RULE XX. 
 
 The infinitive mood may be governed by a verb, noun, adjective, 
 or participle. 
 
 The verbs which require those that follow them, in the in- 
 finitive mood, to be used without the sign to, are make, need, 
 see, bid, dare, feel, hear, let ; and sometimes a few others. 
 
 This irregularity, however, extends only to active or neuter 
 
SYNTAX. 211 
 
 verbs ; for all the verbs above mentioned, when made passive, 
 require the to to be used before the following verb in the infin- 
 itive mood ; as, * He was seen to go ;' ^ He was heard to speak ;' 
 
 * They were bidden to be on their guard.' 
 
 * The infinitive mood has been improperly used in the follow- 
 ing sentences : ' I am not like other men, to envy the talents I 
 cannot reach.' It should be, * who envy the talents they cannot 
 reach ;' or, * I do not, like other men, envy the talents / cannot 
 reach.' ^ Grammarians have denied, or at least doubted, them 
 to be genuine;' * doubted that they were genuine.' 'That all 
 our doings may be ordered by thy governance to do always 
 what is righteous in thy sight ;' * that we may always «?o,' &c. 
 
 When as follows so, it sometimes governs the infinitive 
 mood ; as, ' I will endeavor to explain this subject so as to make 
 you understand it.' But sometimes, when the infinitive mood 
 follows as, preceded by so, it is governed by another verb un- 
 derstood; as, 'He desired nothing so much as to see his 
 friends ;' that is, ' as he desired to see his friends.' And it is 
 fi'equently governed in the same manner, when it follows than, 
 after a comparison ; as, ' He desired nothing more than to see 
 his friends ;' that is, ' than he desired to see,' &c. 
 
 The infinitive mood has much of the nature of a substantive, 
 expressing the action itself which the verb signifies, as the 
 participle has the nature of an adjective. Thus the infinitive 
 mood does the ofiice of a substantive in different cases : in the 
 nominative ; as, ' To play is pleasant :' in the objective ; as, 
 
 * Boys love to play ;' * For to toill is present to me ; but to per- 
 forin that which is good, I find not.' 
 
 The infinitive mood is often made absolute, or used inde- 
 pendently on the rest of the sentence, supplying the place of 
 the conjunction that with the potential mood; as, 'To confess 
 the truth, I was in fault ;' ' To begin with the first ;' ' To pro- 
 ceed;' 'To conclude;' that is, 'That Lmay confess,' &c. 
 
 The sign to, signifying in order to, was anciently preceded 
 ^yfor; as, ' What went ye out /or to seeV The word /or be- 
 fore the infinitive is now, in almost every case, obsolete. It 
 is, however, still used, if the subject of the affirmation inter- 
 venes between the preposition and the verb; as, 'i^or holy 
 persons to be humble, is as hard as /or a prince to submit him- 
 self to be guided by tutors.' 
 
 Now correct and parse the following 
 
 EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX. 
 
 It is better live on a little, than outlive a great deal. 
 
 You ought not walk too hastily. 
 
 I wish him not wrestle with his happiness. 
 
 T need not to solicit Mm to do a kind action. 
 
 [ dare not to proceed so hastily, lest I should give offence. 
 
 I have seen some young persons to conduct themselves very discreetly. 
 
212 SYNTAX. 
 
 It is a great support to virtue, when we see a good mind to maintain its pa- 
 tience and tranquillity under injuries and affliction, and to cordiallj forgive its 
 oppressors. 
 
 It is the difference of their conduct, which makes us to approve the one, and 
 to reject the other. 
 
 We should not be like many persons, to depreciate the virtues we do not pos- 
 sess. 
 
 To see young persons who are courted by health and pleasure, to resist all the 
 allurements of vice, and to steadily pursue virtue and knowledge, is cheering and 
 delightful to every good mind. 
 
 They acted with so much reserve, that some persons doubted them to be sin- 
 cere. 
 
 And the multitude wondered, when they saw the lame to walk, and the blind 
 to see. 
 
 RULE XXI. 
 
 Any intraiisitive, passive^ or neuter verb, must have the same 
 case after it as before it, when both words refer to and signify 
 the same thing. 
 
 If you recollect what I said under this rule in Conversation 
 XX, you can correct and parse the following 
 
 EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX. 
 
 Well may you be afraid ; it is him indeed. 
 
 I would act the same part if I were him, or in his situation. 
 
 Search the Scriptures j for in them ye think ye have eternal life : and they are 
 them which testify of me. 
 
 Be composed ; it is me : you have no cause for fear. 
 
 I cannot tell who has befriended me, unless it is him from whom I have re- 
 oeived many benefits. 
 
 I know not whether it were them who conducted the business, but I am cer- 
 tain it was not him. 
 
 He so much resembled my brother, that, at first sight, I took it to be he. 
 
 After all their professions, is it possible to be them ? 
 
 It could not have been her, for she always behaves discreetly. 
 
 If it was not him, who do you imagine it to have been ? 
 
 Who do you tMuk him to be ? 
 
 Whom do the people say that we are ? 
 
 SECTION XVX. 
 
 RULE XXII. 
 
 Hie iri/initive mood, or part of a sentence, is sometimes tfie 
 subject of a verb, and is therefore its nominaivvt. 
 
 When several phrases, connected by a copulative conjunc- 
 tion, expressed or understood, are made nominatives to a verb, 
 the verb must be plural ; as, ' To be temperate in eating and 
 drinking, to use exercise in the open air, and to preserve the 
 mind free from tumultuous emotions, are the best preservations 
 of health.' 
 
 But vfhQn the w^hole sentence forms but one nominative, 
 conveying a unity of idea, the verb must be singular ; as, * That 
 
SYNTAX. 213 
 
 warm climates should accelerate tlie growth of the human 
 body, and shorten its duration, is very reasonable to believe. 
 
 EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX. 
 
 To do unto all men as we would that they, in similar circumstances, should do 
 unto us, constitute the great principle of virtue. 
 
 From a fear of the world's censure, to be ashamed of the practice of precept* 
 which the heart approves and embraces, mark a feeble and imperfect character. 
 
 The erroneous opinions which we form concerning happiness and misery, givee rise 
 to all the mistaken and dangerous passions that embroils our life. 
 
 To live soberly, righteously, and piously, are required of all men. 
 
 That it is our duty to promote the purity of our minds and bodies, to be just and 
 kind to our fellow-creatures, and to be pious and faithful to Him tiiat made us, admit 
 not of any donbt in a rational and well-informed mind. 
 
 To be of a pure and humble mind, to exercise benevolence towards others, to culti- 
 vate piety towards God, is the sure means of becoming peaceful and happy. 
 
 It is an important truth, that religion, vital religion, the religion of the heart, are 
 the most powerful auxiliaries of reason, in waging war witii the passions, and pro- 
 moting that sweet composure which constitute the peace of God. 
 
 The possession of our senses entire, of our limbs uninjured, of our sound under- 
 standing, of friends aad companions, are often overlooked •, though it would be the 
 ultimate wish of many, who, as far as we can judge, deserves it as much as our- 
 selves. 
 
 All that make a figure on the great theatre of the world, the employments of the 
 busy, the enterprises of the ambitious, and the exploits of the warlike ; the virtues 
 which forms the happiness, and the crimes which occasions the misery of mankind j 
 origiuates in that silent and secret recess of thought, which are hidden from ever/ 
 human eye. 
 
 RULE XXIII. 
 
 When a noun or pronoun has no verb to agree with it, but is 
 placed before a participle^ independently on the rest of the sen- 
 tence, it must be in the nominative case absolute. 
 
 EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX. 
 
 Solomon was of this mind ; and I have no doubt he made as wise and true proverbs 
 as any body has done since ; him only excepted, who was a much greater and wiser 
 man than Soloman. 
 
 Him destroy'd. 
 
 Or won to what may work his utter loss, 
 
 All this-will soon follow. 
 
 Whose gray top 
 
 Shall tremble, him descending. 
 
 SUCTION xvn;. 
 
 I have now taken a review of all the rules which I gave in 
 the Conversations, and which are sufficient for the parsing of 
 any sentence, and have made, under each, all the remarks* 
 which were necessary to enable you to correct such exercises 
 in False Syntax as violate those rules. 
 
 There remain yet to be given a few rules which you will find 
 UsefMl, a^nd, indeed, necessary, in correcting many bad con-» 
 structions, to which the rules for parsing merely do not apply, 
 
214 SYNTAX. 
 
 or are not sufficiently explicit. I will, therefore, proceed to 
 give you the following 
 
 SUPPI-EMENTARY RUL.ES AND REMARKS, 
 
 WITH 
 
 J1PPROFIIZjA.TI! zszzsrczses. 
 
 RULE I. 
 
 A noun of multitude, or signifying many, may have a verb 
 or pronoun agreeing ujith it, either of the singular or plural 
 number ; yet mt without regard to the import of the word, as 
 conveying unity or plurality of idea ; as, * The meeting was 
 large ;' ' The parliament is dissolved ;' * The nation is power- 
 ful ;' ' My people do not consider ; they have not known me ;' 
 ' The multitude eagerly pursue pleasure, as their chief good ;' 
 ' The council were divided in their sentiments.' 
 
 We ought to consider whether the term immediately sug- 
 gests the idea of the number it represents, or whether it exhib- 
 its to the mind the idea of the whole as one thing. In the for- 
 mer case, the verb ought to be plural ; in the latter, it ought to 
 be singular. Thus it seems improper to say, *The peasantry 
 
 foes barefoot, and the middle sort makes use of wooden shoes.' 
 t would be better to say, * The peasantry go barefoot, and the 
 middle sort make use,' &c. ; because the idea in both these 
 cases is that of a number. On the contrary, there is a harsh- 
 ness in the following sentences, in which nouns of number have 
 verbs plural ; because the ideas they represent seem not to be 
 sufficiently divided in the mind : * The court of Rome ivere not 
 without solicitude.' *The house of commons ivere of small 
 weight.'. ' The house of lords tvere so much influenced by these 
 reasons.' * Stephen's party were entirely broken up by the cap- 
 tivity of their leader.' ' An army of twenty-four thousand were 
 assembled.' * What reason have the church of Rome for pro- 
 ceeding in this manner ?' ' There is, indeed, no constitution so 
 tame and careless of their own defence.' * All the virtues of 
 mankind are to be counted upon a few fingers, but his follies 
 and vices are innumerable.' Is not mankind, in this place, a 
 noun of multitude, and such as requires the pronoun referring 
 to it to be in the plural number, their ? 
 
 When a noun of multitude is preceded by a definitive word, 
 which clearly limits the sense to an aggregate with an idea of 
 unity, it requires a verb and pronoun to agree with it in the 
 singular number; as, *.^ company of troops too* detached ;' ^Jl 
 troop of cavalry was raised ;' * This people is become a great 
 nation ;' * That assembly was numerous ;' ' A great number of 
 men and women was collected.' 
 
 On many occasions, where a noun of multitude is used, it is 
 
SYNTAX. 215 
 
 very difficult to decide, whether the verb should be in the sin- 
 gular, or in the plural number ; and this difficulty has induced 
 some grammarians to^i^ut the knot at once, and to assert that 
 every noun of multitude, as it constitutes oiu aggregate of many 
 particulars, must always be considered as conveying the idea of 
 unity ; and that, consequently, the verb and pronoun agreeing 
 with it cannot, with propriety, be ever used in the plural num- 
 ber. This opinion appears to be not well considered ; it is 
 contrary to the established practice of the best writers of the 
 language, and against the rules of the most respectable gram- 
 marians. Some nouns of multitude certainly convey to the 
 mind an ideaof plurality ; pthers,thatof a whole as one thing; 
 and others again sometimes that of unity, and sometimes that 
 of plurality. On this ground, it is warrantable, and consistent 
 with the nature of things, to apply a plural verb and pronoun to 
 the one class, and a singular verb and pronoun to the other. 
 We shall immediately perceive the impropriety of the follow- 
 ing constructions : ' The clergy has withdrawn itself from the 
 temporal courts.' * The nobility, exclusive of its capacity as 
 hereditary counsellor of the crown, forms the pillar to support 
 the throne.' *The commonalty i^ divided into several degrees.' 
 * The people of England is possessed of super-eminent privi- 
 leges.' * The multitude was clamorous for the object of its 
 aftections.' * The assembly was divided in its opinion,^ * The 
 fleet was all dispersed, and some of i7 was taken.' — In all these 
 instances, as well as in many others, the plural verb and pro- 
 noun should be used ; and if the reader will apply them, as he 
 looks over the sentences a second time, he will perceive the 
 propriety and effect of a change in the construction. 
 
 EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX. ' 
 
 The people rejoices in that which should give it sorrow. 
 
 The flock, and not the fleece, are, or ought to be, the objects of the shepherd's 
 care. 
 
 The court have just ended, after having sat through the trial of a very long 
 cause. 
 
 The crowd were so great, that the judges with difl^culty made their way through 
 them. 
 
 The corporation of York cpnsists of a mayor, alderman, and a common coun- 
 cil. 
 
 The British parliament are composed of king, lords, and commons. 
 
 When the nation complain, the rulers should listen to their voice. 
 
 In the days of youth, the multitude eagerly pursues pleasures as its chief good. 
 
 The churcii have no power to inflict corporeal punishment. 
 
 The fleet were seen sailing up the channel. 
 
 The regiment consists of a thousand men. 
 
 The meeting have established several salutary regulations. 
 
 The council was not unanimous, and it separated without coming to any determi- 
 nation. 
 
 The fleet is all arrived, and moored in safety. 
 
 This people draweth near to me with their mouth, and honoreth me with their lips, 
 but their heart is far from me. 
 
 The committee was divided in its sentiments, and it has referred the business t« 
 the general meeting. 
 
216 SYNTAX. 
 
 The committee were very full when this point was decided, and their judgment haa 
 not been called in question. 
 
 Why do this generation wish for greater eviden'*", when so much is already 
 given. 
 
 The remnant of the people were persecuted with great severity. 
 
 Never were any people so much infatuated as the Jewish nation. 
 
 The shoal of herrings were of an immense extent. 
 
 No society are chargeable with the disapproved misconduct of particular mem- 
 ber*. 
 
 sscTioir xvzii. 
 
 RULE 11. 
 
 To determine, xchat case a noun or pronoun must he in, when it 
 follows the conjunctions but, than, and as, attend well to the 
 sense, ^and supply the ellipsis ; as, 
 
 * Thou art wiser than I ;' that is, * than I am.' * They loved 
 him more than me;' i. e. *more than they loved me.' 'The 
 sentiment is well expressed by Plato, but much better by Sol- 
 omon than him ;' that is, * than it is expressed by him.' 
 
 The propriety or impropriety of many phrases, in the pre- 
 ceding as well as in some other forms, may be discovered by 
 supplying the words that are not expressed ; which will be ev- 
 ident from the following instances of erroneous construction : 
 
 * He can read better than me.' ' He is as good as her.' ' Wheth- 
 er I be present or no.' ' Who did this ? Me.' By supplying the 
 words understood in each of these phrases, their impropriety 
 and governing rule will appear ; as, ' Better than I can read ;' 
 
 * As good as she is ;' ' Present or not present ;' * I did it.' 
 
 1. By not attending to this rule, many errors have been com- 
 mitted ; a number of which is subjoined, as a further caution 
 and direction to you. * Thou art a much greater loser than 
 me by his death.' ' She suffers hourly more than me.' * We 
 contributed a third more than the Dutch, who were obliged to 
 the same proportion more than us.' * King Charles, and, more 
 than him, the duke and the popish faction, were at liberty to 
 form new schemes.' * The drift of all his sermons was, to pre- 
 pare the Jews for the reception of a prophet mightier than him, 
 and whose shoes he was not worthy to bear.' * It was not the 
 work of so eminent an author as him to whom it was first im- 
 puted.' ' A stone is heavy, and the sand is weighty ; but a fool's 
 wrath is heavier than them both.' * If the king give us leave, 
 we may perform the office as well as them that do.' In these 
 passages, it ought to be, * /, he, we, ihey,^ respectively. 
 
 When the relative ivho immediately follows than, it must be 
 in thp objective case ; as, 'Alfred, than whom a greater king 
 never reigned,' &c. ' Beelzebub, than whom, Satan excepted, 
 none higher sat,' &c. It is remarkable that, in such instances, 
 
SYNTAX. 217 
 
 if the personal pronoun were used, it would be in the nomina- 
 tive case ; as, * A greater king never reigned than he ;' that is, 
 *than he was.'' * Beelzebub, than he,'' &c. ; that is, ^than he 
 sat,^ The phrase than whom is, however, avoided by the best 
 modern writers. 
 
 The following sentences — * I saw nobody but him ;' * No 
 person but he was present ;' * More persons than they saw the 
 action ;' * The secret was communicated to more men than 
 him ;' ' This trade enriched some people more than them ;' — 
 may be explained on the principle of supplying the ellipsis, in 
 the following manner : In the first, we might say, * I saw no- 
 body, but / saiv him ;' or, ' I saw nobody, but him / saio :' in 
 the second, ' None was present, but he was present :' in the 
 third, * More persons than they ivere, saw the action ;' or, * More 
 than these persons were, saw the action :' in the fourth, * The 
 secret was communicated to more persons than to him :' iii the 
 fifth, ' This trade enriched some people more than it enriched 
 them.' — The supply of the elUpsis certainly gives an uncouth 
 appearance to these sentences ; but this circumstance forms no 
 solid objection to the truth of the principle. 
 
 Now correct and parse the following 
 
 EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX. 
 
 In some respects, we have had as many advantages as them j but in the article of a 
 good library, they have had a greater privilege than us. 
 
 The undertaking was much better executed by his brother than he. 
 
 They are much greater gainers than me by this unexpected event. 
 
 They know bow to write as well as him ; -but he is a much better grammarian 
 than them. 
 
 Though she is not so learned as him, she is as much beloved and r«spected. 
 
 These people, though they possess more shining qualities, are not so proud as him, 
 nor so vain as her. 
 
 7Vie fdlotmng examples are adapted to the notes and ohserva^ 
 tions under Rdjle IV. 
 
 Who betrayed her companion ? Not me. 
 
 Who revealed the secrets he ought to have concealed ? Not him. 
 
 Who related falsehoods to screen herself, and to bring an lodium upon otliers } 
 Not me •, it wag her. 
 
 There is but one in fault, and that is me. 
 
 Whether he will be learned or no, must depend on his application. 
 
 Charles XII. of Sweden, than who a more courageous person never lived, appears 
 to have been destitute of the tender sensibilities of nature. 
 
 Salmasius (a more learned man than him has seldom appeared) was not happy at 
 the close of life. 
 
 SECTION ZZX. 
 
 The observance of the rule which I am about to give you 
 now, involves an accurate knowledge of all the moods and 
 tenses of the verbs ; and before you can understand it thor- 
 
218 SYNTAX. 
 
 o\ighly, you must particularly recollect the appropriate use of 
 all the tenses. 
 
 RULE III. 
 
 In the use of words and phrases ^ which, in point of time, re- 
 late to each other, a due regard to that relation should be ob- 
 served. 
 
 Instead of saying, * The Lord hath given, and the Lord hath 
 taken away,' we should say, ' Tlje Lord gave, and the Lord 
 hath taken away.' Instead of, * I remember the family more 
 than twenty years,' it should be, ' I have remembered the family 
 more than twenty years.' 
 
 It is not easy, in all cases, to give particular rules, for the 
 management of words and phrases which relate to one anoth- 
 er, so that they may be proper and consistent. The best ride 
 that can be given, is this very general one, 'To observe what 
 the sense necessarily requires.' It may, however, be of use 
 to exliibit a number of instances, in which the construction is 
 irregular. The following are of this nature : — 
 
 ' I have completed the work more than a week ago.' ' I 
 have seen the coronation at Westminster last summer.' These 
 sentences should have been, ' I completed the work,' &c. ; 
 ' I saw the coronation,' &c. ; because tne perfect tense extends 
 to a past period which immediately precedes, or includes, the 
 present time ; and it cannot, therefore, apply to the time of a 
 week ago, or to last midsummer. 
 
 'Charles has lately finished the reading of Henry's History 
 of England :' it should be, ' Charles latdy finished,^ &c. ; the 
 word lately referring to a time completely past, without any 
 allusion to the present time. 
 
 ' They have resided in Italy, till a few months ago, for the 
 benefit of their health :' it should be, ^They resided in Italy,' &c. 
 
 ' This mode of expression has been formerly much admired :' 
 it ought to be, ' was formerly much admired.' 
 
 ' The business is not done here in the manner in which it 
 has been done, some years since, in Germany :' it should be, 
 ' in the manner in which it was done,' &c. 
 
 ' I will pay the vows which my lips have uttered, when I was 
 in trouble :' it ought to be, ' which my lips uttered,'' &c. 
 
 ' I have in my youth trifled with health, and old age now 
 prematurely assails me :' it should be, ' In my youth I trifled 
 with health,' &o. 
 
 The five examples last mentioned, are corrected on the same 
 principle that the preceding examples are corrected. 
 
 * Charles is grown considerably since I have seen him the 
 last time :' this sentence ought to be, ' Charles has grown con- 
 piderably since I saw him the la^t time.' 
 
 ' Payment was at length made, but no reason assigned for 
 
SYNTAX. 219 
 
 its being so long postponed :' it should be, * for its having been 
 so long postponed.' 
 
 * He became so meek and submissive, that to be in the house 
 as one of the hired servants, was noAV the utmost of his wishes :' 
 it ought to be, * was then the utmost of his wishes.' 
 
 ' They were arrived an hour before we reached the city :' it 
 ought to be, ' They had arrived' &c. ; because arrived, in this 
 phrase, denotes an event not only past, but prior to the time 
 referred to by the words * reached the city.' 
 
 * The workmen will finish the business at midsummer.' Ac- 
 cording to the meaning, it ought to be, * The workmen will 
 have finished,' &c. 
 
 *All the present family have been much Indebted to their 
 great and honorable ancestor :' it should be, * are much in- 
 debted.' 
 
 ' This curious piece of workmanship was preserved, and 
 shown to strangers for more than fifty years past :' it ought to 
 be, * has been preserved, and been shown,' &c. 
 
 'I had rather walk than ride:' it should be, *I ivould rather 
 walk than ride.' 
 
 * On the morrow, because he should have known the cer- 
 tainty wherefore he was accused of the Jews, he loosed him :' 
 it ought to be, ' because he would know ,*' or, rather, * being 
 ivilling to knotv' 
 
 'The blind man said unto him. Lord, that I might receive 
 my sight ;' * If by any means I might attain unto the resurrection 
 of the dead :' in both these places, may would Iiave been better 
 than might, 
 
 * I feared that I should have lost the parcel before I arrived 
 at the city :' it should be, * I feared that I should lose,' &c. 
 
 * It would have afforded me no satisfaction, if I could per- 
 form it :' it ought to be, * if I could, have performed it ;' or, * It 
 would afford me no satisfaction, if I coidd perform it.' 
 
 To preserve consistency in the time of verbs, and of words 
 and phrases, we must recollect that, in the subjunctive mood, 
 the present and the itnperfect tenses often carry with them a 
 future sense ; and that the auxiliaries should and would, in the 
 imj>erfect time, are used to express the present and future, as 
 well as the past. 
 
 1. With regard to verbs in the infinitive mood, the practice 
 of many writers, and some even of our most respectable wri- 
 ters, appears to be erroneous. They seem not to advert to the 
 true principles which influence the different tenses of this 
 mood. I shall produce some rules on the subject, which I pre- 
 sume will be found perspicuous and accurate. ' AU verbs ex- 
 Eressive of hojje, desire, intention, or command, must invaria- 
 ly be followed by the present, and not the perfect of the infin- 
 
220 SYNTAX, 
 
 itive.' ' The last week, I intended to have written,' is a very 
 common phrase ; the infinitive being in the past time, as well 
 as the veib which it follows. But it is evidently wrong; for 
 how long soever it now is since I thought of writing, « to write' 
 was then present to me, and must still be considered as present, 
 when I bring back that time, and the thoughts of it. It ought 
 therefore to be, * The last week, I intended to write: 
 
 The following sentence is properly and analogically ex- 
 pressed : * I found him better than I expected to find him.* 
 ' Expected to have found him,^ is irreconcilable to grammar and 
 to sense. Every person would perceive an error in this ex- 
 pression : ^ It is long since I commanded him to have done it ;' 
 yet * expected to have found'' is not better. It is as clear that 
 the finding must be posterior to the expectation, as that the 
 obedience must be posterior to the command. 
 
 Some writers on grammar contend, that the sentence, * I in- 
 tend to have written* is correct and grammatical ; because it 
 simply denotes, as they assert, the speaker's intention to be 
 hereafter in possession of the finished action of writing. But 
 to this reasoning, the following answers may be given : that 
 the phrase * to have written' is stated in English grammar as 
 the established past tense of the infinitive mood ; that it is as 
 incontrovertibly the past tense of the infinitive in English as 
 saipsisse is the past tense of the infinitive m Latin ; that no 
 writers can be warranted in taking such liberties with the lan- 
 guage, as to contradict its plainest rules, for the sake of sup- 
 porting an hypothesis; that these writers might, on their own 
 principles, and with equal propriety, contend that the phrase 
 * I intend having written' is proper and grammatical ; and that,, 
 by admitting such violations of established grammatical dis- 
 tinctions, confusion would be introduced, the language would 
 be disorganized, and the most eccentric systems of grammar 
 might be advanced, and plausibly supported. In short, the 
 phrase * I intend to have written' appears to involve the fol- 
 lowing absurdity : *■ I intend to produce hereafter an action or 
 event, which has been already completed.' 
 
 As the verbs to desire and to vrish are nearly related, you 
 may naturally suppose, from the rule just laid down, that the 
 latter verb, like the former, must invariably be followed by the 
 present of the infinitive. But if you reflect, that the act of rfe- 
 siring always refers to the future ; and that the act of wishing 
 refers sometimes to the past, as well as sometimes to the fu- 
 ture ; you will perceive the distinction between them, and that, 
 consequently, the following modes of expression are strictly 
 justifiable : * I wished that I had toritten sooner ;' * I wished to 
 have written sooner :' and you will be perfectly satisfied, that. 
 
SYNTAX. 221. 
 
 the following phrases rrjust be improper : ' I desire that I had 
 written sooner ;'" * I desire to have written sooner.'* 
 
 Having considered and explained the special rule respecting 
 the government of verbs expressive of hope, desire, intention, 
 or command, I shall proceed to state and elucidate the general 
 rule, on the subject of verbs in the infinitive mood. It is found- 
 ed on the authority of Harris, Lowth, Cami)bell, Pickbourn, 
 &c. ; and I think, too, on the authority of reason and common 
 sense. * When the action or event, signified by a verb in the 
 infinitive mood, is contemporary or future, with respect to the 
 verb to which it is chiefly related, the present of the infinitive 
 is required : when it is not contemporary nor future, the per- 
 fect of the infinitive is neces&ar}^' To comprehend and apply 
 this rule, you have only to consider whether the infiJiitive verb 
 refers to a time antecedent, contemporary, or future, with re- 
 gard to the gov^erning or related verb. When this simple point 
 is ascertained, there will be no doubt in your mind respecting 
 the form which the infinitive verb should have. A few exam- 
 ples may illustrate these positions. If I wish to signify that 
 I rejoiced at a particular time, in recollecting the sight of a 
 friend, some time having intervened between the seeing and 
 the rejoicing, I should express myself thus: * I rejoiced Jo have 
 seen my friend.' The seeing, in this case, was evidjently ante- 
 cedent to the rejoicing ; and therefore the verb which expresses 
 the former must be in the perfect of the infinitive mood. The 
 same meaning may be expressed in a different form: *I re- 
 joiced that I had seen my friend,' or 'in having seen my friend :' 
 and you ma\^, in general, try the propriety of a doubtful point 
 of this nature, by converting the phrase into these two corre- 
 sponding forms of expression. When it is convertible into both 
 these equivalent phrases, its legitimacy must be admitted. — If, 
 on the contrary, I wish to signify that I rejoiced at the sight of 
 my friend ; that my joy and his surj)rise were contemporary ; I 
 should say, * I rejoiced to see my friend,' or, in other words, ' I re- 
 joiced iyi seeing my friend.' The correctness of this form of the 
 infinitive may also, in most cases, be tried, by converting the 
 phrase into other phrases of a similar import. 
 
 The subject maybe still further illustrated by additional ex- 
 amples. In the sentence which follows, the verb is with pro- 
 
 * In the expression'! hope that I have done my duty,' there appears to be a consid- 
 ^erable ellipsis. The sentence at large may very naturally be thus explained : 'I hope 
 it will appear, or I hope to show, or I ho{)e it is evident, or I hope you will believe, 
 that I have done my duty.' But whether the ellipsis be admitted or rejected, it is 
 indubitable that the infinitive mood cannot l)e applied on thrs occasion. To say, ' I 
 hope to have done my duty,' is harsh and incorrect. 'I hoped that I had done ray 
 duty,' that is, ' I hoped he would Iwlicve, or, I hoped it was evident, that I had done 
 my duty,' is a correct and regular mode of expression. But it would not be proper, 
 under any circumstances whatever, to say, ' I hoped tv have done my duty :' it should 
 be, ' I hoped to do my duty.' 
 
 39* 
 
222 SYNTAX. 
 
 priety put in the perfect tense of the infinitive mood : < It would 
 have afforded me great pleasure, as often as I reflected upoii 
 it, to have been the messenger of such intelligence.' As the 
 message, in this iijstance, was antecedent to the i)leasure, and 
 not contemporary with it, the verb expressive of the message 
 must denote that antecedence, by being in the perfect of the 
 infinitive. If, on the contrary, the message and the pleasure 
 were refeired to as contemporaiy, the subsequent verb would, 
 with equal propriety, have been put in the present of the infin- 
 itive ; as, 'It would have afforded me great pleasiu-e to be the 
 messenger of such intelligence.' In the former instance, the 
 phrase in question is equivalent to these words ; 'If I had been 
 the messenger ;' in the latter instance, to this expression ; ' Be- 
 ing the messenger.' 
 
 For your satisfaction, I shall present you with a variety of 
 false constructions, under the general rule. 
 
 'This is a book which proves itself to be written by the per- 
 son whose name it bears ;' it ought to be, 'which proves itself 
 to have been tvntten.'* 
 
 'To see him would have afforded me pleasure all my life ;' 
 it should be, ' To have seen him would have afforded,' &c., or 
 ' To see him would afford me pleasure,' &c. 
 
 ' The arguments were sufficient to have satisfied all who heard 
 them ;' ' Providence did not permit the reign of Julian to have 
 been long and prosperous f they should be, ' were sufficient to 
 satisfy,^ &c., and ' to be long and prosperous.' 
 
 ' It was impossible for those men, by any dihgence wliatever,^, 
 to have prevented this accident ;' ' Every thing that men could 
 have done was done;' corrected thus; '/o prevent this acci- 
 dent ;' ' every thing that men could do,^ &g. 
 
 ' The respect shown to the candidate would have been great- 
 er, if it had been practicable to have afforded repeated oppor- 
 tunities to the freeholders to have annexed their names to the 
 address;' they should be, 'if it had been practicable to afford,^ 
 and ' to annex their names.' 
 
 ' From his biblical knowledge, he appears to study the Holy 
 Scriptures with great attention;' it ought to be, 'he appears to 
 have stu^died^ &c. 
 
 ' I cannot excuse the remissness of those whose business it 
 slK)uld have been, as it certainly was their interest, to have in- 
 terposed their good offices ;' ' There were two circumstances 
 which made it necessary for them to have lost no time ;' ' His- 
 tory painters would have found it difficult to have invent- 
 ed such a species of beings.' In these three examples, the 
 phrases sljould have been, to interpose^ to lose, to invent. 
 
 It IB proper to remind you, that, in order to express the past 
 time with the defective verb ought, the perfect of the infinitive 
 musti always be used ; as, ' He ought to have done it.' When 
 
SYNTAX. 223^ 
 
 we use this verb, this is the only possible way to disriuguisfi 
 the past from the present. 
 
 In support of the positions advanced under this rule, can be 
 produced the sentiments of the most eminent grammarians. 
 There are, however, some writers on grammar, who strenuous- 
 ly maintain, that the governed verb in the infinitive ought to be 
 in the past tense when the verb which governs it is iii the past 
 time. Though this cannot be admitted in the instances wliich 
 are controverted under this rule, or in any instances of a sim- 
 ilar nature, yet there can be no doubt that, in many cases ia 
 which the thing referred to preceded the governing verb, it 
 would be proper and allowable. We may say, ' From a con- 
 versation I once had with him, he appeared to have studied 
 Homer with great care and judgment.' It would be proper al- 
 so to say, ' From his conversation, he appears to have studied 
 Homer with great care and judgment ;' ' That unhappy man is 
 supposed to have died by violence.' These examples are not 
 only consistent with our rule, but they confirm and illustrate it. 
 It is the tense of the governing verb only, that marks what is 
 called the absolute time ; the tense of the verb governed marks 
 solely its relative time with respect to the verb. 
 
 To assert, as some writers do, that verbs in the infinitive 
 mood have no tenses, no relative distinctions of present, past, 
 and future, is inconsistent with just grammatical views of the 
 subject. That these verbs associate with verbs in all the tenses, 
 is no proof of their having no peculiar time of tlieir own. 
 Whatever period the governing verb assumes, whether i)res- 
 ent, past, or future, the governed A^erb in the infinitive always 
 respects that period, and its time is calculated from it. Thus, 
 the time of the infinitive may be before, after, or the same as, 
 the time of the governing verb, according as the thing signified 
 by the infinitive is supposed to be before, after, or present with 
 the thing denoted by the governing verb. It is, therefore, 
 with great propriety that tenses are assigned to verbs of the 
 infinitive inood. The point of time from which they are com- 
 puted is of no consequence; since present, past, and future, 
 are completely applicable to them. 
 
 It may not be improper to observe, that though it is often 
 correct to use the perfect of the hifinitive after the governing 
 verb, yet thei"e are particular cases, in which it would be better 
 to give the expression a different form. Thus, instead of say- 
 ing, ^ I wish to have written to him sooner,' ' I then wished to 
 have written to him sooner,' * He will one day wish to have 
 written sooner,' it would be more perspicuous and forcible, as 
 well as more agreeable to the practice of good writers, to say, 
 * I wish that I had written to him sooner,' * He will one day 
 wish that he had written sooner.' 
 
 Should the justness of these strictures be admitted, the past 
 
^M SYNTAX. 
 
 infinitive would not be superseded, though some grammarians 
 have supposed it would : there would still be numerous occa- 
 sions for the use of it ; as we may perceive by a few examples: 
 ^ It would ever afterwards have been a source of pleasure to 
 have found him wise and virtuous.' * To have deferred his re- 
 pentance longer, would have disqualified him for repenting at 
 all.' * They will then see, that to have faithfully perforujed 
 their duty, would have been their greatest consolation.' 
 
 In relating things that were formerly expressed by another 
 person, we often meet with modes of expression similar to the 
 following : 
 
 ' The travellers who lately came from the south of England, 
 said that the harvest there ivas very abundant.' ' I met Charles 
 yesterday, who told me that he is very happy.' ' The profess- 
 or asserted, that a resohue adherence to truth is an indispen- 
 sable duty.' *The preacher said very audibly, that whatever 
 was useful was good.' 
 
 In referring to the declarations of this nature, the present 
 tense must be used, if the position is immutably the same at ail 
 times, or supposed to be so ; as, * The bishop declared, that vir- 
 tue is always advantageous ;' not 'ivas always advantageous.' 
 But if the assertion referred to something that is not always 
 the same, or supposed to be so, the past tense must be applied ; 
 as, ' George said that he was very happy ;' not 'is very happy.' 
 
 The following sentences will fully exemplify to the young 
 grammarian both the parts of tliis rule: 'He declared to us, 
 that he was afraid of no man ; because conscious innocence 
 gives firmness of mind.' ' He protested, that he believed what 
 2vas said, because it appeared to him probable.' ' Charles as- 
 serted, that it was his opinion that men always succeed^ when 
 they iLse precaution and pains.' ' The doctor declared to his 
 audience, that if Virtue 5i(^er5 some pains, she is amply recom- 
 pensed by the pleasure which attends her.' 
 
 Now parse and correct the following 
 
 EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX. 
 
 The next new year's day, I shall be at school three years. 
 
 And he that was dead sat up, and began to speak. 
 
 I shonld be obliged to him if he will gratify me in that particular. 
 
 And the multitude wondejtxl when they saw the dumb to spoak, the maimed to her 
 whole, the lame walk, and the blind seeing. 
 
 I have compassion on the multitutje, because they continue with me now three 
 days. 
 
 In the treasury belonging to the cathedral in this city is preserved, with the great- 
 est venfiration, for upwards of six hundred years, a di.^ which they pretended to be 
 made of emerald. 
 
 The court of Rome gladly laid hold on all the opportunities, which the imprudence, 
 weakness, or necessities of princes afford it, to extend its authority. 
 Fierce as he mov'd his silver shafts resound. 
 
 They maintained that scripture conclusion, that all mankind rise from one 
 bead. 
 
SYNTAX. 225' 
 
 John will earn his wages, when his service is completed. 
 Ye will not come unto me, that ye might have life. 
 Be that as it will, he cannot justify his conduct. 
 
 I have been at London a year, and seen the king last summer. .^-^^■^— -r. 
 
 After we visited London, we returned, content ami thankful, to our retired and 
 peaceful habitation. 
 
 The follotving examples are adapted to the notes and observations 
 under Rule III. 
 
 1. I purpose to go to London in a few months, and after I shall finish my business- 
 there, to proceed to America. 
 
 Tlierto prosecutions of William seem to be the most iniquitous measures pursued 
 by the court, during the time that the use of parliaments was susjiended. 
 
 From the little conversation I had with him, he appeared to have been a man 
 of letters. 
 
 I always intended to have rewarded my son according to his merits. 
 
 It would, on reflection, have given nje great satisfaction, to relieve him from that 
 distressed situation. 
 
 It required so much care, that I thought I should have lost it before I reached 
 home. 
 
 We have done no more than it was our duty to have done. 
 
 He would have assisted one of his friends, if he could do it without injuring the 
 other ; but as that could not have been done, he avoided all interference. 
 
 Must it not be expected, that he would have defended an authority, which had been 
 so long exercised witliout controversy ? 
 
 These enemies of Christianity were confounded whilst they were expecting to have 
 found an opportunity to have betrayed its author. 
 
 His sea-sickness was so great, that I often feared he would have died before 
 our arrival. 
 
 If these persons had intended to deceive, they would have taken care to have avoid- 
 ed what would expose them to the objections of their opponents. 
 
 It was a great pleasure to have received his approbation of my labors ; for which 
 I cordially thanked him. 
 
 It would have afforded me still greater pleasure, to receive h\» approbation at ar» 
 earlier period ; but to receive it at all, reflected credit upon me. 
 
 To be censured by him, would soon have proved an insuperable discourage- 
 meut. 
 
 Ilim portioned maids, apprenticed orphans blest, 
 The young who labor, and the old who rest. 
 
 The doctor, in his lecture, said, that fever always produced thirst. 
 
 SECTION XX. 
 
 RULE IV. 
 
 Some conjunctions require the indicative, some the subjunc- 
 tive mood, after them. When something contingent or doubtful is 
 implied, the verb is in the subjunctive mood ; as, 
 
 ' If he studies his lesson well to-day, he may ride to-mor- 
 row ;' * If he study more, he will learii faster ;* ' He will not 
 be pardoned, unless he repent.^ 
 
 Conjunctions that are of a positive and absolute nature, re- 
 quire the indicative mood. * As virtue advanees, so vice recedes.' 
 * He is healthy, because he is temperate.^ 
 
 The conjunctions if, though, unless, except^ ichether, &c., 
 generally require the second form of the subjunctive mo^d, 
 present tense, and the second form of the imperfect of the 
 
226 SYNTAX. 
 
 neuter verb be, and passive verbs ; as, * ^ thou he afflicted, 
 repine not ;' * Though he slay me, yet wrill I trust in him ;' 
 *He cannot be clean, unless he tvash himself;' *No power, 
 except it were given from above ;' ' Whether it ivere I or they, 
 so we preach.' But sometimes they require the first form ; 
 as, * If he thinks as he speaks, he may safely be trusted ;' ^ If 
 he is now disposed to it, I will perform the operation ;' * He 
 acts uprightly, unless he deceives me ;' ' If he wds there, we 
 shall know it to-morrow ;' ' Whether he was deceitful or not, 
 time will determine.' But when the sentence does not imply 
 doubt, the verbs following these conjunctions are in the indic- 
 ative mood. 
 
 1. Almost all the irregularities, in the construction of any 
 language, have arisen from the ellipsis of some words, which 
 were originally inserted in the sentence, and made it regular ; 
 and it is probable that this has been generally the case with 
 respect to the conjunctive form of words now in use ; which 
 will appear from the following examples : * We shall overtake 
 him, though he run ;' that is, ' though he should run.' ' Unless 
 he act prudently, he will not accomplish his purpose ;' that is, 
 ' Unless he shall act prudently.' * If he succeed, and obtain his 
 end, he will not be the happier for it ;' that is, ' If he should 
 succeed, and should obtain his end.' These remarks and ex- 
 amples are designed to show the original of many of our 
 present conjunctive forms of expression, and to enable you 
 to examine the propriety of using them, by tracing the words 
 in question to their proper origin and ancient connexions. 
 But it is necessary to be more particular on this subject, and 
 therefore I shall add a few observations respecting it. 
 
 That part of the verb which I call the second form of the 
 present tense of the subjunctive mood, has a future significa- 
 tion. This is effected by not varying the terminations of the 
 second and third persons singular as the indicative does ; as 
 will be evident from the following examples : * If thou prosper, 
 thou shouldst be thankful.' * Unless he study more closely, he 
 will never be learned.' Some writers, however, would express 
 these sentiments with the personal variations ; ' If thou proa- 
 perest,'' &c. ; ' Unless he studies,^ &c. ; and as there is a great 
 diversity of practice in tliis point, it is proper to offer a few 
 remarks, to assist you in distinguishing the right aj^plication of 
 these different forms of expression. It may be considered as 
 a rule, that no changes of termination are necessary, when 
 these two circumstances concur — 1st, When the subject is of 
 a dubious and contingent nature ; and 2d, When the verb has 
 a reference to future time. In the following sentences, both 
 these circumstances will be found to unite : ' If thou injure 
 another, thou wilt hurt thyself.' * He has a hard heart ; and if 
 he continue impenitent, he must suffer.' *He will maintain 
 
. ^ .f SYNTAX* 227 
 
 his^^^^ples, though he lose his estate.* * Whether he suc- 
 ceed or not, his intention is laudable.' * If he be not prosper- 
 ous, he will not repine.' * If a man smite his servant, and he 
 die,'' &c. Exodus xxi, 20. In all these examples, the things 
 signified by the verbs are uncertain, and refer to future time. 
 These verbs, therefore, are properly used in the second form 
 of the subjunctive present. 
 
 But in the instances w^hich follow, future time is not refer- 
 red to ; and therefore a different construction takes place : 
 * If thou livest virtuously, thou art happy.' 'Unless he means 
 what he says, he is doubly faithless.' ' If he allotos the excel- 
 lence of Virtue, he does not regard her precepts.' * If thou 
 helievest with all thy heart, thou mayst,' &c. Acts viii. 37. 
 Tliese are properly used in the Jirst form of the subjunctive 
 mood, present tense. 
 
 As there are two forms of the subjunctive imperfect of the 
 jieuter verb be, and of passive verbs, a rule which will direct 
 you in the proper use of each may be found useful. The 
 rule, which will be found generally correct, is, " * When the 
 sentence implies doubt, supposition, &c., and the neuter verb 
 Je, or the passive verb, is used with a reference to present or 
 future time, and is either followed or preceded by another 
 verb in the imperfect of the potential mood, the second form 
 of the imperfect must be used ; as, *7/*he tvere here, we should 
 rejoice together;' ^ Were she present, she woidd enjoy the 
 scene ;' ' He might go, if he were disposed to.' But when there 
 is no reference to present or future time, and it is neither fol- 
 lowed nor preceded by the potential imperfect, the first form 
 of the imperfect must be used ; as, * //* he ivas ill, he did not 
 let his friends know it ;' ^ If he ivas there, he did his duty ;' 
 ' Whether he was absent or present, is not known.' " 
 
 There are many sentences, introduced by conjunctions, in 
 which neither contingency nor futurity is denoted ; as, * Though 
 he excels her in knowledge, she far exceeds him in virtue ;' 
 ' Though he is poor, he is contented ;' and then the verbs are 
 in the indicative mood. Were, therefore, in the following sen- 
 tence, is erroneous : ' Though he were divinely inspired, and 
 spoke, therefore, as the oracles of Go<l, with supreme authori- 
 ty ; though he were endued with supernatural powers, and 
 could, therefore, have confirmed the truth of what he uttered, 
 by miracles ; yet, in comphance with the way in which human 
 nature and reasonable creatures are usually wrought upon, he 
 reasoned.' That our Savior was divinely inspired, and endu- 
 ed with supernatural powers, are positions that are here taken 
 for granted, as not admitting the least doubt ; therefore the 
 indicative mood, * Though he was divinely inspired ; though 
 he urns endued with supernatural powers,' would have been 
 better. The second form of the subjunctive imperfect of the 
 
2^ SYNTAX. 
 
 neuter verb be is used in the like improper manner in the fol- 
 lowing example : ' Though he loere a son, yet learned he obe- 
 dience by the things which he suffered.' But, in a similar 
 passage, the indicative, with great propriety, is employed to 
 the same purpose : ' Though he was rich, yet lor your sakes 
 he became poor.' 
 
 2. Lest and that, annexed to a command preceding, neces- 
 sarily require the following verb to be in the second form of 
 the subjunctive present ; as, * Love not sleep, lest thou come 
 to poverty ;' * Reprove not a scorner, lest he hate thee ;' * Take 
 heed thai thou speak not to Jacob.' 
 
 If, with but following it, when futurity is denoted, requires 
 the second form of the subjunctive present ; as, ^Ifhe do but 
 touch the hills, they shall smoke;' ^If he be but discreet, he 
 will succeed.' But the first form ought to be used on this oc- 
 casion, when future time is not signified ; as, ^If, in this ex- 
 pression, he does but jest, no offence should be taken-,' ^ If 
 she is but sincere, I am happy.' The same distinction apphes 
 to the following forms of expression: 'If he do submit, it will 
 be from necessity.' ' If thou do not reward this sei-vice, he 
 will be discouraged.' * If thou dost heartily forgive him, en- 
 deavor to forget the offence.' 
 
 3. In the following instances, the conjunction that, express- 
 ed or understood, seems to be improperly accompanied with 
 the subjunctive mood: 'So much she dreaded his tyranny, 
 that the fate of her friend she dare not lament.' ' He reason- 
 ed so artfully, that his friends would hsten, and think [that] he 
 were not wrong.' 
 
 4. The same conjunction, followed both by the first and sec- 
 ond forms of the subjunctive present, in the same sentence, 
 and in the same circumstances, seeiiis to be a great improprie- 
 ty ; as in these instances: ^If there be but one body of legis- 
 lators, it is no better than a tyranny ; if there are only two, 
 there will want a casting voice.' * If a man have a hundred 
 sheep, and one of them is gone astray,' &c. 
 
 5. On the form of the auxiliaries in the compound tenses 
 of the subjunctive mood, it seems proper to make a few ob- 
 servations. Some writers express themselves in the perfect 
 tense as follows : ^ If thou have determined, we must submit :' 
 * Unless he have consented, the writing will be void :' but we 
 beheve that few authors of critical sagacity write in this man- 
 ner. The proper form seems to be, ' If thou hast determin- 
 ed,' ' Unless he has consented,' &c., conformably to what we 
 generally meet with in the Bible : * I have surnamed thee, 
 though thou hast not known me.' Isaiah xlv. 4. 'What is 
 the hope of the hypocrite, though he hath gained,' &c. Job 
 xxvii. 8. See also Acts xxviii. 4. 
 
 6. In the pluperfect and future tenses, we sometimes meet 
 
SYNTAX. 229 
 
 with such expressions as these : * If thou had appHed thyself 
 diUgently, thou wouldst have reaped the advantage ;' ' Unless 
 thou shall speak the whole truth, we cannot determine ;' ' If 
 thou imll undertake the business, there is little doubt of suc- 
 cess.' This mode of expressing the auxiliaries does not ap- 
 pear to be warranted by the general practice of correct wri- 
 ters. They sliould be hadst, shalt, and wilt; and we find them 
 used in this form in the sacred Scriptures. 
 
 ' If thou hadst known,' &c. Luke xix. 47. * If thou hadst 
 been here,' &c. John xi. 21. * If thou loilt, thou canst make^ 
 me clean.' Matt. viii. 2. See, also, 2 Sam. ii. 27; Matt. 
 xvii. 4. 
 
 7. The second person singular of the imperfect tense in the 
 subjunctis^e mood is also very frequently used without the 
 personal termiiiation ; as, * If thou loved him truly, thou wouldst 
 obey him ;' 'Though thou did conform, thou hast gained noth- 
 ing by it.' This, however, appears to be improper. Our 
 present version of the Scriptures, which are again referred to, 
 as a good grammatical authority in points of this nature, de- 
 cides against it. '■ If thou knewest the gift,' &c. John iv. 10. 
 * If thou didst receive it, why dost thou glor^^ ?' &c. 1 Cor. iv. 
 7. See, also, Dan. v. 22. 
 
 8. It may not be superfluous, also, to observe, that the aux- 
 iliaries of the potential mood, when applied to the subjunctive, 
 retain the termination of the second person singular. We 
 properly say, *If thou mayst or canst go;'. * Though thou 
 mightst live ;' * Unless thou couldst read ;' ' If thou wouldst 
 learn ;' and not ' If thou may or can go,' &c. It is suflicient, 
 on this point, to adduce the authorities of Johnson and Lowth: 
 ' If thou shouldst go.' Johnson. * If thou mayst, mightst, or 
 couldst love.' LowtJi. Some authors think, that when that ex- 
 presses the motive or end, these auxiliaries should not be 
 varied ; as, ' I advise thee, that thou may beware ;' * He 
 checked thee, that thou should not presumes' but there does 
 not appear to be any ground for this exception. If the ex- 
 pression of ' condition, doubt, contingency,' &c., does not pre- 
 vent a change in the form of these auxiliaries, why should 
 they not vary, when a motive or end is expressed ? The trans- 
 lators of the Scriptures do not appear to have made the dis- 
 tinction contended for. *Thou buildCvSt the wall that thou 
 mayst be their king.' JVe^. vi. 6. * There is forgiveness with 
 thee, that thou mayst bo feared.' Psalm cxxxv. 4. 
 
 9. Some conjunctions have tlieir corresponding conjunc- 
 tions belonging to them, so that, in the subsequent member of 
 the sentence, the latter answers to the former ; as, 
 
 1. THOUGH, YET, NEVERTHELESS ; aS, * ThoUgh hc WBS HCh, 
 
 yet for our sakes he became poor.' 
 20 
 
^230 SYNTAX. 
 
 2. WHETHER— ORj as, ' H'hether he will so or not, I cannot 
 
 tell/ ^ ^ 
 
 3. EITHER — OR ; as, * I will either send it, or bring it myself.* 
 
 4. NEITHER — NOR ; US, ' JVeither thou nor 1 am able to com- 
 
 pass it.' 
 
 5. AS— AS ; expressing a comparison of equality ; as, ' She is 
 
 as amiable as her sister.' 
 
 6. AS — so; expressing a comparison of equahty ; ^ As the 
 
 stars, so shall thy seed be.' 
 
 7. AS— so ; expressing a comparison of quality ; as, 'v35the 
 
 one dieth, so dieth the other.' 
 
 8. so — AS ; with a verb, expressing a comparison of quality ; 
 
 as, ' To see thy glory, so as I have seen thee in the 
 sanctuaiy.' 
 1>. so — AS ; with a negative and an adjective, expressing a 
 comparison of quantity ; as, * Pompey was not so great 
 a man as Ca?sar.' 
 10. so — THAT ; expressing a consequence ; as, ' He was so 
 fatigued, that he could scarcely move.' 
 
 The conjunctions or and nor may often he used with nearly 
 equal propriety : *The king, whose character was not suffi- 
 ciently vigorous nor decisive, assented to the measure.' In this 
 sentence, or would perhaps have been better ; but, in general, 
 7ior seems to repeat the negation in the former part of the sen- 
 tence, and therefore gives more emphasis to the expression. 
 
 10. Conjunctions are often improperly used, both singly and 
 in pairs. The following are examples of this impropriety : 
 ' The relations are so uncertain, as that they require a great 
 deal of examination ;' it should be, * that they require,' &c. 
 ' There was no man so sanguine, who did not apprehend some 
 ill consequences;' it ought to be, * so sanguine as not to ap- 
 prehend,' &c. ; or, ' no man, how sanguine soever, who did not,* 
 &c. ' To trust in him, is no more but to acknowledge his pow- 
 er.* ' This is no other but the gate of paradise.' In both these 
 instances, but should be than. ' We should sufficiently weigh 
 the objects of our hope ; whether they are such as we may rea- 
 sonably expect from them what they propose,' &c. It ought to 
 be, ' that we may reasonably,' &c. ' The duke had not behav- 
 ed with that loyalty as he ought to have done ;* ^withwhichhe 
 ojught,' * In the order as they lie in his preface ;' it should be, 
 * in order as they lie ;' or * in the order in which they lie.' 
 
 There is a peculiar neatness in a sentence beginning with 
 the QOiijunctive form of a verb. * Were there no difference, 
 there would be no choice.' 
 
 A double conjunctive, in two correspondent clauses of a sen- 
 tence, is sometimes made use of; asy^ Had he done this, he 
 hud escaped ;* * Had the limitations on the prerogative been, 
 
SYNTAX. 231 
 
 in his time, quite fixed and certain, his integrity had made him 
 regard as sacred the boundaries of the constitution.' The sen- 
 tence, in the common form, would have read thus : * If the hm- 
 it^tions on the prerogative had been,' «fec., * his integrity would 
 have made him regard,' &c. 
 
 The particle as, when it is connected with the pronoun such, 
 has the force of a relative pronoun ; as, ' Let such as presume 
 to advise others, look well to their own conduct ;' which is equiv- 
 alent to * Let them who presume,' &c. 
 
 * Such sharp re})hcs that cost him his life ;' ' as cost him,' &c. 
 'If he were truly that scarecrow as he is now commonly paint- 
 ed ;' 'such a scarecrow,' &c. *I wish I could do that justice 
 to his memory, to obhge tiie painters,' &:c. ; 'do 5wc^ justice as 
 would oblige,' &c. 
 
 In regard that is solemn and antiquated ; because would do 
 much better in the following sentence. ' It cannot be other- 
 wise, in regard that the French prosody differs from that of 
 every other language.' 
 
 The word except is far preferable to other than. ' It admitted 
 of no effectual ciu'e other than amputation.' Except is also to 
 be preferred to all hut. * They were happy, all ,but the stran- 
 ger.' 
 
 In the two following phrases, the conjunction as is improp- 
 erly omitted : 'Which no body presumes, or is so sanguine to 
 hope.' 'I must, however, be so just to own.' 
 
 The conjunction that is oflen properly omitted, and under- 
 stood ; as, 'I beg you would come to me;' 'See thou do it 
 not ;' instead of, ' that you would,' ' that thou do.' But in iha 
 following, and many similar phrases, this conjunction would 
 be much better inserted : ' Yet it is reason the memory of their 
 virtues remain to posterity.' It should be, 'Yet it is pist that 
 the memory,' &c. 
 
 Now correct and parse the following 
 
 EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX. 
 
 If he acquires riches, they will corrupt his mind, and be useless to others. 
 Though he urges me yet more earnestly, I shall not comply, unless he advances 
 more forcible reasons. 
 
 I shall walk in the fields to-day, unless it rains. 
 
 As the governess were present, the children behaved properly. 
 
 She disapproves the measure, becaiise-it were very improper". 
 
 Though he be high, he hath respect to the lowly.' * 
 
 Though he were her friend, he did not attempt to justify her conduct. 
 
 Whether he improve or not, I cannot determine. 
 
 Though the fact be extraordinary, it certainly did happen. 
 
 Remember what tliou wert, and be humble. 
 
 O that his heart was tender,. and sutsccptiblo of the woes of otliers ! 
 
 Shall then this verse to future age pretcid, 
 
 Thou wert my guide, philosopher, and friend ? 
 1. Unless he learns faster, he will be no scholar. 
 Though he falls, he shall not be utterly cast down. 
 
232 SYNTAX. 
 
 On condition that he comes, I will consent to stay. 
 
 However that affair terminates, my conduct will be unimpeachable. 
 
 If virtue rewards us not so soon as we desire, the payment will be made with in- 
 terest. 
 
 Till repentance composes his mind, he will bo a stranger to peace. 
 
 Whether he confesses or not, the truth will certainly bo discovered. 
 
 If thou censureat uncharitably, thou wilt be entitled to no favor. 
 
 Though, at times, the ascent of the temple of virtue appears steep and craggy, be 
 not discouraged. Persevere until thou gainest the summit : there, all is order, beauty, 
 and pleasure. 
 
 If Charlotte desire to gain esteem and love, she does not employ the proper 
 means. 
 
 Unless the accountant deceive mo, my estate is considerably improved. 
 
 Though self-government produce some uneasiness, it is light, when compared with 
 the pain of vicious indulgence. 
 
 Whether he think as he speaks, time will discover. 
 
 If thou censure uncharitably, thou doservest no favor. 
 
 Thou^i Virtue appear severe, she is truly amiable. 
 
 Though success be very doubtful, it is proper that he endeavors to succeed. 
 
 The examples which follow are suited to the notes and observations 
 under Rule IV. 
 
 2. Despise not any condition, lest it happens to be your own. 
 Let him that is sanguine take heed lest he miscarries. 
 
 Take care that thou breakest not any of the established rules. 
 If he does but intimate his desire, it will be sufficient to produce obedience. 
 At the time of his return, if he is but expert in the business, ho will find employ- 
 ment. 
 If he do but speak to display his abilities, he is unworthy of attention. 
 If he be but in health, I am content. 
 If he does promise, he will certainly perform. 
 Though he do praiso her, it is only for her beauty. 
 If thou dost not forgive, perhaps thou wilt not be forgiven. 
 If thou do sincerely believe the truths of religion, act accordingly. 
 
 3. His confused behavior made it reasonable to suppose that he were guilty. 
 He is so conscious of deserving the rebuke, that he dare not make any reply. 
 
 His apology was so plausible, that many befriended him, and thought he were in- 
 nocent. 
 
 4. If one man prefer a life of industry, it is because ho has an idea of comfort i^r 
 wealth ; if another prefers a life of gaycty, it is from a like idea concerning pleasure. 
 
 No one engages in that business, unless he aim at reputation, or hopes for some 
 sinwular advantage. 
 
 Though the design be laudable, and is favorable to our interest, it will involve much 
 anxiety and labor. 
 
 5. If thou have promised, be faithful to thy engagement. 
 
 Though he have proved his right to submission, ho is too generous to exact it. 
 Unless he have improved, he is unfit for the oflice. 
 
 6. If thou had succeeded, perhaps thou wouldst not be the happier for it. 
 
 Unless thou shall see the propriety of the measure, we shall not desire thy sup- 
 port. 
 Though thou will not acknowledge, thou canst not deny the fact. 
 
 7. If thou gave liberally, thou wilt receive a liberal reward. 
 Though thou did injuro him, he harbors no resentment. 
 
 It would be well, if the report was only the misropresentation of her enemies. 
 Was he ever so great and opulent, this conduct would debase him. 
 Was I to enumerate all her virtues, it would look like flattery. 
 Though I was perfect, yet would I not presume. 
 
 8. If thou may share in his labors, be thankful, and do it cheerfully. 
 Unless thou can fairly support the cause, give it up honorably. 
 
 Though thou might have foreseen the danger, thou couldst not have avoided it. 
 
 If thou could convince him, he would not act accordingly. 
 
 If thou would improve in knowledge, be diligent. 
 
 Unless thou should make a timely retreat, the danger will be lyjavoidable. 
 
 I have labored and wearied myself that thou may be at ease. 
 
SYNTAX. 233 
 
 He enlarged on those dangers that thou should avoid them. 
 
 9. Neither the cold or the fervid, hut characters uniformly warm, are formed for 
 friendship. 
 
 They are hoth praise-worthy, and one is equally deserving as the other. 
 
 He is not as diligent and learned as his brother. 
 
 I will present it to him myself, or direct it to be given to him. 
 
 Neither despise or oppose what you do not understand. 
 
 The house is not as commodious a.-i we expected it would be. 
 
 I must, however, be so candid to own I have been mistaken. 
 
 There was something so amiable, and yet so piercing in liis look, as affected mc at 
 once with lovo and terror. 
 
 -I gained a son; 
 
 And such a son, as all men hailed mc happy. 
 
 The dog in the manger wonld not eat the hay himself, nor suffer the ox to eat it. 
 
 As far as I am able to judge, the book is well written. 
 
 We should faithfully perform the trust committed to us, or ingenuously relinquish 
 the charge. 
 
 He is not as eminent, and as much esteemed, as lie thinks himself to be. 
 
 The work is a dull performance ; and is neither capable of pleasing the understand- 
 ing^or the imagination. 
 
 There is no co.idition so secure, as cannot admit of change. 
 
 This is an event, which nobody presumes upon, or is so sanguine to hope for. 
 
 We are generally pleased with any little accomplishments of body or mind. 
 
 10. Be ready to succor sucli persons who need your assistance. 
 
 The matter was no sooner proposed, but he privately withdrew to consider it. 
 
 He has too much sense and prudence than to become a dujie to such artifices. 
 
 It is not sufficient timt our conduct, 'as far as it respects others, appears to be un- 
 exceptionable. 
 
 The resolution was not the less fixed, that the secret was yet communicated to very 
 few. 
 
 He opposed the most remarkable corruptions of the chiirch of Rorr.e, so as that his 
 doctrines were embraced by groat numbers. 
 
 He gained nothing furth<ir by his speech, but only to be commended for his (do- 
 quence. 
 
 He has little more of the scholar besides the name. 
 
 He has little more of the scholar than the name. 
 
 They had no sooner risen, but they applied themselves to their studies. 
 
 From no other institution, besides the admirable one of juries, could 30 great a 
 benefit be expected. 
 
 Those savage people seemed to have no other element but war. 
 
 Such men that act treacherously ought to be avoided. 
 
 Germany ran the same risk which Italy had done. 
 
 No errors are so trivial, but they deserve to be corrected. 
 
 SECTION XXI. 
 
 RULE V. 
 
 All the parts of a sentence should correspond to each other ; a 
 regular and dependent construction, throughout, should be care- 
 fully preserved. The following sentence is therefore inaccu- 
 rate : ' He was more beloved, but not so much admired, a>» 
 Cinthio.' It should be, * He was more beloved than Cintbio, 
 but not so much admired.' 
 
 The first example under this rule presents a most irregular 
 construction, namely, ' He was more beloved as Cinthio.' The 
 words more and so much are very improperly stated as having 
 20* 
 
234 SYNTAX, 
 
 the same regimen. In correcting such sentences, it is not ne- 
 cessary to supply the latter ellipsis of the corrected sentence 
 by saying/ but not so much admired as Cinthio was;' because 
 the elhpsis cannot lead to any discordant or improper con- 
 struction, and the supply would often be harsh or inelegant. 
 
 As this rule comprehends all the preceding rules, it may, at 
 the first view, appear to be too general to be useful. But by 
 ranging under it a number of sentences peculiarly constructed, 
 we shall perceive, that it is calculated to ascertain the true 
 grammatical construction of many modes of expression, which 
 none of the particular rules can sufficiently explain. 
 
 * This dedication may serve for almost any book, that has, is, 
 or shall be published ;' it ought to be, ' that has been, or that 
 shall be published.' * He was guided by interests always dif- 
 ferent, sometimes contrary to, those of the community ;' ' dif- 
 ferent/rom ,•' or, ' always different from those of the communi- 
 ty, and sometimes contrary to them.' * Will it be urged that 
 these books are as old, or even older than tradition ?' The 
 words as old and older cannot have a common regimen ; it 
 should be, ' as old as tradition, or even older.' * It requiret^ 
 few talents to which most men are not born, or at least may 
 not acquire ;' ' or which, at least, they may not acquire.' * The 
 court of chancery frequently mitigates and breaks the teeth of 
 the common law.'^ In this construction, the first verb is said 
 
 * to mitigate the teeth of the common law,' which is an evident 
 solecism. ' Mitigates the common law, and breaks the teetli 
 of it,' would have been grammatical. 
 
 * They presently grew into good humor, and good language 
 towards the crown ;' * grow into good language,' is very im- 
 proper. 'There is never wanting a set of evil instruments, 
 who, either out of mad zeal, private hatred, or filthy lucre, are 
 always ready,' &c. We say pro})erly, * A man acts out of mad 
 zeal,' or * out of private hatred ;' but we cannot say, if we 
 would speak English, * he acts out of filthy lucre.' ' To double 
 her kindness and caresses of me :' the word kindness requires 
 to be followed by either to or for, and cannot be construed with 
 the preposition of. * Never was man so teased, or suffered half 
 the uneasiness, as I have done this evening :' the first and third 
 clauses, viz. * Never was man so teased as I have done this 
 evening,' cannot be joined without an impropriety ; and, to con- 
 nect the second and third, the word that must be substituted 
 for as ; * or suflfered half the uneasiness that I have ;' or else, 
 
 * half so much uneasiness as I have suflfered.' 
 
 The first part of the following sentence abounds with adverbs, 
 and those such as are hardly consistent with one another : * How 
 much soever the reformation of this degenerate age is almost ut- 
 terly to be despaired of, we may yet have a more comfortable 
 prospect of future times.' The sentence would be more cor- 
 
SYNTAX. 235 
 
 rect in the following form : ^Though the reformation of this de- 
 generate age is nearly to be despaired of,' &c. 
 
 ' Oh ! shut not up my soul with the sinners, nor my life with 
 the blood-thirsty ; in whose hands is wickedness, and their 
 right hand is full of gifts.' As the passage introduced by the 
 copulative conjunction and was not intended as a continuation 
 of the principal and independent part of the sentence, but of 
 the dependent part, the relative wtwse should have been used 
 instead of the possessive <^eir ; viz. ^dind whose right hand is 
 full of gifts.' 
 
 The following sentences, which give the passive verb the 
 regimen of an active verb, are very irregular, and by no means 
 to be imitated: 'The bishops and abbots were allowed their 
 seats in the house of lords.' * Thrasea Avas forbidden the pres- 
 ence of the emperor.' *He was shown that very story ui one 
 of his own books.' These sentences should have been, 'The 
 bishops and abbots were allowed to have (or take) their seats 
 ift the house of lords ;' or, ' Seats in the house of lords were 
 allowed to the bishops and abbots :' ' Thrasea was forbidden 
 to approach the presence of the emperor *,' or, ' The presence 
 of the emperor was forbidden to Thrasea :' ' That very story 
 was shown to him in one of his own books.' 
 
 ' Eye hath not seen, nor ear heard, neither have entered into 
 the heart of man, the things which God hath prepared for them 
 that love him.' There seems to be an impropriety in this sen- 
 tence, in which the same nouns serve in a double capacity, 
 performing at the same time the offices both of the nominative 
 and objective cases. ' Neither hath it entered into the heart of 
 man to conceive the things,' &c., would have been regular. 
 
 ' We have the power of retaining, altering, and compounding 
 those images which we have once received, into all the varie- 
 ties of picture and vision.' It is very proper to say, * altering 
 and compounding those images which we have once received, 
 into all the varieties of picture and vision ;' butw^e can with no 
 propriety say, ' retaining them into all the varieties ;' and yet, 
 according to the manner in which the words are ranged, this 
 construction is unavoidable ; for 'retaining, altering, and com- 
 pounding^ are participles, each of which equally refers to and 
 governs the subsequent noun, those images; and that noun, 
 again, is necessarily connected with the following preposition, 
 into. The construction might easily have been rectified, by 
 disjoining the participle retaining from the other two partici- 
 ples, in this way : * We have the power of retaining those im- 
 ages which we have once received, and of altering and com- 
 pounding them into all the varieties of picture and vision :' or 
 perhaps better thus : ' We have the power of retaining, alter- 
 ing and compounding those images which we have once re- 
 
236 SYNTAX. 
 
 ceived, and of forming them into all the varieties of picture 
 and vision. 
 
 Now correct and parse the following 
 
 EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX. 
 
 Several alterations and additions have been made to the work. 
 
 The first proposal was essentially different, and inferior to the second. 
 
 He is more bold and active, but not so wise and studious as his companion. 
 
 Thou hearest the sound of the wind, but thou canst not tell whence it cometh, and 
 whither it goeth. 
 
 Neither has ho, nor any other persons, suspected so much dissimulation. 
 
 The court of France or England was to be the umpire. 
 
 In the reign of Henry II. all foreign commodities were plenty in England. 
 
 There is no talent so useful towards success in business, or which puts men more 
 ^ out of the reach of accidents, than that quality generally possessed by persons of cool 
 * temper, and is in common language called discretion. 
 
 The first project was to shorten discourse, by cutting polysyllables into one. 
 
 I shall do all I can to persuade others to take the same measures for their cure 
 which I have. 
 
 The greatest masters of critical learning differ among one another. 
 
 Micaiah said, " If thou certainly return in peace, then hath not the Lord spo!jon 
 by me." 
 
 I do not suppose that we Britons want a genius, more than the rest of our neigh- 
 bors. < 
 
 The deaf man, whose ears were opened, and his tongue loosened, doubtless glorified 
 the great physician. 
 
 Groves, fields, and meadows, are, at any season of the year, pleasant to look upon ; 
 but never so much as ii> the opening of the spring. 
 
 The multitude rebuked them, because they should hold their peace. 
 
 The intentions of some of these philosophers, nay, of many, might and probably 
 were good. 
 
 It is an unanswerable argument of a very refined a^e, the wonderful civilitien that 
 have passed between the nation of authors and that ot readers. 
 
 It was an unsuccessful undertaking ; which, although it has failed, is no objection 
 at all to an enterprise so well concerted. 
 
 The reward is his due, and it has already, or will hereafter, be given to him. 
 
 By intercourse with wise and experienced persons, who know the world, we may 
 improve and rub of!' the rust of a private and retired education. 
 
 Sincerity is as valuable, and even more valuable, than knowledge. 
 
 No person was ever so perplexed, or sustained the mortifications as he has done 
 to-day. 
 
 The Romans gave not only the freedom of the city, but capacity for employments, 
 to several towns in Gaul, Spain, and Germany. 
 
 Such writers have no other standard on which to form themselves, except what 
 chances to be fashionable and popular. 
 
 Whatever we do secretly, shall be displayed and heard in the clearest light. 
 
 To the happiness of possessing a person of such uncommon merit, Boethins soon 
 had the satisfaction of obtaining the highest honor his country could bestow. 
 
 But to the assertions which his intoxicated brain and unbridled phrensy have led 
 him to make, I shall hold him personally responsible. 
 
PUNCTUATION. 
 
 Punctuation is the art of dividing a written composition 
 into sentences, or parts of sentences, by points or stops, for the 
 purpose of marking tlie different pauses which the sense, and 
 an accurate pronunciation, require. 
 
 The Comma represents the shortest pause ; the Semicolon, 
 a pause double that of the comma ; the Colon, double that of 
 the semicolon ; and the Period, double that of the colon. 
 
 The precise quantity or duration of each pause cannot be 
 defined ; for it varies with the time of the whole. The same 
 composition may be rehearsed in a quicker or a slower time ; 
 but the' proportion between the pauses should be ever in- 
 variable. 
 
 In order more clearly to determine the proper a{)j)lication of 
 the points, we must distinguish between an imperfect phrase^ a 
 simple sentence^ and a compound sentence. 
 
 Ah imperfect phrase contains no assertion, or does not 
 amount to a proposition or sentence ; as, ' Therefore ;' ' in haste ;' 
 'studious of praise.' 
 
 A simple sentence has but one subject, and one finite verb, 
 expressed or implied ; as, * Temperance preserves health.* 
 
 A compound sentence has more than one subject, or one 
 finite verb, either expressed or understood ; or it consists of 
 two or more simple sentences connected together; as, * Good 
 nature mends and beautifies all objects ;' ' Virtue refines the 
 affections, but vice debases them.' 
 
 In a sentence, the subject and the verb, or either of them, 
 may be accompanied with several adjuncts ; as the object, the 
 end, the circumstance, 'of time, place, manner, and the like ; 
 and the subject or verb may be either immediately connected 
 with them, or mediately ; that is, by being connected with 
 something which is connected with some other, and so on ; as, 
 'The mind, unoccupied with useful knowledge, becomes a 
 magazine of trifles and follies.' 
 
 Members of sentences may be divided into simple and com- 
 pound members. 
 
238 PUNCTUAMOX. 
 
 CHAPTER Z. 
 
 OF THE COMMA. 
 
 The Comma usually separates those parts of a sentence, 
 which, though very closely connected in sense and construc- 
 tion, require a pause between them. 
 
 RULE I. 
 
 With respect to a simple sentence, the several words of 
 which it consists have so near a relation to each other, that, in 
 general, no points are requisite, except a full stop at the end of 
 it ; as, ' The fear of the Lord is the beginning of wisdom ;' 
 * Every part of matter swarms with living creaturek' 
 
 A simple sentence, however, when it is a long one, and the 
 nominative case is accompanied with inseparable adjuncts, 
 may admit of a pause immediately before tlie verb ; as, ' The 
 good taste of the present age, has not allowed us to neglect 
 the cultivation of the English language; ' ' To be totally indif- 
 fei-ent to praise or censure, is a real defect in character.' 
 
 RULE IL 
 
 When the connexion of different parts of a simple sentence 
 is intermixed by an imperfect phrase, a comma is usually in- 
 troduced before the beginning and at the end of this phrase ; 
 as, ' I remember, ivith gratitude^ his goodness to me;' 'His 
 work isj in many respects^ very imperfect ;' ' It is, therefore, not 
 much approved.' But when these interruptions are slight and 
 unimportant, the comma is better omitted; as, 'Flattery is 
 certainly pernicious ;' ' There is surely a pleasure in benefi- 
 cence.' 
 
 In the generality of compound sentences, there is frequent 
 occasion for commas. This will appear from the following 
 rules ; some of which apply to simple, as well as to compound 
 sentences. 
 
 RULE III. 
 
 When two or more nouns occur in the same construction, 
 they are parted by a comma ; as, ' Reason, virtue, answers one 
 great aim;' 'The husband, wife, and children, suffered ex- 
 tremely ;'* ' They took away their furniture, clothes, and 
 stock in trade ;' ' He is alternately supported by his father, his 
 uncle, and his elder brother.' 
 
 From this rule there is mostly an exception, with regard to 
 two nouns closely connected by a conjunction ; as, ' Virtue 
 
 * Ab a considefable paiise in pronunciation is necessary between the last noun and 
 the verb, a comma should be inserted to denote it. I3ut as no pause is allowable be- 
 tween the last adjective and the noun, under Rule IV., the comma is there properly 
 omitted. — See Walker'' s Elements of Elocution. 
 
PUNCTUATION. 239 
 
 and vice form a strong contrast to each other ;' * Libertines call 
 religion bigotry or superstition ;' ' There is a natural difference 
 between merit and demerit, virtue and vice, wisdom and folly.' 
 But if the parts connected are not short, a comma may be in- 
 serted, though the conjunction is expressed ; as, * Romances 
 may be said to be miserable rhapsodies, or dangerous incentives 
 to evil ;' ' Intemperance destroys the strength of our bodies, and 
 the vigor of our minds.' 
 
 RULE IV. 
 
 Two or more adjectives, belonging to the same substantive, 
 are likewise separated by commas ; as, * Plain, honest truth, 
 wants no artificial covering ;' ' David was a brave, wise, and 
 pious man ;' * A woman, gentle, sensible, well educated, and 
 rehgious ;' * The most innocent pleasures are the sweetest, the 
 most rational, the most affecting, and the most lasting.' 
 
 But two adjectives, immediately connected by a conjunction, 
 are not separated by a comma ; as, ' True worth is modest and 
 retired ;' * Truth is fair and artless, simple and sincere, uniform 
 a7id consistent ;' ' We must be wise or foohsh ; there is no me- 
 dium.' 
 
 RULE V. 
 
 - Two or more verbs, having the same nominative case, and 
 immediately following one another, are also separated by com- 
 mas ; as, * Virtue supports in adversity, moderates in prosperi- 
 ty ;' ' In a letter, we may advise, exhort, comfort, request, and 
 discuss.' 
 
 Two verbs immediately connected by a conjunction, are an 
 exception to the above rule ; as, * The study of natural history 
 expands and elevates the mind ;' * Whether we eat or drink, 
 labor or sleep, we should be moderate.' 
 
 Two or more participles are subject to a similar rule and 
 exception ; as, ' A man, fearing, serving and loving, his Crea- 
 tor ;' ' He was happy in being loved, esteemed, and respected ;' 
 * By being admired and flattered, we are often corrupted.' 
 
 RULE VI. 
 
 Two or more adverbs, immediately succeeding one another, 
 must be separated by commas ; as, * We are fearfully, wonder- 
 fully framed ;' ' Success generally depends on acting prudent- 
 ly, steadily, and vigorously, in what we undertake.' 
 
 But when two adverbs are joined by a conjunction, they are 
 not parted by the comma ; as, ' Some men sin dehberately and 
 presumptuously ;' ' There is no middle state ; we must live 
 virtuously or viciously.' 
 
240 " PUNCTUATION. 
 
 RULE VII. 
 
 When participles are followed by something that depends on 
 them, they are generally separated from the rest of the sentence 
 by a comma ; as, * The king, approving the plan, put it in execu- 
 tion ;' ' His talents, ybrmec^ybr great enterpnses, could not fail of 
 rendering him conspicuous ;' * All mankind compose one fam- 
 ily, assembled under the eye of one common Father.' 
 
 RULE VIII. 
 When a conjunction is divided, Jjy a phrase or sentence, from 
 the verb to which it belongs, such intervening phnise has usu- 
 ally a comma at each extremity ; as, ^ They set out early, an(U 
 before the close of the day, arrived at the destined place.' 
 
 RULE IX. 
 
 Expressions in a direct address are separated from the rest 
 of the sentence by commas ; as, ^My son, give me thy heart ;' 
 *I am obliged to you, my friends, for your many favors.' 
 
 RULE X. 
 
 The ease or nominative absolute, and tHfe infinitive mood ab- 
 solute, are separated by commas from the body of the sentence ; 
 as, * His father dying, he succeeded to the estate ;' * At length, 
 their ministi7 performed, and race well run, they left the world 
 
 RULE XI. 
 
 , Nouns in apposition, that is, nouns added to other nouns in 
 the same case, by way of explication or illustration, when ac- 
 companied with adjuncts, are set off by commas ; as, ' Paul, the 
 apostle of the Gentiles, was eminent lor his zeal and knowl- 
 edge ;' * The butterfly, child of the summer, flutters in the sun.' 
 But if such nouns are single', or only form a proper name, 
 they are not divided; as, * Paul the apostle;' *The emperor 
 Antonius wrote an excellent book.' 
 
 RULE XII. 
 
 Simple members of sentences, connected by comparatives, 
 are, for the most part, distinguished by a comma ; as, '^s the 
 hart panteth after the water-brooks, so doth my soul pant 
 after thee ;' ^Better is a dinner of herbs with love, than a stalled 
 ox and hatred with it.' 
 
 If the members in comparative sentences are short, the com- 
 ma is, in general, better omitted ; as, ' How much better is it to 
 get wisdom than gold !' 'Mankind act oftener from caprice than 
 reason. 
 
PUNCTUATION. 241 
 
 RULE XIII. 
 
 When words are placed in opposition to each other, or with 
 some marked variety, they require to be distinguished by a 
 comma ; as, 
 
 < Though deep, yet clear ; though gentle, yet not dull j 
 Strong, without rage ; without o'erflowing, full.' 
 
 ' Good men, in this frail, imperfect state, are often found, 
 not only in union with, but in opposition to, the views and con- 
 duct of one another.' 
 
 Sometimes, when the word with which the last preposition 
 agrees is single, it is better to omit the comma before it ; as, 
 
 * Many states were in alliance toith, and under the protection 
 of Rome.' 
 
 The same rule and restriction must be applied, when two 
 or more nouns refer to the same preposition ; as, * He was com- 
 posed, both under the threatening,, and at the approach, of a 
 cruel and Hngering death ;' *He was not only the king, but the 
 fatlier of his people.' 
 
 RULE XIV. 
 
 A remarkable expression, or a short observation, somewhat 
 in manner of a quotation, may be properly marked with a 
 comma ; as, * It hurts a man's pride to say, I do not know ;' 
 
 * Plutarch calls lying, the vice of slaves.' 
 
 RULE XV. 
 
 Relative pronouns are connective words, and generally ad- 
 mit a comma before them ; as, * He preaches sublimely who 
 lives a sober, righteous, and pious life ;' ^ There is no charm 
 in the female sex, which can supply the place of virtue.' 
 
 But when two members, or phrases, are closely connected 
 by a relative restraining the general notion of the antecedent 
 to a particular sense, the comma should be omitted ; as, * Self- 
 denial is the sacrifice which virtue must make ;' * A man who 
 is of a detracting spirit, will misconstrue the most innocent 
 words that can be put together.' In the latter example, the 
 assertion is not of * a man in general,' but of * a man who is 
 of a detracting spirit ;' and therefore they should not be sep- 
 arated. 
 
 The fifteenth rule applies equally to cases in which the rel- 
 ative is not expressed, but understood ; as, * It was from piety, 
 warm and unaffected, that his morals derived strength f 
 *This sentiment, habitual and strong, influenced his whole 
 conduct.' In both of these examples, the relative and tjse 
 rerb, tvhich toas, are understood. 
 
 21 
 
342 PUNCTXJATIOW. 
 
 RULE XVI. 
 
 A simple member of a sentence, contained within another, 
 or following another, must be distinguished by the comma ; 
 as, * To improve time, whilst we are blessed with health, will 
 smooth the bed of sickness ;' * Very often, while we are com- 
 plaining of the vanity, and the evils of human hfe, we make 
 that vanity, and we increase those evils.' 
 
 If, however, the members succeeding each other are very 
 closely connected, the comma is unnecessary ; as, 'Revelation 
 tells us how we may attain happiness.' 
 
 When a verb in the infinitive mood follows its governing 
 verb, with several words between them, those words should 
 generally have a comma at the end of them ; as, * It ill be- 
 comes good and wise men, to oppose and degrade one 
 another*' 
 
 Several verbs in the infinitive mood, having a common de- 
 pendence, and succeeding' one another, are also divided by 
 commas ; as, ' To relieve the indigent, to comfort the afflicted, 
 to protect the innocent, to reward the deserving, are humane 
 and noble employments.' 
 
 RULE XVII. 
 
 W^hen the verb to he is followed by a verb in the infinitive 
 mood, which, by transposition, might be made the nominative 
 case to it, the former is generally separated from the latter 
 verb by a comma ; as, * The most obvious remedy is, to with- 
 draw from all associations with bad men ;' ' The first and most 
 obvious remedy against the infection, is to withdraw from all 
 association with bad men.' 
 
 RULE XVIIL 
 
 When adjuncts or circumstances are of importance, and 
 often when the natural order of them is inverted, they may be 
 set off by commas ; as, * Virtue must be formed and support- 
 ed, not by unfrequent acts, but by daily and repeated exer- 
 tions;' * Vices, like shadows, towards the evening of life, grow 
 great and monstrous ;' * Our interests are interwoven by threads 
 innumerable ;' ' By threads innumerable, our interests are in- 
 terwoven.' 
 
 RULE XIX. 
 
 Where a verb is understood, a comma may often be properly 
 introduced. This is a general rule, which, besides compris- 
 ing some of the preceding rules, will apply to many cases 
 not determined by any of them ; as, * From law arises securi- 
 ty; from security, curiosity ; from curiosity, knowledge.' In 
 this example, the verb arises is understood before curiosi- 
 
PUNCTUATION. 243 
 
 ty and knowledge; at which words a considerable pause is 
 necessary. 
 
 RULE XX. 
 
 The words nay^ so, hence, again, first, secondly, formerly, now, 
 lastly, once more, above all, on the contrary, in the next place, in 
 short, and all other words and phrases of the same kind, must 
 generally be separated from the context by a comma ; as, 
 
 * Remember thy best and first friend ; formerly, the supporter 
 of thy infancy, and the guide of thy childhood ; noio, the 
 guardian of thy youth, and the hope of thy coming years.' 
 
 * He feared want ; hence, he over-valued riches.' * This con- 
 duct may heal the difference ; nay, it may constantly prevent 
 any in future.' * Finally, I shall only repeat what has been of- 
 ten justly said.' * If the spring put forth no blossoms, in sum- 
 mer there will be no beauty, and in autumn no fruit : so, if 
 youth be trifled away without improvement, riper years may 
 be contemptible, and old age miserable.' 
 
 In many of the foregoing rules and examples, great regard 
 must be paid to the length of the clauses, and the proportion 
 which they bear to one another. An attention to the sense of 
 any passage, and to the clear, easy communication of it, will, 
 it is presumed, with the aid of the preceding rules, enable you 
 to adjust the proper pauses, and the places for inserting the 
 commas. 
 
 CRAPTSR n. 
 
 OF THE SEMICOLON. 
 
 The Semicolon is used for dividing a compound sentence 
 into two or more parts, not so closely connected as those which 
 are separated by a comma, nor yet so little dependent on each 
 other, as those which are distinguished by a colon. 
 
 The Semicolon is sometimes used, when the preceding 
 member of a sentence does not of itself give a complete sense, 
 but depends on the following clause ; and sometimes when the 
 sense of that member would be complete without the conclud- 
 ing one ; as in the following instances: *As the desire of ap- 
 probation, when it works according to reason, improves the 
 amiable part of our species in everything that is laudable; so 
 nothing is more destructive to them, when it is governed by 
 vanity and folly.' 
 
 * Experience teaches us, that an entire retreat from worldly 
 affairs, is not what religion requires ; nor does it even enjoin 
 a long retreat from them.' 
 
 ^ Straws swimaipon the surface ; but pearls lie at the bottom.' 
 
244 PUNCTUATION. 
 
 * Philosophers assert that Nature is unlimited in her opera- 
 tions ; that she has inexhaustible treasures in reserve ; that 
 knowledge will always be progressive ; and that all future 
 generations will continue to make discoveries, of which we 
 have not the least idea/ 
 
 * But all subsist by elemental strife ; 
 And passions are the elements of life/ 
 
 CHAPTER ZXZ. 
 
 OF THE COLON. 
 
 The Colon is used to divide a sentence into two or more 
 parts, less connected than those which are separated by a semi- 
 colon ; but not so independent as separate, distinct sentences. 
 
 The colon may be properly applied in the three following 
 cases. 
 
 1. When a member of a sentence is complete in itself, but 
 followed by some supplemental remark, or further illustration 
 of the subject ; as, * Nature felt her inability to extricate her- 
 self from the consequences of guilt : the gospel reveals the 
 plan of divine interposition and aid.' * Nature confesseth some 
 atonement to be necessary: the gospel discovers that the 
 necessary atonement is made.' 
 
 * Great works are performed, not by strength, but persever- 
 ance : yonder palace was raised by single' stones ; yet you see 
 its height and spaciousness.' 
 
 ^ In faiih and hope the world will disagree ^ 
 But all mankind's concern is charity : 
 AH must be false, that thwart this one great end ; 
 And all of God, that bless mankind or mend.' 
 
 2. When a semicolon, or more than one, have preceded, 
 and a still greater pause is necessary, in order to mark the 
 connecting or concluding sentiment ; as, * As we perceive the 
 shadow to have moved along the dial, but did not perceive it 
 moving ; and it appears that the grass has grown, though no- 
 body ever saw it grow : so the advances we make in knowl- 
 edge, as they consist of such insensible steps, are only per- 
 ceivable by the distance.' 
 
 * A divine Legislator, uttering his voice from heaven ; an 
 almighty Governor, stretching forth his arm to punish or re- 
 ward ; informing us of perpetual rest prepared hereafter for 
 the righteous, and of indignation and wrath awaiting the 
 wicked: these are the considerations which overawe the 
 world, which support integrity, and check guilt.' 
 
 3. The colon is commonly used when an example, a quota- 
 tion, or a speech, is introduced ; as, " The Scriptures give us an 
 
PUNCTUATION. ^J45 
 
 atniable representation of the Deity in these words : * God is 
 love.' " He was often heard to say : * I have done with the 
 world, and I am wilhng to leave it.' " 
 
 The propriety of using a colon, or semicolon, is sometimes 
 determined by a conjunction's being expressed, or not express- 
 ed ; as, ' Do not flatter yourselves with the hope of perfect 
 happiness ; for there is no such thing in tlie world.' 
 
 ' Where grows ? where grows it not ? If vain our toil, 
 We ought to blame the culture, not the soil : 
 Fixed to no apot is happiness sincere ; 
 ' Tis no whore to be found, or every where.' 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 OF THE PERIOD. 
 
 When a sentence is complete and independent, and not con- 
 nected in construction with the following sentence, it is mark- 
 ed with a period. 
 
 Some sentences are independent of each other, both in their 
 sense and construction ; as, ' Fear God. Honor the king. 
 Have charity towards all men.' Others are independent only 
 ill their grammatical construction ; as, *The Supreme Being 
 changes not, either in his desire to promote our happiness, or 
 in the plan of his administration. One Ught always shines 
 upon us from above. One clear and direct path is always- 
 pointed out to man.' 
 
 A period may sometimes be admitted between two sentences, 
 though they are joined by a disjunctive or copulative conjunc- 
 tion ; for the quahty of the point does not always depend on 
 the connective participle, but on the sense and structure of 
 sentences ; as, * Recreations, though they may be of an inno- 
 cent kind, require steady government to keep them within a due 
 and limited province. But such as are of an irregular and 
 vicious nature, are not to be governed, but to be banished from 
 every well-regulated mind.' 
 
 * He who hfts himself up to the observation and notice of 
 the world, is, of all men, the least likely to avoid censure. 
 For he draws upon himself a thousand eyes, that will narrowly 
 inspect him in every part.' 
 
 The period should be used after every abbreviated word : as, 
 ' * M. S., P. S., N. B., A. D., O. S., N. S.,' &c. 
 21* 
 
246 PUNCTUATION. 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 OF THE DASH, NOTES OF INTERROGATION AND 
 EXCLAMATION, AND THE PARENTHESIS. 
 
 Section 1. 
 Of the Dash. 
 The Dash, though often used improperly, by hasty and inco-- 
 herent writers, may be introduced with propriety, where the 
 sentence breaks .off abruptly ; where a significant pause is 
 required, or where there is an unexpected turn in the senti- 
 ment, as, * If thou art he, so much respected once — but oh ! 
 how fallen ! how degraded !' * If acting conformably to tlie 
 will of our Creator ; — if promoting the welfare of mankind 
 around us ; — if securing our own happiness ; — are objects of 
 the highest moment ; — then we are loudly called upon to cul- 
 tivate and extend the great interests of rehgion and virtue.* 
 A dash following a stop, denotes that the pause is to be greater 
 than if the stop were alone ; and when used by itself, requires 
 a pause of such a length as the sense alone can determine. 
 
 ♦ Here lies the great False marble, where ? 
 
 Nothing but sordid dust lies here.* 
 
 • Whatever is, is right. — This world, *tis true, 
 Was made for Caesar — but for Titus too.* 
 
 Besides the points which mark the pauses in discourfie, 
 there are characters which denote a different modulation of 
 voice, in correspondence to the sense. These are. 
 
 The point of Interrogation, ?. 
 
 The point of Exclamation, ! 
 
 The Parenthesis^ () 
 
 Section 2. 
 OfthtlnterrogcUory Point 
 A note of interrogation is used at the end of an interroga- 
 tive sentence ; that is, when a question is asked ; as, ' Who 
 will accompany me ?* * Shall we always be friends ? 
 
 Questions which a person asks himself in contemplation, 
 ought to be terminated by points of interrogation ; as, 'Who 
 adorned the heavens with such exquisite beauty ?' ' At v^hose 
 command do the planets perform their constant revolutions ? 
 
 » To whom can riches give repute and trust, 
 Content or pleasure, but the good and just ?' 
 
 A point of interrogation is improper after sentences which 
 are not questions, but only expressions of admiration, or of 
 some other enaotion. 
 
PUNCTlTATIOjr. 247 
 
 * How many instances have we of chastity and excellence 
 in the fair sex !' 
 
 * With what prudence does the son of Sirach advise us, in 
 the choice of our companions !' 
 
 A note of interrogation should not be employed in cases 
 where it is only said a question has been asked, and where the 
 words are not used as a question. * The Cyperians asked me 
 why I wept.' To give this sentence the interrogative form, it 
 should be expressed thus ; " The Cyperians said to me, * Why 
 dost thou weep ?' " 
 
 Section 3. 
 
 Of the Exclamniory Point, 
 
 The note of Exclamation is applied to expressions of sud- 
 den emotion, surprise, joy, grief, &c., and also to invocations 
 or addresses ; as, * My friend I this conduct amazes me !' ' Bless 
 the Lord, O my soul ! and forget not all his benefits !' 
 
 ' Oh ! had we both our humble state maintained, 
 And safe in pt^ace and poverty remained I' 
 
 * Hear mc, O Lord ! for thy loving kindness is great !' 
 
 ft is difficult, in some cases, to distinguish between an inter- 
 rogative and exclamatory sentence ; but a sentence in which 
 any wonder or admiration is expressed, and no answer either 
 expected or implied, may be always properly terminated by a 
 note of exclanmtion ; as, ' How much vanity in the pursuits of 
 men !' * Who can sufficiently express the goodness of our Cre- 
 ator !' ' What is more amiable than virtue !' 
 
 The interrogation and exclamation points are indeterminate 
 as to their quantity or time, and may be equivalent, in that re- 
 spect, to a semicolon, a colon, or a })eriod, as the sense may 
 require. They mark an elevation of the voice. 
 
 The utihty of the points of interrogation and exclamation 
 appears from the following examples, in which the meaning is 
 signified and discriminated solely by the points. 
 
 ' What condescension !' 
 ' What condescension ?' 
 
 ♦ How great was the sacrifice !* 
 
 • How great was the sacrific* ?' 
 
 Section 4. 
 Of the Parenthesis* 
 A Parenthesis is a clause containing some necessary infor- 
 mation, or useful remark, introduced into the body of a sen- 
 tence obhquely, and which may be omitted without injuring 
 the grammatical construction ; as, 
 
 * Know then this truth, (enough for man to know,) 
 Virtue alone ia happiness below.' 
 
248 PUNCTUATION. 
 
 * And was the ransom paid ? It was ; and paid 
 ' (What can exalt his bounty more?) for thee.' 
 
 * To gain a posthumous reputation, is to save four or five 
 letters (for w^hat is a name besides ?) from oblivion.' * Know 
 ye not, brethren, (for I speak to them that know the law,) how 
 that the law hath dominion over a man as long as he liveth?' 
 
 If the incidental clause is short, or perfectly coincides with 
 the rest of the sentence, it is not proper to use the parenthet- 
 ical characters. The following instances are, therefore, im- 
 proper uses of the parenthesis. 'Speak you (who saw) his 
 wonders in the deep.' ' Every planet (as the Creator has made 
 nothing in vain) is most probably inhabited.' ' He found them 
 asleep again ; (for their eyes were heavy;) neither knew they 
 what to answer him.' 
 
 The parenthesis generally marks a moderate depression of 
 the voice, and may be accompanied with every point which 
 the sense would require if the parenthetical characters were 
 omitted. It ought to terminate with the same kind of stop 
 which the member has, that precedes it, and to contain that 
 stop within the parenthetical marks. We must, however, ex- 
 cept cases of interrogation and exclamation ; as, ' While they 
 wish to please, (and why should they not wish it ?) they disdain 
 dishonorable means.' ' It was represented by an analogy, (oh, 
 how inadequate !) which was borrowed from the religion of 
 paganism.' 
 
 CHAPTER VX. 
 
 OF THE APOSTROPHE, CARET, &c. 
 
 There are other characters, which are frequently made 
 use of in composition, and which may be explained in this 
 place, viz. 
 
 An Apostrophe, marked thus '^ is used to abbreviate or 
 shorten a word ; as, 'tis for it is; tho' for though; e'en for 
 even; judg'd {ox judged. Its chief use is to show the gen- 
 itive case of nouns ; as, * A man's property \' * a woman's 
 ornament.' 
 
 A Caret, marked thus a, is placed where some word or 
 letter happens to be left out in writing, and which is insert- 
 ed over the line. This mark is also called a circumflex, 
 when placed over a particular vowel, to denote a long syl- 
 lable ; as, * Euphrates.' 
 
 A Hyphen, marked thus -, is employed in connecting 
 
PUNCTUATION. 049 
 
 compound words ; as, ' Lap-dog, tea-pot, pre-existence, 
 self-love, to-morrow, mother-in-law.' 
 
 It is also used when a word is divided, and the former 
 part is written lor printed at the end of one line, and the 
 latter part at the beginning of another. In this case, it is 
 placed at the end of the first line, not at the beginning of 
 the second. 
 
 The Acute Accent, marked thus ' ; as, * Fancy.' The 
 Grave, thus ' ; as, ' F^vor.' 
 
 In English, the accentual marks are chiefly used in 
 spelling-books and dictionaries, to mark the syllables 
 which require a particular stress of the voice in pronun- 
 ciation. 
 
 The stress is laid on long and short syllables indiscrim- 
 inately. In order to distinguish the one from the other, 
 some writers of dictionaries have placed the grave on the 
 former, and the acute on the latter, in this manner : * Minor, 
 mineral, lively, lived, rival, river.' 
 
 The proper mark to distinguish a long syllable, is this ' ; 
 as, * Rosy ;' and a short one this " ; as, * Folly.' This last 
 mark is called a breve. 
 
 A Diaeresis, thus marked ", consists of two poidts placed 
 over one of the vowels that would otherwise make a diph- 
 thong, and parts them into two syllables ; as, * Creator, 
 coadjutor, aerial.' 
 
 A Section, marked thus §, is the division of a discourse 
 or chapter into less parts or portions. 
 
 A Paragraph |f denotes the beginning of a new sub- 
 ject, or a sentence not connected with the foregoing. 
 This character is chiefly used in the Old and in the New 
 Testament. 
 
 A Quotation " ". Two inverted commas are generally 
 placed at the beginning of a phrase or passage, which is 
 quoted or transcribed from the speaker or author in his own 
 words ; and two apostrophes, in their direct position, are 
 placed at the conclusion ; as, 
 
 " The proper study of mankind is man." 
 
 Crotchets or Brackets [ J serve to enclose a word or sen- 
 tence, which is to be explained in a note, or the explanation 
 itself, or a word or sentence which is intended to supply 
 some deficiency, or to rectify some mistake. 
 
250 PUNCTUATION. 
 
 An Index or Hand ([j^ points out a remarkable passage, 
 or something that requires particular attention. 
 
 A Brace > is used in poetry at the end of a triplet, or 
 
 three lines which have the same rhyme. 
 
 Braces are also used to connect a number of words with 
 one common term, and are introduced to prevent a repeti- 
 tion in writing or printing. 
 
 An Asterisk, or little star *, directs the reader to some 
 note in the margin, or at the bottom of the page. Two or 
 three asterisks generally denote the omission of some let- 
 ters in a word, or of some bold or indelicate expression, or 
 some defect in the manuscript. 
 
 An Ellipsis is also used when some letters in a 
 
 word, or some words in a verse, are omitted ; as, * The 
 k—g,' for ' The king.' 
 
 An Obelisk, which is marked thus t, and Parallels, thus 
 II, together with the letters of the alphabet, and figures, 
 are used as references to the margin, or bottom of the 
 page. 
 
 CHAPTER Vn. 
 
 DIRECTIONS RESPECTING THE USE OF CAPITAL 
 LETTERS. 
 
 As the commencement of every sentence is distinguished by 
 a capital letter, and as capitals frequently occur in otlier parts 
 of a sentence ; it is necessary to give you some directions re- 
 specting their proper application. 
 
 It was formerly the custom to begin every noun with a cap- 
 ital ; but as this practice was troublesome, and gave the writing 
 or printing a crowded and confused appearance, it has been 
 discontinued. It is, however, very proper to begin with a 
 capital, 
 
 1. The first word of every book, chapter, letter, note, or any 
 other piece of writing. 
 
 2. The first word after a period ; and, if the two sentences 
 are totally independent^ after a note of interrogation or excla- 
 mation. 
 
 But if a number of interrogative or exclamatory sentences 
 are thrown into one general group ; or if the construction of 
 the latter sentences depends on the former, all of them, except 
 the first, may begin with a small letter ; as, * How long, ye 
 
PUNCTUATION. 251 
 
 simple ones, will ye love simplicity ? and the scorners delight 
 in their scorning ? and fools hate knowledge ?' * Alas ! how 
 different ! yet how like the same !' 
 
 3. The appellations of the Deity ; as, * God, Jehovah, the 
 Almighty, the Supreme Being, the Lord, Providence, the Mes- 
 siah, the Holy Spirit.* 
 
 4. Proper names of persons, places, streets, mountains, 
 rivers, ships ; as, ' George, York, the Strand, the Alps, the 
 Thames, the Seahorse.' 
 
 5. Adjectives derived from the proper names of places ; as, 
 'Grecian, Roman, English, French, and Italian.' 
 
 6. The first word of a quotation, introduced after a colon, 
 or when it is in a direct form ; as, " Always remember this an- 
 cient maxim: ' Know thyself.' " * Our great Lawgiver says: 
 
 * Take up the cross daily, and follow me.' " But when a quota- 
 tion is brought in obliquely after a comma, a capital is unne- 
 cessary ; as, " Solomon observes, * that pride goes before destruc- 
 
 , tion.' " 
 
 The first word of an example may also very properly begin 
 with a capital ; as, * Temptation proves our virtue.' 
 
 7. Every substantive and principal word in the titles of 
 books ; as, * Johnson's Dictionary of the English Language :' 
 
 * Thomson's Seasons:' *Rollin's Ancient History.' 
 
 8. The first word of every line in poetry. 
 
 9. The pronoun /, and the interjection O, are written in cap- 
 itals ; as, * I write ;' * Hear, O earth !' 
 
 Other words, besides the preceding, may be'gin with capitals, 
 when they are remarkably emphatical, or the principal subject 
 of the composition. 
 
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