Utome ano Scbool Series Edited by PAUL MONROE, Ph.D. A HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA ?Home anfc Scbool Series Edited by PAUL MONROE, Ph.D. EDUCATION THROUGH PLAY. By Henry S. Curtis, former Secretary of Playground Association of America and Supervisor of Play- grounds of the District of Columbia. PRACTICAL CONDUCT OF PLAY. By Henry S. Curtis. FROEBEL'S KINDERGARTEN PRINCIPLES CRITICALLY EXAMINED. By William Heard Kilpatrick, Ph.D., Associate Professor of Education, Teachers College, Columbia University. THE ART OF EDUCATION. By Ira W. Howerth, Ph.D., Director of University Extension Division, University of California. A HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA. By Cornelius J. Heatwole, Department of Edu- cation, State Normal School for Women, Harrison- burg, Va, A HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA BY CORNELIUS J. HEATWOLE, B.S., A.M. 1 1 PROFESSOR OF EDUCATION IN THE STATE NORMAL SCHOOL, HARRISONBURG, VIRGINIA THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 1916 AU rights reserved COPYBIOHT, 1916, By THE MACMILLAN COMPANY. Set up and electrotyped. Published May, 1916. NottootrtJ $«?$» J. S. Cushing Co. — Berwick & Smith Co. Norwood, Mass., U.S.A. DEDICATED TO THE MEMORY OF WILLIAM H. RUFFNER THE FIRST STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION WHO LIT THE TORCH OF PUBLIC EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA JOSEPH D. EGGLESTON STATE SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION FROM 1906-1918, WHO HELD THE TORCH HIGH UNTIL ITS LIGHT PENETRATED THE REMOTEST PARTS OF THE STATE 357324 PREFACE In the preparation of this volume, I have been actuated by a desire to make the history of Education in Virginia accessible to teachers and students, and to place it within the reach of all who have any wish to become acquainted with the story of the educational progress of the State. It need not be said that it is impossible to describe within the limits of this volume the whole history of education in Virginia. Out of the mass of material which would have filled many volumes, the effort has been made to select only the essential facts and tell a brief story of the growth centering about these salient features. Throughout the course of this book, I have tried to acknowledge in the text the valuable help I have received from numerous published works; but it gives me pleasure to record my vii PREFACE special indebtedness to Dr. Lyon G. Tyler, President of William and Mary College, who supplied me with the valuable fruits of his own difficult and original research; to my wife, Sue Porter Heatwole, for a piece of research in the files of The Virginia Gazette; to Mr. E. G. Swem, of the Virginia State Library at Rich- mond, for courtesies in making available valu- able documents ; to President Joseph D. Eggles- ton, of Virginia Polytechnic Institute, Blacks- burg, Virginia, for suggestions and personal papers ; to President Edwin A. Alderman, of the University of Virginia, for his sympathetic inter- est and timely suggestions ; to Professor James C. Johnston, of the State Normal School, Harri- sonburg, Virginia, who read the manuscript and offered suggestions as to its form ; and to Doctor Paul Monroe, of Teachers College, New York, for his never failing interest, his scholarly and suggestive advice and criticism. CORNELIUS J. HEATWOLE. State Normal School, Harrisonburg, Virginia, March 1, 1916. viii INTRODUCTION Life in colonial Virginia was more nearly a reproduction of English society than that in any other colony. In his famous sermon be- fore Lord Delaware and his company on the eve of their departure for the colony, the Cambridge divine, Cranshaw, said, refuting the charge that the Virginia settlers were the offscouring of England — "They are like those left behind, even of all sorts better and worse." The Rev. Hugh Jones, writing in 1724 on "The Present State of Virginia," stated that the gentry "live in a neat manner, dress after the same modes and beha>e themselves exactly *as the gentry in London." Even more to the point, so far as this study is concerned, is the famous reply of Governor Berkeley in 1671 to the in- quiry of the home government as to the course taken concerning churches and schools. The INTRODUCTION governor replied, "The same course that is taken in England out of town; every man ac- cording to his ability instructing his children." Another portion of the testy old governor's reply, thanking God that there were no free schools or printing, is often quoted, but the really significant statement quoted above is seldom given. Neither the efforts nor the needs of a sparsely settled frontier country, no matter how well- to-do the aristocratic class, could be expected to result in an extensive system of schools. The apprentice education for the laboring class confined to agriculture; tutorial education in the homes of the wealthy landed proprietors ; endowed Latin grammar schools for youth as- piring to the professions; a university for the training of teachers in church and common- wealth — this was the plan of education evolved. It closely paralleled the educational N scheme which sufficed in England until near the close of the nineteenth century. For the first three quarters of a century of our national existence, Virginia's educational INTRODUCTION problem was more complicated than that of most of her sister states. In politics she had accepted a democratic government, while her society was organized on an aristocratic basis. A system of human slavery was also included which hindered any radical modification of the actual social structure by the new political theories. However, these theories had their natural result in the field of education, and a system of free schools was instituted by law, based on a general state fund — the Literary Fund — which was generous for the times and probably as adequate a beginning as that made by other states. y Few if any of the so-called free school sys- tems of the ante-bellum period were in reality free. All were founded on a combination of appropriations from state and local funds with large contributions from the parents of the pupils in the form of rates for tuition. In New York and New England the state and local funds were used to support in each locality a free school for a period. This being in almost all instances short, the school was continued as xi INTRODUCTION a pay school, rates for tuition being collected from the pupils. Naturally the poorer chil- dren dropped out and the public school became a private school. In Pennsylvania and other states farther south the public funds were used to pay the tuition charges of all children whose parents were not able to pay, and the school was not free to the well-to-do for any part of the year. Consequently the free school became a "charity school" or a "pauper school" and could not thrive in a country where demo- cratic principles were professed. However, it is to be noted that this charity school plan was quite in accord with the individualistic senti- ments then generally accepted in all the states, — principles which were commonly identified with democracy and quite as commonly op- posed to any increase of governmental ac- tivity. Pennsylvania and the newer western states, some of which had followed the charity school plan, in time abandoned it for a school system which was free in fact as well as in name. Virginia, with her dominant aristo- cratic sentiment and under the fundamental xii INTRODUCTION economic influence of the system of slavery, was unable to do this. But, hated by its supposed beneficiaries, scorned or manipulated by those responsible for its administration, the charity school could not thrive. After the war the problem remained. Com- plicated by economic impoverishment and the burden of the freedmen, free public education which previously seemed undesirable now seemed impossible even if desirable. Yet a free school system was adopted and earnest efforts were made to materialize all its features. Nevertheless much of the old aristocratic op- position remained and much indifference was evident. Two decades passed and another era opened. The new heart of a broader social vision, the new blood of economic energy, the new nerves of renewed political life, revivified the educa- tional system. Out of the "new south" came the "educational revival." Virginia with her neighboring states formed the vanguard in that movement in which all of our common- wealths must engage if our nation is to retain xiii INTRODUCTION its leadership, in that effort to make political right practicable, the distribution of economic good equitable, the dissemination of intelli- gence universal, the participation of the com- mon man in the racial achievements assured. Never before has democracy been so put to the test as it is now and will be in the coming generations. Education offers the greatest hope for the successful meeting of the issue. But it must be an education which affects every member of society, giving him efficiency in con- tributing to the welfare and the progress of society, and at the same time fitting him for a satisfactory life of his own. Toward this goal the new education is striv- ing. Virginia has definitely committed herself to this new crusade. To the training of the teachers upon whom the greater burden falls every support should be given. Instruction which makes clear to them the setting as well as the object of their work, which shows what has been overcome as well as what remains to be done, is of value. To this end, this volume of Mr. Heatwole, accurate in fact, judicial in xiv INTRODUCTION temper, loyal in its ideals, cannot fail to be of definite value to every teacher of "the old Dominion." Paul Monroe. New York, March, 1916. xv TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGES Introduction ix-xv v I. Education in England at the Time of the Settlements in America 1-15 j II. Antecedents of the Virginia Col- onists; Social and Political Conditions Affecting Education 16-26 - III. The Rise of Elementary Schools in Virginia 27-39 f IV. Early Attempts to Establish Free Schools in Virginia . . . 40-61 V. Higher Education in Virginia during the seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries . . . 62-68 VI. William and Mary College . . 69-99 VII. First State Support of Public Edu- cation 100-123 VIII. Period of the Academies . . 124-136 IX. Higher Education in Virginia, 1775-1860 137-170 X. State Institutions for Higher Learning. University of Vir- ginia 171-198 xvii TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGES XI. State Institutions for Higher Learning. State Schools of Technology .... 199-209 » XII. A State Public School System Inaugurated 210-245 XIII. Subsequent Development of the Public Free School System . 246-261 XIV. Development of City School Sys- tems 262-279 XV. Higher Education for Women in Virginia 280-304 XVI. Educational Renaissance in Vir- ginia 305-320 XVII. Modern Period of Educational Achievement .... 321-348 XVIII. Education of the Negroes in Vir- ginia 349-365 XIX. Special Technical Schools . . 366-373 Bibliography 375-377 Index 379-382 xvm A HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA CHAPTER I EDUCATION IN ENGLAND AT THE TIME OF THE SETTLEMENTS IN AMERICA yThe Roots of American Institutions. — The roots of American institutions are to be found particularly in England, whence came the early settlers of America. This is particularly true of early Virginia institutions. Many laws of England were put into force and remained in force for some time in Virginia during the early years of the Virginia colony.- These laws were abandoned only when the condi- tions in the new country were such as to de- mand new and different methods of meeting the various governmental problems. 1 The apprenticeship laws of 1672, in force in Virginia at that time, were exactly the same 1 See " Institutional History of Virginia," Bruce, Vol. I, pp. 465-67. B 1 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA as the English laws governing apprentices in that country. The following extract from the old Virginia laws indicates this fact: That the justices of the peace in any county doe put the laws of England against vagrants and idlers and dissolute persons in strict execution, and the respective county court shall and are hereby empowered and author- ized to place out all children whose parents are not able to bring them up apprentices to tradesmen. 1 The English church was transplanted bodily to Virginia soil. Social customs, forms of government, and educational institutions were patterned after those of England, if not trans- ferred in identical form to Virginia. That we may better understand this interesting historical fact, it is well to take a brief view of some educational institutions in England at the time Virginia was being settled. The Church and Education in England. — The history of education in England is closely connected with the history of the church in that country. There was no general legislation re- garding education during the early centuries of English national life. It is an interesting i Hening, Vol. II, p. 298. EDUCATION IN ENGLAND fact that the English nation was the last among the great nations of Europe to develop a na- tional system of education. America, even, with her unique system of state education, preceded England by half a century or more in developing an effective system of education for the American people. Between 1539 and 1833 there was no legislation in England encouraging schools, except a few acts concerning colleges and secondary schools. The Dissolution of the Monasteries. — The dissolution of the monasteries by Henry VIII in 1539 transferred to the king about one thou- sand religious institutions. Among other or- ganized activities connected with these institu- tions was the care of the vast number of poor in England, which consisted of about one-sixth of the total population. By means of vast tracts of land owned by these religious organi- zations, they were able by rents to collect the means by which to care for the material wants and give training to the poor of the realm. This sweeping bit of legislation transferred to the king the enormous responsibility of caring 3 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA for the poor. By way of meeting this new re- sponsibility, Parliament passed that remarkable series of acts known as the " Poor Laws," which, while not educational in their intent, neverthe- less formed the basis for the training of a vast number of children in the simple arts of life. Apprenticeship and Poor Laws. — A series of acts in the reign of Edward III formed the basis for the apprenticing of all the unemployed in the realm. The main features of these laws were: (1) any one not apprenticed should be bound to the first applicant; (2) wages were set by law, and in the case of any one receiving higher wages, the apprentice and the one to whom he was bound were punished; (3) these laws were enforced by the magistrates (civil officers), who belonged to the gentry class, and, in this way, the upper class was in complete control of the lower or dependent class; (4) the statutes of labor provided that any one not em- ployed could be forced to be bound to a man for husbandry; (5) women unmarried between the ages of twelve and forty could be forced into service, especially at harvest time; (6) it was 4 EDUCATION IN ENGLAND necessary that parents who apprenticed a child should own a certain amount of property; (7) the master of the apprentice was bound to give to his ward all the arts, secrets, and mysteries of the trade; (8) no apprentice could quit work without the consent of two magis- trates. All this was a form of teaching where the master was responsible for the teaching. In Virginia these same laws were carried out in the early period of the colony. In England these laws sought to place the populace under the control of the gentry class. If any one was I able to work and did not, he was punished by longer service under the master. At-the second offence one ear was cropped, and at the third offence he was put to death. There are on the, statute books of England as many as eighty offences punishable by death. Direct Tax for the Support of the Poor. — In 1553 two officers were appointed in each com- munity or county to collect money for the sup- port of the poor. They had the power after- ward to force those able to give, to contribute 5 K HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA to this cause. This is known as the " first relief " of the poor and was spoken of as " vol- untary gifts." There are two interesting aspects of these laws : (1) the state's responsibility for providing in- dustrial training for the poor, and (2) the right to levy taxes for securing funds for this training. The main purposes of these acts were: (1) to put all children to work; (2) to put all adults to work; (3) to furnish hemp, flax, etc., — material for the children to work with; and (4) the support of the deaf and the blind. These were the practical provisions of the Poor Laws which formed the basis of the social system of England and the basis of the laws of America whereby the poor were trained. Summary of the English Poor Laws. — From 1563 to 1597 the English Poor Laws contained the following provisions: (1) the requirement that all youth not of independent living should be bound to masters ; (2) the distinct obligation of those in authority to provide for the appren- ticing of all such children. From 1597 to 1661 there was further development of these laws, 6 EDUCATION IN ENGLAND providing (1) that the overseers of the poor should furnish materials to be used by the poor children; (2) that these officers should have the power to use the funds procured from a general tax rate for the support of these apprenticed children; and (3) that these overseers should have the right to purchase material for the use of the children. These laws are the basis of all early colonial plans for education in America. Virginia fol- lowed them more strictly than the other colonies. Privileges of the Schoolmasters. — School- masters were favored remarkably by being exempt from taxes and " ordinary payment " and personal service usually charged upon other subjects. In 1582 all schoolmasters were as- sessed, and there being some question about the rights of schoolmasters, they sent a petition to the Chancellor and Lord of Exchequer, praying that they be relieved from this unusual action of the assessors. The court decided /In favor of the schoolmasters, and they continued to enjoy their usual privileges. This is probably the first instance of combining among schoolmasters. 7 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA In matters of religion the schoolmaster was allowed no freedom. The Oath of Supremacy (Statute 5, Elizabeth, 1562-3) was administered to all schoolmasters and private teachers of children. Many of the grammar foundations became elementary schools. With the changes in religious controversies and the changes in the rulers, the teaching in the grammar schools was more than elementary training. Latin was the core of the curriculum. A knowledge of this language was necessary for the learned and state officials. Without Latin, the social ma- chinery of the land would have been clogged. In every manor was found some one who could write and keep accounts in Latin. It was the language of the ecclesiastics; their rubrics, canons, liturgies, and the Bible itself were written in Latin. Ecclesiastical correspondence all over the world was in this language. The one main object of the grammar schools then was the teaching of the Latin language. The civic, the ecclesiastical, and the social demand for this language made it a most practical aim in education. 8 EDUCATION IN ENGLAND Licensing of Teachers. — The church au- thorities maintained the, strictest control over the schoolmaster. The training they gave in the schools was thought of as a preparation for taking part in the church service and npt so much a matter of preparing the children for citizenship or vocational activity. For this reason, it was very important that the clergy of the Church of England control the content of the teaching in the schools ; so from 1560 to 1640 there are records of various orders sent out by the bishops to the parish clergy, mak- ing inquiry into the condition of the schools and the schoolmasters within their respective parishes, particularly inquiring into their re- ligious beliefs and practices. In 1580 the Arch- bishop of Canterbury issued a letter on the sub- ject of schoolmasters " falling off " from the Church of England, and ordered that they be examined and, if found " corrupt or unworthy," they be replaced by "fit and sound persons." The following quotation from their orders shows the definite nature of the demands of the church on this point. 9 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA IV Item. What schoolmasters are within their parish and what their names are, that teach publicly or privately within any man's house within your parish, of what state, calling or condition soever he or they be, in whose house or houses any such schoolmaster or teacher is ? V Item. Whether any such schoolmaster or school- masters is reported known or suspected to be back- ward in religion, now established by the laws of the realm, that are thought any way to be secret hinderers thereof ? * A statutory act of the realm followed these orders in 1581, which required teachers to hold licenses from the bishop or ordinary, on pain of his allowance being withheld, and if a teacher were found " teaching youth " contrary to this act, he shall " suffer ymprisonment with- out baile or maineprise for one yeare." A little later (December 12, 1582) the Bishop of London issued an order for all schoolmasters, public and private, to be examined, to the end that those of unsound religion may be re- moved. The form of the license was as follows : John, by divine providence Archbishop of Canterbury of all England, primate and metropolitan : To all Chris- 1 "State Intervention in English Education," De Montmorency, p. 94. 10 EDUCATION IN ENGLAND tian people to whom these presents shall come, sendeth greeting in our Lord God everlasting. These are to let you understand that upon receipt of sufficient testimony of the good life and conversation of William Swetnam of the parish of St. Margaret Patens in London, fishmonger, and upon further examination of him, being first sworn in due form to the supremacy of the Queen's Most Excel- lent Majesty and subscribing to the articles agreed upon by the clergy in Anno 1562, we have licensed and by these presents do license the said William Swetnam to teach and instruct children in the principles of reading and introduction into the accidents and also to write and cast accounts in any parish within the city of London. 1 The license was to be in- force during good behavior, and further duties were enjoined upon William Swetnam to instruct the children in the catechism and to bring them to the service on Sabbaths and feast days. Grammar and Charity Schools in England. — The church in England developed two distinct types of schools: (1) the Latin Grammar Schools (secondary schools), and (2) the Chantry and Charity Schools (elementary schools). The only really effective schools in England at the time of the Reformation were the grammar 1 Ibid., p. 96. 11 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA schools. When the Chantries were dissolved (1539) by Henry VIII, the whole of secondary education in England would have been swept away had not some of the provisions for the instruction of the middle classes been made by continuing some of the educational endowments which " pious founders had previously pro- vided." > The Curriculum of the Grammar Schools. 2 — The whole number of boys in school was divided into five or six ranks, the undermasters teaching the first three classes and the head-master the three upper classes. No one was admitted to the school who could not read readily and did not know by heart in the vernacular the Lord's Prayer, the Angelic Salutation, the Apostles' Creed, and the Ten Commandments. The following is an abbreviated statement of what the boys studied in each form or class : The first class. — The boys learned the rudi- ments of English, put together the parts of 1 "State Intervention in English Education," De Montmorency, p. 64 (1902). 2 See Educational Charters, A. F. Leach, pp. 465-69. 12 EDUCATION IN ENGLAND speech, and were taught to turn a short phrase of English into Latin. The second class. — The boys were required to know the genders of nouns, the inflection of verbs, written in Latin. They were to run through Cato's Verses, iEsop's Fables, and Some Familiar Colloquies. The third class. — The boys were given train- ing in making sight varyings on the nouns and anomalous verbs. They were to learn Ter- ence's Comedies and Mantuan's Eclogues. The fourth class. — Here the boys took up the study of Latin syntax. They were practised in the stories of the poets and letters of learned men. The fifth class. — The boys committed to memory the figures of Latin oratory, and the rules for verse-making and polishing themes. They were required to translate parts of " the chastest poets " and the best historians. The sixth class. — Here the boys were in- structed in the formulas of the copiousness of words and things, written by Erasmus. They learned to make varyings of speech, to acquire 13 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA the art of speaking Latin, " as far as it is possi- ble for boys." They were required to " taste " Horace, Cicero, and other authors. In addition to all this, they had exercises in disputation with one another, and also exercises in declama- tion. All this they had that they might be well learned in the " school of argument." General Summary. — It will be observed from the foregoing brief statement concerning some of the types of schools in England at the time America was settled (1) that there was a system of caring for the poor and apprenticed children, by teaching them some of the simple trades ; (2) that funds from the general tax rate were used in providing materials for the use of these children; (3) that grammar schools were established, largely by private endowment, the state having no other connection with them than the granting of charters to these schools; (4) that charity or Chantry schools (elementary schools) were organized either by the church or by private endowment; (5) that teachers received their licenses from either the bishop or the king; (6) that the curriculum for the 14 EDUCATION IN ENGLAND grammar school was made up of religious learn- ing, Latin, and the art of disputation. With these facts in mind, one is able to understand better the early educational activities in Vir- ginia. 15 CHAPTER II ANTECEDENTS OF THE VIRGINIA COLONISTS; SO- CIAL AND POLITICAL CONDITIONS AFFECTING EDUCATION The Early Settlers. — The London Company numbered among its stockholders some of the greatest noblemen of England. The first party landing on Virginia soil at Jamestown in 1609 consisted of fifty -five gentlemen out of one hundred persons. Twelve of this hundred were servants ; the rest were workmen. In the first supply were one hundred persons, thirty- three of whom were gentlemen. The rest were " laborers and footmen." < In the second supply there were seventy persons in all, twenty-eight of whom were gentlemen. The third supply was spoken of by John Smith as a lewd company." Among them were " unruly gal- lants, packed thither by their friends to escape ill destinies." Of the five hundred persons 16 ANTECEDENTS OF THE VIRGINIA COLONISTS alive in Virginia in 1609, all but sixty had died by May of the following year. 1 The London Company evidently was not pleased with the result of the first attempt to establish a commercial enterprise in Virginia. During the following years they sought to encourage a different type of emigrants to settle in Virginia, — men who were more suited to the rough task of clearing away the woods, building huts, and planting corn. The immi- # grant vessels were now filled with laborers, artisans, tradesmen, apprentices, and inden- tured servants. 2 In 1617, 1871 laborers came to Virginia. In 1625 they had a system of land grants which provided that for every servant brought over by any one, one hundred acres of land would be given. 3 This system tended to people Virginia with two distinct classes, a strong upper or gentry class and a large servant class. Many of these tradesmen and " indentured " 1 "Old Virginia and Her Neighbors," Fiske, Vol. I, p. 154. 2 " Patrician and Plebeian in Virginia," Wertenbaker, p. 9. 3 Sir George Yeardley received 15,000 acres for bringing to Virginia three hundred persons. Proceedings of London Company, Vol. I, p. 160. c 17 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA servants in time became powerful and held important positions jn the government, and later became influential in the economic and social affairs of the colony. After the colony had gotten a good start, there was opportunity for amassing wealth in the tobacco trade and commerce in other commodities of Virginia. In 1644 there were 15,000 people in Virginia. In 1666 there were 40,000. In 1671 Gov- ernor Berkeley estimated that 1500 came an- nually to Virginia. Many of these were prisoners of war. From 1653 to 1655 hun- dreds of unfortunate Irishmen suffered the consequence of their resistance by being banished to the plantation. 1 The Scotch Re- bellion (1678) was the occasion of another ex- portation of captive soldiers to Virginia 'and elsewhere. The Scotch and the Irish, while prisoners of war, were sold as indentured ser- vants to the Virginia planters. Some of these were cultured persons, and in some instances men of means. There are many instances of persons of gentle blood becoming indentured 1 "Economic History of Virginia," Vol. I, p. 609. 18 ANTECEDENTS OF THE VIRGINIA COLONISTS servants to lawyers and physicians in order to acquire a knowledge of those professions. 1 Tutors were sometimes brought over from Eng- land under terms of indenture. During the period from 1620 to 1750, about 80,000 inden- tured servants and redemptioners were brought to Virginia. 2 It will be understood from these figures that a great majority of the people brought to Virginia during the colonial period were of the lower or servant class. A conten- tion has arisen among some historians as to whether or not the Virginia aristocracy de- veloped within the colony itself by the rise of some of this lower class into economic and social influence. Whatever the fact, it must be con- ceded that the Virginia planters, though few in number, were the ruling class for nearly two centuries, and were responsible for the aris- tocratic type of society in Virginia. It will be seen from the foregoing facts that the Virginia colonists were made up of three classes of people: (1) the higher class of cul- 1 Ibid., p. 574. 2 " Patrician and Plebeian in Virginia," Wertenbaker, p. 160. 19 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA tured Englishmen, known as gentlemen, includ- ing the clergy ; (2) a more or less heterogeneous class of merchants, tradesmen, skilled laborers, and cultured indentured servants; (3) the lower class of laborers to work in the tobacco fields, including the negro slaves. The second class became in time, as they grew economically independent, more powerful, and developed into a strong middle class in the latter part of the eighteenth century. The planters who came early developed the plantation system which is dependent upon a large servant class. The people of Virginia in the early colonial period were often spoken of as "gentlemen, officers, and servants." The Plantation System in Virginia. — The London Company was most interested in mak- ing an industrial enterprise out of the Vir- ginia settlement. The main purpose was to increase English commerce. The climate, soil, rivers, and creeks lent themselves readily to agricultural activities, especially after the com- mercial value of tobacco had been demon- strated. Many persons, after having engaged in mercantile business for a time, bought lands 20 ANTECEDENTS OF THE VIRGINIA COLONISTS and raised tobacco. This was the most profit- able pursuit in the colony, and, as lands were cheap and plentiful, it was a comparatively easy matter to develop the industry of tobacco- raising to large proportions. It required many laborers of the unskilled type. These had to be provided for, and the living arrangements necessary for this large number of workers had to be considered by the planters. In this way the plantation system of carrying on agricultural activities was developed in Virginia. A few men, by grants or purchase, held large acreages, and, in time, established homes, having erected large mansion houses, and, with the income from the sales of their products, they were able to import to Virginia all the furnishings in the way of comforts and luxuries that might be found in the well-to-do English homes. It often happened that one man owned all the land within a radius of six or ten miles of his mansion house. This made him lord of everything within that territory. The numerous rivers and creeks were navigable far inland by sea-going vessels. 21 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA The planters built their houses along the rivers for the convenience of shipping. The various governors, by authority of the English sove- reign, made efforts to establish manufactories and build towns, but these efforts failed, and Virginia has always remained an agricultural and rural community. The plantation system prevailed, and the planters were the most powerful men in the colony. They, by reason of the vast number of workmen in connection with the plantation, learned to govern their men, and, as a result, their power was felt, socially, economically, religiously, and politi- cally. They were looked upon as the natural leaders, and they were elected to the important offices in the colony. All the round of arts and industries went on in connection with the plantation. The plantations were the local centres of population, and the planter was the overlord. General John Mason gives an in- teresting picture of plantation life: My father had among his slaves carpenters, tanners, curriers, shoemakers, spinners, weavers, knitters, and even a distiller. 22 ANTECEDENTS OF THE VIRGINIA COLONISTS The raw materials for these artisans were found on the plantation. Colonel Mason had five hundred persons on his estate, and is known to have shipped from his private wharf 23,000 bushels of wheat in a single shipment. 1 Social and Political Influence of the Planters. — After the first decade of struggles connected with the settlement at Jamestown, the Virginia colonists began to develop large agricultural enterprises. The men who first developed this type of life in Virginia were " gentlemen." A few were of the titled nobility from England, and were the natural leaders in all important affairs of the colony. They brought with them from England the social and political customs of the mother country. They held the offices in the govern- ment of the colony, and were the social leaders and church officials. They were the educated and cultured class in the colony. They had immediate control of the lower class, either as hired workmen on their plantations or as inden- 1 "Old Virginia and Her Neighbors," Fiske, Vol. I, p. 234. 23 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA tured servants. 1 In such a social system an aristocratic form of society will always prevail. This was the type of social system that developed in Virginia and persisted for at least two centuries. Influence of the Physical Features. — Most of the large plantations lay along the deep rivers of the tidewater country, where the planters had private wharfs. These rivers and creeks permeated the country so thoroughly that there was no need of the building of roads, for these streams were the highways of travel. Fiske speaks of Virginia as a " sylvan Venice." One receives the impression in reading of colonial Virginia that all the world lived in country houses on the borders of rivers. 2 Hugh Jones wrote (1724) : No country is better watered, for the convenience of which most houses are built near some landing place so that anything may be delivered to a gentleman there from London, Bristol, etc., with less trouble and cost than to one living five miles in the country in England ; 1 The term of indenture was from four to seven years, but this term might be prolonged indefinitely by reason of offences committed. " Old Virginia and Her Neighbors," Fiske, Vol. II, p. 177. 2 See Miss Rowland's "Life of George Mason," Vol. I, p. 90. 24 ANTECEDENTS OF THE VIRGINIA COLONISTS for you pay no freight from London and but little from Bristol ; only the party to whom the goods belong is in gratitude engaged to ship tobacco upon the ship to her owners in England. There were no towns in the colony of any great size. Jamestown was a mere village ; Hampton, Norfolk, Williamsburg, and Richmond were very small towns in 1700. This state of affairs made necessary the system of plantation manufacture. Summary. — The first leading settlers of Vir- ginia were largely gentlemen. They brought with them to the wilderness in Virginia the traditions, customs, and ideals of Englishmen in the mother country. They engaged in the cultivation of corn and tobacco. The latter soon became the most valuable commercial product, the raising of which required a great army of unskilled laborers. The large profits realized from the tobacco industry, both to the Virginia planter and the English merchant, stimulated the interest in the im- portation of slaves and other kinds of inden- tured servants and redemptioners. Even the skilled workmen and merchants who came to 25 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA carry on trades and mercantile business were encouraged to give up their lines of work and engage in raising tobacco. Thus there developed the plantation system by which large acreages were owned and operated by a single planter, who, in this way, grew economi- cally, socially, and politically powerful, and not only managed his large estate with hundreds of workmen, but held in his control the affairs of the colonial govermnent. These are some of the factors that made possible, if not impera- tive, for the time, at least, the highly aristo- cratic form of society in Virginia. Roughly speaking, there were two classes of people making up the population in Virginia: (1) the rich planters who were comparatively few in number, and (2) the various classes of laborers or servants. There was no strong middle class for nearly two centuries. The planters, or upper class, naturally were in- terested only in an educational system that affected their own children, and hence intro- duced the tutorial system, to which they were accustomed in England^ 26 CHAPTER III THE RISE OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS IN VIRGINIA English Schools Transplanted to Virginia. — The development of elementary schools in Virginia began with the transplanting of English institutions to America. During the first half of the seventeenth century Virginia settlers N set up the same institutions, social, political, ecclesiastical, and educational, to which they were accustomed in the mother country. This transplanting process was more truly carried out in Virginia than in the other colonies in America: (1) because of the distinctive English type of the settlers ; (2) because of the definitely commercial purpose of the colony; and (3) be- cause of the religious, political, and social ideals of the people who came to settle in Virginia. Until about 1619 there were no children in \ Virginia ; therefore, there was no reason for the Virginia settlers to be concerned about educa- tion. In this respect this colony differed from 27 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA the New England settlements, where whole families came over to make their permanent homes in the new world. Orphans Sent to Virginia. — The early educa- tional interest among the people of Virginia con- cerned itself with orphan children that were sent over from the hospitals and asylums in England. The famous Poor Laws and Apprenticeship Laws of England attempted to care for these children. The English colonies in the different parts of the world furnished a refuge for a great number of these children from England. Virginia received her quota of these orphans. In 1619 provision was made for one hundred children to be sent to the Virginia colony. They came from London, and five hundred pounds was sent for their apprenticeship among the colonists, the only stipulation being that they should be taught " some good trade " by their masters. It must have been a very satisfactory arrangement, for in 1620 the colony requested more children. V Apprenticeship Law of 1643. — In 1643 we have the first general legislation regarding the 28 THE RISE OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS care of these orphans. The law provides that these children be brought up in the " Christian religion " and in the " rudiments of learning according to their estates." The law says : The guardians and overseers of all orphants shall care- fully keep and preserve such estates as shall be com- mitted to their trusts either by order of court or other- wise. And shall likewise render an exact accompt once everie year to the commissioners of the several county courts, respectively, of the said estates and of the in- crease and improvement, who are hereby to keep an exact register thereof. And all overseers and guardians of such orphants are enjoyned by authority aforesaid to educate and instruct them according to their best endeavors in Christian religion and in the rudiments of learning and to provide for their necessaries according to the competents of their estate. 1 It will be noticed that this legislative provi- sion called for a type of industrial training in some of the trades and for the " rudiments of learning," which most likely meant reading and writing. It will be noted also that the authority for this training was vested in the civil power (County Courts), but it is most likely that the church provided the teaching ^ening, Vol. I, p. 260. 29 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA force so far as the " rudiments of learning " were concerned, and, in addition, exercised a supervisory power over this education. VApprenticeship Law of 1646. — This act of 1646 is more specific. It provides that the chil- dren shall be brought up in good breeding (learn- ing) and in good and lawful trades. This act contains the interesting description of the school building required and is the first account of this sort of workhouse school in America. It was to be a school for teaching trades. Because of its unique provisions the act is quoted in full. Commissioners of the several counties shall make .choice of two children, male or female, eight or seven v years at least, to be sent to James City (Jamestown) to be employed in the public flax factory work under such master and masters as shall thus be appointed, in card- ing, knitting, spinning, and so on, and that said children shall be furnished from the counties with six barrels of corn, two coverlids, one rugg, one blanket, one bed, one wooden bowl or tray, two pewter spoons, a sow shote of six months, and two laying hens, convenient apparel, both linen and woolen, with hose and shoes. That there be two houses built by the first of April next, forty feet long apeace with good substantial timber. The houses to be twenty feet broad apeace, eight foot high in the pitche, 30 THE RISE OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS and a stack of brick chimney standing in the midst of each house, and that they be lofted with sawne boards and made with convenient partitions, commissioners have caution not to take up children from such parents who by reason of their poverty are disable to maintain and educate them. That the governor hath agreed with the Assembly for the sum of ten thousand pounds of to-bo to be paid him the next crop to build said houses. 1 It is not certain that this plan for an indus- trial school at Jamestown was ever put into actual operation, but there is definite evidence that there were attempts to establish such schools in some of the counties about the middle of the seventeenth century. We have direct evidence that this plan . for industrial training was carried out in some of the schools of secondary grade at this time. The presence of these general laws indicates at least that there was a well-defined sentiment for education among the colonists. The documentary evi- dence for the execution of these laws is to be found only in the proceedings of the " Orphans' Courts " in the various counties in Virginia, and in the parish proceedings of the church ^Hening, Vol. I, pp. 336-37. 31 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA wardens. There is a general statute which provides that the " County Courts " shall give at least one sitting every year for the exclusive purpose of adjusting matters relating to orphans in their respective counties. These county records must have contained orders concerning these individual cases, and in nearly all of the executions the master was to see to it that these children were taught a trade and to " read, write, and cipher." Many times the order contained the stipulation that they were to be trained in the Christian religion. There are provisions in the laws that if an orphan's estate is not sufficient to give him a " free " (liberal) education, he shall be apprenticed to work; also that the courts shall see to it that the or- phans are taught trades and the " rudiments of learning." Apprenticeship Law of 1672. — The act of 1672 contains substantially the same provision that we find in the Apprenticeship and Poor Laws of England. It says : That the justices of the peace in every county doe put the laws of England against vagrants, idlers, and disso- THE RISE OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS lute persons, in strict execution, and the respective county courts shall and are hereby empowered and authorized to place out all the children whose parents are not able to bring them up apprentices to tradesmen, the males till one and twenty years of age and the fe- males to other necessary employment till eighteen years of age and no longer, and the church wardens of every parish shall [be] strictly enjoyned by the courts to give them an account at their Orphans Courts of all such children within their parish. 1 Other general laws (1705) provide that masters shall be compelled to teach orphans to " read and write." This is the first legislative pro- vision requiring reading and writing to be taught. 2 The law of 1748 provides that " any persons adjudged by the County Court incapable of supporting and bringing up their children in honest courses or to take due care of the educa- tion of their children and their instruction in the principles of Christianity in any such cases it shall be lawful for the wardens of the church parish where such children inhabit by order of their court to bind each child apprentice in the 1 Hening, Vol. II, p. 298. 2 Ibid., 4th Anne, Chap. 33, Section 14. d 33 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA same manner as the law directs for poor orphan children." * This last act provides for the compulsory apprenticing of many of the children* and in its intent is a sort of compulsory education law, thereby insuring elementary training for all the poor children, first, in some good trade, and next, in reading, writing, and in the cate- chism. However, there is no available evidence that these laws were rigidly enforced. Summary of these Apprenticeship Laws. — We have thus far seen how the makers of the general laws of Virginia in the early history of the colony looked upon the necessity of elementary educa- tion of those children (1) who were sent from England to live in the colony of Virginia and ultimately to become a part of its social fabric ; (2) those children whose parents were incapable of supporting and caring for the education of their children; and (3) all children and idle persons who seemed to have no guardian care. While these general apprenticeship laws were not really educational laws, they nevertheless 1 Hening, Vol. VI, p. 32. 34 THE RISE OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS contained the necessary provision for the educa- tion of a large class of children in Virginia. It was a scheme by which the highest authorities, civil and religious, in the colony attempted to provide training for the children along industrial, religious, and educational lines. Of course, this scheme provided only for the poor, children. Early Types of Virginia Schools. — There was a great number of children in the colony who did not fall under these general laws. These were the children of parents who were more fortunately situated from an economic stand- point, and were therefore able to look after the training of their own children. For the facts concerning the education of these children, we shall have to examine a different source of evi- dence. It should be stated here that there were throughout the colony in the latter part of the seventeenth century many different types of schools, 1 and the masters of apprenticed children often took advantage of fulfilling their obliga- 1 In Surrey County alone there were fifty instances between 1679 and 1684 where bonds were given by guardians stating that wards should be taught in schools. 35 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA tions to the courts by sending their wards to these schools. Otherwise, the master himself or some member of his family taught the chil- dren the " rudiments of learning " or he may have been put to the necessity of employing a teacher for these orphan children. During the seventeenth and part of the eigh- teenth century there developed among the Virginian colonists various types of schools pro- viding for the education of the children in the elementary school branches: (1) The grammar school, which, in addition to the higher branches taught, gave instruction in the elementary sub- jects of " reading, writing, and ciphering " ; (2) an endowed free school, whose primary purpose was to give training in the elementary forms of learning; (3) a community school, later known as the private school, where the heads of various families living in the same neigh- borhood combined in the employing of a teacher for their children ; (4) the tutorial system, a method the rich planter used in providing in- struction for his children and sometimes, in addition, for the children of his neighbor. 36 THE RISE OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS Governor Berkeley's Famous Words. — Governor Berkeley's famous words in 1671, " I thank God that there are no free schools in Virginia," are not to be taken as having very much foundation in fact. In another part of the report to the English Commissioners re- garding " schools in Virginia " he states that the schools are conducted very much as they are in England. Those who are able educate their children by tutors in their homes, and the poor, by the apprentice system. 1 / When he answered these questions, he was within a day's ride from the Symms and Eaton schools, which were in a flourishing condition. Eleven years before he had shown extraordinary activity in efforts to secure a school in the colony which was to partake of the joint character of a college and free school. He really had subscribed an amount of money to this enterprise. It is quite certain that there were a number of free schools in Virginia at the time the famous governor sent this report to England. Grammar Schools. — The term grammar 1 "Institutional History of Virginia," Bruce, Vol. I, p. 360. 37 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA school usually means an institution of secondary or college grade where the classical languages and perhaps mathematics are taught. But in Virginia, as well as in England, they often com- bine the primary instruction with the higher. The teaching force of these schools usually con- sisted of a master and an usher. The latter was an assistant to the former, and was usually assigned the instruction in the primary branches. The best known examples of this type of school in Virginia are the Symms and the Eaton schools in Elizabeth City County. These were known as free schools and were endowed by philan- thropic individuals of wealth. In England this type of school was often known as a " charity school." The Eaton School in Virginia is often referred to in the records as "Eaton's Charity School." Eaton himself had been educated in one of these Latin Grammar Schools of England. There seems to be some confusion regarding the word " free " in connection with schools of this time, both in England and in America. A "free" school in some cases means a school where a THE RISE OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS " liberal " education may be had. This is evidently the meaning in connection with some { of the schools in America in the seventeenth century. The other meaning of the word ■ " free " is the usual or ordinary use of the word. It meant a school at which there were no fees '< for tuition, and in some instances no cost for , board or clothing. It was an endowed " free t school." There were many attempts to es-. tablish such schools in the seventeenth century.. Some of these failed because of various unfore- seen disasters, which, in some instances,' threatened the very life and existence of the colony. 1 The facts, however, are interesting in the educational history of Virginia, because they indicate at least the serious intent of the colonists to provide educational advantages for their children as good as the early colonists had enjoyed in England before coming to America. 1 Indian massacre of 1622 and the dissolution of the London Company in 1624. 39 CHAPTER IV EARLY ATTEMPTS TO ESTABLISH FREE SCHOOLS IN VIRGINIA In the mother country some of the most useful of the smaller institutions of learning had been founded by philanthropic individuals, and from generation to generation had enabled the English youth to acquire at least a primary education. Among the early immigrants to Virginia, there were some who were animated by the same fine philanthropic spirit as those persons who had endowed these institutions of learning in England. " Had the colony's different communities been as thickly inhabited as the English, which would have assured the success of a free school, with far more certainty than the sparsity of population, there is reason to think that the number of endowed grammar foundations would have been as great in Vir- ginia as in England." 1 > 1 "Institutional History of Virginia," Bruce, Vol. I, p. 133, 40 ATTEMPTS TO ESTABLISH FREE SCHOOLS The First Plan for a Free School in Vir- ginia. — The first plan for a free school in Virginia was designed for 'the education of the Indian youth. This was in 1619-20 while the London Company still had control of the colony. Some one who did not reveal his name gave the munificent sum of nearly $14,000 in gold, with the direction that the money should be used in instructing a " convenient number of Indian youth in the art of reading " and in the principles of the Christian religion. The donor further stipulates that this instruc- tion should be given to the Indian children from the ages of seven to twelve, and after that, to the age of twenty -one, they were to be carefully trained in some useful handicraft. Provision was also made for some of the money to be used by two " trust-worthy persons " who should have oversight of this work and report to the treasurer of the London Company quarterly an account of the execution of the purposes of the fund, together with a list of the names of the pupils receiving instruction. After several attempts to use the money in 41 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA the way indicated in Southampton Hundred and Martin's Hundred, the company finally invested the entire sum in the erection of iron works from whose profits thirty Indian children were to be educated. vThe great Indian massacre of 1622 seems to have brought to an untimely end both the laudable scheme of education for the Indian youth and the iron works. 1 The Second Attempt to Establish a Free School. — The second attempt to establish a free school was intended for the white children of the colony. This was to be known as the " East India School." The plan had its origin in a collection taken among the passengers of the Royal James, a ship returning from the Indies. The ship's chaplain, Rev. Mr. Cope- land, at whose suggestion the money was con- tributed, was made rector of the school. In 1622 steps were taken to build a house, and a Mr. Dike of England was appointed master, with the understanding that he was to secure 1 Abstracts of the proceedings of the Virginia Company of London, Vol. I, p. 163. 42 ATTEMPTS TO ESTABLISH FREE SCHOOLS an assistant who was a good writer to give " instruction in arithmetic." The school was to be located at Charles City. Teachers were to be engaged for five years. The London Company was to supply them with the neces- sary books, and in addition to the salary of Mr. Dike, he was to receive a patent of one hundred acres of land, and at the end of his term, an additional five hundred acres. These instructors were to obtain a certificate to teach from the governor of the colony. This scheme of education seems to have shared the same fate of other like enterprises, and was brought to a premature end by the great catastrophe of 1622. Whatever became of these founda- tions after the revival of the colony from the Indian massacre is yet to be found out ; for we hear nothing more of these early efforts to provide primary education for the children of Virginia. We shall now turn our attention to some more substantial efforts on the part of the colonists to provide educational facilities in Virginia. 43 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA ^ The Symms Free School. — Bearing date of 1634, the will of Benjamin Symms bequeaths the foundation for a free school in Virginia. This was the earliest provision for effective free education in America and precedes by at least two years the famous gift of John Harvard to the college in Massachusetts. Symms gave for the establishment of the free school two hundred acres of land, the proceeds from the sale of milk, and the increase of eight cows. This school was to be located in Elizabeth City County and to afford free education for the children living within the bounds of that county. This school was soon put into actual operation, for in March, 1643, the General Assembly takes occasion to pass a special act in which it recognizes the "godly disposition and good intent " of the benefactor and expresses a determination to carry out his wishes to the letter. In 1647 the school seemed to be work- ing on a firm foundation with a complete house for the purpose. In 1694 Robert Crooke makes known his desire to resign as master of the school at the next " fall of the leaf," and 44 ATTEMPTS TO ESTABLISH FREE SCHOOLS Samuel Snignell petitioned the County Court to appoint him master. In 1647 the herd of cows had increased five times, and, with careful husbanding of this increase, would have, in time, provided ample foundation for running the school through the succeeding generations. So far as can be learned, this school was in con- tinuous session through the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. ) The Eaton Free School. — There soon fol- lowed another example of the Symms gift. Dr. Thomas Eaton gave for the establishment of a free school five hundred acres of land stocked with " two negroes, twelve cows, two bulls, and twenty hogs." The estate must have been under a high degree of cultivation, and therefore of considerable value, for the bequest included a lot of household furniture. This school was located somewhere in Elizabeth City County and was designed to give training to the children residing within its bounds. The school was to be under the management of a Board of Trustees, composed of the clergymen, the church wardens of the parish, and the 45 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA justices of the County Court. This body appointed a master who served as the active manager of the bequest. In 1691 Ebenezer Taylor was serving in this capacity, and seems to have been responsible for the care of all the stock ; for a court order of that time requires that he provide clothing for an old slave be- longing to the estate. In 1697 George Eland was master of the school. The Symms and the Eaton Free schools were permanent institutions and served as models for other sections of the colony. 1 It is quite certain that there were a good many schools of this type throughout Virginia at the beginning of the eighteenth century. As early as 1652 Hugh Lee gave orders for the establishment of a free school in Northumber- land County. John Moon, in 1655, Isle of Wight County, made» provision in his will for the education of orphan children in a free school already founded. Richard Russell, in 1 These schools were united in 1805 # as Hampton Academy. In 1852 the fund amounted to $10,000, and it is preserved as a separate fund from the public school fund. A portion ef this was used in 1902 in the erection of the Symms-Eaton school building in Hampton. 46 ATTEMPTS TO ESTABLISH FREE SCHOOLS 1666, lower Norfolk, provided means for the education of poor children at a school then in operation. Mr. King, 1668, bequeathed one hundred acres of land for the purpose of estab- lishing a free school. Henry Peasley, 1675, provided for the endowment of a free school in Gloucester County, giving six hundred acres, ten cows, and one breeding mare. Francis Pritchard, the same year, Lancaster County, left a large estate for the establishment of a free school. William Gordon, 1685, Middlesex County, gave one hundred acres for the estab- lishment of a free school. There are large tracts of land, houses, and other things granted to free schools for the education of children in many parts of the country, and some of these are so large that of themselves they are a handsome main- tenance to a master ; but the additional allowance which gentlemen give with their sons render them a comfortable subsistence. These schools have been founded by the legacies of well-inclined gentlemen, and the management of them hath commonly been left to the direction of the county court, or the vestry of their respective parishes. 1 We should like to take a look into one of these schools to find out what they taught and 1 Beverley's "History of Virginia," p. 224. 47 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA how they taught, but there is little available evidence as to these facts. 1 It is certain, however, that the master was required to teach English grammar in the Eaton School, which no doubt carried with it instruction in Latin as a part of the course. It is very certain also that the primary subjects, such as reading and writing, were among the subjects taught. It ought to be observed here that the con- trolling authority of these free schools was vested in a combined ecclesiastical and politi- cal body. This was the type of control that characterized the Virginia schools in the seven- teenth and far into the eighteenth century. In 1619 we learn that the County Courts in Vir- ginia were required to return to the council office at Jamestown a list of all the schools situated in its own jurisdiction and also a statement as to whether the persons filling the position of teacher had obtained licenses or not. Community Schools. — Another type of school developed in Virginia was the com- munity school, more commonly known at a 1 Many of the county records during the vicissitudes of war were burned. 48 ATTEMPTS TO ESTABLISH FREE SCHOOLS later time as the " Old Field School." " Per- haps the greatest proportion of the children who during the seventeenth century received an education obtained it in what became known as the Old Field School." * These com- munity schools were the outcome of a spirit of cooperation among neighbors for the pur- pose of education. Such a school was estab- lished in some spot convenient to every boy and girl in the whole neighborhood. The building was constructed by the members of the community in some abandoned field or lone spot. During the hours school was not in session it remained locked and vacant. The leading members of the community employed a teacher at a stipulated sum or fee for each pupil. The sessions were usually held in the summer months from April to September. The » authority for the establishment and control of such a school was wholly in the hands of the local community, and the church or state had no other connection than that of granting certificates to teachers. ^r- 1 "Institutional History of Virginia," Bruce, Vol. I, p. 331. e 49 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA It should be remembered, however, that many times the teacher was the regular clergy- man of the parish or community, and in this instance the school was usually held at the parish house. This seems to have been the custom of the clergymen as a means of adding to their income over and above that of their regular salary. " There could hardly in those times have been found outside of the great seats of learning a class more competent ta teach than these early Virginia clergymen." ! These men had been educated in the best English schools, and it is quite natural that the colonists should look to them as the most capable for bringing up their children in learn- ing. The church " readers," in the absence of the regular clergyman, often performed the duties of teacher in these schools. The sparsely settled sections of some parts of the state combined the office of " reader " and " teacher." This plan seems to have appealed to the House of Burgesses, for in a recommendation to the governor they requested that he license cer- 1 See "Present State of Virginia," Hugh Jones, p. 68. 50 ATTEMPTS TO ESTABLISH FREE SCHOOLS tain " readers " to teach in the more remote sections. 1 We have noticed before that the teachers of these schools were required to hold licenses either from the Bishop of London, in whose diocese Virginia was included, or from the governor of the colony. There seems to have I been a very strict adherence to the rule of re- I quiring teachers in Virginia to obtain licenses \ from one of these authorities. Sometimes the magistrates or the wardens of the parish would recommend to the governor persons suitable to teach ; so it must have been the first step of a teacher toward opening a school to petition the County Court to obtain for him the neces- sary license from the governor. In this way, the justices practically decided who should be allowed to teach in the schools. Indeed, the granting of licenses was purely a formal act on the part of the governor, and the fee was only a few pounds of tobacco, except in a few cases where the governor took this as an opportunity to swell his revenue by exacting 1 "Institutional History of Virginia," Bruce, Vol. I, pp. 332-35. 51 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA a larger fee. 1 Some of the County Courts offered inducements to draw school-teachers within their counties by exempting them from paying of taxes for a period of time. 2 In the records of the settlements of estates there are many entries of sums due school- masters which give interesting information as to the source of the salary of such officials. The fee is very often spoken of in terms of tobacco, but the usual annual fee amounted in our currency to about twenty-five dollars a pupil. In 1691 the General Assembly refused to adopt a proposition that the schoolmaster's salary be determined by law. 3 Again we have no definite documentary evi- dence as to what was taught in these schools. It is safe to say, however, from more or less in- direct sources, that the usual primary subjects, such as reading, writing, and the "casting of accounts," which was another name for arith- metic, made up the curriculum for these schools. 1 Governor Howard was accused of this practice (1682-95). 2 Henrico Justices exempted Mr. Nathaniel Hall in 1686. This was by no means an uncommon practice in the Virginia counties. 3 Colonial Entry Book, Vol. 1682-95, Minutes of Assembly, 1693. 52 ATTEMPTS TO ESTABLISH FREE SCHOOLS There are a number of records, particularly among deeds of transfer, that indicate that these Virginia schoolmasters accumulated enough money to purchase considerable es- tates. This may not mean very much in view of the fact that land was very cheap at that time. 1 Private Tutors. — One of the most effective forms of instruction in England was the tutorial system. The families of the upper classes in the mother country always employed a tutor for their children. Some of the most noted educators of England served in this capacity. The well-to-do planters in Virginia selected this plan for the education of their children. The plantation system and the absence of towns in Virginia made this method of instruc- tion the most satisfactory. The effort to build cities in the colony of Virginia in 1680 had as one of its good results the encourage- ment of better educational facilities in the colony. The plantation was a complete com- munity in itself, having grouped together a 1 "Institutional History of Virginia," Bruce, Vol. I, p. 342. 53 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA great number of people. There were carpenters, blacksmiths, laborers for the tobacco fields, and, in fact, artisans of all the handicrafts. The teacher was one of these necessary indi- viduals in such a concentrated community. The rich planter employed a tutor from among the young men who were candidates for Orders, 1 and from many arrivals from England or Scotland. Often these teachers were from among the class known as " inden- tured servants," and included many cultured Scotchmen who took this opportunity of get- ting away from unwholesome social and political conditions in England. 2 These private tutors 1 Out of forty ministers answering the Bishop of London's inquiry (1723) as to schools in Virginia nearly all answered "None." A few referred to "charity schools." Private tutors at rich gentlemen's houses gave all the means of education and the poor had no access to them. See Bishop Meade's "Old Churches and Families," Vol. I, p. 190. 2 Hugh Jones, in his "Present State of Virginia," p. 23, says: "The assured good Report of this vast tract of land and happy Climate en- couraged Several Gentlemen of condition and good Descent to transport themselves and Families and settle in this new Paradise ; some, for the Sake of Wealth, some for Religion, and others because they could not well live elsewhere ; and others because they dared not, or cared not to stay at Home. One particular occasion that sent several families of good Birth and Fortune to settle there was the Civil Wars in England. This safe Receptacle enticed over several Cavalier Families where they made 54 ATTEMPTS TO ESTABLISH FREE SCHOOLS very often carried their pupils into the rudi- ments of higher learning which served as preparation for admission into the grammar schools either in Virginia or in the mother country. Many of the rich planters, from the earliest days of the colony, sent their children to England after a period of tutorage at home. 1 This must have been the custom long before William and Mary College was founded. 2 These tutors taught the girls of the family as many laws against Puritans though they were free from them which had this good Success that to this day (1724) the people are as it were quite free from them being all of the Church of England, without the odious distinguishing characters of High and Low among themselves." 1 The Fitzhughs, Robinsons, Randolphs, Yates, Pages, Hunters, Lees, Fairfaxes, and Dawsons are some names of Virginia families who had sons matriculated at Oxford and other schools about the close of the seven- teenth and the beginning of the eighteenth century. See William and Mary Quarterly, Vol. II, p. 172. 2 "That the planters had been hitherto constrained to this great cost to send their children from thence (Virginia) hither to be taught." Records of the London Company, 1621. "History of Williamsburg," Lyon G. Tyler. This custom must have prevailed through a long period, for the follow- ing advertisement appeared in the Virginia Gazette, November 2, 1769. "At the Academy in Leeds which is pleasantly situated in the county of York in England, young gentlemen are genteelly boarded and diligently educated in English, the classics, modern languages, penmanship, arithmetick, merchants' accounts, Math., geography, etc. for twenty guineas per annum, if under twelve years of age, by Mr. Aaron Crimshaw and able masters. Drawing, music and dancing are extra charges." 55 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA well as the boys, but the instruction beyond the rudiments of reading and writing took a little different course with the girls. However, there are a number of instances in the first part of the eighteenth century where the girls must have had the classical training to a very considerable extent, for we know that some of the noted men in the colony received their preparation in the classics for entrance to Wil- liam and Mary College from their mothers. 1 The girls' training was more often directed into the field of literature with lessons in elo- cution and English grammar. After the beginning of the eighteenth century, we find many instances of the planters employing ladies as tutors. This was the beginning of the pres- ent custom in Virginia of employing governesses in families. This kind of school is probably the nearest approach in Virginia to the Dame Schools of New England. This tutorial system of instruction, so popu- lar in England, seems to have been held in 1 George Wythe's mother prepared him for William and Mary College. 56 ATTEMPTS TO ESTABLISH FREE SCHOOLS the same high esteem in Virginia, particularly among the planters. A tutor was engaged under contract to be furnished " meat, drink, lodging, and wash- ing," and sometimes it was stipulated that he should have a few acres free of rent upon which to plant tobacco and vegetables. In addition to this he was to receive a stipulated fee which usually amounted to about twenty- five dollars a year for furnishing tuition to the children of the family. When the planter's family was large, the schoolhouse was always found in the group of plantation buildings. In order that the tutor might add to his usually meagre income, he was permitted to have as pupils the sons and daughters from neighboring families, the daughters usually boarding at the planter's home during the time the school was in session. The school day was divided into three periods: (1) from six to eight, after which a recess was given for breakfast; (2) from nine to twelve, when they had lunch ; (3) from three to six, when school was out for the day. It is 57 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA interesting to note that it was the custom in the seventeenth century and far into the eighteenth for the schools to be in session from April to September instead of during the winter months as at present. Summary. — From the statement of the fore- going facts regarding the early elementary education in Virginia, it will be observed : (1) that the general laws providing for the training of the children were in the nature of apprentice- ship regulations containing provisions for the training of the children in reading, writing, the catechism, and in the art of some trade, these laws referring exclusively to orphans and poor children of the colony ; (2) that, by the philan- thropic spirit of some men of wealth in the colony, free schools were endowed at which poor children of many parishes received their elementary training; (3) that community schools were organized and set up by a co- operative spirit among the families of the planters and merchants, who, agreeing upon a teacher, paid a fee for the tuition of their children; (4) that the leading planters and 58 ATTEMPTS TO ESTABLISH FREE SCHOOLS most wealthy men of the colonies depended almost wholly for the education of their chil- dren, in the elementary branches at least, upon a tutor employed by the family. The first two types of these schools provided training in reading, writing, the catechism, and the art of some trade. The last two concerned themselves with the instruction of the rudi- ments of learning, as reading, writing, and the " casting of accounts," and in some instances instruction in the beginnings of Latin, Greek, and, in rare instances, French. The support and control of these schools were vested in the combined authority of church and state; the state appointed trustees for the direct control of the endowed free schools and to it was given the authority to license teachers. The church, in many in- stances, furnished the teaching force, and often in conjunction with the civil authorities exercised the right of supervision over these schools. The community schools were independent of public or church support and were ^maintained 59 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA by fees determined upon by teacher and parent. The family school, conducted by tutors, was still more independent of church or civil con- trol. 1 There was no attempt even to license the tutors. The employing of a tutor was an entirely individual matter and rested wholly with the planter. There was but little system or order in the educational activities in the early history of Virginia, particularly in regard to elementary instruction. It was laissez faire in its nature. Educational legislation in Virginia concerns itself mainly with (1) the organization of a college or university, (2) individual schools of secondary grade, and (3) apprenticeship education for the poor. During the first half of the eighteenth cen- tury the types of schools in Virginia were similar to those which had been developed in the seventeenth century, consisting of private tutors or governesses for the wealthy class; 1 These schools were supported by tuition fees and were not dependent upon any authority other than the good sense of the parent and pupils. " History of Education in Modern Times," Graves, p. 85. 60 ATTEMPTS TO ESTABLISH FREE SCHOOLS the community or Old Field schools for the middle class ; and the grammar schools for secondary training, which continued through- out this century and on into the nineteenth century. There was no attempt to work out a state system of education until Jefferson's plan of 1779. 61 CHAPTER V HIGHER EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA DURING THE SEVENTEENTH AND EIGHTEENTH CENTURIES Early Attempt at Founding a College. — The London Company during the entire time it had control in Virginia concerned itself at various times with the establishment of a college. Not many years after the first settlement in Virginia the colonists attempted to establish a college designed for the education of Indian youth in the Christian faith, but it was also in- tended to furnish the planters' children with an opportunity to obtain advanced instruction. The people in England, ever since the discovery of America, had expressed great interest in the religious welfare of the Indians, and the educa- tional institutions planned for the early colo- nists always took into consideration the educa- tion of the Indians. The first real effort to establish a college in Virginia was the sending of a letter by James I HIGHER EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA to all parts of his kingdom, asking for contribu- tions for the establishment of a college in Vir- ginia. At a meeting of the general court at Jamestown in 1619 announcement was made by the officers of the London Company that the amount of $35,000 in gifts and money had been contributed for this purpose. Something over $4000 of this was in actual money. It was thought unwise at this time to use any of the money in erecting buildings. Large acreages were set aside for the support of the college at Henrico on the James River. A grant of 10,000 acres lying on the north and the south sides of the James River was turned over by the London Company as part of the endowment of the col- lege. It was suggested that fifty tenants be brought over from England and settled upon these lands for the purpose of putting them in a state of tillage. One-half of the income from these tenants was to be used in putting the col- lege on its feet and maintaining instructors. The fundamental orders of the company in 1619 required that a commission of five or seven persons be appointed annually to have charge of 63 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA the building and the management of the college. The treasurer of the London Company was ordered to keep a separate account of these funds, and he was authorized to solicit subscrip- tions among the colonists for this purpose. Benevolent persons in England contributed money and gifts, a number of them withholding their names. Some gave " faire plate and other rich ornaments." Some gave a communion table for the chapel ; — still others, books, among which were some rare translations of St. Augustine and the writings of Dr. Perkins, a distinguished clergyman of strong Calvinistic inclination. According to the general plan the income for the support of the college was: (1) the pro- ceeds from the tenants; (2) amounts received for the support of pupils from scholarships and fellowships offered by the East India school; (3) interest accruing from the general college fund ; (4) tuition fees from the planters. This was an endowment, ample and sufficient at that time, for the conduct of a higher institution of learning. 64 HIGHER EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA In 1620 George Thorpe, an Englishman, was appointed to take charge of the college. He was a member of the king's Privy Council and had a reputation for " being learned in scholar- ship and zealous in piety," and for his general support they gave three hundred acres of land, together with ten tenants, the income from whose work was to be the basis of his salary at first. Some time before, a number of mechanics had been sent out to erect the buildings. A contract was let for the bricks to be used in the main structure, and when all seemed to be going well and giving happy promise of the early useful- ness of the college, the Indian plot of 1622 brought all this good work to a sudden close. It is known that seventeen persons, at least, on the college land lost their lives in that catas- trophe. Thorpe himself, in spite of his extraor- dinary zeal and interest in the welfare of the Indians, and particularly in their conversion, was not saved from the fatal stroke of the tomahawk. This Indian episode thoroughly disorganized the plans for further work on the college, but f 65 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA the company refused to yield to a feeling of discouragement. Thirteen months after the massacre took place there were still attached to the college lands numerous persons who had survived the Indian assault. The company seems to have given strict instructions to the re- maining tenants to erect substantial buildings, lay off gardens, plant orchards, and, in addition to working six days for the public benefit, to give annually to the public store one pound of silk, twenty bushels of corn, and sixty pounds of tobacco. The company ordered the gov- ernor and council to see that the bricklayers engaged by Thorpe be compelled to go on and carry out their contract. " The work, by the assistance of God, shall again proceed," the company proudly declared. But in the midst of all these hopeful signs of carrying the project to a successful issue there came a greater catas- trophe, which destroyed for all time the plans for the erection of a college at Henrico. This was the revocation of the charter of the London Company in 1624. " The original plan of making the education of the Indians its primary 66 HIGHER EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA object would have been rejected altogether in consequence of the massacre, and the insti- tution would have stood as the earliest of all the seats of learning established on the Ameri- can continent for the benefit of the trans- planted English. . . . Virginia, in such an institution, would have possessed a foundation that would have been clothed with the deeply romantic interest thrown around the colleges of the old world by the beautifying touch of time and by the glorious achievements of their sons on every stage of action through a succes- sion of centuries." l The college itself soon became a mere name, and the latest reference to it in the old records was in 1666, when one of the tracts belonging to the college was referred to as the college plantation. Another Attempt to Establish a College. — In 1624 Edward Palmer of London gave all his lands in Virginia and New England to the establishment of a university and schools in Virginia, to be called Accidentia Virginiensis 1 "Institutional History of Virginia," Vol. I, p. 370. 67 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA et Oxoniensis. This plan provided for a system of schools with a university as head and subor- dinate schools or academies. The donor laid out a very elaborate plan for these schools. In laying out the grounds the greatest care was to be taken. The plan was to have the whole plat with a series of streets or alleys not less than twenty feet in breadth. The fact that this bequest was conditioned on a failing of heirs in a certain line of descent accounts for the failure of the whole scheme ; at least there is no evidence that anything definite was done toward establishing such a system of institu- tions in Virginia. 68 CHAPTER VI WILLIAM AND MARY COLLEGE Establishment of William and Mary College. — The period between 1624 and the close of the century found the colonists occupied with matters more or less political, and we hear nothing of a further effort to establish an in- stitution for higher learning until the one which resulted in the organization of William and Mary College at Williamsburg. The rich planters, during all this time, followed the prac- tice of sending their boys and sometimes their girls to the grammar schools and colleges in the mother country. Virginia students were regis- tered at the various schools in London and in Liverpool, at Oxford and Cambridge. Their fathers, now settled permanently in the new world, had been educated in the most con- spicuous schools in England, and it was but natural that in the absence of such schools in 69 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA America they should look to the mother country for the proper tuition of their children. But the remoteness of England, together with the ex- traordinary dangers of a voyage across the Atlantic, made them hesitate to depend upon this source for the education of the rising genera- tion in Virginia; so, after the restoration of Charles I, we find a sentiment among the Vir- ginia planters and heads of the government growing in favor of the establishment of a col- lege in Virginia. All this time the colony had increased in population, and the people had begun to feel that this was their permanent home and it behooved them to set up all the various institutions that characterized a people of cul- ture and a growing civilization. It was this combination of feelings and this situation that led to the establishment of William and Mary College. First Step in the Establishment of a College. — As early as 1660 an act of the General Assembly runs " that, for the advance of learning, educa- tion of youth, supply of ministry, and the pro- motion of piety there be land taken upon pur- 70 WILLIAM AND MARY COLLEGE chases for a college and free school, and that there be, with as much speed as may be conven- ient, housing erected thereon for entertainment of students and schollers." ! The king was to be petitioned for letters patent, authorizing collections from " well-disposed people in Eng- land for the erection of colleges and schools in this country." This is an evidence of genuine interest in education on the part of the legis- lature. Governor Berkeley, members of the council of state, and the Burgesses subscribed liberally to this cause. The initiative for edu- cation in this early time always came from the governing authority, and this sentiment for education among the colonists grew more and more, but the period that followed after the res- toration was a period of distress and high taxes, and no really definite action was taken until 1691, when the Rev. James Blair, a Scotchman, and one of the leading clergymen in Virginia, was sent to England by the General Assembly of Virginia for the purpose of carrying a memo- rial prepared by that body to the king and 1 Hening, Vol. II, p. 25. 71 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA queen of England, and to secure a charter for a college in Virginia. Mr. Blair spent almost two years in England before securing the object of his visit. This time was spent in represent- ing the cause to the ecclesiastical, civil, and royal dignitaries of England, some of whom delayed for months the execution of their part in the necessary legal procedure through which the matter had to pass. 1 While waiting on these officials, Blair took advantage of certain rather unique situations for securing funds for his in- stitution in Virginia. He secured three hundred pounds from a group of merchants who were trading very largely in Virginia commodities. He also received three hundred pounds from some pirates who were at that time making a settlement with the English government. Royal Endowment. — The English govern- ment, under the direction of Queen Mary and 1 Seymour, the attorney-general, to whom the matter was referred, was in no hurry, and Blair, eager to return to Virginia, remarked that the college would prepare ministers for the Virginia colony, the people of which had souls to save as well as the people of England. To this, Seymour replied: "Souls! Damn your souls. Make tobacco." See "William and Mary College History and Work," Lyon G. Tyler, p. 12. 72 WILLIAM AND MARY COLLEGE King William, made the following donations to the endowment of the college : (1) 1985 pounds in money, (2) tax on the export of tobacco from Maryland and Virginia to the other British plantations, (3) profits of the office of surveyor- general of the colony, (4) 10,000 acres of land in the Pamunkey Neck in Virginia and 10,000 acres on the Blackwater. 1 This was a handsome endowment. In addition, the Rev. James Blair secured a gift for the college from the executor of the will of Hon. Robert Boyle, who had re- cently died in England, leaving a sum of four thousand pounds sterling, the income from which was to be employed for " pious and charitable uses." All the rents from this investment, except ninety pounds, were applied to the college in Virginia, for which the college obligated itself to keep as many Indians as this sum would support in meat, drink, clothes, medicine, books, and education. These Indians were to remain at the college until they had received the 1 On condition of presenting to the governor two copies of Latin verse on the fifth day of November of each year. This requirement must not have been kept up very long. 73 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA training necessary to be given " orders " and sent as missionaries among their own race in Virginia. Colonial Endowment. — The subscriptions among the colonists for the endowment of the college amounted to something over three thousand pounds. The Virginia House of Burgesses added to the English gifts all ex- port duties on skins and furs. This was in 1693. In 1726 the General Assembly gave two hundred pounds per annum for twenty- one years out of the duty of one penny a gallon on liquors, and in 1734 they gave the whole of this tax to the college for the re- mainder of the term. The tax on liquors was continued throughout the colonial period, and was in 1764 the greatest single source of revenue, 817 pounds. In 1759 a special tax was levied on pedlers, and this was turned into the college fund. The annual revenues of the college up to the Revolution amounted to about two thousand pounds, or about $30,000 in present money. 1 1 See a statement of the revenues for ten years, 1755-65, in William and Mary College Quarterly, Vol. XI, pp. 149-53. 74 WILLIAM AND MARY COLLEGE Scholarships. — There were ten scholarships. The House of Burgesses established three. Colonel Hill of Shirley and Robert Carter (King Carter) together established one; Mrs. Sarah Bray of New Kent, one; Mrs. Elizabeth Harri- son of Surry, one; Rev. James Blair, of Williams- burg, two; and Philip Lightfoot of Sandy Point, two. The Board of Trustees, the governing board of the college, was originally elected by the civil authority, the House of Burgesses, and the council. One-fourth of the number of members was to come from the clergy class. This body was to have the power of filling vacancies in its number, and just as soon as the college was fully organized according to the charter they were to transfer the active control of the institution to the president and the masters of the college, the Board retaining visitorial powers only. The following is a list of the first Board of Trus- tees : Francis Nicholson, governor, William Cole, Ralph Wormley, William Byrd, John Lear, James Blair, John Farnifold, Stephen Fouace, Samuel Grey, Thomas Milner, Christopher Rob- 75 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA inson, Charles Scarborough, John Smith, Benja- min Harrison, Miles Cary, Henry Hartwell, William Randolph, and Matthew Page. Ac- cording to the charter, the college society was to consist of one president, six professors, one hundred, more or less, scholars. The faculty, or, as it was called then, " the Society," was to elect from their number or from the Visitors or from "the better sort of inhabit- ants " one burgess to represent them in the Assembly. 1 The Location of the College. — The General Assembly had within its power the right to pass finally upon the site of the college. The trustees selected first a site on York River, just above Yorktown, known as Townsend's land, but seri- ous objections having arisen, that site was aban- doned. In October, 1693, after an address by the Rev. James Blair, the Assembly selected the Middle Plantation as the most " convenient and 1 " A writ is ordered to be issued for electing a Burgess to represent the college of William and Mary in the room of Sir John Randolph, deceased, and we are credibly informed that Edmund Barradale Esq., Attorney General of this colony, will be unanimously elected." News item, Virginia Gazette, November 3, 1738. 76 WILLIAM AND MARY COLLEGE proper site," and ordered that the college be erected as near as possible to the church (Bruton Church) then standing in Middle Plantation. On December 20, 1693, the trustees purchased from Col. Thomas Ballard, for 170 pounds, 330 acres west of the church. The Erection of Buildings. — Thomas Hadley, whom Dr. Blair had brought from England, was given the management of the affairs con- nected with the construction of the college. The plan for the college buildings had been drawn by Sir Christopher Wren, the eminent architect who had designed St. Paul's Cathe- dral, London. The buildings consisted of a rectangular structure two and a half stories high, 130 feet long, 40 feet wide, with two wings 60 feet long and 25 feet wide. The bricks used for its construction were made near the site by Col. Daniel Parke. The walls of the building were three feet thick, and the outer course was laid in English bond, having alternate courses of stretchers and glazed headers. In 1697 the rector of the college, Rev. Stephen Fouace, reported to Governor Andros that they had 77 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA completed the front and north side of the pro- posed rectangle. The first two floors of the front contained recitation rooms and the north wing was used for an assembly hall and a dining- room. The offices and rooms for the president and scholars were in the garret of the front and in the hall of the wing. The rear was never built. Financial Difficulties. — Owing to some dis- agreements between the governor and Presi- dent Blair, the subscriptions so generously made by the colonists at the beginning of the agitation for a college had not been promptly paid, and it seems that of the three thousand pounds sub- scribed only eight hundred and fifty pounds had been collected (1697). The General As- sembly felt called upon several times to pass resolutions urging the payment of these sub- scriptions. Even this legislative action was not sufficient to make a complete collection of the amount subscribed, and some of the sub- scribers were sued in the courts. The king of England sent a personal letter to the governor of Virginia, requiring him to do everything possible to secure the amount subscribed. 78 WILLIAM AND MARY COLLEGE The Opening of the Grammar School. — The original plan was that there should be a grammar school in connection with the college where stu- dents might secure the necessary training in Latin and Greek for entering upon the studies of philosophy, divinity, and mathematics. Rev. James Blair, wisely anticipating all the needs of the college, while in England secured the ser- vices of a Scotchman, the Rev. Mongo Inglis, Master of Arts, Edinburgh University, as head- master of the grammar school. He was assisted by Mr. Mullikin as usher, and also by a writing master. This school was opened in 1694 in a building already in use for that purpose. In May, 1697, the members of the House of Bur- gesses attended the scholastic exercises and were u impressed and pleased with the proficiency of the scholars.' ' The commencement exercises of the college in 1700 were attended by people from many parts of Virginia, others coming from Maryland, Pennsylvania, and even New York. The salary of the master of the grammar school was at first eighty pounds a year and varied at different periods from that to one hundred and 79 v HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA fifty as the school and college developed. The usher received anywhere from thirty to eighty pounds per annum. There were always extra fees which usually amounted to twenty shil- lings a year from each scholar. The Opening of the College. — The first building was burned October 20, 1705, before it had been used for any purpose except the grammar school and offices for the government and a meeting-place for the Assembly while the State House was building at the other end of Duke of Gloucester Street. By 1710 the col- lege had been rebuilt on the old walls, and in 1729 the south wing was added according to the original plan, and was made the chapel. Gradu- ally, as the interest in learning increased and students of the grammar school advanced in the studies of Latin and Greek, which were then regarded as a necessary preparation for the studies of philosophy, divinity, and so on, one chair after another was established, and some of the best scholars from Oxford and Cambridge were called, till the six professorships provided for in the charter were filled. Not till 1729 were 80 WILLIAM AND MARY COLLEGE all the departments founded; then, pursuant to the charter, the trustees signed the deed trans- ferring all the college property to the president y and masters, who took charge of the college affairs by subscribing their assent to the Thirty- nine Articles of the Church of England and taking oath de fideli administratiohe. The Curriculum of the College. — The course " of study was divided into three distinct depart- ments : (1) the grammar school, where the Latin and Greek languages were taught. The boys entered this school at about nine years of age and while there were called scholars. (2) Next came the school of philosophy, which was divided into two parts; the first consisting of moral philosophy, rhetoric, logic, and ethics, and the second, " physicks, metaphysics, and mathematics." The boys entered this depart- ment at about fifteen years of age, assumed the cap and gown, and were known as students. It was the college proper. Two years were re- quired in this school for the Bachelor of Arts degree and two years in addition for the Master of Arts. In 1878 this was changed to four years q 81 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA for the Bachelor of Arts degree and seven years for the Master of Arts. (3) The third depart- ment was the divinity school, in which there were two professors. The one taught Hebrew and the other explained the " common places of divinity and the controversies with the heretics." In all these schools the student had constant exercises in debates. The president lectured on theological subjects once a week, but conducted no regular classes. Besides these schools, there was an elemen- tary school for the Indian boys, to which the little boys of the town were admitted, presided over by one of the faculty. The Powers Vested in the Faculty. — The president and faculty elected all officers of the college, such as usher of the grammar school, bursar, librarian, janitor, cook, butler, gardener, and so on. According to the old monastic view of colleges in England, the professors were un- married. Only the president had the privilege of having a family, and the violation of this rule brought about much disturbance in the college. Two professors were removed for marrying dur- 82 WILLIAM AND MARY COLLEGE ing the incumbency of their positions at William and Mary. 1 The number of scholars and stu- dents before the American Revolution never exceeded one hundred and twenty, which, how- ever, compared well with the northern colleges. The Brasserton School. — By the gift of Robert Boyle, Indians had been trained at William and Mary. In 1712 there were twenty Indians at the college. Governor Spottswood kept a watchful eye on the Indians in Virginia and demanded of the chiefs some of their sons to be sent to the college and retained as hostages, 2 hoping that after a period of training in the Christian religion they would return to their respective tribes and serve as missionaries to their people, but it seems that no lasting good came from this policy of educating the Indians. Catechetical training was not the kind of teach- ing that would elevate this crude man of the 1 In 1758 Rev. William Preston and Rev. Thomas Robinson were removed for marrying and keeping their families at the college, " contrary to all rules of seats of learning." 2 After the Revolutionary War the Brasserton fund was withdrawn from the college through a suit brought by the Bishop of London and diverted to the education of negroes in the West Indies. The Indian school was discontinued. HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA forest into the culture and civilization of the white man. At this time there were a few mission centres among the Indians in different parts of Virginia, maintained jointly by the As- sembly and charitably inclined people in Vir- ginia and England. 1 The college was operated on the general plan of Oxford University. Nearly all the professors had received their training at this great educa- tional institution in the mother country and brought to William and Mary the ripest scholar- ship and highest culture of England. Dr. Blair, who was president of the college for fifty years, died in 1743. He was the most scholarly man in the colony, and his influence was effective and vigorous in all matters pertaining to the ecclesi- astical, educational, and political affairs of the colony. William Dawson, professor of Moral 1 Rev. Charles Griffin conducted a school among the Saponies at Fort Christianna in Brunswick County. At one time he had as many as seventy-seven Indians in his school. Griffin was afterwards transferred to the Indian school at the college (1720). The Rev. Hugh Jones, in speaking of this, says the Sapony Indians so loved and adored Mr. Griffin that he had seen them hug him and lift him up in their arms. They would have made him the king of the Sapony nation. See " Present State of Virginia," Hugh Jones, p. 15. 84 WILLIAM AND MARY COLLEGE Philosophy, who succeeded Dr. Blair as presi- dent, had spent nine years at Oxford. William Stith, another president, was a native of Virginia, but had studied in the grammar school at Wil- liam and Mary and later had graduated at Oxford. The College the Centre of Learning. — The seat of culture in Virginia shifted from James- town to Williamsburg. The intellectual atmos- phere of the college and the situation of Williams- burg on higher ground, with a more salubrious climate, were the chief factors in bringing about this change. Ultimately, in 1698, the capital was moved from Jamestown to Williamsburg. The Assembly held its sessions from 1700 to 1704 in the college buildings while its State House was being built at the other end of the Duke of Gloucester Street. Williamsburg became the centre of the political and social life of Virginia. Hugh Jones, in his " Present State of Virginia " (1724), describes the life of Williamsburg in the following words : At the Capital at publick Times may be seen a great number of handsome and well dressed compleat Gentle- 85 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA men and at the Governor's House upon birth nights and at balls and assemblies I have seen as fine an appear- ance, as good diversion, and as splendid entertainments in Governor Spottswood's time as I have seen anywhere else. They (the people) live in the same neat manner, dress after the same Modes, and behave themselves exactly as the Gentry in London. Most Families of any Note having a coach, chariot or chaise. Williamsburg must have been at one time the most cultured place in America. 1 Some of the rich planters came with their sons and daughters and spent the winter months in the city, the sons to attend William and Mary College, and the daughters to enjoy the social and cultural at- mosphere of the capital. Not only the lighter and more enjoyable features of social life were indulged in, such as dancing, musical entertain- ments, theatre-going, and private social func- tions, but there was an interest in the more intellectual matters, as is evidenced by the numerous announcements in the Virginia Ga- 1 As London and the University were in some sense England, Paris and its University, France, so Williamsburg, while it was the seat of Government, and the College of William and Mary were, to a great extent, Virginia. "Old Churches and Families," Bishop Meade, Vol. I, p. 188. 86 WILLIAM AND MARY COLLEGE zette. This paper of May 13, 1773, has the following item : We hear that a philosophical society, consisting of one hundred members, is established under the Patronage of His Excellency, the Governor, for the Advancement of Useful Knowledge in this Colony, of which the following gentlemen were elected officers for the year ensuing: John Clayton, Esq., author of the Flora Virginica, Presi- dent, John Page of Rosewell, Esq., Vice President, the Rev. Samuel Henley, Professor of Moral Philosophy, Secretary, Mr. St. George Tucker, Assistant Secretary, David Jameson, Esq., Treasurer. The Virginia Gazette of July 14, 1768, con- tained an advertisement of Purdie & Dixon, of a collection of 478 books "to be sold at the post office." This list of books contains literature of every class, including books for children, on philosophy, on religion, on agriculture, on poetry, and the complete works of Shakespeare and Vol- taire. 1 1 The following schoolbooks were included in the advertisement : "Ruddiman's Rudiments and Grammar. Clark's Introduction and his translation of Cordery, Erasmus, Eutropius, Salust, Justin, Ovid, Nepos, and yEsop. Mair's Introduction. Tyro's (a very useful book for young students) and his translation of Salust. Auol's Nepos, London vocabu- lary. Profodia Construed. Libby's and Ward's Grammars. Castalio's Dialogues. Stirling's Pheedius. Ciceronis Orationes, Salust, Justin, 87 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA During the presidency of Rev. Thomas Dawson, 1705 to 1761, dissensions arose over the " Two Penny Act." This quarrel between the ministers and the people generally developed into a great political turmoil throughout the colony. Suits were brought by several of the ministers against the vestries for losses incurred in their salaries. One of these suits was the oc- casion of Patrick Henry's famous speech that brought him into prominence in Virginia politics. There was a rapid succession of men holding the position of president of the college fron 1755 to the opening of the Revolutionary War. The Rev. John Camm was the last of the colonial presidents. He was a graduate of Trinity Col- lege, Cambridge, England. He was a stanch friend of Lord Dunmore, the last colonial gov- ernor of Virginia. The Rev. John Camm was succeeded as president of the college in 1777 by Rev. James Madison, who, in 1775, went to Cornelius Nepos, Juvenal, and Florus, Delphine. Horace Minellii. Mattaire's Ovid, Pearce's Longinus. Trapp's Prselectiones. Tully's Offices. Schrivellii Lexicon. Greek Grammar. Greek Sentential. Clark's and Mattaire's Homer. Boyer's Dictionary and Grammar. Pamela, Memoirs of Madam Pompadour, and The Chinese Spying French." Virginia Gazette, July 14, 1768. 88 WILLIAM AND MARY COLLEGE England for ordination and returned the next year. Madison was as strong a Republican as Camm was a Loyalist. In his sermons he never spoke of heaven as a kingdom but as that " great republic where there was no distinction of rank and where all men were free and equal." x During the war the faculty consisted of only three members, and the college was in session during the years of turmoil except a few months before and after the siege of Yorktown. The Organization of the First Greek Letter Fraternity in America. — The Phi Beta Kappa Society was originally organized at William and Mary College, December 5, 1776. In 1779 Elisha Parmalee, a student at William and Mary from Connecticut, was given permission to organize chapters at Harvard and Yale. From this parent organization at William and Mary College, all the Greek letter fraternities in the United States have sprung. There was a still older fraternity, of which Thomas Jeffer- son was a member, known as the " Flat Hat Club," founded in 1750. 1 See " History of William and Mary College," Lyon G. Tyler, p. 58. HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA William and Mary College after the Revolu- tion. — William and Mary College suffered severe losses as a result of the Revolutionary War. Though President Madison was made the first bishop of the Episcopal church in America, the college never again had an official connection with religion. The capital of Virginia was re- moved from Williamsburg to Richmond in 1780. The state laws for its support were discontinued. Three years after the Revolution, its available capital amounted to 2503 pounds and four shillings. It still retained extensive land grants, and, in 1784, the General Assembly voted to the college some public lands in and around Williamsburg and Jamestown. Some Innovations at William and Mary Col- lege. — Through the influence of President Madison and Thomas Jefferson, then a member of the Board of Trustees, the college was re- organized in 1779 and made a University. The grammar school was abolished, also the two divinity schools, and, instead, were introduced schools of (1) modern languages, (2) municipal law, (3) medicine. Under this arrangement, the 90 WILLIAM AND MARY COLLEGE faculty was composed of James Madison, D.D., president, professor of Natural Philosophy and Mathematics; George Wythe, LL.D., professor of Law and Police; James McClurg, professor of Anatomy and Medicine; Robert Andrews, A.M., professor of Moral Philosophy, the Law of Nature and of Nations, and Fine Arts; and Charles Bellini, professor of Modern Languages. Charles Bellini was the first professor of Modern Languages in the United States, and George Wythe was the first professor of Law. Presi- dent Madison was the first to introduce into a college curriculum a regular system of lectures on political economy. Dr. William Small had been the first to intro- duce the lecture system in college teaching in lieu of the formal recitation from the text-book, and in 1779 a faculty minute reads : Resolved, That the lectures in the different schools shall commence for the ensuing year on the 17th of January. The same year the elective system was in- yi troduced into William and Mary College, by which the student was permitted to choose his 91 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA course at college. In that year a faculty min- ute reads : That the student on paying annually one thousand pounds of tobacco shall be entitled to attend any two of the following professors, viz., of law and police, of natural philosophy and mathematics, and of moral philosophy, the laws of nature and of nations and the fine arts ; and that for fifteen hundred pounds he shall be entitled to attend any three professors, the fees to be paid at that period of the year when the course of lectures commences. The principle upon which the honor system ! is based also had its origin at this time in William and Mary College. The policy of the faculty, in controlling the students without harassing them with petty regulations or subjecting them to embarrassment by espionage in the class room and on examination, was put into effect. The principle was carried out without any rules and received printed recognition in 1817, when the statutes of the Visitors contained a provision requiring students to " give evidence on their honor respecting offences." Subsequent Events Connected with the Col- lege. — President Madison died in 1812. Dur- 1 See "History of William and Mary College," Lyon G. Tyler, p. 66. 92 WILLIAM AND MARY COLLEGE ing his administration the college prospered and served the state and the nation well in prepar- ing men who later took important part in the building up of the nation in America. Williams- burg and the college became the hotbed of re- publicanism. French rationalism and atheism were rampant in society. Drunkenness and duelling caused the professors much trouble from 1802 to 1808. In the endeavor to establish a state univer- sity there was a strong effort to move William and Mary College to Richmond, but, by the in- fluence of John Tyler, the rector, and John B. Seawell, of the trustees, and Judge Semple, of the faculty, the college remained at its ancient site. This effort to remove the college and the opening of the University of Virginia had the effect of causing a period of decline, but it maintained itself up to the Civil War without a decrease of its productive endowment. Dur- ing the administration of Thomas R. Dew (1836-46), the attendance was probably greater than that at the university. In 1839, the num- ber reached 140, of whom thirty were law HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA students. This was the largest number that ever attended the college before 1889. At the opening of the war the faculty and students hurried off to join the Confederate Army. In 1862 the main building was burned while occupied by the Federal troops. The College after the Civil War. — In 1869 the college was reopened, with Col. Benjamin S. Ewell as president. The buildings had been restored and the faculty was again recognized, but the institution had passed through so many adversities that it was impossible to restore the college to its ancient prestige, and it closed its doors in 1881, not to open again for seven years. In 1860 the endowment fund raised since the Revolution by the sale of its landed estate amounted to only $150,000, but the war had left in 1865 not over $30,000. The College Transferred to the State. — In 1888 the trustees of the college sought aid from the state legislature and presented a bill for its reorganization. It was received with favor, and the General Assembly appropriated annu- ally to its support ten thousand dollars and 94 WILLIAM AND MARY COLLEGE provided that twenty men should compose the Board of Trustees. Ten of the old Board were retained and ten were appointed by the governor, the superintendent of public instruction being an ex officio member. Dr. Lyon G. Tyler was made president, and the college started off on a new era of service. Another act passed in 1906 put the college upon the basis of a regular state institution. The property of the college was transferred from the old corporation to the new, styled " the College of William and Mary in Virginia." This act provided that the corpo- ration should consist of eleven members ; namely, the state superintendent of public instruction and ten gentlemen appointed by the governor, each to serve for four years. The college prospered under this management. It now has a productive endowment of $154,000, and receives from the state annually $40,000. It has twelve buildings, fairly equipped, a library of 18,000 volumes, and a corps of twenty-five instructors with over 240 students. The college maintains a department of education and a practice school. In addition to retaining its 95 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA ancient character as a classical college, it is the pedagogical school for the training of men teachers for the state. It serves the specific function of preparing principals and super- intendents of schools. The last report of the state high school inspector shows that William and Mary College furnishes more grad- uates teaching in the public schools than any other college in Virginia. There is an ever in- creasing and ever widening demand for the specific work that it has undertaken. Summary. — William and Mary College is y the second oldest institution for higher educa- tion in the United States, and was the first to have a full faculty of regular professors. The college was more typically English than any of the other higher institutions of learning in Amer- ica, having been established by the king and queen of England and named for them. It received a coat-of-arms from the College of Her- alds in London. William and Mary College is conducted upon the same plan as Oxford, main- taining the same curricula and holding to the same ideals. One of its primary functions is to WILLIAM AND MARY COLLEGE prepare ministers for the churches in Virginia and missionaries to the Indians. It also per- forms the function of preparing learned men for the professions of law and medicine, and public men for the state and the nation. President Tyler, in summing up the main points in the history of William and Mary, maintains the following : It was the first college in the United States to have a full faculty of professors (1729) ; the first to adopt the lecture system (1758) ; the first to establish the elective and honor systems (1779) ; the first to widen its scope into that of a university (1779) ; the first to establish courses in municipal and constitutional law (1779), modern languages (1779), political economy (1779), his- tory (1803) ; the first to organize a Greek letter inter- collegiate fraternity, the Phi Beta Kappa Society. The alumni of William and Mary College prob- ably exerted a greater influence in making the nation than the alumni of any other institution. Among these were included many illustrious names in American history. Peyton Randolph was the first president of the Continental Con- gress in 1774. Thomas Jefferson wrote the Dec- laration of Independence, 1776. John Tyler h 97 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA Sr., carried through the Virginia legislature the proposition for the Annapolis Convention, 1786. Edmund Randolph opened the proceedings of the Convention at Philadelphia by submitting the " Virginia Plan " in 1787. John Marshall settled the construction of the constitution. Three presidents of the United States were Wil- liam and Mary graduates. From 1789 to 1861 sixteen out of the twenty-seven senators from Virginia were William and Mary College men. After the Civil War, through the exhaustion of its funds, the college came to a state of sus- pension for a period of seven years, but in 1888 the state came to its rescue, and the college since then has had a continuous development along the old lines of preparing men for position in society, and the new lines of preparing high-grade teachers for our public school system. William and Mary College was a state crea- tion at first, and the state contributed to its sup- port, but, after the Revolutionary War, the state and the college drifted apart. However, in 1888, the state again came to its aid and had partial control of its affairs. In 1906 the old 98 WILLIAM AND MARY COLLEGE college was completely taken over and became a full-fledged state institution, and since that time it has adjusted its course of study and set up new ideals and aims for the future and entered upon a period of direct service to the state. Thus the " ancient " college of William and Mary, though modernized and under com- plete state control, still maintains some of its fine classical standards of scholarship and ancient prestige. 99 CHAPTER VII THE FIRST STATE SUPPORT OF PUBLIC EDUCA- TION Elementary Education. — The people of Vir- ginia have always manifested a genuine interest in education. However, they have not always provided for the training of all her people. Po- litical and social conditions at this time were not ripe for so democratic an institution as the public school system, owing to the presence of a strong and powerful upper class and a great mass of people who could be denominated " poor." The latter were for centuries exploited more or less by the aristocracy. The idea of universal public education was slow to take form. Pub- lic education, administered by the state, was looked upon by the aristocracy as being in- tended for paupers. The poorer class resented the attempt to pauperize themselves by accept- ing the proffered aid by the state in giving 100 STATE SUPPORT OF PUBLIC EDUCATION training to their children. Public education was looked upon, on the other hand, by the more powerful and ruling class as a means of charity intended for " indigents " or dependents. Thus public education could find no place in the social fabric of Virginia, until a strong and powerful middle class developed a truer democracy in which public education could best prosper. Jefferson's proposed plan of public education X^ in 1779 was based upon his political philosophy of local self-government and provided for no higher authority for administration than the local district or county. The matter of deter- mining whether a school should be established at all was left to those same local authorities. This was the main reason for the failure of the scheme, for those in authority represented the aristocratic element, and in many instances they did not see the logic of taxing themselves to establish an institution which they themselves would not patronize. Many Assembly meetings of Virginia from 1779 to the Civil War took up for consideration the bill drafted by Jefferson and his friends. In 1796 they passed the 101 BISTOB Y OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA famous act providing a system of primary schools according to Jefferson's plan, though amending it in such a way as to defeat the purpose of the bill in its very incipiency. The famous amendment stated: The court of each county shall determine the year in which the aldermen shall be appointed and until they so determine no election shall be held. The courts were careful not to " determine the year " for such an election, and of course no schools were established under this act. From this time on to the Civil War there were notable efforts by the different legislatures to establish a system of free public education. The session of 1817-18 had up for consideration a bill which, if it had passed, would have pro- vided a good scheme of public education, and would have served as a nucleus for further de- velopment into an effective system of state education. The Lower House passed the act by a large majority (66 to 49), but the Senate tied (7 to 7), and the speaker of that body cast the deciding vote against the bill. From 1818 to 1846 the people of the state 102 STATE SUPPORT OF PUBLIC EDUCATION became more interested in higher education and secondary education than in a system of primary schools. Jefferson concentrated his efforts onY- the establishment of a great university for the state, which resulted in the University of Vir- ginia in 1818. The various church denomina- tions were at this time busy establishing colleges for Christian education. Hampden-Sidney, Washington and Lee, Emory and Henry, and Randolph Macon came into existence during ^^ this period. The public was absorbed in the ef- fort to get these institutions firmly established, and this scheme for providing free schools was neglected and had to wait until 1846 or even later for a more effective system of free, public education. The act of 1846 provided for a system of primary schools, but was only per- missory. The act required the assent of two- thirds of the electors of the county before the plan could be put into operation. In a few specific instances the plan was adopted by a majority vote of the electors. 1 1 Albemarle, Norfolk, and Washington counties were given this special privilege. Norfolk County probably made the best use of this scheme of public instruction. 103 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA This general plan was adopted by nine counties, and survived in a few up to the Civil War. This scheme provided no state control. The funds for its support came from local taxa- tion and the distribution of the moneys from The Literary Fund, the establishment and evo- lution of which we now come to examine. The Literary Fund. — The Literary Fund was established by act of February 2, 1810. This formed the nucleus for the support of free schools in Virginia. The act ordered that ,/. all " escheats, confiscations, fines, penalties and forfeitures, and all rights accruing to the state as derelict, shall be set aside for the en- couragement of learning." In 1816 the Legis- lature added to this accumulative fund the amount of $1,210,550, which represented a loan to the federal government for the War of 1812 and was returned to the state. The consti- tution of 1851 provided that one-half of the capi- tation tax should go to The Literary Fund, and the General Assembly of 1853 appropriated all the tax from this source to this fund. In 1811 an act defined the purpose of this 104 STATE SUPPORT OF PUBLIC EDUCATION fund as " providing schools for the poor in any county of the State." By the same act, the governor, the lieutenant governor, treasurer, attorney-general, and the president of the court of appeals were made a corporate body, to have control of this fund under the title, " President and Directors of The Literary Fund." This Board was to invest the funds and dispose of the interest as directed by the General Assembly. The Legislature had provided also that when the income from this fund amounted to $45,000 annually, it should be used for the education of the " indigent " white children, distributed on the basis of the white population in the counties. The second auditor of the state distributed these funds to the counties according to the order of the General Assembly. In each county the respective County Courts appointed commissioners, varying in number from two to thirty-two, according to the size of the county, whose duty it was to seek out the " indigent " pupils in their respective com- munities and to employ a teacher for these pupils 105 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA at the rate of three and a half to four cents a pupil for each day they were in actual attend- ance. At first none of this fund could be used for building schoolhouses or for equipment, but in 1829 the General Assembly passed an act pro- viding that ten per cent of the allotment could be used for building schoolhouses, or if the local community should pay three-fifths of the total cost of the house, $100 of the fund could be used provided the patrons should raise a like amount. In this case the school was to be free to all. This distribution of the fund was kept under the direct control of the General Assembly from the time this fund was established to the Civil War. The fund was used by the members of the Legislature as a political " plaything." Primarily, it was intended for the education of the poor, but when the " poor " were reduced to a state of pauperism by taking advantage of it, they often refused to send their children to school, though one was provided within easy reach of them. It often happened that there 106 STATE SUPPORT OF PUBLIC EDUCATION was great difficulty in spending the money and the commissioners apologized for the ac- cumulation of a surplus. The Legislature then sought other ways of using the fund and ap- propriated it to higher institutions of learning and to academies; $15,000 annually was ap- propriated to the University of Virginia from 1818 to the Civil War. In 1824 the General Assembly appropriated $180,000 to the debts incurred on the buildings of the University of Virginia. In 1842, $1500 was allowed the Virginia Military Institute at Lexington. Seventeen academies in various parts of the state received appropriations for short periods of time. From time to time Hampden-Sidney College and Emory and Henry received gifts by the Legislature from this fund. The Medi- cal College in Richmond received $25,000 from this fund in 1850. In 1861 the income from The Literary Fund was appropriated to the defence of the state. Much of the fund was invested in Confederate bonds and other un- certain paper, which resulted in a loss of a great part of the fund. Between 1810 and 1871 107 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA $440,837 was lost by bad investments. In 1871 there was available for the fund $1,596,- 069. 1 In 1910 the fund amounted to $2,308,300 and accumulated at the rate of $80,000 a year. The average rate of accumulation is $30,000 a year. Before 1871, when the public school system of the state was put upon a permanent basis, this fund was the only means available for educational purposes, and, as the above facts indicate, the members of the Legislature kept it in their own control and used it often to further their political interests, the success of a lawmaker depending largely upon the amount of " free money " he could extract from the state for use in his district. The Literary Fund was one of the available sources for that purpose. Despite all this, the fund provided instruc- tion for many children throughout Virginia, though it took almost half a century to get the people to recognize the system as an effective method for the support of public education. 1 See School Report, 1871, p. 198. 108 STATE SUPPORT OF PUBLIC EDUCATION In 1851, 65,370 poor white children attended school, 31,486 of whom were in actual daily attendance fifty -four days a year, at a cost of four cents a day. In 1859 the attendance was 54,232 for fifty-nine days, at a varying cost of from two to six cents per day. 1 The total amount spent that year was $165,530. 2 Schoolroom Activities. — The following ex- cerpts from a description of an " Old Field " school by Professor Edward S. Joynes give an interesting picture of the activities of an ele- mentary school in Accomac County in 1847. The Building. "But at intervals, as I have said, I went to what was often called at that time, the 'old field' school. This name was doubtless due to the fact that the neighborhood school house was usually built on some piece of land which, left out as an 'old field,' now exhausted and usually growing up in small trees, was of little pecuniary value, and at the same time furnished a grateful shade. In this case, however, the school house stood in a grove of fine old oaks, near the roadside, and only a quarter of a mile from the county town, or court house; hence it was a better structure and style than was usual in the country. It was built of boards not logs. It had a great open fire place, for wood of course. There 1 Report of Second Auditor, 1851, Vol. Ill, p. 33. 2 In the year 1855 the total cost per child was $2.16. 109 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA were benches, with backs and without backs. Around the wall were sloping and planed plank boards, which served as a desk on which we wrote ; but no one had the privilege of occupying permanently a seat at the desk. The teacher sat in a big armed chair. The classes, as they were called, came and stood up before him while they recited ; and here, too, was the awful spot at which 'discipline' was administered. Gradation. "Of gradation there was no thought. Each boy and girl recited, either alone or in class, as his or her condition required. School was from nine to twelve, and in winter from one to four ; in summer from two to five. There was no regular school term. There was always school when there was a teacher; and as in those days a teacher usually meant anybody who could find nothing else to do, it usually continued, with some- what irregular intervals, all the year round. Attendance was, of course, conditioned more or less by the necessi- ties of farm work at home ; but that made no difference. Each fellow, on returning, entered just where he could. Discipline. "In this school house prevailed a certain rude and severe, yet natural and wholesome discipline. Learning lessons aloud — a habit contracted before by many — was strictly forbidden, as was all whispering or talking or prompting. Suum cuique — every one for him- self — was the rule which I think honestly prevailed. Telling was shameful, even if one had to bear another's punishment. Outside of * keeping quiet' and 'behav- ing,' we had a good deal of liberty. A big bucket of water, with a dipper, was on a stand : to go for water some distance from the school house, was the privilege 110 STATE SUPPORT OF PUBLIC EDUCATION of that one of the big boys who had said his lessons best. Of 'rewards' there were none. Of punishments I re- member but one — the tingle of which I can still feel on my back ; I got it almost every day. — The punishment was administered not only for misbehavior, but for per- sistent defect in lessons. A ruler, a horse whip, or a leather strap (under different teachers) served equally well for this benign function. We got used to it, expected it, craved it ; a boy who flinched was despised. The Curriculum and Method of Teaching. "Our tasks were set in the book, and we ' said them ' from the book, and, usually, word for word. Often the questions were at the bottom of the page, which saved trouble to both scholars and teacher. We wrote our copies over and over ; we ' ciphered ' till we ' got the answer * ; — no questions were asked. If, after due trial, we could not get the answer, we were thrashed, and, after brief explanation, we tried again. In this way, I ' ciphered ' through Pike's and other arithmetics. In grammar the rule was : Com- mit the big print the first time; on review the big and little print, verbatim. So I went through Smith's English Grammar on the 'productive plan' (what it 'produced' in me Heaven only knows) and, later, Rosses' Latin Grammar. Almost all lesson-getting was by heart. " We studied but few subjects — literally the three R's, but these we studied thoroughly. We read every day from Marshall's Life of Washington. We wrote day after day, and year after year, till good penmanship was the rule among us. Spelling was our specialty and our pride. Not only did each class spell every day but every morning, before dismissal, the whole school was lined up 111 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA for a general * spell'; and to be at the 'head' of the class was the most coveted honor. And we spelled not only through the spelling books, but through the diction- ary — alphabetically, every word — and then reviewed it with the definitions ! — How I ever learned to read it would be impossible, in the light of modern * methods,' to explain. I began with ab, eb, etc. — We used Olney's Geography; we got the text book by heart. — Of the philosophy of geography and of physical geography, as now taught, we knew nothing. But what we did learn we learned so thoroughly, and reviewed so often, that when I was ten years old there was hardly an important town, seaport, or waterway in the world that I did not know, by name and location at least. This, I now see was a very slender and superficial kind of knowledge; but, such as it was, it was positive and it was accurate. We doubtless had some history also of an elementary sort, but I cannot now recall it. If we did we learned and recited it by rote, and were required as in every other study to know, and to ' say ' exactly what was in the book. Play Time. "One hour in winter, and two in summer was playtime indeed. The town boys went home to dinner ; the countrymen — boys and girls — had the house and grounds to ourselves. And play we did, in- doors and out, according to weather or inclination. There was no wall or fence to separate the boys and the girls. We played as we chose separately or together. Kissing games were popular but as the kisses were always im- posed as a forfeit of course they were not enjoyed ! The supreme penalty was to kiss all the girls in school; and then I always began with the ugliest and closed with the 112 STATE SUPPORT OF PUBLIC EDUCATION prettiest, but more usually, it was to kiss the girl you love best — and who could refuse so pleasing a function ! We fought, of course, now and then and 'Cat' and 'town ball' and 'Sally' (a beautiful game that I have never seen since) we often played. We cultivated the germ that has grown into modern 'athletics.' We had our fun, and we got our rest, and were ready for the afternoon work. The horrible exaction of lessons to be got out of school was so far as I can remember quite unknown. The Walk Home in the Evening. "After school came the walk home, often the pleasantest part of the day. Usually we came singly, but we left in groups. Along my road went a half a dozen or more boys and girls altogether for a time and then gradually, one after an- other dropped out until I who lived farthest of all was left to walk or usually to run, the last mile alone. Oh ! those delightful home walks in summer ! We lingered slowly, 'creeping like snails.' We played marbles or 'tag' in the road; we picked blackberries from the fence corners; we posted sentinels and climbed apple trees (I was caught in one by an irate farmer who took his seat on the tree root and kept me there till near night fall and then dismissed me with my pail full of the best. — That was his joke !) We walked aside with the girls, talking foolishness that seemed the sweetest wisdom. More than one of these companions, before I was twelve years old, I had loved ('not wisely but too well') — grandmothers are now dead, but not forgotten ! Yet none of us were ever the worse for these sweet dreams and loving words." i 113 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA The Administration of Elementary Schools. — The president and directors of The Literary Fund, composed of the governor, lieutenant governor, attorney-general, and the president of the court of appeals, represented the state authority in control of public education in Virginia from 1846 to 1868. Their function extended no further than the matter of investing The Literary Fund and distributing it to the various counties according to the population. This Board had no power to devise ways and means for the encouragement of public education among the people of the state. It had no au- thority to license teachers or supervise the in- struction. It had no power to provide school buildings and equipment. These matters were left entirely to the local commissioners, who were appointed by the County Courts. The number of these was left entirely to the Court's dis- cretion. 1 The idea was to have a commissioner in every large community. He was to find the number of " indigent " children in the com- munity and then employ a teacher. This was 1 The number ranges from 32 in Augusta to 2 in Warwick County. 114 STATE SUPPORT OF PUBLIC EDUCATION one of the difficult tasks for the commissioner. Oftentimes he could find no one who would agree to teach the children at the meagre salary he could offer. He would then find tuition for the " indigent " children in a school, known as a " pay school," already established by some teacher. Oftentimes these teachers would re- fuse to admit the poor children to their classes. It was also the commissioner's duty to visit the schools where the " poor " children were taught. Everything depended upon the school commissioner. This official was likely to be a man with little or no idea of what good school work should be. In some instances there is evidence that they were very negligent of even the meagre duties imposed by law. The people for whom the school existed had a strong prej- udice against being looked upon as paupers, and for that reason refused to send their chil- dren to these schools, after persistent efforts on the part of the commissioners. Excerpts from the Reports of the County Com- missioners. 1 The following excerpts from the 1 See Second Auditor's Report for the Year 1855-56. 115 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA reports of the commissioners of the various counties of the state will indicate the ineffec- tiveness of the system at the close of the period under discussion: "Many prejudices exist against the system owing to a false pride and children grow up in ignorance rather than be educated from public funds." Clarke County Com- missioners. "The main defects of the system are : lack of qualified teachers and prejudice among the people as * poor schools.' " Augusta County, Supt. Jno. Imboden. "We recommend an increase per diem. Teachers of the higher grade, particularly classical teachers, are not willing to instruct indigent children for the present com- pensation, and other persons who are competent to give elementary instruction are debarred for the same reason." Brunswick County Commissioners. "320 indigent children were instructed in the County. These children are entered in higher schools where higher teachers are paid the allowance and they consider it an act of charity to accept these children. Two dollars per child will not educate children in this county. Without an increase of funds the greater number of children must grow up in ignorance." Charlotte County Com- missioners. "There is a great difficulty to get people to act as school commissioners. When they do undertake the duties, they are not half attended to." Franklin County Commissioners. 116 STATE SUPPORT OF PUBLIC EDUCATION "Commissioners are of the opinion that there should be some stated plan specially adopted for furnishing the common schools with some uniform system of school books and at the lowest possible rates. The age limit should be from 8 to 18 instead of 6 to 16." Frederick County Commissioners. "There are no schools especially established by the commissioners, but several are confined to indigent chil- dren, and there does not appear to be any difference in the progress of indigent and other children.* * Fluvanna County Commissioners. "Many teachers of the county will not admit children at the rate set by law. There is a large balance on hand that we cannot use." Henrico County Commissioners. "Considerable difficulty in obtaining teachers. We recommend an increase of rate to five cents. Think teacher could then be induced to take indigent children." Isle of Wight County Commissioners. "Per diem should be raised to five cents. Six of the commissioners could not establish schools. The com- missioners will endeavor to provide against so large a sur- plus next year. Indigent children are decreasing in the county in consequence of increase of wealth and the high price of labor. They have lost the ridiculous pride which has heretofore characterized them in refusing to go to school under the charge of the state." King William County Commissioners. "Commissioners do not visit the schools. Teachers are not selected by them. They have to send the poor children to schools already established." Matthews County Commissioners. 117 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA "Different neighborhoods in the county are supplied with schools, therefore it is unnecessary to establish schools. Funds not deemed sufficient to educate all the poor children. Board selects females and such others as are most needed." Madison County Commissioner. "Commissioners have visited schools and find the pupils advancing. The amount unexpended is consider- able, due to the increase of capitation tax." Montgomery County Commissioner. "Commissioners remiss in their duty. Rule passed that any commissioner who does not make report as re- quired will forfeit his quota." New Kent County Com- missioners. "Some of the commissioners have not attended a board meeting for two years. Recommend that com- missioners be paid for their time in attending their duties." Pittsylvania County Commissioners. "The parents of many indigent children cannot be prevailed upon to send their children to the schools." Rappahannock County Commissioner. "Commissioners fail to discharge their duty. Recom- mend that teachers be not employed who cannot file a certificate from the Superintendent." Smythe County Commissioners . "Greatest difficulty in inducing parents or guardian to send their children to school regularly." Spottsylvania County Commissioners. "Board allowance teaches 300 poor children. Volun- tary contributions are made. This permits such salaries as will secure good teachers. "$1800 raised to build a school house large and beau- 118 STATE SUPPORT OF PUBLIC EDUCATION tiful. I reckon it may be regarded as the banner dis- trict of the State. Teachers have a county organization." 1 Norfolk County Commissioners. "Schools well conducted. Poor children make as much progress as the others. No teachers employed without being examined." Washington County Com- missioners. From the foregoing excerpts from the reports of the Second Auditor, who was the only state supervising officer and the custodian of the in- come from The Literary Fund, it will be seen that the main difficulties with the system were : (1) insufficiency of funds to employ competent teachers; (2) no school buildings and other equipment, no means available for that purpose ; (3) strong prejudice against the idea of placing their children under the charge of the state for education; and (4) a generally careless atti- tude toward the system on the part of the com- missioners. Some of these difficulties lie so deep in the social fabric as to require years of time and effort to overcome. In the light of modern ideas concerning educational affairs, it seems ridiculous that the commissioners felt 1 This was probably the first county organization of teachers in the state. 119 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA called upon in their reports to apologize for not being able to spend the amounts allotted. In September, 1855, the Second Auditor reported undrawn quotas $10,381.11 and undrawn capi- tation tax $13,929.02. In connection with this law providing schools for the poor, special acts give the privilege to certain counties by vote to establish a system of free schools, by which a special tax was levied and a superintendent and a board were elected by the people for the conduct of the schools. This type of school was known as District Free School, and was intended for all children, rich and poor alike. The following counties oper- ated systems of free schools under special acts: Elizabeth City, Henry, King George, North- ampton, Norfolk, Princess Anne, Washington, Albemarle, and Augusta, together with the cities of Lynchburg, Petersburg, and Norfolk. Nor- folk County was the only one operating under this law at the beginning of the Civil War. These counties received their quotas from The Literary Fund in addition to the local tax levies for educational purposes. This was the period 120 STATE SUPPORT OF PUBLIC EDUCATION of industrial development in America, when railroads were being built everywhere and the enthusiasm for this sort of improvement eclipsed the other interests of the state and the atten- tion of the people was turned away from educa- tional matters. The following memorials to the directors of The Literary Fund by the school commissioners of Hanover and Matthews County are particularly interesting in this con- nection: An Appeal for Better Schools. "The Literary Fund is failing of its purpose with respect to primary schools. 1. Insufficiency of compensation (4 cents per diem) fixed by law to secure services of teachers well qualified for this purpose. 2. The competent teachers will not take poor children. " The memorial closes with this significant argument : While so much of the talents and energies of the legislators, so much of the pecuniary resources of the state is directed to clearing out obstructions from exist- ing channels for getting produce to market; while hills are being cut down, and valleys being filled up in the con- struction of new channels for the commendable purpose of developing the latent resources of the Commonwealth and bringing into active and profitable use materials now 121 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA utterly worthless, may we not indulge the hope, that the favorable opportunity for doing something for the cause of general education will not be permitted to pass by un- improved: but rather may we not flatter ourselves that as far as practicable the obstructions will be removed out of the way of enlightening the dark and uninformed of the poor of our state. That some plan will be devised which will operate as a permanent channel for communi- cating information to that large class of our citizens which will be sensibly felt in perpetuating our free insti- tutions by developing the latent resources of genius now covered with a heavy mass of rubbish, converting igno- rance into intelligence, vice into virtue, idleness into industry, and want and misery into happiness and use- fulness. Signed by order of Board Henry Robinson, Pres. James T. Sutton, SecH. Commissioners of Hanover County. 1836. The Commissioners with much deference would sug- gest that a part of the enormous sums annually expended in abortive schemes of internal improvement might be more successfully directed to the objects of education and with absolute certainty of success. This is the begin- ning place. The moral power and prosperity of the people of Virginia should have their foundation laid in enlightening the minds of all, by providing the means of a general plan of education. Other improvements are of a secondary character and will follow as a matter of course. School Commissioners of Matthews County. 1830. STATE SUPPORT OF PUBLIC EDUCATION Summary. — It will be clearly seen that the system of public education in the state was not adequate: (1) the financial support was far short of the needs, as recognized by some of the leaders; (2) there was no effective system of administration and supervision; (3) public opinion as to the state's taking control of pub- lic education had not definitely crystallized; (4) the improvement of the physical aspects of the state, such as the building of railroads, canals, and forms of navigation, were receiving the attention of the people and were regarded as the prime function of government. As a consequence, primary education was neglected. 123 CHAPTER VIII PERIOD OF THE ACADEMIES Academies and Classical Schools. — Before 1800, there were as many as twenty-five acade- mies in Virginia. They were generally known as " Classical Schools." The term " Academy " came a little later when the sciences were be- coming popular and some of them were taught in these secondary schools. This type of school had arisen in New England and New York State. In the latter half of the seventeenth century they had multiplied very rapidly through the other sections of the country, not- ably in Maryland, Virginia, and other southern states. The graduates of Princeton and Yale colleges came down into Virginia and estab- lished these schools in sections of the state where the strongest church centres were. 124 PERIOD OF THE ACADEMIES Some of these early academies became the nuclei of the leading colleges in Virginia. 1 Prince Edward Academy (1775) later be- came Hampden-Sidney College. Liberty Hall Academy (1776) was the beginning of Wash- ington College, now Washington and Lee University, at Lexington. Fredericksburg Academy (1783) later became the charity school there (1796) and still later Freder- icksburg College. Shepherdstown Academy (1793), Hoge Classical School (1805), was the nucleus of Shepherdstown College (now a state normal school in West Virginia). Albemarle Academy (1803), later Central College (1818), became the University of Virginia. Richmond Seminary (1803) developed into Richmond Col- lege. Salem Academy (1826) later became Roanoke College. Monongahela Academy (1814) was the nucleus for West Virginia University. Marshall Academy (1838) be- came Marshall College (1858), later changed 1 " Upper schools were established in all the Scotch-Irish settlements, from which grew colleges in an early period in Pennsylvania, North Caro- lina, Tennessee, as well as in Virginia." Washington and Lee University Historical Papers. 125 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA to a state normal school (1867) at Hunting- ton, West Virginia. Norfolk Academy (1788), Winchester Academy (1786), Petersburg Academy (1794), Margaret Academy (1807), Staunton Academy (1810), New Market Acad- emy (1817), Concord Academy (1809), Alex- andria Academy (1785), had a long and use- ful existence, and some of them are still in a flourishing condition as private preparatory schools or military academies. Besides these academies, there grew up one or more of these schools in every county of the state. From 1800 to 1860, there were about two hundred and fifty of these schools incorporated by the General Assembly, and it is safe to say that many others of less signifi- cance in operation did not apply for incorpo- ration. The following table shows the growth of academies from the Revolutionary War to the close of the Civil War. It should be noted that about twenty of these would fall within the territory of the present state of West Vir- ginia. It will be noted that the period from 126 PERIOD OF THE ACADEMIES 1820 to 1860 was the most active in establish- ing this type of school. This corresponds to Male Female Co-educational Total 1776-1800 21 21 1800-1820 32 6 1 39 1820-1840 33 15 7 55 1840-1860 40 48 12 100 1860-1870 1 2 3 127 71 20 218 the educational revival in America from the 30's to the 50's. The people of Virginia were as much interested in the education of girls as boys. The academy was the type of school that spread through Virginia and served as the means of education for the majority of the children of the state. These schools, while they taught the classics, higher mathematics, and the sciences (physics, chemistry, and botany), also gave instruction in the elementary subjects, which was a necessary preparation for this secondary instruction. The state had no other connection with these academies than the mat- ter of chartering them or passing acts enab- ling them to conduct lotteries for the purpose 127 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA of raising funds to erect buildings or to add to their endowment. 1 It gave no money for their support except to the few (seventeen) that received a meagre appropriation from The Literary Fund at different times. The more substantial of them were endowed and con- trolled by a board of trustees which was a self -perpetuating body. The main means of support was by tuition fees paid by the students. Public Sentiment for Popular Education. — From the 30's to the 50's, a great wave of dis- cussion arose as to the best system of education for the state. The churches were particularly interested in the fostering of secondary and higher education. They were demanding that the state subsidize the institution they had already established. There was a strong feeling among a class that the state should adopt a complete system of education under state control. Charles Fenton Mercer, in 1817, drew up and 1 From 1784 to 1817, acts authorizing the raising of money by means of lotteries, for the establishment and maintenance of academies, were passed by the Legislature. 128 PERIOD OF THE ACADEMIES presented to the Legislature a bill providing for a Board of Public Instruction, with a perma- nent secretary, for a system of primary schools free to all white children ; for a system of acade- mies (three of these for girls) ; and for colleges and a university. This bill passed the House but failed of passage in the Senate. The acade- mies had proved so well their efficiency that almost all proposed legislation regarding educa- tional matters included this type of school. There were some people who thought " nothing worthy could come from statutes in matters of education." One man went so far as to argue that The Literary Fund should be abolished as a public nuisance." The people were deeply concerned with ad- justments and readjustments. There was a strong prejudice against old forms and customs. They feared taxation and meagre publicity and central control of public matters. Hence, public education lagged in such a spirit and the idea of complete local control in matters of education prevailed. In such an atmosphere, academies survived as the best type of educa- k 129 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA tion in Virginia. Education conventions were held at Richmond and at Clarksburg (now in West Virginia), in 1841, each offering sugges- tions for a more satisfactory system of educa- tion. Plans Submitted. — The House Committee, Directors of The Literary Fund, Henry Ruffner, and Superintendent Smith of V.M.I, all sub- mitted plans for a better system of education for the state. In these reports, one finds as suggestions all the characteristic aspects of modern public education. Some of them are : (1) support of colleges, (2) eight months' session for the common schools, (3) establish- ment of normal schools, (4) schools for girls, (5) pensions for teachers, (6) State Board of Educa- tion, (7) state superintendent of schools, (8) school journals, (9) division superintendents, (10) school libraries, and (11) better school- houses. But nothing came of all this full and abundant wisdom. The academies went on furnishing, for the most part, the training for the boys and girls of Virginia until 1869, when the present school system was inaugurated. 130 PERIOD OF THE ACADEMIES In 1860 there were 13,204 pupils attending academies in Virginia, with 720 teachers. 1 Our present system of high schools in the state grew by gradual stages out of these academies so well distributed over the state. 2 The Curriculum of These Academies. — The curriculum for these academies in the higher departments was largely the old traditional subjects, Latin, Greek, mathematics, and rhetoric. In addition to these, such sciences as physics and chemistry, and sometimes bot- any, were taught; and bookkeeping was often comprised in the course. In the classical schools, the work was confined more to the ancient languages. This was regarded as the preparation for college. The discipline was usually harsh and severe. There were no short cuts or easy methods. Three typical cases will illustrate how school work proceeded in some of these old academies, some of which went by the name of " Old Field " schools. 1 U. S. Census of 1860. 2 At the opening of the Civil War, Virginia, east of the Alleghany Mountains, led the entire fifteen states of the South in secondary and higher education. U. S. Commissioner's Report, 1890-91, p. 882. 131 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA Beyond the Blue Ridge schools are very scarce. About this time (1776) my father went on a trading expedition to Baltimore and there purchased several convict servants. Among these was a youth about 18 or 20 named John Reardon of Ireland but reared in London. He had been at a classical school and had read Latin as far as Vergil, as well as a little Greek Testament. He wrote a fair hand and had some knowl- edge of bookkeeping but had never been accustomed to labor. The young fellow it was thought might teach school in default of a better, and accordingly a hut of logs was erected near a spring. The place was a mile from our house by the direct path along the creek, whither I trudged along every day. The school was large and some of the scholars were nearly grown. It consisted of both boys and girls. The custom was to read with as loud a voice as we could while getting our lessons as it was called. When within a quarter of a mile of a country school one might hear, like a distant chime, the united voices of the scholars. 1 Concord Academy was Frederick Coleman. Coleman was an A. M. from the University of Virginia. There can never be such a school. Every man for himself, — that was all. Be a man, be a gentleman — nothing more. Obedience, truthfulness, — these were the only virtues recognized, — obedience to Fred Coleman. His wrath was something terrible, a tornado in its irresistible and undisciplined fury. Lying and cowardice were not given for they were impossible at Concord. Fighting was not 1 " Life of Archibald Alexander," pp. 10-14. 132 PERIOD OF THE ACADEMIES prohibited; only it must be a fair fight, old Fred would see to that. This was a school with absolutely no method, no hour was appointed for any of the classes. Ben, the trusty servant, who equally feared and worshipped his master, would ring the bell and announce the class at any hour. The law of place was as uncertain as that of time ; classes would meet anywhere without law or method ; in disregard of every rule of order or decorum was laid the foundation of that scholarship which made Concord famous among schools. Coleman held that the first books of Livy con- tained all Latinity, and all the glory that was Greece was to be found in the " Hecuba " of Euripides. . . . Every line, phrase form, idiom was made a center of citation. We used only complete texts without notes at Concord — a Latin or Greek grammar I never saw there. He was a massive power of body and will. Through this power he dominated all his boys — impressed honesty upon them — controlled them by his immense will power, moved them by his mighty sympathy, startled them into life by his stentorian voice, and molded them by his dynamic mind. As a teacher he was the greatest of his age. There has been no other like him. 1 " When I was about eleven years old I was transferred to what I may call the Latin school. This was a private school, taught at the residence of the teacher. The school was held in an outhouse, which in all its appoint- ments was as plain and meager as the other — (the Old Field school) a few benches — no wall maps or black- 1 The Morrison MS., Concord Academy, 1835. 133 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA boards — I never saw either of these until I was sent off from home. I call it the "Latin school" because Latin with some Greek was mainly taught there. The teacher was a graduate of the University of Doublin; had been classical instructor in one of the best colleges of that day, where he had earned a high reputation. Spending a vacation on the eastern shore of Virginia he had met and married a beautiful and refined woman who, dying, had left him two lovely daughters; now, in his old age, he had settled down to teach a school for boys. I wish I could give more of his personal history, for he was a remarkable man. Yet I know the case was not alto- gether exceptional, for I have heard of other distin- guished scholars teaching at that day in equally remote parts of the south. Curriculum and Method. "The usual advanced branches of that day were taught more or less — usually less ; — for Latin and Greek were the staple of the school, and in these alone the teacher delighted. And he made us delight in them. I learned to love Latin, and I studied it with loving zeal. The method was old-fashion ; Gram- mar lessons learned by heart; paradigms studied so thoroughly as never to be forgotten ; parsing and weari- some detail, with infinite repetition but with absolute accuracy ; and reading, reading, reading : — of written exercises I never so much as heard. My teacher was one of the brightest classical scholars I have ever seen. Large portions of the text — the poetry especially — he knew so well that he could hear our lessons without a book. As we recited he would pace across the room, chewing his great quid of tobacco, yet watchful of every word or 134 PERIOD OF THE ACADEMIES intonation — now and then interpolating brilliant exposi- tion or apt renderings, which fired us with interest and emulation. Here I read Csesar, Sallust, Virgil (the eclogues, Georgics, and six books of iEneid) ; Cicero's Oration against Catiline and Verres; and Horace, Odes and Satires, — all in two years, — and I read them thoroughly, understanding, if not the subject-matter, at least the language. — As I rose to the dignity of the " first Latin" class, we were left to do as much Latin as we could or would, and I remember that, at last, we reached an average of over 200 lines per day. Of what else, indeed, I did in this school I have little or no recollection; but I did learn Latin — to know Latin and to love Latin ; — and for a boy of twelve to learn to know and to love any one great and good thing, is, I submit, a good beginning of education. At the age of thirteen my country school education ended. A few months I was sent to a famous Academy at Newark, Delaware." l Summary. — The academies, so numerous in Virginia during the first half of the nineteenth century, developed out of the old classical schools, known in some sections of the state as the "Parson's Schools" and "Old Field Schools " of the previous century. The acad- emy of this later period came to represent the coming of science, as a part of the college and 1 Journal of Education, South Carolina, by Edward S. Joynes. 135 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA secondary curricula. Here and there the old classical schools persisted, being patronized par- ticularly by the more influential and aristocratic classes and by those intended for the clergy. The teaching of the sciences came with the movement that demanded a more practical type of training, and were patronized and maintained by the growing influence of the middle class, and the wide-spread movement of the industrial, economic, and new political life of the state. This type of education persisted so long in Virginia because of the transition in political ideals, represented by Jefferson's po- litical philosophy of local self-government, and the fear of centralized power in matters of state control. The evolution of American educa- tion has gone along with the idea of a certain degree of centralized power. The efficiency of the American system of education depends upon : (1) the fundamental democratic principle of equal opportunity for all; and (2) the pro- vision for state support and supervision of schools. 136 CHAPTER IX HIGHER EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA, 1775-1860 Dissenters in Virginia. — About the time of the Revolutionary War, streams of migration from Maryland, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, and New York flowed into Virginia. These immi- grants settled in various parts of the state, particularly in the Piedmont and the upper regions of the James River and in the Shenan- doah Valley, and represented various religious denominations, such as Presbyterians, Bap- tists, Methodists, Quakers, Lutherans, German Baptists, 1 and Mennonites, and were generally known among the other Virginia settlers as "dissenters." They were a sturdy people and had learned to differ from the old and estab- lished forms of worship in England and other sections of Europe, and carried with them into 1 In 1908, the General Conference changed the name to "Church of the Brethren." 137 i HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA this new country the spirit of the Reformation, which had been the cause of so much controversy in Europe. They came into clash with the es- tablished church of England so firmly estab- lished in Virginia. The outcome of the political conflict ending with the Revolutionary War gave the " dissenters " the advantage, and other influences in the subsequent history of the state brought them distinctly into the ascendency. By the close of the war they had established themselves into strong centres of population and had begun to organize themselves in accord- ance with their own ideals of religious, social, educational, and political standards. The Pres- byterians were probably the most active in taking part in moulding the politics of the state. They were of the Scotch-Irish stock and held to their proverbial thirst for knowledge. They had a reverence for learning, and schools soon and sacredly followed upon their churches. The German Baptists and Mennonites were slow to provide education or to take an active part in that provided by the state a little later. The Baptists, Methodists, Presbyterians, and 138 HIGHER EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA, 1775-1860 Lutherans each in their turn established col- leges, and for a long period (1775 to 1860) these institutions provided the most effective system of higher education in Virginia. We shall next trace the development of these influential church schools and a little later follow the development of the higher education provided by the state. Hampden-Sidney College, 1775 Next to William and Mary College, Hampden- Sidney College is the oldest institution for higher learning in Virginia. It grew out of the needs of the Presbyterian communities in Prince Edward, Hanover, and Cumberland counties. The pastors of the Presbyterian churches in that part of Virginia were largely graduates of Princeton College, and it was but natural that they should desire for their people the same sort of educational advantages to which they were accustomed in New Jersey and Pennsylvania. Princeton was the model for the college in Vir- ginia. " The college in New Jersey " is often referred to in the early documents connected 139 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA with the establishing of Hampden-Sidney Col- lege. The Virginians wanted the same sort of institution. This college was established when the clash between the Church of England and the " dissenters " was at white heat. The earliest document referring to the establishment of an academy in Prince Edward County ap- peared in the Virginia Gazette of October, 1775. It is a full announcement of the opening of the Academy, November 10, of that year. This document says the college will be " subject to the visitation of twelve men of character and influence in their respective counties, the im- mediate and active members being chiefly of the Church of England." Further on, it says : The system of Education will resemble that which is adopted in the college of New Jersey, save that a more particular attention shall be paid to the cultivation of the English language than is usually done in places of public Education. Another statement of special interest is : The public may rest assured that the whole shall be conducted in the most catholic plan. Parents of every 140 HIGHER EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA, 1775-1860 denomination may be at full liberty to require their children to attend any mode of worship which either custom or conscience has rendered most agreeable to them. Here we have indeed a broad " catholic " basis for an educational institution. It is probably true that the members of the Board of Trustees representing the Church of England did not accept the honor of serving on the Board, for a man writing in the next issue of the Gazette under the signature of " Luther " calls atten- tion to the effort to establish a college in Prince Edward and also to the danger of having the edu- cation of the youth placed under the care of " dissenters " who profess doctrines not only repugnant to the doctrine of the Church of England, but in his opinion even " subversive of morality." He closes with a plea to every Church-of -England contributor to the Academy to withhold his subscription from a college con- ducted under such auspices. Here we have the results of a long and bitter controversy between the two prevailing ideas of the purpose of education: the one, that a col- lege education was a preparation primarily for 141 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA service in the church, and the other, that higher education served the purpose of preparing one for service as a citizen of the state. This con- flict had been fought out at Harvard, Yale, and Princeton long before. Hampden-Sidney Col- lege immediately lent its influence to the political affairs of the country, which had become tense and critical prior to the Revolutionary War and the consequent founding of a new form of government in America. 1 On November 16, 1776, the trustees sent a memorial to the House of Delegates at Williamsburg which has all the earmarks of a fundamental political document full of wisdom and advice regarding the establishment of a free government in America and incidentally calling attention to 1 A petition of sundry inhabitants of the county of Prince Edward whose names are hereunto subscribed (the first petition of dissenters to the House of Delegates) was presented to the House and read, setting forth that they heartily approve and cheerfully submit themselves to the form of government adopted for this State, and hope that the United American States will long continue free and independent . . . that justice to themselves and posterity makes it their indispensable duty in particu- lar to entreat that without delay all church establishments might be pulled down and every law upon conscience and private judgment abol- ished, and each individual left to rise or sink by his own merit and the general laws of the land. Journal of the House of Delegates, October 11, 1776. 142 HIGHER EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA, 1775-1860 the importance of Hampden-Sidney College as an institution which represents the ideals of the new government. The college long kept in close touch with the political movements of the time, and its roll of graduates includes the names of scores of Virginia statesmen and leaders in national affairs as well. This identifi- cation of the college with the state turned the ears of the legislature to its appeals for aid many times. The men who have held the position of presi- dent of Hampden-Sidney College make a galaxy of great names. Some of the greatest scholars of America have been connected with this in- stitution of learning. Patrick Henry and James Madison were one-time members of the Board of Trustees (charter members) . The college has constantly held to the policies of its founders: (1) that sound learning be promoted; (2) that the principles of liberty and patriotism be im- pressed upon the youth of the land; (3) that true religion be conserved and the Kingdom of Christ be advanced. The college has wielded a great influence in every line of professional 143 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA service. Its cultural influence has been far- reaching. She trained thirty-three presidents of colleges and universities and one hundred professors in like institutions. Three times the students and members of the faculty have en- listed as a body and marched to war. In re- ligious service the college rendered a like con- tribution to the country. Fifty per cent of all its graduates have entered the ministry of the Gospel. This record probably cannot be matched by any other college in America. It never had a large enrolment of students. The largest in any one year was 155. The average enrolment has been 75. Early in the history of the college the Trustees memorialized the Legislature of Virginia on the subject of aid for buildings and endowment. The state turned over to the college 412 acres of land (1784), though this was never very productive. There were many attempts to induce the Legislature to give money to the college from time to time, but little was received from this source. 1 In the 1 See calendar of Board Minutes, Hampden-Sidney College, Morrison, pp. 118, 121, 126, 134, 140, and 141. 144 HIGHER EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA, 1775-1860 early days the college was maintained by means of lotteries, subscription, private gifts, tuition fees, and rents from rooms. The Board minutes are full of schemes by which attempts were made to put the college on a firm financial basis. The course of studies as prescribed for the college in its early years included a full course in the ancient languages, mathematics, trigo- nometry, and surveying, the French language, moral philosophy, physics, and chemistry. This curriculum has been adjusted from time to time to meet the modern demands. The in- stitution has always stood for sound scholarship in the old traditional lines. Efforts were made at times to establish a medical department at Richmond, which seems to have been in session from 1837 to 1854. 1 At another time an effort was made to introduce manual labor (1835), but this was never put into real operation. The Union Theological Seminary was organized at Hampden-Sidney (1807) and became the institution for preparing ministers, particularly for the Presbyterian Church. l 145 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA The seminary was moved to Richmond in 1898, and has continued its fruitful work in its new location. For a few years after this re- moval the college passed through a trying period of readjustment to new conditions, but has overcome the difficulties arising from its rural location, and is to-day more vigorous than at any time in its long and honored history. Its endowment has been increased, its equipment made modern and complete, its faculty en- larged, and its courses of study are fully abreast of the educational demands of the times. Thus, Hampden-Sidney College in Virginia maintains its honored place among the in- stitutions for higher learning in the South, and continues to wield a wide and permanent influ- ence both in Virginia and in the nation at large. ^ Summary. — Hampden-Sidney College was conceived, established, and maintained by church authority. In this sense it was a church school offering Christian education though recog- nizing the effectiveness of education for citizen- ship and public service. It sought support often from the state, and while there was always 146 HIGHER EDUCATION IN 'VIRGINIA, 1775-1860 a strong inclination on the part of the Legisla- ture of Virginia to aid the college, it was more interested in developing a state university over which it could have more direct control. Hampden-Sidney's greatest contribution was in the line of religious education, it having inspired and furnished the leaders for Union Theo- logical Seminary, — first at Hampden-Sidney College and later of Richmond, — Princeton Theological Seminary, and Austin Theological Seminary. Fifty per cent of its graduates have gone into the ministry. Washington and Lee University, 1776 Washington and Lee University had its origin in the Scotch-Irish settlement west of the Blue Ridge in Augusta and Rockbridge counties. The people, like those in Prince Edward County, had come from the colonies to the north, and directly from Scotland and Ireland, where they had had the advantage of a complete education. The father of Rev. Archibald Alexander was instrumental in establishing a school (1775) at Timber Ridge near Lexington, where the classi- 147 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA cal languages were taught by efficient instruc- tors. This was the nucleus around which Liberty Hall Academy and later Washington College grew, and upon whose foundations the present Washington and Lee University rests. Liberty Hall Academy was established in 1776 by the same Scotch-Irish stock that founded Hampden-Sidney College, whose love for learning and liberty meant so much to Ameri- can freedom and education. In 1796 General Washington endowed the academy with one hundred shares of stock in the James River Navigation Company, which had been presented to him by the Legislature of Virginia, in appreciation of services rendered this country in the Revolutionary War. This property, added to the original, which was already considerable for that time, constituted the foundation for the future university. In 1798 the institution took the name of " Washing- ton College." In 1803 the college was still further endowed by a gift from the funds of the Cincinnati Society, which at that time was dissolved. In 1826 the large estate of John 148 HIGHER EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA, 1775-1860 Robinson, of Rockbridge, a trustee of the col- lege, was added, which formed the basis of two professorships. Other gifts by will have been added, making a rich endowment. It will be seen that this institution rests upon an entirely independent basis, with no direct church or state control, though the college was established and maintained by Presbyterian fosterage. Its affairs have always been managed by a self -perpetuating Board of Trustees. It has always ranked high among the American colleges. In 1865 Gen. Robert E. Lee was elected president, and under his management new courses were laid out in which large opportuni- ties were provided for the study of practical and applied science. An overflowing patronage followed from all parts of the country, both North and South. After the death of General Lee, the name of Washington and Lee Univer- sity was given to the college. Among the ideals of the college are: (1) sound scholarship in the classics, mathematics, his- tory, literature, and philosophy; (2) high type of manhood; (3) a system of honor among 149 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA its students; (4) learning for public service rather than for personal achievement or the attainment of any kind of success. The university has from time to time adjusted its curricula to the needs of the people of the South, introducing some of the more practical arts such as engineering, law, and agriculture. It has always encouraged graduate work and high scholarship by offering prizes. Students preparing for the Christian ministry of any de- nomination receive free tuition. Definite ad- ministrative policies looking to the habits, morals, social, and patriotic welfare of the students have been in operation. The student body is divided into small groups, and each group assigned to a member of the faculty, who is responsible for the habits of study and general conduct of the members of his group. It has long been the policy of the faculty of trusting the students and freeing university life from es- pionage and deceit. One has but to run over the list of the alumni in state and national service to ascertain how well these ideals have been carried out. 150 HIGHER EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA, 1775-1860 Summary. — Washington and Lee Univer-.D< sity is a typical independent institution free from direct church or state control. It came to serve the country in a peculiar way in fostering good citizenship in the nation and the spirit of public service which was so important in America in the early history of this government. It has recently received gifts that make its endowment large, and because of this, the institution is planning important expansions in equipment and curricula. Randolph-Macon College, 1830 Randolph-Macon College was the first in- stitution for higher learning established in Virginia by the Methodist Church. It was inspired by Bishop Asbury, the first head of that church in America. At the beginning of this century there were many Methodists in America, scattered along the coast from Connecticut to Georgia. In 1784 there were 14,988 Methodists in America. Probably the first Methodist Academy in America was es- tablished in Brunswick County, Virginia, in 151 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA 1785, by Bishop Asbury. It was he who es- tablished the first college (1839) of high grade for women in America, and perhaps in the world, Wesleyan Female College at Macon, Georgia. As early as 1820 the Virginia Conference of the Methodist Church took up the matter of establishing a " Seminary of Learning." Year after year the matter was laid on the table. The Conference of 1827 heard the report of a committee ona" Constitution for the College," and the members of the Conference were urged to obtain subscriptions within the boundaries of the Conference for the college. The site of the proposed college was fixed at or near Boyd- ton, Virginia, largely by the influence of the Rev. H. G. Leigh. The Virginia Conference included within its bounds the adjacent counties in Virginia and North Carolina, and it was thought best to locate the college near the state line between these two states. In Feb- ruary, 1830, the following bill was enacted by the Virginia Legislature: Be it enacted by the General Assembly that there be and is hereby erected and established at or near 152 HIGHER EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA, 1775-1860 Boydton in the county of Mecklenburg a seminary of learning for the instruction of youth in the various branches of science, literature, the useful arts, agricul- ture, and the learned and foreign languages. That the seminary shall be known and called by the name of "Randolph Macon College." The college was named for John Randolph of Roanoke and Nathaniel Macon, two prominent Congressmen, the former from Virginia and the latter from North Carolina. The Rev. Stephen Olin, D.D., was the first president. The college started off with a faculty of five pro- fessors and a Board of Trustees of thirty mem- bers. The college flourished from the first and took its place as one of the institutions of learning of high rank. In 1834 there were sixty- six students in the preparatory department and eighty-seven in the college. 1 In June, 1839, a resolution was passed by the Board to establish a normal department for the preparation of teachers. This is the year the first normal school was established in America at Salem, Massachusetts. The pro- visions of the resolution, however, were never 1 The Morrison MS., " Academies in Virginia." 153 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA carried out. The college drew mainly from the states south of Virginia. Along in the 40's the trustees reported a lack of funds to support the college, and at that time it seemed the embarrassment would be fatal to its future welfare, but in 1846 it was reported that $100,000 had been raised for the college and a great impetus was given to the college during the able administration of Dr. W. A. Smith. In March, 1847, there was an effort to organ- ize a medical department, but it never resulted in any permanent success. The college dis- banded in 1861, and during the Civil War period it was decided to remove the college to Ashland, Virginia, where it has ever since remained and prospered. 1 Some of the most renowned scholars of America have been members of its faculty, some of whom are Thomas R. Price and James A. Harrison. The curriculum in this college 1 The conference in North Carolina, which had joined originally in establishing the college, later withdrew its support and established an institution within its own bounds, — Trinity College at Durham, North Carolina. 154 HIGHER EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA, 1775-1860 is organized into schools, and the students can, with the advice of parents or guardian, elect the course they prefer. This is the elective sys- tem as carried out in the University of Virginia. The chair of English was created at the opening of the college at Ashland and put on an equality with the ancient languages. The government of the college is administered on the same prin- ciple of respect for moral improvement of one's self as a gentleman and not according to re- strictive regulation. This college has prepared many teachers for the secondary schools in Virginia. It has sent many students to higher institutions of learning for graduate work. Richmond College, 1830 The Virginia Baptist Seminary was an out- growth of the Virginia Baptist Education Society, organized in 1830. This seminary was founded for the purpose of assisting young men who in the judgment of the churches were called to the ministry, but others than those students for the ministry were admitted to the school. The attendance upon this school was 155 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA seventy pupils. It had early acquired a consid- erable acreage of land, and " manual labor " was compulsory for all students. It will be observed that this was a feature of education which was strongly advocated by some educational leaders in America, and it had its appeal to those institutions which had meagre endowments, being a time in Virginia when agriculture was promoted by more or less active instruction at all the colleges. There was an effort to estab- lish manual labor as a scheme of education in connection with this college (1830). This was the time at which the " Society for the Pro- motion of Manual Labor " was active in America. This scheme of education had its beginning in the Fellenburg movement in Swit- zerland (1806). x The institution was chartered as " Richmond College " in 1841, with the Rev. Robert Ryland as president. It developed the college curricu- lum year by year by adding Freshman, Sopho- more, Junior, and Senior courses. In 1845 the 1 See Hampden-Sidney, Randolph-Macon, and Emory and Henry colleges. 156 HIGHER EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA, 1775-1860 Junior year was added, and in 1849 the first graduate received the first Bachelor's Degree. In the 50' s this college was in a flourishing con- dition with a considerable endowment and apparatus for its use. The college prospered up to the Civil War, when its sessions ceased. Soon after the surrender, the trustees reorganized the college on the University of Virginia system, with separate schools and elective courses. An endowment fund of $100,000 was raised, and the college grew in popularity. In 1870 the law department was organized. The General Baptist Association raised a further endowment fund. 1 In 1891 the college secured a new charter. The number of schools and professors was in- creased. In 1895 Dr. F. W. Boatwright was elected president, and since that time the en- dowment has been increased and a reorganiza- tion of the work of the college has been put into operation. The curricula now include ad- vanced courses in ancient languages, foreign languages, mathematics, science, history, and politics, philosophy, economics, and education. 1 In 1873 the college had an endowment of $150,000. 157 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA In 1914 the college sold its property holdings in the city of Richmond, which had become very valuable by reason of the growth of the city in that direction, and moved to a large acreage at West Hampton and erected commo- dious buildings on the plan of Oxford University, England, and has affiliated with it West Hamp- ton College for women. The new buildings and grounds are now located outside the corporate limits of Rich- mond, but connected by an electric carline, and are worth about one quarter of a million dollars (the buildings and equipment costing $1,100,000 in actual cash outlay) . The grounds embrace 290 acres in one solid block. The college at present has a productive endowment of $1,020,797.76. There are eleven full professors and seven associate professors in the academic depart- ment. The Board of Trustees has recently planned a very important increase in the pro- ductive endowment of the college. With this rich outlay of college equipment, Richmond College has started on an era of increased use- fulness to the church, the state, and the nation. 158 HIGHER EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA, 1775-1860 Summary. — This institution is the Baptist College sustained and supported by that denom- ination. It, however, like the other denom- inational colleges, is based on a broad and catholic foundation and seeks to give a liberal and professional education to people of all classes regardless of creed or belief. Emory and Henry College, 18S8 As early as 1833 the people of the south- western part of Virginia, and especially the ministers of that section, realized the need of establishing a college in that part of the state. This movement was headed by the Rev. Creed Fulton, a member of the Holston Conference of the Methodist Church. In 1835 the Holston Conference passed a resolution, looking to the establishment of a college somewhere in south- west Virginia. i At a meeting of the citizens in the Glade Springs Presbyterian Church, a subscription of $5000 was raised. Presbyterians, as well as Methodists, gave liberally to this cause. About the same time another meeting was 159 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA held at Abingdon, where $5000 was sub- scribed for the college property. Soon a site was selected and a purchase of six hundred acres of land was made nine miles east of Abing- don. The institution was to be a " manual labor " school, in which the students could spend a part of each day in farm labor ; by this service they were enabled to pay a part of their expenses at college. The school opened April 13, 1838, with one hundred students in attendance. The first president was the Rev. Charles Collins. The students were grouped into sections of eight or ten, and one of their number selected as an overmaster; they worked on the farm from two to six o'clock in the afternoons. Each student was allowed from two to five cents an hour for his labor. This plan, at first compul- sory, was soon abandoned, though it was con- tinued as a voluntary system for eight or ten years. 1 1 The daily schedule ran as follows : 5 a.m., rising bell 5.30 a.m., summons to prayers and roll call 6-7 a.m., recitations 160 HIGHER EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA, 1775-1860 The college prospered from the first, but by 1843 a considerable debt had accumulated, when the State Legislature loaned the college $18,000 from the Literary Fund; with this it cancelled the obligation. After this, the col- lege, without endowment or donation, kept clear of debt for thirty years. At the opening of the Civil War the college had 280 students in attendance. After the war the number of students fell off to a few more than a hundred. The site for the college was chosen because of its healthful locality and its remoteness from city temptations and distractions. It was lo- cated in the heart of the Blue Grass Region among the mountains of the southwest in the open, rural country. Much was made of this fact in the location of colleges in Virginia in the early years of the eighteenth century. Hampden-Sidney, Randolph Macon, and Roa- 7 a.m., breakfast 8 a.m. to 1 p.m., recitations 1 p.m., dinner 2-4 p.m., manual labor 5 p.m., supper and prayers 6-7 p.m., recreation — walks 9 p.m., retiring bell m 161 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA noke colleges chose their sites with this idea in view, and attention was called to this fact in advertising for students. Emory and Henry College was named for Rev. Bishop John Emory and Patrick Henry, the one a noted churchman and the other the famous orator and one-time Governor of Virginia. The curricula at Emory and Henry College included the traditional subjects of Latin, Greek, and mathematics. These were looked upon as standard subjects for mental discipline. The sciences, history, and the mod- ern languages later received due emphasis. Due time and attention has always been given to the mental and moral sciences. The college, though maintained and controlled by the Methodist Church, did not emphasize in its curriculum the distinctively theological branches of study, as some of the other de- nominational colleges did. The school seeks to give a liberal education in a thoroughly Christian atmosphere. The patronage of the college came from the slaveholding class, and the students were not 162 HIGHER EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA, 1775-1860 accustomed to the restraint they found at col- lege. Out of this situation there grew up a spirit of antagonism, with the student body on one side and the faculty on the other. The students did not look upon going to college as a privilege, but rather as a thing to be en- dured. This attitude lasted through the early history of Emory and Henry College, and on many occasions resulted in student rebellions; but this spirit has long passed away and a more healthful and wholesome sentiment among the student body prevails. Some of the more important factors bringing about this better state of affairs were : (1) the organization of a Young Men's Christian Association, (2) organi- zation of literary societies, and (3) the inaugu- ration of a student publication. The two literary societies, Calliopean and Hermesian, have exercised a great influence upon the student life at Emory and Henry. These societies were organized about 1840 and have passed through the various difficulties that such organizations encounter, but at pres- ent each is housed in a sumptuously-furnished 163 K HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA hall, with library and other equipment. A splendid spirit of rivalry prevails between the two societies, and the debating and oratorical contests are the most attractive features of the commencement season. Summary. — Emory and Henry College is one of the typical denomination colleges maintained by the Methodist Church. It had its origin in the Holston Conference of that church, which includes territory in Virginia, Tennessee, and North Carolina. The government of the col- lege is vested in a Board of Trustees appointed by the Conference of the church. It has drawn its patronage mainly from Virginia, Tennessee, and North Carolina. Many of its graduates have gone into the ministry and many more into the various walks of professional and political life. Emory and Henry College has furnished many teachers for the public schools of the state. The Episcopal High School, 18S9 The Episcopal High School was established at the instance of Bishop Meade by the trustees of the Episcopal Theologial Seminary. This 164 HIGHER EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA, 1775-1860 school was opened in the fall of 1839 and was intended for the preparation of boys for college and the seminary near by. Both of these insti- tutions are located near Alexandria, which com- munity had long been the seat of various acad- emies and free schools endowed by persons of wealth, particularly by General Washington, whose estate was not far away. The High School was established with the following objects in view : (1) for a thorough education in Christian principles and the exer- cise of a wholesome moral and religious influence over the youth; (2) for a thorough teaching of every branch of preparatory learning, either for college or for business. The course of study comprises the classical and modern languages, English, history, mathematics, and the sciences. The work done at this school is of such advanced nature as to enable many of its graduates to enter the second or even the third year of a college course. The theological seminary near by is the school for the prepara- tion for the Episcopal ministry in Virginia and in Maryland. The theological study that had 165 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA been done so long at William and Mary College was transferred to this seminary at Alexandria, since the latter had become a semi-state and in- dependent college. The Episcopal High School and the Theologi- cal Seminary at Alexandria have, more distinctly than any other of the church schools, served the church under whose auspices they were established. Roanoke College, 181^2 The germ of Roanoke College was Virginia In- stitute, near Mt. Tabor in Augusta County. This school at first was a private venture of Rev. David F. Bittle, pastor of a Lutheran Church in that part of the county. He succeeded in interesting some members of the congregation in establishing a school for the teaching of the higher branches of English, ancient languages, and mathematics. He called to his assistance the Rev. Christopher C. Baughman, who con- ducted the classes in English and the ancient languages, while Dr. Bittle met the classes twice a week in mathematics. Two log houses 166 HIGHER EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA, 1775-1860 were erected on the land of Benjamin F. Hail- man, Esq., the one to be used for classes and the other for lodging of students. In May, 1843, the Lutheran Synod of Virginia took up the question of establishing a classical school within the bounds of that Synod. The Virginia In- stitute at Mt. Tabor was reported as being in such a nourishing condition that it was decided to locate the school there. In 1845 the school was incorporated as the Virginia Collegiate In- stitute. This school prospered for a few years, when the question of removing it to a more convenient location arose. Accordingly, the school was moved to Salem, Virginia, in 1847. In 1848, by order of the Trustees, the first building was erected on the present campus and the school started off on its career of usefulness. Funds were solicited in order to increase the accommodations at the school to meet the growing patronage. About 1853 there was a strong sentiment in favor of turning the institute into a college. There was serious opposition to this change among some mem- bers of the faculty and the principal. The first 167 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA steps in the movement for securing a charter were taken by the students themselves. They held a meeting, passed resolutions, and pre- sented them to Principal Baughman for his approval. He reluctantly gave his sanction, and a charter was granted by the legislature in March, 1853, and Virginia Collegiate Institute became Roanoke College. Dr. Bittle was elected the first president and served in that capacity until 1876. During that time the college passed through many diffi- culties, but it was substantially on a firm founda- tion and had a growing reputation at the time of his death. The college acquired property, maintained high standards of scholarship, and laid down for its ideal the policy of giving a liberal Christian education. It has always given a prominent place in its curricula to courses of study in the Christian religion and the Bible. It receives its patronage from all religious de- nominations. Fifty per cent of its students at present are of other than the Lutheran de- nomination. During the Civil War Roanoke College was one of the few institutions of higher 168 HIGHER EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA, 1775-1860 learning in the state that kept its doors open. In 1878 the college had nine members on its faculty and 168 students in attendance. The college started off with no endowment and re- ceived its support from student fees and annual contributions from friends of education. In 1872 the college organized a normal de- partment for the purpose of training teachers for the public schools of the state, and many of the very best teachers in the secondary schools of Virginia got their training here. The evidence of the interest in training teachers is manifest in the books on the " History of Education " written by a member of the faculty of this college, Dr. F. V. N. Painter. The president and members of the faculty have given valuable service to the educational activities of the state, particularly at the time the public school system was being organized, by conducting teachers' institutes and offering advantages at the college for the training of teachers. Dr. Painter originated the plan of a reading course for teachers in 1884. The institution has taken a firm rank as a standard college. It has 169 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA doubled its efficiency in the last fifteen years. The college numbers among its graduates some of the most gifted scholars in America and men in all the walks of political and professional life. Summary. — Roanoke College is the con- tribution of the Lutheran Church and other church people to the cause of Christian liberal education for the service of church and state. 170 CHAPTER X STATE INSTITUTIONS FOR HIGHER LEARNING. THE UNIVERSITY OF VIRGINIA " The great man, whose conception the pecul- iar and unique structure of the University originated and whose persistent efforts for almost half a century at length brought into being, always connected University and common school education as necessary parts of one whole." » Jefferson's Early Plan for a System of Education. — Jefferson's plan for an educa- tional system for Virginia, as a member of the Committee of co-revisers of the laws, to coin- cide with the new system of government, included a general plan of education for all classes of the people alike. It was based on the democratic idea that the education of the 1 Wm. H. Ruffner, Superintendent of Public Instruction, Report 1872, p. 109. 171 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA people is a proper subject and care of govern- ment. This plan comprehended three types of schools : (1) Elementary schools, to be maintained at public charge in the local communities. (2) General schools, corresponding to academies and colleges, or modern, secondary schools, to be supported in part by direct State appropriation and in part by tuition fees. The course of study in these schools embraced in- struction in ancient and modern languages, the sciences, mental and moral philosophy, and political sciences. (3) A University, 1 in which were to be taught " all branches of knowledge in the highest degree,' ' and to be supported wholly by the state. This wise and magnificent plan failed of passage at this time. In 1796 a plan for pri- mary schools passed, but it was ineffective (see p. 102). From time to time the plan was submitted to the Legislature, but that body felt that it would incur too great a tax upon the people and refused to pass the act proposed. In 1809 Mr. Jefferson, retiring from the presi- dency of the United States to his home at Monticello, in Virginia, again took up his pet 1 It was the original plan to make the state University out of William and Mary College. 172 THE UNIVERSITY OF VIRGINIA scheme for a system of education in Virginia, maintaining to the last that a scheme for pri- mary education should go hand in hand with any provision for higher education. In 1810 the Literary Fund was established and pro- vided a basis for a permanent state fund for educational purposes. In this Jefferson saw a possible chance for a scheme to carry, and gave the energies of his last years to the accom- plishment of this plan. 1 Public education was a part of his political philosophy, and while he saw the university rise in all its architectural beauty and in its provisions for thorough instruction, he must have regretted that the people of Virginia were so unwise as to neglect so long the pro- vision for primary instruction for all the people of the state. 2 He says : " Where the press is free and every man able to read, all is safe." 1 In a letter to Hugh White, in 1810, Jefferson writes : "No one more sincerely wishes the spread of information among mankind than I do, and no one has greater confidence in its effect toward supporting free and good government." 2 In a letter to George Wythe, Jefferson writes : " Preach, my dear sir, a crusade against ignorance. Establish and improve the laws for educat- ing the common people." 173 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA Jefferson's Struggle for a University. — « Jefferson sat in his office at Monticello and kept in close touch with all that was going on in Richmond while the Legislature was in session. He wrote, in the form of letters to his friends there, the argument for the university and for a system of primary schools. There seems to have been some question among the legislators as to the good effect of education for citizenship. In the defence of the bill pending in 1817, he writes : And will the wealthy have no retribution? And what will this be? The peopling of his neighborhood with honest, useful, and enlightened people, understand- ing their own rights and firm in their perpetuation. So when his own descendants become poor, which they do within three generations, their children will be educated by the then rich, and the little advance he now makes toward poverty, while rich himself, will be repaid by the then rich to his descendants when they become poor and thus give them a chance of rising again. ... A system of education which shall reach every description of citi- zen from the richest to the poorest, as it was the earliest, so will it be the latest of all public concerns in which I shall permit myself to take an interest. Nor am I tena- cious of the form in which it shall be introduced. In another letter to his friend Cabell he taunts the legislators by comparing the prog- 174 THE UNIVERSITY OF VIRGINIA ress in education made in the state of New York. He writes: Six thousand common schools in New York, fifty in each; 300,000 in all. $160,000 paid to the masters annually of forty academies. The whole appropriation for education is estimated as two and a half million of dollars. What a pigmy is Virginia to this and with a population almost equal to that of New York, and whence this difference? From the difference their rulers set on the value of knowledge and the prosperity it produces. Jefferson evidently intended that the uni- versity should be the capstone of the educa- tional system of the state, but there must have come a time when he gave up in despair the hope of an effective system of primary educa- tion and turned all his attention to the estab- lishment of a state University. This spirit is expressed in a letter to William Barry, July 12, 1822: The reports show that our primary schools are be- coming completely abortive and must be abandoned very shortly, after costing us to this day 180 thousand dollars, and yet to cost 45,000 more until it shall be dis- continued, and if a single boy has received the elements of a common education it must be in some part of the country not known to me. 175 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA The fight for the state University was a long and at times a bitter one. There were many factors in the situation that presented a strong opposition. (1) It was an innovation. It had not been the custom for a state to build and maintain an institution for higher learning. That for centuries in Europe had been the function of the church and it had become the custom in America. At least it was not thought in Virginia to be a function of government to maintain and control higher education. (2) At this time (1818) in Virginia there was a great fear among the people of taxation, and to create a new demand for public money looked like a dangerous move. (3) The various church de- nominations had already established colleges, and these were in a measure endowed and in a more or less flourishing condition. These seemed to be sufficient for higher training in the state. There was a strong effort on the part of these in- stitutions, which were well represented in the Legislature, to have the state subsidize these colleges. This was set forth as a more economi- cal plan, and thus it would not be binding upon 176 THE UNIVERSITY OF VIRGINIA the state to continue these appropriations forever. (4) There was an effort to move Wil- liam and Mary College from Williamsburg to Richmond, as a direct move to thwart the efforts of the friends of the state University. (5) There was great difference of opinion among the well-to-do people of the state and the growing power of the middle class as to the value of higher education to the state, such as they proposed in the curriculum for the uni- versity. All these matters came up in one form or another, in the debates connected with the establishment of a state University ; Jeffer- son combated them with all the learning, wisdom, and forethought of his masterful mind. His enemies accused him of meddling, of in- sincerity, of infidelity, and an effort to bring additional burden upon the state by adding to the already heavy tax rate for a thing looked upon by them as a highly theoretical scheme. It will be seen that the university had its birth in the midst of all these conflicting forces, political, economical, social, educational, and religious. n 177 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA The Establishment of the University. — In February, 1818, an act passed by the General Assembly appropriated the greater amount of the proceeds of the Literary Fund to the primary schools of the poor, and gave $15,000 annually to the endowment and support of a university to be styled " The University of Virginia." A committee was appointed to determine the site and general plan for the institution and report to the next meeting of the General Assembly. Then came a rivalry among the different cities and towns for the location of the institution. Washington and Lee University at Lexington was a strong appli- cant for the place. Staunton had its supporters, but Jefferson, who was a member of the com- mittee, and to whom was attributed the prepara- tion of the report of the committee, controlled matters, and it was decided to establish the uni- versity at Charlottesville, with Central College as a nucleus. The commission was composed of the following leading citizens appointed by the government : Thomas Jefferson, James Madison, Creed Taylor, Peter Randolph, James 178 THE UNIVERSITY OF VIRGINIA Breckenridge, Archibald Rutherford, Archibald Stuart, William Brockenborough, Henry Wat- kins, A. T. Mason, Hugh Holmes, P. C. Pendle- ton, Spencer Roane, John McTaylor, J. G. Jackson, Phil Slaughter, William H. Cabell, Na- thaniel Claiborne, William A. C. Dade, William Jones, Thomas Wilson, Nicholas Falcon, Peter Johnson, and Littleton W. Tazewell. This com- mittee met on August 1, 1818, at the tavern near the top of the Blue Ridge Mountains in Rockfish Gap, and after mature deliberation they adopted a full report, providing that the university be established at Charlottesville, " Central College," and outlined a complete plan for the administration and curriculum for the university. The following are excerpts from the report of recommendations made to the General Assembly by that body. Excerpts from the Report of the Commis- sion. — The objects of primary education deter- mine its character and limits. These objects would be: (1) To give every citizen the information he needs to transact his own business. 179 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA (2) To enable him to calculate for himself and to ex- press and preserve his ideas, contracts, and accounts in writing. (3) To improve by reading his faculties and morals. (4) To understand his duties to his neighbors and his country, and to discharge with confidence the functions confided to him by either. (5) To know his rights. To exercise with order and justice those he retains; to choose with discretion the fiduciary of those he delegates and to notice their con- duct with diligence, candor, and judgment. (6) And in general to observe with intelligence and faithfulness all the social relations [in which] he shall be placed. And this brings us to the point where com- mence the higher branches of education which the Legislature required. These were designed : (1) To form the statesmen, legislators, and judges on whom public prosperity and individual happiness are so much to depend. (2) To expound the principles and structure of gov- ernment, the laws which regulate the intercourse of nations, those formed municipalities for our own govern- ment and a sound spirit of legislation, which, banishing all arbitrary and unnecessary restraints on individual action, leave us free to whatever does not violate the equal rights of others. (3) To harmonize and promote the interests of agri- culture, manufactories, and commerce and by well in- 180 THE UNIVERSITY OF VIRGINIA formed views of political economy, to give a free scope to the public industry. (4) To develop the reason faculties of our youth, en- large their minds, cultivate their morals, and instill into them the precepts of virtue and order. (5) To enlighten them with mathematical and phys- ical sciences which advance the arts and administer to the health, the subsistence and the comforts of human life; and generally to form them to habits of reflection and correct action, rendering them examples of virtue to others and of happiness within themselves. " These are the objects of that higher educa- tion, the benefits and blessings of which the Legislature now proposes to provide for the good and ornament of their country, the gratification and happiness of their fellow cit- izens, of the parent especially and his prog- eny, on whom all of his affections are concen- trated." The report goes on into a rather lengthy argument for the practical value of the sciences, referring to the fact that there are many good people who do not believe that sciences are of any use to men. The argument closes with the following statement as to the national benefits of education. 181 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA Nor must we omit to mention among the benefits of education, the incalculable advantage of training up the counsellors to administer the affairs of our country in all its departments, legislative, executive, and judiciary, and to bear their proper share in the counsels of our National government. Nothing more than education advances the prosperity, the power and the happiness of a nation. Outline of the Curriculum. — " We present the following tabular statement of the branches of learning which we think should be taught in the University, forming them into groups, each of which are within the power of a single pro- fessor " : 1. Ancient languages, — Latin, Greek, and Hebrew. 2. Modern languages, — French, Spanish, Italian, Anglo Saxon. 3. Pure Mathematics, — Algebra, Flexions, Geom- etry, Architecture, Military and Naval Science. 4. Physico Mathematics, (a) Mechanics, Statics, Dy- namics, Pneumatics, Acoustics, Optics, Astronomy, and Geography. 5. Physico Mathematics, (6) Physics, Chemistry, Mineralogy. 6. Natural Sciences, — Botany, Zoology. 7. Natural Science, — Anatomy and Medicine. 8. Science of Government and Politics, — Govern- ment, Political Economy, Laws of Nature and Nations. 182 THE UNIVERSITY OF VIRGINIA 9. Science of Government, — Municipal Law. 10. Idealogy, General Grammar, Ethics, Rhetoric, Belles Lettres, Fine Arts. 1 The report of the Commission closes with a discussion of some other important matters. It is greatly to be wished that the preliminary schools, either on public or private foundations, be distributed throughout the state as preparatory to the entrance of students into the University. At these schools a boy should be rendered able to read easier authors in Latin and Greek and, too, might be taught English grammar. The higher branches of numerical arithmetic, the geom- etry of straight lines and circles, and the elements of navigation and geography to a sufficient degree. They speak of gymnastics as a necessary part of education at the University, also the use of tools, and the arts that embellish life as dancing, music, and drawing. No provision is made for these except that they may be taught by special teachers, the students paying tuition for this instruction. We have proposed no professor of Divinity. This will be within the province of the professor of ethics. 1 The Analectic Magazine, published in Philadelphia in 1819. The editor heads the report of the commission with this statement : " In the following paper, our readers will find a characteristic trait of the simplicity of our National manners, and a remarkable instance of practical Republi- canism. The report is said to be from the pen of Jefferson and contains many new suggestions worth the attention of our seminaries of learning already established." Vol. XIII, p. 103. 183 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA We have thought it proper at this point to leave any sect to provide as they think fittest the means of further instruction in their own particular tenets. This report is all-inclusive in arguments and complete in schemes for higher education. It has the stamp of Jefferson upon it. But this report did not settle the matter finally. There was a strong effort on the part of some members of the General Assembly to defeat the bill or at least change the site to either Lexington or Staunton, but, fortunately for the university, the bill passed January 1, 1819. The fate of the university throughout the troublous times was in the hands of Jefferson at Monticello and Cabell in the Senate. The bill provided that the immediate control of the univer- sity was to be vested in a rector and Board of Visitors composed of nine men appointed by the governor. Their immediate task was to find funds to erect buildings for the university and to employ a faculty of instructors. These two matters were left almost entirely to Jefferson, who gave his personal attention to them. 184 THE UNIVERSITY OF VIRGINIA The Funds for the University. — A few years before the Legislature had chartered Central College, which had been organized and put in readiness for college work. All this had been done, at least in the mind of Jefferson, to form the nucleus for the university. All the lands and rights of Central College were transferred to the university. The funds for this institu- tion were $35,102 in subscriptions, $3195.86 from the sale of glebe lands in the county of Albemarle. In addition, there was about $8000 available from other sources, making a total of $46,000 or $47,000 transferred to the university. 1 The annual appropriation from the Literary Fund of $15,000 made up the funds directly available for the use of the Board of Visitors. The Visitors petitioned the Legislature from year to year and secured either additional funds or power to borrow funds. By this means a good amount from the Literary Fund 2 was used in the erection of the university buildings and for the employment of a faculty of instructors. 1 John S. Patton, Jefferson, Cabell, and the University of Virginia, p. 40. 2 About $180,000 from the Literary Fund was used for this purpose. 185 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA The University Buildings. "On the 5th of May, 1817, Mr. Jefferson presented to the Board of Visitors (Central College) a plan for erecting a distinct pavilion or build- ing for each separate professor and arranging them around a square. With the certainty that characterized all his purposes, he suggested, and the Board approved, the drawing of parallel lines and the location of the pavilions on one or the other of them. In time one of these lines became East Lawn and the other West Lawn." * The proctor was empowered with the funds in hand to " agree with proper workmen " for the erection of the first pavilion. The style of these was to be of " regular architec- ture." Year by year, as funds became avail- able, the pavilions for the professors and dormi- tories for the students were completed. October 5, 1822, Jefferson writes : Ten pavilions are almost finished, and the six hotels, three on East Street and three on West Street, will be plastered and lathed this fall. Ninety-seven of the 109 dormitories are ready. Jefferson gave his personal supervision to the erection of the " Academic Village" he had so wisely and tastefully planned. He had 1 John S. Patton, Jefferson, Cabell, and the University of Virginia, p. 177. 186 THE UNIVERSITY OF VIRGINIA spent many years in European capitals, and had made drawings of many of the public buildings in Rome and Paris, and with this fund of information he, better than any one else in America, was able to design the best architectural form for an institution like the university. 1 The general plan of the buildings is a series of pavilions or professors' homes, ten in number, with dormitories for students between these, with a Tuscan colonnade so the students can pass from school to school under shelter. On the north is the rotunda, a copy of the Pantheon at Rome, where the library is housed. On parallel lines to these buildings on the lawn are the east and west ranges. These are made up of hotels and dormitories with covered ways in the form of cloisteral arcades, the whole architectural scheme making one of the most unique architectural erections in America. Jefferson was always careful to preserve his 1 Marquis de Chastellux says : " Mr. Jefferson is the first American who has consulted the fine arts to know how he should shelter himself from the weather." John S. Patton, Jefferson, Cabell, and the Univer- sity of Virginia, p. 182. 187 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA original architectural exterior. He did not care so much about the arrangement of the interior. In a number of his letters Jefferson refers to the fact that this type of architecture, while expensive, was necessary, if they were to be able to induce the best scholars of Europe to become professors at the University of Vir- ginia. Since these original buildings, others had been added : the University Chapel, the new academic buildings, enclosing the quad- rangle on the south (1897), the Brooks Museum, Fairwether Gymnasium, and, still later, Madi- son Hall, the home of the University Y.M.C.A., and the new hospital buildings on the east, the Commons, a^ spacious home for the presi- dent, the new law building, and the Educational buildings. The First Faculty of the University. — Here again Jefferson's wise counsel prevailed. His wide acquaintance with the scholars of Europe and America made him eminently fitted to secure the sanest assistance in the important part of the work of founding a university. He was familiar with the scientific movement so 188 THE UNIVERSITY OF VIRGINIA well under way in the European universities, and saw the practical possibility of this new field of research. This movement, in its more advanced form, had not yet reached America ; therefore, it was not likely that there could be found in this country a sufficient number of scholars to take up the work of instruction in the university. Dr. Cooper of Pennsylvania had been secured, but strong opposition to him had developed among the church people, on account of his radical views on ethical and religious matters. Mr. Bowditch of Boston and Mr. Tickner of Salem were offered places on the faculty, but fehey declined. Then came a great hunt for scholars in Europe. Mr. Francis W. Gilmore was sent to Europe on the mission of securing suitable scholars for the faculty of the University of Virginia. In March of the next year, 1825, we find the following professors domiciled at the University, ready for work: Ancient Languages : Professor George Long, Modern Languages :, Professor George Blat- termann, 189 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA Mathematics : Professor Hewitt Key, Natural Philosophy : Professor Charles Bonny- castle, Anatomy and Medicine : Professor Robley Dungle- son. The American members were Mr. Henry St. George Tucker, professor of Law, and Dr. John Patton Emmett, professor of Natural History. Mr. Tucker was elected the first chairman of the faculty. Scheme of Government for the University. — The Board of Visitors committed the admin- istration of the affairs of the university to the faculty, organized with the chairman as the chief executive officer. There were subordi- nate officials with distinct and prescribed duties. These were proctor, patron, bursar, hotel keeper, and janitor. Jefferson had laid down some standards in the Rockfish Gap Commission's report concerning the " govern- ment of the young in large collections." Speak- ing of fear as a motive for right conduct, he says: The human character is susceptible of other incite- ments to correct conduct more worthy of employ and of 190 THE UNIVERSITY OF VIRGINIA better effect. Pride of character, laudable ambition, and moral disposition are innate correctives of the indiscre- tions of that lively age. . . . Hardening them to dis- grace, corporal punishment, and servile humiliations can- not be the process for producing erect character." * But these ideals evidently did not prevail after the death of Jefferson in 1826, for in 1828 students in matriculating at the University were required to subscribe to an eight-page (printed) document filled with prohibitions, inhibitions, and penalties. 2 On several occa- sions the students rebelled against these rules, and it was with difficulty that matters were brought to a satisfactory adjustment. 3 The fact that so many members of the faculty were foreigners and did not understand the social customs of southern people had no little to do with the antagonism existing be- tween the student body and the faculty. Out of the spirit of these times germinated the 1 John S. Patton, Jefferson, Cabell, and the University of Virginia, p. 120. 2 No student could appear in class room with a stick or weapon. Snuffing tobacco, chewing, and smoking were prohibited. Public dinners were forbidden, and so on. 3 In the " Riot of 1834," Professor Davis was shot. 191 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA Honor System so famous in connection with the University of Virginia. None can say just when the system was instituted. On July 2, 1842, Professor Henry St. George Tucker offered, and the faculty adopted, the following resolution : Resolved, That in all future examinations for dis- tinction and other honors of the University, each candi- date shall attach to the written answers presented by him on such examination a certificate in the following words : "I, A. B., do hereby certify on honor, that I have derived no assistance during the time of this examina- tion from any source whatever, whether oral or written, or in print, in giving the above answers." l This spirit has developed into a sort of chivalry which goes beyond the mere matter of cheating on examinations and has crystal- lized into a public sentiment which has regard for manliness and the honorable instincts of a gentleman. 2 This spirit has characterized the University of Virginia for a century and is unique among American colleges and universities. 1 John S. Patton — Jefferson, Cabell, and the University of Virginia, p. 174 — says the honor system germinated long before this. 2 John S. Patton — Jefferson, Cabell, and the University of Virginia, p. 176 — says : "In such an atmosphere, hazing has never occurred." 192 THE UNIVERSITY OP VIRGINIA The Cardinal Principles of the. University of Virginia. — The political philosophy of Jeffer- son may be recognized in everything his hands touched. The following cardinal features have always been the fundamental policies of the university : 1. Freedom of teaching in independent elective schools. 2. Freedom of study, — student selects his own tickets. 3. The Honor System, — no espionage, freedom of con- duct under obligation of observing the laws of the state. 4. Proficiency in intermediate and final examinations, — not class attendance, not daily examinations nor time spent, nor degrees attained elsewhere. 5 . No graduation in a degree ; all " cum laude " or none. 6. No honorary degrees conferred. 7. Degrees to bear English not Latin names. 8. No records, no college honors except a certificate of having passed the examination in a school or in a number of schools. 9. No compulsory attendance on prayers or services. 10. Each denomination to send a clergy to conduct daily prayers and Sunday service for two weeks. 1 The Service and Influence of the Univer- sity. — Probably no other institution of learn- ing has wielded a more definite influence in higher education in the South than the Uni- 1 Pamphlet, University Regulations. o 193 HISTORY OP EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA versity of Virginia. Its student body was made up of men from every section of the country, but more particularly did they come from the South and West. Upon the schools and colleges established in the South after the 40's one can detect the University of Virginia stamp. In form of administration and standards of schol- arship, methods of instruction and other fun- damental policies, the University of Virginia has been the model. In the profession of law and medicine she has sent a host of graduates into every part of the South and Southwest. She claims to be unique in the number of her sons in the service of the national government, particularly in the navy and in the legislative and judiciary departments. In this regard Jefferson's idealism, as expressed in the report of the Rockfish Gap Commission, saw its com- plete realization. The Great Fire of 1895. — The Annex and the Rotunda were burned on Sunday, October 27, 1895. The Annex, containing laboratories, class rooms, and the auditorium, in which hung the famous painting, the " School of Athens," 194 THE UNIVERSITY OF VIRGINIA were totally destroyed. The walls of the Rotunda remained standing, but valuable books in the library went up in the flames. Volumes which can never be replaced were lost, was a great calamity to the university, but friends of the institution responded to its needs, and in a few years the university aros^C more resplendent in architectural design. The Ro- tunda was remodelled and new buildings added, until to-day the university is more beautiful from an architectural standpoint than ever before in its history. A New Era for the University. — "When the University was established there was no insti- tution in the world that closely resembled it. The University of Virginia came from the brain of one man and that man's purpose in education was the new one to safeguard the liberties of his country by increasing the moral and intellectual stature of the citizens. In many respects, a great chasm separated it from Harvard, Princeton, and other dominant institutions of eighty years ago." l 1 John S. Patton, Jefferson, Cabell, and the University of Virginia, p. 346. 195 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA To-day that difference is not so great, but the old ideals continue vital under a somewhat new regime. In recent years there have been some important changes. (1) Faculty government through a chairman has been abandoned, and a president has been elected. Edwin Anderson Alderman, an edu- cator of wide experience, was chosen to the first presidency on June 14, 1904, and his administra- tion is now in full progress. The question of a president for the university came up a number of times, particularly in 1846, and in 1897, among the members of the Board of Visitors, but a strong conservatism among the alumni and some members of the faculty delayed definite action for a number of years. (2) These changes in the executive affairs naturally led to some other consequent changes. These have all been made with profound rever- ence for the past but with the belief in the wise pre-occupation of those who control educational affairs in the present and the future. The old Jeffersonian system of independent schools in which the professor was absolutely free to control 196 THE UNIVERSITY OF VIRGINIA in his own way the affairs in his particular field of instruction gave place to a new scheme in which the relationship between the president, the professor, and the faculty has been adjusted so as to result in greater unity and coordination in the various departments, but in no essential diminution of the freedom of teaching. (3) There has ensued a logical reorganization of the whole institution wherein its various schools and departments have been more clearly outlined and their educational and administra- tive functions definitely extended and defined. The line of separation between the college and the university is now sharply drawn. The graduate school and the professional schools of law, medicine, engineering have found their places. The requirements for admission and graduation have been brought into closer relation to the standards of the educational world of to-day, and so ordered as to result not only in juster articulation to the secondary schools, but also in more perfect relation to the demands made upon educated men by the modern world. (4) This has resulted in a closer and more 197 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA helpful union between the university and the secondary schools, and thus bound together the whole system in cooperative ties. (5) An enormous expansion of inward power and scope has come about, manifested by an increase in teaching staff of 100 per cent, of income of over 100 per cent, of the value in new buildings and laboratories of 25 per cent, and in student attendance of 60 per cent. (6) Increased ability and purpose to reach and serve the advancing democratic life of the people without as well as within university walls has come about, testified to by the establishment of great new departments like the university hospital, the summer school, the department of education, the school of economic geology, the school of forestry, university extension service. (7) Emphasis upon the dignity and necessity of social service as the final aim of educated manhood has been added to the older and eternal concept of integrity, individualism, and personal attainment. 198 CHAPTER XI STATE INSTITUTIONS FOR HIGHER LEARNING {Continued) State Schools of Technology Virginia Military Institute (1839). — So many of the features of the University of Virginia were in new and untried fields of education, but Jefferson pointed out other fields which the uni- versity had not occupied. Some of these were the fields which have since been covered by mili- tary academies, technological schools, and the agricultural and mechanical colleges which have developed in the last decade or more. The Scotch-Irish people felt more keenly probably than any other people the meaning of liberty and individual rights, and took part in all the movements that have resulted in the basal poli- cies of the American government. They were always ready to take up arms, if necessary, for the protection of these rights. Lexington, Virginia, was one of the strongest centres of this Scotch- 199 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA Irish population in the state. Very early in the history of the state Lexington was made one of the points for storing arms and munitions of war for the convenience of the citizens west of the mountains. A small brick building was erected for this purpose, and at times soldiers were sta- tioned there to guard the arsenal. All this was taken as a matter of course for many years, but one night the question of converting this muni- tion depot into a state military school became the subject of discussion in a meeting of the Franklin Literary Society in Lexington (1834) and resulted in the state becoming interested in the proposition, through the friends of John T. L. Preston, and, in the year 1839, the state Legis- lature passed an act founding a state military school on the plan of the military academy at West Point. Appropriations for the necessary buildings were made, three professors appointed, and the school started off with seventeen cadets answering to the first roll call. At first the Legislature contemplated the organization of the school as a department of Washington College, but in 1839 repealed that part of the act and 200 STATE INSTITUTIONS FOR HIGHER LEARNING gave the school an independent organization. 1 Captain Crozet, who had given up a professor- ship in West Point Military Academy, and who was now the state engineer of Virginia in charge of the construction of the lock-and-dam system of improvement of the James River, became in- terested in the idea of a military school, and to him is due much of the credit for the original scheme of organization and development of the institution. The school took on a thorough military character from the outset. Captain Crozet was the chairman of the first Board of Visitors. The school has always been technical in its tendencies, giving emphasis to the subjects of applied mathematics, such as engineering in all its aspects, with such accompanying courses in history, English, and the modern languages as to give a liberalizing effect upon the student. Strong emphasis is given to the study of military science and the art of war. The V. M. I. a Normal School. — In the 40's, when there was felt a strong need for trained 1 See "Military History of Virginia Military Institute," by Jennings C. Wise, p. 34. 201 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA teachers in the public schools, an effort was made to use the state school as a place to train teachers. Accordingly, the Legislature passed an act (1844), providing that sixty state students should be educated there, free of charge, on the obligation that they teach in the public schools for two years. The same rule applied to the University of Virginia, and the denominational college sought appropriations from the Literary Fund for the same purpose. The institution has always maintained the highest ideals of the soldier. Manly character, courage, self-control, faithfulness, and patriotism are some of the vir- tues inculcated. The school has always been in favor in the state. The record made during the Civil War, when the students marched away to war and took part in the battle of New Mar- ket, where they exhibited bravery and skill in the art of war, gave the institution fame which reached far beyond the borders of Virginia. The buildings were burned by the northern army (1864), but they were restored soon after- wards and the school reorganized and devel- oped along the lines the Board of Visitors had so 202 STATE INSTITUTIONS FOR HIGHER LEARNING wisely planned for it. The fame of so many of its alumni in the service of the Confederate Army, and particularly the striking military record of one of the members of its faculty, Gen. T. J. Jackson, and the record of the cadets of the institute at the battle of New Market, brought the school into prominence, so that after the war the youth of the South flocked to the school, and since then its patronage has not been confined to Virginia, but students from every section of the South have sought entrance to its halls. In 1872 there were 230 cadets in attendance from other states. The affairs of the Institute had been so ably managed that the school has never cost the state very much be- yond the $1500 annuity coming from that source. The school has prospered under the two motives that have guided its activities: (1) To educate officers for service in our armies. (2) To impart general knowledge to the youth of our country. The last Congress of the United States (1914) reimbursed the institute for its destruction during the war, which amount ($100,000), 203 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA will enable the school to enlarge its usefulness and serve the state more effectively than it has done in the past, and in larger numbers than ever this school will send out efficient workers into the fields of teaching, engineering, and practical business. The Virginia Polytechnic Institute (1872). — The Virginia Polytechnic Institute belongs to the type of technical schools established by the gifts from the United States government in land scrip. The Legislature of Virginia passed an act in March, 1872, distributing this grant: one-third to Hampton Normal for colored people, and two-thirds to be used in the establishing of the Virginia Agricultural and Mechanical College l to be located in Montgomery County. The property of Preston and Olin Institute was transferred to the Board of Visitors of the new college without cost. The County of Mont- gomery gave $20,000 in addition to the prop- 1 There was a wild scramble before the Legislature by the various colleges, University of Virginia, V. M. I., Hampden-Sidney, Randolph- Macon, Emory and Henry, Roanoke College, William and Mary, Richmond College, and the Shenandoah Polytechnic Institute at New Market for a part of this scrip. 204 STATE INSTITUTIONS FOR HIGHER LEARNING erty of the Institute. The Visitors purchased the farm of Col. Robt. C. Preston, containing 250 acres of valuable land. With the lands transferred by the Preston and Olin Institute, it made the total acreage 300. The report of the Committee of Visitors is an exhaustive state- ment as to the kind of school needed at Blacks- burg. It quotes authorities on the subject of technical education. It describes in detail the type of training as carried on in Prussia, Switzer- land, Austria, and France, and gives the status of technical and agricultural education in America. The kind of training to be given un- der the Federal Act was definitely set fortji in the report. First, it was to be a school where such " branches as are related to agriculture and the mechanic arts shall be taught in such manner as the State Legislature shall provide." The Industrial Feature. — It was to be a school for the industrial classes. Farmers and mechanics constitute the great bulk of popula- tion in Virginia. It was estimated at that time (1872) that there were 125,000 farmers and mechanics in the state. These figures show 205 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA where lie the great fields for technical and agri- cultural education. In August, 1872, the Board of Visitors elected Charles L. C. Minor the first president of the institution, and three professors, one each in English, natural philosophy and chemistry, technical agriculture and mechanics. Natural history and farm management were to be added in February. It was the plan that the students should engage in " manual labor " as a part of the work of the school. The students who matriculated the first years of the institu- tion's history were poorly prepared for the tech- nical work planned, so it was necessary to offer high school and even grammar school courses. 1 Later Developments. — Military training has always been a feature in this institution. In 1888 the college reported 110 students and eight professors. General L. L. Lomax was president then. In 1890 Dr. J. M. McBryde was called to the presidency of the college, and the school was reorganized. It gained in the number of students and in efficiency, and in a few years came to be a great agricultural and industrial 1 Statement of President Minor in the Ruffner Report, 1873, p. 123. 206 STATE INSTITUTIONS FOR HIGHER LEARNING school. The state made the necessary appro- priation to develop an efficient plant and equip- ment, so that by 1895 there were 400 students in attendance, by which time the name of the school was changed to The Virginia Polytechnic Institute. It was giving full courses in agri- culture, the mechanic arts, foreign languages, economics, and history, and the applied sciences and mathematics. In 1905 Dr. Paul Barringer of the University of Virginia was called to the head of the institute, and under his management the school added many new practical courses. The attendance increased and the school flour- ished. In 1913 J. D. Eggleston, former state superintendent, was elected to the presidency of the school. A great impetus has been given to the teaching of agriculture in the last few years, and the school more nearly fulfils its origi- nal purpose than ever before. General Summary. — It will be seen from the three institutions just described that the state has exercised a constructive interest in higher education on three main lines, professional, military, and technical. The University of Vir- 207 > HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA ginia at Charlottesville provides higher training in academic lines, law, and medicine. The Virginia Military Institute at Lexington pro- vides military training and kindred technical instruction, and the Virginia Polytechnic In- stitute at Blacksburg, agricultural and general mechanical training. In each of these schools efforts were made to meet the needs for the training of teachers, but this function was not met in a satisfactory way by these schools, so the state at a later period established state normal schools in various parts of the state to meet the need connected with the more efficient conduct of the public school system. Xhe de- nominational colleges continue to furnish train- ing in a liberal education under distinct Christian influences and instruction in general theology and denominational creeds. The statute of re- ligious freedom, fathered by Thomas Jefferson and passed by the General Assembly in 1786, laid down a policy of state institutions of higher learning, which left out of account the teaching of religion in the state schools. Training in this line was amply provided for in the church 208 STATE INSTITUTIONS FOR HIGHER LEARNING colleges representing the various denominations. It will be seen from the last two chapters that the people of Virginia provided amply for the higher education of their youth. The United States census of 1850 gives the following table which shows that Virginia had more young men in her higher institutions of learning than any of the other states: ♦ Comparative Number of Young Men in College in 1850 -White Total Population Population Pennsylvania 1 to 2011 1 to 2110 New York 1 to 1773 1 to 1790 Connecticut 1 to 1529 1 to 1630 Massachusetts 1 to 1588 1 to 1615 Ohio 1 to 1521 1 to 1557 Virginia 1 to 722 1 to 1233 209 CHAPTER XII A STATE PUBLIC SCHOOL SYSTEM INAUGURATED 1869 Social and Economic Conditions. — The pro- visions for public education which the Legisla- ture had made in 1818 and the subsequent acts regarding the establishment of primary schools in the state did not provide an effective system of education for all the children. This plan did not include at all the colored portion of the popu- lation, so recently freed from the condition of slavery. The colored population at this time composed two-thirds of the total population of the state, and, too, the system of education in operation previous to the Civil War did not reach more than half the white children in the state. The " poor," for whom the schools were primarily intended, for reasons of prejudice con- nected with the idea of being placed in the position of a charge on the state, were loath to 210 PUBLIC SCHOOL SYSTEM INAUGURATED send their children to these schools, and the well-to-do refused to patronize them for the reason that they were intended for the " in- digent " and not for those who were able to pro- vide by private means for the education of their children. This was not a social order in which a wholesome and vigorous system of public edu- cation could thrive. It was necessary for these conditions to change before a system of public education could take root and become effective in a society such as obtained in Virginia. In the midst of all this came the Civil War, with all its deadening and blighting effect upon the political, social, and industrial conditions of the whole South, and Virginia, more than any of the other southern states, felt the awful results of this conflict. Dr. J. L. M. Curry, in his " His- tory of the Peabody Education Fund," makes this significant statement regarding these con- ditions : At the origin of the Peabody Education Fund in 1866, not a single southern state within the field of its opera- tion had a system of free public schools and only in a few cities were any such schools to be found. No state organization existed through which this fund could reach 211 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA the people. The illiteracy of the inhabitants was appall- ing and by no means was confined to the "freedmen" but included a large per cent of the white population. The Legislatures of these states during the period of re- construction, largely under the influence of members from the northern states, where the common schools had been for years a recognized institution and of colored representatives who were filled with the laudable am- bition for the schooling of the children of their own people, had laid out a work entirely and sometimes absurdly beyond their people to sustain, for the support of this scheme was to fall upon the native white people, who held ninety per cent of the remaining property of these Com- monwealths. During the war and the five years follow- ing, 1860-1870, the property values of these states had diminished to the extent of two billion dollars. There were in the ex-Confederate States two million children and youth within the years of instruction. In the effort to organize and put in successful operation a new and untried system of public schools adequate to the needs of the entire population, the southern states, were under a weight of debt beyond their ability in their impoverished condition to pay. To add the expense of free education to this crushing weight was in their financial condition a perplexing and almost impossible task. Free schooling was a new question introduced and to be administered by novices in this work. To organize the freedom and equality of citizenship of a large class, lately the slaves of the white people, was not easy, because in conflict with the traditions, prejudices, social customs, and legal rights of a few years preceding. To impose voluntary, 212 PUBLIC SCHOOL SYSTEM INAUGURATED heavy burdens on the scant property which survived the demoralization of the war, so as to educate gratuitously their own children and the children of the late African slaves was a task of patriotism, of humanity, of civic duty which no people ever encountered. Virginia was the social and educational leader in the eleven commonwealths which had seceded, and the close of the war found all of her social order and industrial institutions in the state of collapse. She had been shorn of an important section of her own area in the organization of the new state of West Virginia. The remain- ing section east of the Alleghanies had been a battleground for four terrible years. The census of 1860 gave the number of people in colleges, academies, and public schools in Virginia as 67,024, which was more than nine and one half per cent of the white population and five and one half per cent of the entire population of the state. From 1850 to 1860 there had been a gain of about two thousand upon the illiteracy of the white people, but in 1870 white illiteracy had increased from 48,912 in 1860 to 67,997. Besides 207,505 of the colored 213 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA f reedmen, nearly twenty-two per cent of the pop- ulation of Virginia, were unable to read and write. These were the conditions in Virginia under which the public free school system was inaugurated. The new constitution which contains the first provision for a complete system of public education in Virginia was adopted July 6, 1869. The act of Congress by which Virginia was admitted into the Union in 1870 provided that The Constitution of Virginia shall never be so amended or changed as to deprive any citizen or class of citizens of the United States of the school rights and privileges secured by the Constitution of the said State. The Convention which framed the constitu- tion containing these educational provisions convened December 3, 1867, and was composed of 105 members. There were in this body 33 conservatives and 72 radicals, 24 of whom were negroes. Besides the negroes, the radical delegates were: 14 Virginians, 14 from New York, 3 each from Pennsylvania, Massachusetts, and England, 1 each from Maine, Vermont, Con- necticut, New Jersey, Maryland, Washington 214 PUBLIC SCHOOL SYSTEM INAUGURATED City, South Carolina, Ireland, Scotland, and Canada. 1 To this cosmopolitan assembly Vir- ginia owes the constitutional provision for the establishment of the first state-wide school sys- tem. Thus, after an agitation of nearly a cen- tury, the educational scheme of Thomas Jeffer- son, in modified form, was made into law. The educational provision for the public school in the fundamental law is as follows: Constitutional Provision for Education. — (1) The general assembly shall elect in joint ballot within thirty days after its organization under this constitution, and every fourth year thereafter, a superintendent of public instruction. He shall have the general supervision of the public free school interests of the State, and shall report to the general assembly for its consideration, within thirty days after his election, a plan for a uniform system of public free schools. (2) There shall be a board of education, composed of the governor, superintendent of public instruction, and attorney-general, which shall appoint and have power to remove for cause and upon notice to the incumbents, subject to confirmation by the senate, all county super- intendents of public schools. This board shall have, regulated by law, the management and investment of all 1 See South Atlantic Quarterly, Vol. XV, January, 1916, p. 27, Edgar W. Knight. 215 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA school funds, and such supervision of higher grades as the law shall provide. (3) The general assembly shall provide by law at its first session under this constitution a uniform system of public free schools, and for its gradual, equal, and full introduction into all the counties of the State by the year 1876, or as much earlier as practicable. (4) The general assembly shall have power, after a full introduction of the public free school system, to make such laws as shall not permit parents and guardians to allow their children to grow up in ignorance and vagrancy. (5) The general assembly shall establish, as soon as practicable, normal schools, and may establish agricul- tural schools and such grades of schools as shall be for the public good. (6) The board of education shall provide uniformity of text-books, and the furnishing of school-houses with such apparatus and library as may be necessary, under such regulations as may be provided by law. (7) The general assembly shall set apart as a permanent and perpetual "literary fund" the present literary fund of the State, the proceeds of all public lands donated by Congress for the public school purposes, of all escheated property, of all waste and unappropriated lands, of all property accruing to the State by forfeiture, and all fines collected for offenses committed against the State, and all such other sums as the general assembly may appro- priate. (8) The general assembly shall apply the annual in- terest on the literary fund, the capitation tax provided for by this constitution for public free school purposes, 216 PUBLIC SCHOOL SYSTEM INAUGURATED and an annual tax upon the property of the State of not less than one mill nor more than five mills on the dollar, for the equal benefit of all the people of the State, the number of children between the ages of five and twenty- one years in each public free school district being the basis of such division. Provision shall be made to supply children attending the public free schools with necessary text-books in cases where the parent or guardian is unable, by reason of poverty, to furnish them. Each county and public free school district may raise additional sums by a tax on property for the support of public free schools. All unexpended sums of any one year in any public free school district shall go into the general school fund for redivision the next year: Provided, That any tax au- thorized by this section to be raised by counties or school districts shall not exceed five mills on a dollar in any one year, and shall not be subject to redivision, as herein before provided in this section. (9) The general assembly shall have the power to foster all higher grades of schools under its supervision, and to provide for such purpose a permanent educational fund. (10) All grants and donations received by the general assembly for educational purposes shall be applied accord- ing to the terms prescribed by the donors. (11) Each city and county shall be held accountable for the destruction of school property that may take place within its limits by incendiaries or open violence. (12) The general assembly shall fix the salaries and prescribe the duties of all school officers, and shall make all needful laws to carry into effect the public free school system provided for by this article. 217 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA County organizations. And there shall be appointed, in the manner provided for, in Article VIII, one superin- tendent of schools; Provided, That counties containing less than eight thousand inhabitants may be attached to adjoining counties for the formation of districts for super- intendents of schools : Provided also, That in counties containing thirty thousand inhabitants there may be appointed an additional superintendent of schools therein. All regular elections for county officers shall be held on the first Tuesday after the first Monday in November, and all officers elected or appointed under this provision shall enter upon the duties of their offices on the first day of January next succeeding their election and shall hold their respective offices for the term of three years. . . . School Districts. Each township shall be divided into as many compactly located school districts as may be deemed necessary : Provided, That no school district shall be formed containing less than one hundred inhabit- ants. In each school district there shall be elected or appointed annually one school trustee, who shall hold his office three years : Provided, that at the first election held under this provision there shall be three trustees elected, whose terms shall be one, two, and three years, respectively. This was the legal machinery set up for run- ning a system of free schools for all the children in Virginia. According to the constitutional requirement, the Legislature acted promptly and elected the Rev. Wm. H. Ruffner, of Lex- 218 PUBLIC SCHOOL SYSTEM INAUGURATED ington, state superintendent of public instruc- tion. This proved to be a wise choice, for the work of Dr. Ruffner in inaugurating a public school system and overcoming the long, tradi- tional prejudice of the people of Virginia against such a plan of education was a remarkable ex- ample of knowledge, wisdom, clear vision, and statesmanship. The new superintendent was a son of Dr. Henry Ruffner, one time president of Washington College, who, twenty years be- fore, had submitted a remarkable plan for the education of the white children of Virginia. This plan was similar to the system which a few years before had been put into such successful operation in Massachusetts by Horace Mann, and which became the model for the American system of public education. The constitution provided that after a state superintendent had been elected, he was to be given thirty days in which to prepare a report to the General Assembly, in which he was to recom- mend a plan for putting into operation the pro- visions of the new constitution. In twenty-five days Dr. Ruffner submitted to the Legislature 219 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA the proposed plan for instituting a system of public schools in the state. The plan submitted, with a few modifications by the Legislature, was passed and signed by the governor July 11, 1870. Work of the First State Board of Education. — The first work of the Board of Education was the appointing of the school officials necessary to carry out the intent of the constitution. In three months 1400 county superintendents and district trustees were appointed. The first duties of this army of officials were to organize for work, take the census of school population, examine and commission teachers, and deter- mine the number and location of schools. The state superintendent suggested to these officials that they open a few schools in each county at first, and by this means the plan could be tried out, and the effectiveness of such a system of education be demonstrated to the people. The schools were opened in November, 1870, and by the close of the scholastic year there were 2900 schools, 3000 teachers, and an attendance of 130,000 pupils. The average daily attend- 220 PUBLIC SCHOOL SYSTEM INAUGURATED ance in the state was 75,722, and the percentage of school population was, for whites, 37.6, colored, 23.4, total, 31.8. The mountain counties of the Southwest led in the number of children taking advantage of this school system. Gray- son County, perched upon a plateau of the Blue Ridge, enrolled sixty-six per cent of her school population the first year. Previous to the inauguration of a state system of free schools, many communities were maintaining private schools, and in many instances these passed over to public charge, together with their buildings and endowment. The Funds for the Support of the Schools. — The sources of money for the support of schools were: (1) interest on the Literary Fund; (2) capitation taxes ; (3) an annual tax upon the property of the state of not less than one mill, nor more than five mills on the dollar ; (4) each county and district was empowered to levy an additional tax not to exceed five mills on the dollar. In addition to these constitu- tional provisions small amounts were donated by private individuals for school purposes. 221 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA While this scheme seemed to be an ample pro- vision for the support of the schools, as a matter of fact there were many uncertain factors in it that resulted in embarrassment and difficulties for the school officers. The schools had opened in November, but there were no funds available until December, and even then the state super- intendent could not anticipate how much money could be expected for school purposes. The tax collection was slow and uncertain. The local communities voted as to the amount of county and district tax to be levied. 1 In some cases no local tax was levied at all, these communities depending upon the state for the funds with which to run their schools. The first year the aggregate sum of $450,000 was expended in the support of the schools. In a few subsequent years there was an alarming decrease in the avail- able funds from the state for school purposes. In 1872 there was a falling off of $130,156 from the state and $200,000 from local sources. Dr. Ruffner called the attention of the Legis- 1 Seventy-two counties voted a local tax and twenty-five counties did not vote at all. 222 PUBLIC SCHOOL SYSTEM INAUGURATED lature (1872) to the fact that there was the " frightful deficit in the total revenues of $400,856 as compared with last year, a deficit of more than one-half the total amount received from private funds." Diversion of the School Funds. — Large amounts of the funds arising from the constitu- tional provision for school purposes were di- verted and applied to other uses from 1870 to 1879. The state superintendent called the atten- tion of the Legislature to this fact from time to time, but there was no satisfactory explanation given by the treasurer and auditors. Finally, a resolution was passed by the House of Dele- gates requiring the superintendent to call upon the auditor for information, with the result that the auditor's balances showed confusion and a lack of judgment in disbursing the funds of the state. In 1877, when the facts were really made public, there was found to be a deficit owing to the diversion of the school funds of $550,000. The explanation of this condition, as given by the auditor, was that he had the right of deciding " what amounts, in his opinion, 223 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA the Treasury could bear." The claim of the schools in his opinion did not rise to the dignity of some other governmental claims growing out of appropriations made by law. This was vir- tually saying that the auditor had the sole authority in the use of state funds, regardless of constitutional provision. It denied the exist- ence of school money, as such, regarding it but as income to the state for general use. This attitude of the treasurer of the state was an effort to weaken and ultimately defeat the public school system so recently put into operation, and it reflected the attitude of a large element in Virginia who were from the first opposed to a public free school system for all the children of the state. According to Dr. Ruffner's estimate, $1,113,052.56 was the total amount the state was in arrears to the public school funds, by the pernicious efforts to divert the school funds to other uses during the period from 1870 to 1879. The Legislature of this last year, after a bitter debate involving other state policies, but cen- tring around the practice of diverting the state school money, brought the matter to a settle- 224 PUBLIC SCHOOL SYSTEM INAUGURATED ment by the passage of a law in which the state acknowledged a debt of $382,732.26 due the schools, and providing that $15,000 of this should be paid over to the school fund every three months. Even this law was not executed until the auditor, Mr. Taylor, who had been the agent in the diversion of the fund during all these years, had been displaced by a new auditor. 1 A Critical Period for the Public Schools. — The conflict between the friends of the public school system, led by Superintendent Ruffner on the one side, and those whose efforts were directed toward the defeat of the system on the other side, brought the matter to a focus in the election of 1879, when the people sent a majority to the Legislature pledged to save the new hope of the Commonwealth from sacrifice and utter defeat. The question as to whether the people would abandon their new public school system in order to pay the interest on the public debt was the prime matter for settlement. The superintendent defended the school sys- 1 This law didn't become operative until 1880. See U. S. Commis- sioner's Report, 1903, p. 441. Q 225 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA tern in one of the ablest discussions on the impor- tance of universal education to the public wel- fare that has ever been presented to the people of the state. 1 The trouble originated in the famous " fund- ing act " of 1871, which provided a scheme for paying off the interest on the state debt. This scheme armed the bondholders with cou- pons which covered the school moneys along with other moneys, with certain means of collecting the interest on the bonds. The question of " funding " the state debt created a " furious political commotion " throughout the entire state. The act was the basis of the claim of the auditor in the practice of using the school funds for other than school purposes. It was this practice that Superintendent Ruffner referred to as the " diversion of the school funds." He says : Here in the famous act of 1871 we have the root of the matter, and from this inherent and vigorous root have grown all the financial evils which have plagued succeed- ing Legislatures and crippled the school system more and more, until now its enemies point to it and say, "What a poor thing is your school system." 1 See School Report of 1878. PUBLIC SCHOOL SYSTEM INAUGURATED On account of the lack of funds and the " im- measurable discontent " among the people of the state, resulting from the uncertain and unsatisfactory financial support of the schools, there was an alarming falling off of attendance in the number of schools in the state. The state superintendent had predicted this in his reports to the Legislature previous to 1878. The year 1878 closed with a debt of $250,000 to the teachers. There was a loss of 127 schools over the previous year. There was a decrease in attendance of 27,300 pupils and a reduced expenditure for education of $88,451. The loss for the colored race was greater than for the white children. The superintendent declared that the loss of education to 100,000 children would cost the state $1,500,000 for the previous schooling of $500,000 for three years. By the year 1880, the disputed points had been settled in a satisfactory way. Happily for the school system, its friends had saved it from defeat and ruin, and it was settled for all time that public free education for all the chil- 227 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA dren of the state was- to be one of the main func- tions of the state government. The superin- tendent reported that year that the past year had been the " best in all respects," — a larger sum of money had been turned over to the schools than any previous year. The number of schools had almost been doubled. Two hun- dred new buildings had been erected and nearly $100,000 added to the value of school property. The total expenditure for education that year reached the sum of $946,109.33. Public Sentiment concerning Public Schools. — One of the duties of the school officials was to create a public sentiment in favor of public schools. Jefferson, in his efforts to establish primary schools in the state from 1796 to 1818, often became impatient with the state of leth- argy among the people of Virginia regarding public education. The people of the state had been accustomed for twenty-five years to the schools for the " poor " or " indigent," and when the public free schools were inaugurated they associated these with the type of inferior school under the old regime and naturally had a preju- 228 PUBLIC SCHOOL SYSTEM INAUGURATED dice against them at first. • The new system had to be proved before it would be accepted by a large class of people. Then there were a great many very influential leaders in the state, who openly and uncompromisingly were opposed to the system, on the broad ground that it was not a governmental function to educate all the children ; that it created hopes and aspirations that could never be realized by the laboring classes. There was a strong general sentiment against educating the negroes. 1 Dr. R. L. Dabney of Hampden-Sidney was most active in the opposition to the public school idea. He sought all opportunities in print and on the plat- form to stay the growing public sentiment in favor of the new system of free schools. The people of Virginia had long been accus- tomed to look upon education as a function of the home and an individual responsibility. They were slow to realize the appropriateness of the state's taking over this function of educating all the children of the state, white and colored 1 Previous to the war the laws of Virginia imposed a penalty upon any one who taught them to read. See School Report, 1885, p. 265. 229 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA alike. Particularly were they opposed to the state's fostering education among the latter class, so recently their menial servants. All this opposition had to be combated in establish- ing a system of free schools in Virginia. Dr. Ruffner often called the attention of the school officials to this important fact through the medium of the public press and through the Virginia School Journal. In 1872 he inquired through the division superintendents as to the public sentiment in favor of the new school system. They answered in general that there was a growing sentiment in their favor. The following excerpts from some of their reports indicate this fact. Excerpts from the Reports of Division Superintendents ! Accomac. — "Steady improvement among the masses in favor of the schools. We sadly need more school- houses. This is the greatest drawback and affords the most effective weapon to our foes." Albemarle. — "Public sentiment has undergone a great change in favor of the system. Almost all persons are now willing to patronize it." 1 See School Report, 1872, pp. 19-33. 230 PUBLIC SCHOOL SYSTEM INAUGURATED Amelia. — "Opposition of the whites manifestly abat- ing. A few prominent men still affect dislike but the masses are calling for more schools." Augusta. — "In most instances, the schools gave satisfaction. Individuals who formerly held off came in and patronized the schools. There are still many persons of prominence and influence who from principle or interest oppose the whole system." Bedford. — "Progress of public sentiment in regard to public schools is encouraging to the friends of the system. True, there are many objectors who are deter- mined in their opposition and earnest in denunciation." Brunswick. — " There is a considerable change in the public sentiment of the County in relation to the present free school system. It was at first looked upon with great disfavor. It is now regarded with a more favorable eye." Campbell. — " Some hostility still exists, but the fierce opposition encountered at first has abated." Culpeper. — "Favorable. If each neighborhood had a school there would be very little opposition or dissatis- faction." Henrico. — "Public sentiment is no less in favor of public free schools than when I submitted my last report (1871). If there be any difference, perhaps they are grow- ing in favor. The people are disposed to grumble because the schools are discontinued before the close of the session from want of funds." King William. — "A large majority take little or no interest in public education and give no thought to the matter, except as regards taxes for its support." 231 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA Lunenburg. — "The public sentiment in the County is largely in favor of the public free schools." Mecklenburg. — "I believe that opposition to the public school system has almost ceased." Nelson. — "The sentiment of this county is decidedly favorable to the public school system." Northampton. — "Public sentiment is gradually be- coming more favorable." Pittsylvania. — "Public sentiment has been rapidly growing in favor of the public schools. Two things only are required to make the free schools a decided success, neat, commodious, and well furnished school- houses." Rappahannock. — "Public sentiment in this County is in the main favorable to public schools now, although some complain of the injustice, as they call it, of being taxed to educate other people's children." Rockingham. — "The public schools are gradually growing in favor of the masses." Russell. — "I am highly gratified to report that public sentiment which was almost entirely against us last year was considerably in our favor this year, though we have a few noisy opponents." Smith. — "The people of this County are for the most part in favor of public schools." Spottsylvania. — "Public sentiment is not favorable to the system of public free schools in this County. Most of the people are landowners, and they think their in- terests unjustly dealt with, and their prejudice against colored schools is very wrong." Washington. — "Public sentiment is growing some- 232 PUBLIC SCHOOL SYSTEM INAUGURATED what more favorable toward the schools. The opposition is not so violent." Lynchburg City. — " Public sentiment has steadily undergone a change in our favor during the last year until now few have the temerity to avow themselves opposers. Every appeal of the council for pecuniary assistance has been responded to with cheerfulness and alacrity. The High School has made very rapid progress. As an evidence of popular confidence and approval I may mention that the number of advanced girls in at- tendance is increasing in the greatest ratio." Norfolk City. — "There has been for many years a strong popular current in favor of public schools in this city. When the schools were first opened by the city, there was a general rush of applicants from all classes seeking admission. After a while, there seemed to arise a prejudice against these schools, from an impression that health and morals would both be endangered from a too promiscuous mingling of all elements of society." Richmond City. — "Public sentiment has continued to grow more and more healthy in reference to our public school system." Petersburg. — "The inauguration of the public school system found a portion of citizens opposed and the rest either friendly or indifferent. The position is assumed by some that public schools, while tolerated, must not be good enough to rival private schools. That they must not be allowed to attain such efficiency as will gain the favor of parents able to pay the private school teachers." Alexandria City. — "Public sentiment is strongly in favor of the public schools. The Finance Committee of 233 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA the City Council, having been instructed to set apart $600 a month for school purposes, failed to do so on ac- count of the embarrassed condition of the city's finances. On my report of the matter, council took it out of the hands of the Committee and confided it to the Treasurer who paid up the quota due in advance of all claims." These reports indicate the attitude of the people toward the established schools and they indicate also the gigantic task of Superintendent Ruffner and his officials over the state, of clear- ing away the prejudice and other opposing fac- tors, so that the effectiveness of the system might be demonstrated. The state superintendent from the first expressed implicit confidence in the ultimate success of the system and it might have failed but for the persistent and sane ef- forts of Dr. Ruffner through the period of twelve years during which the system was on trial. In addition, it will be noted that the following are some of the difficulties in the way of the suc- cessful operation of the public school system. (1) Prejudice against the public school system. (2) Feeling of poverty among the people. (3) Aversion to the education of the negro at public expense. (4) Lack of suitable schoolhouses and appliances. 234 PUBLIC SCHOOL SYSTEM INAUGURATED (5) Teachers' lack of professional training. (6) Financial annoyances. (7) Trouble concerning the state debt. (8) The impossibility of supplying schools for all the neighborhoods clamoring for them. Normal Schools. — One of the constitutional requirements for education in the state was that the " State Board of Education establish normal schools as soon as possible." In his first report to the Legislature in 1870, Dr. RuflF- ner advises that provision be made whereby normal schools for the training of teachers be established. He gives full arguments from a carefully prepared array of statistics showing the growth of normal schools in the eastern and central states. His advice to the Legislature was that, if that body could not at that time provide the necessary expenditure to establish several normal schools on a substantial basis, it might be possible to provide limited finan- cial means sufficient to operate what he calls " ambulatory normals." x The idea was to em- ploy a faculty of three or four specialists, paid in part by the state, these to travel from one 1 See School Report, 1871, p. 142. 235 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA section of the state to another, and hold ses- sions from four to six weeks, and in this way all the teachers could be reached in a comparatively short time. But this plan was never carried out in the form in which it was originally planned by the state superintendent. Normal Institutes. — The demand for peda- gogical training among the more advanced teachers of the state resulted in the establishment in a few sections of the state of Summer In- stitutes, running four or six weeks. These were designated as " Summer Normal Institutes " and many teachers from a half dozen contiguous counties would attend. These sessions were usually held in July, followed by the examina- tion for teachers' certificates. Such a normal was held at Bridgewater in Rockingham County for a great many consecutive summers between the 70's and the 80's. Later this school devel- oped into the Valley Normal. Other more per- manent institutes were held in Botetourt County, at Strasburg in Shenandoah County, and in many other sections of the state. A little later (1880) a summer session for white 236 PUBLIC SCHOOL SYSTEM INAUGURATED teachers was held at the University of Virginia and one at Lynchburg for the colored teachers. Funds for the support of these schools came largely from the Peabody Fund, the agent of which, Dr. Sears, had made his headquarters at Staunton, Virginia. There was an attendance at the University of Virginia this session of 467 teachers, — 212 women and 155 men. The attendance at Lynchburg was 240. The em- phasis of the work at these two sessions was upon the best method of teaching the public school branches. The school at the University of Virginia was under the management of Dr. M. A. Newell, state superintendent of educa- tion of Maryland. He was assisted by Profes- sors McGilveray of Richmond and A. L. Fink of Staunton, and a score of lecturers, among whom were Hon. John Eaton, United States Commissioner of Education, Rev. A. D. Mayo of Boston, and some of the professors of the University of Virginia. This was the first organized state-wide effort to give an opportu- nity for training the teachers for the public schools. 237 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA County Institutes. — From the very first (1870) Dr. Ruffner called upon the division superintendents to hold institutes at which the teachers should demonstrate the best ways of presenting the subjects to the children. Often the superintendent called to his assistance some leading educators in the state and local men and women of influence to lecture. This meeting had a twofold object: (1) to give professional training to the teachers, and (2) to create public sentiment in favor of the public schools. It soon became the custom in all the counties to hold these institutes two or three times during the session. They sometimes lasted for a whole week. These meetings had much to do with creating a professional spirit among the teachers and introducing superior methods of teaching the public school subjects. The Peabody Fund in Virginia. — In 1866 George Peabody, then living in London, gave to education in the southern states the sum of $3,500,000 in stocks and bonds. Of this sum $1,500,000 of Mississippi and Florida state bonds was afterwards repudiated, leaving an available 238 PUBLIC SCHOOL SYSTEM INAUGURATED fund of $2,000,000 for the cause of education. Dr. Sears, the first agent of this fund, located at Staunton, Virginia, at the time the state was establishing its free school system. Dr. Sears came to the assistance of Dr. Ruff ner many times during the first decade in which a public free school system was being inaugurated in Virginia. Dr. Sears laid down the general policy of using the funds for the purpose of an incentive. He proposed " to help those who would help them- selves." This fund was used : (1) to aid graded free schools, (2) city schools, (3) summer schools for teachers. For this reason these summer schools were often designated as " Peabody Institutes." The programme under which the funds were at first distributed was : For well-regulated graded public schools continuing for nine or ten months with at least one teacher for every fifty pupils, the people or the public authorities paying at least twice as much for current expenses, the Peabody fund will pay : 1 for not less than 100 pupils . . . for not less than 150 pupils . . . 450 for not less than 200 pupils . . . 600 1 See Virginia Educational Journal, Vol. II, p. 75. 239 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA for not less than 250 pupils . . . $800 for not less than 300 pupils . . . 1000 During the twelve years of Dr. Ruffner's administration the state received the total sum of $233,000 from the Peabody Fund, which was about one-fifth of the amount received by all the southern states. Thus it will be seen that Virginia received the lion's share of this fund. After Peabody College was founded by the Peabody Board, at Nashville, Tennessee, the fund was distributed on the basis of school population, in two hundred dollar scholarships. To this school Virginia received during the time (1877 to 1910) about $60,000. At this last year the entire fund of $1,000,000 was turned over to the endowment of the George Peabody College for Teachers, at Nashville, Tennessee, where a great Teachers' College is being organ- ized for the whole South. Summary of Dr. Ruffner's Administration. — The administration of Dr. Ruffner will forever stand out as a most remarkable piece of construc- tive work in the history of education in Virginia. He has already come to be looked upon as the 240 PUBLIC SCHOOL SYSTEM INAUGURATED " Horace Mann of Virginia." Though his work came forty years after the Massachusetts edu- cator, yet it was essentially the same problem and attended with the same or even greater diffi- culties. Dr. Ruffner issued twelve reports and discussed the same educational topics that one finds in the Massachusetts reports. In some respects the difficulties encountered by Dr. Ruffner were more complicated on account of the social and financial conditions in Virginia. The people of Massachusetts had no such conditions as those relating to the freedmen, and none comparable to those pertaining to the social and religious conditions in Virginia. The people of Massachusetts were more homogeneous, and their interests were different from those of the people of Virginia. Public education found a more ready acceptance in New England democ- racy than it did in the more or less aristocratic society of Virginia. For these and many other reasons the task of establishing a public school system in Virginia, even at the late date of 1870, was infinitely more difficult than that of Horace Mann in Massachusetts. r 241 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA The inauguration of a public school system in Virginia was not a matter of a gradual evolu- tion among the people, but came rather suddenly in the midst of circumstances peculiar and unusual. The people of Virginia, together with the whole South, were at this time more con- cerned about matters political and civil than about matters of education. Dr. Ruffner and the friends of education in the state had before them the great task of turning the attention of the people to the function of education, and to devise a suitable machinery to carry the system forward. This was no small task; only the most consummate energy, wisdom, and diplomacy could bring to a successful issue such a scheme as a system of universal education for the state. Regardless of all these almost insurmountable difficulties, the system evolved came to be ac- cepted in a few years as a most effective sys- tem of educating the people of Virginia. Dr. Ruffner marshalled all the forces in the state and focussed them upon the problem of edu- cating the whole people. He closed his tenth report with these impressive words : 242 PUBLIC SCHOOL SYSTEM INAUGURATED I have now delivered my testimony and perhaps am near the end of my public service. Always the time comes to lay down the burden. I personally will have no feel- ing but that of great relief. My work I commend to God, and my conduct to the charitable judgment of my countrymen. My part will still live in the noble work of educating the people and building up the common- wealth. How wise he was in all this initial work the present and future generations will say. With the cooperation of a body of such eminent educators as Dr. Barnas Sears, Dr. J. L. M. Curry, Pro- fessor Edward S. Joynes, Professor John B. Minor and others it is not remarkable that the school system estab- lished under the administration of Dr. Ruffner has sur- vived the assaults of all its enemies and the neglect or the indifference of its half-hearted friends. And if the progress of the system during the last fifteen years of the century seems not to have justified the anticipation of its more enthusiastic friends, and other states of the South have accomplished more, it has been from the fact that the idea of its first great superintendent of schools was prac- tically half a century in advance of the possibility of the Virginia of 1870-1885 to realize. 1 1 Rev. A. D. Mayo, United States Commissioner's Report, 1903, Vol. I, p. 440. William Henry Ruffner was born in 1824 at Lexington, Virginia, where his father was president of Washington College. There he received the degree of bachelor of arts at the age of eighteen, when he delivered an 243 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA The following tabulations regarding the growth of school attendance and expenditure will indi- cate the development of favorable public opin- ion regarding the school system : Growth of Virginia's Public School System Year Pupils (5-21 Yrs.) Enrol. Daily Attend. Percent, op Attend. MONTHLT Enrol. Teachers 1871 441,021 131,088 75,722 57.7 4.66 3014 1875 482,789 184,486 103,927 56.3 5.59 4262 1880 555,807 220,730 128,604 58.1 5.64 4873 1885 610,271 303,343 176,469 58.1 5.92 6693 1890 652,045 342,269 198,290 57.9 5.91 7523 1895 665,533 355,986 202,530 56.8 5.95 8292 1900 691,312 370,595 216,464 58.4 6.00 8954 1905 580,618 1 361,772 215,205 59.4 6.40 9972 1910 615,379 402,109 259,394 64.5 7.04 10443 oration on "The Power of Knowledge." Three years later he received the degree of master of arts. He became a leader in Christian and tem- perance work ; studied theology at Hampden-Sidney and at Princeton ; was chaplain at the University of Virginia ; married in 1850 ; was pastor of the Seventh Presbyterian Church, Philadelphia. On account of ill health from overwork he retired to a Virginia farm. He was opposed to slavery, though he was never disloyal to his state. From 1870 to 1882 he was superintendent of public instruction; he was superintendent of Virginia's first State Normal School from 1884 to 1886; he retired near Lexington, and died in 1908. Dr. Ruffner was presented with a medal by the Chilean government for a plan of public education for that govern- ment. 1 Between seven and twenty years (new constitution of 1902). 244 PUBLIC SCHOOL SYSTEM INAUGURATED Growth of Expenditures Monthly Salary Year State Fund County and District of Teachers Value op School Property Males Females 1871 362,100 330,332 $32.36 $26.33 $189,680 1875 488,490 473,977 33.62 28.71 757,181 1880 596,629 490,089 29.20 27.65 1,177,544 1885 844,475 606,421 31.00 26.88 1,819,256 1890 851,467 705,429 31.69 26.61 2,235,085 1895 974,351 805,625 32.82 26.95 2,982,828 1900 1,015,538 926,993 32.47 26.18 3,536,293 1905 1,128,262 1,214,973 36.86 28.11 4,297,625 1910 1,584,933 2,767,302 47.31 35.83 8,555,34s 1 1 In 1910 the average salary per month for white teachers was : men $52.15 ; women, $37.54. The annual cost of teaching each white child was $12.84. The percentage of revenue was 97 per cent. 245 CHAPTER XIII SUBSEQUENT DEVELOPMENT OF THE PUBLIC FREE SCHOOL SYSTEM The New State Superintendent. — The elec- tion in 1881 completely overthrew the party that had been in power in Virginia for a century. The united votes largely of the people west of the Alleghany Mountains and the newly en- franchised colored people changed the state and congressional representation. This new state Legislature elected Mr. R. R. Farr state superintendent of public instruction, who held that office for the next four years. Educational Events in the New Administra- tion. — One of the first acts of the new Legisla- ture was the appropriation of $400,000 of the $500,000 received from the sale of the state's interest in the Atlantic, Mississippi, and Ohio Railroad for the reduction of the enormous 246 DEVELOPMENT OF FREE SCHOOL SYSTEM state debt of $30,000,000, and the remaining $100,000 to the establishment of the Normal and Industrial Institute for Colored Youth at Petersburg. During the year 1882 the sum of $1,157,142 was used for school purposes. That was the greatest amount yet used for school purposes in one year. School attendance in- creased, and there was a general forward move- ment in education over the entire state. In 1882 there was held the first conference of county and city school officials in Richmond. Out of the one hundred city and county super- intendents in the state, eighty-nine were in attendance. Addresses were heard from Hon. John Eaton, United States Commissioner of Education, Gen. S. C. Armstrong, State Su- perintendent Wickersham of Pennsylvania, and Dr. J. L. M. Curry, agent of the Peabody Fund. This meeting gave a great impetus to public education in the state. An act of the Legislature provided that 90 per cent of the state school fund be assigned to the counties, and provision was also made by which more of the deficit by the state to the 247 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA school fund was returned to its original purpose. Dr. Curry, the agent of the Peabody Fund, urged that the Legislature provide that some of the school fund of the state be used for the training of teachers, thus carrying out the constitutional provision that " Normal Schools be provided as soon as practicable." State Normal School Established at Farm- ville. — The most notable event of the year 1884 was the legislative act providing that a school should be located at Farmville for the express purpose of the " training of female teachers for the public schools," to be governed by a board composed of W. H. Ruffner, Dr. J. L. M. Curry, Prof. J. B. Minor, Gen. S. C. Armstrong, and ten additional members. This board imme- diately elected Dr. W. H. Ruffner the first president of the school. The property of the Farmville Female College was turned over to the state and an appropriation of $5000 for equipment of the school, and $10,000 for run- ning expenses was made. Dr. Curry gave $5000 as a gift from the Peabody Fund. The original plan of the school as drafted by Dr. 248 DEVELOPMENT OF FREE SCHOOL SYSTEM Curry did not contemplate limiting the institu- tion to girls, but the school has always excluded men from attendance. Later William and Mary College became the training school for men teachers. Dr. Ruffner laid out as elaborate a scheme for training teachers as the limited funds would permit. Thus the entire provi- sion for education in the Constitution of 1869 was completed, and Dr. Ruffner, by whose wisdom the public free schools came into being, now was called to fulfil the remaining part of the educational provision of the Constitution. Teachers' Reading Circles. — At four of the Summer Institutes (1884) reading associations were organized among the teachers, under the leadership of Prof. F. V. N. Painter, of Roanoke College, who rendered valuable service in many ways to the cause of universal education in the state. Final Report of Superintendent Farr. — Su- perintendent Farr collected some new and interesting statistics regarding teachers; their educational preparation, salary, age, sex, nativity, number having attended Peabody 249 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA Institutes, and grades of certificates held. The total number of teachers this year was 6333. In 1881 there were 751 more men teachers than women, but in 1885 there were 55 more women than men. The average monthly salary this year was for men $31.00 and for women $26.88. It was found that 645 teachers were not natives of Virginia ; 1777 had attended the summer normals; 2485 had received their training in the public schools of Virginia ; 1380 were educated in the colleges and private schools of the state. The state institutions for higher learning had furnished 145, while the denomi- national colleges furnished 225. In 1888, 723 held professional certificates; 2480, first grade certificates, 2007, second grade, and 1123, third grade. It will be seen that about one-half of the teachers held either second or third grade certificates. Of the 4789 white teachers, over half of them were between the ages of eighteen and thirty. » This last report shows important gains in all aspects of the school system, so that Su- perintendent Farr says : 250 DEVELOPMENT OF FREE SCHOOL SYSTEM The schools have improved in every detail ; that the system is stronger than ever before and that it now com- mands the respect of all classes of people in the state. At a meeting of the county and city superintend- ents, held during the last year of his admin- istration, these officials furnished a brief and popular history of the schools in each county and city. These were embodied in the su- perintendent's final report. A summary show- ing the substantial growth of the schools from the time of their inauguration is given. The Administration of John L. Buchannon. — Mr. John L. Buchannon held the office of su- perintendent from 1885 to 1889. The public school system had found a permanent place in the state. Educational conditions were what a Virginia President of the United States called an " era of good feeling." There is no evidence of any widespread hostility to the public schools except the feeling against the education of the negro race. This last problem was being more satisfactorily solved by such men as Dr. S. C. Armstrong, head of the Hamp- ton Normal Institute, and the agent of the 251 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA Slater Fund, 1 who were rapidly turning the training of the people of this race into industrial lines. But, in general, the inauguration of the public school system, fraught with so much bit- terness and earnest effort in the past, came to be recognized as the system that had come to stay. During the administration of Mr. Buchannon, there was a continued increase in school patron- age, school funds, and school property values. One of the new features in educational activi- ties in the state was the effort on the part of the State Board to carry out the law by giving the schools a uniform series of text-books, and as far as possible, the selection of authors was made from Virginians. Full reports were pub- lished from the various state institutions, each of which showed them to be in a flourishing condition, though greatly in need of additional funds to meet the increasing demand of these valuable institutions. 1 In 1882 Mr. Jno. T. Slater of Norwich, Connecticut, conveyed to Trustees $1,000,000 for the education of the negro race of the South. Its appropriations have been devoted particularly to the industrial education of the negro youth. The average annual income from this fund is about $30,000. 252 DEVELOPMENT OF FREE SCHOOL SYSTEM Administration of Hon. John E. Massey. — At the end of this period of twenty years, the public school system emerged as an established fact from the violent storm of political conflict centring about the payment of the state debt. Mr. Massey, who had taken an active part in the public debates on this question, had won a wide reputation for his power and influence as a public speaker, and for his well-known attitude toward the public school system, became the candidate for the office of state superintendent, and was elected to this position in 1890. Mr. Massey brought to the public school system of the state the power of a strong advocate and a discriminating judgment in matters relating to the educational needs of the state. He could carry an audience with him upon almost any topic he chose to discuss before them. He travelled extensively in all parts of the state, persuading the people to look well to the educa- tion of the 600,000 children of school age. He put the emphasis upon the " intensive " aspect of public education, and sought to improve the quality of teaching rather than to extend the 253 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA system to a greater number of children. He sought to make more worthy of support the system already so well established. He set for his task the improvement of the teaching force of the state. Revival of County and State Institutes. — In 1890 only forty-seven division superintendents reported having held county institutes, which had meant so much as a method of improving the quality of teaching in the 70's and 80's ; sixty- seven of the superintendents had not held these meetings in their counties. These institutes were revived, and under the lead of City Su- perintendent E. C. Glass of Lynchburg a " School of Methods " was operated every sum- mer, first, at Lynchburg (1880), then at Bed- ford City, Roanoke, and Charlottesville. This summer school became the leading agency of its kind in the state, and for a time attracted attention over the entire South. Leading ex- perts in all the fields of education were employed as instructors. The attendance of teachers often reached 1200. State Superintendent Massey ordered the 254 DEVELOPMENT OF FREE SCHOOL SYSTEM examination for certificates to be held at the close of this school in August and at the same date all over the state, and in this way secured greater control over the matter of certificating teachers than had yet obtained in the history of the state school system. State Educational Conference Organized. — At the session of the summer school at Bed- ford City, in July, 1891, at a called meeting of the superintendents of the state, the Virginia State Teachers' Association was organized and has grown to such proportions as to attract from two to three thousand teachers at its annual meetings, which are held each year at the Thanksgiving holiday season. Nearly 5000 Virginia teachers are members of the Associa- tion to-day (1915). In 1894, at the urgent suggestion of Su- perintendent Massey, the Legislature passed an act including the " Summer Institutes " as a part of the scheme of popular education, and set aside $2500 for their support. With the gift from the Peabody Fund to this cause, these schools became permanent agencies for the 255 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA training of teachers. The act also provided a course of graded instruction for the teachers attending, to cover a period of three years. The attendance upon these institutes for the year 1895 was the largest ever known in the state. Another event in the administration of Su- perintendent Massey was an attempt to open the doors of the University of Virginia to women. This came as a response to the movement for the higher education of women in the state. This scheme provided for the teaching to be done nominally under the supervision of the regular professors of the university. The plan permitted no women to attend lectures or the exercises of the university, but after an examina- tion a certificate of proficiency might be given. Only one woman applied and the plan was finally abandoned. After a visit to the North, Superintendent Massey recommended that industrial education be introduced into the schools. He highly commended the work done at the Hampton Normal and Agricultural Institute for Negroes, where training in the trades for the boys and 256 DEVELOPMENT OF FREE SCHOOL SYSTEM domestic science for the girls had been in- troduced. Superintendent Massey's final re- port contains interesting figures regarding the illiteracy in the state. Of the 665,533 persons of school age, 232,949 could not read nor write; 117,592 were negroes. One-third of the entire school population were illiterate. The state superintendent published in his report of 1896-97 a chart of illiteracy, from which it appears that Virginia was the seventh state in illiteracy, the order being: Virginia, 30.2 per cent, North Carolina, 35.7 per cent, Georgia 38.9 per cent, Mississippi, 40 per cent, Ala- bama, 41 per cent, New Mexico, 45.5 per cent, South Carolina, 45 per cent, and Louisiana, 45.8 per cent. 1 The final report of Superintendent Massey reveals the fact that there were sixty high schools in the state, nearly all of which were con- nected with the public school system, the details of which will be noted in another chapter. The following recommendations are made looking to the greater efficiency of the schools: (1) 1 See School Report, 1897. 8 257 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA larger school funds, (2) more efficient teaching, (3) closer supervision, (4) graded courses of instruction for country schools, (5) institutes for normal training, (6) school libraries, (7) county high schools, (8) a state Board of Exam- iners, (9) better schoolhouses. The Administration of Hon. Joseph W. Southall. — The most notable forward move- ment during this administration was the atten- tion and emphasis given to the rural schools. The state superintendent sought to check the " ruinous policy of the multiplication of rural schools caused by the pressure to plant a school- house in every little country neighborhood." He urged that efficient graded schools be estab- lished in the country districts and a public high school in every county. These high schools were needed to articulate the common schools with the university and other higher institutions of learning and to prepare teachers for the elementary schools. He repeats the rec- ommendation of former State Superintendent Massey that a state Board of Examiners be instituted and that manual training be intro- 258 DEVELOPMENT OF FREE SCHOOL SYSTEM duced into the schools, especially in the negro schools. Summary. — The public school system had now been in operation for thirty-two years. During that time it had found a permanent place in the social and economic system in Virginia. (1) It was born of one man, Dr. Ruffner, that high-minded statesman and friend of public education. (2) It found a place in the state only after having withstood the most caustic opposition, largely because it provided for the education of the negro race. (3) It developed into an efficient agent for the educa- tion of all the children of the state, although in a social system that had defeated the long efforts of such a man as Thomas Jefferson, in establishing a system of primary schools. (4) School enrolment had increased from 131,088 to 361,772, and the daily attendance from 75,722 to 215,204. The percentage of attend- ance of school population had increased from 18.4 per cent to nearly 40 per cent. The number of months taught had increased from 4.66 to 6.40. The number of teachers in- 259 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA creased from 3014 to nearly 10,000. (5) School expenditures had likewise shown growth com- mensurate with the growth in other respects. The total state fund was at first $362,000. After thirty-two years it was $1,228,262. Teachers' salaries had increased from $32.26 per month to $36.31 for the men, and from $26.33 to $28.11 for the women. School prop- erty had shown the remarkable increase from $188,680 to $8,555,343. (6) A system of elemen- tary schools had been provided, and at the close of this period high schools were being established. Summer institutes for the training of teachers in pedagogical method had been developed under county and state auspices. A State Normal School had been established at Farmville for women, and William and Mary College had been subsidized by the state for the training of men teachers. The method of certification of teachers had been systematized, and a uni- form list of text-books for the schools had been adopted. All this was substantial progress, but there was much yet to be done to bring the system 260 DEVELOPMENT OF FREE SCHOOL SYSTEM of education in Virginia to a state of still greater efficiency. In 1902 a Constitutional Convention was called and the fundamental law of the state was revised, particularly re- garding educational provisions. The subse- quent history of education in Virginia is marked by a renaissance which resulted in a forward movement which will stand out as a new epoch, the details of which will be taken up in a subse- quent chapter. 261 CHAPTER XIV THE DEVELOPMENT OF CITY SCHOOL SYSTEMS At the time the state established a system of public schools (1870) three Virginia cities had already in operation a system of public edu- cation. These were Norfolk, Petersburg, and Richmond. City Schools of Norfolk. — By an ordinance of the city council, Norfolk established a system of free schools in 1850. The city was laid off into four school districts, and a school com- missioner was appointed for each. For the support of these schools a tax of four dollars was levied on every white male inhabitant over twenty-one years of age. By 1848 a four-room building had been erected in each of the four districts. All the schools of one building were placed under one administrator, who was styled " the rector." Thomas C. Tabb, Esq., one of the most prominent lawyers of the 262 DEVELOPMENT OF CITY SCHOOL SYSTEMS city, was put in charge of the organization and erection of school buildings. The general plan called for the segregation of the sexes, the boys occupying one room and the girls another. However, in 1875, the boys and girls of the elementary grades occupied the same room. The grades above continued the same plan of separating the boys and girls. When the state school system was inaugurated, the city schools of Norfolk were taken over and became a part of the new state system. The colored people had two schools under a colored superintendent. In 1871 the council passed an ordinance that there should be a colored school in each ward, and these should be under the same commissioners and the same superintendent as the white schools. In the year 1871 there were 16 teachers and 865 pupils in the free schools. The city ex- pended $11,472.76 on its schools during that year. Dr. Sears, the agent of the Peabody Fund, gave $1000. W. W. Lamb was the first superintendent appointed by the state Board of Education. He had been serving in this capac- ity previous to that time. In 1874 Gen. R. L. HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA Page was appointed to fill the place of W. W. Lamb, who had died the same year. In 1882 Rev. Calvin Blackwell was appointed to succeed General Page, and in 1884 Maj. R. G. Banks occupied the position of superin- tendent. Free Schools of Petersburg. — A free school system was inaugurated by the city of Peters- burg in 1868. Dr. Sears, agent of the Peabody Fund, visited the city and proffered $2000, on the condition that the city raise $20,000 and organize a school system free to all classes, white and colored, rich and poor. 1 The city council, after some months of consideration, decided to establish a free school system, and appointed nine men as members of the school board. The first act of this board was to send the president to northern cities to study the school systems there and to purchase text-books and equipment for the schools. These schools were opened in the fall of 1868, with 1500 pupils in attendance. The report of the second year shows an enrol- 1 $1200 was contributed by Mr. Manly of Richmond, who was the agent of the Freedmen's Bureau. 264 DEVELOPMENT OF CITY SCHOOL SYSTEMS ment of 2661 pupils. During this year an ex- cellent school building was erected and dedicated with elaborate ceremonies and speeches. 1 This building cost $65,000, some of which came by will from a Mr. Anderson, first to his negro body- guard, Jumbo, and at his death was to be used for the purpose of educating the poor children of Petersburg. S. H. Owen, Esq., was the first city superin- tendent appointed by the state authorities. Before this the city had been under the wise management of an active Board of Education. From the first the city of Petersburg was one of the most progressive school centres in Virginia. In 1875 Mr. T. P. Leavenworth was the superintendent of schools. During that year, he published a unique diagram represent- ing the average weekly enrolment and the average daily attendance in the form of a graph. 2 In 1878 the city showed an enrolment of 2078 pupils, with an average attendance of 1428. 1 This was the first public school building in Virginia. One of the speakers said : " We have not come to dedicate a free school but a school that costs, a school for which every parent is obliged to contribute." 2 See School Report, 1875, p. 115. 265 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA In 1880 the attendance was 3055, with a school population of 7400. City Schools of Richmond. — For many years Lancasterian schools were in operation in Rich- mond, but they were under the control of semi- charitable societies. Public schools were or- ganized in 1869. A petition, signed by a large number of citizens without distinction of party, prayed the city council to establish a system of public schools. The committee to whom the matter was referred recommended an ordinance which provided for an appropriation of $15,000 for a Board of Education, consisting of nine members. This ordinance was passed, but the amount appropriated was inadequate and addi- tional funds were procured from the Freed- men's Bureau and from the Peabody Fund, these two gifts amounting to another $15,000. During the first year 53 schools were opened, with an enrolment of 2400 pupils. A. Wash- burne, Esq., was put in charge as superintend- ent. The next year the city took entire con- trol of the schools, both white and colored, and Mr. J. H. Binford was elected superintendent. 266 DEVELOPMENT OF CITY SCHOOL SYSTEMS A new school board of ten members was ap- pointed and an appropriation of $42,625 was made for current expenses. Bonds to the amount of $100,000 were issued for the erection of school buildings. Under the leadership of Superintendent Binford the schools of the city rapidly gained the confidence of the people, who very generously patronized them. In April, 1871, the schools of the city became a part of the state system. They were organized into primary, first six grades, grammar, four grades, and high school, thus affording an opportunity for excellent training for the children of the city. The high school was organized in 1873, which was housed in a rented building, and Mr. W. F. Fox was appointed principal. That year there were enrolled in the city schools 5328, which was two-thirds of the entire school population of the city. Under the wise ad- ministration of Mr. Binford the city schools were organized, the best methods of teaching introduced, the funds for public school purposes were increased from year to year, new buildings 267 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA were erected and public confidence heightened, so that the system was a safe basis for the future development of public education in the city of Richmond. In 1899 Principal Fox was made superintendent of city schools, and held the position until his death in 1908. In his report of 1906 he says : For the session 1870-71 we had 73 schools, now we have 236 ; then there were 73 teachers, now we have 230 ; then our enrollment was 3156, now it is 11,749 ; then our general expenses amounted to $42,625, now they amount to $139,827.09 ; then the cost of education per capita was $13.35 ; now, including a 5 per cent interest on bonds issued for school purposes, it is $13.57; then the city owned not a single house, now it owns 17 buildings valued at about $400,000 : then comparatively few of our citizens patronized the public schools ; now the public schools are so well patronized that 75 per cent of our entire school population between the ages of seven and fourteen are taught in them. Complaint is sometimes made of the increased cost of our public schools. It is only reasonable that the education of 11,749 children should cost more than the education of 3156 ; nevertheless, the fact that the cost per capita is but a few cents greater shows that the in- creased funds have not been wasted, but, on the other hand, have been expended most judiciously and economi- cally. Nor do I see how the amount expended can ever be less, or in fact how it can again be so small. If our DEVELOPMENT OF CITY SCHOOL SYSTEMS schools retain their excellence and popularity, there must be an increasing demand upon them with the increase of our population. It has come to be a matter of city pride to be classed as a city of 100,000 inhabitants. As we go on towards that standard the expenses of our schools must necessarily increase; and all that our people can reasonably ask of the school authorities is to see to it that the cost per capita shall be just and equitable. Subsequent City Systems Established. — At the inauguration of the state public school system, the cities of Alexandria, Lynchburg, Fredericksburg, Staunton, Winchester, Dan- ville, Williamsburg, and Portsmouth established systems of public schools. The city of Lynch- burg took steps to organize a city system in September, 1870. A. F. Biggers, Esq., was ap- pointed the first superintendent of the city. He was also designated superintendent of the county of Campbell. At first the city wards were organized under the same plans as the districts in the counties. Later (1871), by act of the Legislature, the trustees were organized into a school board, which body had entire control of the city schools. Superintendent Biggers made a tour of the northern states 269 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA for the purpose of studying the school systems there. After his return, the committee reported a plan of organization and rules for the conduct of the schools, which proved to be so wise that they have remained substantially unchanged to the present time. In 1871, $30,000 was ap- propriated by the city council for buildings and $8000 for current expenses. The policy at first was to segregate the boys and girls, but later coeducation prevailed. The question of a high school was early agitated. In 1871 provision was made for two high schools, one for boys and another for girls. In 1878 an effort was made to abolish the idea of maintain- ing high schools. As a result, there was no high school in the session of 1878-79, but in the next election for councilmen, the " school ques- tion " was made an issue and the election showed a decided majority for the reestablish- ment of the high schools and rejuvenation of the whole school system. In 1879 Superintend- ent Biggers died at the age of forty, and Mr. E. C. Glass was appointed to take his place, and has held the position ever since. Mr. 270 DEVELOPMENT OF CITY SCHOOL SYSTEMS Glass's administration is an example of long service as city superintendent, and as a result the Lynchburg schools have long had the repu- tation of being the best organized and most efficient city system of education in the state. Mr. Glass has been identified with all the educa- tional movements of the state, particularly in the agencies for training teachers. He was the prime mover in the inauguration of a system of " Summer Schools " for teachers and was for a number of years the conductor of the summer school at the University of Virginia which grew to such large proportions as to gain a national reputation. City Schools of Alexandria. — Alexandria had free schools early in the eighteenth century. A school was in operation in 1732. In 1758 a schoolhouse was erected in the " Market Square." The money was raised by lottery. This school was the famous Alexandria Academy, to which George Washington gave a part of the endowment. These schools were practically free schools, and the city officials always had certain control over them. In 1830 this Acad- 271 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA emy was conducted according to the Lan- castrian System, then a form of school adminis- tration in vogue in the larger cities in America. In 1871 these schools, conducted so long as free schools under an endowment, were trans- ferred to the state public school authorities and the present city system was organized. The attendance at first was 640 children. The following years there was a falling off in attend- ance to 550 in 1874, but after that the attend- ance greatly increased. In 1885 there were 1340 pupils attending the public schools of that city. City Schools of Fredericksburg. — The people of Fredericksburg have from a very early date maintained " free schools." The " charity " school at Fredericksburg had a long and in- teresting history. The public school system was inaugurated in 1870. These schools up to 1883 were operated as a district of Spottsyl- vania County. This was done in a number of other instances in the state under a stringent interpretation of the constitution. Mr. John Howison was appointed first superintendent of 272 DEVELOPMENT OF CITY SCHOOL SYSTEMS the city and county. In 1883 the city entered upon a separate and independent management of its schools, with Gen. Daniel Ruggles as superintendent. These schools were conducted in rented quarters until 1885, when, with an appropriation from the council, two brick build- ings were erected at a cost of $10,000. In the 80's, when the Peabody Institutes were held in different parts of the state, Fredericksburg was often designated as one of the places for these summer schools. In 1885 an " intermediate grade," or a high school, was organized, with forty-five pupils. Professor Jos. G. Swartz was principal. City Schools of Staunton. — As in some of the other cities, the Staunton schools were operated at first as a school district of Augusta County, and under the jurisdiction of the superintendent of that county. Major Jed Hotchkiss was appointed to serve as the first superintendent, but, on account of his having taken an important part in the Civil War, he could not qualify, whereupon Dr. Barnes Sears, agent of the Peabody Fund, who was a resident t 273 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA of that city, was unanimously appointed as superintendent, and Major Hotchkiss per- formed the duties of the office. The basements of the Baptist and Lutheran churches were rented for school purposes, and the schools were opened in December of the year 1870. In 1871 the authorities procured the buildings of the Staunton Academy for public school purposes. In the fall of that year Dr. Sears resigned as county superintendent and Mr. J. E. Guy was appointed in his stead. In 1873, at the recommendation of the Staunton Board of Trustees, the city was made an independent unit for school administration, and Mr. J. J. Ladd, then principal of the High School, was appointed superintendent of the city schools, with a salary of $1500. Dr. Sears gave $1790 annually to the support of the schools out of the Peabody Fund. The colored children were taught at first by colored teachers from the North, but, on account of these not being exemplary in conduct, the colored citizens of the city petitioned the council to give them white teachers, which petition was granted. In 1875 274 DEVELOPMENT OF CITY SCHOOL SYSTEMS the city purchased the property of the old Wesleyan Female Institute, opposite the Episco- pal Church, and used it for public school pur- poses. In 1878 Dr. R. S. Hamilton was made superintendent. After a visit to Richmond he instituted a complete graded system in the schools. In 1882 Mr. William A. Bowles was elected superintendent. He had served as prin- cipal of the high school for a number of years. The schools prospered under his management, and in 1885 there were enrolled 934 pupils, 443 white and 491 colored. Colored teachers were again put in charge of the colored schools. City Schools of Portsmouth. — Public senti- ment was favorable to public education in Ports- mouth long before the act establishing a state public school system. In 1845, when Norfolk County established a system of public schools for all the children, this city was a part of the county unit, and maintained schools up to the war. They had various sources of revenue with which to operate the schools: (1) the Literary Fund, (2) direct taxes, (3) tuition fees, (4) receipts from Norfolk County ferries. 275 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA After 1870 the Peabody Fund gave annually from $1000 to $1500 to encourage the organiza- tion of more effective schools. The city owned several good buildings, including a brick building for the colored schools. Mr. James F. Crocker was the first superintendent, and held this position from 1870 to 1882. Mr. G. F. Edwards was appointed superintendent at this time and held the position for a great many years. Other City School Systems. — Williamsburg, Winchester, and Danville organized systems under the state law in 1870. In each case the policy was to organize as the district of the county in which they were locating. This never was a very satisfactory plan. The schools did not prosper under this arrangement. In these particular centres public education was not popular and a laissez-faire attitude charac- terized the interest the people took in the public schools. The county of James City, in which Williamsburg is located, voted upon the proposition to levy a tax and establish a sys- tem of public schools for the county under the act of 1845, but the idea was rejected. 276 DEVELOPMENT OF CITY SCHOOL SYSTEMS Williamsburg and Winchester for a long time operated under a plan in which the city was a part or a district of the county. Danville was definitely organized as an independent school unit about the year 1876. It has recently erected some splendid modern buildings, and the city system has been toned up to a high degree of efficiency. The city school systems of Roanoke, Newport News, and Bristol are of much later development. These towns have grown into cities within the last quarter of a century. The school systems of each of these cities are organized according to the most modern standards of public education. Summary. — The cities of Norfolk, Petersburg, and Richmond established public free schools a few years before the state system was inau- gurated. These cities were stimulated by gifts from the Peabody Fund and the Freedmen's Bureau, and became models for other centres of population in the state, in the way of providing an education at public expense for all the chil- dren, rich and poor, white and colored. The other cities did not organize public schools until the state system was established 277 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA in 1870. Even then, they sought to fulfil the provisions of the constitution and the subse- quent act of the Legislature regarding public education in the most perfunctory way, usually organizing the city schools as a part of the county organization with the same superintend- ent. There was no school property or equip- ment and no local funds to meet the running expenses of the schools. The cities were slow to provide funds by taxation, or otherwise ap- propriate moneys for public school purpose. After a few years the effectiveness of the schools was demonstrated, and the city council set aside an annual budget for schools and buildings, beginning with amounts running from $10,000 to $20,000. These amounts were increased from year to year as the schools have grown in efficiency, and public sentiment in favor of public education has taken definite form. Dr. Sears was wise in distributing the Peabody Fund to the cities in order that they might demonstrate the effectiveness of public education for all the children. These city systems became the models for the larger towns and the more pro- 278 DEVELOPMENT OF CITY SCHOOL SYSTEMS gressive counties to copy. They soon learned that public education when rightly administered was not a cheap thing and could not depend for its support upon the meagre allotments from the Literary Fund or other amounts from philanthropic sources, but its main support must come from local taxation. 279 CHAPTER XV HIGHER EDUCATION FOR WOMEN IN VIRGINIA The first attempt ever made in Virginia to establish a school of high grade for girls was about the year 1840. A few Methodist breth- ren, without the formal sanction of conference, procured a charter for a college under the name and title of " Buckingham Female Col- lege." They located it in Buckingham County, erected buildings and opened for pupils. It started off with very flourishing prospects, but at the end of a year or two it came to a disastrous close, never again to be opened. 1 The pioneer institutions for higher learning for women in Virginia that have endured are Mary Baldwin Seminary at Staunton and Hollins College near Roanoke. Both these schools were established in 1842 and within the period of the great " educational awaken- 1 See address of Dr. Chas. L. Cocke in the Semi-Annual, 1896, p. 61. 280 HIGHER EDUCATION FOR WOMEN ing " in America (1830-50). Both were origi- nally established by men from the North, interested in education. This was the period of the academies, and the tendency was to estab- lish schools for girls on the same plan as those for boys, only the former usually went by the name of " seminary " and too there was a differentiation in the curricula. The schools for girls usually contained courses in literature, music, and art, in lieu of the old traditional subjects of the ancient languages and mathe- matics, but Mary Baldwin Seminary and Hollins College, early in their history, introduced ad- vanced courses which paralleled the courses offered in higher institutions of learning for men. At a later period other institutions of advanced grade for women were established in different parts of the state. Origin and Early History of Hollins College. — The events connected with the origin and early history of Hollins College are unique. The Rev. Joshua Bradley, a gentleman from the North, came to this section of the state. He was a minister of the Baptist faith and possessed 281 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA a strong enthusiasm for education. The buildings and grounds of Botetourt Springs, one time a popular summering place, but at that time in a state of decay, came to the observation of Mr. Bradley, and he conceived the idea of establishing a school of high grade for both sexes. He proceeded to organize a joint stock company under the imposing title of " Valley Union Education Society of Vir- ginia." It was not to be a sectarian school, but an enterprise for the general good of society. Mr. Bradley was made principal of the school and served in that capacity for the first year. The school was opened in the fall of 1842, with nearly one hundred students. Before the first session came to a close the school became de- moralized on account of financial difficulties and lack of administrative ability on the part of the principal. Mr. Bradley resigned at the close of the first session and left the state. The school continued its work with varying degrees of success, under different managers, until 1846, when Dr. Charles L. Cocke was called from Richmond College to take charge HIGHER EDUCATION FOR WOMEN of the institution, which was then known as the "Valley Union Seminary." In 1851 the department for boys was abandoned, and the name of the school as chartered was " Female Seminary at Botetourt Springs." This was the first chartered institution in the state for girls, with broad systematic courses and high stand- ards of scholarship. In 1853 the school was filled with girls, studying Latin, mathematics, and the philosophies. In 1855 the college was put on a more substantial basis, standards and policies were fixed, and the institution started upon an era of continued and increasing useful- ness in the field of higher education for women. The outstanding stock of the old corporation was bought and the institution was placed un- der the control of a self -perpetuating board of trustees. All this was made possible by the efforts and generosity of Mr. and Mrs. John Hollins of Lynchburg, who, at the suggestion of Dr. Charles L. Cocke, prepared the plans and gave varying amounts at different times to the school. 1 This was the occasion for 1 The total amount received from this source was $19,000. 283 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA changing the name to Hollins Institute, by which title it was known up to 1910, when the name was changed to Hollins College. During the period of the Civil War, the school kept its doors open and had an average of 130 students in attendance. From 1865 to 1877 the school maintained a " normal department," with the following stated aims : " (1) to give the most exact and critical scholarship; (2) to instruct the young ladies in the best methods of teaching; (3) to give them some experience in discipline and management of a school." This was the period of the inauguration of a state public school system under Dr. Wm. H. Ruffner, who pleaded for the establishment of normal schools for the preparation of teachers. After the war the school enlarged its plans and students came from other states as well as from Virginia. The College Plant and Equipment. — The main buildings at Hollins College are con- centrated into a conveniently arranged quad- rangle, with colonnades enabling the students and faculty to pass to any part of the premises 284 HIGHER EDUCATION FOR WOMEN under shelter. There are nine brick buildings, designed especially for college purposes, and dormitories that afford accommodations for a full faculty and two hundred and fifty students. These buildings are completely equipped with the most modern appliances, such as scientific laboratories, a library of 6000 volumes, offices and class rooms, dining hall, completely equipped infirmary, and professors' homes. The most modern sanitary conditions are maintained. Besides the immediate college premises, a farm of 700 acres, 400 of which are under cultivation, belongs to the college. The Curricula. — Hollins College has from the first constantly maintained a high standard of scholarship, although she was forced to main- tain a preparatory department and a wide range of electives up to a few years ago, on account of the lack of standardized systems of secondary education in the state and in the South. The plan at present is to abandon the preparatory department as soon as possible. 1 The requirements for admission to Hollins 1 A preparatory department existed there in 1912-18. 285 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA College for work leading to a degree are fourteen units of secondary school work. Students are admitted to elective courses, such as music, art, and expression, when they have had suffi- cient preparation to pursue these subjects with profit. The degree of A.B. is conferred upon students who complete sixty hours of work, thirty-one of which are prescribed in the fields of English, modern and ancient languages, history, mathematics, and the sciences. Out of 7000 students that have attended Hollins, 256 have received the A.B. degree. The graduates from Hollins are admitted to full graduate standing in the higher universities. Ideals and Policies. — The policy of Hollins College has always been non-sectarian. How- ever, it maintains the highest Christian ideals and its student body includes representatives from all the various church denominations. The atmosphere is that of a cultured home where all the womanly virtues are encouraged, such as health, culture, social grace, scholarship, patriotism, and high moral and religious tone. In all the long service of this institution it has 286 HIGHER EDUCATION FOR WOMEN persistently maintained these as ideals, and Hol- lins College has set the pace and led the way for many institutions of higher learning for women in Virginia and throughout the South. Mary Baldwin Seminary. — Mary Baldwin Seminary at Staunton had its origin in " Au- gusta Female Seminary," which was planned and opened in 1842. The Rev. Rufus W. Bailey, a native of Maine, who had been en- gaged in educational work in South Carolina, came to Staunton and sought the acquaintance of Presbyterian ministers and people of that faith with the idea of establishing a high-grade seminary for the education of girls. After many conferences with leading Presbyterians of Staunton and Augusta counties, a plan was adopted, and a board of trustees, consisting of fifteen members, was appointed. The object of the school, as stated in the plan, is to " afford the means of a thorough literary and Christian education to the female youth of this portion of our country." The board regulations left the matter of arranging a course of study and selection of text-books to the principal, but it 287 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA distinctly stipulated that " the course shall always contemplate a daily recitation by all the pupils able to read, of a portion of sacred Scriptures." The Rev. R. W. Bailey was elected principal and his wife an assistant. The seminary was opened in the fall of 1842, in temporary quarters, with about fifty students in attendance. There were no boarding arrangements connected with the school, but the few students coming from the country around found board with friends in private families. The first session was so successful that the board of trustees in- augurated an effort to purchase a site and to erect suitable buildings. In the fall of 1843 an arrangement was made between the trustees of the seminary and the Presbyterian congregation, by which the build- ing for the seminary was to be erected on the lot belonging to and adjoining the church. One of the conditions was that one room in the seminary building was to be used by the church, so long as the pastor should be in full communion with the Presbyterian Church of 288 HIGHER EDUCATION FOR WOMEN the United States, known as the " Old School Presbyterian Church." In turn, the trustees of the church gave the lot in perpetuity, pro- vided that three-fourths of the trustees of the seminary were ministers or members of the Old School Presbyterian Church. The main building in the present group is the one erected at that time and under those conditions. The corner-stone of this building was laid with elab- orate ceremonies on June 15, 1844. Among the articles placed in the stone was a copy of the Bible, with the superscription : " The only rule of faith and the first text-book of The Augusta Female Seminary." The second year of the school there were sixty pupils in attendance, among whom was Miss Mary Baldwin, who later became principal of the school and under whose long and wise administration the school attained its high standard and national reputation. According to a board regulation, it was the custom to re- quire all the pupils to assemble in the church every Sunday morning for the purpose of reciting to the principal or other teachers the v 289 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA catechism of the Presbyterian Church and such Scripture lessons as the principal should ap- point. In 1849 Mr. Bailey resigned and left the state. From this time to the Civil War the school passed through a critical period of financial and administrative embarrassment. During this period, five different men held the position of principal, some of whom remained for only a part of the year. In 1863 Miss Mary Baldwin and Miss McClung were induced by the secretary of the board of trustees to take full charge of the school and operate it without any responsibility to the board of trustees. The School under Miss Baldwin. — The school opened under Miss Baldwin's administra- tion in the fall of 1863, with eighty students, twenty-two of whom were boarders. She called to her assistance some accomplished teachers, and the school prospered. The standard for graduation was determined upon by the advice of Dr. McGuffey of the University of Virginia. This standard was proficiency in the following 290 HIGHER EDUCATION FOR WOMEN fields of learning: (1) English literature, (2) history, (3) mental and moral sciences, (4) mathematics, (5) natural science, (6) ancient languages, and (7) modern languages. The school gained in popularity from year to year. In 1869 there were 13 teachers and 137 students, representing eleven states. The school continued to acquire property and en- large its equipment. In 1871 a deed of lease from the trustees was executed to Miss Baldwin for a term of twenty years, in lieu of improve- ments that she had made upon the property. All this was substantial progress, and the school found a permanent place as an insti- tution for the higher education of young women. In 1895 the legislature granted the school a new charter which provided for the change of name to " Mary Baldwin Seminary " and gave it authority to grant degrees. Miss Baldwin died in 1897, leaving to the seminary large sums which she had accumulated during her success- ful life. Miss Ella C. Weimar succeeded her as principal. This lady had been connected 291 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA with the school as a member of the faculty since 1873, the last years occupying the position of assistant principal. Present Buildings and Equipment. — The school at present has a complete plant in highly concentrated form, built around a city block with a central court. It has accommodations for 250 students. The school has long had the reputation of maintaining high standards of scholarship and a deeply moral and Christian atmosphere. Elective courses in elocution, art, and music have always characterized the cur- ricula of this school. Mary Baldwin Seminary started as a strictly sectarian school under the auspices of the Presbyterian Church. While this has char- acterized the policy of the school, nevertheless its student body is made up of representatives from all the leading denominations. It draws its students from a large territory, twenty-four states being represented at present. From 1866 to 1904, 103 young ladies completed the full curricula for graduation. A few de- grees have been conferred, but it is not the HIGHER EDUCATION FOR WOMEN policy of the school at present to confer any degrees. 1 Randolph-Macon Woman's College. — The Randolph-Macon Board of Trustees was in- corporated in 1830 and was empowered by the charter to establish and conduct educational institutions in any part of Virginia. Under this authority, it controls Randolph-Macon College for men at Ashland, Randolph-Macon Academies for boys at Bedford City and Front Royal, and Randolph-Macon Institute for girls at Danville. In 1891 this Board was intrusted with a large fund raised by subscription in the city of Lynchburg, and asked to create a college for women that should afford higher educational advantages equal to those of the best colleges for men in Virginia. The following statement expresses the purpose of the founders. We wish to establish in Virginia a college where our young women may obtain an education equal to that given in any of our best colleges for men, and under environment in harmony with the highest ideals of woman- 1 Mary Baldwin Seminary is given place in this discussion because of its historical background. 293 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA hood ; where the dignity and strength of fully developed faculties and the charm of the highest culture may be acquired by our daughters without loss to woman's crown- ing glory, — her gentleness and grace. This institution had no early period of struggle. It, as it were, came full grown into existence, and its ideals and equipment were fully thought out and standardized from the first. It went straight toward its goal, that of a high standard of scholarship and the purest Christian and cultural environment. Buildings and Equipment. — The buildings for this college were erected near the city of Lynchburg on an eminence facing Rivermont Avenue and overlooking the valley of the James River. The main central building was completed in 1893 and the school opened in the fall of that year with Dr. W. W. Smith as president. Since then, other buildings have been added in the form of wings and annexes, until at present the group presents one of the most attractive forms of college architecture in this country. The buildings have a sweeping frontage of over seven hundred feet. 294 HIGHER EDUCATION FOR WOMEN These buildings contain a full college equip- ment and appliances such as scientific labora- tories, a library of ten thousand volumes, a gymnasium, society and fraternity halls, dining hall, recitation and lecture rooms, a museum, and dormitory capacity for about six hundred students. Curricula and Standards. — The college from the first laid down a standard of full college requirement for graduation and an entrance requirement equal to the work done in the first grade high schools of four years' course. The requirements at present are fifteen units of secondary work. The requirements for gradua- tion for the A.B. degree are sixty hours' work, thirty of which are required in the following fields of learning: English, ancient languages, mathematics, history, and political science, modern languages, natural science, Bible, and philosophy. Curricula are offered for the Master's degree. Special elective courses are offered in the fields of music and art, and a certificate is awarded for the satisfactory com- pletion of this work. Full courses in Bible 295 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA study are offered, and credit toward a degree is given for this work. Randolph-Macon College for women is operated, fostered, and controlled by the Methodist Church, and maintains high stand- ards of Christian education. It is in reality and actual practice a non-sectarian school, following the broad standards of education that make for the good of society. This was the first college for women south of the Potomac and Ohio rivers recognized as an A-l college by the United States Bureau of Education. It ranks with Bryn Mawr, Vassar, and Smith in the high standards of scholarship required for graduation. Its growth in number of students has been phenomenal. Beginning in 1893 with several hundred students, it now has nearly seven hundred, with a waiting list. It has a faculty of over fifty members, representing advanced scholarship in all the fields of learning. At the death of Dr. Smith in 1911, Dr. William A. Webb was elected president and holds that position at present (1916). HIGHER EDUCATION FOR WOMEN Sweetbriar College. — Sweetbriar College was the outgrowth of a large gift for the purpose of educating girls and young women in " sound learning" that fits them to be useful members of society. The gifts came by will from Mrs. Indiana Fletcher Williams, who died in 1900, leaving to a Board of four men a large estate of eight thousand acres of land in Amherst County and one half a million dollars, with the stipulation that a charter should be pro- cured and a self-perpetuating Board appointed who should establish and maintain on the plantation a school or seminary to be known as the " Sweetbriar Institute " for the educa- tion of white girls and young women. The will stipulated that, The general scope of the school is to impart to its students such an education in sound learning and such physical, moral and religious training as shall in the judg- ment of the directors best fit them to be useful members of society. The college was chartered in 1901 and the Board of Trustees formulated a policy and elected Miss Mary K. Benedict, a graduate of 297 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA Vassar and a Ph.D. of Yale, as president. The policy of the Board of Trustees is distinctly stated in a comprehensive document which de- fines the scope of the work the institution should attempt to cover. It stated: That in the North such schools as Vassar, Smith, Bryn Mawr, and Wellesley meet the demands for collegiate training of young women, that in the West and South the demands for the equipment of women in the practical vocations are met by the establishment of normal and in- dustrial schools exclusively for girls. They proposed that it should be the policy to combine in this school the best features of these two types of institutions. According to this policy the proposed new institution should offer to young women of the South carefully formulated courses leading to degrees of high grade in the fields of literature and science, and along with that, thorough practical training in certain artistic and in- dustrial branches. The school was opened for students in 1904. Buildings and Equipment. — At first com- plete plans for the college plant were made. HIGHER EDUCATION FOR WOMEN They consist of a group of sixteen buildings, connected by arcades of uniform style of architecture. There are to be two quadrangles, one residential and the other academic. Up to this time one academic building and five dormi- tories have been completed. The other build- ings are to be added as the demand requires. The old Williams homestead contains parlors and guest-rooms and offices for the administra- tive force. The academic building is fitted out with the most complete equipment for college purposes, — laboratories, library, lec- ture rooms, and assembly hall. The dormi- tories are comfortably and attractively fur- nished, with every modern convenience. Ideals and Curricula. — Students are ad- mitted to the work of the college under three heads: (1) regular college students, offering fifteen units of secondary school work; (2) subfreshmen students, offering six units of secondary school work; (3) special students, offering six units, but such students can elect courses in such fields as art and music which do not lead to credit for a degree. The work 299 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA leading to the degree of A.B. 1 is sixty-one hours, thirty-one of which are required in the fields of English, Bible literature, ancient languages, foreign languages, history and economics, mathe- matics, and sciences. Sweetbriar College is a highly endowed institution and controlled by a Board composed of Episcopalians, although it is a distinctly non-sectarian school. The num- ber of students has increased rapidly from year to year. The territory represented is a wide one, and the students come from all denomi- national faiths. It has a faculty of thirty-two members and a student body of two hundred and eighty. West Hampton College. — West Hampton College is a newly organized institution for the higher education of women in connection and coordinate with Richmond College for men. It was organized at the time the latter was removed to its present site outside the city limits of Richmond in 1914. It occupies a part of, the grounds of Richmond College, but has separate buildings, faculty, and equip- 1 The A.B. degree is the only one offered at present. 300 HIGHER EDUCATION FOR WOMEN ment. This college for women has been or- ganized on the plan of Barnard College at Columbia University and Sophia Newcomb at Tulane University. It has an entrance re- quirement of fifteen units of secondary school work, and standard college curricula for gradua- tion. Its charter gives it authority to grant the A.B. and the A.M. degrees. Practically like all the other institutions for higher learning for women in the state, it still admits students conditionally who have not completed the fifteen units for entrance, but this policy will be abandoned within the next few years. West Hampton College is designed to be a coordinate college of high grade for the education of women. Though non-sectarian in its practice, it is con- trolled and fostered by the Baptist denomination. Summary. — These are the typical schools thus far developed for the higher education of women in Virginia, according to the highest academic standards. Two were pioneer in- stitutions, with a long history of struggle, without endowment or favorable public opinion. The others were established within the last 301 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA decade or more, under more favorable circum- stances, and with adequate endowments. A few might be regarded as sectarian schools, on account of the close church fosterage, but all of them are growing toward the ideal of higher education for the general good of society or citizenship. Other Schools and Colleges for Girls. — There are in Virginia about thirty schools and colleges for girls doing varying degrees of secondary school and college work, nearly all of which have been established within the last quarter of a century. 1 Some of them are un- der church control and fosterage, and others are private or corporative enterprises. These 1 The more important of these are : Sullins College (Methodist), Bristol; Martha Washington College (Methodist), Stonewall Jackson Institute (Presbyterian), Abingdon; Stuart Hall (Episcopal), Staunton; Blackstone College for Girls (Methodist), Blackstone; Southern Seminary, Buena Vista; Southern College (Methodist), Petersburg; Fort Loudon Seminary, Winchester; Elizabeth College (Lutheran), Salem; Virginia College, Roanoke; St. Anne's School, Charlottesville; Chatham Institute (Episcopal), Chatham; Woman's College (Baptist), Richmond; Virginia Intermont College, Bristol. The following are co-educational : Virginia Christian College (Christian), Lynchburg; Bridgewater College (Church of the Brethren), Bridgewater; Shenandoah Collegiate Institute (United Brethren), Dayton ; Eastern College, Manassas. 302 HIGHER EDUCATION FOR WOMEN schools have been doing good service in the field of secondary education. Some of them offer college curricula and have granted degrees in the past, but, during the last decade, while the effort to standardize all kinds of education has been going on, many of these schools have abandoned the practice of granting degrees. An educational conscience has been growing among the heads of these institutions and all are now encouraging uniformly high standards for entrance to college work. The state Department of Education, under the stimulus of the movement to standardize all forms of education in this country, has taken up the problem of evaluating the work done by these various institutions and in general these schools have been classed as doing either second- ary school work, or, where some satisfactory college work is done, such schools have been classed as " junior colleges," a term recently determined upon to designate institutions of this character. In 1906 the Virginia Association of Colleges and Schools for Girls was formed. This organi- 303 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA zation has accomplished some effective results in the way of bringing about uniform standards of instruction among these institutions of learn- ing. Efforts to Establish a Coordinate College for Women at the University of Virginia. — During the last three sessions of the Legislature a bill has been introduced providing for the estab- lishing by the state of a college for women in connection with the University of Virginia. Each time the bill has gained in number of supporters. During the session of 1914 it lacked only a few votes of passing. The idea is approved by the Board of Visitors of the University and its passage is urged by President Alderman. Each time it has been up for pas- sage, however, there has been strong opposition to it from the older alumni and some members of the faculty of the university. A vigorous campaign for its passage has been led by Mrs. B. B. Munford of Richmond. 304 CHAPTER XVI EDUCATIONAL RENAISSANCE IN VIRGINIA The years making up the close of the nine- teenth and the beginning of the twentieth cen- tury saw a new awakening throughout the whole South. The people of this section were forgetting the struggles of the past, and before them they saw a new vision of the future and felt the return of the old-time consciousness of power. A new generation was coming on. Certain leaders in the old were giving their full energies to the rebuilding of the South out of the more permanent and abiding ideals that remained from the wreck of war and from the industrial, civil, and social disorganization. The new South was finding itself, and the rejuvenat- ing current of energy and power was ready to be directed into channels for the upbuilding of her institutions and the development of her vast agricultural and industrial resources. It was a x 305 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA time when the states south of the Potomac and the Ohio were " taking stock " of their possi- bilities, with a view of entering upon a new and larger era of economic and social progress. In determining upon the essential features in this new development, they settled upon popular education as one of the first and most funda- mental factors that would insure stability and sanity to the future progress of her institutions. The states of North Carolina, Virginia, and Tennessee led in introducing into their political campaigns the question of a more efficient sys- tem of public education for all the children of those states. The governors who were elected at this time gained national reputation as " educational governors." Governors Ay cock of North Carolina and Montague of Virginia are remembered to-day for the definite service they rendered to popular education in their respective states. Educational Conference at Capon Springs, West Virginia. — This conference had its origin in an idea of the Rev. Edward Abbott, Rector of St. James Parish, Cambridge, Massachusetts. 306 EDUCATIONAL RENAISSANCE He associated with him Bishop Dudley of Ken- tucky, Dr. H. B. Frizzell of Hampton, Rev. A. B. Hunter of Raleigh, North Carolina, and Dr. Dreher, president of Roanoke College, and others, who prepared a programme and sent out invitations to the leading educators in the southern states. The first conference was held June 29 to July 3, 1898. This conference heard discussions relating to problems of providing more adequate educational facilities for the negro of the South and the white population in the Appalachian Mountain region, whose edu- cation up to this time had been largely under the auspices of church and charitable organiza- tions of the North. An increased interest was manifested each year as the conference was held, — the first three years at Capon Springs and then at different places in the South. At first the missionary idea prevailed. Of the thirty- four members of this conference, twenty-one were ministers. From year to year discussions centred upon various aspects of education in the South, such as industrial training for the negro and more adequate systems for popular 307 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA education in the southern states. Dr. C. W. Dabney, president of the University of Ten- nessee, in an address before the conference, sounded the note for a more effective system of public education among the people of the south- ern states. In 1901 the conference was held at Winston-Salem, North Carolina. Here the Southern Education Board was organized and field agents were sent out to carry on a propa- ganda of education to every part of the South ; the main idea being that "southern education'' was a national problem. Funds for this cam- paign were contributed by men of wealth and philanthropic inclination in the North. Dr. Edwin A. Alderman, in one of his characteristic utterances, said at one of these conferences : If I had a boy and wanted to teach him good, straight honest, vital patriotism, I would not much care to carry him to a battle-field where men had shed blood and torn at each other's throats, but I would rather wish to bring him to such a place as this, where he might see the play of human sympathy at its best, where he might see men and women of strength and power, unafraid of changing their views, unashamed of honest emotion, informed with iron purpose and touched as I have never before seen a body of citizens with the moral and political values of 308 EDUCATIONAL RENAISSANCE childhood, and with meaning to the Nation of the dim toiling thousands who dwell untaught in the shadows of the world. 1 This programme of propaganda for popular education was the motive power that touched the social conscience in every rural community in Virginia and over the entire South, and re- sulted in an era of wonderful achievement for popular education. It was a period of liberal- izing and unifying of forces. The following reso- lution was the basis of the policy for the propa- ganda : Resolved, That this conference proceed to organize by the appointment of an executive board of seven men, who shall be fully authorized and empowered to conduct, (1) a campaign of education for free schools for all the people by supplying literature to the newspaper and periodical press, by participating in educational meetings, and by general conferences, (2) to conduct a Bureau of Information and Advice on legislation and school organ- ization. 2 1 Address at the Athens, Georgia, Conference, 1902. 2 Proceedings of the Winston-Salem Conference, 1901. The Execu- tive Board referred to above was composed of C. W. Dabney of the Uni- versity of Tennessee, Edwin A. Alderman, then of Tulane University, Dr. Chas. Mclver, Greensboro, N.C., Hon. J. L. M. Curry, Agent Peabody Fund, Dr. H. B. Frissell of Hampton, Geo. Foster, Peabody, N.Y., and Wallace Buttrick, Albany, N.Y. 309 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA Under the lead of these men, together with Dr. Ormond Stone of the University of Virginia, Dr. S. C. Mitchell of Richmond College, and others, the people of the state were aroused to a realization of the importance of further educa- tional advance in Virginia. Provisions of the New Constitution. — In the year 1902, a new constitution was made for the state of Virginia. Its main educational pro- visions are : (1) the state Board shall consist of the governor, attorney-general, and the state superintendent of public instruction. In addi- tion to these, there shall be three experienced educators elected by the Senate out of the nomi- nations made by the faculties of the following institutions : the University of Virginia, Virginia Military Institute, the State Polytechnic In- stitute, the State Normal School at Farmville, the School for the Deaf and Blind, and William and Mary College, as long as the latter is sub- sidized by the state. (2) There shall be two division superintendents, one from the county and one from the city, elected in addition to those mentioned above, but they shall not have 310 EDUCATIONAL RENAISSANCE the power of voting in the election of any school official. (3) The state superintendent shall be an experienced educator and elected by the people for a term of four years. (4) The state Board of Education shall be authorized: (a) to divide the state into school divisions, each not less than one county or city, and appoint a super- intendent for each division for a term of four years, subject to the approval of the Senate; (6) to have full charge of the investment, care, and distribution of the state school funds, as regulated by law; (c) to make all needful rules for the management and conduct of the schools. These rules shall have the force of law; 1 (d) to appoint a Board of Directors for the management of the state library, and appoint a salaried librarian. (5) Each magisterial district shall constitute a separate school district, with three trustees selected according to law. (6) The state Board shall appropriate all school funds on the basis of school population, including all persons between the ages of seven and twenty. (7) The annual property tax for state school funds shall 1 Subject, of course, to amendment and repeal by the Legislature. 311 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA not be less than one, nor more than five, mills on the dollar. (8) Each county, city, town, and school district may levy a tax of not over five mills on the dollar, to be appropriated by the local school authorities. (9) The General As- sembly may establish agricultural, normal, mili- tary, and technical schools of such grade as shall be for the public good. (10) The General As- sembly may establish compulsory education for children between the ages of twelve and eighteen. (11) The children of poor parents are supplied with text-books. (12) White and colored chil- dren shall be educated in separate schools. (13) No public school funds can be applied to any school not under exclusive control of the state. 1 This is the broad outfit of constitutional and legislative provision that resulted from the new awakening among the people of Virginia and made possible the realization of so many con- structive educational reforms in the state dur- ing the more recent years. Cooperative Education Association. — The 1 Exception was made in the case of William and Mary College. 312 EDUCATIONAL RENAISSANCE germ of the Cooperative Education Association in Virginia was an all-day meeting held in a room in Murphy's Hotel in 1903, where five men met for the purpose of discussing how something real could be done to carry into concrete form some of the logical conclusions reached by the agitation resulting from the Capon Springs Conference and the organization and work of the Southern Education Board. These men were Governor Montague, Dr. H. B. Frissell of Hampton, Dr. S. C. Mitchell of Richmond Col- lege, Dr. Robert Frazer of Warrenton, and J. D. Eggleston, later state superintendent of public instruction. It was decided here to perfect an organization for the state that would carry forward some definite plan, by which the people of Virginia would realize the necessity for more democracy in education. This was to be done through cooperation. Ways and means were to be devised whereby all the creative educa- tional forces of the state could be brought to bear upon the single gigantic problem of pro- viding education that would vitalize the life of the state. The forces started some time 313 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA before had been " stung into paralysis." It was now time for action. In the spring of 1904, the Association was or- ganized with Governor Montague as temporary chairman, and Dr. S. C. Mitchell was elected permanent chairman. The idea was to cooper- ate with the Southern Education Board in its educational propaganda for " agitation." It held its meetings semiannually and formulated the following platform : (1) nine months' schooling for every child, (2) high schools within reasonable distance of every child, (3) well- trained teachers, (4) agricultural and industrial training, (5) efficient supervision, (6) promo- tion of libraries, (7) schools for the defective and dependent, (8) citizens' educational asso- ciations in every county and city. In December, 1904, at a meeting of the Co- operative Education Association, in Norfolk, Dr. Ormond Stone of the University of Virginia offered a resolution to the effect that Governor Montague and President Alderman of the Uni- versity of Virginia make a tour of the state in May, 1905, in the interest of better education. 314 EDUCATIONAL RENAISSANCE This was the start of the remarkable " May campaign." Never was a state so bombarded in the interest of any cause. Men spoke in the remotest com- munities. Candidates of both political parties and for all offices turned aside from national questions to the earnest advocacy of an ade- quate school system for the state. Preachers found a fresh application of the principles of religion. Editors gave their editorial and news columns for the dissemination of knowledge and the inspiration of the people. College presidents and professors in state and private institutions found new fields for useful labor. On the political hustings, in places where camp meetings were wont to take place, at cross-roads' stores, and ' old field ' schoolhouses, meetings were held in the interest of public education. Dr. Bruce R. Payne, then of William and Mary College, kept the papers filled with educational literature. During the so-called " May cam- paign " one hundred of the ablest speakers of the state, including the governor, delivered three hundred addresses in ninety-four counties at 315 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA one hundred different meetings. Two hundred thousand pages of educational literature were issued, and fifty citizen school associations were organized. All this was done in thirty days. During this campaign the facts regarding educational conditions in Virginia were set forth and compared with northern and western states. In the comparison the facts showed a woful lack of progress in Virginia, in many re- spects, and in some points they showed that Virginia was far behind the other states, viz., (1) in local school revenues, (2) enrolment of pupils, (3) in per capita expenditure, (4) in agen- cies for the training of teachers, (5) in the num- ber and efficiency of her high schools, and (6) in provision for industrial training. In 1902 the General Education Board was organized in the city of New York, with Dr. Wallace Buttrick as general secretary and field agent. Some men of wealth, particularly John D. Rockefeller, gave large sums of money to be distributed throughout the South to stim- ulate public education. At first Mr. Rocke- 316 EDUCATIONAL RENAISSANCE feller pledged $100,000 annually for ten years for this purpose. During the years 1902 and 1903 Dr. Buttrick procured the services of Hon. Harry St. George Tucker of Lexington, Vir- ginia, and Dr. Robert Fraser of Orange County, Virginia, for the purpose of carrying on a campaign of agitation in the state of Vir- ginia for better educational facilities. They travelled into every part of the state, speaking at educational meetings, and holding confer- ences with educational leaders. All this initial work led to the development of organized methods of procedure in the form of the Cooper- ative Education Association in Virginia. This organization continued its work of co- operating with the state department of educa- tion in carrying out the various constructive plans for education and has become a permanent and positive force in the many phases of school improvement throughout the state. Within a period of five years after its organization it was the means of raising $750,000 in addition to the state and local funds for physical im- provements in connection with the rural schools, 317 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA such as fencing the grounds, establishing libra- ries, adding to the school equipment, putting down concrete walks, installing public drinking fountains, and instituting " clean-up days " and public meetings. Large credit is due for all this constructive work to Mr. J. H. Binford, the executive secre- tary of the association, to Mrs. B. B. Munford, president of the association, and to Mrs. L. H. Dashield, whose specific work was the organi- zation of Patrons' Leagues. There are at present 870 leagues in the state with a membership of over 28,000. About $48,000 annually are raised for the improvement of the schools through the activities of this association. The organiza- tion is a sort of " chamber of commerce " for the rural community. Summary. — In July, 1898, at Capon Springs, was held a meeting of men from the North and the South to discuss Christian education, cen- tring around the church schools for the negro race and the white people of the Appalachian Mountain region. In a few years this developed into wider significance and spread to a more 318 EDUCATIONAL RENAISSANCE general interest in public education, maintained and controlled by state systems. This widen- ing interest was largely due to the addresses of Hon. J. L. M. Curry, agent for the Peabody and Slater funds. This conference in 1901 devel- oped into the Southern Education Board, the majority of whose members were southern educators, and carried on the initial work of organizing the propaganda of agitation for bet- ter schools. About this time the General Educa- tion Board came into existence, controlling large funds for philanthropic purposes. This Board came to the rescue of the Southern Education Board and materially assisted in the plan and work of the latter. The combined forces of these two boards wrought the great work of re- viving the educational interests of the whole South. The Virginia Cooperative Association was the machinery within the state to carry out the de- tailed programme for better educational facilities for the children of Virginia. All this prepared the way for the provisions for education in the new state constitution. Thus the people of the 319 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA state were prepared for the constructive work of the administration of Jos. D. Eggleston as state superintendent of public instruction, whose election occurred in 1906. We shall next follow the remarkable achievements of his ad- ministration. 320 CHAPTER XVII MODERN PERIOD OF EDUCATIONAL ACHIEVEMENT Administration of Joseph D. Eggleston. — Mr. Eggleston was the first state superintendent of public instruction elected by the people according to the provisions of the new constitu- tion of 1902. He had been vitally connected with the movement for " agitation " during the previous years, during which time he had urged other men to become candidates for the office of state superintendent. He called the atten- tion of these men to the opportunity for service to the state afforded by the office, but when he could induce no one else to run, he became the candidate himself and was elected. His ad- ministration of nearly eight years stands out as an era of educational progress remarkable, if not phenomenal, in the line of democratizing education in Virginia. There are two main T 321 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA outstanding features that characterize the lines of accomplishment during his administration: (1) the coalescing of all the various educational forces in the state into one supreme directive force toward the goal of popular education, and (2) the organizing and development of a system of extension work that carried a new type of practical teaching to the boys and girls in every part of Virginia. The secondary lines of progress that led to these two large achieve- ments were: (1) the creation of a strong, aggres- sive department of public instruction; (2) the development of an adequate public high school system; (3) a constructive attempt to place the education of the negro upon a satisfactory basis; (4) a richer, socialized curriculum for the rural schools; (5) better sanitary and hygienic conditions in connection with the rural school and the rural home. State Board of Examiners. — In 1905, the year before Mr. Eggleston's election, the state Board, in carrying out the intent of the new constitution, laid off the state into five grand divisions, each including about fifteen counties, EDUCATIONAL ACHIEVEMENT and appointed an inspector for each. The duties of these so-called examiners were very in- definitely understood at first, but they soon be- gan to organize a system of supervision among the schools and inaugurated constructive plans that led to the establishment of high schools. They also took full charge of certificating teachers. Under the wise direction of Mr. Eggleston these men became the educational dynamos in their respective sections of the state. They trained the teachers in a system of sum- mer schools, built schoolhouses, consolidated schools, established routes for school wagons, created public sentiment for better schools, held public meetings of patrons in every community, cooperated with district and county officials in securing funds for school buildings and in- creasing the] pay of teachers. All this had a wholesome effect upon the schools and increased the effectiveness of public education in the state. In 1910 the office of Examiner was abolished by the state Board of Education and some of these same men were retained as " in- spectors " or " supervisors " of schools under 323 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA the department of education, with offices in Richmond. Constructive Legislation. 1 — Mr. Eggleston, by a rare combination of tact and leadership, held his own with the most astute political leaders of the state, and thus saw many of his ideas and those of his co-workers take the form of law. By a hard fight and a close vote the Mann High School bill was passed in 1906, which provided for an appropriation of $50,000 to be given on condition that local communities would furnish proper buildings and similar amounts for the increase of teachers and salaries. This appropriation has since been increased to $100,000. The Williams Loan Fund bill was passed in 1908. This provided for the lending of the Literary Fund of the state to the dis- trict boards at the rate of four per cent, to be re- paid in ten annual instalments, the loans to be made upon buildings whose plans were ap- proved by the department of public instruction. Later, this provision was extended to all build- ings erected in the state for school purposes. 1 See Acts of 1906 and 1908. 324 EDUCATIONAL ACHIEVEMENT By this means the state department secured control of the lighting, heating, and ventilation of the school buildings over the entire state. The Strode bill of 1908 lumped a series of advanced ideas into a compact act which was passed with one legislative stroke. One of the important parts of this bill was the provision by which the division superintendents' salary could be increased by the counties to such an extent that they might secure expert men who would give all their time to the work of ad- ministration and supervision. This led to the policy of the state Board to go outside of the division, if necessary, to find a suitable person for this office. The attempt to carry out this policy created a storm of opposition throughout the state. Because of this adverse public opinion, only a few men whose residences were outside of the division were appointed to this office. Another important provision of this bill related to the subsidy fund of $25,000 for the encouragement of elementary graded schools. These took the place of one-room and one-teacher schools in the country districts. 325 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA Another part of this bill created an educational commission which was composed of a group of leading educators of the state, whose duty it was to make a critical study of educational con- ditions and methods of taxation, and report to the Legislature suggestions as to the best methods of preventing duplication and waste in the state system of secondary and higher education. However wise these suggestions, they were never acted upon by the Legislature. The provisions of this bill, while leading to central executive control, at the same time en- couraged local initiative. The funds thus pro- vided for by the state have called forth twice and even three times the amount, as a result of local agitation and action. Some of it was in the form of taxation and some of voluntary subscriptions. The entire fund for school pur- poses increased from $2,500,000 in 1905 to $5,000,000 in 1911. There has been a corre- sponding increase in the number of teachers, in the enrolment and attendance of pupils. The average number of months taught was increased from 6.4 in 1905 to 7.04 in 1910. 326 EDUCATIONAL ACHIEVEMENT Another important part of this " Omnibus bill " provided that every schoolroom hereafter built should contain fifteen square feet of floor space and two hundred cubic feet of pure air a minute for each pupil; there should be facil- ities for exhausting the foul air ; ceilings should be twelve feet high; all exit doors should open outward ; light should come from the left and rear, and this required light space should be equal to twenty-five per cent of the floor space ; there should be at least two suitable closets or outhouses. The Board of Trustees should see that these closets were kept clean and in order. Still another part of the bill provided for the establishment of one or more normal training schools. These should be located by the state Board of Education in connection with high schools already established. There should not be more than one for every county or incor- porated town, provided there was not a state normal school already located in the town. A few of these were established at first in various parts of the state. 327 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA This bill also contained an act providing for the testing of sight and hearing of children. The mere pittance of three hundred dollars was appropriated to carry out the provisions of the act. It provided for the printing of blanks on which the parent is notified of any defect in his children. This act, too, has not led to any effective results. By act of the Legislature in 1908, agricultural high schools were established, one for every congressional district. Eleven schools of this type have been established. An annual ap- propriation was made for these schools. The idea was to establish curricula in agriculture and home economics in some of the high schools already established. The Legislature of 1908 gave $20,000 to these schools. In 1910 this amount was increased to $30,000, and the next year an additional sum of $25,000 was appro- priated for permanent improvements at these schools. 1 agricultural high schools are located as follows : 1st congres- sional district, Hampton ; 2d congressional district at Driver ; 3d con- gressional district, Chester ; 4th congressional district, Burkeville ; 5th congressional district, Elk Creek ; 6th congressional district, New London ; EDUCATIONAL ACHIEVEMENT These schools retain the usual curricula in the various secondary school subjects, but, in addition, they conduct courses in various phases of agriculture and domestic economy. These schools are not strictly agricultural, for they continue to offer the courses leading to college entrance. Growth of High Schools. — In 1906 there were about seventy-five so-called high schools in the state. Only ten of these were free and gave a four-year course. Under the stimulus of the incentive fund given by the state and the work of the state examiners, the number of high schools in the state increased rapidly, for several years at the rate of nearly one hundred a year. In 1905 there were 50 high schools in the State, but in 1910 there were 360. At present (1916) there are over four hundred. These schools were standardized from year to year, and continued encouragement was offered, so that there were, in 1910, 143 high schools 7th congressional district, Middletown; 8th congressional district, Manassas; 9th congressional district, Lebanon; 10th congressional district, Appomattox. HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA giving a two-year course ; 81 giving a three-year course, and 83 giving a four-year course. These are ranked respectively as first grade, second grade, and third grade high schools. The lower grade schools are always striving to reach the standard of the higher grade schools. A few high schools at present charge a tuition fee, but soon they will all be free, since local taxation for school purposes is becoming more and more popular among the people. The movement for establishing rural high schools has had more to do with increasing local taxation for school purposes than any other single cause. The following table shows the growth in high school activities from 1906 to 1910. x Number of High Schools Enrol- ment Teachers Value of School Property Monet Expended Local State 1906 1907 1908 1909 1910 75 218 229 245 388 3,405 9,196 9,992 13,418 15,323 146 248 261 680 837 $462,845 2,573,619 $102,480 155,568 191,390 257,887 320,403 50,000 50,000 126,000 133,000 1 See Five Years of High School Progress in Virginia, by Bruce R. Payne. 330 EDUCATIONAL ACHIEVEMENT This table shows an interesting fact regarding the influence that the state high school fund had upon local taxation. While dollar for dollar is required by the state, each year shows that over three dollars of local support were given for each dollar of the state appropriation. So rapid has been the annual growth of high schools that the increase in five years has been nearly half a million dollars. 1 This same legislature of 1908 passed an act establishing a teachers' retirement fund. An appropriation of $5000 was made out of the state treasury for the purpose and a provision was made by which one per cent of the teachers' salaries could be retained and applied to this fund. The regulations governing the distribu- tion of this fund were placed under the control of the state Board of Education. At first teachers who had taught for twenty -five years or for twenty years, if mental or physical in- firmity or age had rendered them inefficient 1 See report of Dr. Henry Pritchett, Carnegie Foundation, 1911, in which he says : " Probably no educational development in any state of the Union is more remarkable than that which is represented in the old commonwealth of Virginia." 331 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA for service, received an annual pension equal to half the salary at the time of retirement, pro- vided no teacher received more than four hundred dollars annually. In 1910 the act was amended, and now pensions are given to men who have taught for thirty years and have reached the age of fifty-eight and to women who have taught for thirty years and have reached the age of fifty. If the pension is sought because of mental or physical disability the appli- cant may have taught only twenty years, but, in this event, the application must be approved both by the state Board of Education and by the state Board of Health. The pensions are paid quarterly by the second auditor. In 1910 there were 271 teachers in the state receiv- ing pensions under this act, 239 white and 32 colored. The income from the one per cent deduction of the teachers' salaries amounts to about $40,000, and, together with the annuity appropriated by the state, the total receipts are $45,000. The law provides that in case the funds are not sufficient for the eligible pensioners, the amount available shall be 332 EDUCATIONAL ACHIEVEMENT prorated. This bill, while falling short of meeting the needs in the state, is a beginning in this line and commits the state govern- ment to the maintenance and support of such a cause. Normal Schools. — While the leaders in edu- cation throughout the state were arriving at conclusions regarding the improvement of schools, they could not escape the ultimate problem of devising means for the improvement of the teaching force. They were not long in determining that the best and most direct way of advancing the quality of teaching in these newly vitalized schools was to train teachers for this work. They ascertained that 1500 new teachers entered the service each year and that the state normal school at Farmville at best was turning out only several hundred teachers annually. So the arguments for this urgent need were not difficult to understand, and the Legislature of 1908 established two state normal schools, one at Harrisonburg and the other at Fredericksburg. These schools were to be open only to women on account of 333 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA the fact that eighty per cent of the teachers in the elementary schools are women. State Normal School at Harrisonburg. — The normal school at Harrisonburg opened in September, 1909, after a year of constructing buildings under the direction of the newly elected president, Julian A. Burruss, of Rich- mond. The course of study planned by him includes some of the modern features advocated by the leaders in the campaign for a more vital and a more democratized course of study for the public schools of the state. The en- trance requirements are two years of high school training. The course at this school consists of two additional years of high school work, together with two years of professional study. Domestic economy, manual arts, school garden- ing, poultry raising, and agriculture are striking features of the course at this institution. These probably receive greater emphasis than has ever been given to such subjects anywhere in the state. Another somewhat unique feature of this school is the calendar system of four quarters. The school is open eleven months EDUCATIONAL ACHIEVEMENT in the year. This is probably the first attempt to follow such a calendar in any schools south of the Potomac River. Men are admitted to the summer quarter. This quarter is divided into two terms of six weeks each, the first of which is designated as one of the summer institutes in the state, and is attended by a large number of teachers who are preparing for examination for certificates or for the renewing of certificates they already hold. The last term is operated by the normal school directly and is attended by teachers and students desiring to make up the work of the regular session. Another important feature of this school is the plan for practice teaching. This is done in one of the Harrisonburg graded schools. Cer- tain grades in this school are designated for this use, and special critic teachers have immediate charge of the work of the grade and also im- mediate supervision of the student teachers, all of whom in turn are under a special super- visor who is a member of the faculty of the normal school. This arrangement, while a 335 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA very delicate and difficult matter to work out, is proving very satisfactory to both the public schools of the town and the normal school authorities. Another feature of practice teach- ing which is an innovation is the work done by the student-teachers of the industrial arts de- partment in the rural schools of Rockingham County. The county school authorities, in cooperation with the normal school, have ar- ranged for cooking, sewing, manual training, and household economy to be taught in a number of the schools accessible to the normal school. These classes are conducted by members of the senior class in the household and industrial arts departments, under the personal direction of a special supervisor. This plan has worked well and promises to be a permanent feature of the normal school work. During the last year it has inaugurated a system of extension teaching by correspondence. All these lines of work, while more or less in the nature of in- novations, are being carefully worked out, and no doubt will ultimately become the permanent policy of the public school system of the state. EDUCATIONAL ACHIEVEMENT State Normal School at Fredericksburg. — Although the state normal schools at Fred- ericksburg and at Harrisonburg were provided for in the same legislative act, the former did not open its doors for students until Septem- ber, 1911. Mr. E. H. Russell was elected president of this school. An administration building, dormitories, and president's home were erected, and the first year the dormitory capacity at this school was exhausted and ap- plicants were turned away. The entrance re- quirements are that an applicant shall have exhausted all the public school facilities offered in the home town. This practically means that students can enter after having completed the courses in the elementary schools. For the section of the state in which the school is located, it seems necessary at this time to maintain this standard, since there are few high schools in that region. The plan for practice teaching in connection with this school is similar to that in the Harrisonburg Normal. Certain grades in the city schools of Fredericksburg are set apart for this purpose, and critic teachers i 337 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA have charge. The course of study in this school follows in a general way the course as outlined in the school at Farmville, giving a four years' high school course and two of pro- fessional training leading to the requirements of the various state certificates. The summer session at this school is four weeks in length and is designated as one of the summer insti- tutes in the state. The Normal School at Radford. — The State Normal at Radford was opened in 1912, with Dr. J. P. McConnell as president. This insti- tution is located at the gateway of the great southwestern part of the state, which section the school serves in a peculiar way. The en- trance requirements are the same as those of Fredericksburg and the practice schools are the city schools of Radford. The course of study is planned to meet the requirements for the various state certificates, and such subjects as domestic science and the manual arts are given prominent place. This school, like that of Harrisonburg, is open during the entire year, the summer quarter being divided into two EDUCATIONAL ACHIEVEMENT terms, the first of which is designated as one of the state summer institutes, and the second term is conducted as a part of the regular work of the school. In each of these schools the industrial phases of education receive special attention, and the more modern principles and standards are em- phasized. The school at Harrisonburg rather set the pace for the other schools in these matters. The Normal School at Farmville 1 up to 1909 maintained a high school course 2 with two years of professional or pedagogical work. Since the agitation in 1905-06 for the im- provement of the public schools of the state, the Farmville Normal School has revised its course of study and increased its equipment and general facilities for teacher training. The number of students has increased to over six hundred. The entrance requirements since 1911 are one year high school training. The requirements for graduation are four years high 1 See Chapter XIII, p. 249. 2 "Up to 1909, the Farmville Female Normal School was the only State school for higher learning where white women were admitted." See Some Recent Administration in Virginia, p. 70, Frank Macgruder. HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA school, plus two years of professional work. Since 1888 the state has subsidized William and Mary College for the purpose of giving pedagogical training to men x who have chosen teaching as a profession. Thus there are in the state four normal schools for women and one for men. All these schools give instruction free to Virginia students who pledge themselves to teach at least two years after graduation in the public schools of the state. Demonstration and Extension Work. — " The Cooperative Demonstration Work " had its origin in some work carried on in Mississippi in 1906 under Dr. Seaman A. Knapp. Later he was employed by the General Education Board to work under the direction of the United States Department of Agriculture. The work thus organized had for its purpose the teaching of men, boys, women, and girls how to farm success- fully and how to manage their farms and their gardens to their own greater advantage and to the greater advantage of the nation. This was to be done by demonstration agents who would 1 See Chapter VI, supra. 340 EDUCATIONAL ACHIEVEMENT carry expert information to the farmer while he was at work on the farm. Superintendent Eggleston of Virginia, with his characteristic vision, saw the possibilities in this practical aspect of teaching, and sought the assistance of Dr. Knapp. In 1907 the work was tried out in two or three counties in Virginia. Mr. T. O. Sandy of Burke ville was put in charge as state agent. The next year, plans were made to organize boys' corn clubs in connection with the public schools. Each boy was to be assigned an acre of land and he was to prepare the soil, select the seed, and cultivate the acre under the direction of a demonstration agent. Notwith- standing some rather strong opposition, the work grew steadily in popularity from the first, and Virginia led the other southern states in this new educational movement. Immediately the state and counties became interested, and ap- propriated money to carry forward and extend the work of organizing the corn clubs. At first there were three counties organized, next, twenty counties, and then forty counties, and in 1914 there were sixty counties organized with 341 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA county demonstration agents. In 1908 the girls' canning and poultry clubs were organized and Miss Ella Agnew was appointed state agent and put in supervisory charge. The same remarkable progress made by the boys charac- terized the work among the girls. This work was consciously kept in close touch with the rural schools. The interest and enthusiasm among the boys and girls soon spread to the farmers themselves and they cultivated crops under the direction of the demonstration agents. In 1914 there were in Virginia, 1 state agent, 4 district agents, 50 local agents, and 5 special agents, working 52 counties. The influence of the local agents was felt by 8000 farmers and in other ways reached 34,362 people of the state. On 89 farms, 9706 acres of corn were raised under demonstration methods. This year, the highest yield on a multiple of acres was 643 f bushels on five acres. All this demon- stration work is now carried to other aspects of farm activity, such as wheat, grasses, alfalfa, orchards, dairying, livestock, hogs, and farm irrigation. As a result of all this development, 342 EDUCATIONAL ACHIEVEMENT farmers are organizing, institutes are held, co- operative buying and marketing is carried on in many sections of the state, and county fairs are being revived. School fairs have been in- augurated and have added much to the en- thusiasm of the movement. By this means education is carried to the farmer, instead of his being put to the necessity of leaving his work and attending an agricultural college in some distant part of the state. In 1911 the demonstration work was organ- ized for the colored people and placed under the supervision of Mr. Jackson Davis, and under his wise direction valuable service has been rendered to the colored farmer in Virginia. Sources of Funds for Demonstration Work. — When the demonstration work was inaugurated in Virginia in 1906, there was not a dollar in the state available for this purpose, but, at the recommendation of Dr. Knapp, the federal government carried the work for a while as an experiment. Efforts were soon made to get the state and counties interested in making appropriations for this work. The state at 343 HISTORY OP EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA first made a meagre appropriation for this pur- pose and has increased it from year to year, until now $20,000 is given annually. The coun- ties began by appropriating several hundred dollars each year. In 1914 the total amount given by the counties was between $25,000 and $35,000. Under the recent federal act, known as the Smith-Lever bill, the state receives $10,000 annually. Besides this, the federal gov- ernment contributes $40,000, making a total of all sources of $100,000 for carrying on the demonstration work in the state. The administrative machinery for distributing the funds for the demonstration work in the state at first was the United Board of Agricul- ture created by legislative act in 1908. In 1914 this Board was abolished and the adminis- trative affairs were transferred to the Virginia Polytechnic Institute at Blacksburg, from which institution the state demonstration work is now directed through a corps of experts at the college and state agents in the counties. Thus, in the short period of five or six years, this im- portant practical type of teaching in the state 344 EDUCATIONAL ACHIEVEMENT has taken more or less permanent form, and from now on the efforts of those in charge will seek to perfect and extend the work until all the farm interests of the entire state shall feel the influence of this direct and most effec- tive kind of teaching. General Summary. — The administration of Joseph D. Eggleston in achievement, in inspira- tional appeal to the people, in sound organiza- tion, in democratic and practical significance, in the enthusiastic struggle to systematize the educational work in the state, in effective personal leadership, and in the wide influence that reached not only to the boundaries of his own state but to the states throughout the South, is comparable to the struggle and ac- complishments in the wise administration of William H. Ruffner, the first state superin- tendent of public instruction in Virginia. Dr. Ruffner gave popular education in the state form and initial momentum. Mr. Eggleston took that form and force and gave to the in- stitution a more systematized, democratic effec- tiveness. 345 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA The provision for public education in the new constitution of 1902 was one of the results in Virginia of the work of the Capon Springs Conference and the Southern Education Board. It laid down a broad and a more democratic scheme upon which to found a system of popular education. The people of Virginia were stirred to the point of action by the organized efforts of the leaders working through the Cooperative Education Association. Mr. Eggleston came in as state superintendent when the enthusiasm for better educational facilities was at white heat. It was an opportune time for a man of ideas and action. He at once realized that this enthusiasm must be conserved and utilized for great educational achievements. He took stock of the situation and laid down a programme of procedure which resulted in the remarkable series of accomplishments which characterized his administration. The following are some of the outstanding features of his work: (1) the State Department of Education was systematized so that its influ- ence was strong and effective as an educational 346 EDUCATIONAL ACHIEVEMENT force in the state; (2) the various educational activities of the state were unified and coalesced into one great educational effort, directed toward the goal of popular education; (3) a series of constructive legislative acts, providing for, (a) a state system of high schools, (6) a loan fund by which the trustees in the counties might borrow money from the Literary Fund for the purpose of erecting school buildings, (c) the con- trol by the state Board of Education of the systems of heating, lighting, and ventilating of school buildings, (d) a scheme by which the division superintendents' salaries could be in- creased so as to secure expert supervision of the schools, (e) an appropriation to encourage the consolidation of one-room schools into two or three room schools, (J) the establishing and maintaining of normal training high schools and agricultural high schools, (g) compulsory education, (h) retirement fund for teachers, (i) establishment of three state normal schools for women, (j) the control of the sanitary and health conditions about the schools, (k) a system of medical inspection of the school children; 347 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA (4) a system of demonstration and extension work by which agriculture and kindred subjects could be taught through the organization of boys' corn clubs and girls' canning and poultry clubs. These are some of the more advanced out- posts of educational progress in Virginia. The present and future leaders in the state will build further upon these basal beginnings the schools of to-morrow. 348 CHAPTER XVIII THE EDUCATION OF THE NEGROES IN VIRGINIA Hampton Normal and Agricultural Insti- tute. — Hampton Institute grew out of con- ditions of the slaves set free by the Northern Army advancing upon Richmond, in the section of Virginia centering around Hampton as head- quarters. General S. C. Armstrong was sent to Hampton as a representative of the Freedmen's Bureau to adjust the difficulties between the races. He found a heterogeneous mass of negroes under the care of the government, doing nothing for themselves, depending upon the federal government for rations. These new wards of the government were utterly unfit for the responsibility of citizenship so soon to be thrust upon them. It was the task of General Armstrong to organize this mass of people into an effective community life. 349 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA General Armstrong withdrew all rations ex- cept in cases of the infirm, and put everybody to work. This was the inception of Hamp- ton Institute which developed into so remark- able an educational experiment. General Arm- strong had a firm belief in the moral and intellectual value of manual labor. He took measures for the building of homes and finally he provided schools, where proper teachers and leaders might be trained for the colored race. The American Missionary Association of New York, in 1867, had purchased " Little Scotland," a small plantation of 125 acres on Hampton River. This association had con- ducted schools here for the negroes since 1862. This was the material and spiritual nucleus of Hampton Institute. General Armstrong was invited to take up the task of organizing the work for the education of the negro race through- out the whole South. For the support of the work he had to rely upon the government through the Freedmen's Bureau and the chari- table and philanthropic spirit of the American people. It was his plan to devise means by 350 EDUCATION OF NEGROES IN VIRGINIA which the students might pay for the expense of attending the school, but even such a provi- sion costs money. Buildings, shops, and general equipment had to be provided. For this he had to look to the charity of the people of the North. These people responded liberally to this cause, but as in war, only " one shot in four hundred hits." The Work of the School to Centre around Manual Labor. — General Armstrong had seen in operation in the Hawaiian Islands, under the direction of his father, a missionary to those people, a manual labor school. He sought to build such an institution at Hampton. The idea was not popular at first, but, under the wise direction of General Armstrong, the plan succeeded beyond the hopes of those who had it individually in charge. He laid down some principles and never lost sight of them. Some of these principles were: (1) that the purpose of Hampton Institute was to make the negroes of service to themselves, their people, and the white race; (2) that effectual work must have intelligence back of it, in order to give 351 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA dignity to it ; (3) that every pupil has some duty to perform and for the performance of which he must feel a responsibility; (4) that manual training independent of utility has no place in the course of study. The negro was to be a worker along industrial lines. He was to be given training in this field, and such other instruction as would result in independence and moral and Christian char- acter. This was the broad platform of self- help for the conduct of Hampton Institute. The school opened in 1868 with two teachers and fifteen pupils. In 1870 the legislature of Virginia granted a charter, which provided for a non-sectarian Board of Trustees of seventeen members, independent of any association, sect, or government. The funds for the first build- ings were donated largely by the Freedmen's Bureau. The work of the school was brought to the attention of men and women of wealth in the North, and gifts came year after year with which the institution was able to make substantial progress in developing the plant to its present enormous capacity. In 1878 352 EDUCATION OF NEGROES IN VIRGINIA the first Indian students were accepted. A lot of captives taken in the Indian wars (1873) in the West had been taken to Fort Marion at St. Augustine, Florida, for incarceration. They were given the choice of being set at liberty to return to their tribes or to go to Hampton for training. Seventeen of them chose to go to Hampton and study the arts and ways of the white man. This experiment led to the policy of the federal government to train and educate the Indian instead of supporting him on reser- vations. These are some of the events that determined the scope and policies of the future work at Hampton Institute. From 1880 to the pres- ent (1916), Hampton Normal and Agricultural Institute has had a constant growth and an ever widening sphere of usefulness. In 1893 General Armstrong died and Dr. H. B. Frissell was made principal, and the institution under his wise administration has continued to grow into still greater usefulness. Buildings and Grounds. — The school has added to its landholdings from time to time 2 a 353 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA until it now owns 1100 acres, much of it under cultivation by the students in the department of agriculture. It has 140 buildings. These have been added from year to year, as funds by gifts and otherwise became available. The work of construction of some of the buildings was done by the students. The buildings con- sist of dormitories, — Stone dormitory and Graves' cottage for boys, and Virginia Hall ! for girls, administration buildings, memorial church, Whittier training school, Huntington industrial building, machine shops, Whipple Barn and Peabody Dairy, Armstrong-Slater memorial, trade school, Cleveland Hall, chapel, library, and domestic science building. The campus is beautifully laid out with drive- ways and trees and shrubbery, — all making a beautiful village; on every hand there is evi- dence of the finest taste and cleanliness. The funds for these buildings in almost every case came from philanthropic sources. It is one of the most striking examples in America of the good results of the philanthropic spirit. 1 This building was "sung up" by the Hampton singers. 354 EDUCATION OF NEGROES IN VIRGINIA The Academic Work at Hampton. — Hamp- ton Institute is an industrial school, with the emphasis upon the side of utility. But an academic department is maintained to give the necessary basis for intellectual labor. Here, too, the idea of utility is uppermost and the training is related to the direct needs of the students in the various lines of work at Hamp- ton, and for the peculiar life needs after the students leave the school. The academic entrance requirements are not rigid, but, roughly speaking, students are sup- posed to have finished at least five grades in the elementary schools. The other require- ments are: (1) good health, (2) earnestness of purpose, (3) honesty, faithfulness, (4) the attain- ment of the age of seventeen years, (5) certificate of vaccination, and the above academic train- ing. The academic course comprises in general two years of the elementary school work and two of the high school, but recently the course has been extended so as to cover the four-year high school course. Usually the academic 355 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA sessions are held at night, the day being given to work on the farm or in the trade school. The following four-year courses are open to boys : (1) academic normal course for the preparation of teachers, (2) agricultural course, (3) business course, (4) trade course, includ- ing blacksmithing, bricklaying, and plastering, cabinet making, carpentering, machine work, painting, printing, shoemaking, steam fitting and plumbing, tailoring, tinsmithing, upholster- ing, and wheelwrighting. Military drill is re- quired of the boys, in compliance with the Morrill act. For the girls the courses offered are : (1) academic normal course, (2) home economics course, (3) library course, (4) matron's course. Scholarship and Endowments. — The source of the funds of Hampton Institute are one- third of the Virginia share of the Morrill act, the Freedmen's Bureau, the Slater Fund, the Peabody Board, the General Education Board, Hampton Committees in Boston, New York, Brooklyn, Philadelphia, Springfield, Orange, Taunton, and the Indian Associations, and 356 EDUCATION OF NEGROES IN VIRGINIA numerous individual donors. The endowment fund in 1910 was $2,180,376.38. The current expenses for that year amounted to $250,000. It is necessary each year for Dr. Frissell to raise $150,000, to meet the running expenses of the institute. Scholarships are provided for about one-half of the students. The students pay for their board out of their earnings on the farm, in the trade school, in laundry, or other departments of work. Ideals and Influence of Hampton Institute. — Hampton Institute has been from the beginning the embodiment and continued fulfilment of a set of definite and fundamental ideals: (1) the use of industry in such a way as to obtain the greatest results in character and mental force; (2) to know and feel the meaning and dignity of labor; (3) to give to the negro and Indian such instruction as will enable them to make good homes for themselves and prepare them to teach the members of their own race how to keep their houses clean and sanitary; (4) to prepare leaders who will be able to carry on activities in agriculture and in trades, thereby 357 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA raising the standard of social efficiency and citizenship; (5) the whole to go on in a deeply- religious atmosphere. These ideals have con- stantly been the guiding factors that have made Hampton Institute one of the strong, positive forces in the social and economic re- demption of the negro race in the South. The school has endeavored to train leaders for two races, — leaders in agriculture, in industrial education, in business, in home building, in improving church and home life, in public school work, and in foreign missions. It is difficult to make a concrete estimate of the value and influence of the work done at Hampton. More than nine thousand young people have had the benefit of Hampton ideals and training. They have for the most part gone back to their own people and have become cen- tres of influence, — teachers, farmers, skilled mechanics, and thrifty home makers. Hamp- ton Institute has directly or indirectly been in- fluential in the establishing and organization of many schools for the negroes in every south- ern state. Booker Washington, a graduate of 358 EDUCATION OF NEGROES IN VIRGINIA Hampton, was called by the state authorities of Alabama to superintend some work for the negroes at Tuskegee. The famous " Tuskegee Institute " was the outgrowth of this simple beginning. Hampton has demonstrated the effectiveness of industrial education, and the training for white children in agriculture and other industrial lines has followed the standards so effectively carried out at Hampton Institute. The Virginia Normal and Industrial Institute at Petersburg (1882). — The Virginia Normal and Industrial Institute was established by an act of the state legislature in March, 1882. The act provided that the school should be under the management and control of a Board of Visitors composed of seven men. It directed that the school should offer collegiate and pro- fessional courses. A normal course was to be offered of not more than three years in length. The sum of $100,000 was appropriated from the proceeds of the sale of the Atlantic, Mississippi, and Ohio railroads for the purchasing of a site and the erection of buildings, and $20,000 annually for running expenses. The Board of 359 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA Visitors selected the " Fleet Farm " near Peters- burg, and ordered the building to be erected. This was completed in the spring of 1888 after some additional appropriations had been made for the purpose. The school opened in 1883 with three de- partments, (1) normal, (2) academic, (3) college. From 1889 to 1902, college courses were offered and forty-nine persons received the degree of A.B. At the latter date, the legislature revised the charter, changing the name of the school to the Virginia Normal and Industrial Institute. The college work was abandoned and an in- dustrial department was substituted. The purpose of making these changes was to make the school serve the state as a normal school for preparation of teachers for the negro schools. The Curricula and Standards for Gradua- tion. — Students are admitted in September and January. The requirements for admission to the school are the completion of the work done in the sixth grade of the public schools. The academic course covers the work of the 360 EDUCATION OF NEGROES IN VIRGINIA usual high school curricula. In addition to these, courses are offered in normal training, covering two years, and courses in domestic science and agriculture. All students, both boys and girls, are required to take courses in agriculture. Buildings and Equipment. — The school owns forty acres of land, twenty-four of which are under cultivation. There are ten buildings, the main one being a four-story brick structure 367 feet long. The buildings are fully equipped for work in domestic science, agriculture, and manual training. There is a training school connected with the normal department. Summary. — This school was established during the " readjuster " regime in Virginia politics. At first, it gave college courses in connection with the normal department. In 1902 the legislature changed the charter so as to provide training along industrial lines and preparation of teachers for the negro public schools of the state. All state students are exempt from tuition fees. This is the state school, established, maintained, and controlled 361 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA by the state of Virginia for the training of negro teachers of the public schools. Public Schools for Negroes. — Public schools for negroes in Virginia were inaugurated under the constitution of 1869. This constitution was formulated during the reconstruction regime by the convention which was held in December, 1867. 1 The twenty-four negroes in this con- vention urged the establishment of a system of schools which the white and colored children should attend together. The debates upon this point grew tense, but many radicals stood out for a dual system, and the various proposals for "mixed schools" did not prevail. 2 The comprehensive plan for public education sub- mitted to the legislature in 1870 by Rev. W. H. Ruffner, the newly elected state superintendent of public instruction, included a system of schools for the negroes on the same basis as the schools for the white children. In many instances at first, particularly in the cities, white teachers were assigned to the schools for 1 See supra, pp. 214-15. 2 See South Atlantic Quarterly, Vol. XV, pp. 27-28, E. W. Knight. 362 EDUCATION OP NEGROES IN VIRGINIA negro children, but soon a sufficient number of teachers of their own race became available. There was a strong public opinion in Virginia against the education of the negro. The opposi- tion to the public school system inaugurated by Rev. W. H. Ruffner centred about the provi- sion in the law for the equal opportunity of the negroes in public education. In 1872 the state superintendent asked the county su- perintendents whether the colored people mani- fested a desire for education. The replies were in almost every case in the affirmative. In some instances, the reports show that the average attendance in the negro school was better than the white schools. There was a great difficulty in obtaining competent teachers and suitable buildings for the negro schools. In his annual reports of 1871 and 1872, Su- perintendent Ruffner makes arguments for the education of the negro on the basis of capacity for education and value of training the negro, which he says is an important factor in Virginia civilization. His conclusion is that the state cannot afford not to give them the same oppor- 363 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA tunities for elementary education that are given the white children. He gives statistical proof of the ability of the negro to learn, by figures obtained from the Freedmen's Bureau at the closing of the bureau in 1870. There were 2677 negro schools in the eleven southern states, 3300 teachers, and 149,581 pupils. There were 74 high and normal schools. Be- sides these secular schools, there were 1562 Sunday schools, with 6007 teachers and 97,752 pupils. All this had been accomplished within the period of ten years. The Peabody Education Board, through its field secretaries, first Dr. Sears and later Dr. J. L. M. Curry, distributed money to the negro schools. The Slater and Jeans funds were other sources of support that supplemented the state money for negro education. The more modern ideals have sought to make the training in the public schools for the negro children of direct practical benefit to the race. Courses in manual training, domestic science, and industrial arts are emphasized. In recent years, a special state supervisor has done EDUCATION OF NEGROES IN VIRGINIA much to stimulate the schools to effective work. The following table will show the progress made by the schools for the negro race. Growth of Negro Schools Year Number of School Age, 15-21 Enrol- ment Daily Attend- ance Percent- age op Attend- ance Number OF Teachers Months Taught Percent- age of Teachers Who are Colored 1871 164,019 38,554 23,452 14.2 706 70 1875 202,640 54,911 29,871 14.7 1,064 50 1880 240,980 68,600 38,764 16.0 1,256 62 1885 265,249 109,108 60,845 22.9 1,917 86 1890 275,388 122,059 63,317 22.9 2,153 91 1895 268,503 120,453 64,700 24.0 2,243 92 1900 265,258 119,898 66,549 25.0 2,335 93 1905 214,152 " 110,059 62,621 29.1 2,233 97 1910 217,525 119,657 73,155 33.6 2,393 2 5.99 99 1 Between 7 and 20 years (new constitution 1902). 2 In 1910 the average salary a month for teachers was : colored male, $31.21; colored female, $27.82. Annual cost of teaching each colored child $5.60. Percentage of state revenue, colored, 3 per cent. 365 CHAPTER XIX SPECIAL TECHNICAL SCHOOLS Besides the technical courses offered at the state schools, — the University of Virginia, Virginia Military Institute, and the Poly- technic Institute, — two special schools, pri- vately endowed or maintained, have been giving special trade or technical courses. One is the Virginia Mechanics Institute at Richmond and the Miller Manual Labor School, near Crozet, in Albemarle County. The Virginia Mechanics Institute. — The Virginia Mechanics Institute was founded in 1854 in Richmond and operated on a small scale for a while at first. The purpose of the school was to give training in the " Scientific and Mechanic Arts." The school was in- corporated by the General Assembly of Vir- ginia in January, 1856. It held an annual exhibition of manufactures and maintained a 366 SPECIAL TECHNICAL SCHOOLS school in which the various mechanic arts were taught. In 1857 a commodious building was erected. The institute started with no en- dowment or available funds except the funds arising from the issuance of bonds of $25,000. The enterprise was conducted with fair success until 1861, when the buildings were occupied by the War, Navy, and Patent offices of the Confederate States' government. At the evac- uation of Richmond in 1865 the building, together with the records and models, was destroyed by fire. There was nothing done to revive the school until 1884, when the enterprise was reorganized as a night school for the teaching of technological subjects. The school was conducted in rented buildings until 1902, during which time the number of students in- creased, and the city of Richmond favored it with annual appropriations. During that year 346 students were enrolled. From 1884 to the present the following men have served as the head officials of the school: George H. Anslie to 1889, Dr. Henry C. Jones to 1892, W. J. Whitehurt from 1892 to the present time. 367 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA In 1907 the office of superintendent was created, and Frank W. Duke was elected to this posi- tion and has direct charge of the institute at present. The school now owns property to the value of $125,000. It has a library of 3000 volumes and a student enrolment of nearly 600. It maintains the following departments: (1) mathematics, (2) science, (3) drawing, de- signing, and modelling, (4) engineering, (5) mechanical shops, (6) language, (7) commerce, (8) telegraphy. The city of Richmond during the last decade has developed large industrial interests, and this school supplies a real need for apprenticeship and technical training for this large centre of population. The school has maintained itself without any appreciable endowment, but many friends of the institution in Richmond have rallied to its support in time of need. Miller Manual Labor School. — The Miller Manual Labor School of Albemarle County is a highly endowed institution for the training of the poor boys and girls of Albemarle County. 368 SPECIAL TECHNICAL SCHOOLS The will of Samuel Miller, 1 who died in 1869, a native of the county, but then a resident of Lynchburg, contained a bequest amounting to about one million dollars for the establishment and maintenance of a school for the poor chil- dren of Albemarle County. After five years of litigation the courts dismissed the suits against the estate and the school was planned and commodious buildings were erected near Crozet. The will devised that the funds be placed in the hands of the governor of Virginia, the attorney-general, the state superintendent of public instruction, and the second auditor, these constituting a Board of Corporation for the management of the funds of the Miller Manual Labor School. The charter provides that the judge of Albemarle County be made 1 Samuel Miller was a poor boy living in the "Ragged Mountains" of Albemarle County. While gathering blackberries with his brother John, they planned to accumulate property and ultimately endow a school for the poor children of their native county. During the Civil War, Indiana troops under General Hunter pillaged the Miller home near Lynchburg and carried away securities, and by court proceedings in Indiana appropriated the fund to their own use, but Samuel Miller appeared and succeeded in having the original decree revoked and thus saved the fund for himself and ultimately for the Miller school. 2 b 369 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA an ex officio member of the Board, and that he appoint two other citizens of the county to serve with him as a Board of Visitors to manage the affairs of the school. In the year 1878 the Board elected Professor C. E. Vawter of Emory College, superintendent, by whose native intelligence, fine attainments, and rare execu- tive ability, the school was planned and put into operation. The school was opened for pupils in October, 1878. Only twenty-one boys were enrolled the first year. The first girls were enrolled in November, 1884. The num- ber of both sexes has steadily increased until at present there are nearly 300 students at the school. The Miller School was among the first schools in America with the distinct purpose of giving courses in industrial education. At first there was an evident prejudice against it as a manual labor school. Several institutions in the North were trying out the experiment, but at best were feeling their way. To start such a school in the South was a still more doubtful enter- prise. To dignify labor in the South was no 370 SPECIAL TECHNICAL SCHOOLS easy task. There was opposition everywhere and sympathy nowhere. Manual labor was the peculiar occupation of the negro, and the white people felt it undignified to engage in such activities. To educate away from this false idea was the task of the Miller School. Superintendent Vawter, with this idea in view, planned a magnificent building in which to house the shops, and employed the best-equipped teachers in New England to carry on the work of instruction. He studied the schools in the North that were doing this type of manual work and selected what seemed to him to be the best features of the schools he studied, and in- corporated them into the school in Albemarle. At first the manual labor was so unpopular that many pupils were admitted who did not come under the head of " poor " children, but, in a few years, the school was filled with the class of pupils for which it was originally in- tended. In 1901 the county school board met to recommend appointments to the county judge. There were ten vacancies to fill and 150 applicants. 371 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA Curricula and Requirements for Admission. — The requirements for admission are (1) that the children be residents of Albemarle County, (2) they must be between the ages of ten and fourteen, (3) they must be selected from the indigent or poor class. The course of study covers the usual branches in the four upper grades of the elemen- tary school, and, in addition, courses in manual training, sewing, and cooking for the girls, and shop and farm work for the boys. The higher courses correspond to the academic work of a modern four-year high school, with additional work in technical subjects in the following fields : woodwork, metal work, foundry work, mechanics, agriculture, and horticulture. Buildings and Equipment. — The farm con- sists of 1200 acres of land, much of it woodland, and a large acreage of alluvial land under a high state of cultivation. There are over a dozen buildings making up the group, all of which are of the best in design and architecture. The equipment is most complete in every re- spect. 372 SPECIAL TECHNICAL SCHOOLS The Miller Manual Labor School is a trade school for the poor boys and girls of Albemarle County. It is highly endowed and has had a long history of usefulness. Its graduates have gone into many lines of work. Many are teachers and others have gone into technical fields. 373 BIBLIOGRAPHY Analectic Magazine, Philadelphia, 1819, Vol. XIII. Beverley's History of Virginia, Virginia Library, Richmond. Colonial Entry Book, Virginia Library, Richmond. Commissioners' Report, U. S., Vol. I, 1890-91. Calendar of Board Minutes, Hampden-Sidney College, Morrison. Census Report, U. S., 1860. Circular of Information, University of Virginia, Herbert Adams. Educational Charters, A. F. Leach. Economic History of Virginia, Vols. I and II. Force's Historical Tracts, Virginia Library, Richmond. Fithian's Journal and Letters, Virginia Library, Richmond. Five Years of High School Progress in Virginia, Bruce R. Payne. Hening's Statutes, Vols. I, II, HI, and IV. Historical Papers, W. & L. University. History of Education in Modern Times, Graves. History of Williamsburg, Lyon G. Tyler. History of Randolph-Macon College, Irby. History of Mary Baldwin Seminary, Waddell. Institutional History of Virginia, Vols. I and n. Journals of the House of Burgesses. Journals of the Senate and House, Virginia State Library, Rich- mond. Jefferson, Cabell, and the University of Virginia, Patton. Jefferson's Complete Works, H. A. Washington. 375 HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN VIRGINIA Jefferson and Cabell Letters. Jefferson, Thomas, John Sharp Williams. Jefferson's Letters, Paul Leicester Ford. Life of J. L. M. Curry, Edwin A. Alderman. Morrison Manuscripts, Virginia Academies. Military History of Virginia Military Institute, J. C. Wise. Narrative of my Life, Judge F. T. Brook, Virginia Library, Richmond. Old Virginia and her Neighbors, Fiske, Vols. I and II. Old Churches and Families of Virginia, Bishop Meade, Vols. I, H. Present State of Virginia, Hugh Jones. Poor Children and Orphans, William and Mary Quarterly, Vol. V. Reports of the Second Auditor, 1818-1855. Report of the Carnegie Foundation, 1911, Henry Pritchett. Some Recent Administration in Virginia, Frank A. Macgruder, Johns Hopkins Press. State Intervention in English Education, de Montmorency. State School Reports, Ruffner, 12 vols. South Atlantic Quarterly, Vol. XV., January, 1916. State School Reports, Virginia. Semi-Annual, Hollins College, 1896. Social History of Virginia, Bruce. The Patrician and Plebeian in Virginia, Wertenbaker. The General Education Board, Flexner. Virginia Vetusta, Neill. Virginia Gazette. Virginia Journal of Education, Vols. I-XVIII. 376 BIBLIOGRAPHY Virginia Schools before and after the Revolution, McCabe. Virginia State Papers. Virginia Carolorum, Neill. William and Mary College, Lyon G. Tyler. William and Mary Quarterly. Works of Capt. John Smith, Arber. 377 INDEX Academia Virginiensis et Oxoniensis, 67, 68. Academies, curriculum of, 131. growth of, 127. Morrison Ms. quoted on,132-135. names of, 125-126. period of, 124-136. Academy, Eaton, 45. Symms, 44. Agricultural schools, 328. Alderman, Edwin A., first president of the University of Virginia, quoted, 308. Alexander, Archibald, quoted, 132. Apprenticeship laws : 1643, 29. 1646, 30, 31. 1672, 32. 1705, 33. 1748, 33. summary of, 34. Armstrong, S. C, 247, 349, 350, 351. Berkeley, Governor, famous words of, 37. Beverley's "History of Virginia," quoted, 47. Blair, Rev. James, 71, 72, 75, 76, 79, 85. Brasserton School, 83. Buchannon, John L., administra- tion of, 251, 252. Camm, Rev. John, 88. Capon Springs Conference, 306, 307. Charity schools: in England, 11. in Virginia, 46, 47. Church and education, 2. Cincinnati Society, 148. City schools : of Alexandria, 271. of Bristol, 277. of Danville, 276. of Fredericksburg, 272, 273. of Norfolk, 262-263. of Petersburg, 264, 265. of Portsmouth, 275. of Richmond, 266-269. of Roanoke, 277. of Staunton, 273-275. of Williamsburg, 276. Coleman, Frederick, 132, 133. Colleges : Bridgewater, 302. Central, 178, 185. Emory and Henry, 159-164. Hampden-Sidney, 139-147. Henrico, 62-66. Hollins, 281-287. Intermont, 302. Martha Washington, 302. Randolph-Macon, 151-155. Randolph-Macon Woman's, 293- 296. Richmond, 155-159. Roanoke, 166-170. Sullins, 302. Sweetbriar, 297. Washington, 147-149. West Hampton, 300-302. William and Mary, 69-99. Colonists, antecedents of the, 16- 26. Compulsory education, 347. Concord Academy, 132, 133. Constitutional Convention : of 1868, 214. of 1902, 310-312. 379 INDEX CoSperative Education Association, 312-318. Coordinate college, 304. Copeland, Rev. Mr., 42. County commissioners, excerpts from reports of, 115-119. County institutes, 238. Crooke, Robert, 44. Curry, Dr. L. J. M., quoted, 211, 212. Dawson, Rev. Thomas, 88. Demonstration work, 340-345. Dew, Thomas R., 93, 94. Dike, Mr., 43. Dissenters, 137. Division superintendents, excerpts from reports of, 131-134. Early settlers, 16. Eaton, Dr. Thomas, 45. Education : critical period of public, 225-228. elementary, 100-103. growth of public, 244-245. higher, for women, 280-304. negro, 251-265. sentiment for public, 228-230. Educational renaissance, 305-320. Eggleston, Joseph D., administra- tion of, 321-348. president of Virginia Polytechnic Institute, 207. Eland, George, 46. Episcopal High School, 164-166. Extension work. See Demonstra- tion Work. Farr, R. R., administration of, 246- 251. Flat Hat Club, 89. Gordon, William, 47. Grammar schools, curriculum of, 12. Griffin, Rev. Charles, 84. Hampden-Sidney College, medical department of, 145. Hampton Norman and Agricultural School, 349-359. Henry VIII and the monasteries, 3, 12. High schools, 329, 330. Hollins College, 281-287. Howard, Governor John, 52. Indentured servants, 17, 20, 24. Indigent children, 105, 114. Irishmen, 18. Jefferson, Thomas, and the Uni- versity of Virginia, 101. and William and Mary College, 90. first plan for education, 101. quoted, 173, 174, 175, 186, 187. Jones, Rev. Hugh, quoted, 24,54, 85, 86. Joynes, Edward S., quoted, 109- 113, 132-135. Junior colleges, 303. Land grants, 17. Lee, Hugh, 46. Literary Fund, The, 104-108. London Company, 16, 17, 41, 43. Madison, Bishop James, 88, 90, 92. Mann High School bill, 324. Mary Baldwin Seminary, 290-292. Mason, General John, quoted, 22. Massacre, Indian, 65. Massey, John E., administration of, 253-258. Meade, Bishop, quoted, 54, 86. Medical inspection, 328. Mercer, Charles Fenton, education plan of, 128, 129. Monasteries : in England, 3. in Virginia, 3. 380 INDEX Negro schools, 349-365, Negro slaves, education, 229. Orphans' Courts, 28, 31, 32. Peabody Fund, 238-240. Peasley, Henry, 47. Parmalee, Elisha, 89. Pensions for teachers, 331, 332. Phi Beta Kappa Society, 89. Philosophical society, 87. Physical features, influence on edu- cation, 24. Plantation system, 20. Planters, influence of, 23. Poor laws, 4, 6. Pritchard, Francis, 47. Public schools, inauguration of, 210. Randolph-Macon College, 151-155. Randolph-Macon Woman's College, 293-296. Redemptioners, 19. Roanoke CoUege, 166-170. Royal James, 42. Ruffner, Rev. Henry, plan for state education, 219. president of Washington College, 219. Ruffner, William H., 218, 219, 226. administration of, 240-245. School funds, diversion of, 223. Schoolmasters, licensing of, 9. privileges of, 7, 8. Schools, charity, 11. community, 48. early types of, 11-15. East India, 42. elementary, 114-115. free, 31, 40, 41, 43. grammar, 11, 12, 14, 36, 37. Old Field, 49. Sears, Dr. Barnas, 239. Servants, 17. Smith, John, quoted, 16. Snignell, Samuel, 45. Southall, Hon. Joseph W., ad- ministration of, 258. State Board of Examiners, 322. State Education Association, 255. State Normal Schools: at Farm- ville, 248, 339. at Fredericksburg, 337. at Harrisonburg, 334-336. at Radford, 338. at Williamsburg, 340. Strode bill, 325. Sweetbriar College, 297-300. Taxes, direct, 5. Taylor, Ebenezer, 46. Teachers, licensing of, 9. pensions for, 331, 333. Technical schools, 199-209. Thorpe, George, 65. Tutors, 26, 53, 57. Tyler, Lyon G., quoted, 97. Union Theological Seminary, 145. University of Virginia, buildings of, 187, 188. curriculum of, 182. establishment of, 178. fire of 1895, 194, 195. first faculty of, 188, 189. influence of, 193, 194, new era for, 195-198. report of Commission on, 179- 183. Virginia Gazette, quoted, 87, 88. Virginia Mechanics Institute, 167. Virginia Military Institute, 199- 204. Virginia Normal and Industrial Institute, 359-361. Virginia Polytechnic Institute, 204- 207. 381 INDEX Washington and Lee University, 147-151. Washington College, 147-149. West Hampton College, 300-302. William and Mary College, build- ings of, 77. colonial endowment, 74. establishment of, 69, 70. William and Mary College (cont.) faculty of, 91. famous graduates of, 97, 98. location of, 76. royal endowment of, 72, 78. scholarships, 75. Williams Loan Fund bill, 324. Wythe, George, 91. Printed in the United States of America. 382 'HE following pages contain advertisements of a few of the Macmillan books on kindred subjects THE HOME AND SCHOOL SERIES. EDITED BY PAUL MONROE Education Through Play By HENRY S. CURTIS, Ph.D. Former Secretary of the Playground Association and Supervisor of the Playgrounds of the District of Columbia ; Secretary on Recreation and other Social Topics Cloth, i2tno, ill., xx + 360 pages. Regular edition, $/.jo Educational eaition, $1.25 " Education Through Play " contains information which should somehow be presented to all parents. The book discusses the necessity of play, its value to the child's life, and the education which comes through it. 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