The earliest age is the most import- ant one for education, because the be- ginning decides the manner of progress and the end. PUBLIC SCHOOL — METHODS By the Following Authors, Editors and Reviewers Charles A. McMurry, Ph.D. Jessie Elizabeth Black, Ph. B., Ed. B. Samuel Christian Schmucker, A. M., Ph. D. Philander Priestly Claxton, M. A., Litt. D. Waite A. Shoemaker, Pd. B. Frederick E. Bolton, Ph. D. Lottie L. Deneen Emelia M. Goldsworthy Wm. F. Rocheleau P. W. Horn, A.M. John H. Glotfelter, Pd. D. Alfred Bayliss, M.S. Grace Greves Truax Gertrude Longenecker Edward F. Worst Lucy Dorrit Hale Sarah C. Brooks U. J. Hoffman Mrs. E. E. Olcott, A. M. Charles H. Sylvester Anna E. McGovern, B. S. Mary Reid Pierce VOLUME ONE SCHOOL METHODS COMPANY CHICAGO NEW YORK Copyright, 1912: Hanson-Bellows Co. All rights reserved AUTHORS, EDITORS AND REVIEWERS CHARLES A. McMURRY, PH.D. Director of Training School, Northern Illinois State Normal School; Superintendent City Schools, De Kalb, 111. Type Studies JESSIE ELIZABETH BLACK, PH.B., ED.B. Critic Teacher, School of Education, University of Chicago Dramatization, Games, Plays PHILANDER PRIESTLY CLAXTON, M.A., LITT.D. United States Commissioner of Education, Washington, D. C. Geography ANNA E. McGOVERN, B.S. ^ Professor of Primary Methods, Iowa State Teachers' College, ft Cedar Falls, Iowa Geography FREDERICK E. BOLTON, PH.D. ] Professor of Education, State University of Iowa, Iowa City ^ School Management and Discipline CHARLES H. SYLVESTER Formerly Professor of Pedagogy and Literature, State Normal School, Stevens Point, Wis. School Management and Discipline P. W. HORN, A.M. Superintendent of Schools, Houston, Texas Reading AUTHORS, EDITORS AND REVIEWERS— continued MRS. E. E. OLCOTT, A.M. Head of Teachers' Course, Central Normal College, Danville, Ind. Reading and Phonics SAMUEL CHRISTIAN SCHMUCKER, A.M., PH.D. Department of Biological Sciences, West Chester State Normal School, West Chester, Pa. Elementary Sciences and Agriculture WM. F. ROCHELEAU Former Director of Training School in Southern Illinois State Normal University Grammar, Elementary Science a)id Elementary Agriculture WAITE A. SHOEMAKER, PD.B. President State Normal School, St. Cloud, Minn. Arithmetic LOTTIE L. DENEEN Primary Critic, State Normal School, LaCrosse, Wis. Number EMELIA M. GOLDSWORTHY Director of Art, Western State Normal School, Kalamazoo, Mich. Drawing EDWARD F. WORST Former Director of Graphic Arts, Chicago Normal School; Superintendent Schools, Joliet, 111. Construction Work LUCY DORRIT HALE Department of Drawing, State Normal School, Milwaukee, Wis. Construction Work AUTHORS, EDITORS AND REVIEWERS-continued JOHN H. GLOTFELTER Vice-President and Director in Training, Kansas State Normal School, Emporia, Kansas Language and Grammar SARAH C. BROOKS Principal Baltimore Teachers' Training School, Baltimore, Md. Language GRACE GREVES TRUAX Formerly Primary Critic, Training Department, State Normal School, Kearney, Neb. Physiology MARY REID PIERCE Department of Music, American Book Company Music U. J. HOFFMAN Assistant State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Springfield, Illinois, in charge of the Depart- ment of Country Schools General Review GERTRUDE LONGENECKER Supervisor of Practice Work, State Normal School, Kirksville, Mo. Use of the Senses ALFRED BAYLISS, M.S. Late Principal Western Illinois State Normal School, Macomb, 111. History and Civil Government TWENTY-FIVE TYPE STUDIES on READING, GEOGRAPHY, HISTORY and SCIENTIFIC AGRICULTURE Prepared By CHARLES A. McMURRY, PH. D. In Volume III Cinderella Barefoot Boy In Volume IV Lake Michigan Panama Canal Yellowstone Park St. Petersburg Erie Canal Steamship Voyage New Orleans from New York to Coast of Norway Hamburg Mount Shasta In Volume V The Puritans Iroquois Indians Burgoyne's Invasion George Washington The American Flag Andrew Jackson Steamboat Traffic on Columbus the Mississippi River Louisiana Purchase British Colonies Corn Cotton Coffee Roosevelt Dam IV PREFACE Volumes One and Two of Public School Methods are devoted to the work of the first three grades of school ; the contents of volumes Three, Four and Five relate wholly to methods in connection with branches taught in Intermediate and Grammar departments, embracing grades four to eight inclusive. In the present edition the original chapters have been expanded by the addition of much new and valuable matter, and the work as it relates to volumes One and Two has been done under the direct supervision of Miss Jessie Elizabeth Black, Ph. B., Critic Teacher in the School of Education, University of Chicago. The subjects of Dramatization, Story Telling, Games and Songs, Construction Work, Moral Training, and The Use of the Senses will be found most helpful. These were especially prepared for this edition. In this new edition the publishers believe they have pro- duced a work which will meet the urgent needs of all teachers. Before publication of these volumes relating to the work of the primary grades, the chapters were sent in sections, for revision, criticism and the addition of new material, to some of the most prominent primary instructors and supervisors in the country ; the help that came from these sources was noteworthy. The names and positions of these editors are given on preceding pages in this volume ; each is a recognized authority in the department assigned. In addition to Miss Black's extended scholastic prepara- tion, she has also had experience as a primary teacher and supervisor, as principal of one of the Chicago public schools, and as critic teacher in one of the foremost schools for train- ing teachers in the country. From her knowledge and experience Miss Black was able to embody in the new work the most successful modern methods that are sanctioned by leading educators. vi Preface In volumes One and Two the authors and editors have endeavored to produce a work which will embody the prin- ciples and practices in vogue in the best state normal schools, and to place this matter before the teacher in such form that she can make it her own. The chapters present subject-matter in methods at once plain and practical, such as will prove an everyday help in the schoolroom. The methods and devices given are in accord with those fundamental principles upon which all teaching must rest, while at the same time psychological and other technical terms have been omitted. Care has been taken to make the style so simple and the statements so clear that the text can be readily understood by any primary teacher. In the first two volumes of Public School Methods it has been the aim of the publishers to aid the primary teacher in solving the problems with which she is constantly confronted — problems of method, of discipline, of organization and of management. To this end there are included many things not elsewhere available in printed form. Here are found answers to a multitude of questions that often perplex the teacher and which too frequently in the past have gone un- answered because the teacher has felt an embarrassment in asking about them. The work abounds in illustrative material, such as model lessons which may be carried without change into the actual work of the class, selections from literature and valuable lists of reference books. The teacher-student is not left alone with abstract principles, but is given practical, concrete illustrations of every principle discussed. The very many illustrations serve the one purpose of explaining the text. In many departments they are used as the foundation of model lessons. The Table of Contents contains an analytical outline of each chapter, and in the Index may be found such cross references as will enable the teacher to correlate the subjects or to find quickly all the material for the discussion of any topic. CONTENTS CHAPTER ONE Discipline page i. Discipline Defined x 2. Ideals 3 3. The Ends of School Discipline 5 4. Habits 5 5. Order and Disorder 7 6. Whispering 8 7. Thieving 10 8. Tardiness and Absence n 9. Restlessness 12 10. Obedience 13 1 1 . Rules or Laws 13 (a) Characteristics of School Laws 14 (b) Enforcement of Rules 14 (c) Preventing Disorder 15 12. Need of More Sympathy 16 13. Maxims and Proverbs 16 14. Happiness as a Factor in Discipline 17 15. Causes of Disorder 18 (a) The Teacher 18 (b) Physical Condition of the Pupil 19 (c) Foul Air 20 16. Silent Influences 20 17. Punishment for Primary Grades 21 18. Rewards and Prizes 22 19. Summary 22 20. Books for Teachers 2 3 Test Questions 2 3 CHAPTER TWO First Year Reading 1. Importance of Reading 2 5 2. Methods Discussed 2 5 (a) The Alphabet Method 2 5 (b) The Phonic Method 26 (c) The Word Method 2 7 (d) The Sentence Method 28 (e) The Combination or Eclectic Method 2 8 vii viii Contents PAGE 3. How to Unify Methods 28 4. Early Lessons 29 (a) The First Lesson 29 (b) The Second Lesson 30 (c) Punctuation Marks 31 (d) The Use of Capitals 32 5. Later Lessons t,3 (a) Review ^s (b) New Lesson ^t, (c) Action Sentences 34 (d) Pictures and Reading 35 (e) Other Lessons 37 6. Oral Reading 37 7. Local Errors in Pronunciation 38 8. The Alphabet 39 9. From Script to Print 40 10. Chart Making 41 n. Adaptation of the Method to the School 42 12. Subjects for Blackboard Lessons 46 13. How Long Shall Blackboard Lessons Continue 47 14. Introduction to Books 49 1 5. Supplementary Reading 49 16. Preparation of a Lesson 51 Method 52 17. Reviews 53 (a) Two Plans 53 (b) An Illustration 54 (c) Illustrative Lesson 55 18. The Hektograph 56 Test Questions 57 CHAPTER THREE Second Year Reading and Phonics second year reading 1. Need of Reviews 59 2. Value of Supplementary Reading Matter 60 3. Need of Preparing Reading Lessons 61 4. Conditions Contrasted 61 5. New Phrases 63 6. Incentives 64 7. How to Use Incentives 65 8. Teaching Children to Study 67 Contents ix PAGE 9. Application of Theory to Practice 68 (a) Preparation 68 (b) Presentation 69 (c) Plan 69 (d) Independent Study 72 10. Syllabication 72 11. Expression in Reading 72 12. Rules for Criticism 74 13. Corrections by Pupils 74 14. Directions to Give Pupils 76 15. Punctuation and Reading 76 (a) Illustration 77 (b) Drill 77 16. Rules for Capitals 78 17. Poetry 78 18. Poems Suitable for Second Year 78 19. Sources From Which to Draw 79 20. Supplementary Reading 79 21. Myths, Fables and Legends 81 22. Amount of Reading Required 82 23. How to Use the Readers 82 phonics for first two grades 24. A Separate Study 83 25. Training Ear and Tongue 83 (a) Training the Ear 83 (b) Training the Tongue 84 26. Associating Sound and Symbol 84 (a) Resemblances 85 (b) Initial Vowels 85 (c) First Use of Phonics in Reading 86 27. Diacritic Marks 86 28. Syllabication 89 29. Summary 89 30. Suggestive Lesson One 9° 31. Suggestive Lesson Two 9° 32. Suggestive Lesson Three 9 1 3^. Conclusion 9 2 Test Questions 9 2 CHAPTER FOUR Third Year Reading 1. The Situation 94 2. Order of Procedure 95 (a) Continuation of Previous Work 5 x Contents PAGE (b) Use of the Sentence 95 (c) Grouping 95 3. Breathing 9 6 4. Bad Habits 97 5. Rules for Readers 98 6. The Alphabet 98 7. Phonics 99 8. Rules for Pronunciation 100 9. Sight Reading for the First Three Years 101 10. Silent Reading and Oral Reading 102 11. The Critical Period 103 (a) Prevent Faults 103 (b) Bring Out the Thought 103 (c) Criticisms 103 (d) Interest 104 12. Illustrative Lesson 104 13. Selection of Reading Matter no (a) Myths, Fables and Legends no (b) Other Reading no (c) Suggestions 111 14. Poems 113 15. Supplementary Reading 113 16. Reading and Study 114 17. Racial Literature 115 18. Reading as an Artistic Accomplishment 117 19. Causes of Poor Reading in Schools 118 20. Material for Drills 119 Drill Exercise for Articulation 120 21. Aids 122 (a) Books for Teachers 122 (b) Books for Pupils 123 Test Questions 123 CHAPTER FIVE Language 1. The Problem Stated 125 2. The First Step 125 3. The Child's Equipment 126 4. The Teacher's Part 127 5. Every Lesson a Language Lesson 128 6. Language Related to Other Subjects 128 7. Undesirable Lessons and Their Correctives 129 Contents xi PAGE 8. Oral Reproduction I2 o 9. Similes and Metaphors I3 o 10. Methods Illustrated 1 -, I 11. Suggestive Exercises i-, I 12. Rhythm and Rhyme j^, 13. Other Phases of Oral Reproduction 133 14. Technical Forms ^c; 15. Historical Stories, Biographies and Journeys 137 16. Language Games 138 17. Oral Composition of Plays 139 18. Language and Drawing 139 19. Written Language 139 20. Steps in Written Work 140 21. Picture Lessons 143 22. Outline for Last Month of First Year 143 (a) The Questions 144 (b) The Story (Approximate) 144 23. Lesson for Latter Part of the Second Year 145 (a) Blackboard Outline 145 (b) The Story (Approximate) 145 24. Rhythm and Rhyme 145 25. For the Third Grade 146 (a) General Instructions 146 (b) The Story (Approximate) 146 26. Other Subjects for Lessons 148 27. Language Through Literature 148 28. Written Reviews 148 (a) Blackboard Outline 148 (b) The Story (Approximate) 149 29. For the Latter Part of Second Year 149 (a) Blackboard Outline 149 (b) The Story (Approximate) 149 30. For the Last Part of the Third Year 150 (a) Blackboard Outline 15° (b) The Story (Approximate) 15° 31. Rhythm and Rhyme l 5 2 32. Initials and Abbreviations i5 2 ^^. Teaching English to Foreigners 153 34. Letter Writing I 5^ Original Writings J S7 35. Memorizing Selections J 58 36. Conclusion I ^° 37. Aids l6 ° Test Questions l6x xii Contents CHAPTER SIX Dramatization, Story Telling, Games, Songs dramatization page i. Use and Abuse 163 2. A Distinction 163 3. General Directions 163 4. Material 165 5. Illustrative Lesson 165 6. Work for the Third Grade 166 story telling 7. Value 167 8. Selection of Stories 168 (a) Fairy Tales 16S (b) Nature Stories 168 (c) Biographical Tales 169 (d) History Stories 169 (e) Travel and Adventure 169 9. Qualities of a Good Story 170 (a) Action 170 (b) Sequence 170 (c) Distinctness 170 (d) Rhythm 170 10. How to Tell Stories 170 (a) Know Your Story 170 (b) Enjoy the Story Yourself 170 (c) Convey Your Tale 170 (d) Tell the Tale 170 11. Favorite Stories of Children 171 12. Some Schoolroom Uses of the Story 171 (a) Expression 171 (b) Art 172 (c) Written Work 172 (d) Dramatization 172 (e) Power of Attention 173 13. Books for Teachers 173 games and plays 14. Purposes 175 (a) Recreation 175 (b) General Development 175 (c) Individuality . . 176 15. Relation of Play to Work 177 16. Selecting Plays and Games 177 Contents xiii PAGE 17. Method of Procedure I77 18. Miscellaneous Games I7 g (a) Tiptoe Catch x -g (b) Flying Cloud ......'.'.'.'.'. ...'. I7 8 (c) Trade Game I7 g (d) Skip Tag '.".'.'.'.'.'..'.'.'. 178 19. Marching Games 179 (a) Presto, Change l7 o (b) Follow Your Leader i7 q (c) Marching with Wands I79 20. Races. 179 (a) Crow Race I7 g (b) Eraser Race i 7 p (c) Relay Eraser Race j8o (d) Relay Touch Race x 8o 21. Rhythm Games ^o (a) Balls !8o (b) Rhythm with Wands 181 (c) Desk as Apparatus 181 22. Ball and Bean Bag Games 181 (a) Toss and Catch 181 (b) Bag in the Square 181 23. Games for Training the Powers of Observation 181 (a) Sharp Eyes Games 182 (b) Sharp Ears Games 184 (c) Sensitive Fingers Games 185 24. Other Common Games 186 25. Books for the Teacher 186 songs 26. Value 187 27. Classification 187 28. Dramatization 187 29. How to Teach the Song 188 30. How to Phrase the Song 188 31. Interpretation 189 32. Songs 189 33. List of Books 202 Test Questions 202 CHAPTER SEVEN First Year Number Work 1 . Introduction 204 2. Value of Number Work 204 3. Origin of the Number Concept 205 xiv Contents PAGE 4. Methods in Vogue 208 5. Ground Usually Covered During the First Year 208 6. Plan 209 Counting 209 - Illustrative Lesson 209 (a) Lesson in Measurement 209 (b) Devices for Counting 212 (c) Correlation of Number and Language 214 (d) Lessons to Cultivate Ability to Judge Measurements 2 1 5 (e) Lesson to Secure Rapidity and Accuracy in the Com- bination and Separation of Small Numbers 218 (f) The Use of Charts 220 (g) Lesson in Written Work 222 (h) Lesson on Halves, Thirds and Fourths 223 (i) Lesson in Multiplication 224 (j) Lesson on the Use of the Ruler 227 (k) Lesson in Counting by Tens 227 8. Correlation op Number Work with Other Studies. . . . 230 9. Aids 230 (a) Books for Teachers 230 (b) Number Games 230 Test Questions 231 CHAPTER EIGHT Second Year Number Work 1. The Work of the Second Year 232 2. Facts That the Teacher Should Remember 232 3. Order of Procedure 233 4. Primary Number Facts 235 5. Devices 236 (a) Cards 236 (b) Number Circle 236 6. Illustrative Lessons 237 (a) Addition 237 (b) Subtraction 241 (c) Simple Multiplication 243 (d) Multiplication Involving the "Carrying" Process.. . . 247 (e) Multiplication of Numbers in Which the Multiplier Consists of Two Figures 247 (f) Division 250 7. Illustrative Lessons in Fractions 256 (a) A Lesson to Develop the Rule for Finding a Fraction of Any Number 256 Contents xv PAGE (b) A Lesson to Develop the Relation Between Fourths and Eighths 258 (c) Suggestions for Teaching One Half of Five, One Half of Seven, Etc 260 Test Questions 260 CHAPTER NINE Third Year Number Work 1. Text-Book Work 262 (a) Preliminary Steps 262 (b) Preparatory Lessons 262 (c) Illustrative Lesson 263 2. Reduction of Denominate Numbers 266 3. Addition of Fractions 269 4. Ratio and Proportion 273 5. Written Work 276 6. Decimals 277 7. Other Features of Third Year Work 279 8. Typical Problems 280 Test Questions 280 CHAPTER TEN Nature Study introduction 1. Educational Purposes 282 2. Why Nature Study is Important 282 3. Apparatus Needed 283 (a) Reference Books 283 (b) Stencils 283 (c) Illustrated Flower and Seed Catalogues 283 (d) Opera Glasses 28 3 (e) A Microscope 28 4 (f) Charts 28 4 (g) Note Books 28 4 FIRST year 4. Plant Life 28 5 (a) Purpose of Lessons 28 5 (b) Observations 28 5 5. Animal Life 2& ° (a) Purpose of Lessons 286 (b) Observations 286 xvi Contents PAGE 6. Minerals 287 (a) Purpose of Lessons 287 (b) Observations 287 (c) Experiments 287 7. Natural Forces 288 Observations 288 8. Study of the Weather 288 second year 9. Plant Life 289 10. Animal Life 289 11. Natural Forces 289 12. Weather Conditions 290 13. Summary 290 third year 14. Work Expanded 290 type studies 15. Our Tree 291 (a) General Plan of Lesson 291 (b) Records 292 16. The Robin 292 (a) Arrivals in Spring 292 (b) Habits 292 (c) Nest and Young 292 (d) Correlated Subjects. . . .' 293 (e) Literature 293 (f) Riddle 293 (g) A Poem 293 17. The Study of Bulbs 294 18. The Squirrel 296 (a) Purpose of the Lesson 297 (b) Plan 297 (c) The Outline 297 (d) Illustrative Lessons 300 (e) Written Exercises 305 other lessons 19. Literature 306 20. Recognition of Deciduous Trees 307 (a) In Summer 307 (b) In Winter 307 21. Recognition of Common Evergreens 308 (a) Pines 308 Contents xvn PAGE (b) Spruces 3o8 (c) Hemlocks „ g (d) Firs 3o8 (e) Arbor Vitae , g 22. To Lend Interest to the Study of Evergreens 309 23. Reviews 3 o 9 (a) A Good Plan 3IO (b) A Second Plan 3IO (c) A Third Plan 310 (d) A Fourth Plan 3IO 24. Regular Study by Seasons , n 25. Suggestions for Spring Study 3n (a) Wild Flowers 3I1 (b) School Gardens 312 (c) Cultivated Flowers 312 26. Schoolroom Gardens 3 I2 (a) Window Boxes 312 (b) Tumbler Gardens 312 (c) A Sponge Garden 313 (d) Vegetable Cups 313 27. Suggestions for Summer Work 313 38. Suggestions for Fall Work 314 (a) Wild Flowers 314 (b) Cultivated Flowers 314 (c) Seeds 314 (d) Roots 314 (e) Leaves 314 (f) Preparations for Winter 315 29. Suggestions for Winter Work 315 3°- Aids 315 (a) Books on Trees 315 (b) Books to Aid General Plant Study 316 Test Questions 316 CHAPTER ELEVEN Nature Study — (Continued) GENERAL SUGGESTIONS i. Extending the Work 318 2. How Much to Attempt 318 3. Conditions Contrasted 319 4. Preparation Needed 3 ao xviii Contents birds page 5. Importance of Bird Study 320 6. Protection of Birds 321 7. Bird Food 321 (a) The Oriole 322 (b) The Cedar Bird, Waxwing or Cherry Bird 322 (c) The Bluejay 323 (d) The Catbird 323 (e) The Rose-Breasted Grosbeak 323 ({) The Cuckoo or Rain Crow 323 (g) The Common Crow 323 (h) Woodpeckers 323 (i) The Meadow Lark 324 (j) Crows and Blackbirds 324 (k) The Robin 324 8. Recognition of Birds 325 (a) When to Begin 325 (b) Where to Begin 326 (c) Facts to be Learned 326 9. The Meadow Lark 326 10. The Flicker 327 11. The Crow 327 (a) Illustrations 327 (b) Where Found 327 (c) Description 327 (d) Food 328 (e) Nest 328 (0 Eggs 328 (g) Seat Work 328 (h) Language, Literature and Songs 328 12. The Duck 328 (a) Points to Consider 328 (b) Questions 329 (c) Literature 329 13. Suggestive Studies 329 14. How to Help the Birds 330 15. Bird Lore 330 16. Nests and Nesting Time 331 17. The Migration of Birds 333 (a) Points to Settle 333 (b) Facts to Learn 133 (c) Records 333 18. Books for Teachers 334 (a) Reference Books 335 (b) Magazines and Pamphlets 335 Contents xix insects page 19. Important Facts . 335 20. How to Tell the Butterflies from the Moths 336 (a) Butterflies 336 (b) Moths 336 ax. Butterfly Caterpillars and Moth Caterpillars 336 22. Caterpillar Food 337 23. Formation of the Chrysalis 337 24. Outline for Butterfly Lesson 337 (a) Material 337 (b) Method 337 25. Questions on the Mourning Cloak 338 26. A Box for Cocoons 339 27. Butterfly Seasons 339 28. Insect Preparation for Winter 340 (a) Brown Wasp 34° (b) Hornet and Yellow-Jacket 340 (c) Bumble-Bee 341 (d) Ant 34i (e) Mud Wasp and Digger Wasp 341 (f) Ichneumon Fly 34 1 (g) Ground Bettle 34i (h) Ladybird Beetle 34* (i) Black Blister Beetle 34* (j) May Beetle 34i (k) Long-Horned Beetle 34* (1) House Fly 34i (m) Fall Canker- Worm 34i (n) Bud- Worm 34i 29. Ants 34i 30. Crickets 342 31. Helps 343 ANIMALS 32. Familiar Animals 343 33. Animals Preparing for Winter 344 34. The Rabbit 344 (a) His Coloring a Protection 344 (b) Nose 344 (c) Hind and Fore Legs 345 (d) Tail 345 (e) Divided Lip 345 (f) Food 345 (g) Ears 345 (h) Literature 345 XX Contents PAGE 35. The Goat 346 (a) Familiar Names 346 (b) Distinguishing Characteristics of Billy Goat 346 (c) Distinguishing Characteristics of Nanny Goat 346 (d) Outline for Study 346 (e) Literature : 347 36. The Cow 347 (a) Study Outline 347 (b) Additional Questions 347 37. Protection of Wild Animals 347 38. Books for Teachers 348 Test Questions 349 ILLUSTRATIONS PACE Friedrich Wilhelm August Froebel. Halftone Frontispiece Can't You Talk ? Halftone 35 Chart Page with Names of Boys 42 Chart Page with Names of Girls 43 "Good Morning, Little Red Riding Hood," Said the Wolp. Color Plate 51 Young Folk at the Canal. Halftone 59 Illustration by Third Grade Pupil: The Lion Stepping on the Mouse 79 Illustration by Third Grade Pupil: The Lion in the Net. 81 Recognition of Sounds. Halftone 85 Foreign Lands 105 Lilacs. Halftone 144 Mother Nature's Children. Color Plate 150 Columbus Before the Court of Spain. Halftone 166 "Somebody Has Been Sleeping in My Bed, and Here She Is." Halftone 168 Winding the Maypole. Halftone 174 Number Chart Showing Facts Connected with the Number 7 221 Number Charts Showing Plan for Counting by Tens 228 Device for Drill in Addition 336 Lesson in Number. Halftone 269 The Robin's Nest. Halftone 292 Some of Our Favorite Flowers. Color Plate 314 CHAPTER ONE DISCIPLINE Train up a child in the way he should go; and when he is old, he will not depart from it. — Solomon. The end and aim of all education is the development of char- acter. — Col. Francis W. Parker. 1. Discipline Defined. Discipline is that wise adjust- ment of plans, rules and conditions that keeps the pupils working towards the desired goal willingly, happily, patiently and successfully, without consciousness of friction or undue fatigue. The school whose pupils are interested and busy, doing their assigned work quietly, happily and at the right time, with no evidence of unpleasant restraint or unrest, and from no other apparent motive than that they love their work and their teacher — that school has reached the highest ideal of proper discipline. Such a school, you may be sure, has a teacher who cherishes high ideals of character-building, and by love, sympathy, tact and patience has brought her pupils into happy fellowship. In such cases, teacher and pupils are working cheerfully and happily together, loving the work and honoring them- selves and one another, the one purpose common to all being to do the best possible thing for the school and for them- selves as units in the school. The motto, expressed or unex- pressed, of such a school is, "Each for all, and all for the Right." Perhaps the sorely-tried teacher, working under many disadvantages, may say that such a school in any grade is nearly, if not wholly, impossible. Perhaps most of you may say that in a primary school such results are always impossible. At this moment we distinctly recall arriving at a small village whose only school building contained but four rooms. Reaching the schoolhouse, we entered the vestibule and 2 Public School Methods from that at once stepped to the door of the primary room, which stood hospitably open. To our surprise, we saw a room well filled with boys and girls from five to eight years of age, but no teacher. Looking up brightly as they heard our footsteps, they smilingly responded to our " Good Morn- ing" and explained that their teacher was "upstairs, giving the music lesson." "And you are able to take care of yourselves without a teacher?" "Oh, yes; we do it every day," came the prompt reply. "Do you tell her of the bad things you do when she is out of the room?" queried the supervisor, teasingly. "We don't do bad things," flashed a dark-eyed little girl from the larger group; "we'd be ashamed to. Our teacher trusts us." A glance sufficed to show that this was the general senti- ment of the room, and the visitor hastened to apologize for the unwarranted question and to commend the school for being so truly trustworthy. Those children understood that their teacher would not leave them except when compelled by other duties, and considered it a matter of loving loyalty and pride to uphold the good name of their room during these unavoidable absences. This was demonstrated again and again during the several days of the inspector's visit. A few things worthy of remembrance were noted in this case: (i) There was perfect sympathy and confidence between this teacher and her pupils. (2) To guard them against the many temptations that result from idleness, she always assigned definite work for each pupil to do dur- ing the half -hour of her absence. (3) She never failed to examine the work on her return. (4) She always thanked the little ones for the good order they maintained during her absence — not always in formal expressions of thanks, but more often by a quick, smiling glance of appreciation or such cordially uttered remarks as "This is what I like to find," "This does me good," "This makes my heart feel Discipline 3 warm," "This makes me happy." (5) This teacher was only twenty years old, and the visit occurred before she had completed her first year of teaching. (6) She had been trained for teaching in a city training school for teachers; and, moreover, she possessed those great essentials to a primary teacher's success, "honest lovingness and patient firmness." 2. Ideals. In discipline, as in instruction, the teacher must have definite aims. She must set a standard of char- acter which she wishes her pupils to attain, and then strive so to manage her school that most of her pupils, at least, will approach nearer to her ideal each day. No teacher can succeed in building character unless she possesses high ideals of excellence which she expects her pupils so reach. She must not only form these ideals herself; she must also lead her pupils to do the same. Do not be afraid of the dream side of life. "The dream side of life is the great side of life. The present and the future are full of new possibilities and of unknown quantities; we can be more successful discoverers and explorers in the child realm than we have ever been before." "Think what you want your pupils to be ten, twenty years, hence, and labor to set up now the ideals to which, through years, their souls shall grow." These quotations from leading educators show that the true aim of discipline extends far beyond securing an orderly school. That similar views are held by others may be seen from the following quotations. The first quotation is from an address by Ex-President Roosevelt, delivered at the founding of St. Patrick's Church, Washington, D. C, Nov. 20, 1904. He said: I wish to-day to dwell upon this thought — that while in this country we need wise laws, honestly and fearlessly executed, and while we cannot afford to tolerate anything but the highest standard in the public service of the government, yet in the last analysis the future of our country must depend upon the quality of the individual home, of the individual man or woman in that home. The future of this country depends upon the way in which the average man and the average woman in it does his or her duty, and that largely 4 Public School Methods depends upon the way in which the average boy or girl is brought up. . . . I wish to see in the average American citizen the development of the two sets of qualities which we can roughly indicate as sweet- ness and strength — the qualities on the one hand which make the man able to hold his own, and those which on the other hand make him jealous for the rights of others just as much as for his own rights. We must have both sets of qualities. In the first place the man must have the power to hold his own. I do not much care for the coward or the moral weakling. I want each of you boys — and the girls just as much — and each of you young men and young women, to have the qualities without which people may be amiable and pleasant while things go well, but without which they cannot succeed in times of stern trial. I wish to see in the man, manliness; in the woman, womanli- ness. I wish to see courage, perseverance, the willingness to face work, to face danger, if it is necessary, the determination not to shrink back when temporarily beaten in life, but to come up again and wrest triumph from defeat. I want to see you, men, strong men and brave men; and, in addition, I wish to see each man of you feel that his strength and his courage but make him the worse unless to that strength and courage are joined the qualities of tenderness towards those he loves who are dependent upon him, and of right dealing with all his neighbors. The second quotation, which is no less valuable, is from a paper prepared by a prominent business man, who at the time was president of the board of education in his city. He said: The thing is to teach correctly man's correct relation to man and to bring it home so effectually that the child will remember the lesson and practice it during life. The great trouble with man- kind is selfishness. The limitations upon personal action should be taught the young. They should be taught that one's own per- sonal rights end exactly where another's rights begin and be taught to observe that line with scrupulous care. ... I would teach the young that the most honorable man is the honest and industrious citizen who uses all his faculties for his own and society's good, without regard to the capacity in which he is employed. I would teach them that the man to honor is the useful one, and that the one to shun is the dissolute, lazy one, no matter what his apparent condition in the world, no matter how much money he has or how engaging his personality. Discipline 5 I would impress upon them the beauty and excellence of all things which make for honor, integrity and character, and the hideous- ness of all things which detract therefrom. Finally, before leaving the subject of ideals, we would commend to all teachers, for inspiration and help, the Teacher's Creed, by Edwin Osgood Grover, emphasizing particularly the following extracts: "I believe in boys and girls, the men and women of a great to-morrow. ... I believe in the curse of ignorance, in the efficiency of schools, in the dignity of teaching and in the joy of serving others. .... I believe in beauty in the schoolroom, in the home, in daily life, and in out-of-doors. ... I believe in laughter, in love, in faith, in all ideals and distant hopes that lure us on. ..." 3. The Ends of School Discipline. The ends to be secured by means of school discipline are "(i) to train pupils in self-control and self-direction — self-conduct; (2) to train the will to act habitually from right motives. Among the great occasions for will-training are the development of the school virtues, punctuality, regularity, neatness, accuracy, silence, industry and obedience; also to strengthen the gen- eral virtues, truthfulness, good-will, kindness, courtesy, generosity, cheerfulness, unselfishness, honesty, justice and the like." 1 It is easy to see that the second end is specific and demands specific results; also that the first is general in its nature and when completed the result is, also, general, being no less than the poise and balance of a well-rounded character, a character which embodies all the virtues enumerated by Dr. White. Caution. Note that will-training, not will-breaking, is what is needed, and that the will is to be trained to "act habitually from right motives" — two most important con- siderations. 4. Habits. A habit of thought or of action is caused by repeating a thought or act until it becomes automatic. 1 Emerson E. White: School Management. 6 Public School Methods Then it is called into evidence always by the recurrence of the same condition or others similar to those that first caused it. Habits are strengthened by exercise and die out gradually from neglect and disuse. Hence, it is all- important that the teacher of young children should make a practice of commending by word or manner all evidences of kindness, generosity, honesty, truthfulness or other desir- able traits, for the double purpose of inducing the repeti- tion of the same act on future occasions, and, by the law of suggestion, implanting the same idea in the minds of other pupils who may be more or less lacking in the trait commended. Caution. The teacher must be careful in exercising this law of suggestion. Effective commendation requires a per- fectly natural manner and tone and must never seem to have any motive beyond what appears on the surface. If the teacher "point the moral" of her commendation of one pupil by so much as a significant look at another who is an offender, she may antagonize the very one she wishes to help. Whenever possible, it is most highly important that bad habits should be permitted to die out of the conscious- ness of a child by taking no public notice of them and by guarding against occasions for their reappearance until time blots them from memory. For instance, as Raub wisely says, "Much of the stubbornness in children results from the hastiness of the teacher who antagonizes by command- ing. Courtesy is needed more than the command. The child needs encouragement, not censure, to make him do better." " Bad habits," says Fielding, " are as infectious by example as the plague itself by contact." It is important, therefore, that very young and very susceptible children be kept from associating intimately with those who are known to be untruthful, dishonest or possessed of some other evil habit. On the other hand, the ones thus afflicted need to be kept much with the teacher and treated with the utmost kind- Discipline 7 ness, with no betrayal of distrust. Until the fault is cured, devise constant ways for calling its opposite virtue into activity, commend its appearance and do everything possible to strengthen it. Let this child's playmates be chosen from the older and morally stronger of the pupils who will not be tainted by contact. Thus, with time and patience, the evil habit will be eradicated because its opposite good has grown up in its place. May not right doing be made so attractive as to become infectious by example? Dryden once rather sententiously remarked, "We first make our habits, then our habits make us," which may be interpreted to mean that character itself is really but the aggregation of our daily habits of thought, speech and action. Caution. In order to secure the great patience, self- restraint and sympathy needed when trying to lead a pupil to overcome a bad habit, try to break yourself of any fixed habit. If difficult for you, a mature person, what must the struggle be for weak, immature wills with no fixed prin- ciples of life to help and guide? Bear in mind that self- restraint and patience become habitual if persistently exercised. 6. Order and Disorder. There is probably no one thing that so quickly makes or unmakes a teacher's reputation as the reports in regard to the order in her schoolroom. Every casual visitor, official or non-official, feels fully able to pronounce upon this point. Even the youngest pupil sits in judgment upon the teacher's administration and carries home highly colored accounts which have undue weight in determining her status in the community. Finally, she is tersely pronounced "no good" or "all right," accord- ing to the evidence that has determined public opinion. What good order and good discipline are, we have already endeavored to show by examples. What, then, is disorder? One teacher's definition would be whispering; another's, restless children; another's, chil- dren who talk too much; another's, untidy or uncleanly pupils. Leaving seats, asking to leave the room, chronic thirst, 8 Public School Methods coughing, scattering papers, dropping pencils, slates, books, fretting and crying over lessons, annoying neighbors, scuffling of feet, truancy, tardiness, frequent absences — there is no end to the petty trials which singly or in the aggregate we classify as disorder, and when these conditions become chronic in a school we say of the teacher, "She has no discipline," or "She has a very disorderly school." A facetious individual of a philosophic turn of mind once defined dirt as misplaced matter. In the same way we might with propriety define disorder as misplaced activity. It seems to us that it would be well if all teachers would take the attitude of a skilful, philosophic physician. When one of these disorderly tendencies appears in concrete form in a child or group of children, the first thing is to con- sider it as a symptom of some hidden disorder for which there must be either a mental or a physical cause. The next step is to study the case until the cause is located. The third step is to remove the cause, and the fourth, and last, is to change conditions so as to prevent the cause from leading the child again into error. Caution. The immediate need may and probably will require immediate action on the part of the teacher, to restore temporary equilibrium pending a full study of the case, just as a skilled physician makes his patient "com- fortable" while seeking for the real cause of trouble and deciding upon the proper remedy for the same. 6. Whispering. Whispering is not wrong of itself, but if freely indulged in during school hours it becomes a nuisance, because it wastes the time of the offenders and disturbs other pupils who wish to study or recite in quiet. There are various partial remedies for this trouble, (i) Quietly get the attention of the children and explain the situation clearly to them. Let them know why you object to whispering. Their own good sense shows them the truth of what you put before them, and, if you have their affec- tion and confidence, they will try hard to help you and the school. (2) After your appeal, should there be willful Discipline 9 persistence, separate the offenders by changing their seats so they may not tempt one another. (3) Sometimes give a whispering recess of two, three, four or five minutes as a reward for previous self-restraint, because of which you have finished the recitation a little ahead of time. (4) Give a minute between recitations for pupils to ask necessary questions of you or of their neighbors. This will prevent disturbing recitations by questions, whispered or otherwise, when your time and attention belong wholly to the class. (5) Allow pupils to whisper, very quietly, enough to ask for really necessary things, or to say "Thank you" for a courtesy rendered. Cautions. (1) If these privileges are persistently abused, as they sometimes are, take away the privilege, saying quietly, and without show of irritation, " I am very sorry that I cannot let Carl have the privilege any longer. He does not seem to care to help us by not disturbing the school." After a day or two of deprivation, should Carl plead for forgiveness, get his promise to "remember not to abuse the privilege," and restore him to favor. If the second trial proves futile and he willfully violates faith, take away the privilege for a much longer time, until Carl learns that good faith and helpfulness win legitimate priv- ileges as surely as broken faith deprives him of them; that doing right brings him happiness and sunny condi- tions. (2) Do not call upon the pupils to report whispering of themselves or others. (3) Remember that what seems willful disobedience may easily be the result of forgetfulness or due to a habit. (4) Deal in a similar manner with those other special privileges of the schoolroom, leaving the room, leaving seats, talking, etc. It is well to arrange a quiet signal code, like the raising of one finger, two fingers, etc., between the pupils and yourself, by which the want may be indicated and the privilege granted without the interruption caused by spoken words. 10 Public School Methods (5) Keep track of those to whom the special privilege is given, and never allow violations to become chronic. Have it understood that no child may leave the room when one is already out; also, that each child must return to the room in the shortest time possible. These precautions are vital, because laxity in these directions sometimes results in evils very difficult to eradicate or even to trace. For instance, the privilege of leaving the room is based upon a supposed necessity, but it is possible to use the oppor- tunity to rifle pocketbooks, lunch-baskets, or to do other reprehensible things to which those of peculiarly weak wills are liable. 7. Thieving. Thieving is a grievous but not uncommon fault among children, especially before they are old enough to understand the gravity of the offense. When a case of theft is discovered, it seems best to keep the matter from the other pupils, to have an early conference with the parents for the purpose of learning whether this is a newly developed fault or one of long standing, and then privately to talk with the offender about the wrong done. If the child belongs to a well-to-do family and has con- siderate treatment at home, then, about all that can be done is to secure the cooperation of the parents in remov- ing temptations, in arousing the moral sense into activity, and in being determinedly alert to notice and commend efforts at right doing. Best of all is it to lead the offender to see for himself how much happier he is when the fear of discovery is entirely removed and to taste the full sweet- ness of being trusted by teacher and friends. On the other hand, when such an offender proves to be physically ill-conditioned because of lack of proper quality and quantity of food, shelter and clothing, or to have been made nervous, fearful and cowardly by reason of harsh, unkind 'treatment and frequent beatings, the case is entirely different in its nature and the treatment must be different. Knowing the cause of the trouble, the obvious law is to supply the child regularly with proper bodily comforts or Discipline 11 with the love and sympathy for which his small soul may be starving. These will remove his temptations and make him worthy of trust and confidence. 8. Tardiness and Absence. Children who are thoroughly interested in their school and who love and trust their teacher will never play truant nor of their own accord be either absent or tardy. The inference is obvious. However, both absence and tardiness sometimes occur even among such pupils. There may be illness at home; the clock may be wrong, or the weather too cold or inclement for their scanty clothing. Every case of absence or tardiness should be investigated in order to find out what caused it, and then no word of blame should be spoken for that which is unavoidable. An ambitious teacher desiring to make a record for punctuality sometimes creates such a sentiment on the subject that children come to school under circumstances that no just outsider could commend. Sometimes this enthusiastic desire for local supremacy in promptness and regularity spreads itself all over a county, and we have seen this sentiment so strong in one state that the universal motto appeared to be, " Better not to come to school at all than to come late." Such an instance is a fine example of how popular opinion may be so won over to the side of the teachers and superintendents that what was meant as an unmixed good operates as a grave injustice to many little children. The skilful teacher will discover numerous devices which assist in securing promptness; among these are reading or telling an interesting story at the beginning of the session, teaching new games to those who reach the school building fifteen minutes before school calls, and hinting at some- thing that may be done at this time, but keeping the nature of the work a secret, so that only those who come early may know what it is. The teacher who can keep her pupils interested will have few unnecessary cases of tardiness. 12 Public School Methods 9. Restlessness. Restless children, those who drop pencils, scuffle feet, annoy their neighbors and do other trying things — what is to be done with them? Study every nervous child. Nine times out of ten its physical condi- tions are wrong and cause the restlessness. Desk and seat are poorly adjusted, the air is heavy or over-heated, the light is bad, eyesight or hearing is deficient, illness is com- ing on — any one of a hundred different things may be the cause of the nervous state that is producing trouble for yourself and others. When the restlessness is general, venti- late the room, give a brisk drill in light calisthenics, send the children in a quiet but brisk scamper up and down the aisles and around the room, or let all the children join in a lively motion song. Any of these is a legitimate outlet for the pent-up nervousness, and the change of air and absorb- ing activity will set the blood into normal circulation and change the thought into a healthy, joyous channel, effectually banishing the restlessness and half-developed mutiny of the moment before. Suppose it is only one who is restless. If you decide that he is restless because he, alone, needs exercise in the open air, call him to you, quietly send him forth with the suggestion, "Run around the schoolhouse three times as fast as you can go, and then come in." None but you and he know on what errand he has been sent. None but you and he know what his smile and nod mean on his return. But all can see that he now settles happily down to work. Or it may be that he has accomplished all the work assigned and is merely restless and annoying because he is idle. In that case, find pleasant, legitimate occupation for him. See Volume Two, Chapter Two, Construction Work. For the younger pupils, a little more work like that already assigned may be given to fill out the time, or the sand table or blackboard may be brought into use. In case there is need to supply older pupils with extra work to fill the time, the teacher may provide from the library or other sources, books and magazines relating to the work Discipline 13 of the week. If references to these are written on the black- board near the table where the books are kept, the pupil can find the articles and interest himself in their contents. 10. Obedience. " 'There are two kinds of people,' said the teacher, after all were seated, 'those that command, those that obey. No man is fit to command until he has learned to obey— he will not know how. . . . There are laws everywhere — we couldn't live without them— laws of nature, God, and man. Until we learn the law and how to obey it, we must go carefully and take the advice of older heads. We couldn't run a school without laws in it- laws that I must obey as well as you. I must teach, and you must learn. The first two laws of the school are teach and learn — you must help me to obey mine; I must help you to obey yours. And we'll have as much fun as possible; but we must obey.' "' Obedience, or rather what passes for obedience, seems to be of many kinds, owing to differing standards, chiefly, but sometimes to differing conditions. There are many teachers and even more parents who appear to think that obedience has been secured when compliance has been rendered even at the cost of a great waste of time and a great clash of wills. Obviously such compliance is but makeshift and not more than half-hearted obedience, at best. The obedience really worth the name is the unhesitating, prompt and will- ing compliance with a request or command. Let us hope that in the schoolroom and in the home the day may not be far distant when the necessary command will always bear the form of a request, given in a pleasant tone that implies instant obedience and yet in a manner that leaves nothing of true courtesy to be desired. This is the ideal towards which all people of refinement and culture are working. 11. Rules or Laws. Obedience, from its very nature, implies something to obey, and that somethin g we call a 1 Irving Bacheller: Darrell of the Blessed Isles. 14 Public School Methods law, a rule or a regulation. Every school must have definite laws as standards of conduct for teacher and pupils. These laws may be written or unwritten. In some of the best schools we have seen, the pupils, if questioned, might not have been able to quote a single law of the school. There was, however, a sense of law pervading these schools and the pupils were giving tacit, almost unconscious obedience to teachers who knew how to suggest doing or not doing, in a manner to win easy compliance. (a) Characteristics of School Laws. School laws, to be valuable, must be (i) few in number; (2) clearly under- stood; (3) perfectly just and reasonable; (4) general in char- acter, to protect the entire school; (5) executed promptly, impartially, serenely. The best laws always grow out of needs that are general and easily apparent to all. Children instinctively prefer order to disorder, demand fair play, and give greater respect to a teacher who wisely enforces obedience at the proper time than to one who weakly yields to caprice, whims, teasing or tears on the part of the pupils. (b) Enforcement of Rules. A teacher needs to be careful about saying no, but when she decides that she must say it, the no should not be changed to yes. When privileges are asked, grant them if you can consistently do so. Nothing is ever really gained by playing the role of the petty tyrant. Such a course invariably produces antagonism, personal dis- like, and frequently the result is avowed hostility and open rebellion. When there is any doubt about the desirability of grant- ing the request, beware of answering hastily. It is hard to retreat gracefully when once committed to any course. Better say, " Wait a little. I must think that over before I can answer." This, said pleasantly, but decidedly, satisfies the children and shuts off teasing. However, the teacher should keep in mind that little people cannot long bear sus- pense with patience, and therefore her answer ought to be given as soon as possible. If obliged to say no, the sharp Discipline 15 edge of disappointment may be taken off by prefacing the refusal with a kindly remark: "I am sorry to disappoint you, but I have thought it all over and I am obliged to say no, when I should really like to say yes if I could." This will be all that is necessary when mutual confidence and trust are thoroughly established. The children will bear the dis- appointment bravely because of their love and respect for the teacher. As soon as convenient afterward, plan some little pleasant surprise for the pupils and preface the announcement with "You bore your disappointment so bravely that I am glad to tell you, etc., etc." This is one way of proving to the school that you are glad to grant favors when the good of the school permits it. It also serves as an encouragement to future bravery under trial, and helps materially to establish the habit of cheerful obedience. (c) Preventing Disorder. After all is said and done, it is the law of prevention that is most needed in a primary school. The teacher with skill in reading symptoms knows almost sooner than the pupil when mischief is about to occur. Sympathy and tact save the situation by a helpful look, a little admonitory shake of the head, a single cautious word spoken at the right moment and in the right manner. "A word fitly spoken is like apples of gold in pictures of silver" — but the word must be fitly spoken! Cultivate the intuition, to be able to see the beginnings of things. Cultivate sympathy, to be able to see from the child's point of view. Cultivate tact, to be able to render the help or correction needed in the least obtrusive and least offensive way possible. Show children the need of running away from temptation, and lead them in the right way. Children are seldom malicious in their mischief. Children seldom cherish grudges to the point of seeking revenge. They resent insult in word and manner, tone or look, but they even bear punishment without resentment when they see its justice. Frequently, when the case is explained and they are made the judge, their sense of justice compels them to impose 16 Public School Methods a more severe penalty upon themselves than the teacher would. 12. Need of More Sympathy. Oppressed by many cares which rest heavily upon their unaccustomed shoulders, there are many teachers who fail in sympathy, forgetting their own childish heartaches and longings to be understood by the grown-up people of their acquaintance. And from the lack of sympathy such teachers fail to reach the hearts of their pupils, and hence gain no real power over them. Uncon- scious of their own failing, they wonder why their efforts are futile — but continue their mistaken course. Very few teachers are really devoid of sympathy for the obvious trials and griefs of a child's life. It is the little things, too small to be mentioned by name, wherein they are most apt to fail. Children are often repressed and restrained when they need but expression and direction. They are corrected when they do wrong, but not commended when they do right. In a primary school, especially, such comical things are said and done every day and with such perfect unconsciousness as to be droll in the extreme. The teacher experiences an internal convulsion of mirth, but dares not laugh, lest the child's feelings be hurt. Sympathy she must have. She looks up and finds a pair of bright eyes just dancing with appreciation of the fun that no others but himself and the teacher have noted. A single flash of delighted understand- ing passes from his soul to the teacher's soul. The work in school goes on. No one else has noticed anything unusual, but a bond of friendship has been created. Nor is this mental telegraphy for fun alone. It acts as spontaneously when some unexpected instance of pathos occurs. The case may not admit of words, but a flash of pity is exchanged. Again, a beautiful thought, a gracious phrase, a bit of exquisite color, or what you will, calls forth pleasure that needs to be shared and brings a flash of appre- ciative understanding. 13. Maxims and Proverbs. The timely utterance of some appropriate bit of prose or verse is more helpful to a child Discipline 17 than more decided forms of reproof. One is a reminder, the other a corrective. Suppose you find two pupils quarrel- ing, on the verge of a hand-to-hand fight, even; a hand laid gently on the arm of each combatant and a softly uttered " Blessed are the peacemakers, for they shall be called the children of God," will, in our opinion, go farther towards bringing little children to a feeling of shame and contrition than any number of verbal explosives would do. Proverbs, maxims and appropriate lines of verse are also most efficient as helpful reminders to children when they linger over the doing of some duty not quite to their liking. For example, a general request has been given, something for the entire class or the school to do, and there is a good deal of delay in the response. We have often seen all hesita- tion banished and cheery, prompt obedience result from the teacher smilingly quoting from Phoebe Cary: "If you're told to do a thing, And mean to do it, really, Never let it be by halves, Do it fully, freely." Again, there may be some shrugging of shoulders and even some pouting over a task. Try " Tis working with the heart and soul, That makes our duty pleasure." Another time a child becomes discouraged over a piece of work that "goes all wrong" in spite of his best efforts. Per- haps the teacher sees that the efforts have become too impa- tient and that the child has reached the verge of tears. Cour- age and equilibrium are restored by a whispered "All that's great and good is done Just by patient trying." 14. Happiness as a Factor in Discipline. Happiness is a most potent factor in school discipline, and in a primary school it is probably the teacher's most helpful aid. It takes but a little to make a child happy for a short time. But to keep him habitually happy and contented, so that obedience becomes easy and a matter of course, requires a 18 Public School Methods deep, far-reaching knowledge of child-nature, a profound sympathy, genuine affection, boundless patience, firmness, gentleness, great tajt, keen intuitions, cheerfulness and a large stock of good common sense. All the qualities that make the best mother are needed to make the best primary teacher — plus training and love of teaching. To secure the best working atmosphere for the school does not need a costly building or expensive equipments. But it does need cleanliness, tidiness, a cordial, friendly spirit, harmony of action, and the bodily comfort of the children. Give the children a happy atmosphere to work in, an interesting, sympathetic teacher, plenty of suitable work and recreation, and the word discipline will cease to be a source of anxiety and torment. See Games and Plays, pages 175-187, Sections 14-25. 15. Causes of Disord3r. Among the numerous causes of disorder in the schoolroom, the following underlie them all: (a) The Teacher. It will be difficult for any teacher to believe that in herself may lie some, if not all, of the most potent causes of disorder, but to the unprejudiced observer this fact has long been evident. One teacher is wholly un- trained for her work and knows not what to do in order to prepare for it; hence, there is a very faulty school organization and no program at all, or but a poor one made without regard to the rules of pedagogy or psychology. Another has had training and has a well-prepared program, but by nature and habit is careless. Hence, her program is of little use, and her hair, dress, desks, tables and floor are in a state of dis- order that has become chronic. A third teacher is orderly and punctual, but has a nervous, impatient nature that shows itself in a rasping voice, lack of poise, serenity and self-control. She strikes the bell sharply and every nerve and muscle is tense. Another teacher presents a sharp contrast to the last — perhaps to all three before named. Her health is superb, she knows nothing of "nerves" in herself and never provides Discipline 19 against them in others. But her voice is loud, her move- ments bustling, all her signals noisy. She goes through the schoolroom like a human storm. She needs a great deal of fresh air and is reckless of drafts. Her failure is lack of refinement and lack of sympathy for bodily ills and inherited weaknesses. Her pupils "will gain little of culture from her example. On the other hand, she is more wholesome to them than the " nervous' ' teacher who frets, scolds and con- stantly irritates. We might go on picturing types of teachers who uncon- sciously cause disorder and then wonder why it exists and why their children are " so much harder to govern than those in the adjoining room, where the teacher has not had half as many years of experience." It is pleasanter and more effective to note the sunny face, the sweet voice, the tidy person, the quiet, serene manner, the air of motherly sym- pathy and the evidences of skill in organizing and teaching so clearly manifest in the next room, and the effect of all these so plainly stamped upon her pupils. We need not draw the moral. Suffice it for our individual encouragement that every effort we make for the sake of our pupils, every grace of mind or body that we cultivate, not only gives us additional power and success in the school- room, but each of these becomes a permanent personal pos- session, opening up a world of happiness never possessed, and scarcely dreamed of, before. It is essentially the verifi- cation of the old command: "But seek ye first the kingdom of God and his righteousness, and all these things shall be added unto you." (b) Physical Condition of the Pupil. Bodily comfort is one of the chief factors in good conduct. An inexperienced teacher may not give this matter sufficient consideration, and because of such oversight have a disorderly school. Concerning this, one of our foremost educational writers says: The power of children to commit or retain lessons and the power to repress anger and other nervous outbreaks are weakened by fatigue of body. Both are more vigorous in the morning than at 20 Public School Methods night. Fatigue, too, often produces a melancholy or depressed feel- ing. A hungry man is harder to control than a well-fed one. Untruth- fulness frequently proceeds from a want of courage to face conse- quences, and lack of courage is frequently due to ill-nourished nerves. A lack of quality as well as quantity of food produces, as observa- tion shows, irritability, ugliness and viciousness. Overwork, worry, teasing of children, help form, or rather deform, character. 1 (c) Foul Air. Defective ventilation is one of the most prolific sources of disorder. This will be fully explained in Chapter Twenty, Section 3 (c). 16. Silent Influences. The children of the primary grades are in the absorbent stage, easily and deeply impressed by their surroundings. Curiosity is perpetually alert, imagi- nation highly active, imitation excessive. At the same time the will-power is weak, reasoning undeveloped, self-control unknown or exceedingly unstable. In these children, then, all powers and possibilities are in the plastic con- dition. Their physical, mental and spiritual growth is greater during these years than at any later period, and their whole nature is more sensitive to influences than ever again. For all these reasons, it is of vital importance that children be surrounded by what will awaken and strengthen pleasant emotions, noble thoughts, kindly affections, fine ideals. They should live in an atmosphere of sympathy, serenity, and harmony. Growth is making great drafts upon their nervous strength, and their environment should not add to this dissipation of force through friction, over-fatigue or the unconscious irritation that comes from uncleanliness, un- sightly objects, a bad picture, vulgar or profane speech or antagonistic companions. During these years they need a teacher who, without over-indulgence or pampering, calms and soothes; who stimulates their efforts by judicious praise; who sympathizes with their failures, but sets them again at their tasks with a word of direction and encouragement; who is kind under all circumstances; who knows by intuition and study how to arrange colors, adjust lights, make herself a 'Dr. M. V. O'Shea. Discipline 21 pleasant object to look upon and her voice a pleasant sound to hear. In these years, also, there should be for the child many lessons of beauty, usefulness, patience and strength drawn from the great world of out-of-doors. The time will come in his life when he must learn to meet and overcome many jarring, disagreeable obstacles. But he should learn this lesson gradually and his first years be so strongly impressed with the beauty and sweetness of life in its best forms that, later, he will never be tempted to choose what is gross, low or degrading. 17. Punishment for Primary Grades. The word discipline should not be made synonymous with punishment, nor punishment with whipping. Discipline is a generic term, including many phases of school adjustment. Punishment includes whipping, but recognizes it as the lowest member of its disciplinary family, one not now in good repute for any school, and least of all for the primary school. It is our belief that if teachers will become thoroughly efficient in the exercise of the laws of prevention and sug- gestion, punishment, even in its most limited sense, will be almost unnecessary among primary children. With their susceptible temperaments and keen sensibilities, they crave affection, trust, approbation, honorable position in school. These are perfectly natural, legitimate and forcible incentives to right conduct and rewards for well-doing, and should be used freely until the child has gained the moral strength to do right for its own sake. When any punishment must be resorted to, it should be inflicted solely to prevent the return of the same offense and never for the sake of "getting even" with the offender. It should be natural and logically related to the nature of the offense. For example, if a pupil abuses the privileges of the playground he must have his recess alone until glad to conform to the established rules. The punishment must be demonstrated to be absolutely just. Punishment must be certain and given in private. Fretting, scolding, shaking or 22 Public School Methods other personal indignities are worse than useless and only stir up anger and cause loss of dignity and esteem. The same result occurs when a fault is punished to-day and passed over to-morrow. 18. Rewards and Prizes. Rewards for effort are natural and should be given freely enough to act as a healthful stim- ulant, but not so freely as to make the children weakly dependent upon them. Rewards should seldom take a material form. A smile, a look or word of approval, an affec- tionate pat upon the head are more lasting and more truly appreciated than actual presents. On very great occasions a note of approval, or a report of his record in class, when that is the result of real effort, may be sent home by the pupil to his parents. Whatever the reward, it should always come as the outgrowth of honest effort, not something that is offered in advance. Prizes, at best, are of doubtful benefit. They usually fall to the one who has the greatest natural ability and not to the one who makes the greatest effort. They arouse, oftentimes, bitter envy and jealousy, and are apt to estrange the closest friends. They encourage pupils to work hardest for material returns, rather than for the higher but less tangible benefits. On the whole, the laws of prize-giving in school "are more honored in the breach than in the obser- vance." 19. Summary. The qualities necessary to a fine disci- plinarian are tact, self-control, sympathy, charity and love; impartiality, firmness, courage, cheerfulness, perseverance, earnestness, enthusiasm and equability; tidiness, and a cul- tured voice. Fortunately, all these virtues and graces may be developed by persevering effort, even when nature has poorly endowed us. Add to these, high ideals, right physical conditions, plenty of interesting work and proper attention to the play- ground. Add, also, numerous good songs chosen for inspiring sentiment, beautiful melody and nice adaptation to seasons and occasions. Discipline 23 Avoid friction, move along the lines of least resistance, be watchful not to overtax the pupils, and intersperse work with play so as to prevent undue fatigue. "Be patient with the children's faults and shortcomings. Remember that they come to you from all sorts of conditions and surroundings, and that they are now what these environ- ments and conditions have made them. Out ot the abun- dance of a loving and sympathetic heart, teach them, lift them up and help them to be what you would have them be. Be ready with 'busy work,' and keep them occupied. A thousand times saying 'Be quiet,' 'Don't make a noise,' and 'What are you doing, Johnnie?' is of no avail." " Energy and activity must be spent. Wisely prepare for it. Watch and plan and work, forgetting all else but these little ones in your charge, and success is sure to crown your efforts. 1 " See, also, Songs, page 187, Sections 26-33; and Moral Training, Volume Two, page 248. 20. Books for Teachers. Children's Rights. Kate Douglas Wiggin. Houghton, Mifflin & Co. Gentle Measures for the Management and Training of the Young. Jacob Abbott. Harper & Brothers. How to Keep Order. J. L. Hughes. A. Flanagan Co. Theory and Practice of Teaching. David Page. American Book Company. School Management. E. E. White. American Book Company. Common Sense Didactics. Henry Sabin. Rand. McNally & Co. The Point of Contact. E. P. DuBois. Dodd, Mead & Co. Unconscious Tuition. Huntington. E. L. Kellogg & Co. The Evolution of Dodd. W. H. Smith. Book Supply Company. Emmy Lou. George Madden Martin. McClure, Phillips & Co. The Hoosier Schoolmaster. E. E. Eggleston. Bobbs, Merrill & Co. Waymarks for Teachers. S. L. Arnold. Silver, Burdett & Co. TEST QUESTIONS 1. Explain how a school may be quiet and orderly and yet not in a condition of good discipline. May pupils be altogether obedient and still be gaining nothing from their obedience ? ' 1 Southwestern School Journal. 24 Public School Methods 2. Among those things considered worthy of remem- brance by the inspector who visited a school during the absence of the teacher, what seems to you to be the most important? Can you say that the pupils were under the control of the teacher even during her absence? Do you consider it advisable for a teacher frequently to leave her school to its own devices? What legitimate means has she of knowing the conduct of a school during her absence? 3. Of what benefit to the teacher is the study of such an address as that delivered by Ex- President Roosevelt? Tabu- late the chief points he makes in the quotation in this lesson. 4. What are the best methods to use in breaking up a bad habit in primary children? Do you think that good habits are harder to establish than bad habits? What rea- sons can you give for your answer? Is the telling of false- hoods a serious fault in small children? Is it a common fault? How would you proceed to break up this habit. 5. Why is it not wise to call upon children for a report of their whispering? What forms of disorder in school are worse than whispering? Formulate a rule which shall tell when whispering is a detriment to the school. 6. What are school laws, and what should be their char- acteristics? How may maxims, proverbs and other forms of memory gems be used to aid discipline? Give quotations not found in this lesson which could be used to strengthen obedience in primary children. 7. What is meant by the school atmosphere? How may the best working atmosphere be secured for school children? 8. Name ten causes of disorder for which teachers them- selves are to blame. Which five of these are most harmful to children? What are the qualities in teachers most helpful to primary children? 9. What are the natural rewards for children? What are the natural punishments for small children? 10. How far is a teacher justified in working for punctuality and regularity of attendance. Are there any things of greater importance in school than these? If so, what are they? CHAPTER TWO FIRST YEAR READING 1. Importance of Reading. Reading is the most impor- tant study with which the child has to deal in the first three years of his school life. The art of reading once mastered, all literature is within his reach and the pupil passes at once from the dependent to the independent stage; hence, it is of vital importance to him that his teacher be skilled in methods that will enable him to learn rapidly with the least expenditure of time and of nervous force. 2. Methods Discussed. There are various methods by which the beginnings of reading are taught, viz. : (a) The alphabet method. (b) The word method. (c) The phonic method. (d) The sentence method. (e) The eclectic method, a union of the other four. Some writers on reading methods refer to a thought method, which is but another name for the sentence method, and to an action method. The latter is usually presented in two ways: (i) by the development and teaching of verbs of action, having the meaning of the words shown by the performance of the acts for which the words stand; (2) by forming imper- ative sentences consisting of a verb of action, used alone or in combination with other words. These tell the child what to do and he performs the act to prove that (silently) he has read the command correctly. This so-called action method is not really broad enough to be dignified as a separate method, but is very valuable as a device for lending interest to the reading lesson and in removing self-consciousness. It is illustrated by a lesson given later. (a) The Alphabet Method. The alphabet method, used almost universally in America until about 1870, is now chiefly of historical interest. This method teaches one letter at a 25 26 Public School Methods time until the entire alphabet is conquered. Then short syllables are taught; as, a-b, ab; a-t, at; a-n, an, by putting two or more letters together. After the short nonsense syl- lables are spelled and pronounced, combinations of three letters, then words of one syllable, follow. The next step is joining syllables to form easy words, and the last, joining words to make sentences. The interesting old "horn-books" (modern slate with the print protected by transparent horn) were thus graded. That naming the letters of a word could have been once thought the best aid to pronouncing the word is amusing to us now. We see that, valuable as the practice was in spelling, it was almost useless for the reading of words and sentences. In the alphabet method, spelling becomes all important, and as long as educators believed reading to be an outgrowth of spelling, this method was universal. Now that we know the falsity of the assumption, the alphabet is not taught until the work of reading is fairly begun, and then chiefly from its need in oral spelling and in writing. Later, the pupil will need to know the alphabet in order to use without loss of time the dictionary and other works arranged alpha- betically. (b) The Phonic Method. In this method sounds are used as the basis of instruction. It is a spelling method, but the word is spelled by its elementary sounds, and not by the letter- names. The word is pronounced slowly until its sounds come into consciousness, and these sounds are associated with the letters representing them. The method grew out of the child's need to master without assistance the pronunciation of printed words. The alphabet method always combined something of phonics with it, for in dealing with the letters and syllables the pupils naturally gained a certain familiarity with the sounds represented by each letter. The various steps in this method are (i) the single sound, (2) combining sounds to make syllables upon which to build, (3) building words from syllables, (4) pronouncing new words, singly or in sentences, by uttering their component sounds. First Year Reading 27 The great objection to the exclusive use of the phonic method at first is that it takes weeks and months to master all the sounds and symbols that the child must have in order to interpret sentences independently. Meantime, his thought- power is weakened instead of strengthened and he gains little or nothing of value, from the literary standpoint, until his first three years of school are gone. The great value of the method, when used gradually and by easy stages, while the child is learning to read by any method which emphasizes the fact that reading is getting thought from the printed page, is that it makes the child independent by giving him a key which he may use for himself. See pages 83-92, Sections 24-33. (c) The Word Method. The word method, beginning with the first illustrated reading book (Orbis Pictus of Comen- ius, 1657), uses the single word as a unit and, in practice, the entire word is taught without any reference to the letters that compose it. The pictures of the Orbis Pictus suggested the names printed below "without using any ordinary tedious spelling." For instance, with a picture of a goose would go the words, " The goose gagleth." The " very looking upon the thing pictured suggests the name of the thing," as Comenius insisted. The child recognizes it as a whole, the same as he recognizes any material object. The word having a definite idea back of it, the meaning appeals to the child and he has less trouble to learn the word-form than a single letter. The appearance of a word is not the sum of letter-appear- ances, nor is the sound of it the sum of letter-sounds, as you will find by testing any word. The word has a character of its own, so the word method, which treats it as a distinct thing, shortens the whole process of word learning. The word method, however, does not give opportunity for extended thought, nor does it give the pupil power to pro- nounce for himself; therefore, a second and a third step are needed. The second step is to combine words to make a sentence, there being no reading possible until there is a com- plete thought to be expressed. The third step consists of 28 Public School Methods separating the words into their elements, to help the child to the independent pronunciation and spelling of new words. (d) The Sentence Method. This method makes not the letter, the sound, or the word, but the sentence, the unit in reading. The argument for such a method is as follows: The sentence is the unit of thought and holds a higher element of interest than any other thing that may be used; the child recognizes the form of a short sentence, as a whole, as easily as he does the longer single words; by this method he may be taught to read things of value with perfect expression in his very first lesson. As a second step the sentence is broken into its parts. The little reader must know the words and phrases absolutely, otherwise when new groupings of the same element occur he will be unable to recognize them. This method cannot be used exclusively, because the child must be taught to pronounce new words for himself and because he cannot recognize long sentences as wholes. (e) The Combination or Eclectic Method. This method is a judicious blending of the four just described. Combining the four gives the child the benefit of the best in each and relieves him from the objectionable features of all. Moreover, the teacher is able to give precedence to the method which she finds her own particular school most needs. For all of these reasons, then, we commend this union of methods rather than a slavish adherence to any one of them. Indeed, before the child can become able to read independently, portions of all methods will be used, no matter with what method we begin. 3. How to Unify Methods. The best results in reading seem to be obtained by beginning with the sentence method, and by using the sentences given by the pupils themselves in reply to questions from the teacher. The questions should always be about some familiar object and framed so that the child will give definite sentences as the answers. The object should have some definite attraction in itself, be present and passed from one pupil to another for close observation. Thus, there may be a pretty flower, a red apple, a whistle, a top, a ball, a doll, a pet kitten, or any other First Year Reading 29 object that is easy to get and is attractive to children from five to six years of age. In any case, an informal talking exercise should precede any formal reading lesson, until the children become acquainted and feel at home in the school- room. 4. Early Lessons, (a) The First Lesson. Children will soonest forget their shyness and homesickness in some occupa- tion that will absorb all their energies by its interest. There- fore, let each beginner on the first morning, for instance, take the ball in his hands and find out something to tell you about it; or have several different balls, one for each child. One may be of rubber, another of yarn with a bright leather cover; a third may be of celluloid, gayly colored ; a fourth, of glass ; a fifth, an ordinary baseball. Call each child by name and get the statement from each, " I have a ball," in reply to your questions, "What have you, Anna?", "What have you, John?", " What have you, Dora?", "What have you, Harry?", "What have you, Gertrude?", passed rapidly from one to another. In the same way, get other short, natural sentences called out by the question, "What color is your ball?"; as, "My ball is black." "My ball is red." "My ball is white." " My ball is red and white." Other questions will bring: "My ball is hard." "My ball is soft." "This is a rubber ball." "This is a glass ball." "This is a yarn ball." " This is a celluloid ball." 1 Cautions, (i) Do not hurry the children into nervousness and self-consciousness, but work rapidly yourself, keep interest active and thus get rapid work from the children. (2) During this and all similar exercises be natural and informal, as in ordinary conversation. (3) Note peculiarities of speech, make necessary corrections quietly and in such a manner as not to cause embarrassment. "Say it this way, Anna." If the child shows nervousness, pass to the next pupil, without insisting upon compliance. 1 Flowers may be easier to get than balls and will have much interest for the class. Children have a double interest in active objects or in those that may be given motion, and in consequence such objects should be used frequently. 30 Public School Methods One might say, pleasantly, "Anna seems a little shy to-day. I wonder if some one else will help her and say that for her this time?" This promotes friendly feeling, covers the embarrassment and lays the foundation for the much desiied spirit of helpfulness. (b) The Second Lesson. When the reading period comes around again, give out the balls in a different order; recall the sentence, " I have a ball," and say, " Now see me write what you said, on the blackboard." "What is the first word?" "Now the next word?" "And what is it you have?" Write the words as given, in large, clear script, free from shad- ing and other ornamentation. The questions are asked to hold the interest and to concentrate the attention of the class upon the form of the word as you write it. As you finish the last word, place a period after it, remark- ing, " Now I have finished writing the statement (or, what you told me) and so I put this period after it to show it is the end. See, it is just a little dot, but its name is period. You may all say the word period and then you will remember it." "Who told me what to write on the board?" "Look at the statement and tell it to me again." "How many know the first word I wrote?" "What is it, John?" "Show the word / where I wrote it." " Gertrude, what was the next word?" "Harry, show me have." "Anna, show me /." " John, tell me the first two words." " / have — what, Harry?" " Show me where it says a ball, Anna." "Tell me the second word, Dora." "Show have upon the board." "Now, the last word, Dora." "All tell the first word." "John, touch the last word." "What is it, Anna?" " Read and touch the first two words, Harry." "The last two, Dora." "Read the whole line as I point, class." "Anna, read it alone." "What is the name of this dot?" "Who remembers why I put it there?" "That is fine. You have all done well. You will be famous readers one of these days. Now pass to the board and see if you can write the word ball as I wrote it." First Year Reading 31 Cautions, (i) The above reading lesson will be easily- accomplished in ten minutes or less. Spend the remainder of the fifteen in guiding the little hands as they try to write on the board. (2) During these blackboard lessons be very careful not to question so as to cause the child to separate the article from the noun. That spoils the phrasing so essential to smoothness and expression in singing, talking or reading. (3) Teach children, by constant example and usage, to pronounce a or the as if it were an unaccented syllable of the noun to which it belongs. (c) Punctuation Marks. Make no attempt to define the terms "statement" or "sentence." The children grad- ually learn the meaning of the words from the way you use them; also that some of the sentences tell something; some ask something, and others command something. Thus you combine language with reading, adding to the child's knowl- edge and vocabulary. The period and question mark are the punctuation marks in constant use during the first year's lessons. Teach their names and use as indicated, taking no appreciable time from the lesson for it. "The question mark is placed here to show that we are through writing a question." Keep in mind that marks of punctuation are to indicate grammatical structure, and do not teach the child to think that these marks control the pauses made in reading aloud. The reading is solely to interpret thought and feeling pleas- ingly, and the sentiment alone controls the pauses. Thus, an interrogation point sometimes is followed by the rising inflection and sometimes by the falling. The period is usually followed by the falling inflection of the voice and a full stop. In negative sentences, however, or in those wherein strong doubt is expressed, the period is followed by the rising inflec- tion or by a long pause of suspension, according to the exact meaning to be conveyed. The child needs to be trained to keep his mind concentrated on what is to be expressed and to get into hearty sympathy with the thought and feeling 32 Public School Methods in each sentence or paragraph. When this is invariably followed, the expression, as a rule, will be correct and the pauses be naturally placed without any direct reference to them. Reading as an art is taught long before it may be studied as a science. (d) The Use of Capitals. In a similar way, the pupils, during the first year, may be taught three facts in regard to the use of capitals in writing, viz. : (i) People, when writing, begin every sentence with a capital letter. (2 ) Every written name of a person must begin with a capital. (3) A geographical name, when written, must begin with a capital. When a teacher has occasion to write any sentence upon the board, that sentence must always have all the capitals and punctuation marks used in their correct places, that the constant example may help to establish for the pupil the law of usage. When any sentence is drawn from a pupil in the reading exercise, and the teacher turns to write it, she remarks quietly, " I must begin this first word with a capital letter, so that everybody can tell where the sentence commences," or "to show just where the sentence begins." Occasionally ques- tion: "What kind of a letter did I call this?" "Why did I begin the first word with a capital letter and not the others in the sentence?" No need to take appreciable time for it. The frequent recalling establishes the usuage. Make no attempt to define the word capital beyond substituting the word large in its stead at times. When it first happens that the name of a pupil appears in a sentence, the teacher remarks as she writes: "Now this is Harry's name and I shall begin it with a capital H, so that we may pick it out quickly from the other words, for that is the way people write." Speak in a similar manner when- ever the opportunity occurs, till the rule for names of people is learned. In this way the rule for writing names of places may be taught. First Year Reading 33 6. Later Lessons, (a) Review. In the next reading lesson take the balls, recall for the children the sentence "I have a ball," and write it quickly and clearly upon the board. Then get such sentences as, "I have a red ball," " I have a round ball." " I have a pretty ball," by questioning, and write each sentence as given. Treat the phrase I have as a unit, now, in the reading. Drill upon the new words as before. Then quickly write on various parts of the board, "a pretty ball," "a red ball," "a round ball,"'' a great many times; also in other parts of the board "I have." Ask one child to point out and another to read each of these phrases. Then do the pointing yourself, calling upon different children to read. Work very rapidly, but very carefully. When any child fails, have another tell him and then see that the first child is called upon at intervals until he is sure. At last, send the class to the board. "John may erase / have every- where he finds it written. Dora, erase a pretty ball. Harry, a red ball. Anna, a round ball, everywhere you can find it." So continue your directions until all the phrases are erased. Previous to the lesson just given, you should have written on the blackboard the four sentences given above in order, in reverse order, and again in irregular order, and draw a curtain over them. After the phrases have been drilled upon as above, draw back the curtain; treat the entire sentences as follows: "Anna, read the first sentence;" "Gertrude, the second;" "Harry, the third;" "John, the fourth;" "Dora may read all of them." Treat in the same way each group of sentences. At last, erase as read. (b) New Lesson. The following lesson should introduce a change. Recall / have, and then by use of proper objects and questions work out the following sentences: I have a flower. I have a red flower. I have a pretty flower. I have a pretty red flower. Drill on these sentences and phrases as before, using also the word ball singly and in phrases. 34 Public School Methods We may next introduce a new verb. For the sake of the action, this new verb may well be find or bring or show. The reading lesson will be preceded by a talking exercise in which the teacher constantly uses the new verb in her re- quests, and this lesson when written upon the board may be: Find a red flower. Find a round ball. Find a pretty ball. Find a pretty flower. Find a red ball. After a quick oral drill upon the above, the teacher points to the first sentence, saying, " Read this sentence to yourself, Harry, and do just what it tells you. All the rest watch carefully, to be ready to help Harry if he makes a mistake." Have sentences read and verified thus from first to last, in reverse order and then irregularly, pupils reading and working silently all this time. This is the pupil's introduction to silent reading, as such, but from this time no day should pass with- out requiring some work of this kind, to beget care- fulness. In fact, at no time during the first year should the pupil be allowed to read any sentence orally until he has taken time first to read it silently. This course, rigidly adhered to, is of the utmost value, as it teaches the child how to study and prevents the many bad habits resulting from inattention or trying to do things without preparation. (c) Action Sentences. As a child's life is largely made up of action, action sentences may well be used in the process of learning to read. In giving a sentence for the first time, use the child's impulse to imitate. If the word hop is to be used, write it on the board with a capital and a period, to show that it is a complete thought. Then let the teacher perform the action, so the child may make the connection between the word and the action. Lastly, let the children who can "read" the sentence perform the action, or select First Year Reading 35 a slow child to perform it, and later let him "read" the sentence, e. g. : Hop. Hop to me. Hop to the door. Run. Run to me. Run to the door. Run around the room. Hop around the room. Other verbs that should be taught early in the term are run, jump, walk, fly, skip, hop, bow, look, open, shut, give, take, throw, shake, laugh, cry, sing, ring, roll, bound, drop, erase, come, go, stop, hide, bring and show. All verbs of this class are easy to teach, because the meaning is shown in each case by the action the word represents. Such words as is, are, and, but, for, if, and the like, must be taught in phrases and sentences without attempt at definition. Pupils gain the meaning by inference. (d) Pictures and Reading. The value of showing illus- trative pictures with sentences, beside adding interest, emphasizes the meaning of the sentence as it is read. If the teacher can draw on the board, however crudely, she can give meaning to a vocabulary insisted upon by the superintendent. Perry pictures and other illustrations are now so cheap that a list of words may be readily made into interesting reading through their use. From the picture, Can You Talk, a first grade teacher made the following reading lesson. All but two words in the lesson were in her required list: What do you see? I see the dog. I see the baby. I see the cat. The baby looks at the dog. The dog looks at the baby. Good morning! 36 Public School Metltods Bow-wow ! What do you say? Bow-wow! Can't you talk? The teacher showed the picture, and after the children had studied and admired it, wrote the first sentence on the board. The remaining sentences were either given first by one child and read by another, or supplied by the teacher, constant reference being made to the picture. Later, the teacher made a chart page of the lesson, pinning the picture above. Nouns are illustrated by objects, pictures, etc. When the first pronoun is given in a lesson, the teacher quickly shows how unpleasant it would be to keep repeating a person's name. " And so we use the word he to make it sound better, that is all." Conversational terms and phrases should, also, be early taught in connection with the blackboard lessons and freely used in such lessons to give greater naturalness and variety, both qualities being necessary to prevent loss of interest and consequent monotony of expression. The phrases and words best adapted to such use are Good morning; good night; how do you do; if you please (or, please); thank you; good bye; by and by; yes; no; certainly; do you; will you; can you; who; what; why; when; where; there; very soon; at once; immediately. The teaching of these words should not be hurried. Teach and use one until learned, then introduce another. Change the position of such words and phrases in the sentences very frequently and be sure that each one is taught and remem- bered as a unit, the same as a single word. Continue their use in blackboard lessons throughout the first two years. To lend greater interest and promote natural expression in these early lessons, be careful not to dwell too long upon the statement. Follow the suggestion given to teach and use a variety of action words, thus getting the command (imperative sentences) established. Also, teach the inter- rogative sentence form by questioning in such manner as to get a question from the child that may be woven naturally First Year Reading 37 into the lesson. The lessons containing these three forms are far more interesting. Introduce exclamatory forms, also, when the subject permits. (e) Other Lessons. Other blackboard lessons may be worked out and drilled upon in ways similar to the above, combining the sentence method and the word method as shown. Each day give two or three new words, reviewing the previous ones. Keep the sentences very short for the first month, but make a great many new ones from new com- binations of the same words and phrases. Before the end of the first term from ten to fifteen sentences are used in one lesson. Occasionally you should fill one entire period with review work, giving no new words. The great causes of hesitation, repetition, stumbling and mistakes in reading during the first three years are due to timidity and uncertainty in regard to the forms of the words in the sentences the pupil attempts to read. The great need is, first, to win the confidence of the child and then teach each new word so thoroughly that he cannot forget it nor mistake it. To this end, as before said, always require the child to read the sentence silently before he tries to read it orally. Train all to look carefully at each sentence given to see if they can find any new words there. Another fruitful cause of trouble for the child is intro- ducing both articles into the lessons of the first week, or two forms of the same verb. Introduce have thoroughly, if you begin with that word, before giving has or had. To use the second article too soon is sure to result in too much emphasis on the article and in separating it from the word following, thus destroying smoothness and expression in reading. Caution. The teacher who has the first year pupils must hold herself responsible for the habits they acquire and prevent bad habits by establishing good ones. 6. Oral Reading. Good oral reading is voicing the thoughts obtained from a written or printed page in a manner to please the listener, as well as to interpret the author's sentiments correctly. This necessitates (i) the instantaneous 38 Public School Methods recognition of word and phrase forms, (2) a clear, distinct articulation, (3) a pleasant voice, (4) an unconstrained man- ner, (5) a natural expression, (6) an understanding of and sym- pathy with the thought and feeling expressed by the author, (7) forgetfulness of self. All this is a matter of course when the child expresses his own sentiments to a sympathetic listener with whom he feels no constraint. The same results are quite possible in the reading of the first year pupil. Thorough work must be done in teaching the word forms; bad habits must be pre- vented, and the child taught to read every selection just as he thinks the author would say it if he were present. In other words, from the outset, the pupil should be trained to read for the author, and to the teacher and class with the direct purpose of pleasing them. 7. Local Errors in Pronunciation. In every school there are faults of articulation and peculiar pronunciations of words; therefore, the teacher should be alert to detect and note such errors for the purpose of eliminating them from the school. Suppose there is a general habit of dropping the final g. Say little about the fault, but write a list of words ending in ing and, at the time for phonic drill, have the entire school unite in pronouncing these words after you. From top to bottom, bottom to top, across the rows, skipping about, use all ways to keep the pupils on the alert to follow you. It may be that several local errors of pronunciation exist. Pupils may have great difficulty with words ending in sts, pth, dth, etc. Use the same general plan, drilling upon such words as fists, mists, posts, hosts, boasts, height, breadth, depth, length, etc. In addition to the lists, write sentences contain- ing words that are difficult to enunciate clearly; as, Swim, swan, swim! swim o'er the sea; O'er the sea, swan, swim, swim back to me. In case there is a marked tendency to blend words unpleas- antly, give such sentences as these: "Did you say ice cream or I scream?" "An ice house or a nice house?" Should First Year Reading 39 there be much of the foreign element among your pupils, there will be trouble with the sounds of th, y and /. Give much drill upon words commencing with these letters, show- ing the pupils exactly how to adjust the vocal organs to make the sound desired. This explanation and precise showing will also be necessary in teaching the difference in the sounds of d and t, f and v. When unpleasant blendings of words occur, the fault is generally caused by the failure to separate the lips after speaking one word and before speaking the next. Indistinct articulation is generally caused by keeping the lips too much closed, by closing the lips before the word is fully uttered or by keeping the teeth too closely shut while speaking. Each fault suggests its own remedy and the teacher should overcome these, one by one, by persistent drills. The foregoing faults are apt to be more or less general to the school, and hence the entire school may, and should, participate in the phonic drills suggested, the youngest and the oldest together. Lists of words and sentences for this drill should be care- fully prepared and clearly written upon the board. The curtain may be kept over them until they are needed. Begin each of these drills by exercises in deep breathing, the pupils standing, with the windows open for a minute to freshen the air of the room. 8. The Alphabet. The alphabet is not directly taught as a feature of any reading lesson in the first term or later, but is used as follows: On one or more pages of the reading chart you prepare for use in the first term, have rows of proper names in straight line, capital (print) letters which the children are able to copy with the short colored sticks used by kindergartners, or with the less attractive toothpicks. Other names involving curved lines may be copied with the colored sticks or with shoe pegs. (See pages 42 and 43.) Bright colored beans or kernels of corn also may be used. For the very first lesson of this kind it will probably take all the time to show each child of the beginning classhis 40 Public School Methods own name and have that name made and examined. Nothing but individual work will answer until the children learn how to follow general directions. As the teacher examines, she says, for example, to one, " See here, Emma, you have made your E turn the wrong way. Now look at the E on the chart [pointing to it] and make yours just like it." After a little she returns to Emma and commends her improved work. To another, "Your W is upside down; see how it is on the chart." There is no apparent effort to teach the names of the letters. The teacher uses the names as a matter of course and the children learn them soon from the law of association. The proper names are given first because of their greater interest. After the child makes his own name correctly he tries to make that of his neighbor or friend, then the names of all the class as he becomes more expert. A new step is to make other words than proper names in the same way. Later, boxes of alphabets are distributed for the busy work, and the class builds sentences as well as single words. The names of the letters are also used in the penmanship lessons as the teacher gives new letters to be written or corrects errors that have been made. As soon as he has gained a little control of his hand, the child may be required to copy in script, once a day, new words from his reading lesson, using the letters intelligently. Any copying he has done previously in script has been merely imitating the letter forms without any reference to their names, his mind being held to the word and not to the letters of that word. In this informal fashion, the child, by the end of the first year, usually knows the names and forms of all the letters, large and small, in print and in script. 9. From Script to Print. To make the transition from script to print easy and natural, the teacher should keep in a notebook, for her own reference, lists of all the words the pupils have learned. From this list, she may write columns of words and, in parallel columns, for a few days only, print the same words, giving occasional drills upon them. Later, First Year Reading 41 the same words may be used indiscriminately in print or script. Call two children to the board, giving a pointer to each. The first child points out and names a word in the printed column, and the second shows and names the same word in the written column, the rest of the class acting as critics. When an error occurs, two others should be called to the board to do the work. As a further and more difficult device for the same purpose, write a sentence and just below it print the same sentence. Require children to read the sentences from the script, but follow the printed ones when building the sentences for busy work from the boxes of alphabets distributed for that purpose. Again, the teacher may say, " I want to write your name, Anna; what letter shall I write first? the next one?" etc., until the name is done, the child having the printed form for reference. To test the knowledge of the child, the teacher occasionally writes a wrong letter. If the teacher uses for her blackboard work a perfectly plain, large script, with little or no slant, the difficulties will be materially reduced, because such script is very similar in form to the usual print. But, in any case, the devices suggested, with others that the teacher will be apt to think of, persevered in for a little while, will certainly clear up all doubt and the child may be given either script or print without causing the least hesitation on his part. 10. Chart Making. When the blackboard space is suffi- cient, a large part of the work just outlined may be presented from the board. When there is but little room, prepare chart pages and use them for the drills. These charts, once prepared, may be used for several classes of pupils. The work on the chart is better done by the aid of stencils, brush and India ink, rubber pen or heavy stub pen, and arranged neatly and evenly. Lines very faintly ruled on chart or blackboard will serve to keep the work in straight lines until the teacher's eye and hand learn to work in such unison as makes these guide lines unnecessary. For general 42 Public School Methods directions, refer to suggestions upon chart making, in Lesson Twenty-one, Section 4, (d). 11. Adaptation of the Method to the School. It is neces- The names on this page contain all the letters of the alphabet and show how the letters may be made by laying toothpicks or splints. First Year Reading 43 sary to keep in mind that the eclectic method is a combination of four elements and that in lessons and seat work together the child is getting daily benefit from the best features of cm* ANNA ANNE ELLA EMMA ETHEL ELAINE EVE HATTIE HETTIE HETTY HELEN NEZ KATE KATHLEEN KATIE LINA LETTY MATTIE MINNIE MAMIE NANNIE NETTIE NINA TEENY TILLIE VINA^j^ WINNIE The names on this page may alJ be made with straight lines. The border shows with how few lines pretty decorative forms may be drawn. 44 Public School Methods all four. From the use of sentences he learns to gather thought, which is the true basis of all reading. From the recognition of separate words and the added word drills, he learns to translate familiar ideas, heretofore expressed in spoken words, into their written or printed forms, and gains much needed practice in correct pronunciation. From the training given upon phonics and the alphabet, he grad- ually learns to help himself to new words, all of these together constituting what is generally called the mechanics of reading, an essential and fundamental part of learning to read. And learning to read must precede reading to learn and learning what is best to read, the other two parts of the work in reading. When a teacher has to deal almost wholly with children of foreign-born parents, there must be a great deal of the word method and a great deal of the phonic method. Such children hear no English spoken at home, and the ear is necessarily slow to catch and discriminate among the sounds of English words. With such pupils it is usually better to begin with the teaching of single words, rather than sentences, giving frequent drills upon the pronunciation of common words and upon giving, after the teacher, the various vowel and consonant sounds without reference to the diacritical marks. After a limited number, say twenty-five, of nouns, common adjectives and verbs are thoroughly learned, give these children combinations of the familiar words in phrases and short sentences, and then proceed as with children of American-born parents. If the beginners are about equally divided between native and foreign, it is sometimes desirable to start one division with the sentence method and the other with the word method, giving those of American parentage longer lessons, since the others, naturally, will need more time and more individual work. The two divisions may be united for the drill in phonics, and the greater part of this drill may be given in concert, especially until the timid little foreigners have gained courage to recite alone without painful embarrass- First Year Reading 45 ment. Concert drills, however, may help to perpetuate incorrect enunciation, unless the teacher watches the utter- ance of each child very carefully. There can be no arbitrary rules laid down as to the use of this or that method, how long to continue one or the other, or how much of one to give or how much of another to omit. One thing, however, is certain: There is not now, and never can be, any one method that will cover the teach- ing of reading and make the work equally easy and pleasant for all the pupils. Children enter the lowest primary grade at ages varying from four to seven years. They have known great differences in birth and in home training. They are by nature differently endowed. Some are distinctly eye-minded, others as markedly ear-minded. Some have perfect eyesight and hearing, others have defective senses. Some are alert in mind and body, others slow. Some are wide-awake, seeing and hearing everything about them quickly and to the last detail; others seem to be in a half dreamy state, seldom rousing to full activity of body or mind. Therefore, as long as the teacher has such complex and varying elements in the school — and that will be as long as there are schools! — there must be an adaptation of methods to suit the needs of the school and of the individual pupil. More- over, this adaptation must be made by the teacher her- self, upon her best judgment, after a careful study of the situation. The methods suggested herein are such as have been tested over and over by ourselves and by others, and they will give excellent results when followed intelligently. How- ever, they are not intended for slavish imitation. Their purpose is suggestive rather than restrictive. The teacher's own good sense and intelligence are left untrammeled as to minor details. The responsibility for the choice of method rests so certainly upon the teacher that a thorough under- standing of the principles is the least preliminary preparation that can be tolerated. 46 Public School Methods 12. Subjects for Blackboard Lessons. Children of small villages and of the rural districts enter school with their heads well filled with ideas that they have gathered from their environment, viz., ideas of the home and family; playthings and games; domestic animals; wild animals common to the locality; birds, insects, fish, trees, flowers; some knowledge of occupations and productions and other things difficult to classify and far too numerous to mention in detail. More- over, they have acquired a stock of possibly two thousand words, several hundred of which they use freely in conversa- tion. Hence, instead of "knowing nothing at all," as is often claimed, they have a most valuable fund of knowledge with which to begin school life. On the contrary, they know little of the full value of books. Having no knowledge of written or printed word forms, the treasures of thought and feeling in books are entirely beyond their grasp. That they will be able to help themselves to all the delightful things in books as soon as they have learned to read is the great incentive to be kept before the entering classes, to stimulate effort. There is no fixed law and no uniform practice as to what shall be used as the basis of the earliest lessons in reading. For a week or a month most teachers prefer to select from the stock of ideas and words already known to the children. This leaves but one new thing to teach, and that is the form of the words. The eye must now learn to recognize what the ear has long been familiar with. Thus they "pro- ceed from the known to the nearest related unknown," and there is every reason to expect rapid advancement. However, this course is not universal. There are very successful primary teachers who prefer to draw from some- thing entirely strange to the children for the first lessons, the argument being that novelty lends interest. Thus, a picture, new to the class, may be used as the basis of the first lessons in talking and of the reading lessons that grow therefrom. Again, something from literature is used, as Jack and the Beanstalk, Cinderella, The Three Bears or Hia- First Year Reading 47 watha. For ourselves, we prefer to follow the familiar path, at first using tangible objects as illustrations. This plan forms a natural link between home and school and soon helps the child to a good list of written or printed words from which he is able to interpret the thought he finds in sentences. It is but a step from the actual object or act to the pic- tured one; hence, pictures may be introduced early as the basis of work. Any simple picture of people or familiar animals, attractively grouped to suggest pleasant thoughts, will be suitable. For the first month, introduce not more than one new picture a week, new ideas not being needed so much at this juncture as the power to interpret familiar ideas through new forms of familiar words. The sooner this is taught, the sooner the child begins actual reading and takes the first steps towards independence. In the last part of the first year a child will easily read many things from the Mother Goose rhymes; also, certain folk lore tales that have much repetition in them, as, The House that Jack Built, The Old Woman and Her Pig, The Little Red Hen, The Story of Chicken Little, and so on. In Mother Goose rhymes, the familiarity and the rhythm lend the child material aid; in folk lore, the numerous repetitions and the great dramatic interest make the reading easy for him. 13. How Long Shall Blackboard Lessons Continue? Answer- ing the above question in general terms, we would say, "All through the first three years, particularly in all schools where books are few and supplementary reading is scarce." However, those who ask this question usually mean, " How long use the blackboard exclusively for the reading lessons?" To this we answer that there is no fixed rule. In the city, teachers often give the lessons on the blackboard exclusively during the entire first term of school. Others continue the exclusive use of the blackboard for six weeks ; others for four weeks, and still others give some lessons from the chart or primer at the end of the first week and sometimes introduce 48 Public School Methods the child to both the blackboard and the primer on his first day in school. We have tried all these ways, and as a result of the trials would suggest that the chart or the primer be introduced at the latest after a few days. This plan has a certain advantage in that it serves to satisfy the child and his parents that he is really reading. In some places, especially in less advanced localities, the blackboard lessons do not always satisfy the preconceived notions of what reading should be. However, the blackboard should certainly be used for at least half of the lessons daily all through the first year, because results can be accomplished much more quickly than by adhering closely to either the chart or the primer. By the aid of the board, the teacher can give any amount of original reading matter and make the drill work far more interesting, personal and effective than from any book. The use of the chart or primer, or both, in addition to the board, lends, in the minds of the children, an air of greater importance to the lessons and furnishes greater variety — two highly desirable additions. Certain things should be borne in mind when the child is given the chart or primer early: (i) The chart, if prepared by the teacher, has the same words as those given in the original blackboard lessons, but arranged in different order and used in different sentences. Thus, the best kind of review is always at hand, viz., the same vocabulary in the form of new stories. (2) When a reading chart has been furnished by the school district it is not as good as one that the teacher can make, but it should be used. In that case, the teacher should use the words given on the pages of the chart in preparing her original stories for the blackboard, in order that the chart may furnish the review. (3) Unless the teacher makes her own chart, it is better to leave the use of the primer until after the child is quite familiar with the first half of the chart, to prevent the con- fusion arising from so many different vocabularies. First Year Reading 49 (4) When only the home-made chart is used, the black- board stories, the chart and the primer need cause no conflict or confusion, if used alternately. 14. Introduction to Books. It is a great event for a child to own a book; and when a beautiful new primer is ignored for weeks by his teacher, school life loses a good deal of its anticipated joy. The book becomes an old story and is apt to become much disfigured before it finds its legitimate use. For these reasons, if the beginner comes equipped with his primer, the teacher should take proper notice of the fact, commenting pleasantly upon its beauty and freshness and the need of being very careful in handling it in order to pre- serve its beauty and cleanliness. Afterward, she may explain that she is not quite ready to use it yet ; that there are some other lessons to come first, and ask the privilege of keeping the book safely in her desk "for just a few days." The "few days" must be few, not more than two or three at most, before the book is brought out, the first picture talked about, and some words found that have already been given on the board. Even on the first day, it is better to use the primer picture for a talking lesson, if the child seems too much disappointed; the great thing on that day being to win confidence and make the pupil feel at ease, so that he will respond freely to questions and adjust himself to his new environment. Establish, the first day, the habit of collecting the books after the lesson is done. Give the child suitable seat work and keep him so occupied that he will forget that his book is not in his own keeping. Show him exactly how to hold his book to the best advantage for use and how to preserve it from defacement. It may, and probably will, take a good many repetitions of direction and encouragement before these important habits are established. 15. Supplementary Reading. Any reading given to the child in addition to that in his regular reading-book is com- monly called supplementary reading. This is given to insure greater proficiency in the ready recognition and pronuncia- 50 Public School Methods tion of words and phrases, to promote greater efficiency in gathering thought from sentences and paragraphs and to develop fluency in oral reading. In the first year there are various sources that may be drawn upon for this reading: (i) Original stories may be made by the teacher and children together as an outcome of the informal conversa- tional (language) lessons upon such familiar and interesting things as pictures, games and facts in natural science. These stories may be presented to the class in the form of black- board reading lessons exclusively, until the pupil is able to recognize printed words and sentences as easily as written ones. Then these lessons may be given wholly or in part in the form of leaflets prepared by the teacher by use of the hektograph. These leaflets may or may not precede the use of the primer. They are easier to handle, but they are not so attractive in appearance as the book. (2) When the district supplies several sets of easy primers, they may be used as follows: After ten pages of the regular primer have been read, use ten pages from another primer and then ten from the third primer. The regular primer lessons may come in the first reading period of the day and the supplementary reading be used in the afternoon. Some- times make a change by reversing the order. Continue till at least three primers are read through during the first year of school. (3) When it is impossible to get the additional primers in sets, the teacher should provide herself with two or three of the best primers. From these she may use, on blackboard and on hektograph leaflets, all the material needed to supple- ment the stories and poems of the regular primer. This will give practically the same result for the class, but entails more work upon the teacher. (4) From educational journals and from magazines for young children, short, easy stories and poems embodying virtually the same vocabulary as that used in the required primer may be selected. Copy these upon the board or *'-**- Painted for Public School Methods by the Art Institute. Chicago. 'GOOD MORNING, LITTLE RED RIDING HOOD," SAID THE WOLF. First Year Reading 51 hektograph from time to time and use them for supplementary reading. Caution. The teacher must bear in mind that from one or all of these sources a large quantity of supplementary reading, suitable in grade and quality, must be obtained, since it takes much easy reading to make reading easy to first year pupils. 16 Preparation of a Lesson. In making up a reading lesson (the one given below, for example), let the teacher try to consider the following points: (x) It should contain a thought of value; (2) it should be interesting to children; (3 ) it should be in dialogue form, where possible ; (4) it should be simple as to vocabulary and construction and thought, and (5) it should be full of repetitions. Suppose you have written or found in the reader the selection : LITTLE RED RIDING HOOD Lesson I Once upon a time there was a little girl. Her grandmother made a little red hood for her. Then her mother said, " Now your name is Little Red Riding Hood." One day Little Red Riding Hood's mother said, "Your grandmother is sick. Take this cake and this butter to her." The little girl put on her red hood. She put the cake and the butter into her little basket. Then she went. Little Red Riding Hood came to the wood. She met a wolf. "Good morning, Little Red Riding Hood," said the wolf. "Good morning," said the little girl. "Where are you going, my dear?" asked he. "I am going to my grandmother's house. She is sick. I have cake and butter for her. It is in this basket. " I am going there, too. You go that way. I will go this way. Let us see who will get there first," said the wotf. 52 Public School Methods Little Red Riding Hood picked flowers in the woods. The wolf ran very fast. He came to the grandmother's house. The grandmother saw the wolf. He jumped into her bed. She ran for the huntsmen. Lesson II Little Red Riding Hood came to her grandmother's house. She knocked at the door. "Who is there?" cried the wolf. Little Red Riding Hood thought, "Grandmother must have a cold." "It is Little Red Riding Hood. I have cake and butter for you, grandmother." " Pull the doorstring and come in!" cried the wolf. The little girl went in. She went to the bed. "Why, grandmother, what big arms you have," she said. "The better to hug you, my dear." "And grandmother, what big ears you have!" "The better to hear you, my dear." "But grandmother, what big eyes you have!" "The better to see you, my dear." "Oh grandmother, what big teeth you have!" "The better to eat you up!" Then the wolf jumped from the bed. He was going to eat Little Red Riding Hood. Just then the grandmother and the huntsmen came. Bang! The huntsmen killed the wolf. Method. Thought Analysis. First, discriminate clear- ly in your mind between reading and learning to recognize and pronounce words. The latter, necessary as a preliminary to reading, is not reading. It is the thought— the thought, what does it mean — not what are the words or what the inflexion — that should be emphasized. Teacher: How many have heard the story of Little Red Riding Hood? Here it is told in print, beginning "Once upon a time," for us to read. Look at the very first thing First Year Reading 53 that is told, and look up when you are ready to tell it. Try to sound out the words, for you know them. Pupil: Once upon a time there was a little girl. Teacher: All sound out the word (write hood on board) that tells what her grandmother made for her. Anna tell what the book says about it. Pupil: Her grandmother made a little red hood for her. Teacher: Look to see what her mother said. Then you may be the mother and say it. What is n-a-m-e ? Pupil: Then her mother said, " Now your name is Little Red Riding Hood." Observe that the teacher frequently uses the words in the first part of the sentence to be read, in order to give the child, unconsciously, a good start on it. Encourage the child to work out the words for himself, but help him to difficult words. If the child reads the fifth sentence, for instance, in a monotone, do not ask him to emphasize cake and butter, but ask, "What should she take?" The natural emphasis, based on the thought, will follow. When familiar with the lesson, the children may dramatize it, choosing parts, reading from the book or saying their parts, and following the text to know what to do and when to do it. The joy this gives, and the rapid advance in ease and expression that results, makes the simple dramatic rendering of a reading lesson very valuable. 17. Reviews, (a) Two Plans. Reviews of single words and phrases should come often, in order to fix their form indelibly upon the child's memory and so prevent hesitation and mistakes when the words or phrases are encountered in sentences. Such reviews are merely word drills, but they need to be made interesting by means of varying arrange- ment, changing the questions and plans, letting children take turns in conducting the drills, using script to-day, print to-morrow, both the next day, etc. Reviews in genuine thought-getting and thought-giving from sentences, which alone is reading, is a very different thing from the mere pronunciation of words. Back of all 54 Public School Methods the words in the sentences must be intelligent comprehension of the sentiment therein contained. One great help to this comprehension is continuity; hence, all reading reviews should be in the form of connected sentences forming what may appropriately be called a story, leading to a definite ending or conclusion. In the first year the review should take one or the other of the following forms : (i) Reread a story already more or less familiar from previous readings. This form may be used to some extent, but not often, because pupils soon memorize the entire story and read (?) it purely from memory. This "reading" from memory is often done even when the children are utterly unable to recognize the separate words and phrases of their story if the order is changed about. (2) Give the review always as a new lesson, using no new words or phrases, but arranging those already given so as to form an entirely new story. This is the only form to be depended upon to accomplish the ends sought in a review lesson, viz. : (a) To keep the interest in reading keen and vivid; (b) to drill upon recognition of word and phrase forms; (c) to give additional practice in thought interpretation; (d) to furnish additional reading matter for the class. (b) An Illustration. Suppose the following stanzas are the lessons that have been read: Robin comes with early spring, Dressed up in his very best; Very pretty is his suit — Brownish coat and reddish vest. "Cheer up! Cheer up!" Robin sings; "Cheer up! Cheer up!" all day long; Shine or shower, all the same, "Cheer up! Cheer up!" is his song. The following prose sentences constitute the review: (1) With the early spring, Robin comes. (2) He is dressed up in his very best. (3) His suit is very pretty. (4) It is a reddish vest with a brownish coat. Robin sings "Cheer up! First Year Reading 55 Cheer up!" All day long, he sings "Cheer up! Cheer up!" It is all the same in the shine or in the shower. His song is " Cheer up ! Cheer up !" Reviews that are entirely suitable for first grade pupils are more easily made than found. They may reproduce the same ideas, as in the above, or the new story may have all familiar words and phrases and yet bear no relation to any story previously given. Both kinds are needed. (c) Illustrative Lesson. The following lesson reviews the words in the sentences naturally used in the fall, such as nest, home, birds, woodpecker, tree, high, squirrel, besides the simple common words and expressions, as "I see," etc. The thoughts of the lesson are (i) that the tree is the home of the birds and the squirrels, besides furnishing a play place for children (beginning work on forestry); (2) that the birds leave in the fall. Such a lesson may either be written on the board or on the hektograph. A simple illustration drawn by the teacher would add greatly to its value. Help as needed may be given as the lesson moves on. Children taking the parts may be frequently changed. Teacher: The children in this story are swinging under the old willow in the fall. Jack is swinging May. Look to see what they say. Now, May, you are in the swing. Show us how it goes. What can you see? May: Swing! Swing! O, I see a nest. Jack: Where ? Where ? I can't see the nest. May: Up high in the tree. Jack: O, I see it. It is high in the tree. Are there birds in it? May: No, the birds have gone. Jack: Where have they gone? Teacher: Who can tell where the birds have gone? Teacher: Now let's choose another May and Jack. Look 56 Public School Methods ahead to see what to say and say it just as you think May or Jack would. May Swing me high, Jack. Jack: Swing! Swing! May: O, I see the squirrel's hole. Please swing me higher. Jack: Swing! Swing! May: I can see another hole. It is the woodpecker's home. Jack: There are many homes in the tree. 18. The Hektograph. In the presentation of such reviews, both the blackboard and hektograph may be used. When the blackboard space is very limited a hektograph is almost indispensable, and, accordingly, we present a practical recipe for making one. The cost for material is rarely more than seventy-five cents. (i) Dissolve four ounces of gelatine in a pint of cold water and then add one pint of glycerine. Put the mixture on the stove in a double boiler, so it will not burn, and when it comes to a boil, pour it into a shallow granite pan, eight by twelve inches in dimensions. Then put the tin in a level place while the mixture cools. If gelatine cannot be obtained, the same quantity of good white glue will answer the purpose, but it will not make quite so good a surface. If air bubbles form, take a sheet of writing paper and pass the edge slowly over the bubbles. If when cold, the mixture is too hard, melt again and add a very little glycerine ; if too soft, add a little more gelatine. If the surface ever becomes rough or discolored, place the hektograph over a pan of water on the stove and melt it, then set the hektograph away to cool, and it will be as good as ever. Violet or black hektograph ink can be secured at a drug store, and a small bottle will last for a long time. Use a coarse stub pen and unglazed paper for your original copy. See that every stroke leaves a metallic luster when First Year Reading 57 dry. Having made your copy, press it face down on the surface of the hektograph, leave it there one or two min- utes, and then gently peel off the paper. You will find your writing transferred to the hektograph, and by pressing clean sheets of paper evenly on the surface you can take off many copies in a short time. When through using the hektograph, wash it immediately in tepid water, with the hand or a soft sponge. Never leave the surface dirty. TEST QUESTIONS i. What are the ultimate purposes in teaching reading? What do you consider the chief purpose in the primary department? What is the immediate purpose of the earliest lessons? 2. Show how any successful teaching of reading must combine the elements of the first four methods mentioned. 3. Is there any reason why a pupil should know his alpha- bet in regular order during his first year in school? Is it desirable that a child ever should be taught the alphabet thoroughly in its regular order? Why? 4. Why are reviews so necessary in reading? For what reasons is it better that a child should have his first lessons from the blackboard rather than from a printed chart or primer ? 5. Write in a perfectly plain, large script, with little or no slant, five simple expressions such as might be used in very early lessons in reading. In a parallel column print the same expressions as you would use them in such a black- board exercise as is described on page 41. 6. Assume a small class of beginners from whom you wish to derive sentences, using an apple as the subject. Write out your part in the second recitation, giving in detail and in logical order the questions you would ask, the com- ments you would make and expressions which you would place upon the board. 58 Public School Methods 7. Assume that you have again the same class several days later. Rule a half page of your recitation paper to represent the space on a blackboard, and fill this with expres- sions so arranged as to be used successfully in a drill exercise in review. Tell how you would conduct the drill. 8. Show how methods of teaching reading that are per- fectly satisfactory in one school may be quite unsatisfactory in another. 9. Suppose that on the first day at school the children come provided with new and attractive primers or first readers; would you use the books? If so, when and in what way? Have the pupils a right to expect that the books will be used? In whose possession should the books be kept when not in use in recitation? Why? 10. Discuss the teaching of capital letters and punctuation marks during the first year of school. From the painting by I.ouyot YOUNG FOLK AT THE CANAL CHAPTER THREE SECOND YEAR READING AND PHONICS SECOND YEAR READING 1. Need of Reviews. In graded schools, the teacher of the second year reading class, often secretly, and sometimes openly, blames the first year teacher because the children come to her inadequately prepared for their new work. This is particularly liable to be the case when the long sum- mer vacation intervenes between the close of the first year's work and the beginning of the second. All summer the children have reveled in the freedom of out-of-door life, and school and school books have been put aside and forgotten. As a natural result, it is an effort to recall word forms and all else that was taught in the first year, and to the puzzled teacher the pupils seem to have been promoted without good preparation. In most cases, the new teacher's first judgment is both hasty and erroneous. The routine of school life soon brings back what had been learned before vacation, and after a few days the work goes smoothly on. The difficulties of the first week could be almost entirely obviated by having the class review the last third of several good first readers. This recalls the half-forgotten vocabulary and lays a foundation for the advance work. Moreover, the power to read fluently from these familiar books gives the pupils a confidence that enables them to do justice both to themselves and to their former teacher. Hence, it is better, for the first week, to limit the reading to the review of primers and first readers. It is also wiser, for the first month of the second year, to use no supplementary reading matter that is more difficult in thought, content, vocabulary and style, than that found in the last third of the best first readers. These precautions are necessary to prevent discourage- ment, since second readers are often a long, hard step above 59 60 Public School Methods the first readers, and are seldom graded so carefully. "It is the first step that costs" here, as elsewhere. The first month of any grade is a crucial one for the class unless the teacher has the wisdom, tact and skill to foresee and over- come obstacles by a judicious mingling of reviews with new work. In the best city schools, the class is expected to read through at least three primers or their equivalents, and one or two first readers, before they complete the work of the first year. The first term of the second year the same class reads several first readers through (at least three) before beginning upon the second reader. The motive is to secure (i) absolute certainty in vocabulary, (2) intelligent and accu- rate reading, (3) confidence, (4) fluency. With such a preparation, the advance work is taken up easily, and interest never flags. There is no room for dis- couragement, because the steps in the work, from the first, are continuous and even. It is recommended, therefore, that the plan be followed as nearly as possible. 2. Value of Supplementary Reading Matter. To carry out the above suggestions fully requires various sets of primers and first readers as the property of the school, in addition to the ones the pupils own individually. Should these be lacking when the term opens, the teacher needs to use all legitimate means to secure them. These primary readers are the foundation of the library idea in the minds of the youngest pupils. By means of these extra books the taste for reading and the habit of reading may both be fairly commenced. Until at least one extra set of such books can be secured, the teacher will need to provide the supplementary reading for the class by her own exertions, and largely from books that are her own property. Caution. A teacher should be provided with a copy of every text-book that her pupils use, in order not to borrow from the class. A child feels the annoyance of surrendering his book. It makes him dependent upon his neighbor, and, Second Year Reading and Phonics 61 as the result, neither child can do so well. When visitors are present, his sense of politeness causes him willingly to yield his book, but his generosity should not be imposed upon daily. 3. Need of Preparing Reading Lessons. Not even a primer lesson should be attempted without careful, previous prepa- ration on the part of the teacher. Said the great writer, Harmann, while employed as a teacher, " I should be ashamed to meet my primer pupils without having looked at their lesson myself." Few teachers of that day would have agreed with Harmann. In fact, his remark would have been looked upon, by most people, either as a huge joke or as the utter- ance of a person lacking in good sense and fit only for ridicule. To-day public opinion is so changed that the best educators fully agree with Harmann. Those who now oppose his view do so through lack of knowledge of what the primary children really need in the way of guidance and encourage- ment, during their early struggles with the problem of learning to read. First, look through the lesson rapidly, to discover the thought that the selection expresses. Mentally decide on some further illustration or suggestion to use that will empha- size the thought when the lesson is read. If you trust to the inspiration of the teaching moment, you are likely to be lost. Then read the lesson through slowly and thoughtfully, noting the difficulties as they appear. Try to take the child's point of view in deciding where the "hard" places are, and the teacher's, in mentally determining what devices to use in order to help the children to help themselves over such places. Decide which new words the children are to be aided to get phonetically, which phrases should be reviewed, what suggestive question is to be asked containing the difficult word, perhaps even which backward children are to be helped, and how. This practice of definite, detailed preparation takes little time, and it is the secret of many an experienced teacher's success in teaching reading. 4. Conditions Contrasted. A child enters school the first year full of vague hopes and fears of the unknown, but 62 Public School Methods the whole situation is so novel that it is full of vivid interest. If he is wisely taught during this year, he comes to the end with interest unabated and with his happy spirit unclouded by the experiences of his first school year. Otherwise, he looks forward to the second year with dread, and his new teacher's task is doubly hard because of this undesirable change in his mental attitude. No real progress can be made without interest; therefore, the second year teacher must use all her energies to hold the interest, in the one case, or to restore it, in the other. In the first year, the child is given familiar words to recognize at sight. Whether the words are of one syllable or more makes no difference, unless it is in favor of the long word. From the very unusualness of its form, such words as butterfly, sunflower, goldenrod and beautiful, if they happen to have been taught, have made a more vivid impression upon the child's mind than the most short words. Moreover, these longer words make a stronger appeal to the imagination. For both of these reasons his memory easily retains them. The one caution in the early part of the first year is to be sure that the meaning and spoken form are familiar. The word forms most difficult for first year pupils to remember are short words that closely resemble one another, such as was, saw, these, those, when, where. This difficulty often goes over into the second year, where new words are rapidly added to the child's vocabulary, many of them new in meaning as well as in form. The child, in the first year, is kept almost entirely within his own experiences. All the words represent familiar ideas; all the sentences are short. In the second year, new ideas are constantly introduced and the sentences are made longer by the introduction of adjective and adverbial phrases or by the union of two clauses hitherto kept separate. He now reads his lessons by paragraphs through continuous pages. Heretofore, nearly all his reading has been limited to sentences lightly connected and seldom filling more than one page as the maximum of his hardest lesson, Second Year Reading and Phonics 63 He is now expected to begin and continue the independent pronunciation of new words by means of the more serious lessons given in phonics. He is also to prepare his reading lessons with the minimum of assistance from his teacher. Previously, he has been helped over all, or nearly all, the hard places. Objective illustrations are now largely with- drawn and a long lesson must be interpreted with the aid of a single picture, or none at all, unless the teacher meets the difficult ideas with rapid sketches upon the blackboard to help him understand the text. These are only a part of the new experiences that confront the second year pupil in reading, alone. They are placed in detail to call the attention of the teacher to the fact that it is no easy problem that faces the child who, last year, was little more than a baby, and who, at the most, is but a little older than when so much less was required. All these conditions need to be given careful thought. The difficulties must be presented, one by one, the easiest first, and the new steps taken as thoroughly as in the first year. 6. New Phrases. New phrases should be taught from the blackboard, that the child may have them to use in oral language work; also, that he may surprise himself by rapid recognition when they first occur in his reading. Recall the ones given in the first year and add others as rapidly as occa- sion can be made naturally. Among the new ones to teach early in the second year are to-day, to-morrow, yesterday, as well as, just as well as, long ago, far away, far off, right hand, left hand, near by, never, forever, one by one, two by two, none at all, after a while, perhaps, in a little while, overhead, under- foot, once upon a time, immediately, presently, and the like. Train pupils to think and read these expressions as units, never breaking their meaning by uttering them in single parts, or hesitatingly. This, with persistent effort on the part of the teacher, will after a while settle into a fixed habit and be of lifelong assistance to the child. As he grows older, the pupil learns to look ahead in his reading, grasping longer groups of words at a glance. This 64 Public School Methods power is almost invaluable to a person who delights in read- ing and yet has but limited time for it. We recall a gentle- man who excited our youthful admiration by the rapidity and ease with which he mastered the contents of a newspaper, magazine article, or other publication. Ambitious to secure the same ability, we watched him as he read and discovered that he read by lines, the eyes not resting at all upon single words. Moreover, the intelligence literally flashed from line to line, gathering the ideas with almost incredible rapidity. In this case, long practice had formed a most valuable habit, the foundation of which is the power to see and think groups of words and ideas as units. The power to recognize and comprehend words in groups is attainable by all people of common ability and education, and the earlier the habit is formed the greater its strength and efficiency in mature life. Hence, we urge the practice of teaching first year children to recognize familiar phrases and idiomatic forms and to treat them as units in both silent and oral reading. Moreover, we urge the review of all such idioms and word groups at the beginning of the second year, the gradual introduction of new group forms and the con- tinuance of this practice until all the children cease to sepa- rate groups into words, except when a new group is presented for the first time. This custom prepares the way for intelligent study, develops the power of rapid thought and is ultimately a great time-saver. Better than all else, perhaps, it early trains the child to work with sentences for the purpose of finding the thought to be expressed and saves him from the fatal conclusion that mere word pronouncing, phonic drills, and other forms of preparation and drill are genuine reading. 6. Incentives. The pupil learns long before he is out of the primary grades that there is something desirable within the lessons given to him for which it is well worth while to work, and that learning to read is the only way by which he can help himself to this desirable thing. That inward crav- ing that leads the little child so persistently to beg older Second Year Reading and Phonics 65 people to tell or read a story must be turned to account as soon as he reaches the schoolroom. It is easy to keep him interested in the mechanics of reading by means of skill and variety. But his intelligence is not satisfied by the simple sentences he ought to have at first. He needs something of a higher order; therefore, at the opening exercises in the morn- ing or afternoon, or as the last exercise of the day, the teacher should read something in which the child will find real enjoy- ment. The class will listen with keen appreciation to The Birds' Christmas Carol, The Story of Patsy, The Five Little Peppers, A Dog of Flanders, The Child of Urbino and many other beautifully written stories of child life, so easy to obtain. From such readings, the children are unconsciously getting a standard of good reading, a taste for beautiful imagery in style and a liking for good authors. The teacher should not make selections from the reading books the child is to use. That method robs the books of the charm that novelty lends and deprives the teacher of a powerful incentive to hold before the learner. For instance, after some reading that has been particularly enjoyed, the teacher may (and should) use the opportunity to say smil- ingly, but earnestly, too, " There are many books as good as this that you can read for yourselves as soon as you learn how. And there are charming stories in your own readers that you shall read very soon if you work well." It is proper, also, to lead pupils to greater effort from the desire to please the teacher, their schoolmates, the super- intendent, or other visitors, and the circle of family friends at home. There is nothing to censure in this course, but everything to commend. It fosters the child's natural affection and a certain innate hospitality that leads to a desire to please others, even at the cost of trouble to himself. 7. How to Use Incentives. To this end, the teacher may often call upon an individual pupil to come out and stand facing the class and there read a paragraph directly to them, he consciously doing his very best to read intelligently and pleasingly. Little by little, this method may be extended to 6Q Public School Methods include two paragraphs, three, a whole page, and, at last, an entire story or poem On Friday afternoons, the entire reading period might take this form, on the strength of its merit, were it not that children are so sensitive to any real or fanciful slight that the most timid child would prefer to make the effort to read before strangers rather than seem to be left out. On such occasions, then, it is wiser to choose some interesting story or poem, quite familiar to the class, and see that each child participates in the oral reading. This may be followed by one child reading the whole of a short lesson alone. It is well to train every member of the class to do this. With this privilege in sight, the slowest or the most careless child will be spurred to do his best for the sake of reading aloud to friends who may be present. Occasionally, when the superintendent comes in, the teacher may say before the class, " Now, Mr. Brown, you have heard each one read a little part of the story. Would you like to hear one of the class read the whole story?" Probably Mr. Brown will cordially assent and may add, "I'd like to hear it all read by each one of the class, but as there isn't time for that, may I call on a girl to read half of it and a boy to read the other half?" The wise teacher as cordially consents and allows the superintendent to choose the readers. Another time he may ask of the same class, "Who will vol- unteer to read for me to-day the story on page twenty?" always being sure that he chooses some lesson that the children have had a chance to study and read at least once previously. For the child that is very slow to grasp new things, one of the best incentives is to be permitted to read before com- pany. In making this a privilege, rather than a forced exercise, is where its chief value as an incentive lies. Each child is led to realize that the reputation of the teacher and the class rests upon his being ready to do such things when asked, ready to reflect credit upon himself and the school. When there is some lesson with a great deal of beauty or a great deal of fun in it, some child very often naively remarks, Second Year Reading and Phonics 67 " Mamma would like that," or " I wish papa could hear that!" Then is the golden opportunity for the teacher to say, " Why not take your book home and read it to your father and mother?" At the next session, ask if this was done, what the parents said, etc., not dwelling long upon the matter, yet long enough to show real interest and to strengthen this bond of union between the home and school. Again, towards the latter part of the second year, the child may be permitted to bring a selection from home to read to the school. This is the hardest test of the year, but greatly enjoyed. We well remember a little girl of the second reader class who read to the pupils all of Clement Moore's immortal A Visit from St. Nicholas, and read it most delight- fully, too. The entire preparation was made at home with the assistance of her mother. After that, other children were permitted to read similar selections. The example of the first child was an inspiration felt by all the class. This privilege is reserved for the latter part of the second year, because no child can be trusted to read well from an unusual book until he has had sufficient drill upon the mere mechanics of reading to give him a large and well-grounded written vocabulary. 8. Teaching Children to Study. The first step towards actual study is the rapid recognition and correct under- standing of words, phrases, idioms and short sentences that have previously been given. This has already been suffi- ciently discussed. The point is to establish firmly the power to distinguish between friends and strangers, i.e., to have the child able to tell instantly the words he does know and to select without any hesitation the ones he does not know. The second step is to create a desire in the pupil to know the pronunciation and meaning of new words which he meets in his regular reading lessons or elsewhere. The proper incentives to bring about this end have been discussed. The third step is to make the pupil self-helpful. He now has too much acquired power for the teacher to tell him all 68 Public School Methods the new words and trust to his memory alone. A common rule of life is that we are apt to value things in proportion to the trouble it costs us to get them. As a general rule, this applies to a child as well as to an adult ; hence, the child must learn to find out the new words for himself, that he may appreciate the need of remembering accurately in order not to be obliged to do the work over again. Adhering too rigidly to the educational maxim, " Never tell a child what he can find out for himself," may, and will, lead to loss of time and result in dangerous discouragement. As well expect him to walk strongly and independently the first time he tries. All new steps need to be taught cautiously and such help rendered as will give the child con- fidence that he can help himself. When there is no previous experience to use as a basis of work, the teacher must lend help to introduce new ideas clearly enough for the child to assimilate them. The pupil may be led to acquire new words for himself, partly by joining units already well known and partly by being taught to resolve new words into their phonetic elements, omitting silent letters and sounding the ones used in their oral pronunciation, as indicated by the diacritical marks given in the book or placed by the teacher. The union of these two methods in the same lesson brings better results than either of them alone. Time is also saved by such a union and a higher degree of interest maintained. SEPTEMBER The goldenrod is yellow; The corn is turning brown; The trees in apple orchards With fruit are bending down. The gentian's bluest fringes Are curling in the sun; In dusty pods the milkweed Its hidden silk has spun. 9. Application of Theory to Practice, (a) Preparation. The above poem is given most easily in September. In any Second Year Reading and Phonics 69 other month the illustrative material is hard to secure. The teacher equips herself with sprays of goldenrod, an ear of corn in its ripened husk, some apples, a blue-fringed gentian and a supply of milkweed pods more or less burst open and showing the silk. The best way to secure the apparatus is by the cooperation of the boys and girls of the class. Say nothing about the poem beforehand, but ask one child to bring the next day an ear of ripe corn in the husk; another, some sprays of goldenrod; another, apples; another, the milkweed. If the fringed gentian does not grow in the vicinity, the teacher should have a colored picture of it to show the class, or draw one with colored crayons upon the board. The lesson may be in the reader, or written clearly in large script upon the board, the children grouped so that all may see each word without any difficulty. (b) Presentation. The lesson may be presented in two ways. First, in the nature study period have all the speci- mens examined and carefully discussed, using the right names as they occur in the poem. This works out all the underlying ideas in the poem, and the pupil has only the new arrangement to trouble him when he comes to the reading lesson. During the first part of the second year, this mode is the preferable one to follow, the children having become familiar with it in the first year. The other mode is to say nothing of the specimens until the difficulties of the lesson show the need of illustrations. This method makes a variety, is more of a surprise, and may often be used in the second half of the second year and in all the subsequent years when reading is taught as a separate lesson. (c) Plan. "What month is this, class?" "What is the lesson about?" "Look at the first line, children. See if you find any new words." "The second word is new?" " Never saw it before?" " Cover all but the first four letters. What word is left now?" (Class easily pronounces gold.) "Look at the next two letters. What are they?" " e-n." 70 Public School Methods (Teacher writes them on the board.) "Now sound this letter e; this one, n." "Sound them quickly. What do you get?" (Class pronounces.) (Teacher writes gold-en.) "Put these two together. What do you get?" "Golden." "How many letters are left in the word?" "What are they?" (Writes rod.) "What is this word?" (Adds rod, making goldenrod.) "Pronounce the whole word." "Cor- rect." " How many ever saw the goldenrod?" " How many can see any now?" "Mary may show us all some golden- rod." "What color is it?" "Yellow." "Find the word yellow." " Show it to me." " Harry, read all of the first line." "All look at the next line." "What does this line talk about?" "What does it tell us about the corn?" "Ole, read the whole line." "Show us some corn that is turning brown, Margaret." "Examine the third line." "You don't know the last word, John?" "What is the word just before that one?" (Apple.) "Where do apples grow?" (On trees.) "Read the third line as far as you can." "The trees in apple ." "What do we call a great many apple trees planted together on purpose for raising the fruit?" (If no one in the class tells the word readily, waste no time but tell the word, having the class pronounce it several times, with eyes on the word.) "Lulu, read the third line." "What does it tell?" (The answer may be "Nothing"; but is more apt to be "Don't know," or "Can't tell.") "Well, let that wait a little." "Any new words in the fourth line, Jennie?" "Read it then." "What are bending down?" (Refer to the first line if the child hesitates. If the answer is not read- ily given, write the sentence "The trees in apple orchards are bending down with fruit." Have it read and then get the third and fourth lines read together as printed.) " How many have seen such trees?" "Whose orchard were they in?" "What made the trees bend down?" "Who will read us the first stanza?" Bring out the meaning and pronunciation of words in the second stanza in the same way as in the first. No doubt the third and fourth lines will make some trouble until the Second Year Reading and Phonics 71 "hidden silk" is examined in the dusty pods. Dusty and pods may both be new to the class. Pronounce these by sound. Teach gentian as a sight word. The diacritical marking is not impossible, but is so difficult that time is sure to be wasted upon it. Let the class make out the pro- nunciation of the word milkweed. (Cover the last four letters.) "What word is left?" (Cover the word milk.) "What word is left?" "Say the first part." "Now say the second part." "Now say both parts together." "Who has seen milkweed?" (Show it to the class.) "Where does it grow?" (Show the pods.) "What are these called?" "Why are they called dusty?" "What is the hidden silk?" (Show it.) "What is it for?" (To keep the seeds safe and to act as sails in distributing the seeds when ripe.) "Why is this plant called the milkweed?" (Recall the sticky juice of the stem when the plant is growing.) The teacher drills on the new words as follows: She rapidly presents the goldenrod and other plants named in the poem, calling on the class to show the word that stands for each. Then she reverses the plan, herself pointing to the words and calling on different children to show the plants or parts named. The outline above given indicates the line of work needed for such a lesson's presentation. The real reading is free from word teaching and consists of having the children read the stanzas, one after another, and finally the lesson as a whole, solely for the beauty and the enjoyment of it. Whatever lesson is given, the final reading should include the entire story, in order to leave it with the class as a whole. Caution. In all these lessons, the children must be kept alert, fully attentive, with interest at the white heat, by the teacher working with rapidity and requiring rapid work from the children. The rapid results are gained by rapid questions and rapid movements, no loitering and no loss of time; not by saying, "Hurry, children, hurry!" The lessons are too short for this concentration to do harm. 72 Public School MetJwds (d) Independent Study. In the second year, the pupils may have twenty-minute periods for reading lessons. These should be made to cover the review of such portions of pre- vious lessons as the present lesson depends upon, the real reading of the lesson previously prepared, and during the last three or four minutes, the assignment and preparation of the next lesson. After the children have had this assist- ance they are able to work alone, to quite an extent, on the lesson when at their seats. In the last part of the second year, the lesson may be assigned for the next day, the children preparing it as best they can without help. "When they come to the class, the teacher requires each sentence of the first paragraph read silently, children reporting words, if any, which they were not able to make out for themselves or whose meaning they failed to understand. These are quickly disposed of and the oral reading is required, the silent reading always preceding, to prevent mistakes in pronunciation and interpretation. Caution. The silent reading holds the attention to the thought, but no carelessness in word calling should be per- mitted, even when the thought is made clear by clever sub- stitutions of synonymous words and expressions. Such substitution begets a habit of carelessness that is liable to follow the child all through his lessons. It is far better to go a little more slowly and require words and phrases to be given with the same accuracy as the thought. To be exactly right is far more beneficial and saves much future trouble /or the teachers of the higher grades. 10. Syllabication. The work in syllabication, if carried on as indicated in the lesson on September, will soon give the child the power to see the parts easily, and such words as sunshine, grandfather, childhood, buttercup, sidewalk, horse- shoe, dandelion, redbreast, will be quickly mastered without aid. 11. Expression in Reading. Correct expression in reading is dependent upon the following: (i) ability to pronounce words correctly and to utter phrases smoothly and unhesi- Second Year Reading and Phonics 73 tatingly; (2) understanding the sentences; (3) full sympathy with what is to be read, i.e., merging one's identity with that of the author; (4) the desire to interest others in what is read; (5) freedom from self-consciousness; (6) natural tones. "Whenever and wherever these conditions are fully estab- lished there will be expressive reading. Children should not be constantly urged to " emphasize the word bird," to "stop at the period," to "give the rising inflection," or to do anything of the kind. The results can be secured by proper questioning as to the meaning, getting the child fully interested and then remarking, " Now read it so we shall all understand it as you do." If there is still a stilted or unnatural style of reading, ask the child to look at you and tell the sentence until he brings out the meaning clearly and with naturalness of tone and manner. Then return to the original request and have the sentence read as spoken. The best models of expression may be secured from the children themselves when at play and unconscious of being noticed. It is sometimes well to note some of the sentences and use them, later, at a drill period, to secure certain tones and inflections. Cautions. (1) Leave all terms relating to the science of reading, as emphasis, inflections, modulations, pitch, etc., for later years. The aim in the primary grades is to secure naturalness and fluency in the art of reading simple matter suited to the comprehension of the children, and can best be realized by omitting all technical terms. (2) Do not attempt to secure correct expression by requir- ing pupils to imitate you or their classmates. That makes children dependent instead of self-reliant, and turns them into parrots instead of thinkers. Secure the right feeling and sentiment and "good expression need not be referred to; it will take care of itself." (3) Make criticisms in such a friendly, matter-of-course way as to render it impossible for the pupils to feel hurt thereby. 74 Public School Methods 12. Rules for Criticism. The general rule should be never to interrupt a pupil's reading for the purpose of mak- ing corrections. With children in primary grades, however, this rule must often be violated or else much valuable time will be lost. To illustrate, suppose the child has a paragraph of several sentences to read and in the first part of the first sentence miscalls a word. The teacher waits until the entire paragraph is read and then asks, "What did you call the second word in the first sentence?" The reader has entirely forgotten that and the other errors made. Hence, in our judgment, in such a case, it is wiser to interrupt when the error is made, saying pleasantly, "Wait a moment, please. What did you call that second word?" Have the error cor- rected without any ado and then say, "Now we know the word. Please begin once more." By this means the child is more apt to remember the help given, because it is given at the moment it is needed, and is able to go on smoothly, without experiencing any embarrassment from the inter- ruption. Older pupils are able to apply the correction to the right place, and from rapid growth are apt to be more nervous and self-conscious than are primary pupils who have been treated courteously ever since entering school. For these reasons, with pupils above the primary grades, it is best to permit the paragraph to be finished without any interruption for corrections. 13. Corrections by Pupils. Having pupils correct errors made by others of the class often results in such angry feeling that many superintendents instruct their teachers never to permit this. In our judgment, there is nothing wrong in the practice in itself. When trouble arises, it is wholly due to mismanagement. Children are allowed to snap fingers or wave hands frantically in the air to attract the attention of the teacher, and to shout, "She called of for," or some- thing like that. Such demonstrations and corrections, made in offensively triumphant tones, always arouse anger and should not be tolerated. Besides, because of the utter lack Second Year Reading and Phonics 15 of refinement and sympathy, it harms the would-be critic more than the one criticised. There is a better way to do these things. The teacher should educate the pupils in the spirit of helpfulness in the first year and continue it all the way along the grades. Thus, "Mary was out of school yesterday and may not know all the words we had ; so I want you to listen very carefully and be ready to help her if she needs it." When Mary hesitates upon a word, hands are raised quietly, and the teacher simply says, "Frank may help." Frank gives the word, Mary pro- nounces it after him, and the work goes on quietly and pleasantly. To be ready to help is the great motive kept before the class constantly, to hold their attention closely to the one reading and to keep them ready to continue the reading, when called upon, without the loss of an instant of time. Observe another point: Children should be trained to understand that criticism is not limited to finding mistakes in the calling of words, but that the greater criticism is in telling if the thought and feeling are properly brought out. We remember a blackboard lesson with first year pupils. One of the sentences was a little more intricate in its meaning than anything the class had had. There was no difficulty with words, however, and Jack read the sentence clearly and confidently. "How many liked Jack's reading?" asked the teacher, and all hands were raised except that of thoughtful, sensitive little Charlie. "Didn't you like it, Charlie?" asked the teacher. Charlie flushed from feeling that he stood alone against all the others, but said bravely, "Not quite, Miss White." "Why not?" "Well," the little fellow stammered, "I liked the way Jack read, only he made it mean this" and he read it Jack's way. "And what do you think it means, Charlie?" encouragingly queried Miss White. Whereupon Charlie replied, "I think it means this" and read it to bring out the meaning as he understood it. His alone was the true interpretation, although the other nine of the group had not perceived it. 76 Public School Methods These children were but six years old, and this is a true incident, given merely to show that the higher forms of criticism are possible to young children. We do not claim that all children could be made like Charlie, for all do not have his fine appreciation of shades of meaning. But we do claim that much can be done for primary grades and that children may be trained to criticise one another's work without a particle of ill-feeling. 14. Directions to Give Pupils, (i) Stand erect, with shoul- ders thrown back, when you are to read aloud. (2) Hold your book in the left hand, as far from the eyes as you can see easily, and low enough not to hide the mouth. (3) Be sure that you can pronounce all the words, and know the meanings of the sentences before you try to read to others. Be sure, too, that you have a full breath before you try to read. (4) Read loudly enough to be heard easily by all those who are listening to you. (5) Read slowly enough so that each word may be heard distinctly. (6) Your reading is good when every one, without looking on the book, understands and enjoys what you read. The above rules are simple enough for the youngest readers to understand and follow. They are to be taught by the teacher's example and by enforcing them fully at each lesson, until to follow them becomes "second nature." Violations of these rules may and should be corrected, and obedience to them may be given as reasons why any pupil's reading may be called "good." 16. Punctuation and Reading. As in the first year, teachers should carefully refrain from giving the idea that punctuation controls needed pauses. On the contrary, that pauses depend solely upon the meaning of what is read should be emphasized. The use of the period and question mark should be reviewed and the use of quotation marks taught as an incident to the reading drill. Second Year Reading and Phonics 77 (a) Illustration. "Cheep! Cheep!" said the little birds in the nest. "We are hungry, hungry." "Sweet! Sweet!" called the mother bird from a leafy branch near by. " Be good, my dears. Be good. Mother will soon bring you a worm." Then the little birds in the nest again said, "Cheep! Cheep!" But this time their "Cheep! Cheep!" meant, "We will be good, mother, dear. Hurry back with the worm!" After the new words have been disposed of in the prepara- tion of the lesson, the teacher calls the attention of the class to the first paragraph. "Who were talking?" "The little birds in the nest." "What did they say at first?" "Cheep! Cheep!" "What did they say next?" "We are hungry, hungry." "How many noticed these marks?" (pointing to the first quotation marks). "What words are inside of these?" "Cheep! Cheep!" "See if you can find other marks like these in the first paragraph." "What words do the others enclose?" "Who said those words?" "Were the birds talking all the time?" (Get the fact that some one is telling a story about the birds and at times says just what the birds say.) Question similarly on the other sentences, bringing out each time that these marks show every time they are used exactly what the birds say. The teacher gives the name quotation marks, having the class repeat. She writes the new name on the board in connection with the quotation marks, and leaves it there for a day or two to help the class remember the name. (b) Drill. " Harry, read what the little birds say first." "What shows you just how much to read?" "What is the next thing the little birds say?" "How do you know just how much they said, Emily?" "Find the next quotation marks." "Who talks this time, Susie?" "Tell what the mother bird says here" (pointing). "Look through the paragraph and find what else the mother bird says." " Read all she says in this place." "Show the quotation marks, John." (Follow a similar plan with the third quotation, leading the class to understand that the quotation marks each time show us just how much the birds said.) 78 Public School Methods 16. Rules for Capitals. Constantly review the rules given in the first year, viz. : All sentences and names of people and places begin with capitals. Add to these the rules: Each line of poetry, the names of the days of the week and the names of the months begin with capitals ; but the names of the seasons do not. Teach each item thoroughly. Teach the above rules, informally, in connection with the reading drills, using a plan similar to that suggested for the first year. Introduce but one difficulty at a time. Call attention to the capitals when writing sentences, also when the class use their books. Any second year class can accom- plish with ease all the work indicated, if the teacher helps a little daily. Many classes are able to do much more. Better teach thoroughly the most important rules than to attempt the more intricate. 17. Poetry. In the second year, the children should have poems as a third part of their reading. Owing to the greater vocabulary, they will now be able to read something much better than Mother Goose jingles and rhymes. If their readers do not supply enough selections, the teacher should copy desirable poems and let the class read from the black- board or leaflets. The craving for rhythm is so strong in a child that to withhold good poetry from the primary grades is a serious thing. In addition to the rhythm, the child gains from poetry a large and valuable addition to his vocabulary and many helpful lessons in conduct, besides. 18. Poems Suitable for Second Year. In these days we may almost say, "Their name is legion," when speaking of really good poems for children of this grade; hence we shall name as types but a few of the many. Tennyson's Cradle Song; Celia Thaxter's Spring; Mrs. Coonley-Ward's Christmas Bells; Elizabeth Prentiss's Little Kitty; Sleep, Baby, Sleep (from the German) ; Mrs. Child's Who Stole the Bird's Nest? Helen Hunt Jackson's September; Edith M. Thomas's Talking in Their Sleep; Mrs. Miller's Hang Up the Baby's Stocking; Maud Wyman's // / Knew; Eugene Field's Little Boy Blue; Lord Houghton's Lady Moon; Lucy Larcom's Little Brown Second Year Reading and Phonics 79 Thrush; Lucy Wheelock's Song of the Lilies; Frank Dempster Sherman's Daisies; Helena Jelliffe's Clovers; George Cooper's Frogs at School; George MacDonald's The Baby; Stevenson's The Swing; Jean Ingelow's Seven Times One, and Phoebe Cary's Suppose, My Little Lady. Some of the above are more simple than others and such should be used in the early part of the year. However, all in this list, and many other beautiful and appropriate poems, may easily be read from the blackboard or hektograph leaves before the class begins the third reader. 19. Sources from Which to Draw. Among the best graded collections of timely poems for children are Songs of the Treetop and Meadow, Public School Publishing Company, Bloomington, 111. ; Graded Memory Selections, Educational Publishing Company; and Nature in Verse, Silver Burdett & Co. In addition to the above col- lections, teachers will find pub- lished in our leading educational papers a great many beautiful poems adapted to the primary grades. Then, too, many valua- ble gems of verse are published in the best family papers and in children's magazines. 20. Supplementary Reading. Such pleasing poems will add a most desirable portion of the sup- plementary reading needed in the second grade. During the first term, to bridge the chasm between the usual first and second read- ers, use the last third of several illustration by good first readers. If it proves grade pupil: the lion f , STEPPING ON THE MOUSE. impossible at first to get enough of these to supply the class, then the teacher should, by aid of the hektograph, prepare enough leaflets to supply each 80 Public School Methods member of the class with one. She may also copy stories from children's magazines in the same way. Excellent selections are often to be found in Our Dumb Animals and in publications of the Audubon Society, and even at times in the family newspaper. Supplementary reading, such as The Lion and the Mouse, composed and illustrated by a third grade class for a second grade class, is a great aid in introducing matters considered important by the teacher, but not contained in the regular reading lesson — as opportunities for dramatization, for nature study, or for celebration of the holidays. THE LION AND THE MOUSE Players. Lion and mouse. Scene. In the woods. Action. The lion sleeps. The mouse plays around. She goes under the lion's paw. The lion wakes. Scene I Lion. G-r-r-r! Who is under my paw? Mouse (in a squeaky voice). It is I, Mr. Lion. Lion (in a roaring voice). Oh, it is you, little mouse! I shall eat you up. G-r-r-r! Mouse. Oh, please don't eat me up! I would not be a mouthful for you. Lion. Ha! Ha! That is true. You may go. Mouse. Thank you ! Thank you ! I will help you, some time. Lion. Ha! Ha! Ha! You help me? Ha! Ha! Ha! Second Year Reading and Phonics 81 Scene II Scene. In the woods. The lion caught in a net. Action. He roars ! He tries to tear the net. He cannot. The mouse hears him. Mouse. Kind lion, you helped me once. I will help you now. I will gnaw your net. Jfc^ ILLUSTRATION BY THIRD GRADE PUPIL". THE LION IN THE NET Action. The mouse gnaws and gnaws and gnaws. The lion's net drops. He bounds away. Lion. You have helped me, little friend. I thank you. 21. Myths, Fables and Legends. Should it happen that the second readers used by the school are deficient in the permanent literature found in the forms of fable and myth, then selections may be presented in the same way as poems. Among the fables and myths suitable for this grade are The Tortoise and the Hare, The Wind and the Sun, The Crow and the Pitcher, Belling the Cat, The Kid and the Wolf, The Sunflower Myth (Clytie), Legend of the Bluebird, Legend of the Aster. 82 Public School Methods Good collections of fables, myths, legends and standard fairy tales are published by D. C. Heath & Co., Educational Publishing Company, A. Flanagan Company, The Orville Brewer Publishing Company (all of Chicago), and others. Most of these collections are inexpensive. 22. Amount of Reading Required. The general rule is to have second year pupils review the latter part of several good first readers and complete the reading of at least three good second readers or their equivalents. The safe rule upon which to base promotions is to be sure that the pupils are able to read easily, intelligently and fluently all the stories and poems found in their second readers, and also corresponding material drawn from other sources and pre- sented on the blackboard or as hektograph leaflets. Then they may pass easily to the third reader. 23. How to Use the Readers. They who make a series of school readers take incredible pains to grade the vocabu- lary as carefully as may be, in order that the pupil may find it an easy and happy experience to read the series from the beginning to the end. Some authors succeed remarkably well in this grading, others but indifferently. Authors offer also a brief, concisely written preface to help teachers use their books with success for themselves and their pupils. And to what end? As a matter of fact, many teachers never read the prefaces, and ignore all the authors' attempts to ease the burden of the class through careful grading. Instead, lessons are selected "to suit the season," "to please the children," "to help the nature study lessons," and for many other purposes. Being read out of the expected order, the chain of preparation is broken and the class is beset by a hundred difficulties that might have been prevented had the prefaces been carefully studied and the lessons presented in the sequence planned. The true way, we believe, is to profit as much as possible by the helps that the authors have painstakingly provided. Suppose the class reads the Christmas story before Christmas arrives; what matter? Any selection worthy to have a place Second Year Reading and Phonics 83 in a reading book should be worth reading more than once. And the charm of a good Christmas story grows with repeti- tion. The truth is, many teachers seem almost to fear to give a story or a poem for a second reading, forgetting that to children the familiar stories are the dearest stories. PHONICS FOR FIRST TWO GRADES 24. A Separate Study. Keep the reading period for the undisturbed pleasure of genuine reading. The work in phon- ics should be kept apart from the reading lesson proper, especially during the first year in school. Gradually, through the training in phonics, the pupils gain ability to make out words for themselves, largely by trying the drill words and phonograms (written or printed representations of sounds) on the new words they meet in silent reading. 25. Training Ear and Tongue, (a) Training the Ear. Use the Sharp Ears game (" spelling by sound, " for pupils to recognize and pronounce words). This is ear training. (See Suggestive Lesson One, Section 30.) The teacher spells by sound the following: (1) Phonetic names of familiar objects in plain sight in the room, which children may point to or touch; as, chalk, desk, wall. (2) Phonetic names of actions which children may per- form; as, clap, stand, sit, bow, run. (3) Phonetic names of parts of the body, which children may readily touch; as, lip, teeth, cheek, knee, toe, etc. (4) Phonetic names of pieces of wearing apparel; as, cap, hat, shoe, dress, waist. (5) Phonetic names of colors ; as, red, green. (6) Phonetic names of substances; as, glass, tin. All of the foregoing should be in sight ; now give exercises on things out of sight. The Wonder Box is played by giving phonetic names of objects (toys) which are concealed in a box. The teacher spells by sound the name of one. A child, recognizing the name, whispers it to the teacher, and is then permitted to 84 Public School Methods take the object from the box and show it to the class. In the box may be placed a doll, ball, knife, top, a pin, a nail, a cone, and such toys as a sheep, a duck, a tree, etc. (8) Phonetic names of any animals or objects may be used; as, pig, cow, rose, stone, cup. (9) Give phonetically the initial letters of the children's Christian names, and when a child hears "his sound" let him rise at his desk or come to the teacher. Thus, Alice's sound is a; Bertha's, b; Cora's, c' . When several children have the same sound, as Delia, Dan, Donald, all stand when the sound d is given. As soon as children recognize each other's "initial sounds," the teacher may use this device: "Who can bow to some child whose sound is e?" Then a volunteer is named and he bows to Edward, or Emma. (10) Short, imperative sentences may be given; as, T-ou-ch y-ou-r b-oo-k. In such sentences the child performs the action, then repeats the sentence. This differs from (2) only in degree. It is harder to hold in mind several words than only one. (b) Training the Tongue. To train the tongue, have the children spell by sound part of the words in (a). The words should be spelled with the teacher and without her, in concert, and individually. Encourage children to attempt words for themselves; to call each other by initial sounds; to give names of objects by sound. To do things is easier and more interesting than to spell words by sound, so train- ing the tongue is harder and not so enjoyable as the various applications of training the ear. Hence, exercises in training the tongue should be given less time than exercises in training the ear, and these exercises should be handled very tactfully. They should be presented in the light of pleasant recreations. 26. Associating Sound and Symbol. This exercise should begin within a few days after introducing the work in Section 25, and may begin on the same day. It should be presented without delay, because phonics should be used early and often, so that the habit of spelling new words by sound becomes involuntary. RECOGNITION OF SOUNDS Second Year Reading and Phonics 85 (a) Resemblances. In order the more readily to asso- ciate sounds with letters, make liberal use of fancied resem- blances. These resemblances may be adroitly introduced through a story, in which the dog growls (r); the cat says /; the cow, m; and sh says "be still"; ch is a sneeze; and wh blows out a candle. (See Suggestive Lesson Two, Section 3i.) Vowels are introduced very interestingly through the children's initial sounds, and the sounds blended into words which the children more readily recognize because of the practice in the Sharp Ears game. Indeed, the Sharp Ears game is then applied to written as well as to oral words. The use of fancied resemblances is merely temporary aid; it is a helpful finger stretched out to the toddler who is taking his first unsteady steps; it will soon be withdrawn and for- gotten. (See Suggestive Lesson Three, Section 32.) The following is a list of representative sounds: ch — engine sound m — cow ng — bell u — pig grunt I — wires 5 — snake hiss p — steamboat th — goose h — breath a — lamb (baa) t — clock 1 g — frog sh — softly (hush) r — growling dog d — dove z — bee hum mouse b — ■ bubbles of water — beetle (flying) c — (hard c) cough e v } - angry kitten w - wind blowing ow hungry kitten wh — blowing out the light (b) Initial Vowels. Make good use of the children's initials. Continue the work under (9) by writing the letter on the board for the child to recognize by sight as well as by sound. Write A on the board and let Alice rise and " sound " her letter; or, let some other child who knows to whom that letter "belongs" bow to Alice, and then sound the letter. Thus the children try to learn each other's letters. Let Roy, Allen and Tom stand before the class; then touch each child lightly, sounding his letter and blending 86 Public School Methods the three into r-a-t; then write the word on the board. Write the combination of Allen's and Tom's letters (at) five times on the board; leave the first for the family name, then change the other four by prefixing initial letters. Roy's letter makes rat; Sam's letter, sat; Fannie's, fat; Fannie's and Lora's together, flat. Use the small letter when writing the initial sound, because you wish to combine the letters into words. When the children are familiar with the letters, drop all reference to initials; this device has served its purpose. (c) First Use of Phonics in Reading. From any page in the primer choose a phonetic word, as doll, drum, nut. Write or print it on the board ; let the children spell it by sound, and pronounce it. Then show them the page upon which the word is to be found and let them hunt for the word, which is playing hide-and-go-seek with them. They use both eye and ear in discovering it, and are taking the first step in using phonics when preparing a reading lesson. 27. Diacritic Marks. Introduce diacritic marks during the first year, and use them frequently enough for the chil- dren to grasp their purpose, but depend on them very little for pronouncing words. Diacritic marks for equivalents may be wholly omitted in the first and second years, and used very little in the third. The results obtained are not worth the effort which must be spent in obtaining them. For instance, in the word move, to remember that the two dots shows that the o is to be pronounced like the double o in moon, is far harder for the child than to remember move as a sight word. A child well trained in phonics, meeting the word move by itself, would pronounce it to rhyme with stove; if he met it in a sentence, he would at first pronounce it in the same way, then change to the correct pronunciation as soon as he gathered its meaning from the context. The principal use of diacritic marks is confined to the dictionary. Many dictionaries respell most of the hard words ; all dictionaries are virtually compelled to respell some words; for example, the word one cannot be so marked as to indicate Second Year Reading and Phonics 87 its pronunciation. Besides, dictionaries published by differ- ent companies use different sets of diacritic marks, so the child when older may have to use other marks than those first given. Instead of depending to a great extent upon diacritic marks, depend upon gathering words into families, the com- pound phonogram being the family name. Thus, in bright, instead of marking i and crossing out gh, teach the phonogram ight as a whole, a family name. The child learns it as he learns wh, th, etc., as wholes, and prefixes other sound. When the first word belonging to some family is learned, immediately call other members; for instance, if love appears in a lesson, group with it dove, shove and glove. When stove, grove and rove are introduced, we pronounce them and find that though they look alike, they are not in the same " sound family." The meaning tells the child the pronunciation, and the context gives the meaning. Besides teaching phonograms, or family names, point out by example certain general rules for pronunciation. For instance, introduce the macron, and tell the children that when a vowel wears a flat cap, it says its own name, or has its long sound. Tell them, also, that when no macron is used, there are other ways to show what the vowel says. An e at the end of a short word is such a sign ; the final e is a friend that helps the other vowel to give its long sound. In made we know that a says a, because the e is there to help; in mad we know a says a, because it has no helper; so, in pine, pin; note, not; cube, cub, the rule holds. Then, too, some other letters help just as final e does, only instead of standing at the end of the word, they stand beside the vowel which they help. In rain, we know what a says because i stands beside it. After plenty of practice the teacher may make groups like these : Long a, a e, ai, ay. Long o, o e, oa. " e, ee, ea. " u, u e. " i, i....e. 88 Public School Methods Under no circumstances should this exercise be used to introduce the work. It is a summing up which may or may not be put before the children. The rule for ay may be presented like this: Suppose that the word play comes in the regular lesson ; write it on the board and have the children pronounce it (or the teacher may pronounce it for them) ; then cover the pi and pronounce ay. Write a column of ay's, underscore the top one for the family name, then call the "children." The teacher writes the "ay" child's name, and the pupils pronounce it; as, ay, pl-ay, p-ay, d-ay, etc. When a number of "children" are gathered together, the pupils may send them out to play after this fashion: The teacher asks, "Who can send a child out to play?" A vol- unteer comes forward and with the pointer indicates a word he knows, as day, pronounces and erases it. This game goes on till all of the "children" are gone. The teacher points to the underscored ay and asks, " What sound shall we think of when we see this?" The pupils answer, a (the sound). Instead of diacritic marks for a, e, i, o and u, when they precede r, as in arm, her, irk, orb and urn, teach ar, or, er, ir and ur, as phonograms, pronouncing the last three alike. That plan changes an army of hard words into easy ones. Have the pupils write many words which the teacher dictates phonetically, letter by letter ; the children pronounce them when the dictation is finished. Do not dictate words containing silent letters, except those which fall under certain rules, with which the children are familiar. The teacher may say, "The next word has e for a helper," then dictates, l-a-n; the pupils add the e and have lane. Or she may say, "In this word i helps a, r-ai-n;" the children know where the i comes when it helps a. Usually it is better to dictate by families, giving the family name or phonogram, as ight; then the pupils know that each succeeding word has ight in it; as, l-ight, s-ight, sl-ight. The next step, which is an easy one, is for the teacher to give the phonogram as ack, then pronounce pack, lack, as when spelling by letter, the pupils silently thinking the Second Year Reading and Phonics 89 sounds and writing the words. Children thus trained can master new reading lessons with surprising ease. 28. Syllabication. This is not really phonics, but the following exercise may be given in the period for phonics, because it is a means of mastering words. Write two columns of words : (i) rag sun moon (2) (3) bag ragbag man ragman shine sunshine fish sunfish day- Sunday rise moonrise beam moonbeam Then assist the children to make a third column by putting these two together, as in (3), above. Next write a column of words, such as the following: (1) sunlight playmate sidewalk Then make two more columns, (2) and (3), by separating these: (2) (3) sun light play mate side walk 29. Summary. All of this may seem a great deal of work for the first year; but let it be remembered that in many cities and large towns from six to ten primers or first readers are read through. In accomplishing this, the pupils need to use all that has been suggested, and woe betide if they learn to do without phonics! They never learn to depend upon its help so confidently nor use it so skilfully. Teachers who receive into the second or third grade pupils who have had no phonics know how hard it is to teach them to use it in pronouncing words. 90 Public School Methods 30. Suggestive Lesson One. The following may be used as the first lesson in phonics, and may be called the Sharp Ears game. Teacher. Now we are ready for the game! I want to see who has sharp ears, so I shall say a word very s-1-ow-ly, and then someone may te!.l me what I said. I am thinking about something in this room; I hope some one will touch it. Who can touch some ch-a-kt (Repeat the word several times, blending more and more, till at last the slowest child can hardly miss it.) May and Dan and John may go quickly and touch ch-a-k! Tell what it is! The children run lightly and hold up pieces of chalk. In the same way bring out the words, wall, book, door. This concentrates the attention of all upon one object, but only a few have had the pleasure of doing something, so add this: Teacher. Everybody can touch this if their ears are only sharp enough to hear what it is! When I say "Ready! Touch your 1-i-pV "Ready!" (Some promptly lay a finger on the lip, others imitate.) Teacher. Now touch your t-o. Then, after all have done it, comes the question: "Who can do this? Cl-a-p." "Tommy may do it; Jessie; Ruth. Now all cl-a-p!" "Who can sk-i-pf This whole row may try. Stand! Ready! sk-i-p!" The teacher must decide whether the children are too timid to clap, skip, etc.; also whether it is better at this time to have the pupils repeat the words slowly, or to wait a day or two. 31. Suggestive Lesson Two. This lesson may be used in associating sounds and symbols. Teacher. There is a little boy named Billy, and he lives in the country and has lots of pets. His cousin Belle came from the city to visit him. When he went after the cow, he took Belle, and Carlo, the dog, went too. The cow was waiting at the pasture gate, and when she saw Billy she said, m-m-m (give the sound). Let me hear you say m-m-m. I Second Year Reading and Phonics 91 will write something on the blackboard to help you remember it; when you see this m, remember what the cow said. On the way home, Carlo began to bark, and bark, at some- thing! When Billy and Belle came closer, they saw it was a black snake, coiled up, and it said s-s-s. "Come away, Carlo!" cried Billy, "papa says that kind of a snake does not hurt anybody!" So Carlo left the snake and ran on with Billy and Belle. This 5 will make you think of what the snake said. All say it: s-s-s!" While the children were gone, Billy's mother put some bread and bones on Carlo's tin plate. The cat saw it and thought it was good. So when Billy and Belle and Carlo came, there was the cat eating Carlo's supper. My! Carlo ran to that plate, and he growled, V-r," as if to say: "What are you eating my supper for?" The cat sprang away, arched her back and said, " F-f-f," as if to answer, "There was such a big plateful that you might give me a little." 1 (The teacher writes r, f, m and s. This may be divided into two or three lessons, if preferred. The lesson is much more effective if pictures of the cow, dog, cat, etc., each saying its own letter, are shown. New Education Readers, Book I, has a series of such pictures. The series is published by the American Book Company. 32. Suggestive Lesson Three. This lesson is not the third in sequence; it may come a week after the second lesson. It should be used in introducing the vowel and family names. The vowel used may be a child's initial, as A for Alice. A stands by m, and we have am, then r-am, S-am. Or, with- out any reference to the Billy and Belle story, the teacher may write i on the blackboard and say, " Let's call this a little boy, throwing a ball in the air. Can you make his picture as I have? Let's play this little boy says i (give short sound of i). Here is another picture, t. We will call this a tall soldier with his gun on his shoulder. He says t (give sound of t). Now the little boy and soldier take hold »The story of Billy and Belle is modeled after the Frank and Fannia story in Book I of New Education series. 92 Public School Methods of hands like this, it. I wonder what they say together? Listen! i-t, it. All write it. I will write it — it, it, it, it — four times. Now I will put m here, then s, and / by the others, and now we have, it, m-it, s-it, f-it. From that day forth, do not let a day pass without blend- ing some familiar sounds into a written word. The story of Billy and Belle may run on till it brings in most of the alpha- bet and some special sounds; for instance, Billy and Belle met a flock of geese, and one stretched its long neck, put out its tongue and said, "th-th" at Belle. (This is the sound of th heard in thin.) However, by the time a dozen or more letters are learned through the stories, or initials, the pupils will have grasped the idea and can take and retain many sounds without the aid of a story. Just tell them what oo says, and weave it into words like shoot, moon, etc., and they will remember it. The Aldine Chart gives pages of families of words. 33. Conclusion. Everything is begun during the first year. More and harder combinations are presented in second and third years, and the children are required to pronounce the new words which are phonetic in their reading lessons. TEST QUESTIONS i. In what respects would the attitude of the children toward their lessons at the beginning of their second year of school differ from their attitude at the close of the first year? Have you a right to expect a rapid return to the conditions that existed at the end of the first year? 2. Contrast the purpose of second year reading with that of first year reading. Show how this difference in purpose affects the character of recitations. 3. To how great an extent should a child be able to read independently at the end of his second year? Can you reason ably expect that during the latter part of the second yeai a child will make any independent preparation for his lessons? Second Year Reading and Phonics 93 4. Quote a brief poem, not found in this lesson, which you consider suitable for second year work. What are the char- acteristics of poetry that make it particularly pleasing to children? 5. Write a well-known fable in the style in which you would tell it to pupils near the close of their second year. Explain your method of presenting the fable and tell what you would have the class do with it. 6. Mention several means by which good expression in reading may be aided. What is gained by having the chil- dren dramatize simple selections? 7. Explain how an understanding of syllabication is an aid to reading for second year pupils. 8 and 9. Select a simple poem of not more than two stanzas, and write out your plan of presentation, after the manner of that in Section 9. 10. Why should phonics be introduced in the first grade? How do phonics assist in syllabication? CHAPTER FOUR THIRD YEAR READING 1. The Situation. By the end of the third year, the child should have mastered the fundamental principles of reading and be able to help himself, to a large degree. In other words, when the third year is completed, he should be fairly well through the "learning to read" period and prepared to enter upon the enjoyments of reading to learn. The teacher should not infer from this statement that at the end of the third year the child will need little or no further assistance. On the contrary, if he is to become a good reader, he will need a great deal of assistance during the next two years. But when he enters upon the work of the fourth grade, the problem changes. The teacher of the third grade should see that her pupils are prepared to meet these changed con- ditions, so that they may enter upon the fourth year's work without loss of time. To be able to read intelligently presupposes on the part of the learner a large amount of varied detail work, genuine application and industry, unabated interest and a thirst for knowledge that calls forth his best efforts during the entire year. He brings to this work stronger powers of observation, better trained than at the beginning of the previous year; an extensive and well established vocabulary; ability to read second reader matter intelligently; considerable facility in the use of phonics and syllabication; a knowledge of school routine, and some degree of ability to study a reading lesson independent of help. These powers have come as the fruit of his first two years in school. What has previously been gained should be held, all desirable traits strengthened, and steady progress secured. The long vacation has to some extent dulled the child's memory of book lessons, but the effect will not be so marked as at the beginning of the second year. His books have not 94 Third Year Reading 95 been entirely set aside, as before, and both his bodily and mental powers have gained strength during the summer. In fact, the outlook is very hopeful for this year. An inexperienced teacher of reading cannot realize how much the success of good oral reading depends upon careful attention to the seemingly trivial matters enumerated below. It is, however, due to the neglect of these points and others closely allied that we have even among adults so few who are really good readers. 2. Order of Procedure, (a) Continuation of Previous Work. In teaching, all the previous steps must be retained, but in different proportions. The word method is now used when new words are not easily reached by phonics. In such cases, after giving the meaning, these words should be taught as wholes, as "sight" words, omitting phonetic analysis. This need, however, grows less and less as the year advances. The method of syllabication is used whenever possible, applying phonics to the parts of words in cases of hesitation caused by uncertainty in regard to the correct pronunciation of any syllable. See Phonics, pages 83-92. (b) Use of the Sentence. All reading lessons in this year deal with connected sentences, paragraphs, stanzas, and entire stories or poems. Thus, the sentiment of a selection is constantly searched for, the new words being taught as incidents needed to reach the meaning of the whole sentence, rather than as single words. The word of itself is no longer an end, but a means towards an end, the end being the thought and its expression. Not only is this true of the single word; it is also true of phrases and idiomatic forms. (c) Grouping. The recognition of groups of words must be practiced every day, the children now understanding the help it gives to actual reading. Lead them, when preparing a new lesson, to look ahead in each sentence for the immediate recognition of phrases. They must also be definitely taught that no one group goes beyond a comma, and that to breathe before the group is finished will spoil the meaning. To prevent bad habits in this respect, give general rules in regard 96 Public School Methods to proper places for taking breath when reading aloud, and see that these rules are enforced during every reading lesson. 3. Breathing. Proper breathing is essential to good oral reading, and special exercises in breathing should be given in this grade. These exercises may precede the reading, occupying a minute or so at the beginning of the recitation, or they may be given to the whole school once or twice a day at a short rest period. Have the pupils stand erect, place their hands upon the hips, throw the chest out, and inhale slowly until the lungs are filled; then, at a given signal, exhale as slowly. This movement is easily regulated by the teacher raising the hand slowly while the pupils inhale, and lowering it while they exhale. The exercise can be varied in a number of ways: (i) As the pupils inhale let them raise their hands above their heads, then lower them as they exhale. (2) Let the pupils place their hands upon their chests and tap them lightly with the palms of the hands as they exhale. (3) The production of tones, as a, ah, o, can also be practiced with this exercise. Train the pupils in breathing until it becomes a fixed habit to fill the lungs before beginning to read, and to take breath naturally at every convenient pause, whether need of breath is felt at that time or not. This will prevent the sense of hurry and fatigue that comes from the breath being sud- denly exhausted. Correct breathing will enable the pupil to read phrases and clauses through to the very end with smoothness and ease. Recall continually to the minds of the children that the meaning of a group of words is lost and the expression of it ruined when the reader must stop before the end to take breath. Cautions. (1) Children of this age have less lung capacity than adults, and care must be used or the exercises will be made too strenuous. The breathing should be deep but gentle, the inhaling and exhaling done without undue effort. Learning to prolong the inhalations and exhalations is safer than to try much explosiveness. The latter should be used Third Year Reading 97 with care, since it often causes dizziness, faintness or head- ache, due to the increased pressure upon the lungs. These points are emphasized here not only for hygienic reasons, but because of the important bearing correct breathing has upon successful oral reading. (2) Do not allow pupils to sit with arms folded across the chest. This practice restricts the breathing, brings the shoulders forward into an unnatural position, causes the shoulder blades to protrude and is productive of much general injury. (3) The breath should always be taken into the lungs through the nose. The habit of breathing with the mouth open is both unnatural and dangerous. It admits the air to the throat and lungs before it is properly warmed, often causing sore throat, catarrh and even soreness of the bronchial tubes and lungs. Impurities of all sorts that nature intended the nostrils to prevent are also admitted into the system through the open mouth. (4) While breathing exercises are so vitally related to oral reading that they may very properly occupy the first minute or two of the reading recitation, the two should be kept entirely separate. After the reading begins, it should not be interrupted for the breathing exercises. Neither should a pupil be stopped in his reading and told to "take breath." Either practice will prevent a free and full expression by the pupils. 4. Bad Habits. Children are growing rapidly and this fact sometimes causes an indolence or lethargy that results in awkward movements and bad habits. Some of these are being slow to rise when called upon; standing with all the weight upon one foot or with knees loosely bent; half stand- ing, clinging to or resting upon the desk with one hand; beginning to read when rising from the seat; beginning to sit down while reading the last sentence. All these should be discouraged or prevented by keeping the body and mind of the pupil alert and fully obedient to the rules established for the reading period. Keeping in 98 Public School Methods mind that the bodily movements react upon the mind and that careless thinking will be found along with careless movements, interest should be created and kept vivid throughout the entire lesson, with no slouching allowed, either when standing or sitting. 5. Rules for Readers. Good standards of reading should by the third year be fairly well established as habits. How- ever, pupils will soon lapse from grace in these matters unless the teacher is ever on the alert to prevent bad habits by constantly enforcing proper ones. In addition to the rules given to first and second year pupils, teach the following: (i) Read slowly enough so that every word will be clear and distinct, but not slowly enough to break the phrasing. (2) Open the mouth well when reading. The voice needs to be carried forward. When the teeth or lips are too nearly closed while reading or speaking, the voice is forced backward and lost, or the utterance made thick and indistinct. (3) " Speak clearly, if you speak at all, Carve every word before you let it fall." 6. The Alphabet. In the work of the first year we sug- gested ways by which the alphabet may be taught without any set time for it and without detracting from the interest of the reading. The alphabet, then, may be taught inci- dentally, as one form of seat work, building names and other words with sticks or pegs, and later, with printed alphabets, as an adjunct to the penmanship lessons, and in connection with phonics. Where the above suggestions are followed wisely, a child seldom reaches the second year without knowing all the letters of the alphabet by form and name. He has learned them indiscriminately, without regard to order, as incidents to other lessons. However, if the work in phonics has been properly done, he has learned that each letter stands for one or more sounds, and that certain combinations of letters always stand for the same sound; as, ay, at, ight (see Phonics, Third Year Reading 99 page 87). He also soon learns that the letters are intimately and inseparably associated with the art of spelling. In the second year, he finds out that he can make his knowledge of the alphabet serve him to make out new words ; at least, that if he names the letters as they occur in the strange word, his teacher or some one else will be able to pronounce the word for him. This keeps the names of the letters fresh in his mind, as do his penmanship lessons and his spelling lessons. In various ways he gets help from the letters. Still it often occurs that he reaches the third year of school and knows little or nothing of the regular order of the letters of the alphabet. This is the only new thing about them to learn and is best taught as a game. The pupils may choose sides and see which ones can say the letters in order. At the recess or noon time children may hear each other say the letters in order, keeping track of all who do not fail. The teacher may now and then, in the period for phonics, go to the board, saying, " I wish to write the letters of the alphabet in order and write them very quickly. Please give the names, one after the other, as they come. Mary, begin." Down one row, back the next, as quickly as the children can speak, names are given and the teacher writes. At another time, a minute or two may be devoted to a rapid drill after this form: "What letter comes next after yV\ "After m?", "After cV, "After hi", and so on till no child can be found who is uncertain. These exercises are amusing and interesting, make a use- ful diversion, and, if followed for a short time in the third year, will enable the children readily to use the dictionary, city and telephone directories, cyclopedia and other indexed books when they need them — a thing many carelessly taught pupils of the higher grammar grades are unable to do. 7. Phonics. Review as much of the work of the second year as may be necessary to bring what they have learned clearly before the pupils. Continue the lines of work given on pages 83-92, and add new phonograms, blends, end- 100 Public School Methods ings and words as rapidly as the advancement in reading requires, being sure that all this work is thoroughly done. As a result of these lessons, the child's power to recognize and pronounce new words should increase rapidly. Drills in enunciation, articulation and pronunciation should be frequent, but need not occur daily. Introduce some special exercises to secure projection of tones, flexibility and smoothness, as Tennyson's Blow, Bugle, Blow and Sweet and Low. Exercises to cultivate energetic expression and emphasis may also be given, as Charge, Chester, Charge!, On, Stanley, On! Teachers may use to advantage "Sail on! and on! and on!" from Joaquin Miller's Columbus. Even better results will be reached by using all of this poem and the two named from Tennyson. The dramatic element always appeals to the children and calls out their best efforts. These particular poems are beyond the grade of reading used for the third year, but if written upon the board and left there, the words will be more easily learned and rendered than when learned entirely from imitation. One of the best poems for this purpose, in their own grade, is A Visit from St. Nicholas, found in many reading books. 8. Rules for Pronunciation. The principles of pronun- ciation taught in the first and second grade in an informal manner, can, in the latter part of the third year, be formulated into rules, if this step is desired. i. In words of one syllable ending in e, the vowel is long, as in white. When the vowel is the last letter and the only vowel in the word or accented syllable, it has the long sound, as in me. 2. Silent e at the end of a word or syllable makes the pre- ceding vowel long, as in fat, fate. 3. In words of one syllable, not ending in e, the vowel is short between two single consonants, as in cat. 4. In words of more than one syllable, the first vowel is usually long when there is but one consonant between it and the next vowel, as in writing. It is short when there are Third Year Reading 101 two or more consonants, or a double consonant, between it and the next vowel, as in springing, hatter. 9. Sight Reading for the First Three Years. Any reading that is required without preparation is called sight reading. From the very fact that no chance is given for definite preparation, sight reading, as reading, cannot be required during the first year. The nearest approximation to it is a rapid review of single words and short idioms which have previously been thoroughly taught. Sometimes this test is given from the blackboard or chart; sometimes, by the rapid showing of small cards upon which words have been written in large script with a rubber pen or a very heavy stub pen. In the second year these sight drills should be continued upon words that have been discovered to be difficult for the class to remember. More often, however, the drills should be upon longer idioms and especially upon full phrases. Thus, the teacher prepares cards, as described, upon each of which may be such an expression as a large, beautiful wax doll; a fine new lace handkerchief; a targe, new football; a pretty, red geranium blossom; a humming, buzzing bumble bee, an old brown stone house; a weary, foot-sore horse; a good name is rather to be chosen than great riches. It will help forward the daily lessons better if the teacher selects the phrases in the book from lessons that are soon to be read. These phrases should be taught in some prepara- tory period and not allowed to interfere with the legular reading lesson. During the last term of the second year, pupils may be led to review portions of various first readers for exercise in sight reading. In the third year the sight reading of the first term does not differ from that of the second year. Nothing should be attempted that has not been previously taught with care. In the second and third terms of the year the sight phrases may be considerably lengthened; pupils may be given many easy sentences to read at sight; frequent tests upon earlier 102 Public School Methods reading lessons in second and third readers may be given as sight lessons, and occasionally the teacher may require some- thing entirely new to be read in this way. When this is done, the teacher must be certain that no new words are to be found and that the selection is simpler in style than that used in the daily lesson. Cautions. ( i ) Sight reading must always be easier than a lesson that is to be prepared beforehand. Difficult sight reading begets numerous bad habits. (2) The use of sight reading should always be limited. It is but a test and there are nearly always members of the class who will not be prepared for it, because of absence or for other reasons. 10. Silent Reading and Oral Reading. It is by means of silent reading that we gather thoughts from the printed page. It is by oral reading that we give those thoughts, in the exact words of the author, to others. It is frequently by oral reading that we test the correctness of silent reading. Many times the eye needs the assistance of the ear to prove or disprove the accuracy of the first reading. This is par- ticularly true in the primary grades. To a less degree, and seldom except in intricate passages, this is true with adults. In any case, silent reading must precede the oral reading. This is true even when there is no time given for preparation. The eye glances ahead of the words that the voice is uttering and enables the reader to go on without faltering, because confidence is thus maintained. During the last term of the third year, pupils should gradually be trained to do this mechanical looking ahead without losing the thought of what they are reading or for- getting to impress their hearers by their pleasing interpre- tation of it. As an occasional help in such training, pupils may be asked to read a simple new selection aloud with the understanding that at a given signal they look instantly away from the book but continue to read as long as they can recall the words they have seen in advance. At the first Third Year Reading 103 trial the teacher may be surprised by the difference in power shown by individuals in the class. It is self-evident that, as a rule, among older pupils and adults the amount of silent reading done greatly exceeds the amount of oral reading. In the first three or four years the amount of each is very nearly the same. Oral reading is needed in order to test the accuracy of the thought- gathering (silent reading). It is also needed as an oppor- tunity in which pupils may be trained in emphasis, inflec- tions, pauses and all else that goes to make expressive reading. 11. The Critical Period. The third year is the critical period in oral reading. The children are becoming self- conscious, and unless the teacher uses her utmost tact and skill, their hitherto buoyancy of expression will be trans- formed into the mechanical utterance of stilted phrases. On the other hand, if this fault can be prevented, and the children can be led to continue through the year with the same freedom of expression which characterized their read- ing in the first and second grades, they will enter the fourth grade well prepared for a broader study of the principles of expression which are essential to good oral reading in the higher grades. Oral reading, during the third year, should therefore receive careful attention. (a) Prevent Faults. Remove all obstructions to expression before the pupils are called upon to read the selection orally. See that they can pronounce all new words, and that they understand the meaning of every sentence and paragraph in the lesson. (b) Bring Out the Thought. By questioning, lead the pupils to discover the thought for themselves. They will then be much more liable to express it in their reading. (c) Criticisms. Pupils should be allowed to read with- out interruption. When the pupil is through, criticisms under the direction of the teacher may be given. When these are offered by the pupils, they should be confined to the render- 104 Public School Methods ing of the selection, or the portion of it read, and the pupil offering the criticism should be expected to' illustrate his criticism by reading the part criticised. Fault-finding, criticising pronunciation of words, and petty details of this character, should not be allowed. Whatever criticism of language is necessary should be made by the teacher. In general, when one pupil is reading, the others should listen, with books closed. (d) Interest. The children are especially interested in selections that are full of action, and much of the reading matter should be of this kind. Allow the pupils to present the story as a play, whenever it lends itself readily to this treatment. (See Dramatization, pages 163-167.) 12. Illustrative Lesson. The following type lesson is given as a suggestion. Each teacher will have her own plans, and her own way of leading pupils to interpret and enjoy literary selections. The chief purpose of this lesson is to show what facts must be established before the chil- dren can understand the author's meaning, and this must be clearly perceived by the teacher before the lesson is given. A study of the poem which we use as the basis of the illus- trative lesson shows that the author's purpose was to express the longing of the child for things he has not seen, and his effort to satisfy this longing. In the accompanying illus- tration, the boy's purpose in climbing the tree, then, is not to pick the cherries, nor to accomplish a daring feat; it is to look over the garden wall and fill his soul with the beauty of what lies beyond. The illustration emphasizes the thought, when studied from the author's point of view. But if studied with the idea of the cherries, or the act of climbing foremost in mind, it leads the child entirely away from the thought which the poem was intended to bring out. Attention is called to these points of view for the purpose of showing how a picture may be a help or a hindrance in interpreting a selection. In making her preparation, the teacher should give both the picture and the poem careful study. Third Year Reading 105 FOREIGN LANDS Up into the cherry tree, Who should climb but little me? I held the trunk with both my hands And looked abroad on foreign lands. I saw the next-door garden lie, Adorned with flowers before my eye, And many pleasant places more That I had never seen before. I saw the dimpling river pass And be the sky's blue looking-glass; The dusty roads go up and down With people tramping in to town. If I could find a higher tree, Farther and farther I should see, To where the grown-up river slips Into the sea among the ships. 106 Public School Methods To where the roads on either hand Lead onward into fairy land, Where all the children dine at five, And all the playthings come alive. — Robert Louis Stevenson. Teacher: Our lesson today is about foreign lands. That expression is a little hard for me to understand. Who can explain it to me? Can you, John? John: I think it means far away lands or places we have not seen. Teacher: Good. Who can name a foreign land? Kate. Kate: Italy. Teacher' That's right. Another, Mary. Mary: Germany. Teacher: Right. If we were to visit a foreign country, what do you think we would see, Howard? Howard: We would see the ocean and big cities, and the people would be strange. May be we would see high mountains. Teacher: Good. Now let us look at our lesson. Read the first stanza to yourselves. Who was it in our story who saw foreign lands, Rob? Rob: It was a boy. Teacher: How did he see these lands, Helen? Helen: He climbed a tree. Teacher: Good. That was an easy way to take a journey, wasn't it? Now read the stanza for us, Edna. (Edna reads.) Teacher: That was well read. Read the second stanza silently and tell me what the little boy saw. The first word of the second line is hard. Does anyone know it? It is adorned. (Teacher pronounces it.) Pronounce it, class. Give it again, Rob. Again, Helen. Once more, class. It means made beautiful. What was adorned? Class: The next door garden. Teacher: Right. What adorned the garden, Kate? Third Year Reading 107 Kate: Flowers. Teacher: Now tell me what the boy saw, John. John: He saw the flowers in the garden next door. Teacher: Why do you think he had not seen that garden before, class? Henry: May be there was a high fence around it. Tom: May be there were tall trees in front of it. Teacher: What do you think, Mary? Mary: There might have been a little hill in front of the garden. Teacher: Yes, that may have been true. Read this stanza for us, John. (John reads.) Teacher: I should like to hear you read it, too, Kate. (Kate reads.) Teacher: Look at the next stanza, class. What is this word, d-i-m-p-1-i-n-g, Edna? (Edna pronounces the word.) Teacher: Right. What is a dimple, Howard? Howard: It is a little hollow in a baby's cheek when it laughs. Teacher: That is good. What could make a river have dimples, Helen? Helen: The wind might blow it. Teacher: Surely. What do we say of the river when the wind blows it? Helen: We say it has little waves. Teacher: Right. Now shut your eyes and see if you can see the river covered with little waves. What color are the waves you see, Howard? Howard: Some of them are white and shiny, some are blue, and some are dark. Teacher: Why, that is a pretty river you see. Let us call it the dimpling river. What is it, class? Class: The dimpling river. Teacher: Open your eyes now, and tell me what the boy saw in the river. 108 Public School Methods Edna: I think he saw the blue clouds. Teacher: Why, Edna? Edna: Because it says the river was the sky's blue looking-glass. Teacher: That's a good thought. Have you ever seen blue and white clouds pictured in the water? Are they pretty? Yes, they are beautiful. What else did the child see, Rob? Rob: He saw the dusty roads with the people walking up and down them. Teacher: Read this stanza, Mary. (Mary reads.) Teacher: Read it again for us, Helen, and try to make us see that blue looking-glass. (Helen reads.) Teacher: That was well read. I shall remember that pretty river. Shall you, class? Read the next stanza to yourselves. What did the child wish he could do, Rob? Rob: Find a higher tree. Teacher: Why ? Rob: He wanted to see farther. Teacher: What did he think he could see if he were in a higher tree, Helen? Helen: The river slip into the sea. Teacher: What is a grown up river, class? Class: It's a big one. Teacher: Good. What helps a river to grow up, Edna? Edna: Little rivers run into it and make it bigger. Teacher: That is a good answer. What kind of ships should we see on the ocean, Howard? Howard: Big ones. Teacher: That is right. What is it the grown-up river does, Rob? Rob: Slips into the sea among the ships. Teacher: Tell me that together, class. (Class repeats.) Tell it again, Kate. (Kate answers.) Now read the whole stanza, Rob. Third Year Reading 109 (Rob reads.) Teacher: Read it once more, John. (John reads.) Teacher: Would you like to see the river slipping into the sea among the ships? If you could do that, what would you like to do next, Rob? Rob: Get into a boat and sail away. Teacher: What fun that would be! Let us see how far this little boy would like to see. Who is ready to read the last stanza? Tell me, first, what the last line means. What do you think it means, John? John: It means that our rocking-horses, our tin soldiers and engines would all be real ones and not make-believe ones. Teacher: Read the stanza, Howard. (Howard reads.) Teacher: Now let us look at the picture a moment. Why did this little boy climb the tree, Mary? Mary: He wanted to see something new and pretty. Teacher: Mary thinks well. Why did he climb the cherry tree, Rob? Rob: Because it was the highest one he could find. Teacher: What do you think was the prettiest thing he saw while in the tree, Helen? Helen: The flowers in the next door garden. Teacher: They must have been pretty. What do you think, Edna? Edna: I think the dimpling river and the sky. Teacher: Yes, they were pretty. What do you think the boy liked best, John? John: The sea and the ships. Teacher: John, did he really see those things? Look at the fourth stanza. John: No, he just wanted to see them. Teacher: Now let us read the whole poem, just to help us remember the beautiful things the child saw. Read the first two stanzas, Kate ; the third one, Howard ; the last two, Edna. Read the whole poem, Helen. 110 Public School Methods 13. Selection of Reading Matter. Permanent literature may be given more freely during the third year than here- tofore. The vocabulary, oral and written, has been much increased, and the literary taste of the child has been im- proved by the selections he has heard from good authors. Moreover, his ability to help himself now spurs his ambi- tion to try to read independently from his readers and from other books. He is also beginning to realize that there is a world of books before him, and that there are books he may read that are not reading books. Without being able to express his literary needs, the child's nature reaches out for reading matter that is beyond the commonplace, trivial atmosphere of his daily life, and welcomes tales and poems that embody the unusual, the remote, and the nobler, higher relations of life. (a) Myths, Fables and Legends. The child's imagina- tion takes eager hold upon the characters and situations expressed in fables, myths, legends, fairy tales and poems, all of which form most valuable reading for the third year, when selected judiciously as to content, vocabulary and simplicity of style. Third year pupils are not always of the same age and capacity, hence we shall not attempt to say just what fables, myths, tales or poems should be given to them, nor just how many. Each teacher knows the mental strength of her own class better than any one else, and therefore is better able to judge for them. (b) Other Reading. We may say in general that the world's permanent literature must be interwoven, here- after, with the other reading. The imagination is to be fed, but the pupil must also begin upon the second stage of read- ing, viz., reading to learn, reading for the information it gives. Heretofore his time has necessarily been devoted to learning to read. These first difficulties are not entirely conquered, and will not be for at least a year or two more. However, they need no longer occupy the child's reading time exclusively. Every day now, as a part of the regular Third Year Reading 111 reading lesson, something should be introduced that will give the pleasure that comes with the acquirement of knowl- edge. A fair balance is thus preserved and the higher element in the reading acts as a healthful mental stimulant. (c) Suggestions. To aid the teacher in choosing wisely for the children of the third year, we herewith offer the following suggestions. That they may meet the needs of the third year pupils, the fables, myths, legends and tales which are selected should possess certain indispensable char- acteristics : (i) They should be suitable as to the topics treated. These may appropriately be (a) insects, birds, quadrupeds or other forms of animal life; (b) forms of plant life, par- ticularly flowers and trees; (c) sun, moon and stars; (d) natural phenomena, as clouds, rain, the rainbow, vapor, dew, frost, hail, snow and the winds and their effects; (e) physical features of the earth, as mountains, rivers and fountains; (f) precious stones. (2) The second notable characteristic should be sim- plicity of idea. There should be no complexity of plot, no crowding of characters, no great prolongation of time. The characters should be few, the action rapid and direct. The imagination of the child will satisfactorily fill out the stage settings when needed. (3) The language should be simple, yet elevating. Sent- ences need to be short and direct, in order to keep the situa- tion dramatic, and they must be simple enough for the child to follow readily. Words and figures should be simple, yet carefully chosen for their graphic picturesqueness. (4) The moral should be easily apparent and come as the natural, inevitable outcome of the situation. (5) They should not be such as to leave a morbid or fearsome feeling as a result of the reading. They should gratify the sense of justice but call forth no thought of revenge. Pity, tenderness, forbearance, bravery and noble motives, portrayed vividly in the imaginary characters, live again in the child. 112 Public School Methods To illustrate : The children love the story of The Three Bears. Golden Hair is as good as she is beautiful, and in entering the home of the bears has no thought of doing wrong. The danger of the situation is realized by the class but not by the little girl, who is their idol from her first introduction. The children enjoy the dramatic situation keenly and watch breathlessly for the return of the bears, wondering what they will do to poor Golden Hair, by this time fast asleep upon the bed of the little wee bear. When the bears return, the conversation of the three amuses the children greatly. They anticipate with huge delight the various surprises of the bears. The children almost forget Golden Hair's dangers in the pleasure of this scene. When the bears at last find her, the author of all the mischief, the children are keyed up to the highest pitch of doubt and fear as to the outcome. And what a relief it is when the bears become hospitable and make Golden Hair welcome instead of punishing her! At last, when the bears escort her safely home, a universal sigh of con- tent follows from the children. What was so near a tragedy is averted by the gentle goodness and beauty of Golden Hair. Her good qualities overcome even the savage instincts of the three bears and convert them into delightful hosts. The children feel that "all is well that ends well." The old form of this tale brought the three bears home hungry and ferocious and left the small readers in tears over the untimely death of poor little Golden Hair. This form, no doubt, was more in accordance with bear nature than the revised version, but it certainly was far less satisfactory to read and far less satisfactory in its effects upon children. So, too, with Little Red Riding Hood. What person with a spark of humanity could fail to rejoice that this tale, as modernized, metes out justice to the wicked old wolf before his evil designs can be carried out? The story loses nothing of dramatic power by having the woodmen arrive, not a second too soon, to save both Little Red Riding Hood and the grandmother. Third Year Reading 113 The element of improbability in the revisions is no draw- back. Imagination, at this period, makes all things probable in a story. Witness the enjoyment children have found in Alice in Wonderland and in The Wonderful Wizard of Oz. 14. Poems. Poems for the third year of school life should be chosen with discretion. There are great numbers of nature poems which are very desirable, many of them weaving a beautiful story around some flower or other natural object. Good examples of these are Discontent, by Sarah Orne Jewett; the Kaiserblumen, by Celia Thaxter; and The Mountain and the Squirrel, by Emerson. There are, also, almost countless delightful poems treating directly of child life, as Pittypat and Tippy Toe and Wynken, Blynken and Nod, by Eugene Field; The Land of Counterpane and Travel, by Robert Louis Stevenson ; The Children's Hour, by Longfellow; In School Days and The Barefoot Boy, by Whittier; The First Snowfall, by Lowell. In fact, there are so many good poems that one hardly knows where to stop in choosing. Care should always be taken to see that the poems are suited to the age of the children, are more or less dramatic and couched in beautiful language, and leave no bad effects. Teach the name of the author with the poem, and often have select parts memorized. See Memorizing Selections, pages 158-160. The selections should be learned accurately. 15. Supplementary Reading. We have already given a suggestive list of desirable books to read to primary chil- dren. The ones that the children may read for themselves must be simpler in content and style than those which are read to them, else they soon become discouraged and lose their ambition to read for themselves. During the third year, the independent reading, for the first two terms, should be provided for and carried for- ward in a manner similar to that commended for the second grade. However, if the class makes the progress expected during the last term of this year, the children will be able to read some books almost without aid. 114 Public School Methods During the third year, children should read through three or four third readers, with frequent reviews of the more difficult portions and of the parts that call forth the greatest variety of dramatic expression. Children of the third grade may read by themselves such books as the three volumes of In Mythland, Helen Beckwith ; Children of the Palm Lands, Alice E. Allen; Bobtail Dixie, Abbie N. Smith and Colonial Children, Mara L. Piatt, all of which are pub- lished by the Educational Publishing Company, Chicago. The Child of Urbino, Nurnberg Stove, A Dog of Flanders, Louise de la Ramee, published by the Educational Publish- ing Company, Chicago; Muloch's Little Lame Prince, edited by E. Norris, Educational Publishing Company, Chicago; The Seven Little Sisters who Live on the Round Ball and Ten Boys who Lived on the Road from Long Ago to Now, Jane Andrews, Ginn & Co., Chicago; and The Tree-Dwellers and The Early Cave-Men, by Ruth Dopp, Rand, McNally & Co., Chicago, are suitable books varying somewhat in difficulty. For pupils who can read a little more and for the use of fourth year classes, the following books are excellent, though it must be remembered that the ability of children to read intelligently differs exceedingly, even in the same class, and that what may be easy reading for one locality would be very difficult for children of the same age in another : Hans Anderson's Fairy Tales, two volumes, edited by Miss Stickney, Aesop's Fables, edited by Miss Stickney, The King of the Golden River, by Ruskin, Ginn & Co., Chicago; Black Beauty, by Anna Sewell, and A Child's Garden of Verses, by Stevenson, Rand, McNally & Co., Chicago; Eight Cousins and Little Men, by Louisa M. Alcott, and Nelly's Silver Mine, by Helen Hunt Jackson, Little, Brown & Co., Boston. 1 16. Reading and Study. Children should begin in this year to see how reading helps other subjects. To this end, 1 These publishers and many others offer so many excellent books for children that we can only name a few as types of style and grading, leaving the teacher and school officers to add to the list as needed. They will send catalogues containing descriptions of the various editions and price list upon request. Third Year Reading 115 use now and hereafter, every text-book to supplement the reading book. Have the little arithmetical problems read aloud from the board and from the book, and lead the child to see that unless he can read these correctly and under- standing^ he need not expect to do the work required; so with other subjects, until he sees that the first step in any lesson is to read correctly. If this idea is once clearly demon- strated to a child, he has a new and strong incentive to mental effort. All reading from text-books, however, must be done with precisely the same care as that of the regular reading lesson. Thought interpretation and correct expres- sion are demanded here as in the lesson assigned from the regular reading book. Reading is reading, no matter what the book or the time. 17. Racial Literature. During the last term of the third year in reading, pupils may read with great pleasure and profit stories and poems relating to other times, coun- tries and races than their own. Children are always intensely interested in what other children do and say; hence, the introduction to racial literature should be in the form of stories and poems of children, in order to take advantage of the true point of contact, and to rouse the interest that is inherent rather than developed. The section of Longfellow's Hiawatha, which so beauti- fully depicts the childhood of the Indian boy, may now be read intelligently and will be much enjoyed. Nikolina, The Leak in the Dyke, Piccola and The Boy Van Dyke are other poems in this line full of interest for the children. Children of the Palm Lands, Clovernook Children, Children of the Cold, Children of Many Nations and Colonial Children are all prose types of this kind of literature. They also form the best material possible for developing a love for good biography and history. 1 Fortunately, there is an abundance of this kind of liter- ature — poems and entire books that give really graphic i A few books in the above list are too difficult for third grade pupils to read by themselves, but they are given as types of thought-content. 116 Public School Methods pictures of racial differences in physique, clothing, home life, customs and habits. The early introduction of permanent literature, and read- ing matter based upon topics of vital interest to children, cannot be too highly commended. This is what makes it worth while to try to read. This is what inculcates the reading habit in children. This is what gives them a happy introduction to the great world of literature and develops their interest, while still but children, in libraries and in the use of the books they contain. To create such an appetite for the best reading that a taste for the lower forms is impossible at any time of the pupil's life should be the one controlling thought of every teacher. The work must begin early, and only that which is free from evil taint in word or suggestion may be allowed to come into the hands of any pupil during his school life. With such early training, a young woman or a young man will not often deliberately choose bad books for companions when school days are of the past. Cautions, (i) Prepare the way for the introduction of permanent literature by establishing a good vocabulary; by telling and reading to children many interesting things that will arouse an interest in matters outside of themselves and their limited experiences; by developing the general intelli- gence; by waiting for the right degree of maturity. (2) Take the child where you find him, make use of what he really knows, build securely upon that, hold high ideals of what is in store for him, and let him come naturally to the point where he may be expected to assimilate a good portion of what belongs to him in the way of pure liter- ature. (3) Bear in mind that the child must read much in order to read easily and intelligently; also, that he should read fluently in any one grade before he attempts the next. (4) To be able to read and not to have a love for good literature is dangerous; to be able to read and have a love for bad books is calamitous; to be able to read and have Third Year Reading 117 an unswerving desire for only the best that books contain is the safeguard of youth, the solace of age. 18. Reading as an Artistic Accomplishment. Because of its lack of utility, reading as a social accomplishment is not taught. Reading as a means of giving intellectual pleasure to others, in private or in public, is hardly considered in these days. Reading as the source of combined culture and pleasure, in which all the members of a family might join, has, seemingly, gone out of fashion. The members of the family occupy themselves with different pursuits and the ties of family and of home are sensibly weakened. To permit reading aloud to become a lost art is deplor- able. Never before were there so many books worth read- ing aloud. Never before has there been greater need to strengthen home ties and make the family interests a unit. Therefore, we urge teachers to do everything possible to awaken among their pupils an appreciation of oral reading as an artistic accomplishment of great and lasting value. The first step toward this desired end is for teachers to become good readers themselves and to make frequent occasions to read aloud to their pupils. This proves the pleasure that a good reader is able to give to others and establishes a standard of good reading for immature pupils to follow. As they grow older and have more experience in reading aloud, they will cease to be imitators and their own individuality will be stamped upon their reading. The next step is to encourage pupils to read before the school and to take things home to read to the circle there. Select stories, poems, anecdotes, fables — anything that is proper in idea and language and that has in itself power to hold the interest of the reader and his listeners. Help the pupil in private with his selection, and then let him read it as a part of the morning or afternoon opening exercises. These independent readings have already been discussed at considerable length, but their value is too great to make necessary an excuse for repetition. During the third year, 118 Public School Methods and thereafter, such exercises should become more and more frequent as a regular part of the school program. Pupils should be made to feel that people of genuine culture and refinement enjoy hearing a good reader as much as they enjoy hearing good music. This thought should be instilled by practical illustrations from the neigh- borhood, by the evident pleasure the patrons get from the Friday readings, by quoting complimentary remarks on the reading of the school. If these compliments have been fully earned they will be encouraging and breed no vanity. It will be helpful to teach what some distinguished people have said about good reading, especially if the teacher tells the pupils enough about the men to make them seem real and to give weight to their opinions. The following quota- tions are good: If I could have a son or daughter possessed of but one accomplish- ment in life, it should be that of good reading. — John Ruskin. Of equal honor with him who writes a grand poem is he who reads it grandly. — Henry W. Longfellow. People of taste and culture cannot afford to be wanting in so rare and elegant an accomplishment as good reading. — E. H. Chapin, D.D. A good reader summons the mighty dead from their tombs and makes them speak to us. — Ralph Waldo Emerson. No branch of study has a greater educating power than good reading, and yet we have very few who can read even intelligibly. — Horace Mann. If the crowns of all the kingdoms of the empire were laid down at my feet in exchange for my books and my love of reading, I would spurn them all. — Fenelon. 19. Causes of Poor Reading in Schools. Leaving out of the question such causes as defective vocal organs and extreme nervousness, the following are chief among the causes of poor reading: (i) Teachers fail to appreciate the value of reading as the foundation study. (2) Teachers are not, themselves, good readers. (3) Children are hurried from one grade to another too rapidly. Third Year Reading 119 (4) Interest is lost, through lack of variety and lack of dramatic element in the reading given. (5) The imagination does not have sufficient exercise. (6) Teachers often lack the knowledge necessary to make difficult parts of reading lessons clear to the pupils. (7) Teachers are not skilful questioners. (8) They do not secure and use illustrative material properly. (9) The methods are often poor and monotonous. (10) Teacher and pupils sometimes are lacking in sym- pathy, and therefore fail to appreciate and properly express the feeling in the selection. (11) Not enough supplementary reading is provided. (12) Children are not made to feel the need of effort in reading anything outside of regular reading books. (13) Vocal powers are not sufficiently trained by means of exercises for articulation, inflections, emphasis and voice projection. (14) Selections are often too difficult for the pupils to comprehend, and thus much time is wasted which could be spent to advantage in reading many selections of simpler grade. (15) Sometimes teachers have interest, but are ignorant of good methods; sometimes they understand methods, but lack the interest needed to use them properly. No real progress in reading will be made by a school unless interest and skill are combined. 20. Material for Drills. Realizing that definite helps along specific lines are not always easy to find, a few pages are added for the purpose of saving teachers a wearisome search for needed material. As opportunity occurs, teachers should add to the given lists from their own discoveries or from printed articles pertinent to the subjects for which help is needed. A care- ful reader of the foremost educational papers will not need to wait long for valuable suggestions from practical teachers. 120 Public School Methods Drill Exercise for Articulation, (i) First Year. Say "Andrew, and you, and you, and you." Would you say a jay is a blue bird or a bluebird ? Twine three twines thrice three times. If three tiny tots went out to tea, And each little tot took kittens three, And each tot and kitten drank three cups of tea, How many threes do you think there would be? Twisting twines or twining twists, Each is hard upon the wrists. Little Tiny Toes had ten tiny little toes. Kitten Katten went to Stratton on a summer day; Kitten Katten with no hat on heard a donkey bray. Funny Fanny Flynn fried four fat fish for five frightened fishermen. (2) Second Year. Gayly chattering to the clattering Of the brown nuts downward pattering, Leap the squirrels red and gray; On the grass land, on the fallow, Drop the apples red and yellow; Drop the russet pears and mellow, Drop the red leaves all the day. Betty Botter bought some butter, "But," said she, "this butter's bitter; If I put it in my batter, It will make my batter bitter; But a bit of better butter Will but make my batter better." So she bought a bit of butter, Better than the bitter butter, Made her bitter batter better. So it was better Betty Botter Bought a bit of better butter. Third Year Reading 121 Sam Slick's sloppy shoes and socks shocked simple Susan at the shoe shop. With the skin he made him mittens; Made them with fur side inside; Made them with the skin side outside; He, to get the warm side inside, Put the skin side outside; He, to get the cold side outside, Put the warm side, fur side inside. That's why he put the fur side inside Why he put the skin side outside, Why he turned them inside outside. A pied piper blew a penny pipe for a penny pieman and a penny pieman gave a penny pie for the pied piper's penny pipe. Slender Sam Slimber, sleek and slim, sawed six slender saplings into six slender sticks. Did you? Could you? Might you? Would you? Don't you? Should you? Let ten little men in seconds ten find out by their own brain, Ten times ten and ten times ten and ten times ten again. She sells sea-shells. Does she sell sea-shells? Sea-shells she sells. Is this, then, the team that Thomas tried? (3) Third Year. Had I strength in my wrists Like a twister that twists, I'd face all the frosts and face all the mists, I'd swim the salt seas or bestride a brisk breeze, I'd cross prickly heather in all sorts of weather, Just to lengthen the rope of Pat's pig in a poke. Don't you think the lasts last well? Theophilus Thistle, the successful thistle-sifter, in sifting a sieve- ful of unsifted thistles, thrust three thousand thistles through the thick of his thumb. 122 Public School Methods Little Peter Peterkin made a 'warm fire of peat, Then the warm fire of peat warmed Peter Peterkin's feet. When a twister a-twisting would twist him a twist, in twisting the twist he three twines doth intwist; but if one of the twines that he twisteth untwist, the twine that untwisteth untwisteth the twist. In far-off Tokyo, I had a cup of Mocha, O; A cup of Mocha, O, had I in far-off Toyko. In the lonely Isle of Wight. In goat and otter skins bedight, Lost in a stormy, wind-swept bight, I had a sickening, freezing fright. Cross Christopher Cross is full of crotchets, crosses and crazy idiosyncrasies. Amidst the mists and coldest frosts, with doubled fists and stoutest boasts, he still insists the sheeted ghosts are naught but icy snow-clad posts. Round and round the rugged rocks the ragged rascal ran. If you stick a stick across a stick Or stick a cross across a stick. Or cross a stick across a stick, Or stick a cross across a cross, Or cross a cross across a stick, Or cross a cross across a cross, Or cross a crossed stick across a cross, Or cross a crossed stick across a stick, Or cross a crossed stick across a crossed stick, Would that be an acrostic? 21. Aids. (a) Books for Teachers. (i) First Year Only. Primary Reading. Educational Publishing Company. Suggestions to Teachers in The Holton Primer, Teacher's Edition. Rand, McNally & Co. Suggestions to Teachers in the Thought Reader. SummeiS. Ginn & Co. The Werner Primer. Taylor. American Book Company. (2) All Grades. Prefaces to The Sprague Classic Readers. Edu- cational Publishing Company. Reading: How to Teach It. Arnold. Silver, Burdett & Co. Third Year Reading 123 How to Teach Reading in the Public Schools. S. H. Clark. Scott, Foresman & Co., Chicago. Waymarks for Teachers. Sarah L. Arnold. Silver, Burdett & Co. New Education Series. Book I. Rational Method of Reading. Ward. (Ward Manual). Silver, Burdett & Co. How to Read Aloud. S. H. Clark. Charles Scribner's Sons. Special Method for Reading. C. A. McMurry. Macmillan Company. Talks on Pedagogics. Francis W. Parker. A. S. Barnes & Co., New York. Essentials of Teaching Reading. E. B. Sherman & A. A. Reed. University Publishing Co., Lincoln, Neb. Reading in Public Schools. Thos. H. Briggs & Lotus D. Coff- man. Row, Peterson & Co., Chicago. (b) Books for Pupils. The Children's Hour. Eva Marsh Tappan. Books I — VIII. Houghton, Mifflin & Co. Poems Every Child Should Know. Mary E. Burt. Doubleday, Page & Co., New York. Songs of Treetop and Meadow. McMurry & Cook. Public School Publishing Co., Bloomington, 111. Classic Stories for Little Ones. Lida B. McMurry. Public School Publishing Co., Bloomington, 111. Heart of Oak Books. Charles Eliot Norton. D. C. Heath & Co., Boston. The Thought Reader. Book I. Maud Summers. Ginn & Co. The Summers Readers. Maud Summers. Frank D. Beattys & Co., New York. The Aldine Readers. Frank E. Spaulding & Catherine T. Bryce. 5 books and Manual. Newson & Co., Chicago. TEST QUESTIONS i. Contrast the knowledge of reading which a child has at the end of his second year with that which he has at the end of his third year. 2. Compare the purposes of third year reading with those of the second year. 3. Why are breathing exercises essential to successful oral reading? 4. Give specific directions for conducting a breathing exercise. 124 Public School Methods 5. Of what advantage to the pupil's expression are good physical habits while he is reading? Why is an indolent attitude — half standing, half leaning upon a desk — objec- tionable? 6. In rule one on page 98 occurs the expression, "but not slowly enough to break the phrasing." What is meant by the expression break the phrasing? Answer fully. 7. How many and what rules for pronunciation is it wise to give to third year pupils? 8. Discuss the use of sight reading under the follow- ing heads: (a) its value, and (b) the methods of using it in class. Test yourself and report how many words ahead of your voice your eyes can read. How does your power in this respect compare with the power of your pupils in the third year? If you are not teaching, test a few of your friends and give the result of your experiments. 9. Discuss the relation of reading to other lessons. What advantages can you see in having the children occasionally read from their other text-books? 10. Classify the causes of poor reading as given on pages 118-119 in such a way as to show those for which the teacher is primarily responsible and those for which the responsi- bility rests more directly upon parents and the school system. Which of these causes should be eradicated first? Do you think any of these causes have affected your teaching of reading or will affect it? If so, what difficulties do you see in the way of removing those causes? CHAPTER FIVE LANGUAGE 1. The Problem Stated. 1 When children enter school at five or six years of age, they have acquired a large number of spoken words and idioms; but their knowledge of English is restricted from lack of experience calling out the necessity for more varied expression, and from ignorance of correct English forms. Of written language they have none. As to the best means of teaching language to pupils of the primary grades, hardly two authorities can be found who agree. It will be seen, however, if the preceding state- ments are true, that definite means of some kind must be provided by which experience may be enlarged and knowl- edge of language forms be supplied to meet the growing desire for expression. It must be admitted that the problem is a difficult one to solve, and is made much more so by the unnecessary formality with which a majority of teachers clothe the work. Others fail to get good results because they work without a definite aim and without a clear understanding of what is needed. Their efforts are spasmodic and they reach out in a haphazard way after something of which they have but the vaguest comprehension. Many of the published works upon language teaching are so made that they point out one avenue of approach, making little or no effort to show other roads just as desirable. 2. The First Step. The tiuth that lies at the founda- tion of all successful language teaching is that language was invented because of the need to express thoughts and emotions and to preserve records for convenient reference. This being admitted, it foll ows without question that the i Many directions and plans bearing directly upon the teaching of both oral and written language in the primary grades will be found in the chapters devoted to teaching reading, and the teacher is urged to review these chapters in connection with the study of this one. 125 126 Public School Methods first step in the work of language teaching is to arouse thoughts and to inspire emotions such as will stimulate heart and brain and force the child to ask questions or to utter spontaneous exclamations, statements or commands. When any form of the sentence bursts from the child because he has gained a new thought or emotion and feels the need for expression, the teacher may be sure that interest is at a white heat. The "psychological moment" has arrived in which effective teaching may be done. Unless this point of contact between teacher and pupil is secured, the work is usually mere lip-service, a smatter of terms with the soul left out. 3. The Child's Equipment. Prior to his first school life, the child has gained much intimate knowledge of the home relations and family ties. He knows the household routine and has decided preferences in matters of food, drink and clothing. He has learned games to play and the times of year when they are in favor. He knows something of "the farm, the orchard, the workship or whatever most interests his father and occupies his time. If his home is in the country, probably he has raced after countless butterflies and has had some unpleasant experi- ences with bees and wasps. He may have seen snakes and toads cast their skins, and tadpoles develop into frogs. He has learned something of birds and their ways; has exulted in the power of wind and storm; has lazily wondered over the shifting clouds; has been thankful for bright stars and the silver moon that peeped into his darkened room at night. In various ways he has also learned something of authority, obedience and the rights of others. In fact, he has been a living interrogation point, with "What is it?", "Where is it?", "What is it for?" perpetually dropping from the tip of his tongue, and all because his mind was intensely wide- awake. What has been the foundation for rapid development in the use of language before the child enters the school is natural, spontaneous and far too valuable to be pushed Language 127 aside by the formal routine that obtains in too many modern schoolrooms. When all is said and done, it is difficult to improve upon nature's plan for the development of her boys and girls, and the closer we teachers can keep to her methods of teaching, the more truly successful our work is sure to be. 4. The Teacher's Part. The child's mind being thus stored with bits of knowledge, it remains for the teacher to help him recall this knowledge and to add new information that will be properly related to the old. To expand and classify all this knowledge to make it ready for use when needed calls for the definite use of language as a means of expression. " In every department of teaching begin with the known and proceed to the related unknown." Children will not long stand dumb as statues before a bright-faced, alert, sympathetic teacher even on the first day of school. Timidity will be banished by interest and sympathy, and all but the very shyest children will talk with a reasonable degree of freedom and facility. This, then, is the beginning of the school language work, the informal preparation for more definite teaching of new words and phrases. At the outset, if the teacher is able to get the children to talk freely, she should be careful not to chill their efforts by many or harsh criticisms. The most successful teacher of language to young children is the one who, without embarrassing the speaker, is able to suggest the correct form when the pupil's language is inadequate, and to replace an incorrect idiom by a happier expression. Nothing should be done to repress the desire for expression. Every new word gained, every new sentence formed, is a distinct step gained in the use of oral language. Things endowed with life and motion more readily gain the child's interest, hold his attention and call forth spon- taneous expressions, because they awaken thought more rapidly and freely. Toys, games and stories are second only in interest to these. The worth of any exercise is destroyed, 128 Public School Method* however valuable the material, unless there is motive for expression — a real motive which appeals to the children. Set and formal exercises, therefore, should be avoided. 5. Every Lesson a Language Lesson. With language, as with penmanship, many of the unsatisfactory results are directly due to the separation of language, as a study, from the other subjects of the school curriculum. The truth is, every lesson of the day should be to the child a lesson in language. Every sentence used, yes, every word used by the teacher in her entire intercourse with her pupils should be a model which they may safely follow. This is all the more imperative from the fact that children who really love their teacher — as a majority of primary children do — are prone to copy her general mode of speech, her style of pronunciation, even her faults and peculiar mannerisms. Many children, too, come from homes wherein pure, refined English is seldom heard, and to these the teacher's example is all-important. For these reasons, she needs to be always on guard lest in this regard her own heedless habits lead her pupils astray. 6. Language Related to Other Subjects. Every new fact that the child learns calls for appropriate language in which to express it. It is a fundamental necessity, therefore, that his daily life in school shall be filled with real and interesting experiences, and that these experiences be closely related. Arithmetic, nature study, literature and constructive efforts furnish the means out of which these experiences may arise. Therefore, the teacher, when supplying the right words and sentences to express the new thoughts or emotions and their new relations, is giving a valuable lesson in oral language, as well as adding to the child's store of information in the various lines that the school routine calls for. And when any of these words or sentences are put into script or print for a child to read or copy, a lesson in written language is taught. A written summary of the calendar work at the close of the month, for instance, written upon the board, would Language 129 supply material not only for an excellent reading lesson, but a language lesson, as well; and if the interest aroused is sufficient to lead the pupils to desire to give original written expression to any one of these experiences, the best motive is supplied for beginning written composition. The immediate result may be only a sentence, faulty and pro- duced with difficulty, but the right relation has been estab- lished between thought and language form, between desire and effort. 7. Undesirable Lessons and Their Correctives. Lessons in oral language are daily given to the child, most informally, upon the school playground, at home and when he is in the street. Indeed, the unconscious tuition of the street is one of the most difficult things that conscientious teachers of English have to overcome, because it is so varied and dramatic. The excited pantomime, the posters in flaming colors, the novel slang, obscenity and profanity, all these sink deep into the impressionable minds of primary chil- dren. The natural corrective for all this is to make school more attractive than the street, and to build up such a taste for better things as will overcome the corruption of bad examples. One very effective method of procedure is to read and tell many attractive stories to the children. Select stories that are full of dramatic power and of a character to awaken all desirable emotions, and see that your narrative is couched in clear, refined English, but direct and forcible enough to remain as a model. 8. Oral Reproduction. It is not enough to read or tell such stories to children. They should be early trained to give them back in the best language they can command. For the pupil's first attempt, a short, but decidedly interesting story should be selected, told in an attractive manner by the teacher, and orally reproduced by a child or by several children. When the pupil hesitates, the par- ticular thought or expression should be suggested by the teacher. The fables furnish excellent material at this point, 130 Public School Methods because of their brevity and forcefulness. Short repetition stories come next in importance, stories like Little Red Hen and The Grains of Wheat. If the pupils have a real audience — as a pupil who was absent when the teacher told the tale, or another grade of children who themselves are preparing a story to tell in return — a true social atmosphere is created, and the teacher can train in oral English with much better result. She asks, "Will that be clear to children who have never heard the story?" Drill on the common mistakes in speech, as, "Who did it?" "She sat down," etc. This is infinitely more effective when there is a social motive for correctness back of it. To help in writing a "room story book," for which the best parts of children's feeble little attempts are selected by the teacher; to keep a simple little note-book record of how the plants, animals, and weather are chang- ing, are much more reasonable activities involving writing as expression than the writing of sentences daily, just for the sake of writing. At the next trial, something a little longer may be used. One child may be asked to start the telling of a story, and, when well started, another pupil may take up the narrative, then another and another, until the story is complete. This method holds the interest of the class, calls more pupils into the exercise, and, when questions are well and rapidly dis- tributed, keeps all the members of the class alert and expectant. When pupils adhere rigidly to the exact words of the book, which is not at all likely, try to secure more freedom. On the contrary, when pupils are inclined to use too much freedom, introducing slang or any less desirable forms than those in the original, encourage a closer adherence to the choicer words and phrases of the book. 9. Similes and Metaphors. To familiarize children of the primary grades with the use of picturesque terms, it is well for the teacher to make free use of easy similes and meta- phors in both the formal and informal work of the school, Language 131 and to call attention to the "picture" words and phrases which occur in the reading lessons. This kind of language training should be commenced early in the first year and carried through all the grades, expanding the work and increasing the difficulties according to the advancement of the pupils. It is far better to weave desirable figures of speech into the early blackboard reading lessons than to starve the child's imagination by forcing him to read endless bald, unadorned statements like "I see a cat," "I see a dog," "I see a hen." Suppose we try, instead, "See my white cat, Snowball. Snowball has a white fur coat. Has your cat a white fur coat? My Snowball has golden eyes. Has your cat golden eyes? Snowball likes me and I like Snow- ball." In either case, to adults the repetition is tiresome beyond expression, but children do not feel it in the second series of sentences because the language used is such as appeals to their imagination and fills their minds with pleasant images. 10. Methods Illustrated. Assuming that many of the primary reading lessons prepared by the teacher will be based upon various phases of nature study and familiar experiences of the child's life, a series of figurative sentences appropriate to such lessons during the first three years is here given. Interweave these and others of like character freely among the plainer sentences and see how much more rapidly the children will learn to express themselves in good English. When these or similar sentences are introduced or found in reading lessons, let the pupils tell what they think is meant. Often ask, "What picture does that make you see?" "Read the sentence again. Now shut your eyes and tell me what picture comes." The novelty of the exercise lends additional interest and impressiveness to the lesson. 11. Suggestive Exercises. The following series of sen- tences may be appropriate for use: 132 Public School Metlwds This is our baby. Baby has laughing eyes. Her cheeks are like roses. Her hair is like sunshine. What is her mouth like? Her mouth is like a sweet little pink rosebud. Little violet has come. She has on a purple hood. Sunshine kisses her modest little face. Hear the little brook laugh and sing. See how it dances over the pebbles. Milkweed seeds travel far from home. Sometimes they go by bird express. Sometimes they ride on a friendly breeze. Dandelion seeds and thistle seeds travel the same way. The day is dying now. Look at the sunset sky. See the banners of red and gold. Soon it will be night. Then the stars will blossom in the sky. The long arms of the great elms reach across the roads in the park. Do you think the trees shake hands? See how the people gather under the elms. The kindly trees shelter them from the sun. The gentle winds fan their hot faces. MOTHER NATURE'S CARPET It is the spring-time. Mother Nature's white fur rugs are worn out. Her floor is as bare as bare can be. Where will she get a new carpet ? "Let. me sweep the floor," said March. "I will use my strong wind-broom." April said: "Twill make a carpet for the floor. It shall be of soft, green grass." Then May said: "I will scatter dandelions over the green carpet. They are as yellow as gold. I will scatter blue violets over it, too." What did June, sweet June, say? "I will bring clovers and buttercups for Mother Nature's carpet. I will bring sweet perfume, too. The breath of my roses is the per- fume. Who does not love the breath of June roses?" And so Mother Nature got her new carpet, and June gave her rose perfume, too. Language 133 Before the third year has passed, the children will not find it difficult to understand and explain such expressions as " All winter long the winds rock the leaf cradles, " " Beyond the purpling hill-tops I see a star," "Hummingbirds are jewels with flashing wings," " October is the month of painted leaves," and "March is spring's own trumpeter." 12. Rhythm and Rhyme. Children love both rhythm and rhyme, and imitate them from Mother Goose and other jingles. This tendency should be encouraged. The work in phonics aids here; reading aloud to the children poetry with marked rhythm and simple rhyme is another help. Let the children clap or mark the strong accents as they do in the music or in the gymnastic games. Let them give words that rhyme. Such work marks the beginning of appre- ciation and understanding of poetic forms. A first grade class composed the following poem with great delight, and used it in games: THE FAIRIES Fairies go, Skipping so. They sleep in the day; At night they play. 13. Other Phases of Oral Reproduction. After the class has become used to short reproductions, it will be well to select longer stories and to call upon different children to reproduce the various parts or sections of the stoiy. For instance, in the story of The Three Bears, which is a prime favorite, call upon one child to tell how the bears chanced to go for a walk; another, of the coming of Golden Hair and her experience with the porridge; another, of her experience with the chairs; another, of the bedroom episode, and three others of the episodes after the bears return. This may be preceded or followed by an impromptu dramatization in which action takes the place of explanation, and the con- versation is more or less original. The dramatic effort is a great stimulus to constructive imagination and to language 134 Public School Methods effort. Good pictures supply suggestive situations, and the primary teacher can do no better than to collect series of pictures illustrating favorite stock stories. The next step would be to take some of the familiar Mother Goose rhymes for the reading lessons and then let each one be told in prose language by the pupils, fol- lowing the plans previously stated. Some of the best for first use are Lady Bug; Daffydowndilly; Jack and Jill; Mary, Mary, Quite Contrary; Little Bo-Peep, and Little Boy Blue. Before the end of the second year, children will easily reproduce such stories as The Little Red Hen, Little Red Rid- ing Hood, Chicken Little, Cinderella, The Three Bears and Puss in Boots. The Three Bears, Chicken Little, The Old Woman and Her Pig and some others will be told easily in the last term of the first year, if the children are from American homes, where they hear and speak the English language only. The amount of repetition in these makes them easy to memorize, and when children deviate from the exact language it often adds a piquant flavor to the original tale. On the contrary, Celia Thaxter's Spring, Tennyson's Cradle Song, Helen Hunt Jackson's September or October's Bright Blue Weather and the like are as beautiful as they are simple, and should never be subjected to the distortions that result when children are asked to give them in their own language. Real poems are too fine to be twisted out of shape by the garbled versions due to turning good poetry into bad prose. Memorized, they add materially to the child's mental pictures and to his stock of effective and beautiful language. Such fables as The Fox and the Grapes, The Lion and the Mouse, The Wind and the Sun, The Crow and the Pitcher, and such stories as How Patty Gave Thanks, The Morning- Glory Seed, The Little Fir Tree, The Five Peas in One Pod, Legend of the Cowslip and The Three Axes, and, in the third and fourth year, such myths and legends as Clytie, The Language 135 Blue-Eyed Grass, Narcissus, Pandora's Box, Rhoecus, Janus are easy for primary children to reproduce orally. The above are but suggestive types of the work to be done. The amount must depend upon the time allowed for specific language work, the natural ability of the chil- dren and the kind of training they receive outside of school. The object of such exercises is (i) to secure fluency in the use of familiar language, (2) to teach new words and phrases, (3) to create a taste for purer English than that heard on the street and in the majority of homes, and (4) to teach pupils to think clearly when standing and to speak easily and without embarrassment. The value of this kind of work is so great that it should be freely given in the first grade and continued through all the grades. Cautions. (1) When the children have a real poem to read, no matter how simple, then have no original repro- ductions. A genuine poem is such because it contains a beautiful thought beautifully expressed, and the sentiment will be far better remembered if not separated from the language in which the author has clothed it. In such cases always have some portion — or the whole — recited verbatim, and, in the third year and onward, copied with absolute fidelity upon blackboard or paper. (2) Teachers are not to conclude that all of one form of oral reproduction is to be given before another is introduced. Make one form familiar, then give another for the sake of variety, changing often from one to another. 14. Technical Forms. So far, the work has been based upon the assumption that language is the result of a need to express thoughts and emotions. The technical forms have not been discussed — and should not be, with primary children — but they must be attended to, nevertheless, and kept constantly in the teacher's mind until the pupils learn from long practice to use them correctly without being obliged to give thought to the matter. It is the teacher's business to eliminate from the language of the school all 136 Public School Methods slang and all ungrammatical expressions, of which / seen, 1 done, 'aint, 'taint, haint, he has went, he don't, them things, those sort of things, I be and many others are familiar, every- day types. To weed out the objectionable language which is found in nearly every school requires unlimited patience, unceasing vigilance, a perfect example and much tact on the part of the teacher. It is, literally, " line upon line and precept upon precept, here a little and there a little," and this, too, all day and every day. Harsh criticisms or ridicule in any form should never be employed. Usually the child does the best he can, and falls into errors of speech because knowledge of correct forms has not yet functioned into habit. When a slip of the tongue occurs and the child says, "I seen Frank," it is wiser, quietly to repeat, "I saw Frank," or let the account be finished and then say, "Charles, say, 'I saw Frank. He did it'", and in this way have all errors corrected. It is a long, hard task, but a kindly persistence will finally have its effect. The various forms of the verbs be, go, do, see, has and other common, irregular verbs will cause much trouble, as will the various forms of pronouns. These must be learned from being called constantly into use, no technical explana- tions being possible at this time. The teacher will need to plan exercises in which troublesome forms may be freely used without having the appearance of being purposely introduced (see Section 16). Cautions. (1) So far as possible, never let a child of the primary grades hear or see an incorrect form of language. Through the law of primacy in experience, the first form tends to make such an impression upon the mind that the child is possessed of a strong tendency to follow the example given ; and it is also true that in presenting an incorrect form the teacher intensifies a tendency already established. " False syntax" is already familiar and undesirable. It is the correct form that needs to be impressed; hence, the so-called "false syntax " should never be used before the pupils are old Language 137 enough to study grammar as a technical subject — and even then its use is of doubtful propriety. (2) Be sure that all words used are understood by the pupil. Many teachers, in connection with the reading and spelling lessons, require in the primary — and the higher grades as well — that all new words be used in sentences of the child's own making. Such an exercise frequently leads to absurd mistakes and should not be used in the primary grades. (3) As a rule, teachers are not sufficiently careful when teaching the words of literary selections, songs and poems. One child referred to memory gems as "memory jams." Another child sang, "Four hundred pussies waiting near," for "For hungry puss is waiting near," and when corrected by his mother refused to change, insisting that his teacher taught the song as he sang it. A boy changed the familiar proverb, "Wine is a mocker and strong drink is raging," into "God is a mocker and strong drink is ragtime," and declared that was what he had been taught. These are but a few of many illustrations that show the importance of securing on the part of the pupils a clear understanding of both the words and the meaning of whatever they are required to memorize. 15. Historical Stories, Biographies and Journeys. For pupils of the third grade a very interesting and valuable line of oral language teaching may be based upon inter- esting stories from history, especially stories of colonial children, children of Japan, of China, and Indian children. Stories of the childhood of famous men (Lincoln, for example) may be used in the same way. Journeys may be taken to see places and products in which children take interest. In all such exercises adhere to facts. Children should also be taught to talk to outlines, follow- ing a consecutive order. These outlines may first be furnished by the teacher, with more or less help from the pupils, accord- ing to their ability. Later they should make and follow outlines in both oral and written exercises. Than this there is no more effective aid to consecutive thinking and expression. 138 Public School Methods 16. Language Games. Personations of birds, insects, rodents and other animals; personations of flowers, cele- brated trees, personations of natural or manufactured prod- ucts; celebrated characters of history (generals, inventors, philanthropists, etc.); also, celebrated events in history can be used to good advantage. In all of these the usual formula is "I am ," giving the distinguishing characteristics, and closing with "What is my name?" These make good oral reviews in the various subjects and are fine exercises in oral language. There is a game commonly called Twenty Questions, which is excellent for language drill in the third grade and above. Each of these questions must be such as can be answered by yes or no. The leader fixes his mind upon some one person, object or event. The first questions are, " Does it belong to the animal kingdom?" "Vegetable?" "Mineral?" This being settled, other questions are asked until the leader's thought is reached. For the primary children, simple personations of familiar birds, flowers and animals are better. The rhyming word can also be used. The leader has some word in mind that is to be found out by the other pupils, for instance, a word that rhymes with my. The questions asked may be " Is it good to eat?" The leader replies, "No, it is not pie." "Is it what I see with?" " It is not eye." And so on, until some one asks, "Does it mean to weep?" "Yes, it is cry" The following game, varied to suit the needs of the par- ticular class, has been found to be very helpful. The ques- tions, answers and action should be rapid and varied. Five minutes given occasionally to the game with the entire school gives practical help on the difficult verb forms, the expression and the action coming together, causing the right form to become automatic. Teacher: Charles, you may sit in my large chair and see how straight the children sit. (Charles does so.) What is Charles doing, Emma? Emma: He is sitting in your chair, Miss Blank. Language 139 Teacher: How do the children sit, Charles? Charles: They sit straight, Miss Blank. Teacher: You may take your seat, now. What did Charles do, Anna? Anna: He sat in your chair, Miss Blank. Teacher: Right. You may go to the door, Frank may go to the window (etc.). Tell what each one did. William: Anna went to the door, Frank went to the window, etc. 17. Oral Composition of Plays. The youngest children in school should be given opportunities for oral dramatic composition. The interest in playing the thing is so great that the teacher may turn it to account in causing the chil- dren to compose in oral English the little drama to be played. For instance, after the teacher has told the story of The Little Red Hen, the children, in planning the play, should tell what each of the animals should say (the repetition in the tale makes this easy), who speaks first, and the like. The utmost simplicity should be adhered to, but, never- theless, the words of the little drama should be contributed by the players themselves. Imitation of the teacher's words at this stage is to be expected, and is, for purposes of train- ing, desirable. 18. Language and Drawing. Drawing should often be combined with words in a lesson to make the ideas more vivid to the child; also, to assist his memory when first he is attempting either oral or written reproductions. For example, the youngest children of the first grade may find it difficult to tell even so simple a thing as The Old Woman Who Lived in a Shoe. In such cases, a few outline drawings suggesting the chief objects or actors would make the repro- duction an easy matter. 19. Written Language. The earliest lessons in written language are the recognition of the written or printed forms of familiar words, building these words with splints, lentils or alphabets, and copying the same words first on black- boards, and, later, on paper or slates. Paper without lines 140 Public School Methods is better for the beginner. (See Penmanship, page 156.) See the lessons on reading for details as to this work, the teach- ing of capital letters and punctuation, the writing of the child's name, home address, father's name, names of the days of the week and month, name of the school, etc. The secret of success in teaching the correct use of capi- tals, punctuation, paragraphing, all that pertains to the forms of written language, may be found in the following rules : (1) No Incorrect form should appear in the teacher's own work or in what she puts before the pupil. (2) No incorrect form in copied or original work by the pupil should be allowed to pass unnoticed cr uncorrected. (3) As before stated, criticisms should be made gently and imper- sonally. No child should ever be permitted to feel that it is himself rather than his work that is criticised. (4) There should be endless repetitions of the correct forms. Incorrect forms that occui in the pupil's work should be quickly erased and replaced by correct ones. (5) No new form of written language should be attempted until the same thing has been given orally and so used until it is familiar to the class. 20. Steps in Written Work. All the first efforts of the child should be limited to some form of copying from correct models. At first, the exercise should not require more than the child's own name, owing to the difficulties he has with penmanship. As these difficulties are overcome slowly, the exercises must increase in length very gradually. The second step may well be the written reproduction of one or more facts brought out in the nature study lessons. These reproductions should be answers to guiding questions placed upon the board. Here, again, the teacher must remem- ber not to increase the number of questions beyond what the pupils can answer correctly and neatly in the time allowed. It is necessary to ward off discouragement and develop the child's confidence in this new line of endeavor. The chief difficulty on the teacher's part will be to pre- pare the questions in such wise as to bring out in the answers the principal points in the order of their occurrence, so that Language 141 the reproduced story may have the same continuity as the original one. From the beginning, questions and answers appearing upon the blackboard should be written in para- graph form. The results in consciousness and imitation of copy will appear later. This is of much importance, as it is the simple beginning upon which a clear, lucid style depends. To illustrate simplicity and grouping, the following ques- tions are given. They may be used after the pupils have been made entirely familiar with the facts by oral lessons: What is the color of your kitty? What is her coat made of? What is her name? What does your kitty eat? How often do you feed her? What meat does she get for herself? What food does she like best? How does your kitty's tongue feel? When does she use it like a spoon? When does she use it like a sponge? Why does kitty have sharp claws? When does she use her claws ? The questions pertain to three topics, each group form- ing a paragraph. The answers should also relate to three topics, and were they placed in written form they would be in three groups. The answers, given in consecutive order, form the story desired. Note that the questions, at first, supply most of the words that will be needed in the answers, thus aiding the spelling as well as the construction of sentences. The number of questions and the degree of difficulty must be governed by the grade and the ability of the class and the time allowed for the work. Cautions. (i) No questions should be asked that the pupils cannot answer from knowledge previously acquired in oral lessons. (2) The time devoted to a written exercise in language should not exceed twenty minutes, even for the third year pupils. For first year pupils, from ten to fifteen minutes, and for the second grade, from fifteen to twenty minutes, are the maximum limits. These exercises, at first, should 142 Public School Methods be written under the Immediate, but not oppressive, super- vision of the teacher. Later, they should be written with- out help of any kind. (3) Teachers must remember to make the first questions very simple and limit them to three or four, gradually increas- ing the number to ten for the last part of the first year, fifteen for the second and twenty for the third year. (4) When the answers require any difficult thinking, the questions must be reduced in number. If the questions require too much work for the time allowed, the pupils become discouraged and cease to try. (5) Correlate the work carefully with spelling and pen- manship, commending, according to the effort made, correct- ness of statements and neatness of work. (6) Save the papers and use the stories in a subsequent reading lesson. (7) Correct errors in spelling, capitalization, syllabication and punctuation in the next spelling period or in the next language period. (8) Mark the errors, but do not tell the class who made the errors. Say, "I found so and so on this paper." Then read the sentence and call for corrections of (a) facts, (b) form. Often the one who made the error will be the first to correct it, the ear helping to detect what the eye had overlooked because of the struggle with the difficult written forms. (9) Assign enough work to keep the quickest ones busy the full time, but do not require the weaker ones to do all of it. Better say, " I wish all the class to answer the first five (more or less) questions, and all who can may answer every one of them." (10) Avoid stilted phraseology in the questions. Always use good English and keep to simple forms. (11) The danger always is that the teacher will expect too much and give so much written work that the result is poor spelling, poor penmanship, errors of all kinds and general discouragement. Language 143 21. Picture Lessons. Pictures may, if desired, form the basis of many interesting and profitable lessons in oral language during the first year. In their study, the teacher's questions should be carefully framed so as to direct the order of the child's observation as well as expression, until a logical habit in each has been thoroughly established. During the first months of school, the little people are prone to make use of fragments rather than of whole sen- tences. As diffidence wears off and their vocabulary increases, they gradually acquire considerable fluency in the use of oral language. The element of continuity is still very weak and not to be trusted; hence, for all forms of written work, outline questions, as previously suggested, should be pre- pared according to the foregoing instructions, to serve as a guide for the work required. When pictures are used for language lessons, always present those that are correct, interesting, suited to age of pupils, and not so crowded with details as to obscure the story the picture should tell. Practice in naming trains pupils to see the central thought or purpose of a picture, and will assist them later to describe effectively. Children, if left to themselves, are likely, for instance, to say, " I see some chickens, and a hen, and a pan, and a woman," whereas they must be helped to see and say, " I see a woman feeding the chickens. The food is in a pan, and she holds the pan in her hand." This latter power arises from seeing the central thought, and naming the picture Feeding the Chickens. The full-page illustrations used in this volume are types of pictures suited to primary grades. They can be used for both language and reading lessons. As before stated, oral lessons should precede the written ones all through the first three years, because of the mechan- ical difficulties attendant upon written language. 22. Outline for Last Month of First Year. Take Millais's Lilacs, for example. The following questions may be used first in a conversational lesson, the answers given orally by the class, written upon the board as obtained, then used 144 Public School Methods later for a reading lesson. The answers may then be erased, leaving before the class as the basis of the written work the questions only. 1 (a) The Questions, (i) Name the picture. (2) Give the little girl a name. What has she in her lap? What color are the lilacs? What shape? Where do they grow? Where do you think she got them? (3) Why is she looking upward? What kind of weather is it? Why do you think so? (4) Where have you seen lilacs? (b) The Story (Approximate), (i) This little girl is Dorothy. Dorothy has some lilacs in her lap. Lilac blossoms are plume-shaped. Some lilac plumes are white. Some are purple. Lilacs grow on tall bushes. I think Dorothy's father gave her the lilacs. (2) She is looking up to see. her father pick them. I think it is warm weather. Dorothy has on a thin dress and is bareheaded. (3) I have seen lilacs in the park. Cautions. (1) Do not try to get the same name nor exactly the same conclusion from the various members of the class. The form is to serve as a guide, but not to restrict originality, save when the child's imagination is liable to run away with the facts. (2) Notice that the questions are to be so framed as to include (a) the introduction, (b) the development, (c) the conclusion — the three necessary elements to every story. (3) The last answer might be, "I have seen lilacs in the yard at home — out in the country — at my grandmother's," etc. (4) In case a child voluntarily adds one or two sentences beyond what is required, do not discourage the effort, so long as what is added is consistent .and properly related. Such additions seldom occur in the written work, prior to 1 These questions may be used for oral lessons earlier, but spelling and penman- ship make so much trouble that this kind of written work, and that based upon literature, should be saved for the last of the year. Even then, the picture should be newly presented, the questions asked orally and the various points to observe carefully indicated before the pupils begin to write the answers. LILACS Language 145 the last part of the third year, but occur earlier and more frequently in the oral work of all the primary grades. 23. Lesson for Latter Part of the Second Year, (a) Blackboard Outline. Use the same picture. Study the picture carefully; see all you can. Play you are the little girl. Talk for her and tell what your name is. Tell what you have in your lap. Tell where you got them. Tell where they grew. Tell how they came in your lap. Tell the color of your flowers. Tell what shape these blossoms are. Tell why you are looking upward. Tell why you are bareheaded and have on a thin dress. Tell what time of year it is. Tell what you will do with these lilacs. Tell why you will do this. Tell where else you have seen lilacs growing. (b) The Story (Approximate). My name is Dorothy Quincy. I have some lilacs in my lap. My lilacs are purple. My father gave them to me. They grew on a tall bush on our lawn. Father dropped them into my lap. They look like purple plumes. I am looking up to see him pick some more. I am bareheaded and have on my white dress, because it is a warm day. It is the last part of May. I shall give my lilacs to my grandmother. She loves them very much. I used to see lilacs in grandmother's dooryard. Caution. If the boys dislike to write this story, use for them another picture in which a boy, as the Roman Flower Boy, is the chief element. It is often well to use two pictures in this and higher grades, since more variety is thus secured and the corrections are less monotonous. 24. Rhythm and Rhyme. Train pupils in marking rhythm in the selections from their reading, as in Hiawatha, Little White Lily, etc. Let them, for instance, mark the strong and the weak pulses as they hear them, by clapping; others by chalk marks on the board; others by tapping with finger-tips on the desk, or by swaying of the body. All efforts 146 Public School Methods should be directed to make the children feel the rhythm and to express it. Little effort should be made to teach rhyme to young children. Accept it when offered, but do not strain for it. A class of children made up the following May Day Verse, one suggesting the rhythm, another a line, and so on. MAY DAY VERSE A-Maying we go I A-Maying we go! We'll pick the sweet flowers In the early spring hours. Another second grade class made up tree riddles in verse for Arbor Day. One was as follows: "I am a tree so very tall That I am called the king of all. My leaves turn scarlet in the fall." (Oak.) 25. For the Third Grade, (a) General Instructions. Use the same picture as before. This time let the children personate the lilacs and tell their story. Each teacher will necessarily vary the outline to draw out the facts that her own class has previously learned from a study of lilacs. (b) The Story (Approximate). I am a lilac blossom. I grew on a tall, strong bush on the lawn. Do you see where I am? I am lying in little Dorothy's lap. Some of my sister blossoms are with me. Little Dorothy loves us very much. Her father dropped us into her lap. Do you see her looking up for more? I think she wants her lap full of lilacs! The bush has more than enough to fill it. Do you know lilac blossoms? We look like lovely plumes. The lilacs Dorothy has are purple. We have some cousins that are white. You can smell our sweet breath a long way off. Dorothy's grandmother says she feels sure that spring has really come when she sees the lilacs. Language 147 Our mother bush is strong and hardy. She lives year after year out on the lawn. Her strong, tough roots hold her firmly in the ground. Her stems are strong and woody and are covered with a smooth, brown bark. In the month of April, her leaf buds swell and her green leaves come out. The blossoms do not come until May. Dorothy will give most of her flowers to her grandmother. But I think some of the purple plumes will be turned into purple chains. Dorothy likes to make lilac chains. Do you? Cautions, (i) Do not expect connected written stories until there has been a great deal of practice in telling stories orally. Fluency of speech comes only by long practice, and fluency with the pen is vastly more difficult; hence, teachers need to be patient with slow results. (2) Very great care must be taken with the outlines, or the stories will never acquire the desired continuity and logical development according to the facts. (3) Logical sequence cf ideas, choice of words, correct spelling, capitalization, punctuation and syllabication will furnish more than enough difficulties for the primary grades. Even these, unless constantly worked with, will not be con- quered for several years to come. (4) When copying is required, it should always be in paragraphs, if the original is so arranged. From much copy- ing, the form of the paragraph and its underlying ideas gradually become impressed, if the teacher wisely draws frequent attention to the groups of sentences, speaks of paragraphs by name, and shows why the groups are formed. (5) Keep constantly in mind that all forms of construc- tive language should become familiar to the children first by means of oral language. The mind may then concentrate upon the form of construction without the attention being distracted by the requirements of spelling, punctuation and penmanship. This rule should be strictly followed, since, in written expression, one part of the work must be, to a great extent, automatic. 148 Public School Methods (6) The outlines and suggestions given for the lessons on Lilacs can be used as types of the work to be done when using other pictures as the basis of written lessons. 26. Other Subjects for Lessons. The same principles underlie lessons based upon flowers or other actual objects belonging to the world of nature; also to those based upon interesting manufactured articles, such as toys, textile fabrics, bird-houses, doll-houses, articles of furniture, geog- raphy topics in the third grade, and the like. In each case, the illustration is to be carefully studied first-hand. Observation for ideas, then oral language for expression, and, last, expression by means of standard written forms is the invariable order to be followed. 27. Language through Literature. With older pupils, and with primary pupils to a limited degree, the subject of the written lesson may be intangible in form, derived from a fable, anecdote, story or poem told or read to the class. Then follows much practice in oral reproduction ; later, a very brief written reproduction and, later still, a written longer reproduction with or without the help of questions, according to the age and advancement of the pupils. Brief written reviews may also be required, in connec- tion with the various oral lessons given. 28. Written Reviews. The following suggest what may be used during the last part of the first year of school, providing the proper lessons have been given and oral reviews previously required. Give one, two or three ques- tions for one lesson. (a) Blackboard Outline. Mother Nature's House. What is Mother Nature's house? What color is her house in spring and summer? What color is it in November? What color is it in winter? How does Mother Nature sweep her house? What is her strongest broom? How does she wash her windows? How is her scrubbing done? How is her house dried and warmed ? Language 149 (b) The Story (Approximate). The earth is Mother Nature's house. It is green in spring and summer. In November it is brown. In winter it is white. Mother Nature sweeps her house with the winds. The March wind is her strongest broom. She washes her windows with April showers. The rains do her scrubbing. The sun dries and warms her house. 29. For the Latter Part of Second Tear, (a) Blackboard Outline. Mother Nature's Carpets. Does Mother Nature use the same carpet all the year? When is her carpet brown? When does she use a soft white carpet? How is this carpet made? When and how is this white carpet destroyed? What is the color of Mother Nature's spring carpet? What flowers do you find in this pattern? How often is this flower-pattern changed? What flowers do you find in Mother Nature's August and September carpet? What are scattered all over her October carpet? Which of Mother Nature's carpets do girls like best? Which one do boys like best? Which of Mother Nature's carpets is used the longest without much change? (b) The Story (Approximate). Mother Nature does not use one carpet all the year. Her carpet is brown in November. It is soft and white in winter. This white carpet is made by the snowflakes. The sun and the south wind spoil it in the spring. Mother Nature's spring carpet is green. There are yellow dandelions and blue violets and some other flowers in the pattern. The pattern is changed every month from May to October. In August and September Mother Nature's carpet has asters and goldenrod and pansies in the pattern. The October carpet has bright leaves all over it. Most girls like the spring carpet the best, but some like the October carpet the most. Boys like Mother Nature's October carpet and her winter carpet. I think the winter carpet is used the longest. Caution. Remember that these answers will vary some- what, according to locality. 150 Public School Methods 30. For the Last Part of the Third Year, (a) Black- board Outline. Mother Nature's Children. (i) Name some of Mother Nature's children. (2) Which ones are masons? Which ones are drummers? Which ones are weavers ? Which ones are fishermen ? Which ones are divers? Which ones are carpenters? Which ones make honey? (3) Which ones furnish music? Which ones run very- fast? Which ones carry lanterns? Which ones are the tallest? Which ones have the prettiest clothing? (4) Which ones give us sugar? Which one sgive us nuts? Which ones always have needles to spare? Which ones make paper houses? (5) Which ones sleep several months of the year? When does Mother Nature awaken them? (6) Which do you like mostr Tell why. (7) Which of Mother Nature's children give the most help to people? (b) The Story (Approximate), (i) Horses, cows, sheep, birds, insects, reptiles, flowers, trees — all kinds of animals and all kinds of plants are Mother Nature's children. (2) Barn swallows, bank swallows, swifts and beavers are masons. Partridges and woodpeckers are drummers. Orioles, vireos and a few other birds are weavers. Fish-hawks are fishermen. All kinds of ducks are divers. The beavers and woodpeckers are carpenters. The bees make honey. (3) The birds furnishmusic. The rabbits, deer and squirrels can run very fast. The fireflies always carry lanterns. The trees are the tallest of the children. Flowers, birds and butterflies wear the prettiest clothes. (4) Sugar cane, beets and maple trees give us sugar. The beech, walnut, oak, butternut, chestnut, almond and some other trees give us nuts. The pine tree has thousands of needles. Wasps make paper houses. (5) Woodchucks, bears, frogs, toads, snakes and many plants sleep all winter. Mother Nature wakes all of them in the spring. 10 Painted for Public School Methods by the ah Institute. Chlcano MOTHER NATURE'S CHILDREN 1— Birds furnish music. 2— Barn swallows are mason.. 3 Beai carpenters. 4— Wasps make paper houses. 5— The bear sleeps all win and woodpeckers are drummers. 7— Ducks are divers. 8 Butterfhe and flower pretty clothing. 9 The crane is a fisherman. 10 Orioles are wea Language 151 (6) I like to look at all of Mother Nature's children, but I don't want snakes and tigers and lions near me when they are loose. I like the pretty colors of some of Mother Nature's children, and it is fun to watch s:>me of them move. I like to hear the birds sing, and I like to have some of the animals and birds show their love to me. (7) I think cows and horses help people more than most of the children. Review the calendar at the close of the month. Cautions. (1) Keep in mind that similar reviews may be written, having all the questions limited to one topic, as trees, flowers, bees, butterflies, frogs, etc. The one above is general in character and should not be attempted until a great many specific reviews, both oral and written, have been given. (2) Do not attempt to secure uniform answers. Encourage originality of expression so long as the work is correct in regard to facts and forms. (3) Adapt the review questions to suit the locality as well as the ability of the pupils. (4) Be extremely careful that all blackboard work is absolutely correct in all respects. Pupils do not need the teacher's example to teach them careless habits. (5) The lessons written by the children, by the aid of blackboard outlines, usually result in a story having con- siderable continuity and a fair degree of smoothness in language and style. Occasionally, an exercise like the last is given, in which the purpose is chiefly to test the knowl- edge of the pupils. In such exercises, however, the law of association should be kept in mind and the questions should be arranged accordingly. (6) These written exercises are preparing the way for more difficult work on composition writing in later years. Owing to the dread that pupils feel when the word composi- tion is used, it is better to speak of written reviews, tests, and so on, and let the pupils really write compositions with- out thinking of doing so. 152 Public School Methods (7) To keep out errors and prevent discouragement, the motto must be "Slow and sure." (8) Teach all pupils that accuracy and neatness always rank higher than speed. Speed and fluency will come from repetition and practice. The results will be more rapid as the difficulties of penmanship and mechanical forms are conquered. (9) Let children "learn to do by doing;" give written exercises frequently, having every new form first presented and drilled upon orally. (10) The written work as outlined will be too difficult to finish in the third grade and should be carried into the fourth and fifth grades, and possibly higher. 31. Rhythm and Rhyme. Continue simple exercises in rhythm and rhyme. Encourage the little folks to make rhymed couplets, to write longer compositions in rhythm without rhyme. Read to the children a great number of' good poems within their comprehension, for education in appreciation and taste, and for the unconscious training in use of words, poetic expression, etc., afforded. After read- ing to the children sea poems entire or in part, by Barry Cornwall, Proctor and Longfellow, and having the class memorize parts, the children might try writing sea-verses. Among the verses composed by one class was the following: The waves roll in With an angry roar, The sea-birds sail and cry; The boat comes in With its white wings spread And all are warm and dry. 32. Initials and Abbreviations. Before the third year closes, the children should be taught how to write initial letters instead of full names, when desired. They should also be taught how to use the simpler forms of abbrevia- tions, as those for the days of the week, months of the year and for their native country and state. Exercises on these Language 153 may be given to fill some of the periods for seat work. The learning of abbreviations should be extended into the fourth year and continued until all those in common use are mastered. Abbreviations are uninteresting of themselves, hence difficult to learn. Furnish motives for their mastery, as the different forms in letter writing, street names, etc. In other words, teach as required. Matches, conducted like spelling matches, will aid in fixing habit, and cause the work to be done more cheerfully and easily. Caution. It should not be forgotten that all the language forms begun in the primary grades need lifelong practice in order to keep them perfectly in mind on all occasions. 33. Teaching English to Foreigners. There are many children who enter our schools without even a speaking knowledge of the English language. These are seriously handicapped when classed with pupils who have never used or heard any other language than English. With the children of foreign parentage, both ear and eye must have constant and careful training; with the strictly American children, the ear is already trained and a large spoken vocabulary is freely used, all of which proves that a double work must be done for the less fortunate pupils or they will remain hopelessly behind their class- mates. Added to the timidity that all children feel upon enter- ing school, those who have little or no knowledge of our language are rendered painfully self-conscious because of the awkward prominence in which they are placed. How to help such children learn English, in the shortest time possible, is the problem that confronts the teacher. The best method to follow is to help them, first, to become well acquainted with the other members of the class, since children always learn from children much faster than from adults. No notice of any sort should be taken of their awkwardness. Not a word, look or gesture should cause them to remember that they are different from the rest of the class. 154 Public School Methods All general directions for the school or for the class should be given in English, but, for some time, interpreted by some pupil that has a knowledge of both languages. If no such pupil is at hand, resort to the most expressive pantomime that can be invented. Teach the names of objects, names of actions, of qualities and properties of objects, by present- ing the name as the object is handled and observed, or as the activity is required. Number, drawing, nature study, construction and games will furnish abundant objective material. Avoid confusion by proceeding slowly, and by repeating the exercises frequently, with spirit. In a surprisingly short time the interpretations will not be necessary, unless a new pupil enters or a new form of instruction is introduced. The utmost kindness and tact will be needed to win the full confidence of these little strangers and wear away their natural embarrassment. (The other children should be talked to privately and their friendly cooperation secured.) On the playground their tendency will be to withdraw from the others and spend the time talking together in their native langauge. This should quietly, tactfully but per- sistently be prevented. See that they are drawn into all the games and induced to participate in them. Thus the ear will get constant training, and the interest and excite- ment of the sport will lead them to talk English with some freedom, long before the more formal indoor exercises bring this result. Songs are valuable in the same connection. See Songs, pages 187-202, Sections 26-33. The words that they will most quickly learn are the school commands, nouns that can be clearly illustrated by objects, and verbs of action. The latter may be illustrated perfectly by having the action performed each time one of these verbs is used. The order should be (1) the spoken word, (2) the action, (3) the written word. The latter should remain upon the board or special chart, to impress itself upon the eye and become familiar to all the class. Other words must be used as needed, and the law of Language 155 association will help these children to become familiar with them. Frequent drills upon words and sounds that are found to be especially difficult should be given daily to the whole school, the teacher showing all the pupils just how to manage the vocal organs in order to enunciate properly. Suppose certain children say den for then. All should be instructed to watch the teacher and do as she does. Place the tongue firmly against the lower edge of the upper teeth and hold it there while then is sounded. This will make it impossible to say den and will bring the correct pronuncia- tion. Similar instruction must be given for other trouble- some sounds. Much more drill in phonics is needed than for pupils from American homes. Much more practice in speaking English is necessary, and all legitimate means must be used to secure the needed amount. Among the first phrases, they should learn such as form the social currency of polite society: please, if you please, thank you, good-bye, good morning, good night, how do you do; and to prevent the wrong use of can: may I go, do, have, etc. Surround these foreign children with an atmosphere that is kind, sympathetic and courteous. Keep them doing things in response to English requests or commands. Keep them speaking and reading English. Have them build or write the words with the others and enter into all exercises that the others have; also provide special exercises. This is the hardest language problem that confronts the teacher, but it has been successfully worked out, time and again, by the methods suggested. Each teacher should be able to add various devices of her own by which the work may be hastened. One teacher used to send frequent pleasant greetings (in English) to the parents. Another had each little poem memorized in school repeated at home. Another induced the children to play school at home, to show father and mother what we do at school. Cautions, (i) The teacher confronted by this problem can do much towards solving it by comparing the elementary 156 Public School Methods sounds in the two languages and noticing those that are not common to both. The children will have difficulty in articu- lating only those sounds in the English not found in their own language, and it is to these that special attention should be given. (2) Remember that the difficulty which these children have to overcome is physiological, so teach them how to use their vocal organs; then give frequent drills on the pronun- ciation of the difficult sounds. Simply pronouncing words to these pupils is time and effort wasted. 34. Letter Writing. Children are always intensely interested in sending and receiving letters; hence, even during the first year, something of letter writing may be introduced with pleasure and profit. A tiny letter to Santa Claus just before Christmas will make a pleasing beginning in this line. In this, the pupils should carefully copy the forms for opening and closing from models written on the board by the teacher. They should also copy the superscription for the envelope. The body of the letter should be original but very brief. Usually this part consists of but one or two short sentences, in which Santa Claus is told what present is most desired at Christmas time. The next attempt may be deferred until February and consist of a little valentine to father or mother, or to both. If other letters are written during the year, one may be an invitation to a birthday party, and another a little note of thanks for some gift or favor. They should conform in all respects to the forms prescribed by correct usage, and be written with the utmost care. Much greater interest will be felt if correct note paper can be used and the letters sent through the regular postoffice or delivered by a special mes- senger. In all these efforts, the writers should be permitted to ask how to make any letter, how to spell any word or how to use any mark of punctuation. Pride must be called in to secure correctness and neatness. During the second and third years, the letters may be a Language 157 little longer and a little more frequent. From the third grade on, children should be encouraged to decide upon the number of topics to appear in the letter, and to keep to the paragraph scheme in correspondence as in other written exercises. "How many things are you planning to tell your friend?" "In what order will you arrange them?" "What will help you decide as to the order?" are questions that should be repeatedly asked when pupils begin to write friendly or social letters. A letter to some dear friend or relative may be written after Christmas to tell of gifts. One may be written after a birthday or picnic, telling how the day was spent. Boys may write to some chum and describe a dog or some other pet animal, a new sled, a nutting party, a toboggan slide, etc. A letter may be written to a child in another part of the country. Almost every teacher is acquainted with some teacher living far enough away to make an interchange of letters a source of real educational value. Caution. It is all-important that the writer has some- thing of vivid interest to himself that he may make the cause of his letter; therefore, study the children individually, to learn of their tastes and their personal belongings, before assigning the topics for letters. The teacher should never ask children to write letters or other exercises upon abstract themes. Original Writings. Encourage originality. Have pupils read aloud to the class their little original productions Urge them to write out their "made up" stories, and let them be read aloud to the class. The following is the best of a series of original fanciful explanations of the origin of the common flowers — dandelion, violet, etc. It is selected because it was written by a child who developed power and ability in written language through writing as just suggested : THE FIRST DANDELION 1 The beautiful god Balder was always smiling. The little elves loved to gather together and watch his sweet smile. They were fond of it. 1 Florence Reid, School of Education, University of Chicago. 158 Public School Methods When Balder died, his smile left him. Odin kept it, for it was very precious. The elves were sad, for they missed it. One day they thought of a plan. They went to Odin and said, "Please give us a piece of Balder's smile. We only ask for a tiny corner of it. We would be so happy to have it." "But how could you carry it, you funny little men?" asked Odin. "O, we will carry it in our hands," they replied. Odin thought they were so cute that he snipped off a little scrap with his gold scissors and gave it to them. How they laughed! The elves kept their treasure down in the earth and looked at it every day. One day when it was spring on the earth, one of the little elves said, "We are selfish to keep Balder's smile down here. The people on earth love his smile, too." So they gave the smile power to push its way up through the rocks and become a flower. We call Balder's smile the dandelion. 35. Memorizing Selections. To store the memory of the pupils with brief extracts from choice literature is one of the highest services that the teacher renders, since these gems help to form a taste for pure literature and impart valuable lessons in right feeling, right thinking and right conduct, lessons which will remain with the learner long after his school days are ended. The selections for primary grades may be in verse or prose, but they should always be brief and chosen for beauty of language as well as for their ethical value. To teach the name of the author in connection with the selection is to assist the pupil later in the study of literature. These selec- tions are of practical value in enriching the vocabulary and widening the field of conversation. A teacher in these days need not be troubled to find suitable quotations for any grade. For example, the best series of school readers abound in them, and many compilations are to be found. The Psalms and Proverbs of the Old Testament contain some of the most valuable thoughts for school use to be found in any literature, and have the additional advantage of being clothed in simple language, full of dignity and impressiveness. The work with quotations should be extended in all grades to include the memorizing of beautiful and appro- priate poems. For use in the primary rooms the poems Language 159 should be musical and present pictures in figures of speech easy to comprehend. The prevailing sentiment should vary, being sometimes tenderly affectionate, sometimes in parts grave almost to sadness, but often playful and joyous from the beginning to the end. The poems should be suited to the season or the occasion, often rounding out some special lesson. The works of Longfellow, Whittier, Holmes, Alice and Phoebe Cary, Lucy Larcom, Helen Hunt Jackson, Celia Thaxter, Eugene Field, James Whitcomb Riley, Margaret E. Sangster, Robert Louis Stevenson, George MacDonald, and many others that we have not space to enumerate, are full of poems well worth memorizing. But all these may not be accessible to teachers who are away from the great library centers ; hence, we again suggest turning to the lead- ing educational journals for help. There are also several small volumes of poems compiled for primary children, the selections being carefully chosen for their interest, value and adaptation to the season of the year or the grade of school. Among the best of these are Songs of the Tree-Top and Meadow (Public School Publishing Company, Bloomington, 111.), and Graded Memory Selections (Educational Publishing Company, Chicago). St. Nicholas and other magazines for children are con- stantly presenting poems that are new and charming, both in substance and in form. In fact, there is really "an em- barrassment of riches" in this field, and it remains to the teacher to cull those really worth while for her pupils to memorize. Cautions, (i) Teach at least one new poem each month, reviewing one or more each day. (2) Teach with the utmost care the correct pronunciation of words and the proper use of inflections and emphasis, so as to bring out the proper meaning correctly and sympa- thetically, with clear tones and distinct utterance. (3) The most of this teaching can be done by means of concert work, but individual pupils should be called upon daily to recite a stanza or an entire poem. 160 Public School Methods (4) Long poems are not satisfactory for primary children to memorize, although they greatly enjoy hearing a long poem read, particularly if it contains a story they can under- stand. 36. Conclusion. No special text-book on language is needed for the use of primary pupils. Teachers should have several good grammars at hand for reference, but should be so familiar with the subject as to make frequent reference unnecessary. During the first two years, no separate period is needed for either oral or written language, provided the teacher keeps in mind the various necessary phases of her work. Other- wise, incidental teaching is a failure. The oral language is a necessary part of every school exercise, both formal and informal. The small amount of written work required may be done in some of the periods allotted to seat work. Slates and pencils, blackboard and crayons should be used alter- nately, in order that change of position and change for the different sets of muscles used may be obtained. In the third year, and beyond, the greater pa;t of the oral language work continues as a part of the otl sr school exercises. A separate period is needed for the written work, the technical forms being more numerous and difficult and the exercises of greater length. Each method of teaching language has its ardent devotees, and it is seldom that a method is projected that is wholly without merit. Some few of the many have numerous excellent points to commend them. However, i1 remains true that as long as children, localities and en\ 'ronment differ as they do to-day, no one method will be abl to meet all the requirements made by these differences. 37. Aids. There are numerous grammars and language books on the market, many of which are too well cnown to need mention here. Among the later ones published, in which are fou id help- ful suggestions for teaching language, chiefly for pupils beyond the third grade, are the following: Language 161 Language Lessons from Literature, Book One. Cooley. Houghton Mifflin & Co. Language Exercises. Metcalf & Bright. American Book Com- pany. Everyday English, Book One. Rankin. Educational Publishing Company. Elements of Composition and Grammar. Southworth & Goddard. Benj. H. Sanborn & Co., Chicago. TEST QUESTIONS i. Of the children living in the country and those living in the city, which do you think are the better prepared for language work when they enter school? Give your reasons for your answer. 2. What mental powers are trained by requiring pupils to reproduce stories that are told or read to them? Are there any dangers for the teacher to guard against in such an exercise? If so, what are they? 3. What do you understand by "every lesson a language lesson" \ f i) as it applies to the teacher? (2) as it applies to the pupHs? 4. Why should similes and metaphors be taught in primary grades? What figures of speech are frequently used too much in these grades? 5. What do you expect your pupils to gain from memo- rizing short poems and other selections of choice literature? How wiR you teach these lessons so as to secure the desired results? 6. Hf'w can the written exercises in other subjects be made t ^ assist the work in language? How do these exer- cises oft n hinder the work in language? 7. W lat do pupils gain from copying stanzas of poetry and short paragraphs from selections of prose? What must the teacher do to have them derive the greatest benefit from this exercise? 8. To what extent should letter writing be taught in the third grade? Outline a lesson for beginning this work. 162 Public School Methods 9. Why are children so prone to use the incorrect language learned at home and on the playground, instead of the cor- rect forms learned at school? How can this tendency be lessened? 10. Is it wise to have pupils criticise one another's lan- guage ? Why ? CHAPTER SIX DRAMATIZATION, STORY TELLING, GAMES, SONGS DRAMATIZATION 1. Use and Abuse. "Dramatization" has entered the schoolroom as an educative factor so generally that its uses and abuses should be considered by the thoughtful teacher. To "dramatize" a reading lesson, so that the result will be a better comprehension of the situation and a real advance in the power of expression on the part of the children, is really to use dramatization educatively, to get the children to act in a "show," however effective, is to abuse dramatiza- tion as a schoolroom factor, and this misuse has sometimes brought dramatization into disrepute. 2. A Distinction. The cloudiness in the minds of teachers as to the value and use of the dramatic will vanish largely when the following distinctions are clear. Dramatic instinct is common to every child. It is inherent in the dull, slow child as well as in the brilliant one. It is one of the pro- visions of nature for supplying to the soul the experience it craves. It is what moves every child (unless, indeed, he has been made too self-conscious) to want to act in a play — to want to take part in "playing the thing out." Dramatic talent, however, is the gift given to but a few bright, expressive children, who, because of it, seem instinctively to know how to express things dramatically. It is no part of a teacher's business to cultivate dramatic talent; it is decidedly her business to make educative use of dramatic instinct in her pupils. This instinct, when utilized, gives an opportunity for self-realization, for development of the imagination, for general initiative, that can hardly be over- estimated. 3. General Directions. (i) Let the children arrange the setting. Suppose the story of The Three Bears, either in the narrative form or in the dramatic form, is to be read. 163 164 Public School Methods The teacher says, "Who wants to be the Big Bear? the Tiny Bear?" Then she asks, "Who will place the chairs as the story says?" and so on, until the children have arranged the stage, chosen the parts, etc. (2) Be patient. The teacher must proceed patiently, keeping in mind that it is the development of power to think, to control action, to search in the sentence for the thought, and then to attempt — often crudely enough — to express it in word and in action; in short, the development of the child through dramatic instinct is what she is after, not a finished dramatic production. She must say, for instance, " How do you think the bear felt when he saw Golden Hair? Show us," rather than imposing her ideas by directing, " Now look surprised." That is to say, where the dramatization seems weak, strengthen it from the inside, by dealing with the idea that prompts the expres- sion. (3) Choose the slow, unexpressive children often, not the showy, pushing, expressive ones always, for the principal parts. The trained imagination is one of the potent factors for good in life, and it is the commonplace, the average child, or the stupid one, who requires this training. If, on the contrary, the expressive child reads the expressive part, vanity, self-esteem, sophistication are cultivated, and we have the sorry exhibition of reading or acting described as cute, cunning, bright, and the like. Such over-training, over-stimulating with unnatural results is what may rob dramatic activities in the school of their beneficial effects and may cause them to receive deserved censure. (4) Accept real and earnest effort, crude and halting though it may be, and do not attempt to direct, or improve very much, the little child's rendering, or the real educative value may be lost in self-consciousness and affectation. Much costuming or staging are out of place here, where the imagina- tion should supply them. (5) The interest in playing the reading lessons, or in mak- ing plays of stories told (See Story Telling, Sections 7-13) Dramatization, Story Telling, Games Songs 165 is so great that the children are willing to work hard to read or to write the parts used. Of this the teacher should take advantage in teaching reading and composition. There is a subtle change in expression, improvement in articulation and in the general imaging of the situation, when, after some prosy oral reading, the teacher says, "Mary, take the part of the ant and Anna take the part of the grasshopper, and go on with what they say." It is not mere theory that the teacher's burden in teaching reading is thereby lightened ; it is a fact. She has called to her assistance a vital child- interest. In a valuable course of study appears the follow- ing: "Dramatic rendering is an integral part in the work of teaching reading — it is more than a preparation for read- ing; dramatization is reading in the fullest sense." Where the children work out orally each step in the play, the teacher writing it on the board as composed, as in the play of The Lion and the Mouse, made for a second grade class by a third grade class (see pages 79-81, Section 20), the play is likely to be well adapted to children and to admit of good, natural acting. 4. Material. Plays are readily made up and played by the children, with a little encouragement from stories told in the story-telling period. (See Story Telling, Sections 7-13). Only certain stories, however, are essentially dramatic. Some cannot be acted because there is little happening in them, as in descriptive tales, for example. But the children's favorite stories are likely to be easily dramatized. The Adventures of Odysseus, Aesop's Fables, Little Red Riding Hood, Golden Hair and the Three Bears, Jack and the Bean- stalk, Billy Goat Gruff, Snow-White, and a scoie of children's classical tales are full of dramatic situations, worked out with clear-cut characters, to a very evident climax. 5. Illustrative Lesson. The following simple dramatic rendering of the facts that bees gather nectar and pollen and make it into beebread, working hard all day in the sunshine, shows the relation that dramatization may bear to nature study. 166 Public School Methods The teacher should draw a picture of two bees touching feelers, a hive and some flowers. THE BUSY ONES For First Grade First Bee: Buzz! How do you do? Second Bee: Buzz! How do you do? First Bee: Follow me. Far, far we fly. I have found some flowers. They are so full of nectar. (The bees carry the nectar to the hive. Other bees make it into honey.) Second Bee: Follow me. Far, far we fly. I have found some flowers. They are full of pollen. (The bees carry the pollen to the hive. Other bees make it into beebread.) Both Bees. Buzz' Buzz! The sun has gone. Let us go to the hive. (Then they fly slowly to the hive. The busy bees have worked all day.) 6. Work for the Third Grade. Teachers often drop dramatization at the end of the first or second year, and thus stifle the dramatic instinct in the children. This feature of reading is as valuable in the third grade as in those below. In fact, there is no grade in which dramatization may not at times be used to good effect. Some selections in the third readers lend themselves readily to this line of work, but others, particularly selections abounding in description, do not. The children like best those stories found in the reader and taken from other sources, which are full of action, and which for this reason can be readily dramatized. Dramatization in this grade affords one of the best means of preventing undue self-consciousness mentioned in Sec- tion 3, provided securing expression is the chief aim. The following suggestions will aid in avoiding difficulties and in securing desired results; (i) Avoid all show. Let the class read as usual until the portion of the lesson containing the dialogue is reached, Dramatization, Story Telling, Games, Songs 167 then assign the parts and allow the reading to proceed. Each pupil may read the part assigned him whenever it occurs. (2) Let the reading be interpretative, not imitative. The pupils should give more attention to expressing the thought in the selection than to the actions and feelings of the char- acter which they represent. Such imitation leads to self- consciousness, and often tends to turn what is designed to be a means for securing good expression into a mere show. (3) Avoid memorizing, except when the selection is brief. Let the exercise be simply one means of securing good expression, and on a par with other exercises used with different selections for a like purpose. (4) Put yourself in sympathy with the selection and the plan of presenting it. Unless you can do this, probably you would better not attempt dramatization with this grade. STORY TELLING 7. Value. G. Stanley Hall is quoted as saying that the first essential to success in a primary teacher is the ability to tell a story well. Sarah Cone Bryant, in her admirable little book, How to Tell Stories to Children, insists that the telling of a story is as truly a work of art as painting a beauti- ful picture or writing a poem. Be this as it may, the power to tell or to read a story so as to give genuine pleasure to one's audience goes far toward winning and holding the attention and respect of the school. It attracts pupils to school by their own interest, overcomes many mischievous tendencies by arousing the nobler natures of the children; affords an excellent model of good reading for pupils to follow; supplements the direct teaching of language by greatly increasing the vocabulary of the pupils, strengthening their power to choose and use effective similes and other forms of picturesque speech; incidentally imparts much valuable knowledge; helps to develop a permanent taste for good literature, and supplies a needed change and relaxation from the periods devoted to concentrated effort. 168 Public School Methods But while all these results follow the telling of stories, the chief aim should be to expand and add to the spiritual experiences of the child. Consider, in listening to a good story well told, how open is the child's mind, how concen- trated his attention, and how free and intimate is the rela- tion between him and the narrator. Just here is one of the important "points of contact" in teaching — the one between the listening child and the teacher — for during the telling of a story we may be reasonably sure that the child is really listening to the narrator, who becomes, for the time, a teacher, whether she will or no. 8. Selection of Stories. The best authorities on telling stories to children agree that with children of the kinder- garten and the first primary grade, the stories that are the greatest favorites are those which are full of action, which contain pictures of the imagination, made of simple elements with which the child is familiar, and which have a certain amount of lepetition, as in the Three Bears, Little Red Riding- Hood and The Pig That Wouldn't Go Home. Stories possess- ing these characteristics are sure to find a hearty welcome among the children, who listen to them over and over again without any seeming lack of interest. Stories suitable for telling in the first three grades may be considered under the following classes: (a) Fairy Tales. The fairy tale easily ranks first as possessing the characteristics named above, and also because it presents simple truths, general types of human experi- ence and plenty of interesting action to stir the imagination. It is usually simple, direct and strong in style — qualities invaluable in tales for young children. (b) Nature Stories. Stories about animals and plants, which are scientifically correct and not sentimental, are useful to awaken sympathy with animals and also with plant life, and to create a desire to study the animals and plants of the locality. But while these stories are valuable for the purpose named, a word of caution concerning them is necessary. Because of the extensive demand for material 'SOMEBODY HAS BEEN SLEEPING IN MY BED, AND HERE SHE IS! From "The Three Beara'! Dramatization, Story Telling, Games, Songs 169 for nature study, there have been placed upon the market numerous books about animals, and some about plants, which will not stand the test of science. The writers of tnese stories make their animals too intensely human, and too often, in order to make a good story, attribute to them habits and characteristics which they do not possess. The use of such stories fills the children's minds with erroneous ideas, some of which may cling to them through life. The teacher, therefore, should be sure that the nature stories used are scientifically correct. (c) Biographical Tales. Children are always interested in people, particularly other children; therefore, stories of the boyhood of eminent men are attractive, provided they are kept within the understanding of the pupils. Tales relating to simple life, like those of the patriarchs of Bible times, of Daniel Boone, and Lincoln, never lose their charm. With the second and third grades these tales can be extended to include accounts of endurance, bravery and adventure. Such stories make the historical personages live again, and are among the best means of strengthening character in the children. (d) History Stories. History stories differ but slightly from biographical tales. Biography deals with one char- acter, while the history story may deal with several char- acters. Such stories as pertain to the life of the Pilgrim fathers, especially those which tell of the child life of that period, and stories of primitive life in other parts of the world, afford excellent means of interesting the pupils and also of conveying historical facts. Simple stories of this nature are suitable for a third grade. (e) Travel and Adventure. Stories of travel and adventure occupy about the same position as history stories, but they dwell upon a different class of facts. They give an intimate and broadening knowledge of other lands, the manners and customs of the people, and the products of other countries. The work in home geography should lead up to these stories by natural and easy steps. 170 Public School Methods 9. Qualities of a Good Story. In choosing a story to tell, ask yourself if it has, or if you can give it, the qualities mentioned below: (a) Action. Is something happening all the time? Does the story move forward, continually, not by -descrip- tions or discussions, but by events occurring. (b) Sequence. Do these happenings link into each other in a strong chain, each one connected with and depending upon the next one? (c) Distinctness. Are they clear pictures, and, even where the mysterious is suggested, is the matter familiar enough, in general, to make distinct impressions? (d) Rhythm. Is there the rhythm that comes from the fascinating repetition of points, or details, as in The House that Jack Built, or in " But, grandmother, what large eyes," etc., in Little Red Riding- Hood? 10. How to Tell Stories, (a) Know Your Story. Study the construction of it so you may be sure of the climax and of the steps leading up to it. Except for bits which are to be repeated for rhythm, the story need never be memorized, but should be so vivid in your mind that you cannot but make it real to your listeners. (b) Enjoy the Story Yourself. However childish or trite, do not be grudging in your own enjoyment of it. Remember how you seize an anecdote that is told with evident relish by a friend, and forget a better one told per- functorily. (c) Convey Your Tale. See the situations and the people as you talk, and "aim your mind" with quiet force at your youthful listeners, and they will get your story. Just let go of yourself, and you will surely reach your audience. (d) Tell the Tale. Directly, step by step, dramatically wherever possible, but always simply and without much discussion of minor points, let the story progress. Consider that you are telling, not discussing or acting out the story; so let your digressions be brief, and your gestures natural Dramatization, Story Telling, Games, Songs 171 and few. Never talk down to "my dear little children;" use your natural voice at its best ; cultivate a pleasing tone and distinct articulation. 11, Favorite Stories of Children. After all is said and done, the classic fairy and folk stories are the favorites among children. With very young children The Three Bears, Little Red Riding-Hood, and The Pig That Wouldn't Go Home are perennial favorites, many repetitions of which are always clamored for. From Grimm's Fairy Tales (the Riverside edition is good), the teacher can select such favorites as Snow White and Red Rose, Thumbling and Little Snow White. Of Andersen's Fairy Tales, The Ugly Duckling, The Fir Tree and The Flax seem to be most loved by the children. The English, Celtic and Indian Fairy Tales by Joseph Jacob, Irish Fairy Tales by Semus McManus and Andrew Lang's Blue Fairy Book are in demand. Aesop's Fables always have been and prob- ably always will be the best -liked fables. Of the Greek myths, those of Midas, Pandora, Apollo, Proserpine, myths easily adapted from Bulfinch's Age of Fable — and the Norse tales about Iduna, Lif, Balder, and especially Thor, adapted from Anderson's Norse Mythology, are the reigning favorites. Use some of the stories you used to like; try to tell them as you would have enjoyed hearing them; then watch the result. Whatever may be true of other work presented, a teacher in the story period may enjoy the work as fully as the children do. 12. Some Schoolroom Uses of the Story. Telling stories, though a joy and a relaxation, and valuable for both, is not merely nor even chiefly for relaxation. If it were, this care- ful consideration of what to tell and how to tell it would be superfluous. In addition to the values already mentioned, story telling to the progressive teacher opens various avenues of development. The most important ones of the story are as follows: (a) Expression. The story affords a great opportunity for developing the power of self-expression on the part of 172 Public School Methods the children. The wise teacher expects every child to give back something of every story told. There is a great differ- ence in the kind of listening when the child knows he is to make some use of the story he hears. His enjoyment is really deeper and his attention is more nearly continuous when he gets into the habit of making the stories "his to use." Selfishly to take all and give nothing would be poor ethics, indeed. Here is one of the places to teach giving. (See page 262, Section 21, Volume Two.) The oral re-telling for pupils who were absent, to chil- dren of another grade, to visitors, or for the social class "continued story," where each one takes up the thread of the narrative where the last one left off, is invaluable train- ing in oral English, in good habits of enunciation and expres- sion. Where foreign children are to be considered, the advantages are even greater, as the imitation of words and expressions used by the teacher-narrator are educative. (b) Art. After the story, the children, for seat work, should be allowed to "give back" the story in the forms of drawing, paper cutting or tearing, and the like. Not only will the training of hand and eye be a result, but the children will develop the genuine power which comes of first imaging, and then holding the image and expressing it with the hands. (c) Written Work. Written expression may well follow the oral story, especially if there is a real motive for it — such as preserving the story, taking it home, or writing it for the individual story book each child should be gradually making. Such written exercises should be brief. Some- times only one section of the story should be written at once, the work being continued the next day. (d) Dramatization. Often the story can be played, thus furnishing an opportunity for the development of dramatic instinct, which is in every child, no matter how unexpressive (See Dramatization, Sections 1-6). Let the children choose their parts, often; let them arrange the simple stage setting, as a chair; encourage them to manage Dramatization, Story Telling, Games, Songs 173 their play alone, and not to look to the teacher to help it on. Where the dramatization is weak, help by asking, "How did the giant walk?" and expect a better rendering; do not tell how the thing should be done. Real gain to the pupils consists in making conditions favorable for them to express dramatically the story as they understand it, not as you know it. Accept crudity, if the effort is real, and do not work for a finished production beyond the ability of the children in this educative activity, any more than you would in such forms of expression as writing or drawing. (See Dramatization, Sections 1-6.) (e) Power of Attention. But underlying all these uses is the development of the power of attention, upon which all uses of the story must depend. The child learns to listen by listening, and when to the charm of the story is added the incentive of re-telling it, he listens with all his effort. In this way he develops the power of attention, until from a single telling he is able to reproduce in con- nected form all the incidents of a story which it will require several minutes to tell. This power he applies to his lessons in other branches, and masters them more quickly and more thoroughly because of what he gained through listen- ing to the stories. 13. Books for Teachers. The following books contain stories suitable for children of the first three grades. Some of them need to be adapted, if used in any of these grades ; in the original form they are too long and too difficult. The King of the Golden River, The Story of Patsy and Timothy's Quest are good illustrations of stories that need to be adapted to the grades. The Golden Windows. Laura E. Richards. Little, Brown & Co. When the King Came (Stories from the Four Gospels). George Hodges. Houghton, Mifflin & Co. Wonder Stories Told for Children. Hans Christian Andersen. Mother Goose's Melodies. W. A. Wheeler. Houghton, Mifflin & Co. Nursery Rhyme Book. Andrew Lang. Warne & Co., London. The Book of Nature Myths. Florence Holbrook. Riverside Lit- erature Series Houghton, Mifflin & Co. 174 Public School Methods Nature Myths and Stories. Flora J. Cooke. A. Flanagan Company. The Story Hour. Story of Patsy. The Birds' Christmas Carol. Timothy's Quest. Kate Douglas Wiggin. Houghton, Mifflin & Co. English Fairy Tales. More English Fairy Tales. Celtic Fairy Tales. More Celtic Fairy Tales. Indian Fairy Tales. Joseph Jacobs. G. P. Putnam's Sons. The Fables of Aesop. Joseph Jacobs. Macmillan & Co. The Blue Fairy Book. The Arabian Nights' Entertainments. Andrew Lang. Longmans, Green & Co. The Age of Fable. Thomas Bulfinch. Lothrop, Lee & Shepard Co. Old Greek Folk Stories. Josephine Preston Peabody. Riverside Literature Series. Houghton, Mifflin & Co. The Boys' King Arthur. Sidney Lanier. Charles Scribner's Sons. Norse Tales. Hamilton W. Mabie. Dodd, Mead & Co. Nights with Uncle Remus. Joel Chandler Harris. Houghton, Mifflin & Co. True Bird Stories. Olive Thome Miller. Houghton, Mifflin & Co, Among the Farmyard People. Clara D. Pierson. E. P. Dutton & Co. Wild Animals I Have Known. Ernest Thompson Seton. Charles Scribner's Sons. Any or all of the following publications may be obtained from A. C. McClurg & Co., the Book Supply Company, the A. Flanagan Company, of Chicago, or any other large book- store : Children of the Palm Lands. Alice E. Allen. Fairy Tales. Hans Christian Andersen. Editha's Burglar. Little Lord Fauntleroy. Sara Crewe. Francis Hodgson Burnett. Jewel. Clara Louise Burnham. At the Back of the North Wind. George MacDonald. Colonial Children. Mara L. Pratt. A Dog of Flanders. Findelkind. Nurnberg Stove. The Child of Urbino. The Little Earl. Louise de la Ramee (Ouida). King of the Golden River. John Ruskin. Beautiful Joe. Marshall Saunders. Children of the Cold. Frederick Schwatka. Black Beauty. Anna Sewell. The Dead Doll. Margaret Vandegrift. Bob Cratchitt's Christmas in Christmas Stories, Charles Dickens; selections from Rebecca of Sunnybrook Farm, Kate Douglas Wiggin; selections from Mrs. Wiggs of the Cabbage Patch and Lovey Mary, Alice Hegan Rice, are also full of interest for children. Dramatization, Story Telling, Games, Songs 175 GAMES AND PLAYS 14. Purposes. The uses to which a teacher puts games and plays will depend in a great measure upon her concep- tion of play in its relation to the development of the child. The study of this problem has been prosecuted for centuries, and it occupies an important place in the history of educa- tion. However, for a time, the function of play in a system of education was nearly lost sight of in the United States. In recent years this important subject has again attracted the attention of educators, and play is now given more prom- inence in schools than ever before. Some of the most impor- tant purposes for which it is used are the following: (a) Recreation. The first thought which naturally pre- sents itself is that play is used chiefly, if not wholly, for recreation, and in the schoolroom many games are used primarily for this purpose — literally, re-creation. After a period of close application to study, or sitting still, often in a partially cramped position, something that will relieve the tension, hasten the sluggish circulation, give the lungs a chance to expand and the spirits an occasion for rising, is really needed. For this, nothing is better than free play directed by the teacher. Open the windows, get the chil- dren out of their seats, and for three or five minutes let them engage in some interesting game, encouraging a genuine laugh and applause for the winners, and you accomplish much towards banishing fatigue and putting zest into another period of close, earnest work. (b) General Development. During the period of immaturity, the young of all the higher animals instinctively engage in play, through which their various powers are given exercise. In the lower animals play is wholly instinctive, and some of our leading authorities consider it to be so in man. Their theory is that instinct is the foundation of habit, and that when any habit is formed, the instinct that gave it birth disappears. However, because of the progress of the race, instinct needs to be supplemented by education. Says Johnson: 176 Public School Methods Now from the time that man first began consciously to instruct his offspring, there have been these two factors in the development of the individual child — heredity and conscious education. Nature always strives to conserve the needed powers of the child and bring to fullness every promise of strength; but nature's gifts have been greatly improved and the advance of the race greatly aided by the addition of conscious training. Nature, or heredity, and conscious education join hands in bringing man to his best and fullest develop- ment. 1 Prof. William James also emphasizes the relation of instinct to play, and of these to education, as seen from the following: Leaving lower animals aside, and turning to human instincts, we see the law of transiency corroborated on the widest scale by the alternation of different interests and passions as human life goes on. With the child, life is all play and fairy-tales and learn- ing the external properties of 'things;" with the youth, it is bodily exercises of a more systematic sort, novels of the real world, boon- fellowship and song, friendship and love, nature, travel and adven- ture, science and philosophy; with the man, ambition and policy, acquisitiveness, responsibility to others, and the selfish zest of the battle of life. If a boy grows up alone at the age of games and sports, and learns neither to play ball, nor row, nor sail, nor ride, nor skate, nor fish, nor shoot, probably he will be sedentary to the end of his days; and, though the best of opportunities be afforded him for learn- ing these things later, it is a hundred to one but he will pass them by and shrink back from the effort of taking those necessary first steps the prospect of which, at an earlier age, would have filled him with eager delight. In the normal child all these activities are begun in play, and he is nowise prepared wholly to drop this stage of develop- ment when he enters school. (c) Individuality. In play, the spontaneous activity of the child is ever uppermost. In set tasks he is more or less under the influence of those over him, but in free play he is wholly himself. The traits peculiar to different chil- dren thus revealed are often of great assistance to the teacher in guiding her in the development of each child's character. With this knowledge at hand, the teacher can assist in 1 George Ellsworth Johnson: Education by Plays and Games. Dramatization, Story Telling, Games, Songs 177 strengthening those traits which should be developed, and in subduing passions and tendencies that should disappear. 15. Relation of Play to Work. Someone has said that play is the child's work, and we all know that the child works hard at his play. Moreover, most of the child's play is imitation of the work going on around him, or of some phase of the life of primitive peoples, as Indians or Eskimos. From any viewpoint the relation between play and work is found to be very close. Children often love to work as well as to play, and the teacher should so use this love of play as to enable it to contribute to the work of the school, not by making work play, but by making the work so pleasant that work and play imperceptibly blend into each other. "To sweeten work with a real joy in the doing is the high art of the genius in teaching." 16. Selecting Plays and Games. In selecting plays and games, the teacher should give due consideration to out- door and indoor games, also to their adaptation to the pupils. For instance, pupils of the third grade will not enjoy games suitable for those of the first grade, because they have out- grown them. Some pupils of the second grade will enjoy and take part in games suitable for the first grade, and others will be attracted to those of the third grade, but all pupils of the second grade will enjoy better games chosen with a view to their special needs. Therefore, the teacher must study her pupils and select such games as they will most enjoy. Failure to do this will prevent securing the most desirable results. Another restriction frequently placed upon the teacher is lack of apparatus. In most schools games must be chosen which require no apparatus, except such as can be supplied by the teacher or the pupils, such as balls, bean bags, hoops and rings. 17. Method of Procedure. During the school hours the play periods should be brief and frequent. Simple games, in which all the pupils can engage, and that require no prep- aration, should therefore be selected for these periods. The pupils should be encouraged to enter into the play heartily 178 Public School Methods and joyously. This does not mean that anyone may indulge in roughness, but it does mean that all right sort of fun should be encouraged. In most of the following games the children stand in the aisles, or around the room. If the exercise does not include all pupils at once, let the others beat time, where needed, mark bases, or keep the score. Keep the children feeling that they are in a real game, and encourage not horseplay but fun. 18. Miscellaneous Games. (a) Tiptoe Catch. Two children are chosen. The others face for marching. The leader (or teacher) says in a whisper, "Sh! Here come Tip- toe and Catch," at the same time touching the two chosen children. Tiptoe at once leads the line, all on tiptoe, about the room, in time (children clapping with hands above head), first walking, then running. Catch takes out of the line as they pass her, anyone touching the whole foot to the floor. This is an excellent exercise for stretching and resting the body, and is a good corrective after much sitting. (b) Flying Cloud. Pupils stand in two lines down two aisles, facing each other. At least one aisle must be between them in which the "It," or center player, stands. A hand- kerchief becomes the cloud and is tossed from one to another across the aisle, while the center player tries to catch the cloud. If he succeeds, the one who threw last becomes " It." (c) Trade Game. A group of children step out and decide secretly what trade is to be imitated. Then they call, " Here we come!" The rest say, "Where from?" They answer, "New York." The rest ask, "What is your trade?" Then they carry out farming, building, etc., in pantomime. The one who guesses may choose a party to imitate another trade. This game has dramatic and social values, besides the values of a good game. (d) Skip Tag. As the children clap and sing, one child skips up and down the aisle. He tags a child, who skips after him, trying to catch him before he skips to his seat. If he succeeds, the first child tags another; if he does not, Dramatization, Story Telling, Games, Songs 179 the second child tags another, and so on. If played rapidly, this is a great favorite. 19. Marching Games, (a) Presto, Change. Let a pupil rapidly chalk on the floor in the aisles, at irregular intervals, as many crosses, less one, as there are pupils. During the regular marching period the teacher says, "Presto, change!" and each child tries to change his place so as to occupy a cross. The one who must take his seat first erases a cross. This gives a variation to the regular marching exercises. (b) Follow Your Leader. During the marching, let the leader skip, hop, run, clap or change position of hands, and let the others follow. If the changes are agreed upon first, as walk eight counts, skip eight counts, clap eight counts, etc., the effect is very satisfactory. (c) Marching with Wands. Besides the many simple wand exercises, children may march with wands across shoulders or in bayonet position. Children should be encour- aged to march with the wand balanced on the hand or on the forefinger of the right hand for a short distance. 20. Races, (a) Crow Race. All children stand. Those in front stoop and clasp their hands about their ankles. In this position they start the race at the signal and may either hop or walk as best they can. Anyone removing the hands from the ankles must take his seat. They hop to the front wall and back to their seats, seating themselves to make room for the next row across the room. The teacher declares who has beaten in each set, and the children applaud. The laughing in this game brings new life and vigor to all parts of the body. (b) Eraser Race. With crayon draw a circle in front and at the back of the room in each aisle. Place the same number of erasers in each circle at the front. Beginning at the back, let the children in each back seat walk, or run, as determined, to the front, take an eraser, place it in the circle at the back, get another and continue until all have been taken. In like manner return them to the front circle. 180 Public School Methods Let the room applaud the winner, and let the children in next to the back seats have their turn, continuing in the same way until every one in the room has had a chance. Occasionally let the winners of each set try at the end for the championship. (c) Relay Eraser Race. Let the pupils stand in two lines (or more) down two aisles, with the same number in each line, and facing the front. Arms are raised above heads ; no one turns about. At the word "Go!" the head pupil in each line passes an eraser to the one behind him, who does the same. When the eraser for each line reaches the last one, he starts it back again. The line in which the eraser reaches the front first tells the fact by clapping. Each child must pass the eraser; failure to do so loses the game for the side. This game is particularly good for rapid work, for team work and for enthusiastic efforts to help those working for the same end. (d) Relay Touch Race. A chalk line is drawn across the front of the room. At the signal "Go!" the pupils in the front seats run to the front, stoop, touch the line, run to the back wall, touch it, then run back to their seats, which they raise so they may stand behind their desks, out of the way of the children directly behind them, who instantly dart out and race. The row that finishes first is the vic- torious one. 21. Rhythm Games. (a) Balls. While most of the room clap double, three beat measure, etc., a few in front bounce and toss balls in the following order. Upon drop- ping a ball it must be given to someone else, who comes to the front and joins in the work. (i) Bounce down with both hands through the tunc that all are humming or singing to la, with clapping in accented rhythm. (2) Bounce down and catch with right hand. (3) Bounce down and catch with left hand. (4) Throw up and catch with both hands; then right hand; then left hand. Dramatization, Story Telling, Games, Songs 181 (5) Bounce down, then throw up and catch with both hands, then right hand, then left hand. This work has excellent results in rhythm, poise and control. (b) Rhythm with Wands. Children stand. Using the same tunes and rhythm, beat time with the wands, softly touching the desk on accented beat, and bending the body rhythmically. (c) Desk as Apparatus, (i) Jumping Jack. Lift the seats. Place the right hand on the front of the desk, and the left on the upright of the desk behind. At a signal, jump through the space into the other aisle. Turn. At a given signal, jump back. Try this without lifting the seat. Jump over the seat. (2) River Row. Sit on the desk, with feet on the seat. On certain counts give rowing exercises together. 22. Ball and Bean Bag Games, (a) Toss and Catch. (1) Pupils stand around the outside of the room, or nearer, if the room is large, in an irregular, large circle. "It" in the center throws the ball or the bean bag, calling the name of the person to whom he is throwing it, if that is agreed upon. If the person fails to catch the ball, he is "It." (2) The ball or bean bag may be thrown across the circle. If the one in the circle succeeds in catching it, the one who threw the ball takes his place. (b) Bag in the Square. Mark squares on the floor in a line. The players are to take turns in throwing the bags into the squares, standing at least five feet away from the first square. If a bag falls on a line, it is a foui; if in a square, it counts as many points as the number marked in the square. The class may be divided into sides, if desired. 23. Games for Training the Powers of Observation. Many simple exercises in the form of games can be used for developing keenness in observation. These games are valu- able during rest periods and at the long recess on days when the weather is such that the children cannot play out of doors. The teacher should take just enough part in the 182 Public School Methods games to see that they are started right and that no pupil directs more than his share of the time. (a) Sharp Eyes Games. These games have for their purpose the training of the sense of sight. (i) Have the pupils select a leader, who will place three or four simple, unlike objects on a desk or table, and ask the class to observe them for an instant; then to turn away or cover their eyes. The leader then rearranges the objects quickly and quietly asks the children to look at them again, and calls upon someone to reproduce the first arrangement. If the child makes an error, it will be noticed by someone in the group. This exercise can be increased in difficulty by increasing the number of objects, but with children below the fourth grade the number should never exceed ten. (2) Let the children select a leader, who performs a number of dissociated acts while the children observe. The leader then calls on someone from the group to reproduce the acts in the same order and in the same manner. Should he make a mistake, the children will criticise and correct him. Like (1), this exercise can be varied by increasing the number of acts in the series. (3) The children cover their eyes, or turn their faces away, while the leader places a number of unlike objects upon a table or desk. The children then observe the arrange- ment for about a minute, then the leader covers the objects and asks the children to write upon tablets the names of all the objects on the desk. The one who makes no error wins. (4) This is similar to (3) with the exception that colors are observed instead of objects, and the children write the names of the colors. (5) A similar game can be played by the use of pictures of animals cut from posters, magazines, old readers and other books from which they can be obtained. The pictures should be simple, and the objects in them large enough to be readily seen. For convenience in handling they should be placed upon pieces of cardboard of the same size. Dramatization, Storij Telling, Games, Songs 183 (6) This serves as a spelling game. The children turn their backs, or cover their eyes, while the leader writes on the blackboard a number of words. He allows the children to look at the board for a moment, then erases one word and asks them to tell what it was. The game can be varied by the leader erasing all the words and having the children reproduce them either orally or in writing. (7) In this game the children arrange themselves in a ring. The leader asks them to close their eyes, then removes one child from the ring and places him out of sight. Those remaining in the ring open their eyes and tell instantly who is missing. See Songs, The Butterflies Hide and Seek, page 198. (8) If the school is provided with a collection of flags for different nations, the teacher or one of the children acting as a leader, can ask the others to observe the posi- tion of each flag. Then, when their eyes are closed, one of the flags is removed and the children are asked to name the one taken away. This exercise can be used with the entire school. If the school is not provided with flags, pictures large enough to be seen across the 100m can be used in the same way. (9) This game is particularly interesting to girls. The teacher, or leader selected, holds a doll before the group of children for a moment, then covers it, or removes it from sight, and asks those who observed it to describe its cloth- ing, its eyes, and every particular. A similar game can be played by using a large picture in which the various objects and parts are distinctly brought out. If the picture is colored, it adds value and interest to the game. (10) Select a leader, who directs different children in the group to represent various acts in pantomime, and then let the children tell what is represented; as, "Anna is clean- ing house;" "John is driving a nail;" "Frank is flying a kite;" "Susie is washing," etc. This game is very interest- ing and mirth-provoking; it also enables the children to become expert in dramatizing various acts, and assists m dramatization in reading and other branches. 184 Public School Methods (b) Sharp Ears Games. These games consist in train- ing the sense of hearing. They are rather more difficult than the Sharp Eyes Games, and not quite so interesting; therefore they should not be attempted as often or pro- longed to any great extent. (i) Let the children name a leader, then when their eyes are closed the leader strikes various objects, as a number of bells, provided they are obtainable, and the children tell by the sound which object is struck. The game can be varied by having the children listen at different distances, by striking various kinds of objects. This game requires very close attention and its success depends largely upon the skill and silence of the leader. (2) Divide the children into two groups and place these groups across the room from each other. While those in one group close their eyes, the leader indicates a child in the other group to sing, or speak, or read. The children in the group whose eyes are closed tell which child performed the act. Let the other side close their eyes and a child from the opposite side perform a similar act. If the leader keeps tally, to see which side is the more accurate, this lends spirit and interest to the game. (3) If there is a piano or other musical instrument in the room, this game is particularly valuable on dull days. The teacher, or some pupil, plays a marching tune, while one or more of the children follow the movement. The tune can be changed from a marching to a skipping tune, and from that to songs. In each case the children selected follow the music in acting or singing. (4) Choose a leader and have all the children close their eyes. The leader then selects a number of children and places them in different parts of the room. Each child so placed asks, in turn, "Where am I?" The leader calls on some child to name the location without uncovering his eyes. This game is a good test of the children's ability to locate the source from which sound comes. (5) This game is somewhat similar to (4). The children Dramatization, Story Telling, Games, So?igs 185 close their eyes and the leader calls four or five in front of the group and asks each one to laugh, or sing, or speak, or make some other sound. With their eyes still closed, the children tell what each child did; as, "Nellie sang;" "Frank laughed;" "Charlie barked like a dog," etc. (c) Sensitive Fingers Games. These games test the delicacy of the sense of touch and also increase the power of discrimination through this sense. (i) The teacher acts as a leader; she places a number of objects of the same kind in the hands of children whose eyes are closed, then asks each child to tell how many he holds. Afterwards he verifies the number with open eyes. This game is susceptible of various modifications. Objects of different shapes can be used, and the children asked to tell the shapes from feeling them. The number can also be varied, but with children in first and second grade the number should not exceed five until they attain ability to recognize this number instantly. (2) Select a leader, who divides the children into two equal groups. The children then close their eyes, and the leader presents a child to each group. He then calls upon someone from each group to determine by the sense of touch alone what child is presented. Objects can be used in the place of children if it is so desired. (3) This game can be used with success in the third grade. The teacher should act as a leader, and she should prepare for it by selecting a number of objects of different kinds, as iron, glass, wood, etc. She should ask the chil- dren to close their eyes, and then place an object in the hands of each child, who, with eyes closed, tells of what material the object is made. A more delicate test can be made by using fabrics, such as silk, cotton, linen and wool, in place of the objects referred to above. (4) The leader asks the children to close their eyes; then she may place rapidly one or more objects upon each desk. With eyes closed, each child quickly examines and tells what object has been placed before him, saying, "I have a 186 Public School Methods sphere ; " "I have a cup ; " "I have a ball ; " "I have a tablet," etc. The children then verify their statements with open eyes. By dividing the school into two groups, and keeping tally, this game becomes a contest which is often spirited and interesting. Since it requires the closest attention on the part of the children, it should not be continued for more than seven or eight minutes. (5) The teacher, or some pupil selected, places a number of blocks of different shapes upon a table or box. These are then covered with a cloth and brought into the room. The children close their eyes, and the leader selects one child to determine the different objects on the table by feeling of them. The remaining children watch the one at work and correct any mistakes that he makes. (6) The children select a leader, who proceeds to blind- fold one of the number and place a doll in her hands, asking her to give a complete description from touch, stating the material from which the doll is made and the material of the dress, etc. With the older children quite a minute description can be obtained. This exercise can be varied by using different objects. In each case, however, the object should be large enough and complex enough to give a reason- able test. 24. Other Common Games. The original teacher may easily adapt such games as "Twirl the Platter," "Jacob and Rachel" and "Blind Man's Buff" to schoolroom uses, and the rainy recess may become a pleasure instead of a bugbear. She should encourage games such as " Fox and Chickens," "Pussy Wants a Corner," "Stoop Tag," "Cross Tag," "Hen and Chickens," etc., on the school grounds. Children playing happily have no time for mischief or gossip. 25. Books for the Teacher. Rules for Games (No. 189, Spaldings' Athletic Library, ten cent edition); Indoor and Outdoor Gymnastic Games (No. 158 Spalding's Athletic Library). One Hundred and Fifty Gymnastic Games. Boston Normal School of Gymnastics, Boston, Mass. Physical Games for Public Schools. Anton Leibold. May be obtained from the author, Columbus, Ohio. Dramatization, Story Telling, Games, Songs 187 Education by Plays and Games. George Ellsworth Johnson. Ginn & Co. Games, Seat Work and Sense Training Exercises. Holton. A. Flanagan Company. SONGS 26. Value. The song taught by imitation — the rote song — is the basis of the child's education in music. By this means the first musical sense is aroused. The child learns to hear tones and to imitate tones in melody. The songs not only arouse the musical sense, but, if properly selected and presented, they will quicken all the sensibilities and make the pupil a keener and more appreciative observer of all things. For systematic instructions in methods in music, see that subject, in Volume Two. Songs for children should be suitable in subject and senti- ment and simple in form. The songs which they love are those which appeal to their experience or to their imagina- tion and fancy. It is not enough that the subject be suit- able; the entire spirit of the poem must be childlike and must be written from the child's standpoint. 27. Classification. An exhaustive classification of songs is not possible, but in general they may be grouped as follows : (i) Nature songs, including songs of the seasons, of flowers, of birds, of wind, of rain, of snow. (2) Songs for special days, such as Christmas, Thanks- giving, Washington's Birthday, etc. (3) Songs of industries and occupations, as songs of the farmer the miner, the blacksmith, the sailor, the shoemaker. (4) Lullabies. (5) Marching songs. (6) Games and motion songs, including all songs which can be dramatized, and therefore including many of the occupation songs. (7) Nonsense jingles, to be particularly commended as cultivating a sense of humor. 28. Dramatization. When the pupils perform the actions described in the poem, we call it dramatizing. All singing 188 Public School Methods games would come under this head, and many songs not originally written for motions very naturally lend them- selves to this treatment. A revival of singing games would do much to simplify the discipline of the playground and add to the pleasure of the play hour. The dramatization of other songs, while it makes pretty exercises and is very enjoyable, is something which can easily be carried too far and thus cease to be of any value in teaching music. See Dramatization, page 163. From the music standpoint, the songs must be simple in form, not too long, and, where there is no instrument, complete without accompaniment. A rhythmical move- ment with marked accent appeals strongly to children and is of great value in cultivating a sense of rhythm. Care must be taken that the voice range is correct for children's voices. Remember there is always a danger of having chil- dren sing too low and almost no danger of asking them to sing too high. 29. How to Teach the Song. The directions for teach- ing a rote song as given in Volume Two, in the lesson on Music, are quite sufficient. Sing the song as a whole several times, then phrase by phrase, having the pupils imitate each phrase until the entire song is memorized. 30. How to Phrase the Song. In the phrasing of a song, the same rules apply as in the reading of the poem. Make the children understand what the poem means, and express this meaning as nearly as possible in their singing. If this rule is followed, there is no necessity for any other. A few of the simplest rules, however, are the following: (1) Do not breathe in the middle of a word. (2) Do not breathe between a preposition and its object. (3) Do not breathe between a verb and its complement. (4) Dwell on the vowel sounds of words rather than on the consonant, but speak the consonant distinctly. (5) Be very careful in the pronunciation of the words, and remember that the before a word beginning with a vowel Dramatization, Story Telling, Games, Songs 189 is pronounced th Games, Songs 199 IN THE SPRING End. f*-*-* -A N- 3=^ ^m t=f- It is spring, Let us sing, Gay - ly dan-cing in a ring. mm b £3 m ^m. m 4-^ -#-*■ Sb Bepeat from the beginning to the end. a g J I J. J>J J'U M J. JJ 1. The gen - tie-men bow this way, Then a-gain bow this way 2. The la -dies all bow this way, Then a-gain bow this way. 3. The lit - tic girls bow this way, Then a-gain bow this way. m I [>\\ Flrt>fj \ fT ^ =Q Directions for Play:— Have the children choose partners and form a circle. They dance in a circle while singing the first part of the song, which is also the refrain. When they sing "The gentlemen bow this way," the partners bow to each other, making trie gentlemen's bow by putting heels together and allowing the arms to drop straight in front. Then they bow in the opposite direction as they sing Then bow again this way ; then join hands and dance to the refrain. The whole is repeated for the second verse, this time bowing as the ladies do, by drawing one foot back, bending at the waist ana spreading the skirt. In the third verse they courtesy. 200 Public School Methods c. L. 3^ UNCLASSIFIED THE CLIMBER From Eleanor Smith Music Course, Book I Caroline Lahrabee 1. I'd rath - er be a mon - key spry, Than 2. But now, if sit - ting on a bough, Or 3. But if I had a long hooked tail, And fe =1: -jsi r an - y sort of thing, For then I'd climb the on the gar - den wall, There's al - ways some one hands in - stead of feet, There's no one that could high - est tree, And down from branch - es swing, who will say, "Come down or you will fall!" pull me down, Just when I'd got a seat. Lively. JACK AND JILL From Melodic First Reader J. W. Elliott. (Ait.) 1. Jack and Jill went up the hill To fetch a pail of wa - ter; 2. Up Jack got and home did trot, As fast as he could ca - per, 3. Jill came in and she did grin, To see his pa - per plas - ter; _, , , f" * „ . ^L«- & ^EEg £3 — UfL 1 $£ Jack fell down, and broke his crown, And Jill came tumbling aft - er. Went to bed to mend his head, With vin-e-gar and brown pa - per. Moth-er, vexed, did whip her next, For caus-ing Jack's dis - as - ter. S3 . \ ~ w Dramatization, Story Telling, Games, Songs 201 THE GINGER CAT From Melodic First Reader Mildred Travers Anderson With humor and precision. *" Daniel Protheroe m se; si - *=*=» Q 1. I had the fin - est lit - tie cat, All 2. He was the fin - est kit - ty round, And 3. A small gray mouse passed by the shelf, And ^^ ^^^^^P^ ^^N pS=*=lZ*= II =*=!=* £ made of cake and nice and fat; With frost - ed ears, and had been baked and nice - ly browned, I placed him on a saw poor kit - ty by him - self. Wee mouse left three small SEE^ m 1=3 1= m slower. £=p 3 i£ :_=]. sug - ar toes, Two cur-rant eyes and a gin - ger nose, shelf one day, And then, a - las, went off to play, crumbs be-hind— 'Twas all of kit - ty I could find. £ rit. ' - - - I - -, - - i m mk^m 202 Public School Methods 33. List of Books. Melodic First Reader: Ripley and Tapper. American Book Company. Eleanor Smith Music Course, Book I. Eleanor Smith. American Book Company. Rote Song Book. Ripley and Tapper. American Book Co. Modem Music Primer. Eleanor Smith. Silver, Burdette & Co. Lilts and Lyrics. Jessie L. Gaynor. Clayton F. Summy Co. , Chicago . Songs and Scissors. Jessie L. Gaynor. Clayton F. Summy Co., Chicago. Songs of the Child World, Books I and II. Jessie L. Gaynor. John Church Company, Chicago. Songs and Shadow Pictures. Jessie L. Gaynor. John Church Company, Chicago. Fifty Children's Songs. Carl Reinecke. Clayton F. Summy Co., Chicago. Song Stories for Kindergarten. Mildred J. and Patty Hill. Clayton F. Summy Co., Chicago. Songs of Nature and Life. Mildred J. and Patty Hill. Clayton F. Summy Co., Chicago. Songs and Games for Little Ones. Walker and Jenks. Oliver Ditson & Co., Boston. Cotton Dolly and Other Songs. Daniel Prothero. Clayton F. Summy Co., Chicago. Silver Song Series No. I, for first or second grade, Frederic A. Lyman; No. II, for second or third grade, Fannie Arnold and Mar- cella Reilly; No. Ill, for third or fourth grade, Samuel W. Cole. Silver, Burdett & Company, Chicago. TEST QUESTIONS i. Distinguish between dramatic instinct and dramatic talent. Why is it unwise to attempt to develop dramatic talent in young children? 2. Show why dramatization should be continued through the third grade. Name at least three selections which can be used for this purpose, and give reasons for your choice. 3. Describe your method of using stories. Which class of stories named in Section 8 do you find most acceptable? Why? 4. Show the relation of story-telling to discipline. How can this relation be made the most effective? Dramatization, Story Telling, Games, Songs 203 5. Show how the use of the story aids the pupils in gain- ing power of expression. What branches besides language are aided by the use of stories? 6. Name three reasons why games should be used in school. Name at least two dangers to be avoided in the use of games, and show how you would avoid them. 7. Should the teacher take part in games on the play- ground? Give reasons for your answer. 8. Show how story-telling, games and songs develop the power of attention in pupils. Which do you consider the best for this purpose? Why? 9. How do songs and games assist in dramatization? Illustrate. ic. Show how games can be used to strengthen discipline. What sort of games are most desirable for this purpose? CHAPTER SEVEN FIRST YEAR NUMBER WORK 1. Introduction. In the discussion of number work here given, our aim is not so much to lay down hard and fast rules for the teaching of this subject or to outline defi- nitely a course of study as to present the psychological aspect of the subject, to show the best methods of teaching numbers and to suggest various devices tor the aid of the teacher. The devices used are so many and so varied that a teacher must exercise her own common sense in adapting them. If thoroughly familiar with the psychology of number, she will find no difficulty in discriminating between good and poor devices. It is well to remember that "methods," accepted in the true sense of the word, have little value to the practical teacher. One of the easiest things in the teaching of arith- metic is the creation of "method," but a little experience proves that there is no one method that will lead to easy victory in the teaching of number. The wise teacher acquaints herself with the most successful methods employed by the most successful teachers, accepts the great underlying principles, and adapts the work to suit the needs of her pupils. 2. Value of Number Work. In general, we may say that the value of number work may be considered from two standpoints; first, from the standpoint of its value as a subject of practical usefulness, and second, from the stand- point of its culture value. In regard to the first, little need be said, for the value is too evident to need much discus- sion. In many phases of our e very-day life we realize the necessity of a knowledge of arithmetic. We use it in buying and selling, in building our houses, in surveying our land, and, in short, in nearly everything we do. In regard to the second, we have only to consider the mental discipline that 204 First Year Number Work 205 results from the study of number work. Consider for a moment what every operation in number work involves. In the first place, attention is demanded; for without atten- tion no clear, systematic work can be done. Furthermore, perception, memory, and clear, accurate reasoning and judg- ment are demanded. Arithmetic is, clearly, then, both a utility subject and a culture subject. 3. Origin of the Number Concept. Before we can con- sider the best ways of teaching numbers, we must thoroughly understand where we get this idea of number, that is, how the number concept originates. A child does not come into the world with the idea of number in his mind. The world he sees is a vague, undefined mass, and he does not know that the objects he sees are six or eight or two or three. As he grows older, the word six or two conveys no meaning to his mind, neither does showing him four objects and telling him they are four convey to him any real idea of the number four. He still sees merely the group. It is well, then, to remember that number is not a property of objects to be grasped by seeing or feeling the objects. It is nothing concrete that can be picked up and looked at, but it is an abstract idea that demands some mental activity before it can be truly grasped. If you have ever observed little children playing about their home, you will have noticed their instinctive tendency to count; not by the names of the numbers, but counting, nevertheless. They pick out all of their square blocks and build houses; they separate nuts from candy; they count the chairs; they count their dolls; they are constantly count- ing by discriminating between objects of different shape or size or color. A little boy that we knew had a habit of ci ing about the room, touching each tack in the carpet as he passed and saying, "One— three," "One— three," over and over. The number meant little or nothing to him, but the counting idea was in his mind. He knew thai all of those tacks constituted a group of objects. He had the idea of the whole. Furthermore, he recognized each tack 206 Public School Methods as a separate, individual thing; and, lastly he realized that each tack belonged to the whole, that it was a part of the group. In every act of counting, three processes are involved. A child first sees all of the objects as one vague whole — a unity. Later, he notices the separate objects that make up this group. Finally, he puts the separate objects together and once more makes up the whole. To these three processes, or mental activities, psychologists have given names. The first they call synthesis, from two Greek words meaning to put together. It must be understood that this synthesis is very vague and not a conscious process. It is simply recog- nition of a lot of things as one vague mass. The next step is called analysis — the taking apart, the separating of a whole into its parts. The third is synthesis again — or the final putting together of the parts belonging to the whole. It must not be thought that a child does this by any conscious effort on his part. It is instinctive with him, and there- fore gives a true psychological basis for a method of number work. We have seen the processes involved in getting the number idea, but it may not be clear to all why these processes arise. It is universally conceded that the idea of number arises from the mind's activity in measuring quantity. To illus- trate, a child stretches out his hands for the moon and cries because he cannot get it. He has no idea of distance, in short, no idea of quantity, for the nearness and farness of objects are quantitative ideas. As a child grows older, he begins to discriminate. He does not reach for something on the other side of the room, because he knows he cannot get it. He has measured the distance. A little child in making mud pies picks out small stones for cherries or raisins. He discriminates between stones of different size and shape and chooses the number he wishes. Here again, the idea of measure comes into play, for he is measuring his means to fit the end. As the child grows older, he becomes First Year Number Work 207 more and more discriminating. He learns to choose just the amount, just the size, just the color, just the softness or the hardness he wishes. He has a definite aim in view, and he measures or chooses his materials and plans accord- ingly. It is exactly this nice adjustment of means to an end that gives rise to number. We measure a thing, at first, vaguely, indefinitely. Later, we learn that vague measurements mean loss of time and energy, for what we have done is not right and has to be done over again; conse- quently, we learn to be exact, to search for exact measure- ments. Here we turn to numbers for aid, for through them we attain accuracy. In this process of measuring, of getting quantitative ideas, what mental processes have been involved but the same ones of analysis and synthesis? The child in picking out his cherries for his mud pies, studies the separate pebbles. He separates all the pebbles he sees into pebbles of different size or shape; that is, he analyzes. Furthermore, he puts together all the pebbles of one kind and calls them cherries. He constructs again the group, the whole, the unity. In other words, he synthesizes. We have seen now what mental activities are involved in the origin of the number idea and how the number idea itself arises from the mind's activity in measuring quantity. As we become more and more familiar with number and its meaning, we realize that the idea of number arises from this quantitative measuring. What would our idea of a lot fifty by a hundred feet be if we had no idea of a foot or some such unit by which mentally we could measure the lot? What should we know of the value of a thousand dollars if we knew nothing of the value of the unit of measure, one dollar? We are constantly measuring in just this way — estimating the worth of a whole by referring it to some known unit of measure. From this fact, we get a certain foundation for our methods in number work. 208 Public School Methods 4. Methods in Vogue. Two methods of teaching are in vogue in most schools, a method which deals with figures and symbols alone and a method which deals with objects alone. Often the two are combined. Let us examine these two methods in turn. The first, which is rapidly going out of use, deals with number symbols alone and consists in requiring the performance of various operations by means of figures. Addition, subtraction and the other arithmetical operations are carried on in a mechanical way without regard to what figures or processes signify. In the second method, objects are used, and it is taken for granted that the concept of number will arise from merely observing or handling the objects, whereas it only arises from the mind's activity in adapting certain things to a certain end in view. There must be constructive activity before the number idea is grasped. In the psychological method, which is the true method, account is taken of this constructive activity of the child, this measuring, this suiting of the means to the end that brings one to the need of exact ideas of quantity — in other words, to the need of number. Accordingly, we must base our method of procedure upon it. We must not thrust unmeaning numbers upon the child, but rather lead him to feel the need of them. Let him feel the relation which numbers bear to objects and he will, in time, unconsciously grasp the abstract idea of number, if we wisely direct his natural, instinctive activity of measuring. 5. Ground Usually Covered During the First Year. Most children upon entering school have some idea of number. Many of them can count; nearly all can count to five, at least. During their first year their number work consists mainly of measuring. In some schools no definite period is given to number work during the first year, but the work is done incidentally in connection with other studies. In the majority of schools, however, the child by the end of the first year is expected to be able to combine and separate numbers to ten or twelve; to comprehend the fractions £, First Year Number Work 209 £ and \; to have a knowledge of such forms as squares, oblongs, prisms, triangles, cylinders and circles. In some schools he is supposed to be able to read and write numbers to one hundred. Upon the whole, this does not seem too much to expect of a bright child. 6. Plan. Teachers — inexperienced ones, especially — are often at a loss to know how to start children in number work. It is always necessary to find out at the beginning how much the pupil knows. This can easily be done in connection with other work. For instance, ask one little beginner to count the children in his class to see how many pencils will have to be distributed. If he can count only to three ask some one else to go on. Ask another to get you two pieces of crayon from the box on the shelf; another to pass three pairs of scissors. In this way without the children's being conscious of the fact, the teacher can find out just how much each child knows and can plan her work accordingly. Counting. Much of the work in counting can be carried on incidentally in connection with the work in reading, spelling, language, etc., and used as a device to secure and hold the child's interest and attention. The teacher wishes to send a beginning class to the black- board to write words. To gain attention she may say, " One little boy pass to the front board. Two girls pass to the side board. Three boys and one girl to the back board." Then ask quickly, "How many at the front board? How many girls standing? How many boys at the back board?' Children are very fond of this kind of work, and one or two minutes of the recitation period can be very profitably spent impressing the idea of number. For the first few lessons, it would be well not to intro- duce numbers at all. Let the lessons consist of measure- ments and let the results be expressed indefinitely, that is, expressed without the use of numbers. 7. Illustrative Lessons, (a) Lesson in Measurement. Purpose; To familiarize the class with the measurement 210 Public School Methods expressed by the words taller, shorter, longer, larger, smaller, wider, more, less, etc. Material. A table, oblongs of different sizes, and cubes, with possibly a few triangles or spheres for ornamentation. If the teacher cannot get the blocks, she can easily make substitutes from paper. The older children can very well make them for her in their construction work, but only perfect ones should be used. Method. The teacher may introduce the lesson by say- ing, " How many of you have ever seen men building fences? " (Many say they have.) " How many have seen men build fences of stone?" (A few.) "Well, this morning we are going to build a stone fence here on this table, which we shall call a yard. Our fence is to be just this long (showing a twelve-inch ruler) and we shall use these blocks for stones. John, what kind of stones do you think it will be best to use first?" "The heaviest ones." "Which ones do you think would be apt to be the heaviest?" "The largest ones." "Dorothy, pick out the largest ones." (The largest are two-inch oblongs.) "Class, has she picked out the right ones?" If she has not, the blocks must be measured and the smaller ones discarded. "Frank, you may lay the first stone." Frank places it. "Willie, find another just as large as Frank's and put it in its place." Several stones are laid, possibly seven or eight. " How long were we going to have our fence ? ' ' "As long as this ruler." "Is it as long?" They measure. "It is longer." They remove as many blocks as necessary. First Year Number Work 211 " Now, we want our yard as wide as this." (Show stick or strip of paper ten inches long.) The fence is laid accordingly until it is complete, the children measuring to get it exact. Room is left for a gate. The children also measure to see how much longer than wide the fence is, giving the answer, "So much longer," or, "One block longer." " Now let us choose smaller stones for our next row." The stones are selected. " Do you suppose we shall need more or less than in our first row?" If the children say less, or seem to be merely guessing, the teacher says, "We shall see when we get through," being sure to do so afterwards. The second row is laid. "Let us make our top row of the smallest stones of all." The children choose the smallest stones. "Shall we need more or less stones than we did for our second row?" "More." "Let us make our gate as pretty as we can. We will make the posts taller than the fence." The gate is made. "How much taller are the posts than the fence? The children measure and express the result indefinitely; as, "So much," or, "This block and this block taller." The children ornament the posts, and possibly the fence, with the odd-shaped blocks. During the making of the gateway, the question of width can be brought in, making the children familiar with the terms wider and narrower. "Let us make a fence around another yard, longer and wider than our first." The fence is readily constructed, the first being left for comparison. During the course of the lesson the teacher can tell the class that the largest blocks are called oblongs. The cube also may be called by name. Later, prisms, triangles, spheres, etc., may be introduced and the names 212 Public School Methods given. The knowledge of form may be taught in construc- tion work and drawing, as well. During the construction of the fence it is more than probable that some child will count the blocks. This is very good, but no special stress need be laid upon the fact, as the lesson is simply to measure and compare. These same measurements may be carried on in various ways. Children may measure each other or objects in the room, and also the number of windows or pictures. There are more windows than doors. How many more does not matter just at present. The children will soon feel the need of number, for they will want to know just how much taller John is than Sue, how many more marbles Harry has than Will, how much longer Ruth's fence is than Tom's. They will want a shorter and better way in which to say that Ruth's fence is one block and one block and this much longer than Tom's. When they feel this need, then they are ready to deal with number. (b) Devices for Counting. (i) Teaching the Names of Numbers. To impress further the need of number names, devices somewhat as follows may be used: Let the chil- dren construct a soldier's tent of two toothpicks. Tell them to put a floor in it. They cannot until they have another toothpick. When asked how many they need for a tent with a floor, they say one and one and one, or two and one. The teacher then can give the number three as a better and easier way of saying one and one and one, or two and one. In the same way jour and five may be introduced, the teacher being sure to make clear that five is really one and one and one and one and one, or two and three, or three and two, or two and two and one. (2) Counting by Groups. Not only must the children count by ones, but they must also count by twos and threes, etc. How many groups of two sticks have they? How many groups of three boys in the room? How many twos in the group of soldiers on the board? Let them count the same quantity by different groups. For instance, if they First Year Number Work 213 have twelve colored discs, let them find the twos in twelve, the threes, the fours and the sixes. Such exercises are interesting to children, and the knowl- edge secured in this way is more than one would at first suppose. To count by 2's from 2 to 10 and from 1 to 11 has the pleasure of any rhythmic sequence and at the same time gives the addition tables of 2's; the counting by 2's from 2 to 20 gives the corresponding multiplication tables. Similarly, counting by 3's from 3 to 30 gives the multi- plication table of 3's, while the counting from 1 and 2 to 13 and 14 gives the different addition combinations. In counting exercises have much concert work. In this it is well to have a member of the class lead, whose busi- ness it is to place a time limit, and to correct mistakes. If the class is counting by 2's, and someone says, 2, 4, 6, 9, the counting should cease and the leader say, "There is no 9 in the table of 2's." Carry every counting to ten times the number with which you started. (3) Number Pictures. In connection with this counting work, the results may be represented on the blackboard by means of dots or circles; as, r,- 0.00. 00. 0^0. 000. 0000.0000. ooo n o. o n o o n o u > O' O > OO' O u O' 000> OOO » OOOO' ooo u o> o u o o u o These results may be represented on cardboard, using colored paper discs. A great deal of rapid work may be done with them. For instance, the teacher shows the card, covers it quickly and asks how many oranges or apples, or whatever the discs represent, were seen. She covers one and asks for the number left. She covers two or three and asks, "How many are left?" "How many were on the card?" " How many are covered?" "We saw five and covered one. Five less one are how many?" The ques- tions may be varied endlessly. When giving the child the idea of a number, as five, for instance, he should, as far as possible, become acquainted with §°8> the number of objects; five, the word; and 214 Public School Methods 5, the figure. These three symbols should always be con- nected. (c) Correlation of Number and Language. It must be remembered that no extreme of method should be adopted by any teacher. To measure everything in sight, to base all arithmetic on sticks or blocks or paper figures, to get into any narrow rut whatever, is to fall short of the best teaching and to narrow the horizon of the children in our care. The work in language and arithmetic may be combined, when the aim is to familiarize the class with measurement expressed by the terms larger, smallest, heaviest, etc. Material. Procure balls of various sizes, boxes, crayons of different lengths, or make use of any like available material. Method. The teacher may introduce the language lesson with a talk concerning size, shape, color, etc., of material at hand. She can then ask questions which call for the use of the terms largest, heaviest, smallest, etc. For instance, she may ask, "Who wants the largest ball?" "To whom did I give the smallest ball?" "John, hand the smallest ball to the tallest girl in the class." "To whom did you give the smallest ball?" At first the child will want to answer your question in a single word, and when the question, "Who wants the largest ball?" is asked, he will probably say, "Me." Tell the child how you wish to have the question answered; the ability to answer in a complete sentence is a matter of habit, and after a few suggestions he will express his thought in complete sentences. An exercise to teach correct use of / when used in con- nection with the verb is, and at the same time familiarize the class with the measurement expressed by the terms heavier, heaviest, etc., is given below: The teacher may hand the heaviest ball to Mary and tell her to roll it on the floor. Then she may ask, "Who rolled the heaviest ball on the floor?" The child is expected to answer, "It was I who rolled the heaviest ball on the floor." First Year Number Work 215 (d) Lessons to Cultivate Ability to Judge Measure- ments. Material. Pint, quart and gallon measures, with pails of various sizes. Method. The teacher begins by asking the children how many of them have ever gone to the store to buy vinegar or molasses or oil, in response to which many answer that they have done so. Then the teacher may say: "How much did you ask for?" Perhaps the children may answer "a jugful," or "ten cents' worth," or "a pint," "quart," etc. The teacher may continue the conversation somewhat as follows: "What did the storekeeper do then?" (Various answers.) "Well, how does he know how much to put in? If you ask for a pint, how does he know when he has given you a pint?" "He measures it." "I have a measure here that the storekeeper uses in order to give us just the quantity we want. Does any one know how much it holds?" "Well, it holds one pint." "Now, this morning we are going to buy and sell vinegar and molasses. Can any one think of anything else we measure by the pint, so that we can sell that, too?" (Oil, milk, syrup, etc.) "Very well, we shall buy and sell all of these." " Frank, I should like to get a pint of oil from you this morning. Here is my can to put it in." (Frank measures out a pint of water.) "But I do not like that kind of a pint. The measure was not full and then you spilled some." (The children thus learn to be careful.) "Mary, sell Tom two pints." "Sue, sell Henry half a pint." "Sell Will three pints, Ruth." "Now, here is a larger measure that the storekeeper often uses (showing a quart cup). Does any one know how much this holds?" (Possibly some one knows the name quart. If not, it is told.) "Which is the larger, the quart measure or the pint measure?" "The quart measure." 216 Public School Methods "Which one will hold the more, therj?" "The quart measure." " Is there any way we can find out how much more it holds?" "Measure and see." "How are you going to do it?" "Fill the pint cup and pour the water in the quart cup and see how many pints it holds." This is done, the children discovering that the pint cup has to be filled twice. "How many pints did you say the quart cup holds?" "It holds two." "How many quarts?" "One." "Then how many pints in one quart?" "Two." "Tell me in a complete sentence." "There are two pints in one quart." "I should like to buy one-half of a quart of vinegar. Who can sell it to me?" It is measured out. "Find out how many pints that is." A child measures. " I want some one to tell me in a complete sentence what we have just found out." "A half of a quart is one pint." "How many pints in a whole quart?" "Two." "How many quarts in two pints?" This may necessitate measuring again before the children discover that they already knew it. " Now, here is another measure (showing a two or three quart pail). I want you to think a moment and then tell me how many quarts you think it holds. You may each whisper the number to me and then we shall find out who is the nearest right." The children think and whisper the answer. First Year Number Work 217 "Well, some say two, some three and some four. What shall we do?" "Measure." "Mary, you may measure." Mary measures, the children keeping count. Pails of various sizes are used, the children each time estimating the amount the pail holds and then proving their estimates. In this way they rapidly learn to judge quantity. Problems like the following may be introduced: (i) "Mary, take one pint of vinegar." "Bessie, give her one more." "Class, how many pints has she now?" (Two.) "How many quarts?" (One.) (2) "Tom, sell Sue a quart of milk." "Robert, sell her a pint." "How much milk has she now?" "A quart and a pint." "How many pints is that?" "Three pints." "How many quarts is it?" " It is a quart and one-half." (3) "If Sue has three pints of vinegar and buys two more, how many pints will she have ? " " How many quarts ? " Various examples may be given, the actual measurements being taken whenever a child does not know the answer. The lessons should proceed until the children know that two pints make one quart, four quarts make one gallon, and can rapidly think gallons into quarts or pints, and vice versa. They should know also that eight pints make one gallon; four pints, two quarts; two quarts, one-hall gallon, etc. Dry measure may be taught in the same way. Caution. Take plenty of time with this work. Do not do the thinking for the children, but throw them back on their own resources and make them find the answers for themselves. Too much emphasis cannot be laid upon the fact that the actual measurements must be made until they are no longer necessary. In all cases insist upon exact measurements. 218 Public School Methods (e) Lesson to Secure Rapidity and Accuracy in the Combination and Separation of Small Numbers. Material. Cents, five-cent pieces, materials for a store, which may be a grocery, dry goods store, art store or any other. When it is practicable, it is well to have small quan- tities of the actual materials. Money made from cardboard will do very nicely for this work. Cut circles from card- board and mark them to represent different denominations. Paper money can also be secured from any kindergarten supply house. Methods. The teacher begins by asking if any one knows why we have to pay for the things we buy at the stores. This will lead to quite a discussion, bringing out the fact that the articles were produced by hard labor, that the money to buy them was produced likewise, and consequently the seller wants to get what his goods are worth and the buyer wants to get the worth of his money. This will give a reason for being exact in making change. Then the teacher may say, "We are going to play store this morning and Joe may be storekeeper. If he makes a mistake in giving change, some one else may be storekeeper. Before we begin let us talk for a moment about the money I have (shows pennies) . You all know what these are called, but I wonder how many know what this is (showing a nickel)." Nearly all do. "Can any one tell me how many cents it equals?" Some one will probably know, but if not, the teacher tells. "Now I need some pencils this morning. I want two and they cost a cent apiece. John, take this money and buy them for me. Before you go, tell us how much money you have." He has four cents. "While John is buying the pencils, let us be thinking about how much he will have to pay, so that we can tell if he brings back the right amount." John buys the pencils and returns with the money he did not use. The children are asked whether or not the First Year Number Work 219 amount is correct. Several are sent with various amounts and buy various articles, the class always examining the change. Some one is given a nickel and sent to buy a three- cent ball. If he accepts the wrong change, he is told to go back, take as many cents as the nickel is worth, and try again. Then he is sent once more with the nickel. To prevent the storekeeper's having to do all of the thinking in making change, the child buying is often asked to tell how much change he will get. When the children can make change rapidly and easily, simple problems are given and solved without the use of the money. This is done rapidly, but if a child makes a mistake, he must take the money and buy the articles. The problems may be like the following: (i) John had four cents and spent two. How many did he have left? (2) If one pencil costs five cents and a ball three, how much will they cost together? (3) If Sue had a nickel, and her mother gave her two cents, how many cents did she have? As soon as the children are ready for it, two nickels may be introduced, the fact that they equal ten cents being firmly fixed by actual counting. Problems involving the addition and subtraction of numbers from one to ten may be performed. Quarters and half-dollars may be used later, though the pupils below the third grade cannot and should not be expected to master the addition and subtraction facts involved. They may use numbers to twelve, or even fifteen, and may learn to count by twos, fives and tens, but do not expect them to know that nineteen and six are twenty-five or twenty-five less eleven are fourteen. Caution. Remember that rapidity and accuracy are to be sought as the basis of future work. Use objects until the number facts are clearly seen, then give rapid drills. Teach the children to make change as the business men of today make it, always naming the amount purchased, then adding the required amount of change. 220 Public School Methods (f) The Use of Charts. A teacher who is skilful in the use of chalk can secure excellent results in teaching easy number facts by simply stepping to the board and with a few strokes illustrating the number stories. For one who has not this skill, charts will prove of assistance. They may be made with but little time and expense, and require little skill in their making. (See Volume Two, page 313.) The purpose of the chart on page 221 is to teach the number facts connected with seven. Stories may be told concerning each picture. At first the teacher may tell them, but later on, as the children grasp the idea, they will take great pleasure in telling the stories themselves. The follow- ing will serve as suggestions for these stories: By way of introduction the teacher may say, "One morning, happening to look out of the window, I saw some little birds in the yard. There were this number of birds (pointing to the first picture). How many were there, Belle? " "Seven." "As I watched them, four went over in the corner of the yard and found some wheat (pointing to the second picture). How 'many were left? In a few minutes they came back and then five went over to the other corner of the yard and seemed to be talking together. How many were new left?" The story may continue in this way, using all of the pictures so as to bring in the number facts. The story may be a continuous one, bringing in all of the pictures, or separate stories may be told for each picture, care being taken not to let the number aim of the lessen be lost sight of in the story telling. Each picture represents an addition fact and a subtraction fact. When the children have grasped these facts, the. drill work as illustrated by the problems below should follow. These charts with their little problems furnish good seat work when the children have learned to make numbers. Number cards, which can be purchased of any kinder- garten supply house are very good for children to use in 222 Public School Methods telling number stories. At first it is desirable to have the children simply copy the number stories from the black- board. In this way the correct form and answers are being constantly impressed upon the child s mind. Later, he may copy the examples and place the correct answers for himself. The number cards may also be used for counting by 2's, 3's, 4's, etc. The children will also enjoy making little picture charts of their own to illustrate number facts. In place of birds, they can draw balls or haystacks or trees, or any objects that can be made with a few simple lines. By the end of the first year the children should know well the simpler combinations, such as 4 + 4, 3+2, 2+2, etc., and their corresponding subtraction tables. For drill on this work use cards made of tag board, cut in a convenient size to hold in the hand. Print the numbers large enough to be seen across the room, and do not indicate on the card whether the numbers are to be multiplied, subtracted or added. If you wish to have a drill in addition, tell the chil- dren they are to add the numbers, etc. The form of the card should be somewhat like the form shown below. (g) Lesson in Written "Work. In introducing this lesson, the teacher may say: "We have been playing store quite a long time and have been learning to make change. This morning we are going to find out how to write some of the things that we have learned. Who can show me on the board how many balls I have (holding up one)?" Doubtless some child can. Then the teacher may continue the conversation : "You may all show me." They all write 1. "Can any show me how many I have now?" (Holds up two.) No one can do so. "Very well, I will show you. The teacher writes the figure 2, leaves it a moment, erases and asks the children to write it. It may be necessary for her to write and erase several times before the children can make the figure. First Year Number Work 223 "John bought a pencil for one cent and an apple for one cent. Show me on the board how many cents he spent." "Mary had two cents and spent one. Tell me on the board how many cents she had left." In this same way, the figures to ten are taught. In later lessons the signs plus and minus are introduced. Many lessons need to be given during the year whose aim is to teach the children to write neatly and correctly such numbers as they are called upon to use daily. The 2, 5, 6, 8 and 9 need especial attention and drill. When a child has great difficulty in making a number, take his hand and help him to make it. (h) Lesson on Halves, Thirds and Fourths. Material. It is of little importance what material is used to make the work in fractions concrete, sticks, paper folding, clay cubes or any material on hand will suffice for the purpose. The teacher may use strips of paper twelve inches long. Give two strips of paper to each child. Method. In presenting the work in fractions it is well to remember that a fraction, as J, is used in three distinct ways. These ways are as follows: (1) £ of a single thing, the most natural idea of all — the breaking of a thing into 8 parts; (2) J as large, as where a i-inch block is \ as long as an 8-inch block; (3) J of a group, as in the case of \ of 16 children. A variety of problems should be given the children, so that little by little all three notions become familiar to them. To open the lesson the teacher may tell the children that they will do some measuring with their paper rulers. She tells each one to take the strip of paper and fold it exactly in the center. This is done. Then the teacher continues: "Into how many equal parts have you divided it?" "Two." "One of these parts is one out of how many parts?" "One part is one out of two." "This is how we express one out of two: J" (writes it 224 Public School Methods on the board). "We call it one-half." "Show me § of your ruler." "Show me f." "■§ is what part of the ruler?" " Now take these toothpicks and divide them into two equal parts." (Gives each child four toothpicks.) "Show me J." "Show me f." "One of these parts is one out of how many?" " You may now take your other ruler and fold it into three parts." This is done. "One part out of these is one out of how many?" "It is one out of three." "If we express one out of two thus (writing £), who can show me how to express one out of three?" If no one can tell, the teacher writes it. "We call it one-third. Each part is ^ of the whole." "Show me $ of your ruler." "Show me another §." "An- other." "| and ^ are how many thirds?" "Two-thirds." "Show me § of your ruler." "Show me |," "What part of the ruler is f of it?" "If we express one out of three parts thus (writing ^), how can we express two out of three parts? By putting 2 in place of 1." One-fourth may be taught in the same way, and the fact that I are the same as h brought out. Finally, develop the fact that f = f = £ (i) Lesson in Multiplication. Material. Toothpicks, blocks, paper discs. Each child has six toothpicks with which to begin. Method. The teacher begins by asking the children to count the toothpicks they have, to which they respond by saying: "1. 2, 3. 4, 5. 6." "Count them by twos." 2, 4, 6. "How many groups of twos have you?" "We have three." "Then three twos are how many?" First Year Number Work 225 "Three twos are six." "How many times must we take two to make six?" "Three times two are how many?" "Three times two are six." "Put your toothpicks together again." "Now put them into groups of three each." "How many groups of three have you?" "Two." "How many times must you take a group of three to make six?" "Two times." "Then two times three are how many?" "Six." "Three twos are how many?" "Six." "Two threes?" "Six." "Take these orange-colored discs and count them." (The teacher gives each child eight.) "How many have you?" "Eight." "Divide them into groups of four. How many groups have you?" "Two." "Tell me how many times we find a group of four in eight." "Two times." "Then two times four are how many?" The children may have to count and see. " Now separate your eight into groups of twos. How many twos have you?" "Four." "Four twos are how many?" "Eight." "Four times two are how many?" "Eight." "Two times four are how many?" "Eight." "Two times two are how many?" "Four." 226 Public School Methods "Three times two are how many?" "Six." "You may write that at the board." The children write 3 times 2 are 6. If they have not had the word times, the teacher will have to show how to write it. Later, the teacher may tell the class that there is a shorter way of writing times and show them the sign X. The sign ■= may be substituted for are. " Now we are going to make what we call a multiplica- tion table. I shall begin it for you." Writes: 2X2 = 3X2 = 4X2 = "John, you may tell us what this one equals." (Points to the first.) She writes the answer when John says "four." The other answers are given and written. " I should like to have you all learn this little table now, and then when we want to know how many four times two are we shall not have to stop and add by twos, but we will think of our table and know at once." The perception cards recommended for work in addition and subtraction may be used to great advantage in drill- ing on multiplication tables. Even in the first grade, and still more in the succeeding years, a time limit should be set on all drill work. Within reasonable limits it has been observed that rapid calcula- tion contains fewer errors than very slow work. For this reason an effort should be made on the part of the teacher to encourage rapid work by the children. Caution. While multiplication has its beginning in addition, it is not like addition, even when the addition of equal numbers is considered. In addition, the whole (sum) is obtained by building on parts. In other words, the whole is an aggregate of parts that have been put together one by one; as, 9, 6 and 5 are 20; or, 19 and 1 are 20. In multi- plication, however, the mind, by the powers of imagination and reason, passes directly from the consideration ol a First Year Number Work 227 certain number of given units to the whole (product) formed by these units. By the process of addition, 6 is 2 more than 4. By multiplication, 6 is 3 times 2. Multiplication includes the factor, or times idea, and psychologically is a long step in advance of addition. In addition, the child considers the whole and the part added to it, as the 4 and 2 in 6. In multiplication, he considers the relation of the three 2's to this whole. (j) Lesson on the Use of the Ruler. As early in the year as it is practical, it is well to spend a few lessons on the use of the ruler. The teacher must explain the inch to the child and let him count the number of inches in his ruler. Let him measure his books, his pencils and other objects. Let him also construct a paper ruler of his own. When he has become thoroughly familiar with the inch as a unit of measure, show him the half and quarter inches and let him measure objects and construct another ruler showing halves and quarters. When using the inch as a unit of measure, explain to the children that we call it a unit of measure. The use of the term may be made familiar to them in this way: "We measured this book to find out the number of inches in it. We said that one inch was the unit of measure. Suppose we measure the desk to find out how many feet there are in it. What is the unit of measure? " "What units of measure does a storekeeper use in measur- ing vinegar? " " In weighing butter? " " In selling potatoes?" "How many hours in a day?" "What unit of measure- ment is used?" (k) Lesson in Counting by Tens. Material. Tooth- picks and rubber bands. Method. "We are going to learn to count by tens this morning. What shall we let our toothpicks represent?" "Sticks of candy." "Very well, you may count your sticks of candy." "There are twenty." "Count out ten and put a rubber band around them." 228 Public School Methods 1. i- ONES % A \ A A \ ** \ \ \ IP ZERO 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 1 II 21 31 41 51 61 71 81 91 1 12 22 32 42 52 62 72 82 92 3 13 4 14 5 15 6 16 7 17 8 18 9 19 "Who can tell us at the board how many sticks in the bundle?" A child writes 10. "Count out another ten and put a band around them." "How many tens have you now?" First Year Number Work 229 "Two tens." "If we write one ten thus (pointing to the board), how shall we write two tens?" A child writes it. " In two bundles of tens how many sticks of candy are there?" "Twenty." Thus by counting and placing in bundles of ten, the other tens are taught. In the first lesson the children can probably reach forty. The teacher should see that every child realizes by actual counting that four tens are forty. After the tens are learned they may serve as the basis for a number chart such as is shown on the opposite page. Have the children fill in all the blanks. Let them read across the page and down the page. After they have become familiar with the name units and are familiar with tens, say to them, " In eleven there are eleven units, or one ten and one unit. In twenty-two there are twenty-two units, or two tens and two units. In thirteen, how many units? How many tens and units? In fourteen? How many tens and units in these numbers?" (Write 39, 36, ^3.) Let the children then read across the page, thus: 12, one ten, two units; 22, two tens and two units; 32, three tens and two units; 42, four tens and two units, etc. Symbols. Teachers need to be impressed with the idea that children should visualize symbols that they will need in practical calculation. It is better to drill on 5 10 5 +5 -5 X2 10 5 10 than upon 5+5 =10, 10-5 =5, 5 X2 =10, since the latter are never used in calculation. It is well to acquaint the children with the horizontal arrangement, but the perpen- dicular arrangement is the one which should appear most often before the eye. Caution In all of the number work as outlined in the 230 Public School Methods preceding illustrative lessons, the teacher must bear in mind that every direction which she gives must be ex?ct; otherwise, the children will be confused and little good will be obtained from the exercises. 8. Correlation of Number Work with Other Studies. In teaching primary number, a great deal can be done in connection with other studies. Number work may be correlated with nature study, reading, drawing and con- struction work, games, music, and, to some extent, with every other subject. To illustrate, in construction work, accurate measurements must be used, in science, measure- ments to show the growth of buds and twigs are taken; flower charts and bird charts are made, necessitating measur- ing and numbering; the children learn to read the ther- mometer and tell time; in reading, Roman numerals in connection with the lesson are learned, and the children learn to tell the number of the page. A thoughtful teacher soon becomes skilful in correlating number work with other subjects. 9. Aids, (a) Books for Teachers. Of the many books on number work to be recommended for the teacher's use, the following are among the best: Rational Elementary Arithmetic. Belfield & Brooks. Scott, Foresman & Co., Chicago. Werner Arithmetics. F. H. Hall. Books I, II and III. Teacher's Handbook. Arithmetic Primer. American Book Co. Primary Public School Arithmetic. Teacher's Edition. McLellan & Ames. Macmillan Company. Public School A rithmetic for Grammar Grades. Macmillan Company. A Primary Arithmetic. Foi Teachers. William W. Speer. Ginn & Co. (b) Number Games. In the history of the world, more people have learned elementary number through number games than in the public school. While it would be easy to go to a dangerous extreme in this matter, the play element ought to be utilized to a great extent in teaching arithmetic to primary grades. A brief bibliography of games available for number work is as follows: First Year Number Work 231 Education by Play and Games. George Ellsworth Johnson. Ginn & Company. One Hundred and Fifty Gymnastic Games. S. A. Harper. G. H. Ellis Co., Boston. Games and Songs of American Children. W. W. Newell. Harper & Brothers, New York. The Book of Indoor and Outdoor Games. Kingsland. Double- day, Page & Co. TEST QUESTIONS i. Why is it necessary for the teacher to understand the psychology of number? To what extent can the psychology be learned by observing children? Illustrate. 2. In the act of counting, the child begins with a whole, analyzes it and forms a new whole. How does the second whole differ from the first? Which whole will the child remember the longer? Why? 3. What special preparation should you make for teach- ing number in the primary grade? 4. Outline a plan for the construction of a number chart. State what you would expect to gain by the use of such a chart. 5. Why is it essential that the pupils do the work in the number lessons? Why do teachers often fail to secure the desired results in these lessons? 6. Why should lessons in finding parts of quantities, such as halves and fourths, be introduced before lessons in multiplication? Psychologically, how does multiplication differ from addition? 7. Of what value is the multiplication table? What danger must be guarded against in teaching it? 8. How long should objects be used in teaching numbers? Give reasons for your answer. 9. With what other lessons can you correlate number work? Select one of the lessons named and illustrate how the work can be done. 10. Would you lay special stress on language and form in the number lessons? Why? CHAPTER EIGHT SECOND YEAR NUMBER WORK 1. The Work of the Second Year. As a rule, no book in number work is used by the children in the second grade, but number facts are taught in the same manner as m the first grade. During the second year the pupils are supposed to learn the number facts in addition and substraction, to and including nine plus nine ; to know at least twelve primary and many secondary multiplication facts, with the related facts of division. Complete the multiplication facts as far as recommended on page 244. The eye, ear and tongue should all unite in the mastery of this work. Teach Roman notation as far as XII, since this will suffice for the reading of time and the chapter numbers of the books used in this grade. The children should also learn the relations indicated by h I, if, etc., and should be able to read and write num- bers to 1000. The counting begun in the first grade should be reviewed and continued. Have the children count by 3's to 30, by 4's to 40, by 5's to 50, and so on until they have counted by io's to 100. The measurements learned in the first grade should be reviewed, and other measurements, as ounce, pound, minute, hour, day, week and month, should be studied. 2. Facts that the Teacher Should Remember. It is important that the teacher always bear in mind the fact that every lesson needs thorough preparation before being presented to the class. This means the preparation not only of the teacher herself, but the preparation of the chil- dren, also. The teacher should have her plan for teaching the lesson well in hand before coming to the class; if any material is necessary, it should be ready; and, most impor- tant of all, she should see that the children are ready for the new lesson. Teachers are quite apt to forget this point, 232 Second Year Number Work 233 especially when pupils begin using arithmetics. As a con- sequence, the children are plunged into some new work with no preparation whatever for it and stumble along blindly, when a lesson or two, not given in their books, per- haps, but leading up to the new work, would make the whole subject perfectly clear. It is absolutely necessary for teachers to remember this and look ahead for work that needs especial preparation. Another point for the teacher to remember is to "make haste slowly." Inasmuch as later number work depends so entirely upon the earlier, let the foundation be a solid one. What is done, have thoroughly done. In striving for this thoroughness, guard against slow, monotonous drills. To be sure, drills are necessary, but let them be quick and interesting. As recommended for the first grade, a time limit should be placed on all drill work. The teacher may say, "I am going to give you four minutes; see how many tables you can write in that time." "Let us see how long it will take us to count by 2's, 3's, 5's," etc. Match your classes in this work, and appeal to emulation. An alert, interested teacher will do much toward securing alertness and interest on the part of her classes. Pupils who are dull in number can be assisted in much the same way as pupils who are dull in spelling, by calling upon them to count and measure whenever such work will be helpful in other lessons. While these pupils should not receive more than their share of attention in the number class, they should receive whatever extra assistance the teacher is able to give them. Otherwise, they are liable to form a distaste for number work and never become pro- ficient in it. 3. Order of Procedure. There has been considerable questioning and experimenting in regard to the proper order in which to teach addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. According to one method, the processes are to be taught simultaneously; for instance, a certain number, as nine, is taken, and every possible combination is studied before going on to another number. The addition facts, 234 Public School Methods the subtraction, the multiplication and the division facts are all thoroughly exhausted before a new number is taught. Another method puts subtraction and division before addi- tion and multiplication. Another teaches addition, then subtraction, then multiplication, and then division. What, then, is the best method of procedure? We have already learned that the origin of number lies in the mind's activity in measuring quantity. We have learned also that in measuring quantity, our measurements are first indefinite, then, later, definite. In our first, indefinite measurements we express results as more or less than some other quantity. John is taller than Sue, Frank has more apples than Albert, Elizabeth's book is larger than Mabel's. In reality, when we are getting these ideas of a quantity more or less than some other quantity, we are using the processes of addition and subtraction. When comparing Frank's apples with Albert's, we count Frank's, not by number, perhaps, but as this many apples, and this many, and this many. What is this but addition? We then count Albert's and compare, discovering that Frank has more than Albert. We have now subtracted. So we see that addition and subtraction are closely related processes, and arise even before the mind becomes conscious of number ideas. In the process of finding how much more or how much less one quantity is than another, we have no idea what part one quantity is of another, or of their difference. This idea arises later and gives us the processes of multiplication and division. It is an idea of ratio and embraces not only the processes of multiplication and division, but also frac- tions, for fractions are merely the expression of a ratio. Three-fourths means the ratio of three to four. If, then, we would deal with the processes of arithmetic in accordance with the way in which the ideas develop in the child's mind, we must take them in this order: addi- tion, subtraction, multiplication, division. It must not be thought, however, that we must deal completely with one Seeond Year Number Work 235 process before going on to the next. Every process is involved in every other. When we say that two and two make four, we have involved also the idea that four less two are two, that two twos are four and that four divided by two are two. The pupil discovering for the first time that two and two are four may not, probably will not, be conscious that four less two are two, but it will not be long until he is conscious of the fact, and gradually the idea that two times two are four, and four divided by two are two dawns upon him. So we see that when we are teaching addition facts, we are laying the foundation for subtraction, multiplication and division facts. The operations are not separate and distinct, but contain closely interwoven and dependent processes. 4. Primary Number Facts. There are certain primary number facts which, once understood and memorized by the children, do away with much needless waste of time and energy. These number facts should be thoroughly memorized, always bearing in mind that their meaning must first be clearly perceived. Of these number facts, there are forty-five primary facts of addition and sixty-four of multiplication. Thirty- three facts of addition and twelve of multiplication will usually be grasped by the pupil before he enters the third grade. Often all of the forty-five addi- tion facts are mastered in the first and second grades. The thirty-three addition facts are as follows: 1232434354264576 ll 1 111111 A A 1 A 1 1 1 774^"5^6~6"6^ 77 8888 56789856797689867 9 9 9 9 10 10 10 10 10 11 11 11 11 12 12 12 12 These addition facts carry with them related subtraction facts. A boy who knows that nine and two are eleven should 236 Public School Methods also perceive that eleven less two are nine, and eleven less nine are two. The twelve multiplication facts that second grade pupils should know are the following: 2 X 2 = 4 3 X 2 = 6 2 X 3 = 6 4 X 2 = 8 3 X 3 - 9 2X4 = 8 2 X 5 - 10 5 X 2 ■= IO 4 X3 = 12 3X4 = 12 2X6 = 12 6 x 2 = 12 These multiplication facts involve division facts. If a pupil knows that four times two equal eight, he will also know that eight divided by two equals four and eight divided by four equals two. Once these facts are clearly perceived and memorized, a good foundation for future work is laid. 5. Devices, (a) Cards. The perception cards recom- mended for first year work in addition, subtraction and multiplication should be used freely for drill on thirty-three facts of addition. Give much drill on such combinations as 7 8 5 7 7 7 5' 3' 3' 2' 4' 3' and do not spend time drilling on 2 ■? the simpler combinations, as , , if the children have already mastered them. (b) Number Circle. The following device may be used Second Year Number Work 237 for drill on the facts of addition. Draw a large circle on a 12 x 14 inch piece of white tag board, or other suitable material. On the circumference of the circle print the numbers from 1 to 10. Cut two slits in the center of the circle large enough to allow a 16 x 2 inch piece of tagboard to be drawn through. On the 16x2 inch piece of tagboard print the numbers from 1 to 10 (about two inches apart), and draw this through the center of the large circle. Drill by combining the figure in the center with any number of the circle. This device can also be used in multiplication. 6. Illustrative Lessons, (a) Addition. Purpose of the lesson: To teach the number facts of fourteen. 7 + 7 = 14; 9 + 5 = 14; 8+6=14. Material. Materials needed are balls, two baskets, and a table around which the children gather. Marbles or other round objects may be used in place of balls. Method. The teacher introduces the lesson with the following : " I have a puzzle for you to solve this morning, but before I tell you what it is I want you to count these balls." "There are fourteen." "John, please write that number on the board, so that we shall be sure to remember it." The number is written. " I am going to call these balls peaches, and here is the puzzle. I want to put the peaches into two baskets to carry them home. Neither basket must have more than nine peaches. How shall I divide them?" After thinking a moment or two. several children think they can divide them. "Well, Ruth, you may put them in the baskets." Very probably Ruth divides the peaches evenly. "Class, how many in each basket?" "Seven." "How many in the two baskets together?" " Fourteen." 238 Public School Methods "Fourteen are seven and how many more?" "Fourteen are seven and seven more." "How many sevens in fourteen?" "There are two sevens in fourteen." "Seven and seven are how many?" "Seven and seven are fourteen." "Mary, tell us that at the board." Mary writes, "7 + 7 - 14." "Who can tell us now two facts about the number fourteen?" "Seven and seven are fourteen." "Two sevens or two times seven are fourteen." "This is the way we write it when we say, two times seven are fourteen: 2 X 7 = 14. You see it is just another way of saying this: (Point to 7 + 7 =14)." " I have found out another fact about fourteen that no one has mentioned. Who else has found out a new fact?" Possibly no one has. "Suppose that I take one basket of peaches home and leave the rest. How many do I leave?" "Seven." "Then what else do we know about fourteen?" "We know that seven taken away from fourteen leaves seven." "Yes. Who can tell it in a different way?" "Fourteen less seven equals seven." Here give a quick drill as follows: "Two sevens are how many?" "Fourteen less seven equal how many?" Also give concrete problems involving facts taught concerning 14 and 7. "Perhaps you thought my puzzle was an easy one, but I'm not through yet. Ruth divided the peaches by putting seven in each basket. I should like to have them divided in a different may. Remember that neither basket is to have more than nine peaches. How shall we divide them?" After thinking a moment or two, some, if not all, of the children are ready to try to divide the peaches between the two baskets. Second Year Number Work 239 "Robert, you may divide them." Robert divides them into groups of six and eight. They are counted, and the new addition fact, 6+8 =14, is noted and written on the board under the first addition fact. The related subtraction facts, 14 — 8 =6 and 14 -6 =8, are brought out and, if desired, written in a separate column. "We have found two ways of making fourteen, and now if you can find one more way you will have solved all of my puzzle." The third addition fact, 9+5 = 14, is discovered and the related subtraction fa.cts, 14-9 -5 and 14-5 =9, are brought out. These new facts are written in their respec- tive columns, and the addition facts are memorized. The pupil will see that if 9 + 5 = 14, it naturally follows that 14—9 =5 and 14 - 5 =9, so the subtraction facts do not need to be as carefully memorized as do the addition facts. Caution. It is necessary to bear in mind that too much must not be attempted at a time. Drill on the addition fact, say, 9 + 5 =14, and the related subtraction facts, before you attempt to teach other facts concerning 14. Other Facts. Other addition facts may be taught in the same way or by means of different devices. They may be learned in playing store, in playing games or in measuring liquids. A good way to teach these facts is by construct- ing oblongs. Let the first one contain nine square inches, the second, five. The fact that nine square inches and five square inches make fourteen square inches is readily grasped. The children are then asked to draw two other oblongs of different size which shall together contain fourteen square inches, neither oblong to contain more than nine square inches. They will enjoy puzzling it out. The teacher should see that the children understand that the nine and five, six and eight, or seven and seven may mean birds, apples, dollars, bushels, or any other objects. Devices. (1) It often proves an aid in securing rapid addition to have the children add by tens, in the following 240 Public School Methods way: Ask the class to count by tens, beginning with seven: 7, 17, 27, 37, 47, 57, 67, 77, 87, 97. Write the numbers in a column. Have the children then add seven to each number, writing the problems and results in a column: 7+7 =i4 17+7 =24 2 7 + 7 = 34, etc. Lead the children to see that increasing one of the addends by ten increases the sum by ten. Have several tables made in this way; as, 4 + 4 - 8; 14 + 4 = 18; 24 + 4 = 28; 34 + 4 = 38, etc. 9+9 = 18; 19 + 9 = 28; 29 + 9 = 38; 39 + 9 - 48, etc. (2) When the sum of the units equals ten, as in adding 67 and 43, the following device is often used. Instead of counting first units and then tens, count thus: Six tens and four tens make ten tens. Seven units and three units make ten units, or one ten. Ten tens and one ten make eleven tens, or no. Various problems may be put on the board and added in this way. To illustrate: 38 64 55 22 3^ 35 (3) The following will illustrate another device often used in adding numbers, the sum of whose units equals ten. In the problem 35 -f 15, we may add as follows: 35, 45, S°- 35 + 1 S = 5°; 26 + 14: 26, 36, 40; 38 + 12: 38, 48, 50; 34 + 16: 34, 44, 50. (4) Unless the pupils have been thoroughly grounded in the fact that a number, as 14, consists of a certain number of tens and a certain number of units, the so-called carrying process will be a bugbear to them. They must clearly recog- nize the fact that 72, for instance, is made up of seven tens and two units before they can understand why the units must go in one column and the tens be added in with the next. Second Year Number Work 241 To prepare children for the "carrying process," devote a few minutes of the recitation period to such exercises as the following: "How many tens in twenty?" "Name the number of tens and fives in 25." "How many tens in 29?" "How many over?" "How many ones in 29?" For children who have trouble in remembering how many tens or hundreds were to be added to the tens or hundreds, a simple device, as here shown, may be used: (0 14 (2) 235 16 166 18 428 15 719 43 11 2 829 63 The sum of the units column in (1) is 23. The three is written under the units column, the two below and to the left of three in the tens column. The tens are added, and finally the partial answers are added together. In performing additions where one number is "carried" from one order to the next, it is better to avoid the use of the word carry. If the process is made perfectly clear to the pupil, he will not need the word carry, nor will the teacher need to use it in her 23452 explanations. Some work in 23451 simple addition of figures in colums 23452 can be introduced here to advan- £ _3 _4 _5 ]_ tage. For instance, the children 8 12 16 20 6 can add the columns shown at the left. Teach the children to com- bine and add in groups. The " group method" in addition is a labor saving device and leads to rapid work. (b) Subtraction. Inasmuch as addition facts carry with them related subtraction facts, children find little difficulty in subtracting until they come to the subtraction of numbers in which digits of the subtrahend exceed digits of the minuend. 242 Public School Methods Let us consider such a problem for a moment. We will suppose our problem to be 34 - 18 = ?. Before taking up the explanation of this, what previous preparation does the understanding of such a problem necessitate? The children long ago have learned the form of sub- traction problems illustrated by 8-2 =6. They know that the problem is read "eight less two equal six." They have worked many similar problems and have solved with- out difficulty problems like 14-5 and 15-7. If they have worked with sticks tied in bundles of ten, or with dimes and pennies, they are quite aware that to take five from fourteen they must use their tens. To illustrate more fully, in solving the problem 14—5, the pupils select one bundle of ten sticks and four separate sticks. As there is no way possible in which they can take five from four, they must untie one bundle of ten, add the number of ones con- tained to the four ones they already have, and then sub- tract. In later work, the children have become familiar with the form of problems in which the subtrahend is written under the minuend and the subtraction performed; as, 2426 , , etc. As in addition, they learned various ways of performing these subtractions. They learned to subtract by tens first; as, two tens less one ten and four units less one unit; and also to subtract thus: 24 less 12 equals 24 less 10, which is 14, less 2, which is 12. For the sake of the form, the pupils should be taught also to subtract units from units and tens from tens. All of this work now serves as preparation for their new problem, 34 — 18, in which the eight units of the subtrahend exceed the four units of the minuend. The children immediately see that they cannot take eight ones from four ones. The problems in which they had to take a bundle of ten and use them with their ones are recalled and illustrated. The problem in question is worked out by means of bundles of ten and 34 separate sticks, and is then put on the board in this form: x g Second Year Number Work 243 The teacher then says to the class, "You found that you could not take eight ones from four, so what did you do? " "We untied one bundle of ten and put it with our ones." "How many ones or units did you then have?" "We had fourteen." "Taking your eight ones from fourteen leaves you how many?" "It leaves six ones." The teacher writes six in the units place, then asks the children to subtract the tens. In all probability the children will say that three tens less one ten equal two tens, in which case they will have to be reminded that they have already taken one ten away from their three tens. Similar problems should be given and the results verified by actual use of the sticks, or by dimes and pennies, until the pupils can perform operations with figures alone and secure the correct result. (c) Simple Multiplication. Before taking up an illus- trative lesson in multiplication, let us again call attention to the difference between multiplication and addition. It is necessary that the teacher keep the psychological proc- esses of the two operations distinctly in mind. As previously stated (Caution, page 226), multiplication is not addition. To be sure, 2+2+2 =6, and three times two are six, but the two processes differ. In the first we begin with two and keep adding two, taking no heed of the number of times two is added, but paying attention simply to the sum, which is the main thing we desire to know. In the second process we note the number of times two is repeated to get six. Here a factor idea is present. Three and two are factors of six. While multiplication is implied in the act of addition, at the same time it differs from it in taking cognizance of the number of times a factor is repeated. Pupils should become familiar with this factor idea quite early. When they have discovered that three times two are six, and two times three are six, the teacher should tell them that three and two are called factors of six and ask them to give factors of other numbers. 244 Public School Methods Children in the second grade may reasonably be expected to master the following multiplication facts: 2X2 - 4 2X3 = 6 2X4=8 2 x 5 = 10 3 X 2 = 6 3 ><3 = 9 3 X 4 =12 2X6 = 12 4X2 = 8 4X3 = 12 5 X 2 = 10 6X2 = 12 Properly taught, these twelve facts will carry with them division facts. If 5 X2 =10, a child should realize that ten is five twos or two fives; that is, 10 -f- 2 =5, and 10 ~ 5 =2. Even in the first grade the pupils can form little multiplication tables of their own and memorize them. As they grow older and are able to make more and more difficult tables, they should thoroughly master each table. Sugges- tions have already been made for teaching multiplication facts, but the following will illustrate other devices. Material. Drawings which have been made previously in the construction period or as seat work may serve as material. Each child has seven or eight drawings, num- 1 2 3 bered 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, on one large sheet of paper. These drawings are groups of square inches. The first contains four square inches, the second eight, the third twelve, etc. Second Year Number Work %4>5 Method. The teacher opens the lesson by saying, " You made some drawings yesterday which I said we would use today in our number work. From these drawings we are going to form the table of fours." (The children have already had some experience in making tables.) " Look carefully at the first drawing. Does it tell you anything about the number four?" "There are four square inches in it." "True, but does it tell you nothing else?" In all probability some one will discover that four ones are four. If no one does, the fact must be developed. "What was your unit of measure in this figure?" "One square inch." "How many times was one square inch repeated to get the figure?" "Four times.'* "Then what does the figure tell us?" "It tells us that one square inch taken four times gives four square inches." "Ruth, Mary, Amy and Helen may rise. Class, how many times did I choose one girl?" "Four times." "Four times one are how many?" "Four." "Who can tell us that at the board?" A child writes, "Four times one are four." "Who can tell it in a different way?" Some child writes, "4X1 = 4." "You may all write that under your first drawing. We have discovered the first fact for our table. See now whether you can find out a new fact from your second drawings:" The children readily discover that two fours are eight and four twos are eight. "4 X 2 = 8 " is written under the second figure. In this way the other multiplication facts are found, the children discovering that each new fact may be found by adding four to the preceding product. When the table 246 Public School Methods is complete to 4 X 12, it is thoroughly memorized before going on. Simple problems may be given; as, "If Henry had eight apples and Kenneth four times as many, how many had Kenneth? If Mabel had four apples and Ruth eight times as many, how many had Ruth?" In place of drawing square inches, the children may draw groups of apples, of birds or balls. The lessons may be varied by teaching some of the tables by means of the children them- selves. A group of five children stands and the fact that five times one are five is discovered. Five groups of two each gives five times two are ten; five groups of three each, five times three are fifteen, etc. Another simple device for teaching the multiplication table of 5's is to have the children write the products in columns, as 5 10 15, etc. Then ask, "How many 5's in 10?" Say, "We can write it this way, 2X5= 10." "How many 5's in 15?" "This is another way of saying there are three 5's in 15, 3 X5 =15." Let the children complete the table, and drill. When one table is thus made and understood, make another changing the order of factors. Instead of writing 4 X2 =8, 4 X3 = 12, a x 5 = 20, let them write 2 X4 =8, 3 X4 =12, 5 X 4 =20. Cautions. (1) Most children will learn to repeat the multiplication tables with little effort. The combinations constitute a sort of jingle which they like to memorize. It is therefore essential that every number fact in a table exist in each child's mind as a reality before the class begins learning the table in the ordinary way. (2) Products in the multiplication tables should be learned both ways, i.e., 4X2 =8, 2 X4 =8. Continue reciting the tables aloud and in chorus, for this leads to ear and tongue memory, which may come to the aid of the eye Second Year Number Work 247 when trying to recall a fact. After learning 4X2 =8, 2 X 4 •= 8, ask, "What number multiplied by 2 =8?" "What number multiplied by 4 = 8," etc. (d) Multiplication Involving the "Carrying" Process. When the children are ready for the multiplica- tion of numbers which involves the carrying process, little difficulty need be encountered, if the difference between tens and units be kept carefully in mind. For instance, in the problem 24 multiplied by 4, since the children know that 24 is made up of two tens and four units, and that four times four units give sixteen units or one ten and six units, they will readily understand that the tens must be added in with the product of four times two tens. If they get confused and think that the one ten must be added to the first two and then multiplied by four, let the children for a while write the answer as shown at the right. This 24 form, however, should be dispensed with as quickly as _4 possible, so that there will be no confusion when prob- 16 lems with two figures in the multiplier are reached. 8_ The term carrying should be avoided, just as it was 96 in addition. (e) Multiplication of Numbers in Which the Mul- tiplier Consists of Two Figures. Let 34 multiplied by 24 be an illustrative problem. This lesson should be pre- ceded by a rapid test in reading such numbers as 1276, 62, 372, 580, 52 tens, 59 units, 4271, giving the units, tens, hundreds and thousands. The teacher then says, "We have often multiplied a number by one figure, but never by two. Now we are going to learn how to multiply a number by another number with two figures. Here is our problem." The teacher writes 24 and reads, "Thirty-four multiplied by twenty-four." "In 34, how many tens and how many units, Mary?" "There are three tens and four units." "In 24, how many tens and how many units, Harry?" "There are two tens and four units." 248 Public School Methods "The first thing we must do is to multiply thirty-four by the units in twenty-four, which are — how many units, Bessie?" "Four units." "Rachel, multiply thirty-four by four units for us." "Four times four are sixteen, or one ten and six units. Four times three are twelve, and one ten more makes it thirteen. Thirty-four multiplied by four equals one hun- dred thirty- four." The teacher writes 134 i* 1 its place. "We have now multiplied thirty-four by four units. What is there left for us to multiply by if we are to mul- tiply by twenty- f our ? " "Two tens." "Two tens are the same as how many units?" "Twenty units." "Very well. Let us call the two tens twenty units for the present. Multiply thirty-four by twenty units for me. Twenty times four units equal how much?" "Eighty units." "Eighty units are the same as how many tens?" "Eight." "Where shall we write eight tens? In the units' column or tens' column?" "In the tens' column." It is written. "Twenty times three tens equal how much?" "Sixty tens." "Who can write sixty tens for me?" Some one writes 60. "Class, is that sixty tens?" "No. It is six tens." "Well, some one write sixty tens." 600 is written. "Is that sixty tens?" "Yes." "What is another name for it?" Second Year Number Work 249 "Six hundred." "Since it is the same as six hundred, where must we put the six? In units', tens' or hundreds' column?" " Hundreds." It is written. "We know now what thirty-four multiplied by foui is, and what thirty-four multiplied by twenty is. Can any one tell us what we must do to find out what thirty-four multiplied by twenty and four together equals?" Cautions, (i) Do not allow any guessing. Unless some child has been quick enough to see, simply tell the class that the products must be added. Work very slowly with these prob- lems and work out a good many with the class before giving the pupils any to do alone. In a short time they will not need to think of the tens as so many units, but can multiply by tens directly and put the product in the right place. (2) Failure to secure accurate results is often due to advancing the work too rapidly. The pupils should be given a large number of problems of about the same degree of difficulty before any more difficult are attempted, and the steps from one class of problems to the next should be very slight. The best results are secured when the pupils thoroughly master the form and method before they are called upon to perform multiplications that require them to give most of their attention to the process. (3) A point often overlooked by teachers is that combi- nations of odd numbers are more difficult than those of even numbers. In preparing tables for drills this should be kept constantly in mind, and those combinations should be presented upon which the pupils need the most practice. Watchfulness on the part of the teacher will enable her to determine what these are. There is great danger of fall- ing into a rut and using the same combinations over and over. To children, an old truth is always new when pre- sented in a new light. Frequently change your drill exer- cises, even though they include the same numbers and com- binations that you have been using. 250 Public School Methods (4) Bear in mind that the skill attained in this work depends to a large degree on how well the multiplication tables are known. If children stumble over multiplication facts, and are not especially troubled with mastering the process, discontinue the work on the process and drill on the multiplication tables. (f) Division. The work in multiplication leads directly to the work in division. If we know that 7 X 6 = 42, we also know that 42 -r 7 =6 and 42 -r 6 =7. Material. An apple or some other object that can easily be divided into equal parts may be used. Method. This lesson presupposes a knowledge of the table of twos, also the fact that two numbers multiplied together to produce a product are called the factors of that product. The teacher says: " How many of these little folks have brothers and sisters? " (Many have.) "Well, you all have playmates if you have not brothers and sisters. Did you ever have candy and divide it with your little brother or playmate?" "Yes." " Well, who can tell me what it means to ' divide ' a thing? " "It means to give part of it to somebody else." "Yes, but could you divide a thing and give both parts away?" "Yes." "Could we divide a thing, candy, for instance, into more than two parts?" "Yes." "Yes, we could divide it into any number of parts." "John, divide this apple into two parts." The apple is divided. "Ruth, divide these pennies among three boys." The pennies are divided. " I see now that you understand what it means to divide, and this morning we are going to learn to divide with numbers." The children long ago became familiar with the process Second Year Number Work 251 of division both without numbers and with small numbers, but they do not know the process under the name of division. To insure a perfect grasp of the meaning of the word divide, the foregoing preparation is given. First, have a little review of some facts already learned. The teacher says, "John, tell us the factors of six." "Two and three are the factors of six." The teacher then asks of various pupils, "Two and four are factors of what number?" " Eight." "Two and six?" "Twelve." "Seven and two?" "Fourteen." "Ten and two?" "Twenty." "Two and eleven?" "Twenty-two." "Two is one factor of eight. What is the other?" "Four." "Seven is one factor of fourteen. What is the other?" "Two." "Six is one factor of twelve. What is the other?" "Two." "Two is one factor of twelve. What is the other?" "Six." "If two balls cost twelve cents, what will one ball cost?" "Six cents." "If four is one factor of eight, what is the other?" "Two." "If four apples cost eight cents, what will one apple cost?" "Two cents." "If two apples cost eight cents, what will one apple cost?" "Four cents." "What are the factors of ten?" "Two and five." 252 Public School Methods "Divide these marbles into groups of five." (The teacher gives ten marbles to each child and they are divided.) "Ten marbles divided into groups of five give how many groups?" "Two groups." "Divide the marbles into two groups. How many have you in each group?" "Five." " If you had ten apples and divided them equally among five boys, how many would each get?" "Two." "If you had ten apples and divided them among two boys, how many would each get?" "Five." "How many fives in ten?" "Two." "How many twos in ten?" "Five." "Ten of anything divided into five parts gives how many in each part?" "Two." "We have a short way of saying this. We say, 'Ten divided by five equals two.' I will write it for you on the board." (The teacher writes it.) "Who can tell me now what ten divided by two equals?" "Five." "What do we mean when we say, 'Ten divided by two equals five' ?" "We mean that ten things divided into two parts makes five in each part." "What are the factors of eight?" "Two and four." "Eight divided by four equals what?" "Two." "Eight divided by two equals what?" "Four." "Two and six are factors of what number?" Second Year Number Work 253 "Twelve." "Twelve divided by two equals what?" "Six." "Twelve divided by six equals what?" "Two." "I am going to show you a still shorter way of telling this." The teacher writes on the board, "12 -4- 2 - 6." "The little sign (pointing to it) is just another way of say- ing 'divided by.' It means the same thing." "You may all make the sign on the board." "You may write on the board the factors of 14." (2 and 7.) "Fourteen divided by two equals what?" "Seven." "Write on the board 14 -4- 2 = 7." Various other problems are given to familiarize the chil- dren with the work. Occasionally the children are requested to read their work. The lessons may proceed in this manner until the children are ready for a new form of writing prob- .. . . . 2)20 2)22 lems in division; that is, — , — , etc. 10 11 The children presumably have had the form 20-7-2 =10, and are told that this is merely a new way of writing it. As a preparation for this work in short division, the children read numbers, giving the units, tens and hundreds; as, 62 equals six tens and two units; 624 equals six hundreds, two tens and four units. For the first work no numbers are given which are not exactly divisible by the number used as the divisor. Short Division. A list of problems, such as 20 -r 2 =10, 14 -4- 7 = ?, 20 -5- 10 = ?, is written on the board. The teacher then says: "Amy, read the first problem and give the answer." "Twenty divided by two equals ten." "May, read the next one." "Fourteen divided by seven equals two." All of the problems are read. "This morning," the teacher remarks, "we are going to 254 Public School Methods learn how to write these problems in a new and very easy way and in a way that will help us work harder problems." 2)20 The teacher writes: — . "This is just another way of 10 10)20 saying 20 -f- 2 - 10." "This [writes — ] says what, Frank?" "Twenty divided by ten equals two." "Twelve divided by four equals what?" "Three." "Who can come to the board and write that in the new way?" Some one writes it. "Who can write sixteen divided by two and give the answer?" Many problems are given, so that the class become familiar with the new form. "I have a much harder problem for you now." "I have sixty-four oranges and want to divide them among two boys and find how many each boy will get." As she talks the teacher writes 2)64. "There is a very easy way of find- ing out." " Harry, how many tens and how many ones in this number (pointing to 64)?" "Six tens and four ones." "We must divide this number by two. First, let us divide the tens by two. Six tens divided by two equals what, Mabel?" "Three." "Three what?" "Three tens." "I will write the three tens directly under the six tens. Now let us divide our ones by two. W T alter, you may divide them." "Four ones divided by two equals two ones." "We will write our ones directly under our ones. How many oranges did each boy get?" "Thirty-two." Second Year Number Work 255 " Frances, read the problem." "Sixty-four divided by two equals thirty-two." "What are the factors of sixty-four?" "Two and thirty-two." One or two more problems are worked out in this way; then the pupils work some without assistance. By having the factors read and recalling the fact that the factors mul- tiplied together give the number divided, the children readily learn to prove the correctness of their answers. Problems involving hundreds, as 646, are introduced and solved, but not until a large number of problems whose dividends con- tain only tens and units have been solved. Later, when problems whose divisors contain two numbers are intro- duced, the teacher must explain carefully the reason for the trial divisor, explaining also why it is called a trial divisor. Cautions. (1) While division originates in subtraction, it is a different process. As in multiplication, the mind, by use of the imagination and reason, measures the number (dividend) and arrives at once at the result (quotient). The factor, or times, idea is prominent in the mental process and is used in measuring the whole (dividend) by the part given (divisor), as in dividing 25 by 5. The question is, how many 5's in 25; not, how many times can 5 be sub- tracted from 25 ? The relation of the measuring unit, or divisor, to the whole is at once apparent. Since the factor idea is developed in multiplication, division can easily follow multiplication. (2) Fractions treat of the division of objects into parts, and at first deal with the concrete. This division of objects into equal parts is much easier for the child than is measur- ing one number by another, or division ; therefore, elementary work in fractions should precede division. (3) With the introduction of the factor, or times, idea in multiplication, we also introduce the idea of ratio. As soon as the child understands that 3 times 2 are 6, he knows that there are three 2*s in 6, and as soon as he understands what a fraction is, he recognizes the fact that 2 is one-third 256 Public School Methods of 6. From this it is an easy step to the ratio, or proportion, idea, that the ratio of 2 to 6 is $. (4) Multiplication, division, fractions, and ratio and pro- portion all involve the ratio idea, but in each process it is considered from a different viewpoint — in multiplication as a factor to be used in finding a given sum; in division, as a unit of measure. 7. Illustrative Lessons in Fractions, (a) A Lesson to Develop the Rule for Finding a Fraction of Any Number. Material. Three paper rulers, six inches, nine inches and twelve inches long, for each child. The inches are to be marked off on each ruler. The rulers can be made during the construction or seat work period. Method. The teacher opens the lesson by saying: "Divide your six-inch ruler into three parts." "Show me one third." "Two thirds." "Three thirds." "Three thirds equals what part of the ruler?" "Divide your nine- inch ruler into thirds." "Show me two thirds." "Show me one third." "Divide your twelve-inch ruler into thirds." "Show me one third." "Three thirds." "Show me one third of this ribbon." (Hands a ribbon of any length to some child.) "Show me one third of this apple." "Show me again one third of the six-inch ruler." "How many inches is it?" "Two." "Tell me in a complete sentence how many one third of six inches is." "One third of six inches is two inches." "Find two thirds of six inches." "Four inches." "What is one third of six inches plus one third of six inches?" "How many inches is it?" "What is one third of six inches plus two thirds of six inches?" "How many inches is it?" "Find one third of your nine-inch ruler. How many inches is it?" "How many inches in two thirds of nine inches?" "In three thirds of nine inches?" "How many Second Year Number Work 257 balls is one third of nine balls?" "How many inches in one third of twelve inches?" "In two thirds?" "In three thirds?" "Show me one third of your six-inch ruler." "Two thirds is how many times as long as one third?" "Twice as long." "Show me one third of the ribbon." "Two thirds is how many times as long?" "Show me one third of the apple." "Two thirds is how many times as much?" "If we know what one third of a thing is, how can we find two thirds?" "How can we find three thirds?" "How did you find one third of your rulers?" "We folded it into three parts." "How did you find one third of the apple?" "We cut it into three parts." "How do you find one third of anything?" "Divide it into three parts." "How do you find one third of six?" "Divide it into three parts and take one." " In other words, you divided six by three." " How can you find one third of nine, then?" "Divide nine by three." "How can you find one third of any number?" "Divide it by three." "If we find one third of a number by dividing by three, how can we find one fourth of a number?" "One fifth?" "One sixth?" "One tenth?" "One twentieth?" "Who can tell us, then, what one fourth of eight is?" "One fifth of ten?" "One sixth of twelve?" "One third of twenty-four ? " "One third of eighteen?" "One fourth of twenty?" The same method may be followed until the children clearly see that to find a fraction of a number we must divide that number by the number representing the part required, or the denominator of that fraction, and that if one part is found, two parts will be twice as much, three parts three times as much, etc. After the work has been 258 Public School Methods clearly grasped, it would be well to let the children form, in their own words, a rule for finding a part of any number. Devices. It is very necessary in this grade to make much use of objective work in teaching fractions. Elaborate fraction disks are not at all necessary for this work; in fact, it is better to take any simple material at hand, such as clay cubes, paper, chalk, etc. Addition of figures in columns was demonstrated on page 241. From this work it is very easy to see that £ of 8 is two 2's, or 4; that \ of 12 is 3; that f of 16 are 3 fours, or 12, etc. Children delight in discovering such truths, and a device of this kind adds to the interest in, and clear comprehension of, the subject. (b) A Lesson to Develop the Relation Between Fourths and Eighths. This lesson presupposes a knowl- edge of the relation between fourths and halves. Material. Draw two large circles on the board, one divided into fourths and one into eighths. The circles may represent wagon wheels, pies, or any other circular object. Method. To introduce the lesson the teacher may say, "We were talking about halves and fourths the other day; now we are going to see whether we can find out any new facts about halves and fourths. When we get through, I want you to tell me what new facts we have discovered." "Into how many parts is this circle divided?" "Into four." "What is each part called?" "Each part is called one fourth." "Mary, show me one fourth." "Two fourths." "Three fourths." "Amy, show me one half." "One half is how many fourths?" " One half is two fourths." "Two halves are how many fourths?" "Two halves are four fourths." "Into how many parts is this second circle divided?" "Eight parts." "When we divide a circle into four parts, we call each Second Year Number Work 259 part a fourth. When we divide it into eight parts, what would we call each part?" "One eighth." "Show me one eighth." "Two eighths." "Four eighths." "Five eighths." "Eight eighths." "How many eighths i a whole circle?" 'Eight eighths." 'How many eighths in a half circle?" 'Four eighths." 'Show me one fourth of this circle." "One fourth is how many eighths?" 'Two eighths." 'Two fourths equal how many eighths?" 'Four eighths." 'You say four eighths pqual two fourths. What else does it equal?" 'One half." 'How many eighths in three fourths o: a circle?" 'Six eighths." 'Five eighths of a circle plus two eighths are how many gliths?" 'Four eighths plus one half are how maoy eighths?" 'Eight eighths." 'How many wholes?" 'One." 'One half plus one fourth are how many eighths?" 'Three fourths plus one fourth equal how many eighths?" 'Three fourths plus one eighth equal how many eighths?" "Two fourths plus one eighth?" The children may ask one another similar questions, and at the end of the recitation may tell what new facts they have learned about one half and one fourth; i.e., that one half equals either two fourths or four eighths, that one fourth is two eighths and that two halves, four fourths and eight eighths are the same This last is not really new, as the children have discovered before that two halves, three thirds and four fourths all mean 1. 260 Public School Methods (c) Suggestions for Teaching One Half of Five, One Half of Seven, etc. In teaching halves of such numbers, a good plan is to use material that will break or bend easily. Splints may be used and broken to find the half. A five or seven-inch paper ruler with the inches marked may be used and bent in the right place. Measurements with the pint and quart measures may also serve as a means to teach these facts. If the measuring is actually done, or other suggestions followed, the children will have little difficulty in grasping halves of odd numbers. TEST QUESTIONS i. Of what work should the first few number lessons of the second year consist? Why? 2. Write the combinations illustrating (a) all the primary number facts for addition; (b) all those for multiplication. 3. From the point of view of teaching number, which is the more desirable material for number lessons, objects such as rulers and oblongs that the children construct for themselves, or those which are furnished them ready for use? Why? What points of advantage are there in using both kinds of material? 4. How does division differ from subtraction? Illustrate. Why should division be taught in connection with multi- plication ? 5. How far should you proceed with problems requiring multiplication by one figure before multiplication by two figures is taken up? State the most serious difficulties you encounter in multiplication. To what causes can most of these difficulties be traced? 6. What ought the teacher to gain from the illustrative material in this chapter? When are such lessons wrongly used? Why? 7. Which do you find the more difficult to teach, multi- plication or division? Why? How can some of the diffi- culties in teaching division be removed? Second Year Number Work 261 8. Why are simple exercises in fractions, such as finding J, £ and I of a thing, easier for children than exercises in division? When would you introduce these exercises? 9. Construct three problems in multiplication, three in division and four in fractions suitable to be given your pupils the last month of their second year's work in number. 10. Construct a number chart which you can use with second grade pupils during the last half of the year. Explain how it is to be used and state what you expect to accomplish by its use. CHAPTER NINE THIRD YEAR NUMBER WORK 1. Text-Book Work. One great difficulty which teachers encounter in number work lies in the introduction of the text-book. Often children who have previously done very good work seem almost unable to proceed when the book is put into their hands. This will be avoided if the right kind of preparatory work is done. (a) Preliminary Steps. Be sure that the pupils can read and understand the problems before the text-book is placed in their hands. As a rule, the pupils will be more or less embarrassed by the book, although it contains but few words with which they are not familiar. The embarrass- ment arises from the fact that the book is to be used for a new purpose. The attention is centered upon the number facts more than upon the reading, and the first few pages should contain nothing with which the pupils are not already familiar. (b) Preparatory Lessons. Special preparatory lessons should always precede the introduction of the book. These lessons should be so planned as to make adequate prepara- tion for the different pages, and they will naturally vary considerably. For some pages merely a word or two of explanation will suffice; for others, a brief oral review will do; again, for others, two or three preparatory lessons which include oral work, blackboard and written work will be found necessary; but bear in mind that there is scarcely a page of text-book matter that will not need some prep- aration before the children can take it up and carry it through successfully and easily. At the end of every recitation period it is well to assign a lesson for the next day and have the pupils carefully read each problem to see if all are understood. If there is any difficulty, it can easily be cleared up at this time. After 262 Third Year Number Work 263 this preparatory exercise, hold each child responsible for the solution of all problems in the assignment. It is no wonder that children stumble over work that ought to be easy, when we consider how often they are given work to do for which they have had no preparation. Suppose that it ha", b^en six weeks or two months since a child has had problems in liquid measure, and he suddenly comes to this problem in his book: " How many gallons in twelve quarts?" Six out of ten children would probably stumble on the ques- tion, guess at the answer, and waste a good deal of time before they got it. If the teacher had spent a very few minutes recalling the table of liquid measure and rapidly giving a few problems before the lesson was taken up, the problem, with similar ones that would undoubtedly follow, would be readily solved. Or the teacher might, on the preceding day, give a few problems which would recall all of the work in liquid measure and use these problems for the busy work for that day. This preparation would serve just as well. (c) Illustrative Lesson. The following will illustrate how a text-book lesson may be taken up : 'i. One dollar is equal in value to — 2. One dollar is equal in value to 3. One half-dollar is equal in value to half-dollars, fourth-dollars. — fourth- dollars. A fourth-dollar is sometimes called a quarter, or a quarter of a dollar. "4. One half of a dollar and one fourth of a dollar are fourths of a dollar. 264 Public School Methods "5. One half of a dollar less one fourth of a dollar is of a dollar. "6. Four times one fourth of a dollar equals fourths of a dollar, or dollar. " 7. One fourth of a dollar is contained in one half of a dollar times. " 8. One half of one half of a dollar is of a dollar." 1 Material. When ready for the lesson, the teacher should state that before using their text-books a short review is to be held. She should bring to the class a dollar, a half- dollar and a quarter. Method. After briefly stating the purpose of the lesson, the teacher may ask, "John, what is the name of this coin? " (Holding up a dollar.) "It is a dollar." "How many cents does it equal?" "One hundred." "What is the name of this coin?" (Holding up a half- dollar.) "One half-dollar or fifty cents." "How many of these does it take to make one dollar?" "It takes two." "We say that one dollar is equal in value to two half- dollars. One dollar is equal in value to how many cents?" "To one hundred cents." "Two half-dollars are equal in value to how many cents? " "To one hundred cents." "What is the name of this coin?" (Holding up a quarter.) "A quarter or a twenty-five-cent piece." "You say it is a quarter. A quarter of what?" "A quarter of a dollar." "What is another name for a quarter of anything?" "A fourth." "Then this (holding up the quarter) is equal in value to what part of a dollar?" x Tbe Werner Arithmetic, Book It, Third Year Number Work 265 "It is equal in value to one fourth of a dollar." "It is equal in value to how many cents?" "To twenty-five cents." "This piece of money (holding up a half-dollar) is equal in value to how many quarters?" "It is equal in value to two quarters." "This (holding up the dollar) is equal in value to how many quarters?" " It is equal to four quarters." "One dollar is equal in value to how many half-dollars?" "To how many fourth-dollars?" "One half of a dollar is how many fourths of a dollar?" "Two." "One half of a dollar and one fourth of a dollar are how many fourths of a dollar?" "They are !;hree fourths of a dollar." "If I had one half of a dollar and took away one fourth of a dollar, how much would I have left?" " One-fourth of a dollar, or twenty-five cents." " How many times must I take one fourth of a dollar to make one half of a dollar?" "Two times." "Another way of saying that is to say that one fourth of a dollar is contained in one half of a dollar two times. One fourth of a dollar is contained in one dollar how many times?" " It is contained in one dollar four times." " One half-dollar is contained in one dollar how many times?" "It is contained two times." " Read this first problem (pointing to the board) and in place of this line, put the words how many." 1 A child reads, " One dollar is equal in value to half- dollars," supplying the words as directed. Enough problems are given to accustom the children to supplying the words, how many. Other problems are read in which they have to supply the words, what part. A few 266 Public School Methods problems requiring the words, is contained in, are given, the word contained being told by the teacher if the pupil hesitates. The text-book may now be used, the attention of the children being called to the pictures at the top of the page. They tell what they see, then solve the problems. Since the meaning of the new phrases has been made clear, the children will have little difficulty in understanding the problems. So, in every lesson, new expressions and new forms of problems should first be made perfectly clear. A teacher needs to be constantly on guard to see that every problem is understood. Ask often for the meaning of the problems or the meaning of a word. Teach the child that in every problem he must look for three things, viz.: what is given, what is required, and the process by which the result is obtained. It is well occasionally to have problems in which these three factors are told by the child with no attention Daid to the answer. It is well at this time to speak briefly of the analyses of problems to be expected on the part of children. It is too often the case that pupils memorize a set form of analysis which has been recommended by the teacher or taken from a text-book. Many teachers even make the mistake of requiring pupils to learn an elaborate explanation for, say, multiplying one integer by another. Let it be remembered that the operation in such cases is sufficient, and an explana- tion, which is merely a repetition of the words of the teacher or text-book, without any apparent mental content, is not only unnecessary, but harmful. The pupil should be allowed and encouraged to state his reasons for the solution of a problem in his own language. Through this he will acquire a habit of logical expression which will help him in many other lines of expression and afford the teacher opportunity for helpful suggestions. 2. Reduction of Denominate Numbers. During the pre- ceding years the children have been thoroughly grounded in the tables of liquid measure, dry measure, United States Third Year Number Work 267 money and possibly one other table. They can readily change quarts to gallons, gallons to pints, dimes to nickels, etc., but having no knowledge of the meaning of multipli- cation and division at the time when these facts were learned they did not formulate any rule for the reduction of denomi- nate numbers. This lesson will show how the rules for the reduction of pints to quarts and quarts to gallons may be taught. Rules for the reduction of other denominate num- bers may be taught in a similar manner. Illustrative Lesson. Material. The measures and water should be at hand in case any child has forgotten the facts or cannot reduce quantities readily. Method. This lesson should begin with a short review of the table of liquid measure. For the review, questions somewhat like the following may be asked: "May, how many pints in one quart?" "How many pints in two quarts?" "Harry, how many quarts in one pint?" "In two pints?" "In four pints, class?" "Nellie, how many quarts in a gallon?" "How many quarts in three gallons, John?" "How many gallons in eight quarts?" "In twelve quarts?" "Who can say the little table about pints, quarts and gallons?" "Two pints make one quart. Four quarts make one gallon." "We are going to find out today whether we cannot make some rules to help us in changing from pints to quarts, quarts to gallons, and back again from gallons to quarts and quarts to pints." "Suppose that I have six pints of milk. How many quarts have I, Robert?" "You have three quarts." "Class, how did Robert know that six pints is the same as three quarts?" " He knew that one quart is two pints, another one would be two more, or four pints, and another quart would make six pints." "True, but can we not find a shorter way to tell it? Suppose that I had twenty pints that I wanted to change 268 Public School Methods to quarts. Must I say that one quart is two pints, another is two more, another two more, and two more and two more and so on until I have used up twenty pints? Think how long it would take. I'm sure you do not do that when I ask you how many quarts there are in twenty pints. How many quarts are there?" "Ten." "How do you know?" "Because there are ten twos in twenty." "How many quarts in sixteen pints?" "Eight." "How do you know?" "Because there are eight twos in sixteen." "Tell us that at the board." The child writes, 8X2 ■= 16. "Suppose, though, that we do not know how many twos there are in a certain number? How can we find out?" "We can divide." "Divide what?" "We can divide the number by two." "Show me, by dividing, how many twos there are in 44." "In 62." "In 84." " I have 68 pints of milk. Show me by division how many quarts I have." "In the same way show me how many quarts in 88 pints." "In 42 pints." "Who now can make a rule for us that will always help us to change pints to quarts very quickly? Make your rule very exact and word it carefully." "To change pints to quarts, divide the number of pints by two." Following this same plan, the children will readily tell how to change quarts to gallons and then the rule may be developed that to change from a quantity of a certain order to a quantity of a larger order we must always divide. It is a very simple matter to secure from the children the rule that to change from a quantity of a certain order Third Year Number Work 269 to one of a lower order we must multiply. Liquid measure may be taken up first and the rule for changing from gallons to quarts quickly developed, as follows: "Marjorie, how many quarts in one gallon?" "How many quarts in two gallons, class?" "In four gallons?" "In six gallons?" "Tell me how you find it." "In one gallon there are four quarts, so in six gallons there are six times as many quarts." " I have a certain number of gallons of oil. I am not going to tell how many, but I want to know how I can find out how many quarts there are." "You must multiply the number of gallons by four." "Put that in the form of a rule." "To change gallons to quarts, multiply the number of gallons by four." The rule for changing quarts to pints may now be devel- oped. Dry measure may be taken up next, then money, then linear measure. Rules should be developed in each case until it is perfectly clear to the children that when we change a quantity of one order to a quantity of higher order, division always takes place, and when we change a quantity to a quantity of lower order, multiplication takes place. Caution. Teachers are too apt to think that it is a waste of time to develop rules from the children and, consequently, give the rule themselves and feel satisfied if the pupils per- form the operations. Do not be this kind of a teacher. Make your pupils think instead of doing their thinking for them. Do not be content to have a lot of little machines grinding out answers to problems, but seek to develop reasoning power and judgment. In no other subject is there greater opportunity for doing this than in arithmetic, and only insofar as this result is accomplished is number work of practical value. 3. Addition of Fractions. Illustrative Lesson. Pur- pose of the lesson: To develop the rule for the addition of fractions. 270 Public ScJwol Methods Material. On the board have five large circles as follows: Method. In beginning the lesson the teacher says to the class, "Not long ago we found out what a fraction is and why we call it a fraction. Today we are going to find out something new about fractions. How many parts in this first circle?" "Two parts." "Each part is called what?" "Each part is called one half." "What is each part in the second circle called?'" (One third.) "In the third?" "The fourth?" "The fifth?" "In one whole how many twelfths?" "Twelve twelfths." "In one half how many twelfths?" "Six twelfths." "In one third how many twelfths?" "Four twelfths." "In one fourth how many twelfths?" "Three twelfths." "In one sixth how many twelfths?" "Two twelfths." "In one half and one twelfth how many twelfths?" "Seven twelfths." "In one third and one twelfth how many twelfths?" "In one fourth and one twelfth?" "In one sixth and one twelfth?" "If I had two and one half apples and some one gave me a twelfth of another, how many apples would I have?" "You would have two and seven twelfths." "Then two and one half plus one twelfth equals what?" "It equals two and seven twelfths." Third Year Number Work 271 "I will write that for you." (Writes 2 £ +^ -2 T V) "If John had one and one third apples and Rena gave him three twelfths more, how many would he have?" " He would have one and seven twelfths." " Harry, tell us at the board what one and one third plus three twelfths equals." It is written. " Here is a harder problem. You will have to think care- fully." " If I had one half of an orange and one third of it and one twelfth of it, how much would I have?" "You would have eleven twelfths." "How do you know?" " Because one half is six twelfths, one third is four twelfths and one twelfth is one twelfth, so all together they make eleven twelfths." "Suppose we write that." The teacher writes $ + $+■>& = i^ + tV + t*Ji or H- She then says, "Add this" (writing £ + £+•&)• When the answer is given, the teacher writes, i + i+i4-A+A+A"ii» or l - The following problems are then given: H*+tW 4+i + iW i+l+A-? In each case the results are written out as shown above. The teacher then says to the class, " I_ want you to tell me exactly what you did when you added these fractions" (pointing to the problem i + i+^V = t\+A + tj» or tV)- "We changed the one third and one fourth to twelfths and added them to the one twelfth." "In other words, you changed these two fractions (one half and one third) to fractions of another name. What new name did you give them?" "Twelfths." "What new name did you give these?" "These?" "These?" (Pointing to different problems.) "Well, what made you change them to twelfths?" "So that we could add them." 272 Pvblic ScJwol Methods "Why didn't you change this one half (i + ^4-^ = •& + fa + T * T ) to fourths and say that h + $ + T V - I + i\ + Vs ? " "Won't this do?" "No." "Why not?" "The fractions must have the same name." "Did you give them the same name in all of these other problems?" "Yes." "Must they always have the same name?" "Yes." "Very well. Who, then, can make a rule for us telling us how to add fractions?" "To add fractions change them to fractions having the same name." "Add these fractions for me." (The teacher writes £ + J.) "One half equals six twelfths; three fourths equals nine twelfths. Six twelfths and nine twelfths equal fifteen twelfths." " You did that correctly, but there is a much easier way to add those fractions. Who sees it?" If no one does, the teacher rapidly draws two circles, dividing one into halves, the other into fourths. "Now who sees how to add one half and three fourths?" The children readily see that the fractions can be added by changing them to fourths. In the same way show that halves and thirds may be added by reducing them to sixths; halves and sixths to sixths; thirds and sixths to sixths, in each case emphasizing the fact that while it is not wrong to change them to twelfths, it is easier and better to change them to fractions with smaller names. When this fact has been firmly fixed, the teacher may say, " Harry gave us a good rule for adding frac- tions. Who now can add something more to that rule to make it even better? " The new rule given may be very crude, but never mind. If it states the facts, that is all you want. Furth- ermore, never discourage a child when he is attempting to form his own rules, but give all the praise you possibly can. In all Third Year X umber Work 273 probability the rule which the children now give will be some- what as follows: "To add fractions, change them to frac- tions having the same name. Make the new name as small as you can, and then, when the fractions all have the same name, add them." Though the rule lacks conciseness, for the first attempt it certainly should be praised. Later on, it can be polished and made more concise. Do not hurry in this work. Take plenty of time for the development of each rule. Then give plenty of drill in applying the rule before teaching anything new. Following this same plan, the rule for subtraction of fractions may be developed. The same figures may also be used in teaching multiplication and division of fractions. Caution. Do not think that the lesson as outlined above is to be finished at one recitation. It may take two, three, four, five or even more, according to the class and the readi- ness with which they grasp new ideas. Take plenty of time with the beginning work and you will find that time will be saved in the end. 4. Ratio and Proportion. Illustrative Lesson. 1 1 z H 9 H 5 h 7 1- 8 h H 10 h H J 1 1 274 Public School Methods Material. Lines drawn as above are on the board. The lines should be long enough so that they can be readily- seen. If the first line is drawn twelve inches long and the second twenty-four, they will be found to serve the pur- pose very well. Method. The teacher says to the class, "I have drawn some lines on the board this morning which I want you to compare. We shall call each of these divisions one inch." "In line marked i, how many inches are there?" "There are two inches." "In line marked 2, how many inches?" "There are four inches." "Line 1 is what part of line 2?" "Line 1 is one half of line 2." "I am going to tell you a new way of saying that. We say that the ratio (writing the word) of line 1 to line 2 is one half." "We also say that the ratio of line 2 to line 1 is two. Who sees why?" "Because it is twice as long." "What is the length of line 3?" "Three inches." "Of line 4?" "Six inches." "Line 3 is what part of line 4?" "It is one half of line 4." "Who, then, can tell me what the ratio of line 3 to line 4 is?" "The ratio of line 3 to line 4 is one half." "What is the ratio of line 4 to 3?" "The ratio is two." "What is the ratio of line 5 to 6?" "The ratio of line 5 to 6 is one third." "What is the ratio of line 6 to 5?" "The ratio of line 6 to 5 is three." "What, then, is the ratio of two inches to six inches?" "Of six inches to two inches?" "Of two apples to six Third Year Number Work 275 apples?" "Of six apples to two apples?" "Of two bushels of corn to six bushels?" " Look closely at lines 7 and 8 and tell me the two ratios." "The ratio of line 7 to line 8 is one fourth, and the ratio of line 8 to line 7 is four." "In lines 9 and 10 we have something harder. How many inches in line 9 ?" "There are four inches." "In line 10?" "There are six inches." " Each one of these six inches is what part of the whole line?" " Each one is one sixth of the whole line." "Then line 9 is what part of line 10?" " It is four sixths." "What, then, is the ratio of line 9 to 10?" "It is four sixths." "What is the ratio of four inches to six inches?" "Of four apples to six apples?" "Of four cents to six cents?" " Now, we say that the ratio of line 10 to line 9 is six fourths. Who sees the reason for that?" " Because to make line 10 out of line 9 we must take line 9, or four fourths, and two fourths more, making six fourths." "Who can tell the two ratios of lines 11 and 12?" "The ratio of line 11 to line 12 is three fourths. The ratio of line 12 to line 11 is four thirds." "Tell me again the ratio of line 1 to line 2." "One half." "Of line 2 to line 1." "Two." "Suppose that each little line means a stick of candy. If these four sticks of candy can be bought for four cents, for how many cents can I buy two sticks?" "For'two cents." " If four cents buy eight pencils, how many will two cents buy?" 276 Public School Methods "They will buy four." "If two cents buy four marbles, how many will four cents buy?" "They will buy eight marbles." " Look at lines 5 and 6 and tell me the ratio of two inches to six inches." "Of six inches to two inches." "Of two marbles to six marbles." "Of six marbles to two marbles." "If two marbles cost ten cents, what will six marbles cost?" "They will cost thirty cents." "If six marbles may be bought for twelve cents, for what can I buy two marbles?" The teacher should give many other similar problems. ProWems involving the ratio four sixths will be more diffi- cult, but if small numbers are used at first, the children will readily take up the work. By drawing the line of six inches again and dividing it 'into thirds, the children will recognize four sixths as two thirds and six fourths as three halves. Continue the work until the children thoroughly understand this kind of problem. 6. Written Work. In the third grade rapid written work should be an important feature. Give the children about five minutes to see how many problems can be worked cor- rectly in that time. Appeal to emulation; match your classes, and aim to have the recitation full of snap from start to finish. A good deal of simple work can be done as seat work, or busy work, as it is often called. Tables of multiplication and division may be formed, simple number stories written, problems on the board solved or original drawings made to illustrate number facts. These papers should be carefully looked over and returned with the mis- takes marked. A good many teachers get into the habit of demanding considerable written work which is consigned to the waste basket without being looked over. This prac- tice leads to careless work, for the children, knowing that their work will not be corrected, naturally do not try to do their best. A capable, older pupil may often be entrusted Third Year Number Work 277 with this work of looking over papers if the teacher is very busy. The teacher should see to it, however, that this pupil does her work carefully and conscientiously. 6. Decimals. Decimal fractions, if properly taken up, do not prove difficult for most children. The following will illustrate one way in which the work may be commenced: The teacher informs the class that they are going to learn about a new kind of fractions. She then asks the question, "Robert, fifty cents is what part of a dollar?" "It is one half of a dollar." "How many one-hundredths of a dollar is it?" " It is fifty one-hundredths." The teacher writes: 50c == AV " Now we will write it another way, using the dollar sign." The teacher then explains that the decimal point must be written before every decimal fraction $ .50 is written at the right of -^V "Mary, write forty-five cents in these three ways." "Write seventy-five cents, Ruth." "Class, read this number." (The teacher writes $1.55.) "Of what use is the decimal point?" "It separates the cents from the dollars." "How many cents are there in that sum?" "There are fifty-five cents." "In fifty-five cents, how many tens?" "There are five tens and five cents more." " Here, now, is one thing we must remember. The first number which follows the decimal point means tenths. In this number ($1.55) the first five means five tenths of a dollar. In these numbers tell me how many tenths of a dollar." $ -25 $i-53 .69 4.28 .87 3.07 .40 1.03 The tenths are given. "In $ .55 you said there were five tenths and five cents 278 Public School Methods more. Now this five cents that is left is what part of a whole dollar?" "It is five one-hundredths." "Let us write it in three ways." "It is written thus: 5c, T -fhy, $ .05." "Write six cents in three ways." "Seven cents." "Eight cents." "Ten cents." "Here, then, is something else to remember. The second figure after the decimal point means hundredths. Now read these same numbers and tell the hundredths in each case." " Now how shall we write a decimal fraction that does not contain tenths ?" If no one knows, the teacher explains. "When we first began, you said that fifty cents equals fifty one-hundredths of a dollar. Twenty-five cents is how many hundredths of a dollar?" "It is twenty-five hundredths." "Read these same numbers as so many hundredths of a dollar." The numbers are read, the dollars being omitted in the second column. "If I write five tenths of a dollar thus (writing .5), how shall I write five tenths of a bushel?" "Five tenths of a foot?" "Five tenths of anything?" "If three hundredths of a dollar is written .03, how shall we write three hundredths of anything?" "How shall we write twenty-five hundredths?" "Sixty- five hundredths?" Plenty of practice in reading and writing decimals is given and problems in addition and subtraction are solved until the children are perfectly familiar with the two places following the decimal point. In a later lesson it should be brought out that 1.2 may be read one and two tenths, or twelve tenths; 3.7 as three and seven tenths, or thirty-seven tenths. Do not introduce this too soon, for fear of con- fusing the children. Third Year Number Work 279 Caution. It is not necessary, or even desirable, that children in this grade know any of the theory of decimal fractions. The decimal point should be looked upon by them simply as separating dollars and dimes (hundredths and tenths), and will give no trouble unless the teacher, by other explaining, confuses the class. 7. Other Features of Third Year Work. It is usually considered sufficient if the child understands numbers to 10,000 in this grade, although he may be allowed to count by 10,000's to 100,000, or even farther. In the writing of Roman numerals there is no need in going beyond C in the first half year, and M in the second half. The counting of the second grade should be continued, including the 6's, 7's, 8's, 9's and io's. These can be used as a basis for the multiplication tables and as a review of addition combina- tions. The 45 combinations of one-figure numbers should be reviewed, and in the first half year oral work of the types of 30+40, 35+40, should be taken, to be followed in the second half year by cases like 25+42 and 225+42, where no carrying is involved. The multiplication may be carried so far as to include three-figure multiplicands and one-figure multipliers. The division may include one, and, in strong classes, two-figure divisors not exceeding 12, and it is well to give children the form which will be needed for later 432 work in arithmetic and algebra; that is, 2)864. Lack of space forbids treatment of all of the various phases of number work, but with the suggestions made, with a careful study of good books on number work, with the help to be found in educational magazines, and with personal ingenuity, a teacher should be able to make of number work a most delightful study. She should bear in mind that to be successful in teach- ing any subject, she must have a definite end in view and constantly work toward this end. Disjointed, spasmodic work bears little fruit. It is the steady, patient striving 280 Public School Methods to accomplish a certain purpose that counts. Furthermore, it is absolutely essential that the teacher have a good grasp of the topics she expects to cover in a certain term. She should not teach from day to day, as it were, taking up decimals today and not knowing what is coming tomorrow. She should know thoroughly the whole field of work and make the lessons of one day pave the way for the lessons of the next. 8. Typical Problems. The following problems are sug- gested as types which may be given with profit to a third grade class: Oral Exercises (i) The meat for our dinner cost 25 cents; the coffee, 10 cents; the strawberries, 10 cents; the bread, 5 cents; the cream, 5 cents. Find the total cost. (2) Will's mother sent him down town to buy food for breakfast. The coffee cost 20 cents, the eggs 17 cents, the butter 20 cents. How much did the food cost? Will's mother gave him $1. How much change did he bring home? (3) Leo's wagon cost $1.25 and Jack's wagon cost $2.00. Find the cost of both. Written Exercises (1) I have $484 to be divided equally between 4 men. How much shall each receive? (2) May's mother bought 10 yards of dress goods at $.50 a yard, and two pairs of shoes at $2 per pair. How much did these cost? (3) She also bought six buttons at 30 cents a dozen, and 5 spools of silk at 6 cents a spool. How much did these cost? Find the cost of all the material. TEST QUESTIONS 1. How early in the third year would you place the arithmetic in the hands of the pupils? Give your reasons for your answer. Third Year Number Work 281 2. To what extent should the teacher study a primary arithmetic before placing it in the hands of the class? Why should the teacher keep more than a lesson or two ahead of the class in any text-book? 3. Why should exercises in denominate numbers begin in the third grade? Why should you use both applied and abstract problems in this grade? 4. Give the outline of an illustrative lesson that you would use to show the reductions in linear measure. 5. Should the pupils memorize the definitions and rules found in the arithmetic? Why? 6. How can strips of paper be used to illustrate the lesson on addition of fractions? State how you would have the paper prepared, and how the pupils should use it. 7. Outline an illustrative lesson for teaching the sub- traction of fractions. 8. What work in fractions should be done in the third grade ? 9. What relation do you find between the lesson or addition of fractions and that on proportion? Which do you consider the more difficult to the pupils? Why? 10. What are the advantages arising from the intro- duction of decimal fractions into the third year's work? Why do pupils in the higher grades usually find decimals so difficult? CHAPTER TEN NATURE STUDY INTRODUCTION 1. Educational Purposes. The educational purposes of nature study are as follows: (i) To awaken and develop inquiry. (2) To direct inquiry in such a way that the results may be definite and true, as well as to develop interesting knowledge about nature. (3) To lead children to study their immediate environ- ment in its relation to themselves, rather than to study the far-away, unusual and unrelated things of life. 2. Why Nature Study is Important. (1) Nature study furnishes material, abundant, interesting, valuable and varied, for lessons in language, reading, number, form, color, size, drawing, clay modeling, sewing, cutting and pasting. (2) It trains all the special senses to greater usefulness and develops the powers of observation, comparison and reason. (3) It arouses sympathy, kindles the imagination, develops kindness in word and deed, awakens reverence and strength- ens the will to do right. (4) It affords endless food for thought and arouses interest in and respect for patient labor and for industry in all its forms. (5) It affords culture that is broad, varied, generous and useful to the end of life. (6) It furnishes much practical information, preparing the way for the future study of botany, zoology, geography and kindred subjects. (7) It leads to a better understanding and appreciation of art in all its forms. (8) It develops the power to see and enjoy beauty in all that God has created. 282 Nature Studij 283 (9) "That the child may be reverent and upward- looking, and that he may come to know himself as subject to eternal laws, we would have him study nature." 1 (10) "We have become convinced that some intimate, sympathetic acquaintance with the natural objects of the earth and sky adds greatly to the happiness of life, and that this acquaintance should be begun in childhood and be developed all through youth and maturity. A brook, a hedgerow or a garden is an inexhaustible teacher of wonder, reverence and love. The scientists insist today on nature study for children, but we teachers ought long ago to have learned from the poets the value of this element in educa- tion. The idea of culture has always included a quick and wide sympathy with men; it should hereafter include sym- pathy with nature, and particularly with its living forms, a sympathy based on some accurate observation of nature." 2 3. Apparatus Needed. (a) Reference Books. The teacher should have a few standard works of reference on botany, zoology and minerals; also one or more good books treating of nature study. None of these needs to be expen- sive. For suggestions, see the bibliography on pages 315-316. (b) Stencils. Blackboard stencils are inexpensive and will facilitate both the rapidity and accuracy of the black- board work. Stencils for nearly all well-known varieties of trees, shrubs, flowers, fruits, insects, birds and animals can be procured at five cents each or at the rate of twenty- five for one dollar. (c) Illustrated Flower and Seed Catalogues. These may usually be obtained by writing to well-known dealers in this line. These catalogues supply much useful information difficult to get elsewhere, and furnish good models for lessons in coloring when not enough natural specimens are at hand to supply the class. (d) Opera Glasses. Opera glasses with large eye pieces are desirable if one wishes to study the habits of wild birds. 1 Sarah L. Arnold: Way marks for Teachers. 2 Charles W. Eliot, President Emeritus, Harvard University. 284 Public School Methods The timidity of the birds makes it impossible to study them at close range, and the glasses enable the teacher to obtain the information by which she may identify birds that the children observe in their rambles or drives about the country. (e) A Microscope. A pocket microscope is convenient in the examination of flowers and insects of the smaller species, and when minute details are to be studied, or definite classifications made, it becomes a necessity. (f) Charts. There are good colored charts of birds, animals, fishes, insects and flowers that will materially help the work and are not expensive. These are desirable, but not indispensable. (g) Note Books. In the third grade each child should have a note book in which to record observations. These books may be homemade, and should be about six inches square. If used in the primary grades, they should contain but brief records. To illustrate: Make a general note book having at least twelve leaves, and give a proper share to each month. On the cover print or write in large letters, Nature Study, with the owner's name and the year. Above each section place the name of the month, March, for instance. Have each pupil make records like the following: First robin, March 8. First crow, March 15. First pussy willow, March 20. First anemone, March 29. The records are to be made with neatness, and should be kept for comparison in following seasons. This is useful, and lends dignity and encouragement to the work. Cautions. (1) Teachers who are not able to secure the aids to study mentioned above should not be discouraged; much can be accomplished even without them. (2) Use familiar, natural specimens belonging to the immediate neighborhood, borrow pet birds and animals belonging to the children and, if possible, add to the collec- tion by borrowing stuffed specimens from the nearest high school museum. Nature Study 285 FIRST YEAR 4. Plant Life. Plants afford the best material for the first nature study lessons. They are easily procured, are interesting to the children, and can be handled as freely as desired. (a) Purpose of Lessons. The chief purpose in these first lessons should be so to stimulate and direct the chil- dren's interest in plants that the whole life of the plant will be observed, so the class will gain some knowledge of the necessary conditions for the plant's growth and also to dis- cover some interesting adaptations made by the plant in supplying its needs. (b) Observations. Observe a whole plant having seed. Examine plants in the garden and field, by the roadside and in the market, to find how many have seeds. Collect some seeds, watch to see what becomes of seeds left ungathered. Observe as many autumn flowers as possible, and note what follows the flower. Note the condition of plant life after frosts. Search for seeds. Plant various seeds out of doors, including some that have hard shells, and watch for plants in the spring. Care for growing plants during the winter, including some bulbs that will bear flowers, watching the growth and needs of the plant, and noting the effects of sunlight on leaves and unfolding flower buds. In spring, note the number and variety of new plants; compare the early flowers with those observed in the fall and winter. Examine soil from the field and roadside; place it in the schoolroom, water it, and watch to see if any plants grow from it. Plant some seeds in the schoolroom, and in the garden, also, including some of those collected during the fall, and care for the plants, watching their growth. Observe trees during the autumn, winter and spring, choosing several varieties different in form and habit, if possible, as the oak, willow and evergreen. Note the foliage while it is green, also the fruit, if it can be found, and espe- cially the nuts. Watch the changes in each tree as cold weather comes. Note winter conditions. Bring twigs of 286 Public School Methods as many trees as possible into the warm room and place them in water before growing begins out of doors, in order that you may observe buds; also, watch for new leaves, blossoms and seeds. 6. Animal Life. Lessons on familiar animals can be introduced soon after those on plants. However, it is advis- able to give enough lessons on plants to get the children accustomed to your plan of work before taking up the lessons on animals. (a) Purpose of Lessons. The leading purpose in the study of animal life in the first grade should be to give the children a better idea of the needs of animals and a keener sympathy with them. (b) Observations. Observe any insects to be found in the vicinity, noting the number and variety of each, where they are seen and what they are doing. Note the changes as the weather grows cold — the nests, burrows, hiding places, cocoons, storing of food. Look for signs of insect life in cold weather. If any are seen, note under what conditions they exist. With the return of warm weather, watch cocoons and note the reappearance of many forms of insect life and its activities. Watch the behavior of squirrels, rabbits or other wild animals that may be found in the neighborhood. Observe birds in the fall to see what they do. Watch any that remain during the winter, to see how they secure food and protection. Watch for the coming of birds in the spring, noting how they care for their young and what they do to get food, shelter, and protection from their enemies. Observe pets and domestic animals to find what they can do. Notice the food needed, and how it is secured; note their means of defense or escape from enemies, and their care for and defense of their young. Note any parts or peculiarities of structure that have significance in relation to the activity observed. Caution. Always encourage reports of observations made outside of school, and of work which you have not directed. Different localities afford such a range of opportunities that Nature Studtj 287 no outline is so valuable to follow as the teacher's own sum- mary of the possibilities of her environment when on an informal trip with her pupils. These trips may be taken after school or on Saturday afternoons. 6. Minerals. First grade children are especially interested in stones, and, if encouraged to do so, will collect a large number of pebbles and fragments of rock, noting their form, color and relative sizes. The work begun in this grade may be extended into those that follow, if the interest and material warrant. (a) Purpose of Lessons. The main purpose of the lessons should be to lead the pupils to recognize and name the rocks common in their immediate locality, and to work out for themselves the simple physical problems of min- eralogy — as finding what rocks are harder than others, learning the effect of weather upon the rocks, etc. (b) Observations. Let the children sort and arrange in trays, or box covers, the pebbles and fragments of rock which they have collected. Ask them to tell the difference in appearance between the rough, angular ones, and the smooth, round ones. Place some small, rough fragments of soft stone in a strong glass bottle and shake, to show how the roughness is worn off. Tell the children how marbles are made. (c) Experiments. Let the children make simple tests for hardness by trying to scratch one pebble or rock with another of a different kind. They will discover that quartz is hardest, and that it will scratch glass. Under the teacher's direction they can also test their specimens for lime. To do this, procure from a drug store a small bottle of hydro- chloric (muriatic) acid, and allow the children to place a drop on the specimen to be tested. If the acid foams, lime is present. A needle, hat pin, or a piece of wire may be used to place the acid on the stone. Caution. Hydrochloric acid is poison, and under no circumstances should children be allowed to perform this experiment except under the direct supervision of the 288 Public School Methods teacher. When purchased, the acid should be put in a glass- stoppered bottle and labeled poison. It should be placed in a locked case in the schoolroom, and the teacher only should carry the key. Unless these precautions can be observed, the experiment should not be attempted. 7. Natural Forces. Many of the common phenomena of nature, such as the succession of day and night, the work of the wind, rain and snow, and the changes in the weather, are a constant source of wonder to children, and they are at once interested in anything that will give them more definite knowledge of natural forces. Through conversational lessons and in other ways the teacher can lead the children to observe these forces more olosely. Observations. Notice the effects of wind in moving objects on land and in making waves. Observe the sources of heat — rubbing, pounding, fire and sun. Notice the effects of heat in melting, burning, cooking, etc. Make simple experiments showing the effects of heat on the candle, on snow and ice, sugar, lead, etc. Use the magnet on iron filings. Spread the filings on paper and place the magnet underneath. Use it again on nails, tacks and other small objects made of iron. Make a triangular prism by fasten- ing together three strips of glass one inch wide and four inches long. Paste strips of paper \ or \ inches wide around the pieces of glass at each end of the prism to hold them in place. Use this piece of apparatus for showing the prismatic colors in the sunbeam. The experi- ment is much more effective if performed in a dark room. 8. Study of the Weather. Keep regular observations of the weather. Notice the rising and setting of the sun, the fall of rain or snow, the change of temperature between day and night, the appearance of the sky, and the direction of the wind. If a large weather calendar is kept on the board, most of these observations can be recorded upon it. See Volume Two, pages 20-22, Section 11. Nature Study 289 SECOND YEAR 9. Plant Life. Note food products from plants, and the part of the plant so used. Study the harvesting, storing and preparing of various parts for use. Ask the children to tell who does all this work. Note the fruits and nuts in the markets that do not grow in our climate, and con- sider where they are grown. Compare these with home- grown products. Consider the needs in transportation and how they are met. Study the work of planting and caring for some of the crops that supply food. Consider the amount of seed that must be used, and how it is secured. Note and make a similar study of parts of plants used in making cloth, in building houses, boats, etc., and in making other necessary articles. Plant seeds of common grains, and watch and care for the plants. Plant flower seeds, care for the plants and compare them with wild flower plants. Make a study of trees near the school, especially of their uses for shade beauty, fruit, etc. 10. Animal Life. Observe work done by such animals as the horse and dog. Note the fitness of the animal for its work, as to strength, size, form or keenness of sense. Note the animal products used for food and clothing; as milk, butter, wool. Study the preparation or processes necessary in connection with each. Note the food of wild birds and the relation they bear to plant protection. Study domestic fowls. Observe insects in relation to plant life, and note the stage or phase of development in which the insects eat most. Note the means of protection, as color, etc. 11. Natural Forces. Note the necessities for heat and light, and observe the materials used in securing them — various kinds of fuel and oil, gas and electricity. Study the preparation or processes necessary to the utilization of these materials for light and heat. Observe and compare water -worn pebbles and broken fragments of sandstone, granite and other kinds of stone available. Observe worn stones in buildings, pavements, steps, street-curb, and account for what is noticed. Find crystals in stones, frost, 290 Public School Methods rock candy, etc. Make solutions and observe the formation of crystals. Examine soils and compare sand, clay and garden soil. Note the action of frost on water and on soil. Observe evaporation and condensation of moisture. Note that steam is a lifting or pushing force, and observe the work it is made to do. Note the work done by electricity, and consider its value and importance. 12. Weather Conditions. These should be noted accu- rately, including the reading of the thermometer. Observe clouds. Watch the relation between temperature and the direction of wind and cloudiness, dew, frost, rain or snow. Consider the relation of weather conditions to the condi- tion of growing plants, the supply of moisture and heat, effects of cold wind, late or early frost. Picture conditions in different parts of the country at the same time of year. Note the varying position of the sun at sunrise and sunset during the year. Observe phases of the moon, and watch the sky at night to find certain stars, as the North star. Observe the use of the compass, and consider the conditions under which it is needed, as at sea in storms. Watch the effect of storms and note the relations between all phases of the weather and human life. 13. Summary. From the foregoing Sections it will be seen that the work of the second year varies from that of the first in degree only. The same classes of objects are studied, and observations are carried on along the same lines of investigation. The pupils are a little more mature and will notice some details which they passed over in the first grade. They will also be able to make broader applica- tion of the facts and principles gleaned from their study. THIRD YEAR 14. The Work Expanded. Continue and expand the work. More accurate and more detailed work may be expected. Third grade children are capable of more consec- utive work, can make more valuable deductions from observa- tions, and can express their observations more freely in THE RORTX'S NEST A photograph from life. Nature Study 291 writing, cutting, drawings and color work. From the direc- tions printed on the rolls of "blue-print" or "brown-print" paper, procured at a small cost from a photographic supply house, they can make prints of plants grown in the garden, flowers found, leaves gathered from trees which they have recognized, etc. They can make plant presses as follows: Saw out two pieces of half-inch board about 6 inches by 8 inches, and \ inch thick; place newspaper between these to absorb the moisture from the plants, and put around them a book strap to tighten the press. If the children are encour- aged they will make collections of nature material for the busy teacher, and will be responsible for the care of plants or animals used in this study of unusual interest. TYPE STUDIES 15. Our Tree. (a) General Plan of Lesson. In graded schools let each room, each class, or, if preferred, each child, select a tree near the school building for par- ticular study. In rural schools one child, or groups of a few children, may select trees. In all cases the selection should be made when the school begins in the fall. The tree is full of possibilities. In autumn its general form as compared with the forms of other trees should be noticed. Its leaves, particularly their change of color, should receive attention, and the falling of the leaves may also be considered. What reasons can be found for the leaves being larger on one side of the tree? Investigation will show this to be due. to a more favorable position in reference to the sun, and, to some extent, to a shelter from prevailing winds. In the winter the tree should be studied when stripped of its foliage, and its plan of branching should be noted. Third grade pupils can make a sketch of the plan. The advantage to the tree of not having leaves during winter should also be noted, especially in those regions where there are heavy falls of snow. The snow would gather upon the leaves and break the branches with its weight. 292 Public School Methods In the spring the renewal of life, the putting forth of buds, leaves and blossoms awakens new interest, and this naturally leads to another interest — the tree as the home of animals and birds. The uses of the tree to man should follow this study. (b) Records. The record of the tree study should con- sist of drawings, colored pictures and written notes. First, a drawing should be made of the tree as a whole. As the tree makes decided changes in appearance, these should be reported. Drawings of the twigs as they change should be made. These gradually accumulated records are a great delight and an excellent means of development to the children. Together with the year's written and oral work on the subject, they make material for the Arbor Day program, the real value of which can readily be appreciated. 16. The Robin. This is one of the birds that should be studied very carefully, especially by the children of the first and second grades, as a foundation for all further observations on birds. The following plan has proved suc- cessful in both city and rural schools: (a) Arrivals in Spring. Make a great point of the arrival of the first robin. Suggest watching for him several days before the date of his usual arrival in your neighbor- hood. Write on the board the date and the fact of the return of the robin, and encourage the pupils to keep notes at their desks, as well, of the arrival of the various birds, flowers, etc. (b) Habits. Encourage the children to observe the actions of the robin, so easy to approach. Praise those who can tell just how he gets the worm out of the ground, and whether he hops or walks. (c) Nest and Young. If possible, get reports on the building of the nest, the sharing of the work, and the feed- ing of the young. Urge careful and exact observations. Tell how great scientists will watch for hours to find out exactly how a bird lines the nest, for instance. If allowed, go Nature Study 293 with the children to make bird and other nature obser- vations. (d) Correlated Subjects. Use the material offered about the robin in oral English, written English and in drawing, cutting, color work, etc., as seat work; tell the story of How the Robin Got his Red Breast, or read the poem. Let the young children make up a simple play to show the nesting, etc.; use the picture of the robin on the nest (see page 292), and a stuffed specimen, if procurable. Let the children try to imitate the robin's rain call. (e) Literature. Nature Study arid Related Subjects, by Jackman, published by the Macmillan Company, and any of the manuals on our North American birds will be helpful to the teacher. The Birds of Killingworth and Emperor's Bird Nest, by Longfellow, are good to read to the children. (f) Riddle. The following riddle was composed as a class exercise by a first grade class, to be answered by a second grade class: Did you hear my song this morning? I love to sing at sunrise. I will sing you a song at sunset, too. People say, "Spring is here," when they hear my song. My dress is brown and gray. My breast is reddish brown. My cousin has a red breast. We build our nest very strong. It is lined with mud. Over this we put nice, soft grass. Our eggs are bluish green with tiny brown spots. How fast I can run. I run about on the ground to catch worms. Did you ever see me fly with a worm in my bill? Have you ever seen me feed my babies? They like worms to eat. I like ripe cherries. We are building a nest in one of your trees. Do you know my name? (g) A Poem. The following poem, How Do the Robins Build Their Nests, can be used to advantage: 294 Public School Methods How do the robins build their nests? Robin Red Breast told me; First, a wisp of yellow hay In a pretty round they lay; Then some shreds of downy floss, Feathers, too, and bits of moss, Woven with a sweet, sweet song, This way, that way, and across; That's what Robin told me. Where do the robins hide their nests? Robin Red Breast told me; Up among the leaves so deep, Where the sunbeams rarely creep, Long before the winds are cold, Long before -the leaves are gold Bright eyed stars will peep and see Baby Robins — one, two, three: That's what Robin told me. 17. The Study of Bulbs. There is no line of nature study work that repays one more fully for the time spent upon it than the study of bulbs. The work, when once started, can be left almost entirely to the children, and it gives them an opportunity which they enjoy — that of finding out things for themselves. Specific directions for obser- vations need to be given, and occasional reports should be called for. With these exceptions, the work will be largely informal. The following plan will serve as a guide to the teacher : (i) Early in winter start a few bulbs, some, as the Chinese lily, in water; others, as the narcissus and jonquil, in soil placed in flower pots. Make a record of the date of plant- ing. In buildings where the fire is allowed to go out over Sunday and at night, the pots and jars should be placed where the plants will not get chilled. (2) Encourage the children to observe the bulbs each morning when they enter the room and to notice the changes that occur from day to day ; then see that they have a regular period each day for recording in their note books the changes Nature Study 295 they have noticed. First and second grade children should not be expected to record their observations. Detail certain children to measure the plants at regular intervals, as once a week or once in three days, and thus determine their rapidity of growth. Emphasize the importance of care in all this work, and impress upon the pupils the importance of exactness in all observations and statements. Detail other children to water the plants and give them such other care as they may need. If the class is large, these details should be changed each week, so all the pupils may feel that they have a share in the work. (3) Encourage third grade children to keep complete records of their observations, and occasionally have them write reports as a language exercise. Have the reports read in the class, and from them summarize the work done. The reports will show that one child is especially interested in the rapidity of growth, another in the plant's absorption of water, another in the blossoms, and so on, and all the points brought out will show quite a wide range of observa- tion. The interest will increase as the work develops, and, in addition to the pleasure derived from having the blossoms to brighten the room in midwinter, much profitable work will be done by the pupils. A few reports from a third grade are given to show the extent and variety of observations and the problems which the children tried to solve: THREE BULBS (1) The narcissus bulb we planted in the sun grew very slowly The one we planted in the shade grew a little faster. It had better roots and a larger shoot. The one we planted in the dark got the best start. It made many white roots soon. Its leaves came, too, but they were pale. When it had a good start we put it in a place that was not so dark. Then we put it in a shady place. Then we stood it in the sun. It is the best of the three. It is going to blossom. The other two are not growing much. (2) Every morning we pour water into our bulb jars. They stand on the window sill. We find that by afternoon much of the 296 Public School Methods water is gone. It has disappeared. Jars of different shapes lose different amounts of water. We want to know how it leaves. Does the plant use any? Does moisture go off into the air, from the sur- face of the water? If the plant uses water, where does it keep it? (3) Mr. Nabour placed the roots of a lily in a jar of water. Then he sealed the top around the stalk. The water could get out only through the leaves of the lily. On Wednesday, December 4, 1908, the jar weighed 390^ grams. On Monday, December 9, it weighed 379 J grams. So in five days the plant transpired 11 grams of water. That is about 2 grams a day. (4) By January 8 every bit of water had left the bottle we sealed. It had gone through the leaves of the plant. The leaves are dry and tough now. They are dead. The bulb is dry, too, and small. It is shrivelled. The roots of it are like old threads. (5) We broke off the end of a leaf. The water just poured out in drops. The leaf seemed like a green water pipe. One end was in the bulb and the other end we broke off. The flower buds and the flowers are very full of water. They are very fragrant. (6) We tied rulers to some of our Chinese lilies. We tied them so we could see how fast they grew. Our tallest lily grew i\ inches from Wednesday, November 27, to Monday, December 2. Then it grew i\ inches from Monday, December 2, to Wednesday, Decem- ber 4. Walter's was 9^ inches high on Wednesday, December 4th, and just a foot high on Wednesday, December 11. So it grew i\ inches in one week. (7) The Chinese lily that stands where the sunshine reaches it most of the time has grown the fastest. It has the largest leaves, and it has beautiful flowers. The lily that stands in the shadow of the casement has grown slowest. It has the smallest leaves and it hasn't even buds yet. (8) The flowers turned brown. They felt like paper. They were so dry outside. We opened the thick green part. We did not see it when the blossom was new. It grew large afterward. The green part had little wet seeds in it. We think it would be a good plan to plant them. We don't know what would grow. (9) After the plant has blossomed, the leaves droop. They fall over, and we can't make them stand up. Then they turn yellow or brown. No water comes out when we break off the end of the leaf. The flowers wither after a while. Then they don't smell good at all. 18. The Squirrel. The following outline of the plan for the study of a live squirrel can be used as well for the study of any other animal that is easily secured; a rabbit, a cat, Nature Study 297 or a dog will serve the purpose as well. The general plan can be followed with any of these, but the details and facts must be changed to fit the animal studied. The compar- ative feature emphasized in the study shows how lessons on animals can be correlated with physiology so as to make each lend interest to and strengthen the other. (a) Purpose of the Lesson. As function is at least one of the causes of structure, according to the best authorities, reasoning from function to structure seems to be the scientific method. The child's keen interest is in the activities of the animal ; so, using these activities as a basis, it is not difficult to lead the pupil to reason from motion, as a cause, to struc- ture, as a result. (b) Plan. The squirrel was kept in a roomy cage in a well-lighted dressing room. The children were sent in by squads to make careful observation. By this arrangement, each one had a chance to observe for himself, carefully and quietly, without interruption. Directions were given as to what should be observed particularly; as, "Notice how he moves, and compare with the way you move;" or, "Com- pare his sense of smell with yours." Very often the oral lessons were given without the squirrel's presence, to see exactly how far each child had been able to observe, com- pare and draw conclusions when alone. The habit of indi- vidual observation — accurate and thoughtful observation without the immediate stimulus of the oral lesson — should come first. That accomplished, the oral lesson seldom fails to effect a valuable re-imaging of what has previously been observed, compared and reasoned about, besides correcting and developing the crude ideas gained. (c) The Outline. The following outline is valuable in planning a series of lessons on the study. It enables the teacher to see the entire plan at once, and, ' consequently, the relation which each lesson sustains to those that follow. The outline should not be placed before first or second grade pupils; if vised with pupils in the third grade it should be constructed, section by section, as the lessons proceed: 298 Public School Methods THE BOY AND THE SQUIRREL I. General Observation of Both: (i) Arms (2) Legs (3) Trunk Compare Functions of Each Resultant Structure Compare Functions of Each Resultant Structure Comparative Function Resultant Structure Boy Squirrel Boy Squirrel Boy Squirrel Boy Squirrel Boy Squirrel Boy 1. Works with arms. 2. Grasps with hands. 3. Makes things. 1. Climbs, using arms but little. 2. Grasps nuts and limbs. 3. Does no delicate work. fi. Short nails. 2. Four fingers and a thumb. (1. Bony arms. 2. Long, sharp, curved claws, thumb lacking. fi. Walks. [2. Does not hang by feet. 11. Leaps — walks little. 2. Climbs and hangs body from feet. 11. Muscular — calf devel- oped. 2. Cannot grasp with feet. 1. Upper leg muscle very large. 2. Calf almost lacking. Hind feet very strong. j Bends and stretches \ trunk little. / Continual rapid, violent 1 movement. / Trunk not very limber \ or elastic. c a • 1 / Trunk extremely lim- | ber and elastic. Nature Study 299 (4) Covering and Movement Comparative Function Resultant Structure II. Special Functions: (1) Eating Comparative Function Resultant Structure Boy Boy- Squirrel Boy Squirrel Boy Squirrel Squirrel 1. Uses artificial protec- tion of house and clothes, etc. 2. Stretches skin very little. 1 . Fur protects him in hot, cold and rainy weather. 2. Tail used for blanket and for screen. 3. Stretches skin contin- ually in moving. 1. Skin delicate, almost without protective hairs. 2. Skin tender, inelastic and close to flesh. 1. Coarse, waterproof hair with winter under-fur. 2. Tail large and bushy. 3. Skin tough, elastic and apart from body. 1. Bites soft food. 2. Eats flesh. 3. Apprehends with hands. 1. Gnaws nuts and bark. 2. Eats no flesh. 3. Often apprehends with mouth. 1. Small, blunt incisors; thin enamel. 2. Tearing teeth. 3. Entire lip. 1. Large, strong incisors, formed for gnawing; very thick enamel. 2. Tearing teeth wanting. 3. Split upper lip. 300 Public School Methods Comparative Boy Looks forward — friends. Function < Squirrel < Must see enemies. at side — (2) Seeing Boy Eyes in front and set in. Resultant Sight not very keen. Structure Squirrel Eyes on sid< k ing out; i and stand- keen sight. Uses the sense less ; other faculties em- Boy ployed in finding Comparative food. Functions Hides food, and prob- Squirrel < ably smells it out to (3) Smelling < I get it. ' Nose delicate and sense Boy delicate but not Resultant strong. Structure | Nose tough and shaped Squirrel < for smelli Sense fairly ng out food, acute. (d) Illustrative Lessons The following exercises show how the outline can be applied. They are reproduced just as they were given : HOW FRISKY EATS Frisky at Dinner and Johnny at Dinner Lesson I Teacher: You have all watched Frisky eating his dinner; now tell us what you saw. Henry: Frisky picked up a nut and gnawed and gnawed and gnawed at the shell until he made a hole in it. Then he picked out the kernel with his teeth, pushed it back in his mouth, and chewed it up in a great hurry. Nature Study 301 Mary: The squirrel eats fast, as if he were afraid we would take the nuts away from him. Emma: Frisky gnawed through the shell with his front teeth and chewed the meat with his back teeth. Teacher: How is that different from the way in which you eat? Nellie: Why, of course we bite things with our front teeth and chew with the back teeth just as he does, but we hardly ever gnaw things. Tom: Yes, and we have knives and forks so we needn't pick out things with our teeth. Teacher: Touch your front teeth. What do you use them for? Helen: I take bites of things with mine. Teacher: The front teeth — the teeth you bite or cut your food with — are called incisors; sounds like scissors, doesn't it? The back teeth, that you use like a mill in grinding your food, are called molars. Jennie: Oh, I saw Frisky's incisors just as plainly. They were long and red. Henry: I saw them, too. They were worn away at the back, and they had a sharp edge in front. They looked to me a great deal like rats' teeth. Teacher: Tell me other things they looked like. Emma: They looked like the cut ends of flowers. Tom: They looked a little bit like my father's chisel. Helen: They looked like the edge of an axe. Teacher: They are often called chisel-shaped. Are they like a chisel in any other way, Tom? Tom: Yes, he uses them something as my father uses his chisel, but he doesn't let the little chips fly, though. Henry: There are two chisels working together. When Frisky yawned, I saw all his teeth. There were four long, narrow ones in front, two up and two down. Then there were some back ones. They were rough. But he hadn't any where my dog has long, sharp teeth. I can make a picture of his teeth on the board. I think that 302 Public School Methods his incisors must be pretty strong, not to break when he is gnawing. Teacher: But you told me they were worn away in the back. Henry: They were in the back, but not in the front. The front part looks different from the back part. Teacher: If the back part is worn down, and the front part is not, what is true of the front part? Henry: Why, it must be harder. Teacher: Tap your teeth. That hard outside covering is called enamel. The softer bony part inside is called den- tine. Compare the enamel of Frisky's teeth with the enamel of your teeth. Mary: Frisky's is on the front of the teeth and ours is all over the outside. Emma: I think his must be thicker and stronger because he cracks hard nuts with his teeth, and I broke a big piece off of my tooth yesterday when I tried to crack a nut. Teacher: Is it right for us to break nuts with our teeth? Helen: No, it isn't, because it spoils our teeth. They weren't made to crack nuts with, and Frisky's were. Nellie: We have hammers to crack our nuts and Frisky hasn't. Tom: Yes, and besides, Frisky lives on nuts, and that is the only way he knows how to open them, and we have other things to eat; anyway, we are smart enough to break off the shell, so we don't need teeth like his. Lesson II Teacher: Yesterday someone said that the squirrel had no teeth where the dog had such long, sharp ones. How does your dog use those teeth, Henry? Tom: I watched Bruno this morning when he had a piece of meat between his paws. He put the end of the meat in his mouth sideways, and then pulled his head back. That is the way he tore off a bite with his side teeth. Teacher: What things have you seen Frisky eat? Nature Study 303 Helen: He ate some nuts and a piece of apple and a cracker this morning. Teacher: Does he ever eat meat? Henry: No, I don't think he does, for I tried him and he just sniffed at it and jumped away. I read that squirrels never eat meat. Teacher: Why do you think he hasn't those tearing teeth ? Henry: He doesn't eat meat or things he has to tear, so he doesn't need them. Nellie: I found out something no one has said. The split in his lips opens when he takes a big nut. Teacher: How much of the apples and the nut kernels does the squirrel eat? Emma: He ate every bit of what I gave him yes- terday. Helen: He ate all but the skin of the apple I gave him. Mary: Why, he was so saucy to me; he only tasted what I gave him and then threw it on the floor. Teacher: How is that; yesterday he ate all and today he only eats part? Tom: Maybe he Kvas hungrier yesterday. Maybe he has too much now. Perhaps we have given him too many things. Nellie: My mother says that is always the way. When we are hungry we will eat all of our bread and butter, and when we aren't we won't eat the crust. Maybe he is like some people. When they are poor they are careful, but when they get rich they are careless. Teacher: What have you noticed about the care he takes of his teeth? Mary: I saw him clean his teeth with his tongue as soon as he had finished eating. Henry: I saw something cuter than that. I saw him use the tip of his tail for a toothbrush after he had eaten a bit of banana. 304 Public School Methods Emma: My big brother says that in his room they study about the teeth and eyes and everything, and his book says that you must clean your teeth after each meal or they will decay. Henry: My papa gives me a dollar for brushing my teeth every day. If you do that, you won't have to go to the dentist. I suppose that is why the squirrel takes care of his, for I never heard of a squirrel dentist. Lesson III Teacher: Imagine our pet in his forest home eating his dinner. Now imagine yourselves at the dinner table. Tell one difference. Tom: There is one big difference. He is in a nicer place than I. He can see all the squirrels and the birds and the bears and the other nice things. Teacher: But if these nice things don't happen to know him — what then ? Helen: Then he will have to look out or they will snatch his nuts. Oh, maybe they will eat him. Teacher: How would you be treated if you were at dinner with strangers? Henry: People would only stare at me, I guess, but I'd most as soon they'd eat me as that. Teacher: Why do you think Frisky eats so fast? Mary: I think he is afraid of the animals he isn't acquainted with and wants to get his dinner over so he can run away. My mamma often says to me, " Don't eat so fast; no one will take your dinner." It isn't good to eat fast. It hurts your stomach and makes you sick. Frisky has to, so he is used to it. Teacher: Compare the position of your mouth with the position of Frisky 's. Helen: My mouth is in my face, and Frisky's is under where I should think his chin ought to be. Teacher: Think of a difference that makes in your way of eating. Nature Study 305 Tom: I think that makes me bend my head forward and look down when I eat. Frisky just holds his food up to his reck and goes ahead. Teacher: How might that be of help to the poor little thing? Emma: Well, one thing, he can eat and have his head up to watch out at the same time. Henry: And maybe he can stretch his mouth to hold a nut better when his mouth is down there. I thought of some things when I was watching him. I thought when he was eating and watching us on each side of his cage, maybe his eyes are on the side and stand out so that he can eat and look all around at the same time. Nellie: And I thought of something, too. He isn't as particular about what he eats as we are, for he ate a piece of rotten nut, and we wouldn't do that. (e) Written Exercises. The following written exercises are given as they came from the pupils. They show how the material gathered in lessons of this kind can be used for lan- guage work: WHAT OUR PET USES HIS TAIL FOR "Frisky, I want you to tell me about your tail," said I, one day. Said Frisky, "I will. Well, I use it in summer as a parasol and as an umbrella in winter." "But," asked I, "is that all you use it for?" "I," replied Frisky, "use it for a pair of wings. I spread it out when I jump. At night I use it for a blanket." "Tell me some more," said I. "But I am so tired," said poor Frisky. You may know that I felt very disappointed when he told me that. "Well, I will tell you one more sentence. I think it very pretty, don't you?" said Frisky, "and isn't that a good use?" OUR pet's TAIL "Frisky, I want you to tell me what you use your tail for." "I use my tail for a shade tree, to keep the sun off on summer days," he replied. "When I jump from branch to branch I use my tail to come to the ground and so you see I do not hurt me," he replied. "I use my tail for an umbrella, a parasol and a blanket at night, to keep me warm," he said. "I am glad my tail is not like a rat's tail; if it were I could not jump from any high places without hurting myself." 306 Public School Methods THE SQUIRREL S COVERING We are now talking about Frisky's covering. Now he has a thick coat because it is cold in winter, but last summer the hair was so thin that we could see the skin. It was cooler for him so. In sum- mer we wear thinner clothes, too. Now Frisky looks like a branch with a little snow sprinkled on it. The snow is the white hair in his fur. I don't believe a hunter could see him easily. OUR SKIN AND FRISKY'S SKIN We live in the warm house and have warm clothes, besides, so we have delicate pink skin with little baby hairs on it. You can see them on the back of your hand. But the poor squirrel lives out in the hot weather, and in the cold weather, and in the rainy weather. So he wears loose, greasy hairs. Under the long, coarse ones he wears soft, fine, thick hairs in winter. OTHER LESSONS 19. Literature. So far as possible, suitable poems and other choice quotations from the best authors should be memorized in connection with many of the objects studied. With each flower studied, some beautiful and appropriate quotation 1 should be taught, the length and difficulty being regulated to suit the age and ability of the class. To illus- trate: Suppose the pansy is the subject of study; in the first grade give this stanza, by Dunroy: Purple for shadows, gold for sunshine, White for the clouds on high, Brown for the earth that gave them birth, And blue for the azure sky. To the second grade give the following: Of all the bonny buds that blow In bright or cloudy weather, Of all the flowers that come and go The whole twelve months together, The little bright-faced pansy brings The sweetest thoughts of pleasant things. 1 The selections here given are suggestive of what may be used. Children in the third grade studying the squirrel will like Emerson's The Mountain and Squirrel. For a helpful book on this work, see Anna E. McGovern's Nature Study and Related Literature. Nature Study 307 The third grade will enjoy learning: APRIL FOOLS Shy little pansies tucked away to sleep, Wrapped in brown blankets piled snug and deep, Heard in a day-dream a bird singing clear: "Wake, little sweethearts; the springtime is here!" Glad little pansies, stirring from their sleep, Shook their brown blankets off for a peep, Put on their velvet hoods, purple and gold, And stood all a-tremble abroad in the cold. Snowflakes were flying, skies were grim and gray, Bluebird and robin had scurried away; Only a cruel wind laughed as it said, "Poor little April fools, hurry back to bed!" Soft chimes a-quiver, dark eyes full of tears, Brave little pansies, spite of their fears, Said, "Let us wait for the sunshiny weather; Take hold of hands, dears, and cuddle up together." 20. Recognition of Deciduous Trees. In addition to the work suggested in the type lesson, Our Tree, Section 15, a strong third grade class can begin the study of trees on a more extended plan. The study begun in this grade will, of course, continue in the grades that follow. There are several distinct ways by which trees may be recognized : (a) In Summer, (i) General Appearance. Notice size; manner of branching; shape of the branching portion; gen- eral outline. (2) Bark. Notice whether it is smooth, rough, deep- ridged or seamed, thick, thin, and its color. (3) Leaves. Notice their size, shape, color, margins, manner of growth. (b) In Winter. Notice (1) the size of the tree and size of the trunk; (2) the manner of branching; (3) the outline as seen against the sky. 308 Public School Methods 21. Recognition of Common Evergreens, (a) Pines. All have needle-shaped leaves bound together by a sheath at the back. (i) Black Pine. Leaves three to five inches long, in groups of two, short sheaths. (2) White Pine. Leaves three to four inches long, in groups of five. (3) Yellow Pine. Leaves three to five inches long, in groups of two or three, long sheaths. (4) Scotch Pine. Leaves one and one-half to two and one-half inches, in groups of two, short sheaths. (b) Spruces, (i) In General. Leaves are short needles, somewhat four-sided, point all ways, are not clustered. (2) White Spruce. Cones two inches long. (3) Norway Spruce. Cones five to seven inches long. (c) Hemlocks. Leaves flat, narrowed to short stem, arranged on opposite sides of twigs, appear to be two-ranked. (d) Firs. Leaves like hemlocks, but with no stem. (e) Arbor Vitae. Trees with flat branches and with small, overlapping leaves, closely pressed against branches and of two kinds, one sharp pointed, the other scale-like and blunt. The most common species, American arbor vitae, has a pleasant aromatic odor. The wood of each species of tree has distinct character- istics of grain, color and hardness, and when trees are manu- factured into various forms of lumber, such as boards, plank, square timber, shingles and lath, a lumber expert can instantly recognize each kind. These distinctive traits appear somewhat different when the wood is planed and polished, but the essential characteristics remain the same, and it does not take long to learn the different kinds of woods, whether polished or in the rough. After the pupils acquire ready recognition, there may be given lessons to test relative flexibility, toughness of fiber, degree of hardness, etc., leading to other lessons show- ing the uses to which each kind of wood is best adapted. Nature Study 309 Such lessons may be taken as a separate branch of study or they may be brought in as incidentals to the study of geography, commerce, manufactured wooden wares, ship and boat building and other occupations. They will lend great interest to these subjects and convert them from dull, bare statistics into matters full of vivid life and action. 22. To Lend Interest to the Study of Evergreens. The following paragraphs from Primary Education contain a number of very practical suggestions which the teacher may profitably use: In the spring you may find on the ends of evergreen twigs fragile catkins, which shed clouds of pollen. This pollen floats in the air to tiny rigid cones with ovules at the bases of the scales. Each ovule which receives a pollen grain may later become a seed. Dried and crumbled pollen catkins are almost always to be found among the leaves of evergreen trees. The berry-like fruits of the red cedar are modified cones in which the scales have become fleshy, and so envelop the seeds. They have a spicy taste and are used to flavor gin. These berry-like fruits are eaten by birds, and as the hard coated seeds are dropped by the birds as they sit on fences, it is a common thing to find young cedar trees following the fence lines of Jersey farms. As an introduction in teaching the lesson, exhibit from your desk a quantity and variety of material; at the same time tell the children where and how you procured it. Aim to make the intro- duction as inspiring as possible, by mentioning such items as, first, the use of evergreen trees for Christmas; second, for a shelter to deer and other wild animals during snow-storms; third, as a hiding place for little birds during windy weather. Tell how the hunters improvise huts and beds of the green boughs, and how the tall tree trunks are used for masts and flag- poles. If the twigs have gum on them, tell the children that the tree uses the gum to cover over cuts and broken limbs so that they will heal before insects and harmful plant diseases can attack the wound. Men gather the gum and make turpentine and some kinds of tar from it. 23. Reviews. Reviews of trees, shrubs, weeds, flowers — any kind of plant growth that has been studied — may be conducted easily and happily, if pupils are assigned topics for personations. 310 Public School Methods (a) A Good Plan. On a given day, the teacher dis- tributes slips of paper among the pupils, each slip being numbered and bearing the name of a tree. By the time all of the slips are distributed, the pupil having No. i is ready to recite. He may come before the class or stand by his seat and give a description of his tree, as follows: "I am an evergreen, a native of the United States. I grow very tall, have a long, straight trunk that branches a good many feet from the ground. My leaves are needle-shaped, three to five inches long, in groups of two or three. My wood is used for finishing houses and for furniture." Have the pupils give name. (Yellow pine.) On other days, names of shrubs, flowers and fruits may be distributed and the same general plan followed. (b) A Second Plan. For written reviews, slips are dis- tributed, descriptions written and left without the name of the plant. Then the papers are exchanged, each pupil add- ing the name of the plant to a classmate's description. As a rule, it is better to keep to the oral descriptions, since the writing takes more time than can usually be spared. All can participate in the oral exercise, and these persona- tions soon give a fluency in the use of language that other exercises fail to impart, probably because there is less self- consciousness, since the exercise is in the nature of a game with little formal restraint. (c) A Third Plan. Reviews may also be conducted by means of drawing. Numbered slips with names of trees, flowers, leaves, etc., may be rapidly distributed. The pupils pass to the board, each pupil drawing freehand, from memory, what his slip demands. When the drawing is finished, the pupils take their seats. Other pupils then pass to the board and write the correct name under each drawing. "This is a sugar maple tree." "This is a willow tree." "This is a locust leaf." "This is a violet." "This is a sweet pea." "This is a lilac leaf." (d) A Fourth Plan. Send all the pupils to the board at once, let them draw, and then, without naming the object, Nature Study 311 change places, after which each may write the name of his neighbor's drawing. No plant should be assigned that has not been previously- studied carefully. Announce in advance the day for such a review. Much of the study is outside of school hours, and the pupils need time for extra practice on the drawings. These reviews may be, and at first should be, limited to one subject, as leaves, trees, flowers. After leaves have been studied thoroughly, the older pupils will get a valuable review by answering questions like the following: Name leaves that are longer than they are wide. Name those wider than they are long. Name leaves usually less than three inches in length. Name those usually more than three inches in length. Name leaves that are alternate on the stem. Name those that are opposite on the stem. Name plants that have simple leaves. Name those that have com- pound leaves. Name leaves more than a foot long. Prepare as many questions as are necessary to cover the plants studied and, to make the test complete, have a draw- ing made to illustrate each answer given. 24. Regular Study by Seasons. For greater convenience, and to give the plant study a more systematic form, it is best to arrange the work in three groups to correspond to the seasons in which schools are in session, viz., spring, autumn and winter. At the close of the spring term, the teacher may give the pupils a small list of plants to observe during the summer vacation. This will keep their interest alive and lead them to collect valuable facts that will be of great help when the study is systematically resumed in September. 25. Suggestions for Spring Study, (a) Wild Flowers. Have the pupils search out the home of the skunk cabbage, Jack-in-the-pulpit, trailing arbutus, anemone, blood-root, hepatica, trillium, violet and the other early spring flowers that grow in the locality. Watch the development of the leaves and blossoms and the general growth of the plant. Bring specimens to school and set them in window gardens, 312 Public School Methods in order to have opportunities for closer study. Have the pupils make drawings of these plants and flowers. In considering the skunk cabbage, leek, wild onion, etc., bring out the effect they have upon the milk of cows that eat these plants. Plant beans, peas, squash and corn at home, in a corner of the school yard or in the window garden, and watch the germination of the seeds and the changes in the plant at different stages of its growth. Make drawings illustrating these changes. (b) School Gardens. If possible, convert a sunny por- tion of the school premises into a garden and plant therein two or more of the following: barley, oats, corn, sugar cane, wheat, buckwheat, millet, rye and flax, according to locality and age of pupils. Have these tended and their develop- ment studied until maturity is reached. Also plant carrots, beets, cucumbers or other common vegetables and watch their growth to maturity. (c) Cultivated Flowers. Spade up the soil around the trees on the school grounds and plant sweet peas, nastur- tiums, petunias, poppies, asters and the late cosmos. Have all these cared for by the children themselves, and let the lessons upon them be informal. Note the studies made, and begin upon new plants or topics in September. 26. Schoolroom Gardens, (a) Window Boxes. Boxes made to fit the window and filled with leaf mold may be utilized for the planting of seeds for germination, and for holding geraniums or other flowers and vines. For the warm months these boxes may be fastened just below the windows outside, if desired, where they will prove a source of great benefit as well as pleasure. (b) Tumbler Gardens, (i) Fill a tumbler with water and tie loosely over the top a piece of mosquito netting, covering the net with sweet peas or the scarlet flowering bean. Keep the tumbler in the dark for three or four days and then place it on the window ledge or on the table by a sunny window. Nature Study 313 (2) Use a tumbler or glass fruit can and in place of the net use a piece of cotton batting or thin flannel cut exactly to fit the top. Place this on top of the water, and scatter over it canary, chicory, grass, flax or mustard seeds. Keep the can in the dark for a few days, then bring it to the light. The results are beautiful in both (1) and (2), showing the upward and downward growth perfectly. (c) A Sponge Garden. Wet a large sponge thoroughly and place it in a glass dish or suspend it in a window above a window box. Sow canary, grass, flax or mustard seeds thickly over it. Keep the sponge wet. Large pine cones may be similarly used or set in a saucer filled in with green moss. When cones are used, fill them in with soil, sprinkle thoroughly, sow the seed and keep the soil damp. (d) Vegetable Cups. Scoop out the inside of a large turnip, beet, carrot or parsnip, leaving a thick rim all around. Fill the cavity with soil and plant with vines and suspend the cup in the light by strong cords. A large sweet potato in a vase or hanging basket will furnish a beautiful vine, if kept covered with water to within less than an inch of the top. A common red beet, a carrot or a parsnip will produce a pretty growth. Cut the tip off and plant the vegetable in a tin can or anything else that is convenient. Do not cut the top of the plant too close, or the leaves will not start readily. Cover the can neatly. Caution. It is seldom that conditions are such as to make window gardens possible during the winter months, because the plants are liable to freeze ; but they may gladden the schoolroom from early spring until late in the fall and repay a hundredfold all the effort they cost, by their beauty and their aid in studying the unfoldment of the plant from the seed. 27. Suggestions for Summer Work. Try to get the pupils interested to watch for, study and note the flowers, both wild and cultivated, that bloom during the summer vacation ; to watch the ripening and harvesting of the various 314 Public School Methods grains, the growths of garden vegetable, and the gathering of medicinal plants. Call for drawings of and reports upon these early in September, before taking up new lines of plant observation and study. 28. Suggestions for Fall Work. (a) Wild Flowers. This is the time to study the goldenrod, aster, gentian, milkweed, thistle, burdock, sunflower, clover, late dande- lion and a number of other common flowers. (b) Cultivated Flowers. During the fall months, any of the late-blooming flowers, asters, chrysanthemums, nasturtiums, cosmos, pansies, sweet peas, geraniums, etc., will furnish abundant material for all grades of pupils to study. (c) Seeds. This is the best time to study the "seed boxes," the differences in size, color and general appear- ance of the seeds, seed distribution and means of dispersal. Refer back to the outlines previously given for seed study, and assign work suited in difficulty to the grade that is to do it. Collect specimens; name them; observe the parts carefully; learn the characteristic features; com- pare the different specimens, and learn methods of preserv- ing desirable seeds. In connection with the subject of seeds, carefully study common fruits and nuts. (d) Roots. By means of germinating seeds in the spring, the pupils learned the early growth of plant roots. After the summer's work is done, when vegetables are being gathered, there is an opportunity to study roots of full size more in detail. Particular attention should be given to the roots of useful plants, their length, manner of branch- ing, etc., since a knowledge of these facts is essential to successful cultivation. The roots of trees should be carefully studied when trans- planting is done and by visits to nurseries; also, from illus- trated catalogues. (e) Leaves. The spring months give opportunity for so much interesting work that the greater portion of the Painted lor Public School Methods by the Art Institute, Chicago SOME OF OUR FAVORITE FLOWERS 1 — Chrysanthemum; 2 — Petunias; 3 — Nasturtiums; 4 — Sweet Peas; 5 — Gladiolus; 6 — Asters Nature Study 315 leaf study may profitably be left to the fall months. The action of the frost upon the leaves makes it possible to cor- relate a great amount of beautiful color work and color literature with the leaf study, thus increasing the value of both. Caution. Use the outlines and suggestions already given. (f) Preparations for Winter. This topic may well occupy a considerable portion of the month of November, especially when carried, as it should be, into the study of animals as well as plants. Caution. Search the educational papers, school readers, and the writings of standard poets, Plan Book, Month by Month, Songs of the Treetop and Meadow, Nature in Verse, Graded Memory Selections, Book of Nature Myths and other similar works, for appropriate literature. 29. Suggestions for Winter Work. Usually winter months may be more profitably devoted to other forms of nature study — water, temperature, light, heat, weather records, clouds, animals, etc. Nevertheless, evergreens may be studied in the winter, and additional pleasure is secured when this study leads naturally up to and terminates with the thought, customs and spirit of Christmas. 30. Aids. The following works will be found helpful to teachers. Miss Arnold's lesson outlines in Waymarks for Teachers, pages 78 and 79, give a good general outline of plant lessons for the first six grades of school. On page 36 of the same book, Study of Thistles is typical of the amount and kind of plant study best suited to primary pupils. For carefully prepared and very complete lessons on wheat, corn, the apple and the oak, see Miss George's Plan Book, volume three, October. Plan Book, volume three, Septembe , has a typical primary lesson on the aster. Many states publish Arbor Day manuals full of excellent material and abounding in helpful suggestions. Apply to the Stat* Superintendent of Public Instruction for copies. (a) Bo >ks on Trees. Trees of the Northern United States. Apgar. American 3ook Company, Chicago. 316 Public School Methods A Year Among the Trees. Flagg. Educational Publishing Com- pany, Chicago. Outlines of Lessons in Botany. Newell. Part I, From Seed to Leaf; Part II, Flower and Fruit. Ginn & Co., Chicago. (b) Books to Aid General Plant Study. Waymarks for Teachers. Arnold. Silver, Burdett & Co. How to Know the Wild Flowers. Dana. Charles Scribner's Sons. Plants and their Children. Dana. American Book Company. How Plants Behave. Gray. American Book Company. How Plants Grow. Gray. American Book Company. Little Flower People. Hale. Ginn & Co. Chapters on Plant Life. Herrick. American Book Company. Special Method in Natural Science. McMurray. Macmillan Company. Familiar Flowers of Field and Garden. Matthews. D. Appleton & Co. One Hundred Lessons in Nature Study. Payne. A. Flanagan Co. Agriculture for Beginners. Ginn & Co. Fairyland of Flowers. Pratt. Educational Publishing Company. Under the Greenwood Trees. Rogers. A. Flanagan Company, Chicago. First Book of Botany. Youman. American Book Company. TEST QUESTIONS i. Show how nature study secures respect for the different forms of labor and industry. 2. Why is the study of plants more desirable than the study of animals for the beginning lessons in the first grade? 3. Give an outline of a lesson on seeds suitable for use in the first grade. 4. Why are frequent reviews necessary? How can these be conducted so as to secure the desired results, and at the same time retain the interest of the class? 5. Name the trees that you can recognize by their bark alone. Name those you can recognize by their leaves alone. 6. What lessons on minerals can you give in the second grade? Give an outline for the study of a pebble in this grade. 7. Compare the outline, The Boy aitd the Squirrel, with the plan for the study of the cow. How do they differ? What purposes are gained by using both plans of study? Nature Study 317 8. Mention at least three things that you have learned from the illustrative lessons on the squirrel, and specify where each is found. 9. What use can you make of the facts given in Sections 20-22, inclusive? In what grade can you do this work most successfully? 10. What results would you expect to obtain from a school garden? How would you conduct such an enterprise? CHAPTER ELEVEN NATURE STUDY (Continued) GENERAL SUGGESTIONS 1. Extending the Work. In the previous chapter we have discussed the purposes and value of nature study; we have given a number of type studies which will serve as models for lessons, and have outlined briefly the work which may be done in the different grades and at different seasons of the year. The purpose of this chapter is to call attention to the scope of nature study in the first three grades, and to outline more in detail what may be done in the study of birds, insects and animals. 2. How Much to Attempt. The whole subject of animal life is one of great interest and of undoubted value, but it is entirely too extensive to be undertaken as a whole under the general topic of nature study. Much of the work must be done outside of school, at irregular times and in different places, at varying seasons of the year and under varying conditions of success. What enters into the hours of school comes largely in the form of reports of outside observations and is utilized, as in plant study, for lessons in language, reading, spelling, drawing, color, form, size and number. Many important lessons in ethical and literary culture may easily be interwoven with the others, as a legitimate outgrowth of the correlated liter- ature presented. The work upon which we should con- centrate our attention must be determined somewhat by the locality in which we live. Caution. For the purpose of giving the teacher a com- prehensive view of the work, these outlines are somewhat more extended than necessary for lessons in primary grades. Only the larger divisions of the outlines should be used in lessons with the first and second grades, and in the third grade details should not be considered further than the 318 Nature Study 319 interest of the children will warrant. The successful teacher will view the lessons from the pupils' standpoint as well as from her own. Possibly numerous topics that will be of interest to her will offer no attraction whatever to the pupils; such topics should not be dwelt upon in the lessons. 3. Conditions Contrasted. Pupils in city schools have opportunities to see horses, mules, dogs, cats, and occasionally a few other domestic quadrupeds. By going to the parks that maintain a zoo, the children may see, at close range, lions, tigers, bears, elephants, monkeys and many other wild animals. By visiting the museums, they may see mounted specimens of many foreign quadrupeds, all kinds of birds, insects, reptiles, fish — including species now extinct — in fact, every phase of animal life. Moreover, in the parks are many native wild birds and some wild animals. The schools frequently are supplied with colored charts and other forms of apparatus for teaching natural history. Pupils in the small towns and in rural districts are deprived of many of the opportunities which are within the easy reach of pupils whose homes are in large cities. On the other hand, they see intimately the animal life around them. Their knowledge thus has the exactness that long associa- tion gives. They not only recognize at sight the quadrupeds of their vicinity, but are able to tell their characteristic traits, where they live, upon what food they subsist and how and where they find food and shelter. This is especially true of the domesticated animals. Of cows and their value to man, country boys and girls can speak with full knowledge. In the city, children never see cows, know milk only as it is delivered in bottles or cans, and butter and cheese only as they are found on the table or at the grocer's. Similar statements may be made as to the relative knowledge in regard to sheep, oxen, swine, poultry, and even dogs and cats. Of hornets, wasps, honey-bees, bumble-bees, woodchucks, moles, field-mice and other animals in their wild state, the city children know nothing, while in the country there are 320 Public School Methods still many to be found who share the knowledge of Whittier's famous Barefoot Boy — but not all of them have his kindly disposition. The problem is to awaken in both city and country those who see little and care less ; to give the knowl- edge most needed by the children, wherever their homes may be; above all, to create so deep and abiding an interest in nature that pupils will be induced to get knowledge at first hand, from which they will understand something, at least, of the unlimited scope of creation, its endless diversity and the interdependence of its manifold classes. 4. Preparation Needed. Before the teacher attempts to include natural history as a regular part of her teaching, she needs first to have a fairly good knowledge of those forms of animal life that are accessible in the neighborhood of her school. The second step is to decide where and when to begin, and to determine what part of the work to appor- + ion for outside observation and what to make a part of the regular school routine. The mode of introduction should be informal, but a systematic plan should underlie the work. The apparatus needed has been indicated in the previous lesson. Few teachers know natural history definitely enough to teach it without the assistance found in books; therefore, we append a reliable list of excellent books that should go into the school library as an aid to the work of the teacher and as a means of verifying the observations of the pupils. Caution. No teacher should make the lack of apparatus or the lack of personal knowledge an excuse for omitting this line of work. The important thing is to have a genuine interest in the subject and to be willing to learn with the pupils from the illustrations on every hand. BIRDS 6. Importance of Bird Study. "When God wanted a beautiful thought in the air, he molded it into the shape of a bird." Boys and girls in the primary grades of both city and country schools know but little of birds, and never Nature Study 321 dream of the important part they play in the great scheme of creation; but at the present time school officers and other citizens are becoming informed as to the value of bird study and better results are obtained from instruction. Public opinion, prompted by a better knowledge of bird values, has ruled against collections of eggs and nests, except for museums to which pupils and parents alike have access. Even for these collections public sentiment rules against more than one egg being taken from a single nest, and dis- countenances taking any nest till after it has been aban- doned as a bird home. The reason for this change of sentiment may be traced to (i) the patient study and experiments of scientists con- nected with the United States Department of Agriculture; (2) the efforts of the American Ornithological Union; (3) the work of the Audubon societies, especially the formation of such among the children of primary and intermediate grades of schools; (4) to state and county horticultural societies; (5) to the wanton destruction of some of our most delightful song birds for mere practice in "wing shooting" or to give exercise to air guns and "bean shooters;" (6) the rapid extinction of birds of beautiful plumage for millinery purposes; (7) the cooperation of the press to make the general reading public acquainted with the facts relating to the economic value of birds as these were obtained by public or private research; (8) the instruction concerning the real food of birds, given to farmers and fruit-growers by agri- cultural associations and at farmers' institutes; (9) the intelligent and systematic work of school superintendents and teachers. 6. Protection of Birds. Practically all states and terri- tories have laws protecting birds. We may add that for an individual to know any bird well is to become its protector thereafter, except in a very few instances where the birds are really destructive. 7. Bird Food. "An unfortunate popular error greatly magnifies the injury done to the crops of grain and legu- 322 Public School Methods minous vegetables by wild birds. Very many of those gen- erally supposed to consume large quantities of the seeds of cultivated plants really feed almost exclusively upon insects, and frequent the wheat fields, not for the sake of the grain, but for eggs, larvae and fly of the multiplied tribes of insect life which are so destructive to the harvests. This fact has been so well established by the examination of the stomachs of great numbers of birds in Europe and the United States, at different seasons of the year, that it is no longer open to doubt." 1 "Birds have different tastes from men; as a rule, they prefer bitter, sour or insipid fruit. We should never destroy such plants as the wild cherry, wild grape, elder, hackberry, Juneberry, mulberry, dogwood, Virginia creeper, buckthorn, sumach, bitter-sweet and others. I believe by encouraging such plants we are approaching a solution of the problem that will preserve for our own benefit both the cultivated fruit and the birds." 2 The following important facts relative to the food of birds often supposed to be distinctly injurious to farmers and fruit-growers are taken from the most reliable author- ities, and should enable the teacher and pupils to do much towards removing a prejudice that in some states has led to the extermination of certain birds — only to be followed by their speedy re-introduction and protection after a bitter lesson had been learned. (a) The Oriole. This bird is called a destroyer of fruit, especially grapes. In the stomachs examined were a few raspberries and no trace of grapes. Over four-fifths of the oriole's food consists of insects, mostly those injurious to vegetation, more than one-third being caterpillars. (b) The Cedar Bird, Waxwing or Cherry Bird. This bird makes but one-twentieth of its meals on cherries, and yet it probably eats more fruit than any other bird of the central western states. During a plague of canker 1 Illinois Bird and Arbor Day Manual, 1905. 2 William E Praeger: Birds in Horticulture. Nature Study 323 worms, seven cedar birds were shot and the stomachs were found full of canker worms, averaging about one hundred worms to each. At this rate, during the month when the canker worm prevailed, not less than ninety thousand worms would be destroyed by a flock of thirty of these birds. (c) The Bluejay. The blustering bluejay is a friend to the orchard. Rarely he robs the nests of other birds, and he eats but little fruit. He likes acorns, beechnuts and chestnuts better; and grasshoppers, caterpillars and beetles form one-fourth of his entire food. (d) The Catbird. More than half the food of the cat- bird is of beetles, ants, grasshoppers and other insects. Less than one-fifth is fruit, chiefly raspberries and black- berries. Along the seacoast this bird is regarded as purely beneficial. Wild berries are plentiful there, but less abun- dant in the prairie states of the middle West. (e) The Rose-Breasted Grosbeak. This bird is partial to the potato-bug as an article of food and will prey upon it as long as it can be found. (f) The Cuckoo, or Rain Crow. This bird feeds by choice upon the woolly caterpillars that are entirely safe from many birds. (g) The Common Crow. This species of crow has a strong bill and breaks clods and turns over sticks and stones in search of grubs beyond the reach of smaller birds. When a plague of Rocky Mountain locusts visited the West, it was found that practically every crow of the region was feeding upon them. (h) Woodpeckers. These birds are accused of injuring the bark of trees, stealing fruit and robbing nests of other birds. All this is done, yet five out of the six common species peck wood only to get at an injurious insect within. The hairy and downy woodpeckers and the flicker are highly valuable, and the zebra woodpecker is but little less so. The red-headed woodpecker destroys great numbers of insects, far more than enough to balance the injury it does 324 Public School Methods by pecking apples or other fruits. The yellow-bellied sap- sucker is the most injurious of this family. (i) The Meadow Lark. This bird is very beneficial. Of its food, nearly three-fourths is animal and about one- fourth vegetable, the most of the latter being the seeds of weeds. As a destroyer of grasshoppers alone, each meadow lark is estimated to be worth $1.20 per year to the farmer. (j) Crows and Blackbirds. Even these birds, which delight in stealing the farmer's corn and wheat in the spring, for *he greater part of the year are tiuly his friends, and, all in all, fully pay for all the grain they take. (k) The Robin. Farmers, gardeneis and fruit-growers even yet are prone to look upon our cheerful, bold, saucy, altogether-friendly robin with suspicion, hence, investi- gators have put him severely upon trial, to learn that when he comes north and finds winter weather, he eats the seeds left upon last summer's shrubs, vines and weeds. When the snow is gone, he eats fly-larvae, and later, larvae of beetles, grasshoppers and other ground insects. In March, one-fifth of his food is cutworms; in April, he eats more beetles. Till the end of May, and sometimes later, more than nine-tenths of hi6 food consists of insects. Cultivated fruit is eaten to any serious extent only during June and July. The fruit eaten later is mostly wild berries or waste fruit left by the grower as worthless. In August, over a third of his food is grasshoppers and crickets. Harmful beetles — whose larvae are "white grubs" — moths, butter- flies, bees, wasps, ants, bugs, aphides, army worms and other forms of animal food help to supply his table. All in all, the most careful statistics prove that the balance is decidedly in the robin's favor for economic purposes, to say nothing of the jolly comrade he becomes to man whenever permitted, and the cheery music he is ever ready to furnish. It being now possible to learn what foods the wild birds prefer, it remains with the fruit-growers to protect their fruits by supplying such food as will, practically, make their own immune from the birds. Mr. Praceer offers the follow- Nature Study 325 ing very practical suggestions as an insurance for culti- vated fruits: Were a supply of berries, of kinds worthless to us but prized by the birds, at hand, the pressure on domestic fruits would be greatly relieved. If a few trees of the Russian mulberry were planted, pre- ferably in our hen yards or hog runs, the chickens and hogs would appreciate them, and they would produce plenty of fruit and offer robins and catbirds a supply of food just when our cherries are ripe. Later in the season, wild berries are more abundant and garden fruits suffer less. At this season water is often scarce and fruit juices may be the best substitute obtainable. It has been found that it is in years of drought that the fruit, especially grapes, suffers most. 8. Recognition of Birds. Birds may be recognized by their characteristic features, among which are size; shape; color of plumage; mode of flight; song or call; kind of beak, tail, feet, food; time, place and manner of nestmaking; size, color and number of their eggs; care of the young; number of broods in a season; time of arrival, time of departure; social or solitary habits; changes of coat; changes of song; flight by day or night. When an exhaustive study of any bird is undertaken, all these points should be ascertained by long and careful observation in the open air; the observations should be recorded and compared with the best printed authorities. Local conditions will account for any small differences. Only the most prominent features, as color, size, song and kind of nest, should be considered by the primary grades. (a) When to Begin. Birds might be studied during the entire year with much profit and pleasure did not other things interfere, since some birds remain during the winter, even in the coldest of our states. From the beginning of March, through April and till the twentieth of May is the period of the spring migration. The last week in April and the first two weeks in May will show the greatest numbers of transient visitors. This is before the leaves grow large, and at this time the opportunities for observation are greatest. At least a hundred different species may be seen by the careful observer during the migration period. 326 Public School Methods For fall study, select September and early October, for then the birds return South. The study may continue later, if there is a desire to make a special study of the last birds to depart. (b) Where to Begin. With children of the primary grades, it is always best to begin with some bird that they already know by sight or with one that is of itself particularly attractive in plumage or by reason of its personal qualities. (c) Facts to be Learned. The following extract from the Wisconsin Arbor and Bird Day Manual, 1900, tells what children should learn about birds: To know the name of a bird is of comparatively little value, to know to what class he belongs is of no great moment; in short, to know him from the scientific standpoint amounts to little, so far as the average child is concerned. If he becomes a specialist, he will learn all this quickly in later life. But to love birds and to form habits of observation sufficient to watch carefully every bird is worth as much as any branch of study. No training of the ear is better than that which comes from listening to the song of birds; no train- ing in color knowledge is better than discrimination of their hues and tints; no better form study than appreciation of their shape; no better discipline in the study of motion than in the study of their hopping, pecking, and flying. If these ideas are carried out in spirit, your pupils will become enthusiastic in bird study. In addition to the robin (see page 292, Section 16), study the birds named in the following Sections, and such others as time will permit. 9. The Meadow Lark. Like the robin, the meadow lark is generally distributed over the United States, from the Atlantic to the Pacific. It is a familiar bird, much prized for its song and for its immense economic value. In the latter respect, it outranks nearly all other birds of the meadow and prairie lands. Its favorite food is insects, which for six months of the year form over nine-tenths of its food, and during August and September a still larger proportion. The remaining portion consists of weed seeds and grain gleaned from the stubble fields in January, February, March, April and December. For other food statistics, see Nature Study 327 remarks on page 324. For a full description of the meadow lark, see Educational Leaflet No. 3, National Committee of Audubon Societies. To study the meadow lark with the children, use the same set of questions as for the robin, but explain the need of going farther afield. 10. The Flicker. The flicker belongs to the woodpecker family, and yet he is as much terrestrial as arboreal in his habits. His traits are so numerous and individual that many sections have given him a local name expressive of some peculiar characteristic. One compiler reports one hundred twenty-four of these neighborhood names. You may know him by the name of yellow hammer or golden winged woodpecker, or possibly by the inappropriate and libelous name of sapsucker. The flicker is a most welcome accompaniment of spring, and a most noticeable one. His strong voice, heard in jovial and varied calls, together with his pranks and antics, have caused some writers to call him the clown among the com- mon birds. Half of this bird's food for the entire year is ants and has been so for so long a time that the flicker's tongue has become specialized to obtain these insects easily. For its economic value, see note on woodpeckers, on page 323, and for a complete description of the flicker, see Educational Leaflet No. 5, National Audubon Societies. To study the flicker, use the same general method as with other birds, and the same questions. 11. The Crow, (a) Illustrations. Secure a tame crow, a mounted specimen, or a good picture. The first is greatly to be preferred and, in the country or small towns, can often be borrowed for, a few days. (b) Where Found. The crow lives throughout North America from Hudson Bay to the Gulf of Mexico. (c) Description. The entire length is from sixteen to seventeen inches and the tail is seven and one-half inches. The bill is two inches long. The wings appear saw-toothed 328 Public School Methods when spread, and are almost equal to the tail in length. The feet are strong and adapted to walking. The color is a rich, glossy black. The cry is very harsh and loud. In disposition, the bird is bold, fearless, thievish, generally mischievous, and full of curiosity. It pulls up young corn, robs nests of small birds, steals eggs from wild and domestic fowls, flies in a straight line ("as straight as a crow flies") at an average rate of twenty-five miles per hour, gathers in large flocks, and is a great eater. Crows may be tamed and, occasionally, they learn to talk a little. (d) Food. This consists of fruits, seeds, corn, oats, berries, acorns, all vegetables, snakes, frogs, worms, insects and meadow mice. The crow pays the farmer for corn by eating insects, cut-worms and grubs. On the whole, it does much more good than harm. (e) Nest. The nest is large, coarsely built of twigs, sticks, moss, grass and leaves. It is about twenty inches in diameter and ten inches deep. Both male and female assist in building, and complete the nest in less than a week — sometimes in three days. (f) Eggs. These are from four to six in number, of bluish- green color, tinted with brown, and are quite large for the size of the bird. Usually but one brood is hatched in a summer, and that early in the season. (g) Seat Work. Draw, paint or sew a crow in outline. (h) Language, Literature and Songs. Fables, anec- dotes, proverbs, poems and songs concerning crows are plentiful and should be used freely, as they are full of interest and show the wisdom and shrewdness of this peculiar bird. 1 12. The Duck. The tame duck or the goose would be the natural introduction to aquatic birds. Of these two, the duck would be preferable to begin with, it being smaller, more easily handled and more easily obtained. (a) Points to Consider. From personal observation, have primary pupils learn that the body is boat-shaped, the bill thick and stron g, with a natural sieve to strain out 1 Adapted from Miss George's Plan Book. Nature Study 329 the water and leave food in it.: mouth. Also, from observa- tion, learn answers to the folic wing questions: (b) Questions. Where are the nostrils? Where are the ears? Are they large or small? Where are the legs placed on the body? Are the) like those of a hen, or different? Why? How many toes are there? How many are webbed? How does the web help? Wha 1 " is the color of the plumage? Why are the feathers so oily? Why can a duck swim, while the hen or the robin can not? What are the best conditions for the tame duck? Why are tame ducks valuable? (Eggs, feathers, food.) What is their food? Why are duck's eggs often given to a hen to hatch? How long must they be brooded before they hatch? What are baby ducks called? What kind of a nest does the duck make? Where do ducks prefer to nest? What is their food? What food do they get from the water? How do they get food when on a pond? If possible, compare a tame duck with wild ones as to size, plumage and habits. In the right season, one may get teal and canvas-back ducks from a good market; other- wise, use stuffed specimens or pictures as aids. Have the pupils draw an outline of the duck and of the duck's foot. (c) Literature. Who Likes the Rain! (Poem). Story of the hen that hatched ducks. (The best one is Little Mother Quackalina.) The Ugly Duckling. Bryant's To a Waterfowl. 13. Suggestive Studies. Some of the chief points for each season are the following: (i) identification of many birds of the neighborhood common to that season, as the English sparrow, robin, flicker, bluejay, barn-swallow, meadow lark, etc.; (2) establishing a general standard of comparative size, remembering that the robin is from ten to eleven inches long and the English sparrow about six inches; (3) learning where these birds are most often seen, as in the air, in the water, on the ground, on trees or among bushes; (4) determining how the wind, rain and snow affect birds; (5) learning the difference in size and plumage between male and female birds; (6) learning how and where birds 330 Public School Methods sleep; (7) finding out what birds are permanent residents and what are spring and autumn migrants, winter visitors or summer visitors. These and many other questions corre- sponding to those previously given in this chapter should be used as points for special study. 14. How to Help the Birds. If you are a lover of birds and would like their beauty and music near your homes, and their unceasing diligence to protect your plants, you can speedily attract them to your own yards by (1) keep- ing, in retired places, shallow pans rilled with water for them to drink and bathe in; (2) hanging out pieces of suet or salt pork for them when the weather is cold; (3) by scat- tering crumbs on stormy days ("a bird restaurant"); (4) by planting elder bushes, wild cherries, mulberries and other shrubs and trees around your lanes or back fences; (5) by building homes for them if shrubs and trees are lack- ing; (6) by protecting them against their enemies. For excellent suggestions and models for bird houses, consult Nature Study mxd Life, by Hodge, chapter twenty. Mr. Hodge also tells how to make a bird census and a food chart. Bird Lore, the organ of the Audubon Societies, con- tains a wealth of material. Public interest may be awakened and made permanent by (1) combining Arbor Day and Bird Day (as in Wisconsin and Illinois), celebrating the day designated by the governor with exercises appropriate to both subjects; (2) by teach- ing the state game laws and the economic values of birds; (3) by keeping school scrapbooks of pictures and interesting and varied literature upon birds; (4) by keeping migration records and exchanging with other schools of the state, or by posting important bird facts upon a public bulletin board (in postomce, if permitted); (5) by making known the shame- ful facts in regard to bird slaughter for millinery uses, for "practice shooting" or "just for fun." 15. Bird Lore. Use all proper means to emphasize the intelligence, patience, courage and devotion of the birds. There are thousands of excellent fables, anecdotes, legends, Nature Study 331 poems and stories to supplement the facts gained by per- sonal observation. Disabuse the children's minds of the idea that a bird's life is all freedom and happiness. Teach its cares, its enemies, its faithfulness to duty, its trials, its ingenuity in overcom- ing obstacles and its patient courage in times of disaster. An extract from The Thrush's Lesson will help children to remember birds that walk and birds that hop: The birds that scratch in the earth, little boy, And the birds that wade in the water with joy, Can walk, one foot at a time, you see, As you do, except when they hop like me. But most of the birds that can sing you a song Are small, and their legs are not very strong; Walking, wading and scratching they leave to the rest; But hop, hop, hop and fly with the best. I've many relations, each one of us sings; We're called warblers and perchers, and other true things. Just keep your eyes open, while out at your play, You'll see what I've told you is true. Good day! 16. Nests and Nesting Time. During the early spring months, the pupils, large and small, should be interested in watching for signs of nest-building. They should note the date when the nest is begun and how long it takes to complete it; the time of day when work goes on; whether the male, female or both birds work; the place chosen; the neatness of work; the materials used for outside and for inside; the size of nest; how it is fastened in place; the num- ber, size and color of eggs ; and they should make comparison of the housemaking of different birds observed. "When these observations are being made, every precau- tion should be taken to prevent the birds from being frightened and the nests from being robbed or destroyed. Emphasize the hard work, patience, skill and intelligence shown in the nest-making, and arouse that sympathy for the little home- makers which leads to their protection. 332 Public School Methods In the autumn, after the leaves have fallen, the nests will show plainly among the naked twigs of the trees, shrubs, vines and hedges. The dried and shrunken weeds and grasses will also disclose the deserted homes of such birds as nest on or near the ground. The nests, having been deserted, may now be collected and studied in detail for those facts relating to materials, construction and the like, that could not be accurately settled by the more or less distant study in the spring. A large branch of a tree may be brought to the school- room, the nests placed naturally therein and the whole kept as a permanent part of the school museum. The old nests will greatly help the younger pupils in their observation the following spring, by showing definite points in materials and methods of construction. By watching carefully, pupils will learn that robins build near the homes of people, in trees, hedges, vines, shrubs, over the porches, and that, like people, some of them are very careful, and others very careless, housekeepers. Bluebirds prefer to nest in holes in old apple trees, stumps, or in bird houses. The song sparrow builds on the ground, in hedges or among bushes. The meadow lark and some blackbirds build on the ground, often in rather marshy places. Swallows build under the eaves of barns, in chimneys or in banks of sand or soft clay. Woodpeckers like to make their nests in trees that bear nuts. The orioles choose elms, oaks, cottonwoods or other high trees. Yellowbirds and catbirds build in thickets of bushes. Phoebes build under bridges, in fence corners, bushes, and sometimes in curious, unexpected places, as do the martins when unable to find a bird house already pre- pared for them. Wrens also build in odd places. Crows and eagles build in the tops of high trees, and the eagle sometimes in the crevices of a high cliff. Cowbirds and the English cuckoo build no nests at all, but lay their eggs in the nests of smaller birds, who are compelled to rear the young of the marauders. Pigeons, magpies, whip-poor- Nature Study 333 wills and some others are careless builders or lay and hatch their eggs on sand or rocks. 17. The Migration of Birds. The subject of migration is but partially studied in the spring when noting the times when the different birds arrive in any certain section. The fall study will, in some respects, be more satisfactory and opportunities for observation more frequent, since most of the birds assemble in flocks before they depart for the South. But then the plumage of the immature birds and the fading colors of the adult males make them difficult of identification. (a) Points to Settle. Certain questions should be kept before the pupils; as, Why and when do birds migrate? What preparations do they make for the journey? Do they change their coats? Do they go in pairs, in flocks or alone? By day or night? Quietly or noisily? Do they fly high or low? With a rapid or sweeping motion of wings? Why do the birds stop on their journeys? (b) Facts to Learn. Timid birds and those that live in the woods fly at night, especially those that usually catch their food at night; as owls, nighthawks, whip-poor- wills. Swallows, bluebirds, robins, larks, crows and others fly by day. Birds that feed almost exclusively on small insects, such as the swallows and warblers, are the first to leave, and the birds that remain in the North through the winter are such as can subsist on winter berries, weed seeds, and the like. These often need aid during severe storms. (c) Records. A simple record of migrations can be kept after the following plan: Copy this list upon a sheet of manila paper and hang it in plain sight for reference. Have pupils watch the birds and compare the results they get with Mr. Ingersoll's observations. Also have them add to this list familiar birds not named herein, as the robin, blue- bird, etc., whose migration they determine from personal observation. 334 Public School Methods October 1 First Week: Bobolink. Phoebe. White-eyed vireo. Second Week: Catbird. Cowbird. House wren. Nighthawk. Purple grackle. Redstarts. Rusty blackbird. Scarlet tanager. Swifts. Whip-poor-will. Third Week: Chipping sparrow. Sparrows. Fourth Week: Oven bird. Red-eyed vireo. Swamp sparrow. Fifth Week: Hermit thrush. Wood thrush; other thrushes earlier. Last Week: Chewink. Humming bird. Indigo bird. Meadow lark. Red-winged blackbird. Flocks extensively in the marshes and disappears the last week. Rose-breasted grosbeak. Song sparrow. Some go southward and others come from the north this month, but the species is present in most localities all winter. 18. Books for Teachers. The widespread and increasing interest in the subject of birds has caused a great many valuable bird books to be published, far more than we have space to enumerate; hence, we select those within reach of most teachers, suggesting that books from this list be added to the school library as rapidly as circumstances permit. 1 Ernest Ingersoll: Nature Calendar. Nature Study 335 These exclude bird poems, anecdotes and other bird liter- ature of a general character that are also very helpful. (a) Reference Books. Bird Homes. A. R. Dugmore. Double- day, Page & Co., New York. A Year with the Birds. Wilson Flagg. Educational Publishing Co., Chicago. The Plan Books. Marion George. A. Flanagan Company, Chicago. Nature Study and Life. C. F. Hodge. Ginn & Co. How to Know One Hundred Wild Birds of Illinois. D. Lange. Educational Publishing Co., Chicago. How to Know One Hundred Wild Birds of Indiana. D. Lange. Educational Publishing Co., Chicago. How to Know One Hundred Wild Birds of Missouri. D. Lange. Educational Publishing Co., Chicago. My Saturday with a Bird Class. Mary Miller. D. C. Heath & Co., Chicago. The First Book of Birds. Oliver Thome Miller. Houghton, Mifflin & Co., Chicago. The Second Book of Birds. Oliver Thorne Miller. Houghton, Mifflin & Co., Chicago. How to Natne the Birds. H. E. Parkhurst. Charles Scribner's Sons, Chicago. The Citizen Bird. Mabel Osgood Wright. Macmillan Co., Chicago (b) Magazines and Pamphlets. The following maga- zines and pamphlets contain valuable and interesting infor- mation : The Auk; Bird Lore; The Wayside; National Audubon Educational Leaflets; Cornell Nature Study Leaflets; Bulletins from United States Department of Agriculture; also the Arbor Day and Bird Manuals published by the Department of Public Instruction in your own and other states. Those of Wisconsin, Illinois and New York are of special interest and can usually be obtained by writing the Superintendent of Public Instruction. INSECTS 19. Important Facts. The distinctive parts of an insect's body are three, viz., head, thorax and abdomen. Other facts necessary to teach at the- beginning of insect study are the following: (i) A caterpillar is a larva and not a true worm. It is an insect in one stage of its develop- 336 Public School Methods ment. (2) Every larva grows from an egg, but larvae do not produce eggs. (3) A larva left to itself, and unmolested in its transformation, changes to pupa or to a form known as chrysalis. (4) Many larvae spin cocoons of silky fabrics or of felty texture for a protective covering for the chrysalis. The terms cocoon and chrysalis must not be confused. Explain to the children that the cocoon is but the blanket that covers the real baby (the chrysalis). (5) The chrysalis while sleeping is undergoing important internal changes, and from it, after a proper time, will emerge either a perfect moth or a butterfly. This adult insect will soar away to begin a new cycle of insect growth by laying eggs, which will change into larvae, then chrysalides, then moths or butterflies. The larvae of moths and butterflies are called caterpillars. Every complete transformation, therefore, consists of four stages, viz., (1) egg, (2) larva or caterpillar, (3) pupa or chrysalis, (4) adult insect or imago. 1 20. How to Tell the Butterflies from the Moths, (a) Butterflies. The antennae, or horns, are always smooth and thread-like, with knobs at the tips. The wings are closed when at rest and held vertically upright as a protec- tion. This conceals the brightest colors on the wings and prevents notice. The butterfly flies by day, fluttering from flower to flower, and sleeps at night, clinging to grasses, flowers or trees. (b) Moths. The bodies are generally larger in propor- tion to their wings than are those of the butterflies. The antennae are feathered or spined, and have no knobs at the tips. The wings, when at rest, lie down flat. Moths gen- erally fly at twilight and through the night. 21. Butterfly Caterpillars and Moth Caterpillars. Cater- pillars with spines usually produce butterflies and those having a hairy growth, more or less thick, are apt to pro- duce moths. In case of naked caterpillars, one cannot determine beforeha nd, but must await results. 1 Abridged from Insect Biographies, in Popular Educator. Nature Study 337 22. Caterpillar Food. Each caterpillar requires to be fed with whatever kind of leaf you find him upon. If upon the grape vine, give him grape leaves to eat. ... If you cannot find out what he is and what he should have, and fail to suit him with any variety of leaf you have at com- mand, you must either let him go or see him die. 1 23. Formation of the Chrysalis. "On a pleasant, sun- shiny day in September, I noticed a caterpillar crawling along under the lower edge of the siding of our home and determined to watch it. I remained there the greater part of the day. The caterpillar seemed undecided in its move- ments, and did not move far from the same place. "At last my patience was rewarded — the caterpillar suddenly dropped its head downward, but still held to the siding with its tail. In a moment more it began a sort of wriggling movement, really reminding me of a child wrig- gling out of its shirt when going to bed, and soon the cater- pillar's furry garment came over its head and dropped to the ground. "It looked a bright flesh color under its fur. Its next movement was to curl up a little, and even as I watched a sort of slime seemed to cover the body of the caterpillar — it must have been a secretion from its own body — and hardened into a gray shell, closely fitting its body. Then the caterpillar was ready for the winter. "The larva of the moth makes both its chrysalis and its cocoon. It first selects a good place to weave its little house — usually in the branches of some tree. After this outer house or cocoon is finished, it goes through the same per- formance as the larva of the butterfly." 2 24. Outline for Butterfly Lesson, (a) Material. Bring a butterfly before the class in a glass jar or box made of close wire netting, with some fresh flowers and twigs. Leave room enough for it to fly about. (b) Method, (i) Body. How many main parts? » From Ballard: Moths and Butterflies. 'Martha Koehler, in School Education. 338 Public School Methods (2) Wings. How many? How and where are they attached to the body? How covered? How moved? What is their position when at rest? (3) Legs. How many? How attached? Of what use are they to the insect? (4) Tongue. Why is it so long? What is its position when not in use? When and how does it get its food ? What is its manner of eating? (5) Egg s - When and where are they found? To what are they fastened? How are they fastened? How are they arranged? What is their color? Size? How long before they hatch? (6) Habits. Are the butterflies solitary or in families? When and how do they sleep? What is their manner of flight? Mode of protection? (7) Use. What are the uses of the butterfly to flowers? (Carry pollen and help fertilization.) How are butterflies harmful to plant life? Butterflies are used as a symbol of what? Why? (8) Literature. Anecdotes, myths and poems. Songs. 25. Questions on the Mourning Cloak. "At what date did you see the first mourning cloak this season? Why did it not die of freezing during the winter? Is the first mourn- ing cloak that you see in the spring bright in colors and perfect in form, or is it somewhat battered and faded? From your observation on the above question, you can infer whether it is fresh from the chrysalis or whether it wintered as a butterfly. Which do you think? Describe the flight of this butterfly. Does it flutter, or does it sail, or does it do both? Do all butterflies pass the winter in the same stage of life as does the mourning cloak? Describe the colors and the markings of the mourning cloak's wings above and below. How many legs has the mourning cloak? Capture a butterfly without harming it and put it in a cage made of mosquito netting and give it sweetened water in a vial with a small neck. Desc ribe how it gets the water." 1 1 Mary Rogers Miller, in Home Study Nature Course. Nature Study 339 26. A Box for Cocoons. "A glass box for cocoons and caterpillars is more artistic and convenient than a variety of bottles and jars, and such a box can be made in twenty minutes. "The materials required are three sheets of window- glass, 8 x io inches, for the sides and top of the box, a piece of wire screening for the ends, a sheet of heavy cardboard the same size as glass for the base, and some white passe- partout binding. With the passepartout join a long side of the cardboard to the same length of a sheet of glass, then join the opposite side of the cardboard to another sheet of glass. Now you have the base and two uprights. " Fasten the third sheet of glass to the other two for the top and the box is completed, excepting the ends, for which the wire screening is bent the required size and can be easily fastened over the glass at the top and sides and under the cardboard. The screen can be removed when attending to the contents of the box. " Cover the floor of this box with moss, selecting that which has little growing leaves and vines; fasten in a few quaint-looking toadstools, or, if too late in the fall to secure anything green, put in twigs, and you have an attractive little house, when your cocoons and caterpillars are enclosed, which will be watched with great delight by the children. "Unless the cocoons are already fastened to twigs, even if you use moss, do not forget a branch or two for the forth- coming butterflies or moths to hang from in order to pro- tect their wings. " But of course you will wish to see some of the coverings spun. A shallow box rilled with earth and a few fresh leaves, such as the caterpillar is found feeding upon, should be added for new occupants." 1 27. Butterfly Seasons. "As roses belong to June, and chrysanthemums to October, so butterflies seem to be a joyous part of July. It is their gala-day, and they are every- where, darting and circling and sailing, dropping to investi- 1 Nellie E. Daily, in Primary Education. 340 Public School Methods gate flowers and over-ripe fruit, and rising on buoyant wings high into the upper air, bright, joyous, airy, ephemeral. But July can only claim the larger part of their allegiance, for they are wanderers into all the other months, and even occasionally brave the winter with torn and faded wings. "It may appear strange, if not altogether inappropriate to the season, that 'the fair, fragile things which are the resurrection of the ugly, creeping caterpillers ' should be almost as numerous in October as in the balmy month of July. Yet it is true, and early October, in some parts of the country, is said to be perhaps the best time of the year for the investigating student and observer of butterflies. While not quite so numerous, perhaps, many of the species are in most perfect condition, and the variety is still intact. Many of them come and remain until frost, and the largest butterfly we have, the Archippus, does not appear until the middle of July, but after that is constantly with us, floating and circling on the wing, until October. "Many varieties of the Vanessa are often seen flying about in May, but they are far more numerous and perfect in July, August and September. A beautiful azure-blue butterfly, when it is fluttering over flowers in the sunshine, looks like a tiny speck of bright blue satin. Several other small butterflies which appear at the same time are readily distinguished by the peculiar manner in which their hind wings are tailed. Their color is a dull brown of various shades, marked in some of the varieties with specks of white or blue. "All June and July butterflies are August and September butterflies, not so numerous in some instances, perhaps, but still plentiful, and vying with the rich hues of the chang- ing autumnal foliage." 28. Insect Preparation for Winter. " (a) Brown Wasp. Queens seek shelter in houses, logs, stumps and other sheltered places for the period of hibernation; other forms die. " (b) Hornet and Yellow-jacket. Queens find shelter in old nests, or in other convenient situations; drones and workers die. Nature Study 341 "(c) Bumble-bee. Drones and workers die; queens seek shelter in the nest or in similar places on the ground. " (d) Ant. Species living in earthen nests retire to lower parts of the nest; others inactive. " (e) Mud Wasp and Digger Wasp. The few remain- ing adults die, leaving only immature forms in the cells to live through the winter. " (f) Ichneumon Fly. A few adults go into hibernat- ing quarters; many species winter over in the immature condition. " (g) Ground Beetle. Seeks shelter under logs. " (h) Ladybird Beetle. Adults seek shelter in leaves about the bases of trees and in similar situations; many hundreds or even thousands of the same species will often congregate in such a place. " (i) Black Blister Beetle. Adults die, leaving larvae in the soil to live through the winter. " (j) May Beetle. Some larvae change to pupae and then to adults remaining in pupal cells; other larvae burrow deeper into the soil. " (k) Long-horned Beetle. Larvae commonly burrow deeper into the wood. " (1) House Fly. Adults seek hibernating quarters in houses, sheds, under bark, etc. " (m) Fall Canker-worm. Moths appear and lay eggs on twigs of apple and elm trees. " (n) Bud-worm. Larvae fasten their silken cases to the bark of twigs near the buds." 1 29. Ants. Ants form a very interesting and instructive study for children. They can be studied in the schoolroom by providing an ant house in which to keep them. This can be made by having a tinner take a piece of tin about eight inches square and join it to a curved piece, forming around the center a little ditch. Fill this with water so that the ants cannot make their escape, and on each of the four edges of the square stand a thin piece of glass about 1 From Ingersoll: Nature Calendar. 342 Public School Methods an inch high so as to form a room with glass sides. A piece of glass can also be used for the top. Take up a small ant hill, taking care to preserve it intact, as far as possible, and place this in the ant house. If provided with air and food, the ants will live here nearly as well as out of doors, and all of their habits and methods of work can be studied. The children will soon discover that there are three classes of ants — the males, females and workers; also that the males and females never work. They will also be able to see the life-history of these insects by watching the eggs to see when they hatch, and noticing the care which some of the workers, popularly called nurses, take of the young. A simple microscope is of great assistance in this study. Before proceeding to the study of the ant, the teacher should become thoroughly informed on the habits and life-history of the insect and be able to give clear descrip- tions of these; also to tell stories concerning the ants that live in different parts of the world. Cautions, (i) See that the children recognize the intelli- gence, courage, strength, patient industry and wonderful ingenuity of the ant. (2) Teach that their extreme love for sweets and fats renders them most unwelcome to the housewife; and that their protection of aphides (plant lice) makes them noxious to the farmer. (3) The chief enemies of ants (and hence, friends of the agriculturist) are the woodpeckers and nighthawks, both of which consume enormous numbers of these insects. (4) The literature pertaining to ants is most interesting and should be freely used. 30. Crickets. Prepare two or three small, light boxes and fit them with glass covers or sides. The boxes should be perforated so as to admit of free circulation of air. These make convenient cages for the study of most insects. In the autumn, place some crickets in the cages and lead the children to study them freely. For class work the boxes can be passed from desk to desk, and the pupils can describe Nature Study 343 or draw what they observe. At the conclusion of the study the boxes should be taken out of the building and the crickets set free. In addition to the above, the pupils should be led to study crickets while out of school, thus learning facts about their homes, habits and dispositions. Concerning crickets, as well as ants, there are many interesting proverbs, anecdotes and songs that should be interwoven with the study of the insect. Caution. In all studies of insects, in addition to the description of bodies, dispositions, homes and habits, there should be very careful attention given to the food of each kind, thus determining whether the insect be harmful or otherwise. In case it is harmful, then its enemies should be learned and protected. Other modes of extermination should be studied. 31. Helps. The following books are helpful to teachers, and some of the readers can be used by the third grade. Among the Moths and Butterflies. Julia P. Ballard. G. P. Put- nam's Sons, New York. Agriculture for Beginners. Burkett, Stevens and Hill. Ginn&Co. Birds, Bees and Bright Eyes. John Burroughs. Houghton, Mifflin & Co., Chicago. Ways of the Six-footed. Anna Botsford Comstock. Ginn & Co. Insect Folk. Margaret W. Morley. Ginn & Co., Chicago. Little Wanderers. Margaret W. Morley. Ginn & Co., Chicago. Stories of Insect Life, First and Second Series. Clarence M. Weed. Ginn & Co., Chicago. Seaside and Wayside Series of Readers. J. M. Wright. D. C. Heath & Co., Chicago. ANIMALS 32. Familiar Animals. During the winter months the study of birds and insects may be omitted in the primary grades and the study of quadrupeds taken, instead. It is always better to begin with familiar animals, borrow- ing pet dogs, cats, rabbits and others, for the purpose. By kind treatment and proper feeding, these animals will soon 344 Public School Methods feel at home in the schoolroom and permit themselves to be thoroughly inspected and freely handled. If there is a child hard to interest in school matters, borrow that child's pet and have it fully understood that the loan is to be looked upon as a very special privilege, only allowed to those whose conduct and lessons are up to the required standard. 33. Animals Preparing for Winter. The squirrels secure nuts for winter use; the fur-bearers grow thick, heavy coats, glossy and bright; cattle and horses and other domestic animals grow longer hair and heavier pelts, and the hiber- nating animals get ready for their long sleep. 34. The Rabbit. Have a pet rabbit brought to school. Have for your own use the following topics, which may be developed as suggested: (a) His Coloring a Protection. Perhaps he is a little brownish-gray rabbit. Have the children notice his color. Then ask how many have seen white rabbits with pretty, pink eyes. Ask where wild rabbits live. (Wild rabbits make their homes in the fields or woods near patches of clover. The nest is a shallow hole burrowed out under a stump or clump of weeds, and lined with grass.) Which do you think you could see the more easily in the fields, the brown or the white rabbit? Why? (The brown rabbit's coloring harmonizes with its surroundings, the ground and vegetation. Its coloring is protective. White rabbits may be said to be a freak of nature. They are very few in number. They fall a prey to their enemies more easily than the colored ones, for they are very conspicuous in color, are not hardy and their sight is poor, because they have no coloring matter in their eyes.) (b) Nose. After watching the rabbit for a few minutes some of the children will ask, probably, "What makes it move its nose in that funny way?" Perhaps some of them have seen a dog snuff the wind and can tell why he does it. (The rabbit can find out in this way if his enemies are near and then can run away, as he has no other means of defense.) Nature Study 345 (c) Hind and Fore Legs. Call attention to the differ- ence between the hind and fore legs. Ask if any of them have seen the rabbit run. (He leaps rather than runs, and his hind legs are therefore long and powerful.) You then might ask, "Can he go faster up hill or down?" (Perhaps some have seen him run up hill, his long leaps taking him away from the dogs at a great rate. When he comes to the descent on the other side and has to go down hill, however, poor Bun has been known to go heels over head down the slope, and if the hill is very long, to be overtaken by the dog.) (d) Tail. The children will be much amused, doubtless, by his little short tail, looking like a bunch of cotton and giving him his nickname of cotton-tail. This little tail, showing white, is thrown up when the rabbit runs and may be used as a signal to tell the little ones that danger is near. (e) Divided Lip. Some boy or girl will notice the split lip. You can feed the rabbit clover and let all see how it eats; having this divided lip enables it to get its food into its mouth easily. (f) Food. The children will tell you that, besides clover, the rabbit eats lettuce, cabbage and apple, and it would be a pleasant diversion for "little brother" and the children to let him eat a mouthful of each to show this to be so. Too much luxury, it is said, is no better for Bunny than for people, and it is known that rabbits that live on a hill- side where clover grows abundantly are not as healthy as those that must cover a much wider range in hunting for a livelihood. Exercise is needed by all animals. (g) Ears. The beautiful silky ears of the rabbit are not for ornament merely, but serve to catch the sound and render his hearing keener, for the rabbit depends on his speed to escape from his enemies, and nature gives him keen scent and hearing to enable him to detect their approach. 1 (h) Literature. There are many excellent fables and anecdotes about the rabbit. Be sure to read the story of the Tar Baby. 1 Adapted from lesson by Isabel Bond, in Primary Education. 346 Public School Methods In giving a lesson upon the rabbit, teachers may use the picture At the Farm, in case a live rabbit cannot be obtained. Caution. In addition to the information given in the above lesson, children should be taught that rabbits are very easily hurt or killed, hence they must be very care- fully handled; also, that they are very prolific breeders, and when numerous are apt to do serious injury to the young trees, especially fruit trees, by burrowing around the roots and gnawing the tender bark; they also often do much damage to gardens. 35. The Goat, (a) Familiar Names, (i) Male. "Billy goat." (2) Female. "Nanny goat." (3) Young Goat. Kid. (b) Distinguishing Characteristics of Billy Goat. He has large, strong horns, which he uses for defense and with which he often butts children or adults, when cross or mischievous. He can be trained to wear a harness and draw a cart or small sleigh. He has a beard on the chin. (c) Distinguishing Characteristics of Nanny Goat. She has smaller horns, no beard, and a very gentle and playful disposition. She gives milk of very rich quality. Herds of goats are kept for milk in mountainous districts where cows could not climb to the rocky pastures, and in many foreign countries they are the chief source of milk supply. (d) Outline for Study, (i) Body. Size; shape. (2) Covering. Kind; color; use. (3) Legs. Number; feet; hoofs, number and kind. (4) Head. Eyes; ears; mouth; teeth, number and kind. (5) Horns. Number; position; size; shape; use. (6) Food. Hay; oats; grass; clover; vegetables; leaves; thistles and other weeds; water, occasionally. (7) Products. Milk; butter; cheese; flesh for food; skin for leather; hair for plaster and for coarse cloth; bones for fertilizer. Nature Study 347 (e) Literature. There are many interesting fables and anecdotes that may be used with profit. 36. The Cow. 1 Keep the following study outline before the class for several days, requiring the facts to be obtained from the observation of cows, when possible; otherwise, do as well as may be by the use of pictures, stories, black- board drawings, etc. (a) Study Outline, (i) Body. Size; shape; covering; use of covering; color. (2) Head. Face; eyes; ears; nose; mouth; lips; tongue; teeth, number and kind; horns, number, shape, position and use. (3) Limbs. Number, shape, size; feet; toes; hoofs. (4) Tail. Length; quality of hair; use. (5) Stomachs. Give only a general description. Tell what is necessary, since this part cannot be illustrated. (6) Food. Grass; hay; grains; vegetables; water; milk. (7) Udder. Shape; size; position; use. (8) Products. Milk; cream; butter; cheese; flesh for beef; skin for leather; hair for plaster; horns for combs, buttons, etc.; hoofs for glue; bones for fertilizer. (9) Care Needed. Kindness; gentle voices; plenty of food and clean water; clean, warm, well-ventilated and well- lighted stables; regularity in feeding, watering and milking; good pasturage for as many months as the weather will permit. The best pastures are those that have running water and at least a few trees for shade. (b) Additional Questions. How does a cow lie down? How does she get up? How defend herself? How eat and drink? What sound does she make? Does she get angry? On which side should the milker sit? Is the cow handsome? Graceful? Can she run fast? What is her baby called? Is she a kind mother? 37. Protection of Wild Animals. Valuable lessons can be given the older pupils on the relations of the larger wild ani- mals to man, and the destruction of those animals caused by 1 By M. Helen Beckwith (adapted). 348 Public School Methods sportsmen and by professional hunters. The sportsmen destroy these animals for the mere sport of killing game, and the hunter destroys them for their products, such as fur and flesh. For these reasons many of the large animals, as well as many species of fish, have for a number of years been in danger of extermination, and to prevent this both state and national governments have enacted game and fish laws which either prevent the killing of game at all or restrict it to certain seasons of the year. In addition to this, the United States government has established game preserves in the Yellowstone and Yosemite National parks, besides several smaller preserves in Arizona, Colorado, Montana, Nebraska and New Mexico. Call attention to what is being done to protect valuable animals from ruthless destruction, and lead the pupils to become acquainted with the fish and game laws of their own state; and what is more important still, develop in your pupils a sentiment against killing animals for mere sport. This is a very practical and important phase of nature study that no teacher should overlook. Take care to have the children understand the provision nature has made for each animal to live its life to the best advantage, that is, the wise adaptation of its structure and habits to suit its environment. Another point that should always be emphasized is the relation of man to the animal world, and the interdependence of men and the domestic animals. Interest, exactness of observation, practical knowledge, the growth of humane feelings and a spirit of grateful reverence should be the outcome of all lessons in nature study, and the progress that children make along these lines should be the divining rod by which teachers may measure their success. Work earnestly, systematically, definitely, reverently. Use intelligent, interesting methods. Direct the work, but let the pupils do most of it. Wait patiently for results. 38. Books for Teachers. Zoology, Descriptive and Practical. B. P.. Colton. D. C. Heath & Co., Chicago. Nature Study 349 Animal Life in the Sea and on the Land. Sarah Cooper. Amer- ican Book Company, Chicago. Comparative Zoology. James Orton. American Book Company, Chicago. Zoology. A. S. Packard. Henry Holt & Co., Chicago. TEST QUESTIONS i. Which is the easier for first grade pupils, the study of plants or the study of animals? Why? 2. Why should birds be protected? What can you do to secure an interest in their protection on the part of your pupils? 3. What instructions do children need to enable them to observe birds carefully? What sort of preparation should the teacher have to enable her to give these instructions ? 4. What lessons in character building can be learned from the study of birds ? Should such lessons be made prominent ? Why? 5. Do you have an aversion for caterpillars and worms? If so, what is the cause of it? How can you overcome this obstacle to your nature study work? 6. What relation should the study of insects bear to the study of plants? What practical lessons that will show their relation can you give? 7. Why is the ant more desirable for study than the fly? Would it be wise to introduce the study of bees into the primary grades? Why? 8. What wild animals are injurious to growing crops? to poultry? Do these animals in any way compensate the farmer for what they destroy? 9. Which would you prefer to have the pupils of primary grades study, the cow or the sheep? Why? What other domestic animals can be studied with profit? 10. What proportion of the term should be given to nature study in the first and second grades? Show how you can relate this work to (a) reading, (b) language, (c) drawing, (d) geography. UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA AT LOS ANGELES THE UNIV UNIVERSITY of I .'NIA AT LOS ANGELES LIBRARY UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY Los Angeles This book is DUE on the last date stamped below. UCLA-Young Research Library LB1555 .P96 V L 009 583 977 5 LB 1555 P96 v.l