31822027271873 U8RARY CALIFORNIA BAN DIEGO J . V . ER .SIJYOF L FORNI/s 31822027271873 r Social Sciences & Humanities Library University of California, San Diego Please Note: This item is subject to recall. Date Due APR 2 Cl 39 (5/97) UCSD Lib. BY THE SAME AUTHOR. THE GREAT DIDACTIC OF JOHN AMOS COMENIUS Translated into English and edited with biographical, historical, and critical Introductions. indEaition. Large Cr. 8vo. Cloth. 7s. 6d. net. Or in two Parts. PART I. Introductions. 3s. 6d. net. PART II. Text. ts. 6d. net. Times." Mr. Keatinge's Translation of the ' Great Didactic ' is vigorously executed ; his bio- graphy of its author is at once copious, judicious, and sympathetic, and his sketch of the history of education and of Comenius's place in it is eminently scholarly and instructive." SUGGESTION IN EDUCATION ind Edition. Large Cr. 8vo. Cloth. 4s.6d.net. Education, " We regard Mr. Keatinge's work as one of the most valuable contributions to educa- tional science which have been published during recent years. ... It is a fascinating work, calcu- lated to interest the thoughtful parent as well as the professional reader." ALSO JOINTLY WITH N. L. FRAZER, M.A. A HISTORY OF ENGLAND FOR SCHOOLS WITH DOCUMENTS, PROBLEMS, AND EXERCISES 2nd Edition. Large Crown 8vo. Illustrated with Maps and Plans. Cloth. 5s. . O>- in two separate volumes. PART I. (55 B.C. to A.D. 1603). PART II. (1603 to Present Day). 2s. 6d. each. This history has been compiled to meet the growing demand on the part of teachers for a book of practi- cable size, covering the whole of English history, and containing, in addition to a succinct narrative of the course of events, a sufficient number of con- temporary documents to make it a laboratory manual for the pupil. Especial attention has been given to the problems and exercises on the documents. DOCUMENTS OF BRITISH HISTORY WITH PROBLEMS AND EXERCISES Sections I.-V. are reprinted from A History of England for Schools. In one Volume. Large Cr. 8vo. Cloth. 3s. 6d. Or in six Sections. Limp Cloth. 8d. each. I. A.D. 78-1216. II. A.D. 1216-1399. III. A.D. 1399-1603. IV. A.D. 1603-1715. V. A.D. 1715-1815. VI. A.D. 1815-1900. London Teacher. " Extremely useful for class work in history." INTRODUCTION TO WORLD HISTORY With 23 Illustrations and 21 Maps and Plans. In one Volume. Large Cr. 8vo. Cloth. 2s. Scotsman. "It is a skilful and well-proportioned sketch of a largesubject.well devised to meet the needs of school teachers who wish a ready means of impart- A. & C. BLACK, 4, 5, & 6 SOHO SQUARE, LONDON, W. STUDIES IN THE TEACHING OF HISTORY BY M. W. KEATINGE, M.A. READER IN EDUCATION IN THE UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD LONDON ADAM AND CHARLES BLACK First published January 1910 AGENTS AMERICA . . . THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 64 & 66 FIFTH AVENUE, NEW YORK AUSTRALASIA . THE OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS 205 FLINDERS LANE, MELBOURNE CANADA . . . THE MACMILLAN COMPANY OF CANADA, LTD. ST. MARTIN'S HOUSE, 70 BOND STREET, TORONTO INDIA . . . MACMILLAN & COMPANY, LTD. MACMILLAN BUILDING, BOMBAY 309 Bow BAZAAR STREET, CALCUTTA PREFACE THE following pages are concerned with the teaching of boys and girls in the middle forms of secondary schools, and even for this stage deal with only a small number of the numerous problems presented by the teaching of history. They aim at bringing into strong relief a few fundamental positions, and make no claim to be an ex- haustive treatment of the subject. If, therefore, certain methods and principles of proved value are not men- tioned, it must not be concluded that they have been either overlooked or undervalued. My thanks for valuable advice are due to my colleague Miss A. J. Cooper, to Mr. J. Wells, Fellow and Tutor of Wadham College, to Mr. J. B. Baker, Tutor to the Non- Collegiate Students, and to Mr. E. Barker, Fellow and Tutor of St. John's College. It must not be assumed that they are necessarily in agreement with my views. I have also to acknowledge the kindness of Prof. Foster Watson, who allowed me to see the proof-sheets of his book, The Beginnings of the Teaching of Modern Subjects in England, and of Messrs. A. &. C. Black in permitting me to use extracts from their publication, English History Illustrated from Original Sources. M. W. KEATINGE. OXFORD, October 1909. CONTENTS CHAPTER I PAGE THE PROBLEMS OF METHOD AND OF VALUE . . i CHAPTER II SCIENTIFIC METHOD IN HISTORY AND THE PROBLEMS OF THE SCHOOL ....... 20 CHAPTER III CONTEMPORARY DOCUMENTS AS A BASIS OF METHOD . 36 CHAPTER IV CONTEMPORARY DOCUMENTS AS ATMOSPHERE . . 96 CHAPTER V METHOD AND MORAL TRAINING 105 CHAPTER VI ON CONCRETE ILLUSTRATION 120 viii TEACHING OF HISTORY CHAPTER VII PAGE THE ORGANISATION OF HISTORY TEACHING . .151 CHAPTER VIII HISTORY AND THE EXAMINATION SYSTEM . . .168 CHAPTER IX HISTORY AND POETRY .189 CHAPTER X SOME PROBLEMS AND DEVICES OF CLASS-ROOM PRACTICE 213 CHAPTER XI THE TEACHER OF HISTORY 222 INDEX .231 STUDIES IN THE TEACHING OF HISTORY CHAPTER I THE PROBLEMS OF METHOD AND OF VALUE THOSE who write at large on Education seldom realise that the branches of knowledge commonly taught in schools vary greatly in the ease with which they lend themselves to manipulation. Indeed, this aspect of school studies does not interest them. Modes of handling a subject seem almost superfluous if that subject is evidently a good one. To the man who feels that there is a message of some kind to deliver to the younger generation, that there are departments of knowledge whose content is matter of vital import for the understanding of human character and of human society, the delay caused by discussions upon method is apt to be most irksome. " My subject," the historian will say, " is of acknowledged value. No one can be ignorant of it without grave injury to his social or commercial or religious relations. Let us force it into the curriculum at any cost and trust to fortune and to common sense that some method of handling it will be found." Now fortune is a dependable ally only when steps 2 TEACHING OF HISTORY have been taken to succeed without her aid, and the common sense of teachers, while it has dimly felt the problem, has tended to exclude history from the school precincts rather than to establish methods for its treat- ment. If for generation after generation schoolmasters have virtually refused to recognise the importance of history, the reason probably is that it has appeared too vast and untrodden a domain to venture upon without long consideration, and as the turmoil of a schoolmaster's life leaves no leisure for consideration even of a scanty kind, the old subjects hold the field. And they do so largely because they lend themselves to teaching, because as instruments for making boys think and work they are difficult to spoil or to render wholly useless. What are the elements necessary in a subject which is to lend itself to manipulation ? It is easy to sketch in the qualifications. In the main they are four in number. The apparatus must be inexpensive and readily procured ; it must be easy to see what is the teacher's work on the one hand and the boy's work on the other ; there must be a facility for setting home work that shall be different in kind from the work done in class, and these exercises must be fairly mechanical (for too much refined judgment must not be expected from the average boy) ; it must be possible to attain to some generalisations, abstractions, or rules which can be applied to fresh matter. Indeed, it is upon the presence of this latter element that most of the others depend. The older subjects fulfil these conditions well. Given a plain text of Caesar's Gallic War, a Latin Grammar and a dictionary, the boy can be set a great variety of work. The materials are not costly, each page provides METHOD AND VALUE 3 a number of problems to be solved and the attack upon these and the unravelling of the meaning is a genuine preparation for the lesson which is to follow. The work of the teacher in testing preparation and in aiding inter- pretation is easily discerned. Syntactical generalisations in abundance can be derived from instances in the text, and the application of these in retranslation passages and composition is a genuine application exercise. Again in such a subject as arithmetic the conditions are all fulfilled. Definite generalisa- tions or rules can be reached : " Invert the divisor and multiply." These can be applied to an in- definite number of examples or problems, and the boy's part of working examples can readily be distinguished from the teacher's part of developing arithmetical processes. Finally, in both cases the boy can be given a large amount of work to do apart from the teacher, or in other words the teacher need not be teaching all the time an important consideration for a man who has a full teaching week. When we turn to history we find the conditions very badly fulfilled. It is difficult to devise preparation for the boy other than the learning from a text-book of the facts of the lesson that is to be given or the revising of the facts of a lesson that has been given. In school work it is not always possible to arrive at historical generalisations and apply them to fresh matter. In other words, apart from essay-writing, of which with middle-school boys it is not easy to vary the form, exercises are difficult to find. It needs all the devices of a practised schoolmaster to make the class contribute much to the development of the lesson. The limits of change appear to be the short lecture, the lecture interspersed with questions, the 4 TEACHING OF HISTORY expansion of the text-book, the occasional setting of problems, the written answer of fact and the essay ; while the latter exacts much time from the master who looks it over. In this subject more than in any other it seems as if the maximum of work were demanded from the teacher and the minimum from the pupil. The old relations are reversed ; the teacher prepares his lessons and the pupil hears them. Now a subject to the development of which the pupil is not himself always contributing soon ceases to excite his interest. Experience shows that the best lectures, although at first listened to with respect, engender list- lessness and inattention as term advances ; and yet lecturing in some modified form is the first method that suggests itself in history teaching. Thus as far as its form is concerned, history appears to be a bad school subject, and if its content were unimportant, it might well be left on one side as too exacting for practical purposes. If, however, it can be shown that the content of history is of value for educational ends it will be worth while to spend some pains upon it. If, further, it can be shown that for educational purposes no other complex of ideas is of such real importance, no trouble will be too great, if only we can succeed in getting into order this somewhat unmanageable subject. It is not easy to make a brief statement of the advantages to be derived from the study of history, for, indeed, their number is overwhelming. Without some acquaintance with origins no man can under- stand the civilisation into which he is born, and not understanding it he will take no interest in its prob- lems. His social and political vision will be dim METHOD AND VALUE 5 and uncertain, his horizon will not extend beyond his own immediate needs. Unlike the sufferer from cataract the mentally blind can find no surgeon to cure him by a speedy operation, for his ignorance begets prejudices whose growth is proportional to the efforts to heal him. Lack of interest in human factors is a serious deficiency, and its seriousness is especially felt in the modern self-conscious democracy. The individual has not only to realise that problems exist ; he is asked in addition to have definite views upon them, and the definiteness required is that which arises out of know- ledge rather than that born of ignorance. The voter of the present day is asked to come to a decision upon matters of foreign and home politics. He is expected to have views upon social matters, and to act upon them at the polling booth ; and he will criticise the report of the Poor Law Commission. He may belong to a religious community, or he may not ; in either case he has his share in making legislation that decides the relation between the State and the Churches. He is not surprised if asked to choose between Free Trade and Protection, and is in no way deterred from doing so by his ignorance of both. He will decide that more Dreadnoughts are necessary, or fewer, as the case may be, hoping to find out at a later date what exactly a Dreadnought is and its importance to his country. He swells with pride at our position in India, and criticises the action of the Viceroy or the attitude of the Home Government from the lofty standpoint of the voter who ultimately controls both. And yet how many of the ordinary citizens of this country, men, let us say, prospering in business or professional life, have either acquired at school or 6 TEACHING OF HISTORY received the stimulus which would lead them later on to acquire for themselves the knowledge that is required for sound judgment in these matters ? If the relations between this country and others is in question, how many adults have a sound understanding of the political factors in Europe and the manner in which they arose ? How many could even give an account of the causes which led up to the war of 1870-71 ? In home politics how many of the people who look upon the Irish as a race of irreconcilables perpetually occupied in making irrational demands have the slightest acquaintance with Irish history or with the genesis of the Irish character and conditions? Howmany have even a fair acquaintance with the history of the working classes between the reign of Edward I. and the present day, or of the separation of the Anglican Church from Rome and the growth of Nonconformity, or of the various attempts made to aid trade by restricting it from the fourteenth century to the present day, or of the development of the navy from Henry VIII. onwards? How many could give even a slight sketch of the history of India, of the diverse races to be found there and of the peculiar political problems that arise out of this diversity ? A very slight acquaintance with men in different stations of life shows that in spite of the increased attention paid to history in schools during the last decade (for it is apparently only those who write to the daily papers on matters of education who can venture to neglect the changes that have taken place in schools since their own school-days), a lamentable ignorance is everywhere to be found. Men who would be ashamed of mistakes in classical scholarship, or of mathematical inaccuracy, will readily confess their ignorance as METHOD AND VALUE 7 regards the history of an institution as well as their indifference to it. In many societies to be ill-read in the cricket or football news may be a source of real discomfiture, to be ill-informed as to the history of a movement which is of vital importance to the com- munity need not cause anxiety to any one. It is precisely in respect of the type of historical information above alluded to information of an almost crudely utilitarian kind that we might have expected to find a widely-diffused sense of its value. It is on this aspect of history-values that it is wise to lay stress when appealing to the common sense of the average citizen, and if we receive an unsympathetic hearing it is perhaps useless to display the other values of our subject. Yet it is as an introduction to the world of human nature that history is chiefly to be prized. If stress is laid on the biographical side, history is a panorama of character in action in every conceivable situation, it widens in- definitely the circle of our acquaintances, it provides abundant material for the analysis of motive, it gives opportunity for cultivating restraint in the admiration of pleasant personalities and charity in the judgment of unpleasant ones. By bringing the learner into con- tact with civilisations and societies unlike his own it lessens race and class prejudice. In its chronological aspect it introduces us to the gradual development of civilisation in time. In all these and in other directions the value of history is difficult to overrate, and impossible to express in a few words. With no subject does the teacher stand in closer connection, since it is he who should pass on to the younger generation the sacred flame from previous ages. The State, when it passes on the material possessions of one generation to the next, 8 TEACHING OF HISTORY claims as its due a substantial death-duty, the price of the security that it affords to this transmission of personal rights. Similarly the teacher has on the State no stronger claim than this, that he hands on to the young the possession of their fathers' hard-won experience, and by the integrity of his presentation ensures the continuity of historical interest. Writers on education since the Renaissance (quoting Cicero in support of their views) have held opinions which agree closely with those expressed above. In his Essay, De Ingenuis Moribus, written in 1392 for the son of Francesco Carrara, the lord of Padua, Vergerius says : "Among liberal studies I accord the first place to history, on grounds both of its attractiveness and its utility. History gives us the concrete examples of the precepts inculcated by philosophy." 1 Lionardo D'Arezzo expresses himself similarly in 1405 : " First among such studies I place history, a subject which must not, on any account, be neglected by one who aspires to true cultiva- tion. For it is our duty to understand the origins of our history and its development." 2 In 1450 ./Eneas Sylvius (Pope Pius II.), after recommending the study of Livy, Sallust, Quintus Curtius, Valerius Maximus, and Arrian (in a translation), together with portions of the Old and New Testament, e.g. parts of Genesis, Kings, Maccabees, Judith, Esdras, and Esther ; and of the Gospels and the Acts of the Apostles (advice that is rather unexpected as coming from a Pope), adds : " It is most important to be thoroughly versed in the works of the chief historians, and from their study learn practical wisdom in affairs. But I would add here a most serious 1 Woodward, Vittorino Da Feltre, and other Humanist Educators, 1907, p. 106. 2 Ibid. p. 12. METHOD AND VALUE 9 caution. Beware of wasting time over such a subject as the history of Bohemia or the history of Hungary. For such would be but the productions of mere ignorant chroniclers, a farrago of nonsense and lies, destitute of attraction in form or style or in grave reflections." l It is evident that the history which these writers had in mind was rather that of their ancestors, the Romans, than the history of mediaeval Europe, and it must not be forgotten that to the schoolboy of the Renaissance the Latin lesson, with Livy for a reading-book, was a lesson in history quite as much as in linguistics. While, no doubt, it was as difficult for the Italian as for the English schoolboy to become a finished scholar, it must have been far easier for him to read Livy quickly and thus to master its historical content intelligently than for the German boys on the other side of the Alps who brought to the task no stock of similar works in the vernacular, and therefore had to spell out the content laboriously with the aid of a dictionary. For this reason it is un- likely that in the post-Renaissance schools in Germany and England, where the classical authors were read more for their style than for their matter, the historical content was realised so fully as by the Italian boys. None the less when schoolmasters of any eminence expressed their views on education they frequently demanded history, and plenty of it, in the curriculum. " An acquaintance with history," said Comenius, " is the most important element in a man's education, and is, as it were, the eye of his whole life. This subject, therefore, should be taught in each of the six classes (of the grammar school), that our pupils may be ignorant of no 1 Woodward, Vittorino Da Feltre, and other Humanist Educators, 1907, p. 152. io TEACHING OF HISTORY event which has happened from ancient times to the present day. Our idea is that each class should have its own handbook dealing with some special branch of history. Class I. An Epitome of Scripture History. Class II. Natural History. Class III. The History of Arts and Inventions. Class IV. The History of Morals. Class V. The History of Customs treating of the Habits of Different Nations. Class VI. The General History of the World and of the Principal Nations, but especially of the boys' native land, dealing with the whole subject tersely and comprehensively." 1 Locke also, who, though probably not representative of scholastic views in the seventeenth century, has strongly influenced subsequent opinion, lays stress on chronology, " that the pupil may have in his mind a view of the whole current of time and the several considerable epochs that are made use of in history. Without this, history, which is the great mistress of prudence and civil knowledge, and ought to be the proper study of a gentleman or a man of business in the world, will be very ill retained." 2 In education the gulf between theories and practice is great. Sturm laid no stress on history in his Strasburg school, neither did the Jesuits in their establishments, nor Calvin in his grammar school at Geneva, nor the schools in Scotland founded on his model by John Knox. In English schools a manual of English History was actually ordered by the Privy Council in 1582 to be read in schools, 3 but for the sake of the boys of the period it may be hoped that the order was disobeyed. 1 The Great Didactic, chap. xxx. 2 Thoughts on Education, sec. 182. 3 Anglorum Proelia, ab A.D. 1327 usque ad ann. 1538. Christophero Oclando authore, London, 1580. Ocland was master of St. Olave's School, Southwark. METHOD AND VALUE n Here is a taste of it dealing with that old friend of the text-books, the Wars of the Roses : nobilitata inter plures haec sunt loca caede, Albani fanum, Blorum, Borealis et Hampton, Banbrecum campis, Barnettum collibus haerens, experrectorum (Wakefieldia) pagus, fanumque secundo Albani, propior Scoticis confinibus Exam, contiguoque istis habitantes rure coloni, moerentes hodie, quoties proscindit arator arva propinqua locis dentale revellere terra semisepulta virum sulcis cerealibus ossa. In 1650 Alexander Ross brought out an abridgment of Raleigh's History of the World under the title The Marrow of History, and as he was a schoolmaster the book may have been read by his pupils, but of this there is no evidence. From this time onwards there is a continuous stream of text-books, but absolutely no indi- cation that the subject was treated in schools as of any real importance ; indeed such text-books seem to have been used as material for Latin prose composition quite as much as for their historical value. 1 It was not wholly through inadvertence that history was thus degraded to be a menial accessory of linguistics. The object of history was considered to be the illustration of abstract moral maxims, and as Aristotle had considered " moral philosophy " unsuited for the young, history was similarly thought to be beyond the grasp of school- boys. 2 In his inaugural lecture Degory Wheare, the 1 New Thoughts concerning Education, by M. Rollin. Eng. Trans., 1735, P- 7 2 > note by translator upon a History of England recently published for schools " which may be of great benefit to the youth who may make their Latin exercises by it." 2 The Method and Order of Reading both Civil and Ecclesi- astical Histories, by Degory Wheare, Cambden Reader of History 12 TEACHING OF HISTORY first Camden Reader of History at Oxford, discusses the matter, and wonders that Voss, " who deserves to be numbered among the princes of learning in this age, should in his elegant book, De Arte Historica, maintain that this sort of study is fit for young men." l Of theoretical writers on Education during the last century, only two have objected to history as a school subject. Herbert Spencer, writing before 1860, found that the history of the text-book of his day was educa- tionally valueless, and he was probably right ; while Bain considered the subject too easy and too full of con- tentious matter for inclusion in the school curriculum. 2 in Oxford, 1710, p. 15. "History is the register and explication of particular affairs, undertaken to the end that the memory of them may be preserved and so universals may be the more evidently confirmed, by which we may be instructed how to live well and happily." 1 The Method and Order of Reading both Civil and Ecclesi- astical Histories, p. 299. Wheare gives succinctly the arguments used on each side by Keckermann and Voss. According to Kecker- mann, histories contain nothing but examples of precepts, and method should precede, just as it is absurd for a man to desire to know and observe the examples of grammar, logic, or rhetoric, before he has learned the rules of those sciences ; thus one cannot read history, which is nothing but examples of morality and politics, till one has learned the rules and methods of morality and policy. On the other side Voss points out that languages may be learned without grammar rules, and that Keckermann confounds the naked and simple history of things with the historical perfection which inquires curiously into the circumstances and causes of events. 2 H. Spencer, Education, pp. 30, 3 1 . " The information commonly given under this head is almost valueless for purposes of guidance. Scarcely any of the facts set down in our school histories, and very few of those contained in the more elaborate works written for adults, illustrate the right principles of political action." A. Bain, Education as a Science, 1878. "The fact that history presents no difficulty to minds of ordinary education and experience, and is, moreover, an interesting form of literature, is a sufficient reason for not spending much time upon it in the METHOD AND VALUE 13 As will be seen, both modern opinion and modern practice in schools tend greatly to undervalue the im- portance of history ; but before proceeding to consider this, it will be well to learn the views of the only historians during the last two hundred years who have combined with their expert knowledge a great interest in, or a thorough acquaintance with, the problems of education and of school-life Rollin the historian, and Dr. Arnold of Rugby. Rollin, in his time an educational authority of un- doubted weight, speaks with certainty and conviction : " I look upon history as the first matter to be given to children, equally serviceable to entertain and instruct them, to form their hearts and understandings, and to enrich their memories with abundance of facts as agree- able as useful. It may likewise be of great service, by means of the pleasure inseparable from it, towards exciting the curiosity of that age which is ever desirous of being informed and inspiring a taste for study. Thus in point of education it is a fundamental principle, and constantly observed at all times, that the study of history should precede all the rest and prepare the way for them." : Dr. Arnold's views, though only one hundred years curriculum of school or college. When there is any doubt we may settle the matter by leaving it out A very searching inquiry into modern events brings out such a variety of opinions in practical politics and still more in religion as to make an obstacle to the introduction of the subject into higher schools." 1 The Method of Teaching and Studying the Belles- Lettres^ by M. Rollin, late Principal of the University of Paris, translated in 4 vols., 1734, p. 6. Further on Rollin lays stress on four points. We should (i) endeavour to find out the causes of events ; (2) study the character of the people and great men men- tioned in history ; (3) observe in history what relates to manners and the conduct of life ; (4) carefully take knowledge of everything that bears any relation to religion. 14 TEACHING OF HISTORY later, show a great advance in the stress laid upon the formal element in history, but in the main he agrees with Rollin. In one of the few specific essays on education that he wrote he begins by dealing with a possible misunderstanding. 1 "In the statement of the business of Rugby school, which has been given above, one part of it will be found to consist of works of modern history. An undue importance is attached by some persons to this circumstance, and those who would care little to have their sons familiar with the history of the Peloponnesian War are delighted that they should study the campaigns of Frederick the Great or of Napoleon. Information about modern events is more useful, they think, than that which relates to antiquity ; and such information they wish to be given to their children." After cavilling at the suggestion that it is desirable to fill boys with useful information, and giving some brief hints as to a method of teaching history in the elementary stage, he proceeds : " Supposing a boy to possess that outline of general history which his prints and his abridgments will have given him, with his associations, so far as they go, strong and lively, and his desire of increased knowledge keen, the next thing to be done is to set him to read some first-rate historian whose mind was formed in, and bears the stamp of, some period ol advanced civilisation analogous to that in which we live. In other words, he should read Thucydides or Tacitus or any writer equal to them, if such can be found belonging to the third period of full civilisation, that of modern Europe since the Middle Ages. The particular subject of the history is of little moment so long as it can be 1 An article contributed to the Quarterly Journal of Education in 1834. 15 taken neither from the barbarian nor from the romantic, but from the philosophical or civilised stage of human society ; and so long as the writer be a man of com- manding mind, who has fully imbibed the influences of his age, yet without bearing its exclusive impress. And the study of such a work under an intelligent teacher becomes indeed the key of knowledge and of wisdom : first it affords an example of good historical evidence, and hence the pupil may be taught to notice from time to time the various criteria of a credible narrative, and by the rule of contraries to observe what are the indica- tions of a testimony questionable, suspicious or worthless. Undue scepticism may be repressed by showing how generally truth has been attained when it has been honestly and judiciously sought ; while credulity may be checked by pointing out, on the other hand, how manifold are the errors into which those are betrayed whose intellect or whose principles have been found wanting. Now, too, the time is come when the pupil may be introduced to that high philosophy which unfolds ' the causes of things.' Let him be taught to analyse the subject thus presented to him ; to trace back institu- tions, civil and religious, to their origin ; to explore the elements of the national character, as now exhibited in maturity, in the vicissitudes of the nation's fortune, and the moral and physical qualities of his race ; to observe how the morals and minds of the people have been subject to a succession of influences, some accidental, some regular ; to see and remember what critical seasons of improvement have been neglected, what besetting evils have been wantonly aggravated, by wickedness or folly. In short, the pupil may be furnished as it were with certain formulae, which shall enable him to read all 16 TEACHING OF HISTORY history beneficially ; which shall teach him what to look for in it, how to judge of it, and how to apply it. Education will thus fulfil its great business, as far as regards the intellect, to inspire it with a desire of know- ledge, and to furnish it with power to obtain and to profit by what it seeks for." It may be noted that when he talks of history, Rollin has in mind ancient history, while Dr. Arnold, though he lays great stress on ancient history, does not exclude modern history, and was in fact one of the first, if not the first, headmaster of repute to give modern history a definite position in the time-table. Now no one who has had a classical education is likely to undervalue the knowledge of Greek and of Roman civilisation that he derived from it, for this knowledge has been acquired in a fashion that ensures its wearing well. It has soaked gradually into the mind while the linguistics have been mastered sentence by sentence and construction by construction. It has generally been concerned with a few limited and important periods. It has been gathered from the original documents, from works written with the intimacy but also with the limitations of those who were near the events, and together with the sequence of the narrative there has been acquired a fair intimacy with a few of the principal actors. Not only has a necessary basis been laid for the further understanding of history, but the method of laying it has been the soundest one possible. But although this is true, its truth may be an obstacle to a discussion upon the teaching of history in general, unless certain other facts are well borne in mind. In the first place, it may be doubted if as much history is at present acquired through the classics as was the METHOD AND VALUE 17 case a few generations ago, when less stress was laid upon critical questions and upon composition for scholar- ship purposes. In the second place, fewer boys read the classics, and even these in most schools devote to them a much smaller number of hours than formerly. In the third place, an increasing number of boys read no classics at all, or at most acquire the rudiments of Latin. In the face of these facts to reiterate the statement that history can profitably be learned only through the classics is to leave the subject to the crammers and the text- books. Dr. Arnold has been quoted at length because he demands a factual knowledge of modern history in addition to the formal training to be derived from the study of the ancient historians, and because he writes with an enthusiasm born of his study both of history and of boys. Nothing is more striking than the difference of the note sounded by modern writers. In the preface to his excellent Introductory History of England, Mr. C. R. L. Fletcher says roundly that " for English History as part of a school curriculum or as a means of education I have no regard at all. The substitution of modern history and other modern subjects in our great schools for Greek and Latin I regard as nothing short of an irretrievable calamity." 1 Mr. A. Hassall follows in a similar strain : " It is doubtful if many schoolmasters have yet discovered the best methods of training boys in history. In far too many instances Greek and Latin History is displaced for mediaeval and modern History." 2 1 It is open to question whether the mischievousness of this statement coming from a writer of merit is aggravated or palliated by the excellence of the history which follows. 2 The Public Schools from Within, 1906, article on History. Apparently no schoolmaster could be found "from within" to write the chapter. 2 18 TEACHING OF HISTORY An Eton master, responsible for the teaching of history, is reserved in the statement of his views : " The claims of History are still matters of dispute." 1 Apparently he has good reason for saying so. " Our public schools teach little or nothing about the Empire. English History and Literature are barely tolerated." 2 It is not many years since the headmaster of a great school stated at the Headmasters' Conference that history could be nothing but a cram subject. 8 A Clifton master expresses the same sentiment : " Exceptional boys apart, history should be a purely subordinate study, as it tends to become vague, desultory, or didactic." 4 When made in connexion with the classical side of a great school the plea that the classical history does what is necessary, though misleading, contains a half truth ; it is when such a half truth is used to justify the neglect of an important subject on modern sides that its mischievous nature is apparent. It is noteworthy that in the accounts of the Modern Sides at Public Schools recently published by the Board of Education there is no indication that the subject is looked upon as one of first importance, or that any attempt has been made to fashion it into a real ergastulum* 1 The Teaching of History, 1901, p. 91, chapter on "The Teaching of History in Schools," by Mr. C. H. K. Marten. 2 Rev. T. L. Papillon, in The Public Schools from Within, p. 284. 3 A distinguished teacher of history at Oxford has assured the writer (i) that boys should learn no history at school, but should reserve this study for the University; (2) that if those who do not go to a University must learn some history, this should be limited to an outline of facts and dates. 4 Mr. A. B. Mayor, in Moral Instruction and Training in Schools, edited by M. E. Sadler, vol. i. p. 142. 5 Board of Education. Educational Pamphlets, Nos. 3, 7, 8, METHOD AND VALUE 19 The truth is that the burning conviction which underlies the expression of Arnold's views, the feeling that a training in history, and more particularly in certain elements of historical method, is of such vital importance that with whatever expenditure of trouble, or at whatever neglect of other subjects, the subject must be given a prominent place and worked so that it commands respect, is nowhere to be found. Owing to the pressure of external examinations a modicum of historical fact has to be got up, but in most schools history is still casually classed under what are called " the English subjects," and the methods adopted in teaching it are probably as casual as the classification. When a subject with such strong claims is habitually discredited by men engaged in serious educational prac- tice the cause doubtless is, in certain cases, ignorance and perversity ; but on the whole it is more likely to be the well- justified feeling that a subject in which the work has to be done for the boy by the teacher, 1 which in the long run resolves itself into either listening to interesting matter or learning by heart, which is, in short, a soft option, is un suited to be a main study for boys of a certain age. It is, however, by no means certain that history is of this nature or need be taught in this way, and it is cleai that if the subject is of first-rate importance, the problem of method deserves serious attention. It is in the belief that for purposes of culture no other subject can approach history, that the following pages have been written. 10, dealing with the Modern Sides at Harrow, Rugby, Eton, and Dulwich. 1 Mr. C. H. K. Marten, op. cit. : " It is the teacher before a boy can read much for himself who must generalise from and analyse facts ; who must give his judgment on men and events , who must explain causes and estimate effects." CHAPTER II SCIENTIFIC METHOD IN HISTORY AND THE PROBLEMS OF THE SCHOOL As soon as the nursery period is over, three stages of history teaching may be distinguished. The first covers approximately the years between seven and twelve, the second those between twelve and sixteen, and the third the last three years of school life. Demarcation of periods by age can give only a partial indication of the degree of mental development implied, as boys vary greatly. On the whole, however, if we take it that exceptional boys may be some years ahead of or short of the average, these three stages correspond to the facts of school life, and may be termed the preparatory, the secondary, and the upper secondary. It is impossible to read the various essays that of late years have appeared on the teaching of history without noticing that writers who deal with the first stage have no misgiving as to the value of their subject. " Almost all who have taught history to boys and girls," says Mr. A. M. Curteis, " agree in estimating its relative value very highly." And again, " the masters of preparatory schools as a body are convinced that, apart from the actual know- ledge gained, the process of gaining it helps to strengthen memory, that it is one of the most effectual means of 20 METHOD AND SCHOOL PROBLEMS 21 developing intelligence and training judgment, and that it awakens imagination." l So also the late Professor Withers, writing with particular reference to elementary schools : " A man who is ignorant of Algebra cannot be called ' uneducated ' in the same sense as a man who is ignorant of History, nor is his ignorance likely to be so injurious to himself and to others." 2 This unanimity of opinion, of which it would be easy to give further instances, is not difficult to account for. The more obvious methods of teaching history, those upon which a teacher interested in his subject but with no school tradition to draw upon is most likely to chance, are just those that prove to be most suitable for children of this age, while in addition it is tacitly taken for granted that the subject is a very subsidiary one, to which one or at most two hours a week are given. For the teaching of history during this preparatory stage the method is largely one of presentation. The instruments are a text- book or a reading-book, pictures in the books used and on the walls of the class-room, and collections of suit- able ballads, while stress is laid upon the biographies of men of action, and these are made the concentration points of the narrative. It is not for a moment implied that boys of this age are to be purely receptive, that they should only read the text-book, look at pictures, and listen to well-told descriptions of persons and events. The clever teacher will, with the older boys at any rate, encourage some note-taking, will ask questions that stimu- late thought, and will set written work that demands 1 Special Reports on Educational Subjects, vol. vi., Pre- paratory Schools for Boys, art. on "The Teaching of History in Preparatory Schools," by A. M. Curteis. 2 Memorandum on the Teaching of History, by Professor H. L. Withers, M.A., 1901. 22 TEACHING OF HISTORY it ; and for boys of this age it may even be sufficient, in a lesson that comes once or at most twice a week, if the imagination is excited and interest is aroused. But pro- bably towards the end of this stage, certainly as soon as the next is reached, and with a force that increases with each successive year, it becomes apparent that something more is needed. In comparison with the linguistic or the mathematical lessons which daily are making further demands upon the thinking powers, the history lesson seems to the boys to be a breathing-space, interesting enough, no doubt, if the teacher is good, but not one in which a serious effort, comparable, say, to that required in solving algebraical problems, has to be made. When once a boy feels this, his respect for a subject vanishes, and he labels it as a soft option. Now for soft options, for subjects that are not taught in such a manner that the boys feel their seriousness, there is in the curriculum no room at all. It is already overcrowded, and often, as result, ten subjects are taught badly where four or five used to be taught well. If it is maintained that a few soft hours are needed to avoid over- pressure, the answer is that in that case the boys would be better off out of doors, or in the workshop, or at a choral practice. There ought to be no middle way between teaching a subject as a pure convention and equipping it with a real method. If the first course is decided upon, if it appears good to lay stress upon subjects other than history but to teach it because it would make a bad impression upon parents if it were omitted from the time-table, or because it is desirable that a boy should be cognizant of a few of the leading names and dates in English history, let it be taught from this standpoint. Let twenty to forty minutes a week be METHOD AND SCHOOL PROBLEMS 23 given to it, and let the brute facts be administered from a text-book by a strong disciplinarian. This will waste little time, and the professed aim will be attained. In this matter there must be no shirking of the issues. The history hour can provide either a modicum of con- ventional knowledge, of which much is almost valueless as mental content, and much will be forgotten within a few years of leaving school, or it may supply a real training in observation, judgment, and expression. As with every other subject, we must definitely select our aim, and having done so must take steps to ensure its attainment. The sound method of teaching any subject in schools must always stand in close relations with the scientific development of that subject, and in particular with the formal treatment of that scientific development by the logician. It is noticeable that in schools the handling of many subjects remains centuries in arrear of their scientific development. Napier, for example, discovered logarithms in 1612. It was not till the end of the nine- teenth century that they were placed as an instrument in the hands of middle - school boys. 1 Only thirty years ago the teaching of science in many schools (at this date school science meant chemistry) was based solely upon the text-book, and it was possible for a candidate to pass an examination like the University of London Matriculation without having seen or handled a piece of chemical apparatus. Since that date there has been development in several directions. Increased atten- tion has been given to the methods of inductive science. 1 They were introduced at the Royal Naval College, Osborne, in 1904, at Winchester a few years earlier, and doubtless in other schools at about the same time. 24 TEACHING OF HISTORY Indeed, since the formal inductive methods were stated by J. S. Mill they have been repeated, modified, and criticised in every serious work on logic, and men of science themselves, though probably quite careless of the attention paid to their methods by logicians, read and are affected by works like Professor Karl Pearson's Grammar of Science. As a consequence partly of this increased consciousness of method, and partly of the teaching instinct on the part of teachers who felt that if science had to be introduced into schools, means must be devised for giving their pupils plenty of active work, 1 laboratories have been introduced into schools, and in these opportunity is given for observation and in- vestigation. In addition, by some schoolmasters at any rate, the pupils are compelled to consider the logical processes through which they have gone and to realise how much of the result attained has been given to them, how much they have proved for themselves, and the degree of validity of that proof. It is also sug- gested, though perhaps not yet to any extent realised in practice, that older pupils should be introduced to some consideration of the nature of the ultimate hypotheses in chemistry, physics, and biology. 2 Turning to the scientific treatment of history we find a similar development in the attention paid to method, although this does not yet seem to have affected school- 1 And, it may be added, in spite of the injudicious and some- times ill-expressed advocacy of certain Professors of natural science. 2 A most interesting sketch of a method by which, starting from the experiments of the school laboratory, an insight may be given into these ultimate facts of science, is to be found in Philo- sophische Propadeutik auf naturwissenschafilicher Grundlage fur hohere Lehranstalten, von August Schulte-Tigges, 1900. METHOD AND SCHOOL PROBLEMS 25 teaching. From the sixteenth century onward there have appeared at intervals works treating of the logical processes through which the historian goes, and of recent years this consciousness of method has found expression in several important works. 1 A brief account of the function, the scope, and the materials of the historian, as stated by Bernheim and others, will facilitate the business of this essay. The conception of the function of history has gone through three stages. In the first it is narrative, and conditioned by aesthetic interest and imagination. In the second it is instructive, embodies more reflection, and may be actuated by patriotism or by moral aims. In the third it seeks to know how each individual event came into being and developed in the complex of condi- tions, and busies itself with notions of causation. 2 The growth of this conception, it may be observed, stands in close relation with the methods which can successively be adopted in the various school stages. In the pre- paratory stage the presentation might be aesthetic and interesting, in the secondary stage moral aims and reflec- tions might be introduced, while the tracing of cause and effect might be reserved for the third or upper secondary stage. It is, however, not permissible to base method upon such a crude notion of psychological development. This was Rousseau's mistake ; since his time it has been recognised that mental growth is gradual, and cannot be split off into sections, each displaying a marked difference 1 Chief amongst these is Bernheim's Lehrbuch der historischen Methode, 6th edition, 1908. An account of the works in which historical method has been treated since the sixteenth century will be found on p. 21 7. 2 Bernheim, op. cit. p. 22. 26 TEACHING OF HISTORY from those which immediately precede and follow. The preparatory stage, it is true, stands in marked contrast to the upper secondary as regards mental powers, but it develops gradually into it through what we have called the secondary stage, and it is precisely at this point that our difficulty is greatest. For here the various mental qualities and powers are all present in embryo, sometimes to a considerable degree of development, and it is not easy in general terms to say how much it is safe to take for granted ; but of this later. Accompanying this increasing clearness in the con- ception of the stages of history there has arisen a tendency to widen the scope of the subject matter that falls within its province. We have, in fact, confronting one another two great groups or complexes of sciences ; on the one side natural science, dealing with the facts of physical nature, their investigation and manipulation, and on the other a group consisting of history, anthro- pology, sociology, and psychology, dealing similarly with the facts of human nature. As many of these subjects are only just coming into existence, it is not easy to delimit their spheres. For instance, the exact relation in which history stands to sociology is to some extent a question of terms, and is complicated by the tradition of the positive philosophy that lingers round the term sociology, since this was first used by Comte to denote the science of human nature regarded as con- ditioned by purely physical causes. The term is, how- ever, now used without this implication to denote a group of human phenomena wider than that treated of by the conventional history of the last generation, which, tc a large extent, excluded economic and social questions. Its nature is made clear by a syllabus of sociology METHOD AND SCHOOL PROBLEMS 27 suitable for secondary education suggested by M. A. Fouill^e. 1 1. Importance of sociology. The nature of society. Is it a simple collection of individuals ? Is it an organism ? Subordination of biological to psychological laws in sociology. The part played by sympathy, by imitation, by invention, by will, and by voluntary co-operation. 2. Conditions of equilibrium and conditions of progress tor societies and in particular for nations. The individual, the family, and the State. Nations and the psychology of peoples. The French nation. 3. Economic sociology. Production, distribution, and con- sumption of commodities. 4. Property from the sociological standpoint. Examina- tion of socialist systems. Materialistic and idealistic socialism. 5. Political sociology. The principles on which democracy depends. The true meaning and limits of national sovereignty. Advantages and dangers of democracy. 6. Moral, juridical, and criminal sociology. Alcoholism. Depopulation. The growth of criminality in France. Juvenile criminality. 7. The republican constitution in France. The rights which it confers and the duties which it demands. M. Fouille"e adds : " In a word, under this title of sociology must be grouped a number of questions which to-day are treated without scientific method and in too dogmatic a manner." Instead of " sociology " the term " social science " is sometimes used to indicate this complex. 2 Whatever 1 A. Fouille"e, Revue Internationale de sociologie, October 1899. 2 " Le mot sociologie avait 6t6 invent^ par les philosophes, il correspondait a une tentative pour grouper des branches de science resides isolees sous une conception philosophique d'ensemble. II parait avoir eu le meme sort que cette con- ception : apres une peViode de vogue, il semble menacd de sortir de la langue. Le mot sciences sociales est. entrti dans 1'usage pour indiquer a peu pres le meme ensemble d'etudes." 28 TEACHING OF HISTORY the term employed, it is evident that there is here a complex of objects of scientific study which in part roughly corresponds to and in part arises out of the subject taught in schools under the traditional name of history. 1 For this science of human life and development the doctrine of historical method now proceeds to enumerate and to classify the data. These fall under the two headings of data left unconsciously and data left con- sciously. The first comprises monuments, language, institutions, bodily remains ; the second includes historical pictures, plans, sculptures, sagas, proverbs, historical songs, inscriptions, genealogies, calendars, annals, chronicles, biographies, memoirs, letters, state documents. 2 This catalogue of data is not without importance, as the difference in method between the two groups of nature studies and of human-nature studies depends upon the differences between their respective subject matters. In natural science the fact to be studied is before the observer, and can be repeated at will ; in social science the object of study in many cases is in the first instance a document from which the historic fact has to be reconstructed. Bearing this in mind, it is now possible roughly to contrast the methods of the two sciences. In natural science we have to explain some fact, let this be rust or the rising of mercury in the barometer ; we do so : Ch. Seignobos, La Mtihode historique applique"e aux sciences societies, 1901, p. 7. 1 Bernheim is of opinion that sociology differs from history in its abstract manner of dealing with its subject matter. " Sociology ignores the individual, neglects the psychical motives and creative activity, while for history these are important factors to be discovered and known." 2 Bernheim, op. cit. p. 250. METHOD AND SCHOOL PROBLEMS 29 1. By considering a number of hypothetical causes which we are led to imagine by our knowledge both general and particular of the manner in which elements affect one another. 2. By then trying the supposed causes until finally we see, say, rust produced. If we are then certain that only the conditions which we have arranged are in operation, we have worked back to the cause. 3. The explanation is, however, not complete. It is not correct to say that we see the cause in operation. We see the cause, but the operation is an unseen one, which we provisionally describe and make concrete to the imagination by hypotheses as to the existence of atoms and molecules, and their quantitative combinations under certain laws. In history, on the other hand, we (i) observe some human product ; it may be a monument, an inscription, or a document : in most cases the latter. (2) We reason back from the document to the causes that produced it, i.e. to the historical fact. This we do by applying a number of methodical principles. (3) Having con- structed the fact we then explain it by referring it to human motive. (4) We can then, if we wish, attempt to trace the operation of this fact in the complex of other facts that we discover in the same way. Between the two groups, therefore, the following differences of method are outstanding : i. In history, as opposed to natural science, the fact which is at hand for observation is not the historical fact, but merely a description of it, and in many, if not in most cases, a very unreliable one. The transition from the document to the fact is difficult, occupies a great part of the historian's time, and dictates to him 30 TEACHING OF HISTORY the nature of his method. In history there is thus an additional, and frequently a very uncertain step, which is not to be found to the same extent in natural science. 1 2. In natural science experimentation is possible, and is in fact the basis of discovery. In history, as in all social science, experimentation is impossible. We cannot arrange the supposed causes artificially to see if they produce the given effect. 3. Thus in history, where the first stage of reasoning is always regressive, we can only argue back to a number of hypothetical causes and discover indirectly which is the most probable. This element of probability is to be found in two stages : (a) in the transition from the document to the fact ; (ft) in that from the fact to the human cause ; e.g. the shaky handwriting of a signature may indicate (i) that the writer was on his death-bed, or (2) that he was intoxicated, or (3) that he wrote it in an express train. We can only surmise with a greater or a less degree of probability from the general nature of the case, and from our knowledge of the writer and his conditions which of these causes is likely to be the right one. It is thus to the criticism and analysis of documents that a great part of historical method devotes itself. This criticism may be of two kinds, to which the names of (i) external, (2) internal criticism are given. External criticism has as its object critical exegesis and the establishment of the correct text of a document ; it asks, in other words, if the data are admissible. Internal 1 " Toute connaissance historique dtant indirecte, 1'histoire est essentiellement une science de raisonnement." Seignobos, La Methode historique applique" e aux sciences soctales. p. 5. METHOD AND SCHOOL PROBLEMS 31 criticism is concerned with the relation between the data and the facts. It has to determine "(i) what the writer really believed, for he may not have been sincere ; (2) what he really knew, for he may have been mistaken." i Two types of criteria are thus needed : (a) criteria of sincerity ; (b} criteria of accuracy. Criteria of sincerity lead us to consider the following positions : 1. The writer sought to gain some practical advantage for himself or the group to which he belonged. 2. He was placed in a situation which compelled him to violate truth, e.g. he had to draw up a document in conformity with custom. 3. From sympathy with or antipathy for a group of men he was led to distort facts so as not to represent his friends in an unfavourable light. 4. He was induced by private or collective vanity to violate truth by exalting himself or his group. 5. The author desired to please the public or at least to avoid shocking it. He has expressed senti- ments in harmony with popular ideas. 6. He tried to please the public by literary devices. In other words, his facts have suffered aesthetic, rhetorical, or dramatic distortion. Criteria of accuracy draw our attention to the following possibilities : 1. The author was in a situation to observe the fact and thought he had done so, but was prevented by, say, prejudice from doing so. 2. The author may have been badly situated for observing. He may not have been able to see and 1 Langlois and Seignobos, Introduction to the Study oj History, Eng. Trans., p. 165. 32 TEACHING OF HISTORY hear well. He may not have written down what he saw until some time after the occurrence. 3. He states facts which he did not take the trouble to observe, although he might have done so. 4. The fact stated is one that could not be learned by observation alone. Inference and judgment have to be allowed for. 1 From this brief review it is evident that as a result of modern historical tendencies the subject matter of history is conceived of as being wider than formerly, and that for operations upon it a large number of methods and principles have been suggested. Further, it is recognised that the ultimate facts which have to be reconstituted are human motives as the causes of social phenomena ; while among other topics that have received attention, and which stand in close connexion with the schoolmaster's work, is that of the relative importance in determining any event of the individual and of the social complex to which he belongs. 2 There are, then, two distinct fields of knowledge, mutually opposed and yet with many bonds of con- nexion ; that of natural science and that of human science. The schoolboy can be turned into either of them with equal ease, and in both he can be given material to observe and to manipulate, opportunities for drawing inferences, for exercising his power of working with accuracy, and for testing his strength in the attack upon difficult problems. In both it is possible to devise plenty of independent work for the pupil, in both this work can be regulated and graded until it exactly suits 1 Langlois and Seignobos, op. cit. p. 172. 2 Cf. K. Lamprecht, What is History? Eng. Trans., 1905, chap. i. METHOD AND SCHOOL PROBLEMS 33 his capacity, in both the interest of the pupil can be excited. Thus in theory the two sides, as far as formal operations are concerned, seem to be of equal value. In practice, experience shows that this equality is not recognised. Most schools of any importance have a science laboratory, upon which a considerable sum of money is spent yearly ; for the history lesson few schools supply any apparatus but a text-book and a blackboard. Natural science, as a branch of knowledge equipped with methods and apparatus, has had the start of social science. Moreover, it appeals to the crude utilitarian instinct and, in spite of the efforts of head-masters who know their business, the pressure of pseudo-utilitarianism is one which it is difficult to resist. Nor are teachers of science behindhand in finding arguments in favour of their subject. A favourite theme is the formal training to be derived from it, and we are told that science trains to observa- tion and to inference as does no other subject. Now the argument from formal training is a weak and crumbling support. It is notorious that men who observe well in one field, and who draw sound inferences from their observations, may be unobservant and unsound of judgment in another. The stockbroker has exercised his powers of observation and of inference on the Stock Exchange ; they fail him in the chemical laboratory or when literary judgment is required. The clergyman grown grey in his parish has observed much, and has drawn many a shrewd conclusion as to his parishioners' characters. His formal training would serve him but little if he attempted to apply it to the function of a bookmaker or of a commercial 3 34 TEACHING OF HISTORY traveller. The results of formal training are directly transferable in so far as there are common elements in the subject-matters concerned. The formal train- ing left by classical study stands me in good stead when I am attacking a modern language because the fields of action are not wholly dissimilar. But the formal training given in the laboratory cannot be depended upon for use in a sphere so different as that of human relations, and, therefore, if the two spheres are of equal importance, the attention paid to a formal training in science is no excuse for neglecting to give a similar training on the side of humanity. This is not the place to assess the relative worth for the community as a whole of the sciences and of the humanities. To do so would necessitate an elaborate exposition of values which is beyond the scope of this essay, and for society the importance of science is unquestioned. It is a different matter when we turn to the individual. We live in an age of specialisation, a fact which Mr. Herbert Spencer in his work on Educa- tion seems to forget. It is desirable that all schoolboys should be introduced to the world of science, and to the elements of scientific method, because of their relative importance in the world which they are shortly about to enter. But once his school-days are over, not one boy in a hundred will ever again be brought into contact with chemical processes, or be compelled to make any physical calculations. The ordinary adult pays experts to perform these operations for him, and as a rule is too sensible to run the risk of doing them badly. Almost the only occasion on which the citizen ever observes the operations of nature, and draws inferences from them, is when he looks at the heavens and decides whether or METHOD AND SCHOOL PROBLEMS 35 not to take out his umbrella. Happy is the man who has learned not to do so, but to consult the weather forecast instead. For the expert is generally right, and the layman had better trust to the sortes Vergilianae than to his own judgment. It is different with the other great department of school studies. The youth may never again see a test tube or a balance, but he cannot fail to be brought into contact with men. On no single occasion in his life may he ever have to draw an inference from his physical surroundings, but he can seldom escape the necessity of making up his mind about his fellow-creatures. His success in life will probably, will almost certainly, depend upon the ease and correctness with which he observes words, both written and spoken, and draws inferences from them ; x he will on countless occasions need to analyse documents, to abstract them, and to compare them ; he will seldom be freed from the necessity of inferring motives from actions and character from deeds ; and it is precisely to these classes of mental operations, and to familiarity with these factors in human life, that school history, if properly conceived, and the history lesson, if properly conducted, will introduce him. If school is to educate for life, it appears that the department of social science is many times of greater value than that of physical science, and if this is so, a sound method for teaching history is of the first importance. 1 " By far the most important and comprehensive application of this class of inference (i.e. from an effect to its cause) takes place in the interpretation from words, gestures, and actions of the thoughts, feelings, and resolutions of other people, which indeed can be known in no other way." Sigwart, Logic^ Eng. Trans., vol. ii. p. 428. CHAPTER III CONTEMPORARY DOCUMENTS AS A BASIS OF METHOD THE lack of uniformity, which is such a happy char- acteristic of English schools, makes it difficult to state with any certainty what are the modes of teaching history to middle forms at present most in vogue ; and scattered through the body of teachers there are so many men of real capacity, that it is never safe to conclude that a given method, no matter how unlike those in common use, has not been employed some- where, if it has in it any element of vitality. Indeed, with a subject like Education, in which so few records of practice have been kept, it is always possible that some one has been centuries in advance of contemporary practice. There is to hand, however, a work recently translated from the German by an English schoolmaster, with an introduction by a distinguished Professor of History, which gives a succinct account of the method probably adopted by many businesslike teachers. 1 1 The Teaching of History^ by Dr. Oscar Jaeger, translated by H. J. Chaytor, M.A., with an introduction by C. H. Firth, M.A., 1908. It is not out of place to state here that when this work appeared in Germany some fourteen years ago it was already old-fashioned, and probably represented with fairness only the more conservative type of German historical teaching. It is, however, a very characteristic production of sturdy con- servatism, and well worth reading. 36 DOCUMENTS AND METHOD 37 The method that is under consideration by Dr. Jaeger as the most suitable for middle forms appears to be based on the employment of the text -book. " The use of the text-book (with the IV. Form) will not differ materially from that which obtains with the third. A section of the text-book will be read aloud at this stage by one pupil alone ; one such reading will be sufficient. The master then goes through the narrative with all the stimulating detail that his dexterity and knowledge of the subject will allow him to introduce. The section or sections that have been thus worked through in form will then be read by the pupil at home. He will learn the facts so that he can repeat them when questioned by the master in the following lesson." x The text-book is, however, to be supplemented by a " narrative lecture." " The tone and character of the instruction is, however, determined by the teacher, and follows from his grasp of the subject, his manner of presenting it, and his mode of narrative; on these points the text-book should not prejudge his efforts. A style of lecture - teaching essentially informal, as it is natural and desirable at this stage of instruction, can be attained after some period of learning and practice. Our object at this moment is not to deal with a large mass of information in one lesson, but merely to expound such material as the text-book provides, and provides in sections of moderate length ; moreover, the teacher is perfectly well able, without exciting the surprise of the pupils, to glance at the text- book from time to time, if the thread of the argument escape him, as may well happen." 2 It is not suggested that this sort of thing, if really well done, is of no value, but it may well be doubted if 1 Op. dt. p. 77. 2 Ibid. p. 45. 38 TEACHING OF HISTORY history teaching of this kind would be anything but a very inefficient substitute for the more rigorous training given by the traditional school subjects when well taught, and it is probable that the moral effect of such teaching will be far less than it well might be if a method which would induce more activity and more varied activity on the part of the pupil were used. The question to be answered is this : " How can history be made into a real training school for the mind, worthy of no incon- siderable place in the curriculum in schools where the classics are taught, and of a large place in modern schools and on modern sides where little or no classics are taught ? " For an answer to this question we must turn to the methods of the modern scientific historian. Our pupils can be given materials to work upon and plenty of them. The documents from which history has been written, and is to be written, are to be had for the asking. If only we make use of this material, if we fashion this new instrument to suit our needs, the problem of history teaching is by no means solved, but the avenue through which it may be attacked is opened up. Our subject, then, must be reduced to problem form, and our pupils must be confronted with documents, and forced to exercise their minds upon them. A word of explanation is here needed. It is possible and suitable to derive a portion of our method from the scientific processes of the historian, but it must not be imagined that the aim is to convert schoolboys into historians. The boy is no more placed in the position of the historian who weighs and estimates his raw material, than the boy in the laboratory who is being put through a course of practical work is, to use the absurd phrase of the DOCUMENTS AND METHOD 39 crank investigationist, being placed in the position of the scientific discoverer. Neither does the pupil, as the American votaries of the " source " method would have it, construct his own history and write his own text-book. What really takes place is widely different. The boy is given problems and exercises devised so that they suit his strength and cultivate certain activities and powers, and these exercises are of a highly artificial kind. They are as artificial in their relation to historical method as the exercises and proofs in the school algebra are to the mathematics of the engineer, the actuary, and the advanced mathematician. Scientific historical method shows the schoolmaster the way, his instinct and his experience direct him to the details of practice. To persons of a simple and trusting disposition, to the habitual readers of the halfpenny press, and to Herbartian educationists of a certain type, everything that appears in print seems to be equally worthy of credence. Our pupils must not be allowed to remain in this blissful state of mind. We must lead them in the history lesson to apply the more simple criteria of accuracy and of sincerity, we must train them to read closely and to extract from a document all the internal evidence that is to be found there, to compare and to rationalise conflicting accounts of characters and of events ; and more important than all, though less showy, to summarise and to extract salient points from a series of loose, verbose, or involved statements. These exercises may involve little more than an almost mechanical process, or they may be devised so as to make demands upon the boy's whole ingenuity. Of whatever degree they may be, they necessitate class-room apparatus widely differing from the conventional text-book. 40 TEACHING OF HISTORY Not that the text-book is to be discarded. Whatever method of teaching history is adopted, a summary of facts and dates, a sequence of events, a compendium of genealogies must be to hand. These things have to be learned by the beginner in history as paradigms have to be learned by the beginner in Greek. Neither in history nor in any other subject can a basis of memory-work be dispensed with. But the text-book is but half the apparatus, and it is a half that is not more than the whole. To complete it, and to give materials for exercises, contemporary documents must be supplied ; and not merely brought into the class-room for illustrative purposes, to be used as an expansion of the text-book, but placed straight in the boy's hand for him to use his wits upon. 1 When such documents are provided in the form either of graphed slips or of volumes of extracts or of both, they can be used in many ways. The following illustra- tions are not classified according to the different mental operations demanded, since this classification involves many difficulties, and is not very necessary for the present purpose. They are intended only to indicate a few types of exercises that can be varied to any extent by a competent teacher. I. Conditions. The class is reading the Reign of Richard II. and the Peasants' Revolt, but has not been introduced to any of the sources. They are given the following extract from Froissart, without any information as to its authorship : 1 Some excellent compendia of documents illustrative of English History are already used by history teachers for atmo- spheric purposes. Colby's Selections from the Sources of English History y 1899, and Kendall's Source Book of English History, both of American origin, are excellent examples of such books. DOCUMENTS AND METHOD 41 Extract : It is marvellous from what a trifle this pestilence raged in England. In order that it may serve as an example to man- kind, I will speak of all that was done, from the information I had at the time on the subject. It is customary in England, as well as in several other countries, for the nobility to have great privileges over the commonalty, whom they keep in bondage; that is to say they are bound by law and custom to plough the lands of gentlemen, to harvest the grain, to carry it home to the barn, to thrash and winnow it ; they are also bound to harvest the hay and carry it home. All these services they are obliged to perform for their lords, and many more in England than in other countries. The prelates and gentlemen are thus served. In the counties of Kent, Essex, Sussex, and Bedford, these services are more oppressive than in all the rest of the kingdom. The evil-disposed in these districts began to rise, saying they were too severely oppressed ; that at the beginning of the world there were no slaves, and that no one ought to be treated as such, unless he had committed treason against his lord : but they had done no such thing, for they were neither angels nor spirits, but men formed after the same likeness with their lords, who treated them as beasts. This they would not longer bear, but had determined to be free, and if they laboured or did any other works for their lords, they would be paid for it. A crazy priest in the county of Kent, called John Ball, who, for his absurd preaching, had been thrice confined in the prison of the Archbishop of Canterbury, was greatly instrumental in inflaming them with those ideas. Exercise. From the internal evidence write down everything that can be gathered about the author. The points that a boy may reasonably be expected to get hold of are the following : l 1 For this and for the following exercises the results noted as probable have been given to the writer by widely differing classes 42 TEACHING OF HISTORY 1. The writer was contemporary. From the informa- tion I had at the time on the subject. 2. He seems acquainted both with England and with Europe. // is customary in England as well as in several other countries. 3. He appears to know the situation in England very well. E.g. Reference to Kent, Essex, Sussex, and Bedford. 4. He seems to be on the side of the upper classes. The evil disposed in these districts. 5. But is at the same time sympathetic with the rebels. 6. He may have been a priest with conservative ten- dencies. A crazy priest, who for his absurd preaching. General Inference. He was either an Englishman who had travelled abroad, or a foreigner who had come to live in England. He may have been a man of humble birth who therefore knew the views of the poorer classes, attached as a secretary to some noble house. He may also have been a priest. Here the answer is paragraphed, and the points are put as shortly as possible. This should be a charac- teristic of all answers to this type of question. The historical essay has its place, but these answers should not be given in essay form. II. Conditions. The class is working at the period of the Norman Conquest. Extract : W. M. ON THE SAXONS The clergy, contented with a very slight degree of learning, could scarcely stammer out the words of the sacraments ; a person who understood grammar was an object of wonder and of boys. It is scarcely necessary to add that some preliminary training is needed before such exercises will be done well. DOCUMENTS AND METHOD 43 astonishment. The monks mocked the rule of their order by their fine vestments, and the use of every kind of food. The nobility, given up to luxury and wantonness, went not to Church in the morning after the manner of Christians, but merely in a careless manner heard matins and masses from a hurrying priest in their chambers. . . . Drinking in parties was a universal practice, in which occupation they passed entire nights as well as days. They were accustomed to eat till they became surfeited, and to drink till they were sick. W. M. ON THE NORMANS The Normans are proudly apparelled, delicate in their food, but not excessive. They are a race inured to war, and can hardly live without it ; fierce in rushing against the enemy, and where strength fails of success, ready to use stratagem or to corrupt by bribery. They live economically, but in fine houses ; envy their equals and wish to excel their superiors, plunder their subjects, though they defend them from others ; they are faithful to their lords, though a slight offence renders them perfidious. They weigh treachery by its chance of success, and change their sentiments with money. They are, however, the kindest of nations, and esteem strangers worthy of equal honour with themselves. They also intermarry with their vassals. They revived, by their arrival, the observances of religion, which were everywhere grown lifeless in England. You might see churches rise in every village, and monasteries in the cities, built after a style unknown before ; each wealthy man accounted that day lost to him which he had neglected to signalise by some magnificent action. Exercise. (a) From internal evidence what may you conjecture about the writer ? (#) How far can these statements be trusted ? Here it does not seem likely that the same writer would be equally impartial as regards both the Saxons and the Normans ; but William of Malmesbury, born of a Norman father and an English mother, and having lived in England before the Conquest, is a rather 44 TEACHING OF HISTORY exceptional case, and his credibility affords material for an interesting discussion. In both these exercises the same result is attained. The pupil is compelled (i) to read the document care- fully ; (2) is given a definite object for reading it. If he has actually done so, it matters little if the result that he attains is meagre, or even if it is partially incorrect. He is being exercised in the categories of criticism, he has completed a school task, and the work thus done makes an excellent basis for a lesson upon the subject of the extract or upon some topic connected with it. III. The next exercise is rather more complex. It involves a demand (A) to read and analyse a graphed slip, and (B) to illustrate it from an extract in the boys' extract book. Conditions. The class have been introduced to the enclosure of common lands in the reigns of Henry VIII. and Edward VI. Extracts : A The earth is Thine, O Lord, and all that is contained within ; notwithstanding Thou hast given the possession thereof unto the children of men to pass over the time of their short pilgrimage in this vale of misery ; we heartily pray thee to send Thy holy spirit into the hearts of them that possess the grounds, pastures, and dwelling-places of the earth ; that they, remem- bering themselves to be Thy tenants, may not rack and stretch out the rents of their houses and lands, nor yet take unreason- able fines and incomes after the manner of covetous worldlings, but so let them out to other, that the inhabitants thereof may both be able to pay the rents, and also honestly to live, to nourish their families, and to relieve the poor. Give them grace also to consider that they are but strangers and pilgrims in this world, having here no dwelling-place, but seeking one to come ; that they, remembering the short continuance of DOCUMENTS AND METHOD 45 their life, may be content with that that is sufficient, and not join house to house, nor couple land to land to the im- poverishment of other, but so behave themselves in letting out their tenements, lands, and pastures, that after this life they may be received into everlasting dwelling-places, through Jesus Christ our Lord. Amen. ( The Primer ; or, Book of Private Prayer, authorised by King Edward VI.) B 1 549. Latimer's First Sermon, in Arber's Reprints, p. 38. (Spelling modernised.) . . You landlords, you rent-raisers, I may say you step- lords, you unnatural lords, you have for your possessions yearly too much. For that heretofore went for xx or xl pound by year (which is an honest portion to be had gratis in one lordship, of another man's sweat and labour) now is it let for fifty or a hundred pound by year. Of this too much cometh this monstrous and portentous dearth made by man, notwith- standing God doth send us plentifully the fruits of the earth, mercifully, contrary unto our deserts; notwithstanding too much, which these rich men have, causeth such dearth, that poor men (which live of their labour) can not with the sweat of their face have a living, all kinds of victuals is so dear, pigs, geese, capons, chickens, eggs, etc. These things with other are so unreasonably enhanced. And I think verily, that if this continue, we shall at length be constrained to pay for a pig a pound. I will tell you my lords and masters, this is not for the king's honour. Yet some will say : Knowest thou what belongeth unto the king's honour better than we ? I answer that the true honour of a king is most perfectly mentioned and pointed forth in the Scriptures, of which, if ye be ignorant, for lack of time that ye cannot read it, albeit, that your counsel be never so politic, yet is it not for the king's honour. What his honour meaneth ye cannot tell. It is the king's honour that his subjects be led in the true religion. That all his prelates and clergy be set about their work in preaching and studying, and not to be interrupted from their charge. Also it is the king's honour that the common wealth be advanced, that the dearth of these 46 TEACHING OF HISTORY foresaid things be provided for, and the commodities of this Realm so employed, as it may be to the setting his subjects on work, and keeping them from idleness. And herein rested the king's honour and his office ; so doing, his account before God shall be allowed and rewarded. Furthermore, if the king's honour (as some men say) standeth in the great multitude of people, then these graziers, enclosers, and rent- rearers, are hinderers of the king's honour; for where there have been a great many of householders and inhabitants, there is now but a shepherd and his dog ; so they hinder the king's honour most of all My lords and masters, I say also, that all such proceedings are against the king's honour (as I have a part declared before), and as far as I can perceive, do intend plainly, to make the yeomanry slavery and the clergy slavery. For such works are all singular, private wealth and commodity. We of the clergy had too much, but that is taken away, and now we have too little. But for mine own part I have no cause to complain, for I thank God and the king I have sufficient, and God is my judge, I came not to crave of any man anything ; but I know them that have too little. There lieth a great matter by these appropriations, great reformations is to be had in them. I know where is a great market-town with divers hamlets and inhabitants, where do rise yearly of their labours to the value of fifty pound, and the vicar that serveth (being so great a cure) hath but twelve or fourteen marks by year, so that of this pension he is not able to buy him books, nor give his neighbour drink ; all the great gain goeth another way. My father was a yeoman and had no lands of his own, only he had a farm of three or four pound by year at the uttermost, and hereupon he tilled so much as kept half-a-dozen men. He had walk for a hundred sheep, and my mother milked thirty kine. He was able and did find the king a harness, with himself and his horse, while he came to the place that he should receive the king's wages. I can remember that I buckled his harness, when he went unto Blackheath field. He kept me to school, or else I had not been able to have preached before the king's majesty now. He married my sisters with five pound or twenty nobles apiece, so that he brought them up in godliness and fear of God. DOCUMENTS AND METHOD 47 He kept hospitality for his poor neighbours. And some alms he gave to the poor, and all this did he of the said farm, where he that now hath it payeth sixteen pound by year or more, and is not able to do anything for his prince, for himself, nor for his children, or give a cup of drink to the poor. Thus all the enhancing and rearing goeth to your private commodity and wealth ; so that where ye had a single too much, you have that ; and since the same, ye have enhanced the rent, and so have increased another too much ; so now ye have double too much, which is two too much. But let the preacher preach till his tongue be worn to the stumps, nothing is amended. We have good statutes made for the common wealth as touching commoners, enclosers ; many meetings and sessions, but in the end of the matter there cometh nothing forth. Well, well, this is one thing I will say unto you, from whence it cometh I know, even from the devil. Exercise. (a) From the prayer for landlords, state (i) what the landlords had done ; (2) what were the results of the landlords' actions. () Illustrate the actions and their results from Latimer's sermon. The following answer might be expected : The landlords (i) had coupled land to land ; (2) had increased rents of houses and lands ; (3) had thus amassed unreasonable incomes. As result, the small farmers were unable (4) to nourish their families ; (5) to pay their rents and have something over ; (6) to relieve the poor. Illustrations from Latimer's Sermon : 1. Enclosers are hinderers of king's honour. Instead of many householders there are in some places now only a shepherd and a dog. 2. Rents had been raised from 50 to .100. Prices of provisions had risen similarly. 48 TEACHING OF HISTORY 3. Landlords have double too much. 4. Latimer's father could educate his son and give his daughters a dowry. His successor could do nothing for his children. 5. Latimer's father had a horse and weapons, and fought at Blackheath. His successor could do nothing for his prince. 6. Latimer's father kept hospitality for his poor neighbours. His successor could not give a cup of drink to the poor. A few actual answers given by boys to this question will indicate both that the exercise is within the compass of boys, and that for marking purposes it scatters the class. (A) i. The landlords possessing the pastures and dwelling-places of the earth had been racking and stretching out the rents of their houses and lands. 2. And had been taking unreasonable fines and incomes after the manner of covetous worldlings. 3. They had not been content, but had joined house to house and coupled land to land. Results. i and 2. The inhabitants were not able to pay the rents or to live honestly or nourish their families or to relieve the poor. 3. They had impoverished others. Illustration from Latimer's Sermon: i. This causeth dearth, so that a poor man cannot obtain pigs, geese, etc., as everything is so dear. Some of the rents had been raised from 4 to 8. His father had a small farm and enough land for 100 sheep. With this he was able to send his boy to school, give alms to the poor, keep a horse and some armour, and so fight DOCUMENTS AND METHOD 49 for the king. He also married his daughters with 5 apiece. But now a man that has the same cannot nourish his family or do good to the poor or any of the former things on account of the raising of the rent of the land. 2. Latimer's father used to pay .3 or 4. rent a year, but he who now has it has to pay 16 by year or more. 3. People had been enclosing the commons, the public grazing-grounds. So now people had to hire this ground from the large landowners. (B) (a) From this prayer it appears that the landlords have done these things. 1. They have racked and stretched out the rents of their houses. 2. They have taken unreasonable fines and incomes after the manner of covetous worldlings. 3. They have joined houses to houses, and they have coupled land to land. (6) The results of what the landlords have done are as follows : 1. They have rendered it impossible for their tenants to pay their rents and also honestly to live, to nourish their families, and to relieve the poor. 2. They have impoverished their tenants. Illustrations from Latimer's Sermon : (a) i. You have for your possession yearly too much, for what heretofore went for 20 or ,40 by year now is let for 50 or 100 by year. 2. These rich men have caused such dearth. 3. These graziers, enclosers, and rent -rearers are hindrances of the king's honour, for where there have been a great many householders there is now but a shepherd and his dog. 4 50 TEACHING OF HISTORY () i. Poor men cannot with the sweat of their face have a living, all kinds of victual are so dear. A farmer is not able to do anything for his prince, for himself, nor for his children, or give a cup of drink to the poor. 2. The tenants are so impoverished that they become vagrants. (C) This boy mistakes the question or is careless, and gives the points of the prayer instead of stating what the landlords did. (a) i. The prayer first of all asks that the landowners shall have the Holy Spirit not " to stretch out the rents of their houses and lands." A good many of the land- owners did do to a large extent. 2. If they did not increase the rents " the inhabitants thereof might be able to both pay the rents and also honestly to live." 3. The third point in the prayer is that the land- owners may be content with that which is sufficient, and that they may not be trying to get money from the poor and make themselves rich. (D) This boy mistakes the question and thinks that the " results " asked for are the results of the prayer, in the efficacy of which he displays a touching confidence. (a) What the landlords had been doing. 1. They had been racking and stretching out the rents of their houses and lands. 2. They had been taking unreasonable fines and incomes after the manner of covetous worldlings. 3. They had not been contented, and they coupled house to house and land to land. (b} What the results were. 1. The inhabitants were able to pay rents. 2. They were able to nourish their families properly. DOCUMENTS AND METHOD 51 3. They were able to live honestly. 4. They were also able to relieve the poor people. 5. They were very content indeed. IV. This exercise took ten minutes in class at the close of a lesson. It was intended to prepare the way for the next history hour. Conditions. The class is doing the beginning of Mary's reign. Extract : A SPEECH OF QUEEN MARY'S TO HER COUNCIL UPON HER RESOLUTION OF RESTORING CHURCH LANDS 1554. Somers' Tracts, i. 56. We have willed you to be called to us, to the intent you might hear of me my conscience and the resolution of my mind, concerning the lands and possessions, as well of monasteries as other churches whatsoever, being now in my possession. First, I do consider, that the said lands were taken away from the churches aforesaid in time of schism, and that by unlawful means, such as are contrary both to the law of God and of the Church : for which cause my conscience doth not suffer me to detain them. And therefore I here expressly refuse, either to claim or retain those lands for mine ; but with all my heart, freely and willingly, without all faction or condition, here and before God, I do surrender and relinquish the said lands and possessions, or inheritances whatever ; and renounce the same with this mind and purpose, that order and disposition thereof may be taken, as shall seem best liking to the Pope, or his legate, to the honour of God and the wealth of this our realm. And albeit you may object to me again, that the state of my kingdom, the dignity thereof, and my crown imperial cannot be honourably maintained and furnished without the possessions aforesaid ; yet notwithstand- ing and so she had affirmed before, when she was bent upon the restitution of the tenths and first-fruits I set more by the salvation of my soul than by ten such kingdoms : and therefore 52 TEACHING OF HISTORY the said possessions I utterly refuse here to hold, after that sort and title; and I give most hearty thanks to God, who hath given me a husband of the same mind, who hath no less good affection in this behalf than I myself. Where- fore I charge and command that my chancellor, with whom I have conferred my mind in this matter, and you four to resort to-morrow together to the legate, signifying to him the premises in my name. And give your attendance upon me, for the more full declaration of the state of my kingdom, and of the aforesaid possessions, according as you yourselves do under- stand the matter, and can inform him in the same. Exercise. Read the extract carefully and state (i) Whose interests are not considered. (2) Which persons would not agree. (3) What comments you think these persons would have made upon Queen Mary's speech. Some actual answers given by boys : (A) r. Mary merely mentions her own property. She entirely forgets the fact that the land had been given to the landowners and gentlemen. 2. The landowners and gentlemen would have thought Mary was doing wrong in giving land back to the Pope. 3. " Queen Mary considers her own land, but seems to forget we have land as well. She thinks it right to give it back, but all people do not think alike, and we desire to keep our land. Therefore, let Queen Mary give back only the land which belongs to her." (B) i. The Queen does not refer to the Church lands that have been given away to the barons, large landowners, and farmers. She only refers to her own lands. 2. The barons, landowners, and all other people who had been given land by the King. 3. The landowners would have said that the King had rightly given them their land and now it was quite right for them to keep it. That they were Protestants and therefore did not wish to give land back to the Pope, who was head of the Roman Catholic Church. It was not lawful to take lands away when they had once been chosen by the Crown. DOCUMENTS AND METHOD 53 (C) Here is an answer by an exceptionally stupid boy: 1. The clergy and monasteries. 2. Cranmer, Latimer, and Ridley, because they would have said the Church of Rome was in schism and always had been, and so Mary was in the wrong. V. The next exercise gives opportunity for close reading, and forms a good introduction to a treatment of the Court of High Commission. Extracts : (A) ACT OF SUPREMACY, 1559 Most humbly beseech your most excellent Majesty, your faithful and obedient subjects, the Lords spiritual and temporal and the Commons in this your present Parliament assembled, that where in the time of your most dear father of worthy memory, King Henry the Eighth, divers good laws and statutes were made and established, as well for the utter extinguishment and putting away of all usurped and foreign powers and authorities out of this your realm ... as also for the restoring and uniting to the Imperial Crown of this realm the ancient jurisdictions and authorities ... to the same of right belonging to the intent that all usurped and foreign power and authority, spiritual and temporal, may for ever be clearly extinguished, may it please your Highness that it may be enacted that no foreign power, spiritual or temporal, shall at any time after the last day of this session of Parliament use any manner of power within this realm. And may it likewise please your Highness that such jurisdiction as hath heretofore been lawfully exercised for the reformation of all manner of errors, heresies, and schisms be united and annexed to the Imperial Crown of this realm, and that you shall have power to name and authorise persons to visit, reform, order, correct, and amend all such errors, heresies, and schisms . . . and that for the more sure observation of the Act, . . . any person offend- ing herein, being thereof lawfully convicted and attainted according to the due order and course of the Common Laws 54 TEACHING OF HISTORY of this realm, shall forfeit unto your Highness all his goods and chattels, and if they be not of the value of twenty pounds shall besides the forfeiture suffer imprisonment by the space of one whole year. (B) ACT OF UNIFORMITY, 1559 If any manner of parson, vicar, or other minister refuse to use the said Common Prayer in such order and form as they be set forth in the said book, and shall be thereof lawfully convicted according to the laws of this realm by verdict of twelve men, or by his own confession, or by the notorious evidence of the fact, he shall lose and forfeit to the Queen's Highness for his first offence, the profit of all his spiritual benefices coming in on a whole year next after his conviction. (C) FIRST COMMISSION, 1559 We do give our full power and authority to you, or six of you ... to inquire into all offences committed contrary to the tenor of the said acts, and into all heretical opinions, seditious books, conspiracies, and misbehaviours . . . invented or set forth against us ... and you shall have full power and authority to award punishment to every offender by fine, imprisonment, or otherwise, and to take such order for the redress of the same as to your wisdom shall be thought meet and convenient PER IPSAM REGINAM. Witness, the Queen at Westminster, the I gth day of July. Exercise. How far was the Queen empowered by the Acts of Supremacy and Uniformity (judged from the extracts given) to give her commissioners the powers granted in extract C ? Two answers by boys : (A) It is extremely hard to say whether Elizabeth was justified in giving leave to fine and imprison offenders, and I myself do not think that it was a justifiable act on her part. DOCUMENTS AND METHOD 55 In the Act of Supremacy the punishment enacted is that " Every person offending therein, being thereof lawfully con- victed and attainted according to the due order and course of the Common Laws of this realm, shall forfeit ... his goods, and . . . suffer imprisonment by the space of one whole year." This leave of Elizabeth's had nothing to do with the Common Law; it was anything but that. Also the Act of Uniformity only said that offenders should be fined, not imprisoned. Yet some people might say that Elizabeth's act was justified by the words, "And may it please your Highness that such jurisdiction as hath heretofore been lawfully exercised for the reformation of all manner of errors, heresies, and schisms be united and annexed to the Imperial Crown of this realm." But I think this is only a preliminary statement, and much depends on the meaning of the word "lawfully." (B) By the Act of Supremacy Elizabeth received power to name and authorise persons to visit, reform, order, correct, and amend, but for fine and imprisonment a person had to be lawfully convicted according to the due order of the Common Law. By the Act of Uniformity persons who were fined had to be "convicted according to the laws of this realm by verdict of twelve men." It said nothing about six men privately appointed by Elizabeth. VI. Henry V.'s dying instructions give an oppor- tunity for making some remarks on character. Conditions. The class have been told that Henry's claim to the throne was quite unjustified, and that Henry himself when declaring war can hardly have thought otherwise. Extract : August 1422. Thomas de Elmham, Vita Henrici Quintt, ed. Hearne, p. 333. (Latin contemporary.) Three days before his death, having summoned into his presence the Dukes of Bedford and Exeter and other nobles of his household, he spoke tranquilly to them as follows : 56 TEACHING OF HISTORY " It is certain," he said, " that I cannot escape death, which is already near at hand. If, therefore, during my reign I have ruled otherwise than I ought, or have done any one injustice, of which I believe the contrary, as a suppliant I pray for pardon. For your good services, especially in these wars, I give thanks to you and to all your fellow-soldiers ; for which, if death had not prevented me, I intended to reward each according to his deserts. I command you to continue the wars until peace is made, to which, I declare before God, I was drawn neither by the ambitious lust for power, nor for vainglory, nor for worldly honour, nor for any other such cause, but solely that by pursuing my last claim I might obtain at once peace and right. To my brother the Duke of Bedford I decree that the custody and government of the duchy of Normandy shall be committed until my son reaches years of discretion. But the protector and defender of England shall be my brother, the Duke of Gloucester. My uncle the Duke of Exeter, my Chamberlain, and Hungreford, Seneschal of my household, I wish and desire to be in attendance on the person of my son. Exercise. What light does this extract throw upon (i) Henry's character? (2) His opinion of his brothers? The answers to this exercise separate the more clever from the less clever boys. The latter boldly state that Henry was a liar, and get no marks for the statement ; the former point out that it is unlikely that he would lie deliberately upon his death-bed and that, although at the beginning he cannot have believed in his claim, his success in war coupled with his power of self-decep- tion must have convinced him of the justice of his cause. VII. The following exercise similarly compels the pupil to consider character closely and at the same time lends itself to a revision of back work. Conditions. The class have completed the reign of DOCUMENTS AND METHOD 57 Henry II., and are acquainted with the leading features of his character. Extracts : l (a) By Peter of Blois. He does not lie idle in his palace like other kings, but makes rapid journeys through the provinces, finding out what every one is doing, No one is more acute in deliberation ; no one has a greater torrent of eloquence. Whenever he has a breathing space from his duties and anxieties he occupies him- self in private reading, or elaborates some problem in the call of an ecclesiastic. Our king is a man of peace, but he is as successful in war as he is magnificent in peace. The one object of his desires in this world was the peace of his people, and this he has given them. No one is kinder to the afflicted, or more affable to the poor, and no one made himself more insufferable to the proud. As it were in imitation of the Divinity his object always was to humble the mighty, to raise up the oppressed, and to set in operation continual persecution and destruction against those who swelled with pride. () By Ralph Niger. When he came to the throne he appointed slaves, bastards, and vagabonds to the chief offices in his kingdom. Illustrious men who were accused of crimes of a moral character but were otherwise irreproachable he deprived entirely of their estates or annihilated them by gradually stealing bits of their property. He made bishops and abbots of the servants of his households or of the jesters at court. He made an unheard- of law about the forests by which those who had committed no other breach of law suffered perpetual punishment. He prevented men of high position from marrying or giving in marriage without his leave, and those who transgressed he punished as traitors. He kept for his own use or sold other peoples' inheritances. In deciding to which courts cases should go he showed a pettifogging spirit, and even sold decisions. 1 Paraphrased from passages quoted by Stubbs, Constitu- tional History of England^ vol. i. p. 535. 58 TEACHING OF HISTORY Exercise. Describe Henry's character and show how the various elements in it will admit of interpretations that differ as widely as the above, according to the friendly or hostile disposition of the writer. VIII. Exercises in character may easily be made more complex. Conditions, The class may have been told some- thing about Clarendon, they have some acquaintance with Milton's political views, and they know that Etkon Basilike was a partisan pamphlet. Extracts : 1640. Clarendon, History of the Rebellion, i. 227. (Before 1672.) The Earl of Strafford had for the space of almost six years entirely governed Ireland, where he had been compelled, upon reason of state, to exercise many acts of power; and had indulged some to his own appetite and passion. He was a man of too high and severe a deportment, and too great a contemner of ceremony, to have many friends at court, and therefore could not but have enemies enough. He had an enemy more terrible than all the others, and like to be more fatal, the whole Scottish nation, provoked by the declaration he had procured of Ireland, and some high carriage and expressions of his against them in that kingdom. So that he had reason to expect as hard measure from such popular councils as he saw were like to be in request, as all those disadvantages could create towards him. And yet, no doubt, his confidence was so great in himself and in the form of justice (which he could not suspect would be so totally con- founded), that he never apprehended a greater censure than a sequestration from all public employments, in which it is probable he had abundant satiety : and this confidence could not have proceeded (considering the full knowledge he had of his judges) but from a proportionable stock, and satisfaction, in his own innocence. DOCUMENTS AND METHOD 59 B Eikon Basilike, p. 8. (Contemporary.) I looked upon my Lord of Strafford as a gentleman whose great abilities might make a prince rather afraid than ashamed to employ him in the greatest affairs of state. For those were prone to create in him great confidence of undertakings, and this was like enough to betray him to great errors and many enemies ; whereof he could not but contract good store, while moving in so high a sphere and with so vigorous a lustre, he must needs, as the sun, raise many envious exhalations, which condensed by a popular odium, were capable to cast a cloud upon the brightest merit and integrity. Though I cannot in my judgment approve all he did, driven it may be, by the necessities of times and the temper of that people, more than led by his own disposition to any height and rigour of actions ; yet I could never be con- vinced of any such criminousness in him as willingly to expose his life to the stroke of justice, and malice of his enemies. I never met with a more unhappy conjuncture of affairs than in the business of that unfortunate earl ; when between my own unsatisfiedness in conscience, and a necessity, as some told me, of satisfying the importunities of some people, I was persuaded by those that I think wished me well to choose rather what was safe than what seemed just, preferring the outward peace of my kingdoms with men before that inward exactness of conscience before God. And, indeed, I am so far from excusing or denying that compliance on my part (for plenary consent it was not) to his destruction, whom in my judgment I thought not, by any clear law, guilty of death, that I never bare any touch of conscience with greater regret ; which, as a sign of my repent- ance, I have often with sorrow confessed both to God and men as an act of so sinful frailty, that it discovered more a fear of man than of God, whose name and place on earth no man is worthy to bear, who will avoid inconveniences of state by acts of so high injustice as no public convenience can expiate or compensate. 60 TEACHING OF HISTORY Nor were the crimes objected against him so clear, as after a long and fair hearing to give convincing satisfaction to the major part of both Houses, especially that of the Lords, of whom scarce a third part were present when the bill passed that House. And for the House of Commons, many gentlemen, disposed enough to diminish my Lord of Strafford's greatness and power, yet unsatisfied of his guilt in law, durst not con- demn him to die ; who, for their integrity in their votes, were, by posting their names, exposed to the popular calumny, hatred, and fury, which grew then so exorbitant in their clamours for justice (that is to have both myself and the two Houses vote and do as they would have us), that many, it is thought, were rather terrified to concur with the condemning party than satisfied that of right they ought so to do. Milton, Eikonoklastes, p. 14. (Contemporary.) This next chapter is a penitent confession of the king, and the strangest, if it be well weighed, that ever was auricular. For he repents here of giving his consent, though most unwillingly, to the most seasonable and solemn piece of justice that had been done of many years in the land : but his sole conscience thought the contrary. And thus was the welfare, the safety, and within a little, the unanimous demand of three populous nations to have attended still on the singularity of one man's opinionated conscience ; if men had been always so tame and spiritless, and had not unexpectedly found the grace to understand, that if his conscience were so narrow and peculiar to himself, it was not fit his authority should be so ample and universal over others. For certainly a private conscience sorts not with a public calling ; but declares that person rather meant by nature for a private fortune. And this also we may take for truth, that he whose conscience thinks it sin to put to death a capital offender, will as oft think it meritorious to kill a righteous person. But let us hear what the sin was that lay so sore upon him, and, as one of his prayers given to Dr. Juxon testifies, to the very day of his death ; it was his signing the bill of Strafford's execution : DOCUMENTS AND METHOD 61 a man whom all men looked upon as one of the boldest and most impetuous instruments that the king had to advance any violent or illegal design. He had ruled Ireland, and some parts of England in an arbitrary manner, had endeavoured to subvert fundamental laws, to subvert parliaments, and to incense the king against them ; he had also endeavoured to make hostility between England and Scotland : he had counselled the king to call over that Irish army of papists, which he had cunningly raised, to reduce England, as appeared by good testimony then present at the consultation. For which, and many other crimes alleged and proved against him in twenty-eight articles, he was condemned of high treason by the parliament. The Commons by far the greater number cast him ; the Lords, after they had been satisfied in a full discourse by the king's solicitor, and the opinions of many judges delivered in their house, agreed likewise to the sentence of treason. The people universally cried out for justice. Exercise. How far were writers of different political views in agreement as to the more striking features of Strafford's character ? IX. Conditions. The class have just finished the battle of Agincourt. Extracts : Monstrelet, Chroniques t liv. i., ch. clviii. (French contemporary, shortened.) The said Duke of Burgundy, from Lagny-sur-Marne, sent to Paris to the [French] king and his Council, asking that he might enter Paris with all his host for safety ; but the only reply vouchsafed to him was that if he would enter unattended, the king and his Council would be satisfied, and not otherwise. This the Duke of Burgundy would never have done, for he knew well that those who advised the king were his mortal enemies, and he would on no account trust himself to them. 62 TEACHING OF HISTORY B 1416. Jean Juvenal des Ursins, p. 534. (French contemporary, shortened.) The Duke of Burgundy then sent very seditious letters to many of the " good towns " to gain them over from their allegiance to the king. And he sent to Rouen, which suddenly declared its allegiance to him. The towns of Rheims, Chalons, Troyes, and Auxerre also joyfully submitted themselves, and took the cross of St. Andrew, and said, " Long live Burgundy!" After their submission they took the men who had formerly been the king's officers, and cut off their heads, and robbed them of their goods. And to kill a man it was sufficient to say : " He is an Armagnac." Similarly, when any were found who were known to belong to the faction of the Duke of Burgundy, they were punished, and their goods seized. 1417, 1418. Journal (fun Bourgeois de Paris, ed. Buchon, p. 625. (French contem- porary. ) Item, at this time, at the beginning of August, the Duke of Burgundy prepared to come to Paris, and he approached, subduing [on his way] towns, cities, and castles, and proclaim- ing everywhere in the name of the king, and the dauphin, and in his own name, that no one should pay taxes ; wherefore the governors of Paris conceived such great hatred against him that they caused preachers to say that they well knew that he wished to be king of France, and that it was through him and his advice that the English were in Normandy ; and in every street in Paris dwelt spies, who arrested and imprisoned their very neighbours ; and no man after he had been arrested dared speak about it, for fear of losing his goods or his life. [On May 28 the Burgundian forces assaulted Paris. The Parisians rose in revolt, and a general massacre took place.] Then there was a great commotion in Paris. The people took up arms and approached the bands of the Burgundians before the soldiers were assembled. Then the new prefect of Paris came, and with his own followers, and with the help of DOCUMENTS AND METHOD 63 the Commons, repulsed the Burgundians, striking down and killing a great heap outside the gate of St. Anthony ; and then the people, being much incensed against the Burgundians, went to all the hostelries in Paris seeking them, and when they found one, whatever were his condition, prisoner or free, he was led out to the soldiers in the middle of the street, and mercilessly slain with great axes and other weapons. And, when they were all lying dead, the women and children, having no power to do them further ill, cursed them as they passed, saying, " Dogs of traitors, you fare better than you deserve." And you could not find a single street of any importance in Paris where there had not been some massacre, nor could you walk a hundred paces for the dead that were there. And on that Sunday, the 2gih day of May, there were slain in the streets of Paris, by the sword and other weapons, 522 men, without counting those slain within the houses. Exercise. From the extracts quoted estimate the effect produced by the campaign of Agincourt upon the relations of political parties in France. Two answers by boys who had not much experience of this kind of work : (A) Henry's successes in France do not seem to have made the rival parties in France join together, as they should have done, against a common enemy. The French king was not able to keep his subjects under control. This is shown by the massacre which took place upon the Duke of Burgundy's entry into Paris. Men went about doing just whatever they pleased. (B) In France at this period there were two rival parties : the Burgundians and the Orleanists or Armagnacs, of whom the latter at present were on the king's side. The Duke of Burgundy was afraid that his cause might be harmed, and so sent to Paris to ask for protection ; this being refused unless he came alone, he resolved on another plan, viz. : He saw that the king, and therefore his rivals also, were weak on account of the recent wars, so he determined to storm Paris and capture the king. However, he failed in doing this, and his force was 64 TEACHING OF HISTORY badly mauled, over 500 being killed in the streets of Paris. Thus these campaigns caused civil wars and other bloodshed besides what they entailed themselves. An answer by a boy of the same type and age (13-14) who had worked for a year at exercises of this kind : (C) i. "Those who advised the king were his (the Duke of Burgundy's) mortal enemies " still after the campaign of Agincourt. In other words, pressing danger did not, as might have been thought, unite them. 2. The disorganisation seems indeed to have increased; for a number of towns in important positions in France joined Burgundy. The feuds became even more brutal ; each side killed the other whenever they could. 3. But in Paris the Armagnacs still seem to have been able to appeal to the patriotism of their followers, and their statement that Burgundy had invited the English over may have been largely responsible for the massacre of gth May. It will be noticed that C shows a considerable advance on B and A in both conciseness and appositeness. X. The next exercise is a harder one, suitable for boys who have worked for some years on these lines. A full discussion in class of the points to look out for might be needed before the pupils are set to work upon it ; indeed this remark applies to all exercises of this kind. The most suitable problem may be made unsuit- able for a given class by the omission of sensible pre- cautions or the withholding of necessary data. Conditions. The class have a good knowledge of the legislation of Edward I.'s reign. Extract : Dugdale's Afonasticon, vol. i p. 394. To all the faithful of Christ to whom the present writing shall come, Richard by the divine permission abbot of Peter- borough and the Convent of the same place, eternal greeting 65 in the Lord. Let all know that we have manumitted and liberated from all yoke of servitude William, the son of Richard of Wythington, whom previously we have held as our born bondman, with his whole progeny and all his chattels, so that neither we nor our successors shall be able to require or exact any right or claim in the said William, his progeny or his chattels. But the same William with his whole progeny and all his chattels will remain free and quit and without dis- turbance, exaction, or any claim on the part of us or our successors by reason of any servitude, forever. We will, moreover and concede that he and his heirs shall hold the messuages, land, rent and meadows in Wythington, which his ancestors held from us and our predecessors, by giving and performing the fine for giving his daughter in marriage, that he shall have and hold these for the future from us and our successors freely, quietly, peacefully, and hereditarily, by paying thence to us and our successors yearly 405. sterling, at the four terms of the year. And if it shall happen that the said William or his heirs shall die at any time without an heir, the said messuage, land, rents and meadows with their appurtenances shall return fully and completely to us and our successors. Nor will it be allowed to the said William or his heirs, the said messuage, land, rents, meadows or any part of them to give, sell, alienate, mortgage, or in any way encumber by which the said messuage, land, rents and meadows should not return to us and our successors in the form declared above. Exercise. From the internal evidence to give the approximate date of this deed. The key to the answer is to be found in the last paragraph. Nor will it be allowed to the said William or his heirs, the said messuage, land, rents, meadows or any part of them to give, sell, alienate, mortgage, or in any way encumber by which the said messuage, land, rents and meadows should not return to us and our successors as in the form declared above. This clause would be unnecessary after the Statute of 5 66 TEACHING OF HISTORY Quia Emptores (1290). It attempts to do privately what later on was done by the Statute. The document may therefore be ascribed to a date earlier than 1290. Its date is actually 1278. XI. The next exercise introduces the class to the value of letters for evidential purposes. If written h cceur ouvert they may be taken as expressing the real views of the writer, who none the less may be in error as to his facts. In many cases, however, the sentiments expressed have to be discounted. Conditions. The class are doing the reign of Elizabeth, and have reached the execution of Mary Queen of Scots. They have a good knowledge of the general political situation. Extract : MY DEAR BROTHER, I would you knew (though not felt) the extreme dolor that overwhelms my mind, for that miserable accident which (far contrary to my meaning) hath befallen. I have now sent this kinsman of mine whom ere now it hath pleased you to favour, to instruct you truly of that which is too irksome for my pen to tell you. I beseech you that as God and many more know, how innocent I am in this case : so you will believe me that if I had directed ought I would have abided by it. I am not so base-minded that fear of any living creature or prince should make me afraid to do that were just, or make me to deny the same. I am not of so base a lineage, nor carry so vile a mind. But, as not to disguise, fits not a king, so will I never dissemble my actions, but cause them show even as I meant them. Thus assuring yourself of me, that as I know this was deserved, yet if I had meant it I would never lay it on others' shoulders ; no more will I not damnify myself, that thought it not. The circumstance it may please you to have of this bearer. And for your part, think you have not in the world a more loving kinswoman, nor a more dear friend than myself; nor DOCUMENTS AND METHOD 67 any that will watch more carefully to preserve you and your estate. And who shall otherwise persuade you, judge them more partial to others than you. And thus in haste I leave to trouble you : beseeching God to send you a long reign. Your most assured loving sister and cousin, ELIZAB. R. The \i,th of February 1586. Exercise. (i) Make a brief analysis of the letter. (2) State which of the points in it express the real views of the writer and which do not. Give your reasons. Here various opinions might be held as to the first part of the letter, but there is no reason to believe that the second part is not a true expression of sentiment. XII. Accounts of battles, especially if two con- flicting accounts can be found, give abundant oppor- tunities for the comparison of conflicting testimony. Conditions. The class are reading the reign of Edward II., and are about to have a lesson on his Scotch campaign. They have maps of England and Scotland, but not a plan of the battle of Bannockburn. Extracts : 1314. Translated from Latin of Chronicle of Lanercost, 225-228. (Circ. 1345.) Now before the festival of the Nativity of St. John the Baptist, the king collected the whole of his army into one host, and with the aforesaid array drew nigh to the castle of Stirling to raise the siege, and to fight with the Scots who were assembled there in force ; and on St. John's Eve after dinner the king's army came to Torr Wood ; and when it was heard that the Scots were in the wood, the king's vanguard, led by Lord Clifford, wished to surround the wood, to prevent the Scots from escaping by flight. Now the Scots suffered this, till the English were completely cut off from their friends, and 68 TEACHING OF HISTORY then they showed themselves and charged that vanguard ; some they slew and the rest they put to flight, and from that hour there was fear among the English, and greater boldness on the part of the Scots. On the following day a dark day for England, unlucky and ill-omened when either side was preparing for battle, the English archers advanced in front of their line, and were met by Scottish archers. On either side some were wounded and some killed ; but the English archers soon put the others to flight. Now when the two armies had drawn very near together, all the Scots knelt down and said a " paternoster," and commended themselves to God, and asked help of heaven ; and thereafter they boldly marched against the English. They had so arranged their host that two lines were in front of the third, side by side, in such a way that neither marched in front of the other ; and the third line was in the rear, and there was Robert. Now when both armies met and the English chargers galloped against the Scottish spears, as against a thick wood, there arose an exceeding great and terrible noise from the breaking of spears, and from chargers mortally wounded ; and so they halted for a space. But the English in the rear could not reach the Scots because of their vanguard in between, and they could in no way help them- selves, and so nothing remained but to arrange for flight. And this account I heard from a credible witness who was there present and saw what happened. In that vanguard were slain the Earl of Gloucester, Sir Robert Clifford, Sir John Comyn, Sir Payen de Typetot, Sir Edmond de Mauley, and many other nobles to make no mention of the infantry who fell in great numbers. Moreover, another misfortune occurred to the English, because, after crossing a great pit, into which the tide flows, and which is called the Bannockburn, they fell into confusion and wished to retreat ; but many nobles and others, on account of the press, fell in with their horses ; some with great difficulty escaped, but many could never get out of the pit ; and so the name of Bannockburn was familiar to the English for many years to come. Now the king and Sir Hugh Despenser, who after Piers Gaveston was his chief favourite, and Sir Henry Beaumont, DOCUMENTS AND METHOD 69 together with many other horse and foot, with a Scottish knight for guide, who knew by what route they could escape, to their everlasting shame fled like cravens towards the castle of Dunbar. Some, however, more tardy in their flight, were slain by the Scots, who followed hard in pursuit At Dunbar the king, with some of his more immediate followers, put out in a boat towards Berwick, leaving all the rest to their fate, but they arrived safe and sound in England in due course. . . . After this victory Robert Bruce was unanimously called king of Scotland, because he had won Scotland by force of arms. B Translated from Latin of Baker of Swinbrook, 146. (Circ. 1358.) On that night (June 23) you might have seen the English host deep in their cups, wassailing and toasting immoderately } on the other hand the Scots silently kept the vigil fasting, their every thought centred in their desire for their country's freedom ; and this desire, though ungrounded, was vehement and equal to all risks. On the morrow the Scots seized the most advantageous position, and dug pits three feet deep and as wide across, stretching along the whole line from the right wing to the left ; these they covered over with a light frame- work of twigs and osiers, that is to say with hurdles ; and then over the top they strewed turf and grass ; so that men could cross them on foot with care, but they could not support the weight of cavalry. In accordance with their royal leader's commands none of the Scots were mounted, and their army, drawn up in the usual divisions, was posted in solid formation at no great distance from this pit which had been warily, not to say craftily, set between themselves and the English. On the other side, as the English army advanced from the west, the rising sun flashed upon their golden shields and polished helms. Their vanguard consisted of light horse and heavy cavalry, all unconscious of the Scots' pit with its cunningly contrived light covering ; in the second division were men-at- arms and archers held in reserve to give chase to the enemy : in the third was the king with the bishops and other church- 70 TEACHING OF HISTORY men, and among them the brave knight Hugh Spenser. The cavalry of the vanguard advanced against the enemy, and fell headlong as their horses stumbled into the ditch with their fore-feet caught in the broken hurdles ; and when these fell through, the enemy came up and slew them, giving quarter only to the rich for ransom. . . . And in this disaster some were slain by our archers who had not had a proper position assigned to them, but formerly stood in the rear of the men- at-arms, whereas now they take up their position on the flank. When they saw the Scots fiercely attack those who had fallen into the ditch, some aimlessly aimed their arrows into the air, on the chance of falling in the joints of the enemy's armour, and some shot straight at the Scots and hit a few ot them in the breast, but at the some time struck many more of the English in the back. So came to nothing the pomp of the day before, for the king with the bishops and De Spenser took the precaution of flight. Exercise. To draw a plan of the battle of Bannock- burn from the two accounts. For a certain stage it would be well to ask the pupils to draw three maps: (i) of the battle as described in extract A ; (2) of the battle as described in extract B ; (3) a combination of the two. I. The boys know the position of Stirling, and they realise roughly from which direction the English are marching. They should consequently be able to determine the position of Torr Wood as south of Stirling and on the line of march of the English army. The arrangement of the Scotch army can be gathered, as also the disadvantageous disposition of the English. It is not difficult to infer that the Bannockburn would be between the opposing parties, as the Scotch would certainly draw up their forces on the side away from the English. We thus get the following plan : O STIRLING CASTLE ROBERT SCOTTISH ARMY ENGLISH ARMY TORR WOOD 2. In this account are given the pits dug by the Scotch, and a more detailed version of the position of the English. It also appears, from the statement that " the English army advanced from the west," that Torr Wood may have to be shifted westward. SCOTTISH ARMY OOOOOOOOOOOOOO PITS 72 TEACHING OF HISTORY 3. The two plans can now be combined, giving the following result : O STIRLING CASTLE ROBERT SCOTTISH ARMY OOOOOOOOOOOOO PITS "*~*^-~ -. ^^*. R. BANNOCKBURN 4. Finally the accepted plan of the battle may be placed on the blackboard and copied into the boys' notebooks. XIII. The following exercise is of a similar kind, but considerably harder. The battle described is Poitiers. Extracts: 1356. Translated from Latin of Baker of Swinbrook, 7. (Cire. 1358.) The prince perceived that there was a hill on his flank, set round with hedges and ditches, but open towards the centre ; on the one side was pasture land and thick scrub, on the other vineyards; the rest was ploughlandj and it was upon the DOCUMENTS AND METHOD 73 ploughed crest of this hill that he imagined the French host lay. Between us and the hill was a broad steep valley, and a marsh with a stream running through it. The prince's division with the baggage waggons crossed the stream at a narrow ford, and leaving the valley got across the intervening hedges and ditches, and took possession of the hill, where he was concealed by the nature of the ground among the thickets, while at the same time commanding the enemy. The ground occupied by our first and second divisions was separated from the open space held by the French by a long hedge and ditch, one end of which stretched down to the marsh mentioned above. The marsh end of the slope was held by the Earl of Warwick, the leader of the van. At the top of the long hedge there was an open break or gap made by the harvest waggons ; and a stone's throw distant was our rearguard, under the Earl of Salisbury. The enemy seeing the prince's banner just displayed and then suddenly moved forward and then, owing to the hill in between, removed from their sight altogether, thought that he was making off, in spite of the protests of Douglas of Scotland and the Marshal of Claremont that this was not the case; accordingly they begin the advance. ... In the meantime, Claremont, thinking to get through the break in the hedge and encompass our vanguard in the rear, fell in with the Earl of Salisbury, who, seeing Claremont approach, shrewdly suspected his intention ; and so the commander of our rear- guard, purposing to seize the gap with all haste and head off the enemy's passage, was constrained to sustain the first attack. Then began a terrible struggle between the men-at- arms, fighting with spears, swords, and axes. Nor were the archers failing in their duty, but lying in safe entrenchments and shooting from above the ditch and over the hedge they did more execution than the men-at-arms ; and continuous showers of bolts were discharged by the cross-bowmen. The Earl of Oxford now came up from the prince's division and had the archers deployed on to the enemy's flank, with orders to shoot at the hindquarters of their horses ; and by this means the wounded horses reared and threw their riders, and galloping back to their own side did no small harm to 74 TEACHING OF HISTORY their masters, who had devised quite another scheme. . . . Thereupon [after the defeat of the enemy's first line] our men retired to order their ranks and our vanguard and middle division joined forces. Immediately the French second line advances, under the king's eldest son, the Dauphin. ... It soon becomes a hand- to-hand engagement, and every man for his own life strives to deal death to his foe. And although this division offered us a more stubborn resistance than the former, yet, after a great number on their side had been slain, they made an honourable retreat. [The first and second line being disposed of, the French king advances in person to the attack.] Then the prince ordered his standard-bearer, Sir Walter Woodland, to advance against the foe ; and with a few fresh men he went to meet the king's great army. . . . Then a formidable body of cross-bowmen with thick clouds of bolts darken the air, that now resounds with the deadly hail of arrows shot by the English, in the frenzy of despair. More- over, ashen darts are thrown at the enemy from long range ; but the dense mass of the French in close order protect themselves with shields locked together and keep off the missiles ; thus the archers had emptied their quivers in vain and armed only with swords and bucklers must attack troops in heavy armour, for they are resolved to sell life dearly. [When the prince is making his last desperate stand, the Captal de Buch takes the enemy in the rear.] . . . Here they find a stout and stubborn resistance. The English fall to, so do the French ; their king, albeit of youthful years yet, performs great feats ; but at length, by a swift turn of fortune's wheel, the Prince of Wales dashes upon the foe, and breaking their pride, spares the vanquished, and takes the king prisoner. DOCUMENTS AND METHOD 75 B 1356. Froissart, cc. 160-166. (I369-73-) On the Sunday the French king called to him the Lord Eustace Ribemont, the Lord John of Landas, and the Lord Richard of Beaujeu, and said to them : " Sirs, ride on before to see the dealing of the Englishmen, and advise well what number they be and by what means we may fight with them, either a-foot or a-horseback." These three knights rode forth, and the king was on a white courser, and said to his men : " Sirs, among you when ye be at Paris, at Chartres, at Rouen, or at Orleans, then ye do threat the Englishmen and desire to be in arms out against them. Now ye be come thereto ; I shall now show you them ; now show forth your evil will that ye bear them, and revenge your displeasures and damages that they have done you, for without doubt we shall fight with them." Such as heard him said : " Sir, in God's name so be it ; that would we see gladly." Therewith the three knights returned again to the king, who demanded of them tidings. Then Sir Eustace of Ribemont answered for all and said : " Sir, we have seen the English- men ; by estimation they be two thousand men of arms and four thousand archers and fifteen hundred others. Howbeit they be in a strong place, and as far as we can imagine they are in one battle ; howbeit they be wisely ordered, and along the way they have fortified strongly hedges and bushes ; one part of their archers are along by the hedge, so that none can go nor ride that way, but must pass by them, and that way must ye go an ye purpose to fight with them. In this hedge there is but one entry and one issue by which four horsemen may ride abreast. At the end of this hedge, where no man can go nor ride, there be men of arms afoot and archers before them in manner of a harrow, so that they will not be lightly discomfited." "Well," said the king, "what will ye then counsel us to do ? " Sir Eustace said : " Sir, let us be all afoot, except three hundred men of arms, well horsed, of the best in your host and most hardiest, to the intent that they break somewhat and open up the archers ; and then let your 76 TEACHING OF HISTORY battles follow on quickly afoot and so fight with their men of arms hand to hand. This is the best advice that I can give you : if any other think any other way better, let him speak." The king said : " Thus shall it be done." [On the eve of battle the Cardinal of Perigord came to the French king to try and arrange terms of peace ; nothing came of it, for the terms he was allowed to offer the English were rejected.] That night the Frenchmen took their ease ; they had provision enough, and the Englishmen had great default ; they could get no forage, nor could they depart thence without danger of their enemies. That Sunday the Englishmen made great dykes and hedges about their archers to be the more stronger ; and on the Monday in the morning the prince and his company were ready apparelled as they were before, and about the sun-rising in like manner were the Frenchmen. When the prince saw, that he should have battle he said to his men : " Now, sirs, though we be but a small company, as in regard to the puissance of our enemies, let us not be ashamed therefor ; for the victory lieth not in the multitude of people, but where God will send it. If it fortune that the journey be ours, we shall be the most honoured people of all the world ; and if we die in our right quarrel, I have the king, my father, and brethren, and also ye have good friends and kinsmen ; these shall revenge us. Therefore, sirs, for God's sake, I require you do your devoirs this day ; for if God be pleased and Saint George, this day ye shall see me a good knight." These words and such other that the prince spoke comforted all his people. . . . Then the battle began on all parts, and the battles of the marshals of France approached, and they set forth that were appointed to break the array of the archers. They entered a-horseback into the way where the great hedges were on both sides set full of archers. As soon as the men of arms entered, the archers began to shoot on both sides, and did slay and hurt horses and knights, so that the horses when they felt the sharp arrows would in no wise go forward, but drew aback and shied and took on so fiercely, that many of DOCUMENTS AND METHOD 77 them fell on their masters, so that for press they could not rise again ; insomuch that the marshals' battle could never come at the prince. Certain knights and squires that were well horsed passed through the archers, and thought to approach to the prince, but they could not. . . . The battle of the marshals began to disorder by reason of the shot of the archers with the aid of the men of arms, who came in among them and slew of them, and did what they list. ... So within a short space the marshals' battles were discomfited, for they fell one upon another and could not go forth; and the Frenchmen that were behind and could not get forward recoiled back and came on the battle of the Duke of Normandy, which was great and thick and on foot ; but anon they began to open behind ; for when they knew that the marshals' battle was discomfited they took their horses and departed, he that might best. Also they saw a rout of Englishmen coming down a little mountain a-horseback, and many archers with them, who brake in on the side of the duke's battle. True to say the archers did their company that day great advantage ; for they shot so thick that the Frenchmen wist not on what side to take heed, and little by little the Englishmen won ground on them. And when the men of arms of England saw that the marshals' battle was discomfited, and that the duke's battle began to disorder and open, they leapt then on their horses, which they had ready by them ; then they assembled together and cried : " Saint George ! Guienne ! " and the Lord Chandos said to the prince : " Sir, take your horse and ride forth j this journey is yours ; God is this day in your hands ; get us to the French king's battle, for there lieth all the sore of the matter. I think verily by his valiantness he will not fly ; I trust we shall have him by the grace of God and St. George, so he be well fought withal ; and, sir, I heard you say that this day I should see you a good knight." The prince said : " Let us go forth ; ye shall not see me this day return back ; advance, banner, in the name of God and of St. George." Then the prince and his company dressed them on the battle of the Duke of Athens, constable of France. There was many a man slain and cast to the earth. As the Frenchmen 78 TEACHING OF HISTORY fought in companies they cried : " Mountjoy ! Saint Denis ! " and the Englishmen " Saint George ! Guienne ! " . . . When the Duke of Normandy's battle saw the prince approach they thought to save themselves, more than 800 spears that struck no stroke that day. . . . Then the king's battle came on the Englishmen ; there was a sore fight, and many a great stroke given and received. . . . On the French side King John was that day a full right good knight ; if the fourth part of his men had done their devoirs as well as he did, the journey had been his by all likelihood. Howbeit they were all slain and taken that were there, except a few that saved themselves, that were with the king. . . . Thus this battle was discomfited, and it was in the fields of Maupertuis two leagues from Poitiers, on the twenty-second day of September the year of our Lord 1356. Exercises. I. Analyse both descriptions of the battle and make a brief statement of the sequence of events. 2. In what respects do the accounts agree? 3. Draw a plan of the battle. 4. Compare Baker of Swinbrook's manner of narration with that of Froissart. The sequences of events may be tabulated as follows : BAKER OF SWINBROOK FROISSART 1. The Prince crosses the stream i. The French cavalry advance to and takes possession of a hill. break the array of English 2. The French advance, and Clare- archers. mont engages the rearguard. 2. The archers shoot at the French 3. The Earl of Oxford deploys the horse and drive them back. archers on the French flank 3. The French immediately behind to shoot at the horses' hind- them cannot get forward, and quarters. recoil on the Duke of Nor- 4. The French first line is defeated. mandy's foot-soldiers. 5. The Dauphin advances with the 4. Some English horse and archers second line and is defeated. take the enemy on the flank. 6. The French King advances. 5. The Prince in front breaks 7. The English advance again, but through. make no impression on the 6. The French King's battalion French. advances, and makes a brave 8. An English battalion takes the stand, but is destroyed. enemy in the rear. 9. The Prince breaks through in front. DOCUMENTS AND METHOD 79 A careful comparison of these two sequences brings out many points of interest, and gives an opportunity for discussing the great difficulty of getting an accurate account of any movements that are on a large scale. XIV. An unparagraphed statute frequently affords a good exercise in analysis. In the following exercise it needs close reading on the part of the pupil, if no point is to be missed. Conditions. The boys have read of the Black Death and the consequent scarcity of labour. Extract : 1350-51. Statutes, i. 311. . . . Carters, ploughmen, drivers of the plough, shepherds, swineherds, and all other servants shall take liveries and wages, accustomed in the twentieth year of the present king's reign, or four years before, so that in the country where wheat was wont to be given, they shall take for the bushel ten pence, or wheat at the will of the giver, till it be otherwise ordained. And they shall be hired to serve for a whole year, or by other usual terms, and not by the day ; and none shall pay in the time of haymaking but a penny the day; and a mower of meadows for the acre five pence, or by the day five pence ; and reapers of corn in the first week of August two pence, and in the second, three pence, and so till the end of August, and less in the country where less was wont to be given, without meat or drink or other courtesy to be demanded, given, or taken ; and all workmen shall bring openly in their hands to the merchant towns their instruments, and there shall be hired in a common place and not private. None shall take for the threshing of a quarter of wheat or rye over two pence, and the quarter of barley, beans, peas, and oats over one penny if so much were wont to be given ; and the said servants shall be sworn two times in the year to hold, and do these ordinances ; and none of them shall go out of the town where he dwelleth in the winter to serve the summer, if he may serve in the same town. . . . 8o TEACHING OF HISTORY Carpenters, masons, and tilers, and other workmen of houses, shall not take by the day for their work, but in manner as they were wont, that is to say : A master carpenter three pence and another two pence; a master mason four pence and other masons three pence ; and their servants one penny. Tilers three pence and their knaves one penny, and other coverers of fern and straw three pence and their knaves one penny. Plasterers and other workers of mudwalls, and their knaves, by the same manner, without meat or drink ; that is from Easter to Michaelmas ; and from that time less, according to the rate and discretion of the justices, which shall be thereto assigned. Exercise. Make an analysis ol the statute, and state the reason for each clause. State also of which of the clauses the bailiff of a farm would have approved. Here the clauses work out as follows : (i) The value of wheat fixed if used for payment of labourers. (2) Hiring to be for the year and not for the day. (3) Scale of wages lor reapers and mowers. (4) No perquisites to be given. (5) Hiring to be in public. (6) Scale of wages for threshers. (7) Migration of town labourers to the country in summer forbidden. (8) Scale of wages for carpenters, masons, and the craftsmen engaged in house-building and repairing. The commentary asked for needs a good deal of thought, and implies a thorough understanding of the situation. XV. Shortly after half-term certain distinct symp- toms appear in most middle forms. The cleverer boys begin to leave the weaker boys behind, and in consequence the class becomes ragged. A few weak boys who have been suffering from a prevailing epidemic return to school after missing a fortnight's work, thus making matters worse. Many boys have become listless DOCUMENTS AND METHOD 81 and bored with their work, the end of term is still too far distant for the prospect of examination to give a fictitious stimulus, and the whole class seems as heavy as lead on the master's hands. It is now with a weak teacher that signs of disorder appear, and that in general it is well to pull the class together by a stiff dose of written work. i At this juncture an exercise of the following kind is useful. The boys are asked to read a number of extracts carefully, and to write a brief connected narrative from them. The exercise here suggested might well occupy a whole period of preparation, in which the boys would make notes, and a period in class during which they would write out their narrative. Exercise. Give a brief account of Wyclif s views, and show to what extent his opinion of certain classes of the clergy was shared by contemporary writers. Extracts : 1377. Translated from Latin of Walsingham, Hist. Angl. i. 324. (1394-) About the same time there arose in the University of Oxford a Northerner called Master John Wyclif, a doctor in divinity, who publicly held in the schools and elsewhere mis- taken and heretical opinions, contrary to the holding of the Catholic Church, and especially bitter against the monks and other landed churchmen. And that he might the more care- fully glose his heresy and most speciously extend it, he gathered unto him workers of iniquity to wit, friends and associates of one school abiding in Oxford and elsewhere ; and these wore russet gowns, for a token of greater perfection, and walked barefooted, to spread their heresies among the people and preach them openly and even publicly in their sermons. And among other things these were the opinions with which they were primed : that the Church of Rome is not 6 82 TEACHING OF HISTORY the head of all the Churches, more than any other single Church, and that no greater power was granted to Peter by Christ than to any other apostle ; that the pope has no greater power in the keys of the Church than any one else in the order of the priesthood ; that temporal lords may, with law and approval, deprive a bankrupt Church of its property . . . ; that the Gospel is a sufficient rule of life for any Christian, and that all the other rules of the Saints, to which divers men of religion conform, add no more perfection to the Gospel than doth whitewash to a wall. . . . These and many other errors, to the great jeopardy of our Faith, were so spread by the said seducers that lords and magnates of the realm, and many of the people supported them in their preaching and favoured those who preached these errors ; doubtless chiefly for this reason, because in their teaching they gave laymen power to rob churchmen of their temporal possessions. But when these propositions and ravings had been exposed and examined before the pope, with his own hand he con- demned twenty-three of them as heretical and idle ; and he sent bulls to the archbishop of Canterbury and the bishop of London that they should have the said John arrested and carefully examined on the aforesaid propositions. Whereupon the archbishop ... in the presence of the Duke of Lancaster and Lord Henry Percy, enjoined silence on him and all others with regard to these matters. . . . And so both himself and his followers were silent for some time. But at length, by the countenance of the temporal lords, they afterwards ventured to take up again and spread among the laity the same opinions, and others much worse than those they spread before. Now on that day on which the foregoing had been transacted at London, on account of some insult uttered by the Duke of Lancaster to the bishop of London, the Londoners forthwith rose as one man, seized their arms, and purposed to put him to death. But the bishop would in no way suffer this, and had he not opposed their intent at that time, they would have burnt the Savoy, the duke's mansion, in their rage. . . . Among other insults offered to the duke, they reversed and burnt his coat of arms in the streets. DOCUMENTS AND METHOD 83 B Translated from Latin of Henry Knighton, ii. 151. (Circ. 1395.) At that time lived Master John Wyclif, Rector of the parish of Lutterworth, in the county of Leicester, the most dis- tinguished divine of the day. In learning he was considered second to none, in scholarship without a peer. He took especial pains to gain the mastery over other men's minds by the subtlety of his knowledge and the depth of his intellect, and to pervert them from their belief. It is said that he brought into the Church many opinions repudiated by orthodox divines, as will be partly shown in due course. Just as Christ had John the Baptist for his forerunner, so this man had John Ball, who prepared his ways before him in such doctrines and alarmed many by his teaching. The Gospel, which our Lord gave into the hands of the clergy and doctors of the Church, that they should minister to laymen and the weaker brethren, according to the demands of the season and the needs of individuals, was translated by this Master John Wyclif from Latin into English speech of Angles not Angels ; wherefore through him the Gospel is made common and more open to laymen and women who know how to read than it is wont to be to the clergy, till now the lettered and cultured class; and so the pearl of the Gospel is cast abroad and trampled on by swine, and thus what is wont to be dear to clergy and laity is now considered a subject of mirth to both alike, and the jewel of the clergy is turned into a laughing- stock of the laity, so that what formerly had been a supreme privilege to the clergy is now for all time the common property of the laity. C John Wyclif (Fifty Heresies and Errors of Friars), S.E.W. iii. 366-401 (spelling modernised). (1384.) Also friars say that it is needful to leave the command- ment of Christ, of giving of alms to poor feeble men, to poor crooked men, to poor blind men, and to bedridden men, and give this alms to hypocrites that feign them holy and needy when they be strong in body and have 84 TEACHING OF HISTORY overmuch riches, both in great houses and precious clothes, in great feasts and many jewels and treasure; and thus they slay poor men with their false begging, since they take falsely from them their worldly goods, by which they should sustain their bodily life ; and deceive rich men in their alms and maintain or comfort them to live in falseness against Jesus Christ. For since there were poor men enough to take men's alms, before friars came in, and the earth is now more barren than it was, our friars or our men had to go without this alms ; but friars by subtle hypocrisy get to themselves and prevent poor men from having this alms. . . . Also friars feign them as hypocrites, to keep straightly the Gospel and poverty of Christ and His apostles ; and yet they are most contrary to Christ and His apostles in hypocrisy, pride, and covetousness. For they show more holiness in bodily habit and other signs than did Christ and His apostles, and for their singular habit or holiness they presume to be even with prelates and lords, and more worthy than other clerks ; and in covetousness they can never make an end, but by begging, by crying, by burying, by salaries and trentals, and by shriving, by absolutions and other false means cry ever after worldly goods, where Christ used none of all these ; and thus for this stinking covetousness they worship the field as their God. . . . Also friars be thieves, both night thieves and day thieves, entering into the Church not by the door, that is Christ. . . . Also friars be wasters of treasure of our land by many blind and unskilful manners. For first they blind them blindly from freedom of the Gospel and then spend much gold to get them dispensation ; and many times bring vain pardons and other vain privileges, and in all this the gold of our land goes out, and simony and curse and boldness in sin come again. . . . Friars also be most privy and subtle procurators of simony and foul winning and begging of benefices, of indulgences and travels, pardons and vain privileges. For men say they will get a great thing of the pope, or of cardinals in England, more cheaply than other procurators ; and they be more wily and more pleasantly can flatter the pope and his court ; and DOCUMENTS AND METHOD 85 most privily make lords to maintain the pope, in robbing our land of treasure by his pardons, privileges, and the first-fruits of benefices in our land, and dimes and subsidies to war on Christian men, for stinking worldly lordship that God has for- bidden to him and all priests ; and in false confession they stir lords much thereto and need to destroy the land when they maintain the pope and this false robbing. Of these fifty heresies and errors, and many more if men will seek them well out, they may know that friars be cause, beginning and maintaining of perturbation in Christendom, and of all evils of this world, and these errors shall never be amended till friars be brought to freedom of the Gospel and clean religion of Jesus Christ. D William Langland, Piers Plowman, c. x. 242-258 (modernised). (1393.) Do we see them on Sundays, the service to hear, At matins, in the morning ? Till mass begin Or even till even-song, see we right few ! Or work they for their bread, as the law bids ? No, but at mid-day meal-time I meet with them often Coming in a cope as if they were clerks ; And for the cloth that covereth them call'd is he a friar, Washeth and wipeth and with the first sitteth. But while he worked in the world and won his meat with truth He sat at the side bench and second table. Came no wine to his lips all the week long, Nor blanket in his bed, nor white bread before him. The cause of all this mischief cometh of many bishops That suffer such sots, and other sins to reign. Of a truth, an we dare say so : Simon quasi dormit ; Twere better to watch> for thou hast great charge. E Chaucer, Prol. Canterbury Tales (modernised). (1386-88.) A monk there was, a fair one for the mastery, A rider-out, that loved venery ; 86 TEACHING OF HISTORY A manly man, to be an abbot able, Full many a dainty horse had he in stable ; And when he rode, men might his bridle hear Jingle in a whistling wind so clear, And eke as loud as doth the chapel bell. . . . He gave not of that text a pulled hen That saith that hunters be not holy men ; Nor that a monk, when he is cloisterless, Is like unto a fish that is waterless : This is to say, a monk out of his cloister. But this same text held he not worth an oyster. Greyhounds he had as swift as fowl in flight ; Of pricking and of hunting for the hare Was all his lust, for no cost would he spare. I saw his sleeves trimmed at the wrist With fur, and that the finest of the land. And for to fasten his hood under his chin He had of gold there wrought a curious pin : A love-knot in tne greater end there was. . . . He was a lord full fat and in good point ; His boots were supple, his horse in great estate. Now certainly he was a fair prelate ; He was not pale as is a pinned ghost A fat swan loved he best of any roast. William Langland, Piers Plowman, i. 65-79 (modernised). (1362.) There preached a pardoner, as though he were a priest, And brought forth a bull, with bishop's seals, And said that he himself might all absolve From fasts ill-kept and vows that they had broke. Laymen believed him well, and liked his words, And came and kneeled to kiss his bulls. He tripped them with his letters, threw dust into their eyes, And hooked them with his parchments, rings, and brooches. Thus ye give your gold, gluttons to help, And pay it out to wantons, that love vice. DOCUMENTS AND METHOD 87 Now were the bishop good or worth his ears, His seal should not be sent to cozen folk. The parish priest and pardoner do share the silver That poor parish folk should have, if 'twere not so. 1382. Translated from Latin of Henry Knighton, ii. 183. (Circ. 1395.) There was a great increase in the adherents of this teaching, and they multiplied exceedingly as if from seed sown ; and they filled the whole land, and they got to be recognised as a matter of course just as if they dated their existence from one and the same day ; and they became altogether brazen and blushed at nothing, but, as if lost to all shame, yelping both in private and public like dogs unceasingly. . . . Thus they were popularly called Wyclifs disciples and Wycliffites or Lollards. . . . The leaders of these so-called Lollards in the early days of this cursed sect used to wear generally russet-coloured garments, as if for an outward sign of their simplicity of heart, by this means to win over cunningly the minds of those who looked upon them and make a surer approach to the task of teaching and implanting their mad doctrine. . . . [Here follows a long recital of the mode of making converts, their abuse of opponents, their fostering of domestic strife.] . . . And so they were everywhere usually called Wyclifs disciples. And they assumed the title not unfittingly ; for just as their master Wyclif was powerful and strong in discussion over opponents, and was considered no man's inferior in argument, so they, however recently they had been won over to the sect, were trained to excessive oratory and to overcome their opponents in all subtlety and wordy warfare ; strong in words ; great in babble ; excellent in disputations ; browbeating all in pettifogging argument. . . . These Wycliffites used to proclaim that their sect was especially praiseworthy, and used to invite all, not only men but women to join it, urging them to reject the teaching and 88 TEACHING OF HISTORY preaching of every one else, and to have nothing to do with the preaching of the mendicant friars, whom they called " false preachers " ; this was their continual fervent preaching not only in private but also in public ; they were always plotting against them, calling them " false friars " ; they kept on crying that they themselves were the true preachers of the Gospel because they had translated the Gospel into English. And so by public railing and prejudiced censure they recommended themselves to men, though not to God, and in the eyes of many damaged especially the position of the mendicant friars, for owing to the teaching and preaching of these men the friars were at that time hated by many ; and the Wycliffites becoming bolder on this account strove their hardest to turn the hearts of the people still further from them and to stop them from preaching and begging, declaring excommunicate the givers as well as the receivers maintaining that they should earn their food and clothing by the work of their hands like the apostle Paul. . . . And unless God had quickly cut short the days of their pride, and dealt such affliction to their growth, I do not think that even the realm of England could suffer their subtlety and wickedness. H 1382. John Wyclif (S.E.W. iii. 508) (modernised). (1382.) Please it to our most noble and worthy King Richard, king both of England and of France, and to the noble Duke of Lancaster and to other great men of the realm, both to seculars and men of Holy Church, that be gathered in the parliament to hear, assent, and maintain, etc. The^rc/ article is this ; that all persons of whatsoever kind of private sect or singular religion, made of sinful men, may freely, without any let or bodily pain, leave that private rule or new religion founded of sinful men, and stably hold the rule of Jesus Christ, taken and given by Christ to his apostles as far more perfect than any such new religion founded of sinful men. . . . The second point or article is this ; that the men that DOCUMENTS AND METHOD 89 unreasonably and wrongfully have damaged the king and all his council, be amended of so great error and that their error may be published to men dwelling in the realm. For the chief lordship in this land of all temporalities, both of secular men, and religious, pertaineth to the king of his general governing. For else he were not king of all England, but of a little part thereof. Therefore the men that bethink them to take away his lordship from the king, as do friars and their abettors, in this point be sharper enemies and traitors than Frenchmen and all other nations. . . . The third article is this ; that both tithes and offerings be given and paid and received by that intent, to which intent or end God's law and the pope's law ordained them to be paid and received ; and that they be taken away by the same intent and reason, that both God's law and the pope's law ordained that they should be withdrawn. , . . For by God and his law curates be much more bound to teach their parishioners charitably, the Gospel and God's hests both by open preaching and example of good life, for to save their souls, than their parishioners be bound to pay them tithes and offerings. . . . The fourth article is this ; that Christ's teaching and belief of the sacrament of his own body, that is plainly taught by Christ and his apostles in Gospels and epistles, may be taught openly in churches to Christian people, and the contrary teaching and false belief, brought up by cursed hypocrites and heretics and worldly priests, uncunning in God's law, cease. I OPINIONS WRITTEN AND PUBLISHED BY JOHN WYCLIF According to Walsingham, Hist. Angl. ii. 53. (I394-) No heresy or error will be able to be proved in the whole teaching of Master John Wyclif. God must obey the devil. The pope is more bound to the emperor than the emperor to the pope. 90 TEACHING OF HISTORY There is no civil lord, no bishop, no prelate, so long as he is in a state of mortal sin. When human laws are not founded in Holy Writ, subjects are not bound to obedience. K 1384. John Wyclif (S.E.W. iii. 504) (modernised). (1384-) I have joyfully to tell to all true men the belief that I hold, and by all means to the pope ; for I suppose that if my faith is rightful and given of God, the pope will gladly confirm it ; and if my faith be error, the pope will wisely amend it. I suppose over this, that the Gospel of Christ is the heart of the body of God's law ; for I believe that Jesus Christ hath given in his own person his Gospel, is very God and very man, and by this heart passes all other laws. I suppose over this, that the pope be most obliged to the keeping of the Gospel among all men that live here ; for the pope is highest vicar that Christ has here in earth. For greatness of Christ's vicar is not measured by worldly greatness but by this, that this vicar rather follows Christ by virtuous living ; for thus teaches the Gospel that this is the sentence of Christ. And of this Gospel I take as belief that Christ, what time he walked here was most poor man of all, both in spirit and in having ; for Christ says that he had not to rest his head on. And Paul says that he was made needy for our love, and more poor might no man be, neither bodily nor in spirit. And thus Christ put from him all manner of lordly worship. For the Gospel of John telleth that when they would have made Christ king, he fled and hid from them, for he would none such worldly highness. And over this I take as belief, that no man should follow the pope, or any saint that now is in heaven, save in as much as he follows Christ For John and James erred when they coveted worldly highness ; and Peter and Paul sinned also when they denied and blasphemed in Christ ; but men should DOCUMENTS AND METHOD 91 not follow them in this, for then they went from Jesus Christ. And this I take as wholesome counsel that the pope leave his worldly lordship to worldly lords, as Christ gave them and move speedily all his clerks to do so. For thus did Christ, and taught thus his disciples, till the fiend had blinded this world. And it seems to some men that clerks that dwell lastingly in this error against God's law, and follow not Christ in this, be open heretics and their abettors be partners. And if I err in this sentence, I will meekly be amended, yea, by the death, if it be skilful, for that I hope were good to me. And if I might travel in mine own person, I would with good will go to the pope. But God has constrained me to do contrarily and taught me more obedience to God than to man. And I suppose of our pope that he will not be Anti-Christ, and reverse Christ in his working, to the contrary of Christ's will ; for if he summons against reason, by him or by any of his, and pursue his unskilful summoning, he is an open Anti- Christ. And merciful intent excused not Peter, that Christ called him not Satan; so blind intent and wicked counsel excuse not the pope here ; but if he ask of true priests that they travel more than they may, he is not excused by reason of God that he is not Anti-Christ. For our belief teaches us that our blessed God suffers us not to be tempted more than we may ; how should a man ask such service ? And therefore pray we to God for our Pope Urban the Sixth, that his old holy intent be not quenched by his enemies. And Christ, that may not lie, says that the enemies of a man be specially his homely company ; and this is sooth of men and fiends. William Langland, Piers Plowman, A. viii. 168-187 (modernised). (1362.) Therefore I counsel you, ye rich men on this earth Who trust in your treasure trentals to have (masses for the dead) Be ye never the bolder to break the ten hests ; And in especial, ye masters and magistrates and judges, 92 TEACHING OF HISTORY That have the wealth of this world, and wise men are held, To purchase you pardon and the Pope's bulls. At the dreadful day of doom, when dead men shall rise And come all before Christ, accounts to yield, How we led our life here, and his laws kept, And how we did day by day the doom will be told. A pouchful of pardons there or provincial letters, Though we be found in fraternity of all five orders, And have indulgences double-fold, unless Good Deeds us help, I set by pardons not the value of a pea or a pie-crust. Therefore I counsel all Christians to cry God mercy, And Mary his mother be our mediator with him, That God give us grace here, ere we go hence, Such works to work while we be here That after our death-day our Good Deeds rehearse At the day of doom that we did as he taught. Amen. Of this as of all similar exercises it is impossible to say in general terms how much assistance or preliminary work for the class is needed. This must be decided by the master on the spot. With some classes it would be necessary first to read through the extracts carefully and to ask questions on them ; with others half the number of extracts would be sufficient. If anything more elaborate is needed, a careful perusal of the group of extracts will show that the exercise suggested does not nearly exhaust the possible problems and questions. For work of this kind it is essential that the apparatus, that is to say, the documents, shall be in the pupils' hands. Documents as read to a class have their value as giving atmosphere, but for the present purpose each boy must have his own book of extracts, which can be supplemented on the part of the teacher by graphed slips. The science teacher is not expected to obtain results without apparatus ; each boy is provided with DOCUMENTS AND METHOD 93 his bench, his balance, his test-tubes, and his water-tap. It would be in the highest degree unreasonable to ask the history teacher to convert his subject into an educational instrument with nothing but the text-book to fall back upon. Here there is a difficulty to be faced. If documents are to be provided in the necessary abundance, a series of volumes is required, and many schoolmasters would shrink from asking their pupils to buy a fresh book, at the cost of a few shillings, for each short period of English history. The science laboratory indicates the solution of the problem. Boys are not expected to buy their own water-taps, Bunsen burners, and other apparatus ; the school provides them, and sometimes makes a small terminal charge for their use. In the same way the source-books here referred to must be supplied as school property, and a sum of some twenty- five pounds will supply a complete laboratory for school use. Here, as with the teaching of the other English subjects, schools are only just beginning to discover that books are cheap. In how many schools are class-room libraries to be found ? In the composition of such source-books two distinct methods may be employed. In each period either a few selected episodes may be taken, and for each a number of extracts which admit of comparison and contrast may be given, or an extract may be given for each of the topics that is commonly treated of in the school history course. The solution is a compromise. For atmospheric purposes it is desirable to have illustrations of most of the events in the accepted sequence, while with problems in view a few extracts for comparison may be given. It is then left to the teacher, working on the basis of the 94 TEACHING OF HISTORY source-book, to supply graphed extracts which in com- bination with those already before the boys lend themselves to the method advocated in this chapter. 1 Note on the Methods of teaching History suggested by Rollin. For Rollin, method consisted largely in hearing with appropriate comments a lesson that had been got up. " Young ladies study in private, and when the master waits upon them they relate to him what they have read and remarked more particularly. On this occasion the master observes whether we have made a faithful relation ; if we have not omitted any essential circumstance, but have laid the most stress on those of the greatest importance ; and above all, if we have taken notice of the reflections with which the work is interspersed, and which are in reality the principal fruits of history, especially with regard to youth when judgments ought to be ripened and their minds inspired with a just, a solid taste. In this view the master asks them questions ; desires to know what they entertain of certain actions, whether they don't remember some that are parallel to them in another history, and what judgment they form of great men and their character. By this method the under- 1 The series of volumes from which many of the examples given here are taken is English History from Original Sources^ edited by Mr. G. T. Warner and Mr. N. L. Frazer. The series is admirably arranged for school practice, and gives abundant references to the additional material on which the teacher may draw. An interesting series is that edited by the late Professor Yorke Powell, but it is quite unsuitable to place in boys' hands, and will chiefly be of service to the teacher. Smaller compendia of sources for the teacher's use have already been mentioned, p. 40 DOCUMENTS AND METHOD 95 standing is enlightened and improved." But he also lays great stress upon make the pupil active, and upon giving him exercises not altogether unlike some of those suggested above. The pupil is reading, say, Rollin's Ancient History. After he has read a chapter he may be asked to write out either (i) an abridgment of the chapter, or (2) an analysis of it (shorter than i), or a summary of it (shorter than 2). "Of these three kinds of extracts the first is certainly best adapted to enlighten and improve the mind," but, as it takes a long time, the analysis or the summary may often be made instead. " This exercise may be of greater advantage to boys than to the other sex, for whatsoever profession they may be designed ; and will teach them to extract all the essential particulars whatever from any book. This is daily done by those who state a case before a judge, in order to give him a perfect idea of one that is crowded with numberless difficulties and evidences or proofs, the chaos of which they are obliged to clear up, without omitting anything necessary or useful." * 1 New Thoughts Concerning Education, by Mr. Rollin. English Trans., 1735, pp. 60, 70. CHAPTER IV CONTEMPORARY DOCUMENTS AS ATMOSPHERE IN the last chapter documents have been considered solely for their value as affording material for written exercises. Even when thus used they have also their value as giving atmosphere and stimulating the imagina- tion, and it is frequently legitimate to employ them mainly for this purpose and to make the reasoning that can be done in connection with them a secondary matter. When used thus the documents need not always be placed in the pupils' hands, though they are more effective when this can be done, and the source- books to which reference has been made provide a large supply of material for illustrative purposes. If a short document is read aloud to a class there are several rules of procedure which are well worth noting. It is of very little use to read it through once and then to expect the class to make comments upon it or even to derive an atmosphere from it ; though this is a common mistake of beginners. It is difficult for an adult at the first hearing to catch the drift of any matter that is read to him, and boys certainly will not do so. The extract ,vill need to be read through three times, say, once by the teacher, once by a pupil, and then again by the teacher, before it is worth while to comment or to 96 DOCUMENTS AS ATMOSPHERE 97 question upon it. It is also on occasion advisable to place on the blackboard a few phrases or catchwords from it. Let the document be the following extract from a letter written by Mary Queen of Scots to Elizabeth in 1582. Believe, madame (and the doctors whom you sent to me this last summer can have formed an opinion), that I am not likely long to be in a condition which can justify jealousy or distrust. And this notwithstanding, exact from me such assurances and just and reasonable conditions as you wish. Superior force is always on your side to make me keep them, even though for any reason whatever I should wish to break them. You have had from observation enough experience of my bare promises, sometimes even to my own damage, as I showed you on this subject two years ago. Remember, if you please, what I then wrote you, and that in no way could you so much win over my heart to yourself as by kindness, although you have confined forever my poor body to languish between four walls ; those of my rank and disposition not permitting themselves to be gained over or forced by any amount of harshness. In conclusion I have to request two things especially ; the one that as I am about to leave this world I may have by me for my consolation some honourable churchman, in order that I may daily examine the road that I have to traverse and be instructed how to complete it according to my religion, in which I am firmly resolved to live and die. This is a last duty which cannot be denied to the most wretched and miser- able person alive ; it is a liberty which you give to all foreign ambassadors, just as all other Catholic kings allow yours the practice of their religion. And as for yourself, have I ever forced my own subjects to do anything against their religion even when I had all power and authority over them ? And you cannot justly bring it to pass that I should be in this extremity deprived of such a privilege. What advantage can accrue to you from denying me this ? I hope that God will for- give me if, oppressed by you in this wise, I do not cease from 7 98 TEACHING OF HISTORY paying him that duty which in my heart will be permitted. But you will give a very ill example to other princes of Christendom of employing, towards their subjects and relatives, the same harshness which you mete out to me, a sovereign queen and your nearest relative, as I am and shall be in spite of my enemies so long as I live. Here it will be well to place on the blackboard sentences like You have had from observation enough experience of my bare promises \ sometimes even to my own damage ; and A s for myself have I ever forced my own subjects to do anything against their religion, even when I had all power and authority over them. Comments might be made or questions asked upon either or both of these sentences, and it is useful to isolate from the other points in this way. The constant reiteration of the same statement in a laconic chronicle is often very effective. How could the desolation of England under the Danish inroads be brought out better than by the following extract from the Anglo-Saxon Chronicled A. 869. This year the army again went to York, and sat there one year. A. 870. This year the army rode across Mercia into East Anglia, and took up their winter quarters at Thetford, and the same winter King Edmund fought against them, and the Danes got the victory and slew the King and subdued all the land. . . . A. 871. This year the army came to Reading in Wessex, and three days after this two of their earls rode forth. Then Ethelwulf the ealderman met them at Englefield and there fought against them and got the victory. . . . A. 872. This year the army went from Reading to London and there took up their winter quarters, and there the Mercians made peace with the army. A. 873. This year the army went into North Humbria and took up their quarters at Torksey in Lindsey. . . . A. 874. This year the army went from Lindsey to DOCUMENTS AS ATMOSPHERE 99 Repton and there took up their winter quarters, and drove King Burhed over sea. . . . A. 875. This year the army went from Repton. . . . And the army subdued the land and oft-times spoiled the Picts and the Strathclyde Britons. . . . A. 876. This year the army stole away to Wareham, a fortress of the West Saxons. And afterwards the King made peace with the army. A. 877. This year the army came to Exeter from Wareham, and the fleet sailed round westwards ; and then a great storm overtook them at sea and there one hundred and twenty ships were wrecked at Swanwich. , . A. 878. This year during midwinter, after twelfth night, the army stole away to Chippenham and overran the land of the West-Saxons and sat down there. A. 879. This year the army went to Cirencester from Chippenham and sat there one year. . . . A. 880. This year the army went from Cirencester to East Anglia and settled in the land and apportioned it. From 88 1 to 893 the army was on the continent. Then : A. 893. The great army . . . came to land at Limne- mouth with two hundred and fifty ships. Here the expression " the army," meaning the Danes, for the English had no organised army, reiterated yearly by the chronicler in his meagre narrative, makes a more profound impression than any word painting. The extract should not be read too fast, and the " army " phrase might be blackboarded for several successive years. Or, perhaps, as a variant, a couple of pages of the Chronicle might be read to the class, and they might be asked to observe and see whether any one type of event is common to all the years. A few short extracts graphed on one slip frequently form a good basis for a lesson, and can be used in a variety of ways. The following served to illustrate a lesson on the American War of Independence. ioo TEACHING OF HISTORY (a) FRANKLIN TO SAMUEL COOPER London, July 7, 1773. The great defect here is in all sorts of people a want of attention to what passes in such remote countries as America an unwillingness to read anything about them if it appears a little lengthy, and a disposition to postpone the consideration even of the things they know they must at last consider, so that they may have time for what more immedi- ately concerns them, and withal enjoy their amusements and be undisturbed in the universal dissipation. (b) The interests of Newfoundland are being threatened by a scheme for the establishment of a cod and whale fishery in lake Erie and lake Ontario. (c) There no useful profession is the subject of ridicule or contempt. Idleness alone is a disgrace. Military rank and public employment do not prevent a person from having a calling of his own. Every one there is a tradesman, a farmer, or an artisan. Those who are less well off the servants, labourers, and sailors, unlike men of the lower classes in Europe, are treated with a consideration they merit by the propriety of their conduct and their behaviour. DE SGUR. The first extract gives atmosphere, as well as an opportunity of discussing the view taken of England by the colonists. The second extract introduces a question, " Does this extract from a London newspaper of the period show that the English had (i) an interest in, (2) a good knowledge of the conditions of life in America ? " o o The third gives an opening for asking whether the first or the third extract is the more likely to be biased in its statements. Again the eternal question of evidence ! The next couple of extracts, representing a graphed slip, illustrates a lesson on Domesday Book. (A) is an DOCUMENTS AS ATMOSPHERE 101 extract from Domesday Book itself, referring to Oxford (the lesson was given in that city) ; (B) is the Saxon Chronicles account of William I.'s procedure. The manner of using these needs no further comment. (A) In the time of King Edward Oxeneford paid for toll and all other customs yearly. . . . The King has twenty wall- mansions which were Earl Algars, in the time of King Edward, paying both then and now fourteen shillings less two pence. . . . They are called wall-mansions because, if there is need and the King command it, they shall repair the wall. All the burgesses of Oxeneford hold in common a pasture outside the wall that brings in six shillings and eightpence. (B) He sent his men into every shire and caused them to write down how many hundred hides of land it contained, and what lands the King possessed therein, what cattle there were in the several counties, and how much revenue he ought to receive yearly from each. So very narrowly did he cause the survey to be made, that there was not a single hide nor a rood of land, nor it is shameful to relate that which he thought no shame to do was there an ox, a cow, or a pig passed by, and that was not set down on the accounts, and then all these writings were brought to him. It is not for a moment suggested that documents of this kind should be introduced into every lesson, or that there is any particular virtue in merely placing them before a class. On the contrary it should be recognised that it is illegitimate to use a document of any kind unless it is made thorough use of. With these extracts as with all other material for teaching it is necessary for the teacher to turn them over in his mind very often, and to consider how every scrap of value can be squeezed out of them. Neither should the number introduced during the term be very great. A few documents care- fully studied will be impressed on the boys' minds and will serve as centres round which historical facts may be 102 TEACHING OF HISTORY grouped ; a large number cursorily read through will be to the pupil as a diffuse and not very well-arranged reading-book. The experienced teacher who has learned to give a long lesson on a minimum of subject matter needs no advice on this point, but the beginner, unless he is very careful, is likely to err here. The following extract, exhaustively treated, gives ample opportunity both for revision and for introducing fresh matter. April 7, 1416. English Chronicle, ed. Da vies, p. 42 (English modernised). (Circa 1461-1471.) This same year [1416] came Sigismund, the Emperor of Almaine, into England, for to speak with King Harry, to treat of certain things touching \h& peace of England and of France ', and also for the welfare and unity of all holy Church. And the king and his lords met with him at St. Thomas Watering, without Southwark, and him received with great reverence and worship, and brought him into London, and from thence to Westminster, and there he was lodged in the palace at the king's cost, and that same time the king gave him the livery of the Garter. And when the emperor had been in this land as long as it liked him at the king's cost, he took his leave of the king ; and the king brought him to Calais, and tarried there to have answer from the French party of such things as the emperor and the king had sent to them for ; and at last it came and ^leased them right nought ; and then the emperor passed forth his way, and the king came into England again. The passages italicised indicate the line of comment. The relations between England and France may be revised, while the occasion may be used to give a lesson upon the emperor's position as regards (i) the various European powers, (2) the Church, and to consider how far his authority depended upon tradition and how far upon military strength. There are also indications which DOCUMENTS AS ATMOSPHERE 103 should not be overlooked that the English king was gratified at having the emperor as his guest. Finally the document may be used to revise or to expand the boys' knowledge of the topography of London. So, too, with the following document : 1376. Translated from Latin of Walsingham, Hist. Angl. i. 320. (Before 1394.) In the year of grace 1376, at the beginning of the month of May, King Edward caused a full parliament to be holden at Westminster; and therein, after wonted custom, he did ask certain supplies from the Commons for the defence of his realm; but those of the Commons said in reply that they were exceeding weary by reason of such imposts, and main- tained truly that they could no longer bear such burdens without sore hurt to themselves. For it was abundantly evident to them that the king had enough for the defence of his realm, if so be the realm had been wisely and faithfully governed ; but so long as such rule were held in the realm as at this present time owing to evil men in office, it would never flourish in prosperity or wealth. And they offered to prove this beyond dispute ; and if after this proof it should be found that the king were in any further need, they would help him according to their ability. Now in the conduct of the matter many facts were brought forward concerning \hz king's friends, and especially concerning Lord Latimer, his treasurer, who ruled the king with most evil governance. Wherefore the Duke of Lancaster, Lord Latimer, and many other high officers of the king were removed and others chosen in their places. Here the points that may be treated are (i) the com- position of Parliament ; (2) the question of supply, with a revision of previous occasions (e.g. at the close of Edward I.'s first campaign in France) on which the Commons had responded liberally to the King's appeal ; (3) a con- sideration of the classes upon whom the burden of taxation fell most heavily ; (4) the clique of persons who 104 TEACHING OF HISTORY were diverting the revenue into their own purses ; (5) the effective power of the Commons to remove ministers. Although the necessity of thus getting to the bottom of a document cannot be too forcibly expressed, there is still a place in the history lesson for contemporary authorities as atmosphere and nothing more. On occasion it is right to spend half an hour in reading to a class Froissart's Chronicles or More's Utopia, or Hakluyt's Voyages, merely asking a few questions during or at the end of the reading to test and stimulate attention. In this case the boys are not expected to remember the facts and details of the narrative ; the object is to interest them rather than to induce reasoning. This mode of using contemporary writers must be clearly distinguished from the method advocated in this chapter. CHAPTER V METHOD AND MORAL TRAINING THE moral value of school subjects, if this phrase means their effect upon character and upon the consequent outlook upon life, depends upon two factors the ideas that they convey, and the mental processes through which these ideas are obtained. Subjects that give opportunity for prolonged effort are likely to cultivate the habit of persistency, and this habit acquired during school-days will tend to promote strength of will in after-life ; while on the other hand a desultory trifling with interesting topics will certainly lead to listlessness and indecision. These propositions appear so full of common sense that few people would question them unless they were stated in more precise and more scientific terms. But in dealing with school history scant attention has been paid to mental processes. It has become a convention to talk of the value of the subject in forming character, and by forming character has been meant the giving of ideas about character which both provide mental furniture and working through imitation determine decision and action in periods of moral conflict. Here, however, we are confronted with the difficulty that to some boys the shady side of conduct is as likely to appeal as the sinless. In fact, if we 105 106 TEACHING OF HISTORY suppose that from the moral standpoint the characters and actions in history are equally balanced, half being good and half being bad, the history lesson for purposes of leading to good conduct neutralises itself. Further, if we admit that the bad characters outweigh the good, then unless we suppose a natural tendency to imitate the good rather than the bad, the net effect of history will be injurious ; and if this supposition is rejected as contrary to experience, it is evident that the whole question of the desirability of analysing and criticising character with junior forms calls for careful consideration. Undoubtedly the great practical difficulty with which the teacher is here confronted is the sordid nature of most of the dramatis personae in certain periods of English history. He is face to face with a dilemma. If he gives these personages as examples of character to be imitated it is generally necessary to suppress facts or to amend them in a way inconsistent with historical accuracy ; while if the facts of human nature are pre- sented to children in their nakedness, they might well irreparably destroy that belief in human nature which most people recover at a certain period of life, although they may have lost it during a transition stage. Few of the history teacher's problems are more perplexing than this one. Unless he lays stress upon the ugliness and the brutality 01 past ages, it is difficult to bring home the fact that there has been a true progress, a real evolution in time. This is wholly obscured by the presentation to the child of the rose-coloured knights who walk sedately along their church - going paths through the pages of popular historical novels ; it is obscured if we conceal the fact that kings were frequently liars and scoundrels, and their ministers self-seeking METHOD AND MORAL TRAINING 107 functionaries ; it is obscured if we hide from our children, even of middle -school age, the terrible sordidness of motive that stands out so clearly in a record of private life such as the Paston Letters, and which is a fitting counterpart to the troublousness of the times ; it is obscured if in treating of any period we select for friendly description only the virtuous characters, and pass over the lives of the others in silence. And yet, what may not be the cost if in adhering to historic truth we destroy the idealism of youth and prematurely lay stress on the meaner aspect of life which in any case will make itself felt only too soon ! Here the psychology of mental growth comes to our aid. The small boy is in the epic stage. Slight grada- tions of conduct are not for him. The good characters are good and the bad characters are bad. Rebellions, crusades, and battles give the movement, glorious victories the colour. Petty lives centred upon selfish ends, saintly lives marred by great ambitions, great ambitions vitiated by self-indulgence, desirable results gained by evil means, mixed motives in acting, lack of steadfastness in willing, all these are non-existent for this stage. A boy will read Marryat's novels without noticing the moralising, he will read Henty without remarking that much of it is as dull as his history text-book, and the more complex elements in history if placed before him are simply neglected. Therefore, whether we wish it or not, the idealistic stage will always precede the critical, and up to a limit it is well to assist nature. Elizabeth must be good Queen Bess before the boy learns that she could swear like a fish-wife and lie like a horse-dealer ; Wolsey must be the magnificent prelate and promoter of learning io8 TEACHING OF HISTORY before he is displayed as having the soul of a flunkey ; the utmost peccadillo allowed to a potentate must be a surfeit of lampreys, and in deference to epic justice the result must invariably be fatal. But care must be taken that this idealistic stage does not last too long, and that it is surely followed by the critical stage. If it must be remembered that idealism is needed in the early stages, it is equally necessary to remember that an excess of it even in the early stages will tend to retard mental growth. Most instructive in this connection are some answers upon historical characters and events given by Muriel Howard, 1 aged fourteen, educated in a secondary school which enjoys the advantage of financial aid both from the rates and from the State, as well as the privilege of State inspection. In this case, as will be seen, the result of the history lesson has been to produce an unbounded optimism and belief in human nature. 1. Hereward the Wake was a good ruler over a country. He was ruler over English people. He was born in the year 1076. He died in the year 1381. Thomas a Becket was quite a little boy when he became king. He was a good little king. He was born in the year 1080, and he died in the year 1400. Jack Cade was a good ruler and a good man. He was born in the year 1090, and he fought a great rebellion which was called Jack Cade's rebellion. He died in the year noo after many happy years. 2. The result of the Norman Conquest was very bad. The Normans won the English at a battle near Newbury. The Battle was fought by the Normans in the year 1112. 3. The Magna Charta was a document which had to be signed by King John which was called the Great Charter. It was signed by King John because the Pope wanted King 1 The name is of course fictitious. METHOD AND MORAL TRAINING 109 John to sign the document. It was passed in the year 1340. It was a great document. King John was a good king and a good man ; he died in the year 1400. The Battle of Bosworth was won by the English against the Normans in the year 1420. It was fought on Bosworth Field. It was a great battle. The Spanish Armada was a fleet of ships which set out for a sail on the water. The day was nice, fine, clear, and the water was calm and everything the sailors wanted. 4. The Petition of Right is a Bill passed by the King. The Bill consisted of different things, that every man and woman, boy or girl, should pay a tax of shilling raise for every boy or girl over fifteen years of age. 5. Mary Queen of Scots was a good queen and also a good woman. She was a woman who had plenty of style. She wore dresses of plenty of style. She was born in the year 1500 and she died in the year 1600. 6. The Gunpowder Plot was started by Guy Fawkes in the year 905 on the 5th of November. He begun by putting Gunpowder in a hole and then lit it with a match. From that day till now the 5th of November has been called Bonfire night when people have set fireworks off on that night and fires have been going in the open air. The effect of the history teaching that Muriel Howard has received would satisfy the most ardent advocate of direct moral instruction. Everything that has been placed before her is epic, and indeed fit for the primmest drawing-room. For her nothing that is common or mean exists. All the kings, queens, or other personages, whether they bear their own names or those of other people, whether they live for ten years or for two hundred years, are "good" men and "good" women; all the battles and documents are " great." Her optimism extends even to inanimate nature. The winds and the waves moderate their violence when Muriel Howard sets her historical sails. no TEACHING OF HISTORY This, no doubt, is an extreme case, but it illustrates the danger of postponing the critical stage. It is during the secondary period that the boy's critical faculty is developing and must be made use of. It is by introducing criticism of a mild order that exercises of the kind already suggested can be devised. It is only if thought- compelling exercises can be devised that history is worth treating as a serious school subject, and, it may now be added, it is only if this formal element be there that history can be of real value as a moral training. The value of critical exercises cannot clearly be shown without a careful consideration of the formal element in the mental complex, and a brief review of the various standpoints from which mind can be viewed and described will facilitate thisr None of the accepted modes of setting forth the mechanism of mental process and thus of explaining certain mental facts can be regarded as wholly satisfactory. The psychology of Aristotle was frankly what would now be called a faculty psychology. If a mental process, let us say memory, is in question, the problem is attacked by asking " to which part of the soul it belongs." The soul is viewed as composed of a number of parts working with relative independence, and one element in psychological explanation consisted in referring a particular mental fact to the operation of a certain faculty. As a convenient preliminary mode of classifying mental phenomena there is perhaps not much to be said against this attitude, and it has been really mischievous only when the explanation, a merely verbal one, has been considered final, and the door has been closed upon further research. The method, which arose with Locke, of describing mental processes in term of ideas which initiate and METHOD AND MORAL TRAINING in associate with one another was an attempt to make an advance upon the older method of classification, and undoubtedly has been of use in spite of the metaphysical difficulties which it brings with it. The new way of ideas did not, indeed, entirely supplant the older method, for Kant, like Aristotle, viewed the mind as schematised and split up into a number of parts or faculties, arranged in a hierarchy and each with its own peculiar functions. As a reaction against this view we find the Herbartian psychology, which introduces the notion of ideas, though from a standpoint and with metaphysical presuppositions very different from those of Locke, and throws overboard the Kantian schematism. In modern psychology these two standpoints are still in evidence, although they are not always clearly distin- guished, and some writers of repute scarcely seem to realise when they are passing from one to the other. If mind is described as consisting of trains of ideas, if for example we explain the image of an old school-fellow which arises in our mind as due to a series of successive associations, partly of contiguity, partly of similarity, and if we further bring to our aid a certain state of feeling and a certain general aim or objective of our mental state as giving a tone to these ideas and thus finally assisting to bring into our mind the idea or meaning that we found there, or if we use the expression " psychical disposition" to describe the effect that remains behind after a state of consciousness has passed by, it is impossible not to think of the ideas and of the psychical disposition as belonging to or subsisting in a mind which is something more than they are, which possesses a greater element of permanence and independence, and which is able to observe them and to claim them as H2 TEACHING OF HISTORY belonging to itself. If on the other hand we start with the conception of a central unity of mind which admits of certain phases, which may for example be discovered in a state of willing or striving, or which is conscious of itself as being pleased, or afraid, or aware, we escape, it is true, from the difficulties which ideas always bring in their train, but we are debarred from explaining or even from describing some mental processes which lend them- selves to explanation in no other way save that of ideas. Frequently it is only the initial description of a mental fact that can be given indifferently in terms of either standpoint. Thus, for the idea -psychology attention takes place when a certain idea stands out clearly in or takes possession of the mind ; for the ego-psychology, attention is the turning of the mind in a certain direction ; but in this case it is difficult from the ego-standpoint to carry description or explanation any further. As has been pointed out, " most psychologists adopt a middle position ; they treat one side of mental life, the phenomena of sensation, perception, and imagination, and the simpler life of feeling from the first standpoint, as a series of processes ; while the other portion of consciousness thought, the higher life of emotion, and in particular the will, they regard from the second stand- point." l Each of these two positions, that of the ego- psychology and that of the idea-psychology, leads to a characteristic educational attitude. Those who view mind as a striving, unifying entity, tend to advocate the exercising of the mind in a formal manner, to keep it in condition, as it were. Those for whom mind is a complex of meanings or ideas ridicule the notion that 1 M. W. Calkins, Dcr doppelte Standpunkt in det Psychologic, 1905, p. 9. METHOD AND MORAL TRAINING 113 an objectless manipulation of these ideas can be of advantage to the mind. Mind can be built up, its content can be increased and strengthened by the intro- duction of new ideas, but a formal training is an absurdity. A fuller description of the two positions will make the issue clearer. Let them be called Neo-Herbartianism and Neo-Kantianism. The Neo-Herbartian educationists adopt the meta- physical position of their master, though they are always prepared to throw a portion of it overboard if its insuffi- ciency is pointed out. For them mind consists of the ideas or meanings introduced into it. These ideas are able to adopt an attitude of attraction towards or repul- sion from one another. They can collect in groups for the purpose of expelling undesirables or of summoning into consciousness ideas whose presence is felt to be a source of strength. The basis of mind is thus intellectual, it is composed of meanings, and these meanings are discrete entities. From the interplay of and struggle between these entities feeling arises, and it is therefore secondary in its nature ; while from these feelings in turn will is produced, thus occupying a very subordinate position in the hierarchy. Associationist psychology is always at its worst when it treats of will and reduces it to an association complex, and Herbartianism is no exception to the rule. It would be unfair to Herbartianism, as stated by Herbart himself, to say that for educational purposes it leads to the notion of a purely receptive mind, since for Herbart the groups of ideas that are called into existence are in their corporate nature extremely active and energetic. But the Neo-Herbartian does not escape the pitfalls of the associationist position. Mind as the 8 H4 TEACHING OF HISTORY unifying centre is left out of sight. The teacher is told that his business is to fill the mind, and unfortunately he is only too ready to accept the invitation. Applied to the teaching of history the baleful effect of this doctrine is soon apparent History is to be " narrated," stories are to be " told," biographies are to be " placed before " the pupils, and in some mysterious way, presumably through imitation, the examples of character thus given are to mould character. Because it provides these human documents, history more than any other subject is to be regarded as character-forming ; and its power in this respect is derived solely from its subject matter. There is no hint in any of the Neo-Herbartian writings that any activity peculiar to the subject matter is to be demanded from the pupil or that the virtue of the information may depend upon the manner in which it is acquired. 1 Opposed to the views set forth above are those of the Neo-Kantians. Just as Herbartianism unconsciously leads its adherents to soft pedagogics, to the skilful filling of a receptive mind, so the Kantian doctrine leads 1 It may here be remarked that those writers who call them- selves Herbartians, but who profess to drop Herbart's metaphysic while retaining his educational results, are lending themselves to a needless confusion. To say that any associationist standpoint or any demand to introduce meanings into the boy's mind is peculiarly Herbartian is to use the term to no purpose. It is impossible to discuss certain phases of educational process without in some form using the association hypothesis ; it is impossible to conceive of a teacher save as a man who in some way intro- duces ideas. If a doctor were to proclaim himself a Harveian, we should certainly conclude that he not only agreed with Harvey's statement of the circulation of the blood, but in addition was in sympathy with some of his more characteristic views, say with his belief in final causes. Otherwise the term, as applied to him, would have no meaning. METHOD AND MORAL TRAINING 115 to the opposite notion of a rigorous formal training. Evidence of this is to be found in Kant's own lectures on Education (a subject about which he knew remark- ably little), when he demands that the memory shall be exercised and that language teaching shall begin with grammar. Still more clearly is the tendency visible in the writings of a modern Kantian, Dr. Paul Natorp, from whose work Sozial Padagogik^- we may extract a characteristic sequence of argument. If we examine nature we find only what exists, but no hint of what ought to be, no indication of the aim we should set before us, no suggestion of the ideal. Experience, however, tells us that in addition to the knowledge of how things exist, we have also a suspicion of how they ought to exist. This knowledge we derive not from nature, but from ourselves, and not from our intellect, but from our practical knowledge, from the ideal form that is within us, from the will. The intellect must be sharply distinguished from the will. Intellect is superior to nature. It does not depend upon facts, neither does it draw its laws from them. The formal modes of combination, the categories, are given by the intellect. The law of combination deter- mines the fact. For the intellect nothing is determined that it has not itself determined. Intellect never reaches finality in the unconditioned. When it explains it finds an unending regress, and it appears to reach a conclusion only because it decides to go no farther. The Idea of 1 Sozial Pddagogik. Theorie der Willenserziehung auf det Grundlage der Gemeinschaft, 1899. This admirable book, one of the most careful pieces of educational work that has recently appeared, is far too little known in England. It may confidently be commended to the reader. n6 TEACHING OF HISTORY the unconditioned holds good for the understanding, but it has for it only a negative meaning, it does but indicate its limitations. Intellect does not feel the need of finality. If its logical basis, its root conceptions and formulae are clearly defined, it is content to proceed and thus to gain a fuller knowledge of its object. As a unifying and combining force the intellect deserves to be exercised for its own sake. 1 It is from the will, from practical knowledge, on the other hand, that we derive our conception of what ought to be ; from it are obtained the formal laws of necessity ; through it we are brought into contact with the unconditioned, with the ideal form, with the moral law. For all purposes of conduct, for the positing of ends, for the conception of ideals, we depend upon this practical knowledge, and thus the proper method of training the will is of paramount importance for the educator. The connection between intellect -training and will- training is a close one. "The will has its material wholly in common with the understanding ; nothing that comes under the laws of will lies outside the laws given by the understanding and vice versa. From these considerations the one-sided dependence of will-culture upon intellect-culture which Herbart maintains cannot be derived. According to our view the will is in form placed over the intellect, with which it shares its content of knowledge. From the community of the subject- matter follows the necessity of a thorough combination of intellect-training, and of will-training from the lowest 1 Natorp, op. tit. p. 273. " The most questionable result of the Herbartian view of ' educative instruction ' adopted by his modern adherents is that they have scarcely any belief in the independent value of training the intellect." METHOD AND MORAL TRAINING 117 to the highest stages of human development, and from the formal subjection of the intellect to the will it follows that the development of the understanding is a continual exer- cise of the will and in so far is favourable to its growth." J If subjects are to be arranged in order of merit for their character -forming value, this must be done in accordance with their proximity to the Idea, i.e. according to the degree of pure form to be found in them. Judged by this standard mathematics enjoys a pre-eminent position, while on the other hand history would be of little value if it only awakened sympathy with man. Unless the element of Form be there, instruction that occupies itself with men is no more educative than that which occupies itself with equations. Thus even for history and in respect of the influence that it exercises upon the will, we are brought back to the path of intellect -training. History like other subjects has an intellectual side, and it must be used to exercise the understanding. But this is not recognised. In mathematics and in mathematical science the instruc- tion does not consist in the imparting of facts that have been discovered ; yet although in history facts and their connexions have had to be discovered and established, the pupil has no suspicion of this ; the accepted method for instruction in history is narration. It is evident, therefore, that while the formal training to be derived from history is overlooked by the Her- bartian, it is strongly insisted upon by the Neo-Kantian, and that the mere giving of biographies or accounts of noble actions in the hope that conduct will thereby be affected receives no support from this quarter. 1 op. tit. p. 269. n8 TEACHING OF HISTORY There is yet another standpoint from which the necessity of a rigorous method in history teaching can be established. Once childhood is past and the boy enters upon the secondary school stage he tends to resent at- tempts that are made to influence his views upon morals or upon conduct. The following propositions attempt to state this tendency scientifically and to suggest a remedy. The normal healthy adolescent mind readily adopts an attitude of contrariance when attempts are made to introduce to it ideas which embody notions of morality or of conduct. The more directly these moral ideas are introduced, the stronger tends to be the reaction against them, unless the person or the situation which introduces them is sufficiently masterful or impressive to inhibit this contrariance by introducing a strong emotional tone. Much teaching of this kind, while in a certain sense it might be effective, would not in the long run make for the moral or intellectual welfare of the pupil. This is, however, not the only method of dealing with these contrariant ideas. The attitude of reaction can be prevented from coming into existence if the ideas that convey moral notions are introduced very gradually and incidentally. This can be ensured if they are presented through the medium of problem work and investigational activity, as then very little opportunity is given for these contrariant ideas to come to the front. It is also an advantage that in these circumstances the ideas about morality will be suffused with a strong conative tone, and thus will be assisted to become moral ideas, or ideas that tend to be realised in action, feeling, or belief. 1 1 For a fuller treatment of this topic see the writer's Suggestion in Education, 1907. METHOD AND MORAL TRAINING 119 If there is any validity in this train of reasoning, its application to the teaching of history demands that the formal element be used to the full, and that the merely receptive attitude on the part of the learner be given but little encouragement. In education it is seldom wise to side with extremists, and it is not incumbent here to take up the cudgels either for the Herbartians or the Kantians. It is, how- ever, striking that from several standpoints the moral effects of the truths contained in history appear to depend upon the method by which they are obtained. For the Neo-Kantian the will can be trained only through the vigorous working of the mind ; for the believer in contrariant ideas, ideas about conduct are likely to issue in action or belief only if they are acquired through a business-like method, and it is only when history is taught in a manner which complies with these demands that it commends itself to the school- master as a workable subject which lends itself to routine manipulation. When psychological analysis and the teacher's craft both demand the same method, there can be little doubt that the method is a sound one, and that therefore for the secondary stage the critical treatment of documents or other evidence, when conducted with judgment, leads to a mode of teaching history which will meet the requirements both of theory and of practice. CHAPTER VI ON CONCRETE ILLUSTRATION HITHERTO stress has been laid upon the formal element in" history, and this element, let it be repeated, is essential in a routine school subject ; but the formalism must have suitable material to work upon, the pupil must reason about matters which are concrete to him in every sense of the word. There must be a basis of facts which interest him, of human beings with whom he is on familiar terms, of places through which he can find his way with his eyes shut, of religious movements that are as real to him as to the people who lived through them, of legislation whose force is as present to him as to those who sought to evade it, of statesmen whose wisdom he feels to have been a source of strength to national life. Unless the narrative of history lives, the formal processes might almost as well be carried out in algebra. For the newer method history is a formal study, but its formalism works in the most human subject-matter imaginable. This looks well in print, but it is not easy to bring about in the class-room. The boyish mind loves to remain on the surface of things, if this saves trouble. It has an aggravating habit of remembering phrases, which ON CONCRETE ILLUSTRATION 121 mean nothing to it, and of forgetting details, which might mean a great deal. A boy will tell you with a smiling face and an apparent consciousness of merit, that Wyclif " was the morning star of the Reformation," and fail when pressed to produce any facts about either the Reformation or Wyclif. For middle forms legis- lation and religious changes tend to be the most stub- born of abstractions. And yet there is nothing abstract or intangible about legislation for those who are brought into contact with it. The Company Laws are quite concrete for a boy whose father is doing time at Portland for a breach of them ; an increase in the income tax is not in the least abstract to the boy who is told that for him and for his brothers it means a fortnight less at the sea-side. For the boy as for the old lady whose idea of history is the chronique scandaleuse of a French court, the concrete is the small human detail, and if we can show in this detail the effect that legislation had upon the lives of human beings, its abstract appearance vanishes at once. "The Statute of Mortmain checked the giving of land to corporations which were unable to perform feudal service." Of all the dry portions of English history the legal activity of Edward I. can be the most arid ; it is a veritable Sahara of legislation. Let us apply our remedy to it. To introduce the personal element a little fiction is useful. We introduce two barons, each living on his own estate. Let them be called baron A and baron B. Let the estates be drawn upon the blackboard, and let each baron be domiciled in his stronghold. 122 TEACHING OF HISTORY On what tenure did they hold their estates ? What duties or payments to the over-lord did the feudal system bring with it ? We revise some of the feudal incidents that suit our purpose: (i) Wardship; (2) Fine on the marriage of heiresses ; (3) Intestacy ; (4) Escheat for treason ; and make it clear that it was from these and similar sources that the king's purse was filled, ancl that in this respect some barons must have been worth more to him than others. We now proceed to give a description of our two friends. Baron A is some thirty-eight years old ; he married young, and his two sons are of age ; his two daughters have been married for some years ; he is businesslike, and has made all arrangements for the disposition of his property ; he is extremely loyal. What are the king's chances of getting from this baron any of the fines mentioned above ? Extremely small. Now consider baron B : he is forty-eight years old, a considerable age for this period, and is in poor health ; he married late, and his eldest son is only fifteen years of ON CONCRETE ILLUSTRATION 123 age and of feeble constitution ; he is unbusinesslike, and has probably not made the necessary legal arrange- ments about his property ; he has three unmarried daughters who may become heiresses ; he is suspected of treasonable designs. What are the king's chances of getting fines from him? Very considerable. Such a baron must have been a godsend to an extravagant monarch. Which of these barons is of greater value to his lord in this respect ? Obviously baron B. Baron B, as narrated, is in poor health. He was always of a religious disposition, and as he grows feebler he sees a good deal of the neighbouring abboU Finally, regardless of the interests of his children, he makes over the whole of his property to the monastery on his estate. What will the king get from the monastery on the counts mentioned above? Nothing whatever. It must be made clear to the class that there will be no orphan sons, no heiresses, no intestacy, for a corporation cannot die, no escheat for treason, for monks do not rebel. If, then, many barons imitate B, what is the result to the king ? Poverty ; no pocket-money. How can he prevent this ? Evidently by forbidding the alienation of lands to corporations of this kind. The statement of the Statute of Mortmain can now follow. Its abstract nature has vanished. For small boys the Constitutions of Clarendon are equally unpromising. Here are some of them : 1. Bishops and abbots to be elected before the king's officer with the king's consent. 2. Bishops to do homage to the king for their lands. 3. Ecclesiastics not to leave the land without the king's consent. 124 TEACHING OF HISTORY 4. No tenant in chief to be excommunicated without the king's consent. 5. The king's court to decide on the court to try cases between laymen and clerics. 6. Clerks after conviction in ecclesiastical courts to be handed over to the lay courts. 7. No appeal to be carried beyond the king's court (i.e. to Rome) without the king's consent. 8. Villeins' sons not to be ordained without their lord's consent. Again the personal element will give meaning to these clauses. Becket's view of them is, of course, a text-book matter and, as stated in the text-book, is abstract ; but if his life is given with considerable detail this objection vanishes. A little imagination will help. A description of the feelings of the inferior clerk who has committed a misdemeanour, and who finds to his horror that ultimately he will be dealt with by an uncompromising bench of lay judges ; or of the villein's rage when he finds that his ambition to exchange the rigour of a villein's life for the comparative ease of a clerk's is frustrated by his lord, who wishes to retain a sufficient supply of labour on his estate. Enactments appear far more concrete if the way is paved for them, so that when they actually arrive they appear to the pupils to be overdue. Thus Magna Charta can be pre- pared for lessons in advance by keeping a black book of the grievances endured by barons, by merchants, and by villeins and the defenceless generally. In this book can be entered instances of wrongs received as they occur in the historical narrative. By 1215 the number and the gravity of these will constitute a scandal, and the action of the barons in demanding a definition of feudal dues, the proper administration of ON CONCRETE ILLUSTRATION 125 justice, no imprisonment without trial, freedom of trade for merchants, and a reform of the forest laws will appear reasonable and indeed necessary. Religious changes and religious legislation present a greater difficulty. For a healthy boy the intensity of pure religious feeling is not easy to understand, and the religious feeling that arises out of nothing deeper than tradition or convention, but which is such a powerful motive when combined with party or class spirit, is wholly unintelligible to him. And yet in some periods of history the whole political situation depends upon the religious question, and in the text-book is frequently introduced by it. Here is a text-book sequence of the events at the beginning of Elizabeth's reign. Elizabeth's succession; supported by Philip; her religious views ; the Church of England ; attitude of the people towards Elizabeths religious reforms ; Elizabeth's foreign policy ; her attitude towards the Huguenots and Catholics. Following this sequence the first lesson or lessons must be on Elizabeth's religious views. The formal treatment of the matter is easy enough. If we indicate the three parties in England the Roman Catholics, the Moderates, and the Puritans the boy may be led for himself to see that if she joined the Puritans she would alienate the Moderates and the Catholics, that if she joined the Catholics she would dissatisfy the Moderates and the Puritans and at the same time confess herself illegitimate, and that therefore her only plan was to steer a middle course between the two extremes and to commit herself to neither side. Here the class may be induced to draw an inference, and working on these lines, if the mutual relations of England, Scotland, France, 126 TEACHING OF HISTORY and Spain be given, and a blackboard map of Europe, in which the religion of each country is indicated by a characteristic shading is provided, may be exercised in considering how this middle position in religion would affect her relations with foreign countries. Undoubtedly boys can be made to reason thus ; but it is all in the air. The kings of Spain and of France, and the countries that they represent are little more than symbols. Guided by a strong teacher the class will juggle with these symbols. Let L represent a line of conduct. For A JC B political reasons it is unwise for Elizabeth to take up her position either at A or at B ; she therefore bisects the line and chooses C. This is barely a parody of the text-book. In a day-school 3. little more reality can be introduced by starting with something familiar to the boys. If it be asked how many of them are acquainted with the High and with the Evangelical churches in the town, how many know the Catholic and the Nonconformist chapels, the teacher will be overwhelmed by a list of places of worship, the greater part of which will often be new to him. The boys can then be made to realise the difference of ceremonial to be found in the various churches, and from this external standpoint an opportunity occurs for a little schematic work on the blackboard, e.g. In Elizabeth's time we have The Catholics. The Moderates. The Puritans, corresponding now to The Catholics. The High Church. The Low Church and Nonconformists. and it may be brought home to the class that the extreme High Church party does very fairly correspond to the ON CONCRETE ILLUSTRATION 127 Moderate party of that date and represents the com- promise that Elizabeth most fancied. This linking of the past with the present may be emphasised by reading to the boys some of the thirty-nine Articles, not with the least intention of explaining them, but to show that they are really there in a book which the boys handle every Sunday, and that a portion of their weekly experience dates from this period. Still, after our best efforts, it must sorrowfully be confessed that the class does not as a rule display enthusiasm about the acts of Supremacy and Uniformity. They will learn their contents dutifully, but the whole business means very little to them. The fact is that we have committed a fatal error in following the sequence of the text-book in our presentation. If we link this legislation on to the concrete activities of the time we shall make our task easier. Consider the following document (an extract from a Statute of 1562) as a starting-point for the religious element. XIV. And for increase of provision of fish by the more usual and common eating thereof, be it further enacted by the authority aforesaid, That from the feast of St. Michael the archangel in the year of our Lord one thousand five hundred sixty-four, every Wednesday in every week throughout the whole year, which, heretofore, hath not by the laws or customs of this realm been used and observed as a fish-day, and which shall not happen to fall in Christmas week or Easter week, shall be hereafter observed and kept, as the Saturdays in every week be or ought to be : (2) and that no manner of person shall eat any flesh on the same day, otherwise than ought to be upon the common Saturday. XXXIX. And because no manner of person shall misjudge of the intent of this estatute, limiting orders to eat fish, and to forbear eating of flesh, but that the same is purposely 128 TEACHING OF HISTORY intended and meant politically for the increase of fishermen and mariners, and repairing of port-towns and navigation, and not for any superstition to be maintained in the choice of meats. XL. Be it enacted, That whosoever shall by preaching, teaching, writing or open speech notify, that any eating of fish, or forbearing of flesh, mentioned in this statute, is of any necessity for the saving of the soul of man, or that it is the service of God, otherwise than as other politick laws are and be ; that then such persons shall be punished as spreaders of false news are and ought to be. The seafaring life of the time makes a strong appeal to a boy's interests, and here we find the religious question arising out of it in the shape of an injunction to eat fish on certain days in order that a breed of sailors may be preserved. Why is all religious intent so violently disclaimed in section 40? Here is an occasion for revising the religious disputes, and for introducing the new legislation. Nor is this the only opportunity for doing so ; there are many connexions with the navy. Drake's father was a chaplain in the Royal Navy in the reign of Edward VI.; and the sailors in the south of England seem in general to have been Protestants, probably because their opponents the Spaniards were on the Catholic side. It was from the captain of a Huguenot privateer in the Spanish main that Drake learned of the massacre of St. Bartholomew, and later on his adventures give the teacher an opening for revising the Act of Uniformity. Drake has returned from Nombre de Dios, has come to anchor off Plymouth, and sends a boy on shore to announce his arrival. It happens to be Sunday morning and the boy finds the worthy inhabitants of Plymouth in church. He sings out to them that Drake is back ; upon which they promptly ON CONCRETE ILLUSTRATION 129 leave the parson to preach to empty benches and rush down to the shore to catch the first sight of the ship, No matter how lamely he may tell the story of Drake's exploits, and of this dramatic home-coming, the teacher will have no difficulty in riveting the whole attention of his class, and here he can switch them off on to the Act of Uniformity. What was the interior of the church like ? Was there a crucifix ? Was Mass being celebrated? Were vestments worn? Were all the citizens there ? What was the penalty if they absented themselves ? The interest engendered by the " Sea-Dog " narrative will be transferred to the greyer matter of religion, and although it will evaporate by degrees, some minutes may elapse before the class realise that a march has been stolen upon them, and that they are paying whole-hearted attention to a subject hitherto regarded with suspicion. It is upon the skilful combination of small personal detail with the sterner facts and wider generalisations of history that the successful handling of this subject often depends. These small details. can be obtained only from larger books. Such a work as Corbett's Drake and the Tudor Navy will furnish abundant material for the last- mentioned topic, and the numerous monographs on leading historical characters provide an ample store- house to draw from. The smaller schematic treatises do not provide the requisite material, since they are unable to devote sufficient space to the human side of historical characters. Their actors are but lay figures whose names stand for political ab- stractions. The ordinary voter at the polling-booth frequently cares more for the human side of the candidate than for his political views, and for the boy the 9 130 TEACHING OF HISTORY historical character must first be a human being before his moves in the game of statecraft will excite interest. It is commonplace to say that biography is an open gateway to history, but it is perhaps not always realised that unless the biography is made, in parts at any rate, extremely personal, it is for the boy not much less abstract than the ordinary historical narrative. 1 Of especial value in this connexion are any facts that we can ascertain about the childhood and youth of historical characters, as these are nearer to our pupils' sympathies. In some cases a little imagination is necessary. It is easy to imagine the political echoes that found their way into the nursery of Edward III. His attendants with long faces must have talked to one another of the crushing defeat at Bannockburn, and have whispered that some one's incompetence was to blame. As he grew into boyhood the young prince must have realised that his father was despised by the more sturdy of his subjects, that he had a knack of choosing the wrong friends and that he was treated with scant regard by his wife ; and he must early have made up his mind that, at any cost, when the time came he would establish his authority in his country and make himself master in his own house. In each fresh chapter the text-books bring to the front fresh personages who appear on the scene as having success or notoriety. It is the genesis of this success that illuminates the situation, and it is this that we must try to give. Boys will be far more interested in the relations between 1 An excellent series of biographies for school use is to be found in the series History in Biography, edited by Miss Beatrice Lees. The volumes are of unequal merit, but they are sympathetically written and abound in interesting detail. ON CONCRETE ILLUSTRATION 131 Queen Mary and Elizabeth if they know something of their childhood ; if they realise their relative ages, on what occasions they were together in early life, where they lived, and what they were doing during the later years of Henry VIII. and the reign of Edward VI. Henry VIII.'s wives, if nothing more than a series of names, too often appear to boys as the nearest approach to an after-dinner jest that the text-book allows itself. Yet once detail is given they are interesting personalities. There is real pathos in the life of Catherine of Aragon and in her treatment by her husband, and unless the proper facts as to the characters and family connexions of Anne Boleyn and Jane Seymour are known, it is difficult to appreciate the varying religious and political outlooks of Mary, Elizabeth, and Edward VI. In many cases it is through the personalities of great actors other than the kings (who often are only fit to appear as incidents in the lives of their own subjects) that we reach the inner history of movements. It is impossible to understand the early Church without some knowledge of the lives of Dunstan, Anselm, Becket, and Grossetete ; or the working of Feudalism without an acquaintanceship with men like Robert of Bellme, Hubert Walter, Hubert de Burgh, and Simon de Montfort. The ladies too have been unduly neglected. Sometimes a long- lived and sturdy queen will give unity and connexion to a series of rapidly shifting scenes. Margaret of Anjou is a good example. During a period when political parties were being formed and reformed with startling rapidity, and leaders were suffering defeat and death or retiring into obscurity with the most thought- less indifference to the feelings of the twentieth-century boy who was doomed to learn the list of their victories 132 TEACHING OF HISTORY and reverses, the figure of Margaret stands out like a landmark. A line of time placed on the blackboard and entered in the boys' notebooks will bring this home and will show how she was actively engaged through the whole of this dreary period, and outlived most of her friends and foes. MARGARET OF ANJOU : Is married to Henry VI. . Is in opposition to Duke of York and Warwick. Attempts to arrest Earl of Salisbury. \ Summons Parliament at Coventry. J Flees to Harlech, then to Scotland. After Towton escapes to Scotland again. 1430 1431 H3S 1440 1447 1450 I4SS 1459 1460 1461 Joan of Arc burned, crowned at Paris. Bedford dies. Henry VI. Gloucester and Beaufort die. Suffolk murdered. Henry VI. ill. Prince Edward born. ist St. Albans. Somerset killed. Blore Heath. Northampton. Wakefield. Duke of York killed. Mortimer's Cross. 2nd St. Albans. Towton. ON CONCRETE ILLUSTRATION 133 Goes to Louis XI. for help, and returns to Scotland with troops. After Hexham is abroad for 7 years in poverty. Is reconciled to Warwick Taken prisoner after Tewkesbury and paraded in Edward's triumph. Is released from prison . Dies in France in poverty 1462 1464 1465 1470 1471 '475 1476 1478 1480 1482 1483 1485 Edward IV. marries El. Woodville. Hexham. Edward captures Henry VI. Clarence and Warwick invade Eng- land. Edward IV. to Flanders. Edward defeats and kills Warwick at Barnet. Margaret defeated at Tewkesbury. Henry VI. dies in Tower. Clarence executed. Edward IV. dies. Richard III. Bosworth. Edward V. Almost all the incidents in Margaret's career that are entered on this table are of an adventurous kind, and her courage and enterprise never fail to prove attractive. Less exciting but of greater importance to an under- standing of his period is the life of Burleigh. A section of the boy's notebook may well be reserved for him. It is suggested that the left-hand page may be occupied by a line of time, and that the opposite page may be filled with quotations, references, and expansions of details, and further facts about his life. The following extract taken from such a notebook will make this clear : 134 TEACHING OF HISTORY 1520 Burleigh born. Field of Cloth of Gold. Father a substantial squire and favourite at Court : gets money from monastery funds. At School at Grantham. 1535 At St. John's College, Cambridge. Hired bell-ringers to call him at four in morning. Greek scholar. Friend of Cheke, afterwards tutor to Edward VI. 1540 1541 At Gray's Inn. 1542 Disputes with chaplains at Court and wins Henry's favour. 1547 At Pinkie. 1548 Secretary to Somerset. 1 549 Cecil keeps very quiet. When Somerset goes to Tower all his friends imprisoned except Cecil. *55 Now living at Wimbledon and at Cannon Row, Westminster. Secretary of State. Carries out wishes of Council without imposing his own views. 1551 "The realm cannot be rich whose coin is base"; but he puts through the debasement of the coinage. 1552 42 Articles referred by Cranmer to Cecil. 1 553 ^ s "ill" when Northumberland wishes to exclude Mary from succession ; but he had to sign document at last Afterwards excuses himself to Mary. 1554 Conforms, as a Catholic. 1555 In Parliament for Lincolnshire. 1556 In Elizabeth's confidence and manages her business affairs. 1557 1558 Appointed Secretary of State under Elizabeth. 1559 ON CONCRETE ILLUSTRATION 135 Hard worker except at meals, when he chatted wittily, but never of business. Played no games ; not sportsman. Maxims for his son : " Beware of being surety for thy best friends : he that payeth another man's debts seeketh his own decay." " Be sure to keep some great man thy friend, but trouble him not with trifles ; compliment him often with many yet small gifts." " Towards thy superiors be humble yet generous ; with thine equals familiar yet respectful ; towards thine inferiors show much humanity and some familiarity, as to bow the body, stretch forth the hand, and to uncover the head." 1552. Cecil's note as to question "Whether the King's Majesty shall enter into the aid of the Emperor." Answer : He shall. 1. The King is bound by the treaty, and if he will be helped by the treaty he must do his part. 2. If he do not aid, the Emperor is like to ruin, and conse- quently the House of Burgundy come to the French possession, which is perilous to England, and herein the greatness of the French King is dreadful. 3. The French King brings the Turk into Christendom. 4. If the Emperor is forced to come to terms with the French King the danger is greater, (a) the Emperor's offence for lack of aid ; (6) the French King's enterprises towards us. 5. Merchants be so evil used that some remedy must be sought. Answer: He shall not. 1. The aid is too expensive. 2. If the Emperor should die we should be alone in the war. 3. The German Protestants may be offended. 4. Our friendship with France may improve. A middle way. So to help the Emperor that we may also join with other Christian Princes and conspire against the French King as a common enemy to Christendom. Reason for this. The cause is common, and therefore there will be more parties to it. Reason against The treaty must be with so many parties that it can be neither speedily nor secretly concluded. (To this the King adds in his boyish hand.) Conclusion. The treaty to be made with the Emperor and by the Emperor's means with other princes. 1 ' Quoted from the memorandum in Sir William Cecil's handwriting by Martin A. S. Hume. The Great Lord Burleigh, 1898, p. 33. 136 TEACHING OF HISTORY Set out on a moderate scale, the complete line of time for Burleigh, with fragments of detail on the opposite page, will occupy some six or eight sides of the boy's notebook. Some judgment is, of course, required in deciding whether certain events shall be entered under this heading or shall be placed in a more general sequence. The value of the detail brought in under the heading of " Cecil's note " needs no comment. It gives an opportunity from the personal standpoint of going into the political problems of the period, and also affords a good illustration of Burleigh's laborious habit of considering every side of a question. For working purposes one instance of this is enough. Some teachers might prefer to select their instance a few years later on, in connexion with a more important problem ; but perhaps it is well to indicate Burleigh's character early in the proceedings. With small boys it is often desirable to ask them to compare in their minds two personalities to whom they are introduced. For instance, in the reign of Elizabeth, as soon as Mary Queen of Scots comes on the stage as an important actor the class may be told that at the end of a few lessons they will be asked to write a short essay on the respective characters of the Queens. This procedure gives them a private standpoint from which to observe the facts placed before them, and such a standpoint is the surest aid to attention. Many adults fall asleep during a dull sermon, but there are few who could not keep awake and attend if they were asked to make a private report upon the ability or the reverse of the preacher ; if, in fact, they were given some reason for attending. In the early stages it is not of much use to give this injunction in general terms without first ON CONCRETE ILLUSTRATION 137 explaining that a general view of character can be attained only by observing the actions of any one in detail. This can be brought home by a little personal allusion. "Jones, if you wish to make up your mind about Brown's character, how do you begin ? " Make it clear that the only method is to watch Brown on various occasions and notice if he speaks the truth, if he cribs, if he is punctual, if he is hard-working, if he is generous, and so on, and by a generalisation from these details to reach some view as to his character. The application to the personages in the lesson can now be made. What are you going to look out for in Elizabeth and Mary ? Instances where they tell the truth or lie, where they are merciful or the reverse, where they are stingy or extravagant, where they excite enthusiasm in their followers or fail to do so. The danger of premature generalisation must also be guarded against. When the Lords of Congregation rebelled, Elizabeth helped them, only to vow, after they had been beaten, that she did not. " Brown, what does this tell us about Elizabeth's character ? " Brown, with great promptness, " She was a liar, sir." " But, Brown, yesterday you told me that you were not eating in class when you obviously were. Am I on that account to take it for granted that you never tell the truth ? " Consternation and collapse of Brown, and occasion for a short homily upon the iniquity of drawing conclusions too soon. It is a common maxim that boys should never be given the characters of historical personages, but should work them out for themselves from the facts of conduct. Like so many other maxims of teaching, this only indicates a mode of procedure which is useful and may be employed when suitable. In certain cases the 138 TEACHING OF HISTORY character of a prominent actor, e.g. 01 Charles I., may be the key to the whole situation, and unless some clue is given to it at the beginning, or a very premature generalisation is permitted and afterwards amplified, the inwardness and the connexion of events will be but poorly understood. Unless care be taken, no portion of the text-book symbolism tends to be more abstract than that of chronology. It must never be forgotten that the boy's sense of time is very weak. That of the adult has been educated by the experience of events covering a stretch of thirty years, while the boy's life of memory averages only ten. If his power of casting back is weak, his power of casting forward is even weaker. An imposition that has to be shown up in a few days is dismissed lightly from the mind in the vague hope that something may turn up before that remote period arrives. In the same spirit a man might readily promise to meet a liability in ten years' time. The relation of the history teacher to chronology is twofold : it is for him both a subject to teach and an instrument to train with. Unless the pupil's time-sense has been educated, the facts of history, which cannot be divorced from their chronological connexion, will be unintelligible to him, and it is the function of chronology to give this education. Other subjects in the curriculum, music for instance, are of use in this connexion, but the chronological element in history is the most important. Two not uncommon practices on the part of history teachers militate against the growth of the time-sense. Boys are often rapidly transferred from one isolated period to another. In one term or year they are working at a period of Roman History, in the next they are ON CONCRETE ILLUSTRATION 139 introduced to the Reformation in England, and this may be followed by a dose of Feudalism under the Norman kings. Or again, the boy may complete a period of Roman History, and then for purposes of an external examination suddenly be transferred to a period of English History, while in his mind the intervening stretch of years is left a blank. Such a treatment of the sequence of events is more likely to disorganise what time-sense may be there than to develop it. This error of arrangement is, however, easily recognised, and the remedy is easy to find. More serious because more elusive is the habit of treating the facts of history as conveying ethical maxims, and in this way of confounding the present and the past : of presenting together the characters of Cincinnatus, Sir Thomas More, and General Gordon as examples of conduct good for all time. In this way the idea of change in time is weakened, the difference between the then and the now is concealed, and the erroneous notion is fostered that there is no true history, no development. Historical novels can be great offenders in this respect. Their errors of fact may be forgiven them indeed the correcting of these is a good exercise but the false atmosphere that surrounds the events, equally untrue for all periods and equally serviceable for all, since it is not aggressively modern, does not serve to impress deeply upon the reader the great gulf that separates age from age. It is easy to avoid these errors of treatment, and a more positive method is within reach. Chronology can be made concrete, the flow of time can be stated in terms of space, and through the device of the line of time the chief events of 10, 100, or 1000 years can be 140 TEACHING OF HISTORY depicted, and their relative position made clear at a glance. This device is too well known to need much description in detail, but it is often neglected, and a few words may be said as to its value. It is as easy o over-use the blackboard as to neglect it ; indeed no teaching is worse than that which plasters the blackboard with names and dates which are in the text-book and can be consulted there, or if they are not, can be dictated to the boys for insertion in their note- books. For much writing on the blackboard takes a long time and prevents the teacher from paying full attention to his class : it should therefore be restricted to essentials. In every lesson, however, that is con- cerned with a series of events a few names and catch- words on the blackboard are necessary, and it is fre- quently advisable to arrange these in a line of time. To facilitate this there should be on the left-hand edge of the blackboard a line in white paint divided at intervals of six inches. These divisions may represent i year, 10 years, or 100 years according to the scale of events treated of, and it is as easy to jot down a short list of events in connexion with this line as to do so independently of it. In a lesson on the Parliaments of Charles I. the catchwords on the blackboard might be as follows : 1625. ist Parliament. Insufficient grants for war. 1626. 2nd Parliament. Impeachment of Buckingham. 1628. 3rd Parliament. Petition of Right. Assassination of Buckingham. 1629. Protests against illegal taxation. Dissolution of Parliament. 1640. Short Parliament (4th). Long Parliament (sth). 1641. Triennial Act These catchwords, as they stand, would be of use in ON CONCRETE ILLUSTRATION 141 aiding the boy's attention, but it takes no longer to write them as follows, and the arrangement brings out the meaning of the whole situation far better : 1620 1625 1626 1627 1628 1629 1630 1640 1641 Charles I. ist Parliament. Insufficient grants for war. 2nd Parliament. Impeachment of Buckingham. 3rd Parliament. Petition of Right. Assassination of Buckingham. Protests against illegal taxation. Dissolution of Parliament. Short Parliament (4th). Long Parliament (5th). Triennial Act. Or again, consider the career of Mary Queen of Scots when set out as follows : 1540 1542 '545 1548 1550 1555 Mary born. Sent to France. 142 TEACHING OF HISTORY 1558 Married to Dauphin. 1559 Henry of France dies. 1560 1561 1565 1566 1567 1568 1570 IS7S 1580 1587 Francis dies. Mary returns to Scotland. Marries Darnley. Murder of Rizzio. Prince James born. Murder of Darnley. Mary marries Bothwell. Imprisoned at Lochleven. Mary in England. Imprisoned at Bolton. Beheaded at Fotheringay. 1590 If the events are spaced out in this manner it is brought home to the pupil that Mary was in France during all her early years, that she was Queen of France for a very short time, that her residence in Scotland as Queen was short, although as far as action and excite- ment went extremely full, while for nearly twenty years, almost half her life, she was in England, either in prison or under close surveillance. A mere knowledge of the dates does not give to the full the sense of proportion or of relative duration. Indeed an extensive knowledge of ON CONCRETE ILLUSTRATION 143 dates is neither necessary nor desirable ; with a few land- marks the boy must of course be familiar, but during the term comparatively little stress should be laid upon memory work of this kind. Any teacher of experience knows that there are boys who can rattle off dates glibly, but who, if asked, take time to consider whether a certain event took place before or after another. Memorising of dates may therefore be postponed until immediately before the terminal or yearly examination. A very little practice will get the teacher into the habit of frequently using such lines of time when at work. In many cases they should be entered in the boys' note- books, and often it is well that they should be taken down as they are put upon the blackboard. If a rule be made that boys are to take down everything of a formal nature that is placed on the blackboard, the teacher will be stimulated to prepare his blackboard work with some care, and will avoid using it to no purpose ; but this is perhaps a counsel of perfection. It is often of the greatest use to have permanently on the class-room wall a line of time showing the main events in the whole period taken during the term. This can be filled in as the term proceeds, and lends itself to rapid recapitulation ; it can be placed upon a strip of blackboard cloth 8 ft. long, and the use of different coloured chalks to denote different types of events increases both its clearness and its suggestiveness. Genealogies, or a complicated group of relationships, are to the average boy quite as abstract as chronology ; and the genealogical table of convention as often used can be very little illuminating. The following table, for example, is not calculated to make a boy's pulse quicken with the romance of kingship and of royal vicissitudes : 144 TEACHING OF HISTORY Glo 1 _ 0.2 II ww SEE S<2 1*1 S*.3 ri 5 2 O n * &s a )<*> bfl "> & J Lan f Y E"3 IP .3 3 S o E S ?, o -~2 CO C O .g > ja ti OH II III OP - H "! dw.a o ^ W *j P _g H -! 42 ! 3 o _PS. "S rt u F Is ?i U iii W ^ ri t s s* rt s SI I o^S ON CONCRETE ILLUSTRATION 145 In no period of English History is it more necessary to understand the relationships of the various characters, and in none is it harder to do so. The death struggle of the feudal system in England has in it so many elements of real importance, that in spite of its petty complexity it is impossible to suggest its omission from the school course. Indeed if there were no other reason it would be a sufficient warrant for its retention that many of Shakespeare's Historical Plays treat of this period. Yet, unless the genealogies are understood, the sequence of events means little, while a thorough grip of the table given above is not easy for the average boy to attain without a great expenditure of time and effort on the part of both pupil and master. Some general remarks upon the treatment of such schemes are not out of place. Genealogical tables should be in the text-book, and indeed are to be found in all good ones ; but this is not enough. They are there for revision purposes only, and their first presentation to the boy should be on a larger scale. A convenient method is to write the genealogy clearly on a blackboard sheet and to let it hang in view of the class during every lesson. No pressure should be put upon the pupils to commit it to memory until the examination is approaching ; even the attempt to revise the important relationships " without book " at the beginning of the hour takes a long time if the weaker boys are attended to, and this time can be more profitably spent. With the table before their eyes it is not difficult to revise briefly. Yet this apparently mechanical process demands that the boys shall understand how to read a genealogy, and the writer has on several occasions been surprised to find that boys even of fourteen make ludicrous mistakes and 10 146 TEACHING OF HISTORY find a great difficulty in describing relationships as thus set forth. Assuming that some preliminary drill has been given, the lesson can begin by a few questions on relationships. What relation was Henry IV. to the Black Prince ? Was Henry V. to the Earl of Somerset, to the Duke of Somerset? Was Richard Duke of York to Henry VI.? Was Edmund Mortimer to Richard Duke of York ? Was Catherine of France to Henry V.'s brothers ? These questions appear trivial ; a short ex- perience shows that they are not unnecessary. When the table is there, and is understood, even a stupid boy should be able to answer questions as to the relative validity of the claims to the throne of Edward IV. and of Henry VI., or of Richard III. and Henry VII., and will see at a glance that the birth of a son to Henry VI. made civil war almost inevitable. If the table is not in evidence, the chances in favour of wrong answers are great, and valuable time is wasted. The genealogy given above needs to be supplemented by others on a larger scale such as the following : ON CONCRETE ILLUSTRATION 147 ill 3 t; S 4) ^- t-i c t-l - - 1 3 Q o PS v. I S S S 6 >3 D !>^ ** |wgW" "WT3 o^3 " ^ *j > ill !! M H N a o , If 55 " 2 l -c/2 b*1J S-SJJS ri VM fc dmund Beaufor eated Marquess rset 1442, Duk Somerset 1448 d at St. Albans 1 Ed So O 3 O bfl fe S -a -ijljf ^&H - M - ~ t3 illaiiK g JS-2-TJ g-g ^ ~T3 ^ 2 gj >-. O ^ u - *J >J CO ^| I IF' 3 i-i "O . rt fl vO _W 2 12 I 4 8 TEACHING OF HISTORY On this table exercises of the same type can be given, and human interest can be introduced if the teacher runs over it rapidly and gives a few details about each personage, thus bringing home to the class that the Beauforts were a united family and an important factor in the politics of the time. Here the Dictionary of National Biography is a great stand-by if the teacher is fortunate enough to have access to it. For entering in the boys' notebooks a simplified form of such a genealogy as the first one given is desirable. EDWARD III. Duke of Clarence. Blanche = John of Gaunt = K. Swynford. Duke )f York. V v M sfl & Henry IV. Henry V. Henry VI. in ai V d il WO Richard )uke of York (by mother). 3 Rich Duke of Henry VII. ard York. (by mother). I Edward IV. Edward IV. Richard III. Simplifications of this kind are also desirable in a more formal scheme, to avoid overcrowding. The following is a good example and is of additional interest because it illustrates in a striking manner the violent end that was the lot of those who had any claim to the throne. With this genealogy on the wall there are many opportunities of spending a few moments over the deaths of the Poles and the Buckinghams. ON CONCRETE ILLUSTRATION 149 c ?" M o s .1 * " < tg.S 2 V) 3 -c O r _i^ D 6 oo 'gvO rt^g ^ rtT J" r-t . 13 13 2 5 i D C V5 m " S Q .2 b/),^ rj -^ff R qj s 3 ^ T3 II C HH u B"S g S o J oi ^ f^^ 1 "Q, ^"g ~ C 3 " x-O J3 pq ^ rt c % yq 41 C rt J2 >-i S S rt I "o gj | | llJvd rt **! rt o II H ^' 1 i ^* * r ^ ^ o o * w -a^ s ^ ^> (3 H -v> & ||^ | ^ rt o .tJ S (ij "^ rvi ^ M g cn S 1 " " ^"''S ^ ^ II S O "rt PH 3 f 1 , <4 JP Q 'B r'i-5 1 SSg ^^ J"" >'! > ^ w*" sg Q ii T .is nJ <^ T3 S >- W3 t. 2 rt ii , , . ... _i o g So * JJv- . _. *o a* ^ i'- *t3 D O aj Q 9 3 *3 Cdl> ^W ?. > o 3 3. < fcV 3 i rt " ^ Q g rt C a x 1-1 Q W W J3 2 V >H o ~l S O o TSV.^'S si W > M~ rt _ 'S 5 "ON "iii ii rt G H "rt ^^ C > W^f-v, ^ ai C U J 'J3SI3UIOC IO ^ H M .. <~ t^ !^_* .^ O/) W ^H O <** S9Mtl(T *ci irntiwarr L*JJ 'P ~~1 ^. B v fl n^ So oio w S'S ? O u 3 rt sai g-i ^ A *o *J _-Q =| i) , JS C 8 **3 *rt S a ^2 5 *^ --^ 3 Q e J^a, W II 3^ g ^? S rt Q S or j S*s 5 "* R p ) o o i$o TEACHING OF HISTORY It remains to consider the most obvious method of concrete illustration, the use of maps and pictures. For all history teaching an outline map of England or of Great Britain and Western Europe on a blackboard sheet is highly desirable. On this the routes of armies and the journeys of princes can rapidly be sketched and distributions of population can be indicated. No word of mouth explanation will bring home to a class the reasons for the Earl of Warwick's influence in the fifteenth century so well as a map of England on which his own estates and those of his relatives are indicated by bold crosses in chalk ; the life history of Margaret of Anjou cannot be summarised so effectively as by an itinerary drawn on the map, with dates affixed, of her journeys between France, England, and Scotland. Further illustration of this is unnecessary, but it may be feared that the ease of the method has not ensured its common use. Of the employment of portraits and other pictorial illustrations it is not possible to speak at length in this book, and the general remarks that can be made on the subject are few. Here it may suffice to note that there should be a good supply of portraits both in the pupils' text-books and source-books and on the walls of the class-room, and that the pupils should be made to study them carefully. Much interesting work may be done in connexion with the coats-of-arms and insets of various kinds to be found in old engravings, and these oppor- tunities should not be neglected. In recent school-books the number of portrait illustrations has been increased and their quality has improved ; but the teacher is often hampered by the omission on the part of the writer to state the source from which the illustration was taken. CHAPTER VII THE ORGANISATION OF HISTORY TEACHING WHERE is the time to come from for the methods here recommended ? This question, which doubtless occurred to the reader during the first few chapters, has by this time been definitely formulated in his mind, and the question is a pertinent one. Exercises have been suggested whose working and revision with a class may easily occupy the whole of a preparation hour and of a school hour; the average number of hours devoted to history in the school year is as a rule not more than 72, and sometimes only half this number, while not un- frequently a stretch of from 200 to 400 years has to be covered in the time. When periods of this length are in question, merely to get through the text-book with some explanatory remarks and to make the class write a few papers will tax the strength of even a methodical teacher. Before proceeding to answer our question it may be well to pass in review a few educational positions that commend themselves to the common sense of those whose experience of boys is wide. The subjects of instruction in school are not taught in order that at the conclusion of the course a boy may have an expert knowledge of them. This is rendered 'Si 152 TEACHING OF HISTORY impossible, even if it were desirable, both by the number of subjects taught and by the boy's instinct of self- preservation which apparently leads him to forget almost everything that he learns as soon as the examination is over. 1 It follows from this that school studies must be looked upon as a preparation for or prolegomena to work that is to come later, whether this is the expert study of a special subject for professional or scientific purposes, or the general conduct of life in a business calling. In consequence all attempt at giving a complete presentation of any subject must be relinquished. The teaching should be sufficiently wide for the pupil to gather some idea of the scope of the subject and the relation in which it stands to other subjects, and sufficiently intensive to introduce him to the methods of reasoning or of manipulation peculiar to the subject. It should thus give him some mental training while at the same time adding to his stock of ideas. The function of the teacher is here an excessively delicate one, since he has to use his subject as an instrument for training his pupil, and has at the same time to preserve its scientific aspect. If one side of this process is neglected, or if one side is unduly pressed, the subject may become valueless as a school study. In attacking a problem of this kind it is above all essential to have had a considerable experi- ence of the class-room, to have acquired that sixth sense of school-masters, a feeling for the aspect of a subject that makes boys think and work with zest ; and it is precisely upon these questions that the specialist in the 1 It may surprise those who have never taught to hear that a boy, and by no means an exceptionally stupid boy, may fail after the summer holidays to remember not merely the details, but even the outline of the work done in a school study during the previous year. ORGANISATION OF HISTORY TEACHING 153 subject whose acquaintance with boys is small is inclined to lay down the law with assurance. A pamphlet by Professor Tout, recently printed by the Historical As- sociation, affords a good illustration of this, and a brief consideration of some of the conclusions reached in it will clear the ground for the argument of this chapter. 1 Professor Tout's argument may be given briefly in his own words : " The ideal of the teacher should be so to plan his historical course as to give his pupils a broad sweep of historical development, and not to drill them in the details of any of the corners of history." " We must therefore in the necessity of the case rigidly limit our- selves to outlines and definitely set our face against the detailed study of special periods. If we do not, we fail to accomplish the most primary objects for which all historical instruction is given." The period differs from the outline only in conveying more detail. " A period has to be got up in a text-book, which differs from smaller text-books only in being more detailed and therefore more wearisome," and Professor Tout ques- tions the value of "a few lurid patches of detailed knowledge in the midst of a dark background of profound ignorance." 2 1 Outlines v. Periods, by Professor T. F. Tout, Professor of Mediaeval and Modern History in the University of Manchester, 1907. 2 Among the advantages that Professor Tout imagines to be claimed for the "period" are the following: (i) It is more interesting. (2) It prevents superficiality. (3) It is easier to teach. (4) It is the easiest way to score marks in examinations. (5) It enables one to show the relations of cause and effect. (6) " It gives the scholar that drilling in detailed knowledge which trains the mind almost as much as a course of irregular verbs or of syntactical rules." These, it must be understood, are not Professor Tout's own arguments, indeed he proceeds to 154 TEACHING OF HISTORY Now no one is likely to deny that a course in history should convey a notion of the broad sweep of historical development, but there seems to be no adequate reason for concluding either that we must definitely set our faces against the detailed study of special periods, or that "a period must be got up in a text-book which differs from other text -books only in being more detailed." For the moment, however, these two points may be left on one side. The main argument seems to be that an outline of general history should be given, and in this connexion the programmes of work prescribed for French and for Prussian schools are alluded to with approbation. It will therefore be well to examine these programmes in detail. demolish them. But he evidently considers them plausible, and they are therefore full of interest as indicating the general attitude towards educational reasoning of the type of academic mind that in the long run often controls our school curricula. Of these arguments i and 2 may be passed. 3 is an extraordinary state- ment unless the definition of a period given by Professor Tout (and quoted above) is adopted. 4 is correct only on the assumption that no examiners understand or are competent to learn their business. 5 may be passed. 6 is valuable as a key to the writer's mind. Surely no one has ever claimed that a drilling in detailed knowledge trains the mind. Not even the most abandoned advocate of classical study for its formal value has ever argued that " a course of irregular verbs or of syntactical rules " trained the mind per se. The application of the rules in worrying out a text or in writing composition may do so, but not the drilling in detail. ORGANISATION OF HISTORY TEACHING 155 SYLLABUS OF HISTORY FOR PRUSSIAN SECONDARY SCHOOLS Class. No. of Hours Weekly, VI. V. IV. III. B III. A II. B II. A I. B I. A Biographies from German History. Stories from the legends of classical antiquity : Greek, up to Solon ; Roman, up to the War with Pyrrhus. Greek History up to the death of Alexander the Great. Roman History up to the death of Augustus. The Roman Empire under the Great Emperors. German History from the first contact of the Germans with the Romans up to the end of the Middle Ages. German History from the close of the Middle Ages up to Frederick the Great, with particular attention to the History of Brandenburg and of Prussia. German and Prussian History from Frederick the Great to the present day. The chief events of Greek History up to the death of Alexander the Great, and of Roman History up to Augustus, with references to Oriental History. Revision of the chief events and dates of German History. The most important of the Roman Emperors. German History up to the end of the Thirty Years' War. Revision of the chief events and dates in ancient history. The history of Prussia and of Germany from the end of the Thirty Years' War to the present day. With all the periods of modern History, European history is to be taught so far as it is necessary for the understanding of German history. Extract from the instructions to teachers : " For the teaching of history from the IV. Class to the Upper I. the following apparatus is necessary : Text-books providing a continuous narrative, a historical atlas, a scheme of the dates that have to be learned, which may also serve as a basis for revision, pictures and other suitable matter to give life to the pupils' historical ideas. " As far as is possible the pupils must be practised in the history lesson in giving in their own words a connected narrative of what they have learned." i 5 6 TEACHING OF HISTORY SYLLABUS OF HISTORY FOR FRENCH SECONDARY SCHOOLS Class. No. of Hours Weekly. I Oth 9th 8th 7 th 6th 5th 4th 3rd 2nd 1st Stories of the great personalities and great events of the national history. Stories of the great personalities and great events of the national history. From the beginnings of French History up to 1610. 1610-1871. History of ancient civilisations : Egypt, Chaldsea, the Jews, the Phoenicians, the Persians. Greek History up to Alexander the Great. Roman History up to Theodosius. History of France from the earliest times up to the end of the Hundred Years' War. The important elements of European History during this period. The Renaissance up to Louis XVI. 1791-1889. Oriental History as in the 6th class. History of Greece up to its conquest. French History up to Louis XIV., with particular reference to European politics, and English History up to 1714. Roman History, from the earliest times up to the tenth century. Modern History, from Louis XV. up to the Treaty of Paris. Philosophy. European History, from the Congress of Vienna to the present day. Method suggested for classes up to the ith. Short sum- maries to be dictated. Simple stories to be narrated. Short lectures. COMPLETE SYLLABUS FOR THE 7TH CLASS (AVERAGE AGE ABOUT 12) Louis XIII. and Richelieu. The siege of Rochelle. Execution of Montmorency. The war against the Spanish. Conde at Rocroi. ORGANISATION OF HISTORY TEACHING i 57 Distress at the time of the Fronde. Charity of St. Vincent de Paul. Louis XIV. The Court at Versailles. Colbert, the merchants, the artisans, and the peasants. Turenne in Alsace, Jean Bart. The revocation of the Edict of Nantes. The Duke of Anjou proclaimed King of Spain. The last years of Louis XIV. Distress in the kingdom. Louis XV. Maurice de Saxe at Fontenoy. Dupleix at Pondicherry. Montcalm in Canada. Louis XVI. and Turgot. Franklin and Voltaire. La Fayette in America. The fight of the Belle Poule. Death of la Pe*rouse. The Constituent Assembly. The deputies playing tennis. Mirabeau and the Marquis of Deux-Bre'ze'. The taking of the Bastille. The night of the 4th of August. The festival of the Federation. The flight of the King and his return to Paris. The voluntary enlistments. Proclamation of the Republic. Valmy. The National Convention. The Death of the Girondins. Carnot, the Republican Armies. Jourdain at Fleurus. The Directory. Bonaparte at Arcole; in Egypt. Masse*na at Zurich. The Consulate. Crossing of the Great St. Bernard. Desaix at Marengo. Moreau at Hohenlinden. The Empire. Napoleon Emperor. Austerlitz. Jena. Napoleon and Alexander of Russia at Tilsit. The King of Rome. The retreat from Russia. General Elbe" at the Be're'sina. The conscripts of 1813 at Lutzen. Farewell to Fontainebleau. The hundred days. The Guard at Waterloo. Napoleon at St. Helena. Comparison between the frontiers of France in 1800 and in 1815. France from 1815 to 1848. The French in the War of Greek Independence. Taking of Algiers. Taking of Constantine. Bugeaud and Abd-el-Kader. The French in the War of Belgian Inde- pendence. The first steam-boats and the first railways. 158 TEACHING OF HISTORY The Revolution of 1848. Universal Suffrage. Lamartine at the Hotel de Ville. The Coup can be obtained separately, 1 and should be placed on the walls of the class-room, since it gives in a very concrete form a bird's-eye view of London, showing clearly the city walls and gates, the Tower, the Steelyard, the Abbey, Westminster Hall, the mansions of historic personages, and many other elements of detail. In no other way is it so easy to give boys a sense of familiarity with the spots where so many scenes of English history were enacted. 1 Panorama of London, Westminster, and Southivark as they appeared A.D. 1543, from a drawing by Anty van den Wyngaerde. Sutherland Collection. Bodleian Library (A. & C. Black, price is.). CHAPTER XI THE TEACHER OF HISTORY PERHAPS it is not fair to blame a nation which values material prosperity highly if in its organisation of educa- tion it lays the greatest stress on the material side. Money is generally forthcoming for school -buildings, care is frequently lavished on dietary, while to the teacher are devoted only the money and the care that happen to remain over. As a natural consequence of this, both the salaries and the social standing of teachers have tended to be lower than in the case of other professions ; as a further consequence teaching has frequently been ill carried out, and, as inevitably, a great scepticism of and dislike for education has filled the British mind. This scepticism has often been justified. A British parent in business knows that his son's teacher is in receipt of a low salary, that his prospects are poor, and the security of his position small ; he argues, not without reason, that in an expanding Empire the opportunities of earning a livelihood are so numerous that able men of spirit will not for long remain in a pur- suit which offers so few material attractions. Although prepared to grant that some men will teach because they are interested in education and wish in this way to 222 THE TEACHER OF HISTORY 223 devote themselves to social service, he will argue that the State cannot count on manning one of its services solely by enthusiastic volunteers ; indeed, he may point out that even in the Church, which is supposed to appeal to motives of a special kind, the quality of the worker has tended to deteriorate as the value of tithe has fallen. Consequently, although he has no very definite ideas as to the right qualifications of a teacher, he continues to be sceptical and to grudge the money that he is forced to contribute towards what he is apt to regard as an organised fraud. He therefore welcomes the more material element in the organisation, the army of inspectors, the array of scheduled reports, as apparent checks upon inefficiency in teaching. And yet it should be evident that before teaching can be organised and pressed into shape it must be there to organise, that before ill-regulated teaching-power can be disciplined into form by an external agency it must be there to dis- cipline, that before the enthusiasm of the specialist can be curbed and brought into line with practical exigencies it must be there to curb. No organisation, no inspection, no repressive force can be productive of good unless it has as material to work upon, and indeed finds opposed to it, a vital force which we may call teaching-insight, which will react against the efforts made to repress it and will gain strength through this reaction, which can be guided into sound channels and may be pruned and clipped with advantage, but which never can be produced by organisation from without. This tendency of the community to lay stress upon the mechanical side of education at the expense of the spiritual element is perhaps easier to justify for the traditional subjects of instruction than for those recently 224 TEACHING OF HISTORY introduced. In the early stages of Latin teaching, as Latin teaching used to be conceived, much of the work is of a mechanical nature. Paradigms have to be learned and rules applied, and while an underpaid drudge will not do good work, he may lay a fair mechanical basis for what is to follow. Similarly in the early stages of mathe- matical teaching, although a teacher who has no insight, and who teaches only because his abilities will not permit him to earn a scanty living in any other pursuit, will waste much of his pupils' time, he will none the less drill them in certain processes and formulae which are not without value. When we turn to historical and literary subjects the case is different. It is in connexion with these as opposed to pure linguistic that teachers are now for the first time compelled to face real educational issues. With history, as with any other subject in which ideas rather than symbolism and formulae are the chief element, the teacher's qualities and equipment are of the first importance. Unless he possesses insight it may be as misleading to estimate the progress of education by the number of schools and of inspectors as it would be to gauge the religious feeling of a community by the number of persons who pay pew rents. In history- teaching the teacher is introducing his pupils not to linguistic symbols or to conventional knowledge, but to ideas which really matter ; the exact method of present- ing these ideas and the exact process that the pupil is induced to perform upon them are of real importance ; there is no element that can be given stupidly without immediate and permanent loss ; there is no conception which may not be degraded if the imparting of it is entrusted to men whose grip of social factors is weak and THE TEACHER OF HISTORY 225 whose occupations out of school are trivial ; there is no room for the dull performance of hodman's work. The subject-matter of the teaching is human character and social progress ; as surely as the handling of it is good it will produce in the rising generation an intensification of social thought, as surely as it lacks inspiration it will tend to the deadening of such thought. With a subject- matter of this kind there is no middle way, and thus history - teaching requires in a marked degree the qualities which are found in all good teachers, and which can be dispensed with only when the matter of the subjects taught is conventional and unreal, standing in no close relationship to human life. What particular body of knowledge and what his- torical training is needed as well ? Is it, for example, essential that all history-teaching in middle forms should be given by specialists in history who teach little or nothing else, and who may therefore teach it to sets and not to forms ? This question does not concern history alone. The demand that subjects shall be taught properly produces an answering demand for specialists. Geography, taught on scientific lines, is asked for. " We must get a specialist in geography," say the school authorities. Similar pressure produces a demand for a history specialist, and soon a specialist in English literature will be asked for. As result the school tends to be converted into a system of set masters, each teaching his special subject, and the old " form " system, under which each master taught a good many subjects to the same boys and saw a good deal of them, tends to disappear. It may be asked if this tendency would not be a calamity if allowed to go to extremes. To teach sets only and to be confined to one subject is '5 226 TEACHING OF HISTORY probably narrowing to the teacher, and it also deprives the boy of that constant intercourse with one master which has often been productive of good, and which is especially valuable when a subject whose content may be of so intimate a nature as that of history is in question. In addition it is only with the form-master system that the unpremeditated and internal correlation of subjects can be carried out. The solution of the difficulty is a compromise which lays more or less stress on the grouping of a certain number of subjects under one teacher, and it may be hoped that this com- promise will approximate as far as possible to the form- master system. Naturally it would not be suggested that the same teacher should teach literary and mathe- matical subjects unless the conditions were exceptional, but there is no reason why with middle forms the same teacher should not teach history, geography, and English literature, or that a classic should not, in addition to some classics, teach history and English literature. Neither is there any reason why a man who has had a rigorous training in the classics should not take up history and teach it even though it is not one of his degree subjects. If it is urged that after his professional duties are over he has no time or energy to break fresh ground, this can be only because he is overworked, and the sooner such conditions of work are altered the better. It must be recognised that a system, which leaves assistant masters no time for self-culture, tends in the long run to waste the money of the tax-payers. It is impossible for teaching to remain efficient unless teachers have some leisure and the will to use it rightly. 1 1 It is also in place to note that one function of a course of professional training for teaching should be to introduce a THE TEACHER OF HISTORY 227 Therefore, although it is desirable to have at a school some specialists in history, 1 it is not essential for good teaching that the teacher must necessarily have specialised in history to the exclusion of other interests In any case the specialist will have to re-read his subject from the standpoint of school needs before he can teach it, and it is frequently an assistance to teaching if a competent man gets up a subject while engaged in school practice, as in these conditions the salient points and the elements of interest do not escape him. Our history teacher, then, besides a good knowledge of his subject, must have a suitable personality and a thoughtful outlook upon life, but this does not com- plete his equipment. He also needs a grip of method so that his practice may exhibit the utmost spontaneity working in connexion with a clearly planned mechanism. Such method is an addition to personality, and cannot fitly be contrasted with it, although this contrast is sometimes made by those who maintain that the teacher is of more value than the method, and the personality than the manner of teaching. The personality that admits of this contrast may be little more than char- acteristics of manner or the freshness and breeziness of youth, excellent qualities, no doubt, but not to be counted on as a possession for life, while the method that admits of this contrast can be little more than a lifeless mechanism, a dull arrangement or rearrangement of subject-matter. True personality involves elements of self-control, specialist in one subject to the literature and the methods of the other subjects which work in with his own to make a suitable group for school purposes. 1 The great increase in the number of graduates in history should make these easy to procure. 228 TEACHING OF HISTORY while 'true method involves that control of subject- matter which increases its meaning by giving it a new form. This control of ideas is not found without personality, and such a personality is not found without the control which renders method possible ; it is, indeed, increased by the constant effort to manipulate and present ideas so that the meaning which they convey shall be convincing and suggestive. There need be no fear that method of this kind will lead to rigidity. Method is more than a self-imposed mode of action ; it involves a daily revision, justification, and reimposition of the mode. In this it must be contrasted with mechanism which tends to be invariable, or is reconstructed only when its rigidity has led to disaster. Method, while it works on a basis of small elements of mechanism, com- bines and recombines them to suit the exigencies of the moment. Far from destroying initiative it actually fosters it. It is characteristic of mind that when it arranges restrictions for itself it tends to increase its own energy. The poet loves to arrange for himself an elaborate form of metre, and by his spontaneity rises superior to the self-imposed limitation, In truth the prison unto which we doom Ourselves, no prison is. and self-imposed form of this kind, which feeds the spontaneity that is to struggle against it, is the mark and the instrument of the good teacher. Method is not acquired in a day, and from the beginner in history-teaching comparatively little can be demanded. Straightforward exposition and examination is frequently all that he is capable of, and the attempt to do more may distract his attention from the class. His mind should THE TEACHER OF HISTORY 229 be stored with a knowledge of the possible varieties of method, but in the beginning he will do well to draw on his storehouse but little. It is when the first novelty of teaching has worn off that the necessity for method makes itself apparent. Teaching is a nerve-consuming process ; vitality of nerve soon fails, and if vitality of spirit is not cultivated, dullness and inefficiency are the result. For the teacher who has thoroughly settled down to routine, who has reached the stage at which the varieties of school experience seem to have exhausted themselves, the really serious struggle with the teaching life is beginning. If no effort is made the result easily may be that unimaginative process which is effective in producing examination results, but which inevitably destroys the educative and suggestive value of the subject. Where the teaching of such a subject as history, dealing with important factors of life and social progress, is concerned, it is of importance that it should not be entrusted to teachers who succumb to the influences of routine. 1 At all cost it must be taken away from those who refuse to undergo the stern discipline of form that the handling of important topics demands, at all cost it must be removed from the control of those who think that "it is the teacher who must generalise from and analyse facts." Teachers must be found who, guided by instinct or professional training, have learned to keep the presentation of their subject under continual 1 For some years to come the teacher of history will un- doubtedly have much to struggle against. He may at any time find himself working under a headmaster whose one idea is results in examination, or may have to prepare for inspection by an inspector who is unable to see farther than the "set-piece" lesson which can so easily be produced, but to the detriment of more subtle work. 230 TEACHING OF HISTORY control and to introduce the element of form when the subject-matter tends to be too attractive or too discursive, who realise that frequently their aim should be to make the work harder rather than easier for their pupils, that the road of rapid and superficial inference leads to mental sluggishness, and the way of careless judgment to moral weakness. As compared with the claims of history to be a leading subject in the curriculum, the arguments in favour of " linguistic " read like special pleading, but the validity of these claims depends on the efforts of teachers who have learned to treat their subject in accordance with the dictates of method. INDEX Accuracy, criteria of, 31 Aristotle, no Associationist psychology, 113 Ballads, a mode of using, 208 Battles, conciliation of discrepant accounts of, 67-78 Bernheim, .,25 Calkins, M. IV., 112 Character, analysis of, 55, 56-61, 107, 136, 137 Chronology, 138 Clarendon, Constitutions of, 123 Concreteness, 120 sqq. Contrariant Ideas, 118 Data of history, 28 Documents, method of using, 40 sqq. as atmosphere, 96, 104 Evidence, introduction to treatment of, 215 Examinations, conditions of good, 171 Examination papers criticised, 173 sqq. variation of suggested, 182 Fletcher, C. R. L., 17 Form in teaching, need of, 229 Formal element in history, 117 Formal training, 33 FouilUe, A,, 27 Genealogies, treatment of, 143 sqq. H 'assail, A., 17 Herbartianism, 39, 113 Internal evidence, interpretation of, Jaeger, Dr. Oscar, 36 Kant, in Laboratory, historical, 93 Lamprecht, K., 32 Langlois, Ch. v. , 32 Letters, value as evidence, 66, 100 Libraries, class-room, 219 Line of time, use of, 132, 140, 141 Local history, 320 Locke, 10, no Magna Charta, 124 Marten, C. H. K., 18 Mayor, A. B., 18 Method, need of, 227 Modern reference of history, 215 Moral training through history, 105 Mortmain, statute of, 121 Natorp, P., 115 Natural science, value of, to indivi- dual, 34 Notebooks, use of, by boys, 134 Outlines v. Periods, 153 Personal detail, importance of, 130 Portraits, value of, 150 231 232 TEACHING OF HISTORY Poetry, in the history lesson, 189 difficulties in the use of, 190 limited choice of, 192 by modern writers, 201 method of using, 204 Religious legislation, treatment of, 127 School subjects, conditions of mani- pulation of, 2 Seignobos, 28, 30, 32 Sigwart, 35 Sincerity, criteria of, 31 Sociology, 26 Soft options, 22 Source-books, 40, 94 composition of, 93 Special periods, need for emphasis- ing, 162 Statutes, analysis of, 79 Syllabuses of history, German and French, 155 sqq. Text-book, use of, 37, 40 Value of history, 4, 35 Views on history of Dr. Arnold, 13 Renaissance writers, 8-12 Rollin, 13 THE END Printed by R. & R. CLARK, LIMITED, Edinburgh. BY THE SAME AUTHOR. SUGGESTION IN EDUCATION Second Edition. Large Crown 8vo. Cloth. Price 4S. 6d. net. (By Post, 43. lod. ) SOME PRESS OPINIONS Education. 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FROM THE PREFACE This book has been written in response to a demand from a number of history teachers and inspectors of Schools who were anxious to see history taught on the lines suggested in Studies in the Teaching of History but could find no text-book suitable for class use. SOME PRESS OPINIONS Times. " A gallant and successful effort to solve a difficult problem and to introduce a real and great improvement into the teaching of history." Athentputn. " This admirable little book . . . an excellent piece of work." Educational News. "We would again recommend all who teach History to see these volumes." DOCUMENTS OF BRITISH HISTORY WITH PROBLEMS AND EXERCISES Sections I.-V. reprinted from A History of England for Schools. In one Volume. Large Crown 8vo. Cloth. Price 3S. 6d. Or in six Sections. Limp Cloth. Price 8d. each. I. A.D. 78-1216. II. A.D. 1216-1399. III. A.D. 1399-1603. IV. A.D. 1603-1715. V. A.D. 1715-1815. VI. A.D. 1815-1900. London Teacher. 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