'THOU THAT TEACHEST AN OTHER \CHEST THOU N(" THYSELF ?" HEATH'S PEDRGOGICRL LIBRRRY 3pQ<^ UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA AT LOS ANGELES GIFT OF CAPT. AND MRS. PAUL MCBRIDE PERIGORD WRITINGS OF GABRIEL COMPAYRE TRANSLATED BY WILLIAM H. PAYNE, PH.D..LL.D. THE HISTORY OF PEDAGOGY WITH INTRODUCTION AND NOTES LECTURES ON TEACHING WITH INTRODUCTION AND NOTES PSYCHOLOGY APPLIED TO EDUCATION WITH INTRODUCTION AND NOTES OTHERS IN PREPARATION D. C. HEATH & CO., PUBLISHERS BOSTON NEW YORK CHICAGO LONDON PSYCHOLOGY APPLIED TO EDUCATION BY GABRIEL COMPAYR6 DEPUTY, DOCTOR OF LETTERS, AND RECTOR OF THE ACADEMY POITIERS TRANSLATED BY WILLIAM H. PAYNE, PH.D., LL.D CHANCELLOR OF THE UNIVERSITY OF NASHVILLE, AND PRESIDENT OF THE PEABODY NORMAL COLLEGE BOSTON, U.S.A. D. C. HEATH AND COMPANY 1896 138179 COPYRIGHT BY W. H. PAYNE, 1892. Xortoooti }8rrgg : Berwick & Smith, Boston, U.S.A. JQSl TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE. Monsieur Compayre" himself no longer needs an introduction to the American educational public, for his books have been as extensively read and appreciated in this country as in France. With the possible exception of Page's Theory and Practice of Teaching, Compayre - 's History of Pedagogy has probably had more readers than any other educational work published in this p. 105. 158 MORAL EDUCATION. from the point of view of the formation of habit. When the mind has not yet been disturbed by too many shocks, when it is shielded from the storms of life and the agita- tions of the passions, the same impressions and the same acts may easily renew themselves and give rise to good habits of feeling, of thought, and of action. The laws of psychology being given, the teacher has no other rule to follow than to prevent the repetition of every bad act, and of every unwholesome impression, the renewal of which would engender vicious tendencies ; and, on the other hand, to favor the frequent repetition of the same feelings, ideas, and actions, from which he is to derive virtuous habits. Happy Influence of Habits. Although Rousseau, in his chimerical hypothesis of a will always acting with reflection and effort, has pretended to proscribe habits from education, no one can call in question the happy influence exercised in general over our moral conduct by an easy, agreeable activity which results from good habits. As Madame Guizot expresses it : "Our power is limited ; force and light do not depend on us ; time alone is ours. To the power of to-day it will add that of to-morrow, and that which was learned yesterday constitutes a part of what we know to-day. An act of duty has at first appeared difficult to me ; the second time I shall begin it, forti- fied by the consciousness of the well being which its accomplish- ment has given me. Soon it will no longer demand effort but will become to me a necessity." x Habits and Principles. Habits, however useful they may be when directed toward the good, are, nevertheless, as * Madame Guizot, op. fit,, lettre xi. INSTINCTS AND DISPOSITIONS. I 59 Vinet 1 observes, a blind, irrational element of activity, and in truth, an "obedience," a servitude. "They bind us to our own acts and connect our present with our past." However happy may be the effects of habit, it is yet neces- sary to protect the child against the automatic and unconscious life which would result from an absolute sway of this involuntary and irreflective power. It is necessary to reserve, a part at least, in activity, for the reflective will : it is necessary, as Vinet says, that in the intervals between the involuntary acts which characterize habit, liberty shall be able from time to time to interpose its own acts; it is necessary, as Madame Guizot says, to connect principles with habits." " The advantage of what is called habit appears to me to be to break all correspondence between our actions and our thoughts, to cause our life to proceed with but little intervention of our reflective will, just as the merit of a hand accustomed to the dis- taff is to twist the thread without demanding any exercise of attention. . . . That which constitutes a habit is the power which it has of separating us from ourselves, of making us move in given directions, independently of reflection and reason, and sometimes even in a direction contrary to a previous determination. May not a good course of habits become bad, if the situation changes, or simply because, being too exclusive, it will' submit to the same rule of action that which should be directed by different princi- ples?" We need not then conceal the fact that habits, even good ones, are in some respects insufficient or dangerous for moral conduct. Their invariability, their uniformity, leaves us powerless in the presence of new circumstances. Madame Guizot sets forth this truth in a striking example : 1 M. Vinet, L? Education, la famille et la Sociitl. * Madame Guizot, op. cit. lettre x. I6O MORAL EDUCATION. "If in the presence of the enemy, the principle of honor says to my will, ' Rise and march,' it is no longer necessary that habit make me start at the sound of the drum ; but if habit alone makes me march, when the drum ceases, the enemy and honor in view, I might remain in my place. The basis of habit may perhaps suddenly fail us ; the sup- port of principle, never." Let us know, then, in the midst of the habits which we inculcate in the child, how to maintain, or rather develop, in him the reflective principles of action which permit him freely to determine his own conduct, and to adapt his actions to circumstances, and which, in a word, prevent him from falling into an automatic and instinctive life, and always allow him in a measure to direct himself. SUMMARY. 130. Moral education is that which develops virtuous habits and disposes the child to the practice of good. 131. All educators are agreed that character is more valuable even than knowledge, and that moral education is more important than intellectual education. 132. The family exercises over moral education a greater influence than the school ; it has the advantage of the school in priority, continuity, and duration of action. 133. The school, nevertheless, has its educative action, but on one condition ; that is, that the teacher, being loved and respected, has acquired over his pupils a real moral authority. 134. The basis of moral education is laid in intellect- ual education, and all parts of instruction may cooperate in forming morality. 135. Direct instruction in morals has its utility, but it INSTINCTS AND DISPOSITIONS. l6l has the effect of making us know our duties rather than of giving us the power necessary for practicing them. 136. The essential elements of moral education are : the study of instincts and characters, the formation of hab- its, the culture of the sensibilities, the culture of the will, and discipline. 137. The character of the child is the aggregate of the hereditary and personal dispositions which he brings with him at birth, and which are modified by the action either of the family or of the school. 138. Character presents in the child a great many shades and even individual differences. 139. The first duty of the teacher is to study the differ- ent traits of his pupils, so as to repress the evil inclinations and to favor the good inclinations. 140. Good inclinations, encouraged and exercised, become wholesome habits. 141. Habits become fixed in proportion to the num- ber of repetitions of the same action, and to the intensity of the effort, or to the vivacity of the pleasure which accom- panies each action. 142. The duty of the teacher is to prevent the renewal of every impression, and every bad action, which may engen- der a vicious habit, and, on the contrary, to favor the frequent repetition of feelings, ideas, and actions which beget good habits. 143. Good habits are a valuable aid in life, because they incline us toward the good without effort. 144. But they have the defect, by their very uniformitv, of leaving us powerless in the presence of new circum- stances ; therefore they should not have absolute sway, so as to mar our liberty and the reflective principles of action. ii CHAPTER XII. CULTURE OF THE SENSIBILITY. Feelings and Habits. The feelings, or, speaking more generally, our dispositions to love this or that, our affec- tions, our emotions of all sorts, are in one sense nothing but habits. There is not a feeling truly inherent in the child's heart save when, by an almost irresistible impulse, the child is moved to love a given object or person, to make of it a familiar subject of his reflections, and when he finds pleasure in repeating the acts which correspond to this feel- ing. To love one's country, for example, is a feeling ; but this affection is not born in a day, it has the slow growth of a habit. The child first learns what his country is ; he must familiarize himself with this idea little by little, must think of it often, and must be disposed to think of it. One is not a patriot if he thinks of his country only accidentally, if he waits for some extraordinary event, such as a national holi- day, or a public disaster, to call his attention to her; if the habitual course of our imagination does not lead us toward the idea of our country, if we are not disposed on every occasion to act in her interest and to devote ourselves to uer. The culture of the feelings will therefore follow the gen- eral rules which preside over the formation of habits. General Function of the Sensibility. In this place we use the word sensibility only in the sense commonly attached to 162 CULTURE OF THE FEELINGS. 163 this term, as the synonym of the generous affections and disinterested emotions, the seat of which common opinion places in the heart. It is only in the technical language of psychology that the sensibility comprises both the affection- ate feelings and the selfish passions, those whose certain result is to shrivel the heart and to make of man an unfeel- ing creature. The lower forms of sensibility no doubt deserve the attention of the educator also, were it only for the purpose of opposing and restraining them. In general, they are included in the category of evil tendencies which ought to be rigorously repressed. Whatever they contain that is good, legitimate self-love, noble ambition, praiseworthy emulation, we shall have occasion to speak of in the chapter on discipline. But the true sensibility which makes man good and devoted, the friend, the patriot, the affectionate son, that which animates loving hearts and tender souls, that also which inspires us with the love of the true, the beautiful, and the good, can not be too early encouraged in the child. I am well aware that these sympathies, these aspirations of the heart, are taken for natural gifts, and that according to common opinion education is powerless to produce them. This is not entirely correct. The education of the sensibility is more delicate and more difficult than the edu- cation of the intelligence ; but it exists nevertheless. There is an art of cultivating the feelings, and this art con- sists mainly in placing the soul of the child in circumstances the most favorable for the complete development of his natural dispositions. In all hearts, even the most unprom- ising, there are germs of sensibility which need only to be excited and nourished. 1 64 MORAL EDUCATION. And if we think of the grand part which the sensibility plays in life, we are happy in the privilege of thinking that education contributes something to the development of this faculty. The great thoughts come from the heart, says Vauvenargues ; and most good actions also. Our moral purposes need to be sustained, not only by the love which the good itself excites, but also by the affection inspired in us by our parents, our fellow citizens, and all those toward whom we have duties to fulfill. And while the sensibility aids us in the accomplishment of what is good, and makes the path of virtue easier, it is the surest source of happiness. What would life be disenchanted of the affections ? Sensibility in the Child. It is an error to think that we can obtain at an early hour from the child very deep and delicate sensibility. The child is full of grace, and an affectionate smile easily comes to light up his eyes; but back of his smiles and open-hearted manners it is not always that we find a sensitive heart. Appearances are often deceiving, and there is an evident disproportion between the external manifestations of the child and the reality of the feelings which he experiences. It will be prudent, therefore, not to hasten the sensi- bility and not to exact too soon the proofs of an affection which does not yet exist. By trying to cause children to exhibit feelings which they do not have, we run the risk of obtaining from them only grimaces and little hypocrisies made for the occasion. " Madame de Silleri told the Duke de Chartres that he had a very idiotic appearance, because, when he went to see his mother, his attention was taken up by two paroquets which hap- pened to be in the room. All these reproaches and documents could not, we should apprehend, tend to increase the real CULTURE OF THE FEELINGS. l6$ sensibility and affection of children. Gratitude is one of the most certain, but one of the latest, rewards, which preceptors and parents should expect from their pupils." J External Expression of Feeling. It is the reality of feel- ing, more than the external expression in advance of the emotions really felt, that we must try to develop in the child. Let us not force the affections, but merely aid them in a gradual growth, and wait for time to mature them. To what father has it not happened, as he put his son in the presence of a grand spectacle of nature or of art, to be sur- prised and afflicted at the indifference and impassibility of his child ? The father was affected, because, with a mind broadened, and a sensibility developed with age, he found in the beauties offered to his eyes abundant material for nurture and refreshment. The child remained silent, plunged in a sort of stupor, because there was nothing yet in his heart which corresponded to the things which were shown him. In such a case it would be foolish and danger- ous to attempt to force the child to express feelings in which he does not participate. We would run the risk of giving him the habit of affectation and of causing him to lose the habit of sincerity. On the other hand, it is best to allow the child perfect liberty in the moderate and exact manifestation of the feel- ing which he really experiences. " Nothing hurts young people more," says Miss Edgeworth again, "than to be watched continually about their feelings, to have their countenances scrutinized, and the degrees of their sen- sibility measured by the surveying eye of the unmerciful spectator. Under the constraint of such examinations, they can think of nothing, but that they are looked at, and feel nothing but shame 1 Maria Edgeworth, Practical Education, Chap. X. 1 66 MORAL EDUCATION. or apprehension ; they are afraid to lay their minds open, lest they should be convicted of some deficiency of feeling." * Relation of Feeling to Action. In the development of every feeling we should therefore be careful not to require of the child acts or words which do not yet correspond with what he is in a condition to feel. It is the same rule which, in intellectual education, requires us to proportion studies exactly to the age and power of pupils. And yet we should not forget that it is sometimes useful and necessary to anticipate somewhat the actual state of the child's feelings, and to require him, for example, to give alms even when he does not know what charity is, and has not felt in his heart a sincere love for his neighbor. For if the feelings, when they already exist, naturally lead to appropriate actions, the actions themselves, if repeated and performed without repugnance, contribute toward develop- ing corresponding feelings. Surely we would not recom- mend the theological maxim, "practice and you will believe ; " but in the delicate matter of the education of the feelings, account is to be taken of the relations which con- nect the external act with the corresponding emotion. There is a just proportion to be aimed at in order to secure, without constraint or violence, the reciprocal influence of feelings on acts, and of acts on feelings. Relation of Feeling to Idea. There is also an intimate connection between feelings and ideas. We love only what we know, and as we have elsewhere said, the development of the sensibility is intimately connected with the progress of the intelligence. We have no direct hold on feeling ; we can not evoke it at the word of command. But by 1 Maria Edgeworth, Practical Education^ Chap. X. CULTURE OF THE FEELINGS. 167 indirect means, by appealing to reflection, by presenting to the child, either in narratives or in examples, situations cal- culated to affect him, we are able, by informing his mind, to find the way to his heart. ' And by a reciprocity analogous to that which we have just noted in the relations between action and feeling, feel- ing in turn reacts on the intelligence. "The feelings," says Madame Necker, "are not merely neces- sary to the mind in order to complete its knowledge ; but they decide its very character, and the nature and kind of its activity. All the thoughts which occupy us during life are unfolded, so to speak, in the presence of the feeling which holds sway in our heart ; it tinges the impressions which we receive, and modifies them by its power. The feelings have a perennial existence in our soul, while our thoughts merely come and go ; and we can not attempt to fix these fugitive ideas unless the feelings which they have traversed have communicated to them something of their essence. Feeling produces on ideas the same effect that music produces on the words of a song ; it gives them a character and a meaning which they would not have had, if otherwise pre- sented, or which they sometimes seem literally to contradict. .... From the source of the tender and generous emotions there is diffused over the intelligence an indescribable sweetness and warmth of life which penetrate it to the core." 2 The Power of Example. It is perhaps in the education of the feelings that the power of example is most evident. It has often been said that the best way to teach children to love is to begin by loving them. Place the child in a family where there is no union or sympathy, in surround- ings from which s^pme moral drought has banished the affections, and very likely the child himself will remain 1 See Compayr^'s Lectures on Education. 3 Madame Necker de Saussure, F Education progressive, t. II. p. 32. 1 68 MORAL EDUCATION. unfeeling and cold. The source of feeling is dried up about him, he cannot draw from it. On the contrary, suppose affectionate parents, older brothers and sisters full of solicitude for a younger child, neighbors who bring to the house from time to time the proof and joyous expres- sion of their kindly sympathy, a teacher who, understanding his office, is not merely a master who scolds, but a friend who counsels and encourages, an adopted father having for his pupils the feelings of a parent; and in this benevo- lent and joyous society the sensibility of the child will be developed of itself, like a delicate plant in a genial climate. Contagion of Feeling. The contagion which communi- cates and transmits feelings from one heart to another, also manifests itself in the same soul, from one feeling to another feeling. The emotions of the sensibility beget one another. An entrance once gained to the heart by introduc- ing to it any feeling whatever, we may say that all is gained ; just as in intellectual education we are sure of success if we have obtained a single act of attention. The different affections form a sort of chain. If the child has grasped one end of it he will easily pass from link to link, and the whole chain will unroll in his hands. Sensitive in one place, a child will easily become sensitive in all others. The sensibility is not a force which can be concentrated on a single object. Once excited, it will radiate and from point to point all the living parts of the soul will become enkindled. Let us begin by inspiring children with love of family, and the other affections wfll be developed in addition. Family Affection. "If the world," as Fdnelon said, "is but the aggregate of families," it may be said that the CULTURE OF THE FEELINGS. 1 69 feelings, in their variety and complexity, are nothing more than the extension of the family affections. We do not hesitate to say that the school would be powerless, notwith- standing all its efforts, to develop sensibility in children who had not brought the first germs of it from their home life. But how few are there who have been refused the tender smile of a mother ! How many and more happy they, who, according to the delicate phrase of a contempo- rary author, " before learning to speak, have read affection in the eyes of their parents ! " " When people live together and love each other," says Bersot, " when each loves the other more than himself, when he is happy at their good fortune and unhappy at their bad, when he is ready to care for them if they have need of him, to defend them in case of attack, when he would rather suffer than see them suffer, when there is but one heart among them all, this is the family ! " And we may add, this is the school of all generous emotions ! An affectionate son will easily become a generous friend, an ardent patriot, a devoted citizen, in a word, a man capable of everything that is generous and good. The Influence of the School. Even in what concerns the development of the family affections it must not be supposed that the influence of the school is of no account. The teacher may do much to remind thoughtless or giddy children of their duties toward their families. Let them employ the language which Socrates addressed to his son Lamprocles, who had shown himself disrespectful to his mother : " O my son, be wise, pray the gods to pardon your offenses against your mother ; and in the future offend her no more lest I/O MORAL EDUCATION.. men despise you. Of what virtue would you be capable, if you were not to begin by loving your mother ? " * Companionship. But the school offers special occasions for the development and manifestation of the sensibility. At home, the child finds in the every -day life, and in the services which he can render his parents, opportunities to exercise his devotion. But these occasions are not rare at school. Moreover, the family is not always complete. A child does not always have brothers ; and sometimes there are older brothers with whom, notwithstanding the affection which draws him to them, he can not be in perfect com- munity of ideas by reason of the difference of age. At school, on the contrary, with companions who have the same tastes and the same occupations, the community is complete, and consequently affection propagates itself. It is always because they love the same things that two children begin to love each other. Two brothers love each other because they experience the same feeling of filial piety for their parents. Two companions become attached to each other because they share the same studies and the same recreations. Rousseau committed the grossest of errors when he fancied he could make a sensible being out of his Emile, notwithstanding the isolation to which he condemned him. Experience shows us that children who live alone generally have little tenderness and generosity of soul ; reason teaches us that, in isolation, remote from the world and social relations, the only inclinations which can be de- veloped are the selfish inclinations, or religious mysticism. Social life is necessary for the development of true sensibility; this is why the family and the school, which 1 Xenophon, Memorabilia, CULTURE OF THE FEELINGS. 17! are in fact little societies, are necessary for assuring the unfolding of the affectionate emotions. Friendship. Companionship is the beginning of friend- ship. Every companion is a friend in expectation. The friendships of school and of college are good, not only because they assure to us some of the sweetest pleasures of life, because they attach us for the whole of life to some men whom we prefer to all others, and whom we feel bound to serve and oblige in an especial manner; but because they prepare us for the social affections in general, and because they open and enlarge our heart and sow in them the first seeds of patriotism. Education in Patriotism. It is in loving our companions, and in devoting ourselves to our friends, that we in reality learn to love our fellow citizens and to devote ourselves to our country. The first conception of his country that presents itself to the child is nothing more than his class- mates, his companions, who are of the same age as himself, who will attain their civic duties and rights the same year, since they will start out together for the army, and on the same day will exercise for the first time their right of suffrage. Love of country is, first, love for our fellow citizens, and the first citizens with whom the child becomes acquainted are his companions in school. The school will contribute also to education in patriotism by the direction which the teacher will be able to give to the instruction in geography and history. Our country, in fact, is not merely the generation of men to which we belong, nor even the aggregate of citizens who live at the same hour that we do. Our country is not the creature of a day or of a century ; it has its past and its future. It is by skillfully exciting the child's emotions through the reading of history, 172 MORAL EDUCATION. by relating to him the grandeurs and the miseries of France in the past, by showing him how our ancestors have strug- gled, triumphed and suffered for her happiness and her glory ; it is by speaking to him also of her destinies and her legitimate ambitions for the future, that the teacher will find the key to the hearts of his pupils and will succeed in making patriots of them, especially if he himself feels with force the sentiments which he wishes to communicate. In the family it is not merely the affection of the child which responds to the affection of his parents, but it is also the filial gratitude which arises at the thought of the serv- ices rendered by the father and the mother. So in society, it is well for the citizen to take account of all that he owes to his country. If he reflects on all the benefits assured to him through the organization of the state which is vigilant in protecting the interests of all its members, he will be still more disposed to serve his country and to love her with all his strength. The Sentiment of the Good. Sensibility attaches us not merely to persons. Abstract objects, like the true, the beautiful, and the good, also have a natural attraction for us. And the proof that they interest the sensibility is that we are able to find in the practice of the good, in the pur- suit of the true, and in the contemplation of the beautiful, profound sources of happiness, inexhaustible pleasures. Now, wherever there is pleasure, there is love, pleasure being but the manifestation of feelings that are satisfied. The sentiment of the good, when it has reached the highest stage of its development, supposes a moral con- sciousness perfectly enlightened, in which the idea of good and the idea of duty serve as bases for the feeling. There u then a natural inclination of the soul to do the right and CULTURE OF THE FEELINGS. 173 to shun the wrong, an inclination which brings us pleasure or pain according as it is satisfied or thwarted ; and this inclination is developed in proportion as the mind better conceives the idea of the good and the idea of duty. But on the start, and in the child, we can not think of making high moral conceptions the basis of feeling. In its beginnings, the sentiment of the good is confounded with the affection inspired in us by the persons who love us and who are called to direct our life by their example, their advice, and also by their commands. " For a long time," said Toppfer, " I have not distinguished the inner voice of my conscience from the voice of my preceptor. So when my conscience spoke to me I thought I saw a black gown, a magistral air, and spectacles on the nose." 1 It is only slowly that the idea of the good disengages itself from the sense-impressions of infancy, and that, in consequence, the moral feeling acquires all its power. In fact, it truly exists only when the emotions to which it gives rise correspond to clear intuitions of the reason. The Other Feelings. The feeling of the true is no less real than the feeling of the beautiful. It is through this feeling that scholars who obstinately pursue their work through the whole of life never know failure or discourage- ment. The pleasure of a discovery hoped for or accom- plished accompanies them in all their researches, and suffices to sustain their efforts. Doubtless it is not possible for the children in our schools, nor for future workmen, to taste the infinite joys whose perfection is known only to the men of disinterested science, and the secret of which they have often confided to their readers while thanking the truth whose cultivation has constituted their happiness. But 1 Toppfer, Bibliotklque de Man OncU. 174 MORAL EDUCATION. there is nevertheless for the humblest pupil himself a par- ticipation in the feeling of the true, in the pleasures which study procures for him, in the joy which the successful solu- tion of a problem gives him, and also, from another point of view, in the humiliation caused by the falsehood discov- ered in his speech, and for which he suffers and blushes. In fact, the feeling of the true is not attached merely to knowledge, but also to the expression of the truth. The feeling of the beautiful is no more the privilege of artists than the feeling of the true is reserved to scholars alone. Doubtless it acquires its full power only with adepts, or with those who have had the benefit of a higher educa- tion ; but even in ordinary education it is possible, and I add it is necessary, to associate the child, in a certain measure, with the emotions of nature and art. The pupil who will put taste and elegance into all that he does, even into his writing, who, besides, shall be trained to taste the beauties of literature, to admire a fine piece of music or a beautiful painting, and who can sing and sketch with taste, will be repaid for his trouble by the pleasure which is always procured by the contemplation or the production of works fashioned according to the ideal. The culture of the sensibility, even with the children of the common people, is not complete unless, to the generous affections which stifle selfishness, we can add the noble, delicate, and elevated emotions of virtue, science, and art, which turn aside and disgust them with gross and purely material enjoyments. SUMMARY. 145. Feelings are really nothing more than habits; for their character is to be ever carrying our thoughts back to the object loved and to dispose us to repeat the same acts. CULTURE OF THE FEELINGS. 175 146. The sensibility is chiefly the aggregate of our gen- erous affections, and by reason of the important part which the affections play in life, the education of the sensibility, if it is more delicate and more difficult, is not less necessary than the education of the intelligence. 147. The sensibility is only developed little by little in the child; it must not be forced; we must wait for time to ripen it, and so must not compel the child to manifest feel- ing which he has not yet felt. 148. However, there is such a connection, such a recip- rocal influence, between the action or external expression and the feeling, that it will often be wise to anticipate the emotions really felt and to require the child to act in the direction of an inclination, even before this inclination has been developed in him. 149. The development of the sensibility is intimately connected with the progress of the intelligence ; we love only what we know. 150. The power of example is nowhere greater than in the education of the sensibility ; let us love children and they will love us. 151. The feelings communicate themselves from heart to heart ; but in the same heart, by a sort of inner contagion, they engender one another. 152. The family affections are the source of all the other emotions ; the school would be powerless to develop the sensibility if the child did not already bring from home the germs of affectionate inclinations. 153. The school develops the sensibility in the rela- tions of companionship and friendship. 154. It is by loving our companions, with whom we are connected by community of age and study, who enter along with us into social life, who are called along with us MORAL EDUCATION. to exercise their rights and to fulfill their civic duties, that we learn to love our fellow citizens, which is the first con- dition of patriotism. 155. The education in patriotism is completed by his- itorical narrations, by studying the soil of the country, by the reflections which we make on the past and on the future of our country, and also by the consideration of all that we owe her. 156. To the generous affections which oppose selfish- ness and attach us to others, we must add the noble and elevated emotions which are derived from the feelings of the good, the true, and the beautiful. CHAPTER XIII. EDUCATION OF THE WILL AND THE CHARACTER. Function of the Will. We have certainly done much for moral education when we have developed the feelings, and, in general, good habits. But morality supposes, however, another element which is no other than the will, that is to say, the power of freely determining self, with reflection, to an action of one's choice. The will is sometimes necessary to form habits them- selves ; for habits, notably the best ones, do not always grow out of easy, agreeable acts, repeated without effort ; they often suppose painful, fatiguing actions, which the will alone gives us power to perform. The will is necessary, again, in order to maintain habits. This necessity often occurs in our moral life, under the influence of new circumstances, of crises, of storms of pas- sion, which disturb the regular and accustomed course of our existence, and which shake the very foundations of our strongest habits. It is the will alone which can, in this case, save us and keep us in the right road. It is no less necessary that the will intervene in order to assure to our feelings all their power of action. Doubtless, every feeling is in itself a principle of activity, it disposes us to act and to act in a direction which it determines. It some- times happens, however, that the sensibilities do not suffice to impel us to actions which duty commands. A man loves 12 177 MORAL EDUCATION. his country ; but he has not the necessary courage to sacrifice for it his personal interests. He loves his parents ; but he has not the energy which would be necessary in order to prove it to them by his acts. There are some sensitive souls, very sensitive, who are content to abandon themselves to their inward emotions, but who remain weak and sluggish in action. The will is still necessary to liberate from their indolence and inaction these vacillating, indecisive natures, these sensibilities more delicate than strong. Finally, it is very evident that neither habits the most strongly rooted, nor feelings the most perfectly developed, constitute complete morality. In order to found the gov- ernment of our life on an indestructible basis, in order to be truly free, we must have a will always ready to seize the reins of our moral conduct and to direct our moral activity according to the dictates of reason. The Will and Character. What is called will, in fact, is not the power to perform once or twice reflective acts ; it is the faculty, if not always active, at least always ready to act, of conforming our life to the dictates of reason ; it is, in some sort, if we may associate these two words, the habit of the will. It is this power of willing, always within the reach of souls energetic and truly masters of themselves, that con- stitutes moral power, or, in a single word, character. Char- acter, thus understood, is without doubt the aggregate of moral faculties in opposition to intellectual faculties ; but it is above all the energy and firmness of the will. Weakness of Character. Weakness of character is a reproach to the men of our time. Everywhere we hear pes- simists complacently repeating that character is growing weaker, that it is disappearing. WILL AND CHARACTER. 179 We do not believe that these complaints are altogether legitimate, and we shall presently state our reasons. But if the justness of these complaints is doubtful, their meaning is at least very clear. The meaning is, that our contempo- raries lack energy and courage in their conduct, and firm- ness in their convictions. Character, in this particular sense, is no longer character as defined, for example, by Alexander Martin in his book, U Education du Caractere, in which it comprehends all the moral faculties. No, when the critic points out the pretended weakness of char- acter in our century, he has in mind only the faculties which relate to action power of soul, firmness, courageous energies of spirit, qualities which assure the independence of the moral personality. Character, understood as the distinctive traits of each of us, is one thing ; and, from this point of view, by reason of the progress of instruction and by reason of the political liberties enjoyed by us, there never has been so great a diversity of character as in our own time ; but very different is character taken absolutely, that is to say, which may be defined as fixedness in principle, firm- ness and decision of resolution, and perseverance in execu- tion. Is it true that on this point we are on the decline, that there is a real decadence in character? We do not believe it, and those who affirm it are, in our opinion, the dupes of an appearance, and the victims of an illusion which it is easy to explain. In former times, when the absence of political and religious liberty enclosed all men in the insu- perable circle of routine and tradition, in the uniform com- pass of the same actions, in the monotony of an existence everywhere regulated by the same rule, it was not necessary, in order to satisfy the exigencies of life, to give proof of much moral energy. It was sufficient to be docile, and to 180 MORAL EDUCATION. submit to being led. The conditions of modern society have changed ; they have enfranchised, have emancipated the individual ; they have made each one master of his own destiny ; they have enlarged the sphere of action in which each citizen moves ; they have extended competition ; they have opened in all its liberty, noble but dangerous, the struggle for existence. The result is that modern society imposes on all its members an amount of energy and cour- age much more considerable than that which was demanded by the old regime. The men of our time need more char- acter than the men of former times, who could do without it. Hence a disproportion, apparent to all, between the moral power necessary to cope with the new conditions of life, and the insufficiency, in the midst of a society in which liberal education has not yet borne all its fruits, in the degree of energy attained by the millions of men who com- pose the nation. It is no longer of a few personalities alone, of a few privileged individuals, that a regime of liberty demands character ; it is of the humblest, of the most obscure of all the children of the great democratic family. And, to con- clude briefly, the truth is that there is no less of character than formerly, but more of it is required. Education of Character in the School. So we should redouble our efforts in order to effect, by every possible means, the education of character, and to lessen more and more the margin which still exists between the moral forces at the disposal of the people and the activities to which they are called. Surely, we must appeal particularly to personal effort, to the education of the whole life, in order to develop character. But in the school the soil may be prepared, and a few fruitful seeds sown from which will spring later the WILL AND CHARACTER. l8l qualities which make the man. To the question, "May teachers contribute to the formation of character ?" we do not hesitate to reply in the affirmative. To answer no, would be to deny every educational influence both to instruction and to school discipline. In What Character Consists. The two faculties which contribute especially to the forming of character are the intelligence or reason, and the will. A man of character must have settled convictions, principles this is the func- tion of the intelligence. He must also have decision, resolution, firmness this is the function of the will. One man has courage, he throws himself resolutely into action ; he faces danger with intrepidity ; he does not allow himself to be ruled by external influences ; he is indepen- dent and daring. Yes, but not having reflected sufficiently on human affairs, wavering between different opinions, passing, according to the succession of his caprices, from one idea to another, he performs with the same resolution contradictory acts ; he is unable to introduce unity into his life. He lacks character. Another, on the contrary, is circumspect, reflective; he has taken a decided part in great political, religious, and social questions ; he knows where the truth lies and does not change his opinion. Yes, but he is timid ; he does not dare to conform his conduct to his principles; he has continual fear of compromising himself; he is afraid to manifest his sentiments. He also lacks character. It is, then, at once on solid intellectual principles and on a courageous will that a firm character is founded. Neither of the two elements is more necessary than the other. Let us hasten, moreover, to add that, in general, an enlightened and reflective reason leads by a natural inclina- I 82 MORAL EDUCATION. tion to a resolute and intrepid will. There is in every solid conviction a germ of courageous activity. How Character is Formed. The instructor, then, has his part in the education of the character or of the will. On the one hand, by intelligent instruction he will undertake to develop attention, reflection, the habit of thinking independently, of believing only what is well understood in short, the active faculties of the mind. On the other hand, by a liberal discipline he will present to the child every legitimate occasion of acting for himself and of exercising his will. Character and Methods of Instruction. Those who say that character is growing weaker in our day, if they were correct, would make the most terrible of criticisms on the new methods of in5truction. It would then be necessary to admit that the exercises of pure memory, routine, and mechanical instruction are better than active methods, than rational intuition, than incessant appeal to the free intelligence. But it is evident that this is not the case. If our actual processes of instruction are practiced with skill ; if the prudent teacher is careful not to scatter the child's attention on too many different subjects ; if he knows how to direct it often to a few essential points, and, above all, if he avoids cramming and purely passive instruction; if he arouses curiosity, activity, and mental life among his pupils ; the school will send them out into society fully prepared to become independent men, capable by the continuation of their reflections of forming solid and decisive opinions. Discipline and Character. So, also, it is no less certain that the repressive and violent discipline of former times WILL AND CHARACTER. 183 had not for the formation of character the same advantages as the liberal discipline of to-day. By a system of com- pression, of excessive severity, of perpetual constraint, all the initiative in children was stifled ; they were accustomed to being led by others, and were sent forth into life unable to govern themselves. What very different results ought we not to expect from a discipline which, even when it imposes obedience, requires that this obedience shall be vol- untary, and which, on all occasions where the child may be abandoned to himself, allows him perfect freedom of con- duct through the exercise of his own reason ! The hopes of those who have labored to reform the modern school would be very much deceived if the children who attend it should not* there learn more and more to become strong and valiant men. No, it is not possible that in introducing more liberty into the regime of school discipline, more light and more reason into instruction, that the cause of developing moral energy has not been served. Let us not forget, indeed, that it is in pro- portion as we have more reason and more will that we are better qualified to display in life the virtues of character. Without doubt the feelings, when they are disciplined, may also aid us by imparting to the principles of reason and to the energies of the will an ardent and sovereign inspiration. But in general, however, the sensibility, which is by its nature discordant and capricious, is, in fact, the enemy of character. Let no one say that this statement is contradictory to what we have said concerning the moral functions of the sensibility. The feelings, enlight- ened by the intelligence, made firm and definite by habit, are one thing; but quite another is feeling in general, that is to say, a disposition of the soul to be moved to excess 1 84 MORAL EDUCATION. by everything, and in no case to preserve its composure and its calmness. The Virtues of Character. A contemporary author, M. Maneuvrier, has strikingly set forth, in a recent book, the reasons which recommend to the attention of teachers the education of the will even more than the education of the intelligence. " To develop the intelligence and neglect the will," says he, "is to sacrifice the principle to the accessory." 1 The virtues of character, according to M. Maneuvrier, may be reduced to four principal types : independence, justice, courage, and goodness. To comprehend in character anything more than independence and courage is, perhaps, to give undue extension to its scope. Good- ness, in fact, is an affair of the sensibility, and justice the work of the intelligence, rather than effects of the will. The Virtue of Independence. Strictly speaking, independ- ence is the very essence of will ; it is the liberty of judgment and of action ; or, as M. Maneuvrier expresses it, the habit of determining self to action, without undergoing external constraint. Hence, while guarding the rights of discipline and main- taining the authority of parents or of the teacher, the duty of respecting as much as possible the liberty of the child. " He alone will one day be able to form a strong resolution, < submit to a law which restrains him, respect an authority which displeases him, whom you have accustomed daily, through long years, to choose the good, to subordinate, of his own accord, that which amuses him to that which instructs him, and that which he 1 M. Maneuvrier, L Education de la bourgoisie sout la Rlpublique, p. 294. WILL AND CHARACTER. desires to do to that which he is morally obliged to do. When you shall have made a free pupil, you will have educated a free citizen." This we shall not deny, but what we can not accept is that, in order to make this " free citizen," it is necessary to give the pupil's will entire freedom. The discipline of the school, voluntarily accepted, is a school of independence, whatever may be said of it. Independence, indeed, does not consist in acting according to our caprices, without rule or rein, but is free submission to law, and this is why, as Madame Necker de Saussure rightly affirms, " public education surpasses domestic education as a means of strengthening character and developing energy and the manly virtues." * As the same author observes, " obedience to law subdues the will without weakening it." The Virtue of Courage. Courage, that other fundamental quality of character, the secret energy which causes us to undertake a thing and sustains us in it, demands for its development more free initiative than independence itself. A man may be independent although he may always have been subjected, in his childhood and youth, to the rules of an exact discipline. He is scarcely courageous, if the accidents of life have not put to test the intrepidity of his character. School life, we must remember, in its uniform and regulated exercises, scarcely admits of these accidents, of these unforeseen circumstances, which effect the education of courage. It is also undeniable that civilized people are less courageous than savage people. In order to remedy, from this point of view, the conse- quences of the school regime, M. Maneuvrier recommends above all physical exercises, or "sports," as the English say. 1 Madame Necker de Saussure. L! Education Progressive, I, viii, ch. iii. 1 86 MORAL EDUCATION. We shall not dispute it, but we should not forget that cour- age finds occasion for exercising itself outside of physical exercise. We shall in a certain measure favor the cour- ageous energy of the . child if we accustom him to face without timidity the tests of interrogation, oral exposition at the board, in the presence of his classmates who are not always benevolent, or even, when occasion offers, in the presence of strangers, and in a general way, if we exercise him in approaching resolutely the difficulties of study. The industrious and studious pupil is courageous in his way. The Feeling of Responsibility. It is then by respecting the spontaneity of the child, the germ of his independence and liberty, that his will may be strengthened ; it is by giv- ing to its instruction every legitimate occasion for exercising itself, it is by avoiding all processes of violent discipline which "break" the wills of children. Abandoned to himself as much as possible, without com- promising either his health or virtue, the child will find in the exercise of his liberty peculiar pleasures which in turn will quicken his natural taste for independence. At the same time, he will acquire, little by little, the feeling of his responsibility, he will understand that it devolves upon him to avoid such a fault, to acquire better and more promptly such a virtue. He will render to himself an account of the consequences of his acts, and consequently he will reflect more, before engaging in acts whose effects he has calcu- lated beforehand. Good Will. It would be of no account, but would be dangerous to develop the will, if with the force which we create in the child we do not associate the idea of good and of duty, of which the will should be merely the instrument. In itself, indeed, the will may be the instrument of vice as WILL AND CHARACTER. 187 well as the instrument of virtue. In their way great criminals give proof of will power. We may will the evil as earnestly as the good. It is then a good will that it is especially important to train and strengthen, which is equivalent to saying that the culture of the will is not to be separated from the culture of the reason and the moral conscience. Let us be able to will, but let us will only that which con- forms to the laws of virtue. SUMMARY. 157. Moral education is complete only on the condi- tion that, to good habits and to affectionate and noble feelings, be added a strong will. 158. The will is necessary, at times, to form habits, to maintain them against passions, and to assure to the feel- ings their full power of action. 159. It is necessary also in order to put really into our hands the moral government of our life, to be the instru- ment of the decisions to be made in unexpected circum- stances. 1 60. The will always ready to act is called by another name, character. 161. It is not correct to say, as we often hear it said, that characters are growing weaker every day. The truth is that modern society, with its peculiar conditions of greater liberty, requires more energy and more will. There is no less character now than formerly, but more of it is necessary. 162. The education of character is therefore more nec- essary than ever, and constitutes one of the most important parts of the teacher's duty. 163. In order to form character, the teacher should remember that character comprises two series of elements : on the one hand, settled convictions or principles, which 1 88 MORAL EDUCATION. belong to the intelligence ; on the other hand, decision or resolution, which belongs to the will. 164. So that education must, at once, by an intelligent instruction, develop personal reflection, the habit of think- ing for one's self, and, by a liberal discipline, accustom the child to effort, to free initiative. 165. The virtues of character are above all independ- ence and courage. 1 66. It is by respecting the liberty of the child that we may render him independent; but we are not to believe that the school regime, founded on obedience to law, com- promises the independence of character ; obedience to law subdues the will without weakening it. 167. Courage, in order to be developed, demands espe- cially trials and perils which the regular life of the school does not always permit. 1 68. We may, however, even at school, exercise the courage, either in the physical exercises, or in the intellec- tual efforts which are imposed upon the child. 169. The effect of a liberal education of the will is to strengthen the feeling of responsibility. 170. The will may be the instrument of evil, as well as the instrument of good ; but it is only the good will that is to be cultivated. CHAPTER XIV. DISCIPLINE. PUNISHMENTS AND REWARDS. EMULATION. Discipline. Whatever result we may expect from moral education properly so called, it is impossible to conceive a system of education in which it will not sometimes be necessary to resort to disciplinary means, and to imagine a child so devoted to the doing of good by his happy dis- position, his benevolent feelings and his habits, that it is useless to hold him in check by the fear of punishment, or to urge him forward by the hope of rewards. But it is important to understand that discipline, in the proper sense of the term, is far from being the whole of moral education, or even the essential part of it ; that one is not a good teacher merely because he punishes or rewards as occasion requires ; in a word, that disciplinary means are but the accessory instruments of the moral education whose elements we have indicated in the preceding lessons. Punishments and Rewards. A few utopists excepted, all educators are agreed that we can not dispense with punish- ment nor do without rewards. " I hear it maintained by reformers," says Jules Simon, " that we must never resort to punishments ; that the teacher, and especially the father, may and should restrict himself to good advice, to good examples, should appeal to reason and count on the effects of a well-directed emulation. Whenever this is pos- sible, I ask for nothing better. I see others who allow of 189 MORAL EDUCATION. repression and will not hear rewards spoken of. 'You will make children proud,' they say. 'You will take from them the feeling of fraternity and the just conception of equality.' No, I will teach them that labor and good conduct are the conditions of all success in life, which is very good instruction. The equality which I revere does not consist at all in giving the same advantages to the lazy as to the industrious, but in treating each one according to his merit and his services." * We do not deny the difficulties which punishments and rewards may present : punishments which intimidate and render timorous, which sometimes cause feelings of animosity and revolt against the teacher to spring up in the pupil's heart ; rewards which make proud and which often engender vanity and jealousy. But these difficulties may, in great part, be extenuated and even made to disappear, if we know how to practice the art of punishing and the art of rewarding with discretion, modera- tion, and tact. Besides, it is wholly useless to philosophize and argue at pleasure on the evil consequences of disciplin- ary measures, because it is impossible to suppress them, and because, notwithstanding their defects, they constitute real educational necessities. It would be necessary to withdraw from the conditions of human nature to admit that children, or even men, can be governed in a multitude of cases otherwise than by the hope of reward or by the fear of punishment. The System of Natural Consequences. Without consenting absolutely to the chimera of those who dream of an educa- tion without punishments, Herbert Spencer approaches it when he requires us to suppress the whole machinery of arti- ficial punishments in order to resort to the action of nature. 1 Revue de Famille, March 15 and April I, 1889. DISCIPLINE. IQI This was also the system of Rousseau, who would have Emile punished by nature alone whenever he commits a fault. In a fit of anger Emile breaks a window-pane of his room, and a hard cold will teach him what it costs to expose himself to the cold air of the night. "Offer to the indiscreet wishes of a child," said Rousseau, " nothing but physical obstacles or punishments which result from the actions themselves and which he will recall on occasion." So also Herbert Spencer declares that the child has no better teacher than nature. It is nature who, by her inevit- able reactions, will correct the child for his failures, punish him for his faults, and make useless the intervention of the teacher. The imprudent child will burn himself in the flame of a candle, and prick himself with needles, but will not commit these faults a second time. A child who has thrown his room into disorder will be required to set it to rights. If he is not diligent enough to be ready for the walk, he will be left at home. The knife which he has broken will not be replaced, nor the dress which he has torn. And these natural punishments, adds Mr. Spencer, have this particular merit, that they are always proportioned to the wrong that has been done, action and reaction always being equal ; and at the same time they are the surest and most effective, since nature is pitiless and inflexible in the repression of every act which is contrary to her laws. Criticism of this System. It will take too long to refute all the weak points of the system which we have just described. Let us restrict ourselves to the most general criticism. And first, we are hardly convinced that nature in her action is as moral as the English educator assumes. Mr. Spencer's system is based on the idea of the immanent MORAL EDUCATION. justice of things. Now we must certainly acknowledge that this natural justice is often at fault. The inebriate is not always punished by an indigestion, or a headache, for the excesses which he has committed, and there are lazy people who succeed in life. On the other hand, it is not true that the reactions of nature are always in a just ratio with the gravity of the fault committed. A slight indiscretion may have terrible consequences. Emile, in his chamber opened to the winds, may not only catch cold, but may fall seriously ill and die of pneumonia. What "is still worse is, that the punishments are often slow to appear, and thus allow an ailment, which should be cor- rected immediately, all possible leisure to develop in perfect liberty. "Will the adolescent," says M. Gre"ard, "be allowed the time to reflect at his ease on the results of his indolence ? If he does not perform, or performs badly, his duties as a scholar, if he does not regulate his character, if the reform of his evil inclinations is post- poned until their consequences are exposed, it is nothing less than his entire destiny that may be compromised. Nothing is better than to grant a large part to personal experience in connection with reason and example, which are too often insufficient ; but to expect the young man to be taught exclusively by his own faults, fc the most formidable of illusions." ' Let us add, finally, that the system of natural reactions rests on a false principle, namely, that it is not necessary to introduce into education moral ideas, as the idea of duty and merit, and that it suffices to leave the child in presence of his interests while subjecting him, not to the authority of the moral law, but merely to the blind and unconscious forces of nature. 1 Grfard, Education et Instruction, t. ii, p. 180. DISCIPLINE. 193 Thus Mr. Spencer himself, as we have noted elsewhere, 1 does not follow his theory to the end. To the reactions of nature he finally adds the reactions of others' feelings which are manifested by the censure and displeasure of those who surround the child and whom he loves enough to be affected by their coldness. In other terms, the discipline of nature can be but a preparation for moral discipline. Necessity of Punishments. It is necessary therefore for the teacher to intervene directly in order to substitute for the very slow action of nature the intelligent action of his own authority, but an authority wholly impersonal, and which ought in general to be but the expression of an immutable rule. Just as the best government is that where the law reigns as sovereign mistress, and in which there is the least participation of the arbitrary caprices and wills of men ; so we may say that, as a rule, the best discipline is that where the teacher acts merely as the im- passible guardian of authority. School discipline, however, differs from political government in the sense that the man ought sometimes to appear back of the master, not, doubtless, to give free course to his anger and bad humor when he punishes, but at least to manifest his goodness when he rewards. If it may be said, in fact, that the manner of giving is worth more than what we give, this is also true of rewards and of the manner of giving them. The penal code of the school first comprises reprimands. But proofs of disapprobation, which suppose that the feel- ing of honor, or at least affection for the teacher and the fear of displeasing him, are already well developed in the pupil's heart, are not always sufficient; they scarcely affect children who have not a sincere and profound respect for 1 Lectures on Teaching, pp. 12, 13. 194 MORAL EDUCATION. the teacher's words, or who are insensible to shame. We must therefore resort to effective punishments which, an- nounced in advance and inflicted when necessary, overtake the pupil not only in his self-love but also in his interests and in his pleasures. Such are the punishments most often employed in school : the withdrawal of good marks, partial privation of recreation, keeping after school, etc. General Characteristics of Punishments. Whatever the punishment may be, it ought first of all to be a means of intimidation to prevent the repetition of a fault by the fear which is inspired by the certainty of being punished ; and in the second place, it should be a means of reform. For this purpose it ought to be presented to the child as a sort of expiation or a compensation for the evil which he has done ; it should force him to retire into himself and to correct the evil inclinations which are the source of his habitual faults. It would be very mischievous, in fact, if the pupil were to consider the punishment as a necessity to which he must submit and which should be the ordained ransom for faults which he would not renounce. In order to be just and efficient, and to be kept within bounds, punishment should satisfy the following rules: i. It should be proportioned, not only to the gravity of the offense, but also to the degree of the pupil's sensibility; 2, it should not become commonplace, it should not be repeated so often as to harden the child ; 3, it should be carefully graduated ; we ought to begin with light punish- ments and not exhaust the final severities of the code until it becomes necessary. But above all we must try to establish in the child's mind an intimate connection between the punishment and the fault committed. DISCIPLINE. IQ5 Punishment Ought Above All to be Moral. The moral quality of punishment is well expressed in the following passage which we borrow from M. Anthoine : " To punish," says M. Anthoine, " is to inflict a pain the recollection of which persists as a warning not to fall again into the same fault. The nature of this suffering depends on the nature of the being to whom it is addressed ; it will necessarily be physical for a material being, for him who lives and feels only through the body ; but even within this class how many degrees there are, from the blow of the whip which makes the dog howl, or which draws blood on the child's back, to the privation of dainties with which the most spoiled of children has at least been threatened ! For one whose nature may be culti- vated and refined, punishment may be purely moral. " If I recall the days of my infancy correctly, that which always punished me most in a punishment was the thought that I had been punished." ' Different Kinds of Punishment. When the teacher has acquired a real authority over his pupils, and when he has learned to make himself and the class - room loved, he may easily vary the processes of discipline ; he may invent punishments which, without effect in other places, are very efficient in his school. For example, we know of teachers who, if they are not pleased with a pupil, simply cut him off from the number of those whom they will take out with them for a wdk on the following Thursday. Somewhere else, in a school where there is a study hour before or after the class, according to the season, the most ob- vious punishment is to forbid pupils entrance into the room. Corporal Punishment. On thequestionof corporal punish- ment we know that French pedagogy, which forbids it, is 1 M. Anthoine, op. cit. t p. 17. ig6 MORAL EDUCATION. profoundly distinguished from foreign pedagogy, which usually tolerates it and sometimes recommends it. In Ger- many particularly there are still to be counted very urgent advocates in favor of material punishments. They are effective, it is said ; they do not require much time ; they are perfectly adapted to children with whom " the physical nature prevails over the intellectual and moral nature." The official circulars of the Bavarian government limit the number and kind of blows: six blows of the rod on the hand, or, in grave cases, six lashes. Grave teachers discuss the respect- ive advantages of the cane and the rod ; they ask whether the rod should be flexible and smooth, of the size of the little finger, and on what parts of the body punishment should be administered. Finally, they call our French repugnance for these processes of another age " false human- ity," and quote with admiration the pleasantry of Dr. Zim- mermann who said : " Our birch is a precious tree, were it only because it produces the eminently practical instrument by means of which the education of man has been carried to the culminating point which it has reached to-day." For our part, we are not disposed to recognize the vir- tues of the birch, nor to admit the legitimacy of the disci- pline which Locke in his day pronounced the worst of all. " This sort of correction naturally breeds an aversion to that which it is the tutor's business to create a liking to. ... Such a sort of slavish discipline makes a slavish temper. The child sub- mits and dissembles obedience whilst the fear of the rod hangs over him ; but when that is removed, and, by being out of sight, he can promise himself impunity, he gives the greater scope to his natural inclination. ... If severity carried to the highest pitch does prevail, and works a cure upon the present unruly dis- temper, it is often bringing in the room of it worse and more DISCIPLINE. 197 dangerous disease, by breaking the mind ; and then, in the place of a disorderly young fellow, you have a low-spirited, moped creature." x Rewards. When we speak of discipline, the first idea that occurs to the mind is that of punishments ; but rewards also form a part of disciplinary agents, and a good system of rewards may even render the employment of punishments, to a certain extent, useless. To proscribe rewards would be an attempt to exclude from education one of the most important springs of action, namely, emulation. " Through lack of the stimulus of emulation," said Pascal, " the pupils of Port Royal fall into listlessness. ' 6mile, who has neither stimulus nor rein,' wrote Voltaire, ' will end by doing fool- ish things ; and Rousseau's fifth book is not precisely to demon- strate the contrary.' A reward is the proof which translates to the eyes of the child, to the eyes of all, the esteem of which he is the object." 2 General Character of Rewards. Just as the object of pun- ishment is to establish in the child's mind an association of ideas between the fault committed and some suffering or privation ; so a reward is intended to connect the idea of a duty accomplished with that of the pleasure which results from it. The child can never be led by the simple attraction of the good pursued for its own sake. The feeling of duty, limited to its own resources, said Guizot, can not be to the child a sufficient motive. Why then refuse to take advan- tage of the principles of activity which God has made insep- arable from human nature by giving to men needs, interests, and passions? But of course rewards must be used to excite 1 Thoughts on Education, 49 et seq. 3 M. Gr^ard, op. cif., p. 182. 1 98 MORAL EDUCATION. in these feelings only the noble and the good which they contain. Rewards which favor the development of danger- ous motives ought to be proscribed without mercy. Of this sort are the purely material rewards which, in a general way, fortify in he child the taste for pleasure, and which, for example, encourage gluttony in boys and coquetry in girls. A contemporary educator, Alexander Martin, rightly observes that there is a great difference between a reward promised in advance, which the pupil claims as a sort of salary with the fierceness of a creditor, and an unexpected reward, granted with perfect freedom by parents or by the teacher, and which, following an accomplished duty, comes simply to increase the pleasure which the child already finds in a satisfied conscience. Notwithstanding the correctness of these observations, it is almost impossible, at least in public education, to subscribe to the conclusions of the author who would discard rewards of the first kind, those which are announced and foreseen. In school, rewards, like punishments, should for the most part be fixed by a rule which the teacher should depart from as seldom as pos- sible. Different Kinds of Rewards. Rewards "vary with the nature of the feelings which they aim at in the child. At one time, like caresses, they are addressed only to the affectionate emotions and are chiefly in place during infancy ; at another, like praises, they flatter self-esteem and the love of approbation ; and at still others, like prizes and little bankbooks which are distributed at school, they respond to interested instincts. Belgian educators recommend : i. The approbation of the teacher ; 2, good marks ; 3, prizes ; 4, credits in the book of honor; 5, the pleasure of making awards. DISCIPLINE. I gg This is about the list of rewards used in French schools. M. Rendu enumerates them as follows : Rank in class according to weekly result of compositions and examina- tions ; good marks granted for conduct and for application to study ; exemptions and notes of approval ; the inscription on the roll of honor displayed in school ; medals and dec- orations; distribution of prizes. Commendation. Strictly speaking, all rewards are but the external signs of the teacher's approbation and of the judg- ment which he places on the merit of his pupils. It is their merit, in fact, and not the natural gifts of their intelligence, which must be rewarded. Children must never be praised, said Guizot, for what has not depended on their will or for what has not cost them an effort and a sacrifice. Within these limits the best of rewards is certainly the commenda- tion announced by the teacher, a commendation which will be the more effective as the teacher has been able to inspire a greater affection and respect, and as the pupil experiences the more vividly the feeling of the honor bestowed. Emulation. Commendation and rewards of all sorts would not produce their effect if we had not appealed to that powerful principle of activity called emulation, and which is the result both of a personal feeling based on self- esteem, and of a higher feeling, a sort of aspiration for excellence and perfection. In fact, in its noblest aspect, emulation resembles generous ambition or love of glory. Doubtless the rival wishes above everything else to equal or surpass his competitor, but he also pursues his ideal ; and the function of the teacher ought to be to develop emula- tion in this direction, turning it aside from its selfish ten- dencies in order to direct it toward the pursuit of the 200 MORAL EDUCATION. Emulation is a delicate spring which must be handled with prudence, and which ought not to be stretched beyond measure; but which, in the hands of a skillful teacher, animates the school, excites to study, and maintains a noble ardor in intellectual pursuits. Higher End of Discipline. Discipline, with its punish- ments and rewards, has for its first result the maintenance of order and decorum in the school, and the introduction of stu- dious habits ; but it is far from having obtained its purpose if it is content with that immediate satisfaction felt by the teacher when he sees silence reigning around him in the ranks of his attentive and studious pupils. This result might be obtained even with bad discipline, a discipline of iron, which considers each pupil as a creature to be subdued. The teacher must aim higher, must look beyond his class-room and must think of the future of his pupils. The day will come when they will have to govern themselves, when they will no longer be subject to the rules of the school. And this makes still more apparent the necessity of a discipline, at once mild and strong, affectionate and severe, of a liberal discipline which, while governing the child, refrains from humiliating and enslaving him, from destroying his natural inclinations, but which prepares him for becoming a man, that is, for remaining free while obedient to law. SUMMARY. 171. The best conducted moral education, that which aims to form the habits, to cultivate the feelings and to develop the will, can not dispense with discipline, that is to say, with a system of punishments and rewards. 172. Punishments and rewards doubtless have their disadvantages; the first may humiliate the child and excite DISCIPLINE. 201 the spirit of revolt ; the second may make the pupil proud and inspire him with vanity; but they are necessary not- withstanding, and the skill of him who uses them can cor- rect their defects. 173. It is an illusion to attempt to govern children without resorting to the fear of punishment or to the hope of a reward. 174. It is also an illusion to think of entrusting to nature alone the care of punishing the child. 175. The system of natural reactions is inadmissible, because nature is not always just, because her action is slow and often out of proportion to the gravity of the fault com mitted, and finally, because this system substitutes the calcu- lations of interest for moral ideas. 176. The teacher ought to intervene directly by repri- mands and by effective punishments. 177. Punishments should be at the same time means of intimidation and means of reform. 178. In order that a chastisement may be effective, the child punished must especially feel in the punishment the shame of being punished. 179. When the teacher's authority is firmly established, it is easy for him to invent new punishments and to vary his means of discipline. 1 80. Corporal chastisements, still tolerated abroad, are the worst of all. 181. Discipline comprises not only means of repression, but resorts to rewards or means of excitation and encourage- ment. 182. The purpose of a reward is to associate with the idea of a duty done, the idea of the pleasure which results from it. 183. It is necessary to make a choice among the differ- 202 MORAL EDUCATION. ent feelings which are aimed at and are attained by rewards ; the principal one is self-esteem, the source of emulation. 184. Rewards ought to be merely the external signs of the teacher's approbation and of the judgment which he passes on the merits of his pupils. 185. The higher aim of discipline is not merely to maintain order and habits of study in the school, but to prepare children for becoming men and for governing them- selves. [CHAPTER XV. THE MAJOR MOVEMENTS OF THE MIND IN THE ACT OF LEARNING. A SYNOPSIS OF APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY. Two Points of View. A treatise on Physiology may be written from two different points of view: (i) it may be written from the standpoint of the dissecting table, regard- ing the body simply as an aggregate of organs which are to be named and then described as to their several functions ; or, (2) it may regard the body as a living organism, assimi- lating aliment and manifesting the phenomena of life and growth. In other words, there may be an abstract or descriptive Physiology written by the mere anatomist ; and a concrete or living Physiology like Jean Mace*'s History of a Mouthful of Bread, which shows us the human machine in motion with its organs actually doing their correlated work. In a similar manner there may be two Psychologies, the abstract or descriptive, and the concrete or living ; either a display of isolated functions or a picture of the living organism manifesting a group of correlated activities. It is only a Psychology of the second kind that can be directly and largely useful to teachers. Motive and Will. The art of control is based on the handling of motive. He who can control another's motives governs his conduct. It is commonly thought that the sole constituent of motive is feeling, but it is more correct to say that the antecedent to an act of the will may be partly if not wholly intellectual. It often happens that desire strongly 203 204 A SYNOPTICAL VIEW. c 4> O . c e a, .0 'i* 13 (^ C .2 i 5 ' c > ' a < c o MOVEMENTS OF THE MIND. 20$ impels us to a certain course, but that reflection or reason countermands this order, and either assists our purpose or gives a different direction to our conduct. In other cases reason reinforces feeling and then the motive has double power. So far as can be discovered, brutes are governed entirely by feeling, and savages and mere children very largely so ; but as man rises to higher and higher states of culture, his motives become more and more of the intel- lectual type. In the education of motive and will the aim should be to bring the feelings under the control of the judgment, to enlist them in the service of right reason, or to make larger and larger additions to the purely intellect- ual element in motive. Attractive and Propulsive Motives. The stimulants to the will are either pleasurable or painful ; they either invite us forward by placing some hope before us, or they push us on by placing some fear behind us. Sometimes we are carried forward by the combined power of these two forces, one pulling and the other pushing, as when a train of cars is carried up a grade by two engines, one in front and one in the rear. This combination of motives is seen in a well ordered graded school where the hope of promo- tion is reinforced by the fear of de-gradation. One of the most widely diffused of motives, and one of the most easily invoked, is the desire to please. The basis of this motive is respect or affection. It is easy to obey the commands of those we love. A teacher who has made him- self loved and respected may call his pupils wherever right reason directs them to go. Pleasure or profit in prospect is another motive of the attractive sort. By connecting the hope of some future enjoyment or profit with even a burdensome task, the pupil 206 A SYNOPTICAL VIEW. zealously applies himself to it and will require no stimula- tion of the propulsive sort. Is it an anticipated delight to read Virgil in the original ? Then the pupil will make light work of the etymology and syntax that lie between him and his promised enjoyment. Skillful teaching will develop a third motive of this class which Mr. Bain has happily called intrinsic charm, a feeling developed by the pupil's contact with the book or the sub- ject, as when a work of fiction is read with a rising tide of feeling, or when the pursuit of some science" throws the mind into a state of pleasurable activity. The rise of this motive is dependent on the pupil's ability to understand and appreciate the subject of his study; and it is at these points that the intervention of the teacher is required, not indeed to relieve the pupil of effort, but to make his efforts successful. But attractive motives will not always avail, and so it sometimes becomes necessary to resort to painful stimula- tion. Motives of this sort take the form of apprehension, dread, or fear, and conduct is determined by the effort to escape some pain or suffering, actual or imminent. Such motives are not always debasing, for there are noble fears and noble sorrows ; but in the main, motives of this sort are depressing and expensive. A hope is always recupera- tive, it adds sensibly to our powers of conquest or of resistance ; but apprehension, dread, and fear sap our strength and becloud our intellectual vision. Loss of favor, loss of standing, loss of privilege ; rebuke, censure, reproof; physical suffering in some form or degree; these are forms of painful stimulation which must be em- ployed as motives when other and better means fail. In the use of motives the following rules are to be observed : MOVEMENTS OF THE MIND. 20? 1. Let the first and main resort be to motives of the attractive sort ; but rather than fail to move the pupil in the line of duty, resort, if necessary, to some form of pain- ful stimulation, but the mildest that will overcome the resistance offered. 2. Resort to the highest motive that is operative in the given case ; but resort to lower motives rather than fail in your purpose. Attention; Concentration. The Parable of the Sower lends itself to a happy interpretation in pedagogy. Often the more difficult half of teaching consists in preparing the mind to gain knowledge by the exercise of its native powers. Just as the soil and the seed are joint factors in the production of a harvest; so the seeds of knowledge must fall into a mind that is rich, mellow, and responsive, if teaching is to be followed by its proper results. The ideal state of mind for the pupil is that of eager expectancy, of intellectual hunger, and of keen relish. Very often these conditions are to be created by the teacher, and in this capture of the attention and in this excitation of zeal he needs the delicate tact and persuasive powers of the orator. The bane of many school - rooms is a lazy listlessness that is almost a school vice, and a prolific source of failures in teaching is the teacher's inability to summon and hold the attention. When a deft handling qf motive has given the mind the habit of attention, acquisition and retention will almost take care of themselves. Acquisition and Retention. The process of photography illustrates some of the higher mysteries of teaching. A sur- face made delicately sensitive to light ; the careful focusing of the object ; the incorporation of the image into the sub- 2O8 A SYNOPTICAL VIEW. stance of the plate; its faithful preservation and prompt restoration, these typify analogous processes in the art of learning; and if this plate could receive and hold an unlimited succession of impressions, and were endowed with the further power of modifying and combining them, the analogy would be little less than perfect. By a singu- lar recoil from an old error this conservative power of the mind has fallen into great discredit ; but on it is dependent the very possibility of education. How to increase the mind's power to acquire and hold is one of the main prob- lems in pedagogy ; and it is reassuring to reflect that we have done the most for these powers when we have made the attention alert and vigorous by a wholesome stimulation of the will. The Grounds of Knowledge. The original ground or source of knowledge is experience, but when the results of experience have been capitalized and embodied in symbols, language becomes a secondary source of knowledge. Most of the knowledge which the student of to - day is expected to acquire must come from the interpretation of books, and one main purpose of the school is to teach pupils the art of interpreting written composition. Starting from the fact that experience is the original source of knowledge, theo- rists have tried to give plausibility to the doctrine that learning should be a process of rediscovery. It is some- times forgotten that in some subjects, as history, a resort to experience is impossible; that in others, as geography, learning by experience is limited to such a narrow field as to be practically inadmissible ; and that in all cases where such a method is theoretically possible, it is actually imprac- ticable save as a diversion or an expedient for introducing the student into some of the processes of scientific discov- MOVEMENTS OF THE MIND. 2OQ ery. Mr. Bain judges this hypothesis correctly when he pronounces it "a bold fiction." Reproduction, Re -presentation, Recollection. What is actually before our minds at any given moment, in the way of knowledge, is but a very small fraction of what we really know. Our minds not only have latent power but latent knowledge, and a proper stimulus may at any time call into consciousness images, ideas, and thoughts which have been lying dormant, it may be for years. In revery, such thoughts and images reappear in slow procession ; and at other times they flit across the field of mental vision and then disappear as rapidly as they came. But by an effort of the will past states of consciousness may not only be revived but may be held steadily before the mental vision for analysis, comparison, and comprehension. In the rapid flow of mental life first presentations are necessarily vague and crude; but they are held by the portative memory till the moment of review and revision comes, when they are re - presented for elaboration into something better fitted for the mind's higher uses. This reappearance of old matter in consciousness may occur indefinitely, as the perfecting of a thought may require its re - presentation for the thousandth time. Elaboration, Assimilation, Thought Proper. All the pro- cesses thus far described are merely preparatory to the one now to be considered, elaboration or thought proper, which is the characteristic function of the mind. These subsidiary processes lead up to the accumulation and pre- servation of material for the mind's higher uses, whose real power is manifested only as it reacts on this aliment in the way of elaboration and transformation. This is the field for the highest display of the teacher's art ; it is the capital M 210 A SYNOPTICAL VIEW. point in the series of processes included in this synopsis. Teaching of the ordinary type stops with mere acquisition ; it does not enrich the pupil's mind by aiding him in trans- forming this crude material into character, habit, opinion, and power. Just as food accumulated in the stomach con- tributes nothing to the nurture and growth of the body save as it is caused to pass through a series of upward trans- formations ; so knowledge that has been accumulated lies inert in the mind, almost as a foreign substance, unless it is made to submit to the reactions of thought proper. In the main, these reactions consist in reflecting, judging, and reasoning. Mode of Reaction. The initial movement of the mind as it deals with the matter re -presented and brought within the range of its activities is by way of resolution or analy- sis; and the complementary movement is reintegrating or synthetic. In these respects the analogy between mental growth and physical growth is almost perfect. In both cases the movement is first from aggregates to elements, and then from select elements to aggregates of a higher type. To begin with mere elements in either process is "unnatural" in the best sense of this term. Teaching that stops with the mere analysis of a presen- tation has a large value even though it go no further % c or the elements left by a correct analysis have a natural tend- ency to arrange themselves in new combinations. The Teacher's Instrument of Analysis. This instrument is interrogation. By deft questions the pupil's mind is directed from point to point of an aggregate till the whole is virtually resolved into its essential parts, and when these are once discerned the obscure aggregate is instantly trans - MOVEMENTS OF THE MIND. 211 formed into an aggregate that is clear, a mere glance of the mind sufficing for the synthetic effort. Let this aggregate be taken as an example : " The principle of similarity is the law of gravitation of the intellectual world." "What two things are included in this statement?" " The principal of similarity and the law of gravitation." " What is the effect of this law ?" " I do not know." " Suppose the earth were to be partially released from this law, what would begin to happen ?" " Objects would begin to fly from its surface." " Before they had gone far, sup- pose the law to be restored, what would then happen ?" " These objects would be brought back to the earth." " What, then, is the general effect of this law ?" " It binds parts into a whole." " Now, what is declared in the statement quoted ?" " That the principle of similarity plays a part in the intel- lectual world similar to the part played by the law of gravitation in the physical world." " Do you now see that this is true ?" " Not yet." " Suppose the mind had no power to discover resemblances in what it knows." " Now I see. This principle allows us to classify our knowledge, and so reduces it to unity." In this way an abstract proposition has been understood. I have given this illustration at some length, because it is typical of the processes by which the pupil is to be assisted in the art of thinking. He must be taught to reflect, and reflecting is hardly more than asking one's self questions. Memory. It may not be correct to say that there are two memories, as the "Portative" and the "Assimilative," though these are very convenient terms ; but there are cer- 212 A SYNOPTICAL VIEW. tainly two degrees or two forms of memory, the one preceding elaboration and the other following it. Previous to the exercise of this, its higher function, the mind holds the crude materials for thinking ; and when this process has been completed it also holds the finished products of thought. In the first instance, these acquisitions are much like foreign matter, almost as distinct from the mind itself as food is from the stomach that holds it ; but by the process of elaboration this material is transformed and is then held in the mind by a sort of organic registration. Oftentimes this transformation amounts to a loss of identity more or less complete ; and knowledge may reappear as opinion, or as emotion, just as food may reappear as tissue, or as muscular power. May one Memorize what at the Time he does not Under- stand? This is a much mooted question in pedagogy, and is usually answered very absolutely in the negative. But this answer is contradicted by the plainest facts of the intellectual life. The impressions left on the mind through sense activity, for example, the numberless sights and sounds that confront us at every turn, differ in no essential respect, so far as memory is concerned, from verbal state- ments learned from a book; but no one would presume to assert that a given sight, as of some natural phenomenon, should not be impressed on the mind and there held by the memory, save as it has been previously understood. The fact is, that such an understanding is impossible save as the impression has been previously made. The same thing is true of a sentence, a poem, or a definition ; in some form, or in some degree, it must be held before the mind by an exercise of its conservative power as a preliminary condition of its being examined and understood. The MOVEMENTS OF THE MIND. 213 effort to understand a thing presupposes that this thing is already within the range of the mind's activities, and it is only by some form of memory that it can be brought and held there while the inquest is in progress. It is not so much an over -use of the memory, as an under -use of re- flection and reason, that is to be deplored. In the old edu- cation the exaggerated belief in the value of memory was no doubt a superstition ; but in our recoil from this error we have fallen into a new superstition no less dangerous. The Memory of Ideas and the Memory of Words. After we have read a book, or listened to a lecture, we may be able to reproduce the general scheme of thought, but may not be able to recall a single verbal statement from either book or lecture. What is in our mind is a train of ideas, and if these ideas are at all fixed by words, these words are ours, not the author's or the speaker's. If instead of merely reading the book or listening to the lecture we had learned a paragraph verbatim, the thought could have been reproduced in the exact form in which the writer or the speaker had embodied it. This is what is called learning by heart, and is the practice that is so gen- erally condemned. The essential difference between these two processes is this : while in both cases the thought is held and trans- ported by means of words, in the first these words and senten- ces are more or less vague and uncertain, almost indetermin- ate, while in the second they are fixed and definite, the thought has a form all its own, and this form has a content all its own. As this doctrine affects teaching, the practical question is this : In what cases will the loose memory of words suffice, and in what cases does exact memorizing become necessary? 214 A SYNOPTICAL VIEW. Idea and Term. " First the idea and then the term," is another of those absolute judgments that discredit modern pedagogy. In all cases where knowledge or truth is com- municated by language, it is the term which confronts us first; for to interpret language is to infer thought from form. Reading is evidently impossible on the hypothesis that the idea must precede the term that expresses it. Both in the world of books and in the world of nature idea or thought is the second term of the sequence, term or form being the first. In infancy the child has, doubtless, many experiences for which he has no name ; but he has even a greater number of names for which he has no content. In this case sequence from term to idea is just as "natural" as the sequence from idea to term, the only essential thing being that there should be formed an indissoluble union between the word and its content. "Words come to us as empty vessels which we are to fill from within. Words teach us much, but they teach us less by what is in them than by what is not in them, less by what they give to us than by what they demand from us." 1 SUMMARY. 1 86. Teaching is mainly an applied psychology; but that this science may be largely and directly useful to teachers, they need to study the mind as an active organism engaged in the acquisition and elaboration of knowledge. 187. The successive movements of the mind when directed by the teacher in the work of instruction are as follows : motive and will ; attention or concentration ; acquisition and retention; reproduction and re -presenta- tion ; elaboration or thought proper ; the formation of character, habit, opinion. 1 D. A. Wasson, in Atlantif Monthly. MOVEMENTS OF THE MIND. 215 1 88. The pupil is governed by determining his motives. Some motives attract and others propel. Among motives of the attractive sort are the desire to please, pleasure or profit in prospect, and intrinsic charm ; while loss of favor, loss of standing, rebuke, reproof, and censure, are forms of painful stimulation. 189. In his use of motive, the teacher should observe the following rules : (i) appeal first to motives of the attractive sort; (2) appeal to the highest motive that is operative in the given case. 190. The more difficult half of teaching consists in bringing the mind into a fit state for learning. It should be attentive, alert and expectant. 191. The very possibility of education depends on the mind's power to retain its acquisitions ; and this power is best increased by stimulating the attention through fit motives. 192. The two sources of knowledge are experience and books ; and one main purpose of the school should be to teach pupils the art of interpreting language as a means of gaining knowledge. 193. In order that the mind's acquisitions may serve their proper uses, they must be reproduced and re -pre- sented for elaboration. 194. The capital and characteristic activity of the mind is the elaborative process, or thought proper. In this pro- cess the mind reacts on the presentations made to it, and by reflection, judgment, and reasoning, transforms crude mate- rial into organic structure. 195. The mind's mode of reaction is first by resolution or analysis, and then by integration or synthesis. The movement is from vague wholes to clear wholes through analysis and synthesis. 2l6 A SYNOPTICAL VIEW. 196. The teacher's instrument of analysis Is interroga- tion. By apt questions an aggregate is resolved into its proximate elements, and then a new whole is reconstructed out of select parts. 197. There are two forms or degrees of memory, one that precedes elaboration and one that follows it. The first holds the crude materials for thinking, and the second the finished products of thought. 198. Some degree of memory must needs precede the understanding ; and one may commit to memory what at the moment he does not understand. 199. A thought may be held in the mind by a loose form of words, as when we retrace the theme of a book or of a lecture; or it may be embodied in a set form of words exactly memorized. Exact memorizing facilitates both the examination of a thought and its recall. 200. There is no fixed sequence as between idea and term. The only essential thing is that they be brought into an indissoluble union.] ENGLISH LANG UA GE. Hyde's Lessons in English, Book I. For the lower grades. Contains exercise* for reproduction, picture lessons, letter writing, uses of parts of speech, etc. 40 cts. Hyde's Lessons in English, Book II. For Grammar schools. Has enough tech- nical grammar for correct use of language. 60 cts. Hyde's Lessons in English, Book II with Supplement. Has, in addition to the above, 118 pages of technical grammar. 70 cts. Supplement bound alone, 35 cts. Hyde's Advanced Lessons in English. For advanced classes in grammar schools and high schools. 60 cts. Hyde's Lessons in English, Book II with Advanced Lessons. The Ad- vanced Lessons and Book II bound together. 80 cts. Hyde's Derivation of Words. 15 cts. Mathews's Outline of English Grammar, with Selections for Practice, The application of principles is made through composition of original sentences. 80 cts. Buckbee'S Primary Word Book. 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Cook's The Bible and English Prose Style. Approaches the study of the Bible from the literary side. 60 cts. Simonds' Sir Thomas Wyatt and his Poems. 168 pages. With biography, and critical analysis of his poems. 75 cts. Hall's BeOWulf. A metrical translation, f i.oo. Students' edition. 35 cts. Norton's Heart Of Oak BOOks. A series of five volumes giving selections from the choicest English literature. Phillips's History and Literature in Grammar Grades. An essay showing th intimate relation of the two subjects. 15 cts. Ste alto our list of looks for th* study oftht English La D. C. HEATH & CO., PUBLISHERS. BOSTON. NEW YORK. CHICAGO. NUMBER. White's TWO Years with Numbers. Number Lessons for second and third year pupils. 40 cts. AtWOOd'S Complete Graded Arithmetic. Present a carefully graded course in arithmetic, to begin with the fourth year and continue through the eighth year. Part I. 200 pages. Cloth. 40 cts. Part II. 382 pages. Half leather. 75 cts. 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Consists of 25 cards for sight-work with objects from one to ten. 40 cts. Badlam's Aids tO Number. For Pupils. First Series. Supplements the above with material for slate work. Leatherette. 30 cts. Badlam's Aids tO Number. For Teachers. Second Series. Teachers' sight-work with objects above ten. 40 cts. Badlam's Aids tO Number. For Pupils. Second Series. Supplements above with material for slate work from 10 to 20. Leatherette. 30 cts. Badlam's Number Chart, n x 14 inches. Designed to aid in teaching the four fundamental rules in lowest primary grades. 5 cts. each ; per hundred $4.00. Luddington's Picture Problems. 70 cards, 3x5 inches, in colors, to teach by pic- tures combinations from one to ten. 65 cts. Pierce's Review Number Cards. Two cards, 7x9, for rapid work for second and third year pupils. 3 cts. each ; per hundred $2.40. Howland's Drill Card. For rapid practice work in middle grades. 3 cts. each; pel hundred $2.40. For advanced work see our list of books in Mathematics. D. C. HEATH & CO., PUBLISHERS, BOSTON. NEW YORK. CHICAGO. MATHEMATICS. Bowser's Academic Algebra. A complete treatise through the progressions, inclad ing Permutations, Combinations, and the Binomial Theorem. Half leather. $1.15. Bowser's College Algebra. A complete treatise for colleges and scientific school* Half leather. $1.65. Bowser's Plane and Solid Geometry. Combines th excellences of Euclid with those of the best modern writers. Half leather, f 1.35. Bowser's Plane Geometry. Half leather. 85 cts. Bowser's Elements of Plane and Spherical Trigonometry. A brief course prepared especially for High Schools and Academies. Half leather. Ji.oo. Bowser's Treatise on Plane and Spherical Trigonometry. An advanced work which covers the entire course in higher institutions. Half leather. $1.65. Hanus's Geometry in the Grammar Schools. An essay, together with illustrative class exercises and an outline of the work for the last three years of the grammar school. 52 pages. 25 cts. Hopkin'S Plane Geometry. On the heuristic plan. Half leather. 85 cts. Hunt's Concrete Geometry for Grammar Schools. The definitions and ele- mentary concepts are to be taught concretely, by much measuring, by the making of models and diagrams by the pupil, as suggested by the text or by his own invention. 100 pages. Boards. 30 cts. WaldO'8 Descriptive Geometry. A large number of problems systematically ar- ranged and with suggestions. 90 cts. The New Arithmetic. By 300 teachers. Little theory and much practice. Also ait excellent review book. 230 pages. 75 cts. For Arithmetics and otfier elementary work see our list of books in Number. D. C. HEATH & CO., PUBLISHERS, BOSTON. NEW YORK. CHICAGO. SCIENCE. Shaler'S First Book in Geology. For high school, or highest class la grammar school. $1.10. Bound in boards for supplementary reader. 70 cts. Ballard'8 World Of Matter. A Guide to Mineralogy and Chemistry. $1.00. Shepard'S Inorganic Chemistry. Descriptive and Qualitative experimental and inductive; leads the student to observe and think. For high schools and colleges. $1.25. Shepard's Briefer Course in Chemistry ; with Chapter on Organic Chemistry. Designed for schools giving a half year or less to the subject, and schools limited in laboratory facilities, go cts. Shepard'S Organic Chemistry. The portion on organic chemistry in Shepard's Briefer Course is bound in paper separately. Paper. 30 cts. Shepard'S Laboratory Note-Book. Blanks for experiments: tables for ther*. actions of metallic salts. Can be used with any chemistry. Boards. 40 cts. Benton's Guide to General Chemistry. A manual for the laboratory. 40 cu. Organic Chemistry. An Introduction to the Study of the Compounds of Carbon. For students of the pure science, or its application to arts. #1.30. Omdorff's Laboratory Manual. Containing directions for a course of experiments in Organic Chemistry, arranged to accompany Remsen's Chemistry. Boards. 40 cts. Coit's Chemical Arithmetic. With a short system of Elementary Qualitative Analysis For high schools and colleges. 60 cts. Grabfield and Burns' Chemical Problems. For preparatory schools. 60 cts. Chute's Practical PhysiCS. A laboratory book for high schools and colleges study- ing physics experimentally. Gives free details for laboratory work. $1.25. ColtOn's Practical Zoology. Gives a clear idea of the subject as a whole, by the careful study of a few typical animals. 90 cts. Boyer's Laboratory Manual in Elementary Biology. A guide to the study of animals and plants, and is so constructed as to be of no help to the pupil unless he actually studies the specimens. Clark's Methods in MicrOSCOpy. This book gives in detail descriptions of methods that will lead any careful worker to successful results in microscopic manipulation. Ji.oo. Spalding's Introduction tO Botany. Practical Exercises in the Study of Plants by the laboratory method. 90 cts. Whiting's Physical Measurement. Intended for students in Civil, Mechani- cal and Electrical Engineering, Surveying, Astronomical Work, Chemical Analysis, Phys- ical Investigation, and other branches in which accurate measurements are required. I. Fifty measurements in Density, Heat, Light, and Sound. $1.30. II. Fifty measurements in Sound, Dynamics, Magnetism, Electricity. $1.30. III. Principles and Methods of Physical Measurement, Physical Laws and Princi- IV. $1.30. Parts I-III, in one vol., $3.25. Parts I-IV, in one vol., $4.00. Williams 'S Modern Petrography. An account of the application of the microi scope to the study of geology. Paper. 25 cts. For elementary works see our list of books in Elementary Scienct. D. C. HEATH & CO., PUBLISHERS. BOSTON. NEW YORK CHICAGO. ELEMENTARY SCIENCE. Bailey's Grammar School Physics. A series of inductive lessons in the elements of the science. In press. Ballard's The World Of Matter. A guide to the study of chemistry and mineralogy; adapted to the general reader, for use as a text-book or as a guide to the teacher in giving object-lessons. 264 pages. Illustrated. |i.oo. Clark's Practical Methods in Microscopy. Gives in detail descriptions of methods that will lead the careful worker to successful results. 233 pages. Illustrated. $1.60. Clarke's Astronomical Lantern. Intended to familiarize students with the constella- tions by comparing them with fac-similes on the lantern face. With seventeen slides, giving twenty-two constellations. $4.50. Clarke's HOW tO find the Stars. Accompanies the above and helps to an acquaintance with the constellations. 47 pages. Paper. 15 cts. Guides for Science Teaching. Teachers' aids in the instruction of Natural History classes in the lower grades. I. Hyatt's About Pebbles. 26 pages. Paper. 10 cts. II. Goodale's A Few Common Plants. 61 pages. Paper. 20 cts. III. Hyatt's Commercial and other Sponges. Illustrated. 43 pages. Paper. 20 cts. IV. Agassiz's First Lessons in Natural History. Illustrated. 64 pages. Paper. 25 cts. V. Hyatt's Corals and Echinoderms. Illustrated. 32 pages. Paper. 30 cts. VI. Hyatt's Mollusca. Illustrated. 65 pages. Paper. 30 cts. VII Hvatt's Worms and Crustacea. Illustrated. 68 pages. Paper. 30 cts. VIII Hyatt's Insecta. Illustrated. 324 pages. Cloth. $1.25. XII- < rosby's Common Minerals and Rocks. Illustrated. 200 pages. Paper, 40 cts. Cloth, 60 cts. XIII Kichard's First Lessons in Minerals. 50 pages. Paper. 10 cts. XIV Bowditch's Physiology. 58 pages. Paper. 20 cts. XV Clapp's 36 Observation Lessons in Minerals. 80 pages. Paper. 30 cts. XVI Phenix's Lessons in Chemistry. In press. Pupils Note-Book to accompany No. 15. 10 cts. Rice's Science Teaching in the School. With a course of instruction in science for the lower grades. 46 pag s. Paper. 35 cts. Ricks'S Natural History Object Lessons. Supplies information on plant* and their products, on animals and their uses, and gives specimen lessons. Fully illustrated. 332 pages. 1 1. 50. Ricks's Object Lessons and How to Give them. Volume I. Gives lessons for primary grades. 200 pages. 90 cts. Volume II. Gives lessons tor grammar and intermediate grades. 212 pages. 90 cts. S baler's First Book in Geology. For high school, or highest class in grammar school. ?72 pages. Illustrated, f j.oo. Shaler's Teacher's Methods in Geology. An aid to the teacher of Geology. 74 pages. Paper. 25 cts. Smith's Studies in Nature. A combination of /atu/al history lessons and language work. 48 pages. Paper. 15 cts. Sent by mail postpaid on receipt of price. See also our list of books in Science* D. C. HEATH & CO., PUBLISHERS, BOSTON. NEW YORK. CHICAGO. HISTORY. Sheldon's General History. For high school and college. The only history fol- lowing the " seminary " or laboratory plan, now advocated by all leading teachers. Price, $1.60. Sheldon's Greek and Roman History. Contains the first 250 pages of the above book. Price, $1.00. Teacher's Manual to Sheldon's History. Puts iato the instructor's hand the key to the above system. Price, 80 cents. Sheldon's Aids to the Teaching of General History. Gives list of essential books for reference library. Price, 10 cents. Bridgman's Ten Years of Massachusetts. Pictures the development of the Commonwealth as seen in its laws. Price, 75 cents. Shumway's A Day in Ancient Borne. With 59 illustrations. Should find a place as a supplementary reader in every high school class studying Cicero, Horace Tacitus, etc. Price, 75 cents. Old South Leaflets on IT. S. History. Reproductions of important political and historical papers, accompanied by useful notes. Price, 5 cents each. Per hun- dred, $3 oo. This general series of Old South Leaflets now includes the following subjects : The Constitution of the United States, The Articles of Confederation, The De- claration of Independence, Washington's Farewell Address, MagnaCharta, Vane's " Healing Question," Charter of Massachusetts Bay, 1629, Fundamental Orders of Connecticut, 1638, Franklin's Plan of Union, 1754, Washington's Inaugurals, Lincoln's Inaugurals and Emancipation Proclamation, The Federalist, Nos. i and 2, The Ordinance of 1 787, The Constitution of Ohio, Washington's Letter to Benjamin Harrison, Washington's Circular Letter to the Governors. (38 Leaflets now ready.) Allen's History Topics. Covers Ancient, Modern, and American history, ancj gives an excellent list of books of reference. Price, 25 cents. Fisher's Select Bibliog. of Ecclesiastical History. An annotated list of the most essential books for a Theological student's library. Price, 15 cents. Hall's Methods of Teaching History. " Its excellence and helpfulness ought t secure it many readers." The Nation. Price, $1.50. Wilson's The State. Elements of Historical and Practical Politics. A text-book for advanced classes in high schools and colleges on the organization and funo tions of governments. Retail price, $2.00. D. C. HEATH & CO., Publishers, BOSTON, NEW YORK AND CHICAGO* Civics, ECONOMICS, AND SOCIOLOGY. Boutwell's The Constitution of the United States at the End of the First Century. Contains the Organic Laws of the United States, with references to the decisions of the Supreme Court which elucidate the text, and an historical chapter re- viewing the steps which led to the adoption of these Organic Laws. In priss. Dole's The American Citizen. Designed as a text-book in Civics and morals for the higher grades of the grammar school as well as for the high school and academy. Con- tains Constitution of United States, with analysis. 336 pages. #1.00. Special editions are made for Illinois, Indiana, Ohio, Missouri, Nebraska, No. Dakota, So. Dakota, Wisconsin, Minnesota, Kansas, Texas. Goodale's Questions to Accompany Dole's The American Citizen. Con- tains, beside questions on the text, suggestive questions and questions for class debate. 87 pages. Paper. 25 cts. Gide's Principles Of Political Economy. Translated from the French by Dr. Jacobsen of London, with introduction by Prof. James Bonar of Oxford. 598 pages. $2.00. Henderson's Introduction to the Study of Dependent, Defective, and Delinquent Classes. Adapted for use as a text-book, for personal study, for teachers' and ministers' institutes, and for clubs of public-spirited men and women engaged in considering some of the gravest problems of society. 287 pages. $1.50. Hodgin'S Indiana and the Nation. Contains the Civil Government of the State, as well as that of the United States, with questions. 198 pages. 70 cts. Lawrence's Guide to International Law. A brief outline of the principles and practices of International Law. In press. WenzePs Comparative View Of Governments. Gives in parallel columns com- parisons of the governments of the United States, England, France, and Germany. 26 pages. Paper. 22 cts. Wilson's The State. Elements of Historical and Practical Politics. A text-book on the organization and functions of government for high schools and colleges. 720 pages. $2.00. Wilson's United States Government. For grammar and high schools. 140 pages. 60 cts. Woodburn and Hodgin's The American Commonwealth. Contains several orations from Webster and Burke, with analyses, historical and explanatory notes, and studies of the men and periods. 586 pages. $1.50. Sent by mail, pott paid on receipt of prices. See also our list of books in History. D. C. HEATH & CO., PUBLISHERS, BOSTON. NEW YORK. CHICAGO. GEOGRAPHY AND MAPS. Heath's Practical School Maps. Each 30 x 40 inches. Printed from new plates and showing latest political changes. The common school set consists of Hemispheres, No. America, So. America, Europe, Africa, Asia, United States. Eyeletted for hanging on wall, singly, $1.25; per set of seven, $7.00. Mounted on cloth and rollers. Singly, $2.00. Mounted on cloth per set of seven, $12 oo. Sunday School set. Canaan and Palestine. Singly, $1.25 ; per set of two, $2.00. Mounted, 2.00 each. Heath's Outline Map Of the United States. Invaluable for marking territorial growth and for the graphic representation of all geographical and historical matter. Small (desk) size, 2 cents each; $1.50 per hundred. Intermediate size, 30 cents each. Large size, 50 cts. Historical Outline Map Of Europe. ia x 18 inches, on bond paper, in black outline. 3 cents each; per hundred, $2.25. Jackson's Astronomical Geography. Simple enough for grammar schools. Used for a brief course in high school. 40 cts. Map of Ancient History. Outline for recording historical growth and statistics (14* 17 in.), 3 cents each ; per 100, $2.25. Nichols' Topics in Geography. A guide for pupils' use from the primary through the eighth grade. 65 cts. Picturesque Geography. 12 lithograph plates, 15 x 20 inches, and pamphlet describing their use. Per set, 3.00; mounted, $5.00. Progressive Outline Maps : United States, *World on Mercator's Projection (la x 20 in.) ; North America, South America, Europe, 'Central and Western Europe, Africa, Asia, Australia, *British Isles, *England, *Greece, *Italy, New England, Middle Atlan- tic States, Southern States, Southern States western section, Central Eastern States, Central Western States, Pacific States, New York, Ohio, The Great Lakes, Washington (State), *Palestine (each 10 x 12 in.). For the graphic representation by the pupil of geography, geology, history, meteorology, economics, and statistics of all kinds, a cents each; per hundred, $1.50. Those marked with Star (*) are also printed in black outline for use in teaching history. Redway's Manual Of Geography. I. Hints to Teachers; II. Modern Facts and Ancient Fancies. 65 cts. Redway's Reproduction of Geographical Forms. I. Sand and Clay- Modelling; II. Map Drawing aud Projection. Paper. 30 cts. Roney's Student's Outline Map Of England. For use in English History and Literature, to be filled in by pupils. 5 cts. Trotter's Lessons in the New Geography. Treats geography from the human point of view. Adapted for use as a text-book or as a reader. In press. D. C. HEATH & CO., PUBLISHERS, BOSTON. NEW YORK. CHICAGO. Music AND DRAWING. Whiting s Public School Music Course. fy Boards. Books I. to V., 112 pages each. Price each, 25 cents. Book VI., 356 pages. Price, 54 cents. Part-Song and Chorus Book. Boards. 256 pages. Price, 96 cents. This Course consists of a graded series of six elementary Music Readers (thus giving new music for each grade) and a High School Reader, with accompanying Charts. Every device that would make the books useful has been adopted. The exercises and songs are well adapted to the different grades and are all of a high order. It is believed that this series is by far the most complete and useful one ever published in this country. Whiting s Public School Music Charts. First Series, 30 charts, $6.00; Second Series, 14 charts, $3.00; charts separately (two charts on a leaf) , 50 cents. The First Series is designed for the lowest primary grades, which should be taught from the charts before they read from the First Music Reader. The Second Series is designed for the lowest Grammar Grades, and should precede the use of the Second Music Reader. These Charts are well graded, progressive, educative, and interesting. Whitings Complete Music Reader. Boards. 224 pages. Price, 75 cents. Designed for Mixed, High, and Normal Schools, Academies, and Seminaries. A large variety of exercises and solfeggios are given for practice in connection with the Rudimentary Department, which is quite complete. Two-, three-, and four-part songs constitute a very important part of the book. Supplementary Music for Public Schools. Eight pages numbers, 3 cents; Twelve pages numbers, 4 cents; Sixteen pages numbers. 5 cents. Send for complete list. New numbers are constantly being added. Whittlesey and Jamiesons Harmony in Praise. A collection of Hymns for college and school chapel exercises, and for families. 75 cents. Thompsons Educational and Industrial Drawing. As at present proposed the entire system will consist of the following Series of Drawing Books and Manuals: (i) Manual Training Series ; Two Manuals. (Ready. Price, 25 cents each.) (2) Primary Freehand Series : Four Books and Manual. (Ready. Price, $1.00 dozen.) (3) Advanced Freehand ; Four Books and Manual. (Ready. Price, $1.50 dozen.) (4) Model and Object ; Three Books and Manual. (Ready. Price, $1-75 dozen.) 5) Historical Ornament ; Three Books and Manual. ( In tress. ) (6) Decorative Design ; Three Books and Manual. (7) Geometrical ; Two Books and Manual. (8) Or- thographic Projection ; Two Books and Manual. (9) Perspective ; Three Books and Manual. This System of Drawing is accompanied by an abundant supply of apparatus. The author has had many years experience in teaching from the lowest Primary through the Grammar, High, and Technical Schools, and it is believed that the books are so well thought out both from a philosophical and from a practical point of view, as to be adapted to ail approved methods and views in the study of drawing. Bend for full descriptive circulars and special introduction prices. D. C. HEATH & CO., Publishers, BOSTON, NEW YORK, CHICAGO, AND LONDOM. READING. Badlam's Suggestive Lessons in Language and Reading. A manual for pri- mary teachers. Plain and practical ; being a transcript of work actually done in the school-room. $1.50. Badlam's Stepping-Stones to Reading. A Primer. Supplements the aSj-page book above. Boards. 30 cts. Badlam's First Reader. New and valuable word-building exercises, designed to follow the above. Boards. 35 cts. Bass's Nature Stories for Young Readers : Plant Life, intended to supple- ment the first and second reading-books. Boards. 30 cts. Bass's Nature Stories for Young Readers : Animal Life. Gives lessons on animals and their habits. To follow second reader. Boards. 40 cts. Fuller's Illustrated Primer. Presents the word-method in a very attractive form to the youngest readers. Boards. 30 cts. Fuller's Charts. Three charts for exercises in the elementary sounds, and for combin- ing them to form syllables and words. The set for $1.25. Mounted, {2.25. Hall's HOW tO Teach Reading. Treats the important question: what children should and should not read. Paper. 25 cts. Miller's My Saturday Bird Class. Designed for use as a supplementary reader in lower grades or as a text-book of elementary ornithology. Boards. 30 cts. Norton's Heart Of Oak Books. This series is of material from the standard imagin- ative literature of the English language. It draws freely upon the treasury of favorite stories, poems, and songs with which every child should become familiar, and which have done most to stimulate the fancy and direct the sentiment of the best men and women of the English-speaking race. Book I, 96 pages, 25 cts.; Book II, 268 pages, 45 cts.; Book III, 308 pages, 55 cts.; Book IV, 370 pages, 60 cts.; Book V, 378 pages, 65 cts. Smith's Reading and Speaking. Familiar Talks to those who would speak well in public. 70 cts. Spear's Leaves and Flowers. Designed for supplementary reading in lower grades or as a text-book of elementary botany. Boards. 30 cts. Ventura's MantegaZZa'S Testa. A book to help boys toward a complete self-develop- ment. $1.00. Wright's Nature Reader, NO. I. Describes crabs, wasps, spiders, bees, and some univalve mollusks. Boards. 30 cts. Wright's Nature Reader, NO. II. Describes ants, flies, earth-worms, beetles, bar- nacles and star-fish. Boards. 40 cts. Wright's Nature Reader, NO. III. Has lessons in plant-life, grasshoppers, butter flies, and birds. Boards. 60 cts. Wright's Nature Reader, NO. IV. Has lessons in geology, astronomy, world-life : etc. Boards. 70 cts. for advanced supplementary reading see our list of books in English Literaturt. D. C. HEATH & CO., PUBLISHERS, BOSTON. NEW YORK. CHICAGO. EDUCATION. History Of Pedagogy. " The best and most comprehensive history of Education in English." Dr. G. S. HALL. $1-75- Compayre''S Lectures On Teaching. " The best book in existence on the theory and practice of education." Supt. MACALISTER, Philadelphia. $1.75. CompayrS'S Psychology Applied tO Education. A clear and concise statement of doctrine and application on the science and art of teaching. 90 cts. De GarmO'S Essentials Of Method. A ^ctical exposition of .methods with illutra- tive outlines of common school studies. 65 cts. De GarmO'S Lindner's Psychology. The best Manual ever prepared from the Ilerbartian standpoint. $1.00. Gill's Systems Of Education. " It treats ably of the Lancaster and Bell movement in education, a very important phase." Dr. W. T. HARRIS. $1.25. Hall's Bibliography Of Pedagogical Literature. Covers every department of education. Interleaved, *$2.oo. $1.50. Herford'S Student's Froebel. The purpose of this little book is to give young people preparing to teach a brief yet full account of Froebel's Theory of Education. 75 cts. Malleson's Early Training of Children. "The best book for mothers I ever read." ELIZABETH P. PEABODV. 75 cts. Marwedel'S ConSCiOUS Motherhood. The unfolding of the child's mind in the cradle, nursery and Kindergarten. $1.00. Newsholme'S School Hygiene. Already in use in the leading training colleges in England. 75 Cts. Peabody's Home, Kindergarten, and Primary School. " The best book out- side of the Bible that I ever read." A LEADING TEACHER. JSi.oo. Pestalozzi's Leonard and Gertrude. "If we except 'Emile' only, no more im- portant educational book has appeared for a century and a half than ' Leonard and Ger- trude."' The Nation. 90 cts. RadestOCk's Habit in Education. " It will prove a rare 'find' to teachers who are seeking to ground themselves in the philosophy of their art." E. H. RUSSELL, Worces- ter NormalSchool. 75 cts. Richter's Levana ; or, The Doctrine of Education. "A spirited and scholarly book." Prof. W. H. PAYNE. $1.40. Rosmini's Method in Education. "The most important pedagogical work ever written.'' THOMAS DAVIDSON. $1.50. ROUSSeau's Emile. " Perhaps the most influential book ever written on the subject of Education." R. H. QUICK. 90 cts. Methods Of Teaching Modern Languages. Papers on the value and on methods of teaching German and French, by prominent instructors. 90 cts. Sanford's Laboratory Course in Physiological Psychology. The course includes experiments upon the Dermal Senses, Static and Kinaesthetic Senses, Taste, Smell, Hearing, Vision, Psychophysic. In Press. Lange's Apperception : A monograph on Psychology and Pedagogy. Trans- lated by the members of the Herbart Club, under the direction of President Charles DeGarmo, of Swarthmore College. $1.00. Herbart's Science Of Education. Translated by Mr. and Mrs. Felken with a pref- ace by Oscar Browning. $1.00. Tracy's Psychology Of Childhood. This is the first gener al treatise covering in a scientific manner the whole field of child psychology. Octavo. Paper. 75 cts. Sent by mail, postpaid, on receipt of price. D. C. HEATH & CO., PUBLISHERS, BOSTON. NEW YORK. CHICAGO. UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY Los Angeles This book is DUE on the last date stamped below. OCT 3 1 IAN 3 1961 DEC 1 1980 RECEIVED DEC IS '81 -4 PM t.D|PSYCH LIB- Form L9-32m-8,'57(.C8680s4)444 UCLA-ED/PSYCH Library LB 1051 C73pE L 005 588 200 5 Education Library LB C73pE UC SOUTHERN REGIONAL LIBRARY FACILITY A 000 979 944 6 UNIVERSITY of CALIFC U)S ANGELES