■,!.♦'= 
 
 '"T 
 
 , .-t:' 
 
 ■ ^- 
 
 :> I.'.,. , 
 
 ':;■, ;'-.-i':';Wr,ijI.''"J<5 ■'■','■ - . 

 
 
 '/r 
 
 <^ 
 
 ^^i IQ^-" 
 
 
 CO 
 33 
 
 1 
 
 ^okwmm'^ 
 
 ^^ 
 
 1 
 
 ■JO 
 
 so 
 
 liVO-JO' 
 
 -n O 
 
 Q Li. 
 
 •^F-CM!FOP('. 
 
 A 
 
 
 
 .^" 
 
 ' ' -n V.^ -t. 1 
 
 -5 ^^ J>^ i 
 
 fj>, ^^^HIBRARY•0/ 
 
 )\\v 
 
 -< 
 
 Uj -11 
 
 JIIVD'JO^" 
 
 <^ 
 
 t 
 
 v\ir I'vivppr/ 
 
 
 ■-O 
 
 
 F 
 
 .HiOf CAllfO% 
 
 
 
 41? 
 
 >itr. 
 
 
 ^\U UNIVERS-//Z. 
 
 OS 
 
 <: 
 
 5 
 
 v^lOSANCElfx> 
 
 '^/ia3AiNa-3W'^ 
 
 j/^^ 
 
 UNiyER% ^lOS-ANCElfjv. 
 
 7-Yi SL2^s l^rt^i
 
 ^^nv- y ' ^^c %i 
 
 
 1(^1' 
 
 
 h" 
 
 
 •vf 
 
 f 
 
 rt 
 
 !^ 
 
 vn ! 
 
 --^ u- 
 
 .//^ |>, ^^ ^y^MIBRARY^?/ ,^MEUNI 
 
 fry 
 
 ,\r.rAiirn/.. (\r ruirriD., 
 
 
 
 1 fDD )k fiV /.
 
 (i> 
 
 
 A FEW WORDS TO THE READER 
 
 FIRST EDITION. 
 The reader should bear iu mind that the History of 
 England and Wales from the Roman to the Norman 
 Conquest is a mere record of the doings or sayings of 
 a few individuals — such as Caesar, Caradog, Boadicea, 
 Agricola, in the time of the Roman occupation; of 
 Augustine, Penda, Offa, before England became a king- 
 dom ; and afterwards, of Alfred, Hastings, Ethelfleda, 
 Edmund the Ironside, Edric, Canute, Godwin, Griffith 
 the Pendragon, William of Normandy, and Harold the 
 Kinij. These men and women were the human ivhirl- 
 winds of their respective times, for they acted upor 
 their contemporaries with the same concentrated force 
 and intensity that the atmospheric whirlwinds influ- 
 ence the objects with which they come in contact. 
 And yet they were but the representatives of the 
 'people : for we read that when Boadicea fought, she 
 fought " as one of the people ;"^ " every man "^ took an 
 interest in the doings of Edmund the Ironside; and, 
 it was the humUed^ as well as the liighcst of tlic 
 people who fouglit with Harold at Hasting.s. It sliould 
 also be borne in mind that, in an age of action, it was 
 
 ' The AnnalH of Tacitus. • Sfixon Chrmu'dr, 1010. 
 
 * Deacribed aa "pucros " in tlio Baycux Tapcstrj-. 
 
 H7'Jl'JH
 
 iv A FEW WORDS TO THE READER. 
 
 eloquence that swayed the masses; thus, before the 
 Battle of the Grampians, the Caledonian chief and 
 Agricola incited their forces with speeches ; and so 
 did Harold and William before the Battle of Hastings, 
 and with such effect that the forces of the latter rushed 
 upon the Saxons and left him speaking to himself P 
 It will thus be seen that a Record of the words and 
 doings of the heads of the people is a continuative 
 Biography of the people themselves. 
 
 Before the Conquest the chroniclers were sparing of 
 their words : the Saxon Chronicle records the last years 
 of the reign of Alfred the Great, thus—" 899. 900." 
 And the Welsh chronicler described a battle that led 
 to a chano-e of rulers in North Wales, thus—" Gwaith 
 Carno." Happily, the events preceding the Norman 
 Conquest are fully described by contemporary and 
 other writers ; but here another difficulty arises, 
 namely, to hold the balance between rival authorities, 
 and to explain why the Saxon writer should call a 
 man " blessed" and the Norman writer should charac- 
 terize the same man^ a " dog." 
 
 I have particularised the course of the Severn, as i< 
 is the historic river of Great Britain. I have given an 
 ethnographical description of the Danes at Buttington, 
 because Hastings was the forerunner of Rollo and 
 Canute, and was the guiding principle of the spirit of 
 unrest that menaced the thrones of England and France 
 
 ' Henry of Huntingdon. * Godwin, the earL
 
 A FEW WORDS TO THE READER. V 
 
 towards the end of the ninth century. I have given a 
 topographical description of one of Ethelfleda's exploits, 
 and one of King Griffith's, because of the influence 
 they had over the affairs of England and Wales. And 
 I have given a full account of the Battle of Hastings, 
 in order to show that the descendants of the contending 
 forces may feel proud of such ancestors. I have also 
 tried to show that the ancestors of the Welsh were not 
 " robbers and assassins."^ 
 
 I trust that the genealogical tables, which may aptly 
 be termed the maps of history, will prove useful. 
 
 In conclusion, it gives me pleasure to acknowledge 
 the benefits I have derived from the Lectures of Pro- 
 fessors Barlow and Dowden, and from the kind advice 
 of Professor Ingram, of the University of Dublin. 
 
 Dr. Lingard. 
 
 Bronivylfa, Rhyl, 
 
 St. David's Day, 1882.
 
 VI A FEW WORDS TO THE READER. 
 
 SECOND EDITION. 
 
 I have to express my thanks for the rapid sale of 
 the first edition of this History, and for the kind and 
 encouraging comments that have been expressed con- 
 cerning it in the public Press, and in private circles. 
 
 The Second Edition differs in a few particulars from 
 the first — as it contains an account of Agricola's Cale- 
 donian campaign, and a little additional information 
 concerning Taliesin, Egbert, Ethelwulf, Alfred, Athel- 
 stan, Godwin, Welsh affairs, and Baldwin of Flanders. 
 It has also the advantage of a marginal index, a list of 
 leading events, &c. 
 
 Bronivylfa, Rhyl, 
 l8t August, 1SS2.
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER I. PAGE 
 
 From the Landing of Caesar to the Coming of the Saxons- - 1 
 
 CHAPTER n. 
 
 From the Slassacre at Bangor to the Extinction of OfFa's Race - 19 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 From the Death (jf 'Jfla to the Conversion of Guthrum - - 29 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 From the First Landing of the Danes in England to tlieir Arrival 
 
 under Hastings - - - - - - 37 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 From the Overthrow of Hastings to tlic Days of the " Lady of the 
 
 Mercians" ------- M 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 Ethclflcda, the "Lady of the Mercians" - - - 57 
 
 CHAPTER Vn. 
 
 From the Death of Etheitleda to the time of Dimstan - - G5
 
 vili CONTEJSTS. 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. PAGE 
 
 Dunstaii -------- 69 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 An Examination conoerning the Tribute of Wolves' Ileatls, and 
 
 Edgar's Triunipli at Chester - - - - - 73 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 Intestine Strife in Wales - - - - - - 81 
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 From the Fall of Dunstan to the Rise of Eckic of Mercia - 89 
 
 CHAPTER XXL 
 
 Eilric of Mercia; or, the Struggle between Saxon and Dane for 
 
 Supremacy ------- 98 
 
 CHAPTER XIIL 
 
 Danish Rule hi England. — Canute, the Khig - - - 118 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 Danish Rule ui England.— Harold, the Harefuut - - - 132 
 
 CHAPTER XV. 
 
 Danish Rule in England. — Hardicanute, King of England - 137 
 
 CHAPTER XVI. 
 
 Edward, the Confessor ; or, England under the Rule of Godwin, 
 
 1042— 10.53 - 143 
 
 CHAPTER XVII. 
 
 The AflFairs of Wales, from the Reign of Hywel Ddrwg to that of 
 
 Griffith ap Llewelyn ------ 156 
 
 CHAPTER XVIIL 
 
 Griffith ap Llewelyn, Pendragon ; or, Welsh Influence upon the 
 
 Downfall of Saxondom . - . - - 160
 
 CONTENTS. IX 
 
 CHAPTER XIX. FACE 
 
 Tae Normans - - - - - " - 178 
 
 CHAPTER XX. 
 
 Edward the Confessor; or, England under the Rule of Harold the 
 
 Earl, from 1053 to 1066 - - - - - 185 
 
 CHAPTER XXI. 
 
 WiUiam, Duke of Normandy - - - - ' ^99 
 
 CHAPTER XXII. 
 Harold, the King ------- 203 
 
 CHAPTER XXTII. 
 
 The Battle of Hastings - - - - - '219
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 GENEALOGICAL TABLES. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 The House of Offa 18 
 
 The House of Godwin, showing its Connection with Ediic of Mercia 97 
 
 The Descendants of Etheked the Unready - - - 103 
 
 The House of Canute - - - - - - 131 
 
 The Descent of Edward the Confessor from Cerdic - - 142 
 
 The Descent of Griffith ap Llewelyn - - . . 159 
 
 The Descent of WiUiam the Conqueror - - - - 177 
 
 The House of Leofric of JMercia - - - - - 192
 
 A HISTORY 
 
 OF 
 
 ENGLAND AND WALES, 
 
 FROM THIS 
 
 ROMAN TO THE NORMAN CONQUEST.
 
 /
 
 THE EOMAN CONQUEST. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 FEOM THE LANDING OF C^SAR TO THE COMING OF THE 
 
 SAXONS. 
 
 The country in wliich we live, a little more than two Czesar, 
 thousand years ago, was inhabited by the Britons, or '^' ^^' 
 Celts, whose descendants are now called Welsh. About 
 that time the Celts of Britain went over to France to 
 help its people, who were of the same race as them- 
 selves, against the Romans under the famous Julius 
 Caesar. Cfesar, after he had conquered the Gauls of 
 France, made up his mind to defeat the Celts also. So 
 he sailed over to Britain, B.C. 55. The Celts were not 
 afraid of him. And when they saw the Roman ships 
 coming near their country they ran into the sea to meet 
 and fight the Roman soldiers. A storm helped them. 
 CtEsar came a second time into this country, and B.C. 64. 
 subdued part of it, li.o. 54. 
 
 1 The chief tribes of England and Wales were the 
 Iceni, occupying Norfolk and Suffolk, and the border- 
 ing counties: the lirigantes,in the North: the Silures, 
 in Soutli Wales and part of England : the Ordovices, to 
 the north of the Silures : the Trinobantes, whoso capital 
 was London, lived in the vicinity of th(; Thames. 
 
 The Roman general Ostorius Scapula defeated the Ostorius 
 Iceni and the Brigantes. The Ordovicoa were also ^^^'
 
 2 FROM THE LANDING OF CJESAR 
 
 overcome. But the Silures, who were naturally fierce/ 
 determined to fight to the very last against the in- 
 vaders of their country. The only Celt of those days 
 whose name is worth remembering was Caradog, king 
 caradog. of the Silures. Caradog is generally known by the 
 name of Caractacus. He was a very brave man, 
 and an able soldier and leader of men. He loved his 
 country and his people very dearly, for he was a true 
 prince. He was one of the noblest of patriots, and 
 the most perfect of heroes. He fought against the 
 Komans time after time. His fellow-countrymen 
 fully believed in him, and after defeat they con- 
 tinued faithful to him. At last he determined to 
 fight one great battle, and, if possible, to destroy the 
 Roman soldiers under Ostorius. He took his stand 
 with his brave subjects upon some lofty hills, which he 
 protected with heaps of stones : in his front was a 
 river.^ Before the battle began Caradog encouraged his 
 men to fio-ht for freedom : and then each man took an 
 oath that he would not shrink in the coming struggle.^ 
 The Romans crossed the river, rushed up the hills, and 
 pulled down the walls of stones that protected the 
 Britons. So far the Romans were at a disadvantage, 
 for as they came up the hill they were killed by the 
 darts and arrows of the enemy ; but when they came to 
 fight hand to hand, they were able to defeat Caradog's 
 forces, as the Romans were protected by armour, while 
 the limbs and breasts of the Britons had no pro- 
 tection from the swords, spears, and javelins of their 
 assailants.^ Caradog and his men fought long and 
 bravely, but to no purpose ; so they dispersed and fled. 
 
 » The Annals of Tacitus, book xii. chap. 33. * Ibid, chap. 34. 
 » Ibid, chap. 35,
 
 TO THE COMING OF THE SAXONS. 3 
 
 The brave King went to the Queen of the Brigantes, 
 who was his mother-in-law. But she was afraid of the 
 Romans, and, wishing to please them, she delivered 
 Caradog in chains to Ostorius. The news of his capture 9^^^^?=- 
 was soon carried throughout the island and the neigh- 
 bourinf; countries. His fame as a good general was 
 known in many lands. For nine years he had defied 
 the power of the Romans. 
 
 Caradog was carried to Rome. When he saw that 
 wonderful city, with its large and beautifid buildings, 
 and its riches and greatness, he did not show any sur- 
 prise or anxiety. Nor did the splendour that surrounded 
 Jiim cause him to forget that he was a king, although 
 he was clothed in skins and coarse cloth. So he held 
 up his head and looked about him in a very quiet and 
 ea.sy manner. Tlie Emperor Claudius summoned the 
 people to see the British captives, and all were eager to 
 see the great Caradog. The Emperor Claudius sat upon 
 one throne, and his fourth wife, the infamous Agrippina, 
 mother of the Emperor Nero, sat upon another tlirone. 
 But neither their presence nor that of the Roman legions 
 and of tl)Ousaiids upon thousands of people afiected 
 Caradog, who neither by looks nor words sought pity.^ 
 The Emperor was so pleased with his brave appearance 
 aiid calm dignity that he set him free, together with 
 liis wife and brothers. The Roman Senate delivereJ 
 speeches on the capture of Caradog, and declared that 
 liis exposure to the Roman populace was as glorious as 
 the display of any captive prince by any of their 
 generals to the people of Rome.'' 
 
 The capture of Caradog <li<l not discourage the 
 
 ' Tlie Annals of Tacitus, book xii. clinp. 36. 
 ' IM.l, chap. 38.
 
 4r FROM THE LANDING OF C^SAR 
 
 Silures. They were enragecP because Ostorius had de- 
 chxred that their name ought to be blotted out. Again 
 and again they attacked the Roman soldiers, and at 
 last the Roman general was worn out^ by his anxieties, 
 and died in the year 51. 
 
 The The Celts had a religion called Druidism. Their 
 
 ^^ ^' priests were very clever men, and very good speakers. 
 
 Before a battle they always spoke to the soldiers, and 
 
 encouraged them to fiojht well. Because of this the 
 
 Pauiinus.^ Romans under Suetonius Paulinus, the conqueror of 
 the Moors of Africa, determined to kill the Druids. 
 The Saxons afterwards followed their example, and 
 killed the Welsh preachers and students. And the Danes 
 followed the example of both Roman and Saxon, and 
 killed as many priests as they could find, whether they 
 belonged to the British or Romish Church. The island 
 of Anglesey, then called Mona, was the chief abode of 
 the Druids. So Suetonius Paulinus prepared to attack 
 it with cavalry and infantry. The former swam^ by 
 
 ri^e Con- ^^^^ ^^^^ ^^ their horses, and the latter got across the 
 
 quest of Menai Straits by means of flat bottomed vessels, 
 
 Anglesey. 
 
 61. They were opposed by the British warriors, and also 
 
 by their wives and priests. The women, dressed in 
 black, with their hair all loose and with flaming brands 
 in their hands, encouraged the men to fight ; whilst the 
 Druids lifted up their hands to heaven and cursed the 
 foe.' The Roman soldiers were terrified at such an ex- 
 traordinary spectacle, and stood motionless for a time. 
 But, urged on by their general, they rushed forward 
 and overthrew the hapless throng of British men and 
 women. Such as escaped their swords they put on fire 
 
 ' The Annals of Tacitus, book xii. cliap. 39. 
 • Ibid, book xiv. chap. 29. ' Ibid, book xiv. chap. 30.
 
 TO THE COMING OF THE SAXONS. 5 
 
 -with their own brands.^ They also cut down the 
 woods in which the Druids performed their religious 
 rites, and overthrew the altars over which human 
 blood^ was wont to flow. This took place in the year 61. 
 
 While these events were taking place in the west, 
 terrible things were happening in the east. The King 
 of the Iceni, before he died, left part of his kingdom to 
 his daughters and part of it to the Emperor of Rome. 
 He did this to Grain the ijood-will of the Romans. But 
 the latter beat his wife Boadicea, outraged his daugh- Boadiceas 
 ters,^ reduced his relations to slavery, and deprived ei. ' 
 the chief men of their estates. Boadicea, accompanied 
 by her daughters, rode among her subjects in her war 
 chariot, and called upon them to arise and drive the 
 cruel and wicked Romans out of the land. She was 
 obeyed, as the people burned to avenge the slaughter 
 of their male relatives and the outrage of their female 
 ones ; they bore in mind that their children had been 
 taken from them, and that the invaders held their 
 lands. The Iconi were joined by their neighbours the 
 Trinobantes. 
 
 The combined forces surrounded the Roman colony 
 at Colchester,' which was unprotected. Tlie town, 
 with its temple dedicated to the Emperor Claudius, 
 and its inhabitants, were destroyed. A Roman legion, 
 except some cavalry, was utterly routed. London and 
 St. Albans were laid waste. Suetonius retreated before 
 the victorious Britons until he came upon a favourable 
 position of df'fcnce, which was approached by a narrow 
 defile. A plain was in his front, and a forest behind 
 him. 
 
 ' 'Hie Annals of Tacitus, book xiv. chap. 30. 
 ' Ibid, book lir. chap. 3L * The Bomaus called it Camalodunum.
 
 6 
 
 FROM THE LANDING OF CESAR 
 
 Death of 
 Boadicea, 
 61. 
 
 Agrlcola, 
 78 to 85. 
 
 Boadicea declared to her excited listeners that "as 
 one of the people I avenge lost freedom, my scourged 
 body, the outraged chastity of my daughters. Heaven 
 is on the side of a riohteous vengeance." Her exhorta- 
 tions were joyfully received. In the battle that 
 followed the Britons were impeded by the waggons in 
 which their wives had come to see the destruction of 
 the Romans. The Britons fouirht well. Boadicea 
 with her long yellow hair floating in the breeze, 
 encouraged her followers ; but all in vain. Discipline 
 prevailed over patriotism. This battle ranks among 
 the decisive ones of the world. The victorious Romans 
 revenged the seventy thousand killed by the British, 
 by the indiscriminate slaughter of eighty thousand 
 native men, women, and children.'^ Boadicea despaired 
 of her country, and poisoned herself. After this battle 
 the hostile tribes were ravaofed with fire and sword. 
 This unpardonable severity led to the recall of 
 Suetonius. 
 
 After Seutonius several Roman generals came to 
 Britain, but it is not necessary to mention even their 
 names. The best of them was Agricola. He was the 
 Roman lieutenant of Britain from 78 to 85. As well 
 as being very brave and a good general, he was a kind 
 and a far-soeinfj man. He was anxious to civilize the 
 Celts, and to make Britain a province of the Roman 
 empire. Unlike Ostorius and Seutonius, he did not 
 wish to kill its inhabitants ; but he was determined to 
 master them, and also to do all he could to bring them 
 into the ways of the Romans. 
 
 Fortunately for posterity Agricola's son-in-law was 
 the famous Roman historian Tacitus. They were fond 
 * The Annals of Tacitus, book liv. chap. 37.
 
 TO THE COMING OF THE SAXONa 7 
 
 and proud of each other ; and Tacitus wrote an account 
 of the doinofs of Asricola in Britain and elsewhere. 
 From this account we learn that in his daj's the 
 inhabitants of Britain were of three kinds : the Cale- 
 donians in Scotland, with red hair and large limbs, British 
 of German descent : the Silures, with dark complexion ^.^ces. 
 and curly hair, probably a colony from Spain : the rest 
 of the people Tacitus thought were of the same race 
 as the Gauls, as they had the same religion, the same 
 lancruafre, and the same character of boldness to stir 
 up danger and want of determination to face it when 
 present.^ He states that some of the tribes fought on 
 foot and others in chariots ; and that, instead of being 
 under the rule of kings as formerly, they were split 
 up into parties among their chiefs, who would not join 
 together against the common enemy. The climate was 
 plea.sant and the soil fertile. 
 
 It was in the summer of 78 that Agricola landed in 
 Britain. At that time the Roman soldiers, thinking 
 there would be no more expeditions that year, were 
 anticipating a winter of enjoyment and ease ; while 
 the natives were making preparations to take advan- 
 tage of their inactivity, and of the inclemency and 
 darkness of the season. Not long before his arrival, 
 
 the Ordoviccs, who inhabited North Wales, had sur- J^f _, 
 
 ' . . Ordovices, 
 
 prised a troop of cavalry which was stationed upon 78. 
 the border of their territories, and had put almost 
 every man of it to the sword. Agricola dctermiii('(l 
 to commence .active operations against the foe witliuut 
 undue delay. Notwithstanding the fact that the winter 
 season wa.s fast approaching, and that the soldiers wero 
 scattered throughout the Roman portion of the country, 
 ' Tho Life of Agricola, by Tacitus, chap. 12.
 
 8 FROM THE LANDING OF CAESAR 
 
 the General assembled together certain veterans^ from 
 the legions and a small body of auxiliaries ; and, plac- 
 ing himself at their head, he boldly advanced into the 
 territories of the victorious Celts. The latter declined 
 to meet the Romans in the plain ; thereupon Agricola 
 divided his forces into two bodies. He led the advanced 
 party in person, in order to excite the confidence and 
 to arouse the enthusiasm of his followers. The en- 
 gagement that ensued was a most sanguinary one, as 
 the Ordovices, scorning to yield, were almost extir- 
 pated by the well-armed and well-disciplined in- 
 vaders. Agricola was resolved to follow up this success 
 by an invasion of Anglesey. Its people expected to 
 submis- see the Romans cross the Menai Strait by means of a 
 Anglesey, fleet ; they were therefore astonished and affrighted 
 
 7ft *" 
 
 when they saw the auxiliaries plunge into the sea^ 
 upon horseback, and manage their horses and arms 
 whilst swimming across the channel. The islanders 
 at once sued for peace, and surrendered their land to 
 Agricola. 
 
 In order to remove the causes of war, Agricola now 
 removal began to remove abuses which existed in his own 
 household and throughout the Roman provinces of 
 Britain. Neither slaves nor freedmen were allowed 
 to transact public business. He promoted the best 
 men, and would not suffer himself to be influenced by 
 private favour or the recommendation of his captains. 
 He insisted upon knowing everything that went on, 
 
 ' Tliese were a distinct body of soldiers termed Vexilla, who served 
 under a flag of their own (Vexillum). Tliey were free from the military 
 oath and regular service, but they were called upon to assist the regular 
 army in case of need. Their customary duty was to guard the frontiers, 
 or to occupy forts in recently conquered districts. 
 
 " The Life of Agricola, by Tacitus, chap. 18 ; they were probablj 
 Batavians ] Tacitus mentions them in his History, book iv., chap. 12.
 
 TO THE COmNG OF THE SAXONS. 9 
 
 but some things he allowed to pass by unnoticed. He 
 was able to pardon small faults, and to be severe with 
 those who committed grave ones; yet he would not 
 always punish, as repentance satisfied him. With true 
 greatness of mind he tried to excite the emulation of 
 all, and to raise their characters and dispositions, by 
 rewarding the good and the just, rather than by punish- 
 incr oifenders. 
 
 Before the time of Agricola the taxes in Britain 
 were collected by a Procurator, who ground down the 
 tribes, and compelled them to pay private exactions as 
 well as public taxes. The people were obliged to buy 
 their own corn out of their own granaries from the 
 Romans, and afterwards to sell it to their conquerors 
 at a fixed price ; and they were also obliged to carry 
 corn and to drive cattle to distant places, instead of 
 to the nearest quarters of the Romans. Agricola did 
 away with these cruel and vexatious iniquities. 
 
 He encouraged learning, and was much pleased Encour- 
 with tlie natural genius of the Celts. Before his arri- of the 
 val the Celts did not wear much clothing, nor did ^®^*^' 
 they cultivate much land. They hunted and fished, 
 and enjoyed themselves greatly. They loved their 
 native tongue and their own mode of living in huts ; 
 Imt, believing in the justice and humanity of Agricola, 
 they did what he desired them to do. Some of them 
 forgot their own habits, and tried to dress, to speak, 
 and to live like the Romans. They were encouraged 
 to build temples, Itaths, and houses; and after awhile, 
 from a desire to be polite, they learnt the vices' of their 
 conquerors, aiul soon became unfit for warfare, and were 
 obliged to depend upon the Romans for protection 
 ' The Life of Agricola, by Tacitus, cbap. 21.
 
 10 
 
 FROM THE LANDING OF CiESAR 
 
 Ireland. 
 
 The 
 
 Caledon- 
 ians. 
 
 Agricola built a chain of forts^ between the Firths 
 of Forth and Clyde, and a dyke from the river Tync 
 to the Solway Firth. He thought to conquer Ireland, 
 which he viewed from the coasts of Galloway : and, as 
 Caesar was helped by the customary traitor, so a petty 
 Irish kincr fled to Atrricola to urge him to invade his 
 native land. 
 
 Agricola kept the Irish prince in his company 
 for some time under the plea of friendship ; but ho 
 only wished to make use of him, should he invade 
 his country. He was of the opinion that one legion 
 of soldiers and a few auxiliaries would be sufiicient 
 to conquer and to hold Ireland ; and he was the more 
 inclined to invade it, as its annexation to the Roman 
 Empire would overawe the Britons, as they would 
 then be surrounded by the arms of the Romans, and 
 liberty would be banished from their sight.^ 
 
 Agricola's attention was drawn from Ireland by the 
 Caledonians, whom he attacked by land and sea. He 
 had a most difficult task to perform, as the Caledonians 
 were a brave and determined people. They were 
 alarmed at the sight of the Roman vessels, lest, being 
 vanquished upon land, their escape by sea would be 
 cut off. They did not, however, give way to despair. 
 In the year 83, Agricola advanced beyond the Firth of 
 Forth. The Caledonians did not wait to be attacked, 
 but, advancing against the outposts'^ of the Romans, 
 they endeavoured to capture them. Their boldness 
 intimidated some of the invaders, who, upon the pre- 
 text of prudence, desired to retreat to the south of the 
 
 ' The Life of Agricola, by Tacitus, chap. 23. " Ibid, chap. 24. 
 
 • These were situated in the vicinity of the Firth of Tay. The Life of 
 Agricola, by Tacitus, chap. 22.
 
 TO THE COMING OF THE SAXONS. 11 
 
 Firth of Forth, lest they should be overwhelmed by 
 the foe. Their fears did not affect the Roman general, 
 who arranged his forces into three divisions, so as not 
 to be surrounded, as he had heard that the enemy 
 were about to attack him in several bodies. The 
 Caledonians became acquainted with Agricola's ar- 
 rangements. They changed their plans at once, and 
 uniting their forces, they swejDt down in the dead of ^If^X. 
 
 njfrht upon the ninth legion, which was the weakest ^pon the 
 
 f ^ o ' 1 1 I! • Roman 
 
 Roman division. For a time success attended this camp, 83. 
 
 bold and well concentrated attack. The Romans were 
 asleep when the Caledonians, having slaughtered their 
 sentinels and burst through their intrenchments, ap- 
 peared within their camp. But the unequal combat 
 was not of long duration. Agricola was informed by 
 his scouts of the onslaught of the enemy: he gave 
 orders for the swiftest of his horse and foot to attack 
 them in the rear. This was done. At the break of 
 day the whole Roman army raised a shout, and their 
 standards glittered in the rays of the rising sun. The 
 Caledonians now found themselves between two forces, 
 and, despairing of success, betook themselves to the 
 shelter of the woods and marshes.^ This engagement 
 inspirited the Romans and tlie Caledonians ; the for- 
 mer were wishful to penetrate into the heart"^ of Cale- 
 donia without delay, while the latter, attrilmting tlieir 
 defeat to chance and the generalsliip of Agricola, 
 began to arm their youth, to send tlirir wives and 
 children to places of security, and to conliiin a general 
 confederacy of their several clans by solemn assem- 
 blies and sacrifices.''' During the summer of 84, 
 Agricola, having sent forward his fleet to ravage 
 ' The Life of Agricola, by Tacitus, clap. 26. * Chap. 27.
 
 12 FROM THE LANDING OF C^SAR 
 
 Agricoia's the sea-shore, advanced against the foe. In his 
 against ranks were the bravest or the Celts, who had been 
 the foe, 84. trained with the Roman legions, and whose fidelity 
 had been well tried. At the foot of the Grampians 
 they beheld the combined forces of the Caledonians. 
 There were to be seen, under the leadership of the 
 eloquent and heroic Galgacus, an army of 30,000 men, 
 consisting of the tender youth and the hale and 
 vigorous man. 
 The Galgacus harangued^ his forces in forcible and telling 
 
 Galgacus^ terms, assuring them that their united efforts on that 
 day would secure " the beginning of liberty through- 
 out Britain." Speaking of the Romans, he remarked 
 — "These plunderers of the world, when the lands 
 have yielded all things to their ravages, even rifle the 
 ocean. They are stimulated by avarice, if their enemies 
 are rich ; by ambition, if they are poor. Neither the 
 east nor west has satisfied them : they alone, of all 
 people, behold riches and poverty with equal greed. 
 To ravage, to slaughter, to usurp under false titles, 
 they call empire ; and where they make a desert, they 
 call it peace. Nature has ordained that our children 
 and relatives should be the dearest of all things to us. 
 These are torn away by levies to serve in foreign 
 lands. Our wives and sisters, if they should escape 
 the violation of hostile force, are polluted under the 
 names of friendship and hospitality. Our lands and 
 possessions are consumed in tributes ; our grain in 
 contributions. Even our bodies are worn out amidst 
 stripes and insults, whilst clearing woods and draining 
 marshes. The wretches born to slavery are bought 
 
 * How Tacitus became acquainted with Galgacus's speech is a mystery, 
 unless it was translated to him by a renegade Caledonian : chaps. 30, 31, 32.
 
 TO THE COMING OF THE SAXONS. 13 
 
 once, and afterwards fed by their masters; Britain 
 every day buys and every day feeds her own servi- 
 tude." He then alluded to the success of Boadicea, 
 and observed — " Shall not we, untouched, unconquered, 
 and fighting, not for the acquisition but the retention 
 of liberty, show at the very first onset what men 
 Caledonia has reserved for her defence." In conclu- 
 sion, he referred to the fact that the Roman army 
 was made up of various nations, such as the Britons, 
 Gauls, and Germans, who would desert them, and said 
 — " Here is a leader, here an army ; there tributes, 
 mines, and the series of punishments meted out to 
 slaves. This field must determine whether we must 
 eternally endure such things, or instantly revenge them. 
 Forward, then, to battle !, and think of your ancestors 
 and your successors."^ This address was received 
 with joy by his listeners, who welcomed it with songs, 
 yells, and shouts. 
 
 Agricola also addressed his men. He then formed TheBattieof 
 them in battle array : 8,000 auxiliaries on foot occupied pjlng^'^s*^.' 
 the van, with 3,000 horsemen spread out on either side 
 of them : behind these were tlic three legions, who 
 occupied the space in front of their intrenchments. 
 The Caledonians had been arranged for show and in- 
 timidation : their first line stood upon tin; plain, and 
 the other lines rose one above another along the wliole 
 extent of a steep mountain ridge : tlieir chariots and 
 hor.semon occu}>ied tho space in front of the infantry. 
 Africola w.'is ufraid that tlio foe would attack biin in 
 front ami on citlicr siilc— ho tlior(f()r(; extended his 
 
 ' This speech is recorded as an interesting evidence of British eloquence, 
 and also .as descriptive of the ways of the Ilonian eonqm-rors, and the fate 
 of their captives.
 
 14 FROM THE LANDING OF CJESAR 
 
 The Battle of ranks. He dismissed his horse and took his stand on 
 S^^sl^^s"' foot' before the colours. At first the fight was carried 
 on from a distance : the natives steadily and cleverly 
 avoided or struck down the darts and arrows of the 
 Romans, while they showered upon them a torrent of 
 their own. To bring matters to a climax Agricola 
 ordered the Batavian and other auxiliaries to close 
 upon the Caledonians. They did so, and, by means of 
 their short swords and their shields they were able to 
 overcome their opponents, who were unable to contend 
 against them with any degree of success, as their long 
 swords, which were not sharp ]3ointed, were almost 
 useless at close quarters, while their short targets did 
 not aff"ord the same protection as the bossed shields 
 of the Romans ; consequently, the auxiliaries were 
 able to burst through the first line of the Britons, 
 who retreated from the plain to their companions upon 
 the hill side, and were followed by their victors. 
 While the infantry were thus engaged, the cavalry of 
 the Romans were attacked by the British chariots : 
 the former fled precipitately, and were pursued by the 
 charioteers, who suddenly found themselves in the 
 midst of the Roman auxiliaries who were not engaged 
 in the pursuit of the Caledonians. At first their 
 appearance caused some consternation amongst their 
 opponents. The extended ranks of the Romans were 
 now ordered to close : when this order was obeyed the 
 British charioteers were unable to wheel about and 
 career ; moreover, as they were inconvenienced by the 
 unevenness of the ground, they were easily overcome in 
 the throng, and chariots without drivers and riderless 
 
 ' His example was followed by Harold at Scnlac, and by Warwick at 
 Towton and Barnet,
 
 TO THE COMIXG OF THE SAXONS. 15 
 
 horses rushed throiicrh the lines. But the battle was The Battle of 
 
 fchG GtcLII1~ 
 
 not over. The Caledonians, who had up to now re- plans, 84. 
 mained spectators of the fight, descended from the hill 
 with the intention of attacking the Romans in their 
 rear. Against these fresh forces Agricola despatched 
 four squadrons of horse. The latter were successful ; 
 after they had driven back the foe, they were ordered 
 to fall upon their rear. They did so. Then ensued 
 consternation and flight on the part of the Caledonians. 
 Some of the fugitives rallied ; but, wherever they did 
 so, Agricola was present with infantry and cavalry to 
 surround and penetrate their forces. The victory was 
 complete. Some of the Caledonians in despair set fire 
 to their dwellings, while others put their wives and 
 children to death. Desolation and conflagration dis- 
 tinguished the day after tlie battle. Hostages were 
 delivered to Agricola, who slowly retired with both 
 cavalry and infantry; whilst his navy, starting from 
 the Firth of Forth, sailed round the northern part of 
 Great Britain, and ultimately came to anchor in the 
 harbour from which it hail set out; and thus dis- 
 covered Britain to be an island. 
 
 Agricola not only contpiered but Romanized the 
 greater part of Britain, and left it in peace and safety 
 to his successor.^ 
 
 After the time of Agricola tlie Romans repaired or 
 
 • Agricola was infamously treated by Domitian, who was jealous of liia 
 military renown. On liis return from Britain, l)c was received by liim at 
 night, and in silence, and then siifTered to mingle midst the tlirong of 
 slaves who surrounded tlie tyrant. Agricola died at the ago of T)}, and 
 Domitian is suspecte<l of having poisoned him. In his last chajders ujma 
 tlie life of his father-indaw, Tacitus has written some of the most jiatlietic 
 and eloquent passages recorded in ancient or modern chronicles ; and with 
 him we fully believe that^— whatever we have loved in Agricola, wliatever 
 we have ailmired, remains and will continue to reninin in the miuds of 
 men, through the pagey of history, to an eternity of years.
 
 16 FROM THE LANDING OP CESAR 
 
 rc-built his northern fortifications and dyke, in order to 
 
 keep off the Picts, the descendants of the Caledonians, 
 
 and the Scots of Ireland, who now occupied Scotland. 
 
 400. And about the year 400 the Romans appointed an 
 
 officer, who was called " Count of the Saxon Shore," 
 
 to look after the east coast, so as to stop the people 
 
 who were called Saxons, and from whom the people of 
 
 England are descended, landing in the country. 
 
 Departure After a time the Romans were obli<xed to return to 
 of tlie . . . ^ 
 
 Romans, their own country, to defend its capital, and the Celts 
 
 418 . 
 
 were forced to fight their own battles, 418. They were 
 
 very sorry to see the Romans going away. And as 
 
 they could not fight without help against their foes, 
 
 they asked the Saxons, Jutes, and Angles to help them. 
 
 Heng-ist Thev came, led by Hengist and Horsa, 449. After a 
 andHorsa, ^ ' J o 
 
 449. time they turned against the Celts, whom they called 
 
 Welsh, and took a large part of the country from them. 
 The Welsh held a small part of Scotland ; Wales ; and 
 that part of England now called Cumberland, West- 
 moreland, Lancashire, Devon, and Cornwall ; and parts 
 of the bordering counties. The rest of the country the 
 Saxons divided amongst themselves into eight parts : — 
 Kent, Mercia, Sussex, Wessex, Essex, East Anglia, Deria, 
 Bernicia. Wessex was on the south ; East Anglia on 
 the east; Deria and Bernicia in the north-east; Mercia, 
 was in the middle of the country, and along the side 
 of Wales. The fighting men of the Welsh and many of 
 the Welsh families left those parts of their country 
 that the Saxons had conquered, and went to live with 
 their fellow-countrymen who were in the unconquered 
 parts. But a great many of them gave in to the 
 Saxons, and lived among them. Some of these Welsh 
 people became the servants of the Saxons. Others
 
 TO THE COMING OF THE SAXONS. 17 
 
 became their wives or husbands. Of the eight divisions 
 of the country under the Saxons, for a very long time 
 the largest and most important was Mercia. 
 
 LEADING EVENTS. 
 
 The Invasions by Julius C?esar 55 and 54 b.o. 
 
 Caradog's last Battle ; after a stniggle for nine years he 
 
 was defeated Ijy Ostorius Scapula 51 a.d. 
 
 The Death of Ostonus iScapula 51 
 
 Suetonias Paulinas invades Anglesey, and massacres the 
 
 Druids 61 
 
 Boadicea's successes, defeat, and death G I 
 
 Agricola defeats the Ordovices, and acquires the peaceable 
 
 submission of Anglesey 78 
 
 The Battle of the Grampians 84 
 
 Departure of the Romans from Britain 418 
 
 Arrival of Hengist and Ilorsa 449
 
 (18) 
 
 THE HOUSE OF OFFA. 
 
 Pybba : 10th in descent from Woden. " 
 
 Penda, 625 — 655. 
 
 ;25— 6 
 
 Eawa. 
 
 Peada=d. of Wiilfhere, Ethelred, 
 
 Oswy : k. thro' 657—675. 675—704, 
 
 the treachery became a 
 
 of his wii'e, monk. 
 
 657. 
 
 Alwy. 
 
 Osmond. 
 
 Kenred, Ceolred, Ethelbald, Enwult 
 704—709, 709-716, 716—755. I 
 
 •went to Eome. d. 729. | 
 
 Thingferth. 
 
 Offa, 
 
 755—794. 
 
 Egfert. 
 
 Eadburga, 
 and other 
 daughters.
 
 (19) 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 FROM THE MASSACRE AT BANGOR TO THE OVERTHROW OF 
 THE KINGDOM OF MERCIA. 
 
 Fierce, frequent, and bloody were the contests that waies 
 
 and 
 Mercia. 
 
 took place between the Celt and the Saxon, ere the ^^^ 
 
 latter had driven the warriors of the former beyond 
 the banks of the Severn, into the narrow vales and 
 among the lofty mountains of Cambria; and as equally 
 fierce, frequent, and bloody were the contests that 
 afterwards took place between the contending powers ; 
 and yet, strange as it may seem, the kings of Wales 
 antl the kings of Mercia were often stcdfast allies and 
 firm friends. Oft did they unite their forces against 
 the foreign foe or the encroaching neighbour. The 
 Welsh remembered that the Mercians had acrain and 
 again waged war against those who had lifted up the 
 armed hand against the unarmed and defenceless ; that 
 Ethelfrid, the pagan king of Northumbria, had at one The 
 fell and foul stroke put an end to the seminary of JJ^^Tih" 
 learning, industry, and piety, with its ancient records, gj"^®"^'^- 
 which existed at Bangor Is Coed, and had unjustifiably 
 massacred 1,200 uw.ii,^ whose chief fault was intense 
 love of country, and a still more intense love for the 
 faith and religious customs of their race. 
 
 Ethelfrid is described'' as a most worthy king, and 
 
 » Bede, Ecd. Hint., book ii, c. 2, C03 ; Saxon Chronicle, 007, says 200. 
 
 ' Bode.
 
 20 
 
 FROM THE MASSACRE AT BANGOR TO THE 
 
 The 
 
 Massacre 
 of Welsh 
 Students, 
 603. 
 
 Cadwall- 
 awn. 
 
 ambitious of glory. It is stated that he ravaged the 
 Welsh more than all the great men of the English. 
 He is also compared to Saul, king of Israel. This king 
 met the Welsh in battle array at Chester. To the 
 sympathetic and humane no sight could have been 
 more affecting than that which met the eye of the 
 Northumbrian monarch before he gave the word to 
 attack the foe, for he was opposed by a twofold army. 
 The one part was composed of men of war, the other 
 of men of prayer. No incidents in British history is 
 more thrillinsj than that in connection with the battle 
 which took place in the vicinity of the City of Legions 
 in the year 603. We are informed that the monastery 
 of Bangor, the home of these men of prayer, was di- 
 vided into seven parts, with a ruler over each, and that 
 some of these parts contained no less than three hun- 
 dred men who lived by the labours of their hands. 
 They knew that the Northumbrians were approaching, 
 and for three days they fasted, and on the fourth day 
 they went forth and took their stand by their brothers, 
 the soldiers of Wales. On their knees they prayed for 
 their country and their religion. Whilst thus employed, 
 Ethelfrid issued the order to fall upon them. The 
 order was obeyed, and twelve hundred monks gave 
 evidence of their patriotism and their faith with their 
 blood. Bangor was soon deserted. Henceforth the 
 small island of Bardsey, off the Carnarvonshire coast, 
 gave shelter to the religious men of Wales ; whilst the 
 ruins of Bangor testified to succeeding ages^ its once 
 almost incredible prosperity. 
 
 Vengeance swift and terrible overtook the sacrilegious 
 host of Northumbria. Cadwallawn, the last Celt save 
 
 ^ William of Malmesbury.
 
 OVERTHROW OF THE KINGDOM OF MERCIA. 21 
 
 one who bore the title of King of Britain,^ formed an 
 alliance with the redoubtable Penda of Mercia. They penda. 
 united their forces and advanced into Northumbria. 
 It is stated that, following the terrible example of 
 Ethelfrid, they harassed the country with fire and 
 sword, and spared neither age or sex. They killed the 
 Bretwalda Edwin, and his sons Osfrid and Eanfrid. Edwin. 
 Osric, Edwin's nephew, besieged Cadwallawn in a e|^,j_ 
 strong town. The Welsh monarch sallied out, and, Osric. 
 taking Osric by surprise, destroyed him and his army. 
 Eanfrid, son of Ethelfrid, met with the same fate, £ajifrid 
 "through the rij^htful vengeance of Heaven."'^ And 
 the Welsh King reigned over the North of England 
 for the space of one year, " like a rapacious and bloody 
 tyrant."* Cadwallawn fell by the hand of the Bret- 
 
 ' Powel's Historie of Cambria, 688. 
 
 From Matthew of Westminster we learn that Edwin defeated Cadwall- 
 awn. The latter fled to Ireland, but was unable to return, because an 
 astrologer made known all his i)lans to Edwin. Tlien the Welsh King 
 went to Brittany. PYom Brittany he sent his nephew Brian to York, to 
 kill the astrologer. Brian met his sister at York. Bhe pointed out the 
 revealer of Cadwallawn's plans. Her brotlier succeeded in his design, 
 and then fled to Exeter, whore his fellow-countrymen received him. lie 
 was here besieged by Penda, who was defeated and captured by Cadwall- 
 awn. An the price of his liberty Penda swore fealty to the Welsh King. 
 
 At this time the Welsh held part of Yorkshire and the whole of England 
 west of a line drawn from Exeter to Winchester, thence to the IVnnine 
 Cliain, and into i)art of the south-west of Scotland. 
 
 Later on, this jiart of the country was known as : — 
 
 (1) West Wales — Cornwall, Devon, and the Borders of the latter. 
 
 (2) Wales — its present limits, together with Monmouth and Hereford, 
 and parts of Gloucester, Worcester, Salop, and Cheshire: ita 
 capital was Shrewsbury. 
 
 (3) Cumbria— Ijancasliire, Westmoreland, Cumberland, and part of 
 Yorkshire : its cajutal was Carlisle. 
 
 (4) Tlie country between the Firth of Clyde and the Solway Firth, 
 and which was known as lleged and Stratiidydo. 
 
 ' Bede. Tliis writer states that Cadwallawn determined to cut off all 
 the race of the Knglish within the borders of Britai!i. Kellgious zeal must 
 have warped Bcfle's judgment, for it was not likely tliat IVmla, n Saxon, 
 would ally himself with aWelahman to kill all the Haxous, himself included ! 
 
 » Bcde.
 
 22 FROM THE MASSACRE AT BANGOR TO THE 
 
 Oswald, walila Oswald, Ethclfrid's second son. Penda killed 
 Oswald in the vicinity of the town now called Oswestry, 
 Oswy. and was himself overcome and slain by Oswy, the 
 brother of Oswald, and seventh Bretwalda, who reigned 
 in his stead for three years. The chronicler^ considers 
 the date of the death of the hoary ruler of Mercia as 
 an epoch in the history of his people, for he remarks 
 that from the beginning of the world to this time 5,850 
 years were gone. 
 Peada. Peada, Wulfhere, and Ethelred succeeded their father 
 
 Etheired^ upon the throne of Mercia, and, like him, lived at peace 
 Etheibaid. ^vith their Celtic neighbours. But Ethelbald, their 
 nephew, coveting the rich and fertile land that lay 
 between the Severn and Wye, began to extend his 
 dominions towards the west. He was stoutly opposed 
 by the ancient possessors of the soil. Ethelbald fell 
 Offti, by the hand of an assassin,^ and was succeeded by Offa 
 
 the Terrible, who completed the task which had been 
 begun by his grandfather's cousin. The chroniclers 
 unite in praising Offa. His descent was traced to Adam 
 and Eve.^ He was a most gallant youth/ the terror 
 and dread of all the kings of England," most warlike 
 and very religious,* a man of great niind,^ and unan- 
 imously chosen king by the clergy and people.^ He 
 extended the commercial relations with the continent 
 by means of embassies, letters, and the influence of 
 Alcuin.'^ Under him Mercia became the most power- 
 ful of the Saxon kingdoms. London was its capital.^ 
 Coventry, Chester, and Bath were the favourite seats 
 of its rulers, and Derby had the charge of their dead. 
 
 ' Saxon Chronicler, 655. 
 
 * Bede, Eccl. Hist., 755. ' Matthew of Westminster. 
 
 * Henry of Huntingdon. • William of Malmesbury, book ii., c. it 
 
 766
 
 H 
 
 Pi 
 
 a 
 
 < 
 
 o 
 r- 
 
 < 
 U 
 >- 
 
 UJ 
 
 X 
 
 I- 
 1- 
 o 
 
 < 
 
 r^S- 
 
 I, 
 
 i^ - 
 
 ! -.^ S ^ 4' 

 
 OVERTHROW OF THE KINGDOM OF MERCIA. 23 
 
 It stretched from the banks of the Severn to the meres offi. 
 and marshes that bounded East Anglia on the westj 
 and from the Peak to the waters of the Thames. Thus 
 on all sides it was hemmed in by rival kingdoms, 
 all of which succumbed to the superior skill and am- 
 bitious acti\'ity of the Mercian monarch. His subjects 
 were warlike and renowned for handling the spear and 
 hurling the sharp dart.^ Ere long these weapons were 
 to be opposed to the terrible bows of the men of 
 Gwent,^ and the formidable and death dealing long 
 lances of the men of Powys.^ 
 
 Offa was the friend of Charlemagne* and the benef ac- Charie- 
 
 ° . magiis. 
 
 tor of the Pope. He endeavoured to remove the archi- 
 
 episcopal see from Canterbury to Lichfield, and succeed- 
 ed in persuading Adrian to confer the title of Arch- 
 bi.shop of the Mercians upon the bishop of that town. 
 Eight bishops became subject to the see of Lichfield. 
 By this move OfFa obtained a two-fold spiritual aid, 
 that of the chief of Christendom at Homo, and that of 
 his representatives in Mercia : so that in a temporal 
 and spiritual sense Kent had succumbed to the far- 
 seeing monarch of Mercia 
 
 * Henry of Huntingdon. 
 
 * Giraldus Canibrensis, Jlin., per Wal., hook ii., c. 4. 
 ' Ihid., iJes. Camb., book i., c. 6. 
 
 * Mall/irvj of Westminster states that OfTa and niarlcniapnc were enemies 
 at first But the wily Mercian soothed the latter liy jjresents and a letter. 
 In answer to this letter Cliarleniagne wrote — "Charles, by the grace of 
 fiod, King of the Frencli, I^nibards, and patrician of the Romans, to 
 the vcncraVile man and dearest brother OITa, King of Mercia, preetinp. " 
 This letter permitted pilprims to go to Rome, and allowed traders to do 
 business within his domains. Among other prcsentH tho emperor sent Offa 
 a belt, a Hungarian sword, and two robes of silk. 
 
 From William of Malmrslniry we gather that tho learned Alcuin also 
 wrote to Offa stating that he was ready to bring the emjieror's jiresents 
 to him, and thus return to his native land ; but, for the jieace of his nation, 
 he declined to do so. In another Ictttr he mentiona Charlemagne's affec- 
 tions and friendship for Oflii.
 
 24 FROM THE MASSACRE AT BANGOR TO THE 
 
 Offa, Bertric of Wessex and Ethclrcd of Northumbria 
 
 '^®^' married his daughters. And Ethclbert of East Anglia, 
 
 whilst seeking tlic hand of a third, was secretly des- 
 patched : his kingdom was added to that of Mercia. 
 Thus with the alliance of the kings of Wessex and 
 Northumbria, with the usurpation of East Anglia, and 
 the conquest of the kings of Kent and of the South 
 Saxons, with the friendship of Charlemagne and the 
 spiritual sympathy of the Pope, OfFa had ascended a 
 pinnacle of greatness that no other Bretwalda aspired^ 
 to. 
 
 After a time he turned his attention towards Cambria, 
 as the Celts had frequently crossed the Severn, driving 
 Expedi- the Saxons before them. Many a time had OfFa to 
 ^^°^^ ♦ lead his combined forces against the daring moun- 
 tbe ^ taineers, who were so bold and ferocious that even 
 when unarmed they did not fear to encounter an 
 armed force, being ready to shed their blood in defence 
 of their country, and to sacrifice their lives for re- 
 nown.^ Cambria presented an undaunted front, and 
 had she been true to herself and not eaten up by 
 internal divisions and perpetual strife, she might have 
 been more than a match for the king who beheaded 
 his allies and forced their subjects to fight his wars. 
 
 » Matthew of Westminster states that Offa's wife tried to persuade him 
 to kill Ethelbert, but he warmly rejected h > treacherous suggestions. 
 That day the two kings sat down to table, and after the feast they enjoyed 
 themselves with dancing and harp playing. Meanwhile the wicked queen 
 was preparing a hole beneath the chair upon which the royal guest was 
 to sit before going to bed. After the day's pleasure Ethelbert retired to his 
 bedchamber ; but he had no sooner seated himself in this chair than he was 
 hurled chair and all, into the deep hole which had been dug by the queen's 
 orders. Before he could recover himself, pillows, garments, and curtains, 
 •were thrown upon him to stifle his cries ; he was then quietly strangled 
 The Saxcm Chronicle states that OfTa ordered his head to be cut off, 792. 
 
 * Giraldus Cambrensis, Descriptio Cambrioe, book i, c. & 
 
 Welsh.
 
 OYERTHKOW OF THE KINGDOM OF MERCIA. 25 
 
 But, even when di\aded, Offa had to lead army after 
 army ere he succeeded in defeating the brave de- 
 fenders of their hearths and burial grounds. At last 
 fortune smiled upon him ; the Celts were driven to the 
 mountains; the paradise of the Cymry^ broken into 
 and acquired ; the King of Powys was forced to retire 
 from the head of the grove of alders,- the fenced 
 
 eminence ' to the Vale of Meifod, — from the banks of 9^*'^ 
 
 . uyke. 
 
 the broad and sweeping Hafren, the queen of rivers, to 
 
 those of the confined but pure Vyruwy. Clawdd Offa* 
 
 was erected, slight tokens of which still remain as 
 
 lasting and tantalising evidences of Offa's might and 
 
 Cambria's weakness. And Caradog of Gwynedd was 
 
 routed and slain in the fair Vale of Clwyd. 
 
 But, thoufjh vanquished, the Celts could not be sub- Welsh 
 * ^ . , , . patriot- 
 
 jugated : for ages they continued to contend against ism. 
 
 the single and combined attacks of Saxons, Danes, 
 
 Norsemen, and Normans, and when apparently utterly 
 
 crushed, they astonished their foes by their sudden 
 
 and vigorous reappearance, when, as if forgetful of 
 
 previous disa,ster, tliey pushed boldly forward into the 
 
 territories of the enemy. All tribute was sternly and 
 
 emphatically refused The conviction" of a mysterious 
 
 eternity reserved for their name and their language, 
 
 comforted them wlien overcome, and cheered them in 
 
 ' PowyH ; HO calleil V)y LI warch Hen. 
 
 ' Pengwern of the Welsh ; Scrobbes-byrig of tho Saxons ; Shrewsbury of 
 to-day. 
 
 ' Thierry's Conquest of Enr/land, vol. i. , book 1. 
 
 * In tho vicinity of Wflslii>ool remnants of this dyko are not to bo seen. 
 It is i)roV)abhj tlmt Offa deonied tho Severn a sufliciont barrier between 
 Gwalia and the Martihland Tliis work must have taken a long time to 
 complete. No doul)t those employed npon it had, like tho Jews upon tho 
 walls of Jerusalem, to work with arms by their side. It is a striking 
 monument of OITa's undaunted di.-termiiint ion. Kvery VVidshman found iu 
 iiriDS upon tho English side of tliis dyke Lad his right h.-md cut utL
 
 26 FROM THE MASSACRE AT BANGOR TO THE 
 
 captivity. The prediction of the bard Taliesin caused 
 Tallesin. the prisoner to view his bonds with indifference, while 
 he boldly and defiantly informed his victor that he 
 could neither destroy the Welsh name nor language, 
 but that both would endure to the end of time.^ 
 
 Cambria's bitterest curse clung to its conqueror and 
 his race, for with OfFa^ fell the greatness of Mercia. 
 Its star bowed down before the once subject but now 
 triumphant Dragon of Wessex. Eadburga, OfFa's 
 daughter, the last of his blood, begged her bread, 
 and died an abandoned outcast in the streets of Pavia. 
 
 ' It is worthy of interest to note that Taliesin lived about the year 540, 
 so that his grandfather might have witnessed the departure of the Romans 
 from our shores, and the arrival of the Jutes and Angles to aid the British 
 King Vortigem against the Picts and Scots. Both Taliesin and his father 
 must have had an intimate acquaintance with the successes of the Saxon in- 
 vaders during the first hundred years after their arrival in Britain, and this 
 acquaintance, no doubt, caused him to give utterance to his famous prophecy 
 concerning the Welsh, whose fulfilment we have to acknowledge in the 
 present day : it ran thus : — 
 
 En Ner a folant ; 
 En Hiaith a gadwant ; 
 En Tir a gollant, 
 Ond gwyllt Walia. 
 These lines are expressed in English as follows :^ 
 Their Lord they shall praise ; 
 Their Language they shall keep ; 
 Their Laud they shall lose, 
 Except v/ild Wales. 
 His predictions acted as a charm upon those Welsh men and women who 
 believed in them. 
 
 * Matthew of Westminster states that OfTa proceeded to Rome two years 
 before his death to record the canonization of the Celtic martjT Alban, and 
 the foundation of a monastery in his name. In return for this concession 
 and the remission of his sins, he gave to every one of his subjects wliose 
 estates did not exceed the value of 30 pieces of silver, if they attended the 
 School of the English at Rome, a piece of silver every day. To pay this 
 money his kingdom, except the land attached to St. Alban's monastery, was 
 taxed ; and this tax was called Romescot In aftertime it was known aa 
 Peter's Pence.
 
 OVERTHROW OF THE KINGDOM OF MERCIA. 27 
 
 Eadburga was a very bad woman. She was surpas- Eadbxirga 
 singly handsome, and had great influence over her 
 husband. When people offended her she accused them 
 falsely to him, so as to deprive them of life or of 
 power. As a rule, her husband did as she wished. 
 But, unluckily for him, he refused to believe her accu- 
 sation against a young man whom he loved. His wife 
 determined to poison her husband's favourite. Not ■ 
 knowing what was in the wine cup presented to the 
 object of his wife's hatred, Bertric partook of it and 
 died. Thus Eadburga by her wickedness lost her hus- 
 band, her throne, and the society of her friends, for the 
 people of Wessex rose against her and sent her out of 
 their country. They also passed a law that henceforth 
 no kin" should reijrn over them who allowed his wife 
 to sit beside him on the throne. King Ethclwulf broke 
 this law. 
 
 Eadburga crossed over to France with great riches 
 to the court of Charlemagne. The emperor wished to 
 marry her, and asked^ her which she Avould prefer, him- 
 self or his son; she answered — "If I am to have my 
 choice, I prefer your son, because he is younger than 
 you." He replied, " If you had chosen me, you should 
 have had my son, but as you have chosen him, you shall 
 have neither of us." Thereu[)on ho caused her to be- 
 come an abbess. For an unchaste act she was expelled 
 from France. Thence, deserted by all save one faithful 
 servant, siio made her way to Pavia. 
 
 It was not unusual in the days of the Saxons for tho 
 
 King's oldest son to be chosen King during the lifetime 
 
 of his father. Doubtless this was done in order to niako 
 
 sure his accession to tiie throne. Thus, Egfert, OllU'a 
 
 ' Florence of Weatmimiter, under the year 8Ji5.
 
 28 THE EXTINCTION OF OFFA'S RACE. 
 
 Egfert, son, was not merely the heir to the throne of Mercia, 
 '^** but he was actually elected and consecrated King nine 
 
 years before his father's death. And yet the year 794< 
 witnessed the death of father and son. The death of 
 the latter intensifies the forlorn and destitute condition 
 of his sister, the representative of a dozen monarchs, 
 and the last of the race of Offa, in a foreign land. 
 
 LEADING EVENTS. 
 
 Massacre of Welsh Students by Etlielfrid at Bangor Is 
 
 Coed 603 a.d. 
 
 The Bretwalda Edwin killed by Cadwallawn 633 
 
 Cadwallawn killed by Oswald 634 
 
 The Bretwalda Oswald killed by Penda 642 
 
 Penda killed by the Bretwalda Oswy 655 
 
 The Accession of Offa 755 
 
 The Death of Olfa, and the extinction of his Race 794 
 
 
 I
 
 (29) 
 
 CHAPTER III 
 
 FROM THE DEATH OF OFFA TO THE CONVERSION 
 OF GUTHRUM. 
 
 The Saxons looked upon their kings as generals and 
 administrators. It was necessary for them to be able 
 to lead their subjects to battle, and also to manage the 
 internal affairs of their kingdoms. The Saxons did not 
 acknowledge the hereditary rights of their kings. A 
 son succeeded a father, not because he was his father's 
 son, but because he was elected by the Witan to sit 
 upon the throne. They selected the best man they 
 could find. Thus it was that Egbert, son of Elmund,^ EgDert 
 King of Kent, was elected by the Witan, composed of soo. 
 the ealdonnen, thanes, clergy and people of Wcssex, 
 to rule over that state. And these facts explain 
 why Alfred and Edred became kings instead of their 
 nephew.s. 
 
 E<djert had been the rival of Bertric, but Offa took 
 the part of his son-in-law, and caused Egbert to leave 
 the land. He went to the court of Charlemagne, where 
 he learnt many useful things. No doubt OfFa's in- 
 fluence with the emperor prevented Egbert's return to 
 Eiiglantl during his lifetime. Egl)ort was looked up 
 to because he was tlie last descendant of the house of 
 Ccrdic. He cliaiig(;il the name of the country from 
 Britain to Enghiiid, either on account of its shape, 
 which rcscmbhrs that of a triangle, or because it was 
 inliabited chiefly by the descendants of the Angles. 
 
 ' Sax. Chron., 781.
 
 30 FllOM THE DEATU OF OFF A 
 
 Egbert, In 823 Ei^bcrt defeated the Mercians ; and his son 
 
 B23. ° . . 
 
 Ethelwulf annexed to his father's territories those of 
 the men of Kent, of the men of Surrey, and of the 
 South and East Saxons : in the same year the East 
 Anglians sought Egbert's alliance, and also his pro- 
 827. tection against Mercia. In 827 Egbert conquered 
 
 Mercia, and the whole of the country south of the 
 H umber ; he also led an army against the Northum- 
 brians, and forced them to swear allegiance and obe- 
 dience to him. He was the eiohth and the last 
 Bretwalda. In the same year he was crowned at 
 Winchester as first kinfj of the Saxons. And in a 
 
 828 
 
 charter of 828 he is styled King of England. 
 
 His reign was distinguished by many battles, for as 
 Oflfa, to establish his kingdom, " shed a deluge of blood;" 
 so Egbert won and rescued the kingdom of Wessex by 
 the shedding of much blood. Egbert was succeeded 
 Ethelwulf, by his son Ethelwulf, who also fought many battles. 
 One of these battles was against the Welsh of Wales, 
 as Burhred, King of Mercia, who afterwards married his 
 daughter, besought Ethelwulf to help him against his 
 aggressive neighbours, who stoutly^ opposed the forces 
 of the Mercians. The Welsh were unable to withstand 
 the combined forces of the Kings of Mercia and Wes- 
 sex — they were defeated, and forced to submit^ to their 
 Saxon neighbours. 
 
 Ethelwulf went to Rome, and on his way back he 
 married Judith, a girl of twelve years of age, daughter 
 of Charles the Bald of France. Durinfj his absence in 
 Italy and France, his eldest son Ethelwald, with the 
 
 • Flor. of Worcester. 
 
 * Saxon Chronicle. The writer of this chronicle, under the year 8.55, had 
 evidently a high opinion of Ethelwulf, as he traces his descent to Adam
 
 TO THE CONVERSION OF GUTHRUM. 31 
 
 help of the bishop of Sherborne and the Ealdorman of Civfl Dis- 
 
 PI • Eension, 
 
 Somerset, schemed^ to prevent his father re-assummg 855, 
 
 the government of his kingdom. Ethelwald was not 
 altogether successful in his ambitious projects, as the 
 nobles did not wish to see the land rent asunder by- 
 civil strife ; they therefore would not help him in his 
 designs to prevent, by force of arms, the return of his 
 father to England. Ethelwulf, religiously inclined, and 
 solaced by the presence of his girl wife, was induced 
 to divide the kingdom between himself and his son. 
 Ethelwulf took the eastern part of the kingdom, and 
 Ethelwald^ the western. The former seemed to have 
 consoled himself at his curtailed rule by making Judith, 
 contrary to the custom of the West Saxon Kings from 
 the days of Oflfa's daughter, to sit beside him on the 
 royal throne — and this was done without arousing the 
 hostihties of his nobles by word or deed.^ 
 
 Ethelwulf was a pious man : he left land* for the 
 glory of God and the salvation of his soul ; and he 
 commanded his heirs to look after the poor. 
 
 In addition to Ethelwald, he was the father of 
 Ethelbald, Ethelbert, Ethelrcd, and Alfred, all of whom 
 reifrned as kinirs. The first died before his father. 
 The second son married his father's girl-widow. But 
 the people cried shame upon liim, and she was sent 
 to her home, 859. There she ran away with Baldwin, 
 the great forester of France. He became Earl of 
 Flanders. Vroui Baldwin and Judith descended Ma- 
 
 ' Flor. of Worcester. 
 
 ' Tlie Saxr/n Ckranidf. terms him Atholslan, aii'l states that hia fathor 
 gavo him in 836 the kingiloms of the Kcnti.sh men, of the EaHt RaxoiiH, of 
 the men of Surrey, and of the Houth Saxons ; it further Hlatcs that in 8.S8 
 Ethelbert ruled over these diatricts, and that his brother Ethelbald ruled 
 Wcssex. 
 
 * Sax, Chronicle.
 
 32 FROM THE DEATH OF OFFA 
 
 Descent of tikla, who married William of Normandy, and Judith, 
 vrcToria. '^'^^^ fi^^^ married Tosti, son of Earl Godwin, and 
 afterwards Guelph IV. of Brunswick, the direct ances- 
 tor of Her Imperial Majesty Queen Victoria. 
 
 The third and fourth sons of Ethelwulf were but ordi- 
 nary men. Like their predecessors they had to struggle 
 against the Danes. Ethelbald died in 860, and Ethelbert 
 in 8G6. Upon the death of Ethelred, his sons were put 
 aside, and his brother Alfred was elected king by the will 
 of his father, by the election of the Witan, and with the 
 consent of Ethelred : this took place in the year 871. 
 Moreover, he was specially set apart for the throne ; 
 The youth for when he was barely four years old his father sent 
 ^^^^ him to Rome with great pomp and many followers, 
 and, at his request, Pope Leo^ consecrated and anointed 
 the baby-boy King ; he also received him as his son 
 by adoption, and confirmed him. Thus, like David of 
 old, he became the Lord's anointed : and it would 
 appear that his father foresaw, with the eye of faith, 
 the great things he was destined to do for his country. 
 No other King of England ascended the throne fortified 
 with so many rites, or with brighter hopes and expecta- 
 tions, than did Alfred in the year of grace 871. It is 
 needless to state that he was his father's favourite.^ In 
 the year 855 he visited Rome for the second time. On 
 this occasion he was protected by his father. They 
 remained in Rome a whole year. When young the 
 people did not like him. It might have been that the 
 great favour shown him by his father and the Pope 
 caused him to be proud and overbearing. No doubt 
 
 ' Florence of Worcester. 
 
 ' Florence of Worcester states that Ethelwulf loved Alfreil more than 
 his other sons j this clironicler traces Alfred's descent to Adam.
 
 TO THE CONVERSION OF GUTIIRUM. 33 
 
 he was too busy with his books and devotions to take 
 an active part in sports ;^ while his infirmity obliged 
 liim to seek repose ; and so those who were better 
 sportsmen, and more stalwart and hardy than Alfred, 
 might have treated him with contempt. And, on the 
 other hand, their ignorance of what he had learnt mio-ht 
 have caused him to treat them with coolness. But 
 after a time this feeling chanofed for one of mutual 
 respect and affection, and, throughout the greater part 
 of liis chequered and eventful existence, his people 
 remained faithful to him in the hour of trial and 
 adversity, and suffered themselves to be guided by hira 
 when he sought to improve their condition. This 
 cliange of feeling took place after Alfred's defeat at 
 Chippingliam, on the Chistmas Eve of 878. Before that a^^^^^^ 
 disaster befel him he was inclined to act arbitrarily and 878. 
 cruelly towards his subjects ; and he was also guilty of 
 lustful and immoral conduct. During his sojourn upon 
 the Isle of Atbelney he visited St. Neot, who advised 
 him to give up his former course of life. The King 
 determined to follow the good man's advice ; and we 
 are informed^ tiiat after that visit his followers flocked 
 to him, and that success attended his every effort. 
 
 ' Florence of Worcester states that he had no rival in the huntsman's 
 cralt. The same writer statcH that he was twelve years of a/je when his 
 molher excile.d his li/ve for learninfj by showiwj him and his brothers a book 
 of Haxon poetry, and saying to them — " I will give this book to whicliever 
 of you first learns to read it." This story is incredible for the followiufj 
 reasons:— («) When Alfred was twelve years old, 8G1, his mollier, Osl)iirii, 
 wa.s dea<l ; (h) his »tc|p-iiiotlier, .Judith, had been driven in di.sj,'race Iroin 
 the land ; (r) all his brothers, execjit Kthelred, were also dead. Most 
 probably he was encouraged by Judith in his desire for leaniing, and that 
 iihe, a mere girl in years, would feel as much interest as the boy Alfred in 
 "abeautifully-illuininatedand initial lettered volume." William of Midmes 
 bury also states that Alfred was twelve years of age when he began to study: 
 this chronicler makes the extraordinary statement that his mother was willi 
 him in the Isle of Athelney, 878! • Malliiew of Weslndnster.
 
 34 FROM THE DEATH OF OFFA 
 
 Alfred fortificcP this isle. From thence he went 
 forth against the Danes, and had frequent encounters 
 with them. He determined to spy out their camp ; 
 and in order to do so he disguised^ himself as an harpist. 
 With one faithful follower by his side, he boldly 
 approached their resting place. They were admitted 
 into the tent, and also into the banqueting room of 
 Guthrum, the leader of the Danes. They remained in 
 the Danish camp several daj^s, and whilst there, the 
 Saxon king, as his fingers played with the strings 
 of his harp, tried with ears and eyes,^ to make himself 
 acquainted with the secrets of his listeners. When he 
 had obtained as much information as he desired to 
 know, he returned to his anxious friends at Athelney. 
 He assembled his companions, and assured them that 
 the enemy was indolent, and could be easily defeated. 
 All were eager for the enterprise. At Egbert's stone,^ in 
 the eastern part of the forest of Selwood, he was met 
 by the men of Somerset and of Wilts, and a portion 
 of the men of Hants, who received him with joy.* 
 The king, havinsc ascertained from his scouts the exact 
 position of the Danes, attacked them suddenly, and 
 overthro'B defeated them with great slaughter.^ After this victory 
 and con- ^}fie(j besieged the Danes in their fortified position for 
 
 version of o ^ i 
 
 Gutarum, fourteen days,* when Guthrum surrendei'ed, and de- 
 livered hostages to him. He was afterwards christened, 
 Alfred being his godfather, under the name of Athclstan, 
 and received East Anglia for himself and such of his 
 followers as became christians. A portion of the Danes 
 would not be baptised : they left England under the 
 
 ' Henry of Himtingdon. ^ William of Malmesbury. 
 
 ■'' Florence of Worcester. 
 * Saxon Chronicle.
 
 TO THE CONVERSION OF GUTHRUM. So 
 
 leadership of Hastings, of whom we shall read in the 
 
 next chapter. 
 
 Mattliew of Westminster gives a most interesting 
 
 account of Kincr Alfred's life upon the Isle of Athelney. .,, ^ , 
 ^ _ •• , "^ Alfred at 
 
 This isle was situated at the iunction of the rivers Tone Atneiuey. 
 
 876 
 
 and Parret, and was surrounded by marshes ; no one 
 could arrive at it except by boat. It consisted of a 
 wood and a level space of less than two acres, and was 
 inhabited by a poor man and his wife, and by some 
 stags, goats, and pigs. The poor man took pity upon 
 Alfred when he told him that he was a servant of the 
 king, and that he was pursued by the enemy. Alfred 
 lived with these people several days, and did Avhat 
 they told him to do. One day the wife was so busy 
 that she forgot to attend to some loaves that were 
 baking in the ashes of her fire, and, when she saw that 
 they were scorched, she put the fault upon the king, 
 saying: — 
 
 " You see the cakes bnrii. 
 But never give them a turn ; 
 Though you won't be so slow 
 To eat them, I know." 
 
 Her husband is supposed to have become a bishop. 
 This supposition is founded upon a statement made by 
 Florence of Worcester, who writes that one Danewulf 
 was, during the early part of his life, not onl}' ignorant, 
 but a swineherd. King Alfred, overcome by the 
 onslau^'lits of his enemies, had taken refuge in a forest, 
 •whore by cliancc he mot him as he was feeding his 
 swine. The king was struck with liis intelligence, 
 cau.sed him to be educated, and afterwards made liim 
 bi.shop of Winchester, a Sec once held by his father, 
 Ethehvulf As Alfred took refuge but once, and that 
 
 ^ Henry of Uuntingtlou.
 
 36 Alfred's adventures at athelney. 
 
 Alfred at '^^^^ upon the Isle of Atlielney, and as his entertainer 
 Atiieiney, thereon was a swineherd, it is not unreasonable to 
 
 878. ' 
 
 conclude that tlie swineherd of Athelney and the swine- 
 herd of the forest were one and the same person. It is 
 also not unreasonable to entertain the pleasing fancy 
 that the Queen and the swineherd's wife became bosom 
 friends, and that whilst living together at Winchester, 
 the former often entertained the latter in the king's 
 palace, and now and again visited her in the palace of 
 her husband the bishop : if so, they were privileged 
 to listen to the voice of King Alfred, who, so the 
 chronicler^ informs us, was in the habit of relating to 
 his companions, in a lively and agreeable manner, his 
 perils upon the Isle of Athelney. 
 
 LEADING EVENTS. 
 
 Tlie Election of Egbert a.s King of Wessex 800 a.». 
 
 Egbert, King of the Saxons 827 
 
 And King of England 828 
 
 The Death of Egbert, and the accession of Ethelwulf ... 836 
 
 Alfred visits Rome 853 and 855 
 
 The Death of Ethelwulf, and the accession of Ethelbald... 858 
 
 The Death of Ethelbald, and the accession of Ethelbert... 860 
 
 The Death of Ethelbert, and the accession of Ethelred... 866 
 
 The Death of Ethelred, and the accession of Alfred 871 
 
 The Flight of King Alfred to the Isle of Athelney ; and 
 
 the defeat and conversion of Guthrum 878 
 
 ' William of Malmesbury, book ii., chap.
 
 37 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 FROM THE FIRST LANDING OF THE DANES IN ENGLAND TO 
 THEIR ARRIVAL UNDER HASTINGS. 
 
 The same year, 787, in which the marriage of Bertric, _ 
 
 King of Wessex, with OfFa's daughter was celebrated, Danes, 
 
 the Danes first landed in England,^ and began that 
 
 system of slaughter and plunder which ended with the 
 
 foundation of the dynasty of Sweyn, and which was 
 
 revived after the wanton and horrible mauirlinfj^ of the 
 
 body of the last Saxon king, the heroic Harold, around 
 
 the hoar apple tree at Senlac' The Danes began by 
 
 killing one man, but before their swords were finally 
 
 sheathed thousands had fallen before them.* 
 
 The northern rovers were perfectly at home upon 
 
 Their 
 the billows, and when in the trough of the sea they habits 
 
 would sing aloud, " The force of the storm is a help to 
 
 the arms of our rowers ; the hurricane is in our service, 
 
 and carries us the way we would go." The Danes 
 
 looked upon the Saxons as renegades from the faith of 
 
 their forefathers. When the Saxon priests and their 
 
 followers were pierced through ])y the spear, cloven 
 
 with the sword, or crushed with the ]>attle-axe, the 
 
 ' HfT nom ncorlitric cyning Offtm dolitor Ividtmr^'fK; to wive And on 
 his dogtitn cuomon at-rcst !i scipu Northiuauna of Ilucrellia landc. —/Suxun 
 Chronicle. 
 
 Ttie reeve wished to take the crew from these strange ships to the king's 
 town, as he did not know who tliey were ; they killed him. 
 
 " Guy of Amiens ; William of Poitiers. 
 
 * iioxwi Chronicle, 1066. * Henry of Huntingdon, 787
 
 38 FROM THE FIPxST LANDING OF THE DANES IN 
 
 Danes shouted forth, " We have sung the mass of 
 
 sj^cars, it began at the rising of the sun." ^ 
 
 One of the earhest and most renowned of the sea- 
 
 Lolbrog. ^^i'^S's was Regner Lodbrog. After ravaging the shores 
 
 of the Baltic, the North and Irish Seas, and the coasts 
 
 of France, and sacking Paris, he landed in England, 
 
 and was captured by Ella of Northumbria, who hurled 
 
 him into a pit which swarmed with adders and snakes. 
 
 While their venom filled his veins, and their fangs 
 
 gnawed his vitals, he composed that song,^ which ought 
 
 to live for ever in the memory of his countrymen, and 
 
 excite the horror and sympathy of the humane. 
 
 The news of Lodbrog 's death roused up the ardent 
 
 spirits of the Norsemen. They rushed to join the 
 
 standard of his sons, Halfden, Ingwar, and Ubba, who 
 
 threw themselves upon the shores of England with such 
 
 relentless fury, that she writhed more and endured 
 
 greater agony than did the mighty rover and poet, 
 
 Regner Lodbrog. Northumbria, East Anglia, and 
 
 Mercia were overrun by them. They captured Ella, 
 
 their father's murderer ; and the " cubs of the boar " 
 
 avenged his death, for they cut Ella's ribs from his 
 
 .spine, drew his lungs through the opening, and then 
 
 „ , threw salt into the wounds.^ There was no power* in 
 
 Helpless 
 
 state of England to oppose the progress of these desperate men.' 
 
 England, Wessex was in a state of thraldom to the priests ; its 
 
 martial spirit had fled, and its throne had become a 
 
 1 Thierry, vol. i., book 11. 
 
 2 Sliarou Turner's History of ilie Anglo-Saxons, vol. i., book 4, chap. 3. 
 
 ' They also captured Edmund, King of East Anglia, and having used his 
 body a.s a target lor their arrows, they cut oil his head. — Matthew of West- 
 minster, 870. 
 
 * Alfred had fought nine battles against the invaders in 871, at Reading, 
 Ashdown, Basing, and elsewhere, so that his forces were unable to contend 
 successfully against the almost incessant attacks of the Danes.
 
 ENGLAND TO THEIR ARRIVAL UNDER HASTINGS. 39 
 
 mere stage, across which a phantom line oi' kings flitted, 
 they disappeared so rapidly one after another. The 
 whole country was sunk in the slough of despair, 
 and utterly exhausted. Alfred had indeed appeared, 
 shedding around him the same short-lived and dazzling 
 brilliancy that a meteor does as it flashes across the 
 sky, dark with a blackness the more awful in contrast 
 to the unexpected streak of fire. As the sky after 
 such an appearance relapses into a darkness that might 
 be felt, so did England, after the fatal and disastrous 
 rout of Alfred and his few forces by Guthrum, on the 
 unpropitious Christmas Eve of 878, present the unusual 
 phenomenon of a land without a king or government, 
 the former being a fugitive, and the latter but a Alfred's 
 memory of the past. But though the king was a g'|^*' 
 fugitive and contemned b}' his own subjects,^ the 
 Danish rule was not to be as yet; that catastrophe was 
 postponed for almost another half century. It was 
 necessary to contend with Alfred even after he was 
 overcome, after he was prostrate ; insomuch that when 
 he might be supposed altogether van(|uished, he Avould 
 escape Hke a slippery serpent from the hand that held 
 him, glide from his lurking place, and, with undimin- 
 ished courage, spring on his insulting foes. After 
 fliglit he became more circumspect from the recollec- 
 tions of defeat, more bold from the tliirst of vengeance.'' 
 The refuge at tlie swam})^ amidst the waters of the 
 Tone and Parr<;t ; the revilings of the swinelierd's 
 wife;* the ovM-rthrcnv of Ulil>a, the last surviving son of Ubba. 
 
 » Asser. ' Will, of Malm. , book 2, clmj). 4. 
 
 According to Willinm of MnlincHbiiry, Alfreil's inotlier (who lia<l been 
 (lead many years) wo-t with liim in the isle of Athuhiey I 
 
 • Matthew of Westminster, 878.
 
 40 FROM THE FIIJST LANDING OF THE DANES IN 
 
 Lodbrog, a man of terrible obstinacy and unheard of 
 valour ; with the slaughter of twelve hundred of his 
 followers/ and the capture of the mysterious banner 
 called the Raven, which was woven in one noontide by 
 the daughters of the mighty Jarl ;^ the king's secret visit 
 to the foemen's camp ; the discomfiture and blockade 
 
 The Danes of the Danish host; and the peace with Guthrum, — were 
 followed by several years of comparative rest, during 
 which time Alfred struggled to repair the great ills 
 that had afflicted the country. He erected camps and 
 forts. He built ships, and gathered around him such 
 a force as would for the future defy the combined 
 attacks of his foes. Well was it for England that she 
 had for her ruler such a vigilant and prudent monarch. 
 The years employed in internal reform were succeeded 
 by a complete inundation of the land by the countless 
 hordes from the North, under the guidance of the re- 
 
 HastiD£;s. doubtable and far-famed Hastings, the son of a labourer 
 at Troycs,^ the pupil of Lodbrog, the tutor of his son 
 Biorn, the vanquisher of Count Robert the Strong,^ the 
 scourge of France, and the terror of Italy. Satiated 
 with the spoils obtained from the imbecile French and 
 Italians, and disappointed of the French crown and the 
 imperial diadem, Hastings thought to hurl from the 
 throne of England its king, seize the kingdom for him- 
 self, and found a dynasty. This was a mighty project. 
 It was undertaken with all his might. But he was 
 more mightily opposed by the far-seeing and ever alert 
 Alfred, with the aid of the Royal Ethelred, and the 
 princes and warriors of Wales and of the Welsh borders. 
 
 > Flor. Wig. , 878 ; Henry of Huntingdon and the Saxon Chronicle say 850. 
 
 * Asser. * Thierry, vol. i., book 2. 
 
 * Sharon Turner, vol. i., book 4. chap. 11.
 
 TNGLAND TO THEIR ARRIVAL UNDER HASTINGS. 41 
 
 It must be allowed that Hastings had a fair chance 
 of success, when we recollect that his followers did not 
 consist of the factious or lukewarm, but of the choice 
 spii'its of the North, of veterans who had fought, bled, 
 and triumphed with Regner Lodbrog, of men who 
 venerated their leader as a descendant of Wodin,^ and 
 who scorned to abide at home. In his ranks, too, were Exploits 
 youths flushed with the first bloom of liberty, and ^astinffs 
 burning to gain the approbation of their chief, outdo 
 their comrades, and emulate the heroes whose exploits 
 had been the theme for praise in their northern homes, 
 while the snow covered the land and the storm howled 
 around their rude abodes, and lashed into fury the 
 elements, which they were taught to regard as the 
 servants of their will and their guides to immortal 
 renown. 
 
 Before the birth of Alfred, Hastings had won for 
 himself a name which, when mentioned, struck terror 
 into the hearts of his enemies, but tilled his admirers 
 and followers with the fiercest enthusiasm. He had 
 routed the forces of the Frankish King, accepted his 
 gold and pillaged his subjects. Failing to stir up 
 Gutlirum to revolt,'' and not contented with harassing 
 the shores of Britain and of France, Hastings destroyed 
 the inhabitants of Paris and other cities. He after- 
 wards shaped his course into the Mediterranean, for 
 the express purpose of feasting his men amidst the 
 palaces of Papal Home. The worshipper of Woiliii was 
 desirous of looking into the face of the Pope, and 
 of obliging l)im to confer upon himself the inij)erial 
 title; or, in default of compliance with his wish, lie 
 determined to witness the dying agonies of the Chief 
 • Matt, of Westm. 887. * Will, of Malmcsbury, book 2, c. 4.
 
 42 FROM THE FIRST LANDING OF THE DANES IN 
 
 of Christendom. Happily for Eome, Hastings' geo- 
 graphical knowledge was not equal to his ambition, for 
 the town of Luna^ was mistaken for the city of the 
 Tiber. Upon his return to France he defeated the pro- 
 genitor of the Capetian dynasty. But having been 
 repulsed by the Bretons,^ and afterwards by the Em- 
 peror, he gathered around him a mighty host' for the 
 conquest of England, and set sail from Boulogne. The 
 Hastings ^^'^^0^6 force consisted of three hundred and thirty 
 Invades vessels, Mdiicli were filled with men and horses; for not 
 only were the Danes intrepid sailors, but also, when 
 occasion required, they were the most daring and 
 dashing of cavalry. This fact will account for the 
 celerity of their movements, and the consternation that 
 their vicinity inspired. Some time after their arrival 
 they were joined by the Danish settlers of Northumbria 
 and East Ano-lia, who ravajjed the southern shores and 
 besieged Exeter. Alfred, at the head of his cavalry, 
 set off to relieve the capital of the west, and Hastings 
 hastened to succour his own followers, and build a 
 strong fortress at Shoebury, in Essex. Here he was 
 joined b}' Sigefert, grandson of Lodbrog, at the head of 
 a great force,^ and then, setting himself at the head of 
 his vast army, he proceeded through Mercia to the bor- 
 ders of Wales. No doubt they were accompanied by 
 their three usual attendants, fire, slaughter, and pillage,* 
 for bloodshed and murder afforded them the same 
 delight as the continued feast. 
 
 At length they came in sight of that river — the 
 Hafren of the Celts, the Sabrina of the Romans, and 
 
 • Sharon Turner, vol. i., p. 499. ' Flor. of Wig., 891. 
 
 ^ Saxon Chronicle, 894 : Sharon Turner. * Henry of Huntingdon, 1003.
 
 ENGLAND TO THEIR ARRIVAL UNDER HASTINGS. 43 
 
 the Severn of the Saxons^ — which the Welsh then 
 
 looked upon with almost the same love and reverence ^ion of 
 
 as did the Hindoo the Gansjes, or the Gael the Forth ; course 
 
 ° of ttie 
 
 and with the same ambitious, regretful, and revengeful Severn. 
 
 lono-inf; as did the Teuton the Rhine. Onward it 
 
 flowed, with a mighty and majestic sweep, from the 
 
 fenny marsh at the base of Plynlimon, afterwards the 
 
 dangerous stronghold of Owain Glyndwr" — over rocks 
 
 and huge boulders, amidst flowers, fern, and furze 
 
 beautified with perpetual bloom — through narrow glens, 
 
 hemmed in by gloomy and lofty mountains, along 
 
 whose slopes the wild goat frolicked in undisturbed 
 
 security ; widespreading vales, where the native kine, 
 
 black with brown faces, wantoned in freedom and 
 
 plenty ; and forests crowded with trees of a variety of 
 
 growth and beauty of leaf, from the feathery foliage 
 
 of the pine, the dark shades of the yew, to the bright 
 
 green of the oak and poplar, and the silvery white and 
 
 rich blood-red of the beech — past Llanymynech rocks, 
 
 with their dread associations;' Oswestry, with its 
 
 recollections of a past greatness, and the fond credulity 
 
 of a monarch's^ sanctity and miraculous wortli — 
 
 strengthened by the water of the Vyrnwy, which had 
 
 ru.shed by ^lathraval, the last abode of tiie Princes of 
 
 Powys, and tlic^tombs oi that race — pant Shrewsbury 
 
 once Pengwern, ami the capital of Powys — past grim 
 
 and solitary Wrekiii, the last'' brave stand ol" a de.spcr- 
 
 ' Camrlen's 7Jn7rtn7ij«, "MoiitKomeryshire." ' Vammut's Tour.i in ]\'afes. 
 * It i.H supposed to li.ivi' bcfii astron^'lioM of tlic Druiils. * Kiiin "swmM. 
 
 • Ilartshonie'.H Sulopia Antiqua. It is the ojiinion of a crciluloiis few 
 that Carmlog iiiado Ium stand against the Roman legions upon tliu Wrekin. 
 But all who are acquainted with tlii» hill will confjuilo that the credulity 
 of ttiese j>(!0]i|i; far surpas'tes IIimIf jiidKrncuit. Ahout seven jilai'es have thu 
 credit of being the irenc of Caradog's last battle : most probably this battle 
 took place in the heart of North Wales.
 
 44 FROM TIIR FIRST LANDING OF THE DANES IN 
 
 Tiie ate man at the head of a desperate band, looking: like 
 
 Severn, 
 
 a deserted giant, or like one who had lost his way, or 
 
 had been overtaken with perpetual sleep when about to 
 join his brethren of Wales — past Bridgnorth, with its 
 Danish fort, doomed to be demolished and re-erected 
 by the Lady of the Mercians — through the forest of 
 Morfe, where the stag browsed, the wild boar whetted 
 his tusks, and the swineherd whiled away his days — 
 past Worcester, fated to experience the brutal ferocity 
 of the last Danish king and the gentle charity of the 
 wife of Ealdorman Leofric, the Lady Godiva of Coven- 
 try notoriety — by the hut of the churl, the rude 
 dwelling of the ceorl, the fort of the Thane, the castle 
 of the ealdorman, and the burgh of the free — until it 
 mingled its sweet water with those of the Western Sea, 
 which now and again rushed up its channel with the 
 overwhelming roar and force of an avalanche, and the 
 velocity of a troop of wild horses, as though they 
 longed to embrace its pure depths or do battle with 
 its descendinsT tide for the favour of the God of the 
 Sea. 
 
 Hastings' "j^j^g news concerninof the app-roach of the spoilers of 
 advance o i i j. ^ 
 
 into waiea Saxondom towards Shrewsbury was, no doubt, received 
 by those in power along the borders of Wales witii 
 very different feelings, many of whom bore a rancorous 
 hatred against the Mercians on account of past and 
 recent^ depredations. These men, as a matter of course, 
 would far sooner unite with Hastings for the purpose 
 of sweeping the Saxons from the land, than aid the 
 latter in this their hour of dire necessity. Others 
 mii^ht have remembered that the Black Pajrans^ had 
 
 ' Annales Cambrue. 
 * The name given to the Danes, because of their terrible cruelty.
 
 ENGLAND TO THEIR ARRIVAL UNDER HASTINGS. 45 
 
 strangled Cyngen/ ravaged Mona,^ slain Cynan, and 
 harassed the Borders up to the town of Montgomery.^ 
 
 But when the Danes advanced towards and even 
 endeavoured to pass the sacred boundary of the Severn, 
 then we may feel assured that even those Welshmen 
 who had counselled co-operation or neutralitj^ were 
 eager to oppose to the death their further progress. 
 They might have been willing to join the Dane agf anst 
 the Saxon in England, but they would not join with 
 the invader of England upon the soil of Wales, lest, 
 after the overthrow of the Saxons, the Danes might 
 turn upon themselves. They had heard, too, that their 
 race in Brittany had checked* the before unchecked 
 career of the successful Sea-king, and a glow of pride 
 flushed tlieir cheeks at the news ; while they mentally 
 resolved that, as the Bretons had saved the throne of 
 France, so would they help to rescue the Saxon crown 
 from the baffled Dane. At the sight of the burning 
 country that marked the approach of Hastings and his 
 followers, the mother clasped her babe to her bosom ; 
 she shuddered at the thought that her little one might 
 be to.s.sed from .spear point to spear point f and the 
 father, after looking upon both with feelings of the 
 acute.st agony, rushed fortii to oppose with his com- 
 rades the approaching army, ratlier than wait to 
 witness the proljable destruction of the one and the 
 worse than destruction of the other. 
 
 Upon the arrival of the JSor.semen at Buttington, w <• Hastings 
 are informed by Matthew of Westminster*' that they tjngton, 
 were received with great respect l)y their fellow- 894. 
 
 ' Annalfs Cam^ma:. » Sharon Turner, vol. i., p. 4n. 
 
 • Brut y Tywi/sorjion. * Flor. of Wig., 8'Jl ; Ilinry of Hant., 800. 
 
 • Henry of Uuut.j Math, of West. * Flowers oj Uialory, vol. i., 805.
 
 inglon, 
 894. 
 
 4G FROM THE FIRST LANDING OF THE DANES IN 
 
 countrj^men, who had built a town there. Probably 
 they were the remnants of " the black Normans "^ who 
 had visited Tre Valdwin^ in 890. Other authorities 
 assert that they cither entered a fortress,' or fastness,* 
 or threw up for themselves a fortification.^ 
 
 The further or western banks of the Severn were 
 guarded by the forces of Powys under their Prince 
 Mervyn. His brothers, Anarawd of Gwynedd and 
 Cadell of Doheubarth, afforded no help to their suze- 
 rain. They were too busily engaged in hastening the 
 downfall of their country by attacking each other.^ 
 
 Hastings Thus in front of the Danes were posted the Celts. 
 
 besieged _ '■ 
 
 at But- And the smouldering embers of ruined villages, hamlets, 
 and huts had scarcely been quenched, and the last 
 breath had hardly left the desperately wounded, ere 
 Ethered of Mercia, the earldormen Atlielm and Athel- 
 noth, Alfred's minister Ordhclm, and a great many 
 king's thanes, hurried up at the head of a huge army 
 gathered from every town and fortified place in Wessex 
 and its dependencies.'' They were soon followed by 
 the king himself with such vessels from the royal navy 
 as were used in the ascent of rivers. Very likely at 
 that time the Severn was deeper and broader than it is 
 at present.^ Alfred surrounded the Danes with his 
 fleet and also with his army. 
 
 • Brut y Tyioysogion. ^ The to%vii of Montgomery. '' Flor. of Wig. 
 
 * liaxun Chronicle. ' Heury of Huut. " Powcl, 893. 
 
 ' Flor. of Wig. ; Saxon Chrojiicle. " Matthew of Westminster. 
 
 In the time of Bede the island of Thanet was divided Irom the rest of 
 Kent by a channel almost a mile in widtli : now a mere brook separates 
 this island from the mainland. Perhaps somewhat similar influences have 
 been at work since the days of Alfred to reduce the width and depth of the 
 Severn. In his time, according to Malihew 0/ Westminster, Buttingtoa 
 was washed on all sides by the waves of the Severn. A few years ago a 
 large heajj of human remains were found there.
 
 ENGLAND TO THEIR ARRIVAL UNDER HASTINGS. 4 J 
 
 Hence at Buttington, in the j-ear 894, were assembled Hastings 
 some of the mightiest and most renowned chiefs, and ^f sieged 
 
 i.1. -L 'at But- 
 
 the bravest warriors that England has ever seen. With- tington, 
 in the vale floated for weeks the rival banners of Celt, ^^** 
 Dane, and Saxon, — the Red Dragon of Cambria showed 
 the position of those who stood to guard their crops, 
 their goods, and the honour and lives of those who were 
 dear to them ; the mystic Raven of the Norsemen 
 swung ominously in the breeze, with droopingi Avings 
 and dejected appearance ; and the White Dragon 
 showed tliat the "almost invincible army" of the 
 Saxons still lay along the eastern banks of the fastness, 
 and that their vessels were still washed by the waves 
 of the Severn.^ 
 
 The struggle that ensued was to decide the supremacy 
 of Alfred or of Hastings. From tliis remote vale the 
 fiat was to go forth which would call upon the inhabi- 
 tants of Britain — Saxon, Celt, Norse, Pict, Scot, and 
 Dane — to acknowledge the control of the Saxon mon- 
 arch or the Danish sea-king. No wonder, therefore, 
 that both parties waited so patiently, and prepared 
 themselves so well for the death grapple. Alfred now 
 experienced the full benefit of having left unmolested 
 tlie ancient possessors of the soil of Wales. 
 
 The bards of Cambria no doubt seized upon so 
 
 favourable an opportunity for the exercise of their 
 
 rharms. And wImj knows but that the kingly harper 
 
 of the camp of Gutluuni solaced his followers as they 
 
 lingered before the fastness of Buttington with tho 
 
 Bamo music that had beguiled his first great antagonist 
 
 ' Tlie Raven of the Dane« is said to betoken victory by outslrctcliing its 
 V ill ; but wlicMi defeat awaited tlieir aruja ita apjiearuuce was woelul and 
 <i 1' ii'leiit. — Asser. 
 
 ' Matthew of Westminster.
 
 4S 
 
 FROM THE FIRST LANDING OF THE DANES IN 
 
 Hastings 
 besieged 
 at But- 
 tington, 
 894. 
 
 and his forces, wliile the Celts stood enraptured around, 
 and the gentle summer breeze carried the soft notes to 
 the ears of the beleaguered Norsemen ? 
 
 But what must have been the thoughts that occupied 
 the hearts of the fiercely brave men cooped up within 
 the barriers they had erected in self-defence ? Many 
 a one, as he lounged about, or sharpened his weapons, 
 or kept watch, must have thought of the dear ones at 
 home, of the aged parents, or of the wife and children, 
 of the lover, of the companions of their boyhood, and 
 the associates of their adventures by land and sea — 
 many, too, must have longed with a desperate longing 
 for the ocean open and free, for the stirring breeze, the 
 lazy calm, but, above all, for the intense excitement of 
 a hand-to-hand encounter, as their small and lightly- 
 built crafts were linked together in the embrace of 
 death,^ as if the very planks, cordage, and sails partook 
 of the fierce enthusiasm that animated the beings that 
 guided them. Not a few were roused from the pui- 
 poseless life of inactivity by the remembrance of terrible 
 encounters, of victories barely won by sheer brute force, 
 or by single examples of wanton daring, of the burning 
 of hou.ses, the sacking of towns, the division of the 
 spoil, the endless carousal and the listless apathy that 
 necessarily followed. Some must have shuddered as 
 they hastily brought to mind the brave men who had 
 fallen since they had left the far north, from which 
 they had launched forth as light-hearted as a lark, for 
 would they not return enriched^ with the riches of the 
 effeminate, degenerate, and factious Saxon ? But they 
 were not to return. The riches they had gained were 
 the waters of the fathomless ocean, which would be 
 » Turner, vol. i., p. 387. ^ Ingulfus.
 
 ENGLAND TO THEIR ARRIVAL UNDER HASTINGS. 49 
 
 theirs to all time, or the earth with which they com- Hasting-s 
 
 , I besieged 
 
 mingled. at But- 
 
 It was with a start that they returned to the sterr tiagton, 
 realities of their own position. And as they watched 
 the camp fires of tlie opposing armies, or listened to the 
 howl of the prowling wolf, the screech of the owl, tlie 
 cry of the wild cat, the sighing of the wind, and the 
 rushing ripple of the Severn, a creeping terror, such as 
 lays hold upon those who are in the shadow of death, 
 must have prostrated their bold hearts. Others looked 
 upon their position with utter indifference. Come 
 attack or listless endurance, life or death, why should 
 they embitter the present by the sad recollections of 
 the irrevocable past, or by the gloomy forebodings of 
 the inscrutable future ? Their murmurings were loud 
 and oft-repeated at the prolonged confinement, and 
 Hastings and Si^eferth were often blamed for not 
 leading forth the host and risking the hazard of an en- 
 counter. Could they not rush forth, and, having over- 
 come their present foes, spoil once more the French, 
 beard the Spaniards, sweep the Mediterranean, scatter 
 the Saracens, overawe the Italians, and menace the 
 Greeks ? Why die like sheep in ranges, or rot like 
 carrion ? Such questions as these, no doubt, were often 
 asked by the indignant and starving host. Their sup- 
 plies were at length exhausted : some died of hunger,* 
 and the rest were obliged to kill their horses for the 
 Bake of their flesh.'* The wolf lingered around in anti- 
 ci|)ation of the coming struggle, while the vulture, iho 
 kite, and hawk, hovered overhead and eyed the thou- 
 sands beneath them with many an inii)atient scream at 
 the delayed slaughter. 
 
 ' Flor. of Wig. * Saxon Chnmick ; Mnlllicw of Westminster. 
 
 D 
 
 /
 
 50 FROM THE FIRST LANDING OF THE DANES IN 
 
 Hastings ^"^ Y^t Alfred, Merv'yn, and Ethcred dar-id not at- 
 
 besieged tack the famished Norsemen. Thev mifcht as well 
 
 at But- . , . 
 
 tington, enter unarmed a jungle infested by hungry tigers and 
 
 ^^^' expect to overcome them ; as well try to scale the dizzy 
 height and rob the eagle's eyry in her very presence ; 
 as well spring from the vessel's side into the midst of 
 a shoal of sharks and hope to return unhurt, as expect 
 to kill or subdue a band of men inflamed with the 
 pride of an almost imbroken series of victories, brave 
 to desperation, and looking upon life simply as a pawn 
 which, when lost in the throng of battle, was succeeded 
 by the full and unchecked enjoyment of the passions 
 in the halls of Walhalla, the palace of the dead. The 
 king and his helpers bore in mind that the Danes were 
 becoming mad from hunger, unwonted restraint, baffled 
 hopes, and disappointed succour. They did well, there- 
 fore, to try to subdue the foe by stai'vation. No doubt 
 they were in full expectation that ere long their dearest 
 hopes would be realised in the unconditional surrender 
 of the enemy. Delusive expectation ! Vain hope ! In- 
 stead of receiving the white flag and the peaceable 
 envoy, the blockading forces on the eastern banks of 
 the Severn were suddenly struggling with the strongest 
 and boldest of the Danes. Sigeferth may have cheered 
 the Northumbrians and East Anglians by the sight of 
 that spear with which his grandsire had been wont to 
 announce the distant enterprise,^ while Hastings blew 
 his ivory horn, whose harsh and terror-inspiring notes, 
 termed " the thunder " by the affrighted Gaulish 
 serfs,^ echoed again and again by the wooded slopes of 
 the Pchallt,^ and, mellowed by the waters of the Severn, 
 
 ' Lodbrog's Quida, Turner, vol. i., p. 409. 
 • Thierry, voL i., p. 120. * A hill near Welshpool
 
 ENGLAND TO THEIR ARRIVAL UNDER HASTINGS. 51 
 
 announced to the astounded Saxons and Celts that the The 
 Norsemen were upon them. We may feel assured that and 
 the fight was both fierce and bloody. The woods and Haftkigs, 
 hills resounded with the clashing of arms, the dashing of ^^*- 
 shields, the flight of arrows, the whirl of the sweeping 
 battle-axe, and the loud thud as it smashed through 
 armour and laid low its wearer, the shouts of the com- 
 batants, the yells and groans of the dying, and the rush 
 of the Danes as they pushed onwards steadily and ir- 
 resistibly. 
 
 The slaufjhter was ffreat on both sides. Ordhelm fell 
 at the first onset.^ Many king's thanes followed him.^ 
 Of the Danes thousands'^ were slain in that terrible re- 
 treat. The waters of the Severn^ and the soft mud 
 and tall rushes of the swamp became the shroud of 
 Imndreds ; and as the summit of Voel y Golva,* rising 
 abruptly from the vale, became gradually dim to their 
 binking sight, the minds of many must have fled back 
 through years of har<lship, careless want, rude plenty, 
 and wanton deeds of horrible cruelty, to pine-clad hills 
 or the snow-enveloped heights of the rugged north, 
 the home of their race. 
 
 The hoary Hastings and a great part of his army 
 escaped. He ranie<l his forces in Essex, swept across 
 tlie country, by day and Ity night, at one stretch^ to 
 Chester, Vjack to Essex and again to Quatford, retired 
 to France, where he acrjuired the peaceable possession 
 of the town of Cliurtrcs in the following manncT. 
 Hastin'fs laid sifw to Poitiers. He failed to stf)rm it. 
 Shortly afterwards he sent a messenger to the bishop 
 and count of the town, to tell them that he was upon 
 
 ' Mnft. of West. ' Flor. of Wifj. ; .Saxon ChrnnicU.. 
 
 • A beautiful liill near the town of Weishiiool. ♦ ^kuon ChrmicU.
 
 52 FROM THE FIRST LANDING OF THE DANES IN 
 
 Hastings the point of death, and that he was very wishful to 
 In France. 
 
 become a Christian. The bishop and the count were 
 
 very glad to learn of the repentance of so terrible a 
 
 man. 
 
 They believed his statement, and his men were 
 allowed to enter the city. After a time he was carried 
 into the church and was bathed in the sacred font, and 
 the bishop and the count raised him out of the water. 
 His servants carried him back to his ship. Some time 
 afterwards ho pretended to be dead. And on a dark 
 night at midnight he was placed on a bier, but he was 
 fully armed with sword and breastplate. His men 
 began to lament aloud. They, too, were armed. And 
 in this manner they carried Hastings upon the bier* 
 from his ship into the church. The bishop thought he 
 was really dead, and hastened to perform the rites of 
 his church over him. But the awful man suddenly 
 jumped down from the bier and killed both bishop and 
 count with his sword. Of course, as the people of the 
 town never suspected such wicked treachery, they were 
 completely at the mercy of the Danes, who fell upon 
 them like a pack of wolves. No one was spared. Old 
 and young men were killed by them. They made the 
 city a waste, and even threw down its walls to their 
 very foundations. After this Hastings went to Charles, 
 king of France, and made peace with him. He then 
 received the city of Chartrcs as a present from the king. 
 
 Hastings lived to greet the arrival of the successful 
 freebooter RoUo,^ the founder of the duchy of Nor- 
 mandy, whose descendant, the Conqueror of England, 
 was no doubt inspired by Hastings' lofty deeds and 
 mighty projects. Between the days of Hastings and 
 
 ' Thierry, toI. i. p. 151
 
 ENGLAND TO THEIR ARRIVAL UNDER HASTINGS. 53 
 
 those of William of Normandy, both England and 
 France were subjected to foreign invasions and serious 
 civil strife, all of which tended to the overthrow of 
 Saxon, and to the establishment of Norman rule in 
 England- 
 
 LEADING EVENTS. 
 
 First Laniliiig of the Danes in England 787 a.d. 
 
 Tlie Invasion of Halfden, Ingwar, and Ubba, the sons of 
 Itegner Lodbrog : they kill Ella, King of Northum- 
 bria 868 
 
 They also kill Edmund, King of East Anglia 870 
 
 The desperate struggle between Saxons and Danes for 
 supremacy 878 
 
 Hastings besieged and defeated at Buttmgton 894
 
 54 FROM THE OVERTHROW OF HASTINGS TO THE 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 FROM THE OVERTHROW OF HASTINGS TO THE DAYS OF THE 
 "LADY OF THE MERCIANS." 
 
 King The last chapter entered somewhat fully into the 
 habits, thoughts, and aspirations of Hastings and his 
 host. After their defeat at Buttington the land had 
 comparative rest for many years. But the good and 
 brave Kintj Alfred was never idle. After he had 
 overthrown the foreign foe, he tried to overcome the 
 ignorance of his people, and also to make them better 
 than they were. He stimulated them with rewards 
 and punishments,^ and no ignorant person could hold 
 any position of dignity at his court. He made into 
 one book the different laws and judgments of other 
 Saxon kings. He was a student : he was fond of 
 reading Saxon books, and particularly fond^ of com- 
 mitting to memory Saxon poems. He translated the 
 history of Bede, part of the Psalms, and other works 
 into Anglo-Saxon. 
 
 King Alfred divided the country into hundreds' 
 and tythings, and he made the people of each division 
 responsible for the good behaviour of their felloAvs ; 
 and this obligation was so eminently successful, that 
 gold bracelets, hung up in the public way where 
 roads crossed each other, were not stolen. He built 
 a monastery at Winchester' and at Athelney,^ and 
 a nunnery at ShaftcsVjury,'^ and sent presents by the 
 Bishop of Sherborne to Rome, and even to India ; 
 * William of Malmesbury. * Florence of Worcester.
 
 DAYS OF THE "LADY OF THE MERCIANS." 55 
 
 he was recrular, both nio-ht and day, in his devotions. King 
 
 o ' Alfred. 
 
 The twenty-four hours Alfred divided into three parts 
 
 — eight for writing, reading and prayer ; eight for re- 
 freshment of body ; eight for the despatch of pubhc 
 business.^ He had a knowledge of naval and struc- 
 tural architecture : by means of the former he caused 
 ships to be made which were twice- as long, and more 
 swift and hifdier than those of the Danes, and thus he 
 laid the foundation of the British navy ; by means of 
 the latter he erected buildings^ more stately and costly 
 than those erected by his predecessors. His fleet 
 defeated that of the Danes, and captured twenty of 
 their ships in 897. 
 
 His court^ was the home and school of the sons 
 of his nobles. He formed schools for the instruction 
 of his people. He asked clever men, amongst others 
 tlie Welshman Asser, who wrote an account of his 
 life and deeds, to live with him, and to help him to 
 govern and improve his subjects. Alfred looked upon 
 the Bible as the best law book. He was fond of sports. 
 He measured time by burning candles.^ He was kind 
 to the good, but stern with the wicked. He freely 
 gave away both money and goods to the clergy, and to 
 other people as well.'* His subjects showed their love 
 for him and their confidence in his bravery and skill 
 by taking his part as one m.iu when the terrible 
 Hastings visited England in ^d4f. For twenty-iivo 
 years he was, Asser tells us,'^ subject to great pain, which 
 came on now and again. When we bear this fact in 
 mind, and tiiat Ik; was only fifty-two years old wlun 
 he died, we do not feel surprised that posterity venerate 
 his name, and that to him alone of .ill (hr, kings and 
 ' William of Malmcsbury. ' I'loreuco of Worcoalor.
 
 56 FROM THE OVERTHROW OF HASTINGS. 
 
 Death of quccns of this kingdom the title of " Great " has been 
 
 90L^ ' heartily and unanimously ascribed. 
 
 He was born in 849, began to reign 871, and died 
 901. He had a son w^ho was called Edward the Elder, 
 and a daughter, Ethelfleda, who married Ethered, who 
 ruled Mercia in King Alfred's name, and so he was 
 called a sub-king. Ethelfleda bore the title of " Lady 
 of the Mercians." Another daughter, Ethelswitha, 
 married Baldwin^ of Flanders, the son of Alfred's step- 
 mother, Judith. 
 
 ' William of Malmesbury. 
 
 LEADING EVENTS. 
 
 Victory of the Saxon Fleet 897 a.d. 
 
 The Death of King Alfred 901
 
 (57) 
 
 CHAPTER VI 
 
 ETHELFLEDA, "THE LADY OF THE MERCIANS." 
 
 There are many quiet country places in England and Etheifleda. 
 Wales which a traveller might unconcernedly pass by, 
 although, as Cicero happily and eloquently observed,^ a 
 history was beneath his feet. If by accident, or out of 
 mere curiosity, he observed any peculiarities in the 
 natural or artificial features in the vicinity of these 
 places, no doubt his observations would not arouse any 
 recollections of the past, or excite his imagination 
 to conjure up and clothe again the crowd of beings who 
 once took a prominent part in the affairs of the country. 
 In such a case the mind of the observer would be 
 deprived of food for retiection, if not for guidance and 
 instruction. 
 
 Not a few of these places are connected in some way 
 or other with Ethelfleda. It must be borne in mind 
 that in her time only a small part of the country was 
 cultivated. A great part of it was forest, jungle, or 
 bog. A forest extended, with occasional open spaces, 
 from the borders of Wales to tlic North Sea. In these 
 open spaces forts were erected. And around these 
 forts clustered a certain number of huts. A ditch witli 
 a palisaded mud wall protected fort and huts, which 
 collectively were called a liurgh or Bury by the Auglu- 
 SaxouH. 
 
 In the time of the Romans these forests and desolate 
 places afforded refuge to the Britons. Within their 
 
 1 Quacuiiquo enim ingrediiuur in aliqua historia vestigia pouiuius.
 
 68 ETHELFLEDA, 
 
 Etheifloda. gloomy depths they were at liberty to enjoy their civil 
 and relipfious rights. Under the shadow of the oak 
 were enacted the mysterious solemnities of Druidism, 
 whilst the surrounding trees echoed the shrieks of the 
 victims of this gory superstition, or the neighbouring 
 stream wafted along its waters their dying sobs. In 
 after time these forests were the abode of the Saxon 
 wolf-head,^ and the ever restless Celt — men who rivalled 
 the wolf in ferocity and unbending hostility. 
 
 Several Burghs were built in various parts of the 
 country by the Lady of the Mercians. It will be 
 recollected that upon the death of Bertric of Wessex, 
 the Witan decreed that for the future the wives of 
 their Kings were not to be called queens, nor were they 
 to share their thrones. This fact may explain the term 
 " Lady " as applied to the wife of Ethered, Sub-king of 
 Mercia. In many respects she was a really wonderful 
 person. She was the delight of her brother's subjects, 
 and the dread of his enemies.^ And we are further 
 informed that she was a woman of a comprehensive 
 spirit,'^ of wonderful prudence, and eminent for her just 
 and virtuous life, and also for her firm and equitable 
 government of Mercia. 
 
 Unlike the daughter of Offa, she carefully nurtured 
 the youths brought up at her husband's court. Like 
 the empress-countess,* she drained to the very dregs the 
 evils connected with a divided rule, and the horrors of 
 a civil war. Unlike the " She-wolf of France,"^ she 
 both honoured and loved her husband. Like the pos- 
 
 ' Tliis term was applied to those who had been outlawed on account 
 of some prievwis crime. 
 
 » Will, of Maltnesbiiry. ' Florence of Worcester. 
 
 * Matilda, wife of the Etnperor Henry V. , and of Count Geoffrey of Anjoiu 
 
 • luabella, wife of Edward IL
 
 "THE LADY OF THE MERCIANS." 5D 
 
 sessor of the " tiger's heart wrapt in a woman's hide,"' Etieifleda, 
 she levied armies, led men, w^on battles, but never 
 experienced a repulse. Unlike the youthful Jane,^ she 
 did not fall a victim to the ambition of a renegade 
 father-in-law. Unlike the mate^ of the grim-visaged 
 and grim-souled foreigner, she did not experience the 
 agonies inflicted by a morbid, jealous, thwarted, dis- 
 appointed heart. Unlike the foundress' of our navy 
 and colonies, she despised the fawning and sickening 
 flattery of a court. Like the present " Lady " of 
 England, she wept over the untimely death of her 
 husband, and her presence was ever welcomed by all 
 who met her. 
 
 Ethelfleda was a great help to her brother Edward, 
 who became King upon the death of his father in 90L 
 His right to the throne was disputed by his cousin Ethel- 
 wald, who was helped by the Danes and the people of 
 East Anfflia and Northumbria. After fifjhting for some 
 years, Ethehvald Avas killed in Ijattlc by his cousin. 
 
 In the year 913 Ethelileda built a fortress at Bridg- 913, 
 north, and three years later, — ere Germany had hailed 
 its first king in the person of Henry the Fowler;^ 
 while Rollo, the Conqueror's ancestor, was laying the 
 foundation of a permanent hold upon the soil of north- 
 west France ;" and while Beienger, tlie grandson of 
 Charlemagne, was contending in the north of Italy 
 with the numerous descendants'' of the Sorcerer ol' the 
 
 ' Margaret, wifo of Iltnry VI. 
 * The Lady Jann Orey, flauxliUr-inlaw of iJiullcy, Dulco of Norllmm- 
 bcrlaii'l. ' Qui-cn Mary. ' Qiiccii Kli/.ubutli. 
 
 • C.irlyle'H Frederic 11. ' Matt, ol West. 
 
 ' The HungarianH: thoy caiiio Irom Scylliia ; thuir object wan <lova.sto- 
 tion itself; by soinu tliey wore looked m)Oii a.s tiio Gof{ and Magoj,' of 
 Scnjiliire ; ami to others thuir approach betokened tlio cud of tiiuo. — 
 Gibbou'd Decline and Fall.
 
 60 ETHELFLEDA, 
 
 Etheifleda. Nortli and his wolfish dame, barbarians of barbarians, 
 who had vanquished both Greeks and Teutons, and 
 in the south of Italy with the blood-stained and im- 
 petuous followers and propagators of the Crescent, — 
 her forces advanced still further west, and penetrating 
 the great forest, they marched through its marshy 
 thickets as far as the place now known as Chirbury, in 
 Shropshire, and there a Burgh was erected. And the 
 hollow thud of the axe as it fell upon the trees, and 
 the loud talk of the workman, succeeded the ringing 
 of battle-axes and the shouts or groans of the com- 
 batants as they struggled on or fell in the combat, 
 The Mercians must have worked armed, or with their 
 weapons close at hand, and companions on the watch, 
 for they knew full well the perils of their position, as 
 it was upon the very threshold of Wales. It must 
 have been with an anxious and careful gaze that the 
 sentinels scanned the surrounding country at the close 
 and breaking of each day. Ethelfleda no doubt visited 
 the armed host which her husband commanded before 
 the fortress of Buttington in 894, and the royal navy 
 which, under the charge of her father, had sailed up 
 the Severn, and assisted in cutting off all succour from 
 Ha.3tings. While there she might have accompanied 
 some of the various foraging parties which were sent 
 forth to procure the necessary provisions during the 
 lengthened blockade. And it is highly probable she 
 visited Chirbury on one of these expeditions. If so, 
 the eye, which afterwards looked upon so many bat- 
 tle-fields and fortified positions, must have perceived 
 the importance of its situation in a military point of 
 view ; and the mind which afterwards planned so many 
 successful arrangements, no doubt even then formed
 
 "THE LADY OF THE MERCIANS." 61 
 
 designs winch after years were to see realised. Chir- Etiieifieda. 
 Dury was excellently situated to keep the Welsh in 
 check. 
 
 In the year 916, shortly after Christmas,* when its 
 vicinity was subject to down-pouring showers, or when 
 it was closely gripped by the unrelenting king frost, 
 trees were felled, trenches dug, mounds thrown up, and 
 a fortress, burgh or bury, with its rugged but strong 
 wooden walls, was raised, and stood alone amidst the 
 sylvan desert, with its stout occupants who were 
 appointed to guard this perilous quarter, and to drive 
 back the Celtic bands that endeavoured to make their 
 way either to the site of their former capitaP or to the 
 city of Hereford. It also barred the way if the North- 
 ern rovers should attempt to repeat their visit of 890 
 to the town of Montgomery, or to rebuild the fort* 
 which had rriven shelter to the most famous of their 
 Sea-kings. Ethclfleda's object in raising fortresses 
 along the whole course of her dominions, from tlio 
 banks of the Severn to those of the Welland,* and 
 from Runcorn in the north to Canterbury in the south, 
 was to overawe the neighbouring districts, and to check 
 the almost incessant depredations of the Danes. With 
 places of defence to shelter and protect them, the 
 Saxons took heart, and were able to boM tluur own 
 a-^'ainst the wild cavalry raids of the North-men. 
 
 Ethelfleda continued to build towns, found monas- 
 teries, restore cities, and erect forts. I'o a certain 
 degree she became to Atholstan wliat Jmlitli had been 
 to Alfred. The influence these ladies had over th(ur 
 pupils was not long lived, but it was productive of many 
 
 ' Henry of Ilnnlinj^on : fvixnn Chronicle. 
 ■ Shrewsbury. ' liulliiiglou. * Mallhow of Wcatminater.
 
 ^^2 ETDELFLEDA, 
 
 Etheifleda, lasting benefits to themselves and their country. The 
 one taught her pupil the art of warfare, and set him an 
 example of patient endurance, stubborn determination, 
 great policy, unshaken fidelity, and a perfect scorn of the 
 pleasures of the flesh ; after the birth of her first and 
 only child. Elf vvina, she deserted her husband's bed ; 
 from that time they appeared more as companions in 
 arms than as husband and wife.^ The other taught her 
 pupil the delights of learning, and guided his boyish 
 ambition towards objects which were ultimately destined 
 to raise the social and moral standard of his subjects ; 
 though she also set him an example of girlish attach- 
 ment, and easy observance of the codes of Christianity, 
 a delight in the pleasures of a court procured at any 
 sacrifice, and a fondness for the concerns of wifehood, 
 however infamously attained. 
 Herdeatb, Henry of Huntingdon becomes enthusiastic while 
 ^^^- describing the reign of Etheifleda, and finally bursts 
 
 forth into verse : — 
 
 " Etheifleda, terror of mankind ! 
 Nature, for ever uncoiilin'd, 
 Stanipt tliee in woman's tender frame, 
 The' worthy of a liero's name. 
 Thee, thee alone, the muse shall sing, 
 Dread Empress and victorious King ! 
 E'en CjEsar's conriuests were outdone 
 By thee, illustrious Amazon !" ^ 
 
 At this time Hywel Dda (Howell the Good), grand- 
 son of Rhodri Mawr (Roderick the Great), was King of 
 South Wales and, of Powys, and his cousin, Idwal Voel, 
 reiirned over North Wales.^ 
 
 * Ingulphus gives the following explanation of this extraordinarj- con- 
 duct : "I'ariendo, suam «obolem jirimam difiicultatem perpessa, tanta 
 indignatione canialem concubitum abhorruit, ut nunquam deinceps ad viri 
 sui thorum rediens, se caelebitu castissimo contineret." 
 
 ' Pennant's Tour in Wales, p. 121. 
 
 ' Warriiijjton's UisLory of Wales, book iv., pp. 158, 159.
 
 "THE LADY OF THE MERCIANS." 63 
 
 Edward honoured his sister's memory by deprivinor 
 
 her daughter, Eli'wiua, of all authority, and by conduct- Eifwina. 
 
 ing her into Wessex/ under the pretence that she was 
 
 about to wed^ a Danish prince, to whose brother his 
 
 own daughter was afterwards given in marriage by 
 
 his son Athelstan. History is silent concerning the 
 
 fate of this ill-used maiden. She may have lived in 
 
 solitary confinement to extreme old age, or she may 
 
 have fallen a victim to the vindictive jealousy of her 
 
 uncle the king. 
 
 Upon the death of Ethelfleda, Mercia became a fief The 
 
 Ealdor- 
 of the kingdom of Wessex, and its ealdormen, though men of 
 
 they sometimes took a prominent part in the atlairs of ^^^"*- 
 the country, could no longer wield full authority like 
 Penda the Cruel, Ethelbald the Arrogant, Offa the 
 Terrible, and Ethered the vice- King, within the domi- 
 nions entrusted to their charge. The Mercian ealdor- 
 men were Elfere the Regicide, Elfric the Treacherous, 
 Edric the Arch-traitor, Leofric the Pious, Algar the 
 Fiery, and Edwin the Dilatory. Elfere stabbed Edward 
 the Martyr, helped Elfrida, wife of Edgar and mother 
 of Ethel red tlie Unready, to overcome Dunstan and 
 the Monastics, and was eaten of vermin.'' Elfric re- 
 peatedly betrayed the Unready King. Edric did the 
 same, and waded through pools of noble l)lo()d,'' until he 
 rivalled Canute himself in power: liis victims were 
 Gunhilda, si.ster of Swcyn, her son, juid 1km- ]insl)uiid 
 Palling; the ealdorniaii Elfliclin, father of Canute's 
 first wife ; Sigcferth and Morcar of the Five^ Burghs ; 
 
 > Flor. of Worcester, 920. 
 
 ' Profess ir Hirlow's Lectures ; University of Dublin. 
 
 ' Will, of Malriicstiury. 
 
 • Lincoln, Nottiuglinin, Derby, Leicester, Stamford. —;!7or(rnce of 
 Worcester,
 
 C4 ETHELFLEDA. 
 
 King Edmund the Ironside, and his brother the Athel- 
 ing Edwy. 
 
 The cliief events in connexion with the lives of 
 the Ealdormen of Mercia will be given in succeeding 
 
 chapters. 
 
 LEADING EVENTS. 
 
 The Accession of Edward the Elder 901 a.d. 
 
 Ethelfleda builds a Burgh at Cliirbury 916 
 
 The Death of Ethelfleda 919 
 
 The Banishment of her daughter, Elf wina 920
 
 (65) 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 FROM THE DEATH OF ETHELFLEDA TO THE TIME 
 OF DUNSTAN. 
 
 Edward the Elder, Alfred's son, was the first king to Edward 
 take the title of " Kinrj of Enorland." While the Athel- 901 to 924. 
 ing he married a peasant girl. This marriage was 
 a grave scandal, and shook the credulity of those who 
 looked upon the royal race as descended from Woden. 
 In the year 894 a son was born of this marriage. He 
 was called Athelstan. Athelstan was the solace of his 
 grandfather's declining years.^ When seven years old 
 Alfred conferred the honour of knighthood upon his 
 grandson, and gave him at the same time a scarlet 
 cloak, a belt, and a Saxon sword studded with dia- 
 monds. At the request of his grandfather he became 
 the pupil of the Vice-king and the Lady of the Mer- 
 cians, under whose charge he was instructed in those 
 military exercises which afterwards enabled him to 
 overthrow the united forces of Gael, Scot, Celt, Norse, 
 and Dane,'* at Brunanburffh, and to consolidate the The Battle 
 
 . . _ of Brun- 
 
 various sections of the Saxon Connnunity, 937. anbargii, 
 
 937 
 The Saxon Chronicle celebrated in verse Athelstan'a 
 
 great victory, and stated tliat : — 
 
 Th.- fiul.l (l(,'hig(t(I 
 with warrior's blood, 
 since the Sun, 
 up at inoriiiiiR-tide, 
 glided o'er landH, 
 God's candle bright, 
 sank to her settle. 
 
 ' Will, of Malmesbury. * Saxon ChrcnicU.
 
 GC) FROM THE DEATH OF ETHELFLEDA. 
 
 Five lay 
 
 on the brittle field 
 
 youthful king?, 
 
 by swords in slumber laid ; 
 
 so seven also 
 
 of Anlafs (Olave's) jarls ; 
 
 of the army countless 
 
 shipmen and Scots. 
 
 Constantine, 
 
 hoary warrior, 
 
 liad no cause to boast 
 
 in the communion of swords ; 
 
 and his son he left 
 
 in the slaughter-place 
 
 mangled with wounds, 
 
 young in the fight. 
 
 King' and Atheling' 
 
 their country sought 
 
 in the war rejoicing. 
 
 They left behind them 
 
 the corse to devour, 
 
 the yellow kite 
 
 and the black raven ; 
 
 the corse to enjoy, 
 
 the greedy war-hawk 
 
 and the grey beast 
 
 wolf of the wood. 
 
 Carnage greater has not been 
 
 in this island, 
 
 of people .slain 
 
 by edges of swords, 
 
 since from the East hither 
 
 Angles and Saxons 
 
 came to land.* 
 
 « Athelstan. ' His brother Edmund. 
 
 ' The above lines are taken from the first piece of poetry that appears in 
 the Haxon, Chrmicles. The ^vriter describes the events of the battle-lield 
 and the results of the contest with patriotic enthusiasm. Henry of Hun- 
 tingdon translated this poetry into prose. His account of the Battle ot 
 Brunanburgh is unrivalled for majesty of language and brdhancy of descnp- 
 tion. Mentally, the reader beholds the various .scenes of that Woody fagl.t 
 -as the spears transfixed the Danes through their shields ; as the West 
 Saxom* hewed with their swords the flying foe; as the Mercians eneaged the
 
 TO THE TIME OF DUNSTAK 67 
 
 It will thus be seen that the Battle of Brunanburgh The Battle 
 was a terrible one. There were four distinguished burgn.sa?" 
 leaders engaged in it — Athelstan and his brother 
 Edmund at the head of the Saxons, the Norwegian 
 Anlaf, and Constantine, King of the Scots. No quar- 
 ter was given. The ferocious and unchristian character 
 of the combatants is strikingly evidenced by their 
 treatment of the dying and the dead, as both were left 
 upon the battle-field to become the food of birds of 
 prey and wild beasts. According to William of Malmes- 
 bury, Anlaf, following the example of King Alfred, 
 visited the camp of the Saxons in the disguise of an 
 harpist, and played in the presence of Athelstan. He 
 was recognized by one of his former followers, who 
 advised the King to remove his tent : Athelstan did so, 
 and the followinfj nif{ht Anlaf burst into the Saxon 
 camp and killed a bishop, whose tent occupied the 
 space upon which that of Athelstan had stood. A 
 miraculous sword alone saved the King and his host. 
 The battle continued to rage until the next night: 
 Constantine,^ twelve jarls, and almost the whole of the 
 attacking force were killed. Anlaf sailed for Dublin, and 
 Constantino fled to Scotland after their defeat. After 
 Athclstan's victory the land had comparative rest for 
 upwards of fifty years, when it was visited by Swej-n 
 and Olave. 
 
 Athelstan favoured commerce and encouraged private 
 entcrprizc by admitting merchants who had made three 
 
 horops of Aril.ira fornes ; as thn dead nnd dyin(^ strewed Iho proiiiid ; n.<^ 
 Constantine nnd Anlaf sought Hafety in fliRlit ; as mntliers waileil for their 
 dear ones ; as bird, toad, do^;, and wolf gorged upon the (lush of the slain. 
 He termed Anlaf King of Ireland. 
 
 ' The chronicler confounds Constantino with his son : the story of the 
 miraculous sword is a pious fiction.
 
 68 FROM THE DEATH OF ETHELFLEDA. 
 
 successful voyages on their own account to the rank of 
 thane ; they were the first of our merchant princes. He 
 Athei- was a great match-maker. He had eight sisters. One 
 |^^3 married Charles the Simple of France. One became a 
 nun. Athelstan arranged the marriages of the others 
 with (1) Sihtric^ of Northumbria; (2) Hugh the Great, 
 founder, by his second wife, of the Capetian dynasty; (3) 
 Otho, Emperor of Germany ; (4) a German duke ; (5) 
 an earl of Poitiers ; (G) Louis the Blind of Aquitaine. 
 These Saxon ladies were the pioneers of Saxon trade and 
 influence on the Continent. 
 
 As the Court of Ethelfleda gave shelter and in- 
 Athei- struction to Athelstan and others, so that of Athelstan 
 comt. became the home and school of his nephew Louis of 
 France ; of Haco, son of Harold of Norway, who is 
 known in history as King " Haco the Good ;" and of 
 Alan, grandson of Alan of Brittany. Athelstan helped 
 these princes to ascend the thrones of their ancestors. 
 He died in the year 940, at the early age of forty-six. 
 
 LEADING EVENTS. 
 
 The Birth of Athelstan 894 A. d. 
 
 The Death of Edward the Elder 924 
 
 The Battle of Bninanhurgh 937 
 
 The Death of Athelstan 940 
 
 ' WilL of Malmesbury states tliat Athelstan gave her in marriage to 
 Bihtric
 
 (69) 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 DUNSTAN. 
 
 TuE Monkish chroniclers, cut off as they were from 
 public intercourse, could not have been eye-witnesses of Dunstan, 
 
 ... "^ 925 to 988. 
 
 the events they described. They wrote of what was 
 described to them by others. Under these circum- 
 stances it is surprising that they wrote so well. Fervid 
 feelings, highly wrought imaginations, and grateful 
 hearts, with a ready credulity and faith in those they 
 trusted, took the place of direct information concerning 
 the persons they praised or blamed, and the events 
 chronicled in their pages. 
 
 Upon the subject of Dunstan they are particularly 
 feeling and eloquent. And it must be readily allowed 
 that the career of this really wonderful man afforded 
 them every material for meditation and stirring recital. 
 Born in the year when Athclstan began to reign, 925, 
 he was the guiding principle during the reigns of his 
 successors, Edmund the Atheling, Edrcd, Edwy, Edgar, 
 and Edward the Martyr. His ready tongue, daring 
 energy, and wily conspiracies, were more than a match 
 for the fighting, hunting, driidving, and lewd kings and 
 nobles of his days. 
 
 Dunstan first came into notice in the eighteenth year 
 of his age, when King Edmund gave Glastonbury' into 
 his charge, 943. From this time up to tlie nugii of 943. 
 Etliclrcd the Unready, he ruleil both Church and State, 
 
 Edmund the Atheling succeeded his brother as king 
 
 ' iktxon Chronicle.
 
 70 DUNSTAN. 
 
 Edmund in 940. In 946 he was killed in a drunken brawl by 
 Atheiing -Lcofa, a wolf-liead. ]3uiistan declared that a dancing 
 940 to 94G. deviP forewarned him of the King's death. He after- 
 wards secured his Satanic Majesty by the nose, because 
 he had appeared before him in the form of a beautiful 
 woman, and had, thus disguised, tempted him to do 
 evil.- These intercourses with the unseen greatly added 
 to Duustan's reputation and power. Thus it came to 
 Edred, pass that Edred, who succeeded his brother Edmund, 
 
 ■ devoted his life to God and Dunstan.^ He was a sickly 
 man, and passed his life in repeating long prayers, and 
 receiving stripes at the advice of Dunstan.^ The latter 
 was told of Edred's death by a voice from heaven.^ 
 
 At this time the Abbot of Glastonbury was very 
 Edwy, busy with political affairs. And when Edwy became 
 
 955 to 958 . . 
 
 ■ King in 955, he wished him to be, as the other kings 
 had been, a mere puppet in his hands. Edwy, who 
 was a beautiful youth, offended Dunstan in two things 
 — he married Elfgiva, a near relative, and preferred on 
 the evening of his marriage the society of his wife to 
 that of the Abbot and the drunken nobles. Dunstan 
 treated him as a boy, and forced him back to the 
 banquet. The King resented this conduct. In his 
 quarrel with Dunstan he was helped by the secular 
 priests, while the regular priests took the part of 
 Dunstan. The seculars lived among the people, and 
 were allowed to marry. The regulars, however, lived 
 together in large buildings, and did not marry. 
 
 The King was wishful to bring Dunstan to judg- 
 ment,^ but he refused to appear, and fled to Flanders.* 
 
 ' William of Malmesbury. * Matt, of Westminster. 
 
 ■■' Florence of Worcester. 
 
 ' According to the Saxon Chronicle, Dunstan wa-s driven away over the 
 sea by Edwy, 957.
 
 DUNSTAN. 71 
 
 Perhaps he was unable to give an account of the public Dimstan'a 
 treasures entrusted to him by Edred. From Flanders, ^*^^^sues. 
 by means of Archbishop Odo, the monks of Mercia, and 
 the traders between the two districts, he incited the 
 Mercians to rebel against Edwy, and to fix upon Edgar 
 as their ruler. Thus the union of England by Egbert 
 and others was undone through the powers of the 
 regulars, headed by Dunstan. And this was not 
 enough ; Elfgiva was seized, branded on the face, and 
 sent to Ireland. Returning, she was again seized and 
 tortured to death. Edwy, who had been excommuni- 
 cated, soon followed his beloved wife to the grave, 958. Edwy's 
 
 dea.tli 958 
 Certain writers,^ upon the authority of some obscure and 
 
 unreliable MSS., use words of a terrible nature against 
 Edwy and his wife. On the other hand, we are assured 
 that his reign was a happy and prosperous one.'^ 
 
 Edgar now Ijecame sole King of England ; and Edgar, 
 
 958 to 975 
 
 Dunstan once more ruled the land. The seculars were 
 treated with the greatest severity. Edgar built forty^ 
 new monasteries. Dunstan was made Bishop of 
 Worcester and London, and afterwards Archbishop of 
 Canterbury. A large fleet was 1)uilt, which sailed 
 along the coast, to protect the country. The Arehbisliop 
 was very energetic on buhalf of the King, and we read 
 in certain books that all was peace and liappiness 
 throufdiout the land whilst Edtjar reiirncd. and that 
 even Welsh wolves and princes were subdued by liini. 
 But the Saxon Clironicle,^ while mentioning Edgar's 
 peaceful reign, his lovo for God's law, his erection of 
 relitrious houses, and the honour in which he was held 
 
 • Will, of Malnifcshury ; Matt, of Wentniinster ; Lingard, the hiKtorian, &c 
 * Henry of liuutingdon. * Matt, of Westiniiistcr. 
 
 • Under the year 958.
 
 72 DUNSTAN. 
 
 by other nations, mourns over his foreign vices, and 
 his introduction of heathen customs, outlandish men 
 and harmful people into England, 
 
 LEADING EVENTS. 
 
 The Birth of Dunstan 925 a.d. 
 
 The Accession of Edmund the Atheling 940 
 
 Dunstan, Abbot of Glastonbury 943 
 
 The Death of Edmund, and the Accession of Edred 946 
 
 The Death of Edred, and the Accession of Edwy 955 
 
 The Banishment of Dunstan 957 
 
 The Death of Edwy, and the Accession of Edgar 958
 
 (73) 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 AN EXAMINATION CONCERNING THE TRIBUTE OF "WOLVES' 
 HEADS, AND EDGAR'S TRUIMPH AT CHESTER. 
 
 We shall now leave Dunstau for awhile. History books Edgar and 
 inform us that the Welsh princes were so completely 
 subdued by Edgar, and that the Saxon king had such 
 regard for the Welsh people, that he obliged their princes 
 to hunt down the wolves in their domains, and present 
 the heads of three hundred of them every year to him : 
 thereby acknowledging him as their lord, and, at the 
 same time, freeing their own people from these fierce 
 animals. 
 
 This story envelopes Edgar with a twofold mantle, 
 that of the autocratic king, and that of the humane 
 man. If it were a true story, one's imagination could 
 easily picture the great hunting parties throughout 
 Wales, and the anxiety of its princes, lest they could 
 not make up the stipulated number of Heads. But it 
 must be put aside as one of the interesting legends 
 concocted by Edgar's monkish admirers. It might be 
 true that foreigners camo to witness^ his glory and to 
 hear the words of wisdom that fell from his lips, but 
 neither his glory nor liis wisdom could have much in- 
 fluence over W(!lsli wolves. In fact, this story rests 
 upon the authority of one chronicler. The sanio writer' 
 states that Atholstan drove Idvval Vocl from his kinfj- 
 dom, and afterwards restored him to it, with the words — 
 
 ' lloT. of Worcester, 959. • Will, of Malmesbury.
 
 74 THE TRIBUTE OF WOLVES' HEADS. 
 
 Edgar "It was moro glorious to make than to be a king!" 
 upon the -^Q allusion is made to this tribute by any Welsh or 
 Saxon writer. Even upon the showing of the Norman 
 monk, this story cannot be true, for he states that 
 Edgar commanded Judwall to pay him yearly a tribute 
 of 300 wolves. Judwall, no doubt, stands for Idwal 
 Voel. And the Welsh chroniclers assert that Idwal 
 was killed in battle by the Saxons in 943, whereas 
 Edgar began to reign in 959. 
 
 Dr. Lingard, and very many other historians, aver 
 that once upon a time a most interesting spectacle was 
 witnessed on the Dee at Chester — the appearance of no 
 less than nine kings in one boat. The steersman was 
 Edgar of Ene^land, and the eicfht oarsmen were the 
 monarchs who held sway over almost the whole of the 
 Celtic inhabitants of the British Isles. What a day 
 that must have been at Chester when this most inter- 
 esting and significant event took place ! The River's 
 mouth must have been thronged with vessels. There 
 must have lain at anchor the ships of the Saxon 
 monarch who had navigated the whole of the seas 
 encompassing Great Britain. There, too, must have 
 been anchored the vessels that brought to Chester the 
 kings of Cumbria and of Scotland, "that prince of 
 pirates, Maccus " (what fierce looking and broad-chested 
 fellows they must have been ! but what must he have 
 been himself ?), not to mention the small craft of the 
 sirrht-seers. It certainly was in the opinion of the in- 
 habitants and of the lookers-on a day of days— a day 
 from which to chronicle all subsequent events as long 
 as their lives lasted. But what must have been the 
 happy and proud thoughts that tenanted the breasts 
 of the Saxon king and the Saxon premier, Dunstan of
 
 AND EDGAR'S TRIUMPH AT CHESTER. 75 
 
 Canterbury (if he were present), as the one steered Edgar 
 " to the admiration of many," and the other officiated Dee.° 
 in the monastery of John the Baptist ? To the one it 
 was a regal, to the other an ecclesiastical triumph. 
 
 Such a train of thoughts as the above would probably 
 enter the mind of the readers of Dr. Lingard's account 
 of this, to him and to many others, historical fact. 
 
 It is almost a pity to try to dispel the mists that 
 surround this interesting lefjend — for legend it must be 
 pronounced to be — and so disbelieve the magnificent 
 effects of Edgar's declaration to his nobles in the words 
 *' that now at last all his successors might boast that 
 they were kings of England, since he had enjoyed a 
 procession of such honour and triumph in the obedience 
 of so many kings."^ 
 
 Had this procession actually taken place, the chroni- 
 clers would, doubtless, have agreed upon the date of its 
 occurrence, the number of tributary kings, the town 
 near which, and the river upon which, it took place. 
 They would, moreover, have coincided as to the names 
 of the performers. But there is no unanimity amongst 
 them in tliese particulars. There are also other facts 
 and points which tend to throw doubt upon the story 
 of King Edgar and his contemporary princes at Chester. 
 
 Florence of Worcester* says that the reputed occur- 
 rence took ])l;K,'e in 'J7.*3 ; Matthew of Westminster 
 says in 1)74; William of Malmesbury^ does not give 
 the date ; the iitixoii Chronicle* says Edgar was at 
 
 I Matthew of WestminHtcr ; lie wrote Iuh chronicle in the 13th and 14tU 
 centurieii. ' He wrote in the lltli and 12th centuries. 
 
 •' His chronicle was written in the 12th century. 
 
 ' We have evidence to conclude that facts were recorded in its pages 
 contemporaneous with their occurrence ; hence the great reliance placed 
 upon its statements.
 
 76 THE TRIBUTE OF WOLVES' HEADS, 
 
 Edgar Chester in 972 ; Hcury of Huntingdon^ says he was 
 Sr*""' there in 970. 
 
 Florence of Worcester, Matthew of Westminster, and 
 William of Malmesbury, say there were eight tributary 
 kings at Chester ; but the Saxon Chronicle and Henry 
 of Huntingdon give six as the number. 
 
 In the Brut y Tywysogion (Chronicle of the Princes) 
 we read that in the year 971 " Edgar, King of the 
 Saxons, collected a very great fleet at Caerleon upon 
 Usk." It gives no information about his visit to 
 Chester, and the procession upon the waters of the Dee ; 
 it simply states that Edgar collected a very great fleet, 
 and that that fleet lay at anchor before Caerleon, a 
 town in Monmouthshire, situated on the river Usk. 
 
 All that the earliest authorities state is that Edgar 
 held a Court at Chester, and that he there received the 
 homage of the kings. Henry of Huntingdon says that 
 six subordinate kings pledged him their fealty there : 
 but he does not give their names, nor does he say a 
 word about the triumphant procession by water. The 
 Saxon Chronicle is equally silent on these two vital 
 points. Nor does Humphrey Lloyd, in his Historie of 
 Cambria, or any other Welsh historian, allude to this 
 matter. 
 
 The names given by the monkish chroniclers do not 
 correspond with the names of the Welsh kings who 
 were contemporary with Edgar up to the year 974, 
 except that of Howell, given by Matthew of Westmin- 
 ster ; and it will be borne in mind that 974 is the year 
 given by this chronicler as the one in which Edgar's 
 triumph took place at Chester. This is a curious 
 coincidence. 
 
 ' Written in the first part of 12th century.
 
 AND Edgar's triumph at Chester. 77 
 
 The Welsh princes contemporary with Edgar were Edgar 
 Meyric, leuaf, lago, Idwal, Rhodri, lonaval, Hywel, Dee. 
 Cadwallawn, Cystenyn, Seisyllt, Llewelyn, Cynan, 
 Owain, Einion, Meredith, Edwyn. 
 
 William of IMalmesbury names the so-called tributary 
 kings as follows : — " Kinad, King of the Scots ; 
 Malcolm, of the Cumbrians ; that prince of pirates, 
 Maccus ; all the Welsh kings, whose names were Dufnal, 
 Giferth Huval (perhaps Hywel, i.e., Howell, is here 
 meant), Jacob (lago ?), Judethil." 
 
 Matthew of Westminster says they were — " Kined, 
 King of the Scots; Malcolm, King of Cumberland; 
 Maco, King of Man, and many other islands ; Dufnal, 
 King of Demetia; Siferth and Howel, Kings of Wales; 
 James, (Jacob or lago ?), King of Galwallia ; and Jukil, 
 King of Westmaria." 
 
 Florence of Worcester says they were — "Kenneth, 
 King of the Scots ; Malcolm, King of the Cumbrians ; 
 ^Maccus, King of several Isles ; and five others, named 
 Dufnal, Siferth, Huwal, (Howel ?), Jacob, and Juchil." 
 
 From the lolo MSS. we gather that Edgar did 
 
 attempt to persuade at least one Welsh Chieftain to 
 
 help to row him on the Dee. This potentate was 
 
 Gwaethvoed, Lord of Cibyr and Ceredigion. In reply 
 
 to E<lgar's summons he said "he could not row a barge; 
 
 and if he couM, that he would not do so, except to 
 
 save a person's life, whether king or vassal." When 
 
 a second message begged for some sort of a reply to 
 
 return to the king, " Say to him," said Gwaethvoed — 
 
 " Ofner na ofno angau." 
 (Fear him wlio fears not death.) 
 
 It is not to be supposed that tlie kings of the tlirco 
 chief divisions of Wales would have been outdone by
 
 7S THE TRIBUTE OF WOLVES' HEADS, 
 
 one of their subordinates in declining: such an igno- 
 Edgar ... ^ ^, ° 
 
 upon the niinious position as oarsmen to King Edgar. 
 
 ^®®' There is another strong reason why even the state- 
 
 ment of the monkish chroniclers concerning Edgar 
 must be refused as independent testimony. He was 
 completely in their hands ; and so it will be found that 
 his reign, as described by them, is scarcely anything 
 more than a record of the doings of the monks; that 
 an abbey was founded here, that such an abbot, bishop, 
 or archbishop began to rule — 
 
 New temples crowned the hills at his command, 
 Heaped with rich gifts the sacred altars stand. 
 And hoary minsters owned his lib'ral hand. ' 
 
 Like Henry VIII., he permitted nothing to stand 
 between him and his lust. Neither husband, nor vows 
 of sanctity, nor the rights of hospitality, were any pro- 
 tection to those whom he fancied. And yet, notwith- 
 standing his licentiousness, his cruelty, and the atrocity 
 of his criminal laws, one^ monkish chronicler states 
 that he was beloved both of God and man, and that he 
 invited his people to the practice of virtue by word and 
 deed ; another^ termed him the flower and glory of a 
 race of kings; anotlier' afiirmed that his sanctity broke 
 the neck of an abbot and cured a blind lunatic ; and 
 another* declared that he exchanged his earthly king- 
 dom for an eternal one. He was also likened unto 
 Solomon, Romulus, Cyrus, Alexander, and Ciiarlemagne ! 
 Wherefore ? Because he was the ready tool of the 
 king-maker of his age, the Wolsey of his time — 
 Duustan. 
 
 ' Henry of Huntington. * Flor. of Worcester. 
 
 » Will, of Malmesbury. * Matt, of Westminster.
 
 AND EDGAR'S TRIUMPH AT CHESTER. 79 
 
 The last argument against the supposition that g^g^r 
 Welsh and other kings rowed Edgar upon the Dee is upon the 
 of a conjectural character. What would their subjects 
 think of such an ijxnoble exhibition ? While the kings 
 were at Chester, what became of their subjects at home ? 
 Who protected them ? Had Dunstan inaugurated a 
 year of jubilee, and guaranteed peace and security to 
 the dominions and subjects of the eight kings ? Indeed, 
 such a fair opportunity of advancing their own interests 
 would not have been neglected by their rivals. And in 
 those days scarcely a Welsh prince sat securely upon 
 his throne. Treachery and murder, and not goodwill 
 and harmony, distinguished those days. The Welsh 
 would not have obeyed a prince who had submitted to 
 the imperious mandate of the Saxon Csesar with the 
 same tamencss that a naked captive followed the chariot 
 of the Roman Ca3sar. Why, the very spirit of Caradog 
 would have burst its bonds at such a debasinfj siffht, and 
 confronted such craven-hearted creatures as the Welsh / 
 princes are represented to be ! But they were no ' 
 cravens, but bold and brave men. Gwaethvoed's reply 
 may aptly be put into the mouths of each one of 
 them. Perhaps Hywel Ddrwg (Howell the Bad) was 
 there from interested motives. A man who could 
 imprison his father, blind one uncle, drive another into 
 exile, and niur<l('r a cousin, would not hesitate to handle 
 an oar to tickle the fancy of the vanity-struck monarch. 
 Perhaps, too, other princes, out of curiosity, or from 
 some other motive, visited at Chester the king who 
 never led an army, or won a Imttle, and whose days 
 were passed in lewdness and penance. Such being the 
 case, it was no difhcult matter for certain of the 
 chroniclers, out of gratitude fur the benefits he conferred
 
 80 THE TEIBUTE OF WOLVES' HEADS, 
 
 Edgar upon their order, to assert that " he (Edgar) exhibited 
 upon the f]^Q^ (eight princes) on the River Dee in triumphant 
 ceremony." 
 
 LEADING EVENTS. 
 
 Edgar at Chester 972 a.d. 
 
 The Tribute of Wolves' Heads 973
 
 INTESTINE STRIFE IN WALES. 81 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 INTESTINE STRIFE IN WALES. 
 
 We return once more to the affairs of Wales. We have The Weisb 
 read that Cadwallawn was the last Welsh Prince who 
 was called King of Britain ; that Offa obliged the princes 
 of PoMT^'S to remove their seat of government from 
 Shrewsbury to Mathraval in the Vale of Meifod, and 
 that he tried to cut them off from England by means 
 of a large mound made of earth, timber, and stones, and 
 which extended from the top to the bottom of the 
 district now known as Wales, where it borders upon 
 England. 
 
 Wc should imairinc that the erection of this bulwark 
 would soon lead to the conquest of Wales. But it had 
 the contrary effect, as it led to a Welsh nationality 
 amongst the ancestors of the people who now live in 
 Wales. But this nationality was not of a comprehensive 
 kind, as the people were never thoroughly united : they 
 never joined together as a people to fight against the 
 common foe. As it was in the days of Agricola, so it 
 continued until they were altogether overcome, A 
 couibiiiation of two or three princes to repel the com- 
 mon danger was rare ;' tlius while they ibught the foo 
 singly they were all subdued. With such characteristics 
 it was surprising that they were ruled by their own 
 princes up to the time of Edward I. 
 
 Various reasons may be assigned for the final over- 
 throw of the Welsh, and the loss of their independence 
 * The Life of Agricola, by Tacitus, cbap. 12.
 
 82 INTESTINE STRIFE IN WALES. 
 
 Tiie Welsh as a nation. Foremost among these was the system of 
 gavelkind. By this system princedoms and estates 
 were parcelled out amongst the various members of 
 each family. This led to disputes, to deeds of cruelty 
 and treachery. Brother rose up against brother. The 
 ties of kith and kin were snapped asunder. Those 
 bonds of sympathy that usually draw together the 
 various members of one family into an impenetrable 
 phalanx were succeeded by feelings of revenge. Patriot- 
 ism, that ethereal flame that tenants the hearts of the 
 noble-free, and supports them under every difficulty, 
 gave way to the spirit of self-aggrandisement. While 
 the Saxon or Norman were upon the Borders, busily 
 engaged in harrying the same ; while Norse, Erse, or 
 Gael were attacking the lands along the sea-shore — 
 Celt was ensacced in mortal strife with Celt. 
 
 Many of these contests took place in the district now 
 constituting Montgomeryshire. This county may aptly 
 be termed the battlefield of Wales.^ Many Welsh moun- 
 tains and streams are consecrated by the memory of 
 historic deeds, but none more so than those of Mont- 
 gomeryshire. Plynlimon ranks among the former. 
 This mountain was the debateable land between North 
 and South Wales, in consequence of its being a natural 
 bulwark separating these divisions. Oft its carn- 
 crowned summits are enveloped in mist, as though 
 it mourned over the slaughter of the well-beloved, 
 whose blood had tinged its coarse grass, and inter- 
 mingled with the dark-brown moisture of its peat beds. 
 
 ' Among the battles that have taken place within its horders may he 
 mentioned those of (1) Camo ; (2) Buttington ; (3) Bliyd y groes ; (4) 
 Cyveiliog, 844, Meirj-n Vrych fell in tliis hattle— he was succeeded by 
 Rhodri Mawr ; (5) Mechain : in this battle Idwal ap Grillith ap Llewelyn 
 and Rhiwallawn ap Cynvyn were slain, 1067.
 
 INTESTINE STRIFE IN WALES. 83 
 
 It was on one of its offshoots that overlooks the Valei. The Battle 
 of Carno and Tref Eglwys, and at a spot equally dis- 949. 
 tant between the former village and that of Dylife, 
 that a desperate battle was fought in 949. It was 
 waged between the North and South Walians. The 
 former were led by leuaf and laga -Owain ap Hywel 
 Dda, and other princes, commanded the South Walians. 
 
 Unfortunately, the historian has but scanty accounts 
 of the events that took place in Wales and along its 
 borders prior to and even after the year 949. In those . 
 days everybody's motto was strictly and literally — 
 Facta, non verba. The deeds were often startling and 
 momentous ; but the words with which they were, not 
 described, but simply recorded, were the quintessence 
 of brevity. The Saxon and the Welsh chroniclers alike 
 were but a step removed from the Peruvians : these 
 primitive people recorded events by simply knotting 
 a piece of cord ; thus, twenty knots upon a piece of 
 cord in the possession of a Peruvian would readily re- 
 call to his mind as many events of his life. One Welsh 
 chronicler' liands down to posterity an account of 
 the feats performed at the first battle of Carno in 
 the words, " Gwaith Carno," — exploit or work at Carno. 
 
 In order to understand the causes that led to thi.s 
 l>attle it will be necessary to state that, during the 
 early part of the reign of Alfred the Great, the whole 
 of Wales was under the rule of one prince, who was 
 termed the Pendragon. This term was somewhat simi- 
 lar to that of Bretwalda. The Pendragon and the 
 Bretwalda was the chief ruler of a number of rulers. 
 In certain ca.ses they settled <lisputcs. They were the 
 rulers over certain districts which were altogether un- 
 
 ■ lirut., o.c.
 
 84 
 
 INTESTINE STRIFE IN WALES. 
 
 Ehodrl 
 Mawr. 
 
 Anarawd. 
 
 Tiie Welsh del* thoir control, and they also exercised a certain 
 amount of authority and jurisdiction over other dis- 
 tricts which were under the immediate control of other 
 princes. These titles were not hereditary ones, for the 
 Saxon Bretwalda was sometimes the King- of Wesscx, 
 Mercia, or Northumbria: in like manner the Welsh 
 Pcndrasfon was Prince of North or South Wales. 
 
 The Pendragon of Wales in the time of Alfred 
 was Rhodri Mawr. He was killed in battle by the 
 Mercians, 877. Upon his death Wales was divided 
 amons: his three sons. The eldest, Anarawd, became 
 King of Gwynedd, which comprised the counties of 
 Anglesey, Carnarvon, Merioneth, and parts of Den- 
 bigh and Flint. The Kings of Gwynedd before the 
 days of Rhodri Mawr lived under Snowdon, but Rhodri 
 removed the royal residence to Abcrfraw in Anglesey. 
 Cadell, the second son, obtained Deheubarth, which ex- 
 tended over the counties of Pembroke, Cardigan, Car- 
 marthen, and parts of Brecon and Glamorgan. The 
 youngest son, Mervyn, became King of Powys. Powys 
 was the smallest of the three divisions. Because of its 
 bordering on Mercia, it was the most exposed to attacks 
 by land ; whereas G^vynedd and Deheubarth were ex- 
 posed to the attacks of the Scotch, Irish, and Danes by 
 sea, and also to the attacks of the Saxons by land, 
 Powys consisted of the counties of Montgomery and 
 Radnor, and parts of the counties of Salop, Denbigh, 
 and Flint. After the days of Caradog, in the time of 
 Offa, Mathraval, in the Vale of Meifod, was the resid- 
 ence and the burial place of the princes of Powys, 
 
 In addition to these princedoms there were lordships 
 in certain parts of Wales, as for instance that of Gwent, 
 which consisted of parts of the present counties of Gla- 
 
 Caden. 
 
 Mervyn.
 
 INTESTINE STRIFE IN WALES. 85 
 
 morofan and Monmouth ; and that of Brecon. Under The Weisii 
 these lords were local chieftains. With so many sub- 
 divisions of so small a country as that of Wales, and 
 with natures so excitable and irascible as those of the 
 Welsh, it is not surprising that intestine strife was so 
 frequent in Wales. The various chieftains rallied around 
 their lords, and the latter supported the cause of the 
 prince of their choice. 
 
 Anarawd revenged the death of his father in 880. 
 He was helped by refugees from Westmoreland and 
 Cumberland, which formed in those days a Welsh dis- 
 trict called Strath-Clyde. These Welshmen from the 
 North settled down in that part of North Wales that 
 lies between the mouths of the rivers Conway and Dee, 
 and they called their new home Y Ystrad Clwyd. 
 
 Anarawd and Mor\'yn acknowledged Alfred as their 
 superior lord. The former visited the Saxon monarch 
 and received gifts from him.^ We have read that the 
 Welsh helped Alfred to defeat the Danish leader 
 Hastings. Nine years afterwards, doubtless in revenge 
 for the help given by Mervyn to Alfred at the siege 
 and battle of Buttington, he was killed by the Danes. 
 
 Upon the death of Mervyn his brother Cadcll seized Me^u' 
 upon Powys. Thus in 903 Wales was under the rule ^03. 
 of two chief princes. Upon the death of Cadcll, 
 909, his son Hywcl Dda became king of Powys ^s^eiDda 
 and Delieubarth. And in 915 Idwal VoeP succeeded idwaivoei 
 his father as king of Gwynedd. Both Hywcl and^^°- 
 Idwal acknowledged the supremacy of Edward the 
 Elder. '^ But they joined their forces with those of the 
 Scots, Iri.sh, and Danes again.st Athclstan, and were 
 routed with them at the terrible battle of Brunanburgh. 
 * Auer. * Flor. of Worcester.
 
 86 INTESTINE STRIFE IN WALES. 
 
 idwaivoei William of Malmesbuiy asserts that Athclstan had 
 obliged Idwal to meet him at Hereford in the year 
 9-26, and to give him annually, in token of vassalage, 
 
 Defeat of S^^^' silver, dogs, and hawks. And Florence of Wor- 
 
 Hywei, ccstcr states that the Saxon king defeated Hywel in 
 
 ^"^- the year 92G. 
 
 Idwal voei Idwal of Gwynedd was killed by the Saxons in 940. 
 
 kined, Upon his death Hywel Dda became the Pendragon of 
 
 Wales, and well did he deserve the title. With the 
 
 help of the bishops and wise men of his land he drew 
 
 up a number of laws for the guidance of his palace, 
 
 and for the country at large. Several of these laws 
 
 were in existence before the days of Hywel. He 
 
 altered some of them : others he did not change : and 
 
 new ones took the place of those old laws he abolished. 
 
 It is supposed that the Pope approved of Hywel's 
 
 legislature. He was one of the few Welsh princes who 
 
 died a natural death. Hywel was, in a certain sense, 
 
 amongst Welsh what Alfred was amongst Saxon rulers : 
 
 both were the chief and glory of their respective 
 
 , nations. 
 Death of X f» 
 
 HyweiDda Upon the death of Hywel in 948, lago and leuaf, the 
 
 i*^ and ^^^^ ^^ Idwal Voel, laid claims to the sovereignty of 
 
 leuaf.sons the whole of Wales. They made this claim as the 
 
 voeL representatives of the eldest branch of the family of 
 
 Rhodri Mawr : and also because they were the heirs to 
 
 two out of the three princedoms of Wales, as their 
 
 father's father was Anarawd, and their mother's father 
 
 Mervyn of Powys. Upon the whole their claim has 
 
 been denounced on the ground that Rhodri had himself 
 
 made a three-fold division of the land. But it is highly 
 
 probable that lago and his brother simply wished 
 
 to assert and secure the supremacy of the crown of
 
 INTESTINE STRIFE IN WALES. 87 
 
 Gwynedd over that of Deheubarth, and to remind the The Weisii 
 king of that district, and the other Welsh princes, that 
 the head of the House of Idwal was the Pendragon. 
 
 The sons of Hywel naturally resented such a claim. 
 Had not their father's authority extended over Deheu- 
 barth and Powys, and even into Gwynedd ? In a word, 
 had not Hywel Dda been Pendragon since the death of 
 Idwal Voel ? Had he not also framed a code of laws 
 which were acknowledcred throughout Cambria ? Had 
 he not visited Rome and done other things that had 
 caused his name to become a byeword for good in the 
 mouths of its utterers? And were they to submit 
 tamely to the dictates of the Princes of Gwynedd ? 
 Certainly not. Idwal might have fallen gloriously 
 while battling against the common foe. Hywel, their 
 father, might have admired such conduct. But with 
 them national rights were forgotten, and personal pique 
 and vanity were intensified to such a degree that 
 nothing but an intestine war could assuage their 
 wounded pride and importance. 
 
 lairo and leuaf assembled their forces, and marched Owainand 
 through Montgomeryshire. But their further progress sons of 
 was checked by the appearance of Owain, Rhodri, and ^^^^^ 
 other sons of Hywel, with their warriors. Tlien ensued Battle of 
 " Gwaith Carno." The men of Gwynedd obtained the °^^ ' 
 victory. After their exploits at this battle lago and 
 leuaf appear to liave pursued the discomfited South 
 Walians, and to have invadcid South Wales on two 
 occasions. But tlie latter were by no means crushed, 
 for they afterwards ravaged North Wales as far as 
 Conway. Wo are not informed whether they sailed 
 to this place, or whether they arrived there by land. 
 They were attacked and again overcome, and driven
 
 88 INTESTINE STRIFE IN WALES. 
 
 The Welflh southwards by the successful northmen, who once moro 
 
 visited South Wales in an hostile manner. 
 
 After ten years' warfare, Owain ap Hy wel, and other 
 
 princes, acknowledged leuaf and lago as paramount 
 
 sovereigns of Wales. leuaf and lago could not agree, 
 
 Death of and at length la^jo e:ot rid of his brother, either by 
 leuaf o o o ^ J 
 
 964. ' blinding, hanging, or imprisoning him. This happened 
 in 904. lago did not enjoy his undivided sway more 
 ofia^o °^ than ten years, for in 974 he was driven forth by his 
 974. ' nephew, Hywel Ddrwg, son of leuaf.^ 
 
 LEADING EVENTS. 
 
 The Death of Rhodii Mawr, Pendragon 877 a.d. 
 
 Anarawd's Victory S80 
 
 The Death of Mervyn, Prince of Powys 903 
 
 The Death of Cadell, Prince of Deheubartli and Powys, 
 
 and the Accession of his son Ilywel Dda 909 
 
 The Death of Anarawd, Prince of Gwyuedd, and the 
 
 Accession of liis son Idwal Voel 915 
 
 The Death of Idwal Voel 940 
 
 The Death of Hywel Dda 948 
 
 The Fust Battle of Carno 949 
 
 Banishment of lago ap Idwal Voel by Ilywel Ddrwg ap 
 
 leuaf ap Idwal Voel 974 
 
 • This Hywel was one of the Welsh princes who are reported to have 
 rowed the puny-bodied, lustful-minded, Dunstan-guided Edgar at Chester.
 
 (89) 
 
 CHAPTER XL 
 
 FROM THE FALL OF DUNSTAN TO THE RISE OF EDRIC 
 
 OF MERCIA. 
 
 We have read that Dunstan was the chief man in the Dunstan. 
 kingdom. He continued to hold this position up to 
 the accession of Ethelred, the second son of King 
 Edgar. During all these years he appears to be the 
 only man of great ability in the country. We do not 
 read of a single layman of mark, except the king, in 
 those days. Hence Dunstan must have the credit of 
 keeping the land in quietness. 
 
 A great fleet was built, consisting of 3,G00 stout ships 
 according to one authority,^ and of 4,800 according to 
 another authority.^ Following the example of Agricola, 
 the King caused his fleet to sail round the island : this 
 was done during the summer months. Its appearance 
 had the desired effect of showing all who saw it the 
 power of the Saxon king. Dunstan had friendly inter- 
 course with the Pope and foreign potentates. Ho 
 .showed his influence in the Church by the promotion 
 of his friends and partisans to important bishoprics. 
 He was the means of raising Oswald, nephew of Arch- 
 bi.shop Odo, to the see of Worcester, and Etlielwold to 
 that of Winchester. It is worthy of note that members 
 
 ' Flor. of Worcester. Dr. Linp.ird, forgotting that those shi])S wore 
 small ones, observes: "Tlio number ai>i)enr8 to mo enormous, I have 
 therefore rntrcnclicd a cipher." This retrenchment was most unjustifiable. 
 
 » Matt, of Westminster.
 
 90 FROM THE FALL OF DUNSTAN TO 
 
 Dunstan. of the same family held the most important sees : thus, 
 Dunstan was the successor of an uncle as Archbishop 
 of Canterbury; and Oswald became Archbishop of 
 York. Both Oswald and Ethelwold worked with a 
 will to expel the secular clergy from their abodes, and 
 to place regulars in the large monasteries. 
 The Coro- Unlike that of other kings, the coronation of Edgar 
 Edg^ 973 "^^^ not immediately follow his election. He was a boy 
 of sixteen^ when he ascended the throne : this fact 
 contradicts the statement that his coronation was 
 delayed to the thirteenth^ or fourteenth^ year of his 
 reign, through the influence of Dunstan and the power 
 of the Pope,^ in consequence of his misdeeds. We see 
 the master mind of Dunstan in this : an uncrowned 
 and unanointed king would have less authority than 
 one fully armed by the pomp and ceremony of corona- 
 tion and sanctification ; the former would be in a state 
 of pupilage to the Church ; the latter would be free and 
 independent, for he was king by the blessing of the 
 Church as well as by the election of the Witan and the 
 voice of the people. 
 
 If Edgar was careless as to his own acts, he was kind 
 to the middle and poor classes, and encouraged tem- 
 perance.^ In his manner he was cautious, mild, humble, 
 liberal, and merciful f and so brave that, though he 
 was both short and thin, he challenged the King of 
 Scotland to meet him in single combat, because he had 
 called him "a sorry little fellow."^ In summer he 
 joined his fleets. In winter he travelled throughout 
 the land, in order to see that the laws were observed, 
 and justice administered :^ and in his days there was 
 no private thief or highway robberl 
 ^ Saxon Chronicle. * Will of Malmesbury. » Flor. of Worcester.
 
 THE RISE OF EDRIC OF MERCIA. 91 
 
 Upon the death of Edgar the Saxon Chronicle Death of 
 pathetically observed : — 
 
 " God grant him 
 that his good deeds 
 be more availiug 
 than his misdeeds 
 for his soul's safety 
 on the longsome journey." 
 
 The month of July, in the year of grace 975, was a 
 grievous month to Dunstan, for Edgar died in that 
 month and that year. With the death of his pupil and 
 obedient king fell the power of the great churchman. 
 Dunstan has been called the Bccket and the Wolsey of 
 his days. But neither Becket nor Wolsey established 
 fleets and courts of law, and administered justice 
 through the medium of their respective kings. And 
 both Becket and Wolsey fell the victims of their 
 Soverei'^m's injjratitude and hate. Whereas Dunstan 
 ruled the land, and at the same time established the 
 a.scendency of his order, while professing to honour and 
 obey four puppet kings. 
 
 Upon tlie death of Edgar, his son Edward became 
 king, tlirough the influence of Dunstan.^ His stop- th^^'" ' 
 motlicr Elfri<la and some of the nobility opposed his f^g^'jjg^g^ 
 election.^ Edward was Dunstan's nominee. But 
 Elfrida was determined to remove the former, and to 
 compass the overthrow of the latter. Woman's wit 
 was more than a match for the Archbishop's power. 
 Elfrida had sacriflced her flrst husband in order to wed 
 Edf'ar. And she now determined to rule once more as 
 f|ueen through lier son, a boy of seven years of age. 
 yhe was helped by Elfere, ealdoriiian of Mercia. 
 
 Elfere took the part of the secuhir priests, and drove 
 
 ' WilL of Malmcsbury.
 
 92 FROM THE FALL OF DUNSTAN TO 
 
 TheSecu- the regulars out of the monasteries of Mercia.^ The 
 Regies religious question, concerning the Seculars and Regulars, 
 appears to have agitated the whole nation. Three^ 
 synods were convened for the purpose of asserting the 
 supremacy of one of these Orders, or of arriving at 
 some arrangement which would put an end to their 
 unseemly and unchristian strife. The first was held 
 at Winchester : there the crucifix spoke^ in favour of 
 the Regulars. 
 Synod at The second synod was held at Calne, and was 
 ' attended by all the members of the chieP Witan ; the 
 king was absent on account of his youth.* The subject 
 in dispute was debated with great zeal and diversity 
 of opinion.* It appears that several of those present 
 took advantage of the opportunity to show their dis- 
 trust of Dunstan, for "like arrows"* their reproaches 
 were directed against him. He was opposed by the 
 whole Witan.* Its members were, doubtless, indignant 
 at their exclusion from the management of state affairs. 
 They must have borne in mind that their country was 
 garrisoned with monks, and that the erection of mon- 
 asteries had emptied the king's exchequer. By taking 
 the part of the Seculars they aimed a blow against the 
 personal rule of the Archbishop. 
 
 Undaunted, Dunstan withstood their reproaches. 
 Suddenly the floor upon which they stood, boards and 
 rafters, gave way, and all, save Dunstan, who stood 
 upon a single rafter, were hurled to the ground : some 
 were killed,^ and others crippled for life. Some people 
 
 » Will, of Malmesbury. 2 Flor. of Worcester. 
 
 » Saxon Chronicle. * Matt, of Westminster. 
 
 • Saxon Chronicle. During the reign of Frederick Barbarossa a similar 
 catastrophe took place in Germany, when several of the nobility were 
 killed.
 
 THE RISE OF EDRIC OF MEROIA. 93 
 
 believe the boards and rafters of the council room gave synod at 
 way through a miracle.^ Others are of the opinion ^^®' ^''^' 
 that Dunstan's mechanical skill had somethincc to do 
 with it, and that before the council had met he had 
 caused the supports of the room, except the beam upon 
 which he stood, to be loosened, and that he had control 
 over the machinery that temporarily supported its 
 floor. 
 
 If the Synod at Calne had been convened for the 
 purpose of refuting the arguments of the Regulars or 
 of the Seculars, surely Dunstan would have been sup- 
 ported by his sturdy colleagues, Ethelwold,^ Bishop of 
 Winchester, and Oswald,'-^ Archbishop of York, and by 
 the other heads of the Regulars : but they were all 
 absent. 
 
 If the Witan had been summoned to take into con- 
 sideration a question of national importance, the King 
 would have presided : but he was absent.' The fact 
 that this gathering was of national importance, and 
 that it met for the express purpose of settling the 
 disputes between the Seculars and Regulars ; and the 
 fact that the king and the supporters of Dunstan were 
 not present at it, and tliat Dunstan was the only one 
 who escaped unhurt, might lead us to the conclusion 
 that the catastroplie at Caluc was the contrivance of 
 one who allowed religious zeal and partisan feelings to 
 override liis humanity and warp his judgment, and that 
 ])uiistan'.s victory was the result of a desperate ellurt 
 to retain liis own power and that of his order over the 
 
 • Matt, of Westminnter. 
 
 » EthflwoM (lied P8'2, and OswoM in 992: ,Saxo7i Chronicle. 
 
 * Matthew of Westiniiister. Dr. Lingaid says lie was prcHcnt: tliia 
 writer statcH that the Moor of the council room at Calne gave way, a.s tlio 
 weight Hpon it was too great : if so, it is strange that only one man escaped.
 
 94 FROM THE FALL OF DUNSTAN TO 
 
 ecclesiastical and civil affairs of the realm. The assem- 
 bly at Calne, 978, is an epoch in the history of the 
 Saxon people. With it the supremacy of the Church 
 ceases for more than half a century. 
 
 Whilst Dunstan ruled the land, civil strife and foreign 
 invasion were almost unknown to it. And the best 
 testimony in his favour was the confusion and the ter- 
 rible sufferings that followed his days. 
 Murder of In the year 978 King Edward was brutally and 
 
 Edward, ° . 
 
 978. treacherously murdered. He had been hunting. Upon 
 
 his return he visited his step-mother. She received 
 him with a kiss,^ and gave him to drink out of a cup ; 
 whilst drinking he was stabbed by the ealdorman El- 
 fere,^ or by one of the household^ of Elfrida. The king 
 set spurs to his horse, but, falling to the ground, one 
 foot got entangled, and he was dragged to death by 
 his frightened steed. The Saxon Chronicle simply 
 states that he was martyred, and makes no mention of 
 the hunt, or of his visit to his step-mother. Henry of 
 Huntingdon is also silent concerning the hunt, and he 
 merely remarks that he was killed by his oiun family 
 at Corfe-gate, at eventide. As Ethelred was a mere 
 lad, he could not have been guilty of the death of his 
 balf-brotlier, consequently the guilt of this terrible 
 crime must be laid at the door of his wickedly ambi- 
 tious mother. According to William of Malmesbury, 
 Elfrida plotted against the life of Edward, and that her 
 cruel design was successful after the following man- 
 ner : — the king was returning home tired with the 
 chase, and gasping with thirst, while his companions 
 were following the dogs in different directions, when 
 he was told that his relatives lived in a neighbouring 
 
 ' Matt of Westminster. » Will, of Malmesbury.
 
 THE RISE OF EDRIC OF MERCIA. 95 
 
 house ; he proceeded towards it at full speed, unattended Murder of 
 and without suspicion, as he judged others by his own 97^^^ 
 feelings. On his arrival Elfrida, enticing him with fe- 
 male blandishments, caused him to lean forward to 
 receive her kiss ; afterwards, whilst he was eagerly- 
 drinking from the cup which had been handed to him, 
 he was pierced through the body by the dagger of an 
 attendant.^ Edward, dreadfully wounded, with all his 
 remaining strength clapped spurs to his horse in order 
 to join his companions, when one of his feet slipped, 
 and he was dragged by the other foot through the 
 trackless paths and recesses of the wood, while his 
 streaminff blood made known his death to his followers. 
 Edward is known in liistory as "Edward the Martyr" 
 — no doubt the Regulars bestowed that appellation 
 upon him, because he was their choice, and also because 
 he fell through the machinations of Elfrida, the leader 
 of the Seculars. 
 
 Ethelred, son of Edgar and Elfrida, succeeded his 
 half-brother. His life is said to have been cruel in the 
 beginning, Vjecausc of the death of his brother ; wretched 
 in the middle, by reason of his flight and weak conduct ; 
 and miserable in the end,'' in consequence of the cir- 
 cumstances that attended his death. 
 
 At the coronation of Ethelred, Dunstan foretold^ with Dunstan's 
 a loud voice the evils that were al)0ut to fall upon the ^°^ ^^^' 
 land, saying to tlie youthful monarch : — " Since you 
 have aspired to the kingdom by the death of your 
 brother, hear the word of God. Thus saith the Lord, 
 the sin of your wretclied mother, and that of the 
 
 ' William of Malmcsbnry, in Iwok 2, chap. 9, does not give the name of 
 Elfrida'.s attendant ; but in chap. 10, under the year 1012, ho duscribes 
 Ellere as — " Elfere, who had murderud the lato kiu^j." 
 
 • William of Malmc»bury.
 
 9G FROM THE FALL OF DUNSTAN. 
 
 accomplices of her wicked plot, shall not be blotted ont 
 except b}^ much blood of the wretched people ; and such 
 evils shall come upon the English nation as they have 
 not experienced since they came to England until now." 
 This prophecy was fulfilled to the very letter. 
 Etheired, From the accession of Ethclred in 978 to the accession 
 of Canute, in 1016, the affairs of our country seem to 
 have revolved around the person of Edric, ealdorman of 
 Mercia. 
 
 LEADING EVENTS. 
 
 The Coronation of Edgar 973 a.d. 
 
 The Death of Edgar, and the Accession of lais son Edward 
 
 the Martyr 975 
 
 The Synod at Calne 978 
 
 The Assassination of King Edward, and the Accession of 
 
 Etheired the Unready 978' 
 
 ' Florence of Worcester,
 
 (97) 
 
 ft 
 O 
 
 o 
 
 O 
 
 Xfl 
 
 "^ 
 O 
 
 W 
 
 Eiq 
 
 W 
 
 a 
 
 o 
 
 
 5 
 Eh 
 
 
 5 rt 
 
 a 
 
 
 fe 
 
 CZ sx 
 
 
 O 
 
 I—" o 
 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 .Q 
 
 
 
 QO 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 *«» 
 
 a> m 
 
 
 P 
 
 .3-^ ^ 
 
 -1 ^-5 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 C3 
 
 
 ^4 
 
 
 tT 
 
 
 
 •2« 
 
 P 
 
 
 
 «»^ 
 
 
 O 
 
 m 
 
 o > 
 
 (D 
 
 - bo 
 -=3 -If a 
 
 •*-> 
 
 -e rt .3 
 
 
 « 
 
 — ^ -*-» 
 
 ■ a> a> 
 
 
 S--| 
 
 
 
 " S 
 
 A 
 
 
 o 
 o 
 
 I 
 
 -a 
 
 9 
 O 
 
 a 
 a 
 o 
 
 to 
 
 a 
 
 '% 
 o 
 
 03 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 3 
 
 o 
 '^. -CO" 
 
 4> .a «> - 
 
 o 'T2 o '^ 
 
 o 
 
 
 -^ 
 
 Q 
 O 
 O 
 
 o o 
 
 
 i^-J 

 
 98 EDRIC OF MERCIA, OR THE STRUGGLE 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 EDRIC OF MERCIA, OR THE STRUGGLE BETWEEN SAXON 
 AND DANE FOR SUPREMACY. 
 
 Edricof Edric was the master spirit of his time. In days of 
 cruelty and treachery, he was the most cruel and 
 treacherous of his contemporaries. By means of subtle 
 genius, persuasive eloquence, matchless perfidy, and 
 relentless cruelty, he ruled the land. Two kings^ he 
 betrayed time after time : one^ king he killed : two' 
 kings he placed upon the throne. Had Edric not lived, 
 there would have been no Danish Conquest of England : 
 ancient writers look upon him as the cause of the 
 subjugation of their country.* 
 
 In very truth Edric was the fit successor of Penda, 
 of Offa, of the regicide Elfere, and of Elfric. It seemed 
 as if the very soil of Mercia bred traitors and rebels. 
 In after time Algar of Mercia allied himself with 
 Griffith of Wales, and fought against liis own country- 
 men : his sons, Edwin and Morcar, were passive traitors 
 to Edward the Confessor, active ones to Harold, son of 
 Godwin, and compulsory ones to William of Normandy. 
 We must, however, recollect that treachery appeared to 
 be studied in those days as a fine art. The catastrophe 
 at Calne was the result of treachery. The king's 
 mother had been won by treachery and murder; his 
 half-brother had been sent to an early grave by guile 
 and the dagger. Moreover, the king himself endea- 
 
 ' Ethelred the Unready, and Edmund tlie Ironside. ' Edmund. 
 
 * Sweyn and Canute. * Lingard, vol. L, p. 157.
 
 BETTVEEN SAXON AND DANE FOR SUPREMACY. 99 
 
 voured, by one foul and sweeping act of cruel treachery, Edric of 
 to destroy his enemies in one day.^ It will thus be ^^'^"^• 
 seen that treachery was practised in church and state, 
 in the camp and at the court. Edric, however, deter- 
 mined to out-Herod them all. He soon became known 
 as " a new traitor, but one of the highest order."^ 
 
 We have no information concernins: Edric's fore- 
 fathers : neither their names nor their positions in 
 life are mentioned by the chroniclers, except that we 
 are informed that he was of low origin,^ and further 
 that he was the lowest of the people.* One writer* 
 gives the names of his brothers and that of his father. 
 One of his nephews, Wulfnoth, became the ealdorman 
 of Sussex, in which position he was succeeded by his his reia- 
 son Godwin, and by his grandson Gurth. Henry of to°Go^^n 
 Huntingdon and the Saxon Chronicle style Wulfnoth 
 " Child of the South-Saxons," a term equivalent in 
 some respects to that of Atheling : Matthew of West- 
 minster styles him " the king's servant." It is stated* 
 that Wulfnoth was a herdsman in early life, and that 
 Godwin^ helped him. Another nephew, Edric the For- 
 ester,' was as successful against tlie Normans amidst 
 the woods and hills along the Welsh borders as Here- 
 ward was amongst the Fens. From these particulars 
 we gather that Edric belonged to an historic family, 
 many of whose members were perfectly free from guile 
 and cruelty, and who willingly sacriticed their lives for 
 their country. 
 
 Ethelred began to reign when ten years old. His 
 
 • St. Brice's Day, 1002. • Matt, of West minster. 
 
 ' Ilcnry of Ilunting'lon. ' 'Die MS. Chronicle of Ka<luliilius Niger. 
 
 " Florence of Worcester. * Lappcnbcrg : Sharon Turner.
 
 100 EDRIC OF MERCIA, OR THE STRUGGLE 
 
 youth was the chief cause of the disasters that happened 
 to the Saxous during his reign. He had no general to 
 lead his soldiers to war : he had no one to give him 
 sound advice in the council chamber. When he heard 
 of the death of his half-brother Edward he wept aloud : 
 his tears so irritated his mother, that, not having a 
 whip at hand, she beat him with candles in so savage a 
 manner that ho dreaded candles to the end of his life, 
 and could not suffer the light of them to be brought 
 into his presence.^ This incident shows that in his 
 youth he could not go to his mother for comfort and 
 advice, 
 oiave and -jj^g unprotected state of England soon became known 
 994. ' to the Danes and Norwegians, who invaded its shores 
 under Olave of Norway and Sweyn of Denmark in 994. 
 They were bought off, and some of them were allowed 
 to winter in the land. In the year 1002 two events took 
 place in England : each event led to a change of dynasty. 
 The first was Ethelred's marriage with Emma, " the 
 Pearl of Normandy," daughter of Richard I., Duke 
 of Normandy, called by the Saxons Elfgiva (" the gift 
 of the fairies "). This marriage was an act of policy''* 
 in order to secure the aid of the Normans against the 
 Danes. It paved the way for the Norman Conquest. 
 One chronicler* observed that this marriage, in conjunc- 
 tion with the attacks of the Danes, was a double 
 chastisement and a snare, and that if the Saxons escaped 
 the open attacks of the Danes, they would not have the 
 firmness to break the meshes in which the subtlety of 
 the Normans would entangle them unawares. The 
 
 ' Will, of Malmesbury. 
 
 * Ethelred married Emma for the same purpose that Vortigem married 
 Rowena. ^ Henry of Huntingdon.
 
 BETWEEN SAXOX AND DANE FOR SUPREMACY. 101 
 
 second event was the massacre on St. Brice's Day : this 
 led to the Danish Conquest. 
 
 Edward the Elder began the perilous custom of em- 
 ploying Norwegian and Danish auxiliary forces ; they 
 were called huscarls. Under Ethelred several of these 
 northern soldiers held posts of trust in the army and 
 the naxj. Palling, a Dane, whose wife was Gunhilda, 
 Sweyn's sister, was an admiral of the king's fleet. 
 Naturally the huscarls had a kindly feeling towards 
 their own countrymen. The king's marriage was 
 hateful to them, for they feared that the son of this 
 union might become king of England and Normandy, 
 and so, sufficiently powerful to drive them out of the 
 country. Thereupon they determined to take the 
 king's life^ by treachery, to kill every member of f^ll^^""^ 
 the Witan, and afterwards to seize the kingdom " with- ^J^^'^^j^,^ 
 out any gainsaying."* This is one reason why Ethelred 
 ordered the Danes throughout the land to be killed. 
 From another source'^ we learn that this massacre was 
 brought about throniirh the insolence of the Danes, 
 wdio, after peace had been declared, insulted and violated 
 the wives and daughters of the nobles. One chronicler' 
 stated that Ethelred ordered the massacre of the Danes, 
 because he was " elated with pride " after his marriage 
 with Emma ; and another* asserted that he did so " from 
 light suspicion." According to Florence of Worcester, 
 it was plot against plot, and a simple question as to 
 which party should strike the first blow, for lie 
 distinctly states that Ethelred gave orders for tho 
 
 « Saxon Chrmiclt. * Mfttt. of Westminster. • Ilinry of Ilniitiiijj.lon. 
 
 ♦ Will, of Mfilmesbury : he does not mention what the king suspected ; 
 no flovibt his suspicion had reference to Bome Danish plot against his life or 
 authority.
 
 102 EDRIC OF MEKCIA, OR THE STRUGGLE 
 
 Massacre massacre of all the Danes of every age and of both 
 g° ^'; sexes, because the Danes had formed a conspiracy to 
 Day. 1002. kill him and his nobles, and to reduce the whole of 
 England under their rule. We must not, therefore, 
 forget the circumstances that surrounded the king when 
 he issued his fiat against the Danes. In fact, this 
 massacre, unlike the dynastic one in Italy^ and the 
 religious one in France,^ was a political or race 
 massacre : it was brought about from fear of loss of 
 life and of supremacy, rather than through a spirit of 
 wild revenge or of wanton cruelty. 
 
 The slaughter of the Danes was not so great as is 
 commonly believed, as the king's order could not have 
 been executed in Northumbria, East Anglia, or the 
 seven Burghs,^ as the Danes formed the bulk of the 
 population in those parts. And it is not unlikely that 
 those Danes who had accompanied Olave and Sweyn, 
 and who had been allowed to settle in England, alone 
 were killed.* Amongst the slain were Palling, Gunhilda, 
 and their son. They had been put under the protection 
 of Edric.^ With a refined cruelty, he caused both 
 husband and child to be killed in Gunhilda's very 
 presence,^ and then ordered® her head to be cut off, 
 though he stated that her death would bring great evil 
 upon the whole kingdom. 
 
 The massacre of the Danes upon St. Brice's Day 
 may be looked upon as the first move in the game of 
 slaughter instigated by Edric, and as the first thread of 
 that web in which he hoped to mesh those who stood 
 between him and supreme power, for he was the ruling 
 
 > The Sicilian Vespers, 1272. " St. Bartholomew's, 1572. 
 
 * The towns of Leicester, Stamford, Derby, Nottingliam, Lincoln, York, 
 and Chester. * Lappenberg. « Matt, of Westminster. 
 
 • Will of Malmesbury.
 
 BETWEEN SAXON AND DANE FOR SUPREMACY. i03 
 
 P 
 < 
 
 Eh "s 
 
 w .. 
 
 H J 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 rt 
 
 ^ I 
 
 o 
 
 o 

 
 1007. 
 
 104) EDRIC OF MERCIA, OR THE STRUGGLE 
 
 spirit upon that barbarous day. His next victim was 
 
 Assassi- Elf helm, ealdorman of Mcrcia. Edric invited him to a 
 
 EiSeSn ^ great feast at Shrewsbury. During the hunt which 
 
 1006. ' followed, a ruffian, known as "the town's hound,"^ 
 
 suddenly sprang upon Eifhelm^ and killed him. The 
 
 assassin had been bribed by Edric. 
 
 Edric had gained the king's favour by his riches,' by 
 
 his smooth tongue,* and persuasive language.^ He was 
 
 made ealdorman of Mercia 1007 ; and he also obtained 
 
 Edric's the hand of the king's daughter, Elgitha 
 
 Marriage, Ethelred appears to have been as great a match-maker 
 
 as Athelstan. The latter married his sisters to ruling 
 
 princes: the former married his daughters to the leading 
 
 men in the land, whom he attached to his cause by 
 
 these marriages.^ 
 
 sweyn, In the year 100-i Sweyn paid his second visit to 
 
 England, and plundered and burnt down Norwich and 
 
 other places. In 1006 he again landed upon our shores, 
 
 and England is said to have trembled before him like 
 
 the rustling of a bed of reeds shaken by the west wind.^ 
 
 King Ethelred, naturally indolent,^ was sick with sorrow 
 
 and perplexity at his manor in Shropshire.'' His army 
 
 was a mere rabble, ignorant of military discipline, and 
 
 * Flor. of Worcester. 
 • Canute married his daughter Elfgiva. She was the mother of Harold 
 Harefoot, Kiug of England, and of Kweyn, King of Norway. 
 
 Florence of Worcester states that Sweyn was the son of a priest, and 
 Harold the son of a cobbler ; and that they were adopted by Elfgiva, who 
 assured the king that she was their mother, — hence Mary of Modena was 
 not the first suspected of having deceived a royal husband. 
 
 No doubt Elfgiva informed Canute of her father's assassination through 
 Edric's instrumentality ; but she did not live to see her husband revenge 
 the death of his father-in-law. 
 
 » Matt, of Westminster. • Will, of Malmesbury. 
 
 * Flor. of Worcester. • See previous page. 
 
 ' Henry of Huntingdon. 
 
 1004.
 
 BETWEEN SAXOX AND DANE FOR SUPREMACY. 105 
 
 without a leader.^ The days of peace under Edgar had 
 
 made the Saxons unfit for war : and his fleets had been 
 
 allowed to decay. In his desperation the king had been 
 
 advised to buy oflf the invaders. He had already on 
 
 three difierent occasions paid them 10,000, 1G,000, and The Danes 
 
 ^ ™ bought off 
 
 24,000 pounds of silver ; and in the year 1007 Sweyn 
 
 consented to a peace upon the receipt of 36,000 pounds 
 of silver. These ruinous sums of money bought oflf the 
 invader only for a short time. In 1008 the Witan, at 
 which the King presided, determined to build a large ^he saxon 
 fleet for the defence of the country, and to get armour ^^^^> loos. 
 for the sailors. It was decreed that the whole of Eng- 
 land should contribute in the proportion of one ship for 
 three hundred and ten hides of land, and a breast-plate 
 and helmet for nine hides. A hide was as much land 
 as one plough could till in a year. This was the first 
 direct tax levied in England : it was a thoroughly volun- 
 tary one. With the money thus raised one thousand 
 ves.sels were built. After their construction they were 
 brought together at Sandwich, with supplies of pro- 
 visions and chosen troops^ on board, and there they laid 
 at anchor. Such a naval force had never been seen in 
 England before. But the money and the labour of 
 the nation were brought to nought through the conduct 
 of Brihtric, who falsely accused his nephew Wulfiioth Wuifnoth. 
 to the King. Wuifnoth fled with twenty vessels, and 
 was pursued by his uncle with eighty, who vowed ho 
 would brin'' him back "dead or alive."'' A storm aroso 
 and sliattered the; fleet under I^rihtric. Tlui wrecks 
 were set on fire by Wuifnoth. The evil ti<ling8 soon 
 reached the rest of the fleet, which returned to Loudon. 
 
 • Matt, of Wustminstrr. 
 ' norcnce of Worcester, * Heury of Huutiugdoii.
 
 lOG EDRIC OF MERCIA, OR THE STRUGGLE 
 
 The army was also broken up. Henceforth Ethelred 
 took no active part in the defence of his kingdom. 
 Destruc- We now pass on to the year 1011, when Canterbury 
 Canter- ^as betrayed to the Danes, who put some of the men 
 ^^y- to the sword, others perished in the flames that envel- 
 oped the town, several were thrown headlong from the 
 walls, women were dragged by their hair through the 
 streets and then burnt to death: infants, torn from 
 their mother's breasts, were caught on the point of 
 spears, or crushed beneath the wheels of waggons.^ 
 The venerable Archbishop Elphege was loaded with 
 fetters and tortured. For seven months^ he was kept 
 in prison, as the Danes expected he would pay the sum 
 of three thousand pounds of silver for his release. He 
 Arch- refused to pay it. Thereupon they dragged him before 
 Eiphege's their popular assembly, and pelted him with stones, 
 martyr- bones, and ox skulls, and finally, one of them, who had 
 °°^' ' been confirmed by the archbishop the day before his 
 martyrdom, put an end to his sufferings, out of pity, 
 by splitting his head with an axe.^ Thus fell this noble 
 man, whose courage and consistency excites the ad- 
 miration of mankind. 
 
 In 1012 Edric^ and other members of the Witan pre- 
 vailed upon the Danes to leave England for 48,000 
 pounds of silver. The following year Sweyn entered 
 Bweynthis England for the last time. His track was marked by 
 ^d*^deatii, blood, famine, and pestilence. The whole country was 
 ^°^*- at his mercy. Oxford fell before the Danes. Win- 
 chester opened its gates to Sweyn. At Bath he was 
 proclaimed king. The Londoners alone stood firm, and 
 resisted his attacks as long as the king remained with 
 them ; but when^ he fled from the city in order to join 
 
 • Florence of Worcester. * William of Malmesbury.
 
 BETWEEN SAXON AND DANE FOR SUPREMACT. 107 
 
 his wife and children in Normandy, they too surrendered 
 to the Danish conqueror. The queen had left England 
 two years before her husband, under the protection of 
 Edric, who attended upon her at her brother's court " in 
 splendid style."^ Shortly afterwards Sweyn was killed 
 whilst assaulting the Burglr that contained the remains 
 of St. Edmund, by the martyr himself, so the chroniclers 
 assert.^ Most probably a patriotic assassin, or a ruffian 
 in the pay of Edric, taking advantage of the inoflfensive 
 credulity of the people of the locality, despatched the 
 gigantic^ and cruel-hearted Sweyn. Upon his death 
 the Witan with one voice determined to recall Ethelred, re?^**'* 
 on condition^ that he would govern more justly and 
 more gently than he had done before.* The king 
 promised to be a loving and gentle lord to them, to 
 consult their wishes, to act according to their advice, 
 and to forgive and forget the past. These promises 
 were made by word of mouth and by treaty.' There- 
 upon Ethelred returned to his native land, and was 
 received with great honour,* and joy.^ 
 
 To avoid capture Canute was oljligcd to leave England Canute's 
 in haste ; but, before he did so, he cut off the hands and 
 ears, and slit the nostrils of the Saxon hostages who 
 had been entrusted to his father. 
 
 After the return of Ethelred, Edric, through unjusti- 
 fiable desire for their property,^ caused Morcar and Sigc- Morcar 
 fcrth, the rulers of the seven Burghs, who were attend- sigeforth. 
 ing a conference at Oxford, to be slain at a ban(|uet^ to 
 
 ' Matt, of Wcstniinstcr. ' liiiry St. Kilmunds of today. 
 
 » Florence of Worccntcr, &c E<lmun<l was the lust Saxon king of East 
 Anglia ; lie was killed liy llie mm of liegner Lodbrog in 870. Gutlirum 
 became King of Ea.st Anglia in 878. 
 
 * This is the first symptom of that spirit that eventually secured for us 
 the privileges embodied in Magna Charta. • Will, of Jlalmesbury.
 
 108 
 
 EDRIC OF MERCIA, OR THE STRUGGLE 
 
 Attempt 
 upon the 
 life of 
 Edmund 
 the 
 Ironside. 
 
 which ho had invited them. Their followers took 
 refuge in a church, which afforded them no protection, 
 as it was burnt to the ground, and all within its walla 
 perished in the flames. Edric was baulked of the fruits 
 of his stratagem and guilt by the king's son Edmund 
 the Ironside, who married Sigcferth's widow, Elgitha, a 
 lady remarkable for her rank and beauty.-^ Edmund 
 also seized upon the rights and property of the Danish 
 nobles who were slaucjhtered at Oxford. 
 
 In revenge, Edric made an attempt upon the life of the 
 Atheling Edmund, but his designs were frustrated 
 And yet, despite his manifold treacheries, he managed 
 to regain the confidence of all. This can only be 
 explained by the fact that, if he did not actually hold 
 the balance of power between the contending parties, 
 he was at least at the head of a considerable party, 
 and had much influence over the crowd that follows 
 fortune's smile. 
 
 Shortly after his attempt upon the life of the Athel- 
 ing, Edric enticed the crews of forty ships of the royal 
 fleet, which were manned by Danes,^ to follow his for- 
 tunes. He then joined Canute. The West Saxons now 
 submitted to the Danes, delivering hostages and sup- 
 plying them with horses. The Ironside tried to induce 
 the Mercians to attack Edric and Canute, but they re- 
 fused to do so unless they were joined by the King and 
 the Londoners. Thereupon he disbanded his forces. 
 But in a short time he was at the head of another 
 army, which was joined by the King. The latter soon 
 returned to London, as he had been informed that 
 some of his auxiliaries intended to betray him to the 
 enemy. 
 
 Will, of Malmesbury. 
 
 ' Flor. of Worcester.
 
 BETWEEN SAXON AND DANE FCR SUPREMACY. 109 
 
 In the year 1016 death seized upon the King. He Death of 
 had been unfortunate from his very birth. The disas- ^^iq^^"^ 
 ters that surrounded him through Hfe were predicted 
 by Dunstan at the font. At Ethelred's coronation 
 Dunstan addressed him as follows : — " Because you 
 have aspired to the kingdom by the death of your 
 brother, whom your mother murdered, the sword shall 
 never depart from your house, but shall rage against 
 you all your life, killing your offspring, until your 
 kingdom is given to another family, wdiose manners 
 and language the nation you govern do not know."^ 
 The ghost of the slaughtered Edward seemed to have 
 pursued the fickle king to the day of his death. And 
 the sword never departed from his house. Three^ of "^^ ?'*f 
 his sons were tortured to death. Two^ sons and two red's 
 grand.sons suffered the miseries of exile. One'' alone 
 ascended the throne of his ancestors, but only to be- 
 come, like his father before him, a tool in the hands of 
 favourites, lioth father and son were equally out of 
 place upon the throne, and mocked its dignity. Both 
 were succeeded by brave and energetic mouarchs," each 
 of whom died in defence of his country. 
 
 And now we come to one of the most memorable ^ compar- 
 
 vcars in Eii'dish History — that of 1016. In many isonof tuo 
 ^ « •' .... years 1016 
 
 respects it resembles the year 1060. In fact, the simi- and loee. 
 
 larity between the events connected with the Danish 
 
 and Norman Conquests is particularly striking. Before 
 
 the year 101 •!, iive^ kings had hired Danish troops. 
 
 ' Matthew of Westminster. 
 
 * &lnmn'l, tli<! Ironside ; Alfred, lii.s first-born liy Emma of Normnndy ; 
 
 and Edwy, tlie Atlieling. ' Edward the Confessor, and Alfred. 
 
 * The Ironttide's two sons, Edward and Edmuntl. 
 
 • The Confessor. * The Ironside ; and Harold, son of Godwin. 
 
 ' Edward, Alhel.->tau, Edmund, Edred, Edgar.
 
 110 EDRIC OF MERCIA, OR THE STRUGGLE 
 
 One^ endeavoured to get rid of tliem all at once. The 
 last Saxon king^ before the Danish conquest fought 
 many battles, but was slain and succeeded by his con- 
 queror.^ Five* kings favoured Normans. A Norman 
 force was almost extirpated.^ The last® Saxon king 
 before the Norman Conquest vainly endeavoured by a 
 series of battles to prevent his country's overthrow, and 
 he, too, was slain and succeeded by his conqueror.'' 
 
 The year 1016 is also distinguished by the supreme 
 efforts made by Edric to compass the destruction of 
 every member of the stock of Cerdic. 
 Edmund The hero of this period was Edmund, 
 
 Ironside. Who Ironside was called 
 
 for his valour. ' 
 
 No defeat daunted his brave heart. No treachery 
 quelled his proud spirit. No fatigue wearied his iron 
 frame. Victory or defeat alike found him prepared to 
 renew the contest. Wherever he fought in person, 
 his skill and bravery, unless thwarted by guile, were 
 always crowned with victory. Six^ pitched battles 
 were fought, Edmund won five, but was defeated in 
 the last. Upon the death of his father Ethelred, the 
 citizens of London and the few nobles that were in the 
 city at the time elected him king. The majority of 
 the nobles and bishops took the part of Canute, and 
 
 _ battle ^'^^'"^^ fealty to him at Southampton.^" 
 
 of The battle of Sherston lasted two days. On the first 
 
 day the ealdorman of Mercia joined tlie Danes at the 
 head of a large force, but as this act had not the desired 
 
 » Ethelred. ' The Ironside. ' Canute. 
 
 * Ethelred, Canute, HaroM, Ilardicaniite, and Edward. 
 
 * The force under Alfred the Atlieling. • Harold, son of Godwin, 
 
 ' William of Normandy. * Saxon Chronicle. 
 
 * Pen ; Sherston ; London ; Brentford ; in Kent ; Assandun. 
 '" Matthew of Westminster.
 
 BETWEEN SAXON AND DANE FOR SUPRE:\rACT. Ill 
 
 effect of bringing disaster upon the Saxon host, he 
 determined upon a more daring stratagem. The next 
 day the fight was continued, and Edmund surpassed 
 his former feats of valour, for, quitting his usual posi- 
 tion by the standard, he rushed impetuously upon the 
 foremost rank of the Danes, and fell upon it like light- 
 ning. Wielding a chosen sword, he hewxd a passage 
 through the very centre of the foe, and charged right 
 on to Canute's bodyguard. Then Edric frustrated the Treachery 
 effect of Edmund's daring conduct, and snatched the °^ ^^^o- 
 victory from his very grasp, for he struck off the head 
 of one Osmer, who bore a striking likeness to the king, 
 and, holding it up, shouted to the Saxons, "Flet Engle, 
 flet Engle, ded is Edmund."^ On the instant a dart 
 sped like a thunder-bolt from the hand of the Ironside 
 against the cruel traitor, but, unfortunately, he avoided 
 it, and two soldiers were transfixed by the terrible 
 missile. Edmund immediately proceeded to an emi- 
 nence, and taking off his helmet, an act afterwards 
 imitated by the Norman duke at Scnlac, showed his 
 face to his comrades. Confidence was restored, the 
 battle was resumed, and at the fall of night Canute 
 retired. 
 
 One writer^ asserts that Edmund was assisted by a The weiaii 
 body of Welshmen at the battle of Sherston, and that Edmund, 
 he wa.s rescued by them at the time that Edric pre- 
 tended he had been killed. 
 
 After this encounter Edric deserted the Danes and 
 swore fealthv to King Edmund. But at tlie battle of Battle of 
 Assandun — the Danish Hastings — he fled at the liead 
 of his forces,* The slaughter at this battle was very 
 
 * Flee English, flee English, Edmund is dead.— /Aviry of Ilunlingdon, 
 * Geoffrey Gaiinar, » ISuxon Chronicle.
 
 112 
 
 EDRIC OF MERCIA, OR THE STRUGGLE 
 
 Flight of 
 Edmund. 
 
 Edric's 
 speech. 
 
 great, as no quarter was given : alP the Saxon nobles 
 were destroyed, A small number remained firm upon 
 the battle-field after the flight of Edric and the retreat 
 of Edmund, and, glorying in the death of the brave, 
 were cut off to a man.^ 
 
 Edmund fled almost alone^ to Gloucester, where he 
 was joined by Saxon and Welsh partisans. Canute 
 pursued the fugitive. A battle was imminent ; Edmund 
 and his forces were on the Welsh^ side of the Severn, 
 Canute and his army were on the opposite banks of the 
 river ; but the people cried aloud^ for peace. Edric is 
 reported* to have averted a general battle, and to have 
 brought about a personal encounter between Canute 
 and Edmund. In an assembly of nobles he spoke 
 thus* — " 0, senseless nobles, men mighty in arms, why 
 do we expose ourselves to death in battle for our kings, 
 who, notwithstanding our slaughter, neither succeed in 
 becoming masters of the kingdom, nor put any limits 
 to their greed. My advice is, that they (Edmund and 
 Canute) should fight, yes, fight in single combat, since 
 their object is to reign singly. What is the meaning 
 of such lust for kingly power ? Is England not large 
 enough for huo kings, when formerly it was large 
 enough for eight? Therefore, let them singly make 
 peace, or singly fight for the crown." This masterly 
 oration pleased everyone.'^ Another writer^ states that 
 
 ' Saxon Chronicle. = Will, of Malmesbury. ^ pior. of Worcester. 
 
 * Matt, of Westminster. 
 » AlaWmo of Westminster. Tliis writer gives a full account of the 
 encounter upon the small island of Cine)', between Edmund and Canute, in 
 the sight of the two armies ; and so does Henry of Huntingdon. They 
 state that their spears were shattered to pieces against their fine armour ; 
 the fight was continued with swords: the people heard the dreadful clang 
 and saw the flashing of their arms, and thoy shouted approval and encourage- 
 ment, or groaned aloud in sympathy with the combats. At length Edmund
 
 BETWEEN SAXON AND DANE FOR SUPREMACY. 113 
 
 Edmund demanded a single combat, in order to put a comijat 
 
 stop to the sliedding of the people's blood, but that Snutr 
 
 Canute refused to meet him as he was so smalP and ^""^ 
 
 . Edmund. 
 
 Edmund so big, and suggested that Enjjland should be 
 divided between them. This su2rG:estion was carried 
 out. The kings met at Olney, an island in the middle^ 
 of the river Severn, and agreed upon a treaty of peace, 
 love, and brotherhood.^ Edmund was to hold the 
 crown with Wessex, East Anglia, Essex, and London ; 
 tlie rest of the country was to be held by Canute. 
 The two kings parted. Canute returned to his ships, 
 and Edmund marched to London. 
 
 Shortly afterwards Ediic surpassed all his former Assassina- 
 cruelties by the as.sassination of the brave Edmund the Edmund. 
 Ironside. The unholy deed was done either by Edric's 
 son,^ or by Edmund's personal attendants,^ who Lad 
 been bribed by the arch-traitor. The king was attacked 
 when alone, and entirely dcfcncelcs.s — a dagger or iron 
 hook was tlirust into his body.* 
 
 Canute was immediately acknowledged king of all Canute 
 England. He began at once to remove by deatli or**^®^^"^^ 
 banishment the members of the royal familj^, and in 
 this undertaking he was eagerly a.ssisted by the Mercian „ 
 caldorman. Edvvy the Atheling, brother of J'^dimnid, of the 
 was banished and afterwards murdered.'^ Edward and EtheiJed. 
 
 redoubled lii.s Mows on tlio head of liis enemy liko UiuikIct. Camito, 
 beginning to quail, suggcHteil tliat they shouM l)e brothers aii<l govern llio 
 kingdom between them, and Denmark also in like manner. 'I'hr jx'ople 
 gave their ronsent to the Kiipge.stiou "with tears of joy ; " and tlio kings 
 kissed and became friends. 
 
 ' Will, of Malmcsbury. 
 > Flor. of Worcester: the Saxnn C'hrnnirlc states the result "of their 
 cumin togeddcr" was a coufirmatioii of tlu^r friendship by pledge and 
 oath. ^ Matt, of Westminster. 
 
 • Adam of Urcmcn states that he was poisoned. » Flor. of Worcester, 
 
 II
 
 114 EDRIC OF MERCTA, OR THE STRUGGLE 
 
 Alfred, sons of Etlielred and Emma, fled into Normandy. 
 Edward and Edmund, the infant sons of the Ironside, 
 contrary to Edric's advice — for he wished thera to be 
 despatched at once — were sent to Olave, King of 
 Sweden, who was requested to put them to death : he 
 refused to do so, and sent them to the court of Stephen, 
 King of Hungary. Edwy, King of the Churls, a kind 
 of tribune of the people, the Robin Hood of his day, 
 was also driven into exile, but was afterwards recon- 
 ciled to the king. 
 Edric. Edric now aspired to the crown. His object all along 
 
 had been to crush Edmund by means of Canute, and so 
 weaken Canute that, by stirring up the popular preju- 
 dices against the Danes, he might succeed in driving 
 them out of the country. He could the more easily 
 take the lead on account of the slauMiter of the nobles 
 
 CD 
 
 at Assandun. He was now the only Saxon that ruled 
 one of the four great divisions of England. Two were 
 ruled by Danes, and the fourth by a Norwegian. And 
 now only one person stood between him and that object, 
 to attain which he had shed rivers of blood, had broken 
 every tie of humanity, had approached, as far as it was 
 possible for man to approach, the utmost bounds of 
 iniquity, and had exhibited those characteristics which 
 are universally acknowledged to be the special attributes 
 of the Prince of Darkness. 
 
 Like Count Robert of Artois,^ Edric, in the pride of 
 his heart, boasted of his services to the king ; thereupon 
 the latter determined upon his destruction. We now 
 arrive at the last scene in the eventful life of the 
 
 » Great-granrtson of the brother of Saint Louis of France : he was the 
 chief means of raising Philip VL to the throne of France. He took the 
 part of Edward IIL
 
 BETWEEN SAXON AND DANE FOR SUPREMACY. 115 
 
 ealdornian of Mercia, At the Christmas festivities" of Edric. 
 1017 the court was held in London. A numerovis and 
 brilliant assembly was gathered together, headed by the 
 " frift of the fairies." This " flower of Normandy,"'^ for- 
 getting the injuries inflicted upon her family and the 
 exile of her two sons, had bestowed herhand upon Canute 
 in the previous month of July.^ Edric was present at 
 the feast of our Lord's Nativity,^ which was celebrated 
 at the royal palace. In his company were many noble 
 Saxona The king evidently dreaded the daring and 
 unscrupulous cunning of the Saxon ealdorman, and was 
 prepared to accomplish his destruction with his own 
 weapons,' and we read" that he feared he would some 
 day fall a victim to Edric's treachery. Notwithstand- 
 ing the .jo3ful and solemn occasion, treachery, cruel and 
 unrelenting, was enthroned in the heart of Canute. 
 Whilst the wine-cup went round and laughter and 
 music resounded throughout thebanquetting hall, he was 
 meditating over the assassination of his guests. Edric 
 had received a mysterious intimation of his impending 
 fate, for when he presented himself before Canute 
 after the assassination of Edmund, he saluted him 
 tlms — "Hail ! thou who art the sole King of, England;" 
 and when he had explained the meaning of his strange 
 siUutaticm, Canute enigmatically replied — "For this 
 dce<l I will exalt you, as it merits, hirjher than all the 
 nobles of Bufjland."* It is possible that Edric did not 
 
 ' Flor. of Worccatcr. * Ilenry of Huntingdon eo terms Queen Emma. 
 
 ' William of Mnlmcsbui-y. 
 • Henry of Huntingdon : according to lljis clironickr Edric was liulieadcd 
 "then," that !«, immcdialdy after lii.s Kaliit;ition ; this whh in 1010. Hut 
 according to Flormce of Worcester, Edric was nlain in tiie king's palace 
 irliilst finnute was k<'»']iing the Feast of our lyjrd's Nativity, in London, nn 
 2'itli Decenilxr, 1017. Matthew of Westminstrr distinr-tly slates tliat 
 Edric was strangled directly after he had attacked the king for havin^r de-
 
 116 EDRIC OF MERCIA, OR THE STRUGGLE 
 
 perceive from the king's reply that he was to be exalted 
 after the manner of Haman's exaltation ; still, it is 
 quite probable that be fully understood the implied 
 threat, but that, having implicit confidence in his own 
 cunning, iniluence, and power, he attached no im- 
 portance to the enigma, and, therefore, visited his 
 sovereign in his palace without fear or suspicion of 
 foul play. But on the evening of the feast he was told 
 that he was no longer^ ealdorman of Mercia. Whereupon 
 he bearded the king to his very face, and tauntingly re- 
 minded him that to his services alone he owed his 
 exaltation to the throne, and that the death^ of King 
 Edmund was caused through his fidelity to Canute. 
 The King became red^ with rage; and, to prevent a 
 tumult,^ for, doubtless, Eclric's retainers and partisans 
 were both in and without the palace, he ordered a Nor- 
 wegian jarP to fall upon him there and then. The 
 oe^th of order was obeyed upon the instant. William of Malmes- 
 bury states that Edric was strangled in Canute's 
 presence, and that his body was thrown out of a win- 
 dow into the river Thames. Florence of Worcester 
 writes that his dead body was thrown over the city 
 walls and left unburied. Henry of Huntingdon states 
 that his head was placed upon the highest* battlement 
 of the Tower of London. For " battlement " Matthew 
 of Westminster writes "stake," and remarks that 
 Edric's head was fixed upon it— as a prey to the birds. 
 
 prived him of liis earldom; it would therefore appear that this altercation 
 and assassination took place at the Feast. 
 
 ' ]Matt. of Westminster. 
 
 ' Matt, of Westminster ; Canute left money to he spent in masses for the 
 repose of Edmund's soul : this is supposed to indicate a guilty conscience. 
 
 ' Eric, who cut off his head. 
 
 • Thus Edric was exalted " higher than all the nobles of England." 
 
 £diic
 
 BETWEEN SAXON AND DANE FOR SUPREMACY. 117 
 
 "With Edric fell Norman, nephew of Leofric the eaklor- Edric. 
 roan; Ethel ward, son of Ethelmar the ealdorman; and 
 Brihtric, son of Eiphege, ealdorman of Devon. 
 
 Thus perished this mighty plotter. We do not read 
 that he ever used the sword, except against Osmer; yet 
 his influence over kings, "Witans, and the people was 
 apparently unbounded. In the art of ascending the 
 ladder of fortune upon the passions and weaknesses of 
 his fellows, he has no rival in ancient or modern 
 history. 
 
 LEADING E^^NTS, 
 
 The Marriacre of Ethelied and Emma, and the Massacre 
 
 of the Danes 1002 a.d. 
 
 Edric becomes Ealdorman of JMercia, and marries the 
 
 King's Daughter 1007 
 
 Rweyn's second visit to England 1004 
 
 Pweyn's third visit to England 1000 
 
 Meeting of the Witan, and the construction of a 
 
 Saxon Fleet 1008 
 
 The destruction of Canterbury 1011 
 
 The martyrdom of Klphege 1012 
 
 iSweyn's fourth visit to England, and the Flight of 
 
 Ethclred 1013 
 
 The Death of Sweyn, and tlie Fli-ht of Cannte 1014 
 
 The Death of 8igef(TtIi and Morcar, and Edric's attempt 
 
 upon the life of Ednnmd the Ironside 1015 
 
 The Death of Etlielrod, and the Accession of Edmiind ; 
 his stniggle.s against Edric and Canute; his Assassi- 
 
 natifiii, and the Accession of Canute 1010 
 
 The Marriage of Canute and Emma, and the Assassina- 
 tion of Edric 1017
 
 (118) 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 Canute, 
 1016 to 
 1035. 
 
 Eemoval 
 of Saxon 
 royal 
 lamily. 
 
 CANUTE, THE KING. 
 
 We have read that Canute crushed at one blow the 
 machinations of the powerful and terrible Edric, ealdor- 
 man of Mercia ; and that, not content with the destruc- 
 tion of the leader, he slew with him his chief supporters. 
 The hopes of the Saxons perished at the banquet of 
 blood with which Canute terminated the feast of our 
 Lord's Nativity in the year 1017, for with Edric, 
 Norman, Ethelward, and Brihtric, fell the only Saxon 
 confederation that Canute dreaded. The long wars 
 between the Danes and the Saxons had cleared the land 
 of the old nobility, so that when Canute became king, 
 the Saxon Witan had not a single independent member. 
 This representative assembly of the Saxon people 
 decreed anything and everything that was likely to 
 conciliate the Danish conqueror. Canute was deter- 
 mined to remove every rival out of his way. And 
 everyone^ who was related to the Saxon royal family 
 he banished. And we have read that he sent the sons 
 of his brave rival Edmund to Norway, but that Olave, 
 king of that country, refused to comply with his request 
 to put them to death. With their removal, and by the 
 death of Edwy the Atheling, and the exile of Alfred 
 and Edward, there was not a single member of the 
 Saxon royal family in the land to conspire against his 
 
 • Matt, of Westminster.
 
 CANUTE, THE KING. 119 
 
 authority. The king was most anxious^ to secure the 
 crown of England for his sons by his first wife/ Elgiva 
 of Mercia. 
 
 Upon the death of Elgiva, Canute married Emma of Emma. 
 Normandy. He was wishful that she should become 
 his wife for two' reasons : first, to reconcile the Saxons 
 to his rule by the sight of one seated by his side to 
 whom they had been accustomed to pay obedience : 
 secondly, to acquire the favour of her brother, Richard 
 II., Duke of Normandy, and thus check his inclination 
 to take the part of his nephews, Alfred and Edward. 
 William of Malmesbury is in doubt who deserves 
 greater blame — the uncle who neglected the cause of 
 his nephews, or the woman who had consented to 
 marry the man who had injured her first husband 
 and driven her children into exile. 
 
 Canute's precautions did not rest with slaughter, 
 banishment, and marriai^e. He determined to send back 
 to Denmark all his ships except forty; and to reduce Dismissal 
 his Danish army to 3,000 men. One authority^ states jo^cS^'^ 
 that this was done at the advice of Queen Emma, and 
 that " all the paid troops " were sent back to Denmark. 
 But they did not go back to their native shores emi)ty 
 handed. Some had sold the lands which had Ixcu 
 Vjestowed upon them ; and to pay his^ Danish army the 
 provinces wore obliged to contribute 72,000'' or 73,000," 
 and London 10,r)0()'^ or 11,000" pounds of silver. 
 
 The 3,000 troops that remained in England were 
 particularly well disciplined. It would apixjar that 
 
 ' Mfttt. of Westminster. 
 ' Dr. Tiinp.iril, nnd Mr. Orfcn, in direct contrrwlirtion to Mtitt. of West- 
 minster, state she was not liis qneen. ' Will, of Maliiifsliury. 
 ♦ Flor. of Worcester. * Saxon ChrcmicU. * lleury of Huntingdon.
 
 120 CANUTE, THE KING. 
 
 the king was anxious to secure their attachment : with 
 this object in view he placed himself under the same 
 rules which they were obliged to observe, for, killing a 
 soldier in a passion, he pretended to place himself at 
 the mercy of his huscarls and to submit to their judg- 
 ment. As they were silent, he condemned himself to 
 pay 360 talents of gold, nine times the amount of the 
 usual fine, and nine additional talents. Such conduct 
 as this was highly calculated to win not merely the 
 ready obedience, but also the sincere affections of his 
 trusted followers. 
 xneWitan Canute summoned all the bishops, ealdormen, and 
 chief men to meet him in London.^ When they met, 
 he asked them whether Edmund intended that his 
 brothers or his sons were to succeed him. At once they 
 replied that Edmund never intended that his brothers 
 should succeed him: and they also stated that it was 
 his wish that Canute should be the guardian and 
 protector of his sons until they were of age.-^ This 
 was done to gain the king's favour : instead of that, 
 some of these false witnesses were put to death by his 
 orders. 
 
 After this enquiry he used every effort to win the 
 Saxon nobility to his cause. He was successful : the 
 members of the Witan elected him king, and swore 
 they would obey him ; and, at the same time, they 
 repudiated the claims of Edmund's brothers and sons, 
 and denied their rights to the throne. Canute also 
 made an agreement with all the nobles and people ; and 
 they made, upon oath, a solemn concord between them, 
 and in this way they ended and put into oblivion all 
 their past animosities.^ 
 
 ' Florence of Worcester.
 
 CANUTE, THE KING. 121 
 
 Canute was successful in a threefold character — as a 
 soldier, a legislator/ and a regulator of church affairs. 
 
 As a soldier he was eminently successful in securing Canute as 
 
 3. soldisr 
 the confidence of his own troops, and in winning over 
 
 to his cause the leaders of the armies to which he was 
 
 opposed. It was his determination that, undaunted hy 
 
 reverses and repeated encounters, ultimately led to his 
 
 sovereignty over England, Denmark, Norway, and part 
 
 of Sweden, and to his lordship over Scotland. 
 
 We shall now refer to his warlike expeditions. In 
 1019- he sailed from England with his forty ships, to 
 Denmark, and spent the winter there. In 1024* he 
 fought against the Swedes, who were led by Ulf and 
 Eglaf. 
 
 One of his companions in this enterprise was Godwin, ^?,^^°'^ 
 son of " Child " Wulfnoth. On the first* day of battle over the 
 the Swedes were victorious. Under the year 1025 1025. 
 the Saxon Chronicle states that Ulf and Eglaf came 
 against Canute in Denmark, with a land army and a 
 fleet ; and that, in the engagement that followed, very 
 many Danes and English were killed, and that the 
 Swedes remained upon the battle-field. No doubt this 
 passage has reference to the first day's fight mentioned 
 by Matthew of Westmin.ster. On the evening of the 
 next day Godwin addres.sed his fellow-countrymen, and 
 exhorted'* them not to forget their ancient fame, but to 
 display their courage before their new lord ; an<l ho 
 
 • Matt, of WcstminBtcr Htates that Queen Emma advised Canute to 
 reconcile the Euglish to him by gifts, and by the promiiie of f/ood and 
 welcome laws. 
 
 ' Saxon Chronicle ; Matt, of Westminster. 
 
 * Matt, of Wtstminst'T ; Henry of Huntingdon gives 1020 as the data 
 of this expedition ; Will, of M.ilmesbury states that it took place the year 
 before the death of Clave of Norway, that is, in 1020. 
 
 * Matt, of Westuiinutcr. • Will, of Malmcsbury.
 
 122 CANUTE, THE KINO. 
 
 assured them that it was by an accident on the part of 
 fortune that they had been conquered by Canute, but 
 if tliey defeated those who had overcome him, then such 
 a victory would be ascribed to their courage. That night, 
 when both camps were sunk in sleep, Godwin made a 
 night attack^ upon the Swedes. He took them by 
 surprise, defeated and killed a great number of them ; 
 uif and and obliged Ulf and Eglaf to surrender and come to 
 ^^^^' terms of peace. When morning broke, Canute dis- 
 covered that the tents of the Saxons were empty : he 
 concluded that Godwin and his men, becoming panic- 
 struck, had betaken themselves to flight, or that they 
 had gone over to the enemy. But when he arrived 
 at the camp of the Swedes, he perceived the results 
 of Godwin's night attack. As a reward for his victory, 
 Canute made Godwin an earl ; and evermore he held 
 the Saxons in the highest honour.^ 
 oiave of Having overcome the Swedes, and secured Denmark 
 Norway. ^^^^^ further invasions, Canute directed his attention to 
 Norway. It will be remembered that its king, Olave, 
 refused to comply with Canute's request to do away 
 with the Ironside's sons. Perhaps this refusal was 
 never forgiven by Canute. Be this as it may, he deter- 
 mined upon the conquest of his kingdom; and, in 1028, 
 he landed in Norway, and having expelled Olave, he 
 took possession of the whole land.* Before he set sail 
 for Norway, with his usual caution and knowledge of 
 the treachery that existed amongst most nations, he 
 sent as bribes* large sums of gold and silver to Olave's 
 
 1 Matt, of Westminster ; Henry of Huntingdon. 
 
 » Matt, of Westminster; Henry of Huntingdon. Ulf married Canute't 
 Bister ; and Godwin married Ulfs sister Gytha. 
 
 ' iiax(m Ckronide. * Florence of Worcester.
 
 CANUTE, THE KING. 123 
 
 chief men. Tliey accepted the bribes, and sent mes- 
 sengers to Cannte stating that they were prepared to 
 receive him. In 1030, Olave tried to regain his king- oiaveof 
 dom, but his own people rose up against him and killed 
 him. 
 
 Olave was the Apostle of Norway, for as king, 
 teacher, and preacher, he tried to spread a knowledge 
 of the gospel amongst his people. He also made good 
 laws. His efforts excited the superstitious prejudices^ 
 of his subjects. Olave was the companion of Sweyn, 
 Canute's father, in his first invasion of England, 994.^ 
 Upon that occasion he received part of the 1G,000 
 pounds of silver which had been raised by Ethelred to 
 induce the invaders to leave the country. He was in- 
 troduced by Elphege,^ the martyred Archbishop of 
 Canterbury, to Ethelred, who presented royal gifts to 
 him. They made a covenant with one another, and 
 Olave promi-scd never again to visit England in hostile 
 array. He kept his promise in a righteous manner. 
 No doubt he became a Christian through the inHuenco 
 and administration of the good Elphegc. The conduct of 
 Olave is a bright contrast to that of his contemporaries. 
 
 Canute's revengeful spirit, greed, and bribes accorded 
 with the feelings of the Norwegians. Upon the dcatli 
 of their .sainted king, tlu^y acknowledged as his suc- 
 cessor Canute's eldest son, Sweyn. 
 
 Canute brought his concjuests to a close by fho 
 defeat of Malcolm of Scotland, and l)y the acknowledg- 
 ment of his supremacy over that country. Ho does 
 not appear to have u)adc war upon tlio Wclsb, or 
 to have interfered with the aflairs of Wales. 
 
 ' Matt, of Westminster. ' Srixon Chroniclt. 
 
 * At that time hu was Eisbop of Wiucbe»tor.
 
 124 CANUTE, THE KING. 
 
 Canute As a legislator, Canute showed that he possessed 
 
 legislator. ^ comprehensive spirit and a humane disposition. The 
 Danes and the Saxons met at Oxford in 1018, and 
 airreed to live under Kincr Edorar's laws,^ or those of 
 Edward the Elder.^ Another meeting was held at 
 Winchester : this gathering resulted in the compilation 
 of a code of laws founded upon those of previous 
 sovereigns. They enacted, (i.) that mercy should be 
 shown the poor, and the penitent ill-doer; but that the 
 impenitent criminal, and the rich should be treated 
 witli sternness . (ii.) they prohibited the sale of natives 
 upon the continent, lest they should be prevailed upon 
 to forsake their faith : (iii.) witchcraft was forbidden, 
 as well as the worship of natural objects : (iv.) pur- 
 veyance^ was abolished : it was enacted that neither 
 widows nor spinsters should be forced to marry against 
 their will. Canute also equalized the rate, and lowered 
 the amount, of money which the representatives of 
 tenants were obliged to pay to their lords upon the 
 death of the former. 
 Canute as As a patron of the Church, Canute was most liberal 
 man. and also just. He built churches at all places where he 
 
 had fouglit battles,^ and placed ministers in them, who 
 were to perform divine service for the salvation of those 
 who had been killed in their vicinity. 
 
 To the monastery of Glastonbury, which contained 
 the body of his heroic antagonist, Edmund the Ii-onside, 
 he was particularly noble and liberal. It would appear 
 that he paid a pilgrimage to that shrine in the year 
 1020.^ He prayed over the tomb of King Edmund lor 
 
 * Saxon Chronicle. ' Matt, of Westmin.ster. 
 
 ' Purveyance enabled a king or his representatives to journey through 
 the land at the expense of the subject.
 
 CANUTE, THE KING. 125 
 
 the salvation of his soul :^ and he presented it with a 
 cloak of various colours. And this he did in order to 
 remove the supposition that he had consented to the 
 death^ of the man with whom he had made a treaty at 
 the time when they met in single combat. He also 
 granted the abbots of this monastery the immunities 
 of their predecessors with the words — " I, Canute, king 
 of England, by the counsel and decree of Archbishop 
 Ethelnoth, and of all the priests of God, and by the advice 
 of our nobility, do, for the love of heaven, and the 
 pardon of ony sins,^ and the remissioii'- of the irans- 
 (jressions^ of my brother, King Edmund, grant to the 
 Church at Glastonbury its rights and customs through- 
 out my kingdom."' 
 
 He was also, at the entreaty of his wife, very liberal 
 to the monastery at Winchester: so much so, that 
 strangers were astonished^ at the sight of the quantity 
 of gold and silver with which it was adorned. 
 
 In 1031,* Canute journeyed from Denmark to Rome 
 
 with great poni]).'^ As going to and returning from the 
 
 imperial city, he was most kind to the poor; and ho 
 
 also purchased, at great cost, the abolition" of the tolls 
 
 which were extorted from i)ilgriras at dilFerent parts of 
 
 their journey. No king from the west of Europe had 
 
 visited Home witii so magnificent a display'^ as Canute. 
 
 His offerings, alms, and banquets were countless.'' 
 
 In a letter in which ho describes the results of hispamite's 
 
 letter, 
 journey to Rome, lie styles himself King of all England, 
 
 Denmark, Norway, and part of Sweden : and states that 
 
 ' Hence it has been inferred that lie had arranged with E<lric to bring 
 •bout Eflniund'a death. ' Matthew of WcHlminster. 
 
 * Will, of MalmcHbury. * S^tXfin Chronicle. 
 
 • Henry of Iluulingdon. ' Flor. of Worcester.
 
 12G CANUTE, TEE KING. 
 
 Canute's liis journey was made for tlie forgiveness of his sins, 
 letter. j^^^j j-^^ ^j^g welfare of his dominions and subjects ;^ that 
 he was received with honour, and presented with gifts 
 by the Pope John, and the Emperor Conrad ; that he 
 had arranged with the various princes he met there to 
 obtain for his people, merchants and pilgrims, better 
 justice and greater security whilst they journeyed to 
 and from Rome. He also stated in his letter that he 
 had expressed his high dis})leasure that the archbishops 
 in his domains were forced to pay immense sums of 
 money when they went to the apostolic see to receive 
 the pallium, and that it was decreed that such extor- 
 tions should cease. 
 
 He remarks : — " Be it known, therefore, to all of you, 
 that I have humbly vowed to the Almighty God hence- 
 forth to amend my life in all respects, and to rule the 
 kino-doms and the people subject to me with justice and 
 clemency, giving equitable judgments in all matters. 
 If, through the intemperance of youth or negligence, 
 I have hitherto exceeded the bounds of justice in any 
 of my acts, I intend, by God's aid, to make an entire 
 change for the better. I, therefore, adjure and com- 
 mand my counsellors, to whom I have entrusted the 
 affairs of my kingdom, that henceforth they neither 
 commit themselves, nor suffer to prevail, any sort of 
 injustice throughout my dominions, either from fear of 
 me, or from favour to any powerful person. 1 also 
 command all sheriffs and magistrates throughout my 
 whole kingdom, as they tender my regard and their 
 own safety, that they use no unjust violence to any man, 
 rich or poor, but that all, high and low, rich and poor, 
 shall enjoy alike impartial law ; from which they are 
 
 • Flor. of Worcester.
 
 CANUTE, THE KING. 127 
 
 never to deviate, either on account of royal favour, Canute's 
 respect of persons in the great, or for the sake of heap- 
 ing up money wrongfully."^ 
 
 The letter further remarks: — "May God, of his merci- 
 ful kindness, uphold my sovereignty and honour, and 
 ever scatter and bring to naught the power of all my 
 enemies." ^ 
 
 He then states : — " I have sent this letter before me 
 that my subjects may be gladdened at my success, be- 
 cause, as you know, I have never spared, nor will I 
 spare myself, any exertions for the needful service of 
 my whole people."^ 
 
 Canute endeared himself to the Church, as we have Canute as 
 read, by the erection of churches, and the restoration ^^^'^^" 
 and adornment of monasteries, and also by his uiuiiiti- 
 cence whilst on his pilgrimage to Rome. But one of 
 his acts deserves special mention, and that was the 
 part he took in connexion with the removal of the 
 body of St. Elphcge from St. Paul's, London, to Canter- 
 bury:^ this was done in the year 102;i.* Canute took 
 up the body of St. Elphege with his own hands'" IVom 
 its first resting phxce ; and, afterwards, in company with 
 Emma, "the Lady,"* and their son liardicanute, and 
 Archbi.shop ICthehioth, earl.s, bi.shops, and crowds of lay 
 and clergymen, he saw the body borne with " songs of 
 praise" into Canterbury. His participation in this 
 ceremonial gave token of tlie lively interest ho took in 
 Church afl'air.s, and was also evidence of the penitence 
 
 Flor. of Worcester. * Will, of MalnicHlmry. 
 
 * Saxon ChronicU, Elphcge was mnnlcrcd in lOl'i ; ninl this account 
 of the rf;nioval of his body gocH to jirovc that thi: fvciil.H recorded iu 
 this chronicle were written nl)Out the time of their occurrence ; were it 
 not BO, it would not have stated that hiu body y/tMjiril buhud iu Loudou, 
 1012.
 
 128 CANUTE, THE KINO. 
 
 of tlie representative of those Danes who had so cruelly 
 treated the martyr of Canterbury. 
 
 Canute was fond of display at home and abioad. 
 This characteristic was shown in connection with the 
 removal of the body of St. Elphege, and his pilgrimage 
 to Rome. It has also been stated^ that the marriage 
 of his daughter Gunhilda to Henry III., Em])eror of 
 Germany, was celebrated with such extraordinary pomp 
 that minstrels and actors were unable to describe it at 
 banquets and in taverns with sufficient force.''^ 
 Canute at When at the summit of his power he placed his seat 
 side. hy the sea side,^ and addressed the approaching tide 
 
 thus : — " You, also, are subject to my authority, as the 
 land upon which I am seated is mine ; and no one has 
 withstood my command with impunity. I, therefore, 
 order you not to flow over my land, nor to presume to 
 wet my royal robes." But on came the waves and 
 dashed against the feet and legs of the king: then he 
 leaped backwards, and explained — " Let all men know 
 how empty and worthless is the power of kings, for 
 there is none worthy of the name, but He, whom heaven 
 and earth and sea obey by everlasting laws.'^ For the 
 last few months of his life the king declined to wear 
 the crown, but placed it, in token of his humility, on an 
 image of the Savioui*.^ 
 Canute's No king of England exercised so wide-spread an 
 influence over European affairs as Canute : on the 
 
 ' Henry of Huntingdon. 
 
 * Matt, of Westminster and Will, of Malmesbury state that she was 
 married during the reign of her brother, Hardicanute. 
 
 ' Henry of Hunting<lon : this writer states that when he was a boy he 
 heard some very old people give an account of the massacres on St. Brice's 
 Day in 1002 ; and he places Canute's encounter with the sea in 1035, con- 
 sequently he was now approaching his own days, and must have conversed 
 with persons familiar with this interesting incident. 
 
 Influence.
 
 CANUTE, THE KING. 129 
 
 continent he ruled Denmark, Norway, and Sweden, 
 and enjoyed the confidence and support of the Pope 
 and the Emperor; in Great Britain he ruled the whole 
 of England in an absolute manner, for while he lived 
 Siward, Leofric, and Godwin, dared not disturb the 
 public peace, or act over their respective Earldoms in an 
 independent manner; moreover, Scotland acknowledged 
 his lordship, and Wales was quiet upon his Borders. 
 
 The character of Canute is an interesting study. „ 
 It has three distinct features, that of an insatiable character, 
 tyrant and crafty and jealous monarch, that of the 
 humane and considerate man, and that of the religious 
 reformer. As a tyrant, no ties of kith or kin, no regard 
 for human life, no religious obstacle, was allowed to 
 stand between him and the object upon which he had 
 set his heart. As a crafty and jealous monarch, he 
 removed every member of the stock of Ccrdic, and 
 afterwards banished or murdered his puppet lieutenants, 
 Edric of Mercia, Eric of Northumbria, and Thurkill of 
 Ea.st Anglia; caused thd exile and death of Olavc of 
 Norway, and of his own nephew, " the doughty jarl "' 
 Haco, who had married his niece Gunhilda, for he 
 feared he would take away his life or his kingdoms.'-^ 
 As a humane and considerate man he framed laws that 
 favoured the poor, the penitent, and the widow ; he 
 made road.s^ an<l considered the hardships of unknown 
 pilgrims. As a religious reformer he built churelus, 
 restored and endowed monasteries, considered tlie souls 
 of those whose bodies he had slain, made provision lur 
 the needs of all classes of his subjects at Kome,* freed 
 
 * Ikixon Chronicle. ' Flor. of Worcester. 
 
 ' Matthew of Wt'stniiiiHtcr. 
 ♦ Hi! granlod for all lime the aliuti called " Roniscot."— Henry of 
 IluutiugdoD. 
 
 I
 
 130 CANUTE, THE KING. 
 
 Canute's liis bishops from papal extortions, and promised 
 character. ^^ amend^ himself. Whatever Canute did, he did it 
 with all his might : his character might be epitomised 
 and rightly expressed by one word — thorough. 
 
 When we take into consideration his temptations, his 
 difficulties, his conquests, and his various words and 
 deeds, we may express sympathy with the sentiment^ 
 that he was — " Canute the Magnificent,"* 
 
 LEADING EVENTS. 
 
 Meeting of tlieWitan in London 1017 a.d. 
 
 Meeting of the Witanat Oxford 1018 
 
 Godwin's wtory over the Swedes 1025 
 
 Canute's POgrimage to Glastonbury 1026 
 
 Canute takes possession of Norway 1028 
 
 Canute's Journey to Rome 1031 
 
 Canute's encoimter with the sea, and Death 1 035 
 
 * Flor. of Worcester. ^ Saxon Chronicle. 
 
 ^ Matthew of Westminster.
 
 (131) 
 
 
 
 ailing, 
 Edric ( 
 Brice'i 
 
 2. 
 
 
 
 wa 
 
 
 
 
 II 
 
 
 
 i-irt 
 
 
 
 
 cs-a a _ 
 
 
 M.JH 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 1"° 
 
 
 
 
 — 5 
 
 2|c; . 
 
 
 g£ 
 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 -« -^-J 
 
 
 MS. 
 
 
 
 
 O 
 
 |s el 
 
 d 
 
 II 
 
 03 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 c^ OT 
 
 cj 
 
 ■^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 &.5 
 
 w 
 II 
 
 
 
 <1> 
 
 r3 
 
 — -a 
 a 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^■s 
 
 2 
 
 •4J 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 • 
 
 
 
 
 II 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 
 II 
 
 C3 
 3 
 
 "a 
 a 
 O 
 
 
 P 
 
 d 
 
 CO 
 
 g 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 a 
 O 
 
 ^2 
 
 eS 
 
 
 
 <1 
 
 
 
 OS 
 
 
 a 
 
 ■Sit 
 
 
 O 
 
 .2 
 
 
 
 ^-^ 
 
 ^i 
 
 
 u a 
 
 -i 
 
 
 iS 
 
 
 
 <-" o 
 
 m 
 
 ^ ;rwo 
 
 «*• 
 
 
 
 
 
 P5 
 II 
 
 Cm 
 
 
 i 
 
 O 
 
 r3 
 
 
 
 5 
 — n 
 
 p-a 
 
 P.a 
 
 
 s 
 
 w 
 
 12 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 4) «) 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 « 
 
 cc 
 
 c — 
 
 
 
 Ji 
 
 ., 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 < 
 
 
 
 t: 
 
 
 c3 5^ 
 
 
 W 
 
 
 
 
 Si 
 
 50 
 
 0) a "^ 
 
 
 
 
 • 
 
 
 w 
 
 u 
 
 —^w 
 
 
 
 
 — 4) _ 
 
 — 
 
 II 
 
 _ . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 (» 
 
 
 ^ a a 
 
 d;o«3 
 25^ 
 
 
 a 
 s- 
 
 5 
 
 u. 
 
 w 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ii 
 
 
 d 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 i-WW 
 
 
 l-H • i 
 
 
 
 
 
 1. 
 
 ^ ^-,. , 
 
 
 ^ &§ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 >% <— 11 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 O II II 
 
 
 
 1* 
 
 09 

 
 ( 132 ) 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 
 HAROLD, THE HAREFOOT. 
 
 Harold, As lonor as Canute lived his extensive territories enjoyed 
 son of ^ ... ... 
 
 Canute, freedom from foreign invasion and civil strife. It 
 
 1040. would appear that from his royal seat at Winchester 
 
 his eagle eye quelled every foe, and that his iron hand 
 
 was felt from Cornwall to the Orkneys, from the 
 
 islands of the west to Denmark, and from the frozen 
 
 regions of Norway to the sun-lit plains of Italy. But 
 
 the breath had no sooner left his body than his mighty 
 
 empire became as disunited as a bundle of faggots 
 
 deprived of its encircling band. 
 
 Canute had bestowed the kingdon of Denmark^ upon 
 his son Hardicauutc during his life-time ; and that of 
 Norway^ upon his son Sweyn. They were their father's 
 representatives. 
 
 For the throne of England the following were now 
 eligible: Edward, son of Edmund the Ironside; Alfred, 
 and Edward, the sons of Ethelred the Unready ; 
 Harold, and Hardi Canute, the sons of Canute. A 
 strong party were in favour of Godwin, son of "Child" 
 Wulfiioth,^ but the wary and loyal earl* rejected their 
 
 » Flor. of Worcester. == Matt, of Westminster. 
 
 * Vita iEduardi Regis qui apud Westmonastericum requiescit : according 
 to this Biography certaiu uobles tried to persuade Godwin to seize the 
 crown whilst Canute was absent from England. 
 
 ♦ The Danish liiugs appeared to have changed the term " ealdorman " to 
 that of "earl:" thus, in the first year of Canute's reigu, Edric is termed 
 "the ealdorman ;" but in 103G we read of Godwin "the ea.v\."—^axon 
 Chronicle.
 
 HAROLD, THE HAEEFOOT. 133 
 
 flattering siig-gestion. The popular candidates were 
 Harold and Hardicanute, as, in consequence of their 
 long absence from England, Alfred and the two 
 Edwards were looked upon as strangers and aliens. 
 
 A Witan was held at Oxford. The Danes and the 
 citizens of London,^ headed by Leofric, earl of Mercia, Leofric. 
 took the part of Harold ; the Saxons, headed by Godwin, Godwin, 
 earl of Wessex, desired to elect Hardicanute,^ or one of 
 the sons of Ethelred. After much discussion it was 
 decreed that Harold should ruleas "chief of all England,"^ 
 and that Emma should dwell at Winchester and hold 
 all Wessex in the name of her son Hardicanute : God- 
 win was the commander* of her army. 
 
 This division of England was made in the year 1035. 
 In the following year* Alfred, the eldest son of Emma of Aift-ed, 
 Normandy, made an attempt to gain the throne of his Etneired. 
 ancestors. With the help of a small fleet^ he conducted 
 many Norman knights^ into England. It was given 
 out that he wished to consult his mother'' at Winchester, 
 and also the king'' in London : perhaps he expected that 
 Emma would espouse his cause, as his half-brother con- 
 tinued to stay in Denmark, and that Harold would 
 permit him to rule Wessex in the place of Hardicanute. 
 Whatever his expectations were they were not realized. 
 
 By Godwin and the Saxons Alfred was looked upon 
 as a perfect stranger. During a sojourn of twenty years 
 
 ' Will, of Malmosliury. • Saxon Chronicle. * Henry of ITuiiliiiplon. 
 
 * SfiTjm t'kroniclf, Flor. of Worcester, kc ; Will, of ]\I:iliiie.sl)ury .stales 
 that Alfred entered England after the death of Harold. Henry of Hunt- 
 ingdon afTimis that lie landed upon our nliorcs aftiT t)io death of Hardi- 
 canute. Matthew of WeHtrninstcr aflinns that Alfred came to England in 
 10.'56, with 2.'» pi'tked HhipH full of armed iin^n, and that IiIm inti'iilion was to 
 take possession of his father's kingdom, whicti was his right, iu a peaceable 
 manner if possible, but by force of arms if necessary. 
 
 » Flor. of Worcester.
 
 134 HAROLD, THE HAREFOOT. 
 
 in Normandy he had forgotten the Saxon, and had 
 adopted the Norman language and customs. By the 
 Danes he was contemned, as a member of that royal 
 family that had been overcome by their rulers. It is 
 not surprising, therefore, that his arrival was viewed 
 with distrust and suspicion by all parties in England ; 
 more especially as the force that accompanied him was 
 too numerous to afford him the excuse that he had come 
 upon a friendly errand. This force was calculated to 
 inspire alarm, and its appearance caused both Saxon 
 and Dane to conclude that the Atheling was determined 
 to acquire by nnighf what was his by right? 
 Murder of Alfred was seized. Godwin was accused^ of betray- 
 lose! ' ^^^S ^^^^ Atheling. The same accusation was brought 
 against Living, Bishop of Crediton.' One writer* states 
 that Godwin determined upon the destruction of Alfred, 
 because he wished to marry his daughter to his brother 
 Edward, as he thought that Alfred would scorn such a 
 union, and that he prevailed upon the Saxons to ffiU 
 upon the Normans, by whispering in their ears that 
 Alfred had brought too many foreign followers, that he 
 had promised them the lands of the Saxons, that it 
 was not safe to allow so bold and crafty a race to take 
 root among them, and that these foreigners should be 
 punished so as to prevent others at some future time 
 intruding among the Saxons, on the ground that they 
 were related to the royal race of England. 
 
 Guildford^ was the scene of Alfred's capture. The 
 Saxon Atheling was received by Godwin with the kiss 
 of Judas,^ who provided him and his followers with a 
 
 ' Matt, of Westminster. * As the eldest son of Ethelred the Unready. 
 * WilL of Malmesbury. * Henry of Huntingdon.
 
 HAROLD, THE HAREFOOT. 135 
 
 banquet. That night they were seized and decimated^ 
 twice^ over, and the survivors with Alfred were sent to Murder of 
 Harold, who^ caused the former to be killed and the ^Jg®^' 
 latter to be blinded. The Saxon Chronicle comments 
 upon this massacre and mutilation as follows : — 
 
 "But Godwin him'' in bonds set ; 
 and his companions he dispersed 
 and some divers-ways slew ; 
 some they for money sold, 
 some cruelly slaughtered, 
 some did they bind, 
 some did they blind, 
 some did they scalp. 
 It was decreed 
 that he should be led 
 To Elybury. 
 
 Soon as he came to land 
 in the ship he was blinded ; 
 and him thus blind 
 they brought to the monks: 
 and he there abode 
 the while that he lived."* 
 
 In the following year, 1037, as Hardicauutc continued 
 to live in Denmark, Harold was chosen king of all 
 England*^ He hastened to Winchester and seized upon 
 the treasures which had been left to his step-motlier by 
 his fatlior. Emma was banished,'* and took refuge with 
 Baldwin of Flanders. 
 
 With the death of Alfred, the disappearance of the 
 qucon-mother, and the absence of her sons Edward and peath of 
 Hardicanute, Harold looked forward to quietness and f^^°^^' 
 ease ; but he died in three years' time.^ 
 
 ' Nine out of every ten were killed. 
 * Matthew of WcHtminster. * Alfred. 
 
 ♦ No mention \h made by this chronicler of the date of Alfred's death ; 
 but Florence of Wnrcfftfr Htatcs that ho died shortly aflcr he was placed 
 in the custody of the monks of Ely. 
 
 • Saxon Chronicle.
 
 loG HAROLD, THE HAREFOOT. 
 
 This king was very fond of hunting on foot : he was 
 renowned for his speed, hence his name — Harold, " The 
 Harefoot" 
 
 LEADING EVENTS. 
 
 The Witan elect Hardicanute King of Wessex, and 
 
 Harold King of the rest of the country 1035 a.d. 
 
 The Invasion of England by the Atheling Alfred : his 
 
 capture and mutilation 1036 
 
 Harold chosen King of all England 1037 
 
 The Death of Harold 1040
 
 (137) 
 
 CHAPTER XV. 
 
 HARDICANUTE, KING OF ENGLAND. 
 
 Before the death of his half-brother Harold, Hardi- Hardi- 
 Canute had, at the earnest advice of his mother, deter- 1040 to' 
 mined to make an attempt to seize the crown of Eng- ^®*2. 
 land. With this object in view he engaged the services 
 of a considerable body of men, whom ho conveyed from 
 his kingdom of Denmark in sixty ships.^ Instead of 
 directinrr his course to England, he made sail for 
 Flanders in order to consult his mother, who resided at 
 Bru^es.^ Whilst he was there Harold died ; and both 
 Saxons and Danes' sent messengers to invite him to 
 come to England and ascend the throne. He did so, 
 and was received with universal^ satisfaction. 
 
 The joy of the nation at the accession of Hardicanuto 
 soon ceased. He showed his new subjects that he had 
 a bad heart, for as soon as he was crowned and estab- 
 lished in his kingdom, he sent Elfric, Archbishop of Arch- 
 York, Godwin, and others, to dig up the body of his eimc. 
 predecessor, to cut off the head, and to throw both body 
 and head into the river Thames.'^ A fisherman dragged 
 up the Ijody in his net,* and the Danes buried it in 
 their cemetery at London. 
 
 This savage and senseless act* was done in childish 
 revenge for his exclusion from tlir iliroin; of Kngland, 
 
 ' Saxon Chronicle; Flor. of Worcester gives 50 as the number of ships. 
 » Matt, of Westminster. * Flor. of Worcester. * Will, of Mulmusbury. 
 • Charles II. ajipears to have studied this portion of history, as shown 
 by his treatment of Cromwell's dead body.
 
 138 
 
 HARDICANUTE, KING OF ENGLAND. 
 
 Accusa- 
 tion of 
 Godwin. 
 
 Godwin's 
 gift to 
 Hardi- 
 canute. 
 
 his mother's banishment from its shores, and his half- 
 brother's cruel treatment and death. 
 
 Shortly after his arrival, Elfric accused Godwin, and 
 Living, Bishop of Worcester,^ of the murder of the 
 Athcling Alfred. Living was deprived of his bishopric, 
 which was bestowed upon Elfric, a suspicious exchange, 
 who only held it one year, as at the end of that time 
 Living was reinstated. Godwin was very indignant at 
 the charge brouo-ht against him. He made an oath, 
 and all the chief men and thanes of the country stated 
 that he told the truth, to the effect that it was not at 
 his advice or with his consent that the king's brother's 
 eyes had been put out, but that Harold had given 
 orders for what had been done.^ 
 
 In order to remove the impression of the foul accusa- 
 tion brought against him, and to gain the king's favour, 
 Godwin made him a rich and beautiful present — a ship 
 of admirable workmanship, with a figure-head of gold,* 
 rigged with the best materials, and manned with eighty 
 chosen soldiers magnificently armed : on each arm they 
 had two* gold bracelets weighing 16oz. a-piece : they 
 wore a triple coat of mail, and a helmet partly gilt f 
 a sword with gilded hilt was girt by their sides; a 
 Danish battle-axe, inlaid with gold and silver, hung 
 from their left shoulders; in their left hands they held 
 a shield with boss and studs of gilt, and in their right 
 hands a lance. 
 
 In the year 1041, Hardicanute imposed a heavy tax 
 upon his subjects in order to pay eight marks* to each 
 
 • William of Malmesbury terms him Bishop of Crediton. 
 
 '^ Flor. of Worcester ; Matt, of Westminster, &c. 
 
 => Will, of Malmesbury. 
 
 * A mark, a Danish coin, varied in value from 8s. 4d. to 13s. 4d.
 
 HARDICANUTE, KIXG OF ENGLAND. 139 
 
 oarsman and ten marks to each pilot of his fleet. His 
 father, Canute, had reduced his fleet to sixteen^ vessels : 
 Harold maintained the same number. The total amount 
 of money he compelled his subjects to raise for the 
 support of his Danish army and fleet was upwards of 
 32,000^ pounds of silver. This tax caused those who 
 had longed for him before it was levied to hate him^ 
 after its imposition. The king sent the huscarls, his 
 body guard, to collect the money. Two of them, 
 Fleader and Thurstan,^ went to Worcester. Their 
 presence caused a tumult. The citizens rose up against Revolt of 
 them. The tax collectors fled for safety to an upper i04i. 
 chamber of the abbey tower ; there they were found, 
 and there they were killed. 
 
 Hardicanute determined to avenge the death of his 
 servants. So he sent Godwin of Wessex, Leofric of 
 Mercia, Siward of Northumbria, with their forces, to- 
 gether with those of other Saxon nobles, and almost all 
 his huscarls, to Worcester, with orders to kill all its 
 people, to burn down the city, and to lay waste the 
 province. For four days this large force burnt and 
 destroyed. The number captured and slain was small, 
 a.s the people heard of their approach and fled in all 
 directions. 
 
 A considerable number of the citizens determined to 
 stand up for their lives. They took refuge in a small 
 island called Bevcregc, which was situat(,Ml in tlio 
 middle of tlio river Severn. Tln^y fortified it, and 
 fought so well against their enemies that they olitaincd 
 
 ' Henry of HuntinRdon ; Will, of Malmcsbnry »tatcs that llii« tax was 
 levied in order to pay twenty marks to each soldier wbo bad followed 
 Hardicanute from Denmark. 
 
 • Saxan Chronicle. * rior. of Worcebter,
 
 140 HARDICANUTE, KING OF ENGLAND. 
 
 terms of peace, and wore allowed to return to their 
 homes.^ This is one of the very few instances recorded 
 in history of citizens repelling the attacks of a large 
 and disciplined force, and of overcoming a confedera- 
 tion of king, nobles, and army. 
 
 Hardicanute did " nothing royal "^ during his reign, 
 except that his mother was well treated by him, and 
 that he also received his half-brother Edward with 
 honour, and entertained him at his court. The Atheling 
 arrived in England from Normandy in the year 1041. 
 His presence in England familiarised him with its 
 people, and helped him to the throne. 
 
 In addition to his kindness to the members of his 
 own family, the King appeared to have studied the 
 tastes of the eating and drinking nobles of his day, 
 for we are informed that he excelled as an entertainer 
 of guests ; four times" a day the royal tables were set 
 with generous hospitality for the refreshment and en- 
 tertainment of his whole court. After the Norman 
 Conquest princes only provided one meal a day for 
 guests.' 
 
 With his companions he was "familiar,' and the 
 manner of his death in the flower' of his age gives 
 evidence of this familiarity, and of the habits of 
 his Danish followers, for at the feast given in honour 
 of the marriage of Gytha, daughter of Osgod Clappa, 
 a man of great power,* Hardicanute caroused, full of 
 health and spirits,^ with the bride and others. And 
 "as he stood at his drink,"^ he suddenly fell to the 
 earth in an awful spasm, and "lost his life amidst 
 his cups."' 
 
 • Flor. of Worcester. * Saxon Chronicle. * Henry of Huntingdon. 
 
 * Matt, of Westminster. * William of Malmesbury.
 
 HARDICANUTE, KING OF ENGLAND. 141 
 
 Thus ended the Danish rule in England, 1042: it be- 
 gan with blood ; it ended with drink ! 
 
 LEADING EVENTS. 
 
 The Acces.sion of Ilardicanute ; the Mutilation of 
 
 Harold's hody ; and the Accusation against Godwin 1040 a.d. 
 
 The King's tax, and the Defeat of his forces at Wor- 
 cester 10^1 
 
 The Death of Ilardicanute 1042
 
 (142) 
 
 C5 
 
 t— I 
 
 ft 
 Q 
 
 ;^ 
 o 
 
 O 
 
 CQ 
 CQ 
 
 I 
 
 O 
 
 o 
 
 w 
 
 pR 
 O 
 
 o 
 
 Q 
 
 a 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 ■s 
 
 o 
 m 
 
 5 
 
 
 (U 
 
 +3 
 
 
 Ti 
 
 to '3 
 
 a> 
 
 •— < '-' 
 
 ,>-< 
 
 <u 
 
 
 to 
 
 00 
 
 
 CO 
 
 oo 
 
 
 oo 
 
 i 
 
 
 o 
 
 CO 
 
 
 o 
 
 oo 
 
 
 S- 
 
 
 d 
 
 -4^ 
 
 ClI 
 
 3 
 
 
 l_ 
 
 «" 
 
 ^- 
 
 
 w 
 
 fco 
 
 "o 
 
 O 
 
 w 
 
 § 
 
 oo 
 
 CO 
 
 - <p 
 
 CO 
 
 CO 
 
 CO 
 
 o 
 
 CO 
 
 oo 
 
 P4 
 
 o 
 
 CO 
 
 a 
 
 C5 
 
 H S 
 
 W 
 
 
 o 
 
 13 
 
 
 
 CD 
 
 Ol 
 
 c3 
 n3 
 
 
 CO 
 
 o 
 
 I-H 
 05 
 
 ,_^ 
 
 >. 
 
 r-( 
 
 T3 
 
 X 
 
 S" 
 
 C3 
 
 
 t) 
 
 oo 
 
 03 
 
 s 
 
 -4-3 
 
 1^ 
 
 CO 
 
 05 
 
 a 
 
 -s- 
 
 05 
 
 C5 
 
 OO 
 
 oa 
 
 rt 
 -SijC- 
 
 CO 
 
 in 
 
 Lr 
 
 P4 
 
 13 
 
 ST 
 
 II 
 « 
 o 
 
 OT 
 
 to 
 
 o§ 
 
 Q 
 
 
 Oi 
 
 ^ 
 
 l~« 
 
 
 a> 
 
 CO 
 
 1 
 
 l-< 
 
 1 
 
 O 
 
 i.T 
 
 I-H 
 
 1^ 
 
 
 Ci 
 
 a> 
 
 ^— ' 
 
 3 
 
 h 
 
 *co 
 
 
 s-g 
 
 C3 
 
 1^ 
 
 •^1 
 
 ■» 
 
 —5 -a 
 
 rfl 
 
 -U 
 
 -. c5 
 
 •^3 
 
 "Hi 
 
 ^ 
 
 ci 
 
 3 
 
 fe 
 
 a 
 
 — a> 
 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 W 
 
 W
 
 (143) 
 
 CHAPTER XVI 
 
 EDWARD THE CONFESSOR, OR, ENGLAND UNDER THE 
 RULE OF GODWIN, 1042—1053. 
 
 Upon the death of Hardicanute, the heir, hy descent, ^^^^^ 
 to the Eiiirlish throne, was Edward, son of Edmund the the 
 Ironside, but the heir by conquest was Sweyn, King of 1042 to 
 Norway,^ son of Canute. ^^^^' 
 
 But the Saxons, at the advice of Godwin/ with one 
 voice,' clergy and people/ acknowledged Edward, son 
 of Ethelred the Unready and Emma, as king. 
 
 The Normans ignored the influence of Godwin in 
 bringing about the restoration of the stock of Cerdic to 
 the throne of England. In their opinion Edward as- 
 cended the throne of his father through the influence 
 of the Norman duke. Robert of Poitiers, the Con- 
 queror's chaplain, states that Eilward made William of 
 Normandy his heir out of gratitude for the kind treat- 
 ment he ha<l received in Normandy, and for his resto- 
 ration, and that he handed over to him the son, Wulf- 
 noth, and the grandson, Haco,^ of Godwin, as pledges 
 of his heirship : as William was only fifteen years of 
 age at that time, he could not have had any voice in 
 Edward's restoration. 
 
 According to our first historian,' Edward, upon the 
 death of IJardicanute, sent messengers to Godwin to Godwin, 
 rcquf'st an interview with him. When thoy met, the 
 Atheling would liave fallen at tlie feet of the powerful 
 
 ' Ho was flriven out of Nonvay by MagnuH, Rt. Olave'H soil 
 
 * Florence of Worcester: Vita ^vliinnli. * f<axon Chronicle. 
 
 * MatlliuW of Westiiiiiister. • Hnco was not bora at this time. 
 
 • William of Malmesbury.
 
 144 EDWARD THE CONFESSOR, OR, 
 
 earl, but he raised him up ; and, reminding him that he 
 was the son of Ethelred and the grandson of Edgar, 
 stated that the kingdom was his right ; that his age, 
 and his acquaintance with difficulties and poverty 
 would enable him to rule well ; if, therefore, he would 
 rely upon him, every obstacle would disappear : all he 
 had to do was to become his friend, to honour his sons, 
 Godwin and to marry his daughter. Edward readily agreed to 
 Edward. Godwin's proposals. A meeting was held at Gilling- 
 ham : Godwin addressed the assembled nobles in the 
 Saxon tongue : his powerful speech, his ready wit, his 
 authority, and his presents, caused all present to receive 
 the Atheling as King, and to pay him homage. 
 
 Henry III., Emperor of Germany, and Henry I., 
 King of France, rejoiced with Edward upon his becom- 
 ing King of England ; and, at his coronation, friendly 
 messages were delivered to him by their ambassadors. 
 
 The following year Edward was consecrated King at 
 Winchester^ by the Archbishops of Canterbury and 
 York. In this year he married Edgitha, Godwin's 
 daughter, in accordance with an agreement that he had 
 made with the powerful Saxon.^ In the same year he 
 went to Winchester in company^ with Godwin, Leofric 
 Emma. and Siward, and deprived his mother of her treasures, 
 because she had not been so kind to him as she should 
 have been.* Godwin, Leofric, and Siward were the 
 real rulers of the land. 
 
 ' The Biographer of Edward states that he was consecrated at Canterbury. 
 
 ' Henry of Huntingdon. ' Saxon Chronicle. 
 
 * Upon the death of Canute, Edward came to England with 40 ships 
 and a body of soldiers, in order to try to secure the crown for himself. 
 He landed in Hampshire. No doubt, he expected his mother would assist 
 him : but, instead of meeting with allies, he was opposed by a great nuniber 
 of the baxons ; thereupon, he returned to Normandy.
 
 ENGLAND UNDER THE RULE OF GODWIN. 145 
 
 Siward^ was a great warrior. He was a giant^ of a siward. 
 man, and very brave. When he heard that his son had 
 been killed by the Scots, he was most anxious to know 
 whetlier his death-wound pierced the front or the back 
 part of his body : when he was told, " the front," he 
 replied— " I am very glad, no other death suited him 
 or me."^ He afterwards invaded Scotland and defeated 
 ^lacljcth, who had killed Si ward's son-in-law, Duncan, 
 King of Scotland, and usurped the throne." When, in 
 1055, Siward felt he was dying, he was very sorry that 
 he had not been killed in one of his many battles, and 
 so have escaped the disgrace of dying like a sick 
 €ow."^ He ordered his men to dress^ him in his well- 
 tried armour, to gird his sword by his side, to place his 
 lielmct upon his head, his shield in his left hand, and 
 his battle-axe inlaid with gold in his right hand, so 
 that he might die "in a soldier's garb": when he was 
 fully dressed he gave up the ghost.' 
 
 Siward and Lcofric always opposed Codwiii. They Leofric. 
 were leaders of the Danish subjects of the king, while 
 Godwin was the head of the Saxon portion of the 
 people of England. At the commencement of Edward's 
 reign these Earls and their followers cordially united 
 in obedience to the king. Afterwards, his safety lay 
 in their jealousies of one another, for, liad they joined 
 together, they could have removed him at will. 
 
 1 By the Danes Siwnrrl wn» called " t/ir hrnrf maH."— Vita /I'Mnnnli ; 
 Bhakespcnrc nlliiilcH to liim in liis play callcfl Mncbcth. 
 
 ' Henry of HuntinK'ilon : tliis writer states tliat Siwanl niled Scotland, 
 wlicrcas he jilaced Malr-olm upon its throne. 
 
 * These jiartiriilars of Siward are given in onler to show the rharartei 
 of one of the leading men of that time : in those days the tfreat earln were 
 the heads and hearts of the country ; their deeds and their words wore the 
 deeds and words of their nnmcrous adherents and dependents, from the 
 liowerful noble to the huiublo fH.rf.
 
 146 EDWARD THE CONFESSOR, OR 
 
 Famine, The Saxon chroniclers tell us that a very great 
 
 Severe famine took place in 1044; and that the severity of 
 
 wuiter,&c. the winter of 104G, with its frost, snow, tempest, 
 
 mortality of mankind, murrain of cattle, and death of 
 
 birds and fish, were beyond the recollection of man. 
 
 They also mention the occurrence of an earthquake, and 
 
 the appearance of a comet. But, in the main, they 
 
 simply record the doings and sayings of the king, of 
 
 bisho[)s, earls, thanes, and abbots. Concerning the 
 
 welfare and every-day life of the people, they are 
 
 wordless. 
 
 LeoMc. Leofric^ built monasteries:^ he was, therefore, in 
 
 favour with the church, and he is known as " the man 
 
 of virtuous memory."^ With the help of his son Algar 
 
 he opposed the Godwin family upon every favourable 
 
 sraof ' opportunity. In the year 104C, Sweyn, the firstborn 
 
 *^wi6°' °^ Godwin, sailed to Denmark, because he was not 
 
 allowed to marry the abbess of Leominster. His 
 
 property was divided between his brother Harold and 
 
 his cousin Beorn. 
 
 Upon Sweyn's return to England, the king was 
 willing to restore his former possessions to him, but 
 Harold and Beorn declined to give them up. There- 
 upon Sweyn enticed Beorn on board his vessel and 
 killed him. The Witan pronounced him to be a 
 " nithing,"* that is, a vagabond upon the face of the 
 earth, and an exile from England. He was reconciled 
 to the king by Aldrcd,'* Bishop of Worcester ; or by 
 his father.** 
 
 J Matt, of Westminster gives an account of the ride through Coventry 
 of his wife, Godiva, in order to obtain a cliartcr lor its people. 
 
 =* William of Malmeshury. •'' Matt, of Westminster. 
 
 * Saxon Chronicle. ' Flor. of Worcester. • Henry of liuntingdon.
 
 ENGLAND UNDER THE EULE OF GODWIN. 147 
 
 On two occasions King Edward assembled a fleet at saxon 
 Sandwich, in the years 1045^ and 1049.'' In 1045 the Jom! ^°*^' 
 fleet was assembled against Magnus,^ King of Norway, 
 who had threatened to invade England, which he de- 
 clared was his through an agreement with Sweyn, 
 Canute's son. Sweyn, Ulf's son,* who was at this time 
 King of Denmark, declared war against Magnus, and 
 obliged him to give up his expedition against England, 
 In 1049 the Saxon King was once more with his fleet 
 at Sandwich. He had been requested by Henry III, 
 Emperor of Germany, who had attacked Baldwin of 
 Flanders by land, to cut off" his escape by sea. In 
 return for this service Baldwin became the sworn 
 friend of the Godwin family, and the uncompromising 
 enemy of Edward 
 
 Not long afterwards the king and Godwin became 
 bad friends. Various reasons have been given for their 
 quarrel. He and his sons were banished, because they ^gf^'^^g ^f 
 ruined the monasteries, encouraged false judgment, and Dover, 
 laughed at the easiness of the king ;^ because Godwin, 
 Sweyn, and Harold were conspiring against Edward ; " 
 because Godwin refused to punish the citizens of Dover 
 who had defended themselves against the assaults'^ of 
 Eustace II. of Boulogne, who had married the king's Eustace. 
 Bister ; because Edward feared' Godwin ; because** the 
 Welsh accused them of coming to betray the King; 
 because* Godwin desired Eustace to be given up to him. 
 
 ' Flor. of Worcester. ' fyixon Chrnnicic 
 
 • Mognu.H wiw the hall- brother of Iliirold llanlrttila, on tlie mother's side. 
 
 * See 1)0^0 131. * WilL of Malrae»bury. • Henry of Jliiiitiiigilou. 
 ' Wacc's Iloinnn do Uoii. ' .'^ixon, Chnmidi: ; Will, of Maliiieshiiry. 
 
 • Matt, of WeHtmin.Mter. From Florence of WorecsttT w« gatiicr tliat 
 EuHtace paid a viftit to Edward At Dover hin .soldiers, while enqiiirini? for 
 lodgingH, killed a town-tman : in revenue, a neiKhbonr killed a Holdier. In 
 their rage the count and his followers put many men and women to the
 
 148 
 
 EDWARD THE CONFESSOR, OR, 
 
 Kobert, 
 Arch- 
 bishop of 
 Canter- 
 bury. 
 
 The most likely cause of the quarrel was Robert, 
 once abbot of Juinicges, who had accompanied Edward 
 to England. Robert was appointed Bishop of London, 
 and afterwards Archbishop of Canterbury, in preference 
 to a relative of Godwin, one of the monks of Christ 
 Church. Godwin was angered at the rejection of his 
 relative, and attacked Robert before the king's council. 
 Whereupon Robert accused him of taking possession of 
 church lands, and also persuaded Edward that Godwin 
 meant to take the king's life by stratagem, as he had 
 before taken that of his brother, and that he wanted 
 his son Harold to be kinjj.^ The kinfj believed these 
 reports. He called a meeting of nobles at Gloucester, 
 where Godwin was accused of murdering his brother, 
 Godwin, having been informed of these proceedings, 
 sent ambassadors to the king, and implored his peace, 
 and souQ-ht the aid of the law to declare him innocent 
 of so great a crime. But Edward had made up his 
 mind not to listen to any word of explanation or 
 excuse. 
 
 Siward,^ Leofric,^ Algar,^ and Ralph^ and their forces 
 were with the kinrj at Gloucester. It was decided to 
 enquire into the accusation against Godwin in London.^ ^ 
 
 sword, and trampled babes and children under their horses' hoofs. As soon 
 as they saw the townsmen flocking together they fled to King Edward, who 
 was at Gloucester. Godwin was enraged when he heard the news, and 
 raised an iiiiiiiense army Irom his own earldom and the earldoms of his sous, 
 Sweyn and Harold, and demamlud the surrender of Eustace and his men. 
 
 The King, in great alarm, sent in haste for Leofric and Siward and their 
 forces. Upon their arrival, at the suggestion of Leofric, the King and God- 
 win were advised to settle their quarrel in a legal way at London. When 
 the day of settlement came Go<lwin's army had dwindled away ; thereupon 
 the King and Witan banished him and his sons ; so Godwin and part of liis 
 family went to Flanders : Harold and Gurth sailed from Bristol for Ireland 
 in a ship provided for S.veyn. Queen Edgitha was divorced by the King, 
 and sent with one maid to Wherwell Abbey. 
 
 ' Vita ^duardi. ' Flor. of Worcester.
 
 ENGLAND UNDER TIIK RULE OE GODWIN. 149 
 
 Stigand, afterwards Archbishop of Canterbury, tried to stigand. 
 reconcile the king and Godwin, but failed to do so. 
 Meanwhile Archbishop Robert continued to influence 
 the kinor a^rainst the Earl of Wessex. The sentence of 
 the court was — that Godwin should obtain peace after 
 he had returned the Athelincr Alfred and his followers, 
 alive, to the king, together with the property of the 
 living; and the dead.^ 
 
 When Stigand delivered this message to Godwin, he 
 shed a few tears ; then, dashing aside the table which ^^ ^^ 
 was at his side, he rushed out of the room, mounted Godwin, 
 his horse, and rode off in haste to the sea-shore at 
 Bo.sham,'^ where his ships awaited him. It was well 
 
 ■ According to William of Malmesbury, Eustace had a secret audience 
 with the Kinp, and made the most of his own story, and excited liis anger 
 against tiie English, (jodwin was summoned to the i)alaee ; upon his arrival 
 Eustace's story was repeated to him ; whereupon the King ordered him to 
 proceed at once with an army into Kent, and to take signal vengeance upon 
 the people of Dover (William calls it Canterliury). Godwin refused to do so 
 for three rea.sons— {1 ) because he saw with displeasure the hold all foreigner-s 
 were getting upon the King ; (2) because he was wi.shlul to show his regard 
 for his fellow-countrymen; (."i) because it vxis not jusUo pass nenlmce on 
 those people unheard, as tliey had a particular right to i)rot(?ction. lie there- 
 fore advised the King to summon in a gentle manner the i)rincipal townsmen 
 of Dover into his presence : if they could give a satisfactory account of the 
 tumult, they were to be allowed to return home unhurt ; but if they could 
 not, they sliouhl give satisfaction to the King and to thefhuntby line or 
 iKxlily punishment. He then left the King's ]ires<Mife, thinking that the 
 King's anger was only temporary. Then lollowed the Council of Gloucester, 
 where the Welsh so inflamed the passions of the King and his court tliat an 
 immediate battle between the forces of the King and those of Godwin was 
 imminent Friendly advice jirevailed, and the Council was ]>osti)one<l to 
 I/)ndon. It was then announced that Sweyn was not to accompany Godwin 
 and Harold to it, and that the latter were to attend it (1) unarmed ; (2) 
 with twelve men only ; (:{) to deliver up to the King the command of their 
 troops. To this demand (Joilwin observed (1) tliat they could not go to a 
 party meeting without sureties and pledges ; (2) that they were willing to 
 give tip their Holdiern and everything else to their King, except rinkiifj tlieir 
 liveji anil rrpulalimi ; if they went unarmed, their lives might be in danger ; 
 if with few followers, their glory would be diininished. Tlie King woidd 
 not listen to intercessions on hehalf of the bold Karl, and so an edict wa8 
 published that he and liis family should leave England in five days. 
 * Vita .JiduardL
 
 150 
 
 EDWARD THE CONFESSOR, OR, 
 
 Feeling of 
 the 
 
 country 
 upon 
 Godwin's 
 banish- 
 ment. 
 
 that he did so, for that night he was followed by armed 
 men, who tried, but in vain, to overtake the earl, in 
 order to put him to death. 
 
 Godwin, his wife, Gytha, and their sons, Sweyn, 
 Tosti, Wulfnoth, and Gurth, sailed to Flanders, where 
 they met with a hearty reception from Count Baldwin. 
 Harold, and Leofwine sailed to Ireland, and received 
 protection, hospitality, and help from Dermot,^ King'* 
 of Leinster. 
 
 Their banishment took the country by storm. The 
 Saxon Chronicle^ contrary to its wont, expresses its 
 astonishment in a lengthy passage, and explains : " It 
 would have seemed wonderful to every man that was 
 in England, if any man before that had said that it 
 would so happen : for he (Godwin) had been before 
 exalted to that degree, as if he ruled the king and all 
 England ; and his sons were earls and the king's 
 darlings, and his daughter was wedded and married to 
 the king." 
 
 The Biographer* of the Confessor and of the Godwin 
 family thus describes the opinion of the Saxon public 
 concerning the earl's exile : " His absence they con- 
 sidered the destruction of the English race, the ruin of 
 the whole country. So that he considered himself 
 happy who had it in his power to go into exile after 
 him. Some went to him, some sent messengers to say 
 they were ready, if he wished to return, to receive 
 him, even with violence, into his native country, to 
 fight for him ; and for him, if it were necessary, they 
 
 • Vita iEduardi. 2 Ailfred. 
 
 > MS. " D " : this MS. is the only one that gives an account of the battle 
 of Hastings. The seven Saxon Chronicles are called by the letters — A, B, 
 C, \), E, F, G. 
 
 * Vita .lEduardi Regisqui apud Westmonasterium requiescit
 
 ENGLAND UNDER THE RULE OF GODWIN, 151 
 
 were willing even to die. And this was brought about, 
 not secretly or privately, but openly and in public, and 
 not by some particular party, but by almost every 
 native of the country." Can it therefore be surprising 
 tl)at each individual member of this illustrious family, 
 the queen excepted, risked their all on behalf of a 
 people who loved them and theirs so intensely ? 
 
 The king^ of France and Count Baldwin sent ambas- 
 sadors to Edward, beseeching him to recall Godwin. 
 But even these, with all their endeavours, failed. 
 
 Godwin, mindful of his old valour, and of the deeds 
 of his youth, seeing himself thus wrongly treated, and 
 that, too, by the machinations of the wicked,^ deter- 
 mined to recover his former greatness by force of arms. 
 
 This determination was quickly made known to Harold, 
 
 ,..,,..,, Harold, 
 
 who, nrst landing in the west, utterly put to rout tho son of 
 
 forces that opposed him, leaving thirty thanes dcatl 
 upon the field of battle. He then set sail for the Isle of 
 W ight. There the united forces of lather and brothers 
 made an imposing appearance. Their joy at their safe 
 reunion was unbounded. They spoke of their past 
 dangers and their future hopes. They set out at once Return 
 for London. Ah they slowly advanced they were Godwia 
 joined by ships from the south, east, and even the west jow"^' 
 of England. The chronicler asserts that the people ran 
 as children to meet a fatln^r louff desired. 'I he sea 
 was covered with ships: th(;ir arms sparklr.l in the 
 bright sunshine of a summer's day. TIk; monk king 
 was forced by the iS(;rmans to embark in tin; licet sent 
 to oppose Godwin. But aft(.T a mock trial, the out- 
 lawed family, Swcyn excepted, was restored to all its 
 former possessions and influence. 
 
 • Vita iEduardi Regisqui apud Westmonasterium roquioscit
 
 152 EDWARD THE CONFESSOR, OR, 
 
 Upon the return of Godwin, the Normans, bishops 
 and nobles, fled away for their very lives. The queen 
 was removed from the cloister to the court : and the 
 voice of the Saxon earl, outspoken and free, was heard 
 once more in the council chamber that had oft-times 
 echoed with his wit and eloquence, but which of late 
 had resounded with the wily tones of the plotting 
 Norman prelate, Robert of Canterbury. Thus Godwin 
 and Harold rid the country from foreign influence for 
 the second^ time. 
 Death of Q'he end of the mighty earl was at hand. At Easter- 
 1053. ' tide of 1053,^ on the second day of the feast, he sat 
 with his sons Harold and Tosti at the king's table 
 in the royal town of Winchester,^ when at once he sank 
 down speechless by his footstool. He was carried into 
 the king's chamber,^ as they thought his illness would 
 soon pass away. But he continued speechless and 
 powerless* for three* days, and then he " resigned his 
 life."* 
 
 Such is the simple and touching account given by 
 the Saxon writers of the death of Godwin. But the 
 Norman^ writers would have us believe that his death 
 was the visitation of God on the murder of the Atheling 
 Alfred. The king's cupbearer made a false step, but 
 recovered himself with his other foot. Godwin saw 
 the occurrence, and observed — "One brother brought 
 
 ' Thierry gives them the credit of freeing England from the Danes upon 
 the death of Harold, the Harefoot. * Saxon Chronicle. 
 
 * The king held his court in Gloucester at Christmastide ; at Winchester 
 at Eastertide ; and iu London at Whitsuntide. 
 
 * Saxon Chronicle. Flor. of Worcester says /re days : and he states that 
 Gurth was also at the feast. 
 
 ' Matt, of Westminster ; he places his death in 1054, and so does Henry 
 of Huntingdon, he.
 
 ENGLAND UNDEE THE KULE OF GODWIN. 1 53 
 
 assistance to the other." " Yes," retorted the king, Life of 
 " my brother might have assisted me lately, had it not ^°<^^"^ 
 been for the treachery^ of Godwin." The earl protested 
 his innocence, and hoped he would be choked with the 
 piece of bread he held in his hand if he were guilty : 
 the bread stuck in his throat, so that he died on 
 the spot ! 
 
 The events and stirring incidents connected with 
 Godwin's life for about half a century were of insular 
 and continental repute. With a glance of the mind's 
 eye his whole career is laid bare before us. We behold 
 him as a youth, stalwart and strong, with mellow laugh 
 and joyous song, tending his father's cattle''^ in the county 
 of Worcester. Next he comes before us as the guide 
 of the jarl Ulf,^ as they sought Canute's ship after the 
 battle of Sherston. We then hear him address' his 
 followers before the night attack upon the Swedes; 
 and then we see him charge and overcome* the foe. 
 The herdsman and the warrior disappear and give place 
 to the statesman, wlio is admitted to the secret and 
 
 ' Goflwin could not have been Riiilty of Alfred's death ; (T.) as no Saxon 
 writer accuses him of it ; (II.) Nonnnii writers contradict one anotlier coii- 
 ceniinx (a) the place, Giilinfjhani (William of Maliiicslniry), or Gnildlonl 
 (Matthew of Westminster), where his followers were murdered ; {li) tlio 
 plncc where Alfred's eyes were torn out, Kly (Flenry of Huntingdon), or 
 Gillinjfham (William of .Malmesbury) ; (c) the ff.aie of Alfre.l's exi)edition, 
 durin>{ the reign of Harold tlics Harefoot (Matthew of Westminster), or 
 after hin death (William of Malmeshiiry), or alter the <leatli of flardicanuto 
 (Henry of Hunting>lon) ; (r/) the circumstances that atteiidcil the massacre 
 and mutilation. Most proba'dy the whole story was invented by the 
 ConfiuiTor, in order to excite popular prejudice against his heroic rival 
 Harold. 
 
 We have to bear in mind that the Saxon writers were in Knglaml, and 
 that they wrote at the tinic of Godwin's death, — that the Norman writers 
 were not in Hiigland, that they gave an account of his death i/rars alter 
 its occurrence, and they hated Godwin ami his family with a bitter hatred. 
 
 * Knythinga Saga. * William of Malmesbury. 
 
 * Ilenry of Huntingdon.
 
 154- EDWARD THE CONFESSOR, OR 
 
 Life of most confidential councils of his king.^ The statesman 
 Godwin, (decides the fate of kings— Harold, the Harefoot, and 
 Hardicanute acknowledge his supremacy: whilst the 
 half-brother of the latter kneels at the feet of the son 
 of the "king's servant;"^ and afterwards listens in 
 amazement to his ready wit and eloquent voice as he 
 prevails upon the listening throng to proclaim the 
 suppliant king of England.^ Time rolls on, and in the 
 next scene we see the herdsman's daughter wedded to 
 the last stem of the stock of Cerdic, and listen to the 
 shouts that welcome the union of a damsel, whose great 
 grandfather's name is unknown, with the representative 
 not merely of the kings, but of the very gods* of the 
 Saxons. Again the scene shifts, and the lion-hearted 
 earl starts up in majestic magnificence between his 
 king and wanton and unjustifiable massacre.'^ Yet a 
 little while and he is informed that the man who 
 " preferred death rather than commit any disgraceful 
 act," has been pronounced a vagabond and an outlaw.'' 
 
 That night the old man was flying for his very life ; 
 woe betide him should his horse stumble or fall, for the 
 churchman's'' armed troops are in his rear, riding fast 
 and furious to take his life.^ Then he grasps the hand 
 of a friend.^ Next he witnesses a nation's gratitude, 
 and hears the loud shouts of welcome, as the huge 
 
 ' Vita ^duardi. ^ Matt, of Westminster. ' Will, of Malmesbury. 
 
 • Woden and Frea— Matt, of Westminster : this writer states that Alfred 
 the Great was the 21st in descent from Woden, and remarks that after death 
 Woden was translated to the gods ! 
 
 » The king was very wrath with the townsmen of Dover, and bade Godwin 
 the earl go in hostile manner against Dover : the earl would not consent 
 to the inroad, as he was loath to injure hi8 own people.— jSaxon Chronicle. 
 
 • Godwin was allowed a safe conduct for five nights to go out of the land. 
 —Saxon Chronicle. ' Robert, Archbishop of Canterbury. 
 
 • Count Baldwin of Flanders.
 
 ENGLAND UNDER THE RULE OF GODWIN. 155 
 
 multitude surges around him, like children, welcoming Life of 
 a well-beloved father. Once more his eloquent tongue^ Godwin, 
 goes home to the hearts of his listeners. He recovers 
 his children's and his own honours; and he has the 
 gratification of seeing the Normans driven with 
 ignominy^ from the land, and of hearing his old enemy 
 pronounced a public disturber, and also a poisoner of 
 the royal mind. 
 
 Though his son and his daughter sat upon the throne 
 of England, Godwin declined^ the tempting seat ; yefc 
 he was enthroned in the hearts of the people ; and 
 while they, with constant tears,^ remembered him as 
 the father and supporter of the realm, we may cast 
 aside the epithets of " dog "•* and " traitor,"* and incline 
 to think of him as a man of — " glorious fame."* 
 
 LEADING EVENTS. 
 
 The Accession of Edward the Confessor 1042 a.d. 
 
 A great Famine 1044 
 
 Magnus of Norway threatens England 1045 
 
 A severe Winter, and the Banisliment of Sweyn 1046 
 
 Naval preparations against lialdwin of Flanders 1049 
 
 The liaiiisliiiKiit of (Jodwiii and his Family 10.")I 
 
 Their triiin.pliant Return 10.'')2 
 
 The Death of Earl Godwin 1053 
 
 The Death of Siward of Northumbria 1055 
 
 • WHlJnm of Malmcsbury. • Vitn yEiluardi. 
 
 * Watt, of Westmiuater. ♦ ilcnry of lluulingdon.
 
 (156) 
 
 nywel 
 Ddrwg. 
 
 Cystenyn 
 Ddu, 981. 
 
 Idwal 
 
 Vyclaan, 
 
 981. 
 
 Tlereditla. 
 
 CHAPTER XVII. 
 
 THE AFFAIRS OF WALES, FROM THE REIGN OF HYWEL 
 DDRWG TO THAT OF GRIFFITH AP LLEWELYN. 
 
 We have read that in the year 974, lago, son of Idwal 
 Voel, was expelled from his kingdom by his nephew 
 Hywel Ddrwg. lago is supposed to have fled to the 
 court of Edgar/ who is said^ to have reconciled him to 
 Hywel, and to have prevailed upon the two Princes to 
 divide the sovereignty of Gwynedd between them. But 
 in the year 980 lago was captured^ by Hywel : after- 
 wards, Hywel ruled as sole king of GAvynedd, for in 
 981 he not only defeated, but also slew with his own 
 hand his cousin, lago's son, Cystenyn Ddu — Constantine 
 the Black, who, with the help of the Danes, had ravaged 
 Anglesey and part of Carnarvonshire. With his own 
 hand, in the same year, he is supposed to have killed' his 
 uncle, Idwal Vychan — Idwal the Little. 
 
 In 9SG Hywel was killed by the Saxons. Some time 
 after his death, Meredith, grandson of Hywel Dda, be- 
 came the Pendragon. He laid claim to the princedom of 
 Powys through his mother ; to that of Gwynedd by the 
 murder of his cousins, brothers to Hywel Ddrwg ; and 
 to that of Deheubarth, because of the youth of his 
 nephews, the sons of his brother Einion.* 
 
 ' Powell, &c. 
 
 * According to the Annates CarrOmm, lago was Winded by Hywel 
 
 * The desperate character of the Wel.sh Princes is strikingly evidenced 
 by the fact that out of 60 who lived between the years 877 and 1077, 45 
 died a violent death. 
 
 * Einion was torn to pieces by the men of Gwent, 983»
 
 THE AFFAIRS OF WALES. 157 
 
 In 989 Wales was ravaged by the Danes, who were 
 eventually bought oft'. This year was distinguished by 
 mortality amongst cattle, and also by a famine, con- 
 sequently the suftorings of the people were of a very 
 severe character. In the same year the Pendragon's 
 father, Owain ap Hywel Dda, and leuaf ap Idwal died, o^^ta. 
 They liad not taken an active part in public atiairs for 
 some time. For three years Wales enjoyed comparative 
 rest ; at the end of that period of time Edwyn ap Edwyn. 
 Einion tried to wrest the sovereignty of Deheubarth, 
 to which he was the rightful heir, from his uncle. He 
 was helped by the Saxons, with whom he plundered 
 part of the country. No engagement took place 
 between the hostile parties, and Meredith succeeded 
 in reconciling his nephew. 
 
 In 995 Meredith was defeated at the battle of Llan- idwai. 
 gwm by Idwal, the grandson of Idwal Voel ; Tu<lor ap Tudor. 
 ?:inion was killed at this battle. After this victory 
 Idwal was acknowledged as sovereign of Gwynedd, 
 over which district his ancestors hud ruled. Two 
 years afterwards Idwal was killed by Sweyn ; and 
 Meredith followed him to the grave in the year lOOO- 
 Meredith's daughter, Angharad, married Llewelyn ap Llewelyn 
 Seisyllt. This Llewelyn was, on his mother's side, the ^^ ® "^ 
 fourth in <!. .ciiit from Rhodri Mawr. He b(>camo 
 Pendragon, and ruled Wales well and peaceably for 
 some time. 
 
 Llewelyn overcame a Scot,' who, prctinding to be hi.'^ 
 wife's brother, had been acknowledged by tlie South 
 Walians a.s their prince. Llewelyn was kilird in 1023 
 by the sons of Edwyn up Einion, his wife's cousin ; 
 thereupon lago, great-grandson of Idwal Voel, became lagfo. 
 
 ' Brut
 
 158 THE AFFAIRS OF WALES. 
 
 King of Gwynedd. Griffith, the son of Llewelyn and 
 Angharad, revenged the defeat of Meredith, his mother's 
 father, by killing lago ap Idwal in 1039; and the 
 murderers of his father soon felt the power of his arm. 
 Griffith ap Griffith ap Llewelyn was among Welshmen what 
 i039tofo63 Harold, son of Godwin, was among Saxons. His ex- 
 ploits, heroism, and patriotism are particularised in the 
 next chapter. 
 
 LEADING EVENTS. 
 
 The Capture of lago ap Idwal Voel 980 a.d. 
 
 The Death of Cysteiiyn Dclu and Idwal Vychan 981 
 
 The Death of Hywel Ddi-wg 986 
 
 The Death of IMeredith, Pcndragon 1000 
 
 The Death of Llewelyn ap Seisyllt, and the Accession 
 
 of lago ap Idwal 1023 
 
 The Death of lago, and the Accession of Grifttth ap 
 
 Llewelyn, Peudiagon 1039
 
 (159) 
 
 
 
 •m53 
 
 © 
 
 
 
 P.O 
 
 
 
 
 
 1^ 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 > 
 
 
 
 Is 
 
 s 
 
 i^sr 
 
 
 
 
 ' 
 
 
 II 
 
 
 
 |2. 
 
 
 -11 
 2i 
 
 
 Ti 1^ Vh 
 
 
 
 
 •«^ 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 C.'^' 
 
 
 
 :=-.5 CO 
 
 
 
 <i 
 
 1= 
 
 
 
 ^•^ 
 
 11^ 
 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 CO 
 
 cT 
 
 p 
 
 -3j 
 
 
 
 — Sc^e- 
 
 -3 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 .4^ 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 ^"3 
 
 -? 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 3 
 
 ^..-^s 
 
 
 
 r^ 
 
 
 — 'so 
 
 
 1-:) 
 
 o 
 
 ? 
 
 cj 
 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 h-1 
 
 Ph 
 
 a> 
 1 
 
 < 
 
 -2 
 
 _Q_ 
 
 o 
 bo 
 
 .9 
 
 p 
 
 1 
 
 a 
 o 
 
 — 
 
 d 
 o 
 
 
 4 
 
 'n 
 
 
 nil 
 
 t— 1 
 
 ^ 
 
 "o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 o 
 
 H 
 
 Q 
 
 O 
 
 m 
 
 2 
 
 
 — is 
 
 2 
 
 4-1 
 
 II 
 
 f-1 
 
 t1 
 
 % to 
 
 3 11 
 
 60 
 
 n 
 
 -P- 
 
 
 f— i 
 
 
 o 
 
 CO 
 
 
 1.-5 
 
 r— < 
 
 
 ."" 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 ^J2 
 
 
 
 2- 
 
 
 >• 
 
 ^ 
 
 t 
 rt 
 
 u 
 
 -OS 
 
 
 
 
 o -2 
 
 OS cs J3 
 
 W 
 H 
 
 
 -3 
 Is 
 
 z 
 
 OJ 
 
 1 
 
 
 ^;r 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 O 
 
 60 
 
 □ 
 
 -< 
 
 o 
 
 11 — 
 
 — " .i 
 
 
 1. 
 
 el 
 
 
 01 
 
 -i 
 
 HH ^ S 
 P« « It
 
 IGO WELSH INFLUENCE UPON THE 
 
 CHAPTEE XVIII. 
 
 GRIFFITH AP LLEWELYN, PENDRAGON ; OR, WELSH 
 INFLUENCE UPON THE DOWNFALL OF SAXONDOM. 
 
 Griffith ap "We have read that Canute, the Danish Kinfj of England, 
 L.ewelyn. o & ' 
 
 1033 to left the Welsh unmolested amongst their mountains and 
 
 narrow valleys. But during the reigns of his sons, 
 Harold and Hardicanute, and that of the Confessor, the 
 Welsh were actively engaged in harassing the descen- 
 dants of the conquerors of their ancestors; and no event 
 of any political importance happened in England, from 
 the accession of Griffith as Pendragon to the victory of 
 William of Normandy at Senlac, in which the Welsh 
 did not take an active and a leading part. 
 
 Griffith ap Llewelyn was a prince of great courage and 
 indomitable perseverance. He was the King of Gwj^nedd, 
 and Pendragon of Wales. Such was the confidence of 
 the Welsh in their ruler, that the}^ looked upon him as 
 the destined deliverer of their country. During his reign 
 a most determined effort was made to assert the inde- 
 pendency of Wales, and also to increase its limits. 
 
 It was, as we have read, an age of warlike heroes, of 
 men of the most undaunted bravery, who were possessed 
 of much policy and of unbounded ambition. About this 
 time the Conqueror was undergoing all the bitterness 
 of an unprotected minority in the midst of a turbulent, 
 rapacious, and stubborn nobility. Now, too, Harold, 
 son of Godwin, was about to exhibit the first-fruits of 
 his skill as a ruler by his successful management of the 
 East Anglians. Siward was earl of Northumbria, Leo- 
 fric of Mercia, and Godwin of Wessex.
 
 DOWNFALL OF SAXONDOM. 161 
 
 Giraldus Cambrensis^ tlius describes the "Welsh of character 
 his day, and what he says of them would be true of ^eish. 
 his countrymen in the time of Prince Griffith : — "This 
 people is light and active, hardy rather than strong, and 
 entirely bred up to the use of arms; for not only the 
 nobles but all the people are trained to war, and when 
 the trumpet sounds the alarm, the husbandman rushes 
 as eagerly from his plough as the courtier from his 
 court. They anxiously study the defence of their 
 country and their liberty; for these they fight; lor 
 these they undergo hardships ; for these they willingly 
 sacrifice their lives. They esteem it a disgrace to die 
 in bed ; an honour to die in the field of battle." 
 
 It required, therefore, but little persuasion to induce 
 such a people to go out to battle against their neigh- 
 bours. Everything tended to a rupture between the 
 two nations. (Jrithth was young, fiery, and enthusiastic. Griffith. 
 Piis memory was overflowing with the glory of the 
 deeds of his ancestors. His ambitious and revengeful 
 longing was further incited by the burning words which 
 seemed to flow in a continuous torrent from the impas- 
 sioned lips of the hoary bards of his country, who re- 
 minded him of the days when the heads of his house 
 held sway over the whole of England. The listening 
 tlirong were also goaded almost to madness by the 
 recitals of the cruelties and injuries which had been 
 inflicted upon their forofuthers by the hated Saxon, liut 
 above all by the recollection that these abhorred inva- 
 ders had deprived them of the fair ])lainH and vales of 
 England, and had cooped them uj) among the hills of 
 Wales. 
 
 The Saxons had taken the precaution to fortify that 
 
 ' Descriplio Camijrias, cbap. viii. 
 
 Id
 
 162 WELSH INFLUENCE UPON THE 
 
 The Weisia V^^^ of England adjoining Wales. In addition to Offa's 
 Borders. Dyke, the Welsh March was lined by a series of camp.s, 
 forts, and ditches. The protection they afforded was 
 but a feeble one; yet it tended somewhat to raise the 
 confidence of the English and to intimidate the Welsh. 
 Moreover, beacon fires were sometimes kept prepared 
 upon the topmost heights of the chain of hills or isolated 
 summits which run along the Borders from Cheshire, 
 through Salop, into Herefordshire and Worcestershire. 
 Whenever a rupture into England was expected, the 
 beacon on the nearest hill was lit, and in a short space 
 of time the whole March was thrown into consternation 
 by the huge fires which seemed to leap from hill top 
 to hill top, spreading alarm and dismay into the hearts 
 of those who were in sight of their lurid glare, for well 
 they knew, if not from sad experience, at least from 
 hearsay, that that fire was but the prelude to the firing 
 of huts, hamlets, villages, and towns, as the Welsh sel- 
 dom returned without devastating the border counties 
 with fire and the sword, nor did they return to their 
 mountain fastnesses without herds of kine, and the crops 
 and goods of their hated neighbours. 
 
 The most conspicuous of the isolated peaks which 
 skirt the counties of Montgomery and Salop is that of 
 Corndon. From its summit, now, a most fair and 
 pleasing sight meets the eye of the spectator. In the 
 far distance can be seen glimpses of misty Plinlimmon, 
 cloud-topped Cader Idris, and the lowering summits of 
 the Berwyn Range ; while at its base, facing the Severn, 
 and stretching as far as that river, lies an undulating 
 tract of land, through which the waters of the Camlad 
 slowly flow in a zig-zag course. Turning slightly to 
 the left, the town of Montgomery forces itself upon
 
 DOWNFALL OF SAXONDOM. 1G3 
 
 one's view, A\ith its ruined castle frowning down upon The Welsh 
 it from a rocky eminence at its back ; a memento or 
 the conquest, of feudalism, and of Roger de Mont- 
 gomery, who advised William to invade England, and 
 afterwards led the Norman right wing^ at Senlac. Still 
 turning towards the left, we perceive an offshoot of the 
 vale of tlie Camlad running up between the hills of Mont- 
 gomery and of Kerry. Following the Camlad towards 
 its source, we enter another vale, which is hemmed in 
 on one side by the Long Mynd. This vale leads us 
 into Herefordshire, by way of Stokesay Castle and 
 Ludlow. Turning to the right, we perceive Forden 
 Hill, between which and Corndon lie the villages of 
 Churchstoke and Chirbury. From the last village the 
 country is comparatively level to Shrewsbury. 
 
 To the east of Corndon the country is even now both 
 rufged and wild. But eight hundred and fifty years 
 ago the a.spect of tlie surrounding country from this 
 h\]\ was of a totally different nature. A Inige forest 
 extended almost to the mountain top, and clothed the 
 vale beneath and the opposite hills, on one of which a 
 large fort, ilefciidcd by four great ditches, had been 
 «-rectcd by the Welsh. In winff-r the Camlad, swollen 
 by rain and the rivulets from the neighljouring hills, 
 spread its sluggish waters far and wide, which gave 
 liirth t<) tlie reed, the Bedg<s and the bulrnsli ; which, 
 in their turn, sheltered the heron, wild duck, the otter, 
 ,Miid the sf)litary beaver; while in the; surrounding 
 thickets abode flic badger, stoat, fox, aii<l wil<l cat. 
 But if the objects beii<;ath the feet of the s[)ectator 
 were then of so wiM a nature, much more so were those 
 acro.ss the banks of the Severn. It was with a feeling 
 
 ' Wace'H lioman dc Uou.
 
 1G4 WELSH INFLUENCE UPON THE 
 
 The Welsh o^' dread and of niystciy that he looked beyond that 
 Borders. j-{yQY^ and lifted up his eyes to the dark hills which rose, 
 ridge upon ridge, as far as the eye could see, and then 
 ended in a dark mass against the sky, shrouded by 
 mists and clouds, the home of the gaunt wolf, and of 
 men not less active or ferocious, and imbued with an 
 equal spirit of dash, temerity, and of freedom.^ 
 
 This portion of the Marchland has been particularised 
 because there was fought one of the most decisive and 
 eventful of the many battles which took place between 
 the Saxons and the Welsh. 
 Rhyd y The scene of this battle was Rhyd y Groes, in the 
 
 Groes. Vale of the Camlad. This vale may be aptly termed 
 the war path of the Welsh, as through it Griffith and 
 others of his kin frequently led their wild followers to 
 meet, defeat, and spoil the enemy. It afforded a safe 
 ingress into the March country in two directions — the 
 one opening towards Shrewsbury ; the other towards 
 Hereford and Worcester. The latter was probably the 
 more frequented route. 
 
 Griffith had not been long upon the throne before he 
 began his warlike preparations against Saxondom. 
 Over hill and through vale, over mountain and through 
 forest, across rivers, morass, and fenny lake, spread 
 the welcome news that a foray, under the leadership 
 of their young king, was about to be made into the rich 
 border land. Swiftly each warrior sped to the place 
 of meeting, and motley was the throng when the whole 
 force had arrived. 
 
 The time chosen was most favourable for the designs 
 of the Welsh king, as the Saxon monarch, Hardicanute, 
 
 ' This description of this particular locality is typical of that of the rest 
 of the country.
 
 DOWNFALL OF SAXONDOM. 165 
 
 allowed his foreign freebooters to harry the country state of 
 from end to end. In order to satisfy these ferocious ^&^*^^- 
 pests, he imposed, as we have read, an exorbitant tax 
 upon his subjects. Worcester resisted the impost, and 
 in consequence was besieged by earls Godwin, Siward, 
 and Leofric, and after a stubborn resistance, sacked and 
 burnt. This was a terrible example of the unsettled 
 state of the country,and enacted, too, before the very eyes 
 of the Welsh. To add to the confusion, Hardicanute 
 died in a .sudden manner. Moreover, the great earls 
 (Godwin, Leofric, and Siward were jealous of one 
 another, and divided the country into rival factions. 
 A foreigner, in the person of the Confessor, was raised 
 to the throne, chiefly through the influence of Godwin. 
 
 A large force was collected by the Mercians to oppose 
 and puni.sh the Welsh king. At its head was Edwin, 
 brotliLT of Leofric. Next in command were Tlmrkill 
 and Elfgcat, two noble king's thanes.' 
 
 Edwin and liis force advanced towards tlu; liurgh 
 which liad been erected by the Lady of the Mercians at 
 Chirbury.* Wo arc not informed whether this Burgh 
 continued to be held l)y Saxons ; most probably it 
 had been destroyed, and its iidiabitants slain, by the 
 Welsh long Ix-fore the year 10*39, 
 
 Edwin and his followers evidently expected to secure Edwin, 
 an ea.sy victory over the ill-clad and light arnuMl l,l°[]^^^^ 
 mountuineer.s. I3ut the latter were acciuuinted with 
 the country, and well knew the nature of its deccitrul 
 marshes. They took the fnrtlier precaution of laying 
 an andniscade, into whieli Edwin i( 11. All at onre liis 
 army wa.s a.ssailed on all sides by (Iriflith and the 
 
 ' F\riTfnrp of Worccntcr's ChrtmUon ex Chronuu, under the ycart 
 1039 and 10^2.
 
 1G6 WELSH INFLUENCE UPON THE 
 
 Battle of choicest of the Britons, who hurled a perfect shower of 
 Gr(^g^039*l''^^'ts a-iul arrows upon the astounded Mercians, and 
 then rushed upon them. The thanes endeavoured, but 
 in vain, to stem such a current of human beings. 
 Their followers were soon beyond their control, and 
 scattered in every direction. The enthusiastic valour 
 and the extraordinary activity of the Welsh won the 
 day. They pursued the flying enemy, shouting and 
 pouring in flights of arrows. Many "very good men"^ 
 were left dead upon the marshy level of Rhyd y Groes.^ 
 Among the number were Edwin, Thurkill, and Elfgeat. 
 Many, too, were drowned in the Camlad, or swallowed 
 up in the bogs which lay between them and their 
 homes. 
 
 Griffith was fully aware of the importance of his 
 victory, and this battle may be considered the turning 
 point in his life, as was that at the bridge of Lodi in 
 the life of Napoleon I. He now began to occupy him- 
 self in settling the internal afl'airs of his kingdom, and 
 in consolidating his power in the north. For three 
 years he remained comparatively quiet, and refrained 
 from carrying out his ambitious designs. 
 
 Griffith was forced to fi^jht several battles before his 
 
 Hywel, 
 
 1044. sway was acknowledged throughout Wales. He ex- 
 pelled his father's murderer, Hywel ap Edwyn, from 
 South Wales. Hywel, with the help of the Danes' of 
 Ireland, returned in 1044, but he was defeated and 
 slain by Grithth and his men of Gwynedd. This Hywel 
 had married Griffith's daughter, Nesta, and had killed 
 his father. Griffith also expelled Cynau ap lago from 
 
 ' Saxon Chronicle, 1039. * The ford of the crosa. 
 
 ' The Danes had established themselves in Dublin ; thence they made 
 occasional expeditions against England and Wales.
 
 DOWNFALL OF SAXON DOM. 107 
 
 his dominions, and forced him to remain in Ireland. 
 So bitter was the enmity between the North and 
 South Wahans, that the former destroyed everything 
 they could in the territory of the latter, so that 
 Deheubarth^ became a waste. 
 
 By the year 1048 the Pendragon's successes along the Griffith in 
 Borders enabled him to establish himself in Hereford- ^^^ j^^g 
 shire, which was under the control of Sweyn, son of 
 Godwin. In that district Griffith built a castle, and 
 did every kind of disgrace and harm to the king's 
 forces.'^ Earl Godwin determined to punish the invaders. 
 With this object in view he summoned to his presence 
 his sons Sweyn and Harold, and his own and their 
 forces, and proceeded towards Gloucester, to seek the 
 help and council" of the king. 
 
 At this juncture of events, Eustace II. of Boulogne 
 came flying to Gloucester, after his discomtiture at (j^ifntii 
 Dover. Apparently Griffith had spies at the king's con- 
 court, who informed him of the rupture between the against 
 king and Godwin, consequent upon the refusal of the ^^'^'^^'^ 
 latter to tiike the part of Eustace against the men of 
 Dover. Griffith and Godwin proceeded to Gloucester, 
 but the Welshmen were the first to arrive in the king's 
 presence. Tliey accused Godwin and liis sons of con- 
 spiracy against their sovereign, and assured him that 
 their coming was for the purpose of betraying tlie 
 kin".' Edward b(;lieve<l them. According to William 
 of Malmesbury, tbe charges Ijruught against the 
 Godwin faction caused its members to become liateful 
 to the wholcj Gourt. Indeed, so successful were the 
 Welsh in inflaming the minds of their listeners, that 
 a rumour went forth tbat the king's army would 
 ' Brut. ' Saxon Chronicle.
 
 168 
 
 WELSH INFLUENCE UPON THE 
 
 Griffith's 
 victory 
 at Leo- 
 minster, 
 1052. 
 
 attack the Earl of Wessex and liis men there and then. 
 When Godwin heard this rumour he prepared his forces, 
 and told them that if they were attacked they were 
 not to retreat without avenging themselves. Griffitli 
 must have anxiously desired a conflict between the 
 rival parties, as the results of such an engagement 
 would weaken England and strengthen Wales. But the 
 chronicler tells us that his desires w^ere not gratified, as 
 better counsels prevailed, and averted a dreadful scene of 
 misery, and a \vorse than civil war. Then followed the 
 banishment of the Godwin family. In all this fortune 
 favoured the Welsh king, who was even at that time 
 the ally of Algar, earl Leofric's son. Algar obtained 
 possession of the estates and dignities of Harold the 
 carl, and Griffith was left unmolested in his designs of 
 a^jrgrandisement and spoil. Little did they think that 
 their successful conspiracy at Gloucester would be 
 followed by years of untold toils and troubles, that the 
 grave alone would put an end to. 
 
 In 1052, Griffith plundered^ Herefordshire, and 
 marched against the castle of Leominster, which was 
 garrisoned by Saxons and Normans.^ The Welshmen 
 gained the victory, and killed a great number^ of the 
 enemy, including very many knights.^ This battle 
 took place on the anniversary* of the battle of Rhyd y 
 Groes. Griffith returned to his country with much 
 plunder.^ 
 
 • Flor. of Worcester. 
 
 ' These Norinans verj' probaMy were left behind by their duke when he 
 visited England during the banishnit-nt oi the Godwin laiuily. 
 •■' The Haxun Chronicle terms them "goodnu-n. " 
 
 * The Saxon Chronicle remarks that this battle took place on the same 
 day on which, thirteen years before, Edwin was killed ; this comment 
 shows the injportance the Saxons attached to Griffith's victory against 
 Edwin in 1030 : perhaps the same writer recorded both victories.
 
 DOWNFALL OF SAXONDOM. 1G9 
 
 In the year 1053 the Welsh made another inroad Griffith's 
 into England, when they attacked Westbury : here they ^^^"J^^^y* 
 killed a great many Saxons.^ 1053. 
 
 Upon Harold's return he did not forget the fact that 
 
 Algar had held his earldom of East Anglia during his 
 
 absence, and that he was arrayed against his father and 
 
 himself before their banishment. Accordingly, in 1055, Banish- 
 
 . „ ment of 
 
 Algar was himself banished. He took refuge for a Aigar, 
 
 short time in Ireland, thence he made his w^ay to ^*^^^* 
 
 Griffith of Wales, whom he implored" to help him. 
 
 The Welsh king promised him his protection ;^ and 
 
 immediately assembled a large army^ from every part 
 
 of Wales. 
 
 Alf-ar's forces ioined those of the Welsh king. The Griffith 
 
 and Algal 
 combined army marched U[)on Hereford. To oppose attack 
 
 their progress, Ralph, the king's nephew,^ wdio was the °®^®g°^^' 
 earl of this district, took up his position two'^ miles out it. 
 of the city with a great force.' I^ilph appears to have 
 tried to teach the Saxons the militnry tactics of the 
 Normans, for he ordered them not to tight on foot, as 
 they had been accustomed to do, but to act as cavalry. 
 A panic seized upon his forces: they lied without striking 
 a, blow;* and Ralph, with his French'' and Normans,* 
 were the first to takr lo lljght. But notwithstanding 
 the fact that the Saxon army was on horseback, and 
 llie Welsh ou foot, tiie latter pursued tlic former, over- 
 took tlifin in thf'ir fright and confusion, and killed 
 between four and five hundred of tlie fugitives,' and 
 woundt'd many* more. Astonishing to relate, not a 
 singl*;' Wclslmian or Irishman was killed in this battle I 
 Griffith and Algar entered the city, kille«l the canons' 
 who defended the chief church, plundered' the monas- 
 • Saxon Chronicle. » Klor. of Worcegter. » Sec page 103.
 
 170 
 
 WELSH INFLUENCE UPON THE 
 
 Harold 
 pursues 
 Griffith 
 and Algar, 
 
 Griffith 
 attacks 
 Hereford, 
 1066. 
 
 tery, killed some of the citizens,^ took others captive,^ 
 and then burnt the town^ and the monastery,^ and de- 
 parted with the spoil. 
 
 The news of this victory was soon made known. 
 The king gave orders that a large army^ should be 
 levied from every part of the country: it was placed 
 under the charge of Harold, who pursued^ Griffith and 
 Algar to the heights of Snowdon.^ The Welsh king 
 seemed determined to weary out the brave Saxon, for, 
 instead of meeting him in battle array, he proceeded 
 into South Wales.^ His tactics were successful. Harold, 
 leaving part of his army behind him, hurried back to 
 Hereford, which he surrounded with a wide and deep 
 trench, and protected with gates and bars.^ 
 
 The result of Griffith's victory was a conference be- 
 tween him and Algar and Harold: thereat terms of 
 peace were drawn up and accepted:^ and Algar was re- 
 stored to all his possessions and dignities.* 
 
 Hereford did not enjoy peace for any length of time: 
 the following year, 1()5G," Griffith made another expedi- 
 tion into England. On this occasion he was not opposed 
 by Ralph, the cowardly son of King Edward's sister,'' 
 but by Leofgar, Bishop of Hereford. Leofgar was a 
 muscular christian : he, doubtless, owed his preferment 
 to the see of Hereford to Harold, as he had been his 
 domestic chaplain." He could ride on horseback" before 
 he was a bishop, and accompanied Harold in his various 
 journeys; and, after his consecration, he armed himself 
 
 ' Flor. of Worcester. - Saxon Chronicle. 
 
 * According to the Saxon Chronicle Harold did not penetrate Wales 
 upon this occasion, but contented himself with I'ortifyiug Hereford. 
 
 * The Saxon Chronicle states that he was inlawed. 
 » "Timidus dux Radulfus ;" Flor. of Worcester. 
 
 * Mass priest : he wore his knapsack before he was a bishop.
 
 DOWNFALL OF SAXOXDOM. 171 
 
 with spear and sword, and went forth to fight the ruth- 
 less Welshmen, But his generalship and strength were Griffltii's 
 not on a par with his temerity, for he was killed, and ''Victory, 
 so were his priests, together with the sheriff and many- 
 others,^ while the rest of his forces ran away. Hereford 
 was burnt down a second time.^ 
 
 Then the chronicler^ w^ails forth — " It is difficult to Hardships 
 describe the hardship, the marching, the camping, the of saxon 
 sore distress, and the slaughter of men and horses which 
 the whole of the Saxon army endured." From this out 
 burst of lamentation and woe we gather that the Welsh 
 king and his men gave no quarter, and that their move- 
 ments were stealthy and expeditious. 
 
 The Saxon king wished to gain the good-will of his 
 Celtic contemporary, so he sent Leofric, Harold, and 
 Aldred,' Bishop of Winchester, to him ; and Griffith 
 declared upon oath that he would become Edward's 
 " under-king," and that lie would be faithful and no Second 
 traitor.* But in two years tmie Algar was banistied ment of 
 for the second time, and deprived of liis father's earl- ^^f^^' 
 dom, to which he had succeeded in lOO?. 
 
 For tlie second time he sought the aid of the Welsh 
 king, to whom he gave his daughter, Elgithn, in mar- 
 riage. Griffith triuin[)hantl3^ reinstated his fathei-in-law 
 by force of arms,' to his earldom, lO.'j.S. 
 
 CJrillith liad now reached the zenith of his })owcr. 
 Within Wales ho had asserted his supremacy by the 
 death of Griffith^ ;ip Ilhydderch, king of South Wales, 
 
 ' Saxon C'hrnnidc. • Matt, of Westminster. 
 
 • WTien Hnrolfl prorecrlcd to Bristol, after tlie bmiiHlitiicnt of liimself 
 and family, the kiiif? sent Alflreil to cajituro him, but ho "would not, or 
 could not" overtake him. — S^txnn ('hrdnicU,. 
 
 * This Griffith dcfeatnd BiHlmp Aldred in 1019 ; hia brothrT Ithyfl was 
 captured by the Saxons iu lO.W, nn<l was put to cjoafh by King Edwurd'8 
 orders ; hia head was brought to the king's court at Gloucester.
 
 172 
 
 WELSH INFLUENCE UPON THE 
 
 Morcar, 
 sons of 
 Algar. 
 
 1054: along the Borders there was none to withstand 
 his expeditions into England: at the Saxon court he 
 had a powerful ally in Algar, who kept him informed 
 of its intrigues: so far fortune had smiled upon him, 
 and no defeat had thrown a shadow upon his path. 
 With the death of Algar his power and influence began 
 to decline. 
 
 Edwin and Algar's sons, Edwin and Morcar, received from their 
 brother-in-law the support their father had received 
 from him. Harold dcteiniined to undermine their in- 
 fluence, and, in order to do so, he deemed it necessary 
 to bring about the overthrow and death of the Welsh 
 king,^ and thus cut them off from refuge and succour in 
 the hour of sore distress. Accordingly, in the year 
 1063, just after Christmas time,^ when GrifKth, in fan- 
 ciful security, was at his royal residence of Rhuddlan, 
 Harold, at the order of the king, advanced into Wales 
 at the head of a small troop of cavaliy to take the 
 Pendrasfon's life.^ 
 
 He ahnost effected his purpose; an enemy was not 
 expected by Griffith. The Welsh, however, heard of 
 
 of Wales, the approach of the Saxon earl, and ru.shed off to inform 
 their ruler. It was a race for the kinor's life between 
 the Welshmen on foot and the Saxons on horseback: 
 
 Harold's 
 
 second 
 
 invasion 
 
 ' Dr. Lincrard was of the opinion that "the Welsh prince and his sub- 
 jects had lonf,' deserved tlie name vlxhX punishment oi rubber ft and assassins" 
 — that is, e.xtirpation ! This humane historian forgot tliat Griffith and his 
 subjects were the representatives of the people who owneil the greater part 
 of Britain long before the Saxons sought its shores. Such being the case, 
 if Griffith and his men were " robbers and assassins," because they fought 
 against and defeated the Saxons of their day, and deprived them of part of 
 the lands and goods whicli their forefathers had unjustly seized from the 
 Celts, what name should be ap])lied to those Saxons who rolibed and assas- 
 6inate<l wholesale ? For "robbers" and "assassins," Dr. Liugard should 
 have written — "patriots " and "revengers." 
 
 * Florence of Worcester.
 
 iJOWNFALL OF SAXONDOST. 173 
 
 topographical knowledge, no doubt, saved the king and 
 frustrated the earl. Griffith rode off to the mouth of 
 the river Chvyd,^ where his fleet lay at anchor, and was 
 just in time to get on board one of his ships ere the 
 Saxons reached the spot. Harold had the mortification 
 of seeing the fugitive sail away into the Irish Sea; in 
 his rage he set fire to his palace and also to his ships, 
 and then, before the enemy could have time to assemble 
 in force, he began to ride back the same day. The fact cfriffitii's 
 
 GXtrsDiitiV 
 
 that he was able to ride from Gloucester through Wales loes. 
 as far as Rhuddlan and back again with a "small troop 
 of horse," without molestation, shows that the half- 
 brothers of the Welsh king had already agreed to help 
 the Saxons against their sovereign, in return for his 
 position and territories after his removal. 
 
 In the month of May of that year Harold made an- Harold's 
 other attack upon Wales with a land and a sea force, t^^^d 
 
 liivd.sloii 
 
 He placed himself at the head of the fleet, while his of Wales, 
 brother Tosti, at the king's command,^ took charge of 
 the cavalry. The one sailed round Wales, the other 
 rode through it. Their combined forces struck terz'or 
 into the hearts of the Welsh, who submitted to the 
 
 A gap gef 11 jl. 
 
 Saxon earls, delivered hostages to them, and deposed tiou of 
 and banished their king. In August of that year ^'^^^'^• 
 Griflith was killed by his own men.* 
 
 Thus fell — the lion of the north, the head and shield 
 of tlie Briton.s, the inflexible defender of their homes, 
 the faithful ally, the ferocious enemy, the la.st king 
 
 ' The Voryd, close to the town o( Ilhyl. ' Flor. of Worcester. 
 
 * Saxtrn Chronicle; thus Wales was (kfuatcd, not from williout, but from 
 within ; it was not the arm ot tliu iuvoiler that dc|irivcd Grillilh ol lii.s li c'a 
 blood, but it was that of the traitor. As it was in the <Iays of Cicsar and of 
 Grlllitii, so it a;tcTwards was in the days of hlewelyu — the Welshuian 
 plotted against his king, his country and his race.
 
 174 
 
 WELSH INFLUENCE UPON THE 
 
 who held sway over Wales in a manner becoming a 
 royal rival of the houses of Cer die and of Godwin — the 
 staunch and true-hearted Griffith ap Llewelyn. 
 
 Griffith's head was brought to Harold, who carried 
 , it to the king.^ Thus, for the second time, the Con- 
 
 fessor had an opportunity of looking upon the gory 
 remains of a contemporary prince ; the sight caused 
 him to contemn^ the Welsh. But the ghastly relic 
 must have given him satisfaction, for it was proof 
 positive of the death of his dauntless foe, who had been 
 removed from his path through the treachery of his 
 own subjects,^ by the valour of earl Harold,^ or in 
 revenge for the death of his father by Caradog.* 
 Griffith was succeeded by Lis half-brothers Bleddyn 
 and Rhiwallawn, who swore allegiance, and delivered 
 hostages as pledges of their good faith, to Edward and 
 to Harold." 
 The in- Griffith of Wales exercised an undoubted influence 
 
 fluence of over the destiny of the Saxons : (i.) From 1039 to lOGo 
 
 Griffith 1,1 1 1,. , 
 
 over the hc Jiad waged an almost incessant war agamst the 
 
 ^airsof Saxons, and had won battles at Rhyd y Groes, 
 Leominster, Hereford, and other places : in his many 
 
 ' Saxon Chronicle. ' Geoffrey Gainiar. * Will, of Malme.sbury. 
 
 * Flor. of Worcester: if so, Caradog ap Griffith ap Kliydderch killed 
 Griffith ap Llewelyn because he had killed his father in 1054. Caradog 
 also killed the three sons of Owain ap Edwyii ap Hywd Dda, and was 
 himself killed in the second battle of Canio. 
 
 "> Sax(M Chronicle. — The fate of Griffith in the days of Harold was 
 somewhat similar to that of Llcwelj-n in the days of Edward L : both were 
 betrayed by Welshmen — l)oth were opi)Osed by their nearest relatives ; but 
 here the parallel ends, for Prince David appears to have repented of his 
 unbrother'y and unpatriotic conduct— conduct more than expiated by \\U 
 unfurling the standard of independence, and by his barbarous assassination: 
 whereas, though both died a violent death, Bleddyn and Rhiwallawn 
 enjoyed, for 10 and 6 years respectively, the fruits of their non-adhesion to, 
 and betray.ll of, the cause of their magnificently patriotic half-brother, 
 Griffith ap Llewelyn.
 
 DOWNFALL OF SAXONDOM. 175 
 
 expeditions into Enoland he had killed multitudes of 7^^ 
 •r o influence 
 
 the foe, had carried off everythincr he could, and had of 
 
 Grlffltll 
 
 utterly destroyed what he was not able to remove ; over the 
 thus he weakened the power, and overthrew the con- ^^^^ 
 fidence, of the Saxons at a time when they stood in 
 urgent need of every man and of every confidence, 
 (ii.) Griffith helped to split up England into hostile 
 camps : at Gloucester he took the part of Siward and 
 Leofric acrainst the Godwin faction, and accused the 
 latter of conspiring against their sovereign ; in con- 
 sequence of this accusation Godwin and his sons 
 " miglit not come within his (Edward's) eyes' sight."^ 
 (iii.) Upon the return of the Godwin family from 
 banishment, Griffith continued to support their rivals 
 of the family (jf Leofric ; and, on two occasions, as we 
 have read, he compelled the Saxon king and the Saxon 
 Witan to "inlaw" Algar, son of Leofric, and to restore 
 to him all his territories and offices, (iv.) The disunion 
 in England and the continual successes of Griffitli, must 
 have encouraged the crafty and lion-hearted Duke of 
 Normandy in his designs upon the throne of Eiigh'ind, 
 the duke would naturally conclude tliat he could over- 
 come in Vjattle tlio people who had been routed by the 
 Welsh king and his small forces ; thus Griffith fanned 
 the hopes of one whose heart and eye were fixed upon 
 the Saxon throne long before the year 10G3. (v.) Tlio 
 Red Dragon of Cambria had indeed paled before the 
 White Dragon of Wcssex, ami the Pendragoii of the 
 Welsh liad succumlicd to the representatives of the 
 Saxon Bretwalda ; but, though dead in the body, 
 Griffith's spirit still lived and infliKiiccd his brave 
 
 • Saxon Chronicle.
 
 17G DEATH-KNELL OF SAXONDOM. 
 
 followers, who continued to support the cause of the 
 carls Morcar and Edwin, the brothers-in-law of their 
 heroic king ; and this support encouraged those earls to 
 demand at Northampton/ the banishment of Tosti ; and 
 when his banishment was pronounced, then was rung 
 out the death-knell of the Saxon dynasty.^ 
 
 LEADING EVENTS. 
 
 The Battle of Rhyd y Groes 1039 ad. 
 
 The Death of Ilywel ap Edwjii 1044 
 
 Griffith ap Llewelyn builds a castle in Herefordshire ... 1048 
 
 Griffith's Accusation against Godwin 1051 
 
 Griffith's Victory at Leominster 1052 
 
 Griffith's Victory at Westbury 1053 
 
 The Banishment of Algar ; Griffith and Algar defeat 
 
 Ralph, and sack Hereford ; Harold pursues Griffith 
 
 and Algar : their Conference : Algar's Restoration 1055 
 Griffith attacks Hereford : his Victory over Leofgar, 
 
 its Bishop.. 1055 
 
 Banishment of Algar ; Griffith reinstates him m his 
 
 Earldom 1058 
 
 Harold's second and thuxl Invasion of Wales ; Griffith's 
 
 Flight, and Assassination 1063 
 
 'Saxon Chronicle, Henry of Huntingtlon, Tolo MSS., &c., informs us 
 that many Welsh supported Edwin and Morcar at Northampton : doubtless, 
 liad they failed in their designs against Tosti, they would have found a safe 
 refuge in Wales. 
 
 * Lord Lytton, in his "Harold," gives a splendid description of Griflith's 
 undying patriotism.
 
 (177) 
 
 P^ 
 
 *i 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 « 
 
 
 
 
 Ciq- 
 
 £ 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 <«-i 
 
 
 
 <y 
 
 p« o 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 §•1 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 s® 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 m 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 S 
 
 1^ 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 •tl 
 
 
 
 :^ 
 
 1 = 
 
 
 
 *ti 
 
 (^ %-i 
 
 
 
 t— ( 
 
 o o 
 
 
 
 ^-3 
 
 -^•-d 
 
 
 
 t— 1 
 
 «_2~ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 b= 
 
 S 
 
 ist 
 
 t-!S~ 
 
 
 ss 
 
 .2 "* 
 
 rr- Oi 
 
 P^ 
 
 T^IlL 
 
 -s°i- 
 
 Co. 
 ~ rt 1 — 
 
 o 
 
 >H 
 
 ^S^ 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 CO 
 
 .— -n 
 
 
 O 
 
 ga 
 
 tf 2, 
 
 H 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 ;?^ 
 
 IT 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 OJ 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 § 
 
 
 
 W3 
 
 
 
 W 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 
 
 c5 
 
 Opq 
 
 1-5 
 
 
 « 1—1 
 o I 
 
 f"' CI 
 
 o 
 
 P3 3 
 
 
 " a^ 
 
 I 
 
 
 ,^ 1— I 4) "^ 
 r-r ^ .Z; 
 
 •^ 'M -5 05 
 
 3 
 w 
 
 ID 
 
 a 
 
 o 
 
 AI
 
 17S 
 
 THE NORMANS. 
 
 CHAPTER XIX. 
 
 The 
 
 Normans. 
 
 Regner 
 
 Lodbrog. 
 
 845. 
 
 Paris 
 
 captured 
 
 857. 
 
 THE NORMANS. 
 
 We have read that the Danes assailed the coasts of 
 England time after time, and that the shores of France, 
 Spain, and even those of Italy were not free from their 
 ruthless depredations. 
 
 The first of these Danes, or Northmen as they were 
 called in France — a term afterwards changed to that of 
 Normans, — to appear before the walls of Paris was 
 Regner Lodbrog, who was killed by Ella^ of North- 
 umbria. This was in the year 845. Charles the Bald,^ 
 King of France, was quite unable to beat off the North- 
 men, so they plundered the city. After this was done 
 the king paid them 7,000 pounds of silver to leave the 
 land. 
 
 In the year 857 they came again, and again captured 
 Paris : upon this occasion they were not satisfied with 
 plundering the city, they also killed thousands of the 
 defenceless people, whose bones whitened the banks of 
 the river Seine. After a time they were successfully 
 opposed by a Saxon, Robert the Strong,' Count of 
 
 ' Matthew of Westminster states that Regner was killed by the hunts- 
 meii of Edmund, king of East Anglia, and tliat Regner's sons, from mis- 
 taken revenge, tied Edmund naked to a tree, riildled his body with arrows, 
 and then cut off his head : a chapel was erected on the spot, and a Burgh 
 grew up around it : see p. 38, and p. 107. 
 
 * He was grandson of Charlemagne ; his daughter Judith was the second 
 wife of King Ethelwulf.— //cnry of Huntingdon. 
 
 •■* He was related to King Charles of France, as they were both descended 
 from Pepin, the great-grandfather of Charlemagne. Robert, as the great 
 grandfather of Hugh Capet, was the founder of the Capetian dynasty of 
 France.
 
 THE NORMANS. 179 
 
 Anjou : but he was killed by Hastings, the terrible 
 sea-king.^ 
 
 Durinor the reign of Alfred the Great, the Northmen 
 appear to have plundered England and France alter- 
 nately. During the winter of 885 they besieged Paris Paris bs- 
 for the third time. The Northmen were under the JJJ^^^ ^ 
 
 leadership of Rollo, one of the most darinof and success- time by 
 
 Danes 
 
 ful of their sea-kings. The French king, like Ethelred 885. ' 
 the Unready, thought of removing the Northmen who 
 had settled in the land by treachery ; one of their 
 leaders was killed and another blinded. Then their 
 fellow-countrymen, to the number of 30,000, marched 
 against Paris, and besieged it for upwards of eighteen 
 months. Odo, Count of Paris, headed the besieged ; 
 while the King of France, who was also Emperor of 
 Germany, neglected for a long time to come to the help 
 of his l^ravc subjects, and, when he did come, he gave 
 Rollo and his men 800 pounds of silver to go away 
 The Danes afterwards visited England ; but Alfred 
 defeated them in every direction. Wo have read'^ of 
 the success of Hastings in France. After he had made 
 peace with its king,* the country liad rest for some time. 
 
 Rollo, the Northman, had been obliged to Icavi; roIIo. 
 Denmark in accordance with a decree* of that country, 
 which enacted that, wlienever the l;ui<l was too full of 
 men, a number of the bravest shouM be obliged to seek 
 their fortunes in other lands. He sailed to England. 
 Tie dreanjed a dream : ninl in his dream he lic;ii<l nnd 
 saw a swarm of bees ilying over him aii'l liis ;niny : In- 
 
 ' Ilcnry of Huntingdon ; sec pp. 40-42. ' Sec i>. .V2. 
 
 •■' C/Tiarles the Fat : V\ot. of Worcester nays that the city of Pariu was 
 ■avcd in 88G by tlie merciful lielp of God. 
 
 * Malt, of Wchlminstcr
 
 180 
 
 THE NORMANS. 
 
 Chartres 
 tesieged, 
 910. 
 
 Bollo 
 
 swears 
 
 fealty to 
 
 Charles 
 
 and 
 
 marries 
 
 his 
 
 daughter, 
 
 912. 
 
 watched their progress, until he saw that they crossed 
 the sea, and that, after examining flowers of different 
 colours, they settled down upon a particular spot.^ 
 When Rollo awoke, he considered the dream, and came 
 to the conclusion that he should find a resting place 
 for himself and his companions in the land to which 
 the bees had flown. 
 
 In the year 910, Rollo besieged the city of Chartres ; 
 he failed to take it by surprise or direct attack. Its 
 citizens had chosen as their standard what was sup- 
 posed to be a garment of the Virgin Mary : Rollo and 
 his men were provoked to laughter at its appearance, 
 whereupon a panic seized them, and they took to flight: 
 the men of Chartres pursued and killed thousands^ of 
 them. 
 
 In two years' time the Northmen renewed their at- 
 tacks upon the Frenchmen, and captured Bayeux, Paris, 
 and Evreux. In their desperation the people went to 
 their king, Charles the Simple, and complained of his 
 inactivity. Whereupon he sent the Archbishop of 
 Rouen to the Danish leader to promise him all the sea 
 coast from the river Epte to the confines of Brittany, 
 together with the hand of his daughter Gilla,^ if he 
 would become a Christian. With the advice of his 
 council Rollo agreed to the Archbishop's proposal. 
 Upon a fixed day he swore fealty to Charles, and also 
 married his daughter : and Brittany was added to his 
 domains : its duke, Alan, swore fealty to him. Rollo 
 was asked to kiss the king's foot, in token of vassalage. 
 He did so ; but scorning to bend his knee, he took up 
 his foot roughly, and, lifting it to his mouth, threw the 
 king on his back upon the ground, to the intense delight 
 
 Matthew of Westminster
 
 THE NORMANS. 181 
 
 of his followers, who laughed^ heartily at the sight of 
 the sprawling monarch. Upon his return to Rouen, 
 E-ollo was baptized, named Robert, after his godfather, 
 Robert,^ Duke of France, son of Count Robert the 
 Strong. 
 
 Upon the death of Gilla, Robert re-married his first 
 wife, Popa, daughter of Alan of Brittany, whom he 
 had divorced, in order to marry Gilla. 
 
 In his treatment of the Northman Rollo, Charles fol- 
 lowed the example of Alfred's treatment of Guthrum. 
 Rollo, Count of Rouen, died in 931 : he had greatly Death of 
 improved his dominions and subjects. He was succeeded 
 
 as Count by his son William, who took the part of wmiam, 
 J > i Ms son. 
 
 Hugh the Great, son of Robert, Duke of France, in his 
 political intrigues. At first both William and Hugh 
 espoused the cause of Louis the Foreigner, Athelstan's 
 nephew, and recalled^ him to France; but they after- 
 wards rebelled ajxainst him. William extended his 
 dominions to the sea by adding to it the Contentin. 
 He was treacherously killed by ArnultV Count of 
 Flanders in 942. Under him the Northmen whc 
 frequented his court forgot their own and adopted 
 tlie French language ami habits; but those residing 
 along the sea shore continued to cling to the Norse 
 language and superstitions. 
 
 William was anxious that liis son Richard shouM Ricinrd, 
 
 „ Bon of 
 
 learn the language of his ancestors: he was tlicrc^fore wiuiam. 
 educated at Bayeux, which was the chiijf town of those 
 Northmon who had not forgotten the speccli and ways 
 of their forefathers. Richanl married the daughter of 
 Hugh the Groat, Duke of France, and hdjx'il his son, 
 Hugh Capet, to the throne of France. Richard married 
 ' Matthew of Wcstniiuster.
 
 Richard, 
 996. 
 
 182 THE NORMANS. 
 
 his daughter Emma to Ethelred the Unready. The 
 Saxon king and his wife did not agree over well ;^ 
 and, in consequence of his daughter's representations, 
 Richard seized^ every Saxon, whether clergy or lay, in 
 his dominions ; he killed some of them, and others he 
 imprisoned ; Pope John XV. made peace between them. 
 Emma's steward of Exeter, the " French churl,"^ was 
 the first Norman to betray the land of his adoption. 
 Death of Richard of Normandy died in 99G, and was succeeded 
 by his son Richard, a minor : the peasants now rose in 
 rebellion, but they were quelled in a merciless manner. 
 In the eleventh century the Counts of Rouen became 
 Dukes of Normandy, and their soldiers were among 
 the most renowned in Europe; whilst architecture, 
 literature and agriculture made steady progress amongst 
 Richard II. them. Richard II. of Normandy afforded protection 
 996 to 1026. Iq 1-^jg sister Emma, to his brother-in-law Ethelred, and 
 to their sons Edward and Alfred ; his influence in Eng- 
 land, prior to the time of Canute, may aptly be termed 
 its moral conquest, as, in the hour of distress, his was 
 the hand stretched out to comfort and succour the 
 royal and other fugitives. 
 
 Richard II. of Normandy was succeeded by his sou 
 Richard Richard III., who was poisoned by his brother Robert: 
 t"io^28^^ a woman,' skilled in poisons, is reported to have been 
 engaged by him to do this dreadful deed. 
 
 Henry I., King of France, in the day of disaster, 
 Robert II. took refuge in Normandy, and called upon Robert to 
 
 Hedefends j^ J his cause. Robert defeated the rebel nobles 
 Henry I. of . i i i • 
 
 France. and the queen mother in three battles ; and, having 
 
 overcome all the king's foes, he obtained, as a reward 
 
 ' William of Malmeshury. * Matthew of Westminster. 
 
 ' HujQoit, Chronicle : Hugh betrayed Exeter to the Danes.
 
 THE NORMANS. 183 
 
 for his loyal exertions, an extent of land that brought 
 his dukedom within twenty miles of Paris. 
 
 This Norman Duke boasted that he would set the 
 crown of England upon the heads of his cousins, the 
 Athelings Alfred and Edward. With this meritorious 
 object in view, he assembled a fleet and filled it with 
 soldiers. But he was doomed to be disappointed, for 
 the elements, which have not unfrequently protected 
 the shores of England, persistently fought against his 
 ships, so that he was obliged to disband his forces ; 
 and his vessels were allowed to decay in the harbour 
 of Rouen.^ 
 
 Robert never married, but he had a son whom he 
 named William ; he was born in the year 1027. In wuiiam, 
 1035, when his boy was seven years of age, Robert ^°JJ^°j.^ jj^ 
 recommended him to his barons as his heir^ at a 
 public meeting : he then departed for Jerusalem,'^ as 
 he was wishful to atone for the death of his brother ; 
 while returning, he was poisoned by his servant. As 
 lonfr as he lived his barons honoured' his son, but, 
 upon his death, they began to look after their own 
 affairs, and revolted from their boy duke. But after 
 a time William became too powerful for his revolted 
 subjects, whom ho defeated time after time, and finally 
 routed them at Valesdune,' 1047. 
 
 William was able to afford protection to his fatlic-r's 
 cousin, Edward the Atheling; and when, in H)')2, his 
 throne was threatened by the power of Godwin, ho 
 landed in England to give him l>oth succour and advice : 
 
 ' William of Malmcsbury attributes the adversity of tlio wind to the 
 hidden counsels of God ; he states that the remains of the lleet were to be 
 seen in his days. 
 
 » Guy of Amiens; Matt of Westminster, &c. * Will of Malmesbury.
 
 184 THE NORMANS. 
 
 he was accompanied by " a great body of Frenchmen."^ 
 When he returned to Normandy he left his chaplain, 
 William, at Edward's court; he became bishop of 
 London. Other Normans, military and clerical, also 
 remained in England; and, while ostensibly engaged 
 in the service of its King, they were quietly and 
 patiently paving the way for the triumphant return 
 of their Duke in 10G6. 
 
 LEADING EVENTS. 
 
 Paris Besieged by Regner Lodbrog 845 a.d. 
 
 Paris Besieged by Rollo 885 
 
 Rollo's Marriage with Gilla 912 
 
 The Death of RoUo 9.31 
 
 The Mm-der of William 1 942 
 
 The Death of Richard 1 996 
 
 The Death of Richard II 1026 
 
 The Bu-th of the Couqueror 1027 
 
 The Miu-dcr of Richard III 1028 
 
 The Mmdcr of Robert II 1035 
 
 WiUiam II. visits Eugiaud 1052 
 
 * SaxAm Chronicle: Florence of Worcester terms them "a vast retinue 
 of Normans." 
 
 (
 
 (185> 
 
 CHAPTER XX. 
 
 EDWARD THE CONFESSOR : OR, ENGLAND UNDER THE RULE 
 OF HAROLD THE EARL, FROM 1053 TO 1066. 
 
 Upon the death of Godwin his son Harold succeeded to Edward 
 his position at the king's court and in the hearts of the feasor's' 
 
 people. app'ei^ 
 
 It may not be uninteresting to read that Edward the ance and 
 Confessor was of a moderate height. His personal nauits, 
 appearance was of a pleasing description : his hair and 
 beard were milk white ; his face was full and ruddy ; 
 his hands were thin and white ; his figure was perfect 
 and kinglikc. He was of a cheerful, though quiet, 
 disposition. To every one he was affable and conde- 
 scending ; and when he refused a request he did so in 
 such a courteous manner that he seemed to confer a 
 favour. In public he conducted himself as king and 
 ruler : in private he was as a companion to his friends. 
 He counselled the bishops and other religious men to 
 act up to tlieir professions ; and he caused the judicial 
 chiefs and lawyers to administer justice with equity, 
 and to condemn crime. He did away with evil laws, 
 and made just ones to take their place. Ho delighted 
 in hawks and other liirds of prey ; and also in dogs. 
 He passed most of his time in hunting, in religious 
 devotions, in conversation with abVtots and monks, and 
 in acts of hospitality.' 
 
 With such a ch.'iractor it was altogotlicr impossible 
 that Edward should rule the land without the help of 
 
 ' Vita ^duardi.
 
 186 ENGLAND UNDER THE RULE 
 
 The great nien able to conduct campaigns, and to influence the 
 Earls. Witan. He was simply the head of a confederation of 
 nobles, who succeeded to their fathers' positions and 
 estates as a matter of course ; consequently, upon the 
 death of Godwin his son Harold succeeded him as earl 
 of Wessex, and Algar took his place as earl of East 
 Anglia.-' The influence of the Godwin family was thus 
 much lessened ; for whilst Godwin lived England was 
 divided into five parts — Northumbria under Siward, 
 Mercia under Leofric and Sweyn, East Anglia under 
 Harold, and Wessex under Godwin. But upon the 
 death of Siward in 1055, as his son WaltheoP was too 
 young^ to rule the turbulent Northumbrians, Tosti, 
 through the influence of his brother Harold and his 
 sister/ succeeded him. He was the king's and queen's 
 favourite ;* but notwithstanding his frequent attendance 
 at court, he ruled his subjects well for ten years. 
 
 The family biographer* draws a comparison between 
 Harold Harold and Tosti. They were distinguished by fine 
 
 djid. Tosti o */ 
 
 sons of ' forms, and were possessed of equal strength and bold- 
 ness. But Harold the elder was the taller, better able 
 to bear watching and want, of a more gentle turn of 
 mind, and more ready wit : he never took vengeance 
 upon any one, and whom he considered faithful he 
 consulted : he surpassed all people in strength of body 
 and mind, and, like a second Judas Maccabseus, he was 
 the friend of his own people and country : he was dis- 
 tinguished for his patience, and for his sympathetic 
 and friendly manner. Tosti was of a more serious turn 
 
 ' Saxon Chronicle. 
 ^ Waltheof was put to death by William I. It is stated that his head 
 •was cut off whilst he was repeating the Lord's prayer, and that he continued 
 to repeat \iafler his head was severed from his body. — Ordericus Vitalis. 
 ' Henry of Huntingdon. * Vita .^duardi. 
 
 Godwin.
 
 OF HAROLD THE EARL. 187 
 
 of mind, and more unrelenting in punishing guilt ; he Harold 
 was endowed with manly firmness : it was difficult to 
 see through his plans, and he seldom communicated 
 them to others : he presented gifts with the greatest 
 liberality. Each carried on in a steady manner their 
 respective duties, Tosti bravely, Harold with more wis- 
 dom than his brother. The writer concludes with the 
 statement that " no age and no country ever produced 
 two such men"^ and that, by their means, the king 
 dwelt in peace and security, and was able to enjoy him- 
 self with docjs and birds, and relifrious conversations 
 and exercises. 
 
 Another writer^ states that Harold was brave in 
 arms, of great stature and incomparable strength, and 
 excelled in personal beauty all the great leaders of the 
 world ; that he was the right hand of the king ; and 
 that, endowed witli wisdom, and skilled in all accom- 
 plishments which became a soldier, he showed himself 
 an illustrious man in everything. 
 
 Harold paid a visit to Rome.^ On his way he care- Harold 
 fully studied the habits of the chiefs and people with ^^rts 
 whom he came in contact. After a course of prayer 
 and confession^ he returned to England, and escaped 
 the plots of those whose enmity lie had aroused. 
 
 Harold is reported to have paid a special visit to 
 William of Normandy: Imt it is highly probable that he 
 did not do so, as (i.) no Saxon writer alludes to such a 
 visit; (ii.) it is mentioned by on I \ oiu; contemporary 
 writer," whose biography contains statements* which 
 
 ' Vita ^flunrdi. • De Inventiono Sanctoj Crucis. 
 
 » Williairi of roilitTs, tlic Conqncror'H cliniilain. 
 
 • He states (a) tliat E<lwaril made William of Normandy his heir in 
 10)2, wlicreaM Florcnrc of Worcester and otlicr writers state tliat I-Mward 
 Bumraoued Edward the Athcling and his family from Uuugary to England
 
 188 ENGLAND UNDER THE RULE 
 
 are contradicted by a consensus of authority; (iii.) 
 succeeding Norman writers contradict one another 
 concerning the particulars of Harold's visit.^ 
 Harold Various explanations have been given for Harold's 
 
 visits 
 
 wuiiam of visit to William of Normandy in 1063 — (i.) he was 
 Normandy crossing the sea to Flanders, and was driven by a storm 
 
 in 1057, as he wished to make him his heir : (b) he states that Edward gave 
 William in 1042 Wulfuoth and Haco, the son and grandson of Godwin, as 
 pledges of his succession ; whereas the Saxon Chronicle, Vita JSduardi, 
 Henry of Huntingdon, Matthew of Westminster, do not mention these 
 hostages. 
 
 * Matthew of Westminster states that Harold bound himself by an oath 
 to deliver up to William the castle of Canterbury, and the kingdom upon 
 the death of Edward ; in return, William betrothed him to his little girl, 
 and gave him her inheritance and his intimate friendship : but he does not 
 mention the expedition into Brittany, nor the oath upon the relics. 
 
 Henry of Huntingdon states that Harold swore upon the relics to marry 
 William's daughter, and to help him to become King of England after the 
 death of Edward ; he says not a word about the expedition into Brittany. 
 
 WOliam of Malmesbury says that Harold, of his own accord, pronnsed 
 William the castle of Dover, and the kingdom of England when Edward 
 died ; in return, William betrothed his child to Harold, promised that he 
 should continue to hold liis possessions in England, and received him into 
 Lis strictest intimacy. William took Harold with liim on an expedition 
 into Brittany, as he wished (a) to learn his disposition, (b) to try his 
 courage and strength, and (c) to show him that the Norman sword was 
 better than the Saxon battle-axe : but he does not mention the oath upon 
 ike relics. 
 
 The Bayeux Tapestry shows that Guy of Ponthieu took Harold to 
 Beaurain ; Wace states that he took him first to Abbeville, and then to 
 Beaurain. 
 
 Wace says that William gave Guy lands in exchange for Harold ; Benoit 
 states that threats and military preparations occasioned his release. 
 
 Wace says that Harold swore on the relics at Bayeux ; Ordericus Vitalis 
 says at Rouen ; and William of Poitiers at Bonneville ; and we are informed 
 that the oath was taken (a) in the palace, (b) under an oak tree near 
 Rouen. 
 
 Guy of Amiens states that Harold did homage, promised allegiance, and 
 swore three oaths to William. The Tapestry shows that Harold was 
 knighted by William after the campaign into Brittany, but Wace says 
 before it. 
 
 Wace states that he took the oath after the expedition into Brittany ; 
 William of Poitiers states before that expedition. Wace mentions three or 
 four expeditions into Brittany ; the other writers record only one.
 
 OF HAROLD THE EAEL. 189 
 
 upon the coast of Pontliieu^; the statement that Harold Harold 
 crossed the sea coincides with plate iv. of the Bayeux wiiuam of 
 Tapestry—" Hie Harold : Mare: Navigavit "—here Har- Normandy 
 old has put to sea ; and that he encountered a storm is 
 corroborated by plate v.— "Et velis: Vento: Plenis 
 Venit: In Terra: Widonis Comitis"— and his sails, 
 being filled vjith ivlnd, he comes to the land of Count 
 Wido, that is, Guy : (ii.) that, while Harold was amusing 
 himself in a fishing boat," a storm drove him upon the 
 shores of France : (iii.) that he was ordered by the king 
 to go to William and assure him that he should have 
 the realm after his death' : (iv.) that Harold pitied the 
 hostages, and was anxious to bring them home f but 
 when he went to take leave of the king, Edward, by 
 entreaty and command, desired him not to go to 
 Normandy, lest William, who was very shrewd, should 
 draw hira into some snare ; and he suggested the des- 
 patch of a messenger in his place : (v.) that, being bound 
 hand and foot' and cast into prison by Guy, Harold, in 
 order to obtain freedom through William, jy^^etended he 
 had been sent by Edward to confirm the promise he 
 had made to him by inferior persons concerning his 
 succession to the throne of England : (vi.) that, having 
 been cast into prison and bound with chains on suspicion 
 of being a spy," in order to obtain his release, Harold 
 informe<l Willium tliat he was prevented by the Count 
 of Pontliieu from delivering to him certain messages 
 from King PMwurd ; und the same authority also states 
 
 ' Henry of Huntingflon : thin writer places Harold's visit to Nomiaudy 
 in 106U, btlorc liix last exiieilitiou into Wales. 
 
 » Will, of Malmcsbury ; Matt, of Westminster. 
 
 ' Wace : this idea is portrayed in the Bayeux Tuitcstry. 
 
 ♦ Wace : tlii.H writer asserts that Harold swore uimjii tiiu relics, 
 
 • Will, ol Maluieabury. * Matt, of VVustuiinbter.
 
 190 ENGLAND UNDER THE RULE 
 
 that Harold was sent into Normandy to conduct 
 William to England, as Edward was thinking of making 
 him his heir : (vii.) Harold was sent by the king to 
 Harold's confirm upon oath^ the promise that Edward had made 
 William when he ascended the throne ; and that Harold 
 was chosen to do this particular service for three 
 reasons — (1) he was the first of Edward's subjects 
 in wealth, honour, and power ; (2) the hostages that 
 Edward had given William as pledges of his succession 
 to the Saxon throne were Harold's brother and nephew; 
 (3) should the Saxons object to William's succession, 
 and make some new arrano'ements in accordance with 
 their customary perfidiousness, Harold, by his wealth 
 and influence, would be able to overcome their objec- 
 tions. The same writer states that Harold swore fealty 
 to William, and promised to be his representative 
 in the Saxon senate, to do all he could to establish 
 William upon the throne after the death of Edward, 
 and, meanwhile, to permit him to garrison Dover Castle 
 and other places. 
 
 Bearing, therefore, in mind the silence of Saxon 
 writers upon so important a matter, the incredible 
 statements of the Conqueror's chaplain concerning it, 
 
 • William of Poitier.s : this writer states that Harold's brother Wulfnoth 
 and his nephew Haco were delivered up by Edward to Williuin of Nor- 
 mandy as early as 1042 : this statement is incredible lor two reasons — (a) at 
 that time William was a boy, and {h) Godwin was the most powerful man 
 in England. And Godwin would not have given up his son and grandson in 
 1052, as some writers suppose, lor at that time England was at his feet. 
 Again, if Harold went to Normandy in 106.3 to redeem the hostages, he 
 would have brought back with him his brother, and not his nephew : and 
 yet William of Poitiers states that he returned with his nephew only ; 
 and in this statement he is indirectly backed up by William of Malmesbury, 
 •who has it that Wulfnoth spent his life in captivity, and died as an old man 
 in confinement at Salisbury : Florence of Worcester states that Wulfuoth 
 was released by the Conqueror on his deathbed, but that the Rufus 
 confined him in Winchester.
 
 OF HAROLD THE EARL. 191 
 
 and the conflicting explanations given by succeeding 
 writers as to the manner in which Harold got to 
 Normandy, and the object that took him there, together 
 with their irreconcileable records of his words and acts 
 whilst there, we cannot but conclude that it is more 
 than probable that Harold did not swear allegiance to 
 William, and that he did not visit Normandy, unless he 
 did so on his way to or from Rome. 
 
 In the previous chapter we read of Harold's success- 
 ful campaigns in Wales. By the death of Griffith he 
 removed a dangerous neighbour, and an encourager of 
 sedition in the land Moreover, by marrying his widow, 
 Elgitha, daughter of Algar, Earl of Mercia,^ he put an 
 end to the hostility of the adherents of her house, if 
 he did not secure the friendship and co-operation of her 
 brothers Edwin and Morcar. 
 
 In 10G5 Tosti was outlawed by the thanes of his earl- outlaw of 
 dom, because he robbed God,^ and had ill-used those 
 under his rule;'^ because the tliane Cospatric had been 
 treacherously killed at court by the queen for Tosti's 
 sake.^and the thanes Gamel and Ulf in Tosti's chamber 
 at York ;^ because his subjects had lieard that he had 
 assaulted his brother Harold in the king's presence, as 
 ho was jealous of his favour with the king,* and (ii.it 
 Harold had djished him upon Uk; lluor,^ and that in 
 revenge Tosti killed and mutilated Harold's servants at 
 Hereford; because of liis austere manners." 
 
 Another writer' prais(is Tosti, and ri^fers to his 
 devotion and magnificf.'iico whilst on a pilgrimage; to 
 Rome in tlie company of his wifr .Tudith, and his 
 
 ' See uext page. ' tiaxun Chronide. ' I'lor. of Worcester. 
 
 * Henry of Huntingflou : ho atates that Tcsti wan older than Harolil. 
 
 • Malt, of Westminster. * Will, of MalmcHl.iiry. ' Vita JCiluanli.
 
 192 
 
 ENGLAND UNDER THE RULE 
 
 O 
 !^ 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 I— I 
 
 o 
 m 
 h^i 
 
 f^ 
 o 
 
 w 
 
 ai 
 P 
 O 
 W 
 
 I 
 
 > 
 
 o 
 
 *?; a 
 
 OS 
 
 o 
 O 
 
 o 
 
 h-l 
 
 ■ t/j- 
 
 o 
 
 •c*" 2 
 
 ^ OS ^ 
 CO r^ 
 
 ^-rt o 
 
 
 f3 CS 
 
 a '3 
 -« o 
 
 r«' 
 
 w 
 
 Oj ^ 
 
 a 
 o 
 m 
 
 to 
 
 t3 
 
 2
 
 OF HAROLD THK EARL. 193 
 
 brother Gurth. When Northuinbria came under his xosti. 
 rule, highway robbery and murder were very frequent 
 in the land : this portion of England had always been 
 noted for its wild character ; out of fourteen of its 
 rulers only one had died in possession of the earldom^ 
 the others had been killed, banished, or had become 
 monks. It was no easy matter, therefore, for Tosti to 
 rule such a people. He put down robbery and murder 
 with impartiality. His strictness was hateful to his 
 subjects ; so a faction of the nobles formed a conspiracy 
 against him, and they invited to their aid Edwin and, 
 Morcar, as these nobles had hated Tosti^ for a long time. 
 They were successful in every direction : they seized 
 Tosti's treasures,^ killed his huscarls and adherents, and 
 banishing him, made Morcar their earl.'' Morcar led 
 them to Northampton, where he was joined l)y his 
 brother Edwin, and many Welshmen.* 
 
 The king was anxious that the rising should bo put 
 down by force of arms,' and Harold set out to avenge'* 
 his brother's expulsion. But when he came to North- 
 ampton ho tried to reconcile* the contending parties, 
 but he failed to do so ; the Northundjrians informed 
 him that they were a free people, and unable to put iip 
 vvith the cruelty of any prince, and that they had lieen 
 taugiit Ijy their ancestors to be free, or to die.'* 
 
 Great Councils were held at Northampton and council at 
 Oxford," and ambassadors'"' were sent between the king's ampton. 
 court and the reljel's camp, and Tosti called God to 
 witness-' that he was innocent oi' the charges laid against 
 him, but to no purpo.se; and, while negociations were be- 
 ing carried on, the Northuinbrian.s, Mercian.s, and Welsh 
 
 ' ViU yEdii.irdi. * Flor. of WnrccHtor. ' Henry of Hiiiitiii;;ilon. 
 * tiuxon VhronicU, * Will, of MaliiieBbury. ' Malt, of WcstniiiiHter.
 
 194 ENGLAND UNDER THE RULE 
 
 killed men, and burnt houses and corn.^ At last the 
 king was persuaded, much against his will, to give his 
 consent to the banishment of Tosti. It is stated that 
 Harold influenced the king in favour of Morcar, as he 
 regarded the quiet of the country more than the 
 advantage of his brother f but it was whispered that 
 he had, by deceitful plans,^ excited the revolt of the 
 Northumbrians. 
 
 Edward gave pledges that he had granted the 
 demand of the Northumbrians to have Morcar to rule 
 over them, and he renewed Canute's law;* so they 
 departed northwards, taking with them thousands of 
 cattle,* and hundreds* or thousands^ of captives. 
 Northampton and the bordering counties suffered for 
 many years* after their visit. 
 Departure Tosti, enraged against everyone,^ departed with his 
 wife and children to Flanders, to seek the protection 
 and aid of his father-in-law, Baldwin, its Count. We 
 may here pause to consider the intimate and sincere 
 ties of relationship and of friendship that united the 
 county of Flanders with the country of England. 
 We have read that the founder of the family of 
 Baldwin married Judith, the widow of Ethelwulf, and 
 the divorced wife of his son Ethelbald ; and that their 
 son Baldwin married Ethelswitha, the daughter of 
 King Alfred. After this marriage Flanders became 
 the house of refuge of the rulers of Wessex. In 1037, 
 when Queen Emma was banished from Wessex, which 
 she held in the name of her son Hardicanute, she sailed 
 to Bruges, and there dwelt in safety. In 1040, when 
 Hardicanute determined to seize England by force of 
 
 » Matt, of Westminster. ■ Will, of Malmesbury. •'' Vita ^duardi 
 * Saxcm Chronicle. ' Henry of Huntingdon. 
 
 hi Tosti.
 
 OF HAROLD THE EARL. 195 
 
 arms, it was to Bruges that he sailed for aid and advice. 
 In 1046, wheu Sweyn, Godwin's son, was pronounced 
 a " nithincr," it was to the Count of Baldwin that he 
 fled for refuge. In 1049, Edward of England leagued 
 with the foes of Baldwin : from henceforth this " ancieni 
 friend of the Enf{lish race"^ attached himself more 
 closely to the party of Godwin, so much so that when 
 the latter was exiled, Baldwin treated him nobly whilst 
 he abode within his domains, and aided him when he 
 sou'dit to recover his lands and his honours. And again, 
 when Gytha, the noble wife of such a noble man as 
 Godwin, and the excellent mother of such excellent 
 sons a.s Harold, Gurth, and Leof wine, widowed, desolate 
 and alone, but not heart-brokened, sought the house of 
 Baldwin, she was consoled by him and his, and also 
 aided by them in her heroic efforts to avenge the 
 slaughter of her offspring. Verily Baldwin was a 
 friend of the English race ! 
 
 The king was stricken to the heart with grief at the 
 forced absence of his favourite, so that he sickened 
 and continued sick to the day of his death, complain- Death of 
 ing that he was deserted by those who should have coniessor, 
 protected him.^ At his deathbed stood the queen, lo^e. 
 flarold, and Stigand : to his wife he said— " May God 
 grant favour to you, my wife, for the kind way in 
 which you have done your duty to me ;" and to Harold 
 lie said—" / commend this realm to you to he (juanled 
 by you;" and asked him to defend those Normans 
 who, out of love for him, ha<l come to England, or 
 to send them back to their own land. 
 
 Edward end.;ared himsc-lf to his subjects by relieving The 
 them of the tax called Dancgelt, which was lirst °*°*'^°"- 
 
 ' Vita iEduardi.
 
 19(3 
 
 ENGLA.ND UNDER THE RULE 
 
 West- 
 minster 
 Abbey. 
 
 The Con- 
 fessor's 
 habits. 
 
 imposed by his father, Etheh-ed the Unready, for the 
 payment of his Danish huscarls,^ and which the Saxons 
 had paid their kings for thirty-eight years.^ This heavy 
 impost of 38,000^ pounds of silver distressed the people 
 very much f it was paid before all other taxes.^ 
 Edward was also sparing in the exactions of other 
 taxes, and abominated the insolence of their collectors.* 
 
 When an exile at the court of the Norman dukcs,^ 
 Edward had made a vow that he would visit Rome if 
 he obtained his father's kingdom : when king. Pope Leo 
 absolved him from his vow on condition that he either 
 built or restored a monastery ; thereupon he restored 
 the Abbey of Westminster, and, with the consent of 
 the Witan, he endowed it with estates, revenues, and 
 privileges.^ This noble erection was completed just 
 before his death, and his was the first body that was 
 entombed within its walls.' 
 
 The king appears to have been fond of ships. On 
 four occasions he took part in a naval demonstration, 
 in 104G when England was threatened by Magnus of 
 Norway, in 1048 after Sandwich had been ravaged, in 
 1049 when he took the part of the Emperor of Germany 
 against Baldwin of Flanders, and in 1052 when Godwin 
 returned from banishment. 
 
 He led an active life, for in the morning he attended 
 divine service, and then enjoyed himself with fleet dogs 
 and in falconry ■} the rest of the day was spent in con- 
 versations with men of religious orders,^ and with 
 supplying the poor with the necessaries^ of life, and in 
 entertaining the stranger and the foreigner.^ 
 
 But, notwithstanding the fact that he advised his 
 
 ' Matt, of Westminster. » Flor. of Worcester. ' Saxon Chronicle. 
 * Will, of Malmesbiiry. ' Ricliard II., Richard III., Robert.
 
 OF HAROLD THE EARL. 197 
 
 bishops and abbots to act up to their callinfr,^ and the "^e Con- 
 
 f6ssor's 
 administrators of the law to decide justly, and punish character. 
 
 vice,* and that he pitied the poor and feeble,* yet he 
 
 ordered Godwin to fall upon the citizens of Dover,^ and 
 
 Harold to destroy the rebels at Nortliampton,* and 
 
 thus he showed that at times he was endowed with the 
 
 ruthless spirit of his father. 
 
 Though jealous of his kingly prerogatives, he rarely 
 
 wore the regal ornaments.* And such sanctity was 
 
 attached to his person, that he has the credit of having 
 
 cured skin disea.se with his fingers dipped in water ; 
 
 and the water in which he washed his hands restored 
 
 the blind to siglit.^ But his simplicity and sanctity 
 
 did not increase his filial love, for he seized his mother's 
 
 treasures and land.s, and afterwards bani.shed her,* 
 
 because she had mocked* his needy state and never 
 
 fi.ssisted him during the many years that he lived upon 
 
 the bounty of strangers and foreigners ; nor did these 
 
 excellent traits of character prevent him swearing St. 
 
 Dun.stan's oath* at a peasant, and threatening him 
 
 Ijccause he had interfered with his arranirements wiiilst 
 
 hunting deer.' He was also credited with the gift of 
 
 prophecy ; and it is stated that lie foretold the evils that 
 
 should befall England after his death, and announced 
 
 their ce.s.sation in the words — "When a txreen tree shall 
 
 be cut througli the middle, and the part cut off, after 
 
 having been carried a distance of three acres from the 
 
 stem, .shall unite itself to the stem without anyassistancc, 
 
 bud out with leaves and stretch forth its fruit as before 
 
 from the sap uniting once more."* 
 
 ' Vita jE^lunnli. ' .Soxwi ChrrniicU. » Will, of MnlmcHbnry. 
 
 * Honn- of Hiintinfrflon. • " By Ooil .nnd Ihh niotliiT." 
 
 •Will, of MalrncMt)iiry : Tlic ftjicn tree luc.ins the Knxon dynaHty ; tlio 
 severing of the trunk nicana the ctwtation of the liouae of Cerdic ; the three
 
 198 ENGLAND UNDER THE RULE OF HAROLD. 
 
 The Edward was liked by Saxons and Normans, so that 
 
 S'rhf ^l^en he died one and all united in lamenting his 
 Confessor, departure, and in expressing the sorrows of the people. 
 We read that he was buried " amidst the tears of the 
 crowds who flocked to his funeral ;"^ that his body was 
 washed "with the tears of his countrymen;"^ that he 
 surrendered " his pure spirit to heaven ;"^ that he 
 
 exchanged "his temporal kingdom for an eternal one ;'' 
 
 " This noble, from earth 
 angels carried, 
 Steadfast soul, 
 into heaven's light,"* 
 
 and that his last words to his wife''' were : "I do not 
 die, hut grow strong in my God." 
 
 LEADING EVENTS. 
 
 Tosti, Earl of Northumbria 1055 a.d. 
 
 Harold's supposed Visit to Normandy 1 063 
 
 The Banishiuent of Tosti 1065 
 
 The Death of Edward the Confessor 1066 
 
 acres signify Harold, William I., William IT. ; the two parts of the trunk 
 indicate the Saxon and Norman dynasties ; the union of the two parts of 
 the trunk indicate the marriage of Henry I. and Matilda of Scotland ; the 
 leaves refer to their daughter Matilda, and the fruit is her son Henry XL 
 ' Flor. of Worcester. = Vita ^duardi. •'' 'Will, of Malmesbury. 
 
 * Matt, of Westminster. ' Saxm Chronicle.
 
 (199) 
 
 CHAPTER XXL 
 
 WILLIA3I, DUKE OF NORMANDY. 
 
 We have read that William was opposed by his nobles, wmiam of 
 
 ' '^ '' . Normandy 
 
 who were headed by Guy of Burgundy. Guy fancied 
 that he had a better right to the duchy of Noi-mandy 
 than William, as he was the legitimate grandson of 
 Richard II. He attacked William by night, and had it 
 not been for his jester, the Norman duke would have 
 been killed in his bed ; as it was he escaped in a half 
 naked state, with his breeches, shirt, and cloak.^ Guy 
 and his confederates were defeated at the battle of 
 Valesdune, 1047. 
 
 Henry .'^ King of France, took the part of William at 
 the battle of Valesdune. He did so from a dec{) sense 
 of duty, as he remembered that he owed his throne to 
 the Norman duke's father. In retiu-n for his helj) 
 cU^ainst liis rebel nobles, William assisted the French 
 king in his encounter with Geoffrey of Anjou." William 
 was now, though only twenty years old, full of manly 
 vigour,^ and so recklessly brave that when alone he 
 would attack numbers, and, in the hour of battle, 
 would rush into the thickest ranks of the foe. 
 
 By his cx[)loits against Geoffrey he gained Henry's 
 greatest regard, who styled him the ornament of the 
 French and the safeguard of the Normans.'^ 
 
 Geoffrc^'^ waH the son of Fulk, Count of Aiijou. Ills 
 
 ' Wacc's Roman de Rnxt. » Will, of MnlmoHbiiry. 
 
 • Geoffrey's Histcr wa.M the inotlior of Kiilk, who was the; xT.'iniifalhor of 
 Gcoilrey, thu hu.sbaud of Matihla ol Eugluinl, and tliu father of Liuury II.
 
 200 ■ WILLIAM, DUKE OF NORMANDY. 
 
 GeofTrey father, when old, entrusted his dominions to hirn. 
 ^°^' Geoffrey treated his subjects very badly, and was also 
 insolent to his father, and took up arms against him, 
 whereupon the old man defended himself, and compelled 
 his son to carry a saddle^ upon his back for some miles, 
 in token of submission and in acknowledgment of his 
 bad conduct: when they met, Fulk spurned his son 
 with his foot, exclaiming, "You are conquered." "Yes," 
 retorted Geoffrey, "by you, as you are my father; to 
 others I am altogether invincible." This spirit of in- 
 vincibility led Geoffrey to contend in battle with many 
 of his neighbours. He attacked and defeated the earls 
 of Poitou and of Blois, and took possession of their terri- 
 tories. And he also seized the castle of Alencon,' which 
 belonged to Normandy. As soon as William heard of 
 its capture he marched into Anjou : and though Geof- 
 fry^ boasted that he would show the world that an 
 Angevin could beat a Norman in battle, yet he retreated 
 without striking a blow. 
 WiUiam of The Norman duke hud next to fight against William, 
 ^^^^^" earl of Arches, and Guy of Ponthieu. Such was the 
 terror his appearance inspired that more than three 
 hundred soldiers, who had left the castle of Arches to 
 plunder, fled as soon as they saw him, though he had 
 only a few followers^ with him at the time. The earl 
 AVilliam was helped by the king of France, who, doubt- 
 less, had become jealous of the reputation of the duke 
 of Normandy. 
 
 And now William had to struggle against the over- 
 whelming forces of France, which over-ran Normandy 
 in two armies : the one was led by the king in person : 
 the other was under the command of his brother. 
 
 ' Will of Malmesbviry.
 
 WILLIA3I, DUKE OF NORMANDY. • 201 
 
 William also divided his army into two divisions: with xiieKin^ 
 the one he followed the marches of Henry, watching °f ^^j^'^^^ 
 
 for an opportunity to attack him with advantao-e: the Duke of 
 
 ^ . , . , Normaudy 
 
 other division was victorious at Morteraar, as the king's fight. 
 
 brother, with his forces, fled after a slight engagement- 
 Guy of Ponthieu was captured^ at this battle. When 
 William heard of the victory at Mortemar he sent a 
 messenger to proclaim it, in the dead of night, close to 
 the king's tent.^ When Henry heard the news he fled 
 back to France and made peace with William, 1054. 1054. 
 
 In the year 1058 Henry entered Normandy for the loss, 
 second time, boasting that the sea^ alone should put a 
 stop to his advance. On this occasion William exhibited 
 the skill of a great general. He did not oppose the 
 march of the French army before they came to the 
 river Dive.^ Part of Henry's forces had crossed the 
 river, and then William fell upon that part that had 
 not crossed, and completely overwhehncd it: the tide 
 prevented their fellows re-crossiiig to their aid ; and 
 Henry, having witnessed the destruction of his forces, 
 returned home and died. 
 
 Before the death of Edward the Confessor, William 
 had obtained the goodwill of Baldwin of Flanders, and 
 had married his daughter Matilda:^ he was at peace 
 with Philip, King of France; and he had addetl, by 
 conquest, Maine and Brittany U) iiis domains. Ontj of 
 his admirers' states that he was at that time " vigorous, 
 and full of wisdom in all thini's." And another* asserts 
 that he heard and judged in his own person " the cause 
 
 ' William of MahncKliury. 
 
 ' Matilfla was the fifth in ilesccnt from lUliulswitha, onoof tho daughters 
 of Aliiwl the Gnat ; her sister wiw .ludilli, ToHti'« wi c. 
 
 * Guy, in Lis "Carmen do BcUo llahtingensi." * William of Poitier*.
 
 202 WILLIAM, DUKE OF NORMANDY. 
 
 wiiuam of of the poor, the fatherless, and the widow ;" and that 
 
 Normandy ^jg justice "kept back his courtiers and favourites from 
 
 deeds of wrong ;" and that so impartial and strict was 
 
 he, that in his days " the mighty man durst not remove 
 
 the landmark of his poor neighbour." 
 
 And while Harold was protecting churches and 
 monasteries,^ and building and endowing his abbey at 
 Waltham^ for the Seculars; William, under the guidance 
 of Lanfranc, was building churches and fostering the 
 cause of the Reo^ulars. While Harold was victorious 
 over Wales, and beloved in England, William was the 
 model ruler upon the continent. Such were the two 
 men who stood forth as giants in ability, strength, 
 bravery, generalship, and undaunted determination 
 amongst their contemporaries. 
 
 LEADING EVENTS. 
 
 The Battle of Valesdune 1047 a.p. 
 
 The Battle of Mortemar 1054 
 
 William's Victory upon the Dive 1058 
 
 ' Flor. of Worcester. * De Tnventione SanctiE Crucis.
 
 (203) 
 
 CHAPTER XXIL 
 
 HAROLD, THE KING. 
 
 Upon the death of Edward, there were three claimants Harold 
 to the throne of England, Harold, son of Godwin, Edgar g°^^^ 
 the Atheling, and William of Normandy, 
 
 The Confessor, being fully aware of the rivalry that 
 existed between Harold and William of Normandy, was 
 wishful to make Edward,^ the son of his half-brother, 
 Edmund the Ironside, his heir. Edward the Athelinjr, Edward, 
 who was neither valiant nor a man of ability,^ lived in outlaw. 
 Hungary, where he had married the sister of the queen 
 of that country. He came to England, at his uncle's 
 request, in 1057, Ijut he had scarcely landed, and had 
 not seen Edward's face before he died' of illness, leavincr 
 a son and t\vo daughters dependent upon the king's 
 bounty. 
 
 His son was Edgar the Atheling. He had nothing Edgar 
 to recommend him : he was a mere boy, and was foreign ^'J^ ^ 
 born and bred ; and though some* of the Saxons sou'dit 
 to make him king, as the Confessor had recommended 
 him as nearest to the throne in point of birth,'^ his 
 claims were disallowed. 
 
 William, duke of Normandy, claimed the throne of 
 England upon three grounds, (1) KiKvard'.s promise,' (2) 
 Harold's oatii," ('}) relationship* to the Sa.xon king 
 
 ' Sec page 103. ' Will, of Maliiicsbury. 
 
 ■ Harold, and also the Xonnans, are Hu.si«;r.terl of liaviM>{ killivl liim. 
 
 * Heurj- of Huntingdon. * William of ToitiiirH. • Wacc.
 
 204 HAKOLD, THE KING. 
 
 William's (1) As regards Edward's promise/ the throne of 
 the^'tlirone England was not an hereditary one, consequently this 
 of England promise, unless it had been made with the full know- 
 ledge and consent of the Witan and the Saxon people, 
 was of no avail. And it is evident that even William's 
 chaplain looked upon it in this light, for he states that 
 Harold declared, after he had taken the oath, that he 
 would be " duke William's representative^ in the Senate 
 (that is, the Witan) of his master King Edward as long 
 as he lived." 
 
 (2) As regards the oath, we have given our reasons 
 for concluding that it is more than probable that it was 
 never taken. If Harold took the oath of allegiance to 
 William, he must have taken it with the full knowledge 
 that he would not be able to be true to his oath, there- 
 fore he stands forth as a self-convicted perjurer. If 
 he promised to do all that he could to raise William to 
 the Saxon throne, he did so without consulting the 
 Saxon Witan, therefore, he was a traitor to his country. 
 If he promised to admit a Norman garrison into Dover 
 or Canterbury Castle without his sovereign's knowledge 
 and express sanction, he was a rebel ; but contemporary 
 writers, who knew him well, write of him as no false 
 swearer, traitor, or rebel. 
 
 (8) As regards William's claim to the throne of 
 England upon the grounds of relationship to its king, 
 he was simply the illegitimate son of Edward's cousin. 
 As to the claims of Harold, son of Godwin, they 
 were universally acknowledged — (i.) by the king, who 
 addressed him, within the hour of his death, with the 
 
 * "Will, of Malmeshury states that Edward gave the succession of Eng- 
 land to "William of Normandy upon the death ol' Edward of Hungary. 
 
 » William of Poitiers.
 
 HAKOLD, THE KING. 205 
 
 words — " / commend this realm to you to he guarded Harold's 
 by you."'- (ii.) By the Saxon nobility and people^ — the throne 
 
 " And the sage" (that is the Witan) of England 
 
 the realm covimitted to a high bom man, 
 Harold's self, 
 the nohle earl. 
 He in all time 
 his rightful lord 
 obeyed faithfully 
 by words and deeds, 
 nor aught neglected 
 that needful was 
 to his sovereign king." 
 
 (iii.) By consecration and coronation : upon the day of 
 
 King Edward's burial Harold was consecrated* and 
 
 crowned as king by Aldrcd/' Archbishop of York. 
 
 When Harold ascended the throne of Encjland it had Accession 
 
 ° ,ofHaxold. 
 
 been occupied for 571 years by the descendants of 
 
 Cerdic. Unlike his predecessors, he held it, not through 
 
 ' Vita iEduardi. 
 ' S'txim Chronicle : the Norman writurs unite in denying Harold's claims 
 to the throne. Guy of Amiens states that he " look the crown contrary to 
 all right;" William of Malmesbury says "Harold siirjd tlic crown and 
 extorted Irom the nobles tlieir consent ;" Henry of Huntingdon has it that 
 "Harold, relying on his power and his jtretensions by birth, seised the 
 crown ;" Williairi of Poitiers observes, " Harold, the mad Englishman, did 
 not wait to find out the wishes of the jjcojile, but on the vciy day of 
 Ivlward's burial asfnaiied the crown ;" Matthew of Westminster stales that 
 " Harold extorted an oath of fealty from the nobles, and placed the crown 
 on his own head ;" Wace says that Edward, being pressed by Harold and 
 his frien<ls to name liim liis successor, said — " I>ct the Knglish make the 
 Duko or Harold king, ns they jilease." 
 
 ' Florence of Worcester states that Harold was chosen bis succesBor by 
 F.<lward, an<l also elected by liie nobility as king. 
 
 * Harold having sticcccded to tlie kingdom as the king had granted it to 
 him, and had alsor/ifwcn him thereto, was blestied as kinr/. — SaximVhrimicle. 
 
 ' Florence of Worcester: In order to throw discredit uj)on Harold's 
 ■nccession, certain Norman writers state that ho was crowned by Ktigand, 
 who had been excoinmnni<-afi'd iH'Cfuiso (a) lio Jiad become archbishop 
 during the absence of Holicrt., (indwin's foe, and {!>) he had received the 
 pallium from I'.fncdif-t X. who had nsurpcil the I'ajial Hi-e. Most probably 
 both Stigand and Aldred were present at Harold's corouation.
 
 20G 
 
 HAROLD, THE KINO. 
 
 Harold's 
 conduct. 
 
 William 
 hears of 
 Harold's 
 accession. 
 
 divine or hereditary right, but because, by continued 
 integrity, industry, and bravery, he had become more 
 prudent in council, more powerful in arms, more skilled 
 in the laws of the land than any one of his contem- 
 poraries.-' 
 
 And as soon as Harold held the reins of government 
 he began to abolish unjust laws and frame good ones. 
 He favoured the churches, monasteries, and the clergy 
 of every degree. He showed himself kind and con- 
 siderate to those who observed the laws; but to the 
 evil-doer he was most strict, for he ordered everyone 
 who was responsible for the order and quietness of the 
 land, from the earl down to the humblest officer of 
 peace, to arrest thieves, robbers, and public disturbers, 
 while the navy and army were constantly kept at work 
 to secure the safety of the country by land and by sea.* 
 Meanwhile the Norman duke and the exiled earl were 
 plotting the destruction of Harold, and the overthrow 
 of the Saxon dynasty. 
 
 William was in his park at Rouen when he heard the 
 news of the change of kinoes in Eu'dand. "In' his hand 
 he held a bow which he had strung and bent, making 
 it ready for the arrow, when a soldier, who had 
 journeyed from England, went straight to the duke, 
 and told him that King Edward was dead, and that 
 Harold was raised to be king." When the duke heard 
 this, " he became as a man enraged. Oft did he tie his 
 mantle, and oft he untied it again. He spoke to no 
 man, and no man dare speak to him. Then he crossed 
 the river Seine in a boat, and came to his hall and 
 entered therein. He sat down at the end of a bench, 
 
 ' De Inventione SanctK Crucis. 
 ' Flor. of Worcester. * Wace.
 
 HAROLD, THE KING. 207 
 
 shifting his phice from time to time, covering his face 
 with a mantle and resting his head against a pillar. 
 Thus he remained long in deep thought; for no one 
 dare speak to him ; but many asked aside, * What ails 
 the duke ? why makes he such bad cheer V" 
 
 William of Normandy made up his mind to invade wimam'3 
 England. He sent a special messenger to Pope Alexan- tions for 
 der III., who gave him his blessing, and also a standard^ invasion 
 as an auspicious presentiment of the conquest of of England 
 England. He afterwards summoned a council of his 
 nobles in order to obtain their advice and help in his 
 great undertaking. It is very probable that more than 
 one meetin-^' was summoned before the nobles of 
 Normandy could be prevailed upon to help their duke 
 in his designs against England. It appears that William 
 was not present at the first meeting of his barons and 
 retainers : on this occasion the debate lasted a long 
 time, as the assembly could not come to a conclusion as 
 to what answer they should give him ; some complained 
 of grievances, others said they feared the sea and were 
 not obliged to serve beyond it, some expressed their 
 willingness to supply .ships and to cross the sea with their 
 duke, others said they would not go as they were poor.'^ 
 At another meeting William was present : several 
 barons tried to persuade him not to invade England ; 
 they sai<l that Harold had great riches with which ho 
 could gain ovc^r powerful kings to liis cause, that his 
 navy was large, and manned by experienced sailors, and 
 that he liinl more soldiers than ho had.' I>ut tho 
 Norman duke was not to be moved from his purpose; 
 lie dispelled tlie fears of his listeners V)y assuring them 
 that they would soon be sup[)lied with a navy, and by 
 
 * Will of Malmcsbury, • Wace. * William of roiticrs.
 
 20S 
 
 HAROLD, THE KING. 
 
 William's 
 prepara- 
 tions for 
 the inva- 
 sion of 
 England. 
 
 remindinfj thera of the gtooJ fortune and valour of the 
 Normans; and he excited their cupidity by promising 
 them the lands of the Saxons : after this speech they 
 were eager^ for the expedition.^ 
 
 The mouth of the river Divc,^ in Normandy, was the 
 final place of meeting. The nobles were expected to 
 supply ships for the invasion of England, in proportion 
 to the extent^ of their possessions. Odo, bishop of 
 Bayeaux, and Roger de Beaumont each furnished one 
 hundred vessels ; Roger de Montgomery and William 
 Fitz Osbern each supplied sixty : while Walter Gitlard 
 brought with hiin thirty vessels and one hundred armed 
 mon.^ The total number of ships were 700 ; in addition 
 to these there were about 2,300 skiffs and boats.* 
 
 Great numbers flocked to William's standard. Fifty 
 thousand soldiers were in his own pay.^ An unfavour- 
 able wind detained them for a month ; yet, through the 
 duke's foresight, all had sufficient to eat without 
 plundering.^ 
 
 From the mouth of the Dive they proceeded to the 
 
 ' Will, of Malmesbury. 
 
 'Henry of Huntingdon states that William Fitz Osbern, duke William's 
 steward, met the chief barons, who had been called togetlier to consult 
 with the duke upon the conquest oT England, as they were about to enter 
 the council room, and, pretending that he was against the undertaking on 
 the ground that the Saxons were a most warlike people, he succeeded in 
 securing their pledges that they would abide by his speech at the approacli- 
 iiig consultation ; upon which he presented liinisell at tlieir head before tlie 
 duke, and assured liim that both he and tliey were reaily to follow him 
 wilk devotion in his proposed expedition. 
 
 Guy of Amiens writes that Wdliam, having assembled his barons together 
 told tliem that Harold had taki-n the crown of England, to which hi 
 relative Edward liud made him lieir, and tliat this Harold had perjured 
 liimself as regards the oaths he had taken to Inm in Normamiy: where- 
 upon they ailvised him with one voice to take revenge upon Harold, and 
 to secure the crown of England by war, if it could not be got by any 
 other means. 
 
 Guy of Amiens. 
 
 * Waco. 
 
 ' William of Poitiers.
 
 HAROLD, THE KING. 209 
 
 harbour of St. Yalery.^ A storm destroyed some of the 
 vessels ; but the bodies of the drowned were buried 
 privately, and the drooping spirits of the survivors 
 were animated by the exhortations of the duke.^ 
 
 While the Norman duke and his allies were busily Tosti and 
 engaged in the construction of the vessels which were Norway. 
 to carry the invading army across the English Channel, 
 Tosti, sailing from Flanders, landed in the Humber 
 with sixty ships. He was met and defeated by the 
 Earls Edwin and Morcar. This was the first of the 
 four battles which were fouijht in Eno-land dnrinec the 
 year lOGG ; it took place in the spring- of that year. 
 In Scotland Tosti joined HarokP Hardrada,* King of 
 Norway, whom he had persuaded to invade England 
 with three^ hundred ships.'' 
 
 Harold was one of the most renowned warriors of 
 his age, and his exploits were sung by minstrels in 
 many lands, for he was well known in Sicily, Turkey, 
 Palestine, and Ru.ssia: at Constantinople, where he 
 served the emperor, ho was condemned, for an act of 
 lawlessness, to fight a lion without any weapon : he met 
 the huge beast, and strangled it by the mere strength 
 of his arms.* Harold and Tosti attacked and defeated 
 Edwin and Morcar at Fnlford Tiridgo, near York, with 
 great loss; this battle was fought on 20th Sn|)tcmber.'^ 
 
 Harold, the king, was upon the shores of the South 
 of England when he heard of the landing of liis name- 
 sake and his brother Tosti, and of their victory over 
 his l)rothors-in-law. And when he heard the news lie 
 Htarte<l northwards "by day and by night."' lh\ took 
 the foe unawares, and, having slain both Harold nf 
 
 ' William of I'oitiers. • Tlor. of WorcuHtor H;iyH 600 Hliip.s. 
 
 * ikucon VkrunicLe, * iinrold, the Fair Haired. * Will, ot Maliiioslmry. 
 

 
 210 HAROLD, THE KING, 
 
 Norway and his brother Tosti, he gained the victory, 
 and made a OTcat slauo-hter of the men of Flanders* and 
 THe Battle of Norway at Stamford Bridge/ 25th September. This 
 Stamford, battle is disting-uished for two things — (i.) the bravery 
 of a Norwegian who stood upon the bridge that 
 spanned the river and kept the whole Saxon army at 
 bay : forty' of the bravest fell by his hand, and, while 
 he was taunting the Saxons with cowardice, he was 
 pierced from beneath the bridge and slain: (ii.) for 
 Harold's kindness to Olave, the son of the Norwegian 
 king, whom he sent back* to Norway with honours and 
 in perfect safety. In return for this humane treatment, 
 in after years Olave hospitably received his son Harold, 
 and took him with him on an expedition against the 
 Orkneys, and the islands of Man and Anglesey.^ 
 
 At this critical juncture of events Harold was helped 
 by his brother Gurth, " a youth on the verge of man- 
 Gurth, son hood, and possessed of knowledge and valour surpassing 
 his years."^ 
 
 The hearts of the two brothers, though grieved for 
 the untimely end of the vainglorious Tosti, beat high 
 with hope. Fortune seemed to smile upon all their 
 efforts : their foes were crushed. They laughed at the 
 long delayed threat of the Norman. But the same 
 gloomy night that shrouded in darkness the hideous 
 carnage at Stamford Bridge, separated the duke's ship 
 Mona^ from the rest of his fleet. According to one 
 writer,' Harold was at the banquet, refreshing himself 
 after the fatigues of the march and battle, when he 
 
 ' Saxm Chrcmicle. " Flor. of Worcester. ' Henry of Huntingdon. 
 
 * Florence of Worcester : Heniy of Huntingdon .states that Harold of 
 England burnt the prisoners taken by him after the battle of Stamford 
 Bridge. 
 
 ' Will, of Malmesbury. • Guy of Amiens.
 
 HAROLD, THE KING. 211 
 
 heard of William's arrival upon the shores of England. 
 Another writer^ states that he was on his way south 
 with the trophies of war when he was met by a Saxon, 
 who, having witnessed the arrival of the Normans, had 
 hastened on horseback to inform his king of their land- 
 ing, and assured him that the Norman cavalry were as 
 many as the fish of the sea, and their forces as count- 
 less as the stars of heaven. 
 
 The Saxon ships, which numbered seven hundred,'^ 
 were not upon the southern shores to oppose the 
 duke's landing, for they had separated to procure 
 provisions, and the strong winds that had damaged 
 
 William's fleet prevented their return. William's ship, Tiie 
 
 '■ , , . „ ., . Norman 
 
 the Mona, was distinguished by a crimson" sail : its fleet. 
 
 prow was adorned with a brazen* child bearing an 
 
 arrow and a bended bow. Each vessel was provided 
 
 with a light, as the days were short, and twilight was 
 
 approaching when the Norman fleet left the shores of 
 
 Normandy. Tlie duke placed a lantern upon the mast 
 
 of his ship, in order that the other ships might see it 
 
 and steer in its course * but during the night the Mona 
 
 outsailed the rest of the fleet, and, when the morning 
 
 broke, it wa.s alone upon the waters of the Englisli 
 
 channel. What an opportunity was this fen- ilarold'.s 
 
 fleet, had it not cea.sed to keep watch, to frustrate the 
 
 patiimtly executed and co.stly prepared plans of the 
 
 Normans with one blow ! 
 
 Harold expressed his regret that he had not lK>en at 
 
 Pevensey to repel the Norman : he declan-d that had 
 
 ho been there he would have con({uered William on 
 
 laud, or driven him into the sea. But he spent no time 
 
 ' Guy of Amiens. 
 
 >Williaiii of I'oiliers: (riiy of Aiiiicna said he lind ftOO bbii)». 
 
 * William of Malincsbury. * Wuce.
 
 212 HAROLD, THE KING. 
 
 Harold ill vain regrets ; he hastened southward with his 
 south- mounted warriors and the most able of his now wearied 
 wards. troops. Only five days^ separated the battles of Stam- 
 ford Bridge and of Hastings. Gurth followed after, 
 picking up stragglers, collecting fresh troops, and 
 cheering the hearts of all with the prospects of another 
 v^ictory and great booty. 
 Councu The final place of meeting was London.^ There a 
 
 and council met in all haste. Gurth was the chief speaker. 
 
 s^Qci^ He showed at once that he possessed in an eminent 
 tiiereat. degree the well-known eloquence of his father, and that 
 like him he was also wise and prudent in council, and 
 had great influence over his hearers. Wace gives a 
 lengthy account of this council, and also of the battle 
 that followed. Gurth thus addressed Harold :' " Fair 
 brother, remain here, but give me your troops. I will 
 take the adventure upon me, and will fight William. 
 I have no covenant with him by oath or pledge. I am 
 in no fealty to him, nor do I owe him my faith. It 
 may chance that there will be no need to come to blows. 
 But I fear if you fight you will pay the penalty of your 
 perjury, seeing you must forswear yourself : and he who 
 has the right will win. But if I am conquered, and 
 taken prisoner, you, if God please, being alive, may 
 still assemble your troops, and fight, or come to such an 
 arrangement with the duke, that you may hold your 
 kingdom in peace. Whilst I go and fight the Normans, 
 
 ' Saxon Chronicle. Florence of Worcester states that the Battle of Stam- 
 ford Bridge was fought on 2rjth September, and tliat of flastings upon 22nd 
 October ; therefore, according to him, 27 days separated these battles. 
 
 ' According to Guy of Amiens Harold held a meeting of his nobles at 
 Stamford Bridge, when they all shouted, in reply to his speech, that they 
 would " fight, or even die, rather than be subject to another king." 
 
 ' Wace.
 
 HAROLD, THE KING. 213 
 
 do jon scour the country, burn the houses, destroy the 
 villages, and carry off all stores and provisions, swine, 
 goats, and cattle : that they may find no food, nor 
 anything whatever to subsist upon. Thus you may 
 alarm and drive them back, for the duke must return 
 to his own country if provisions for his army shall fail 
 him."^ This sage advice shows that Gurtli was per- 
 fectly collected at this critical period. It also exhibits 
 his brotherly love and patriotism in the most brilliant 
 colours, offering himself, as he thus did, as the victim of 
 Divine vengeance for his brother's seeming sacrilege in 
 violating his oath. Other chiefs, and also Gytha,^ 
 urged Harold to abide by the advice of Gurth, but he 
 impetuously replied, "How^ can I injure the people I 
 sliould govern ? I cannot destroy or harass those who 
 ought to prosper under me. Men will hold me a 
 coward, and blame me for sending my best friends 
 where I dare not go myself." No more was said 
 between Harold and Gurth till the eveninfj before the 
 battle. They then rode out of their camp alone to view 
 the Norman host. 
 
 The king felt alarmed at their formidal)le array, and Gurth and 
 timidly suggested that they should fall back upon ^py out 
 London, but the earl rejected this untimely wavering Jj^j^jj^j^^ 
 with great scorn, and cried out fiercely, "Thou base forces, 
 coward ! this council has come too late. It is of no use 
 ii(;w to flinch, we mu.st move onward. Base cowanl 1 
 When I advised you, and got the nobles also to beseech 
 you, to remain at Tiondon and let mo fight, you wonid 
 
 " Willinm of Mahiicsbtiry stnU;» tli.it this 8pc;ccli was <K'Iiv('re<l liy (Jurth 
 after tlie rutuni of the npies wlioiii Harold Imd sent to the cnni]) of Willi.im. 
 William of Poitiers ffivc.i on account of some Saxon spies who visited 
 William's fleet before it started for Kiiglund. 
 
 ' Ordericus Vilalia. ' Wace.
 
 214 
 
 HAROLD, THE KING. 
 
 Messages 
 
 between 
 
 ■William 
 
 and 
 
 Harold. 
 
 not listen to us, and now you must take the consequence. 
 You would take no heed of anything we could say. 
 You believed not me or anyone else. Now you are 
 willing, but I will not. You have lost your pride too 
 soon. Quickly indeed has what you have seen abated 
 your courage. If you should turn back now, everyone 
 would say that you ran away. If men see you flee, 
 who is to keep your people together ? And if they 
 once disperse, they will never be brought to assemble 
 together again." From words Gurth proceeded to 
 blows ; he lifted his battle axe, but Harold spurred his 
 horse on, so that the blow missed its object, and struck 
 the horse behind the saddle, glancing along Harold's 
 shield. Thus Harold narrowly escaped being felled to 
 the ground. Lcof wine, a mere stripling, was in despair 
 when he discovered their absence: he imagined they 
 had either been slain or betrayed. 
 
 In his grief he rushed forth out of the camp, crying 
 and shouting like a madman. We may easily picture 
 to ourselves his intense delight when he beheld his 
 brothers galloping amicably towards him and his 
 followers. All signs of their recent dispute had now 
 disappeared. 
 
 Several messages^ had been exchanged between the 
 duke and Harold, and even during the 13th of October, 
 the day before the battle, William attempted'in person 
 and by messenger to come to terms with the king. 
 
 ' According to William of Malmesbury, the first messenger was sent by 
 the Norman duke to Harold shortly after the death of Edward the Confessor: 
 this messenger uxibraided Harold for not keeping liis oath ; Harold is 
 reported to have replied that he was hasty in conlirming to William the 
 kingdom of England without the consent and demand of the Witan and of 
 the people ; and that a rash oath, taken under compulsion, ought not to 
 be kept.
 
 HAROLD, THE KING. 215 
 
 His design was to cast the odiuni^ of the coming con- 
 test on his rival, and to shake the confidence of the 
 Saxons in their chief; but his attempts, whatever 
 might have been their ultimate object, were frustrated 
 by the daring eloquence and presence of mind of Gurth, 
 who seemed at this stage of the proceedings to take 
 the lead. He evidently dreaded Harold's rashness, a 
 trait in his character which the writers favourable to 
 him acknowledge and bewail ; one^ asserts that he was 
 headstrong and too confident in his own valour. There- 
 fore when William proposed a personal encounter 
 between himself and Harold, and when he approached 
 the position of the enemy to speak with the king, Gurth, 
 dreading that Harold would accept the challenge, sprang 
 upon his feet, and said to the messenger,* " Harold will 
 not go. Tell your lord to send his messenger to us 
 hither, and let us know what he will take, and what 
 he will leave, or what other arrangement he is willing 
 to make."* The duke then offered Harold Northumbria 
 and whatever belonged to that kingdom beyond the 
 Humber, and Gurth the lands of his father Godwin. 
 
 ' It was to arouse the ill feeling and prejudice of llie continent against 
 Harold tliat the Bayeux Tapestry was designed and executed : there is 
 little doubt that, while William was securing men and ships and the aid 
 of the Pope, his wife Matilda and her ladies were engai^ed upon the 
 Tapestry as far as it refers to Harold's suppourd oath, and the other 
 incidents connected with his Rnppnsed visit to Normandy. TIio Jiayeux 
 Tapestry is an historifal representation of the Norman confjuest : it contains 
 1,512 figures of men, horses, dogs, ships, trees, buildings, kc; it is '227 
 feet long, and 20 inches broad. It represents fifty-eight distinct scenes, 
 beginning with the figure of king Kdward and flnisjiing with the figures of 
 the Saxons flei;ing from the battle of Hastings: a Latin inscription of aa 
 explanat'iry character is fixed to each scene. Tlic figure* and letters are 
 stitched in worsted. 
 
 ' De Inventione Sanctae Crucis, 
 
 •' Wace : William of Malmesbury states that Harold, when challenged 
 to meet William in single combat, repliwl, "God will decide between mu 
 and the duke."
 
 21 G HAROLD, THE KINO. 
 
 Tliese offers were indignantly refused. His messenger 
 Saxons tlien declared that all who accompanied or supported 
 municated Harold were excommunicated by the Pope and his 
 clergy. 
 
 This dreadful announcement had its desired effect : 
 the Saxons wei'e much alarmed. But Gurth soon re- 
 moved the feelings of dismay which were beginning to 
 damp the enthusiasm of his fellow-countrymen. He 
 said that, if they went beyond the Humber, William 
 would take the land from them too, and also that he 
 had already given away their lands to his followers. 
 Gurth's The dauntless youth proceeded as follows ■} " Tliey 
 
 second y^-[[\ chase you from your lands, and, still worse, will 
 
 w LJ W C v^^ « 
 
 kill you. They will pillage your vassals, and ruin your 
 sons and daughters. They do not come merely for 
 your goods, but utterly to ruin you and your heirs 
 Defend yourselves, then, and your children, and all that 
 belongs to you, while you may. My brother has never 
 given away, nor agreed to give away, the great fiefs, 
 the honours or lands of your ancestors : but earls have 
 remained earls, and nobles enjoyed their rights. The 
 sous have had their lands and fiefs after their father's 
 death ; and you know this to be true which I tell you, 
 that peace was never disturbed. We may let things 
 remain thus if we will, and it is best for us so to 
 determine. But if you lose your houses, your manors, 
 and other possessions, where you have been nourished 
 all your lives, what will you become, and what will you 
 do ? Into what land will you flee, and what will be- 
 come of your kindred, your wives and children ? Into 
 what country will they go begging, and where shall they 
 seek an abode ? When they thus lose their own hon- 
 
 Wace.
 
 HAROLD, THE KING. 217 
 
 our, how shall they seek it of others ?" lu reply to this 
 
 speech the Saxons cried out that the Normaus had come 
 
 on an evil day, and had embarked on a foolish matter, 
 
 and then rushed off to make ready for to-morrow's fight, 
 
 or the night's carousal. 
 
 The numbers of the contending forces have been vari- Number 
 
 ously estimated by the chroniclers. William and Harold f ^ ^°^' 
 •' _ '' tending 
 
 are said^ to have had G0,000 troops each, but that the forces at 
 Norman duke had more barons and better men than ^^ "^^ ' 
 the Saxon king;^ the same writer states that Harold 
 boasted he had 400,000 followers. Another writer 
 states that "William had 50,000 troops in his own ixiy^ 
 and that Harold's army was a more numerous one. A 
 Norman contemporary^ says that Harold had 1,200,000 
 followers, and William 150,000. A Saxon contempo- 
 rary* emphatically asserts that the Normans were /our 
 times more numerous than the Saxons. Other writers 
 state that Harold fought with " a very small army,"^ 
 " before all his army had come up,"" " before a Liurd of 
 his army was in fighting order,"' and that he had " very 
 few forces,"* 
 
 Though his forces were fewer than those of his power- 
 ful antagonist, Harold was so confident of victory that 
 lie sent a fleet of 700 vessels" to cut off the escape of the 
 Normans by sea. He also determined to attack the 
 enemy suddenly ;" but he was unable to cai-ry out his 
 intentions. 
 
 ' Wncc. 
 ' William of Poitiers: from the above assertion wo bIioiiM conchido that 
 William ha<l otli<;r forces in the pay of his barons. ■"' C.iiy of Amiens. 
 
 * De Invcntione Sanctaj Crucis. ' Matt, of Westminster. 
 
 • Saxon Chrnv ir/r. ' Flor. of Worcester. " Will, of ,'\Ialnic8l)ury. 
 
 • William of Poitiers: Wane gives tlii! nnmlier as .'lOO. 
 '"De Inventiono Hanctic f'rueis: William of I'oitii'rs states that ITaroM in- 
 temled to attack the Normans siiildenly by night : (Jny states tliat, instead 
 of surprising the Normans, he was himself surprised: and tho Saxon Chronicle 
 ha-s it that William came against Harold "unawares."
 
 218 
 
 HAROLD, THE KING, 
 
 The night It has been stated that the Saxons passed the niMit 
 
 before tli6 
 
 battle. before the battle of Hastings without sleep, and that 
 they whiled away the time in singing and drinking ; 
 but that the Normans, religiously disposed, spent the 
 whole night in confessing their sins, and that, in the 
 early morning, they received the Sacrament,^ On the 
 day before the battle Harold retired to the abbey of 
 Waltham : there he vowed a vow unto the Lord, and 
 said that if victory attended his arms he would enrich 
 the church and supply it with clerks to serve Him, and 
 that he himself would serve his God ; then, stretching 
 himself upon the earth in the form of a cross, he prayed, 
 lying on his face ^ 
 
 LEADING EVENTS. 
 
 The unanimous election of Harold, son of Godwin, ^ 
 
 to the tlirone of England 
 
 The Defeat of Tosti )■ 1066 a.d. 
 
 The Battles of Fulford Bridge, and of Stamford Bridge 
 The Landing of William of Normandy 
 
 * Will, of Malmesbury, 
 
 ' l)e Inventione SanctK Ci-ucis.
 
 (219) 
 
 CHAPTER XXIII. 
 
 THE BATTLE OF HASTINGS. 
 
 At length the day — the fourteenth^ of October, lOGG — Tiie Battle 
 
 on which the fate of En^-ianJ, and that of Europe, was of 
 
 ° Hastings, 
 
 to be decided, dawned. 
 
 Before the battle began the hearts of the Saxons 
 beat quick in anticipation of victory and of immense 
 spoil : they recollected that their king had been success- 
 ful in every undertaking, and that his head had planned 
 and his arm had accomplished the complete overthrow 
 of every foe — Celt, Norman, Norwegian, Fleming, and 
 traitorous Saxon. The Normans had also every con- 
 fidence in the skill and daring of their duke ; moreover, 
 his mother's dream,^ the blessing of the Head of the 
 Cliurch, omens,^ and the appearance of a comet,^ in- 
 crea.sed tlieir confidence in him ; and their enthusiasm 
 was aroused by the spirited address of their leader, 
 who said — "if I conquer, you will conquer; if I win 
 lands, you .shall have lands : " he concluded with the 
 words — " strike hard at the beginning ; stay not to take 
 
 ' On the ffstival of St. Calixtus— Snnctin Cnicis, nii<l Tfonry of llunling- 
 don, &c. ; Wace Ktal(;H that tliis Battle wan fought ujion Harohl's birthday, 
 the l'<t of Octol)or : other dayn are nientioncd by various writerH. 
 
 ' William of .Malnicsbury : at the diike'H birUi ho Kraspcd the ruHhes 
 that strewed bin inofhcr'H chamber, wliereiiiioti the midwife deilnred the 
 t)oy wotdd beeomo a king ; William fell, a.s ho stcjiped upon the Hoil of 
 England, whercujion a 8ol<lier exclaimed, " My lord, you grasp England, 
 its future king ;" when he was being armed for battle the himl part of his 
 hauberk was ])larcd upon his breast, this iueident was looked ujiou as a 
 sign that bis "dukedom would be changeil into a kingdom." 
 
 * Saxon Chronich
 
 220 THE BATTLE OF HASTINGS. 
 
 spoil, all booty shall be in common, and there will be 
 plenty for everyone. There will be no safety in peace 
 or flight : the English will neither love nor spare 
 Normans ; villians they were and are, false they were, 
 and false they will be."^ We arc assured that the 
 Duke's words so aroused his listeners that they rushed^ 
 upon the foe, and left him speaking to himself ! 
 
 The last command given by Harold was that no one 
 was to move from his post under any pretence or 
 provocation whatsoever. The Saxons occupied a rising 
 ground, and a valley separated them from the Norman 
 camp. On all sides save one they were defended by 
 barricades : a fosse guarded one side of their army. 
 The Saxon army has been likened to a boar baited by 
 dofjs foaminof at the mouth.' 
 The The men of Kent were entitled, according to an 
 
 of tiie"'^ ancient custom, to strike the first blow, and to compose 
 Saxons, the van ; the men of London to guard the king's body, 
 to place themselves around him, and to guard his 
 Standard. All were on foot,* and Carried themselves 
 right boldly. Had they remained steady behind their 
 barricades they would not have been conquered that 
 day. From 9 a.m.^ till 3 p.m. the majority obeyed the 
 
 ' Wace. 
 
 ' Henry of Huntingdon: this chronicler puts a very long speech into 
 William's mouth, in which he alluded to that " most valiant of men, my 
 predecessor, Hastings," to Hollo, to llichard H., to his own victories, to 
 Harold's (supposed) perjurj', to the death of AUred the Athelini,', and 
 concluded thus— "Let the lightning of your glory flash, and the thunders 
 of your charge be heard from east to west, and be ye the avengers of the 
 noble blood which has been spilt ! " 
 • ' Guy of Amiens. 
 
 * William of Malmesbury : Sir F. Palgrave placed Harold on horseback : 
 Florence of Worcester says that the Saxons were not in the habit of fighting 
 on horseback : William of Poitiers states that the Saxons left their horses 
 behind them : and Guy says that they despised the use of cavalry. 
 
 * Wace.
 
 THE BATTLE OF HASTINGS. 221 
 
 earnest command of the king to fight at their posts ; 
 and to repel the oft repeated attacks of the Normans. 
 In vain did their heavy armed knights rush up to the 
 Saxon defences : they fell like corn before the glittering 
 and ponderous battle-axes of the sturdy islanders : the 
 horse and its rider fell crushed, once and for ever. 
 Their arrows were received upon the shield. The 
 Saxons fou<:;-ht in so close order that their dead bodies 
 were left standiuir as thouu'h alive.^ Three times^ did 
 the Normans retreat : on the first occasion they pre- 
 tended to run away, in order to entice the Saxons from 
 their vantage ground. This stratagem caused a body 
 of the Saxons to pursue the foe, whereupon the 
 Normans faced about and compelled them to fly ; but 
 the Saxons made a stand upon a rising ground, and 
 hurling darts and rolling down stones upon their 
 pursuers, they destroyed such as were beneath them 
 to a man ; they then made their way to the main body 
 of their countrymen by means of a short cut, and thus 
 they avoided a deep ditch ; here they trod under foot 
 such a number of their enemies that they made tlie 
 hollow level with the plain with their dead bodies.^ 
 The Saxons now pressed the contest with greater alac- 
 rity, juid thought nothing (^f those win* were taken 
 from them; whereupon the invaders began to flee i" pj^^i^t ^f 
 
 reality, and the pursuing Saxons shouted after them in the 
 ... ,, ^, .... ,. T.ii 1 1 I Normaus. 
 
 derhsion — Cowards, it is ot little use to run l)ack, un- 
 less you can cross tlie sea at a leap, or drink it <lry."* 
 The duke, when ho saw the flight of his unn, niaije 
 great ellbrts to stop them. He asked them where they 
 would flee to. He entreated them to stop, pointed oat 
 their (lifliculties, reminded them of their valour, and 
 
 ' Guy of Amiena: William of Poitiera. ' William of Malmesbury. ' VViice.
 
 222 the! battle of HASTINGS. 
 
 called the English sheep •} at last he succeeded in in- 
 spiring his terror-stricken followers with confidence, 
 and renewed the attack. The Norman arrows were 
 now, at 3 p.m., ordered^ to be shot into the air, so as to 
 strike the enemies' heads and faces. This order won 
 the day for the Normans, for up to that tii^e the 
 Saxons, covered witli their shields and barricades, were 
 able to wield their battle-axes and use their bills with 
 irresistible force and murderous effect ; but now, whilst 
 repelling the direct attack, showers^ of arrows fell upon 
 their heads and faces, and put out the eyes of many, 
 and all were afraid to open their eyes while their faces 
 were unguarded : still, their hearts did not quail, for 
 they struggled on under the inspiriting influence of 
 their leaders. 
 
 Harold, Gurth, and Leofwine continued to fight on, 
 side by side. The king made constant attacks upon 
 the brave Normans ; with one blow he cut' into two, 
 or levelled* with the ground, both horse and rider. 
 Anxiously he looked for the arrival of the earls, Edwin 
 Non- and Morcar, with their forces : had they arrived upon 
 
 Edwin^ °^ the battle-field at this juncture of events, most probably, 
 and with their aid, and the enthusiasm caused by their ap- 
 
 pearance, the Saxons would have utterly routed their 
 foes; but it was not to be, as they tarried behind 
 in London, and plotted for the crown.* It was now 
 twilight," and the approaching darkness was welcomed 
 by the wearied Saxons. At this period of the day an ar- 
 row pierced the right eye of Harold. He broke its shaft 
 
 * Guy of Amiens : William of Poitiers. - Wace : Henry of Huntingdon. 
 * William of Malmesbury. * Matthew of We.stiniuster. 
 
 ' Will, of Malmesbury states that Edwin and Morcar, hearing in Loudoc 
 of Harold's death, asked the citizens to make one of them king. 
 
 • Flor. of Worcester. 
 
 Morcai
 
 THE BATTLE OF HASTINGS. 223 
 
 with his hands, aucl threw it away ; the pain was so Harold's 
 great that he leaned upon his shield.^ He continued ^s°^y- 
 to struggle on. No character in history comes before 
 us in such a striking manner as the tall and strong 
 Harold rushing upon the enemy with the cruel barb 
 just seen above his right eye, and blood and water 
 coursing down his cheek : verily he was a perfect 
 martyr for his country's liberties ! Gurth's heart must 
 have bled in sympathy with his brother's bleeding eye 
 and ebbinn: strength. He now felt that he was the 
 leader of the nobles and peasants,'* who continued firm 
 around him, as Leofwine was now dead — whilst in the 
 very act of dashing his terrible battle-axe against a 
 hor.seman he had been pierced througli by the lance of 
 his assailant — and Harold was sinking fast. 
 
 Already the Conqueror had had two horses killed un- 
 der him. Tiie death of the second was speedily revenged, 
 as its slayei-^ was embowelled by the duke's weapon. 
 
 Anotlier^ false retreat was made Avith the same suc- 
 cess as the previous one ; the Normans wheeled round 
 ujion their ])ursuers, surrounded them, and cut them 
 otf to a man.* And now the duke determined to make 
 a des[)erate and final effort to crush that gallant band 
 that still fouiiht on around the Dragon of We-ssex — the 
 Standard* of the English king — which, glittering with 
 pearLs, diamonds, and other precious stones, floated 
 
 • Wacc: Bayeux T.ipestry, i)late XVI. 
 ' In tlic B.iyeux Tnj)CHtry tlmy aru oalloil "puiiros" — boya, and thoy oro 
 described as armed witli clubn, and other nide weapon.s. 
 
 ' Guy of Amiens. * William of Poitiers. 
 
 • Accordini^ to Henry of Huntingdon, the Snxon standard was captured 
 abont the time Htirohrs eye was pierced by the arrow ; a Ixiiid of twenty 
 knights pledged themselves to take it, the greater number of them were 
 killed, the rest hewed a way with their swords and took it: uo doubt it 
 was seized by tho Normaua aflcr the death of Gurth.
 
 224 
 
 THE BATTLE OF HASTINGS. 
 
 WUUain 
 rushes 
 upon 
 Harold. 
 
 Mutila- 
 tion of 
 Harold. 
 
 Gurth's 
 heroism. 
 
 proudly and mockingly in the soft autumn breeze. On- 
 ward he rushed, attended by 1,000^ chosen warriors. 
 His course was checked by a wrestler/ who wounded 
 him, but not severely ; this obstacle soon lay shattered 
 among the dead and dying. Then William saw Harold'^ 
 slaying the Normans ; and he called upon four Norman 
 knights, namely, the son of Guy of Ponthieu, Eustace 
 of Boulogne, Gillard, and Montford, to make a deter- 
 mined and simultaneous attack upon the dying hero. 
 The one pierced his shield and breast, the other struck 
 off his head, the third laid bare his body and scattered 
 his bowels along the gory soil, the fourth gashed his 
 thigh. 
 
 Thus fell — " The glory of his kingdom, the honour 
 of his church, the fortitude of the soldiers, the buckler 
 of the unarmed, the strength of the warriors, the 
 protection of the weak, the consolation of the desolate, 
 the restorer of the poor, the pride of the nobles."* 
 
 The battle was not over, as Gurth still lived, and so 
 lonGf as he lived the Normans could not claim the 
 victory. 
 
 The earl of Sussex determined to aim at no common 
 foe, but to direct his remaining strength against the 
 chief cause of all that havoc. He therefore took a 
 javelin, and hurled it with all his might against 
 William. It was a critical moment : the duke was 
 saved by his steed,'^ into whose body the terrible javelin 
 had entered : this was the third* horse he had lost that 
 day. And now the only surviving member of the 
 Godwin family " saw^ the English falling around him, 
 and there was no remedy. He saw his race hastening 
 
 ' Wace. * Guy of Amiens. •'' Sanctce Crucis. 
 
 * William of Poitiers ; Will, of Malmesbury.
 
 THE BATTLE OF HASTINGS. 225 
 
 to ruin, and despaired of any aid. He would have fled, 
 but could not, for the throng continually increased. 
 And the duke pushed on till he reached him, and 
 struck him with great force : it is said that he fell 
 under that blow, and rose no more." From one source^ 
 we learn that William followed Gurth like a raoino- 
 lion, and that he hacked him limb from limb, saying 
 that he gave him the crown that he deserved. 
 
 Gurth well knew the value of his life, and how much 
 depended upon his individual exertions ; hence, after ho 
 had done all that mortal man could do, he endeavoured 
 to escape in order that he might raise another army. 
 William also fully comprehended the importance at- Explana- 
 tached to Gurth's life, for he knew that if he succeeded Gurtn's 
 in escaping from the battle-field he would have to oppose coii^^c*- 
 onea.s brave as Harold, and his superior in cool determi- 
 nation. With Gurth at their head the Saxons would 
 have rallied,the subtle traitors, Edwin and Morcai', would 
 have been over-awed, and the risings in the west, cast, 
 and north would have resulted in the overthrow of the 
 Normans, and in tlie continuation of the dj-nasty of the 
 House of Godwin. 
 
 Even after the death of Gurth, the Saxon nobles 
 disdained to flee f they continued to fight on, and somo 
 of them died from shere exhaustion ■? they were all,' 
 or nearly* all, killed in that terrible battle. The Flight of 
 ordinary'^ soldiers and the light armed* fled, somo on saxona 
 foot and somo on the horses which lia<l carried the 
 fallen leaders^ to battle. Tho Normans, althourrh 
 ignorant of tho country, eagerly pursued the fugitives : 
 even the hoofs of their horses lacerated the doa<l bodies 
 
 Guy of Aniicna. ' Mntt. of Westminster. '' Ingiilplius. 
 
 * Florence of Worccbter * William of Poitiers. 
 
 P
 
 226 
 
 THE BATTLE OF HASTINGS. 
 
 The 
 
 Normans 
 
 pursue 
 
 the 
 
 Saxons. 
 
 The 
 
 number 
 of the 
 Blaln at 
 Hastings 
 
 as they scoured over the top of the slain. The Saxons 
 in their flight, came to a steep ravine : here they made 
 a stand and killed several Norman nobles, and com- 
 pelled Eustace of Boulogne and fifty knights to retreat.^ 
 But the Norman duke, although he thought that the 
 foe had been reinforced, neither stopped nor altered 
 his course : he checked the flight of Eustace and his 
 followers. The count advised him to go back, saying 
 that if he advanced he would be killed. While Eustace 
 was speaking he received a dreadful blow from an 
 unknown hand, and was carried away in a half-dead 
 state by his attendants. William, despising fear and 
 dreading disgrace, continued to advance, and trampled 
 all who resisted him under foot. Having overcome all 
 resistance he returned to the battle-field, where he found 
 such slaughter that even his iron heart was touched 
 with pity^ when he looked upon the dead and dying. 
 Far and near the flower of the Saxon nobility and 
 youth strewed the ground^ ; and on every hand nothing 
 was to be seen but the red hue of blood.'' The Normans 
 held "the place of carnage,"' and all that night they 
 watched upon the hill top.* William pitched his tent 
 and fixed the Pope's banner upon the spot where 
 Harold's Standard had stood ; and there he ate his 
 supper and passed the night. 
 
 It is not known how many Saxons fell at the battle 
 of Hastings : but it is stated that the Norman duke, at 
 the lowest computation, lo.st more than 10,000 men.' 
 After the battle the Conqueror buried the bodies of his 
 own men, but the bodies of the Saxons were left un- 
 buried, to be eaten by worms and wolves.* The body 
 
 » William of Poitiers. ' The Chronicle of Battle Abbey. 
 
 • Saxon Chronicle. * Guy of Amiens.
 
 THE BATTLE OF HASTINGS. 227 
 
 of Harold was recognised by certain marks upon it,^ 
 and was placed in a purple cloth.^ Ten marks of 
 gold,* or its weight in gold,* were offered for it, and 
 refused.' 
 
 William the Conqueror refused* Gytha^ the melan- 
 choly satisfaction of burying the mangled remains of 
 her three sons ; so that even in death he was jealous 
 of those who so manfully opposed him while living. 
 It is generally believed that Harold was buried in Burial of 
 mockery* upon the sea shore.^ William's treatment of 
 the Godwin family deserves every censure. Wei are 
 informed'' that he was at all times a very stern and 
 wrathful man, and that whoever thwarted his will he 
 deprived of life. Harold had, no doubt, excited his 
 envy by his martial successes, and had, without doubt, 
 aroused his hate and cupidity by his unanimous elec- 
 tion to the throne of England — hence his conduct to- 
 wards him and his. 
 
 When oppressed by the tyrant Norman loids, the 
 Saxons patiently and witli child-like faith awaited the 
 re-appearance of their darling, who fur fourteen years 
 had successfully maintained against all foes the honour The 
 and the riglits of his countrymen, but tlicy waited iuggcapoof 
 vain: neither the recluse of Salop imr tin-, hcrniit of Harold. 
 
 ' William of Toitiers : the writer of the discovery of the Holy Cross status 
 that llarolil'H body waa discovered by Ivlitli, " the Swuu's neck." 
 
 ' Guy of Amiens. 
 
 ' De Inveiitione Sanctae Cnicis: tlli^ writer states that William gave 
 ui> Harold's body to the monks of Waltham. 
 
 • William of I'oitiers. 
 
 • Mr. Freeman, in his magnificent History of the Norman Conquest, gives 
 an eloquent and pathetic account of Gytha. 
 
 • William of Poitiers ; Benoit ; Guy of Amiens ; Onlericus Vitalis. Ac- 
 cording to the writer of De Inventione Sancta; Crucis, William of Mulmesbury, 
 and Wace, he was buried at Waltham Abbey. 
 
 ' Saxon CkrunicU,
 
 and of 
 
 228 . THE BATTLE OF HASTINGS. 
 
 Chester could be identified^ with the martyred Harold 
 the Second — the first king of his line, and the last of 
 his race. 
 
 Gurth. Gurth, too — like Richard II. from Pomfret, like the 
 
 young Duke of York from the murderous clutches of 
 his tyrant uncle, like Lovel from the spies of Bacon's 
 model king,^ like James IV. after Flodden Field — was 
 fondly supposed to have escaped from the carnage at 
 Sanquelac — the Lake of Blood. 
 
 LEADING EVENTS. 
 
 The Battle of Hastings — the Position of the Saxon 
 Forces ; the Fhght and feigned Retreats of tlic 
 Normans; the Death of Leofwine, Harold, and I 10G6 A..i). 
 Gurth ; the complete Overthrow of the Saxons ; 
 the Normans sleep upon " the place of carnage." j 
 
 ' Giraldus Cambrensis mentions Harold's escape from battle ; and iLie 
 author of Vita Haroldi appears to be convinced ol his escape. 
 
 ^ Henry VII. 
 
 THE END.
 
 INDEX
 
 » «
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Aberfraw, royal residence of Welsh 
 
 Princes, 84 
 Abbeville, place of Harold's im- 
 prisonment, 188 
 Adam, 22, 30, 32 
 Adrian, Pope, 23 
 Agatha, wile of Edward the Outlaw, 
 
 103 
 Agricola, Roman general, 6-15 
 Agrippina, Roman empress, 3 
 Alan, protege of Athelstan, 68 
 Alan, lather of Popa, 180 
 Ah-'uin, 22, 23 
 Aldred, archbishop of York, ld5, 
 
 171, 205 
 Aleni;on, castle, 200 
 Alexander, Pope, 207 
 Alfred tlie Great, 31-36, 38-42, 46, 
 
 47, 50. 51-56, 65, 85 
 Algar, earl of Mercia, 63, 145, 147, 
 
 168-172, 1S6, 191 
 Alwv, a Mercian Prince, 18 
 Anrirawd, a Welsli Prince, 46, 84, 85 
 Angliarad, a Welsh Princess, 157, 
 
 159 
 Angles, Saxon tribe, 16 
 Anglesey or Mona, 4, 8, 45, 81 
 Aniaf (Clave), 6(5, 67 
 Arnnlf, a count of Flanders, 181 
 Aslidown, battle of, 38 
 Assanrlnn, battle of, 111, 112 
 Asser, a learned friend of King 
 
 Alfred, 55 
 Athclni, Saxon thane who fought at 
 
 Butliii;.'ton, 40 
 Athclncy, isle of, 33-36, 54 
 Athclnoth, Haxon thane who fought 
 
 at I'littington, 46 
 Athelstan, King, 31, 34, 65-69, 73, 
 
 85, 86 
 Athelstan, married a daughter of 
 
 Ethelrcd the Unready, 103 
 
 Baldwin, husband of Judith, 31 
 Baldwin, husband of Kthelswitha, 
 
 56 
 Baldwin, father of Matilda and 
 
 Judith, 135, 146, 148, 194, 195, 
 
 201 
 
 Baldwin, King of Jerusalem, 103 
 
 Baltic, Sea, 38 
 
 Bangor" Is Coed, Welsh monastery, 
 ■ 19, 20 
 
 Bardsey, a small island off Carnar- 
 vonshire, 20 
 
 Barnet, battle of, 14 
 
 Basing, battle of, 38 
 
 Batavians, Roman auxiliaries, 8, 14 
 
 Bath, city, 22, 106 
 
 Bayeux, scene of Harold's oath, 
 180, 181, 188 
 
 Beaurain, place of Harold's impri- 
 sonment, 188 
 
 Becket, archbishop of Canterbury, 
 91 
 
 Benedict X., Pope, 205 
 
 Beorn, Godwin's nephew, 131, 145 
 
 Berenger, grandson of Charlemagne, 
 59 
 
 Bernicia, one of the Saxon king- 
 doms, 16 
 
 Bertric, King of Wessex, 24, 27, 37 
 
 Berwyn Range, 102 
 
 Beverege, isle of, in Severn, 139 
 
 Bioni, son of Regner Lodbrog, 40 
 
 Bkddyn, Prince of Powys, 159, 174 
 
 Blois, count of, 200 
 
 Boadicea, Queen of Iceni, 5, 6 
 
 Bonneville, scene of Harold's oath, 
 188 
 
 Bosham, sea-port, 148 
 
 Boulogne, 42 
 
 Brecon, 84, 85 
 
 Brentford, 110 
 
 Bretons, 42-15 
 
 Brian, Ca'lwallawn's nephew, 21 
 
 Bridgnorth, 41-59 
 
 Brigantes. Celtic tribe, 1-3 
 
 Brihtric, nrother of l/Iric, 105 
 
 Brihtric, sou of ealdornian Elphege, 
 116 
 
 Bristol, 147 
 
 Britain, 8, 12, 74 
 
 British IhIcm, 74 
 
 Britons or Cells, 1, 2, 4-10, 12, 16, 
 25 42 48 51 
 
 Britratiy,*21. '^ ^>^< l^-'' 
 Bruges, capital of Flanders, 137
 
 232 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Brunaiiburgh, battle of, 65-67, 85 
 Brunswiclc, ;i2 
 
 Burhnil, I'riuce of ]\Iercia, 30 
 Buttiiigton, suigc aud battlo of, 45- 
 47', (30, 61, 85 
 
 Cadell, a Welsh Prince, 46, 84, 85 
 
 Cader Idris, 162 
 
 Cadwallawii, last Celtic King of 
 
 Britain, 20, 21 
 Caerk'on, on the Usk, 76 
 Caerniartliun, 84 
 Caernarvonsliire, 84 
 Caledonians, 7, 10-15 
 Calne, scene of Dunstan's triumph, 
 
 92, 93 
 Camlad, a trilmtary of the Severn, 
 
 162-164, 166 
 Canterbury, 23, 106, 127, 188 
 Canute, 107-116, 118-132 
 Caradog or Caractacus, the British 
 
 hero and Icing, 2, 3, 43 
 Caradog, slain by OHa, 25, 84 
 Caradog ap Griltith, 174 
 Caradog ap Meredith, 159 
 Cardigan, 84 
 Carlisle, 21 
 
 Carno, battle of, 82, 83, 87 ; 174 
 Ceolred, a Mercian Prince, 18 
 Cerdic, the stock of, 131, 152, 205 
 Ceredigion, a Welsh princedom, 77 
 Charlemagne, 23, 24, 27 
 Cliarles the Bald, 30, 178 
 Charles tlie Fat, 179 
 Charles the Simple, 52, 68, 180 
 Cliarles II. of England, 137 
 Chartres, town in France, 51, 52, 
 
 180 
 Clieshire, 21 
 
 Chester, 20, 22, 51, 74, 76, 102 
 Chippineham, 33 
 
 Chirbury, a Burgh erected by the 
 Lady of the Mercians," 60, 61, 
 163, 165 
 Christina, daughter of Edward the 
 
 Outlaw, 103 
 Churchsloke, a village in Mont- 
 
 gomervshire, 163 
 Cibyr, a Welsh princedom, 77 
 
 I ' 1 P f TO ) 7 
 
 Claudius, a Roman emperor, 3, 5 
 
 Clwy.l Olfa, Offa's Dyke, 25, 162 
 
 Clwyil, river, 173 
 
 Clwyd, vale of, 25 
 
 Colchester or Camalodunum, 5 
 
 Conrad, emperor of Germany, 126 
 
 Constaiitine, King of Scotland, 
 
 Constantinople, ^09 . 
 
 Contentiu, part of Normandy, 181 
 
 Conway, river, 85 
 
 Conway, town, 87 
 
 Corfe, scene of murder of Edward 
 
 the Martyr, 94 
 Corndon, a lull on borders of Salop 
 
 and Montgomery, 162, 163 
 Cornwall, 16, 21, 132 
 Cospatric, Northumbrian thane, 
 
 killed by Tosti, 191 
 " Count of the Saxon Shore," 16 
 Coventry, 44 
 Cromwell, 137 
 Cumberland, 16, 21, 85 
 CumViria, 21 
 Cyleiliog, battle of, 82 
 Cymry, the paradise of (Powysland), 
 
 25 
 Cynan. a Welsh prince killed by 
 
 Olfa, 45 
 Cynan ap lago, 159, 166 
 Cyugen, a Welsh prince killed by 
 
 Danes ("Black Pagans"), 45 
 Cystenyn Ddu, killed by Hywel 
 
 Ddrwg, 156 
 
 Danes, 34, 37, 51, 106, 178 
 
 Dauewulf, liordsman and bishop, 35 
 David, king of Israel, 32 
 Dee, river, 74, 76, 85 
 Deheubarth, one of the three Welsh 
 kingdoms, 84, 157 
 
 Deira, one of the Saxon kingdoms, 
 16 
 
 Demetia, a Welsh princedom, 77 
 
 Denbigh, 84 
 
 Denmark 119, 121, 122, 12o, 132, 
 145 
 
 Derby, 22, 63, 102 
 
 Dermot, king of Leinster, 148 
 
 Devon, 16, 21 
 
 Dive, river, 201, 208 
 
 Domitian, a Roman emperor, 15 
 
 Dover, 146, 167, 188 
 
 Druids, 4, 43, 58 
 
 Dublin, 67, 166 
 
 Dufnal, a Welsli king, 77 
 
 Duncan, King of Scothmd, 144 
 
 Dunstan, 69-71, 73, 74, 78, 79, 89- 
 95 
 
 Dylife, a village in Montgomery- 
 shire, 83 
 
 Eadburoa, Offa's daughter, 26, 27, 
 
 37 
 Eaufrid, son of Edwin, 21
 
 INDEX. 
 
 233 
 
 Eanfrid, son of Ethelfri.l, 21 
 East Anglia, 16, 113, 178 
 Eawa, a Mercian prince, 18 
 Edgar the Peaceful, 71, 73, 7-1, 76, 
 
 77, 78, 90, 91 
 Edgar, the Atheling, 203 
 Edgitha, daughter of Godwin, 143, 
 
 147 
 Edith, daughter of Ethelred tlie 
 
 Unready, 103 
 Edith, " the Sv/an's Neck," 227 
 Edmund, of East Ansrlia, 38, 107, 
 
 178 
 Edmund, the Atheling (king), 66, 
 
 67, 70 
 Edmund, the Ironside, 103, 108-113 
 Edmund, son of Edmund, tliu Iron- 
 side, 114 
 Edred, 70, 71 
 Edric, of Mercia, 63, 98, 99, 102- 
 
 104, 106-108, 110-116, 118, 129 
 Ivlric, the Forester, 99 
 Edwanl, the Elder, 63, 65, 85 
 E.lward, the Martvr, 91, 94, 95 
 Ehvard, the Outlaw, 103, 114, 132, 
 
 U-2, 203 
 Edward III., 114 
 Edward, the Confessor, 113, 132, 
 
 142, 143,146,171,185, 196, 198 
 Edwin, the Jiretwalda, 21 
 Ivlwin, Ijcolric's brothir, 105, 106 
 Edwin, son of Algar, 63, 172, 175, 
 
 191, 193, 209 
 E'lwyn aj) Einion, 157 
 Eilwy, the king, 70, 71 
 Edwy, son of Ethelred the Unready, 
 
 113 
 E<lwv, King of the Cliurls, 114 
 P4'l":"rt, 29, 30, 71 
 J'.;'!.<rt's Htone, 34 
 i: •:• rt, son ol OITa, 28 
 i: 1 .t, theSwe<!e, 121, 122 
 Kii.i'in a\> Owain, 156 
 Klf. re, the Ilegicide, 63, 91, 94, 95 
 Elfgeat, kilh^'i at liliyd y Uroes, 
 
 165, 166 
 Elfgiva, wife of Utrcd, 103 
 Elfgiva, wife of King Edwy, 70, 71 
 Elfgiva, first wife of Canute, lOij, 
 
 104, 119. 131 
 Eini.lm, kille.l l.y Edri<-, 104 
 Ellledn, first wile of Kthelred tlio 
 
 Unready, 103, 142 
 Elfric, the Treacherous, 63 
 Elfric, E<lrio's lirothcr, 97 
 Elfric, orchbi.shoi., 137, 138 
 
 Elfrida, second wife of King Edgar, 
 
 63, 91, 94, 95, 142 
 Elfwina, daughter of " The Lady of 
 
 the Mercians," 62, 63 
 Elgitha, wife of Edric, 104, 108 
 Elgitha, wi'e of Edmund the Iron- 
 side, 108 
 Elgitha, daughter of Algar, 171, 191 
 Elizabeth, Queen, 59 
 Ella, 38 
 
 Ellis ap Anarawd, 159 
 Elmuud, father of Egbert, 29 
 Elphege, archbishop, 100, 123, 127 
 Ely, 135, 151 
 Emma of Normaudv, 100, 101, 103, 
 
 119, 127, 131, 133, 135, LSI 
 Englan.l, 1, 10, 22, 53, 57, 101, 104, 
 
 121 
 Enwulf, a Jlercian prince, 18 
 Eric, 129, 131 
 Essex, one of the divisions of the 
 
 Saxon Octarchy, 16, 113 
 Estrith, Canute's sister, 131 
 Ethc'lbald, a Mercian jjrinco, 22 
 Etlielbald, son of Etlielwulf, 31, 32 
 Etlielbert of Kast Anglia, 24 
 Ethelbert, son of Etlielwulf, 31, 32 
 Ethelfleda, Edgar's first wile, 142 
 Ethelrteda, " Ladv of the Mercians," 
 
 44, 56-63, 65, 142 
 Etheltrid of Norllnimbria, who 
 
 slaughtered the Welsh students, 
 
 19-21 
 Ethelniere, Edric's brother, 97 
 Kthclnoth, archbisho]., 125, 127 
 Ktlielred, son of Feiida, 22 
 Ethelre<l of Nortlniniliria, 21 
 Ethelred, son of Etlielwulf, 31, 32 
 Ethelred the Unready, 95, 100-107, 
 
 123 
 Ethelric, father of Edric of Mercia, 
 
 97 
 Ethelswitha, daughter of Alfred, 
 
 56, l'.>4 
 Ethelwald or Athelstan, son of 
 
 Ktliclwulf, 31 
 Ethi-lwald, son ol Ethelred, 59 
 Ethelward, son of ElhelMinr, 110 
 EthelwnM, bishop, 89, 90, 93 
 Eth.lwulf, :{0 32, 35 
 Etiiered, sub-king of Mercia, 40, 
 
 46, 50, 56, 5H, 63 
 Eust-i-e II. ol I'.onlogne, 103, 146, 
 
 167 
 Eustace III,, 103 
 Eve, 22 
 Exeter, 21, 42
 
 234 
 
 INDKX. 
 
 Firth of Clyde, 10, 15 
 Firth of Forth, 10 
 Firth of Tay, 10 
 Fitzosbern, William, 208 
 Flauders, 31, M, 70, 71, 19t 
 Fleader, Iluscarl, killed at Wor- 
 cester, 139 
 Flint, 8i 
 Forth, river, 43 
 France, 1, 53 
 Frea, Saxon goddess, 152 
 Frederick Barbarossa, 92 
 Freeman, the historian, 227 
 French, 23, 49 
 Fuliord, battle of, 209 
 Fulk of Aujou, 199 
 
 Gael, 43 
 
 Galgacus, 12, 13 
 
 Galloway, 10 ■ 
 
 Gamel, Northumbrian thane, kdled 
 
 by Tosti, 191 
 Ganges, river, 43 
 Gauls, 1, 7 
 
 GeolVrey of Anjou, 198-200 
 Germany, 92 
 Giferth or Siferth (Griffith), a Welsh 
 
 prince, 77 
 Giffard, Walter, 208 
 Gilla, wife of KoUo, 177, 180 
 Gillingham, 143, 151 
 Glamorgan, 84 
 Glastonbury, 69, 124 
 Gloucester, 21, 112, 147, 167 
 Goda, sister of Edward the Con- 
 fessor, 103 
 Godfrey, King of Jerusalem, 103 
 Godiva, wife of Leofric, 44, 145 
 Godwin, the Earl, 97, 121, 122, 143, 
 
 146-151, 154, 167, 183 
 Grampians, battle of, 12-15 
 Grey, Lady Jane, 50 
 Griffith apCynan 159 
 Grillith ap Llewelyn, ln8-161, 104- 
 
 174, 192 
 Griffith ap Khydderch, 171 
 Guelph IV. of Brunswick, 32 
 Guildford, scene of decimation of 
 Normans under Alfred, 134, 151 
 Gunhilda, Canute's aunt, 102, 131 
 Gunhilda, Canute's sister, 131 
 Gunhilda, Canute's niece, 131 
 Gunhilda, Canute's daughter, 128, 
 
 131 
 Gurth, son of Godwin, 147, 148, 193, 
 210-216 
 
 Guthnim, or Athelstan, 34^ 39-41 
 Guy of Ponthieu, 188, 189, 200 
 Guv of Burgundy, 177, 199 
 Gwciit, a Welsh princedom, 23, 84, 
 
 156 
 Gwynedd, one of the three Welsh 
 
 kingdoms, 25, 84, 157 
 Gytha, Canute's sister, 131 
 Gytha, wife of Godwin, 122, 148, 
 
 213 
 Gytha, daughter of Osgod Clappa, 
 
 140. 
 
 Haco, son of Eric, 129, 131 
 ILaco, of Norway, 68 
 Haco, grandson of Godwin, 142, 190 
 Halfden, son of Regner Lodbrog, 38 
 
 Hardicanute, 127, 131, 132, 133, 137, 
 138, 140, 152, 164, 165 
 
 Harold, Canute's grandfather, 131 
 
 Harold, the Harefoot, 131, 132, 133, 
 135, 136 
 
 Harold, son of Godwin, 14, 145-150, 
 167-174, 184-194, 198, 203-206, 
 209-218 
 
 Harold, son of King Harold, 97, 210 
 
 Harold Hardrada, 209, 210 
 
 Hastings, the Sca-King, 34, 40-42, 
 47, 49-52, 85 
 
 Hastings, the Battle of— Senlac, or 
 Sanquelac-14th Oct., 1066; 
 William's speech ; position and 
 arrangement of Saxon forces ; 
 flight of Normans, William 
 stops them ; two feigned re- 
 treats by Normans ; Normans 
 arrows ordered to be shot into 
 air at 3 p.m. ; Edwin and Morcar 
 plot for crown ; arrow pierces 
 Harold's eye ; death of Leof- 
 wine ; 20 knights try to seize 
 Saxon standard; William, at 
 head of 1,000 warriors, rushes 
 upon Harold, who is killed by 
 Guy, Eustace, Gilfard, and 
 Montford ; Gurth's attemj)t 
 upon William's life, his death 
 by latter; flight of Saxons; 
 pursuit of Normans, who hold 
 "the place of Carnage"; Wil- 
 liam's treatment of remains of 
 Harold, Gurth, and Leofwine ; 
 Gvlha'sappeal; suppo.sed escape 
 ot- Harold and Gurth, 219-228 
 
 ! Hengist, 16 
 
 i Henry, the Fowler, 59
 
 INDEX. 
 
 235 
 
 Henrv III., Emperor of Germanj', 
 
 128, 131, 143, 146 
 Henry VIII., 78 
 
 Henry I. of France, 143, 182, 199-201 
 Henry I. of England, 198 
 Henry II. of Ensrlanrl, 198, 199 • 
 Hereford, 21, 86,^99, 164, 169-171 
 Herefordshire, 167, 163 
 Hereward, of the Fens, 99 
 Hindoo, 43 
 Horsa, 16 
 
 Hugh the Great, 68, 181 
 Hugh Capet, 178, 181 
 Humber, 30, 209 
 Hungary, 187, 203 
 Hungarian.s, 59 
 Huwal or Huval or Howel (Hywel 
 
 Ddrwg), 76, 77 
 Hywel ap Edwvn, 1G6 
 Hywel Dda, 62' 8.'), S6 
 Hywel Ddrwg, 79, 83, 156, 159 
 
 lago ai> Idwal Voel, SO-SS, 156, 159 
 
 lago ap Idwal ap Meurig, 157-158 
 
 Iceni, a Celtic triV)e, 1, 5 
 
 Ida, wife of Eustace II., 103 
 
 Mwal Voel, 62, 73, 74, 85-87 
 
 Idwal Vyclian, 156, 159 
 
 Idwal a]) Meurig, won battle of 
 
 Llangwin, 157, 159 
 Idwal ap Crillitli nj) Llewelyn, 82 
 leuaf ai» Idwal Voel, fc6S8, 157, 159 
 India, 54 
 
 Ingwar, son of Regm r T.oilbrog, 38 
 Ireland, 10, 16, 21, 71 
 Irish, 85 
 Irish Sea, 38 
 
 IsalM-lla, wife of Edward II., 58 
 Italians, 49 
 Italy, 49, 60 
 
 Jacob or JanioH, (lago), king of 
 Galwalija, 77 
 
 Jerusalem, 25, 183 
 
 John, I'o'pe, 126 
 
 Jolin XV., I'op.., 182 
 
 Judftliil or Jukil or Juchil, 77 
 
 Judith, wife of Kth.lwiilt, Etlicl- 
 biild, and iJaldwin, oO, :!1, 194 
 
 Judith, wife of Tosti, 31, 32, 61, 
 191, 191 
 
 Jiiditli, wile of liichanl II., of Nor- 
 mandy, 177 
 
 Jndwail ridwal Voel), 7J 
 
 .luliiH ( 'i -;ir, 1 
 
 Jumii'ges, abbey, 1 17 
 
 Jutes, a .Saxon triljc, 16 
 
 Ken RED, a Mercian prince, 18 
 ' Kent, 16, 23 
 
 I Kerry, a village in Montgomery- 
 i shire, 163 
 
 I Kinad or Kined or Kenneth, king 
 of the Scots, 77 
 
 Lancashire, 1, 21 
 
 Lanfranc, adviser of the Conqueror, 
 
 202 
 Leicester, 63, 102 
 Leo, Pope, 32, 194 
 Leofa, killed King Edmund the 
 
 AthelLng, 70 
 Leofgar, bishop, 170 
 Leofric of JMercia, 44, 63, 133, 139, 
 
 143, 145, 147, 171, 192 
 Leofwin, father of Leofric, 192 
 Leofwine, Godwin's son, 143, 214 
 Leominster, 145, 168 
 Lichfield, 23 
 Lincoln, 63, 102 
 Lingard, the historian, 172 
 Living, bi.shop, 134, 13S 
 Llangwm, battle of, 157 
 Llanymynech, 43 
 Llewelyn aii Seisyllt, 157-159 
 Ijodi, the bridge of, 166 
 Lomi)ards, 23 
 London, 1, 5, 22. 105, 108, 113, 115, 
 
 150, 212, 2_'2 
 Longymynd, 163 
 Louis the lilind, 68 
 Louis the Foreigner, 68, 181 
 Ludlow, 163 
 Luna, 42 
 Lylton, Lord, 176 
 
 Macheth, King of Scotlanil, 144 
 Mttccus, I'rinco of I'irates, and King 
 
 of Alan. 74, 77 
 Magnu.s of Norway, 146, 196 
 Maine, a French district, 201 
 Malcolm or Maco, king of Cum- 
 brians, 77 
 Mulcoliii, swore fealty to Edgar, 77 
 Mali-olm, di-'cated by Canute, 123 
 Molcoim, father of Matild.i of Scot- 
 land 103 
 Margaret, wife of Henry VI., ^tO 
 Margarit, ilaUKhter of Edward tho 
 
 Outlaw, 103 
 Maria, wifi- of Eu.staco III., 103 
 Marshland, 25 
 Mary, the Virgin, INO 
 Mary, Queen o! England, 50
 
 2.SG 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Mary of Moilena, wife of James li., 
 
 lOi 
 Matliraval, seat of Princes of Powys, 
 
 43, 81, 81 
 Matilda, wife of the Conqueror, 32, 
 
 177, 201. 
 Matilda of Scotland, wife of Henry 
 
 I., 103, 198 
 Matilda, daughter of Henry I., 58, 
 
 199 
 Mechain, hattlc of, 82 
 Mediterranean, 41, 49 
 Meifod, vale of, 25, 84 
 Menai Straits, 48 
 Mercia, 16, 2G, 63 
 Mercians, 19, 56, 193 
 Meredith ap Owain, L56, 157, 159 
 Merionethshire, 84 
 Mervyn of Powis, 46, 50, 84, 85 
 Mervyn Vyrch, 82 
 Meurig ap Idwal Voel, 159 
 Mona, the Conqueror's own ship, 211 
 Monmouth, 21, 85 
 Montgomery, 45, 61, 162 
 Montgomeryshire, 82, 84, 87 
 Morcar, of the Five Burghs, 63, 
 
 107, 108 
 Morcar, son of Algar, 172, 175, 191, 
 
 193, 194, 209, 222 
 Morfe, forest of, 44 
 Moitemar, battle of, French de- 
 feated by Normans, 201 
 
 Napoleon I., 166 
 
 Nero, a Roman emperor, 3 
 
 Nesta, daughter of Griffith ap 
 
 Llewelyn, 159, 166 
 Norlolk, 1 
 
 Norman, killed by Canute, 116, 118 
 Normans, 178-183 
 Normandv, 52, 53, 101, 114, 134, 
 
 188, 199-202 
 Norsemen, 48-50, 123 
 North Sea, 38 
 Northumbria, 68, 102, 193 
 Northumbrians, 20, 186, 193, 194 
 Norway, 68, 121, 122, 123, 132 
 NorwiJh, 104 
 Nottingham, 63, 102 
 
 Odo, archbishop, 71, 89 
 
 Odo, Count of Paris, 178 
 
 0<lo, the Conqueror's half-brother, 
 
 208 
 0(Ta the Terrible, 22-26, 29, 63, 84 
 Olave, of Norway and Swi den, 100, 
 
 102, 114, 118, 122, 123 
 
 Olavc, son of Harold Ilardrada, 210 
 Olney, isle in Seyern, 112, 113 
 Ordhelm, killed at Buttington, 46, 
 
 51 
 Ordovices, a Celtic tribe, 1, 7, 8 
 Orkneys, 132 
 
 Osburli, mother of King Alfred, 33 
 Osfrid, sou of Edwin the Bretwalda, 
 
 21 
 Osgod Clappa, 140 
 Osmer, killed by Edric, 111 
 Osmond, a Mercian prince, 18 
 Osric, son of Edwin the Bretwalda, 
 
 21 
 Ostorius Scapula, 1-4, 7 
 Oswahl, sixth Bretwalda, 22, 43 
 Oswald, bishop, 89, 90, 93 
 Oswestry, scene of Oswald's death, 
 
 22, 43 
 Oswy, seventh Bretwalda, 22 
 Otho, Emjjcror of Germany, 68 
 Owain ap Edwyn, 174 
 Owain ap Hywel Dda, 83, 87, 88, 
 
 157 
 Owain Glyndwr, 43 
 Oxford, 106-108, 124, 193 
 
 Palling, killed by Edric, 101, 102, 
 131 
 
 Paris, 38, 178, 179, 182 
 
 Pan-et, river, 35, 39 
 
 Pavia, 26, 27 
 
 Peada, a Mercian prince, 22 
 
 Peak, hill in Derbyshire, 23 
 
 Pembroke, 84 
 
 Pen, battle of, 110 
 
 Penda, King of Mercia, 21, 22, 63 
 
 Pengwern (the head oi the grove of 
 alders, "the fenced eminence"), 
 or Shrewsbury, Scrobbes-byrig, 
 21, 25, 44, 104 
 
 Pennine chain, 21 
 
 Pei)in, 178 
 
 Peruvians, 83 
 
 I'hilip VI. of France, 114 
 
 Picts, 16 
 
 Plyidimon, a hill, 43, 82, 162 
 
 Poitiers, town in France, 51 
 
 Poitiers, Earl of, 68 
 
 Poitou, Earl of, 200 
 
 Pojia, wile of Rollo, 177, 181 
 
 Powvs, one of the three Welsh king- 
 doms, 23, 84, 156 
 
 Procurator, Roman tax-collector, 9 
 
 Pybba, a Mercian prince, 18 
 
 QuATFuKD, visited by Hastings, 51 
 
 J
 
 INDEX. 
 
 237 
 
 Radnor, 84 
 
 Ralph, nephew of the Confessor, 
 
 103, 147, 169 
 Raven, the Standard of the Danes, 
 
 40, 47 
 Reading, battle of, 38 
 Reged, a Welsh district, 21 
 Regner Lodl.rog, 38, 40, 178 
 Rhallt, a hill near Welshpool, 50 
 Rhine, river, 43 
 Rhiwallawn ap Cynvyn, 82, 159, 
 
 174 
 Rhodri Ma\\T, 82, 84, 159 
 Rhodri ap Hywel Dda, 87 
 Rhuddlan, 172 
 
 Rhvd y Groes, battle of, 164-166 
 Rh'ys ap Tudor, 159 
 Richard I. of Normandy, 100, 181, 
 
 182 
 Richard II. of Normandy, 182 
 Richard III. of Normandy, 182 
 Robert of Artois, 114 
 Robert the Strong, 40, 178 
 Robert, Duke of France, 181 
 Robert, archbisliop of Canterbury, 
 
 147, 148, 150 
 Robert 11. of Normandy, 182, 183 
 Roger de Ikauniont, 208 
 Roger de Montgomery, 163, 208 
 Rollo (Robert I. of Normandy), 52, 
 
 177, 179-181 
 Romans, 2, 3, 6, 11, 1116 
 Rome, 3, 30, 32, 41, 87, 1'A 187. 1^1 
 Rouen, scene ol' Harold's oath, cap- 
 ital ot Normandy, 188, 206 
 Rowena, 100 
 Runcorn, 61 
 
 Salop or Shropshire, 21, 60, 84, 104, 
 
 162 
 Sandwich, a port, 105, 146, 196 
 Saracens, 49 
 Saul, kine "f Israel, 20 
 Saxons, 16, till, 61, 8.!, 118, 142, 156 
 Scotland, 16, 121, 209 
 Scots, 16, 85 
 Sovthia, 59 
 S<;ine, river, 178, 206 
 Selwoorl, the forest of, 34 
 Scnlftc or Srinf|McIftc, sec Hastings 
 Severn or Halren or S.ibrina, '22-25, 
 
 43-47, 49, 113, 139, 162 
 Shaftesbury, 54 
 SherV»ome, bishop of, 31, 54 
 Sher>;ton, battle ol, 110. Ill, 152 
 Shocbury, occupied by Hastings, 42 
 
 Shrewsbury, see Pengwern 
 
 Sicilian vespers, 102 
 
 Sigeferth, grandson of Regner Lod- 
 
 brog, 42, 49, 50 
 Sigeferth, of the Five Burghs, 63, 
 
 107 
 Sihtric of Northumbria, 68 
 Silures, a Celtic tribe, 1, 2 
 Siward of Northumbria, 143, 144, 
 
 147 
 Snowdon, 84, 170 
 Sohvay Firth, 10, 21 
 Somerset, ealdoriiian of, 31 
 Somerset, county, 34 
 Southampton, 110 
 Spain, 7 
 Spaniards, 49 
 Stamlord, town, 63, 102 
 Stamford Bridge, battle of, 209, 210 
 Stephen, King of Hungary, 114 
 Stigand, archbishop, 148, 205 
 Stokesay Castle, 163 
 Strathclyde, a Welsh province, 21, 
 
 85 
 St, Albans, town and monastery, 
 
 5, 26 
 St. Bartholomew, massacre of, 102 
 St. Brice, massacre of, 101, 102 
 St. Louis, King of France, 114 
 St. Neot. King Alfred's adviser, 33 
 St. Paul's, London, 127 
 St. Valery, the harbcnir in which 
 
 tlie ('oiiiiueror's Heet aui'lioivtl 
 
 before it sailed for i'jiglanil, 209 
 Suetonius Pauliuus, a Roman gene- 
 ral, 4-6 
 Suffolk, 1 
 Surrey, 30 
 Su.s.sex, one of thrs divisions of the 
 
 Saxon Octarchy, 16 
 Sweden, 121 
 Swedes, 121. 122 
 Sweyn, Canute's father, 100, 102, 
 
 104-107, 131 
 Sweyn, Canute's son, 123, 132, 142, 
 
 146 
 Swevn, son of Goilwin, 145, 146, 
 
 "148, 167, 186 
 Sweyn, son of Ulf, 131, 1 1<) 
 
 Tacitus, the Roman historian, 6, 7 
 Tnliesin, the Welhh Hard and sooth 
 
 Hnyer, 26 
 Teuton, 43, 60 
 Thames, 1, 137 
 Tliauet, Isle of, 16
 
 •238 
 
 INDRX. 
 
 TliincFcrth, a Mercian prince, 18 
 Thurkill, niarried Edith, dangliterof 
 
 Etliolred the Unready, 103, 129 
 Thurkill, killed at Rhyd y Groes, 
 
 165 
 Thiirstan, killed at Worcester, 139 
 Tiber, river, 42 
 Tone, river, 35, 39 
 Tosti, son of Godwin, 148, Ji-i, lib, 
 
 186,187,191,193,194,209,210 
 
 Towton, battle ol, 14 
 Trahaiani ap Caradog, 159 
 Trawst, wife of Seisyllt, 159 
 Tref Eglwys, a village, S3 
 Trinobantes, a Celtic tribe, 1, 5 
 Troyes, 40 __ 
 
 Tndor ap Einion, 157, 109 
 Tyne, river, 10 
 
 Ubba. son of Regner Lodbrog, 38, 39 
 Ulf, King of the Swedes, 121, 122, 
 
 131, 1^2 , .„ , , 
 
 Ulf Northumbrian thane, killed by 
 
 Tosti, 191 ^ ^ _ 
 
 Ulfliytel, inaiTied Edith, daughter 
 
 of Ethelred the Unready, 103 
 Usk, river, 76 
 Utred, 103 
 
 Valesdune, battle of, 183, 199 
 Vexilla, Roman standard, 8 
 Vexullum, Roman veterans, 8 
 Victoria, Queen-Empress, 32 j9 
 Voel y Golfa, a hill near Welsh- 
 pool, 51 . i. T5 • 
 
 Vortigcrn, invited Saxons into Bri- 
 tain, 26, 100 
 
 VjTnwy, a tributary of the Severn, 
 25, 43. 
 
 Walks, or Gwalia or Cambria, 1, 16, 
 
 21,24-26, 47, 84,85,157,1/3 
 Walhalla, 50 , . 
 
 Walter of Mantes, nephew ot 
 
 Edward the Confessor, 103 
 Waltham Abbey, 202, 218 228 
 Waltheof, son of Siward, 18b _ 
 Warwick, " the King-maker, 14 
 
 Welland, river, 61 
 
 Welsh, the, 16, 19, 20, 123, 161, 
 
 193 
 Welsh-March, 162 
 Welshpool, 25, 50, 51 
 Wessex, one of the Divisions of the 
 Saxon Octarchy, 16, 30, 113, 
 133, 186 
 Westbury, a village near Shrews- 
 bury, 169 
 Westmaria, 77 
 Westminster Abbey, 196 
 Westmoreland, 16, 21, 85 
 Wherwell Abbey, 147 
 Wight, Isle of, 149 
 William I. of Normandy, 181 
 William the Conqueror, 1/7, IW, 
 188-191, 198, 199-204, 206-212, 
 215, 217 
 William, the Rufus, 198 
 William of Arches, 200 
 Wilts, the county of, 34 
 Winchester, capital of Wessex, ^1, 
 30, 36, 54, 92, 12o, 132, 133, 
 143, 150 
 Witan, Saxon Parliament 29, 3J, 
 92, 101, 105, 107, 120, 133, 143, 
 145 205 
 Woden,' Saxon god, 41, 65, 152 
 Wolsey, Cardinal, 78, 91 
 Worcester, city, 21, 44, 139, 152 16o 
 Wrekin, a prominent hdl in Shrop- 
 shire, 43 . 
 Wullere, Mercian prince, IZ 
 Wulfnoth, "Child of the So'.i'^h 
 Saxons," Godwins father, I',, 
 
 1 Wulfnoth, Godwin's sod, 142, 1?<», 
 
 190 
 I Wye, river, 22 
 Wyrtgeom, married Gunlnlaa, 
 Canute's sister, 131 
 
 York, city, 21, 191, 209 
 Yorkshire, 21 o xt _<i 
 
 Y Ystrad Clwyd. a district of ISort.i 
 Wales, 85 
 
 I 
 
 GEORGE PHIUP AND SON, PniNTF.RS, MVF.RPOOL.
 
 THE OPINIONS OF THE PRESS 
 
 ON 
 
 A History of England and Wales, 
 
 FROM THE ROMAN TO THE NORMAN CONQUEST. 
 By T. MORGAN OWEN, M.A., 
 
 ONE OF Il.il. INSPECrOIlS OF SCHOOLS. 
 
 " This Is a period about which more should be popularly known, and 
 this volume should meet with a hearty welcome. When treating of 
 the early history of England, the Welsh— the pure descendants of the 
 Celts that opposed the Romans— have been slightingly by other writers 
 pa.ssed over. This was a mistake, for the Welsh played an important 
 part in many a trying period of history. I\Ir. :Morgan Owen, a Welsh- 
 man and a scholar, devotes much time to show how his countrymen 
 were connected with events that happened out of their own territory. 
 Not the least successful of Mr. Owen's investigations is his examination 
 of historic myths. The lives of eminent men— as Hastings, Dun.stan, 
 Edgar, Canute, Edric, Edward the Confessor, and Harold— are con- 
 cisely yet strikingly depicted. 
 
 "The relation of events one to the other is clearly traced. The 
 history is not one of disjointed parts, but of a symmetrical whole. 
 One occun-ence overiaps another, and the flood of time is nevertheless 
 shown to be one, and the way it glides along, carrying all, high and low, 
 with its waters, is vividly pointed out- To the modern Celt and Saxon 
 the book may be cordially commended as a readable and instructive 
 account of England and Wales before the arrival of the iron-heeled 
 Norman."— 77te Liverpool Daily Courier, 30th Maij, 1882. 
 
 " A ' History of England and Wales,' from the Roman to the Norman 
 Conquest, the work of Mr. iMorgan Owen, fdllows with accuracy the 
 accounts handed down to us from the original autlmrities. In nearly 
 every incident which might form the subject of controversy, or which 
 L9 differently given by other iiistorians, the source from which the 
 author derives his information is added in a note : useful genealogical 
 tables are also given." — Daily Telegraph, 8Ch June, 1882.
 
 OPINIONS OF THE TRESS— (Continued). 
 
 "Historiography has become a science. There has been much 
 blundering and devising of untruths amongst the old illiterate histo- 
 rians, who subsisted ' on their own resources.' But by this time a real 
 scholar who understands the profession is demanded. By-the-bye, the 
 author of this book is a scholar. He knows many languages, and how 
 far in this direction and in that direction it is possible to tread with 
 safety. He recognizes his men. With certain reservations, he is 
 ready to follow the Saxon Chronicle ; to tread in the footsteps of 
 William of Malmesbury ; and to walk step by step with our old friend 
 Owen Williams of Waenfawr, in the peregrinations of the ancient 
 Cymry. 
 
 " We hail Mr. Morgan Owen's History of England and Wales with 
 delight for many reasons : amongst others, because he does not show 
 partiality towards one nation more than another, and because he has 
 written a cheap popular book of very charming reading. It consists of 
 twenty-three chapters, beginning with the landing of Caesar, in the 
 year b.c. 55, and terminating with the Battle of Hastings in 1066. 
 During this extended period — over eleven hundred years — many stir- 
 rmg events took place which it would be well that all our readers should 
 become conversant with ; and we know of no better opportunity of 
 becoming acquainted with these facts than by studyuig this work of 
 Mr. JMorgan Owen. It contains also eight Genealogical Tables, which, 
 we are confident, will be valuable to many. The library of no Welsh- 
 man who understands English will be complete without this volume. 
 We wish every success to the work amongst Welshmen and English- 
 men." — Baner ac Amserau Cijmru, 26th April, 1882. 
 
 "This volume bears evidence of striving after a simplicity of lan- 
 guage, so as to be comprehended by the young, and by Welshmen 
 endeavouring to master the English tongue. 
 
 " But while Mr. jNIorgan Owen strives after simpUcity, he never 
 degenerates into a puerile style. The language of the book is charac- 
 terised by short and strong sentences. 
 
 " The glory of the historian is to seek after the truth diligently, and 
 to be sufficiently unbiased to publish it freely when found : in this Mr. 
 Morgan Owen far excels, lie brings in much of the history of the 
 Celts or Welsh — and gives them perfect justice. Yet, while he brings 
 out the best cliaracteristics, and clii-onicles the doughty deeds of his 
 nation, he never allows liis feelings to have the better of his judgment, 
 and so lead hirp to make unwarrantable assertions on their behalf.
 
 OPIXIOXS OF THE PRESS— (Con^inuecf). 
 
 " Again, the same even-handed justice is dealt out to the EngUsh 
 race. Their vaUant deeds are recorded, and justice is done to their 
 character. The history is free from beginning to end oi false col- 
 ouring, and, in our opinion, of over colouring also. 
 
 " The contents of this volume will incline the reader to be proud of 
 the Briton race, in its Celtic root, and in the grafting upon it the 
 Saxon tribes. The history makes the Welshman a better Welshman, 
 and the Englishman a better Englishman, and leads them to magnify 
 each other. 
 
 " The author pays special attention to some of the leading events of 
 this' long, dark, and stormy period. On these occasions he enters into 
 details — he gives a microscopic view of the events : giving the reader 
 an opportunity, in mind and thought, to approach the dift'erent parties, 
 and to get a firm grasp of the leading thread of the history. This adds 
 much to the worth of the book. 
 
 " We can but give this volume a hearty welcome, as a text-book 
 which greatly increases our knowledge of the early history of our island, 
 which, though written with an unbiased mind, yet breathes a national 
 and nation-lovijig spirit on the part of the a.\xVaQx"—Gu:alia, lO.Vi of 
 April, 1882. 
 
 Otlur Newspapers and Periodicals express similar views concerning 
 this History, and commend its sinlabilitu for Colleges, Schools, 
 
 and Libraries.
 
 -5 
 
 i'^S
 
 I
 
 
 * i 
 
 
 .^ 
 
 - <^HlBRAr" 
 
 < 
 
 ....iilVJ-iU 
 
 '^(i/OJIlVJJO^ 
 
 AWEUNIVERy//- 
 
 ^lOSANCElfx> 
 
 8 ^^-v_-^ 
 
 ^TiUONVSOl^ %a3AIN^•3\\^^ 
 
 .<.OF'CAil. 
 
 
 
 ^. 
 
 i 
 
 <ril30NVS01^ 
 
 ^vWSANCElfj-^ 
 
 o 
 
 "^AiiaAiNfimv^ 
 
 :r% 
 
 '^Jii 
 
 fifx^ 
 
 ^^tllBRARYO^ 
 
 ii irrl 
 
 < 
 
 ?5 
 
 ><^lllBRARYQ-r 
 
 .O'JO^ 4<«/ojiiV3JO^ 
 
 'PS/;^, 
 
 33 
 
 .^OFCALIFO/?^ 
 
 CIS 
 
 '^ ZJI I § 
 
 AOFCAllFOff^ 
 
 '^ommwi"^ '•^Okwmni'^ 
 
 <\\i 
 
 )JOV 
 
 5- 
 
 ■^1 
 
 ,AMF1'NIVER% 
 
 '>^ 
 
 .vWSANCElfJ). 
 
 ■^i^ilJONVSOl^ "^/^aaAINHJWV 
 
 
 '^^FUNIVERS/^ ^lOSANCElfj^ 
 
 o
 
 w^ 
 
 
 i^^^ 
 
 
 i5 
 
 %a3AiNaj\^v 
 
 > 
 
 -< 
 
 _^ -1 r^Mnmifl 1 OS Anqeles 
 
 L 005 275 849 7 
 
 ' \U * U VI « I 
 
 
 > <jN^LIBRAr^ 
 
 ' c HUM ;frip. 
 
 1 cic iiirrf r^ 
 
 11 
 
 'QUJUV. 
 
 s;ji 
 
 UC SOUTHERN REGIONAL LIBRARY FA^^^^^ 
 
 lii|i|in||iii|iillll|i lllil 11 I 
 
 AA 000 678 077 9 
 
 wmirj. 
 
 
 < 
 
 1 
 
 '('. 
 
 '4. 
 
 '!/• 
 
 > <^ 
 
 
 J) 
 
 '^, 
 
 lA 
 1/^
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■,., t 
 
 ■ •■i»3*'.'ii'!i^"i.'- i 
 
 
 
 
 • . i. 
 
 . ^■l■(,'■ 
 
 ' -'■>>... 
 
 ',;; r^-.', ■■• .M,; . ..;.. 
 
 
 
 ,1 
 
 ■(.. 
 
 
 1 1 H^^^^^^^^H